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UNIVERSITY 
OF  PITTSBURGH 


Bar.  M. 
qAI15 
A667 
V.  6 


LIBRARIES 


NEW 

AMERICAIf    CYCLOPiEDIA. 


VOL.  VI. 

COUGH-EDUCATION. 


Zv/ 


THE   NEW 


AMERICAN  CYCLOPyEDIA: 


{rjjiilar   Jl^^^i^^^^^^l 


OF 


GENERAL    KNOWLEDGE. 


EDITED  BY 

GEOKGE  EIPLEY  and  CHARLES  A.  DANA. 

voimiE  n 

COUaH-EDUCATION. 


NEW  YORK  : 
D.      APPLETON      AND      COMPANY, 

us  &  445  BROADWAY. 

LONDON:     16    LITTLE    BPvITx\IN. 

1865. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1859,  by 

D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY, 

In  the  Clerk's  OiBce  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District  of 

New  York. 


THE 


NEW  AMEPJCAN  CYCLOPiEDIA. 


COUGH 

COUGIT,  a  violent  expiratory  movement,  ex- 
cited by  some  stimulus  in  the  respiratory  organs, 
in  which  the  air  is  forcibly  expelled,  carrying 
witli  it  the  mucus  or  other  products  accumula- 
ted in  tlie  air  passage?.  Any  irritation  from  acrid 
vapors,  liquid  or  solid  foreign  bodies,  too  abun- 
dant or  morbid  secretions,  or  even  the  action  of 
cold  air  on  the  irritated  mucous  membrane,  may 
produce  a  cough ;  the  impression  is  conveyed 
to  the  respiratory  nervous  centre,  the  medulla 
oblongata,  by  the  excitor  fibres  of  the  par  vagum, 
and  tlie  motor  impulse  is  transmitted  to  the  ab- 
dominjil  and  other  muscles  concerned  in  respi- 
ration. Coughing  occurs  when  the  source  of 
irritation  is  in  or  below  the  posterior  fauces ;  and 
sneezing  when  the  irritating  cause  acts  on  the 
nasal  mucous  membrane.  The  act  of  coughing, 
as  defined  by  physiologists,  consists  in  a  long 
inspiration  which  fills  the  lungs ;  in  the  closure 
of  the  glottis,  when  the  expiratory  effort  com- 
mences ;  and  in  the  bursting  open  of  the  closed 
glottis  by  the  sudden  blast  of  air  forced  up  from 
the  air  passages.  The  cause  of  cough  may  be  in 
the  respiratory  system,  or  it  may  bo  symptom- 
atic of  disease  in  the  digestive  and  other  organs. 
The  cough  in  laryngitis,  croup,  and  folliculitis 
arises  from  irritation  in  the  throat  and  larynx  ; 
in  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  pleurisy,  and  phthisis, 
the  cause  is  in  the  thoracic  cavity.  Cough  may 
te  dry,  as  in  the  first  stage  of  pleurisy ;  or  liumid, 
as  in  certain  stages  of  pneumonia  and  in  advanced 
consumption  ;  this  act  may  be  single,  and  with 
distant  intervals,  or  paroxysmal  and  long  con- 
tinued, as  in  whooping  cough,  phthisis,  and  bron- 
chial catarrli ;  it  may  be  accompanied  by  a  ring- 
ing metalUc  sound,  as  in  croup  and  wliooping 
cough,  by  a  hollow  resonance  or  gurgling,  as  in 
phthisis  -with  cavities,  and  by  hoarseness,  as  in 
laryngeal  disease.  The  character  of  the  cough 
is  characteristic  of  certain  diseases ;  tliat  of 
■whooping  cough  and  of  croup  is  highly  diagnos- 
tic ;  in  pleurisy  it  is  dry  and  hard ;  in  pneumo- 
nia, generally  humid,  with  viscid  rusty  sputa ; 
in  consumption  it  varies  with  the  stage  of  the 
affection  ;  but  in  all  these,  taken  in  connection 
with  other  symptoms,  the  cough  is  a  valuable 
diagnostic  sign.  Many  rales,  characteristic  of 
morbid  changes,  are  only  or  best  recognized  in 
the  increased  respiration  after  coughing.  Cough 
is  frequently  accompanied  by  pain,  as  in  acute 


COULOMB 

pleurisy,  pneumonia,  and  bronchitis;  at  other 
times  painless,  but  exhausting,  as  in  tlie  parox- 
ysms of  spasmodic  coughs.  Cough,  symptom- 
-  atic  of  otlier  than  pulmonary  disease,  is  not  ac- 
companied by  any  characteristic  phenomena  dis- 
coverable by  auscultation  and  percussion.  The 
gravity  of  cough  as  a  symptom  depends  on  the 
disease  in  which  it  occurs ;  spasmodic  coughs 
generally  are  not  dangerous,  except  from  tho 
liability  to  rupture  of  vessels,  or  other  simply 
mechanical  consequences.  For  the  relief  of 
cough  the  prescriptions  are  almost  innumerable, 
consisting  of  compounds  of  narcotics,  antispas- 
modics, demulcents,  expectorants,  and  altera- 
tives, according  to  the  character  of  the  symp- 
tom, the  stage  of  the  disease,  and  the  fancy  of  tha 
physician. 

COULOMB,  Charles  ArousTE  de,  a  French 
philosopher,  born  at  Angouleme,  June  14,  1736, 
died  in  Paris,  Aug.  23,  1806.  In  early  life  he 
was  sent  to  the  "West  Indies  as  an  engineer, 
and  remained  there  employed  in  the  construc- 
tion of  military  works  3  years.  In  1773  he 
presented  to  the  academy  a  memoir  on  coliesion, 
and  in  1777  Avon  a  prize  for  improvements  in 
the  mariner's  compass,  and  in  1781  another  for 
a  theory  of  machines.  As  a  commissary  of  the 
government  he  won  great  praise  from  the  in- 
habitants of  Brittany  for  his  defence  of  their 
interests  against  the  schemes  of  certain  pro- 
jectors of  canals,  and  was  publicl}'  honored  with 
gifts  from  them.  Leaving  Paris  at  the  time 
of  the  revolution,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
education  of  his  children  and  the  study  of  elec- 
tricity. His  published  memoirs  are  upon  the 
statical  questions  of  architecture ;  the  mariner's 
compass  ;  modes  of  working  under  water ;  sim- 
ple machines  and  the  stiftness  of  ropes ;  wind- 
mills ;  the  force  of  torsion ;  a  stationary  compass, 
in  which  the  needle  is  hung  by  floss  silk ;  electri- 
city and  magnetism,  to  Avhich  he  devoted  9 
memoirs ;  the  friction  of  pivots ;  the  circulation 
of  sap  in  the  poplar ;  the  work  of  day  labor- 
ers; and  the  cohesion  of  fluids.  His  fame  rests 
principally  on  his  electrical  experiments  and 
calculations.  For  our  knowledge  of  the  forces 
of  electricity  we  are  perhaps  as  much  indebt- 
ed to  him  as  to  any  one.  In  private  character 
he  was  as  estimable  as  in  science  he  was  pro- 
found, thorough,  and  exact. 


6 


COUNCIL 


COTJN'CIL  (Lat.  eoncilhim,  an  assembly  for 
consultation),  in  ecclesiastical  history,  an  assem- 
bly of  bishops  legitimately  convoked,  to  deter- 
mine questions  concerning  the  faith,  rites,  and 
discipline  of  the  church.  Councils  are  either 
provincial,  national,  or  general,  according  as 
they  are  composed  of  the  prelates  of  a  province, 
a  nation,  or  of  all  Christendom;  and  their  juris- 
diction is  of  corresponding  extent.  The  name 
is  also  given  to  the  diocesan  synod,  called  by 
the  bishop  for  the  direction  of  the  spiritual  af- 
fairs of  his  diocese.  Provincial  councils  are 
called  and  presided  over  by  a  metropolitan  bish- 
op. Their  chief  design  is  to  make  local  discipli- 
nary regulations ;  and  though  they  may  discuss 
questions  of  faith,  their  decisions  concerning 
doctrines  have  no  force  unless  confirmed  by  the 
authority  of  the  Catholic  church.  The  general 
councils  of  Basel  and  Trent  enjoined  that  pro- 
vincial councils  should  be  held  once  in  3  years, 
but  in  recent  times  the  injunction  is  often  dis- 
regarded. In  France  no  metropolitan  bishop  is 
permitted  to  call  a  council  unless  by  express 
sanction  of  the  civil  power.  National  coun- 
cils assemble  under  the  presidency  of  the  pri- 
mate or  of  a  legate  of  the  holy  see ;  they  are 
composed  of  all  the  bishops  of  a  kingdom,  and 
are  called  by  princes  for  the  regulation  of  na- 
tional ecclesiastical  affairs.  These  councils  were 
frequent  in  France  under  the  first  2  lines  of 
French  kings.  More  than  100  bishops  were  as- 
sembled by  Napoleon  in  Paris  in  1811,  to  con- 
sider the  right  claimed  by  him  of  nominating 
bishops  and  cardinals.  As,  however,  they  sup- 
ported the  resistance  made  by  Poj^e  Pius  VII. 
to  the  imperial  designs,  they  were  dismissed  be- 
fore they  had  passed  any  decision.  Among  the 
latest  national  councils  are  that  of  Presburg,  in 
Hungary,  in  1822,  and  that  of  Wi'irtzburg,  in 
Bavaria,  in  1849. — The  general  councils,  called 
also  oecumenical  (from  Gr.  oiKovixevr],  the  habita- 
ble eartli),  are  summoned  by  the  pope,  are  com- 
posed of  all  the  bishops  of  Christendom,  and  are 
designed  to  adjudge  questions  of  schism  and  her- 
esy, belief  and  discipline,  which  affect  the  univer- 
sal church.  Though  the  first  8  general  councils 
were  convoked  by  the  Christian  emperors,  as 
Constantine,  Theodosius,  and  Justinian,  it  wasbe- 
cause  the  church  did  not  then  extend  bej'ond  the 
limits  of  the  empire,  and  therefore  the  Komau 
emperor  had  the  same  right  to  call  a  general 
council  Avhich  after  the  division  of  the  empire 
belonged  to  the  emperor  of  Germany,  and  the 
kings  of  France,  Spain,  and  England,  to  call  na- 
tional councils.  It  is  moreover  maintained  by 
Eoman  Catholic  writers  that  the  first  general 
councils  were  summoned  by  the  emperors  at 
the  request  or  with  the  consent  of  the  popes. 
Bishops  and  their  representatives  alone  have  a 
judicative  riglit  in  councils,  though  the  privi- 
lege has  often  been  extended  to  abhots  and  the 
generala  of  monastic  orders.  Tiie  lower  orders 
of  the  clergy  and  the  doctors  of  the  church  may 
be  invited,  and  may  pai-ticipate  in  the  delibera- 
tions of  the  assembly,  but  have  only  a  consulta- 
tive voice.    The  cases  in  which  priests  and  dea- 


cons have  voted  (St.  Athanasius,  for  instance, 
having  been  but  a  deacon  when  he  took  the 
leading  part  in  the  council  of  Nice)  are  excej)- 
tipnal,  and  thouglit  to  be  founded  on  the  circum- 
stance that  they  were  the  representatives  of 
bishops.  The  poj)e,  in  i)erson  or  by  legates, 
presides  over  the  council  and  directs  its  trans- 
actions; the  emperors  who  ])resided  in  some 
early  eastern  councils  having  done  so  only  in  an 
executive  and  protective  capacity.  The  deci- 
sion is  usually  according  to  the  majority  of  the 
votes  cast ;  but  in  the  council  of  Constance  the 
4  nations,  Italy,  France,  Germany,  and  Eng- 
land, each  voted  separately.  General  councils 
do  not  create  new  dogmas,  but  iaiterpret  and 
declare  what  was  originally  contained  in  Scrip- 
ture and  tradition,  and  according  to  Eoman  Ca- 
tholic belief  are  under  the  immediate  guidance 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  therefore  infallible,  when 
they  pronounce  concerning  matters  of  faith. 
Their  infallibility,  however,  does  not  extend  to 
questions  of  discipline,  history,  politics,  or  sci- 
ence, nor  even  to  the  grounds  of  their  decision, 
nor  to  collateral  observations.  The  disciplinary 
ordinances  are  usually  termed  canons  (canones), 
and  the  decisions  concerning  doctrines,  dogmas 
(dogmata)  ;  in  the  council  of  Trent,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  latter  Avere  styled  canons,  and  the 
former  distinguished  as  capita  or  decreta. — The 
Eoman  Catholic  church  recognizes  19  general 
councils  :  that  of  Jerusalem,  held  by  the  apos- 
tles, about  A.  D.  50 ;  the  1st  of  Nice,  in  Bithy- 
nia,  convened  in  325;  the  1st  of  Constantino- 
ple, in  381 ;  the  1st  of  Ephesus,  in  431 ;  that 
of  Chalcedon,  in  451 ;  the  2d  of  Constantinople, 
in  553  ;  the  3d  of  Constantinople,  in  680  ;  the 
2d  of  Nice,  in  787 ;  the  4th  of  Constantinople, 
in  869 ;  the  4  councils  of  Lateran,  at  Eome,  in 
1123,  1139,  1179,  and  1215  ;  the  1st  and  2d  of 
Lyons,  in  1245  and  1274;  that  ofVienne,  in  Dau- 
phiny,  in  1311 ;  that  of  Constance,  in  1414 ;  that 
of  Basel,  in  1431  (till  its  dissolution  by  the  pope) ; 
and  that  of  Trent,  in  1545.  The  council  of  Pisa 
in  1409,  that  of  Florence  in  1439,  and  the  5th  of 
Lateran  in  1512,  are  also  regarded  by  some  as 
cecumenical.  The  conference  of  192  prelates  at 
Eome  in  1854,  which  proclaimed  the  dogma  of 
the  immaculate  conception,  was  not  a  council. 
The  Greek  church  receives  as  authoritative  the 
decisions  of  only  the  first  7  general  councils. 
The  Protestant  churches  generally  admit  the  full 
authority  of  none  of  them,  and  esteem  as  oecu- 
menical only  the  G  which  directly  followed  the 
apostolic  council  of  Jerusalem.  The  synodical 
assemblies  of  the  Protestant  clmrches,  as  the 
councils  of  La  Eochelle  and  of  Dort  near  the 
period  of  the  reformation,  the  general  synods 
of  tlie  Evangelical  church  of  Germany,  and 
the  convocations  of  the  Anglican  church  at  the 
present  time,  cannot  in  their  nature  be  oecumen- 
ical.— The  most  complete  collections  of  the  acts 
of  councils  are  those  of  Fathers  Labbe  and  Cos- 
sart  (Paris,  1671  et  seq.,  18  vols.),  with  supple- 
ments by  St.  Baluzius (Paris,  1683  et,seq.) ;  Ilai'- 
douin  (Paris,  1715,12  vols.);  Coleti  (Venice, 
1728  et  seq.,  23  vols.) ;  Mansi  (Florence,  1759-'98, 


COUNCIL 


COUNT 


81  vols.) ;  and  Discli,  the  Concilienlexicoii,  em- 
bracing all  tlio  councils  from  the  first  at  Jerusa- 
lem (Augsburg,  1843-'45,  2  vols.).  Tlie  best  col- 
lections of  the  old  French  councils  are  that  of 
Sirmond  (Paris,  1629,  3  vols.),  -with  supplements 
by  La  Lande  (Paris,  1G06)  ;  of  the  later  French 
councils,  that  of  Udespuu  (Paris,  1049)  ;  of  Ger- 
man councils,  that  of  Schannat,  Ilartzheim, 
Scholl,  and Neissen (Cologne,  17o9-'90, 11  vols.); 
of  German  national,  provincial,  and  diocesan 
councils,  from  the  4th  century  to  the  council  of 
Trent,  that  of  Binterim  (Mentz,1835-'43, 7  vols.); 
and  of  Spanish  councils,  that  of  Aguirre  (Madrid, 
1781  et  seq.).  (The  history  of  particular  councils 
is  given  in  special  articles  under  the  names  of 
the  cities  in  which  they  were  held.) — Li  political 
liistory,  the  term  council  is  variously  applied  to 
either  permanent  or  extraordinary  deliberative 
assemblies.  The  political  aifairs  of  the  cantons 
of  Switzerland  are  intrusted  to  councils.  Certain 
courts  of  justice  in  France  were  formerly  termed 
councils. — The  Couxcil  of  Ten  was  the  secret- 
tribunal  of  the  republic  of  Venice,  instituted  in 
1310,  after  the  conspiracy  of  Tiepolo,  and  com- 
posed originally  of  10  councillors  in  black,  to 
whom  were  soon  added  6  others  in  red,  and 
the  doge.  This  councU  was  appointed  to 
guard  the  security  of  the  state,  and  to  antici- 
pate and  punish  its  secret  enemies,  and  was 
armed  with  unlimited  power  over  the  life  and 
property  of  the  citizens.  All  its  processes 
were  secret.  At  first  established  temporarily, 
it  was  prolonged  from  year  to  year,  was  de- 
clared perpetual  in  1335,  and  maintained  its 
power  till  the  fall  of  the  republic  in  1797.— The 
Council  of  the  Axciexts  {conseil  des  anciens), 
in  France,  was  an  assembly  instituted  by  the 
constitution  of  the  year  III.  (adopted  in  the 
year  IV.,  Sept.  23,  1795),  which  shared  the 
power  with  the  executive  directory,  and  com- 
posed, with  the  council  of  500,  the  legislative 
body.  It  had  250  members,  either  married  or 
widowers,  domiciled  at  least  15  years  in  France, 
and  one-third  of  whom  were  to  be  renewed  an- 
nually. It  sat  in  the  Tuileries,  in  the  hall  of 
the  convention,  and  had  tlie  power  to  change 
the  residence  of  the  legislative  body.  It  con- 
firmed or  rejected,  but  could  not  amend,  the 
measures  proposed  by  the  council  of  500.  It 
was  overthrown  on  the  18th  Brumaire. — The 
Council  of  Five  Hundred  {comeil  des  cinq- 
cents)^  instituted  at  the  same  time  as  the  coun- 
cil of  the  ancients,  was  composed  of  500  mem- 
bers, aged  at  least  30  years,  domiciled  10  years 
in  France,  and  one-third  renewed  annually. 
It  sat  in  the  hall  du  manege^  in  the  rue  de 
Rivoli,  and  proposed  laws  which  were  read  3 
times,  at  intervals  of  10  days.  On  the  18th 
Fructidor,  year  V,,  42  of  its  members  were 
expelled,  but  it  recovered  its  power  with  the 
revival  of  the  Jacobins,  and  was  violently  dis- 
solved by  Napoleon,  on  the  18th  Brumaire, 
year  VIIL  (1799).— The  Council  of  State 
existed  under  various  names  in  France  from  the 
reign  of  Philip  the  Fair.  It  was  composed  chief- 
ly of  the  principal  otiicers  of  the  crown,  was  de- 


pendent upon  the  will  of  the  king,  and  followed 
him  in  his  journeys  to  advise  him  on  public  af- 
fairs. The  number  of  councillors  of  state  va- 
ried from  15  in  1413,  to  30  in  1G73.  It  was 
linuted  at  the  revolution  to  the  king  and  his 
ministers,  was  dissolved  in  1792,  and  was  insti- 
tuted anew  in  the  year  VIIL,  when  it  was  di- 
vided into  the  committees  of  litigation,  the 
interior,  finances,  and  war.  In  these  coimnit- 
tees  were  elaborated  tlie  important  laws  of  the 
consulate  and  the  empire.  This  council  was 
modified  under  the  restoration,  and  now  con- 
sists of  G  sections.  (See  Regnaiilt's  Jllstoire  du 
conseil  d'etat  dejmisson  origincjusqii a  nos  jours^ 
1851.) — In  England,  the  Privy  Council  was 
formerly  the  adviser  of  the  king  in  all  weighty 
matters  of  state,  a  function  which  is  now  ofii- 
cially  discharged  by  the  cabinet.  By  acts  2,  3, 
and  4  of  William  IV.,  a  judicial  committee  of 
the  privy  council  was  constituted  witli  high 
powers.  All  appeals  from  the  prize  and  admi- 
ralty courts,  and  from  courts  in  the  plantations 
abroad,  and  any  other  appeals  wiiich  by  former 
law  or  usage  had  been  made  to  the  liigh  court 
of  admiralty  in  England,  and  to  the  lords  com- 
missioners in  prize  cases,  are  directed  to  be  made 
to  the  king  in  council.  These  appeals  are  then 
referred  to  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy 
council,  which  reports  on  them  to  his  majesty. 
This  committee  consists  of  the  chief  justice  of 
the  king's  bench,  the  master  of  the  rolls,  the  vice- 
chancellor  of  England,  and  several  other  per- 
sons, ex  officio,  and  any  two  privy  councillors 
may  be  added  by  the  king. — In  Prussia,  by  a  law 
established  March  20,  1807,  the  council  of  state 
{Staais  Eath)  consists  of  the  princes  of  the  royal 
family  who  have  attained  their  majority,  and"of 
the  highest  oflicers  of  the  state  who  enjoy  the 
special  confidence  of  the  king.  Its  decisions 
have  no  validity  without  the  royal  sanction. 
— ^A  Council  of  "\Yae  is  an  assembly  of  the 
principal  oflicers  in  an  army  or  fleet,  called  by 
tlie  officer  in  chief  command  to  deliberate  and 
advise  concerning  measures  to  be  taken.  The 
council  of  administration,  in  the  army  of  the 
United  States,  imder  the  congressional  act  of 
July  5, 1838,  appoints  the  chaplain,  fixes  a  tarifl:' 
to  the  prices  of  sutlers'  goods,  and  makes  ap- 
propriations for  specific  objects  from  the  post 
and  regimental  funds. — In  some  of  the  United 
States  there  are  bodies  termed  councils,  wliich 
are  elected  to  advise  the  governor  in  the  exec- 
utive part  of  his  office,  and  have  power  to  reject 
or  confirm  his  nominations  to  office. 

COUNSELLOR,  a  lawyer  whose  peculiar 
function  is  pleading  in  public,  the  same  as  the 
English  barrister.  The  duties  of  a  counsellor 
and  attorney  at  law  are  usually  performed  by 
the  same  individual  in  the  United  States ;  but 
in  England  and  in  the  U.  S.  supreme  court  they 
are  distinct,  the  counsellor  being  retained  for 
oral  pleading  and  for  advice  on  intricate  law 
points,  while  the  attorney  addresses  himself  to 
advice  on  ordinary  matters,  to  the  ])ractice  of 
the  courts,  and  to  communication  with  clients. 

COUNT  (  Fr,  comte  ;  It.  conte)^  a  title  of  no- 


COUNT 


COUNTY 


bility  used  in  most  countries  of  continental  Eu- 
rope, and  corresponding  with  that  of  earl  in 
Great  Britain.  It  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
comes,  meaning  companion,  wliich,  under  tlie 
republic,  designated  young  Eomans  of  family 
accompanying  a  proconsul  or  proprastor  during 
his  governorship  or  command,  in  order  to  ac- 
quire a  practical  knowledge  of  political  and  mili- 
tary affairs.  Under  the  empire  a  number  of 
persons  belonging  to  the  household  of  the  court, 
or  to  the  retinue  of  the  chief  of  the  state,  re- 
ceived the  title  of  comes,  with  some  addition 
desigcating  their  function  or  office.  Comites 
as  well  as  jurisconsulti  surrounded  the  emperor 
when  sitting  as  judge,  to  assist  him  in  the  liear- 
ing  of  causes,  which  were  thus  judged  with  the 
same  authority  as  in  full  senate.  This  mark  of 
office  was  first  converted  into  a  title  of  dignity 
by  Constantine  the  Great.  As  such  it  was  soon 
conferred  not  only  on  persons  of  the  palace,  or 
companions  of  the  prince,  but  also  on  most  kinds 
of  higher  oflicers.  These  dignitaries,  according 
to  Eusebius,  were  divided  into  3  classes,  of  which 
the  first  received  the  distinguishing  appellation 
of  illustrious,  the  second,  that  of  most  renowned, 
and  the  third,  that  of  most  perfect.  The  senate 
was  composed  of  the  first  two.  Among  the 
multitude  of  officers  who,  at  this  period  of  the 
Eonian  empire,  were  dignified  by  the  title  of 
comes,  and  of  whom  some  served  in  a  civil,  some 
in  a  legal,  and  others  in  a  religious  capacity,  we 
find  comites  of  the  treasury,  of  sacred  expendi- 
tures, of  the  sacred  council,  of  the  palace,  of  the 
cliief  physicians,  of  commerce,  of  grain,  of  the 
domestics,  of  the  horses  of  the  prince  or  of  the 
stable  {comes  staiuli,  the  origin  of  the  modern 
constable),  of  the  houses,  of  the  notaries,  of  the 
laws,  of  the  boundaries  or  marks  (the  origin  of 
the  later  margrave  and  marquis),  of  the  harbor 
of  Rome,  of  heritages,  &c.  Most  of  these  titles 
were  imitated,  with  slight  modifications,  in  the 
feudal  kingdoms  which  arose  on  the  ruins  of  the 
Roman  empire.  Thus  we  can  easily  trace  in  some 
of  the  above  mentioned  titles  the  origin  of  the 
modern  grand  almoner,  grand  master  of  ceremo- 
nies,  grand  master  of  tlie  royal  household,  grand 
equerry,  &c.,  in  which  tlie  word  grand  is  used 
as  a  substitute  for  the  ancient  comes.  Under 
tlie  Franks  counts  appear  as  governors  of  cities 
or  districts,  next  in  rank  to  the  dukes,  command- 
ing in  time  of  war,  and  administering  justice  in 
time  of  peace.  Ciiarlemagne  divided  his  whole 
empire  into  small  districts  (pagi.,  Ger.  Oaue), 
governed  by  counts,  whose  duties  are  minutely 
described  in  the  capitularies  of  tlie  monarch. 
The  Frankish  counts  had  also  their  deputies  or 
vicars  (inmi  or  mcarii,  whence  our  viscount  or 
tice-comes).  Under  the  last  of  the  Carlovingian 
kings  of  France  the  dignity  of  the  counts  became 
hereditary  ;  they  even  usurped  the  sovereignty, 
and  their  encroachments  remaiued  unchecked 
even  after  the  accession  of  Hugh  Capet,  w^ho 
was  himself  the  son  of  the  count  of  Paris,  and 
it  wag  not  imtil  the  lapse  of  several  centuries 
that  their  territories  became  by  degrees  reunited 
with  the  crown.     The  German  term  for  count, 


G^?'r//( which  is  variously  derived  from  grau,  gray 
or  venerable;  from  ypactxo,  to  write,  whence  the 
mediasval  Latin  word  graffare,  and  the  French 
greffier ;  from  the  ancient  Grman  gefera,  com- 
panion, and  gerefa,  bailiff  or  steward,  whence  the 
English  sheriff)  first  appears  in  the  Salic  law  in 
the  form  of  grafio.  "With  the  development  of 
the  feudal  system,  as  well  as  of  that  of  imperial 
dignitaries  in  Germany,  we  find  there  counts 
palatine  {comes  palatii,  palat'mus,  Pfalzgraf), 
presiding  over  the  supreme  tribunal ;  constables, 
afterward  marshals  {Stallgraf) ;  district  counts 
{Gaugraf)  ;  counts  deputy  {Sendgraf),  control-r 
lers  of  the  preceding ;  mavgra\es{Markgraf), 
intrusted  with  the  defence  of  the  frontiers 
(Marl:) ;  landgraves  {Landgraf),  counts  of  large 
possessions ;  burggraves  {Burggraf),  command- 
ers, and  afterward  owners  of  a  fortified  town. 
(Burg),  &c.  With  the  decline  of  the  imperial 
power  most  of  these  titles  became  hereditary, 
as  well  as  the  estates  or  territories  with  which 
■they  were  connected,  the  dignity  and  possessions 
of  the  counts  ranking  next  to  those  of  the  dukes 
in  the  empire.  But  there  were  also  counts 
whose  title  depended  solely  on  their  office,  as 
counts  of  the  wood,  of  the  salt,  of  the  water,  of 
mills,  &c.  The  dignity  of  count  is  now  merely 
a  hereditary  title,  mostly  attached  to  the  posses- 
sion of  certain  estates,  and  bestowed  by  the 
monarch,  but  including  neither  sovereignty  nor 
jurisdiction,  though  connected  in  some  states 
with  the  peerage,  as  was  the  case  for  instance 
under  the  late  constitution  of  Hungary.  In 
England,  where  the  wife  of  the  earl  is  still 
termed  countess,  the  dignity  of  count  was  at- 
tached by  William  the  Conqueror  to  the  prov- 
inces or  counties  of  the  realm,  and  given  in  fee 
to  his  nobles.  The  German  term  has  been 
adopted  by  several  nations  of  Europe,  as  for  in- 
stance by  the  Poles  (hraiia),  Russians  (graf), 
and  Hungarians  {grof). 

COUNTERPOINT.    See  Harmony. 

COUNTERSCARP,  in  fortification,  the  obit- 
er slope  or  boundary  of  a  ditch.  The  inner 
slope  is  called  escaipe.  The  term  is  applied 
also  to  the  whole  covered  way,  with  its  para- 
pet and  glacis,  as  when  the  enemy  is  said  to  be 
lodged  in  the  counterscai*p. 

COUNTERSIGN,  the  signature  of  a  secreta- 
ry or  other  public  officer  to  attest  that  a  writ- 
ing has  been  signed  by  a  superior.  Thus  the 
certificates  recognovit^  relegit,  et  subscripsit  are 
common  on  charters  granted  by  kings  in  the 
taiddle  ages. — In  military  affairs,  the  counter- 
sign is  a  particular  Avord  given  out  by  the  high- 
est in  command,  intrusted  to  those  employed 
on  duty  in  camp  and  garrison,  and  exchanged 
between  gaiards  and  sentinels. 

COUNTY  (Fr.  comte),  in  Great  Britain  and 
some  of  the  British  colonies,  and  in  most  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  a  political  division 
nearly  corresponding  to  a  province  of  Prussia 
or  a  department  of  France.  It  is  synonymous 
with  shire,  with  which  designation  it  is  often 
interchanged  in  England,  but  never  in  Ireland. 
The  division  of  England  into  shires  or  counties, 


COUP 


COUPwIER  DE  M£r£ 


thongli  popularly  attributed  to  Alfred,  "u-as  prob- 
ably of  earlier  date,  since  several  of  them,  as  Kent, 
Sussex,  and  Essex  are  nearly  identical  with  an- 
cient Saxon  kingdoms.  There  are  now  52  coun- 
ties in  England  and  "Wales,  33  in  Scotland,  and 
32  in  Ireland.  The  county  is  an  administrativo 
division,  and  its  principal  officers  are  a  lord  lieu- 
tenant, who  has  command  of  the  militia;  acustoa 
rotulorui7i,  or  keeper  of  the  rolls  or  archives  ;  a 
sheriff,  a  receiver-general  of  taxes,  a  coroner, 
justices  of  the  jieace,  an  under-sheriff,  and  a 
clerk  of  the  peace.  The  assize  court,  county 
court,  and  hundred  courts,  are  the  chief  judicial 
tribunals.  There  are  in  England  3  counties  pala- 
tine, Chester,  Lancaster,  and  Durham,  the  earl  of 
each  of  which  had  all  thejurd.  regalia,  or  rights 
of  sovereignty,  in  his  shire.  The  first  two  of 
these  have  been  long  annexed  to  the  crown,  and 
Durliam,  previously  governed  by  its  bishop,  was 
annexed  in  1836.  The  United  States  are  divided 
into  counties,  with  the  exception  of  South  Caro- 
lina (divided  into  districts)  and  Louisiana  (divid- 
ed into  parishes).  In  each  county  there  are 
county  officers  who  superintend  its  financial  af- 
fairs, a  county  court  of  inferior  jurisdiction,  and 
stated  sessions  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  state. 
COUP  (French),  a  blow,  is  used  in  various 
connections  to  denote  a  sudden,  decisive  action, 
as  cov])  de  main,  in  military  language,  a  prompt, 
imexpected  attack;  coup  cVceil,  in  the  same,  a 
rapid  conception  of  the  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  position  and  arrangement  in  a  battle ; . 
coup  de  grace,  a  killing  stroke,  finishing  the  tor- 
ments of  the  victim ;  coup  de  theatre,  a  sudden 
change  in  the  action ;  coiq)  desolcil,  a  stroke  of 
the  sun ;  coiq)  d'etat,  a  sudden,  arbitrary,  and 
forcible  measure  in  politics,  used  mostly  for  the 
violent  overthrow  of  a  constitution. 

COUPON  (Fr.  caliper,  to  cut),  an  interest 
certificate  attached  to  the  bottom  of  bonds  on 
which  the  interest  is  payable  at  particular  pe- 
riods. There  are  as  many  of  these  certificates 
as  there  are  payments  to  be  made,  and  at  each 
I)ayment  one  of  them  is  cut  off  and  delivered 
to  the  payer. 

COURAYER,  Pierre  Fraxc^is  le,  a  Roman 
Catholic  ecclesiastic,  born  in  Vernon,  ISTorraan- 
dy,  1681,  died  in  England,  1776.  He  had  taken 
refuge  iu  England  (1728)  in  consequence  of  a 
"  Defence  of  English  Ordinations,"  which  he 
had  published  (1723)  as  a  result  of  the  convic- 
tions to  which  he  was  brought  by  a  correspond- 
ence with  Archbishop  "Wake.  The  correspond- 
ence took  place  Avhile  Courayer  was  canon  of 
St.  Genevieve,  and  professor  of  theology  and 
philosophy.  The  university  of  Oxford  confer-, 
red  on  him  the  title  of  doctor  of  laws,  and 
Queen  Caroline  settled  a  pension  of  £200  on 
liim  for  a  French  translation  of  Father  Paul's 
"  History  of  the  Council  of  Trent."  He  also 
translated  Sleidan's  "  History  of  the  Reforma- 
tion," and  wrote  several  theological  works.  He 
entertained  many  religious  opinions  contrary 
to  the  doctrines  and  practices  of  the  church  of 
Rome,  but  declared  himself,  two  years  before 
his  death,  still  a  member  of  her  communion. 


He  was  buried  in  the  cloisters  of  "Westminster 
abbev. 

COURCELLES,  Thomas  de,  a  French  theolo- 
gian, born  in  1400,  died  in  Paris,  Oct.  23,  1469. 
He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Paris,  of 
which  institution  he  became  one  of  the  bright- 
est ornaments.  In  1430  he  was  chosen  rector 
of  that  university,  and  in  1431  was  made  canon 
of  Amiens,  Laon,  and  Therouanne.  Ho  took  a 
])rominentpart  in  the  trial  and  condemnation  of 
Joan  of  Arc,  but  was  not  present  at  her  execu- 
tion. In  the  process  of  her  rehabilitation  in  1456 
Le  made  no  excuse  for  his  conduct  in  this  affair. 

COURIER  DEMERE,  Paul  Louis,  a  French 
scholar  and  publicist,  born  in  Paris,  Jan.  4, 1772, 
murdered  near  "Veretz  (Indre-et-Loire),  April 
10,  1825.  Having  received  an  excellent  educa- 
tion, he  took,  while  in  the  army  of  Italy,  every 
opportunity  of  visiting  libraries  and  works  of 
art,  and  denounced  in  his  private  correspond- 
ence the  spoliation  of  the  latter  by  the  French 
soldiery.  Returning  to  France  in  1800,  he  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  Hellenists  by  the  publi- 
cation of  his  remarks  upon  Schweighiluser's 
edition  of  Athenjeus.  In  1806  he  was  again 
with  the  army,  stationed  in  dangerous  and  iso- 
lated parts  of  Calabria,  and  afterward  at  Naples 
and  Portici,  where  he  occupied  his  leisure 
hours  in  translating  Xenophon's  treatise  on 
cavalry,  and  on  equitation.  Censured  for  lin- 
gering in  Rome  and  Florence  instead  of  attend- 
ing to  his  duties,  he  threw  up  his  commission, 
but  rejoined  the  army  just  before  the  battle 
of  "Wagram,  after  which,  however,  he  left  it 
entirely.  "While  in  Florence,  he  had  discov- 
ered iu  the  Laurentian  library  an  unedited 
manuscript  of  Longus,  "  Daphnis  and  Chloe," 
which  he  published  in  Greek  and  French  in 
1810.  Having,  however,  in  copying  the  manu- 
script, accidentallj'  blotted  it  with  ink,  he  was 
accused  of  doing  so  purposely,  and  ultimate- 
ly expelled  from  Tuscany,  while  the  27  remain- 
ing copies  of  the  52  he  had  printed  were  seized 
by  the  Tuscan  government.  This  proceeding 
was  pro.bably  prompted  by  Courier's  castigation 
of  the  Florentine  library  authorities  in  a  spirited 
letter  addressed  to  M.  Renouard,  and  prefixed  to 
his  Longus.  On  his  final  return  to  France  in 
1814,  he  married,  at  the  age  of  42,  a  young  lady 
of  18,  a  daugliter  of  his  friend,  the  Hellenist 
Clavier.  The  restoration  gave  him  opportuni- 
ties of  trying  his  strength  in  politics.  He  de- 
nounced the  follies  of  the  new  administration 
in  numerous  pamphlets,  which  produced  a  strong 
impression  iq)on  tlie  public  mind,  but  involved 
Courier  in  troubles  with  the  government,  and 
he  was  arrested  on  several  occasions.  His  most 
effective  pamphlet,  Pamphlet  des  pamphlets, 
appeared  in  1824,  and  was  called  by  his  biog- 
rapher, Armand  Carrel,  "  the  last  note  of  the 
expiring  swan,"  I'n*  during  the  spring  of  the 
following  year  lie  was  found  shot  near  his 
country  seat.  Five  years  later  it  was  ascertain- 
ed that  he  had  been  murdered  by  his  game- 
keeper, Fremont,  who  had  died  of  apoplexy, 
but  no  clue  Avas  discovered  to  the  motive  which 


10 


COUKLAND 


COURT 


prompted  him  to  tho  deed.  Courier's  pam- 
phlets are  masterpieces  of  style.  Tlicy  have  heen 
published,  togetlier  -R-ith  his  trauslations  from 
the  Greek  uud  other  works,  in  Paris,  1834-,  in 
4  vols.,  and  reprinted  l)y  Didot  in  1  vol.  The 
best  edition  of  liis  translation  of  Longus  is  that 
of  1825. 

COUKLAND,  or  Kotjland,  one  of  the  Baltic 
provinces  of  Russia  in  Europe,  bounded  N.  by 
the  gulf  of  Riga  and  Livonia,  E.  by  the  guvern- 
ment  of  Vitepsk,  S.  by  that  of  Kovno,  and  W.  by 
the  Baltic  sea;  area,  10,008  scj.  m. ;  pop.  in  1851, 
539,270.  The  face  of  the  country  is  level,  but 
interspersed  with  some  hills,  the  highest  of 
which  has  an  elevation  of  YOO  feet.  The  i)rov- 
iuce  contains  a  great  mauy  forests,  especially 
of  pine  and  fir,  and  there  are  said  to  be  no 
less  than  300  lakes  and  ponds,  beside  a  large 
number  of  small  streams  and  brooks,  and  sev- 
eral rivers.  Among  the  larger  rivers  are  the 
Du.na,  Aa,-  and  Windau.  The  soil  is  not  rich, 
but  when  properly  tilled  is  productive.  The 
principal  products  are  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats, 
peas,  beans,  hemp,  flax,  and  linseed.  Clay, 
iron,  lime,  and  gypsum  are  found,  and  ai*e 
wrought  to  some  extent.  The  manufactures 
are  unimportant.  The  province  is  formed  of 
the  old  duchies  of  Courland  and  Semigallia, 
united  with  the  ancient  bishopric  of  Pilteu, 
and  the  district  of  Polangen,  which  once  form- 
ed part  of  the  duchy  of  Litliuania.  It  is  divid- 
ed into  5  arrondissements,  each  of  Avlnch  is  sub- 
divided into  2  captaincies.  It  has  2  shipping 
ports,  Libau  and  Windau.  Capital,  Mitau.  The 
predominant  religion  is  Pi'otestautism,  and  the 
ecclesiastical  affairs  are  conducted  by  the  consis- 
tory of  Mitau.  There  are  about  15,000  members 
of  the  Greek  church  and  45,000  Roman  Catholics, 
who  together  pos.sess  but  19  churches,  and  are 
subject  respectively  to  the  bishops  of  Samogitia 
and  Pskof.  There  are  also  many  Jews,  Poles, 
Russians,  and  various  residents  of  other  nations, 
among  whom  are  the  Krowincks,  a  race  of  Fin- 
nish descent.  The  nobility  and  the  city  jwpula- 
tion,  and  the  higher  classes  generally,  are  of  Ger- 
man descent,  while  the  peasantry  and  the  lower 
classes  are  chiefly  of  Lettish  origin.  Courland 
was  ruled  for  a  long  time  by  sovereign  dukes, 
as  a  dependency  of  the  Polish  crown.  By  the 
marriage  in  1710  of  Duke  Frederic  William 
with  the  princess  Anna  of  Russia,  the  influence 
of  that  empire  became  predominant  in  Courland. 
It  was  strengthened  in  the  following  year,  when 
after  the  duke's  death  Anna  Avas  appointed 
regent,  under  the  protection  of  Peter  the  Great. 
After  Anna's  accession  to  the  Russian  throne  in 
1730,  her  uncle  Ferdinand  officiated  as  duke  of 
Courlaud  until  his  death  in  1737.  Subsequently 
tho  duchy  was  ruled  by  Anna's  favorite,  the 
adventurer  Biron,  who  died  in  1772,  and  be- 
queathed it  to  his  eldest  son  Peter.  The  latter, 
failing  to  give  satisfaction  to  the  country,  was 
obliged  to  cede  Courland  to  Catharine  II.  in 
1795.  Since  that  time  it  has  formed  part  of 
Russia,  though  retaining  some  ancient  privileges. 
The  civil  governor  of  Courland  is  now  (1859) 


JI.  de  Breveru,  who  resides  in  Mitau,  while  the 
general  direction  of  aflairs  devolves  upon  the 
governor-general  of  the  Baltic  provinces,  in  1859 
Prince  Italiski. 

COURT  (Lat.  curia,  the  senate  house),  in  the 
early  middle  ages,  the  feudal  lord  and  his  fam- 
ily, with  their  companions  and  servants — all  the 
persons,  collectivuly  regarded,  who  occupied  the 
various  departments  of  a  feudal  castle.  After 
the  rise  of  the  modern  inonarchies  the  name 
Avas  given  by  preeminence  to  the  family  of  the 
sovereign  and  their  attendants,  the  residents  in 
the  royal  ])alace.  Pomp  and  obeisance  had 
Avaited  on  the  ancient  Roman  and  oriental  mas- 
ters of  empires,  and  when  Charlemagne  founded 
the  empire  of  the  West  he  adopted  the  titles 
and  ceremonial  Avhich  Avere  in  use  in  the  palace 
of  the  emperors  of  Constantinople.  The  mar- 
riage of  the  emperor  Otho  II.  Avith  the  Byzan- 
tine princess  Theophania,  also  contributed  to 
spread  in  Europe  the  usages  of  the  imperial 
court  of  the  Orient.  The  cours  2}lenieres,vfh\ch. 
followed  the  establishment  of  royal  over  feudal 
supremacy,  Avere  assemblages  of  all  the  nobility 
of  the  kingdom  around  the  monarch.  Charles 
V.  in  A'ain  sought  to  introduce  permanently  into 
the  German  courts  the  severe  and  stately  man- 
ners of  the  Spanish  ;  and  the  Spanish  reverences 
and  bending  of  the  kuee  Avero  soon  succeeded 
by  the  fashion  of  merely  bowing  the  head.  The 
French  court,  as  organized  by  Francis  I.,  became 
a  model  of  politeness  and  taste  to  all  Europe. 
Afiirming  that  "  a  court  without  ladies  is  a  year 
without  spring,  and  a  spring  Avithout  roses," 
this  monarch  introduced  more  of  elegance  and 
freedom  into  society,  and  substituted  the  spirit 
of  gallantry  for  that  of  courtesy.  A  distinction 
Avas  made  between  the  severe  manners  of  the 
palace  and  the  freer  etiquette  allowed  in  the 
held  and  in  travelling.  The  French  court  ob- 
tained its  highest  prestige  for  Avit  and  grace 
under  Louis  XIV.  In  England,  the  courts  of 
Elizabeth  and  Queen  Anne  have  been  most 
illustrious  for  the  learned  and  witty  men  that 
attended  them,  and  that  of  Chai-les  II.  Avas 
most  famous  for  its  gayety.  The  court  ton  is 
any  peculiarity  of  manner  imitated  from  the 
personal  habit  of  the  sovereign.  The  Spanish 
language  Avas  spoken  in  tlie  German  imperial 
court  till  about  the  end  of  the  16th  century, 
Avhen  it  was  succeeded  by  the  Italian.  Near 
the  end  of  the  17th  century  the  French  had  be^ 
come  the  usual  court  language  in  all  the  coun- 
tries on  the  continent,  but  about  the  beginniug 
of  the  present  century  Avas  partially  succeeded 
by  the  German  in  most  of  the  German  courts. 
— The  right  of  admittance  or  presentation  at 
court  belonged  originally  only  to  the  nobility. 
It  was  extended  also  to  the  higher  clergy,  and  to 
some  distinguished  persons,  as  great  artists  or 
scholars,  Avhose  accomplishments  were  regarded 
as  giving  them  personal  nobility.  The  i-eigu 
of  Frederic  the  Great  and  the  period  of  the 
French  revolution  relaxed  the  conditions  of 
presentation,  though  Napoleon  in  his  ncAV  im- 
perial court  revived  all  the  dignities  and  strict- 


COURT 


11 


ness  of  ceremonial  wliich  had  existed  under  the 
old  regime.  The  precedence  of  dii)lomatic  agents 
and  others  at  court  is  determined  partly  hy  the 
relative  rank  of  states,  important  ropuhlics,  as 
the  United  States  and  Switzerland,  receiving 
the  same  lionors  as  kingdoms ;  and  ])artly  Ijy 
the  degree  of  relationship  to  tlio  sovereign,  since 
nearly  all  the  European  dynasties  are  united  to 
each  other  hy  family  ties. 

COURT,  in  law,  an  institution  having  a  two- 
fold object,  viz.  :  the  conservation  of  public 
order  by  the  suppression  of  violence  and  crime, 
and  the  adjudication  of  disputes  on  civil  mat- 
ters l)etween  the  individuals  constituting  a  com- 
munity. The  first  of  these  is  most  prominent 
in  a  rude  state  of  society ;  the  latter,  in  an 
advanced  stage  of  civilization.  In  the  earlier 
and  ruder  condition,  the  laws  have  principal 
reference  to  protection  from  personal  violence, 
and  the  judicial  function  is  chiefly  exercised 
in  rendering  speedy  justice  to  the  ofienders. 
Another  peculiar  distinction  is  also  observable 
in  the  administration  of  laws  at  the  different 
periods  above  referred  to.  In  the  earlier,  it  is 
vested  in  the  executive,  which  at  that  time 
is  usually  the  sole  constituent  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  this  continues  to  be  the  character- 
istic of  every  nation  Avhose  advance  beyond 
semi-barbarism  is  arrested,  or  whenever  from 
a  state  of  partial  civilization  it  returns  again 
to  its  original  rude  condition.  Such  was  the 
primitive  administration  of  laws  in  the  states 
of  Greece ;  the  king  or  chief  of  a  people  was 
not  merely  a  military  leader,  but  also  a  judge ; 
and  this  is  now  the  case  in  oriental  autocra- 
cies, Avith  only  the  modification  that  where  the 
territorial  jurisdiction  is  large,  as  in  Turkey 
or  Persia,  the  laws  are  administered  by  depu- 
ties, but  who,  in  like  manner  as  the  sovereign 
of  a  small  state,  each  within  his  respective 
district,  perform  the  functions  of  executive 
and  judicial  officers.  A  third  circumstance 
may  Ije  observed,  viz. :  that  in  the  earlier  pe- 
riod a  large  discretion  is  exercised  in  judicial 
proceedings.  The  laws  being  few,  cases  will 
occur  that  are  not  provided  for;  and  again,  per- 
sonal security  being  the  chief  object  had  in 
view,  summary  justice  is  naturally  preferred  to 
the  more  tardy  form  of  proceeding  which  would 
be  involved  by  a  regard  to  the  rules  of  evi- 
dence which  in  a  more  advanced  stage  of  so- 
ciety are  deemed  essential ;  indeed,  tliese  rules 
are  an  after  growth,  and  require  a  long  expe- 
rience and  an  intellectual  habit  to  develop. — 
The  Roman  consuls  were  at  first  executive  and 
judicial  magistrates.  The  progress  of  the  peo- 
ple in  civilization  was  indicated  by  their  de- 
mand of  some  check  upon  the  arbitrary  judg- 
ment of  the  consuls  in  their  judicial  capacity, 
which  led  to  the  compilation  of  the  laws  of  the 
12  tables;  a  still  further  advance  was  shown  in 
the  separation  of  the  judicial  from  the  consular 
office,  and  the  appointment  of  the  prajfor.  But 
although  the  Roman  mind  was  eminently  legal, 
it  did  not  during  the  existence  of  the  republic 
attain  to  a  clear  idea  of  the  importance  of  a  su- 


pervisory power  for  the  correction  of  the  errors 
of  inferior  tribuiuds.  The  assemblies  of  the 
people,  both  the  centuriata  and  tribvta^  had  in- 
deed a  judicial  power,  but  it  was  exercised  in 
the  hearing  of  cases  in  the  first  instance,  and 
those  chiefly  of  persons  charged  with  cajjital 
offences.  But  in  civil  causes  (judicia  jyrivata) 
there  was  not  properly  an  appeal  from  the  judg- 
ment of  the  prtetor,  or  of  the  judges  (or  more 
properly  juries)  appointed  by  him.  The  near- 
est approach  to  it  was  the  power  exercised  by 
the  prietor  in  certain  cases  of  setting  aside  the 
sentence  oi  tliajudiccs  for  fraud,  and  so  the  as- 
sistance of  the  tribunes  was  sometimes  invoked 
against  the  corrupt  conduct  of  the  praitor  lam- 
self.  Under  the  imperial  government  an  ap- 
peal was  allowed  from  all  inferior  judges  to  the 
emperor,  Avhich  was  in  fact  usually  heard  by  a 
court  composed  of  the  chief  officers  of  state  and 
distinguished  jurists.  Even  this  court  was  not, 
however,  strictly  subject  to  the  rules  which  are 
in  modern  times  deemed  essential  to  an  ap- 
pellate court.  It  not  only  decided  cases  brought 
before  it  by  appeal  from  the  final  judgments  of 
inferior  tribunals,  but  would  take  original  juris- 
diction in  many  cases  while  they  were  i)ending 
before  a  subordinate  court,  and  not  merely 
made  decisions  Qlecrctd)  in  such  cases,  but  also 
gave  opinions  {rescripta)  to  magistrates  or  pri- 
vate persons  upon  questions  proposed  by  them. 
— In  the  constitution  of  judicial  tribunals  under 
modern  European  governments  there  has  been 
a  great  advance  beyond  the  Roman  in  all  of 
the  particulars  which  we  have  named  above 
as  appertaining  to  the  administration  of  law. 
The  separation  of  the  judicial  from  executive 
functions  has  become  gradually  recognized  as 
a  political  principle.  In  England  it  was  asserted 
at  an  early  period  for  the  protection  of  personal 
freedom  against  royal  power,  but  it  was  imper- 
fectly carried  into  effect  until  within  the  last  2 
centuries,  when  the  tenure  of  judicial  office  was 
made  independent  of  the  pleasure  of  the  king. 
The  clause  of  Magna  Charta,  Commiuiia 2ylacita 
nmi sequcntur  curiam  nostrum^  sed  teneantur  in 
aliquo  loco,  though  seemingly  intended  for  the 
mere  convenience  of  suitors,  by  prescribing  a 
certain  place  for  the  trial  of  their  causes,  in- 
stead of  compelling  them  to  travel  about  with 
their  witnesses  wherever  the  aula  regis  held  by 
the  king  in  person  might  be,  in  reality  had  the 
effect  of  breaking  up  that  court,  and  ultimately 
of  establishing  the  several  courts  of  common 
pleas,  king's  bench,  and  exchequer,  presided 
over  by  justices  appointed  for  that  purpose. 
The  king's  bench  alone,  Avhich  retained  jurisdic- 
tion of  criminal  cases,  continued  for  some  time 
afterward  to  be  migratory,  whence  the  com- 
mon form  of  process  returnable  to  that  court 
was  vlicumque  fuerimiis  ;  and  this  prevailed 
after  the  court  became  fixed  like  the  others  at 
Westminster,  and  its  itinerancy  was  but  a  mere 
legal  fiction.  But  the  judges  of  all  these  courts 
were  ai)pointed  by  the  king,  and  could  be  re- 
moved by  him  at  will ;  and  this  power  of  re- 
moval continued  until  by  statute  13  TVilliam  IIL 


12 


COURT 


(IVOI)  it  was  enacted  tbat  the  commissions  of 
the  judges  should  be  quamdiu  se  bene  gesserint, 
instead  oi  durante  bene  placito  as  formerly,  and 
that  they  should  be  removable  only  upon  an  ad- 
dress of  both  houses  of  parliament.  The  chan- 
cellor alone,  who  presides  over  the  department 
of  equity,  is  subject  to  removal  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  king,  and  his  office  is  held  entirely  by  a 
political  tenure.  There  are  4  courts  of  original 
and  general  jurisdiction,  viz. :  tlie  king's  bench, 
common  pleas,  exchequer,  and  chancery.  These 
may  be  considered  the  outgrowth  of  the  com- 
mon law,  though  according  to  a  popular  mode 
of  expression  chancery  is  distinguished  from 
the  other  three,  as  if  not  of  common  law  origin, 
but  the  equity  administered  in  that  court  was 
chiefly  indigenous.  The  ecclesiastical  and  admi- 
ralty courts,  on  the  other  hand,  derive  their  mode 
of  administeringlaw  from  aforeign  source,  though 
the  limit  of  their  respective  jurisdictions  is  pre- 
scribed by  acts  of  parliament,  or  by  long  usage, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  fomided  upon  statute. 
The  court  of  king's  bench,  in  the  distribution  of 
judicial  powers  upon  the  breaking  up  of  the  an- 
cient aula  regis,  retained,  as  we  have  mentioned, 
jurisdiction  of  criminal  cases  ;  but  to  this  was 
added  all  that  class  of  cases  which,  though  in 
reality  civil  actions  between  private  citizens, 
yet,  as  they  involved  an  allegation  of  force  (as 
in  actions  for  trespass,  where  the  act  complain- 
ed of  was  alleged  to  have  been  done  vi  et  armis), 
were  deemed  quasi  criminal.  But  notwithstand- 
ing this  narrow  limit  of  its  cognizance  of  civil 
cases,  it  remained  in  one  sense  the  highest  court 
in  the  realm.  It  has  always  been  the  represen- 
tative of  the  king's  prerogative,  has  exercised 
authority  over  all  other  common  law  courts  so 
far  as  to  restrain  them  within  their  proper  ju- 
risdiction by  writ  of  prohibition,  and  has  always 
exercised  summary  power,  in  all  cases  not  other- 
wise provided  for,  to  compel  inferior  courts  and 
magistrates  to  do  their  duty.  By  a  fiction  of 
law  it  has  also  acquired  jurisdiction  over  all 
civil  cases  except  actions  relating  to  real  estate, 
and  may  in  one  form  of  action,  viz.,  ejectm^t, 
even  try  titles  to  land ;  which  fiction  consists 
of  an  allegation  in  pleading  that  the  defendant 
has  been  arrested  upon  process  of  that  court  for 
a  trespass,  w^hereupon  the  plaintiff"  complains 
against  him  for  another  and  the  real  cause  of 
action.  The  court  of  common  pleas  had  origi- 
nally exclusive  jurisdiction  of  all  merely  civil  ac- 
tions not  involving  any  criminal  otfence,  and  it 
still  retains  sole  cognizance  of  actions  relating  to 
realty  except  ejectment,  which,  as  before  meji- 
tioned,  may  be  also  brought  in  the  king  s  bench. 
The  business  of  the  court  of  exchequer  was  ori- 
ginally the  collection  of  debts  due  to  the  crown, 
the  proceeding  for  which  was  by  bill,  somewhat 
in  the  nature  of  a  bill  in  chancery,  whence  this 
wascalled  the  equity  side  of  the  court ;  butjuris- 
ilicticm  was  obtained  of  all  personal  actions  by 
a  fiction,  viz.,  an  allegation  that  the  king's  debt- 
or hath  suffered  an  injury  whereby  he  is  less 
able  to  pay  his  debt,  quo  minns  sufficient cxistit^ 
whereupon  he  was  allowed  to  implead  in  this 


court  the  person  charged  with  the  wrong.  This 
was  called  the  common  law  side  of  tlic  court. 
The  old  forms  of  process  and  proceeding  pecu- 
liar to  these  courts  have  been  recently  abrogated, 
but  the  jurisdiction  acquired  by  them  remains. 
Substantially  the  same  process  and  mode  of 
pleading  is  now  used  in  the  three  courts,  by 
Stat.  2  William  IV.,  c.  89  (1832),  and  other  acts, 
the  provisions  of  all  which  are  included  in  the 
more  general  revision  by  stat.  15  and  16  Vic,  c. 
76  (1852),  and  IT  and  18  Vic,  c.  125  (1854).  As 
to  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  court  of  chancery,  see  article  Chancery. 
From  all  these  courts  an  appeal  lies  to  the  house 
of  lords.  There  are,  however,  some  intermedi- 
ate appeals.  From  each  of  the  three  courts  it  has 
been  long  the  practice  to  adjourn  cases  of  great 
importance,  before  judgment,  to  the  court  of 
exchequer  chamber,  consisting  of  the  barons  of 
the  exchequer,  the  chancellor,  lord  treasurer,  and 
justices  of  the  king's  bench  and  common  pleas. 
There  is  also  an  appeal,  in  certain  cases  after 
final  judgment,  to  the  same  court  (in  which  cases 
on  appeal  the  judges  of  the  court  from  which  the 
appeal  is  taken  do  not  sit),  and  from  that  court 
an  appeal  lies  to  the  house  of  lords  ;  and  so  in  all 
other  cases  which  are  not  reviewed  in  the  court 
of  exchequer  chamber.  Cases  in  chancery  are 
usually  heard  in  the  first  instance  before  the 
master  of  the  rolls  or  a  vice-chancellor,  from 
whom  an  appeal  lies  to  the  chancellor  (with 
whom  two  lords  justices  have  been  recently 
associated  for  the  hearing  of  appeals),  and  from 
them  to  the  house  of  lords.  A  writ  of  error,  it 
is  said,  may  also  issue  from  the  king's  bench  to 
the  common  pleas,  but  it  seems  to  have  been 
rarely  used.  The  trial  of  all  common  law  causes 
in  the  first  instance  is  before  itinerant  or  circuit 
judges,  one  of  whom  must  be  a  justice  of  one  of 
the  superior  courts  of  Westminster,  which  judges 
are  sent  annually  into  every  county  of  the  king- 
dom for  the  trial  of  civil  and  criminal  cases 
which  are  to  be  brought  before  a  jury.  They 
were  first  appointed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II., 
and  were  then  called  justices  in  eyre  (justiciarii 
in  itinere),  but  are  now  designated  as  justices  of 
assize  and  nisi  prius.  Tlieir  commission  also  au- 
thorizes them  to  try  all  criminal  cases,  which 
part  of  their  duties  is  expressed  by  the  old  law 
phrases  of  oyer  and  terminer  (to  hear  and  de- 
termine), and  general  gaol  delivery ;  the  for- 
mer  relating  to  cases  upon  which  an  indictment 
is  found  by  a  grand  jury  at  the  same  circuit,  the 
latter  to  indictments  previously  found  upon 
which  there  had  been  an  arrest  and  imprison- 
ment of  the  parties  indicted.  The  commissions 
of  assize  and  nisi  prius  relate  to  civil  causes. 
Assize  in  the  old  English  law  was  the  name  ap- 
plied to  the  trial  of  issues  relating  to  the  free- 
hold, by  a  species  of  jury  called  recognitors, 
who  were  alloAvcd  to  decide  upon  their  own 
personal  knowledge  without  the  examination  of 
witnesses ;  in  modern  law  the  term  designates 
issues  in  actions  relating  to  real  estate.  Ifisi 
prius  is  a  phrase  in  the  writ  issued  to  the  sher- 
iff for  the  summoning  of  a  jury,  by  which  he  is 


COURT 


13 


comrriandod  to  bring  them  before  the  court  at 
Westminster  at  a  certain  day  in  term,  unless  be- 
fore that  time  the  justices  of  assize  should  come 
into  his  county ;  and  as  the  justices  according- 
ly come,  the  sheriff  returns  the  writ  at  the  court 
of  assizes. — In  France,  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice, which  originally  belonged  to  and  was  ex- 
ercised by  the  suzerains  or  feudal  lords  in  per- 
son, was,  by  a  process  similar  to  what  took  place 
in  England,  vested  in  certain  officers  appointed 
for  that  purpose,  who  at  first  were  considered 
as  the  mere  deputies  of  the  suzerain,  but  were 
afterward  recognized  as  having  independent  of- 
ficial functions.  One  peculiarity  prevailed  in 
all  the  seigniories,  viz.,  that  whether  the  sei- 
gneur or  his  deputy,  or  the  latter  judicial  magis- 
trate (under  the  name  of  iailll),  presided,  it  was 
necessary  for  the  adjudication  of  any  question 
to  call  together  the  principal  vassals,  who  in 
fact  constituted  a  court,  although  at  first  they 
were  spoken  of  rather  as  advisers  of  the  sei- 
gneur than  as  judges  ;  but  afterward,  when  the 
baillies  held  the  courts,  they  were  obliged  to 
submit  every  case  to  the  judgment  of  the  assem- 
bled vassals,  who  then  began  to  be  called  peers. 
These  courts  decided  all  questions  between  the 
vassals  themselves  or  between  vassal  and  sei- 
gneur, except  that  in  the  latter  class  of  cases  such 
questions  were  excluded  as  involved  a  contest 
between  the  seigneur  and  the  vassals  generally, 
which  questions  were  brought  before  the  suzer- 
ain or  superior  lord  of  whom  the  seigneiu*  held. 
In  other  cases,  where  the  seigneur  refused  to  de- 
cide,or  interfered  with  the  proper  administration 
of  right,  an  appeal  was  often  made  to  the  su- 
perior lord  ;  and  so  also  for  an  unjust  judgment, 
probably,  however,  only  in  a  case  of  flagrant  vio- 
lation of  right.  The  former  appeal  was  called 
en  defaut  de  droit^  the  latter  en  faux  jitgement. 
In  either  case,  however,  the  gi'ound  of  the  ap- 
peal was  some  misconduct  of  the  seigneur  or  his 
representative,  and  not  strictly  for  a  review  of 
a  case  fairly  conducted.  But  instead  of  such 
appeal,the  vassal  who  thought  himself  aggrieved 
by  the  judgment  of  his  seigneur  could  challenge 
him  to  combat,  first  renouncing  fealty  to  him. 
From  these  seigneurial  courts  subsequently  grew 
up  the  parlements.  There  was  at  first  but  one, 
viz.,  the  court  of  the  king.  The  first  Capetian 
sovereigns  created  4  grand  lailliages  to  hear  ap- 
peals fi-om  all  judgments  rendered  in  the  courts 
of  the  seigneurs,  and  to  judge  in  the  first  in- 
stance where  there  was  a  conflict  of  jurisdic- 
tion ;  but  these  tribvmals  were  not  uniformly 
acknowledged,  and  the  vassals  still  resorted  to 
the  court  of  the  king.  In  conseqiience  of  the 
accumulation  of  business,  and  the  great  expense 
of  attending  upon  that  court  at  various  places, 
Philip  the  Fair,  by  an  edict  in  1302,  made  the 
sitting  of  the  court  permanent  at  Paris.  He 
also  established  aparlement  for  Languedoc.  The 
exchiquier  of  Normandy  was  fixed  at  Rouen 
permanently  by  Louis  XII.,  and  was  entitled  by 
FrancUs  I.  a  cour  de  2^<^^'>'lement.  Others  were 
afterward  established,  and  these  courts  con- 
tinued to  be  the  appellate  tribunals  mitil  the 


revolution,  Henry  II.  established  presidencea 
(presidiaux)  in  the  princijjal  cities,  reserving 
to  th©  parlements  only  the  more  considerable 
causes  and  inspection  of  the  inferior  courts. 
The  parlements^  which  originally  consisted  of 
the  peers  of  France,  were  finally  composed  of 
lawyers  appointed  by  the  king.  They  were 
abolished  id  1790,  and  in  their  palce,  so  far  as 
respected  appellate  jurisdiction,  was  substituted 
the  court  of  cassation.  This  court  was  com- 
posed of  52  judges,  who,  by  the  charte  consti- 
tutionelle  of  1814,  received  their  appointment 
from  the  king,  but  were  not  removable.  Tri- 
bunals of  appeal  were  created  a  few  years 
after  the  establishment  of  the  court  of  cassa- 
tion (1802),  which  after  the  restoration  were 
called  cours  roijales,  and  under  Napoleon  IH. 
covrs  imperiales.  The  exact  limits  of  the  juris- 
diction of  the  latter  courts  and  of  the  court  of 
cassation  are  not  defined  with  much  precision. 
The  court  of  cassation,  which  now  consists  of 
45  judges,  3  vice-presidents,  and  a  president,  is 
divided  into  3  chambers,  viz. :  a  chamber  of  re- 
quests, a  chamber  of  civil,  and  a  chamber  of 
criminal  cassation.  Demands  in  cassation  (appli- 
cations for  reversal  of  judgment)  are  first  heard 
by  the  chamber  of  requests,  which  either  rejects 
them  or  sends  them  to  one  of  the  other  chambers 
to  be  adjudicated.  The  appeal  to  the  cours  im- 
periales is  directly  from  the  tribunals  of  first  in- 
stance, tribunaux  civil  d^arrondissement,  which 
are  the  same  that  were  established  in  1790  under 
the  name  of  tribunaux  de  district. — This  brief 
review  of  the  courts  of  the  two  countries  of  Eu- 
rope most  celebrated  for  their  jurisprudence, 
will  sufficiently  illustrate  how  far  they  fulfil 
the  conditions  of  a  sound  administration  of  jus- 
tice in  two  particulars,  viz. :  freedom  from  ex- 
ecutive control,  and  a  due  regard  to  the  correc- 
tion of  errors  by  a  review  of  the  first  judgment 
in  an  appellate  court.  There  are,  however, 
other  important  considerations  to  which  we 
may  properly  advert.  Judges  should  be  inde- 
pendent not  only  of  executive  influence,  but 
also  of  all  personal  responsibility  to  litigant  par- 
ties. There  is  a  singular  feature  in  the  French 
law  which  indicates  either  a  low  state  of  judi- 
cial integrity  or  an  entire  oversight  of  an  im- 
portant principle  of  jurisprudence.  By  a  pro- 
ceeding called  j>rise  d  jyartie,  which  has  been 
recognized  from  an  early  period,  a  judge  is  lia- 
ble to  be  sued  by  the  party  against  whom  he 
has  rendered  judgment.  The  old  rule  was,  that 
he  could  be  made  responsible  only  when  the 
judgment  was  without  excuse  (doit  etre affecUe 
et  inexcusaMe) ;  by  an  ordinance  of  Francis  I. 
(1540)  a  judge  was  not  liable  except  for  fraud 
or  extortion  (sHl  n''y  a  dol,  fraude,  ou  con- 
cussion). Still  he  was  subject  to  a  suit  for 
damages,  and  several  old  writers  commented 
strongly  upon  the  peril  to  society  in  subject- 
ing judges  to  such  a  liability,  especially  for 
judgments  in  criminal  proceedings.  But  not- 
withstanding these  remonstrances,  the  proceed- 
ing has  always  been  and  still  is  allowed.  Mer- 
lin mentions  a  number  of  cases  in  which  the 


14 


COURT 


judge  would  be  held  responsible,  among  -which 
are:  1,  arresting  a  person  witiiout  ])roper  com- 
plaint, excc;i)t  in  case  of  flagrant  crime  {hors  le 
cccs  de  Jlagraiit  delit) ;  2,  arrest  without  proof, 
or  for  an  olfence  wliich  was  not  punishable  by 
impi-isonmont ;  3,  where  the  judge  has  exceed- 
ed his  power  by  taking  cognizance  of  a  matter 
witliout  liaving  jurisdiction;  4,  evoking  a  case 
from  an  inferior  tribunal  under  pretext  of  an 
appeal,  and  tlien  not  disposing  of  it.  The  pro- 
visions of  the  code  of  civil  procedure  lack  pre- 
cision. The  cases  oi  prise  d  2)artie  are  :  1,  for 
fraud  or  extortion,  in  the  language  of  the  ordi- 
nance of  Francis  I.;  2,  where  it  is  expressly 
prescribed  by  law ;  3,  where  the  law  has  de- 
clared judges  liable  for  damages ;  4,  if  the  judge 
has  denied  justice.  (Code  de  2}rocedure,  §  505.) 
The  English  law,  on  the  contrary,  affords  an 
ample  protection  to  judges.  The  rule  is,  that  no 
private  suit  will  lie  against  judges  of  a  court  of 
general  jurisdiction,  either  for  error  of  judgment 
or  even  for  misconduct  in  their  judicial  func- 
tions ;  and  the  same  protection  is  extended  to 
judges  of  courts  of  inferior  jurisdiction  when  act- 
ing within  the  limit  of  their  authority.  For  offi- 
cial corruption,  or  other  criminal  conduct,  a  judge 
may  be  impeached  and  removed  from  office,  and 
is  also  liable  to  be  proceeded  against  by  indict- 
ment; but  no  other  redress  is  allowed  to  a 
suitor  who  may  have  sustained  injury  by  such 
misconduct.  If,  however,  a  judge  having  a  lim- 
ited jurisdiction  shoidd  exceed  it,  that  is  to  say, 
should  undertake  to  act  in  a  matter  not  within 
his  jurisdiction,  then  he  becomes  liable  to  a  suit 
for  damages,  even  if  it  was  a  mere  mistake  of 
judgment.  Thus  the  court  of  Marshalsea,  which 
had  jurisdiction  only  of  cases  in  which  one  of 
the  parties  was  of  the  king's  household,  or  tres- 
passes committed  within  the  verge  of  the  court, 
having  given  judgment  for  a  debt  of  which  they 
had  no  cognizance  and  imprisoned  the  debtor, 
the  judges  and  even  the  ministerial  officers  were 
all  held  liable  to  damages,  the  proceeding  being 
coram  non  judice  (case  of  the  Marshalsea,  10 
Coke's  Ecp.  08);  but  in  the  same  case  it  was 
said  that  where  a  court  has  jurisdiction  of  a 
cause  and  proceeds  erroneously,  an  action  will 
not  lie  against  the  party  who  sues  or  against 
the  officer  or  minister  of  the  court.  A  single 
exception  may  possibly  exist  in  respect  to  the 
inamuuity  given  to  judges  of  courts  of  general 
jurisdiction,  viz. :  where  they  act  extra-judicial- 
ly,  as  in  the  case  mentioned  by  Hawkins :  "  If  a 
judge  will  so  far  forget  the  honor  and  dignity 
of  his  post  as  to  turn  solicitor  in  a  cause  in 
which  he  is  to  judge,  and  privately  and  extra- 
judicially tamper  with  witnesses  or  labor  jury- 
men, he  hath  no  reason  to  complain  if  he  be 
dealt  with  according  to  the  capacity  to  which 
he  so  basely  degrades  himself."  The  rule,  how- 
ever, as  above  stated,  has  been  sustained  by  the 
most  eminent  English  judges.  (See  Groenvelt 
vs.  Burwell,  1  Salk.  396 ;  Miller  r.s.  Scare,  2  Bla. 
Rep.  1141 ;  and  Mostyn  vs.  Fabrigas,  Cowp. 
161.)  In  tlie  case  last  cited,  a  governor  of  Mi- 
norca was  sued  in  England  for  a  false  imprison- 


ment alleged  to  have  been  committed  by  him 
Avliile  governor.  Lord  Mansfield  said,  if  it 
had  been  done  judicially  it  would  have  been  a 
complete  bar  to  the  action,  but  as  governor  he 
had  no  such  exemption,  and  he  mentioned  sev- 
eral cases  of  naval  officers  in  the  British  service 
against  whom  actions  had  been  brought  and 
damages  recovered  for  acts  done  by  them  of- 
ficially in  foreign  parts.  There  was  an  inter- 
esting discussion  of  this  subject  in  the  courts 
of  the  state  of  New  York  in  the  case  of  Yates 
Ds.  Lansing,  which  was  an  action  against  the 
chancellor,  and  the  English  doctruie  was  fully 
considered  and  sustained.  (5  Johnson's  Rep.  282 ; 
9  id.  375.)  The  same  exemption  from  private 
suit  on  account  of  judicial  acts  which  is  given 
to  judges  is  also  extended  to  jurors,  who,  by  the 
English  and  American  law,  are  judges  of  facts. — 
Another  important  requisite  for  the  proper  ad- 
ministration of  law  is  certainty  in  the  rules  of  de- 
cision. A  discretionary  power  has  been  shown 
by  common  experience  to  be  unsafe,  however 
specious  the  idea  may  be  of  determining  each 
case  upon  its  own  equity.  A  general  rule,  known 
beforehand  and  rigidly  adhered  to,  is  preferable 
to  an  oscillating  and  precarious  judgment,  al- 
though cases  of  individual  hardship  will  occur 
in  the  application  of  such  rules.  There  will, 
however,  be  cases  not  foreseen  or  provided  for; 
in  respect  to  these,  shall  the  judges  exercise  a  dis- 
cretionary power,  or  should  there  be  a  judica- 
tory to  take  special  cognizance  of  them,  or  lastly, 
should  legislative  action  be  invoked?  The  Ro- 
man pra3tors  intermingled  equitable  relief  with 
their  judicial  decisions.  In  the  English  judi- 
cial system  the  court  of  chancery  has  had  au 
exclusive  but  still  limited  authority  to  give  relief 
in  certain  cases  upon  principles  of  equity  ditter- 
ing  from  the  strict  rules  of  law.  Yet  even  in  the 
administration  of  equity  that  court  soon  became 
bound  by  its  own  precedents,  from  which  it  was 
not  at  liberty  to  depart,  and  the  chancery  law 
of  England  is  at  this  day  as  Avell  settled  as  the 
law  administered  in  the  other  courts.  Bacon 
proposed  in  his  aphorisms  De  Justitla  Univer- 
sally that  there  should  be  what  he  calls  pr^- 
torian  courts,  having  power  as  well  of  relieving 
from  the  rigor  of  the  law  as  of  supplying  the 
defects  of  law,  that  is,  prescribing  the  rule  in 
cases  not  otherwise  provided  for  {De  Aug..,  lib.  8, 
c.  iii.,  aph.  31).  The  English  courts  all  decide 
according  to  precedents,  or  if  no  former  decision 
can  be  found,  then  by  analogy  to  what  has  been 
decided  in  similar  cases,  or  upon  some  general 
principle  which  has  been  recognized;  and  in 
cases  entirely  new  have  sometimes  sought  aid 
from  the  Roman  law.  There  is  one  class  of 
cases,  however,  in  which  positive  law  alone  is 
acted  upon,  and  that  is  in  respect  to  crimes 
and  their  punishment.  Crimes  must  be  de- 
fined by  law,  whicli  may  be  either  by  statute 
or  by  ancient  prescription,  but  courts  have  no 
power  to  declare  new  crimes;  and  so  in  re- 
gard to  punishment,  courts  can  enforce  no 
other  penalty  tlian  what  has  been  previously 
fixed  by  law.    The  parlements  of  France  were 


COURT  DE  GfiBELIN 


COURT  OF  LOVE 


15 


in  like  manner  bound  by  the  arrets  reglcmen- 
taircs,  rules  of  decision  establislied  in  former 
cases.  On  tlie  reorganization  of  the  courts  in 
1790  an  attempt  was  made  to  abrogate  all  power 
of  deciding  from  analogy,  or  even  by  a  resort 
to  general  principles  of  jurisprudence;  and  all 
cases  not  provided  for  by  express  law  were 
to  be  referred  to  the  national  assembly  for  the 
purpose  of  having  such  law  enacted  as  would  bo 
applicable  to  the  particular  case.  This  crude  ex- 
periment was  so  unsatisfactory  that  in  the  Code 
Napoleon  it  was  thouglit  necessary  not  only  to 
restore  to  the  courts  the  power  of  deciding  upon 
general  principles  and  analogy,  but  it  was  even 
made  penal  to  do  otherwise  {Code  Niqwleon,  art. 
4). — The  courts  in  the  United  States  have  a  gen- 
eral correspondence  with  the  English  judicial 
system.  The' modifications  are  chiefly  these: 
1.  In  the  federal  courts,  as  well  as  the  courts  of 
most  of  the  states,  the  equity  powers  of  the 
English  chancery  have  been  vested  in  the  other 
courts,  though  the  English  system  of  equity  is 
still  substantially  administered.  Hence  our 
courts  may  be  said  to  have  an  equity  and  a  com- 
mon law  side.  2.  Local  circuit  judges  have  been 
generally  substituted  in  place  of  the  itinerant 
or  nisi  prius  judges  of  England,  The  judges  of 
the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  have 
each  a  certain  territorial  limit  in  which  they 
respectively  act  as  circuit  judges.  In  the  state 
of  New  York  8  judicial  districts  have  been 
established,  and  the  supreme  court  is  consti- 
tuted of  4  judges  in  each  district,  who  in  their 
respective  districts  are  independent,  resembling 
in  that  respect  the  French  parleme?its,  but  in 
another  respect  they  are  all  members  of  one 
tribunal,  as  each  judge  is  competent  to  act  in  any 
district,  either  by  voluntary  arrangement  with 
the  judges  of  such  district,  or  by  direction  of 
the  governor.  But  the  prevailing  system  in 
most  of  the  states  is  the  appointment  of  local 
judges  for  the  trial  of  causes  who  are  uncon- 
nected with  an  appellate  tribunal.  3.  In  many 
of  the  states  the  judges  are  elected  like  other 
public  officers  by  popular  vote. 

COURT  DE  GEBELIISr,  Antoint:,  a  French 
author,  born  in  Nimes  in  1725,  died  in  Paris, 
May  10, 1784.  He  was  the  son  of  Antoine  Court, 
and  early  in  life  oflSciated  for  a  short  time  as  a 
preacher.  Subsequently  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  ancient  mythology,  in  which,  as 
in  many  other  branches  of  knowledge,  he  was 
deeply  learned.  He  established  himself  in  Paris 
in  1763,  and  between  1775  and  1784  published 
the  9  vols,  of  his  great  work  entitled  Ze  monde 
primitif^  in  which  he  traces  the  history  of  the 
moral  and  intellectual  world.  The  work  was 
the  fruit  of  20  years'  severe  labor,  and  was  to 
have  embraced  several  additional  volumes,  the 
preparation  of  which  was  prevented  by  the 
author's  death.  He  sympathized  deeply  with 
the  American  struggle  for  independence,  and  co- 
operated with  Franklin  and  others  in  the  pub- 
lication of  a  work  advocating  the  American 
cause,  entitled  Affaires  de  VAngleterre  et  de 
VAmerique.  He  was  the  author  of  a  defence  of 


animal  magnetism,  and  of  a  variety  of  works, 
historical,  philosojihical,  and  jiolitical. 

COURT  MARTIAL,  a  tribunal  authorized  in 
the  United  States  by  tlie  articles  of  war,  and  in 
England  by  the  mutiny  act,  for  the  trial  of  all 
persons  in  the  army  or  navy  cliarged  with  mili- 
tary offences.  According  to  articles  G4  et  seq. 
of  the  congressional  act  of  May  29,  1830,  any 
general  officer  couTmanding  an  army,  or  colonel 
commanding  a  separate  department,  may  ap- 
point a  general  court  martial,  except  when 
such  officer  or  colonel  shall  be  the  accuser,  in 
which  case  the  court  shall  be  appointed  by  the 
president  of  the  United  States.  A  general  court 
martial  may  consist  of  any  immber  of  commis- 
sioned officers  from  5  to  13,  but  shall  not  be 
less  than  13  when  that  number  can  be  con- 
vened without  manifest  injury  to  the  service. 
The  commanding  officer  decides  as  to  the  num- 
ber. Such  a  court  has  no  jurisdiction  over  any 
citizen  not  employed  in  military  service.  The 
sentence  of  the  court  shall  not  be  carried  into 
execution  until  the  whole  proceedings  have 
been  laid  before  the  officer  commanding  the 
troops  for  the  time  being.  In  time  of  peace, 
no  sentence  extending  to  loss  of  life,  or  the 
dismission  of  a  commissioned  officer,  and  either 
in  peace  or  war,  no  sentence  against  a  general 
officer,  shall  be  carried  into  execution  until  con- 
firmed by  the  president  of  the  United  States, 
to  Avhom,  thi'ough  the  secretary  of  war,  the 
whole  proceedings  shall  be  transmitted.  Every 
officer  connnanding  a  regiment  or  corps  may  ap- 
point a  court  martial  consisting  of  3  commis- 
sioned officers,  to  judge  offences  not  capital  com- 
mitted in  his  own  regiment  or  corps.  Such  a 
court  martial  may  be  appointed  also  by  the  offi- 
cers commanding  garrisons,  forts,  or  barracks. 
But  in  neither  of  the  cases  has  it  power  to  try 
a  commissioned  oflBcer,  or  to  inflict  penalties 
beyond  certain  limitations. 

COURT  OF  LOVE  (Fr.  cour  d'amour),  in  me- 
diajval  France,  a  tribunal  composed  of  ladies 
illustrious  for  their  birth  and  talent,  whose  juris- 
diction, recognized  only  by  courtesy  and  opinion, 
extended  over  all  questions  of  gallantry.  Such 
courts  existed  from  the  12th  to  the  14th  centu- 
ry, while  the  romantic  notions  of  love  which 
characterized  the  ages  of  chivalry  were  pre- 
dominant. The  decisions  were  made  according 
to  a  code  of  31  articles,  which  have  been  pre- 
served in  a  MS.  entitled  De  Arte  Amatoria  et 
Bepirolatione  Amoris,  written  by  Andre,  royal 
chaplain  of  France,  about  1170.  Some  of  the 
troubadours  were  often  present  to  celebrate  the 
proceedings  in  verse,  and  the  songs  of  these 
minstrels  were  not  unfrequently  reviewed  and 
j  udged  by  the  tribunals.  Among  the  ladies  who 
presided  were  the  countess  De  Die,  called  the 
Sappho  of  the  middle  ages,  and  Laura  de  Sade, 
celebrated  by  Petrarch.  King  Rene  of  Anjou 
attempted  in  vain  to  revive  the  courts  of  love, 
and  the  last  imitation  of  them  was  held  at  Rueil 
at  the  instance  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  to  judge 
a  question  of  gallantry  which  had  been  raised  in 
the  hotel  de  Eambouillet. 


16 


OOUETEN 


COUSIN 


OOURTEN',  "William,  an  English  manufactu- 
rer and  merchant,  born  in  London  in  1572,  died 
there  in  May,  1636.  Ilis  fother  had  been  a  tai- 
lor at  Menin,  in  the  Netherlands,  and  escaping 
with  diflSculty  from  the  persecution  of  the  duke 
of  Alva,  had  arrived  in  London  in  1568.  The 
Courten  family  were  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  French  hoods,  then  mucli  in  fiishion, 
and  at  the  death  of  the  parents  about  the  end 
of  Elizabeth's  reign,  the  sons  were  opulent  mer- 
chants in  silks  and  linens.  In  1631  William 
and  Peter  received  the  honor  of  knighthood, 
when  their  returns  amounted  to  £150,000  a 
year.  They  made  large  loans  both  to  James  I. 
and  Charles  L,  and  had  a  claim  upon  the  crown 
of  over  £200,000.  The  first  severe  loss  which 
Sir  William  Courten  sutFered  was  occasioned 
by  Lord  Carlisle,  who  seized  as  a  grant  from  the 
crown  the  island  of  Barbados,  on  which  the  for- 
mer had  built  a  factory,  as  a  place  discorered  and 
protected  by  himself.  His  agents  at  Amboyna, 
in  the  Spice  islands,  were  subsequently  murder- 
ed by  the  Dutch,  and  all  his  property  there  de- 
stroj'ed.  Engaging  in  the  Chinese  trade,  the 
loss  of  two  richly  laden  ships  completed  his 
disasters,  reducing  him  to  poverty  a  short  time 
before  his  death. — William,  last  male  descend- 
ant of  the  Courten  family  of  merchants,  born 
in  London  in  1642,  died  at  Kensington  Gravel- 
pits  in  1702.  Educated  by  his  wealthy  rela- 
tives, he  began  early  to  travel  and  to  display  a 
love  of  natural  history.  He  resided  and  stu- 
died at  Montpellier,  and  when  of  age  returned 
to  England  to  claim  the  shattered  fortune  of 
his  family.  After  a  long  lawsuit  he  changed 
his  name  for  that  of  William  Charleton,  and 
retired  to  Montpellier,  where  he  lived  for  25 
years,  enjoying  the  society  of  Tournefort  and 
Sir  Hans  Sloane.  He  returned  again  to  Eng- 
land, and  took  chambers  in  the  Temple,  where 
he  lived  during  the  last  14  years  of  his  life. 
Locke  was  one  of  his  intimate  friends.  He 
made  a  large  collection  of  coins,  precious  stones, 
and  various  curiosities  in  medallic  and  antiqua- 
rian history ;  and  his  industry  is  proved  by  his 
catalogue,  which  embraces  46  volumes.  His  an- 
tiquarian collection,  which  he  left  to  Sir  Hans 
Sloane,  now  belongs  to  the  British  museum. 

COURTOIS,  Jacques,  or  Coetesi,  Jaoopo. 

See  BoRQOGNONE. 

COURTRAI,  or  Courtrat  (Flemish,  Kort- 
ryk)^  a  town,  capital  of  tlie  arrondissement  of  the 
game  name,  in  the  province  of  West  Flanders, 
Belgium,  75  m.  from  Brussels;  pop.  in  1857 of 
the  arrondissement  136,505,  and  of  the  town 
22,216.  It  is  situated  on  the  river  Lys,  an  af- 
fluent of  the  Scheldt.  It  is  handsomely  built ; 
contains  several  fine  edifices,  including  a  town 
hall,  2  fine  churches,  an  exchange,  a  college,  and 
2  orphan  asylums.  In  one  of  the  churches  (Notre 
Dame)  is  Vandyke's  great  painting,  the  "  Eleva- 
tion of  the  Cross."  The  inhabitants  are  actively 
engaged  in  the  linen  manufacture.  The  fine  lin- 
ens known  under  the  name  of  Courtrai  cloth 
are  made  in  the  neighboring  districts.  The  flax 
culture  in  the  neighborhood  of  Courtrai  has  a 


world-wide  reputation.  There  are  also  large 
bleaching  grounds  and  manufactories  of  thread 
lace  and  silk  lace.  The  town  was  the  Cortoria- 
cum  (afterward  written  Curtricum)  of  the  Ro- 
mans. It  was  near  Courtrai  that  the  famous 
battle  of  spurs  was  fought  (1302),  .so  called  from 
the  number  of  spurs  collected  from  the  French 
knights  who  fell  in  it.  The  name  of  Courtrai  fre- 
quently occurs  in  the  history  of  the  Netherlands; 
it  was  often  taken  by  the  French,  who  finally 
destroyed  its  fortifications  in  1744. 

COUSIN,  Jean,  a  French  painter,  sculptor,  and 
engraver,  born  about  1501  at  Soucy,  near  Sens, 
died  about  1589.  His  paintings  on  glass,  many  of 
which  were  executed  in  churches,  royal  palaces, 
and  princely  residences,  are  still  highly  valued, 
some  having  been  preserved",  as  the  "  Legend 
of  St.  Eutopius  "  and  the  "  Sibyl-  consulted  by 
Augustus,"  in  the  cathedral  church  of  Sens.  A 
large  specimen  of  his  oil  paintings  on  canvas, 
the  ''Last  Judgment,"  is  in  the  Louvre.  He  is  the 
author  of  two  treatises,  Le  livre  de  perspective^ 
and  La  vraie  science  de  la  p>ortraiture.  He  is 
reckoned  by  many  as  the  foimder  of  the  French 
school  of  painting. 

COUSIN,  Victor,  a  French  philosopher,  bora 
in  Paris,  Nov.  28, 1792.  His  father  was  a  clock- 
maker,  a  faithful  disciple  of  Jean  Jacques  Rous- 
seau, and  a  revolutionist.  The  first  public  school 
that  he  attended  was  the  Charlemagne  lyceum, 
in  which  he  was  noted  for  his  severe  studies  and 
gained  the  highest  prizes.  Especially  interest- 
ed in  rhetoric,  the  imitative  arts,  and  music,  he 
determined  to  make  literature  his  vocation,  and 
as  a  distinguished  student  his  name  was  in  1810 
placed  first  on  the  list  of  pupils  admitted  into 
the  newly  organized  normal  school.  He  became 
assistant  Greek  professor  in  this  school  in  1812, 
master  of  the  conferences  in  1814,  held  at  the 
same  time  a  chair  in  the  Napoleon  lyceum  (Bour- 
bon college),  and  during  the  Hundred  Days  was 
enrolled  in  the  elite  corps  of  royal  volunteers. 
Meantime  his  attention  had  been  diverted  from 
belles-lettres  to  philosophy.  The  attractive  lec- 
tures of  Laromiguiere,  one  of  the  society  of  Au- 
teuil,  and  the  most  graceful  of  the  followers 
of  Condillac,  first  interested  him  in  sensation- 
alism or  ideology,  the  reigning  philosophy  of 
the  18th  century.  The  spirit  of  the  age  was, 
however,  set  against  this  system ;  Napoleon  had 
denied  to  it  the  power  of  showing  any  thing 
grand  in  human  nature  or  destiny ;  and  the  re- 
action against  it  was  animated  by  the  religious 
enthusiasm  of  the  Catholics  De  Maistre  and 
De  Bonald,by  the  loyal  and  poetical  sentimental- 
ism  of  Chateaubriand,  and  was  spread  through 
literature  and  art  by  Mme.  De  Stael  and  Quatre- 
mere  de  Quincy.  In  philosophy  Laromiguiere 
indicated  a  point  of  departure  from  it  by  ad- 
mitting the  active  and  voluntary  force  of  senti- 
ment in  alliance  Avith  the  passive  and  receptive 
faculties  of  the  understanding;  but  the  first  who 
openly  revolted  from  the  authority  of  Condillac 
wasRoyer-Collard,  who  developed  in  France  the 
spiritual  theories  of  the  Scotch  school,  and  of 
whom  Cousin  was  the  favorite  pupil.    When  at 


COUSIN 


17 


the  close  of  1815  the  former  was  raised  to  civil 
office  under  tlie  restoration,  Cousin  became  his 
successor  as  deputy  j)rofossor  of  philosopliy  intlie 
Sorbonne,  and  for  5  years  he  lectured  botli  at 
the  university  and  the  normal  school.  From 
the  speculations  of  Maine  de  Biran  concerning 
the  will,  he  derived  the  germs  of  his  ideas  of 
personality,  causality,  and  liberty;  and  his  ear- 
liest courses  followed  the  system  of  Reid,  and 
were  devoted  in  general  to  an  exposition  of  ideal 
truth.  The  vacations  of  1817  and  1818  he  sj)ont 
in  Germany,  acquainting  himself  Avith  tlie  lit- 
erature and  tliiulcers  of  tliat  country  ;  and  the 
metaphysics  of  Kant  tinged  the  lectures  deliv- 
ered after  his  return.  In  1820,  in  consequence 
of  the  royalist  reaction  in  the  state,  his  views 
of  free  agency  Avere  thought  to  have  a  political 
intent,  and  his  course  was  indefinitely  suspended. 
Two  years  later  the  normal  school  was  closed  by 
a  royal  ordinance.  The  leisure  thus  afforded  he 
occupied  in  prosecuting  his  editions  of  Proclus 
(6  vols.  Paris,  1820-'27),  of  Descartes  (11  vols. 
Paris,  182C),  and  his  translation  of  Plato,  with 
summaries,  on  which  he  employed,  like  Raphael, 
the  labor  of  his  pupils  subject  to  his  own  revis- 
ion (13  vols.  Paris,  1825-'40).  He  also  took 
charge  of  tiie  education  of  a  son  of  Marshal 
Lannes,  and  in  1824  visited  Germany  with  his 
pupil.  He  was  arrested  at  Dresden,  on  suspicion 
of  being  an  accomplice  of  the  cai-bonari,  Avas  ta- 
ken to  Berlin,  Avhere  he  suflfered  a  captivity  of 
6  months,  and  Avas  visited  in  prison  by  ITegel, 
whose  philosophy  was  then  predominant  in 
Germany.  He  also  became  intimately  acquaint- 
ed Avith  Schleierraacher  and  Schelling.  Return- 
ing to  Paris,  he  published  in  1826  the  first  series 
of  his  Fragments  2yhilosophiqucs  (followed  by  a 
series  oi  Nouveaux  fragments  in  1828),  favored 
the  increasing  liberal  party,  and  in  1827,  when  the 
Villele  ministry  was  supplanted  by  that  of  Mar- 
tignac,  he  was  restored  to  the  chair  of  philos- 
ophy in  the  Sorbonno,  with  Guizot  and  Ville- 
main  for  colleagues.  The  successful  triumvi- 
rate at  once  attracted  audiences  to  the  univer- 
sity unexampled  in  numbers  and  enthusiasm 
since  the  time  of  Abelard.  Stenographic  reports 
of  their  lectures  were  also  distributed  through- 
out France.  Cousin  had  already  unfurled  the 
banner  of  eclecticism  in  the  preface  to  his  Frag- 
ments philosopliiqiies^  and  he  noAV  fully  devel- 
oped the  theory  that  4  pure  systems  of  philos- 
ophy have  alternately  prevailed,  each  of  Avhicli 
is  the  perversion  of  a  truth,  and  that  the  human 
mind  can  cease  to  revolve  in  the  circles  of  past 
error  only  by  uniting  the  elements  of  truth  con- 
tained in  each  system,  so  as  to  form  a  composite 
philosopliy  superior  to  all  systems.  He  found 
in  the  East,  in  Greece,  in  mediosval  scholasti- 
cism, and  in  all  modern  speculations,  only  differ- 
ent phases  of  sensualism,  idealism,  scepticism, 
and  mysticism.  With  equal  delight  and  skill 
in  metaphysical  exercises,  his  forte  lay  in  de- 
veloping a  system  from  its  central  principle  till 
it  took  in  the  imiA'erse  in  its  consequences.  His 
eloquence  Avas  at  once  impetuous  and  grave,  his 
style  and  splendid  language  recalled  the  stateli- 
TOL.   TI, — 2 


ncss  of  the  old  French  classics,  and  his  enthusi- 
astic discourse  ran  Avithin  an  hour  over  nature, 
humanity.  Deity,  philosophy,  history,  religion, 
destiny,  industry,  society,  and  great  men.  The 
students,  accustomed  to  the  calm  dissertations 
of  the  sensationalists,  followed  with  admiration 
his  adventurous  flight  through  all  truths  and  all 
errors.  The  speculations  and  strange  technology 
of  the  German  i)liilosophical  development  from 
Kant  to  Ilcgel  he  was  the  first  to  unfold  to  French 
audiences,  giving  popular  expression  to  theories 
of  the  absolute.  His  lectures  derived  additional 
interest  from  the  political  temper  of  the  time, 
a  liberal  audience  gladly  discovering  political  al- 
lusions in  the  Avords  of  a  liberal  professor.  It 
Avas  at  this  jjcriod  that  Cousin  enjoyed  his  highest 
reputation  as  an  expositor  of  philosophical  ideas. 
At  the  revolution  of  1880  he  took  no  part  in  the 
3  days' struggle,  but  immediately  after  dedicated 
a  volume  of  Plato  to  the  memory  of  one  of  his 
pupils  Avho  had  fallen  in  the  fight.  Under  the  new 
regime  he  might  have  entered  Avith  Guizot,  Ville- 
mnin,  and  Thiers  into  the  chamber  of  deputies, 
but  chose  to  adhere  to  his  philosophical  studies, 
declaring  politics  to  be  only  an  episode  in  his  ca- 
reer. Ho  soon  became  counsellor  of  state,  mem- 
ber of  the  royal  council  of  public  instruction, 
officer  of  the  legion  of  honor,  titular  professor  in 
the  Sorbonne,  member  of  the  French  academy  to 
succeed  Baron  Fourier  (1830),  and  of  the  acad- 
emy of  moral  and  political  sciences  at  its  founda- 
tion (1832),  director  of  the  reestablished  normal 
school,  and  peer  of  France.  As  the  recognized 
head,  too,  of  what  Avas  termed  the  official  phi- 
losophy, he  Avas  exposed  to  constant  and  contra- 
dictory attacks  from  the  clergy  and  the  opposi- 
tion. He  reorganized  the  system  of  primary 
instruction  in  France,  arranged  the  admirable 
I)lan  of  studios  Avhich  is  still  retained  in  the 
normal  school,  and  visited  Prussia  (1833)  and 
Holland  (1837)  to  observe  the  institutions  of 
public  instruction  in  those  countries,  concern- 
ing which  he  publishecffull  and  valuable  reports, 
Avhich  Avere  translated  into  English  by  Mrs. 
Austin.  He  urged  that  national  instruction 
should  be  associated  Avith  religion  and  founded 
on  the  Christian  principle,  and  maintained  that 
education  Avhich  is  not  specially  religious  is 
likely  to  be  hurtful  rather  than  beneficial,  since 
it  opens  ncAV  avenues  to  immoral  tendencies 
Avithout  providing  efficient  checks.  This  vieAV 
he  illustrated  Avith  great  learning  on  the  sub- 
ject in  speeches  delivered  in  the  chamber  of 
peers.  In  1840  he  entered  as  minister  of  public 
instruction  into  the  cabinet  of  Thiers,  Avhich 
lasted  but  8  months,  in  which  time  he  made  the 
programme  of  philosophical  studies  in  the  ly- 
ceums,  and  suggested  other  improvements,  of 
Avhich  he  gave  an  apologetic  account  in  the  ^eri;e 
dcs  deux  mondes  for  Feb.  1841.  In  1844  he  gain- 
ed his  greatest  parliamentary  distinction  by  his 
speech  in  the  chamber  of  peers  in  defence  of 
the  university  and  of  philosophy,  which  was 
published  in  a  A^olume.  Though  surprised  by 
the  reA-olution  of  1848,  he  gave  it  his  aid,  and 
began  the  series  of  publications  undertaken  by 


18 


COUSIN 


tlie  institute  at  the  request  of  Gen.  Cavaignac 
to  confirm  the  morale  of  the  people,  lie  issued 
1  beautiful  popular  edition  of  llousseau's  Pro- 
fession defoi  (hi  vicaire  Savoyard,  and  in  short 
treatises  entitled  Philosophie  2iopulairc  and  Jus- 
tice et  charite  combated  the  doctrines  of  social- 
ism. Since  1849  he  has  disappeared  from  pub- 
lic life. — After  1830,  when  he  ceased  for  the  most 
part  to  deliver  academic  lectures,  he  became  one 
of  the  writers  for  the  Journal  des  savants^  and 
for  the  Eevue  des  deux  mo?ides,  in  which  many 
of  the  articles  composing  his  volumes  of  Frag- 
ments de  2}fiilosophie  ancienne,  Fragments  de 
philosophic  scholastique,  Fragments  de  jjhiloso- 
phie  moderne,  Fragments  litteraires,  and  other 
collections,  first  appeared.  His  other  chief  phi- 
losophical publications  are,  an  introduction  to 
tlie  historj'  of  philosophy  (1828),  a  history  of 
philosophy  in  the  18th  century  (1829),  a  trans- 
lation of  Tennemann's  history  of  philosophy 
(1829),  a  treatise  on  the  metaphysics  of  Aris- 
totle (1838),  lectures  on  the  philosophy  of  Kant 
(1841),  lectures  on  moral  philosopliy  delivered 
between*1816  and  1820  (1840-'41),  a  work  en- 
titled Pii  vrai,  du  beau,  et  du  Men  (1853),  and 
editions  of  the  Sic  et  JVon  of  Abelard  (1836),  of 
the  works  of  Maine  de  Biran  (1834-'41),  of  the 
Pensees  of  Pascal  (1842),  of  the  works  of  Andre 
(1843),  and  of  the  works  of  Abelard  (1849).  All 
of  his  editions  are  remarkable  for  the  thorough- 
ness with  which  the  text  has  been  revised  from 
original  MSS.,  and  many  of  them  contain  docu- 
ments from  old  libraries  which  had  not  before 
been  discovered.  One  of  tlie  most  acceptable 
fruits  of  his  research  is  the  recovery  of  the  origi- 
nal MS.  of  the  "  Thoughts  "  of  Pascal,  where, 
through  the  erasures,  cftrrections,  interpolations, 
and  reconstructions,  the  reader  is  introduced  into 
the  laboratory  of  Pascal's  eloquence.  The  biog- 
raphy of  Jacquehne  Pascal  (1844)  is  founded 
chiefly  on  inedited  or  unknown  documents. — As 
a  philosopher,  the  plan  qf  Cousin  has  been  to 
publish  systems,  and  from  systems  to  deduce 
pliilosophy.  The  most  characteristic  feature  at 
once  of  his  method  and  his  results  is  his  theory 
of  the  reason.  The  reason,  in  his  view,  has 
spontaneous  consciousness  of  absolute  truths, 
and  furnishes  to  the  mind  ideas  of  infinite  objects 
Avhich  could  not  be  formed  by  any  power  of  ab- 
straction from  observation  of  particular,  finite, 
and  contingent  things.  To  know  these  ideas  is 
the  aim  of  pliilosophy,  and  the  reason  would  be 
perfectly  cognizant  of  them  if  it  were  not  mis- 
led by  the  senses,  passions,  and  imagination. 
There  is  something  true  in  eveiy  system  of  phi- 
losophy, since  error  can  never  reach  to  utter  ex- 
travagance. This  element  of  truth  exists  in  the 
reason,  and  may  be  found  by  impartial  exami- 
nation of  the  consciousness,  and  of  the  history 
of  humanity.  From  the  drama  of  changing 
systems,  which  is  the  history  of  philosophy,  let 
the  truth  which  constitutes  the  positive  side 
of  every  system  be  taken,  exclusive  of  whatever 
constitutes  its  negative  and  false  side.  The  ideas 
thus  obtained  will  furnish  a  spectacle  of  the  uni- 
versal consciousness,  and  will  be  the  sum  of  eclec- 


tic philosophy.  If  the  question  be  raised  con- 
cerning the  authority  of  the  reason,  and  the  cer- 
tainty that  its  ideas  are  universal  truths,  Cousin, 
in  order  to  answer,  passes  from  psychology  to 
ontology.  Human  reason,  he  says,  is  not  a  part 
of  the  human  personality,  but  is  in  its  nature 
impersonal,  absolute,  and  infallible,  the  logos  of 
Pythagoras  and  Plato,  a  mediator  between  God 
and  man.  Its  qualities  are  those  precisely 
opposed  to  individuality,  namely,  universality 
and  necessity,  and  its  spontaneous  ideas  rightly 
understood  are  revelations  of  a  world  unknown 
to  man.  This  theory  finds  its  completion  in 
theodicy.  As  every  phenomenon  implies  a  sub- 
stance, as  our  faculties,  volitions,  and  sensa- 
tions imply  a  person  to  whom  they  belong,  so 
absolute  truths  have  their  last  foundation  in  an 
absolute  being,  and  ideal  truth,  beauty,  and 
goodness  are  not  mere  abstractions,  but  are  the 
attributes  of  the  infinite  Being  whom  we  call 
God.  Eclecticism  is  rightly  regarded  by  Cousin 
in  his  work  on  the  true,  the  beautiful,  and  the 
good,  the  last  expression  of  his  opinions,  less 
as  a  doctrine  than  as  a  banner,  as  less  an  instru- 
ment of  philosophy  than  of  morality,  as  less 
elfective  to  discover  truth  than  to  advance  vir- 
tue. He  has  suppressed  the  words  in  his  Frag- 
ments philosophiques  in  which  he  aflirmed  the 
system  of  Sclaelling  to  be  true,  though  Schell- 
ing  had  then  declared  for  "either  Bruno  or 
absolute  unity ;"  and  with  less  reliance  upon 
metaphysics,  he  maintains  the  spirit  and  ten- 
dency of  all  his  speculations  to  promote  that 
philosophy  which  began  with  Socrates  and 
Plato ;  which  the  gospel  spread  through  the 
world ;  which  Descartes  subordinated  to  the 
severe  forms  of  modern  genius,  and  which  always 
contributes  to  subject  the  senses  to  the  mind,  and 
to  elevate  and  ennoble  man. — His  latest  publi- 
cations have  been  histories  and  biographies  illus- 
trating French  society  in  the  17th  century.  In 
the  stately  proprieties  and  careful  speaking  and 
writing  which  distinguished  the  period  of  the 
Fronde  and  of  the  hotel  de  Rambouillet  he  finds 
admirable  examples  of  conversation,  festive  en- 
tertainments, heroic  actions,  noble  sentiments, 
and  great  characters.  His  series  of  studies  on 
Madame  de  Longuevilld  (1853),  Madame  de 
Sable  (1854),  Madame  de  Chevreug'e  and  Ma- 
dame de  Ilautefort  (1856),  and  that  entitled  Za 
societe  Frangaise  ati  XVII'  siecle,  d''apres  le 
Grand  Ci/rus  de  Mile,  de  Scudery  (1858),  have 
the  same  elevation  of  thought  and  sentiment,  the 
same  poetical  and  eloquent  style,  whicli  mark 
his  discussions  and  histories  of  philosophy ;  and 
like  many  of  these,  also,  they  abound  in  dates, 
citations,  documents,  and  annotations. — The 
principal  American  editions  of  Cousin's  philo- 
sophical writings  are  the  "  Introduction  to  the 
History  of  Philosophy,''  translated  by  llen- 
ning  Gottfried  Linberg  (Boston,  1832) ;  the 
"  Elements  of  Psychologv,"from  his  lectures,  by 
C.  S.  Henry  (Hartford,  1834  ;  last  edition,  New 
York,  1856) ;  selections  from  his  works,  with 
introductory  and  critical  notices,  in  Piipley's 
"Philosophical  Miscellanies"  (Boston,  1838); 


COUSTOU 


COVENTRY 


19 


liis  "  Course  of  Modern  Philosophy,"  by  O.  "W. 
Wight  (Xew  York,  1855)  ;  and  his  "  Lectures  on 
the  True,  the  Beautiful,  and  the  Good,"  also  by 

0.  W.  Wight  (New  York,  1857). 
COUSTOU,  the  name  of  3  French  sculptors. 

1.  Nicolas,  born  in  1058,  died  in  1733.  His 
masterpiece  is  the  "  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  in 
the  church  of  Notre  Dame,  at  Paris.  II.  Guii.- 
LArME,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1678, 
died  in  1746.  Among  his  best  works  is  a  mar- 
ble statue  of  Cardinal  Dubois.  III.  Guillaume, 
son  of  the  foregoing,  born  in  1716,  died  in  1777. 
His  fame  rests  upon  the  statues  of  Mars  and 
Venus,  which  he  executed  for  Frederic  the 
Great, 

COUTELLE,  Jean  Maeie  Joseph,  a  French 
engineer,  born  at  Mans  in  1748,  died  there, 
March  20,  1835.  Franklin's  invention  of  light- 
ning rods  made  a  great  impression  upon  his 
mind,  and  the  first  instrument  of  the  kind  in 
Mans  was  to  be  seen  in  his  house.  He  devoted 
himself  particularly  to  the  improvement  of  air 
balloons.  For  some  time  he  commanded  the 
aerostatic  corps  which  accompanied  the  army 
of  the  Sambre-et-Meuse,  and  afterward  he  fol- 
lowed Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  but  liis  balloons  were 
destroyed  at  the  battle  of  Aboukir.  He  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  colonel,  but  in  1816 
he  was  removed  from  active  service.  The  cele- 
brated work  on  Egypt,  published  by  the  French 
government,  contains  2  essays  of  his,  one  on 
the  topography  of  Mt.  Sinai,  and  the  other  on 
the  meteorology  of  Cairo. 

COUTHON,  Georges,  a  French  revolutionist, 
a  lawyer  by  profession,  born  near  Clermont  in 
1756,  guillotined  July  28, 1794.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  constituent  assembly,  and  afterward 
of  the  convention,  moved  the  resolution  which 
decreed  the  arrest  of  the  Girondists,  and  offici- 
ated as  commissioner  in  Lyons,  where  he  ordered 
the  most  beautiful  buildings  which  had  belonged 
to  the  royalists  to  be  destroyed.  He  was  noted 
for  his  violence,  and  for  his  fanatical  devotion 
to  Robespierre,  whose  fiite  lie  shared. 

COUTTS,  Angela  Georcuaka  Burdett,  an 
English  philanthropist,  born  April  25,  1814. 
She  is  the  youngest  daughter  of  the  late  Sir 
Francis  Burdett,  and  on  her  mother's  side  a 
granddaughter  of  the  wealthy  banker,  Thomas 
Coutts.  Her  early  prospects  were  not  bril- 
liant, as  her  father's  family  was  a  large  one, 
and  her  grandfather's  fortune,  which  had  been 
left  to  his  widow  (the  actress.  Miss  Mellon, 
whom  he  married  late  in  life),  had  apparently 
been  diverted  into  another  channel  by  the 
marriage  of  the  latter  with  the  duke  of  St. 
Albans.  The  duchess,  however,  having  no. 
children  of  her  own,  determined  that  the  for- 
tune of  her  first  husband  should  revert  to  his 
family,  and  made  Miss  Angela  Burdett  her 
heiress,  on  condition  that  she  should  assume 
the  name  of  Coutts.  In  1837  Miss  Burdett 
Coutts  succeeded  to  tliis  vast  property,  esti- 
mated at  between  3  and  3  millions  sterling,  and 
since  that  time  has  dispensed  large  sums  annu- 
ally— amounting  jjrobably  to  her  entire  income 


— in  various  charities.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  thesti  was  the  building  and  endow- 
ment, in  1847,  of  a  church,  with  a  parsonage 
and  schools  attached,  the  site  of  which  in  Roch- 
ester row,  Westminster,  one  of  the  neglected 
parts  of  London,  was  selected  by  the  late  Dr. 
Blomfield,  bishop  of  London,  who  also  acted  on 
other  occasions  as  her  agent  or  almoner.  The 
outlay  for  this  work  amounted  to  £30,000.  She 
has  also  endowed  a  bishopric  in  Adelaide,  South 
Australia;  and  in  1858  appropriated  £15,000 
for  a  similar  purpose  in  British  Columbia. 

COUTURE,  Thomas,  a  French  painter,  born 
at  Senlis,  Dec.  21,  1815,  was  a  pupil  of  Gros 
and  of  Paul  Delaroche.  His  principal  work, 
the  "  Romans  of  the  Decadence,"  first  exliibited 
at  Paris  in  1847,  is  now  in  the  gallery  of  the 
Luxembourg  palace.  His  pictures  are  remark- 
able for  vitality  and  broad  effects  of  color.  In 
1855  he  exhibited  "The  Falconer,"  and  has 
since  been  employed  upon  3  new  pictures,  called 
"Volunteer  Enrolments,"  the  "Return  of  the 
Crimean  Troops,  "  and  "  Baptism  of  the  Impe- 
rial Prince." 

COVENANTERS.     See  Cameroxiaks. 

COA'^ENTRY,  a  city,  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  Warwickshire,  England, 
on  the  Sherbourne,  10  m.  N.  N.  E.  of  Warwick, 
and  94  m.  by  the  London  and  northwestern 
railway  N.  N.  W.  of  London  ;  pop.  in  1851, 
86,812.  In  conjunction  with  some  adjacent 
villages  it  was  formed  into  a  separate  county 
by  Henry'  VI.,  but  an  act  of  -parliament  in 
1842  united  it  with  Warwickshire.  Its  name, 
a  corruption  of  Conventre^  or  "convent  town," 
came  from  a  Benedictine  priory,  founded  in 
1044  by  Leofric,  lord  of  Mercia,  and  his  lady 
Godiva,  of  which  the  cellar,  225  feet  long 
by  15  feet  wide,  still  exists.  The  ancient  part 
of  the  city  has  narrow,  ill  paved,  and  crooked 
streets,  built  up  with  antiquated  houses;  the 
modern  part  is  laid  out  with  great  neatness, 
filled  with  handsome  and  comfortable  dwellings, 
and  supplied  with  gas  and  water.  There  are  3 
ancient  and  3  modern  cliurches,  and  several 
chapels.  Among  the  educational  establish- 
ments is  a  free  school,  founded  in  the  time 
of  Henry  VIII.  by  John  Hales,  having  an  in- 
come of  £950  per  annum,  2  fellowships  at 
Oxford,  1  at  Cambridge,  and  6  exhibitions  at 
either  university.  There  are  6  endowed  and 
various  private  schools,  a  government  school  of 
design,  mechanics'  institute,  2  libraries,  a  con- 
vent of  the  sisters  of  charity,  hospital,  dispen- 
sary, savings  bank,  theatre,  county  hall,  drapers' 
hall,  barracks,  and  a  great  number  of  charitable 
foundations.  St.  Mary's  hall,  a  venerable  build- 
ing of  the  15th  century,  with  a  principal  room 
63  feet  long,  30  feet  wide,  and  34  feet  high,  has 
a  curiously  carved  roof,  and  a  large  painted 
window.  It  was  built  for  the  Trinity  guild, 
but  is  now  used  for  public  celebrations,  meet- 
ings, etc.  The  manufactures  of  Coventry  were 
celebrated  at  a  very  early  date.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  the  15th  century  an  active  trade 
was  carried  on  here  in  woollen  cloths,  caps,  and 


20 


COVERDALE 


COVINGTON 


bonnets,  and  there  were  flourishing  manufac- 
tures of  caps,  woollens,  and  broadcloth.  After- 
ward blue  thread,  called  "  Coventry  true  blue," 
and  still  later  tammies,  candets,  shalloons,  and 
callimancoes,  were  staple  manufactures ;  but  the 
articles  now  most  largely  made  are  silks,  rib- 
bons, friuges,  and  especially  watches,  the  last 
more  extensively  than  even  at  London.  The 
ribbon  manufiicture  employs  about  6,000  per- 
sons in  the  city,  and  14,000  more  in  the  neigh- 
boring villages.  Coventry  was  anciently  de- 
feuded  by  walls  and  towers,  but  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  former  and  3  of  the  latter  re- 
main ;  the  rest  were  destroyed  by  Charles  II. 
on  account  of  the  favor  shown  by  the  citizens 
to  the  parliamentarians.  Two  parliaments  were 
held  here,  one  by  Henry  IV.  in  1404,  tlie  other 
by  Henry  VI.  in  1459.  The  people  were  noted 
for  their  love  of  all  kinds  of  shows,  pageants, 
and  processions,  descriptions  of  which  have 
furnished  matter  for  several  curious  and  inter- 
esting works.  The  religious  dramas  called  mys- 
teries were  performed  here  with  peculiar  mag- 
nificence as  early  as  1416,  and  not  unfrequently 
in  the  presence  of  royalty.  A  procession  still  an- 
nually takes  place  here,  commemorative  of  the 
legend  of  the  countess  Godiva,  who  is  said  to 
have  obtained  from  her  husband  Leofric  the  re- 
peal of  certain  heavy  imposts  under  which  the 
citizens  complained,  on  condition  that  she  should 
ride  naked  through  the  streets  of  Coventry  at 
noonday.  Slie  ordered  the  people  to  keep  with- 
in doors  and  close  their  shutters,  and,  veiled 
only  by  her  long  flowing  hair,  she  mounted 
her  palfrey  and  rode  through  the  town,  un- 
seen except  by  an  inquisitive  tailor,  immortal- 
ized under  the  sobriquet  of  "peeping  Tom," 
whose  curiosity  was  punished  by  instant  blind- 
ness. This  story,  on  which  Alfred  Tennyson 
has  founded  a  beautiful  poem,  was  first  recorded 
by  Matthew  of  Westminster,  Avho  wrote  in 
1307,  250  years  after  its  supposed  occurrence. 
The  procession,  as  now  held  during  the  great 
fair,  which  takes  place  in  Trinity  week,  dates 
from  1677,  and  before  the  passage  of  the  muni- 
cipal reform  act  was  solemnly  attended  by  the 
city  authorities.  The  principal  characters  are  St. 
George  of  England  on  his  charger,  and  the  lady 
Godiva,  who  is  represented  by  a  female  with 
flowing  hair,  clad  in  a  close-fitting  flesh-colored 
garment,  and  riding  a  gray  horse.  Strong  ef- 
forts have  been  made  to  suppress  this  exhibition, 
but  without  success. — Coventry  is  connected 
with  the  grand  trunk  navigation  by  the  Cov- 
entry and  Oxford  canal,  and  with  the  chief 
emporiums  of  the  kingdom  by  the  great  north- 
western and  2  branch  railways.  It  sends  2 
members  to  parliament.  The  meaning  of  the 
phras'fc  "  sending  to  Coventry "  is  variously 
given.  Some  suppose  it  to  have  originated 
witli  military  men,  who  were  formerly  regarded 
with  disfavor  by  the  inhabitants. 

COVERDALE,  Miles,  bishop  of  Exeter  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  born  in  Yorkshire  in 
1487,  was  educated  in  the  house  of  Augustine 
friars  at  Cambridge.    Attached  iu  his  early  years' 


to  the  religion  in  which  he  had  been  educated, 
he  was  ordained  a  priest  of  the  order  of  St.  Au- 
gustine in  1514,  at  Norwich.  Afterward  chang- 
ing his  opinions,  he  dedicated  himself  solely  to 
the  service  of  the  reformation,  and  was  among 
the  first  at  Cambridge  to  renounce  allegiance  to 
the  church  of  Rome.  Finding  residence  in 
England  unsafe,  he  went  abroad,  and  assisted 
Tyndale  in  his  translation  of  the  Bible.  In  1535 
he  published  a  translation  of  his  own,  Avith  a 
dedication  to  King  Henry  VIII. ;  of  this  edition 
no  perfect  copy  is  now  known  to  exist.  The  ver- 
sion of  the  Psalms  in  this  translation  is  that  now 
used  in  the  "  Common  Prayer  "  of  the  Episcopal 
church.  In  1538,  by  special  license,  Coverdale 
published  a  quarto  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
in  English.  The  skill  of  the  French  printers, 
and  the  comparative  cheapness  of  labor  and 
materials  at  Paris,  made  King  Henry  desirous 
of  printing  an  edition  of  the  Bible  in  that  city. 
Permission  was  granted  by  Francis  I.,  then  king 
of  France,  in  the  last  named  year,  and  Coverdale 
went  thither  to  superintend  it ;  but  before  the 
completion  of  the  undertaking  it  was  denounced 
by  the  inquisition,  and  the  impression  of  2,500 
copies  condemned  to  the  flames.  Owing  to  the 
cupidity  of  the  ofiicer  to  whom  tlie  execution 
of  the  sentence  had  been  confided,  a  few 
copies  were  sold  as  waste  paper,  and  so  pre- 
served. These,  with  presses,  types,  and  printers, 
were  shortly  after  transported  to  England,  and 
used  under  the  superintendence  of  Coverdale  in 
printing  the  "  Great  Bible"  of  Cranmer.  Cover- 
dale  held  the  office  of  almoner  to  Queen  Catha- 
rine Parr,  and  officiated  at  her  funeral  in  1548. 
In  1551,  when  appointed  to  the  bishopric  of 
Exeter,  tlie  customary  payment  of  first  fruits 
was  remitted  to  him,  at  the  solicitation  of 
Cranmer,  on  account  of  his  poverty.  On  the 
accession  of  Queen  Mary,  and  the  consequent 
restoration  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion, 
Coverdale  was  deposed  from  his  bishopric,  and 
escaped  a  long  imprisonment  only  on  condition 
of  leaving  the  country.  He  found  an  asylum, 
first  in  Denmark,  and  afterward  in  Geneva, 
where  he  assisted  in  the  English  translation 
known  as  the  "  Genevan  Bible."  He  returned 
to  England  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  but 
was  not  restored  to  the  see  of  Exeter.  His  last 
days  were  spent  in  translating  the  writings  of 
the  continental  reformers,  and  publishing  origi- 
nal tracts  in  support  of  the  principles  of  the  refor- 
mation. The  date  of  his  death  is  uncertain,  but 
he  Avas  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
London,  Feb.  19,  1568.  On  Oct.  4,  1835,  was 
celebrated  the  3d  centenary  of  the  publication 
of  his  Bible. 

COVINGTON.  L  A  S.  co.  of  Ala.,  border- 
ing on  Fla.,  drained  by  Conecuh  and  Yellow- 
Avater  rivers;  area,  1,240  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850, 
3,645,  of  whom  480  were  slaves.  The  sur- 
face is  uneven,  and  mostly  occupied  by  pine 
forests,  the  lumber  obtained  from  Avhich  forms 
tlie  chief  article  of  exjjort.  The  soil  is  sandy 
and  i)Oor.  In  1850  it  produced  80,205  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  and  416  bales  of  cotton.     There 


COVINGTON 


CX)WL 


21 


were  9  churches,  and  144  pupils  in  the  public 
schools.  Capital,  Montezuma.  II.  A  S.  co.  of 
Hiss.,  drained  by  affluents  of  Leaf  river ;  area, 
680  sq.  in.;  pop.  in  1850,  8,338,  of  whom  1,114 
were  slaves.  Pine  timber  occupies  portions  of 
the  surface,  but  it  is  not  a])undant.  The  soil  is 
light  and  sandy,  and  in  1850  produced  108,920 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  9,417  of  oats,  51,849  of 
sweet  potatoes,  and  1,164  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  2  churches,  and  126  pupils  attending  schools 
and  academies.  The  county  was  named  in  honor 
of  Gen.  Covington.    Capital,  Williamsburg. 

COVINGTON,  a  thriving  city  of  Kenton  co., 
Ky. ;  pop.  in  1853,  about  13,000.  It  stands  on  a 
beautiful  plain  on  the  Ohio  river,  opposite  Cin- 
cinnati, and  at  the  mouth  of  Licking  river,  on 
the  other  side  of  which  is  the  town  of  Newport. 
It  is  regularly  built,  and  in  its  general  arrange- 
ment greatly  resembles  Cincinnati,  of  which 
it  may  be  considered  a  suburb.  Many  persons 
doing  business  in  Cincinnati  have  their  residence 
here.  Covington  contains  a  number  of  cot- 
ton, woollen,  silk,  and  tobacco  factories,  an  ex- 
tensive pork  and  beef  packing  establishment,  a 
large  city  hall,  3  banks,  2  female  academies,  10 
churches,  and  the  western  theological  college,  a 
wealthy  institution  under  the  charge  of  the 
Baptists. 

COW.     See  Cattle. 

COWELL,  John,  an  English  civilian,  born  at 
Ernsborough,  in  Devonshire,  in  1554,  died  at 
Cambridge,  Oct.  11,  1611.  He  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  Cambridge,  where  he  subse- 
quently became  fello^\',  professor  of  civil  law, 
and  master  of  Trinity  hall.  In  1607  he  pub- 
lished a  general  law  dictionary,  styled  the 
"Interpreter,"  which,  though  displaying  exten- 
sive erudition,  involved  him  in  much  trouble, 
the  house  of  commons  having  commenced  a 
prosecution  against  him  for  maintaining  in  that 
work  that  a  British  monarch  might  make  laws 
without  the  consent  of  parliament.  The  king, 
James  I.,  however,  interposed,  and  proceedings 
were  stopped.  Beside  the  above  named  work, 
Cowell  also  wrote  "  Institutes  of  the  Laws  of 
England." 

CO  WES,  West,  a  seaport  town  and  watering 
place  of  the  isle  of  Wight,  Hampshire,  England, 
situated  on  the  W.  side  of  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Medina,  which  enters  the  Solent  channel 
nearly  opposite  the  estuary  called  Southampton 
water ;  pop.  in  1851,  4,786.  It  is  finely  situated 
on  rising  ground,  and  presents  a  handsome  ap- 
pearance from  the  harbor,with  its  houses  rising 
one  above  another,  its  castle  and  crescent-shaped 
batter}',  and  its  modern  villas  crowning  the 
eminence.  It  has  a  number  of  good  hotels  and 
lodging  houses  for  summer  visitors,  an  assembly 
room,  a  town  hall,  a  mechanics'  institute,  5 
places  of  worship,  the  club  house  of  the  royal 
yacht  squadron,  which  holds  its  annual  regatta 
here,  and  a  marine  parade,  which  lies  S.  of  the 
castle,  and  forms  a  fashionable  promenade.  The 
streets,  however,  are  steep,  narrow,  and  in  many 
quarters  disfigured  by  old  and  wretched  dwell- 
ings.    Its  beautiful  scenery,  good  situation,  and 


facilities  for  sea-bathing  at  a  fine  beach  very  near 
the  town,  render  it  one  of  the  most  popular  bath- 
ing places  in  England.  The  harbor  is  excellent, 
and  there  is  constant  steam  communication  with 
Portsmouth,  Yarmouth,  Southampton,  &c.  A 
brisk  trade  is  carried  on  in  provisions  and  other 
marine  stores;  wheat,  flour,  malt,  barley,  wool, 
and  salt  are  largely  exi)orted  to  France,  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  the  Mediterranean ;  vessels  of 
war,  yachts,  and  other  craft  of  superior  sailing 
qualities,  are  built  in  considerable  numbers. 
The  registered  shipping  of  the  port,  Dec.  31, 
1856,  showed  an  aggregate  of  168  vessels,  ton- 
nage 7,683.  Number  of  vessels  entered  dur- 
ing the  year,  1,454,  tonnage  62,048 ;  number 
of  vessels  cleared,  519,  tonnage  13,055. — East 
CowES,  a  small  place,  on  the  opposite  bank 
of  the  Medina,  communicates  by  ferry  with  the 
above  town,  of  which  it  may  be  considered  a 
suburb.  It  contains  the  custom  house  of  the 
port,  a  church,  a  botanic  garden,  and  a  number 
of  handsome  dwellings.  Osborne  house,  the 
marine  villa  of  Queen  Victoria,  is  in  the  vi- 
cinity^ 

COWETA,  a  N.  W.  co.  of  Ga. ;  area,  378  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1852,  12.498,  of  whom  4,823  were 
slaves.  A^ilue  of  real  estate  in  1856,  $2,131,799. 
It  is  bounded  N.  W.  by  the  Chattahoochee,  and 
E.  by  Line  creek.  It  has  an  uneven  surface  and 
a  fertile  soil,  most  of  wliich  consists  of  a  sandy 
loam.  Oak,  hickory,  and  pine  are  the  principal 
kinds  of  timber.  In  1850  the  productions  were 
10,369  bales  of  cotton,  516,910  bushels  of  corn, 
93,104  of  oats,  and  94,357  of  sweet  potatoes. 
There  were  27  churches,  and  800  pupils  attend- 
ing academies  and  schools.  A  gold  mine  was 
worked  here  during  the  same  year.  The  coun- 
ty was  formed  in  1826,  and  named  in  honor  of 
Gen.  William  Mcintosh,  a  half-blood  Creek  In- 
dian and  head  chief  of  the  Coweta  villages. 
Capital,  Newnan. 

COWHAGE,  bristly  hairs  from  the  pod  of 
the  rmicuna  pritriem,  a  perennial  climbing  plant, 
which  grows  in  the  West  Indies  and  other 
parts  of  tropical  America.  The  pod  is  imported 
for  the  sake  of  the  hairs,  which  are  used  in 
medicine.  They  are  sharp,  penetrating  spiculse, 
which  produce  an  intense  itching  sensation  when 
handled.  In  the  West  Indies  they  were  long 
since  found  to  possess  valuable  qualities  as  a 
vermifuge,  probably  by  penetrating  and  thus 
destroying  the  worms.  They  are  consequently 
adopted  in  medical  practice,  and  introduced  into 
the  pharmacopeias.  The  medicine  is  prepared 
by  dipping  the  pods  in  molasses  and  scraping 
the  hairs  into  this,  until  a  mixture  is  obtained 
as  thick  as  honey.  Cowhage  has  also  been  ap- 
plied as  an  external  irritant  by  making  it  into 
an  ointment  with  lard. 

COWL  (Sax.  cvgle ;  Lat.  cucullus),  a  sort  of 
hood,  originally  worn  by  all  classes,  and  still 
retained  by  certain  orders  of  monks.  It  con- 
sists of  a  conical  covering  for  the  head,  at- 
tached to  the  robe  or  cloak,  and  sometimes 
made  to  draw  over  the  shoulders  also.  Ac- 
cording to  Mabillon,  it  was  at  first  the  same 


22 


COWLEY 


COWPENS 


as  the  scapular.  The  Benedictines  and  Bernar- 
dines  have  2  sorts,  one  black  for  ordinary  occa- 
sions, and  another  white  and  very  large  for  days 
of  ceremony.  The  proper  shape  of  the  cowl 
has  been  the  subject  of  long  and  bitter  dissen- 
sions in  the  Franciscan  order,  which  4  popes 
exhausted  every  means  to  heal,  and  which  were 
only  remedied  by  time. 

COWLEY,  Abraham,  an  English  poet,  born 
in  London  in  1018,  died  at  Chertsey,  in  Surrey, 
July  28,  1G67.  Ilis  father  died  before  his  birth, 
and  he  was  brought  up  under  the  care  of  his 
mother,  by  whose  solicitation  he  was  admitted 
into  Westminster  school.  Spenser's  "  Fairy 
Queen"  first  led  him  to  turn  his  attention  to 
poetry.  A  volume  of  his  poems  was  published 
when  he  was  15  years  old,  including  some  of 
his  compositions  written  at  10  years  of  age. 
While  he  was  yet  at  school,  he  produced  a  com- 
Bdy  entitled  "Love's  Eiddle,"  written  in  the 
pastoral  strain.  In  1636  he  removed  to  Cam- 
bridge, and  two  years  afterward  published  his 
"  Love's  Eiddle,"  with  Naufragium  Joculare^  a 
oomedy  in  Latin  prose,  now  totally  forgotten. 
In  1643  he  was  ejected  from  Cambridge,  on  ac- 
count of  his  ])olitical  opinions  and  independence, 
and  went  to  Oxford.  He  was  strongly  attached 
to  the  fortunes  of  Charles  I.,  and  in  the  struggle 
which  followed  was  a  devoted  partisan  of  the 
royal  cause.  When  Oxford  was  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  the  parliament,  Cowley  followed  the 
queen  to  Paris,  and  there  became  secretary  to 
Lord  Jermyn,  afterwai'd  the  earl  of  St.  Al- 
bans ;  he  was  frequently  occupied  in  writing 
and  deciphering  the  secret  letters  that  passed 
between  the  king  and  queen,  an  office  of  delicate 
nature  and  of  great  responsibility.  He  was  ab- 
sent from  England  all  together  upward  of  10 
years,  and  during  that  time  he  undertook  some 
very  perilous  journeys  to  Jersey,  Scotland, 
Flanders,  Holland,  and  other  countries.  In  1656 
he  repaired  secretly  to  England,  but  was  arrest- 
ed and  only  set  at  liberty  on  his  giving  bail  for 
£1,000.  In  that  year  he  published  his  poems, 
and  in  his  preface  appears  to  have  inserted  a 
passage  suppressed  in  subsequent  editions,  which 
n^as  thought  to  intimate  a  change  in  his  loyal 
feelings,  and  he  also  speaks  of  his  desire  to 
•'  retire  to  the  American  plantations  and  forsake 

•<:  this  world  for  ever."  On  the  death  of  Oliver 
Cromwell  he  returned  to  France,  where  he  re- 

•i;  mained  in  his  former  station  until  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Stuarts.     He  was  made  a  doctor  of 

V  medicine  at  Oxford  in  1657,  but  there  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  he  ever  practised.  He 
considered  a  knowledge  of  botany  indispen- 
sable to  the  medical  profession,  and  retiring 
to  the  county  of  Kent,  busied  himself  with 
gathering  plants.  He  also  wrote  a  Latin  poem 
on  plants  in  6  books.  When  the  restoration 
took  place,  Cowley  looked  for  some  substantial 
reward  for  his  services  in  the  royal  cause,  but 
he  received  nothing.  He  had  been  promised  by 
Charles  I.,  as  well  as  by  his  son,  the  mastership 
of  the  Savoy,  "  but  lost  it  by  certain  persons  ene- 
mies to  the  muses."    It  is  said  that  in  revenge 


he  altered  a  comedy,  the  "Guardian,"  and 
brought  it  out  anew  under  the  title  of  "  Cutter 
of  Coleman  Street."  It  was  harshly  treated 
on  the  stage,  and  regarded  as  a  satire  on  the 
royal  party.  He  took  the  failure  of  his  play 
considerably  to  heart,  but  denied  that  it  was 
intended  in  any  manner  as  a  reflection  on  the 
royalists.  This  assertion,  however,  gained  lit- 
tle credence,  nor  did  he  mend  matters  by  the 
publication  of  an  ode  called  the  "  Complaint," 
in  which  he  bewailed  his  misfortunes,  and  styled 
himself  the  melancholy  Cowley.  lie  now  left 
London,  and  secluded  himselffirst  at  Barn  Elms, 
a  suburban  village,  and  afterward  at  Chertsey  in 
Surrey.  In  his  retreat  he  was  at  first  but  slen- 
derly provided  for,  but  by  the  influence  of  the 
earl  of  St.  Albans  he  obtained  such  a  lease  of 
the  queen's  lands  as  secured  him  a  tolerable  in- 
come. Although  very  highly  esteemed  as  an 
author  by  Johnson,  and  by  Milton  even  ranked 
with  Shakespeare  and  Spenser,  there  is  proba- 
bly no  English  poet  of  equal  pretensions  less 
read  at  the  present  day.  His  "Essays"  have 
great  merit  as  agreeable  specimens  of  prose  com- 
position. He  was  buried  near  Chaucer  and  Spen- 
ser in  Westminster  abbey,  where  in  1675  the 
duke  of  Buckingham  erected  a  monument  to 
his  memory. — An  edition  of  his  "Works,"  with 
his  "  Life  "  by  Bishop  Sprat,  was  published  in 
1688  (folio),  and  his  "Select  Works,"  edited  by 
Bishop  Hurd,  in  1772-'7  (3  vols.  8vo.). 

COWLEY,  Henry  Eichard  Charles  Wel- 
LESLEY,  baron,  a  British  diplomatist,  born  July 
17,  1804,  nephew  of  the  first  duke  of  Welling- 
ton, succeeded  his  father  in  the  peerage,  April 
27,  1847.  At  an  early  age  he  entered  the  diplo- 
matic service,  and  having  been  successively  em- 
ployed in  the  embassies  of  Vienna,  Stuttgart,  and 
Constantinople,  he  was  sent  as  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary to  Switzerland  in  1848,  and  afterward 
to  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  where  he  acted  as 
minister  to  the  German  confederation.  In  1852, 
when  Napoleon  became  emperor.  Lord  Cowley 
was  chosen  to  replace  Lord  Normanby  as  am- 
bassador to  France,  and  in  concert  with  the 
earl  of  Clarendon  attended  the  peace  congress 
of  Pai-is,  which  opened  Feb.  25,  1856. 

COWLITZ,  CowLiTSK,  or  Cowelitsk,  a  S. 
W.  CO.  of  Washington  territory,  bounded  S.  W. 
by  the  Columbia,  S.  E.  by  the  Calama,  which 
separates  it  from  Clark  co.,  and  intersected  by 
Cowlitz  river ;  area,  1,050  sq.  m.  Capital,  Mon- 
ticello. 

COWPENS,  n  post  village  in  Spartanburg 
district,  S.  C,  near  the  border  of  North  Caro- 
lina, in  the  neighborhood  of  which  a  signal  vic- 
tory was  gained  by  the  American  forces,  com- 
manded by  Gen.  Daniel  Morgan,  over  a  British 
division  under  Col.  Tarleton,  Jan.  17, 1781.  lu 
the  latter  part  of  December,  1780,  Morgan  was 
directed  by  Gen.  Greene  to  occupy  the  country 
between  the  Broad  and  Pacolet  rivers  in  the 
Spartanburg  district,  and  Cornwallis,  then  at 
Winnsborough,  in  Fairfield,  apprehending  that 
the  important  post  of  Ninety-six  was  menaced, 
despatched  Tarleton  with  1,100  choice  troops, 


COWPENS 


COWPEK 


23 


comprising  350  of  his  famous  legion  and  por- 
tions of  the  Yth  and  71st  regiments,  witii  2 
pieces  of  artillery,  to  force  Morgan  either  to 
fight  or  retreat  into  Nortli  Carolina.  Tarleton 
commenced  his  march  on  Jan.  11,  and  moving 
■with  gr^at  rapidity  reached  the  Pacolet  on  the 
evening  of  tlie  15th.  Morgan  had  intended  to 
dispute  the  ])assage  of  the  river ;  hut  being  in- 
ferior in  cavalry,  he  deemed  it  prudent  to  retire 
toward  Broad  river.  Tarleton  pressed  on  in 
pursuit,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  17th  came  up 
with  Morgan  in  an  open  wood  known  as  Han- 
nah's Cowpeus,  being  part  of  a  grazing  estab- 
lishment belonging  to  a  man  named  Hannah. 
The  American  troops,  about  1,000  in  number, 
occupied  2  gentle  eminences,  on  which  they 
were  drawn  up  by  Morgan  in  2  lines,  the  1st 
composed  of  Carolina  militia,  with  an  advanced 
corps  of  volunteer  riflemen  under  the  command 
of  Col.  Pickens,  and  the  2d  of  Maryland  reg- 
ulars and  Virginia  riflemen  under  Lieut.  Col. 
John  E.  Howard.  In  the  rear  was  a  reserve  of 
cavalry,  consisting  of  Lieut.  Col.  Washington's 
troop,  80  strong,  and  about  50  mounted  volun- 
teers under  Major  McCall.  Tarleton,  disregard- 
ing the  fact  that  his  troops  were  fatigued  by  a 
long  night  march,  with  characteristic  impetuosi- 
ty ordered  an  attack.  The  British  advanced  to 
the  charge  with  loud  shouts,  receiving  an  eflfect- 
ive  discharge  from  the  American  riflemen,  who 
in  obedience  to  Morgan's  orders  fell  back  upon 
the  1st  line.  The  latter  stood  firm  until  within 
bayonet  thrust  of  their  opponents,  when  they 
also  fell  back  upon  the  2d  line,  composed  of 
continental  troops,  which  was  thus  compelled 
to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  fight.  Col.  Howard 
at  lengtl),  fearing  that  he  might  be  outflanked, 
attempted  to  change  his  front  to  the  right,  the 
order  for  executing  which  was  misinterpreted 
into  one  for  a  retreat,  and  the  whole  line  was 
thrown  into  some  confusion.  At  this  moment 
Morgan  ordered  them  to  retreat  to  the  emi- 
nence behind  which  the  cavalry  were  posted. 
The  British,  feeling  sure  of  victory,  rushed  for- 
ward in  some  disorder,  when  they  were  met  by 
a  fierce  charge  from  Washington's  dragoons. 
At  the  same  time  Howard's  troops  facing  about 
gave  them  a  deadly  volley  of  musketry,  which 
they  followed  up  so  eflectively  with  the  bayo- 
net that  in  a  few  minutes  the  British  line  was 
broken,  and  cavalry,  infantry,  and  artillery  were 
in  full  flight.  Tarleton  endeavored  in  vain  to  re- 
form his  troops  ;  a  panic  had  seized  upon  them, 
and  even  his  favorite  legion,  with  which  he  had 
accomplished  so  many  dashing  exploits,  galloped 
away  without  having  crossed  a  sabre.  Tarle- 
ton liimself,  with  a  small  band  of  horsemen, 
made  a  precipitate  retreat,  hotly  pursued  by 
Col.  Washington,  by  whom  he  was  wounded 
in  the  hand.  The  British  loss  in  this  action 
amounted  to  more  than  300  killed  and  wounded, 
and  between  500  and  600  rank  and  file  prisoners. 
The  Americans  had  12  men  killed  and  60 
wounded.  The  spoils  of  the  victors  were  2 
field  pieces,  2  standards,  800  muskets,  100  dra- 
goon horses,  70  negroes,  and  some  baggage. 


COWPER,  Edward,  an  English  inventor  and 
improver  of  machinery,  also  favorably  known 
as  a  lecturer  on  the  mechanic  arts,  born  in  1790, 
died  in  London,  Oct.  17,  1852.  During  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  he  was  a  printer,  and 
some  of  the  most  important  improvements  in 
machine  printing  are  due  to  him.  Among 
others  may  be  mentioned  the  giving  a  diagonal 
action  to  the  rollers  on  the  self-acting  inking 
tables.  During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he 
was  professor  of  mechanics  and  manufacturing 
arts  at  King's  college.  He  wrote  an  elaborate 
article  on  a  "  Button,"  and  delivered  lectures  on 
the  London  crystal  palace,  in  1851. 

COWPER,  William,  lord  chancellor  of  Eng- 
land, born  at  Hertford  in  1664,  died  Oct.  10, 
1723.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1688,  the 
year  of  the  revolution,  in  which  he  took  part 
so  far  as  to  form  a  small  company  of  volunteers, 
and  set  out  to  join  the  prince  of  Orange.  After 
the  settlement  of  the  government  he  returned 
to  his  practice,  and  soon  became  the  decided 
leader  of  the  home  circuit,  with  a  large  practice 
in  the  court  of  chancery.  He  entered  parlia- 
ment as  a  whig  in  1095,  and  gained  by  his 
maiden  speech  the  reputation  of  a  consummate 
debater.  Tlie  whig  party  having  gained  the  as- 
cendant in  1705,  the  great  seal  was  committed 
to  him  as  lord  keeper,  and  the  next  year  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  and  made  lord  high 
chancellor.  His  judicial  business  was  transacted 
with  credit,  and  his  honorable  disinterestedness 
is  worthy  of  remembrance  in  having  abolished 
the  custom  of  "  yearly  gifts"  from  the  oflBcers 
and  lawyers  of  his  court,  which  prevailed  there 
before  his  time  as  well  as  in  the  other  courts 
of  the  kingdom,  and  which  had  produced  to  the 
chancellors  some  £3,000  per  annum.  He  pre- 
sided at  the  impeachment  of  Sacheverel,  and 
soon  afterward  upon  the  defeat  of  the  whigs 
resigned  his  oflice,  went  into  opposition,  and 
remained  one  of  the  chiefs  of  his  party  in 
council  and  debate  until  the  accession  of  George 
I.,  when  in  1714:  he  was  again  made  lord 
chancellor.  For  some  time  he  enjoyed  the 
entire  confidence  of  the  king,  and  had  an  im- 
portant share  in  the  political  direction  of  afiiiirs 
during  the  settlement  of  the  government  under 
the  new  dynasty  and  the  rebellion  of  1715  in 
favor  of  the  exiled  family,  but  again  resigned  in 
1718,  in  consequence  of  the  feud  between  the 
king  and  the  prince  of  Wales.  He  continued 
to  take  part  in  the  proceedings  of  the  house  of 
lords  as  long  as  he  lived.  Although  a  lawyer 
and  a  judge  of  authority  and  respectable  stand- 
ing, his  principal  character  in  history  is  that  of 
a  politician,  where  he  generally  appears  as  the 
advocate  of  liberal  principles,  both  in  relation 
to  secular  and  religious  matters,  but  not  always 
free  from  the  errors  and  inconsistencies  of  the 
time.  He  was  celebrated  as  an  orator  for  his 
graceful  and  charming  manner  and  delivery, 
with  which  he  was  said  to  captivate  the  hearts 
of  liis  auditory ;  but  he  was  nevertheless  the 
mark  for  much  political  detraction,  and  the  hero 
of  a  curious  story  circulated  all  over  Europe  by 


24 


COWPER 


the  authority  of  Yoltaire,  that  he  manned  and 
lived  at  the  same  time  with  2  wives,  and  wrote 
a  little  hook  in  defence  of  the  practice.  Al- 
though there  was  apparently  no  other  founda- 
tion for  it  than  some  early  irregularities,  it 
gave  him  the  common  nickname  of  "  Will 
Bigamy." 

COWPER,  William,  an  English  poet,  horn 
Nov.  15,  1731,  at  Great  Berkhamstead,  Hert- 
fordshire, died  at  East  Dereham,  Norfolkshire, 
April  25,  1800.  His  father,  the  Rev.  John 
Cowper,  was  one  of  the  chaplains  to  George  II. 
and  nephew  to  the  lord  chancellor  Cowper.  His 
mother  died  when  the  poet  was  but  6  j-ears  of 
age,  and  the  touching  lines  in  which  he  recalls 
her  memory  show  the  deep  impi'essions  slie  had 
left  on  his  mind.  He  was  sent  early  to  the  day 
school  of  his  native  town,  and  went  afterward 
to  Westminster,  where  he  suffered  from  the  tyr- 
anny of  older  and  stronger  boys.  At  18  he  be- 
gan to  study  law  with  a  solicitor,  Mr.  Chap- 
man, in  whose  house  he  slept  for  3  years,  but 
who  set  his  student  the  example  of  paying  little 
attention  to  his  profession.  He  then  took  rooms 
in  the  Inner  Temple,  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
and  here  for  the  next  12  years  lived  indolently, 
neglecting  tlie  law  for  literature  and  gay  society. 
He  formed  literary  acquaintances,  wrote  verses, 
and  contributed  several  papers  to  the  "  Connois- 
seur." In  his  31st  year  he  formed  an  attach- 
ment for  his  cousin  Theodora  Cowper,  sister  of 
Lady  Hesketh  ;  but  their  union  was  forbidden 
by  her  father,  first  for  prudential  reasons,  and 
then  because  of  their  consanguinity.  Having 
received  an  appointment  through  his  uncle. 
Major  Cowper,  as  reading  clerk  to  the  com- 
mittees of  the  house  of  lords,  he  seemed  destined 
to  ease  and  competence ;  but  his  natural  timid- 
ity and  nervousness  interposed.  He  shrank 
from  the  thought  of  appearing  before  the  lords, 
and  when  a  new  office  was  provided  for  him  by 
the  same  kind  relative,  the  clerkship  of  the  jour- 
nals to  the  same  house,  he  was  seized  with  a  fresh 
alarm  when  called  upon  to  stand  an  examina- 
tion as  to  his  qualification  for  the  place,  and  in 
his  mental  excitement  sought  to  destroy  himself. 
He  soon  afterward  became  insane,  and  was  re- 
moved by  his  relatives  to  an  asylum  at  St.  Al- 
bans under  the  care  of  Dr.  Cotton.  During  the 
remainder  of  his  life  he  experienced  several  long 
returns  of  mental  alienation.  He  fancied  him- 
self destined  to  eternal  woe.  He  shunned  the 
society  of  his  friends  and  near  relatives,  to  find 
relief  in  that  of  strangers.  In  all  his  sufferings, 
however,  his  relatives  watched  over  him  with 
tenderness  and  provided  for  him  a  modei*ate 
support.  At  Huntingdon,  whither  he  removed 
in  1765  from  tlie  care  of  Dr.  Cotton,  he  met 
with  the  Unwin  family,  who  received  him  into 
their  house  as  a  boarder,  and  for  whom  he 
formed  a  lasting  regard.  When,  on  the  sudden 
death  of  her  huskand,  two  years  afterward, 
Mrs.  Unwin  removed  to  Olney  in  Buckingham- 
shire, Cowper  went  with  her  ;  and  here  they  oc- 
cupied a  house  next  that  of  the  Rev.  .John  New- 
ton, curate  of  the  parish,  for  whom  he  had  pre- 


viously contracted  a  high  esteem.  Olney  is  fa- 
mous as  the  favorite  residence  of  Cowper.  Here 
he  passed  many  years  of  his  life,  occupied  with 
religious  exercises  and  in  active  charity  among 
the  poor.  Here,  too,  were  written  those  poems 
that  served  to  lighten  his  mental  suftering, 
though  they  could  never  wholly  relieve  it.  At 
the  age  of  50  (1782)  he  published  the  1st  vol- 
ume of  his  poems,  the  subjects  of  several  of^ 
which  had  been  suggested  by  Mrs.  Unwin.  The 
volume  was  tolerably  well  received;  but  the 
ballad  of  "  John  Gilpin,"  which  he  wrote  from 
a  story  told  him  by  Lady  Austen,  gave  him 
a  wide  renown.  It  was  read  to  crowded  audi- 
ences in  London  by  Henderson  tlie  actor,  and 
one  publisher  alone  sold  6,000  copies  of  a  print 
of  John  Gilpin  on  his  famous  ride.  The  ballad 
had  been  published  anonymously,  and  lay  for 
3  years  neglected  until  suddenly  it  caught  the 
attention  of  the  public.  Lady  Austen  next  sug- 
gested to  him  the  "  Task,"  which  appeared  in 
1784,  and  gained  general  popularity.  The 
amiable,  intelligent  Lady  Austen,  and  the  older 
and  more  austere  Mrs.  Unwin,  were  now  his 
constant  associates ;  but  jealousy,  it  is  said,  arose 
between  them,  and  Lady  Austen  left  Olney  in 
displeasure.  He  next  translated  Homer  in 
blank  verse,  and  published  it  by  subscription  in 
1791.  His  last  literary  occupation  was  a  trans- 
lation of  Milton's  Latin  poems,  with  a  com- 
mentary on  his  works ;  but  this  performance 
the  condition  of  his  mind  prevented  him  from 
completing.  His  faithful  friend  Mrs.  Unwin  hav- 
ing become  paralytic,  his  cousin  Lady  Hesketh 
came  to  take  charge  of  his  household ;  but  in 
1795  he  removed  fi'om  Olney  with  Mrs.  Unwin 
to  the  house  of  his  relative,  the  Rev.  Mr.  John- 
son, at  Tuddenham,  and  finally  to  East  Dere- 
ham. A  pension  of  £300  had  been  settled  upon 
him  by  the  king,  chiefly  through  the  active 
solicitations  of  the  amiable  poet  Hayley ;  but 
Cowper,  when  it  was  announced  to  him,  show- 
ed no  marks  of  pleasure.  In  1796  Mrs.  Unwin 
died ;  the  poet,  it  is  said,  looked  in  silent  agony 
upon  her  corpse,  and  then  turning  away,  never 
afterward  mentioned  her  name.  A  slight  re- 
covery of  his  mental  powers  enabled  him  in 
1799  to  revise  his  Homer,  and  to  write  his  last 
poem,  the  "  Castaway,"  a  picture  of  his  own  sad 
fate,  but  he  died  of  dropsy  in  the  spring  of  the 
following  year. — Cowper's  writings  are  original, 
truthful,  and  striking.  In  poetry  he  was  one  of 
the  first  to  break  away  from  the  despotism  of 
Pope,  and  invent  an  original  rhythm.  He  is 
never  melodious,  but  always  natural  and  at  his 
ease.  He  loved  nature,  flowers,  animals,  and 
rural  life,  and  paints  scenery  with  great  power. 
His  descriptions  are  sometimes  coarse,  but  al- 
ways clear  and  effective.  The  moral  teaching 
of  his  poetry  is  high,  and  he  strove  to  force  upon 
his  material  age  the  noblest  conceptions  of  the 
spiritual  and  the  divine.  With  this  religious 
turn  of  thought  he  joined  humor  and  forcible  sa- 
tire. He  translated  Homer  with  more  accuracy 
than  Pope,  but  his  blank  verse  wants  harmony 
and  grace.     His  prose  is  excellent,  and  his  let' 


COWRY 


COX 


25 


tors  arc  not  surpassed  by  any  in  the  language. 
Here,  in  his  Imppier  moods,  all  is  playful  humor, 
ease,  gayety,  simplicity,  and  wisdom.  His  mind 
seems  to  break  from  its  clouds  into  moments 
of  perfect  sunshine.  In  character  Be  was  pure, 
his  disposition  amiable  ;  he  gained  the  love  and 
respect  of  gifted  men  and  virtuous  accomplish- 
ed women ;  he  Avas  charitable  and  active  in 
doing  good ;  tender  and  confiding  to  his  friends, 
and  capable  of  unchanging  atfection.  So  good 
a  man  might  well  have  looked  for  happiness 
both  here  and  hereafter ;  but  it  was  Cowper's 
lingular  fate  to  pass  a  lifetime  in  despair.  Hope 
Avas  an  impulse  he  never  knew  or  never  ven- 
tured to  indulge.  His  appearance  was  intellec- 
tual and  well  bred,  his  manner  pleasing,  and 
liis  whole  life  that  of  a  tasteful  recluse.  Ho 
cultivated  flowers,  and  watched  with  interest 
the  progress  of  his  garden.  IIo  petted  tame 
leverets  and  immortalized  them  in  verse.  He 
was  careful  of  his  dress,  and  though  afraid  of 
strangers,  took  pleasure  in  a  narrow  circle  of 
well  bred,  intelligent  associates.  His  clouded 
mind,  his  mental  agonies,  and  his  generous 
kindly  nature,  endeared  him  to  bis  friends,  who 
loved,  pitied,  and  admired  him;  sentiments  that 
posterity  must  continue  to  share. — The  life  of 
Cowper  was  first  written  by  "William  Hayley, 
for  an  edition  of  his  posthumous  writings  (Chi- 
chester, 1803-'6).  It  has  also  been  written  by 
Thomas  Taylor  (London,  1835);  by  the  Eev.  T. 
S.  Grimshawe,  for  an  edition  of  his  works  and 
correspondence  (London,  1836);  by  H.  F.  Cary, 
for  an  edition  of  his  poems,  including  his  transla- 
tions of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  (London,  1839) ;  by 
Sir  Harris  Nicolas,  for  an  Aldine  edition  of  his 
poems  (London,  1843);  and  by  Robert  Southey, 
for  a  complete  edition  of  his  works  (London, 
1833-'37).  The  last  biography  and  edition  are 
much  the  best,  and  have  recently  been  repub- 
lished, with  additional  letters,  in  Bohn's  "  Stand- 
ard Library,"  in  8  vols. 

COWRY,  the  common  name  of  the  shell- 
fish cyjircfa,  of  the  family  cyprmdm.  Many 
species  are  met  with  most  abundantly  in  the 
warm  seas  of  the  eastern  hemisphere.  Those 
of  special  interest  are  the  C.  annuhis,  used  by 
the  Asiatic  islanders  to  adorn  their  dress,  for 
sinkers  to  their  fishing  nets,  and  for  barter  ;  and 
the  C.  moneta,  or  money  cowry.  The  latter  is 
an  eastern  and  Pacific  shell,  and  is  an  important 
article  of  trade,  being  largely  imported  into  Cal- 
cutta and  Bombay  from  the  Laccadive  and  Mal- 
dive  islands.  Their  value  in  Bengal  used  to  be 
rated  at  2,4:00,  then  at  2,560,  but  now  more  than 
3.200  to  the  rupee,  the  worth  of  which  is  about 
60  cents.  They  are  largely  imported  into  Liv- 
erpool, about  60  tons  being  received  in  1848, 
and  nearly  300  tons  in  1849,  Their  rates  are 
often  quoted  upon  the  price  currents  of  New 
York  and  London.  They  are  sent  to  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Africa  for  barter  with  the  natives. 
A  species  of  this  family  called  the  C.  princeps, 
"the  brindled  cowry  of  the  Persian  gulf,"  is 
very  highly  prized  by  conchologists  for  its  rarity 
and  beauty.     Only  two  specimens  are  known ; 


one  is  in  the  British  museum,  and  the  other  was 
sold  a  few  years  since  in  London,  at  the  sale  of 
the  collection  of  the  late  earl  of  Jifountnorris, 
for  £40.  A  specimen  of  the  C  umMlicata  was 
sold  in  1850  for  £30.  The  cowries,  from  the 
great  variety  and  beauty  of  the  markings  upon 
their  smoothly-polished  surface,  have  long  been 
in  demand  among  civilized  and  uncivilized  na- 
tions for  ornaments  to  their  dress  and  habita- 
tions. 

COX,  I.  David,  an  English  landscape  painter, 
born  at  Birmingham,  April  29,  1793.  His  paint- 
ings, chiefly  on  Welsh  subjects,  are  in  water  col- 
ors, small,  and  apparently  rapid  and  careless,  but 
full  of  the  impression  and  effect  of  nature.  IIo 
succeeds  best  in  sketching  rain  and  Avind,  bursts 
of  sunshine  on  dark  moors,  the  dank  herbage  of 
marshes,  and  rural  scenery  beneath  the  threat- 
ening storm.  He  published  in  1814  what  is  still 
considered  the  best  "  Treatise  on  Landscape 
Paintingin  WaterColors."  His  son  David  is  also 
a  painter  of  some  ability.  II.  Fraxcis  Augustus, 
D.D.,  an  English  clergyman  of  the  Baptist  denom- 
ination, born  March  7,  1783,  died  in  Sept.  1853. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
and  commenced  his  pastoral  labors  at  Hackney, 
near  London,  in  1811.  Here  he  principally  re- 
sided, and  beside  the  care  of  a  large  congregation 
and  various  other  employments,  he  took  an 
active  share  in  procuring  the  establishment  of 
the  London  universit}'.  He  attained  a  prom- 
inent position  in  his  denomination,  and  was 
chosen  about  1840  to  make  an  ofiicial  visit  to 
the  IJnited  States,  for  the  purpose  of  draAV- 
ing  closer  the  bonds  of  fraternal  feeling  be- 
tween the  Baptists  of  the  tAvo  countries.  Dr. 
Cox  was  a  contributor  to  the  "Eclectic  Re- 
view" and  other  periodicals,  and  published  a 
"  Life  of  Melanchthon,"  "  Female  Scripture  Bi- 
ography," and  other  works.  III.  Richard, 
bishop  of  Ely,  born  at  Whaddon,  Bucks,  about 
1500,  died  in  1581.  He  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  when  Christchurch  college  at  Ox- 
ford was  founded  by  Cardinal  Wolsey,  was  cho- 
sen one  of  its  oflicers,  but  afterward  forfeited 
this  position  and  was  lodged  in  prison,  iu  conse- 
quence of  his  adoption  of  the  doctrines  of  Lu- 
ther. Upon  the  accession  of  EdAvard  VT.  he 
became  tutor  to  the  king,  chancellor  of  Oxford, 
canon  of  Windsor,  dean  of  Westminster,  and  a 
privy  councillor.  When  Mary  began  her  reign 
he  fled  to  the  continent ;  but  when  Elizabeth 
succeeded,  he  returned  to  England,  and  Avas 
made  bishop  of  Ely,  which  see  he  held  for  21 
years.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  liturgy.  The  revision  of  the  Gospels 
and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  in  that  edition  of 
the  Scriptures  called  the  "  Bishops'  Bible,"  Avas 
by  him.  He  Avas  also  one  of  the  compilers 
of  Lily's  "  Accidence."  IV.  Saaiuel  Hanson-, 
an  American  divine,  born  at  Leesville,  N.  J., 
Aug.  25,  1793.  In  1811  he  commenced  the 
study  of  the  law  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  but  aban- 
doned it  at  the  end  of  one  year  to  take  up 
that  of  theology,  and  Avas  ordained  by  the 
presbytery  of  New  Jersey,  July  1,  1817.      In 


26 


OOXOIE 


COXE 


the  autumn  of  1820  he  reraovecl  to  Few  Tork 
to  assiiiiio  the  charge  of  the  Spring  street  Pres- 
byterian cliurcli.  After  gaining  here  the  repu- 
tation of  an  ardent  and  striking  preacher,  he 
sailed  for  Europe  in  1833  to  recruit  his  health, 
and  after  his  return  took  the  chair  of  profes- 
sor of  sacred  rhetoric  at  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  in  tlie 
autumn  of  1884.  In  May,  1837,  he  removed  to 
Jjrooklyn  as  pastor  of  the  tirst  Presbyterian 
church,  and  remained  in  this  connection  until 
1854,  when  he  was  obliged  by  inlirmity  of  the 
voice  to  give  up  his  charge,  and  retired  to 
Owego,  N.  Y.  Having  had  the  degree  of  D.D. 
conferred  on  him  in  the  summer  of  1825  by  Wil- 
liams college,  he  indignantly  repudiated,  in  a 
letter  to  the  "New  York  Observer,"  Nov.  16, 
1825,  the  "  semilunar  fardels."  Having  lent  his 
countenance  and  sympathy  to  the  foundation 
of  the  American  anti-slavery  society,  he  was 
one  of  the  sutl'erers  by  a  mob  excited  in  oppo- 
sition, and  had  his  house  and  church  sacked, 
July  10,  1834.  At  that  time  he  passed  for  an 
agitator  upon  all  topics;  and  always  throwing 
himself  impetuously  into  the  service  of  every 
cause  Avhich  he  has  espoused,  he  has  successive- 
ly appeared  as  the  zealous  advocate  of  aboli- 
tion, temperance,  colonization,  new  school  Pres- 
byterianism,  the  evangelical  alliance,  &c.  Of 
late  years,  however,  he  has  changed  his  views 
on  the  slavery  question,  and  has  identified  him- 
self with  the  conservative  treatment  of  that 
question.  As  a  writer  and  preacher  he  abounds 
in  quaint  conceits  and  learned  allusions,  with  a 
substratum  of  strong  common  sense  and  ardent 
feeling,  and  holds  a  high  rank  in  the  religious 
and  intelligent  community.  He  was  moderator 
in  1846  of  the  general  assembly  of  the  Presby- 
riau  church,  and  has  freciuently  been  delegated 
to  attend  tlie  religious  anniversaries  in  London. 
He  is  the  author  of  "  Quakerism  not  Christian- 
ity," "Interviews  Memorable  and  Useful,  from 
Diary  and  Memory,"  and  other  publications. 

OOXOIE,  or  Oosis,  Michael,  a  Flemish  paint- 
er, born  at  Mechlin  in  1497,  died  in  Antwerp 
from  the  fall  of  a  scaffolding  in  1592.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Bernard  van  Orley,  and  went  after- 
ward to  Rome,  where  he  acquired  celebrity  and 
was  much  employed  as  a  fresco  painter.  He 
married  in  Italy,  and  after  his  return  to  his  own 
country  his  works  were  in  great  demand,  and  he 
acquired  a  large  fortune  by  them.  Many  of  them 
were  taken  to  Spain,  and  he  had  3  palaces  or 
houses  full  of  the  most  valuable  at  Mechlin.  He 
is  now  better  known  by  his  copy  of  the  "  Adora- 
tion of  the  Lamb,"  by  the  brothers  Van  Eyck, 
in  the  church  of  St.  Bavon  at  Ghent,  than  by 
his  original  productions.  This  copy  was  made 
for  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  cost  2  years  of  con- 
Btant  labor,  for  which  the  artist  was  paid 
4,000  florins.  It  was  finished  in  1559.  Com- 
plaining that  he  could  not  find  a  blue  good 
enough  to  paint  the  mantle  of  the  Virgin  with, 
the  king  wrote  to  Titian  for  some  ultramarine, 
of  which,  when  it  came,  Coxcie  used  to  the  value 
of  82  ducats  on  the  mantle  alone.  The  copy 
Was  painted  with  extreme  care,  and  was  for  a 


long  time  kept  in  the  chapel  of  the  old  palac* 
at  Madrid,  whence  it  was  sent  to  Brussels  by 
Gen.  Belliard  during  the  French  occupation  of 
Spain.  It  was  in  several  parts,  which  are  now 
scattered  in  the  royal  gallery  of  Berlin,  in  the 
Pinakothek  at  Munich,  and  in  the  collection  of 
the  king  of  Holland.  Without  much  originality, 
Coxcie  yet  conferred  a  service  upon  the  art  in 
his  native  country  by  introducing  there  the 
knowledge  of  the  Italian  masters  and  their  style. 
He  is  distinguished  for  lightness,  grace,  and  an 
agreeable  individuality.  Among  his  best  pro- 
ductions are  the  illustrations  of  the  fable  of 
Psyche,  which  were  engraved  by  Agostino  Ve- 
neziano,  and  have  furnished  the  models  for  in- 
numerable paintings  on  glass. 

COXE.  I.  Aethuk  Cleveland,  D.D.,  an 
Episcoi)al  clergyman,  son  of  the  Eev.  S.  H.  Cox, 
born  at  Mendham,  N.  J.,  May  10, 1818.  He  was 
graduated  in  1838  at  the  university  of  New  York, 
took  orders  in  1841,  and  has  been  settled  succes- 
sively at  Morrisania,  Hartford,  and  Baltimore,  in 
which  last  named  city  he  is  now  (1859)  the  re(?- 
tor  of  Grace  church.  He  has  written  "Chris- 
tian Ballads, "  a  volume  of  religious  poems  (New 
York,  1840), "  Saul,a  Mystery,"  and  other  poems, 
beside  a  volume  of  travels  in  England  (1856), 
and  a  collection  of  sermons  (1855).  II.  Tench, 
an  American  writer  on  political  economy,  bora 
in  1756,  died  in  Philadelphia,  July  16,  1824.  He 
was  the  author  of  "  An  Inquiry  into  the  Prin- 
ciples of  a  Commercial  System  for  the  United 
States"  (1787),  "View  of  the  United  States" 
(1794),  "Thoughts  on  Naval  Power  and  the 
Encouragement  of  Commerce  and  Manufac- 
tures" (1806),  "  Memoir  on  the  Cultivation, 
Trade,  and  Manufacture  of  Cotton"  (1807),  "  On 
the  Navigation  Act"  (1809),  "  On  the  Arts  and 
Manufactures  of  the  United  States"  (1814).  IIL 
William,  archdeacon  of  Wilts,  an  English  his- 
torical and  biographical  writer,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  March,  1747,  died  at  Bemerton  in  June, 
1828.  He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  King's  col- 
lege, Cambridge,  in  1768,  and  in  1771  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  curacy  of  Denhain.  Shortly 
after  this  he  commenced  a  series  of  extended 
visits  to  the  continent,  in  the  capacity  of  pri- 
vate tutor  to  young  members  of  the  nobility, 
which,  with  occasional  intervals  for  literary  or 
professional  labor,  embraced  a  period  of  inoro 
than  20  years.  The  result  of  his  observation 
and  researches  was  given  to  the  world  in  a  num- 
ber of  elaborate  books  of  travel,  and  of  history 
and  biograpliy.  In  the  former  department  he 
published  between  1779  and  1789  "  Travels  into 
Poland,  Russia,  and  Denmark,"  and  "  Travels 
in  Switzerland,"  beside  some  miscellaneous 
works  on  Russian  discoveries,  on  hospitals  in 
northern  Europe,  and  other  subjects.  In  1798 
appeared  his  "  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Admin- 
istration of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,"  accompanied 
by  many  valuable  state  papers,  of  which  Pitt 
observed  that  it  gave  him  his  first  correct  notion 
of  the  character  of  Sir  Robert.  His  next  im- 
portant publication,  "  History  of  the  House  of 
Austria"  (which  forms  a  part  of  Bohu's  "  Stand- 


COYPEL 


CRAB 


27 


ard  Library"),  is  carefully  and  impartially  Avrit- 
tcii,  and  is  still  regarded  as  a  standard  autliority. 
It  Avas  succeeded  by  "History of  tbe  Kings  of 
Spain  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,"  in  1813,  "Me- 
moirs of  John,  Duke  of  Marlborough,"  in  1817- 
'19,"Memoirsof  the  Administration  of  the  Right 
Hon.  Heiu-y  Pelham,"  published  posthumously 
in  1829,  and  by  a  variety  of  minor  publications. 
He  was  appointed  archdeacon  of  Wilts  in  1805, 
and  during  the  last  7  or  8  years  of  his  life  was 
afflicted  with  total  blindness. 

COYPEL.  L  NoiiL,  a  French  painter,  a  suc- 
cessful imitator  of  Poussin,  born  in  1G28,  died  in 
IVOT.  Among  his  most  celebrated  pictures  are 
the  "  Death  of  Abel"  and  the  "Assumption  of  the 
Virgin,"  the  latter  in  the  hotel  of  the  Invalids. 
II.  Antoine,  a  son  and  pupil  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  16G1,  died  in  1722.  He  Avas  inferior  to 
his  father,  but  graceful  in  the  treatment  of 
his  subjects,  and  a  man  of  literary  accomplish- 
ments. He  was  appointed  painter  to  the  king 
in  1716.  His  principal  works  are  the  "Assump- 
tion," in  the  church  of  Notre  Dame,  "Christ 
Curing  the  Blind,"  and  "  Christ  among  the 
Doctors."  Some  of  his  etchings  are  executed  iu 
a  masterly  manner.  The  "  Nnmismatic  History 
of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV.,"  chiefly  from  his 
designs,  is  a  work  as  remarkable  of  its  kind  as 
his  frescoes  of  the  chapel  at  Versailles.  III. 
NoiiL  Nicolas,  stepbrother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1G92,  died  in  1735,  also  painted  many 
works  for  the  churches  of  Paris,  of  which  the 
best  are  the  ceiling  of  the  chapel  of  the  Virgin 
in  the  church  of  St.  Saviour,  and  the  "  Assump- 
tion" in  the  same  chapel.  IV.  Charles  Awtoine, 
son  of  Antoine,  born  in  1694,  died  in  1752, 
chiefly  excelled  as  painter  of  portraits,  the  best 
of  Avhich  is  that  qf  Adrienne  Lecouvreur. 

COYSEVOX,  Antoine,  a  French  sculptor  of 
Spanish  origin,  born  in  1640,  died  in  Paris,  Oct. 
10,  1720,  produced  several  fine  statues  of  Louis 
XIV.,  a  statue  of  Conde,  and  of  other  eminent 
persons.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  tombs 
of  Mazarin  and  of  Colbert,  the  monument  of 
Lebrun,  and  2  statues  of  a  flute-player  and  Flora, 
now  in  the  gardens  of  the  Tuileries. 

COZZENS,  Fkederio  Swartwout,  an  Amer- 
ican author,  born  in  New  Y'ork,  March  5,  1818. 
He  was  educated  in  his  native  city,  and  has  al- 
ways resided  there.  In  1853  he  collected  a  se- 
ries of  articles,  which  he  had  previously  con- 
ti'ibuted  to  the  "  Knickerbocker  Magazine,"  in  a 
volume  entitled  "  Prismatics,  by  Richard  Ilay- 
warde."  The  nom  de  phone  which  he  assumed 
was  the  name  of  one  of  his  ancestors,  an  Eng- 
lish Moravian  missionary  in  America.  In  1856 
he  published  the  "  Sparrowgrass  Papers,"  con- 
sisting of  sketches  which  had  before  appeared 
in  "  Putnam's  Magazine,"  describing  the  rural 
life  of  a  cockney.  Mr.  Cozzens  is  a  leading 
wine  merchant,  and  publishes  in  connection 
with  his  business  a  periodical  entitled  the 
"  Wine  Press,"  for  which,  as  well  as  for  other 
publications,  he  has  written  intei'esting  essays 
on  the  culture  of  the  grape.  In  1858  Mr. 
Cozzens  attended   the   copyright  congress  of 


Brussels  as  delegate  of  the  New  Y'ork  publish- 
ers' association. 

CRAB,  a  crustaceous  animal  of  the  tribe 
hrachyura  and  genera  cancer^  luj}a,  and  many 
others,  several  species  of  wliich  are  common  on 
the  coast,  and  serve,  like  the  lobster,  for  food. 
The  most  common  is  the  lujta  dicantha  of  Milne- 
Edwards,  found  most  abundantly  south  of  Cape 
Cod,  and  especially  in  Cliesapeake  and  Dela- 
Avare  bays.  Its  feet  are  flattened,  its  teeth  long 
and  projecting  like  spines.  From  the  color  of 
its  long  hands  it  is  sometimes  called  the  violet 
crab,  though  the  color  of  the  body  is  greenish. 
In  the  summer  months  it  is  regarded  as  a  greet 
delicacj^  on  the  shores  of  tlie  Chesapeake.  A 
number  of  the  species  of  the  smallest  crabs  are 
known  only  as  they  are  found  in  tlie  intestines 
and  maws  of  the  cod,  haddock,  and  other  fish, 
to  which  they  seem  to  furnish  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal sources  of  food.  Another  little  crab,  the 
'pinnotheres  ostrcmn,  unprotected  by  a  shell  of 
its  own,  finds  a  shelter  within  those  of  the 
oyster,  mussel,  pinna,  &c.,  which  it  does  not  ap- 
pear to  molest ;  indeed,  it  is  supposed  by  some 
that  it  affords  aid  to  tlie  shellfish  in  securing 
the  prey  which  nourishes  both.  This  was  the 
opinion  of  Pliny,  and  of  later  naturalists  also. 
Others  state  that  in  the  case  of  the  pinna,  at 
least,  the  little  crab  warns  the  shell  fish  of  dan- 
ger when  its  enemy  the  cuttle  fish  approaches 
to  devour  it.  The  little  crab  is  often  found  with 
the  oysters  cooked  for  the  table.  Several  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  ^fl<7;/?'t/s  are  also  unprovided 
with  a  shell  of  their  own;  but  these  seek  for 
some  empty  univalve  shell ;  and  an  individual 
finding  one  which  on  trial  fits  his  size,  he  takes 
possession  of  it,  and  drags  it  about  with  him  on 
the  sands,  till  his  enlarged  dimensions  cause  him 
to  seek  a  more  capacious  tenement,  or  till  a 
stronger  crab,  driving  him  out,  suddenly  slips 
in,  and  leaves  him  to  look  for  another.  These 
are  known  as  hermit  or  soldier  crabs.  In  Ja- 
maica they  pass  into  the  interior  several  miles 
from  the  sea,  carrying  with  them  their  coverings 
of  marine  shells. — Beside  the  salt-water  crabs, 
ther#  are  others,  as  the  thelphusians,  that  live 
on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  in  humid  forests, 
burrowing  in  the  ground.  In  Italy  and  further 
up  the  Mediterranean  these  are  eaten,  particu- 
larly in  the  season  of  Lent.  There  are  others 
also  in  warm  climates  of  terrestrial  habits,  one 
group  of  which  is  called  oci/poda,  swift-footed, 
from  their  rapid  running,  which  is  such,  as  Cuvier 
states,  that  a  horseman  has  some  difficulty  in 
overtaking  them.  The  0.  ai'enaria,  or  sand 
crab,  of  Catesby,  is  an  American  specimen  of 
this  genus,  found  in  the  West  Indies  and  on 
the  mainland.  During  the  summer  they  live 
in  holes  on  the  sea-shore  just  above  high-Avater 
mark,  retiring  into  them  during  the  day  and 
coming  out  at  night.  When  disturbed  they  run 
A^ery  rapidly,  threatening  at  the  saiue  time  Avith 
their  elevated  claws.  At  the  close  of  the  summer 
they  emigrate  in  troops  into  the  interior,  and, 
finding  a  convenient  place  for  passing  the  win- 
ter,   dig  holes    into    which   they  bury  them 


28 


CRAB  APPLE 


CRABBE 


selves",  and  so  completely  hide  the  entrance  to 
their  retreats,  that  no  indication  of  them  is 
peen  upon  the  surface.  In  the  spring  they  reap- 
pear, and  return  to  the  sea-shore.  They  liave  a 
gingular  habit  in  their  nocturnal  excursions  of 
entering  into  tlic  houses,  the  doors  of  which  in 
the  warm  nitrlits  are  often  left  open,  and  tak- 
ing posses-^ion  of  small  articles  of  clothing,  as 
cravats,  collars,  stockings,  &c.  If  disturbed  in 
their  pilferings,  they  scramble  away,  making  a 
great  clattering  upon  the  floor ;  the  articles  that 
disappear  with  them  are  usually  etFectually  con- 
cealed in  their  holes.  They  are  often  seen  in 
great  numbers  in  the  roads,  and  it  is  curious  to 
observe  their  rapid  sidelong  retreat,  as  one  is 
riding  by  on  horseback,  and  when  overtaken 
liow  they  run  as  rapidly  back  the  other  way 
without  turning  round.  In  the  Moluccas  a  crab 
is  described  by  the  name  of  purse  or  robber 
crab  (pagttrus  Intro  of  Fabricius),  which  is  said 
to  feed  upon  fruits  as  well  as  flesh,  and  to  climb 
the  palm  tree  called  the  pandnnus  odoratissi- 
mus,  to  eat  the  small  cocoanuts  it  bears.  They 
are  seen  in  great  abundance  in  Lord  Hood's 
island  in  the  Pacific.  When  met  in  the  road 
they  set  themselves  in  a  threatening  attitude, 
making  a  great  snapping  with  their  pincers  and 
retreating  backward. 

CRAB  APPLE.    See  Apple. 

CRABB,  George,  an  English  barrister  and 
philologist,  born  at  Palgrave,  Dec.  8,  1778, 
died  at  Hammersmith,  Dec.  4,  1854.  Intended 
for  the  medical  profession,  his  delicate  nervous 
organization  made  him  incompetent  to  follow 
it.  He  devoted  himself  to  teaching,  studied  in 
Germany,  and  published  on  his  return  German 
text  books,  which  were  long  in  use.  In  1821, 
after  having  been  married  22  years,  he  was 
graduated  at  the  university  of  Oxford,  with 
reputation  for  mathematical  attainments.  He 
was  51  years  of  age  when  he  was  admitted  to 
the  bar.  His  oftensive  manners  prevented  his 
success  as  a  practitioner,  but  as  an  author  he 
made  several  contributions  to  legal  literature, 
which  became  standard  works.  Among  these 
is  a  "History  of  English  Law."  He  is^nost 
generally  known  by  his  treatise  on  "  English: 
Synonymes,"  explained  with  copious  examples, 
published  in  1816  (7th  edition  in  1844,  after 
which  the  book  was  stereotyped).  He  was  the 
author  also  of  a  historical  and  of  a  technological 
dictionary. 

CRABBE,  George,  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Aldborougli,  in  Suftblk,  Dec.  24,  1754,  died  at 
Trowbridge,  in  Wiltshire,  Feb.  3,  1832.  Hi/i 
father,  who  was  a  collector  of  salt  duties,  ex- 
erted himself  to  give  his  son  a  superior  edu- 
cation. At  the  age  of  14  years,  having  made 
some  progress  in  the  study  of  mathematics  and 
the  classics,V  George  was  destined  to  the  medical 
profession,  and  was  apprenticed  to  a  surgeon 
near  Bury  St.  Edmund's.  Three  years  later  he 
was  transferred  to  another  surgeon  at  Wood- 
bridge,  with  whom  he  completed  his  appren- 
ticeship. Ilis  father  was  a  subscriber  to  a 
"  Philosophical    Magazine,"   the  last  page   of 


which,  devoted  to  poetry,  he  was  accustomed 
to  tear  off  before  sending  the  numbers  to  be 
bound.  These  rejected  sheets  had  first  excited 
the  poetical  tastes  and  powers  of  his  son,  who, 
both  during  his  school  days  and  amid  the  pur- 
suits of  surgery,  made  many  ambitious  attempts 
at  versifying.  While  at  Woodbridge  he  com- 
peted successfully  with  a  poem  on  "  Hope  "  for 
a  prize  offered  by  the  "Lady's  Magazine,"  to 
which  he  continued  to  contribute.  In  1775 
his  first  separate  publication,  a  poem  on  "  In- 
ebriety," was  issued  anonymously  at  Ipswich. 
He  soon  after  repaired  to  London  to  pursue  his 
medical  studies,  but  returned  within  a  year, 
with  his  pecuniary  resources  exhausted.  Never 
pleased  with  his  profession,  he  soon  determined 
to  abandon  it  for  literary  adventure  in  London, 
and,  provided  with  a  loan  of  £5,  he  worked  his 
way  in  a  sloop  from  Aldborough  to  the  metrop- 
olis, where  he  arrived  in  1780.  His  first  poet- 
ical pieces  found  no  publisher ;  and  his  first 
printed  poem,  the  "  Candidate,"  which  appear- 
ed anonymously  in  that  year,  was  coldly  re- 
ceived, and  brought  him  no  profit  in  conse- 
quence of  the  immediate  failure  of  his  publisher. 
His  letters  to  Lord  North,  Lord  Shelburne,  and 
Lord  Thurlow,  enclosing  some  of  his  poems 
and  asking  assistance,  received  no  answer. 
Threatened  with  arrest,  lie  applied  without  an 
introduction  to  Edmund  Burke,  at  whose  door 
he  left  a  simple  and  manly  letter,  and  then 
calmed  his  agitation  by  walking  Westminster 
bridge  backward  and  forward  throughout  the 
night.  From  his  kind  reception  by  Mr.  Burke 
begins  his  success  in  literature.  He  was  re- 
ceived into  the  family  of  the  statesman,  was 
introduced  to  Fox,  Reynolds,  Johnson,  and  his 
other  distinguished  friends,  and  had  the  ad- 
vantage of  his  criticism  and  advice  concerning 
the  poem  of  the  "  Library,"  which  was  pub- 
lished in  1781  (2d  edition  in  1783),  and  which 
was  favorably  noticed.  Lord  Thurlow,  with 
tardy  generosity,  now  invited  him  to  breakfast 
and  presented  him  with  a  bank  note  for  £100. 
By  Mr.  Burke's  recommendation,  he  qualified 
himself  for  holy  orders,  was  ordained  a  deacon 
in  1781,  and  a  priest  in  the  following  year,  and 
after  a  short  experience  as  curate  in  his  native 
parish,  received  the  situation  of  chaplain  to  the 
duke  of  Rutland  at  Bel  voir  castle.  In  1783  he 
f)ublished  the  "  Village,"  which  had  been  re- 
vised both  by  Mr.  Burke  and  Dr.  Johnson,  and 
obtained  immediate  popularity,  some  of  its  de- 
scriptions, as  that  of  the  parish  workhouse, 
being  copied  into  nearly  all  periodicals.  Lord 
Thurlow,  declaring  that  he  was  "  as  like  to  par- 
son Adams  as  twelve  to  a  dozen,"  presented 
him  in  1785  to  two  small  livings  in  Dorsetshire, 
where,  having  married  a  lady  who  was  the  ob- 
ject of  his  early  love,  he  lived  in  retirement. 
After  the  publication  of  the  "  Newspaper  "  in 
that  year  lie  did  not  resume  authorship  till 
1807.  He  exchanged  his  livings  in  1789  for 
others  in  the  vale  of  Belvoir,  where  he  resided 
most  of  the  time  till  after  the  death  of  his  wife 
in  1813,  when  he  was  preferred  to  the  rectory 


CEABBE 


CRACOW 


29 


of  Trowbridge.  lie  assigned  tlie  deatli  of  his 
distinguisliod  friends  and  advisers  as  liis  reason 
for  publishing  nothing,  and  passed  his  time  in 
domestic  enjoyment,  in  various  studies  of  nat- 
ural liistory,  especially  of  botany,  iii  educating 
liis  sons,  in  writing  three  novels  which  he  after- 
ward burned,  and  in  fultilling  his  professional 
duties.  In  1807  his  "Parish  Register,"  which 
liad  been  read  and  ajjproved  by  Mr.  Fox,  was 
received  with  universal  api)robation,  and  was 
followed  in  1810  by  the  "Borough,"  and  in 
1812  by  "Tales  in  Verse."  The  latter  years 
of  Crabbe  were  occupied  with  the  conscientious 
discharge  of  his  duties  to  his  parishioners  of 
Trowbridge,  by  whom  he  was  beloved,  with 
studies  of  botany  and  geology  pursued  with  in- 
creasing interest,  and  with  occasional  visits  to 
London,  and  associations  with  a  younger  gen- 
eration of  poets,  among  whom  were  Moore, 
Rogers,  Cami)l)ell,  Scott,  Wordsworth,  and 
Southey.  In  1819  he  completed  his  last  pub- 
lication, the  "  Tales  of  the  Hall,"  for  the  copy- 
right of  which  and  of  all  his  previous  works  he 
received  from  Mr.  Murray  the  sum  of  £3,000. 
In  1822  he  visited  Sir  Walter  Scott  at  Edin- 
burgh, then  in  the  midst  of  tunudtuous  prepa- 
rations for  the  king's  visit,  and  the  biographer 
of  Scott  regrets  that  the  two  poets  had  not 
rather  met  among  the  books,  and  trees,  and 
simple  peasants  of  Abbottsford.  His  health 
began  to  decline  in  1828,  but  his  mind  still  re- 
tained its  clearness  and  clieerfulness.  The 
shops  of  Trowbridge  were  closed  on  the  days 
of  his  death  and  funeral,  and  his  parishioners 
erected  a  monument  to  his  memory  in  the  clian- 
cel  of  their  church.  He  had  spent  for  many 
years  the  principal  part  of  his  professional  in- 
come in  charity. — The  finest  productions  of 
Crabbe,  and  sure  foundations  of  his  fame,  are 
the  ''  Village,"  "Parish  Register,"  and  some  of 
liis  shorter  tales,  which  are  unrivalled  for  their 
severe  and  minute  descriptions  of  humble  life. 
The  whole  force  of  his  genius,  rarely  diverted, 
by  bright  ideal  scenes  or  pictures  of  elegance 
and'  refinement,  was  bent  upon  delineating  the 
circumstances  and  anatomizing  the  characters 
of  poverty,  vice,  and  misery.  He  is  styled  by 
Byron  "nature's  sternest  painter,  yet  the  best;" 
and  though  he  flattered  the  poor  by  no  Arca- 
dian pictures,  he  was  far  from  being  their  sat- 
irist. The  amenities  of  tlie  refined  society 
■which  he  enjoyed  in  mature  manhood  never 
occuj)ied  liis  imagination  so  much  as  the  remi- 
niscences of  struggle,  suffering,  passion,  and  dis- 
aster with  which  his  youth  was  familiar ;  and 
it  was  with  deep  sympathy  that  he  described 
the  ruined  and  friendless  inmates  of  the  work- 
liouse,  explored  the  haunts  of  smugglers  and 
gypsies,  wrote  of  erring  and  crazed  maidens, 
and  lingered  over  the  darkest  forms  and  refuse 
members  of  humanity.  But  though  his  delin- 
eations, with  their  Dutch  minuteness  and  ac- 
curacy, always  reveal  tenderness  and  benev- 
olence rather  than  harshness  in  the  poet,  they 
yet  sometimes  become  wearisome  and  displeas- 
ing, failing  to  excite  an  interest  in  the  gloomy 


subjects  which  they  expose.  A  complete  edi- 
tion of  his  poetical  works  in  8  vols.,  the  first  of 
which  contained  his  life  written  by  his  son, 
with  his  letters  and  journals,  was  published  by 
Murray,  in  London,  in  1834,  and  republished 
in  one  vol.  in  1847. — Geouge,  an  English  clergy- 
man, eldest  son  of  the  ])receding,  born  at  Stra- 
thern,  near  Belvoir  castle,  in  1785,  died  at  Bred- 
field,  Sei)t.  16,  1857.  He  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  was  for  many  years  curate  of 
Pucklehead,  and  afterward  vicar  of  Bredfield, 
])ublished  in  1840  a  work  entitled  "  Outlines  of 
Natural  Theology,"  and  is  chiefly  known  for 
his  interesting  biography  of  his  father,  which 
first  appeared  in  1834. 

CRABETII,DiRK  AND  WorxER,  two  brothers, 
natives  of  Gouda,  in  Holland,  celebrated  mas- 
ters of  painting  on  gla.«s,  lived  in  the  16th  and 
the  beginning  of  the  I7tli  century.  They  painted 
the  windows  of  St.  John's  church  at  Gouda, 
which  are  considered  the  most  finished  produc- 
tions ever  executed  in  that  branch  of  art,  and 
also  the  windows  of  other  churches  in  Belgium 
and  Paris,  and  probably  also  Spain.  The  two 
brothers  were  excessively  jealous  of  each  other, 
Wouter  being  superior  in  correctness  and  neat- 
ness of  design,  and  Dirk  in  brilliancy  of  coloring. 

CRACOW,  formerly  the  capital  of  independ- 
ent Poland,  from  1815  to  1846  of  the  republic 
of  the  same  name,  now  of  a  western  circle  of 
Galicia,  and  seat  of  a  bishopric,  is  situated  in 
a  plain  surrounded  by  hills,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  A^istula,  which  there  becomes  navigable, 
and  is  crossed  by  a  new  massive  bridge,  con- 
necting the  city  with  the  suburban  town  of 
Podgorze ;  lat.  50°  3'  K,  long.  19°  55'  E. ;  pop. 
about  40,000,  of  whom  nearly  ^  are  Jews.  It 
consists  of  the  city  proper  and  several  suburbs, 
the  chief  of  which  are  the  Kleparz,  Stradom, 
and  Kazimierz,  the  latter  on  an  island  of  the 
Vistula,  inhabited  almost  exclusively  by  the 
Jews,  who  have  there  7  synagogues.  Except 
this  part,  which  is  mostly  a  narrow  and  gloomy 
abode  of  misery,  Cracow,  with  its  old  castle, 
once  tlie  residence  of  the  kings,  on  the  top  of 
the  Wawel,  its  large  central  square,  its  numer- 
ous churches,  cliapels,  turrets,  and  steeples,  of- 
fers the  aspect  of  a  han,dsome  and  picturesque 
old  city;  though  several  conflagrations,  of  which 
that  of  1850  was  one  of  the  most  destructive, 
have  changed  parts  of  it,  and  tlie  ancient  forti- 
fications have  been  converted  into  modern  en- 
circling promenades.  The  royal  castle,  whose 
history  is  connected  with  that  of  the  legendary 
Krakus  and  his  daughter  Wanda,  of  the  Piasts 
and  Jagiellos,  having  been  destroyed  by  2  con- 
flagrations, restored  by  King  Augustus  II.,  for- 
tified under  the  direction  of  Dumonriez,  after- 
ward the  French  general,  in  1768,  and  repaired 
by  the  xVustrians,  has  finally  been  converted  b}* 
the  latter  into  barracks  for  the  garrison  of  the 
city.  But  the  beautiful  Gothic  cathedral  of 
the  ancient  residence  still  contains,  in  its  nu- 
merous and  splendid  chapels,  the  tombs  and 
monuments  of  St.  Stanislas,  whose  remains 
are  preserved  in  a  silver  cofiin,  of  Casimir  the 


30 


CEACOW 


Great,  Jagiello   and  his  wife  Hedvig,  the  3 

Sigismuiids,  Stephen  Bathori,  John  Sobieski, 
Copernicus,  Prince  Poniatowski,  Kosciuszko, 
Dombrowski,  Artliur  Potocki,  and  other  kings, 
queens  and  celebrated  men  of  Poland.  Its  bell, 
cast  in  1520,  its  archives  and  library,  as  well 
as  the  royal  insignia,  preserved  in  the  vaults, 
are  also  shown  to  visiting  travellers  as  worthy 
of  their  curiosity.  Beside  the  cathedral,  Cra- 
cow has  more  than  70  Roman  Catholic  churches, 
numerous  convents  and  chapels,  and  one  Prot- 
estant church.  Other  remarkable  buildings  are 
the  episcopal  palace,  with  a  museum  of  Sarma- 
tian  antiquities,  the  city  hall,  and  the  Jagiello 
university.  The  latter,  founded  by  Casimir  the 
Great,  and  completed  under  Ladislas  Jagiello, 
was  for  centuries  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
institutions  of  Europe,  but  lost  its  importance 
througli  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits,  and  having 
been  reorganized  in  1817,  had  again  to  suffer 
restrictive  alterations  in  1833.  A  library  con- 
taining numerous  old  books  and  valuable  man- 
uscripts, a  cabinet  of  natural  history,  a  botanical 
garden  and  observatory,  belong  to  it.  Cracow 
has  also  a  number  of  other  institutions  for  public 
education,  arts,  sciences,  and  benevolence.  In  the 
vicinity  of  tlie  city,  the  hill  of  Wanda,  wliich  com- 
Tnemorates  the  ]->atriotic  suicide  of  the  daughter 
of  Krakus,  the  Bronislawa  (glory  of  arms),  with 
a  mound  150  feet  high,  erected  in  memory  of 
Kosciuszko,  and  Lobzow,  a  summer  residence 
built  by  Casimir  the  Great,  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  travellers  and  patriots.  The  commerce 
of  Cracow,  though  greatly  decreased  since 
the  fall  of  independent  Poland,  and  especially 
since  the  annexation  to  Austria,  is  still  con- 
Biderablc.  It  is  still  a  centre  of  trade  between 
Russian  Poland,  Galicia,  and  Hungary,  and  a 
chief  depot  for  Hungarian  wines,  salt,  and  wax. 
The  celebrated  salt  mines  of  Wieliczka  are  a 
few  miles  distant  from  Cracow.  Railroad 
lines  connect  it  with  Warsaw,  Berlin,  Vienna, 
and  the  interior  of  Galicia. — The  foundation  of 
Cracow  is  attributed  by  the  legends  of  Poland 
to  Krakus,  a  Slavic  chief,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  about  the  year  700.  Under  Ladislas 
Lokietek  (the  Short),  who  was  crowned  here  in 
1320,  it  became,  instead  of  Gnesen,  the  capital 
of  Poland.  This  dignity  it  maintained  down  to 
the  reign  of  Sigisinund  III.,  who  made  Warsaw 
the  seat  of  the  court  and  government  (1609). 
The  kings  of  Poland,  however,  still  continued 
to  be  crowned  in  the  cathedral  of  Cracow.  It 
was  conquered  in  1039  by  the  Bohemians,  in 
1241  by  the  Tartars,  in  1G55  by  the  Swedes  un- 
der Charles  X.,  in  1702  by  Charles  XII.,  and  in 
1768,  after  having  for  some  time  supported  the 
cause  of  the  confederation  of  Bar,  by  the  Rus- 
sians. After  the  fall  of  Kosciuszko,  who  made 
Cracow  the  starting  point  of  his  revolution,  it 
was,  on  the  last  partition  of  Poland  (1795),  ta- 
ken by  Austria.  In  1809  it  was  annexed,  to- 
gether with  western  Galicia,  to  the  duchy  of 
Warsaw,  which  had  been  created  2  years  before 
by  Napoleon.  After  the  fall  of  tliis  emperor  it 
was  erected  by  the  congress  of  Vienna,  together 


with  a  small  but  fertile  territory  of  about  500 
sq.  m.  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula,  bounded 
by  Russian  Poland,  Galicia,  and  Prussian  Si- 
lesia, into  an  independent  and  neutral  republic, 
nnder  the  protection  of  Russia,  Austria,  and 
Prussia.  This  miniature  state,  the  last  remnant 
of  Polish  independence,  had  a  representative 
assembly,  which  held  sessions  in  the  last  month 
of  every  year,  and  an  executive  senate  headed 
by  a  president,  who  was  elected  for  3  years  by 
the  assembly,  and  confirmed  by  the  protecting 
states.  It  contained  about  150,000  inhalJitants, 
of  whom  more  than  y'^  were  Jews.  The  latter, 
however,  enjoyed  no  civil  rights,  and  were 
also  subject  to  many  humiliating  medifeval  re- 
strictions. Grain,  excellent  fruits,  cattle,  coal, 
iron,  and  sulphur,  and  the  reviving  commerce 
of  Cracow,  were  the  chief  sources  of  wealth. 
During  the  Polish  revolution  of  1830- 31,  Cracow 
was  under  the  influence  of  the  national  party^ 
and  many  of  its  inhabitants  fought  in  the  ranks 
of  the  Polish  armies.  Having  become  a  place 
of  refuge  to  a  small  part  of  the  corps  of  Rozycki 
toward  the  close  of  the  war,  it  was  occupied  by 
the  Russian  general  Rtldiger.  The  republic 
was  now  purged  by  the  3  protecting  powers  of 
all  revolutionary  elements,  and  finally  reorgan- 
ized in  1833.  But  new  national  agitations 
brought  about  another  military  occupation  in 
1886,  this  time  executed  by  troops  of  all  the  3 
powers.  This  was  followed  by  the  expulsion 
of  more  than  500  persons,  who  were  escorted 
to  Trieste,  to  be  transported  from  that  port  to 
America.  Scarcely  had  the  troops  retired, 
Avhen  new  conspiracies,  and  the  assassination 
of  a  Russian  spy,  served  in  1838  as  a  reason  for 
a  fresh  occupation  by  the  Austrians,  which  last- 
ed till  1841.  The  revolutionary  outbreak  of 
Feb.  1846,  which  Avas  prepared  by  a  most  ex- 
tensive conspiracy  for  simultaneous  action  in 
all  the  provinces  of  ancient  Poland,  was  for  a 
moment  successful  in  Cracow  alone.  The  Aus- 
trians, who  had  again  occupied  the  city,  were 
driven  beyond  theVistula,  the  restoration  of  Po- 
land as  a  democratic  republic  was  proclaimed, 
and  a  provisional  government  organized  under 
Tyssowski  as  dictator  (who  died  at  Washington 
in  1857).  But  the  early  detection  of  the  conspi- 
racy in  the  duchj'-  of  Posen,  the  easy  suppres- 
sion of  the  outbreak  in  Russian  Poland,  and  par- 
ticularly the  great  catastrophe  in  western  Gali- 
cia, where  the  peasantry  massacred  the  insur- 
gent nobility  with  their  followers  and  families, 
soon  annihilated  the  hopes  of  the  friends  of 
Poland.  Three  armies  were  approaching.  Thus 
pressed,  the  small  body  of  Poles  surrendered 
to  the  Prussians  (March  3),  and  the  republic 
of  Cracow  Avas  soon  after  annexed  to  Austria 
by  a  resolution  of  the  3  protectors.  Thus  the 
stipulation  of  the  congress  of  Vienna,  Avhich 
guaranteed  the  "perpetual  freedom  and  inde- 
pendence" of  tlie  last  small  remnant  of  Poland, 
was  set  aside  by  3  out  of  8  contracting  powers, 
without  the  consent  of  the  others.  The  event 
was  announced  as  a  fait  accon)2)U  by  Prince 
!Metternich,  and  remained  so  in  spite  of  the 


CRAFTS 


CRAIK 


31 


protests  of  the  governments  of  England  and 
France,  the  clamors  and  indignation  of  the 
western  press,  and  the  vehement  sj)eeches  of 
Connt  dcMontalenibort  in  the  French  chamber 
of  peers.  The  movements  of  1848  but  slightly 
disturbed  the  i^cace  of  Cracow.  An  extensive 
system  of  fortilications,  undertaken  by  the  Ans- 
trians,  is  now  in  course  of  completion, 

CRAFTS,  Samuel  CirANDLKii,  governor  andU. 
S.  senator  of  Vermont,  born  at  Woodstf)ck,  Wind- 
ham CO.,  Conn.,  Oct.  6,  1708,  died  at  Craftsbury, 
Vt,  Nov.  19,  1853,  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
university  in  1790,  and  removed  to  Vermont 
soon  after  the  state  was  admitted  to  the  federal 
union.  He  was  elected  town  clerk  of  Crafts- 
bury  in  1792,  and  held  that  office  for  37  succes- 
sive years.  In  1800  he  was  appointed  assistant 
judge  of  Orleans  county  court,  and  so  continued 
till  1810,  wlien  he  was  appointed  chief  judge 
of  the  county  court,  holding  that  office  till  1816. 
From  1796  to  1815  he  was  register  of  probate 
for  Orleans  district.  In  1825  he  was  again  ap- 
pointed chief  judge  of  the  county  court,  in  wliich 
office  he  remained  3  years,  and  from  1836  to 
1838  he  was  clerk  of  the  county  court.  In 
1793  he  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  conven- 
tion which  met  at  Windsor  to  frame  a  state 
consitution.  In  1796  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  house  of  representatives,  and  was  re- 
elected in  1800, 1801, 1803,  and  1805.  In  1798 
and  1799  he  was  clerk  of  the  general  assembly. 
In  1828  he  was  elected  governor  of  Vermont, 
and  reelected  in  1829  and  1830.  In  1829  he 
was  a  member  of  the  constitutional  convention, 
of  which  body  he  was  elected  president.  He  was 
elected  a  representative  in  congress  in  1816,  and 
held  that  office  for  8  successive  years.  In  1842 
be  was  appointed  by  Gov.  Paine  a  senator  in 
congress  to  fill  a  vacancy.  When  the  general 
assembly  was  convened,  he  was  continued  in  the 
U.  S.  senatorship  till  the  close  of  the  term  by 
the  election  of  that  body.  With  the  termina- 
tion of  this  office  (March  3,  1S43)  his  active 
public  career  was  closed.  In  June,  1802,  while 
there  were  but  a  few  log  huts  on  the  site  of  the 
present  city  of  Cincinnati,  he  commenced  a  tour 
of  observation  to  the  lower  Mississippi,  and,  in 
company  with  Michaux  the  younger,  made  a 
botanical  reconnoissance  of  the  valley  of  the 
great  West  in  canoes  and  arks  at  a  time  when 
there  were  no  steamboats  on  that  river. 

CRAFTS,  William,  an  American  lawyer 
and  author,  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  Jan.  24, 
1787,  died  at  Lebanon  Springs,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  23, 
1820.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  college 
in  1805.  Choosing  the  legal  profession,  he  be- 
gan to  practise  in  Charleston,  and  his  eloquence 
made  him  a  most  successful  advocate,  especially 
in  criminal  cases.  During  several  sessions  he 
was  a  member  of  the  state  legislature.  As  editor 
of  the  Charleston  "  Courier,"  he  contributed  to 
that  journal  a  large  number  of  graceful  essays 
suggested  by  to})ics  of  the  day.  He  was  a  favor- 
ite orator  on  public  occasions,  and  in  1817  deliv- 
ered the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  address  at  Cambridge. 
He  wrote  a  few  poems,  chiefly  on  local  subjec-ts, 


among  which  are  "  Sullivan's  Island ;"  the 
"Raciad  ;"  a  "Monody  on  the  Death  of  Deca- 
tur," an  improvisation  published  on  the  day 
after  the  news  of  the  commodore's  death  was 
received  ;  "  Kitty,"  a  companion  piece  to  Hal- 
leck's  "  Fanny ;"  the  "  Sea  Serpent,  or  Glou- 
cester Iloax,"  a  drama  in  3  acts,  founded  on 
the  reputed  capture  of  the  sea  serpent  at  Glou- 
cester, which  proved  to  be  a  liorse  mackerel  of 
mammoth  projiortions ;  and  contributions  to 
the  Omnium  Botherum^  a  quizzical  serial,  the 
object  of  which  was  local  satire.  A  selection 
from  his  writings  in  prose  and  verse,  including 
several  of  his  orations,  was  published  at  Charles- 
ton in  1828,  with  a  memoir  of  his  life  by  the 
Rev.  Samuel  Gilman. 

CRAG,  in  geology,  sandy  strata  overlying  the 
London  clay,  found  particularly  in  the  counties 
of  Suflblk  and  Norfolk,  England.  Two  divisions 
are  recognized — the  upper,  called  the  red,  and 
the  lowei',  the  coralline.  The  former  is  mostly 
made  up  of  red  ferruginous  quartzose  sands;  the 
strata  of  tlic  latter  are  more  calcareous  and 
marly,  and  more  abound  in  masses  of  shells  and 
corals,  which  are  sometimes  sufficiently  compact 
for  use  as  building  stones.  The  formation  is 
particularly  interesting  on  account  of  the  fossils 
with  which  it  is  filled,  the  great  proportion  of 
which  are  of  species  still  living. 

CRAIG,  a  S.  W.  co.  of  Va,,  formed  since  1850 
out  of  portions  of  Giles,  Botetourt,  and  Roanoke 
counties,  and  named  from  Craig's  creek,  by  the 
sources  of  which  it  is  drained.  The  surface  is 
mountainous,  and  the  principal  range  of  the 
AUeghanies  extends  along  the  N.  AV.  border. 
The  valleys  are  generally  fertile,  and  produce 
corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  hay.  Capital,  New  Castle. 
Value  of  real  estate  in  1856,  $852,959. 

CRAIK,  George  Lillie,  an  English  author, 
born  in  Fifeshire  in  1799.  Having  studied 
theology  at  the  university  of  St.  Andrew's, 
he  went  to  London  in  1*824,  and  wrote  for 
the  society  for  the  diffusion  of  useful  know- 
ledge the  2  volumes  of  the  "  Pursuit  of  Know- 
ledge under  Difficulties,"  published  in  Knight's 
library  of  "Entertaining  Knowledge."  lie  was 
a  principal  contributor  to  the  "  Penny  C^yclo- 
pjedia  "  in  history  and  biography,  and  in  1839 
became  the  editor  of  the  "Pictorial  History  of 
England,"  and  wrote  those  chapters  on  reli- 
gion, government,  laws,  industry,  and  litera- 
ture, which  were  afterward  expanded  into 
separate  works  in  Knight's  "  Weekly  Volume  " 
as  "  Sketches  of  the  History  of  Literature  and 
Learning  in  England"  (6  vols.),  and  tlie  "  History 
of  British  Commerce"  (3  vols.).  In  the  same 
series  appeared  "  Spenser  and  his  Poetry"  in 
1845,  and  "  Bacon  and  his  Philosophy  "  in  1846. 
He  Avrote  in  1847  another  volume  of  the  "  Pur- 
suit of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,"  contain- 
ing female  examples  only.  He  was  appointed 
in  1849  ])rofessor  of  history  and  English  litera- 
ture in  Queen's  college,  Belf;ist,  and  has  since 
written  "Romance  of  the  Peerage"  (4  vols.), 
"  Outlines  of  the  History  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage," the  "English  of  Shakespeare,"  &c. 


32 


CRAIK 


CRANBERRY 


CRAIK,  James,  M.D.,  tbe  family  physician  of 
"Washington,  born  in  Scotland  in  1731,  died  in 
Fairfax  co.,  Va.,  Feb.  0,  1814.  lie  was  with 
"Washington  in  the  expedition  against  the  French 
and  Indians  in  1754,  and  the  next  year  attended 
Braddock  in  his  fatal  campaign.  In  1781  he 
was  director  of  the  hospital  at  Yorktowu.  To 
him  we  owe  the  anecdote  respecting  the  dan- 
gers incm-red  by  Washington,  and  his  remark- 
able escape,  at  Braddock's  defeat.  Fifteen  years 
afterward,  while  exi)loriiig  wild  lauds  in  the 
western  districts  of  Virginia,  he  encountered  a 
party  led  by  an  aged  Indian  chief,  who  inform- 
ed liim,  by  an  interpreter,  that  he  had  made  a 
long  journey  to  see  Col.  Washington,  at  whom 
in  the  battle  of  Monongahela  lie  had  fired  his 
rifle  15  times,  and  ordered  all  his  young  men 
to  do  the  same.  In  fact,  Washington  had  2 
horses  killed  under  him,  and  his  coat  was  pierced 
with  4  bullets.  After  the  revolution  Craik  set- 
tled near  Mount  Vernon,  and  continued  to  be 
the  physician  of  Washington  until  his  death. 

CRAMER,  Joim  Anthony,  a  philologist, 
born  in  Switzerland  in  1793,  died  at  Brighton, 
England,  Aug.  24,  1848.  He  passed  the  greater 
part  of  his  life  in  England,  having  received  his 
education  at  the  university  of  Oxford,  where  ho 
became  principal  of  New  Inn  hall,  and  professor 
of  modern  history.  lie  published  many  valu- 
able works  on  philological  subjects,  beside  de- 
scriptions of  ancient  Greece,  Italy,  and  Asia 
Minor. 

CRAMER,  John  Baptist,  a  musical  artist  and 
composer,  born  at  Mannheim,  Baden,  in  1771, 
died  in  England,  April  16, 1858,  where  he  pass- 
ed most  of  his  life  in  great  esteem  as  a  com- 
poser and  as  a  performer  and  teacher  on  the 
piano  forte.  Ilis  exercises  and  studies  for  the 
instrument  are  used  in  all  parts  of  Europe  and 
in  America.  His  compositions  are  considered 
models  of  clear  and  simple  construction,  beauty, 
and  grace. 

CRANACn,  or  Kp.anacii,  Lucas,  a  Ger- 
man painter,  whose  lamily  name  was  Sunder, 
born  in  Ivronach,  near  Bamberg,  in  1472,  died 
in  Wittenberg,  Oct.  16,  1553.  He  was  court 
painter  to  three  electors  of  Saxony — Frederic 
the  Wise,  Jolin  the  Steadfast,  and  Frederic 
the  Magnanimous.  He  accompanied  the  first 
to  the  Holy  Land  in  1493,  and  shai'ed  the  im- 
prisonment to  which  the  last  was  subjected 
after  the  battle  of  Muhlberg,  in  1547.  In  1533 
he  was  appointed  burgomaster  of  Witten- 
berg, and  thenceforward  enjoyed  the  intimate 
friendship  of  Luther,  Melauchthon,  and  the 
other  great  reformers,  whom  he  frequently  in- 
troduced into  his  pictures.  The  school  of  Sax- 
ony, of  which  he  was  the  head,  is  parallel  to 
that  of  Albert  Diirer,  with  whom  he  had  much 
in  common,  although  tlie  earnestness  and  grand- 
eur of  the  latter  are  replaced  in  Cranach  by  a 
graceful  and  almost  childlike  simplicity.  Like 
Lurer,  however,  he  was  at  times  too  much 
swayed  by  the  fantastic  element,  then  so  preva- 
lent in  German  art.  Ilis  works  are  numerous 
in  Germany,  particularly  in  Saxony,  and  some 


good  specimens  are  to  be  found  in  Florence. 
One  of  the  most  celebrated  is  an  altarpiece  at 
Weimar,  representing  in  the  middle  the  crucified 
Saviour,  on  one  side  of  whom  stand  Jolm  the 
Baptist,  the  artist,  and  Luther ;  and  on  the 
other  is  the  Redeemer,  victorious  over  death 
and  the  devil.  On  the  wings  are  portraits  of 
the  elector  and  his  family.  The  picture  has  re- 
markable i)ower  in  parts,  and  the  portrait  of 
Luther  is  singularly  grand.  In  the  Avings  of 
another  altarpiece  in  the  city  church  at  Witten- 
berg, representing  the  last  supper,  he  has  intro- 
duced Luther,  Melanchthon,  and  Bugenhagen, 
performing  various  religious  duties.  In  myth- 
logical  subjects  he  was  not  less  successful,  and 
his  nude  female  figures  have  sometimes  much 
grace  and  beauty  of  form.  He  also  excelled  in 
portraits,  and  has  left  accurate  likenesses  of 
some  of  the  most  notable  men  of  the  time.  As 
an  engraver  he  was  inferior  to  Diirer,  but  his 
wood  cuts  are  highly  esteemed.  Christian  Schu- 
chardt  is  the  author  of  Lucas  Cranach  des 
Altcren  Lcben  iincl  Werl-e  (Leipsic,  1851),  and 
the  editor  and  proprietor  of  an  illustrated  pub- 
lication, with  designs  of  Cranach's  work,  of 
which  the  2d  instalment  (Seeks  Blatter  mit 
siehoi  NacJibilchingen  von  WerJuen  Lucas  Cra- 
nach d.  A.)  appeared  at  Weimar  in  1858. — 
His  son,  Lucas  the  younger,  who  officiated  also 
as  a  burgomaster  of  Wittenberg,  and  who  died 
in  1586,  formed  his  style  on  that  of  his  father 
and  of  Diirer,  and  attained  great  excellence  as 
a  painter. 

CRANBERRY,  the  small,  red,  acid  fruit  of 
the  vaccinium  macrocarpon^  and  other  shrubs 
of  the  same  genus,  distinguished  by  slender 
creeping  stems,  small  evergreen  leaves  whitened 
beneath,  and  erect  pedicels  terminated  by  a  pale 
rose-colored  nodding  flower,  with  a  4-parted 
corolla.  Tlie  cranberry  shrub  grows  best  in 
lowlands,  where  the  decay  of  organic  matter 
furnishes  the  different  organic  acids.  It  is  in- 
digenous on  both  continents,  wild  in  many  parts 
of  North  and  South  America,  in  England  and 
Ireland,  in  the  marshy  grounds  of  central  and 
northern  Europe,  and  on  the  wastes  of  Siberia. 
The  American  cranberry  is  larger  than  the  Eng» 
li'sh,  and  of  richer  flavor.  The  3  principal  va» 
rieties  recognized  in  the  markets  are  the  cherry, 
bugle,  and  bell  cranberries.  The  best  of  the 
cherry  variety  are  very  dark  colored.  Cape  Cod 
is  noted  for  its  cranberry  grounds;  its  climate 
and  soil  are  both  favorable  to  their  growth,  and 
the  product  is  large  and  of  the  finest  quality. 
The  estimation  in  which  this  fruit  is  held  both 
in  Europe  and  America  has  caused  many  at- 
tempts, generally  with  little  success  on  uplands, 
to  produce  it  by  artificial  cultivation.  Recently 
a  wild  upland  cranberry  has  been  discovered  on 
the  Neepegon  coast  of  Lake  Superior,  where  it 
flourishes  on  the  poorest  soils.  The  fruit  is  of  a 
pale  red  color,  smaller,  softer,  and  sweeter  than 
the  lowland  varieties,  and  well  suited  for  jellies 
and  preserves.  The  lowland  ber^ries  succeed 
Avell  on  beach  sand,  or  on  soil  composed  of 
beach  sand  and  peat.     On  heavy  soils  the  vines 


CKANBERRY 


CRANCII 


33 


become  luxuriant,  but  do  not  fruit  well.  A 
loamy  soil  is  fitted  for  a  cranberry  ground  by 
liaving  beach  sand  applied  to  it;  lowlands 
are  improved  for  this  purpose  by  being  coated 
with  sand.  Taking  off  the  sod  and  exposing  tho 
soil  to  a  winter's  frost,  ameliorates  its  condition 
and  rids  it  of  weeds.  Btagnant  water  kills  the 
vines.  If  they  are  grown  on  swampy  ground, 
its  surface  should  be  drained.  The  vines  may 
be  flooded  in  autumn  and  the  water  drawn  olf 
in  the  spring,  which  saves  them  from  danger  by 
frost,  but  makes  them  blossom  later.  If  vines  are 
taken  u])  in  the  autumn  to  be  planted  again  in 
spring,  they  should  be  protected  in  a  cellar  dur- 
ing the  winter.  A  southerly  aspect  and  shelter 
from  cold  winds  are  desirable.  The  vines  should 
be  chosen  with  great  care,  some  of  them  being 
imfruitful;  tho  best  may  be  distinguished  by 
the  wiry  texture  of  the  wood,  and  the  greenish 
brown  color  of  the  leaves.  The  poorer  plants 
are  more  vigorous,  brighter,  greener,  and  have 
a  more  bushy  foliage  than  the  best.  The  vines 
should  be  planted  in  the  spring,  or  in  the  au- 
tumn if  the  "  patch"  can  be  well  flooded  in 
winter.  The  transferring  of  the  sods  which 
bear  the  vines  is  going  out  of  practice.  A  bet- 
ter method  is  to  use  cuttings  from  4  to  6  inches 
long,  the  middle  of  which  is  covered  in  the  soil, 
and  the  ends  left  projecting ;  or  2  or  3  cuttings 
may  be  planted  together  with  a  dibble.  Vines 
have  been  cut  into  pieces  2  or  3  inches  long  by 
a  common  hay  cutter,  sown  broadcast,  and  har- 
rowed in.  Propagation  from  seed  is  not  to  be 
depended  on,  the  seed  not  germinating  readily 
except  in  favorable  localities ;  the  seedlings  are 
easily  injured ;  there  is  much  loss  of  time;  and 
even  in  the  third  year  little  fruit  is  borne.  The 
vines  should  be  planted  in  rows  2  feet  apart. 
The  weeds  should  be  kept  down  for  2  seasons, 
after  which  the  vines  will  begin  to  take  full 
possession  of  the  soil.  Cranberry  vines  are 
sometimes  burned  (but  not  when  the  ground  is 
very  dry)  to  destroy  the  worm.  Flooding  is 
also  a  remedy  for  this.  The  fruit  ripens  in  the 
vicinity  of  New  York  about  the  middle  of  Oc- 
tober. The  persons  who  pick  the  berries  are 
usually  paid  by  the  bushel.  The  vines  should 
be  picked  clean.  When  gathered  before  they 
are  ripe  (as  is  sometimes  done  to  save  them  from 
frost),  or  if  the  dew  be  on  them,  they  do  not 
keep  well.  The  cranberry  rake  may  sometimes 
be  used  to  advantage  ;  it  is  made  of  bent  sheet 
iron,  whose  lower  edge  is  a  row  of  teeth  shaped 
like  the  letter  V ;  when  drawn  over  the  ground 
the  plants  escape,  but  the  fruit  is  gathered.  The 
berries  may  be  rolled  over  an  inclined  plane  to 
separate  the  good  from  the  bad.  Leaves,  straws, 
prematurely  ripe  and  diseased  fruit,  should  be 
removed.  Cranberries  for  Europe  are  packed 
in  water  in  small  kegs,  and  sometimes  in  sealed 
bottles  fdled  with  water.  By  the  American 
aborigines  poultices  were  prepared  from  cran- 
berries to  extract  the  venom  from  wounds  made 
by  poisoned  arrows. 

CRANCII,    William,    an    American   jurist, 
born  in  Weymouth,  Mass.,  July  17,  1769,  died 
VOL.  VI. 3 


in  Washington,  Sept.  1,  1855.  He  was  the  only 
son  of  the  Hon.  Richard  Cranch  of  Quincy, 
Mass.,  who  emigrated  to  the  United  States  from 
Devonshire,  England,  in  1746.  The  father  was 
for  many  years  a  judge  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas  in  Massachusetts,  and  at  one  time  a  state 
senator.  He  was  so  well  read  and  learned, 
though  educated  as  a  watcbmaker,  that  the 
elder  Adams  said  in  1815,  in  a  letter  to  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Morse,  that  he  was  "  a  man  who  had 
studied  divinity,  and  Jewish  and  Christian  anti- 
quities, more  than  any  clergyman  now  existing 
in  New  England."  From  his  mother,  a  woman 
of  rare  accomplishments  and  virtues,  William. 
Cranch  received  the  beginning  of  his  education, 
including  instruction  in  the  elements  of  algebra 
and  Latin.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  college 
in  1 787,  commenced  the  study  of  the  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  July,  1790.  After  prac- 
tising for  3  years  in  the  courts  of  Massachusetts 
and  New  Hampshire,  he  removed  in  1794  to 
the  district  of  Columbia,  where  he  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  In  1800  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  commissioners  of  public  buildings,  and 
on  Feb.  27, 1801,  was  nominated  to  the  senate  by 
President  Adams,  and  by  that  body  confirmed, 
as  one  of  the  assistant  judges  of  the  U.  S.  cir- 
cuit court  for  the  district  of  Columbia,  Gov.  Tho- 
mas Johnson  of  Maryland  and  James  Marshall 
(brother  of  Chief  Justice  Marshall)  sitting  with 
him  as  associate  judges.  In  1805,  upon  the  re- 
signation of  Chief  Justice  Kiety,  who  had  been 
made  chancellor  of  Maryland,  Judge  Cranch  re- 
ceived the  appointment  of  chief  justice  of  the 
court  from  President  Jeflferson,  and  in  virtue  of 
that  office  became  sole  judge  of  the  district 
court  of  the  United  States  for  the  district  of 
Columbia ;  a  court  of  the  same  jurisdiction  as 
that  of  the  United  States  district  courts  in  other 
parts  of  the  country.  These  honorable  posi- 
tions Judge  Cranch  held  until  Sept.  1,  1855,  the 
day  of  his  death.  For  55  years  he  was  judge" 
of  a  U.  S.  court,  for  more  than  50  years  chief 
justice;  and  in  all  this  period  of  time,  notwith- 
standing the  facilities  of  appeal  to  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States,  and,  in  the  district 
of  Columbia,  upon  judgments  of  a  much  smaller 
amount  than  those  rendered  in  the  U.  S.  circuit 
and  district  courts  in  the  states,  only  2  of  his 
own  decisions  were  overruled  or  sent  back  for 
amendment  by»the  highest  court  in  the  country. 
In  all  the  courts  of  the  country  and  to  all  the 
members  of  the  bar  Judge  Cranch  is  well  known 
as  the  reporter  of  the  decisions  of  the  U.  S.  su- 
preme court.  In  this  office  he  was  preceded  by 
Mr.  Dallas,  and  succeeded  by  Mr.  Peters.  He 
also  made  full  and  accurate  reports  of  the  cases 
decided  in  the  circuit  court  of  the  district  of 
Columbia  from  1801  to  1841,  which  were  pub- 
lished in  6  large  volumes  a  feAV  years  before  his 
death.  In  conformity  with  an  act  of  congress 
he  also  prepared  a  code  of  laws  for  the  district 
of  Columbia,  but  this  code,  like  that  prepared 
by  Philip  Doddridge,  M.  C.  from  Virginia,  some 
years  later,  was  neglected  by  congress.  As  a 
judge  he  was  always  fearless,  independent,  wise. 


34 


CRANOH 


CRANE 


and  just.  His  proximity  to  the  federal  author- 
ities brought  him  more  thun  once  into  conflict 
with  the  executive  department,  and  upon  ques- 
tions involving  the  riglits  and  integrity  of  the 
judicial  service.  In  all  such  conflicts  he  proved 
an  able  and  upright  judge.  His  legal  acquire- 
ments were  extraordinary,  and  he  studied  his 
cases  with  a  patience  and  research  that  never 
grew  weary.  Among  the  last  services  imposed 
upon  him  by  congress,  was  the  final  hearing  of 
f)atent  causes  after  an  appeal  from  the  commis- 
sioner of  patents.  He  was  alike  familiar  with 
the  modern  lights  of  jurisprudence  and  with  all 
the  black-letter  authorities.  Long  after  he  had 
reached  the  age  of  threescore  and  ten  years  lie 
still  gave  to  study  12,  14,  and  even  16  hours  a 
day.  He  could  not  only  toil  like  a  very  Her- 
cules in  his  profession,  but  he  loved  that  pro- 
fession and  all  its  labors  with  his  whole  heart. 
He  also  had  a  fondness  for  art  and  for  music,  and 
with  the  latter  he  liad  a  practical  acquaintance 
which  he  enjoyed  through  life,  especially  sacred 
music,  with  all  the  earnestness  of  youthful  en- 
thusiasm. He  was  eminently  a  religious  man,  an 
example  of  Christian  charity  and  all  the  ameni- 
ties of  life.  During  his  long  career  he  possessed 
the  respect  of  all  who  knew  his  abilities  and 
services,  and  the  confidence  of  all  who  knew 
him  as  a  man.  His  habits  of  life  were  singularly 
simple,  his  manners  modest  and  reserved,  and 
his  character  child-like  and  confiding.  His  wife, 
Nancy  Greenleaf,  of  Boston,  died  12  years  be- 
fore him.  They  had  13  children,  of  whom  the 
sons  were  liberally  educated,  while  the  daughters 
enjoyed  every  advantage  of  instruction  which 
the  federal  capital  could  afford,  all  upon  the  fa- 
ther's salary  of  $2,500  and  $2,700  a  year,  out  of 
which  they  also  were  able  to  live  respectably 
and  bestow  something  in  charity  to  the  poor, 
— CnRisTOPHER  Pearse,  SOU  of  the  preceding,  an 
American  artist  and  i)oet,  born  at  Alexandria, 
I).  C,  March  8,  1813.  He  was  graduated  at 
Columbian  college,  in  "Washington,  in  1831, 
studied  for  3  years  in  the  divinity  school  of 
Harvard  university,  became  a  licentiate,  but 
gradually  withdrew  from  the  clerical  oflice,  and 
in  1842  determined  to  devote  himself  to  land- 
scape painting.  He  resided  in  New  York  in 
the  practice  of  his  art  from  that  time  till  1847, 
when  he  visited  Italy  for  2  years.  He  went 
again  to  Europe  in  1853,  and  hafsince  then  lived 
in  Paris;  and  his  productions  have  given  him 
a  prominent  position  as  an  artist.  Mr.  Cranch 
was  one  of  the  contributors  to  the  "Dial,"  ed- 
ited by  li.  ^Y.  Emerson  and  others,  and  soiije  of 
his  best  poems  were  published  in  that  periodi- 
cal. In  1854  a  volume  of  his  poems  appeared 
at  Philadelphia.  His  latest  publications  are 
two  stories,  entitled  the  "  Last  of  the  Hugger- 
muggers  "  (Boston,  185(5),  and  "Kobboltozo" 
(1857),  the  latter  of  which  is  a  sequel  to  tlie 
former.  He  continues  to  write  occasionall}^  for 
various  American  journals  and  magazines. 

CRANE,  a  wading  bird  of  the  order  ffi-alltp, 
family  arJeidrp,  and  subfamily  gruinm ;  under 
this   subfamily  are  included  the  genera  grim, 


scops,  and  lalearica.  The  genus  grm,  which 
includes  the  typical  cranes,  has  the  bill  longer 
than  the  head,  straight,  sharp-pointed,  com- 
pressed on  the  sides,  and  slightly  curved  at  the 
tip  ;  the  wings  are  long,  the  tertials  lengthened 
and  pendent;  tail  short;  tarsi  very  long  and 
slender,  covered  with  transverse  scales;  toes 
rather  short,  the  outer  united  at  the  base  to  the 
middle  one,  the  lateral  ones  equal ;  hind  toe 
short  and  elevated ;  claws  short  and  strong. 
The  cranes  are  large  birds,  frequenting  marshes, 
muddy  flats,  cultivated  and  open  plains,  migrat- 
ing to  warm  climates  in  winter,  and  returning 
to  the  north  to  breed.  They  fly  usually  at  night 
in  large  flocks,  following  a  leader  in  2  diverg- 
ing lines,  at  a  great  elevation,  and  sometimes 
uttering  loud  cries.  Their  food  consists  of  rep- 
tiles, fish,  mice,  and  other  small  animals,  insects, 
seeds,  roots,  and  grain.  The  common  crane  of 
Europe  is  G.  cinerea  (Bechst.).  The  American 
crane  (  G.  Americana,  Linn.)  is  a  good  example 
of  the  genus.  It  has  the  bill  dusky,  and  yellow 
toward  the  base ;  the  head  small,  neck  very 
long,  body  rather  slender,  tibia  bare  to  a  largo 
extent ;  the  bare  parts  on  the  top  and  sides  of 
the  head  carmine,  "Hiith  small  black  hairs  ;  feet 
black ;  plumage  pure  white  except  the  primaries 
and  their  coverts,  which  are  brownish  black. 
The  length  to  the  end  of  the  tail  is  54  inches, 
and  to  the  end  of  claws  65 ;  extent  of  wings 
92,  bill  5'-,  tarsus  about  11  inches.  Young  birds 
are  of  bluish  gray  color,  with  the  feathers  tip- 
ped and  margined  with  yellowish  brown,  and 
the  abdomen  grayish  blue;  in  this  state  the 
bird  was  described  as  G.  Canadensis.  This 
species,  called  whooping  crane  from  the  loud 
noise  it  makes,  is  by  some  considered  specifi- 
cally distinct  from  the  true  G.  Canadensis  (Linn.), 
to  which  the  name  of  sand-hill  crane  has  been 
given.  The  cranes  are  found  in  the  Avestern 
and  southern  states  from  the  middle  of  October 
until  about  the  middle  of  April,  when  they  re- 
tire to  the  north.  They  are  very  shy,  and 
difficult  to  approach  from  the  acuteness  of  their 
sight  and  hearing ;  when  wounded,  they  should 
be  approached  with  caution,  to  avftid  the  blows 
of  their  sharp  and  poAverful  bills.  They  roost 
either  on  the  ground  or  oij  high  trees,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.  The  nests  are  made 
among  the  high  grass,  of  coarse  materials,  flat, 
about  18  inches  in  diameter,  but  little  elevated 
above  the  surface ;  the  eggs  are  2  in  number, 
bluish  white,  and  are  sat  upon  by  both  birds. 
They  become  gentle  in  captivity,  feeding  on 
vegetable  substances.  The  genus  scops  em- 
braces the  Numidian  crane  (-S'.  virgo,  Linn.), 
ash-colored,  with  a  black  neck,  and  2  white 
tufts  of  elongated  slender  feathers  covering  the 
ear  ;  this  is  often  kept  in  captivity,  and  is  quite 
gentle.  The  genus  iaiearica,  peculiar  to  Africa 
and  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  has  the 
bill  shorter  than  the  head,  thick  and  strong ;  the 
cheeks  are  naked,  and  the  base  of  the  bill  and 
the  throat  beneath  are  wattled.  Tlie  crowned 
crane  (B.  jntvonina,  Linn.)  is  a  slender,  graceful 


CRA^^: 


35 


belly,  ■white  wings,  and  fulvous  rump;  the 
naked  cheeks  are  bright  rose  color,  and  the  hind 
head  is  crowned  -witli  a  tuft  of  yellow  feathers 
or  hairs,  resembling  the  flower  stems  of  broom 
corn,  which  may  be  extended  at  i)leasure  ;  it  is 
also  often  kept  in  captivity  for  its  beauty  and 
docility ;  its  voice  is  remarkably  shrill.  In  its 
•wild  state  it  feeds  on  fish. 

CRAXE,  a  machine  for  raising  heavy  weights, 
and  moving  them  short  distances.  In  its  simplest 
form  it  consists  of  an  upright  post  ■with  a  horizon- 
tal beam  called  a  jib,  framed  in  or  near  its  top, 
and  braced  by  a  stick  called  a  stay,  wliich  is  fram- 
ed in  the  post  and  the  jib.  It  is  held  upright,  with 
freedom  to  turn  round,  by  a  pin  in  each  end  of 
the  post,  one  •working  upon  a  solid  support  be- 
low, and  the  other  in  a  beam  above  ;  or  the 
upper  support  may  be  in  a  collar  encircling  the 
post  and  secured  to  a  stationary  object,  as  a 
wall  or  another  post.  A  pulley  is  set  in  or  sus- 
pended from  tlie  further  extremity  of  the  jib, 
by  which  the  -weight  is  taken  up,  the  fall  of 
the  tackle  passing  around  the  drum  of  a  winch 
attached  to  the  lower  end  of  the  post.  Such 
cranes  are  employed  in  founderies  and  upon 
piers,  where  large  blocks  of  stone  or  other  heavy 
materials  are  shipped  or  unshipped,  and  are  set 
upon  some  barges  to  be  always  at  hand  for 
moving  their  heavy  freight.  Their  construc- 
tion is,  however,  generally  a  modification  of 
the  simple  form  described.  The  liorizontal  jib 
Las  often  a  narrow  rail  upon  its  top,  upon 
which  a  flanged  wheel  traverses,  supporting 
the  pulley.  This  admits  of  the  weight  being 
brought  nearer  to  the  post,  so  that  it  may  be 
placed  upon  any  part  of  the  circular  area  in- 
cluded in  the  sweep  of  the  jib.  Cranes  are 
often  made  with  the  jib  set  at  an  inclination  cf 
45"^  or  thereabouts,  and  stepped  at  its  lower  end 
in  a  framework  of  iron,  which  carries  also  the 
winch,  and  may  be  turned  around  the  post  which 
it  encircles.  In  tliese  the  foot  of  the  post  is  set 
strongly  in  mason  work,  and  no  support  is  re- 
quired to  steady  it  at  top.  The  jib  is  kept  up 
by  tension  bars  placed  above  it  and  extending 
horizontally  from  its  extreme  end  to  the  top  of 
the  post.  A  convenient  crane  for  laying  small 
stone,  employed  in  constructing  the  dry  dock  at 
Brooklyn,  was  made  with  a  boom  30  feet  long, 
working  upon  a  horizontal  iron  bolt  attached 
to  the  frame  of  the  winch.  The  working  part 
of  the  winch,  its  pinion  with  a  crank  at  each 
end  of  the  axle,  and  the  \Yheel  driven  by  the 
pinion,  with  the  barrel  upon  its  axis,  were  set 
upon  tbe  side  of  the  mast  opposite  to  the  boom, 
and  tlie  fall  passed  up  to  the  top  40  feet  from 
the  ground,  and  thence  over  the  end  of  the 
boom  to  the  pulleys  suspended  below  it.  The 
mast  worked  ui)on  a  pivot  stepped  upon  a  stone 
foundation,  and  its  upper  end  was  stayed  by  guys. 
The  boom  could  be  lowered  or  raised  by  a  pulley 
passing  from  its  extremity  to  the  top  of  tlie  mast, 
the  fall  coming  down  and  made  fast  at  its  foot. 
In  some  cranes,  made  to  lift  very  heavy  weights, 
the  foot  of  the  jib,  instead  of  resting  upon  the 
crane  post,  is  set  against  a  circular  rail  let  into 


the  masonry,  thus  relieving  the  post  of  a  great 
portion  of  tlie  strain.  Cast  iron  has  been  Inuch 
employed  for  some  years  past,  instead  of  timber, 
for  the  construction  of  cranes ;  and  Mr.  Fair- 
bairn,  of  England,  has  introduced  the  use  of 
plates  of  wrought  iron,  riveted  together  and  ar- 
ranged in  tubular  form,  on  the  principle  adopted 
in  the  building  of  the  Britannia  tubular  bridge. 
His  crane,  designed  to  raise  12  tons,  has  been 
tested  with  20,  and  is  supposed  capable  of  bear- 
ing 60.  It  sweeps  a  circle  of  53  feet  radius. 
The  under  side  of  the  jib  is  of  cellular  construc- 
tion to  resist  pressure,  and  there  are  long  plates, 
and  T  iron  on  the  upper  side  to  resist  tension. 
The  jib  being  curved  like  the  neck  of  a  crane, 
allows  a  largo  boiler  or  other  article  to  be  raised 
to  the  top. — The  power  employed  to  work  cranes , 
is  usually  that  of  men  turning  the  winch.  In 
some  situations  they  are  conveniently  connected 
with  macliinery  running  by  steam  or  other 
power,  and  their  movements  are  controlled  by  a 
lever  brought  to  bear  with  as  much  friction  as 
may  be  required  upon  the  barrel  of  the  winch 
by  a  rope  held  in  the  hand  of  the  man  wlio 
manages  the  machine.  They  have  also  been 
made  to  work  by  the  pressure  of  a  column  of 
water  upon  a  movable  piston,  a  valve  in  the 
supply  pipe  being  used  to  control  the  move- 
ment. Steam,  also,  has  been  applied  to  work 
a  small  engine  connected  directly  with  the 
barrel  of  the  winch. — The  most  powerful  of 
all  cranes  ever  built  are  those  contrived  by 
Mr.  Albert  Bishop  of  Xew  York,  and  generally 
known  as  Bishop's  boom  derrick.  Derrick  is  a 
name  commonly  applied  to  cranes  used  on  ship- 
board. Several  of  these  have  been  in  use  since 
the  year  1853  in  New  York  harbor;  the  sta- 
tionary ones  are  for  moving  boilers  and  heavy 
machinery  in  or  out  of  steamships.  One  was 
built  upon  a  scow,  that  admits  of  its  being  float- 
ed about  wherever  required  for  raising  sunken 
vessels.  On  Sept.  27,  1858,  the  first  one  of 
the  kind  built  in  England  was  launched  in 
Bow  creek,  London,  which  far  exceeds  in  capa- 
city those  made  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
built  upon  a  huge  iron  hull  of  5,000  tons 
measurement,  257  feet  long,  and  90  feet  wide. 
This  is  stayed-  by  trusses  of  wrought  iron  and 
tie  rods,  that  give  it  greater  strength  than  that 
of  any  other  vessel  ever  put  together,  not  except- 
ing the  Great  Eastern.  The  propelling  power  is 
furnished  by  2  pairs  of  oscillating  engines  of 
160  horse  power  each,  with  Barran's  patent 
cup  surface  boilers ;  and  2  other  oscillating  en- 
gines, of  30  nominal  horse  power,  are  provided 
for  working  10  sets  of  crabs,  independently  of 
each  other.  Their  combined  hoisting  power  is 
rated  at  1,000  tons  clear  of  the  water;  and 
the  load  can  be  swung  upon  an  arc  the  radius 
of  which  is  60  feet,  and  moved  in  or  out  upon 
tliis  radius.  The  post  is  a  stand  like  a  tripod, 
except  that  it  has  4  legs.  These  are  of  wrought 
iron,  strongly  braced  with  iron,  and  their  cap 
is  80  feet  above  the  deck.  This  is  a  huge  iron 
saucer  containing  iron  balls,  upon  which  the 
cross  or  yard  called  the  boom  is  supported,  and 


36 


CRANE 


CEANMER 


rolls  around ;  this,  too,  is  of  wrouglit  iron,  120 
feet  long  and  vvcigliing  80  tons.  Upon  its  cen- 
tre stands  a  ■vvroiight-iron  cylinder  called  the 
king  post,  50  feet  higli,  7  feet  in  circumference, 
and  weighing  GO  tons.  From  the  top  of  this  10 
tension  braces  of  iron  rods  pass  down  on  one  side 
to  the  boom,  along  which  they  are  arranged  like 
the  supporting  wires  of  a  suspension  bridge,  and 
a  smaller  number  pass  to  the  end  of  the  boom 
on. the  other  side;  from  this  end  powerful  rods 
are  let  fall  to  the  deck,  where  they  are  secured 
to  a  circular  railway,  tliat  admits  of  their  moving 
as  the  boom  is  swung  round.  Along  the  suspen- 
sion arm  of  the  l)oom  are  placed  10  heavy  pul- 
leys, the  falls  of  which  pass  down  to  the  crabs 
or  winches  in  the  base  of  the  stand.  The 
tackles  of  these  concentrating  below  in  one  re- 
semble the  arrangement  of  the  web  of  the  spi- 
der, where  numerous  strands  are  brought  to 
combine  their  strength  at  one  point.  These 
tackles  connect  witli  the  great  chains  employed 
in  lifting  sunken  ships.  The  weight  of  iron  in 
the  hull  is  750  tons,  and  in  the  derrick  itself 
about  250  tons,  making  1,000  tons,  independ- 
ently of  the  weight  of  all  the  machinery.  The 
total  cost  was  £45,000.  Tlie  machine  is  intend- 
ed to  go  out  to  sea,  and  to  be  employed  near  Liver- 
pool as  well  as  London,  until  others  are  construct- 
ed for  each  place.  The  paddles  for  propelling  the 
vessel  are  very  small,  arranged  upon  an  endless 
chain,  and  are  compared  to  the  legs  of  a  caterpil- 
lar. In  1857  there  were  on  the  English  coast 
1,141  wrecks  reported,  and  there  is  no  doubt 
a  very  large  proportion  of  these  vessels  could 
have  been  raised,  if  such  machines  had  been 
available. 

CRANE,  "William  M.,  a  commodore  in  the 
U.  S.  navy,  born  at  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.,  Feb.  1, 
1776,  died  in  Washington,  March  18,  1846.  He 
was  the  son  of  Gen.  William  Crane,  who  served 
as  colonel  in  the  revolutionary  army.  He  en- 
tered the  navy  as  midshipman  in  May,  1799  ; 
was  made  a  lieutenant  in  July,  1803 ;  served  be- 
fore Tripoli  under  Commodore  Edward  Preble, 
and  was  present  at  all  the  attacks  made  upon 
tlie  city.  He  was  serving  on  board  the  Chesa- 
peake at  the  time  of  her  action  with  the  Leop- 
ard. At  the  commencement  of  the  war  with 
England  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  brig  Nautilus  of  14  guns,  in  which  he  was 
unfortunately  captured  in  July,  1812,  by  a  Brit- 
ish squadron,  soon  after  sailing  from  New 
York.  On  his  exchange  he  was  ordered  to  the 
lakes,  where,  in  command  of  the  Madison  and 
Pike,  in  the  squadron  of  Com.  Chauncey,  he 
served  with  distinction  for  the  remainder  of  the 
war.  From  1815  until  his  death,  Com.  Crane 
was  very  constantly  employed  in  important  ser- 
vice. During  one  cruise  of  over  4  years  in  the 
Mediterranean,  lie  conmianded  successively  the 
Independence  ship  of  tlie  line,  the  Erie  sloop, 
and  the  frigates  Constellation  and  United  States, 
In  1827  he  was  appointed  to  command  the 
American  squadron  in  tliat  sea,  the  Delaware 
ship  of  the  line  bearing  his  flag.  While  on  this 
service  he  acted  as  joint  conn  aissiouer  with  Mr. 


OflBey,  U.  S.  consul  at  Smyrna,  to  open  negotia- 
tions with  the  Ottoman  government,  preliminary 
to  a  commercial  treaty,  Avhich  was  concluded 
soon  afterward.  In  1841  he  was  appointed 
navy  connnissioner,  and  in  1842,  when  the  navy 
department  was  reorganized,  was  made  chief 
of  the  bureau  of  ordnance  and  hydrography, 
wliich  he  administered  until  near  his  death. 

CRANK,  an  axle  bent  twice  at  right  angles, 
or  it  may  be  4  times,  so  as  to  return  upon  its 
original  line,  in  which  case  the  axle  may  be 
supported  on  each  side  the  elbow.  When  it  is 
made  to  revolve,  a  rod  playing  loosely  upon 
the  elbow  will  be  carried  forward  and  back ; 
thus  an  alternating  motion  is  obtained  from  a 
rotary ;  and  on  the  same  plan  an  alternating 
motion  may  be  converted  into  a  rotary  motion. 
Watt  applied  it  to  the  steam  engine,  taking  the 
idea  from  the  crank  of  the  knife-grinder's  ma- 
chine, by  which  the  alternating  motion  given 
to  the  treadle  with  the  foot  causes  the  wheel 
to  rotate.  It  has  continued  in  one  form  or  an- 
other to  be  indispensable  in  almost  every  kind 
of  steam  engine. 

CRANMER,  Thomas,  the  first  Protestant 
archbi.shop  of  Canterbury,  born  at  Aslacton, 
Nottinghamshire,  July  2,  1489,  died  March  21, 
1556.  His  family  is  said  to  have  been  ancient, 
though  by  some  authorities  his  father  is  called 
a  yeoman.  Having  acquired  the  rudiments  of 
knowledge  at  Aslacton  school,  he  was  senl  at 
the  age  of  14  to  Jesus  college,  Cambridge,  where 
he  remained  16  years.  He  was  not  only  an  ac- 
complished scholar,  but  versed  in  pursuits  that 
belong  especially  to  active  men  of  the  world ; 
and  h  e  lost  his  fellowship  through  marriage.  His 
wife  dying  soon,  he  turned  his  attention  to  the 
church,  and  in  1523  was  made  doctor  in  divinity, 
appointed  theological  lecturer  of  Jesus  college, 
and  examiner  of  candidates  for  holy  orders. 
While  married,  he  had  been  common  lecturer 
of  Magdalen  (then  Buckingham)  college.  When, 
on  a  visit  to  Mr.  Cressy,  at  Waltham,  1529,  he 
met  the  secretary  and  almoner  of  Henry  VIII., 
who  pressed  him  to  give  his  opinion  on  the 
question  of  the  king's  divorce,  Henry  being 
anxious  to  get  rid  of  Catharine  of  Aragon,  in 
order  that  he  might  wed  Anne  Boleyn.  Cran- 
mer  said  that  the  opinion  of  the  learned  men  of 
Europe  sliould  be  taken  on  the  question  whe- 
ther, according  to  the  canon  law  and  the  Bible, 
a  man  could  marry  his  brother's  widow  ;  and 
that  the  pope  could  not  resist  that  opinion  if  it 
should  bo  pronounced  in  favor  of  the  king, 
while  if  it  were  against  him  the  king  ■would 
himself  have  to  submit.  This  was  told  to 
Henry,  who  was  struck  by  it,  and  he  ordered 
Cranmer  to  come  to  court.  The  personal  inter- 
view that  followed  was  very  satisfactory  to 
Henry,  who  recjuired  Cranmer  to  reduce  to 
writing  what  he  had  to  say  in  favor  of  the  di- 
vorce, made  him  a  royal  chaplain,  and  put  him 
in  the  household  of  Anne  Boleyu's  father. 
Cranmer  completed  his  work  on  tlie  divorce, 
bringing  his  ciiief  arguments  against  that  papal 
dispensing  power  under  which  Henry  had  mar- 


CRANMER 


37 


ried  liis  brotlior  Artlmr's  widow,  to  the  royal 
satisfaction  ;  and  then  was  appointed  to  super- 
intend the  execution  of  the  i)hin  he  liad  sug- 
gested, lie  began  at  Caniliridge,  wliere  he  en- 
countered much  o[)position.  Oxford  was  more 
pliant.  On  the  continent  he  succeeded  better, 
and  many  learned  and  i)ious  men  gave  such 
judgments  as  were  pleasing  to  Henry  and  las 
agent.  He  was  also  ai)[)ointed  to  accompany 
Lord  Wiltshire,  Anne  Boleyn's  father,  and  oth- 
ers, on  a  mission  to  Bologna  (1530),  where  the 
emperor  then  was,  and  to  the  pope.  Clement 
VII.  liad  for  several  months  j)reviously  resisted 
all  solicitations  to  pronounce  judgment  on  the 
cause,  but  at  length  liad  been  induced  by  the 
influence  of  Charles  V.  to  sign  a  brief  forbid- 
ding Henry  to  marry  before  the  publication  of 
his  sentence.  On  the  arrival  of  the  ambas- 
sadors, the  operation  of  the  brief  was  sus- 
pended ;  the  pope  received  them  cordially,  con- 
ferred an  office  on  Cranmer,  and  promised  to 
do  whatever  his  conscience  would  permit  in 
favor  of  Henry.  The  emperor  took  a  more 
decided  stand  against  the  demands  of  the  em- 
bassy, and  was  gracious  only  to  Cranmer,  who 
was  really  the  most  efficient  member  of  the 
divorce  party.  When  Lord  Wiltshire  returned 
home,  Cranmer  went  to  Germany,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  working  on  the  minds  of  the  Lutheran 
clergy,  and  to  perform  certain  diplomatic  du- 
ties. He  was  not  successful,  but  the  Lutherans 
converted  him.  Though  yet  a  Catholic  clergy- 
man, nominally,  he  married  the  niece  of  the 
celebrated  Osiander  of  Nuremberg,  an  excel- 
lent woman.  Love  had  probably  much  eftect 
on  his  mind,  and  tended  to  change  his  religious 
belief.  He  was  made  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury in  1533,  soon  after  his  return  to  England. 
Undoubtedly  he  desired  not  this  promotion, 
which  exposed  him  to  great  danger,  and  tlie 
nolo  episcopari  in  his  case  meant  something; 
but  Henry  was  not  the  sovereign  to  digest  a 
refusal,  and  Cranmer,  before  swearing  obedience 
to  the  pope,  made  a  private  protest  substan- 
tially declaring  he  did  not  consider  tlie  oath 
binding.  He  immediately  proceeded  with  the 
divorce,  and  declared  the  marriage  between 
Henry  and  Catharine  null  and  void  from  the 
beginning.  The  queen  refused  to  appear  in  his 
court.  It  is  not  true  that  lie  married  Henry 
and  Anne,  as  he  was  not  even  present  at  the 
ceremony,  and  knew  not  of  its  occurrence  until 
a  fortnight  had  elapsed  ;  but  he  delivered  the 
crown  and  sceptre  to  Anne  at  her  coronation. 
When  the  pope  had  excommunicated  Henry, 
Cranmer  became  an  active  agent  in  the  reform- 
ation, and  urged  forward  measures  calculated 
to  make  the  breach  comj)lete,  his  principles  and 
his  fears  alike  dictating  that  course.  Yet  he 
was  always  opposed  to  cruelty,  and,  provided 
his  own  safety  was  assured,  would  have  been 
content  that  all  others  should  live  and  prosper. 
He  tried  hard  to  save  More  and  Fisher.  His 
personal  enemies  he  forgave  with  a  readiness 
that  somewhat  lessens  admiration,  because  it 
suggests  that  he  had  small  sense  of  either  favors 


or  injuries.  When  Anne  Boleyn  was  arrested, 
lie  was  ordered  to  go  to  his  ei)iscopal  palace, 
and  there  to  remain,  an  act  intended  to  frighten 
him  into  taking  some  part  in  the  queen's  degra- 
dation and  murder.  The  king  and  his  instru- 
ments knew  his  timid  nature,  and  that  his  high 
office  and  pure  {)ersonal  character  would  help 
gloss  over  a  foul  transaction.  At  first,  the  pri- 
mate was  disposed  to  show  some  spirit,  and  he 
wrote  a  letter  to  Henry  which  was  favorable 
to  Anne,  though  not  strikingly  so ;  but  before 
the  letter  was  sent,  he  was  summoned  to  the 
star  cliainber,  where  he  had  an  interview  with 
some  of  the  high  officers  of  the  crown,  and 
others,  and  their  communications  caused  him 
to  add  a  postscript  to  the  effect  that  he  was 
persuaded  of  the  queen's  guilt.  Mr.  Froude, 
who  would,  to  borrow  a  saying  of  that  age,  find 
Abel  guilty  of  the  murder  of  Cain,  in  his  zeal 
to  show  that  whatever  Henry  VIII.  did  was  of 
necessity  right,  draws  from  this  postscript  the 
utterly  illogical  inference  that  the  evidence 
against  Anne  placed  before  Cranmer  was  con- 
clusive ;  whereas  it  is  probable  the  primate  was 
frightened  by  the  persons  who  liad  been  ap- 
pointed to  work  upon  his  timorous  nature.  His 
feelings  were  ever  good,  but  he  had  no  courage. 
After  the  scandalous  trial  and  condemnation  of 
Anne,  she  was  taken  to  Lambeth,  where  Cran- 
mer, sitting  in  judgment,  pronounced  her  mar- 
riage null  and  void  from  the  first  (1536).  The 
archbisliop  had  his  share  in  the  persecutions 
that  were  carried  on  by  Henry,  and  in  some  in- 
stances took  part  in  sending  to  death  persons 
who  believed  what  soon  afterward  he  came  to 
believe  Iiimself,  if  he  did  not  believe  it  at  tlie 
time  he  condemned  them.  When  Cromwell 
suspended  the  power  of  all  the  prelates  and 
ordinaries  in  the  kingdom,  in  virtue  of  his 
power  as  vicar-general,  and  because  of  the 
general  visitation  that  was  to  be  made,  Cran- 
mer set  the  example  of  submission,  and  placed 
the  church  at  the  feet  of  tlie  king,  liaving 
previously  contended  that  the  king  alone  had 
the  power  of  appointing  spiritual  officers.  He 
seems  to  have  been  ready  to  go  as  far  as  Eras- 
tus  himself  in  maintaining  the  authority  of 
the  civil  power.  The  suppression  of  the  mon- 
asteries was  supported  by  him,  but  he  was 
desirous  that  some  of  the  property  seized 
should  be  used  for  the  purposes  of  religion 
and  education,  instead  of  being  given  to  mer- 
cenary courtiers.  He  took  an  active  and  prom- 
inent part  in  placing  the  Bible  in  the  hands 
of  the  English  people  in  their  native  tongue. 
In  1534  he  carried  through  the  convocation  a 
resolution  that  the  Bible  should  be  translated, 
and  the  holy  volume  appeared  in  1540,  Cran- 
mer's  portrait  being  conspicuous  in  the  frontis- 
piece. Through  Ins  influence  the  creed,  the 
Lord's  prayer,  and  the  commandments  were 
taught  in  English.  Yet  the  Protestant  doctrines 
were  far  from  being  established  in  England,  .and 
in  1539  the  famous  "  six  articles ''  were  adopted, 
in  opposition  to  Cranmer's  advice  and  exer- 
tions.    They  were  Catholic  in  character,  avA 


38 


CRANMER 


one  of  them  bore  hard  upon  Oranmcr.  He  was 
married,  and  the  3d  declared  that  it  was  not 
permitted  to  priests  to  marry  and  liave  wives 
after  ordination.  On  this  point  Cranmer  con- 
tended strongly,  and  Henry,  who  liked  him  as 
well  as  he  was  cajjable  of  liking  any  one,  bore 
with  his  opposition,  but  would  not  abandon  his 
purpose.  He  then  submitted,  and  sent  his  wife 
and  children  to  Germany,  where  they  remained 
until  Henry's  death.  After  this,  Cranmer  was 
less  prominent  at  court  than  he  had  been,  and 
though  he  continued  to  have  the  king's  favor, 
he  was  once  on  the  eve  of  being  arrested.  He 
supported  the  project  of  marrying  Henry  to 
Anne  of  Cleves,  received  that  lady  after  her 
arrival  in  England,  and  presided  in  convocation 
when  that  body  declared  the  marriage  dissolved 
(1540).  He  interceded  for  Cromwell,  but  hief- 
fectually.  It  was  by  him  that  Henry  was  inform- 
ed of  the  alleged  criminality  of  his  5th  queen, 
Catharine  Howard  (1541) ;  and  as  she  belonged 
to,  and  was  in  the  hands  of,  the  Catholic  party, 
which  aimed  at  the  primate's  destruction,  it  is 
not  uncharitable  to  suppose  that  he  was  a  will- 
ing informer.  It  shows  the  estimation  in  which 
he  was  held  by  the  king,  that  he  was  selected 
by  him  for  consoler  when  he  was  dying,  and 
that  Henry's  last  earthly  act  was  to  wring  his 
hand  as  evidence  that  he  put  his  trust  in  God 
through  the  Saviour.  By  the  royal  will,  Cran- 
mer was  appointed  a  meniber  of  the  council  of 
regency  that  was  to  rule  during  the  minority 
of  Edward  VI.,  who  was  but  9  years  old  (1547.) 
During  the  "  boy  king's  "  hfe,  Cranmer's  influ- 
ence was  great,  and  was  directed  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  that  ecclesiastical  polity  which  has 
ever  since  endured  in  England,  with  the  brief 
interval  of  Mary's  reign,  and  which  now,  after 
the  lapse  of  3  centuries,  affords  no  indica- 
tions of  decay.  He  was  the'  founder  of  the 
church  of  England,  and  of  most  that  is  peculiar 
in  the  nature  of  that  venerable  institution. 
Most  of  his  actions  of  that  time  will  bear  crit- 
icism, but  not  all.  Against  the  prohibition  of 
the  canon  law  he  had  a  prominent  part  in  the 
legal  murder  of  Lord  Seymour  of  Sudely,  at 
the  instigation  of  that  lord's  brother,  the  pro- 
tector Somerset.  In  the  harsh  treatment  of 
the  Catholic  prelates  he  was  the  principal 
agent.  When  it  was  found  necessary  to  over- 
come Edward's  natural  repugnance  to  the  burn- 
ing of  "heretics,"  Cranmer  was  employed  to 
convince  him  that  such  conduct  was  proper. 
He  sentenced  persons  to  the  stake  for  the  very 
opposite  belief  to  that  for  which  he  had  taken 
part  in  condemning  others  in  the  reign  of  Henry ; 
and  when  he  was  reminded  of  his  horrible  in- 
consistency_  by  one  of  his  victims,  the  effect 
was  to  irritate  him  against  her.  This  was 
worse  than  his  assisting  at  Henry's  condemna- 
tion of  Lambert,  which  is  considered  one  of  the 
worst  deeds  of  that  iron  age.  Cranmer  was  an 
adherent  of  Somerset  in  the  contests  that  di- 
vided Edward's  court,  and  -by  the  protector  he 
was  supported  in  his  ecclesiastical  reforms. 
When  Edward  resolved  to  leave  the  crown  to 


Jane  Grey,  Cranmer  was  reluctantly  induced 
to  sanction  the  act,  which  was  as  absurd  as  it 
was  illegal.  He  adhered  faithfully  to  her,  and 
fell  with  her.  Ho  had  nothing  to  liope  from 
Mary,  and  his  last  official  act  was  to  serve  at 
the  funeral  of  Edward.  The  next  day,  Aug.  9, 
1553,  he  was  ordered  to  confine  himself  to  his 
palace  at  Lambeth,  and  to  furnish  an  inven- 
tory of  his  movables.  He  bore  himself  meek- 
ly, but  he  denied,  in  language  worthy  of  Lati- 
mer, that  he  had  consented  to  the  performance 
of  the  mass  in  Canterbury  cathedral.  For  this 
ho  was  summoned  before  the  council,  and  on 
the  13th  of  October  was  committed  to  the 
tower,  on  the  charges  of  treason  and  sedition. 
Having  been  attainted  by  parliament,  and  it 
being  resolved  to  proceed  against  him  for  her- 
esy alone,  he  was  sent  down  to  Oxford  with 
Latimer  and  Ridley,  to  go  through  the  form 
of  disputing  with  Catholics  on  the  contested 
points  of  religion.  All  were  condemned,  of 
course,  though  the  Protestants  were  not  so 
much  as  heard.  To  the  demand  of  the  com- 
missioners before  whom  they  were  then  taken, 
whether  they  would  return  to  the  old  faith, 
they  answered  in  the  negative.  Cranmer  was 
then  cited  to  appear  at  Rome  within  80  days, 
and  as  he  could  not  do  so,  he  was  condemned 
as  contumacious.  At  first  he  was  firm,  but  the 
terror  caused  by  that  form  of  death  to  which 
he  had  sentenced  others,  and  by  which  Ridley 
and  Latimer  had  suffered  so  much,  overcame 
him.  He  faltered,  and  then  recanted,  but  not 
until,  in  a  moment  of  courage,  he  had  written 
to  the  queen  in  behalf  of  Protestantism.  He 
signed  6  recantations,  and  so  acted  as  to  show 
he  was  the  victim  of  abject  fear.  But  all  this 
was  of  no  avail.  Mary  hated  him  because  of 
what  he  had  done  against  her  mother  and  her- 
self, and  it  must  be  allowed  that  her  conduct 
was  natural.  Gardiner  and  Bonner  hated  him 
because  of  the  personal  oppression  they  had 
suffered  at  his  hands.  Both  queen  and  bishops 
were  resolved  upon  his  degradation,  and  equally 
that  it  should  not  save  his  life.  He  was  ordered 
to  prepare  for  death.  He  then  was  guilty  of 
the  falsehood  of  saying  that  his  recantations  had 
been  freely  made,  and  he  begged  for  a  short 
delay  in  order  to  give  further  proof  of  his  re- 
pentance. This  granted,  he  made  his  last  con- 
fession, in  which  he  declared  that  he  had  been 
the  greatest  of  persecutors,  and  compared  him- 
self to  the  penitent  thief;  nor  was  there  any 
abjectness  to  which  terror  is  capable  of  driving 
the  coward,  of  which  he  was  not  guilty.  He 
concluded  with  begging  pardon  of  bis  oppres- 
sors, humiliating  himself  before  the  queen. 
Had  Mary  and  her  associates  been  equal  to  the 
enjoyment  of  refined  vengeance,  they  would 
have  granted  him  life  and  immediate  liberty ; 
but  they  determined  that  he  should  know  he 
had  degi'aded  himself  in  vain,  and  so  taste  a 
double  portion  of  the  bitterness  of  death.  On 
March  21,  1555,  much  to  his  astonishment,  he 
was  directed  to  prepare  himself  for  the  stake. 
A  paper  consisting  of  an  abstract  of  his  recan- 


CRANTARA 


CRASHAW 


39 


tations  was  given  liim,  which  he  was  to  read 
at  the  stake.  lie  transcribed  and  signed  it,  and 
kept  a  copy,  which  he  altered,  and  made  a  dis- 
avowal of  all  his  recantations.  After  listening 
to  a  sermon  in  the  church  of  St.  Mary,  he 
boldly  spoke  out,  and  declared  himself  a  Prot- 
estant, saying  he  died  in  his  former  faith,  be- 
lieving neither  in  the  pa])al  supremacy  nor 
transubstantiation.  He  apologized  for  his  re- 
cantations, and  declared  that  the  hand  which 
had  signed  them  should  first  burn.  lie  was 
burned  opposite  Baliol  college,  and  when  the 
flames  were  rising  around  him  he  thrust  his 
right  hand  into  them,  and  is  said  to  have  held 
it  there  until  it  was  consumed,  crying  aloud : 
"  This  hand  hath  otYended — tliis  unworthy  right 
hand."  He  showed  no  unmanly  weakness  in 
tliat  terrible  hour,  repeating,  with  his  eyes  cast 
upward,  the  words:  "Lord  Jesus,  receive  my 
spirit!"  and  then  expired. — Tlie  principal  au- 
thorities for  the  career  of  Cranmer  are  Strype's 
"Memorials,"  the  "Lives"  of  him  by  Todd  and 
Le  Bas,  the  historical  works  of  Burnet,  Hallam, 
Turner,  Lingard,  Froude,  and  Macaulay.  Mr. 
Froude  appears  to  doubt  if  he  suggested  the 
plan  of  proceeding  with  respect  to  the.  divorce 
question  in  which  his  career  as  a  courtier  and  a 
statesman  is  commonly  supposed  to  have  origi- 
nated ;  and  Lord  Macaulay  has  spoken  of  liim 
as  severely  as  he  speaks  of  Marlborough.  The 
"Life  and  Times  of  Thomas  Cranmer,"  published 
at  Boston  in  1841,  is  a  valuable  American  con- 
tribution to  the  history  of  the  founder  of  the 
English  church. 

CRANTARA  (Gaelic,  crean  tarigh,  the  cross 
of  shame),  a  military  signal  employed  by  the 
Scottish  highland  chiefs.  It  was  a  firebrand  or 
wooden  cross,  which,  after  being  dipped  in  the 
blood  of  a  goat,  was  sent  by  a  swift-footed  her- 
ald to  tlie  nearest  hamlet,  where  he  delivered  it 
without  uttering  a  word,  save  the  name  of  the 
place  of  rendezvous.  The  fleetest  runner  of  that 
hamlet  was  instantly  despatched  with  the  signal 
to  the  next,  whence  it  was  borne  to  a  third,  and 
so  on,  till  every  village  within  the  chief's  do- 
main had  received  the  summons.  The  last  time 
the  crantara  was  circulated  in  Scotland  was  dur- 
ing the  rebellion  of  1745. 

CRANTOR  OF  SOLI,  an  academic  philoso- 
pher, and  the  1st  commentator  on  Plato,  flour- 
ished at  the  close  of  the  3d  century  B,  C,  He 
studied  under  Xenocrates  and  Polemo,  and  was 
the  author  of  several  works,  all  of  which  have 
perished.  Most  of  his  writings  related  to  ethical 
or  metaphysical  subjects.  One  of  his  most  cele- 
brated productions  was  a  treatise  on  "  Grief," 
of  which  Cicero  made  liberal  use  in  his  "  Tuscu- 
lan  Questions,"  and  in  the  Coiisolatio,  composed 
by  him  on  the  death  of  his  daugliter. 

CR  AN  WORTH,  Robert  Monset  Rolfe,  bar- 
on, late  lord  high  chancellor  of  England,  born  at 
Cranworth  in  Norfolk,  Dec.  18,  1790.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge  university,  and  in  1816 
was  called  to  tlie  bar,  where  he  soon  acquired  a 
lucrative  practice.  In  1834  he  was  appointed 
solicitor-general,  and  again  in  April,  1835,  re- 


taining the  office  until  1839,  wlicn  he  was  made 
one  of  the  barons  of  the  exchequer.  In  Dec. 
1850,  he  was  appointed  vice-chancellor  and  rais- 
ed to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Cranworth.  In  Dec. 
1852,  he  was  appointed  lord  high  chancellor  by 
Lord  Aberdeen,  and  licld  the  great  seal  until  the 
formation  of  the  Derby  ministry  in  1858,  when 
ho  retired  from  office. 

CRANZ,  David,  a  German  missionary  and 
historian,  born  in  Pomerania  in  1723,  died  at 
Gnadenfrei,  in  Silesia,  June  6,  1777.  He  be- 
came in  1747  secretary  to  Count  Zinzendorf, 
entered  a  community  of  Moravians,  went  in 
1761  as  missicmary  to  Greenland,  and  after  his 
return  in  1766  was  successively  pastor  at  Rix- 
dorf  and  at  Gnadenfrei.  He  wrote  a  Eistorie 
von  Gronland  (Barby,  1765 ;  2d  edition,  with 
additions,  in  1770),  and  a  Br uder- Eistorie,  or 
history  of  the  Moravian  Brethren,  published 
at  Barby  in  1772,  and  continued  by  Hegner, 
1791-1816. 

CRAPE,  a  delicate  transparent  fabric,  made 
of  raw  silk  with  the  gloss  removed.  Crapes 
are  either  crisped  or  smooth.  The  crisped  which 
are  double  require  that  the  silk  should  be  spun 
harder  than  for  the  single,  as  the  degree  of  twist 
regulates  the  crisping.  All  crapes  are  woven 
and  dyed  with  the  silk  in  the  raw  state.  In 
finishing,  they  are  stiffened  with  gum  water. 
Crapes  of  superior  quality  are  manufactured  at 
Lyons  in  France,  and  at  Yarmouth  and  'Nor- 
wich in  England.  Bologna,  however,  claims  the 
invention. 

CRAPELET.  I.  Charles,  a  French  printer, 
born  at  Bourmont,  Nov.  13,  1762,  died  in  Paris, 
Oct.  19,  1809.  He  came  to  Paris  at  the  time 
when  great  attention  was  beginning  to  be  paid 
to  the  improvement  of  typography  in  finish  and 
elegance.  He  practised  his  profession  there  for 
20  years,  and  his  editions  are  highly  esteemed 
for  their  correctness.  The  most  remarkable 
productions  of  his  press  are  12  copies,  in  letters 
of  gold,  of  the  Oiseaux  dores  of  Audibert.  11, 
Georges  Adeiex,  a  printer  and  author,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Paris,  June  13,  1789,  died 
at  Nizza,  Dec.  11,  1842.  He  maintained  the 
reputation  of  his  father,  and  the  works  which 
he  published  are  esteemed  for  correctness  and 
beauty  of  execution.  Among  them  there  are 
editions  of  La  Fontaine,  of  Montesquieu,  Vol- 
taire, Rousseau,  and  Sismondi's  Eistoire  des 
Fran^ais.  The  idea  of  publishing  a  collection 
under  the  title  of  Anciens  monuments  de  Vhis- 
toire  de  la  langiie  Franpaise  originated  with 
him.  He  wrote  an  account  of  the  progress  of 
the  art  of  printing  in  France  and  Italy  in  tho 
16th  century,  and  its  influence  upon  literature 
(8vo.  1836),'and  was  the  author  of  "  Souvenirs 
of  London,"  and  of  a  history  and  description 
of  that  city,  beside  several  translations  from  the 
English. 

CRASHAW,  Richard,  an  English  poet  and 
divine,  born  in  London,  died  in  Loretto  about 
1650.  The  son  of  an  Anglican  clergyman,  he 
was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse,  London,  till 
in  1632  he  went  to  Pembroke  hall,  Cambridge, 


40 


CRASSUS 


where  he  was  graduated  in  1G33,  and  became 
follow  of  Peterhouse  in  1G37.  In  1634  he  pub- 
lished anonymously  itt  Cambridge  a  volume  of 
Latin  poems  under  the  title  of  Eplgrammata 
Sacra^  in  which  occurs  the  celebrated  verse  on 
the  miracle  at  Caiia: 

Kympha  pudica  Deiim  vidit  et  eruhiiif. 
(The  modest  water  saw  its  God  and  blushed.) 

Tlie  Englisli  verse  (which  often  has  "conscious" 
instead  of  "  modest")  has  been  attributed  also 
to  Milton  and  Dryden.  Crashaw  was  afterward 
admitted  to  holy  orders,  and  lived  for  several 
years  in  St.  Mary's  churcli,  near  his  college,  oc- 
cupied with  religious  offices,  and  with  compos- 
ing devotional  poems.  He  is  spoken  of  as 
now  "offering,  like  a  primitive  saint,  more 
prayers  by  night  than  others  usually  offer  in  the 
day."  At  this  period  he  was  noted  as  an  elo- 
quent and  powerful  preacher.  In  1644,  for 
refusing  to  accept  the  covenant,  the  parliament- 
ary array  ejected  him  from  his  fellowship,  and 
he  removed  to  Paris,  where  he  became  a  Roman 
Catholic.  Cowley  sought  him  there  in  1646,  and 
finding  him  in  great  poverty,  obtained  in  his 
behalf  the  favor  of  Henrietta  Maria,  queen  of 
Charles  I.  of  England,  who  gave  him  letters  of 
recommendation  to  dignitaries  of  the  church  in 
Italy.  He  went  to  Rome,  and  became  succes- 
sively secretary  to  one  of  the  cardinals,  and  a 
c^non  in  the  church  of  Loretto.  His  English 
poems,  entitled  "  Steps  to  the  Temple,  Sacred 
Poems,  with  other  Delights  of  the  Muses,"  were 
published  in  London  in  1646  (2d  edition  in  1648). 
A  posthumous  volume  appeared  at  Paris  in  1652 
under  the  title  Carmen  Deo  nostra.  Several  of 
his  pieces  are  admirable  translations  from  Latin 
and  Italian.  He  was  an  admirer  of  mystical 
writings,  especially  of  those  of  St  Theresa,  and 
his  poems  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty,  force, 
and  passion  with  which  they  treat  religious  sub- 
jects. He  has  also  left  some  miscellaneous  poems 
of  remarkable  beauty.  One  of  tlie  finest  of  Cow- 
ley's compositions  is  a  monody  on  his  death. 
Editions  of  his  collected  works  appeared  in  1670 
and  1785.  His  complete  works,  edited  by  W. 
B.  Turnbull,  were  published  in  London  in  1858. 
CRASSUS.  I.  Luoius  Lioinius,  celebrated  as 
the  greatest  orator  of  his  age,  born  in  140  B.  C, 
died  in  91.  When  21  years  old  he  distinguished 
himself  by  tlie  prosecution  of  C.  Carbo.  As 
consul  of  the  year  95,  with  Quintus  Mucius 
Scffivola,  he  contributed  to  the  enacting  of  a 
law  expelling  all  allies,  not  citizens  of  Rome, 
from  the  city,  which  rigorous  measure  was  one 
of  the  sources  of  the  social  war.  Sent  as  pro- 
consul to  the  province  of  Gaul,  his  administra- 
tion was  distinguished  for  strict  justice.  While 
censor  in  92,  he  caused  the  schools  of  tho  Latin 
rhetoricians  to  be  closed,  as  pernicious  to  the 
morals  of  the  people.  Shortly  before  his  death 
he  vehemently  defended  the  laws  proposed  by 
the  tribune  Marcus  Livius  Drusus  against  L.  M. 
Philippus,  one  of  the  consuls.  Crassus  was  fond 
of  elegance  and  luxury  ;  his  house  on  the  Pala- 
tine hill  was  remarkable  for  its  splendor,  and 
adorned  with  works  of  art.     In  Cicero's  De 


Oratore  he  figures  as  one  of  the  speakers,  and 
is  supposed  to  express  the  opinions  of  the  author. 
II.  Marcus  Licinius,  one  of  the  first  triumvirs, 
killed  near  Carrhfo  in  Mesopotamia,  53  B.  0. 
He  was  the  descendant  of  a  family  several  mem- 
bers of  which  had  attained  high  honors  in  the 
republic,  and  borne  the  surname  of  Dives  (rich). 
His  father,  who  was  consul  and  censor,  was  in 
the  civil  war  a  zealous  partisan  of  Sylla,  and 
died  by  his  own  hand  after  the  victorious  return 
of  Marius  and  Cinua  in  87.  Young  Crassus  es- 
caped to  Spain,  whence  he  Avent  to  Afi'ica  after 
the  death  of  Cinna,  and  from  there  to  Italy 
(83)  to  fight  against  the  Marian  party.  Enrich- 
ed with  the  spoils  of  the  defeated  and  proscribed 
party,  his  avaricious  and  speculative  spirit  found 
ample  means  to  augment  his  wealth  to  an  im- 
mense amount  by  purchases  at  auction,  by  farm- 
ing, mining,  and  letting  out  houses  and  slaves, 
and  thus  fully  to  deserve  the  family  surname. 
His  riches  and  hospitality  gave  him  influeuce 
and  favor  with  the  people,  which  paved  his 
way  to  civil  and  military  distinctions,  though 
lie  was  possessed  of  no  remarkable  talents.  In 
71  he  was  praetor,  and  received  the  command 
against  the  revolted  slaves  under  Spartacus ;  he 
rapidly  raised  6  legions,  and  defeated  Spartacus 
in  a  bloody  battle  on  the  river  Silarus,  in  which 
that  terrible  enemy  of  Rome  was  slain.  Crassus 
received  an  ovation,  being  crowned,  as  conquer- 
or of  slaves,  with  a  wreath  of  laurel  instead 
of  myrtle,  and  was  elected,  together  with  Pom- 
pey,  consul  of  the  following  year.  Rivalling  the 
influence  of  his  great  colleague,  he  bribed  the 
people  of  Rome  by  extraordinary  banquets  and 
distributions  of  corn,  but  was  finally  recohciled 
with  his  rival,  and  united  with  him  and  CiBsar 
in  forming  the  first  triumvirate  (60  B.  C).  Caesar, 
who  received  the  province  of  Gaul,  a  field  for 
vast  conquests,  lulled  by  some  minor  undertak- 
ings the  attention  of  his  colleagues,  who  sup- 
ported him  by  the  influence  of  their  fame  and 
wealth.  The  compact  was  renewed,  and  Cras- 
sus was  again  elected  with  Pompey  consul  for 
the  year  55.  According  to  the  new  terms, 
Ccesar  was  to  continue  his  government  in  Gaul, 
Pompey  received  Spain,  and  Crassus  Syria. 
Lavish  preparations  betrayed  his  intention  of 
entering  upon  a  great  expedition  against  the 
Parthians,  which  promised  to  become  a  source 
of  boundless  conquests  and  riches.  In  antici- 
pation of  these,  his  joy  is  said  to  have  been 
childish ;  and  the  opposition  of  the  tribunes, 
as  well  as  various  omens  which  alarmed  the 
people,  could  not  deter  him  from  his  undertak- 
ing. He  marched  through  Macedonia  and  Thrace 
to  Asia,  crossed  the  Euphrates  (54  B.  C),  ravaged 
Mesopotamia,  but  returned  to  Syria,  where  he 
spent  the  winter,  before  starting  on  a  new  cam- 
paign in  53.  He  recrossed  the  Euphrates,  fol- 
lowing the  false  advice  of  an  Arabian  chief,  and 
was  attacked  by  Surena,  the  general  of  Orodes, 
king  of  the  Parthians,  near  Carrhfe,  supposed  to 
be  the  biblical  Haran.  The  Romans  were  de- 
feated with  immense  slaughter.  Crassus  re- 
treated to  the  town,  but  was  compelled  by  a 


CRATER 


CRATIPPUS 


41 


mutiny  of  the  soldiers  to  accept  the  invitation 
of  the  enemy  to  a  conference,  in  which  he  was 
killed.  The  circumstances  of  this  event  are  vari- 
ously related.  Plis  head  was  sent  to  the  Parthian 
king,  who  is  said  to  have  poured  into  his  mouth 
melted  gold,  saying :  "  Now  he  satiated  Avith 
what  thou  covetedst  through  life." 

CRATER  (Gr.  KparTjp,  a  howl),  the  opening  on 
the  tops  or  sides  of  volcanic  mountains,  through 
which  the  lava  and  ashes  arc  ejected.  The  cra- 
ter of  Etna,  like  many  of  the  most  ancient  vol- 
canoes, does  not  retain  the  bowl-like  shape  to 
which  the  name  owes  its  origin  ;  tliat  of  Vesu- 
vius, liowever,  preserves  its  primitive  form. 

CRATERUS,  a  general  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  received  after  the  death  of  that  con- 
queror, in  323  B.  C,  together  with  Antipater, 
the  government  of  Macedonia  and  Greece.  He 
assisted  Antipater  in  the  Lamian  war,  and  also 
against  the  ^Etolians  and  Perdiccas,  and  fell  in 
a  battle  against  Eumenes  (321). 

CRATES.  I.  A  comic  poet  of  Athens,  flour- 
ished about  450  B.  C,  and  was  contemporary 
Avith  Cratinus.  Eminentasanactor,lieoftenper- 
formed  the  principal  parts  in  the  plays  of  Crati- 
nus. As  a  comic  poet  he  was  the  first  Athenian 
who  A'entured  to  follow  the  example  of  Epichar- 
mus  so  far  as  to  bring  drunken  characters  on  the 
stage.  Aristotle  in  his  "  Poetics"  bears  testi- 
mony to  the  excellence  of  his  works.  Little, 
however,  is  really  known  of  them.  Meineke, 
who  has  made  a  careful  analysis  of  the  state- 
ments of  ancient  writers  on  the  subject,  gives 
the  titles  of  14  which  Avere  ascribed  to  him. 
Fragments  of  8  of  these  are  still  extant.  II. 
A  Cynic  philosopher,  born  at  Thebes,  early  re- 
moved to  Athens,  where  he  became  the  pupil 
of  Diogenes,  and  afterward  one  of  the  most 
eminent  in  that  school  of  philosophers.  He 
flourished  about  320  B.  C.  According  to  Dio- 
genes Laertius,  he  liA-ed  a  Cynic  of  the  straitest 
sort.  Fearing  that  the  quiet  of  philosophical 
pursuits  Avould  be  disturbed  by  the  cares  of 
Avealth,  of  Avhich  he  had  an  abundance,  he  is 
said  to  haA'e  thrown  his  money  into  the  sea; 
or,  according  to  another  account,  to  have  placed 
it  in  the  hands  of  a  banker,  with  the  condition 
that  if  his  sons  should  have  the  misfortune  to 
be  fools,  they  should  inherit  the  property,  and 
that  otherwise  it  should  be  distributed  to  the 
pool*.  "  For,"  said  Crates,  "  if  they  are  philoso- 
phers, they  will  not  need  it."  III.  An  Athenian 
philosopher,  the  pupil  and  friend  of  Polemo, 
and  his  successor  in  the  chair  of  the  academy, 
flourished  in  the  first/half  of  the  3d  century  B.  C. 
He  contributed  little  to  the  progress  of  philosoph- 
ical inA'estigation,  and  is  known  mainly  as  the  in- 
structor of  Arcesilaus  and  others,  IV.  An  emi- 
nent Greek  grammarian,  called  also  by  Suidas  a 
Stoic  philosopher,  founded  the  celebrated  Perga- 
mene  school  of  grammar,  and  became  the  great 
rival  of  Aristarchus,  of  the  Alexandrian  school. 
From  his  work  on  Homer,  he  is  said  to  have 
been  called  'O/jT^ptKos.  He  wrote  commentaries 
on  Hesiod,  Euripides,  and  Aristophanes.  Only 
a  few  fragments  of  his  works  are  preserved. 


CRATINTS.  I.  A  comic  poet  of  Athens, 
mentioned  by  Quintilian  and  Horace  as  one  of 
the  3  great  masters  of  the  old  comedy.  He 
was  a  native  of  Attica,  born  about  520  B.  C, 
died  about  445  B.  C.  His  private  life  seems  to 
have  been  marked  by  many  irregularities  and  ex- 
cesses. Suidas  calls  him  the  "  wine-bibber,"  as 
Aristophanes  and  Horace,  indeed,  had  done 
before  him.  He  was  already  far  advanced  in 
life  before  he  entered  upon  his  dramatic  career. 
The  "  Archilochoi,"  supposed  to  have  been  his 
earliest  production,  Avas  not  exhibited  till  he 
Avas  upAvard  of  YO  years  of  age  ;  but  he  lived  to 
achieve  much  for  his  profession,  and  at  the  ad- 
vanced age  of  97  died  at  the  height  of  his  fame, 
having  just  triumphed  over  Aristophanes  him- 
self. He  found  the  Greek  comedy  a  mere  play- 
thing, employed  to  excite  merriment  and  laugh- 
ter, and  at  once  converted  it  into  a  terrible 
Aveapon  for  the  chastisement  of  public  and  pri- 
vate vice.  Horace  particularly  commends  the 
public  spirit  and  tlie  impartial  justice  with 
Avhich  he  exercised  his  censorship  OA-er  the 
morals  of  his  age.  Tlie  uniform  testimony  of 
ancient  Avriters  places  Cratinus  in  the  first  rank 
as  a  comic  poet.  His  great  rival,  Aristo- 
phanes, was  fully  aAvare  of  his  power.  In  the 
'•  Knights  "  he  compares  him  to  a  torrent  car- 
rying every  thing  before  it,  and  tells  his  fellow 
citizens  that  Cratinus  Avas  entitled  to  a  high 
place  in  their  regard,  to  a  choice  seat  at  the  Dio- 
nysia,  and  to  a  public  support  in  the  Prytaneum. 
According  to  the  best  authorities  he  wrote  but 
21  dramas,  9  of  which  were  successful  in  the 
Dionysiac  contest.  Not  a  single  one  of  his 
dramas  is  noAV  extant ;  only  a  few  fragments 
remain  to  attest  the  excellence  of  his  admired 
productions.  II.  A  poet  of  the  middle  come- 
dy, contemporary  with  Plato  the  philosopher, 
sometimes  confounded  with  his  elder  and  more 
celebrated  namesake  just  mentioned.  Eight 
plavs  are  ascribed  to  him. 

CRATIPPUS.  I.  A  Greek  historian  contem- 
porary with  Thucydides.  He  continued  the  work 
of  the  great  historian,  and  brought  it  down, 
according  to  Plutarch,  to  the  time  of  Conon. 
The  well-known  words  of  Dionysius :  "  He  wrote 
what  Thucydides  left  imwritten,"  evidently 
show  that  Cratippus  not  only  continued  the  his- 
tory of  Thucydides,  but  also  supplied  whatever 
omissions  he  thought  he  found  in  it.  II.  A  cele- 
brated Peripatetic  philosopher.  He  was  born  at 
Mytilene,  on  the  island  of  Lesbos,  where  he  es- 
tablished a  school  of  philosophy  ;  but  afterward 
having  repaired  to  Athens,  he  became  the  in- 
structor of  Brutus  and  of  M.  Cicero,  the  son  of 
the  great  Roman  orator.  Cicero  himself  pro- 
nounces high  encomiums  upon  him  in  the  Be 
Officiis,  declaring  him  the  ablest  of  the  Peripate- 
tics Avhom  he  had  ever  known,  and  equal  at  least 
to  the  best  of  the  school.  Though  highly  esteem- 
ed by  the  ancients,  he  never  produced,  so  far  as 
we  can  learn,  any  important  philosophical  work. 
Cicero  tells  us  that  he  believed  in  inspiration 
and  in  dreams,  but  rejected  all  other  kinds  of 
diA'ination.   He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  au- 


42 


CRAVEN 


CRAWFISH 


thor  of  the  -vrork  on  dreams  cited  by  Tertullian 
in  his  work  De  Animd. 

CRAVEN,  a  S.  E.  co.  of  N.  C. ;  area  estimated 
at  1,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  14,709,  of  wliom 
5,951  were  slaves.  It  borders  on  Pamlico 
sound;  and  is  intersected  by  the  Neuse  river, 
navigable  throughout  the  county.  The  surface 
is  low,  swampy,  and  in  great  part  covered  Avith 
pine  forests,  the  turpentine  and  lumber  pro- 
cured from  which  are  among  the  chief  articles 
of  export.  The  agricultural  products  in  1850 
were  17'4,3G6  bushels  of  corn,  and  92,788  of 
sweet  potatoes.  This  county  was  formed  in 
1729,  and  was  at  l^rst  a  precinct  of  ^ybemarle 
county.  It  .was  named  in  honor  of  the  earl 
of  Craven,  one  of  the  lords  proprietors  of  the 
soil.     Capital,  Newbern. 

CRAVEN,  Charles,  secretary  to  the  pro- 
prietors of  South  Carolina,  and  governor  of  the 
colony  from  1712  to  1716.  He  was  the  hero 
of  theYamassee  war  in  1715.  That  tribe  of 
Indians  having  imited  the  savages  from  Cape 
Fear  to  the  St.  Mary's,  for  the  destruction  of 
the  colony  at  Ashley  river,  Gov.  Craven  im- 
mediately proclaimed  martial  law,  laid  an  em- 
bargo on  all  ships  to  prevent  the  departure  of 
men  or  provisions,  and  at  the  head  of  1,200 
men,  a  part  of  whom  were  faithful  blacks,  met 
the  Indians  in  a  series  of  desperate  encounters, 
and  finally  drove  them  beyond  the  Savannah. 

CRAVEN,  Elizabeth.     See  Anspach. 

CRAWFISH,  a  macrourous  or  long-tailed 
crustacean,  of  the  order  decwpoda,  and  genus 
astaeus ;  this  genus  is  fluviatile,  while  the  lob- 
ster, belonging  to  the  same  family  but  to  the 
genus  homarus,  is  marine.  The  body  is  elon- 
gated and  somewhat  compressed,  and  the  ab- 
domen large;  it  is  covered  by  a  corneous  en- 
velope or  carapace,  terminating  anteriorly  in 
a  wide,  short,  flattened  beak,  which  covers  the 
base  of  the  eye  pedicles.  There  are  2  pairs  of 
antennae :  the  1st  pair  of  moderate  length,  with 
2  terminal  filaments ;  the  external,  or  2d  pair, 
being  much  longer,  with  a  large  lamellar  ap- 
])endage  on  the  upper  surface  of  its  pedicle. 
The  mouth  apparatus  consists  of  2  mandibles, 
2  pairs  of  jaws,  and  3  pairs  of  jaw  feet,  mov- 
ing horizontally.  The  legs  are  5  pairs,  the  1st 
the  largest,  and  ending  in  a  2-bladed  nipper 
or  claw,  by  which  objects  are  seized  in  the  pur- 
suit of  prey,  and  in  self-defence ;  the  2d  and 
3d  pairs  are  also  didactylous,  but  smaller,  and 
the  4th  and  5th  are  single-pointed.  The  5th 
thoracic  ring  is  simply  articulated  to  the  pre- 
ceding ones.  The  abdomen  is  of  about  the 
same  width  for  its  whole  length,  presenting  on 
each  side  a  series  of  laminaj  prolonged  so  as 
to  encase  more  or  less  the  base  of  the  false  or 
swimming  feet ;  the  last  segment  is  very  wide, 
forming,  with  the  2  larainto  from  the  6th  ring 
on  each  side,  a  large  caudal  fin,  nearly  even 
when  expanded,  tiie  external  plate  having  a 
transverse  joint  at  its  posterior  3d,  the  mid- 
ille  plate  being  round  at  the  end,  with  a  tooth 
on  each  side  posteriorly.  The  sternum  forms 
no  plastron,  as  in  the  crab ;   the  pincers  of  the 


1st  pair  of  feet  arc  not  so  large  in  proportion, 
and  are  without  the  angle  seen  in  the  lobster. 
Tlie  swimming  feet  are  5  pairs,  long  and  nar- 
row ;  in  the  females  all  end  in  wide  leaf-liko 
l)lates,  with  ciliated  edges ;  in  the  males  the 
1st  pair  are  styliform.  The  gills  are  very  nu- 
merous, disposed  in  tufts,  and  arranged  in  rows 
at  the  base  of  the  walking  feet,  and  within  the 
carapace  ;  they  are  separated  by  cartilaginous 
plates,  whose  motions  serve  to  introduce  and 
expel  the  water,  which  issues  at  an  aperture  on 
each  side  of  tlie  mouth.  According  to  Milne- 
Edwards,  the  duodenum  has  a  great  number 
of  internal  villosities,  no  valve  between  it  and 
the  rectum,  the  latter  smooth,  and  no  coBcal 
appendage,  the  opposite  of  which  is  the  case 
in  the  lobster.  The  eyes  have  compound  fa- 
cets, and  are  supported  on  movable  pedicles 
arising  from  the  1st  segment  of  the  head,  and 
may  be  in  a  measure  withdrawn  into  cavities 
answering  the  purposes  of  orbits.  The  organs 
of  generation  are  distinct  in  the  two  sexes ; 
the  number  of  eggs  is  very  great,  and  they  are 
carried  for  a  time  attached  to  the  false  feet, 
under  the  tail.  Like  other  decapods,  the  craw- 
fish changes  its  shell  annually,  coming  out  with 
a  new  and  tender  one,  wliich  becomes  hard  in 
a  few  days;  at  each  moult  the  animal  in- 
creases considerably  in  size,  and  the  change  ap- 
pears to  be  continued  through  life ;  the  shell, 
which  is  an  epidermic  covering,  consists  of 
cliitine  united  to  calcareous  salts.  This  genus 
also  has  the  power  of  reproducing  claws  and 
feet  which  have  been  lost  by  accident.  Their 
food  is  almost  exclusively  animal,  both  living 
and  dead  matter  being  eagerly  devoured  ;  fish, 
moUusks,  aquatic  larva),  terrestrial  insects,  and 
sometimes  their  own  species,  form  the  princi- 
pal sources  of  their  subsistence.  Tlieir  ene- 
mies are  also  many  ;  mammals  frequenting  the 
water,  aquatic  birds,  voracious  fishes,  and  even 
insect  larvre,  destroy  great  numbers  of  them, 
esj)ecially  in  their  young  state.  They  are  con- 
sidered luxuries  on  the  table,  and  those  who 
will  not  eat  them  catch  a  great  many  for  bait 
for  white  perch  and  other  fishes ;  they  are 
caught  in  nets,  and  may  be  easily  taken  from 
holes  and  under  stones.  In  some  of  the  Rus- 
sian rivers  they  attain  a  large  size,  and  are 
cauglit  for  the  sake  of  the  calcareous  masses 
found  in  their  stomachs  before  the  period 
of  moulting  ;  these  concretions,  the  famons 
"  crabs'  eyes "  and  yeux  cVecrecisses  of  the 
old  iiharmacopceias,  consist  of  carbonate  and 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  are  jio  better  than  pre- 
pared chalk  for  the  correction  of  stomachal 
acidity,  for  wliich  they  were  formerly  muclx 
employed.  They  delight  in  clear  and  running 
streams,  but  are  common  in  lakes  and  ponds ; 
they  conceal  themselves  by  day,  and  feed  by 
night.  The  color  is  generally  a  light  yellowish 
brown.  The  European  crawfish  (A.fluviatilis, 
Fabr.)  has  the  large  claws  studded  with  gran- 
ulations, and  the  beak  Avith  a  tooth  on  the  side 
near  its  internal  third.  Among  the  American 
species  are  the  A.  affinis  (Say),  and  A.  Bartonii 


CRAWFORD 


43 


(Bosc),  foiind  in  the  soutliern  and  western  riv- 
ers ;  in  these  the  claws  and  the  carapace  arc 
less  granular.  Other  species  are  described  in 
South  America  and  Australia  hy  Milne-Ed- 
wards. Crawlish  swim  rapidly  by  means  of 
the  tail,  whose  strokes  propel  them  backward ; 
they  crawl  well  on  tiie  bottom,  and  are  some- 
times seen  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
streams,  using  lioles  filled  with  Avater,  and  oc- 
casional pools,  as  places  of  retreat.  From  their 
propensity  to  eat  carrion,  Audubon  calls  them 
"little  aquatic  vultures."  They  are  fond  of 
burrowing  in  the  mud,  and  fi-om  this  habit  are 
often  great  pests,  undermining  levees  antl  em- 
bankments, frequently  to  the  serious  loss  of  the 
miller  and  the  planter ;  it  is  stated  that  on  ac- 
count of  the  depredations  of  these  animals,  the 
owners  of  the  great  dam  in  the  Little  Genesee 
river  have  been  once  compelled  to  rebuild  it. 
In  the  Mammoth  cave  of  Kentucky  some  of 
the  crawfish  are  blind ;  they  have  the  eye 
pedicles,  but  no  facets,  only  simple  integu- 
ments covered  with  hairs ;  veryprobably,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  blind  fish  of  the  same  cave 
(amhiyopsis  spelcevs),  internal  rudiments  of  a 
visual  organ  would  be  found,  especially  as  it  is 
said  that  some  of  these  Crustacea  have  well  de- 
veloped eyes,  as  also  do  the  crickets  which  live 
in  the  cave ;  the  non-development  of  the  ex- 
ternal eye  may  be  owing  to  the  absence  of  the 
stimulus  of  light  through  several  generations. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  species  within 
and  without  the  cave  are  diflferent,  and  it  is 
altogether  probable  that  the  progeny  of  the 
blind  crawfish  would  have  eyes,  if  raised  un- 
der the  ordinary  influences  of  sunlight.  The 
popular  name  of  the  crawfish  is  "  fresh-water 
lobster." 

CRAWFORD,  the  name  of  counties  in  several 
of  the  United  States.  I.  A  N.  W.  co.  of  Penn., 
bordering  on  Ohio,  intersected  by  a  number  of 
creeks ;  area,  about  975  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850, 
37,849.  It  has  an  undulating  surface,  and  a 
soil  of  good  quality,  but  better  adapted  to 
grazing  than  to  tillage.  Iron  ore  and  lime 
marl  are  found  in  considerable  quantities. 
Lumber  is  abundant,  and  forms  one  of  the 
chief  articles  of  export.  Grain,  potatoes,  hay, 
and  dairy  produce,  are  the  other  staples.  In 
1850  the  harvest  amounted  to  887,556  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  142,414  of  wheat,  418,751  of 
oats,  and  105,662  of  potatoes.  There  were 
1,267.436  lbs.  of  butter  made.  The  public 
schools  numbered  9,906  pupils  ;  there  were  63 
churches,  5  newspaper  offices,  140  saw  mills, 
15  flour  and  grist  mills,  3  woollen  fjictories,  2 
iron  founderies,  16  tanneries,  and  various  other 
mills,  factories,  &c.  The  county  was  organized 
in  1800,  and  named  in  honor  of  Col.  Wil- 
liam Crawford,  who  was  killed  by  the  Indians 
at  Sandusky,  Ohio,  in  1782.  Capital,  Mead- 
ville.  II.  A  W.  CO.  of  Ark. ;  area,  585  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1854,  4,058,  of  whom  530  were  slaves. 
It  borders  on  the  Indian  territory,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  S.  by  Arkansas  river,  here  nav- 
igable by  steamboats.    The  surface  is  mountain- 


ous, and  some  of  the  highest  summits  in  the  state 
are  in  this  county.  Boston  mountain  is  estimated 
to  have  an  elevation  of  2,000  feet.  Stone  coal 
and  other  minerals  are  found  in  several  parts. 
The  productions  in  1854  were  360,669  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  20,025  of  wheat,  69,600  of  oats,  and 
329  bales  of  cotton.  In  1850  there  were  6  church- 
es, 2  newspaper  offices,  and  405  pupils  attending 
public  and  other  schools.  Capital,  Van  Buren. 
III.  A  central  co.  of  Ga. ;  area,  289  sq.  m. ; 
pup.  in  1852,  8,912,  of  whom  4,803  were  slaves. 
It  is  bounded  S.  W.  by  Flint  river,  and  drained 
by  several  creeks.  The  land  is  uneven,  and  of 
various  qualities.  In  the  north  it  is  moder- 
ately fertile,  and  in  the  south  sterile.  The  ar- 
able land  produces  cotton,  grain,  and  sweet 
potatoes ;  tlie  rest  of  the  surface  is  chiefly  cov- 
ered witli  pine  forests.  In  1850  the  coimty 
yielded  7,477  bales  of  cotton,  339,426  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  35,284  of  oats,  and  93,100  of 
sweet  potatoes.  Tliere  were  20  churches,  and 
367  pupils  attending  public  schoools.  Named 
in  honor  of  William  H.  Crawford,  U.  S. 
senator  from  Georgia.  Capital,  Knoxville. 
Value  of  real  estate  in  1856,  $1,172,600.  IV. 
A  N.  CO.  of  Ohio;  area,  412  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1850,  18,177.  The  surface  is  level,  but  ele- 
vated, and  the  soil  of  moderate  fertility.  The 
southern  part  is  occupied  by  pastures,  and  the 
principal  production  of  the  northern  is  wheat. 
In  1850  the  county  yielded  275,653  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  133,153  of  wheat,  16,000  tons  of 
hay,  and  108,874  lbs.  of  wool.  It  contained 
39  churches,  and  the  public  schools  numbered 
4,740  pupils.  Capital,  Bucyrus.  V.  A  S.  co. 
of  Ind.,  bordering  on  Ky.,  bounded  S.  by  the 
Ohio  river,  and  drained  by  Blue  river  ;  area, 
280  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  6,524.  The  valleys 
of  the  streams  are  productive,  but  nearly  all 
the  rest  of  the  land  is  rugged  and  sterile.  Coal, 
iron,  and  limestone  are  the  most  valuable  min- 
erals. Lumber,  flour,  pork,  and  beef  are  ex- 
ported in  considerable  quantities.  The  produc- 
tions in  1850  were  183.930  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  2,009  of  wheat,  37,397  of  oats,  and  918 
tons  of  hay.  There  wore  11  churches,  and 
1,418  pupils  attending  public  schools.  Capital, 
Leavenworth.  VI.  An  E.  co.  of  111. ;  area,  420 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855,  10,152.  It  is  separated 
from  Indiana  on  the  E.  by  the  Wabash  river, 
and  drained  by  Embarras  river  and  its  N.  fork, 
the  former  passing  through  the  S.  W.  part,  and 
the  latter  flowing  along  the  W.  boundary. 
The  surface  is  occupied  in  great  part  by  fertile 
prairies.  In  1850  the  productions  were  453,- 
955  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  16,943  of  wheat, 
5,001  of  oats,  and  1,411  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  7  churches,  and  620  pupils  attending  pub- 
lic schools.  Named  in  honor  of  AVilliam  H. 
Crawford,  U.  S.  senator  from  Georgia.  Cap- 
ital, Palestine.  VII.  A  S.  E.  co.  of  Mo. ;  area, 
1,380  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1856,  7,672,  of  whom  237 
were  slaves.  It  is  intersected  by  Maramec 
river,  and  drained  by  2  of  its  branches.  The 
surface  is  much  diversified,  and  in  many  parts 
hilly.     It  is  occupied  by  tolerably  fertile  prai- 


44 


CRAWFORD 


ries  and  tracts  of  excellent  timber.  '  The  val- 
leys and  river  bottoms  are  generally  very  fer- 
tile, bnt  the  county  is  less  remarkable  for  its 
agricultural  productions  than  for  its  great  min- 
eral wealth.  The  hills  contain  very  rich  mines 
of  coi)i)er  and  iron,  the  latter  being  extensively 
worked.  Lead  is  also  found  in  various  locali- 
ties, and  stone  is  obtained  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  iron  district.  The  productions  in  1850 
were  297,133  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  26,482 
of  wheat,  48,440  of  oats,  and  597  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  7  churches,  and  280  pupils  attend- 
ing public  schools.  Capital,  Steelville.  VIII. 
A  S.  W.  CO.  of  Wis.,  separated  from  Iowa  by 
the  Mississippi  river,  bounded  S.  E.  by  the 
Wisconsin ;  area,  G12  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855, 
3,323.  The  surface  is  hilly,  and  occupied  part- 
ly by  prairies.  The  productions  in  1850  were 
9,055  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  9,522  of  wheat, 
16,044  of  oats,  and  8,688  of  potatoes.  There 
were  4  grist  mills,  9  saw  mills,  1  newspaper 
office,  1  church,  and  226  pupils  attending  pub- 
lic schools.  Organized  in  1818.  Capital,  Prai- 
rie du  Chien.  IX.  A  N.  co.  of  the  S.  penin- 
sula of  Mich.,  recently  erected,  and  not  in- 
cluded in  the  census  of  1850.  It  is  drained 
by  the  sources  of  the  Au  Sable  river.  X.  A 
newly  formed  and  thinly  settled  co.  in  the 
W.  part  of  Iowa,  intersected  by  Boyer  and 
Soldier  rivers ;  area,  about  600  sq.  m.,  very 
little  of  which  is  under  cultivation ;  pop.  in 
1850,  235.  The  productions  that  year  were  878 
bushels  of  wheat,  470  of  oats,  11,135  of  Indian 
corn,  1,080  of  potatoes,  3,867  lbs.  of  butter,  and 
810  of  wool. 

CRAWFORD,  George  W.,  an  American 
etatesman  and  lawyer,  born  in  Columbia  co., 
Ga.,  Dec.  22,  1798.  He  was  graduated  at 
Princeton  college,  in  New  Jersey,  in  1820,  and 
on  his  return  to  Georgia  became  a  law  student 
in  the  office  of  the  Hon.  Richard  Henry  Wilde 
in  Augusta,  and  was  admitted  to  practice  in 
1822.  In  1827  he  was  elected  attorney-general, 
which  office  he  retained  until  1831.  In  1837 
he  was  elected  a  representative  in  the  legisla- 
ture from  Richmond  co.,  and,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  one  year,  he  continued  to  represent  that 
coimty  nntil  1842.  In  1843  he  was  elected  a 
representative  to  congress,  but  the  same  year 
was  nominated  by  the  whig  convention  as  their 
candidate  fur  governor,  and  elected  by  a  large 
majority.  Ilis  administration  gave  great  satis- 
faction, and  he  was  reelected  in  1845.  In  1849 
Mr.  Crawford  was  appointed  secretary  of  war 
in  President  Taylor's  cabinet,  which  office  he 
held  until  the  death  of  the  president,  when  ho 
re-;igned.  He  has  since  lived  in  retirement  at 
his  home  in  Richmond  co. 

CRAWFORD,  Nathaniel  Macon,  D.D.,  an 
American  divine,  born  near  Lexington,  Ogle- 
thorpe CO.,  Ga.,  March  22,  1811,  was  graduated 
at  Franklin  college  (university  of  Georgia),  Aug. 
5,  1820.  He  studied  law  witli  liis  father,  the 
Hon.  William  II.  Crawford,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  but  never  practised.  In  1837  he  was 
elected  professor  of  mathematics  in  Oglethorpe 


tiniversity,  Ga.,  which  office  he  held  nntil 
the  close  of  1841.  In  1843  he  was  licensed  to 
preach,  and  was  ordained  in  the  Baptist  ministry 
in  1844.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Baptist  church 
in  Washington,  Ga.,  during  the  year  1845,  and 
of  the  Baptist  church  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  in 
1846.  From  1847  to  1854  he  filled  the  chair 
of  Biblical  literature  in  Mercer  university  at 
Penfield,  Ga.  In  December,  1854,  he  was  elect- 
ed to  the  presidency  of  Mercer  university,  and 
held  the  office  during  the  years  1855  and  1856, 
when  he  resigned.  He  filled  the  chair  of  men- 
tal and  moral  philosophy  in  the  university  of 
Mississippi  during  the  spring  session  of  1857. 
In  September  of  that  year  he  resigned  this  posi- 
tion, and  accepted  a  professorship  in  the  western 
Baptist  theological  seminary  at  Georgetown, 
Xy.,  where  he  remained  until  July,  1858.  In 
the  mean  time,  having  been  reelected  to  the 
presidency  of  Mercer  university,  and  strongly 
solicited  to  return  to  that  institution,  he  did  so, 
and  is  now  (1859)  its  presiding  officer.  In  1857 
he  was  elected  president  of  the  Bible  revision 
association.  Dr.  Crawford  has  written  many 
articles  for  periodicals,  and  several  small  works 
on  some  of  the  tenets  of  his  church.  In  1858 
he  published  a  volume  of  442  pages  entitled 
"  Christian  Paradoxes,"  wliich  has  been  favor- 
ably received  by  the  denomination  and  the  press 
generally.  He  is  considered  one  of  the  first  pul- 
pit orators  of  the  Baptist  church  in  the  South. 

CRAWFORD,  Qdintin,  an  English  translator 
and  author,  born  at  Kilwinning,  Sept.  22,  1743, 
died  in  Paris,  Nov.  23,  1814,  He  went  in  early 
life  to  the  East  Indies,  where  he  served  in  the 
war  against  Spain,  After  the  peace  he  became 
president  of  the  company  of  the  Indies  at  Ma- 
nila, and  in  a  short  time  gained  a  considerable 
fortune.  Returning  to  Europe  in  1780,  he  trav- 
elled in  Italy,  Germany,  and  Holland,  and  finally 
established  himself  at  Paris,  where  he  formed 
valuable  collections  of  books  and  paintings. 
Obliged  to  leave  France  at  the  revolution,  he 
resided  successively  at  Brussels,  Frankfort,  and 
Vienna,  but  returned  as  soon  as  he  was  able  to 
Paris,  to  the  task  of  restoring  the  collections 
which  had  been  dispersed  and  sold  in  his  ab- 
sence. After  the  rupture  of  the  peace  of  Amiens, 
he  was  allowed  to  remain  at  Paris,  through  the 
protection  of  Talleyrand  and  the  empress  Jose- 
phine. He  was  the  author  of  a  "  History  of  the 
Bastile,  with  a  Disquisition  upon  the  Prisoner 
of  the  Iron  Mask,"  "  Essays  on  French  Liter- 
ature," "Historical  Essay  on  Swift,  and  his  In- 
fluence on  the  English  Government,"  "Sketches 
relating  to  the  History,  Learning,  Religion,  and 
Manners  of  the  Hindoos,"  and  other  works, 
some  of  which  are  published  in  English  and 
some  in  French. 

CRAWFORD,  TnoMAs,  an  American  sculp- 
tor, born  in  New  York,  March  22,  1814,  died 
in  London,  Oct.  10,  1857.  In  early  childhood 
he  manifested  an  extraordinary  fondness  for  art, 
and  from  the  time  when  he  could  guide  a  pencil 
correctly  until  the  age  of  14  his  leisure  hours, 
and  many  of  those  which  should  have  been  em- 


CRAWFORD 


45 


ployed  in  study,  were  devoted  to  drawing  and 
sketching,  or  to  explorations  of  print  sliops  and 
picture  auctions.  His  father  placed  liiui  at  a 
drawing  school,  and  finding  him  averse  to  a 
n)ercantile  or  ])rofessional  life,  allowed  him  to 
enter  the  establishment  of  a  wood  carver.  lu 
this  occupation  his  talent  developed  rapidly, 
and  at  the  age  of  19  he  entered  the  studio  of 
Messrs.  Frazee  and  Launitz,  monumental  sculp- 
tors in  New  York.  At  the  same  time  he  at- 
tended the  schools  of  the  national  academy  of 
design.  Ilis  ambition,  however,  prompted  him 
to  enter  a  higher  walk  in  bis  art,  and  at  the  ex- 
piration of  2  years,  during  which  he  executed 
several  monumental  designs,  and  worked  upon 
portrait  busts  of  Chief  Justice  Marshall  and 
others,  he  adopted  the  advice  of  bis  friend 
Launitz,  and  departed  for  Italy.  He  arrived  in 
Rome  in  the  summer  of  1S35  with  a  slender 
purse,  but  with  Avhat  to  an  enthusiastic  art  stu- 
dent was  of  more  value  than  money,  a  letter  of 
introduction  to  Thorwaldsen,  with  which  he  had 
been  furnished  by  Launitz.  The  Danish  sculp- 
tor received  him  kindly,  and  invited  him  to 
work  in  his  studio,  an  offer  which  Crawford 
accepted  forthwith.  For  several  years  he  labor- 
ed with  an  earnestness  which  excited  in  his 
friends  mingled  feelings  of  admiration  and  anx- 
iety. He  indulged  in  no  relaxations,  and  seemed 
indifferent  as  to  his  health  or  physical  wants, 
but  was  Avholly  absorbed  in  the  study  of  his 
art.  Such  devotion  could  not  fail  to  attract  at- 
tention, and  the  young  sculptor  began  to  be 
intrusted  with  commissions  for  portrait  busts 
and  copies  in  marble.  The  sums  received  for 
these  barely  sufficed  for  his  support  and  the  pur- 
chase of  the  uecessai'y  materials ;  but  he  was 
glad  to  work  for  any  remuneration,  feeling  that 
he  was  in  no  position  to  refuse,  and  that  excel- 
lence could  only  be  attained  by  incessant  labor. 
As  an  illustration  of  his  enthusiasm  and  physical 
energy,  it  is  stated  that  during  10  weeks  in  1837 
lie  modelled  17  busts  to  be  put  in  marble,  and 
copied  in  marble  the  figure  of  Demosthenesin  the 
Vatican,  Hi  1839,  having  previously  executed 
a  few  original  pieces,  he  designed  his  "  Orpheus," 
the  work  which  first  brought  him  into  notice  in 
America,  and  which  elicited  the  warm  com- 
mendation of  Gibson  and  Thorwaldsen,  the  lat- 
ter of  whom,  it  is  said,  called  it  the  most  classic 
Btatue  in  the  studios  of  Rome.  Mr.  Charles  Sum- 
ner, who  saw  it  in  Rome  in  the  latter  part  of  that 
year,  was  so  struck  with  its  merits,  that  on  his 
return  to  Boston  he  procured,  by  subscription, 
the  means  of  sending  Crawford  an  order  for  a 
copy  in  marble.  Its  reception  in  America, 
where  it  was  exhibited  with  others  of  Crawford's 
works,  formed  an  era  in  the  life  of  the  artist, 
from  which  dates  the  commencement  of  the 
reputation  he  subsequently  enjoyed.  The  statue 
is  now  in  the  possession  of  the  Boston  Athenteum. 
Crawford  was  now  enabled  to  give  more  atten- 
tion to  ideal  composition,  and  the  numerous 
designs  in  mythology  and  sacred  history  which 
he  undertook  indicated  a  steady  gain  in  execu- 
tive skill  and  confidence.    To  this  period  may  be 


referred  his  more  purely  classic  subjects  and  his 
scriptural  bass-reliefs,  remarkable  for  the  spirit 
and  propriety  of  their  treatment.  His  industry 
seemed  to  increase  with  the  favorable  turn  in  his 
fortunes.  He  fitted  up  large  studios  in  the  piaz- 
za Barberini,  which  soon  became  a  favorite  re- 
sort of  strangers  from  the  number  of  striking 
original  works  always  to  be  seen  there.  In  1844 
he  visited  America,  and  was  married  to  Miss 
Louisa  Ward,  daughter  of  the  late  Samuel  Ward, 
of  New  York.  During  the  next  summer  he  mod- 
elled a  remarkable  bust  of  Josiah  Quincy,  sen., 
for  the  library  of  Harvard  university,  and  re- 
turned to  Europe  with  numerous  commissions 
for  new  works.  In  1849  he  made  a  2d  visit  to 
the  United  States,  and  Avithin  a  few  days  after 
reading  in  a  Richmond  newspaper  the  proposals 
for  the  monument  to  be  erected  to  Wasliington 
by  the  state  of  A^irginia,  he  prepared  and  des- 
patched his  model,  which  was  unanimously 
adopted  as  the  best  offered.  From  the  period  of 
his  return  to  Rome  in  1850  until  he  was  incapa- 
citated for  work,  ho  was  chiefly  engaged  on  that 
series  of  grand  historical  and  allegorical  pieces 
which  attested  the  finest  development  of  his 
artistic  powers.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  these  was  the  bronze  statue  of  Beethoven, 
which  he  was  commissioned  by  Mr.  Charles  C. 
Perkins,  of  Boston,  to  execute  for  the  Boston 
music  hall.  The  completion  of  this  work  at 
the  fouudery  in  Munich  was  celebrated  by  a 
musical  festival,  at  Avhich  the  royal  family  of 
Bavaria  and  an  immense  concourse  of  people 
were  present.  It  was  deposited  in  its  destined 
place  with  no  less  ceremony.  The  artist  declined 
to  receive  any  remuneration  for  his  personal  la- 
bor in  this  work.  The  colossal  equestrian  statue 
of  Washington,  25  feet  in  height,  was  subsequent- 
ly cast  in  Munich  under  the  artist's  personal 
superintendence,  and  arrived  in  A^irginia  in  the 
beginning  of  1858.  The  people  of  Riclimond 
testified  their  enthusiasm  by  dragging  it  to  Cap- 
itol hill,  where  it  now  stands.  Its  pedestal 
rests  upon  a  star-shaped  elevation  with  6  points, 
on  which  are  to  be  placed  statues  of  Pat- 
rick Henry,  Jefferson,  Lee,  and  other  illustrious 
Virginians.  None  of  the  latter  were  completed 
at  the  artist's  death,  but  will  be  finished  from 
his  designs.  The  admiration  which  these  works 
excited  in  Europe  procured  his  admission  to  the 
royal  academies  of  Munich  and  St.  Petersburg, 
and  the  academy  of  St.  Mark  in  Venice.  Craw- 
ford had  meanwhile  received  an  important  com- 
mission from  congress  to  furnish  marble  and 
bronze  statuary  for  the  new  capitol  at  Wash- 
ington, and  among  the  most  remarkable  of  his 
designs  were  those  which  he  prepared  for  the 
pediment  and  the  bronze  doors.  In  the  former 
the  figure  of  liberty,  who  is  supported  on  either 
side  by  allegorical  representations  of  the  arts, 
commerce,  civilization,  &c.,  is  particularly  fine. 
In  the  latter  are  representations  of  law  and  jus- 
tice. The  grandest  work  of  this  series,  however, 
and  perhaps  of  all  which  he  has  designed,  is  the 
colossal  statue  of  the  genius  of  America,  wliich 
is  destined  for  the  pinnacle  of  the  capitol  dome. 


46 


CKAWFOED 


It  is  a  majestic  and  graceful  female  figure  draped 
to  the  feet,  and  wearing  an  expression  of  con- 
scious power  and  magnanimity.  Tliis  work, 
the  model  of  wliich  received  the  sculptor's  last 
touches,  is  yet  to  be  cast  in  bronze.  As  an  il- 
lustration of  the  versatility  of  Crawford,  it  may 
be  mentioned  that  while  engaged  on  tliese  works 
he  executed  his  touching  group  of  tlie  "  Babes 
iu  the  Wood,"  and  the  "  Hebe  and  Ganymede," 
beside  various  portrait  busts,  including  one  of 
James  Otis  for  the  chapel  iu  tlio  Mt.  Auburn 
cemetery,  near  Boston.  In  1856  he  revisited 
America,  leaving  his  family  there,  and  returned 
alone  to  Kome.  A  cancerous  tumor  on  the  brain 
soou  after  manifested  itself,  and  he  was  obliged 
to  renounce  the  practice  of  his  art.  He  was 
successively  removed  to  Paris  and  London  for 
the  benefit  of  medical  treatment,  and  died  after 
an  intensely  painful  illness.  The  industry  of 
Crawford  finds  few  parallels  among  ancient  or 
modern  sculptors.  During  his  artistic  career  he 
finished  upward  of  60  works,  many  of  them 
colossal,  and  left  about  50  sketches  in  plaster 
and  designs  of  various  kinds,  most  of  which  will 
be  finished  by  his  assistants.  His  chief  mytho- 
logical subjects  are  the  "  Genius  of  Mirth,"  the 
"Muse,"  "Autumn,"  "  Cupid,"  "Flora,"  "  lo," 
the  "Peri,"  "Apollo,"  "Homer,"  "Diana," 
"Vesta,"  "Sappho,"  the  "Archer,"  "Paris pre- 
senting the  Apple  to  Venus,"  "  Mercury  and 
Psyche,"  "  Jupiter  and  Psyche,"  "  Psyche 
Found,"  "  Nymph  and  Satyr,"  a  series  of  4  bass- 
reliefs,  "  Boy  and  Goat,"  &c.  His  Scriptural 
compositions  included  "Adam  and  Eve,"  "Da- 
vid and  Goliath,"  "David  before  Saul,"  the 
"Shepherds  and  "Wise  Men  before  Christ,"  a 
group  of  24  figures ;  "  Christ  disputing  with  the 
Doctors,"  12  figures  ;  "  Christ  ascending  from 
the  Tomb,"  and  "  Christ  raising  Jairus's  Daugli- 
ter;"  the  "  Daughter  of  Herodias,"  "Kepose  in 
Egypt,"  "Eve  Tempted,"  "Eve  with  Cain  and 
Abel,"  "Lead  us  into  Life  Everlasting,"  a  single 
figure  of  Christ,  "  Christ  blessing  little  Chil- 
dren," and  "  Christ  at  the  Well  of  Samaria." 
Among  his  miscellaneous  works,  in  addition  to 
those  mentioned,  are  the  group  of  the  "Dan- 
cers," 2  life-size  statues  of  children,  which  have 
had  much  popularity,  statues  of  Channing, 
Washington  AUston,  Henry  Clay,  and  busts  of 
Commodore  Hull,  Charles  Sumner,  Ivenyou 
the  English  poet,  Mrs.  Crawford,  the  latter  a 
masterpiece  of  finish,  and  many  others. 

CRAWFORD,  William  Harris,  an  Amer- 
ican statesman,  born  Feb.  24, 1772,  in  that  part 
of  Amherst  CO.,  Va.,  afterward  erected  into  Nel- 
son CO.,  died  in  Elbert  co.,  Ga.,  while  on  his  way 
to  attend  the  court  of  which  he  was  judge, 
Sept.  15,  1834.  His  father,  Joel  Crawford,  was 
of  Scotcli  descent,  and  a  frontier  farmer  iu 
moderate  circumstances.  Following  the  tide 
of  emigration  then  setting  southward  along 
the  Blue  Ridge,  ho  removed  in  1779  to  Edge- 
field district,  S.  C,  and  settled  on  Stevens's 
creek,  which  enters  the  Savannah  some  30  miles 
above  Augusta.  He  was  a  whig  in  his  political 
principles,  and  when  in  1780  the  British  over- 


ran the  states  of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina,  he 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  thrown  into  Camden 
gaol,  from  which  imprisonment  he  was  released 
on  the  security  of  some  of  his  loyalist  neigh- 
bors. In  1783,  the  revolutionary  war  being 
concluded,  he  removed  across  the  Savannah 
river  into  Georgia,  and  settled  on  one  of  its 
tributaries,  Kiokee  creek,  in  the  present  county 
of  Columbia.  The  elder  Crawford  died  a  few 
years  after,  leaving  his  family  in  reduced  cir- 
cumstances. The  young  Crawford  had  early 
displayed  an  aptitude  for  learning,  and  by  at- 
tendance at  such  schools  as  the  neighborhood 
afforded,  had  qualified  himself  to  act  as  teacher. 
Upon  this  occupation  he  entered  at  the  early 
age  of  16,  and  followed  it  at  intervals  for  sev- 
eral years,  thus  assisting  his  mother  in  the 
support  of  the  family.  Dr.  Waddell  having 
established  his  classical  academy  in  Columbia 
CO. — the  same  at  which  John  C.  Calhoun  and 
William  Lo\vndes  were  not  long  after  pupils — 
young  Crawford  resolved  to  improve  the  oppor- 
tunity thus  afforded.  He  entered  this  academy 
in  1794,  then  22  years  old,  and  remained  there 
2  years,  the  latter  portion  of  the  time  acting  as 
nsher.  He  then  became  assistant  teacher  and 
afterward  principal  of  an  academy  in  Augusta, 
and  having  pursued  in  the  mean  time  the  study 
of  the  law,  was  in  1798  admitted  to  the  bar. 
The  following  spring  he  removed  to  Lexington, 
Oglethorpe  co.,  and  commenced  practice.  Soon 
after  his  admission  to  the  bar  he  assisted  in 
compiling  the  first  digest  of  the  laws  of,  Geor- 
gia. Botli  his  physical  and  mental  endowments 
were  Avell  calculated  to  insure  him  success  as 
a  lawyer.  He  was  of  a  very  strong  constitu- 
tion, was  6  feet  3  in  height,  was  every  way 
finely  proportioned,  and,  though  not  graceful 
in  his  manners,  of  easy  and  agreeable  address. 
He  was  quick  in  his  perceptions,  rapid  in  com- 
bination, and  clear  and  distinct  in  his  opinions, 
which  he  maintained  witli  unshaken  firmness. 
He  did  not  go  much  into  detail  or  incidents,  but 
rested  on  a  few  strong  points.  He  indulged  in 
no  rhetorical  flourishes,  and  his  speeches,  al- 
ways to  the  purpose,  seldom  exceeded  half  an 
hour  in  length.  In  1802,  the  then  leader  of  the 
bar  on  that  circuit  having  been  elected  to  con- 
gress, Mr.  Crawford  succeeded  to  his  place.  The 
next  year  he  was  himself  elected  to  the  state 
legislature,  of  which  he  continued  a  member  for 
4  years.  In  1804  he  was  married  to  Susannah 
Girardin  of  Augusta,  after  a  7  years'  engage- 
ment, which  he  now  first  felt  himself  in  a  pe- 
cuniary position  to  fulfil.  Upon  his  marriage, 
which  proved  a  very  happy  one,  he  settled  on  a 
small  estate  near  Lexington  called  Woodlawn, 
Avhere,  except  \lhen  engaged  in  the  public  ser- 
vice, he  continued  to  reside  for  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  By  this  marriage  he  became  the 
father  of  5  sons  and  3  daughters.  The  only 
measure  of  general  interest  in  which  he  appears 
to  have  participated  as  a  member  of  the  state 
legislature,  was  a  resolution  introduced  by  him 
and  adopted  by  both  branches,  urging  Jefferson 
to  stand  for  the  i)residency  a  third  time.   In  the 


CRAWFORD 


47 


local  aSah'3  of  the  state  he  took  an  active  in- 
terest, and  gave  such  evidences  of  liis  ability, 
that  in  1807,  on  the  resignation  of  Ahraliam 
Baldwin  as  United  States  senator  from  Geor- 
gia, Mr.  Crawford  was  chosen  to  fill  his  place. 
But  he  did  not  reach  this  elevation  without 
going  through  what  may  be  considered  as  at 
that  time  almost  the  ordinary  routine  of  public 
life  in  Georgia.  He  had  been  engaged  in  two 
duels.  lu  the  first,  which  gvew  rather  out  of 
professional  than  political  differences,  he  killed 
his  opponent,  a  Mr.  Van  Allen,  a  lawyer,  lately 
from  New  York,  and  a  cousin  of  Martin  Van 
Buren.  His  second  duel,  in  which  ho  was  him- 
self wounded  in  the  wrist,  was  fouglit  with 
Gen.  John  Clark,  who  remained  for  20  years 
his  bitter  political  opponent,  and  the  head  of  a 
political  party  warmly  opposed  to  him.  Mr, 
Crawford  reached  Washington  at  a  very  im- 
portant crisis.  The  restrictions  upon  commerce, 
growing  out  of  Napoleon's  decrees  and  the 
British  orders  in  council,  had  thrown  the  coun- 
try into  a  great  excitement,  wliich  was  soon 
still  further  increased  by  the  embargo  policy  re- 
commSnded  by  President  Jefferson,  and  adopted 
by  congress.  Mr.  Crawford  had  been  elected 
to  the  senate  as  a  supporter  of  the  administra- 
tion; but  though  the  embargo  was  warmly 
urged  as  an  administration  measure,  he  showed 
his  independence  by  voting  against  it.  It  was 
impossible,  however,  if  he  wished  to  maintain 
his  pohtical  associations,  to  persevere  in  this 
opposition,  and  at  the  next  session  of  congress 
he  both  spoke  and  voted  against  its  repeal.  The 
calm  and  sound  judgment  of  Mr.  Crawford,  and 
the  moderation  of  his  political  views,  recommend- 
ed him  to  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  Mr.  Galla- 
tin, of  whose  policy  as  secretary  of  the  treasury 
under  President  Madison  he  became  the  exponent 
in  the  senate.  It  was  in  this  character  that,  in 
1811,  having  then  been  reelected  to  the  senate, 
he  sustained  with  much  ability  the  proposal  of 
Mr.  Gallatin  for  renewing,  upon  certain  condi- 
tions, and  under  certain  limitations,  the  charter 
of  the  first  bank  of  the  United  States.  Upon 
this  question  the  contest  was  very  severe.  In 
addition  to  those  old  democratic  champions. 
Smith  of  Maryland,  Leib  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
Giles  of  Virginia,  the  opposition  in  the  senate 
was  led  on  by  the  impetuous  young  Henry  Clay, 
at  that  time  a  vehement  advocate  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  unconstitutionality  of  a  United  States 
bank.  After  a  warm  debate  the  enacting  clause 
of  the  bill  was  struck  out  by  the  casting  vote 
of  Vice-President  Clinton,  a  similar  bill  in  the 
house  being  indefinitely  postponed  by  one  ma- 
jority. That  session  was  exceedingly  stormy. 
Toward  the  close  of  it  a  collision  took  place  be- 
tween John  Randolph  and  Eppes,  the  son-in- 
law  of  Jefferson,  both  members  of  the  house, 
which  drew  out  a  challenge  from  the  latter. 
Mr.  Crawford,  probably  from  his  experience  as  a 
duelist,  Avas  invited  to  act  as  one  of  the  seconds, 
in  which  capacity  he  successfully  exerted  him- 
self to  bring  about  an  explanation  without  any 
fighting.     When,  in  March,  1812,  Vice-Presi- 


dent Clinton  was  disabled,  by  the  sickness  of 
which  he  soon  after  died,  from  acting  as  presi- 
dent of  the  senate,  Mr.  Crawford  was  cliosen 
president  ^jro  tern. ;  an  appointment  the  more 
important  as  after  Clinton's  death,  in  case  the 
office  of  president  became  also  vacant,  Mr.  Craw- 
ford as  i)resident  of  the  senate  would  have  suc- 
ceeded to  it.  In  common  with  Madison,  Gal- 
latin, and  other  older  members  of  his  party, 
Mr.  Crawford  was  opposed  to  the  policy  of  war 
witli  Great  Britain,  and  in  that  point  of  view  he 
was  more  consistent  than  some  others  in  warmly 
opposing  any  augmentation  of  the  navy.  But 
Madison  and  Gallatin  having  yielded  to  the 
demands  of  the  younger  and  more  ardent  sec- 
tion of  the  party,  Mr.  Crawford  went  with  them 
and  voted  for  the  war.  In  1813,  having  just 
refused  the  secretaryship  of  war,  Mr.  Craw- 
ford was  appointed  minister  to  France  as  suc- 
cessor to  Joel  Barlow.  The  political  confusion 
of  that  country,  incident  upon  the  downfall  of 
Napoleon,  was  not  very  favorable  to  diplomatic 
discussions,  but  he  had  the  opportunity  of  wit- 
nessing some  of  the  most  remarkable  occur- 
rences of  modern  history.  He  also  took  a  warm 
interest  in  the  negotiations  at  Ghent,  and  was 
decidedly  in  favor  of  peace  if  it  could  be  ob- 
tained, without  any  mention  of  the  impressment 
question,  and  that  too  even  without  waiting  for 
definite  instructions  to  that  effect  from  Wash- 
ington. He  first  received  the  news  of  peace  at 
the  house  of  Madame  de  Stael,  where  it  was 
communicated  to  him  by  the  duke  of  Welling- 
ton, with  whom  he  had  formed  a  friendly  ac- 
quaintance. During  his  residence  in  France  he 
acquired  the  friendship  of  Lafayette,  who  ap- 
pointed him  agent  for  his  American  lands,  and 
with  whom  after  his  return  home  he  carried 
on  a  confidential  correspondence.  In  1815  he 
asked  a  recall,  and  the  senate  having  refused  to 
confirm  Gen.  Dearborn,  whom  after  the  peace 
Madison  had  nominated  as  secretary  of  war,  Mr. 
Crawford,  while  still  on  his  voyage  home,  was 
appointed  to  fill  his  place.  The  next  year,  on 
the  retirement  of  Alexander  J.  Dallas,  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury.  There 
were  those  who  desired  to  support  him  as  a 
candidate  for  the  presidency  instead  of  Monroe  ; 
indeed,  he  received  a  large  vote  in  the  con- 
gressional caucus ;  but  upon  Monroe's  accession 
he  contimicd  to  hold  the  secretaryship  of  the 
treasury,  having  J.  Q.  Adams  and  J.  C.  Cal- 
houn as  his  colleagues  in  the  cabinet.  The 
course  of  events,  and  especially  the  experience 
of  the  late  war,  had  led  a  portion  of  the  demo- 
cratic party  to  alter  their  views  very  essentially 
as  to  tiie  powers  and  duties  of  the  federal  gov-  ■ 
ernment.  Abandoning  that  strict  limitation 
of  federal  authority,  power,  and  patronage,  of 
which  Jefferson  had  been  the  champion,  many 
among  them  had  begun  to  favor  a  liberal  inter- 
pretation of  the  powers  of  the  government,  and 
a  generous  expenditure  of  money,  especially  in 
facilitating  trade  and  intercourse  between  the 
states  by  means  of  internal  improvements.  John 
C.  Calhoun  was  at  this  time  an  active  champion 


48 


CEAWFOED 


CEEAM  OF  TAETAE 


of  these  new  views.  They  were  opposed  by 
Crawford,  both  in  bis  character  of  a  statesman 
and  as  the  head  of  tlie  treasury,  at  that  time 
limited  in  its  resources,  and  driven  to  loans  even 
in  time  of  peace.  lie  was  for  adhering  to  tlie 
old  Jctfersonian  policy,  and  was  denounced  in 
consequence  in  Calhoun's  newspaper  organ  at 
"Washington  as  a  "  radical."  Thus  sprang  up  a 
warm  political  and  even  personal  hostility  be- 
tween these  two  able  men,  entered  into  also  by 
their  respective  states,  between  which  a  strong 
feeling  of  jealousy,  and  even  antipathy,  trans- 
mitted froni  colonial  times,  was  not  yet  entirely 
extinct.  This  feeling  of  hostility  was  aggra- 
vated upon  the  coming  up  of  the  question  of  a 
successor  to  Mr.  Monroe.  Mr.  Crawford,  ever 
since  the  withdrawal  of  his  claims  at  the  former 
election  in  favor  of  Monroe,  had  been  considered 
as  in  some  sense  the  destined  successor.  He  was 
nominated  as  such  by  a  congressional  caucus, 
held  Feb.  14, 1824.  That  caucus,  however,  Avas 
but  thinly  attended,  and  failed  to  conmiand 
general  respect.  All  the  other  candidates,  Cal- 
houn, Jackson,  Adams,  and  Clay,  joined  against 
him ;  and  among  other  violent  assaults  upon  him, 
was  one  in  the  house  of  representatives  itself, 
introduced  just  at  the  end  of  the  session,  based 
on  certain  charges  made  by  Ninian  Edwards, 
late  a  senator  from  Illinois,  and  just  appointed 
minister  to  Mexico,  to  which  country  he  was 
tiien  on  his  way.  Instead  of  allowing  these 
charges  (which  involved  official  misconduct  as 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  and  had  already  been 
brought  forward  in  a  AVashington  newspaper) 
to  lie  over  till  after  the  presidential  election, 
which  seemed  to  be  the  object  of  those  who  had 
introduced  them,  Mr.  Crawford  and  his  friends 
demanded  an  investigation  at  once.  This  was 
granted,  and  a  committee  was  appointed,  of 
which  Daniel  "Webster,  Edward  Livingston,  and 
John  Eandolph  were  members.  Mr.  Crawford, 
though  sick  in  bed  at  the  time,  dictated  a  con- 
clusive reply,  and  the  affair  ended  in  a  unani- 
mous report  of  the  committee  declaring  the  total 
futility  and  falsity  of  the  charges,  and  in  the 
resignation  by  his  accuser  of  his  diplomatic  ap- 
pointment. The  disorder  under  which  Mr.  Craw- 
ford was  laboring  was  paralysis,  brought  on,  it 
is  stated,  by  the  improper  use  of  lobelia  for  an 
attack  of  erysipelas  during  a  temporary  absence 
from  "Washington.  Ilis  sickness  was  long  and  se- 
vere, and  though  perhaps  it  had  little  influence 
on  the  vote  given  for  him  as  president  (he  ob- 
tained all  the  electoral  votes  of  Virginia  and 
Georgia,  5  in  New  York,  2  in  Maryland,  and 
one  in  Delaware,  41  in  all),  it  wholly  destroy- 
ed any  chance  of  his  election  by  the  house, 
and  i^emoved  him  henceforth  from  the  polit- 
ical arena.  Mr.  Crawford  continued  for  some 
time  a  great  invalid.  He  could  not  see  to  write, 
and  had  not  the  physical  ability  to  encounter 
any  labor.  He  was  assisted  in  preparing  his 
last  treasury  report  by  Asbury  Dickins,  tlien  a 
clerk  in  his  department,  who  had  also  assist- 
ed in  preparing  his  defence  against  Edwards. 
He  gradually  improved,  but  never  fully  recov- 


ered, J.  Q.  Adams  offered  to  continue  him  as 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  but  he  declined,  and 
returned  home  to  Georgia.  Notwithstanding 
his  political  rivalry  with  Mr,  Clay,  he  still  re- 
mained on  friendly  terms  with  him,  and  in  a  let- 
ter written  in  1828,  assured  him  that  as  between 
Jackson  and  Adams  he  should  have  decided  as 
Clay  did.  Mr.  Crawford's  pecuniary  means  were 
not  large,  and  a  vacancy  occurring  in  May,  1827, 
on  the  bench  of  the  northern  circuit,  the  same 
in  which  he  had  formerly  practiced,  he  accept- 
ed a  temporary  appointment  from  Governor 
Troup  to  fill  it.  In  November  folloAving  he  was 
chosen  by  the  legislature  for  the  remainder  of 
the  vacant  term,  in  which  position  (the  judges 
holding  office  for  3  years  only)  he  was  con- 
tinued at  two  subsequent  elections  in  1828  and 
1831.  During  his  time  there  was  no  court  for 
the  correction  of  errors  in  Georgia.  There  was 
a  convention  of  the  circuit  judges  annually  to 
consvilt  on  questions  submitted  by  each  other, 
but  no  judgment  could  be  rendered,  the  action 
of  the  convention  being  wholly  advisory.  Dur- 
ing the  7  years  that  he  presided  as  judge  of  the 
northern  circuit,  Mr.  Crawford  acted  as  chair- 
man of  this  convention.  Though  his  disorder 
aifected  him  both  physically  and  mentally, 
and  though  sometimes  annoyed  by  the  "  silly 
speeches"  of  counsel,  he  made  a  much  better 
judge  than  would  have  seemed  possible  to  those 
familiar  with  his  paralyzed  state.  He  was 
strongly  opposed  to  the  nullification  movement. 
To  the  last,  he  retained  his  social  temper  and  ad- 
mirable conversational  talent.  He  loved  to  tell 
anecdotes,  and  told  them  well.  He  was  a  hearty 
laugher,  negligent  in  his  dress,  simple  in  all  his 
arrangements,  and  totally  regardless  of  artificial 
dignity.  He  was  extremely  affectionate  to  his 
children,  teaching  them  himself,  romping  with 
them,  arguing  with  them,  and  accustoming  them 
to  treat  hira  familiarly  and  confidingly.  In  the 
family,  "Woodlawn  was  familiarly  known  as  Lib- 
erty hall.  His  wife  and  several  children  sur- 
vived him.  In  religion,  he  inclined  to  the  Bap- 
tist persuasion,  and  though  not  zealous  was  a 
sincere  believer.  He  is  generally  regarded  as 
the  greatest  of  the  citizens  of  Georgia, 

CRA"WFORDSVILLE,  a  prosperous  town  of 
Union  township,  and  capital  of  Montgomery  co., 
Ind.  It  is  finely  situated  in  a  fertile  and  undu- 
lating region  on  the  banks  of  Sugar  creek,  and 
contains  a  number  of  imposing  private  and 
public  edifices.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  educa- 
tional advantages,  and  is  the  seat  of  "Wabash 
college,  founded  in  1835,  and  regarded  as  one 
of  the  best  institutions  of  the  kind  in  Indiana, 
The  original  college  buildings,  together  with  a 
library  of  3,000  volumes,  were  destroyed  by  fire 
in  1838.  CrawfordsviUe  also  contains  a  county 
seminary,  a  female  academy,  and  2  newspaper 
offices,  A  railroad  connects  the  town  with  La- 
fayette, 28  miles  distant.  Pop.  in  1853  esti- 
mated at  2,500. 

CREAM  OF  TARTAR.  The  chemical  compo- 
sition of  this  useful  salt  is:  tartaric  acid  two 
equivalents,  =  132  ;  potassa  one,  —  47.2  ;  and 


CRfiBILLON 


CRfiCY 


49 


water  one,  =  9.  It  is  a  bitartrate  of  potassa 
purified  from  the  crude  tartar  or  argol,  which 
collects  in  a  crystalline  deposit  upon  the  bot- 
tom and  sides  of  wine  casks  during  the  fer- 
mentation of  the  wine.  As  the  saccharine 
matters  which  hold  this  in  solution  are  con- 
verted into  alcohol,  the  salt  is  precipitated  in  a 
crude  state,  together  with  some  tartrate  of 
lime  and  the  coloring  matter  of  the  wine.  Red 
Avines  give  a  red  color  to  the  crude  article. 
"When  the  crude  salt  is  dissolved  in  boiling 
water,  and  this  is  allowed  to  cool,  crystals  of  the 
cream  of  tartar  are  deposited  and  form  a  crust 
on  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  cold  water  holding 
in  solution  only  yj  j  of  its  weight  of  the  salt,  and 
boiling  water  ^\.  The  crust  is  redissolved  in 
boiling  water,  and  4  or  5  per  cent,  of  pipe  clay 
is  added.  On  evaporating  the  solution,  the  clay 
precipitates  with  the  coloring  matter,  and  the 
salt  of  tartar  is  deposited  in  white  crystals. 
These  are  bleached  by  being  spread  upon  cloths 
for  some  days  and  dried,  and  then  constitute 
the  cream  of  tartar  of  commerce.  It  is  usually 
sold  as  a  powder,  and  in  this  state  is  liable  to 
have  been  mixed  with  various  substances  used 
for  its  adulteration,  as  chalk,  clay,  gypsum,  sand, 
flour,  &c.  It  is  therefore  better  to  purchase  it 
in  the  crystalline  form  in  which  it  is  received 
from  the  French  manufacturers.  It  is,  how- 
ever, never  pure,  always  containing  a  small 
percentage  of  tartrate  of  lime.  Cream  of  tar- 
tar is  much  used  in  medicine,  as  well  for  its 
agreeable  cooling  properties  when  made  into  a 
drink,  as  for  its  more  powerful  qualities  as  a 
cathartic  when  administered  in  large  doses.  A 
refreshing  beverage  called  imperial  is  prepared 
by  dissolving  half  an  ounce  in  3  pints  of  boiling 
water,  and  adding  4  ounces  of  white  sugar  and 
half  an  ounce  of  fresh  lemon  peel.  Cream  of 
tartar  and  tartrate  of  antimony  compose  the 
medicine  tartar  emetic.  Rochelle  salt  is  pre- 
pared by  adding  cream  of  tartar  to  carbonate 
of  soda,  by  which  a  tartrate  of  potassa  and 
soda  is  produced.  When  decomposed  by  heat, 
cream  of  tartar  is  converted'  into  a  pure  car- 
bonate of  potassa.  Mixed  with  half  its  weight 
of  nitrate  of  potash  and  deflagrated,  it  forms 
the  flux  called  black  flux,  used  for  crucible  as- 
says. "White  flux  is  prepared  with  two  parts 
of  nitre  to  one  of  cream  of  tartar.  In  making 
bread,  cream  of  tartar,  is  often  usefully  employ- 
ed, mixed  with  half  its  weight  of  carbonate  of 
soda.  The  excess  of  acid  produces  a  slow  effer- 
vescence, and  the  escape  of  cai'bonic  acid  gas, 
distending  the  dough,  causes  it  to  rise. 

CRfiBlLLON,  Prospeij  Jolyot  de,  a  French 
tragic  poet,  born  at  Dijon,  Jan.  13,  1G74,  died 
in  Paris,  June  17,  1762.  His  father  placed  him 
in  the  oflice  of  an  attorney  who  happened  to  be 
an  enthusiastic  lover  of  the  drama,  and  encour- 
aged his  young  clerk  to  devote  himself  to  dra- 
matic literature.  His  first  tragedy,  Idomenee, 
performed  in  1705,  though  not  a  masterpiece, 
was  superior  to  the  weak  imitations  of  Racine 
and  Corneille  current  at  that  time.  His  next 
play,  Atree^  appeared  in  1707,  and  produced  an 

VOL.  TI. — 4 


irnpression  by  its  gloomy  plot  and  energetic  style. 
EJectre  succeeded  in  1709 ;  and  2  years  later, 
Jihaditmisie  ct  Zenohie,  which  is  still  consid- 
ered his  best  production.  The  mainsi>ring  of 
Crebillon's  i)lays  is  terror,  and  it  must  be 
conceded  that  ho  uses  it  with  power.  His 
next  tragedy,  Xcr.vt's^  was  a  failure ;  and  Semi- 
omnis,  performed  in  1717,  and  Pi/rrhus,  in 
1726,  were  little  more  successful.  He  now  kept 
aloof  from  the  stage  for  22  years.  Having 
squandered  his  large  earnings  and  lost  his  fa- 
ther and  his  wife,  he  retired  to  a  miserable 
garret,  where  his  sole  companions  were  dogs, 
cats,  and  ravens,  and  wlierc  he  lived  neglect- 
ed by  all  his  friends,  except  his  son,  who  tried 
in  vain  to  withdraw  him  from  his  isolation. 
In  1731,  however,  the  French  academy  elected 
him  one  of  their  number ;  and  the  new  acade- 
mician wrote  a  poem  as  his  reception  discourse. 
Some  14  years  later,  Mme.  de  Pompadour,  who 
was  dissatisfied  with  Voltaire,  thought  of  bring- 
ing Crebillon  into  competition  with  him.  The 
old  di"amatist  received  a  pension  of  1,000  livres, 
and  was  encouraged  to  resume  his  former  call- 
ing. He  now  completed  his  tragedy  of  Catili- 
?irt,  which  was,  Dec.  12,  1748,  performed  in  a 
style  of  unusual  splendor  at  the  king's  ex- 
pense, and  warmly  applauded  by  the  court  par- 
ty, while  his  superiority  over  Voltaire  as  a  tra- 
gic poet  was  loudly  proclaimed.  The  latter, 
smarting  under  what  he  considered  an  insult, 
replied  by  undertaking  subjects  already  treat- 
ed by  his  rival,  and  handling  them  in  a  manner 
evincing  a  greater  degree  of  skill,  if  not  of 
genius.  Crebillon's  last  effort  was  his  Triumvi- 
rat,  which  lie  wrote  when  over  81,  and  which 
was  received  with  forbearance  and  respect. 
Among  French  tragic  poets  Crebillon  ranks  next 
to  Corneille,  Racine,  and  Voltaire. — Claude 
Prosper  Jolyot  de,  a  French  novelist,  the  son 
of  the' preceding,  born  in  Paris,  Feb.  14,  1707, 
died  there,  April  12, 1777.  Ilis  character  aflbrded 
a  striking  contrast  to  that  of  Ins  father.  He  was 
a  gay  companion,  full  of  wit  and  humor,  and 
he  wrote  a  series  of  novels  which  were  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  licentiousness  of  the  age,  and 
brought  him  not  only  great  fame  but  also  a 
wife;  Miss  Stafford,  a  young,  handsome,  rich 
English  lady,  of  noble  birth,  havingbeen  so  much 
pleased  with  them  as  to  cross  the  channel,  and 
to  offer  her  hand,  which  was  at  once  accepted 
by  the  lucky  author.  Crebillon's  novels,  not- 
withstanding their  popularity  during  the  18th 
century,  are  now  but  little  read.  The  least  ob- 
jectionable is  entitled  Zes  egaremcnts  du  cceur 
et  de  Vesprit.  He  was  also  a  ready  and  witty 
song-maker,  and  aided  in  the  establishment  of 
the  lyric  society  known  as  Le  cavenu. 

CR£CY,  or  Cresst  (anc.  Crisincinn),  a  vil- 
lage of  France,  in  the  department  of  Sorame 
(Picardy),  11  m.  N.  of  Abbeville;  pop.  1,785. 
The  village  is  situated  on  the  small  river  Maye, 
a  tributary  of  the  Somme,  in  the  midst  of  a 
grain  and  grass-growing  country.  It  has  tan- 
neries, soap  and  oil  manufactories,  and  con- 
siderable trade  in  wood  from  the  adjoining  for- 


50 


CRfiCY 


CRIIDIT  MOBILIER 


ests.  An  annual  fair  is  held  here,  Aug.  25  and 
26.  The  objects  of  interest  are  the  tower  of 
Edward  III.,  the  valley  of  Cleves,  and  the  stone 
cross  of  the  king  of  Bohemia.  Cardinal  John 
Lemoirie  was  born  here. — Crecy  owes  its  celeb- 
rity to  the  famous  battle  fought,  Aug.  26,  1346, 
between  the  English  under  King  Edward  III. 
and  the  French  under  King  Philip  of  Valois,  in 
which  the  French  army  was  destroyed.  The 
English,  on  one  of  their  plundering  expeditions 
into  Xormandy,  had  penetrated  within  sight  of 
Paris,  and  -svere  retreating  to  the  coast  when  the 
French  army  came  upon  them.  Some  discrep- 
ancy exists  in  the  estimate  of  the  respective 
forces.  Froissart,  whose  statement  is  followed 
by  Hume  and  others,  makes  the  English  30,000 
to  40,000,  and  the  French  100,000  to  120,000. 
Turner,  in  his  "  History  of  England  during  the 
Middle  Ages,"  says  the  English  army  was  in  3 
divisions  :  the  1st,  under  the  Black  Prince,  Ed- 
ward prince  of  Wales,  comprised  800  men-at- 
arms,  2,000  archers,  and  1,000  Welsh;  the  2d, 
under  the  earl  of  Northampton,  800  men-at-arms, 
and  1,200  archers  ;  and  the  reserve,  under  the 
king,  not  engaged  in  the  battle,  700  men-at-arms 
and  2,000  archers.  Allowing  for  retainers,  the 
total  number  may  be  computed  at  17,000.  It 
is  difficult  to  comprehend  how  a  greater  number 
of  fighting  men  could  be  assembled  on  the  coast 
■with  the  imperfect  means  of  transport  then  at 
command.  Reducing  the  estimate  of  the  French 
in  the  same  ratio,  we  may  assume  the  battle  to 
have  been  fought  between  17,000  English  and 
50,000  to  60,000  French.  Even  these  numbers 
give  it  the  magnitude  of  a  great  battle.  Ed- 
ward saw^  the  danger  to  which  a  liasty  retreat 
would  expose  him  in  face  of  the  enemy's  su- 
perior force  ;  he  therefore  determined  to  make 
a  stand,  in  hopes  to  check  their  further  advance. 
Selecting  a  rising  ground  near  Crecy,  he  drew 
up  his  army  on  the  ascent,  and  threw  up  trench- 
es on  his  flanks,  with  a  wood  in  his  rear  which 
he  also  secured  by  intrenchment.  Villani  al- 
leges that  Edward  had  6  pieces  of  artillery, 
which  he  posted  so  as  to  sweep  the  enemy's  ad- 
vance. Artillery  had  been  recently  invented, 
and  was  known  both  in  France  and  England, 
but  does  not  appear  to  have  been  in  use  in  the 
field  iintil  the  present  occasion.  Philip  was  con- 
fident that  he  had  only  to  force  the  English  to 
an  engagement  to  destroy  them  utterly ;  hence 
ho  neglected  precautions,  and  advanced  his 
troops  pell-mell  from  Abbeville,  with  little  at- 
tention to  order  or  discipline.  His  advanced 
guard  of  Genoese  bowmen  began  the  attack,  but 
rain  having  fallen,  their  arrows  fell  short.  The 
Englisli,  taking  their  bows  from  their  cases, 
sent  a  shower  of  clothyard  shafts  that  drove 
the  Italians  back  on  the  cavalry  of  the  duke 
d'Alengon,  who,  enraged  at  their  cowardice,  or- 
dered his  troopers  to  cut  them  down.  The 
English  artillery  opened  fire,  and  the  prince 
of  Wales  (aged  15)  charged  with  his  men-at- 
arms  on  the  struggling  mass.  An  opportune 
movement  of  the  French  retrieved  their  for- 
tunes, and  for  a  long  time  the  battle  hung  doubt- 


fully. Lord  Cobliara  despatched  Sir  Thomas 
Norwich  to  the  king  requesting  him  to  send 
the  reserve  to  the  assistance  of  the  prince. 
"No,"  said  Edward;  "  teU  my  boy  he  must 
win  his  spurs."  This  speech  invigorated  the 
English.  They  again  charged.  The  duke  d'Alen- 
Con  was  killed;  the  French  line  was  broken, 
and  the  Welsh,  rushing  into  the  meUe,  with 
their  long  knives  stabbed  the  horses  and  butch- 
ered those  wlio  fell.  Philip  made  a  final  effort 
to  recover  the  day,  but  without  effect.  The  rout 
Iiad  become  a  flight.  Edward's  reserve,  and 
indeed  the  whole  English  army,  pursued  the 
fugitives,  sparing  none,  till  darkness  put  an  end 
to  the  bloodshed.  Next  morning  the  English 
were  guilty  of  an  act  which  disgraces  their  vic- 
tory. Fog  having  come  on,  many  parties  of 
French  were  wandering  in  search  of  the  main 
body ;  the  English  set  up  on  the  eminences  the 
French  standards  they  had  taken,  and  aU  who 
were  allured  by  the  signal  w^ere  massacred. 
Thirty  thousand  French  perished,  including 
2,600  knights  and  gentlemen,  and 4,000  men-at- 
arms.  Beside  the  duke  d'Alen^on,  the  king's 
brother,  the  kings  of  Bohemia  and  Majorca,  the 
dukes  of  Lorraine  and  Bourbon,  the  counts  of 
Flanders,  Aumale,  Blois,  Yaudemont,  the  arch- 
bishops of  Niraes  and  Sens,  and  many  other 
French  lords  and  German  barons,  were  slain. 
Froissart  relates  the  singular  fate  of  King  John 
of  Bohemia.  Being  old  and  blind,  he  ordered 
the  bridle  of  his  horse  to  be  tied  on  each  side  to 
the  horses  of  two  cavaliers  of  his  train,  and  thus 
guided,  charged  into  the  battle,  where  be  fell,  to- 
gether with  his  attendants.  His  crest,  consisting 
of  3  ostrich  feathers,  with  tlie  motto  Ich  dien 
(I  serve),  was,  according  to  the  custom  of  chiv- 
alry, adopted  by  the  Black  Prince,  and  is  still 
the  crest  of  the  prince  of  Wales.  The  English 
loss  was,  comparatively  small.  In  brief,  this 
battle  broke,  for  a  time,  the  power  of  France, 
and  enabled  the  English  in  the  following  year 
to  become  masters  of  Calais. 

CREDI,  Lorenzo,  a  Florentine  artist,  born 
about  1453,  died  about  1586.  He  was  a  fellow 
pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Yinci  in  the  school  of  Ve- 
rocchio,  and  so  closely  followed  his  style  that 
some  of  his  copies  of  Leonardo's  works  are 
scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  the  origintJs. 
His  "  Holy  Families,"  of  which  he  painted  a 
great  number  for  private  collections,  are  grace- 
fully designed  and  highly  finished.  His  most 
esteemed  works  are  a  "  Madonna  and  Child  with 
Saints  Julian  and  Nicholas,"  now  in  the  Louvre, 
and  the  "  Birth  of  Christ,"  at  Florence. 

CREDIT  MOBILIER,  a  joint  stock  company 
founded  in  Paris,  upon  the  principle  of  limited 
liability,  under  the  sanction  of  the  government, 
by  a  decree  dated  Nov.  18,  1852,  with  a  capital 
of  60,000,000  francs,  divided  into  shares  of  500 
francs,  payable  to  bearer,  for  the  transaction  of 
general  banking  business,  and  with  the  profess- 
ed object  of  aiding  the  progress  of  public  works, 
of  promoting  the  development  of  national  in- 
dustry, and  of  consolidating  into  a  common 
stock  the  shares  and  bonds  of  trading  compa- 


CRfiDIT  MOBILIER 


CREEKS 


51 


nies.  According  to  !N[.*Tsaac  Pereire,  one  of  the 
original  founders  of  the  company,  "  it  is  to  ]>hiy, 
with  respect  to  the  fixed  capital  emiiloyed  in 
industry,  a  part  analogous  to  that  whicli  hanks 
of  discount  fill  with  respect  to  its  circulating 
capital."  It  is  autliorized  to  suhscribe  for  or  to 
acquire  public  securities  as  well  as  shares  and 
bonds  in  industrial  enterprises,  particularly  rail- 
ways, canals,  mines,  and  other  public  works; 
to  issue  its  own  bonds  for  an  amount  equal  to 
its  subscriptions  and  purchases,  and,  after  the 
complete  issue  of  tlie  original  capital  of  G0,000,- 
000  francs,  to  issue  its  bonds  equal  to  10  times 
this  amount,  i.  e.  to  600,000,000  francs.  By  the 
terras  of  its  charter,  the  company  has  unlim- 
ited power  to  engage  in  the  most  extensive 
operations,  the  only  restriction  being  not  to  sell 
in  advance  public  securities,  nor  to  buy  them 
on  time.  The  following  was  the  status  of  the 
company  on  Dec.  31,  1857: 

Assets. 

Francs. 

Rents,  debentures,  railway  and  other  shares....  83,063,991  41 
Investment  in  various  securities,  continuations 

and  advances  on  shares,  debentures,  &c 49,841.4.50  13 

Premises  and  furniture 1,449,4:36  50 

Balance  on  hand  and  dividends  due,  Dec.  31, 

IS."}; 7,261,925  2S 

Total 141,616,803  31 

Liabilities. 

Francs. 

Capital G0.0()0,0(»0  00 

Deposits,  current  accounts 6S,.'i46,431  62 

IMlls  payable,  and  sundries 3,911,264  65 

Interest  and  dividends .3,025,-373  75 

Kescrvo  fund 2,000,000  00 

Balance  of  profit  and  loss  account 4,133,733  29 

Total 141,016,803  31 

Showing  a  decrease  in  operations  of  about  40,- 
000,000  francs  compared  to  Dec.  31,  1856,  and 
of  about  50,000,000  francs  compared  to  Dec. 
31,  1855.  The  net  profits  of  the  company  show 
considerable  fluctuations.  They  were,  in  1853, 
3,500,000  francs;  1854,9,800,000;  1855,  about 
28,000,000;  1856,  about  15,000,000;  and  in 
1857,  only  4,133,733  29.  M.  Percire,  in  his 
financial  statement  of  Dec.  31,  1857,  attributes 
tlie  unfavorable  result  of  1857  mainly  to  the 
financial  crisis,  and  the  violent  fall  of  the  Credit 
Mobilier  shares  at  the  beginning  of  1858  to  the 
attempt  upon  the  emperor's  life. — Among  the 
most  famous  enterprises  of  the  Credit  Mo- 
bilier, from  the  time  of  its  foundation,  may 
be  mentioned  the  consolidation  of  the  Paris  gas 
and  omnibus  companies;  the  creation  of  the 
company  of  the  grand  hotel  du  Loui-re  in  the 
rue  de  Rivoli,  and  of  the  maritime  company  of 
clippers;  the  immense  operations  in  railways 
in  Spain,  Russia,  Switzerland,  and  Austria; 
loans  to  an  aggregate  amount  of  about  1,500,- 
000,000  francs  to  French  railway  companies; 
and  various  other  colossal  transactions.  By 
one  of  the  most  eloquent  opponents  of  the 
company,  M.  Berryer,  it  has  been  character- 
ized as  "the  greatest  gambling  house  which 
the  world  has  ever  seen." — Prominent  among 
the  continental  institutions  which,  with  some 
modifications,  hare  been  formed  after  the  model 
of  the  Credit  Mobilier,  is  that  of  Geneva,  found- 


ed with  the  assistance  of  that  of  Paris  in  1853, 
and  that  of  Vienna,  established  in  the  early 
part  of  1856.     The  Germans  have  been  mo.-^t 
active  in  founding  similar  companies,  and  not 
less  than  3  books  on  that  established  at  Vienna 
were  published  in  1857,  and  another  book  in 
the  same  year  on  that  founded  in  Leipsic  in  1856. 
CREEKS,  or  Muskogees,  a  southern  tribe  of 
North  American  Indians,  now  established  in  the 
Indian  territory,  who  occupied  prior  to  their 
removal    the   territory  S.  of  the   Alleghanies 
and  S.  W.  of  the  Savannali,  including  the  whole 
of  the  present  state  of  Georgia  and  the  greater 
part  of  Alabama.     The  Muskogee  tradition,  of 
immemorial  antiquity,  is  that  a  long  time  ago 
some  strangewandering  clans  of  Indians  from  tlie 
northwest  found  their  way  down  into  Florida, 
into  what  was  afterward  known  as  the  coun- 
try  of  the   Seminoles.     Meeting   with   plenty 
of  game,  they  est.ablished  themselves  there  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  powerful  Appalachian  tribes, 
by  whom  they  were  styled  Seminoles,  signify- 
ing wanderers  or  lost  men.     Increasing  in  num- 
bers and  power,  they  excited  the  jealousy  of 
their  neighbors ;   Avars  ensued,  and  finally  the 
Seminoles  became  masters  of  the  country.    The 
game  of  the  region  in  process  of  time  became 
insufiicient,  and  emigrations  followed.      They 
spread  northeastward  almost  to  Cape  Fear,  and 
westward  as  fiir  as  the  Tallapoosa  and  Coosa 
rivers,  branches  of  the  Alabama,  where  tliey 
were  encountered  •  by  the  powerful  Alabama 
nation.      They  gained  the   friendship  of  this  • 
tribe,  and  incorporated  it  into  their  own  body. 
They  now  distinguished  themselves  from  their 
ancestors,  the  Seminoles,  by  the  name  of  Mus- 
kogees,   the    English    name   of    Creeks  being 
afterward  given  them  from  the  character  of 
much   of    the    country  in   which    they   were 
found.     Other  accounts   make   the   Seminoles 
to  have  wandered  from  the  Muskogees,  who 
were   settled  in   the   country   IsT.    of  Florida. 
Though  spread  over  a  fourfold  wider  territory 
than  the  Choctaws,  they  did  not  surpass  them 
in  population,  their  fighting  men  numbering 
about  4,000.     They  were  famed  as  brave  war- 
riors, and  extended  their  power  and  importance 
rather  by  the  union  of  subject  tribes  than  by 
increase  of  their  original  stock.     By  a  liberal 
and  protective  policy  long   exercised  toward 
vanqui-shed  and  declining  tribes,  they  encour- 
aged their  incorporation  with  themselves.    The 
AJabamas   and   Coosades  were  the  first   who 
adopted  the  ceremonies  and  customs  of  the 
Creeks,  and  became  part  of  the  nation.     The 
Natchez,  or  Sunset  Indians,  from  the  Missis- 
sippi, united  with  them  some  time  prior  to  the 
revolution,  after  being  driven  out  of  Louisiana. 
Subsequently  the   Shawanese  joined  them  in 
large  numbers.     The  confederacy  was  divided 
into  the  npper  and  loAver  Creeks,  the  former 
ha\ing  their  principal  seat  upon  the  head  waters 
of  the  Alabama,  the  latter  near  the  junction  of 
the  tributaries  which  form  the  Appalachicola. 
In  1705,  the  Creeks  aided  the  English  Caro- 
linians against  the  Spaniards  of  Florida.      In 


52 


CREEKS 


1715  they  supported  the  Yamassees  in  the  at- 
tack upon  South  Carolina,  which  was  defeated 
by  the  efficient  conduct  of  Gov.  Craven.  In 
1721  tlie  Savannah  was  fixed  as  their  eastern 
boundary,  though  they  permitted  the  English 
to  maintain  a  post  on  the  Altamaha.  In  1733 
Oglethorpe  met  them  on  the  bluli'  of  Yamacraw, 
on  the  Savannah,  and  they  agreed  in  formal 
council  to  yield  to  the  colonists  all  the  lands 
below  tide  water  between  the  Savannah  and 
the  Altamaha,  except  3  islands  on  the  coast. 
Six  years  later  Oglethorpe  again  visited  them 
at  Cowetas,  on  the  Chattahoochee,  and  by  a 
new  treaty  they  acknowledged  themselves  sub- 
ject to  the  king  of  Great  Britain,  ceded  to  the 
English,  with  some  reservations,  the  coast  from 
tlie  Savannah  to  the  St.  John's  as  far  into  the 
interior  as  the  tide  flows,  and  were  confirmed 
in  the  possession  of  the  rest  of  the  territory 
between  those  rivers  and  between  the  sea  and 
the  mountains.  During  the  war  of  the  Amer- 
ican revolution,  the  Creeks  adhered  to  the  Brit- 
ish. After  the  conclusion  of  peace,  the  Geor- 
gians claimed  that  by  treaties  concluded  in 
1783,  1785,  and  1786,  this  tribe  had  ceded  to 
that  state  a  considerable  tract  of  their  lands  W. 
and  S.  of  the  Oconee.  The  Creeks,  having  an 
able  chief  in  M'Gillivray,  whose  father  was  a 
Scotchman,  denied  the  validity  of  these  trea- 
ties, and,  though  they  had  always  been  allies  of 
the  English  colonists  against  the  Spaniards, 
now  entered  into  close  relations  with  the  Span- 
ish government  of  Florida.  This  was  the  pe- 
riod of  their  greatest  power,  when  they  number- 
ed 6,000  warriors.  British  gunsmiths  had  long 
resided  among  them,  so  that  they  were  well 
supplied  with  arms,  Avhich  they  could  skilfully 
employ.  In  1787  war  broke  out  between  them 
and  the  Georgians,  who  sufl:ered  severely.  In 
1789  they  first  entered  into  negotiations  with 
the  United  States,  and  were  disposed  to  ac- 
knowledge the  president  as  their  "  great  fiither  " 
instead  of  the  British  king,  but  abruptly  broke 
off  the  conference  when  they  found  that  the 
commissioner  did  not  propose  to  restore  their 
lands.  Mutual  depredations  prevailed  on  the 
frontier  between  the  Creeks  and  Georgians,  till 
the  boundaries  were  settled  by  a  treaty  in  1796, 
according  to  which  the  tribe  was  to  receive  an 
annuity  of  $6,000,  and  to  be  provided  -with  2 
blacksmiths,  in  exchange  for  permitting  certain 
posts  and  trading  houses  in  their  territory. 
They  had  of  late  years  made  some  progress  ia 
civilization,  and,  though  still  for  the  most  part 
hunters,  cultivated  corn  and  sweet  potatoes, 
and  had  a  few  slaves.  In  1813  the  example 
of  Tecumseh,  who  visited  them,  excited  them 
anew  to  war.  Young  men  began  "  to  dance 
the  dance  of  the  Indians  of  the  lakes,"  and  old 
men  regretted  and  wished  to  revive  the  origi- 
nal savage  simplicity  of  the  nation.  Tlie  upper 
Creeks  especially  betrayed  a  hostile  disposition, 
and  had  long  caused  apprehensions  on  the  part 
of  the  whites  in  Alabama  and  Georgia.  On 
Aug.  30,  1813,  Weatlierford,  a  half-breed  chief, 
at  the  head  of  1,500  warriors,  surprised  Fort 


Mimms  on  the  Alabama,*  and  but  17  persons  out 
of  a  garrison  of  275  survived  the  carnage.  Four 
invading  columns,  amountuig  to  more  than 
7,000  men,  were  speedily  organized  in  Tennes- 
see, Georgia,  and  the  Mississipi)i  territory,  to 
avenge  the  massacre.  Gen.  Jackson,  the  first 
in  the  field,  captured  2  villages  (Oct.  28  and 
Nov.  2)  in  the  "  hickory  ground  "  between  the 
Coosa  and  the  Tallapoosa,  in  the  latter  of  which 
no  quarter  was  given.  On  Nov.  9  the  savages 
were  again  defeated  by  him  with  great  loss  at 
Talladega,  and  soon  after  they  were  succes- 
sively routed  by  each  of  the  other  3  invading 
forces,  which,  howevei',  failed  to  meet  in  the 
heart  of  the  Creek  country.  In  Jan.  1814,  the 
fiercest  party  of  the  savages,  called  Eed  Sticks, 
attacked  Gen.  Jackson  on  his  march,  and  obliged 
him  to  fall  back  to  Fort  Strother,  from  which 
he  had  advanced.  He  soon  after  received  re- 
enforcements,  attacked  on  March  24  the  main 
body  of  the  Eed  Sticks  at  the  great  bend  (also 
called  the  great  horse-shoe)  of  the  Tallapoosa, 
and  ended  the  Creek  war  by  a  defeat  and  mas- 
sacre from  which  not  more  than  20  warriors 
were  believed  to  have  escaped.  A  treaty  was 
concluded  on  Aug.  9,  by  which  the  Creeks  sur- 
rendered a  large  part  of  their  finest  territory. 
In  1818  they  made  2  large  additional  cessions, 
for  which  they  received  $20,000  down,  and  an 
annuity  of  $10,000  for  10  years ;  and  in  that 
year  they  joined  Gen.  Jackson  in  the  campaign 
against  the  Seminoles,  On  Feb.  12,  1825,  they 
ceded  all  their  lands  in  Georgia;  but  corrup- 
tion being  proved  on  the  part  of  their  agent, 
M'Intosh,  ho  lost  his  life  and  the  treaty  was 
abrogated.  By  a  new  treaty,  Jan.  24,  1826, 
they  ceded  all  their  lands  in  Georgia  E.  of  tho 
Chattahoochee,  and  on  Nov.  15,  1827,  all  their 
remaining  lands  Avithin  the  actual  limits  of 
Georgia.  On  March  2,  1832,  they  ceded  all 
their  lands  E.  of  the  Mississippi,  and  agreed 
to  emigrate  at  the  option  of  the  United  States. 
On  Feb.  14,  1833,  the  federal  government 
fixed  their  boundaries  in  the  Indian  territory, 
and  agreed  to  patent  their  lands,  in  fee  simple, 
during  their  existence  as  a  nation  and  occu- 
pancy of  them.  Under  this  arrangement  they 
have  been  removed.  They  occupy  a  fine  coun- 
try, next  N.  of  the  Choctaws  and  Chickasaws, 
on  the  northei'n  side  of  the  Canadian  river. 
They  have  entirely  abandoned  the  chase,  and 
devote  themselves  to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil 
and  the  raising  of  stock,  the  latter  being  a 
profitable  pursuit.  Few  are  engaged  in  trade 
or  indicate  any  aptitude  for  the  mechanic  arts. 
They  retain  more  of  the  government  by  hered- 
itary chieftainship  and  circles  than  any  other 
of  the  transferred  tribes,  and  in  their  new  lo- 
cality are  still  divided  into  upper  and  lower 
Creeks.  They  have  a  written  constitution; 
aud  the  members  of  their  council,  which  has  au 
annual  session,  and  their  principal  chief,  are 
elected  by  the  free  citizens.  They  are  owners 
of  slaves,  and  are  said  to  owe  to  them  much 
of  their  advancement  in  agriculture.  By  the 
census  of   1856,   the  entire    tribe    numbered 


CREEPER 


CRELL 


53 


14,88S,  showing  a  great  decrease  during  the 
preceding  20  yekrs,  their  aggregate  in  1833 
having  been  22,664,  exclusive  of  about  1,000 
shaves.  There  is  a  fund  of  §200,742,  held  in 
trust  by  the  United  States  for  the  henetit  of 
Creek  or])hans. 

CREEPER,  a  bird  of  the  order  passeres,  tribe 
tenyirosirc.1,  and  family  ccrthidw;  to  the  sub- 
family certhinn',  containing  5  genera,  and  to  the 
genus ce?'^AjV{  (Linn.),  belongs  our  commonbrown 
creeper  ( C./nmiliarh,  Linn.),  The  bill  is  mod- 
erate, slender,  curved,  with  compressed  sides 
and  acute  tip ;  the  wings  are  moderate  and 
rounded  ;  the  tail  long  and  graduated,  with  the 
ends  of  the  feathers  rigid  and  acute ;  tarsi  short- 
er than  the  middle  toe ;  all  the  toes  long  and 
slender,  with  curved  and  sharp  claws.  There 
are  2  species,  one  inhabiting  Asia,  and  the  other 
Europe  and  North  America;  those  who  con- 
sider the  American  bird  different,  because  found 
here,  without  being  able  to  give  any  specific 
characters  for  it,  may  call  our  bird  C.  Americana 
(Pr.  Bonap.).  The  creepers  are  found  wherever 
trees  are  thick,  climbing  up  the  trunks  with  the 
aid  of  the  tail,  running  along  and  ou  the  under 
surface  of  branches  in  search  of  insects  concealed 
in  the  bark.  The  upper  parts  of  our  species  are 
reddish  brown,  the  head  darker,  the  rump  light- 
er ;  all  the  feathers  have  a  central  dull  whitish 
streak ;  wings  deep  brown,  the  coverts  tipped 
with  dull  yellow,  and  the  secondaries  barred 
■with  the  same ;  lower  parts  and  band  over  eyo 
silvery  white ;  sides  tinged  with  brown  ;  webs 
of  the  quills,  except  of  the  outer  three,  crossed 
with  a  dull  yellowish  hand ;  tail  yellowish  brown ; 
length  of  bird  5^  inches,  extent  of  wings  8^ ; 
the  female  is  smaller  and  darker.  It  is  ex- 
tensively distributed  over  this  country,  alighting 
on  all  kinds  of  trees,  preferring  the  tallest,  in 
company  with  the  smaller  woodpeckers  and 
nut-hatches.  It  breeds  in  holes  in  trees,  often 
taking  the  abandoned  nests  of  woodpeckers  and 
squirrels ;  the  eggs  are  6  to  8,  of  a  yellowish 
white  color,  with  irregular  purplish  dots,  espe- 
cially at  the  larger  end.  It  feeds  on  ants,  larva?, 
email  insects,  and  particles  of  lichens,  in  the 
winter  coming  into  the  orchards  near  houses. 
It  is  an  exceedingly  active  and  restless  bird, 
shooting  down  from  the  top  of  an  examined 
tree  to  the  base  of  another,  which  it  ascends  as 
before.  To  the  same  ftimily  belong  the  tree- 
creepers  (d€ndrocolaptina>),  larger  birds,  with 
long  curved  bills,  peculiar  to  South  America ; 
their  habits  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  genus 
certhia.  The  black  and  white  creeper  is  the 
mniotilta  varia  (Lath.),  of  the  family  liiscinidce. 

CREFELD  (Ger.  Z?Y/eZf/);  a  nourishing  town 
of  Rhenish  Prussia,  the  principal  seat  of  silk 
manufacture  in  Prussia,  connected  by  railway 
with  Cologne  and  Dusseldorf,  12  m.  from  the 
latter  city ;  pop.  about  40,000.  Its  most  im- 
portant public  editices  are  a  Roman  Catholic 
church,  2  Protestant  churches,  a  synagogue,  an 
orphan  asylum,  and  a  deaf  and  dumb  institution. 
The  silk  manufacture  was  introduced  in  the  17th 
century  by  a  colony  of  Huguenot  refugees.     It 


employs  about  2,500  looms  in  tlie  town  and  its 
vicinity  ;  and  the  annual  products  are  estimated 
at  $5,000,000,  There  are  also  manufactories  of 
woollen,  cotton,  and  linen  fabrics  in  Crefeld,  as 
well  as  potteries,  tanneries,  and  distilleries.  It 
Avas  formerly  a  place  of  considerable  strength, 
and  its  walls  are  stiU  standing. 

CREICnTOy,  Joirx,  an  Irish  soldier  of  for- 
tune, born  in  the  county  of  Donegal  in  1G48, 
died  in  1733.  He  entered  the  horse  guards  of 
Ciiarles  II.,  and  displayed  great  zeal  and  activity 
in  the  campaign  of  that  corps  against  the  Cove- 
nanters of  Scotland.  TVlien  James  II,  was  suc- 
ceeded on  the  throne  by  William  III.,  he  attempt- 
ed to  excite  a  rebellion,  but  was  imprisoned  at 
Edinburgh.  After  several  years  he  was  permit- 
ted to  return  to  Ireland,  where  in  his  old  age  he 
met  Switt,  who  was  interested  in  his  history,  and 
m-ged  him  to  write  a  narrative  of  his  adventures. 
His  "Memoirs,"  revised  by  Swift,  appeared  in 
1731,  and  contain  curious  Scottish  particulars 
relative  to  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  and  James 
II.,  and  interesting  notices  of  characters  and 
events  which  served  as  materials  for  Sir  Walter 
Scott  in  the  composition  of  his  "  Old  Mortality," 

CREIGIITON,  Jorrx  Oede,  a  commodore  in 
the  U.  S.  navy,  born  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
died  at  Sing  Sing,  March  18, 1846.  Heenteredthe 
navy  as  midshipman  in  June,  1800,  and  served 
under  Commodore  Preble  before  Tripoli.  In  1 807 
he  became  a  lieutenant,  and  was  attached  to  the 
frigate  Chesapeake  in  June  of  that  year,  when 
she  fought  the  British  ship  Leopard.  He  was 
afterward  attached  to  the  frigate  President,  and 
was  first  lieutenant  of  that  ship  in  her  action  with 
the  British  ship  of  war  Little  Belt,  May  16, 1811. 
In  1813  he  commanded  the  brig  Rattlesnake, 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  master  commandant 
in  that  year,  and  to  that  of  captain  the  year  fol- 
lowing. In  1829-'30  he  commanded  the  squad- 
ron on  the  coast  of  Brazil. 

CRELL,  or  Crei-lifs,  Johaxx,  a  theologian 
of  the  school  of  Faustus  Socinus,  born  near 
Nuremberg  in  1590,  died  in  Cracow,  June  11, 
1633.  He  removed  to  Poland  in  1612,  and  offi- 
ciated at  Cracow  as  rector  of  the  Unitarian  di- 
vinity school,  and  afterward  as  preacher.  He 
made  some  valuable  contributions  to  theological 
literature,  among  others  a  German  translation 
of  the  New  Testament.  He  also  wrote  a  reply 
to  Grotius's  De  Satisfactione  Christi. — There 
were  2  other  Socinian  theologians  of  the  same 
name:  CnRisxopn,  who  died  Dec.  12,  1680,  and 
his  son  Samuel,  born  in  1657,  died  June  9, 1747. 

CRELL,  NIKOLAI'S,  prime  minister  of  Chris- 
tian I.,  elector  of  Saxony,  born  in  Leipsic  about 
1550,  beheaded  at  Dresden,  Oct.  9, 1601.  Antici- 
pating great  danger  to  the  cause  of  the  reforma- 
tion from  the  sectarian  conflicts  among  the  Prot- 
estants, he  recommended  an  approximation  to 
Calvinism  (Crypto-Calvinism),  with  a  view  of 
putting  an  end  to  their  conflicts  and  of  present- 
ing a  united  front  against  the  Roman  Catholics ; 
but  by  order  of  Christian's  successor,  the  intole- 
rant regent  Frederic  William,  he  was  doomed  to 
10  years'  imprisonment  and  finally  put  to  death. 


54 


CPwEMA 


CRENIO  ACID 


CREMA,  a  town  of  Lombardr,  in  tlie  prov- 
ince of  Lodi-Crcnia,  on  the  Serio,  25  m.  E.  of 
Milan ;  pop.  about  9,000.  It  is  well  built  and  for- 
tified, and  has  several  handsome  chnrches  and 
palaces,  as  weU  as  manufactories  of  lace,  hats, 
thread,  and  silk.  Crema  was  founded  in  the  Gth 
century  by  some  fugitives  whom  the  oi)presslons 
of  Alboin,  the  tirst  Lombard  king  of  Italy,  had 
driven  from  their  homes.  During  the  wars  of 
thcGueliihs  and  Ghibellincs  it  was  destroyed  by 
Frederic  I.,  but  was  afterward  rebuilt.  In  1797 
it  was  captured  by  the  French. 

CREMERA,  now  Aqt-a  Teaversa,  a  small 
river  of  Etruria  Avhich  falls  into  the  Tiber,  a 
short  distance  above  Rome.  On  the  banks  of 
this  river  the  300  Fabii  encamped,  when,  after 
marching  from  Rome,  they  undertook  to  wage 
war  against  Veil,  and  here  tliey  were  surprised 
by  their  enemies,  and  cut  off,  477  B.  0. 

CREMIEUX,  Isaac  Adolpue,  French  min- 
ister of  justice  in  1848,  born  of  Jewish  parents 
at  Nimes,  April  10,,  1796,  studied  law  at  Aix, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  his  native  town 
in  1817.  His  success  there  established  his  rep- 
utation at  Paris,  where,  however,  he  was  not 
fortunate  in  his  first  important  forensic  effort 
as  counsel  for  Guernon-Ranville,  a  minister  of 
Charles  X.,  who  had  been  arraigned  as  one  of 
the  authors  of  the  fiital  ordinances  of  July,  1830. 
Overcome  by  the  excitement  of  the  occasion 
he  fiiinted,  and  was  unable  to  continue  the  de- 
fence. But  he  soon  regained  his  prestige  in  the 
courts,  and  after  having  purchased  from  Odilon 
Barrot  his  office  and  function  as  advocate,  he 
defended  Arinand  Marrast,  Raspail,  and  other 
eminent  republicans  prosecuted  by  the  govern- 
ment, with  great  ability  before  the  court  of  ap- 
peal. In  1842  he  took  his  seat  in  the  chamber 
of  deputies  on  the  extreme  left  as  deputy  from 
Chinon.  He  opposed  the  game  laws,  supported 
free  trade  principles,  and  by  his  systematic 
attacks  on  the  policy  of  the  government  con- 
tributed not  a  little  to  pave  the  way  for  the 
revolution  of  1848.  "When  this  at  last  broke 
out,  he  told  Louis  Philippe  and  his  queen,  whom 
on  the  day  of  their  flight  he  met  in  the  place  de 
la  Concorde,  that  there  was  no  hope  left,  and 
recommended  them  to  leave  France  immediate- 
ly. He  then  proceeded  to  the  chamber  of  dep- 
uties, inclined  to  support  the  regency  of  the 
duchess  of  Orleans ;  but  Avhen  this  was  rejected, 
he  proposed  a  provisional  government,  of  which 
he  became  a  member,  the  ministry  of  justice 
being  intrusted  to  his  charge.  On  June  7,  1848, 
he  left  the  government  in  consequence  of  a  prose- 
cution against  liis  friend  Louis  Blanc,  but  re- 
mained as  a  member  of  the  constituent  as- 
sembly. On  Dec.  10,  1848,  he  voted  for  Louis 
Napoleon's  election  to  the  presidency,  without 
however  ceasing  to  advocate  in  the  legislative 
assembly  the  views  of  the  extreme  republican 
party.  When  the  day  of  the  coup  cVetat  came 
(Dec.  2,  1851),  he  was  arrested,  but  soon  releas- 
ed ;  he  has  since  resumed  Ids  jiractice  as  a  law- 
yer. His  appearance  is  unprepossessing,  but  his 
eloqucrtce  is  remarkable  and  full  of  oriental  vi- 


vacity. He  is  wealthy  and  hospitable.  Yl\s  salon 
is  a  favorite  resort  of  musicians,  he  being  him- 
self a  great  amateur.  He  is  also  distinguished 
as  a  zealous  defender  of  his  Jewish  brethren, 
among  whom  he  earned  great  popularity  by 
accompanying  Sir  Moses  Montefiore  to  the  East 
in  behalf  of  the  persecuted  Jews  of  Damascus 
in  1840. 

CREMNITZ.    See  Kremxitz. 

CREMONA,  a  province  of  the  Austrian 
crownlund  of  Lombardy,  bounded  N.  by  the 
provinces  of  Brescia  and  Bergamo,  E.  by  Man- 
tua, S.  by  the  Po,  and  W.  by  the  Adda.  Its 
greatest  length  is  about  45  m.,  its  breadth  about 
15  m.  Area,  523  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  200,000. 
The  principal  products  are  flax,  wine,  oil,  cattle, 
and  horses.  It  produces  wine  to  the  extent 
of  about  2,000,000  gallons  annually.  Silk  is 
the  most  important  manufacture.  The  prov- 
ince formed  part  of  the  duchy  of  Milan  un- 
til 1800,  when,  conquered  by  the  French,  it 
constituted  the  eastern  part  of  the  department 
of  Alto-Po  until  1814,  when  it  came  into  pos- 
session of  Austria.  It  is  divided  into  9  dis- 
ti'icts  and  186  communes;  contains  11  small 
towns  and  162  villages. — Cremona,  the  capital, 
pop.  about  37,000,  45  m.  from  Milan,  contains 
45  churches,  of  which  the  cathedral  is  the  most 
remarkable,  rivalling,  in  the  opinion  of  Lanzi, 
the  pictorial  magnificence  of  the  Sistine  chapel, 
and  containing  many  works  of  art.  The  greatest 
architectural  celebrity,  however,  of  Cremona  is 
the  Torazzo,  or  belfry  tower,  ending  in  a  spire, 
the  highest  of  all  the  towers  in  N.  Italy,  reach- 
ing the  elevation  of  nearly  400  feet,  with  about 
500  steps  to  ascend  to  its  summit.  There  aro 
also  many  sumptuous  palaces,  with  fine  picture 
galleries,  and  a  campo  santo^  now  used  as  the 
repository  of  the  archives,  which  contains  an 
underground  vault  and  a  curious  mosaic  pave- 
ment. Cremona  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  of  the 
provincial  authorities,  and  courts  of  law ;  con- 
tains a  citadel,  a  gymnasium,  a  lyceum,  an  acad- 
emy of  fine  arts,  infant  schools  (founded  here 
in  1829,  previous  to  their  establishment  in  any 
other  Italian  town),  and  schools  opened  at  cer- 
tain hours  on  Sundays  and  other  holy  days.  It 
carries  on  an  extensive  trade  by  means  of  the  Po, 
and  the  various  canals  communicating  with  that 
river.  Cremona  was  a  Roman  colony,  founded 
in  219  B.  C. ;  it  was  often  attacked  by  hostile 
Gallic  tribes,  and  was  destroyed  by  them  in 
193.  In  A.  D.  69  it  was  plundered  and  burned 
by  the  troops  of  Vespasian,  Avho  subsequently 
rebuilt  it.  In  later  periods  it  was  often  con- 
quered, and  had  many  misfortunes ;  last  of  all 
in  1849,  when  it  was  bombarded  by  the  Ans- 
trians. — Cremona  is  the  general  name  applied  to 
the  violins  made  at  Cremona,  by  the  Amati  fam- 
ily and  Stradivarius,  in  the  17th  and  18th  cen- 
turies. They  excel  all  others  in  purity  of  tone, 
and  bring  enormous  prices.  The  name  is  also 
erroneously  given  to  a  stop  in  the  organ  which 
is  intended  to  imitate  the  krumhorn,  a  species 
of  cornet. 

CRENIC   ACID,   Crenates    (Gr.  Kprjvr],   a 


CREOLE 


CREON 


spring  or  fountain),  an  acid  and  its  compounds, 
so  named  by  ikrzelius  from  having  been  first 
found  by  liim  in  spring  water,  being  among  tlie 
products  of  vegetable  decomposition,  and  con- 
stituents of  liumus.  Tliis  acid  and  tiie  apo- 
crenic  acid  associated  witli  it  dilfer  from  the  ex- 
tract of  mould  or  geine  of  Herzelius  in  contain- 
ing nitrogen.  Liebig,  Graham,  and  other  distin- 
gnislied  chemists,  do  not  recognize  the  existence 
of  this  substance.  The  following  description  is 
given  of  it  as  obtained  by  Berzelius:  a  sour, 
yellow  mass,  reddening  litmus,  soluble  in  water 
and  alcohol ;  forming  salts  (crenates)  with 
bases,  wliich  salts  are  soluble  in  water,  but  not 
in  alcoliol ;  obtained  from  ochreous  sediments, 
by  boiling  with  caustic  potash,  saturating  with 
acetic  acid,  and  precipitating  with  acetate  of 
cojiper  the  crenic  acid  as  a  crenate  of  copper. 
Tliis  is  decomposed  l)y  sulidiuretted  hydrogen, 
and  puritied  by  Avashing  with  alcohol.  Its  for- 
mula is  giv^en  as  004111  oOm,  or  C7H8NO6. 

CREOLE,  a  corruption  of  the  Spanish  word 
criollo,  which  signifies  one  born  in  America 
or  the  West  Indies,  of  European  ancestors.  In 
this  sense,  all  the  native  white  people  of  the 
United  States  are  Creoles.  But  the  word  in  its 
English  use  has  undergone  both  a  limitation  and 
an  extension.  It  is  limited  to  persons  born 
within  or  near  the  tropics;  audit  is  made  to 
include  persons  of  all  colors.  Thus  the  term 
Creole  negro  is  employed  in  the  English  "VYest 
Indies  to  distinguish  the  negroes  born  there  from 
the  Africans  imported  during  the  time  of  the 
slave  trade.  The  application  of  this  term  to 
the  colored  people  has  led  to  an  idea  common 
in  some  i)arts  of  the  United  States,  though 
wholly  unfounded,  that  it  implies  an  admixture, 
greater  or  less,  of  African  blood.  The  Creoles 
of  the  West  Indies  and  the  adjacent  coasts  of 
the  continent  are  distinguished  by  marked  phys- 
ical peculiarities  from  their  European  ancestors. 
Bryan  Edwards,  who  had  ample  opportunities 
for  observation,  and  who  is  a  very  competent 
observer,  describes  them,  in  his  "  History  of  the 
West  Indies,"  as  obviously  a  taller  race  on  the 
M'hole  than  the  European,  but  in  general  not 
proportionately  robust.  lie  had  known  several 
■who  were  full  6  feet  4  inches  in  height,  but  they 
wanted  bulk  to  come  up  t9  the  idea  of  mascu- 
line beauty.  This  peculiarity,  however,  it  is  to 
be  observed,  is  not  confined  to  the  Creoles  of 
the  tropics.  The  same  remark  has  been  made 
respecting  the  descendants  of  Europeans  born 
in  the  United  States  and  in  Australia.  The 
Creoles  are  distinguished  (and  this  is  an  exclu- 
sive peculiarity  of  them)  for  the  freedom  and 
suppleness  of  their  joints,  which  enables  them 
to  move  with  great  ease,  agility,  and  grace. 
From  the  same  cause  they  excel  in  penmanship, 
and  in  every  thing  requiring  flexibility  of  move- 
ment. The  effect  of  climate  is  likewise  obvious 
in  the  structure  of  the  eye,  tlie  socket  being 
considerably  deeper  than  among  Europe<ans, 
thus  affording  a  protection  against  the  glare  of 
the  sun.  Their  skin  feels  considerably  colder 
than  that  of  Europeans — a  circumstance  ob- 


served in  a  still  stronger  degree  of  the  negroes, 
and  going  to  show  an  effort  of  nature  to  protect 
their  bodies  against  the  heat.  Even  though 
living  in  the  same  way  with  Europeans,  tl)ey 
are  rarely  subject  to  those  inflammatory  dis- 
orders, tlie  yellow  fever  included,  Avhicli  ])rove 
so  often  fatal  to  the  former.  This  is  i)articu- 
larly  true  of  the  Creole  women  of  the  West  In- 
dies, who  live  in  general  very  quiet  and  regular 
lives,  and  who  in  their  diet  are  abstemious  even 
perhaps  to  a  fault.  Simjjle  water  or  lem<«iade 
is  the  strongest  beverage  in  which  they  indulge, 
and  a  vegetable  mess  at  noon,  seasoned  with 
Cayenne  pepper,  constitutes  their  principal 
meal.  To  a  stranger  newly  arrived,  they  ap- 
pear as  if  just  risen  from  a  sick  bed.  Their 
voices  are  soft  and  spiritless,  every  step  betrays 
languor,  while  their  cheeks  lack  entirely  the 
bloom  of  the  rose.  They  have,  however,  in 
general  beautiful  black  hair,  and  the  finest  eyes 
of  any  women  in  the  world — large,  languishing, 
and  expressive.  They  are  also  noted  for  their 
fine  teeth.  Tlie  early  display  of  mental  powers 
in  young  creole  children,  and  their  superiority 
in  this  respect  over  European  children  of  the 
same  age,  has  been  noted  by  all  travellers.  It 
is  difficult,  however,  to  rear  white  children  in 
that  climate;  though  perhaps  the  difficulty 
arises  in  no  small  degree  from  the  mode  of  liv- 
ing indulged  in. .  The  peculiarities  of  the  white 
Creole  are  to  be  found  also  in  the  mixed  race, 
with  more  of  force  and  vivacity  on  the  part  of 
the  latter,  the  women  especially,  as  being  less 
enervated  by  the  climate.  A  high  degree  of  tei>- 
derness  and  compassion,  and  great  adhesiveness 
of  affection,  characterize  the  Creole  women  of  all 
colors.  There  may  be  observed  also  a  marked 
distinction  between  the  Creole  negroes  and  those 
imported  from  Africa.  The  former  are  more 
slender,  agile,  and  graceful,  though  not  less 
strong  or  capable  of  labor,  with  quicker  per- 
ceptions and  more  volatile  dispositions.  If  the 
white  race  deteriorates  by  its  transfer  to  the 
West  Indies,  the  black  race  evidently  improves 
physically  as  well  as  mewtally.  How  far  the 
native-born  whites  of  the  high  tropical  table- 
lands of  Mexico  and  South  America  resemble 
or  differ  from  the  white  natives  of  the  lower 
and  hotter  regions,  no  traveller  seems  yet  to 
have  accurately  noted. 

CREON.  I.  A  mythical  king  of  Corinth,  in 
whose  reign  Jason  returned  to  Greece  with  the 
sorceress  Medea.  Visiting  Corinth  on  his  way 
home,  the  hero  beheld  the  beautiful  Creiisa,  the 
only  daughter  of  the  king,  and  became  enam- 
ored of  her.  Creon  promised  to  give  her  to  him 
in  marriage  if  he  would  divorce  Medea.  Jason 
consented  to  do  so,  and  the  king  at  once  ordered 
Medea  to  quit  his  dominions.  The  sorceress 
begged  to  be  allowed  to  remain  for  a  single  day, 
and  when  this  request  was  granted  she  pre- 
pared in  the  interval  a  magical  robe,  which 
she  sent  as  a  present  to  Creiisa,  who,  uncon- 
scious of  danger,  put  it  on,  and  was  burned  to 
death.  Creon,  who  had  kissed  her  while  in  the 
agony  of  death,  also  caught  fire  and  perished. 


/ 


56 


CREOSOTE 


CRESCENT 


II.  A  king  of  Thebes,  who,  alarmed  by  the  rav- 
ages of  the  Si)hinx,  offered  his  crown  and  his 
sister  Jocasta  to  any  one  that  could  solve  the 
enigma  propounded  by  the  monster.  CEdipus, 
having  succeeded  in  doing  so,  ascended  the 
throne  and  married  Jocasta,  not  knowing  that 
she  was  his  mother.  The  fruit  of  this  mar- 
riage was  2  sons,  Eteocles  and  Polynices,  who, 
after  their  father's  death,  having  long  been 
at  enmity,  finally  slew  each  other  iu  single 
combat.  Creon,  now  resuming  the  govern- 
ment, ordained  that  Polynices  should  remain 
unburied,  and  that  any  who  infringed  this  de- 
cree should  be  buried  alive.  Antigone,  sister 
of  Polynices,  buried  her  brother  in  disregai-d 
of  this  edict,  and  was  imprisoned  in  a  cave. 
Here  she  instantly  killed  herself,  whereon  Ilae- 
mon,  her  lover,  rushed  to  her  prison-house,  and 
slew  himself  on  her  corse. 

CREOSOTE,  an  oily,  colorless  liquid,  of  a 
burning  and  bitter  taste,  and  a  peculiar  smoky 
odor.  It  was  first  obtained  by  Dr.  von  Reich- 
enbach,  in  1830,  among  the  products  of  the 
distillation  of  wood,  and  named  from  the  Greek 
Kpeas,  flesh,  and  o-oj^o),  to  preserve,  in  reference 
to  its  peculiar  antiseptic  properties.  It  pos- 
sesses neither  acid  nor  alkaline  reaction.  It 
boils  at  the  temperature  of  397°,  and  does  not 
freeze  at  17°  below  zero.  At  68°  its  specific 
gravity  is  1.037.  It  evaporates  without  resi- 
due, leaving  upon  paper  a  temporary  greasy 
stain,  and  upon  the  skin  a  white  spot.  In  con- 
centrated form  it  acts  as  a  caustic.  It  may  be 
inflamed  from  a  candle,  and  then  burns  with 
much  smoke.  It  is  but  partially  soluble  in 
water,  but  is  itself  a  powerful  solvent  of  the 
resins,  fots,  indigo,  camphor,  &c.  Its  composi- 
tion is  variously  stated.  According  to  Ettling 
it  consists  of  carbon  77.42,  hydrogen  8.12,  and 
oxygen  14.46.  Its  most  remarkable  quality  is 
that  for  which  it  was  named.  Meats  are  pre- 
served by  soaking  them  in  a  dilute  solution  of 
creosote  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  then 
draining  ofS  the  water  and  drying.  Hams  and 
tongues  acquire  a  very  delicate  flavor  after  be- 
ing immersed  for  24  hours  in  a  mixture  of  1 
part  of  pure  creosote  with  100  of  water  or 
brine.  A  process  has  been  patented  in  Eng- 
land for  impregnating  salt  with  the  volatile  pro- 
ducts of  wood  tar  ;  meats  prepared  with  it  are 
both  smoked  and  salted.  It  is  the  creosote  in 
pyroligneous  acid  and  in  the  smoke  from 
wood  that  gives  to  these  the  property  of  curing 
meat.  Either  crude  pyroligneous  acid  or  wood 
tar  may  be  used  to  furnish  creosote.  The 
liquid  distilled  off  the  latter  divides  into  3  lay- 
ers, the  lowest  containing  the  creosote.  The 
acetic  acid  also  present  in  it  is  removed,  after 
separating  this  layer  from  the  other,  by  means 
of  carbonate  of  potash.  Tlie  oil  which  after 
some  time  collects  upon  the  liquid  is  distilled, 
producing  a  heavy  liquid,  with  other  lighter 
fluids.  The  latter  is  agitated  with  phosphoric 
acid,  and  again  distilled  to  remove  ammonia. 
It  is  then  mixed  with  solution  of  caustic  potash 
of  specific  gravity  1.12,  which  dissolves  the 


creosote,  but  leaves  the  eupione  insoluble.  This 
is  decanted  oft".  The  liquid  is  then  left  for  some 
time  exposed  to  tlie  air  till  it  acquires  a  brown 
color.  Sulphuric  acid  is  then  added,  which 
sets  the  creosote  free,  so  that  it  may  be  de- 
canted; but  it  requires  to  be  agaNi  treated 
with  caustic  potash  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  the 
process  repeated  until  the  creosote,  on  exposure 
for  some  time  to  the  air,  ceases  to  turn  brown. 
It  still  requires,  after  thorough  washing  with 
water,  to  be  distilled  from  hydrate  of  potash, 
or  from  a  strong  solution  of  caustic  potash. 
The  first  portions  that  come  over  are  water, 
and  are  rejected.  Creosote  is  known  to  be  im- 
pure by  turning  brown  on  exposure  to  the  air ; 
strong  acetic  acid  also  detects  its  usual  impurities, 
dissolving  with  the  creosote,  and  leaving  them 
floating  on  the  surface.  As  a  medicine,  creosote 
has  been  much  used,  both  as  an  external  appli- 
cation and  in  doses  inwardly  administered.  It 
is  introduced  into  ointments  and  applied  to 
wounds,  burns,  ulcers,  and  scaly  eruptions.  It 
checks  hemorrhage,  nausea,  and  vomiting,  and 
applied  to  an  aching  tooth,  often  instantly  re- 
lieves the  pain.  It  has  been  successfully  given 
in  diarrhoea,  cholera  morbus,  cholera  infantum, 
&c. ;  indeed,  there  is  hardly  a  substance  iu  ma- 
teria medica  that  has  been  administered  to  such 
a  great  variety  of  diseases,  and,  in  many  of 
them,  with  such  decidedly  favorable  results. 
In  an  overdose  it  is  a  poison,  and  no  antidote  is 
known;  emetics  and  stimulants  are  the  only 
treatment.  A  few  drops  of  creosote  added  to 
a  pint  of  ink  will  prevent  mouldiness. 

CRESCENDO,  in  music,  an  Italian  term  sig- 
nifying that  the  notes  over  which  it  is  placed 
are  to  be  gradually  swelled.  It  is  common  to 
designate  it  by  the  following  sign  -==;. 

CRESCENT  (Lat.  crescere,  to  increase),  origi- 
nally an  epithet  applied  to  the  moon  in  its 
first  quarter,  when  its  disk  is  enlarging  and  its 
horns  are  acute.  Any  figure  or  likeness  of  the 
new  moon  was  afterward  termed  a  crescent, 
which  became  a  favorite  form  for  ornaments. 
The  Syrian  Astarte  and  the  Greek  Artemis  were 
often  represented  with  it  placed  horizontally 
over  their  brows,  having  its  horns  turned  up- 
ward. An  ivory  crescent  was  worn  as  a  sort 
of  buckle  for  the  cothurnus  by  wealthy  Atheni- 
ans, and  Roman  matrons  enlarged  it  as  a  dec- 
oration for  the  hair.  Throughout  antiquity  the 
crescent  was  especially  a  Byzantine  symbol,  and 
it  appears  on  Byzantine  imperial  medals  from 
the  time  of  Augustus.  When  the  Turks  became 
masters  of  Constantinople  they  adopted  this 
symbol,  inscribed  it  upon  their  standards,  ban- 
ners, and  mosques,  and  named  their  dominion 
the  empire  of  the  crescent. — In  1448  a  military 
order  of  the  crescent  was  instituted  by  Ren6  of 
Anjou.  It  Avas  composed  of  50  noble  knights, 
each  of  whom  wore  an  enamelled  crescent  on 
the  right  arm,  from  which  was  suspended  a 
number  of  small  wooden  columns  equal  to  that 
of  the  combats  in  which  he  had  been  engaged. 
In  1799,  after  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  tlie  sultan 
Selim  III.  presented  to  Nelson  a  splendid  cres- 


CRESCENTINI 


CRETACEOUS  GROUP 


57 


cent  adorned  witli  diamonds.  It  became  a 
favorite  ornament  of  tlie  English  admiral,  who 
often  declared  himself  a  knight  of  the  crescent. 
This  circumstance  induced  the  sultan  to  found 
in  1801  the  order  of  the  crescent,  to  be  con- 
ferred as  an  honor  upon  foreigners  who  had  de- 
served well  of  Turkey. 

CRESCENTINI,  Girolamo,  a  masculine  so- 
prano singer,  born  near  Urbino,  Italy,  in  17G9, 
died  at  Naples  in  1846.  He  was  received  with 
the  utmost  enthusiasm  all  over  Europe,  espe- 
cially in  Vienna.  He  was  a  great  favorite  with 
Napoleon  I.,  who  engaged  him  for  his  private 
chapel  in  Paris  in  1800 ;  but  subsequently  he 
returned  to  Naples,  where  he  taught  music  with 
great  success,  and  published  collections  of  exer- 
cises in  musical  vocalization. 

CRESCENZI,  PiETRo  de',  a  Bolognese  noble- 
man, born  about  1230,  died  in  1320,  the  author 
of  tlie  most  valuable  work  on  agriculture  of 
the  middle  ages,  entitled  Oi^us  Ruralium  Com- 
modoi'um,  which  contained  not  only  the  person- 
al experiences  and  observations  of  the  author, 
but  the  best  information  that  could  be  gained 
from  the  agriculturists  of  anti(iuity.  It  has  been 
translated  into  several  modern  languages,  and 
the  best  Latin  edition  is  that  of  Gessuer,  2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1735. 

CRESPEL-DELLISSE,  Lours  Franqois  Xa- 
YiER  Joseph,  a  French  scientific  agriculturist, 
born  in  Lille,  March  22,  1789,  established  the 
first  important  manufactory  of  beet-root  sugar  in 
his  native  city,  in  1810,  in  concert  with  Messrs. 
Dellisse  and  Passy.  Subsequently  he  founded 
nearly  20  agricultural  establishments  in  various 
parts  of  France,  of  which  he  made  his  refinery 
at  Arras  the  centre. 

CRESS,  the  name  of  several  species  of  plants, 
with  acrid  or  pungent  leaves,  most  of  which  be- 
long to  the  natural  order  cruciferce.  The  water 
cresses  (nasturtium  and  sisymhrium)  are  the 
most  common  varieties.  They  grow  abundantly 
on  the  brinks  of  rivulets  and  small  ponds,  may 
be  eaten  as  a  salad,  and  are  valued  as  antiscor- 
butic medicines. 

CRESSON,  Elliott,  an  American  philan- 
thropist, born  March  2,  1796,  died  Feb.  20, 
1854.  He  was  a  successful  merchant  in  Phila- 
delphia, where  he  resided  all  his  life,  and  a 
member  of  the  society  of  Friends.  His  benev- 
olent disposition  was  especially  turned  toward 
the  Indian  and  negro  population  of  the  United 
States,  At  one  time  he  proposed  to  become  a 
niissionai-y  among  the  Seminoles  of  Florida,  and 
afterward  engaged  in  establishing  the  first  Afri- 
can colony  of  liberated  slaves  in  the  territory 
of  Bassa  Cove.  In  the  winter  of  1838-'39  he 
made  the  tour  of  the  New  England  states  as 
agent  of  the  national  colonization  society,  and 
the  nest  winter  was  spent  in  a  similar  mission 
in  the  southern  states.  He  everywhere  recom- 
mended his  measures  with  the  eloquence  of  sin- 
cere conviction,  and  met  with  much  favor  and 
success.  He  sailed  to  England  in  Dec.  1840, 
where  he  spent  2  years  in  advocating  the  pro- 
ject of  colonization,  as  also  3  years  from  1850 


to  1853.  His  time  and  labor  were  contributed 
without  pay,  and  by  his  will  ho  distributed  his 
estate  to  a  great  variety  of  charities.  He  be- 
queathed in  this  way  an  amount  of  $122,000, 
mostly  to  institutions  already  established,  but  a 
bequest  of  a  landed  estate  of  over  $30,000  was 
to  establish  a  home  for  aged,  infirm,  or  invalid 
merchants  or  gentlemen,  who  may  have  become 
unable  to  procure  the  comforts  appropriate  to 
their  condition  in  life. 

CRESSY.     See  Crecy. 

CREST  (Lat.  crista)^  originally  the  reddish 
caruncle  and  tuft  of  feathers  which  rise  on  the 
heads  of  some  birds,  as  the  cock.  It  also  des- 
ignates the  plume  or  other  ornament  worn  by 
warriors  and  cavaliers  on  the  top  of  the  helmet 
or  casque.  By  Herodotus  the  invention  of  mar- 
tial crests  is  attributed  to  the  Carians,  whose 
painted  bucklers,  and  casques  mounted  with 
feathers,  gained  them  the  appellation  of  cocks. 
The  crests  of  the  Homeric  heroes  were  often 
bunches  of  horse  hair,  and  both  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  esteemed  the  capture  of  an  enemy's 
crest  an  honorable  feat  of  war.  Crests,  made 
of  the  feathers  of  the  ostrich  or  heron,  or  of 
painted  wood  or  parchment,  were  worn  by 
knights  at  mediaeval  jousts  and  tournaments. 
"When  the  shield  was  not  borne,  they  afforded 
the  principal  critericm  of  nobility. 

CRESWICK,  Thomas,  an  English  landscape 
painter,  born  at  Sheffield,  Yorkshire,  in  1811, 
His  first  pictures,  consisting  of  views  in  North 
Wales  and  Derbyshire,  were  exhibited  at  the 
royal  academy  in  1828.  His  pictures  are  gen- 
erally elaborate,  with  admirably  pencilled  foli- 
age and  atmospheric  effects,  and  a  precision  of 
drawing  never  degenerating  into  stiffness.  He 
was  elected  an  associate  of  the  royal  academy  in 
1842,  and  an  academician  in  1851.  His  pencil  is 
discernible  in  several  recent  illustrated  works. 

CRETACEOUS  GROUP  (Lat.  creta,  chalk), 
a  series  of  stratified  rocks  forming  the  upper 
division  of  the  secondary  formation,  distin- 
guished as  containing  the  last  strata  of  which 
the  fossil  animal  remains  are  wholly  of  extinct 
species.  The  group  is  subdivided  into  upper  and 
lower ;  the  former  is  often  called  from  its  prin- 
cipal member  the  chalk,  and  the  latter  for  the 
same  reason  the  greensand.  The  group  under- 
lies the  tertiary  beds  of  the  London  and  Paris 
basins,  rising  up  toward  tlie  straits  of  Dover  on 
each  side,  along  the  coast  of  which  its  while  chalk 
cliffs  form  prominent  objects  in  the  scenery. 
The  formation  is  represented  in  New  Jersey  by 
beds  of  yellowish  limestone  and  of  greensand, 
which  contain  fossil  shells,  some  of  which  belong 
to  the  same  species,  and  most  of  them  to  the 
same  genera,  with  those  found  in  the  cretaceous 
rocks  of  Europe.  The  same  genera  of  fish  also 
are  common  to  the  group  of  the  two  countries. 
The  formation  is  traced  through  the  eastern  part 
of  North  Carolina  and  central  part  of  Georgia, 
and  after  sweeping  round  the  southern  termina- 
tion of  the  Alleghanies  in  Alabama  passes 
through  that  state  and  Mississippi  northward 
into  Tennessee  and  Kentucky.    It  is  recognized 


68 


CRETE 


CRETINS 


near  Council  Bluff  on  the  Missouri,  in  Texas, 
upon  the  Andes  near  Bo^^ota,  S.  A.,  and  also  in 
llindostan.  Thus  at  widely  separated  points  in 
the  ancient  seas  of  4  continents  were  similar 
deposits  produced  during  tiie  same  geological 
period,  chara(!terized  by  the  animal  remains 
they  include,  of  tlie  same  general  type,  and  often 
of  the  same  species.  For  relations  of  this  group 
to  those  which  precede  and  succeed  it,  see  Ge- 
ology ;  and  for  further  details  regarding  its 
members,  see  Chalk,  Gault,  and  Greensand. 

CRETE.     See  Candia. 

CRETINS  (called  in  Carinthia,  Toclem ;  in 
Styria,  Tosten ;  iti  Austria,  Trottehi ;  in  the 
Tyrol,  Talheii;  in  SaUzburg,  Tottelii;  in  Wiir- 
temberg,  Fexen ;  in  Sardinia  and  some  other 
countries,  Lalleii;  and  in  many  portions  of  Ger- 
many, Geschupf)^  persons  in  whom  partial  or 
complete  idiocy  is  combined  with  great  bodily 
deformity.  The  most  vivid  and  accurate  descrip- 
tion of  their  appearance  is  that  given  by  Berch- 
told  Beaupie  in  his  Dmertation  sur  les  Cretins: 
"  Who  is  this  melancholy  being  who  bears  the 
human  form  in  its  lowest  and  most  repulsive  ex- 
pression ?  I  see  a  head  of  unusual  form  and  size, 
a  squat  and  bloated  figure,  with  a  stupid  look, 
with  blear,  hollow,  and  heavy  eyes,  with  thick 
projecting  eyelids,  and  a  flat  nose.  His  face  is 
of  a  leaden  hue,  his  skin  is  dirty,  flabby,  covered 
with  tetters,  and  his  thick  tongue  hangs  down 
over  his  moist  livid  lips.  His  mouth,  alwaj's 
open  and  full  of  saliva,  shows  teeth  which  are 
going  to  decay.  His  chest  is  narrow,  his  back 
curved,  his  breath  asthmatic.  I  see  indeed  arms 
and  legs,  but  his  limbs  are  short,  misshapen, 
lean,  stiti',  without  power  and  without  utility. 
The  knees  are  thick  and  inclined  inward,  and  the 
feet  flat.  The  large  head  drops  listlessly  on  the 
breast,  the  belly  resembles  a  bag,  and  the  integ- 
uments are  so  loose  that  they  cannot  retain  the 
intestines  in  its  cavity.  This  loathsome  idiotic  be- 
ing hears  not,  speaks  not,  and  only  now  and  then 
utters  a  hoarse,  wild,  inarticulate  sound.  Not- 
withstanding his  greediness,  he  is  scarcely  able 
to  support  life.  One  passion  alone  seems  some- 
times to  rouse  him  from  his  usual  insensibility ; 
it  is  the  sexual  instinct  in  its  rudest  brutality. 
At  first  we  should  be  inclined  to  take  this  being 
for  a  gigantic  polypus,  something  in  imitation 
of  a  man,  for  it  scarcely  moves ;  it  creeps  with 
the  painful  heaviness  of  a  sloth  ;  and  yet  it  is 
the  monarch  of  the  earth,  but  dethroned  and 
degraded.  It  is  a  cretin."  The  name  cretin  is 
of  uncertain  origin ;  Virey  derives  it  from  Chre- 
tien, Christian,  because  the  inhabitants  of  the 
countries  where  cretinism  prevails  were  very 
generally  disposed  to  regard  tlie  cretins  as  in- 
capable of  sinfulness  ("souls  without  sin,"  they 
call  them),  and  hence  regarded  them  as  favored 
of  God,  or  "good  Ciu-istians."  Blackie,  how- 
ever, whose  essay  on  tliis  subject  gives  evidence 
of  very  thorough  research,  derives  it  from  the 
lioinauce  or  Grison  cretina,  a  corruption  of  the 
Latin  creatura,  a  creature.  Tliis  unfortunate 
class  are  far  more  widely  distributed  than  has 
been  generally  supposed.  Throughout  the  whole 


sxib- Alpine  region  in  Europe,  as  well  as  in  some 
of  the  more  level  regions,  they  are  found,  and 
often  in  great  numbers.  The  goitre  or  bron- 
chocele,  so  prevalent  throughout  the  whole  of 
the  Alpine  countries,  is  often  accompanied  by 
cretinism,  and  is,  with  very  few  exceptions,  al- 
ways found  on  the  cretin.  Switzerland,  and 
especially  the  cantons  Valais,  Vaud,  Uri,  Aar- 
gau,  Grisons,  and  Glarus,  seems  to  be  the 
home  of  this  friglitful  deformity.  It  is  endemic 
in  portions  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  Baden,  Sardinia, 
Bavaria,  upper  Austria,  along  the  banks  of  the 
Danube,  particularly  in  Judenburg,  Bruck,  Gratz, 
Marburg,  and  Cilly,  in  Wiirlemberg,  Denmark, 
Norway,  in  the  Alpine  departments  of  France, 
in  portions  of  Turkey  and  Russia,  and  in  the 
highlands  of  Scotland.  In  Africa,  it  has  beeu 
found  prevalent  along  the  northern  slope  of 
the  Atlas  range.  In  Asia,  the  districts  around 
the  base  of  the  Himalaya  range  furnish  great 
numbers  of  cases,  as  well  as  China,  Chinese  Tar- 
tary,  and  Sumatra.  In  South  America,  cretins 
are  found  in  considerable  numbers  on  the  eastern 
or  Atlantic  slope  of  the  Andes,  and  scattered 
cases  occur  along  the  Alleghany,  Green  moun- 
tain, and  Iloosic  ranges  in  the  United  States.  In 
some  parts  of  Canada  cases  have  also  been  ob- 
served. The  number  of  cretins  in  the  sub-Alpine 
districts  of  Europe,  whether  considered  actually 
or  relatively  to  the  population,  is  frightfully  large. 
In  some  localities  in  Switzerland,  Rhenish  Prus- 
sia, and  the  Alpine  districts  of  France  and  Savoy, 
the  number  is  so  great,  that  in  whole  villages 
not  an  able-bodied  man  can  be  found. — The 
causes  of  cretinism  are  involved  in  some  ob- 
scurity, though  Avithin  the  past  20  years  many 
of  the  ablest  medical  men  in  Europe  have  been 
investigating  the  subject  with  great  care.  The 
localities  in  whicli  it  is  most  prevalent  in  the 
Alpine  districts  are  low-lying  valleys,  narrow, 
and  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  but 
for  a  few  hours  each  day,  and  usually  having 
but  one  outlet.  In  these,  the  air  is  often  stag- 
nant and  the  heat  intense  ;  the  water  is  also  in 
some  cases  charged  with  mineral  impurities, 
especially  the  salts  of  lime  ;  the  food  of  the  in- 
habitants is  often  scanty  in  quantity,  and  infe- 
rior in  quality  ;  they  are  in  many  cases  grossly 
intemperate,  and  intermarriage  with  near  rela- 
tives, and  those  afi'ected  with  goitre  or  incipient 
cretinism,  is  common.  In  other  countries  it 
occurs  on  open  plains,  but  in  other  respects  under 
circumstances  analogous  to  those  already  named. 
"Whatever  may  be  the  obscurity  in  regard  to  the 
c«,uses  of  this  fearful  disorder,  there  is  none  in  re- 
gard to  the  indications  to  be  fulfilled  in  its  treat- 
ment. Thelife  of  the  cretin  is  usually  short;  few 
are  found  above  30  years  of  age,  and  any  treat- 
ment liaving  in  view  the  improvement  of  their 
health  must,  to  be  of  benefit,  be  applied  to  the 
young.  The  recovery  of  a  patient  beyond  the  age 
of  12  years  is  almost  hopeless.  The  first  thing 
to  be  accomplished  is  the  removal  of  the  young 
cretin,  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  disease  exhib- 
its itself  (for  in  many  of  the  cases  cretiuisn; 
is  not  developed  till  the  period  of  dentition,  and 


CRETINS 


CREUZER 


59 


Boinetirnes  even  not  until  the  Gtli  or  7tli  year), 
to  a  pure  bracing  atmosphere.  It  lias  been 
ascertained  that  on  the  Alps  it  seldom  occurs 
at  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  and  never  at  the  height  of  4,000  feet. 
Hence,  those  who  have  attemp^ted  its  treatment 
in  Europe  have  preferred  elevated  locations. 
The  treatment  requires  an  abundance  of  i)uro 
water,  for  drinking,  washing,  and  bathing;  warm 
and  cold  baths  anddouclies;  friction  of  the  skin 
with  brushes  and  stimulating  liquids,  to  rouse  its 
action;  warm  clothing;  gymnastic  exercises  of 
the  simplest  character,  passing  on  to  those  more 
difficult  and  fatiguing  as  they  can  be  borne; 
the  adnuiiistration  of  some  of  the  mineral  ton- 
ics; nourishing  and  abundant,  but  simple  food; 
iodine  in  some  form,  cod-liver  oil,  and  the  ad- 
ministration of  some  of  the  pliospliates  to  give 
more  firmness  to  the  bony  structui'e.  Galvanism 
and  electro-magnetism  are  also  of  benefit.  As 
the  essential  nature  of  the  disease  seems  to  be  a 
combination  of  rachitis  (rickets)  with  retarded 
mental  development,  the  bodily  treatment  must 
resemble  as  far  as  possible  that  ordinarily  adopt- 
ed in  the  treatment  of  rachitis  and  other  scrof- 
ulous affections.  The  effort  to  develop  the 
mind  must  follow,  and  with  considerable  inter- 
val, the  attempt  to  restore  the  body  to  a  healthy 
condition.  The  method  of  training  for  this  pur- 
pose is  similar  to  that  employed  in  the  instruction 
of  idiots.  The  measure  of  success  has  been  some- 
what greater  than  with  idiots,  partly  perhaps 
from  the  fact  that  instruction  has  usually  been 
commenced  at  an  earlier  period,  and  partly  be- 
cause the  mental  paralysis  (if  we  may  be  allowed 
the  expression)  was  less  profound  than  in  the 
case  of  the  idiot.  The  idea  of  restoring  the 
cretin  to  health  and  to  the  exercise  of  his 
mental  faculties  had  occurred  to  several  indi- 
viduals, and  had  been  made  the  topic  of  some 
essays  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century, 
by  Fodere,  Wenzel,  Virey,  Abercrombie,  and 
others ;  yet  no  systematic  effort  for  the  purpose 
•was  made  till  1839,  when  Dr.  Guggenbiihl  un- 
dertook the  establishment  of  an  institution  for 
the  care  and  cure  of  cretins.  He  l(?cated  this 
institution  on  the  Abendberg,  in  tlie  canton  of 
Bern,  in  1840,  and  has  devoted  his  life  to  the 
W'ork  of  their  training.  That,  like  the  good 
abbe  de  I'fipee,  whom  in  many  respects  he  re- 
sembles, his  enthusiasm  may  at  times  have  led 
him  to  regard  the  intellectual  progress  of  his 
pupils  as  beyond  what  they  had  actually  at- 
tained, and  to  mistake  answers  learned  by 
rote  for  the  results  of  mental  activity,  is  very 
possible;  but,  granting  all  that  his  detractors 
say  to  be  true,  he  has  undoubtedly  restored 
many  of  this  abject  and  degraded  class  to  intel- 
ligence, activity,  and  life.  There  are  now  5 
other  institutions  on  the  continent  expressly  for 
the  treatment  of  cretins,  aside  from  those  in- 
tended for  the  instruction  of  idiots  and  imbe- 
ciles not  affected-with  cretinism.  They  are  Dr, 
Erlenmayer's  at  Bendorf,  with  25  or  30  i)upils; 
Dr.  Zemmer's  at  Mareaburg,  witli  about  GO  pu- 
pils;   Dr.  Mailer's  at  Winterbach,  with  about 


the  same  number  ;  a  small  one  at  Ecksberg,  in 
Bavaria;  and  another  in  the  valley  of  Aosta, 
in  Piedmont,  occui)ying  the  old  lejiers'  hospi- 
tal at  the  monastery.  These  all  owe  their  ori- 
gin to  the  examjileof  Dr.  Guggenbiihl,  but  they 
have  hardly  attained  to  his  measure  of  success. 
Some  of  the  idiot  schools  also  admit  a  few  cre- 
tins ;  but  the  entire  provision  for  their  instruc- 
tion in  Europe  furnishes  accommodation  for 
not  more  than  250  children,  while  at  the  low- 
est estimate  there  are  more  than  50,000  cretins 
on  the  continent.  Several  of  the  smaller  gov- 
ernments of  Germany  have,  however,  taken 
the  preliminary  steps  for  the  organization  of 
cretin  hospitals. 

CREUSE,  a  department  of  central  France, 
traversed  by  the  river  Creuse,  from  which  it  de- 
rives its  name,  and  by  other  streams,  none  of 
Avhich  are  here  navigable  ;  area,  2,133  sq.  m. ; 
l)op.  in  IBoG,  278,889.  It  is  very  mountainous, 
and  contains  granite,  coal,  gypsum,  and  potters' 
clay.  The  soil  is  poor,  except  in  the  N.  E.  part ; 
agriculture  is  backward ;  the  climate  is  damp  and 
changeable  ;  and  the  domestic  animals  are  of  an 
inferior  breed.  The  crops  of  grain  are  insufficient 
for  domestic  consumption.  Fruit,  rape  seed,  and 
hemp,  however,  are  raised  abundantly,  and  quan- 
tities of  honey  are  collected.  The  chief  manufac- 
tures are  carpets,  tapestry,  coarse  woollen  goods, 
cotton,  leather,  paper,  glass,  and  porcelain. 
There  are  no  canals,  but  the  department  is  tra- 
versed by  a  railway  from  Chateauroux  to  Li- 
moges. It  is  divided  into  4  arrondissements,  25 
cantons,  and  261  communes.     Capital,  Gueret. 

CREUTZ,  GusTAF  FiLip,  cf)unt,  a  Swedish 
poet  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Finland  in  1726, 
died  in  1785.  Ilis  poems  w^ere  published  in 
1795,  including  Atis  og  Ccimilla,  a  pastoral 
epic  in  5  cantos.  While  Swedish  ambassa- 
dor to  Paris,  he  concluded,  April  3,  1783,  a 
commercial  treaty  with  Benjamin  Franklin,  as 
representative  of  the  United  States.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Stockholm  he  was  appointed  minister 
of  foreign  affairs,  and  chancellor  of  the  univer- 
sity of  Upsal.  Gustavus  III.  purcluised  his 
library,  which  is  now  in  the  palace  of  Haga,  and 
on  April  26, 1786,  the  king  in  person  pronounced 
his  eulogy,  before  a  chapter  of  the  Swedish 
order  of  the  seraphim,  of  which  Creutz  was  a 
member. 

CREUZER,  Geop.g  FEiEDnicn,  a  German 
philologist  and  antiquary,  born  at  Marburg, 
March  10,  1771,  died  in  Heidelberg,  Feb.  16, 
1858.  He  was  the  son  of  a  bookbinder,  com- 
menced his  studies  in  his  native  city,  and  com- 
pleted them  at  the  university  of  Jena.  After 
his  return  to  Marburg  he  was  appointed  to  a 
professorship  of  Greek,  and  subsequently  of  rhet- 
oric, poetry,  and  Greek  literature,  which,  how- 
ever, he  soon  gave  up,  having  accepted  in  1804 
the  professorship  of  philology  and  ancient  liter- 
ature at  the  university  of  Heidelberg.  Here  he 
remained  industriously  engaged  as  a  teacher 
till  1845,  and  as  an  author  to  the  end  of  his 
life.  The  philological  seminary,  which  was 
founded  at  Heidelberg  in  1807  according  to  his 


60 


CREUZNACH 


CRIOHTON 


plana,  has  since  exercised  a  marked  influence 
upon  tliat  branoli  of  science  in  Germany.  His 
literary  tame  rests  chiefly  on  his  "  Symbolics  and 
Mytholoicy  of  the  Ancient  Nations,  and  particu- 
arly  of  the  Greeks"  (-i  vols.,  Leipsic,  1810-'12; 
3d  edition,  4  vols.,  Leipsic  and  Darmstadt,  1837- 
'44).  This  work,  which  contends  for  a  bold 
and  mystical  theory  as  to  the  extreme  antiquity 
and  oriental  origin  of  the  Greek  mythological, 
or  rather  theological  systems,  drew  upon  the 
author  a  series  of  critical  attacks  from  G. 
Hermann,  J.  H.  Voss  (in  the  "Letters  on 
Homer  and  Hesiod,"  and  in  the  letter  to  Creu- 
zer  "  On  the  Essence  and  Treatment  of  Mythol- 
ogy"), Lobeck,  and  a  host  of  minor  writers.  The 
most  remarkable  of  his  other  publications  are : 
the  edition  of  Plotinus's  Opera  Omnia  (3  vols., 
Oxford,  1835) ;  those  of  Cicero's  Be  Natura 
Deoruvi,  Be  Bivinatione,  Be  Legibus,  Be  Re- 
miblica^  «&:c.,  executed  in  conjunction  with  G.  H. 
Moser ;  "  Historical  Art  of  the  Greeks"  (Leip- 
sic, 1803);  Bionysus,  seu  Commentationes  de 
Berum  Bacchicarum  Originihus  et  Causis  (2 
vols.,  Heidelberg,  1808);  "Sketch  of  Roman 
Antiquities,"  (2d  edition,  1829);  "Contribu- 
tions to  the  History  and  Antiquities  of  Rome" 
(1836 ;  French,  in  the  Memoires  de  Vimtitut 
royal^  1840)  ;  "  Contributions  to  the  Gallery  of 
Ancient  Dramatists"  (1839) ;  his  autobiograph- 
ical works  entitled  "  From  the  Life  of  an  Old 
Professor"  (1848),  and  "  Paralipomena  of  the 
Life  of  an  Old  Professor"  (1858)  ;  "  Contribu- 
tions to  the  History  of  Classical  Philosophy" 
(1854).  A  collection  of  his  "  New  and  Correct- 
ed "Works"  (1837-54)  contains  a  new  edition 
of  his  German  writings.  Several  of  his  works 
have  been  translated  into  foreign  languages, 

CREUZNACH,  a  Prussian  town  and  water- 
ing place  in  the  district  of  Coblentz,  picturesque- 
ly situated  on  the  river  Nahe,  8  ra.  from  Bing- 
en,  pop.  about  9,000,  with  extensive  saltworks 
in  the  neighborhood,  and  saline  springs,  which 
are  chiefly  used  for  the  cure  of  scrofulous  dis- 
eases. In  the  vicinity  are  the  ruins  of  the  castle 
of  Ebernburg,  destroyed  by  the  French  toward 
the  end  of  the  17th  century,  in  former  times  a 
place  of  refuge  for  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  Melanch- 
thon,  and  other  friends  of  Franz  von  Sickingen, 
to  whom  it  then  belonged. 

CREWE,  a  market  town  of  Cheshire,  England, 
32  m.  S.  E.  of  Liverpool,  and  important  as  a  di- 
verging point  of  5  lines  of  railway,  leading  to 
Manchester,  Birmingham,  Chester,  and  other 
large  towns.     Pop.  in  1851,  4,491, 

CRIBBAGE,  a  game  at  cards  played  by  2 
persons  with  a  full  pack  of  52  cards.  The 
points  constituting  the  game,  61  in  number,  are 
scored  by  pegs  on  a  board  perforated  with  the 
necessary  number  of  holes,  called  the  cribbage 
board.  The  advantage  lies  with  the  dealer, 
who  makes  up  a  3d  hand  for  liimself,  called  the 
crib,  partly  out  of  the  hand  of  his  opponent,  to 
offset  Avhich  the  latter  at  the  commencement 
of  the  game  is  entitled  to  score  3  points.  There 
is  a  variety  of  this  game  called  3-handed  crib- 
bage, played  by  3  persons  with  a  triangular 


board.     Four-handed  cribbage  is  played  by  4 
persons  in  partnership  of  2  and  2,  as  in  whist. 

CRICHTON,  James,  commonly  called  the 
"  admirable  Crichton,"  born  probably  in  the 
castle  of  Cluny,  in  Scotland,  Aug.  19,  1560, 
died  in  Mantua,  July  3,  1583.  He  was  of  high 
descent,  his  fiither  being  lord  advocate  of  Scot- 
land, and  his  mother  being  a  Stuart  of  the  lin- 
eage of  the  reigning  family.  He  was  educated 
in  Perth,  till  at  the  age  of  10  he  was  sent  to 
the  university  of  St.  Andrew's,  then  re])uted 
the  first  school  of  philosophy  in  Scotland. 
Aldus  Manutius  mentions  Rutherford,  Buchan- 
an, Hepburn,  and  Robertson  as  eminent  schol- 
ars who  were  his  masters.  His  ardor  in  study 
and  progress  in  knowledge  were  astonishing. 
In  his  12th  year  he  took  the  degree  of  bachelor 
of  arts ;  in  his  14th,  that  of  mastet ;  and,  though 
the  youngest  of  all,  he  was  then  esteemed  the 
third  scholar  in  the  university.  Before  his 
17th  year,  according  to  the  current  narrative, 
he  had  mastered  the  whole  circle  of  science, 
could  speak  and  write  10  languages,  had  ex- 
cellent skill  in  painting,  drawing,  riding,  fenc- 
ing, dancing,  singing,  and  playing  on  musi- 
cal instruments,  and  possessed  extraordinary 
physical  beauty,  symmetry,  and  strength.  He 
soon  after  repaired  to  Paris,  and  according 
to  Sir  Thomas  Urquhart,  who  is  supported  by 
no  other  authority,  immediately  determined,  in 
compliance  with  mediajval  scholastic  usage,  to 
challenge  the  philosophers  and  scholars  of  the 
city  to  a  public  disputation.  To  this  end  he 
affixed  placards  to  the  gates  of  the  different 
schools,  halls,  and  colleges  of  the  university, 
and  to  the  pillars  before  the  houses  of  men  of 
learning,  inviting  all  learned  persons  to  meet 
him  on  that  day  6  weeks,  before  9  o'clock  in 
the  morning,  at  the  college  of  Navarre,  where 
he  would  "  be  ready  to  answer  to  what  should 
be  propounded  to  him  concerning  any  science, 
liberal  art,  discipline,  or  faculty,  practical  or 
theoretic,  not  excluding  the  theological  or  juris- 
prudential habits,  though  grounded  but  upon 
the  testimonies  of  God  and  man,  and  that  in 
any  of  these  12  languages :  Hebrew,  Syriac, 
Arabic,  Greek,  Latin,  Spanish,  French,  Italian, 
English,  Dutch,  Flemish,  and  Slavonian,  in 
either  prose  or  verse,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
disputant."  The  interval  he  passed  in  hawking, 
hunting,  tilting,  throwing  the  lance,  games  of 
chance,  and  other  amusements  of  the  gay  city, 
provoking  the  satire  of  the  students  by  his  non- 
chalance ;  but  on  the  appointed  day  he  encoun- 
tered the  gravest  philosophers  and  divines  in 
presence  of  over  3,000  auditors,  acquitted  him- 
self with  marvellous  learning  during  a  disputa- 
tion of  9  hours  with  the  most  eminent  doctors, 
and  was  presented  by  the  rector  amid  the  ac- 
clamations of  the  assembly  with  a  diamond  ring 
and  a  purse  full  of  gold.  From  this  time  he 
was  known  by  the  epithet  of  "  the  admirable." 
On  tlie  very  next  day  he  entered  a  tilting  match 
at  tlie  Louvre,  and  bore  off"  the  ring  from  aU 
competitors.  After  serving  two  years  in  the 
civil  wars  and  distinguishing  himself  alike  for 


ORIOHTON 


61 


martial  and  mental  prowess,  he  proceeded  to 
Italy,  and  was  in  Rome  in  1580.  There,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Mackenzie,  who  is  bnt  partially 
supported  by  Boccalini,  he  gave  another  de- 
monstration of  his  talents  and  knowledge  in  a 
disputation  before  the  pope  and  all  the  hig?iest 
dignitaries  of  the  church  and  the  universities. 
His  challenge  was :  N^os  Jacohus  Crichtomts, 
Scotus,  cuicunque  rei  propositi  ex  improviso 
respondelimvs.  lie  soon  i)roceeded  to  Venice, 
where  a  Latin  poem  addressed  to  Aldus  Manu- 
tius  the  younger  gained  him  the  friendship  of 
that  celebrated  printer,  and  where  he  was  inti- 
mately associated  with  Sperone  Speroni,  Lo- 
renzo Massa,  and  Giovanni  Donati.  He  was 
presented  to  the  doge  and  senate,  and  delivered 
before  them  an  oration  which  was  equally  ap- 
plauded for  its  brilliant  eloquence  and  consum- 
mate grace.  He  also  disputed  on  questions  of 
divinity,  pliilosophy,  and  mathematics,  with  so 
much  ability  that  Imperiali  says  "  he  was  es- 
teemed a  prodigy  of  nature."  After  residing 
for  4  months  iu  Venice,  where  he  suffered  a 
severe  illness,  he  went  in  1581  to  Padua,  the 
fame  of  whose  university  was  then  spread 
throughout  Europe.  In  honor  of  his  arrival 
the  learned  men  of  the  place  were  convened  in 
the  house  of  a  person  of  rank,  and  Crichton, 
being  presented  to  them,  began  his  perform- 
ances by  an  elegant  poem  in  praise  of  the  city, 
the  university,  and  the  persons  present.  He 
then  during  G  hours  disputed  with  the  doctors 
on  topics  of  science,  especially  on  the  errors  of 
Aristotle  and  his  interpreters,  delighting  the 
assembly  as  much  by  his  modesty  as  by  his 
wonderful  learning  and  judgment.  In  conclu- 
sion he  gave  an  extemporaneous  oration  iu 
praise  of  ignorance,  with  so  much  ingenuity, 
says  one  of  his  biographers,  that  he  reconciled 
his  audience  to  their'  inferiority.  Some  one 
having  charged  him  with  being  a  literary  im- 
postor whose  attainments  were  only  superficial, 
he  caused  a  placard  to  be  posted,  in  which  he 
undertook  to  refute  innumerable  fallacies  of 
Aristotle  and  the  schoolmen,  and  to  answer  his 
antagonists,  on  any  topic  which  they  might 
propose,  either  in  the  common  logical  way,  or 
according  to  the  secret  doctrine  of  numbers 
and  mathematical  figures,  or  in  any  one  of  a 
hundred  ditlereut  sp6cies  of  verse.  The  trial, 
before  an  audience  containing  many  competent 
judges  of  such  pretensions,' was  held  in  the 
church  of  St.  John  and  St.  Paul,  where  for  3 
days  the  young  man  maintained  his  proposi- 
tions with  such  spirit  and  energy  before  an 
immense  concourse  of  people  that  he  is  said 
to  have  obtained  praises  more  magnificent 
than  were  ever  before  heard  by  men.  This, 
the  last  of  his  scholastic  contests,  was  styled 
by  Aldus  Manutius,  who  was  a  spectator  of  his 
triumpli,  a  "  miraculous  encounter."  He  pro- 
ceeded from  Venice  to  Mantua,  where,  accord- 
ing to  Sir  Thomas  Urquhart,  as  much  a  fabler 
as  a  historian,  he  fouglit  a  famous  gladiator, 
who  had  foiled  the  ablest  masters  of  fence  in 
Europe,  who  had  marked  his  way  to  Mantua 


by  blood,  and  had  recently  slain  the  3  best 
swordsmen  in  that  city.  Crichton,  having 
challenged  him,  is  said  to  have  shown  such 
dexterity  in  the  fight  that  he  seemed  but  to  bo 
in  play,  and  at  length  to  have  pierced  the  heart 
of  his  opponent  wliile  "  his  right  foot  did  beat 
the  cadence  of  the  blow."  There  is  other  evi- 
dence that  Crichton  was  attracted  to  Mantua, 
and  that  the  duke  of  that  city  made  him  pre- 
ceptor of  his  son,  a  riotous  and  passionate  youth. 
For  the  amusement  of  his  patron,  he  composed 
a  comedy,  in  which  he  himself  rei)resented 
15  difl^"erent  characters  with  wonderful  effect, 
and  which  was  esteemed  one  of  the  most  in- 
genious satires  ever  made  upon  the  follies  of 
mankind.  This  was  the  last  display  of  his  ex- 
traordinary talents  and  endowments,  and  im- 
mediately preceded  his  tragic  death.  On  a 
night  of  the  carnival  he  was  assailed  in  the 
street  by  3  armed  persons  in  masks.  Turn- 
ing upon  them  with  his  sword,  he  at  length 
disarmed  the  principal  aggressor,  who  proved 
to  be  bis  pupil,  the  son  of  the  duke,  Crich- 
ton immediately  fell  upon  his  knee,  and  pre- 
sented his  sword  to  the  prince,  who  instantly 
pierced  him  through  the  body.  In  consequence 
of  this  event  the  court  of  Mantua  went  into 
mourning  for  9  months,  and  it  was  said  that 
the  elegies  and  epitaphs  written  on  his  memory 
and  aflixed  to  his  hearse  exceeded  in  bulk  the 
works  of  Homer.  Though  his  splendid  repu- 
tation and  career  are  linked  with  romance,  and 
though  the  4  Latin  odes  and  the  few  prose 
fragments  which  alone  remain  of  his  composi- 
tions do  not  convey  an  impression  of  remarka- 
ble powers,  yet  the  historical  evidence  is  suffi- 
cient to  prove  that  he  was  a  very  extraordinary 
person  in  respect  of  capacity  and  energy,  and 
that  he  possessed  wonderful  proficiency  in 
science,  literature,  and  gentlemanly  accom- 
plishments.— Sir  Thomas  Urquhart's  "  Discov- 
ery of  a  Most  Exquisite  Jewel  "  (London,  1652) 
was  written  about  70  years  after  Crichton's 
death,  and  abounds  in  extravagant  opinions ; 
his  unsupported  testimony  is  therefore  not  au- 
thoritative. Dr.  Mackenzie,  in  his  "  Lives  of 
Scotch  "Writers,"  quotes  from  Pasquier  an  ac- 
count of  the  exploits  at  Paris  of  a  wonderful 
youth,  which  might  have  applied  to  Crichton, 
but  that  the  year  1445  is  given  as  the  date  of 
his  appearance.  Neither  Tytlcr,  Pennant,  nor 
Dr.  Johnson  (81st  "Adventurer")  made  rigor- 
ous examination  of  the  ancient  authorities.  The 
chief  contemporary  evidence  is  given  by  Aldus 
Manutius,  who  was  indisputably  a  witness  of 
Crichton's  intellectual  exertions  at  Venice  and 
Padua,  and  whose  Paradoxa  Ciceronis  has  been 
the  foundation  of  subsequent  biographies.  An 
Italian  broadside  printed  at  Venice  in  1580, 
discovered  by  Tytler,  confirms  the  current  ac- 
count of  Crichton's  accomplishments.  Im- 
periali, in  his  Mtisceum  Historicttm  (Venice, 
1640),  gives  information  derived  from  his  father, 
who  as  a  youth  had  seen  Crichton  at  Padua. 
Scaliger  also  relates  traditions  of  him  as  a 
"  very  wonderful  genius  "  which  he  obtained 


62 


CEICKET 


in  Italy.  There  fire  several  other  confirmatory 
allusions  to  him  in  writings  belonging  to  the 
first  half  century  after  his  death. 

CRICKET,  an  insect  belonging  to  the  order 
arthoj}iera,  the  group  saltatoria,  and  the  family 
(tchetddce.  Like  other  insects  of  the  order,  the 
crickets  have  straight  wings,  which,  when  not 
in  use,  are  folded  lengthwise  along  the  back,  the 
upper  wings  having  a  narrow  border  which  is 
folded  down  so  as  to  cover  also  the  sides  of  the 
body;  the  jaws  move  transversely  like  those  of 
beetles ;  they  do  not  undergo  a  complete  meta- 
morphosis, the  young  resembling  the  parents 
except  that  they  have  no  wings;  in  the  pupa 
state  they  have  the  rudiments  of  wings,  eat  vo- 
raciously, and  grow  rapidly.  In  the  snltatoria, 
which  include  also  grasshoppers  and  locusts,  the 
thighs  of  the  hind  legs  are  greatly  developed, 
enabling  them  to  take  long  leaps.  In  the  fam- 
ily to  wliicli  the  cricket  belongs,  the  wing  cov- 
ers are  horizontal,  the  antenna)  long  and  taper- 
ing, the  feet  3-jointed  (except  cecant/ms,  which 
has  4  joints  to  tlie  hind  feet),  2  tapering  downy 
bristles  at  the  end  of  the  body,  between  Avhich, 
in  the  females,  there  is  a  long  and  sharp  piercer. 
The  common  house  cricket  of  Europe  (acheta 
domestica,  Linn.)  is  about  an  inch  long,  of  a  yel- 
lowish or  clay  color  mixed  with  brown ;  it 
dwells  in  the  cracks  of  walls  and  floors,  and 
in  warm  places,  as  the  vicinity  of  ovens,  where 
it  remains  concealed  during  the  day,  coming 
forth  at  night  in  search  of  bread,  meal,  and  al- 
most any  article  of  domestic  economy  which 
contains  moisture ;  it  is  said  also  to  devour 
other  insects.  The  female  has  a  long  ovipositor, 
and  the  male  makes  a  loud  noise  or  chirp  by 
rubbing  the  hard  internal  border  of  one  wing 
cover  against  a  horny  ridge  on  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  other ;  for  this  familiar  sound  the 
cric'Ket  has  been  immortalized  in  the  verse  of 
Cowper  and  the  prose  of  Dickens,  and  its  merry 
chirp  is  interwoven  in  some  of  the  most  cheer- 
ing superstitions  of  England  ;  its  very  presence 
in  a  house  was  a  sign  of  good  luck,  and  its  fl}-- 
ing  away  a  very  bad  omen.  It  is  a  most  inde- 
fatigable musician,  commencing  its  tune  at  twi- 
light and  keeping  it  up  without  intermission  till 
daybreak  ;  its  note  is  so  agreeable  to  some  that 
it  is  kept  in  cages  by  the  fireside,  as  a  pet  song- 
ster, and  Scaliger  is  said  always  to  have  had  a  box 
of  them  singing  on  his  table,  though  this  last 
refers  more  particularly  to  the  field  cricket. 
This  species  (A.  cam2>cstris,  Fabr.)  is  lai'ger  than 
the  preceding,  of  a  blackish  hue,  with  the  base 
of  the  wing  covers  yellowish ;  in  July  the  fe- 
male lays  about  300  eggs,  which  are  hatched  in 
15  days  ;  the  young  have  no  wings,  and  feed  on 
vegetable  matters,  changing  their  skins  before 
winter  ;  they  remain  torpid  in  winter,  and  be- 
come perfect  insects  in  the  following  June.  This 
species  is  spread  over  Europe,  where  it  affords 
great  sport  to  cliildren,  who  hunt  for  it  with  an 
ant  attached  to  a  hair;  from  the  eagerness  with 
which  it  comes  out  of  its  hole  in  the  earth  when 
any  foreign  body  is  presented  to  it,  thus  falling 
Into  the  hands  of  its  enemies,  has  arisen  the  ex- 


pression prevalent  in  France,  "  silly  as  a  crick- 
et ;"  in  England  the  people  are  more  apt  to  say 
"  merry  as  a  cricket."  Their  holes  are  made  at 
first  horizontal  and  then  vertical,  and  they  re- 
treat into  them  backward  ;  they  eat  grass,  seeds, 
and  fruit,  carrying  them  to  their  holes ;  they 
are  fond  of  drinking  the  dew  on  leaves  and 
flowers,  but  are  very  careful  to  avoid  wetting 
themselves  in  their  journeys.  The  young  live 
together  in  peace  under  stones  and  sticks,  but 
when  they  have  attained  the  full  size  they  are 
constantly  fighting  with  each  other ;  the  field 
crickets  are  sometimes  made  use  of  in  ridding  a 
dwelling  of  house  crickets,  the  larger  instantly 
declaring  war  against  the  smaller  species  and 
driving  them  out.  The  boys  in  Germany  are 
very  fond  of  keeping  crickets  in  boxes  for  the 
sake  of  their  song,  and  for  the  purpose  of  mak- 
ing them  fight;  what  the  game  cock  is  to  the 
Havanese,  and  the  bull-dog  to  the  English,  the 
cricket  is  to  the  youth  of  Germany  ;  according 
to  the  direction  in  which  they  meet,  they  will 
butt  like  rams,  kick  like  horses,  or  scratch  like 
cats,  never  ceasing  till  one  leaves  the  field  or  is 
disabled.  There  are  several  species  of  cricket 
in  A"merica,  though  there  is  no  house  cricket. 
Our  common  field  species  (A.  aibreviata,  Har- 
ris) is  named  from  the  shortness  of  its  wings, 
which  do  not  extend  beyond  the  wing  covers  ; 
it  is  about  f  of  an  inch  long,  black,  wnth  a  brown- 
ish tinge  at  the  base  of  the  wing  covers,  and  a 
pale  line  on  each  side  most  distinct  in  the  fe- 
male. Another  species  (A.  nigra,  Harris)  is 
entirely  black,  with  very  short  wings,  and  meas- 
uring §  of  an  inch  in  length.  Crickets  are 
generally  nocturnal  and  solitary,  but  some  spe- 
cies are  often  seen  in  the  daytime  crawling 
along  our  garden  paths  in  great  numbers.  Our 
nocturnal  crickets  do  not  excite  the  same  pleas- 
ant associations  as  the  European  species  do ; 
they  do  not  enter  our  houses  unless  by  accident, 
and  their  monotonous  notes,  continued  during 
the  autumn  nights,  are  to  most  persons  dismal 
and  sad.  Where  crickets  are  numerous,  they 
injure  vegetation,  eating  the  tenderest  parts  of 
jdants,  destroying  great  numbers  of  melons, 
squashes,  potatoes,  &c. ;  they  devour  other  in- 
sects, and  thus  in  a  certain  degree  are  of  service. 
They  may  be  destroyed  by  arsenic  mixed  in  gra- 
ted vegetables,  or  in  bottles  partly  filled  with 
fluid,  into  which  they  crowd  to  drink  ;  cats  are 
fond  of  them,  inlaying  with  them  like  mice  be- 
fore eating  them ;  swine  also  devour  them  ea- 
gerly. There  is  here  a  third  species  (A.  vittata, 
Harris,  genus  iiemolius  of  Serville),  destitute 
of  wings,  varying  in  color  from  rusty  black  to 
dusky  brown,  with  black  lines  on  the  back  and 
posterior  thighs ;  it  is  about  f  of  an  inch  long, 
social  in  its  habits,  frequenting  the  meadows 
and  roadsides  in  the  daythne.  There  is  another 
kind  inhabiting  shrubs,  vines,  and  trees,  con- 
cealing itself  in  the  daytime  among  the  leaves ; 
these  are  very  noisy,  producing  their  sounds  by 
the  rubbing  of  the  wing  covers,  and  if  one  gets 
into  a  chamber  it  will  effectually  prevent  sleep ; 
the  antennoi  and  legs  are  very  long  and  slender. 


CRICKET 


63 


and  the  piercer  is  only  half  as  long  as  the  body. 
They  form  the  genus  acanthus^  and  arc  called 
tree  or  cHmbing  crickets;  there  are  3  species 
in  the  United  States,  of  which  the  ffi*.  niveits  in- 
habits Massachusetts.  The  male  is  of  a  pale  ivory 
color,  with  the  upper  side  of  the  1st  joint  of 
the  antenuio  and  between  the  eyes  ochre  yellow, 
and  a  minute  black  dot  on  the  under  side  of  the 
1st  and  2d  joints  of  the  antenna) ;  the  length  is 
about  7i  an  inch.  They  sometimes  pierce  peach 
twigs  for  the  purpose  of  laying  their  eggs,  and 
they  injure  tlie  tobacco  plant  by  eating  holes  in 
the  leaves.  Tliey  are  difficult  to  catch,  from 
tiieir  extreme  shyness.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the 
beginning  of  autumn,  but  are  not  hatched  till 
the  following  sunnuer;  they  attain  maturity  by 
the  1st  of  August,  and  in  southern  climates  be- 
fore that  time.  The  females  are  the  largest,  and 
are  almost  white,  dusky  beneath,  with  3  dusky 
stripes  on  the  head  and  thorax,  and  tlie  wings 
with  a  greenish  tinge  and  larger  than  the  covers. 
CRICKET,  an  atldetic  game  much  played  in 
England  an<l  America,  which,  according  to 
Strutt,  takes  its  origin  from  the  ancient  game 
of  club-ball,  which  was  played  with  a  straight 
bat,  but  without  wickets.  In  an  illustration 
of  club-ball  found  in  a  Bodleian  MS.  dated 
1344,  a  female  is  represented  in  the  act  of 
throwing  the  ball  to  the  batsman,  wlio  elevates 
his  bat  to  strike  it,  while  behind  the  woman 
are  other  figures  of  both  sexes  waiting  to  catch 
or  stoj)  it.  By  name,  cricket  cannot  be  traced 
further  back  than  to  a  passage  in  Phillips's 
"Mysteries  of  Love  and  Eloquence,"  in  1685. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  it  is  alluded 
to  in  an  old  ballad  publislied  by  D'Urfey,  "  Of  a 
Noble  Race  was  Shenken:" 

Ilur  was  the  prettiest  follow 
At  foot-ball  aud  at  cricket. 

Of  the  ancient  mode  and  of  the  rules  for  play- 
ing cricket  but  little  has  come  down  to  us;  the 
game  is  now  governed  by  a  set  of  laws,  arising 
from  the  necessities  of  the  play,  elaborated  by 
nearly  a  century's  practice,  and  forming  a  com- 
plete code.  Till  within  the  last  80  years  cricket 
was  but  rarely  played  in  England,  though  there 
is  plenty  of  evidence  of  its  existence  as  a  game 
in  the  IGth  century,  and  probably  even  earlier 
than  that.  In  America  its  introduction  has 
been  quite  recent,  and  it  has  become  generally 
popular  only  within  the  last  4  jeais.  It  is  now 
the  favorite  outdoor  game,  both  of  town  and 
country.  It  lasts  from  spring  till  autumn, 
though  chiefly  played  in  the  latter,  depending 
a  great  deal  on  the  weather,  as  it  requires  a 
dry  sod,  as  well  as  freedom  from  any  present 
foil  of  rain.  The  essentials  for  jilaying  are  :  1, 
the  ball  ;  2,  the  bat ;  8,  the  wickets ;  4,  a 
field  of  as  short  and  level  turf  as  can  be  obtain- 
.ed.  It  is  also  well  to  have  a  line  of  22  feet  in 
length,  and  a  frame  of  wood  6  feet  8  inches  by 
4  feet,  for  measuring  the  ground  and  fixing  the 
bowling  and  popping  creases,  a  tent  in  case  of 
rain,  scoring  books,  gloves  and  leg  guards  to 
protect  the  hands  and  legs  in  fast  bowling,  and 
spiked  shoes  to  prevent  slipping. — The  game  is 


played  either  as  "single  wicket"  or  as  "double 
wicket."  Single  wicket  requires  one  Avicket, 
one  popping  crease,  one  bowling  crease,  one 
ball,  one  bat;  and  it  may  be  played  by  any 
number  of  players,  arranged  in  two  sides,  not 
exceeding  7  or  8  on  each  side.  The  laws  of 
this  game  difier  somcAvliat  from  those  of  double 
wicket,  whicli  is  played  Avith  one  ball,  2  bats,  2 
wickets,  2  popping  creases,  2  bowling  creases, 
and  2  sides  of  jjlayers,  one  of  which  must  con- 
sist of  11,  and  the  other,  though  not  limited,  is 
usually  of  the  same  number.  The  laws  of  the 
game  in  the  United  States  are  the  same  essen- 
tially as  those  in  England,  and  the  code,  revised 
by  the  Marylebone  club,  held  as  the  highest  au- 
thority in  this  game,  is  as  follows : 

Double    Wicl-ef. 

1.  The  ball  must  weigh  not  less  than  .5i  oz.  nor  more  than 
5}  oz.,  nor  measure  less  than  9  inches  in  circumference  nor 
more  than  9i  inches.  At  the  beginning  of  each  innings 
either  party  may  call  for  a  new  ball. 

2.  The  but  must  not  exceed  in  width  4^-  inches,  nor  in 
length  3S  inches. 

3.  The  stumps  must  be  3  in  number,  27  inches  out  of  the 
gi'ound ;  the  bails  8  inches  in  length,  the  stumpj  of  equal 
and  sufHcient  thickness  to  prevent  the  ball  from  passing 
through. 

4.  The  bowling  crease  must  be  in  a  line  with  the  stumps, 
6  feet  8  inches  in  length,  the  stumps  in  the  centre,  with  a 
return  crease  at  each,  toward  the  bowler  at  right  angles. 

5.  The  popping  crease  must  be  4  feet  from  the  wicket, 
parallel  to  it,  and  unlimited  in  length,  but  not  shorter  than 
the  bowling  crease. 

6.  The  wickets  must  be  pitched  opposite  each  other  by 
the  umpires,  at  the  distance  of  22  yards. 

Of  the  remaining  rules  we  give  a  brief  ab- 
stract : 

7.  Neither  party  without  the  consent  of  the  other  shall  al- 
ter the  ground. 

8.  After  rain,  both  parties  consenting,  wickets  may  be 
changed. 

9.  The  bowler  .shall  bowl  with  one  foot  behind  the  bowl- 
ing crease,  and  after  bowling  4  balls  shall  change  wickets. 

iO.  The  ball  must  bo  bowled,  not  thrown  or  jerked;  the 
hand  in  delivery  must  not  be  above  the  shoulder. 

11.  Bowler  at  his  wicket  may  require  striker  to  stand  on 
either  side. 

12.  If  bowler  tosses  the  ball  over  the  striker's  head,  or 
bowls  so  wide  that  it  is  beyond  batsman's  reach,  one  run 
shall  be  counted  to  party  having  innings  by  the  umi)ire. 

18.  If  the  bowler  deliver  a  "  no  ball,"  or  a  "  wide  ball,"  the 
striker  shall  be  allowed  as  many  runs  as  he  can  get,  and 
shall  not  be  put  out  except  by  running  out. 

14.  At  the  beginning  of  each  innings  each  umpire  shall 
call  play. 

15.  The  striker  is  out  if  the  bails  be  bowled  otT,  or  stump 
bowled  out  of  the  ground ; 

IG.  If  the  ball,  fiom  stroke  of  bat  or  hand,  but  not  wrist, 
be  caught  before  it  touch  the  ground,  and  held  ; 
17.  If,  in  striking,  both  feet  are  over  the  popping  crease  ; 
IS.  If  he  knock  "down  his  own  wicket; 

19.  If  he  prevent  the  ball  from  being  caught,  the  striker 
of  the  ball  is  out; 

20.  If  the  ball  be  struck  and  he  strike  it  again; 

21.  If  his  wicket  is  knocked  off  before  he  can  ground  his 
bat  over  the  popping  crease  ; 

22.  If  any  part  of  his  dress  knock  the  wicket  down ; 

2-3.  If  he  touch  or  take  the  ball,  except  at  the  request  of 
the  opposite  party  ; 

24.  If  he  stop  a  ball  by  any  portion  of  his  person,  which 
ball  would  otherwise  have  hit  the  wicket. 

2.5.  If  the  players  cross,  he  that  runs  for  the  wicket  that  is 
dovra  is  out. 

2G.  No  runs  are  counted,  the  ball  being  caught. 

27.  The  striker  being  run  out,  that  run  is  not  counted. 

28.  '■  Lost  ball "  being  called,  the  striker  is  allowed  6  runs ; 
he  .shall  have  all  that  he  has  run  if  thero  are  more  than  6 
before  calling  "lost  ball." 

29.  The  bowler  may  put  striker  out  if  before  delivery  the 
Btriker  is  beyond  the  popping  crease. 

30.  The  striker  shall  not  leave  his  wicket  and  return  to  fin- 
ish his  innings  after  another  has  been  in  without  the  consent 
of  the  opposite  party. 


64 


CRICKET 


CRILLON 


31.  No  substitute  shall  be  allowed  without  the  consent  of 
the  opposite  party. 

32.  Opposite  party  must  also  consent  as  to  what  place  sub- 
stitute may  have. 

83.  Opi)6sit6  party  count  5  if  any  fieldsman  stop  the  ball 
with  his  hat. 

S4.  The  ball  having  been  hit,  the  striker  may  guard  his 
wicket  with  his  bat,  or  any  part  of  his  body,  save  his  hands. 

85.  The  wicket  keeper  shall  not  take  the  ball  for  the  pur- 
pose of  stumping  until  it  has  passed  the  wicket;  he  must 
not  move  till  the  ball  be  out  of  the  bowler's  hands. 

86.  The  umpires  are  sole  judges  of  fair  and  unfair  play. 
37.  The  umpires  in  all  matches  shall  pitch  fair  wickets. 
88.  They  shall  allow  2  minutes  for  each  striker  to  come 

In,  and  10  minutes  between  each  innings;  when  they  call 
"j)lay,"  the  party  refusing  loses  the  match. 

S'J.'  They  arc  not  to  order  a  striker  out  unless  appealed  to 
by  the  adversaries. 

40.  If  one  of  the  bowler's  feet  is  not  on  the  ground  behind 
the  bowling  crease,  and  within  the  return  crease,  the  ball  so 
delivered  must  be  declared  by  tlie  umpire  "no  ball." 

41.  If  either  of  the  strikers  run  a  short  run,  it  must  bo 
called  by  umpire  "one  short." 

42.  No  umpire  shall  be  allowed  to  bet. 

43.  No  umpire,  but  with  the  consent  of  both  parties,  may 
be  changed  during  the  match. 

44.  After  the  delivery  of  4  balls  the  umpire  must  call 
"over,"  but  not  until  the  baH  shall  be  ttnally  settled  in  the 
wicket  keeper's  hand. 

45.  The  umpire  must  call  "  no  ball "  instantly  on  delivery 
of  wide  ball  when  it  passes  the  striker. 

46.  The  pla}-ers  who  go  in  second  shall  follow  their  in- 
nings if  they  have  obtained  SO  runs  less  than  their  antago- 
nists, except  in  all  matches  limited  to  one  day's  play,  when 
the  number  shall  be  00  instead  of  SO. 

47.  No  person  shall  use  the  bat  after  one  of  the  strikers 
has  been  put  out  until  the  next  striker  shall  come  in. 

Single  Wicket. 

1.  When  there  shall  be  less  than  5  players  on  a  side, 
bounds  shall  be  placed  22  yards  each  in  a  line  from  the  off 
and  leg  stump. 

2.  The  ball  must  be  hit  before  the  bounds  to  entitle  the 
striker  to  a  run. 

3.  When  the  striker  shall  hit  the  ball,  one  of  his  feet  must 
be  on  the  ground  and  behind  the  popping  crease,  otherwise 
it  is  "  no  hit." 

4.  When  there  are  less  than  5  players  on  a  side,  neither 
byes  nor  overthrows  shall  be  allowed,  nor  shall  the  striker 
be  caught  out  nor  stumped  out. 

5.  The  fieldsman  must  return  the  ball  so  that  it  shall  cross 
the  play  between  the  wicket  and  the  bowling  stump,  or  be- 
tween the  bowling  stump  and  the  bounds. 

6.  If  the  striker  has  made  one  run,  if  he  start  again  he 
must  touch  the  bowling  stump. 

7.  The  striker  is  entitled  to  3  runs  for  "lost  ball"  (refer- 
ring to  law  2S  of  double  wicket). 

S.  When  there  are  more  than  4  players  on  a  side  there 
shall  be  no  bounds;  all  hits,  byes,  and  overthrows  shall  then 
be  allowed. 

9.  The  bowler  is  subject  to  the  laws  of  double  wicket. 

10.  Not  more  than  one  minute  shall  be  allowed  between 
each  ball. 

In  single  wicket  the  stumps  are  driven  into  the 
ground,  subject  to  the  laws  3  and  5  of  double 
wicket ;  in  front  a  popping  crease  is  marked  off, 
as  in  law  5;  at  22  yards'  distance  a  bowling 
stump  is  fixed  ;  a  bowling  crease  must  be  mark- 
ed at  the  proper  distance,  as  in  law  4,  and  here 
the  bowler  must  deliver  his  ball,  as  defined  by 
laws  9, 10, 12, 13,  and  14.  The  game  is  defended 
by  tlie  batsman,  or  striker,  who  stands  at  the 
popping  crease.  The  attack  is  conducted  by 
the  other  side,  plnced  in  the  field  according  to 
their  numbers.-^Double  wicket  usually  consists 
of  2  sides  of  11  players  each ;  one  of  these  has 
the  innings  by  lot,  and  2  of  their  party  defend 
the  wicket  with  their  bats.  By  the  other  side, 
who  are  now  fielding,  the  attack  is  maintained; 
if  the  bail  is  knocked  off,  or  the  stump  is  bowl- 
ed out  of  the  ground,  the  striker  is  out,  and  is 
replaced  by  another  till  all  the  side  are  put  out. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  ball  is  struck,  each 
run  counts  one,  and  the  side  which  makes  the 


greatest  score  is  the  winner.  Two  captains  are 
chosen,  one  for  each  side,  generally  the  2  best 
bowlers,  and  they  choose  their  assistants,  and 
allot  each  their  respective  places  when  fielding. 
When  matches  are  made  between  2  clubs,  the 
men  are  selected  by  a  committee  from  each 
club.  One  bowler  at  a  time  is  indispensable, 
who  bowls  4  balls,  called  an  "over  ;"  then  the 
whole  of  the  fielders  walk  over  to  the  opposite 
side,  and  another  over  of  4  balls  is  delivered 
from  the  opposite  wicket  by  another  bowler.  For 
fast  bowling  the  men  are  stationed  as  follows : 
Immediately  behind  the  wicket  is  the  wicket 
keeper,  whose  duty  it  is  to  stop  the  ball,  an  office 
of  no  little  labor  and  risk,  for  which  tubular 
gloves  and  leg  and  body  guards  are  absolutely 
required.  Behind  the  wicket  keeper  are  the 
long  stop  and  assistant ;  the  short  slip  is  in  a 
line  with,  and  on  the  right  of,  the  wicket  keep- 
er ;  the  long  slip  is  in  the  same  line  farther  to 
the  right ;  the  leg  is  behind  and  to  the  left  of 
the  wicket  keeper ;  behind  the  bowler  and  on 
his  left  is  the  long  field  off,  to  the  bowler's 
right  the  long  field  on ;  to  the  right  of  the 
striker  are  the  mid  wicket,  cover  point,  and 
point.  The  duty  of  these  is  merely  to  stop  the 
ball,  and  they  take  their  names  from  the  places 
assigned.  There  are  2  kinds  of  bowling,  fast 
and  slow ;  the  fast  is  almost  always  "  round- 
handed;"  the  straight  underhand  balls  are 
much  more  easy  to  guard ;  where,  however,  the 
ball  twists,  the  matter  is  much  more  difficult. 
In  round-handed  bowling  the  ball  has  a  turn  on 
its  own  axis,  independent  of  its  forward  motion, 
and  when  it  appears  as  if  rmming  clear  of  the 
wicket,  it  yet  will  twist  and  take  the  outside 
stump.  "Where  the  bowling  is  slow,  and  there 
is  but  little  hard  hitting,  the  fielders  are  brought 
nearer  in,  to  get,  if  possible,  near  catches,  from 
the  tendency  of  good  slow  balls  to  rise  if  only- 
tipped.  The  tei'ms  descriptive  of  the  varie- 
ties of  balls  are  "  lengths  "  and  "  not  lengths," 
the  latter  consisting  of  toss,  tice,  long  hop,  half 
volley,  and  ground  ball.  In  bowling,  the  ball 
should  be  delivered  with  a  run,  and  should  be 
held  with  the  seam  across,  so  that  the  ends  of 
the  fingers  touch  it. — The  dress  of  a  cricketer  is 
almost  always  a  light  flannel  jacket,  with  trou- 
sers of  the  same,  or  of  white  duck  ;  a  straw  hat 
or  light  cap  is  generally  adopted ;  leg  guards 
and  body  guards  are  used  in  batting  and  wicket 
keeping  ;  and  gloves,  Oxford  shoes,  or  shoes 
with  spiked  soles,  complete  the  arrangement. 

CRILLON,  a  French  family  derived  from  the 
Piedmontese  Balbes  who  emigrated  to  France  in 
tlie  15th  century.  I.  Louis  bes  Balbes  de  Ber- 
TON  DE  Ceillon,  the  hero  of  the  reigns  of  Henry 
II.,  Francis  II.,  Charles  IX.,  Henry  III.,  and 
Henry  IV.,  born  at  Mursin  Provence  in  1541, died 
in  1G15.  He  was  the  first  to  assume  the  name  of 
Crillon,  from  a  small  estate  of  that  name  situated' 
in  the  present  department  of  Vaucluse.  Having 
become  glorious  by  his  exploits,  the  name  was 
adopted  by  the  whole  family.  As  the  youngest 
of  6  brothers,  he  was  destined  for  the  order  of 
the  knights  of  Malta,  studied  with  zeal  and  dili- 


CRILLON 


CRIMEA 


65 


gence  at  tlie  school  of  Avignon,  and  eagerly 
pursued  bodily  and  chivalric  exercises.  Under 
Francis  dc  Lorraine,  duke  of  Guise,  he  completed 
his  education  as  a  warrior  and  cavalier  in  his 
16th  year.  Under  the  command  of  the  duke  he 
was  the  first  on  the  walls  of  Calais,  which  had 
been  for  2  centuries  in  the  hands  of  the  English, 
and  was  now  taken  after  a  siege  of  8  days  (1558). 
He  equally  distinguished  himself  at  the  capture 
of  Guines.  Adored  for  his  extraordinary  brav- 
ery by  the  army,  he  was  presented  by  his  com- 
mander, the  duke  of  Guise,  to  Henry  II.,  as  the 
chief  instrument  of  his  victories,  and  richly  re- 
warded by  mimerous  clerical  estates,  it  being 
at  that  period  customary  in  France  to  bestow 
benefices  on  laymen,  to  be  managed  for  their 
benefit  by  members  of  the  clergy.  In  the  en- 
suing civil  wars  of  France  he  served  against 
the  liuguenots,  defeating  the  conspiracy  of  Am- 
boise,  formed  against  the  Guises  (1560),  and 
fighting  in  thebattles  of  Rouen,  Dreux,  St.  Denis, 
Jarnac,  Moncontour,  and  St.  Jean  d'Angely. 
As  a  knight  of  Malta  he  fought  under  Don  John 
of  Austria  at  Lepanto,  against  the  Turks  (1571), 
was  wounded,  and  sent  with  the  news  of  the 
victory  to  Charles  IX.  of  France,  and  Pope  Pius 
V.  Already  called  "  the  brave  "  by  the  court 
of  Finance,  and  "the  man  without  fear  "  by  thd 
army,  he  became  the  object  of  general  admira- 
tion. He  now  had  his  fi^rst  duel  with  Bussy 
d'Amboise,  who,  meeting  him  in  the  street,  asked 
him  haughtily :  "AYhatis  the  hour?"  and  was 
answered:  "The  hour  of  your  death!"  lie 
afterward  saved  the  life  of  Bussy,  and  won 
his  friendship.  He  took  no  part  in  the  massacre 
of  St.  Bai-tholomew's  (1572),  which  he  free- 
ly condemned,  though  he  continued  to  serve 
against  the  Huguenots.  The  duke  of  Anjou, 
brother  of  the  king,  having  been  elected  king 
of  Poland  (1573)  after  the  extinction  of  the 
house  of  Jagiello,  he  followed  him  to  that 
country  through  Germany,  where  he  defended 
his  dignity  against  the  insults  of  the  irritated 
Protestants,  and  on  his  flight  thence,  when  he 
succeeded  as  Henry  III.  to  the  throne  of  France. 
On  his  return  he  was  distinguished  with  new 
honors  by  the  cities  of  Venice  and  Lvons.  When, 
after  the  battle  of  Coutras  (1587),  Henry  III. 
openly  commenced  hostilities  against  the  league, 
and  the  states  assembled  at  Blois  decreed  the 
assassination  of  the  duke  of  Guise,  who  had  fol- 
lowed his  father  in  the  leadership  of  the  Catho- 
lics, the  monarch  offered  Crillon  tho  honor  of 
killing  the  duke,  which  he  refused.  He  after- 
ward fought  for  the  king  against  the  league, 
and,  after  the  assassination  of  Henry  III.,  served 
Avith  equal-  fidelity  the  new  king,  Henry  IV. 
The  battle  of  Ivry  (1590)  ended  his  services  in 
the  civil  wars.  Henry  IV.,  who  called  him 
"  the  brave  of  the  brave,"  said  :  "  I  have 
never  feared  any  but  Crillon ;"  and  wrote 
to  him  after  the  battle  of  Arques:  "Hang 
yourself,  Crillon;  we  have  conquered  with- 
out you."  In  the  war  against  Spain,  Crillon 
was  active  again.  The  peace  of  vSavoy  ended 
his  military  career,  when  he  retired  to  Avignon, 
YOL.  TI. — 5 


The  chivalric  bravery  of  Crillon  was  equalled 
by  his  generosity,  which  prompted  him  even  to 
pardon  an  attempt  at  his  own  assassination. 
The  estates  of  tlie  family  were  inherited  by 
Thomas,  the  3d  of  the  brothers,  and  made  in 
the  4th  generation  a  duchy  by  Benedict  XIII. 
II.  The  2d  duke  of  Crillon  was  Louis,  born  in 
1718,  died  in  1796  at  Madrid.  Having  entered 
the  French  army  at  the  age  of  13,  he  fought  un- 
der Villars  in  the  camjjaign  of  1733  in  Italy,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  Germany.  Entering  tlie 
Si)anish  service  in  1762,  he  conquered  Minorca 
(1782),  and  was  rewarded  by  the  title  of  duke 
of  Mahon,  and  became  captain-general  of  the 
provinces  of  Valencia  and  Murci;^i.  His  Memoircs 
(Paris,  1791)  contain  many  particulars  valued 
by  men  of  military  science.  III.  Louis  Ax- 
ToiNE  Fi{AN(i'ois  DE  Paule  de  Ckiixox,  dukc  of 
Mahon  and  grandee  of  Spain,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  in  1775,  died  in  1832.  Made  a  colonel 
in  the  Spanish  army  at  the  age  of  15,  he  was 
captured  with  his  regiment  on  the  invasion  of 
France  in  1 794.  After  the  peace  he  served,  with 
the  permission  of  his  government,  as  volunteer 
under  Moreau  ;  then  again  in  Spain,  where  he 
became  commander  of  a  division,  governor  of 
Tortosa,  and  in  1807  captain-general  of  Guipnz- 
coa,  Alava,  and  Biscay,  in  which  capacity  he 
faitlifully  guarded  the  northern  fortresses  against 
the  generals  of  Napoleon,  until  he  was  expressly 
commanded  by  the  king,  who  rejected  his  warn- 
ings, to  surrender  them  to  the  French.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Bourbons  he  swore  allegiance  to  Jo- 
seph, brother  of  Napoleon,  and  was  made  lieu- 
tenant-general of  the  Spanish  army,  and  succes- 
sively captain-general  of  Navarre,  Toledo,  and 
Cuenca.  Proscribed  by  the  returning  Bourbons 
in  1814,  he  fled  to  France,  where  he  remained, 
and  received  the  title  of  lieutenant-general.  Of 
the  2  sons  of  his  brother,  Felix  Dorothee,  who 
was  peer  of  France,  and  died  in  1820,  one  served 
under  the  restoration,  in  the  army,  and  as  peer 
of  France,  the  other  under  Napoleon  and  the 
restoration. 

CRIMEA,  a  peninsula  forming  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  Russian  empire  in  Europe.  It 
extends  between  lat.  44°  and  46°  N.  and  long. 
32°  and  37°  E. ;  greatest  extent  from  E.  to  AY. 
190  m.,  from  N.  to  S,  123  m. ;  area  about  8,000 
sq.  m.  This  peninsula  is  connected  with  the 
main  body  of  the  empire  by  the  narrow  isth- 
mus of  Perekop,  the  breadth  of  Avhich  is  less 
tlian  5  m.  Though  only  the  260th  part  of  Eu- 
ropean Russia,  the  Crimea,  in  consequence  of  its 
geographical,  commercial,  and  strategetical  posi- 
tion, is  one  of  the  most  important  divisions  of 
tlie  empire,  commanding  as  it  does  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Black  sea.  It  has  a  coast  line  of  550 
m.  Along  its  N.  E.  shore  there  extends  a  long 
and  narrow  inlet  of  the  sea  of  Azof,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  a  tongue  of  land,  or  rather  a 
sand  bar,  about  70  m.  in  length  and  1  to  H  ni. 
in  breadth.  This  inlet  is  so  shallow  that  in 
some  places  it  has  the  appearance  of  a  morass, 
and  its  very  name  (Sivash,  or  Putrid  sea)  indi- 
cates its  general  aspect.     The  eastern  part  of  the 


66 


CRIMEA 


Crimea  forms  a  minor  peninsula,  stretching 
eastward  to  the  strait  of  Yeuikale,  the  Cimme- 
rian Bosporus  of  the  ancients.  While  tlie  N.  por- 
tion of  the  peninsula  is  only  a  continuation  of 
the  steppes  of  S.  Russia,  harren,  cheerless,  and 
swept  by  chilling  winds,  the  S.  portion,  sloping 
from  a  mountain  chain  which  stretches  from  Se- 
hastopol  to  Kafta  as  a  barrier,  enjoys  a  semi- 
tropical  climate  and  a  great  richness  and  variety 
of  vegetation.  Hence  the  N.  portion  lias  from 
time  immemorial  been  occupied  by  nomadic 
tribes,  eking  out  a  scanty  subsistence  by  cattle- 
raising  ;  while  on  the  S.  slope  higher  forms  of 
culture  have  been  developed  by  the  Greeks,  tbe 
Genoese,  the  Tartars,  and  the  Russians,  succes- 
sively. There  is  only  a  comparatively  narrow 
belt  of  arable  soil  on  the  northern  slope,  and  on 
this  belt  the  most  important  towns  are  situated, 
such  as  Sebastopol,  Bakhtchissarai  (the  old  capi- 
tal of  the  Tartar  rulers),  Simferopol,  Staroi  Krym, 
au<l  Karasoo-Bazar.  To  the  northward  of  this  belt 
extends  the  steppe,  its  monotony  relieved  only  by 
numerous  herds  of  cattle  and  thousands  of  cranes, 
storks,  and  gulls,  swarming  around  the  salt- 
water lagoons  and  marshes.  The  mountain  chain 
(Jaila),  mentioned  before,  appears  to  be  a  west- 
ern continuation  of  the  Caucasus,  from  which  it 
is  separated  only  by  the  strait  of  Yenikale.  In 
theTchatir-dagh,  or  Tent  mountain  (theTrapezus 
or  Table  mountain  of  the  ancients),  it  attains-  to 
an  elevation  of  5,051  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  terminates  to  the  southward  of  Sebas- 
topol in  the  promontory  called  Crion  Metopon 
(Rajii's  Face)  by  the  Greeks,  and  Ai  Burun  (Holy 
Cape)  by  the  Tartars.  The  S.  coast,  to  which 
the  principal  chain  sends  several  small  branch- 
es, is  exceedingly  picturesque  in  appearance. 
Wherever  the  slope  of  the  hillsides  is  not  too 
steep,  they  are  covered  with  vineyards  and  the 
country  houses  of  the  rich ;  the  valleys,  watered 
by  numerous  small  streams,  are  carefully  culti- 
vated and  produce  rich  crops  of  grain  and  fruit ; 
the  mountains  abound  in  valuable  timber.  The 
N".  steppe,  on  the  other  hand,  is  almost  entirely 
destitute  of  fresh-water  springs  and  rivei's,  and 
its  soil  is  generally  impregnated  with  salt. — The 
2  principal  rivers  of  the  Crimea  ai-e  the  Salghir, 
which  rises  from  a  cavern  near  Simferopol,  at 
the  northern  foot  of  the  Tchatir-dagh,  and  emp- 
ties into  the  Putrid  sea,  and  its  tributary,  the 
Karasoo  (Black  Water),  which  rises  from  the 
same  mountain  a  little  further  E.  Of  the  small- 
er streams,  the  Alma,  running  a  little  N.  of  Se- 
bastopol from  E.  to  W.,  has  become  widely 
known  by  the  battle  fought  on  its  banks,  Sept. 
20,  1854. — The  climate  of  the  Crimea  is  salu- 
brious and  delightful  in  the  springtime,  but  ir- 
regular and  generally  very  hot  in  summer,  a 
temperature  of  100°  F.  being  quite  common. 
The  autumn  is  considered  unhealthy,  fever  and 
ague  prevailing  at  that  time  of  the  year  in 
the  lowlands.  In  winter  the  weatlier  is  often 
extremely  severe,  more  so  than  in  most  other 
parts  of  Europe  in  the  same  latitude.  The 
apples  raised  in  the  southern  Crimea  are  ex- 
cellent, and  command  high  prices  in  the  mar- 


ket of  Moscow.  All  the  varlons  kinds  of  grain, 
including  maize,  also  peas,  hemp,  and  tobacco, 
are  grown  in  the  fields;  olives,  melons,  water- 
melons, gourds,  cucumbers,  in  gardens  ;  quinces, 
plums,  peaches,  apricots,  cherries,  mulberries, 
walimts,  hazleriuts,  chestnuts,  are  among  the 
vegetable  products  of  the  Crimea.  Of  wild  ani- 
mals, only  deer,  wolves,  badgers,  foxes,  liares, 
Aveasels,  and  jerboas  are  found ;  camels  are 
employed  on  the  northern  steppes,  where  also 
butialoes  and  oxen,  sheep  and  goats,  are  raised. 
Tlie  horses  of  the  Crimea  are  mpre  remark- 
able for  activity  and  intelligence  than  beau- 
ty. The  birds  most  common  are  crows,  owls, 
thrushes,  blackbirds,  partridges,  quails,  king- 
fishers, pigeons,  and  poultry,  geese,  swans,  ducks, 
teals,  gulls.  Among  the  insects,  the  hideous 
rana  variahilis,  scorpions,  tarantula  spiders,  and 
scolopendras  may  be  mentioned.  Bees  are  abun- 
dant ;  so  are  fish  on  the  coast,  but  not  in  the 
rivers.  Tlie  production  of  grain  increased  from 
350,000  quarters  in  1841  to  850,000  in  1851. 
Agriculture  is  most  developed  in  the  district  of 
Berdiansk,  peopled  by  foreign  settlers.  The 
Crimea  possessed  in  1851  about  2,000,000  sheep, 
half  of  which  were  fine-wooled,  85,700  horses, 
and  248,260  horned  cattle.  The  salt  manufac- 
ture is  monopolized  by  government;  the  most 
celebrated  salt  mines  are  those  of  Perekop  and 
Eupatoria.  The  number  of  vines  increased 
from  5,929,500  in  1832  to  35,577,000  in  1848  ; 
and  the  entire  vintage  of  the  Crimea  amounted 
in  1851  to  about  3,500,000  gallons.  TheCrimean 
wines  which  are  exported  are  generally  of  a  sec- 
ondary quality,  and  are  chiefly  used  for  mixing 
with  other  wines.  The  vineyards  of  Prince  Wo- 
ronzoA'are  highly  esteemed,  and  yield  a  sparkling 
wine,  something  like  champagne.  The  principal 
articles  of  export  are  salt,  wine,  honey,  wax, 
leather,  hides,  wool,  lamb  skins,  and  morocco 
leather;  and  an  active  transit  trade  exists,  corn, 
seeds,  tallow,  tobacco,  and  silk  being  brought 
here  for  barter  with  European,  and  especially 
Russian  manufacturers. — The  population  of  the 
peninsula  is  a  mixture  of  the  Greek,  Italian, 
Tartar,  and  Slavonian  nationalities.  There  are, 
beside,  Armenians,  Caraite  Jews,  Greeks,  gyp- 
sies, and  also  9  German  colonies  established  in 
1804-'5,  and  reenforced  in  1816-'17  by  1,400 
Swabian  fiimilies,  but  numbering  at  present  only 
about  1,800.  The  Tartars  (Mohammedans),  in 
former  times  so  numerous  that  they  were  able 
to  muster  100,000  warriors,  still  constitute  the 
principal  part  of  the  population,  the  entire  num- 
ber of  which  is  given  at  200,000. — The  Crimea, 
Avith  a  part  of  the  province  of  Taurida,  was 
acquired  by  Russia  toward  thfe  end  of  the  18th 
century.  Its  aboriginal  inhabitants,  the  Cim- 
merians, having  been  driven  out  by  otlier  Scy- 
thians, left  only  a  small  remnant  (the  Tauri)  in 
the  n^.ountain  recesses,  and  from  them  the  an- 
cient name  of  the  country,  Tauris  or  Chersone- 
sus  Taurica,  was  derived.  It  was  celebrated  by 
the  legends  of  Iphigenia  and  Orestes  ;  was  the 
chief  possession  of  the  Greek  kingdom  of  the 
Bosporus ;  was  licid  under  Roman  protection, 


CRIMEA 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


67 


and  eubsequcutly  conquered  by  the  barbarian 
tribes  which  invaded  the  eastern  provinces  of 
the  Roman  empire.  Early  in  the  middle  ages 
it  belonged  to  the  Byzantine  empire.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  12th  century  the  Genoese  and  Ve- 
netians obtained  a  foothold.  Kaffa  and  Cherson 
were  established  by  the  former,  Tana  by  the 
latter.  The  Tartars  overran  the  peninsula  in  the 
13th  century,  and  maintained  their  rule  for  more 
than  200  years,  when  they  became  subject  to  the 
Ottomans.  Still  all  tlicir  municipal  institutions 
were  left  undi&turl)ed  by  the  conquerors,  who 
even  allowed  the  Tartars  to  retain  their  own 
khans  (princes),  though  as  vassals  of  the  sultan. 
In  the  latter  portion  of  the  17th  century  the  Rus- 
sians began  to  covet  the  Crimea,  and  in  1771  they 
succeeded  so  far  as  to  wrest  it  from  Turkey  and 
clothe  it  with  a  nominal  national  independence. 
In  1783  the  khan  Shahin  Gherai,  having  been 
expelled  from  the  Crimea  by  the  anti-Russian 
party,  ceded  his  country  to  Russia,  and  in  1784 
the  peninsula  and  its  adjoining  provinces  were 
annexed  to  the  emi)ire.  The  peninsula  is  di- 
vided into  4  districts :  Simferopol,  Feodosia, 
Yalta,  and  Eupatoria.  The  capital,  Simferopol, 
has  only  8,600  iidiabitants,  and  has  lost  all  ves- 
tiges of  its  former  splendor  as  the  residence  of 
the  Tartar  khans.  It  had  been  outgrown  by 
Sebastopol  before  the  destruction  of  that  place 
in  1855,  and  by  Eupatoria  (Kozlov),  Bakhtchis- 
sarai,  Feodosia,  and  Kertch.  The  latter,  the 
old  PunticapcEum,  is  almost  the  only  town  in 
Russia  that  is  built  entirelj*  of  stone ;  its  popu- 
lation amounts  to  about  10,000  souls.  Karasoo- 
bazar,  situate  to  the  N.  E.  of  Simferopol  and  con- 
taining about  15,000  inhabitants,  is  the  principal 
seat  of  what  little  industry  the  Crimea  can  boast 
of. — The  Crimea  was,  in  1854  and  1855,  the  prin- 
cipal theatre  of  the  war  between  the  allied  west- 
ern powers  and  Russia.  The  armies  of  the  allies 
effected  a  landing  at  the  bay  of  Eupatoria,  Sept. 
14,  1854.  On  their  southward  march  toward 
Sebastopol  they  encountered  the  Russian  forces, 
commanded  by  Prince  MentchikofF,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Alma.  A  bloody  battle  was  fought  (Sept, 
20),  in  which  the  Russians  were  compelled  to 
retreat.  On  Sept.  25  the  British  forces  seized 
Balaklava,  and  on  Oct.  9  the  regular  siege 
of  the  southern  portion  of  Sebastopol  com- 
menced, the  Russians  having  sunk  vessels  in  the 
entrance  to  the  harbor  and  thus  rendered  the 
city  unassailable  by  maritime  force.  On  Oct. 
25  and  Nov.  5,  the  Russians  vainly  attempted 
to  annihilate  the  besieging  forces  in  the  bat- 
tles of  Balaklava  and  Inkerman,  but  afterward 
confined  themselves  mainly  to  the  defensive, 
their  frequent  sorties  being  intended  more  to 
harass  and  retard  the  siege  than  to  relieve  the 
■place  definitively.  Among  these  conflicts  some 
assumed  almost  the  character  of  regular  field 
battles;  for  instance,  an  unsuccessful  attack  of 
the  French  upon  a  new  redoubt  (Feb.  23, 1855), 
their  first  assault  upon  the  Malakofi"  and  Redan 
(June  18),  and  the  battle  of  the  Tchernaya  (Aug. 
16),  in  which  the  Russians,  numbering  50,000 
infantry  and  6,000  cavalry,  made  a  last  effort  to 


break  the  aggressive  force  of  the  enemy.  The 
trenches  having  been  driven  so  near  the  Rus- 
sian defensive  works  that  another  assault  could 
be  ventured,  the  final  bombardment  was  opened 
Sept.  5,  and  lasted  for  3  days.  On  Sept.  8  the 
Malakotf  and  Redan  were  stormed  and  taken 
by  the  allies  after  a  desperate  struggle.  The 
Russians,  after  having  blown  up  their  exten- 
sive fortifications  on  the  southern  shore  of  the 
harbor,  retreated  to  the  north  side,  which  the 
allies  never  seriously  attempted  to  conquer. 
The  latter,  having  destroyed  thp  costly  docks, 
arsenals,  and  ship  yards  of  Sebastopol,  remained 
inactive  in  their  camp,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  the  capture  and  sack  of  Kertch  on  the  strait 
of  Yenikale,  no  further  feats  of  arms  were  ac- 
complished. The  forces  of  the  allies  were  with- 
drawn in  the  summer  and  autumn  of  1856.  In 
the  latter  part  of  1858,  two  brothers  of  the  em- 
peror made  a  tour  of  inspection  in  the  Crimea, 
and  it  was  rumored  that  it  was  the  intention 
of  the  government  to  establish  a  city  like  Se- 
bastopol at  or  near  the  strait  of  Yenikale. — On 
April  10,  1856,  Col.  Munro  exhibited  in  the 
London  society  of  antiquaries  a  great  number 
of  relics  discovered  beneath  a  spot  between 
Balaklava  and  Sebastopol  which  had  been  used 
throughout  the  war  as  the  provision  depot  of 
the  English  camp.  The  first  intimation  of  the 
antiquities  Avas  the  turning  up  of  a  coin  of  Ro- 
nianus,  and  at  length  an  oblong  enclosure  was 
cleared  out  measuring  150  feet  by  93,  having  at 
one  end  a  circular  form  and  walls  10  feet  in 
thickness,  comprising  a  Cyclopean  wall  and  an 
inner  wall  of  wrought  masonry.  These  re- 
mains are  supposed  to  be  those  of  a  temple, 
dating  from  400  to  200  B.  C.  Beside  a  beauti- 
ful small  female  head  in  ten-a  cotta,  presumed 
to  be  Astarte  or  some  other  divinity,  which 
has  been  presented  to  the  queen  of  England, 
16  vases  and  fragments  of  pottery,  glass  beads, 
fibular,  spear  heads,  and  other  antiquities,  were 
discovered  on  the  same  occasion  in  the  Crimea. 
On  Dec.  5,  1856,  Dr.  Duncan  McPherson,  who 
had  otficiated  as  inspector-general  of  hospitals 
of  the  Turkish  contingent,  gave  before  the 
same  society  a  description  of  the  excavations 
conducted  under  his  care,  on  the  site  of  Pante- 
capfEum  and  the  Mons  Mithridates,  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  Kertch ;  and  has  since  pub- 
lished a  splendid  illustrated  work  in  folio,  with 
drawings  of  tombs  and  other  relics,  including 
some  curiously  constructed  chambers.  Many 
of  these  antiquities  have  since  been  deposited  in 
the  British  museum. 

CRIMINAL  LAW.  This  branch  of  juris- 
prudence is  the  earliest  in  development,  but  the 
latest  to  be  reduced  to  a  rational  and  consistent 
system.  Tlie  predominance  of  penal  laws  may 
be  seen  in  the  early  legislation  of  every  nation. 
The  reason  is,  that  in  a  rude  state  of  society 
personal  violence  is  the  most  pressing  subject 
for  which  laws  are  required.  Laws  are  accord- 
ingly enacted  for  the  emergency,  and,  as  might 
be  expected,  having  reference  to  the  immediate 
occasion,  they  partake  rather  of  blind   popu- 


68 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


lar  impulse  than  tlie  calm  deliberation  of  legis- 
lative wisdom ;  not  that  the  laws  are  in  fact 
dictated  by  the  will  of  tlie  people,  but  the  legis- 
lators themselves  are  under  tlie  influence  of  the 
same  prejudices  tliat  actuate  the  popular  mind. 
The  consequence  is,  that  excessive  severity  at 
first  prevails,  which  in  the  course  of  time  is 
meliorated  by  evasion  of  the  laws,  and  the  con- 
trary extreme  of  undue  laxity  has  in  many 
instances  succeeded.  The  latter  eftect  can  bo 
guarded  against  only  by  a  timely  revision  of 
the  laws,  and  an  accommodation  of  them  to  the 
more  humane  views  resulting  from  an  advance 
of  civilization.  But,  as  we  shall  have  occasion 
to  show  more  particularly  in  the  course  of  this 
article,  the  practical  wisdom  required  for  such 
a  revision  is  the  very  latest  growth  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  belongs  to  the  highest  branch  of  po- 
litical science.  It  has  indeed  been  erroneously 
supposed  that  criminal  law  is  extremely  simple 
as  compared  with  the  laws  relating  to  property. 
This  idea  has  grown  out  of  tlie  fact  that  legis- 
lation respecting  crimes  has  by  necessity  been 
called  for  when  as  yet  the  state  of  society  was 
unsettled.  Laws  were  made  for  individual 
cases,  and  by  consequence  were  destitute  of 
sound  legal  discrimination ;  yet  by  long  use,  and 
for  want  of  the  capacity  required  for  system- 
atic review  and  amendment,  they  have  become 
fixed  in  all  their  incongruity.  This  irregular 
character  of  criminal  laws  is  not  peculiar  to  one 
or  a  few  nations,  but  is  observable  in  all  systems 
of  jurisprudence  which  have  not  in  a  later  and 
more  mature  age  imdergone  revision.  Henco 
criminal  law  has  more  a  statutory  or  positive 
character  than  the  more  gradually  developed 
system  of  laws  aftecting  property.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  general  principles  aud  of  all  harmo- 
nizing method,  each  statute  or  pi'ovision  of  law 
is  isolated,  distinct,  and  positive,  and  therefore 
precludes  aU  reasoning  by  analogy  and  aU  mod- 
ification for  the  sake  of  conformity  to  the 
changing  circumstances  of  society.  So  far,  then, 
criminal  law  may  be  said  to  be  simple,  inasmuch 
as  each  statute  is  the  law  of  the  particular  case 
referred  to,  and  there  can  be  no  expansion  or  re- 
production by  analogy.  Yet  there  are  princi- 
ples applicable  to  this  branch  of  the  law,  which 
may,  in  like  manner  as  the  elementary  rules  of 
civil  law,  be  developed  into  a  harmonious  sys- 
tem. Another  peculiarity  of  criminal  law,  or 
rather  of  its  administration  at  an  early  period, 
is  the  want  of  discrimination  as  to  the  palliative 
circumstances  of  crime.  Motives  are  compara- 
tively little  considered  in  early  penal  laws,  or 
in  the  judicial  proceedings  founded  upon  tliem. 
Gibbon's  remark,  that  "  the  life  or  death  of 
a  citizen  is  determined  with  less  caution  and 
delay  than  the  most  ordinary  question  of  cove- 
nant or  inheritance,"  is  true  only  of  a  jurispru- 
dence which  has  retained  its  early  crude  legis- 
lation respecting  crimes  without  subsequent 
revision.  To  a  considerable  extent  this  was  the 
state  of  the  English  criminal  law  at  the  time 
Gibbon  wrote,  but  it  has  since  that  time  under- 
gone a  radical  change.     There  is  a  third  charac- 


teristic of  the  early  administration  of  criminal 
law,  viz. :  the  comparative  disregard  of  the  rules 
of  evidence.  The  fact  of  being  charged  with  a 
crime,  especially  if  there  be  some  strong  circum-, 
stance  of  suspicion,  naturally  induces  a  preju- 
dice against  the  accused.  He  is  deemed  guilty 
until  he  proves  himself  innocent ;  contrary  to 
the  more  humane  axiom  of  a  later  age,  that  a 
man  is  to  be  deemed  innocent  until  he  is  proved 
to  be  guilty.  The  very  atrocity  of  the  crime 
of  which  a  man  is  accused  is  an  aggravation  of 
popular  prejudice,  and  in  a  semi-civilized  com- 
munity is  almost  equivalent  to  condemnation. 
The  patient  investigation  of  a  case,  the  careful 
weighing  of  all  the  evidence,  particulai'ly  that 
which  is  derived  from  circumstances,  and  the 
impartial  judgment  unswayed  by  popular  ex- 
citement or  the  exacerbated  passion  of  the  in- 
jured party,  belong  to  a  more  advanced  stage  of 
civilization  and  jurisprudence.  Illustrations  of 
the  foregoing  remarks  will  be  found  in  tlie  penal 
laws  of  nations  the  most  celebrated  for  their 
legislation.  The  laws  of  Draco,  which  on  ac- 
count of  their  undiscriminating  severity  were 
said  to  have  been  written  in  blood,  are  not  to 
be  deemed  the  mere  expression  of  the  cruel 
heart  of  the  legislatoi-,  but  rather  the  reflection 
of  the  sanguinary  disposition  of  the  Athenian 
people  at  that  period.  So  the  decemvirs  who 
prepared  (perhaps  merely  compiled)  the  12 
tables  did  not  declare  crimes  nor  impose  pen- 
alties abhorrent  to  the  popular  disposition,  but 
rather  were  actuated  by  the  same  impulses 
and  prejudices  which  prevailed  in  the  minds  of 
the  people.  It  was  not  indeed  a  democratic 
influence,  for  some  provisions  were  made  ex- 
pressly for  the  support  of  patrician  power  over 
the  plebeian  commonalty ;  but,  allowing  a  certain 
degree  of  discrimination  in  the  estimation  of 
crimes  as  affecting  one  or  the  other  class  politi- 
cally, the  code  of  the  decemvirs  may  be  as- 
sumed to  be  a  fair  expression  of  the  temper  of 
the  Roman  people.  Upon  analysis  of  these 
celebrated  laws,  all  the  defects  which  we  have 
specified  as  incident  to  early  legislation  become 
apparent.  The  penal  largely  predominates  over 
the  civil,  and  in  respect  to  crimes  and  their 
penalties  there  is  an  absence  of  what  we  should 
deem  a  just  discrimination  respecting  the  rela- 
tive measure  of  crimes  and  the  punishment  due 
to  each,  and  there  is  a  want  of  due  regard  to 
motives  or  other  palliative  incidents.  Muti- 
lation of  the  person  was  punished  by  the  re- 
taliatory infliction  of  the  same  injury  upon  the 
wrong  doer.  A  false  witness  was  to  be  thrown 
headlong  from  the  capitol.  The  killing  of  a 
man,  or  making  use  of  magical  words  to  hurt 
him,  or  the  preparing  of  poison  for  him,  or  giv- 
ing it  to  him,  were  subject  alike  to  the  penalty 
of  death.  A  parricide  was  adjudged  to  be  sewn 
lip  in  a  sack  and  thrown  into  the  river  ;  the  ad- 
dition to  the  contents  of  the  sack  of  a  cock,  a 
viper,  a  dog,  and  an  ape,  were  the  fanciful  de- 
vices of  those  who  executed  the  law,  and  not 
prescribed  by  the  law  itself,  though  in  the  In- 
stitutes of  Justinian  they  appear  as  if  the  whole 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


had  been  originally  so  enacted.  Slander  by 
words  or  detamatory  verses  was  punished  by 
beating  witli  a  club,  and  the  authorities  cited  by 
Gibbon  seem  to  prove  that  the  punishment  ex- 
tended to  death.  This  was  undoubtedly  a  polit- 
ical law,  intended  in  the  first  instance  for  the 
protection  of.  the  decemvirs  themselves  against 
any  rude  complaint  by  the  people.  It  remained, 
however,  um-epealed,  thougli,  like  other  enact- 
ments, probably  unexecuted,  except  for  tyran- 
nical purposes.  The  treading  down  of  another's 
corn  field  at  nigjit  was  i)unished  with  death ; 
but  the  cutting  down  of  trees,  whatever  might 
be  the  value,  was  subject  to  a  mere  fine  of  25 
pounds  of  brass.  But  the  most  apt  illustration 
of  the  irrational  severity  of  these  laws  was  the 
treatment  of  an  insolvent  debtor,  who,  without 
any  other  imputation  of  fraud  than  the  fact  of 
owing  the  debt  and  not  having  paid  it,  could  be 
taken  home  by  the  creditor  and  kept  60  days, 
fettered  with  irons  not  exceeding  15  pounds  in 
weight ;  at  the  end  of  which  time,  if  the  debt 
remained  unpaid,  he  could  be  brought  before 
the  ])eoi)le  on  3  market  days,  on  the  last  of 
which  his  body  could  be  cut  into  pieces  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  creditors,  or,  if  they  pre- 
ferred, he  could  be  sold  into  foreign  slavery. 
The  excessive  severity  of  a  law  defeats  the  very 
object  had  in  view  in  enacting  it.  "  The  crim- 
inal code  of  the  decemvirs,"  says  Gibbon,  "was 
abolished  by  the  humanity  of  accusers,  witness- 
es, and  judges;  and  impunity  became  the  conse- 
quence of  immoderate  rigor."  Magistrates  were 
•  prohibited  from  inflicting  on  a  free  citizen  any 
capital  or  even  corporal  punishment.  All  cases 
aftecting  the  life  or  Uberty  of  a  Eoraan  citizen 
were,  by  the  laws  of  the  12  tables,  to  be  tried 
by  the  comitia  centuriata.  The  multiplication 
of  these  cases  led  to  the  giving  power  annually 
to  the  prfetors  to  sit  in  judgment  on  state  of- 
fences, with  a  certain  number  of  judges  drawn 
from  the  rolls  of  citizens  ;  and  new  prretors 
were  appointed  with  special  powers  for  the  trial 
of  offences  relating  only  to  individuals.  There 
was  a  general  amelioration  of  the  laws  by  th© 
operation  of  these  different  provisions.  As 
there  was  no  arrest  until  sentence  had  been 
pronounced,  the  judgment  could  be  evaded  by 
going  into  voluntary  exile,  and  the  interdiction 
of  fire  and  water  {i.  e.  exile)  became  the  ex- 
treme limit  of  judicial  severity  even  upon  con- 
viction in  capital  cases.  A  new  administration 
of  criminal  law  was,  however,  introduced  Avith 
the  imperial  government.  The  senate  was  made 
the  instrument  of  imperial  power,  for  the  con- 
demnation of  criminals  charged  with  offences 
against  the  state  ;  and  the  ordinary  magistrates 
became  invested  with  powers  which  under  the 
republic  liad  been  reserved  to  the  people,  either 
in  the  comitia  or  in  the  popular  body  oijudices, 
who  sat  with  the  praator.  Anj^  Roman  citizen 
might  be  a  public  accuser  and  prosecute  crimi- 
nal actions,  but  it  seems  not  to  have  been  usual, 
except  when  aome  political  object  was  sought, 
or  where  the  accuser  had  some  relationship  to 
the  injured  party,  either  by  blood  or  profes- 


sionally, as  in  the  case  of  patron  and  client.  It 
was  a  peculiarity  of  the  Roman  criminal  law 
that,  liowever  mild  it  became  in  respect  to 
free  citizens,  it  was  enforced  against  slaves 
and  foreigners  with  all  the  stringency  of  its 
ancient  severity. — The  laws  of  the  Germanic 
nations  equally  illustrate  the  propositions  above 
stated,  and  especially  the  absence  of  all  classi- 
fication of  crimes,  and  the  disproportion  of 
penalties  to  the  different  degrees  of  moral  tur- 
pitude. The  Salic  law  contained  348  penal 
articles,  and  only  65  on  all  other  subjects.  Of 
the  penal  laws,  150  related  to  cases  of  robbery, 
74  of  which  referred  to  the  stealing  of  animals; 
cases  of  violence  against  the  x)erson  were  the 
subjects  of  113  articles,  of  which  80  related  to 
mutilation  of  the  person,  and  24  to  violence 
against  women.  The  want  of  generalization  is 
noticed  by  Guizot,  as  proving  defect  of  intel- 
lectual development  and  the  precipitation  of 
the  legislator  in  enacting  laws :  "  Every  case  of 
robbery,  of  violence  in  the  very  fact,  is  taken 
hold  of  in  order  to  immediately  inflict  a  penalty ; 
and  there  was  no  idea  but  of  adding  a  new 
article  of  law  whenever  a  new  crime  was  com- 
mitted, however  trifling  its  difference  from 
those  which  had  been  already  provided  for." 
Yet  these  laws  present  the  same  contrast  that 
we  have  seen  in  the  Roman,  in  the  mildness  of 
the  penalties  inflicted  upon  free  men,  and  the 
cruelty  of  the  punishments  to  which  the  slaves, 
and  even  bond  laborers  (colo7ii),  were  subject. 
Composition  (tcehrgeld  or  widrigeld),  a  pecu- 
niary mulct,  was  the  penalty  enforced  upon  a 
free  man,  varying  in  amount  with  the  atrocity 
of  the  offence  ;  Ijut  upon  slaves  and  laborers, 
tortures  and  death  were  freely  inflicted.  Similar 
provisions  were  contained  in  the  laws  of  the 
Ripuarian  Franks,  the  Burgundians,  and  the 
Anglo-Saxons.  It  was,  however,  understood 
that  the  injured  party  had  a  right  to  refuse 
composition,  and  to  seek  satisfaction  by  his 
own  hand;  which  la~t  alternative  was  regulated 
by  certain  rules,  and  hence  received  the  desig- 
nation of  judicial  combat.  This  was  a  peculiar 
feature  of  the  Germanic  law,  and  was  not  con- 
fined to  criminal  cases,  but  became  a  common 
mode  of  deciding  questions  of  fact  even  in  civil 
suits ;  and  the  right  was  reciprocal,  that  is  to  say, 
either  party  had  the  right  to  call  the  other  to  a 
decision  of  the  controversy  by  combat.  So  either 
party  had  the  right  to  challenge  witnesses,  and 
even  judges,  to  combat,  upon  the  allegation 
that  the  testimony  was  untrue  or  the  judgment 
unjust.  Montesquieu  maintains  that  the  judi- 
cial combat  was  introduced  as  a  natural  conse- 
quence of  what  he  calls  negative  proof,  that  is, 
the  denial  of  the  charge  by  the  party  under 
oath,  which  was  a  purgation  in  criminal  cases, 
and  was  also  admitted  in  civil  cases  with  the 
addition  of  the  oaths  of  a  certain  number  of 
others,  called  conjuratores  or  compurgatores, 
who  merely  deposed  that  theybelieved  the  party. 
The  defect  of  this  kind  of  proof,  as  well  as  of 
the  other  mode  of  determining  facts,  viz.,  by 
ordeal,  rendered  the  trial  by  combat  a  necessity ; 


70 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


at  least  it  was  far  more  satisfactory  to  the 
rude  minds  of  that  period  than  either  of  the 
others,  in  whicli  perjury  and  deception  were  pal- 
pable. Another  mode,  which  was  much  in  vogue 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  which  was  mahi- 
tained  for  a  long  period  in  the  English  law,  was 
the  compurgation  before  alluded  to.  Whether 
the  compurgators  were  the  same  as  the  sectatores 
spoken  of  in  the  Saxon  laws  is  uncertain.  It 
has  been  supposed  by  some  writers  that  they 
had  a  function  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the 
juratores  of  a  subsequent  period.  In  one  re- 
spect they  Avere  alike,  inasmuch  as  they  stated 
upon  oath  their  opinion  of  the  case,  which  opin- 
ion was  not  founded  upon  evidence,  but  upon 
some  private  knowledge  which  they  were  sup- 
posed to  have  of  tlie  matter  in  controversy. 
There  was  probably  a  distinction,  however  ob- 
scure ;  the  one  (the  juratores)  became  the  mod- 
ern jury,  the  other  (the  compurgators)  contin- 
ued to  be  called  rather  as  witnesses,  though  they 
testified  only  to  belief  in  Avhat  the  party  had 
sworn.  The  proceeding  by  compurgators  was 
called  wager  of  law,  which  took  the  name  from 
the  formality  of  giving  gage  or  security  that  the 
party  would  at  a  certain  day  make  his  law,  that 
is,  that  he  would  take  an  oath  and  bring  11 
compurgators  to  swear  that  they  believed  him. 
In  modern  practice  it  seems  to  have  been  ad- 
mitted only  in  an  action  of  debt,  instances  of 
which  may  be  seen  in  2  Salk.  682,  and  2  Barn, 
and  Cress.  538  ;  but  at  the  period  of  which  we 
speak  it  was  a  method  of  proceeding  in  criminal 
as  well  as  civil  cases.  The  juratores  appear  to 
have  been  in  the  first  instance  charged  with  the 
preliminary  inquiry  as  to  the  guilt  of  any  per- 
son charged  with  certain  crimes,  and  upon  their 
■*  finding  him  guilty  he  was  put  to  the  ordeal  or 
compurgation.  This  seems  to  have  been  the 
practice  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IL  But  we  learn 
from  Bracton,  who  wrote  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
III.,  that  the  practice  then  was  to  commit  the 
decision  of  the  case  finally  to  the  jury,  unless 
there  was  a  demand  of  combat  by  one  of  the 
parties,  or  unless  the  defendant  elected  to  wage 
his  law.  There  was  still,  however,  nothing  like 
the  modern  proceeding  upon  a  jury  trial.  The 
jurors  were  not  expected  to  decide  upon  evi- 
dence produced  by  the  parties,  but  upon  their 
own  knowledge  or  information  collected  by  them. 
The  direction  of  the  judge  was,  that  whereas 
such  a  man  is  charged  with  such  a  crime,  the 
jury  are  to  make  known  the  truth  thereof.  Pros- 
ecutions for  crime  were  usually  upon  appeal 
of  a  private  party.  Any  one  of  legal  capacity 
to  sue  could  prosecute  for  treason,  but  ordina- 
rily only  near  kindred  by  blood  were  admitted 
to  bring  suit  for  homicide  ;  a  woman  could  pros- 
ecute only  for  the  death  of  her  husband,  or  for 
a  rape  committed  upon  lierself,  and  the  appeal 
in  the  former  case  is  said  by  Bracton  to  have 
been  only  de  morte  viri  inter  hrachia  interfecti. 
In  other  cases  the  party  injured  was  in  gen- 
eral the  prosecutor.  There  was,  however,  as 
before  mentioned,  another  mode  of  charging  a 
person  with  crime,  viz.,  xier  famam  patrice.,  a 


sort  of  indictment  by  the  jyatria  or  jury.  It 
does  not  appear  how  the  prosecution  was  con- 
ducted in  such  a  case ;  but  as  there  was  never 
any  attempt  to  determine  facts  according  to 
rides  of  evidence,  it  is  probable  that  the  first 
finding  or  indictment  was  conclusive,  unless 
the  party  accused  purged  himself  or  took  some 
exception  to  the  jury. — It  would  exceed  our 
limit  to  pursue  the  history  of  the  English  crim- 
inal law  through  all  its  changes.  Passing  to  its 
present  state,  we  find  forms  of  proceeding  emi- 
nently adapted  to  sound  judicial  investigation. 
The  function  of  the  j^rt^riVf,  or  jury  of  inquisition, 
spoken  of  by  Bracton,  is  now  performed  by  a 
grand  jury,  not  less  than  12  nor  more  than  23 
in  number,  upon  whose  indictment  most  crimi- 
nal cases  are  brought  before  the  courts  for  trial. 
The  exceptions  are :  1,  cases  of  homicide  where 
a  coroner's  inquisition  has  been  returned ;  2, 
actions  which,  by  statute,  may  bo  brought  by 
a  private  prosecutor,  or  informations  by  the 
master  of  the  crown  oflSce  npon  the  relation  of 
a  private  individual ;  3,  informations  filed  ex 
officio  by  the  attorney- gen  oral  in  cases  of  atro- 
cious misdemeanor  endangering  the  govern- 
ment. All  criminal  prosecutions,  except  the 
few  cases  where  by  statute  a  common  informer 
is  authorized  to  bring  an  action,  are  in  the  name 
of  the  king,  and  conducted  by  his  law  oflBcers. 
Private  suits  for  crimes,  which  were  formerly 
allowed  under  the  name  of  appeals  of  felony, 
were  long  since  practically  abandoned,  and 
were  finally  abolished  by  statute  59  George  III., 
c.  46.  So  also  the  wager  of  battle  by  the  same 
statute,  and  wager  of  law  by  2  and  4  Wil- 
liam IV.,  c.  42.  The  indictment,  which  is  the 
basis  of  tlie  arraignment  and  trial  of  criminals, 
was  formerly  required  to  be  drawn  with  great 
technical  strictness,  and  was  often  quashed  for 
defect  of  form.  Thus  it  was  necessary  to  set 
forth  the  full  name  of  the  person  charged  and  a 
designation  of  his  business  and  place  of  resi- 
dence, also  the  time  and  place  when  and  Avhere 
the  ofifence  was  committed.  Certain  technical 
Avords  were  also  required,  as  descriptive  of  the 
crime  charged,  as  (when  pleadings  were  in 
Latin)  the  words  proditorie  et  contra  ligientice 
sv(B  dehitiim,  in  treason ;  murdravit,  in  an  in- 
dictment for  murder;  rapuit,  in  rape;  and  so 
in  other  cases.  No  expressions  equivalent  in 
meaning  could  be  substituted;  and  after  the 
pleadings  were,  by  statute  4  George  IL,  c.  26 
(1730),  converted  into  English,  the  correspond- 
ing vernacular  terms,  as  "murdered,"  "rav- 
ished," &c.,  were  retained  Avith  the  same 
strictness.  And  so  in  felonies  it  Avas  neces- 
sary to  charge  that  the  act  Avas  done  felonice ; 
in  burglary,  turglariter.  In  indictments  for 
murder  it  Avas  required  also  to  state  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  Avound,  and  in  all  indictments  the 
value  of  the  thing  which  was  the  subject 
of  the  offence,  as  in  larceny,  or  Avith  which 
the  offence  Avas  committed,  as  in  murder.  In 
the  former  case,  it  Avas  said  to  be  required  in 
order  to  distinguish  whether  it  Avas  grand  or 
petty  larceny ;  in  the  latter  case,  because  the 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


1 


instrument  with  which  a  homicide  was  com- 
mitted was  forfeited  as  a  deodand.  This  ab- 
surd regard  to  mere  form  lias  been,  liowevcr, 
abrogated:  1st,  by  statute  7  George  IV.,  c.  G4, 
which  proliibited  an  arrest  of  judgment  or  a 
reversal  on  writ  of  error  for  any  of  these  formal 
defects,  but  which  still  left  the  objections  to  be 
taken  advantage  of  by  demurrer  ;  and  finally, 
by  14  and  15  Victoria,  c.  100  (1851),  commonly 
called  Lord  Campbell's  act,  by  Avhich  the  court 
is  directed  to  disregard  the  omission  of  mere 
formal  words,  as  "  with  force  and  arms,"  or 
"against  the  peace,"  &c.,  or  any  mistake  in 
time  or  i)lace  ;  and  a  statement  of  the  manner 
or  means  by  which  the  deceased  came  to  his 
death  is  dispensed  with,  and  amendments  of  in- 
dictments either  in  matters  of  fdrm  or  substance 
are  allowed  upon  such  terms  as  the  court  shall 
deem  reasonable.  As  to  the  designation  of 
crimes  and  their  punishments,  the  English  law 
was,  until  a  recent  period,  in  a  chaotic  state. 
Statutes  had  been  accumulated  according  to  the 
exigencies  occurring  at  different  times,  until, 
by  their  number,  such  was  the  difficulty  of  de- 
termining what  was  obsolete  and  what  in  force, 
and  of  reconciling  apparently  conflicting  provi- 
sions, that  practically  the  common  people  had  no 
knowledge  of  the  penal  laws  to  which  they  were 
subject,  and  cases  were  constantly  occurring  of 
the  trial  and  conviction  of  criminals  charged  with 
offences,  the  nature  of  which,  as  defined  by  law, 
and  the  penalties  prescribed  therefor,  they  were 
entirely  ignorant  of;  their  ignorance,  according 
to  the  old  maxim,  ignorantia  juris  non  excusat, 
being  no  defence.  So  also  the  extreme  and  dis- 
proportioned  severity  of  ancient  laws  enacted  in 
a  turbulent  period,  or  in  an  unsettled  state  of  so- 
ciety, still  prevailed  in  England  at  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century.  According  to  Blackstone, 
there  were  160  offences  which  by  various  acts  of 
parliament  had  been  declared  felonies  without 
benefit  of  clergy,  that  is  to  say,  punishable  by 
death.  It  will  be  sufiicient  to  mention  the  cases 
of  grand  larceny,  or  stealing  above  the  value  of 
12  pence  ;  embezzlement  of  a  master's  goods  by 
a  servant ;  burning  stacks  of  corn,  hay,  &c.,  in 
the  night  time ;  killing  horses,  sheep,  and  other 
domestic  animals;  breaking  down  dikes  or 
bridges,  or  breaking  away  the  banks  of  fish 
ponds ;  cutting  down  trees  in  an  avenue,  or 
growing  in  an  orchard;  the  malicious  teai'ing 
or  defacing  of  the  garments  of  a  person  passing 
in  the  street;  all  of  which,  and  various  other 
acts  of  no  greater  degree  of  criminality,  wei'e 
thus  punished.  The  origin  of  this  severity  in 
the  majority  of  such  cases  was  no  doubt  owing 
to  the  great  prevalence  of  a  particular  griev- 
ance in  some  locality,  and,  according  to  the 
former  mode  of  reasoning,  the  frequency  of  an 
evil  called  for  increased  severity  of  punishment ; 
but  it  has  happened  that  when  the  emergency 
has  ceased  the  law  remained.  Common  hu- 
manity was  outraged  by  the  continuance  of  such 
a  system  of  criminal  law  in  a  civilized  commu- 
nity ;  public  attention  was  at  last  directed  to 
the  necessity  of  reform,    and   a  revision  has 


been  made  by  several  different  statutes,  chiefly 
the  following:  7  and  8  Geo.  IV.,  c.  27  (1827), 
for  repealing  various  statutes  relating  to  benefit 
of  clergy  and  for  other  purposes;  7  and  8  Geo. 
IV.,  c.  29,  for  consolidating  and  amending  laws 
relating  to  larceny ;  7  and  8  Geo.  IV. ,  c.  30,  for 
consolidating  and  amending  laws  relating  to  ma- 
licious injuries  to  property ;  9  Geo.  IV.,  c.  31 
(1828),  1  Victoria,  c.  85  (1837),  which  is  are- 
vision  of  the  last  preceding  act,  in  respect  to  at- 
tempted homicide  ;  1  Victoria,  c.  86.  in  respect 
to  burglary  and  stealing  in  a  house ;  1  Victoria, 
c.  87,  respecting  robbery  and  attempting  to  rob ; 
and  1  Victoria,  c.  89,  as  to  burning  dwelling 
houses  and  other  buildings,  destroying  vessels, 
exhibiting  false  signals,  «5cc.  From  examination 
of  these  statutes,  it  is  apparent  that  it  was  diflft- 
cult  to  make  a  thorough  change  at  once,  and 
many  successive  efforts  against  ancient  preju- 
dices were  required.  Thus  by  one  of  the  acts 
of  1827  the  distinction  between  grand  and  petty 
larceny  was  abrogated,  and  every  theft  which 
had  come  under  either  denomination  was  de- 
clared to  be  simple  larceny,  punishable  only  by 
transportation  or  imprisonment,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  whipping,  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 
Yet  by  the  same  statute  stealing  from  the  per- 
son was  punishable  by  death  ;  so  also  the  break- 
ing into  a  dwelling  house  with  intent  to  com- 
mit a  felony,  or  breaking  in  and  stealing  from 
a  dwelling  house  a  chattel  of  any  value,  or  steal- 
ing from  a  dwelling  house  and  at  the  same  time 
putting  any  one  in  fear,  or  stealing  to  the  value 
of  £5,  stealing  a  horse,  cow,  &c.,  or  killing  with 
intent  to  steal  the  carcass  or  skin,  were  all  pun- 
ished by  death;  so  also,  by  the  act  of  1828,  an 
attempt  to  murder  by  administering  poison,^  or 
by  suffocating,  or  strangling,  or  by  shooting 
with  loaded  weapons,  or  stabbing,  &c.  In  the 
amendatory  acts  of  1837,  transportation  or  im- 
prisonment was  substituted  in  most  of  the  cases 
in  which  capital  punishment  had  been  retained 
by  the  previous  acts.  By  the  existing  laws  of 
England,  the  cases  in  which  the  penalty  of  death 
is  inflicted  are  the  following:  treason;  mur- 
der; burglary  with  intent  to  kill,  or  accom- 
panied Avith  violence  to  any  person;  robbery, 
if  at  the  same  time  any  injury  be  done  by  a 
weapon ;  burning  a  dwelling  house,  there  being 
a  person  therein  at  the  time ;  crimes  against  na- 
ture, called  buggery  and  sodomy  ;  casting  away 
a  vessel,  whereby  the  life  of  any  person  is  en- 
dangered ;  exhibiting  false  signals,  with  the  in- 
tent to  bring  vessels  into  danger.  In  all  other 
cases,  the  penalty  is  penal  servitude  or  imprison- 
ment for  different  periods,  according  to  the  de- 
gree of  the  oftence.  In  the  United  States,  by 
the  federal  laws,  capital  punishment  is  inflicted, 
in  cases  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  U.  S. 
courts,  for  treason,  murder,  arson,  rape,  piracy, 
robbery  of  the  mail  (if  it  be  with  jeopardy  to  the 
life  of  any  person),  rescuing  a  person  convicted 
of  a  capital  crime,  burning  a  vessel  of  war,  and 
corruptly  casting  away  or  destroying  a  vessel 
belonging  to  a  private  owner.  The  severity  of 
the  punishment  in  the  case  of  rape  is  because 


72 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


tho  offence  of  which  the  U.  S.  courts  would 
have  cognizance  must  be  coinmitted  on  board 
of  a  vessel  on  tho  liigli  seas  or  in  foreign  parts. 
By  the  laws  of  the  several  states  capital  punish- 
ment is  generally  limited  to  three  cases,  viz. : 
treason,  murder,  and  arson. — It  remains  to  speak 
of  some  principles  recognized  in  criminal  law  as 
to  the  nature  of  crime  in  respect  to  individu- 
als and  to  the  community,  the  degree  of  guilt 
of  the  person  accused,  and  the  rules  of  evidence 
by  which  the  offence  is  proved.  I.  It  is  com- 
mon to  divide  wrongs  into  private  and  public 
injuries,  and  it  has  been  erroneously  supposed 
that  when  the  offence  is  of  such  magnitude  as 
to  become  the  subject  of  a  public  prosecution, 
the  private  right  is  merged.  As  respects  some 
lesser  crimes,  as  assault  and  battery,  obtaining 
money  by  fiilse  pretences,  libel,  and  the  like, 
there  is  a  right  of  private  action  independent 
of  the  proceeding  by  indictment,  and  it  is  not 
necessary  that  the  individual  injured  should 
procure  a  criminal  conviction  at  all.  In  cases 
of  larceny,  robbery,  and  other  wrongs  affect- 
ing propert}',  it  is  generally  assumed  that  there 
must  first  be  a  conviction  of  the  crime  before 
there  can  be  a  civil  suit  for  a  recovery  of  the 
property  taken,  or  damages  in  lieu  thereof. 
Tlie  only  reason  assigned  for  this  in  the  Eng- 
lish law  is,  that  the  injured  party  may  thereby 
be  more  strongly  induced  to  procure  a  convic- 
tion of  the  offender  for  the  benefit  of  society.  It 
seems,  however,  not  to  be  admitted  in  this  coun- 
try as  satisfactory.  In  the  state  of  New  York, 
by  statute,  tlie  right  of  private  suit  is  not  in 
any  manner  aftected  by  the  fact  that  the  wrong 
complained  of  was  a  felony  (2  R.  S.  292).  Pro- 
vision is  made  by  law  in  England  and  in  the 
United  States  for  the  restoration  of  property 
to  the  owner  which  had  been  stolen  or  other- 
wise obtained  by  a  criminal  act,  upon  convic- 
tion of  the  offender  (21  Henry  VIII.,  c.  11 ;  2  Rev. 
Stat.  N.  Y.,  746,  §  31)  ;  and  in  the  state  of  New 
York,  redress  is  given  for  all  other  private  in- 
juries by  a  suit  against  the  trustees  of  the  es- 
tate of  a  convicted  felon  (2  Rev.  Stat.  700).  In 
England,  as  felony  worked  a  forfeiture  of  the 
personal  estate  of  the  convict,  including  estates 
in  laud  for  life  or  a  term  of  years,  there  was 
usually  nothing  to  look  to  as  an  indeumity  for 
private  injury  ;  yet  the  right  of  prosecuting  for , 
such  injury  after  conviction  of  the  offender  is 
admitted  in  some  old  cases ;  and  so  after  acquit- 
tal, if  there  has  been  no  collusion,  an  action  for 
damages  can  be  maintained  (12  East.  409).  II. 
As  to  the  degree  of  guilt  of  the  persons  accused. 
This  involves  several  inquiries,  the  first  of 
which  is  capacity  of  mind.  There  must  be  tho 
mens  doll  ecqjax  ;  for  although  ignorance  is  not 
in  general  admitted  as  an  excuse  for  crime,  yet 
this  is  to  be  understood  of  such  only  as  have 
sufficient  understanding  to  distinguish  between 
right  and  wrong.  The  precise  limit  of  capacity 
cannot  be  defined.  A  vicious  life  undoubtedly 
produces  hardness  and  insensibility,  and  there 
is  often  to  be  seen  such  natural  depravity  as  is 
Wholly  inconsistent  with  the  existence  of  any 


moral  discrimination.  Yet  the  law  does  not 
take  into  account  any  such  perversity  of  nature, 
if  there  is  any  intellectual  power,  which  is 
rather  vaguely  denominated  reason.  In  what 
degree  this  power  must  exist  is  not  susceptible 
of  being  defined  by  any  general  rule,  and  is 
often  the  subject  of  perplexing  doubt  in  the  ap- 
plication of  tho  rule  to  particular  cases.  Chil- 
dren before  the  age  of  discretion  are  exempt 
by  law  from  responsibility  for  crime,  but  the 
exact  period  when  such  discretion  shall  be  pro- 
nounced to  commence  is  not  fixed.  By  the 
Saxon  laws  the  age  of  12  was  fixed  as  the  ear- 
liest possible  development  of  legal  understand- 
ing; between  that  and  the  age  of  14  there 
might  bo  guilt  according  to  the  actual  capa- 
city. But  the  rule  of  the  English  law  now  is, 
that  capacity  is  not  to  be  judged  by  age  in  any 
case,  except  that  under  the  age  of  7  a  child  can- 
not be  held  guilty  of  felony  ;  but  there  is  a  re- 
ported case  of  a  child  of  8  years  of  age  who 
was  convicted  of  arson  and  hanged ;  so  a  girl 
of  13  was  convicted  and  executed  for  killing 
her  mistress.  In  all  cases  capacity  is  to  be 
judged  by  actual  proof.  Idiocy  and  lunacy 
excuse  from  the  guilt  of  crime.  If  there  was  a 
total  want  of  reason  at  the  time  the  act  was 
committed,  whether  the  deprivation  be  perma- 
nent or  temporary,  the  law  acquits  from  all  guilt ; 
but  if  there  be  partial  reason,  as  if  there  is 
thought  and  design,  or  faculty  to  distinguish  the 
nature  of  actions,  then  there  will  be  legal  respon- 
sibility for  every  act.  Intoxication  i»  not  ad- 
mitted as  an  excuse  for  criminal  misconducts 
In  this  respect  the  rule  of  the  common  law  is 
different  from  that  of  the  civil  law.  By  the 
latter,  capital  punishment  was  never  infiictedfor 
acts  committed  in  a  state  of  ebriety.  The  2d 
ground  of  exemption  is  where  there  was  no  crim- 
inal intent,  but  the  act  has  been  committed  either 
by  accident,  mistake,  or  necessity.  Accident  ex- 
cuses, except  where  it  has  happened  when  a  man 
was  engaged  in  the  commission  of  some  unlaw- 
ful act.  A  distinction  is  also  made  in  respect  to 
such  unlawful  act,  as  whether  it  was  what  is 
termed  by  the  law  malum  in  se,  or  only  malum 
prohibitum^  the  criminality  being  less  for  any  ac- 
cident occurring  in  the  latter  case  tlian  in  the 
former.  There  was  much  good  sense  in  the  rules 
of  the  Roman  law  in  respect  to  culpability  for 
accident.  Gross  negligence  was  held  as  culpable 
as  a  wrong  intent  {non  minus  ex  dole  quam  ex 
culpa  quisque  hac  lege  tenetur).  Thus,  if  a  man 
was  lopping  a  tree  near  the  road,  and  it  should 
fall  and  kill  a  person  passing  by,  he  Avas  held 
guilty  if  he  had  omitted  to  give  proper  warning. 
If  a  soldier  exercising  in  a  place  appointed  for 
that  purpose  should  accidentally  kill  a  slave 
by  throwing  a  javelin,  he  was  without  fault ;  but 
if  it  had  happened  in  a  place  where  he  had  no 
right  to  exercise,  he  was  held  guilty.  Mistake 
is  admissible  when  it  relates  to  a  fact,  though, 
as  before  mentioned,  mistake  of  law  is  no  ex- 
cuse ;  as  if  a  person  should  kill  another  that 
he  supposed  was  breaking  into  his  liouse,  and  it 
should  turn  out  to  be  a  member  of  his  own  fam- 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


CPJNOIDEA 


73 


ilj,  lie  -would  be  excused  on  the  ground  of  hav- 
ing mistaken  the  person.  Necessity,  as  a  legal 
excuse,  includes  that  class  of  cases  which  the 
law  designates  as  duress.  In  the  English  law 
one  other  case  is  also  included,  viz. :  tlie  crimi- 
nal misconduct  of  the  wife  by  the  command  or  in 
the  presence  of  her  husband.  Tiic  reason  given 
in  this  case  is,  that  the  wife  is  supposed  to  be 
under  the  power  of  lier  husband  ;  but  a  better 
reason  may  i)rol)ably  be  derived  from  the  old 
law,  by  which  the  husl)and  had  tlie  benefit  of 
clergy  if  lie  conkl  read,  but  the  wife  had  not,  and 
the  rule  was  introduced  lYom  a  motive  of  hu- 
manity. The  exemption  was  allowed  only  in 
felonies  other  than  treason  and  murder,  but  was 
not  admitted  as  a  defence  to  a  charge  of  any 
misdemeanor  less  tliau  felony.  As  the  reason 
of  the  rule  does  not  exist  in  this  country,  it  may 
be  presumed  there  is  no  such  exemption  other 
than  what  may  arise  from  actual  coercion.  Du- 
ress is  compulsion  by  the  menace  of  death  or 
other  bodily  harm,  or  by  actual  force.  Black- 
stone  limits  the  expression  "  bodily  harm"  to 
mayhem,  or  loss  of  limb,  according  to  which 
the  fear  of  being  beaten  would  be  no  duress,  so 
neither  would  the  fear  of  imprisonment.  In 
this  country,  on  the  contrary,  a  tlireat  of  any 
bodily  harm,  or  even  of  the  destruction  of  prop- 
erty, would  be  held  to  be  a  duress  in  that  connec- 
tion. But  when  it  is  set  up  as  a  justification  for 
the  commission  of  a  criminal  act,  perhaps  nothing 
less  than  the  fear  of  losing  life,  or  of  some  perma- 
nent bodily  injury,  would  be  admitted  as  a  legal 
excuse.  As  to  the  law  relating  to  principals  and 
accessories,  there  is  less  discrimination  than  is 
called  for  by  our  natural  sense  of  justice,  as  well 
as  b}'  a  due  regard  to  public  policy.  An  accessory 
before  the  fact,  who  is  one  that  has  procured  or 
advised  the  commission  of  the  crime  which  is 
the  subject  of  prosecution,  is  properly  held 
liable  in  equal  degree  with  the  principal  for  the 
act  which  has  been  committed,  and  all  its  nat- 
in*al  consequences,  but  not  for  another  and  dis- 
tinct crime  which  may  have  been  committed  by 
the  principal  while  engaged  in  the  commission 
of  the  ofi:ence  to  which  he  had  been  instigated. 
As  if  A  procures  B  to  beat  C,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  such  beating  C  should  die,  A  is  guilty 
of  murder ;  but  if  A  hires  B  to  beat  a  man,  and 
he  should  set  fire  to  his  liouse,  this  being  a  dis- 
tinct ofl:ence,  A  Is  not  indictable  for  it  as  acces- 
sory. An  accessory  after  the  fact  is  one  who, 
knowing  a  felony  has  been  committed,  receives, 
relieves,  and  assists  the  felon.  The  rule  of  the 
common  law,  by  which  even  furnishing  neces- 
saries to  a  felon  will  render  a  man  an  accessory 
after  the  fact,  is  unreasonably  severe.  By  sta- 
tute of  the  state  of  New  York,  only  he  is  held  as 
an  accessory  after  the  fact  who  has  aided  the  crim- 
inal to  avoid  arrest,  conviction,  or  punishment  (2 
R.  S.  G99).  The  criminality  of  an  accessory  after 
the  fact  is  in  England  and  this  country  deemed 
less  than  that  of  the  principal.  The  punishment 
is  imprisonment  only,  even  if  the  otifence  com- 
mitted by  the  principal  is  punishable  by  death. 
III.  The  rules  of  evidence  and  mode  of  proceed- 


ing in  criminal  trials  can  be  but  briefly  referred  to. 
The  most  important  principle  of  tlie  English  and 
American  law,  and  what  chiefly  distinguishes  it 
from  the  criminal  codesof  other  countries,  is  that 
tlie  person  accused  is  not  compelled  to  testify.  In 
the  preliminary  examination  upon  arrest,  where 
tlie  arrest  precedes  indictment,  he  is  indeed  al- 
lowed to  make  his  statement,  and  such  state- 
ment may  be  used  as  evidence  against  him.  But 
lie  is  usually  informed  by  tlie  magistrate  that  ho 
is  not  bound  to  answer  the  charge  unless  he 
chooses  to  do  so.  Anotlier  rule,  which  follows 
naturally  from  the  preceding,  is  that  it  is  not 
necessary  to  ])rove  the  guilt  of  the  accused  by 
more  than  one  "witness,  except  in  the  case  of 
treason  and  perjury.  In  the  tribunals  of  some 
other  countries  a  different  rule  prevails,  because 
it  is  the  general  practice  to  put  the  accused  under 
rigid  examination ;  and  if  he  denies  the  crime,  it 
is  an  oath  in  his  own  favor,  which  ought  not  to 
be  overbalanced  by  a  single  oath  against  him. 
It  was  the  ancient  practice  in  England  not  to 
allow  tlie  accused  to  produce  witnesses ;  and 
when  the  courts  so  far  relaxed  this  strictness  as 
to  hear  witnesses  for  the  defence,  it  was  still 
without  oath,  and  the  evidence  was  therefore  of 
less  weight.  But  by  statute  1  Anne,  c.  9,  wit- 
nesses are  required  to  be  examined  on  oath  for 
the  prisoner  as  well  as  against  him.  The  priv- 
ilege of  defence  by  counsel  was,  until  a  recent 
period,  denied  in  the  English  courts  in  trials  for 
treason  and  felonies,  while  by  a  strange  incon- 
sistency it  was  allowed  in  trials  for  misdemeanor. 
In  cases  of  treason,  which  was  a  class  of  trials 
in  which  there  had  been  the  greatest  outrage  of 
common  rights,  relief  was  given  by  statute  7 
and  8  William  III.,  c.  3,  which  allowed  counsel 
to  be  assigned  to  the  prisoner  upon  his  request ; 
and  in  cases  of  felony,  by  statute  6  and  7  William 
IV.,  c.  114,  by  which  all  persons  arraigned  upon 
a  criminal  charge  are  allowed  to  make  defence 
by  counsel.  In  the  United  States,  this  right 
was  thought  of  such  importance  that  it  was  se- 
cured by  article  6  of  the  amendments  to  the 
federal  constitution,  and  in  the  several  states  a 
similar  provision  has  been  made  either  by  the 
constitution  or  by  law.  In  France,  the  practice 
formerly  was  to  hold  the  accused  to  answer  in 
person  without  the  aid  of  counsel ;  but  it  is  now 
an  admitted  right  that  every  person  charged 
with  a  criminal  offence  is  entitled  to  the  aid  of 
counsel  for  his  defence,  and  it  is  made  obligatory 
upon  the  judge  to  assign  counsel  when  the  ac- 
cused has  none.  (See  Code  des  delits  et  des  peines, 
art.  187  and  321 ;  Code  d''instruction  criminelle, 
art.  294,  295.) 

CRINOiDEA  (Gr.  Kptvov,  a  lily,  and  tihos, 
shape),  animals  in  shape  like  a  water  lily,  con- 
sisting of  an  expanded  or  spreading  disk  upon 
the  end  of  a  long,  slender,  jointed  stem.  The 
name  was  given  by  Mr.  Miller,  author  of  an 
elaborate  work,  entitled  "  Natural  History  of 
the  Crinoidea,  or  Lily-shaped  Animals."  They 
constitute  an  extinct  family  of  echinoderms  of 
the  radiated  division  of  animals,  and  in  the 
forms  of  the  eucrinite  and  pentacriuite  were 


74 


CRISPIN 


CRITTENDEN 


wonclerfuUy  abundant  in  tlie  limestones  of  the 
Silurian  period.  Tlieir  remains  now  constitute 
the  great  portion  of  the  material  of  strata  which 
extend  over  large  districts  of  country,  and  are 
several  feet  thick. 

CRISPIN  AND  CRISPINIAN,  the  tutelary 
saints  of  shoemakers,  put  to  d«ath  about  A.  1). 
287.  The  tradition  is  that  they  were  brothers 
belonging  to  a  noble  Roman  family  ;  that,  be- 
coming converts  to  Christianity,  they  took  ref- 
uge in  Gaul  from  the  persecution  under  Dio- 
cletian ;  and  that  they  preached  the  gospel  at 
Soissons  by  day  and  exercised  the  trade  of  shoe- 
makers by  night.  They  had  converted  multi- 
tudes before  their  martyrdom  under  Maximian. 
Their  names  are  found  in  the  principal  early 
martyrologies,  and  their  festival  is  observed  on 
Oct.  25.  They  were  tlie  patrons  of  the  religious 
community  of  Freres  coi-donniers,  founded  in 
Paris  in  lG-45,  suppressed  in  1789,  and  which 
has  since  reappeared  and  been  dissolved. 

CRISSx\,  an  ancient  town  of  Phocis,  called 
"  the  divine  "  by  Homer.  It  occupied  a  beau- 
tiful situation  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Parnassus, 
with  lofty  mountain  heights  towering  above  it, 
and  with  the  beautiful  Crissrean  plain  spread 
out  beneath  it.  The  modern  town  of  Chryso, 
occupying  the  same  site,  contains  some  few  re- 
mains of  this  interesting  city.  Crissa  and  Cii'- 
rha  were  long  regarded  by  scholars  as  but  differ- 
ent names  for  the  same  place,  but  Ulrichs,  Leake, 
and  Grote  have  shown  that  Cirrha  was  the  port 
town  of  Crissa.  The  taxes  which  Cirrha  levied 
upon  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  Delphi  caused 
the  first  "sacred  war,"  which  resulted  in  the 
destruction  of  the  town.  The  fate  of  Crissa 
itself  is  not  known. 

CRITIAS,  an  Athenian,  pupil  of  Gorgias  the 
Leontine  and  of  Socrates.  lie  was  a  man  of 
uncommon  energy  of  character,  possessed  high 
and  varied  culture,  but  was  absolutely  wanting 
in  moral  principle.  He  was  at  once  politician, 
poet,  and  orator.  Some  fragments  of  his  elegies 
are  still  extant ;  a  work  of  his  on  politics  is 
sometimes  mentioned,  and  Cicero  tells  us  that 
some  of  his  speeches,  then  extant,  would  place 
him  as  an  orator  by  the  side  of  Pericles.  The 
moral  instructions  which  he  received  from  So- 
crates, however,  seem  to  have  produced  but  lit- 
tle impression  upon  his  corrupt  nature.  lie  is 
now  known  in  history  mainly  as  the  cruel  and 
vindictive  leader  of  the  30  tyrants.  In  that 
memorable  but  brief  reign  of  terror  which  im- 
mediately succeeded  the  Peloponnesian  war,  he 
rioted  in  slaughter  and  blood.  He  was  con- 
spicuous among  his  colleagues  for  rapacity  and 
violence,  and  punished  with  death  the  sugges- 
tion of  moderate  measures.  He  was  slain  in  an 
engagement  with  Thrasybulus,  who  with  his 
band  of  jjatriots  marched  to  the  relief  of  the 
city  (404  P,.  C). 

CRITO,  a  friend  and  disciple  of  Socrates, 
whom  he  is  said  to  have  sujjported  with  his  for- 
tune. He  made  every  arrangement  for  the  es- 
cape of  his  master  from  prison,  and  used  every 
argument  whicli  ingenuity  or  affection  could 


suggest  to  induce  him  to  save  his  life  by  fleeing 
from  his  i)ersecutors.  His  eloquence  was,  how- 
ever, in  vain,  and  Socrates  drank  the  fatal  cup. 
Crito  is  a  prominent  interlocutor  in  one  of  Pla- 
to's dialogues,  which  is  named  after  him.  He 
was  himself  a  voluminous  writer  on  philosophi- 
cal subjects,  but  all  his  writings  have  perished. 

CRITOLAUS,  a  celebrated  Achajan  dema- 
gogue, Avho  incited  his  countrymen  to  insurrec- 
tion against  the  Romans.  He  commanded  the 
Achaean  army  at  the  battle  of  Scarphsea,  146  B. 
C,  and  when  overthrown  by  Metellus,  he  either 
committed  suicide  or  perished  in  the  marshes  of 
the  coast. 

CRITTENDEN.  I.  An  E.  co.  of  Ark.,  sepa- 
rated from  Tenn.  by  the  Mississippi  river;  area, 
994  sq.  m. ;  i>op.  in  1854,  3,459,  of  whom  1,032 
were  slaves.  Its  western  border  is  formed  by  the 
St.  Francis  river.  The  surface  is  level  and  allu- 
vial, and  part  of  it  often  overflowed  by  the  Mis- 
sissippi. Portions  of  the  land  are  quite  swampy, 
but  the  rest  is  generally  fertile.  In  1854  the 
productions  were  217,500  bushels  of  corn,  and 
1,275  bales  of  cotton.  Capital,  Marion.  II.  A 
"W.  CO.  of  Ky.,  formed  in  1842 ;  area  estimated 
at  420  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  6,351,  of  whom  848 
were  slaves.  It  is  separated  from  111.  by  the 
Ohio  river,  and  bounded  by  the  Cumberland  on 
the  S.  W.  It  has  a  level  or  gently  undulating 
surface,  except  in  the  eastern  part,  where  it  is 
hilly.  The  soil  is  generally  good.  Hard  coal, 
lead,  and  iron  are  found  in  great  abundance. 
In  1850  the  productions  were  386,705  bushels 
of  corn,  5,759  of  wheat,  45,460  of  oats,  505,- 
637  lbs.  of  tobacco,  and  12,545  of  wool.  There 
were  14  churches,  and  GOO  pupils  attending 
public  schools.     Capital,  Marion. 

CRITTENDEN,  John  Jay,  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Woodford  co.,  Ky.,  about 
1785.  "While  he  was  still  young,  his  father,  who 
was  a  farmer,  was  killed  by  the  fall  of  a  tree,  leav- 
ing his  mother  to  bring  up,  with  slender  means, 
a  large  family  of  children,  among  whom  several 
were  noted  for  intellectual  ability.  Mr.  Critten- 
den commenced  life  as  a  lawyer  in  Hopkinsville, 
but  soon  removed  to  Frankfort,  where  he  en- 
joyed an  excellent  practice  and  won  distinction 
as  an  advocate.  In  1816  he  was  elected  from 
Franklin  county  to  the  Kentucky  house  of  repre- 
sentatives, of  which  he  was  for  several  years 
speaker.  He  took  his  seat  in  the  U.  S.  senate, 
Dec.  1,  1817,  his  term  commencing  at  the  same 
date  with  tlie  presidency  of  Mr.  Monroe,  whom 
he  supported.  During  his  2  years  of  service,  he 
moved  the  reimbursement  of  fines  under  the  se- 
dition law  of  1798,  which  he  pronounced  uncon- 
stitutional ;  spoke  warmly  in  favor  of  a  bill  in- 
troduced by  Mr.  Morrow  of  Oliio,  which  was 
designed  to  open  the  public  lands  to  actual  set- 
tlers ;  and  as  chairman  of  a  committee  to  whom 
a  house  bill,  putting  fugitives  from  labor  on  the 
same  footing  with  fugitives  from  justice,  was 
referred,  reported  it  back  with  several  amend- 
ments, one  of  which  provided  that  the  identity 
of  the  alleged  fugitive  should  be  proved  by  other 
evidence  than  that  of  the  claimant.    From  1819 


CRITTENDEN 


CROATIA 


75 


to  1835,  Mi-.Ciittc'iKleii  i)ractise(l  law  .it  Frank- 
fort, oconsiuaally  roprescntiug  his  county  in  tlje 
state  legislature.  President  J.  Q.  Adams  nomi- 
nated him  judge  of  the  U,  S.  supremo  court  in 
1828,  but  tho  senate  refused  to  confirm  him,  and 
Mr.  McLean  was  subseiiuently  put  in  his  place. 
In  1835  he  was  again  chosen  U.  S.  senator, 
served  a  full  term,  and  was  reelected,  but  in 
1841  resigned,  having  accepted  the  i)Ost  of  .nt- 
torney-general  under  President  Harrison.  On 
Sept.  11  of  the  same  year,  with  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  cabinet,  excepting  Mr.  Webster,  he 
tendered  his  resignation  to  President  Tyler  in  a 
brief  and  dignified  letter.  He  was  immediately 
elected  to  the  senate  for  the  residue  of  Mr.  Clay's 
term,  that  senator  having  resigned,  March  31, 
1842,  after  tho  passage  of  the  tariff  bill;  and 
Mr.  Crittenden  was  reelected  for  a  full  term 
from  March  4,  1843.  In  1848  he  retired,  hav- 
ing received  the  whig  nomination  for  govern- 
or of  Kentucky,  to  which  office  he  was  elect- 
ed by  a  large  majority.  He  was  attorney-gen- 
eral in  President  Fillmore's  cabinet  from  July 
20,  1850,  till  the  accession  of  President  Pierce. 
In  the  spring  of  1854  he  was  induced  by  long 
standing  relations  of  friendship  with  the  Ward 
family  to  undertake  the  defence  of  Matthew  F. 
Ward,  indicted  for  the  murder  of  Prof.  W.  II. 
G.  Butler  in  his  school  at  Louisville.  This  step 
created  at  the  time  much  popular  excitement 
against  Mr.  Crittenden.  He  had  previously  been 
reelected  to  tlie  U.  S.  senate  for  a  term  which 
expires  in  1861.  In  early  life  Mr.  Crittenden 
belonged  to  the  republican  and  subsequently  to 
the  whig  party.  lie  is  now  called  an  Ameri- 
can. He  was  one  of  Mr.  Clay's  most  devoted 
friends,  and  supported  him  in  most  of  those 
measures  with  which  his  name  is  identified.  lie 
has  always  favored  the  protective  policy,  and 
voted  for  the  tariff  of  1842  and  against  that  of 
184G.  He  was  for  a  U.  S.  bank  and  against  the 
sub-treasury  system.  In  1835  he  opposed  Mr. 
Calhoun's  bill  empowering  postmasters  to  take 
from  the  mails  documents  hostile  to  slavery. 
He  opposed  the  remission  of  Gen.  Jackson's  fine 
for  contempt  of  court  in  declaring  martial  law 
at  New  Orleans.  The  question  of  apportion- 
ment coming  up  in  1842,  Mr.  Crittenden  favor- 
ed the  smallest  ratio  of  representation,  arguing 
that  with  more  representatives  the  house  would 
become  more  democratic.  In  1841,  a  bill  es- 
tablishing a  preemptive  system  in  favor  of  ac- 
tual settlers  on  the  public  lands  being  under  con- 
sideration, lie  moved  an  amendment  denying  the 
privileges  of  the  act  to  aliens  Avho  had  not  made 
a  declaration  of  tlieir  intention  to  become  cit- 
izens, which  he  supported  in  several  speeches. 
Upon  the  Oregon  question  Mr.  Crittenden  spoke 
often,  deprecating  haste  and  excitement,  favoring 
peace,  though  not  at  the  expense  of  honor,  and 
supporting  such  measures  as  seemed  likely  to 
conduce  thereto.  Tiie  same  tone  runs  through 
his  speeches  on  the  annexation  of  Texas,  which 
he  opposed  as  unconstitutional,  unwise,  and 
unnecessary,  and  on  the  Mexican  war,  which  he 
strove  to  bring  to  a  peaceful  termination  as  soon 


as  practicable.  lie  manifested  a  similar  spirit 
in  1858  in  the  debate  upon  the  alleged  illegal 
exercise  of  the  right  of  search  by  Great  Britain. 
In  1848  he  ojjposed  Mr.  Ilannegan's  bill  provid- 
ing for  the  military  occupation  of  Yucatan,  as 
subsequently  in  1858  ho  took  ground  against 
interference  in  the  affairs  of  Central  America. 
It  was  Mr.  Crittenden  who  in  1847  introduced 
the  bill  in  the  senate  which  authorized  the  pur- 
chase of  provisions  and  the  employment  of  pub- 
lic ships  for  tho  relief  of  the  starving  in  Ireland 
and  Scotland,  supporting  it  in  an  eloquent  and 
feeling  speech.  In  1848  he  offered  a  resolution 
congratulating  France  upon  the  successful  revo- 
lution of  February,  from  which,  in  common  with 
most  Americans,  he  anticipated  the  establish- 
ment of  a  lasting  republican  government  in  that 
country.  He  opposed  the  admission  of  Kansas 
tmder  the  Topeka  constitution  in  1850;  voted 
against  the  repeal  of  the  territorial  laws,  and  in 
favor  of  Mr.  Toombs's  Kansas  bill,  on  the  ground 
that,  however  objectionable  some  of  its  features 
might  be,  it  was  a  measure  of  peace.  In  1858 
he  opposed  the  admission  of  Kansas  under  the 
Lecompton  constitution,  on  the  ground  not  only 
that  that  instrument  did  not  represent  the  will 
of  the  majority  of  the  people,  but  that  it  was  a 
fraud  upon  them.  From  his  age,  ability,  and 
position  as  the  representative  of  a  slave  state, 
as  well  as  from  the  bold  and  dashing  style  of 
its  delivery,  his  speech  on  this  question  carried 
great  weight  with  it.  He  subsequently  offer- 
ed a  substitute  for  the  bill,  which,  somewhat 
modified,  afterward  passed  tho  house,  but  was 
defeated  in  the  senate.  It  provided  for  the 
submission  of  the  Lecompton  instrument  to  the 
vote  of  the  people  of  Kansas;  if  a  majority  ap- 
proved, it  was  to  become  their  constitution  ; 
otherwise  they  were  empowered  to  form  a 
new  constitution.  Throughout  the  acrimonious 
Kansas  debates  Mr.  Crittenden  never  forgot 
that  he  was  an  American  senator,  and  more 
than  once  found  himself  arbiter  of  disputes 
between  others.  He  is  sometimes  called  the 
patriarch  of  the  senate,  a  designation  to  which 
his  character  as  well  as  his  age  entitles  him. 
He  has  always  been  considered  an  excellent  ex- 
temporaneous debater,  and  has  not  yet  lost  the 
fire  and  spirit  of  his  youth.  Mr.  Crittenden  has 
been  twice  married ;  his  second  Avife,  who  is 
now  living  (1859),  was  the  widow  of  Gen.  Ash- 
ley of  Kentucky. 

CROATIA,  one  of  the  crown  lands  of  the 
Austrian  empire  as  reorganized  by  the  funda- 
mental statute  of  1849,  consisting  of  the  for- 
mer kingdom  of  Croatia  (a  dependency  of  Hun-* 
gary),  the  kingdom  of  Slavonia,  the  Croatian 
Littorale,  and  the  town  and  territory  of  Fiume. 
Croatia  (or  the  4  counties  of  Agrara,  Waras- 
din,  Kreutz,  and  Fiume)  and  Slavonia  have  an 
aggregate  area  of  about  7,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1851,"'878,456;  in  1854,  967,136.  Croatia  is 
bounded  N.  by  Styria  and  Hungary,  E.  and  S.  by 
the  Military  Frontier  district,  W.  by  the  Adriatic, 
Illyria,  and  Styria.  It  is  moimtainous,  being 
almost  wholly  filled  up  by  the  continuations  of 


(G 


CROCKETT 


CROCODILE 


the  Julian  and  Dinaric  Alps.  Its  principal  rivers 
are  the  Save,  "with  its  tributary  the  Kulpa,  the 
Dravo,  and  the  Mur.  The  2  last  form  the  fertile 
island  of  Murakuz,  area  nearly  350  sq.  m.  The 
climate  is  mild  and  wholesome,  at  least  in  the 
interior.  Croatia  is  poor  in  natural  resources. 
The  grape  and  chestnut  are  cultivated  extensive- 
ly, but  grain  and  fruit  are  grown  only  in  the  coun- 
ty of  Kreutz  and  the  Littorale.  The  mountains, 
although  poor  in  minerals,  abound  in  valuable 
timber,  but  very  little  use  is  made  of  it.  A 
fine  marble  is  worked  in  the  Littorale. — The  in- 
habitants, principally  Croatians  and  liascians  or 
Servians,  with  a  small  proportion  of  Germans, 
belong  with  few  exceptions  to  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic church.  They  are  very  little  cultivated,  in  fact 
semi-barbarians.  Their  idiom  is  an  Illyrian  dia- 
lect belonging  to  the  S.  branch  of  the  Slavic  lan- 
guages. The  industry  and  commerce  are  scarcely 
worth  mentioning.  "Wine  and  timber  are  the 
only  articles  of  export  to  the  neighboring  prov- 
inces. For  the  domestic  trade  Agram,  Karlstadt, 
and  Old  Sziszek  are  the  principal  marts.  The 
Littorale  has  some  shipping  and  ship-building ; 
also  several  extensive  paper  manufactories.  Pub- 
lic education  was  in  a  deplorable  state  until 
1851.  Up  to  that  time  there  was  only  one  school 
for  every  29  sq.  m.  and  every  3,743  inhabitants. 
Since  then,  the  Austrian  government  has  in- 
troduced a  complete  system  of  common  school 
education,  the  results  of  which  are  as  yet  not 
very  perceptible.  There  are  also  in  Croatia  5 
colleges  and  2  academies.  The  province  is  gov- 
erned by  a  ban  (governor).  Justice  is  admin- 
istered by  57  district  courts,  4  superior  courts, 
3  supreme  courts,  and  a  court  of  appeals. — 
Croatia,  which  in  antiquity  formed  a  part  of 
Pannonia,  was  a  province  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire from  the  time  of  Augustus,  being  attached 
to  lllyricum.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Goths, 
recovered  under  Justinian,  invaded  by  the 
Avars,  and  in  the  7th  century  settled  by  Croats, 
who  after  long  struggles  with  the  Franks  finally 
formed  a  vassal  state  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 
Toward  the  end  of  tlie  10th  century  the  princes 
of  Croatia  assumed  the  royal  title.  It  was  con- 
quered by  the  Hungarians  in  1091,  by  Venice  in 
1117,  and  again  by  the  Byzantines  in  1168.  Hav- 
ing once  more  been  independent  for  a  century, 
it  was  ultimately  annexed  to  Hungary  in  1342, 
and  subjected  to  the  Ilapsburg  dynasty  in  1527. 
In  1848  the  hatred  of  the  Croatians  against  the 
Magyars  made  them  one  of  the  principal  instru- 
ments of  the  Austrian  government  in  crushing 
the  Hungarian  revolution. 

CROCKETT,  David,  an  American  back- 
woodsman and  member  of  congress,  born  at 
Limestone,  on  the  Nolachucky  river,  in  Ten- 
nessee, Aug.  17,  1786,  died  in  Texas,  March  6, 
1836.  Ilis  father,  of  Irish  birth,  after  various 
other  avocations,  opened  a  tavern  on  the  road 
from  Abingdon  to  Knoxville,  where  David 
passed  his  youth  from  7  to  12  years  of  age,  mak- 
ing acquaintance  with  hard  times  and  doubtful 
characters.  He  was  sent  to  a  country  school, 
but  on  the  4th  day  quarrelled  with  the  school- 


master, and  after  playing  truant  for  a  time 
in  the  woods  fled  from  home  to  avoid  a  flog- 
ging threatened  both  by  his  fatlier  and  master. 
For  5  years  he  roamed  about  the  middle  states 
with  drovers  and  carriers,  till  in  his  18th  year  he 
returned  home,  attended  school  for  2  months, 
learning  his  letters  for  the  first  time,  and 
soon  after  married  and  went  to  live  in  the 
wildest  portions  of  the  state,  distinguishing 
himself  as  a  hunter.  In  1813  he  served  in  the 
Creek  war  under  Gen.  Jackson,  and  after  the 
peace  settled  on  Shoal  creek,  in  a  desolate  re- 
gion of  Tennessee.  A  community  of  reckless 
characters  having  flocked  together  after  2  years, 
it  was  found  necessary  to  establish  a  temporary 
government,  and  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
magistrates.  He  soon  after  became  a  candidate 
for  the  legislature,  and  though  he  had  scarcely 
yet  read  a  newspaper  he  made  a  successful  elec- 
tioneering tour  by  the  skilful  use  of  his  rifle, 
his  companionable  habits,  and  his  faculty  for 
telling  amusing  stories.  He  was  twice  reelected 
to  the  legislature,  but  devoted  himself  especially 
to  bear  hunting,  till  in  1827  he  was  elected  by 
the  party  of  Gen.  Jackson  a  representative  in 
congress.  At  Washington  he  immediately  ob- 
tained general  notoriety  by  the  eccentricity  of 
his  manners  and  language,  and  was  regarded  as 
a  gifted  and  genial  specimen  of  the  "  half  horse 
and  half  alligator."  In  1829  he  was  again  chosen 
to  congress,  but  soon  after  changed  from  a  parti- 
san to  an  opponent  of  Jackson's  administration ; 
and  in  1831  it  required  his  most  strenuous  exer- 
tions to  secure  a  reelection.  From  this  time  the 
influence  of  Jackson  became  predominant  in  the 
West,  and  especially  in  Tennessee,  and  Crockett 
therefore  withdrew  from  the  political  arena  of 
the  United  States.  He  sought  a  new  career  in 
Texas,  then  in  revolt  against  Mexico,  and  after 
a  series  of  military  exploits  met  his  death  while 
bravely  defending  Fort  Alamo,  in  San  Antonio 
de  Bexar.  The  fort,  containing  about  140  Texans 
commanded  by  Col.  Travis  and  under  him  by  Col. 
Crockett,  was  attacked  in  the  latter  part  of 
February  by  a  Mexican  army  numbering  2,000 
men.  Amid  scarcity  of  provisions  and  constant 
watching,  shells  and  assaults  were  successfully 
withstood  till  on  March  6  only  6  of  the  garrison 
survived.  These,  including  Col.  Crockett,  then 
surrendered,  but  by  order  of  Santa  Anna  the 
latter  immediately  perished  with  a  dozen  sword 
thrusts.  The  exaggerated  stories  of  his  wit  and 
peculiarities  afterward  made  him  almost  a  myth- 
ical person.  His  autobiography  was  published 
at  Philadelphia  in  1834. 

CROCODILE,  a  genus  of  reptiles  which, 
with  the  alligator  of  America  and  the  gavial 
of  the  Ganges,  constitute  the  family  of  croco- 
dilians.  Some  authors  elevate  the  family  into 
an  order,  the  emydosauri  of  Gray,  the  loricata 
of  Fitzinger,  and  the  rhizoclonta  of  Prince  Bo- 
naparte, the  latter  including  the  large  fossil 
ichthyomnriis  and  plesiosau7'US.  In  the  class  of 
reptiles  they  are  higher  than  the  saurians,  and 
second  to  the  testudinata ;  among  them  are 
included  some  of  the  largest,  most  powerful, 


CROCODILE 


77 


and  best  protected  of  their  class.  The  croco- 
dilians,  inchiding  tlie  alligator  and  gavials,  are 
characterized  as  follows  :  tho  skin  is  tougii  and 
thick,  and  protected  by  firm  scales,  of  different 
shapes  and  sizes,  forming  a  coat  of  mail  sword 
and  bullet  j>roof;  different  species  have  been 
distinguished  according  to  their  arrangement  on 
the  neck ;  they  are  square  on  the  upper  and 
under  surfaces  of  tlie  body  and  on  the  tail, 
large  and  ridged  longitudinally  on  the  back, 
small  and  rounded  on  tho  sides  of  the  body 
and  neck  and  limbs ;  on  the  head  the  skin  is 
applied  directly  on  tlie  bone,  following  its  em- 
inences and  depressions,  and  unprotected  by 
scales,  in  this  differing  from  the  true  saurians ; 
tlie  scales  are  thinnest  below,  and  of  a  lighter 
color,  almost  white,  the  upper  tints  being 
greenish  with  dark  spots,  or  an  obscure 
brown.  Under  the  jaw,  in  the  longitudinal 
folds  of  the  skin,  open  the  ducts  of  odorifer- 
ous glands,  which  secrete  a  viscid  matter  hav- 
ing a  strong  and  disagreeable  musky  odor ; 
similar  pores  open  near  the  cloaca.  For  the 
details  of  the  skeleton  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Cuvier,  Meckel,  Oken,  and  other  writers  on 
comparative  anatomy.  The  vertebras  are  con- 
cave anteriorly  and  convex  posteriorly,  and 
are  7  or  8  in  the  neck,  12  in  the  back,  5  in  the 
loins,  2  in  the  sacral  region,  and  from  34  to  42 
in  the  tail ;  the  number  is  the  same  in  indi- 
viduals of  a  species  at  all  periods  of  life.  The 
vertebras  of  the  neck  have  long  articulated 
transverse  processes,  or  cervical  ribs,  which 
prevent  any  extensive  lateral  motion  of  the 
neck ;  on  the  under  surface  of  the  caudal  ver- 
tebrae is  a  series  of  V-shaped  bones,  the  hasmal 
arches,  for  the  protection  of  the  vessels.  The 
ordinary  ribs  are  12  to  13  on  each  side.  The 
sternum  is  prolonged  even  to  the  pelvis,  and 
gives  attachment  to  6  or  7  pairs  of  cartilages, 
not  extending  to  the  spine ;  these  serve  to 
strengthen  and  protect  the  abdominal  walls, 
and  are  represented  in  man  by  the  transverse 
lines  of  the  rectus  abdominis  muscle ;  the 
sternum  is  also  prolonged  as  a  point  in  advance 
of  the  ribs ;  there  are  no  true  clavicles,  and 
the  bones  of  the  pelvis  remain  separate.  The 
lower  jaw  is  longer  than  the  cranium,  because 
the  condyles  of  the  temporal  bones,  correspond- 
ing to  ossa  quadrata,  are  placed  considerably 
behind  tlie  articulation  of  the  head  with  the 
spine,  and  are  united  to  the  skull  as  in  the  tur- 
tles ;  the  gape  of  the  mouth  is  really  longer 
than  the  extent  of  the  head,  from  this  back- 
ward situation  of  the  glenoid  cavity.  The 
muscles  which  move  the  jaws  arise  so  far  back, 
that  they  act  in  part  upon  the  whole  head,  ex- 
plaining the  assertion  made  from  the  time  of 
Aristotle  to  that  of  Cuvier,  and  at  various 
times  believed  and  disputed,  that  the  crocodile 
has  the  ability  to  move  both  jaws ;  when  the 
lower  jaw  is  fixed  upon  the  ground,  the  action 
of  the  muscles  may  raise  the  whole  head,  and 
with  it  the  upper  jaw,  otherwise  immovable. 
The  jaws  have  no  lateral  motion,  and  none 
from  before  backward,  the  articulation  beinir 


a  simple  hinge  joint.  Tliero  are  no  cutaneous 
lips,  the  teetli  being  visible  even  when  the  jaws 
are  closed.  The  teeth  are  numerous,  conical, 
isolated,  unc(iual  in  size,  hollowed  at  the  base, 
arranged  in  a  single  row,  implanted  by  a  true 
gomphosis  in  the  substance  of  the  maxillary 
borders  in  special  alveoli  directed  from  before 
backward,  and  provided  with  a  kind  of  gmn ; 
the  new  teeth  push  up  into  the  hollow  of 
the  old,  and  cause  their  absorption ;  the  new 
teeth  are  larger,  but  the  same  in  number  at  all 
ages.  The  tongue  is  tlat,  wide,  fleshy,  and  at- 
tached all  around  to  the  jaw  bone ;  it  is  not 
divided  at  the  tip,  and  cannot  be  extended,  be- 
ing apparent  only  when  the  jaws  are  separated, 
and  forming  the  floor  of  the  mouth  ;  it  cannot 
be  used  to  seize  or  retain  their  prey,  nor  for 
respiratory  purposes;  it  is  for  the  most  part 
smooth,  except  at  the  base,  where  irregularly 
contorted  folds  are  prominent.  The  nostrils 
open  at  the  end  of  the  muzzle,  near  together, 
and  may  be  closed  by  valves;  their  cavity 
forms  2  canals  extending  along  the  cranium, 
and  opening,  not  into  the  mouth,  as  in  other 
reptiles  and  birds,  but  into  the  posterior  fauces 
behind  the  soft  palate,  as  in  mammals ;  the 
hyoid  bone  sends  upward  a  rounded  cartilagi- 
nous continuation,  which  can  be  made  promi- 
nent at  the  will  of  the  animal ;  the  soft  palate 
hangs  down  to  meet  this,  by  which  the  cavity 
of  the  mouth  can  be  completely  shut  off  from 
the  fauces;  by  this  arrangement,  when  tho 
animal  is  under  water,  with  only  the  tip  of  the 
nose  in  the  air,  and  even  with  the  mouth  filled 
with  water,  respiration  can  be  perfectly  carried 
on ;  and  by  the  same  mechanism  the  act  of 
swallowing  can  be  accomplished  beneath  the 
surface.  Unlike  the  saurians,  this  family  have 
the  external  opening  of  the  ears  protected  by  2 
folds  of  the  skin,  resembling  lids,  by  which  the 
meatus  can  be  closed  ;  the  opening  is  just  be- 
hind the  eyes.  The  eyes  are  very  small,  and 
provided  with  3  lids,  an  upper  and  lower,  with 
a  tliird  or  nictitating  membrane  moving  trans- 
versely, transparent,  and  evidently  designed  to 
protect  the  cornea  and  permit  vision  under 
water;  the  pupil  is  a  vertical  slit,  and  the 
crystalline  lens  almost  spherical.  The  anterior 
limbs  have  5  toes,  the  external  2  without  nails ; 
the  posterior  limbs  are  4  toed,  more  or  less 
webbed,  the  external  one  Avithout  a  nail ;  tho 
limbs  are  so  short  that  they  barely  raise  tho 
body  from  the  ground,  and  are  almost  at  right 
angles  to  the  spine ;  their  gait  is,  therefore, 
slow  and  awkward.  The  tail  is  longer  than 
the  trunk,  flattened  on  the  sides,  surmounted 
with  crests  continued  from  the  back,  and  ser- 
rated below  ;  tlie  powerful  muscles  of  the  dor- 
sal region  are  carried  to  their  greatest  devel- 
opment in  the  sides  of  the  tail,  which  is  tho 
principal  organ  of  locomotion  in  the  water. 
The  stomach  is  muscular,  but  in  no  way  re- 
sembling the  gizzard  of  a  bird  ;  in  this  cavity 
are  frequently  found  stones  and  pieces  of  wood, 
which  were  once  supposed  to  be  swallowd  in- 
tentionally to  assist  in  triturating  the  food,  or 


78 


CPwOCODILE 


for  the  purpose  of  distendinj^  the  stomach  dur- 
ing the  seiison  of  liibernation  whicli  some  of 
them  undergo ;  it  is  altogether  probable  that 
such  foreign  bodies  have  been  accidentally 
swallowed  during  the  repasts  of  the  voracious 
animal.  The  lungs  consist  of  3  principal  cav- 
ities, communicating  freely  with  each  other; 
the  walls  are  divided  into  innumerable  cells, 
the  tleshy  compartments  of  whicli  form  a  very 
intricate  network,  resembling  the  columna)  cor- 
ner of  the  heart;  when  fully  expanded,  they 
will  contain  a  large  quantity  of  air.  The  most 
interesting  organ  is  the  heart,  as  it  shows  an 
approach  to,  and  as  it  w^ere  the  coimecting 
link  with  the  birds.  In  reptiles  generally  the 
heart  consists  of  3  cavities,  a  ventricle  and  2 
auricles — the  ventricle  receiving  both  arterial 
and  venous  blood,  and  sending  this  mixed  fluid 
over  the  system  at  the  same  time  that  it  sends 
to  the  lungs  blood  of  which  a  portion  has  just 
been  received  purified  from  them.  In  the  croc- 
odilians  the  ventricle  has  a  complete  division 
into  right  and  left,  and  the  circulation  is  so 
arranged  that  while  the  head  and  anterior 
half  of  the  body  receive  pure  arterial  blood 
"when  the  animal  is  in  the  air,  the  posterior 
half  receives  a  mixed  arterial  and  venous  blood ; 
the  mingling  of  the  2  bloods  taking  place,  not 
in  the  heart  itself,  but  by  an  opening  between 
the  2  aortas — a  fact  unknown  to  naturalists  till 
the  time  of  Meckel  and  Panizza.  For  full 
details  on  this  point  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  "  Journal  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural 
History,"  vol.  vi.  pp.  113-118.  The  ordinary 
course  of  the  circulation  would  be  through  the 
venaj  cavte  to  the  right  auricle,  thence  to  the 
right  ventricle ;  from  this  more  than  half  of 
the  venous  blood  goes  to  the  lungs  by  the  pul- 
monary artery,  the  rest  being  distributed  to  the 
lower  extremities  through  the  left  or  venous 
aorta;  from  the  lungs  the  pure  blood  comes 
to  the  left  auricle,  thence  it  passes  to  the  left 
ventricle,  and  then  by  the  right  or  arterial 
aorta  to  the  head  and  anterior  extremities  and 
body  generally,  after  mixture  with  the  venous 
blood.  In  the  common  circidation,  or  when 
the  animal  is  in  the  air,  there  would  probably 
be  but  a  trifling,  if  any,  mixture  of  the  bloods 
through  the  opening  in  the  aortic  wall,  and 
during  the  contraction  of  the  ventricles  the 
pressure  of  the  valves  of  the  aortre  against  the 
opening  would  prevent  the  mingling ;  but  dur- 
ing the  diastole  of  the  ventricles,  when  the 
valves  close  to  prevent  regurgitation  into  the 
heart,  the  aortic  opening  would  be  free,  and 
the  bloods  could  mix  in  whichever  direction  the 
pressure  was  the  strongest ;  the  opening,  hoAV- 
ever,  jierforms  its  special  function  after  the 
animal  has  been  under  water  a  long  time, 
v,iio"n  there  is  no  respiration  nor  pulmonary 
circulation,  no  blood  in  the  left  ventricle,  and 
none  sent  through  the  true  aorta ;  were  it  not 
for  this  opening,  the  head  and  anterior  limbs, 
■which  are  sui>plied  by  the  right  aorta,  Avould  be 
unprovided  with  blood  ;  it  has  been  naturally 
concluded  that  venous  blood  is  sent  through  the 


opening  from  the  left  aorta  to  supply  these 
parts.  By  its  4  cavities  the  heart  of  the  croco- 
dilians  resembles  that  of  the  birds,  and  also,  by 
the  mixture  of  the  blood  in  the  vessels,  tliat 
of  the  fu?tal  mammalia.  Meyer  compares  the 
left  aorta  to  the  ductus  arteriosus,  and  he  be- 
lieves this  structure  to  be  a  temporary  con-' 
dition,  disappearing  as  the  animal  advances 
in  age.  In  the  dissection  alluded  to  above,  the 
specimen  was  7  feet  long,  and  old  enough  to 
be  impregnated  ;  the  edges  were  firm  and  well 
defined,  like  those  of  a  persistent  foramen  ;  and 
physiological  reasons  have  been  given  why  it 
should  be  permanent  in  this  family,  when  the 
respiration  ceases  during  submersion  and  hi- 
bernation. In  the  males  the  genital  organs  are 
simple ;  as  in  turtles  and  birds,  the  cloaca  is 
longitudinal.  The  female  alone  prepares  the 
hole  in  the  sand  in  which  the  eggs,  sometimes 
60  in  number,  are  placed  probably  during 
the  night ;  she  covers  them  with  sand  and 
leaves  to  hide  them  from  the  ichneumon  and 
certain  reptiles  which  feed  upon  them ;  the 
eggs  are  hatched  in  from  3  to  6  weeks,  accord- 
ing to  season  and  latitude.  The  amphibious 
habits  of  the  crocodilians  are  indicated  by  the 
nostrils,  separation  of  the  posterior  fauces 
from  the  mouth,  shape  of  the  limbs  and  tail, 
and  structure  of  the  lungs  and  heart.  The 
crocodiles  proper  are  distinguished  from  the 
alligators  by  their  head  being  longer  in  propor- 
tion to  the  breadth,  by  the  less  number  of 
teeth  (30  below  and  38  above,  according  to 
Cuvier),  by  the  4th  lower  tooth  on  each  side 
being  received  into  a  groove  in  the  upper  jaw 
instead  of  a  pit  when  the  mouth  is  closed,  by 
the  dentated  crest  on  the  external  border  of 
the  hind  legs  in  most  of  the  species,  by  the 
complete  webs  of  the  hind  toes  (at  least  the 
external),  and  by  the  larger  cranial  openings 
perceptible  through  the  skin  behind  the  eyes. 
Nothing  is  more  characteristic  than  the  nar- 
rowing of  the  muzzle  behind  the  nostrils 
caused  by  the  groove  just  alluded  to,  added  to 
the  perforation  of  the  upper  jaw  by  the  1st 
lower  teeth ;  the  plates  of  the  nape  occupy  the 
middle  portion  only,  a  space  before  and  behind 
being  without  them  ^,  as  age  advances  the  head 
becomes  very  rough.  The  species  are  difiicult 
to  distinguish  from  each  other,  and  the  varia- 
tions within  the  limits  of  species  are  consider- 
able. Europe  has  no  crocodile,  nor  crocodilian, 
in  its  present  fauna;  America  has  2,  Asia  2,  and 
Africa  1 ;  other  species  are  described,  of  un- 
known habitat,  and  of  uncertain  characters. 
The  following  species  will  sufiiciently  charac- 
terize the  genus  :  I.  Tlie  common  crocodile  of 
the  Nile  (crocodilns  vulgaris,  Cuv.),  one  of  the 
sacred  animals  of  the  Egyptians,  is  mentioned 
by  Herodotus,  and  w^ell  described  by  Aristotle 
in  his  "  History  of  Animals ;"  the  latter  also 
mentions  the  spur-winged  plover,  which  enters 
the  mouth  of  the  crocodile  to  pick  out  and  eat 
the  insects  attached  to  the  mucous  membrane. 
This  species  has  the  Avidest  jaAvs,  0  cervical 
plates,  the  dorsal  plates  quandrangular  with  6 


CROCODILE 


79 


lonsjitnclinal  series  of  moderate  ridges ;  cra- 
nium rather  flat ;  teeth  66,  36  above  and  30  be- 
low, tlie  longest  being  the  3d  and  Dtli  of  the 
upper  jaw,  and  the  1st,  4t]i,  and  lltli  of  the 
lower ;  16  to  18  transverse  rows  of  bony  jjlates 
from  the  shoulders  to  the  tail,  and  on  the  latter 
from  26  to  38  circles  of  scales  surmounted 
by  a  thin,  flexible,  serrated  crest,  double  for 
about  half  its  length.  The  color  of  the  upper 
surface  is  olive-green,  spotte<l  with  black  on 
the  head  and  neck,  and  marbled  with  the  same 
on  the  back  and  tail ;  2  or  3  wide,  oblique  black 
bands  on  each  flank ;  beneath  greenish  yellow ; 
claws  brown.  It  grows  to  the  length  of  20  to 
25  feet,  and  jjossibly  longer.  A  variety  of  this 
(C.  pnlustru.  Less.),  found  in  Asia,  has  tlie 
head  rougher,  the  scales  of  the  sides,  flanks, 
and  upi)er  part  of  the  neck  convex  and  ridged, 
and  the  color  above  olive-yellow,  marbled  with 
blackish  brown.  A  3d  variety  (C  marginatus, 
Geoff.),  a  native  of  southern  Africa,  has  the 
jaws  narrower  and  elongated,  the  cranium 
slightly  concave,  6  narrow  nuclial  plates,  the 
upper  parts  deep  bottle-green,  -with  small 
brown  waving  lines  disposed  in  a  radiating 
manner.  This  variety  grows  to  a  large  size, 
and  is  doubtless  the  one  so  often  seen  by  Dr. 
Livingstone  ami  Mr.  Gumming  in  their  journey- 
ings  in  South  Africa.  Dr.  Livingstone  mentions 
the  following  facts  from  personal  observation  : 
Sixty  eggs  have  been  taken  from  a  single  nest ; 
they  are  about  the  size  of  a  goose  egg,  of  the 
saTue  diameter  at  both  ends,  white,  and  par- 
tially elastic  from  having  but  little  lime  in  their 
composition  and  a  firm  internal  membrane ; 
the  nests  are  within  a  few  feet  of  the  water, 
and  are  used  for  successive  years  if  undis- 
turbed ;  the  female  assists  the  young  out  of 
the  nest,  and  leads  them  to  the  edge  of  tlie 
water,  where  she  leaves  them  to  catch  fish  for 
themselves ;  fish  is  the  principal  food  at  all 
ages  ;  a  wounded  animal,  or  even  a  man,  going 
into  a  lake  infested  by  them,  is  almost  sure  to 
be  seized ;  they  seldom  leave  the  water  to 
catch  prey,  but  often  come  out  to  bask  in  the 
sun  ;  they  fish  chiefly  by  night,  and  when  eat- 
ing make  a  loud  champii:^  noise  ;  the  natives 
are  very  fond  of  the  eggs^eating  only  the  yolk. 
The  Egyptians  kept  crocodiles  in  their  temples, 
where  they  were  fed  by  the  priests  and  orna- 
mented with  gold  and  precious  stones ;  these 
were  highly  venerated  by  the  people,  and  after 
death  they  were  carefully  embalmed  and  buried 
with  great  ceremony  ;  it  is  very  common  to  find 
mummies  of  crocodiles  in  their  tombs,  and 
many  may  be  seen  in  our  museums.  The  ich- 
neumon, a  carnivorous  mammal  allied  to  the 
civets,  renders  important  service  to  man  by 
destroying  the  eggs  of  the  Nilotic  crocodile. 
The  common  crocodile  is  not  confined  to 
Africa,  but  occurs  in  Asia,  especially  on  the 
Malayan  peninsula;  it  is  often  met  with  3 
or  4  miles  at  sea,  and  has  been  known  to 
attack  boats  returning  from  fishing,  and  oc- 
casionally with  the  loss  of  human  life.  II. 
The    most    common    Asiatic    species    is    the 


double-crested  crocodile  (C.  bij^orcattis,  Cnv.), 
so  named  from  tlie  2  rough  lines  on  the  ujjjier 
jaw  extending  forward  from  the  anterior  angle 
of  each  eye  ;  the  lateral  borders  are  irregularly 
convex,  and  deeply  grooved  for  the  lower  teeth ; 
tlie  upper  surface  is  very  rough,  especially  in 
large  individuals;  the  teeth  are  generally  66, 
36  above  and  30  below,  the  largest  being  the 
2d,  3d,  8th,  and  9th  above,  and  the  1st  and  4th 
below  ;  the  hind  legs  are  as  long  as  the  trunk, 
the  fore  legs  are  a  third  sliorter  ;  the  armature 
of  the  neck  consists  of  6  shields,  4  in  a  square, 
and  1  on  each  side  of  these,  of  an  oval  shape 
and  strongly  crested;  on  tlie  back  are  16  or  17 
transverse  rows  of  ridged  plates,  of  an  ovoid 
form  ;  the  tail  has  38  or  40  scaly  rings,  double 
crested  for  half  its  length.  The  color  is  yel- 
lowish green,  with  black  oval  spots  above.  It 
grows  to  a  length  of  at  least  20  feet.  In  Gi- 
roniere's  "  Twenty  Years  in  the  Philippines " 
(pp.  215-222),  is  an  account  of  the  capture  of  an 
immense  individual  of  this  species,  measuring 
27  feet  in  length  and  11  feet  in  circumference 
under  the  arm-pits  ;  the  skull  of  this  specimen 
is  now  in  the  cabinet  of  the  Boston  society  of 
natural  history,  and  measures  nearly  4  feet 
from  the  nose  to  the  end  of  the  lower  jaw ; 
the  head  and  soft  parts  attached  weighed  over 
400  lbs.  It  is  found  in  most  of  the  rivers  and 
lakes  of  eastern  Asia  and  the  Indian  archipelago. 
III.  The  lozenged  crocodile  (C.  rhomlijer,  Cuv.) 
of  the  West  Indies  has  the  forehead  surmounted 
by  2  ridges  diverging  backward,  the  upper  jaw 
much  arched  transversely,  the  jaws  narrow, 
the  body  thick,  the  toes  and  swimming  mem- 
branes short,  the  scales  of  the  flanks,  sides, 
and  upper  part  of  the  neck  tuberculated,  and 
the  limbs  without  serrated  crests ;  the  sides  of 
the  upper  jaw  are  very  prominent  between  the 
6th  and  11th  teeth  ;  the  teeth  are  64,  34  above 
and  30  below,  the  largest  being  the  2d  and  7th 
in  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  4th  and  10th  in  the 
lower ;  on  the  nape  are  4  small  shields  in  one 
row,  and  on  the  neck  6  oval  ridged  plates,  4  in  a 
row  and  2  behind  these ;  dorsal  scales  square, 
in  18  transverse  rows.  The  general  color  is 
dark  brown  above ,  with  zigzag  lines  of  deep 
j'ellow,  and  spots  of  the  same  on  the  flanks 
and  limbs  ;  yellow  and  chestnut  below.  It  at- 
tains a  considerable  size.  IV.  The  long-nosed 
crocodile  (6'.  aciitiis,  Geoff.)  is  found  also  in  the 
West  Indies,  particularly  in  St.  Domingo,  and 
in  the  northern  parts  of  South  America.  It  is 
characterized  by  its  lengthened  muzzle,  convex 
forehead,  and  tlie  irregular  disposition  of  the 
outer  dorsal  scales ;  the  hind  feet  are  strongly 
webbed ;  on  the  nape  are  2  or  4  shields,  and 
on  the  neck  6,  as  in  the  Nilotic  species ;  the 
teeth  66,  36  above  and  30  below,  the  longest 
being  the  4th  and  10th  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  the 
4th  in  the  lower.  The  color  is  brown  and  yel- 
low above,  and  yellow  below.  It  is  said  to  grow 
to  a  length  of  20  feet.  The  C.  cataphractus 
(Cuv.)  and  C.  Journei  (Bory  de  St.  Vincent)  form 
the  connecting  links  between  the  crocodile  and 
the  gavial. — Crocodilians  existed  in  great  vari- 


80 


CKOCUS 


CROGHAN 


oty  in  former  geological  epochs,  and  in  coun- 
tries further  norili  than  the  present  habitats  of 
these  reptiles.  The  most  remarkable  differ- 
ence between  tlie  fossil  and  existing  species  is 
in  the  form  of  tlie  vertebra) ;  the  existing  croco- 
dilians  have  these  bodies  concave  in  front  and 
convex  behind,  and  tlie  same  is  true  of  the 
species  of  the  tertiary  epoch ;  but  the  fossils  of 
the  older  strata  have  the  vertebral  bodies  flat, 
or  biconcave,  as  in  fishes,  or  else  the  anterior 
face  convex  and  the  posterior  concave,  just  the 
opposite  to  the  existing  forms.  Those  cf  the 
tertiary  epoch  are  generally  found  in  fresh- 
water deposits,  and  near  the  mouths  of  sup- 
posed rivers,  so  that  their  habits  were  then 
probably  the  same  as  nqw ;  they  have  been 
found  as  far  north  as  England  and  France,  in 
Asia,  and  in  the  greensand  of  New  Jersey. 
During  the  secondary  period  there  existed  croc- 
odilians  with  tlat  or  biconcave  vertebra?,  resem- 
bling gavials  in  their  lengthened  cranium ;  from 
their  stronger  armature,  more  numerous  ribs, 
and  the  strata  in  wliich  they  have  been  found, 
they  were  probably  marine.  Among  the  genera 
are  teleosaurus  (Geoff.),  mystrioscnirus  (Kaup.), 
macrosjjondylus  (II.  de  Meyer.),  gnathosaurus  (H. 
de  Meyer.),  &c.,  found  in  the  liassic,  oolitic,  and 
calcareous  strata.  Those  with  an  anterior  con- 
vexity and  posterior  concavity,  of  which  the 
type  is  steneosaurus  (Geoff.),  resembled  also 
the  gavials,  and  have  been  found  in  the  lias 
and  oolite  of  England. 

CROCUS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  order  iri- 
dacece.  There  are  2  sorts  of  crocuses,  those 
Avhich  blossom  in  spring,  such  as  crocus  vermis, 
with  purple  or  white  flowers  and  finely  netted 
root  coats,  and  C.  Siisiamis,  or  cloth  of  gold 
crocus,  with  small,  deep  yellow  flowers,  the 
sepals  of  which  are  curiously  veined  with  dark, 
chocolate-brown  lines  ;  and  those  wdiich  blossom 
in  the  autumn,  such  as  the  saffron  crocus  (C. 
sativus)^  an  oriental  plant,  cultivated  for  its 
long,  orange-colored,  drooping  styles,  and  the 
Sicilian  crocus  (C.  odorus),  whose  flowers  are 
fragrant.  The  saffron  crocus  blossoms  in  Octo- 
ber, but  it  is  not  commonly  seen  in  our  gardens. 
It  is,  however,  extensively  cultivated  for  its 
produce  of  saffron  in  some  parts  of  England. 
Good  saffron  consists  of  the  stigmas  only,  which 
are  small,  narrow,  and  extremely  light  interior 
parts  of  the  flower.  The  crocuses  are  mostly 
hardy  little  plants,  and  once  introduced  into 
the  flower  borders,  they  will  continue  and  in- 
crease without  care. 

CRCESUS,  king  of  Lydia,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  before  the  middle  of  the  6th  century 
B.  0.  Writers  of  high  repute  have,  how- 
ever, conjectured  that  he  had  already  been 
for  15  years  associated  in  the  government 
with  his  father,  and  that  many  of  the  events 
recorded  by  Herodotus  as  belonging  to  his  reign 
are  to  be  referred  to  this  period  of  joint  gov- 
ernment. This  view  is  rejected  by  Rawlinson 
in  the  notes  to  his  translations  of  Herodotus. 
His  reign,  according  to  Rawlinson,  extended 
from  568  to  55i  B.  C.     He  ascended  the  throne 


in  a  time  of  peace  and  prosperity ;  he  was  the 
heir  to  untold  treasures;  success  crowned  all  his 
early  efforts  ;  he  subdued  the  Greek  cities  on  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  Grecian  islands,  and  extended  his  con- 
quests toward  the  east  to  the  river  Ilalys.  He 
was  now  a  mighty  monarch,  ruling  over  13 
nations,  and  in  alliance  witli  the  powerful  rulers 
of  Media,  Babylon,  and  Egypt;  the  vast  wealth 
which  he  had  inherited  had  been  increased  by 
the  tribute  of  conquered  nations,  by  the  confis- 
cation of  great  estates,  and  by  the  golden  sands 
of  the  Pactolus.  We  may  perhaps  form  sopie 
idea  of  the  extent  of  this  wealth  from  the 
rich  votive  ofterings  which  he  deposited'  in 
the  temples  of  the  gods.  "Herodotus  him- 
self saw  the  ingots  of  solid  gold,  6  palms  long,  3 
broad,  and  1  deep,  which  to  the  number  of  117 

were  laid  up  in  the  treasury  at  Delphi 

He  had  also  beheld  in  various  parts  of  Greece 
the  following  offerings,  all  in  gold,  which  had 
been  deposited  in  the  temples  by  the  same  opu- 
lent monarch :  a  figure  of  a  lion,  probably  of 
the  natural  size  ;  a  wine  bowl  of  about  the  same 
■weight  as  the  lion  ;  a  lustral  vase ;  a  statue  of 
a  female,  said  to  be  Croesus's  baking  woman,  4-|- 
feet  high ;  a  shield  and  a  spear ;  a  tripod  ;  some 
figures  of  cows,  and  a  number  of  pillars;  and  a 
2d  shield  in  a  different  place  from  the  1st,  and 
of  greater  size."  But  in  the  midst  of  all  his 
wealth  and  prosperity,  Crcesus  began  to  be 
alarmed  at  the  rapid  conquests  of  Cyrus,  and 
when  at  length  he  saw  the  Median  power  fall 
before  the  Persian  arms,  he  resolved  to  avenge 
liis  brother-in-law  Astyages,  the  dethroned  king 
of  Media.  He  accordingly  crossed  the  Halys, 
and  offered  the  Persians  battle ;  but  after  an  in- 
decisive engagement  returned  to  Sardis.  Cyrus 
pursued  him,  took  the  city,  and  made  him  his 
prisoner.  The  Lydian  king  was  condemned  to 
be  burned  alive,  but  was  finally  spared,  being 
saved,  according  to  Herodotus,  by  recalling  a 
saying  of  Solon,  and  became  the  confidential 
adviser  of  his  conqueror,  whom  he  survived. 

CROFT,  Wii.LiAM,  an  English  composer,  born 
in  Warwickshire  in  1677,  died  in  1727.  At  the 
age  of  31  he  obtained  the  position  of  composer 
to  the  chapel  royal  and  organist  to  Westminster 
abbey,  which  he  held  until  his  death.  As  a  com- 
poser of  cathedral  music  he  held  a  high  rank.  In 
1724  he  published,  under  the  title  of  Musica 
Sac7'a,  an  edition  of  his  select  anthems,  2  vols, 
folio.  Some  of  these  are  still  performed  in  the 
English  church  service. 

CROGHAN,  George,  an  American  ofl[icer, 
son  of  Major  William  Croghan,  and  nephew  of 
George  Rogers  Clark,  of  the  revolutionary  army, 
born  near  Louisville,  Ky.,  Nov.  15,  1791,  died 
in  New  Orleans,  Jan.  8,  1849.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  William  and  Mary  college,  Va.,  served 
in  1811  as  a  volunteer  aide-de-camp  to  Col. 
Boyd  at  the  battle  of  Tippecanoe,  was  made 
captain  in  tlie  following  year,  and  major  March 
30,  1813.  On  May  5,  1813,  he  distinguished 
himself  as  aide-de-camp  of  Gen.  Harrison  in  the 
defence  of  Fort  Meigs;  and  on  Aug.  1  and  2 


CROKER 


81 


ho  successfully  defoiuled  Fort  Stephenson,  at 
Lower  Sandusky  (now  Fremont),  Ohio,  with  a 
garrison  of  160  men,  against  the  determined 
attack  of  Gen.  Proctor,  with  a  force  of  over 
1,000,  half  regulars  and  lialf  Indians;  and 
this,  notwithstanding  tlie  fort  was  so  weak- 
ly constructed  and  poorly  provided,  tliat  he 
luul  actually  heen  ordered  to  ahandon  it.  For 
this  exploit  ho  was  rewarded  with  tho  hre- 
vet  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  22  years  after- 
ward (Feb.  13,  1835)  with  a  gold  medal  from 
congress,  lie  was  made  inspector-general,  with 
tho  rank  of  colonel,  Dec.  21,  1825,  and  in  that 
capacity  served  with  Gen.  Taylor  in  Mexico. 

CROKER,  John  Wilsox,  a  British  statesman 
and  author,  born  in  Galway,  Ireland,  Dec.  20, 
1780,  died  at  Hampton,  near  London,  Aug.  10, 
1857.  His  father,  of  English  descent,  was  for 
many  years  surveyor-general  of  Ireland.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  where 
he  greatly  distinguished  himself,  especially  in 
the  proceedings  of  the  since  suppressed  "histor- 
ical debating  society."  In  1800  he  received 
the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts,  and  was  imme- 
diately entered  as  a  student  at  Lincoln's  Inn, 
but  remained  in  Dublin,  and  was  called  to  the 
Irish  bar  in  1802.  lie  devoted  his  leisure  to 
literature,  and  published  anonymously  in  1804 
his  "  Familiar  Epistles  on  the  Irish  Stage," 
and  in  1805  his  "  Intercepted  Letter  from  Can- 
ton." Both  attracted  much  attention,  from  the 
talent  and  especially  the  proneness  to  sarcasm 
which  they  indicated.  In  1807  lie  gave  another 
])roof  of  his  vigorous  ability  in  an  elaborate 
p  imphlet  on  the  "  Past  and  Present  State  of 
Ireland,"  in  which  he  advocated  Catholic  eman- 
cipation. In  that  year  also  he  entered  parlia- 
ment as  member  for  the  borough  of  Down- 
patrick,  and  the  tory  party  soon  conceived 
high  expectations  from  his  public  life.  When, 
in  1809,  charges  of  maladministration  were 
brought  against  the  duke  of  York,  and  a  par- 
liamentary inquiry  was  instituted,  Mr.  Croker 
was  one  of  the  most  effective  defenders  of  his 
royal  highness,  and  in  the  long  debate  which 
ensued  he  delivered,  on  March  14,  the  best 
speech  that  was  made  on  tke  side  of  the  min- 
istry. He  was  associated  with  Gilford,  Scott, 
George  Ellis,  Frere,  and  Southey  in  establishing 
the  "  Quarterly  Review,"  the  first  number  of 
which  appeared  in  1809,  and  he  continued  till 
his  death  to  be  one  of  the  most  frequent,  pow- 
erful, and  sarcastic  contributors  to  that  period- 
ical. In  1809  the  Perceval  government  ap- 
pointed him  secretary  to  the  admiralty,  and 
he  retained  that  office,  fulfilling  its  duties  with 
unremitting  application,  till  1830.  He  sat  in 
the  house  of  commons  through  8  successive 
parliaments  till  1832,  having  been  returned  for 
Yarmouth,  Athlone,  Bodmin,  and  in  1827  for 
the  university  of  Dublin.  In  1828  he  was 
sworn  a  privy  councillor.  He  favored  the  pro- 
ject of  Catholic  emancipation,  was  among  the 
first  to  advocate  a  state  encouragement  of  the 
fine  arts,  and  urged  the  purchase  of  the  Elgin 
marbles  in  a  speech  much  in  advance  of  the 

VOL.   VI. — 6 


general  treatment  of  the  subject  by  parliament. 
An  accomplished  diibater  and  master  of  satire, 
lie  was  a  prominent  and  most  resolute  oppo- 
nent of  the  reform  bill,  which  he  believed 
would  ultimately  revolutionize  the  country. 
The  passing  of  that  bill  destroyed  him  i)olit- 
ically,  for,  unlike  his  comrades,  he  declared  that 
he  never  would  sit  in  a  reformed  ])arliament, 
and  he  never  did.  lie  preferred  rather  tho 
occupation  of  "  tomahawking  lilteral  authors  " 
in  the  "  Quarterly,"  his  contributions  to  which 
were  so  caustic  that  for  many  years  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  attribute  all  the  most  malevolent 
and  ablest  articles  of  that  periodical  to  \n3 
pen.  He  gained  the  reputation  of  "  a  man 
who  would  go  a  hundred  miles  through  sleet 
and  snow,  on  the  top  of  a  coach,  in  a  Decem- 
ber night,  to  search  a  parish  register,  for  the 
sake  of  showing  that  a  man  is  illegitimate,  or 
a  Avoman  older  than  she  says  she  is."  In  1826 
he  reviewed,  in  the  London  "  Courier,"  Scott's 
"  Letters  of  Malachi  Malagrowther,"  in  a  way 
that  called  forth  a  delicate  rebuke  from  Scott, 
who  had  long  been  one  of  his  most  cordial 
associates,  and  who  bow  declined  to  endanger 
an  old  friendship  by  meeting  him  in  "  the  ra- 
pier and  poniard  game  of  wit."  Beside  his 
review  articles  and  many  pamplilets  and  print- 
ed speeches  on  political  questions,  he  published 
poems  entitled  "  Talavera,"  "  Songs  of  Tra- 
falgar," and  several  jileasing  lyrics,  of  which 
the  fine  lines  on  the  death  of  Canning  aro 
among  the  most  successful ;  "  Military  Events 
of  the  French  Revolution  of  1830;"  "Letters 
on  the  Kaval  War  with  America ;"  "  Stories 
from  the  History  of  England  for  Children," 
of  which  over  30,000  copies  have  been  sold, 
and  which  Scott  in  a  preface  acknowledges  to 
have  been  the  model  of  his  "  Tales  of  a  Grand- 
father." He  also  translated  Bassompierre's 
"Embassy  to  England,"  edited  the  "Suffolk 
Papers,"  the  "Letters  of  Lady  Hervey,"  Lord 
Ilervey's  "Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  George 
II.,"  and  Walpole's  "  Letters  to  Lord  Hertford," 
and  furnished  an  edition  of  Boswell's  "Life 
of  Johnson  "  with  copious  annotations.  The 
last  work  was  received  with  general  appro- 
bation, and  is  esteemed  a  valuable  contribu- 
tion to  literature,  though  it  was  severely  re- 
viewed by  Mr.  ilacaulay  in  the  pages  of  the 
"  Edinburgh  Review."  In  return,  the  harsh- 
est and  most  effective  criticism  upon  the  first 
volumes  of  Macaulay's  "History  of  England" 
was  from  tlie  pen  of  Mr.  Croker.  The  lat- 
ter was  also  long  at  feud  with  Mr.  Disraeli, 
who  lampooned  him  in  the  character  of  Rigby 
in  "  Coningsby,"  and  whose  political  preten- 
sions, and  especially  his  famous  budget  of  1852, 
were  consequently  assailed  with  masterly  .ran- 
cor and  ridicule  in  the  "  Quarterly."  He  had 
a  controversy  with  Lord  John  Russell  upon 
the  publication  by  the  latter  of  the  "  Memoirs 
and  Correspondence  "  of  Moore,  on  which  he 
wrote  a  scathing  article,  followed  by  several 
skilfully  written  letters  in  ,the  "  Times."  Mr. 
Croker  possessed  brilliant  conversational  pow- 


82 


CROKER 


CROMPTON 


ers,  a  talent  for  repartee,  and  a  minute  acquaint- 
ance with  the  i)rincipal  questions  of  politics  and 
belles-lettres.  As  a  political  gossip  and  satirist, 
he  excelled  especially  in  humorously  noting  the 
incidents  and  analyzing  the  motives  of  persons 
and  j)arties  at  critical  seasons  of  ministerial 
change.  A  selection  from  his  numerous  contri- 
butions to  the  "  Quarterly  Review  "  has  been 
published. 

OROKER,  Thomas  Ceoftox,  an  Irish  author, 
born  in  Cork,  Jan.  15,  1798,  died  in  London, 
Aug.  8,  1854.  When  15  years  of  age  he  was 
apprenticed  to  a  merchant,  and  began  to  make 
occasional  rambles  on  foot  through  the  south 
of  Ireland.  During  these  excursions,  contin- 
ued for  many  years,  he  made  the  researches 
among  the  peasantry  and  the  collections  of  le- 
gends and  songs  which  furnished  the  materials 
for  his  "  Researches  in  the  South  of  Ireland  " 
(1824),  and  for  liis  "  Fairy  Legends  and  Tra- 
ditions of  the  South  of  Ireland"  (1825).  The 
latter  Avork  contained  several  contributions 
from  Maginn,  Pigott,  Keightley,  and  Hum- 
phreys, which  were  omitted  in  subsequent  edi- 
tions, and  it  was  at  once  highly  praised  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott.  In  1819  Mr.  Croker  had  obtained 
a  clerkship  in  the  admiralty,  and  he  was  con- 
nected with  that  department  till  1850,  when  he 
retired  with  a  pension.  In  1829  he  published 
the  "  Legends  of  the  Lakes,"  and  rhymes  of  a 
pantomime  founded  on  the  story  of  "  Daniel 
O'Rourke,"  which  were  followed  in  1832  by 
the  tales  of  "  Barney  Mahoney"  and  "  My  Vil- 
lage." The  two  latter  are  his  principal  attempts 
at  strictly  original  composition,  his  other  works 
being  collections  of  legendary  and  poetical  lore. 
"My  Village"  contains  minute  descriptions,  but 
is  written  without  passion  or  imaginative  pow- 
er, and  was  the  least  favorably  received  of  his 
publications.  The  Irish  adventures  of  Barney 
Mahoney  are  pleasantly  and  plainly  told.     In 

1838  he  published  the  "  Memoirs  of  Joseph  Holt, 
General  of  the  Irish  Rebels  in  1798,"  and  in 

1839  he  edited  the  "  Popular  Songs  of  Ireland," 
with  historical  and  personal  annotations.  lie 
also  contributed  frequently  to  magazines,  among 
others  to  " Eraser's"  and  the  "New  Monthly," 
and  was  an  activemember  of  numerous  literary 
and  antiquarian  societies.  His  works  give  not 
only  the  fanciful  traditions  of  Ireland,  but  also 
sketches  of  its  romantic  features  and  ruins,  and 
interesting  notices  of  the  humors  and  character- 
istics of  the  Irish. 

CROLY,  Geokge,  LL.  D.,  a  British  clergyman 
and  author,  born  in  Dublin  in  1780.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  college  in  his  native  cit}', 
and  has  been  for  many  years  rector  of  St.  Ste- 
phen's, Walbrook,  a  metropolitan  parish  in  Lon- 
don. To  this  position,  in  which  he  has  obtained 
an  extended  fame  as  an  eloquent  and  impressive 
preacher,  he  was  presented  by  Lord  Brougham 
when  lord  chancellor  of  England.  His  literary 
career  began  with  a  poem  entitled  "  Paris  in 
1815,"  in  which  he  describes  the  Avorks  of  art 
collected  by  Napoleon  in  the  Louvre,  prior  to 
their  restoration  to  the  various  galleries  of  Eu- 


rope after  the  surrender  of  Paris.  This  was 
followed  in  1820  by  the  "Angel  of  the  World, 
an  Arabian  Tale,"  and  by  several  satires  and 
lyrics,  which  were  first  collected  in  1830.  His 
tragedy  of  "  Catiline"  appeared  in  1822,  and 
though  not  produced  upon  the  stage  was  most 
favorably  reviewed  by  Prof.  Wilson,  and  has 
maintained  its  reputation  as  an  admirable  speci- 
men of  the  unacted  drama.  In  1824  his  comedy 
of  "  Pride  shall  have  a  Fall "  was  performed  at 
the  Oovent  Garden  theatre  with  great  success, 
which  was  partly  owing  to  its  literary  merit, 
partly  to  the  circumstance  that  its  illustration 
of  the  airs  and  graces  of  a  fashionable  cavalry 
regiment  had  a  direct  application  at  the  time, 
and  partly  to  the  extraordinary  personation  of 
one  of  the  characters  by  Frederic  Yates.  He 
published  in  1827  "  Salathiel,  a  Story  of  the 
Past,  the  Present,  and  the  Future,"  founded  on 
the  legend  of  the  wandering  Jew,  which  is  one 
of  his  most  finished  and  popular  productions. 
It  was  followed  by  two  other  works  of  fiction, 
"Tales  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard,"  and  "Mars- 
ton"  (1846).  The  "Modern  Orlando  (1846), 
though  fragmentary,  is  one  of  his  best  poems. 
He  has  made  valuable  contributions  to  his- 
torical and  biographical  literature  by  his  "  Per- 
sonal History  of  King  George  IV."  (1830),  his 
"Character  of  Curran's  Eloquence  and  Poli- 
tics," and  his  "Political  Life  of  Burke"  (1840). 
He  has  also  edited  the  works  of  Pope  (1835), 
and  the  select  works  of  Jeremy  Taylor  (1838), 
for  which  he  furnished  memoirs  and  annotations. 
His  publications  on  professional  subjects  have 
been  a  new  interpretation  of  the  "  Apocalypse 
of  St.  John"  (1827),  a  work  entitled  "Divine 
Providence,  or  the  Three  Cycles  of  Revelation" 
(1834),  and  numerous  sermons  on  questions  of 
public  interest,  several  of  them  being  upon  the 
Anglo-Catholic  controversy.  He  was  one  of 
the  early  contributors  to  "  Blackwood's  Maga- 
zine," has  furnished  critical  articles  of  a  high 
character  to  various  periodicals,  and  collected 
in  1842  a  volume  of  "  Historical  Sketches, 
Speeches,  and  Characters."  He  is  reputed  an 
excellent  scholar,  and  his  writings  are  distin- 
guished by  a  vigorous  and  imaginative  style. 

CROMLECH,  or  Cromt-eu,  a  ju-imitive  kind 
of  sepulchral  moniuneut  among  tlie  ancient 
Scandinavian  and  Celtic  nations.  It  consisted 
of  a  large  flat  stone  laid  on  other  stones  set 
upright  to  sustain  it.  These  monuments  are 
supposed  by  some  antiquaries  to  have  been 
also  used  as  altars  on  which  sacrifices  were 
offered  to  the  heroes  who  repose  beneath. 
Though  the  cromlech  and  kist-vaen  are  fre- 
quently confounded,  they  are  different  in  cer- 
tain respects.  The  cromlech  is  open  at  the 
side  and  ends,  and  larger,  whereas  the  kist-vaen 
is  closed  up  on  every  side.  The  word  cromlech 
is  probably  derived  from  the  Armoric  crum, 
crooked  or  bending,  and  lech,  or  leJt,  a  stone. 
By  the  inhabitants  of  Wales  and  Cornwall 
cromlechs  are  called  coetne  Arthor,  or  Arthur's 
quoits. 

CROMPTON,  Thomas  Bonsor,  an  English 


CROMWELL 


83 


manufacturer,  born  at  Farnworth,  May  20, 1792, 
died  at  Sandy,  Bodfordshire,  Sept.  8,  1858.  lie 
was  the  proprietor  of  Farnworth  mills,  and  of 
extensive  paper  mills  at  Worthington,  near  \Vi- 
gan,  supplied  the  principal  newspapers  and 
merchants  of  London  with  paper,  invented  the 
continuous  drying  apparatus  now  in  general 
use,  was  also  an  extensive  manufacturer  of 
cotton,  and  for  some  time  the  proprietor  of  the 
"  Morning  Post  "  and  other  newspapers.  Inde- 
fatigable in  business,  he  was  at  tiie  same  time 
an  ardent  sportsman,  public-spirited,  a  conserva- 
tive in  politics,  and  noted  for  his  hospitality. 

CROMWELL,  Oliver,  lord  protector  of  tlie 
English  commonwealth,  born  at  Huntingdon, 
April  25,  1599,  died  at  the  palace  of  White- 
hall, Sept.  3,  1G58.  His  family  belonged  to 
the  class  of  English  gentry,  and  his  social  po- 
sition was  well  described  by  liimself,  when  he 
said :  "  I  was  by  birth  a  gentleman,  neither 
living  in  any  considerable  height,  nor  yet  in 
obscurity.'"  Mr.  Forster  has  printed,  from 
the  register  of  burials  of  the  parish  church  of 
Felstead,  tlie  entry  of  the  interment  of  Crom- 
welFs  eldest  son,  Robert,  in  1639,  in  wliich  the 
Puritan  squire  is  spoken  of  as  a  man  to  be  hon- 
ored ;  and  as  this  entry  was  made  by  the  vicar 
before  Cromwell  had  risen  to  eminence,  the 
fact  is  important,  as  showing  the  estimation  in 
which  he  was  held  by  those  who  knew  him  best. 
No  such  tribute  is  paid  to  any  other  person  in 
the  register.  The  Cromwells  were  connected 
with  the  St.  Johns,  the  Hampdens,  and  other 
eminent  English  historical  families.  The  great 
grandfather  of  Oliver  was  Sir  Richard  Wil- 
liams, a  nephew  of  Thomas  Cromwell,  earl  of 
Essex,  whose  name  he  took.  His  grandfather 
was  Sir  Henry  Cromwell,  Avho  had  been 
knighted  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  who  Avas 
famous  for  his  charities.  Robert  Cromwell,  a 
younger  son  of  Sir  Henry,  married  a  widow 
lady  named  Lynne,  daughter  of  William  Stew- 
ard, of  Ely,  who  was  descended  from  the 
youngest  son  of  Alexander,  lord  steward  of 
Scotland,  founder  of  the  house  of  Stuart.  Mrs. 
Cromwell  and  Charles  I.  were  8th  cousins,  and 
Oliver  was  three  generations  nearer  to  Alex- 
ander than  was  the  king  whom  he  supplanted. 
The  income  of  Oliver's  parents  was  £360  a 
year,  a  large  sura  for  those  days.  Robert 
Cromwell  was  a  justice  of  the  peace,  and  sat  in 
one  of  Elizabeth's  parliaments.  Mr.  Sanford 
has  satisfoctorily  disposed  of  the  story  that  he 
was  a  brewer  by  trade.  Many  curious  anec- 
dotes are  related  of  the  youth  of  the  future 
protector,  most  of  which  were  probably  coined 
after  he  had  risen  to  distinction.  A  monkey 
snatched  him  from  his  cradle,  and  took  him  to 
the  housetop.  A  curate  saved  him  from  drown- 
ing, and  lived  to  tell  him  that  he  repented  the 
deed  when  he  was  warring  against  the  church. 
He  had  a  fight  when  5  years  old  with  Prince 
Charles,  afterward  Charles  I.,  and  flogged  him, 
when  the  royal  family  was  on  a  visit  to  his 
uncle,  at  Hinchinbrook.  A  gigantic  female  fig- 
ure drew  his  bed  curtains,  and  told  liim  that 


he  should  become  the  gi-eatest  man  in  England, 
but  did  not  mention  the  word  king.  He  was  a 
froward  boy,  and  much  given  to  the  ancient 
youthful  pursuit  of  robbing  orchards,  and  to 
I)ractical  jokes.  He  took  to  learning  by  fits  and 
starts,  and,  much  to  the  surprise  of  his  master, 
wiio  had  tiogged  him  severely  and  often,  made 
but  little  progress.  In  1616  he  was  sent  to 
Sidney  Sussex  college,  Cambridge,  where  he  is 
represented  as  having  lived  a  wild  life  ;  but  as 
in  after  days  he  showed  a  fair  knowledge  of 
Latin,  it  is  to  be  supposed  his  studies  were  not 
neglected.  In  1617,  after  his  father's  death,  he 
left  Cambridge,  and  was,  according  to  some  of 
his  biographers,  entered  of  Lincoln's  Inn.  The 
accounts  of  his  London  life  are  flatly  contradic- 
tory. One  represents  him  associating  with  the 
best  company,  while  the  other  paints  him  as 
a  coarse  debauchee.  His  youth  was  probably 
spent  like  that  of  most  men  of  his  class,  and  was 
that  neither  of  a  saint  nor  a  devil.  He  was  fond 
of  rough  sports,  such  as  have  generally  been 
pursued  by  Englishmen.  In  1620  he  married 
Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  Sir -James  Bourchier, 
and  soon  afterward  his  mind  took  that  serious 
turn  which  had  so  great  an  eftect  on  his  life. 
He  is  said  to  have  given  the  best  proof  of  his 
sincerity  by  making  restitution  to  persons  of 
whom  he  had  won  money.  He  was  an  active 
religious  man,  prayed,  preached,  and  exhorted 
with  unction,  and  assisted  those  of  his  brother 
Puritans  who  needed  aid  in  his  neighborhood. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  parliament  which 
met  in  1628,  sitting  for  Huntingdon.  During 
the  11  years  that  followed  the  dissolution  of 
that  parliament,  and  while  Charles  I.  was  en- 
deavoriug  to  establish  a  despotism  over  Eng- 
land, Cromwell  lived  either  at  Huntingdon,  at 
St.  Ives,  or  at  Ely,  his  devotional  feeling  in- 
creasing in  depth  and  strength,  while  his  at- 
tachment to  the  country  party  was  deepened 
and  confirmed.  There  used  to  be  current  a 
story  that,  in  1638,  despairing  of  his  coun- 
try's welfare,  Cromwell  embarked  for  New 
England,  in  company  with  Pym,  Hazelrig,  and 
Hampden,  but  was  prevented  from  sailing  by  a 
royal  order  in  council.  This  is  now  abandoned, 
as  the  ships  were  allowed  to  proceed,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  petition  of  the  passengers  and 
others.  The  opposition  which  he  made,  not  to 
the  di'aining  of  tlie  fens,  but  to  the  interference 
of  government  in  the  work,  was  successful,  and 
won  him  great  fame,  and  from  the  people  the 
title  of  '•  lord  of  the  fens,"  while  it  showed  to 
the  country  that  he  was  a  man  of  immovable 
resolution.  In  1640  he  was  chosen  to  the  short 
parliament ;  and  when  the  second  parliament 
of  that  year  was  called,  Cromwell  contested 
Cambridge  with  the  poet  Cleaveland,  a  zeal- 
ous royalist,  and  is  said  to  have  defeated  him 
by  one  vote.  Cleaveland  is  reported  to  have 
said  that  that  single  vote  had  ruined  both 
church  and  kingdom;  but  this  was  probably 
an  invention  of  later  times,  as  in  1640  Crom- 
well was  not  so  high  in  general  estimation  as 
to  be  reckoned  among  the  great  leaders  of  his 


84 


CROMWELL 


party,  nor  was  it  supposed  that  tliat  party 
aimed  at  any  tiling  whicli  implied  hostility  to 
the  estahlished  order  of  things  in  church  and 
state.  From  the  time  that  he  entered  the  long 
parliament,  Cromwell  went  with  the  root-and- 
branch  men,  but  he  was  not  so  conspicuous  as 
to  be  noted  until  after  the  commencement  of 
the  civil  war.  Yet  he  served  on  many  commit- 
tees, and  took  part  in  debate.  Sir  Philip  War- 
wick, who  heard  him  speak  with  heat  and 
earnestness  in  the  first  days  of  the  session,  felt 
j^"  his  respect  for  the  commons  lessened  because 
they  hearkened  much  unto  him.  So  little  was 
lie  known  to  some  noted  men,  that,  on  the  day 
be  made  the  speech  here  mentioned,  Lord  Dig- 
by  asked  Hampden  who  the  sloven  was ;  and 
received  for  answer  that,  if  ever  there  should 
come  a  breach  with  the  king,  that  sloven  would 
be  the  greatest  man  in  England.  Cromwell 
was  not  much  given  to  talk,  but  he  was  an  ac- 
tive party  man,  and  labored  with  zeal  in  the 
common  cause.  "  It  has  been  ascertained,"  says 
Mr.  Sanford,  "  that  within  the  first  10  months 
of  the  long  parliament,  and  before  the  recess, 
which  began  on  Sept.  9,  1G41,  Cromwell  was 
^  specially  appointed  to  18  committees,  exclusive 
of  various  appointments  among  the  knights 
and  burgesses  generally  of  the  eastern  coun- 
ties. The  most  important  matters  fell  within 
the  province  of  several  of  these  committees." 
He  supported  the  grand  remonstrance,  and  all 
the  other  measures  of  the  parliament  that  were 
meant  to  bridle  the  faithless  king.  "When  the 
war  commenced,  he  became  the  most  active  of 
all  men  in  the  field,  which  he  was  the  first  to 
enter.  Before  the  royal  standard  Avas  set  np 
he  went  down  into  Cambridgeshire,  where  he 
had  previously  sent  arras,  and  formed  the  nu- 
cleus of  his  "  Ironsides,"  at  the  same  time  seek- 
ing to  give  to  the  forcible  resistance  that  was 
to  be  made  to  the  king  a  systematic  charac- 
ter among  the  leading  men  of  the  district,  to 
the  end  of  rendering  their  military  means  sol- 
idly available.  He  contributed  liberally  of  his 
money  to  the  cause.  He  seized  the  plate  of 
Cambridge  university,  which  was  to  have  been 
sent  to  Charles  I.,  and  took  the  magazine  that 
was  in  the  town.  His  uncle.  Sir  Oliver,  was  a 
royalist,  and  the  nephew,  though  he  treated 
him  personally  with  the  most  distinguished 
consideration,  took  from  him  every  thing  with 
which  he  could  assist  the  king.  He  was  pres- 
ent at  the  battle  of  Edgehill.  He  was  made 
Colonel  Cromwell,  and  acted  under  the  earl  of 
Essex,  the  parliamentary  lord  general.  Ho 
showed  himself  to  be  a  cavalry  officer  of  re- 
markable capacity  and  resource.  He  would 
have  done  nmch  in  any  contest,  for  his  mili- 
tary genius  was  of  a  high  order ;  but  the  pe- 
culiar circumstances  of  the  civil  war  enabled 
him  to  accomplish  something  that  borders  on 
the  marvellous.  From  the  first  he  saw  that 
tlie  ])arliament  could  not  contend  against  the 
king's  forces  unless  it  should  have  in  its  ser- 
vice men  capable  of  meeting  the  loyalists  on 
6ome  ground  of   principle;    and  against  the 


chivalrous  honor  that  actuated  the  better  por- 
tion of  the  latter,  he  ])urposed  to  direct  the 
religious  spirit  of  the  Puritans.  Hampden,  to 
whom  he  unfolded  his  scheme,  thought  it  "  a 
good  notion,  but  impracticable ;"  but  Crom- 
well found  it  no  such  difficult  matter.  He 
raised  a  cavalry  regiment,  1,000  strong,  which 
he  drilled  and  exhorted  until  it  became  the 
finest  body  of  trooi)S  in  the  world,  and  was  the 
seed  of  that  army  which  won  the  parliament's 
cause,  and  then  overthrew  the  parliament  itself. 
This  regiment  was  composed  mostly  of  free- 
holders, or  the  sons  of  freeholders,  and  was  re- 
cruited from  among  Cromwell's  neighbors,  per- 
sons who  had  heard  him  preach  before  the  war 
was  thought  of.  Both  friends  and  enemies  bear 
the  fullest  evidence  to  the  discipline,  valor,  skill 
in  arms,  freedom  from  military  vices,  and  re- 
ligious zeal  of  these  Cromwellian  soldiers.  Their 
commander  told  them  that  they  were  to  fight 
the  king,  and  said  he  would  himself  as  soon 
shoot  that  personage  as  any  other  whom  he 
should  encounter  in  the  hostile  ranks.  This 
was  contrary  to  the  idea  and  practice  of  the 
parliament,  which  fought  the  king  in  his  own 
name,  a  fiction  quite  in  keeping  with  English 
political  practice,  but  which  had  no  hold  on 
the  Ironsides,  who  cheered  their  colonel's  words, 
and  ever  acted  in  their  spirit.  The  early  mil- 
itary services  of  Cromwell  were  useful,  and 
were  soon  followed  by  others  of  a  brilliant 
character.  He  surprised  a  party  of  loyalists  in 
Sulfolk,  kept  the  same  party  quiet  in  the  east- 
ern counties,  and  near  Grantham  totally  routed 
a  body  of  cavalry  that  was  seeking  to  obtain 
control  of  Lincolnshire.  His  next  action  was 
the  relief  of  Gainsborough.  The  royalists, 
under  Col.  Cavendish,  were  advancing  in  force 
upon  the  town,  when  Cromwell  threw  himself 
in  their  front.  Though  the  enemy  was  triple  his 
own  numbers,  and  Avas  drawn  up  on  the  sum- 
mit of  a  hill,  the  base  of  which  could  be  reach- 
ed only  through  a  gateway  in  a  fence  that  was 
commanded  by  that  enemy's  fire,  he  led  on  his 
men,  charged  up  hill,  and  carried  the  position. 
Some  of  the  enemy  fled,  but  Cromwell,  then 
exhibiting  for  the  first  time  that  mode  of  action 
which  gave  him  so  many  victories,  did  not  pur- 
sue them,  but  re-formed  his  troops,  and  fell 
upon  those  who  stood,  routing  them,  and  driv- 
ing them  into  a  bog,  where  they  were  all  butch- 
ered, including  their  general.  This  victory 
raised  Cromwell's  reputation,  and  the  more  so 
that  most  of  the  parliamentary  generals  showed 
little  conduct,  and  were  often  beaten.  He  con- 
tinued his  services  in  Lincolnshire  and  the 
neighboring  counties ;  and  parliament  ordered 
that  2,000  men  should  be  added  to  his  com- 
mand, to  be  disciplined  after  his  fashion.  He 
was  united  with  the  earl  of  Manchester  in  com- 
mand of  6  associated  counties,  and  their  forces 
were  joined  at  Boston,  Oct.  1643.  Sir  T.  Fair- 
fax had  previously  joined  Cromwell.  Oct.  11, 
Sir  John  Henderson,  at  the  head  of  a  superior 
body  of  royalist  cavalry,  came  up  with  Crom- 
well and  Fairfax  on  Winceby  field.     A  terrible 


CROMWELL 


85 


action  folio-wed,  in  which  ITenderson  was  beat- 
en, thoufjh  Ills  force  was  three  times  as  numer- 
ous as  tliat  of  the  parliament.  Cromwell  had 
a  horse  killed  under  him,  and  while  rising  was 
himself  struck  down  ;  but  soon  recovering,  he 
joined  in  the  battle,  and  much  distinguisJied 
himself.  After  this  success,  and  until  the 
weather  forbade  further  operatioiis,  Cromwell 
continued  to  act  in  the  field.  Parliament  made 
him  lieutenant-governor  of  the  isle  of  Ely,  and 
ha  was  engaged  during  the  winter  in  raising 
funds  from  Peterborough  and  Ely  cathedrals, 
and  from  the  university  of  Cambridge,  and  in 
reforming  the  university,  G5  fellows  being 
ejected.  On  Feb.  16,  1644,  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  conmiittee  of  both  kingdoms,  which 
was  then  constituted  the  executive  authority  for 
the  conduct  of  the  war,  and  affairs  genei-ally. 
The  campaign  of  1044  placed  Cromwell  clearly 
before  the  country.  The  earl  of  Manchester 
and  Cromwell  joined  the  army  of  Fairfax  and 
Leven,  and  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor  was 
fought,  July  3,  and  resulted  in  the  total  defeat 
of  the  royalists.  The  victory  was  principally 
due  to  the  valor,  energy,  and  coolness  of  Crom- 
well and  his  Ironsides.  Cromwell  then  accom- 
panied Manchester  in  the  march  that  was  made 
to  the  south,  where  things  had  gone  against 
the  parliament.  He  commanded  the  horse. 
The  second  battle  of  Newbury  was  fought,  Oct. 
27,  1644,  the  king  being  with  his  army.  The 
royalists  retreated  in  the  niglA,  though  it  can 
hardly  be  said  they  were  defeated.  Cromwell, 
who  had  highly  distinguished  himself  in  the 
action,  and  in  the  proceedings  preliminary  to 
it,  vainly  entreated  of  Manchester  to  pursue. 
So  little  energy  had  that  general,  that  he  allow- 
ed the  king  to  return,  assume  the  offensive,  and 
carry  off  the  artillery  and  stores  that  were  in 
Donuington  castle.  Manchester  was  not  only 
listless,  but  he  was  a  leader  of  the  moderate 
party,  the  Presbyterians,  who  were  not  for 
pushing  matters  to  extremity  with  the  king. 
He  did  not  wish  to  have  the  royal  army  de- 
stroyed, ds  it  Avould  have  been  had  Cromwell 
moved  forward  with  his  cavalry  as  soon  as  the 
retreat  was  discovered.  The  Independents,  of 
whom  Cromwell  was  the  ablest,  and  who  had 
been  little  heard  of  at  the  beginning  of  the  dis- 
pute, were  now  fast  rising  to  importance  in  the 
state  and  in  the  army,  their  growth  being  not  a 
little  stimulated  by  the  conduct  of  the  Presby- 
terians, who  were  seeking  to  establish  a  tyran- 
ny as  severe  as  that  of  Laud  and  Strafford,  and 
which  would  have  been  unrelieved  by  any  of 
those  embellishments  that  belonged  to  the  sys- 
tem of  the  latter.  Cromwell  determined  that 
the  army  should  pass  under  the  influence  of  the 
Independents.  He  was  supported  by  all  the 
best  men  of  the  parliamentary  party — Fairfax, 
Marten,  Ireton,  Vane,  and  others.  The  time 
had  come  for  energetic  action,  and  Cromwell, 
from  his  place  in  parliament,  accused  Manches- 
ter of  backwardness,  and  of  not  desiring  vic- 
tory. He  narrated  all  that  had  happened  at 
Newbury,  and  bore  hard  upon  the  various  com- 


manders wlio  belonged  to  the  moderates.  Man- 
chester retorted,  in  the  upper  house,  and,  in  a 
narrative  tliat  he  had  written,  accused  Crom- 
well of  being  the  cause  of  the  failure  of  the 
campaign.  He  also  said  that  Cromwell  was 
hostile  to  the  peerage,  and  to  the  Presbyterian 
ascendency,  which  was  no  doubt  the  truth. 
The  famous  self-denying  ordinance  was  brought 
before  the  house  of  connnons,  Dec.  9,  1644. 
It  forbade  any  member  of  parliament  from 
holding  either  civil  or  military  office  during  the 
war,  Cromwell  supported  it  with  great  plain- 
ness of  speech,  portraying  the  state  of  affairs 
with  rough  candor,  and  showing  that  the  Avant 
of  success  was  due  to  the  selfish  ambition  of 
certain  members  of  both  houses,  who  held 
places  and  commands,  and  who  had  no  wish, 
therefore,  to  bring  about  by  vigorous  action 
the  settlement  of  a  quarrel  the  continuance  of 
wliich  they  found  so  profitable.  He  also  point- 
ed out  the  vices  and  corruptions  that  had  found 
their  way  into  the  army,  to  the  destruction  of 
its  efficiency ;  and  he  declared,  that  "  till  the 
whole  army  were  new  modelled,  and  governed 
under  a  stricter  discipline,  they  must  not  ex- 
pect any  notable  success  in  any  thing  they 
went  about."  The  first  ordinance  failed,  but  a 
milder  one  was  successful.  It  provided  that 
members  of  parliament  who  then  held  offices 
should  be  discharged.  The  3  armies  then  ex- 
isting were  formed  into  one,  22,000  strong.  Sir 
T,  Fairfax  was  made  lord  general,  and  Skippon 
major-general.  The  office  of  lieutenant-general 
was  not  filled  up,  undoubtedly  because  it  was 
meant  Cromwell  should  have  it,  in  spite  of  the 
self-denying  ordinance.  The  army  was  entirely 
new  modelled,  and  many  officers  were  dismiss- 
ed. Cromwell  had  been  employed,  with  Sir 
"William  Waller,  in  the  mean  time,  against  the 
royal  forces  in  the  west ;  and  when  the  time 
came  for  him  to  retire,  Fairfax  sent  a  petition 
to  the  commons,  asking  that  Cromwell  might 
command  the  horse  in  his  army  ;  and  many  of 
his  officers  signed  the  petition.  The  house 
cheerfully  complied,  and  Fairfax  was  allowed 
to  employ  him  for  such  time  as  the  house 
should  dispense  with  his  attendance.  The 
model  had  been  successful  in  raising  the  char- 
acter of  the  army,  under  Cromwell's  direction. 
Before  the  house  had  received  Fairfax's  peti- 
tion, Cromwell  had  been  several  times  engaged 
with  the  enemy,  and  had  been  victorious  in 
every  encounter.  Matters  looked  ill  for  the 
cause  everywhere  save  in  those  places  where 
Cromwell  was  present,  and  there  can  be  no 
reason  for  supposing  that  Fairfax  was  not  sin- 
cerely desirous  for  his  lieutenant's  presence,  on 
plain  and  obvious  military  grounds.  He  wrote 
to  him  as  goon  as  he  received  the  commons' 
permission,  and  on  June  13,  1645,  Crom- 
Avell  joined  the  army  at  Northampton,  th'e 
royal  forces  being  6  miles  distant.  His  arrival 
caused  the  army  to  become  active,  and  he  was 
the  real  commander  of  it  at  once.  Causing 
Ireton  to  ascertain  the  whereabout  of  the  roy- 
alists, which  he  did  with  skill,  he  declared  for 


86 


CROMWELL 


action  the  next  daj'.  Fairfax  acquiesced,  and 
on  June  14  was  fought  the  battle  of  Naseby, 
wliicli  was  fatal  to  the  house  of  Stuart.  Be- 
lieving his  enemies  were  retreating,  the  king 
■was  led  to  abandon  an  excellent  position  at 
Harborougli,  and  to  draw  up  his  army  on 
ground  favorable  to  those  enemies.  The  ac- 
tion of  Marston  Moor  was  repeated  on  a  larger 
scale.  Portions  of  each  army  were  successful, 
but  Cromwell  held  his  Ironsides  mostly  well  in 
hand,  and  assailed  a  body  of  royalist  infantry, 
after  he  had  routed  half  their  cavalry,  and  so 
decided  the  event  of  the  day.  The  royalists 
were  iitterly  beaten,  2,000  of  them  being  slain, 
and  8,000  captured.  All  their  artillery,  many 
thousand  stand  of  arms,  a  hundred  pair  of 
colors,  and  all  the  spoil  of  the  king  and  camp, 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victors.  The  most 
important  capture  was  that  of  the  king's  cab- 
inet, which  alforded  abundant  proofs  of  its 
owner's  total  insincerity.  Cromwell  led  the 
pursuit  to  Harborough,  whence  he  wrote  an 
account  to  the  speaker  of  the  commons  of  the 
victory.  This  letter  reached  the  commons  before 
tliat  of  Fairfax,  and  that  was  Cromwell's  ob- 
ject in  writing  it  so  soon.  The  reading  of  it 
■was  the  announcement  to  the  Presbyterians 
that  power  had  departed  from  them.  Its  tone 
has  been  called  regal,  and  it  was  written  in  the 
terms  of  a  master.  The  very  day  the  news 
reached  parliament,  the  commons  resolved  that 
his  services  should  be  continued  in  Fairfax's 
army  during  the  pleasure  of  the  houses,  the 
lords  substituting  three  months.  He  followed 
up  the  victory  with  wonderful  celerity  and 
success.  Leicester  was  retaken,  Taunton  re- 
lieved. Goring  beaten,  and  Bridgewater  storm- 
ed. Soon  afterward  he  put  down  the  "  club 
men,"  a  third  party,  which  might  have  reached 
to  formidable  dimensions  if  they  had  not  been 
thus  firmly  dealt  with  at  the  outset.  After 
taking  Sherburne  castle,  Fairfax  and  Crom- 
well besieged  Bristol,  which  was  held  by 
Prince  Rupert  at  the  head  of  5,000  men. 
Cromwell,  who  was  ever  for  bold  measures  in 
war,  advised  that  the  place  should  be  stormed. 
This  counsel  was  followed,  but  the  attack  fail- 
ed. It  was,  however,  made  with  so  much  spirit 
that  Rupert  surrendered,  and  the  soundness 
of  Cromwell's  policy  was  vindicated.  He  then 
proceeded  against  Devizes,  which  he  stormed. 
Berkeley  castle  shared  the  same  fate.  "Win- 
chester surrendered.  Basing  House,  which  had 
previously  defied  all  attacks  of  the  parliamen- 
tarians, fell  before  him.  Longford  House  capit- 
ulated at  once.  He  defeated  Lord  Wentworth 
at  Bovey  Tracy,  inflicting  a  heavy  loss  on  him, 
and  taking,  among  other  spoils,  the  king's  stand- 
ard. He  and  Fairfax  stormed  Dartmouth, 
defeated  Lord  Hopton  at  Torrington,  and  drove 
the  last  remains  of  the  western  royalists  into 
Cornwall.  Finally,  Sir  Jacob  Astley,  at  the 
head  of  3,000  horse,  was  routed  at  Stow-on- 
tlie-Wold,  March  21,  1646,  which  was  the  last 
action  of  the  English  civil  war.  Sir  Jacob  was 
captured,  and  when  taken  to  the  head-quarters 


of  the  victors,  he  said :  "My  masters,  you  have 
done  your  work,  and  may  go  i)lay  ;  unless  you 
choose  to  fall  out  among  yourselves."  Crom- 
well had  indeed  done  his  work,  to  use  an  ex- 
pression of  that  time,  not  negligently.  He  had 
applied  Stratlbrd's  idea  of  "  Thorough  "  in  pol- 
itics to  military  operations ;  and  nothing  like 
what  he  had  accomplished  in  less  than  10 
months  from  the  time  he  had  joined  Fairfax 
at  Naseby  had  been  seen  in  England  since  the 
time  when  Edward  IV.  crushed  the  Lancas- 
trians at  Barnet  and  Tewkesbury.  The  whole 
of  England,  as  it  were,  had  been  subdued, 
though  on  the  13th  of  the  preceding  June  the 
chances  were  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  king, 
whose  cause  had  been  greatly^  advanced  in 
Scotland  by  the  victories  of  Montrose.  Had 
Cromwell  died  in  1646,  he  would  have  been 
entitled  to  a  high  place  in  the  list  of  great 
commanders.  In  original  genius  for  war  hardly 
any  man  ever  surpassed  him.  Yet  it  was  to 
success  in  politics  that  he  owed  his  success  as 
a  soldier ;  for  if  he  had  not  carried  the  self- 
denying  ordinance  through  parliament,  the 
royal  cause  must  have  triumphed  in  1645. 
The  "  new  model,"  emphatically  his  work,  as 
well  as  his  conception, — he  had  explained  it  to 
Hampden  in  1643, — was  the  cause  of  the  mil- 
itary superiority  of  the  parliament.  The  time 
was  now  come  when  he  was  to  be  as  eminent 
in  the  cabinet  as  he  had  been  in  the  field.  Par- 
liament heaped^great  rewards  on  him.  Lands 
of  the  yearly  value  of  £2,500  were  conferred 
on  liim,  taken  from  the  estates  of  the  marquis 
of  Winchester,  and  from  those  of  the  Somer- 
sets and  Herberts.  It  was  resolved  that  the 
king  should  be  recommended  to  create  him  a 
baron.  The  king  had  thrown  himself  into  the 
hands  of  the  Scotch  forces  then  in  England, 
and  had  been  delivered  up  to  the  English  par- 
liament. The  conduct  of  Cromwell  for  some 
time  after  this  event  is  the  subject  of  much 
dispute.  He  is  supposed  to  have  stirred  up 
that  agitation  in  the  army  which  was  directed 
against  the  king,  and  against  any  settlement 
with  him,  and  which  CroniAvell  is  charged  with 
only  affecting  to  condemn,  though  at  a  later 
period  he  visited  some  of  the  agitators  with 
military  punishment.  The  army,  perhaps  the 
most  intelligent  body  of  soldiers  that  ever  ex- 
isted, appear  to  have  formed  a  just  estimate  of 
the  character  of  the  king.  They  saw  he  was 
not  to  be  trusted,  and  they  determined  not  to 
trust  him ;  and  ultimately  they  determined  to 
punish  him  for  his  attacks  on  the  liberties  of 
England,  and  for  shedding  innocent  blood.  It 
is  not  probable  that  they  saw  their  way  more 
clearly  at  first  than  other  parties  saw  theirs,  or 
that  they  arrived  at  an  immediate  conclusion. 
As  in  all  other  cases,  events  were  evolved  from 
events.  That  Cromwell  had  something  to  do 
with  urging  on. the  army  to  oppose  the  par- 
liament, is  very  fjrobable ;  and  the  army,  in 
order  that  it  might  not  be  sacrificed  by  the 
Presbyterians,  who  controlled  tlie  parliament, 
seized  the  king's  person,  which  it  held  until 


CROMWELL 


87 


late  in  164T.  If  the  parliament  had  dealt  hon- 
estly and  fairly  witli  the  army,  tlio  troubles 
miglit  have  been  broiiglit  to  an  end  in  1G47, 
supposing  the  king  to  have  been  capable  of 
dealing  candidly  with  the  jiarliament.  It  was 
the  dispute  between  the  army  and  the  parlia- 
ment that  encouraged  the  king  so  to  act  as  ren- 
dered a  settlement  impossible.  Though  every 
one  of  his  schemes  had  failed,  though  all  his 
armies  had  been  annihilated,  though  the  Scotch 
had  delivered  him  up  to  tlie  English,  and  though 
the  army  of  the  latter  had  seized  and  were  hold- 
ing him,  he  fell  into  the  sad  mistake  of  supposing 
that  he  was  necessary  to  tliem  all,  and  tliat  he 
could  choose  as  he  pleased  with  wliich  party  to 
treat.  Dominated  by  an  enormous  egotism,  he 
set  himself  to  work  to  outwit  Cromwell.  That 
the  latter  entered  into  a  treaty  with  the  king, 
and  tliat  he  was  supported  by  Fairfax  and  other 
distinguished  soldiers  of  his  party,  are  indis- 
putable facts.  The  sincerity  of  Cromwell  in 
this  business  is  doubted  by  many;  that  of 
the  king  is  believed  in  by  no  one  competent 
to  form  an  intelligent  judgment.  It  cost 
Charles  neither  difficulty  nor  ])aiu  to  deceive, 
and  he  seems  to  have  preferred  crooked  Avays, 
even  when  it  was  for  his  interest  to  walk 
in  those  which  were  straight.  Cromwell's  sin- 
cerity there  is  no  good  reason  for  doubting. 
He  contemplated  the  settlement  of  England  on 
some  such  basis  as  the  great  political  dispute 
was  settled  40  years  later.  Ilis  object  was  a 
free  polity,  government  by  parliament,  toler- 
ation, the  dismissal  of  the  ultra  royalists,  and 
the  reinstatement  of  strict  legality.  That  he 
looked  for  some  individual  benefits  is  true.  lie 
was  to  be  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  a  knight 
of  the  garter,  and  earl  of  Essex,  a  title  to  wliich 
one  of  his  family  might  properly  aspire,  now 
that  the  last  of  its  Devereux  wearers  was  in 
his  grave.  Those  who  accuse  Cromwell  of  hy- 
pocrisy in  this  instance,  and  assert  that  he  was 
looking  already  to  supreme  power  in  the  state, 
misjudge  his  position  entirely.  He  could  look 
no  higher  than  the  king  professed  to  be  willing 
to  elevate  him  ;  and  he  could  propose  to  him- 
self no  higher  object  than  that  of  settling  the 
kingdom  in  peace.  That  he  then  thought  of 
the  throne  for  himself,  under  any  title,  is  very 
improbable.  Such  an  ambition  would,  at  that 
time,  have  been  quite  inconsistent  with  that 
good  sense  which  was  the  prevailing  element 
of  liis  character.  He  had  acliieved  much,  but 
not  sufficient  to  warrant  an  aspiration  at  once 
so  irregular  and  so  lofty,  and  so  contrary  to  all 
modes  of  English  thought.  Had  the  king  ex- 
hibited evidence  of  honesty,  Cromwell  would 
have  closed  with  him,  and  would  have  be- 
come the  founder  of  a  line  of  nobles ;  but 
the  most  complete  proof  was  obtained  by  him 
that  Charles  was  practising  the  grossest  de- 
ception, and  that  instead  of  a  garter  for  his 
knee,  he  intended  to  decorate  his  neck  with 
a  rope.  Then  it  was  that  Cromwell  resolved 
upon  the  king's  destruction.  The  army  leaned 
strongly  to  republicanism,  and  contained  not  a 


few  persons  wlio  entertained  extreme  opinions 
in  religion  and  politics.  Always  disliking  the 
king,  and  convinced  of  his  insincerity,  the  sol- 
diers saw  Cromwell's  course  with  unfriendly 
eyes.  Tlie  king  souglit  to  cheat  every  party, 
and  was  so  weak  as  to  say  to  Ireton,  Crom- 
well's son-in-law,  and  who  acted  with  him  in 
all  this  business :  "  1  shall  jday  my  game  as  well 
as  I  can ;"  to  Avhich  that  stern  and  honest 
republican  replied :  "  If  your  majesty  have  a 
game  to  play,  you  must  give  us  also  the  liberty 
to  play  ours."  The  king's  "  game  "  became 
hopeless  from  the  moment  he  had  Cromwell 
for  an  antagonist.  The  king  soon  saw  that  he 
had  made  one  of  his  mistakes.  He  believed 
his  life  was  in  danger  from  the  more  violent 
portion  of  the  soldiery,  known  as  Levellers ; 
and  Cromwell  is  supposed  to  have  feared  that 
the  monarch  would  be  seized  by  them,  and  to 
have  operated  on  the  royal  mind,  which  was 
also  startled  by  intimations  from  the  Scotch 
commissioners.  Charles,  therefore,  left  Hamp- 
ton court,  in  disguise,  on  the  night  of  Nov.  11, 
1647.  He  took  refuge  at  Carisbrooke  castle, 
in  the  isle  of  Wight,  instigated  by  Cromwell. 
Hammond,  governor  of  the  island,  was  a  con- 
nection of  Cromwell's  by  marriage.  The  reso- 
lution of  the  house  of  commons,  not  to  hold 
any  more  treaties  with  the  king,  led  to  much 
excitement  in  England,  and  to  some  fighting, 
Cromwell  proceeded  to  Wales,  where  he  put 
down  the  royalists  with  the  strong  hand. 
Then  came  his  campaign  against  the  Scotch, 
popularly  called  the  commencement  of  the  sec- 
ond civil  war.  The  majority  of  the  Scotch 
were  for  setting  up  the  king  again,  and  they 
invaded  England  with  a  large  army,  which 
was  joined  by  some  English  cavaliers.  Hast- 
ening to  the  north  with  such  rapidity  that 
the  Scotch  knew  not  of  his  arrival,  Crom- 
Avell  effected  a  junction  with  Lambert.  Their 
united  forces  numbered  only  8,600  men ;  the 
enemy  were  21,000.  On  August  17,  1648, 
the  battle  of  Preston  was  fought,  and  it  was 
Naseby  over  again.  The  enemy  lost  several 
thousand  men  in  the  battle,  and  the  duke  of 
Hamilton,  their  commander,  was  among  the 
prisoners.  Following  up  the  Scotch  with  great 
vigor,  Cromwell  completed  their  ruin,  so  that 
they  were  mostly  killed,  captured,  or  dispersed. 
Not  in  the  days  of  the  Edwards  and  Henrys 
had  the  English  been  more  successful  over  their 
ancient  enemies.  Perhaps  none  of  Cromwell's 
military  actions  were  of  a  higher  order  than 
those  of  this  campaign.  They  displayed  alike 
daring  valor  and  consummate  generalship. 
The  victor  pushed  on  to  Edinburgh,  where 
he  was  welcomed  by  the  extreme  anti-Stuart 
party,  headed  by  the  marquis  of  Argyle.  The 
king's  fate  was  determined  by  these  successes. 
He  had  been  engaged  in  his  usual  "  game,"  and 
gave  further  evidence  of  his  bad  faith.  The 
array  caused  him  to  be  removed  from  the  isle 
of  Wight  to  Hurst  castle,  Avhere  he  was  civilly 
treated,  but  whence  escape  was  impossible. 
The  parliament  voted  to  close  with  the  king, 


88 


CROMWELL 


but  the  majority  were  turned  out  of  the  house 
of  commons  by  Col.  Pride,  or  by  other  soldiers. 
The  king  was  then  brought  to  Windsor  castle, 
by  a  detachment  commanded  by  Col.  Har- 
rison. The  ordinance  for  erecting  the  high 
court  of  justice  was  passed,  and  tlie  king  was 
tried  and  executed.  That  Cromwell  was  at 
tlie  bottom  of  these  doings  there  can  be  no 
doubt  in  minds  that  consider  all  the  circum- 
stances, lie  was  the  most  powerful  man  in 
the  state.  So  far  as  any  one  man  could  be  said 
to  rule,  he  was  then  the  ruler  of  England. 
That  he  acted  with  free  will  may  be  doubted. 
It  may  be  that  he  was  obliged  to  comply  with 
the  demands  of  the  army,  that  body  being  de- 
termined that  the  king  should  suifer.  He  may 
have  been  urged  on  by  the  knowledge  he  had 
that  the  king  could  not  be  trusted.  His  name 
stands  third  on  the  death-warrant  of  the  king, 
which  he  signed  as  a  member  of  the  high  court. 
He  refused  to  use  his  influence  to  save  the 
king's  life.  Tlie  story  that  he  visited  the  body, 
and  remarked  on  the  likelihood  that  the  king 
would  iu  the  course  of  nature  have  reached  to 
extreme  old  age,  is  a  melodramatic  invention, 
and  to  be  classed  with  the  scene  in  Scott's 
"  Woodstock,"  in  which  he  is  represented  as 
going  into  a  fit  of  delirium  on  looking  at  Van- 
dyke's picture  of  the  king.  There  appears  no 
ground  for  believing  that  his  conscience  ever 
troubled  him  for  the  part  he  had  in  that  "  mem- 
orable scene."  When  the  council  of  state  was 
constituted,  for  performing  the  executive  duties 
of  government,  Cromwell  was  appointed  one  of 
its  members.  He  was  made  lord  lieutenant  of 
Ireland,  and  proceeded  to  that  country,  in 
much  state,  at  the  head  of  12,000  men.  He 
reached  Dublin,  Aug.  15,  1649,  and  instantly 
commenced  a  campaign  as  brilliant  as  it  was 
merciless  in  its  character.  Drogheda  was 
stormed,  and  the  entire  garrison  either  butch- 
ered or  sent  as  slaves  to  the  plantations.  Most 
of  the  victims  were  English  royalists,  and  their 
commander  was  an  Englishman.  Cromwell's 
object  was  to  strike  terror  into  the  enemy,  and 
so  prevent  further  resistance.  He  did  not  wish 
to  be  long  absent  from  England.  He  was 
mostly  successful,  but  at  Wexford  the  horrors 
of  Drogheda  were  repeated ;  and  at  Clonmel 
he  met  with  so  stern  a  resistance  that  he  grant- 
ed an  honorable  capitulation.  This  was  owing, 
not  to  his  humanity,  but  to  his  impatience  to 
cross  the  channel.  Appointing  Ireton,  his  son- 
in-law,  lord  deputy,  he  hastened  to  London, 
which  he  reached  May  31,  1650,  and  was  re- 
ceived with  great  enthusiasm.  His  presence 
was  much  needed.  The  Scotch  had  set  up 
Charles  II.,  and  made  a  covenanted  king  of 
him.  They  intended  to  invade  England,  for 
the  purpose  of  forcing  him  on  that  country. 
The  government  of  the  commonwealth  deter- 
mined to  anticipate  them,  and  to  send  an  array 
into  Scotland.  Fairfax,  being  under  Presby- 
terian influence  and  petticoat  government,  re- 
fused to  serve.  Cromwell  was  made  general- 
hi-chief,  and  lord  general.     He  entered  Scot- 


land, July  23,  at  the  head  of  11.000  men. 
Lesley,  an  experienced  soldier,  commanded 
double  tliat  number  of  Scotch,  and,  had  he  been 
left  free  to  ft)llow  his  own  will,  would  have 
batfled  tlie  invaders.  He  held  a  strong  posi- 
tion between  Edinburgh  and  Leith,  and  while 
he  refused  battle,  harassed  Cromwell,  and  de- 
stroyed all  sources  of  supply.  The  country 
was  wasted  on  all  sides,  the  Scotch  following 
their  old  modes  of  resistance  to  English  inva- 
sion. There  was  some  fighting,  in  which  the 
Scotch  showed  spirit,  but  generally  were  beat- 
en. Cromwell  was  forced  to  retreat  to  Dun- 
bar. On  Aug.  17  he  again  advanced,  his  aim 
being  to  cut  oflt"  the  communication  between 
Edinburgh  and  the  western  counties ;  but  for 
this  movement  Lesley,  with  the  prescience  of 
a  true  soldier,  had  been  prepared,  and  he  in- 
stantly took  a  new  position,  not  less  strong 
than  that  which  had  previously  baffled  the 
English.  The  latter  vainly  assaulted  several 
posts  garrisoned  by  the  Scotch,  and  occasion- 
ally were  defeated  in  affairs  of  cavalry.  The 
foot  had  some  skirmisliing,  and  there  were  brisk 
cannonades.  In  the  end,  Lesley  won,  Cromwell 
retreating,  and  the  Scotch  horse  harassing  him 
as  his  demoralized  army,  which  had  suffered 
much  from  sickness,  fell  back  once  more  upon 
Dunbar,  liis  grand  depot  and  base  of  opera- 
tions. In  a  worse  position  no  army  ever  found 
itself  than  that  in  which  Cromwell  had  now 
placed  his.  Dunbar  is  in  a  valley,  surrounded 
on  three  sides  by  hills,  through  Avhich  there 
are  but  two  narrow  passes.  The  Scotch  had 
possession  of  the  hills  and  passes,  and  by  the 
labor  of  a  few  hours  might  have  shut  up  the 
English  in  a  trap.  Such  was  Lesley's  plan ; 
but  he  had  in  his  own  camp  far  worse  enemies 
than  he  had  in  that  of  Cromwell.  The  preach- 
ers were  bent  upon  Cromwell's  destruction, 
and  thought  it  could  be  accomplished  with  the 
sword.  Their  influence  was  overwhelming, 
and,  after  they  liad  succeeded  in  driving  from 
the  army  all  the  cavaliers  in  it,  they  compelled 
Lesley  to  lead  it  into  the  plain,  thus  giving  up 
an  impregnable  position.  Meantime,  the  Eng- 
lish in  Dunbar,  after  discussing  some  desperate 
expedients,  the  adoption  of  either  of  which 
would  have  been  an  admission  of  defeat,  re- 
solved to  send  out  a  strong  column  to  the 
right  on  the  morning  of  Sept.  3.  This  col- 
nmn  marched,  and  fell  in  with  the  Scotch, 
who  had  just  descended  from  the  hills,  where- 
iipon  the  battle  commenced.  The  result  was 
doubtful,  as  between  the  infantry,  until  a 
body  of  English  cavalry  came  to  their  country- 
men's assistance,  and  so  the  Scotch  were  rout- 
ed, their  very  excess  of  number  causing  their 
defeat  to  be  the  more  complete.  On  the  other 
Aving,  and  in  the  centre,  the  English  were  also 
successful.  The  vanquished  lost  12,000  men, 
mostly  prisoners,  all  their  artillery,  200  colors, 
and  15,000  stand  of  arms.  Like  Inkermann, 
Dunbar  was  the  soldiers'  battle,  being  Avon  by 
hard  fighting,  and  Avithout  any  generalship  on 
the  part  of  the  victoi',  who  frankly  disclaimed 


CROMWELL 


89 


all  merit,  and  -who  had  put  his  men  in  a  po- 
sition wliere  nothing  could  save  them  from 
destruction  save  tlie  folly  of  the  enemy.  Ad- 
vancing for  a  third  time  into  Scotland,  Crom- 
■well  took  Edinburgh,  the  castle  of  which  held 
out  until  Dec.  2-i.  The  winter  was  passed  in 
political  intrigues  and  in  some  military  opera- 
tions in  the  southern  districts.  In  the  spring, 
when  about  to  take  the  field  in  force,  he  was 
seized  with  ague,  and  was  not  able  to  act  until 
July  1,  1G51.  Lesley  had  done  his  best  to  re- 
organize his  army,  and  thougli  much  harmed  by 
tlie  continued  interference  of  tlie  preachers,  ho 
baffled  Cromwell  for  some  weeks.  The  latter, 
by  a  bold  manoeuvre,  sent  a  corps  into  Fife- 
shire,  which  defeated  the  Scotch  there,  and  the 
consequence  was  that  the  English  were  enabled 
to  besiege  and  take  Perth.  "While  thus  en- 
gaged, Cromwell  learned  that  the  enemy  had 
marched  into  England,  which  course  had  been 
taken  by  Charles  IL  in  the  belief  tliat  he 
sixould  be  joined  by  the  English  cavaliers,  and 
the  people  generally,  almost  all  of  whom  were 
opposed  to  the  new  government.  The  Scotch 
reached  Worcester,  where  they  halted ;  but  if 
they  had  pushed  on  to  London,  it  would  havo 
fallen  into  their  hands,  and  with  it  the  whole 
country.  The  prompt  and  skilful  measures 
taken  by  Cromwell  on  hearing  of  Charles's 
march  had  brought  30,000  English  troops  to 
the  vicinity  of  Worcester,  including  regulars, 
train  bands,  and  militia.  The  king  had  but 
13,000.  On  Sept.  3,  the  anniversary  of  Dunbar, 
the  battle  of  Worcester  was  fought,  and  ended 
in  the  annihilation  of  the  invaders,  2,000  of 
whom  were  killed,  and  8,000  captured.  Crom- 
well believed  it  to  be  "  a  crowning  mercy,"  as 
it  was,  for  it  was  fatal  to  the  royal  cause  ;  and 
had  tlie  victor  not  died  prematurely,  or  had 
his  successor  been  a  man  of  talent,  a  new  dy- 
nasty, if  not  a  new  polity,  would  have  been  set 
up  in  Britain.  It  is  related,  as  an  evidence  of 
his  elation  after  the  battle,  that  he  oifered  to 
knight  some  of  his  officers.  The  government 
showed  itself  most  grateful,  not  to  say  servile, 
to  the  victor.  An  estate  of  £4,000  a  year  was 
conferred  on  him,  and  Hampton  court  was 
prepared  for  his  abode.  He  was  made  chan- 
cellor of  the  university  of  Oxford.  Sept.  3 
was  ordered  to  be  observed  annually  "  for  all 
time  to  come," — which  the  event  showed  to  be 
8  years.  But  nothing  short  of  supreme  power 
would  content  him.  lie  was  determined  to 
be  master  of  all.  His  demeanor  changed,  and 
he  bore  himself  as  Cassar  is  said  to  have 
done  after  he  had  struck  down  the  last  of 
his  open  enemies.  He  was  determined  to  set- 
tle the  state,  but  in  his  own  way,  and  with 
himself  as  its  chief.  In  1647  he  would  have 
been  content  with  the  highest  honors  of  a  sub- 
ject, could  he  have  relied  upon  the  king ;  but 
in  1651  he  had  put  the  king  to  death,  had  con- 
quered Wales  and  Ireland,  had  won  three  of 
the  greatest  battles  of  that  age,  and  had  driven 
the  whole  Stuart  family  from  all  its  dominions. 
With  the  increase  of  his  influence,  and  power 


his  political  horizon  had  extended.  Unques- 
tionably he  aimed  at  the  throne,  not  from  any 
love  of  the  mere  trappings  of  monarchy,  to 
which  his  robust  nature  was  indifferent,  but 
because  he  knew  that  the  kingly  office  and  title 
were  grand  elements  of  strength.  He  wished 
to  be  a  liberal,  constitutional  monarch,  and  had 
he  been  met  in  his  own  spirit  such  a  mon- 
arch he  would  have  become.  But  he  encoun- 
tered opposition  from  many  who  had  thus  far 
acted  with  him,  and  the  soldiery  themselves, 
attached  though  they  were  to  his  person,  and 
ready  to  do  most  of  his  Avork,  were  sincerely 
devoted  to  republicanism.  With  their  consent 
he  might  be  any  thing  he  chose  but  king. 
The  best  of  the  republican  statesmen,  headed 
by  Vane,  were  for  maintaining  the  existing 
order  of  things  ;  and  they  were  right,  the  gov- 
ernment that  existed  since  Charles  I.'s  execution 
having  proved  itself  worthy  of  trust,  and  hav- 
ing managed  the  internal  affairs  of  the  state, 
and  its  foreign  policy,  with  a  vigor  and  a  pru- 
dence that  had  not  been  known  since  the  death 
of  Elizabeth.  Could  Cromwell  have  been  con- 
tent with  a  just  share  of  power  in  the  new  gov- 
ernment, it  would  have  been  maintained  ;  and 
as  the  new  system  would  then  not  have  dc 
pended  on  the  life  of  one  man,  the  royal  fam- 
ily would  have  been  kept  out  for  ever.  But 
he  was  bent  upon  being  sole  ruler.  The  19 
months  that  followed  the  final  overthrow  of 
the  royalists  were  spent  in  discussions  and  in- 
trigues, and  they  constitute  the  least  reputable 
part  of  Cromwell's  career.  On  April  20, 
1653,  he  drove  the  remnant  of  the  long  parlia- 
ment out  of  the  house  of  commons  by  force. 
The  council  of  state  was  broken  up  the  same 
day.  For  some  weeks  England  was  as  near  to 
an  anarchy  as  any  civilized  nation  has  ever 
been ;  but  on  June  6,  CromweU  issued  sum- 
mons to  156  persons  to  meet  at  Westminster, 
as  a  parliament.  All  but  two  obeyed,  and 
the  new  parliament  met  July  4.  This  was 
the  famous  Barebone's  parliament,  which  has 
been  a  by-word  for  two  centuries.  One  of  the 
members  was  named  Bai'bone,  and  this  was 
scurrilously  changed  into  Barebone.  All  but  17 
of  the  members  were  summoned  for  England, 
Ireland  and  Wales  haA-ing  6  each,  and  Scotland 
5.  Cromwell  made  to  this  bodj'  a  long  speech, 
and  resigned  his  power  into  its  hands.  The 
parliament  was  a  well-meaning  body,  but  it 
contained  few  men  of  influence,  and  its  con- 
duct, though  honest,  only  added  to  the  public 
confusion.  On  Dec.  12,  a  portion  of  its  mem- 
bers resigned  their  power  into  the  hands  of 
Cromwell,  and  the  rest  either  retired  silently 
or  were  driven  out  by  soldiers  from  their  haU. 
On  Dec.  16  came  forth  the  new  institute  of  gov- 
ernment, by  which  Cromwell  was  made  lord 
protector,  and  the  supreme  legislative  authority 
was  vested  in  him  and  a  parliament.  The  par- 
liament was  to  be  imperial  in  its  character,  and 
not  to  exceed  400  members  for  England,  30  for 
Scotland,  and  30  for  Ireland.  The  protector 
was  to  be  assisted  by  a  council  of  state.     There 


90 


CROMWELL 


were  many  judicious  provisions  in  the  institute, 
among  wliich  was  an  improvement  of  the  rep- 
resentation, similar  in  principle  to  that  which 
was  adopted  hy  England  in  1832.  Parliament 
was  to  meet  hi  Sept.  1654,  and  until  that  time 
the  protector  and  his  council  were  to  have  un- 
limited power.  Cromwell  was  to  hold  office 
for  life,  and  the  council  of  state  was  to  choose 
bis  successor,  hut  at  a  later  period  Cromwell 
was  authorized  to  name  him.  So  far  as  he 
could,  the  protector  revived  monarchical  forms. 
A  variety  of  ordinances  were  passed  of  an  arbi- 
trary character,  and  many  of  the  government's 
deeds  would  have  disgraced  the  worst  times  of 
the  Stuarts.  Cromwell's  defence  is  the  neces- 
sity of  the  case,  which  must  pass  for  what  it  is 
worth.  There  was  no  lack  of  vigor  in  the  gov- 
ernment, and  thougli  the  protector  did  all  that  he 
could  to  conciliate  the  royalists,  which  was  not 
much,  he  found  them  inveterately  hostile,  and 
their  baser  spirits  bent  on  assassinating  him.  A 
plot  was  detected  in  1654,  and  two  of  the  con- 
spirators were  executed.  Following  the  course 
of  the  government  he  had  overthrown,  the  pro- 
tector's foreign  policy  was  bold  and  manly, 
save  that  in  making  peace  with  the  Dutch  he 
abandoned  the  high  position  which  the  states- 
men of  the  commonwealth  had  assumed,  though 
the  war  had  been  successful.  A  favorable 
treaty  of  commerce  was  made  with  Sweden. 
Parliament  met  Sept.  3, 1654.  Care  had  been 
taken  to  exclude  from  it  men  whose  hostility 
to  the  protectorate  was  supposed  to  be  un- 
changeable, and  no  man  who  had  been  on  the 
royal  side  in  the  civil  war  was  even  allowed  to 
vote  for  members.  Still  some  inveterate  repub- 
licans were  chosen,  and  Bradshaw,  their  leader, 
moved  for  a  committee  of  the  whole  to  delib- 
erate whether  the  house  would  approve  of  the 
new  system  of  government,  which  was  carried. 
Warm  discussions  followed,  upon  which  the 
protector  locked  the  members  out  of  their  hall, 
and  woidd  allow  none  to  return  to  it  who 
would  not  sign  an  engagement  that  the  gov- 
ernment was  legal.  Nearly  two-thirds  signed, 
but  the  rest  refused ;  but  the  servile  major- 
ity soon  fell  to  questioning  the  "  institute," 
and  government  was  in  a  minority,  where- 
upon Cromwell  dissolved  the  parliament.  A 
despotism  was  established,  followed  by  both 
royalist  and  republican  plots,  which  failed, 
and  many  of  those  engaged  in  them  were  pun- 
ished. Numerous  arrests  were  made  of  per- 
sons not  even  suspected  of  crime,  the  object 
being  to  strike  terror  into  the  public  mind. 
The  royalists  were  very  harshly  dealt  with. 
England  and  Wales  were  divided  into  12  dis- 
tricts, the  military  command  in  each  being  vested 
in  a  major-general.  Beside  having  control  over 
most  of  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life,  the  commis- 
sions of  these  officers  contained  a  special  order 
from  tlie  protector  that  they  should  observe 
and  follow  such  directions  as  they  should  from 
time  to  time  receive  from  him.  Never  before 
or  since  has  England  known  so  iron  a  rule,  and 
to  the  wrongs  that  were  conmion  under  it  must 


be  attributed  not  a  little  of  that  folly  whicli, 
5  years  later,  brought  about  the  restoration 
without  any  thing  having  been  done  to  secure 
the  rights  of  the  people.  To  atone  for  this 
denial  of  freedom  to  his  subjects,  the  protector 
gave  them  glory.  France  and  Spain  contended 
for  the  English  alliance,  and  France  succeeded. 
The  Spanisli  possessions  in  America  Avere  as- 
sailed, and  Jamaica  was  taken.  Admiral  Blako 
was  successful  in  the  Mediterranean,  against 
the  Barbary  powers  and  Tuscany.  The  influ- 
ence of  England  put  an  end  to  the  massacre  of 
the  Vaudois.  Rich  spoils  were  taken  from  the 
Spanish  fleets.  Appeals  were  made  to  Crom- 
well for  assistance  from  various  states.  These 
XJroceedings  were  expensive,  and  funds  ran  so 
low  that  it  became  necessary  to  call  a  parlia- 
ment, to  meet  Dec.  17,  1656.  The  elections 
caused  much  excitement.  To  prevent  their 
return,  eminent  republicans  were  imprisoned. 
But  the  majority  was  adverse  to  Cromwell, 
who  thereupon  excluded  more  than  100  of 
them  from  the  house.  Wishing  to  gain  popu- 
larity, he  allowed  parliament  to  put  an  end  to 
the  power  of  the  major-generals.  It  was 
moved  that  the  protector  should  take  the  title 
of  king,  and,  after  much  debating  and  intrigu- 
ing, this  was  carried,  as  were  some  other  pro- 
visions calculated  to  restore  the  old  English 
polity.  Cromwell  longed  for  the  crown,  but 
he  dared  not  accept  it  against  the  determined 
opposition  of  some  of  the  highest  military  oflS- 
cers,  and  the  general  sense  of  the  army.  He 
accordingly  refused  the  offer.  The  other  provi- 
sions were  adopted,  and  the  lord  protector  was 
newly  inaugurated,  with  great  pomp  and  so- 
lemnity. Parliament  adjourned,  to  give  him 
time  to  create  a  house  of  lords.  When  it  re- 
assembled, the  excluded  members  having  been 
restored,  the  commons  refused  to  recognize 
the  other  house,  and  Cromwell  dismissed  this, 
his  last  parliament,  his  last  words  to  it  being : 
"Let  God  judge  between  me  and  you!"  to 
which  some  of  the  republicans  answered : 
"  Amen !"  The  brief  remainder  of  his  life  was 
passed  amid  plots,  having  his  murder  for  their 
end.  He  had  such  good  intelligence  that  every 
thing  became  known  to  him,  and  the  plots 
uniformly  failed.  Yet  the  precautions  he  had 
to  adopt  were  of  a  humiliating  character,  and 
resembled  those  of  the  Greek  tyrants.  He 
was  much  in  need  of  money  for  the  public  ser- 
vice, but  he  dared  not  impose  taxes  by  his  own 
authority.  Meantime  his  foreign  policy  went 
on  successfully,  the  bonds  of  alliance  between 
England  and  France  being  of  the  strongest 
nature.  English  forces  fought  side  by  side 
with  the  French  against  the  Spaniards,  the 
latter  having  some  of  the  banislied  English 
cavaliers  under  their  banners.  Cromwell  told 
the  men  of  the  army  he  sent  to  Louis  XIV.'s 
aid  that  they  were  to  show  the  same  zeal  for 
the  monarch  that  they  showed  for  himself; 
and  Louis  and  his  minister  (Mazarin)  evinced 
their  attachment  to  Cromwell  in  various  ways. 
Hud  the  protector  lived,  he  would  probably 


CROMWELL 


91 


liave  found  the  means  of  carryinjif  on  his  gov- 
eniineiit.  Anotlier  parliament  was  thought  of, 
from  which  the  republicans  were  to  be  ex- 
cluded, aud  Croniwell's  last  public  act  was  to 
dissolve  the  committee  that  had  the  subject 
under  deliberation.  In  the  sununer  of  105.S  liis 
2d  daugliter,  Elizabeth  Claypole,  died ;  and 
as  she  was  his  favorite,  and  liis  disposition  was 
alfectionate,  tlie  effect  on  his  shattered  body 
and  disturbed  mind  was  serious.  After  some 
previous  illness,  he  was  forced  to  confine  him- 
self to  his  room,  Aug.  24,  1G58,  from  a  ter- 
tian fever.  On  Sept.  3,  the  anniversary  of 
Dunbar  and  Worcester,  and  known  as  his 
"  fortunate  day,"  he  died,  at  4  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  most  ter- 
rible st<n-in  of  those  times,  which  both  friends 
and  enemies  connected  with  his  death,  but  with 
ditl'erent  associations.  The  remains  of  the  ])ro- 
tector  were  soon  consigned  to  Henry  VlL's 
chapel,  as  it  was  impossible  to  keep  them,  cor- 
ruption having  followed  death  innnediately, 
witli  singular  rapidity  and  violence ;    but  the 

Sublic  funeral,  a  gorgeous  ceremony,  took  place 
iov,  23.  After  the  restoration,  his  body  was 
disinterred,  and  gibbeted  at  Tyburn,  and  then 
burietl  under  the  gallows,  the  head  being  placed 
on  Westminster  hall.  There  was  long  current, 
however,  a  story  tliat  the  protector's  body,  by 
his  own  directions,  was  buried  in  Naseby  field, 
at  midnight,  in  a  grave  9  feet  deep  ;  and  in  it- 
self this  story  is  not  improbable,  but  it  was 
coupled  with  the  assertion  that  the  body  gib- 
beted at  Tyburn  was  that  of  Charles  I.,  which 
was  discovered  at  Windsor  in  1813,  so  that  the 
tale  can  no  longer  be  regarded  as  true,  though 
it  is  with  reluctance  that  its  want  of  foundation 
is  admitted. — Cromwell  had  5  sous  :  Robert, 
born  1G21,  died  1639;  Oliver,  born  1623,  died 
in  battle,  1648;  James  died  in  infancy;  Rich- 
ard aud  Henry  survived  him.  lie  had  4  daugh- 
ters :  Bridget,  married,  first  to  Ireton,  and  then 
to  Fleetwood,  a  woman  of  decided  character, 
died  at  the  age  of  57,  in  1681 ;  Elizabeth,  born 
1629,  married  to  John  Claypole,  died  1658 ;  Mary, 
born  1637,  married  to  Viscount  (afterward 
earl  of)  Fauconberg,  died  1712;  Frances,  born 
1638,  married,  first  to  Robert  Ricli,  1657,  and. 
Rich  dying  in  a  few  months,  then  to  Sir  John 
Russell,  died  1721,  The  wife  of  the  protector 
survived  him  14  years,  dying  Oct.  8,  1672,  after 
having  lived  in  retirement  since  the  downfall 
of  her  family. — There  are  many  lives  of  Crom- 
well, the  best  of  which  for  general  readers 
is  that  to  be  found  in  Mr.  Forster's  "  States- 
men of  the  Commonwealth  of  England." 
Mr.  Carlyle's  "Oliver  Cromwell's  Letters  and 
Speeches"  is  a  work  of  great  excellence,  but 
the  author's  purpose  of  seeing  no  wrong  in  his 
hero's  conduct  lessens  its  value.  Mr.  Gleig's 
"  Lives  of  tlie  most  eminent  British  Military 
Comnumders  "  contains  a  good  military  biog- 
raphy of  tlie  protector.  Most  of  tlie  other  biog- 
raphies are  worthless,  either  from  the  ignorance 
or  the  prejudices  of  their  authors.  Claren- 
don's great  work  has  always  been  popular,  and 


it  bears  hard  upon  Cromwell.  Even  the  able 
volumes  of  M.  Guizot,  who  has  gone  over  the 
whole  35  years  from  the  accession  of  Charles  I. 
to  the  restoration,  are  tinged  with  his  peculiar 
views,  and  are  not  always  just  either  to  the 
statesmen  of  the  long  parliament  or  to  Cromwell 
individually  ;  but  they  contain  much  matter  not 
to  be  found  elsewhere.  Mr  John  Langton  San- 
ford's  "  Studies  and  Illustrations  of  the  Great 
Rebellion"  contains  much  valuable  matter  con- 
cerning Cromwell,  admirably  told,  but  it  ter- 
minates with  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor.  It 
corrects  many  errors  in  Cromwell's  history  that 
have  long  been  received  as  trntlis. — Richakd, 
3d  and  eldest  surviving  son  of  the  foregoing, 
and  second  lord  protector,  born  at  Hunting- 
don, Oct.  4,  1626,  died  at  Cheshunt,  near  Lon- 
don, July  12,  1712.  He  became  a  student 
of  Lincoln's  Inn,  1047,  where  he  remained  2 
years.  He  did  not  study  much,  but  devoted 
himself  to  the  pleasures  of  the  field  and  the 
table,  to  the  former  of  Avhich  he  had  become 
attached  while  leading  a  rural  life  in  the  early 
years  of  the  civil  war.  In  politics  he  is  said  to 
have  been  a  royalist,  and  to  have  interceded 
with  his  father  for  the  king's  life.  In  1649  he 
married  Dorothy,  daughter  of  Richard  Mayor, 
of  Hursley,  where  they  resided  during  most  of 
Oliver's  protectorate,  Richard  indulging  in 
hunting  and  hospitality.  Oliver  did  not  think 
highly  of  his  son's  capacity,  and  was  pleased  to 
see  him  remain  in  the  country.  "When  the 
protectorate  was  established,  Richard  was 
elected  to  parliament,  for  various  places,  on 
different  occasions,  and  Oliver  endeavored  to 
train  him  to  the  art  of  government.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  chancellor  of  Oxford  uni- 
versity, was  made  a  colonel,  and  a  lord  of  trade 
and  navigation.  "When  the  protector  sought  to 
create  a  house  of  peers,  his  eldest  son  was 
placed  at  its  head,  with  the  title  of  the  Right 
Hon.  Lord  Richard,  &;c.  On  Oliver's  death, 
Richard  succeeded  to  the  place  of  lord  pro- 
tector as  regularly  and  as  easily  as  Charles  I. 
had  succeeded  James  I.  A  parliament  was 
called,  which  met  Jan.  27,  1059,  to  which  he 
made  a  sensible  speech,  and  for  a  short  time 
things  went  on  well.  In  parliament,  however, 
he  was  not  strong,  and  tlie  army  was  not  at- 
tached to  one  who  was  at  heart  a  royalist.  A 
meeting  of  the  officers  was  held,  at  which  it 
was  resolved  that  the  army  should  be  com- 
manded by  some  one  person.  The  protector 
applied  to  parliament  for  advice,  at  the  sugges- 
tion of  the  council ;  and  that  body  condemned 
the  action  of  the  army,  and  declared  that  the 
oflicers  should  hold  no  more  meetings  without 
the  protector's  permission.  This  brought  mat- 
ters to  a  crisis.  The  officers  compelled  Richard 
to  dissolve  parliament,  which  event  was  soon 
followed  by  his  own  resignation.  He  was  not 
equal  to  the  place  in  which  circumstances  had 
placed  him.  To  the  remonstrances  his  deter- 
mination excited  he  replied  that  his  resolution 
w^as  fixed,  that  violent  councils  did  not  suit  him, 
and  the  like.    His  retirement  drew  upon  him 


92 


CROMWELL 


reproaches  from  all  sides,  wliich  have  been  re- 
peated for  two  centuries.  Even  Macaulay  speaks 
of  him  as  "that  foolish  Ishbosheth,"  who  could 
not  preserve  "  an  authority  which  any  man  of 
urdiiuiry  firmness  and  prudence  would  have 
retained."  Just  before  the  restoration,  the 
Cromwellians  wished  to  replace  Richard  at  the 
head  of  the  nation,  but  it  was  too  late  for  such 
an  act  to  be  attempted,  even  if  he  had  himself 
been  willing  to  return  to  Whitehall.  lie  retired 
to  Ilursley,  his  wife's  estate,  that  lady  feeling 
far  more  the  fallen  condition  of  the  family  than 
her  husband.  In  July,  1G60,  he  left  England  for 
the  continent,  but  less  on  account  of  political 
than  for  personal  reasons.  His  debts  amounted 
to  £30,000.  He  resided  at  Paris,  under  the 
name  of  Wallis,  for  20  years,  making  two  visits 
to  Geneva.  lie  was  little  known,  and  sometimes 
had  his  feelings  wounded  by  expressions  of 
contempt  for  his  poltroonery  from  strangers. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1680,  his  debts  hav- 
ing been  paid,  took  the  name  of  Clarke,  and 
resided  at  Cheshunt.  His  life  was  retired. 
One  of  his  few  friends  was  Dr.  Watts,  who 
never  heard  him  mention  his  former  greatness 
more  than  once,  and  then  indirectly.  A  law- 
suit with  his  daughters,  in  his  extreme  old  age, 
brought  him  before  the  public,  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne.  The  jndge  treated  him  with 
much  consideration,  and  his  conduct  was  ap- 
proved by  the  queen.  Richard  won  his  cause. 
He  lived  to  be  nearly  86,  dying  at  Cheshunt,  in 
the  house  of  Sergeant  Pengelley,  who  was  sup- 
posed to  be  his  natural  son,  and  who  rose  to  emi- 
nence in  the  law.  He  was  buried  in  the  chancel 
of  Ilursley  church,  where  one  of  his  daughters 
erected  a  monument  to  his  memory.  He  left  no 
legitimate  son.  His  son  Oliver,  who  appears  to 
have  been  a  man  of  some  capacity,  was  active  in 
the  revolution  of  IBBS-'O,  and  offered  to  raise  a 
regiment  to  serve  in  Ireland,  provided  he  were 
allowed  to  nominate  his  captains ;  but  the  name 
was  yet  too  f(-)rmidable  to  warrant  government 
in  accepting  the  offer.  He  died  May  11,  1705. 
— Henuy,  2d  surviving  son  of  the  first  lord 
protector,  born  at  Huntingdon,  Jan.  20,  1628, 
died  March  23,  1673.  lie  was  educated  at 
Felstead,  but  as  he  entered  the  parliamentary 
army  at  the  age  of  16,  he  could  not  have  known 
much  of  schools.  Before  he  was  20  he  had  a 
troop  in  the  lord  general  Fairfax's  life  guards. 
He  was  made  a  colonel  in  1649,  and  went  with 
his  father  to  Ireland,  where  he  served  through- 
out those  fierce  wars  that  subjugated  the  coun- 
try, distinguishing  himself  on  several  occasions. 
In  tlie  first  parliament  that  his  father  called; 
the  "Barebone's  parliament,"  he  sat  as  one  of 
the  6  Irish  members.  lie  was  married,  in 
1653,  to  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Sir  Francis 
Russell,  a  lady  of  whom  much  that  is  good  is 
reported.  The  university  of  Cambridge  elected 
him  to  parliament  in  1654.  In  1655  he  was 
sent  to  Ireland  as  a  major-general,  and  event- 
ually he  was  made  lord  deputy.  lie  was  well 
received  in  that  country,  and  he  justified  the 
reception  by  the  admirable  manner  in  which 


he  governed  it.  Men  of  all  parties  united  in 
praising  his  wise  and  benevolent  action ;  and 
Ireland  rose  rapidly  to  prosperity  under  his 
rule.  He  is  said  to  have  inclined  in  politics  to 
royalist  principles,  which  was  not  uncommon 
with  members  of  Cromwell's  family.  When 
Oliver  died,  Henry  exerted  himself  to  have  his 
brother's  authority  acknowledged  in  Ireland, 
and  with  entire  success.  The  troubles  that 
befell  Richard  in  England,  however,  soon  had 
a  prejudicial  effect  on  Irish  affairs.  Henry  was 
annoyed  in  various  ways  by  his  brother's  ene- 
mies, and  he  sought  to  throw  up  the  govern- 
ment of  Ireland,  in  order  that  he  might  reply 
to  attacks  that  had  been  made  on  him  in  Eng- 
land, and  to  assist  the  protector.  His  request 
was  refused,  probably  because  the  republicans 
feared  him,  well  knowing  that  he  was  a  very 
different  man  from  Richard.  When  the  pro- 
tector retired,  Henry  resolved  to  place  the 
Irish  government  in  the  hands  of  Charles  II. ; 
but  the  long  parliament  recalled  him,  and 
placed  the  government  in  the  hands  of  com- 
missioners. He  obeyed  the  summons,  and  par- 
liament expressed  approbation  of  his  conduct. 
So  poor  was  he  that  he  had  not  money  enough 
of  his  own  to  pay  his  expenses  from  Dublin  to 
London.  The  readiness  with  which  he  surren- 
dered his  government  does  not  confirm  the 
common  impression  that  if  he  had  been  ap- 
pointed his  father's  successoi',  he  would  have 
maintained  the  place.  He  lacked  ambition. 
Henry  resided  for  some  years  with  his  father- 
in-law.  Sir.  F.  Russell,  at  Chippenliam.  Thence 
he  went  to  a  retired  estate  of  his  own,  called 
Spinney  Abbey,  near  Soham,  Cambridgeshire, 
where  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  days  in 
farming.  Charles  II.  is  said  to  have  visited  his 
house  when  going  from  Newmarket  to  London  ; 
and  when  he  heard  that  Henry  was  suffering 
from  the  stone,  he  expressed  sympathy  with  him, 
and,  according  to  one  account,  even  prescribed 
for  him,  the  king  being  a  dabbler  in  medicine. 
It  was  of  this  complaint  that  Henry  died.  He 
Avas  buried  in  Wicken  church,  and  a  stone  was 
placed  over  his  remains,  with  a  Latin  inscrip- 
tion, stating  merely  the  place  of  his  residence, 
his  age,  and  the  dates  of  his  birth  and  death. 
He  had  7  children.  His  last  male  descendant, 
and  great-grandson,  died  in  1821,  at  Cheshunt, 
aged  79.  He  had  been  a  solicitor,  and  was  the 
last  representative  of  the  great  protector. 

CROMWELL,  TnoMAS,  earl  of  Essex,  born 
toward  the  close  of  the  15th  centuiy,  died 
July  28,  1540.  The  exact  date  of  his  birth 
is  unknown,  though  one  account  says  he  was 
born  in  1498.  His  father,  one  of  the  Lincoln- 
shire Cromwclls,  moved  to  the  capitid,  and 
had  an  ironfoundery  at  Putney.  The  name  of 
Ills  mother  is  nowhere  given,  but  she  is  called 
a  gentlewoman  by  some  writers.  Cromwell's 
father  died  when  the  future  statesman  was  very 
young,  and  the  accounts  that  are  given  of  the  or- 
phan's early  days  are  unworthy  of  confidence. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  clerk  at  Antwerp, 
and  to  have  been  one  of  a  party  which  went 


CPwOMWELL 


93 


an  a  private  mission  to  Rome.  The  first  clear 
sight  of  him  represents  him  a  ragged  youth  in 
the  streets  of  Florence,  in  1515,  where  lie  attract- 
ed the  attention  of  Frescohaldi,  then  a  great 
banker,  and  having  extensive  business  connec- 
tions with  England.  To  his  inquiries,  Crom- 
well stated  who  he  was,  and  that  he  had  been 
page  to  a  French  foot  soldier.  Frescohaldi  took 
him  to  his  house,  relieved  his  wants,  and  fur- 
nished him  with  the  means  of  returning  home. 
lie  found  his  mother,  who  had  married  a  sec- 
ond time,  again  a  widow,  and  he  carried  on  his 
stepfather's  business,  that  of  a  clothier.  This 
brought  him  into  connection  with  the  court,  as 
he  furnished  the  royal  liveries.  lie  had  some 
employment  in  the  household  of  the  marchio- 
ness of  Dorset,  and  finally  jjassed  into  the  ser- 
vice of  Wolsey,  who  saw  his  talent,  and  as 
early  as  1525  employed  him  to  visit  and  break 
up  certain  small  monasteries,  the  property  of 
which  had  been  granted  by  the  pope  for  the 
foundation  of  colleges.  There  is  a  story  that 
Cromwell  was  with  the  army  of  the  constable 
Bourbon,  which  took  Eorae  in  1527 ;  but  if  it 
lias  any  foundation,  he  must  have  been  in 
Italy  as  an  agent  of  the  English  government, 
and  not  as  a  military  adventurer ;  for  he  was 
with  Wolsey  not  4  months  before  Eome  was 
stormed,  and  again  less  than  a  year  after  that 
event.  Another  story  is,  tliat  he  saved  the  life 
of  Sir  John  Russell,  at  Bologna,  for  which  there 
ajjjjears  to  be  some  foundation.  He  remained 
with  \yolsey  until  the  cardinal's  ruin,  and 
contended  so  ably  in  the  house  of  commons 
against  the  bill  of  impeachment  that  had  been 
])referred  for  the  completion  of  the  minister's 
fall,  that  he  caused  it  to  be  thrown  out.  This 
fidelity  to  his  patron  won  him  great  applause, 
including  that  of  Henry  YIII.,  who  could  ap- 
preciate generosity  in  others  if  he  could  not 
practise  it  himself.  His  talents,  too,  must  have 
recommended  him  to  the  king,  who  made  him 
his  secretary  in  1533,  and  government  organ 
in  the  house  of  commons.  This  necessarily 
made  him  the  leader  of  the  English  reforma- 
tion, a  part  for  which  his  early  life  is  supposed 
to  have  prepared  him.  Fronde  assigns  to  liim 
the  honor  of  being  the  only  man  in  England 
who  saw  his  way  distinctly  through  the  cliaos 
of  that  time,  the  privilege  of  genius,  that  of 
seeing  what  other  men  could  not  see,  being  his. 
He  had  no  party  ;  he  was  despised  and  feared 
by  the  nobility,  who  saw  in  him  the  friend  and 
I)upil  of  AYolsey,  Wolsey's  genuine  successor  in 
the  race  for  power ;  while  the  Protestants  could 
not  understand  either  the  character  or  conduct 
of  the  man  who  was  doing  their  work  better 
than  they  could  do  it  themselves.  But  his 
power  rapidly  became  great,  and  for  several 
years  he  was,  after  the  king,  the  most  power- 
ful man  in  England.  In  1531  he  was  concerned 
in  obtaining  from  the  clergy  the  enormous  sum 
of  £118,000,  a  fine  for  their  having  supported 
Wolsey's  legantine  authority.  Promotion  rap- 
idly followed  his  entrance  into  the  king's  ser- 
vice.    He  was  knighted,  sworn  of  the  privy 


council,  and  appointed  to  several  ofiices.  The 
high  posts  of  secretary  of  state  and  master  of 
the  rolls  soon  followed,  and  he  was  elected 
chancellor  of  the  university  of  Cambridge.  In 
1535  he  was  created  vicar  general,  or  visitor  gen- 
eral, with  j)ower  to  visit  all  the  monasteries  in 
England,  and  issued  a  commission  for  a  general 
visitation  ofthereligioushouses,  the  universities, 
and  other  spiritual  corporations.  He  did  not  be 
come  vicegerent  in  ecclesiastical  matters  until 
July,  1536,  having  just  previously  been  created 
Baron  Cromwell,  and  lord  privy  seal.  The  visita- 
torial power  was  executed  with  great  vigor,  the 
other  side  said  with  groat  cruelty  and  gross 
injustice.  The  proceeding  Avas  one  of  the  first 
importance,  and  struck  a  deadly  blow  at  the 
ascendency  of  Rome  in  England.  The  kingwas 
satisfied  with  Cromwell's  proceedings,  and  the 
work  of  the  reformation  was  much  advanced. 
Sweeping  changes  were  made  in  the  religious 
system  of  England.  The  articles  that  were 
adopted  by  the  convocation  of  163G  were  not 
acceptable  to  either  Protestants  or  Catholics, 
but  government,  of  which  Cromwell  was  chief 
minister,  was  strong  enough  to  enforce  them. 
The  complete  edition  of  the  English  Bible, 
known  as  the  "Great"  or  " Crumwell,"  was 
published  3  years  after,  with  the  arms  of  Crom- 
well on  the  title  page.  The  minister,  though 
he  was  regarded  by  the  nobility  with  the  deep- 
est aversion,  as  an  upstart,  was  now  at  the 
height  of  his  power,  Avhich  he  maintained  for 
some  years,  continuing  to  receive  rewards  and 
Ijromotion  from  the  king.  He  was  appoint- 
ed justice  of  the  forests  north  of  the  Trent,  made 
a  knight  of  the  garter,  and  elevated  to  the 
dignity  of  lord  high  chamberlain,  receiving  at 
the  same  time  the  title  of  earl  of  Essex.  Ho 
W'as  created  constable  of  Carisbrooke  castle,  and 
received  the  castle  and  lordship  of  Okehara,  to- 
gether with  valuable  estates  made  up  from  the 
possessions  of  the  dissolved  monasteries.  The 
reforms  he  effected  were  extensive,  and  in 
many  instances  they  were  useful,  and  of  lasting 
value  ;  but  the  readiness  with  whicli  he  accept- 
ed so  large  portions  of  the  spoil  that  had  been 
created  by  the  success  of  his  policy  must  ever 
be  a  stain  on  his  memory.  His  appointments 
and  titles,  too,  gave  much  offence  in  infiuential 
quarters.  One  great  family  was  mortally  of- 
fended by  his  taking  the  title  of  lord  high 
chamberlain,  and  another  by  his  elevation  to 
the  earldom  of  Essex.  The  people  hated  him 
because  of  the  taxation  with  which  he  bur- 
dened them.  He  had  enemies  on  all  sides, 
and  friends  nowhere.  The  fluctuations  of 
Henry's  mind  were  such  that  no  reliance  could 
be  placed  on  the  royal  support,  the  king  sac- 
rificing his  instruments  with  even  more  than 
the  proverbial  readiness  of  despots.  The  party 
hostile  to  him — headed  by  the  duke  of  Nor- 
folk and  Gardiner,  and  Catholic  in  doctrine, 
but  compelled  to  submit  to  the  new  order  of 
things  by  the  iron  energy  of  the  king — was 
continually  on  the  watch  to  entrap  him ;  and 
toward  the  close  of  his  career  they  had  much 


94 


CROMWELL 


CRONSTADT 


encouragement  from  the  king,  who  is  said  to 
have  treated  his  cliief  minister  to  harsh  words 
and  liard  blows.  Cromwell  daily  became  more 
identified  with  the  Protestants,  partly  from 
conviction  and  partly  froni  circumstances ;  and 
this  must  have  rendered  the  king  hostile  to 
him,  for  Henry  was  to  the  last  a  Catholic  in 
all  great  essentials,  and  merely  wished  to  be 
his  own  pope.  It  is  not  probable,  therefore, 
that  Cromwell  could  have  much  longer  main- 
tained his  position,  even  in  a  contest  confined 
to  domestic  politics ;  but  an  incident  bearing 
upon  foreign  policy  occasioned  him  to  fall  rap- 
idly. With  the  view  of  connecting  England 
with  the  Lutherans,  he  had  promoted  the  mar- 
riage of  Henry  with  Anne  of  Cleves.  The  lady 
wa3  very  pious,  very  virtuous,  and  very  unpre- 
possessing. Henry  was  disgusted  with  her,  and 
refused  to  regard  her  as  his  wife.  An  attempt 
to  form  an  Anglo-German  league  failed,  and 
Henry  was  left  alone  at  the  very  time  when 
Charles  Y.  and  Francis  I.  were  drawing  to- 
gether, and  tlie  Lutherans  were  deluded  by  the 
emperor.  Cromwell  continued  to  protect  the 
Protestants,  and  onl}-  a  few  days  before  his  fall 
he  sent  a  Catholic  bishop  to  the  tower.  On 
June  10,  1540,  he  was  arrested,  on  the 
charge  of  high  treason,  while  sitting  at  the 
council  board,  and  sent  to  prison.  Parliament 
was  in  session,  and  a  bill  of  attainder  was  soon 
passed.  Tlie  only  friend  Cromwell  found  was 
Cranmer,  who  desired  lie  should  be  spared. 
The  prisoner  made  a  pathetic  appeal  to  the 
king,  who  was  moved  by  it,  but  would  not 
pardon  him.  He  was  beheaded  July  28,  suf- 
fering cruelly  at  the  hands  of  an  unskilful  ex- 
ecutioner. Government  had  the  baseness  to 
place  in  his  mouth  a  dying  speech  that  he 
never  made,  but  which  has  passed  into  his- 
tory, so  that  he  was  represented  to  have  died 
in  the  faith  of  that  church  which  he  had  done 
so  much  to  overthrow  in  England.  There  are 
few  great  men  of  whom  so  little  is  accurately 
known  as  Thomas  Cromwell.  He  played  for  8 
years  the  highest  part  in  England,  and  in  one 
of  the  most  fruitful  of  revolutions.  He  stamped 
his  mind  on  the  English  constitution  in  church 
and  state.  That  he  was  guilty  of  many  acts  of 
injustice  and  cruelty  is  indisputable,  but  his 
memory  is  entitled  to  the  plea  that  he  was 
placed  in  a  position  where  no  man  could  have 
I)reserved  his  virtue.  The  best  account  of 
Cromwell  is  to  be  found  in  Mr.  Fronde's 
"  History  of  England  from  the  Fall  of  Wol- 
sey  to  the  Death  of  Elizabeth."  Cromwell 
was  married  to  a  lady  of  the  name  of  Williams, 
by  whom  he  had  one  son,  Gregory,  who  was 
made  Baron  Cromwell  of  Okeham,  at  the  same 
time  that  his  father  was  created  earl  of  Essex. 
This  son  was  married  to  Elizabeth  Seymour,  a 
sister  of  Henry  YnL\s  third  queen.  The  pos- 
terity of  this  couple  long  enjoyed  the  title  of 
Lord  Cromwell. 

CROXSTADT,  or  Kroxstadt,  the  most  im- 
portant seaport  and  naval  fortress  of  Russia,  the 
seat  of  the  admiralty,  and  the  station  of  the 


Baltic  fleet,  is  situated  in  the  S.  E.  part  of  a 
small,  arid,  and  rocky  island,  called  Kotlinoi 
Ostrov  (Kettle  island),  at  the  E.  extremity  of 
the  gulf  of  Finland,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the 
Keva,  in  the  government,  and  20  m.  W.  of  St. 
Petersburg ;  pop.  in  winter,  when  the  hai'bor  is 
deserted  and  ice-bound,  about  10,000 ;  in  sum- 
mer, including  the  garrison,  sailors,  workmen, 
and  students,  sometimes  60,000.  The  town 
was  built  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1710,  the  island 
having  been  conquered  from  the  Swedes  in  1703 
by  MentchikoflT,  whUe  Charles  XH.  was  en- 
gaged iu  his  Polish  campaign ;  it  received  its 
name  in  1721,  was  fortified  during  the  same 
reign,  and  subsequently  under  Elizabeth,  Catha- 
rine n.,  Paul,  Alexander  L,  and  Nicholas,  be- 
ing destined  from  its  foundation  to  become  the 
great  bulwark  of  the  new  Russian  capital,  and  a 
chief  naval  stronghold  of  the  Baltic.  The 
southern  channel,  which  separates  the  island 
from  the  mainland,  is  narrow  and  commanded 
by  a  small  fortified  islet,  and  allows  single  vessels 
only  to  pass ;  the  opposite  channel,  the  broader, 
but  from  its  sand  banks  still  less  practicable  en- 
trance to  tlie  shallow  eastern  bay,  called  the 
bay  of  Cronstadt,  is  commanded  by  the  batteries 
of  the  rock  of  Riesbank,  and  the  citadel  of 
Kronslott,  situated  on  2  small  islands.  Numer- 
ous forts  and  batteries  defend  all  other  parts  of 
the  island,  which  forms  an  irregular  triangle, 
having  its  base  toward  St.  Petersburg.  Near 
its  N.  W.  point  is  a  lighthouse.  The  town  is  reg- 
ularly built,  has  fine  and  well  paved  streets  and 
squares.  3  gates,  3  Greek  churches,  1  Anglican, 
1  Lutheran,  1  Roman  Catholic,  and  2  Greek 
chapels.  Other  remarkable  buildings  are  the  ex- 
change, custom  house,  arsenal,  admiralty  house, 
cannon  foundery,  barracks,  and  magazines;  the 
marine  hospital,  with  3,000  beds ;  a  house  of 
Peter  the  Great,  now  the  country  residence  of  the 
military  governor,  whose  garden  still  contains 
a  few  oaks  planted  by  the  hands  of  that  czar ; 
and  a  palace  in  the  Italian  style,  erected  by 
Mentchikofi",  and  now  used  as  a  naval  school, 
containing  300  pupils  for  the  navy,  and  20  for 
merchant  vessels.  The  last  of  these  buildings 
is  situated  between  the  2  canals  of  St.  Peter 
and  Catharine,  which  intersect  the  town.  The 
former  canal  is  constructed  of  granite,  and  is 
2,1G0  feet  long  by  30  yards  wide;  it  is  in  the 
form  of  a  cross,  and  communicates  by  one  of 
its  arms  with  a  vast  dock,  where  10  ships  of 
the  hue  can  be  repaired  at  once.  The  Cath- 
arine canal,  2^  miles  long,  communicates  with 
the  mereliant  harbor,  thus  enabling  the  mer- 
chantmen to  take  their  stores  and  provisions 
directly  from  the  warehouses  of  the  town.  The 
quays,  constructedby  the  emperor  Nicholas,  are 
all  of  granite,  and  on  a  grand  scale.  Except  the 
government  buildings,  about  200  in  number,  all 
the  older  houses  of  the  town  are  low,  and  mostly 
of  wood.  The  harbor  of  Cronstadt,  to  the  S.  of 
the  town,  consists  of  3  sections :  tlie  military, 
outer  harbor,  capable  of  containing  35  ships  of 
the  line,  beside  smaller  vessels ;  tlie  middle  har- 
bor, for  the  fitting  out  and  repairing  of  vessels, 


CROXSTADT 


CROPSEY 


95 


the  bulb  of  new  ones  being  brongbt  over  for 
eqaipineut  from  St.  Petersburg ;  and  the  inner- 
most harbor,  running  parallel  ■svith  the  preced- 
ing, used  only  by  nierehantmen,  and  suflBcient  for 
1,000  sail  at  a  time.  All  these  are  well  secured, 
but  in  consequence  of  tlie  freshness  of  the  water 
fromthe  proximity  of  the  mouth  of  the  Xeva,  ves- 
sels cannot  be  preserved  in  them  longer  than  20 
years.  From  November  to  tlie  end  of  April  they 
are  blocked  by  ice.  Notwithstanding  the  short- 
ness of  the  shipping  season,  and  the  shallowness 
of  the  bay,  which  at  the  bar  is  only  9  feet  deep, 
f  of  the  foreign  trade  of  Russia  passes  through 
this  port.  Entrances  in  1856,  3,432  vessels,  ton- 
nage 547,951 ;  clearances,  3,028  vessels,  tonnage 
469,812.  In  summer  the  surrounding  sea  is 
enlivened  by  steamers  regularly  running  be- 
tween Cronstadt  and  St.  Petersburg,  Ilelsing- 
fors,  Stockholm,  Stettin,  Lubeck,  Havre,  &c. 
Cronstadt  was  inundated  in  1824,  and  blockaded 
in  1854  bv  the  British  fleet  under  Xapier. 

CRONSTADT,  or  Kp.oxstadt  (Hung.  Brasao), 
capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
Austrian  crownland  of  Transylvania.  The  dis- 
trict lies  X.  of  the  Carpatliian  mountains,  an 
arm  of  which  traverses  it,  and  is  watered  by  the 
Aluta  and  its  tributary-,  the  Burze,  which  gives 
it  also  the  name  of  Burzenland.  The  soil  is 
well  cultivated,  and  produces  all  sorts  of  grain 
and  pulse.  It  has  gold,  silver,  and  lead,  and 
various  mineral  springs.  The  country  abounds 
in  game,  fish,  and  bees,  in  horned  cattle  and 
pine  timber.  The  population,  about  100,000,  is 
mainly  composed  of  descendants  of  German  set- 
tlers, of  Wallachians,  Hungarians,  Greeks,  and 
Armenians. — The  town,  pop.  about  36,000,  is 
beautifully  situated  in  a  narrow  valley,  enclosed 
by  mountains.  Charming  villas  on  the  slopes, 
with  here  and  there  an  old  castle  on  the  heights, 
give  a  varied  and  picturesque  aspect  to  the  sur- 
rounding scenery.  It  consists  of  an  inner  town, 
which  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  entered  by 
5  gates,  and  3  suburbs,  of  which  one,  called  the 
upper  town  or  Bolgar,  extends  into  the  moun- 
tain passes,  winds  up  the  slopes,  covering  them 
with  beautiful  country  mansions  and  well  kept 
gardens  and  orchards,  and  is  the  favorite  resi- 
dence of  the  wealthy  "\Vallachians.  The  6  prin- 
cipal streets  of  the  inner  town  are  well  paved  and 
clean ;  the  houses  generally  well  built.  It  has 
a  large  market  place,  with  2  fountains,  and  at 
the  main  gate  an  esplanade  covered  with  ave- 
nues of  shady  trees.  The  Protestant  gymna- 
sium, with  a  good  library,  the  Roman  Catholic 
high  school,  and  the  military  hospital,  deserve 
attention.  There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  cat- 
tle, wine,  corn,  salt,  and  manufactured  goods. 
The  foundation  of  Cronstadt  is  traced  back  to 
the-13th  century.  In  the  16th  it  was  the  start- 
ing point  of  the  reformation  in  Transylvania, 
which  was  promoted  by  Honterus,  a  disciple 
of  ilelanchthon,  who  is  said  to  have  been  in 
intimate  correspondence  with  Luther,  and  to 
have  also  established  the  earliest  printing  press 
here  (1533),  its  first  productions  being  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  and  Luther's  writings.     Here, 


too,  the  first  paper  mill  was  erected.  Cronstadt 
was  formerly  surrounded  by  strong  fortifica- 
tions, which  are  now  in  ruins.  North-east  of 
the  town  is  a  small  citadel,  situated  on  the  sum- 
mit of  an  isolated  hill,  which  was  not  without 
imjjortance  in  the  Hungarian  war  of  l&48-'49. 

CROOKS,  Geokge  R.,  D.D.,  an  American 
clergyman  and  lexicosrapher,  born  in  Philadel- 
phia," Feb.  3, 1822.  He  was  graduated  at  liick- 
inson  college  in  1840,  and  entered  the  ministry 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in  184L  His 
field  of  labor  embraced  portions  of  Fulton, 
Knox,  and  Peoria  counties,  in  Illinois,  his  reg- 
ular work  being  to  pn-each  30  sermons  every  4 
weeks,  beside  having  the  pastoral  oversight  of 
a  large  territory.  In  1842  he  was  elected  clas- 
sical and  mathematical  tutor  in  Dickinson  col- 
lege, and  in  1843  he  succeeded  the  Rev.  L. 
Scott  (now  bishop)  as  principal  of  the  gram- 
mar school  of  the  college,  and  became  associ- 
ated with  Professor  McClintock  in  preparing 
'•A  First  Book  in  Latin."  and  "A  First  Book 
in  Greek.'"  both  of  which  have  met  with  pop- 
ular favor  as  text  books.  In  1846  he  was 
elected  adjunct  professor  of  ancient  languages, 
which  position  he  held  until  184S,  when  he  re- 
sumed the  pastoral  oflBce.  He  has  had  charge 
of  prominent  churches  in  Philadelphia,  "Wil- 
mington, and  New  York,  and  as  a  preacher 
holds  a  place  in  the  front  rank  of  the  profes- 
sion. He  has  published  an  edition  of  Butlers 
''Analogy,"  containing  a  complete  analysis  of 
that  work,  with  a  new  life  of  Bishop  Butler, 
together  with  copious  notes  and  an  index.  His 
last  and  most  important  work  is  a  new  Latin- 
English  lexicon,  adapted  to  schools  and  colleges, 
prepared  in  conjunction  with  Prof.  Schera,  of 
Dickinson  college. 

CROPSEY,  Jasper  Fp.a>-x,  an  American  art- 
ist, born  at  "SVestfield,  Richmond  co.,  N,  Y..  Feb. 
18,  1823,  About  the  age  of  14  he  commenced 
the  study  of  architecture,  which,  at  the  end  of 
5  years,  "he  was  obhged  to  relinquish  on  account 
of  iU  health.  Ha\ing  received  a  few  lessons  in 
water  colors,  he  devoted  himself  thenceforth  to 
landscape  painting,  and  his  third  pictm-e,  a 
view  of  Greenwood  lake  in  New  Jersey,  pro- 
cured his  election  as  an  associate  of  the  Amer- 
ican academy  of  design,  of  which  in  1850  he 
became  a  full  member.  In  1847  ill  health 
compelled  him  to  visit  Europe,  where  he  spent 
3  years  in  close  study  of  his  art.  Among  his 
most  successful  productions  after  his  return  to 
America  were  the  "Sibyl's  Temple,"  and 
"  American  Harvesting,"  engraved  by  the 
American  art  imion ;  "Peace"  and  '•  "VTar," 
and  "  Niagara  Falls."'  In  June,  1856,  he  em- 
barked for'England,  where  be  has  since  resided. 
Among  his  latest  works  are  a  series  of  Amer- 
ican scenes,  which  are  to  be  executed  in 
chrorao-lithography ;  several  designs  for  illus- 
trated books  of  poems ;  and  compositions  en- 
titled "  The  Olden  Time — A  Tournament,  and 
Return  from  Hawking."'  His  subjects  are  chief- 
ly landscapes,  to  which  allegory  and  history  are 
sometimes  made  accessory. 


96 


CROSLAND 


CROSS 


CROSLAND,  Mes.  Newtox,  better  known 
by  Jicr  maideu  name  of  Camilla  Toulmin,  an 
English  autlioress,  born  in  London  about  1817. 
Her  futlier,  a  solicitor,  died  when  she  was  a 
child,  leaving  tlie  family  mainly  dependent  upon 
the  exertions  of  his  son,  who  had  also  been 
trained  to  the  law.  Upon  the  death  of  the 
latter.  Miss  Toulmin,  who  had  early  manifested 
literary  tastes  and  abilities,  was  forced  to  look 
to  her  pen  for  the  means  of  support.  She  first 
appeared  in  print  in  1888  as  the  authoress  of  a 
short  poem  in  the  "  Book  of  Beauty,"  soon  after 
which  she  became  an  active  contributor  to 
"  Chambers's  Magazine,"  the  "  People's  Jour- 
nal," and  other  periodicals,  and  edited  for  sev- 
eral years  the  "  Ladies'  Companion  and  Monthly 
Magazine."  She  has  also  published  a  volume 
of  poems,  "  Lays  and  Legends  illustrative  of 
English  Life,"  "  Partners  for  Life,  a  Christmas 
Story,"  "  Stratagems,  a  Tale  for  Young  People," 
and  a  number  of  other  works  of  fiction,  design- 
ed to  promote  the  moral  and  social  culture  of 
the  people.  She  was  one  of  the  earliest  to 
write  for  this  end,  and  is  regarded  as  a  pioneer 
in  the  cause.  In  1848  she  was  married  to  Mr. 
Newton  Crosland,  a  merchant  of  London,  in 
the  environs  of  which  she  resides.  She  has  re- 
cently become  a  convert  to  the  doctrines  of 
"  Spiritualism,"  and  has  published  a  work  illus- 
trated with  drawings  by  alleged  spiritual  agency. 

CROSS  (Lat.  crux,  Er.  croix),  an  ancient 
instrument  of  torture  and  death,  commonly 
formed  of  two  beams  crossing  each  otlier. 
There  were  various  forms  of  the  cross :  the 
crux  commissa  consisted  of  a  transverse  beam 
placed  on  the  top  of  a  perpendicular  one, 
like  our  letter  T ;  the  crux  immissa  or  caj^itata 
was  a  transverse  beam  crossing  a  perpendicular 
one  at  some  distance  from  the  top ;  and  the 
crux  decussata,  or  St,  Andrew's  cross,  was 
made  like  the  letter  X.  The  Greek  cross  is  a 
form  of  the  crux  immissa,  the  2  beams  crossing 
each  other  in  the  middle  so  that  the  4  arms 
shall  be  of  equal  length.  All  these  are  varieties 
of  the  compound  cross,  beside  which  there  was 
the  simple  cross  consisting  of  a  single  stake  on 
which  the  criminal  was  fastened  or  impaled. 
The  shape  of  the  cross  on  wliich  our  Saviour 
suffered  is  not  known,  for  the  historians  who 
record  its  discovery  give  no  description  of  it. 
It  was  probably  the  crux  immissa,  and  such  in- 
deed is  it  commonly  represented  on  ancient 
coins.  A  piece  of  wood  bearing  an  inscription 
was  placed  on  or  above  it,  and  there  is  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  feet  of  our  Saviour  were 
partly  supported  by  a  block  placed  beneath 
them,  and  to  which  they  were  nailed.  Be- 
side this,  there  was  often  a  small  resting 
place  on  which  the  body  could  slightly  sustain 
itself  as  on  a  seat.  The  church  early  learned 
to  regard  the  cross  as  an  emblem  no  longer  of 
disgrace  but  of  victory.  It  became  the  favorite 
symbol  of  Christianity ;  it  was  fashioned  in 
wood,  stone,  and  metal ;  it  was  placed  on  tombs, 
altars,  and  religious  structures,  and  some- 
times on  the  front  of  private  dwellings ;  and 


the  faithtul,  not  content  with  beholding  its  visi- 
ble image,  marked  it  with  the  hand  on  their 
persons.  The  sign  of  the  cross  was  intro- 
duced into  the  ritual,  and  \ised  in  baptism, 
confirmation,  and  the  Lord's  supi)er.  The 
Catholic  churcli  employs  it  in  all  sacred  rites  ;  it 
is  the  customary  mode  of  benediction ;  it  is 
many  times  repeated  in  the  mass,  and  none  of 
her  sacraments  can  be  rightfully  administered 
without  it.  Roman  Catholic  bishops,  abbots, 
and  abbesses  wear  tlie  cross  suspended  over  the 
breast ;  and  most  of  the  priestly  vestments  dis- 
play it  embroidered  in  various  forms.  From 
the  catacombs  we  have  many  curious  examples 
of  symbolical  crosses,  surrounded  by  other 
emblems,  one  of  the  commonest  of  which  is  a 
fish,  denoting  the  water  of  baptism,  or  the 
"  fishers  of  men  ;"  or  because  the  Greek  word 
tX'^vs,  a  fish,  comprises  the  initial  letters  of 
the  Greek  for  "  Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God,  Sa- 
viour." The  dove,  the  serpent,  A  and  i2,  Avere 
sometimes  added  to  such  representations,  and 
often  the  cross  was  interwoven  with  the  Greek 
letters  X  and  P,  the  first  two  of  the  word  XpLo- 
Tor,  or  with  a  circle,  the  emblem  of  eternity. 
The  latter  is  the  sacred  tau  or  crux  ansata.  The 
famous  Za5a7'2<??i  or  imperial  standard  of  Constan- 
tine  bore  an  image  of  the  flaming  cross  which 
appeared  to  him  in  the  heavens,  and  displayed 
the  motto:  Ei/  tovtco  viko,  "By  this  conquer." 
From  that  time  the  sign  of  salvation  glittered 
on  the  shields  and  banners  of  the  Roman  armies. 
Christian  churches  were  soon  built  in  the  shape 
of  a  cross ;  and  with  the  supposed  discovery  by 
the  empress  Helena,  mother  of  Constantine,  of 
the  identical  wood  upon  which  Christ  suffered, 
the  veneration  of  the  faithful  took  a  new  form. 
In  326  Helena,  as  related  by  Socrates,  Sozomen, 
Rufinus,  and  Theodoret,  visited  the  scenes  of 
our  Lord's  sufierings.  Every  trace  of  the  great 
events  which  had  hallowed  the  environs  of 
Jerusalem  had  been  obliterated  by  tlie  heathen, 
and  a  temple  to  Venus  stood  over  Mount  Cal- 
vary ;  but  from  a  Jew  who  had  treasured  up 
Avhat  traditions  he  could  gather,  the  empress 
learned  the  probable  place  of  Christ's  burial. 
The  spot  being  excavated,  3  crosses  were  found, 
and  the  title  which  that  of  Jesus  bore  was  dis- 
covered lying  by  itself.  It  is  related  that  the 
cross  of  Christ  was  distinguished  from  the  other 
two  by  miraculous  cures  wrought  by  touching  it. 
A  church  was  built  over  the  spot ;  a  part  of  the 
sacred  relic  was  deposited  in  it;  a  part  was 
sent  to  Rome  and  placed  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Croce  in  Gerusalemme,  built  expressly  to  re- 
ceive it ;  and  the  rest  was  inserted  by  Constan- 
tine in  the  head  of  a  statue  of  himself  at  Con- 
stantinople. The  first  was  carried  away  from 
Jerusalem  by  Chosroes,  king  of  Persia,  in  614, 
but  was  afterward  recovered  by  the  Roman  em- 
peror Ileraclius,  who  restored  it  to  its  former 
])lace  in  629.  In  the  old  chronicle  of  Geoffrey  de 
Vinsauf,  called  the  "  Itinerary  of  Richard  L,"  we 
are  told  how  the  crusaders  bore  it  with  them 
to  battle,  how  it  was  taken  from  them  by  Sala- 
din  at  the  battle  of  Uattiniu  1187,  and  how  the 


CROSS 


CROSSE 


97 


pilgrims  -Nvlio  went  to  tlie  holy  city  in  1192 
during  the  3  years'  truce  were  allowed  "  to  see 
and  kiss  the  true  cross  of  our  Lord."  A  piece 
of  it  is  shown  at  Rome  ;  anotiier  was  preserved 
in  Poland  till  the  17th  century,  wlien  it  was 
])resented  by  John  Casiniir  to  the  princess  pala- 
tine, Anna  Gonzaga,  who  becpieathed  it  to  the 
jnonks  of  St.  Germain  in  Paris ;  and  innumer- 
able minute  fragments  are  held  by  Catholics 
throughout  the  world.  A  festival  in  honor  of 
the  finding  or  "  invention  "  of  the  cross  is  still 
celebrated  May  3,  and  the  feast  of  tlie  "  exalta- 
tion of  the  cross,"  in  commemoration  of  its 
restoration  by  lleraclius,  is  kept  Sept.  14.  The 
latter,  however,  according  to  some  authorities, 
was  instituted  in  the  Gi'eek  church  in  honor  of 
the  appearance  of  the  cross  to  Constantine.  The 
ceremony  of  the  "  adoration  (or  more  properly 
kissing)  of  the  cross,"  Avhich  takes  place  in 
all  Catholic  churches  on  Good  Friday,  consists 
in  presenting  the  feet  of  a  crucifix  to  the  lips 
of  the  peoi)le. — Architectural  crosses  were  of 
several  kinds,  the  principal  being  boundary, 
market,  preaching,  and  memorial  crosses.  The 
first  not  only  defined  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
limits,  but  were  sometimes  endowed  with  the 
privilege  of  sanctuary.  Market  crosses  were 
built  partly  to  afford  shelter  in  wet  weather, 
and  partly  in  token  of  the  rights  of  neighboring 
monasteries  to  which  belonged  the  tolls  of  tho 
market.  They  are  to  be  seen  in  many  parts  of 
England.  At  preaching  crosses,  sermons  were 
delivered  and  proclamations  were  read.  Me- 
morial crosses  marked  the  scenes  of  battles, 
murders,  and  other  events,  or  in  Alpine  regions 
still  denote  the  most  dangerous  parts  of  the 
mountain  roads.  Fifteen  beautiful  memorial 
crosses  were  built  by  Edward  I.  at  the  places 
where  the  body  of  liis  queen  Eleanor  rested 
during  its  removal  from  Grantham  to  West- 
minster. The  processional  cross,  carried  at  the 
head  of  solemn  processions,  is  often  highly  or- 
namented. There  are  many  examples  of  the 
use  of  the  cross  as  a  sacred  emblem  among  pa- 
gan nations,  the  earliest  being  found  in  Egypt 
and  India.  It  is  claimed  that  some  have  even 
been  noticed  in  America. 

CROSS,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  Methodist  clergy- 
man, born  in  Somersetshire,  England,  in  1813. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  at  the  age  of  12, 
and  entered  upon  the  ministry  in  Genesee,  N. 
Y.,  at  the  age  of  16.  lie  was  for  some  time 
connected  with  the  Transylvania  university 
at  Lexington,  Ky.,  as  professor  of  English 
literature,  and  has  occupied  some  of  the  most 
important  stations  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
church  south.  In  1855-6  he  travelled  exten- 
sively in  Europe,  and  wrote  letters  which  were 
published  extensively  in  the  southern  journals, 
lie  was  a  member  of  the  general  conference 
of  the  M.  E.  church  south,  which  held  its  ses- 
sluu  in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  in  1856,  and  was  the 
official  reporter  of  that  body.  He  has  pub- 
lished "  Pisgah  Views  of  the  Promised  Inheri- 
tance," "Headlands  of  Faith,"  "A  Year  in  Eu- 
rope," "Life  and  Sermons  of  Christmas  Evans, 

VOL.   VI. — 7 


from  the  "Welsh,"  and  "Prelections  on  Charity." 
He  is  at  present  the  principal  of  a  female  sem- 
inary at  Spartanburg,  S.  C. 

CROSSBILL,  a  bird  belonging  to  the  order 
passcrcs,  tribe  conirostres,  family  fringiUidw, 
and  genus  loxia  (Linn.).  The  bill  in  this  genus 
is  moderate,  broad  at  the  base,  with  the  cul- 
men  much  curved,  and  the  sides  compressed 
to  the  very  acute  tip ;  the  mandibles  cross 
each  other,  having  their  lateral  margins  bent 
inward ;  the  wings  are  moderate,  the  tail  short 
and  emarginated ;  the  tarsi  short,  robust,  and 
feathered  below  tlie  knee;  toes  short,  hind  one 
with  its  claw  very  long,  claws  cmwed  and 
sharp.  These  birds  are  found  in  the  nyrthera 
parts  of  both  hemispheres,  occurring  in  flocks 
in  the  forests  of  pines  and  firs,  the  seeds  of 
which  they  eat ;  by  means  of  the  powerful  bill 
and  its  peculiar  construction,  they  pry  asunder 
the  scales  of  the  cones ;  they  also  do  much 
mischief  in  orchards  by  tearing  open  a]jples 
and  pears  in  order  to  get  the  pips.  The  Euro- 
pean species  is  the  L.  curvlrostra  (Linn.).  The 
American  crossbill  is  the  L.  Ainericana  (Wils.). 
The  length  of  the  latter  is  7  inches,  and  ex- 
tent of  wings  10  inches ;  the  bill  is  brown, 
lighter  on  the  edges,  darker  at  the  tip ;  iris 
hazel ;  general  color  a  dull  light  red,  inclining 
to  vermilion,  darker  on  the  wings ;  quills  and 
tail  brownish  black ;  the  abdomen  paler  red, 
passing  into  whitish.  The  young  males  have 
tints  of  yellow  and  green,  mixed  with  brown ; 
in  the  female  the  upper  parts  are  grayish 
brown,  tinged  with  green,  and  the  rump  gray- 
ish yellow,  as  are  also  the  lower  parts.  They 
are  found  in  Maine  and  Canada  even  in  midwin- 
ter, and  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior  are  seen 
in  large  flocks  in  the  coldest  weather,  about  the 
mining  locations  ;  they  are  also  met  with  as  far 
south  as  Pennsylvania.  They  fly  quickly  in  an 
undulating  manner,  making  considerable  noise ; 
they  are  easily  domesticated,  and  in  their  wild. 
state  seem  not  to  fear  man.  The  eggs  are  4 
or  5,  of  a  greenish  white  color,  thickly  covered, 
especially  at  the  large  end,  with  dark  brown 
spots.  The  white-winged  species  {L.  leucop- 
tera,  Gmel.)  also  inliabits  the  northern  pine  and 
spruce  forests,  the  whole  breadth  of  the  conti- 
nent, probably  up  to  68°  N.,  where  the  woods 
terminate ;  it  only  resorts  to  temperate  cli- 
mates when  forced  by  severe  weathei*.  The 
principal  difference  consists  in  the  more  slen- 
der bill,  and  in  2  white  bands  on  the  wings, 
formed  by  the  secondary  and  first  row  of  small 
coverts ;  the  habits  of  the  2  species  are  the 
same.  The  singular  form  of  the  bill  in  this 
genus  is  a  striking  example  of  the  adaptation  of 
means  to  ends,  which  everywhere  meets  the 
student  of  natural  history. 

CROSSBOW.    See  Arbalast  and  Archery. 

CROSSE,  Andrew,  an  English  electrician, 
born  in  Bromfield,  Somersetshire,  June  17, 1784, 
died  July  6,  1855.  He  was  matriculated  at 
Brazenose  college,  Oxford,  in  1802,  but  in  1805 
returned  to  settle  on  his  estate  of  Fyne  Court, 
which  he  had  some  years  previously  inherited 


98 


CliOSSE 


CROSWELL 


from  his  father,  and  where  lie  passed  the  greater 
part  of  liis  life.  Having  a  strong  predilection  for 
the  study  of  electricit}',  lie  provided  himself  with 
the  necessary  apparatus,  and  pursued  his  experi- 
ments without  regard  to  theories.  One  of  his 
first  discoveries  was  the  production  of  crystals 
by  the  effect  of  electricity.  ]5y  the  action  of 
the  voltaic  hattery,  excited  by  water  alone,  \\\)on 
a  tumbler  of  water  taken  from  a  cavern  in  the 
neighborhood  lined  with  aragonite  crystalliza- 
tions, he  procured  in  a  few  days  crystals  of  car- 
bonate of  lime.  For  30  years  he  prosecuted 
these  experiments,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining 
41  mineral  crystals,  or  ininerals  uncrystallized, 
in  the/orm  in  which  they  are  produced  by  na- 
ture, including  one,  subsulphate  of  copper,  en- 
tirely new,  lie  was  of  the  opinion  that  it  was 
possible  to  form  diamonds  in  this  wa}'.  As  he 
worked  alone  and  never  published  the  results 
of  his  discoveries,  they  were  unknown  to  the 
scientific  world  until  the  meeting  of  the  British 
association  for  the  advancement  of  science  in 
Bristol  in  1836,  when  he  was  induced  to  explain 
them  ])ublicly.  The  announcement  excited  un- 
usual interest,  and  Mr.  Crosse  was  publicly  com- 
'plimented  by  the  president,  the  marquis  of 
Northampton,  and  by  Dr.  Buckland,  Dr.  Dal- 
tou,  Prof.  Sedgwick,  and  other  eminent  scien- 
tific men.  For  many  years  previous  he  had 
been  in  tlie  habit  of  employing  the  electrical 
fluid  for  ascertaining  the  state  of  the  atmosphere 
and  for  other  purposes,  and  had  constructed  a 
mile  or  more  of  insulated  wire  above  the  tree 
tops  in  the  neighborhood  of  his  house  to  aid  his 
experiments.  In  181 G  he  predicted,  at  a  meet- 
ing of  country  gentlemen,  "  that  by  means  of 
electrical  agency  we  shall  be  able  to  conminni- 
cate  our  thoughts  instantaneously  with  the 
uttermost  ends  of  the  earth,"  although  it  does 
not  appear  that  he  ever  attempted  to  fulfil  his 
prediction.  The  discovery,  however,  with 
which  his  name  is  chietiy  connected,  is  that  of 
the  apparent  production  of  insects  by  the  action 
of  the  voltaic  battery  upon  certain  chemical 
fluids.  In  183G,  while  pursuing  his  experi- 
ments in  crystallization  with  a  highly  caustic 
solution,  out  of  contact  with  atmospheric  air, 
he  noticed  the  appearance  of  an  insect  of  the 
acarus  tribe,  of  which  upward  of  100  more  were 
formed  witliin  a  few  weeks.  The  discovery 
caused  a  considerable  sensation,  and  although 
Mr.  Faraday  and  Mr.  Weeks  of  Sandwich  amply 
confirmed  the  statements  of  Mr.  Crosse  by  their 
own  experience,  the  latter  was  accused  of  the 
impiety  of  assuming  to  become  a  creator. 
Crosse,  who  was  a  man  of  sincere  religious  con- 
victions, was  much  afl^ected  by  these  imputa- 
tions, although  he  could  give  no  explanation  of 
the  manner  in  which  the  insects  were  produced. 
In  answer  to  a  person  who  had  attacked  him 
with  unusual  virulence,  he  said  that  he  was  sorry 
if  the  faith  of  his  neighbors  depended  upon  the 
claw  of  a  mite.  Recent  experiments  on  the 
same  subject  by  Prof.  Schulze  of  Germany 
failed  to  obtain  tlie  appearance  of  insects  or 
animal  germs,  thus  conlirmiug  the  probability 


which  !Mr.  Crosse  never  disputed  that  the  ova  of 
the  insects  were  derived  from  the  atmosphere, 
or  conveyed  into  the  ajjparatus  by  some  natural 
means  unknown  to  the  experimenter.  Among 
the  practical  benefits  of  his  experiments  was 
the  discovery  of  a  process  for  purifying  salt 
water  by  means  of  electricity,  lie  also  made 
some  curious  discoveries  with  reference  to  the 
etfects  of  positive  and  negative  electricity  upon 
vegetation.  lie  was  a  benevolent  man,  an  active 
magistrate,  and  a  useful  friend  to  the  poor.  A 
memoir,  including  iiiany  original  poems  written 
by  him,  was  published  after  his  death  by  his 
widow. 

CROSWELL,  Edwix,  an  American  journal- 
ist and  politician,  nephew  of  the  succeeding, 
born  in  the  village  of  Catskill,  N.  Y.,  about 
1795.  Upon  the  completion  of  his  education,  he 
became  an  assistant  editor  of  the  "  Catskill  Re- 
corder," a  journal  established  in  Catskill  in  1790 
by  his  father  and  uncles.  The  first  article  whicli 
he  wrote  for  the  press  was  a  vindication  of  the 
drafted  soldiery  of  the  state  who  had  been  call- 
ed out  for  the  defence  of  New  York,  in  the  last 
war  Avith  Great  Britain.  His  political  affinities 
Avere  Avith  the  party  Avho  advocated  the  Avar, 
and  after  the  retirement  of  his  father,  his  man- 
agement of  tlie  paper  Avas  such  as  to  attract 
tlie  attention  of  public  men  prominent  in  the 
political  history  of  the  state.  In  1823-''-t,  upon 
tlie  death  of  Judge  Cantine,  printer  to  tlie  state 
and  editor  of  the  "  Albany  Argus,"  he  Avas 
invited  by  Mr.  Martin  Van  Buran,  Mr.  Benja- 
min F.  Butler,  and  others,  to  assume  the  con- 
trol of  that  paper.  Thenceforward  he  became  a 
resident  of  Albany,  and  Avas  closely  identified 
Avith  the  groAvth  and  pi'osperity  of  the  "  Ar- 
gus," and  Avith  some  of  the  most  important  po- 
litical moA'ements  of  the  time.  'He  converted 
the  "Argus  "  from  a  semi-weekly  into  a  daily 
journal,  increased  its  circulation  very  largely, 
and  made  it  one  of  the  chief  organs  of  the  dem- 
ocratic party,  not  merely  in  the  state,  but  in 
the  country.  The  organization  of  tlie  party 
was  at  that  time  as  perfect  as  political  sagacity 
could  make  it,  and  to  Mr.  CrosAvell,  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  so-called  "  Albany  regency,"  a  group 
of  politicians  who  directed  the  councils  of  the 
party  in  the  state  of  Ncav  York,  was  assigned 
the  delicate  task  of  composing,  through  the  col- 
umns of  tlie  "  Argus,"  all  intestine  difficulties, 
and  preserving  order  in  the  ranks.  To  the 
tact  Avith  Avhich  he  discharged  this  duty  has 
been  ascribed,  in  no  inconsiderable  degree,  the 
ascendency  which  the  democratic  party  long 
maintained  in  the  state.  The  ininor  party 
presses  habitually  copied  the  leading  articles 
of  tlie  "Argus,"  as  the  embodiment  of  the 
soundest  democratic  principles  ;  and  so  potent 
was  the  inftuence  of  Mr.  OrosAvell's  name  and 
of  his  paper,  that  for  many  years  to  discredit 
the  authority  of  the  "  Argus  "  Avas  equivalent 
to  a  renunciation  of  party  ties.  In  1840,  Mr. 
CrosAvell  Avas  succeeded  as  state  printer,  a  posi- 
tion he  had  held  for  the  previous  17  years,  by 
Mr.   ThurloAV   "Weed,   editor   of  the  "  Albany 


CROSWELL 


CROTOXA 


99 


Evening  Journal."  In  1844  Mr.  Croswell  was 
reinstated  for  a  period  of  3  years.  Various 
changes  liad  meanwhile  atfeoted  tlie  lianiio- 
nious  action  of  the  ])arty  which  he  iiad  so  long 
promoted,  and  he  found  himself  oiijfosed  to 
some  of  his  earliest  political  associates,  among 
others  to  Mr.  Van  Buren.  The  "Argus,"  liow- 
ever,  continued  to  be  one  of  tlie  ))rincipal  or- 
gans of  the  democratic  party,  and  Mr.  Croswell 
invariably  sui)i)orted  its  candidates  for  national 
offices.  In  the  more  difficult  matter  of  state 
politics,  his  intluence  has  necessarily  been  of 
less  weight  than  formerly.  In  1854  he  retired 
from  the  "Argus"  and  from  all  connection 
with  the  newspaper  press,  after  an  eventful 
editorial  life  of  about  40  years.  Ilis  pen  has 
occasionally  been  employed  on  addresses  and 
other  literary  prod\ictions  not  of  a  professional 
character,  and  he  is  said  to  be  ])rei)aring  for 
publication  his  personal  reminiscences  of  the 
men  and  events  of  his  time. 

CROSWELL,  Hakky,  D.  D.,  an  American 
journalist  and  clergyman,  born  at  West  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  June  10,  1778,  died  at  New 
Haven,  March  13,  1858.  lie  was  lirst  publicly 
known  as  the  editor  of  the  "  Balance,"  a 
journal  founded  by  him  in  1802  at  Hudson, 
N.  Y.,  in  which  he  was  associated  with  Ezra 
Sampson,  by  education  a  Presbyterian  clergy- 
man. Mr.  Croswell,  who  was  a  federalist, 
wrote  in  the  then  prevailing  spirit  of  bitter- 
ness, and  became  involved  in  many  libel  suits 
and  i)rosecntions,  celebrated  at  the  time.  In 
one  of  these,  for  an  article  on  Jefterson,  ])ul)- 
lished  in  the  "  Wasp,"  a  journal  under  his  di- 
rection, Alexander  Hamilton  made  his  last 
forensic  etlort  in  his  defence.  Mr.  Croswell 
afterward  removed  to  Albany,  and  established 
a  federal  paper ;  but  turning  his  attention  to 
theology,  he  retired  from  journalism  and  took 
ordei's  in  the  Episcopal  church  in  1814.  He 
became  rector  of  Trinity  clmrch,  in  New  Ha- 
ven, Feb.  22,  181G,  and  was  in  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  almost  as  remarkable  for  the  dig- 
nity and  gravity  of  his  deportment  as  he  had 
been  in  his  earlier  career  for  its  impetuosity. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  devotional  works, 
and  a  memoir  of  his  son,  the  Rev.  William 
Croswell,  D.  D. — William,  D.  D.,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Hudson,  N".  Y.,  Nov.  7, 
1804,  died  in  Boston,  Nov.  9,  1851.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1822,  and  took 
orders  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  in 
1828.  In  1829  he  became  rector  of  Christ 
church,  Boston,  in  1840  of  St.  Peter's,  at  Au- 
burn, N.  Y.,  and  in  1844  returned  to  Boston  to 
assume  the  charge  of  the  church  of  the  Advent, 
whose  services  he  directed  in  conformity  with 
the  ancient  rubrics  rather  than  the  practice  of 
other  churches  or  the  sentiments  of  his  ec- 
clesiastical superiors.  His  views  in  regard  to 
the  external  arrangements  of  the  church  led  to 
a  controversy  with  Bishop  Eastburn,  by  whom 
he  was  officially  censured  ;  but  his  church 
prospered  none  the  less,  for  the  life  of  the 
pastor  was  a  beautiful  example  of  self-deny- 


ing charity  and  religious  devotion.  He  became 
suddenly  ill  Avhile  conducting  divine  service  in 
his  church  on  Sunday  afternoon,  and  lived  but  a 
short  time  after  being  removed  to  his  residence, 
Hisjioemsare  mostly  short  lyrical  pieces,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  observances  and  memorial 
seasons  of  the  church  to  which  he  Avas  devoted. 

CROTCH,  William,  an  English  composer, 
born  at  Norwich  in  1775,  died  at  Taunton,  Dec. 
29.  1^'47.  When  scarcely  2  years  of  age  he 
could  play  tunes  on  the  harpsichord,  and  a  year 
later  was  able  to  add  a  bass.  This  precocity 
attracted  the  attention  of  Dr.  Burney  and 
other  distinguished  musicians,  but  the  expec- 
taticms  excited  by  it  were  never  fultilled. 
Crotch  became  an  accomplished  musician,  but 
his  compositions,  of  whicli  he  published  a 
great  number,  have  no  special  merit.  He  was 
made  a  doctor  of  music  by  the  university  of 
Oxford,  in  which  he  also  filled  the  chair  of 
professor  of  music. 

CROTON,  a  river  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
flowing  through  Dutchess,  Putnam,  and  West- 
chester counties,  and  entering  the  Hudson  river 
about  35  m.  above  New  York  city.  From  1  his 
stream  the  city  of  New  York  is  supplied  with 
Avater  through  the  Croton  aqueduct ;  for  a  de- 
scription of  whicli,  see  Aqueduct. 

CROTON  OIL  is  expressed  from  the  seeds 
of  the  croton  tiglliim^  a  native  of  Ceylon, 
Molucca,  Hindostan,  and  of  other  parts  of  x\sia. 
These  seeds  are  rather  larger  than  a  common 
pea,  of  an  ovate  foi-m,  and  of  a  brownish  color. 
The  kernels  contain  about  50  per  cent,  of  oil, 
which  is  of  a  pale  yellow  color.  It  has  a  slight 
odor,  and  a  bitter,  burning  taste.  It  is  a  speedy 
and  powerful  purgative,  and  acts  with  good 
effect  upon  the  patient  when  taken  in  small 
doses.  Taken  in  large  quantities,  it  produces 
vomiting  and  great  pain,  and  is  sometimes  fatal 
in  its  effects.  It  has  been  long  used  in  India, 
and  was  known  in  Europe  as  early  as  1630, 
but  attracted  little  notice.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  England  in  1820,  but  does  not  yet 
receive  the  attention  which  it  deserves.  In 
cases  of  constipation,  where  all  other  medi- 
cines fail,  it  has  proved  highly  beneficial.  It 
is  also  employed  in  dropsy,  apoplexy,  and  in 
almost  all  diseases  in  which  the  patient  has  a 
tendency  to  torpor.  Externally  applied,  it  is 
found  advantageous  in  cases  of  gout,  rheuma- 
tism, neuralgia,  glandular  swellings,  and  in  pul- 
monary complaints.  Thus  applied,  it  produces 
inflammation  of  the  skin,  with  pustular  erup- 
tions. The  oil  is  sometimes  incorporated  with 
the  lead  plaster,  melting  at  a  gentle  heat  3 
parts  of  the  latter  with  1  of  oil.  Much  of  the 
croton  oil  imported  to  this  country  is  not  gen- 
uine, being  procured  from  plants  different  from 
the  C.  tlgllum. 

CROTONA,  or  Crotox,  an  ancient  Greek 
colony  in  soutliern  Italy.  The  city  stood  near 
the  mouth  of  the  river  ^Esarus,  on  the  E.  coast 
of  the  Bruttian  peninsula.  It  was  founded  by 
a  body  of  Achffians  and  Spartans,  probably 
about   710    B.    C,    and    soon   became   distiu- 


100 


CROUP 


guished  for  size,  wealth,  and  power.  Accord- 
ing to  Livy,  its  walls  enclosed  a  space  12  m.  in 
circumference.  In  the  war  with  Sybaris,  510 
B.  C,  Crotona  is  said  to  have  sent  into  tho 
field  100,000  men,  and  to  have  conquered  tho 
Sybarites  with  a  force  of  300,000.  Some  time 
afterward  the  Crotonites  were  themselves  de- 
feated by  the  Locrians  near  the  river  Sagras, 
and  never  again  recovered  their  national  im- 
])ortance.  In  the  2d  Punic  war  they  were  no 
longer  able  to  defend  their  own  Avails,  and  a 
few  years  later  a  Roman  colony  was  sent  out 
to  recruit  the  exhausted  ])Opulation  of  the  city. 
Crotona  was  celebrated  in  ancient  times  for  the 
school  of  Pythagoras. 

CROUP  {cynanche  trachealis,  angina  mem- 
'branacea,  and  diphtJieritis  trachealis,  of  au- 
thors), an  acute  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  larynx,  trachea,  and  bron- 
chial tubes,  characterized  by  the  production  of 
false  membranes  on  their  internal  surface. 
There  is  a  spasmodic  affection  of  the  larynx 
(laryngismus  stridulus),  sometimes  erroneously 
called  croup,  but  which  is  entirely  different  in 
its  nature,  symjjtoms,  gravity,  and  treatment. 
Croup  is  sometimes  preceded  by  the  symp- 
toms of  a  common  cold,  with  hoarseness  and 
a  harsh  cough,  pain  in  the  head,  fever,  and  es- 
pecially by  swelling  and  redness  in  the  back 
of  the  throat ;  but  it  may  come  on  suddenly 
during  the  night,  and  in  the  midst  of  apparent 
health.  The  first  symptom  observed  may  be 
the  peculiar  ringing,  brazen  cough,  occurring 
most  likely  in  the  night ;  then  the  voice  be- 
comes sharp,  the  respiration  noisy  and  difH- 
cult,  and  accompanied  by  a  crowing  sound  dur- 
ing inspiration ;  the  face  is  red  and  swollen, 
the  eyes  sutfused,  the  skin  hot,  the  pulse  hard 
and  quick ;  the  head  is  thrown  back,  and 
every  thing  indicates  the  distress  of  the  suf- 
ferer ;  the  occasional  cough  brings  up  notliing 
but  some  thick  mucus,  tinged  perhaps  with 
blood.  A  treacherous  calm  may  succeed  this 
agitation,  and  the  patient  may  fall  asleep ;  but 
a  new  paroxysm  will  soon  reawaken  him,  more 
severe  than  the  first  iniless  the  disease  be  cut 
short  by  approjiriate  remedies.  In  the  inter- 
vals the  child  may  seem  well,  except  from  a 
hoarseness  of  the  voice  and  a  slightly  noisy 
respiration.  As  the  disease  advances,  the 
breathing  becomes  more  difficult,  the  cough 
more  suffocating,  the  voice  stifled,  and  the 
countenance  livid ;  the  extremities  become  cold, 
and  coma  or  convulsions  close  the  scene.  Not- 
withstanding the  difficulty  of  breathing,  swal- 
lowing is  generally  easy ;  false  membranes  of 
greater  or  less  exent  are  occasionally  coughed 
up  with  a  partial,  or,  in  rare  cases,  complete 
relief.  Tlie  disease  may  run  to  a  fatal  termi- 
nation in  a  few  hours,  or  it  may  continue  many 
days,  ending  in  death  or  recovery.  According 
to  Bretonneau,  croup  is  only  an  extension  of 
a  diphtheritic  inflammation  from  the  pharynx  to 
the  air  passages;  indeed,  perhaps  in  the  major- 
ity of  cases  tho  false  membrane  may  be  seen 
upon  the  tonsils  and  posterior  fauces  before 


the  larynx  is  affected ;  and  it  is  often  the  good 
fortune  of  the  physician  to  arrest  this  fearful 
disease,  when  this  early  indication  of  danger  i3 
understood  and  attended  to.  The  brazen  re- 
spiratory sound  is  heard  chiefly  during  inspira- 
tion ;  and  when  false  membranes  have  formed 
in  the  larynx  there  is  generally  a  prolongation 
of  the  expiration.  The  dysi)noea  occurs  usually 
at  night,  and  during  sleep ;  its  suffocative  symp- 
toms, change  in  the  features,  dilatation  of  the 
nostrils,  and  agitation  of  all  the  respiratory 
movements,  are  found  in  no  other  disease. 
Auscultation  detects  nothing  characteristic  in 
the  lungs,  except  diminution  or  absence  of  the 
respiratory  murmur  in  proportion  to  the  ob- 
struction in  the  larynx  ;  all  rales,  except  those 
caused  by  the  flapping  of  membranes  which 
have  extended  into  the  bronchi,  must  be  the 
result  of  complications  not  belonging  to  pure 
croup.  The  disease  may  be  said  to  be  peculiar 
to  childhood,  between  the  1st  and  10th  years, 
though  older  children,  and  even  adults,  are  oc- 
casionally affected  ;  it  is  most  common  in  cold, 
damp  seasons,  arid  those  characterized  by  sud- 
den changes,  and  in  low,  marshy  localities;  it 
prevails  sometimes  epidemically  and  endemical- 
ly,  but  is  never  contagious ;  it  often  occurs  soon 
after  the  eruptive  fevers,  whooping  cough,  and 
catarrhal  diseases,  especially  during  epidemics ; 
there  seems  to  be  a  predisposition  to  it  in  cer- 
tain families,  and  those  who  have  been  once 
attacked  are  liable  to  other  seizures.  The 
pathological  characters  are  redness  and  swell- 
ing of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  air  pas- 
sages, and  the  presence  of  a  membranous 
concretion  of  various  extent  and  consistence, 
though  death  may  occur  from  the  violence  of 
the  inflammation  and  its  extension  to  the  lungs 
before  the  formation  of  the  latter.  Croup  is 
a  very  dangerous  disease ;  leaving  out  of  the 
case  the  many  affections  which  have  been 
erroneously  called  croup,  it  may  be  stated  that 
the  mortality  is  certainly  66  per  cent,  in  well 
defined  cases,  and  probably  considerably  great- 
er than  that  under  the  old  forms  of  treatment. 
At  the  present  time  bleeding  is  very  rarely 
resorted  to,  imless  locally  by  leeches ;  emetics 
can  hardly  be  recommended  as  general  prac- 
tice, except  for  the  dislodgment  of  false  mem- 
branes evidently  loose  ;  mercurials,  both  inter- 
nally and  by  the  skin,  have  always  been  re- 
garded with  favor  in  tins  country,  but  are  of 
questionable  utility  in  most  cases,  and  posi- 
tively injurious  in  many ;  the  prostration  fol- 
lowing the  fractional  exhibition  of  antimonials 
has  not  been  found  to  arrest  the  disease ;  pur- 
gatives, expectorants,  blisters,  tonics,  and  anti- 
spasmodics have  been  freely  used  to  little  pur- 
pose. There  is  probably  no  better  general  treat- 
ment than  the  following,  recommended  by 
Prof.  John  Ware :  1,  to  avoid  all  reducing, 
depleting,  and  disturbing  measures,  as  bleed- 
ing, emetics,  purgatives,  and  blisters ;  2,  to 
keep  the  patient  under  the  full  influence  of 
opium,  combined  perhaps  with  calomel  ;  3, 
constant  external  api^lication  of  A^armth  and 


CROUSAZ 


CEOW 


101 


moisture,  and  of  a  slightly  stimulating  mer- 
curial liniment ;  4,  sponging  witli  warm  water, 
ami  poultices  of  flax  seed  or  mullein  leaves  to 
the  throat ;  5,  the  inhalation  of  watery  vapor. 
A  great  improvement  on  tlie  use  of  acid  gar- 
gles, alum  and  calomel  insufflations,  and  acid 
caustics,  is  the  now  prevalent  application  of 
nitrate  of  silver.  Tlie  fibrinous  exudation  is 
a  secretion  from  the  muciparous  glands  of  the 
mucous  membrane,  irritated  by  some  unknown 
specific  cause  ;  as  this  exildation  almost  always 
begins  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  air  passages, 
and  progresses  downward,  it  may  often  be 
checked  by  the  application  of  a  strong  solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver  to  the  tonsils  and  opening 
of  the  glottis  ;  in  an  hour  or  less  the  operation 
may  be  repeated,  and  the  caustic  ai)plied  with- 
in the  glottis;  this  will  generally  be  followed 
by  vomiting  and  the  discharge  of  any  exist- 
ing membrane ;  the  caustic  and  the  emesis 
will,  if  any  thing  can,  arrest  the  exudative  in- 
flammation. After  this  first  and  most  important 
step,  the  treatment  of  Dr.  Ware  can  hardly  be 
improved;  in  the  later  stages,  when  compli- 
cated with  bronchitis,  prussic  acid  is  the  best 
remedy  for  the  distressing  spasmodic  cough. 
In  desperate  cases,  tracheotomy  has  been  per- 
formed with  immediate  relief  and  ultimate  re- 
covery ;  of  course  it  would  be  useless  when  the 
false  membranes  liad  reached  the  bronchi.  All 
remedies,  however,  to  be  eifectual,  must  be  ap- 
plied very  early  in  the  disease. — Laryngismus 
stridulus,  or  spasmodic  croup,  as  it  is  some- 
times called,  occurs  during  the  first  2  or  3  years 
of  life,  from  the  irritation  of  dentition,  de- 
ranged digestion,  or  insufiicient  nutrition ;  the 
spasm  sometimes  extends  to  the  muscles  of  the 
extremities.  The  inspiration  is  crowing,  not 
followed  by  cough.  It  seems  to  be  essentially 
a  spasm  of  the  glottis,  not  immediately  danger- 
ous, and  is  to  be  treated  by  tonics,  alteratives, 
attention  to  the  general  health,  and  the  re- 
moval of  any  obvious  causes  of  irritation  in 
the  dental  or  digestive  systems.  Recovery  is 
general ;  and  many  of  the  tar-spread  remarka- 
ble cures  of  croup  are  nothing  more  than  cases 
of  this  spasmodic  or  croup-like  disease,  which 
may  even  cease  without  treatment. 

CROUSAZ,  Jeax  Pieki?e  de,  a  Swiss  philos- 
opher and  mathematician,  born  at  Lausanne, 
April  13,  1663,  died  March  22,  1748,  studied  at 
Geneva,  Leyden,  and  Paris,  and  was  ordained 
pastor  of  a  church  at  Lausanne.  In  1699  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  and  philoso- 
phy in  his  native  city;  in  1724,  professor  of 
mathematics  and  philosophy  in  Groningen ; 
and  in  1737,  professor  of  the  same  in  Lausanne. 
Beside  his  sermons,  he  published  many  works 
upon  logic,  education,  and  philosophy,  and  also 
upon  higher  geometry. 

.CROW  (corvus),  a  genus  of  birds  belonging 
to  the  order  passeres,  tribe  conirostres,  and  fam- 
ily corvidm.  More  than  20  species  are  de- 
scribed, found  in  most  parts  of  the  globe ; 
some  remain  stationary  within  a  certain  dis- 
trict, while  others  migrate  from  place  to  place 


with  the  changes  of  the  seasons ;  they  gener- 
ally assemble  in  flocks  in  cultivated  places,  in 
search  of  worms,  grubs,  caterpillars,  small  ani- 
mals, the  eggs  and  young  of  birds,  carrion,  and 
various  grains  and  cultivated  vegetables  ;  a  few 
species  frequent  the  sea  sliore,  to  feed  upon  the 
dead  fish  cast  up  by  the  waves,  or  in  quest  of 
shell-fish,  which  they  break  by  letting  them 
fall  from  a  considerable  height  upon  the  rocks. 
The  genus  corvus  includes  the  raven,  the  rook, 
the  jackdaw,  and  other  species  not  usually  de- 
nominated crows,  which  will  be  noticed  under 
their  proper  heads.  Four  species  only  will  be 
described  here,  viz. :  the  American,  the  Euro- 
pean, the  hooded,  and  the  fifh  crow.  I.  The 
American  crow  (0.  Americanus,  Audubon)  was 
first  separated  from  the  European  species  by 
Audubon,  and  there  can  be  but  little  doubt 
that  they  are  distinct.  The  bill  of  the  adult  is 
2g-  inches  along  the  ridge,  of  a  black  color, 
straight,  strong,  and  compressed ;  the  upper 
mandible  a  little  convex,  the  lower  mandi- 
ble straight ;  the  edges  of  both  sharp  and  in- 
flected. The  nostrils  are  basal,  lateral,  round, 
and  covered  by  bristly  feathers  directed  for- 
ward. The  head  is  large,  and  the  whole  form 
of  the  bird  compact  and  graceful ;  the  legs  are 
strong  and  of  moderate  length ;  the  tarsi  are 
2^  inches  long,  black,  and  covered  with  scales 
anteriorly;  the  toes  and  claws  are  black,  the 
latter  being  moderate,  arched,  compressed,  and 
sharp ;  the  3d  toe  is  the  longest,  the  other  3 
being  nearly  equal.  The  plumage  is  of  a  gen- 
eral deep  black  color,  with  purplish  blue  re- 
flections, and  tinged  with  purplish  brown  on 
the  back  of  tlie  neck ;  the  under  parts  are  less 
glossy,  and  the  feathers  are  less  compact  than 
those  of  the  back ;  the  plumage  of  the  head 
and  neck  is  well  blended ;  the  wings  are  long, 
the  1st  primary  short,  and  the  4th  the  longest, 
the  primaries  are  tapering,  and  the  secondaries 
broad;  the  tail  is  long,  rounded,  of  12  feathers 
with  their  shafts  undulated.  The  length  of 
this  crow  is  18  inches,  and  the  extent  of  wings 
3  feet  2  inches.  The  iris  is  of  a  brown  color. 
The  female  is  slightly  less  glossy  than  the  male, 
and  the  young  are  of  a  dull  brownish  black, 
Avith  less  brilliant  reflections.  There  is  proba- 
bly no  bird  more  generally  and  unjustly  perse- 
cuted than  the  crow ;  every  farmer  thinks  him- 
self privileged  to  destroy  it,  and  counts  the 
death  of  every  one  as  a  gain  to  agriculture. 
Of  course  the  bird,  in  order  to  save  his  race 
from  extermination,  must  employ  all  his  cun- 
ning and  ingenuity  to  avoid  his  enemies ;  hence 
liis  extreme  shyness,  and  certain  flight  at  the 
sight  of  any  one  armed  with  a  gun,  the  de- 
structive properties  of  which  he  seems  weU 
acquainted  with ;  perched  on  a  high  tree,  he 
sounds  the  alarm  at  the  approach  of  danger, 
and  all  the  crows  within  half  a  mile  fly  ofl:*  at 
the  well-known  cry  of  the  watchman.  Thou- 
sands of  crows  are  destroyed  every  year  by 
guns,  traps,  and  poisoned  grain;  and  multi- 
tudes of  the  young  birds  are  killed  in  their 
nests  by  every  urchin  who  can  climb  a  tree. 


102 


CROW 


Though  the  crow  pulls  up  a  few  seeds  of  the 
geriniiuiting  corn,  his  services  to  the  agricul- 
turist far  outwoig-h  his  doprcdations;  he  daily 
devours  insects,  gruhs,  and  "worms,  -whioh  hut 
for  hini  would  devastate  whole  fields  of  the 
young  corn;  lie  destroys  innumerahle  mice, 
moles,  and  other  small  quadrui)cds,  every  one 
of  which  commits  10  times  the  mischief  he 
does;  he  will  cat  snakes,  frogs,  lizards,  and 
other  small  reptiles,  and  also  fruits,  seeds,  and 
vegetables,  and,  if  hard  pressed  for  food,  will 
even  descend  to  carrion.  lie  will  steal  and 
devour  the  eggs  of  other  birds,  and  will  occa- 
sionally prey  upon  a  weak  or  wounded  bird ;  ho 
delights  to  worry  the  owl,  the  opossnin,  and 
the  raccoon,  and  will  pursue  the  thievish 
hawk,  and  even  the  eagle  with  all  the  forces 
that  he  can  raise  in  the  neighborhood ;  he  is 
said  to  follow  the  larger  carnivora,  probably  to 
partake  of  the  bits  which  they  may  leave.  On  the 
whole,  the  crow  is  a  persecuted,  comparatively 
harmless,  and  indeed  a  most  serviceable  bird, 
and  deserves  better  treatment  from  the  Ameri- 
•  can  farmer.  Audubon  says  to  the  farmers :  "  I 
would  tell  them  that  if  they  persist  iu  killing 
crows,  the  best  season  for  doing  so  is  when 
their  corn  begins  to  ripen."  Wherever  the 
crow  is  abundant  the  raven  is  scarce,  and  vice 
versa.  The  crow  is  common  to  all  parts  of  the 
United  States,  assembling,  after  the  breeding 
season,  in  large  flocks,  many  of  which  remove 
to  the  southern  states  in  the  winter.  It  builds 
its  nest  in  thick  swamps,  or  on  the  sides  of 
steep  rucks,  as  nnich  concealed  as  possible  ;  the 
l^eriod  of  breeding  varies  from  February  to 
June,  according  to  latitude.  The  nest  is 
made  of  sticks  interwoven  Avith  grasses,  plas- 
tered within  with  mud,  and  lined  with  soft 
roots,  feathers,  or  wool ;  the  eggs  are  from  4 
to  6,  of  a  pale  greenish  color,  spotted  and 
clouded  with  brownish  green  and  purplish 
gray ;  both  sexes  sit  upon  the  eggs,  and  watch 
over  their  young  with  the  tenderest  care ;  in 
the  southern  states  they  raise-  2  broods  in  a  sea- 
son. Several  nests  are  often  found  near  each 
other,  and  when  any  stranger  approaches  the 
community,  the  noise  of  the  assembled  multi- 
tude is  almost  deafening  until  the  intruder  re- 
tires. The  young,  when  just  about  to  leave 
the  nest,  are  considered  in  some  localities  tol- 
erable food.  The  Hight  of  the  crow  is  swift, 
capable  of  being  sustained  a  long  time,  and 
sometimes  at  a  great  height ;  on  the  ground  its 
gait  is  graceful  and  slow;  it  often  alights  on 
the  back  of  cattle,  to  pick  out  the  worms  from 
the  skin.  Their  well-known  notes,  "  caw,  caw, 
caw,"  are  very  discordant,  especially  in  early 
morning  when  they  scatter  into  small  Hocks  in 
search  of  food,  and  toward  evening  when  the 
returning  parties  are  selecting  their  roosting 
places  for  the  night.  The  crow  is  very  coura- 
geous against  its  bird  enemies,  and  Avill  not 
hesitate  to  attack  any  marauding  hawk  which 
comes  Avithin  its  range.  It  makes  a  very'  in- 
teresting pet,  as  it  displays  considerable  intelli- 
gence and  docility  ;  but  its  propensities  are  de- 


cidedly thievish.  Like  many  other  birds  of  a 
black  color,  tlie  crow  is  occasionally  perfectly 
white.  The  sight  of  the  crow  is  very  keen; 
and  it  is  l)y  this  sense,  and  not  by  the  sense  of 
smell,  that  this  bird  is  guided  in  its  search  of 
food,  and  in  the  avoidance  of  its  human  ene- 
mies. When  on  its  marauding  excursions  af- 
ter eggs,  which  it  carries  away  on  the  bill,  it 
is  often  attacked  and  driven  away,  especially 
by  the  courageous  king-bird.  II.  The  Euro- 
pean, or  carrion  crow  (C.  corone,  Linn.),  is 
larger  than  the  preceding  species,  being  from 
20  to  22  inches  long,  witli  an  extent  of  wing 
of  40  inches ;  the  bill  is  stronger,  deeper,  more 
convex  on  the  sides,  and  the  edges  more  in- 
flected ;  the  feet  and  toes  are  larger  and  strong- 
er, and  the  claws  robust  in  proportion.  Were 
it  not  for  its  smaller  size  and  some  differences 
in  the  form  of  the  feathers,  it  might  be  con- 
founded with  the  raven,  as  its  proportions  are 
about  the  same,  the  body  being  full  and  ovate, 
and  the  neck  short  and  strong.  The  palate  is 
flat  and  the  tongue  oblong,  while  in  the  Amer- 
ican species  the  palate  is  concave  and  the 
tongue  is  narrower.  The  plumage  is  moder- 
ately full,  compact,  and  very  glossy  ;  the  feath- 
ers of  the  hind  neck  are  narrow  and  with  their 
points  distinct,  but  in  the  American  bird  they 
are  broad,  rounded,  and  so  blended,  that  the 
form  of  each  is  not  easily  traced ;  the  feathers 
of  the  fore  neck  are  lanceolate  and  compact  at 
the  end,  as  in  the  raven,  but  in  the  American 
crow  they  are  three  times  as  broad,  rounded, 
and  entirely  blended ;  in  other  respects  the 
plumage  is  alike  in  the  two  birds,  the  neck  of 
tlie  former  being  tinged  with  green  and  blue, 
but  in  the  latter  with  a  distinct  purplish  brown. 
From  this  description  it  can  hardly  be  doubted 
that  the  American  and  European  crow  are  dis- 
tinct species.  The  female  is  similar  to  the  male 
in  color,  but  somewhat  smaller ;  the  tints  of 
the  young  have  less  of  the  metallic  lustre.  The 
carrion  crow  preys  upon  small  quadrupeds, 
young  hares  and  rabbits,  young  birds,  eggs, 
Crustacea,  mollusks,  worms,  grubs,  and  grains ; 
but,  as  its  name  imports,  its  favorite  food  is 
carrion  of  all  kinds ;  it  often  destroys  young 
lambs  and  sickly  sheep ;  it  is  very  fond  of  at- 
tacking parturient  elves,  frequently  killing  both 
the  mother  and  the  young,  tearing  out  the  eyes, 
tongue,  and  entrails,  in  the  manner  of  the  vul- 
tures ;  whatever  its  food  may  be,  it  is  exceed- 
ingly voracious.  Unlike  the  American  species, 
the  carrion  crow  does  not  associate  in  large 
flocks,  but  is  generally  solitary  or  in  pairs,  ex- 
cept in  breeding  time,  when  a  whole  family 
■will  remain  together  for  some  weeks.  Its  flight 
is  sedate  and  direct  (hence  the  expression,  "■  as 
the  crow  flies,"  for  a  straight  line),  and  perform- 
ed by  regular  flaps  of  the  fully  extended  wings ; 
it  does  not  soar  to  any  great  height,  and  pre- 
fers the  open  moors,  flelds,  and  shores  to  moun- 
tainous districts.  Its  gait  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  raven,  and  its  cry  is  a  croak  quite  different 
from  the  bark-like  cawing  of  the  American 
crow.     It  builds  its  nest,  of  large  size,  amid 


CROW 


103 


high  rocks, 'or  on  tall  trees,  and  lays  from  4  to  G 
eggs  of  a  pale  Lhiish  green  color,  spotted  and 
blotched  with  dark  brown  and  pnrplisli  gray  ; 
these  colors,  however,  vary  coiisi(h'ral)ly  ;  the 
eggs  are  about  If  inches  long,  and  1^  indies  in 
their  greatest  width.  Tliey  not  nnfreciuontly 
build  in  the  noigliborhood  of  farm  liouses,  in 
order  to  be  near  any  rejected  oilVil,  and  watcli 
their  ojjportunity  to  pounce  upon  chickens  or 
ducklin<rs,  and  to  steal  eggs  from  any  of  the 
domestic  fowls.  The  carrion  crow  is  very 
easily  tamed,  and  is  capable  of  strong  attach- 
ment ;  its  docility  is  great,  and  its  memory  as- 
tonishing ;  its  propensities  are  thievisli ;  like 
the  raven  and  the  jackdaw,  tlie  carrion  crow 
may  be  taught  to  imitate  the  human  voice. 
According  to  Temminck,  this  species  occurs 
over  all  western  Europe,  but  is  rare  in  the 
eastern  parts.  III.  The  hooded  crow  (C.  comix, 
Linn.)  has  the  head,  fore  neck,  wings,  and  tail 
of  a  black  color,  with  puriilisli  blue  and  green 
reflections  ;  the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  ash-gray 
tinged  with  purplish,  the  sliafts  being  darker ; 
the  female  is  similar  to  the  male,  somewhat 
smaller,  the  black  on  the  fore  neck  less  in  ex- 
tent, and  the  gray  of  the  back  less  pure ;  tlie 
plumage  of  tlie  young  is  black,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  broad  baud  of  dusky  gray  round  the 
fore  part  of  the  body.  This  species,  with  the 
exception  of  the  color,  much  resembles  tlie  car- 
rion crow ;  it  is  somewhat  smaller,  the  lengtli 
being  about  20  inches,  and  the  extent  of  wings 
39  inches.  It  is  abundant  in  tlie  northern  parts 
of  Scotland,  and  it  occurs  in  all  parts  of  Europe ; 
it  prefers  the  coast,  and  tlie  neighborhood  of 
large  maritime  towns.  It  is  not  gregarious,  not 
more  than  5  individuals  being  often  seen  to- 
gether ;  it  is  quite  as  omnivorous  as  the  preced- 
ing species,  though  it  prefers  fish  and  mollusks 
to  the  carcasses  of  larger  animals ;  it  has  sa- 
gacity enough,  when  it  cannot  open  crabs  and 
shell-fish,  to  raise  them  into  the  air  and  di'op 
tliem  on  the  ground  for  the  purpose  of  break- 
ing them.  It  is  very  fond  of  perching  upon  a 
stone  or  tree  in  dull  weather,  and  croaking  for 
a  long  time,  being  answered  by  others  who 
have  stationed  themselves  at  a  distance ;  this 
liabit  has  been  considered  by  the  common  peo- 
ple as  indicative  of  rain.  Its  ordinary  flight  is 
slow  and  regular,  and  its  gait  npon  the  ground 
remarkably  sedate  and  dignified.  It  is  a  jieacea- 
ble  bird,  rarely  attacked  by,  and  rarely  attack- 
ing others.  It  does  not  soar,  nor  skim  the  hill- 
sides in  search  of  food,  but  skulks  along  the 
low  grounds  in  the  vicinity  of  water ;  it  de- 
stroys many  of  the  eggs  and  young  of  the  plover 
and  the  red  grouse  and  other  birds  frequenting 
the  moors.  They  remain  paired  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  and  almost  always  construct 
their  nest  on  a  rock  near  the  sea ;  the  eggs, 
usually  5  in  number,  are  of  a  pale  bluish  green 
tint,  marked,  especially  at  the  large  end,  with 
roundish  spots  of  greenish  brown  and  pale  pur- 
plish gray.  The  hooded  crow  is  generally  found 
in  ditferent  localities  from  the  carrion  crow ; 
and,  when  existing  in  the  same  district,  the 


species  keep  separate,  the  latter  being  much 
more  shy  and  wild.  It  is  said,  and  probably 
with  truth,  that  the  species  breed  together,  pro- 
ducing hybrids  intermediate  between  the  two  ; 
it  must  be  ditlicult  to  distinguish  such  hybrids 
from  the  present  species,  as  the  space  occupied 
by  the  ash-gray  varies  greatly  in  ditierent  in- 
dividuals. IV.  The  fish  crow  (C.  ossifragus, 
Wils.)  is  smaller  than  the  common  crow,  hav- 
ing a  length  of  only  16  inches  and  an  extent  of 
wings  of  33  inches ;  the  bill  is  nearly  2  inches, 
and  the  tarsus  1|  inches  long.  These  two  birds 
resemble  each  other  in  general  appearance  ;  >the 
bill  in  the  fish  crow  is  concave  on  the  sides  at 
the  base,  and  flat  in  tiie  middle ;  the  plumage 
in  its  general  color  is  deep  black,  with  blue  and 
purple  reflections  above,  and  blue  and  greenish 
beneath ;  the  bill,  tarsi,  toes,  and  claws  are 
black ;  the  iris  dark  brown.  This  species  is 
abundant  in  the  southern  states,  in  maritime 
districts,  at  all  seasons;  it  is  occasionally  seen 
as  far  north  as  New  York  in  spring  and  sum- 
mer, returning  to  the  south  in  winter.  The 
fish  crow  is  not  persecuted  like  the  common 
species,  and  is  therefore  quite  familiar  in  it3 
habits,  approaching  houses  and  gardens  with- 
out fear,  and  feeding  unmolested  on  the  best 
fruits.  Its  favorite  food,  as  its  popular  name 
implies,  is  fish ;  at  early  dawn  the  flock  takes 
wing  for  the  sea-shore,  in  a  very  noisy  manner ; 
they  skim  along  the  shallows,  flats,  and  marshes 
in  search  of  small  fish,  which  they  catch  alive 
in  their  claws,  retiring  to  a  tree  or  stone  to  de- 
vour them.  Like  others  of  the  genus,  this  spe- 
cies will  feed  on  all  kinds  of  garbage,  on  crabs 
and  mollusks,  on  eggs  and  young  birds,  on  the 
berries  of  various  kinds  of  ilex  and  sfillingki, 
on  mulberries,  tigs,  whortleberries,  pears,  and 
other  ripe  fruits ;  they  are  in  the  habit  of  at- 
tacking on  the  wing  the  smaller  gulls  and  terns, 
and  of  forcing  them  to  give  up  tlieir  recently 
caught  fish.  They  breed  in  February  and 
March  in  Florida  and  South  Carolma,  and  a 
month  later  in  New  Jersey ;  the  nests  are 
usually  made  in  the  loblolly  pine,  on  the  ends 
of  the  branches  about  30  feet  from  the  ground ; 
the  nest  and  eggs  resemble  those  of  tlie  com- 
mon crow,  but  are  smaller.  The  note  is  difier- 
ent  from  that  of  the  other  species,  resembling, 
according  to  Audubon,  the  syllables  ?ia,  ha, 
hae,  frequently  repeated ;  at  night  they  are  still, 
in  the  morning  very  noisy,  and  in  the  breeding 
season  not  disagreeable  nor  monotonous.  Their 
flight  is  strong  and  protracted ;  they  generally 
fly  near  the  water,  but  occasionally  they  rise  to 
a  great  height.  On  the  ground  their  move- 
ments are  graceful ;  and  they  are  fond  of  open- 
ing and  shutting  their  wings,  a  habit  common 
to  the  other  crows.  They  can  disgorge  their 
food  like  the  vultures,  when  wounded  and  at- 
tempting to  escape  ;  they  are  easily  approached 
and  shot,  and  in  winter,  when  their  food  is 
chiefly  fruit,  they  are  veiy  fat,  and  considered 
good  eating.  The  female  is  smaller,  and  the 
gloss  on  the  plumage  is  less  bright,  with  brown 
reflections  on  the  upper  parts ;  the  length  is  15 


104 


CROWE 


CROWN 


inches,  and  the  extent  of  wings  31  inches. — 
The  habits  of  the  crows  seem  to  be  the  same 
in  all  countries.  The  carrion  crow  of  Ceylon 
detects  the  wounded  deer,  and  discloses  its 
retreat  to  the  hunter  by  congregating  on  the 
neighboring  trees.  Whenever  this  bird  sees  an 
animal  lying  on  the  ground,  it  soon  collects  all 
its  comrades  in  the  vicinity  ;  one  of  the  boldest 
hops  upon  the  animal's  body ;  as  this  is  not  un- 
common in  their  search  for  ticks,  the  creature 
lies  still,  grateful  for  the  expected  riddance  of 
the  vermin.  Finally  the  crow  looks  into  the 
eyes ;  then  the  animal,  if  able  to  defend  itself, 
removes  the  dangerous  friend  by  a  shake  of  the 
head  ;  but  if  the  eyes  be  dim  from  disease  or 
wounds,  full  well  the  crow  knows  it,  and 
plunges  its  powerful  bill  into  the  eyeball  of  the 
struggling  suSerer,  and  feasts  upon  its  favorite 
morsel ;  the  rest  soon  join,  and  attack  the  parts 
giving  easiest  access  to  the  entrails.  The  hood- 
ed crow  of  Ceylon,  like  the  other  mentioned  in 
Layard's  "  Ornithology  of  Ceylon,"  lives  amid 
the  densest  populations,  stealing  every  thing 
eatable  that  comes  in  his  way ;  if  the  spread 
table  be  left  for  a  moment,  the  marks  of  feet 
upon  the  cloth,  of  bills  in  the  butter,  and  the 
disappearance  of  small  bits,  show  that  the  rob- 
bers could  not  have  been  far  oif ;  indeed  the 
sable  watchmen  sit  perched  on  rafter  and  roof, 
with  inclined  heads,  ready  for  every  opportu- 
nity to  attack  the  box  of  rice  or  the  store  of 
dried  fish.  They  are  useful  scavengers,  and 
are  rarely  molested  by  the  natives,  of  whom 
they  stand  in  no  fear ;  but  at  the  appearance 
of  the  white  man  with  his  gun,  the  whole  cor- 
vine community  is  in  an  uproar,  and  flies  hur- 
riedly to  a  safe  distance  till  the  danger  is  over. 
CROWE,  Cathaeink  (Stevens),  a  living  Eng- 
lish authoress,  born  at  Borough  Green,  in  the 
county  of  Kent,  married  in  1822  Lieut.  Col. 
Crowe  of  the  royal  army,  and  began  her  litei-- 
ary  career  in  1838  by  the  publication  of  a  tra- 
gedy entitled  "  Aristodemus."  Adopting  a  more 
popular  style  of  composition,  she  soon  after  pub- 
lished a  novel  called  "Manorial  Rights,"  which 
was  succeeded  by  the  "Adventures  of  Susan 
Hopley."  The  latter  was  marked  especially  by 
a  rapid  succession  of  various  incidents,  and  waa 
reproduced  in  a  dramatic  form.  Her  3d  novel, 
"Lilly  Dawson,"  appeared  in  1847,  and  was  de- 
signed to  show  the  influence  of  the  afiections 
upon  the  development  of  the  intellect.  In  1848 
she  translated  from  the  German  of  Kerner  the 
"Seeressof  Prevorst;"  and  being  thus  intro- 
duced to  the  study  of  the  phenomena  of  animal 
magnetism,  she  has  since  published  several 
tales,  some  of  them  of  a  fantastic  character,  con- 
taining incidents  and  observations  with  refer- 
ence to  the  supernatural  world  and  to  dark 
points  of  experience.  The  "Night  Side  of 
Nature"  (1848)  was  a  skilful  effort  to  awaken 
an  interest  in  the  whole  doctrine  of  spirits. 
Among  her  later  publications  are  "  Pippie's 
Warning,"  "  Light  and  Darkness,  or  the  Mys- 
teries of  Life,"  the  "  Adventures  of  a  Beauty," 
and  "  Linny  Lockwood." 


CROWN  (Lat.  corona)^  a  wreath-shaped  or 
circular  covering  for  the  head,  made  either  of 
leaves  and  flowers  or  of  metals  and  precious 
stones,  and  worn  as  a  decoration  or  honorable 
distinction.  The  legends  of  the  Greeks  attrib- 
uted its  invention  to  Prometheus  or  Janus,  and 
the  earliest  Greek  crowns  were  worn  chiefly  on 
festive  occasions,  and  were  twined  of  twigs  of  the 
tree  or  plant  sacred  to  the  divinity  who  presided 
over  the  festival.  They  rarely  contained  more 
than  a  single  kind  of  leaves  or  flowers,  as  the  ivy, 
myrtle,  roses,  violets,  and  lilies.  The  ivy  was  in 
especial  esteem  on  Bacchanalian  occasions,  since 
it  was  believed  to  be  a  preventive  of  drunkenness. 
Circular  garlands  were  common  ornaments  also 
for  priests,  altars,  temples,  graves,  and  sacrificial 
offerings.  At  the  national  games,  a  crown  was 
the  reward  granted  to  the  victors.  It  was 
made  of  wild  olive  for  the  Olympic  heroes ;  of 
laurel,  for  the  Pythian;  of  olive,  and  afterward 
parsley,  for  the  Nemean ;  and  of  pine,  for  the 
Isthmian. — The  Romans  gave  crowns  to  the  con- 
querors in  the  circus,  and  to  the  best  actor  at  the 
theatre.  They  also  invented  a  great  variety  of 
crowns,  made  of  different  materials,  each  with 
a  separate  name,  which  were  bestowed  in  honor 
especially  of  military  achievements.  The  corona 
ohsidionalis  was  presented  by  besieged  cities  or 
armies  to  the  general  who  delivered  them ;  it 
conferred  the  highest  honor,  was  rarely  obtained, 
and  was  made  of  weeds  and  wild  flowers  gather- 
ed from  the  spot  where  the  troops  or  citizens 
had  been  beleaguered.  The  corona  civica  was 
the  reward  for  a  soldier  who  should  save  the 
life  of  a  citizen  in  battle,  by  slaying  his  oppo- 
nent and  maintaining  the  ground ;  it  was  an 
oak  wreath,  and  was  the  second  of  the  military 
crowns  in  honor.  The  corona  rostrata  or  nava- 
lis  was  bestowed  upon  the  Roman  who  in  a  naval 
combat  had  first  boarded  the  enemy's  vessel, 
or  the  commander  whose  skill  and  courage  had 
gained  a  signal  victory ;  it  was  of  gold,  and 
decorated  with  representations  of  the  beaks  of 
ships.  The  corona  muralis  was  given  by  the 
general  to  the  soldier  who  first  scaled  the  wall 
of  a  besieged  town ;  it  was  of  gold,  and  deco- 
rated with  turrets.  The  corona  castrensis  was 
ornamented  Avith  palisades,  and  was  given  to 
the  soldier  who  first  surmounted  tlie  intrench- 
ments  and  forced  an  entrance  into  the  enemy's 
camp.  The  corona  triumphalis  was  a  vrreath 
of  laurel  (afterward  of  gold),  given  by  the  sol- 
diers to  the  victorious  general  on  the  day  of  his 
triumph.  The  corona  ovalis,  of  myrtle,  and  of 
less  estimation  than  the  preceding,  was  given 
to  generals  who  enjoyed  an  ovation  instead  of 
a  triumpli.  The  corona  oleagina  Avas  a  wreath 
of  olive,  and  was  bestowed  upon  victorious  sol- 
diers as  well  as  generals.  There  was  also  a 
crown  of  olive  or  gold  peculiar  to  the  priests, 
which  was  also  regarded  as  an  emblem  of 
peace ;  radiate  crowns  attributed  to  gods  and 
deified  heroes  and  emperors  ;  and  a  crown  of 
verbena,  worn  by  brides,  by  whom  it  was  gath- 
ered and  braided.  The  custom  of  crowning 
poets  with  wreaths  of  flowers    existed  both 


CROWN  POINT 


CRUCIBLE 


105 


among  tlie  Greeks  and  Romans. — The  crown 
under  different  names,  as  crown,  tiara,  mitre, 
and  diadem,  has  been  a  badge  of  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  supremacy  from  remote  antiquity. 
The  mitre  of  the  Jewish  high  priest  and  the 
radiate  crowns  upon  coins  of  ancient  Persian 
kings  are  examples.  The  Roman  and  Byzan- 
tine emperors  wore  crowns  of  various  kinds, 
the  diadem,  a  sort  of  fillet,  becoming  common 
after  the  time  of  Constantine.  The  imi)erial 
cr4)wn  of  Charlemagne,  imitated  from  Byzan- 
tine usage,  was  closed  above  like  a  cap,  and 
terminated  in  a  circle  of  gold.  During  the 
middle  ages  the  emperors  of  Germany  received 

3  crowns :  that  of  Germany,  which  was  of  sil- 
ver, and  was  assumed  at  Aix  la  Chapelle ;  the 
crown  of  iron,  wliich  had  formerly  been  pecu- 
liar to  the  Lombard  kings,  and  was  assumed  at 
Pavia ;  and  the  imperial  crown,  which  was  re- 
ceived at  Rome,  and  was  surmounted  by  a  mitre 
similar  to  that  of  bishops,  but  somewhat  smaller. 
The  crown  of  iron,  though  chiefly  of  gold,  de- 
rived its  name  from  an  iron  band  which  encir- 
cled it  in  the  interior,  and  Avhich  was  said  to 
have  been  made  from  one  of  the  nails  which 
served  in  the  crucifixion  of  Christ.  It  is  still 
I)reserved  in  the  cathedral  of  Monza,  and  is  one 
of  the  crowns  of  the  Austrian  emperors,  who 
are  now  masters  of  the  Lombardo- Venetian 
kingdom.  Napoleon  wore  it  when  he  was 
crowned  king  of  Italy  at  Milan,  The  kings 
of  France  of  the  1st  race  wore  a  diadem  of 
pearls  in  the  form  of  a  fillet ;  those  of  the  2d 
wore  a  double  row  of  pearls  ;  those  of  the  3d 
wore  a  circular  band  of  gold  enriched  with 
precious  stones.  Philip  of  Valois  introduced 
the  3  fleurs  de  lis  about  1330.  Francis  I.  re- 
turned to  the  crown  of  Charlemagne,  arched 
over  the  head,  in  order  not  to  leave  this  mark 
of  superiority  to  Henry  VIII.  and  Charles  V. ; 
and  from  that  time  this  has  continued  to  be 
the  crown  of  France. — A  fillet  of  pearls  appears 
from  coins  to  have  been  the  most  common 
crown  of  the  Saxon  kings  of  England.  Stephen 
introduced  the  open  crown  with  fleurs  de  lis, 
and  Richard  III.  first  placed  the  arched  crown 
with  crosses  and  fleurs  de  lis  upon  the  great 
seal.  The  crown  which,  with  slight  variations, 
has  been  continued  by  succeeding  sovereigns,  was 
introduced  by  Henry  VII.  At  present  it  is  a 
circle  of  gold,  adorned  with  pearls  and  precious 
stones,  having  alternately  4  crosses  patee  and 

4  fleurs  de  lis ;  above  these  rise  4  arched  dia- 
dems, which  close  under  a  mound  and  cross. 
The  whole  covers  a  velvet  cap  trimmed  with 
ermine. — About  the  10th  century,  when  the 
feudal  lords  disputed  the  royal  supremacy,  all 
the  ranks  of  the  nobility  assumed  a  sort  of 
crown.  (See  Coeonet.) — The  popes  have  for 
many  centuries  worn  a  triple  crown,  which  is 
designed  to  signify  their  ecclesiastical,  civil,  and 
judicial  supremacy.  It  consists  of  a  long  cap 
or  tiara  of  golden  cloth,  encircled  by  3  coronets, 
one  rising  above  the  other,  surmounted  by  a 
mound  and  cross  of  gold. 

CROWN  POINT,  a  township  of  Essex  co., 


N.  Y.,  on  the  W.  shore  of  Lake  Champlain, 
about  75  miles  N.  of  Albany,  and  noted  as  the 
site  of  a  famous  fort,  now  in  ruins. 

CROYDON,  a  market  town  and  parish  of 
England,  co.  of  Surrey,  on  the  river  Wandle, 
near  Banstead  downs,  10  m.  S.  of  London,  with 
which  it  comnmnicates  by  the  London  and 
Brighton  railway.  A  branch  line  also  connects 
It  with  Epsom.  Pop.  of  the  town  in  1651, 
10,2G0.  The  houses  are  mostly  Avell  built,  and 
the  streets,  the  principal  one  of  which  is  a  milo 
long,  are  paved  and  lighted  with  gas.  It  has 
an  elegant  and  capacious  churcli  of  freestone, 
built  in  the  15th  century,  2  modern  churches, 
several  chapels  and  schools,  a  hospital,  an  alms 
house  richly  endowed  for  the  maintenance  of 
34  decayed  housekeepers,  a  literary  and  scienti- 
fic institution,  a  handsome  town  hall,  a  barrack, 
a  gaol,  breweries,  bleacheries,  and  calico  print 
"works.  The  manor  of  Croydon  (called  in  the 
Domesday  book  Cruie-dune,  chalk  hill),  together 
with  a  royal  palace,  was  given  at  the  Norman, 
conquest  to  Lanfranc,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
whose  successors  resided  here  for  a  long  time. 
The  palace  has  been  gradually  rebuilt  since  1278, 
at  which  period  it  was  in  its  original  state,  and 
the  oldest  portion  now  left  is  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury. In  1780  it  was  converted  into  a  calico 
factory,  which  has  since  been  abandoned.  A 
girls'  industrial  school  is  taught  in  the  old  chapel. 
The  manufactures  of  Croydon  have  been  declin- 
ing for  several  years. 

CROYLAND,  or  Crowland,  a  town  of  Lin- 
colnshire, England,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Welland  with  2  smaller  streams,  8  m.  N.  of 
Peterborough ;  pop.  in  1851,  3,183.  It  is  a 
place  of  much  interest  to  antiquaries,  partly  for 
its  curious  triangular  foot  bridge,  dating  from 
the  reign  of  Edward  II.,  but  chiefly  on  account 
of  the  ruins  of  a  famous  and  magnificent  abbey, 
a  portion  of  which  is  still  used  as  a  church. 
This  abbey  was  founded  by  Ethelbald,  was  sev- 
eral times  destroyed,  and  rebuilt  each  time  with 
greater  splendor  than  before. 

CRUCIBLE,  a  small  vessel  made  of  refrac- 
tory materials  for  withstanding  high  tempera- 
tures, and  used  in  metallurgic  and  chemical 
operations  for  containing  substances  to  be  melt- 
ed. The  name  is  said  by  some  to  have  been 
given  to  them  by  the  alchemists  from  the  Latin 
crux^  crticis,  in  consequence  of  their  custom 
of  marking  them  with  the  sign  of  the  cross. 
Others  derive  it  from  the  Latin  crucio,  to  tor- 
ment, because  the  contents,  in  the  language  of 
the  same  alchemists,  were  thus  treated  in  the 
operations  to  which  they  were  subjected.  They 
are  made  in  various  forms  and  of  different  ma- 
terials, according  to  the  purposes  required  of 
them.  The  qualities  they  should  possess  are 
infusibilit)-,  capacity  of  bearing  sudden  changes 
of  temperature  without  breaking,  resistance  to 
the  chemical  action  of  the  substances  fused  in 
them,  and  a  texture  impermeable  to  liquids 
and  gases.  But  substances  which  possess  some 
of  these  qualities  are  deficient  in  others,  and 
consequently  they  are  dift'erently  made  for  dif- 


106 


CRUCIBLE 


CRUCIFIX 


ferent  uses ;  and  ■when  made  of  one  material  as 
the  best  to  withstand  the  lieat  or  the  most  eco- 
nomical, tliey  are  lined  -with  another  whicli  bet- 
ter resists  the  chemical  action  of  the  substances 
to  be  operated  upon.  Charcoal  being  one  of  the 
most  unalterable  substances  known,  when  pro- 
tected from  the  action  of  the  air,  it  was  much 
used  for  crucibles  by  the  old  assayers ;  a  piece 
of  proper  shape  was  merely  hollowed  out  and 
bound  round  with  wire.  An  improvement  upon 
this  is  to  line  earthenware  crucibles  with  char- 
coal, well  selected,  so  as  to  be  free  from  impu- 
rities, and  after  being  pulverized  passed  through 
a  very  fine  sieve,  and  made  into  a  paste  with 
water.  This  being  thoroughly  kneaded,  the 
crucible,  moistened  by  dipping  it  in  water,  is 
filled  with  the  paste  by  ramming  in  small  por- 
tions at  a  time  with  a  wooden  pestle.  Out 
of  this  filling  a  cavity  of  proper  size  for  the  ope- 
ration is  excavated  with  a  spatula,  and  its  sides 
are  well  rubbed  and  smoothed  with  a  glass  or 
metallic  rod.  For  many  purposes  these,  called 
brasqued  crucibles,  are  tlie  best  of  all.  The 
lining  of  charcoal  strengthens  the  sides,  so 
that  they  will  not  be  liable  to  lose  their  shape 
by  softening  -in  the  fire;  the  earthen wai'e  is 
protected  by  it  from  contact  with  the  con- 
tents ;  and  it  is  out  of  reach  of  the  action  of 
the  air.  Moreover,  in  reducing  the  oxides  of 
the  metals  the  charcoal  affords  the  carbon  re- 
quired by  the  oxygen  to  disengage  it  from  its 
metallic  combinations,  and  convert  it  into  the 
volatile  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas. — The  best 
earthenware  or  porous  crucibles  are  made  of 
the  purest  clays,  such  as  consist  only  of  alumina 
and  silica.  The  texture  depends  upon  the  degree 
to  which  the  materials  are  pulverized.  The 
close  Wedgwood  crucibles  are  made  of  the  best 
materials  finely  ground;  but  they  do  not  with- 
stand sudden  changes  of  temperature  so  well  as 
the  coarser  Hessian  and  English  crucibles.  The 
former,  which  have  been  long  known  as  the 
cheapest  and  among  the  best  clay  crucibles,  are 
made  in  the  vicinity  of  Almerode,  in  Germany, 
of  an  aluminous  clay,  which  is  mixed  with  quartz 
sand.  They  are  3-sided  at  top  and  round  below. 
Their  composition,  according  to  Berthier,  is  silica 
70.9,  alumina  24.8,  oxide  of  iron  3.3,  with  traces 
of  magnesia.  They  are  remarkable  for  their 
refractory  properties  of  withstanding  sudden 
changes  and  high  degrees  of  temperature.  Small 
ones  may  even  be  heated  to  redness  and  thrown 
into  cold  water  without  breaking.  They  will 
soften,  however,  at  the  high  heat  of  the  furnaces 
in  which  they  are  used,  and  the  coarseness  of 
their  material  renders  them  very  porous.  Salt- 
petre and  common  salt,  and  other  substances 
used  as  fiuxes,  are  liable  when  fused  to  find  their 
■way  through  them.  Porcelain  or  Wedgwood 
crucibles  are  more  impervious  to  vapors  and 
fluxes.  The  French  crucibles  of  Beaufay  are 
perhaps  more  refractory  than  the  Hessian.  They 
arc  made  near  Xamur,  of  clay  without  additional 
mixture  of  sand ;  when  moulded  they  are  washed 
over  with  a  tliin  coating  of  pure  clay,  prepared 
by  pulverizing  clay  that  has  been  baked.     They 


are  of  ijiore  dense  material  than  other  clay  cruci- 
bles, and  hence  better  resist  the  passage  of 
fluxes.  Their  conijjosition  is,  by  the  analysis 
of  Berthier,  silica  G4,G,  alumina  34.4,  oxide  of 
iron  1.  The  English  or  London  crucibles  are 
made  of  triangular  or  circular  form,  and  have 
covers  of  the  same  material.  The  Cornish  cru- 
cibles made  for  the  use  of  the  assayers  of  the 
cop{>er  ores  in  Ct)rnwall  are  cylindrical,  and 
resemble  in  their  properties  the  llessian.  Stour- 
bridge clay,  tlie  material  of  fire  brick,  is  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  crucibles,  mixed  with 
half  its  Aveight  of  pulverized  coke. — Blue  pots, 
or  black  lead  crucibles,  as  they  are  often  in-. 
correctly  called,  are  made  of  the  mineral  graph- 
ite or  plumbago,  Avhich  is  composed  of  car- 
bon with  4  to  10  per  cent,  of  iron.  The  Bub- 
stance  is  finely  pulverized,  mixed  with  a  third  or 
half  its  weight  of  clay,  moulded  into  the  pots, 
some  of  which  are  large  enough  to  serve  for 
assaying  furnaces,  and  then  baked.  These  are 
excellent  crucibles  for  resisting  changes  of  tem- 
perature, as  well  as  the  chemical  action  of  their 
contents;  but  their  higher  cost  limits  their, use 
to  certain  purposes  only.  They  are  used  in 
melting  cast  steel  in  the  large  works  where  this  . 
is  manufactured.  They  may  be  protected  on 
the  inside  from  the  action  of  the  oxides,  which 
tend  to  remove  the  carbonaceous  material,  by  a 
lining  of  clay  or  other  substance.  These  are 
made  of  excellent  quality  in  Boston  and  in  Jersey 
City. — For  different  chemical  operations  cruci- 
bles are  employed  made  of  various  metals. 
Those  of  platinum  are  in  continual  use  in  the 
operations  connected  with  chemical  analyses. 
But  these,  though  they  bear  the  highest  tempera- 
ture, are  attacked  by  many  substances  which  do 
not  affect  other  metals,  as  silver  particularly, 
and  crucibles  of  this  material  are  therefore  re- 
quired as  occasional  substitutes.  Cast-iron  cru- 
cibles are  cheaply  made,  and  are  very  service- 
able in  many  assays  of  sulphurets  especially. 
TJie  iron  itself  serves  to  desulphurize  the  natu- 
ral compound  of  this  substance,  as  the  carbon 
of  the  brasqued  crucibles  deoxidizes  the  oxides. 
Assays  of  galena  may  be  rapidly  made  one  after 
another  in  cast-iron  crucibles,  by  introducing  a 
portion  mixed  with  twice  and  a  half  its  weight 
of  carbonate  of  soda  and  fusing ;  the  galena  is 
decomposed,  and  sulphuret  of  iron  is  produced 
at  the  expense  of  the  crucible ;  the  lead  set 
free  may  be  poured  out,  and  a  new  portion  in- 
stantly introduced,  and  thus  the  operation  may 
be  continued  as  long  as  the  crucible  lasts. 

CRUCIFIX  (Lat.  crucifi(jo^  to  fix  to  a  cross), 
a  sculptured  or  carved  representation  of  the 
Saviour  attached  to  the  cross.  The  simple  cross 
was  the  etcdiest  symbol  of  Christianity,  The 
Cth  Gicumenical  council  (G80)  ordered  that  Christ 
should  be  rcin-esented  according  to  his  human 
features,  rather  than  in  the  symbolical  figure  of 
the  paschal  lamb,  and  in  the  succeeding  century 
the  crucifix  became  common  throughout  the 
church.  There  are  still  preserved  in  a  museum 
in  Rome  crucifixes  which  date  from  the  8th  cen- 
tury.    This  image  is  used  by  few  Protestants, 


CRUCIFIXION 


CKUIK8IIANK 


107 


but  is  placed  by  Roman  Catholics  in  churches 
and  oratories,  especially  on  altars,  and  is  some- 
times Avorn  on  the  person. 

CRUCIFIXION,  a  raodo  of  punishment 
v'hich  existed  amonj^  several  ancient  nations. 
Thucydides  speaks  of  Inacus,  an  African  kinijr, 
who  was  crucified  by  the  Egyptians.  Polycrntes 
suftered  the  same  fate  from  the  Persians,  accord- 
ing to  Herodotus.  It  was  common  among  the 
Cartliaginians.  Alexander  the  Great  made  a 
most  ferocious  use  of  the  cross  after  the  capture 
of  Tyre  on  the  defenders  of  that  city.  King  Tar- 
quin  the  Proud  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
'  cause  executions  in  this  way  at  Rome.  The  sur- 
vivor of  the  3  Iloratii  had  been  ])reviously  con- 
demned to  this  punishment  for  the  nnu'der  of  his 
sister,  but  had  been  pardoned.  It  was  an  infa- 
mous i)unishment,  applied  especially  to  slaves, 
and  hence  termed  by  Tacitus  servile  siipplicium. 
The  cross  was  usually  raised  in  some  frequented 
place  outside  of  tlie  city.  In  Judtca  this  kind  of 
execution  was  practised  under  the  Romans.  The 
crucifixion  of  the  Saviour  is  a  favorite  subject 
with  the  great  painters  of  the  middle  ages. 

CRUCIGER,  Kaspar,  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Leipsic  in  1504,  died  at  Wit- 
tenberg in  1548,  He  studied  at  Wittenberg, 
where  he  became  connected  with  Luther,  by 
whose  favor  lie  was  appointed  to  tlie  rectorate 
of  Magdeburg  in  1524.  In  1528  he  became 
professor  of  theology  and  court  preacher  at 
Wittenberg,  in  which  ofKces  he  remained  till 
his  death.  His  services  to  the  reformation  con- 
sist chiefly  in  his  having  aided  Luther  in  trans- 
lating the  Bible,  and  having  taken  part  in  the 
most  important  religious  conferences  of  the 
time. — His  grandson,  Georg  (1575-1037),  was 
the  instructor  of  Maurice  of  Hesse,  and  per- 
suaded that  prince  to  embrace  the  reformed 
doctrines.  He  was  afterward  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  Marburg,  and  in  1618  attended  the 
council  of  Dort. 

CRUDEN,  Alexander, .author  of  the  "Con- 
cordance" to  the  Bible,  born  in  Aberdeen,  Scot- 
land, May  31,  1700,  died  in  London,  Nov.  1, 
1770.  He  was  educated  at  Mareschal  college, 
and  intended  for  the  church,  but  was  employed 
for  10  years  as  teacher.  In  1732  he  went  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  was  engaged  as  corrector  of  the 
press  b}-  a  publishing  house,  with  which  occupa- 
tion he  combined  that  of  a  bookseller,  opening 
a  small  shop  under  the  royal  excliange.  He  had 
already  commenced  his  "Concordauco  to  the 
Holy  Scriptures,"  which  wascom])leted  and  pub- 
lisbed  in  1737,  and  dedicated  to  Queen  Caroline, 
from  whom  he  hoped  for  some  substantial  proof 
of  royal  munificence,  a  hope  never  realized ;  the 
queen  died  in  16  days  after  the  presentation  of 
the  work.  Cruden  was  afflicted  with  a  pecu- 
liar mental  malady,  and  3  times  in  his  life  he 
was  confined  in  a  lunatic  asylum — once  soon 
after  his  departure  from  college,  again  imme- 
diately after  the  publication  of  his  "  Concord- 
ance," and  a  tliird  time  15  years  later  in  1753. 

CRUGER,  JoHK  Harris,  commander  of  a 
eorps  of  royalists  in  the  war  of  the  American 


revolution,  born  in  New  York  in  1738,  died  in 
London  in  1807.  In  1704  he  was  mayor  of 
the  city  of  New  York  and  speaker  of  the  colo- 
nial assembly.  He  was  a  member  of  the  colo- 
nial convention  called  in  the  next  year  to  resist 
the  stamp  act,  and  composed  the  declaration  of 
rights.  After  the  outtireak  of  the  war  ho  ad- 
liered  to  the  crown,  held  the  connnission  of  a 
lieuteiuuit-colonel,  and  conducted  in  1781  tho 
gallant  and  successful  defence  of  Fort  Ninety- 
six,  S.  C,  when  it  was  besieged  by  Gen.  Greene. 
His  cor])s  formed  the  British  centre  in  the  bat- 
tle at  Eutaw  Springs. — His  brother,  HexeY 
Cruger,  born  in  New  York  in  173'J,  died  in 
the  same  city,  April  24,  1827,  establislicd  him- 
self in  trade  in  Bristol,  England,  and  in  1774 
was  elected  to  tho  Britisli  parliauK'ut,  having 
Edmund  Burke  fot  his  colleague.  He  advo- 
cated on  all  occasions  a  conciliatory  course  to- 
ward the  Americans. 

CRUIKSHANR,  George,  an  English  humor- 
ist, born  in  London  in  1794.  His  father  Isaac 
Cruikshank,  and  his  elder  brother  Robert,  were 
caricaturists  and  engravers,  and  lie  picked  up  a 
knowledge  of  the  art  from  seeing  ihem  work. 
He  was  admitted  a  student  of  the  royal  academy 
xmder  the  superintendence  of  Fuseli ;  but  find- 
ing the  rooms  uncomfortably  crowded,  he  gladly 
accepted  an  otfer  from  a  publisher  to  illustrate 
juvenile  books  and  nudce  cheap  caricatures. 
Cruikshank  was  an  enthusiastic  liberal,  and  the 
first  objects  of  his  satire  were  political.  For 
several  years,  to  use  his  own  words,  he  "  lived 
upon  the  great  usurper  Bonaparte."  He  soon 
became  known  as  a  clever  political  caricaturist, 
and  was  employed  by  a  number  of  publishers; 
but  the  works  whicli  first  gave  him  an  extensive 
popularity  were  the  illustrations  to  a  series  of 
squibs  on  the  public  and  private  life  of  the 
prince  regent,  published  by  Hone  between  1819 
and  1821,  and  entitled  the  "Political  House  that 
Jack  built;"  the  "Matrimonial  Ladder,"  and 
Kon  mi  ricordo,  in  allusion  to  the  marriage 
and  trial  of  Queen  Caroline;  the  "Man  in  the 
Moon,"  &c.  The  artist  was  most  successful  in 
the  humor  of  his  illustrations,  and  such  was 
the  excited  feeling  of  tlie  time  and  the  clever- 
ness of  the  satire,  that  some  of  the  pamphlets 
reached  a  sale  of  200,000  or  300,000  copies. 
After  this  Cruikshank  abandoned  ]»olitical  cai-- 
icaturing,  having  first  projected  a  work  to  illus- 
trate the  results  of  what  was  called  "  seeing 
life."  The  story,  written  by  Pierce  Egan,  had 
an  extraordinary  sale  in  England  and  America, 
under  the  title  of  "Life  in  London  ;"  but  as  the 
moral  aim  of  the  artist  was  entirely  overlooked 
by  the  author,  Cruikshank  retired  from  the 
work  before  its  completion.  From  1824' until 
the  present  time  Cruikshank  has  been  almost 
incessantly  engaged  in  illustrating  books;  a 
complete  collection  of  which  would  exhibit  a 
fertility  of  invention  and  humor,  a  dramatic 
power,  and  a  technical  excellence  which  have 
seldom  been  combined  in  one  artist.  So  pro- 
lific, however,  has  been  his  pencil,  that  it  is 
hardly  possible  to  give  a  complete  list  of  hi3 


108 


CKUIKSIIANK 


CRUSADES 


^vorks  ;  lie  lilmsclf  has  not  prints  of  tlie  whole 
of  them.     Among  those  which   obtained   the 
greatest  popularity   are  "Points   of  Humor," 
"  Mornings  at  Bow  Street,"  Fielding's  "  Tom 
Thumb,"  "John  Gilpin,"  the  " Epping  Hunt," 
"Three  Courses  and  a  Dessert,"   "Sunday  in 
London,"  which  lias  a  satirical  humor  not  un- 
worthy of  Hogarth,  Fielding's,  Smollett's,  De- 
foe's, and  Scott's  novels,  "My  Sketch  Book," 
"Illustrations  of  Phrenology,"  "Illustrations  of 
the  Time,"  &c.,  &c.   In  1835  he  commenced  the 
"Comic  Almanac,"  which  was  for  many  years 
the  vehicle  of  some  of  his  happiest  designs.    lie 
also  illustrated  Dickens's  first  work,  "  Sketches 
by  Boz,"  and   subsequently  "  Oliver  Twist," 
which  originally  appeared  in  "  Bentley's  Miscel- 
lany," while  under  the  control  of  Dickens.     For 
the  same  magazine,  after  it  came   under  the 
editorship  of  Ainsworth,  he  furnished  the  de- 
fc^igns  for  "Jack  Sheppard"  and  "Guy  Fawkes," 
and  upon  the  establishment  of  "  Ainsworth's 
Magazine"  illustrated  several  novels  by  Ains- 
worth which  appeared  there  serially.     He  sub- 
sequently started  a  periodical  of  his  own,  called 
the  "Omnibus,"  which  was  edited  by  the  late 
Laman  Blanchard.     His  illustrations  of  Max- 
well's "  History  of  the  Irish  Rebellion,"  pub- 
lished about  this  time,  afford  some  happy  spe- 
cimens of  his  efforts  in  a  serious  style.     In  1847 
appeared  "  The  Bottle"  in  a  series  of  8  prints, 
by  many  deemed  the  most  important  work  of 
his  life,  and  of  which  the  germ  can  be  traced  in 
the  "  Gin  Shop,"  the  "  Upas  Tree,"  the  "  Gin 
Juggernaut,"  and  others  of  his  earlier  works. 
The  striking  manner  in  which  the  evils  of  in- 
temperance were  depicted  made  the  work  im- 
mensely popular,  and  many   thousand   copies 
were  sold  at  a  shilling  each.     The  artist  subse- 
quently published  a  sequel  in  which  the  career 
of  the  son  and  daughter  of  the  drunkard  was 
followed  up.      Since  the  publication  of  these 
prints  Cruikshank  has  been  a  determined  advo- 
cate of  total  abstinence  from  intoxicating  drinks, 
and  has  done  good  service  in  that  behalf  with 
pen  and  pencil  in  his  pamphlet,  "  The  Glass." 
Of  late  years  he  has  illustrated  few  noticeable 
books,  but  his  etchings  for  the  "Life  of  Sir  John 
Falstaff,"  by  Robert  B.  Brough,  published   in 
1858,  are  executed  with  a  delicacy  and  spirit 
worthy  of  his  best  years.     At  nearly  60  years 
of  age  Cruikshank  again  applied  for  admission 
as  a  student  at  the  royal  academy,  and  has  lat- 
terly given  much  attention  to  oil  painting.     He 
contributes  to  the  annual  exhibitions  in  London, 
and  in  several  of  his  pictures  has  shown  great 
aptitude  for  this  new  branch  of  his  art.     Few 
artists  of  the  present  day  have  given  more  at- 
tention  to  etching,  and  his  plates  frequently 
present  a  vigor  of  touch  and  a  breadth  of  chiaros- 
curo recalling  the  efforts  of  the  old  engravers. 
He  has  been  much  addicted  to  athletic  sports, 
and  from  his  dramatic  abilities  was  selected  as 
one  of  the  actors  in  the  amateur  performances 
undertaken  by  Dickens  and  others  in  organiz- 
ing the  guild  of  literature  and  art. 
CRUIKSHANK,  William,  a  Scotch  anatomist, 


one  of  the  medical  attendants  of  Dr.  Johnson  in 
his  last  illness,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1746,  died 
in  London,  June  27, 1800.  After  having  studied 
from  1764  to  1771  at  Glasgow,  he  went  to  Lon- 
don with  a  letter  of  introduction  to  the  cele- 
brated "William  Hunter,  who  appointed  him  li- 
brarian, and  afterward  his  assistant.  After  Dr. 
Hunter's  death,  he  continued  in  concert  with 
Dr.  Baillie  to  preside  over  his  school.  His 
"Anatomy  of  the  Absorbent  Vessels,"  which 
appeared  in  1786,  attracted  much  attention 
among  medical  men  in  England  and  on  the  con- 
tinent. In  opposition  to  the  views  of  Haller,  he 
asserted  that  when  portions  of  nerves  are  cot 
out  of  living  animals  they  may  be  reproduced. 
His  paper  on  this  subject  was  published  in  the 
"Transactions"  of  the  royal  society  for  1794.  His 
memoir  on  the  yellow  fever,  which  toward  the 
end  of  the  18th  century  prevailed  in  the  United 
States,  and  especially  in  Philadelphia,  was  pub- 
lished in  the  latter  city  in  1798.  He  is  the  author 
of  other  medical  writings,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant are  those  on  insensible  perspiration. 

CRUSADE  (Port,  cruzado)^  a  Portuguese 
coin,  either  of  gold  or  silver,  named  from  the 
cross,  and  palm  leaves  arranged  in  the  form  of 
a  cross,  which  figure  upon  it.  The  first  cru- 
sades were  struck  off  in  1457,  on  the  publica- 
tion of  a  bull  by  Pope  Calixtus  III.  for  a  cru- 
sade against  the  Turks.  The  crusades  are  called 
old  or  new,  according  as  they  were  struck  before 
or  since  1722,  the  former  being  valued  at  400 
rees  (about  60  cents),  and  the  latter  at  480  rees. 

CRUSADES  (Fr.  croisade),  the  name  given  to 
the  expeditions  by  which  the  Christian  nations 
of  Europe,  in  the  11th,  12th,  and  13th  centuries, 
sought  to  recover  Palestine  from  the  Mussul- 
mans. The  Holy  Land  was  among  the  early  con- 
quests of  the  Saracens,  the  caliph  Omar  having 
taken  Jerusalem  A.  D.  637.  Thus  all  the  places 
most  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  Christians  passed  un- 
der the  control  of  the  votaries  of  a  new  reli- 
gion ;  and  though  some  of  the  Saracenic  rulers 
were  men  of  liberal  ideas,  and  of  liberal  prac- 
tices as  well,  and  treated  pilgrims  humanely, 
others  were  of  different  character,  and  behaved 
tyrannically.  The  Abbassides  were  a  superior 
race,  and  the  most  famous  caliph  of  that  line, 
Ilaroun  al  Rashid,  sent  the  keys  of  Jerusalem 
to  his  great  occidental  contemporary,  Charle- 
magne, which  assured  the  safety  of  Christian 
visitors  to  that  city.  The  holy  sepulchre  and  the 
church  of  the  resurrection  were  in  the  hands  of 
the  Christians  ;  and  the  tribute  exacted  from  the 
Christian  inhabitants  and  pilgrims  was  small. 
The  Fatimite  caliphs,  who  became  masters  of 
Jerusalem  in  the  10th  century,  pursued  the  lib- 
eral policy  of  the  Abbassides  until  the  time  of 
Ilakem,  who  was  a  fanatic,  and  persecuted  the 
Christians,  interfered  with  the  pilgrims,  and  de- 
faced the  holy  places.  His  conduct  excited  much 
indignation  in  the  West,  which  abated  when 
his  successors  returned  to  the  wiser  course  of 
his  predecessors.  The  church  and  the  sepul- 
chre assumed  their  former  state,  and  pilgrimage 
became  more  common  than  ever,   embracing 


CRUSADES 


109 


men  of  evorv  cuiiJition,  from  great  churclnnen 
and  nobles  to  peasants,  und  women  of  all  ranks. 
Tlie  Fatimite  or  Egyptian  caliphs,  though  they 
never  again  sought  deliberately  to  i)nt  a  stop  to 
pilgrimage,  did  not  always  protect  the  pilgrims, 
who  had  much  ill  usage  to  comjilain  of,  and  who 
made  it  known  to  all  Cliristcndom.  Wlien  the 
.Seljook  Turks  con(|uered  Palestine,  they  in- 
flicted all  manner  of  atrocities  on  the  Chris- 
tian residents,  and  treated  pilgrims  witli  great 
indignity  and  cruelty.  AV'hile  the  rage  that 
this  caused  througliout  Europe  was  at  its  height, 
tlie  Byzantine  emperor,  Michael  VII.,  fearing 
that  the  Turks  would  take  his  capital,  sent 
an  embassy  to  Gregory  VII.  entreating  assist- 
ance. Tlie  pope  addressed  the  rulers  of  the 
European  states,  urging  war  on  the  Turks,  and 
foreshadowing  the  crusades.  Again  Alexis  Com- 
nenus  sent  a  similar  embassy  to  Urban  II.,  when 
events  were  precii)itated  by  the  action  of  an  ob- 
scure man.  Peter  tlie  Hermit,  who  had  become 
imbued  with  deep  religious  enthusiasm,  was  a 
monk,  and  by  birth  a  Picard.  Visiting  Jeru- 
salem, after  having  led  the  life  of  an  anchoret, 
he  wa.s  an  eye-witness  of  the  insults  and  cruel- 
ties of  the  Turks,  and  experienced  some  of  them. 
He  was  soon  possessed  of  the  idea  that  he  was 
to  become  the  deliverer  of  tlie  holy  sepulchre, 
and  told  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  that  ho 
would  cause  the  western  nations  to  drive  out 
the  infidels.  The  patriarch  gave  him  letters 
entreating  aid,  and  Peter  visited  Urban  II., 
who  saw  that  he  was  an  enthusiast,  and  not 
tiie  less  likely  to  move  Christendom  because  of 
his  austerity,  vehemence,  and  humble  condition. 
The  ])ope  encouraged  him,  and  Peter  departed  to 
])reac]i  a  crusade  in  Italy  and  France,  which  he 
did  with  such  efiect  that  all  other  business  was 
neglected,  and  the  minds  of  men  of  all  degrees 
were  most  powerfully  affected.  Peter  had  an 
eloquence  suited  to  his  purpose,  but  he  could 
have  effected  little  if  he  had  not  found  ma- 
terial on  which  to  act.  Christendom  then 
had  but  little  light,  but  it  had  much  sincerity, 
and  it  felt  the  disgrace  involved  in  allow- 
ing the  Holy  Land  to  remain  in  the  hands  of 
the  Turks.  Pilgrimages  had  become  so  com- 
mon that  they  were  made  by  companies  of  thou- 
sands ;  and  their  violent  interruption  was  every- 
where felt  and  resented,  lluman  ])olicy  turned 
religious  zeal  to  a  useful  purpose.  Those  states- 
men who  were  capable  of  taking  a  broad  view 
of  affairs  may  have  thought  that  there  was  great 
danger  that  the  Mussulmans  would  come  to  the 
West  if  the  Christians  should  not  go  to  the  East. 
The  pope  wished  to  bring  the  Byzantine  em- 
pire into  the  Latin  fold.  He  held  a  council  at 
Piacenza,  A.  D.  1095,  which  was  numerously 
attended,  and  at  which  the  Byzantine  envoys 
l)leaded  their  country's  cause.  It  was  deter- 
mined to  hold  a  more  general  council,  which  met 
at  Clermont,  Nov.  1095,  and  where  French,  Ger- 
mans, Italians,  and  others  were  present.  The 
pope's  eloquence  was  so  effectual  that  the  mul- 
titude exclaimed :  "  God  wills  it !  God  wills  it !" 
when  he  declared  the  holy  war  was  commanded 


from  on  high.  The  pope  suggested  that  those 
who  entered  on  the  enterprise  should  assume 
the  cross  on  tlie  shoulder  or  breast.  This  was 
agreed  to,  and  the  first  clergyman  who  took  it, 
from  the  hands  of  Urban  II.,  was  the  bishop  of 
Puy.  The  count  of  Toulouse  was  the  first  tem- 
poral prince  who  assumed  the  cross.  The  cross 
was  originally  red,  but  diffeix-nt  colors  were  sub- 
sefjuently  adoi)ted  by  diflerent  nations.  Every 
l)erson  who  assumed  the  cross  was  known  as  a 
croise,  or  crusader,  whence  the  name  of  the  en- 
terprise. The  crusading  spirit  spread  over  Brit- 
ain and  the  northern  nations,  much  inflamed  by 
the  decree  passed  at  Clermont  that  whoso  should 
go  on  the  expedition  should  be  regarded  as  h;iv- 
ing  performed  all  penances.  It  was  to  be  a  pil- 
grimage on  the  largest  scale,  with  the  pilgrims 
armed.  The  spirit  was  shared  by  all  classes, 
and  by  people  of  every  description,  including 
the  worst  criminals.  The  number  that  assumed 
the  cross  was  almost  incalculable.  In  the  spring 
of  1096  a  large  body  of  the  lower  orders,  under 
the  lead  of  Peter  the  Hermit,  began  the  march 
across  Germany.  They  were  compelled  to  di- 
vide, and  the  smaller  j^arty,  led  by  a  Burgundian 
knight,  Walter  the  Penniless,  going  in  advance, 
Avas  annihilated  in  Bulgaria.  The  larger  i)arty 
suffered  severely,  and  was  guilty  of  great  atro- 
cities, but  Peter  brought  the  bulk  of  it  to  Con- 
stantinople, where  he  was  joined  by  Walter. 
They  were  landed  in  Asia,  wiiere  they  were 
nearly  all  destroyed  by  the  Turks,  Peter  having 
left  them.  A  3d.  division,  consisting  of  Ger- 
mans, was  led  by  a  monk  named  Godeschal, 
and  was  massacred  in  Hungary.  A  4th,  esti- 
mated at  200,000,  and  composed  of  various 
peoples,  was  led  by  some  nobles,  from  Germany, 
but  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Hungarians,  after 
having  perpetrated  terrible  outrages.  The  real 
crusade  was  a  very  different  undertaking  from 
these  rabble  gatherings.  No  king  joined  it,  but 
it  was  headed  by  a  number  of  eminent  feudal 
princes — Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  duke  of  Brabant, 
Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  Hugh,  count  of 
Vermandois,  Raymond,  count  of  Toulouse,  the 
counts  of  Flanders  and  Chartres,  Bohemond, 
prince  of  Tarento,  Tancred,  and  others.  God- 
frey, who  was  one  of  the  first  characters  of 
the  age,  is  often  mentioned  as  the  leader  of  the 
crusading  hosts,  but  he  held  no  such  position, 
though  much  was  conceded  to  him.  After  many 
adventures,  including  contests  with  the  Greeks, 
to  whose  emperor  most  of  the  chiefs  took  the 
oath  of  fealty,  the  crusaders  were  united  in 
Asia  Minor,  where  they  besieged  Nice,  which 
surrendered  to  the  Greeks.  Their  first  great 
encounter  with  the  Turks  took  place  at  Dory- 
lajum,  July  4,  1097,  and,  after  a  long  doubtful 
contest,  ended  in  their  victory.  Pursuing  their 
march,  thousands  died  of  privation,  and  many 
more  lost  their  horses.  Had  the  Turks  then 
vigorously  assailed  them,  they  would  have  been 
destroyed.  Antioch  was  besieged,  and  taken 
after  many  months,  but  less  through  crusading 
valor  than  by  the  treachery  of  a  citizen,  June, 
1098.     Here  the  victors  were  besieged  in  their 


110 


CRUSADES 


tnrn  by  a  great  Mns.«nlmaTi  army,  gathered  frurn 
(litforent  parts  of  the  East,  and  vliich  liad  fail- 
ed to  take  Edessa,  where  Baldwin,  brother  of 
Godfrey,  had  established  a  principality.  The 
crusaders  were  apparently  on  the  eve  of  destruc- 
tion, when  tliey  were  saved  by  a  revival  of  the 
enthusiastic  spirit  in  which  their  undertaking 
had  originated.  It  was  declared  that  the  steel 
head  of  the  lance  that  pierced  the  Saviour  was 
found  under  the  altar  of  the  church  of  St.  Peter, 
and  its  possession  was  regarded  as  an  assurance 
of  that  victory  which  the  invaders  won  soon  af- 
ter, the  Mussulman  forces  being  destroyed  or 
driven  oft".  This  victory  was  the  conseciuence 
of  dissensions  among  the  Mussulmans.  Months 
elapsed  before  the  original  purpose  was  resumed, 
and  then  but  21,500  soldiers  marched  upon  Je- 
rusalem, 1,500  only  being  mounted.  Meeting 
with  no  re«5istance,  they  arrived  before  the  holy 
city,  which,  though  valiantly  defended,  fell  into 
their  hands  after  a  siege  that  closed  with  an 
assault,  and  a  massacre  of  almost  unequalled 
atrocity.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  was  chosen  first 
head  of  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  1099. 
This  event  marks  the  completion  of  the  first 
crusade,  though  the  war  between  Christians 
and  Mussulmans  was  continued,  involving  the 
destruction  of  new  immense  hosts  of  Germans, 
Italians,  and  French,  under  the  duke  of  Bavaria 
and  others.  When  Edessa  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Turks,  1145,  Christendom  was  again 
aroused,  and  listened  readily  to  the  entreaties 
for  assistance  that  came  from  the  East.  St. 
Bernard  preached  a  second  crusade  in  France, 
Germany,  and  elsewhere.  Louis  VII.  of  France 
and  Conrad  III.  of  Germany  assumed  the  cross. 
The  emperor  led  an  inmiense  force  by  the  old 
route  of  Hungary  and  Bulgaria  to  Constanti- 
nople, meeting  with  the  usual  Greek  treachery. 
He  passed  into  Asia,  but  soon  lost  more  than 
four-fifths  of  his  army,  which  was  betrayed  by 
Greeks  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  Conrad 
made  his  way  to  Nice,  at  the  head  of  a  small 
force,  where  he  found  Louis  with  his  army. 
After  a  variety  of  adventures,  in  which  the 
French  were  nearly  destroyed,  the  em]3eror  and 
king  reached  Palestine,  and  with  the  fragments 
of  their  armies,  aided  by  the  templars,  hospi- 
tallers, and  forces  of  the  Latin  kingdom,  be- 
sieged Damascus,  where  they  failed  completely. 
The  monarchs  returned  to  Europe.  For  some 
years  the  Christians  in  Palestine  defended  them- 
selves with  success  against  the  Mussulmans,  but 
the  rise  of  the  celebrated  Saladin  to  power  in 
Egs-pt  and  Svria  was  fatal  to  their  cause.  De- 
feated in  the'battle  of  Hattinor  Tiberias,  1187, 
they  surrendered  even  Jerusalem  to  Saladin  soon 
after  that  event.  Tyre  was  the  only  place  of  any 
consequence  Avhich  they  retained.  The  news  of 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem  caused  much  excitement 
in  the  West.  A  3d  crusade  was  resolved  upon. 
The  emperor  of  Germany,  Frederic  Barbarossa, 
and  the  kings  of  France  and  England,  Philip 
Augustus  and  Henry  II.,  took  the  cross.  Nu- 
merous bands  of  Christians  soon  reached  Pales- 
tine, and  Acre  was  besieged  by  an  immense 


host,  fjaladin  aided  the  besieged  from  without, 
and  this  contest  was  waged  for  almost  two 
years.  Tlie  German  emperor  had  organized  a 
great  army,  better  provided,  disciplined,  and  led 
than  any  previous  crusading  force.  This  army 
inarched  by  the  usual  overland  route.  In  Asia 
Minor  they  defeated  the  Turks,  but  not  without 
experiencing  heavy  losses.  Frederic  lost  his 
life  while  attempting  to  cross  the  Calycadnusin 
Syria,  after  which  little  was  done  by  his  army, 
the  relics  of  which  finally  reached  Jicro.  Mean- 
time, Ricliard  I.  of  England  (Henry  having 
died  in  1189)  and  Philip  Augustus  had  arrived 
with  their  forces  at  Acre,  which  surrendered 
(1191),  the  crusaders,  in  violation  of  their 
word,  butchering  5,000  Mussulmans  who  had 
been  left  in  their  hands  as  hostages.  Philip 
Augustus  soon  withdrew  from  the  crusades, 
alienated  and  disgusted  by  Richard's  arrogance ; 
but  he  left  a  portion  of  his  army  to  aid  that 
leader,  who  marched  toward  Jaffa,  defeating 
Saladin  on  his  way  in  a  pitched  battle.  Jafta 
Avas  abandoned  to  him,  but  this  was  nearly  the 
term  of  his  crusading  career.  He  wished  to 
proceed  immediately  to  Jerusalem,  but  was 
thwarted,  and  2  mouths  were  lost.  The  cru- 
saders then  marched  to  Ramla,  near  Jerusa- 
lem, but  were  forced  to  fall  back.  The  next 
year  Richard  resumed  operations,  and  the  city 
miglit  have  been  taken  if  the  enterprise  had  ■ 
been  vigorously  pushed.  Why  it  was  not,  is 
unknown.  Richard  retreated  to  the  sea-coast. 
His  last  act  was  to  relieve  Jafta,  which  Saladin 
had  assailed.  A  truce  was  agreed  to,  on  terms 
quite  as  favorable  as  the  Christians  could  have 
expected,  access  to  the  holy  places  at  Jerusalem 
being  allowed  by  Saladin.  Thus  terminated 
the  3d  crusade.  The  4th  was  of  an  exceptional 
character.  Intoided  though  it  was  to  injure 
the  Mussulmans,  ])robably  it  did  more  to  enable 
the  Turks  to  estal^lish  themselves  j)ermanently 
in  Europe  than  any  other  event.  An  attempt 
made  to  preach  a  new  crusade,  after  the  expi- 
ration of  the  true;  between  Richard  and  Sala- 
din, had  little  success  out  of  Germany.  From 
that  country  bands  of  nobles  and  others  pro- 
ceeded to  Palestine,  wliere  they  served  to  keep 
up  the  remains  of  the  Latin  kingdom,  frequent- 
ly defeating  the  Turks,  but  accomplishing  no- 
thing of  consequence.  In  1200,  Innocent  HI., 
an  able  and  aspiring  pope,  resolved  to  get  up 
a  new  crusade.  Tfie  eloquence  of  Foulques 
of  Neuilly  was  employed  to  excite  enthusiasm, 
and  with  considerable  success.  The  4th  crusade 
was  now  commenced.  It  was  mainly  French 
in  its  character  and  composition.  The  counts 
of  Cham]iagne,  Blois,  and  Flanders,  and  Simon 
de  Montfort,  were  the  principal  leaders.  The 
marquis  of  Montferrat,  in  Italy,  acted  with  them, 
and  was  followed  by  many  Italians.  The  cru- 
sading spirit  extended  to  Germany  and  Hun- 
gary, in  tlie  latter  country  the  king  assuming 
the  cross.  The  French  crusaders  despatched 
a  deputation  to  Venice  to  make  arrangements 
for  the  transportation  of  their  forces  to  Pales- 
tine by  sea.   For  a  reasonable  compensation  the 


CRUSADES 


111 


Venetians  engaged  to  transport  a  large  army; 
but  when,  in  1202,  the  crusaders  assembled 
at  Venice,  they  couhl  not  pay  the  sum  named, 
whereupon  it  was  agreed  that  they  should, 
in  lieu  of  money,  aid  the  Venetians  to  suinhie 
Zara  in  Dalmatia,  wliich  had  revolted.  This, 
tliough  not  under  the  command  of  their  chief, 
tlio  marquis  of  Moutferrat,  and  in  deliance  of 
jiapal  prohibition,  they  accomplished.  The 
Venetians  were  commanded  by  tiie  doge,  Enrico 
Dandolo,  then  nearly  blind,  and  93  years  old. 
Montferrat  then  joined  them  again.  Here  the 
combined  forces  entered  into  an  agreement  witli 
Alexis,  son  of  the  de})Osed  Byzantine  emperor, 
Isaac  Angelus,  to  restore  the  fallen  monarch  to 
his  throne.  The  opposition  of  the  i)ope  to  this 
singular  undertaking  had  little  etfect.  The  ex- 
pedition proceeded  to  Constantinople,  which 
was  taken,  and  Isaac  Angelus  and  his  son  were 
raised  to  the  throne.  Soon,  however,  dissen- 
sions broke  out  between  the  parties  to  the  al- 
liance. Tlie  restored  princes  were  compelled 
to  tight  their  restorers,  but  against  their  will, 
and  with  no  good  to  themselves  ;  for  the  Greeks 
hated  them,  overthrew  them,  and  placed  an- 
otlier  member  of  their  family  on  the  throne. 
Isaac  died  of  terror,  and  Alexis  was  slain. 
The  crusaders,  affecting  to  be  the  champions 
of  the  dead  princes,  waged  successful  war  with 
the  new  emperor,  besieged  and  took  Constanti- 
noi)le,  which  they  pillaged,  and  established  a 
Latin  empire,  the  territory  compiered  being  di- 
vided between  the  Venetians  and  their  western 
associates.  The  ultimate  effect  of  tliis  crusade 
was  to  weaken  the  principal  barrier  against 
Mu--iulman  progress  westward,  so  that  when 
the  new  Turkish  power  was  established  in  Asia 
Minor  it  experienced  but  moderate  resistance 
from  the  side  of  Byzuntium.  The  5tli  cru- 
sade, 1216,  was  the  -nork  of  Innocent  III., 
and  was  joined  by  Hurgarians,  Italians,  Ger- 
mans, English,  and  French.  Andrew  II.,  king 
of  Hungary,  led  a  largo  army  to  Palestine, 
and,  in  connection  with  ihe  dukes  of  Austria 
and  Bavaria,  made  one  c;.inpaign,  Avlien  he  re- 
turned home.  The  Germans  remained,  and 
having  been  joined  by  others,  they  transferred 
the  war  to  Egypt  (1218).  L)amietta  was  be- 
sieged and  taken,  and  the  crusaders  received 
large  reenforcements  from  England,  France, 
and  Italy.  The  Mussulmans  now  offered  Je- 
rusalem, and  even  all  Palestine,  to  the  victors, 
on  condition  that  they  sliould  leave  Egypt, 
and  most  of  them  were  for  accepting  terms 
so  favorable,  and  wliich  embraced  all  that  the 
first  crusades  had  been  intended  to  gain.  But 
the  papal  legate,  and  the  templars  and  hospi- 
tallers, who  were  joined  by  the  Italian  leaders, 
were  able  to  bring  about  the  rejection  of 
the  offer.  After  a  delay  of  months  the  cru- 
saders advanced  upon  Cairo,  but  the  expedition 
failed  entirely,  and  they  were  glad  to  humble 
themselves  before  the  sultan,  wlio  allowed  them 
to  leave  the  country.  The  pope,  Ilonorius 
III.,  attributed  the  failure  to  the  emperor  Fred- 
eric II.,  who  had  not  kept  his  crusading  vow. 


It  was  not  until  1228  that  the  emperor  went 
to  Palestine  with  a  small  force,  he  being  tlien 
excommunicate,  the  effect  of  which  ^Avas  much 
to  weaken  his  offensive  power.  Yet  he  did 
much,  and  made  a  treaty  with  the  sultan,  by 
wliich  the  Christians  were  to  be  allowed  to 
visit  Jerusalem  freely,  and  Bethlehem,  Naza- 
reth, and  other  places  were  made  over  to  them, 
lie  was  permitted  to  visit  the  church  of  the 
sepulchre,  from  the  altar  of  which  he  took  the 
crown,  and  put  it  on  his  head.  Thus  the  5th 
crusade  was  brought  to  an  honorable  termina- 
tion, and  the  emperor  returned  to  Germany  in 
1229.  The  folly  of  the  Christians  soon  led  to 
the  loss- of  all  the  good  that  Frederic  had  gain- 
ed for  them.  They  quarrelled,  and  some  of  the 
independent  Mussulman  rulers  were  thereby 
encouraged  to  refuse  to  be  bound  by  the  treaty, 
and  were  successful  in  their  Avarfare.  Again 
Europe  Avas  filled  with  complaints.  A  Otli  cru- 
sade was  proclaimed,  but  with  no  good  result; 
and  the  sultan  of  Egypt,  resolved  to  be  before- 
hand with  his  enemies,  entered  Palestine,  and 
drove  the  Christians  from  Jerusalem.  Hereupon, 
the  nobility  in  England  and  France,  in  1238, 
resolved  to  go  to  the  relief  of  Palestine.  The 
French,  under  various  leaders,  arrived  there  first, 
and  achieved  some  brilliant  successes.  These 
were  followed  by  reverses  and  dissensions,  and 
most  of  the  French  left  the  country.  The  English 
then  arrived,  headed  by  the  earl  of  Cornwall, 
brother  of  Henry  III.,  Avho  was  well  received  by 
all  the  Christians,  whose  affairs  he  completely 
reestablished.  Jerusalem  and  most  of  the  Latin 
kingdom  were  ceded  to  them,  and  numerous  ca])- 
tives  were  released.  Cornwall  then  dei»arted, 
having  effected  a  great  service,  and  the  Gth  cru- 
sade, like  the  5th,  Avas  brought  to  an  honorable 
end  in  1240.  The  7th  crusade  grcAv  out  of  that 
vast  Mongol  movement  Avhich  terrified  the 
world  in  the  13th  century.  The  Kharizmiaii 
horde,  flying  before  the  Mongols,  sought  refuge 
in  Egypt,  but  Avere  persuaded  by  the  sultan  to 
attack  Palestine.  They  entered  that  country, 
and,  in  12-42,  stormed  Jerusalem,  perpetrating 
horrors  equal  to  those  Avhich  had  marked  its 
Christian  conquest  in  1099.  Christians  and  Mus- 
sulmans Avere  compelled  to  league  against  them, 
but  they  were  crushed  by  the  savages  and  their 
Egyptian  allies.  Acre  became  the  refuge  of 
the  remnants  of  the  Christians,  and  was  the 
only  place  of  importance  left  to  the  cross.  The 
Kharizmians  Avere  soon  destroyed  or  expelled 
by  the  Egyptians  themselves,  Avho  now  held 
Jerusalem.  These  events  had  the  usual  ettect 
on  Europe.  At  the  council  of  Lyons  (1245),  a 
Tth  crusade  Avas  proclaimed.  It  Avas.  chiefly 
to  France  and  England  that  the  eftbrts  for  for- 
Avarding  it  Avere  confined ;  for  though  the  king 
of  NorAvay  took  the  cross,  he  never  drcAV  his 
sword  in  its  cause,  and  Germany  and  Italy 
were  not  in  a  state  to  afford  any  assistance. 
Louis  IX.  of  France,  knoAvn  as  St.  Louis,  avos 
the  leader.  A  large  army  Avas  assembled  at 
Cyprus,  Avhence,  after  a  long  delay,  it  proceed- 
ed to  Egypt.     The  English  joined  it  there.     At 


112 


CRUSADES 


CRUSENSTOLPE 


first,  the  crusaders  wore  victorious.  Damietta 
•was  taken,  and  they  directed  their  steps  to 
Cairo.  Maiisoura  fell  before  them,  but  the  rash 
behavior  of  some  of  the  French  leaders  caused 
them  to  pay  dearly  for  the  victory.  The  Egyp- 
tians resisted  bravely  and  skilfully.  Communi- 
cation between  the  invaders  and  Damietta,  the 
base  of  their  operations,  was  cut  off".  They 
were  shut  up  in  their  camp,  where  sickness  and 
famine  thinned  their  number.  Attempting  to 
retreat,  they  were  utterly  routed,  and  the  king 
and  his  brothers,  with  many  nobles  and  knights, 
became  captives.  The  rest  of  the  army  were 
slaughtered,  30,000  falling  in  all.  The  king  and 
his  companions  were  finally  released,  but  not 
until  they  had  experienced  many  dangers.  Da- 
mietta was  given  up,  and  large  sums  were 
promised  to  the  victors.  Most  of  the  survivors 
regarded  the  crusade  as  at  an  end,  and  departed 
from  a  land  which  had  received  them  so  rough- 
ly. Not  so  Louis,  a  man  of  great  conscientious- 
ness. He  went  to  Acre,  and  determined  to 
remain  in  Palestine.  This  resolution  he  main- 
tained for  4  years,  exerting  himself  strenu- 
ously for  the  Christian  cause,  fortifying  sev- 
eral places,  and  preserving  union  among  the 
Christians.  Compelled  by  the  condition  of 
France  to  return  there  in  1254,  his  departure 
was  followed  by  Christian  dissensions.  The 
templars  and  hospitallers  made  open  war  on 
each  other.  The  Egyptians,  having  extended 
their  power  over  the  Syrian  Mussulmans,  now 
fell  on  the  Christians.  The  war  lasted  for  years, 
and  was  characterized  by  constantly  occurring 
Christian  reverses,  in  spite  of  the  valor  of  the 
losing  party,  never  more  heroically  displayed 
than  in  that  dismal  time.  At  length  the  Latin 
principality  of  Antioch  fell  in  1268,  myriads 
of  Christians  being  slain,  or  sold  into  slavery. 
Nothing  was  left  but  Acre.  For  the  last  time 
Europe  was  moved  to  serious  exertion,  and  the 
8th  crusade  was  undertaken.  Louis  IX.,  undis- 
couraged  by  his  Egyptian  failure,  assembled  a 
large  force,  which  sailed  in  1270.  He  landed  in 
northern  Africa,  near  Tunis,  influenced  by  a  false 
report  of  the  dey's  conversion  to  Christianity, 
and  the  hope  of  seciiring  him  as  an  ally.  He  met 
with  no  firm  resistance  in  the  field,  but  the 
light  troops  of  the  Moors  harassed  the  French 
exceedingly.  Sickness  raged  in  the  invading 
ranks,  and  after  crowds  of  brave  soldiers  and 
illustrious  nobles  had  fallen,  the  king  himself 
died.  The  French  immediately  gave  up  the  cru- 
sade ;  but  they  had  been  joined  by  a  band  of  Eng- 
lish auxiliaries,  headed  by  Prince  Edward,  after- 
ward Edward  I.,  and  these  immediately  resolved 
to  proceed  to  Palestine.  Spending  the  Avinter 
in  Sicily,  they  sailed  for  Acre  in  the  spring  of 
1271,  the  last  expedition  of  the  kind  that  ever 
reached  that  place.  The  force  was  only  1,000 
strong,  but  the  name  of  Plantagenet  was  great 
in  the  East.  Sultan  Boudocdar,  who  had  been 
so  successful  over  the  Christians,  immediately 
retreated.  Edward  managed  to  asssemble  7,000 
men,  witli  which  force  he  defeated  a  large  Mus- 
sulman army,  and  then  stormed  Nazareth,  which 


became  the  scene  of  a  sweeping  massacre.  Here 
lie  was  struck  down  by  disease,  and  his  follow- 
ers died  in  great  numbers.  His  life  was  at- 
temjjted  by  an  assassin.  On  his  recovery,  see- 
ing that  success  could  not  be  looked  for,  he  con- 
cluded a  truce  of  10  years  with  the  sultan,  and 
departed  for  his  own  country ;  and  so  ended 
the  last  crusade,  177  years  from  tlie  time  the 
first  had  been  preached.  Gregory  X.  sought 
to  evoke  a  9th,  but  with  no  success.  In  1289 
Tripoli,  on  the  Phoenician  coast,  the  last  fief  of 
the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  was  taken  by  Sultan 
Kelaoun.  In  1291  the  remnants  of  that  kingdom 
fell  into  his  hands  without  resistance,  save  Acre, 
Avhich  he  besieged  at  the  head  of  an  overwhelm- 
ing force.  The  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants 
withdrew,  but  the  soldiers  of  the  3  military  or- 
ders, and  some  others,  defended  it  resolutely  to 
the  last.  The  city  was  stormed,  and  the  de- 
fenders massacred,  or  sold  into  slavery  ;  60,000 
are  said  to  have  been  killed  or  taken,  probably, 
an  exaggeration. — The  most  important  works 
treating  specially  of  the  crusades  are  the  Gesta 
Deij)er  Francos,  site  Orientalium  Expeditionum 
et  Ecgni  Francorum  Ilierosolyviitani  Historia,  a 
variis  Scri2)torihvs  Litter  is  commendata,  edente 
Jacoho  Bongarsio  (2  vols.  foL,  Hanover,  1611  ; 
this  is  a  collection  of  the  ancient  histories  of  the 
crusades,  the  principal  of  which  are  also  found, 
translated  into  French,  in  Guizot's  Collection  des 
memoires 7'elatifs  a  Vlmtoirede France);  Mailly, 
Es2Jrit  des  croisades  (Paris,  1780)  ;  Choiseul 
Daillecourt,  De  V injiiience  des  croisades  sur  Vetat 
des  2}evpl€s  en  Europe  (Paris,  1810)  ;  Michaud, 
Mistoii-e  des  croisades  (Paris,  1813-'22);  Ileeren, 
an  essay,  Ueier  den  Einjiuss  der  Kremzuge 
(Gottingen,  1803);  Wilken,  GescMcMeder Krexiz- 
eiige  (Leipsic,  1807-32) ;  Haken,  Gemdlde  der 
Krevzzilge  (Frankfort,  1808-20);  Sporschill, 
GcscMcMc  fZerAreti^att^e  (Leipsic,  1843  et  sec[?)\ 
Navarrete,  Dissertacion  historita  soire  la  parte 
que  tuvieron  los  Es2jarioles  en  las  guerras  de  ul- 
tramaro  o  de  las  cruzadas  (Madrid,  1816);  and 
also  Mills's  "  History  of  the  Crusades"  (London, 
1819),  the  latter  volumes  of  Gibbon's  "De- 
cline and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  and 
Procter's  "  History  of  the  Crusades"  (London, 
1854). 

CRUSENSTOLPE,  Magnus  Jacob,  a  popular 
Swedish  author,  born  at  JonkOping,  March  11, 
1795.  He  published  3  novels  in  1821,  which 
were  followed  in  1828  by  a  political  work 
{Politiska  (isigter),  in  which  he  eulogized  what 
he  termed  the  era  of  liberty,  extending  from 
1719  to  1772.  In  concert  with  Hjerta  he  be- 
came in  the  same  year  editor  of  an  opposition 
political  paper,  but  the  two  collaborators  soon 
separated,  each  to  found  a  journal  of  his  own. 
Hjerta  established  the  Aftonhladet,  which  still 
exists,  advocating  extreme  democratic  ideas, 
while  Crusenstolpe  became  editor,  in  1830,  of 
the  Fddcrneslandet,  in  which  he  renounced  the 
liberal  principles  which  he  had  formerly  main- 
tained, and  which  ceased  when  the  patronage 
of  government  was  withdrawn  from  it  in  1833. 
In  1834  appeared  his  SUldringar  ur  det  inre  af 


CRUSIUS 


CRUSTACEA 


113 


da/jens  historia,  a  piquant  melange  of  trutli  and 
poetry  on  questions  of  social  order,  which  pass- 
ed through  many  editions ;  and  subsequently  he 
purchased  the  Tessin  library,  celebrated  for  its 
historical  manuscripts,  from  which  he  took  his 
materials  for  h\sFortefeuilIe  (5  vols.,  1837-45), 
and  for  his  Hislorhh  taftn  af  Gustav  IV. 
Adolph'sforsta  lefnadsar  (1 837).  For  one  of  his 
works,  Stullnififfrtr  och  forhullandcn.,  which  re- 
flected upon  the  government,  he  was  imprisoned 
for  3  years,  a  condemnation  that  resulted  in  sev- 
eral violent  riots.  In  1840  appeared  the  1st 
vol.  of  his  most  successful  work,  Morianen  (6 
vols,,  Stockholm,  1840-'4r4),  a  romantic  descrip- 
tion of  the  history  of  Sweden  during  the  IIol- 
Btein-Gottorp  dynasty.  This,  as  well  a^  many 
of  his  subsequent  novels,  has  been  translated 
into  C4ennan. 

CRUSIUS,  CoRisTiAX  ArausT,  a  German 
theologian  and  philosopher,  born  at  Leuna,  near 
Merseburg,  Jan.  10,  1715,  died  in  Leipsic,  Oct. 
18,  1775.  lie  was  educated  at  Leipsic,  where 
he  was  professor  of  theology  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  lie  was  among  the  principal  opponents 
of  the  reigning  philosophy  of  Leibnitz  and  Wolf, 
which  he  challenged  at  once  in  the  name  of 
reason  and  faith,  asserting  its  incompatibility 
with  Christian  dogmas ;  and  \\9  sought  to  estab- 
lish a  new  philosophical  scheme  which  should 
be  perfectly  orthodox.  Philosophy  is  in  his 
view  the  whole  body  of  rational  truths,  whoso 
objects  are  eternal,  and  is  divided  into  logic, 
metaphysics,  and  disciplinary  or  practical  phi- 
losophy. He  subordinated  the  scholastic  prin- 
ciple of  contradiction  to  that  of  conceptibility 
{Gcdenklarlceit),  founded  logic  upon  psychology, 
attributed  to  the  soul  fundamental  faculties  and 
a  liberty  almost  as  complete  as  that  of  the  Deity, 
and  made  the  certainty  of  human  knowledge 
consist  in  an  inward  constraint  and  inclination 
of  the  understanding,  the  guarantee  of  the  truth- 
fulness of  which  exists  in  the  divine  veracity. 
Tliese  views  are  Cartesian  ;  and  in  regarding 
time  and  space  not  as  substances  but  as  modes  of 
the  divine  existence  Crusius  approached  the  the- 
ories of  Clarke  and  Newton.  His  doctrines  found 
many  adlierents,  and  were  especially  combated 
by  Plattner.  Though  arbitrary  hypotheses  and 
mystical  views  are  mingled  with  them,  they  are 
the  product  of  acute  thought,  and  were  esteemed 
by  I^int  among  the  happiest  attempts  that  had 
been  made  in  philosophy.  The  most  important 
of  his  publications  are  :  Entwurf  der  notJiirend- 
igeii  Vcrnunftwahrheiten  (Leipsic,  1745)  ;  Logilc^ 
oderweg  zur  Geioissheit  und  Zuverldssigkeit  der 
menschlichen  Erkenntniss  (Leipsic,  1747)  ;  and 
Anleititng  iiber  naturllche  Begebenheiten  or- 
dentUch  und  vorsichtig  zu  denken  (Leipsic, 
1774).  ^ 

CRUSTACEA.  The  name  ixoKaKoa-rpaKa  was 
given  by  Aristotle  to  the  soft-shelled  aquatic 
animals,  as  the  lobsters,  crabs,  shrimps,  &c.,  to 
distinguish  this  group  from  the  harder  shelled 
animals,  which  he  called  oa-TpaKoBfpua,  or  tes- 
tacea — the  mollusca  of  our  present  system  of 
arrangement.  In  this  system  the  Crustacea  con- 
VOL.   VI. — 8 


stitute  one  of  the  classes  of  the  primary  di- 
vision articulata  of  the  animal  kingdom,  and 
the  term  malacostruca  has  been  retained  for  one 
great  section  of  the  class,  while  anotlier  is  called 
the  entomostraca,  or  shelled  insects.  The  sub- 
divisions of  these  sections  are  variously  ])re- 
sented  by  dilTercnt  authorities.  Those  of  the 
malacostraca,  as  given  by  Milne-Edwards,  are 
generally  adopted.  They  are  as  follows : 
I.  Eyen  on  peduncles,  and  movable. 

Orders. 

I  Brachyoura,  short-tuilort — as  crabs. 
Decapoda.  <  Anotnoura — as  hcnnit  crabs,  kt. 

{  Macroura,  long-taildl — as  lobsters,  slirirnps,  &c. 

.,, ,„,7^   (  Unipeltata — us  squilla. 

btomai^oda.-^  Bipiltuta-as  phyllosoma,  lucifor,  &c. 

II.  Eyen  sesxile  and  immovnhle. 
Amphipoda — as  gammarus,  &c.,  having  feet  siiiii)lo  an'l  claw- 
shaped. 
Lonnodlpoda — as  leptomera,  &c. 
Isopoda — as  oniscus  or  wood-louse,  armadillo,  &c. 

The   entomostraca  are  divided  by   the   same 
authority  into  the 

OTtlere.  BrANCUIOPODA. 

riiyllopoda — as  apus,  &c. 
Cladocera— as  daphnia,  <fec. 

Entomostraca  Peoper. 
Copepoda — as  cyclops,  ifcc. 
Osirapoda — as  cypris,  &c. 

IIaustellata  (suctorial  crustaceans). 
Arancei/ormes — extremities  long  and  slender,  adapted  for 

walking. 
Siphonostomata — extremities  not  adapted  for  walking. 
/.er/ia'i/oTOifts— extremities  rudimentary. 

The  Crustacea  are  furnished  with  organs  of  res- 
piration fitted,  unlike  those  of  the  other  articu- 
lata,for  use  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water ;  and 
they  are  provided  with  a  shell  which  is  eitlier  a 
horny  tegument,  as  in  the  case  of  the  shrimj),  or 
a  calcareous  crust,  as  in  the  lobster — not  stony 
like  those  of  the  mollusca.  It  is  in  fact  an  exter- 
nal articulated  skeleton  secreted  from  their  own 
bodies,  and  periodically  thrown  off  and  renewed 
by  the  growth  of  a  new  sliell.  In  casting  its 
shield  the  animal  is  said  to  first  pine  away  and 
become  smaller,  until  at  last  it  readily  slips  out 
of  its  covering.  Lobsters  have  been  known, 
when  captured,  to  efl:ect  their  escape  by  thus 
slipping  out  and  leaving  their  shell  in  the  hands 
of  the  astonished  fisherman.  Sometimes  Avhen 
caught  they  voluntarily  ctist  off"  a  limb  by  which 
they  are  held,  and  which  they  often  can  very 
well  spare,  having  always  at  least  4  pairs  beside 
a  pair  of  claws.  In  some  genera  they  are  so 
numerous  that  the  animals  approximate  to  the 
myriopoda.  A  lost  limb  too  is  replaced,  gain- 
ing in  growth  at  eacli  moulting,  while  the  Tnidy 
is  unconfined.  These  organs,  Avith  those  of  res- 
piration, and  the  tail  also,  are  supported  by 
the  body ;  the  antennsa  or  feelers,  eyes,  and 
moutii  belong  to  the  head.  The  organs  of  sight 
and  touch  are  remarkably  well  developed;  and 
it  is  not  a  little  interesting  to  find  in  those  very 
ancient  representatives  of  this  class,  the  trilo- 
bites,  whose  period  of  existence  was  as  remote 
as  that  of  the  formation  of  the  older  silurian 
rocks,  the  same  peculiarities  and  perfection  in 
the  structure  of  the  eye  as  are  seen  in  the  highly 
complicated  organization  of  that  of  the  fly  and 
the  butterfly  of  the  present  day.  The  organs  of 
hearing,  it  is  thought,  may  be  detected  in  some 


114 


CRUSTACEA 


of  the  genera  of  the  decapoda,  and  tlie  habits 
of  many  of  the  Crustacea  seem  to  imply  the 
possession  of  the  sense  of  smell.  The  shelly 
covering  corresponds  in  its  protuberances  and 
depressions  to  the  form  of  the  important  organs 
of  the  body  within.  Tlie  progressive  motion 
of  tlie  animals  is  sometimes  by  walking,  some- 
times sidewise,  backward,  or  forward — by  climb- 
ing, as  seen  in  their  progress  over  the  weeds 
and  rocks  at  the  bottom  of  the  water — by 
swimming,  and  also  by  leaping.  The  lobster, 
clumsy  as  he  appears,  and  loaded  with  his 
heavy  claws,  is  often  seen  to  dart  backward 
by  suddenly  flapping  his  tail  toward  the  tho- 
rax, throwing  himself  a  distance  of  more  than 
20  feet  with  the  swiftness  of  a  bird  or  a  dol- 
phin. By  the  perfection  of  his  sight  he  can 
dart  like  a  mouse  directly  into  his  hole,  scarcely 
large  enough  to  admit  his  body.  The  young 
shrimps  on  the  ebb  of  the  tide  are  often  seen 
along  the  shallow  margin  of  the  water,  as  ob- 
served by  Paley  in  his  "Natural Theology," skip- 
ping into  the  air  in  such  numbers  that  they  re- 
semble a  cloud  or  thick  mist  hanging  over  the 
edge  of  the  water  to  the  height  of  half  a  yard. 
The  trilobites  were  fitted  by  their  organization 
for  swimming  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
water,  and  with  the  back  downward.  Like  the 
crustacean  insect,  the  wood-louse,  they  possess- 
ed the  faculty  of  rolling  themselves  into  a  ball 
as  a  defence  against  attack  from  above.  The 
Crustacea  are  found  for  the  most  part  in  salt 
water;  some  species,  however,  live  in  lakes 
and  rivers,  and  a  few  upon  the  land.  Some  of 
them  are  of  considerable  size,  the  largest  being 
the  lobsters ;  but  for  the  most  part  they  are  very 
small.  The  salt  water  is  almost  filled  with 
varieties  of  them  so  minute  that  they  are  rarely 
observed,  and  it  is  said  that  a  portion  taken  up 
at  random  will  always  be  found  to  contain  a 
number  of  them.  Numerous  species  furnish 
food  for  man,  and  all  are  preyed  upon  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  deep.  Some  species  of  the 
whale  subsist  upon  minute  Crustacea  drawn  in 
swarms  into  their  huge  mouths,  and  caught  in  the 
fibrous  web  that  lines  them,  while  the  water  is 
ejected.  Many  of  the  terrestrial  Crustacea,  as  the 
land  crabs,  are  said  to  visit  the  sea  periodically 
to  deposit  their  spawn.  They  burrow  also  in 
the  mud  and  in  damp  places,  and  their  gills  are 
always  moist.  The  oniscus,  or  wood-louse,  has 
no  such  arrangement  of  the  gills,  and  is  conse- 
quently confined  to  damp  places.  Some  species 
of  the  anomoura  or  hermit  crabs,  known  also  as 
soldier  crabs,  are  found  living  in  the  sea,  and 
others  upon  the  land.  Their  singular  habits  are 
noticed  in  the  article  Crab.  The  entomostraca 
are  mostly  fresh-water  insects,  many  of  them 
microscopic.  They  subsist  upon  animalcules  and 
microscopic  plants.  In  their  progress  from  the 
egg  to  maturity  some  of  them,  as  the  cyclops, 
undergo  curious  transformations.  Some  live  in 
salt  water,  and  one  species,  the  hrancliiims  stag- 
mills,  called  also  the  brine  worm,  lives  in  the  con- 
centrated solutions  of  salt,  such  as  those  of  the 
brine  pans  of  salt  works,  which  contain  2  lbs. 


of  salt  to  a  gallon  of  water.  This  active  little 
shrimp  is  thought  by  the  workmen  to  contribute 
to  the  purity  of  the  brine.  Some,  like  tlie  fresh- 
water cyclops,  sustain  intense  cold  without  in- 
jury, being  sometimes  frozen  into  the  ice,  and 
coming  out  on  its  melting  as  active  as  ever. 
Many  are  parasites,  as  the  lerneas,  and  are 
classed  by  themselves  by  some  naturalists,  with 
the  name  epizoa.  The  Ici-neoneinia  monilaris 
infests  the  head  of  the  sprat,  attaching  itself 
near  the  eye.  It  is  lumiaous  in  the  dark,  and 
the  fishermen  saj'  that  a  shoal  of  sprats  is  of- 
ten headed  by  those  thus  infested,  which  they 
call  lantern  sprats.  The  cod  also,  and  other 
large  fish  of  our  deep  waters,  have  their  para- 
sitical Crustacea.  The  limuli,  or  king  crabs,  or  s 
"horse-shoes,"  common  upon  our  coast,  are 
placed  by  Milne -Edwards  in  a  sub-class,  which 
he  calls  xiphosura.  It  differs  from  the  other 
genera  by  having  no  organs  for  conveying  food 
to  the  mouth.  The  name  is  from  ^tc^os-,  a  sword, 
w^ith  reference  to  the  long,  pointed,  spear-like 
appendage  usually  called  the  tail.  This  is  used 
by  the  natives  of  the  Moluccas  to  point  their 
weapons.  A  buckler  entirely  hides  from  view 
the  limbs  and  organs  of  the  animal  as  he  moves 
along  upon  the  sand,  or  in  the  water  upon  the 
bottom.  They  are  found  as  fossils  in  the  strata 
of  tlie  coal  and  Jura  formations  of  Europe. — The 
Crustacea  furnish  a  great  number  of  species  that 
are  much  esteemed  as  food  by  man,  as  the  lob- 
sters, crabs,  shrimp,  prawn,  &c.,  and  the  busi- 
ness of  capturing  them  is  extensively  pursued 
along  the  shores  where  they  abound.  Lob- 
sters and  crabs  are  caught  in  pots,  or  traps  of 
basket  work,  made  like  the  wire  mouse-trap 
with  conical  openings  that  admit  the  entrance 
but  not  the  exit  of  the  animals.  These  are  sunk 
upon  the  ledges  of  rock  along  the  coast,  after 
being  baited  with  refuse  fish,  each  trap  having 
one  end  of  a  line  attached  to  it  while  the  other 
is  fastened  to  a  floating  buoy.  The  fishermen 
visit  the  traps  daily,  draw  them  up,  and  tak- 
ing out  the  animals,  sink  them  again.  Im- 
mense quantities  are  caught  on  the  coasts  of 
Norway  and  Scotland  for  the  English  markets, 
Avhere  they  are  carried  alive,  being  kept  in  per- 
forated "cars"  like  small  boats,  sunk  to  the 
level  of  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  same  as 
are  used  by  our  fishermen.  The  northern  mar- 
kets of  this  country  are  supplied  with  lobsters 
from  Massachusetts  bay,  about  200,000  being 
taken  annually.  They  have  been  caught  weigh- 
ing 28  lbs.,  but  the  average  size  is  about  4  lbs. 
On  being  thrown  into  boiling  water,  the  natu- 
ral black  or  dark  color  of  the  shell  is  changed 
into  red  by  the  solution  of  the  bluish  black  pig- 
ment diffused  through  the  tegument,  and  the 
substitution  of  a  red-colored  oil,  which  is  insol- 
uble in  water.  Lobsters  are  commonly  boiled 
before  they  are  offered  in  the  market,  though 
it  is  customary  in  some  places  to  sell  them  alive 
to  insure  their  freshness.  They  are  kept  many 
days  by  having  the  gills  always  moistened. 
Crabs  are  taken  nearer  the  shore  than  lobsters, 
and  many  of  those  which  live  uj)on  the  land  are 


CRUVEILHIER 


CRYSTALLINE  LENS 


115 


much  esteemed  as  articles  of  food.  Those  caught 
in  the  waters  of  Cliesapeakc  bay  are  preferred 
in  their  soft  state,  and  are  regarded  as  great 
luxuries.  In  Europe,  where  they  are  also  a 
favorite  article  of  food,  they  arc  preferred  after 
tlie  new  shell  has  become  hard. 

CRUVEILHIER,  Jean-,  a  French  physician, 
born  at  Limoges,  Feb.  9,  1791.  He  studied  un- 
der Boyer  and  Dupuytren,  was  a  professor  at 
Montpellier,  and  becanio  attached  to  the  fac- 
ulty of  Paris  in  1825.  In  1820  he  reorganized 
tlie  anatomical  society,  which  in  1709  had  been 
founded  by  Dupuytren.  The  first  part  of  his 
great  work  on  pathological  anatomy  (completed 
in  1842)  appeared  in  1829,  lie  has  also  written 
on  descriptive  anatomy,  and  on  the  anatomy  of, 
the  nervous  system. 

CRUVELLI,  Sophie  (Baroness  Yigiee),  a 
German  vocalist,  born  in  Bielefeld,  Prussia,  Aug. 
29,  1830.  Iler  family  name  is  Cruwell,  which 
she  Italianized  into  Cruvelli.  Her  musical  edu- 
cation was  acquired  in  Paris,  but  she  made  her 
dehut  upon  the  German  stage,  to  which  her  rep- 
utation was  for  several  years  confined.  She 
afterward  sang  in  Milan,  Venice,  and  other  Ital- 
ian cities.  In  1852  she  made  her  first  appear- 
ance in  London  at  the  queen's  theatre,  then 
under  the  direction  of  Lumley,  and  was  success- 
ful. Ilcr  voice,  a  soprano  of  great  strength  and 
purity,  her  dramatic  powers,  you'th,  beauty,  and 
commanding  person,  created  an  extraordinary 
enthusiasm  in  her  favor,  and  both  in  London 
and  in  Paris,  which  she  visited  in  the  same  year, 
she  became  perhaps  the  most  popular  singer  of 
the  day.  The  constant  demands  upon  her  voice 
were  beginning  to  impair  its  quality,  when  in  the 
latter  part  of  1856  she  was  married  to  the  baron 
Vigier,  since  which  time  she  has  not  appeared 
upon  the  stage.  Ahmed  Pasha,  son  of  Mehemet 
Ali,  lately  left  her  a  fortune  of  1,000,000  francs, 
and  an  almost  equal  sum  in  diamonds, 

CRUZ,  JuANA  Inez  de  la,  a  Mexican  poetess, 
born  near  the  city  of  Mexico  in  1651,  died  April 
17,  1695.  She  was  very  quick  at  acquiring 
knowledge,  and  was  able  to  speak  and  write 
Latin  with  fluency.  She  was  only  about  17 
when  she  resolved  to  become  a  nun,  and  enter- 
ed the  convent  of  St.  Jerome  at  IStexico,  where 
she  remained  until  her  death.  During  her  life 
she  was  called  the  "  tenth  muse,"  and  in  Spain, 
where  she  is  known  as  the  "nun  of  Mexico," 
her  poems  have  been  very  popular.  Her  writ- 
ings have  been  collected  in  3  vols.  4to. 

CRYOLITE  (Gr.  /cpvoy,  ice,  and  X(4of,  stone), 
a  mineral  so  named  from  its  fusibility  in  the 
flame  of  a  candle.  It  is  a  compound  of  sodium, 
fluorine,  and  aluminum,  and  is  used  for  the  prep- 
aration of  the  new  metal  aluminum.  Large 
quantities  are  imported  into  England  for  this 
purpose  from  Greenland,  where  it  was  discover- 
ed by  a  missionary  and  carried  many  years  ago 
to  Copenhagen.  It  was  supposed  to  be  sulphate 
of  barytes,  until  examined  by  Abilgard,  who 
found  it  to  contain  fluoric  acid.  Klaproth  after- 
ward detected  soda.  It  is  a  snow-white  min- 
eral, partially  transparent,  of  vitreous  lustre  and 


brittle  texture.  Its  hardness  is  2.5  ;  sp.  gr,  3. 
It  cleaves  in  3  directions,  2  of  which  are  rect- 
angular. It  occurs  in  veins  in  gneiss  with  pyrites 
and  galena,  and  has  been  found  at  Arksut,  in 
West  Greenland,  and  at  Miask,  in  the  Urals. 
At  the  former  place  it  constitutes  a  mass  80  feet 
thick  and  300  feet  long,  included  between  layers 
of  gneiss,  and  associated  with  argentiferous  ga- 
lena and  copper  and  iron  pyrites. — See  a  paper 
communicated  to  the  geological  society  by  Mr. 
J.  W.  Taylor,  1856. 

CRYPTO-CALVINISTS,  a  name  given  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  16th  century  to  the  favor- 
ers of  Calvinism  in  Saxony,  on  account  of  their 
secret  adhesion  to  the  doctrines  of  Geneva. 

CRYSTAL  PALACE,  the  name  of  the  struc- 
ture in  which  tlie  great  exliibition  of  works  of 
industry  of  all  nations  was  held  in  London,  in 
1851.  It  was  erected  after  a  design  of  Mr.  (af- 
terward Sir)  Joseph  Paxton,  on  the  S.  side  of 
Hyde  park,  opposite  Prince's  gate,  and  composed 
mainly  of  glass  and  iron,  with  its  floors  of  wood. 
Its  length  was  1,851  feet ;  width  in  its  broad- 
est part,  450  feet ;  area,  21  acres.  It  contained 
illustrations  of  modern  industry  from  about 
17,000  exhibitors,  was  opened  May  1,  1851, 
visited  by  over  6,000,000  people,  closed  Oct.  11, 
1851,  and  the  building  taken  down  shortly  after- 
ward. A  new  and  permanent  crystal  palace  has 
since  been  erected  (opened  June  10,  1854),  at  a 
cost  of  about  £1,450,000,  8  m.  from  London, 
on  Penge  hill,  near  Sydenham,  Avith  splendid 
gardens  and  waterworks,  and  arrangements  for 
musical  and  other  public  entertainments,  and 
containing,  beside  industrial  exhibitions,  an  ex- 
tensive museum  of  ancient  and  media3val  art 
and  of  minerals,  representations  of  antediluvian 
animals,  specimens  in  all  branches  of  zoology 
and  botany,  and  other  departments  of  science. — 
Crystal  palaces,  in  imitation  of  that  of  London, 
and  for  the  same  purpose  of  universal  industrial 
exhibition,  were  opened  in  New  York,  July  14, 
1853,  in  Munich  in  1854,  and  in  Paris,  May  1, 
1855.  The  New  York  crystal  palace  was  situat- 
ed in  Reservoir  square,  and  designed  by  Messrs. 
Carstensen  and  Gildemeister.  The  main  build- 
ing covered  173,000  square  feet,  galleries  in- 
cluded, with  an  additional  building  of  33,000 
square  feet.  It  was  composed  of  45,000  square 
feet  of  glass,  1,200  tons  of  cast  and  300  tons  of 
wrought  iron,  and  surmounted  by  a  dome.  This 
beautiful  structure  was  destroyed  by  fire,  Oct. 
5,  1858. 

CRYSTALLINE  LENS,  a  lenticular  trans- 
parent body,  placed  between  the  aqueous  and 
vitreous  humors  of  the  vertebrate  eye,  at  about 
its  anterior  third ;  it  is  about  4  lines  in  diame- 
ter and  2  in  thickness  in  man,  and  its  axis  cor- 
responds to  the  centre  of  the  pupil.  The  lens 
is  flat  in  proportion  to  the  density  of  the  me- 
dium in  which  the  eye  is  habitually  placed, 
being  very  flat  in  birds  of  the  highest  flight,  and  * 
very  convex  in  aquatic  mammals  and  diving 
birds ;  in  fishes  it  is  almost  spherical.  This 
most  important  retracting  structure  of  the  eye  is 
imbedded  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the  vitreous 


116 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


hnmor,  and  is  enclosed  in  a  membranous  cap- 
sule, to  which  it  is  prevented  from  adhering 
by  the  "  liquid  of  Morgagni."  Its  structure  is 
complicated,  but  it  consists,  when  fully  formed, 
of  fibres  arranged  side  by  side,  and  united  into 
laminio  by  serrations  of  their  edges ;  the  fibres 
originate  in  cells ;  the  vessels  are  confined  to  the 
capsule,  and  are  derived  from  the  central  artery 
of  the  retina ;  when  hardened  in  spirit,  it  may  be 
split  into  3  sections,  composed  of  concentric  lami- 
naj ;  it  is  made  up  of  58  parts  of  water,  and  42  per 
cent,  of  soluble  albmnen  ;  the  central  parts  are 
the  densest,  and  tliis  property  increases  with 
age.  Beside  its  refractive  power,  necessary  for 
distinct  vision,  it  is  generally  believed  that  a 
change  in  its  place,  by  means  of  the  ciliary 
muscle  and  the  erectile  tissue  of  the  surround- 
ing ciliary  processes,  is  the  mechanism  by  which 
the  eye  is  adapted  to  distinct  vision  at  varying 
distances;  beside  the  anatomical  arrangement 
of  the  parts,  this  view  is  rendered  more  prob- 
able by  the  development  of  this  muscle  in  pre- 
daceous  birds  whicli  have  a  great  range  of  vision, 
and  by  the  loss  of  this  power  of  adaptation 
when  the  lens  of  the  human  eye  is  removed  or 
displaced  in  the  opei'ation  for  cataract.  For  the 
diseases  of  the  lens  and  its  capsule  and  their 
treatment,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article 
Cataract. 

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY,  the  science  of  form 
and  structure  in  the  inorganic  kingdom  of  na- 
ture. In  the  organic  kingdoms,  the  animal  and 
vegetable,  each  species  has  a  specific  form  and 
structure  evolved  from  the  germ  according  to  a 
law  of  development  or  growth.  In  the  inor- 
ganic kingdom  also,  which  includes  all  inorganic 
substances,  whether  natural  or  artificial,  a  spe- 
cific form  and  structure  belong  to  each  species, 
and  the  facts  and  principles  involved  therein 
constitute  the  science  of  crystallography.  The 
forms  are  called  crystals ;  so  that  animals,  plants, 
and  crystals  are  the  3  kinds  of  structures  char 
acterizing  species  in  nature.  As  the  qualities 
of  crystals  depend  directly  on  the  forces  of  the 
ultimate  molecules  or  particles  of  matter,  crys- 
tallography is  one  of  the  fundamental  depart- 
ments of  molecular  physics,  and  that  particular 
branch  which  includes  cohesive  attraction.  Co- 
hesive attraction  in  solidification  is  nothing  but 
crystallogenic  attraction,  for  all  solidification  in 
inorganic  nature  is  crystallization.  The  solidi- 
fication of  water,  making  ice,  is  a  turning  it  into 
a  mass  of  crystals ;  and  the  Avord  crystal  is  ap- 
propriately derived  from  the  Greek  Kpva-raWos, 
ice.  The  solidification  of  the  vapors  of  the  at- 
mosphere fills  the  air  with  snow-flakes,  which 
are  congeries  of  crystals  or  crystalline  grains. 
Solid  lava,  granite,  marble,  iron,  spermaceti, 
and  indeed  all  the  solid  materials  of  the  inor- 
ganic globe,  are  crystalline  in  grain;  so  that 
there  is  no  exaggeration  in  the  statement  that 
the  earth  has  crystal  foundations.  The  ele- 
ments and  their  inorganic  compounds  are,  in 
their  perfection,  crystals.  Cai'bon  crystallized 
is  the  diamond.  Boron  is  little  less  brilliant  or 
hard ;  find  could  we  reduce  oxygen  to  the  solid 


state,  it  would  probably  (as  we  may  infer  from 
its  compounds)  have  no  rival  among  nature's 
gems.  Alumina  is  the  constituent  of  the  sap- 
l)hire  and  ruby,  and  silica  of  quartz  crystals. 
Magnesia  also  has  its  lustrous  forms.  The  met- 
als all  crystallize.  Silica  and  alumina  combined, 
along  with  one  or  more  of  the  alkalies  or  earths, 
make  a  large  part  of  the  mineral  ingredients  of 
the  globe,  its  tourmaline,  garnet,  feldspar,  and 
many  other  species,  all  splendent  in  their  finer 
crystallizations;  and  limestone,  one  of  the  home- 
liest of  all  the  earth's  materials,  as  we  ordinarily 
see  it,  occurs  in  a  multitude  of  brilliant  forms, 
exceeding  in  variety  every  other  mineral  spe- 
cies. The  general  principles  in  the  science  of 
crystallogi'apliy  are  the  following :  I.  A  crystal 
is  bounded  by  j^lane  surfaces,  symmetrically  ar- 
ranged about  certain  imaginary  lines,  called 
axes.  II.  A  crystal  has  an  internal  structure 
which  is  directly  related  to  the  external  form, 
and  the  axial  lines  or  directions.  This  internal 
structure  is  most  obviously  exhibited  in  the 
property  called  cleavage.  Crystals  having  this 
property  split  or  cleave  in  certain  directions, 
either  parallel  to  one  or  more  of  the  axial 
planes,  or  to  diagonals  to  them  ;  and  these  di- 
rections are  fixed  in  each  species.  In  some 
cases,  cleavage  may  be  effected  by  the  fingers, 
as  with  mica  and  gypsum ;  in  others,  by  means  of 
a  hammer  with  or  without  the  aid  of  a  knife- 
blade,  as  in  galena,  calcite,  fluor  spar ;  in  others, 
it  is  indistinguishable,  as  in  quartz  and  ice. 
In  all  species,  whether  there  be  cleavage  or  not, 
crystals  often  show  a  regular  internal  structure 
through  the  arrangement  of  impurities,  or  by 
internal  lines,  striations,  or  imperfections;  and, 
when  there  has  been  a  partial  solution  or  ero- 
sion of  the  crystal,  there  is  often  a  development 
of  new  lines  and  planes,  indicating  that  the  gen- 
eral symmetry  of  the  exterior  belongs  to  the 
whole  interior.  III.  The  various  forms  of  crys- 
tals belong  mathematically  to  6  systems  of 
crystallization :  the  monometric,  dimetric,  tri- 
metric,  monoclinic,  triclinic,  and  hexagonal. 
The  greater  part  of  the  crystalline  forms  may 
be  regarded  as  based  on  4-sided  prisms,  square, 
rectangular,  rhombic,  or  rhomboidal  in  base; 
and  the  rest,  on  the  regular  6-sided  prism. 
The  4-sided  prisms  are  either  right  prisms  (erect) 
or  oblique  (inclined).  Any  such  4-sided  prism 
may  have  3  fundamental  axes  crossing  at  the 
centre,  1  vertical  axis  connecting  the  centres 
of  the  opposite  bases,  and  2  lateral,  connecting 
the  centres  of  either  the  opposite  lateral  faces, 
or  the  opposite  lateral  edges.  The  G-sided 
prism  is  right,  and  has  4  axes,  1  vertical  and 
3  lateral.  In  the  right  4-sided  prisms,  the  in- 
tersections of  the  axes  are  all  at  right  angles  ; 
in  the  obliipie,  one  or  all  of  them  are  oblique 
angles.  A.  Right  or  orthometric  systems.  1. 
Monometric  system  :  the  3  axes  equal,  and  thus 
of  one  kind.  The  system  is  named  from  the 
Greek  /xovos,  one,  and  fieTpov,  measure.  The 
cube,  for  example,  has  3  equal  axes  with  rect- 
angular intersections  ;  the  axes  connect  the 
centres  of  the  opposite  faces.     The  regular  oc- 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


117 


tahcdron,  rliombic  dodecahedron,  and  tetralie- 
dron,  are  other  solids  of  this  system.  Tlie  oc- 
tahedron is  contained  under  S  equal  equilateral 
triangles,  and  is  like  two  4-sided  pyramids  placed 
base  to  base.  The  lines  connecting  the  ai)ice3 
of  the  solid  angles  are  the  axes  ;  as  in  the  cube, 
they  are  3  in  number,  eijual  in  length,  and  rect- 
angular in  their  intersections.  The  rliombic 
dodecahedron  is  contained  under  12  equal  rhom- 
bic foces,  and  is  an  equilateral  solid  like  the  cube 
and  octahedron.  All  the  forms  of  the  mono- 
metric  system  are  thus  equilateral,  and  every 
way  symmetrical.  No  one  of  the  axes  is  dis- 
tinguished as  the  vertical.  Examples:  garnet, 
diamond,  gold,  lead,  alum.  2.  Dimetric  system  : 
the  vertical  axis  unequal  to  the  lateral,  and  the 
lateral  equal ;  the  axes  tlius  of  2  kinds.  The 
dimetric  system  is  named  from  the  Greek  Str, 
twice,  and  /.itrpou,  measure.  The  square  prism 
is  an  example.  As  the  base  is  a  square,  the 
lateral  axes,  whether  connecting  the  centres  of 
opposite  lateral  faces  or  edges,  are  equal ;  while 
the  vertical  may  be  of  any  length,  longer  or 
shorter  than  the  lateral.  Under  this  system, 
there  are  square  octahedrons,  equilateral  8-sided 
prisms,  and  8-sided  double  pyramids,  beside 
other  forms.  Examples:  idocrase,  zircon,  tin. 
3.  Trimetric  system :  the  vertical  axis  unequal 
to  the  lateral,  and  the  lateral  also  unequal,  or, 
in  other  words,  the  3  unequal.  The  trimetric 
system  is  named  from  the  Greek  t/jis-,  3  times, 
and  /ierpof,  measure.  In  the  rectangular  prism 
(a  right  prism  with  a  rectangular  base),  the  3 
axes  are  lines  connecting  the  centres  of  opposite 
faces,  and  are  unequal.  In  the  right  rhombic 
prism  the  vertical  axis  coanects  the  centres  of 
the  bases,  and  the  lateral,  the  centres  of  the  op- 
posite lateral  edges.  They  have  the  same  rela- 
tions as  in  the  rectangular  prism ;  that  is,  they 
are  rectangular  in  their  intersections  and  une- 
qual. Of  the  2  lateral  axes  in  this  system,  the 
longer  is  called  the  macrodiagonal,  and  the 
shorter  the  brachydiagonal.  Examples :  sulphur, 
heavy  spar,  epsom  salt,  topaz.  B.  Oblique  or 
clinometric  systems.  4.  Monoclinic  system  :  one 
only  of  the  intersections  oblique.  This  system  is 
named  from  the  Greek  fiofos^  one,  and  kXii/o),  to 
incline.  If  we  take  a  model  with  8  unequal  axes 
arranged  as  in  tlie  trimetric  system,  and  then 
make  the  vertical  axis  oblique  to  one  of  the 
lateral,  we  change  the  system  into  the  mono- 
clinic.  While  the  right  rhombic  prism  belongs 
to  the  former,  the  oblique  rhombic  prism,  and 
other  related  forms,  belong  to  the  latter.  Ex- 
amples :  borax,  glauber  salt,  sugar,  pyroxene. 
5.  Triclinic  system :  all  the  3  intersections  ob- 
lique. The  system  is  named  from  rpis,  3  times, 
and  kXivco,  to  incline.  The  forms  are  oblique 
prisms  contained  under  rhomboidal  faces.  The 
axes,  whether  connecting  the  centres  of  opposite 
faces  or  of  opposite  edges,  are  unequal,  and  all 
the  intersections  are  oblique.  Examples :  blue 
vitriol,  axinite.  0.  The  axes  4  in  number.  6. 
Hexagonal  system.  In  the  regular  hexagonal 
prism,  the  vertical  axis  connects  the  centres  of 
the  bases,  and  the  3  lateral,  the  centres  of  the 


oj)posite  lateral  faces  or  edges.  Examples:  beryl 
or  oinerald,  apatite.  Beside  the  hexagonal 
j)rism,  the  system  includes  the  rhombohedron 
and  its  derivative  forms,  inasmuch  as  the  sym- 
metry of  these  forms  is  liexagonal.  The  rhom- 
bohedron is  a  solid,  bounded  like  the  cube  by 
()  equal  faces  equally  inclined  to  one  another, 
but  those  faces  are  rliombic,  and  the  inclinations 
are  oblique.  The  relations  of  the  rhombohedron 
may  be  explained  by  comparison  with  a  cube. 
If  a  cube  be  placed  on  one  solid  angle,  with  the 
diagonal  from  that  angle  to  the  op[)osite  solid 
angle  vertical,  it  will  have  3  edges  and  3  faces 
meeting  at  the  top  angle,  and  as  many  edges 
and  faces,  alternate  in  position,  meeting  at  the 
opposite  angle  below;  while  the  remaining  6 
edges  will  form  a  zigzag  around  tlie  vertical 
diagonal ;  these  6  edges  might  be  called  the 
lateral  edges,  and  the  others  the  terminal. 
The  cub(?,  in  this  position,  is  in  fact  a  rhombo- 
hedron of  90".  If  the  cube  were  elastic,  so  that 
the  angles  could  be  varied,  a  little  pressure 
would  make  it  a  rhombohedron  of  an  angle 
greater  than  90°,  that  is,  an  obtuse  rhombohe- 
dron ;  or  by  drawing  it  out,  it  would  become  a 
rhombohedron  of  an  angle  less  than  90°,  or  an 
acute  rhomboliedron.  The  diagonal  here  taken 
as  the  vertical  axis,  is  the  true  vertical  axis  of 
tlie  rhombohedron  ;  and  as  there  are  6  lateral 
edges  situated  symmetrically  around  it,  there 
are  3  lateral  axes  crossing  at  angles  of  60°, 
as  in  the  regular  hexagonal  prism.  Examples : 
calcite,  sapphire,  quartz.  IV.  The  relative  values 
of  the  axes  in  any  species  are  constant.  In  the 
monometric  system,  the  axes  are  equal,  and  the 
axial  ratio  is,  therefore,  that  of  unit}^  Calling 
the  3  axes  a,  b,  c,  it  is  in  all  monometric  spe- 
cies a  :  b  :  e  =  1  :  1:1.  In  the  dimetric  system 
the  vertical  axis  («)  is  unequal  to  the  2  lateral 
(b,  c).  Calling  the  lateral  1,  the  vertical  may 
be  of  any  length  greater  or  less  than  1 ;  and 
whatever  the  value,  it  is  constant  for  the  spe- 
cies. Thus  in  zircon,  the  value  of  a  is  0.6407, 
and  the  axial  ratio  \s  a  :  b  :  c  =  0.6407  :  1  :  1. 
In  calomel,  the  ratio  is  1.232  :  1  :  1.  In  the  tri- 
metric system,  the  3  axes  are  unequal,  but  the 
ratio  is  constant  for  each  species,  as  in  the  di- 
metric. Taking  the  shorter  lateral  axis  (b)  as 
unitv,  the  ratio  for  sulphur  h  a  :  b  :  e  =  2.344: 
1  :  1.23;  for  heavy  spar,  1.6107  :  1  :  1.2276. 
In  the  monoclinic  system,  the  obliquity  of  the 
prism  is  a  constant,  as  well  as  the  relative  values 
of  the  axes.  In  glauber  salt,  this  inclination  is 
72°  15',  and  the  ratio  of  the  axes  \s  a  :  b  :  c  = 
1.1089  :  1  :  0.S962.  In  the  hexagonal  system, 
as  in  the  dimetric,  the  vertical  (a)  is  the  vary- 
ing axis  ;  but  its  value  is  constant  for  each  spe- 
cies. In  quartz,  a:b:c:d  =  1.0999 : 1 : 1 :  1 ;  in 
calcite,  0.8543  :  1  :  1  :  1.  In  other  words,  tak- 
ing the  lateral  axes  at  unity,  the  vertical  («)  in 
calcite  is  0.8543.  Crystallography  owes  its 
mathematical  basis  to  this  law.  The  constancy 
of  angle  for  each  species,  stated  in  §  II.,  is  here 
involved.  V.  Each  species,  while  having  a  con- 
stant axial  ratio,  may  still  crystallize  in  a  variety 
of  forms.     Thus  the  diamond,  which  is  mono- 


118 


CRYSTALLOGEAPIIY 


metric,  occurs  in  octaliedrons,  in  dodecahe- 
drons, and  in  solids  like  octahedrons,  but  hav- 
ing low  pyramids  of  8  or  0  faces  iu  place  of 
each  octahedral  face  (called  tris-octahedrons 
and  hex-octahedrons),  and  in  various  com- 
binations of  tliese  forms.  So  dimetric  spe- 
cies, as  idocrase,  may  occur  in  simple  square 
prisms,  or  in  square  prisms  with  the  lateral 
edges  truncated  or  bevelled,  or  with  difl'erent 
planes  on  the  basal  edges  or  angles,  or  in  8-sided 
prisms,  or  in  square  octahedrons,  &c.  In  the 
species  calcite,  the  number  of  derivative  forms 
amounts  to  several  hundreds.  This  simjile  fact 
shows  that  while  cohesive  attraction  in  calcite, 
for  examjile,  sometimes  produces  the  fundamen- 
tal rliombohedron,  it  may  undergo  changes  of 
condition  so  as  to  produce  other  forms,  and  as 
many  such  changes  as  are  necessary  to  give  rise 
to  all  the  various  occurring  forms  of  the  species, 
with  only  this  limitation,  that  they  are(all  based 
on  the  fundamental  axial  ratio,  0.8543  :  1.  VI. 
In  all  cases  of  derivative  or  secondary  forms, 
either  (1)  all  similar  parts  (parts  similarly  placed 
with  reference  to  the  axes)  are  modified  alike, 
or  (2)  only  half,  alternate  in  position,  are  modi- 
fied alike.  This  law  may  be  explained  by  refer- 
ence to  a  square  prism.  In  this  prism  there  are 
2  sets  of  edges,  the  basal  and  lateral ;  the  2  sets 
are  unlike,  that  is,  are  unequal,  and  included  by 
different  planes.  One  set  may  therefore  be 
modified  by  planes  when  the  other  is  not ;  more- 
over, when  one  basal  edge  has  a  plane  on  it,  all 
the  others  will  have  the  same  plane,  that  is,  a 
plane  inclined  at  the  same  angle  to  the  base ; 
or  if  one  has  a  dozen  ditferent  planes,  all  the 
others  will  have  the  same  dozen.  Again,  if  a 
lateral  edge  is  replaced  by  one  plane,  that  plane 
will  be  equally  inclined  to  the  lateral  planes, 
because  those  planes  (or,  what  is  equivalent, 
the  lateral  axes)  are  equal;  and  in  addition,  all 
the  lateral  edges  will  have  the  same  plane.  In 
a  cube,  the  12  edges  are  all  equal  and  similar; 
and  hence,  if  one  of  them  has  a  plane  on  it, 
there  will  be  a  similar  plane  ou  each  of  the  12. 
Hence,  we  may  distinguish  a  cube,  modified 
on  the  edges,  however  much  it  may  be  distorted, 
by  finding  the  same  planes  on  all  the  12  edges 
of  the  solid.  The  8  angles  of  a  cube  are  similar, 
and  hence  they  will  all  have  similar  modifica- 
tions. This  remark  applies  also  to  the  8  angles 
of  a  square  prism.  The  square  prism  and  cube 
differ  in  this,  that  in  the  cube,  when  there  is  one 
plane  on  each  angle,  that  plane  will  incline  equal- 
ly to  each  of  the  3  faces  adjoining,  because  these 
faces  are  equal ;  while  in  the  square  prism,  the 
plane  will  incline  equally  to  the  2  lateral  planes 
and  at  a  difierent  angle  to  the  base.  This  gen- 
eral law,  "  similar  parts  similarly  modified,"  is 
in  accordance  with  what  complete  symmetry 
would  require.  The  exception  mentioned,  of 
half  the  ])arts  modified  without  the  other  half, 
is  exemplified  in  boracite,  iu  which  half  of  the 
8  solid  angles  of  the  cube  have  planes  unlike 
those  of  the  other  half — a  mode  of  modification 
that  gives  rise  to  the  tetrahedron  and  related 
forms ;  iu  tourmaline,  in  Avhich  the  planes  at 


one  end  of  the  crystal  difier  from  those  at  the 
other ;  and  in  pyrites,  in  which  on  each  edge 
there  is  only  one  plane  out  of  a  pair  of  bevelling 
planes.  All  such  forms  are  said  to  be  hemihe- 
dral  (Gr.  Tjjjuav,  half,  and  idpn,  face),  while 
the  former  are  said  to  be  holohedral  (from 
oXos,  all,  and  i8pa).  Many  hemihedral  crys- 
tals, when  undergoing  a  change  of  temperature, 
have  opposite  electric  poles  developed  in  the 
parts  dissimilarly  modified.  VII.  The  derivative 
forms,  under  any  species,  are  related  to  one  an- 
other by  simple  multiples  of  the  axial  ratios. 
In  calcite,  the  fundamental  rliombohedron  has 
the  axial  ratio  just  mentioned,  0.8543  :  1,  that 
is,  a  —  0.8543.  There  are  a  number  of  deriva- 
tive rhombohedrons  among  the  crystalline  forms 
of  this  species ;  one  has  the  vertical  axis  -Ja ; 
another  ^a  ;  others  |a,  |a,  2«,  3a,  4a,  and 
so  on,  by  simple  multiples  of  the  vertical  axis 
of  the  fundamental  form.  So  in  zircon,  of  the 
dimetric  system,  while  a  (vertical  axis)=0.6407, 
the  lateral  being  unity,  there  is  one  derivative 
octahedron  with  the  axes  a  :  1  :  1 ;  another, 
2a  :  1  :  1  ;  another,  3«  :  1  :  1  ;  and  there  are  3 
other  forms  (8-sided  pyramids)  whose  axes  are 
severally  3a  :  3  :  1 ;  4a  :  4  :  1  ;  5a  :  5  :  1  ;  or 
writing  out  the  value  of  a,  they  are  1.9221  :  3  : 
1 ;  2.5G28  :  4  :  1  ;  3.2035  :  5  :  1.  It  is  obvious 
that  if  an  octahedron  of  zircon  have  the  vertical 
axis  2a  (or  the  whole  ratio,  2a  :  1 :  1),  its  interfa- 
cial  angles  may  be  calculated,  the  value  of  a  be- 
ing known  =  0.6407.  The  calculation  is  sim- 
pler still,  provided  the  basal  angle  of  the  pyra- 
mid, a  :  1  :  1,  be  known;  for  the  tangents  of  I 
half  the  basal  angles  will  vary  as  the  vertical 
axes,  or,  in  this  case,  will  be  as  1 :  2.  Moreover, 
if  the  angles  of  the  octahedron,  a  :  1  :  1,  be 
known  from  measurement,  the  value  of  the  axis 
a  may  be  thence  calculated.  The  derivative 
forms  thus  enable  us  to  ascertain  the  dimensions 
of  the  axes  of  crystals.  Crystals  are  often  much 
distorted,  and  cubes  are  thus  changed  to  square 
prisms,  rectangular  prisms,  and  other  forms ; 
and  prismatic  and  octahedral  crystals  are  liable 
to  similar  distortions.  But  the  distortions  sel- 
dom affect  the  angles.  These  facts  still  further 
illusti-ate  the  mathematical  basis  of  crystallogra- 
phy. They  also  show  that  the  modifications 
wliich  cohesive  attraction  (or,  what  is  the  same, 
crystallogenic  attraction)  undergoes  in  order  to 
produce  the  various  derivative  forms  of  any 
substance,  take  place  according  to  a  law  of  sim- 
jde  ratios,  VIII,  The  physical  characters  of 
crystals  have  a  direct  relation  to  the  forms 
and  axes.  Cleavage,  hardness,  color,  elasticity, 
expansibility,  and  conduction  of  heat,  differ 
in  the  direction  of  different  axial  lines,  and  are 
alike  in  the  direction  of  like  axes.  The  differ- 
ence of  color  between  light  transmitted  along 
the  vertical  and  lateral  axes  of  a  prism  is  often 
very  marked,  and  the  name  dichroism  (Gr.  8is, 
twice,  xpo«,  color),  or  the  more  general  term 
pleochroism,  is  applied  to  the  property.  The 
hardness  often  differs  sensibly  on  tlie  terminal 
and  lateral  planes  of  a  prisni,  and  also,  though 
less    sensibly,    iu    other    different    directions. 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


119 


IX.  Tlie  angles  of  the  crystals  of  a  species, 
thougli  essentially  constant,  are  subject  to  small 
variations.  The  unequal  expansion  of  inequiax- 
ial  crystals  along  different  axial  directions,  allud- 
ed to  under  the  last  head,  occasions  a  change  of 
angle  'svith  a  change  of  temperature;  other 
small  variations  arise  from  impurities,  or  iso- 
morphous  substitutions,  or  irregularities  of  crys- 
tallization. Tliere  are  also  many  instances  of 
curved  crystallizations  which  are  exceptions  to 
the  general  rule.  A  familiar  example  of  curv- 
ing forms  is  atlbrded  by  ice  or  frost  as  it  covers 
windows  and  pavements.  Diamonds  have  usu- 
ally convex  instead  of  plane  laces.  Rhombohe- 
drons  of  dolomite  and  spathic  iron  often  have 
a  curving  twist ;  half  the  faces  are  concave  and 
those  opposite  convex.  Other  imperfections 
arise  from  an  oscillating  tendency  to  the  forma- 
tion of  2  planes,  ending  in  making  a  striated 
curving  surface.  Thus  y-sided  j)risms  of  tour- 
maline are  reduced  to  3-sided  prisms  with  the 
faces  convex.  X.  While  simple  crystals  are 
the  normal  result  in  crystallization,  twins  or 
compound  crystals  are  sometimes  formed.  The 
6-rayed  stars  of  snow  and  the  arrow-head  forms 
of  gypsum  are  examples  of  compound  crystals. 
In  the  stars  of  snow  there  are  3  crystals  cross- 
ing at  middle ;  in  the  arrow-shaped  crystal  of 
gypsum,  2  crystals  are  united  so  as  to  form  a 
regular  twin.  Many  of  these  twin  crystals  may 
be  imitated  by  cutting  a  model  of  an  oblique 
prism  in  two  vertically  through  the  middle,  and 
then  inverting  one  part  on  tiie  other  and  uniting 
again  the  cut  surfaces.  In  such  a  twin,  the  top  of 
one  half  of  the  crystal  is  really  at  the  bottom,  and 
the  bottom  of  the  same  half  at  the  top.  To  ex- 
plain its  formation,  it  is  necessary  to  suppose 
that  the  nucleal  or  first  particle  of  the  crystal 
was  a  double  molecule  made  up  of  2  molecules, 
in  which  one  was  thus  inverted  on  the  other. 
Such  twins,  as  well  as  other  facts,  prove  that 
molecules  have  a  top  and  bottom,  or,  in  more 
correct  language,  polarity,  one  end  being  posi- 
tive and  the  other  negative,  this  being  the  only 
kind  of  distinction  of  top  and  bottom  which  we 
can  suppose.  Axial  lines  or  directions  of  at- 
traction are  in  fact  necessarily  polar,  if  it  be 
true,  as  is  supposed,  that  molecular  force  of 
whatever  kind  is  polar.  In  the  case  of  the 
compound  crystal  of  snow,  the  nucleal  particle 
must  have  consisted  of  3  or  6  molecules  com- 
bined. Those  prismatic  substances  are  com- 
pounded in  this  way  which  have  the  angles  of 
the  prism  near  GO'  and  120°,  and  for  th%  reason 
that  3  times  120°,  or  6  times  60°,  equal  360°,  or 
the  complete  circle.  In  a  case  where  this  angle 
is  nearly  i  of  360^  (as  in  marcasite),  the  twins 
consist  of  5  united  crystals.  In  compound  crys- 
tals of  another  kind,  the  composition  is  pro- 
duced after  the  crystal  has  begun  to  form,  in- 
stead of  in  tlie  first  or  nucleal  particle.  A 
prism,  as  in  rutile,  after  elongating  for  a  while, 
takes  a  sudden  bend  at  each  extremity  at  a 
particular  angle,  depending  on  the  values  of  the 
axes.  In  another  case,  as  albite,  which  is  tri- 
clinic,  a  flat  prism  begins  as  a  thin  plate ;  then 


a  reversed  layer  is  added  to  either  surfiice ;  then 
another  like  the  first  plate ;  then  another  re- 
versed; and  so  on,  until  the  crystal  consists  of  a 
large  number  of  lamella),  the  alternate  of  them 
reversed  in  j)osition,  yet  all  as  solidly  united  as 
if  a  simple  crystal.  Such  a  kind  of  composition 
may  be  indicated  on  the  surface  in  a  series  of 
fine  striations  or  furrows,  each  due  to  a  new 
plane  of  composition ;  and  they  are  frequently 
so  fine  as  to  be  detected  only  by  means  of  a 
magnifying  glass.  This  mode  of  twin  is  addi- 
tional proof  of  the  polarity  of  the  crystallogenic 
molecule.  If  there  w'ere  not  some  inherent 
difference  in  the  extremities  or  opposite  sides 
of  the  molecules  or  their  axes,  which  is  equiva- 
lent to  polarity,  there  could  not  be  this  series 
of  reversions  during  the  fonnation  of  the  crys- 
tal. External  electric  or  other  influence  may 
be  the  cause  of  the  reversion.  XI.  While  sim- 
ple and  twin  crystals  form  when  circumstances 
are  favorable,  in  other  cases  the  solidifying 
material  becomes  an  aggregate  of  crystalline 
particles.  Regular  crystals  often  require  for 
their  formation  the  nicest  adjustment  of  circum- 
stances as  to  supply  of  material,  temperature, 
rate  of  cooling  or  evaporation,  &c. ;  and  hence 
imperfect  crystallizations  are  far  the  most  com- 
mon in  nature.  A  weak  solution  spread  over 
a  surface  may  produce  a  deposit  of  minute  crys- 
tals, which,  if  the  solution  continues  to  be  grad- 
ually supplied,  will  slowly  lengthen,  and  pro- 
duce a  fibrous  or  columnar  structure.  In  other 
cases,  whether  crystallization  take  place  from 
solution  or  fusion  or  otherwise,  the  result  is 
only  a  confused  aggregate  of  grains,  or  the 
granular  structure.  Under  these  circumstances, 
the  tendency  in  force  to  exert  influence  radially 
from  any  centre  where  it  is  developed  or  begins 
action,  often  leads  to  concentric  or  radiated 
aggregations,  or  concretions.  The  point  which 
first  commences  to  solidify,  or  else  a  foreign 
body,  as  a  fragment  of  wood  or  a  shell,  be- 
comes such  a  centre ;  and  aggregation  goes  on 
around  it  until  the  concretion  has  reached  its 
limits.  Basalt  and  trap  rocks  which  have  been 
formed  from  fusion  are  often  divided  into  col- 
umns, and  the  columns  have  concave  and  con- 
vex surfaces  at  the  joints  or  cross  fractures, 
proving  tliat  they  are  concretionary  in  origin. 
The  centre  or  axis  of  each  column  is  the  centre 
of  the  concretionary  structure,  and  therefore  it 
was  the  position  of  the  first  solidifying  points 
in  the  cooling  mass.  The  distance  therefore 
between  the  initial  solidifying  points  determines 
in  any  case  the  size  of  the  columns  ;  and  as  the 
columns  are  larger,  the  thicker  the  cooling 
mass,  the  distance  is  greater,  the  slower  the 
cooling.  The  cracks  separating  the  columns  are 
supposed  to  be  owing  to  contraction  on  cooling. 
XII.  The  system  of  crystallization  of  a  given 
substance  sometimes  undergoes  a  total  change, 
owing  to  external  causes.  Carbonate  of  lime 
ordinarily  crystallizes  in  rhombohedrons,  and  is 
then  called  calcite  ;  but  in  certain  cases  it 
crystallizes  in  trimetric  prisms,  and  it  is  then 
called  aragonite.      The   aragonite   appears  to 


120 


CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 


form  when  the  solution  has  a  higher  than  the 
ordinary  temperature.  This  property  of  pre- 
senting two  independent  forms  is  called  dimor- 
phism. Beside  difference  of  form,  there  is  in 
all  such  cases  a  difference  of  hardness  and 
specific  gravity.  Carbon  crystallizes  in  one 
set  of  forms,  whicli  are  monometric,  in  the 
diamond,  and  in  another,  hexagonal,  in  gra- 
phite. Glass  and  stone  are  dimorphous  states 
of  tlie  same  substance,  and  the  former  may 
be  changed  into  the  latter  by  slow  cooling. — 
Modes  of  crystallization.  Crystallization  re- 
quires freedom  of  movement  among  the  par- 
ticles engaged  in  the  process.  It  may  take 
place  :  1.  From  solution,  where  a  solvent 
serves  to  disunite  the  molecules  of  a  solid,  and 
give  them  the  free  movement  required.  The 
crystallization  of  sugar  or  alum  from  a  concen- 
trated solution  is  an  example  of  this  method. 
The  alum  solution  is  simply  set  away  to  cool, 
and  the  crystals  slowly  form  and  cover  any  ob- 
ject that  may  be  placed  in  the  solution.  With 
many  solutions  evaporation  cautiously  carried  on 
"will  throw  down  a  crop  of  crystals.  Sea  water, 
on  slow  evaporation,  first  deposits  gypsum,  af- 
terward common  salt,  and  then  its  magnesian 
salts.  2.  From  a  state  of  fusion  or  of  vapor. 
Heat  in  this  case  is  the  dissevering  agent,  and 
the  removal  of  heat  permits  resolidification. 
Thus  water  becomes  ice,  and  aqueous  vapor 
snow ;  and  melted  lead,  sulphur,  and  other 
substances,  may  come  out  in  perfect  crystals. 
If  a  mass  of  melted  sulphur,  or  of  bismuth,  af- 
ter it  has  crusted  over,  be  tapped  and  the  inte- 
rior run  out,  the  cavity  within  will  be  found 
lined  with  crystals.  Camphor,  when  sublimed 
by  a  gentle  heat,  condenses  again  in  delicate 
crystallizations.  3.  From  long  continued  heat 
without  fusion.  The  heat  used  for  tempering 
steel  is  far  short  of  fusion,  and  yet  it  allows  of 
a  change  in  the  size  of  the  grains  throughout 
the  mass.  Heat  has  crystallized  beds  of  earthy 
sediment,  and  thus  changed  them  into  gneiss 
and  mica  schist  without  fusing  the  rocks ;  and 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  even  a  low  de- 
gree of  heat  long  continued  is  sufficient  for 
these  results.  By  this  means  statuary  marble, 
one  of  tlie  earth's  crystalline  rocks,  has  been 
made  out  of  fossiliferous  limestones.  The  white 
marble  of  Berkshire,  Mass.,  is  of  the  same  for- 
mation with  the  Trenton  limestone,  a  rock  full 
of  fossils,  in  central  New  York  and  elsewhere. 
Such  altered  rocks  are  termed  in  geology  meta- 
morpliic  rocks.  Nearly  all  the  gems,  and  f;ir 
the  larger  part  of  the  crystalline  rocks  of  the 
world,  were  crystallized  by  some  metamorphic 
process.  Long  continued  vibration  is  known  to 
change  the  crystalline  texture  of  iron,  making 
axles  of  wheels  coarse-grained  and  brittle.  In 
vibration  there  is  some  heat  developed,  and 
this  may  aid  in  the  process.  4.  From  any  cir- 
cumstances that  favor  the  combination  of  the 
elements  of  a  compound.  Crystallizations  often 
take  place  at  the  moment  of  the  combination. — 
Origin  of  the  modifications  of  crystals..  The 
particular  modifications  of  form  presented  by 


the  crystals  of  any  substance  sometimes  depend 
on  the  nature  of  the  solution  depositing  the 
crystals,  and  sometimes  on  wider  terrestrial 
conditions.  Common  salt,  crystallizing  from 
pure  water,  almost  invariably  takes  a  cubic 
form ;  but  if  boracic  acid  is  present,  the  crys- 
tals are  cubes  with  truncated  angles;  or  if  the 
solution  contains  in-ea,  the  crystals  are  octahe- 
drons. Carbonate  of  copper,  in  course  of  depo- 
sition, has  been  observed  to  change  the  form 
of  the  wystals  on  the  addition  of  a  little  ammo- 
nia, and  again  to  a  still  different  form  on  add- 
ing sulphuric  acid.  Sal  ammoniac  ordinarily 
crystallizes  in  octahedrons ;  but  if  urea  be 
present,  it  forms  cubes.  A  floating  crystal 
forming  in  a  solution  has  been  seen  to  assume 
secondary  planes  on  becoming  attached  to  the 
sides  of  the  vessel.  There  are  many  examples 
where  a  substance,  as  calcite,  for  a  time  crys- 
tallized under  one  form,  and  afterward  be- 
gan a  new  form  around  or  orf  top  of  tlie  first. 
At  Bristol,  Conn.,  6-sided  prisms  of  calcite  have 
been  found  surmounted  by  short,  flattened  cal- 
cite crystals  of  the  variety  called  nail-head  spar. 
AtWheatley's  mine,  Phoenixville,Penn.,  the  same 
species,  under  the  form  of  the  scalenohedron, 
has  been  found  covered  and  altered  to  a  6-sided 
prism.  Such  facts  prove  some  change,  and 
probably  a  change  in  the  nature  of  the  solution 
supplying  the  carbonate  of  lime,  the  ingredient 
of  calcite.  In  nature  the  crystals  of  a  substance 
over  a  wide  region  are  often  identical  in  form. 
The  calcite  of  tlie  Niagara  limestone  at  Lock- 
port,  N.  Y.,  in  all  cases  has  the  form  called 
dog-tooth  spar,  or  the  scalenohedron ;  that  of 
Booneville,  N.  Y.,  the  form  of  short  hexagonal 
prisms ;  that  of  the  Rossie  lead  mine,  a  combi- 
nation of  other  more  complex  forms.  This  is  a 
general  fact  with  regard  to  the  crystallizations 
in  rocks.  In  massive  aggregate  crystalline 
rocks  there  is  a  tendency  to  parallelism  in 
the  crystals,  and  hence,  at  a  granite  quarry, 
it  is  easier  to  split  the  granite  in  one  direc- 
tion than  in  others,  owing  to  an  approximate 
parallelism  in  the  cleavage  planes  of  the  feldspar. 
To  obtain  large  crystals  artificially  from  solu- 
tions, a  large  supply  of  material  is  of  course  ne- 
cessary. The  most  successful  mode  is  to  select 
certain  of  the  best  crystals  that  have  begun  to 
form,  and  supply  them  from  time  to  time  with 
new  portions  of  the  solution.  They  will  thus 
continue  to  enlarge,  the  crystallizing  material 
tending  to  aggregate"'  about  the  ready  formed 
crystals,  rather  than  commence  a  new  crop. 
Cavities  in  rocks  sometimes  contain  a  vast 
amount  of  large  crystals.  At  Zinken  in  Ger- 
man}', a  single  cavity  was  opened  last  century 
■which  aftorded  1,000  cwt.  of  quartz  crystals, 
one  of  which  weighed  800  lbs.  In  all  such 
cases  the  supply  of  material  was  gradually  in- 
troduced ;  for  so  little  silica  is  taken  up  by  al- 
kaline waters  that  the  solution  of  silica  filling 
the  cavity  at  any  one  time  could  make  but  a 
thin  lining  over  its  interior.  When  water 
freezes,  there  is  at  first  a  sheet  of  ice  made  by 
the  shooting  of  prisms  over  its  surface.     After 


CSANYI 


CSOMA  DE  KOROS 


121 


this,  as  the  cold  continues,  the  crust  increases 
in  thickness  hy  gradual  additions  to  the  under 
surface,  thereby  causing  an  elongation  of  pris- 
matic crystallizations  downward.  The  body  of 
the  ice  is  consequently  columnar,  although  not 
distinctly  so  when  examined  in  its  firm  state. 
In  the  melting  of  the  ice  of  some  lakes  in  spring, 
as  has  been  observed  at  Lake  Cliamplain,  this 
columnar  structure  usually  becomes  apparent ; 
and  it  is  soniethncs  so  decided,  that  when  the 
ice  is  even  a  foot  thick  and  strong  enough  to 
bear  a  horse  and  sleigh,  the  horse's  foot  Avill 
occasionally  strike  tlirough,  driving  down  a 
portion  of  the  half-united  columnar  mass,  which 
may  rise  again  to  refill  the  place  as  the  foot  is 
withdrawn.  When  in  this  condition,  a  gale  at 
night  sometimes  leads  to  a  disappearance  of  all 
the  ice  before  morning.  A  fact  like  this  illus- 
trates what  must  be  the  condition  of  the  earth's 
crust  if  it  has  slowly  cooled  from  fusion.  The 
crystallizing  rock  material  below,  as  the  crust 
slowly  thickened,  would  not  necessarily  take  col- 
unmar  forms;  but  there  would  be  some  system 
of  arrangement  in  the  crystals  which  would  be 
of  a  world-wide  character;  and  as  the  cleavable 
species  feldspar  is  a  universal  mineral  among 
igneous  rocks,  the  earth's  crust  would  derive 
some  kind  of  structure — a  cleavage  structure,  it 
might  be  called — from  these  conditions.  Crys- 
tallization thus  pervades  the  globe,  and  has  had 
much  to  do  in  determining  its  grander  surface 
features,  as  well  as  making  gems,  solidifying 
sedimentary  strata,  and  furnishing  material  for 
the  statuary  and  architect.  It  has  also  afforded 
man  one  of  his  best  avenues  for  searching  into 
nature,  opening  to  view  facts  on  which  are  based 
some  of  the  profoundest  laws  in  cohesive  at- 
traction, heat,  light,  and  chemistry. 

CSANYI,  Laszi.6,  minister  of  state  during 
the  Hungarian  revolution,  born  in  the  county 
of  Zala  in  1790,  executed  atPesth,  Oct.  10,  1849, 
served  as  an  officer  in  the  Napoleonic  wars  from 
1809-15,  was  disabled  by  a  wound,  and  retired 
to  private  life.  Having  become  a  member  of  the 
liberal  opposition  in  his  native  county,  he  took 
part  in  the  Hungarian  revolution  in  1848,  acted 
as  a  commissary  of  the  revolutionary  govern- 
ment in  the  attempt  to  relieve  Vienna,  and  dur- 
ing the  retreat  of  the  army  of  the  upper  Danube 
to  Pesth,  which  he  was  the  last  to  leave,  and 
afterward  went  to  Transylvania  in  order  to 
organize  that  province  under  Hungarian  rule. 
There  his  severity  against  the  German  and  Wal- 
lachian  population  brought  him  into  collision 
with  the  military  commander,  Gen.  Bem,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  was  recalled.  When 
the  diet  had  proclaimed  Hungary  an  independ- 
ent state,  he  was  appointed  to  a  seat  in  Sze- 
mere's  cabinet,  of  which  he  became  the  most 
active  member.  When  Gorgey,  whom  he  zeal- 
ously supported,  surrendered  to  the  Russians, 
Csanyi,  exhausted  and  grieved,  refused  to  leave 
his  country.  Before  the  Austrian  court  martial 
he  frankly  confessed  his  revolutionary  princi- 
ples and  acts,  and  was  sentenced  to  death  and 
hanged. 


CSOKONAT,  YiTEz  Mihaly,  a  Hungarian 
poet,  born  at  Debreczin,  Nov.  17,  1773,  died 
Jan.  28,  1805.  He  was  educated  at  the  college 
of  his  native  town,  and  appointed  professor  of 
classical  literature  there  in  1795.  He  was  soon, 
however,  expelled  from  this  situation  on  account 
of  his  irregularities.  He  then  commenced  the 
Btudy  of  the  law,  which  he  soon  gave  up,  and 
during  the  rest  of  his  life  had  no  regular  em- 
ployment. His  works,  principally  love  poems 
and  pieces  of  a  light  and  lively  character,  havo 
been  published  in  numerous  editions, 

CSOMA  DE  KOROS  (Kokosi),  Saxdor,  a 
celebrated  traveller  and  Thibetan  scholar,  born 
at  Koros,  in  Transylvania,  about  1790,  died  at 
Darjeeling  in  India,  April  11, 1842.  Of  a  noble 
but  poor  family,  he  studied  gratis  at  the  school 
of  Nagy-Enyed,  where  at  an  early  age  he 
avowed  his  intention  to  make  the  discovery  of 
the  original  home  of  his  race,  the  Magyars,  the 
task  of  his  life.  The  researches  of  Klaproth 
led  him  to  seek  the  traces  of  the  Ooigoors,  a  peo- 
ple of  central  Asia  mentioned  by  Arabian  Avrit- 
ers.  In  1815  he  went  to  Gottingen,  where  he 
studied  medicine  and  oriental  languages,  and  on 
his  return  finally  started  (1820)  for  his  great 
journey  of  discovery,  with  scanty  means  furnish- 
ed by  the  liberality  of  a  friend,  in  the  poor  dress 
of  a  Transylvania  countryman,  but  with  the  he- 
roic determination  of  a  Columbus.  He  passed 
through  the  Balkan  to  Constantinople,  visited 
Egypt  and  Syria,  and  wrote  his  first  letter  to  his 
friends  from  Teheran,  dated  Dec.  21, 1820.  The 
resemblance  of  a  number  of  Thibetan  words  to 
Magyar  incited  him  to  acquire  the  language  and 
to  visit  the  country  of  Thibet.  He  traversed 
Little  Bucharia,  tlie  desert  of  Gobi,  reached  the 
regions  of  the  Himalaya,  wandered  through  its 
valleys,  partly  with  the  English  traveller  Moor- 
croft,  partly  alone,  and  spent  4  years  (1827-'30) 
in  a  Buddhist  monastery  at  Ivanam,  on  a  high 
mountain  on  the  confines  of  Thibet  and  India. 
For  his  maintenance  on  his  travels  he  relied  upon 
his  medical  knowledge  and  the  hospitality  of  the 
Asiatic  people.  But  his  taciturn  habits  and  aus- 
tere modesty  prevented  him  from  communicat- 
ing, in  writing  or  conversation,  the  particulars 
of  his  travels  and  extraordinary  sojourn  among 
the  Buddhists,  when  he  arrived  at  Calcutta  with 
immense  philological  collections,  gathered  in  the 
narrow  cells  of  the  snow-bound  monastery,  and 
comprising  no  less  than  40,000  Thibetan  words. 
A  severe  disappointment  awaited  him  here.  He 
had  already  given  up  the  illusion  in  regard  to 
the  Magyar  and  Thibetan  languages;  he  now 
learned  with  deep  grief  that  his  collections, 
made  for  the  purpose  of  tracing  the  Ooigoors, 
were  all  superfiuous,  as  his  discovered  sources 
were  translations  of  well-known  Sanscrit  works. 
But  in  the  eyes  of  British  scholars  in  India  he 
had  discovered  incomparably  more  than  was  the 
object  of  his  patriotic  researches.  He  became 
the  oracle  of  Tliibetan  literature  and  Buddhistic 
science,  before  him  almost  terra  incognitce.  He 
was  the  object  of  general  attention  in  Calcutta, 
and  Hungary  and  Transylvania  learned  from 


122 


OTENOIDS 


CUBA 


England  the  fame  of  their  countryman.  But  ho 
modestly  -witlidrew  from  society,  and  destined 
the  money  -which  he  received  from  home  (the 
diet  of  Transylvania  having  voted  him  an  ample 
pension)  for  -works  of  science  for  the  institu- 
tions of  his  country.  When  offered  a  remu- 
neration by  the  Asiatic  society  of  Bengal  for 
an  elaborate  catalogue  of  the  1,100  Thibetan 
■works  of  their  library,  which  before  had  been 
like  sealed  books,  he  declared  if  lie  -were  rich 
he  -would  willingly  pay  for  the  pleasure  of 
the  work.  "With  unabated  zeal  he  continued 
his  profound  studies  of  the  languages  and  reli- 
gions of  the  East,  until  he  again  started  in  1842 
for  the  prosecution  of  his  originally  intended 
discovery  ;  but  on  his  journey  he  Avas  suddenly 
overtaken  by  illness,  lie  refused  to  take  medi- 
cine, and  died  without  a  struggle  or  a  groan. 
His  works  are:  "Essay  toward  a  Diction- 
ary Thibetan  and  English"  (Calcutta,  1834); 
"  Grammar  of  the  Thibetan  Language"  (1834)  ; 
an  "Analysis  of  the  Kahgyur,"  the  great  sacred 
book  of  the  Buddhists,  published  in  the  20th 
vol.  of  the  "  Asiatic  Researches ;"  and  numer- 
ous articles  on  Thibetan  literature  in  the  "  Jour- 
nal of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal." 

CTENOIDS,  one  of  the  4  orders  into  which 
Prof.  Agassiz  formerly  divided  fishes,  according 
to  the  peculiarities  of  their  scales.  The  ctenoids 
comprise  those  which,  like  the  perch  family, 
have  hard  rough  scales,  with  their  posterior 
edge  dentated  or  serrated;  this  order  has  a 
bony  vertebi'al  column,  serratures  on  the  gill 
covers,  and  generally  spines  in  the  dorsal  fin. 
The  other  orders  were  cycloids,  ganoids,  and 
placoids.  The  cycloids,  of  which  the  salmon 
and  the  herring  are  examples,  have  soft  cir- 
cular scales  and  tin  rays,  and  simple  head  bones, 
with  simple  outlines;  these,  the  most  numer- 
ous of  existing  fishes,  have  also  a  bony  verte- 
bral column.  There  is  not  any  strongly  marked 
division  between  these  orders,  which  are  con- 
nected together  by  many  intermediate  types, 
and  their  general  organization  is  not  in  harmony 
with  this  single  basis  of  diiference.  The  ganoids 
have  angular  scales  covered  with  a  substance 
resembling  enamel;  they  include  many  fossil 
species,  and  the  sturgeon  and  gar-pike  of  the 
present  day,  approaching  the  reptiles  in  some 
particulars  of  bony  structure.  The  placoids, 
including  the  sharks  and  skates,  have  only  en- 
amelled granules  in  the  skin ;  these  are  cartila- 
ginous fishes,  and  have  as  many  gill  openings 
as  gills.  This  system  is  now  abandoned  by  its 
author  as  too  exclusive,  being  founded  on  a 
single  element  of  classification ;  yet  he  still  re- 
tains the  principle,  as  indicating  certain  natural 
relationships,  and  hopes,  by  combining  it  with 
the  fin  system  of  Cuvier  and  the  anatomical 
system  of  J.  Miiller,  and  by  further  researches, 
to  arrive  at  a  truly  natural  classification  of  fishes. 

CTESIAS,  a  Greek  ])hysician  and  historian, 
contemporary  of  Xenophon,  born  at  Cnidus,  in 
Caria,  is  supposed  to  have  repaired  to  the  Per- 
sian court  about  the  year  416  B.  C.  He  accom- 
panied Artaxcrxes  H.  on  his  expedition  against 


liis  brother  Cyrus,  dressed  his  wounds  after  the 
battle  of  Cunaxa,  and  returned  to  Cnidus  in  the 
year  399  B.  C,  During  his  residence  at  the  Per- 
sian court  he  formed  the  design  of  writing  a  his- 
tory of  Persia.  As  physician  to  the  great  king, 
he  was  allowed  access  to  the  state  archives,  from 
which  lie  had  the  opportunity  of  collecting  ma- 
terials. His  work,  entitled  UepsiKa,  in  23  books, 
brought  down  the  history  of  Persia  to  the  au- 
thor's own  time.  It  was  often  quoted  by  ancient 
"writers.  There  are  many  important  discrepan- 
cies between  Ctesias  and  Herodotus ;  and  recent 
researches  in  oriental  history  show  that  on  most 
of  these  points  the  former  is  entirely  untrust- 
worthy. Only  a  few  fragments  of  this  work 
are  now  extant.  Of  a  second  work,  entitled 
li'StKn,  we  have  also  a  few  fragments. 

CTESIBIUS,  a  native  of  Alexandria,  cele- 
brated for  his  mechanical  inventions,  probably 
flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  3d  century 
B.  C,  or  the  early  part  of  the  2d.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  to  apply  the  elastic  force 
of  air  as  a  moving  power.  He  invented  numer- 
ous machines,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned his  clepsydra  or  water  clock,  and  his 
hydraulic  organ. 

CTESIPHON,  an  Athenian  orator  of  the  4th 
century  B.  C,  son  of  Leosthenes.  After  the 
disastrous  battle  of  Chajronea  he  moved  that 
Demosthenes,  in  consideration  of  his  great  ser- 
vices in  the  cause  of  the  state,  and  the  great 
sacrifices  which  had  been  made  in  behalf  of 
his  country,  he  honored  with  a  golden  crown ; 
whereupon  he  was  prosecuted  by  ^schines, 
but  was  triumphantly  defended  by  Demosthenes 
himself,  who,  though  not  the  nominal,  was  yet 
the  real  defendant. 

CUBA,  the  largest  of  the  West  India  islands, 
lying  at  the  outlet  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
thence  extending  E.  S.  E.  into  the  Caribbean 
sea.  Its  "W.  extremity  bends  toward  the  S. 
W.,  and  approaches  within  130  m.  of  Yucatan. 
The  S.  point  of  Florida  is  the  same  distance 
due  N.  from  its  extreme  N.  portion,  which  is 
in  lat.  23°  10'  N.  Its  S.  W.  portion  reaches 
the  lat.  of  19°  50',  and  is  distant  from  Hayti 
48  m.,  the  windward  channel  flowing  be- 
tween the  two  islands.  Punta  de  Maysi,  the 
E.  point  of  the  island,  is  in  long.  74°  7'  W. 
from  Greenwich,  and  Cape  San  Antonio,  the 
W.  extremity,  is  in  84°  57'  12".  The  greatest 
length  of  the  island,  measured  through  the 
centre,  is  given  by  different  authorities  from 
750  to  793  English  miles ;  the  greatest  width, 
50  m.  W.  of  Santiago,  is  about  127  m.  ;  from 
Havana  to  the  S.  coast  at  Batabano,  it  is  only 
about  28  m.  across  the  island.  The  area  of 
the  island  has  been  variously  estimated.  In 
1825  it  was  computed  by  Senor  Bauza,  at  the 
request  of  Humboldt,  and  found  to  be  3,681 
s(iuare  maritime  leagues  of  20  to  the  degree. 
This  included  the  isle  of  Pines,  on  the  S.  coast, 
the  area  of  which  is  98  leagues.  The  latest  esti- 
mates of  the  area,  converted  into  English  stat- 
ute miles,  are  from  42,383  to  45,277.  The 
isle  of  Pines  contains  beside   810  sq.  m.,  and 


CUBA 


123 


other  small  islands  9Y0,  making  that  of  tho- 
wiiolo  territory  belonging  to  Cuba  from  44,163 
to  47,057  sq.  m.  The  length  of  shore  lino  on 
the  S.  side  is  301  leagues,  and  on  the  N.  272 
leagues ;  that  of  the  whole  island  may  be  called 
about  2,000  English  miles. — The  principal  feature 
in  the  topography  of  Cuba  is  a  range  of  moun- 
tains more  or  less  broken,  which  extends  through 
the  central  portion  of  the  island  from  one  end  to 
the  other.  From  this  backbone  the  streams  flow 
ia  short  courses  to  the  sea  on  either  side.  At 
the  E.  extremity  the  mountains  spread  over  a 
wider  territory  than  elsewhere,  and  some  of 
them  attain  a  height  of  8,000  feet.  From  Punta 
de  Maysi  to  Cape  Cruz  the  range  called  Sierra 
del  Cobre,  or  Copper  mountains,  skirts  the  S. 
coast  for  about  200  miles ;  and  back  of  it,  par- 
allel with  the  line  of  tliis  coast,  runs  the  river 
Cauto  toward  the  W.,  which  empties  into  the 
bay  of  Buena  Esperanza  on  the  S.  side  of  the 
island.  This,  the  longest  of  the  rivers,  is  navi- 
gable for  schooners  about  CO  m.  above  its 
mouth.  At  the  W.  end  the  mountains  also 
approach  the  coast,  especially  on  the  N.  side. 
In  several  other  places  groups  of  high  hills  form 
thd  margin  of  the  island;  but  for  the  most  part 
low  tracts  intervene  between  the  central  eleva- 
tions and  the  shore  on  either  side  ;  and  in  the 
wet  season  these  are  inundated,  and  rendered 
almost  impassable  by  the  depth  of  water  and 
the  tenacity  of  the  deep  black  mud.  From 
Jagua  to  Point  Sabina,  on  the  S.  side,  the 
country  is  a  continuous  swamp  for  46  leagues, 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  many  other  less 
extensive  tracts  on  the  N.  side.  The  soil  of 
these  districts  is  a  rich  alluvial  mould,  in  part 
derived  from  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter, 
and  in  part  from  the  disintegration  of  the  cal- 
careous strata  that  make  up  the  greater  portion 
of  the  rock  formations  which  appear  along  the 
coast,  where  this  is  low,  and  which  compose  a 
large  portion  of  the  hills  near  the  sea,  or  be- 
tween it  and  the  central  axis  of  the  island. 
These  limestone  formations  are  singularly  cav- 
ernous, and  many  of  the  streams,  some  even  of 
the  larger  rivers,  are  swallowed  up  in  their  re- 
cesses; in  the  dry  season  the  greater  number 
of  them  seem  thus  to  disappear  wholly  or  in 
part.  To  the  facility  with  which  rocks  of  this 
character  are  acted  upon  by  water  is  owing 
the  extreme  irregularity  of  the  coast  line,  its 
frequently  recurring  deep  indentations,  in  fact 
its  numerous  harbors,  and  its  capes  and  islands, 
which  are  indeed  mostly  coral  reefs,  or  lime- 
stone ledges  of  similar  nature.  The  forma- 
tion of  these  is  seen  to  be  still  in  progress 
upK)n  the  coast,  and  the  ledges  are  observed  to 
be  filled  with  remains  of  sliellfish  of  species 
now  living  in  the  waters.  The  limestone  rocks 
of  the  hills  are  of  older  date ;  many  are  re- 
ferred by  Humboldt  to  the  Jurassic  period. 
Others  may  be  seen  associated  with  the  mica 
slates,  granitic  rocks,  and  serpentines  that  make 
up  the  central  hills  of  the  island,  which  are  of 
metamorphic  character,  true  marbles;  such  have 
been  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Puerto  Principe,  and 


proljably  such  arc  the  marbles  reported  to  occur 
in  the  isle  of  Pines.  Petroleum  springs  are 
sometimes  met  with  flowing  out  of  the  lime- 
stones; but  these  are  of  more  frequent  occur- 
rence in  the  serpsntincs.  The  metamorphic 
rocks  form  a  large  portion  of  the  island,  trav- 
ersing it  from  one  extremity  to  the  other, 
and  everywhere  they  are  accompanied  by  ores 
of  copper  in  small  or  large  quantity.  The 
chief  development  of  these  is  in  the  moun- 
tains near  Santiago  de  Cuba,  where  they  wero 
known  and  worked  in  the  I7th  century.  The 
mines  wero  however  abandoned,  and  remained 
neglected  for  more  than  100  years,  when  they 
were  reopened  by  Englishmen  in  1830.  They  are 
situated  at  Cobre,  9  miles  from  Santiago  de  Cuba. 
The  ores,  principally  pyritous,  are  in  quartz 
veins  in  the  metamorphic  rocks.  In  1850  the 
shipments  to  Swansea  amounted  to  about  25,- 
000  tons,  averaging  about  16  per  cent,  of  metal. 
Up  to  Jan.  1854,  the  principal  company,  called, 
the  consolidated  copper  mines  of  Cobre  associa- 
tion, had  divided,  since  their  organization  in  1834, 
£61 12s.  per  share  on  £40  paid  in,  and  the  shares 
were  at  a  small  premium.  The  royal  Santiago 
mining  company,  formed  in  1837,  had  paid  up 
to  1848,  in  dividends,  £33  4s.  per  share  on  £13 
paid  in ;  but  their  mines  have  since  been  un- 
profitable, and  in  1853  the  shares  were  assessed. 
Other  copper  mines  less  productive  have  been 
worked  in  other  parts  of  the  island,  as  near 
Trinidad,  between  Nuevitas  and  Puerto  Prin- 
cipe, and  various  other  places.  Near  Villa  Clara 
the  copper  ores  have  proved  to  be  argentiferous, 
7|  oz.  being  obtained  from  the  quintal  (107f 
lbs.)  of  ore.  Lead,  antimony,  and  chrome  have 
been  found  near  Ilolguin,  but  they  are  not 
worked.  Magnetic  oxide  of  iron  is  an  abundant 
ore,  and  is  found  of  excellent  qualities,  but  is 
nowhere  worked.  Gold  was  exported  in  no 
very  great  amount  by  the  early  settlers,  and  has 
been  met  with  in  recent  times  in  the  deposits 
of  the  rivers  Holguin,  Escawbray,  and  others, 
but  not  in  quantity  to  encourage  further  explo- 
rations. Coal  is  not  a  product  of  the  island ; 
but  a  highly  inflammable  substance  called  chap- 
apote,  and  sometimes  bituminous  coal  (see  Bi- 
tumen), is  met  with  in  masses  of  extraordinary 
extent,  occupying  fissures  in  the  serpentines,  and 
the  kindred  diorites  and  euphotides.  The  va- 
rieties from  difterent  localities,  most  of  which 
are  near  Havana,  yield  different  proportions  of 
volatile  matters.  Mr.  T.  G.  Clemson  found  in 
one  sample  63  per  cent,  and  the  fixed  carbon  35 
per  cent.  Mr.  John  H.  Blake  found  50  per  cent, 
volatile,  and  the  ultimate  analysis  yielded  carbon 
71.84,  oxygen  6.22,  hydrogen  8.40,  ash  13.5.  The 
abundance  of  this  product,  and  the  facility  of 
obtaining  it,  have  led  to  its  extraction  and  its 
employment  to  some  extent,  as  a  fuel  for  steam 
and  manufacturing  purposes.  Its  composition 
and  cheapness  recommend  it  for  tlie  production 
of  gas  and  lampblack.  Several  chalybeate  and 
tepid  springs  near  Havana,  and  those  particu- 
larly of  San  Diego,  40  leagues  to  the  S.  W.,  have 
acquired  some  celebrity  for  their  supposed  me- 


124 


CUBA 


(licinal  effects.  From  the  analysis  piven  these 
must  be  ascribed  to  sulpliuretted  hydrogen,  and 
sometimes  to  iron.  Common  salt  may  be  class- 
ed among  tlie  mineral  products.  It  is  obtained 
from  the  lagoons,  along  the  N.  coast  principally, 
■which  are  filled  by  the  high  course  tides,  and 
retain  the  salt  as  the  waters  evaporate  in  the  dry 
season.  About  100,000  lbs.  are  thus  obtained 
annually  at  Point  Hicacos  and  Choco. — The 
productions  of  the  forests  of  Cuba  are  noted 
alike  for  their  valuable  qualities  and  the  beauty 
they  impart  to  the  scenery.  Some  of  the  hard- 
wood trees  are  unsurpassed  for  durability,  and 
with  this  property  combine  excessive  hardness 
and  toughness.  Few  of  these  varieties  are  ex- 
ported or  known  except  in  the  West  India  isl- 
ands; but  their  importance  was  long  ago>  ap- 
preciated in  Cuba,  and  in  the  early  part  of  the 
18th  century  led  to  the  establishment  of  ship- 
building by  the  Spanish  government.  From 
1724  to  1796  Havana  was  the  great  nursery  of 
the  Spanish  armada,  114  vessels  of  4,902  guns 
being  constructed  there  in  that  time.  The  busi- 
ness was  abandoned  in  consequence  of  its  tak- 
ing employment  from  the  mother  country. 
Among  these  valuable  woods  may  be  named 
the  well-known  lignum  vitro  ;  the  cocoa  wood 
or  cocus,  which  somewhat  resembles  the  lignum 
vitoa,  and  is  used  for  similar  purposes,  as  also 
for  pins  and  tree  nails  and  for  turnery,  making 
excellent  flutes;  the  lance  Avood,  largely  ex- 
ported for  carriage  shafts,  surveyors'  instru- 
ments, and  other  uses.  Mahogany  is  so  abun- 
dant, and  the  quality  of  the  wood  is  so  superior, 
that  it  has  been,  since  its  first  use  in  London 
in  1724,  an  important  item  in  the  exports 
of  the  island.  Belonging  to  the  same  nat- 
ural order  is  the  cedrela  odorata  of  Linnteus, 
a  tree  which  furnishes  the  wood  known  in 
Europe  as  the  Havana  cedar,  and  there  much 
used,  as  also  in  the  United  States,  for  the  in- 
side of  drawers  and  wardrobes.  It  is  the 
material  of  the  cigar  boxes.  Humboldt,  citing 
the  several  species  of  palm,  of  which  he  enu- 
merates five,  remarks  that  "  we  might  believe 
that  the  entire  island  was  originally  a  forest  of 
palms  and  wild  lime  and  orange  trees.  These 
last,  which  have  a  small  fruit,  are  probably  an- 
terior to  the  arrival  of  the  Europeans,  who 
carried  there  the  agrumi  of  the  gardens,  which 
rarely  exceed  10  or  15  feet  in  height."  Though 
the  forests  are  extensive  and  almost  impenetra- 
ble, they  are  inhabited  by  no  wild  animals 
larger  than  the  wild  dogs.  These  prowl  around 
the  settlements  at  night,  with  habits  like  wolves, 
which  they  much  resemble  in  appearance  also, 
and,  devour  calves,  pigs,  and  poultry.  The  jutia 
is  an  animal  of  the  size  of  a  muskrat,  which 
resembles  in  its  habits  the  porcupine  and  the 
raccoon  of  the  northern  states,  living  in  the  trees 
and  feeding  on  the  leaves  and  fruits.  More  than 
200  species  of  birds  are  known  upon  the  island, 
and  many  of  them  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty 
of  their  plumage.  Fish  also  are  of  great  va- 
riety, and,  exposed  in  the  markets,  attract  the 
attention  of  strangers  by  their  singularly  bright 


colors.  Tlic  waters  also  abound  in  Crustacea 
and  mollusca,  and  the  huge  reptiles,  the  alligator 
and  sea  turtles.  Crabs  of  whitish  and  disgust- 
ing appearance  frequent  the  land  near  the  coast, 
living  in  holes.  They  often  enter  the  houses  at 
night.  Every  spring  they  migrate  from  the 
N.  to  the  S.  side  of  the  island.  Insects  are 
numerous  and  of  many  troublesome  kinds ; 
the  most  to  be  feared  are  the  tarantula  and 
scorpion  ;  the  most  beautiful  are  the  large  fire- 
flies or  cocKyos,  which  emit  a  steady  mild 
light,  so  bright  that  a  few  of  them  confined  to- 
gether under  glass  and  fed  with  sugar  cane  serve 
as  a  lantern,  or  enclosed  in  gauze  bags  are 
worn  by  ladies  as  sparkling  ornaments  for  their 
dresses. — Cuba,  lying  just  within  the  torrid  zone, 
enjoys  throughout  the  year  a  warm  climate ; 
but  this  is  tempered  in  the  summer  months  by 
the  cool  N.  E.  trade  winds,  which  blow  indeed 
almost  every  day  in  the  year  from  early  in  the 
forenoon  to  sunset,  and  also  by  the  rains  which 
prevail  from  May  to  November.  The  clouds 
which  bring  these  jirotect  the  earth  from  the 
fierce  rays  of  the  sun,  and  the  atmosphere  is 
cooled  by  the  copious  evaporation  of  the  waters. 
In  the  elevated  districts  the  heat  is  rarely  op- 
pressive, and  in  iha  summer  for  weeks  together 
the  thermometer  seldom  varies  4"  or  5°  from 
83°.  The  difference  between  the  mean  tempera- 
ture of  the  hottest  month  and  that  of  the  cold- 
est is  21.6°  in  Havana  and  14.4°  in  the  interior. 
Only  once  in  13  years  at  Vera  Cruz  was  the  ther- 
mometer observed  so  high  as  89.6°,  and  its  range 
for  3  years  at  Havana  was  between  61°  and  86°. 
In  the  winter  it  has  been  known  to  fall  in  the 
interior  to  50°,  and  ice  has  been  formed  at  night 
after  the  north  winds  have  prevailed  for  several 
weeks ;  but  this  must  be  in  consequence  of  local 
radiation  of  heat,  as  the  atmosphere  is  never 
cooled  to  the  freezing  point.  Fires  are  not  re- 
quired for  their  warmth,  and  young  children 
are  accustomed  to  go  unclothed  throughout  the 
year.  Strangers  from  the  north  are  more  sensi- 
tive to  the  changes  of  the  climate  than  the  na- 
tives ;  and  during  the  prevalence  of  the  "  north- 
ers," or  the  wind  storms  from  the  north,  often 
experience  positive  discomfort  from  the  cold. 
In  the  summer  bilious  fevers  of  the  yellow  fever 
type  are  prevalent,  but  more  particularly  viru- 
lent along  the  coast  than  in  the  interior.  From 
December  to  May  the  climate  is  dry  and  salu- 
brious, and  the  roads,  which  during  the  hot 
season  were  deep  with  mud,  become  baked  and 
open  in  wide  cracks  by  the  contraction  of  their 
material.  There  is  no  record  of  snow  having 
ever  fallen  in  Cuba  except  on  Dec.  24r-25, 1856, 
when  the  coldest  term  ever  known  on  the  island 
was  experienced.  The  thermometer  then  de- 
scended at  Havana  to  43°  F.  (lowest  previously 
50°  in  Dec.  1826) ;  snow  fell  near  Villa  Clara,  in 
the  most  central  part  of  Cuba,  and  in  the  same 
vicinity  ice  formed  to  the  thickness  of  a  dollar 
on  the  lagoons  of  a  sugar  estate.  Hail  is  fre- 
quently seen,  particularly  in  the  eastern  depart- 
ment, between  February  and  July.  The  only 
occasion  known  of  its  falling  at  Havana  was  in 


CUBA 


125 


March,  1852.  Great  thunderstorms  occur  from 
June  to  September,  and  in  the  same  period  silent 
lightnings  are  common.  Eartli(piakes  seldom 
occur  in  the  western  districts,  but  are  frecpient  in 
the  eastern,  especially  in  that  of  Santiago  do 
Cuba.  In  1853  that  city  experienced  two  violent 
earthquakes,  producing  much  injury  and  causing 
its  decline.  The  salubrity  of  the  climate  is  vari- 
ously estimated.  Some  writers  consider  it  un- 
favorable to  prolonged  life.  The  most  remark- 
able instances  of  longevity  have  been  found 
among  the  negro  and  aboriginal  races. — It  is 
considered  by  Cuban  statisticians  that  all  the 
reports  on  the  population  of  the  island  have 
been  quite  incomplete.  Some  of  these  estimate 
that  the  total  population  at  the  present  time  is 
about  1,500,000.  The  portion  not  reported  is 
believed  to  consist  chiefly  of  slaves.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  synopsis  of  some  of  the  reported  enu- 
merations: 


Vonrs. 

Whites. 

Free  Col. 
una  Bl. 

Slaves. 

Total. 

1775 

96,440 
311.051 
418,291 
425,767 
457.133 
501,9sS 
549,674 

30,847 
106,4S4 
152,833 
149.226 
164,410 
176.647 
174.S10 

44,333 
256,942 
436,495 
323,759 
323,897 
830,425 
374,549 

171,020 
704,477 

1S27 

1S41 

1,007,624 
898,752 

1S46 

lSi9 

945,440 

1S53 

1,050,000 
1,107,491 

1S57 

Census  of  1S53. 


CUaaea. 

Wtst'n 

Dcp't. 

East'n 
Dep't. 

Total. 

397,451 

95,442 
268,717 

104,537 
78,205 
61,708 

501.988 

Free  colored  .ind  black 

176,647 
830,425 

764,610 

244,450 

.... 

1,009,060 
40,940 

Floating  population,  white 

Total  

1,050,000 

The  following  estimate  was  made  of  the  clas.ses  composing 
the  white  poi)ulation,  which,  as  given  above  with  the  lloat- 
ine  population,  supposed  to  consist  wholly  of  whites,  amount- 
ed to  542,985,  viz. :  90,000  from  Sp.iin,  25,000  from  the  Canary- 
islands,  3,000  French,  1,000  English,  and  3,000  Americans  and 
others,  leaving  about  421,000  as  the  number  of  n.-itive  whites. 
Census  of  1S57. 


Classes. 


"White  persons 

Free  colorLMl  and  black  , 
Slaves , 


Aggregate 

To  which  is  to  be  added  the  num- 
ber of  emancipados .' , 

Asiatic  colonists  (or  coolies) 


Total  population. 


West'n  1    East'n 
Dep't.       Dep't. 


423,908 

94,857 
806,036 


125.766 

70,953 
66,423 


549,674 
174,810 
874,549 


272,142 


1,096,943 

5.240 
6,303 


1,107,491 


Nearly  the  whole  of  the  native  whites  are  de- 
scendants of  the  peninsular  Spanish  races.  In 
the  period  following  the  conquest  (A.  D.  1511), 
none  but  Castilians  were  allowed  to  come  to 
America ;  but  at  present  the  industrious  Cata- 
lans or  Catalonians,  and  the  hard-working  Isle- 
fios  (islanders  of  the  Canaries),  are  found  to  pre- 
ponderate throughout  the  island.  Until  1801 
Spain  maintained  a  commercial  monopoly  of 
the  island,  which  system,  combined  with  o'ther 
features  of  its  government,  restricted  the  settle- 
ment of  Cuba  almost  exclusively  to  Spaniards. 


The  Spanish  whites  are  divided  primarily  into 
old  Spaniards,  or  peninsulars,  and  Creoles ;  and 
these  classes  are  widely  separated  by  a  recipro- 
cal aversion,  amounting  to  hostility,  and  even 
hatred.  The  former  hold  all  the  offices,  and 
look  down  upon  the  Creoles  with  contempt. 
They  transact  most  of  the  commerce,  and  mo- 
nopolize the  most  i)rofitable  traffic.  The  Cata- 
lans, industri<nis,  shrewd,  hard-headed,  and 
very  loyal,  faithful  to  their  motto,  "Five years 
of  privation  and  a  fortune,"  are  to  be  found  in 
every  town  and  hamlet,  and  in  every  stage  of 
social  development.  The  opulent  Creole  plant- 
ers and  merchants  are  distinguished  for  intel- 
ligence, enterprise,  courteous  manners,  and  ge- 
nial hospitality. — The  African  race  was  intro- 
duced in  1524:  to  serve  as  slaves.  Its  natural 
increase  has  not  corresponded  to  the  analogy  of 
the  climate  with  that  of  its  own  country.  This 
result  has  been  owing  mainly  to  the  perpetua- 
tion of  the  slave  trade,  which  has  kept  up  a  > 
great  excess  of  the  male  sex,  and  encouraged 
the  exaction  of  the  greatest  possible  amount 
of  labor  from  all  the  slaves.  On  the  large 
estates  there  is  some  semblance  of  family  life 
among  the  negroes,  but  the  children  are  not 
often  numerous.  Even  on  the  best  of  the 
sugar  estates  the  slaves  (both  sexes)  work  16 
and  sometimes  19  hours  a  day,  from  Novem- 
ber to  Ma}',  during  which  season  labor  is  car- 
ried on  unceasingly,  the  slaves  working  by 
watches  in  gangs.  Upon  many  of  the  smaU 
tobacco  plantations,  also,  their  toil  is  similarly 
severe.  The  slave  trade  is  actively  prosecuted 
in  direct  violation  of  the  most  positive  treaty 
obligations,  and  the  annual  importations  are 
estimated  at  10,000  to  20,000.  The  profits  of 
the  trade  are  enormous,  and  traders  can  well 
afford  to  give  large  bribes  to  the  officials. 
"When  a  slaver  is  captured,  her  case  is  adjudi- 
cated by  the  so-called  "mixed  commission." 
If  a  lawful  prize,  she  is  retained  as  such  by 
her  captors;  and  her  slaves,  styled  emanci- 
pados^ are  apprenticed,  under  the  charge  of 
the  Spanish  authorities,  for  a  term  of  years 
(8  or  10  to  15),  at  the  end  of  which  they  are 
entitled  to  freedom.  Only  a  small  proportion, 
however,  become  free,  because  the  masters  to 
whom  they  are  hired  sell  them,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  period  report  that  they  are  dead.  The  impor- 
tation of  coolies,  or  Chinese  laborers,  was  com- 
menced in  1847.  iSTominally  they  are  "free 
colonists,"  but  in  reality  slaves.  Professedly 
they  are  employed  by  contract  for  a  term  of 
years,  usually  8,  "  without  prohibition  of  exten- 
sion for  any  longer  period  to  fit  the  life  of  the 
subject  or  the  interests  of  the  master."  By  the 
close  of  1853  about  6,000  had  been  introduced. 
From  1853  to  April  10,  1855,  about  4,000  were 
landed,  and  960  were  lost  daring  voyages  by 
disease,  suicide,  &c.  From  April  10,  1855,  to 
May  13,  1858,  23,146  were  delivered,  and 
3,844  died  on  the  passage.  This  makes  an  ag- 
gregate delivery  from  1847  to  1858  of  about 
33,000,  with  an  average  mortality  on  shipboard 
of  over  17  per  cent.     The  introduction  of  In- 


126 


CUBA 


dians  from  Yucatan,  on  the  "  contract  plan," 
was  begun  about  1853,  and  met  witli  some  op- 
position from  tlie  Mexican  and  Central  Amer- 
ican governments.  The  whole  number  delivered 
to  May,  1858,  was  1,385.  The  mulattoes  form 
§  of  all  the  free  colored  ;  but  of  the  slaves  their 
proportion  is  about  ^'jj.  They  generally  employ 
themselves  as  tailors,  carpenters,  musicians, 
coach  builders,  and  paiuters;  and  they  are 
usually  excellent  workmen.  There  yet  exists 
a  poor  remnant  of  the  aboriginal  race;  but 
the  majority  of  this  class  are  crossed  with  mu- 
lattoes.— Productive  industry  in  Cuba  is  mainly 
devoted  to  agriculture,  with  direct  reference  to 
the  exportation  of  the  staj^les.  The  manufac- 
tures, properly  so  called,  are  of  little  impor- 
tance ;  and  as  a  class,  the  people  are  disinclined 
to  mechanical  pursuits.  The  mining  interests, 
chiefly  in  copper,  do  not  contribute  so  much  to 
the  wealth  of  the  island  as  would  at  first  seem 
•  from  their  extent,  since  these  are  worked  mainly 
on  foreign  account.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  is 
proverbial,  and  its  actual  production  has  long 
been  highly  remunerative ;  and  j^et  it  appears, 
according  to  the  returns  of  1853,  that  not  more 
that  Jg  part  was  then  under  cultivation.  The 
following  table  exhibits  the  distribution  of  the 
surface,  stated  in  cahallerias  (the  cabelleria  is 
equal  to  about  33  acres)  : 


Description. 

WeBl'n  dept. 

East'n  dept. 

Total. 

Barren  lands,  mines,  &c 

Mmmtains,  forests,  &c 

142,133 

174,418 

102,022 

15,183 

34,098 

179,269 
202,584 

47,226 
5,153 

14,474 

321,407 

877,002 

149,243 

20,341 

48,572 

Total 

467,859 

448,711 

916,570 

The  chief  products  are  the  sugar  cane,  tobacco, 
coflEee,  cotton,  fruits,  and  garden  vegetables. 
Rice,  sago,  maize,  and  even  cacao,  are  cultivat- 
ed on  a  small  scale,  not  enough  to  supply  the 
consumption  of  the  interior.  The  lands  of  Cuba 
are  recognized  as  superior  to  those  of  the  other 
Antilles  for  the  production  of  the  sugar  cane ; 
but  there  is  great  irregularity  in  the  extent  of 
the  cultivation  and  yield  of  this  staple,  depend- 
ing on  soil,  weather,  condition  of  plant,  &c. 
Sugar  estates,  called  ingenios,  are  tlie  largest 
agricultural  establishments  on  the  island.  Many 
of  them  produce  8,000  to  9,000  boxes  of  sugar 
(each  400  lbs.),  and  a  few  of  them  are  much 
larger.  Their  formation  requires  great  outlay, 
and  their  management  is  very  expensive ;  but 
their  production  is  correspondingly  great,  and 
the  foreign  demand  for  this  crop  is  steady,  so 
that  their  owners  become  immensely  wealthy. 
From  1853  to  1858  the  yearly  exports  of  Cuban 
sugars  were  from  700,000,000  to  750,000,000 
lbs.  Most  of  the  tobacco  is  produced  in  a  very 
few  districts,  Avhich  are  particularly  favorable 
to  its  culture.  The  best  lands  for  this  plant  are 
comprised  in  an  irregular  oblong  tract,  near  the 
W.  extremity  of  the  island,  on  the  S.  coast.  It 
is  about  73  miles  long  by  18  wide,  extending 
from  the  Rio  Hondo  west  to  the  Cuyaguateje 
or  Mantua  river.     Outside  of  this,  toward  the 


meridian  of  Havana,  the  tobacco  is  less  fragrant, 
but  of  fine  color,  and  the  latter  quality  gives  it 
the  preference  with  foreigners.  Coflee  was  for 
a  period  (from  about  1820  to  1832)  the  second 
staide  in  importance,  but  afterward  its  produc- 
tion was  greatly  decreased,  owing  to  the  duties 
charged  on  its  importation  into  the  United 
States,  and  to  the  competition  of  Brazil,  Java, 
&c.  Cuban  coftee,  however,  is  of  superior  qual- 
ity. Maize,  rice,  sago,  pulse,  yuca,  the  sweet 
potato,  plantains,  and  fruit  are  grown  on 
nearly  all  estates,  and  especially  on  the  small 
farms  at  some  distance  from  the  towns.  Maize 
produces  two  crops  a  year,  but  is  quite  variable 
in  its  yield. — The  foreign  commerce  of  Cuba, 
in  proportion  to  its  population,  probably  ex- 
ceeds that  of  any  other  country  on  the  globe, 
Since  1850  the  valuation  of  the  yearly  exports 
has  ranged  from  $27,000,000  to  $32,000,000, 
and  that  of  the  imports  has  averaged  about 
the  same;  but  it  appears  that  in  these  valua- 
tions the  custom  or  rule  is  to  understate  the 
exports,  and  overstate  the  imports.  Yet  the 
commerce  is  much  restricted  by-  the  policy 
of  the  government.  The  duties  discriminate 
greatly  in  favor  of  the  Spanish  flag  in  all  re- 
spects, though  chiefly  in  favor  of  all  imports 
by  Spanish  and  Cuban  vessels,  and  of  imports 
of  products  of  Spain.  The  tonnage  duties  sim- 
ilarly favor  national  vessels.  Under  this  sys- 
tem, the  greater  part  of  the  imports  since  1829 
have  been  brought  under  the  Spanish  flag. 
Of  late  years  the  proportion  has  averaged 
two-tl)irds.  The  effect  of  the  system  may  be 
readily  seen  in  the  importation  of  flour  and 
provisions.  Under  fair  regulations  these  would 
mainly  be  brought  from  the  United  States. 
But  the  duties  on  flour  are  as  follows :  from 
Spain  in  Spanish  and  Cuban  vessels,  $2  50  per 
barrel;  from  other  counti-ies  in  same  vessels, 
$8  50,  and  in  foreign  vessels,  $9  50.  In  1854 
the  imports  of  flour  from  Spain  were  valued 
at  $2,677,791 ;  from  the  United  States,  $29,- 
830.  Under  such  burdens  prices  are  main- 
tained at  high  rates,  materially  diminishing 
consumption.  Duties  are  collected  on  exports 
as  well  as  imports,  and  the  yearly  totals  of  each 
are  about  as  1  to  4.  Only  between  4  and  \ 
of  the  exports  are  carried  in  Spanish  ves- 
sels. Over  \  is  taken  by  the  United  States, 
and  about  \  by  England.  Despite  all  restric- 
tions, \  of  the  whole  commerce  is  with  the 
United  States.  According  to  U.  S.  treasury 
reports,  the  balance  of  trade  against  the  latter 
amounted,  from  1851  to  1856  inclusive,  to  about 
$10,000,000  yearly,  and  in  1857  was  over  $30,- 
000,000. — The  railroads,  amounting  in  ail  in 
1857  to  397  miles,  have  done  much  in  maintain- 
ing and  increasing  domestic  and  foreign  trade. 
The  first  was  opened  in  1837  from  Havana  to 
Bejucal,  15  m.,  in  the  next  year  to  Gtiines,  45 
m.,  and  by  subsequent  extensions  now  forms 
the  principal  trunk  line  in  the  island.  The 
common  roads  throughout  Cuba  are  very  bad, 
and  in  the  rainy  season  frequently  impassable. 
Several  improved  roads,  having  toll  gates,  lead 


CUBA 


127 


out  from  ITavana.  The  electric  telegraph  was 
introduced  in  1852,  and  its  lines  now  extend 
between  the  principal  cities  and  towns.  The 
coast  shipping  has  remarkably  increased  since 
1840.  Steamboats  ply  regularly  from  the  va- 
rious ports  of  the  island  to  each  other  and  to 
foreign  ports.  The  circulating  medium  is  chief- 
ly metallic,  and  was  exclusively  so  until  Jan. 
1857,  when  the  first  issue  of  paper  currency  was 
made  by  the  Spanish  bank,  which  was  formally 
organized  in  Feb.  1850,  having  a  capital  of  $3,- 
000,000. — Education  has  made  great  progress 
since  1842.  In  Havana  there  are  several  in- 
stitutions of  a  collegiate  rank,  with  a  number 
of  seminaries,  and  in  other  cities  there  are  ad- 
vanced schools.  The  number  of  newspapers 
and  periodicals  published  in  Cuba  in  1857  was  : 
at  Havana  21,  Matanzas  3,  Cardenas  1,  Cienfue- 
gos  2,  Villa  Clara  2,  Remedios  1,  Santo  Espiritu 
2,  Trinidad  1,  Puerto  Principe  1,  Santiago  de 
Cuba  5,  Bayamo  1 ;  total  40. — In  its  govern- 
ment, Cuba  is  subject  in  all  branches  of  the  ad- 
ministration to  one  authority,  the  representative 
of  the  Spanish  crown,  who  is  appointed  by  and 
accountable  only  to  the  home  government.  He 
is  president  of  the  royal  court  of  judicature 
{real  audiencia)^  superior  civil  governor,  captain- 
general,  superior  commandant  of  marine,  su- 
perintendent of  the  treasury,  viceregal  patron 
and  viceregal  protector  of  public  instruction. 
Of  the  6  principal  branches  of  administration, 
the  political  and  military  are  particularly  under 
his  charge,  and  the  judicial,  financial,  naval, 
and  ecclesiastical  branches  are  mainly  direct- 
ed by  their  respective  chiefs  of  liigli  rank. 
Each  division  has  its  determinate  territorial 
subdivisions.  The  ecclesiastical  administration 
is  divided  between  2  dioceses,  the  archbishop- 
ric of  Santiago  de  Cuba  and  the  bishopric 
of  Havana,  which  are  respectively  superior 
one  to  the  other  in  cases  of  appeal.  Tlie  Ro- 
man Catholic  is  the  only  form  of  worship  toler- 
ated. The  revenues  are  divided  into  maritime 
and  inland,  the  first  comprising  customs  and 
lighthouse  dues,  ship  visits,  &c.,  and  the  sec- 
ond various.  The  following  is  a  synopsis  of 
the  receipts  of  the  treasury  for  2  years : 


SourceB. 

1S56. 

1S51. 

Increase. 

Customs 

Taxes 

Lottery 

?9,7:59.5.i4  12 
4,022,056  71 
1,829,107  37 

110  49o,S5S  S7 
5.1S(!,2s9  72 
1,681,410  12 

$757,.334  25 

1,164,233  01 

352,302  75 

Total 

$15,090,688  20 

.$17,363,558  21 

$2,273,870  01 

The  principal  items  composing  the  receipts  from 
customs  in  1857  were :  duties  on  imports,  $7,- 
074,207;  duties  on  exports,  $1,777,868;  ton- 
nage dues,  $931,869 ;  registry  fees  (of  cargoes, 
visits,  &c.),  $159,131.  One-half  of  the  revenue 
is  absorbed  in  supjjorting  the  military  depart- 
ment of  the  government.  The  regular  armed 
force  consists  on  an  average  of  20,000  men,  and 
is  kept  in  a  high  state  of  discipline,  and  in 
complete  equipment.  ISTearly  the  whole  of  the 
troops  are  composed  of  soldiers  from  Spain, 
whose  period  of  service  in  Cuba  is  generally 


limited  to  3  year.?.  The  organized  Cuban  militia 
numbers  between  3,000  and  4,000.  The  squadron 
on  service  usually  consists  of  26  vessels,  with  200 
guns,  and  over  3,000  men. — Cuba  was  the  first 
land  of  importance  discovered  by  Columbus  in 
his  first  voyage.  After  touching  at  the  islands 
which  he  called  San  Salvador,  St.  Mary  of  the 
Conception,  Fernandina,  and  Isal^ella,  his  ships 
entered  the  mouth  of  a  large  river  into  a  country 
called  by  the  natives  Cuba,  and  which  he  named 
Juana,  in  honor  of  Prince  John,  the  son  of  his 
royal  patrons.  After  the  death  of  Ferdinand  it 
was  called  Fernandina,  and  .still  later  Santiago, 
in  honor  of  the  patron  saint  of  Spain,  and  again 
Ave  Maria,  in  honor  of  the  Virgin.  The  large 
river  Avhich  Columbus  entered  is  supposed  to 
be  the  outlet  of  the  harbor  of  Nuevitas,  on  the 
N.  shore ;  at  ebb  tide  a  swift  current  flows  out 
like  tiiat  of  a  river;  and  the  breadth  of  tlie  isl- 
and at  this  point  is  reconcilable  with  the  state- 
ment of  some  of  his  people  having  penetrated  00 
miles  into  the  interior,  and  j'et  bringing  back  no 
account  of  discovering  the  sea  on  the  other 
side.  From  this  point  he  explored  the  coast 
to  the  E.  extremity  of  the  island,  seeking  for 
gold,  and  then  passed  around  to  Ilayti.  The 
discovery  of  Cuba  was  on  Oct.  28,  1492,  and  his 
arrival  at  Hayti  was  on  Dec.  0,  The  first  settle- 
ment of  Europeans  in  Cuba  was  made  by  an  ex- 
pedition of  300  men  under  Diego  Velasquez, 
fitted  out  by  Diego,  the  son  of  Columbus,  in 
1511.  They  founded  Baracoa  near  the  E.  end 
of  the  island,  and  in  1514  Santiago,  which 
was  made  the  capital,  and  Trinidad  on  the 
S.  coast.  A  place  on  the  S.  coast  in  the  par- 
tido  of  Giiines  was  settled  in  1515,  and  called 
San  Cristoval  de  la  Havana.  The  name  Avas 
transferred  to  the  present  capital  in  1519. 
The  Spaniards  found  tlie  aborigines  of  the  isl- 
and an  effeminate  and  inoffensive  people,  en- 
tirely unable  to  resist  the  invaders  of  their 
country,  or  endure  the  severities  imposed  upon 
them.  Velasquez  encouraged  settlers  by  grants 
of  lands  and  of  Indian  slaves,  and  engaged 
them  in  agricultural  pursuits,  and  especially 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar  crop,  for  whicli 
the  soil  and  climate  seemed  to  be  admirably 
adapted,  and  which  was  also  introduced  into 
Ilayti.  As  early  as  1534  the  officials,  as  cited 
by  Sagra  in  the  appendix  to  his  Hhtoria  Jinica^ 
2)olitica,  y  natural,  applied  to  the  emperor  for 
*'  7,000  negroes,  that  they  might  become  inured 
to  labor  before  the  Indians  ceased  to  exist." 
Gomara,  the  historian,  states  that  there  was  not 
one  Indian  left  after  1553.  They  were  destroy- 
ed by  cruel  treatment  and  unaccustomed  labor, 
were  swept  otF  by  small  pox,  committed  suicide 
in  great  numbers,  and  many  fled  in  their  boats 
to  Florida.  "With  the  extinction  of  the  Indi- 
ans the  agriculture  of  the  island  declined,  and . 
it  became  mainly  a  pastoral  country.  The 
extensive  plains  bordering  the  coa.«t  aff"orded 
a  fine  range  for  cattle,  and  their  hides  fur- 
nished the  chief  product  for  exportation,  even 
to  the  18th  century.  Bees  were  introduced 
from  Florida,  and  wax  and  tobacco  also  became 


128 


CUBA 


at  last  of  more  importance  than  hides ;  and 
these  are  still  important  products,  though  now 
surpassed  by  sugar  and  coffee.  The  port  of 
Havana  soon  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  prin- 
cipal stronghold  of  the  island.  The  settlement 
there  was  twice  destroyed  by  the  French  in  the 
IGth  century — once  in  1538,  and  again  in  1554, 
after  it  had  been  reestablished  and  fortified 
by  Fernando  de  Soto.  ISTew  forts  were  added 
in  the  same  century,  and  these  form  a  part  of 
the  defences  now  known  as  the  Moro  castle  and 
the  Punta.  The  wall  around  the  city  was  com- 
menced in  1G65.  In  17G2  Havana  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  English,  who  retained  it  about  a 
year,  when  they  gave  it  up  in  exchange  for  Flor- 
ida. Up  to  this  time  the  population  of  Cuba  had 
increased  but  slowly,  and  the  productions  were 
very  limited.  According  to  an  official  docu- 
ment, published  at  Havana  in  1811,  and  based 
on  the  records  of  the  custom  house,  the  total 
import  of  slaves  prior  to  1763  had  amounted  to 
but  00,000.  In  1765  the  island  contained  about 
half  that  number  of  negro  slaves,  ■with  as  many 
free  colored  persons,  mostly  mulattoes.  Its  trade, 
hitliei'to  limited  to  Cadiz,  was,  except  the  import 
of  slaves,  now  made  free  to  all  Spaniards  from 
the  9  principal  ports  of  Spain.  But  at  this  time 
it  was  so  small  as  scarcely  to  employ  6  vessels. 
From  17G3  to  1789  the  import  of  slaves  was 
about  1,000  a  year,  which  hardly  kept  np  the 
number.  In  1789  the  Spanish  slave  code  was 
promulgated,  and  the  slave  trade,  hitherto  a 
monopoly,  made  free.  Under  the  administra- 
tion of  Las  Casas  as  captain-general,  which 
commenced  in  1790,  Cuba  made  rapid  progress 
in  commercial  prosperity,  and  in  its  public  im- 
provements. In  the  31  years  from  1789  to  1820, 
the  import  of  slaves  amounted  to  225,000,  an 
average  of  7,500,  and  from  1810  to  1820  it  was 
11,500  a  year.  The  decline  of  Ilayti  opened  a 
market  for  Cuban  sugars,  the  production  of 
which  rapidly  increased.  In  1809  and  1811 
the  island  was  partially  opened  to  foreign  ves- 
sels. With  the  reestablishment  of  peace  in 
Europe  the  demands  for  Cuban  products  re- 
vived, and  notwithstanding  the  treaty  of  1820, 
by  which  Spain  agreed  with  England  to  put  a 
stop  to  the  slave  trade,  the  importation  of 
slaves  Avas  continued  on  a  larger  scale  than 
ever*.  In  the  25  years  from  1S17  to  1842,  it 
was  estimated  by  the  English  commissioners 
to  have  reached  the  number  of  335,000,  or 
upward  of  13,000  a  year.  This  continued  vi- 
olation of  treaty  obligations  led  Great  Britain 
to  propose  in  1841,  as  the  only  means  of  put- 
ting a  stop  to  it,  the  establishment  of  a  mix- 
ed tribunal  in  the  island,  with  power  to  give 
liberty  to  all  negroes  who  had  been  imported 
contrary  to  law.  This  proposition  excited  the 
greatest  alarm  among  the  Cuban  proprietors,  and 
the  Spanish  government,  in  consequence,  began 
to  take  steps  to  stop  the  traffic.  In  1845,  for  the 
first  time,  a  law  was  enacted  making  the  intro- 
duction of  slaves  a  criminal  oftenco.  From  these 
and  other  causes,  during  the  10  years  from  1842 
to  1852,  the  importation  was  considerably  re- 


duced, amounting  in  the  whole  to  about  55,000. 
In  the  years  1845  to  1847,  by  the  energy  of  Gov- 
ernor-general Concha,  it  was  brought  almost  to 
an  end.  But  the  increased  consumption  of  su- 
gar in  Great  Britain,  in  consequence  of  the  re- 
duction of  duty,  and  the  placing  of  foreign  and 
British  sugars  on  the  same  level,  gave  a  new  stim- 
ulus to  the  traffic.  The  efforts  of  the  Spanisli  of- 
ficials for  its  suppression  Avere  relaxed,  and  it  still 
continues  to  be  prosecuted,  as  already  stated, 
mainly,  as  the  British  allege,  in  vessels  purchased 
and  fitted  out  in  the  United  States,  and  whicli 
retain  the  American  flag  till  they  are  ready  to 
leave  the  African  coast.  With  the  renewal  of 
the  slave  trade  the  British  renewed  their  re- 
monstrances, and  their  former  proposition  for 
liberating  the  illegally  imported  negroes.  This 
subject  was  much  pressed  from  1850  to  1853, 
but  seems  since  then  to  have  been  abandoned. 
Some  remarkable  changes  were  made  in  1854  by 
the  Spanish  administration  of  the  island,  in  re- 
lation to  the  free  blacks,  who  form  so  consider- 
able a  part  of  the  population.  The  ecclesiastical 
rule  Avhich  forbids  the  celebration  of  marriages 
between  blacks  and  whites  was  abrogated, 
and  a  militia  composed  of  free  blacks  and 
mulattoes,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Avhites,  was 
directed  to  be  organized  throughout  the  island, 
and  Avas  put  on  an  equal  footing  in  regard  to 
privileges  Avith  the  regular  army.  At  the  same 
time  the  AA'hite  inhabitants  Avere  disarmed.  Both 
these  measures,  Avhich  are  still  maintained,  Avere 
adopted,  in  part  at  least,  as  a  means  of  strength- 
ening the  government  against  the  discontent  of 
the  white  planters,  and  the  danger  of  fillibuster 
expeditions  from  the  United  States,  of  Avhich  at 
this  time  serious  apprehensions  existed.  From 
the  moment  the  United  States  acquired  Florida, 
the  government  at  Washington  began  to  take  a 
deep  interest  in  the  future  of  Cuba.  Fears  Avere 
entertained  lest  the  island  might  fall  into  the 
hands  of  the  English  or  French,  and  both  Spain 
and  those  nations  Avere  informed  that  the  United 
States  Avould  never  consent  to  that  arrangement. 
They  Avere  willing  that  Cuba  should  remain  a 
colony  of  Spain,  but  would  never  allow  it  to 
pass  into  other  liands.  Spain  was  repeatedly 
urged  by  the  American  government  to  make 
peace  with  the  Spanish  American  republics,  lest 
they  should  invade  Cuba,  and  bring  about  not 
merely  a  political  revolution,  but  a  change  in  its 
social  system.  The  claim  of  the  English  to  make 
the  slave  trade  suppression  treaty  an  occasion  for 
interfering  in  the  domestic  concerns  of  the  island 
became  a  ncAV  occasion  of  jealousy.  But  a  prop- 
osition made  in  1825  on  the  part  of  Spain,  that  in 
consideration  of  certain  commercial  concessions 
the  United  States  should  guarantee  to  her  the 
possession  of  Cuba,  was  declined  by  Mr.  Clay, 
then  secretary  of  state,  on  the  ground  that  en- 
tanglements of  this  sort  were  contrary  to  the 
established  policy  of  the  United  States.  In  1848 
President  Polk  authorized  the  American  minis- 
ter at  Madrid  to  offer  to  purchase  Cuba,  and  to 
pay  $100,000,000  for  it;  but  this  proposition 
Avas  rejected  by  Spain  in  the  most  peremptory 


CUBE 


CUBIT 


129 


manner.  It  was  not  till  after  this  that  the  at- 
tention of  the  American  people,  as  distinct  from 
the  government,  was  first  attracted  to  this  (ques- 
tion of  the  annexation  of  Cnha.  The  occasion 
was  the  resort  to  the  United  States  in  1849  of 
Loi)ez,  and  other  Cubans,  who,  in  consequence 
of  some  attemi)ted  revolutionary  movements, 
had  been  obliged  to  fly  the  island.  They  rep- 
resented the  Creole  population  as  greatly  dis- 
satisfied with  the  Spanish  rule,  and  ready  for 
revolt,  and  annexation  to  the  United  States. 
Recruits  were  collected  for  a  descent  upon  the 
island.  The  first  attempt  was  defeated  by  the 
vigilance  of  the  government  of  the  United  States ; 
but  in  Aug.  1851,  Lopez  sailed  from  New  Or- 
leans in  a  steamer  with  500  men  on  board,  of 
whom  a  considerable  part  were  Americans. 
They  effected  a  landing,  but  made  no  impres- 
sion, and  were  soon  taken  prisoners.  Lopez  was 
garroted  at  Havana,  Aug.  10  ;  some  of  his  com- 
rades were  shot,  but  the  majority  were  trans- 
ported and  afterward  pardoned.  The  sympa- 
thy which  these  movements,  and  other  subse- 
quent projects  of  the  same  sort,  had  found  in 
the  United  States,  and  the  refusal  of  President 
Fillmore  in  1852  to  join  with  France  and  Great 
Britain  in  a  treaty  guaranteeing  to  Spain  the 
possession  of  Cuba,  made  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment still  more  alert  in  guarding  against  revolu- 
tion, and  especially  against  the  entrance  into  the 
island  of  revolutionists  from  the  United  States. 
This  led  to  occasional  collisions  with  American 
citizens ;  and  the  firing  on  the  American  steam- 
er Black  Warrior  by  a  Spanish  vessel  of  war, 
during  the  administration  of  President  Pierce, 
seemed  at  one  moment  to  threaten  hostilities. 
The  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  creole  plant- 
ers to  throw  off  the  Spanish  rule,  or  at  least 
any  overt  exhibition  of  it,  subsided  after  the 
failure  of  Lopez,  but  the  idea  of  the  acquisition 
of  Cuba  is  still  entertained  in  the  United  States. 
In  Aug.  1854,  Messrs.  Buchanan,  Mason,  and 
Soule,  U.  S.  ministers  at  London,  Paris,  and 
Madrid,  held  a  conference  on  the  subject  of 
Cuba,  at  Ostend  and  Aix  la  Chapelle,  and  drew 
lip  a  statement  of  their  conclusions,  popularly 
known  as  the  Ostend  manifesto.  In  this  docu- 
ment they  argued  that  the  island  ought  to  be- 
long to  the  United  States,  and  that  Spain  would 
find  its  sale  to  be  highly  advantageous ;  and 
finally,  that  in  certain  contingencies,  such  as  the 
emancipation  of  the  slaves  by  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment, the  United  States  ought  to  possess  them- 
selves of  the  island  by  force.  A  proposition  was 
strongly  urged  in  the  senate  of  the  United  States 
in  the  session  of  1858-'9  to  place  $30,000,000  in 
the  hands  of  the  president  with  a  view  to  the  ac- 
quisition of  the  island ;  but  after  debate,  it  was 
withdrawn  by  its  author,  Mr.  Slidell  of  Louisiana. 
CUBE  (Gr.  Kv^os,  a  die),  in  geometry,  a  solid 
body  terminated  by  6  square  equal  faces,  occu- 
pying among  bodies  a  place  analogous  to  tliat 
of  the  square  among  surfaces.  The  problem  of 
the  duplication  of  the  cube,  or  of  constructing 
a  cube  of  twice  the  volume  of  a  given  cube, 
is  celebrated  in  the  history  of  science.     It  occu- 

YOL.   VI. — 9 


pied  geometers  in  the  time  of  Plato ;  and  it  was 
a  Greek  tradition  that  once  during  a  pestilence 
the  priestess  at  Delos  had  responded  that  in 
order  to  appease  the  gods  her  altar  must  be 
doubled.  The  altar  was  cubical,  and  a  new  one 
was  therefore  built  whose  sides  were  of  twice 
the  dimensions  of  the  old  one.  Tlie  priestess 
responded  that  her  command  had  been  wrongly 
interpreted,  and  from  that  time  the  geometri- 
cal duplication  of  cubic  figures  was  a  constant 
problem,  like  the  quadrature  of  the  circle.  The 
cubature  of  solids,  or  the  reduction  of  any  body 
to  a  cubic  form  of  equal  volume,  is  performed 
by  first  reducing  the  given  volume  to  one  of  the 
geometrical  figures  the  law  of  whose  curvature 
is  known,  as  the  parallelopipedon,  cylinder, 
cone,  or  sphere. — In  arithmetic  and  algebra,  a 
cube  is  a  number  formed  by  raising  another 
number  to  its  third  power;  thus,  27  is  the  cube 
of  3,  being  equal  to  3X3X3.  The  number 
which  is  thus  multiplied  to  make  a  cube  is  called 
the  cube  root. 

CUBEBS,  berries  of  the  cnhela  officinalis,  a 
climbing  perennial  plant  of  the  natural  order  pi- 
feraceae,  which  is  found  wild  in  Java  and  other 
parts  of  the  East  Indies.  It  is  supposed  they 
were  first  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Arabians ; 
and  in  former  times  it  appears  they  served  the 
purpose  of  black  pepper,  their  aromatic,  warm- 
ing, and  pungent  properties  rendering  them  an 
agreeable  condiment.  In  India  they  have  long 
been  used  as  a  medicine  in  disorders  of  the  di- 
gestive organs,  on  account  of  their  carminative 
properties,  and  in  diseases  of  the  urinary  organs 
for  their  stimulating  effect.  It  is  imported  in 
the  dried  berries,  which  are  of  the  size  of  small 
peas,  and  of  a  dark  brown  color.  The  volatile 
oil  they  contain  is  thus  better  retained  than  if 
the  berries  were  pulverized,  as  they  require  to 
be  to  prepare  the  medicine.  Beside  the  volatile 
oil  they  also  contain  the  peculiar  principle  cu- 
bebin,  a  white,  inodorous,  and  tasteless  sub- 
stance, not  volatUizable  by  heat,  and  almost 
insoluble  in  water.  The  oil,  having  the  medicinal 
properties,  is  often  used  instead  of  the  powdered 
cubebs.  It  is  obtained  sometimes  to  the  amount 
of  7  per  cent,  by  grinding  the  cubebs,  and  dis- 
tilling with  water. 

CUBIERES,  Amedee  Lottis  Despans,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Paris,  March  4,  1786,  died  Aug. 
6,  1853,  took  an  active  part  in  tlie  Avars  of  Napo- 
leon, was  commander  of  the  French  army  at  An- 
cona  from  1832  to  183*>,  created  a  peer  of  France 
in  1839,  appointed  minister  of  war  in  1839  and 
again  in  1840.  Afterward  he  was  implicated  in 
a  charge  of  having  bribed  M.  Teste,  the  minister 
of  public  works  in  1842,  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
taining a  grant  for  the  working  of  salt  mines. 
Tried  m  1847,  lie  was  found  guilty,  sentenced 
to  civil  degradation,  and  to  pay  a  fine  of  10,000 
francs.  In  1852,  however,  he  was  reinstated  in 
his  position. 

CUBIT,  an  ancient  measure,  taken  from  the 
human  arm  as  measured  from  the  elbow  to  the 
end  of  the  middle  finger.  Its  length  was  in 
practice  somewhat  indefinite,  and  varied  among 


130 


CUBITT 


CUCKOO 


different  nations.  According  to  Dr.  Arbnth- 
not,  the  Roman  cubit  was  17 j%  inches,  and  the 
Scripture  cubit  less  than  22  inches. 

CUBITT,  TnoMAs,  an  English  architect  and 
builder,  born  at  Buxton,  Norfolk,  in  1788,  died 
at  Denbies,  Surrey,  Dec.  26,  1855,  was  the  son 
of  a  laborer,  went  to  the  West  Indies  as  a  ship 
carpenter,  and  on  his  return  set  up  in  business 
for  himself.  In  1823  he  took  on  building  leases 
some  suburban  property  of  the  duke  of  Bed- 
ford, and  finally  laid  out  and  built  that  part 
of  the  west  end  of  London  known  as  Bel- 
gravia.  He  afterward  laid  out  and  built  Kemp 
Town,  Brighton,  and  the  queen's  residence  of 
Osborne,  in  the  isle  of  Wight.  He  took  a  hearty 
interest  in  all  the  plans  for  social  and  sanitary 
improvement,  and  set  an  example  among  his 
own  workmen  by  promoting  benefit  societies 
and  associations  for  mutual  improvement. 

CUBITT,  Sir  William,  an  English  civil  en- 
gineer, born  in  Norfolk  in  1785,  was  brought  up 
as  a  joiner,  adopted  the  trade  of  a  millwright, 
and  invented  self-regulating  sails  for  windmills. 
About  1808  he  entered  a  machinist's  establish- 
ment at  Ipswich,  and  was  so  successful  there 
that  he  determined  on  settling  in  London,  which 
he  did  in  1826.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
railway  movement  he  became  engineer  of  the 
London  and  Dover  line.  He  was  knighted  in 
1851  for  his  services  as  one  of  the  superintend- 
ing committee  of  the  great  exhibition. 

CUCKING  STOOL,  or  Tumbrel,  a  machine 
formerly  used  in  England  for  the  punishment 
of  scolding  women  and  dishonest  brewers  and 
bakers.  It  consisted  of  a  stool  or  chair  attacli- 
ed  to  a  long  pole,  mounted  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  chair  with  the  criminal  in  it  might  be 
swung  over  a  pond  and  submerged. 

CUCKOO  (cuczilus,  Linn.),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  order  scansores,  and  family  cucuUdce,inhah\t- 
ing  the  temperate  and  warmer  regions  of  the 
old  world ;  the  cuckoos  of  America  belong  to 
another  subfamily  of  the  same  order.  The  true 
cuckoos,  as  exemplified  in  the  genus  eucnlus, 
have  the  bill  broad,  rather  depressed  at  the  base, 
curved,  gradually  compressed  to  the  acute  tip  ; 
the  nostrils  are  round  and  exposed ;  the  wings 
are  long  and  pointed,  the  3(1  quill  being  the 
longest ;  the  tail  is  long  and  graduated,  or  even, 
and  the  outer  feather  of  each  side  is  shorter 
than  the  others ;  the  tarsi  are  very  short  and 
partially  feathered  ;  the  toes,  2  before  and 
2  behind,  are  unequal,  the  outer  anterior  one 
being  the  longest,  and  united  to  the  inner  at  the 
base.  More  than  40  species  of  this  genus  are 
well  determined,  of  which  the  best  known  and 
most  interesting  is  the  common  European 
cuckoo  (C.  canoriis,  Linn.).  In  this  bird  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  and  eyelids,  and  the  in- 
side of  the  mouth,  are  of  an  orange  color ;  the 
plumage  of  the  head,  neck,  breast,  and  upper 
parts,  is  a  deep  bluish  gray ;  the  under  parts  and 
the  axillary  feathers  are  white  with  distinct 
black  bars;  the  quills  are  blackish  gray,  the 
inner  webs  with  transverse  white  bars ;  the  tail 
is  darker,  approaching  to  black  at  the  end,  and 


often  with  a  green  gloss,  tipped  with  white,  and 
each  feather  marked  along  the  shaft  with  tri- 
angular white  spots,  which,  meeting  similar 
spots  on  the  outer  feathers,  give  an  almost 
barred  appearance  to  the  tail ;  the  feet  are  gam- 
boge yellow,  and  the  bill  black.  The  length  of 
the  bird  is  14  inches,  and  the  extent  of  wings 
25  inches.  The  young  birds  are  of  a  brown 
tint,  with  reddish-brown  bars  and  white  mark- 
ings, the  white  of  the  under  parts  being  barred 
with  black.  The  female  very  closely  resembles 
the  male.  The  cuckoo  is  associated  with  the 
return  of  sunny  skies  and  the  renewal  of  vege- 
tation, and  is  a  most  welcome  "  messenger  of 
spring;"  it  arrives  from  southern  Europe  in 
Great  Britain  in  April,  and  generally  departs  in 
August.  It  is  very  generally  distributed  over 
Europe,  decreasing  in  numbers  toward  the 
north ;  according  to  Temminck,  it  extends  its 
migrations  to  northern  Africa.  The  most  sin- 
gular habit  of  the  cuckoo  is  that  it  deposits 
its  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  birds,  leaving  the 
care  of  the  young  entirely  to  the  foster  pa- 
rents thus  selected  ;  the  latter  adopt  the  young 
cuckoo  as  their  own,  often  to  the  destruction 
of  their  proper  offspring,  which  are  thrust  out 
of  the  nest  by  the  usurping  stranger.  The 
reason  of  this  departure  from  the  usual  habit 
of  birds  is  not  well  ascertained;  it  is  common 
in  the  genus  cuculus,  and  is  also  practised  by 
our  cowpen  bird  {molothrus  pecoris,  Gmel.). 
The  cuckoo  selects  the  nest  of  a  bird  smaller 
than  itself,  and  of  a  great  variety  of  species,  as 
the  warblers,  sparrows,  finches,  and  larks,  and 
in  it  deposits  a  single  egg,  very  small  compared 
to  the  size  of  the  bird ;  it  is  believed  by  Mon- 
tague and  others  that  the  female  has  the 
power  of  retaining  the  egg  in  the  oviduct  until 
she  can  find  a  nest  suitable  for  its  reception; 
she  lays  several  in  the  course  of  the  season. 
The  young  cuckoo  is  said  to  eject  its  compan- 
ions from  the  nest  by  lifting  them  out  on  its 
shoulders;  from  this  habit  has  arisen  the  Ger- 
man saying,  "as  ungrateful  as  a  cuckoo."  The 
well-known  notes  of  this  bird,  as  heard  in  the 
breeding  season,  resemble  very  much  its  name ; 
the  song  is  loud  and  joyful,  and  confined  to 
the  males,  and  is  silent  before  their  departure. 
Its  food  consists  of  the  larvfo  of  insects  and 
caterpillars ;  before  swallowing  the  latter  it  is 
in  the  habit  of  cutting  off  the  hinder  end  and 
freeing  the  body  from  the  intestinal  canal  by 
repeated  jerks  with  its  sharp  bill.  The  males 
are  more  numerous  than  the  females,  and  are 
bold  and  fierce,  and  rarely  kept  as  pets.  In 
autumn  they  are  fat  and  esteemed  as  an  arti- 
cle of  food ;  the  ancients  were  very  partial 
to  them,  and  their  flesh  was  supposed  to  have 
valuable  medicinal  properties.  —  The  Ameri- 
can cuckoos  belong  to  the  subfamily  coccyzino'^ 
or  ground  cuckoos,  and  to  the  genus  coccyzus. 
In  this  genus  the  bill  is  long  and  rather  slender, 
and  curved  ;  the  nostrils  are  oval ;  the  -Sd  and 
4th  quills  are  the  longest ;  the  tail  is  long,  broad, 
and  rounded  on  the  sides ;  the  tarsi  are  shorter 
than  the  middle  toe,  and  naked ;  the  toes  are 


CUCKOO 


CUCUMBER 


131 


nnequal,  and  the  claws  long,  compressed,  curved, 
and  acute.  Tliere  are  3  species  described,  be- 
longing to  North  and  Central  America,  though 
a  few  stragglers  have  occasionally  been  seen  in 
Europe ;  they  are  shy  birds,  frequenting  the 
dense  woods  and  solitary  sv/amps.  I.  The  yel- 
low-billed cuckoo  {C.  Americanus,  Linn.)  has 
a  length  of  12|  inches,  and  an  extent  of  wings 
of  16  inches ;  the  bill  is  1  inch  long,  for  the 
most  part  of  a  yellow  color  ;  the  iris  is  hazel ; 
the  general  color  of  the  upper  parts,  with  the 
wing  coverts  and  two  middle  tail  feathers,  is 
light  greenish  brown,  deeper  anteriorly ;  tail 
feathers,  excepting  the  two  middle  ones,  black, 
with  a  broad  white  space  at  the  end  of  the  3 
outermost,  the  4th  white  on  tlie  outer  web; 
the  primaries  have  their  inner  webs  brownish 
orange ;  the  under  parts  are  gi'ayish  white. 
The  female  diflfers  little  from  the  male.  Its  notes 
resemble  the  word  "  cow,  cow,"  repeated  sev- 
eral times  with  increasing  rapidity;  hence  one 
of  its  names,  cow  bird;  it  is  also  called  rain 
crow  and  coucou.  It  is  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  United  States,  though  nowhere  in  abun- 
dance. Its  food  consists  of  caterpillars,  insects, 
wood  snails,  berries  (especially  the  mulberry), 
and  grapes ;  it  sucks  the  eggs  of  other  birds, 
and  itself  falls  a  victim  to  many  species  of 
hawks.  Its  flight  is  rapid,  but  the  gait  on  the 
ground  is  very  awkward  ;  its  favorite  retreat  is 
the  thickest  foliage.  Unlike  the  European  cuc- 
koo, this  bird  builds  its  nest  and  rears  its  young 
in.  the  usual  manner  ;  the  flat  nest  is  very  simply 
composed  of  a  few  dry  sticks  and  grass,  on  a 
horizontal  branch  of  a  low  tree ;  the  eggs  are 
4  or  5,  of  a  bright  green  color.  It  migrates 
southward,  generally  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
United  States,  as  cold  weather  approaches,  in 
flocks  and  high  in  the  air ;  single  birds  begin 
to  enter  our  borders  early  in  March,  arriving  as 
far  as  New  York  early  in  May.  II.  The  black- 
billed  cuckoo  (C.  erythrophthalmus,  Wils.)  is  a 
little  smaller  than  the  preceding  species,  from 
•which  it  is  also  distinguished  by  its  dark-color- 
ed bill,  a  bare  scarlet  space  around  the  eyes,  and 
the  browner  tint  of  the  under  parts.  The  pres- 
ent species  does  not  frequent  the  interior  of 
deep  woods,  but  prefers  the  edges  of  forests  on 
the  border  of  the  sea  and  lakes.  It  feeds  prin- 
cipally on  shellfish  and  aquatic  larvfe  and  in- 
sects ;  it  is  very  fond  of  the  small  frogs  so  nu- 
merous after  summer  showers.  Its  flight  is 
more  rapid  than  that  of  the  yellow-billed  spe- 
cies ;  in  other  respects,  as  in  its  migrations,  gen- 
eral habits,  aud  manner  of  constructing  its  nest, 
it  much  resembles  the  last  named  bird,  and  has 
frequently  been  mistaken  for  it.  The  eggs  are 
of  a  greenish  blue  color.  HI.  The  mangrove 
cuckoo  (C.  minoj;  Gmel.)  is  12  inches  long  and 
15  inches  in  extent  of  wings  ;  the  general  color 
of  the  upper  part  is  light  greenish  brown,  the 
head  tinged  with  gray ;  primaries  umber-brown ; 
tail  feathers,  excepting  the  two  middle  ones, 
brownish  black  with  white  tips  ;  the  under  parts 
brownish  orange  ;  in  other  characters  it  much 
resembles  the  vellow-biUed  cuckoo.    Its  habits 


are  the  same  as  those  of  the  other  species  of  the 
genus ;  it  feeds  on  insects,  fruits,  and  the  eggs 
of  other  birds ;  it  is  vigilant  and  shy,  not  ex- 
tending its  migrations  northward  beyond  Flori- 
da; it  prefers  the  mangrove-covered  islands, 
building  its  nest  amid  their  dark  foliage.  The 
flight  is  rapid  and  elevated  during  the  migra- 
tions. The  female  is  paler  than  the  male,  espe- 
cially on  the  lower  surface,  which  is  grayish. 

CUCUMBER  {cucuml%  Linn.),  a  vegetable 
fruit  in  a  genus  of  cucurbitaceous  plants,  to 
which  likewise  belongs  the  melon,  having  an- 
nual fibrous  roots,  brittle  climbing  stems,  rough, 
unequally  divided  leaves,  and  tendrils  formed 
of  the  abortive  stipules.  The  cucumber  is  thus  a 
sort  of  gourd  represented  in  its  real  type,  better 
perhaps,  by  the  colocynth  gourd — a  bitter,  pow- 
erfully purgative  species,  known  as  C  (citi-ullus) 
colocynthis  (Persoon).  In  position  these  plants 
are  to  be  placed  between  the  myrtles  and  pas- 
sion flowers — to  the  latter,  indeed,  so  closely 
allied  that  they  scarcely  differ  except  in  some 
particulars  of  structure,  the  habit  of  both  being 
the  same.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  long 
continued  cultivation  has  done  much  toward 
ameliorating  the  bitter  and  dangerous  prop- 
erties of  this  group  of  plants;  and  several 
allied  kinds  in  their  wild  state,  it  is  known, 
have  proved  deleterious.  All  the  numerous 
cultivated  varieties  of  the  melon  and  cucumber 
are  delicious  or  wholesome  fruits.  The  writer 
has  raised  cucumbers  from  seeds  received 
from  the  East  Indies,  which  looked  like  the 
common  cucumber,  only  smaller ;  they  were  so 
intensely  bitter  as  to  be  worthless ;  and  the 
stem  end  of  the  better  sorts  of  the  garden  cu- 
cumber is  frequently  bitter  and  disagreeable. 
The  drastic  property  is  strong  in  many  of  the 
allied  genera  from  Brazil,  and  in  the  spirting 
cucumber  it  exists  in  concentrated  virulence. 
The  common,  cucumber  (C.  satkus,  Linn.)  is  too 
well  known  for  any  lengthened  description.  It 
is  a  native  of  tropical  Asia.  In  cultivation,  the 
cucumber  requires  a  deep  and  ricli  soil,  an 
abundance  of  moisture,  and  continued  heat.  If 
planted  sufficiently  late  to  escape  the  frosts,  it 
will  grow  with  scarcely  any  care ;  it  is  subject, 
however,  to  the  depredations  of  numerous  insect 
foes.  The  best  way  to  prevent  these  is  to  cover 
the  young  plants  with  boxes  having  gauze  tops, 
which  should  be  kept  over  them  until  the  foliage 
is  large  and  abundant.  The  cucumber  loves  to 
support  itself  by  its  tendrils  in  an  upright  posi- 
tion upon  pieces  of  brush  wood,  and  the  clean- 
est and  best  fruit  is  thus  obtained.  This  will 
be  found  to  be  a  good  practice,  too,  where  there 
is  but  little  room  for  a  horizontal  growth  upon 
the  ground.  As  an  early  vegetable,  scarcely 
any  other  plant  can  be  so  successfully  forced  in 
the  hot-bed ;  but  the  best  sorts  should  be  select- 
ed for  the  purpose.  Great  skill  oftentimes  is- 
requisite  in  the  management,  to  keep  the  plants 
vigorous  and  healthy,  and  to  sustain  an  un- 
checked growth.  Beside  affording  in  its  fruits 
a  palatable  and  cooling  salad,  the  cucumber  has 
been  used  in  medicine,  for  pectoral  complaints 


132 


CUCUTA 


CUENCA 


and  as  a  febrifuge.  Its  expressed  juice  is  em- 
ployed as  a  cosmetic ;  and  it  is  said  to  give  a 
pleasant  suppleness  to  the  skin.  It  enters  into 
the  composition  of  some  of  tlie  French  po- 
mades ;  and  the  pulp  boiled  for  a  long  time  in 
lard  makes  a  soothing  and  cooling  ointment,  of 
repute  among  domestic  curatives. 

CUCUTA,  Vallets  of,  a  district  of  New 
Granada,  in  the  province  of  Pamplona,  about  90 
m.  in  circumference ;  pop.  about  30,000.  The 
surface  consists  of  a  succession  of  hills  and  val- 
leys, the  former  sterile  and  the  latter  uncom- 
monly luxuriant.  At  Cucuta,  or  Rosario  de 
Cucuta,  the  capital  of  this  district,  was  held  the 
first  general  congress  of  Colombia. 

CUDBEAR,  the  name  given  by  the  Scotch  to 
a  dyestuff  prepared  from  different  genera  of 
lichens.  It  is  obtained  in  the  form  of  a  powder 
of  a  lake  or  red  color,  and  is  the  same  substance 
which,  prepared  by  the  English  in  the  form  of 
a  violet-colored  paste  or  a  purple  liquid,  is  called 
archil ;  and  also  the  same  as  the  solid  cakes 
manufactured  by  the  Dutch  and  called  litmus. 
It  is  used,  like  archil,  for  giving  to  woollens  and 
silks  a  great  variety  of  colors,  but  does  not  an- 
swer for  cotton,  having  no  affinity  for  its  fibre. 

CUDDALORE,  a  town  of  Hindostan^  on  the 
Coromandel  coast,  in  the  S.  division  of  Arcot, 
100  ra.  S.  from  Madras,  on  the  estuary  of  the 
river  Punnair.  It  was  acquired  by  the  East 
India  company  in  1681;  Avas  captured  by  the 
French  in  1758,  and  retaken  by  Sir  Eyre  Coote 
in  1760.  With  the  assistance  of  Hyder  Ali 
the  French  took  it  again  in  1782,  and  greatly 
strengthened  its  fortifications.  The  following 
year  it  was  besieged  by  the  British,  but  the  de- 
claration of  peace  put  an  end  to  the  siege,  and 
in  1801  they  acquired  the  place  by  treaty. 

CUDDAPAH,  or  Kirpa,  a  town  of  British 
India,  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  in 
the  presidency  of  Madras,  78  m.  W.  from  Nel- 
lore.  It  is  a  military  station,  near  one  ©f  the 
lines  of  the  Madras  railway,  on  the  river  Cud- 
dapah  or  Bogawunka,  and  was  once  the  capital 
of  an  independent  Patau  state.  It  is  famous  for 
its  diamond  mines,  on  the  Punnair  river,  7  ra. 
N.  E.  from  the  town,  which  have  been  worked 
with  various  success  for  several  hundred  years. 

CUDWORTH,  Ralph,  an  Enghsh  divine  and 
philosoplier,  born  at  Aller,  in  Somersetshire,  in 
1617,  died  at  Cambridge  in  1688.  At  the  age 
of  13  he  was  entered  at  Emmanuel  college, 
Cambridge,  in  which  he  afterward  became  fel- 
low and  tutor.  In  1639  he  took  the  degree  of 
master  of  .arts,  in  1644  that  of  bachelor  of  di- 
vinity, and  in  1645  was  appointed  regius  profes- 
sor of  Hebrew,  in  which  office  he  continued 
during  30  years.  In  1641  he  was  presented  to 
the  rectory  of  N"orth  Cadbury,  and  in  the  next 
year  published  a  sermon  on  the  true  nature  of 
■the  Lord's  supper,  which  attracted  the  notice 
of  several  learned  writers.  After  a  short  ab- 
sence from  Cambridge,  caused  by  pecuniary 
embarrassments,  he  returned  in  1654,  when  he 
was  elected  master  of  Christ's  college.  His 
Bubsequent    preferments   were   a   vicarage  of 


Ashwell  in  1662,  and  a  prebend  of  Glouces- 
ter in  1678.  In  performing  the  duties  of  his 
professorship  he  devoted  much  attention  to  He- 
brew literature  and  antiquities,  and  he  was  one 
of  the  persons  consulted  by  a  committee  of  par- 
liament concerning  a  new  translation  of  the  Bi- 
ble. In  1678  he  published  his  great  work,  which 
had  been  written  several  years  before,  entitled 
the  "  True  Intellectual  System  of  the  Universe," 
the  epithet  "  intellectual "  being  intended  to 
contrast  it  with  any  physical  theory,  as  the 
Ptolemaic  or  Copernican.  The  design  of  the 
work  was  to  establish  human  liberty  against  the 
fatalists,  and  according  to  the  scope  of  the  au- 
thor it  was  to  consist  of  3  parts ;  the  first  being 
a  refutation  of  atheism  and  atheistic  fatalists ; 
the  second,  of  those  who  admitted  a  Deity,  yet 
acting  necessarily  and  without  moral  perfections; 
and  the  third,  of  those  who  granted  the  moral 
attributes  of  God,  but  affirmed  that  human  ac- 
tions are  governed  by  necessary  laws  ordained 
by  him.  Only  the  first  part  of  this  scheme  was 
completed,  and  the  "  Intellectual  System  "  con- 
sists of  a  most  erudite  argument  against  atheistic 
fate.  To  account  for  the  operation  of  physical 
laws  without  the  continued  agency  of  Deity  he 
devised  the  theory  of  a  plastic  nature,  which  he 
treats  as  a  real  being,  giving  it  "  a  drowsy  uu- 
awakened  cogitation,"  and  which  he  makes  the 
immediate  and  obedient  instrument  in  the  exe- 
cution of  divine  purposes.  He  also  reviewed 
the  systems  of  ancient  speculation  in  order  to 
show  that  a  belief  in  one  sovereign  and  omni- 
potent God  underlay  the  polytheistic  views  of 
the  pagan  na^ons.  Dr.  Cudworth  left  seve- 
ral large  ethical  and  theological  works,  which 
still  remain  in  manuscript  in  the  British  mu- 
seum. His  "Treatise  concerning  Eternal  and 
Immutable  Morality,"  was  first  published  by 
Bishop  Chandler  in  1731.  Its  design  is  to 
prove  that  moral  differences  of  right  and  wrong 
are  antecedent  to  any  divine  law,  and  it  was 
probably  a  partial  acconiplislnuent  of  the  sec- 
ond division  of  his  proposed  "  Intellectual  Sys- 
tem." Cudworth  was  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent of  several  Cambridge  divines  who  were 
termed  Latitudinarians ;  and  the  clear  and  fear- 
less statements  which  he  made  of  the  arguments 
of  his  opponents  caused  him  to  be  accused  by 
some  of  his  contemporaries  of  heterodoxy,  and 
of  raising  "  so  strong  objections  that  he  did 
not  answer  them."  Bishop  Burnet  speaks  of 
him  as  "  a  great  man  in  all  parts  of  learning, 
divine  and  human;  an  honor  to  Emmanuel  col- 
lege where  he  was  educated,  to  Christ's  college 
where  he  afterward  presided,  to  the  whole  uni- 
versity of  Cambridge  which  he  adorned,  and  to 
the  church  and  age  in  which  he  lived."  The 
"  Intellectual  System  "  was  republished  in  Lon- 
don in  1743,  in  1820,  and  in  1845  ;  the  last  edi- 
tion is  iu  3  vols.,  and  contains  translations  of  the 
valuable  notes  of  Dr.  Mosheim.  All  of  his  print- 
ed works  appeared  at  Andover,  Mass.,  in  1837. 
CUENCA,  a  S.  province  of  New  Castile  in 
Spain,  between  lat.  39°  20'  and  40'  47'  N.,  long. 
1°  5'  and  3°  "W. ;  bounded  N.  by  Guadalajara, 


CUENCA 


CUFIC  INSCRIPTIONS 


133 


E.  by  Ternel  and  Valencia,  S.  by  Albacete,  "W. 
by  Ciudad  Real,  Toledo,  and  Madrid;  area, 
about  12,000  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1857,  243,260. 
It  is  one  of  tlie  most  mountainous  provinces 
of  Spain.  The  products  are  timber,  excel- 
lent honey,  several  minerals,  oil,  fruit,  hemp, 
flax,  and  grain,  and  wine  in  the  S.  W.  part. 
The  principal  exports  are  saft'ron  and  a  supe- 
rior quality  of  wool.  Only  one  sixtli  ])art  of 
the  soil  is  cultivated,  and  most  of  the  rest  is 
used  for  pasturage.  There  are  several  medicinal 
springs  in  the  province.  The  woollen  industry, 
for  which  it  was  renowned  in  former  times,  has 
much  declined.  It  is  divided  into  9  districts  and 
318  parishes. — The  capital,  Ccenca,  pop.  about 
7,000,  85  m.  from  Madrid,  is  one  of  the  most  pic- 
turesque towns  of  Spain,  about  3,400  feet  above 
sea  level,  between  the  heights  of  San  Cristobal 
and  Socorro,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Huescar 
and  Jucar.  Once  celebrated  alike  for  arts,  liter- 
ature, and  industry,  it  is  now  remarkable  only 
for  its  Moorish  aspect,  for  its  cathedral,  and  for 
its  scenery.  The  beautiful  forests,  called  los 
pinares  de  Cnenca,  adjoin  the  town,  as  well  as 
many  lakes  and  streams  containing  trout,  while 
the  mountains  abound  in  curious  plants  and 
geological  objects.  Near  the  cathedral  is  the 
bishop's  palace.  Beside  a  number  of  churches, 
the  city  contains  2  hospitals,  3  colleges,  and  a 
clerical  seminary.  The  most  remarkable  of 
the  bridges  of  Cuenca  is  that  of  San  Pablo  over 
the  Huescar.  The  town  is  surrounded  by  high 
old  walls,  and  has  woollen  factories,  paper  mills, 
and  establishments  for  washing  wool. 

CUENCA,  or  Rambae,  a  city  of  the  re- 
public of  Ecuador,  and  capital  of  a  canton  and 
province  of  the  same  name,  in  the  district  of 
Assuay ;  pop.  about  25,000.  It  is  built  on  a 
beairtiful  plain  8,640  feet  above  the  sea,  near  the 
river  Matadero,  and  about  4  m.  from  the  Ma- 
changara,  from  which  streams  irrigating  canals 
lead  toward  the  city.  It  has  broad  and  regular 
streets,  contains  a  Jesuits'  college,  a  cathedral, 
8  churches,  the  governor's  residence,  and  aweU 
arranged  prison,  has  manufactories  of  good  pot- 
tery, and  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  linest  cities 
of  the  republic.  Its  private  houses,  however, 
are  mostly  low  and  mean-looking.  Its  trade  is 
chiefly  in  grain,  hats,  bark,  and  dairy  produce. 
In  the  neighborhood  is  the  hill  of  Tarqui,  which 
was  fixed  upon  by  La  Condamine,  Bouguer,  and 
Godin,  for  establishing  their  meridian  line  in 
1742  ;  and  on  the  plain  which  lies  around  it  was 
fought,  in  1828,  the  battle  of  Tarqui,  between 
the  armies  of  Colombia  and  Peru. — The  province 
of  Cuenca  is  mountainous,  well  watered,  and 
fruitful.  It  produces  grain,  sugar,  cotton,  bark, 
and  cochineal,  has  manufactories  of  tapestry, 
drugget,  and  cotton,  and  contains  gold,  silver, 
copper,  mercury,  and  sulphur,  but  the  mines  are 
not  worked.  It  is  divided  into  the  3  cantons  of 
Azogues,  Cuenca,  and  Gualacco. 

CUEVA,  JuAX  DE  LA,  a  Spanish  poet,  born 
in  Seville  about  1550,  died  about  1608.  He 
wrote  several  dramas  on  national  subjects;  an 
epic  {La  conquista  de  laBetica,  printed  in  1603) 


on  the  conquest  of  Seville  by  St.  Ferdinand — an 
unsuccessful  imitation  of  Tasso's  "Jerusalem 
DeHvered ;"  and  over  100  hallnds  (Coro  Feheo 
de  romnnres  hint  or  if  den,  Seville,  1587-'88), 
mostly  taken  from  the  histories  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  and  only  4  or  5  from  tliat  of  Spain.  His 
fame  rests  more  particularly  upon  his  having 
been  the  first  Spaniard  to  attempt  didactic 
poetry;  his  poem,  entitled  Egemjilar  j)oetico, 
which  he  wrote  in  1605,  but  which  was  first 
printed  only  in  1774  in  the  8th  vol.  of  the  Par- 
nmo  Bsjmflol,  constituting  the  earliest  and  most 
original  efi:ort  of  the  kind  in  Spanish. 

CUFFEE,  Pafi,,  a  philanthropic  negro  sea 
captain,  born  on  one  of  the  Elizabeth  isles,  near 
New  Bedford,  Mass.,  in  1759,  died  Sept.  7, 1818. 
His  father  was  a  native  of  Africa,  and  once  a 
slave ;  his  mother  was  of  Indian  extraction. 
Endowed  with  a  commanding  presence,  strong 
common  sense,  and  untiring  industry  and  enter- 
prise, he  accumulated  a  handsome  fortune  in 
seafaring  pursuits,  and  for  many  years  com- 
manded his  own  vessel,  having  a  crew  composed 
entirely  of  negroes,  and  visiting  many  Amer- 
ican and  foreign  ports.  He  was  an  esteemed 
member  of  the  society  of  Friends.  It  is  related 
of  him  that  on  one  occasion,  when  the  custom 
house  officer  of  Norfolk,  Va.,  refused  him  a  clear- 
ance on  the  ground  that  he  was  a  negro,  he  pro- 
ceeded at  once  to  Washington  to  submit  his 
case  to  President  Madison,  with  whom  he  was 
well  acquainted.  "  James,"  said  he  to  the  pres- 
ident, "  thy  customs  collector  at  Norfolk  re- 
fuses me  my  clearance ;  I  wish  an  order  from 
thee,  which  shall  compel  him  to  give  it  me." 
JPresident  Madison  inquired  into  the  circumstan- 
ces, and  wrote  the  required  order,  by  which  he 
obtained  his  clearance  without  further  delay. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Captain  Cuflfee 
encouraged  the  emigration  of  the  free  people  of 
color  in  this  country  to  Sierra  Leone.  He  cor- 
responded with  prominent  friends  of  that  enter- 
prise in  Great  Britain  and  Africa,  and  in  1811 
visited  the  colony  in  his  own  vessel  to  determine 
for  himself  its  advantages.  In  1815  he  carried 
out  to  Sierra  Leone  38  colored  persons  as  emi- 
grants, 30  of  them  entirely  at  his  own  expense, 
and  on  his  arrival  tliere  furnished  them  with 
the  means  of  subsistence,  spending  in  this  en- 
terprise nearly  $4,000.  He  was  anxious  to 
carry  other  companies  of  emigrants  ;  but  while 
waiting  for  the  permission  of  the  British  govern- 
ment, American  vessels  being  at  that  time  ex- 
cluded from  the  trade  of  the  British  colonies, 
he  was  seized  with  the  illness  which  termi- 
nated his  life. — Rev.  PArL,  a  native  Indian 
preacher  to  the  Shinnecock  tribe  of  Indians  on 
Long  island,  born  in  1757,  died  March  7,  1812. 
He  was  for  13  years  in  the  employ  of  the  New 
York  missionary  society,  and  was  regarded  as 
an  able  preacher.  He  Avas  a  successor  of  the 
celebrated  Rev.  Samson  Occom  and  the  Rev. 
Peter  John. 

CUFIC  INSCRIPTIONS  axd  COINS,  so 
called  because  they  bear  the  Kivji  or  Cufic 
writing,  a  character  named  from  Cufah,  a  city 


134 


CtlFIO  INSCRIPTIONS 


CUJAS 


of  Irak-Arabi,  on  the  Nahr-Cufah  or  Eu- 
phrates, in  the  pashalic  of  Bagdad.  Ciifah  was 
built  by  Sa'ad,  in  A.  D.  639,  under  Omar,  the 
2d  caHi)h,  after  his  capture  of  Modain,  tlie  capi- 
tal of  Sassanidic  Persia.  It  was  the  residence 
of  Ali,  the  4tli  caliph,  and,  a  century  later,  of 
Abiil  Abbas,  the  founder  of  the  Abbasside  dy- 
nasty; it  also  possessed  a  celebrated  school. 
After  the  foundation  of  Bagdad  by  Abu  Giaffar 
Al  Mansoor,  the  2d  Abbasside,  Cutali  was  neg- 
lected and  began  to  decay.  At  the  time  of  Mo- 
hammed the  Arabs  of  Iledjaz  used  a  writing 
similar  to  the  Neskhi,  which  may  be  seen  in 
some  papyri  in  the  Memoires  of  the  French 
academy  and  in  the  "Asiatic  Journal."  Ac- 
cording to  Arabic  tradition,  writing  at  that 
time  was  newly  invented  and  in  little  use. 
Whether  the  Arabs  of  Yemen,  Irak,  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  central  Arabia,  had  derived  their 
writing,  much  earlier,  from  the  Phoenician,  or 
Palmyrean,  or  Sassanidic,  is  not  ascertained. 
The  Kiufi^  however,  is  probably  derived  from 
the  Syrian  estrangJielo  (a-TpoyyuXoy,  round).  It 
is  coarse,  stitf,  angular,  and  not  so  distinct  as 
the  modes  of  writing  derived  from  it.  It  con- 
sists of  18  forms  of  letters,  8  of  which,  by  being 
marked  with  diacritic  points,  represent  10  sounds 
of  the  modern  Arabic  writing — these  we  include 
in  parentheses — namely :  «,  h  (t,  th),  the  English 
j  (h,  I'h),  d  (^d\  the  English  th,  as  in  this),  r 
(s),  s  (sh),  ss  {dz,  Spanish  c  in  celebi'e),  t,  ain 
(ghain,  both  peculiar  gutturals,  or  rather  fau- 
cals),y^,  ^- hai'sh,  k  soft,  I,  m,  n,  h  (or  merely 
the  spiritus  lenis '),  u,  i  or  y  (German  i,  j).  In 
manuscripts,  the  vowels  are  sometimes  marked 
with  red  or  yellow  points.  This  writing  was 
Bsed  in  manuscripts  for  about  3  centuries ;  and 
on  coins,  sepulchral  monuments,  in  titles  of 
books,  for  about  7  centuries  after  Mohammed. 
Even  now  the  writing  of  the  African  Arabs 
and  Moors  resembles  the  Iviufi ;  while  the  Ori- 
entals, who  are  very  fond  of  flowing,  elegant, 
slender  letters,  use,  especially  for  copying,  the 
Neskhi,  whose  introduction  is  attributed  to  Ibn 
Mokla,  in  the  4th  century  of  the  Hegira.  There 
are  also  many  other  modifications  in  Persian, 
Turkish,  Hindostanee,  and  Malay  chirograplis. 
— Cufio  characters  are  found  on  the  coins  of  al- 
most all  Mohammedan  nations.  The  coins  of 
the  earlier  rulers  are  mostly  without  an  effigy, 
and  ill-stamped ;  but  the  most  celebrated  ones 
show  the  face  of  the  ruler,  although  this  is  anti- 
Mohammedan  ;  and  those  of  later  times  exhibit 
either  a  sign  of  the  zodiac  or  stars,  or  the  herald- 
ic sign  {tamgna)  of  the  Turkish  sovereigns.  The 
inscriptions  on  the  coins  contain  the  name  of  the 
potentate  by  whom  they  are  issued,  the  year  of 
coinage,  &c.,  and  most  frequently  the  phrase : 
"  Coined  in  the  name  of  Allah,"  either  around 
or  on  the  edge,  and  sometimes  in  2  lines.  The 
form  is,  on  the  whole,  either  Byzantine  or  Per- 
sian, in  the  style  of  Nushirvan  or  Chosroes  I., 
and  of  Parvis  or  Chosroes  II.,  both  Sassanides. 
The  dates  of  these  coins  extend  from  the  Oramy- 
iades,  who  ruled  at  Damascus  from  A.  D.  661  to 
750,  down  to  the  emirs  of  Ghizni,  who  bore  sway 


in  Turkestan,  Persia,  and  India  as  late  as  the 
12th  century ;  most  of  them,  however,  belong  to 
the  10th  century  of  our  era.  Those  of  gold  are 
called  dinar  ;  those  of  silver,  dirhem  ;  those  of 
bronze  or  copper,  fuls.  Of  some  only  halves 
and  (juarters  of  the  original  pieces  now  exist. 
The  inscriptions  are  in  several  languages,  some 
in  two  at  once,  some  even  in  Arabic  and  Rus- 
sian. They  are  found  in  Africa  and  Asia,  from 
the  Caspian  and  Euxine  to  the  Baltic,  in  Pome- 
rania,  Brandenburg,  &c.,  where  they  have  been 
brought  by  commerce;  and  they  are  also  met 
with  in  Spain,  Naples,  Sicily,  &c.  Glass  medals 
are  also  found  bearing  Cufic  inscriptions  on 
either  face  or  on  both ;  they  are  about  \  inch 
thick,  and  some  have  a  higher  margin  on  one 
side  than  the  other.  These  probably  belong  to  the 
Fatimite  dynasty  of  Egypt ;  and  some  of  them 
come  down  to  the  Mameluke  sultans  (1766). 
It  is  uncertain  whether  they  were  current  as 
money. — See  G.  C.  Adler,  Museum  Borgianum 
(Altona,  1780)  ;  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  Memoires  de 
Vacademie  Pi'cuiguise ;  Lindenberg,  Siir  quelques 
medailles  Coujiques  et  sur  quelqiies  MSS.  Cou- 
j^(7W€s  (Copenhagen,  1830);  'i&.oW&v^Orientalische 
Palaographie  {Gotha,  1844);  and  other  treatises, 
especially  those  of  Fraehn,  published  at  Kasan 
and  St.  Petersburg. 

CUIRASS,  defensive  armor  for  the  body 
from  the  neck  to  the  waist.  It  is  generally  made 
of  well-hammered  plate  iron,  and  its  name  is 
probably  derived  fi-om  the  French  cuir,  leather, 
of  which  material  armor  Avas  very  frequently 
composed  in  the  early  ages.  The  iron  cuirass 
succeeded  the  hauberk  or  hacqueton  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  III.  The  cuirass,  under  a  variety  of 
forms  and  names,  was  known  to  the  ancient 
Greeks,  Romans,  Persians,  and  Egyptians.  After 
long  disuse  it  was  adopted  by  Napoleon  for  his 
heavy  cavalry,  and  his  example  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  the  English  (who  arm  3  regiments 
with  it)  and  continental  nations. 

CUJAS  (CujAcius),  Jacques,  a  French  ju- 
risconsult, born  in  Toulouse  in  1522,  died  in 
Bourges,  Oct.  4, 1590.  lie  was  the  son  of  a  fuller, 
and  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Toulouse ; 
spent  several  years  in  acquiring  a  knowledge 
of  law,  and  of  the  ancient  languages,  history, 
grammar,  philosophy,  mathematics,  and  even 
of  poetry,  and  at  the  age  of  25  commenced  a 
course  of  instruction  on  the  Institutes  of  Justin- 
ian. In  1554  the  professorship  of  Roman  law 
in  the  university  of  Toulouse  became  vacant, 
and  Cujas,  not  being  chosen  to  it,  left  Toulouse, 
and  accepted  a  vacant  chair  at  Cahors ;  but  in 
1555  he  repaired  to  Bourges,  then  perhaps  the 
chief  seat  of  the  study  of  civil  law.  The  jeal- 
ousy of  rival  professors  having  forced  him  to 
leave  this  place,  he  went  to  Paris,  and  publish- 
ed a  portion  of  his  works,  including  the  Observa- 
tionumet  Emendatiomim  XXVIII  libri,  which, 
in  the  hyperbolical  language  of  the  time,  received 
the  name  of  opus  iricomparabile,  opus  divinum. 
In  1557  he  was  invited  to  fill  a  chair  in  Valence, 
whence,  in  1560,  one  of  his  rivals  in  Bourges  be- 
ing dead,  he  was  recalled  to  that  city,  and  there  his 


CULDEES 


CULLEN 


135 


principal  works  were  published.  In  1566  ho  re- 
paired to  Turin  to  lecture  in  the  university,  and 
in  1567  returned  to  France,  lixinj^  his  residence 
at  Valence.  In  June,  1576,  he  tinally  returned 
to  Bourges,  wliich  he  never  afterward  (juitted. 
The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  clouded  by  domestic 
cares  and  by  the  distress  of  mind  which  the  un- 
happy condition  of  his  country  created.  After 
the  assassination  of  Henry  III.,  tlie  league,  who 
were  powerful  in  Bourges,  endeavored  to  extort 
from  Cujas  a  written  opinion  in  favor  of  the 
claims  of  Cardinal  Bourbon  to  the  succession. 
At  considerable  personal  risk  he  opposed  the 
demand,  exclaiming:  "It  is  not  for  me  to  cor- 
rupt the  laws  of  my  country."  llo  died  soon 
after,  broken-hearted,  it  is  supposed,  at  tlie  evils 
which  preyed  upon  France.  Tlie  jurisconsults 
of  Europe  agree  in  considering  him  the  greatest, 
as  he  was  among  the  first  of  modern  interpreters 
of  the  civil  law.  Beside  the  Institutes,  Pan- 
dects, &c.,  of  Justinian,  he  published,  with  ex- 
planations, a  part  of  the  Tlicodosian  code,  and 
the  Basilica^  a  Greek  version  of  the  laws  of 
Justinian,  and  commentaries  on  the  Consuetu- 
dines  Feudorum^  and  on  some  books  of  the  De- 
cretals. His  "  Observations  and  Corrections," 
extending  not  merely  to  books  of  law,  but  to  a 
number  of  Greek  and  Latin  authors,  have  been 
of  great  value  to  philologists.  The  edition  of 
Fabrot  (Paris,  10  vols,  folio)  was  the  first  com- 
plete collection  of  his  writings ;  but  the  reprints 
at  Naples  in  1757,  and  at  Venice  and  Modena 
in  l758-'82,  in  11  vols,  folio,  contain  important 
additions.  Cujas  was  not  less  distinguished  as 
a  teaclier  than  as  a  writer. 

CULDEES,  a  religious  fraternity  who  at  one 
time  were  spread  over  the  greater  part  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland.  The  origin  of  the  name  is 
uncertain,  some  deriving  it  from  the  Celtic  cyl- 
Ze,  a  cell,  and  dee,  house,  and  others  from  the 
Latin  cultor  Dei,  worshipper  of  God.  Their 
history  has  been  raised  to  importance  by  cer- 
tain modern  writers,  who  claim  that  in  the  2d 
or  3d  century  they  were  the  priests  of  a  Scot- 
tish Christian  church  which  had  no  bishops, 
and  resembled  the  Presbyterian  organization. 
It  is  not  known  when  the  order  became  ex- 
tinct. 

CULLEN,  Paul,  an  Irish  Catholic  prelate, 
archbishop  of  Dublin,  born  about  1805.  He 
studied  theology  in  Italy,  received  orders,  and 
for  15  years  held  an  ofiice  in  the  chancery  of 
the  Vatican  which  gave  him  direction  of  the  ec- 
clesiastical affairs  of  his  native  country.  He  was 
also  for  some  time  rector  of  the  Irish  college  at 
Eorae.  On  the  death  of  Dr.  Ci-olly,  archbishop 
of  Armagh,  in  1849,  the  sutfragan  bishops  failed 
to  agree  in  nominating  his  successor,  and  Pius 
IX.  therefore  conferred  this  dignity  upon  Dr. 
CuUen,  with  the  rank  of  primate  of  Ireland  and 
apostolic  delegate.  He  was  consecrated  Feb. 
24,  1850,  and  soon  became  conspicuous  by  his 
hostility  to  the  system  of  mixed  education 
which  prevailed  in  the  Irish  schools,  and  his 
support  of  the  scheme  for  founding  a  Catholic 
university  at  Dublin.     To  further  the  latter  ob- 


ject, in  obedience  to  the  instructions  of  the  pope, 
he  called  a  synod  at  Thurles,  which  took  such 
measures  that  tlie  university  was  soon  establish- 
ed. In  March,  1852,  Dr.  CuUen  was  transferred 
to  the  diocese  of  Dublin.  He  thus  ceased  to  bo 
l)rimate,  but  his  title  of  aijostolic  delegate  was 
renewed  for  life,  which  places  him  at  the  head 
of  the  Irish  clergy.  A  curious  work  against  the 
Copernican  system,  maintaining  on  theological 
grounds  fliat  the  earth  is  the  immovable  centre 
of  the  universe,  has  been  atributed  to  him,  it  is 
said,  without  rea-son. 

CULLEN,  William,  a  Scottish  physician, 
born  in  Hamilton,  Lanarkshire,  April  15,  1710, 
died  near  Edinburgh,  Feb.  5,  1790.  He  studied 
medicine  at  the  university  of  Glasgow,  and  at 
the  same  time  served  an  apprenticesliip  to  a 
surgeon  apothecary  of  that  place.  At  the  age 
of  19  he  procured  the  berth  of  surgeon  on  a 
merchant  ship  engaged  in  the  West  India  trade, 
and  in  1732  returned  to  Scotland  and  com- 
menced his  professional  labors  in  the  parish  of 
Shotts.  After  several  years  of  practice  and  stu- 
dy he  entered  into  a  partnership  with  "William 
Hunter,  afterward  celebrated  as  a  comparative 
anatomist,  by  the  terms  of  which  they  were 
each  to  spend  a  winter  alternately  at  some  med- 
ical school,  while  the  other  remained  in  charge 
of  the  business  in  the  country.  In  1741  Hunter 
repaired  to  London  for  the  purpose  of  study, 
and  having  with  the  consent  of  CuUen  settled, 
there,  the  partnership  terminated.  In  1745 
Cullen  took  up  his  residence  in  Glasgow,  and  in 
the  succeeding  year  commenced  a  course  of 
lectures  in  the  university  on  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  medicine.  In  1751  he  became  professor 
of  medicine,  and  lectured  on  chemistry,  materia 
medica,  and  botany,  giving  much  attention  to 
the  application  of  chemistry  to  agriculture  and 
the  useful  arts.  In  1756  he  removed  to  Edin- 
burgh to  assume  the  chair  of  chemistry.  He 
continued  to  be  connected  with  the  university 
until  his  death,  and  for  nearly  34  years  lectured 
with  great  reputation  on  chemistry,  materia 
medica,  and  the  theory  and  practice  of  medi- 
cine. He  also  delivered  several  series  of  clin- 
ical lectures  at  the  royal  infirmary.  He  pos- 
sessed in  a  rare  degree  the  faculty  of  presenting 
an  abstract  subject  in  a  clear  and  attractive 
light,  and  his  lectures,  which  were  nearly  ex- 
temporaneous, seldom  failed  to  excite  the  inter- 
est, and  even  the  enthusiasm,  of  his  pupils.  As 
an  illustration  of  this,  it  is  stated  that  the  class 
in  materia  medica,  which  under  the  former  pro- 
fessor, Alston,  a  man  of  great  learning,  had  not 
exceeded  8  or  10  in  number,  was  at  once  in- 
creased" by  Cullen  to  over  100.  His  works  are: 
"  First  Lines  of  the  Practice  of  Physic,"  con- 
taining his  system  of  the  nature  and  cure  of 
diseases,  which  superseded  that  of  Boerhaave; 
"  Institutions  of  Medicine ;"  Synopsis  Nosologies 
MethodiccB  ;  a  "  Treatise  of  the  Materia  Medi- 
ca;"  and  some  minor  miscellaneous  publications. 
The  first  of  these  was  translated  into  several 
languages,  and  went  through  many  editions. 
His  clinical  lectures  were  also  published  after 


136 


CULLODEN  HOUSE 


CULTIVATOR 


Iiis  death,  probably  from  notes  taken  by  one  of 
his  i)upils. 

CULLODEN"  HOUSE,  a  family  seat  in  Inver- 
ness, Scotland,  which  gave  its  name  to  the 
battle  that  ended  the  career  of  the  pretender 
in  the  rebellion  of  1745.  The  English  troops 
were  led  by  the  duke  of  Cumberland  ;  the 
highlanders  were  commanded  by  Charles  Ed- 
ward in  person.  The  prince's  army  was  com- 
posed of  highlanders ;  he  was  almost  destitute 
of  artillery,  in  which  arm  the  enemy  were  very 
powerful.  The  wild,  undisciplined  courage  of 
the  highlanders  was  vainly  opposed  to  the  dis- 
cipline and  cannon  of  the  regulars.  After  a 
desperate  attack  and  great  carnage  on  both 
sides,  the  English  troops  stood  firm,  and  the 
highlanders,  unsupported  and  unofficered,  broke 
and  fled  in  all  directions.  The  battle  was  fought 
on  Drummossie  moor,  April  16,  1746. 

CULLOMA,  or  Columa,  a  post  town  of  Cali- 
fornia, and  formerly  the  capital  of  El  Dorado 
CO.;  pop.  in  1852,  2,000.  It  is  situated  on  the 
south  fork  of  American  river,  and  on  the  road 
from  Sacramento  City  to  Nevada.  In  the  vicin- 
ity are  a  number  of  saw  mills,  one  of  which, 
called  Sutter's  mill,  is  memorable  as  the  spot 
where  gold  was  first  discovered  in  California. 

CULM,  or  KuLM  (Polish,  Chelmno)^  a  district 
and  city  in  the  Prussian  province  of  West  Prus- 
sia, in  a  very  fertile  region.  The  city  is  situated 
on  a  branch  of  the  Vistula ;  pop.  7,800.  It  was 
founded  by  the  knights  of  the  cross  in  1230, 
and  became  the  residence  of  a  bishop.  It  was 
under  Polish  sovereignty  from  1454  to  1772, 
■when  it  was  given  to  Prussia  by  the  first  divi- 
sion of  Poland.  The  inhabitants,  of  German 
origin,  had  their  chartered  city  rights,  copied 
from  those  of  Magdeburg,  collected  and  re- 
vised as  early  as  1394,  which  was  ever  recog- 
nized in  old  Prussia  under  the  name  of  Culiner 
Hamlfeste,  or  Jus  Culmense. 

CULM,  in  Bohemia.     See  Kulm. 

CULMINATION",  the  passage  of  a  star  over 
the  meridian,  that  is,  over  the  highest  point  of 
its  diurnal  path.  Metaphorically  the  term  is 
used  of  any  thing  attaining  its  highest  state  of 
development. 

CULNA,  a  town  in  British  India,  in  the  district 
of  Burdwan,  lieutenant-governorship  of  Bengal, 
lat.  23°  14'  N.,  long.  88°  20'  E.,  pop.  60,000,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  river  Iloogly,  26  m.  E. 
of  the  city  of  Burdwan,  a  station  for  steamers 
plying  between  Calcutta  and  the  upper  prov- 
inces, and  long  noted  for  its  trade  in  rice,  grain, 
silk,  and  cotton.  It  is  the  station  of  the  Free 
church  mission,  and  has  an  English  school  con- 
taining about  120  boys. — There  is  a  town  of  the 
same  name,  lat  23^  13',  long.  89°  42',  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Jessore. 

CULPEPPER,  a  N.  E.  central  co.  of  Va.,  bor- 
dered S.  by  Rapidan  river,  N.  E.  by  the  N.  branch 
of  the  Rappahannock,  drained  in  the  N.  part  by 
Hazel  river;  area,  673  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  12,- 
282,  of  whom  6,683  were  slaves.  The  surface 
is  gre.atly  diversified  by  hills  and  valleys,  and 
the  soil  very  productive.     The  Rappahannock 


and  ITazcl  rivers  are  here  navigable,  the  latter 
for  small  boats  only.  There  are  one  or  two 
mineral  springs  in  the  county,  but  they  are 
yet  very  little  known.  Indian  corn,  wheat, 
oats,  and  wool  are  the  staples.  In  1850  the  pro- 
ductions were  191,395  bushels  of  wheat,  359,- 
670  of  Indian  corn,  62,599  of  oats,  and  45,444 
lbs.  of  wool.  There  were  17  churches  and  488 
pupils  attending  public  schools.  A  number  of 
woollen  factories  and  flour,  grist,  and  saw  mills 
were  in  operation  during  that  year.  Value  of 
real  estate  in  1856,  $3,068,610.  The  county 
was  formed  in  1748,  and  named  from  Lord  Cul- 
pepper, governor  of  Virginia  in  1681.  Capital, 
Fairfax,  or  Culpepper  Court  House. 

CULPEPPER,  John,  an  early  surveyor-gen- 
eral and  political  leader  of  the  provinces  of 
North  and  South  Carolina,  was  a  refugee  from 
the  southern  or  Clarendon  colony,  and  in  1678 
was  the  head  of  an  insurrection  in  the  northern 
or  Albemarle  colony  in  favor  of  popular  liberty. 
The  navigation  acts,  by  which  excessive  taxa- 
tion was  imposed  on  commerce,  and  an  abridg- 
ment of  political  freedom  by  the  "  denial  of  a 
free  election  of  an  assembly,"  were  the  chief 
grievances.  Under  his  direction,  the  people 
deposed  the  president  and  deputies  of  the  pro- 
prietaries, seized  the  public  funds,  appointed 
new  magistrates  and  judges,  called  a  parlia- 
ment, and  took  all  the  functions  of  government 
into  their  own  hands.  The  insurgents,  having 
completed  their  institutions,  sent  Culpepper  to 
England  to  negotiate  a  compromise.  He  was  in- 
dicted for  high  treason,  but  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Shaftesbury  he  was  acquitted  on  the 
ground  that  no  regular  government  had  existed 
in  Albemarle.  He  returned  to  Carolina,  and  in 
1 680  laid  out  the  city  of  Charleston,  reducing  the 
paths,  streets,  and  squares  to  comparative  regu- 
larity, and  enclosing  the  town  site  with  a  line 
of  fortifications. 

CULPEPPER,  Thomas,  lord,  governor  of 
Virginia  from  1680  to  1683,  died  in  1719.  Un- 
der his  administration  an  act  was  passed  to  en- 
courage emigration  by  enabling  the  governor  to 
naturalize  any  person  by  instrument  under  his 
seal ;  also  an  act  of  indemnity  for  all  olfences 
committed  in  the  rebellion  under  Gov.  Berkeley, 
and  one  to  prevent  the  frequent  meeting  of 
slaves.  He  was  one  of  the  grantees  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Virginia,  and  in  the  year  1669  pur- 
chased of  his  co-grantees  their  rights  to  the 
country  lying  between  the  Rappahannock  and 
Potomac  rivers. 

CULTIVATOR,  in  England,  an  implement 
used  after  the  plough,  preparatory  to  planting ; 
in  the  United  States,  an  implement  for  the  same 
purpose,  and  also  for  scarifying  the  earth  be- 
tween the  rows  of  growing  plants,  and  turning 
it  either  to  or  from  them,  as  desired.  In  the 
former  country  all  implements  for  the  latter 
purpose  are  called  horse  hoes.  The  American 
classification  originated  in  our  early  manufac- 
turers so  constructing  their  patterns  that  the 
same  implement  could  be  used  for  both  pur- 
poses.    Some  leading  manufacturers  are  now, 


CULTIVATOR 


cmi^ 


137 


however,  advertising  gang  cultivators,  cultiva- 
tors, and  horse  hoes;  the  oflice  of  the  first  heing 
limited  to  that  of  the  English  cultivator,  the 
second  heing  for  operation  bolli  before  and  after 
planting,  and  the  third  for  the  latter  purpose 
only.  But,  as  other  manufacturers  apply  tliese 
terms  almost  indiscriniinatclyj  while  the  New 
York  state  agricultural  society  awarded  a  pre- 
mium to  an  implement  in  1854  as  the  hest  cul- 
tivator, and  again  to  the  same  implement  in 
1856  as  the  best  horse  hoe,  tliere  seems  to  be, 
as  yet,  no  distinctive  adherence  to  names,  and 
no  proper  uniformity  of  classification.  Culti- 
vators, in  a  general  description,  are  combined 
modifications  of  the  plough  and  harrow.  In 
England  they  are  usually  made  with  rectangular 
frames,  constructed  on  3  or  4  wheels,  and  pro- 
vided with  a  series  of  complex  levers,  by  which 
they  can  be  raised  or  lowered  for  greater  or 
less  penetration  of  the  teeth  or  shares  below 
the  surface.  They  are  made  of  two  classes,  call- 
ed grubbers  and  scarifiers,  or  cultivators;  the 
first  class  being  for  cleansing  the  earth  of  roots 
and  weeds,  and  the  second  for  dividing  and  pul- 
verizing, without  any  particular  overturning 
like  that  given  by  the  plough.  The  teeth  of 
the  former  may  be  compared  to  fork  tines,  and 
of  the  latter  to  bent  coulters,  with  small  dou- 
ble mouldboards.  In  the  United  states  there 
seems,  however,  to  be  an  increasing  desire  to 
have  cultivators  overturn  as  well  as  scarify  the 
earth,  and  hence  the  introduction  of  the  gang 
cultivator,  as  above  classified.  This  implement 
consists  of  a  line  of  small  steel  ploughs,  attach- 
ed to  a  beam  which  passes  over  the  ground  at 
such  an  angle  to  the  line  of  di-aught  that  each 
plough  turns  over  and  pulverizes  some  7  inches 
of  earth  from  the  land  side  of  the  preceding 
one.  This  beam  is  fastened  to  the  draught 
beam,  which  is  armed  in  front  with  a  coulter, 
and  behind  with  a  double-share  cultivator  tooth, 
which  serves  to  balance  the  implement  as  it  does 
its  work.  American  cultivators,  for  the  double 
purpose  above  described,  are  either  triangular 
or  rectangular  frames,  with  a  greater  or  less 
number  of  properly  shaped  and  arranged  mould- 
board-like  teeth,  and  with  theix  centre  beams 
projecting  in  front  for  the  proper  attachment 
of  wheels  and  draught  clevises.  They  have 
handles  like  those  of  a  plough,  and  their  several 
beams  are  so  connected  by  joints  that  their 
widths  can  be  increased  or  diminished  as  they 
are  required  for  working  between  drills  or  before 
planting.  Horse  hoes,  according  to  the  above 
classification,differ  from  cultivators  chiefly  in  the 
form  and  arrangement  of  their  teeth,  which,  hav- 
ing to  operate  in  ground  grown  more  or  less  hard 
between  the  time  of  planting  and  that  of  the 
first  hoeing,  have  more  of  a  cutting  form,  while 
they  can  be  adjusted  to  turn  the  earth  from  the 
plants  wlien  these  are  young  and  tender,  and 
toward  them  when  demanded  by  a  more  ad- 
vanced growtli.  Horse  hoes  in  the  United  States 
are  single  implements,  while  in  England  they 
are  generally  constructed  to  work  between  a 
number  of  rows  of  plants  at  the  same  time; 


their  use  in  the  former  country  being  chiefly 
for  the  culture  of  potatoes  and  Indian  corn, 
the  rows  of  which  are  at  wide  distances.  So 
great  is  the  public  sense  of  the  recently  discov- 
ered importance  of  a  thorough  and  repeated 
pulverization  of  the  soil  for  the  easier  and 
more  effective  operation  of  those  forces  by 
which  the  various  necessary  gases  are  carried 
to  the  roots  of  plants,  and  for  the  proper  de- 
composition of  humus  and  the  manures,  that 
these  implements  are  now  made  in  all  parts  of 
the  country;  one  house  alone  making  4,000  of 
them  in  one  season,  while  another,  which  con- 
fines its  operations  cliiefiy  to  making  tlie  teeth 
of  the  implement  for  some  of  the  various  smaller 
establishments,  sold  40,000  of  these  between 
Feb.  and  Aug.  1857. 

CULVERIN  (Fr,  cordeuvrine,  from  Lat,  colu- 
Jr/«?/s,  serpent-like),  a  long  and  slender  piece  of 
ordnance,  equal  to  an  18-pounder,  and  carry- 
ing a  ball  to  a  great  distance. 

CULVERT,  an  arched  channel  for  the  con- 
veyance of  water  under  ground.  Channels  of 
this  description  are  very  common  in  the  em- 
bankments of  railways  and  canals. 

CULVERT,  Geoege,  a  head  chief  and  war- 
rior of  the  Choctaw  nation,  born  in  1744,  died 
at  Fort  Towson,  Ark.,  Nov.  1839,  served  under 
AVashington  in  the  revolution,  and  from  him 
received  a  commission  of  major  of  militia  in  the 
U.  S.  service  and  a  sword.  He  served  under 
"Wayne,  and  also  imder  Jackson  against  the 
Seminoles  in  1814.  For  his  bravery,  Jackson 
presented  him  with  a  colonel's  commission,  and 
afterward  (during  his  presidency)  with  a  sword. 
He  educated  his  sons  and  established  them  on 
plantations  among  his  people. 

CUM/E,  or  CuMA,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
and  celebrated  of  the  Greek  cities  of  Italy,  sit- 
uated on  the  Campanian  shore  a  little  N.  of 
Baiffi.  It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  a 
joint  colony  from  ^olian  Cyme  and  Euboean 
Clialcis.  The  time  of  its  foundation  is  uncertain, 
but  of  its  extreme  antiquity  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  for  it  was  in  the  zenith  of  its  prosperity 
and  power,  ruling  over  the  Campanian  plain  and 
the  Tyrrhenian  sea,  while  Rome  Avas  yet  in  its 
infancy.  Cumas  was  the  mother  of  many  famous 
and  flourishing  colonies  in  Italy  and  Sicily ;  and 
of  the  extent  of  its  commerce  and  opulence,  be- 
fore the  establishment  of  the  Etruscan  suprem- 
acy, the  harbors  of  Dicasarchia  and  Misenum 
were  splendid  evidences.  As  the  Etruscans  be- 
came powerful,  however,  the  Cumteans  declined, 
first  losing  their  maritime  superiority,  then  the 
dominion  of  the  Campanian  plain,  and  ultimately 
every  thing  without  their  city  wajls.  After  being 
thus  stripped  of  their  possessions,  and  when  be- 
leaguered both  by  sea  and  land  by  their  victo- 
rious foes,  they  applied  to  Hiero  of  Syracuse  for 
succor,  and  by  means  of  the  auxiliaries  he  sent 
tliera  they  were  enabled  to  defeat  their  enemies 
once  more,  and  to  secure  tJiemselves  from  at- 
tack for  many  years.  But  the  warlike  Sam- 
nites,  after  wresting  all  their  southern  conquests 
from  the  Etruscans,  laid  siege  to  Cuma3,  took 


138 


CUMANA 


CUMBERLAND 


it,  420  B.  C,  put  most  of  the  male  inhabitants 
to  the  sword,  or  sold  them  as  slaves,  and  planted 
a  colony  of  their  own  countrymen  in  the  cap- 
tured city.  In  33S  B.  C.  Cumaj  became  a  Roman 
municipimn.  During  the  second  Punic  war  Han- 
nibal besieged  it  in  vain.  During  the  wars  of  the 
Goths  and  Byzantines  Cumte  acquired  a  tem- 
porary importance  as  the  last  stronghold  of  the 
Gothic  kings  in  Italy.  After  its  capture,  however, 
by  the  army  of  the  victorious  Narses  (A.  D.  552), 
it  rapidly  sunk  into  insignificauce.  Some  re- 
mains of  the  city  are  still  to  be  traced  on  the  Me- 
diterranean shore.  A  cavern  in  the  rock  on 
which  the  acropolis  stood  is  still  pointed  out  as 
the  place  where  the  famous  sibyl  resided  and  ut- 
tered her  oracles.  In  1853  the  prince  of  Syracuse 
discovered  there  a  magnificent  temple  of  Diana ; 
and  over  150  tombs  were  explored  in  the  same 
year,  resulting  in  the  discovery  of  a  great  variety 
of  antiquarian  treasures.  An  interesting  paper  on 
the  waxen  heads  found  in  one  of  the  tombs  was 
read,  May  28,  1856,  before  the  London  archaao- 
logical  association,  by  Mr.  Pettigrew,  who  exhib- 
ited a  glass  vase,  a  tooth  comb,  and  other  anti- 
quities obtained  there  by  Mr.  "Wansey,  who  had 
attended  the  prince  of  Syracuse  in  some  of  his 
excavations. 

CUMANA,  a  province  of  Venezuela,  com- 
prising part  of  the  region  sometimes  called  New 
Andalusia,  bounded  N.  by  the  Caribbean  sea,  E. 
by  the  gulf  of  Paria,  S.  by  the  Orinoco,  and 
W.  by  the  province  of  Barcelona;  area,  17,309 
sq.  ra. ;  pop.  in  1846,  75,828.  A  range  of  moun- 
tains crosses  it  parallel  with  the  sea,  and  sends 
off  several  ridges  toward  tlie  south.  These  hills 
are  steep,  but  not  very  high,  and  covered  with 
dense  forests.  The  valleys  and  plains,  watered 
by  many  rivers,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  Cari, 
Mamo,  Limones,  Guaraco,  Guarapichi,  Mauza- 
nares,  and  Cariaco,  and  dotted  over  with  lakes, 
produce  excellent  pasturage,  sugar,  and  grain. 
The  peninsula  of  Araya,  on  the  N-  coast,  has 
been  noted  for  several  centuries  for  the  produc- 
tion of  salt,  the  consumption  of  which  in  Bar- 
celona for  curing  provisions  amoimts  to  about 
1,200,000  lbs.  per  annum,  -J-  of  which  is  obtained 
from  Araya.  The  principal  exports  are  dried 
fish,  salted  meat,  hides,  cotton,  cocoa,  and  me- 
dicinal plants. — CuMANA,  or  New  Toledo,  the 
capital  of  the  above  province,  is  situated  near 
the  mouth  of  the  gulf  of  Cariaco  and  on  the 
river  Manzanares,  1  m.  from  the  sea ;  lat.  10°  27' 
52"  N.,  long.  04'^  4'  47"  W. ;  pop.  about  12,000. 
It  is  defended  by  the  fortress  of  San  Antonio, 
built  on  a  rocky  eminence,  on  which  are  also 
the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Santa  Maria.  It  has 
an  excellent  port,  capable  of  receiving  all  the 
navies  of  Europe,  but  its  shipping  is  insig- 
nificant. It  has  sulfered  too  severely  from  earth- 
quakes to  present  much  architectural  beauty. 
On  Oct.  21,  1766,  severe  shocks  destroyed  the 
entire  city  in  the  space  of  a  few  minutes ;  and  a 
similar  visitation,  Dec.  14,  1797,  laid  %-.  of  the 
town  in  ruins.  The  climate  is  exceedingly  hot, 
the  temperature  from  June  to  October  reaching 
90°  and  95°  F.  during  the  day,  and  seldom  fall- 


ing below  80°  at  night.  Cumana  was  founded 
by  Diego  Castellon  in  1523.  It  has  3  suburbs, 
the  aggregate  population  of  which  nearly  equals 
that  of  the  city  itself. 

CUMANIA,  Great  and  Little,  two  districts 
of  Hungary. — Geeat  Cumania  (Ilung.  Kagy 
Kumdg),  in  the  circle  "  beyond  the  Theiss," 
consists  of  a  low  plain,  subject  to  frequent  inun- 
dations from  the  rivers,  and  occupied  to  a  great 
extent  by  swamps ;  area,  424  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about 
55,000,  of  whom  the  majority  are  Protestants. 
Cumania  differs  from  most  Hungarian  districts 
in  having  no  large  land-owners,  or  feudal  lords. 
The  inhabitants,  before  the  revolution  of  1848, 
had  a  government  of  their  own,  and  sent  repre- 
sentatives to  the  Hungarian  diet.  They  are  a 
robust,  plain,  and  patriotic  people,  fond  of  rural 
pursuits,  and  moderately  wealthy. — Little  Cu- 
mania (Hung.  Kis  Kunsdg)  consists  of  several 
detached  portions  of  land  in  the  circle  "  this  side 
the  Theiss,"  and  is  more  than  twice  as  large  as 
Great  Cumania,  having  an  aggregate  area  of 
about  1,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  64,000.  In  phys- 
ical aspect,  general  characteristics,  and  the  con- 
dition of  its  inhabitants,  it  closely  resembles 
Great  Cumania. — Both  districts  have  their  name 
from  settlements  of  Cumani,  a  people  of  Tartar 
race,  who  from  the  11th  to  the  14th  century 
acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  history  of  the 
nations  of  eastern  Europe. 

CUMBERLAND,  the  name  of  counties  in 
several  of  the  United  States.  I.  A  S.  W.  co. 
of  Maine,  area  about  990  sq.  m.,  bordering  on 
tliQ  Atlantic,  and  bounded  on  the  N.  E.  by  the 
Androscoggin  river;  pop.  in  1850,  68,892. 
The  coast  is  indented  by  a  number  of  bays,  the 
principal  of  which,  Casco  bay,  affords  facilities 
for  navigation  and  the  fisheries  hardly  surpassed 
on  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  surface  of  the 
county  is  pleasantly  diversified  by  several  smaU 
lakes  or  ponds.  From  Sebago  pond,  the  largest 
of  these,  a  canal  has  been  opened  to  the  ocean. 
The  soil  is  fertile  and  well  cultivated.  In  1850 
it  produced  233,870  bushels  of  corn,  266,586  of 
potatoes,  130,465  of  oats,  and  94,535  tons  of 
hay.  There  were  134  churches,  and  22,724  pu- 
pils attending  public  schools.  Capital,  Port- 
land. II.  A  S.  W.  CO.  of  N.  J.,  area  480  sq.  m., 
bounded  S.  "\Y.  by  Delaware  bay,  and  E.  by 
Tuckahoe  creek ;  pop.  in  1855,  18,966.  AVith 
the  exception  of  some  ranges  of  hills  between 
the  streams,  the  surface  is  generally  level.  East 
of  Cohansey  creek,  which  intersects  the  county, 
the  soil  is  light,  sandy,  and  overgrown  with 
pine  forests  ;  west  of  the  creek  it  is  composed 
of  clay  and  sandy  loam.  Marl  is  obtained  in 
this  part,  and  Greenwich  township  has  some 
mines  of  iron.  In  1850  the  productions  were 
370,267  bushels  of  corn,  78,000  of  wheat,  84,408 
of  oats,  116,144  of  potatoes,  21,795  tons  of  hay, 
and  174,802  lbs.  of  butter.  There  were  40 
churches,  and  4,215  pupils  attending  public 
schools.  This  county  was  formed  in  1748,  out 
of  a  part  of  Salem  county.  Capital,  Bridge- 
ton.  HI.  A  S.  E.  CO.  of  Penn,,  area  545  sq. 
m.,  lying  chiefly  within  the  Kittatinny  or  Cum- 


CUMBERLAND 


139 


bcrland  valley,  between  Blue  and  South  moun- 
tains ;  pop.  in  1850,  34,327.  The  Susquehan- 
na river  flows  along  its  eastern  boundary,  and 
Conedogwinit  creek  intersects  it.  Limestone 
of  superior  quality  exists  here  in  profusion,  and 
iron  ore  has  been  found  in  some  places.  The 
soil  is  remarkably  rich,  ami  agriculture  is  in 
a  very  forward  state.  The  productions  in  1850 
were  487,182  bushels  of  wheat,  3G1,166  of  corn, 
422,100  of  oats,  31,788  tons  of  hay,  and  782,587 
lbs.  of  butter.  There  were  40  flour  and  grist 
mills,  17  saw  mills,  numerous  founderios  and  fac- 
tories of  various  kinds,  5  newspaper  offices,  74 
churches,  and  8,887  pupils  attending  public 
schools.  Organized  in  1750,  and  named  from 
Cumberlatid  county,  England.  Capital,  Car- 
lisle. IV.  A  S.  E.  CO.  of  Va. ;  area,  310  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1850,  9,751,  of  whom  G,329  were  slaves. 
The  surface  is  moderately  uneven,  and  the  soil 
was  originally  productive,  but  now  in  some 
places  worn  out.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Appomattox,  which  forms  its  S,  E.  boundary, 
James  river,  which  flows  along  its  N.  frontier, 
and  "Willis  river,  which  intersects  it.  In  1850 
it  yielded  118,616  bushels  of  wheat,  220,535  of 
corn,  and  2,476,135  lbs.  of  tobacco.  There 
were  16  churches,  and  275  pupils  attendfng 
public  schools.  Value  of  real  estate  in  1856, 
$2,043,148.  The  county  was  formed  from 
Goochland  in  1748.  Capital,  Cumberland 
Court  House.  V.  A  S.  central  co.  of  N.  C. ; 
area  estimated  at  1,680  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850, 
20,610,  of  whom  7,217  were  slaves.  It  is  inter- 
sected by  Cape  Fear  river,  and  in  great  measure 
occupied  by  vast  forests  of  pitch  pine.  Large 
quantities  of  turpentine  and  lumber  are  obtain- 
ed from  these  forests,  and  exported  by  means  of 
steamboats  down  Cape  Fear  river.  The  soil  is 
generally  good,  and  the  surface  considerably  di- 
versified. About  ^  of  the  county  lies  within 
tlie  hilly  and  granite  region  of  North  Carolina; 
the  remainder  is  low  and  level.  Several  plank 
roads  have  recently  been  built  in  different  parts, 
and  by  the  facilities  which  they  present  for  the 
transportation  of  the  produce  of  the  interior, 
have  contributed  greatly  to  the  prosperity  of 
the  county.  In  1850  the  harvest  amounted  to 
376,843  bushels  of  corn,  142,396  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, and  156  bales  of  cotton.  Organized  in 
1754.  Capital,  Fayetteville.  VL  A  S.  co.  of 
Ky.,  bordering  on  Tenn.,  bisected  by  Cumber- 
land river  (from  which  it  is  named) ;  area,  about 
375  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  7,005,  of  whom  1,485 
were  slaves.  The  surface  is  hilly  near  the  river, 
and  the  soil  of  moderate  fertility.  Productions 
in  1850,  7,850  bushels  of  wheat,  434,340  of  corn, 
30,020  of  oats,  and  1,238,802  lbs.  of  tobacco. 
Number  of  pupils  in  the  public  schools,  1,552. 
There  is  a  remarkable  '•  oil  spring"  near  the 
river.  Capital,  Burksville.  VII.  An  E,  co.  of 
Ilk;  area,  310  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855,  6,099.  It 
is  intersected  by  Embarras  river,  and  diversified 
by  forests  and  prairies.  The  soil  is  fertile, 
and  in  1850  produced  217,015  bushels  of  corn, 
5,122  of  wheat,  and  33,906  of  oats.  There  were 
2  churches.     Capital,  Greenup. 


CUMBERLAND,  a  river  of  Ky.  and  Tenn., 
rising  in  the  Cumberland  mountains,  near  the  S. 
E.  boundary  of  Ky.,  flowing  W.  and  S.  W.,  and 
entering  Tenn.  between  Jackson  and  Overton 
counties.  After  a  circuit  of  nearly  250  m. 
through  middle  Tenn.,  it  makes  a  bend  to  the 
N.  "W.,  recrosses  the  Ky.  border  about  10  m. 
from  the  Tenn.  river,  and  runs  nearly  parallel 
with  that  stream  until  it  joins  the  Ohio  at 
Smithland.  Its  whole  course  is  estimated  at  over 
600  m.  At  high  water  it  is  navigable  by  steam- 
boats to  Nashville,  200  m.  from  its  mouth,  and 
by  small  boats  for  a  distance  of  nearly  500  m. 
Not  far  from  "Williamsburg,  in  Kentucky,  it  has 
a  remarkable  vertical  fall  of  60  feet.  It  drains 
an  area  of  about  17,000  sq.  m. 

CUMBERLAND,  a  thriving  town  and  capital 
of  Alleghany  co.,  Md.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Potomac  river,  and  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
railroad;  pop.  in  1850,  6,073.  It  is  the  W.  ter- 
minus of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal,  and 
the  E.  terminus  of  the  national  road.  A  few 
miles  west  of  the  town,  upon  the  summit  of  the 
AUeghanies,  commences  the  district  known  as 
the  Cumberland  coal  region,  which  extends  west 
to  the  Ohio  river.  The  mines  of  the  eastern  por- 
tion produce  an  excellent  quality  of  semi-bitumi- 
nous coal,  and  are  worked  by  several  mining 
companies.  In  1857  the  quantity  sent  to  mar- 
ket was  612,291  tons.  Iron  ores  in  the  same 
region,  and  others  of  the  older  formations  nearer 
Cumberland,  have  given  support  to  a  few  blast 
furnaces.  The  town  contains  the  county  build- 
ings, several  cluirches,  3  newspaper  offices,  1 
bank,  and  1  savings  institution ;  has  an  excellent 
trade,  and  next  to  Baltimore  is  the  largest  town 
in  the  state. 

CUMBERLAND,  a  N.  "W.  co.  of  Nova  Scotia, 
bordering  on  Northumberland  strait,  and  partly 
separated  from  New  Brunswick  by  Chignecto 
bay;  area,  1,020sq.m.;  pop.  in  1851,  14,339. 
Its  coasts  are  marked  by  an  immense  number 
of  small  bays  and  good  harbors.  The  surface 
inland  is  rough  and  mountainous.  The  wealth 
of  the  county  consists  principally  in  coal  mines, 
which  are  very  extensive  and  among  the  most 
valuable  in  Nova  Scotia.  The  North  American 
mining  company  aumially  obtains  from  these 
beds  large  quantities  of  excellent  bituminous 
coal.  Gypsum  is  also  found,  and  grindstones 
are  made  from  the  rock  which  underlies  the  sur- 
face.    Capital,  Amherst. 

CUMBERLAND,  a  N.  co.  of  England,  sepa- 
rated from  Scotland  by  Sol  way  frith  and  the  Esk 
and  Liddle  rivers,  and  bounded  "W.  by  the  Irish 
sea;  area,  1,565  sq.  m.,  or  1,001,600  acres,  f 
of  which  are  under  cultivation ;  pop.  in  1851, 
195,492.  The  surface  of  the  N.  and  N.  "W.  parts 
is  low  and  flat  or  gently  undulating ;  the  mid- 
land districts  are  traversed  by  hills,  and  the  E. 
and  S.  "W.  parts  are  occupied  by  lofty  mountains, 
among  which  are  the  famous  summits  of  Skid- 
daw  (3,020  feet  above  the  sea).  Saddleback 
(2,787  feet),  and  Ilelvellyn  (3,055  feet).  In 
this  picturesque  district  are  lakes  UUs- water, 
Thirlmere,  Bassenthwaite,  Derwent-water,  But- 


140 


CUMBERLAND 


CUMBERLAND  PRESBYTERIANS 


tennerc,  Crnmmock,  Lowes-water,  Ennerdale, 
and  Wast-water,  renowned  for  their  romantic 
scenery,  and  often  visited  by  travellers.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Derwent,  Eden,  and 
Esk.  Tlie  soil  of  the  valleys  and  river  bottoms 
is  generally  rich  ;  the  lowlands  have  been  much 
improved  by  draining  and  are  very  productive ; 
the  mountainous  districts  are  fit  for  little  but 
sheep  pastures.  Agriculture  has  improved  of 
late  years,  and  a  great  deal  of  grain  and  other 
produce  is  exported.  The  chief  minerals  are 
coal,  iron,  silver,  plumbago,  copper,  lead,  and 
limestone.  The  first  3  are  abundant,  and  the 
iron  ore  is  said  to  yield  more  than  double  the 
average  proportion  of  metal.  The  lead  mines 
near  Alston  belong  almost  exclusively  to  Green- 
wich hospital.  A  considerable  extent  of  the 
great  Roman  wall  erected  by  Hadrian  is  in 
this  county,  and  many  Roman  remains  of  va- 
rious kinds  have  been  found  here.  The  county 
suffered  nuich  from  the  Picts,  Scots,  and  Danes, 
and  was  the  arena  of  almost  constant  warfare 
during  the  border  troubles.  At  the  time  of  the 
conquest  it  Avas  in  such  a  state  of  desolation 
that  William  remitted  its  taxes,  and  it  was  not 
included  in  the  Domesday  book.  The  chief 
towns  are  Carlisle,  "Whitehaven,  Cockermouth, 
Penrith,  Keswick,  and  Egremont.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Lancaster,  Kendal,  and  Carlisle, 
the  Newcastle  and  Carlisle,  the  Carlisle  and 
Mar^-port,  and  the  Workington  and  Cocker- 
mouth  branch  railways.  A  ship  canal  extends 
from  Carlisle  to  the  Solway  frith.  The  county 
returns  4  members  to  the  house  of  commons. 

CUMBERLAND,  Richard.  I.  An  English 
divine,  born  in  London,  July  13,  1632,  died 
Oct.  9,  1718.  He  was  a  good  linguist  and 
zealous  student,  and  when  upward  of  80  took 
up  the  study  of  Coptic,  in  which  he  attained 
considerable  proficiency.  He  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Peterborough  by  William  III.  without 
solicitation,  the  monarch  having  been  informed 
on  trustworthy  authority  that  Dr.  Cumberland 
was  the  fittest  person  for  the  vacant  see.  IIo 
learned  the  fact  of  his  nomination  by  reading  it 
in  the  newspaper  of  the  day.  His  principal  works 
are  a  translation  of  Sanchoniathon's  "Phoe- 
nician History,"  with  notes  and  dissertations; 
Originis  Gentium  Antiquissimce  ("Attempts 
for  discovering  the  Times  of  the  first  Planting 
of  Nations")  ;  and  an  "Enquiry  into  the  Laws 
of  Nature"  (written  originally  in  Latin,  and 
translated  by  tlie  Rev.  J.  Tower).  II.  An  Eng- 
lish dramatist,  born  in  Cambridge,  Feb.  19, 1732, 
died  May  7,  1811.  He  was  great-grandson  of 
Bishop  Cumberland,  and  grandson  of  Richard 
Bentley.  His  connections  procured  him  an 
early  introduction  into  political  life;  and  after 
having  filled  the  oflice  of  secretary  to  Lord  Hali- 
fax, with  other  minor  appointments,  he  was  in 
1775  made  secretary  of  the  board  of  trade,  an 
office  which  was  abolished  in  1782,  when  lie  re- 
ceived a  compensation  allowance.  He  i)ublished 
the  "  Observer,"  a  series  of  essays,  in  which  he 
displayed  considerable  classical  learning,  with 
much  wit  and  elegant  composition,    H©  wrote  a 


large  number  of  dramatic  pieces,  the  most  sxic- 
cessful  of  Avhich  were  the  "  West  Indian"  and 
the  "  Wheel  of  Fortune,"  still  stock  pieces  on 
the  stage.  He  was  a  copious  writer  on  a  great 
variety  of  subjects,  and  among  his  works  are 
several  novels  and  a  collection  of  anecdotes  of 
Spanish  painters.  He  published  his  memoirs 
in  1806. 

CUMBERLAND,  William  AuorsTrs,  duke 
of,  3d  son  of  George  II.  of  England,  born  April 
26,  1721,  died  at  Winsdor,  Oct.  31,  1765.  He 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Dettingen,  where 
he  was  wounded.  In  1745  he  received  the  com- 
mand of  the  allied  army,  and  fought  the  cele- 
brated battle  of  Fontenoy  against  Marshal  Saxe, 
in  which  the  French  were  victorious.  He  was 
next  sent  against  the  pretender  in  Scotland,  and 
overthrew  the  army  of  malcontents  at  the  battle 
of  Culloden ;  but  the  glory  of  this  victory,  such 
as  it  was,  was  stained  by  the  cruelties  and  ex- 
cesses of  the  victors.  He  was  appointed  by  the 
king  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  army, 
and  was  next  sent  to  the  Netherlands ;  "was 
defeated  at  Lafeldt  by  Marshal  Saxe  in  1747, 
and  gained  no  advantages  in  this  war,  which 
wgs  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Aix  la  Chapelle, 
At  the  commencement  of  the  7  years'  war  the 
king  of  England's  Hanoverian  doininions  had  to 
be  defended  at  any  cost  to  the  English  nation; 
accordingly  the  duke  of  Cumberland  was  des- 
patched to  Germany,  when  the  victory  of  Mar- 
shal d'Estrees  at  Hastenbeck  forced  him  to  the 
disgraceful  convention  of  Closter  Seven  (1757), 
by  which  the  English  army,  40,000  strong,  was 
disarmed  and  disbanded,  and  Hanover  was  placed 
at  the  mercy  of  the  French,  who  ravaged  it  at 
their  will.  On  his  return  to  England  the  king  was 
so  dissatisfied  that  theduke  of  Cumberland  threw 
up  his  appointments, and  was  never  again  invited 
to  take  oflice. — For  the  duke  of  Cumberland, 
afterward  king  of  Hanover,  see  Ernst  August. 

CUMBERLAND  MOUNTAINS,  that  portion 
of  the  Appalachian  group  which  ranges  along 
the  S.  W.  border  of  Virginia  and  the  S.  E.  of 
Kentucky',  and  thence  passes  across  the  state  of 
Tennessee  into  the  N.  E.  part  of  Alabama.  It 
spreads  over  a  width  of  about  50  m.,  parallel 
ridges  alternating  with  longitudinal  valleys.  The 
ridges  rarely  exceed  2,000  feet  in  height.  They 
are  rocky  and  little  cultivated,  but  the  valleys 
are  fertile.  These  mountains  lie  west  of  the 
range  of  the  granite  and  metamorphic  rocks, 
■which  compose  the  mountains  on  the  W.  bor- 
ders of  North  Carolina  and  the  N.  part  of  Geor- 
gia. They  are  upon  the  range  of  the  great  coal 
formation  of  the  middle  states,  and  essentially 
composed  of  the  ^ame  groups  of  stratified  rocks 
as  those  of  the  Alleghany  mountains.  Chestnut 
ridge,  and  Laurel  hill  in  Pennsylvania.  The 
Tennessee  river  and  its  branches  drain  its  E. 
slopes,  until  this  river  crosses  their  range  and 
unites  with  the  Cumberland,  the  sources  of 
which  are  on  its  W.  side. 

CUMI5ERLAND  PRESBYTERIANS,  a  de- 
nomination  of  Christians  which  took  its  rise 
during  the  religious  revival  in  Kentucky  and 


CUMING 


GUMMING 


141 


Tennessee  in  1801-3.  So  great  was  the  excite- 
ment, and  so  vast  the  multitudes  who  camo  from 
all  parts  of  the  country  to  the  cain[)  meetings, 
that  it  was  found  impossihlo  to  supply  the  de- 
mand for  ministers,  and  laymen  were  appointed 
to  preach  by  tlie  presbytery  of  Transylvania. 
Their  reception,  however,  was  strenuously  op- 
posed by  some  of  the  clergy,  and  they  were  re- 
fused ordination.  A  new  presbytery,  which  was 
formed  in  1803  in  tlie  southern  part  of  the  state, 
denominated  the  Cumberland  presbytery,  subse- 
quently received  them  and  granted  them  ordi- 
nation, at  the  same  time  taking  on  trial  as  licen- 
tiates others  of  similar  qualifications.  The  action 
of  the  presbytery  in  this  matter  was  reviewed 
by  the  synod  of  Kentucky,  which  denied  its  va- 
lidity, and  appointed  a  commission  to  examine 
the  newly  ordained  ministers  both  in  regard  to 
their  attainments  and  the  doctrines  which  they 
held.  The  result  was,  that  the  course  pursued 
by  the  Cumberland  presbytery  was  condemned, 
and  the  sentence  of  the  synod  confirmed  by  the 
general  assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  church. 
The  presbytery,  demurring  to  this  decision, 
withdrew  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  general 
assembly,  and  in  1810  organized  a  distinct  and 
separate  body,  which  has  since  that  time  been 
known  as  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  church. 
Their  progress  as  an  independent  church  was 
marked  with  great  success,  so  that  in  1813  they 
formed  a  synod  and  adopted  articles  of  religion 
and  a  form  of  church  government.  In  doctrine 
they  occupy  a  sort  of  middle  ground  between 
Calvinism  and  Arminianism.  Tliey  reject  the 
doctrine  of  eternal,  unconditional  election  and 
reprobation,  and  believe  in  the  universality  of 
the  atonement  and  the  final  conservation  of 
the  saints.  Their  government  is  presbyterian 
in  form,  embracing  the  session,  presbytery,  sy- 
nod, and  general  assembly,  all  of  which  are 
constituted  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the 
Presbyterian  church.  Thoagh  they  have  local 
pastors,  they  have  adopted  the  itinerant  system 
of  the  Methodists.  By  this  system  of  circuits 
and  stations  their  ministers  have  spread  them- 
selves over  the  "West  and  South,  and  even  to 
California.  Their  general  assembly  has  under  its 
supervision  17  synods,  48  presbyteries,  1,000 
churches,  300  ministers,  480  licentiates  and  can- 
didates, and  a  membership  of  100,000.  Several 
religious  journals  are  published  under  their  aus- 
pices, and  they  have  flourishing  colleges  in  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee,  and  Ohio,  beside  10  seminaries. 
CUMING,  HuGir,  a  living  English  naturalist, 
born  about  1800,  and  residing  in  London.  His 
collection  of  shells,  over  60,000  in  number,  has 
for  several  years  been  famous  as  one  of  tlie  finest 
in  Europe.  In  1848  it  represented  more  than 
19,000  species  and  varieties,  and  has  since  been 
nmch  increased  from  the  principal  cabinets  on 
the  continent,  whicli  Mr.  Cuming  visits  annually, 
carrying  the  duplicates  of  his  rarities  and  ex- 
changing them.  His  specimens  are  wonderfully 
perfect  in  form,  texture,  and  color,  and  have  been 
amassed  not  only  by  diligently  frequenting  tha 
shops  of  commercial  naturalists  in  seaports,  but 


also  by  passing  30  years  of  his  life  in  travel  and 
personal  researches,  collecting  every  variety  of 
moUusks  from  their  native  seas  and  rivers,  in 
the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Indian  oceans,  aud  in 
the  islands  of  the  Malay  archii)elago.  lie  baa 
thus  been  able  to  describe  the  native  habitats 
and  habits  of  most  of  his  shells.  His  stores  are 
freely  opened  to  scientific  men,  and  have  fur- 
nished subjects  for  many  important  papers  in 
scientific  ])ublications. 

CUMMIN  SEED,  the  fruit  or  seed  of  tho 
cuminura  cyminum,  an  umbelliferous  plant,  cul- 
tivated in  the  East  from  the  remotest  times  for 
its  seeds,  which  have  a  bitter  and  aromatic 
taste,  and  a  peculiar  odor.  The  Latin  poets  al- 
lude to  their  power  of  producing  languor.  They 
are  obtained  in  Egypt,  Greece,  Malta,  and  Sicily. 

GUMMING,  Jonx,  D.D.,  a  popular  preacher 
of  London,  born  in  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland, 
Nov.  10,  1810,  was  educated  at  King's  col- 
lege, university  of  Aberdeen,  and  prepared  for 
the  Scottish  church,  but  on  completing  his  theo- 
logical studies,  engaged  as  tutor  in  a  school  near 
London.  Here  he  continued  until  1832,  when, 
having  been  previously  licensed  by  the  Scotch 
presbytery  of  London,  he  became  the  minister 
of  the  Scotch  church  in  Ci"Own  court,  Covent 
Garden,  a  relation  which  he  still  liolds.  He  is 
distinguished  for  eloquence,  both  in  the  pulpit 
and  on  the  platform,  for  controversial  acuteness, 
and  for  his  devotion  to  the  interests  of  the  Scot- 
tish cluirch.  Of  this  latter  cause  he  has  been 
the  principal  representative  in  London,  opposing 
himself  steadily  to  the  non-intrusion  movement 
of  which  Chalmers  was  the  leader.  As  an  au- 
thor, Dr.  Gumming  is  well  and  favorably  known 
both  at  homi*  and  in  this  country,  and  most  of 
his  numerous  works  have  been  republished  in 
America.  His  "  Apocalyptic  Sketches,"  "Lec- 
tures on  the  Parables,"  and  "Voices  of  the 
Night,"  liave  had  a  wide  circulation. 

GUMMING,  EoTTALETN  George  Goedox^,  a 
Scottish  sportsman  and  author,  born  March  15, 
1820.  He  is  the  second  son  of  Sir  William 
Gordon  Gordon  Gumming,  and  from  an  early 
age  had  abundant  experiences  in  hunting  as 
a  deer-stalker  in  the  highlands  of  Badenoch. 
He  spent  some  years  in  the  military  service 
in  India  and  the  Gape  of  Good  Ho])e,  but  left 
the  army  about  1843.  Between  October  of 
that  year  and  March,  1849,  he  made  5  hunt- 
ing expeditions  into  various  parts  of  South  Af- 
rica, which  he  has  recorded  in  his  "Hunter's 
Life  in  South  Africa,"  published  in  London  in 
1850,  and  republished  in  the  United  States.  His 
adventures,  as  related  by  himself,  partake  so 
largely  of  the  marvellous  that  their  accuracy  has 
more  than  once  been  called  in  question.  A  more 
serious  charge  against  him  is  his  indiscriminate 
and  useless  slaughter  of  a  variety  of  harmless 
animals,  which  he  destroyed  apparently  for  no 
other  purpose  than  to  increase  the  list  of  his 
victims.  He  derived  a  considerable  profit  from 
the  skins,  tusks,  and  other  trophies  of  the  chase, 
of  which  he  opened  a  remarkable  exhibition  on 
his  return  to  England.   He  claims  to  have  killed 


142 


CUMMINGS 


CmTEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS 


more  than  100  elephants.  Of  late  years  he  has 
found  sport  chiefly  in  the  Scottish  highlands. 

CUMMINGS,  Joseph,  D.D.,  president  of  the 
Wesleyan  university  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  born 
in  Falmouth,  Me.,  in  1817,  was  graduated  at  that 
institution  in  1840,  and  was  chosen  professor 
of  natural  science  in  the  Amenia  seminary, 
N.  Y.  In  1841  he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and 
in  1843  became  principal  of  the  seminary.  In 
1846  he  joined  the  New  England  conference, 
and  occupied  several  important  stations,  after 
which  he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology 
in  the  Methodist  general  Biblical  institute,  at 
Concord,  N.  II.  Subsequently  he  was  president 
of  Geneva  college,  N.  Y.,  for  4  years,  when  he 
was  elected  to  his  present  position. 

CUNDINAMAROA,  a  central  department  of 
New  Granada,  comprising  the  table-land  of  Bo- 
gota, a  small  part  of  the  llanos  near  the  sources 
of  the  Meta  and  Guaviare,  and  the  valleys  of  the 
lower  Cauca  and  the  upper  and  middle  Magda- 
lena ;  pop.  in  1853, 564,955.  It  is  well  timbered, 
contains  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  coal,  and  rock 
salt,  and  produces  almost  every  kind  of  crop  com- 
mon to  New  Granada.  The  cataract  of  Tequen- 
dama  and  the  natural  bridges  of  Iconozo  and 
Pandi  are  in  this  department.     Capital,  Bogota. 

CUNEGO,  DoME^nco,  an  Italian  engraver, 
born  at  Verona  in  1727,  died  in  Rome  in  1794, 
His  principal  works  are  22  plates  in  Gavin  Ham- 
ilton's Schola  Italiana,  and  his  outline  of  the 
"Last  Judgment,"  from  Michel  Angelo's  fres- 
coes in  the  Sistine  chapel. 

CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS,  or  Spheno- 
GRAMS  (Gr.  (T(})r]v,  Lat.  cuneu.%  a  wedge),  called 
also  Claviform,  Cludifoem  (Lat.  clavus,  medi- 
a3val  cludus,  a  nail),  and  Arrow-Headed  Ijt- 
scRiPTioNS,  are  monumental  records  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  ancient  Assyrian,  Babylonian, 
and  Persian  empires.  They  consist  of  letters, 
some  syllables,  and  a  few  monograms  or  com- 
pends,  which  contain  two  principal  elements, 
namely,  a  figure  resembling  a  wedge,  nail,  or 
arrow-head,  and  a  less  frequent  figure  like  a 
broken  bow  or  a  swallow-tail  (Fr.  cTievron). 
Some  other  shapes,  such  as  a  hammer,  a  dag- 
ger, angles  of  parallel  insertion,  mere  lines,  &c., 
all  without  a  curve,  are  less  frequent.  Tliey 
are  eitlier  cut  or  stamped  upon  the  substance 
bearing  them,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
material.  They  occur  on  tablets  cut  in  rocks, 
on  stone  slabs,  on  bass-reliefs,  on  winged  bulls, 
on  vases,  gems,  seals  (some  being  so  minute  as 
to  require  a  microscope),  on  sun-baked  or  kiln- 
burnt  bricks  or  small  cylinders ;  and  mostly  in 
horizontal  lines.  They  are  read  from  left  to 
right.  Most  of  them  are  found  within  the 
boundaries  of  the  ancient  great  Persian  empire, 
a  few  only  having  been  discovered  elsewhere. 
Democritus  called  them  Assyrian  letters,  and  is 
reported  to  have  written  a  treatise  on  them, 
and  to  have  translated  an  epigraph  on  a  pillar. 
The  companions  of  Alexander  the  Great  saw  a 
tablet  so  inscribed  near  Anchiale  in  Cilicia. 
Pietro  della  Valle  sent  the  first  Babylonian 
brick  to  Athana.sius  Kircher  in  1622.     Figueroa 


saw  sphenograms  at  Persepolis  about  the  same 
time.  Mandelslo  (1637),  Chardin  (1673),  Kiimp- 
fer,  and  Herbert,  found  traces  of  gold  in  some 
on  the  Chehel-minar  (40  pillars,  formerly 
called  Hezer-situn,  1,000  columns,  of  which  only 
15  were  standing  at  the  time  of  Ker  Porter's 
visit  in  1815).  Chardin,  Cornelius  Le  Bruyn, 
and  Gemelli-Carreri,  at  the  close  of  the  17th 
century,  copied  some  on  the  site  of  Persepolis 
and  elsewhere.  Tavernier  and  others  also  pub- 
lished some  account  of  them  in  1663.  Ker- 
manshah  (Carine),  W.  of  Behistun,  was  visited  in 
1737  by  Otter,  and  in  1743  by  Em.  de  St.  Albert, 
whom  D'Anville  quotes  as  the  first  writer  on 
sphenograms ;  by  Ivodja  Abd  ul  Kunim  of  Cash- 
mere in  1741,  &c.  In  1765  Carsten  Niebuhr 
copied  some  at  Persepolis  and  elsewhere,  more 
accurately  than  had  been  done  before,  also  giv- 
ing measurements  of  various  edifices.  In  1786 
Bishop  Beauchamp  found  bricks  at  Hillah,  and 
his  nephew,  the  abbe  Beauchamp,  visited  other 
places  beside  the  site  of  Babylon,  and  in  1790 
wrote  on  the  manner  of  searching  for  these 
monximents.  Andre  Michaux  had  sent  a  sphe- 
nogrammatic  flint  to  Paris  in  1782,  and  made 
researches  on  the  rocks  of  Alvand  (or  Ervend, 
ancient  Orontes),  near  Hamadan  (eastern  Ecba- 
tana),  in  1785.  These  places  were  also  examined 
by  Olivier  in  1796,  McKinneir  in  1810,  K.  Por- 
ter and  Bellino,  by  Keppell  in  1824,  Malcolm, 
Moriei',  Steuart,  and  Vidal,  Avho  copied  two 
tablets.  F.  E.  Schulz,  who  was  killed  by  tlie 
Koords  in  1829,  copied,  during  two  journeys, 
many  inscriptions  on  the  rocks,  on  church  walls, 
grottos,  &c.,  in  and  near  the  city  of  Van.  One 
of  these  sphenograms  contains  98  lines  with 
1,500  characters,  and  42  others  contain  about 
900  lines.  Col.  Monteith  found  two  near 
Ardzish,  and  another  on  the  road  to  Erzroum, 
the  furthest  one  to  the  N.  W.,  in  the  valley  of 
the  Little  Euphrates.  The  indefatigable  Raw- 
linson  copied  some  peculiar  ones  on  the  Tash- 
Tepe,  on  religious  subjects,  and  saw  another  on 
the  Keli-Shin,  a  mountain  pass,  which  was 
covered  with  ice.  A  sphenogram  of  the  same 
nature  was  found  by  Moltke  on  the  Euphrates, 
on  a  very  high  rock  above  Kumurhan,  on  the 
route  from  Ephesus  to  Babylon,  witliin  the 
chain  of  the  Taurus,  between  the  Armenian  and 
Mesopotamian  regions.  It  was  copied  by  Miihl- 
bach,  in  1840.  Lepsius  published  a  spheno- 
graphic  bass-relief  from  a  rock  on  the  Nahr  el 
Kelb  (Lycos)  near  Beyroot,  in  1838,  commemo- 
rating the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Cambyses,  hav- 
ing near  to  it  a  pillar  of  Rliamses  II.  (Sesostris). 
Gen.  Dagua  copied  one  with  the  head  of  Darius 
under  hawk's  wings  in  token  of  his  apotheosis, 
near  Abu  Kesheid,  on  the  canal  from  the  Nile 
to  the  Red  sea.  "Witsen  described  a  spheno- 
gram at  Tarku  (Albana),  N.  of  Derbend,  on 
the  Caspian  sea,  in  the  beginning  of  tlie  18th 
century.  Schulz  had  intended  to  go  in  search 
of  sphenograms  to  the  country  of  the  Sha-to, 
on  Lop  lake,  where  fire-worshippers  are  said  to 
dwell.  Copies  of  ancient  [MSS.  belonging  to  the 
Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  in  Malabar,  now  in  the 


CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS 


143 


library  of  Cambridge,  England,  contain  some 
very  ancient  Persepolitan  letters,  witli  4  otliers 
in  ancient  Hebrew,  and  one  in  an  unknown  char- 
acter. J.  Tod  affirms  that  he  saw  many  sphen- 
ograms  on  rocks,  j)illars,  &c.,  at  Mundore,  in  the 
state  of  Jhodpoor.  Sir  Harford  Jones  sent  a 
great  Assyrian  epigrapli  on  stone  to  the  East 
India  company  in  London,  in  1803.  W.  Ouse- 
ley  furnished  materials  for  si)henograi)hic  lit- 
erature in  1811.  The  widow  of  Claudius  J. 
Rich  republished  (London,  1839)  his  journey 
to  Babylon  and  Pcrsepolis,  made  in  1811,  with 
some  valuable  notices,  especially  on  Babylonian 
antiquities.  The  greatest  of  all  sphenograms, 
that  of  Behistun,  discovered  by  Iver  Porter, 
telescopically  examined  by  Coste  and  Flandin, 
and  explained  by  liawlinson,  is  spoken  of  be- 
low. The  rudest  cunei,  as  to  design  and  ex- 
ecution, are  those  found  at  Shuster  (in  Khuzis- 
tan  or  Susiana).  Layard  describes  a  species, 
containing  many  i^eculiar  groups,  found  near 
Mal-Amil,  between  Shuster  and  Ilamadan.  A 
new  period  of  sphenographic  discoveries,  joined 
with  those  in  ancient  Asiatic  architecture  and 
other  great  mementoes  of  bygone  civilization, 
was  inaugurated  by  P.  E.  Botta,  the  French 
consul  at  Mosul,  who,  encouraged  by  J.  Mohl, 
disinterred  a  great  palace  at  Khorsabad,  in 
March,  1843  {Monuments  de  Ninive^  with  de- 
signs by  E.  Flandin,  5  vols.,  Paris,  1849-50). 
His  rival,  the  Englishman  Austen  Henry  Layard, 
exhumed  3  palaces  in  the  mound  of  Nimroud  in 
1845,  and  one  in  thatof  Kuyunjik  in  1848,  dur- 
ing two  visits,  beside  making  discoveries  in  otlier 
places.  Two  of  the  former  are  the  most  ancient 
of  dll.  The  German  Oppert  is  now  (1859J  en- 
gaged in  examining  the  site  of  Babylon,  on  be- 
half of  the  French  government.  The  number  of 
sphenograms  thus  brought  to  light  is  surprising. 
A  summary  of  the  discoveries  at  Nineveh,  Baby- 
lon, and  Persepolis,  was  published  in  London,  by 
Vaux,  in  1851. — The  origin  of  sphenography  is 
enveloped  in  utter  darkness.  Ker  Porter  thinks 
it  antediluvian,  and  connected  with  the  tower  of 
Babel.  Brandis  and  others  derive  it  from  icono- 
graphy, in  the  manner  of  the  Egyptian  demotic 
and  the  Chinese  system  of  writing.  Thougli  no 
cuneiform  manuscript  has  yet  been  found,  Qua- 
tremere  supposes  a  cursive  style,  for  the  pur- 
poses of  common  transactions,  to  have  been  the 
prototype  of  the  monumental  style,  as  well  as 
of  the  square  character  of  the  Hebrews,  after 
their  return  from  the  Babylonian  captivity. 
Pauthier  endeavored  to  prove  the  origin  of 
cunei  from  a  cursive  style,  analogous  to  the  Zen- 
dic,  Sassanidic,  or  Palrayrenic  letters.  Schott- 
gen  attributes  the  introduction  of  sphenography 
into  Persia  to  Darius.  Barrois  very  expedi- 
tiously explains  all  styles  of  sphenography  by 
dactylology,  or  the  use  of  the  fingers,  in  indicat- 
ing the  sounds  of  language.  Gell  discovered  in 
1812  a  bronze  table  relating  to  the  Olympian 
games,  probably  of  tlie  50th  Olympiad,  or  577 
B.  C,  in  sphenoid  letters.  Some,  probably  ac- 
cidental, resemblance  to  cuneiforms  is  also  per- 
ceived in  the  runes  of  Helsingoland.    W.  Price 


saw  in  1825,  at  Shiraz,  an  old  manuscript  in  two 
kinds  of  letters,  one  of  which  seemed  to  him  to 
resemble  the  Persian  style  of  cunei.  Niebuhr 
distinguished  3  styles  in  the  Persepolitan  epi- 
graphs, and  classified  the  most  remarkable 
groups.  In  1798  0.  G.  Tychscn  supposed  that 
royal  titles  were  written  over  the  portraits  of 
kings,  and  gave  some  hints  as  to  the  means  of 
reading  tliem.  With  Mimter,  he  recognized 
the  key  in  a  frequently  recurring  word,  which 
he  suspected  to  signify  king.  Miinter,  with 
Herder,  in  1800,  supposed  tliat  there  were  3 
modes  of  writing,  viz.:  alphabetic,  syllabic,  and 
monogrammatic ;  he  thought  that  religious  mat- 
ters were  written  in  Zend,  and  political  affairs 
in  Pehlevic.  Joseph  J.  Hager,  in  1801,  believed 
the  Babylonian  to  be  alphabetic,  sacred,  and  not 
composed  of  mere  magic  signs,  as  some  had 
thought ;  having  inverted  the  cylinders,  he  tried 
to  read  it  in  the  Chinese  direction  downward 
and  leftward.  A.  A.  Lichtenstein  (1798-1803) 
asserted  the  Assyrio-Persian,  as  he  named  it,  to 
be  in  Cufic  letters,  containing  sentences  from 
the  Koran,  and  the  deeds  of  Tamerlane  in 
Neo-Persian.  The  abbe  Beauchamp  believed 
the  epigraphs  to  have  been  directions  for  the 
masons,  as  the  inscribed  side  of  the  Babylonian 
bricks  is  found  turned  inward  in  the  walls. 
Witte  even  alleged  that  the  characters  had 
been  produced  by  worms.  G.  F.  Gi-otefend, 
following  the  method  of  Sylvcstre  de  Sacy  in 
deciphering  the  Pehlevic  inscriptions  of  the  Sas- 
sanides  at  Naksh-i-Rustam  (1803),  although  he 
had  not  a  profound  knowledge  of  oriental  lan- 
guages, attempted,  on  the  suggestion  and  with 
the  aid  of  Fiorillo,  by  logical  induction,  to  un- 
ravel 2  inscriptions  copied  by  Le  Bruyn  and 
Niebuhr,  on  which  Tychsen  had  made  trials. 
He  guessed  the  2  other  writings  accompanying 
each  inscription  to  be  of  the  same  contents  with 
the  inscription.  After  a  careful  scrutiny  of  the 
forms  of  groups,  Grotefend  examined  the  Greek 
historians,  Mlinter's  essay,  and  Heeren's  his- 
torical researches,  to  ascertain  the  age  of  the 
Persian  kings.  Then  he  tried  to  find  in  the 
epigraphs  the  names  of  Cyrus  and  Cambyses ; 
but  the  groups  had  not  the  same  initials.  Cy- 
rus and  Artaxerxes  were  too  unequal  in  length. 
Darius  ami  Xerxes,  not  offering  either  of  the 
difficulties,  were  at  last  discovered.  The  groups 
that  might  denote  the  father  and  the  son  were 
also  found  in  proper  relation  with  each  other,  on 
both  specimens  ;  so  that  the  import  of  4  words 
could  be  relied  on.  Now  the  value  of  each 
group,  as  a  letter,  was  to  be  ascertained.  An- 
quetil-Duperron's  Zend  Avesta  was  resorted  to. 
But  as  Darius  is  there  called  Eanteraffcsh,  Grote- 
fend examined  WeoroJceshe,  which  is  the  name 
of  Araxes,  and  so  arrived  at  the  sound  of  the 
letter  x  in  Xerxes,  fixing  its  sound  to  be  Jcsh. 
By  repeated  examinations,  and  aided  by  ma- 
terials furnislied  to  him  by  Bellino  and  others, 
he  determined  the  values  of  d^d,  r,  «,  s,  kh,  p, 
t,  Eng.  j  and  /,  and  came  near  to  b,  dh,  Jim, 
respectively,  by  calling  them  v,  th,  7i.  He  thus 
gave  a  series  of  29  letters  and  one  compound 


144 


CimEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS 


sign  for  king,  nnd  read:  DarheusTi^  Ksharsha, 
Goshtaspahe,  AlchcotshosTcoh  ;  wlncli  liawlinson 
reads:  Ddrynvush,  Khshurlchsha.,  Vishtdspuhyci, 
HakhamanisJilyn.  These  cftbrts  were  made 
from  1802  to  181G,  aud  were  publislied  in  Ilee- 
ren's  works  in  1815,  and  in  English  in  1833. 
In  1820  Eask  rectified  Grotefend's  6  by  chang- 
ing it  to  m  and  tsh  to  ?i,  whereby  the  word 
answering  to  Acluemenlus  became  clear.  St. 
Martin,  following  Klaproth,  spoiled  the  7n  by 
changing  it  to  a,  and  the  ?i  to  m;  but  he  agreed 
with  both  his  predecessors  as  to  a,  ii,  t,  d,  p.  s, 
and  determined  correctly  v,  sh,  y,  among  las 
25  letters.  Eugene  Burnouf  (Commentaire  du 
Yapia,  Paris,  1833)  made  out  the  key  to  the 
grammar  of  the  language  of  the  Persian  text. 
This  language  is  derived  from  the  Zend,  has 
decaying  grammatic  forms,  foreshadowing  the 
Neo-Persian,  and  approaches  the  Semitic  type 
by  the  disappearance  of  vowel  signs.  lie  assigns 
to  15  letters  different  values  from  those  given 
by  his  successors,  and  makes  32  letters  in  ail, 
admitting  I,  which  is  rather  ?•  or  ru.  Burnouf 
and  Christian  Lassen  had  worked  independently 
at  first,  but  joined  their  eflforts  afterward.  Las- 
sen's exertions  date  from  1836,  1839,  aud  1844, 
when  on  receiving  exact  copies  of  various  Perse- 
politan  epigraphs,  made  by  N.  L.  "VVestergaard 
on  the  spot,  he  changed  some  of  his  previous 
views,  and  admitted  32  Persian  letters  and  2  com- 
pounds {thr,  rp),  arranging  them  analogously  to 
the  Dcvanagarl,  after  a  rectification  of  the  values 
of  all  his  predecessors.  H.  C.  Eawlinson,  who 
had  commenced  the  deciphering  of  the  same 
style  in  1835,  having  obtained  an  impression  on 
paper,  made  by  skilful  Ivoordish  climbers,  of  the 
high  trilingual  rock-hewn  epigraphs  of  Belris- 
tun,  published  his  views  in  1847  ("Journal  of 
the  Asiatic  Society,"  vol.  xii.),  almost  totally 
agreeing  with  Lassen,  and  admitting  35  letters 
and  2  monograms  (dah,  people,  and  luhmi, 
earth).  E.  F.  F.  Beer  reviewed  Grotefend, 
Burnouf,  and  Lassen  in  1837,  and  gave  some 
useful  hints.  Jacquet  also  discussed  the  sub- 
ject in  1838 ;  he  supposes  the  Behistun  epi- 
graphs to  belong  to  Semiramis,  and  commits 
other  inaccuracies. — The  2d  Achfemenian  style 
of  trilingual  sphenograms,  hypothetically  named 
Median  by  Westergaard,  was  to  a  great  extent 
deciphered  by  him  in  1844  (Memoires  de  la 
societe  royale  dcs  antiquaires  du  nord,  Copen- 
hagen). He  gives  IG  groups  of  consonants, 
beside  t  and  th,  G  vowels,  and  72  pure  syl- 
lables, with  2  ending  in  s  (as,  ahs) ;  out  of  82 
perfect  and  10  mutilated  and  spurious  groups. 
lie  also  derives  compounds  for  2jJi(tph,  lyh.  thr, 
dah,  and  humi,  counting  some  groups  both  as 
letters  and  as  syllables.  The  reading  of  the 
whole  is,  however,  yet  hypothetical  to  a  great 
extent,  owing  to  the  uncertainty  of  scholars 
as  to  the  language  in  which  this  version  of  the 
Persian  text  is  written.  Edward  Norris  calls 
this  version  Tartaric,  and  goes  so  far  as  even  to 
construct  a  Scytliian  grammar,  by  means  of  the 
Ostiak  and  Cheremisse  dialects  ("Journal  of 
the  Asiatic  Society,"  xv.).    Ilaug  also  wrote  on 


this  version  in  1855. — Tlie  3d  Achcomonian  style, 
called  Babylonian  by  Rawlinson,  very  much  re- 
sembles the  Assyrio-Babylonian,  and  is  yet  a 
problem  both  as  regards  its  phonetism  and  its 
language.  This  is  almost  generally  admitted  to 
be  a  Semitic  dialect.  Ernest  Renan,  one  of  the 
greatest  modern  Semitists,  asserts  tlie  2d  style 
to  be  Semitic,  although  he  denies  the  employ- 
ment of  such  uncouth  letters  for  a  language 
whose  alphabet  he  asserts  to  be  more  ancient 
and  better  than  the  oldest  sphenograms.  Oppert 
thinks  the  language  of  the  2d  style  nearer  to 
Ehkili  and  Mahri,  which  are  classed  under  the 
name  of  Cushitic,  as  a  branch  of  the  Semitic 
family.  Pehlevi  or  Iluzvaresh,  an  Aryo-Semitic 
idiom,  seems  to  be  the  real  language  of  the  2d 
or  Median  text.  This  disagreement  of  author- 
ities, amounting  even  to  a  confusion  of  the  two 
versions  of  the  Persian  text  with  each  other, 
shows  how  little  is  yet  known  about  either. 
M.  A,  Stern,  encouraged  by  Benfey  of  Bonn, 
asserts  that  he  has  found  the  key  to  the  3d  style, 
which  is  to  liini  nearly  Hebrew  and  Chaldaic, 
and  which  he  professes  to  read  almost  without 
any  difficulty.  He  rejects  the  whole  theory  of 
Rawlinson  and  of  Hincks,  who  admit  a  great 
many  ideograms,  and  a  confused  polyphony  in 
the  values  of  the  characters.  He  reads  each 
syllable  otherwise  than  De  Sacy,  adopts  literal 
groups,  and  classifies  257  of  them  in  26  catego- 
ries, headed  by  18  Hebrew  letters  (omitting  I 
and  ain),  adding  32  groups  for  combined  sounds. 
He  accepts  Botta's  homophons,  and  sneers  at 
Rawlinson  for  denying  triliteral  roots,  and  elicit- 
ing the  sense  of  only  200  words  from  the  Behistun 
text,  whereas  he  himself  has  found  4  times  as 
many,  in  proportion,  in  15  short  epigraphs.  Botta 
does  not  venture  on  the  slippery  path  of  exegesis, 
but  arranges  the  Ninevite  sphenograms  on  the 
basis  of  15  dominant  figures,  and  gives  a  general 
catalogue  of  642  groups,  with  their  variants,  in 
15  classes,  which  are  named  from  the  number  of 
elements  composing  them,  and  contain  lespect- 
ively  as  follows:  1st  class,  4;  2d,  16;  3d,  29; 
4th,  54;  5th,  91  ;  6th,  84;  7th,  77;  8th,  85  ;  9th, 
72 ;  10th,  51 ;  11th,  29  ;  12th,  22 ;  13th,  12 ;  14th, 
10 ;  15th  (15, 16  or  17  elements),  6.  He  also  gives 
tables  of  substitutions  and  parallels  of  the  spheno- 
grams of  Van,  Babylon,  and  the  3d  Achsemenian. 
Edward  Ilincks,  considered  by  some  as  the  de- 
cipherer of  the  cunei  of  Van,  having  written 
on  the  Khorsabad  style  of  Botta,  afterward 
abandoned  many  of  his  rash  assertions,  and 
published  his  Assyrio-Babylonian  phonetic  char- 
acters, in  1852  ("Transactions  of  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy,"  1S55).  He  abandons  the  me- 
thod of  proper  names,  but  relies,  especially  in 
triliteral  roots,  on  radical  analysis ;  asserts  that 
all  groups  represent  syllables,  and  that  the 
characters  of  single  syllables,  exclusive  of  the 
4  vowels  (a,  e  or  o,  i,  u),  have  7  different  forms 
(for  instance,  ^?a,  pe,  pi,  pu,  ap,  ip,  vp') ;  also 
that  the  syllabic  values  of  many  signs  are  fixed 
with  all  but  mathematical  certainty.  J.  Brandis 
attempts  to  exhibit  what  has  been  gained  for 
history  from  the  deciphering  of  the  Assyrian 


CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS 


145 


8i)hcnograms ;  nlso  the  fundamentfil  traits  of  the 
Assyrio-Babylonian  system  (1850);  but  liH  at- 
tempts fall  very  short  of  the  mark  in  respect  of 
both  these  objects.  Barrois  indulges  his  imagina- 
tion both  on  sphenograms  and  hieroglyphs,  and 
strenuously  endeavors  to  write  out  the  law  tablets 
of  Moses  in  arrow-heads. — The  Assyrian,  Baby- 
Ionian,  and  Elymnaan  systems  and  languages  still 
wait  for  an  (Edipus  to  solve  their  riddles.  It  is 
certain  that  from  time  immemorial  3  peoples  of 
ditfereut  characters  and  languages  were  living  in 
close  contact  and  in  various  relations  as  to  polit- 
ical power,  in  the  countries  where  sphenogra- 
phy  was  practised.  These  3  groups  of  nations  are 
the  Semitic,  Aryan  or  Iranian,  and  the  Turanian 
(Aniranian,  Scythic,  Tartaric,  or  Allophylic  of 
various  writers).  Westergaard  distinguishes  5 
styles  of  sphenograms,  viz. :  the  Babylonian,  As- 
syrian, and  the  3  on  the  Achairaenian  monu- 
ments. Rawlinson  assumes  that  there  are  5  As- 
syrio-Babylonian styles,  viz.  :  the  primitive  Ba- 
bylonian, Achffimeno-Babylonian,  Medo-Assy- 
rian  (at  Van,  Layard's  earlier  Assyrian),  Assyrian 
(Layard's  later  Assyrian),  and  Elymtean  or  Susi- 
anian.  Of  these  the  Assyrian  of  Nimroud  is,  how- 
ever, more  ancient  than  the  Babylonian,  which 
is  rather  elongated  and  hence  apparently  derived 
from  the  former.  The  styles  of  Khorsabad  and 
Kuyunjik  are  less  ancient  than  that  of  the 
northwestern  palace  at  Nimroud.  Botta,  Stern, 
and  others  attribute  many  of  the  variations  to 
provincial  and  calligraphic  causes.  As  to  their 
configuration,  the  Babylonian  sphenograms  are 
most  complicated,  the  Persian  the  most  simple 
and  of  the  latest  date,  having  probably  ended 
with  the  overthrow  of  the  Acha3menian  empire 
by  Alexander.  The  vertical  cunei  prevail  in  the 
Persian,  while  the  other  languages  abound  in  the 
horizontal.  There  the  words  are  divided  at  the 
end  of  the  lines;  not  so  in  others,  which  exhibit 
the  Semitic  mode,  by  carrying  the  cunei  some- 
times even  over  to  the  back  of  the  slabs.  In 
the  Assyrian  the  wedges  have  4  directions,  often 
crossing  each  otlier,  and  the  names  of  persons, 
God,  countries,  &c.,  are  preceded  by  determi- 
native monograms.  The  Babylonian  cunei  lie 
in  8  directions,  and  every  epigraph  on  bricks 
begins  with  a  star-like  figure  of  4  wedges  cross- 
ing each  other;  it  has  also  parallel  angles  insert- 
ed within  others,  and  opening  downward  and 
rightward ;  also  many  dagger-like'  lines.  Of  this 
style.  Rich  distinguishes  3  species.  Rawlin- 
son thinks  that  the  following  list  contains  all 
the  Persian  epigraphs:  1,  Morier's  on  the  4 
broken  pilasters  at  Murgab,  near  Pasagardte, 
N.  E.  of  Persepolis,  containing  "  I,  Kurush,  king 
Achannenian ;"  2,  that  at  Persepolis,  on  the 
palace  of  Darius,  twice  over  the  doors ;  3  and  4, 
on  2  slabs,  enumerating  nations;  5,  at  Alvand; 
6,  at  Naksh-i-Rustam,  near  Persepolis,  on  the 
rock-sepulchre  of  Darius,  containing  more  names 
of  conquered  nations  than  that  of  Behistun  ;  7, 
one  of  about  60  lines,  of  which  Westergaard 
copied  but  2,  containing  probably  moral  and  re- 
ligious precepts ;  8,  near  Suez :  "  Darius,  king 
great;"  9,  that  on  the  windows  of  the  palace  of 
VOL.  VI. — 10 


this  king,  in  18  places,  all  trilingual;  10,  that 
of  Behistun;  11,  3  only  on  Babylonian  cylin- 
ders :  "  I,  Darius,  king."  All  these,  except  tho 
first,  are  of  Darius;  the  8  now  following  are  of 
Xerxes:  1,  at  Alvand,  a  single  line,  perhaps  on 
a  road-mark ;  2  to  5,  on  various  parts  of  his 
jjalace ;  G,  at  Van,  probably  engraved  on  his 
return  from  Europe,  copied  by  Schulz,  and 
more  completely  by  E.  Bore,  in  1828,  a  13aby- 
lonian  transcript;  7,  on  the  palace  of  Darius, 
at  Persepolis,  stating:  "My  father  built  this 
house,"  &c.  ;  8,  Darius,  trilingual,  on  the  vase 
of  Caylus,  where  the  hieroglyphs  show  the 
phonesis  :  Khshaijursha  naga  wazarlca.  No 
sphenograms  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  or 
of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon  have  yet  been  found. 
The  2  of  Artaxerxes  Ochus  exhibit  barba- 
risms ;  they  are :  1,  on  the  staircase  of  the 
terrace  of  the  palace  of  Darius,  relating  his 
descent  from  Arshama  and  Vishtilspahya,  &c., 
and  invoking  the  blessing  of  Ormuzd  ;  2,  the  le- 
gend in  Babylonized  orthography :  ArdaMcha- 
shcha  naga  tcazai-lxt,  "  Artaxerxes,  king  great," 
upon  an  Egyptian  vase,  in  hieroglyphs  and  the 
3  Achajmenian  species,  preserved  in  the  treas- 
ury of  St.  Mark's,  at  Venice.  The  most  recent 
of  all  known  sphenograms,  with  mixed  charac- 
ters, is  that  of  Tarku,  which  Burnouf  attributes 
to  one  of  the  30  Arsacidas,  kings  of  Parthia 
(250  B.  C.  to  A.  D.  226).  Herodotus  mentions  2 
pillars  of  Darius  on  the  Bosporus,  erected  Avhile 
he  was  assailing  the  Scythians,  with  the  names 
of  the  nations  in  his  army ;  the  one  in  Greek, 
the  other  in  Assyrian. — Rawlinson's  Behistun 
inscription  consists  of  4^  great  Persian  columns 
and  11  detached  pieces,  embracing  as  much  of 
the  language  as  had  been  previously  discovered 
from  all  otlier  monuments  put  together.  The  5 
columns  of  the  so-called  Median  are  partly  mu- 
tilated, and  the  Babylonian  version  is  only  on  4 
columns.  This  document  is  inscribed  upon  the 
sacred  rock  on  the  W.  frontiers  of  Media,  on  the 
high  road  from  Babylonia  eastward.  The  hill 
of  Bagistane  (God's  place),  rising  abruptly  from 
the  plain  to  a  vertical  height  of  about  1,700 
feet,  was  most  fit  for  a  memento  of  the  deeds 
of  Darius,  immediately  after  he  ascended  the 
throne.  It  informs  the  world,  that  while  occu- 
pied in  the  reform  of  the  national  faith,  an  in- 
surrection was  easily  checked  in  Susiana  ;  that 
soon  afterward  a  pretended  son  of  Nabonidus  of 
the  house  of  Nabonassar  was  conquered  in  Ba- 
bylon ;  that  a  league  between  Media,  Assyria, 
and  Armenia  was  defeated  with  great  difficulty 
by  himself  in  person ;  and  that  several  other 
insurrections,  especially  a  most  dangerous  one 
in  Persia,  raised  by  another  pseudo  Smerdis,  had 
been  suppressed.  "When  probably  on  the  road 
to  Babylon  to  quell  a  new  rebellion,  and  he  heard 
of  its  being  put  down,  he  engraved  his  thanks- 
giving to  Ormuzd  on  this  sacred  spot,  in  the  5tli 
year  of  his  reign  (516  B.  C).  The  incision  is 
about  300  feet  from  the  base  of  the  rock;  and 
its  inaccessibility  preserved  it  from  the  icono- 
clastic fury  of  Islam.  For  extent,  beauty  of 
execution,  uniformity,  and  correctness,  this  in- 


146 


CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS 


scription  is  perlmps  uncquallea,  tlie  Persian  be- 
ing superior  to  any  engraving  even  at  Persep- 
olis,  the  Median  equally  admirable.  A  coating 
of  silicious  varnish  is  yet  visible  on  the  tablet, 
•where  it  has  not  fallen  off  from  the  limestone, 
■which  is  softer  than  this  covering.  Darius  be- 
gins by  proclaiming  his  genealogy  and  titles 
in  the  following  strain:  Adam  Ddrayatush^ 
Jchshdyathii/a  vazarha,  l-Jishdijatliiya  khsJidya- 
thiytmdm,  khuJidyathiya  Pdrsiya^  Iclishdyathiya 
dahyaundm^  Vish(dS}jaJiyd  piitra^  Arshdmahyd 
napd,  Hulihdmanisliiyd.  Regularly  translated 
into  Latin,  which  language  admits  the  inflections 
of  the  original,  this  is  :  Ego  Darius,  rex  magnus, 
rex  regiun,  rex  Persia^,  rex  gentium,  Ilystaspis 
Jilius,  Arsamis  nejyos,  AchcBmenius.  Some  defec- 
tive Persian  passages  are  restorable  from  both 
versions  or  from  either,  and  vice  versa.  All  other 
paragraphs  or  specilic  proclamations  begin  thus: 
Thdtiya  Ddrayavush  khshdyathiya  {Prcedicat 
Darius  rex).  The  0th  of  the  1st  column  enu- 
merates, after  the  heading,  the  provinces  of 
iis  empire,  thus :  Imd  dahydva  tyd  mandpatiyd- 
isha,  vushnd  Auramazddha  adamshdm  Mshdya- 
thiya  dham  (Ecce  regiones  quibus  ego  ptotitus ; 
gratia  Ormuzdi  ego  /actus  rex  sum):  Pdrsa, 
''Uvaja,  Bdhirusli,  Athurd,  Arabdya,  Mudrdya, 
tyiya  darayahyd,  Sup)arda,  Yund,  Mdda  (re- 
stored from  the  Scythic  Ma-pata),  Katapatulca, 
Parthva,  Zaraka,  Hariva, '  Uvdrazniiya,  Baklita- 
rish,  Suguda,  Geiddra,  Salca,  Thatagush,  Hara 
\ivatisTi,  Maka,fraJiarvam  dahydva  XXIlI{Per- 
sia,  Susiana,  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Arabia,  Misra 
^jEgypitus^  quceviaritimw,  Saparda,  Ionia,  Me- 
dia, Vappadocia,  Parthia,  Zarangia,  Arya,  Cho- 
rasmia,  Bactria,  Sogdiana,  Gandaria,  Sacep, 
Sattagydia,  AracJiosia,  Mecia,  simul  2'>'>'ovincicB 
XXIII).  J.  Oppert,  one  of  the  latest  investigators 
of  Babylonian  and  other  kindred  antiquities,  pub- 
lished in  1857  the  translation  of  the  inscription 
on  the  sepulchre  of  Darius  I.  at  Naksh-i-Rustam. 
lie  believes  it  to  be  next  in  importance  to  that 
of  Behistun ;  and  he  calls  the  first  version  of 
the  Persian  text  Medo-Scytbic,  and  the  second 
Assyrian.  It  runs  thus :  Baga  vazarTca  Aura- 
mazdd  hya  imdni  bumim  add  hya  avam  as- 
mdiiam  add  hya  martiyam  add  hya  Siyatim 
add  martiyahyd  hya  Ddreiyamim  Idisuyathi- 
yam  ahunaus  aivam  2)(truvnd77i  Ichshdyathiyam 
aivam  paruimdm  framdtdram,  «S:c. ;  in  Latin : 
Deus  magnus  Ormazdes,  qui  hanc  terrain  crcavit, 
qui  istud  cailum  fecit,  qui  hominem  fecit,  qui 
imperium  dedit  homini,  qui  Darium  regcm  con 
stiiuit  unum  multorum  rcgem,  unum  multorum 
imp)eratorem,  &c.  Next  follow  his  titles  and 
genealogy,  and  the  names  of  his  provinces,  viz. : 
Mdda,  llvazd,  Parthava,  Haraira,  Bdlhtris, 
Sugda,  Uvarazmis,  Zaranlca,  Harauvatis,  Thata- 
zus,  Gdnddra,  Hindus,  Said  humargd,  Bakd 
tigrakhauda,  Yaund  Salcd  tyaiy  jyaradarniya, 
Shudra  Yaund,  Putiyd,  Kusiyd,  Maciyd,  Kar- 
Tcd ;  in  Latin :  Media,  Elyma'is,  Parthia,  Aryana, 
Bactria,  Sogdiana,  Chorasmia,  Sarangia,  Ara- 
chotis,  Sattagydia,  Gandaria,  India,  Scythcejyas- 
tores,  Scythoisagittarli;  qui  trans  mare :  Scodri 
lonescrinibusplcxis  (European  Greeks),P«i,  Cus, 


Maxyes  (I.ibyans),  Carthago.  Then  follows  a 
passage  concerning  the  usurper  Pseudo-Smerdis: 
Auramazdd  yathd  avaina  imam  bumim  ydtum 
pamva  dim  mand  frabaramdm  Ihshdyathiyam 
ahunaus,  &c. ;  adam  aim  gdthavd  niyasddayam, 
&c. ;  in  Latin  :  Ormazd  quum  vidisset  hanc  ter- 
ram  magicam  (under  the  superstition  of  the 
Magi),  tunc  earn  mihi  tradidit,  &c. ;  ego  in  rectum 
rejwsui,  «&c.  Oppert  agrees  with  Niebuhr  and 
Ileeren,  in  following  Herodotus  in  the  belief 
that  the  rebellion  of  Gaumata,  recorded  at  Be- 
Listun,  was  that  of  Smerdis  the  Magian  both  as 
a  national  and  religious,  or  Medo-Magian,  leader. 
But  Rawlinson  and  others  contend  that  it  Avas 
merely  an  attempt  to  substitute  the  rule  of  tlie 
priests  for  that  of  the  warriors.  Magism,  as  the 
religion  of  Turan,  was  opposed  to  the  Mazdeism 
of  the  Aryan  Persians  and  Medes.  The  latter 
was  upheld  by  the  Achc'cmenian  dynasty,  as  a 
state  religion,  even  after  it  had  yielded  to  the 
former  in  Media.  On  account  of  the  restoi'ation 
of  the  temiiles  and  worship,  after  the  over- 
throw of  Gaumata,  Darius  was  believed  by  some 
to  have  been  contemporary  with  Zoroaster.  The 
Acha3menida3  were  one  of  the  13  tribes  of  the 
Pasagardffl.  The  families  of  the  6  conspirators, 
who  had  assisted  Darius  against  the  first  rebel 
Magus,  had  the  privilege  of  furnishing  wives  to 
the  Achosmenians.  There  was  no  other  nobility 
by  birth  in  Persia. — The  oldest  Assyrian  records 
are  those  of  conquests.  In  the  N.  W.  palace  at 
Nimroud  there  are  slabs,  vases,  &c.,  bearing  the 
names  of  kings,  an  Egyptian  cartouche,  and  the 
best  sphenograms  yet  discovered.  A  second 
period  shows  still  further  traces  of  an  intei-- 
course  of  the  empire  with  Egypt,  as  early  as  the 
18th  Egyptian  dynasty.  Egyptian  monuments 
confirm  this  intercourse  reciprocally,  as  shown 
by  II.  Brugsch  {Geographie  der  Nachbarldnder 
Aegyptens,  Leipsic,  1858).  The  results  of  a  thor- 
ough and  unprejudiced  comparison  of  the  As- 
syrian monuments  with  those  of  Egypt,  are 
likely  to  upset  a  great  many  theories  on  the 
races,  politics,  religion,  industry,  and  fate  of  the 
early  inhabitants  of  western  Asia. — Among  the 
numerous  legends  on  Babylonian  bricks,  cylin- 
ders, &c.,  the  standard  one  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
is  the  most  remarkable.  It  begins  with  his 
titles,  continues  with  prayers  to  Sferodach  and 
Nebo,  then  records  the  wonders  of  Babylon, 
viz. :  the  great  temple  of  Merodach  (the  mound 
of  Babel  is  its  tower),  the  Borsippa  temple 
(Birs  Nimroud),  and  other  temples,  and  finally 
describes  the  city,  thus :  "  The  double  enclosure 
which  Nabopolassar,  my  father,  hod  made,  but 
not  completed,  I  finished.  With  2  long  em- 
bankments of  brick  and  mortar  he  bound  its 
(Euphrates)  bed,  made  a  bridge,  &c.  The  Irgar- 
Bel  and  the  Nimiti-Bel — the  great  double  wall 
of  Babylon — I  finished,"  &c.  In  tliis  legend  the 
names  of  many  works  at  Babylon  and  Borsippa, 
mixed  with  invocations  to  the  gods  and  wishes  for 
the  duration  of  various  edifices,  are  mentioned 
in  great  detail.  It  may  also  be  remarked  that 
the  bricks  were  mixed  with  chopped  straw, 
and  often  glazed  ;  that  the  walls  built  with  them 


CUKHA 


CUNNINGHAM 


147 


were  cemented  with  Litiimen.  No  remains  of 
columns  occur,  eitlier  .atEabylon  or  at  Nineveh. 
The  bricks  may  liave  been  pubHc  ducuinents,  or 
dedications  to  the  gods;  the  cylinders  may 
have  been  used  instead  of  seals;  in  short,  most 
of  the  points  concerning  these  remains  are  yet 
involved  in  obscurity. — See  also  Thomas  Mau- 
rice, "  Observations  on  the  Ruins  of  Babylon  " 
(London,  1816);  Obry  d' Amiens,  Revue  du  me- 
moire  de  BurnoaJ\  &c.  {Journal  Axiatique^  i.  ii. 
183G);  Cullimore  "On  Oriental  Cylinders" 
London,  1842);  Ilolzmann,  Beiiribje  zur  ErklCv- 
rung  penischcr  KclJschrift  (Carlsruhe,  1845); 
"  The  History  of  llerodotiis,"  by  George  liaw- 
linson,  assisted  bv  Sir  Henry  Rawliuson  and  Sir 
J.G.  Wilkinson  (London,  1858-'9). 

CUNHA,  Tristan  da,  a  Portuguese  naval 
commander  of  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury. He  figures  in  Camoens'  "Lusiad"  as  a 
discoverer  of  a  group  of  islands,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  continues  to  bear  his  name. 

CUNHA  MATTOS,  Ratmusde  Jose  da,  a 
Brazilian  general,  born  Nov.  2,  1776,  at  Faro,  in 
the  Portuguese  province  of  Algarve,  died  in 
March, 1840.  He  entered  the  Portuguese  army  in 
1790,  and  served  3  years  in  the  south  of  France, 
and  18  years  in  the  island  of  St.  Thomas,  Africa; 
was  then  called  to  Eio  de  Janeiro,  and  after- 
ward acted  for  some  time  as  governor  of  St.  Tho- 
mas. From  the  first  he  distinguished  himself 
both  as  a  soldier  and  as  a  writer  on  the  countries 
through  whicli  he  passed.  In  1817  he  returned 
to  Brazil,and  was  appointed  commander-in-chief 
of  the  artillery  of  Pernambuco,  and  subsequently 
military  governor  of  the  province  of  Goyaz. 
Here  he  collected  valuable  materials  for  a  work 
upon  the  interior  of  Brazil,  which  was  published 
in  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  1836.  To  this  city  he  re- 
moved in  1826,  on  occasion  of  his  election  to  the 
Brazilian  legislative  assembly.  The  military 
academy  of  Rio  was  placed  under  his  direction 
in  1832,  and  shortly  afterward  he  was  promoted 
to  the  highest  rank  in  the  Brazilian  army.  lie 
was  secretary  for  life  of  the  industrial  aid  so- 
ciety, and  one  of  the  founders  and  for  several 
years  vice-president  of  the  historical  society  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro. 

CUNHA  BARBOSA,  Januario  da,  a  Bra- 
zilian prelate  and  statesman,  born  July  10, 1780, 
died  Feb.  22, 1846.  Brought  up  for  the  priest- 
hood, he  was  for  son^e  time  chaplain  of  John 
VL,  and  afterward  professor  of  moral  philoso- 
phy. In  conjunction  with  Ledo  he  established 
(Dec.  15,  1821)  a  political  journal  at  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro, entitled  Reverhero  constitucianal  flumi- 
nenst\  in  which  he  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
upon  the  public  mind  in  favor  of  Brazilian  inde- 
pendence. After  this  had  been  declared,  Cun- 
ha  was  at  the  instigation  of  his  enemies  arrest- 
ed, Dec.  7,  1822,  and  banished  to  France.  Two 
years  afterward  the  government  offered  him  a 
reparation  for  the  injustice  of  which  he  had 
been  the  victim,  by  appointing  him  officer  of 
the  newly  founded  order  of  the  Cruzeiro,  and 
canon  of  the  imperial  cliaiiel.  In  1826  he  took 
his  seat  in  the  first  Brazilian  legislative  assem- 


bly as  member  for  the  province  of  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro. The  rest  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  the 
political  and  intellectual  development  of  Brazil. 
In  concert  with  Gen.  Curdia  Mattos,  he  found- 
ed the  liistorical  and  geographical  society  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  conducted  the  Revista  tri- 
menaal,  which  recorded  its  proceedings.  At  tho 
same  time  he  was  editor  of  the  Diario  do  go- 
veriw,  a  politicid  journal  favorable  to  the  policy 
of  the  government,  and  of  the  Auxillador  da 
industria  nacioiidl,  a  paper  devoted  to  the  in- 
terests of  agriculture  and  industry.  These  mul- 
titudinous journalistic  labors  did  not  interfere 
with  his  clerical  duties,  nor  Avitli  the  various 
trusts  which  devolved  upon  him  as  examiner  of 
the  synod,  imperial  historiographer,  and  director 
of  the  national  library.  He  was  just  about  to 
propose  a  comprehensive  educational  reform 
when  he  died.  He  left  2  small  volumes  of 
poems. 

CUNIN-GRIDAINE,  Laurent,  a  French 
manufacturer,  born  at  Sedan  in  1778,  rose  to 
the  position  of  minister  of  commerce  in  1837. 
Apprenticed  in  early  life  to  the  extensive  cloth 
manufactory  of  Gridaine  and  Bernard,  he  becamo 
the  son-in-law  and  partner  of  M.  Gridaine.  In 
1817  he  was  chosen  to  the  chamber  of  deputies, 
Avhere  he  afterward  opposed  the  administration 
of  Polignac.  After  the  revolution  of  1830  he 
became  secretary  and  vice-president  of  the 
chamber,  and  officiated  as  minister  of  commerce 
almost  uninterruptedly  from  1837  to  1848. 

CUNNINGHAM,  Alexander,  a  Scottish 
classical  scholar,  son  of  the  minister  of  Cum- 
nock, Ayrshire,  died  in  1730.  The  date  of  his 
birth  is  uncertain,  as  is  also  the  place  of  his 
education,  althougli  circumstances  indicate  that 
he  studied  at  Leyden  and  Utrecht,  and  defrayed 
the  cost  of  his  studies  by  acting  as  private  tutor. 
By  the  interest  of  the  Queensberry  family,  whom 
he  had  taught,  ho  received  from  the  crown  the 
appointment  of  professor  of  civil  law  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  In  support  of  this  office 
the  Scottish  parliament  in  1698  voted  £150  ster- 
ling annually  for  10  years.  The  magistrates  of 
the  city,  however,  were  jealous  of  the  power 
assumed  by  the  crown  to  nominate  to  professor- 
ships, and  in  1710  they  gave  the  place  to  another. 
Mr.  Cunningham  retired  to  the  Hague,  where 
he  spent  the  rest  of  his  days  in  philological  pur- 
suits. He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Leibnitz, 
Le  Clerc,  and  indeed  of  most  of  the  scholars  of 
the  day.  Ho  published  annotated  editions  of 
Horace,  Virgil,  and  ^Esop.  Some  of  his  criti- 
cisms aroused  a  lively  controversy  witli  Dr. 
Bentley.  His  chief  work,  which  he  did  not 
live  to  complete*,  was  a  critical  digest  of  the 
Pandects  of  Justinian.  He  had  also  in  contem- 
plation a  work  on  tho  evidences  of  Christianity. 
— Another  man  of  celebrity,  named  Alexander 
Cunningham,  flourished  at  the  same  time.  Tho 
two  are  often  confounded.  Both  wer«  Scotch- 
men, educated  in  Holland,  tlie  sons  of  clergy- 
men ;  both  were  classical  scholars,  and,  in  their 
yottth,  tutors.  The  present  Cunningham,  a  his- 
torian, was  born  at  Ettrick  in  1654,  died  in  Lon- 


148 


CUNNINGHAM 


CUPEL 


don  about  1737.  His  pupils  liaving  introduced 
him  into  the  upper  circles  of  society,  he  returned 
from  Holland  to  England  in  the  suite  of  the  prince 
of  Orange.  Subsequently  he  was  George  I.'s 
minister  to  Venice,  from  1715  to  1720.  Long 
after  his  death  his  Latin  manuscripts  fell  into 
the  hands  of  his  relative,  Dr.  Hollingbery,  arch- 
deacon of  Chichester ;  and  in  1787  lh\  William 
Thomson  published  a  translation,  entitled  the 
"  History  of  Great  Britain,  from  the  Kevolutiou 
in  1688  to  the  accession  of  George  L" 

CUNNINGHAM,  Allan,  a  Scottish  poet  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  at  Blackwood,  in 
Dumfriesshire,  in  1785,  died  in  London,  Nov.  5, 
1842.  He  was  of  humble  parentage,  his  family, 
which  had  formerly  been  wealthy,  having  lost 
its  patrimonial  estate  by  taking  the  side  of 
Montrose.  He  learned  from  his  father  a  love 
for  old  Scottish  tales  and  ballads,  and  was  sent 
to  school  till  his  12th  year,  when  he  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a  stonemason.  In  his  18th  year, 
having  already  written  several  poetical  pieces, 
he  sought  the  acquaintance  of  the  Ettrick  Shep- 
herd, who  has  left  in  his  "Reminiscences"  a 
notice  of  him  as  at  that  time  "  a  dark,  ungainly 
youth,  with  a  broadly  frame  for  his  age,  and 
strongly  marked  manly  features,  the  very  model 
of  Bnrns,  and  exactly  such  a  man."  Oromek, 
who  had  collected  the  poetical  relics  of  Burns, 
having  determined  to  gather  the  remains  of 
Nithsdale  and  Galloway  song,  engaged  Cun- 
ningham for  an  assistant,  who  furnished  him 
materials  sufficient  for  an  octavo  volume,  which 
was  published  in  1810.  It  soon  appeared  that 
Cunningham  was  the  original  author  of  the 
most  beautiful  pieces  in  the  collection.  At  the 
age  of  25  he  went  to  London,  and  during  4 
years  established  a  literary  reputation  by  nu- 
merous contributions  to  periodicals,  especially 
to  the  "London  Magazine."  At  once  a  mason, 
poet,  and  journalist,  in  1814  he  was  selected  by 
the  sculptor  Chantrey  to  be  his  foreman  and  the 
confidential  manager  of  his  establishment,  in 
Avhich  congenial  position  he  remained  till  the 
artist's  death.  To  him  Chantrey  was  indebted 
not  only  for  many  suggestions,  but  for  numer- 
ous critiques  in  periodicals  by  which  his  repu- 
tation was  extended.  Though  relieved  from  the 
necessity  of  depending  on  authorship,  Cunning- 
ham continued  a  diligent  and  constantly  im- 
proving writer.  Some  of  his  songs,  with  which 
his  fame  began,  and  upon  which  it  will  mainly 
rest,  were  declared  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  to  rival 
those  of  Burns.  His  various  publications  are : 
"Sir  Marmaduke  Maxwell"  (1822),  a  wild  dra- 
ma founded  upon  border  superstitions ;  sever- 
al novels,  often  written  with  beauty  and  force, 
but  distinguished  by  exaggerated  ornament  and 
extravagance  of  imagination,  as  "Paul  Jones," 
"Sir  Michael  Scott,"  "LordRoldan,"  and"  Tra- 
ditional Tales ;"  the  "  Life  of  Burns"  (1834),  and 
the  "Life  of  Sir  David  Wilkie"  (1843);  the 
"Maid  of  Elvar,"  a  poem;  the  "Songs  of  Scot- 
land, Ancient  and  Modern,  with  Introduction 
and  Notes"  (1826),  which  contains  mahy  of  his 
own  best  poems;  the  "Lives  of  the  most  emi- 


nent British  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Archi- 
tect^"  (1830),  which  was  characterized  by  Prof. 
Wilson  as  "  full  of  a  fine  and  instructed  enthu- 
siasm ;"  and  the  literary  illustrations  to  Major's 
"  Cabinet  Gallery  of  Pictures."  His  ballads 
and  smaller  poems  are  graceful,  natural,  airy, 
and  eminently  Scotch. — Peter,  eldest  son  of 
the  preceding,  an  English  autlior,  born  in  Lon- 
don, April  7,  1816.  He  was  made  clerk  in  the 
audit  office  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  at  the  age  of  18, 
is  one  of  the  regular  contributors  to  "  Eraser's 
Magazine,"  and  had  the  charge  and  arrangement 
of  the  works  of  art  in  the  Manchester  exhibition 
of  1857.  He  has  written  an  excellent  "  Hand- 
book of  London,"  full  of  pleasant  and  curious 
local  information,  together  with  other  interest- 
ing topographical  works.  He  edited  the  poems 
of  Drummond  of  Hawthornden  (1833),  and  has 
edited  the  "  Works  of  Goldsmith,"  and  a  new 
edition  of  "Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets,"  and 
is  now  (April,  1859)  completing  Croker's  edition 
of  Pope. 

CUNNINGHAM,  John,  a  British  poet,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1729,  died  in  1773.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  wine  merchant,  adopted  the  stage  as  a  pro- 
fession, in  which,  however,  he  did  not  attain 
celebrity,  although  he  was  much  respected,  and 
wrote  several  small  volumes  of  poetry,  distin- 
guished by  pastoral  simplicity  and  sweetness 
(London,  1766,  8vo. ;  reprinted  in  the  14th  vol. 
of  Chambers's  collection  of  the  poets). 

CUNOCEPHALI,  or  CTNooEpnALi  (Gr.  kvwk, 
dog,  and  Ket^aX?;,  head),  in  the  mythology  of  the 
Egyptians,  a  kind  of  dog-faced  baboons,  greatly 
venerated  by  them,  and  supposed  to  be  en- 
dowed with  wonderful  powers.  By  the  as- 
sistance of  these  animals  they  discovered  the 
particular  periods  of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  it 
was  said  that  half  of  the  animal  was  often  buried 
while  the  other  half  survived.  The  dog-head 
was  a  favorite  symbol  with  the  Egyptians. 
The  god  Anubis  was  represented  in  this  man- 
ner, though  the  head  of  his  image,  as  is  ren- 
dered probable  by  modern  researches,  is  that  of 
a  jackal.  Cunocephali  have  also  been  found  in 
India  and  elsewhere. 

CUPEL,  CuPELLATioN.  lu  the  article  Assay- 
ing the  method  of  separating  the  unoxidizable 
metals  gold  and  silver  from  the  easily  oxidized 
metal  lead,  by  the  process  of  cupellatipn,  has 
been  described.  The  cup-shaped  vessels,  called 
cupels,  in  which  the  melted  alloy  is  exposed  to 
a  current  of  air  playing  upon  its  surface,  are 
made  of  a  paste  formed  of  the  ashes  of  burnt 
bones,  mixed  with  water,  to  which  a  little  glue 
may  be  added  or  not.  This  is  kneaded  into  the 
form  of  a  shallow  cup,  and  dried  not  so  rapidly 
that  the  paste  shall  crack.  Cupels  are  manu- 
factured on  a  large  scale,  to  be  used  in  separat- 
ing silver  and  gold  from  lead,  and  from  lead  and 
copper ;  on  a  smaller  scale,  for  use  in  the  mints 
and  assay  office ;  and  of  very  small  size  for  blow- 
pipe operations.  The  great  cupels  or  tests  used 
in  large  metallurgic  operations  are  of  oval  form, 
4  feet  long  and  2^  feet  on  the  smaller  diameter. 
They  are  constructed  within  a  hoop  or  frame 


CUPICA 


CURACOA 


149 


of  i-inch  bar  iron,  4  inches  deep,  with  several 
Avidc  cross  hars  arranged  to  form  an  open  kind 
of  floor,  upon  wliich  the  sifted  bone  ash,  mixed 
■with  about  -^V  its  bulk  of  fern  ashes  or  ^\-  its 
weight  of  pearlasli,  is  firndy  rammed.  In  tliis 
a  cavity  is  scooped  out  Avitli  a  trowel  about  2| 
inches  deep,  leaving  a  wall  of  bone  ash  2  inches 
thick  at  top  and  3  at  bottom,  one  end  only  re- 
taining 5  inches  thickness — the  bottom  1  inch. 
At  the  thick  end  or  breast  a  segment  of  the 
bone  ash  is  removed,  leaving  an  opening  between 
the  cupel  and  the  hoop.  The  wliole  piece  is 
then  set  in  a  furnace,  of  which  it  forms  the 
floor,  and  after  being  cautiously  heated,  the 
alloy,  called  rich  lead,  is  poured  into  it.  At 
the  end  opposite  the  breast  the  nozzle  of  a 
powerful  blowing  apparatus  is  placed,  so  as  to 
direct  a  current  of  air  over  the  surface  of  the 
melted  metals.  A  portion  of  the  litharge  sinks 
into  the  cupel,  and  the  remainder  is  blown  across 
and  falls  through  the  opening  in  the  breast  into 
a  vessel  placed  to  catch  it. 

CUPIOA,  a  village  and  seaport  of  New  Gra- 
nada, on  a  small  bay  of  the  same  name,  near 
the  entrance  to  the  bay  of  Panama;  lat.  6°  40' 
N.,  long.  77°  50'  W.  It  has  been  proposed  as 
the  Pacific  terminus  of  an  interoceanic  ship 
canal ;  its  distance  from  the  head  of  navigation 
on  a  branch  of  the  Atrato  river,  which  flows 
into  the  gulf  of  Darien,  being  only  17  miles. 

CUPID  (Lat.  cupido,  desire),  called  by  the 
Greeks  Eros,  the  god  of  love.  In  the  earlier 
times  of  Grecian  mythology  Eros  was  one  of 
the  chief  and  oldest  of  the  gods,  and  an  im- 
portant agent  in  the  formation  of  the  world,  he 
having  brought  order  out  of  chaos.  But  later 
he  was  the  god  of  sensual  love,  and  one  of  the 
youngest  of  the  celestials.  It  is  from  this  later 
Eros  that  we  have  our  common  idea  of  Cupid. 
He  is  the  son  of  Venus ;  but  the  honor  of  his 
paternity  is  variously  given  to  Mercury,  Mars, 
and  Jupiter.  He  is  usually  represented  as  a 
winged  boy,  with  a  bow  and  arrows ;  sometimes 
he  is  figured  as  blind,  and  he  usually  accompa- 
nies his  mother  Venus.  He  held  sway  over 
gods  and  men,  and  the  great  Jupiter  himself 
was  not  secure  from  liis  attacks.  He  was  very 
mischievous,  and  his  Avantonness  furnished  the 
later  poets  with  the  theme  for  many  stories.  He 
had  sharp,  golden  arrows,  to  excite  love,  and 
blunt,  leaden-headed  darts,  to  inspire  aversion 
in  the  breasts  of  his  victims. 

CUPPING,  a  method  of  local  abstraction  of 
blood,  through  small  scarifications  of  the  integu- 
ment, by  the  assistance  of  bell-shaped  glasses 
exhausted  of  air ;  when  the  object  is  merely  to 
draw  blood  to  a  part,  for  purposes  of  revul- 
sion, the  exhausted  glass  is  used  without  in- 
cision of  the  skin ;  the  latter  is  called  dry  cup- 
ping. The  old  method  of  exhaustion  was  by 
burning  a  bit  of  ])apcr,  or  a  few  drops  of  alco- 
hol, in  the  inferior  of  the  glass,  which  was  then 
immediately  applied  to  the  skin ;  a  more  con- 
venient and  certain  exhaustion  is  now  obtained 
by  means  of  a  small  syringe  attached  to  the 
cup ;  by  the  latter  method  the  risk  of  burning 


the  patient  is  avoided,  the  locality  may  be  c-are- 
fully  selected,  and  the  pressure  accurately  grad- 
uated. Even  for  dry  cujiping  it  is  well  to  ap- 
ply heat  to  the  skin,  in  order  to  render  it  more 
vascular.  If,  after  the  blood  be  drawn  to  the 
I)art  by  a  dry  cup,  it  be  desirable  to  deplete 
the  vessels,  the  skin  may  be  cut  by  a  bistoury  or 
lancet,  or  by  an  instrument  for  the  purpose, 
called  a  scarificator ;  this  consists  of  a  square 
box  of  brass,  in  which  are  mounted  from  6  to  16 
blades,  which  are  set  and  discharged  by  a 
spring;  the  depth  of  the  incision  can  be  ex- 
actly regulated,  and  the  action  is  so  instan- 
taneous that  very  little  pain  is  felt.  From  these 
little  wounds  the  pump  draws  into  tlic  glass 
from  1  to  5  oz.,  according  to  its  size;  after 
sufficient  blood  has  been  drawn,  a  piece  of  ad- 
hesive plaster  is  put  on  to  close  them  and  pre- 
vent suppuration.  Dry  cupping  is  of  great 
utility  in  congestions  of  tlie  brain  and  lungs,  ap- 
plied in  the  first  case  to  the  nape,  shoulders, 
and  arms,  and  in  the  second  to  the  back  and 
base  of  the  chest ;  also  in  diseases  of  the  eyes. 
The  amount  of  blood  taken  by  cups  can  be  well 
measured ;  they  are  less  disgusting  than  leeches, 
quite  as  eftectual  when  they  can  be  applied,  and 
not  liable  to  be  followed  by  inflammation  of 
the  wounds  ;  they  are  employed  both  after,  and 
in  place  of,  general  bleeding.  In  pneumonia, 
pleurisy,  and  abdominal  inflammations,  and  va- 
rious local  affections,  they  are  applicable  when 
venesection  would  be  out  of  the  question,  and 
are  generally  preferable  to  leeches.  Cups  may 
be  used  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  the  virus 
in  poisoned  wounds  and  bites.  M.  Junod,  in 
France,  in  1838,  invented  a  monster  apparatus, 
capable  of  receiving  the  whole  lower  extremity, 
in  which  by  means  of  a  pump  the  limb  could  be 
compressed  or  placed  in  a  comparative  vacuum ; 
the  derivative  and  revulsive  effects  of  this  appa- 
ratus were  most  energetic,  amounting,  if  desired, 
to  the  production  of  syncope. 

CURAQOA,  CuRAf;AO,  Curazoa,  or  CrRAs- 
»ou,  an  island  of  the  Dutch  "West  Indies,  in  the 
Caribbean  sea.  46  m.  N.  from  the  coast  of  Ven- 
ezuela; lat.  12°  3'  to  12°  24'  N.,long.  G8°  47'  to 
69"  16'  W. ;  length  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.  36  m., 
breadth  8  m.  ;  pop.  in  1857,  17,864,  of  whom 
15,076  were  Catholics,  1,922  Protestants,  and 
866  Jews.  It  has  a  hilly  surface,  with  rugged 
coasts,  and  is  exceedingly  barren.  The  climate 
is  dry  and  hot,  though  tempered  by  sea  breezes, 
and  the  island  is  visited  by  the  yellow  fever  ev- 
ery 6  or  7  years.  Fresh  water  is  scarce,  and  is 
obtained  either  from  rain  or  deep  wells.  Severe 
droughts  frequently  occur;  the  soil  is  so  poor  that 
provisions  are  imported,  and  some  of  the  prod- 
ucts once  cultivated,  as  indigo,  cotton,  and  co- 
coa, are  now  entirely  neglected.  Sugar,  tobacco, 
maize,  cochineal,  cattle,  horses,  asses,  sheep,  and 
goats  are  raised;  the  tamarind,  banana,  cocoa 
palm,  orange,  and  various  kinds  of  kitchen  vege- 
tables, grow  well,  and  from  the  lime  is  made  the 
celebrated  Curazoa  liqueur.  Excellent  fish  are 
taken  off  the  coast,  but  the  staple  of  the  island 
is  salt,  which  is  obtained  by  natural  evaporation 


150 


CURASSOW 


to  the  amount  of  about  250,000  barrels  per  an- 
num. Iron  and  copper  ores  exist,  but  are  not 
worked.  Tlic  total  imports  are  valued  at  $1,- 
000,000  annually,  and  tbe  exports  at  $1,125,000. 
The  principal  harbor  is  that  of  Santa  Anna  on 
the  S.  W.  coast,  one  side  of  the  narrow  entrance 
to  wliich  is  defended  by  Fort  Amsterdam,  while 
on  the  other  stands  "Willemstad  or  Ouragoa,  the 
capital  of  the  island  and  of  a  government  wliich 
includes  this  and  the  neighboring  islands  of 
Buen  Ayre,  Oruba  (or  Aruba),  and  Little  Cura- 
goa,  and  presided  over  since  1855  by  R.  F.  van 
Lansberge.  Cura^oa  was  settled  by  the  Span- 
iards in  the  ICth  century,  taken  by  the  Dutch 
in  the  I7th,  captured  by  the  British  in  1798,  re- 
stored to  Holland  at  the  peace  of  Amiens,  again 
seized  by  England  in  1800,  and  finally  given  up 
to  the  Dutch  in  1814. 

CURASSOW,  a  name  given  to  two  genera  of 
birds  of  the  order  gallinw,  and  the  fiimily  cra- 
cidee ;  the  two  genera  are  crax  and  pauxi^  both 
peculiar  to  America.  The  curassows  have  the 
bill  moderately  long,  strong,  generally  elevated 
at  the  base,  with  the  culmen  curved,  and  the 
sides  compressed  to  the  obtuse  tip ;  the  nostrils 
are  lateral  and  large,  with  an  opening  partly 
closed  by  a  crescentic  or  rounded  membrane ; 
the  hind  toe  is  long,  and  on  the  same  plane  with 
the  others.  In  the  genus  craz  the  bill  is  mod- 
erate ;  the  wings  short  and  rounded,  with  the 
6th  to  the  8th  quills  equal  and  the  longest;  the 
tail  long-and  rounded ;  the  tarsi  robust,  longer 
than  the  middle  toe,  and  covered  in  front  by 
broad  scales ;  the  toes  long,  strong,  and  covered 
with  prominent  scales,  the  lateral  toes  being 
equal ;  the  claws  are  moderate,  compressed,  and 
curved.  Six  species  are  described,  of  which  the 
most  interesting  are:  1.  The  crested  curassow 
(C.  alector^  Linn.),  of  a  general  black  color, 
with  the  lower  belly  white,  and  the  cere  yel- 
low ;  the  head  is  ornamented  with  a  crest  of 
recurved  and  frizzled  feathers,  radiated,  alter- 
nately white  and  black ;  the  sides  of  the  head 
and  base  of  the  bill  are  bare ;  at  certain  ages  the 
body,  wings,  and  tail  are  banded  with  white.  It 
is  3  feet  long,  about  as  large  as  a  turkey.  This 
species  has  frequently  been  carried  to  Europe 
from  Guiana,  and  is  the  one  generally  seen  in 
collections ;  in  addition  to  its  pleasing  appear- 
ance, it  is  mild  and  social  in  its  manners,  and 
affords  a  savory  and  nutritious  article  of  food. 
It  inhabits  the  forests  of  tropical  America  in 
large  flocks,  whose  peaceable  members  seem 
not  to  fear  man  unless  in  the  neighborhood  of 
dwellings.  The  nest  is  of  very  rude  construc- 
tion, placed  upon  dry  branches  on  trees,  and 
lined  with  leaves ;  the  eggs  are  from  2  to  6  in 
number,  white,  resembling  those  of  the  turkey. 
Though  living  in  the  wildest  localities,  it  exhib- 
its a  remarkable  disposition  to  become  tame, 
and  flocks  of  them  are  frequently  domesticated ; 
they  perch  in  elevated  situations,  on  roofs  and 
high  trees;  they  are  easily  reared,  as  almost 
any  kind  of  vegetable  food  agrees  with  them ; 
maize,  rice,  bread,  potatoes,  and  all  kinds  of 
fruits,  are  eagerly  eaten  by  them.     There  is  no 


doubt  that  these  and  the  allied  species  could  bo 
introduced  with  advantage  into  the  list  of  do- 
mesticated birds,  both  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe.  2.  The  globose  curassow  (C.  globicera, 
Linn.)  is  distinguished  by  a  callous  globular  tu- 
bercle at  the  base  of  the  bill,  inclining  back- 
Avard,  covered,  like  the  base  of  the  mandibles, 
with  a  bright  yellow  cere  ;  the  general  color  is 
black,  with  the  vent  and  tip  of  the  tail  white. 
This  bird  unites  with  the  preceding  and  the  next 
species,  producing  hybrids,  which  may  be  more 
or  less  continued  by  intermixture  of  the  prim- 
itive stocks,  presenting  a  very  great  variety  of 
colors;  from  this  has  arisen  many  a  supposed 
new  species.  3.  The  red  curassow  (C.  ruhra, 
Linn.)  has  no  tubercle  on  the  bill,  and  has  the 
region  of  the  eyes  feathered ;  the  color  of  the 
under  i>arts  is  a  bright  chestnut,  with  the  head, 
neck,  and  tail  banded  with  black  and  white,  and 
occasionally  with  yellow.  4.  The  wattled  curas- 
sow (  G.  carimculata,  Temm.)  has  the  head  black, 
the  belly  chestnut,  and'the  cere  and  naked  parts 
red,  with  a  black  crest.  The  other  species  are  C. 
globulosa  (Spix),  and  C.  urumutiim  (Spix). — In 
the  genus  pauxi  the  bill  is  short,  and  the  cul- 
men is  elevated  and  much  curved  ;  the  6th  and 
Yth  quills  are  equal  and  the  longest ;  the  greater 
part  of  the  head  is  covered  with  short  velvety 
feathers.  Three  species  are  described  :  1.  The 
cushew  curassow  (P.  galeata,  Lath.),  with  a 
hard  and  thick  oval  tubercle,  of  a  blue  color,  at 
the  base  of  the  bill ;  general  color  black,  but 
about  the  vent  and  the  end  of  the  tail  white  ;  it 
is  abmit  the  size  of  a  turkey,  and,  like  the  other 
curassows,  is  readily  domesticated.  2.  The 
razor-billed  curassow  (P.  mitit^  Linn.)  is  smaller 
than  the  preceding,  being  about  2^  feet  long ; 
of  a  black  color,  with  the  belly  chestnut.  3. 
The  P.  tomeiitosa  (Spix). — The  curassows  (or 
hoccos,  as  they  are  sometimes  called)  and  the 
pauxis,  with  the  penelope  or  guan,  are  to  South 
America  what  the  turkey  is  to  North  America ; 
in  the  state  of  domestication  they  exhibit  the 
same  traits  and  habits  as  ordinary  poultry ;  they 
are  polygamous,  many  females  being  attached 
to  a  single  male ;  they  are  easily  acclimated  in 
Europe,  and  of  course  would  be  in  the  United 
States;  they  live  in  peace  with  other  gallina- 
ceous birds,  and  rarely  utter  any  discordant 
cries — qualifications  of  which  many  of  our  do- 
mestic fowls  are  destitute.  The  flight  of  the 
curassows  is  heavy  and  ill  sustained  ;  but  they 
run  with  great  rapidity,  carrying  the  tail  in  a 
pendant  position.  According  to  Sonnini,  their 
cry  may  be  represented  by  the  syllables  "  po- 
hic  ;"  in  addition  to  this  they  make  a  dull  hum- 
ming sound,  as  does  the  turkey,  variously 
modified  by  the  remarkable  sinuosities  of  the 
windpipe.  The  trachea  in  the  cracidce  differs 
from  tliat  of  other  gallinaceous  birds  in  its  re- 
markable circumvolutions.  In  the  curassows 
proper  they  take  place  at  the  lower  part  of 
the  neck,  or  in  the  thoracic  cavity ;  in  the 
pauxis  they  are  directed  on  the  muscles  of  the 
breast,  immediately  under  the  integuments ;  but 
in  none  of  them  does  the  trachea  form  itfe  con- 


CURATE 


CURCULIO 


151 


volutions  in  th«  interior  of  the  breast  bone,  as 
in  the  swans.  In  the  crested  curassow  the 
trachea  is  flattened,  chietly  membranous,  with 
the  rings  entire  and  very  distant  from  each 
otiicr;  it  describes  a  broad  curve  between  the 
bones  of  the  furca,  goes  back  2  inches  over  the 
muscles  of  tlie  neck,  and  then  makes  a  second 
circumvolution,  from  wjiich  it  takes  the  usual 
form  as  far  as  the  lower  larynx,  where  it  is 
suddenly  dilated.  In  the  pa lui,  the  trachea  at 
the  opening  of  the  tliorax  ascends  over  the 
riglit  great  pectoral  muscle  at  a  distance  from 
the  crest  of  the  breast  bone,  continues  along 
this  muscle,  and  forms  a  curve  passing  some- 
what behind  this  bone ;  it  then  proceeds  over 
the  left  pectoral  muscle,  making  a  turn  on  the 
side  of  the  breast  bone,  passing  behind  it  above 
the  first  curve ;  then  it  turns  again  to  the  right, 
and  passes  over  the  riglit  clavicle  into  the  cav- 
ity of  the  chest.  The  windpipe  may  be  short- 
ened or  lengthened  by  muscular  action.  This 
conformation  is  doubtless  connected  with  the 
loud  and  sonoi'ous  voices  of  tliese  birds.  The 
curassows  are  extensively  distributed  over 
America,  being  found  in  tlie  Guianas,  Brazil, 
Paraguay,  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  prob- 
ably in  some  of  the  "West  India  islands.  It 
would  be  worthy  of  trial  to  introduce  this 
family  of  birds  into  our  southern  and  middle 
states ;  they  would  in  course  of  time  add  an 
important  article  of  food,  and  afford  a  new 
source  of  profitable  industry. 

CURATE  (Lat.  curare,  to  take  care),  the 
lowest  degree  of  clerical  rank  in  the  church 
of  England,  so  called  from  having  the  care  of 
souls.  The  curate  is  the  substitute  or  assistant 
of  the  actual  incumbent.  Perpetual  curacies 
are  those  where  there  is  neither  rector  nor 
vicar,  but  the  tithes  having  been  appropriated, 
the  lay  appropriator  is  obliged  to  appoint  a  curate 
at  a  stipend.  In  large  parishes  it  is  usual  to  ap- 
point more  than  one  curate  to  officiate  in  the 
parish  church,  and  to  assist  the  incumbent  in 
his  duties.  There  are  also  curates  in  chapels 
of  ease,  and  in  the  modern  foundations  known 
as  district  churches,  which  belong  to  ecclesias- 
tical subdivisions  within  parishes,  and  subor- 
dinate to  the  rector  or  vicar  in  some  matters, 
though  independent  in  others.  By  act  1  and  2 
Victoria,  the  lowest  stipend  to  be  paid  to  a 
curate  is  £80 ;  the  sum  rising,  in  proportion 
to  the  population  of  th«  cure,  to  £150,  as  a 
maximum.  Curates  who  are  not  merely  assist- 
ants to  a  rector  or  a  vicar,  are  usually  incum- 
bents of  cliurches  in  which  no  vicarage  was 
ever  established,  or  incumbents  of  foundation 
later  than  the  date  of  the  foundation  of  parish- 
es, and  endowed  by  the  special  bounty  of  par- 
ticular persons. 

CURCULIO,  or  Plum  Weevil,  a  small  beetle 
of  the  family  curculionida,  and  genus  rhynchce- 
nm  (Fabr.),  i?.  nenitj^har  (Ilerbst.).  The  per- 
fect insect  is  about  \  of  an  inch  long,  of  a  dark 
brown  color,  variegated  with  white,  yellow,  and 
black  spots;  it  looks  like  a  dried  bud  when 
6haken  from  a  tree,  and  remains  motionless 


when  disturbed,  feigning  death.  The  head  is 
furnished  with  a  long  curved  snout,  bent  under 
the  thorax  when  at  rest,  which  is  used  to  make 
the  crescent-shaped  cut  in  which  the  egg  is  de- 
posited ;  tlie  jaws  are  at  tlie  end  of  the  snout ; 
the  thorax  is  uneven,  and  the  wing  cases  are 
ridged  and  humped,  covering  2  transparent 
wings  by  which  the  insect  flies  from  tree  to 
tree ;  behind  the  humps  there  is  a  yellowish 
white  spot ;  each  thigh  has  2  small  teeth  on  the 
under  side.  These  beetles  appear  between  the 
first  of  x\pril  and  the  middle  of  June,  according 
to  the  forwardness  of  vegetation.  "When  the 
plums  are  about  the  size  of  peas,  the  female  be- 
gins to  sting  the  fruit,  making  an  incision  in  the 
skin,  in  which  she  deposits  a  single  egg ;  she 
goes  from  plum  to  plum,  placing  an  egg  in  each 
until  her  store  is  exhausted,  hardly  a  fruit  es- 
caping when  these  insects  are  abundant.  The 
grubs,  resembling  whitish,  footless  maggots, 
with  a  rounded,  distinct,  light  brown  head,  are 
hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  immediately 
burrow  obliquely  to  the  stone  ;  the  fruit,  weak- 
ened by  the  gnawing  of  the  grub,  becomes 
gummy,  and  falls  to  the  ground  before  it  is 
ripe ;  by  this  time  the  grub  has  attained  its  full 
size,  quits  the  fruit,  and  enters  the  ground  be- 
tween the  middle  of  June  and  the  middle  of 
August  in  New  England ;  it  there  becomes  a 
pupa,  and  comes  forth  a  perfect  insect  in  about 
3  weeks.  Several  broods  may  be  hatched  in  a 
season,  the  latest  ones  remaining  as  pupa)  in 
the  ground  all  winter ;  some  good  authorities 
believe  that  the  curculio  passes  the  winter 
above  ground  in  the  perfect  state,  and  therefore 
that  any  operations  in  the  soil  at  this  season  can 
be  of  no  advantage  in  guarding  against  its  rav- 
ages. Not  only  plums,  but  nectarines,  apricots, 
peaches,  cherries,  apples,  pears,  and  quinces, 
are  attacked  by  the  curculio.  The  grubs  are 
sometimes  found  in  excrescences  on  plum  trees, 
in  which  the  beetle,  finding  in  them  an  acid 
resembling  that  of  the  fruit,  has  deposited  the 
eggs,  and  hence  has  often  been  wrongfully 
accused  of  producing  these  swellings.  As  the 
curculio  is  a  good  flier,  any  efforts  to  prevent 
its  ascending  the  trunks  of  trees  must  be  of 
no  avail.  Among  remedies  which  have  been 
found  successful  on  a  small  scale,  the  following 
deserve  mention  :  sudden  jars  of  the  limbs  in 
the  morning  and  evening  in  June,  when  they 
are  depositing  their  eggs,  will  cause  many  to 
fall  upon  sheets  spread  beneath  the  trees,  from 
w'hich  they  may  be  collected  and  destroyed; 
scattering  air-slacked  lime  in  damp  days  on  the 
trees  once  a  week  for  6  weeks,  beginning  soon 
after  the  fruit  is  discoverable  ;  sprinkling  flour 
of  sulphur  over  them  about  the  time  the  fruit  is 
setting,  and  once  or  twice  afterward;  applying 
by  means  of  a  syringe  a  whitewash  solution, 
rendered  sticky  by  a  little  glue.  All  fallen  fruit 
should  be  destroyed  by  heat,  that  the  grubs  may 
not  escape  into  the  ground,  and  give  rise  to  a 
new  generation ;  diseased  excrescences  should 
be  cut  out ;  the  admission  of  swine  and  poultry 
about  the  trees  wiU  cause  many  of  the  larvae  to 


152 


CURES 


CURLEW 


be  devoured  before  they  can  enter  tke  ground. — 
Tlie  gray-sided  curculio  is  pale  brown,  from  -J- 
to  5  of  an  inch  long  ;  the  larvjo  live  in  the  trunks 
of  the  white  oak,  on  which  the  beetles  may  be 
found  about  the  beginning  of  June.  Other 
curcuUonidm  destroy  pine  trees,  and  infest  va- 
rious kinds  of  nuts  in  this  country.  In  Europe 
there  are  many  species  which  as  yet  are  not 
found  here.  The  most  destructive  of  the  fam- 
ily are  those  which  attack  wheat  and  other 
grains.     (See  Weevil.) 

CURES,  la  ancient  geograph}",  a  town  of  the 
Sabines,  25  m.  from  Rome,  near  the  left  bank 
of  the  Tiber.  In  the  time  of  Romulus,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  the  people  of  Cures  were  unit- 
ed with  the  inhabitants  of  Rome,  whence  the 
latter  were  afterward  designated  Quirites.  The 
colleague  of  Romulus,  Tatius,  and  Numa  Pom- 
pilius,  the  2d  king  of  Rome,  were  both  natives 
of  Cures.  The  city  fell  into  decay  at  a  very 
early  period,  was  revived  by  Sylla,  and  was  at 
last  destroyed  by  the  Lombards  in  the  6th  cen- 
tury. The  modern  village  of  Correse  occupies 
its  site. 

CURETES,  priests  and  ministers  of  Cybele 
or  Rhea.  The  rites  and  orgies  with  which  they 
celebrated  the  worship  of  their  deity  were  al- 
most identical  with  those  of  the  Corybantes. 

CURFEW,  the  evening  bell  (spelled  also 
curfeu,  carfou,  and  courfeu,  a  corruption  of  Fr. 
couvre  fev),  so  called  from  the  evening  bell 
having  been  the  signal  to  extinguish  fire  on  the 
hearth  and  remain  within  doors.  The  practice 
was  common  in  the  middle  ages.  Polydore 
Virgil  states  that  Williana  the  Conqueror  intro- 
duced it  into  England  as  a  measure  of  police. 
The  obligation  of  extinguishing  fire  and  light 
on  the  ringing  of  the  curfew  was  abolished  in 
England  by  Henry  I.  in  1100,  but  the  evening 
bell  itself  was  continued.  We  find  entries  in 
the  municipal  records  of  "  ryngyng  ye  curfewe," 
"  a  man  to  ring  the  curfew,"  "  new  rope  for  the 
curfew  bell,"  and  so  on,  as  late  as  the  beginning 
of  the  16th  century.  The  evening  bell  and 
prayer  bell,  still  tolled  at  stated  hours  in  some 
places,  had  their  origin  in  the  couvi-e  feu. 

CURI^,  the  name  of  certain  divisions  of  the 
people  of  ancient  Rome.  Romulus  divided  the 
wliole  population  into  3  tribes,  and  each  tribe 
into  10  curia).  Although  there  were  afterward 
35  tribes,  yet  the  number  of  the  curiai  remain- 
ed always  the  same.  At  first  these  curia)  pos- 
sessed considerable  political  importance,  but 
from  the  time  when  Servius  Tullius  instituted 
the  centuries,  their  influence  became  slight. 
The  place  where  a  curia  met  was  also  called 
curia,  and  the  place  where  the  senate  met  was 
designated  by  the  same  name.  In  the  Roman 
provincial  cities,  the  name  was  applied  to 
the  body  which  administered  the  aftairs  of  the 
town,  and  was  responsible  to  the  Roman  gov- 
ernment for  the  taxes.  In  the  middle  ages  the 
name  was  also  given  to  a  solemn  assembly  of 
the  counts  and  prelates  of  the  empire. 

CURIATIL     See  IIoratii. 

OURIO,  C.  ScEiBONius.     I.  A  Roman  publi- 


cist, a  son  of  C.  Scribonius  the  orator,  died  in 
53  13.  C.  He  was  tribune  of  the  ])eople  in  90  B. 
C,  praitor  in  82,  and  consul  in  V6.  On  the  ex- 
piration of  his  consulship,  he  obtained  the  pro- 
vince of  Macedonia,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  by  waging  successful  war  against  the 
barbarians  dwelling  north  towai-d  the  Danube. 
In  57  he  returned  to  Rome  and  was  a])pointed 
])ontifex  maximus,  which  oflBce  he  held  till  his 
death.  He  had  some  reputation  as  an  orator, 
and  was  at  once  a  virulent  enemy  of  Caesar  and 
an  intimate  friend  of  Cicero.  II.  A  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  made  tribune  of  the  people  in  50 
B.  C.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  Ca3sar 
sent  him  to  act  against  the  party  of  Pompey  in 
Sicily.  He  succeeded  in  driving  Cato  out  of 
that  island,  but  venturing  to  cross  over  to  Afri- 
ca, he  was  defeated  and  slain. 

CURLEW,  a  bird  of  the  order  grallm,  fam- 
ily scolo2Mcidm,  subfamily  limosinm  (which  in- 
cludes both  curlews  and  godwits),  and  genus 
numcnius  (Lath.).  The  bill  is  long,  slender, 
curved  from  the  base,  with  sides  compressed 
and  grooved ;  the  upper  mandible  projecting 
over  the  lower,  aud  obtuse ;  wings  long  and 
pointed,  the  1st  quill  the  longest ;  tail  short 
and  even ;  tarsi  long  and  slender ;  toes  mod- 
erate, lateral  ones  unequal  and  united  at  their 
bases ;  hind  toe  long,  slender,  and  partly  rest- 
ing on  the  ground  ;  claws  short  and  dull.  There 
are  nearly  20  species  described,  scattered  over 
tlie  temperate  regions  of  tlie  world  in  the  win- 
ter, and  going  north  in  summer  ;  they  frequent 
the  borders  of  the  sea,  and  muddy  and  sandy 
shores,  sometimes  visiting  moors  and  marshy 
plains,  in  search  of  worms,  larva),  Crustacea, 
and  mollusks,  which  they  extract  froni  the 
moist  ground,  often  from  under  water,  with 
their  long  bills  ;  they  also  eat  berries  from  the 
fields  and  woodlands.  The  nests  are  formed  on 
the  ground  in  holes,  lined  Avith  grass,  and  the 
eggs  are  generally  4  in  number.  The  long-bill- 
ed curlew,  or  sickle-bill  {N.  longirostris,  Wils.), 
is  the  largest  of  the  American  species,  and  may 
readily  be  distinguished  from  all  others  by  the 
length  of  the  bill,  which  is  from  7  to  9  inches ; 
the  total  length  to  end  of  claws  is  29  inches, 
the  extent  of  wings  40  inches,  and  the  weight 
about  If  lbs.  The  general  color  of  the  plumage 
is  pale  reddish  brown,  the  head  and  neck 
streaked  with  dusky ;  the  upper  part  of  the 
throat,  and  a  band  from  the  bill  to  the  eye,  light 
buflf;  above  marked  with  blackish  brown,  tail 
barred  with  the  same  ;  abdomen  plain  yellow- 
ish red ;  feet  bluish.  Though  found  in  the 
north,  it  is  most  abundant  at  the  south,  where 
it  resides  all  the  year  aud  breeds ;  it  feeds  dur- 
ing the  day  in  the  marshes,  retiring  to  the 
shores  in  large  flocks  at  night ;  the  favorite 
food  is  small  fiddler  crabs.  They  are  easily 
shot,  though  rather  tenacious  of  life,  frequenting 
for  some  time  the  same  resting  place  ;  they  an- 
swer readily  the  fowler's  calk  The  flesh  is 
tough  and  fishy,  and  decidedly  inferior  to  the 
smaller  species.  They  are  occasionally  seen  as 
far  north  as  Boston.     The  Esquimaux  curlew, 


CURLEW 


CURRAN 


153 


pometimes  called  dongh-Lird  (iVl  horealis,  Lath.), 
has  a  bill  about  2^  inches  long,  and  tarsi  1| 
inches;  the  length  to  end  of  claws  about  17 
inches,  extent  of  wings  28  inches  ;  weight  ^  lb. 
The  upper  plumage  is  dusky  brown,  marked 
with  numerous  spots  of  light  l)ro\vnish  yellow; 
a  line  of  white  from  the  bill  to  the  eye ;  upper 
j)art  of  head  brownisli  black,  with  streaks  and  a 
median  line  of  grayish  or  yellowish  white ; 
throat  white  ;  neck  and  breast  yellowish  gray, 
with  longitudinal  marks  and  spots  of  dusky ; 
abdomen  dull  yellowish  white ;  Hanks  with 
brown  bars ;  tail  and  its  u])per  coverts  pale 
grayish  brown,  with  deep  brown  bars,  and 
brownisli  white  tip  ;  primaries  dark  brown,  the 
first  shaft  white  with  dusky  tip.  The  females 
very  closely  resemble  the  males.  In  tlie  New 
England  and  middle  states  this  bird  arrives 
from  the  north  in  the  latter  part  of  August,  re- 
maining through  October,  when  it  moves  off 
to  the  south  in  flocks,  going  north  again  to 
breed  in  the  spring.  In  Labrador  its  favorite 
food  is  the  curlew  berry,  a  small  black  fruit 
growing  on  a  creeping  shrub  an  inch  or  two 
high ;  in  the  open  grounds  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  sea,  it  feeds  on  insects,  especially  grasshop- 
pers, seeds,  worms,  and  berries.  In  the  au- 
tumn they  are  very  fat,  hence  their  common 
name,  and  are  considered  great  delicacies. 
They  are  not  shy,  running,  squatting,  and  fly- 
ing very  much  like  a  snipe.  The  lludsonian 
or  short-billed  curlew  (iV.  ITuJsonicus,  Lath.)  is 
considerably  larger  than  the  last  named  species. 
Its  bill  is  about  4  inches  long ;  the  total 
length  to  end  of  claws  21  inches,  extent  of 
wings  83  inches,  and  weight  a  little  over  a 
pound.  The  upper  part  of  the  head  is  deep 
brown,  with  a  central  and  2  lateral  Avhitisli 
lines ;  between  the  bill  and  eye,  and  behind 
the  latter,  brownish  ;  the  neck  pale  yellowish 
gray,  with  longitudinal  brown  streaks ;  chin 
grayish  white ;  upper  parts  generally  blackish 
brown,  with  numerous  brownish  Avhite  spots ; 
wings  and  rump  lighter ;  tail  and  its  upper 
coverts  with  brown  and  yellowish  gray  bars, 
the  former  white-tipped ;  primaries  brownish 
black ;  lower  parts  grayish  white,  the  sides 
cream-colored  and  barred  with  grayish  brown  ; 
shaft  of  first  quill  white.  This  species  often 
associates  with  the  sickle-bill,  and  arrives  in 
large  flocks  on  the  New  Jersey  shore  in  May 
from  the  south ;  they  soon  move  northward 
to  breed;  they  return  toward  the  last  of  Au- 
gust, remain  a  few  weeks,  and  then  proceed  to 
the  south  to  spend  the  winter.  The  habits  and 
food  are  about  the  same  as  in  the  other  species. 
The  flight  is  high  and  rapid,  and  in  their  mi- 
grations accompanied  by  a  constant  whistling; 
they  fly  steadily,  answer  the  sportsman's  whistle 
readily,  and  are  easily  shot ;  they  are  consid- 
ered excellent  eating.  Like  the  long-billed  cur- 
lew, this  species  will  linger  around  its  wounded 
companions  until  many  of  a  flock  are  killed ; 
the  latter,  however,  is  much  the  rarest  bird  in 
most  parts  of  the  northern  states.  The  largest 
of  the  European  curlews  is  the  iV".  arquatus, 


(Linn.),  of  the  size  of  a  capon ;  the  general  color 
is  brown,  with  the  edges  of  tlie  feathers  Avhit- 
ish  ;  the  rump  is  white,  and  the  tail  barred 
with  Avhite  and  brcnvji.  It  is  a  well-flavored 
species.  The  whimbrel  (A'',  phaopns,  Linn.)  is 
about  half  the  size  of  the  preceding,  which  it 
resembles  in  its  plumage. 

CURLING,  a  favorite  Scottish  game,  played 
on  the  ice  with  large  stones  of  a  spiierical  form, 
flattened  so  that  their  length  shall  be  equal  to 
twice  their  thicknes.s.  They  are  carefully  se- 
lected, so  that  they  shall  not  be  liable  to  break, 
have  their  under  side  polished,  and  vary  in 
weight  from  30  to  60  lbs.  They  have  handles 
of  wood  or  ii'on  by  which  they  are  impelled 
over  the  ice.  The  path  in  which  the  stones 
move  is  called  the  rinJc,  and  may  be  from  30 
to  50  yards  long.  At  each  end  of  the  rink  a 
mark  or  hole  is  made  in  the  ice,  called  the  tee. 
The  players  are  divided  into  two  parties,  and 
each  ])erson  endeavors  either  to  leave  his  own 
stone  as  near  the  tee  as  possible,  to  remove 
those  of  the  opposite  party,  or  to  guard  those 
of  his  own  side.  When  all  have  played,  the 
one  nearest  the  tee  counts  one,  and  the  second, 
third,  &c.,  if  of  tlie  same  side,  count  each  one 
more.     The  side  which  first  scores  31  wins. 

CURRAN,  Jonx  Philpot,  an  Irish  orator, 
born  at  Newmarket,  county  of  Cork,  July  24, 
1Y50,  died  at  his  residence  in  Brompton,  a  sub- 
urb of  London,  Oct.  14,  1817.  His  father  was 
officer  to  a  manorial  court,  and  a  person  of  great 
cultivation  of  mind,  and  his  mother  an  accom- 
plished woman,  who  made  great  elforts  to  pro- 
cure for  her  son  every  possible  advantage  of 
education.  After  having  been  under  the  in- 
struction of  Nathaniel  Boyse,  the  resident  cler- 
gyman, who,  as  he  himself  says,  made  a  man  of 
him,  and  through  a  preparatory  course  at  the 
free  grammar  school  of  Middleton,  he  entered 
Trinity  college,  Dublin,  with  a  view  of  prepar- 
ing himself  for  the  church,  but  afterward  deter- 
mined to  adopt  the  profession  of  the  law,  and 
in  1773  became  a  student  of  the  Middle  Temple, 
London,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Boyse  having  advanced 
him  funds  for  that  purpose.  The  succeeding 
year  he  married  the  daughter  of  Dr.  Creagh,  of 
Dublin,  and  in  1775  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar. 
For  some  time  he  gave  the  rein  to  his  generous 
social  disposition.  A  club  which  he  formed, 
under  the  name  of  the  monks  of  St.  Patrick, 
gathered  together  the  leading  liberals  of  the 
Irish  metropolis.  Here  Curran  shone  in  all  his 
brilliancy.  At  the  same  time  he  was  often  in 
great  pecuniary  straits.  He  relates  that  one 
day,  unable  to  pay  his  rent,  he  returned  to  the 
house  in  a  state  of  despondenc^y,  when  he 
found  a  brief  awaiting  him  with  20  guineas. 
This  brief  was  the  commencement  of  his  for- 
tune, and  was  put  in  his  way  through  the  kind- 
ness of  Lord  Kilwarden,  who,  although  differ- 
ing with  him  in  politics,  continued  his  friend 
through  life.  His  clients  became  so  numerous 
that  he  was  soon  in  easy  circumstances.  In 
1782  he  was  returned  to  the  Irish  parliament  as 
member  for  Kilbeggan .     His  attacks  on  the  gov- 


154 


CURRAN 


CURRANT 


cmment  soon  led  to  clnob,  first  with  Mr.  Fitz- 
gibbon  (afterward  earl  of  Clare),  tlien  attorney- 
general,  and  next  with  Major  Ilobart,  both  end- 
ing without  injury  to  either  party.  Step  by  step 
he  rose  in  liis  profession,  till  ho  became  the  most 
popular  barrister  of  his  time.  He  had  a  dashing, 
fearless  way  that  suited  his  auditory.  His  elo- 
quence was  thorouglily  Irish.  Rarely  attempting 
to  convince  by  argument,  he  always  addressed 
Ininself  successfully  to  the  feelings.  His  style  of 
metaphor  was  bold  and  original — often  extrava- 
gant. In  the  cross-examination  of  witnesses  he 
exceeded  the  recognized  limits  of  forbearance, 
and  was  frequently  bullying  and  insolent.  On 
one  occasion  he  so  goaded  Mr.  St.  Leger-,  a  wit- 
ness in  the  case  of  an  assault  by  an  Irish  noble- 
man n])on  an  aged  priest,  that  he  had  to  fight 
him.  In  persuasive  powers  Curran  had  no  rival. 
His  diction  was  fluent  and  charming,  and 
he  not  .unfrequently  wound  up  his  address  by 
some  solemn  adjuration  from  Scripture.  His 
voice  was  not  naturally  good,  but  he  improved 
'it  by  careful  training.  Personally  he  was  tlie  re- 
verse of  prepossessing,  having  a  soft  and  boyish 
look.  In  the  height  of  his  prosperity  he  met 
with  a  severe  domestic  blow  in  the  elopement 
of  his  wife.  He  obtained  a  verdict  against  the 
seducer,  but  would  not  touch  the  damages 
awarded.  He  even  allowed  the  faithless  wife 
a  stipend,  and  went  to  London  to  see  her  when 
she  was  supposed  to  be  on  the  point  of  death. 
Ireland  was  at  that  period  in  an  excited  po- 
litical condition.  The  question  of  Catholic 
emancipation  especially  agitated  the  people. 
Curran  advocated  liberal  principles  in  the  house 
of  commons,  and  defended  liberal  politicians 
in  the  courts  of  law.  Although  his  talents 
in  parliament  were  conspicuous,  it  was  in  the 
courts  that  he  shone  preeminent.  There  he 
made  his  finest  political  orations.  His  defence 
of  the  leaders  of  the  rebellion  of  1798  was 
his  crowning  effort;  his  most  noted  speeches 
being  those  in  defence  of  Tiieobald  Wolfe  Tone, 
Major  Rowan,  Oliver  Bond,  the  brothers 
Sheares,  Jackson  Finney,  and  Finnerty — in  the 
latter  of  which  he  made  a  powerful  appeal  for 
the  liberty  of  the  press.  During  the  sympathy 
excited  for  the  French  revolution  Curran  remain- 
ed faithful  to  England,  even  while  exhausting 
every  element  of  opposition  against  her  govern- 
ment. In  1800  the  union  of  Ireland  with  Britain 
was  accomplished.  Curran,  who  had  opposed  it, 
viewed  Ihe  event  with  despondency.  Indeed, 
he  had  at  one  time  decided  to  abandon  the  coun- 
try and  seek  a  new  home  in  America ;  but  other 
events,  which  followed  rapidly,  dispelled  this 
idea.  The  peace  of  Amiens,  in  1802,  permitted 
him  to  visit  the  continent.  On  July  23,  1803, 
the  rising  under  Robei-t  Emmet  took  place.  Cur- 
ran had  a  deeper  interest  in  this  event  than  he 
himself  was  aware  of,  for  an  affection  subsisted 
between  Emmet  and  his  daughter  Sarah.  The 
young  man  was  executed,  Sept.  20,  1803.  Dur- 
ing this  year  he  made  his  celebrated  speech  in 
defence  of  Owen  Kirwan.  Political  matters 
continued  in  much  the  same  state  until  1800, 


when  the  death  of  Pitt  threw  the  power  into 
the  hands  of  Fox  and  the  liberals.  Curran  was 
offered  the  post  of  master  of  the  rolls  in  Ireland, 
which  he  accepted,  although  more  desirous  of 
the  office  of  attorney-general.  The  duties  of  the 
office  were  unworthy  of  his  abilities,  and  were 
hampered  by  ])etty  jealousies.  From  this  time 
his  genius  declined,  and  he  sank  into  a  state  of 
hypochondria  from  which  he  never  recovered. 
Occasionally  the  influence  of  travel  or  of  music, 
in  Avhich  he  had  some  skill,  would  revive  hira, 
but  only  temporarily.  In  1814  he  exchanged 
his  place  for  a  pension  of  £2,700  per  annum. 
He  resided  chiefly  in  his  mansion  at  Brompton, 
where  he  enjoyed  the  acquaintance  of  Sheridan, 
Home  Tooke,  Lord  Erskine,  the  prince  regent, 
and  other  notables.  Godwin  the  novelist,  and 
Moore  the  poet,  were  his  devoted  friends.  In 
Sept.  1817,  he  wrote  that  he  had  "closed  his 
accounts  Avith  hope."  Afterward  he  complain- 
ed of  "  a  mountain  of  lead  at  his  heart."  Oc- 
casional flashes  of  his  former  wit  lit  up  his  de- 
cline. Speaking  of  a  passing  attack  of  apo- 
plexy, he  described  it  as  "a  runaway  knock  at 
death's  door."  On  Oct.  8  he  was  seized  with 
a  second  fit,  of  which  he  died  in  the  following 
week.  His  "  Speeches  on  the  late  very  inter- 
esting State  Trials  "  appeared  in  Dublin  in  1808, 
and  his  "  Speeches,  with  Memoirs  by  a  Barris- 
ter," in  London,  1817  (new  edition,  with  memoir 
by  Davis,  1845).  His  "Letter  to  the  Rev.  H. 
Weston"  was  published  in  1819. — See  also  "Me- 
moirs of  the  Life  of  Curran,"  by  Alex.  Stephens 
(1817);  "Memoirs  of  the  Legal,  Literary,  and 
Political  Life  of  the  late  Rt.  Hon.  John  Philpot 
Curran,"  by  William  O'Regan  (1817)  ;  "Recol- 
lections of  J.  P.  Curran  and  some  of  his  Contem- 
poraries," by  C.  Phillips  (1818)  ;  "  The  Life  of 
the  Right  Hon.  John  Philpot  Curran,"  by  his 
son  William  Henry  Curran  (1819). 

CURRANT  (ribes,  Linn.),  the  name  of  a  small, 
valuable,  and  well-known  garden  fruit,  of  which 
there  are  numerous  varieties.  Two  principal 
species  are  commonly  known,  but  there  are 
several  beside.  The  H.  ruiriwi  (Willd.),  ac- 
cording to  Persoon,  grows  spontaneously  in 
Sweden,  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  England, 
and  is  the  origin  of  the  garden  kinds.  It  bears 
abundance  of  semi-transparent  red  berries  in 
racemes,  which  diminish  in  size  at  the  apex  of 
the  bunch.  Tliere  is  a  white-fruited  variety, 
more  esteemed  by  some  on  account  of  its  less 
acid  juice.  Great  improvements  have  been 
made  on  these  fruits  by  repeated  experiments, 
and  not  only  the  plant  has  been  rendered  more 
robust,  but  the  size  of  the  berries  has  been  in- 
creased. The  London  horticultural  society's 
catalogue  for  1842  gives  a  list  of  10  sorts  of  the 
red  and  3  sorts  of  the  white  currant,  of  which 
the  red  Dutch  and  the  white  Dutch,  known 
also  iinder  many  synonymes,  have  stood  high 
in  the  estimation  of  practical  gardeners.  Knight 
succeeded  in  raising  some  improved  kinds 
from  seed,  favorably  known  and  bearing  his 
name.  Several  lately  introduced  from  France 
bear  fruit  of  remarkable  size  and  flavor ;  scarce- 


CURRANT 


CURRIE 


15£ 


ly  any  difference  is  to  be  seen  in  tlie  size 
of  the  first  and  of  the  last  berry  on  the  ra- 
ceme, and  indeed  they  could  be  compared  to 
miniature  bunclies  of  grapes.  It  has  been 
thought  that  the  red  currant  is  a  native  of 
this  country,  an  opinion  founded  on  its  iden- 
tity with  the  li.  albincrvium  of  Michaux.  Ac- 
cording to  tlie  "  Flora  of  North  America,"  the 
red  currant  appears  to  be  ''abundant  in  our 
northern  latitudes,  agreeing  in  every  respect 
with  the  European  form."  It  occurs  through- 
out Canada  to  the  mouth  of  Mackenzie  riv- 
er, at  Sault.  Ste.  Marie,  and  at  the  sources  of 
St.  Croix  river  (Torrey  and  Gray).  It  has 
been  noticed  growing  wild  on  the  rocky  banks 
of  the  Wiuooski,  in  Vermont.  Josselyn,  who 
wrote  in  1GT2,  makes  mention  in  his  "New 
England  Rarities  "  of  "  red  and  black  currants." 
The  bhack  currant  {R.  nigrum,  Lam.),  differing 
from  tlie  connnon  currant  in  the  great  size  of 
the  plant,  in  smoother  leaves,  in  tlower  and  in 
fruit,  also  in  possessing  a  powerful  aromatic  prin- 
ciple with  proportionately  less  acidity,  has  by 
successive  experiments  become  ranked  with 
tlie  most  valuable  of  the  smaller  garden  fruits. 
Tiie  variety  known  as  the  black  Naples  has 
larger  berries  than  any  other,  and  is  considered 
tlie  best.  The  fetid  currant  (i?.  pi'ostratum, 
L'Heritier),  with  pale  red  and  bristly  fruit,  ex- 
haling, as  well  as  the  leaves,  a  disagreeable 
odor,  grows  on  mountain  sides  and  in  cold 
woods  at  the  northward,  reaching  as  far  as 
Lake  Superior  and  the  Rocky  mountains.  The 
thirsty  wayfarer  and  the  hunter,  on  meeting 
with  its  berries,  find  them  not  too  unpleasant 
for  refreshment.  The  Ji.  Jloridum  (L'Her.), 
with  rather  large  yellovr-greenish  flowers,  and 
with  smooth,  black  fruit,  occurring  in  Avoods 
from  Canada  to  Kentuck}',  is  our  native  black 
currant,  but  is  inferior  in  value  to  the  European 
species.  The  Missouri  currant  (i?.  uureum^ 
Pursh.)  is  remarkable  for  its  early  yellow  blos- 
soms, exhaling  a  delicious,  spicy  odor,,  and 
considered  a  highly  ornamental  shrub.  The 
red  flowering  currant  {R.  sanguineum^  PIi-)j 
from  western  America,  and  abundant  among 
rocks  along  the  streams  throughout  Oregon,  is 
a  very  beautiful  shrub,  bearing  clusters  of  light 
crimson  blossoms,  which  appear  early  in  spring. 
Its  fruit  is  insipid,  but  its  flowers  recommend 
it  for  the  garden.  Another,  with  flowers  not  so 
brightly  colored  {R.  malvaceum,  Sm.),  has  been 
noticed  as  a  native  of  California.  The  genus 
rihes,  embracing  the  gooseberries,  comprises  in 
North  America  something  like  28  distinct  spe- 
cies.— The  propagation  of  the  currant  is  easy,  as 
it  will  grow  in  almost  any  garden  soil,  in  the  open 
sun  or  in  the  shade  of  fences,  Avhere  the  fruit  is 
longer  in  ripening  but  still  sure.  The  best  mode 
to  be  pursued  is,  never  to  allow  suckers  taken 
from  the  roots  of  old  plants  to  be  used  for  new 
planting  out ;  but  to  employ  well  ripened, 
straight,  and  stout  shoots,  removing  all  the 
buds  or  eyes  from  the  lower  portions  which 
are  to  be  inserted  in  the  soil,  which  will 
prevent    future    suckers    from    springing    up 


around  the  stem.  Sometimes,  after  the  stem 
has  been  trained  upright  for  2  or  3  feet,  tho 
branches  are  spread  thinly  upon  a  low  es- 
palier; or,  in  case  this  is  not  used,  a  thin, 
spreading  head  is  carefully  grown.  All  super- 
fluous wood,  as  it  makes  its  appearance,  is 
removed,  and  about  midsummer  the  ends  of 
the  fruit-bearing  branches  are  pinched  off",  in 
order  to  allow  the  fruit  to  swell  and  increase. 
But  the  currant  will  reward  the  least  degree  of 
attention  that  is  given  to  it.  Thejuice  of  the  cur- 
rant contains  sugar  and  malic  acid,to  the  presence 
of  which  is  owing  its  pleasant  flavor.  Currant 
wine  is  considered  a  valuable  beverage,  and  for 
preserves,  tarts,  or  for  the  dessert,  currants  are  es- 
l^eciaUy  esteemed.  When  freshly  gathered  they 
are  refrigerant  and  very  grateful  to  the  palate. 
An  excellent  jelly  is  prepared  from  them,  and 
for  other  domestic  purposes  their  reputation  is 
well  known.  The  fruit  of  the  black  currant  is 
far  less  esteemed,  indeed  to  many  persons  is 
positively  disagreeable.  A  jelly  made  of  it  is 
used  as  a  remedy  for  hoarseness  or  sore  throaty 
and  lozenges  made  of  the  berries,  and  especially 
of  their  skins,  are  of  niuch  service  in  pectoral 
complaints.  A  wine  is  made  in  Russia  from  the 
black  currant  berries,  and  in  Siberia  the  leaves, 
dried  and  mixed  with  souchong,  are  made  into 
a  drink  resembling  in  flavor  green  tea.  Tho 
fruit,  leaves,  and  wood  are  tonic  and  stimulant. 
"NYe  have  seen  the  dried  fruit  of  the  better 
garden  sorts  used  in  making  puddings  which 
possessed  much  merit. — The  word  currant  is 
said  to  be  a  corruption  of  Corinth,  the  original 
place  whence  the  small  raisins  were  brought 
known  as  the  currants  of  commerce.  The  Io- 
nian islands,  Greece,  and  Turkey  are  the  princi- 
pal currant-exporting  countries,  and  directly 
from  those  countries,  and  indirectly  through  Eng- 
land, not  less  than  about  2,500,000  lbs.,  valued 
at  about  $150,000,  were  imported  into  the  Uni- 
ted States  in  the  year  ending  June  30,  1857. 

CURRENCY.     See  Money. 

CURRENT  RIVER,  an  affluent  of  Black  river, 
Arkansas,  rises  in  Texas  co.,  Mo.,  and  has  a  S.  "W. 
course  of  over  250  m.  It  is  navigable  by  flat- 
boats,  and  abounds  with  excellent  fish.  Jack's 
Fork  is  its  principal  branch. 

CURRENTS.     See  Atlantic  Ocean. 

CURRIE,  James,  a  Scottish  physician,  born  at 
Kirkpatrick-Fleming,  Dumfriesshire,  May  31, 
1756,  died  at  Sidmouth,  Devonshire,  Aug.  31, 
1805.  In  early  life  he  went  to  Virginia,  with 
a  view  of  following  commercial  pursuits,  but 
returning  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  Ameri- 
can war,  he  commenced  the  study  of  medicine 
at  Edinburgh,  was  graduated  at  Glasgow  in 
1780,  and  in  the  following  year  began  to  prac- 
tise in  Liverpool.  lie  was  very  successful  in 
applying  aflTusions  of  cold  and  tepid  water  to 
the  cure  of  disease,  and  his  great  work  on  this 
subject,  "  Medical  Reports  on  the  Effects  of  Wa- 
ter, cold  and  warm,  as  a  Remedy  in  Febrile  Dis- 
eases," appeared  in  1797,  a  2d  volume  in  1804, 
and  a  5th  edition  in  1814.  Beside  several  other 
medical  works,  he  wi-ote  "A  Letter,  Commer- 


156 


CURRITUCK 


CURRYING 


cial  and  Political,  to  "William  Pitt,"  under  the 
assumed  name  of  Jasper  Wilson,  which  attract- 
ed much  attention.  In  1800  he  puhlished  an 
edition  of  the  works  of  Robert  Burns,  in  4  vols., 
for  the  benefit  of  the  poet's  family.  This  edi- 
tion has  been  frequently  reprinted.  It  contains 
an  account  of  the  life  of  Burns,  and  a  criticism 
on  his  writings,  to  which  are  prefixed  "  Some 
Observations  on  the  Character  and  Condition  of 
the  Scottish  Peasantry." 

CURRITUCK,  a  N.  E.  co.  of  N.  C. ;  area  es- 
timated at  200  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1850,  7,236,  of 
whom  2,447  were  slaves.  It  borders  on  Va., 
and  embraces  within  its  limits  several  islands 
separated  from  the  mainland  by  Currituck 
sound.  The  surface  is  level,  and  the  soil  sandy. 
In  1850  the  productions  were  292,593  bushels 
of  corn,  66,832  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  20,382 
lbs.  of  butter.  The  county  was  named  from  a 
tribe  of  Indians  wdio  once  possessed  the  land. 
Capital,  Currituck  Court  House. 

CURRY,  Daniel,  an  American  clergyman 
and  author,  born  in  Peekskill,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  26, 
1809,  was  graduated  in  1827  at  the  Wesleyan 
university  at  Middletowu,  Conn.,  and  was  in  the 
same  year  elected  principal  of  the  Troy  confer- 
ence academy,  Avhere  he  remained  several 
years.  In  1841  he  removed  to  Georgia,  where 
he  was  regularly  inducted  into  the  ministry  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  church,  and  was  station- 
ed successively  at  Athens,  Savannah,  and  Colum- 
bus. When  the  difficulties  arose  on  the  subject 
of  slavery,  which  finally  resulted  in  a  division 
of  the  church,  he  connected  himself  with  the 
northern  branch,  and  entered  the  New  York  con- 
ference. After  having  been  stationed  in  the  cities 
of  New  York,  New  Haven,  Brooklyn,  and  Hart- 
ford, he  officiated  for  3  years  as  president  of  the 
Indiana  Wesleyan  imiversity.  He  then  return- 
ed to  Brooklyn,  and  is  now  (1859)  pastor  of 
the  Methodist  church  in  Middletown.  He  has 
contributed  largely  to  various  magazines  of 
the  day,  and  among  his  works  are  his  "  Life  of 
Wycliffe  "  and  "  Metropolitan  City  of  America." 
He  has  also  published  an  edition  of  Southey's 
"Life  of  Wesley,"  with  notes. 

QURRY  POWDER,  a  powder  used  in  cook- 
ing, prepared  in  the  East  Indies.  The  ingre- 
dients in  its  manufacture  are  turmeric,  corian- 
der, black  pepper,  4  oz.  each ;  fenugreek,  3  oz. ; 
ginger,  2  oz. ;  cummin  seed,  ground  rice,  1  oz. 
each ;  cayenne  pepper  and  cardamoms,  |  oz.  each. 
Curry  powder  is  subject  to  extensive  adultera- 
tion, and  with  very  pernicious  ingredients,  red 
lead  being  frequently  detected  in  it.  As  this  is 
a  highly  poisonous  oxide,  the  quantity  taken  in 
curry  powder  at  a  meal  has  been  known  to 
produce  a  serious  effect.  It  is  therefore  a  safer, 
as  well  as  a  more  economical  plan,  to  purchase 
the  materials,  and  prepare  the  article. 

CURRYING,  the  art  of  finishing  tanned  lea- 
ther to  give  it  the  smoothness  and  pliancy  it 
requires  for  most  of  its  uses.  The  skin  is  first 
softened  by  soaking  it  in  water,  and  it  is  then 
beaten  with  a  mace  or  mallet  upon  a  hurdle  or 
lattice-work  support.     It  is  next  laid  over  a 


plank  called  a  beam,  which  projects  at  a  slant 
from  the  floor,  and  the  workman,  leaning  over 
the  end  of  this,  and  against  the  skin  to  hold  it 
in  its  place,  shaves  off  the  inequalities  on  the 
flesh  side  with  a  broad  blade,  called  a  head 
knife  or  beam  knife,  the  edge  of  which  is  turned 
over.  This  instrument  is  held  firmly  in  both 
hands ;  and  as  it  is  used,  the  currier  continually 
examines  with  his  fingers  the  effect  i)roduced, 
and  moves  the  skin  to  bring  all  parts  of  it  un- 
der its  action.  After  it  is  sufiiciontly  shaved, 
the  skin  is  thrown  into  cold  water,  and  well 
scoured  upon  a  stone  slab,  the  flesh  side  being 
laid  next  the  stone,  and  the  grain  or  hair  side 
well  rubbed  with  a  tool  of  metal  or  stone  called 
a  stretching  iron,  "which  is  held  in  both  hands. 
The  w'hitish  matter  (bloom)  gathered  from  the 
tan  pit  is  thus  forced  out,  and  the  inequalities 
of  thickness  still  more  reduced.  Tools  of  sev- 
eral kinds  are  employed  for  scraping  and  dress- 
ing down  the  irregularities  of  the  surface — 
sometimes  a  circular  knife,  among  others,  shaped 
like  a  bowl,  the  bottom  being  open  for  the  in- 
sertion of  the  hand.  By  these  operations  the 
skin  is  softened  and  prepared  for  the  dubbing 
(daubing)  process.  Each  side  of  it  is  well  rub- 
bed with  an  oily  compound  made  by  boiling  cod 
oil  with  the  skins  of  sheep ;  and  the  leather 
is  then  hung  up  to  dry.  Either  before  or  after 
this  it  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  rubbing  with 
the  pommel  or  graining  board,  an  instrument 
shaped  somewhat  like  a  brush,  with  a  leather 
strap  on  the  back  to  give  a  secure  hold  for  the 
hand  slipped  under  it.  It  is  entirely  of  hard 
wood,  the  under  or  rubbing  surface  made  with 
transverse  grooves  like  a  crimping  board.  The 
leather  is  folded  over,  leaving  the  flesh  side  out, 
and  is  strongly  rubbed  with  the  pommel.  It 
is  then  spread  out,  leaving  the  other  side  ex- 
posed to  receive  a  similar  application.  By  this 
operation  the  flexibility  is  greatly  increased. 
After  this  graining  process,  the  leather  is  in 
goodicondition  for  storing  and  keeping  till  want- 
ed for  sale ;  or,  after  delicately  shaving  the 
flesh  side  with  a  very  sharp  knife,  it  may  be 
immediately  submitted  to  the  process  of  wax- 
ing. A  color  composed  of  oil  and  lampblack  is 
well  rubbed  in  on  the  flesh  side  with  a  hard 
brush  till  the  surface  is  thoroughly  black  ;  upon 
this  is  applied  with  a  brush  or  sponge  a  coat  of 
stiff  size  and  tallow,  and  when  dry  it  is  rubbed 
with  a  broad  smooth  lump  of  glass.  The  sizing 
and  rubbing  are  then  repeated.  Leatlier  thus 
treated  is  distinguished  either  by  tlie  name 
"waxed,"  or  "  black  on  the  flesh,"  and  is  used  for 
the  uppers  of  men's  boots  and  shoes.  If  curried 
on  the  other  side,  it  is  called  "black  on  the  grain," 
and  this  sort  is  used  for  the  uppers  of  ladies' 
shoes.  The  treatment  is  the  same  for  both  up 
to  the  waxing.  To  the  leather  to  be  made 
black  on  the  grain  is  applied  a  solution  of  cop- 
peras, the  effect  of  which  is  to  produce  a  black 
dye  by  the  union  of  the  iron  of  this  salt  with 
the  gallic  acid  of  the  tan.  It  is  then  rubbed 
with  a  brush  dijjped  in  stale  urine,  and  when 
dry  the   application  of  oil  and  lampblack  is 


CURTIS 


157 


made ;  and  when  this  is  dry  another  applica- 
tion of  the  coi)i)eras  with  rubhing.  After  this 
it  undergoes  the  treatment  with  the  pommel 
again,  and  several  other  processes  of  rnbbing, 
polishing,  and  dubbing  or  oiling. 

CURTIS,  Benjamin  Robfuns,  an  American 
jurist,  born  in  Watertown,  Mass.,  Nov.  4,  1809, 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1829.  lie 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1832,  and  com- 
menced the  practice  of  the  law  at  Northfield, 
Mass.,  but  soon  removed  to  Boston,  wbere  he 
took  a  high  rank  and  secured  an  extensive  busi- 
ness, lie  was  remarkable  for  the  extent  and 
readiness  of  his  legal  attainments,  the  clearness 
and  accuracy  of  his  statements,  and  the  vigor- 
ous grasp  of  his  logic.  Upon  the  death  of  the 
late  Judge  Woodbury,  he  was  appointed  a  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States  in 
September,  1851.  This  office  he  held  till  the 
autumn  of  1857,  when  he  resigned  it.  Since 
his  retirement  from  the  hench,  he  has  resumed 
the  practice  of  his  profession  in  Boston.  Few 
distinguislied  lawyers  in  our  country  have  devot- 
ed themselves  so  exclusively  to  their  profession 
as  Judge  Curtis.  He  was  for  one  or  two  years 
a  member  of  the  house  of  representatives  in 
Massachusetts,  but  has  taken  very  little  part  in 
politics. — Geokge  Ticknoe,  an  American  law- 
yer and  juridical  author,  younger  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Watertown,  Mass.,  Nov.  28, 
1812,  was  graduated  at  Harvard  college .  in 
1832.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1836,  and 
has  ever  since  heen  engaged  in  the  practice  of 
the  law  in  Boston.  He  has  made  several  val- 
uable contributions  to  the  literature  of  his  pro- 
fession. He  is  the  author  of  treatises  on  the 
"  Rights  and  Duties  of  Merchant  Seamen " 
(1844);  on  the  "  Law  of  Copyright  "  (1847); 
and  on  the  "Law  of  Patents"  (1849).  These 
are  all  works  of  acknowledged  merit.  He  has 
also  compiled  a  volume  of  "Equity  Precedents," 
a  digest  of  English  and  American  admiralty  de- 
cisions, and  2  vols,  of  the  series  of  digests  of 
the  reports  of  tlie  United  States,  published  by 
Little,  Brown,  and  co.,  were  prepared  by  him. 
He  has  also  published  (1854)  the  first  volume 
of  a  Avork  entitled  "  Commentaries  on  the  Ju- 
risprudence, Practice,  and  Peculiar  Jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Courts  of  the  United  States," 
■which  was  highly  commended  by  Chief  Justice 
Taney.  But  the  work  by  which  he  is  best 
known  is  a  "History  of  the  Origin,  Formation, 
and  Adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,"  the  first  volume  of  which  "was  publish- 
ed in  1855,  and  the  second  in  1858.  This  is  a 
work  of  careful  and  patient  research,  candid 
political  judgment,  and  great  clearness  of  style. 
Mr.  Curtis  served  for  2  or  3  years  as  a  member 
of  the  Massachusetts  house  of  representatives, 
hut  he  has  allowed  politics  to  interfere  but  lit- 
tle with  the  labors  of  his  profession,  and  his 
historical  and  constitutional  investigations. 

CURTIS,  George  William,  an  American 
author,  born  at  Providence,  R.  L,  Feb.  24, 1824. 
His  father,  George  Curtis,  was  from  AYorcester, 
Mass. ;  his  mother  was  a  daughter  of  James 


Burrill,  a  U.  S.  senator  from  Rhode  Island,  who 
distinguished  himself  in  opposition  to  tbe  Mis- 
souri compromise.  Mr.  Curtis  received  his  early 
education  in  Mr.  Green's  school  at  Jamaica  Plain, 
Mass.  When  he  w:is  15  his  father  removed  from 
Providence  to  New  York,  where  he  began  an 
apprenticeship  to  trade  in  the  counting-house  of 
a  dry  goods  importer.  He  remained  in  this  posi- 
tion, however,  only  a  year.  In  1842  he  went 
with  his  elder  brother  to  reside  with  the  asso- 
ciation for  agriculture  and  education  at  Brook 
Farm,  in  West  Roxbury,  Mass.,  Avhere  he  passed 
a  year  and  a  half  in  study  and  agricultural  la- 
bor ;  after  which,  attracted  by  the  cultivated  and 
intellectual  society  at  Concord,  Mass.,  in  whoso 
circle  Mr.  Emerson  and  Mr.  Hawthorne  were 
included,  Mr.  Curtis,  with  his  brother,  spent  13 
months  there,  living  with  a  farmer,  and  both 
taking  part  regularly  in  the  ordinary  work  of 
the  farm  ;  and  then  G  months  in  tilling  a  small 
piece  of  land  on  their  own  account.  In  1846 
Mr.  Curtis  went  to  Europe,  and  after  a  year  in 
Italy  entered  the  university  of  Berlin,  where  ho 
remained  a  few  months,  and  witnessed  the  rev- 
olutionary scenes  in  that  city  in  the  spring  of 
1848.  The  2  subsequent  years  he  ^lent  chiefly 
in  travel  through  central  and  southern  Europe, 
and  in  Egypt  and  Syria.  In  1850  he  returned 
to  the  United  States,  and  in  the  summer  of  that 
year  published  his  first  book,  the  "  Nile  Notes 
of  allowadji."  He  soon  after  joined  the  edito- 
rial staff  of  the  "  New  York  Tribune,"  and  in  the 
summer  of  1851  wrote  a  series  of  letters  to  that 
journal  from  various  watering  places,  which 
Avere  afterward  collected  in  a  volume,  under 
the  title  of  "  Lotus  Eating."  Ilis  second  book, 
however,  was  the  "Plowadji  in  Syria,"  publish- 
ed in  1852.  In  the  autumn  of  1852  "Putnam's 
Monthly"  was  commenced  in  New  York,  of 
which  Mr.  Curtis  was  one  of  the  original  edi- 
tors, and  with  which  he  continued  connected 
till  the  magazine  was  merged  in  another,  and 
virtually  ceased  to  exist.  "Prueandl,"  which 
was  published  in  1856,  was  made  up  from  some 
of  his  contributions  to  that  periodical.  The 
second  publishers  of  "Putnam's  Monthly"  were 
Dix,  Edwards,  and  co.,  and  in  this  house  Mr. 
Curtis  was  a  silent  partner,  pecuniarily  respon- 
sible, hut  taking  no  part  in  its  commercial  man- 
agement. In  the  spring  of  1857  the  house 
was  found  to  be  insolvent,  and  he  then,  in 
connection  with  Mr.  Miller,  who  had  been  its 
printer,  assumed  its  assets  and  liabilities,  in  the 
hope  of  saving  the  creditors  from  loss.  The  at- 
tempt was  unsuccessful,  and  he  was  compelled 
in  a  few  months  to  abandon  an  enterprise  iu 
which  his  private  fortune  had  been  entirely 
sunk.  As  a  lyceum  lecturer,  upon  which  field 
of  labor  Mr.  Curtis  entered  in  1853,  he  has  met 
with  great  success.  He  delivered  a  poem  at 
the  university  of  Rochester  in  1853,  and  another 
hefore  a  society  in  Brown  university  the  year 
following.  His  orations  on  similar  occasions 
have  heen  numerous.  In  the  presidential  can- 
A'ass  of  1856  he  enlisted  with  great  zeal  as  a 
public  speaker  on  behalf  of  the  republican  party. 


158 


CURTIUS 


cusn 


In  the  winter  of  1858  ]ie  appeared  as  the  ad- 
vocate of  the  rights  of  woman,  in  a  lecture  en- 
titled "  Fair  Play  for  Women."  To  the  current 
literature  of  the  day  he  has  been  a  constant  con- 
tributor since  1853,  tlirough  "  Harper's  Month- 
ly," as  well  as  through  "  Putnam's  Monthly," 
as  long  as  it  existed,  and  through  "Harper's 
Weekly,"  newspaper,  since  the  autumn  of  1857. 

CURTIUS,  Ernst,  a  German  ])hilologist  and 
arcliajologist,  born  in  Liibeck,  Sept.  2,  1814, 
became  professor  in  Berlin  in  1843,  was  tutor 
of  Frederic  William,  the  son  of  the  present  re- 
gent of  Prussia,  until  1850,  and  appointed  in 
1856  professor  in  Gottingen,  as  successor  of 
the  famous  Ilerrman.  lie  has  written  largely 
on  Grecian  antiquities.  Among  his  more  re- 
cent works  is  Die  lonier  vor  der  lonischen 
Wanderung  (1855). — His  brother,  Geoeg,  born 
April  16,  1820,  officiating  since  1851  as  profes- 
sor in  Prague,  has  written  several  philological 
works,  including  a  Greek  grammar  for  the  use 
of  colleges  (2d  ed.  Prague,  1855). 

CURTIUS,  Marcus,  a  Roman  hero,  who  lived 
about  the  middle  of  the  4th  century  B.  C,  and 
who  is  said  to  have  sacrificed  himself  for  the 
good  of  his  country.  The  legend  which  relates 
this  event  is  in  substance  as  follows :  An  earth- 
quake once  happening  at  Rome,  a  large  portion 
of  the  area  of  the  forum  sank  down,  and  a  vast 
chasm  appeared  there.  All  attempts  to  fill  it 
up  were  vain,  and  the  city  was  smitten  with 
consternation,  especially  as  the  haruspices  had 
declared  that  it  could  only  be  filled  by  casting 
into  it  that  on  which  the  greatness  of  Rome  de- 
pended. While  every  one  was  hesitating  and 
doubting  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  haruspicial 
declaration,  the  heroic  Marcus  presented  himself, 
and  proclaiming  that  Rome  contained  nothing 
more  indispensable  to  her  greatness  than  a  val- 
iant citizen  fully  accoutred  for  battle,  he  ofl:ered 
himself  as  a  victim  ;  and,  having  arrayed  himself 
in  complete  armor  and  mounted  his  war  horse, 
he  galloped  into  the  abyss.  Then  the  earth  closed, 
the  chasm  vanished,  and  the  foruni  resumed  its 
wonted  aspect.  But  the  place  of  the  chasm, 
and  of  the  sacrifice  of  Marcus,  was  ever  after 
called  Lacus  Cvrtius.  Other  versions  of  the 
legend  are  given  by  different  authors,  but  the 
above  has  obtained  the  greatest  currency. 

CURTIUS  RUFUS,  Quintus,  the  Roman  his- 
torian of  Alexander  the  Great.  Respecting  his 
life  and  the  age  in  which  he  lived  we  have  no 
accurate  information.  Some  critics  make  him 
contemporary  with  Vespasian,  and  some  with 
Constantino,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  former 
are  nearer  tlie  truth.  The  history  of  Curtius 
is  entitled  I)e  Eehvs  Gcstis  Alexcmdri  Magni. 
It  consisted  originally  of  10  books,  but  the  first 
2  have  perished,  and  the  8  that  remain  are  not 
by  any  means  perfect.  It  is  not  a  good  his- 
torical authority.  The  best  edition  is  that  of 
Zumpt  (Berlin,  1849). 

CURULE  CHAIR,  a  state  chair  among  the 
ancient  Romans,  permission  to  use  which  was 
a  mark  of  high  honor,  and  only  granted,  under 
the  republic,  to  the  dictator,  consuls,  praetors, 


censors,  chief  asdiles,  the  flamen  dialis,  and  those 
deputed  by  the  dictator  to  act  under  himself. 
In  tlie  times  of  the  empire  this  honor  was  grant- 
ed to  others.  The  magistrates  entitled  to  use 
this  chair  were  called  curul'e  magistrates,  and 
when  they  went  to  council,  the  chair  was  borne 
on  a  chariot  (currvs),  whence  its  name.  At 
first  it  was  only  adorned  with  ivory,  but  in  later 
times  it  was  overlaid  with  gold. 

CURVE,  or  Curved  LixE,  in  geometry,  aline 
which  continually  and  continuously  changes  its 
direction.  In  the  higher  geometry,  a  curve  is  a 
line  in  which  the  coordinates  of  each  point  fulfil 
the  same  laws.  The  circumference  of  a  circle  is 
the  simplest  of  all  curves.  The  laws  which  each 
point  in  it  must  obey  are  various.  One  is  that 
each  point  is  equally  distant  from  the  centre ; 
another  that  each  part  of  the  line  is  equally 
curved,  &c.  The  circle  is  taken  as  the  measure 
of  curvature.  The  circle  which  would  exactly 
fit  any  curve  at  any  point  is  called  the  circle  of 
curvature  at  that  point,  and  its  radius,  the  ra- 
dius of  curvature.  A  law  by. which  this  radius 
increases  and  diminishes  in  going  to  different 
points  is  usually  considered  the  most  vital  law 
of  the  curve,  or  intrinsic  equation. 

CURZON,  Paul  Alfred  de,  a  French  painter, 
born  Sept.  7,  1820.  He  excels  chiefly  in  land- 
scape painting,  has  explored  the  Morea  in  com- 
pany with  Edmond  About  and  Charles  Gar- 
nier,  and  has  executed  many  good  pictures,  es- 
pecially those  of  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  and 
the  shores  of  the  Cephissus,  which  were  favora- 
bly noticed  at  the  xmiversal  exhibition  in  Paris 
in  1855.  He  also  received  a  second  medal  in 
1857. 

CUSH,  the  name  of  the  eldest  son  of  Ham,  as 
well  as  of  a  southern  region  of  the  scriptural 
world,  which  is  rendered  Ethiopia  by  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  the  Vulgate,  and  by  almost  all  other 
versions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  and  MoJu-enland, 
or  land  of  the  blacks,  by  Luther.  Tliere  can  be 
no  rational  doubt  that  Ethiopia,  in  its  more  com- 
mon and  limited  sense,  was  designated  by  that 
appellation  in  Hebrew,  though  Bochart  has  con- 
tended for  its  meaning  exclusively  southern 
Arabia.  Ezekiel  (xxix.  10)  speaks  of  it  as  lying 
beyond  Syene,  which  perfectly  agrees  with  the 
classical  definition  of  the  boundaries  of  Ethio- 
pia; Mizraim  (Egypt)  and  Cush  are  often  con- 
nected by  the  prophets,  and  mentioned  together 
in  the  Psalms  (Ixviii.  31).  The  Cushites  appear 
together  with  other  African  nations  in  histori- 
cal relations ;  their  black  complexion  is  alluded 
to  in  the  Bible  as  well  as  in  the  Mishna.  But 
whether  Cush  did  or  did  not  include  any  other 
region  in  the  world  known  to  the  Hebrews, 
especially  southern  Arabia,  is  a  question  Avhich 
has  elicited  a  great  deal  of  ethnological  contro- 
versy. Michaelis  and  a  number  of  other  critics 
defend  the  affirmative.  Gesenius  maintains  the 
negative.  Tlic  former  opinion  is  strengthened 
by  a  number  of  scriptural  passages  in  which 
Cush  appears  together  with  Arabian  tril)es,  by 
its  being  rendered  Arabia  in  the  Chaldee  para- 
phrase of  Jonathan,  and  by  the  existence  of  a 


CUSIIING 


159 


tribe  called  Beni  Chusi  in  Yemen,  according  to 
Niebulir.  We  find,  beside,  tlie  land  of  Cush  com- 
passed by  tlic  river  Gilion  (Gen.  ii.  13),  and  Cush 
as  the  father  of  Niinrod,  who  founded  empires  in 
Asia;  tiie  same  name  is  connected  by  Ezekiel 
■with  Elam  or  Susiana,  which  again  agrees  with 
the  classical  names  of  Cissians  and  Cossajans 
given  to  tlie  inliabitauts  of  the  latter  country, 
and  with  its  modern  name,  Khusistan,  The 
Hiniyarites,  an  ancient  people  of  southern  Ara- 
bia, are  styled  by  Syrian  writers  both  Cushajans 
and  Ethiopians.  The  classical  term  Ethiopia, 
too,  comprised  many  distant  and  distinct  na- 
tions, having  in  common  only  their  sun-burnt 
complexion.  Homer  calls  tliem  "  a  divided  race, 
the  last  of  men,  some  of  them  at  the  extreme 
west,  and  others  at  the  extreme  east."  Strabo 
says  nearly  the  same.  Herodotus  speaks  of  an 
eastern  or  Asiatic,  and  a  western  or  African 
Ethiopia.  The  prevalent  opinion  of  the  latest  eth- 
nological and  biblical  scholars  is,  tlierefore,  that 
Cush  in  its  limited  meaning  designates  Etliiopia, 
but  is  also  the  name  of  several  other  Asiatic  re- 
gions situated  along  the  shores  of  the  southern 
ocean,  and  inhabited  by  people  of  the  Ilamitic 
family.  "  Recent  linguistic  discovery,"  says 
George  Rawlinson  ("  Translation  of  Herodotus," 
book  i.  essay  xi.),  "tends  to  show  that  a  Cush- 
ite  or  Ethiopian  race  did  in  the  earliest  times  ex- 
tend itself  along  the  shores  of  the  southern  ocean 
from  Abyssinia  to  India.  Tlie  whole  peninsula 
of  India  was  peopled  by  a  race  of  this  character, 
before  the  influx  of  the  Aryans;  it  extended 
from  tlie  Indus  along  the  sea-coast  through  tlie 
modern  Beloochistan  and  Kerman,  which  was 
the  proper  country  of  the  Asiatic  Ethiopians; 
the  cities  on  the  nortliern  shores  of  the  Persian 
gulf  are  shown  by  the  brick  inscriptions  found 
among  tlieir  ruins  to  have  belonged  to  this  race ; 
it  was  dominant  in  Susiana  and  Babylonia, 
until  overpowered  in  the  one  country  by  Aryan, 
in  the  other  by  Semitic  intrusion ;  it  can  be 
traced,  both  by  dialect  and  tradition,  throughout 
the  whole  south  coast  of  the  Arabian  peninsula ; 
and  it  still  exists  in  Abyssinia,  where  the  lan- 
guage of  the  principal  tribe  (theGalla)  furnishes, 
it  is  thought,  a  clue  to  the  cuneiform  inscriptions 
of  Susiana  and  Elymais,  which  date  from  a  pe- 
riod probably  a  thousand  years  before  our  era." 
CUSIIIXG,  Caleb,  an  American  statesman 
and  jurist,  born  in  Salisbury,  Essex  co.,  Mass.,  in 
Jan.  1800.  lie  belongs  to  an  old  colonial  fam- 
ily, which  has  been  largely  represented  in  offices 
of  public  service.  At  the  age  of  17  he  was  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  college,  and  for  nearly  2  years 
subsequent  performed  the  duties  of  tutor  of 
mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  in  that  in- 
stitution. Meanwhile  he  entered  upon  the  study 
of  law,  and  after  the  unusual  ]n-eparatory  period 
of  5  years,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  commenc- 
ing practice  at  Newburyport.  Although  he  at- 
tained high  professional  success,  he  continued 
to  give  a  part  of  his  attention  to  literary  studies, 
and  became  prominent  among  the  contributors 
to  the  "  North  American  Review,"  by  his  pa- 
pers upon  historical  and  legal  topics.     The  po- 


litical life  of  Mr.  Gushing  commenced  in  1825, 
wlien  he  wa^  elected  a  representative  from  New- 
buryport in  tlie  lower  house  of  the  Massachu- 
setts legislature.  In  1826  he  was  elected  to  thq 
state  senate.  At  the  beginning  of  his  public 
life  he  was  a  member  of  the  then  republican 
jiarty.  In  1829  Mr.  Gushing  visited  Europe  on 
a  tour  of  pleasure,  and  remained  abroad  nearly 
2  years.  The  fruits  of  this  tour  were  his  "  Rem- 
iniscences of  Spain,"  a  collection  of  miscellanies 
published  in  1833,  which  indicated  a  minute  ac- 
quaintance with  Spanish  history  and  literature. 
To  this  succeeded,  in  the  same  year,  his  elabo- 
rate and  learned  "  Historical  and  Political  I'e- 
view "  of  the  revolution  of  Three  Days  in 
France,  and  of  the  consequent  events  in  other 
European  nations.  A  portion  of  this  work, 
which  was  issued  in  2  volumes,  had  previously 
appeared  in  the  "  American  Annual  Register." 
In  1833  Mr.  Gushing  resumed  political  life,  and 
was  again  elected  a  representative  from  Newbu- 
rj-port  to  the  Massachusetts  legislature,  in  whicli 
position  he  continued  2  years.  In  1835  he  was 
elected  from  the  Essex  north  district  of  Massa- 
chusetts a  representative  to  congress,  in  which 
body  he  served  for  4  consecutive  terms.  Having 
supported  John  Quincy  Adams  for  the  presiden- 
cy, Mr.  Gushing  thenceforward,  until  the  admin- 
istration of  Pi'esident  Tyler,  remained  a  member 
of  the  whig  party.  At  that  time,  however,  in 
company  with  Mr.  Wise  of  Virginia  and  others, 
abandoning  his  former  political  associates,  he 
supported  the  administration,  and  has  ever  since 
been  connected  with  the  democratic  party.  His 
congressional  career  Avas  distinguished  by  un- 
usual application  to  public  service,  as  well  as  by 
eloquence  and  parliamentary  accomplishments 
of  a  high  order.  His  influence  was  felt,  not  less 
in  the  labors  and  deliberations  of  the  committee 
room,  than  in  the  debates  of  the  house,  as  is  at- 
tested by  the  numerous  and  voluminous  reports 
which  he  had  occasion  to  prepare  and  submit 
for  its  legislative  action.  In  1843  President 
Tyler  nominated  Mr.  Gushing  as  secretary  of 
the  treasury,  but  the  nomination  was  rejected 
by  the  senate.  The  appointment  of  comiuission- 
er  to  China  was  then  tendered  him,  and  in  the 
summer  of  1843  he  proceeded  to  that  country. 
In  1844  he  negotiated  the  first  treaty  of  the 
U.  S.  government  with  the  emperor  of  China. 
On  bis  return  home  he  was  again  elected  to  rep- 
resent Newburyport  in  the  state  legislature,  and 
during  the  session  of  1847  became  conspicuous 
by  his  advocacy  of  the  Mexican  war,  a  measure 
not  at  all  favored  by  a  majority  of  the  people  of 
tlie  state.  A  bill  to  appropriate  funds  to  equip 
the  Massachusetts  regiment  of  volunteers  liav- 
ing  been  defeated  in  the  legislature,  Mr.  Gushing 
furnished  the  requisite  sum  from  his  own  means. 
lie  was  then  appointed  colonel  of  the  regiment, 
and  in  tlie  spring  of  1847  accompanied  it  to  the 
Rio  Grande  in  Mexico.  Soon  after  his  arrival 
at  the  seat  of  war,  where  he  was  attached  to 
the  army  under  command  of  Gen.  Taylor,  he 
received  the  appointment  of  brigadier-general. 
Durini?  the  war  he  was  one  of  the  3  officers  con- 


160 


GUSHING 


CUSHMAN 


stitnting  tlie  board  of  inquiry  for  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  charges  against  Generals  Scott,  Pil- 
low, and  Worth.  In  1847,  while  still  in  Mexico, 
he  was  nominated  by  the  democratic  party  of 
Massacluisetts  as  its  candidate  for  governor,  but 
was  defeated.  In  1850,  for  the  6th  time,  he  rep- 
resented Newburyport  in  the  legislature  of  his 
native  state,  where  he  was  active  in  opposing  the 
election  of  Mr.  Charles  Sumner  as  U.  S.  senator, 
and  the  coalition  between  the  free-soil  and  dem- 
ocratic i)arties.  In  1850  he  was  elected  as  the 
first  mayor  of  the  city  of  Newburyport,  and  in 
the  year  following  was  reelected  lor  a  second 
term.  In  1852  Mr.  Gushing  was  appointed  a 
justice  of  the  Massachusetts  supreme  court,  a 
position  which  he  filled  with  marked  abilit}'i;n- 
til  March,  1853,  when  he  was  invited  by  Pres- 
ident Pierce  to  fill  the  oftice  of  U.  S.  attorney- 
general,  from  which  he  retired,  March  4,  1857. 
Notwithstanding  the  number  and  complexity 
of  novel  questions  (arising  partly  from  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  national  domain)  submitted  for 
the  attorney-general's  consideration,  the  duties 
of  the  otfice  were  never,  on  the  whole,  more 
thoroughly  and  ably  performed  than  by  Mr. 
Gushing.  The  opinions  given  by  him  as  legal 
adviser  to  tlie  cabinet  have  been  published,  and 
although  more  voluminous  and  covering  a  more 
extended  variety  of  topics,  they  are  in  no  respect 
surpassed  by  those  of  his  otlicial  predecessors. 
In  1857,  1858,  and  1859  he  again  served  in  the 
legislature  of  Massachusetts.  In  addition  to  his 
speeches  in  congress  and  at  the  bar,  Mr.  Gushing 
has  delivered  many  addresses  on  occasions  of 
literary  and  political  festivity,  and  is  the  author 
of  various  published  letters,  elaborately  discuss- 
ing the  political  questions  of  the  time. 

GUSHING,  Luther  Stearns,  an  American 
jurist,  born  in  Lunenburg,  Mass.,  June  22,  1803, 
died  in  Boston,  June  22, 1856.  lie  became  clerk 
of  the  Massachusetts  house  of  representatives  in 
1832,  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  in 
1844,  and  after  4  years  on  the  bench  became 
reporter  to  the  supreme  court.  In  the  last 
capacity  lie  published  8  vols,  of  reports.  lie 
was  a  leading  editor  for  some  years  of  the  "  Jurist 
and  Law  Magazine,"  and  left  several  able  Avorks 
on  jurisprudence,  including  "Rules  of  Proceed- 
ings and  Debates  in  Deliberative  Assemblies  " 
(18mo.  1854);  "Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Koman  Law  "  (12mo.  1854) ;  "Law  and  Practice 
of  Legislative  Assemblies  in  the  United  States  " 
(8vo.l855). 

GUSHING,  Thomas,  LL.  D.,  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts,  born  in  Boston  in  1725, 
died  Feb.  19, 1788.  He  represented  the  city  of 
Boston  in  the  general  court,  became  speaker  of 
that  body  in  1763,  and  so  warmly  espoused  the 
cause  of  his  country  in  the  disputes  with  Great 
Britain  that  Dr.  Johnson,  in  his  "Taxation  No 
Tyranny,"  made  this  remark  :  "  One  object  of 
the  Americans  is  said  to  be,  to  adorn  the  brows 
of  Mr.  Gushing  with  a  diadem."  lie  was  a 
member  of  the  1st  and  2x1  congresses,  and  after- 
ward of  the  council  of  his  own  state.  On  the 
adoption  of  the  present  constitution  he  left  the 


bench  of  SufFolk  co.,  where  he  had  filled  the  of- 
fice of  judge  of  the  courts  of  common  pleas  and 
of  i)robate,  and  was  elected  lieutenant-governor, 
a  station  wliich  he  retained  until  his  death. 

GUSHING,  William,  LL.D.,  an  American 
jurist,  born  in  Scituate,  Mass.,  in  March,  1733, 
died  in  1810,  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
college  in  1751,  and  in  1772  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther, John  Gushing,  as  justice  of  the  superior 
court  of  Massachusetts.  He  became  chief  jus- 
tice 5  years  later,  and  on  the  organization  of  the 
federal  government  in  1789  was  raised  by  Presi- 
dent Washington  to  the  bench  of  the  U.  S.  su- 
preme court. 

GUSHMAN,  Charlotte  Sattnders,  an  Amer- 
ican actress,  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  July  23, 
1816,  the  oldest  of  a  family  of  5  children  by  a  2d 
marriage.  In  consequence  of  the  bankruptcy  of 
her  father  she  was  called  upon  at  the  age  of  12 
to  contribute  to  the  family  support.  Possessing  a 
fine  voice  and  much  musical  taste,  she  had  al- 
ready acquired  some  local  reputation  as  a  vo- 
calist, when  she  was  engaged  to  sing  in  a  con- 
cert with  Mrs.  Wood,  who  declared  her  voice 
to  be  the  finest  contralto  she  had  ever  heard, 
and  advised  her  to  cultivate  it  for  the  stage. 
Against  the  advice  and  wishes  of  her  friends 
she  resolved  to  adopt  this  course,  and  made  her 
dehut  at  the  Tremont  theatre,  Boston,  April  18, 
1835,  as  the  Countess,  in  the  English  adapta- 
tion of  Mozart's  Nozze  di  Figaro.  Her  success 
was  such  that  an  engagement  was  procured  for 
her  to  sing  in  English  opera  at  New  Orleans. 
Scarcely  had  she  arrived  there  when  her  voice 
failed  her  under  the  effect  of  a  sudden  change 
of  climate  and  of  an  unwise  attempt  to  convert 
it  into  an  available  soprano.  In  this  emergency 
slie  resolved  to  become  an  actress,  and  under 
the  tuition  of  Mr.  Barton,  an  actor  who  proved 
a  sincere  friend,  studied  the  part  of  Lady  Mac- 
beth, in  which  to  the  surprise  of  all  she  made 
her  appearance  Avith  complete  success.  The 
piece  Avas  repeated  many  nights,  and  she  re- 
turned to  New  York  Avith  considerable  reputa- 
tion for  histrionic  abilit)'.  She  accepted  a  3 
years'  engagement  at  the  BoAvery  theatre,  but 
after  pei-forming  a  week  to  large  audiences,  she 
Avas  prostrated  by  fcA'er,  the  result  of  over- 
excitement  and  exertion,  and  during  her  illness 
the  theatre,  and  with  it  her  entire  theatrical 
Avardrobe,  Avas  destroyed  by  fire.  After  an  in- 
terval of  several  months  she  accepted  an  en- 
gagement as  stock  actress  in  the  Park  theatre, 
and  for  3  years  appeared  in  a  great  variety  of 
jiarts,  thus  perfecting  herself  in  stage  business 
and  acquiring  the  versatility  for  Avhich  she  after- 
Avard  became  distinguished.  During  this  jieriod 
she  assisted  her  younger  sister,  Mrs.  Merriman, 
better  known  as  Miss  Susan  W.  Cushman,  to 
make  her  dehut  on  the  stage,  and  afterward  ap- 
peared Avith  lier  for  several  seasons  at  Philadel- 
phia and  NeAV  York.  For  the  purpose  of  en- 
couraging and  improving  the  young  actress,  and 
of  obtaining  for  her  prominent  female  charac- 
ters, Miss  Cushman  Avas  accustomed  to  take  the 
chief  male  parts  in  the  plays  in  Avhich  her  sister 


CUSIIMAN 


161 


appeared.  In  tliis  manner  they  performed 
iu  "London  Assurance"  in  New  York  for  up- 
ward of  90  niglits;  and  for  one  season  in  Phila- 
delphia they  i)layeu  all  the  principal  charac- 
ters. Miss  Cushnian  afterward  undertook  tho 
direction  of  one  of  the  Philadelphia  theatres, 
which  she  retained  until  invited  by  Mr.  Mac- 
ready  in  1814  to  accompany  him  on  a  profes- 
sional tour  in  the  northern  states,  in  the  course 
of  which  slie  undertook  the  higher  range  of  tra- 
gic parts  with  great  success.  In  1845  she  went 
toEngland,  and,  unknown  and  unheralded,  made 
her  first  appearance  before  a  London  audience, 
at  the  Princess's  theatre,  as  Bhmca,  in  Milmau's 
tragedy  of  "Fazio."  Her  reception  was  en- 
thusiastic, and  for  84  nights  she  appeared  in  a 
variety  of  characters,  including  Lady  Macbeth, 
Julia  in  the  "  Hunchback,"  Mrs.  Ilaller,  Bea- 
trice, Lady  Teazle,  Rosalind,  and  Juliana  in  tho 
"  Honeymoon."  Iler  sister  having  joined  her, 
they  acted  together  for  several  years  at  tho 
Ilaymarkot  theatre  in  London  and  in  the  chief 
provincial  towns  of  Great  Britain.  In  1849  she 
revisited  the  United  States,  and,  in  addition  to 
her  ordinary  characters,  assumed  tliat  of  Meg 
Merrilies,  in  the  play  of  "  Guy  Maunering" — a 
striking  personation,  and  one  which  she  may 
be  said  to  have  created.  After  another  profes- 
sional tour  in  England  she  returned  to  America, 
and  having  accumulated  a  fortune  by  her  pro- 
fession, took  a  formal  leave  of  tlie  American 
stage.  She  subsequently  acted  a  round  of  en- 
gagements in  England,  and  appeared  again  in 
the  United  States  in  1857  and  '58,  after  which 
she  returned  to  Rome,  where  she  had  previous- 
ly resided.  As  an  actress,  particularly  in  the 
higher  walks  of  the  serious  drama,  Miss  Gush- 
man  ranks  with  the  most  eminent  living,  and 
in  her  Shakespearean  characters  is  distinguished 
for  a  rigid  adherence  to  the  letter  as  well  as  the 
spirit  of  the  text. — Her  sister  Susan,  who  attain- 
ed considerable  popularity  in  such  parts  as  Ophe- 
lia, Juliet  (which  she  acted  to  her  sister's  Romeo 
for  upward  of  200  niglits  in  England),  Olivia,  &c., 
was  married  in  March,  1848,  to  Br.  James  S. 
Muspratt  of  Liverpool,  where  she  now  resides. 

CtJSIIMAX.  I.  Robert,  one  of  the  founders 
of  Plymouth  colony,  born  in  England  about 
1580,  died  in  1625.  He  joined  the  nonconform- 
ist exiles  at  Leyden,  and  in  1617  was  sent  by 
them  to  London  with  John  Carver,  as  their 
agent  to  negotiate  with  the  Virginia  company 
for  leave  to  settle  within  their  domain  in  North 
America,  and  to  petition  King  James  for  "liberty 
of  conscience  there."  Not  gaining  the  last 
point,  which  was  the  chief  desire  of  the  exiles, 
he  returned  to  Leyden,  after  an  absence  of  about 
6  months.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  same  year 
he,  with  the  same  colleague,  was  again  de- 
spatched with  written  terms  from  the  Leyden 
Congregational  church,  but  gained  no  better  re- 
sult, for  the  company  was  now  distracted  by 
dissensions  among  its  officers,  so  that  "no  busi- 
ness 'could  well  go  forward."  In  1619  Mr. 
Cushman  was  sent  the  8d  time  on  the  same 
embassy  (associated  with  Elder  "William  Brew- 
VOL.  VI. — 1 1 


ster),  and  a  patent  was  finally  obtained  in  tho 
name  of  John  Wincob,  which,  however,  was  not 
used,  as  that  person  did  not  emigrate.  In  1020 
he  was  desi)atched  the  4th  time  to  London,  with 
Carver  and  Martin  as  his  associates,  to  receive 
money  and  provide  for  their  embarkation.  Tho 
"  Merchant  Adventurers  "  of  London  now  began 
to  withdraw  their  means  and  i)romises,  and  in- 
sisted upon  two  stringent  alterations  in  the  terms 
of  their  contract  previously  agreed  upon  with 
his  associate.  Cushman  assented  to  them,  a 
step  which  gave  temporary  dissatisfaction  to 
many  of  his  friends,  though  they  afterward  per- 
ceived that  it  saved  the  expedition  and  their 
ventures  in  it  from  utter  failure.  He  procured 
the  Mayflower,  a  pilot,  &c.,  and  finally  sailed  in 
her,  as  "  assistant  governor  "  to  the  passengers, 
from  Southampton,  Aug.  5,  1620,  in  company 
with  the  Speedwell.  Eight  days  out,  the  S])eed- 
well  proving  leaky,  both  vessels  put  into  Dart- 
mouth for  repairs,  and  remained  there  8  days. 
They  took  their  2d  departure  Aug.  21,  and  in  3 
days  the  Speedwell  was  reported  leaking  again ; 
both  vessels  then  put  into  Plymouth,  when  the 
Speedwell  was  dismissed  as  unseaworthy,  and 
her  company  compelled  to  remain.  Mr.  Cush- 
man was  appointed  to  the  care  of  those  left 
ashore,  and  followed  in  the  next  vessel,  the  For- 
tune, 55  tons,  bringing  most  of  them  and  others, 
and  reaching  New  Plymouth,  Nov.  9, 1621.  On 
Dec.  12  ho  preached  in  the  "common  house" 
of  the  little  colony  the  first  sermon  in  America 
that  was  printed :  "  On  the  Sin  and  Danger  of 
Self-Love" — a  practical,  far-seeing  discourse, 
abounding  in  wisdom,  and  enriched  with  very 
many  illustrations  and  examples  drawn  from 
sacred  history,  evidently  written  to  allay  any 
dissatisfaction  that  might  have  been  apprehend- 
ed among  the  colonists.  He  sailed  for  England 
the  next  day,in  the  same  vessel  by  which  he  came, 
which  was  captured  by  the  French,  plundered, 
and  detained  2  weeks  on  their  coast.  After  his 
arrival  he  wrote  and  published  an  eloquent  vin- 
dication of  the  colonial  enterprise,  and  appeal 
for  Christian  missions  to  tho  American  Indians; 
which  was  the  first  published  argument  for  Eng- 
lish emigration  to  this  country.  He  continued  to 
reside  in  Lcmdon,  acting  as  agent  for  the  colo- 
nists. In  1623,  he  with  Edward  "Winslow,  en- 
voy from  New  Plymouth,  procured  from  King 
James,  through  Lord  Sheffield,  a  charter  for  ter- 
ritory on  Cape  Ann.  Early  in  1625,  while  pre- 
paring to  emigrate  thither  by  the  next  ship,  to 
join  his  son,  and  make  New  Plymouth  his  per- 
manent residence,  he  died.  II.  Thomas,  son  of 
the  foregoing,  born  in  England  in  1608,  died  at 
Plymouth,  Dec.  11,  1691.  He  came  with  his 
father  to  New  Plymouth  in  the  Fortune,  Nov. 
9,  1621,  and  was  left  in  the  care  of  Gov.  Brad- 
ford, in  whose  fiimily  he  lived  till  manhood. 
He  married  Mar}-,  3d  child  of  Isaac  Allerton, 
who  was  the  last  survivor  of  the  Mayflower 
passengers,  and  who  died  in  1699,  aged  90.  His 
life  and  death  are  best  depicted  in  the  following 
extract  from  the  Plymouth  1st  church  records, 
vol.  i. : 


J  62 


CUSK 


CUSTIS 


"1C91.  It  jiliMsed  God  to  seize  upon  our  pood  Elder,  Mr. 
Tlioiiiax  CushuKin,  by  sickness,  and  in  tiiis  year  to  take  him 
ft-om  us.  IIi^  was  chosen  and  ordained  Klder  of  this  Oliurch, 
April  6,  1(>49  ;  lie  was  neere  43  yoares  in  his  oltice,  his  sick- 
nesse  lasted  about  eleven  weeks  ;  he  had  bin  a  rich  blessing 
to  this  church  scores  of  years,  he  was  grave,  sober,  holy  and 
temperate,  very  studious  and  solicitous  for  the  peace  and  pros- 
perity of  tlie  church,  and  to  prevent  and  heale  all  breaches: 
He  dyed,  December  11,  neare  the  end  of  the  84th  yeare  of 
his  life;  December  16:  was  kept  as  a  day  of  humiliation  for 
Lis  death,— the  Pastor  prayed  and  preached.  Mr.  Arnold 
and  the  Pastor's  2  sons  assisted  in  prayer;  much  of  God's 
presence  went  away  from  this  church  when  this  blessed  pil- 
lar was  Removed. 

"A  liberal  contribution  was  made  that  fast  day  for  the  El- 
der's widow,  as  an  acknowledgement  of  his  yrcat  services  to 
the  church  whilst  living. 

"August  7,  1715.  A  contribution  was  moved  and  made, 
both  by  the  church  and  congregation,  to  defray  the  expense 
of  Grave  Stones  sett  upon  the  grave  of  that  worthy  and  useful 
servant  of  God,  Elder  Thomas  Cushmau;  the  whole  congre- 
gation were  very  forwanl  in  it." 

A  massive  granite  momiment  to  the  memory 
of  tliese  3  Cushmans  was  erected  at  Plymouth 
by  their  numerous  descendants,  and  publicly 
consecrated,  Sept.  16,  1858. 

OUSK,  a  fish  belonging  to  the  cod  family  or 
gadidce,  and  to  the  genus  hrosmius  (Cuv.),  char- 
acterized by  an  elongated  body,  a  single  dorsal 
fin  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  back, 
fleshy  ventral  fins,  and  one  barbel  at  the  chin. 
The  American  cusk,  wliich  is  considered  specifi- 
cally distinct  from  the  European,  is  the  B.flaves- 
cens  (Lesueur);  the  color  varies  from  brownish 
with  yellowish  sides,  to  whitish  with  brownish 
patches ;  the  immature  fish  is  of  a  uniform  dark 
slate  color,  sometimes  with  transverse  yellow 
bands ;  the  dorsal,  caudal,  and  anal  fins  are  bor- 
dered with  bluish  black,  and  edged  with  white  ; 
the  dorsal  and  anal  are  continued  to  the  base  of 
the  tail.  The  length  of  the  fish  varies  from  2 
to  3  feet  and  more,  one  of  the  first  dimensions 
■weighing  about  4  lbs. ;  it  is  taken  generally 
on  the  middle  bank,  with  the  hook,  by  tbe 
deep  water  cod-fishers.  In  the  spring  it  is  seen 
in  Boston  market,  when  it  is  less  esteemed  than 
cod,  but  in  the  winter  it  commands  a  higher 
price;  as  a  fresh  fish  it  is  considered  a  deli- 
cacy, and  salted  is  generally  preferred  to  cod. 
It  is  found  along  the  shore  of  the  British  prov- 
inces, and  even  to  high  latitudes.  The  European 
species,  B.  tulgaris  (Cuv.),  called  torsk  or  tusk, 
is  also  a  northern  fish,  occurring  plentifully 
amoi^g  the  Shetland  islands,  where  it  forms  a 
considerable  article  of  trade ;  it  is  caught,  salt- 
ed, and  dried  in  the  same  manner  as  cod  ;  it  is 
common  on  the  coasts  of  Norway,  Iceland,  and 
the  Faroe  islands.  It  resembles  very  much  the 
B.  flavescens,  and  the  two  are  considered  by 
some  as  varieties  of  one  species. 

CUSP  (Lat.  cmjnx^  a  spear-point),  in  astron- 
omy, a  horn  or  point  of  the  moon,  or  of  any 
other  luminary.  In  geometry,  it  denotes  the 
point  or  corner  in  which  two  branches  of  the 
same  or  of  different  curves  meet.  In  architec- 
ture, it  is  applied  to  the  spear-shaped  ornaments 
which  terminate  the  internal  curves  of  trefoiled 
and  quatrefoiled  Gothic  arch  windows.  In  as- 
trology, it  denotes  the  first  point  of  each  of  the 
12  houses  in  a  scheme  of  the  heavens. 

OUST,  Sir  Edward,  an  English  major-gen- 
eral, master  of  ceremonies  at  the  court  of  Queen 


Victoria  since  1847,  born  in  London  in  1794, 
served  in  the  army  under  Wellington,  and  was 
for  several  years,  until  1882,  a  member  of  the 
house  of  commons. 

CUSTINE.  I.  Adam  Philippe,  count  de,  a 
French  general,  born  in  Metz,  Feb.  4, 1740,  guil- 
lotined in  Paris,  Aug.  29,  1793.  lie  served 
with  distinction  in  the  7  years'  war,  and  in  the 
American  war  of  independence  under  Wash- 
ington. On  his  return  to  France  he  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Toulon,  and  in  1789  was 
elected  by  the  nobility  of  Lorraine  as  deputy 
to  the  states-general.  He  was  a  partisan  of 
the  revolution,  but  his ,  noble  birth  and  as- 
sociations with  the  nobility  made  him  a  con- 
stant object  of  suspicion  to  the  republicans  of 
plebeian  origin.  He  returned  to  military  life, 
and  was  in  June,  1792,  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  French  army  on  the  lower  Rhine. 
He  took  possession  of  Landau,  Spire,  AVorms, 
Mentz,  and  Frankfort-on-the-Main ;  but  sud- 
denly evacuated  the  German  towns,  and  with- 
drew to  Alsace.  This  gave  umbrage  to  the 
leaders  of  the  convention ;  but  he  succeeded  in 
vindicating  himself,  and  received  the  command 
of  the  northern  army.  However,  he  was  finally 
accused  of  treason,  sentenced  to  death  on  Aug. 
28,  1793,  and  guillotined  on  the  following  day, 
but  asserted  to  the  last  his  loyalty  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  revolution.  A  few  months  later, 
his  son,  Rexaud  Philippe,  his  aide-de-camp, 
was  doomed  to  share  the  same  fate.  II.  As- 
TOLPHE,  rtiarquis  de,  grandson  of  Count  Adam, 
born  in  Paris  in  1793,  died  at  his  chateau  of  St. 
Gratien,  near  Pau,  Sept.  1857,  was  the  author  of 
several  novels,  of  which  Eomuald  and  Le  monde 
comvie  il  est  (the  former  of  a  religious,  and  the 
latter  of  a  philosophical  tendency)  have  been 
translated  into  German.  A  tragedj'  of  his, 
Beatrix  Cenci^  disappeared  from  the  stage  after 
a  single  representation.  He  travelled  exten- 
sively on  the  continent,  in  England  and  Russia, 
and  published  3  works  of  travels,  of  which  that 
on  Russia,  La  Rnssie  en  1839,  achieved  the 
greatest  popularity.  It  is  written  in  a  some- 
Avhat  flippant,  but  entertaining,  and  in  many 
respects  instructive  vein.  It  passed  through 
many  editions,  and  was  translated  into  English 
and  German, 

CUSTIS,  George  Washington'  Parke,  -the 
adopted  son  of  George  Washington,  born  at 
Mount  Airy,  Md.,  in  April,  1781,  died  at  Ar- 
lington house,  Fairfax  co.,  Va.,  Oct.  10,  1857. 
He  was  the  youngest  child  of  John  Parke  Cus- 
tis,  a  son  of  Mrs.  Washington  by  her  first  hus- 
band, and  an  aide-de-camp  to  Gen.  Washington  at 
the  siege  of  Yorktown.  John  Parke  Custis  died 
at  Eltham,  Md.,  of  camp  fever,  just  after  the  sur- 
render of  Cornwallis,  leaving  4  children,  the  2 
youngest  of  whom  were  adopted  by  Washing- 
ton. George  Washington  Parke  Custis  was 
brought  up  at  Mount  Vernon,  subsequently  pur- 
sued his  classical  studies  at  Princeton,  and  re- 
mained a  member  of  AVashington's  family  until 
the  death  of  Mrs.  Washington  in  1802,  when  he 
went  to  reside  at  Arlington,  an  estate  of  1,000 


CUTCII 


CUTHBERT 


1G3 


acres  in  the  neigliborliood  of 'Washington,  which 
he  had  inherited  from  his  father.  lie  erected 
the  mansion  known  as  Arlington  house,  and 
devoted  his  life  to  Utei-ary  and  agricultural 
pursuits.  After  1852,  when  his  sister  Eleanor 
Parke  Custis,  who  was  married  to  Major  Law- 
rence Lewis,  died,  he  was  the.  sole  surviving 
Tuemher  of  A7ashington's  fanuly,  and  his  resi- 
dence was  for  many  years  an  attractive  resort 
on  account  of  the  many  interesting  relics  of  that 
family  which  it  contained.  Mr.  Custis  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  remarkable  orations,  of 
several  plays,  and  of  the  "•  Recollections  of  Wash- 
ington," published  at  various  times  in  the  "  Na- 
tional Intelligencer,"  of  Washington.  He  was 
fond  of  painting,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  executed  a  number  of  pictures  of  revolution- 
ary battles.  He  was  married  in  early  life  to 
Miss  Mary  Lee  Fitzhugh,  of  Virginia,  and  left 
a  daughter  and  several  grandchildren. 

CUTCII,  or  CuTcn  Bnooj,  a  native  state  of 
Iliudostan,  under  the  political  superintendence 
of  the  Bombay  government,  bounded  iST.  W. 
and  X.  by  Sinde,  E.  by  the  Guicowar's  domin- 
ions, S.  by  the  peninsula  of  Cattywar  and  the 
gulf  of  Cutch,  and  S.  W.  by  the  Arabian  sea. 
It  lies  between  lat.  22°  47'  and  24°  40'  K,  long. 
08°  26'  and  7P  45'  E.;  greatest  length  from  E. 
to  W.  205  m.,  breadth  110  m. ;  area,  exclusive 
of  the  great  salt  marsh  called  thcRunn  of  Cutch, 
which  covers  the  N.  part  of  the  territory',  and 
communicates  with  the  gulf,  6,704  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
500,536.  The  Runu  is  160  m.  long  from  E.  to 
W.,  from  4  to  80  m.  wide,  and  about  7,000  sq. 
m.  in  area,  including  several  islands.  During 
the  rainy  season  it  is  impassable  except  in  a 
very  few  spots,  and  the  S.  part  of  the  state  be- 
comes a  vast  island ;  but  as  the  waters  subside 
tolerable  pastures  appear  here  and  tiiere,  and 
barren  sand  banks,  covered  with  saline  incrus- 
tations, are  left  exposed.  The  rest  of  the  sur- 
face is  hilly,  and  exhibits  traces  of  volcanic 
action.  Earthquakes  are  occasionally  felt,  and 
in  1819  a  severe  shock  was  experienced,  which 
destroyed  several  hundred  lives,  and  raised  an 
enormous  mound  of  sand  and  earth,  several  miles 
in  extent,  while  a  corresponding  depression  took 
])lace  in  the  neighborhood.  With  the  exception 
of  a  few  fertile  tracts,  the  country  is  generally 
sterile,  and  almost  destitute  of  perennial  rivers. 
The  staple  agricultural  product  is  cotton,  beside 
which  there  are  plantations  of  sugar  and  of  the 
common  grains  of  India.  Timber  is  scarce,  but 
there  are  valuable  minerals,  including  coal,  iron, 
and  alum.  Cutch  produces  excellent  horses,  a 
poor  breed  of  oxen,  and  numerous  sheep  and 
goats.  Wild  asses  are  met  with  in  large  herds 
near  the  Ruun.  '  The  principal  towns  are  Bhooj, 
the  modern  capital,  and  Anjar.  The  dominant 
race  is  a  Rajpoot  tribe,  formerly  noted  for  their 
almost  universal  practice  of  female  infanticide. 

CUTCII,  Gulf  of,  an  arm  of  the  Arabian 
sea,  running  IST.  JST.  E.  between  Cutch  and  the 
peninsula  of  Cattywar  (Guzerat),  110  m.  long, 
and  25  m.  wide  at  the  entrance.  It  has  often 
been  described  as  very  dangerous  to  navigation, 


but  though  full  of  eddies  it  is  tolerably  free  from 
rocks,  and  is  crossed  by  the  natives  at  all  sea- 
sons without  fear. 

CUTCH  GUNDAVA,  a  province  in  the  K 
E.  of  Beloochistan,  bordering  on  Sinde  and 
Afghanistan,  and  bounded  W.  by  the  Ilala 
mountains,  in  which  is  the  famous  Bolan  pass. 
It  lies  between  lat.  27°  40'  and  29^  50'  N.,  long. 
67°  20'  and  69°  17'  E. ;  length  from  N.  to  S. 
about  160  m.,  breadth  130  m.;  area,  about 
10,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  100,000.  It  consists 
mainly  of  a  vast  arid  plain,  little  cultivated,  but 
in  some  parts  thickly  peopled.  The  S.  E.  part 
is  occupied  by  the  desert  of  Shikarpoor,  40  m. 
in  extent,  the  soil  of  which  is  hardened  clay, 
almost  destitute  of  vegetation.  The  climate  is 
proverbially  sultry,  water  is  scarce,  and  the  chief 
productions  are  bajra  and  Indian  millet.  There 
are  some  fertile  tracts,  however,  devoted  to  the 
cultivation  of  cotton,  sugar,  madder,  and  fruits. 
Capital,  Gundava. 

CUTHBERT,  a  saint  and  bishop  of  the  Eng- 
lish church,  born  near  Melrose,  probably  in  the 
first  quarter  of  the  7th  century,  died  March  20, 
687,  which  day  is  observed  as  his  festival. 
He  was  early  attracted  to  the  monastic  life  by 
the  virtues  of  St.  Aidan  and  his  pious  brethren, 
and  was  constrained  by  a  timely  vision  to  join 
himself  to  the  fraternity.  In  664  he  was  chosen 
prior  of  Melrose,  and  some  years  later  was 
transferred  to  the  charge  of  the  monastery  of 
Lindisfarne,  or  the  "  Holy  island,"  a  few  miles 
S.  of  Berwick.  His  fondness  for  ascetic  prac- 
tices was  not  satisfied  by  the  comparative  ease 
and  indulgence  of  this  large  establishment,  and 
after  a  few  j-ears  he  retired  to  the  lone  and  des- 
olate isle  of  Fame,  where  he  might  enjoy  a 
life  of  solitude.  The  island  Avas  barren,  with- 
out wood  or  water  ;  but  the  industry  of  the 
hermit,  aided,  according  to  the  legend,  by  re- 
peated miracles,  opened  springs,  awakened 
fertility,  and  covered  the  ground  with  fields  of 
grain.  The  fame  of  his  holiness  brought  to  him 
many  visitors,  among  them  Elfleda,  daughter 
of  the  Northumbrian  king  Oswj-,  with  whom 
he  usually  conversed  through  a  window  in  the 
wall,  not  stirring  out  of  his  cell.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  more  efiectual  isolation  he  dug  a  trench 
around  his  cabin.  But  he  was  compelled  at 
last  to  yield  to  the  persuasions  of  the  Northum- 
brian king  and  church,  and  take  the  bishopric 
of  the  province  of  Lindisfarne.  He  held  this 
oflice  for  2  years,  wlien,  worn  out  by  labors  and 
austerities,  lie  died  in  the  island  of  Fame.  His 
body,  buried  at  his  request  in  the  monastery  of 
Lindisfarne,  was  exhumed  11  years  later,  when, 
according  to  Bede,  it  was  found  to  be  undecayed. 
The  Danish  invasion,  breaking  up  these  northern 
convents,  dispersed  the  monks  over  all  the  north- 
ern region.  The  bones  of  St.  Cuthbert  found  a 
final  resting  place  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Wear,  and  a  convent,  cathedral,  and  city  were 
successively  built  around  them.  The  legends 
and  relics  of  St.  Cuthbert  remained  for  ages  the 
chief  treasure  of  the  cathedral  of  Durham.  He 
received  the  name  of  the   "  Thaumatxirgus  of 


164 


CUTLER 


Britain,"  His  memory  was  renerated  for  many 
centuries,  and  no  intercession  was  deemed  so 
powerful  by  the  peasantry  of  tlie  north  of 
England.  Pilgrimages  were  n:ade  to  his  shrine 
as  to  the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury. 
Diseases  of  the  eye  and  palsy  of  the  limbs  were 
cured  by  the  sight  of  his  relics,  or  by  kneeling 
at  his  tomb.  A  tooth  of  the  saint  was  preserved 
in  a  nunnery  in  Paris,  and  a  copy  of  John's 
Gospel  in  MS.,  taken  from  Cuthbert's  coffin, 
was  still  extant  in  the  last  century.  The  Ko- 
man  Catholic  church  celebrates  on  Sept.  4  the 
festival  of  the  translation  of  St.  Cuthbert's  relics 
from  Lindisfarne  to  Durham;  in  some  parts 
of  the  region  of  Northumberland  the  day  is  still 
observed  as  a  holiday. — St.  Cuthbert  of  Durham 
is  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  Cuthbert 
the  Benedictine  monk,  who  was  a  pupil  of  Bede, 
attended  him  in  his  last  hours,  and  wrote  a  me- 
moir of  his  life.  Another  Cuthbert  was  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  for  18  years  from  740  to 
758. 

CUTLER,  Maxasseh,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  in  Killingly,  Conn.,  in  1744,  died  at 
Hamilton,  Mass.,  July  28,  1823.  lie  was  grad- 
uated at  Yale  college  in  1765,  engaged  in  tlie 
whaling  business,  and  opened  a  store  at  Edgar- 
town,  on  Martha's  Vineyard.  "While  thus  act- 
ively employed,  he  still  continued  his  studies, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Massachusetts 
in  1767,  and  pleaded  a  few  cases  in  the  court  of 
common  pleas.  But  this  profession  was  not  a 
congenial  one ;  he  cherished  a  preference  for 
the  ministry,  and  determined  to  prepare  him- 
self for  it.  After  living  in  Edgartown  3  years, 
he  removed  with  his  family  to  Dedham,  for  the 
purpose  of  pursuing  his  theological  studies  with 
the  Rev.  Thomas  Balch,  whose  daughter  he  had 
previously  married.  He  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1770,  and  preached  6  months  as  a  candidate  at 
the  Hamlet  parish,  then  apart  of  Ipswich,  Mass., 
but  which  was  incorporated  as  a  separate  town 
under  the  name  of  Hamilton  in  1798.  Over 
tliis  parish  he  was  ordained,  Sept.  11, 1771.  At 
that  period  the  difficulties  between  the  colonies 
and  Great  Bi-itain  were  assuming  a  threatening 
aspect,  and  he  watched  with  deep  interest  the 
approach  of  the  revolution.  "When  the  news 
of  the  battle  of  Lexington  reached  him,  he  made 
a  short  and  stirring  address  to  the  minute  men 
mustered  in  Ipswich  on  that  occasion,  and  ac- 
companied them  on  horseback  to  Cambridge, 
coming  in  sight  of  the  enemy  as  they  were  re- 
treating into  Boston.  Desirous  of  serving  his 
country  in  deed  as  well  as  in  word,  he  received 
a  commission,  Sept.  1776,  as  chaplain  of  the  regi- 
ment commanded  by  Col.  E.  Francis,  under 
whom  and  Col.  Titcomb  he  served  a  year.  To- 
ward the  close  of  the  revolutionary  struggle,  as 
the  physician  of  the  Hamlet  parish  was  employ- 
ed in  the  army,  and  the  people  left  destitute  of 
medical  advice,  Mr.  Cutler  applied  himself  to 
the  study  and  practice  of  medicine.  For  several 
years  he  administered  to  the  bodily  as  well  as 
spiritual  maladies  of  his  flock,  for  the  former 
services  receiving  little  or  no  compensation; 


yet  notwithstanding  these  arduous  labors,  he 
soon  became  noted  for  his  scientific  taste  and 
attainments.     In  1781  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  American  academy,  and  in  the  volume  of 
memoirs  published  by  that  society  in  1785  will 
be  found  scientific  papers  from  his  pen,  bearing 
the  following  titles:  "On  the  Transit  of  Mer- 
cury over  the  Sun,  Nov.  12,  1782;"  "On the 
Eclipse  of  the  Moon,  March  29,  1782,  and  of 
the  Sun  in  the  following  April ;"  "Meteorological 
Observations,  1781,  '82,  '83  ;"  "An  Account  of 
some   of  the  A''egetable  Productions  naturally 
growing  in  this  part  of  America;"  and  in  the 
3d  volume  of  the  memoirs  appeared  "  Remarks 
on  a  Vegetable  and  Animal  Insect."    His  botan- 
ical paper  was  tlie  first  attempt  at  a  scientific 
description  of  the  plants  of  New  England.     Dr. 
Cutler  may  well  be  termed  the  pioneer  of  botany 
in  that  region.    He  was  induced  to  pursue  this 
branch  of  science  by  casually  meeting  with  an 
English  work  on  botany,   and  his  attention 
being  thus  drawn  to  the  plants  growing  in  his 
own  immediate  neighborhood,  he  examined  and 
described  350  species  according  to  the  Linna;an 
system.    In  the  pi'eface  he  remarks  that  he  may 
be  guilty  of  many  errors,  as  he  had  never  before 
that  year  (1784)  looked  at  plants  with  an  eye 
to   their  scientific   arrangement.     During  the 
same  year  he,  with  6  others,  ascended  the  White 
mountains  ;  this  party  are  said  to  have  been  the 
first  white  men  who  ever  reached  the  summit. 
Dr.  Cutler  carried  up  instruments,  and  computed 
Mount  Washington  to  be  10,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  thus  giving  it  too  great  an  ele- 
vation.  W^ith  Dr.  Peck's  assistance  he  prepared 
the  chapter  on  trees  and  plants  in  Dr.  Belknap's 
"  History  of  New  Hampshire."     Owing  to  the 
difficult  and  uncertain  condition  of  affiiirs  at  the 
close   of  the    revolutionary   war,   Dr,    Cutler 
thought  he  could  improve  his  condition  by  re- 
moving to  the  West,  then  a  wild  and  almost  un- 
explored part  of  the  union.     In  1786  a  number 
of  officers  of  the  army  met  to  form  the  Ohio  com- 
Y>any  for  the  purpose  of  having  their  bounty  lands 
located  together.     Major  Winthrop  Sargeant, 
one  of  the  most  efficient  of  their  number,  was 
acquainted  with  Dr,  Cutler,  and  consulted  with 
him  about  the  proposed  colony ;  the  result  was 
that  he  became  a  member  of  the  company,  and 
was  appointed  by  its  directors  an  agent  in  con- 
nection with  Major  Sargeant,  with  whom   in 
this  unexpected  capacity  Dr.  Cutler  visited  the 
seat  of  government,  and  made  a  contract  Avith 
the  proper  authorities  for  1,000,000  acres  of 
laud  north-west  of  the  Ohio  river.    They  also 
obtained  a  grant  of  500,000  acres  more,  as  an 
allowance  for  bad  lands  and  incidental  charges. 
By  order  of  the  directors  Dr.  Cutler,  on  his  re- 
turn home,  immediately  prepared  to  fit  out  an 
expedition    for    the  intended  settlement.     He 
had  a  large  wagon  built  and  covered  with  black 
canvas,  on  which  were  painted  in  white  letters 
the  words :  "  Ohio,  for  Marietta  on  the   Mus- 
kingum."    The  use  to  wljich  this  vehicle  was 
appropriated,  the  circumstances  under  which  it 
left  New  England  and  reached,  that  then  un- 


CUTLER 


CUTLERY 


165 


cultivated  wilderness,  have  placed  this  explor- 
ing wagon  liistorically  by  the  ?ide  of  the  May- 
flower. Forty-five  men  were  engaged  to  ac- 
company it,  and  to  help  to  settle  and  defend  the 
new  country  for  the  space  of  3  years.  These 
emigrants  started  from  Dr.  Cutler's  house,  Dec. 
1787 ;  they  were  well  armed,  and  fired  a  volley 
as  a  salute  on  their  departure  from  his  door. 
Their  number  having  been  increased  to  60, 
they  commenced  the  settlement  of  Marietta, 
April  7,  1788,  under  Gen.  Rufus  Putnam.  Id 
the  further  discharge  of  his  agency  Dr.  Cutler 
started  in  a  sulky  for  Ohio,  which  he  reached 
in  29  days  by  a  route  of  750  miles.  On  Aug. 
27,  1788,  he  performed  the  burial  service  for  a 
child  of  Major  Cushing,  the  first  funeral  that 
occurred  among  the  whites  at  Marietta,  While 
there  he  examined  the  fortifications  and  mounds 
in  the  neighborhood,  which  he  considered  were 
the  work  of  a  nation  more  civilized  and  powerful 
than  any  existing  tribe  of  Indians.  During  the 
few  weeks  of  his  visit  at  the  "West,  he  was  treat- 
ed with  great  kindness,  and  highly  honored;  but 
he  felt  that  at  his  age  he  had  better  remain  in 
New  England,  and  he  bade  a  final  adieu  to  the 
colony  which  he  was  in  a  great  measure  the 
means  of  founding.  In  1795  President  Wash- 
ington tendered  to  him  a  commission  as  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  of  the  Ohio  territory, 
Avhich  honor  he  declined.  He  was  afterward 
elected  by  his  people  representative  to  the  state 
legislature,  and  from  1800  to  180-i  he  served  as 
a  representative  in  congress. — Jervis,  son  of 
the  preceding,  one  of  the  earliest  emigrants  to 
the  western  states,  born  in  1769  at  Hamilton, 
Masss.,  died  at  Evansville,  Ind.,  June  25,  1844. 
In  1788,  at  the  age  of  19,  he  joined  the  little 
company  who,  under  Gen.  Rufus  Putnam,  set- 
tled at  Marietta,  Ohio,  then  in  the  midst  of  In- 
dian battle  grounds.  He  was  afterward  able  to 
Bay  that  he  was  the  first  man  who  ever  cut 
down  a  tree  for  an  emigrant's  clearing  in  that 
great  state.  He  was  the  last  survivor  of  that 
pioneer  company. 

CUTLER,  Timothy,  D.D.,  president  of  Yale 
college,  born  in  1685,  died  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Aug.  17,  1765.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
college  in  1701,  and  after  a  ministry  of  10 
years  at  Stratford,  Conn.,  was  chosen  president 
of  Yale  college  in  1719.  In  1722  he  renounced 
his  connection  with  the  Congregational  church- 
es, whereupon  the  trustees  of  the  college  passed  a 
vote  "  excusing  him  from  further  service  as  rec- 
tor of  Yale  college,"  and  requiring  in  future  from 
their  rectors  evidence  of  the  "  soundness  of  their 
faith  in  opposition  to  Arminian  and  prelatical 
corruptions."  He  then  went  to  England,  where 
he  took  orders.  Returning  to  Boston  in  July, 
1723,  he  became  rector  of  Christ  church,  where 
he  remained  till  his  death.  He  published  a  ser- 
mon delivered  before  the  general  court  at  New 
Haven,  in  1717,  and  one  upon  the  death  of  Tho- 
mas Graves,  1757.  A  series  of  his  letters  pub- 
li'shed  in  Nichols's  ''Illustrations  of  Literary 
Histor}',"  have  considerable  historical  value. 

CUTLERY  (Fr.  coutellerie),  a  general  term 


including  sharp  cutting  and  many  pointed  in- 
struments, made  of  iron  and  steel,  as  knives, 
forks,  razors,  kc.  Instruments  of  this  charac- 
ter were  made  in  ancient  times  of  various  hard 
stones  like  flint ;  and  shells  also  are  still  used 
by  rude  nations  in  the  want  of  better  cutting 
instruments.  The  ancient  Egyptians  appear  to 
have  possessed  the  art  of  giving  a  hardness  to 
bronze,  which  adapted  it  to  purposes  for  which 
only  the  best  tempered  steel  is  now  found  suit- 
able. The  Greeks  also  employed  it  before  they 
were  acquainted  with  the  properties  of  steel ; 
but  these  they  appear  to  have  understood  in 
the  time  of  Homer,  distinct  reference  being 
made  in  the  Odyssey  to  the  process  of  temper- 
ing it.  Their  citations,  as  also  those  of  the 
Romans,  of  districts  famous  for  their  production 
of  iron,  might  still  be  correctly  repeated ;  yet 
the  ancient  swords  found  in  Herculaneura  and 
Pompeii,  the  surgical  and  other  cutting  instru- 
ments, are  not  of  the  material,  ferrum,  always 
connected  by  the  Latin  writers  with  the  weapons 
named,  but  of  bronze.  The  manufacture  of  ar- 
ticles of  cutlery  was  practised  by  the  ancient 
Britons  at  as  early  a  period  certainly  as  the 
time  of  the  Roman  invasion,  when  they  pos- 
sessed broadswords,  scythes,  hooks,  and  spears, 
made  from  the  products  of  their  iron  mines. 
Sheffield  was  a  noted  place  for  their  manufac- 
ture in  the  time  of  Chaucer,  who  says  of  the 
miller  of  Trompington  : 

A  Shefeld  thwytel  bare  he  in  his  hose. 
Forks  were  not  used  till  a  much  later  period  ; 
even  in  the  time  of  James  I.  they  were  regard- 
ed as  a  curious  device  of  the  Italians,  worthy 
of  a  formal  notice  by  the  traveller  Coryat. 
— Steel  is  the  x^rop^r  material  for  the  cut- 
ting edges  of  all  articles  of  cutlery ;  the  backs 
may  be  made,  if  preferred  for  the  sake  of 
nsing  a  cheaper  material,  of  iron,  to  which  the 
steel  is  welded.  So  also  of  the  handles  of  the 
instruments,  or  the  tangs  by  which  they  are 
secured  to  handles  of  other  materials.  The 
steel  for  many  instruments  may  be  the  blistered 
steel,  or  this  after  it  has  been  fagoted  and 
drawn  down  by  tilt  hammers  to  the  bars  call- 
ed shear  steel.  This  is  a  tough  variety,  easily 
worked,  and  answers  very  well  for  table  knives, 
plane  irons,  scythes,  <fcc.  But  when  a  fine  fin- 
ish is  required,  or  great  hardness,  the  blistered 
steel  should  be  converted  by  fusion  into  cast 
steel,  and  the  ingots  be  forged  into  bars,  and 
these  into  the  shapes  required.  Simple  articles 
of  cutlery,  as  chisels,  are  made  by  hammering  a 
bit  of  cast  steel  into  the  shape  of  the  cutting 
end,  giving  length  enough  to  allow  of  consider- 
able wear.  This  is  made  very  thin,  as  it  is  in- 
tended only  for  the  edge,  and  upon  it  is  laid 
and  welded  a  flat  slip  of  iron,  which  has  been 
forged  into  the  shape  of  the  chisel,  and  upon 
which  the  shoulder  is  shaped  by  driving  it  into 
a  cavity  in  the  anvil  or  a  block  with  a  suitably 
formed  die  to  give  the  shape  desired,  and  ham- 
mering upon  the  shank  above  a  swage  which 
fits  around  it  like  a  collar.  One  side  of  the 
chisel  is  thus  iron  intended  to  be  ground  away : 


16G 


CUTLERY 


the  other  side  is  the  steel,  •which  may  be  tem- 
pered to  a  proper  degree  of  hardness.  Small 
chisels  are  hammered  entirely  out  of  slender  bars 
of  steel. — The  materials  employed  for  scissors 
are  still  more  various.  Common  qualities  are  of 
shear  steel,  with  the  blades  only  hardened.  The 
best  qualities  are  of  cast  steel,  with  blades,  bows, 
and  slianks  all  hardened.  Large  scissors,  as 
the  shears  used  by  tailors,  are  of  steel  only  in 
the  blades,  the  rest  being  of  iron ;  formerly  only 
the  edge  was  of  steel.  Some  scissors  are  made 
of  a  good  quality  of  cast  iron,  to  which  the 
English  manufacturers  give  the  name  of  run  or 
virgin  steel.  Even  of  these  there  are  inferior 
qualities,  made  for  exportation,  of  common  cast 
iron.  A  dozen  pair  of  these  sell  for  3^d.  But 
scissors  of  the  best  steel  are  manufactured  with 
bows  and  shanks  of  gold  that  sell  for  more  than 
10  guineas  the  single  pair.  When  made  wholly 
of  steel,  the  blade  is  hammered  out  at  the  end 
of  a  small  bar,  which  is  cut  oft' with  enough  of 
the  steel  for  the  shank  and  bow.  Through  this 
a  hole  is  punched,  which  is  enlarged  over  the 
point  of  a  small  anvil  or  beak  iron.  By  ham- 
mering and  filing  the  exact  shape  is  given ; 
the  joint  is  then  squared,  the  hole  bored  for  the 
rivet  or  screw,  the  blades  are  ground,  and  the 
bows  smooth  filed  and  burnished  with  oil  and 
fine  emery.  Any  ornamental  devices  are  given 
by  swaging  in  dies  which  contain  the  patterns. 
The  blades  are  hardly  measured  except  by  the 
eye  in  the  process  of  forging,  and  not  being 
made  Avith  reference  to  pairing,  the  matches 
are  afterward  selected  among  many  blades. 
Being  sorted,  and  a  pair  screwed  together,  they 
are  made  to  "  walk  and  talk "  well,  as  the 
"  putter  together "  calls  their  playing  with  a 
smooth  motion.  After  this  follow  various  op- 
erations of  hardening,  grinding  to  give  the  ex- 
act shape,  glazing  and  polishing,  and  the  final 
burnishing  with  polished  steel  tools,  which  is 
done  by  women.  An  ingenious  device  is  intro- 
duced, by  which  the  cutting  edges  of  the  blades 
are  brought  in  close  contact  with  each  other 
only  at  the  point  where  the  cutting  is  eifected, 
which  point  moves  from  the  end  next  the  pivot 
to  the  extremity  of  the  blades,  in  the  opera- 
tion of  closing  these.  This  consists  in  giving  a 
slightly  bowed  shape  to  the  blades,  and  raising 
upon  the  inner  surface  of  each,  close  behind 
the  pivot,  a  little  triangular  prominence,  which 
makes  the  blades  cant  more  and  more  toward 
each  other  as  they  are  closed.  The  efiect  of 
these  bulges  and  of  the  bow  shape  may  be  ob- 
served on  holding  a  pair  of  scissors  edgewise  to 
the  light ;  when  closed  the  blades  are  seen  to 
touch  each  other  only  at  the  point  and  at  the 
centre  on  these  enlargements,  which  are  called 
the  riding  part.  The  arrangement  also  gives 
a  certain  degree  of  elasticity  Avhich  adds  to 
the  smooth  action  of  the  instrument. — The 
blade  of  a  table  knife  and  of  other  large  knives 
is  hammered  out  upon  an  anvil  at  the  end 
of  a  bar  of  shear  or  cast  steel,  and  cut  off".  It 
is  then  welded  on  to  a  bar  of  wrought  iron 
about  i  an  inch  square,  and  enough  o"  this  is 


cut  off  to  form  the  bolster  or  shoulder  and  the 
tang.  The  blade  is  heated  and  hammered,  or, 
as  it  is  called,  smithed,  which  serves  to  con- 
dense the  metal  and  enables  it  to  receive  a 
higher  finish.  The  mark  of  the  maker  is  then 
stamped  upon  it,  and  it  is  hardened  by  heating 
to  redness,  and  ])luuging  into  cold  water.  •  It  is 
tempered  to  a  blue  color,  and  is  then  ready  for 
grinding.  The  small  blades  of  penknives  are 
hammered  entire  out  of  the  best  cast  steel.  A 
temporary  tang  is  drawn  out  to  secure  the  blade 
in  a  small  handle  while  it  is  ground.  A  num- 
ber of  blades  are  heated  together  for  tempering, 
by  being  placed  over  the  fire  upon  a  flat  plate 
of  iron,  their  backs  downward ;  Avhen  at  the 
proper  degree  of  redness  so  as  to  take  a  brown 
or  purple  color,  they  are  dipped  in  water  up  to 
the  shoulder.  For  razors  the  very  best  cast  steel 
is  selected,  and  when  the  blade  is  shaped  uj>on 
the  anvil  from  a  bar  as  thick  as  the  back  of  the 
razor  and  ^  an  inch  wide,  it  is  well  smithed  to 
condense  the  metal  as  much  as  possible.  Only 
the  best  steel  will  bear  the  working  down  of  one 
part  of  the  blade  to  the  requisite  thinness,  while 
the  back  is  left  thick.  By  grinding  on  a  dry 
coarse  stone,  the  shape  is  furtlier  improved,  and 
the  scale  is  removed,  which  might  interfere  with 
the  tempering.  This  operation  is  performed 
after  the  blade  is  drilled  for  the  pin  of  the  joint 
and  stamped.  It  is  next  ground  on  a  stone  wet 
with  water,  and  is  afterward  submitted  to 
several  processes  of  glazing  and  polishing,  the 
last  being  effected  on  a  soft  buff  wheel,  cov- 
ered with  dry  crocus  and  slowly  revolving. 
Forks  are  hammered  out  of  square  steel  rods, 
coumionly  of  -^  inch.  The  tang  and  shank  are 
roughly  shaped  at  the  end  of  tlie  rod,  and  are 
then  cut  oft'  with  about  an  inch  of  the  square 
steel  beside.  This  is  drawn  out  flat  for  the 
prongs ;  and  the  shank  and  tang  are  then 
shaped  by  the  die  and  swage.  The  other  end, 
heated  to  a  white  heat,  is  laid  in  a  steel  die  upon 
an  .anvil,  when  another  die  attached  to  the 
under  face  of  a  heavy  block  of  metal  is  allowed 
to  fall  upon  it  from  the  height  of  7  or  8  feet. 
The  prongs  are  thug  shaped,  and  all  but  a  thin 
film  of  steel  removed  from  between  them.  This 
is  afterward  cleaned  out  with  an  instrument 
called  a  fly-press.  A  number  of  forks  are  then 
collected  together  and  annealed  by  heating  and 
allowing  them  to  cool  slowly.  This  renders 
them  soft,  so  that  they  are  easily  shaped  by  the 
file  and  by  bending.  They  are  hardened  by 
another  lieating  to  redness  followed  by  sudden 
cooling  in  cold  water,  when  they  are  at  last 
tempered  at  the  heat  at  which  grease  inflames. — 
The  process  of  tempering,  to  which  all  ai'ticles 
of  steel  cutlery  are  subjected,  is  intended  to 
remove  the  brittleness  consequent  upon  the 
hardening  of  the  steel.  This  is  effected  by  re- 
heating it  to  a  proper  temperature  and  suddenly 
plunging  the  metal  into  cold  water.  The  higher 
the  temperature  of  this  reheating,  the  softer  and 
stronger  is  the  steel ;  at  lower  degrees  of  heat 
a  greater  hardness  is  secured,  but  with  propor- 
tional brittleness.     The  different  temperatures 


CUTLERY 


167 


■with  tho  corresponding  colors  appropriate  for 
the  tempering  of  various  articles  are  given  as 
follows  by  Mr.  Stodart : 

1.  480"  F. ;  very  pale  ^t^a^v  yellow  ;  teiiiiuT  suituble  for  lan- 

cets. 

2.  450";  a  shade  of  darker  yellow;  razors  and  surgical  in- 

struments.   ' 
8.  470°;  darker  straw  yellow  ;  penknives. 
4.  490°;  still  darker  straw  yellow;  chisels  and  shears  for 

cutting  iron. 
6.  500";  brown  yellow;  axes  and  plane  irons. 
6.  520°;  yellow,  slightly  tinged  with  purple;  table  knives 

and  cloth  shears. 

I-  Sn^'  'i"'l*  P"?!^:  [swords  and  w.-itch  springs. 

8.  650  ;  dark  purple ;  )  i       & 

9.  570°;  dark  blue;  small  fine  saws. 

1^    tnA.         1      vi      .  I  larire  saws  with  teeth  to  bo  sot 

?-r?oo'H-r  Vi      A      with    pliers   and    sharpened 

11.  010°;  still  paler  blue;  1     ,vith  a  file. 

12.  030°;  same,  with  tinge  of  green;  too  soft  for  steel  in- 

struments. 

The  film  which  presents  the  color  appears  to  be 
owing  to  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  as  it  could  not 
be  produced  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  nitro- 
gen. The  action  is  probably  upon  the  carbon 
of  the  steel,  and  the. effect  is  to  partially  pro- 
tect the  steel  from  oxidation  producing  rust. 
— In  ])laces  where  the  manufacture  of  cutlery  is 
carried  on  upon  an  extensive  scale,  as  at  Shef- 
field, the  grinding  and  polishing  is  conducted 
in  large  mills  or  "  wheels  "  devoted  to  this  pur- 
pose. The  rooms  of  these  establishments,  call- 
ed hulls,  are  furnished  each  with  G  arrange- 
ments for  grinding,  which  are  called  troughs. 
They  consist  of  the  stone  for  grinding,  a  pol- 
isher, and  the  pulley  for  driving  them.  The 
stones  are  of  various  sizes,  from  4  inches  to  2 
feet  in  diameter,  adapted  to  the  articles  to  be 
ground.  The  convex  surface  of  the  small  4  or 
5  inclt  stones  gives  the  concavity  on  the  face 
of  the  razor  blades.  Some  are  used  dry,  and 
others,  employed  for  grinding  articles,  the  tem- 
per of  which  might  be  injured  by  the  heat,  are 
kept  wet.  The  dry  grinding  is  more  expedi- 
tious, but  unless  the  troughs  are  furnished  with 
a  ventilating  fan  and  flue  for  carrying  off  the 
fine  metallic  particles  and  the  dust  from  the 
stones,  the  health  of  the  workmen  is  very  seri- 
ously affected.  Fork  grinding,  Avhich  is  always 
done  without  water,  is  described  by  Dr.  Hol- 
land of  Slieffield  as  probably  more  destructive 
to  human  life  than  any  other  pursuit.  The  air 
of  the  rooms  becomes  filled  with  the  fine  dust, 
and  tlie  inhaling  of  this  produces  cough  and  in- 
flammation of  the  lungs,  reducing  the  average 
age  of  tlie  fork  grinders  to  30  years  or  less. 
Glazing  or  lapping  succeeds  to  the  grinding. 
Each  process  consists  in  applying  the  articles 
to  the  face  of  a  revolving  wheel,  upon  which  a 
lump  o"f  emery  cake  is  occasionally  rubbed. 
The  glazier  is  a  wheel  made  of  6  or  8  pieces  of 
some  close-grained  wood,  arranged  so  that  the 
grain  lies  as  much  as  possible  in  the  line  from 
the  centre  to  the  circumference.  The  lap  is  a 
thin  wooden  wheel  faced  around  its  edge  with 
a  rim  or  tire  of  metal.  This  usually  consists 
of  4  or  5  parts  of  lead  to  1  of  tin,  and  is  secured 
by  being  run  when  melted  between  tlie  project- 
ing edges  of  the  face  of  the  wheel.  After  being 
cast  it  is  turned  true,  and  is  then  indented  or 


grooved  in  order  to  make  it  hold  the  dressing 
of  emery  and  oil.  Various  qualities  of  polish 
are  produced  upon  steel  blades  by  drawing 
them  from  end  to  end  across  the  revolving  la]), 
according  to  the  fineness  of  the  emery  witli 
which  this  is  fed,  or  tiie  smoother  face  given 
by  tlie  application  of  a  sticik  of  charcoal  suc- 
ceeded by  that  of  a  smooth  ])iece  of  flint.  For 
giving  the  finest  polish  to  razors  and  other  ar- 
ticles of  fine  cutlery,  polishing  wheels  of  wood 
are  used  with  faces  covered  with  leather  and 
charged  with  dry  crocus. — The  handles  of  ar- 
ticles of  cutlery  are  made  from  a  variety  of 
materials ;  as  the  ivory  of  the  elej)liant  and 
walrus,  different  kinds  of  horn,  mother-of- 
pearl,  tortoise  shell,  and  some  sorts  of  wood,  as 
cocoa  and  snakewood.  Ivory  is  used  more  than 
other  materials  for  table  knives,  &c.  A  solid 
piece  of  the  right  size  is  cut  out,  and  the  hole 
for  the  tang  is  bored  in  one  end.  Sometimes 
this  is  made  entirely  through  the  handle,  so 
that  the  end  of  the  tang  may  be  secured  by 
riveting  upon  a  metallic  cap  which  is  thus  at- 
tached to  the  extremity  of  the  handle.  When 
it  passes  only  part  way  through,  it  is  secured  by 
cement,  or  by  a  late  contrivance  of  the  Messrs. 
Eodgers  of  Sheftield — a  little  spring  catch  fast- 
ened to  the  tang,  which  falls  into  a  notch  mado 
in  the  cavity  in  the  handle  as  the  tang  is  intro- 
duced, and  prevents  its  being  withdrawn.  Bal- 
ance handles  are  made  with  lead  introduced 
into  the  further  end  of  the  cavity  for  the  tang, 
the  object  being  to  counterbalance  the  blade, 
so  that  the  knife  when  laid  down  rests  only 
upon  the  outer  extremity  of  the  liandle  and  the 
projecting  shoulder  of  the  blade  at  its  other 
end.  Common  knives  are  made  with  a  thin  flat 
tang,  to  which  strips  of  wood  or  bone  are  se- 
curely riveted  for  a  handle,  one  on  each  side. 
The  handles  of  penknives  are  much  more  elab- 
orate in  their  construction,  involving  a  greater 
variety  of  processes  than  the  blades  themselves. 
The  springs  are  nice  pieces  of  work  requiring 
their  peculiar  temper,  and  a  flnal  glazing  upon 
their  backs.  The  slips  for  the  handles  demand 
great  care  in  their  fitting  and  frequently  in  their 
ornamentation.  The  tliin  plates,  called  scales, 
which  form  the  sides  and  divisions  of  the  handle, 
must  be  exactly  adjusted  to  all  the  other  parts, 
to  which  they  are  secured  by  rivets  passing 
through  the  springs  and  outer  pieces.  It  is 
stated  that  a  three-bladed  knife  passes  through 
the  finisher's  hands  about  100  times. — The  man- 
ufacture of  table  cutlery  is  of  recent  introduc- 
tion in  the  United  States.  It  was  commenced 
in  January,  1834,  by  Mr.  John  Russell  of  Green- 
field, Mass.,  and  some  time  afterward  was  un- 
dertaken by  the  Messrs.  Ropes  of  Portland,  Me., 
and  the  Messrs.  Lamson  of  Shelburue  Falls, 
Mass.  It  made  but  slow  progress  until  the  pro- 
cesses were  improved  by  the  application  of  ma- 
cliinery  to  form  the  blades,  by  the  plan  of  Mr. 
Russell,  which  has  since  been  introduced  in  the 
European  works.  The  establishment  of  the 
Green  river  manufacturing  company,  near 
Greenfield  village,  has    produced  fur   several 


168 


CUTTACK 


CUTTLE  FISH 


years  past  table  cutlery  and  bntcher  and  shoe 
knives  to  the  amount  of  $300,000  annually,  giv- 
ing employment  to  from  300  to  340  men  and 
boys,  and  consuming  every  year  100  tons  of  cast 
steel,  180  tons  of  Granadilla  wood  for  handles, 
50  tons  of  ebBny,  50  tons  of  horns  of  cattle, 
16,500  lbs.  of  ivory,  150  tons  of  anthracite, 
15,000  bushels  of  charcoal,  175  tons  of  grind- 
stones. Their  knives  are  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  United  States,  and  are  exported  to  South 
America,  and  some  even  to  Australia  and  other 
parts  of  the  world.  The  aggregate  value  of 
cutlery  produced  in  Massachusetts  in  1855  was 
$578,625,  chiefly  in  Franklin  county.  As  re- 
gards the  quality  of  the  articles,  Fleischmann, 
in  his  work  on  the  branches  of  industry  in  the 
United  States,  remarks  that  "  the  manufac- 
turers of  cutlery  have  far  surpassed  those  of 
the  old  world  in  the  manufacture  of  tools,  and 
that  not  merely  in  the  excellence  of  the  metal 
used,  but  especially  in  the  practical  utility  of 
their  patterns,  and  in  the  remarkable  degree  of 
finish  of  their  work."  This  finish,  it  may  be 
remarked,  appears  to  be  applied  in  American 
work  only  where  it  will  be  conspicuous,  and 
hence  useful ;  but  in  the  machinery  of  Ameri- 
can clocks  and  watches  it  is  saved  as  a  useless 
expense,  adding  as  it  does  in  English  work  of 
this  class  much  to  the  cost,  with  no  correspond- 
ing benefit.  The  value  of  cutlery  exported  from 
the  United  States  during  the  year  ending  Sept. 
SO,  1857,  was  $12,663,  and  of  imports,  $2,140,- 
824,  viz. :  from  England,  $1,953,396;  Germany, 
$87,540  ;  France,  $73,315  ;  other  countries, 
$26,573.  During  the  11  months  ending  Nov. 
SO,  1858,  the  imports  of  cutlery  and  hardware 
from  England  amounted  to  about  $2,800,000. 

CUTTACK,  a  province  of  British  India,  in 
the  Bengal  presidency,  bounded  E.  and  S.  E.  by 
the  bay  of  Bengal,  and  lying  between  lat.  19° 
40'  and  21°  45'  N.,  long.  85°  8'  and  87°  31'  E. ; 
area  6,705  sq.  m. ;  pop.  1,556,395.  It  is  divided 
into  the  districts  of  Pooree,  Cuttack  proper,  and 
Balasore.  The  district  of  Cuttack  has  an  area 
of  3,061  sq.  m.  It  is  well  watered  and  has  a 
diversified  surface,  the  coast  being  level  and  the 
N.  W.  part  traversed  by  wooded  hills  which  pro- 
duce teak  and  other  valuable  timber.  Wheat, 
maize,  rice,  sugar,  pulse,  spices,  and  dyestuffs  are 
the  principal  productions.  The  best  salt  in  India 
is  made  on  the  coast,  and  iron  is  found  among  the 
bills.  The  climate  is  hot  and  unhealthy.  The 
province  was  acquired  by  the  British  from  the 
rajah  of  Berar  in  1803.  In  1817  it  was  the 
theatre  of  a  serious  revolt,  and  in  1857  was 
somewhat  disturbed,  though  free  from  any  con- 
siderable outbreak.  The  Cuttack  Mehals,  a  group 
of  18  petty  states,  with  an  aggregate  area  of  16,- 
929  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  761,805,  became  sub- 
ject to  the  East  India  company  on  the  acquisi- 
tion of  the  province.  They  comprise  a  small 
proportion  of  arable  land,  but  are  valuable  for 
their  timber. — Cuttack,  the  capital  of  the  above 
district,  is  situated  on  a  tongue  of  land  between 
2  branches  of  the  Mahanuddy  river,  60  m.  from 
its  mouth  and  220  m.  S.  W.  from  Calcutta ;  pop. 


estimated  at  40,000.  Embankments  faced  with 
stone  protect  it  from  the  frequent  overflows  of 
the  river,  which  has  been  known  to  rise  6  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  town  in  a  single  night. 
It  is  half  in  ruins,  has  little  trade,  and  contains 
no  handsome  buildings.  Many  of  its  private 
dwellings,  however,  are  well  built  of  brick  or 
stone,  and  it  has  manufactories  of  cooking  uten- 
sils and  shoes.  Near  it  is  the  decayed  fortress 
of  Barahbattee,  now  used  as  a  quarry.  The 
town  was  the  capital  of  the  ancient  province  of 
Orissa,  and  its  name,  from  the  Sanscrit  catak, 
signifies  a  royal  residence.  It  was  captured  by 
the  British  in  1803. 

CUTTER,  a  small  vessel  with  one  mast,  and  a 
straight  running  bowsprit,  which  may  be  run 
in  upon  deck.  It  differs  from  the  sloop  by  hav- 
ing no  stay  to  support  its  jib.  They  are  fast- 
sailing,  and  are  often  employed  by  smugglers, 
and  also  by  the  government  for  the  purpose  of 
apprehending  them  ;  in  the  latter  case  they  are 
termed  revenue  cutters. 

CUTTLE  FISH  (se2na  officinalis),  a  mollus- 
cous animal  or  shellfish,  a  species  of  the  family 
sepiada,  of  the  class  of  cephalopods.  The  shell 
of  the  animal,  which  characterizes  the  family,  is 
a  broad  laminated  plate  imbedded  in  the  back 
part  of  the  mantle,  and  terminating  behind  in 
an  imperfectly  chambered  apex  {mitcro\  which 
is  supposed  to  answer  as  a  sort  of  guard  or  fen- 
der in  the  collisions  the  animals  are  exposed  to 
in  swimming  backward.  This  shell  is  a  friable 
calcareous  substance  known  as  cuttle  bone,  or 
pounce,  and  used  for  polishing  soft  metals.  The 
bone  of  a  Chinese  cuttle  fish  has  been  found  1^ 
feet  in  length.  As  a  fossil  the  bone  has  been 
met  with  in  the  eocene  clays  of  tlie  London 
basin,  and  of  forms  indicating  different  species 
from  those  now  living.  The  cuttle  fishes  are 
provided  with  8  arms  and  2  long  tentacles,  all 
of  which  radiate  from  around  the  head.  The 
tentacles  are  provided  with  suckers,  and  reach 
beyond  the  arms  to  seize  prey,  and  serve  also  to 
moor  the  animal.  The  suckers  hold  so  fast  to 
objects  that  the  limb  will  part  from  the  body 
before  they  let  go.  By  means  of  their  arms 
they  walk  on  the  bottom  with  their  heads  down- 
ward; the  same  organs  aid  them  in  swimming, 
and  a  propelling  force  is  moreover  obtained  by 
violently  ejecting  water  from  their  branchial 
chamber.  As  a  means  of  defence  they  are  pi'o- 
vided  with  an  ink  bag,  the  discharge  of  which 
opens  into  the  funnel  by  Avhich  the  water  is 
ejected  from  the  2  gills ;  when  attacked  the  ani- 
mal instantly  darkens  the  water  with  the  black 
fluid  from  this  bag,  and  retreats  in  the  obscurity 
it  occasions.  Several  species  of  sepia  produce 
this  inky  substance.  It  was  well  known  to  the 
ancients,  and  is  described  by  Aristotle.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  been  used  for  writing;  and  in 
modern  times  it  has  served  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  brown  pigment  called  sepia,  but  this 
is  now  prepared  from  lampblack.  The  ink 
consists  of  carbon  in  a  finely  divided  state,  of 
albumen,  gelatine,  and  phosphate  of  lime.  The 
bag  must  be  dried  immediately  when  taken  from 


CUTTY  STOOL 


CUVIER 


16S 


the  animal,  as  it  is  liable  to  putrefy.  The  dried 
material  is  triturated  with  a  caustic  alkali,  and 
then  boiled  with  a  solution  of  the  same.  After 
filtering,  the  alkali  is  neutralized  by  adding  an 
acid,  and  the  precipitated  sepia  is  collected, 
washed,  and  dried.  Buckland  states  that  he 
had  some  sepia  prepared  from  ink  bags  of  ex- 
tinct cephalopods  found  preserved  in  a  fossil  state 
in  the  lias  formation,  and  that  the  pigment  was 
of  such  excellent  quality  as  to  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  a  celebrated  painter.  Cuttle  fishes  are 
found  in  the  open  sea  in  almost  all  parts  of  the 
world  ;  and  they  appear  near  the  coasts  periodi- 
cally in  shoals.  They  have  large  eyes  placed  on 
the  sides  of  the  head,  which  seem  designed  for 
use  in  the  night  or  in  the  darkness  of  deep 
waters,  as  the  animal  avoids  the  light  of  day. 
No  other  mollusca  attain  so  large  size  as  the 
cuttle  fish.  One  has  been  met  with  of  about  6 
feet  in  length. 

CUTTY  STOOL,  the  stool  of  repentance, 
formerly  employed  in  the  Scotch  kirk,  for  of- 
fenders against  the  law  of  chastity.  The  crim- 
inal having  been  deprived  of  church  ordinances, 
and  duly  taken  to  task  privately  for  his  or  her 
otfence,  was  required  to  make  a  public  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  sin  prior  to  being  re- 
stored to  communion.  The  penance  consisted 
in  occupying  the  cutty  stool,  in  face  of  the  con- 
gregation, and  being  lectured  by  the  minister 
on  the  enormity  of  the  offence.  Sometimes  the 
offender  was  clad  in  a  white  sheet,  the  stool  of 
repentance  being  painted  black,  and  placed  con- 
spicuously in  an  upper  gallery.  The  custom 
has  fallen  into  disuse. 

CUT-WORM,  the  caterpillar  of  an  owlet  moth 
of  the  tribe  of  noctum^  and  group  agrotidida. ; 
this  name  has  also  been  given  to  many  other 
grubs  and  worms  living  in  the  ground.  This 
caterpillar  remains  by  day  about  the  roots  of 
plants,  and  comes  forth  at  night  to  cut  oflf  the 
tender  stems  and  leaves  of  cabbages,  beans,  corn, 
and  many  other  culinary  plants.  Some  of  the 
moths  of  this  family  fiy  by  day,  others  only  at 
night ;  the  wings  are  nearly  horizontal  when 
closed;  the  thoi\ax smooth  and  slightly  convex ; 
the  antennae  of  the  males  generally  with  2  rows 
of  fine  tooth-like  points  on  the  under  side ;  the 
fore  legs  are  often  quite  spiny.  Most  of  these 
moths  appear  in  July  and  August,  laying  their 
eggs  in  the  ground  ;  in  Europe  the  caterpillars 
are  hatched  in  early  autumn,  and  feed  on  the  ten- 
der roots  of  i^lants  ;  descending  deeper  in  win- 
ter, they  remain  torpid  until  spring.  The  cat- 
erpillars of  the  agrotidians  are  smooth,  shining, 
naked,  dark-colored,  with  longitudinal  pale  and 
dark  stripes,  and  a  few  black  dots  on  each  ring  ; 
cylindrical,  short,  and  tliick,  with  16  legs;  the 
chrysalis  is  transformed  in  the  ground,  without  a 
cocoon.  The  most  destructive  European  species 
are  the  winter  dart  moth  {agrotis  segetum\  and 
the  wheat  dart  moth  {A.  tritici),  both  destroy- 
ing the  roots  and  leaves  of  winter  wheat  and 
buckwheat;  the  eagle  moth  (A.  aquilina)^  an 
occasional  pest  in  vineyards ;  and  the  antler 
moth  (c/iaro'as  graminis)^  very  destructive  in 


meadows  and  mountain  pastures.  The  Amer- 
ican species  have  the  same  habits,  appearing 
about  the  same  time,  destroying  whole  fields  of 
corn,  potatoes,  cabbages,  beans,  and  other  vege- 
tables, and  also  asters,  pinks,  balsams,  and  other 
ornamental  plants.  The  caterpillars  vary  in 
length  from  1  to  2  inches,  and  are  thick,  of  a 
dark  ashy  gray  color,  with  a  brown  head,  and  a 
pale  dorsal  stripe,  with  minute  black  dots;  the 
chrysalis  is  of  a  shining  dark  brown,  and  the 
moth  appears  from  the  20th  of  July  to  the  mid- 
dle of  August.  There  are  at  least  5  species  in 
New  England.  The  largest  is  the  A.  tclifcra 
(Harris),  having  the  fore  wings  light  brown,  di- 
vided by  2  transverse  bands  of  wavy  dark  brown 
lines,  and  with  3  spots  (one  lance-marked)  en- 
circled with  dark  brown ;  the  hind  wings  are 
pearly  white,  the  abdomen  gray;  expanse  of 
wings  at  least  2  inches.  The  A.  inermis  (Har- 
ris) is  slightly  smaller,  resembling  the  preceding 
except  in  the  absence  of  the  lance-shaped  spot ; 
the  thorax  is  i-eddish  brown.  The  A.  messoria 
(Harris)  has  the  fore  wings  reddish  gray,  with  5 
■wavy  blackish  bands  and  3  wing  spots ;  the  hind 
wings  whitish,  and  dusky  brown  behind ;  the 
body  grayish;  the  expanse  of  wings  If  inches. 
The  A.  tessellata  (Harris)  expands  only  IJ 
inches  ;  the  fore  wings  are  dark  ash,  with  only 
a  faint  trace  of  bands,  and  with  large  alternate 
pale  and  black  spots  ;  the  hind  wings  brownish 
gray  in  the  middle,  and  blackish  behind.  The  A. 
devastator  (Harvh),  the  moth  of  the  cabbage  cut- 
worm, has  the  for*  wings  dark  satiny  ashy  gray, 
with  4  narrow,  wavy,  whitish  bands  edged  with 
black,  and  white  dots  and  dark  spots  ;  the  hind 
wings  are  a  light  brownish  gray .^ dusky  behind; 
body  gray ;  expanse  of  wings  1^  to  If  inches. 
All  these  fly  only  at  night;  the  last  is  not  easily 
taken  from  its  rapid  motions,  and  often  flies  into 
lamps  and  candles  after  the  middle  of  July. 
Other  species  are  described  by  Dr.  Harris.  The 
ravages  of  the  true  cut- worms  are  not  prevent- 
ed by  any  treatment  of  the  seed,  as  they  feed 
only  on  the  young  sprouts  and  stalks;  the  only 
effectual  way  to  prevent  their  depredations  is 
to  open  the  earth  daily  at  the  foot  of  the  grow- 
ing plants  and  kill  the  worms,  which  are  easily 
found.  It  is  said  that  a  manure  of  sea  mud  will 
protect  a  garden  from  these  worms ;  some  cul- 
tivators protect  their  cabbage  plants  by  wrap- 
ping a  w^alnut  leaf  or  paper  cone  firmly  around 
the  root,  secured  by  an  earth  embankment. 
Turning  up  in  the  fall  lands  Avhich  are  to  be 
planted  the  next  year,  exposes  many  grubs  to 
cold  and  to  the  birds,  but  has  been  considered  a 
remedy  of  doubtful  utility. 

CUVIER,  Georges  Ciieetiex  Leopold  Da- 
GOBERT,  a  French  naturalist,  born  at  Montbeli- 
ard  (now  a  French  town,  but  formerly  the  chief 
place  of  a  principality  belonging  to  tlie  duke  of 
Wiirtemberg),  Aug.  23,  17G9,  died  in  Paris,  May 
13,  1832.  The  family  came  originally  from  a 
village  in  the  Jura  which  still  bears  the  name 
of  Cuvier  ;  at  the  time  of  the  reformation  it  set- 
tled at  Montbeliard,  where  some  of  its  members 
held  offices  of  distinction.     The  grandfather  of 


170 


CUVIER 


Cuvier  had  2  sons,  the  younger  of  whom  en- 
tered a  Swiss  regunent  in  tlie  service  of  France ; 
a  brave  man  and  an  excellent  officer,  he  rose  to 
high  honors,  and  at  tlie  age  of  50  married  a 
lady  considerably  younger  than  himself;  by 
her  he  had  3  sons ;  the  oldest  died  in  infancy, 
the  second  was  the  subject  of  the  j)resent 
sketch,  and  the  third  was  Frederic  Cuvier.  Of 
delicate  constitution,  his  mother  watched  over 
him  with  the  tenderest  care,  and  took  upon 
herself  the  management  of  his  early  education  ; 
she  taught  him  to  read,  made  him  repeat  to 
her  his  Latin  lessons,  instructed  him  in  draw- 
ing, and,  by  causing  him  to  read  the  best  works 
in  history  and  literature,  developed  in  his 
youthful  mind  that  ardent  desire  for  knowledge 
which  was  so  remarkable  in  him.  At  the  age 
of  10  he  entered  the  gynmasium,  or  high  school, 
where  he  remained  4  years,  distinguishing  him- 
self in  every  branch  there  taught ;  at  this  early 
period  his  taste  for  natural  history  was  stimu- 
lated by  reading  a  copy  of  Buflbn  Avhich  he 
found  at  the  house  of  a  relative ;  his  memory 
W'as  so  retentive  that  at  the  age  of  12  he  was 
perfectly  familiar  with  birds  and  quadrupeds. 
At  the  age  of  14  he  formed  a  kind  of  academy 
from  among  his  schoolmates,  of  which  he  was 
president,  at  whose  weekly  meetings  the  merits 
of  some  book  were  discussed ;  here  his  decla- 
matory and  administrative  powers  began  to 
manifest  themselves.  A  petty  trick  of  a  ma- 
licious teacher  prevented  his  being  sent  to  the 
free  school  of  Tubingen,  where  he  would  have 
prepared  himself  for  the  church ;  and  this 
change  in  his  studies  he  always  regarded  in 
after  life  as  a  most  fortunate  accident.  Charles, 
duke  of  Wiirtemberg,  took  him  mider  his  spe- 
cial favor,  and  sent  him  at  the  age  of  14  to  the 
academy  of  Stuttgart,  in  March,  1784;  after 
studying  philosophy  one  year,  he  applied  himself 
to  the  science  of  fiscal  administration,  because  it 
gave  him  an  opportunity  to  pursue  his  favorite 
natural  history  in  books,  in  the  fields,  and  in  cab- 
inets. AVhile  here  one  of  the  professors  gave  him 
a  copy  of  the  "  System  of  Nature  "  by  Linnjeus, 
which  was  his  library  on  natural  liistory  for 
several  years.  Occupied  by  such  reading  and 
the  collection  of  specimens,- he  did  not  neglect 
his  class  studies,  but  obtained  several  prizes 
for  his  eminent  jiroficiency.  He  would  doubt- 
less soon  have  been  appointed  a  professor,  but 
the  circumstances  of  his  parents  did  not  per- 
mit delay  ;  a  situation  as  private  tutor  in  Nor- 
mandy being  oftered  him  just  as  he  left  Stutt- 
gart, he  accepted  it,  and  entered  upon  its  du- 
ties in  July,  1788,  at  the  age  of  19  years. 
While  in  the  family  of  the  count  d'llericy,  he 
followed  natural  history  with  great  zeal,  and 
was  very  favorably  situated  for  the  study  of 
both  terrestrial  and  marine  animals ;  he  re- 
mained here  until  1794.  Some  terciratuIcB  hav- 
ing been  dug  up  in  his  vicinity,  he  conceived 
the  idea  of  comparing  fossils  with  living  spe- 
cies ;  and  the  dissection  of  some  mollusks  sug- 
gested to  him  the  necessity  of  a  reform  in  the 
classifications  of  animals ;  here  originated  the 


germs  of  his  two  great  works,  the  Ossemens  fos- 
siles,  and  the  liegne  animale.  Through  his 
acquaintance  with  M.  Tessier,  who  had  fied  to 
Normandy  during  the  reign  of  terror,  Cuvier 
began  a  correspondence  with  Geotiroy  St.  Ililaire, 
Lacepede,  an(l  other  Parisian  savants,  on  sub- 
jects of  natural  history  ;  in  the  spring  of  1795  be 
accepted  their  invitation  to  come  to  Paris^  and 
was  appointed  professor  in  the  central  school 
of  the  Pantheon,  for  which  he  is  said  to  have 
composed  his  Tableau  elementaire  de  Vhutoire 
naturelle  ilea  aiiimaux,  in  which  he  first  gave  to 
the  world  his  ideas  on  zoological  arrangement. 
M.  Mertrud  had  been  appointed  professor  of 
comparative  anatomy  at  XXm  jardin  des  plantes  ; 
at  his  advanced  age,  feeling  himself  unable  to 
discharge  all  its  duties,  he  called  upon  Cuvier  to 
assist  him,  who  at  this  time  invited  his  broth- 
er Fx"6deric  to  join  him.  From  this  moment  he 
commenced  the  collection  of  comparative  anat- 
omy, which  has  since  become  so  famous  and 
extensive.  In  1796  the  national  institute  was 
formed,  and  Cuvier  was  associated  with  Lac6- 
pede  and  Daubenton  in  the  section  of  zoology, 
and  was  its  third  secretary.  In  1799  the  death 
of  Daubenton  made  vacant  for  Cuvier  the  chair 
of  natural  history  at  the  college  of  France  ;  and 
in  1802  he  succeeded  Mertrud  as  professor  of 
comparative  anatomy  at  the  jurdiii  des  plantes. 
In  1800,  M.  Dumeril,  one  of  Cuvier's  pupils, 
published  the  1st  and  2d  volumes  of  his  lec- 
tures, under  the  title  Legons  d\matomie  com- 
2Mree  ;  the  3d,  4th,  and  5th  of  the  1st  edition, 
prepared  by  G.  L.  Duvernoy,  appeared  in  1805. 
In  1802,  appointed  by  Bonaparte  one  of  the  in- 
spectors-general to  establish  lycees  or  public 
schools  in  France,  he  founded  those  of  Mar- 
seilles, Nice,  and  Bordeaux.  He  quitted  this 
oflice  in  1803  on  being  elected  perpetual  secre- 
tary to  the  class  of  natural  sciences  in  the  in- 
stitute, a  position  which  he  held  to  the  day  of 
his  death ;  in  this  capacity  he  made  in  1808 
his  celebrated  report  on  the  progress  of  the 
natural  sciences  since  1789,  so  pleasing  to  the 
emperor,  which  appeared  in  1810.  In  1808  he 
was  also  made  one  of  the  counsellors  for  life  to 
the  imperial  university,  by  which  he  was  fre- 
quently brought  into  close  communication  with 
Napoleon.  In  1809-'10  he  was  commissioned 
with  the  organization  of  the  new  academies  in 
the  Italian  states  which  were  annexed  to  the  em- 
pire. In  1811  he  was  sent  on  a  similar  mission 
to  Holland  and  the  Ilanseatic  towns,  and  was 
made  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honor.  In  1813, 
though  a  Protestant,  he  Avas  sent  to  Eome  to  or- 
ganize a  university  there,  and  was  also  apjwint- 
ed  master  of  requests  in  the  council  of  state.  In 
the  same  year  he  was  made  imperial  commis- 
sioner to  go  to  tlie  left  bank  of  the  PJiine,  and 
endeavor  to  arouse  the  people  against  the  troops 
then  marching  to  invade  France ;  stopped  at 
Nancy  by  tlie  approach  of  the  allied  armies,  he 
was  obliged  to  return.  In  1814  he  was  named 
councillor  of  state  by  Napoleon,  wliich  honor 
was  continued  to  him  by  Louis  XVIII.,  as  also 
that  of  royal  commissary,  which  enabled  him  to 


CUVIER 


171 


introduce  many  improvements  in  criminal  and 
civil  law ;  lie  was  also  made  chancellor  to  the  uni- 
versity, which  office  he  retained  during  life, 
notwithstanding  the  prejudices  and  resistance 
which  as  aPrott-stant  he  was  constantly  obliged 
to  encounter.  In  1818  he  visited  England  with 
his  family  for  the  purpose  of  observing  its  po- 
litical and  scientific  institutions ;  while  there 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French  acad- 
emy. In  1819  he  was  made  grand  master  to 
the  university,  and  president  of  the  comite  de 
Vinterieur  ;  in  this  year  Louis  XVIII.  created 
him  baron,  as  a  mark  of  personal  esteem.  In 
1822  lie  was  appointed  grand  master  of  the 
faculties  of  Protestant  theology,  which  gave 
him  the  superintendence  of  the  religious,  civil, 
and  political  rights  of  his  creed ;  and  in  1827 
was  added  to  this  the  management  of  the  re- 
ligious atlairs  of  all  the  creeds  in  France  except 
the  lioman  Catliolic.  In  182-i  he  acted  as  one  of 
the  presidents  of  the  council  of  state  at  the  coro- 
nation of  Charles  X. ;  and  in  1826  was  made 
grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honor  by  that 
king.  In  1827  he  was  offered  the  appointment  of 
censor  of  the  press,  which  he  instantly  refused. 
In  1830  he  recommenced  his  lectures  at  the 
college  of  France,  on  the  "  History  and  Pro- 
gress of  Science  in  all  Ages,"  which  were  con- 
tinued until  his  death ;  in  this  year  he  made  a 
second  visit  to  England,  where  he  happened  to 
be  when  the  revolution  took  place  which  placed 
Louis  Philippe  on  the  throne  of  France.  lie  con- 
tinued to  enjoy  all  his  honors,  dignities,  and  im- 
portant offices  under  tlie  citizt-n  king ;  in  1832  he 
was  created  peer  of  France,  and  the  appointment 
of  president  to  the  entire  council  of  state  only 
wanted  the  king's  signature,  when  Cuvier  ex- 
pired. Cuvier  lost  his  mother  in  1793,  and  his 
father  in  1795.  In  1803  he  married  Madame  du 
Vaucel,  a  widow  with  4  children,  3  sons  and  a 
daughter,  the  latter  of  whom  devoted  herself  to 
him  in  his  last  illness  ;  by  this»marriage  he  had 
4  children,  of  whom  3  died  in  early  childhood ; 
his  only  remaining  child,  Clementine,  died  in 
1828,  at  the  age  of  22,  on  the  eve  of  marriage ;  his 
wife  and  two  of  her  first  children  survived  him. 
On  May  8,  1832,  he  opened  his  course  of  lec- 
tures at  the  college  of  France ;  at  the  close  of 
the  first  lecture  he  spoke  these  words,  which 
seemed  to  indicate  a  presentiment  of  his  ap- 
proaching end  :  "  Such,  gentlemen,  will  be  the 
objects  of  our  investigation,  if  time,  my  own 
strength,  and  tlie  state  of  my  health,  permit  me 
to  continue  and  finish  them."  After  this  lecture 
he  felt  slight  pain  and  numbness  in  the  right 
arm,  and  his  throat  became  afiected ;  on  the 
3d  day  both  arms  were  seized,  and  the  power 
of  swallowing  was  lost,  all  his  mental  faculties 
and  the  power  of  speech  remaining  unaffected  ; 
conscious  of  his  approaching  death,  he  was  per- 
fectly calm  and  resigned.  Four  hours  before  he 
died  he  was  carried,  at  his  own  request,  into 
the  memorable  cabinet  where  the  happiest  and 
proudest  hours  of  his  life  had  been  spent,  and 
where  he  wished  to  draw  his  last  breath. 
Baron  Pasquier  says :   "  His  countenance  was 


in  a  state  of  perfect  repose,  and  never  did 
his  noble  head  api)ear  to  be  more  beautiful,  or 
worthy  of  admiration."  The  paralysis  of  the 
voluntary  muscles  spread  rapidly,  fever  set  in, 
the  lungs  became  unable  to  perform  their  func- 
tions, and  lie  gradually  sank  away  without  a 
.struggle.  Feeble  in  his  youth,  by  tlie  time  ho 
arrived  in  Paris  his  health  was  seriously  de- 
ranged, and  his  symptoms  were  those  of  incip- 
ient consumption ;  but  the  excitement  of  new 
studies,  the  change  in  his  habits,  and  the  exer- 
tion of  lecturing,  worked  such  an  alteration  in 
him  that  he  enjoyed  good  healtli  until  his  final 
illness.  He  was  below  the  middle  stature,  with 
very  fair  skin,  and  reddish  hair  up  to  the  age 
of  30  ;  as  his  health  improved,  his  hair  became 
darker ;  at  45  he  grew  stout,  but  was  always 
well ;  at  60  he  scarcely  seemed  more  than  50  ; 
according  to  Duvernoy,  he  never  iised  specta- 
cles when  reading  or  writing.  The  size  of 
Cuvier's  brain  was  remarkably  large,  weighing 
nearly  a  pound  more  than  the  average  brain  of 
man ;  and  the  excess  of  weight  depended  al- 
most entirely  on  the  great  development  of  the 
cerebral  hemispheres,  the  seat  of  the  intellec- 
tual faculties. — A  history  of  the  labors  of  Cu- 
vier in  the  domain  of  natural  history  would  be 
nothing  less  than  the  history  of  natural  science 
in  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century.  Linnaeus 
in  17S5  published  his  Systema  ]<!attirm^  a  mere 
sketch  of  the  animal  kingdom,  but  still  a  simple 
and  valuable  classification ;  he  did  not  always 
select  the  best  characters  for  the  foundation  of 
his  divisions,  but  he  accomplished  a  great  deal, 
and  by  his  generic  and  specific  names  contrib- 
uted much  to  a  knowledge  of  animals  and  their 
affinities.  AVhen  Cuvier  brought  his  great  mind 
to  the  work,  and  formed  a  system  based  on  the 
invariable  characters  of  anatomical  structure 
instead  of  external  resemblances,  he  discovered 
the  true  basis  of  a  natural  classification  of  the 
animal  kingdom.  The  system  of  Cuvier,  which 
is  now  generally  adopted  in  its  main  features, 
is  already  given  in  the  article  Aximal.  Vari- 
ous modifications  have  been  adopted,  and  nu- 
merous errors  have  been  corrected  since  its 
publication,  more  especially  by  Prof.  Agassiz, 
upon  whom  the  mantle  of  Cuvier  seems  to  have 
fallen.  Cuvier  first  introduced  into  zoology  the 
fourfold  division,  founded  on  difterent  plans  of 
structure,  of  radiata,  mollusca,  articulaia,  and 
xertcbrata ;  and  this  has  been  the  basis  of  all 
modern  improvements  in  the  science.  The  first 
improvement  on  Cuvier's  system  was  the  remov- 
al of  the  helminths  from  the  radiata,  and  placing 
them  among  articulata ;  then  the  infusoria 
were  removed  from  radiata,  and  divided  among 
plants,  mollusca,  and  articulata ;  the  only  im- 
portant change  in  mollusca  is  the  removal  of 
the  cirripeds  from  them  and  placing  them  un- 
der articulata ;  in  articulata,  the  arachnida 
have  since  been  imitedwith  the  insects  proper; 
these  3  branches  include  all  invertebrates. 
The  division  of  vertebrates  into  fishes,  reptiles, 
birds,  and  mammals,  has  been  modified  by 
making  amphibia  a  class  between  fishes  and 


172 


OUVIER 


reptiles ;  by  separating  the  selachians,  ganoids, 
and  myzonts  from  fishes  proper ;  and  by  redu- 
cing the  nnnihcr  of  orders  among  birds  from  6 
to  4,  and  among  mammals  from  9  to  3.  The 
classification  of  Prof.  Agassiz,  founded  on  tliat 
of  Cuvier,  and  published  in  the  first  volume  of 
his  "  Natural  Eistory  of  the  United  States,"  is 
here  given  as  the  best  at  present  known,  though 
its  author  does  not  consider  it  as  by  any  means 
a  perfect  one ;  his  present  investigations  will 
doubtless  modify  it  considerably,  especially  in 
the  orders,  and  in  the  class  of  fishes : 

Bnmch  I.     Eadiata. 
Class  1.  Polypi :  including  the  2  orders,  actinoids  and  hal- 
cyonoids. 
"     2.  Acalsph(6 :  3  orders — liydroids  (including  siphono- 

phoni'),  discophoriX',  and  ctcnopliora-. 
"     S.  Echinodermi^ :  4  orders — crinoids,  asteroids,  ccbi- 
noids,  and  holothurioids. 

Branch  II.    Mollusc  a. 
Class  1.  Acephala :  4  orders — bryozoa  (including  the  vortl- 
cella}),  Tjrachiopods,  tunicata,  and  lamellibranchi- 
ata. 
"     2.  Ganteropoda:  3  orders — pteropoda,  heteropoda,  and 

gasteropoda  proper. 
"    8.  Cephalopoda :    2  orders — tetrabranchiata  and  di- 
branchiata. 

Branch  III.    Articulata. 
Class  1.   Worms :  S  orders — trematods   (including   cestods, 
plan.iriip,  and  leeches),  nematoids  (including  acan- 
thocei)hala  and  gordiacei),  and  annelides. 
"     2.  Crustacea  :  4  orders — rotifera,  cntromostraca  (in- 
cluding cirripeds),  tetradccapods,  and  decapods. 
"     3.  Iitsects  :  3  orders — myriapods,  arachnids,  and  in- 
sects proper. 

Branch  IV.    Vep.tebrata. 
Class  1.  Myzontes:  2  orders — myxinoids  and  cyclostomes. 
•'     2.  Fishes  proper :  2  orders — ctcnoids  (as  the  perch) 
and  cycloids  (as  the   cod).     [This  division  will 
probably  be  considerably  modified  by  its  author.] 
"     3.  <ra?io!V?s.' 3  orders — caOacanths,  acipenseroids,  and 
sauroids;  and  doubtful,  the  siluroids,  plectognathi, 
and  lophobranches. 

4.  Selachians  :  3  orders — chima^rfe,  galeodes,  and  ba- 
tides. 

5.  Amphibians :   3    orders — caecilia>,   ichthyodi,   and 
anura. 

6.  Reptiles  :  4  orders — serpents,  saurii,  rhizodontes, 
•     and  testudinata. 

7.  Birds  :  4  orders — natatores,  gralla?,  rasores,  and  in- 
sessores  (including  scansores  and  accipitres). 

8.  Mammalia  :  3  orders — marsupialia,  herbivora,  and 
carnivora. 

The  general  order  in  the  classes  and  in  the 
orders  is  from  lowest  to  tiighest.  By  a  glance 
at  this  classification,  the  reader  will  perceive  to 
what  extent  it  is  founded  on  that  of  Cuvier ; 
the  system  of  1812  difiers  from  that  of  1857 
mainly  in  the  points  derived  from  embryologi- 
cal  development  in  the  latter.  The  grand  idea 
of  Cuvier,  and  his  followers  since,  was  to  dis- 
cover the  plan  of  created  beings  by  the  study 
and  comparison  of  the  intimate  structure  of 
their  organism — to  establish  the  true  philoso- 
phy of  natural  history  on  the  laws  of  organi- 
zation. With  him  comparative  anatomy  and 
zoology  went  hand  in  hand,  assisting  each 
other  continually ;  and  from  their  united  facts 
he  deduced  the  laws  of  a  new  science,  that  of 
fossil  animal  life,  astonishing  the  world  with 
the  magnitude  of  his  conceptions  and  the  gran- 
deur of  his  discoveries.  Linna3us  had  con- 
founded in  his  class  of  worms  all  animals  which 
have  not  red  blood,  including  more,  than  half 
of  the  animal  kingdom.  Cuvier's  first  research- 
es were  on  this  class  of  animals,  which  he  in 


1795  divided  into  the  classes  of  his  invertebrate 
series.  Ilis  very  first  observations  in  1792  were 
on  the  anatomy  of  the  common  patella,  certain 
dipterous  insects,  and  crustaceans,  in  the  2d 
volume  of  the  Journal  d^histoire  naturelle. 
Since  the  time  of  Aristotle,  the  invertebrata 
liad  always  been  neglected  until  Cuvier  pub- 
lished his  divisions  in  1795,  from  which  may 
be  dated  the  reformation  of  natural  history. 
Beside  the  memoir  above  mentioned,  in  the 
same  year  he  took  up  the  moUusca,  studied 
their  structure,  divided  them  into  orders,  and 
connnenced  a  series  of  observations  which  led 
to  the  publication  of  his  memoir  on  the  history 
and  anatomy  of  mollusks,  published  in  1817. — 
Comparative  anatomy  was  the  basis  of  Cuvier's 
zoology,  and  we  find  memoirs  on  this  subject 
from  1795  to  1831  ;  the  Legons  d'anatomie 
comfaree^  already  alluded  to,  was  but  the  pre- 
face, as  it  were,  to  a  more  extended  work, 
whose  plan  he  had  nearly  completed  when 
death  overtook  him  ;  such  as  it  is,  a  monument 
of  vast  labor,  it  has  furnished  materials  for  the 
development  of  this  science  by  other  hands, 
and  has  from  its  own  stores  enabled  critics  to 
point  out  unavoidable  deficiencies  ;  from  a  heap 
of  dry,  unconnected  facts  concerning  the  struc- 
ture of  animals,  he  obtained  the  general  laws 
of  organization,  the  limit  of  variation  in  each 
organ,  the  marked  infiuence  of  some  upon  the 
general  system,  the  subordination  of  many,  and 
the  coexistence  or  incompatibility  of  others. 
Among  the  prominent  points  are  :  the  develop- 
ment of  the  teeth ;  the  structure  of  the  larynx 
of  birds,  of  the  nasal  fossaa  and  organs  of  hear- 
ing in  cetaceans,  and  of  the  respiratory  organs 
in  the  perenni-branchiate  amphibia ;  the  com- 
parison of  the  brain  in  the  vertebrata,  and  the 
relation  of  its  development  to  the  intelligence ; 
the  respiration,  animal  heat,  muscular  force, 
sensory  and  digestive  systems  of  these  animals. 
For  this  treatisS  on  comparative  anatomy  he 
received  one  of  the  decennial  prizes  instituted 
by  Napoleon  in  1810.  Cuvier  in  his  scientific 
labors  stated  positively  only  that  which  he 
knew  from  personal  observation,  and  therefore 
early  directed  his  attention  to  collecting  objects 
of  natural  history  ;  the  great  collection  of  com- 
I)arative  anatomy  at  the  jardin  des  plantes, 
made  chiefly  through  his  own  exertion.s,  con- 
tributed tlie  materials  of  Avhich  he  made  such 
a  remarkable  use ;  tins  collection  was  also  ne- 
cessary for  the  determination  of  fossil  species, 
which  he. began  to  investigate  while  residing  in 
Normandy.  In  1796  appeared  his  memoir  on 
the  skeletons  of  the  megaJonyx  and  megathe- 
rium^ and  on  the  skulls  of  fossil  bears  frcnn  the 
caverns  of  Gaylenreuth  ;  from  this  period  until 
1812  he  contributed  many  papers  on  fossil 
bones,  the  most  important  of  whicli  were  print- 
ed in  the  Annales  du  museum  dlmtoire  jia- 
turellc,  and  were  afterward  published  under  the 
title  of  Rcchcrches  sur  les  ossemens  foxsiUs ;  the 
1st  edition,  in  4  volumes  4to.,  .ippeared  in  1812, 
a  2d  in  1817,  and  a  3d  in  1825,  with  a  prelim- 
inary discourse  on  the  "  Eevolutions  of  the 


CUVIER 


173 


Surface  of  the  Globe."  Dq^osits  of  mollusks 
and  other  marine  animals  hud  long  been  known 
to  exist  at  great  distances  from  and  lieights 
above  the  sea,  confirming  the  popnlar  traditions 
of  most  nations  regarding  dulngcs  of  greater  or 
less  extent.  Large  bones,  discovered  in  caverns 
or  dug  from  tlie  earth,  had  given  rise  to  tradi- 
tions, equally  wide-spread  and  ancient,  of  the 
existence  of  giants  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
world  ;  even  philosophers  regarded  the  fossil 
impressions  in  the  rocks  and  the  shells  in  the 
ground  as  accidental  freaks  of  nature.  It  was 
reserved  for  Bernard  Palissy,  an  unlettered  pot- 
ter, to  discover  the  animal  origin  ^uid  former 
existence  of  the  objects  alluded  to  above ; 
though  he  defied  the  learned  men  of  the  16th 
century  to  disprove  his  statements,  it  wm  not 
until  the  end  of  the  17th  that  his  ideas  met 
with  a  scientific  api)reciation.  Founded  on  these 
now  acknowledged  facts,  many  theories,  all 
more  or  less  fanciful,  were  successively  adopted 
and  abandoned  until  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century,  when  more  rational  views  began  to 
prevail,  and  the  study  of  fossils  to  excite  that 
attention  which,  iu  the  hands  of  Cuvier,  re- 
sulted in  establishing  many  of  the  positive  laws 
of  geology  and  paleontology.  The  bones  of 
the  giant  Teutobochus  had  been  long  since  rec- 
ognized as  those  of  elephants ;  the  skeleton 
of  the  supposed  homme  temoin  du  deluge  be- 
came, under  the  penetrating  eye  of  Cuvier, 
that  of  a  gigantic  aquatic  salamander.  Dau- 
benton  first  demolished  the  race  of  giants ;  Pal- 
las showed  the  existeuce'of  the  elephant,  rhi- 
noceros, and  other  tropical  animals,  in  Asiatic 
Russia  in  former  geological  epochs,  and  an  ele- 
phant of  extinct  species  was  found  with  its  flesh 
preserved  on  the  borders  of  the  Arctic  ocean. 
From  such  facts  Buflfon  conceived  the  idea  that 
the  polar  regions  had  gradually  become  colder, 
and  that  their  animals  had  by  degrees  emi- 
gratwl  southward ;  this  was  rendered  improb- 
able by  the  condition  of  the  animal  remains, 
and  the  theory  of  a  sudden  refrigeration  w'as 
substituted.  The  fact  of  ancient  creations  of 
animals,  entirely  distinct  from  the  present  spe- 
cies, and  long  since  exterminated,  was  set  at 
rest  by  the  comparison  of  living  and  fossil  an- 
imals by  Cuvier ;  in  his  first  memoir  on  fossil 
elephants  in  1800  he  announced  his  views  on 
extinct  animals,  the  commencement  of  a  series 
of  observations  unparalleled  in  the  annals  of 
science  for  brilliancy,  profound  insiglit  into  nat- 
ural laws,  and  importance  of  their  results  to 
succeeding  ages.  His  knowledge  of  compara- 
tive anatomy  was  such,  that  a  bone,  or  even  a 
portion  of  one,  was  sufficient  for  the  restoration 
of  a  fossil  animal  which  he  had  never  seen, 
simply  from  the  principle  of  the  unchangeable 
relations  of  organs.  He  made  3  epochs  of  cre- 
ation :  the  1st  comprised  the  mollusks,  fishes, 
and  monstrous  reptiles  ;  the  2d,  the  anaplothe- 
rium,  palceotheriiwi,  the  singular  pachyderms 
of  the  neighborhood  of  Paris ;  the  3d,  the 
mammoth,  mastodon,  gigantic  sloths,  &c. ;  after 
all  these  came  a  4th,  the  age  of  man  and  the 


present  creation.  Anterior  to  the  1st  epoch 
was  a  period  in  which  no  organic  life,  either 
animal  or  vegetable,  existed  on  the  earth. 
To  Cuvier  was  princii)ally  due  the  discovery 
and  exploration  of  this  terra  incognita  of  re- 
mote ages.  In  1817  was  published  the  first 
edition  of  the  liegne  animal  (4  vols.),  which  has 
served  as  the  basis  for  subsequent  zoological 
classifications. — The  last  great  work  of  Cuvier, 
which  he  undertook  in  conjunction  with  Va- 
lenciennes, is  the  ITistoire  naturelle  des  jjois- 
sons ;  this  contains  the  application  of  his  prin- 
ciples of  classification  to  the  class  of  fishes ;  8 
volumes  of  this  work  were  published  at  the 
time  of  his  death,  the  1st  having  appeared  in 
1828,  and  the  8th  in  1831 ;  Valenciennes  was 
intrusted  with  the  task  of  completing  it  in  20 
volumes,  but  several  more  than  this  number 
have  been  published.  Linnfcus  had  determined 
about  500  species,  and  Lacepede  1,500 ;  the 
title  of  Cuvier's  work  implies  the  magnitude 
and  successful  prosecution  of  his  own  labors, 
viz. :  "  Natural  History  of  Fishes,  containing 
more  than  5,000  Species  of  these  Animals,  de- 
scribed after  Nature,  and  distributed  according 
to  their  Aflanities,  with  Observations  on  their 
Anatomy,  and  Critical  Researches  on  their  No- 
menclature, ancient  as  well  as  modern."  His 
orders  of  the  bony  fishes  were  founded  chiefly 
on  the  structure  of  the  fins,  wiiether  spiny  or 
soft,  and  on  their  position  on  the  lower  sur- 
face ;  the  cartilaginous  fishes  were  divided  into 
those  with  free  and  those  with  fixed  gills.  The 
minuteness  of  detail,  the  clearness  of  descrip- 
tion, and  the  discrimination  of  his  criticisms  on 
the  works  of  others,  are  eminently  instructive  ; 
and  the  rapid  advance  of  ichthyology  is  suffi- 
cient proof  of  the  excellence  of  his  method  and 
the  faithful  performance  of  his  task.  Since  his 
time  the  classification  of  Agassiz  founded  on 
the  structure  of  the  scales,  and  tliat  of  J.  Miil- 
ler  based  on  internal  anatomy,  have  exerted 
their  influence  on  this  science.  The  great  de- 
fect in  all  these  systems  is  that  they  place  too 
great  and  almost  exclusive  stress  on  single 
characters ;  it  is  to  be  hoped  that,  from  the 
combined  excellences  of  these  systems,  and 
from  the  results  of  erabryological  researches  now 
so  extensively  pursued  both  in  Europe  and  the 
United  States,  a  natural  classification  of  fishes, 
the  expression  of  their  plan  of  creation,  will 
soon  be  evolved. — Beside  the  "  Report  on  the 
Progress  of  the  Physical  Sciences,"  undertaken 
at  the  request  of  Napoleon,  Cuvier  displayed 
the  almost  universality  of  his  acquirements  by 
his  lucid  reports  before  the  mstitute  on  these 
sciences,  embracing  the  large  and  varied  sub- 
jects of  meteorology  and  natural  i)hilosophy  in 
general,  chemistry  and  physics,  mineralogy  and 
geology,  botany,  anatomy  and  physiology,  zool- 
ogy, travels  connected  with  natural  science, 
medicine  and  surgery,  the  veterinary  art,  and 
agriculture.  He  contributed  many  articles  on 
natural  history  to  the  JDictionnaire  des  sciences 
naturelles ;  prominent  among  these  is  the  one 
on  "  Nature,"  in  which  he  combats  the  meta- 


174 


CUVIER 


physical  systems  of  pantheism  and  the  physio- 
pliilosopliers,  and  refers  every  thing  to  the  wis- 
dom and  goodness  of  an  almighty  Creator.  He 
wrote  many  articles  for  a  kindred  work,  the 
Dictionnaire  des  sciences  medicales^  the  most 
important  of  which  is  that  on  "Animal;"  in 
this,  after  tracing  "  animality  "  from  the  low- 
est to  the  highest,  he  concludes  witli  a  compar- 
ison between  plants  and  animals.  As  secre- 
tary of  the  academy  of  sciences,  it  was  his  duty 
to  read  historical  notices  of  deceased  members 
at  its  public  meetings ;  3  volumes  of  these 
sketches  by  Cuvier  have  been  published,  con- 
taining 39  different  articles.  Beside  these,  he 
delivered  several  discourses  at  funerals  of  acad- 
emicians, and  reports  to  the  academy.  One  of 
his  discourses  deserves  special  mention,  that 
before  the  academy  on  the  distribution  of  the 
Monthyon  prizes  for  virtuous  actions,  in  1829  ; 
on  this  occasion  a  prize  of  5,000  francs  ($1,000) 
was  awarded  to  Louise  Scheppler,  the  faithful  ser- 
vant and  friend  of  the  pious  Oberlin,  who  trans- 
formed a  miserable  and  ignorant  hamlet  of  the 
Vosges  chain  into  an  industrious,  happy,  and 
comfortable  village ;  from  her  originated  an 
institution  for  the  children  of  the  poor  laborers, 
from  which  arose  the  infant  schools  of  England 
and  France ;  to  this  noble  object  this  peasant 
girl  consecrated  her  property,  youth,  and  health, 
refusing  all  compensation;  in  this  discourse 
Cuvier  gives  utterance  to  the  noblest  senti- 
ments.— Cuvier  was  quite  as  eminent  a  legisla- 
tor as  naturalist,  though  less  known  in  the  for- 
mer capacity ;  he  was  always  an  advocate  for 
progress  both  in  matters  of  government  and  of 
education ;  and,  as  royal  commissary,  council- 
lor of  the  university,  member  of  the  state  coun- 
cil, and  president  of  the  committee  of  the  in- 
terior, he  introduced  beneficial  changes  in  tlie 
municipal  and  provincial  laws,  and  in  public 
instruction.  His  language,  both  written  and 
spoken,  was  clear,  forcible,  precise,  animated, 
and  frequently  rising  to  the  highest  eloquence. 
The  benignity  and  noble  expression  of  his  coun- 
tenance was  remarkable.  In  private,  he  was 
kind,  affable,  and  ready  to  communicate  infor- 
mation ;  his  manners,  though  dignified  and 
sometimes  stately  in  company,  were  always 
courteous  ;  he  was  very  fond  of  the  society  of 
young  persons  and  females.  He  had  the  great- 
est love  for  order  and  regularity,  without  which 
he  never  could  have  accomplished  his  manifold 
duties ;  he  rarely  allowed  himself  to  be  dis- 
turbed dm'ing  the  hours  he  invariably  set  aside 
for  study,  but  during  his  hours  of  audience  he 
was  accessible  to  everybody.  He  generally 
rose  at  V,  and  made  his  preparations  for  the 
day's  work  till  10,  when  lie  breakfasted ;  then 
came  tlie  routine  of  his  daily  occupation  at  the 
council,  in  the  jardin^  in  his  library,  until  din- 
ner, at  which  occurred  the  happiest  reunions 
of  his  family  and  intimate  friends.  Always 
busy  himself,  he  never  suffered  any  one  about 
him  to  be  idle  ;  after  the  fatigue  of  a  well-spent 
day,  it  was  his  delight  to  enter  into  conversa- 
tion, or,  throwing  liimself  on  a  sofa,  to  hide  his 


eyes  from  the  light  and  listen  to  the  readings 
of  his  wife  and  daughters.  Very  sensible  to 
kindness,  he  Avas  equally  so  to  ingratitude  ;  his 
benevolence  was  proverbial,  and  his  social  con- 
duct perfectly  free  from  conceit,  resentment, 
and  sarcasm ;  if,  by  liis  natural  quickness  and 
irritability  of  temper,  he  thought  he  had  injured 
the  feelings  of  any  one,  he  was  never  happy 
until  he  had  repaired  the  fault.  "With  his  other 
accomplishments,  he  was  an  expert  draughts- 
man ;  many  of  his  plates  were  drawn  by  him- 
self, and  he  left  a  large  collection  of  designs 
intended  to  illustrate  his  never  finished  great 
work  on  comparative  anatomy.  The  disinter- 
estedness of  Cuvier's  character  is  shown  not 
only  by  the  acts  of  his  life,  but  by  the  small 
fortune  he  left  at  his  death  ;  having  filled  offices 
of  the  highest  trust,  which  he  might  have  turn- 
ed to  his  pecuniary  advantage,  he  left  only  the 
sum  of  about  $20,000,  and  a  library  which  cost 
him  a  similar  sum.  He  desired  to  be  buried 
without  ceremony,  but  such  a  man  could  not 
die  without  the  public  manifestation  of  sorrow 
and  respect,  and  his  funeral  was  accordingly 
attended  by  the  first  men  of  the  day.  Cuvier 
was  a  member  of  the  learned  societies  of  all 
countries,  for  all  held  themselves  as  highly 
honored  in  enrolling  his  illustrious  name  among 
their  number.  His  library  was  purcliased  by 
government,  and  given  to  various  institutions, 
but  prinoipally  to  the  jardin  des  plantes. — 
"When  we  consider  the  number  of  offices  which 
he  held,  and  whose  duties  he  conscientiously 
performed,  any  one  of  which,  after  his  death, 
was  considered  sufficient  for  a  man  of  great 
talent,  and  some  of  which  could  not  be  filled 
by  as  competent  a  person,  we  are  able  to  form 
some  idea  of  the  varied  acquirements,  of  the 
unceasing  industry,  of  the  wonderful  memory, 
and  of  the  transcendent  ability  of  Cuvier, 
There  never  has  been  a  man,  before  or  since 
his  daj",  who  combined  so  many  faculties  of  the 
highest  order  of  development  for  the  advance- 
ment of  the  natural  sciences;  his  influence  will 
be  felt  through  all  time,  and  in  all  lands  where 
nature  is  studied  either  for  pleasure  or  instruc- 
tion ;  his  example  will  be  for  ever  looked  up  to 
as  one  of  the  most  striking  in  the  annals  of  his- 
tory, of  entire  devotion  to  lofty  principle,  dis- 
interested labor  for  the  advancement  of  knowl- 
edge, and  constant  endeavor  to  promote  the 
interests  of  his  country.  By  universal  consent, 
he  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  of  men,  most 
brilliant  of  writers,  soundest  of  thinkers,  most 
far-sighted  of  philosophers,  purest  of  statesmen, 
and  the  greatest  naturalist  ©f  modern  times. 
— Feederio,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Montbeliard,  June  28,  1773,  died  in  Strasbourg, 
July  24,  1838.  With  a  strong  love  for  the  sci- 
ence of  mechanics,  he  abandoned  his  college 
studies,  and  became  the  apprentice  of  a  clock- 
maker  ;  and  would  doubtless  have  been  an  emi- 
nent mechanician,  had  not  his  invitation  to  Pa- 
ris in  1797  by  his  brother,  who  then  had  become 
famous,  opened  his  eyes  to  a  new  world  of  nat- 
ural science.    He  was  employed  by  his  brother 


CUVIER 


CUXHAYE^ 


175 


in  preparing  the  descriptive  catalogue  of  the 
skeletons  in  the  collection  of  comparative  anat- 
omy at  the  jardiH,  des  plantes  ;  this  "was  the  be- 
ginning of  his  work  on  the  teeth  of  mammals, 
published  in  1825,  which  led  to  many  impor- 
tant changes  in  the  natural  arrangement  of  this 
class,  especially  in  the  subdivision  into  genera, 
most  of  which  are  now  adopted  in  zoology.  In 
1804  he  assuiued  the  direction  of  the  menage- 
rie at  thojardm  des  plrmtes,  a  situation  which 
enabled  him  to  study  the  habits,  instincts,  and 
intelligence  of  animals;  the  results  of  his  re- 
searches are  given  in  his  Histoire  naturclle  des 
mammi/eres,  jjublished  in  1818-'37.  Geoffroy 
St.  Ililaire  was  associated  Avith  him  in  this  work, 
of  which  VO  livraisons  in  folio  appeared,  de- 
scribing in  a  simple,  charming,  and  elegant 
style  )iiore  than  500  animals  under  his  charge, 
with  anecdotes  illustrating  their  habits  and  in- 
telligence. Many  of  the  separate  papers  were 
first  printed  in  the  Annales  du  museum  d'' his- 
toire naturelle.  "While  Descartes  and  Buffon 
denied  all  intelligence  to  animals,  not  perceiv- 
ing the  limit  between  the  human  intellect  and 
the  lower  intelligence  of  other  mammals — while 
Condillac  and  George  Leroy,  on  the  contrary, 
accorded  to  animals  even  the  highest  intellect- 
ual operations,  confounding  instinct  with  intel- 
ligence— Frederic  Cuvier  drew  the  line  between 
the  intelligence  of  different  orders,  tracing  it 
from  the  lowest  rodents  through  ruminants, 
pachyderms,  and  carnivora,  to  the  quadrunuma. 
lie  found  the  greatest  intelligence  in  the  orang 
outang,  but  this  decreased  as  the  animal  grew 
older,  the  docility,  intelligence,  and  cunning  of 
the  young  being  replaced  in  the  adult  by  the 
intractability  and  stupidity  of  a  disgusting  brute. 
Taking  the  beaver  and  the  dog  for  examples, 
he  showed  the  difference  between  instinct  and 
intelligence.  The  beaver,  a  rodent,  of  an  order 
which  manifests  the  least  intelligence,  builds  its 
dam  and  habitation  in  a  mjst  remarkable  man- 
ner ;  but  young  animals,  removed  from  their  pa- 
rents and  placed  in  comfortable  houses,  have  yet 
shown  the  same  disposition  to  build,  impelled 
by  a  blind  internal  power,  instinct,  as  distin- 
guished from  intelligence.  Instinct  acts  of  ne- 
cessity, invariably  in  the  same  manner,  without 
adaptation  to  circumstances,  without  education, 
and  for  a  single  limited  purpose  ;  thus  the  bea- 
ver builds  his  dam.  Intelligence,  on  the  con- 
trary, chooses  its  means,  modifies  its  acts  at 
will,  learns  from  experience,  and  follo\\s  no  ir- 
resistible impulse;  the  dog  and  the  horse  un- 
derstand and  obey  their  master  because  it 
pleases  them  so  to  do,  but  they  may  disobey  if 
they  choose,  and  may  apply  their  acquired 
knowledge  to  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  With 
this  understanding  of  the  two  forces,  the  actions 
of  animals  can  never  be  placed  above  the  in- 
telligent acts  of  man.  Animals  receive  impres- 
sions, remember  them,  associate  them  together, 
and  draw  from  them  conclusions  which  influ- 
ence their  conduct ;  but  man  alone,  according 
to  him,  reflects  upon  his  OAvn  sensations,  expe- 
rience, and  thoughts.     This  power  of  reflection 


draws  the  line  between  the  intelligence  of  man 
and  that  of  animals.  He  first  showed  that  do- 
mesticity in  animals  depends  on  their  sociabili- 
ty, being  not  a  change  but  a  development  of 
their  natural  condition.  Man  found  animals 
living  in  society,  and  he  made  such  domestic ; 
we  may  tame  the  solitary  and  fierce  bear,  lion, 
and  tiger,  but  we  cannot  domesticate  them. 
This  view  is  capable  of  useful  api)lication  in  in- 
creasing the  number  of  domestic  species  for  ag- 
ricultural and  industrial  purposes,  F.  Cuvier, 
in  1810,  was  nominated  inspector  of  the  acad- 
emy of  Paris,  and  in  1831  inspector-general  of 
the  university.  He  devoted  himself  to  these 
new  duties  with  the  same  zeal  and  conscien- 
tiousness which  characterized  his  former  labors, 
and  was  a  firm  advocate  for  the  introduction  of 
the  study  of  natural  history  into  schools  and 
colleges  by  text  books  shorn  of  learned  techni- 
calities, and  graduated  according  to  the  educa- 
tional standing  of  the  classes.  His  character 
was  amiable,  his  deportment  unassuming,  his 
speech  and  acts  displaying  a  truthfulness  and 
gentleness  which  won  the  love  and  confidence 
of  all ;  he  never  thought  of  his  own  fame,  but 
was  keenly  sensitive  for  that  of  liis  brother,  for 
whom  he  ever  fdt  the  most  devoted  friendship. 
In  1827  he  was  elected  professor  of  comparative 
physiology  at  the  jardin  des  plantes,  a  chair 
created  for  him  by  the  minister  of  public  in- 
struction. "While  on  a  tour,  for  the  annual  in- 
spection of  the  colleges  required  by  liis  office, 
and  when  about  to  deliver  a  course  of  lectures 
on  natural  history,  he  was  seized  with  paralysis 
at  Strasbourg,  of  which  he  died.  There  is  a  strik- 
ing similarity  between  his  death  and  that  of  his 
brother ;  both,  so  intimately  united  in  life,  died 
of  the  same  disease,  at  the  same  age,  under 
similar  circumstances,  with  the  same  serenity 
of  mind  and  intrepidity  of  soul.  His  last  words 
were  :  "Let  my  son  place  upon  my  tomb  this  in- 
scription :  '  Frederic  Cuvier,  brother  of  Georges 
Cuvier,' "  showing  that  even  in  his  last  mo- 
ments love  and  admiration  for  his  deceased 
brother  predominated  in  his  mind.  Beside  the 
2  great  works  above  mentioned,  and  many  me- 
moirs in  the  AnnaJes  du  museum  d' histoire  nei- 
turelle,  Frederic  Cuvier  wrote  numerous  arti- 
cles in  the  Dictionnaire  des  sciences  naturelles, 
and  Vhistcire  des  cetaces,  in  the  Suites  a  Buf- 
fon, in  1836.  His  name  was  Georges  Frederic, 
though  the  first  name  was  never  applied  to 
him,  that  being  always  given  to  his  more  cele- 
brated brother. 

CUXHAVEM,  a  town  with  a  fine  harbor  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Elbe  in  Germany,  on  its 
left  bank,  belonging  to  the  territory  of  Hamburg, 
district  of  Ritzebtittel,  about  58  m.  from  the 
city  of  Hamburg;  pop.  1,600.  It  contains  sea 
baths,  founded  in  1815 ;  a  beacon  tower  of  fine 
construction,  and  a  well  regulated  pilot  estab- 
lishment, which  has  superseded  the  use  of  the 
Heligoland  fishermen  for  the  piloting  of  vessels 
into  the  Elbe  river.  It  seems  to  be  destined  to 
become  for  Hamburg  what  Bremerhaven  is  for 
Bremen — a  harbor  for  sea-going  vessels  of  large 


176 


CUYABA 


CUZCO 


tonnage,  of  which  100  at  present  may  be  safely 
accuminodated,  but  far  more  in  case  of  emer- 
gency. Its  use  will  increase  if  the  Elbe  should 
continue  to  lose  its  depth,  as  it  has  been  doing 
for  80  years  past.  In  1849  and  1850  a  portion 
of  the  German  navy  was  stationed  here,  and  had 
a  contest  with  the  Danish  navy,  resulting  in  the 
breaking  up  of  the  Danish  blockade. 

CUYABA,  or  Cuiaba.  I.  The  cai)ital,  since 
1820,  of  the  I3razilian  province  of  Matto  Grosso, 
lat.  15°  26'  S.,  long.  56°  W.,  near  Cuyaba  river; 
pop.  about  15,000.  It  is  irregularly  built,  and  the 
houses  are  mostly  constructed  of  eartli  or  clay.  It 
contains  several  churches,  an  imperial  hospital, 
a  lazaretto,  and  various  educational  institutions, 
is  the  seat  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Mat- 
to  Grosso,  and  the  centre  of  an  important  gold- 
mining  district.  II.  A  river  of  Brazil,  which 
rises  in  the  district  of  Diamantino,  among  the 
Parcels  mountains,  in  lat.  13°  12'  S.,  and  flows 
with  a  circuitous  course,  but  in  a  general  south- 
erly direction,  until  it  joins  the  Porrudos,  or 
San  Louren^o,  on  its  right  bank,  in  lat.  17°  20' 
S.,  long.  56°  40'  W.  It  forms  an  important 
channel  of  communication,  and  is  of  especial  ad- 
vantage to  the  town  of  Cuyaba,  although  for  60 
miles  below  that  place  its  current  is  extremely 
rapid  and  headlong.  Above  the  town  it  is  navi- 
gated by  canoes,  but  the  course  of  the  river  is 
here  much  broken  by  rapids. 

CUYAHOGA,  a  N.  E.  co.  of  Ohio,  bordering 
on  Lake  Erie,  and  intersected  by  Cuyahoga  riv- 
er, from  which  it  is  named ;  area,  426  sq.  ra. ; 
pop.  in  1850,  48,099.  The  surface  is  level'  and 
the  soil  fertile.  In  1850  the  productions  amount- 
ed to  222,915  lbs.  of  w^ool,  841,943  of  butter, 
37,560  tons  of  haj',  862,102  bushels  of  corn, 
and  193,132  of  oats.  Sandstone  is  abundant 
in  this  county,  and  is  much  used  for  grind- 
stones and  for  building.  The  principal  internal 
improvements  are  a  canal  and  6  railroads,  con- 
necting Cleveland,  the  capital,  with  Erie,  Cin- 
cinnati, Toledo,  Columbus,  Zauesville,  Youngs- 
town,  and  Pittsburg. 

CUYAHOGA,  a  river  of  Ohio,  rising  in  tlie 
N.  E.  part  of  the  state,  and  emptying  into  Lake 
Erie  at  Cleveland.  At  a  place  called  Cuyahoga 
Falls,  in  Summit  co.,  it  descends  200  feet  in  about 
2^  miles.  Its  course  is  very  circuitous,  and  it 
aifords  good  w\ater  poAver. 

CUYP,  or  IvTiYP,  Albert,  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Dort  in  1606,  died  after  1672.  His 
father,  Jacob  Gerritse  Cuyp,  a  painter  of  land- 
scapes and  animals,  and  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  academy  of  St.  Luke  in  Dort,  was  his  first 
and  probably  his  only  master.  A  strict  Calvin- 
ist  and  devoted  to  his  art,  he  passed  the  greater 
part  of  his  time  at  a  small  country  seat  near 
Dort,  where  his  room,  the  walls  of  which  are 
covered  with  designs  for  which  he  rarely  re- 
ceived orders,  is  still  shown  to  visitors.  'There 
is  even  no  record  of  his  death,  although,  as  ap- 
pears from  a  list  of  the  burghers  of  Dort,  he  was 
living  in  1672.  His  pictures  were  singularly 
neglected  for  many  years  after  his  death,  and 
it  is  said  that  down  to  the  year  1750  there  is  no 


example  of  any  one  of  them  selling  for  more 
than  80  florins,  or  about  $12.  England  seems 
to  have  been  the  first  to  appreciate  their  merits, 
for  shortly  after  this  time  tlie  demands  of  Eng- 
lish collectors  caused  a  considerable  rise  in  their 
value ;  and  Horace  Walpole,  in  a  letter  written 
in  1774,  mentions  with  astonishment  that  a  pic- 
ture by  Cuyp  had  just  been  sold  for  £290. 
Within  the  last  30  years  they  have  frequently 
brought  from  1,000  to  1,500  guineas,  and  are  to 
be  found  in  great  numbers  in  private  and  public 
galleries  in  England.  The  range  of  subjects 
which  Cuyp  attempted  Avas  extensive.  He 
painted  scenes  on  the  Maas  river,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Dort,  with  herds  of  cattle  and  horse- 
men, cavalry  skirmishes,  horse  fairs,  sea  pieces, 
moonlights,  winter  scenes,  and  interiors,  all  of 
which  show  a  high  degree  of  excellence.  Some 
of  his  drawings,  heightened  by  water  colors,  are 
gems  of  art.  His  best  pictures  are  his  landscapes, 
to  attain  perfection  in  which  he  was  accustomed 
to  make  studies  in  the  open  air  at  all  hours  of 
the  day.  Dr.  Waagen  has  summed  up  his  artistic 
qualities  as  follows :  "  In  loftiness  of  conception, 
knowledge  of  aerial  perspective,  with  the  great- 
est glow  and  warmth  of  serene  atmosphere,  Cuyp 
stands  unrivalled,  and  may  justly  be  called  the 
Dutch  Claude.  In  the  imjxtsto,  the  breadth  and 
freedom  of  execution,  he  greatly  resembles  Eem- 
brandt."  Unlike  most  other  Dutch  painters, 
he  did  not  finish  his  pictures  very  elaborately, 
but  strove  to  impress  them  with  the  stamp  of 
intellectual  rather  than  of  manual  labor. 

CUZCO,  a  central  department  of  Peru,  lying 
chiefly  between  lat.  13°  and  15°  S.,  and  long. 
70°  and  73°  W.,  comprehending  all  the  region 
drained  by  the  affluents  of  the  Pilcomayo  and  the 
upper  course  of  the  Apurimac,  and  divided  into 
11  provinces;  area,  about  45,000  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
about  350,000,  the  majority  of  whom  are  Indians. 
The  department  abounds  in  mines,  which,  how- 
ever, are  not  efficiently  worked.  The  principal 
objects  of  trade  are  woollen  and  other  goods,  and 
leather  manuf:ictured  by  the  inhabitants. — The 
capital,  Ctjzco,  is  situated  in  a  valley  about 
11,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  between 
the  rivers  Apurimac  and  Urubamba,  lat.  13° 
30'  55"  S.,  long.  72°  4'  10"  W. ;  pop.  50,000,  of 
whom  about  15,000  are  Indians,  distinguished 
for  their  industry.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  pro- 
vincial authorities  and  of  a  bishop,  contains  a 
fine  cathedral,  several  convents,  a  university, 
2  colleges,  a  mint,  and  trades  in  ivory,  iron, 
timber,  and  in  the  local  manufactures,  consist- 
ing of  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  leather,  in- 
genious embroideries  and  carved  furniture,  &c. 
According  to  the  national  tradition  it  is  the 
most  ancient  city  of  Peru,  and  the  source  of 
Peruvian  civilization  is  traced  to  the  valley  of 
Cuzco.  In  ancient  times  it  Avas  the  royal  resi- 
dence, adorned  with  spacious  dwellings  of  the 
great  nobility ;  it  was  called  the  holy  city  ;  the 
festivals  of  religion  were  celebrated  there,  and 
it  contained  a  temple  of  the  sun  (parts  of  which 
are  still  to  be  seen),  richly  adorned  with  gold 
and  silver,  to  which  pilgrims  resorted  from  the 


CYANOGEN 


CYBELE 


177 


furthest  borders  of  tho  empire,  and  which  was 
the  most  magnificent  structure  in  the  new 
world.  Beside  the  temple,  there  were  from  300 
to  400  inferior  places  of  worship,  and  the  pil- 
grimage to  this  Peruvian  Mecca  was  as -binding 
upon  the  Indian  noble  as  tliut  in  the  East  upon 
tho  Moslem.  Toward  the  N.  it  was  defended 
by  a  spur  of  the  great  Cordillera,  on  which  rose 
a  strong  fortress,  a  stupendous  specimen  of 
Cyclopean  architecture,  tlie  ruins  of  which  are 
still  visible.  Twenty  tliousand  men  are  said  to 
have  been  employed  on  this  structure,  and  50 
years  consumed  in  building  it.  In  1532  Ata- 
huallpa's  generals  took  possession  of  the  famous 
city,  and  in  tho  following  year  (probably  on 
Nov.  15)  Pizarro  made  his  entrance  into  tho 
Peruvian  capital.  The  population  of  the  city 
was  computed  at  that  time  by  one  of  the  Span- 
ish conquerors  at  200,000,  and  that  of  the  sub- 
urbs at  as  many  more  ;  but  although  this  esti- 
mate is  probably  exaggerated,  all  accounts  agree 
in  the  remarkable  prosperity  and  beauty  of  the 
city,  which  surpassed  all  that  the  Spaniards  had 
yet  seen  in  the  new  world.  Subsequently  the 
neighborhood  of  Cuzco  frequently  became  the 
theatre  of  chivalrous  combats  between  the  Span- 
iards and  the  incas,  which,  according  to  Pres- 
cott,  "  wanted  only  the  song  of  the  minsti-el  to 
throw  around  it  a  glory  like  that  which  rested 
on  tho  last  days  of  the  Moslems  of  Spain."  The 
rapacity  of  the  Spanish  conquerors  soon  stripped 
Cuzco  of  its  ancient  splendor  ;  but  the  appear- 
ance of  the  city  and  the  structure  of  the  houses 
still  recall  the  glorious  era  of  the  incas,  and  the 
remarkable  highway  which  led  over  the  moun- 
tains from  Cuzco  to  the  northern  part  of  Peru 
is  still  in  existence,  and  is  called  the  incas'  road. 
Cuzco,  along  with  the  rest  of  Peru,  proclaimed 
its  independence  of  Spain  in  1821.  On  Aug. 
9,  1835,  a  victory  was  achieved  there  by  the 
Bolivian  Gen.  Santa  Cruz  over  Gamarra,  the 
commander  of  the  Peruvian  forces. — See  Rivero 
and  Tschudi,  Antigueda  des  Peruanes  (Vienna, 
1852)  ;  P.  de  Carmoy,  D' Arequipa  cl  Cuzco, 
souvenirs  de  voyage  dans  V Amerique  du,  Sud 
(Paris,  Revue  contemporaine,  1857);  Prescott's 
"  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru"  (Boston, 
1847) ;  and  Markham's  "  Cuzco  and  Lima," 
with  plates  (London,  1856). 

CYANOGEN  (Gr.  /evador,  blue,  and  yfwaa), 
to  produce),  a  principal  ingredient  in  Prus- 
sian blue,  is  a  compound  g:is  consisting  of  2 
atoms  of  carbon  and  one  of  nitrogen,  and  is 
properly  designated  as  a  bicarburet  of  nitrogen, 
the  clieinical  equivalent  of  which  is  26.  It  is  of 
particular  interest,  being  the  first  instance  known 
of  a  compound  body  performing  the  part  of  an 
element  in  its  combinations.  It  was  discovered 
by  Gay-Lussac  in  1815,  and  maybe  obtained  by 
decomposing  the  cyanide  mercury  in  a  small 
glass  retort  by  the  heat  of  a  spirit  lamp.  The 
mercury  sublimes,  and  the  gas  passes  over ;  a  dark 
colored  substance  like  charcoal  remains  in  the 
retort,  which  appears  to  have  the  same  compo- 
sition as  the  gas.  It  may  also  be  obtained  by 
heating  nitrogenous  bodies,  as  woollen  rags,  in  a 
VOL.  vr. — 12 


close  vessel  together  with  potash  or  carbonate 
of  potash.  The  gas  as  it  is  produced  combines 
with  the  potassium  to  form  a  cyanide.  Cyano- 
gen is  a  colorless  gas  of  specific  gravity  1.86, 
possessing  a  strong  pungent  odor  similar  to  that 
of  the  kernels  of  peach  stones  or  of  prussio 
(hydrocyanic)  acid.  It  is  inflammable,  burning 
with  a  blue  and  purple  colored  flame,  and  pass- 
ing into  carbonic  acid  gas  and  nitrogen.  By 
the  cold  of  — 22°  F.  or  the  pressure  of  3.6  atmo- 
spheres it  may  be  liquefied,  forming  a  thin  color- 
less fluid.  It  is  absorbed  by  water,  but  is  soon 
decomposed  in  this  condition,  and  forms  com- 
pounds with  the  water  possessing  acid  reaction, 
beside  many  others  of  the  difierent  elements  vari- 
ously combined.  Exposed  to  a  high  temperature, 
the  gas  is  not  decomposed;  but  mixed  with  2 
volumes  of  oxygen,  it  exj^lodes  violently  at  a  red 
heat,  or  by  the  electric  spark,  separating  into  car- 
bonic acid  and  nitrogen.  The  properties  of  cyan- 
ogen in  relation  to  other  bodies  are  analogous  to 
those  of  chlorine,  bromine,  and  iodine.  It  forms 
an  acid  with  hydrogen  (hydrocyanic  acid),  and 
binary  compounds  with  the  metals,  cyanides,  or 
cyanurets,  which  readily  combine  among  them- 
selves or  with  the  chlorides  and  sulphurets, 
forming  double  cyanurets,  chlorocyanurets,  and 
snlphocyanurets.  With  oxygen  cyanogen  unites 
to  form  several  acids,  as  cyanic  acid,  CyO,HO  ; 
fulminic  acid,  Cy^  O^  2II0  ;  and  cyanuric  acid, 
Cys  O3  3110.  The  first  is  a  volatile  colorless 
fluid,  with  the  odor  of  acetic  acid.  Its  salts  are 
cyanates. 

CYANOMETER,  an  instrument  invented  by 
Saussure  for  measuring  the  intensity  of  the  tint 
of  the  atmosphere.     (See  Meteorology.) 

CYAXARES  I.  AND  IL    See  Media. 

CYBELE,  or  Rhea,  a  Greek  and  Roman  di- 
vinity, who  is  said  to  have  been  the  daughter 
of  Ccelus  and  Terra,  the  wife  of  Saturn,  and 
the  mother  of  all  the  other  gods  and  goddesses. 
Saturn  insisting  on  devouring  his  cliildren, 
the  goddess  mother,  when  she  found  herself 
pregnant  with  Jupiter,  proceeded,  according  to 
the  advice  of  her  parents,  to  Lyctus  in  Crete, 
where  she  gave  birth  to  her  son.  The  mo- 
ment the  infant  was  born,  certain  pious  youths 
of  the  neighborhood  assembled  round  him  with 
clashing  arms  and  loud  sounding  instruments  of 
music,  and  drowned  the  child's  cries,  while  his 
crafty  mother  hied  away  to  offer  a  stone  wrap- 
ped up  like  a  child  to  her  husband  as  a  substi- 
tute for  the  babe.  Tiie  stratagem  was  successful, 
and  Saturn  swallowed  the  stone.  The  infant 
in  tho  meanwliile  was  nursed  by  beautiful  shep- 
herd youths,  whom  Cybele  rewarded  for  their 
devotion  by  initiating  them  into  the  mysteries 
of  her  worship,  and  appointing  them  to  be 
priests  and  ministers  at  her  altars.  According 
to  this  myth,  then,  Crete  was  the  original  seat 
of  Cybele's  worship.  That  worship,  wherever 
established,  was  of  the  same  Bacchanalian  char- 
acter. Her  priests  in  Phrygia  were  called  cory- 
bantes ;  in  Crete,  curetes ;  at  Rome,  galli ;  but 
everywhere  they  must  be  both  youths  and 
eunuchs;  everywhere  they  must  cease  to  bo 


178 


CYCLADES 


CYCLOPEDIA 


men  ere  they  conld  be  ministers  of  Cybele. 
Though  the  worship  of  this  goddess  had  pre- 
vailed from  very  earl}'  times  in  Greece  and  Asia, 
where  it  may  be  traced  under  various  names,  in 
various  countries,  yet  it  was  not  introduced  at 
Rome  till  the  period  of  the  second  Punic  war. 
Then  it  was  that  the  image  of  Cybele  or  Rhea  was 
brought  from  Pessinus,  in  Galatia,  that  a  temple 
was  raised  to  her  on  the  Palatine  hill,  and  that 
the  festival  of  the  Megalesia  was  instituted  in 
her  honor  by  the  Roman  matrons.  In  works 
of  art  Cybele  is  usually  represented  seated  on 
a  throne  with  a  mural  crown  on  her  head,  from 
which  a  veil  is  suspended.  Lions  are  frequently 
seen  crouching  on  the  right  and  left  of  the 
throne,  and  occasionally  she  appears  riding  in 
a  chariot  drawn  by  lions. 

CYCLADES  (Gr.  kvkKos,  a  circle),  a  group  of 
nearly  60  small  islands  in  the  Grecian  archipela- 
go or  Egsean  sea,  K  of  Candia,  forming  one  of 
the  10  nomes  or  districts  of  modern  Greece;  area, 
1,216  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855, 139,337.  The  ancient 
Greeks  gave  this  name  to  these  islands  in  the 
belief  that  they  formed  a  circle  around  the  holy 
island  of  Delos,  while  all  the  other  islands  with- 
in the  same  sea  were  called  Sporades,  or  scat- 
tered islands,  from  their  being  scattered  in  every 
direction.  In  fact,  these  islands  form  3  distinct, 
nearly  straight  and  parallel  lines  running  from 
N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  of  which  the  first,  comprising 
Zea  (anc.  Ceos),  Thermia  (Cythnus),  Serpho 
(Seriphus),  Siphanto  (Siphnus),  and  Polycandro 
(Pholegandros),  seem  to  have  in  antediluvian 
times  formed  one  mountain  chain,  connected  with 
the  mountains  of  Attica  on  the  N.,  and  by  the 
island  Melos  with  the  western  mountains  of  Can- 
dia on  the  S. ;  the  2d,  comprising  Andro  (Andros), 
Tino  (Tenos),  Mycono  (Myconus),  Naxia  (Naxos), 
Amorgo  (Amorgus),  and  Stampalia  (Astypalffia), 
another  mountain  chain  connected  with  that  of 
Euboea  and  the  S.  W.  promontory  of  AsiaMior; 
the  3d,  lying  between  the  1st  and  2d,  and  com- 
prising Chiura  (Gyarus),  Syra  (Syros),  Paro 
(Paros),  Antiparo  (Antiparos),  Nio  (los),  and 
Santorin  (Thera),  may  have  had  a  connection 
with  the  E.  end  of  Candia.  However  this  may 
be,  they  have  the  same  formation,  climate,  and 
products,  and  even  the  same  history,  with  the 
regions  of  these  continental  chains.  Santorin 
is  still,  what  several  of  tlie  other  islands  once 
may  have  been,  a  volcanic  island  of  very  re- 
markable phenomena.  Paro  and  Antiparo  are 
renowned  for  their  stalactite  caves.  These 
islands,  once  subject  to  Athens,  and  the  basis 
of  its  maritime  power,  were  among  the  first 
to  shake  off  the  Turkish  yoke.  The  merchant 
navy  of  the  Cyclades  in  1855  consisted  of  1,335 
vessels,  tonnage  156,148.  Silk  is  raised  in 
the  islands  of  Andro  and  Tino,  the  former 
producing,  in  1856,  250,000  lbs.,  and  the  lat- 
ter 60,000  lbs.  Syra,  the  capital,  is  a  great 
emporium  of  the  Levantine  and  Mediterranean 
trade. 

CYCLE  (Gr.  kvkXos,  a  circle),  any  period  of 
regularly  recurring  events.  Thus  28  years  is 
called  a  solar  cycle,  being  a  period  at  the  end 


of  which  the  same  day  of  the  week  falls  again 
upon  the  same  day  of  the  year.  The  lunar 
cycle  is  a  period  of  19  years,  at  the  end  of  which 
the  new  moon  occurs  again  on  the  same  day  of 
the  month. 

CYCLOID,  the  curve  traced  by  a  point  in  the 
circumference  of  a  circle,  rolling  on  a  straight 
line.  Next  to  the  conic  sections,  the  cycloid  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  and  valuable  of 
curves.  It  is  the  curve  in  which  a  falling  body 
will  reach  the  bottom  in  the  same  time  from 
whatever  height  it  may  start ;  it  is  the  curve  in 
which  a  body  will  descend  from  one  point  to 
another  in  the  least  time  ;  and  it  possesses  other 
remarkable  properties. 

CYCLOIDS,  an  order  of  bony  fishes,  estab- 
lished by  Agassiz,  comprising  those  with  soft 
circular  scales,  like  the  salmon,  cod,  and  herring. 

CYCLONE,  a  storm  of  wind  which  moves  in 
immense  whirls,  and  at  the  same  time  sweeps 
onward  over  the  surface.  Cyclones  are  usually 
200  to  300  m.  in  diameter,  sometimes  more  than 
1,000  m.  Their  central  point  is  calm,  and  this 
moves  forward  from  2  to  40  m.  per  hour.  These 
storms  originate  outside  the  equatorial  belt  be- 
tween the  tropics,  and  move  toward  the  poles. 
In  the  southern  hemisphere  the  rotation  is  in  the 
same  direction  with  the  hands  of  a  watch  placed 
with  the  face  upward ;  in  the  northern,  the  di- 
rection is  reversed.     (See  Huerioane.) 

CYCLOPEDIA,  or  ENOTOLOPiEDiA  (Gr.  *ri;- 
*rXof,  a  circle,  and  TratSeia,  education),  originally 
the  cycle  of  the  7  liberal  arts  and  sciences  which 
constituted,  with  the  ancients,  the  course  of 
education  for  the  higher  class  of  citizens,  viz. : 
grammar,  arithmetic,  geometry,  music,  astron- 
omy, dialectics,  and  rhetoric.  Thus  Quintilian 
mentions  it  as  the  orb  or  full  circle  of  learning : 
Orbis  ilia  doctrince  quam  Grmci  tyKVKXonat- 
8eiav  vacant.  It  commonly  designates  a  sum- 
mary of  human  knowledge,  either  in  one  or 
in  all  departments,  arranged  either  systemat- 
ically according  to  the  logical  connection  of 
topics,  or  lexicographically  according  to  the 
alphabetical  succession  of  terras  ;  and  is  there- 
fore distinguished  as  either  general  or  special, 
systematic  or  alphabetical.  Speusippus,  the 
nephew  and  disciple  of  Plato,  is  usually  account- 
ed to  have  written  the  first  cyclopfedic  work, 
under  the  title  of  AmXoyot  rav  nepi  rr)v  Upayfxa- 
Tftaf'O/xotcof,  which  has  not  been  preserved.  The 
work  of  Aristotle  on  the  sciences  {Jlepi  Enia-rr]- 
fio3v),  the  lost  books  of  Varro  entitled  Eerum 
Jlumanamm  et  Divinarvm  Antiquitates^  and 
the  Historia, Naturalis  of  Pliny,  approached  to 
the  character  of  cyclopedias.  The  last  is  a  vast 
compilation,  treating,  as  Pliny  says  in  his  pre- 
face, of  20,000  matters  of  importance,  drawn 
from  about  2,000  volumes.  Astronomy,  mathe- 
matics, natural  philosophy,  botany,  mineralogy, 
medical  science,  arts,  agriculture,  all  came  with- 
in the  compass  of  his  researches.  His  work 
has  the  merit  of  showing  the  progress  which 
science  and  the  arts  had  made  down  to  the 
time  at  which  he  wrote.  The  collections  of  Sto- 
baaus,  Suidas,  and  especially  of  MarcianusCapel- 


OYCLOPyEDIA 


179 


la  (about  A.  D.  480),  and  of  Isidorus  Ilispalensig 
(about  A.  D.  63 G),  may  also  bo  regarded  as  works 
of  tho  same  cliaracter.  The  Satijra  of  Capella  is 
a  confused  exposition  of  the  7  liberal  arts,  and 
tho  Origines  of  Isidorus  furnishes  a  complete 
knowledge  of  the  state  of  mental  culture  at  tho 
epoch  of  its  publication.  Cyclopa3dia3  wcro  nut 
uncommon  in  the  middle  ages,  under  the  title  of. 
Summw  and  Specula.  One  of  tlio  most  cele- 
brated of  these  is  tho  Speculum  Illntoriale,  Natu- 
rale^  et  Doctrinale,  by  the  indefatigable  Domini- 
can,Vincentof  Beauviiis  (Vincentius  Bellovacen- 
019,  died  in  12(51),  to  which  a  Speculum  Morale, 
by  an  unknown  author,  was  afterward  added. 
This  repository  of  scholastic  science,  consisting 
mostly  of  extracts  from  tho  works  of  writers  of), 
tho  time,  is  particularly  valuable  for  tho  light 
which  it  sheds  on  the  literary  history  of  that  pe- 
riod. The  first  edition  was  published  at  Stras- 
bourg (7  vols.  foL,  14Y3-'7G),  and  the  last  at 
Douay  (4  vols,  fol.,  1624).  Of  mediasval  partic- 
ular cyclopasdias,  or  complete  treatises  on  spe- 
cial subjects,  the  Summa  Theologies  of  Thomas 
Aquinas  is  an  eminent  example.  Alfarabius, 
one  of  tlie  great  lights  of  the  Bagdad  school, 
enriched  tho  10th  century  with  a  cyclopa3- 
dia,  which,  on  account  of  a  systematic  subdi- 
vision of  the  various  branches  of  knowledge, 
might  bo  justly  compared  to  works  of  the 
same  denomination  belonging  to  the  literary 
history  of  later  centuries.  Nothing,  however, 
is  known  of  this  production  except  the  notice 
Casiri  gives  of  it  in  his  Bibliotheca  Arahico- 
Uispana  Escur lalensis,  where  it  is  described  as 
a  work  uhi  scientiarum,  artiumque  liberalium, 
synopsis  occurrit,  una  cum  accurata  et  persjncua 
earum  notitia,  dejinitione,  divisione,  methodo. 
In  the  16th  century  several  works  of  a  cyclo- 
paidic  character  appeared,  such  as  the  Margarita 
PhilosopMca  of  Reisch  (Freiburg,  1503,  and 
Basel,  1583) ;  tho  G>jclop(Bdia  ot  Ringelberg 
(Basel,  1541),  a  small  thick  volume,  consisting 
of  concise  treatises  on  grammar,  logic,  and  other 
branches  ;  the  Lncyclopmdia  seu  Orhia  Discipili- 
narum  Epistemon  of  Scalich  (Basel,  1559)-, 
and  the  Idea  Methodicm  et  Brevis  Encyclopmiice, 
seu  Adumbratio  Wniversitatis,  by  Martini  (Iler- 
born,  1606).  These  were  followed  by  Alsted'g 
more  elaborate  work,  Cursus PhilosopMci  Ency- 
clopdEdia  (4  vols.,  Ilerborn,  1G20 ;  afterward  pub- 
lished as  Scientiarum  Omnium  Encyclopcedia, 
at  Herborn  in  1G30,  and  at  Lyons  in  1649),  which 
is  commonly  referred  to  as  tho  most  celebrated 
of  the  early  cyclopa3dias.  Its  author,  Johann 
Ileinrich  Alsted,  a  professor  of  philosophy  at 
"Weissenburg  in  Transylvania,  was  one  of  the  di- 
vines who  attended  the  synod  of  Dort.  Tho  plan 
of  his  work  is  not  unlike  that  of  Ringelberg,  but 
the  subjects  it  embraces  are  more  varied,  and 
each  is  more  elaborately  treated.  It  consists  of 
35  books,  of  which  the  first  4  contain  an  expla- 
nation of  tho  nature  of  tho  various  subjects  dis- 
cussed in  tho  rest.  Then  follow  successively 
6  on  philology ;  10  on  speculative,  and  4  on 
practical  philosophy  ;  8  on  theology,  jurispru- 
dence, and  medicine  ;  3  on  the  mechanical  arts  ; 


and  5  on  history,  chronology,  and  miscellaneous 
topics.  This  work  was  held  in  high  estimation 
till  the  close  of  that  century.  Leibnitz  mentions 
it,  in  the  early  part  of  tho  next,  in  respectful 
terms,  accom[)anied  with  an  earnest  wish  that 
some  of  the  learned  would  either  join  in  remod- 
elling and  improving  it,  or  in  composing  an  en- 
tirely new  work  of  the  same  kind.  The  observa- 
tions of  this  illustrious  i)hilosopher  show  that  he 
had  retlected  mucli  ou  the  objects  of  such  an  un- 
dertaking, and  that  he  considered  a  cyclopaedia 
as  a  species  of  publication  calculated  to  be  emi- 
nently useful  to  mankind.  In  the  early  part  of  tho 
I7th  century  appeared  also  the  Be  Bignitate  et 
Augmentis  Scientiarum  (1605),  and  the  Novum 
Organum  Scientiarum  {Id^^),  of  Lord  Bacon; 
works  not,  indeed,  voluminous,  but  rich  in 
deep  and  acute  thinking,  and  in  which  he  laid 
the  foundation  of  a  logical  arrangement  of  tho 
sciences.  After  his  time  appeared  a  multitude 
of  cyclopa3dias,  designed  for  the  instruction  of 
the  young  and  uninformed.  Such  were  the 
Science  des  personnes  de  la  cour,  de  Vepee,  et 
de  la  7'obe,  by  Chevigny  (5th  ed.  by  Limiers, 
4  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1717) ;  and  the  PeraBihro- 
rum  Juvenilium,  by  Wagenseil  (5  vols.,  Altdorf, 
1605).  Treatises,  also,  written  w^th  the  object 
of  bringing  universal  knowledge  into  systematic 
order  became  more  numerous.  This  was  the  aim 
of  the  Polyhistor  of  Morhof  (Liibeck,  1688),  and 
of  tho  CowrscZ'etofZesof  Condillac.  In  Germany, 
Sulzer  endeavored  to  show  the  essential  connec- 
tion of  all  branches  of  learning  in  his  Kurzer  In- 
begriff  aller  Wissenschaften  (Berlin,  1756) ;  and 
his  classification  was  adopted  and  improved  by 
many  succeeding  cyclopajdists,  as  J.  M.  Gesner, 
in  his  Primie  Binem  Isagoges  in  Eruditionem 
Universarn  (Gottingen,  1774),  Reimarus  (1775), 
Adelung  (1778),  Reuss  (1783),  Kliigel  (1788), 
Buhle  (1790),  and  Biisch  (1795).  Eschenburg,  in 
his  Lehrbuch  der  Wissenschaften  (Berlin,  1792), 
was  the  first  who  attempted  to  construct  a  cy- 
clopasdia  of  the  sciences  according  to  the  princi- 
ples of  the  Kantian  philosophy.  His  ideas  were 
elaborated  by  Habel,  Rilf,  Strass,  Hefter,  Bur- 
dach,  and  Krauss.  Complete  logical  classifica- 
tions were  made  also  by  Krug,  in  his  Versuch  einer 
systematischen  Encxj'klopddie  der  Wissenschaften 
(Wittenberg,  1796-'9S) ;  by  Schmid,  in  his  All- 
gemeine  EncyJdopddie  und  Methodologieder  Wis- 
senschaften (Jena,  1811) ;  by  Jiische,  in  his  Ein- 
leitung  zu  einer  Architel-tonik  der  Wissenschaf- 
ten (Dorpat,  1816) ;  by  Kronburg,  in  his  Allge- 
meine  Wissemchaftslehre  (Berlin,  1825) ;  by  Gru- 
ber,  in  the  introduction  to  the  second  volume  of 
Ersch  and  Gruber's  EncyJdopddie;  and  by  Kirch- 
ner,  in  his  Ahademische  Propddeutih  (Leipsic, 
1842). — Although  the  lexicographic  arrangement 
had  been  anciently  employed  by  Suidas,  it  was 
but  slowly  brought  into  use  after  the  revival  of 
learning.  It  was  long  before  the  idea  occurred 
that  it  might  be  used  as  the  basis  of  a  universal 
repertory  of  human  learning  ;  and  still  longer 
before  it  was  employed  as  the  vehicle  of  general 
treatises  similar  to  those  of  tho  early  systemati- 
cally arranged  cycloptisdic  works.   The  first  lex- 


180 


CYCLOPEDIA 


icographic  cycIopaQdias  contdned  notices  pnly 
of  celebrated  j)ersoiis  and  places,  as  the  Dictio- 
narium  Proprium  Nominum   Virorum,  Muli- 
erum,  Populorum,  Idolarum,  Urhium,  Fluvio- 
rum,  Montium,  &c.,  by  Robert  Stephens  (Paris, 
1544) ;    and  the   Dictionarium   Historicum   et 
Poeticwn,  by  Charles  Stephens  (Paris,   1553 ; 
enlarged  by  R.  Lloyd,  Oxford,  1671,  and  London, 
1686).     The    historical   dictionary   of    Moreri 
(Lyons,  1673),  and  the  historical  and  critical 
dictionary  of  Bayle  (Rotterdam,  1697),  were  the 
most  important  of  many  biographical  cyclopajdias 
of  this  period,  the  latter  treating  also  incidental- 
ly many  scientific  questions.    Of  larger  compass 
and  of  less  thorough  execution  were  tlie  Lex- 
icon Universale  Historico-Geographico-Chrono- 
logico-Poetico-Philologicum,  by  J.  J.  Hofraann 
(Basel,  1677;  supplement  added,  1683;  new  ed. 
Leyden,   1698);    and   the   BlbUotheca   Univer- 
salis Saero-Profana,  by  Coronelli  (Venice,  1701), 
which  was  intended  to  form  45  volumes,  but 
was   continued   only  into   the   letter   C   in  7 
volumes. — The    first   English   cyclopaedia   was 
the  "  Lexicon  Technicum,  or  an  Universal  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Arts  and  Sciences,"  by  John 
Harris  (2  vols.,  London,  1706-'10).   It  explained 
both  the  terms  of  art  and  the  arts  themselves  ; 
but  though  professing  to  be  universal,  it  was  in 
fact  limited  almost  exclusively  to  the  mathe- 
matical and  the  physical  sciences,  and  hence  was 
far  from  fulfilling  its  intended  purpose.     The 
"  Cyclopaedia"  of  Ephraim  Chambers  (2  large  fol. 
vols.,  London,  1728)  was  also  termed  a  general 
dictionary  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  was 
the  first  work  in  which  knowledge  was  subdi- 
vided under  appropriate   hfeads,    which   were 
placed  in  alphabetical  order,  and  treated  so  as 
to  exhibit  at  the  same  time  a  complete  account 
of  the  various  branches  and  of  their  connections 
and  dependencies.     "  His  view,"  he  says,  "  was 
to  consider  the  several  matters,  not  only  in  them- 
selves, but  relatively,  or  as  they  respect  each 
other ;  both  to  treat  them  as  so  many  wholes, 
and  as  so  many  parts  of  some  greater  whole, 
their  connection  with  which  to  be  pointed  out 
by  reference ;  so  that  by  a  course  of  references 
from  generals  to  particulars,  from  premises  to 
conclusions,  from  cause  to  effect,  and  vice  versa, 
i.e.,  from  more  to  less  complex,  and  from  less  to 
more,  a  communication  might  be  opened  be- 
tween the  several  parts  of  the  work ;  and  the 
several  articles  be  in  some  measure  replaced  in 
their  natural  order  of  science,  out  of  wliich  the 
alphabetical  order  had  removed  them."     Yet 
Chambers  remained  far  from  attaining  his  ob- 
ject, for  the  ramifications  are  so  varied  and  mi- 
nute that  one  would  seek  in  vain  in  his  volumes 
for  any  thing  like  a  substitute  for  separate  trea- 
tises, or  for  more,  under  many  heads,  than  short 
and  unconnected  elucidations,  or  mere  definitions 
and  incomplete  explanations.    On  mathematical 
subjects,  conclusions  are  given  without  demon- 
stration or  experimental  details.     But  with  all 
its  defects,  whether  of  plan  or  execution,  this 
work  of  Chambers  must  be  regarded  as  the  pro- 
iuction  of  a  mind  of  superior  compass  and  vigor, 


and  as  the  fruit  of  remarkable  research   and 
diligence.     Five  editions  of  it  were  published 
within  18  years  ;    while  upon  the   continent 
of  Europe  it  produced  no  less  effect  than  in 
England.    It   was  translated   into  French  and 
Italian,   and   its   plan   was    highly   applauded 
in    tlie    preliminary    discourse    of    the    great 
French  Encyclopklie.     Its  success  gave  rise  to 
a  number  of  similar  works,  mostly  modelled 
after  it.     The  first  of  these  was  tlie  "  New  and 
Universal  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences,"  by 
John  Barrovv  (1  vol.  fol.,  London,  1751  ;  sup- 
plementary vol,  added,  1754).     Its  only  recom- 
mendation, as  compared  with  its  predecessor, 
consisted  in  an  enlarged  number  of  articles  >on 
mathematical  subjects,  on  the  mechanical  arts, 
and  on  naval  affairs ;  to  make  room  for  which, 
church  history  and  all  scholastic  topics  were 
excluded.     This  was  fallowed,  in  1754  (2d  edi- 
tion in  17G4),  by  a  "New  and  Complete  Dic- 
tionary of  Arts  and  Sciences,"  comprised  in  4 
large  8vo,  vols,,  written,  according  to  the  title 
page,  "  by  a  society  of  gentlemen,"  and  com- 
monly called,  from  the  name  of  its  publisher, 
"  Owen's  Dictionary."     It  is  distinguished  by 
the  general  brevity  of  its  articles,   a  quality 
which  enabled  its  compilers  to  widen  its  range 
in  the  departments  of  geography,  commerce, 
and  natural  history.     In  1766  was  published  the 
''  Complete  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences," 
in  3  vols,  fol.,  a  work  compiled  under  the  joint 
direction  of  Henry  Croker,  Thomas  Williams, 
and  Samuel  Clark  ;  the  theological,  philosophi- 
cal, and  critical  branches  being  edited  by  the  first; 
those  of  anatomy,  medicine,  and  chemistry,  by 
the  second ;   and  the  mathematical  by  the  last. 
Notwithstanding  this  division  of  labor,  the  work 
was  not  marked  either  by  excellence    in  the 
respective  departments,  or  method  in  their  ar- 
rangement.    In  1745  Dr,  De  Coetlogon  pub- 
lished in  London  a  "  Universal  History  of  Arts 
and  Sciences,"  which  was  largely  composed  of 
complete  treatises  on  distinct  arts  and  sciences, 
and  may  therefore  have  suggested  the  plan  of  the 
"  Encyclopaedia  Britannica."     The  latter  work 
made  its  first  appearance  in  Edinburgh,  in  1771",. 
in  3  quarto  volumes,  and  was  distinguished  from 
those  previously  published  in  England  less  by 
its  execution  than  by  its  more  philosophical 
method.     Instead  of   attempting  to   elucidate 
the  sciences  by  a  number  of  separate  articles 
corresponding  to  their  technical  titles  or  sec- 
tions, introduced  in  the  order  prescribed  by  the 
alphabet,  it  treated  each  science  completely  in 
a  systematic  form  under  its  proper  denomina- 
tion ;  the  technical  terms  and  subordinate  heads 
being  also  explained  alphabetically,  when  any 
thing  more  than  a  refei'ence  to  the  general  trea- 
tise was  required.     This  plan  was  prosecuted 
upon  a  wider  scale,  and  with  more  maturity  of 
execution,  in  the  subsequent  editions.     The  ob- 
jects aimed  at  in  the  early  cyclopa3dia3  were  in 
this  way  reconciled  with  the  lexicographic  ar- 
rangement, while  its  adaptation  to  particular 
topics  was  in  no  respect  impaired.     The  editor 
and  principal  compiler  of  this  first  edition  was 


CYCLOPEDIA 


181 


"William  Smellio,  a  scholar  particularly  conver- 
sant with  natural  history,  although  by  profes- 
sion a  printer.  The  2(1  edition  (extended  to 
10  vols.,  1776-83)  was  chielly  remarkable  for 
the  addition  of  the  two  popular  departments, 
history  and  biography.  The  3d  edition  (18 
vols.,  1786-97 ;  a  supplement  of  2  vols.  wa.s 
added  afterward)  contained  valuable  contribu- 
tions in  speculative  philosophy,  ancient  erudi- 
tion, and  physical  science,  from  the  pens  of  Dr. 
Gleig,  Dr.  Doig,  and  Prof.  Robison,  Avhich  at- 
tracted general  attention,  and  gave  to  the  work 
a  new  and  more  dignified  aspect.  This  edition 
of  the  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica"  was  repub- 
lished in  Philadelplua,  by  Thos,  Dobson  (21 
vols,  4to.,  including  the  supplement,  1798-1803), 
A  4th  edition,  increased  to  20  vols.,  was  com- 
pleted in  1810,  under  the  able  superintendence 
of  Dr,  James  Millar,  This  was  enriched  with 
the  contributions  of  Prof.  Wallace  on  pure  ma- 
thematics. A  5th  and  a  6th  edition,  which 
the  increasing  demand  for  the  work  required, 
soon  followed ;  these,  however,  were  little  more 
than  reprints  of  the  former.  While  these  were 
in  progress,  a  supplement  extending  to  6  vols, 
made  its  appearance,  edited  by  Macvey  Napier, 
and  published  by  Archibald  Constable.  The 
first  half  volume  was  produced  in  1815,  under 
the  sanction  of  the  name  of  Dugald  Stewart, 
as  the  author  of  the  first  of  those  preliminary 
dissertations  on  the  history  of  the  sciences, 
which,  in  a  more  complete  state,  so  greatly 
adorn  and  recommend  the  latest  edition.  En- 
riched as  it  was  by  contributions  from  the  most 
eminent  writers  and  scholars  of  the  day,  includ- 
ing the  distinguished  philosophers  of  France, 
Arago  and  Biot,  the  work  rose  rapidly  in  pub- 
lic favor.  The  copyriglits  of  the  previous  edi- 
tions having  passed  into  the  hands  of  A.  and  C. 
Black  of  Edinburgh,  these  enterprising  proprie- 
tors immediately  commenced  the  publication  of 
a  new  and  enlarged  edition,  under  the  editorial 
supervision  of  Prof.  Napier  (21  vols.,  including 
the  late  supplement,  a  general  index,  and  nu- 
merous engravings,  1830-42).  The  8th  and  last 
-edition,  with  extensive  improvements  and  addi- 
tions, and  an  introductory  volume  of  disserta- 
tions, was  commenced  in  1853,  and  published 
jointly  by  A.  and  C.  Black  of  Edinburgh,  and 
Little  and  Brown  of  Boston.  It  is  still  in  pro- 
gress. For  this,  as  for  the  preceding  editions, 
articles  have  been  furnished  by  the  most  dis- 
tinguished contemporary  authors. — The  follow- 
ing is  a  summary  notice  of  the  principal  Eng- 
lish and  American  cyclopcedias  that  have  ap- 
peared since  the  commencement  of  the  last 
quarter  of  the  18th  century,  arranged  in  the 
chronological  order  of  their  publication  : 

1.  New  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  or  an  Universal  Sys- 
tem of  Useful  Knowledi^e.  By  E.  Middleton  and  others.  2 
vols,  folio.     London,  1T7S. 

2.  Neve  Royal  Encyclopa-dia.  By  W.  11.  Hall.  S  vols,  folio. 
London,  17S9.  (A  second  edition  of  this  work,  enlarged  by 
J.  Lloyd,  was  published  in  1796,  in  3  vols,  folio,  with  plates.) 

8.  The  Kncj'clopiedia  Londinensis,  or  Universal  Dictionary 
of  Arts,  Sciences,  and  Literature.  Projected  and  arranged 
by  John  Wilkes.    24  vols.  4to.     London,  1797-1829. 

4.  Ihe  English  Encyclopiedia,  or  a  Dictionary  of  Arts  and 
Sciences.    10  vols.  4to.    London,  1801. 


5.  Rces's  Cyclopfcdia,  or  Unlveri^al  Dictionary  of  .\.rts.  Sci- 
ences, and  Literature.  39  vols,  with  6  vi>l8.  of  plates. 
London,  1802-19.  (This  work,  comprising  the  various  ar- 
ticles in  Chambers's  Cyclopaedia,  with  additions  and  irft- 
provements,  was  far  more  exten.sive  than  any  similar  work 
that  had  preceded  it  in  England,  being  particularly  com- 
plete in  the  technical  department.  An  American  edition 
was  published  at  Philadelphia,  47  vols.  1810-'24,  which, 
provmg  unsucce.'isful  from  the  magnitude  and  ditliculty  of 
the  enterprise,  was  at  last  disposed  of  by  lottery.) 

6.  (Jregory's  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  2  voLs.  4to. 
London,  1800.  (A  compilation  formerly  in  high  repute,  of 
which  an  American  edition  was  published,  3  vols.  4to., 
Philadelphia,  1S16-'16.) 

7.  Nicholson's  British  Kncyclopredia,  illustrated  with  cd- 
gravings  by  Lowry  and  Scott.  6  vols.  Svo.  London,  1809, 
(The  third  American  edition  of  this  popular  work  was  pub- 
lished at  Philadelphia,  12  vols.  8vo.,  1819.) 

8.  The  Imperial  Encyclopiedia.  Bv  W.  M.  Johnson  and  T. 
Exley.     4  vols.  4to.     London,  1S09- 14. 

9.  The  Edinburgh  Encyclopiedia.  Conducted  by  Sir  David 
Brewster.  IS  vols.  4to.  Edinburgh,  lS09-"30.  (This  im- 
portant work  was  especially  rich  in  its  scientific  depart- 
ment, and  an  American  edition  of  it,  improved  by  the  ad- 
dition of  numerous  articles  relative  to  tlie  American  con- 
tinent, was  published  at  Philadelphia  in  1832.) 

10.  The  Encyclopiedia  Metropolitana,  or  Universal  Diction- 
ary of  Knowledge,  on  an  Original  Plan,  comprising  tho 
twofold  Advantage  of  a  Philosophical  and  an  Alphabetical 
Arrangement,  with  appropriate  Engravings.  Edited  by 
Edward  Smcdlcy,  Hugh  James  Rose,  and  Henry  John 
Rose.  25  thick  vols,  with  3  additional  vols,  of  plates  and 
one  of  index.  London,  lS15-'4.5.  (The  divisions  of  this 
■work,  which  follow  a  system  of  universal  knowledge  pro- 
jected by  S.  T.  Coleridge,  are  as  follows:  Vols.  1,  2,  pure 
sciences;  vols.  3-8,  mixed  and  applied  sciences;  vols.  9-13, 
history  and  biography ;  vols.  14-25,  a  miscellaneous  lexi- 
con. A  cabinet  edition  is  in  process  of  publication  in 
small  octavo  volumes.  In  this  large  collection  are  contain- 
ed many  complete  treatises  of  great  value,  as  the  "Science 
of  Method  "of  Coleridge,  the  "Logic"  and  "Rhetoric"  of 
Archbishop  Wh.ately,  portions  of  Roman  history  by  Dr.  Ar- 
nold, and  works  on  tho  history  of  moral  and  metaphysical 
philosophy  by  F.  D.  Maurice.) 

11.  The  Encyclopiedia  Edinensis.  By  James  Millar.  6  vols. 
4to.     Edinburgh,  1816. 

12.  The  Encyclopiedia  Perthensis,  with  Plates.  Attributed 
to  Miller.    23  vols.  8vo.     London,  1816. 

13.  The  London  Encyclopiedia,  or  Universal  Dictionary  of 
Sciences  and  Arts,  Literature,  and  Practical  Mechanics. 
By  Thomas  Curtis.  22  vols.  4to.  with  1  additional  vol.  of 
maps.     London,  1829. 

14.  The  Encyclopiedia  Americana,  a  Popular  Dictionary  of 
Arts,  Sciences,  Literature,  History,  Politics,  and  Biogra- 
phy ;  on  the  basis  of  the  7th  edition  of  the  German  Coti- 
V6r nations- Le<rik(ni.  Edited  by  Francis  Lieber,  assisted 
by  E.  Wigglesworth  and  T.  G.  Bradford.  13  vols.  Svo. 
Philadelphia,  1829-38.  (A  supplementary  volume,  edited 
by  H.  Vethake,  was  added  in  1847.) 

15.  Lardner's  Cabinet  Cyclopicdia,  comprising  a  series  of 
original  works  on  History,  Biography,  Literature,  the  Sci- 
ences, Arts,  and  Manufactures.  132  vols,  small  Svo.  Lon- 
don, 1830-46.  (Among  the  numerous  valuable  treatises 
in  this  series  are  works  of  Herschel  on  astronomy,  of 
Brewster  on  optics,  Mackintosh's  "History  of  England," 
Sismondi's  "Italian  Republics,"  Scott's  " History  of  Scot- 
land," and  Thirlwall's  "  History  of  Greece.") 

16.  Partington's  British  Cyclopicdia.  12  vols.  Svo.  Lon- 
don, 1S32. 

17.  The  Penny  Cyclopnedia  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of 
Useful  Knowledge.  Edited  by  George  Long.  27  vols,  small 
folio.  London,  1833-43,  with  2  supplementary  vols,  in 
1846-'51  ;  2d  supplement,  1  vol.  1856. 

18.  The  Popular  Encyclopiedia,  or  Conversations  Lexicon; 
being  a  General  Dictionary  of  Useful  Knowledge,  with 
Dissertations  by  Eminent  Writers.  7  vols,  royal  Svo.  Glas- 
gow, 1841. 

19.  Brando's  Dictionary  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art 
Royal  Svo.  London,  1S42;  2d  ed.,  1852-53;  an  American 
ed..  New  York,  1843. 

20.  The  National  Cyclopiedia  of  Useful  Knowledge.  12  vols, 
sm.all  Svo.  London,  1847-51 ;  and  Boston,  185:3.  (This  is 
an  abridgment  of  the  "  Penny  Cyclopaedia.") 

21.  The  Icbnographic  Encyclopedia  of  Science,  Literature, 
and  .'Vrt.  Translated  from  the  German  of  J.  G.  Heck,  with 
additions,  and  edited  by  Spencer  F.  Baird.  4  vols,  royal 
Svo.  of  text,  and  2  vols,  of  plates.     New  York,  1851. 

22.  The  English  Cyclopiedia,  a  New  Dictionary  of  Universal 
Knowledge.  Conducted  by  Charles  Knight.  To  be  com- 
pleted in  20  vols.  London,  1854  et  aeq.  (This  work  is 
based  upon  the  "  Penny  Cyclopiedia,"  and  is  divided  into 
the  4  dep.artments  of  Geography,  Natural  History,  Biogra- 
phy, and  Arts  and  Sciences.     The  2  first  departments  ar« 


182 


CYCLOPEDIA 


now  completed  in  4  vols,  each,  tho  8d  in  6  vols.,  and  the 
remaining  6  vols,  are  announced  to  be  issued  in  lSo9-'60.) 

Beside  tliese  larger  works,  a  multitude  of  cyclo- 
paedias liave  been  published,  intended  to  impart 
information  in  special  branches  of  knowlege, 
as  Loudon's  "  Encycloptedias  of  Agriculture, 
Gardening,  Architecture,  Plants,  Trees,"  &c. ; 
Todd's  "Oyclopa3dia  of  Anatomy  and  Physi- 
ology;" NichoFs  "  Cyclopa3dia  of  Physical 
Science ;"  Nicholson's  "  Encyclopedia  of  Archi- 
tecture ;"  Chambers's  "  Cyclopaedia  of  English 
Literature ;"  Duyckinck's  "Cyclopaedia  of  ximer- 
ican  Litei'ature ;"  Homans's  "  Oyclopredia  of 
Commerce;"  and  AUibone's  " Critical  Diction- 
ary of  English  Literature." — On  the  continent, 
as  -VYell  as  in  England,  the  "  Cyclopoedia "  of 
Ephraim  Chambers  gave  an  impulse  to  the  de- 
sire for  such  publications.  A  second  edition  of 
the  French  translation  having  been  proposed, 
it  was  resolved,  upon  the  suggestion  of  the  abbe 
Gua  de  Halves,  to  divide  the  manuscript  among 
several  literati,  in  order  to  elaborate  the  re- 
spective articles  on  a  more  extensive  scale,  that 
they  might  be  combined  into  a  cyclopaedia  at 
once  more  original  and  more  comprehensive 
than  the  English  model  and  groundwork.  The 
abbe  having  disagreed  with  the  bookseller  in 
the  outset  of  this  undertaking,  Diderot  and 
D'Alembert  became  its  principal  managers. 
Thus  originated  the  great  French  Encyclopedie^ 
which,  at  first  intended  to  consist  of  10,  was  en- 
larged to  28  folio  volumes.  Its  title  is  Encyclo- 
pedie  ou  dictioymaire  raisonne  des  science^  des 
arts,  et  des  metiers,  par  une  societe  de  gens  de 
lettres,  mis  en  ordre  et  puMle  j^ar  If.  Diderot, 
et  quant  d  la  p)ctTtie  viathematique  2)ar  M. 
d'' Alembert.  The  first  7  vols,  appeared  in  Paris 
(l751-'57)  ;  the  remaining  10  vols,  of  text  were 
published,  according  to  the  title  page,  at  Neuf- 
chatel  (1765);  and  there  were  11  additional 
vols,  of  plates.  A  supplement  of  4  vols.,  with 
1  additional  vol.  of  plates,  was  issued  at  Amster- 
dam (1776-77).  A  Talle  analytique  et  raisonnee 
des  matieres  was  added  in  2  vols.  (1780).  The 
work,  though  several  times  interrupted  by  the 
government  while  in  progress,  was  everywhere 
received  with  enthusiasm,  and  gave  to  the 
editors  and  principal  collaborators  a  place  in 
European  history,  and  in  the  history  of  philos- 
ophy, under  the  name  of  the  "Encyclopaedists." 
Around  Diderot  and  D'Alembert  were  grouped 
Voltaire,  Rousseau,  Turgot,  Helvetius,  Duclos, 
Condillac,  Mably,  Bufibn,  La  Harpe,  Marmon- 
tel,  Eaynal,  Morellet,  Grimm,  Saint  Lambert, 
and  many  others.  Four  new  editions  of  it  were 
rapidly  issued,  at  Leghorn  (33  vols.,  1770),  at 
Lucca  (28  vols.,  1771),  at  Geneva  (39  vols., 
incorporating  tlie  supplements,  1777),  and  at 
Lausanne  and  Bern  (36  vols.,  1778).  It  was  the 
basis  also  of  the  cyclopaedia  of  Felice  (Yverdun, 
177O-'80,  48  vols.,  with  10  additional  vols,  of 
plates),  among  the  collaborators  of  whicli  were 
Euler,  Lalande,  and  Ilaller.  The  Discoura  pre- 
liminaire,  which  is  ranked  among  the  chefs 
tfauvre  of  the  age,  was  written  by  D'Alembert. 
In  it  the  author  traces  the  genealogical  order 


of  the  various  branches  of  human  knowledge, 
marks  out  the  limits  of  each,  its  connection 
with  the  rest,  and  the  characters  which  distin- 
guish them  in  our  minds.  Bacon  had  made  his 
celebrated  partition  of  human  learning  into  his- 
tory, poetry,  and  philosophy,  according  to  the 
powers  of  the  mind  respectively  concerned  in 
them,  the  memory,  imagination,  and  reason. 
This  psychological  division  is  neither  rigorous 
nor  exact,  and  D'Alembert  attempted  to  com- 
plete the  classification  by  adding  a  distinction 
between  the  historic  and  the  rational  order  of 
the  sciences,  between  the  order  in  which  they 
are  produced  in  society  and  that  in  which  they 
logically  stand  related  to  each  other.  He  there- 
fore first  reviewed  the  origin  and  progress  of  the 
arts  and  sciences,  detailing  the  history  of  intel- 
lectual culture  in  Europe  from  the  revival  of 
learning,  and  finally  raised  the  cyclopaedic  tree, 
following  in  general  the  classification  of  Bacon, 
and  developing  all  the  branches  of  learning 
according  to  tlieir  metaphysical  dependences. 
The  stylo  of  this  discourse  is  severe  and  simple, 
adhering  closely  to  the  language  proper  to  phi- 
losophy, yet  rendering  clear  and  palpable  the 
most  abstract  ideas.  The  work  itself  exerted 
an  immense  influence  in  hastening  the  great- 
est political  revolution  of  modern  times.  It 
was  designed  at  once  to  reveal  to  the  human 
mind  the  extent  of  its  poAver  by  unfolding  the 
picture  of  its  riches,  and  to  emancipate  hu- 
man thought  by  treating  freely  every  science 
and  doctrine  ;  and  it  was  conceived  in  a  spirit 
indifferent,  if  not  antagonistic,  to  the  institu- 
tions, usages,  and  faith  of  the  time.  It  is  the 
most  complete  expression  of  the  philosophical, 
critical,  irreligious,  and  reformatory  tendencies 
of  tho  18th  century.  Its  generally  polished 
and  correct  style,  and  its  blending  of  pliilosophy, 
elegance,  and  gayety,  made  it  fashionable  in 
courtly  society,  and  contributed  much  to  its 
authority  and  influence.  To  counteract  the  dis- 
organizing tendencies  of  the  Unci/clopedie,  and  to 
apply  a  more  methodical  system,  was  the  design 
of  the  projectors  of  the  Bncydopedie  methodiqiie, 
the  most  elaborate  work  of  the  kind  extant  in 
France,  published  by  Panckoucke  and  Agasse 
(201  vols.,  including  47  vols,  of  plates,  Paris,  1781 
-1832),  Its  method  consists  in  assigning  to  each 
science  a  special  alphabetical  dictionary,  and  the 
whole  book  is  therefore  a  collection  of  48  dis- 
tinct cyclopfcdias  or  dictionaries  of  science,  lit- 
erature, and  art,  with  dissertations  interspersed 
throughout.  Among  the  editors  were  Quatre- 
mere  de  Quincy  for  architecture,  Bergier  for 
theology,  Mongez  for  antiquities,  Ginguen6  for 
music,  De  Lamarck  for  natural  history,  and 
Vicq  d'Azyr,  Cassini,  Latreille,  Tessier,  Naigeon, 
Condorcet,  and  Lacretelle  for  other  depart- 
ments. A  Spanish  tran.slation  of  it  (Madrid, 
1780-1806,  vols,  i.-xi.)  was  commenced,  but  not 
completed.  During  the  period  which  has  elapsed 
since  the  commencement  of  this  work  science  has 
made  astonishing  progress,  and  consequently 
several  of  the  earlier  parts  are  now  of  compara- 
tively little  value.     The  following  are  the  most 


CYCLOPEDIA 


183 


important  of  recent  French  encyclopaidias:  1. 
The  Encyclopedie  moclerne :  JJictionnaire  ahrege 
des  sciences,  dcs  lettrcs,  des  arts,  de  Vindustrie^ 
de  V agriculture,  et  du  commerce  ;  conducted  l)y 
},[.  Courtin  (26  vols.  8vo.,  Paris,  1823-'32 ;  2d 
od.  1843;  3d  ed.,  completely  revised,  under  tlio 
direction  of  M.  L6on  Penicr,  27  vols.,  with  3  ad- 
ditional vols,  of  plates,  1853-55).  Asuj)plement 
to  this  work  has  reached  the  7th  volume,  and 
the  letter  L  (1859).  2.  Dictionnairede  la  con- 
versation et  de  la  lecture,  directed  hy  M.  W. 
Duckett  (52  vols.,  Paris,  1832-'39 ;  2d  ed.,  revis- 
ed and  enlarged,  10  large  8vo.  vols.,  1853-58). 
This  cyclopa3dia  is  very  unequally  executed,  but 
many  of  its  artick-s  are  unusually  complete  and 
entertaining.  3.  The  Encyclopedie  des  gens  du, 
mo7ide:  Jiq^ertoire  universel  des  sciences,  des  let- 
tres,  etdcs  arts  ;  par  une  societede  savans,  de  lit- 
terateurs^ et  d'artistes  (44  vols.  8vo.,  Paris,  1833- 
'44).  4.  The  Encyclopedie  du  XIX  siecle,  a 
Roman  Catholic  work,  published  by  M.  Saint 
Priest  (28  vols.,  Paris,  1839-52).  5.  Encyclo- 
pedic catholique :  Repertoire  universel  ct  rai- 
sonne  des  sciences,  des  lettrcs,  des  arts,  et  des  me- 
tiers, avec  la  biographic  des  hommes  celehres ;  di- 
rected by  the  abbe  Glaire  and  viscount  Walsh  (18 
vols,  4to.,  Paris,  1 840-'48 ;  3  vols  of  a  supple- 
ment have  already  been  added,  1859).  6.  The 
Encyclopedic  noudelle,  ou  dictionnairc  pMloso- 
phique,  scientijique,  litteraire,  et  industriel,  edit- 
ed by  P.  Leroux  and  J.  Reynaud  (8  vols.,  Paris, 
1834  etseq.).  This  work  contains  many  remark- 
able articles,  and  is  less  a  dictionary  of  general 
knowledge  than  a  series  of  dissertations  on  va- 
rious subjects.  Its  editors  were  distinguished 
philosophers  of  the  Saint  Simonian  school,  the 
collaborators  few  in  number,  and  the  elaborate 
articles  present  throughout  a  unity  of  view  and 
doctrine.  7.  The  Dictionnairc  des  sciences phi- 
losophiques,  par  une  societe  de  projesseurs  de 
philosophic,  directed  by  M.  Franck  (5  vols., 
Paris,  1844-'52).  8.  The  Dictionnairc  general 
de  biographic,  (Phistoire,  dc  geographic,  dcs  an- 
tiquites,  et  des  institutions,  &c.,  by  Dezobry  and 
Bachelet  (2  thick  8vo.  vols.,  Paris,  1857).  9. 
The  Dictionnairc  universel  des  sciences,  des  let- 
trcs, et  des  arts,  by  M.  Bouillet  (1  vol.  8vo., 
Paris,  3d  ed.  1857).  10.  The  Dictionnairc  uni- 
versel d'histoire  et  de  geograjjMe,  by  M.  Bouil- 
let (1  vol.  8vo.,  Paris,  14th  ed.  1858).  H.  The 
Grand  dictionnairc  de  geographic  tinivcrsellc, 
by  M.  Bescherelle  (4  vols.  4to.,  Paris,  1856- 
'57).  The  chief  French  cyclopoadic  periodi- 
cals, reviewing  the  whole  held  of  knowledge, 
have  been  the  Eevue  encyclopedique  of  Jul- 
lien  (Paris,  1819-'33),  and  the  Bulletin  des 
sciences  of  Ferussac  (Paris,  1823-31). — Among 
the  early  German  cyclopfedias  the  most  cel- 
ebrated is  the  Oekonojnisch- Technologischc  En- 
cyMopddie,  commenced  at  Berlin  in  1773,  by 
J.  G.  Krimitz,  and  continued  successively  by 
F.  J.  Florke,  H.  G.  Florke,  J.  W.  D.  Korth, 
and  C.  D.  Hoffmann.  There  have  already 
(1859)  been  published  220  vols.  4to.,  and  it  is 
nearly  concluded.  Though  originally  limited 
to  economy  and  technology,  it  has  become  al- 


most a  general  cyclopcedia.  A  new,  unchang- 
ed edition  of  the  first  97  volumes  appeared  at 
Berlin  (1782-1814),  and  another  edition  (32 
vols.,  Berlin,  1785-1812)  includes  116  volumes 
of  the  original  work.  The  Deutsche  EncyTclo- 
pddie,  begun  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  by  H.  M. 
G.  Koster  (1778),  and  continued  by  J.  F.  Rons 
to  the  23d  volume  as  far  as  the  letter  K  (1804), 
remains  unfinished.  It  excludes  biography,  ge- 
ography, history,  and  ancient  literature.  The 
Allgemcines  Lexikon  der  Kimstc  und  Wissen- 
schaften^  by  J.  T.  Jablonski,  appeared  in  Lcip- 
sic  (1721 ;  new  ed.  at  KOnigsberg,  1748-67, 
in  2  vols.).  Theology,  history,  and  geography 
were  excluded  from  it.  The  Grosses  Volhtdndi- 
ges  Universal- Lexihan  aller  Wissenschaften  und 
Kilnste,  edited  successively  by  Ludewig,  Frank- 
enstein, Longolius,  and  others,  and  commonly 
called  Zedler's  Lexicon,  after  the  publisher  (64 
vols.,  Ilalle  and  Leipsic,  1732-52;  4  supple- 
mentary vols,  added,  1751-54),  is  still  useful  on 
account  of  the  citations,  and  of  its  carefully  pre- 
pared genealogical  articles.  The  most  compre- 
hensive German  work  of  this  cliaracter  is  the 
celebrated  Allgemeine  EncyTclopjodic  der  Wisseii- 
schnften  und  Kiinste  of  J.  S.  Ersch  and  J.  G. 
Gruber,  late  professors  at  Halle  (Leipsic,  1818 
et  seq. ;  not  yet  concluded).  In  1831  the  un- 
dertaking passed  from  the  hands  of  Enoch 
Richter,  who  began  it,  to  the  Brockhaus  firm, 
its  present  enterprising  publishers.  The  work 
is  divided  into  3  sections,  the  1st  including  A- 
G,  the  2d  H-N",  and  the  3d  the  remaining  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet.  The  sections  are  prose- 
cuted contemporaneously,  the  1st  since  the 
death  of  Ersch  being  edited  by  Gruber  and  M. 
II.  E.  Meier ;  the  2d,  by  A.  G.  Hoffmann  in 
Jena ;  and  the  3d,  by  M.  H.  E,  Meier  in  Halle. 
More  than  125  large  4to.  vols,  have  (1859)  been 
issued.  This  cyclopoedia  is  esteemed  the  most 
learned  and  thorough  that  has  appeared  in  any 
literature.  Biographies  of  the  living  are  ex- 
cluded from  it.  A  new  epoch  in  the  literature 
of  cyclopaedias  began  with  the  publication  of 
the  Conversations-Lexihon  (6  vols.,  Leipsic  and 
Amsterdam,  1796-1810)  ;  a  work  of  unequal- 
led popularity,  which  has  passed  through  10 
successive  editions  at  home,  and  been  trans- 
lated into  numerous  languages  abroad.  The 
idea  of  the  work  originated  with  Dr.  Lobel ; 
it  was,  however,  completed  under  the  inspec- 
tion of  F.  A.  Brockhaus,  who  conducted  the 
second  edition  (10  vols.  1812-'19).  It  was 
originally  designed  for  the  use  of  persons  who 
might  desire  to  take  a  part  in  the  conversation 
and  society  of  well-informed  circles.  This  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  the  work  has,  however,  been 
to  a  certain  degree  changed  by  numerous  im- 
provements in  successive  editions,  so  that  its 
present  title,  Allgemeine  Deutsche  Eeal-EncyMo- 
pddic  fur  die  gebildeten  Stdnde  (Conversations- 
Lexikon),  conveys  a  clearer  idea  of  its  general 
character.  The  latest  edition  was  published  at 
Leipsic  (15  vols,  in  16,  1851-55).  Several  im- 
portant cyclopaedic  works  have  been  issued  by 
Brockhaus,  in  connection  with  the  Conversa/ 


184 


CYCLOPEDIA 


tions-Lexll-on^  as  the  Conversations- Lex  ikon  dcr 
neuesten  Zeit  vnd  Literatur  (4  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1832— '34);  the  Conversations- Lexicon  der  Gegen- 
tcart  (4  vols.,  1838-'41)  ;  tbe  Gegenwart,  a  pe- 
riodical, in  which  the  alphabetical  order  was 
'  abandoned,  but  which  consisted  of  essays  giv- 
ing a  cyclopaidic  exhibition  of  the  present  time 
(12  vols.,  1848-'5G);  and  Unsere  Zeit,  a  monthly 
periodical  of  a  similar  character  now  in  pro- 
gress (1857  et  seq.).  The  Universal-Lexilcon  der 
Vergangenhcit  und  Gegenwart  of  Pierer  (26 
vols.,  Altenburg,  1824-'36;  6  supplementary 
vols.,  1840-'47;  2d  ed.,  34  vols.,  1840-'46;  3d 
ed.,  17  vols.,  1849-53 ;  supplement  of  6  vols,  add- 
ed, 1851-'54,  andof  2  vols.,  1855;  4th  ed.,  Alten- 
burg and  New  York,  1857  et  seq.).  This  cyclo- 
pfedia  is  admirable  for  its  universality  and  for 
the  brevity  and  completeness  of  its  statements. 
The  other  principal  German  cyclopredias  are : 
£Jncyklo])ddisches  SachwOrterbueh  (21  vols., 
Zeitz,  1792-1800;  2d  ed.,  3  vols.,  lS22-'23), 
Avhich  excludes  biographies  and  natural  his- 
tory ;  the  Conversations-Lexikon  fiir  alle  Stdnde 
(8  vols.,  Leipsic  and  Halberstadt,  1823-'28), 
often  called  from  its  publisher  the  "Brliggeman 
Cyclopaedia;"  the  Damen- Conversations- Lexi- 
Tcon  (10  vols.,  Leipsic,  1834-'38  ;  2d  unchanged 
ed.,  Adorf,  1846) ;  Meyer's  Conversations- 
Lexikon  (50  vols.,  Ilildburghausen,  1839-55), 
which  is  more  comprehensive  than  any  other 
Conversations-Lexicon ;  a  new  Conversations- 
Lexikon  begun  by  Meyer  (Ilildburghausen,  1856 
et  seq.) ;  the  Conversations-l^xikon  ficr  alle 
JStdnde,  published  by  Wigand  (15  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1846-52);  the  Allgemeine  Real-Encyklopddie, 
oder  Conversations-Lexikon  fur  das  Katholische 
Deutscldand,  by  W.  Binder  and  others  (12  vols., 
Eatisbon,  1846-'51);  and  the  Real-EncykXopd- 
die  fur  Protestantische  TTieologie  und  JTirche, 
by  i)r.  Herzog  (Stuttgart  and  Hamburg,  1854 
et  seq.) ;  the  last  work  reached  in  1858  the 
letter  M  and  the  9th  vol. ;  an  English  con- 
densed translation  of  it  is  in  progress  by  J.  IL 
A.  Bomberger  (Philadelphia,  1858  et  seq.,  de- 
signed to  be  in  3  vols.). — The  most  important 
Italian  cyclopsedias  are  the  Nuoto  dizionario 
scientijico  e  curioso  sacro-profano,  by  Pivati 
(12  vols,  folio,  1746-'51) ;  and  the  Enciclopedia 
Italiana  (Venice,  1854  et  seq.).  Cyclopaedias  ex- 
ist also  in  most  other  European  languages,  as,  in 
Danish,  the  Almennyttigt  Dansk  Konversations- 
Lexicon,  by  P.  Larsen  (Copenhagen,  1849  et 
seq.) ;  in  Swedish,  the  Svenskt  Konversations- 
Lexicon  (Stockholm,  1845  et  seq.) ;  and  in 
Spanish,  the  Pan-Lexicon,  by  Juan  Pefialver 
(Madrid,  1842),  the  Bihlioteca  universal  de  in- 
struccion  (Barcelona,  1842  et  seq.),  and  the  En- 
ciclopedia Espailola  delsiglo  XIX.  (Madrid,  1842 
et  seq.). — The  oriental  nations  have  general  and 
special,  systematic  and  alphabetic  cyclopaedias. 
Tlie  most  complete  of  them  is  in  Arabic,  sys- 
tematically arranged,  and  entitled  Miftah  es-sed- 
dct  ve  misshah  es-siyddet  fi  mevsuat  elooloom 
(the  key  of  happiness  and  the  guiding  beacon  in 
the  objects  of  the  sciences),  by  Mola  Ahmed 
ben  Mustapha,  commonl7  called  Tash  Kopri- 


sade.  It  was  translated  into  Turkish  by  the  son 
of  the  author,  Kemal  eddin  Mohammed  (died  in 
the  year  of  the  Ilegira  1032,  A.  D.  1622).  It 
divides  tlie  sciences  into  7  classes,  rhetoric,  elo- 
quence, dialectics,  theoretical  philosophy,  practi- 
cal philosophy,  theoretical  positive  science,  and 
practical  positive  science.  Tash  Kopri-sade 
reckoned  in  all  307  sciences,  which  his  son  ex- 
tended in  the  Turkish  version  to  500.  A  gen- 
eral alphabetically  arranged  cyclopcodia  was 
prepared  by  Hadji  Khalfa,  whose  proper  namo 
Avas  Mustapha  ebn  Abdallali  Kalib  Tshlebi  (died 
A.  D.  1657).  This  voluminous  writer  on  the  bib- 
liography, geography,  and  history  of  the  Mos- 
lems collected  many  separate  and  rare  treatises 
into  one  body  under  the  title  of  Keshf  es  soonoon 
an  Esmail  Kootoob  velfoonoon  (the  knowledge 
of  books  and  sciences).  In  his  introduction  he 
treated  of  the  nature,  object,  and  classification 
of  the  sciences ;  of  the  history  and  literature  of 
the  sciences  in  oriental  countries;  of  several 
special  questions  concerning  the  history  of 
learning ;  and  of  the  Arabic  language  and  lit- 
erature. The  whole  of  this  introduction  is 
translated  in  Von  Hammer's  EncyklopddiscTie 
TJ ebersicM  der  Wissenschaften  dcs  Orients  (Lq\\}- 
sic,  1804).  These  two  immense  collections  were 
preceded  by  several  cyclopaedias  more  or  less 
complete.  The  first  who  among  the  Arabi- 
ans made  a  cyclopasdic  scheme  of  the  sciences 
was  the  celebrated  physician  Abu  Ali  ebn  Ab- 
dallah  ebn  Sina,  known  among  Europeans 
by  the  name  bf  Avicenna  (died  A.  D.  1037). 
Of  his  treatise  on  the  nature  of  the  sciences 
and  the  method  of  teaching  we  are  able  to 
judge  only  from  the  high  commendations  of 
Tash  Kopri-sade,  the  greatest  oriental  cyclo- 
paedist,  who  acknowledges  obligations  to  no 
other  of  his  predecessors.  The  oldest  proper 
cyclopaedia  among  the  Arabians  was  the  Ha- 
daikol-envar  Ji  hakaik  il-esrar  (garden  flow- 
ers or  true  mysteries),  by  Takhr  eddin  Mo- 
hammed ben  Omar  Er-rasi  (died  A.  D.  1209), 
which  embraces  60  sciences.  About  a  cen- 
tury later  appeared  the  cyclopaadia  Miftahol- 
ooloom  (key  of  sciences),  by  Serad-sheddin 
ebn  Yakub  Yussuf  ben  Ebi  Mohammed  ben  Ali 
es-Sakaki  (died  A.  D.  1280).  This  work  en- 
joyed an  unrivalled  reputation  for  a  century 
and  a  half,  and  more  than  lOO  commentaries 
were  written  on  it,  and  even  a  larger  number  of 
epitomes  of  it  were  made.  Among  the  latter 
was  an  excellent  elaboration  of  the  rhetorical 
division  by  Shems  eddin  Mohammed,  celebra- 
ted as  the  "  preacher  of  Damascus  "  (died  A. 
D.  1338).  Under  Mohammed  IL,  the  conquer- 
or of  Constantinople,  several  cyclopisdias  of 
large  compass  were  produced.  One  of  these 
was  a  learned  work  on  14  sciences,  by  an  Egyp- 
tian named  Dshelaleddin  Abderrahman  ben 
Ebibekr  Essoyuti  (died  A.  D.  1505),  parts  of' 
which  were  reduced  to  verse  by  several  scholars. 
A  great  cyclopaedia  in  the  Persian  language  is 
the  iTefais  olfoonoomfi  arais  il  ooyoon  (treasures 
of  knowledge  to  adorn  the  eyes),  which  era- 
braces  120  sciences.    It  is  in  2  parts;  the  1st 


CYCLOPISM 


CYCLOPS 


18{ 


treating  of  the  pro- Tsl  ami  tic  sciences  in  5  books, 
the  2(1  of  the  Lshimitic  sciences  in  9  books.  TIio 
Elfevaid  elkhakan^e  el-Ahmed  Tchanie  (useful 
results,  &c.),  by  Mohammed  Emin  ben  Sadr 
esh-Sliirvani,  k  a  famous  cyclopedia,  prepared 
for  tlie  sultan  Ahmet  I.  It  treats  of  53  scien- 
ces in  5  parts,  which,  like  the  parts  of  an  army, 
are  entitled :  the  van  (sciences  and  their  order), 
the  riglit  wing  (pliilological  sciences),  the  left 
wing  (philosopliical  sciences),  the  rear  (the  eth- 
ics of  monarclis),  and  the  centre  (the  sciences 
of  law).  The  Chinese  and  Japanese  also  have 
great  cyclopajdias.  Almost  the  whole  contem- 
porary learning  is  contained  in  the  Ku-kin-sse' 
icen-lui-tsiu  (ancient-modern  4  collections),  by 
Chu-ho-fu  (1246).  Similar  Chinese  works  in  the 
l7th  century  attained  to  immense  magnitude. 
The  San-tsai-tu,  in  130  vols.,  treating  of  the  3 
great  powers,  heaven,  earth,  and  man,  was  pub- 
lished in  Japanese  near  the  beginning  of  the 
jiresent  century,  and  there  is  a  copy  of  it,  both 
in  Japanese  and  Chinese,  in  the  royal  library 
of  Paris. 

CYCLOPISM  (Gr.  kvkXos,  a  circle,  and  cor/^, 
eye),  a  form  of  monstrosity,  in  Avhich  a  single 
eye  is  developed  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead. 
Such  monsters  belong  to  the  family  of  cycloce- 
phalians  of  Isidore  Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire,  in  which, 
with  a  more  or  less  complete  atrophy  of  the  nasal 
apparatus,  the  organs  of  vision  are  imperfectly 
formed,  with  a  tendency  to  approach  the  median 
line,  and  sometimes  with  a  complete  fusion  of 
the  two ;  the  jaws  also  present  more  or  less 
deformity,  but  the  ears  are  generally  normal. 
These  monsters  have  attracted  special  attention 
from  their  resemblance  to  the  fabulous  Cyclops, 
particularly  Polyphemus,  rendered  celebrated 
by  the  verses  of  Homer,  Virgil,  and  Ovid ;  no 
doubt,  these  poetic  creations  were  founded  on 
actual  observation  of  some  of  these  not  uncom- 
mon deformities.  Some  of  the  divisions  of  this 
family  have  two  eyes,  placed  either  in  a  single 
or  a  double  orbit ;  in  the  latter  case  the  nose  is 
atrophied,  with  or  without  a  kind  of  trunk 
above  the  eyes ;  these  cannot  strictly  be  called 
cases  of  cyclopism,  though  belonging  to  the 
same  order  of  deformities,  and  are  comparatively 
rare.  The  most  common  form  is  the  rhinoce- 
pTialus,  in  which  the  nose  is  atrophied,  being 
represented  only  by  a  proboscis  on  the  lower 
l)art  of  the  forehead,  and  the  eyes  either  close 
together  or  fused  into  one  in  a  single  orbit; 
in  extreme  cases  there  is  only  a  single  cavity 
without  eyes.  The  single  eye  of  the  true  Cy- 
clops is  in  the  median  line  of  the  forehead,  sym- 
metrical, with  a  central  pupil  and  an  upper  lid ; 
it  is  generally  larger  than  a  common  eye,  and 
more  elliptical  in  shape,  with  a  single  cornea 
and  lens ;  this  modification  may  be  traced  in 
the  series  of  such  anomalies  from  two  contigu- 
ous eyes  to  a  single  apparently  normal  organ. 
The  artistic  representations  of  Polyphemus  have 
always  been  erroneous,  in  that  they  have  made 
his  single  eye  either  a  right  or  a  left  one ;  every 
organ  on  the  median  line  must  be  symmetrical, 
but  neither  a  right  nor  a  left  eye  is  so ;   the 


Cyclopean  eye,  however,  is  symmetrical,  and 
formed  by  the  union  of  parts  corresponding  to 
two  eyes,  the  outer  or  the  inner  halves,  either 
of  which  would  make  a  symmetrical  organ. 
The  accessory  organs,  as  the  lids,  the  lachrymal 
apparatus,  vessels,  nerves,  and  muscles,  are 
double  or  single  according  to  the  condition  of 
the  globe  of  the  eye;  the  bones  forming  the 
orbit  are  modified  in  a  similar  manner,  the  fron- 
tal being  narrowed,  the  orbital  processes  of  tho 
upper  maxillary  joined  together  and  very  small, 
and  the  malar  bones  almost  meeting  on  the  me- 
dian line ;  according  to  Meckel  and  (leofTroy  St. 
Hilaire,  the  anterior  portions  of  the  cerebral 
hemispheres  are  united,  with  a  fusion  of  the  lat- 
eral ventricles,  diminution  of  the  corpus  callo- 
sum,  a  less  number  of  convolutions,  small  size  of 
the  entire  organ,  and  increase  of  serous  fluid.  Of 
course  the  eyes  could  not  come  together  with- 
out atrophy  of  the  nose,  which  is  displaced  up- 
ward, forming  the  proboscis  seen  in  such  cases 
on  the  forehead ;  and  all  the  component  parts 
of  this  organ  show  the  same  tendency  to  fusion 
on  the  median  line;  the  same  condition  of  par- 
tial fusion  is  found  in  the  upper  and  in  the  lower 
jaw,  the  intermaxillary  often  disappearing,  or 
a  median  incisor  representing  the  union  of  two 
teeth.  This  form  of  monstrosity  occurs  in  man, 
the  dog,  cat,  rabbit,  calf,  sheep,  horse,  and  birds, 
but  especially  in  the  pig,  which  furnishes  more 
than  half  of  the  cases  of  this,  as  of  most  other 
anomalous  conditions.  In  the  true  cyclocephalus 
the  proboscis  is  wanting,  indicating  a  still  greater 
degree  of  monstrosity  ;  the  genus  stomocephalus 
differs  from  rhinocephalus  \n  the  deformity  of 
the  lower  jaw  or  the  entire  absence  of  the  oifcn- 
ing  of  the  mouth ;  these  two  forms  are  com- 
paratively rare.  Certain  very  small  crustace- 
ans have  the  eyes  quite  close  together,  and  even 
confounded  in  a  single  mass,  and  are  hence 
called  Cyclops.  These  monsters,  both  human 
and  animal,  are  generally  born  living  and  in 
good  condition,  and  are  most  frequently  fe- 
males ;  they  perish  soon,  probably  from  the  in- 
ability of  their  imperfectly  developed  brain  to 
answer  the  requirements  of  extra-uterine  life. 
Many  authors  explain  this  form  of  monstrosity 
by  an  arrest  of  development,  maintaining  that 
every  eye  is  cy-clopean  at  a  certain  stage  of 
growth,  being  developed  from  a  central  cerebral 
vesicle  ;  but,  from  the  fact  of  similar  conditions 
occurring  in  the  ears,  the  teeth,  the  legs,  the 
arms,  all  of  which  may  exist  singly  and  sym- 
metrical on  the  median  line,  Prof.  J.  Wyman 
("  Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural 
History,"  vol.  vi,  p.  380)  is  of  opinion  that  a 
single  vesicle  is  primarily  formed  on  the  median 
line  in  such  cases,  instead  of  one  on  each  side  sa 
in  the  normal  state. — See  Histoire  des  anomalies 
de  V organisation,  by  Isidore  Geoftroy  St.  Hi- 
laire, vol.  ii.  pp.  375-420. 

CYCLOPS  (Gr.  KVKku>\\r  ;  /cv/cXor,  a  circle,  and 
a)\//,  an  eye),  in  tlie  Grecian  mythology,  a  race  of 
giants,  with  but  one  circular  eye  in  the  middle 
of  the  forehead,  of  whom  there  are  various  tra- 
ditions.    Those  of  the  Odyssey  are  a  gross  race 


186 


CYDNUS 


CYNUEIA 


of  cannibal  shcplicrds  in  Sicily,  whoso  chief 
is  Polyphemus.  The  Cyclops  of  Ilesiod  are 
Bons  of  Uranus  and  Goea,  3  in  number,  called 
Brontes,  Steropes,  and  Arges,  -vvho  -were  hurled 
into  Tartarus  by  their  father,  released  and  re- 
imprisoned  by  Saturn,  and  finally  freed  by  Ju- 
piter. For  tlie  latter,  they  made  the  thunder- 
bolts, his  invincible  artillery ;  for  Pluto,  his 
helmet;  for  Neptune,  his  trident.  They 'were 
killed  by  Apollo,  in  revenge  for  tlie  death  of  his 
son  yEsculapius,  "who  was  destroyed  by  Jupiter 
with  the  thunderbolts  they  had  furnished  him. 
A  later  tradition  makes  them  the  assistants^lf 
Vulcan,  forging  metallic  armor  and  oruaments 
for  gods  and  heroes  in  the  volcanoes  of  Lemnos 
and  Lipari,  and  under  Mt.  Etna.  According  to 
K.  O.  Mtiller,  the  Cyclops  of  Hesiod  denote  the 
transient  disturbances  of  the  order  of  nature  by 
storms ;  Grote  finds  this  opinion  unsupported 
by  the  "Theogony"  of  the  poet. — The  name  of 
Cyclopean  walls  has  been  given  to  those  unce- 
mented  walls  of  unhewn  stones,  of  wliich  re- 
mains abound  in  several  regions  of  Greece,  and 
in  Etruria,  and  which  were  probably  erected 
by  Pelasgians.  Their  huge  size  and  uncouth 
form  were  the  reason  of  their  being  attributed 
to  the  fabulous  giants. — In  English  the  word 
Cyclops  is  both  singular  and  plural. 

CY DNUS,  a  river  of  Cilicia,  rising  in  the  Tau- 
rus, and  flowing  through  Tarsus  into  the  Medi- 
terranean sea  a  little  below  that  city,  was  cele- 
brated for  the  clearness  and  coldness  of  its 
waters,  which  in  the  opinion  of  the  ancient 
physicians  possessed  medicinal  virtues.  The 
mouth  of  the  Cydnus  is  now  choked  with  sand 
and  other  alluvial  deposits. 

CYDONIA,  an  ancient  city  of  Crete,  rival 
and  enemy  of  Cnossus  and  Gortyna,  stood  on 
the  N.  W.  coast  of  the  island,  and  derived  its 
name  from  the  Cydones,  an  aboriginal  race  who 
founded  it.  Afterward  a  colony  of  Zacynthians 
settled  there.  Next  came  the  Samians  in  the 
6th  century,  and  ultimatel}^  appeared  the  iEgi- 
netans,  who  seized  on  the  city.  It  was  famous 
for  quinces. 

CYGNUS,  a  northern  constellation,  made 
memorable  by  containing  the  first  star  whose 
distance  from  the  sun  was  appi'oximately  de- 
termined. 

CYLINDER,  a  solid  figure  enclosed  by  paral- 
lel straight  lines  passing  through  every  ])oint  of 
a  curve.  If  the  curve  be  a  circle,  and  the  lines 
at  right  angles  to  it,  the  cylinder  is  called  a 
right  cylinder. 

CYMA,  or  Ctmaticm  (Gr.  Kv/xa,  a  wave),  in 
architecture,  the  name  of  a  moulding  of  a  wave- 
like form,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds,  the 
cyma  recta,  hollow  in  its  upper  part  and  swell- 
ing below,  and  the  cyma  reversa,  which  swells 
above  and  is  hollow  below. 

CYMBALS  (Gr.  Kv^liaXov,  from  «v/i/3of,  hol- 
low), brass  musical  instruments  of  percussion, 
consisting  of  2  liollowed  plates,  circular  in  shape, 
and  from  6  to  8  inches  in  diameter,  which  are 
attached  to  the  hands  by  leatlier  bands,  and 
played  by  being  struck  together.     The  instru- 


ment is  of  great  antiquity,  having  been  used  in 
the  worship  of  Cybele,  Bacchus,  Juno,  and  all 
the  earlier  deities  of  tlie  Grecian  and  Roman 
mythology,  and  probably  by  the  Jews  and  most 
of  the  eastern  nations.  It  was  usually  made  in 
the  form  of  2  half  globes. 

CYME,  the.  largest  of  the  iEolian  cities  of 
Asia  Minor,  with  a  good  harbor.  It  was 
founded  by  Locrians,  and  was  the  mother  city 
of  Cumaj  in  Campania. 

CYN^GIRUS,  an  Athenian  warrior,  who 
greatly  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Ma- 
rathon, 490  B.  C.  He  was  the  son  of  Eu{)horion, 
and  brother  of  the  poet  ^schylus.  When  the 
vanquished  Persians  were  endeavoring  to  escape 
from  the  fatal  field  to  tlieir  ships,  he  seized  one 
of  their  triremes  with  his  right  hand,  and  when 
that  was  severed  he  grasped  the  vessel  with  his 
left;  and  when  the  left  too  was  gone,  he  held  on 
to  the  hostile  galley  with  his  teeth. 

CYNICS,  a  school  of  Greek  philosophers, 
founded  by  Antisthenes,  a  pupil  of  Socrates,  in 
Athens,  in  the  gymnasium  Cynosarges,  about 
S80  B.  C.  The  most  renowned  among  them 
Avere  Diogenes,  Crates  of  Thebes,  his  wife  Hip- 
parchia,  and  Menippus.  They  taught  that  all 
speculative  philosophy  led  to  no  real  knowledge 
of  truth,  but  only  to  sophistry  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  virtue  and  human  society,  and  that  the 
only  task  of  philosophy  was  to  show  how  men 
might  best  live  morally  and  peaceably.  In  this 
they  harmonized  with  the  Stoics,  but  they  dif- 
fered from  them  in  defining  virtue  to  be  the 
highest  possible  simplicity  in  living,  and  inde- 
pendence of  external  or  sensual  goods,  and  in 
carrying  this  so  far  that  they  despised  decency, 
cleanliness,  civilization,  and  labor.  Hence  their 
name  became  a  by-word,  and  was  sneeringly 
derived  from  kvoov  (dog) ;  they  were  called  a 
doggish  set,  and  the  name  Cynic  is  still  applied 
to  men  who  disregard  the  proprieties  of  life  un- 
der the  pretence  of  independence  of  character. 

CYNOSCEPIIALiE  (Gr.  kv(ov,  a  dog,  Ktcpa- 
Xnt,  heads),  the  name  of  a  range  of  mountains  in 
Thessaly,  famous  in  history  for  two  battles  which 
were  fought  on  it.  The  first  was  in  364  B.  C, 
when  the  Thebans,  though  victorious  over  the 
Pherajans,  lost  their  general  Pelopidas.  The 
other  was  in  197  B.  C,  when  the  Roman  consul 
Flaminius  defeated  and  took  prisoner  Philip  II., 
king  of  Macedon. 

CYNOSURE  (Gr.  Kvav,  a  dog,  ovpa,  a  tail),  the 
name  formerly  given  to  the  constellation  Ursa 
Minor.  This  constellation  contains  the  pole  star, 
and  was  on  this  account  an  object  of  much  at- 
tention to  mariners  and  travellers. 

CYNURIA,  in  ancient  times,  a  district  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  inhabited  by  a  rude  tribe  of 
lonians.  They  were  a  plundering  race,  and 
when  attacked  would  retire  to  their  mountain 
fastnesses.  They  Avere,  however,  subdued  by 
the  Argives  at  an  early  period,  and  about  the 
middle  of  the  6th  century  B.  C.  their  country- 
passed  into  the  possession  of  Sparta.  The  city  of 
Thyrea  (now  Astro),  with  the  country  around, 
formed  part  of  this  ancient  district. 


CYPR^A 


CYPRESS 


187 


OYPRiEA,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  marine 
iihells  of  the  class  gasteropoda.  The  shells  are 
of  oval  or  oblong  form,  more  or  less  rounded 
or  cylindrical,  with  a  small  and  imbedded  spire. 
The  longitudinal  aperture  is  nearly  straight,  and 
toothed  or  plaited  on  each  side,  witli  a  cliannel 
or  groove  at  each  end.  The  genus  is  remark- 
able for  the  differences  between  the  shells  of  the 
young  and  adult  individuals,  the  outer  lip  in  the 
early  stages  of  growth  being  thin  and  the  aper- 
ture wide.  By  the  gradual  inflection  and  thick- 
ening of  this  lip  the  aperture  becomes  narrower, 
and  tiie  sliell  assumes  the  nearly  symmetrical 
form  of  tUe  adult  individual.  About  150  living 
species  are  known,  and  V8  fossil.  The  genus  first 
appeared  in  the  chalk  formation.     (See  Coavi:y.) 

CYPRESS  (citpressuSj  Linn.),  the  name  of  a 
tree  remarkable  for  the  durability  of  its  timber, 
and  belonging  to  the  couifera);  distinct  from 
the  pines  and  firs,  by  its  leaves  being  reduced 
to  mere  scales,  and  by  its  cones  consisting  of  a 
(qw  woody  bracts,  each  of  which  bears  several 
small  angular  seeds.  The  common  evergreen 
or  upright  cypress  (0.  semjiei-vireiis,  Willd.)  is  a 
tapering,  cone-like  tree,  with  upright  branches 
growing  close  to  the  trunk,  resembling  in  gen- 
eral appearance  the  Lombardy  poplar,  and  at- 
taining in  its  native  condition  an  altitude  of 
50  or  60  feet,  though  sometimes  it  is  found 
nmch  higlier.  According  to  Duhamel,  a  sub- 
stance resembling  gum  tragacanth  exudes  in 
small  particles  from  the  bark  of  the  young  trees, 
and  is  collected  by  the  bees  for  some  purpose 
in  constructing  their  combs.  It  is  this  species 
which,  found  wild  in  the  islands  of  the  archi- 
pelago, particularly  Candia,  and  in  Cyprus, 
Greece,  Turkey,  Persia,  and  Asia  Minor,  has 
been  for  a  long  time  transferred  to  gardens  for 
the  sake  of  its  deep  evergreen  branches  and 
leaves,  and  for  the  gloomy  air  it  imparts  to  the 
localities  which  it  occupies.  Among  the  Turks 
it  is  nauch  esteemed  for  planting  in  cemeteries, 
and  is  used  to  such  extent  that  these  grounds 
resemble  forests  of  cypresses.  It  is  the  kind 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  and  was  famous 
among  the  ancients.  Instances  are  related  of 
doors  and  posts  made  of  its  wood,  which  had 
lasted  1,100  years.  The  odor  of  the  cypress 
was  considered  so  balsamic,  that  tlie  eastern 
physicians  used  to  send  their  patients  troubled 
with  lung  complaints,  to  the  isle  of  Crete  for 
a  residence.  The  most  renowned  cypress  tree 
is  that  of  Somma,  in  Lombardy,  said  to  have 
been  planted  the  year  of  the  birth  of  Jesus 
Christ,  but  records  in  existence  declare  it  to 
have  been  a  considerable  tree  42  years  B.  C. 
When  measured  a  few  years  ago,  it  was  found 
to  be  121  feet  high,  and  23  feet  ia  circumfer- 
ence one  foot  from  the  ground.  Some  cy- 
press trees  planted  by  Michel  Angelo  in  the 
garden  of  the  Carthusian  convent,  situated  on 
the  site  of  the  baths  of  Diocletian  at  Rome,  are 
regarded  with  interest.  The  largest  of  these, 
when  visited  by  M.  Siraond  in  1817,  measured 
about  13  feet  in  circumference.  There  are  also 
Eome  fine  specimens  in  France  and  in  England, 


of  great  size  and  considerable  age.  liny  garden 
soil  suits  the  cyin-ess,  but  a  deep  and  rather  dry 
and  sheltered  soil  suits  it  best.  It  can  be  raised 
from  the  seeds,  sown  in  shallow  pans,  and  the 
young  plants  on  reaching  3  or  4  inches  in  height 
need  to  be  potted  oil'  and  kept  for  a  few  years 
witli  some  care  to  render  them  fit  for  trans- 
planting into  open  grounds.  Cuttings  taken 
from  the  younger  branches,  if  planted  during 
the  autumn,  will  grow  and  succeed.  Little 
training  is  necessaiy,  on  account  of  its  nat- 
ural tendency  to  grow  upright.  Wo  are  not 
j^jkre  of  the  cultivation  of  the  cypress  in  this 
country,  but  it  would  doubtless  succeed  in  any 
latitude  similar  to  that  of  England,  or  warmer. 
The  C.  horizuntalis  (Duhamel)  has  spreading 
branches,  which,  when  loaded,  as  they  usually 
are,  with  large  round  cones,  render  the  tree  a 
beautiful  object.  It  is  considered  to  be  only  a 
fine  variety  of  the  common  cypress.  The  Por- 
tuguese cypress  (C.  Lusitanlca^  Tournefort),  a 
native  of  Goa,  in  the  East  Indies,  has  fiexu- 
ous,  spreading  branches,  and  imbricated,  acute, 
keeled,  glaucous,  adpressed  leaves  in  4  rows. 
It  has  been  long  naturalized  in  Portugal,  where 
it  acquires  a  large  size.  The  weeping  cypress 
{^G . pendula^  Thunborg)  is  a  native  of  China; 
it  has  a  large,  expanded  head,  and  dichoto- 
mous  branches,  which  are  much  divided ;  its 
leaves  are  imbricated  in  4  rows,  are  rather 
stem-clasping  and  triquetrous,  keeled,  and  ad- 
pressed. According  to  Loudon,  some  uncer- 
tainty is  attached  to  this  species.  Mention  is 
made  of  it  in  Lambert's  "  Pines,"  and  in  Staun- 
ton's "Embassy,"  and  it  is  \X\Qfimoro of  Kiimp- 
fer.  In  the  United  States,  the  cypress  is  repre- 
sented in  the  white  cedar.  (See  Cedar.) — ^The 
deciduous  cypress  {taxodium  dhtichu'n\  Rich- 
ard.) is  a  stately  tree  of  the  pine  family,  much 
admired  for  its  foliage  of  a  most  delicate  light 
green,  which  falls  in  the  autumn  after  turning  to 
a  bright  tawny  color.  Its  leaves  are  linear  and 
spreading,  awl-shaped,  and  imbricated  on  the 
branches  which  produce  the  flowers  ;  its  seed 
vessels  or  strobiles  are  small,  subglobose,  and 
formecl  of  angular  woody  scales.  This  lofty 
tree  is  a  native  of  the  middle  and  southern 
states  of  North  America,  extending  from  Dela- 
Avare  to  the  extreme  south.  Its  trunk  is  very 
thick,  often  fi-om  25  to  40  feet  in  circumference 
at  the  base,  and  attaining  to  120  feet  in  height. 
The  branchlets  are  very  slender,  elegantly  pin- 
nate ;  the  leaves  pectinate  and  distichous,  spread- 
ing horizontally  from  being  twisted  at  the  base, 
linear,  mucronulate,  flat,  one-nerved,  glabrous 
on  both  sides,  liglit  green,  margins  acute,  exte- 
rior somewhat  convex,  \  an  inch  or  more  in 
length,  and  about  a  line  broad.  The  tree,  as  it 
grows  old,  according  to  Michaux,  has  a  spread- 
ing, broad  head.  It  assumes,  however,  a  great 
variety  of  forms,  when  raised  artificially  from 
the  seeds.  Loudon,  in  bis  Arljoretum  Britan- 
nicum,  enumerates  4  principal  forms,  viz.  :  1, 
the  species  having  the  branches  horizontal,  or 
somewhat  inclined  upward ;  2,  Avith  the  branch- 
es pendulous  ;  3,  with  the  branches  horizontal, 


188 


CYPRIAN 


and  tho  young  shoots  of  the  year  pendulous, 
the  leaves  being  twisted  and  compressed  round 
them  in  tho  early  part  of  £lio  season,  but  fully 
expanded,  like  those  of  the  species,  toward  tho 
autumn ;  4,  with  the  leaves  on  the  young  shoots 
Tortuous,  and  the  branches  pendulous.  It  is 
in  tho  southern  states,  particularly  in  Florida, 
that  the  deciduous  cypress  attains  its  largest 
size,  when  it  grows  on  the  deep,  miry  soil  of  tho 
swamps.  The  base  of  its  trunk  is  usually  hol- 
low for  f  of  its  bulk,  and  its  surface  is  longitu- 
dinally furrowed  witli  deep  tortuous  channels. 
The  roots  of  the  large  trees,  particularly  in  sit- 
luitions  exposed  to  inundations,  have  strange- 
looking  conical  protuberances,  called  cypress 
knees,  which  rise  above  the  soil,  about  2  feet  in 
height,  and  sometimes  from  4  to  5  feet  in  thick- 
ness ;  these  are  hollow,  smooth  on  the  surface, 
and  covered  with  a  reddish  bark  like  the  roots, 
which  they  resemble  also  in  the  softness  of  the 
Afood.  The  wood  of  the  trunk  is  esteemed  for 
timber,  and  is  apitlied  to  various  uses.  Under 
cultivation  at  the  north,  this  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  ornamental  of  trees.  One  in  the 
Bartram  garden,  says  Dr.  Darlington  in  his  Flora 
Cestrica,  is  the  noblest  specimen  in  Pennsylva- 
nia, and  was  planted  by  its  venerable  founder 
more  than  a  century  ago.  Some  good  speci- 
mens are  also  to  be  seen  in  the  gardens  of  Salem, 
Mass.,  which  seem  to  tlirive,  and  prove  them- 
selves capable  of  resisting  tlie  climate  of  tho 
north.  In  one  instance,  the  curious  knobs  from 
the  root  above  described  have  begun  to  appear 
above  the  soil. 

CYPRIAN,  TnAscitrs  C^cilius,  a  saint, 
bishop,  and  martyr  of  the  early  church,  born  at 
Carthage  about  the  beginning  of  the  3d  century, 
died  Sept.  14,  258.  His  parentage  was  noble, 
his  father  being  one  of  the  senators  of  Carthage, 
and  we  infer  from  his  letters  that  he  was  care- 
fully trained,  and  that  his  morals  and  acquire- 
ments were  those  of  most  heathen  youths 
in  his  station.  His  authentic  history  begins 
with  the  year  246,  when  he  was  baptized.  At 
this  time  he  was  a  man  of  mature  years,  of 
great  popularity,  of  large  fortune,  lived  in 
splendid  style,  and  when  he  walked  in  the 
streets  was  followed  by  a  crowd  of  admiring 
clients.  His  profession  seems  to  have  been  that 
of  a  teacher  of  law.  The  immediate  instrument 
of  Cyprian's  conversion  was  an  old  priest  of 
Carthage,  by  name  Caecilius.  Against  the  re- 
monstrances of  his  pagan  friends,  who  could 
not  understand  how  a  wise  man  should  be  be- 
guiled by  those  foolish  Christian  fables,  he  open- 
ly declared  his  renunciation  of  idolatry,  sold 
his  gods  and  gave  the  price  to  the  poor,  went 
into  retirement,  and  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  Fathers.  The 
first  fruit  of  his  conversion  was  his  letter  to 
Donatus,  on  the  "  Contempt  of  the  World,"  in 
which  he  somewhat  turgidly  contrasts  the 
pleasures  of  sense  and  of  indulgence  with  the 
pleasures  of  inward  musing  and  the  joy  of  spirit- 
ual renewal,  and  describes  in  exuberant  rheto- 
ric the  eifoct  of  regeneration.     This  letter  was 


speedily  followed  by  a  treatise  on  the  "Vanity 
of  Idols,"  in  which  the  crimes  of  the  heathen 
gods  are  exposed  and  their  demonic  rather  than 
divine  nature  illustrated.  These  books,  added 
to  the  high  social  position  of  their  author,  led 
to  his  ordination  as  priest ;  and  hardly  had  this 
occurred,  when  on  the  death  of  the  bishop,  Dona- 
tus, he  was  chosen  by  the  prompt  and  enthusi- 
astic voices  of  the  Christians  of  Carthage,  and 
the  neighboring  bishops,  to  the  vacant  episco- 
pal chair.  Five  priests  only  dissented  from  the 
choice,  objecting  that  he  had  not  fulfilled  a  suf- 
ficient novitiate  to  test  his  fidelity.  According 
to  Pontius,  his  biographer,  he  submitted  with 
great  reluctance  to  this  choice,  and  attempted 
to  escape  by  a  window,  when  they  besieged  his 
house,  pressing  his  acceptance.  The  first  years 
of  his  episcopal  life,  though  not  free  from  an- 
noyances caused  by  the  discontented  priests, 
whom  all  his  attentions  could  not  quite  pacify, 
were  yet  comparatively  quiet.  Affairs  of  disci- 
pline called  for  his  decision,  and  he  was  ready 
for  every  call.  A  priest  had  been  appointed 
by  one  of  his  friends,  contrary  to  the  canon  of 
the  church,  to  be  executor  of  his  will  and  guar- 
dian of  his  children ;  Cyprian  not  only  deprived 
of  his  office  this  offending  priest,  who  had  dared 
thus  to  join  secular  to  spiritual  duty,  but  visited 
with  .posthumous  excommunication  the  man 
who  had  made  such  a  will.  A  converted  actor 
continued  to  teach  his  art,  pleading  that  his 
livelihood  depended  upon  it ;  the  bishop  would 
not  allow  that  a  man  might  teach  others  what 
it  was  unlawful  for  himself  to  continue,  and  re- 
fused him  the  communion.  An  aged  bishop 
complained  that  his  deacons  insulted  him,  and 
Cyprian  must  write  and  tell  him  how  to  treat 
them.  The  dress  and  bearing  of  virgins,  which 
so  much  exercised  Tertullian's  mind,  called  for 
a  new  word  from  his  admirer,  and  in  his  trea- 
tise on  the  "  Habit "  of  this  class,  Cyprian  in- 
veighs against  show  and  immodesty  with  hardly 
less  severity  than  the  ascetic  Montanist.  He 
magnified  his  office  also  by  assuming  a  general 
supervision  in  the  surrounding  churches,  and 
sustained  by  his  care  of  ecclesiastical  affairs 
throughout  the  province  the  recognized  rank  of 
a  Carthaginian  primate.  In  the  year  250  the 
Decian  persecution  broke  out,  and  raged  at 
Carthage  with  especial  fury.  From  motives  of 
prudence,  Cyprian  preferred  to  withdraw  to  k 
place  of  safety,  rather  than  expose  himself  to 
the  hatred  which  was  peculiarly  bitter  against 
him.  Some  seemed  to  see  cowardice  in  this 
course,  and  it  was  made  a  reproach  by  his  ene- 
mies ;  but  his  subsequent  conduct  in  time  of 
pestilence,  and  in  the  persecution  of  Valerian, 
proved  that  he  was  not  afraid  to  meet  the 
gravest  dangers.  From  his  retirement  he  still 
continued  to  direct  the  aflairs  of  the  church,  to 
restrain  abuses,  to  encourage  the  timid,  and  to 
console  those  whose  friends  had  been  martyred. 
In  the  extremity  of  peril,  great  numbers  were 
driven  to  renounce  their  faith ;  others  hypo- 
critically pretended  to  adore  the  idols ;  and  still 
otliers  i)urchased  certificates  that  they  had  re- 


CYPRIAN 


189 


nounced  the  Christian  faitli,  and  so  saved  tliem- 
selves  from  arrest,  while  they  were  spared  tlie 
shame  of  a  puhlic  apostasy.  This  dass,  called 
lihellatici,  were  eager,  when  the  persecution 
subsided,  to  regain  their  places  as  true  believers; 
and  some  of  them,  in  token  of  their  fitness, 
brought  recommendations  which  they  had  pro- 
cured from  those  who  had  died  martyrs.  These 
lihellipaciss<i(i\i\Q(\.  to  release  their  holders  from 
the  necessity  of  ])reliminary  penance,  and  to 
atone  for  the  evasion  by  which  life  and  safety 
had  been  bought.  Cyprian  would  not  allow  this 
claim.  lie  required  as  full  an  atonement  from 
these  compromisers  as  from  other  apostates, 
nor  would  he  admit  the  authority  of  the  mar- 
tyrs in  such  a  case,  procured  as  it  was  by  im- 
proper soliciting.  He  not  only  rejected  these 
certificates,  but  he  rebuked  those  who  courted 
martyrdom  for  lending  themselves  to  such 
scliemes.  This  apparent  irreverence  and  harsh- 
ness aided  the  enemies  who  had  before  opposed 
him,  and  Novatus,  one  of  the  5  dissenting  priests, 
with  Felicissimus,  an  influential  demagogue,  or- 
ganized a  separate  church  in  the  neighborhood, 
to  which  they  admitted  the  apostates  without 
any  question.  Cyprian  declared  them  and  their 
party  schismatics,  and  exconnnunicated  them. 
But  Novatus  was  not  yet  ready  to  yield ;  he 
fled  to  Rome,  where  he  intrigued  against  the 
bishop  whom  he  hated,  and  also  organized  a 
party  against  the  new  Roman  bishop  Cornelius. 
Cyprian  became  by  his  pen  a  party  in  this  Ro- 
man controversy,  and  his  influence  tended  to  se- 
cure Cornelius  in  his  position,  and  to  defeat  the 
schemes  of  their  mutual  enemies.  The  contro- 
versy is  significant  in  Cyprian's  life,  as  it  pro- 
duced his  book  on  the  "  Unity  of  the  Church," 
in  which  he  develops  his  theory  concerning  dis- 
cipline and  penance,  schisms  and  heresies. 
The  work  is  characteristic  of  his  legal  mind 
and  his  firm  temper.  Cyprian  argues  that  it 
is  not  only  an  injury  to  tlie  church,  but  an  in- 
jury to  the  lapsi  themselves,  to  readmit  them 
without  due  penance.  The  persecution  of  De- 
cius  was  not  of  long  duration,  and  in  the  next 
year  (251)  Cyprian  quietly  returned  to  Carthage. 
His  first  care  was  to  summon  a  council  of  the 
neighboring  bishops  to  decide  upon  the  affair 
of  the  penitent  apostates,  and  to  condemn  the 
schism.  The  results  of  this  council,  which  cor- 
responded to  Cyprian's  wishes,  were  sent  to 
the  principal  churches  of  the  province,  and  to 
the  Roman  bishop.  The  condemnation  did  not 
at  once  silence  the  schismatics  ;  they  chose 
another  bishop,  Fortunatus  by  name,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  winning  from  Cornelius  a  partial  assent 
to  their  conduct,  and  a  remonstrance  against 
the  course  of  Cyprian.  Sharp  letters  passed 
between  Cornelius  and  his  friend,  in  which  Cy- 
prian stoutly  defends  his  episcopal  riglit,  insist- 
ing that  a  case  once  so  clearly  decided  needs  no 
revision,  that  it  is  enough  that  the  schismatics 
have  been  judged  guilty  by  their  peers.  A  sec- 
ond council  had  already  confirmed  what  the 
first  had  decided,  and  there  seemed  no  ground  for 
the  charge  that  the  action  of  the  orthodox  party 


had  been  hasty  or  arbitrary.  Under  the  lead 
of  Cyprian,  the  African  bishops  became  the  foes 
of  schism  abroad  as  much  as  of  schism  at  home. 
Scarcely  had  the  i)ersecution  subsided,  when  tlio 
plague,  Avhich  had  already  appeared  in  Africa, 
broke  out  with  renewed  violence.  In  one  of 
his  letters  Cyprian  gives  a  grajdiic  account  of  the 
symptoms  and  progress  of  this  distemper.  Hard- 
ly a  house  in  Carthage  Avas  left  by  it  unvisited. 
The  panic  was  almost  universal.  The  natural 
aftections  of  families  were  forgotten;  parents 
forsook  their  children,  and  men  tui'ned  their 
fainting  friends  into  the  streets  to  die.  Robbers 
took  advantage  of  the  distress  to  ply  their  trade, 
plundered  the  corpses  on  the  highways,  and 
ravaged  the  deserted  houses.  In  this  crisis  Cy- 
prian took  control.  From  house  to  house  he 
went  with  his  followers,  soliciting  alms  for  the 
destitute,  counselling  the  timid  to  stay  and  not 
flee,  and  gathering  all  who  would  dare  such  a 
service  to  tend  the  sick  and  bury  the  dead.  He 
made  no  distinctions,  but  forgetting  that  only 
a  few  months  before  the  pagans  of  Carthage  had 
cried,  "Cyprian  to  the  lions,"  distributed  his 
succor  impartially  to  heathen  and  Christian. 
In  this  self-devotion  he  was  joined  by  numbers 
of  his  brethren,  and  hundreds  of  Christian  lives 
were  lost  in  the  work  of  mercy.  But  the  pa- 
gans aflirmed  that  the  gods  liad  sent  that  chas- 
tisement to  punish  the  denial  of  their  worship 
by  these  blasphemers ;  the  crimes  of  the  Chris- 
tians were  the  cause  of  the  wide  disease.  And 
when  the  Christian  villages  of  Numidia  were 
ravaged  by  the  barbarians  from  the  mountains, 
no  Roman  forces  went  to  their  rescue ;  it  was 
reserved  for  the  bishop  to  rescue  them  by  the 
gifts  of  the  Christians.  Impoverished  as  tho 
faithful  of  Carthage  already  were  by  their  sa- 
crifices in  the  season  of  pestilence,  they  answer- 
ed promptly  to  Cyprian's  call,  and  he  could 
transmit  to  the  provinces,  as  ransom  for  their 
imprisoned  brethren,  100,000  sesterces,  a  sum 
amounting  to  near  $4,000  of  our  money.  This 
act  of  charity  only  gave  occasion  for  scandal  to 
the  pagans,  and  Cyprian  had  to  conduct  a  vexa- 
tious controversy  with  the  magistrate  Derae- 
trian,  in  which  he  maintained  that  the  disas^prs 
of  plague  and  battle  had  come  upon  them  in 
consequence,  not  of  the  Christian  faith,  but  of 
heathen  iniquities.  Questions  of  dispute  were 
constantly  presented  to  Cyprian,  and  repeated 
councils  were  called  by  him  to  settle  points  of 
discipline  and  faith.  But  the  most  serious  ques- 
tion, and  one  which  brought  him  into  conflict 
with  the  Roman  bishop,  was  that  of  rebaptizing 
heretics.  Cyprian,  in  this  matter,  favored  a  strict 
construction  of  the  canon,  and  holding  that  no 
baptism  except  that  of  the  church  was  valid, 
maintained  that  heretics  must  be  treated  as  if 
they  had  never  received  the  rite.  The  opposite 
party  maintained  that  the  conversion  of  heretics 
consecrated  the  original  rite,  even  if  it  were  not 
in  the  first  instance  canonically  administered,  and 
that  repetition  was  superfluous.  Cyprian's  opin- 
ion had  long  prevailed  in  the  church  at  Carthage, 
and  had  been  confirmed  by  a  synod  held  by  one 


190 


CYPRIAN 


CYPRUS 


of  his  proclecessors ;  but  to  satisfy  some  doubt- 
ers, be  sununonc'd  a  new  synod  of  32  bishops,  who 
ratified  tlie  existing  custom.  Their  verdict  and 
the  letters  of  Cyprian  not  quieting  the  object- 
ors, a  still  more  numerous  synod  of  87  bishops 
reiterated  the  sentence.  The  bishop  of  Rome, 
nevertheless,  did  not  admit  the  justice  of  their 
conclusion.  He  wrote  to  Cyprian  that  it  was 
of  no  moment  to  ask  who  administered  the  bap- 
tism, provided  that  it  was  received  in  good 
faith,  and  the  proper  form  was  observed.  He 
renounced  fellowsliip  with  Cyprian  unless  the 
church  of  Carthage  should  reconsider  its  opin- 
ion. Cyprian  summoned,  at  the  close  of  256,  a 
8d  synod,  in  which  were  deputies  from  Mauri- 
tania and  Numidia,  as  well  as  from  the  prov- 
ince of  Carthage,  and  procured  an  authoritative 
declaration  of  his  opinion  concerning  the  bap- 
tism of  heretics  as  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the 
church  of  Africa.  This  course  seemed  to  make 
that  church  heretical,  and  the  Roman  bishop  de- 
clined to  receive  the  African  messengers,  and  for- 
bade his  people  to  commune  with  them. — The 
martyrdom  of  Cyprian  is  one  of  the  most  touch- 
ing traditions  of  the  African  church.  For  a  few 
years  the  church  had  enjoyed  rest  from  pagan 
persecutions ;  but  in  the  year  257  an  edict  of 
Valerian  authorized  prefects  and  proconsuls  to 
bring  Christians  to  trial,  and  punish  them  if  they 
confessed  their  faith.  The  proconsul  of  Africa 
Avas  not  slow  to  use  this  permission.  Summoning 
Cyprian,  he  bade  him  renounce  his  false  wor- 
ship and  sacrifice  to  the  gods.  "I  am  a  Chris- 
tian and  a  bishop,"  said  Cyprian;  "I  know  no 
God  but  the  one  true  God,  who  created  heaven 
and  earth,  and  all  therein.  I  serve  him,  and 
all  Christians  serve  him,  and  pray  to  him  for 
the  emperor."  No  information  concerning  the 
residence  of  liis  priests  could  be  got  from  the 
sturdy  prelate.  Banished  for  his  contumacy  to 
Curubis,  a  small  city  on  the  sea-coast,  about  50 
miles  from  Carthage,  he  lived  for  nearly  a  year 
in  retirement,  visited  by  his  friends,  and  sup- 
I>lied  with  every  convenience.  His  time  was 
spent  in  sacred  studies,  and  in  writing  letters 
of  encouragement  to  his  afilicted  brethren.  Re- 
called by  the  successor  of  this  proconsul,  Cyprian 
assumed  the  active  duties  of  his  station ;  but  a 
new  edict,  more  severe,  led  to  a  second  arrest. 
Cyprian  had  been  just  before  notified  by  the 
bishop  of  Rome  of  the  impending  fate,  and  al- 
ready that  bishop  was  a  martyr.  The  procon- 
sul Maximus  sent  a  guard  to  conduct  him  to 
Utica,  where  the  court  was  at  that  time  sojourn- 
ing, but  the  bishop  preferred  to  suffer  among  his 
own  people,  and  secreted  himself  for  a  time  from 
the  guard.  When  the  proconsul  returned,  Cyprian 
walked  abroad  again,  and  was  ready  for  the  sol- 
diers when  they  came  to  take  him.  The  delay  of  a 
day  in  the  trial  caused  the  rumor  of  his  arrest  to 
be  spread  through  Carthage,  and  the  excitement 
and  grief  were  unbounded.  His  prison  was 
closely  guarded  by  night  for  fear  of  rescue,  and  on 
the  morrow  he  was  conducted  to  the  pra^torium. 
It  was  noticed  as  a  providential  chance  that  the 
seat  in  which  he  sat  was  covered  with  a  linen 


cloth,  as  if  to  symbolize  his  episcopal  dignity. 
A  few  edifying  words  passed  between  him  and 
the  i)rocnnsul,  the  expected  sentence  was  read, 
and,  as  a  ringleader  of  the  impious  sect  to  whom 
so  many  crimes  were  charged,  Thascius  Cyprian 
was  condemned  to  be  beheaded.  "  God  be 
thanked,"  said  the  martyr,  "who  delivereth  me 
at  last  from  the  chains  of  the  body."  The  place 
of  execution  was  an  open  sj)ace  at  a  little  dis- 
tance outside  the  city,  around  which  were  tall 
trees.  These  the  crowd  of  friends  who  had  fol- 
lowed him  from  the  court  climbed  that  they 
might  view  the  spectacle.  Many  cried  out  that 
they  wished  to  die  with  their  bishop.  Having 
reached  the  place,  Cyprian  folded  his  cloak, 
knelt  upon  it,  jjrayed,  took  oft'  his  remaining 
garments,  one  by  one,  till  only  a  linen  tunic 
was  left,  and  awaited  so  the  fatal  stroke.  In 
token  of  forgiveness  to  his  executioner,  he  or- 
dered 25  denarii  of  gold  (about  $30)  to  be  given 
him.  With  his  own  hand  he  bound  the  band- 
age around  his  eyes,  and  as  the  head  fell,  the 
crowd  caught  on  handkerchiefs  and  napkins  the 
drops  of  blood,  which  they  preserved  as  sacred 
relics.  His  body  was  interred  the  following  night 
in  the  Mappalian  way,  where  a  church  for  many 
ages  marked  the  spot  of  his  burial.  In  this 
church  the  high  festivals  of  the  city  were  cele- 
brated ;  and  the  first  care  of  the  general  Beli- 
sarius,  when,  3  centuries  later,  he  entered  Car- 
thage on  the  eve  of  St.  Cyprian,  as  a  deliverer 
from  the  Vandals,  was  to  restore  this  sacred 
edifice.  Another  church,  called  mensa  Cyi^riani^ 
Avas  built  upon  the  spot  of  his  martyrdom. 
The  date  of  his  death  was  Sept.  14,  258 ;  but 
since  the  5th  century  the  day  set  apart  for  his 
festival  has  been  Sept.  16.  After  the  Saracen 
conquest  of  Africa,  his  relics  were  transported 
to  Aries  in  France,  and  subsequently  they  were 
distributed  in  various  abbey  churches.  His  fes- 
tival is  kept  witli  much  ceremony  in  the  church 
of  St.  Maria  in  Trastevere  at  Rome,  where  they 
show  the  body  of  his  friend  St.  Cornelius. — 
Cyprian's  works  have  been  very  often  published 
and  edited  by  eminent  scholars,  almost  from  the 
invention  of  printing.  Fell's  Oxford  edition 
appeared  in  1682  ;  another  with  notes  of  Pear- 
son and  Dodwell  in  Holland  in  1700.  The 
standard  edition  is  that  of  Paris,  1726,  folio, 
with  the  notes  of  Baluze  and  the  life  of  the  saint 
by  D.  Mavan.  Cyprian's  works  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Marshall  (London,  1717). 
Of  biographies  there  are  those  of  Gervaise 
(1717,  4to.);  F.  W.  Rettberg  (Gottingen,  1831, 
8vo.);  Poole  (London,  1840,  8vo.);  F.  X.  Col- 
lombet  (Paris,  1843);  Buhringer  (Zurich, 
1842,  8vo.). 

CYPRUS  (Gr.  KuTrpo? ;  Turk.  Kelris\  a  Turk- 
ish island,  the  most  eastern  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, lying  at  nearly  equal  distances  from  the 
shores  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  extending  from 
Cape  Gatto,  lat.  34°  29'  18",  to  Cape  St.  Andrea, 
lat.  35°  41'  42" ;  length  about  148  m. ;  width  for 
100  m.  W.  to  E.  about  40  m.,  thence  to  the  K 
E.  extremity  about  15  m. ;  area  about  4,500  sq. 
m. ;  pop.,  which  under  the  Venetians  amounted 


CYPRUS 


CYRENiEA 


191 


to  1,000,000,  now  only  about  110,000,  of  whom 
about  70,000  are  Greeks,  and  the  rest  Turks,  Ma- 
ronites,  Armenians,  Roman  Catholics,  and  Jews. 
It  is  intersected  from  E.  to  W.  by  a  range  of 
mountains,  called  (^lympus  by  the  ancients, wJiose 
highest  peaks  exceed  7,000  feet.  The  natural 
productions  are  of  the  richest  character;  aro- 
matic herbs  of  all  kinds  grow  spontaneously. 
Cotton,  wine,  and  tobacco,  silk  and  fruit,  all  of 
fine  quality,  are  produced.  Several  dyewoods 
and  drugs  are  also  grown  on  the  island.  The 
minerals  are  numerous,  including  the  precious 
metals,  and  copper  and  many  precious  stones, 
but  the  mines  are  neglected.  The  wines  of 
Cyprus,  especially  tlujse  from  the  vineyard  called 
the  Commanderie,  from  having  belonged  to  the 
knights  of  Malt;^,  enjoyed  great  celebrity  in 
former  times,  and  the  production  exceeded 
2,000,000  gallons,  but  has  now  dwindled  down 
to  less  than  200,000  gallons.  There  are  5  qual- 
ities of  Cyprus  wines,  viz. :  2  black  and  red, 
common  wines  with  a  strong  taste  of  tar,  from 
being  kept  in  tarred  casks,  exported  to  Egypt,but 
never  to  Europe ;  2  excellent  ifuscat  and  ^^loro- 
caneller  wines,  and  the  Commanderie  referred 
to  above.  Larnica,  where  the  European  con- 
suls and  the  principal  merchants  of  various 
nations  reside,  and  Limasol,  are  the  chief  com- 
mercial emporiums  of  the  island.  Famagosta, 
90  famous  under  the  Venetians,  possesses  an  ex- 
cellent spacious  port,  which  is  sheltered  from 
all  winds,  and  which  could  easily  be  deepened, 
when  it  would  accommodate  hundreds  of  large 
ships ;  but  at  present  it  is  choked  up  with  filth 
to  such  a  degree,  that  it  can  onlj"  hold  about  a 
dozen  small  craft.  The  great  scourge  of  the 
island  is  locusts,  which  commit  great  ravages ; 
but  in  spite  of  this  evil,  and  of  the  abuses  in 
fixing  and  collecting  the  taxes,  the  prosperity 
of  Cyprus  is,  on  the  whole,  increasing.  Many 
of  the  oppressions  formerly  practised  upon  the 
peasants  liave  been  removed.  They  are  freely 
permitted  to  sell  their  produce,  and  agricul- 
tural employment  is  abundant.  The  wheat  and 
oats  grown  are  of  an  inferior  quality,  and  the 
annual  grain  crop  does  not  exceed  120,000 
quarters.  During  the  late  Russian  war,  the  de- 
mand for  and  high  prices  of  grain  led  the  peas- 
ants to  neglect  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  sesa- 
mum,  and  colocyntli,  but  they  have  since  resumed 
the  latter,  as  the  most  adapted  to  the  soil.  The 
cotton  crop  in  1857  amounted  to  about  11,000 
cwt.  The  olive  and  wool  crop  had  failed  in 
that  year,  the  latter  from  a  disease  among  the 
sheep.  Madder  root  forms  a  principal  produc- 
tion, the  greater  part  being  exported  to  France, 
and  the  rest  retained  for  home  consumption. 
The  abolition  in  1835  of  the  monopoly  on  ca- 
roulis  rapidly  increased  the  production  from 
4,000  cantars  in  that  year  to  40,000  in  1857,  6 
cargoes  being  for  the  first  time  exported  to 
England  in  the  latter  year.  British  and  Amer- 
ican manufactures  are  imported  from  Syria, 
Smyrna,  and  Constantinople  ;  hides,  coffee, 
sugar,  cloth,  fowling  pieces,  fine  powder,  small 
shot,  salt  fish,  and  Swedish  iron,  from  France; 


glass,  steel,  German  iron,  nails,  paper,  <fec., 
from  Trieste  and  other  Austrian  ports.  Total 
annual  imports  valued  at  about  $150,000;  ex- 
ports at  $350,000.  The  island  fonns  an  cyalet, 
and  is  governed  by  a  vali  or  viceroy,  and  12 
lieutenants  preside  over  the  12  districts  into 
which  it  is  divided.  Capital,  Nicosia  (or  Lef  ko- 
sha),  where  the  Greek  archbishop  and  the  pro- 
vincial authorities  reside. — The  island  of  Cy- 
prus occupies  a  distinguished  place  both  in 
sacred  and  profane  history.  It  early  belonged 
to  the  Phoenicians  of  the  neighboring  coast. 
It  was  afterward  colonized  by  Greeks,  who 
founded  there  several  independent  kingdoms, 
and  passed  successively  under  tlie  power  of  the 
Pharaohs,  Persians,  Ptolemies,  and  Romans,  ex- 
cepting a  short  period  of  independence  under 
Evagoras,  in  the  4th  century  B.  C.  It  was  one 
of  the  chief  seats  of  the  worship  of  Venus, 
hence  called  Cypria.  Salamis,  Citium  (whence 
the  biblical  name  of  the  island,  Ivittim),  Ama- 
thus,  Paphos,  Soli,  &c.,  were  the  most  remark- 
able ancient  cities.  At  the  time  of  the  crusades 
it  was  detached  from  the  Greek  empire,  and  made 
a  kingdom  for  Guy  of  Lusignan.  (It  is  in  con- 
sequence of  the  claim  made  by  the  house  of 
Savoy  to  the  heirship  of  the  Lusignan  family 
that  the  king  of  Sardinia  still  assumes  the  ti- 
tle of  king  of  Cyprus.)  From  his  descendants 
it  fell  to  the  Venetians,  and  in  1570-'71  was 
subdued  by  the  Turks  after  a  brave  defence.  In 
1832  it  was  occupied  by  the  viceroy  of  Egypt, 
but  retaken  in  1840  by  the  Turks,  under  whose 
rule  the  island  has  greatly  declined  from  the 
splendor  and  prosperity  which  gave  it  world- 
wide celebrity  while  held  by  the  Venetians. 

CYPSELUS,  son  of  ^Eetion,  a  tyrant  of  Cor- 
inth. His  mother  was  one  of  the  Bacchiadse,  but 
so  ill-favored  that  none  of  her  own  order  could 
be  induced  to  accept  her  in  marriage,  where- 
on she  wedded  ^^etion.  The  Delphian  py- 
thoness having  foretold  that  her  child  would 
prove  formidable  to  the  aristocratic  party,  the 
Bacchiadffl  attempted  to  murder  him  ;  but  his 
mother  concealed  him  in  a  chest  (Gr.  Kv-^fXt]) 
till  the  danger  had  blown  over.  Cypselus  be- 
came a  leader  of  tlie  democracy,  with  whose 
assistance  he  overthrew  the  power  of  the  oli- 
garchs, and  expelled  them  from  the  city  ;  but 
ultimately  he  became  the  oppressor  alike  of  no- 
bles and  people.  lie  reigned  at  Corinth  30 
years  (655-625  B.C.),  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Periander. 

CYREX^EA,  or  Ctrexaica,  an  ancient  coun- 
try of  Africa,  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  modern  Tri- 
poli, bounded  X.  by  the  Mediterranean,  E.  by 
Marmarica,  S.  by  the  desert  (of  Barca),  and  "W. 
by  the  Great  Sj^rtis,  now  gulf  of  Sidra,  in  its 
widest  limits  including  Marmarica  on  the  E., 
and  extending  to  the  Arte  Fhilenorum  on  the 
"W.,  and  thus  coi-responding  with  modern  Bar- 
ca. The  centre  of  tliis  country  is  a  moder- 
ately elevated  table-land,  gradually  and  in  ter- 
races sloping  down  to  tlie  hilly  coast  land, 
which,  from  its  position,  climate,  and  soil,  is  one 
ef  the  most  delightful  regions  of  the  earth.     It 


192- 


CYEENAICS 


CYRIL  j^OF  Alexaxdeia) 


abounds  in  excellent  fruits,  vegetables,  flowers, 
and  rare  plants,  of  which  the  silphium,  the 
laserpitium  of  the  Romans,  was  famous  in  an- 
tiquity both  as  food  and  for  its  medicinal  virtues. 
Cyrcnjiia  was  one  of  tlie  most  flourishing  colo- 
nies of  the  Greeks,  having  been  settled  by  Do- 
rians from  the  island  of  Thera,  the  southern- 
most of  the  C^'clades,  who,  under  the  influence 
of  the  climate,  soon  threw  off"  the  rigidity  of 
their  race,  though  continuing  in  friendship  with 
their  kindred  of  Crete,  and  became  a  luxurious 
people,  renowned  for  skill  in  chariot  driving 
and  games.  Battus,  the  leader  of  the  original 
colony,  founded  Cyrene,  the  chief  city,  G31  B.  C, 
and  a  royal  dynasty,  which  numbered  4  princes 
of  his  name,  including  himself,  and  4  of  the 
name  of  Arcesilaus.  The  comparative  inde- 
pendence of  Barca,  one  of  the  early  colonies  of 
Cyrene,  and  the  invasion  of  the  Persians  under 
Cambyses,  weakened  the  last  Battiads ;  a  repub- 
lican form  of  government  was  established,  but 
internal  dissensions  soon  led  to  the  restoration 
of  tyranny.  When  Alexander  the  Great  invad- 
ed Egypt,  the  Cyrenseans  were  his  allies.  After 
his  death  the  lirst  of  the  Ptolemies  annexed 
their  country  to  Egypt,  and  his  successors  pos- 
sessed it  till  95  B.  C,  when  Apion,  the  last 
governor,  an  illegitimate  son  of  Ptolemy  Phys- 
con,  made  it  over  to  the  Romans.  Under  the 
Ptolemies  the  country  was  also  known  by 
the  name  of  Pentapolis,  being  so  called  from 
the  5  principal  cities :  Cyrene ;  ApoUonia,  the 
port  town  of  the  preceding ;  Ptolemais  (perhaps 
identical  with  Barca),  now  Tolmeta;  Arsinoe, 
more  anciently  Teuchira,  now  Taukra ;  and 
Berenice,  more  anciently  Hesperides,  now  Ben- 
ghazi, at  the  mouth  of  the  Lathon.  The  Romans, 
who  iirst  proclaimed  the  freedom  of  the  coun- 
try, soon  annexed  it  as  a  province,  together  with 
Crete,  under  the  name  of  Cyrenaica.  Under 
Constantine  the  Great  it  became  a  separate  prov- 
ince, and  was  called  Upper  Libya.  The  bloody 
struggles  with  the  revolted  Jewish  inhabitants 
under  Trajan,  repeated  incursions  of  the  noma- 
dic tribes  of  the  interior,  earthquakes  and  lo- 
custs, gradually  destroyed  the  wealth  of  the 
province  ;  its  invasion  by  the  Persians,  and 
soon  after  by  the  Saracens,  in  the  Vth  century, 
comjileted  its  ruin.  Cyrenaica  was  the  chief 
seat  of  the  disciples  of  Aristippus,  and  in  a 
later  period  of  the  African  Gnostics.  The 
whole  region  abounds  in  curious  remnants  of 
antiquity,  which  have  attracted  the  attention 
and  scrutiny  of  modern  travellers  and  critics. — 
Compare  Delia  Cella,  Viaggio  da  Tripoli  alle 
frontier i  occidental iclelV  Egitto  (Genoa,  1819)  ; 
Pacho,  Voyage  dans  la  Marmarique,  la  Cyre- 
naique^  &c.  (Paris,  1825-29) ;  Beecliey,  "  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Exi)edition  to  Explore  the 
Northern  Coast  of  Africa"  (London,  1828); 
Trighe,  Res  Cyrenensium  (Copenhagen,  1828); 
Hamilton,  "Wanderings  in  North  Africa;"  and 
Rawlinson's  notes  to  the  4th  book  of  Hero- 
dotus. 

CYRENAICS,  a  school  of  philosophers  found- 
ed by  Aristippus  of  Cyrenaica,  a  pupil  of  So- 


crates, about  380  B.  C,  who  taught  that  enjoy- 
ment was  the  highest  object,  and  that  virtue  con- 
sisted in  the  art  of  producing  the  highest  possible 
amount  of  agreeable  feelings,  by  living  in  mode- 
rate activity,  in  the  enjoyment  of  art  and  litera- 
ture, with  the  careful  shunning  of  pain.  They 
despised,  like  the  Cynics,  all  si)eculative  jdiilos- 
oi)]iy,  but  were  as  a  rule  not  immoral,  limiting 
their  practice  to  a  gay,  moderate,  and  amiable 
enjoyment  of  life.  Among  these  philosophers, 
Arete,  the  daughter  of  Aristippus,  his  grandson 
Aristippus  Metrodidactus,  and  Ilegesias,  were 
the  most  renowned.  This  school  was  succeed- 
ed, a  century  later,  by  the  kindred  philosophy 
of  Epicurus. 

CYRENE,  chief  city  of  Cyrensea  or  Cyre- 
naica, founded  in  631  B.  C.  by  Therteans  under 
Battus,  around  a  fountain  (Kprjinj)  consecrated  to 
Apollo,  which  supplied  the  city  with  water,  was 
built  on  a  high  terrace  of  the  Cyrenasan  table- 
land, about  9  m.  from  the  coast  at  ApoUonia, 
whicli  became  its  port.  The  road  which  con- 
nected the  city  with  the  harbor,  a  vast  necro- 
polis, and  ruins  of  streets,  temples,  theatres, 
tombs,  and  remnants  of  art,  are  still  visible,  the 
site  of  the  ancient  city  having  been  identified 
with  the  modern  Grennah.  The  British  travel- 
ler Hamilton  speaks  of  the  neighborhood  of  this 
place  as  "  abounding  with  beautiful  scenes,  some 
of  which  exceed  in  richness  of  vegetation,  and 
equal  in  grandeur,  any  thing  that  is  to  be  found 
in  the  Apennines,  .  .  .  some  offering  perhaps  the 
most  lovely  sylvan  scenery  in  the  world."  In 
the  time  of  Herodotus  Cyrene  covered  an  area 
equal  to  the  entire  neighboring  island  of  Platea 
(now  Bomba).  Aristippus,  the  founder  of  the 
Cyrenaic  school  of  philosophy,  Carneades,  the 
founder  of  the  New  Academy,  the  poet  Calli- 
niachus,  the  astronomer  Eratosthenes,  and  the 
eloquent  Christian  bishop  Synesius  (in  the  5th 
century),  were  natives  of  Cyrene. 

CYRIL  OF  Alexa:ndkia,  saint  and  patriarch 
of  the  church,  born  about  A.  D.  376,  died  in 
444.  Theophilns,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  was 
his  uncle  and  teaclier ;  and  after  tlie  death  of 
the  latter  in  412,  the  succession  in  the  bish- 
opric was  given  to  Cyril.  Alexandria  at  this 
time  was  one  of  the  4  principal  seats  of  eccle- 
siastical power.  Its  bishops  bore  the  title  of 
patriarch.  Cyril  at  once  undertook  to  suppress 
heresy  and  drive  out  from  the  city  all  unbe- 
lievers, lie  attacked  the  Novatians,  shut  up 
their  chm-ches,  seized  their  sacred  vessels,  and 
compelled  them  to  silence.  A  popular  outbreak 
gave  him  pretext  for  banishing  the  Jews,  who 
had  lived  there  unmolested  for  many  centuries, 
and  were  wealthy,  cultivated,  and  important 
to  the  prosperity  of  the  city.  Though  the  gov- 
ernor Orestes  opposed  him  in  this  act  of  zeal, 
he  was  sustained  by  the  emperor  and  by  the 
Christum  populace.  The  famous  Hypatia,  the 
female  Platouist  of  Alexandria,  was  torn  in 
pieces  in  the  street  by  the  people,  from  the  re- 
port or  suspicion  tliat  she  encouraged  the  gov- 
ernor in  his  opposition  to  the  bishop.  The 
progress  of  the  Nestorian  heresy  next  attracted 


CYRIL  (ov  Alexandria) 


OYRIT.  (of  Jepxsalem) 


193 


Cyril's  attention.  This  heresy,  whicli  denied 
the  Orthodox  theory  of  the  incarnation,  had 
gained  influence  amont,'  tlie  cenobites  of  Efjypt, 
not  only  from  its  subtle  reasonings,  but  IVotu 
the  ascetic  virtues  of  its  author,  tlie  bishop  of 
Constantinople.  Cyril  sent  severe  letters  to 
Nestorius,  calling  upon  him  to  retract  his  false- 
hoods; which  proved,  as  might  bo  expected, 
ineffectual.  An  appeal  to  the  bishop  of  Rome, 
though  it  resulted  in  a  justification  of  the  course 
of  the  Alexandrine  bishop,  forced  no  retraction 
from  tlie  Byzantine.  Nestorius  would  not  pro- 
nounce his  former  propositions  to  be  accursed. 
A  council  was  called  at  Ephesus,  in  which  Cyril 
as  legate  and  prosecutor  took  the  lead,  and  the 
recusant  Nestorius  was  deposed  and  condemned. 
A  subsequent  ex  parte  council  of  42  bishojfs, 
headed  by  John,  patriarch  of  Antioch,  judged 
the  case  differently,  and,  favoring  Nestorius, 
excommunicated  and  deposed  his  opponent  and 
the  Alexandrine  party.  The  emperor,  appeal- 
ed to  in  this  strait,  condemned  both  sides  and 
ordered  the  rival  champions  to  be  imprisoned. 
The  powerful  intercession  of  Rome,  however, 
soon  caused  this  sentence  against  Cyril  to  be 
abrogated,  and  the  patriarch  returned  home. 
Nestorius  was  sent  to  a  convent  near  Antioch, 
and  finally  to  Upper  Egypt,  and  Cyril  could 
spend  the  last  12  years  of  his  episcopate  in  the 
faith  that  he  had  vanquished  the  heretics  of  his 
province  and  exterminated  infidelity.  After  the 
banishment  of  Nestorius,  his  word  as  expound- 
er of  the  faith  remained  undisputed. — His  writ- 
ings are  mostly  controversial.  They  are  mark- 
ed by  a  rugged  earnestness  of  style,  with  little 
grace  or  beauty,  and  by  positiveness  of  state- 
ment rather  than  by  cogency  of  argument. 
His  expository  works  consist  of  17  books  on 
"Worship  in  Spirit  and  Truth;"  13  books  of 
"  Glaphyrs,"  which  are  commentaries  on  various 
passages  in  the  Pentateuch ;  a  series  of  commen- 
taries on  Isaiah ;  and  12  books  of  notes  upon 
John's  Gospel,  some  of  which  are  imperfect. 
The  method  of  these  is  thoroughly  allegorical. 
His  ethical  and  ritual  works  are  contained  in 
29  discourses  for  Easter  week,  in  which  he  uses 
language  that  seems  not  only  to  teach  tran- 
substantiation,  but  to  prophesy  the  worship  of 
the  Virgin  Mary.  His  polemical  works  are  :  a 
work  against  the  Arians,  called  the  "  Treasure," 
in  35  sections ;  7  dialogues  on  the  "  Trinity,"  2 
on  the  "  Incarnation ;"  3  treatises  on  the  "  Right 
Faith ;"  5  books  against  Nestorius,  in  which 
the  heresies  of  that  teacher  are  discussed  with- 
out mentioning  his  name ;  12  "  Anathema- 
tisms,"  sent  directly  to  Nestorius,  and  8 
"Apologies"  for  these  "  Anathematisms,"  de- 
fending them  from  the  charges  of  heresy  and 
of  ambiguity,  which  had  been  brought  against 
them.  All  these  works  were  brought  out  by 
the  Nestorian  controversy.  Beside  these,  Cyril 
wrote  a  book  against  the  "  Anthropomor- 
phite  "  monks,  who  held  that  God  had  a  phys- 
ical body,  in  answer  to  27  dogmatical  questions 
which  tliey  had  put  to  him ;  2  letters  against 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  ;  and  10  books  against 
VOL.   VI. — 13 


Julian  the  emperor,  in  answer  to  the  3  books 
wliicli  that  sovereign  had  published  against  the 
Christians.  Tliis  last  work  is  one  of  the  most 
curious  monuments  of  Christian  polemic  litera- 
ture. It  vindicates  the  Mosaic  cosmogony 
against  the  Grecian  theories,  the  theogony  of 
the  Bible  against  that  of  llesiod,  monotheism 
against  polytheism,  the  unity  of  the  Deity  against 
the  charge  of  duality,  exalts  the  Christian  proph- 
ets and  martyrs  above  all  the  heatlien  philos- 
ophers, gives  as  a  reason  for  the  downfall  of  the 
heathen  oracles  that  "  the  devil  was  restrained 
by  Christ's  coming,"  exjjlains  the  Christian 
reverence  for  the  wood  of  the  true  cross  and 
for  the  tombs  of  martyrs,  and  discriminates  tliis 
from  the  pagan  idolatry.  Many  letters,  too, 
of  his  large  correspondence  have  survived,  and 
some  treatises  upon  "  The  Faith,"  dedicated  to 
the  sisters  of  the  emperor. — Parts  of  the  works 
of  Cyril  have  been  frequently  translated  into 
Latin.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  John  Au- 
bert,  canon  of  Laon  (G  vols,  folio,  Paris,  1638), 
printed  both  in  Greek  and  Latin.  Beside  this, 
there  is  the  Cologne  folio  (2  vols.  1546),  and 
another  Paris  edition  (2  vols,  folio,  1692),  the 
Greek  text  with  notes.  The  character  of  Cyril 
is  drawn  in  the  historical  romance  of  "  Hypatia," 
hy  Charles  Kingsley  (London,  1853). 

CYRIL  or  Jerusalem,  saint  and  archbish- 
op of  the  church,  born  a1>  or  near  Jerusalem, 
about  A.  D.  315,  died  in  386.  He  was  about 
30  years  old  when  he  Avas  ordained  priest  by 
Maximiis,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  was  in- 
trusted with  the  charge  of  the  catechumens, 
and  eometiraes  with  the  duty  of  preaching  in 
the  place  of  the  bishop.  "When,  in  350,  the  see 
of  Jerusalem  became  vacant,  Cyril  was  pro- 
moted to  that  place,  and  consecrated  by  Acacius 
of  Cajsarea,  the  metropolitan  of  Palestine. 
Acacius  was  an  Arian,  and  it  has  been  aflirm- 
ed  that  Cyril,  in  keeping  fellowship  with  him 
and  the  Arian  party,  while  he  himself  professed 
orthodox  sentiments,  was  guilty  of  duplicity. 
He  was  never,  however,  considered  to  be  Arian 
by  the  Arians  themselves,  or  in  any  way  favor- 
able to  that  party  in  the  matter  of  theology, 
although  in  his  banishment  and  misfortune  he 
accepted  the  hospitality  of  friends  who  were 
semi-Arian.  Acacius  was  for  many  years  his 
bitter  enemy  and  persecutor.  In  the  year  357, 
taking  advantage  of  a  technical  violation  of  the 
canon  law,  Acacius  procured  a  sentence  of  de- 
position against  the  orthodox  bishop.  Cyril 
was  accused  of  having  sold  the  furniture  and 
ornaments  of  his  church,  gifts  of  the  emperor 
Constantine  ;  but  his  plea  was  that  he  did  this 
to  save  the  poor  from  starving  in  a  time  of 
famine.  The  sentence,  palpably  unjust,  was 
reversed  at  the  council  of  Seleucia  in  359,  but 
was  the  next  year  repronoimced,  with  an  addi- 
tional imperial  decree  of  banishment.  On  the 
accession  of  Julian,  in  361,  Cyril  was  enabled 
to  return  to  Jerusalem.  The  favor  of  the  tole- 
rant pagan  did  not,  nevertlieless,  prevent  the 
Christian  zeal  of  the  bishop ;  and  he  did  not 
hesitate  to  condemn,  on  grounds  of  Scripture 


19t 


CYRUS 


nnd  prophecy,  the  emperor's  attempt  to  re- 
build in  the  holy  city  the  Jewish  temple.  The 
edict  of  the  emperor  Valens  in  the  year  367, 
repealing  Julian's  act  of  amnesty,  again  sent 
Cyril  into  exile,  and  only  after  11  years  was  he 
able  to  regain  his  seat  and  to  stay  immolested. 
He  had  the  satisfaction  in  the  last  years  of  his 
life  of  seeing  the  orthodox  faith  fully  establish- 
ed, and  of  taking  part  in  the  council  of  Con- 
stantinople, Avhich  decreed  the  condemnation 
of  the  Arian,  semi-Arian,  and  Macedonian  her- 
etics.— The  writings  of  Cyril  which  remain  are : 
a  course  of  23  "  Catechetical  Lectures;"  a  sin- 
gle sermon,  suggested  by  the  Scripture  narra- 
tive of  tkj^iealing  of  the  paralytic,  and  treat- 
ing sin  astue  origin  of  all  misery  and  suftering ; 
and  a  letter  to  the  emperor  Constantine  relating 
the  prodigy  of  the  luminous  cross  at  Jerusalem. 
His  works  have  been  frequently  printed  both 
in  Greek  and  in  Latin.  The  editions  of  Co- 
logne (1564)  and  Paris  (1589)  are  in  a  single 
octavo  volume.  The  fine  edition  of  the  Bene- 
dictine Touttee  (Paris,  folio,  1720)  is  in  both 
languages.  A  French  translation  of  the  "  Cat- 
echetical Lectures,"  with  notes  and  commen- 
taries, was  made  by  Grandcolas.  An  English 
translation  of  the  same  work,  very  faithful  and 
spirited,  edited  by  John  Henry  Newman,  was 
published  in  Oxford  in  1838. 

CYRUS,  the  ancient  name  of  a  river  in  Asia. 
See  KooK. 

CYRUS.  L  ^TnE  Elder,  the  Koresh  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  (supposed  to  be  from  the  Per- 
sian lnohr^  the  sun),  the  founder  of  the  Persian 
empire,  reigned  from  559  to  529  B.  C.  He  was 
grandson  of  Astyages,  king  of  Media.  This  is  one 


ishcd  in  the  person  of  his  son,  and  Cyrus,  wliom 
the  magi  declared  to  have  already  attained-  the 
threatening  greatness  predicted  by  the  dreams, 
was  sent  to  Persia  to  his  parents.  When  he 
grew  up,  following  the  secret  advice  of  Har- 
pagus,  he  prepared  to  dethrone  his  grandfather. 
The  Persians,  a  poor,  hardy,  and  warlike  peo- 
ple, were  easily  induced  to  shake  oft"  the  yoke 
of  Media ;  Harpagus  betrayed  the  first  army, 
sent  under  his  command  against  the  rebels ; 
and  with  a  second,  the  king  himself  was  defeat- 
ed near  Pasargada,  and  made  prisoner  (559). 
Cyrus  was  acknowledged  by  the  Medes  as  ruler 
of  the  new  empire  of  Persia  and  Media,  of 
which  they  became  the  second  nation.  He  now 
marched  against  Croesus,  the  rich  and  mighty 
king  of  Lydia,  who  crossed  the  Halys  to  re- 
venge his  fallen  ally  and  brother-in-law  Asty- 
ages. A  bloody  battle  was  fought  in  Cappa- 
docia,  but  with  an  indecisive  result.  Croesus, 
however,  thought  it  wiser  to  return  to  his  own 
country,  hoping  to  recommence  the  campaign 
with  reenforcements  from  his  allies,  the  kings 
of  Egypt  and  Babylonia,  and  the  Lacedemo- 
nians. But  before  these  arrived,  Cyrus  had  in 
his  turn  crossed  the  Halys,  vanquished  the  cel- 
ebrated Lydian  cavalry  on  the  plain  before  Sar- 
dis,  taken  that  city,  and  made  Croesus  his  pris- 
oner. The  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor,  who  had 
rejected  the  previous  invitations  of  Cyrus  to 
revolt  against  the  Lydians,  were  now  conquered 
by  an  army  imder  Harpagus.  A  part  of  the 
Phoca?ans^however,  preferred  the  dangers  of 
an  emigration  to  the  distaot  regions  of  tl^e  ^^st 
to  a  peaceful  subjection.  •  The  Carians,  ©au-. 
niaiTs,  Lycians,  and  othd^  w'ere  next  subdued  ■by 


of  the  few  particulars  oOiis  life/iboiit  wJiich.  the     the  same  gefteral,  wiiile^S^rus^mself  wa^pre-1  . 
various  testimonies   of  antiquity'' agreie, '.most ^>^paring  and^- phrtly  execun^g  Ms  n'fore 'impor-J^- 
others  being  (iiflTerently  related  in  the  histories    tant  eastern  conquests.     Fo^*  the  reduction  of    •' 
of  CtesiasSaii4  Herodptus^  andijn  tjie  Cyroptedia     Babylonia,  the  2d  great  empire  of  western  Asia, 
ofXen^ion.    But  as  Otesias'is  in  "general  little     by  Cyrus,  we  have  the  concurring  testimony 

above  mentioned  Greek  historians,  as 


trustworthy,  and  as  Xenophon  seems  to  have 
written  his  book,  a  kind  of  philosophical  ro- 
mance, for  moral  or  political  purposes,  and  with- 
out much  regard  for  history,  the  story  of  Herod- 
otus, in  spite  of  its  legendary  character,  has  been 
generally  adopted  by  modern  historians  down 
to  Grote.  According  to  this  narrative,  Cyrus 
"was  the  son  of  Cambyses,  a  Persian  noble,  and 
of  Mandane,  the  daugiiter  of  Astyages.  This 
king  commanded  him  to  be  put  to  death  imme- 
diately after  his  birth,  in  consequence  of  some 
dreams  which  were  explained  by  the  magi  as 
presages  of  the  future  royal  greatness  of  the 
child.  Saved  by  the  humanity  of  Hai'pagus, 
an  officer  of  the  court,  and  of  a  herdsman,  who 
"was  to  expose  hira  to  death  in  the  wilderness, 
lie  "was  brought  up  by  the  latter,  as  his  son,  in 
a  secluded  mountain  region,  where  he  soon  be- 
came the  leader  of  his  playfellows,  who  chose 
him  as  their  king.  Having  in  this  capacity 
ordered  the  son  of  a  distinguished  Median  to 
be  scourged  for  disobedience,  he  "was  brought 
before  Astyages,  to  whom  his  bold  answers  and 
his  features  soon  betrayed  his  origin.  The 
herdsman  was  pardoned,  Harpagus  cruelly  pun- 


of  the  3 

"well  as  of  the  Scriptures,  though,  according  to 
Xenophon,  he  acted  only  as  general  of  his  uncle 
Cyaxares  II.,  son  of  Astyages,  king  of  Media. 
Herodotus  describes  in  his  "way  how,  on  his 
march  from  the  north-east  against  Babylon,  Cy- 
rus chastised  the  river  Gyndes,  an  aflluent  of  the 
Tigris,  for  drowning  one  of  his  sacred  white 
horses,  by  digging  360  channels  "  so  that  women 
in  future  should  cross  it  without  wetting  their 
knees;"  how  he  turned  the  Euphrates  by  a 
canal  into  the  artificial  lake  made  by  the  Baby- 
lonian queen  Nitocris,  "on  which  the  river  sank 
to  such  an  extent,  tliat  the  natural  bed  of  the 
stream  became  fordable ;"  how  through  this  bed 
the  Persians  entered  the  city  and  took  it  by 
surjjrise ;  and  how,  "  owing  to  the  vast  size  of 
the  place,  the  inhabitants  of  the  central  parts 
(as  tlie  residents  at  Babylon  declare),  long  after 
the  outer  portions  of  tlie  town  were  taken, 
knew  nothing  of  wdiat  had  chanced,  but  as 
tliey  were  engaged  in  a  festival,  continued 
dancing  and  revelling  until  they  learned  the 
capture  but  too  certainly."  Confirming  these 
statements,  the  Hebrews  dwell  with  plea^iure. 


\  = 


\ 


CYRUS 


.    OZACKI 


191 


on  the  exploits  of  their  deliverer  from  tho 
Babylonish  captivity ;  on  tho  "  one  from  the 
north  "  and  "  from  the  rising  of  the  sun,"  who 
comes  "  upon  princes  as  upon  mortar,  and  as 
tlie  potter  treadeth  clay,"  who  executes  "  on 
Babylon  the  vengeance  of  the  Lord,"  "  that 
saith  to  the  deep.  Be  dry,  and  I  will  dry  up 
thy  rivers;  that  saith  of  Cyrus,  lie  is  my  shep- 
herd and  shall  perform  all  my  pleasure ;  even 
saying  to  Jerusalem,  Thou  sluilt  be  built ;  and 
to  tho  temple,  Thy  foundation  sliall  be  laid  " 
(Isaiah).  They  delight  to  relate  how  "the 
mighty  men  of  Babylon  have  forborne  to  fight, 
they  have  remained  in  their  holds,  their  might 
hath  failed;  they  became  as  women;"  how  one 
post  runs  "  to  meet  another,  and  one  messen- 
ger to  meet  another,  to  show  the  king  of  Baby- 
lon that  his  city  is  taken  at  one  end  "  (Jere- 
miah). After  the  fall  of  the  capital  (538), 
wliich  seems  to  have  been  greeted  by  many 
oppressed  nations  of  Asia  as  the  commencement 
of  an  era  of  justice  and  freedom,  all  the  prov- 
inces of  the  Babylonian  empire  speedily  sur- 
rendered to  the  conqueror,  who  was  now  mas- 
ter of  nearly  all  the  countries  between  the  Indus 
and  the  ^'Ega^au,  the  Oxus  and  the  Red  sea. 
Satisfied  with  this  vast  dominion,  which  he 
ruled  wisely  and  justly,  Xenophon  makes  him 
die  in  peace  and  in  his  bed  with  a  Socratic  speech 
on  his  lips ;  but  Arrian  attributes  to  him  after- 
ward an  invasion  of  India  across  the  desert  of 
Arachosia;  Ctesias,  an  expedition  against  tho 
Derbices,  a  people  in  the  Caucasian  regions,  in 
which  he  is  slain ;  and  Herodotus,  an  attack 
upon  the  Massagette,  northern  nomades  ruled 
by  a  queen,  Tomyris,  and  greatly  resembling 
the  Scythians,  in  whose  country  he  was  defeat- 
ed and  slain  in  a  bloody  battle.  Tomyris,  who 
revenged  the  death  of  her  son,  filled  a  skin 
with  human  blood,  Herodotus  adds,  into  which 
she  dipi)ed  the  liead  of  Cyrus,' thus  giving  the 
insatiable  conqueror,  as  she  said,  his  fill  of 
blood.  There  is,  however,  some  testimony  to 
the  allegation  that  he  was  buried  in  Pasargada 
in  his  native  province,  "  where  his  tomb  was 
honored  and  watclied  until  the  breaking  up  of 
the  empire,  Avhile  his  memory  was  held  in  pro- 
found veneration  among  the  Persians,"  "  There 
is  much  reason  to  believe,"  says  Rawlinson, 
"  that  the  tomb  of  Cyrus  still  exists  at  Murgab, 
the  ancient  Pasargada.  On  a  square  base,  com- 
posed of  immense  blocks  of  white  marble,  rising 
in  steps,  stands  a  structure  so  closely  resembling 
the  description  of  Arrian,  that  it  seems  scarcely 
possible  to  doubt  that  it  is  the  tomb  which  in 
Alexander's  time  contained  the  body  of  Cyrus. 
It  is  a  quadrangular  edifice  or  cliamber,  built 
of  blocks  5  feet  thick,  which  are  shaped  at  the 
top  into  a  sloping  roof.  Internally  the  cham- 
ber is  10  feet  long,  7  wide,  and  8  high.  There 
are  holes  in  tlie  marble  fioor,  which  seem  to 
have  admitted  the  fastenings  of  a  sarcophagus. 
The  tomb  stands  in  an  area  marked  out  by  pil- 
lars, where  occurs  repeatedly  the  inscription 
(written  both  in  Persian  and  the  so-called  Me- 
dian) :  '  I  am  Cyrus  the  king,  the  Acha;menian,' 


It  is  called  by  the  natives  the  tomb  of  the  moth- 
er of  Solomon."  II.  Cykus  the  Younger,  2d 
son  of  Darius  Nothus,  king  of  Persia,  received 
from  his  father  at  an  early  age  the  satrapy 
of  Lydia,  Phrygia,  and  other  parts  of  Asia 
Minor  (407  B.  C.).  When  his  elder  brother, 
Artaxerxes  II.,  ascended  the  throne  (404),  he 
formed  a  plot  against  his  life,  which  was  dis- 
covered by  Tissaphernes,  and  pardoned  on  the 
intercession  of  Parysatis,  the  widow  of  Darius. 
Reinstated  in  his  satrapy,  Cyrus  succeeded  in 
collecting  a  powerful  army,  including  13,000 
Greek  mercenaries,  and  marched  from  Sardis  in 
the  spring  of  401  toward  Babylonia,  with  the 
secret  purpose  of  dethroning  his  brother.  Hav- 
ing crossed  the  Euphrates  at  Thapsacus,  he  met 
the  king  at  the  head  of  an  immense  army,  near 
Cunaxa.  The  battle  was  nearly  won,  especially 
by  the  valor  of  the  Greeks  on  the  right  wing, 
when,  perceiving  Artaxerxes  in  the  centre,  the 
ambitious  prince  furiously  rushed  to  assail 
him,  and  fell  pierced  by  a  javelin,  after  having 
wounded  his  brother.  The  character  and  ac- 
complishments of  this  prince  are  painted  in  the 
brightest  colors  by  Xenophon,  in  the  1st  book 
of  the  Anabasis. 

CYTHERA.   See  Cerigo. 

CYZICUS,  one  of  the  oldest'and  most  power- 
ful of  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia,  situated  on  a 
small  island  in  the  Proi)ontis,  near  the  Mysian 
shore,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  a  Pelas- 
gic  tribe,  expelled  from  their  homes  by  the  JEo- 
lians.  It  was  afterward  subject  alternately  to 
Athens,  Sparta,  and  Persia,  and  obtained  its  in- 
dependence after  the  time  of  Alexander.  In  the 
Avars  which  determined  the  fate  of  the  kingdom 
of  Syria  it  took  part  with  Pergamus  and  the 
Romans  against  Antiochus.  The  heroism  with  ^ 
which  the  Cyzicenes  defended  their  city  when 
it  was  besieged  by  Mithridates  obtained  for  it 
the  rank  of  a  libera  civitas.  When  Constantino 
created  the  new  province  of  Hellespontus,  he 
made  Cyzicus  the  capital.  It  was  partially  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake  in  A.  D.  443,  and  was 
captured  and  completely  ruined  by  the  Arabians 
in  675.  The  place  is  now  overgrown  with  neg- 
lected orchards  and  vineyards,  and  a  low  sandy 
isthmus  has  been  formed,  converting  the  island 
into  a  peninsula. 

CZACKI,  Tadefsz,  a  Polish  financier  and 
author,  born  in  1705,  at  Poryck,  in  VAynia, 
died  at  Dubno,  Feb.  8,  1813.  At  an  elFly  age 
King  Stanislas  Augustus  appointed  him  to  an 
office  in  the  royal  tribunal  of  Warsaw,  Avhere  the 
regulation  of  the  secret  archives  of  the  Polish 
sovereigns  was  intrusted  to  him.  From  17S8  to 
1795  he  was  a  member  of  the  Polish  board  of 
the  treasury.  He  was  also  employed  by  the 
committee  which  discussed  the  constitution 
of  May  3,  1791,  of  which  he  was  a  staunch 
supporter.  When  the  second  division  of  Poland 
took  place,  his  property  was  confiscated,  but 
afterward  restored  by  Paul  I.  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  he  devoted  himself  to  the  inter- 
ests of  education.  His  views  met  with  the  ap- 
probation of  Alexander,  and  the  gymnasium  of 


19G 


CZAJKOWSKI 


CZAR 


Krenienetz,  in  Volhynia,  of  which  lie  was  tlie 
founder,  was  opened  in  1805.  Tlie  instruction 
in  this  school  gave  umhrage  to  the  government ; 
but  on  being,  in  1807,  summoned  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, he  succeeded  not  only  in  making  his  vindi- 
cation acceptable  to  the  czar,  but  was  appoint- 
ed curator  of  the  public  schools  of  western  Po- 
land. His  complete  works,  which  are  mostly 
historical,  were  published  in  3  vols.,  in  Posen,  in 
1843-45 ;  the  most  important  being  his  book 
"  Of  the  Laws  of  Poland  and  Lithuania." 

CZAJKOWSKI,  MicHAL,  a  Polish  novelist 
(now  Sadik  Pasha,  a  general  in  the  Turkish 
army),  born  in  1808  in  the  Ukraine.  Ilis  en- 
thusiasm was  kindled  by  the  writings  of  Adam 
Mickiewicz,  with  whose  romantic  spirit  his  nov- 
els, which  chiefly  treat  of  Cossack  and  of  Ukrai- 
nian life,  are  deeply  imbued.  After  the  Polish 
revolution  of  1 830,  in  Avhich  he  had  taken  a  part, 
he  betook  himself  to  Paris.  In  1840  he  was 
sent  by  Prince  Czartoryski  on  a  mission  to  Tur- 
key, but  at  the  instigation  of  Russia  he  was 
compelled  to  relinquish  this  office,  and  would 
have  been  banished  from  the  Turkish  territory 
if,  at  the  beginning  of  1851,  he  had  not  become 
a  convert  to  Islamism  under  the  name  of  Mo- 
hammed Sadik  Efteudi.  In  the  war  with  Rus- 
sia he  organized  and  commanded  a  body  of 
troops  under  the  name  of  Cossacks  of  the  sultan. 
After  the  expulsion  of  the  Russians  from  the 
Danubian  principalities  he  was  made  military 
goternor  of  Bucharest,  and  commander  of  the 
Turkisli  army  under  Omar  Pasha  in  Bessarabia. 
His  novels,  of  which  Wernylwra'is  the  most  es- 
teemed, have  been  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages, and  a  French  translation  appeared  in 
Paris  in  1857,  under  the  title  of  Cojitcs  Cosaques. 

CZAR,  or  Tzar,  a  title  of  the  sovereigns  of 
Russia,  meaning  king  or  lord.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  an  imitation  or  corruption 
of  the  Latin  Caesar,  in  the  sense  of  the  German 
Kaisei\  but  the  ancient  Slavic  translation  of  the 
Bible  has  lessar  for  Koto-ap,  and  tzar  for  king. 
Karamsin  therefore,  and  others  after  him,  com- 
pare the  term  with  the  syllable  sa)'  found  in  the 
names  of  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  monarchs 
Phalassar  (Pileser),  Nabonassar,  and  Nabopolas- 
sar,  and  witli  the  Hebrew  sar  (commander, 
chief).  Tlie  Mongols  used  the  same  appellation, 
and  it  is  i)robably  from  them  that  the  Russians 
adopted  it.  It  is  used  by  Russian  annalists  as 
early  as  the  12th  century ;  but  as  the  official  title 
of  the  monarchs  of  Russia  it  dates  from  the  16th. 
Before  this  period  they  styled  themselves  grand 
princes  (rclikoi  hniazh)  of  Kiev,  Novgorod, 
Vladimir,  Moscow,  &c.  Basil  Ivanovitch  as- 
sumed iu  1505  the  title  of  sa7noderzhetz,  or  auto- 
crat; his  son  Ivan  the  Terrible  was  crowned 
in  1547  as  czar.  After  the  annexation  of  Smo- 
lensk and  the  Ukraine,  the  title  of  czar  of  Mos- 
cow was  changed  into  that  of  czar  of  Great, 
White,  and  Little  Russia  (of  all  the  Russias). 
Though  the  word  czar  was  used  by  the  Russians 
also  to  designate  the  emperors  of  the  West,  as 
well  as  of  tlie  East  (hence  the  name  Tzargorod, 
city  of  the  emperor  for  Constantinople),  Peter 


the  Great,  in  order  to  be  without  contradiction 
ranked  among  the  monarchs  of  the  highest  cat< 
egory,  assumed  in  1721  in  addition  the  title  of 
miperator,  or  emperor.  In  the  long  negotia- 
tions for  the  acknowledgment  of  this  dignity, 
which  was  contested  by  many  states  of  Europe, 
it  was  proved  that  Maximilian  I.,  who  in  1514 
concluded  atreaty  of  alliance  with  Russia  against 
Poland,  had  used  the  term  emperor  (Kaiser)  for 
czar,  and  that  the  same  was  done  by  other  pow- 
ers in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  It  was  not, 
liowever,  till  the  reign  of  Catharine  II.  that 
Poland,  Spain,  and  Turkey  acknowledged  the 
imperial  dignity  of  Russia.  The  wife  of  the 
czar  was  anciently  called  tzaritza ;  his  sons 
had  the  title  of  tzarevitch^  his  daughters  that 
of  tzarema.  Since  the  death  of  the  unhappy 
Alexei,  however,  the  latter  appellations  have 
been  replaced  by  those  of  grand  prince  and  grand 
princess.  Constantine,  the  2(1  son  of  Paul  I.,  re- 
ceived in  1799  the  title  of  (zesarevilch,  which  was 
bestowed  after  his  death  in  1831,  by  the  empe- 
ror Nicholas,  upon  his  own  son  Alexander  (now 
the  reigning  emperor).  The  wife  of  the  latter 
received  the  title  of  tzesarevna.  The  crown 
prince  Nicholas  Alexandrovitch,  born  in  1843, 
now  bears  the  former  title.  The  empress  is 
styled  in  Russian  imperatritza.  The  popular 
Russian  appellation  of  the  sovereign  is  still  czar, 
or  hossoodar  (hospodar,  lord).  Czar  was  also 
the  ancient  title  of  the  princes  of  Grusia,  or 
Georgia,  and  Imeritia,  now  Russian  provinces. 
CZARNIECKI,  or  Czaenecki,  Stefan,  a 
Polish  general,  born  at  Czaruca,  in  the  palatitiatfo 
of  Sandomierz,  in  1599,  died  at  Sokolowka  in 
Volhynia,  in  1665.  Of  a  noble  but  poor  family, 
he  studied  at  the  university  of  Cracow,  entered 
the  army,  and  met  with  little  advancement  be- 
fore the  outbreak  of  the  great  Cossack  rebellion 
in  1648.  Having  been  made  captive  in  the  bat- 
tle at  the  Yellow  Waters  (May  25,  1648),  he  was 
delivered  by  Chmielnicki,  the  leader  of  the  Cos- 
sacks, to  the  Tartars,  but  set  free  after  the  paci- 
fication of  Zborow,  in  the  following  year.  He 
fought  in  the  long  and  bloody  battle  at  Beres- 
teczko,  June,  1651,  in  which  the  Cossacks  and 
their  allies,  the  Tartars,  were  defeated.  The 
period  of  reverses  which  followed  the  defeat  of 
the  Poles  under  Kalinowski,  at  Batow,  by  the 
Cossacks,  the  incursions  of  these  rebels,  the  in- 
vasion of  the  Muscovites  from  the  east,  of  Charles 
Gustavus  of  Sweden  from  the  north,  and  of  Ra- 
koczy,  prince  of  Transylvania,  from  the  south, 
called  Czarniecki  to  greater  activity.  In  1655 
he  defended  the  castle  of  Cracow  with  the  ut- 
most braveiy  against  the  king  of  Sweden,  but 
was  compelled  by  want  of  food  to  surrender. 
After  the  repulse  of  the  Swedes  from  Czensto- 
cliowa  he  collected  the  scattered  remains  of  the 
Polish  troops,  formed  the  confederation  of  Ty- 
szowce  with  John  Sobieski  and  others,  and  com- 
menced a  brilliant  and  successful  course  of  guer- 
rilla warfare  against  the  Swedes,  who  had  con- 
quered the  greatest  part  of  the  country,  and  be- 
fore whom  the  patriotic  but  feeble  king,  John 
Casimir,  had  fled  to  Silesia.     In  the  early  part 


CZARTORYSKI 


197 


of  1G5G,  "with  the  assistance  of  5,000  Tartars,  ho 
defeated  them  in  4  battles,  brought  back  the 
Icing  in  triumph,  and  turned  his  arms  with  sim- 
ilar success  against  tlio  Transylvanians.  The 
dignity  of  palatine  of  Red  Russia,  and  the  title 
of  "  Liberator  of  Poland,"  were  his  reward.  In 
1058  he  marched  to  the  assistance  of  Frederic 
III.  king  of  Denmark,  who  had  invaded  the  Ger- 
man possessions  of  Sweden ;  lie  conquered  the 
island  of  Alsen,  took  the  command  against  the 
Russians,  hastened  to  Lithuania,  and  won  2  great 
victories  at  Polonka,  near  Slonim,  June  26, 
1060,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Dnieper,  over 
Chavanskoi  and  Dolgorouki.  Peace  was  now 
concinered  with  Sweden  (1660),  and  Moscow 
(1661).  Having  been  made  starosta  of  Tyko- 
cin,  he  undertook  to  chastise  the  Cossacks,  who, 
incited  and  supported  by  the  Russians,  had 
again  commenced  their  devastations  (1663) ;  and 
in  order  to  procure  the  assistance  of  the  Tartar 
khan  he  set  out  witli  only  13  horsemen,  follow- 
ing the  course  of  the  Dniester,  hastened  through 
Bessarabia  and  the  Ukraine  to  the  Crimea,  and 
defeated  the  Cossacks  at  Czehryn  (1664),  and 
Stawiszcze  (1665).  But  these  exertions  exhaust- 
ed him  ;  returning  to  Tykocin,  he  could  not  be 
carried  beyond  the  village  of  Sokolowka,  where 
lie  died  in  a  peasant's  hut,  having  received  a  few 
days  before  the  staff  of  hetman  of  the  crown.  In 
1760  John  Clement  Branicki,  his  descendant, 
caused  a  statue  to  be  erected  to  his  memory. 

CZARTORYSKI,  the  name  of  a  Polish 
princely  family,  whose  origin  is  traced  back  to 
Korygiello  or  Constantine  of  Tchernigov,  son 
of  Olgierd,  duke  of  Lithuania,  and  half  brother 
of  Jagiello,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  that 
name  in  Poland  (1386).  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  dominion  of  Czartorya,  and  the  place 
Czartorysk  near  Luck  in  Volhynia.  Of  the  2 
branches  of  the  family,  which  belongs  to  the 
highest  rank  of  nobility  in  their  country,  and 
boasts  of  a  number  of  statesmen  equally  re- 
markable for  wealth,  talents,  and  patriotism, 
the  male  line  of  the  younger  brancli,  that  of 
Korzelv,  became  extinct  in  1810,  while  the 
elder,  that  of  Zukow,  is  still  flourishing  in  a 
number  of  conspicuous  persons  of  both  sexes. 
To  this  elder  branch  belong  the  following  his- 
torical persons :  I.  Michal  Fryderyk,  born  in 
1605,  died  at  Warsaw,  Aug.  13,  1775.  He  was 
made  castellan  of  "VVilna  in  1720,  vice-chancel- 
lor of  Lithuania  in  1724,  and  great  chancellor 
of  that  duchy  in  1752.  Together  with  his  bro- 
ther and  other  nobles,  he  formed  an  influential 
party,  which  strove  to  bring  about  a  reform 
of  the  constitution  of  Poland,  Avhich  would 
strengthen  the  influence  of  the  king  and  the  judi- 
ciary, and  restrain  the  anarchical  independence 
of  the  high  dignitaries  of  the  crown.  Their 
chief  object  was  to  change  Poland  into  a  hered- 
itary kingdom,  if  possible  under  a  Czartoryski. 
To  counterbalance  the  influence  of  the  reigrwng 
house  of  Saxony,  as  well  as  that  of  Austria, 
they  courted  the  assistance  of  Russia,  which 
by  means  of  gold  and  bayonets,  however,  finally 
decided  the  matter  in  its  own  favor.     II.  Au- 


gust  Ai-EXANDKR,    brother   of  tlie   preceding, 
born  in  1097,  died  nt  Warsaw  in  1782.    He  was 
palatine  of  Red  Russia,  and  lieutenant-general 
of  tlie  army  of  the  crown.     lie  was  a  zealous 
cooperator  witli  his  brother,  but  was  deceived 
in  the  expectation  of  seating  his  son  upon  the 
throne  of  his  country.     By  activity  and  happy 
speculations  he  added  greatly  to  the  wealth  of 
the  family.     III.  Adam  Kazimiekz,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  Dec.  1,  1731,  at  Dantzic,  died 
March  19,  1823,  at  Sieniawa  in  Galicia.      IIo 
was  chosen  by  the  party  which  was  headed  by 
his  father  and  uncle  as  candidate  for  the  royal 
dignity  after  the  death  of  Augustus  III.  (1763). 
To  gain  the  assistance  of  Russia,  Stanislas  Po- 
niatowski,  whose  mother  was  a  sister  of  the 
2  elder  Czartoryskis,  was  sent  to  the  court  of 
St.  Petersburg.     But  the  empress  Catharine  II. 
determined  to  jiut  the  crown  of  Poland  upon 
the  head  of  her  favorite  Poniatowski  himself. 
This  determination  being  known,  Czartoryski 
yielded  his  pretensions  to  his  happier  rival,  to 
whom  from  his  early  youth  he  had  been  at- 
tached as  a  friend.      At  the  assembly  of  the 
nation  preceding  tbe  election,  the  Czartoryskis 
and  their  adherents  appeared  in  great  numbers 
at  Warsaw,  and  togetlier  with  them  an  army 
of  Russians,  sent  to  support  the  claims  of  Po- 
niatowski.    Adam  Kazimierz  was  chosen  mar- 
shal or  president  of  the  diet  in  spite  of  patriotic 
opposition  roused  by  the  presence  of  the  Rus- 
sians, and  Poniatowski  was  elected  king.    After 
the  first  partition  of  Poland  in  1772,  Czartorys- 
ki, who  possessed  large  estates  in  Galicia,  ac- 
cepted the  commission  of  a  general  of  artillery 
in  the  Austrian  army,  but  still  adhered  to  the 
party  which  worked  for  the  restoration  of  the 
power  of  Poland  tlirough  a  constitutional  re- 
form, and  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  and 
activity  at  the  long  diet,  which  proclaimed  the 
liberal  constitution  of  May  3,  1791.     He  was 
also  active  in  persuading  the  elector  of  Saxony 
to  accept  the  hereditary  succession  to  the  crown 
of  Poland,  and  Austria  to  engage  in  an  alliance 
against  Russia.     But  all  these  attempts  failed ; 
the    confederation  of  Targovitza   against    the 
new  constitution  was  assisted  by  the  arms  of 
Russia,  Poniatowski  deserted  the  cause  of  the 
reform,  and  in  1793  a  new  partition  of  Poland 
ensued.     Czartoryski  now  retired  and  lived  at 
Vienna  during  the  great  rising  under  Kosciusz- 
ko  (1794),  whom  he  persuaded  not  to  extend 
the  insurrection  over  the  frontiers  of  Austria ; 
which,  however,  did  not  prevent  that  power 
from  taking  its  share  at  the  final  dismember- 
ment of  Poland  in  1795.     He  took  no  part  in 
the  events  which  followed  the  treaty  of  Tilsit, 
and  the  creation  of  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  by 
Napoleon  (1807) ;  but  in  1812  he  accepted  the 
marshalship  of  the  confederation,  preceding  the 
invasion  of  Russia,  which  promised  the  restora- 
tion of  ancient  Poland.    This  illusion,  however, 
soon  vanished ;    Napoleon  wanted  the  Poles, 
but  no  Poland,  and  the  fatal  issue  of  the  great 
campaign  foiled  every  hope.     Czartoryski  re- 
tired to  Pulawy,  but  in  1815  headed  a  depu- 


•198 


CZAKTORYSKI 


tation  to  the  congress  of  Vienna,  and  present- 
ed to  the  emperor  Alexander  the  outlhies  of 
a  new  constitution  for  the  kingdom  of  Poland, 
now  reorganized  under  his  sceptre.  Alex- 
ander made  him  senator  palatine,  IV.  Elz- 
BiETA,  wife  of  the  preceding,  born  countess  of 
Flemming  in  1743,  died  in  Galicia,  June  17, 
1835.  She  was  distinguished  hy  beauty,  spirit, 
and  patriotism,  but  also  inclined  to  romantic 
extravagance.  Having  spent  several  years  at 
court,  and  in  travels  in  western  Europe,  which 
brought  her  into  contact  with  the  most  remark- 
able personages  of  the  age,  she  retired  to  Pu- 
lawy,  where  she  constructed  the  admirable  gar- 
dens of  which  Delille  sings  in  the  didactic  poem 
Les  jardins,  and  the  temple  of  the  sibyl,  con- 
taining a  collection  of  relics  of  Polish  history. 
She  was  also  active  in  promoting  industry 
and  education.  She  published  "Ideas  on  the 
Construction  of  Gardens  "  (Breslau,  1807),  and 
the  "Pilgrim  in  Dobromil"  (Warsaw,  1818),  a 
popular  book  on  national  history,  for  the  in- 
struction of  the  agricultural  class.  Having  sur- 
vived the  3  partitions  and  2  restorations  of  Po- 
land, she  proved  her  patriotism  in  the  revolu- 
tion of  1830-'31,  but  had  the  mortification  to 
see  her  scat  at  Pulawy  bombarded  by  her  own 
grandson,  the  prince  of  Wiirtemberg,  who 
served  in  the  Russian  army.  She  passed  her 
last  years  with  her  daughter  in  Galicia.  The  col- 
lections of  Pulawy  were  in  part  dispersed,  and  in 
part  transported  to  St.  Petersburg.  V.  Marya 
Anka,  daughter  of  the  preceding,  born  March 
15,  1708,  died  at  Paris,  Oct.  24,  1854.  In 
1784  she  was  married  to  Louis  Frederic  Alex- 
andre, prince  of  AViirtemberg,  but  as  he  betray- 
ed the  cause  of  Poland  in  1792,  she  left  him 
and  was  divorced.  Her  mother  in  one  of  her 
letters  characterizes  her  in  these  words :  "  A 
heavenly  soul,  an  angelic  character,  a  charm- 
ing figure,  talents,  virtues,  and  many  misfor- 
tunes— this  is  her  history."  In  1816  she  j)ub- 
lished  a  romance,  Malwina^  which  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages.  After  the  revolu- 
tion of  1830-31  she  retired  to  Galicia.  The  es- 
tates of  the  Czartoryskis  in  the  kingdom  of 
Poland  having  been  confiscated,  her  only  son 
Adam,  prince  of  Wiirtemberg,  who  had  served 
against  the  Poles,  offered  her  a  pension,  which 
she  rejected  in  the  following  words  :  "  Sir,  I  have 
not  the  honor  of  knowing  you ;  I  have  no  longer 
a  son,  and  care  little  for  fortune."  VI.  Adam 
Jerzy,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  Jan.  14, 
1770,  completed  his  education  in  France  and  at 
the  university  of  Edinburgh,  fought  bravely  in 
1792  against  the  Russians,  in  the  Lithuanian  army 
under  Zabiello,  and  was  sent  in  1795  to  the  court 
of  St.  Petersburg,  as  a  hostage  for  the  fidelity 
of  his  family.  There,  being  attached  to  the  per- 
son of  the  grand  duke  Alexander,  the  future 
emperor,  he  became  his  intimate  friend.  In 
1792  he  was  sent  by  the  emperor  Paul  as  am- 
bassador to  the  court  of  Sardinia,  whence  he 
was  recalled  in  1802  by  his  successor  Alexan- 
der, to  assist  him  in  the  department  of  foreign 
aflfairs.    This  situation,  which  he  accepted,  and 


used  for  the  benefit  of  his  country,  drew  upon 
him  a  great  deal  of  envy  and  patriotic  censure 
on  the  part  of  some  of  his  countrymen,  which, 
however,  his  conduct  gradually  overcame. 
On  April  11,  1805,  he  signed  for  Russia  the  al- 
liance with  England,  and  accompanied  Alex- 
ander in  the  campaign  in  Austria,  where  he 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Austerlitz.  He  also 
followed  him  to  the  campaign  in  I'russia,  and 
after  its  termination  to  the  conferences  of  Tilsit 
in  1807.  The  duchy  of  Warsaw  having  been 
created  by  the  treaty  then  concluded,  he  left  the 
service  of  the  emperor  and  lived  retired  from 
public  affairs  till  1813,  when  he  again  accom- 
panied Alexander  to  Germany,  France,  and 
the  congress  of  Vienna.  Made  senator  palatine 
of  the  new  kingdom  of  Poland  by  Alexander, 
he  appeared  at  its  fii-st  diet,  acting  in  behalf  of 
liberal  ideas.  In  1821  he  resigned  the  curator- 
ship  of  the  university  of  Wilna,  which  he  had 
held  since  its  organization  in  1803,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  extraordinary  persecutions  to 
which  a  number  of  students,  accused  of  con- 
spiracy, had  been  subjected.  The  report  of  his 
successor  Novosiltzoft",  who  accused  him  of  hav- 
ing delayed  for  a  century,  through  his  manage- 
ment, the  amalgamation  of  Lithuania  with 
Russia,  was  an  honorable  testimony  to  his 
patriotism.  He  now  more  and  more  won  the 
confidence  and  esteem  of  the  nation,  and  after 
the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  Nov.  29,  1830, 
he  was  called  to  preside  over  the  provisional 
government.  He  convoked  for  Dec.  18  the 
diet  which  proclaimed  the  independence  of  Po- 
land, Jan.  25,  1831,  Avhen  Czartoryski  became 
president  of  the  national  government.  This 
dignity,  in  which  he  sacrificed  immense  riches 
on  the  altar  of  the  revolution,  he  laid  down 
after  the  terroristic  scenes  of  Aug.  15,  to  serve 
as  a  private  soldier  in  the  ranks  of  the  army 
tmder  Ramorino,  After  the  surrender  of  that 
general  in  Galicia,  and  the  fall  of  Warsaw 
(Sept.  1831),  he  shared  the  fate  of  the  Polish 
emigration  in  France.  He  was  excluded  from 
the  amnesty  of  1831 ;  his  estates  in  the  Russian 
Polish  provinces  were  confiscated;  those  in 
Austria  were  sequestered  in  1846  in  consequence 
of  a  declaration  in  favor  of  the  revolutionary 
movement  which  drove  the  Austrians  from 
Cracow,  but  were  restored  in  1848.  In  March, 
1848,  he  issued  a  proclamation  calling  upon  the 
representatives  of  Germany  and  France  to 
unite  for  the  restoration  of  Poland.  In  April 
of  the  same  year  he  abolished  serfdom  on  his 
estates  of  Sieniawa.  Being  the  choice  of  the 
monarchical  party  in  the  Polish  emigration, 
and  as  such  distinguished  by  some  too  zealous 
adherents  with  honors  not  convenient  for  an 
exile,  Czartoryski  was  often  the  object  of  vio- 
lent attacks  on  the  part  of  the  democrats,  but 
togetlier  with  his  wife,  Anna,  princess  of  Sapie- 
ha  (born  in  1796),  sustained  his  dignified  posi- 
tion by  a  nearly  regal  munificence,  which  made 
his  hotel  in  Paris  a  place  of  refuge  for  his  suf- 
fering compatriots.  He  has  2  sons,  Witold,  bora 
in  1824,  and  Wladyslaw,  born  in  1828,  and  a 


CZASLAU 


CZEPwNY  GEOPwGE 


199 


diuiglitcr  Izabclla,  born  in  1882.  VII.  Konstan- 
TY,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  Oct.  28,  1773, 
was  sent  in  1795  together  with  his  brother  as 
hostage  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  lie  was  attached 
to  the  person  of  the  grand  duko  Constantine 
Paulovitch.  Having  returned  to  Poland,  ho 
was  made  colonel  in  the  army  of  the  duchy  of 
Warsaw  in  1809,  and  followed  the  army  of  Na- 
poleon to  Russia  in  1812.  After  the  retreat 
from  Moscow  he  retired  to  Austria,  and  has  since 
taken  no  part  in  public  aftairs.     He  has  4  sons. 

CZASLAU.  I.  A  circle  or  administrative 
province  of  Bohemia;  area  1,200  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
247,087.  It  is  traversed  by  the  ^loravian  moun- 
tains, in  which  rise  several  tributaries  of  the 
Moldau  and  the  Elbe.  The  higli  lands  are  well 
wooded,  and  the  plains  and  valleys  are  extreme- 
ly fertile.  Gold,  silver,  iron,  saltpetre,  and  pre- 
cious stones,  particularly  garnets,  are  found  in 
some  districts.  There  are  manufactories  of  cot- 
ton, woollen,  and  paper.  11.  Capital  of  the 
above  circle,  pop.  3,500,  memorable  for  a  vic- 
tory over  the  Austriaus  gained  by  Frederic  the 
Great,  May  17,  1742.  It  has  a  church  noted 
for  its  lofty  spire,  and  containing  -the  tomb  of 
Ziska,  the  Hussite  leader. 

CZECZ,  Janos,  a  Hungarian  general,  born 
at  Zsidofalva,  in  Transylvania,  in  1822,  was  at- 
tached in  1846  to  the  Austrian  general  statf, 
and  in  June,  1848,  to  the  newly  created  Hunga- 
rian ministry  of  war,  served  successively  under 
Mesziiros  in  southern  Hungary,  as  reporter  of 
the  revolutionary  committee  of  defence  headed 
by  Kossuth,  and  under  Bem  in  Transylvania, 
where  he  contributed  to  the  reorganization  of 
the  army,  as  well  as  to  the  victories  of  that 
general.  After  the  catastrophe  of  Vilagos,  he 
succeeded  in  escaping  to  Hamburg  and  London. 
His  "  Transylvanian  Campaign  of  Bem"  (Ham- 
burg, 1850)  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  the 
history  of  that  eventful  war. 

CZEGL£D,  a  large  market  town  in  the  co. 
of  Pesth,  in  Hungary,  on  the  Pesth-Szolnok 
railroad,  pop.  about  15,000,  situated  in  a  fer- 
tile district  which  produces  much  grain,  and 
some  red  wine.  It  has  a  Roman  Catholic  and 
a  Calvinist  church.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly 
Magyars,  and  agriculturists.  The  proximity  of 
Kecskemet,  Szolnok,  and  the  Theiss,  made 
Czegled  conspicuous  during  the  Hungarian  war 
of  1848-'49,  particularly  in  Jan.  1849,  when  the 
offensive  against  the  Austrians  was  recom- 
menced under  Perczel. 

CZENSTOCHOWA,  or  OzExsTOcnAx:,  a  town 
of  Russian  Poland,  in  the  government  of  Kalisz, 
near  the  Prussian  frontier,  is  situated  on  the 
Warta,  and  on  the  Cracow  and  Warsaw  railroad 
line,  and  consists  of  the  old  and  new  town,  and 
the  suburb  St.  Barbara ;  pop.  about  8,000,  of 
whom  about  the  8th  part  are  Jews.  Its  chief 
manufacture  consists  in  chapk^ts  and  images 
made  for  the  numerous  hosts  of  pilgrims  from 
all  parts  of  Poland  and  other  Slavic  countries, 
who  annually  visit  the  shrine  of  the  monastery 
of  St.  Paul,  situated  on  the  Klarenberg  (Pol. 
Jasna  G6ra\  between  the  old  and  new  towns, 


and  containing  a  dark  brown  imago  of  the  Vir- 
gin, the  miraculous  power  of  which  is  a  matter 
of  general  belief  among  the  Slavic  people.  The 
monastery,  having  been  pillaged  by  the  Hussites 
in  the  15th  century,  was  fortifled,  and  after- 
ward withstood  in  1655  a  siege  of  the  Swedes 
of  Charles  Gustavus,  who  had  occupied  the 
whole  country,  and  were  hero  repulsed  by  a 
few  friars ;  was  bravely  defended  by  the  con- 
federates of  Bar  under  Pulaski  in  1771,  when 
the  old  town  was  reduced  to  ashes;  was  taken 
by  the  French  in  1800,  newly  fortified  by  theiu 
in  1812,  and  finally  given  up  to  the  Russians^ 
who  destroyed  the  fortifications. 

CZERNIGOW.     See  Tcuernigov. 

CZERNOWITZ,  Tcheenowitz,  or  more  prop* 
erly  Czernowice.  I.  A  circle  of  Austrian 
Galicia,  also  called  the  Bukovina ;  pop.  about 
300,000.  It  is  a  mountainous  but  fertile  re- 
gion, comprising  an  area  of  3,097  sq.  m.,  cov- 
ered with  ridges  of  the  Carpathian  system, 
and  everywhere  broken  into  hills  and  valleys. 
It  is  watered  by  the  Pruth  and  the  Sereth. 
The  chief  productions  are  grain,  cattle,  swine, 
honey,  wax,  copper,  and  lead.  There  are  vast 
forests  of  oak,  beech,  and  other  timber.  The 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  of  Wallachiaa 
origin;  the  remainder  are  Germans,  Russians, 
and  Armenians.  II.  Capital  of  the  above  cir- 
cle, pop.  about  12,000,  pleasantly  situated  on  a 
hill  overhanging  the  Pruth,  contains  a  Greek 
cathedral,  a  gymnasium,  and  high  schools.  It 
is  neatly  built,  Avith  wide,  clean  streets,  and 
gardens  and  vineyards  attached  to  each  house. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  of  clocks,  silver 
ware,  hardware,  and  carriages. 

CZERNY  GEORGE,  or  Kara  George  (lit- 
erally Black  George,  czerny  in  Slavic,  and 
Tcara  in  Turkish,  signifying  black),  the  leader 
of  the  Servians  in  their  insurrection  against 
the  Turks,  and  their  chief  during  the  first  pe- 
riod of  their  national  restoration,  born  about 
1770,  strangled  and  beheaded  in  July,  1817. 
Brought  up  as  a  peasant  in  one  of  the  wild 
mountain  regions  of  Servia,  stern  and  robust, 
he  evinced  while  a  youth,  according  to  the 
rather  legendary  relations  of  his  early  life,  the 
courage  and  fanaticism  of  his  race  by  the  mur- 
der of  a  Mussulman.  He  served  in  the  Austrian 
army  in  the  war  against  Turkey,  undertaken 
by  Joseph  II.,  together  with  Catharine  II.  of 
Russia,  but  soon  left  the  service  in  consequence 
of  insubordination,  and  fled  into  his  native 
mountains,  where  he  became  the  chieftain  of  a 
band  of  outlaws,  who  sought  to  satisfy  their 
thirst  for  rapine  and  revenge  by  pillaging  and 
murdering  the  Mohammedan  oppressors  of  their 
country.  Tired  of  this  roving  life,  he  recon- 
ciled himself  with  his  colonel  and  followed  him 
to  Austria.  Under  the  humane  administration 
of  Hadji  Mustapha  Pasha  he  returned  to  his 
home,  where  he  acquired  some  property  as  a 
grazier,  and  great  popularity  by  his  energy. 
But  the  pasha  was  soon  murdered  by  the  jan- 
izaries, who  now  deposed  the  Turkish  au- 
thorities  and  pillaged  the   Christian  natives. 


200 


CZERNY  GEORGE 


Threatened  with  the  vongeanco  of  the  sultan, 
they  resolved  to  obviate  it  by  the  massacre  of 
all  the  leading  Servians,  which  they  executed 
in  part  in  February,  1804.  George  and  many 
others  escaped  and  found  refuge  in  the  moun- 
tains, where  they  were  soon  joined  by  hosts  of 
outlaws,  ready  to  revenge  the  blood  of  the 
Christians.  A  general  insurrection  was  pre- 
pared. George  was  urged  by  his  coni])anions 
to  become  its  leader,  but,  conscious  of  his  igno- 
rance, for  he  could  neither  write  nor  read,  he 
refused,  declaring  himself  incapable  of  govern- 
ment. "  "We'll  assist  you  with  our  advice," 
was  their  reply.  "  But  I  am  of  a  violent  spirit," 
said  he;  "  instead  of  judging,  I  shall  order  men 
to  death."  "  Well,  in  our  circumstances  wo 
want  rigor."  George  yielded,  and  did  his  best. 
He  laid  siege  to  Belgrade  ;  his  lieutenants  took 
several  strongholds  of  the  janizaries.  Sultan 
Selim,  Avho  was  pleased  with  these  victories 
over  the  seditious  janizaries,  ordered  Bekir  Pa- 
sha of  Bosnia  to  aid  the  Servians.  The  janiza- 
ries were  unable  to  resist  the  double  attack; 
their  chiefs  took  to  flight,  but  were  overtaken 
and  beheaded.  But  instead  of  returning  to 
their  peaceful  occupations,  the  Servians,  em- 
boldened by  their  success,  continued  in  arms, 
sent  a  deputation  to  Alexander,  the  emperor  of 
Russia,  and,  on  his  promise  to  support  their 
claims,  another  deputation  to  Constantinople, 
asking  that  all  the  strongholds  of  the  country 
should  be  surrendered  to  them,  and  a  compen- 
sation paid  for  the  losses  they  had  suffered. 
George  in  the  meanwhile  attacked  and  took 
the  last  strongholds  of  the  janizaries  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  country.  These  proceed- 
ings irritated  the  sultan;  ,he  ordered  Ilafiz, 
the  pasha  of  Nissa,  to  march  to  Servia  and 
disarm  the  insurgents ;  but  being  resisted  by 
George,  at  the  head  of  10,000  men,  the  pasha 
speedily  retired.  In  the  spring  of  1806  Servia 
■was  invaded  by  Bekir  Pasha  from  the  west,  and 
by  Ibrahim,  pasha  of  Scutari,  from  the  south. 
Thus  piressed,  George  first  strengthened  his  pre- 
carious position  by  the  massacre  of  suspected 
national  leaders,  marched  against  the  Bosnians, 
routed  them,  and  then  turned  against  Ibrahim, 
who  had  been  checked  in  his  course  by  one  of  his 
lieutenants,  and  was  now  ready  for  a  cessation 
of  hostilities.  This  was  approved  of  by  the 
Bultan,  who  terminated  the  negotiations  of 
peace  by  granting  the  Servians  the  national  in- 
dependence of  their  country  under  the  suzer- 
ainty of  the  Porte,  with  the  obligation  to  pay 
an  annual  tribute.'  But  the  execution  of  the 
stipulations  still  had  to  be  enforced ;  Belgrade, 
Szabacz,  and  other  places,  were  to  be  taken  by 
assault,  and  these  conquests  were  stained  by 
wanton  massacres  of  Mohammedans.  In  the 
summer  of  1807  the  Servians  became  masters  of 
the  whole  of  their  country.  George  was  elect- 
ed its  chief,  and  as  such  acknowledged  by  the 
Porte ;  but  he  had  to  struggle  against  the  inde- 
pendent spirit  of  the  military  chiefs,  and  the 
opposition  of  the  senate,  many  members  of 
which  leaned  toward  Russia,  while  he  disliked 


that  power.  He  overcame  the  difficulties  by 
energy  and  rigor,  which  had  the  merit  of  being 
impartial.  His  only  brother,  having  committed 
an  outrage  on  a  girl,  was  hanged,  and  his  mother 
forbidden  to  mourn  for  him.  This  illustrates 
the  character  of  this  barbarous  hero,  of  whom 
a  tradition  relates  that  in  his  youth,  when  he 
first  determined  to  leave  the  country  of  his  op- 
pressors, he  shot  down  his  father,  who  refused 
to  follow  him.  Generally  he  was  gloomy  and 
taciturn,  but  wine  made  him  talk  and  even 
dance.  lie  was  simple  in  his  habits ;  his  dress 
was  like  that  of  other  peasants ;  he  himself 
performed  the  hardest  labors  of  a  husbandman, 
and  his  daughter,  like  other  peasant  girls, 
brought  water  from  the  well.  But  cruelty  and 
avarice  stained  both  his  life  and  administration. 
In  1809  the  war  of  Alexander  against  Turkey 
seemed  to  George  a  favorable  opportunity  for 
extending  the  limits  of  his  country  and  recon- 
quering its  ancient  possessions  and  power. 
Crossing  the  south-western  mountains  to  unite 
with  the  Montenegrins,  he  laid  siege  to  Novi- 
bazar,  and  then  made  an  attempt  to  conquer 
the  Herzegovina,  when  he  was  surprised  by  the 
rout  of  his  lieutenants  by  an  invading  Turkish 
army.  The  intervention  of  a  Russian  corps 
alone  saved  Servia,  but  in  the  following  year 
George  was  again  successful,  and  repeated  vic- 
tories also  secured  for  him  an  almost  absolute 
power,  which  easily  crushed  every  opposition. 
The  divan  now  offered  him  propositions  of  peace, 
which  he  rejected,  generously  refusing  to  treat 
without  his  Russian  allies;  but  Russia,  threat- 
ened in  its  existence  by  Napoleon,  hastened  to 
conclude  the  treaty  of  Bucharest  (1812),  whose 
stipulations  in  behalf  of  Servia  proved  illusory. 
Thus  suddenly  deserted,  George  lost  his  wont- 
ed energy,  sought  for  peace  instead  of  prepar- 
ing for  a  vigorous  resistance,  and  made  humil- 
iating proposals.  Even  these  were  rejected, 
and  the  Turkish  army  entered  Servia  in  June, 
1813.  Veliko,  the  Achilles  of  Servia,  who 
tried  to  check  their  march,  was  killed  by  a 
cannon  ball,  and  on  Oct.  2  George  allowed  the 
Turks  to  cross  the  Morava  before  his  eyes. 
Eager  to  save  his  life  and  treasures,  he  fled  the 
next  day  beyond  the  Danube,  and  sought  refuge 
in  Semlin,  and  subsequently  in  Chocim  in  Bes- 
sarabia. The  deserted  Servian  troops  disband- 
ed, and  the  Turks  were  again  masters  of  Servia, 
winch  but  slowly  recovered  a  partial  independ- 
ence under  the  lead  of  Milosh  Obrenovitch.  In 
1817,  when  the  Greek  Iletairia  was  secretly 
preparing  a  general  insurrection  in  the  northern 
provinces  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  George  was 
tempted  to  leave  his  retreat,  and  to  return  in 
secret  to  Servia.  Having  succeeded  in  reen- 
tering it  undetected,  he  repaired  to  the  house 
of  Vuitza,  one  of  his  ancient  lieutenants,  whence 
he  besought  Milosh  to  raise  the  banner  of  insur- 
rection. But  the  new  national  ruler,  cautious 
and  afraid  of  a  rival,  informed  the  pasha  of  Bel- 
grade of  his  presence,  and  that  official  demand- 
ed his  head.  The  demand  was  complied  with, 
Vuitza  surrendered  him,  and  the  head  of  the  man 


CZERNY 


D 


201 


Avho  liad  so  often  made  the  !N[iissulinans  tremble 
was  sent  to  Constantinople,  where  it  was  ex- 
posed at  the  gate  of  the  seraglio.  i3ut  the  mem- 
ory of  the  deliverer  remained  dear  to  his  nation, 
and  after  the  revolution  of  1842,  which  over- 
threw the  lioiise  of  Obrenoviteh,  his  sou  Al- 
exander, called  Karageorgevitch,  was  elected 
prince  of  Servia.  This  prince,  however,  was 
deposed,  after  a  reign  of  10  years,  by  the  Ser- 
vian national  convention  in  Dee.  1858,  and  Mi- 
losh  Obrenoviteh  invited  once  more  to  under- 
take tlie  government. 

CZERNY,  Karl,  a  German  composer,  born 
in  Vienna,  Feb.  21,  1791,  died  there,  July  15, 
1857.  He  received  his  musical  instruction  from 
his  father,  a  teacher  of  the  piano,  appeared  at 
the  age  of  9  in  a  concert,  and  became  ac(iuaint- 
ed  with  Beethoven  and  afterward  Avith  de- 
menti. He  pursued  the  profession  of  his  father 
from  1805  to  1835,  and  visited  London  in  1836. 
Among  his  pupils  are  Liszt,  Dohler,  and  other 
distinguished  artists.  He  wrote  an  immense 
number  of  compositions,  and  several  theoretical 
works,  of  which  the  "Practical  School  of  Com- 
position "  (3  parts,  London  and  Bonn,  1849), 
and  the  "  Sketch  of  the  History  of  Music " 
(Mentz,  1851),  are  the  most  remarkable. 

CZUCZOR,  Geugelt,  a  Hungarian  author, 
born  Dec.  17,  1800,  at  Andod,  in  the  county  of 
Neutra.  From  1825  to  1835  he  was  professor 
at  the  colleges  of  Raab  and  Comorn,  an  appoint- 
ment conferred  upon  him  by  the  Benedictine 
monks,  of  whose  order  ho  Avas  a  member ;  but 


after  he  had  removed  to  Pesth,  where  in  1835 
he  was  elected  assistant  librarian  and  keei)er 
of  the  archives  of  the  Hungarian  academy,  the 
monks  found  fault  with  the  worldly  character  of 
some  of  his  poetical  writings,  and  he  was  com- 
pelled torelinfjuish  his  office  and  his  i)ub]ic  liter- 
ary pursuits,  and  to  become  again  an  inmate  of 
the  monastery.  In  1844  he  became  the  editor 
of  the  academical  dictionary,  in  which  he  had 
advanced  to  the  letter  I  when  the  work  was  in- 
terrupted by  the  revolution  of  1848.  Czuczor 
embraced  the  popular  movement  with  enthusi- 
astic zeal,  and  became  one  of  its  martyrs,  being 
sentenced  in  1849  by  the  Austrians  to  G  years' 
imprisonment,  for  his  Eiado,  a  Hungarian  Mar- 
seillaise. The  president  of  the  academy,  Count 
Joseph  Teleky,  caused  the  irons  with  Avhich  he 
had  been  manacled  to  be  taken  ofl",  and  enabled 
liim  to  resume  his  labors  on  the  dictionary. 
After  the  capture  of  Buda,  he  was  released  from 
prison  by  the  Hungarian  army ;  but  on  the  de- 
feat of  the  revolution  he  preferred  prison  to  ex- 
ile, and  gave  himself  up  to  the  victors.  He  was 
transferred  to  the  state  prison  of  Kufstein,  where 
he  remained  incarcerated  until  1850,  when  he 
Avas  pardoned.  While  at  Kufstein,  he  devoted 
himself  to  his  lexicographical  labors  and  to  a 
translation  of  Tacitus  into  Hungarian.  His  ep- 
ical poems,  the  "  Battle  of  Augsburg,"  the  "  As- 
sembly of  Arad,"  and  "  Ilunyady,"  are  among 
his  most  renowned  pi-oductions.  He  has  also 
published  a  translation  of  Sparks's  "Life  of 
"Washington." 


D 


the  4th  letter  in  the  Phoenician  system 
'^  of  writing,  and  in  most  of  those  derived 
from  it,  is  the  representative  of  the  last  of 
the  4  classes  into  which  the  sounds  of  human 
speech  may  be  divided — A  representing  the  1st. 
or  faucal  (vocal)  class,  B  the  2d  or  labial,  and 
0  the  3d  or  guttural.  The  letters  of  this  4th, 
denti-lingual  or  lingui-dental  class,  viz.,  d,  t, 
s,  2,  Z,  r,  being  visible  signs  of  the  articulated 
sounds  produced  by  various  movements  of  the 
tongue  touching  the  teeth  and  gums,  are,  there- 
fore, convertible  into  each  other.  And  whereas, 
in  consequence  of  the  misunderstanding  of  the 
real  character  of  human  phonetism,  and  of  its 
graphic  representation,  letters  have  been  mis- 
applied to  sounds,  the  combination  th,  and  even 
g,j,  ch,  have  been  and  are  used  instead  of  the 
letters  of  the  4th  class.  D  is  the  sonorous 
counterpart  of  T,  and  is  produced  by  applying 
the  tip  of  the  tongue  to  the  superior  incisive 
teeth  and  to  tlieir  gum,  while  the  tongue, 
obliquely  rising,  obstructs  the  passage  of  the 
breath ;  then  by  suddenly  withdrawing  this  ob- 
struction, while  the  larynx  resounds  (oscillates) 
during  the  passage  of  the  air  through  the  glot- 
tis, the  sound  in  question  is  exploded.  When 
the  larynx  does  not  thus  resound,  we  utter  the 


harder  T.  The  7,  r,  are  strictly  lingni-dental,,  and 
rZ,  t,  s,  s,  denti-lingual.  The  Hebrew  name 
daleth  (whence  the  Greek  delta),  signifying 
door,  gate,  has  nothing  to  do  either  with  the 
nature  of  the  sound  or  with  the  figure  of  the 
letter,  being  merely  used  on  account  of  its  be- 
ginning with  this  sound.  The  figure  of  the 
letter  is  more  or  less  triangular,  and  more  or 
less  rounded,  while  in  many  so-called  alphabets  it 
is  a  mere  angle  or  crook.  In  Slavonic  it  occu- 
pies (erroneously)  the  5th  place,  in  Ethiopic  the 
19th,  or  counting  the  Amharic  additions,  the 
24th.  Its  hieroglyphs  are  the  segment  of  a 
circle,  an  open  hand,  a  beetle,  which  designate 
both  T  and  D.  Moreau  de  Dammartin  derives 
the  figure  from  the  northern  triangle,  and  from 
the  little  triangle  in  the  head  of  the  ram  in  the 
zodiac.  In  Arabic  there  are  4  modifications  of 
it,  to  wit :  dal  (4,  as  a  numeral  siirn),  the  8tla 
letter ;  dzal  (700),  the  9th  ;  dhad  (800),  the  15th  ; 
and  dha  (900),  the  I7th ;  but  in  Cufic  writing  only 
the  first  is  used.  The  Devanagari  has  two  series 
of  letters,  each  consisting  of  5  (f,  th,  d,  dh,  n),  one 
of  which  is  named  cerebral  or  lingual,  and  the 
other  dental ;  most  of  the  modes  of  writing 
employed  in  the  middle  and  south  of  Asia  fol- 
low this  arrangement.     In  Mongolic  and  Man- 


202 


DA  CAPO 


DACCA 


tcbooric  D  is  disliiigiiislied  from  T  by  a  dot,  aa  it 
is  also  in  the  runes.  Tlie  Finus,  Lapps,  and  other 
northern  jjeople,  scarcely  distinguish  it  from  T. 
It  is  the  only  sonorous  consonant  with  the  II u- 
rous,  and  was  very  prevalent  among  the  natives 
of  the  Mexican  plateau  and  in  the  Quichua  of 
South  America.  It  does  not  occur  on  Etruscan 
monuments,  T  being  used  in  its  place.  Grimm 
exhibits  the  convertibility  of  tiie  lingui-dentals 
as  follows : 

Greek.  Gotliic.         Old  High  German. 

A  T      ■  Z 

0  D  T 

T  Th  D 

This  scheme  is  illustrated  in  some  of  the  fol- 
lowing examples : 

Gr.  0uyaTi7p,  Goth.  dauUtar,  old  Ger.  Tochtar,  Enjf. 
diiuehter.  Gr.  oSou?,  Goth,  tunthu.%  old  Ger.  Zavt,  Eng. 
tooth,  <fcc.  Latin  :  quof/annis  and  quo^annis;  tenrfo,  ten«uni; 
prehenrfo,  prehensuni.  Euphonic:  prof/es,  ai'&pe^,  French 
genrfre,  Ac,  instead  of  pro-es,  ai-pa,  gen-re,  &.c.  WalLa- 
chian,  zece,  Lat.  (?cceni ;  zi,  rfies ;  ors,  hor'ieuni.  Ital.  Tra- 
pani,  Lat.  i>repana.  D  is  ejected  from  the  following:  Ital. 
aombrare.  Lit.  afZumbrare  ;  Po,  Lat.  Parfus,  &,c. ;  Si)an.  oi>; 
caer,  creer,  Lat.  aur/ire,  carZere,  crcf/ere  ;  so  in  the  French, 
otiir,  Jiiif,  isxieur,  Lat.  aurfire,  Juc?a>us,  siu7or.  L  substituted 
forD:  cicafa,  Lat.  cicat/a;  Span,  cola,  Lat.  caurfa;  Portug. 
ju^gar,  Lat.  juc?icare;  Ulysses,  OSucrcrey?;  Zacryma,  ^axpv, 
&c.  K  substituted  for  D:  meridies  for  merfidies;  armesa- 
riu  for  arfuiissariiis  (st.allion).  D  is  lost  in  the  following: 
Ital.  d,  pie,  Lat.  ad,  pede,  &c. ;  Span,  fe,  Lat.  fides ;  era,  Lat. 
crudus.  Ger.  7%eil,  rfoal;  gu«,  goor?;  Go«,  God;  B\\it, 
h\ood,  &c.  It.il.  danzare,  French  dan.fer,  Ger.  tansen,  Lat. 
tenffere.  Alrfobrando,  Ger.  AU-brandt;  Tancredo,  i).ank- 
rath,  &c.  Enrg.  /en,  tooth,  token ;  Lat.  f/ocem,  cfens,  r/ocu- 
mentum  ;  Ger.  sehn,  «ahn,  aeichen,  &c.  Ger.  rfick,  </dck  ; 
rfiinn,  </dn;  i'.aum,  t/uinib ;  dor,  rfie,  das,  ihe.  Lat.  parti- 
ciple passive,  -citum,  -iium ;  Eng.  -ed  ;  Span,  -ado,  -ido,  &c. 

— D  began  to  be  used  as  a  numeral  sign  for  500 
about  A.  D.  1500,  when  the  Dutch  printers  em- 
ployed the  ID  in  the  ancient  CI3  (M),  1,000, 
combining  those  signs  in  the  figure  of  I).  D  was 
used  by  the  Eomans  in  the  following  abbrevia- 
tions :  D.  for  Decius,  Dominus,  Divus,  Deus, 
Dictator,  Dacia,  Digestum,  &c. ;  D.  D.  for  De- 
cemvirorum  decreto ;  D.  D.  D.  for  Decemviro- 
rum  decreto  datum,  also  for  Dat,  donat,  dedicat ; 
d.  for  die,  dabam  (I  wrote),  &c. ;  D.  M.,  Diis 
inanibus  ;  D.  O.  M.,  Deo  optirno  maximo.  With 
the  Catholics  D  is  the  dominical  letter  ■when 
the  1st  Sunday  in  January  falls  on  the  4th. — On 
the  reverse  of  European  coins  D  indicates  Lyons 
in  France,  Aurich  and  Diisseklorf  in  Pru.ssia, 
Griltz  in  Austria. — D  in  music  denotes  the  2d 
interval  of  the  present  German  and  English 
diatonic  scale,  or  the  3d  string  of  the  chromatic 
scale ;  tliis  was  the  re  of  Guido  Aretino,  and 
is  the  la  of  tlie  French. 

DA  CAPO,  in  music  (abbreviated  by  the  let- 
ters D.  C),  an  Italian  phrase  signifying  from  the 
beginning,  which  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  piece 
to  direct  the  performer  to  return  to  the  begin- 
ning, and  repeat  the  first  strain. 

DAA,  LuDwio  Kristknsen,  a  Norwegian 
politician,  born  Aug.  19,  1809,  filled  an  impor- 
tant position  in  the  Norwegian  parliament,  be- 
came one  of  the  leaders  of  the  democratic  party, 
founded  in  1848  the  Christiania  Fosten,  and 
has  publislied  a  Swedi.sh-Norwegian  dictionary, 
and  various  other  works.  lie  is  an  enthusias- 
tic admirer  of  American  institutions. 

DACCA,  a  district  of  the  presidency  of  Ben- 


gal, in  British  India,  between  lat.  28°  12'  and 
24°  17'  N.,  and  long.  90°  11'  and  90°  58'  E. ;  area, 
1,900  sq.  m.;  pop.  600,000.  It  is  an  almost 
entirely  level  country,  traversed  by  numerous 
rivers,  which  abound  with  fish.  Of  wild  ani- 
mals, the  district  possesses  the  elejfliant,  buf- 
falo, tiger,  bear,  and  leopard  ;  of  wild  birds,  the 
fishing  eagle,  vulture,  kite,  adjutant  bird,  and 
crane.  The  jjorpoise  is  seen  in  the  large  rivers, 
Avhere  the  sharp-beaked  crocodile  and  the  blunt- 
beaked  crocodile  are  also  found.  Snakes  are 
numerous.  The  domestic  animals  are  kine  and 
buffaloes.  The  grain  crops  are  not  sufficient  for 
the  local  consumption.  Sugar,  betel-nut,  hemp, 
indigo,  and  other  dyestulis,  are  produced  to 
some  extent.  The  cotton  product  has  consider- 
ably declined  since  the  closing  of  the  fine  muslin 
manufactories  at  Dacca,  and  the  attempts  to 
introduce  American  cotton  have  not  been  suc- 
cessful, owing  to  the  myriads  of  insects  which 
destroy  the  bolls.  The  British  authority  was 
established  consequent  upon  the  grant  of  the 
dewanny,  in  1765,  but  a  small  allowance  contin- 
ues to  be  made  to  the  female  connections  and 
dependants  of  the  last  of  the  nawaubs  of  Dacca. 
In  the  N.  part  of  Dacca  are  2  distinct  tribes, 
the  Kunch  and  Eajbansi,  more  vigorous  and 
daring  than  the  rest  of  tlie  population,  w^iich  is 
about  equally  divided  between  Brahmins  and 
Mussulmans;  the  latter,  however,  being  consid- 
ered more  numerous.  The  projected  line  of  the 
eastern  Bengal  railway  intersects  this  district. — 
Dacca,  the  capital  of  the  above  described  district, 
is  situated  on  the  Burba  Gunga,  an  arm  of  the 
Brahmapootra,  150  m.  N.  E.  from  Calcutta,  and 
116  m.  E.  S.  E.  from  Moorshedabad ;  pop.  esti- 
mated at  less  than  70,000,  of  -whom  more  than 
half  are  Mussulmans.  It  was  once  a  considerable 
and  wealthy  city,  being  the  centre  of  the  manu- 
facture of  the  famous  fine  muslins  exported  hence 
to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  operation  of 
spinning  the  almost  impalpable  threads  for  these 
goods  was  carried  on  entirely  by  hand,  and  could 
only  be  done  in  the  morning  before  the  dew  was 
off  the  ground,  or  over  running  water.  Young 
women  spun  with  tlieir  fingers  and  a  fine  steel 
spindle.  The  muslins,  named  from  their  fine- 
ness abraican,  or  "  flowing  water,"  and  sJiah- 
11(17)1,  or  "  evening  dew,"  were  never  imitated 
elsewhere,  and  were  sold  alone  to  princes  and 
the  very  wealthy.  With  the  decay  of  the  In- 
dian courts,  the  chief  customers,  the  demand 
has  ceased,  and  the  manufacture  has  entirely- 
stopped.  Dacca  exhibits  at  the  present  day 
little  more  than  a  vast  expanse  of  ruins,  extend- 
ing for  several  miles  along  the  river  bank,  and 
in  many  places  overgrown  with  dense  jungle, 
infested  with  snakes  and  wild  beasts.  The 
streets  of  the  inhabited  part  are  narrow  and 
winding ;  the  houses  of  the  wealthier  classes  are 
built  of  brick,  but  the  bazaars  and  the  cottages 
of  the  poor  are  only  thatched.  The  extensive 
citadel,  situated  on  the  western  side  of  the  town, 
and  the  magnificent  palace  built  by  Aurung- 
zebe's  grandson,  Azim  Ushaun,  toward  the 
close  of  the  17th  century,  are  both  in  ruins. 


DACCA  JELALPOOR 


DACE 


2oa 


Tho  city  and  suburbs  are  stated  to  possess  10 
bridges,  13  landing  i)]uces  (gbats),  7  ferry  sta- 
tions, 12  bazaars,  3  ])nblic  wells,  a  variety  of 
buildings  for  fiscal  and  judicial  i)uri)03es,  a  gaol 
and  gaol  bospital,  a  lunatic  asylum,  an  Indian 
liospital,  an  elephant  depot  generally  containing 
200  to  300  elephants,  180  Mussulman  mosques, 
119  Braliminical  temples,  Anglican,  Greek,  Ar- 
menian, Catholic,  and  Baptist  churches.  The  lat- 
ter denomination  maintains  a  missionary  estab- 
lishment and  a  number  of  schools.  There  is  a 
college  managed  by  a  local  committee,  but  under 
the  control  of  the  government.  About  $00,000 
was  jiaid  over  to  the  city  in  1850,  as  a  bequest  of 
Mr.  Robert  AJitford,  for  the  benefit  of  tlie  poor 
native  inhabitants.  The  climate  here  is  not  so  hot 
as  in  other  jiarts  of  India,  owing  to  its  being  situ- 
ated in  a  low,  moist,  and  verdurous  region  of 
country.  The  unhealthy  season  is  from  Aug, 
20  to  Oct.  10.  During  the  rest  of  tho  year 
the  city  and  vicinity  are  salubrious.  The  mili- 
tary, however,  stationed  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
city,  were  removed  in  1852,  owing  to  the  uu- 
healthiness  of  the  locality ;  but  in  1857  there 
were  2  companies  of  the  73d  regiment  Bengal 
native  infantry  here,  whom  the  authorities,  on 
hearing  of  the  rising  at  Chittagong,  Nov.  18, 
resolved  to  disarm.  This  was  not  etiected  witli- 
out  bloodshed.  The  Sepoys  held  some  pieces 
of  artillery,  and  a  sharp  contest  took  place  at 
the  barracks,  from  which  they  were  finally 
driven  out  with  loss  by  a  few  volunteers  and 
100  English  sailors.  The  mutineers,  after  plun- 
dering several  villages,  hastened  to  Jelpigoreo, 
the  liead-quarters  of  their  regiment,  where  they 
were  routed  by  their  own  comrades,  and  driven 
otfto  perish  miserably  in  Bhotan. 

DACCA  JELALPOOR.     See  Fdreedpoor. 

DACE,  a  name  applied  to  several  native  and 
foreign  cyprinoid  fishes,  belonging  principally 
to  the  genus  leuciscus  (Klein),  which,  as  far  as 
the  North  American  species  are  concerne<l,  has 
been  subdivided  into  the  genera  argyreus 
(Ileckel),  leiicosomus  (Heckel),  plargyrus  (Rafi- 
nesque),  Eichardsonius  (Girard),  luxilus  (Raf.), 
semotiliis  (Raf.),  mylocheilns  (Agass.),  algansea 
(Gir.),  hyhognathus  (Agass.),  i^tW^^^ocheilus 
(Agass.),  Hudsonius  (Gir.),  Jiyhopsis  (Agass.), 
clinostomus  (Gir.),  ceratichthys  (Baird),  and 
chondrostoma  (Agass.).  From  this  long  ar- 
ray of  new  genera,  it  is  evident  that  it  will 
be  impossible  in  this  article  to  give  any  thing 
like  a  satisfactory  account  of  the  numerous  spe- 
cies popularly  called  dace.  For  full  particulars, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  "  Proceedings  of  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,Philadelphia,"  vol. 
viii.  p.  1C5,  Sept.  1856.  The  true  leucisci  are 
far  more  numerous  in  the  old  world  than  in  the 
new.  As  a  species  of  this  genus  may  be  men- 
tioned the  orange  dace  {L.  croceus,  Storer),  about 
3J-  inches  long,  of  a  greenish  color,  with  the 
throat  flesh-colored,  an  indistinct  brown  band 
on  the  side  running  longitudinally  Avith  a  small 
black  blotch  at  tlie  end,  and  the  fins  orange; 
from  Alabama.  These  genera  belong  to  the 
malaeoptcrygian  or  soft-rayed  fishes ;  the  mouth 


is  slightly  cleft,  tho  jaws  weak  and  without 
teeth,  and  the  jjjiaryngeal  bones  toothed ;  tho 
body  scaly,  one  dorsal  fin,  and  no  adipose  dor- 
sal ;  sometimes  with  barbels  on  the  head.  The 
name  of  shiner  is  also  given  to  many  of  the 
species  called  dace.  The  roach  dace,  or  silvery 
dace  (leiiconovms  pulchcllus,  Storer),  is  among 
the  largest  species,  being  sometimes  14  inches 
in  length  ;  the  color  is  dark  brown  above,  the 
upper  portion  of  sides  brassy  green,  lower  por- 
tion and  abdomen  ficsh  color,  with  golden  reflec- 
tions; the  head  is  black  above,  witli  tho  gill 
covers  coppery,  the  upper  jaw  slightly  the  long- 
er. It  delights  in  eddies  and  pools,  and  is  found 
from  New  York  to  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  synony- 
mous with  cheilonemus (Bd.),  and  has  5  described 
species ;  there  is  a  small  barbel  upon  the  max- 
illary, near  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  The  black- 
nosed  dace  (argyreus  atronasus,  Mitch.)  rarely 
exceeds  3  inches  in  length,  is  found  in  the 
rivers  of  Massachusetts  and  New  York,  and  is 
often  called  brook  minnow.  It  is  reddish 
brown  above,  abdomen  silvery  white,  with  mi- 
nute brown  blotches,  a  dark  band  jjassing  from 
the  nose  to  the  tail.  The  natural  characters  of 
the  genus  are  a  snout  more  or  less  protruding 
beyond  the  lower  jaw,  with  a  small  barbel  at 
tlie  angle  of  the  mouth ;  it  is  synonymous  with 
I'hinichthys  {Agn<s.).  The  long-nosed  dace  (A. 
nasutus,  Ayres)  is  about  4  inches  long,  inhabit- 
ing rapid  northern  streams ;  it  is  dark  brown 
above,  wliite  below,  with  the  dorsal  and  caudal 
fins  brownish.  Tlie  smaller  specimens  of  the  last 
2  species  make  excellent  bait  for  largo  trout. 
Seven  other  species  are  described.  The  red  daco 
(jylargyims  cornntns,  Mitch.),  one  of  the  prettiest 
of  the  American  cyprinoids,  is  about  5  inches 
long,  blackish  brown  above,  with  metallic  re- 
flections, sides  brilliant  and  cupreous,  all  the  fins 
and  opercles  margined  with  crimson  ;  the  jaws 
are  equal,  and  there  are  no  barbels  on  the  head ; 
the  scales  are  very  largo  and  imbricated.  This 
is  a  very  active  fish,  is  common  in  streams  fre- 
quented by  brook  trout,  and  is  frequently  taken 
by  fly-fishers  for  the  latter  species ;  it  is  often 
eaten  in  the  British  provinces,  and  is  in  the  best 
condition  in  May.  This  genus  is  synonymous 
with  hy])solepis  (Bd.),  and  contains  G  other  de- 
scribed species.  The  golden  and  flat  dace  belong 
to  the  genus  luxilus  (Raf.),  and  species  Z.  Ame- 
ricanua  (Lacep.),  and  L.  com2)ressus  (Raf.);  5 
other  species  are  described ;  no  barbels  on  the 
head.  The  lake  dace  hscmotilus  atromaculatus 
(Mitch.),  about  1 0  inches  long ;  4  other  species  are 
described.  The  north-west  dace  is  mylocheilus 
caurinus  (Rich.),  about  a  foot  long,  discovered 
in  the  Columbia  river;  it  has  a  maxillary  bar- 
bel ;  there  are  2  other  species.  The  Columbia 
river  dace  is  ptychocheilus  Oregonensis  (Rich.) ; 
it  is  more  tban  a  foot  long,  brownish  above, 
silvery  white  below  ;  there  are  4  other  species. 
The  shining  dace  of  Lake  Champlain  is  hyho- 
gnathus nitidiis  (De  Kay),  only  2  inches  long ; 
there  are  4  other  species.  Storer's  dace,  a  west- 
ern species,  about  8  inches  long,  is  hyhopsis 
Storerianus  (Kirtland) ;  there  is  also  a  southern 


204 


DACIA 


DACOTAH 


species  (27".  WinchrJIi,  Gir.).  The  common  dace 
of  Europe  is  the  leuciscus  vulgaris  (Cuv.),  in- 
habiting the  deei')  and  still  water  of  the  streams 
of  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  and  Italy; 
it  rarely  exceeds  10  inches  in  length  ;  the  pre- 
vailing color  is  dusky  blue  above,  becoming  paler 
on  the  sides,  and  ^vhite  on  the  abdomen ;  cheeks 
silvery;  dorsal  and  caudal  fins  pale  brown; 
the  other  fins  nearly  white,  tinged  witli  pale 
red.  They  are  gregarious,  swimming  in  shoals, 
and  spawning  in  June ;  they  feed  on  worms  and 
insects,  but,  like  the  trout,  will  rise  at  an  arti- 
ficial fly.  The  flesh  is  not  much  esteemed  as 
food,  and  it  is  principally  used  as  a  bait  for 
pike-trolling,  on  account  of  its  silvery  bright- 
ness. The  shining  scales  of  the  roach  and  other 
dace  are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  artifi- 
cial pearls,  being  attached  to  the  inner  surface 
of  the  transparent  shell. 

DACIA,  a  province  of  the  Roman  empire, 
bounded  N.  by  the  Carpathian  mountains,  which 
separated  it  from  Sarraatia,  S.  by  the  Danube  (Is- 
ter,  Danubius),  which  separated  it  from  Moesia, 
E.  by  the  Pruth  (Hierasus)  and  the  Euxine,  and 
W.  by  the  Theiss  (Tibiscus,  Tysia).  It  thus  com- 
])rised  a  part  of  Hungary,  with  the  banat  of 
Temesvar,  Transylvania,  Wallachia,  and  Molda- 
via. According  to  some  it  included  N.  E.  the 
Bukovina,  and  E.  Bessarabia.  Before  the  Eo- 
man  conquest,  which  was  the  last  aggrandize- 
ment of  the  empire  in  Europe,  this  country 
was  the  habitation  of  the  Daci,  a  brave  people, 
probably  of  Thracian  race,  called  by  historians 
the  most  warlike  of  men,  and,  according  to 
some,  identical  with  the  Geta),  who  at  the  time 
of  Darius's  Scythian  expedition  lived  between 
the  Balkan  and  the  Danube.  Strabo  speaks  of 
the  Getna  as  living  in  the  E.,  and  of  the  Daci  as 
living  in  the  W.  part  of  the  country.  In  the 
reign  of  Augustus  they  crossed  the  Danube, 
plundered  the  allies  of  the  Romans,  and  spread 
terror  even  among  the  latter,  birt  were  finally 
driven  back  into  their  own  country.  Under 
their  king  Decebalus  they  compelled  Domitian, 
after  a  protracted  struggle,  to  purchase  an  igno- 
minious peace  by  an  annual  tribute.  The  empe- 
ror, however,  decorated  himself  with  the  title 
of  Dacicus.  Trajan  refused  to  pay  the  tribute, 
and  renewed  the  war.  Decebalus  proved  him- 
self a  rival  not  unworthy  of  tliis  emi)eror,  and 
ended  the  struggle  with  his  life  (A.  D.  106), 
only  after  having  exhausted  every  resource  both 
of  valor  and  policy.  The  new  province  was 
colonized  by  inliabitants  from  all  parts  of  the 
empire,  with  whom  the  Romanic  language  of 
the  modern  Wallachians,  both  in  Transylvania 
and  the  Danubian  principalities,  originated. 
Notwithstanding  the  resolution  of  the  succes- 
sors of  Trajan  to  contract  the  limits  of  the  em- 
pire, Dacia  still  remained  one  of  its  provinces. 
In  the  3d  century  it  Avas  invaded  by  tlie  Goths, 
and  resigned  to  them  by  the  emperor  Aurelian, 
who  removed  the  Roman  inhabitants  to  Mresia, 
giving  the  name  of  Dacia  to  that  part  of  the 
latter  province  in  which  they  settled. 

DACIER,  AsTKE  (Lefevee),  a  learned  French 


woman,  born  in  Saumnr  in  March,  1654,  died 
Aug.  17,  1720.  She  was  the  daughter  of  the 
distinguished  scholar  Tanneguy  Lelevre,  and 
acquired  her  first  instruction  from  overhearing 
the  lessons  given  by  her  father  to  his  son.  Le- 
fevre,  amazed  at  the  extent  of  tlie  information 
she  had  thus  acquired,  devoted  every  care  to 
her  education,  and  at  his  death,  in  1672,  she 
was  one  of  the  most  accomplished  scholars  in 
Europe.  In  tliat  year  she  went  to  reside  in 
Paris,  where  in  1 674  she  published  an  edition  of 
Callimachus.  The  reputation  acquired  by  this 
work  procured  her  an  invitation  to  assist  in 
editing  the  celebrated  classical  series  Ad  usum 
Delphini^  ordered  by  Louis  XIV.  for  the  use  of 
the  dauphin.  In  the  discharge  of  this  duty  she 
prepared  editions  of  Florus,  Eutropius,  Aure- 
lius  Victor,  Dictys  Cretensis,  and  Dares  Phry- 
gius.  In  1683  she  was  married  to  Andr6  Da- 
cier,  a  man  of  learning  not  inferior  to  her  own, 
and  a  favorite  scholar  of  her  father,  under 
whose  instruction  they  had  for  many  years 
been  fellow  pupils.  This  union  was  called  "  the 
marriage  of  Greek  and  Latin."  Two  years  af- 
terward they  both  abjured  Protestantism,  and  re- 
ceived from  the  king  a  pension  of  2,000  livres. 
Madame  Dacior  thenceforth  devoted  herself  no 
less  assiduously  to  literary  pursuits,  and  during 
the  remainder  of  her  life  produced  translations 
of  several  plays  of  Plantus,  the  whole  of  Ter- 
ence, the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of  Homer,  the 
"  Plutus"  and  "  Clouds"  of  Aristophanes,  and 
the  whole  of  Anacreon  and  Sappho.  The  trans- 
lations from  Homer  involved  her  in  a  literary 
war  with  M.  dela  Motte  and  others,  concerning 
the  comparative  merits  of  ancient  and  modern 
literature,  which  she  conducted  with  ability  and 
enthusiasm,  if  occasionally  with  warmth.  She 
also  assisted  her  husband  in  the  translation  of 
Marcus  Antoninus  and  Plutarch's  "Lives."  She 
was  distinguished  for  modesty  and  amiability, 
and  amid  her  engrossing  literary  avocations 
neglected  no  domestic  or  maternal  duties. — M. 
Daoier,  born  at  Castres  in  1651,  was  equally 
industrious  as  an  editor  and  translator  of  clas- 
sical authors.  Among  the  works  translated  by 
him,  in  addition  to  those  mentioned,  were  Aris- 
totle's "Poetics,"  the  "CEdipus"  and  "Electra" 
of  Sophocles,  the  works  of  Hippocrates  and 
Horace,  and  some  of  Plato's  dialogues.  Ho  was 
one  of  the  scholars  engaged  in  preparing  the 
Delphin  editions  of  the  classics,  and  his  only 
contribution  to  it  was  an  edition  of  Pomponius 
Festus  and  Valerius  Flaccus.  He  was  keeper  of 
the  library  of  the  Louvre,  and  a  member  of  the 
French  academy.  He  died  2  ye~ars  after  his 
wife,  whose  death  left  him  almost  inconsolable. 
DACOTAH,  or  Dakota,  a  territory  of  the 
United  States,  lying  between  lat.  42°  30'  and  49° 
N.,  long.  96°  30'  and  103°  AV.,  boimded  N.  by  Brit- 
ish America,  E.  by  the  states  of  Minnesota  and 
Iowa,  S.  and  W.  by  Nebraska ;  length  from  N. 
to  S.  about  450  m.,  average  breadth  about  200 
m. ;  area,  70,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1858  estimated  at 
10,000,  exclusive  of  Indians,  but  including  about 
4,000  half-breed  settlers,  who  live  chiefly  by  the 


DACOTAH 


DACTYLOLOGY 


205 


chase.  Tlie  latter  occupy  a  number  of  trading 
stations  along  tlie  Missouri  river  in  the  S.  and 
S.  W.  parts  of  tlie  territory,  and  in  tlie  valley 
of  lied  river,  near  the  British  frontier.  Tho 
Indians  belong  to  the  Yankton,  Sissiton,  Dacotah 
or  Medawakantwan  (Sioux),  and  Wahpetonwan 
fSioux)  tribes,  many  of  whom  receive  an  annuity 
from  tlic  U.  S.  government,  but  the  efforts  made 
to  improve  their  condition  have  thus  far  had  lit- 
tle eft'ect.  In  1858  delegations  from  tliese  tribes 
met  in  Washington,  and  ceded  to  the  govern- 
ment valuable  agricultural  lands  on  tho  Sioux, 
Missouri,  and  Red  rivers.  The  white  settle- 
ments are  almost  exclusively  in  the  south-east, 
on  the  Minnesota  border.  The  surface  of  the 
territory  is  elevated,  but  not  mountainous.  A 
])lateau  called  the  coteau  dcs  2)>'airic8,  or  ^'■'prai- 
rie  heights,"  with  an  average  elevation  of  1,450 
feet  above  the  sea  and  a  breadth  of  15  or  20 
ra.,  runs  for  200  m.  near  its  E.  boundary,  while 
a  similar  table-laud,  of  less  height,  occupies  tho 
middle  and  X.  portions.  The  basin  of  Red  river, 
in  the  north-east,  is  covered  with  open  grassy 
plains,  and  the  south-west  presents  high  roll- 
ing prairies.  The  face  of  the  country  is  more- 
over pleasantly  diversified  with  a  vast  number 
of  lakes  and  i)onds,  atfording  a  constant  supply 
of  good  water.  Tlie  largest  of  these  are  lakes 
Tchanchincanah,  Poinsett,  Abert,  Preston,  Tra- 
verse, and  White  Wood,  beside  Benton  and  Big 
Stone,  which  lie  partly  in  Minnesota.  In  the 
N.  part  is  a  large  expanse  of  salt  water,  40  m. 
long  and  12  m.  in  maximum  breadth,  called 
Minni  Wakan,  or  Devil  lake,  of  wiiich  no  out- 
let has  yet  been  discovered.  More  than  half 
of  the  frontier  of  Dacotah  is  bounded  by 
large  rivers.  The  Missouri  after  receiving 
the  White  Earth  separates  it  from  Nebraska, 
and  at  the  S.  E.  extremity  of  tho  territory  is 
joined  by  the  Big  Sioux,  dividing  it  from  Iowa. 
The  N".  half  of  the  Minnesota  line  is  formed  by 
the  Bois  des  Sioux  and  the  Red  river  of  the 
jSTorth,  the  latter  of  which  flows  into  British 
America.  These  streams  receive  innumerable 
smaller  rivers,  the  chief  affluents  being,  of  tho 
Missouri,  the  Yankton,  East  Medicine  Knoll, 
Wananri,  Tchan-sansan  or  Riviere  ii,  Jacques, 
Vermilion ;  and  of  the  Red  river,  the  Bois 
des  Sioux,  Wild  Rice,  Shayuen,  Maple,  Rush, 
Goose,  Turtle,  Buftalo,  and  Pembina.  Tlie 
Tchan-sansau  (also  called  the  James  or  Daco- 
tah) rises  near  Devil  lake  and  flows  almost 
due  S.  through  the  middle  of  the  territory,  re- 
ceiving numerous  tributaries.  The  Mouse  river 
enters  from  British  America,  and,  after  a  long 
sweep  through  the  jST.  W.  part,  recrosses  the 
frontier.  The  climate  of  the  south  is  mild  and 
healthy,  but  that  of  the  north  is  very  severe.  At 
Pembina,  near  the  49th  parallel,  the  cold  is 
sometimes  so  intense  as  to  freeze  quicksilver, 
and  according  to  observations  made  there  in 
1847,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  month  of 
January  was  12^°  below  zero,  the  lowest  48° 
below,  and  the  highest  SO'  above  zero.  The 
mean  temperature  of  June  and  July  was  69°, 
and  the  highest  96°.     The  soil  of  the  S.  and  S. 


E.  parts  is  said  to  be  excellent,  and  the  valleys 
of  tlie  Red,  Missouri,  and  other  rivers  are  highly 
productive,  yielding  Indian  corn,  oats,  wheat, 
tobacco,  the  sugar  cane,  and  nearly  every  kind 
of  kitchen  vegetable.  Much  of  the  land  is  well 
timbered.  Coal  is  said  to  abound  on  Big  Sioux 
river,  fine  building  stone,  limestone,  and  good  clay 
for  brick  making  are  found  in  the  south,  and 
the  north  contains  rich  deposits  of  salt.  There 
are  good  roads  from  Sioux  City,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Big  Sioux,  as  far  N.  as  Medary,  on  tho 
same  stream,  a  distance  of  180  miles,  where 
they  meet  the  great  Pacific  wagon  road  which 
crosses  the  territory,  and  from  which  other 
roads  diverge  in  many  directions.  The  unex- 
plored parts  of  Dacotah  are  the  hunting  ground 
of  the  Indians,  and  are  still  ranged  by  vast 
her-ds  of  buftalo,  elk,  deer,  and  antelope ;  the 
black  bear,  wolverine,  muskrat,  otter,  mink, 
marten,  and  wolf  are  found  in  large  numbers ; 
the  grisly  bear  and  moose  are  occasionally  met 
with,  and  the  fur  trade  is  prosecuted  by  the  half- 
breeds  of  the  north  more  extensively  than  in  al- 
most any  other  part  of  the  United  States.  Daco- 
tah formed  part  of  the  territory  of  Minnesota, 
from  which  it  was  separated  on  the  erection  of 
the  latter  into  a  state,  May  11,  1858.  The  inhab- 
itants elected  a  legislative  assembly,  which  met 
at  Sioux  Falls  in  Oct.  1858,  adopted  a  code  of 
laws,  divided  the  territory  into  counties,  and 
applied  to  congress  for  its  formal  organization. 

DACOTAH,  a  S.  E.  co.  of  Minnesota,  bounded 
N.  by  the  Mississippi,  N.  W.  by  St.  Peter's  or 
Minnesota  river,  and  S.  E.  by  the  Cannon ;  area, 
550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1857,  8,158.  The  surface  is 
nearly  level  and  the  soil  fertile.  Indian  corn, 
■wheat,  oats,  and  grass  are  the  staples.  Capital, 
Mendota. 

DACTYL,  in  prosody,  a  metrical  foot  com- 
posed of  one  long  and  two  short  syllables ;  thus, 
teynjMrd.  It  was  esteemed  by  the  Greeks  the 
most  ancient  of  all  the  poetical  feet,  and  its  origin 
was  ascribed  to  Bacchus,  who  was  said,  anterior 
to  Apollo,  to  have  recited  the  oracles  of  Delphi 
in  verses  of  this  measure.  It  enters  into  the 
composition  of  the  noblest  verses,  as  hexame- 
ters, pentameters,  and  alcaics. 

DACTYLOLOGY,  the  art  of  communicating 
■with  others  by  spelling  words  with  the  fingers. 
By  whom  or  at  what  period  this  method  of  con- 
versation was  first  devised  is  uncertain.  The 
first  manual  alphabet  of  which  we  can  find  any 
account  was  published  by  J.  P.  Bonet  in  1620, 
in  his  "Reduction  of  Letters  and  Arts,  for  the 
Purpose  of  Teaching  the  Dumb  to  Speak."  Of 
this  he  claimed  to  be  the  inventor.  It  was  the 
basis  of  the  single-handed  alphabet  now  in 
general  use  in  this  country  and  France,  though 
it  has  been  somewhat  modified.  The  idea  of 
this  alphabet  is  the  formation  of  figures  re- 
sembling the  several  letters  by  the  position  of 
the  fingers  of  the  right  hand.  In  1680  George 
Dalgaruo,  of  Oxford,  Eng.,  published  his  Didas- 
calocophus,  in  which  he  gave  a  drawing  of  a 
manual  alphabet  invented  by  himself  requiring 
the  use  of  both  hands.   The  design  of  this  was  to 


206 


DACTYLOLOGY 


D^DALUS 


designate  the  different  letters,  not  by  their  form, 
but  by  their  position  on  the  ends  and  joints  of 
the  fingers  and  tlie  hand  ;  thus,  the  vowels  were 
designated  by  touching  the  ends  of  the  thuaib 
and  fingers  of  the  left  hand  with  the  fore  finger 
of  the  right ;  B,  0,  D,  F,  and  G,  by  touching 
the  1st  joint  of  the  thumb  and  fingers;  II,  K, 
L,  M,  N,  the  2d  joint ;  P,  Q,  R,  S,  the  3d  joint 
of  the  fingers;  T,  V,  W,  the  3  prominences 
of  the  inside  of  the  hand  immediately  below 
the  fingers;  and  X  and  Z,  the  base  of  the 
thumb  and  hand.  All  the  consonants  were 
designated  by  touching  their  location  with  the 
thumb  of  the  other  hand.  This,  with  some 
modifications,  is  the  alphabet  in  use  among  deaf 
mutes  in  England.  Numerals  are  also  desig- 
nated by  the  fingers.  The  10  digits  undoubted- 
ly formed  the  first  abacus,  but  for  purposes  of 
convenience  it  is  preferable  to  be  able  to  desig- 
nate all  the  numbers  by  one  hand  only.  Mr. 
Stansbury,  the  first  principal  of  the  New  York 
institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  invented  a 
method  of  designating  numbers,  which  is  in 
general  use  in  European  institutions.  It  is  as 
follows :  the  thumb  free  with  the  hand  closed 
denotes  1,  the  thumb  and  forefinger  2,  and 
so  on  to  5 ;  6  is  designated  by  the  little  fin- 
ger being  extended  with  the  remainder  of  the 
hand  closed ;  7,  the  little  finger  and  ring  finger ; 
8,  the  little,  ring,  and  middle  finger  extend- 
ed; 9,  the  4  fingers  extended  and  the  thumb 
closed;  10,  the  whole  hand  closed.  For  tens, 
the  position  of  the  hand  is  changed  from  per- 
pendicular to  horizontal;  for  hundreds,  the  hand 
is  pointed  downward ;  for  thousands,  the  left 
hand  is  placed  across  the  body  toward  the  right 
shoulder,  and  each  sign  has  then  the  value  of 
thousands ;  tens  of  thousands  and  hundreds  of 
thousands  are  designated  in  the  same  way  as 
tens  and  hundreds;  by  changing  to  the  left 
shoulder  millions,  tens  of  millions,  and  hundreds 
of  millions  may  be  designated.  This  system  has 
been  modified  in  American  institutions  by  des- 
ignating 6  by  touching  the  thumb  to  the  little 
finger ;  7,  by  touching  it  to  the  ring  finger  ;  8, 
to  the  middle  finger;  9,  to  the  fore  finger ;  and 
10,  by  placing  the  closed  hand  horizontally  with 
the  thumb  extended  and  making  a  slight  back- 
ward motion  of  the  hand.  De  Gerando,  in  his 
work  on  the  education  of  deaf  mutes,  says  witli 
truth  that  dactylology  is  to  alphabetical  writ- 
ing what  the  latter  is  to  speech.  Formed  upon 
writing  as  its  model,  it  represents  it  precisely  as 
writing  represents  words.  It  is  a  valuable  means 
of  communication  with  deaf  mutes,  and  although 
less  rapid  than  speech  and  possessing  none  of 
those  qualities  of  the  voice  by  which  we  judge 
so  much  of  the  person  speaking,  it  yet  serves  to 
convey  the  ideas  of  those  who  but  for  its  aid 
might  often  be  desolate  even  in  the  midst  of 
a  crowd.  It  affords  the  means  of  communica- 
tion between  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the  blind, 
as  well  as  between  deaf  and  dumb  persons  in 
darkness.  It  should  not  be  confounded  with 
the  natural  language  of  signs  used  by  the  deaf 
and  dumb.    The  latter  is  not,  and.  in  the  nature 


of  the  case,  never  can  be  used,  except  for  ex- 
pressing words  or  ideas ;  the  manual  alphabet 
only  designates  letters,  or,  at  most,  syllables. 
Syllabic  dactylology  has  been  used  by  several 
teachers,  but  is  attended  with  many  difficulties. 
Pureire  invented  a  system  which  he  used  with 
great  success,  but  it  perished  with  his  papers. 
Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce 
it  within  a  few  years  past,  and  plans  have  been 
presented  for  adoption ;  but  at  the  meeting  of  the 
convention  of  teachers  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  at 
Staunton,  Va.,  in  185G,  the  committee  appoint- 
ed to  report  upon  them  were  unanimous  in  the 
opinion  that  they  were  impracticable. 

DADE,  the  name  of  counties  in  several  of 
the  United  States.  I.  A  N.  W.  co.  of  Ga.,  bor- 
dering on  Tenn.  and  Ala.;  area,  160  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1852,  2,527,  of  whom  182  were  slaves. 
It  occupies  Lookout  valley,  and  is  encompassed 
by  mountains  of  considerable  height.  Iron, 
coal,  and  other  minerals  are  found  in  various 
parts  of  the  county.  The  productions  in  1850 
were  147,849  bushels  of  corn,  17,965  of  wheat, 
and  15  bales  of  cotton.  There  Avere  15  churches, 
2  flour  mills,  2  saw  mills,  and  1  iron  forge. 
Value  of  real  estate  in  1856,  $375,510.  Named 
in  honor  of  Mnjor  Francis  Langhorne  Dade,  who 
was  killed  in  the  Florida  war,  in  December,  1835. 
Capital,  Trenton.  II.  A  S.  co.  of  Florida,  bor- 
dering on  the  Atlantic ;  area,  about  1,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  150.  The  surface  is  low,  level,  and  almost 
wholly  occupied  by  the  Everglades,  a  vast  ex- 
panse of  shallow  water,  dotted  over  with  innu- 
merable small  islands.  Proposals  have  been  made 
to  drain  these  portions  of  the  county  by  means 
of  canals.  During  the  rainy  season  they  are  quite 
impassable.  The  coimty  has  one  good  harbor 
for  vessels  drawing  9  feet  of  water,  and  on  Cape 
Florida,  at  the  entrance  to  this  harbor,  is  a  light- 
house. Indian  Key  is  the  principal  village. 
III.  A  S.  W.  CO.  of  Mo.,  with  a  diversified  sur- 
face and  a  productive  soil;  area,  498  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1856,  6,061,  of  whom  267  were  slaves.  In 
1850  it  yielded  325,958  bushels  of  corn,  11,371 
of  wheat,  105,545  of  oats,  and  588  tons  of  hay. 
Sac  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Osage,  is  the  prin- 
cipal stream.  There  were  4  grist  mills,  5  saw 
mills,  and  223  pupils  attending  public  schools. 
Capital,  Greenfield. 

D/EDALUS,  a  mythical  personage,  under 
whose  name  the  ancient  Greek  writers  are  sup- 
posed to  have  personified  an  early  period  of  the 
development  of  the  arts  of  sculpture  and  ar- 
chitecture, or  their  introduction  from  Egypt. 
He  is  generally  repesented  as  an  Athenian  of 
the  royal  house  of  Erechtheus,  though,  from 
his  long  sojourn  in  Crete,  he  is  also  called  a 
Cretan.  Having  become  a  groat  sculptor,  he 
instructed  in  his  art  Calos,  Talus,  or  Perdix,  his 
sister's  son,  but  afterward  killed  him  through 
envy,  when  he  saw  the  skill  of  his  disciple  sur- 
passing his  own.  Condemned  to  deatli  by  the 
areopagus,  he  fled  to  Crete,  where  he  gained 
the  friendship  of  Jtlinos,  but  having  constructed 
the  wooden  cow  for  Pasiphae,  and  the  labyrinth 
of  Cnossus,  in  which  the  Minotaur,  the  monster 


DAENDELS 


DAGGETT 


207 


to  whom  she  gave  birth,  waf?  kept,  he  attracte<l 
tlie  revenge  of  tlie  king,  and  was  iini)risoned. 
He  was  released  by  Pasiphae,  and  finding  no 
vessel  to  escape  from  the  island,  as  Minos  had 
seized  all  those  wliich  were  on  the  coast,  ho 
procured  wings  for  himself  and  his  son  Icarus, 
which  were  fastened  on  with  wax.  lie  took 
his  flight  over  tlie  jEgioan^  and  arrived  safely 
in  Sicily ;  but  Icarus  flying  too  near  the  sun. 
caused  the  wax  on  his  wings  to  be  melted, 
dropped  down,  and  perished  iu  that  part  of 
tiie  sea  which,  after  him,  is  called  the  Ica- 
rian.  According  to  some,  D;edalus  on  his 
flight  alighted  at  Cuma)  in  Italy,  where  he 
erected  a  temple  to  Apollo,  dedicating  to  that 
divinity  the  wings  which  had  saved  him.  When 
Minos  knew  his  place  of  refuge,  he  sailed  with 
a  fleet  to  Sicily,  where  he  was  treacherously 
murdered  by  Oocalus,  king  of  the  Sicaui,  who 
protected  the  fugitive  ;  or  according  to  others, 
he  was  protected  by  the  daughters  of  that  king. 
Several  works  of  art  in  Greece,  Italy,  Libya, 
and  the  islands  were  attributed  to  Dasdalus,  as 
well  as  the  invention  of  several  tools  belonging 
to  his  art.  The  Greeks  gave  the  name  of  Dcb- 
dala  to  certain  ornamented  wooden  statues  or 
images  of  their  gods. 

DAENDELS,  IIermatt  "Willem,  a  Dutch  gen- 
eral, born  at  llattem  in  1762,  died  in  Guinea,  on 
the  coast  of  Africa,  in  June,  1818.  During  the 
troubles  which  convulsed  the  United  Provinces 
in  1787  he  favored  the  party  of  the  patriots,  and 
was  obliged  by  the  momentary  triumph  of  the 
Orangists  to  take  refuge  with  many  of  his  polit- 
ical friends  in  France.  He  devoted  himself  for 
awhile  to  commercial  enterprises  in  the  city  of 
Dunkirk,  but  became  commander  of  a  corps  of 
volunteers  in  the  wars  of  the  French  revolution, 
and  rendered  important  services  to  Dumouriez 
in  his  expedition  against  the  Netherlands.  In 
1794,  having  assisted  Pichegru  in  taking  posses- 
sion of  all  Holland  and  in  causing  the  flight  of 
the  Orange  family,  he  entered  into  the  service 
of  the  Batavian  republic.  In  1799  he  com- 
manded one  of  the  divisions  of  the  Batavian 
army,  and,  in  conjunction  with  Gen.  Brione, 
obliged  the  Anglo-Russian  force,  which  had  made 
a  descent  on  the  Dutch  coast,  to  capitulate. 
In  1803  he  resigned;  but  in  1806  he  offered 
his  services  to  the  king  of  Holland,  and  was 
restored  to  his  former  rank.  He  was  soon 
after  made  a  marshal,  and  appointed  governor- 
general  of  the  Dutch  possessions  in  the  East 
Indies.  He  resided  upon  the  island  of  Java 
for  3  years,  devoted  his  attention  particularly 
to  the  cultivation  of  coffee,  and  gave  an  account 
of  his  administration  in  a  work  full  of  valuable 
information  as  to  the  statistics  and  moral  state 
of  the  island.  After  his  return  from  the  Indies 
he  served  iu  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812,  and 
as  governor  of  Modlin  in  Poland.  He  was  next 
appointed  to  take  possession  of  the  provinces  of 
Guinea,  which  had  been  restored  to  Holland, 
and  to  organize  their  administration.  He  enter- 
ed with  energy  upon  this  duty,  conciliated  the 
neighboring  negro  states,  favored  the  establish- 


ment of  new  colonies,  and  mitigated  as  far  as 
he  was  able  the  treatment  of  the  slaves.  He 
died  in  the  midst  of  these  labors. 

DAFFODIL,  the  old  English  name  given  to 
the  narcissus pseudonarcissus  and  its  allies,  popu- 
lar garden  flowers,  commonly  known  as  bulbous 
roots.  The  hardiest  as  well  as  earliest  of  the 
daffodils  is  the  N.  pseudonarcissus  {Jtore  j)leno\ 
whose  double,  yellow,  and  conspicuous  blossoms 
visit  us  as  soon  as  the  snow  leaves  the  ground. 
Later  the  poetic  narcissus  or  white  daffodil,  both 
the  single  and  double  kinds,  add  to  the  charms 
of  spring  and  breathe  forth  a  pleasant  and  in- 
viting odor.  Several  beautiful  kinds  are  largely 
cultivated,  some  of  which  are  styled  polyan- 
thuses, from  the  many-stalked  blossoms,  white 
or  yellow,  crowning  the  scape  or  flower  stem. 
The  bulbs  are  imported  from  Holland,  and  are 
generally  hardy. 

DAGGETT,  David,  LL.D.,  an  American  law- 
yer and  judge,  born  at  Attloborough,  Mass., 
Dec.  31,  1764,  died  at  New  Haven,  Conn., 
April  12,  1851.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale 
college,  with  high  honor,  in  1783  ;  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  New  Haven  in  1786  ;  was  cho- 
sen representative  to  the  legislature  in  1791 ; 
speaker,  in  1794 ;  and  was  a  member  of  the 
council,  or  upper  house,  from  1797  to  1804,  and 
again  from  1809  to  1813.  In  1811  he  was  ap- 
pointed state's  attorney  for  New  Haven  county, 
and  in  1813  was  chosen  to  the  U.  S.  senate, 
where  he  continued  till  1819,  when  he  return- 
ed to  his  extensive  practice  at  the  bar  in  his 
adopted  state.  In  1824  he  became  instructor 
in  the  law  school  in  New  Haven  ;  in  1826  was 
appointed  Kent  professor  of  law  in  Yale  col- 
lege ;  and  in  the  same  year  was  chosen  judge 
of  the  superior  court,  and  received  the  degree 
of  LL.D.  from  Yale  college.  In  1832  he  was 
made  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  state,  retiring  by  limitation  of  age  in  1834. 
Judge  Daggett  was  a  man  of  quick  and  thorough 
insight  both  into  subjects  and  men ;  of  well 
balanced  judgment  and  strong  common  sense ; 
of  varied  eloquence  and  great  power  as  a 
speaker ;  thorough  in  his  knowledge  of  law  ; 
of  accurate  and  retentive  memory  ;  abounding 
in  wit  and  humor  ;  and  commanding  universal 
confidence  by  his  abilities,  judgment,  and  gen- 
eral character.  As  an  advocate  and  counsel- 
lor, he  has  had  few  ecpials.  In  social  life  he  was 
a  model  of  dignified  courtesy  ;  and  yet,  by  his 
sympathy  alike  with  old  and  young,  his  cheer- 
fulness, and  his  varied  fund  of  anecdote  and  re- 
miniscences of  the  past,  was  the  life  of  eveiy 
circle  that  he  entered.  A  sketch  of  his  life 
and  character,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Dutton.  was 
published  in  1851. 

DAGGETT,  Naphtali,  D.D.,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  at  Attleborough,  Mass.,  Sept.  8, 
1727," died  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Nov.  25, 1780. 
He  was  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1748  ;  in 
1751  was  ordained  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian 
church  in  Smithtown,  Long  island ;  and  in 
1755  was  chosen  professor  of  divinity  in  Yale 
college,  which  ofiice  he  held  at  his  death.    On 


208 


DAGH 


DAGON 


the  resignation  of  President  Clap,  in  1766,  he 
was  chosen  i)resident  ^Jr(?  tcinpore,  and  in  this 
capacity  officiated  for  more  than  a  year.  In 
1774  he  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  the 
college  of  New  Jersey,  lie  was  a  good  classi- 
cal scholar,  well  versed  in  moral  philosophy, 
and  a  learned  divine.  He  published  several 
sermons ;  and  also,  in  1780,  some  account  of 
the  celebrated  "  dark  day,"  which  alarmed  so 
many  in  New  England  with  the  fear  that  the 
day  of  judgment  was  at  hand.  In  July,  1779, 
when  the  British  attacked  New  Haven,  Dr. 
Daggett,  fowling  piece  in  hand,  went  forth  in 
gallant  style  to  the  fight,  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  compelled,  in  an  intensely  hot  day,  to  act 
as  guide  to  the  advancing  columns  of  the  enemy, 
while  they  repeatedly  pricked  him  with  their 
bayonets  when  his  strength  failed.  He  never 
fully  recovered  from  this  treatment. 

DAGH,  a  word  in  the  Tartar  languages  sig- 
nifying mountain  ;  thus,  Daghestau,  land  of 
mountains ;  Keshish-dagh,  the  modern  name  of 
Mt.  Olympus. 

DAGIIESTAN,  the  country  comprising  all 
the  E.  slope  of  the  Caucasus  toward  the  Cas- 
pian sea,  from  the  Terek  river  to  the  peninsula 
of  Apsheron,  between  lat.  41°  and  43°  N. ;  area, 
17,500  sq.  m. ;  total  pop.  estimated  at  nearly 
2,000,000.  The  Kasbek  or  Mquinvari  mountain, 
14,500  feet  high,  is  about  the  western  terminus, 
and  also  the  highest  point  of  tlie  country.  The 
mountains  of  original  formation  are  extremely 
rugged,  the  climate  in  the  higher  regions  severe, 
though  the  Kasbek  is  the  only  peak  reaching 
to  the  line  of  eternal  snow ;  the  narrow  valleys, 
deeply  imbedded,  are  rather  fertile,  productive 
of  grains,  rice,  millet,  saffron,  fruit,  nuts,  wine, 
and  fine  timber;  the  iron,  lead,  and  sulphur 
mines  are  developed,  but  not  beyond  the  pur- 
pose of  supplying  the  necessities  of  war,  and 
the  weapons  manufactured  here  are  justly  cele- 
brated. Cattle  are  raised  in  large  numbers,  as  well 
as  excellent  horses,  asses,  camels,  and  a  species 
of  fat-tailed  sheep.  Daghestan  is  the  abode  of 
the  powerful  tribe  of  the  Lesghians  (the  Albani 
of  antiquity),  numbering  about  400,000,  chiefly 
Mohammedans  of  the  Soofee  sect.  The  Les- 
ghians are  still  independent  of  Russia,  to  which 
their  country  nominally  belongs.  Further  down 
in  the  hilly  region  live  Tartar  tribes  of  Mongol 
descent,  called  Kumyks,  Nogaians,  and  Truch- 
menes  (Turkomans),  all  of  them  Mohammedans, 
and  more  or  less  nomadic,  living  principally  by 
the  raising  of  cattle  and  horses.  A  few  towns 
of  some  conmiercial  importance  are  situated 
along  the  Caspian  coast,  which  is  flat,  marshy, 
or  sandy,  and  in  many  portions  not  well  watered. 
The  Kumyks  are  allies  of  the  Lesghians  against 
the  Russians;  the  remainder  are  peaceable  Rus- 
sian subjects.  The  territory  of  Daghestan  which 
constitutes  the  Russian  province  of  that  name 
comprises  an  area  of  only,  about  6,000  sq.  m., 
and  a  population  in  1851  of  479,042.  It  is  divided 
into  4  districts.  The  great  rising  against  the 
Russians  in  1820  commenced  with  a  campaign  in 
Daghestan.     (See  Caucasus.) 


DAGO,  Dagoe,  or  Dagden,  an  island  belong- 
ing to  Russia,  in  the  Baltic  sea,  near  the  entrance 
of  the  gulf  of  Finland,  opposite  to  the  island  of 
Oesel,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Sele- 
Sund.  Its  greatest  length  is  37  m.  and  greatest 
breadth  15  m.  It  is  comprehended  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Esthonia.  The  inhaljitants  are  10,000 
in  number,  chiefly  Swedes,  and  employed  in  hus- 
bandry, rearing  cattle,  and  fishing.  The  soil  is 
principally  of  sand  or  chalk,  and  unfertile,  and 
the  cattle  are  of  an  inferior  stunted  breed.  Dago 
was  held  by  the  Danes  ])rior  to  1G45,  and  by  the 
Swedes  from  that  time  till  1791,  when  they  ceded 
it  to  Russia. 

DAGOBERT  I.,  a  Frankish  king  of  the  Mero- 
vingian line,  born  about  600,  died  at  Epinay, 
Jan.  19,  638.  The  son  of  Clotaire  II.,  he  was, 
as  early  as  622,  acknowledged  king  of  Austrasia. 
On  the  death  of  his  father  in  628  he  inherited 
Neustria  and  Burgundy,  and  3  years  later  he 
reannexed  to  those  kingdoms  Aquitania,  which 
had  been  inherited  by  his  brother  Charibert. 
He  thus  reigned  over  the  whole  of  the  Frankish 
dominion,  and  successfully  opposed  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  Frankish  lords,  repelled  an  invasion* 
of  the  Vascones,  and  forced  tbe  Bretons  to  ac- 
knowledge his  supremacy.  His  court  was  re- 
nowned for  a  magnificence  almost  equal  to  that 
of  Constantinople.  He  was  liberal  toward  the 
church,  and  founded  several  monasteries  which 
he  richly  endowed,  including  the  abbey  of  St. 
Denis.  The  goldsmith  Eligius,  who  was  after- 
Avard  canonized,  was  one  of  his  ministers, 
and  greatly  contributed  to  the  splendor  of  his 
reign.  One  of  the  king's  most  meritorious  acts 
was  the  revision  and  publication  of  the  old  na- 
tional statutes,  known  as  the  Salic  and  the 
Ripuarian  laws.  Ilis  fame  is  marred  by  an 
atrocious  act  of  perfidy  toward  some  Bulgarians 
who  had  sought  refuge  within  the  limits  of  his 
kingdom  and  who  were  slaughtered  ;  and  above 
all  by  his  debauchery.  "  This  Solomon  of  the 
Franks,"  an  old  chronicler  says,  "given  up  to 
extreme  lewdness,  entertained  no  less  than  8 
wives  bearing  the  name  of  queens,  and  so  many 
concubines  that  it  would  be  too  long  to  enumer- 
ate the  same."     He  Avas  buried  at  St.  Denis. 

DAGON  (Heb.  dag,  fish),  a  Phoenician  or 
Syrian  divinity,  who,  according  to  the  Bible, 
had  richly  adorned  temples  in  several  of  the 
Philistine  cities.  The  rulers  of  the  Philistines 
otFered  to  Dagon,  at  Gaza,  a  great  sacrifice  for 
having  delivered  Samson  unto  them  ;  and  the 
statue  of  Dagon  at  Ashdod  fell  to  the  ground, 
with  its  face  downward,  before  tlie  ark  of  the 
Lord.  There  is  much  imcertainty  concern- 
ing the  origin,  attributes,  and  even  the  sex  of 
this  divinity,  who  has  been  identified  by  vari- 
ous commentators  with  Noah,  Japheth,  Saturn, 
Jupiter,  Yenus,  Ceres,  Isis,  Cannes,  Dirce,  As- 
tarte,  and  the  whale  Ceto.  He  was  represented 
as  a  monster,  whose  upper  part  bore  some  re- 
semblance to  the  human  form,  but  terminated 
below  in  a  fish.  The  ditierent  ancient  traditions 
concerning  him  prove  only  that  the  origin  of 
his  worship  was  unknown  ;  he  seems,  however, 


DAGUERKE 


DAIILBOil 


209 


to  have  been  generally  regarded  as  a  eymbol  of 
fertility  and  reproduction. 

DAGUERRE,  Louis  Jacques  Mande,  in- 
ventor of  the  process,  called  alter  his  name,  by 
which  images  from  the  lens  of  a  camera  obscura 
are  fixed  upon  metallic  plate^^,  born  at  Cormeille, 
department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  France,  in  1789, 
died  at  Petit-Brie-sur-Marne,  July  12,  1851.  IIo 
commenced  his  career  in  Paris  as  a  scene  i)aint- 
er,  and  rivalled  the  best  of  his  contemporaries 
in  the  brilliancy  and  novelty  of  his  effects.  Hav- 
ing assisted  M.  Prevost  in  painting  liis  panora- 
mas of  Rome,  London,  Naples,  and  other  great 
cities,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  heightening  the 
eftect  of  such  views  by  throwing  colored  lights 
and  shadows  upon  them,  so  as  to  produce  the 
various  changes  of  the  day  and  season.  This  in- 
vention, called  the  diorama,  was  perfected  by 
Daguerre  and  Bouton  in  1822,  and  for  many 
years  the  former  was  busily  employed  in  pre- 
paring pictures  for  exhibition  in  the  buildings 
erected  for  that  purpose  in  Paris  and  London. 
In  1839  he  sustained  a  great  loss  by  the  burn- 
ing of  his  establishment  in  Paris.  Previous  to 
this  time  he  had  been  for  many  years  experi- 
menting, in  connection  with  Niepce,  on  the  meth- 
od of  obtaining  permanent  fac-simile  copies  of 
objects  by  the  chemical  action  of  the  sun.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  the  latter  in  183.3  he  prosecuted 
his  researches  alone,  and  in  1838  succeeded  in 
fixing  upon  prepared  metallic  plates  distinct  and 
indelible  impressions  of  the  images  thrown  upon 
them  by  the  lens  of  the  camera.  The  invention 
was  announced  at  the  session  of  the  academie 
des  sciences,  in  January,  1839,  by  Arago,  and 
excited  a  profound  interest,  which  was  height- 
ened by  the  exhibition  soon  after  of  a  number 
of  pictures  taken  by  the  new  process,  called  by 
its  inventor  the  methode  Nieiice  '[jerfectioniiie. 
He  was  subsequently  made  an  officer  of  the  le- 
gion of  honor,  and  by  a  vote  of  the  French 
chambers  an  annuity  of  6,000  francs  was  be- 
stowed upon  him,  on  condition  that  his  process 
should  be  made  public.  To  the  close  of  his  life 
he  continued  to  labor  on  the  improvement  of 
the  daguerreotype,  and  has  left  2  works  on  the 
theory  and  practice  of  the  art.  A  monument 
lias  been  erected  to  his  memory  by  subscription. 
— The  process  invented  by  Daguerre,  and  its 
subsequent  improvements,  will  be  treated  under 
the  title  Photography. 

DA  TIL,  !MiKAEL,  a  Swedish  portrait  painter, 
born  in  Stockholm  in  105(3,  died  in  London  in 
1743.  La  IGiSS  he  repaired  to  London,  where  he 
was  patronized  by  Queen  Anne  and  the  prince 
consort.  At  Hampton  court  are  several  of 
his  portraits  of  admirals.  His  equestrian  por- 
trait of  Charles  IX.  of  Sweden  is  at  Windsor, 
and  some  of  his  whole-length  representations 
of  ladies  are  at  Petworth.  He  also  painted  a 
portrait  of  Lady  "Walpole,  which  is  at  Houghton. 

DAIIL,  A^LADiMiR  IvAxoviTCH,  a  Russian  au- 
tlior,  of  German  origin,  born  in  St.  Petersburg 
about  1800,  was  educated  there  at  the  naval 
academy.  In  1819  he  joined  the  Russian  fleet 
in  the  Black  sea.    Subsequently  he  practised 

VOL.  VI. 14 


as  physician  .nt  Dorpat,  and  served  in  the  ex- 
])edition  against  Poland  and  against  Khiva,  in 
Turkestan.  Ho  collected  more  than  15,000  tales, 
fables,  and  proverbs,  beside  ccjUoquial  expres- 
sions current  among  the  ditferent  tribes  of  the 
empire ;  and  he  was  so  much  struck  with  tho 
contrast  between  the  language  of  the  cultivated 
classes  in  the  capital  and  that  of  tho  common 
l)eople  in  the  provinces,  that  lie  wrote  a  book 
for  the  purpose  of  pointing  out  this  discrepancy 
and  of  advocating  a  reform.  This  work  is  en- 
titled Poltora  slova  o  liusTcim  yazihie  ("A 
AVord  or  two  about  tho  Russian  Language").  The 
result  of  his  personal  contact  with  the  masses  of 
tho  Russian  people  is  palpable  in  his  novels  and 
tales.  His  heroes  are  not  czars  and  grand  duch- 
esses, but  serfs  and  common  women.  The  style 
is  simple,  pure,  and  lively,  and  his  novels,  apart 
from  the  sentimental  interest  of  the  plot,  abound 
w^th  original  descriptions  of  scenery,  and  of  the 
manners  of  the  people.  He  has  published  some 
of  his  volumes  separately,  and  contributed  oth- 
ers to  periodicals  imder  the  nom  de  j)lume  of 
Kosak  Luganski.  He  is  a  homoeopathic  physi- 
cian by  profession. 

DAHL,  JoHAN  IvinsTiAX  Clausen,  a  Nor- 
wegian landscape  painter,  born  Feb.  24,  1788, 
at  Bergen,  in  Norway,  died  Oct.  14,  1857,  in 
Dresden,  in  Avliichcity  he  had  resided  since  1818. 
In  1820-'21  he  visited  the  Tyrol,  Naples,  and 
Rome,  in  company  with  Christian  VIII.  of 
Dernnark,  and  in  the  latter  city  received  many 
attentions  from  Thorwaldsen  and  other  north- 
ern artists  established  there.  From  Italy  he 
brought  back  the  studies  of  his  "  A^iew  of 
Yietri — the  Island  of  Capri,"  the  "  Eruption  of 
Mount  Vesuvius,"  and  other  striking  pictures. 
But  his  most  celebrated  and  characteristic 
works  are  those  in  which  the  grand  and  glooraj* 
features  of  northern  nature  are  portrayed.  Of 
these  the  "  Coast  View,"  near  Bergen,  now  in 
the  possession  of  the  king  of  Sweden,  is  con- 
sidered the  finest.  The  "  Shipwreck,"  'Ancient 
Scandinavian  Tombs  and  Monuments,"  the 
"  Saxon  Switzerland,"  the  "  Great  Winter 
Landscape  of  Zealand,  Prestoe,  and  Wordin- 
borg,"  and  others,  also  enjoy  a  great  reputation. 
His  works  are  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of  Europe, 
and  even  in  America. — His  son,  Siegwald 
Johannes,  born  in  Dresden,  Aug.  16,  1827_,  is 
devoted  to  genre  painting  and  to  the  painting 
of  portraits  and  animals. 

DAHLBOM,  Anders  Gustaf,  a  Swedish  en- 
tomologist, born  in  East  Gothland,  March  3, 
1800.  He  was  graduated  at  Lund  in  1829,  and 
officiated  as  teacher  of  natural  history  and  as 
superintendent  in  the  zoological  museum  of  Lund 
from  1830  till  1842,  when  he  was  appointed  as- 
sistant professor  of  entomology  and  keeper  of  the 
entomological  museum  of  the  university.  Be- 
side liis  contributions  to  tlie  transactions  of  the 
Stockholm  academy  and  to  the  scientific  press, 
he  published,  from  1829  to  1852,  10  distinct 
works  on  insects  in  Latin  and  Swedish,  of  which 
his  Hymenoptera  Eurcpcea  prmcipue  BoreuUa 
is  the  most  important 


210 


DAHLGREN 


DAHOMEY 


DAHLGRE'N',  Carl  Johax,  a  popular  Swed- 
isli  poet,  born  June  2,  1791,  died  May  2,  1844, 
officiated  as  clergyman  in  various  churches  of 
Stockliohn,  and  on  several  occasions  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  diet,  where  lie  advocated  liberal  prin- 
ciples. His  complete  works  were  published  in 
Stockholm,  in  6  vols.  (1847-49). 

DAIILGREN,  Jonx  A.,  commander  in  the 
U.  S.  navy,  a  native  of  Pennsylvania,  entered 
the  service  as  midshipman  in  Feb.  1826,  was  pro- 
moted to  be  a  lieutenant,  March,  1837,  and  a 
commander  in  Sept.  1855.  Since  1847  he  has 
been  employed  on  ordnance  duty,  and,  with  tlie 
exception  of  a  short  cruise  in  command  of  the 
Plymouth  sloop  of  war,  armed  according  to 
his  views  with  a  few  heavy  shell  guns,  has 
been  engaged  in  very  important  experiments  at 
the  navy  yard  at  Washington,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  bureau  of  ordnance  and  hydrogra- 
phy. These  exjjeriments,  together  with  other 
measures  taken  by  that  bureau,  have  resulted 
in  great  changes,  as  well  as  in  increased  sys- 
tem and  efficiency,  in  that  department  of  the 
naval  service.  Among  these  changes  is  the 
adoption  of  heavy  shell  guns  of  the  Dahlgren 
pattern  (see  Cannon),  and  also  of  a  very  effi- 
cient armament  for  boats,  consisting  of  bronze 
howitzers  of  24  lbs.  and  12  lbs.  calibre,  of  light 
pattern,  their  projectiles  being  shells,  shrap- 
nel and  canister  shot.  Light  field  carriages 
of  iron,  devised  by  Commander  Dahlgren,  are 
supplied  Avith  these  howitzers,  by  which  they 
are  made  available  upon  land.  He  has  in  the 
course  of  his  experhnents  made  the  following 
publications,  a  part  of  them  by  order  of  the 
bureau  of  ordnance  :  "  Report  on  the  82  pound- 
ers of  32  cwt."  (1850);  "  System  of  Boat  Arma- 
ment in  the  U.  S.  Navy"  (2  editions,  1852  and 
1856) ;  "  Naval  Percussion  Locks  and  Primers" 
(1852) ;  "  Sliells  and  Shell  Guns  "  (1856). 

DAHLIA,  the  numerous  varieties  of  which 
are  among  the  most  popular  of  fiowers,  origi- 
nated in  Mexico  from  a  single  form  known  as 
D.  variabilis.  In  a  wild  condition  it  is  said  to 
be  about  7  or  8  feet  high,  with  purple  or  lilac 
blossoms  of  no  great  merit.  Thouin  {Annales 
du  mnseum,  vol.  iii.)  has  given  a  memoir  on  the 
dahlia,  making  3  species,  viz. :  rosea,  ^j«rpwr<?a, 
and  coccinca.  Simultaneous  with  the  efforts  of 
the  Dutch  florists,  semi-double  flowers  were  ob- 
tained elsewhere  after  2G  years  of  cultivation. 
The  immense  number  of  seedlings  since  that 
period  have  brought  into  universal  attention 
blossoms  of  every  form,  size,  and  color,  some 
even  of  bizarre  and  exquisite  tints.  The  dahlia, 
from  a  coarse  single  scarlet,  orange,  purple,  or 
lilac  blossom,  has  at  last  vied  with  the  proudest 
triumphs  of  the  artistic  skill  of  the  floricultur- 
ist, as  represented  in  the  tulip  or  the  rose.  The 
choicest  sorts  are  marked  by  the  globular  shape 
wliicli  the  barren  florets  or  petals  assume,  more 
than  by  their  color,  though  the  richest  hues 
and  the  most  delicate  tints  obtain  in  some, 
which  connnand  great  prices  when  first  offered 
for  sale.  Facility  of  propagation  soon  places 
such  within  the  reach  of  every  one,  and  com- 


petition brings  out  others  of  newer  styles  from 
year  to  year.  The  chief  requisites  to  secure  good 
flowers  seem  to  be  a  rich  soil,  abundance  of 
moisture,  and  judicious  pruning  of  superfluous 
shoots.  Several  insects  are  injurious  to  the 
growing  plants,  some  boring  into  the  stem  and 
destroying  the  young  stalks,  others  eating  the 
buds  before  half  grown ;  but  their  destruction  is 
easy. 

DAHLMANN,  Feiepeich  Christoph,  a  Ger- 
man historian  of  Swedish  descent,  born  at  "Wis- 
mar.  May  17,  1785,  now  (1859)  officiating  as 
professor  of  history  and  political  science  at  the 
university  of  Bonn.  He  is  the  author  of  a  cele- 
brated work  on  the  history  of  Denmark  (3  vols., 
Hamburg,  1840-43);  also  of  Vita  Ansgarii  (in 
Pertz's  Monumenta  Gerrnaniw  Ilistorica);  of 
Forschungen  aufdem  Gehiete  der  deutschen  Ge- 
scMchtc  (2  vols.,  Altona,  1822-23)  ;  edited  the 
Chronih  von  Dithmarsen  (2  vols.,  Kiel,1827);  and 
wrote  a  history  of  the  English  (3d  ed.  Leipsic, 
1843)  and  French  revolution  (Leipsic,  1845).  As 
secretary  of  a  committee  of  the  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein  diet  in  1815  he  became  conspicuous  by  his 
opposition  to  the  Danish  policy  in  regard  to  the 
duchies  ;  and  being  appointed  professor  at  Got- 
tingen  in  1829,  he  obtained  there  8  years  after- 
Avard  a  still  wider  political  celebrity  by  his 
energetic  protest  against  the  abolition  of  the 
Hanoverian  constitution,  and  by  his  consequent 
dismissal  from  the  university,  together  with  6 
other  liberal-minded  professors.  In  1848  he  be- 
came one  of  the  leaders  of  the  party  in  favor  of 
constitutional  monarchy,was  deputed  by  the  king 
of  Prussia  to  the  German  diet,  April  31,  1848, 
and  afterward  elected  b}'  the  people  to  the 
Frankfort  parliament,  of  which  he  was  one  of 
the  most  gifted  and  influential  members.  His 
influence  prevailed  particularly  in  the  elabora- 
tion of  the  German  constitution.  The  attempt, 
however,  to  make  Germany  an  empire  under  a 
Prussian  dynasty,  soon  proved  a  fiiilure;  as 
did  the  subsecjuent  efforts  of  the  party  of  Go- 
tha,  with  whom  ho  acted,  and  the  parliament 
of  Erfurt,  to  which  he  was  elected.  In  1852  he 
retired  from  political  life,  disappointed  at  the 
futility  of  his  efforts. 

DAIILONEGA,  a  post  village  and  capital  of 
Lumjikin  co.,  Ga.,  built  on  a  high  hill  in  the 
midst  of  one  of  the  richest  gold-mining  regions 
of  the  state;  pop.  in  1850,  735.  Tiie  metal  was 
first  obtained  from  alluvial  deposits,  and  after- 
ward discovered  imbedded  in  quartz.  The  sur- 
rounding liills  are  now  completely  riddled  with 
mines,  and  several  remarkably  rich  veins  have 
been  opened.  A  branch  United  States  mint  is 
established  here,  which,  including  the  macliine- 
ry,  cost  $100,000.  The  village  also  contains  2 
churches  and  a  newspaper  office.  Its  Indian 
name  was  Tau-lau-ne-ca,  or  "yellow  money." 

DAHOMEY,  a  kingdom  of  Africa,  on  the 
Slave  Coast,  between  Ashantee  on  the  W.  and 
Yarriba  and  Benin  on  the  E.,  extends  S.  along 
the  gulf  of  Guinea,  and  stretches  indefinitely  N. 
toward  the  Kong  mountains.  The  Avholo  coast 
from  long.  7°  W.  to  8°  E.  goes  under  the  name 


DAHOMEY 


211 


of  Guinea,  and  also  of  the  Slave  Coast,  of  wliicli 
Dahomey  forms  the  portion  lying  between 
tlic  rivers  Volta  and  Niger.  Tiiis  gives  it  an 
extent  of  about  ISO  ni.  in  length,  by  200  in 
widtli.  At  the  commencement  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury tlie  coast  was  divided  between  the  king- 
doms of  Dahomey  and  Whydah,  the  first  war- 
like, the  otlier  effeminate.  As  a  consequence, 
the  rich  and  fertile  country  of  Whydah  was  ab- 
sorbed in  1727  by  Daliomey,  and  now  forms 
part  of  its  limits.  The  country  bordering  on  the 
coast  consists  of  a  plain  of  extraordinary  fertil- 
ity, whence  the  ground  rises  by  a  gentle  ascent 
to  a  distance  of  200  m.  inland.  The  soil  is  a 
reddish  loan),  without  rocks.  No  river  of  im- 
portance is  found  on  the  seaboard.  Fertility 
depends  on  the  periodical  rains,  wliich  are  co- 
pious and  usually  accompanied  by  tornadoes.  By 
reason  of  the  position  of  this  country  between 
lat.  G°  and  10°  N.,  every  variety  of  vegetable 
product  may  bo  cultivated.  Cotton,  sugar,  in- 
digo, palms,  spices,  tobacco,  grains,  and  fruits 
flourish.  The  banana,  plantain,  and  cassada, 
pineapples,  oranges,  limes,  guavas,  and  other 
tropical  fruits,  are  abundant.  Among  the  vege- 
table productions  peculiar  to  the  country  are  a 
variety  of  millet,  or  Guinea  corn,  a  legume  call- 
ed calarances,  or  pea-beans,  and  a  species  of 
vegetable  called  ground  beans,  as  also  a  berry 
said  to  possess  the  property  of  turning  bitters  and 
acids  sweet.  With  all  these  advantages,  little 
is  produced  for  ex[)ort.  Yams  and  maize  are 
grown  by  the  natives  for  consumption,  with  a 
moderate  quantitj'  of  palm  oil  for  the  coast  tra- 
ders. Formerly  Dahomey  carried  on  a  large 
traffic  in  slaves,  and  the  ferocious  habits  engen- 
dered by  that  trade  are  still  a  characteristic  of 
the  people.  Elepliants,  tigers,  leopards,  buffalo, 
wild  sheep,  and  goats  are  plentiful,  as  are  boas 
and  other  serpents.  Trees  grow  along  the  river 
courses  to  an  enormous  size,  it  being  not  uncom- 
mon to  see  a  canoe  formed  from  a  single  trunk 
capable  of  holding  70  to  100  persons.  The 
horses  are  small  but  hardy.  The  climate  on  the 
whole  is  not  unfavorable  to  health.  A  breeze 
called  the  harmattan  blows  for  3  months  in  the 
year,  and  tends  much  to  purify  the  air.  Abomey, 
the  capital  city  of  the  countrj-,  is  situated  in  lat. 
7°  59'  N.,  Ion.  1°  20'  E.  Whydah,  oftener  called 
Griwhee,  is  the  port  of  DahomeJ^  A  route  of 
about  100  m.  passes  through  Favies  and  Toro  to 
Abomey,  the  intermediate  stations  being  Gle- 
gouch,  where  the  French,  English,  and  Portu- 
guese have  fortified  trading  ports;  next  Sa- 
byeh,  capital  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Whydah, 
and  yet  the  residence  of  a  Dahoman  viceroy ; 
and  further  on  is  Ardrah,  or  Aradah-Kassy, 
where  the  roads  from  Jakyn,  Epeh,  and  Porto 
Novo  on  the  coast,  join  the  main  road  to  Abo- 
mey. The  villages  are  large  and  numerous,  but 
many  ruined  sites  testify  to  the  ravages  of  war. 
Houses  are  built  of  adobe,  covered  with  straw, 
and  usually  have  attached  a  small  slip  of  gar- 
den. Two  field  crojjs  are  grown  annually,  the 
time  of  sowing  being  the  vernal  and  autumnal 
equinoxes.     Agriculture  has  advanced  but  little 


beyond  its  first  elements.  The  Dahomans  fob- 
ricate  cotton  cloth,  pottery,  mats,  and  trinkets, 
beside  .spears,  swords,  daggers,  clubs,  and  rude 
agricultural  tools.  Their  money  consists  of  cow- 
ry shells,  of  which  it  takes  over  2,000  to  repre- 
sent one  dollar.  Tlie  king's  revenue  consists  of 
gifts,  annually  presented  at  a  festival,  a  tax  on 
various  articles  of  commerce,  and  the  sale  of 
wives.  In  other  respects  tlie  DalK)mans  are 
subjected  to  the  most  ferocious  despotism  of 
which  we  have  any  knowledge.  Tlie  life  of 
every  man  except  thatof  the  prime  minister,  and 
the  persons  of  all  females,  belong  to  the  king. 
Once  a  year  the  women  are  required  to  appear, 
that  the  monarch  may  make  his  selection.  He 
retains  a  large  number  for  himself,  and  distrib- 
utes the  rest  as  wives  to  his  subjects,  who  are 
required  to  pay  for  them  and  be  satisfied  with  his 
selection.  The  king  is  regarded  as  a  fetich  or 
deity.  Doubtless  this  belief  has  much  to  do  with 
the  sanguinary  customs  which  prevail  at  his 
court.  Even  tlie  highest  oflicers  prostrate  them- 
selves in  the  dust  when  they  approach  him.  As 
he  claims  to  be  sovereign  over  life  and  death, 
his  residence  is  paved  with  human  skulls.  Ev- 
ery year  he  holds  a  festival  in  which  human  sac- 
rifices are  offered,  and  persons  are  slain  on  the 
graves  of  his  ancestors  in  order  that  their  spirits 
may  bathe  in  the  blood.  The  sacrifice  is  of  the 
nature  of  a  religious  ceremony.  Faith  is  placed 
in  charms  and  amulets.  A  serpent  is  regarded 
as  the  sacred  symbol  of  Whydah,  and  a  tiger  of 
Dahome}'.  The  notion  of  a  future  state  is  that 
each  person  shall  occupy  precisely  the  same  po- 
sition he  did  on  earth.  The  only  visible  objects 
of  worship,  at  least  on  the  coast,  are  a  reptile 
which  they  call  Dahooeh,  which  has  its  temples 
and  priests,  and  certain  idols  of  clay,  to  which 
the  women  offer  worship.  Snelgrave,  who 
spent  some  time  among  this  people,  thinks 
they  have  a  vague  belief  in  a  supreme,  invis- 
ible deity,  of  whom  idols  are  but  the  symbol. 
Next  to  the  prime  minister,  called  the  tame- 
gari,  ranks  the  grand  master  of  the  ceremonies 
(T)iat/7)oo),  who  joins  the  premier  in  select- 
ing a  new  sovereign  among  the  children  of 
the  deceased  monarch.  The  other  officers  of 
state  are  the  agaoo,  commander-in-chief,  hav- 
ing under  him  3  generals  called  the  2^08800,  so- 
hinoo,  a.n({  fasapaJi ;  next  in  rank  is  the  viceroy 
of  Whydah,  entitled  the  ivogan,  and  next  the  su- 
perintendent of  the  king's  household,  styled  the 
yaoo.  Provinces,  cities,  and  villages  are  gov- 
erned by  officers  called  l-abasJtirs,  who  pay  an 
annual  tribute,  collected  from  the  heads  of  fam- 
ilies. Polygamy  is  the  custom  of  the  country, 
the  king  having  3,000  to  5,000  wives;  great  men 
have  from  200  or  300  downward,  in  proportion 
to  tlieir  wealth ;  while  most  of  the  people  can 
afford  but  one.  The  Dahoman  language  is  an 
idiom  of  that  spoken  along  tlie  whole  Guinea 
coast.  It  has  no  written  character,  although 
the  Ardrah  dialect  has  a  symbol  alphabet.  A 
curious  feature  of  Dahoman  life  is  that  the 
members  of  the  king's  harem  form  his  body 
guard,  and  are  regularly  disciplined  as  soldiers. 


212 


DAIRY 


DALBERG 


They  number  3,000  to  5,000,  ami  form,  in  all 
respects,  a  portion  of  the  army.  In  time  of 
peace  his  total  military  force,  male  and  female, 
is  about  17,000,  and  in  time  of  war  24,000. 
They  figlit  with  great  ferocity.  Apart  from 
their  disregard  of  shedding  blood,  the  man- 
ners of  the  Dahomans  are  mild.  They  have 
a  considerable  degree  of  intelligence,  but  are 
indolent,  and  i)lace  much  of  their  happiness 
in  eating  and  sleeping.  The  dress  of  tlae  men 
consists  of  trousers  of  native  calico,  and  on  high 
occasions  a  jacket  Avithout  sleeves,  the  head 
being  covered  and  the  feet  bare.  The  female  cos- 
tume is  a  robe  or  wrapper  of  cloth,  with  brace- 
lets of  beads  and  shells  on  the  neck,  Avrists,  and 
ankles,  rings  on  the  fingers,  and  pendants  in 
the  ears.  Children  are  nursed  3  years,  and  cir- 
cumcision is  practised.  Tattooing  is  occasional- 
ly performed  as  an  embellishment.  The  Daho- 
mans are  of  the  same  race  as  the  Ardrahs,  and 
are  distinguishable  from  their  neighbors  by  a 
darker  complexion.  They  are,  in  general,  of 
medium  height,  and  well  proportioned. — Daho- 
mey first  became  of  importance  in  the  eyes  of 
Europeans  about  the  beginning  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, when  the  king  was  named  Trudo.  This 
sovereign  conquered  the  strip  of  country  lying 
between  him  and  the  sea,  and  opened  a  trade 
with  the  Europeans.  He  had  frequent  quarrels 
with  them,  and  finally  destroyed  the  French, 
English,  and  Portuguese  factories  at  Xavier  in 
Ardrah,  beside  hanging  Mr.  Testefole,  the  Eng- 
lish governor.  Trudo  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Bossa  Ahadee,  whose  first  act  of  sovereignty 
was  to  put  to  death  every  person  of  the  name 
of  Bossa  within  his  dominions,  as  a  punishment 
for  their  presumption  in  bearing  the  same  name 
as  the  king.  He  died  in  1774,  and  was  follow- 
ed by  a  succession  of  savage  rulers,  who  engaged 
in  shocking  atrocities  to  supply  the  slave  trade. 
Since  the  suppression  of  that  traffic,  Dahomey 
has  sunk  in  importance.  Wars  with  the  adjoin- 
ing states  have  been  attended  with  varying  suc- 
cess. Not  long  since  the  Eyeos  or  Ayohs  ob- 
tained the  mastery  over  the  Dahomans,  and 
compelled  them  to  pay  tribute.  It  is  said  the 
Dahomans  have  once  more  gained  the  ascenden- 
cy ;  also  that  the  jtresent  king  has  put  a  stop  to 
human  sacrifices. 

DAIRY.     See  BtJTXER,  Cattle,  Cheese. 

DAIS,  a  raised  floor  at  the  npper  end  of  an- 
cient dining  halls,  where  the  principal  persons  sat 
at  table.  The  term  also  designated  a  seat  with  a 
canopy  over  it  for  those  who  sat  at  this  table. 
The  same  name  is  applied  in  some  monarchies  to 
the  canopy  which  hangs  over  the  throne,  and 
at  Rome  the  pope  is  borne  beneath  a  dais  in  so- 
lemnities which  require  him  to  traverse  the 
streets  and  public  places. 

DAISY,  or  Day's  Eye  (Jiellis perennis^  Linn.), 
a  little  perennial  plant,  native  of  Europe,  and  bet- 
ter known  in  its  varieties  than  as  a  species.  It 
was  formerly  employed  for  edgings  to  borders, 
and  patches  set  in  the  turf  of  lawns  frequently 
mown  present  a  very  pleasing  appearance.  In  a 
wild  state,  the  flower  is  borne  upon  along  slender 


I)edunclo.  The  florctsor  petals  are  numerous,  nar- 
row, white-tipped  with  a  slight  stain  of  crimson, 
in  a  single  row  around  the  central  florets  of  tho 
disk.  In  this  form  it  is  called  single,  but  by 
cultivation  it  has  become  very  double  or  multi- 
plex, and  has  run  into  many  curious  and  beauti- 
ful varieties.  Of  these  the  heti  and  chickens 
is  the  most  singular,  where  the  main  flower 
heads  are  surrounded  by  several  smaller  flower 
heads.  Beside  this,  which  is  known  as  the 
jjrolifera,  the  older  sorts  were  the  large  double 
and  the  double  quilletl,  the  latter  a  deep  rich 
crimson,  with  globular  heads,  and  mostly  culti- 
vated as  a  pot  plant.  Of  late  years  considerable 
attention  has  been  directed  to  raising  new  sorts, 
and  the  catalogues  enumerate  choice  varieties 
of  white,  blush,  rose  color,  striped,  and  other 
diversities  of  hues.  Division  of  the  plants, 
which  make  numerous  offsets,  is  an  easy  and 
practicable  mode  of  propagation. 

DAKEL,  El,  or  El  Dakleh,  the  western 
oasis  of  upper  Egypt,  28  m.  long  by  15  m.  wide. 
It  has  a  very  fertile  soil,  prolific  in  dates,  olives, 
and  other  fruits.  It  contains  several  ruined 
towns,  a  remarkable  temple,  and  a  nuniber  of 
small  villages,  the  principal  of  which  are  El 
Kasr  and  Kalamoon.  Pop.  estimated  at  between 
6,000  and  7,000. 

DALAYRAC,  Nicolas,  composer  of  Les  deux 
petits  Savoyards^  and  of  many  other  French 
operas,  born  June  18,  1753,  died  in  Paris,  Nov. 
27,  1809.  He  first  became  known  to  fame  by 
a  composition  performed  at  a  freemason  festival 
given  in  honor  of  Benjamin  Franklin. 

DALBERG,  or  Dalburg,  a  noble  family  of 
Germany,  mentioned  as  early  as  9  69,  and  so  much 
respected  that  at  each  imperial  coronation  the 
herald  was  required  to  proclaim  :  "  Is  there  no 
Dalberg  present  ?"  whereupon  the  member  of 
the  family  who  happened  to  be  present  stepped 
forward  and  was  knighted  by  the  emperor. 
Among  its  most  distinguished  members  are : 
I.  Johann,  bishop  of  "Worms,  born  in  1445,  died  • 
in  1503,  an  active  and  able  patron  of  literature 
and  science.  11.  "Wolfgang  Heribert,  born  in 
1749,  died  Sept.  28,  1806,  the  friend  of  Schiller, 
and  a  zealous  patron  of  the  German  drama.  At 
the  time  of  his  death  he  was  state  minister  in 
Baden.  III.  Emmericit  Joseph,  duke  and  peer 
of  France,  son  of  the  former,  born  at  Mentz, 
May  30,  1773,  died  April  27,  1833.  He  oflici- 
ated  as  ambassador  of  Baden  in  Paris,  where 
ho  became  a  favorite  of  Talleyrand  and  one  of 
the  diplomatic  agents  of  Napoleon.  Naturalized 
in  France  in  1810,  he  exerted  himself  in  1814 
in  f;ivor  of  tho  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  and 
attended,  as  French  jilenipotentiary,  the  con- 
gress of  Vienna;  after  the  2d  restoration  he 
was  a  minister  of  state.  I"V.  Johank  Fried- 
Ricn  Hugo,  born  May  16,  1760,  died  in  July, 
1803,  filled  high  functions  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic church,  at  Treves, "Worms,  and  Spire,  wrote 
on  antiquities  and  music,  and  was  himself  a 
composer.  V.  Karl  Tiieodor  Anton  Maria, 
the  last  archbishop  elector  of  Mentz,  and  arch- 
chancellor  of  the  German  empire,  born  at  Herns- 


DALBY 


DALE 


213 


helm,  Feb.  8,  1744:,  died  in  Ratisbon,  Feb.  10, 
1817.  lie  studied  at  GoUingen  and  lleidel- 
berp,  and  in  1772  became  administrator  of  the 
territory  of  Erfurt,  -vvhieb  tlien  belonged  to 
tlie  elector  of  Mentz.  lie  soon  rose  to  a  high 
position  among  the  dignitaries  of  the  church, 
and  on  July  25,  1802,  became  archbishop  elector 
of  Mentz.  In  the  following  year,\vhen  tlie  ter- 
ritory of  Mentz  Wiis  secularized,  the  dioceses 
of  Ratisbon,  Aschattenburg,  and  Wetzlar  were 
assigned  to  Dalberg.  In  180G,  when  the  empire 
was  dissolved,  Napoleon  made  him  prince  pri- 
mate of  the  Rhenish  confederation  and  grand 
duke  of  Frankfort-on-thc-Main.  After  1813  he 
lost  all  his  territories,  only  retaining  the  archi- 
episcopal  dignity.  His  GrumUiltze  tier  yEsthetik 
(Franlvfort,  1791)  was  nmch  esteemed  in  its 
time. 

DALBY,  Isaac,  an  English  mathematician, 
born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1744,  died  Oct.  14, 
1824.  He  was  intended  by  his  friends  for  a 
cloth  Avorker,  but,  laboring  by  the  aid  of  a  few 
mathematical  books  to  fit  himself  to  be  an 
usher,  was  employed  in  that  capacity.  Going  to 
London  in  1772,  and  being  appointed  to  teach 
arithmetic  in  Archbishop  Tenison's  grammar 
school,  he  became  known  to  many  men  of  sci- 
ence, and  was  employed  in  making  astronomical 
observations  in  a  building  erected  for  philosoph- 
ical purposes  by  Topham  Beanclerk.  When 
this  establishment  was  broken  up,  after  being 
employed  in  various  other  situations  of  a  similar 
nature,  he  became  mathematical  master  of  the 
naval  school  at  Chelsea.  In  1787  he  acted  as  an 
assistant  to  Gen.  Roy  in  taking  the  trigonometric 
observations  for  connecting  the  meridians  of 
Greenwich  and  Paris,  and  for  2  years  was  occu- 
pied" in  extending  the  triangulations  tlirough 
Kent  and  Sussex  to  the  coast  opposite  France. 
Gen.  Roy  died  in  1790,  and  the  next  year  Dalby 
was  engaged  together  with  Col.  "Williams  and 
Capt.  Mudge  to  continue  the  survey  of  England. 
They  began  their  operations  by  remeasuriug  the 
original  base  line,  on  Ilounslow  Heath,  and  under 
their  care  the  triangulation  was  extended  to  the 
Land's  End.  On  the  formation  of  the  military 
college  at  Wycombe,  Dalby  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  the  senior  department. 

DALCHO,  Fkederio,  an  American  physician 
and  clergyman,  born  in  London  in  1770,  died 
in  Charleston,  S.  C,  Nov.  24,  1836.  His  father, 
a  Pole,  retired  to  England  on  a  pension  after 
serving  as  an  officer  in  the  armies  of  Hanover. 
On  his  death,  his  son  was  invited  by  an  uncle  to 
Maryland,  and  received  an  excellent  education 
in  Baltimore.  He  studied  medicine  and  natural 
science,  and  became  a  practitioner  in  Charleston, 
where  he  was  active  in  establishing  the  botanic 
garden.  Subsequently  he  devoted  himself  to 
theological  studies,  became  lay  reader  in  St, 
Paul's  church,  Colleton,  in  1814,  and  having  re- 
ceived priest's  orders  was  elected  assistant  min- 
ister of  St.  Michael's  church,  Charleston,  in 
1819,  in  which  position  he  remained  till  his 
death.  lie  published  a  treatise  on  the  "  Evi- 
dence of  the  Divinity  of  om*  Saviour,''  and  a 


"  Historical  Account  of  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Church  in  South  Carolina." 

DALE,  a  8.  E.  co.  of  Ala.,  bordering  on  Fla. ; 
area,  about  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  6,346,  of 
whom  721  were  slaves.  The  surface  is  hilly 
and  mostly  occupied  by  pine  forests.  The  soil 
is  sandy  and  unproductive.  In  1850  it  yielded 
2,158  bales  of  cotton,  182,396  bushels  of  corn, 
and  69,408  of  sweet  potatoes.  Number  of  pu- 
pils in  the  public  schools,  190.   Capital,  Newton. 

DALE,  David,  the  originator  of  the  Lanark 
mills,  Scotland,  born  at  Stewarton,  Ayrsliire,  in 
1739,  died  in  180G.  lie  was  at  first  a  journey- 
man weaver,  and  afterward  became  a  great  cot- 
ton manufacturer,  at  first  in  conjunction  with 
Sir  Richard  Arkwright,  and  then  on  his  own 
account.  He  was  remarkable  for  the  care  which 
he  took  to  provide  teachers  and  the  means  of 
mental  instruction  for  the  thousands  of  people, 
old  and  young,  to  whom  he  gave  employment 
at  his  works.  He  is  described  as  "one  of  the 
most  benevolent  men  of  the  last  century."  His 
daughter  was  married  to  Robert  Owen. 

DALE,  RicnARD,  a  commodore  in  the  U.  S. 
navy,  born  near  Norfolk,  Va.,  Nov.  6,  1756,  died 
in  Philadelphia,  Feb,  26,  1826.  He  commenc- 
ed his  career  in  the  merchant  service  at  the 
age  of  12,  and  made  several  voyages  between 
Virginia  and  Liverpool.  When  the  revolution- 
ary struggle  commenced,  Virginia,  in  common 
with  several  of  the  maritime  colonies,  organ- 
ized a  marine  of  its  own,  composed  of  small 
vessels,  which  were  employed  in  the  bays  and 
rivers,  and  on  board  one  of  these  Dale  was  ap- 
pointed a  lieutenant,  in  the  early  part  of  1776. 
He  had  the  misfortune  to  be  captured  soon  after 
by  a  tender  to  an  English  frigate,  and  was  thrown 
into  a  prison  ship  at  Norfolk,  Here  he  was 
surrounded  by  royalists,  among  whom  were 
many  of  his  old  schoolfellows,  who  at  once  set 
about  his  conversion  to  the  cause  of  the  mother 
country,  and  he  was  finally  induced  to  embark 
in  a  cruiser  against  the  vessels  of  the  state. 
Hostilities  were  now  very  active,  and  the  vessel 
in  which  he  was  serving  soon  engaged  an  Ameri- 
can flotilla,  from  which  she  was  compelled  to 
run  after  a  heavy  loss.  Dale  received  a  wound 
in  this  affair,  with  which  he  was  confined  sev- 
eral weeks  at  Norfolk,  during  which  time  ho 
formed  a  resolution,  as  he  said,  "  never  again 
to  put  himself  in  the  way  of  the  bullets  of  his 
own  countrymen."  In  after  life,  he  always 
spoke  with  perfect  candor  and  sincerity  of  the 
great  error  which  he  had  committed  by  his  mo- 
mentary abandonment  of  the  cause  of  his  coun- 
try. Immediately  after  the  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence, we  find  Dale  a  midshipman  in  the 
brig  Lexington,  under  the  command  of  Capt. 
John  Bari'y,  in  which  vessel  he  served  actively, 
under  difl:erent  commanders,  until  the  autumn 
of  1777,  when  she  was  captured  upon  the  coasl; 
of  France  by  the  English  cutter  Alert  of  10 
guns,  after  a  very  close  and  severe  action.  She 
was  at  this  time  commanded  by  Capt.  Henry 
Johnston.  The  Alert  took  her  prize  into  Ply- 
mouth, and  the  prisoners  were  placed  in  cont 


214 


DALE 


DALGAHNO 


finement  in  Mill  prison,  upon  a  cliarpe  of  high 
treason,  wliero  they  remained  until  Feb.  1778, 
when  most  of  the  officers  and  several  of  the 
men  escaped.     Dale  found  his  way  to  London, 
where  he  was  recaptured,  and  immediately  car- 
ried back  to  Mill  prison.     Here  he  was  held  a 
year  longer,  subjected  to  the  most  unfeeling  and 
insulting  treatment,  when  he  escaped  a  second 
time,  in  the  disguise  of  a  British  naval  officer. 
The  manner  in  which  he  obtained  his  disguise 
and  other  facilities,  he  always  refused  to  dis- 
close,    lie  succeeded  in  reaching  France,  and 
hastening  to  L'Orient  joined  a  force  then  equip- 
ping under  the  celebrated  John  Paul  Jones.    lie 
was  now  about  23,  and  after  serving  for  some 
months  as  master's  mate,  Jones,  discovering  that 
lie  was  an  accomplished  seaman,  made  hiin  first 
lieutenant  of  his  own  ship,  the  Bon  Ilomme 
Eichard.     On  Aug.  15,  1779,  the  squadron  sail- 
ed from  Groix,  and  on  Sept.  19  the  memorable 
battle  between  the  Bon   Ilomme  Richard  and 
Serapis,  a  new  ship  of  50  guns,  took  place  off 
Flamborough  head.     Dale  distinguished  himself 
highly  in   the  battle,  and   received   a  severe 
wound  by  a  splinter,  with  which  he  was  laid 
up  for  some  time.     The  Bon  Homme  Richard 
was  so  completely  cut  to  pieces,  that  she  sank 
soon  after  the  engagement.     The  rest  of  the 
squadron  put  into  the  Texel,  Jones  having  shift- 
ed his  flag  to  the  Alliance,  and  afterward  to  the 
Ariel,  in  both  of  which  ships  Dale  still  served  as 
first  lieutenant.     On  Feb.  18, 1781,  he  arrived  at 
Philadelphia,  and  was  regularly  put  on  the  list 
of  lieutenants  in  the  navy.    He  now  parted  from 
Paul  Jones,  with  whom  he  had  served  nearly  2 
years,  and  in  June  following  joined  the  Trum- 
bull, 28,  Capt.  Nicholson,  which  about  2  months 
afterward  was  captured  off  the  Delaware,  after  a 
very  severe  action,  by  the  Iris,  32,  and  Monk,  18. 
Dale  was  Avounded  in  this  action,  making  his  3d 
wound  and  the  4th  time  he  had  been  captured 
during  the  war.     He  was  taken  to  New  York, 
and  exchanged  in  the  following  November,  when 
he  received  a  furlough,  and  was  employed  iu 
letters  of  marque  and  the  merchant  service  un- 
til the  close  of  the  war.     Under  the  law   of 
1794,  he  was  appointed  a  captain  in  the  navy, 
and  ordered   to   superintend   the  construction 
of  one  of  6  frigates,  which  were  directed  to  be 
built  to  resist  the  aggressions  of  Algiers.     An 
arrangement  with  that  regency  was  made,  how- 
ever, in  consequence  of  which  the  building  of 
the   ships  was  suspended,  and  Dale  was  again 
placed  on  furlough.     With  the  exception  of  a 
short  cruise  in  the  sloop  Gauges,  during  our 
difficulty  with  France,  he  was  not  again  in  the 
public  service  imtil  1801,  when  he  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  command  of  a  squadron  of  3  frigates 
and  a  brig,  ordered  to  the  Mediterranean,  in 
consequence  of  hostilities  with  Tripoli,  although 
war  did  not  actually  exist.     His  flag  ship  dur- 
ing this  command  was  the  President,  44,  Cai)t. 
James  Barron.     This  was  an  exceedingly  well 
appointed  squadron,  but  our  policy  at  that  time 
with  regard  to  the  Barbary  states  was  so  uni- 
formly timid,  that  there  was  but  little  for  it 


to  do.  The  Tripolitan  admiral,  with  two  of  his 
cruisers,  was  blockaded  by  one  of  our  frigates 
in  Gibraltar,  while  the  rest  of  the  squadron 
proceeded  up  the  Mediterranean.  A  severe 
action  occurred  between  the  brig  Enterprise, 
Lieut.  Comdt.  Sterrett,  and  a  Tripolitan  of  equal 
force,  in  which  the  latter  was  compelled  to  sur- 
render; but  as  there  was  no  legal  authority  to 
detain  her,  she  was  liberated."  Although  the 
conmiodore  was  so  fettered  by  his  instructions 
that  no  serious  enterprise  could  be  attempted, 
his  vigilance  was  so  great  that  the  Tripolitans 
made  no  capture  during  his  command.  In 
April,  1802,  he  returned  to  the  United  States, 
and  in  the  autumn  of  that  year  resigned  his 
commission,  and  was  never  again  in  service. 

DALE,  Sir  Thomas,  a  colonial  Biagistrato 
sent  from  England  to  Vii'ginia  as  high  marshal 
in  1609,  and  again  in  1611,  with  300  colonists, 
supplies,  and  new  laws.  The  town  of  Henrico, 
on  James  river,  was  founded  by  him,  and  that 
of  the  Appomattox  Indians  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  of  that  name  taken.  He  remained  in  the 
colony,  and  took  an  active  part  in  its  affairs, 
after  being  superseded  by  Sir  Thomas  Gates  in 
1611,  and  when  the  latter  returned  to  England 
in  1614,  again  assumed  the  cliief  command.  He 
went  himself  to  England  in  1616,  and  afterward 
to  the  East  Indies,  and  there  died. 

DALECARLIA,  or  Dalaene,  an  ancient 
province  of  Sweden,  celebrated  in  Swedish  his- 
tory for  its  noble  struggles  in  behalf  of  national 
independence,  and  for  tiie  bravery,  probity,  and 
hospitality  of  the  inhabitants.  It  was  among 
the  mountains  of  Dalecarlia  that  Gustavus  Vasa 
took  refuge  from  the  Danish  king  Christian  II., 
and  by  the  aid  of  tlie  Dalecarlians  he  was  first 
enabled  to  make  head  against  Denmark.  Bale- 
carlia  is  now  comprised  in  the  province  of  Falun. 
The  3d  son  of  the  present  king  of  Sweden  bears 
the  title  of  duke  of  Dalecarlia. 

DAL-ELF  (Dal  river),  the  principal  river  of 
Dalecarlia,  Sweden,  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
Oster  and  Wester  Dal.  It  flows  successively  S. 
E.  and  E.,  and  after  a  course  of  250  m.  from  the 
source  of  the  Oster  Dal,  during  which  it  passes 
through  a  number  of  lakes,  and  forms  several 
cataracts,  it  empties  into  the  gulf  of  Bothnia. 
Except  near  its  mouth,  it  is  only  navigable  for 
rafts. 

DALGARNO,  George,  a  British  philologist, 
born  at  Aberdeen  about  1627,  died  at  Oxford, 
Aug.  28,  1687.  He  was  educated  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Aberdeen,  and  taught  for  about  30 
years  a  grammar  school  at  Oxford.  In  1661  he 
published  a  work  entitled  Ars  Signorum,  vulgo 
Character  Universalis  et  Lingua  Philosj)hica. 
This  was  the  basis  of  Bishop  Wilkins's  "Essay 
toward  a  Real  Character."  The  work,  however, 
by  which  he  is  best  know'n  iu  modern  times  is 
his  "Didascalocophus,  or  the  Deaf  and  Dumb 
Man's  Tutor,"  which  appeared  in  1680.  Tliis 
work  contains  so  fully  the  principles  of  deaf  nmte 
instruction,  though  deduced  from  theory  only, 
that  it  would  not  be  seriously  defective  as  a 
handbook  for  the  teacher  at  the  present  day. 


DALGAS 


DALLAS 


215 


He  was  also  tlio  inventor  of  tlio  two-hancfed 
al[)]iabet.  His  works  were  reprinted  by  the 
Maitland  club  (1  vol.  4to.,  Edinburgh,  1834). 

DALGAS,  Cakl  Fkedmk  Isak,  a  Danish 
Bcieutilic  agriculturist,  born  at  FreJericia  in 
1787.  He  studied  at  Copenhagen,  ami  in  1808 
was  couunissioned  by  tlie  government  to  go 
abroad  to  study  new  modes  of  agriculture,  and 
particularly  tlie  cultivation  of  hemp.  Return- 
hig  in  1810,  ho  began  to  cultivate  a  farm,  prac- 
tising with  his  own  hand  the  agricultural  prin- 
ciples he  at  the  same  time  promulgated  with 
his  pen. 

DALIIOUSIE,  James  Axdrew  Buoun  Ram- 
say, marquis  of,  a  British  statesman,  born  April 
22,  1812.  The  earl  of  Dalhousie,  liis  father, 
officiated  for  a  time  as  governor  of  Canada. 
The  present  marcjuis  was  educated  at  Harrow 
and  Oxford,  entered  tlie  house  of  commons  in 
1837  as  member  for  Haddingtonshire,  and  on  the 
death  of  his  father  (March  21, 1838)  took  his  seat 
in  the  house  of  lords.  In  1843  »Sir  Robert  Peel 
made  him  vice-president,  and  in  1844  president 
of  the  board  of  trade.  On  the  accession  of  the 
whigs  to  office  in  1840,  he  was  requested  to 
retain  his  position.  In  Nov.  1847,  he  went  to 
Lidia  as  Lord  llardinge's  successor  in  the  post 
of  governor-general,  and  entered  upon  his  duties 
Jan.  12,  1848.  On  the  death  of  Runjeet  Singh, 
the  various  Sikh  chieftains  who  had  been  kept 
in  check  by  his  vigorous  rule  broke  out  into 
hostilities.  Lord  Ilardinge  had  been  compelled 
to  march  against  them,  and  had  vanquished 
them  in  tlie  battles  of  Moodkee  and  Ferozeshah. 
On  the  breach  of  the  treaty  then  concluded,  and 
new  risings  in  Mooltan,  where  several  British 
were  massacred.  Lord  Dalhousie  invaded  north- 
western India,  and  having  subjugated  the  Pun- 
jaub,  annexed  it  permanently  to  the  British 
empire.  It  was  also  under  his  administration, 
in  1852,  that  Pegu  was  annexed.  Several  mi- 
nor annexations  also  took  place,  and  the  close 
of  his  official  Indian  career  Avas  marked  by  the 
annexation  of  Oude.  The  effects  of  the  climate 
having  destroyed  his  health,  Lord  Dalhousie  re- 
signed, and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Canning  in 
March,  1856.  On  her  voyage  liome  Lady  Dal- 
housie had  already  died  (May  4,  1853).  He 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  marquis  in  1849 ; 
appointed  warden  of  the  cinque  ports  on  the 
death  of  the  duke  of  Wellington  in  1852  ;  and 
rewarded  in  185G  with  a  life  pension  of  £5,000 
by  the  East  India  company,  which  he  resigned, 
however,  in  fovor  of  the  sufferers  from  the  Se- 
poy rebellion  of  1857. 

DALIN,  Olof,  a  Swedish  author,  born  in 
1708,  died  in  1763.  His  poetr}-,  although  pop- 
ular at  the  time  of  its  appearance,  is  now  but 
little  read  in  Sweden;  but  his  historical  works 
are  still  higlily  esteemed.  His  most  extensive 
work,  Sveiirikes  historia  ("History  of  Sweden"), 
appeared  in  Stockholm,  in  4  vols.,  l747-'62, 
and  a  German  translation  was  published  at  Wis- 
mar,  1756-'63. 

DALLAS,  the  name  of  counties  in  several  of 
the  United  States.    I.  A  S.  W.  co.  of  Ala.,  inter- 


sected by  Alabama  river,  which  is  joined  with- 
in the  county  by  the  navigable  river  Cahawba 
and  several  smaller  streams;  area,  about  890 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  29,727,  of  whom  22,258 
were  slaves.  It  has  an  uneven  surface  and  a 
highly  productive  soil,  skilfully  and  extensively 
cultivated.  The  surface  rock  is  rotten  lime- 
stone. G(jod  water  was  formerly  scarce  in 
many  parts  of  the  county,  but  the  deficiency 
has  lately  been  supplied  by  a  number  of  Artesian 
wells,  from  200  to  900  feet  in  depth.  The  staple 
productions  are  cotton  and  Indian  corn,  and  the 
harvest  of  1850  amounted  to  35,275  bales  of 
cotton  (the  greatest  quantity  produced  by  any 
one  county  of  the  United  States,  except  Tusca- 
loosa CO.,  Ala.),  1,267,011  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  227,298  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  106,525  of 
oats.  Tliere  were  45  churches,  and  1,773  pupils 
attending  public  schools.  Capital,  Cahawba. 
The  Alabama  and  Mississippi  railroad  passes 
through  the  co.  II.  A  N.  E.  co.  of  Texas,  drain- 
ed by  the  forks  of  Trinity  river ;  area,  900  sq. 
m.  ;  pop.  in  1856,  5,738,  of  whom  502  were 
slaves.  Most  of  the  land  is  fertile,  well  watered, 
and  plentifully  supplied  with  timber.  The  soil 
is  suited  to  the  production  of  cotton,  grain,  and 
wheat,  and  in  1850  yielded  44  bales  of  cotton, 
94,870  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  and  35,520  lbs. 
of  butter.  The  county  contained  1  church  and 
1  newspaper  office,  and  the  public  schools  num- 
bered 170  pupils.  Capital,  Dallas.  III.  A  cen- 
tral CO.  of  Ark.,  bounded  W.  by  the  Washita, 
and  E.  by  Saline  river ;  area,  about  860  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1854,  5,894,  of  whom  2,526  were  slaves. 
The  Washita  is  navigable  in  this  part  of  its 
course  for  boats  of  light  draught.  The  soil  is 
generally  productive,  and  the  surface  level  or 
moderately  uneven.  Indian  corn  and  cotton  are 
the  staples.  In  1854  there  were  raised  hero 
5,343  bales  of  cotton,  212,809  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  15,304  of  oats,  and  4,574  of  wheat.  The 
public  schools  in  1850  numbered  194  pupils, 
beside  which  there  were  124  attending  other 
schools  and  academies.  Capital,  Princeton,  IV. 
A  central  co.  of  Mo.,  intersected  by  the  Niangua 
river,  an  affluent  of  the  Osage,  and  drained  by 
several  small  streams ;  area,  576  sq.  m, ;  pop. 
in  1856,  4,620,  of  whom  96  were  slaves.  Water 
power  is  abundant  and  valuable,  and  in  several 
places  there  are  excellent  springs  of  limestone 
water.  There  are  no  great  elevations  in  the 
county,  and  most  of  tlie  surface  is  occupied  by 
prairies  and  forests.  The  soil  is  good,  but  bet- 
ter adapted  to  grazing  than  to  the  cultivation  of 
grain.  Indian  corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  live  stock 
are  the  staples.  In  1850  the  productions  were 
187,580  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  8,858  of  wheat, 
and  65,795  of  oats.  There  were  375  pupils  in 
the  public  schools.  Capital,  Buffajo,  V.  A 
central  co.  of  Iowa,  traversed  by  Raccoon  river 
and  Beaver  creek;  area,  576  sq.  m, ;  pop.  in 
1856,  3,991.  The  soil  is  said  to  be  of  excellent 
quality,  but  little  more  than  one  fifth  of  the 
land  is  under  cultivation.  In  1856  it  produced 
4,864  bushels  of  wheat,  2,658  of  oats,  58,945  of 
Indian  corn,  3,830  of  potatoes,  19,566  lbs.  of 


216 


DALLAS 


butter,  and  5,250  of  wool.  Capital,  Adell.  VL 
A  new  county  in  tlio  peninsula  of  Florida.  It 
is  not  included  in  the  census  of  1850. 

DALLAS,  Alexander  James,  an  ATnerican 
statesman,  born  in  the  island  of  Jamaica,  Juno 
21,  175'J,  died  at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  Jan.  14,  1817. 
His  father  was  an  eminent  physician,  a  native 
of  Scotland,  who  had  amassed  a  handsome  for- 
tune in  Jamaica.  With  the  double  purpose  of 
regaining  his  health  and  of  bestowing  the  proper 
care  upon  the  education  of  his  children,  he  re- 
turned to  Edinburgh  while  the  subject  of  this 
notice  was  still  young.  The  latter  was  placed 
at  school  in  London,  where  he  remained  until 
the  death  of  his  father,  which  occurred  soon 
after.  He  now  became  a  student  of  law  at  the 
Temple,  but  was  subsequently  induced  to  accept 
a  position  in  a  mercantile  house.  Circumstances, 
however,  afterward  led  him  to  abandon  this,  and 
he  again  resumed  his  studies.  In  1780  he  was 
married,  and  in  the  following  year  he  deter- 
mined upon  settling  in  Jamaica.  There  he  re- 
mained until  1783,  leaving  in  April  of  that  year 
for  the  United  States.  On  June  17  betook  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  state  of  Pennsylvania. 
Having  established  himself  in  Philadelphia,  he 
had  designed  entering  immediately  on  the  prac- 
tice of  the  law  ;  but  the  rules  of  the  courts  re- 
quiring a  residence  of  2  years  in  the  state  be- 
fore an  attorney  could  be  admitted  to  the  bar, 
he  obtained  from  Jonathan  Burrall,  commis- 
sioner for  settling  the  accounts  of  the  commis- 
sary and  quartermaster's  departments  of  the 
revolutionary  army,  a  situation  in  which  he 
could  use  to  advantage  the  knowledge  he  had 
acquired  in  his  brief  mercantile  career  in  Lon- 
don. On  July  13,  1785,  he  was  admitted  to 
l)ractise  in  the  supreme  court  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  subsequently  in  the  U.  S.  courts.  Not 
being  fully  employed  by  his  profession,  he 
prepared  his  "  Reports  of  Cases  ruled  and  ad- 
judged in  the  Courts  of  the  United  States  and 
of  Pennsylvania,  before  and  since  the  Revolu- 
tion," of  which  4  volumes  were  published  be- 
tween 1790  and  1807.  These  reports  are  the 
oldest  in  the  United  States  except  Kirby's. 
Lord  Mansfield  is  reported  to  have  said  of  them : 
"  They  do  credit  to  the  court,  the  bar,  and  the 
reporter ;  they  show  readiness  in  practice,  lib- 
erality in  principle,  strong  reason  and  legal 
learning ;  the  method,  too,  is  clear  and  the  lan- 
guage plain."  Considerable  time  was  also  given 
by  him  to  other  literary  pursuits,  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  numerous  essays  in  the  periodicals  of 
the  day,  and  in  the  editing  of  the  "  Columbian 
Magazine,"  published  in  Philadelphia.  In  1790 
Pennsylvania  adopted  a  new  constitution,  un- 
der which  Gen.  Thomas  Mifflin  was  elected  in 
the  same  year  its  first  governor.  Mr.  Dallas 
was,  Jan.  10,  1791,  appointed  by  Gov.  Mifflin 
secretary  of  the  commonwealth,  an  office  which 
he  filled  for  several  years.  While  holding  this 
position  he  prepared  and  published  an  edition 
of  the  laws  of  the  state  with  notes.  lie  was 
.an  ardent  republican  and  a  leading  politician, 
and  on  the  elevation  of  Mr.  Jeflersou  to  the 


presidency  ho  received  the  appointment  of 
U.  S.  district  attorney  for  the  eastern  district 
of  Pennsylvania,  which  office  he  held  without 
interruption  until  he  was  called  to  the  head  of 
the  treasury  department.  In  May,  1813,  Al- 
bert Gallatin,  who  had  been  secretary  of  tlie 
treasury  from  early  in  1802,  was  sent  on  a  spe- 
cial peace  mission  to  Russia;  and  at  the  time,  it 
being  thought  that  his  absence  would  be  but 
temporary,  no  successor  was  named.  Tlie  du- 
ties of  the  office  were  placed  under  the  charge 
of  Mr.  Jones,  then  secretary  of  the  navy,  who 
after  some  months'  experience  found  it  im- 
possible to  do  justice  to  them.  In  the  win- 
ter of  1813-14,  it  becoming  evident  to  Mr. 
Madison  that  Mr.  Gallatin  would  not  soon 
return  to  the  country,  he  resolved  upon  look- 
ing for  a  successor  to  him  in  the  cabinet.  Mr. 
Dallas  was  pressed  to  accept  the  office,  not  only 
by  the  administration,  but  by  other  distinguish- 
ed public  men.  William  Pinkney,  the  attorney- 
general,  having  resigned  in  Feb.  1814,  the 
choice  of  these  offices  was  tendered  to  him,  but 
declined.  While,  as  we  have  seen,  Mr.  Dallas 
Avas  an  undoubted  republican,  he  did  not  en- 
tirely agree  with  the  senators  from  Pennsylva- 
nia, Messrs.  Roberts  and  Laycock,  and  it  was 
more  than  intimated  that  an  effort  would  be 
made  by  them  to  bring  about  his  rejection  by 
the  senate  in  case  of  his  nomination.  On  Feb. 
9,  George  W.  Campbell,  a  senator  from  Tennes- 
see, was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury. 
From  his  report  to  congress,  Sept.  26,  it  ap- 
peared that  the  government  was  almost  threat- 
ened with  being  brought  to  a  stand  for  the  want 
of  means.  In  March  previously,  congress  had 
authorized  a  loan  of  $25,000,000,  of  which 
$10,000,000  was  advertised  for  in  May  ;  and 
although  contracts  had  been  made  for  the 
amount,  $2,000,000  of  it  had  not  been  paid  by 
the  parties  contracting.  In  August  the  secre- 
tary had  further  advertised  for  $6,000,000,  of 
which  he  had  been  able  to  negotiate  but  about 
$2,500,000,  and  even  that  sum  at  a  discount  of 
20  per  cent.,  with  the  additional  pro^nsion  that 
should  the  United  States  dispose  of  any  further 
loan  at  a  larger  discount,  the  parties  making 
this  purchase  were  to  be  placed  upon  the  same 
footing.  The  report  of  the  secretary  further 
indicated  an  imperative  necessity  of  raising  for 
the  2  last  quarters  of  the  year  the  sum  of  $25,- 
000,000,  while  he  estimated  the  actual  revenue 
at  $4,800,000.  Having  exhausted  the  means  of 
borrowing,  and  with  this  deficiency  threatening 
him,  it  was  clearjthat  more  vigorous  measures 
were  imperatively  necessary ;  but  Mr.  Camp- 
bell suggested  no  practical  means  of  removing 
the  difficulty.  His  health  and  spirits  were  bro- 
ken down  by  the  cares  and  anxieties  of  his 
office,  and  on  Sept.  28  he  resigned.  Such  Avas 
the  position  of  the  treasury  when  Mr.  Dal- 
las Avas  again  pressed  to  accept  office.  So 
alarming  Avas  the  crisis,  that  those  who  had  a 
fcAV  months  before  threatened  to  cause  his  re- 
jection, were  glad  to  Avithdraw  their  objections. 
He  was  accordingly  nominated,  Oct.  5,  and  con- 


DALLAS 


211 


firmed  the  following  day.  On  Oct.  14,  John 
W.  Eppes,  the  chairnuiu  of  the  committee  of 
ways  and  means,  addressed  a  cfimmunication  to 
the  secretary,  asking  for  any  suggestions  from 
him  respecting  any  "  additional  provision  which 
may  he  necessary  to  maintain  unimpaired  the 
public  credit."  Three  days  after  the  receipt  of 
this  communication,  he  sent  to  that  committee 
a  report  which  to  this  day  i.';  one  of  the  most 
remarkahle  papers  Avliich  have  emanated  from 
the  treasury  department.  It  is  distinguished 
alike  hy  its  hold  and  nnmly  tone,  the  clearness 
with  wliich  the  causes  of  existing  evils  are  laid 
bare,  and  above  all  by  the  contidence  which 
its  author  displays  in  his  ability  to  grap[)le  with 
and  finally  overcome  the  ditticulties  with  which 
he  had  to  contend.  While  he  recognized  the 
fact  that  the  most  important  cause  of  diffi- 
culty was  the  inadequacy  of  the  system  of  tax- 
ation to  produce  the  revenue  necessary  even  to 
base  a  credit  upon,  he  at  the  same  time  added  : 
"  The  exigencies  of  the  government  require  a 
supply  of  treasure  for  tlie  prosecution  of  the 
war  beyond  any  amount  which  it  would  be  pol- 
itic, even  if  it  were  practicable,  to  raise  by  an 
immediate  and  constant  imposition  of  taxes." 
Further,  he  assured  them  that  there  must  be  a 
resort  to  credit,  which  w^as  too  greatly  impaired 
to  hope  to  obtain  adequate  succor  on  moderate 
terms.  Ileuce  it  became  the  object  first  and  last 
in  any  practical  scheme  to  reanimate  the  public 
confidence.  lie  then  submits  in  detail  6  prepo- 
sitions, in  substance  as  follows  :  1.  That  during 
the  war  there  be  raised  the  sum  of  $21,000,000 
for  the  support  of  government,  principal  and 
interest  of  public  debt  created  before  the  war, 
interest  on  public  debt  created  or  to  be  created 
during  the  war,  payment  of  treasury  notes,  pay- 
ment of  debentures,  addition  to  sums  raised  by 
loans,  and  for  sinking  and  contingent  funds.  2. 
The  particular  manner  of  raising  the  amount  so 
required,  by  taxes  and  duties,  is  subjoined.  3. 
That  a  national  bank  shall  be  incorporated  for  20 
years,  with  a  capital  of  $50,000,000,  |  of  which 
shall  be  subscribed  by  the  United  States,  the  re- 
mainder by  corporations  or  individuals ;  that  of 
tlie  subscription  of  the  latter  \  shall  be  paid  in 
gold  or  silver,  tlie  remainder  in  gold  or  silver,  or 
in  6  per  cent,  stock  issued  during  the  war,  or  in 
treasury  notes  ;  the  subscription  of  the  TJnited 
Slates  to  be  paid  in  G  per  cent,  stock ;  that  the 
bank  shall  loan  to  the  United  States  $30,000,000, 
at  6  per  cent.,  at  such  times  as  shall  be  found 
mutually  convenient.  Other  proviswns  with 
reference  to  the  organization  and  government  of 
the  bank  were  also  added.  4.  That  after  having 
thus  provided  for  the  punctual  payment  of  the 
interest  upon  every  denomination  of  the  public 
debt,  for  raising  annually  a  portion  of  the  current 
expenses  by  taxation,  for  establishing  a  sink- 
ing fund,  and  for  securing  to  the  public  the  effi- 
cient agency  of  a  national  bank,  the  only  re- 
mainmg  object  of  supply  shall  be  accomplished 
by  annual  loans,  and  issues  of  treasury  notes,  if 
unexpectedly  such  issues  should  continue  to  be 
necessary  or  expedient.     5.  Contains  a  plan  of 


settlement  of  accounts.  6.  After  a  statement 
showing  a  necessity  for  providing  for  the  4th 
quarter  of  the  year  the  smn  of  $19,176,391, 
he  proposes  to  meet  this  by  means  of  actual 
revenue,  the  negotiation  of  loans,  and  the  issue 
of  treasury  notes.  As  early  as  Oct.  24,  a  reso- 
lution of  the  house  was  passed  in  committee  of 
the  whole,  declaring  it  expedient  to  establish  a 
national  baidc.  In  November  a  long  and  ex- 
cited discussion  took  place  in  congress  on  tho 
subject,  opinions  being  confiicting  and  appa- 
rently irreconcilable.  On  Nov.  27,  the  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury  was  applied  to  by  Mr. 
Lowndes,  the  chairman  of  the  bank  conmiittee 
of  the  house,  to  know  what  would  in  his  opin- 
ion be  the  effect  of  a  large  issue  of  treasury 
notes,  which  should  be  received  in  payment  of 
subscriptions  to  the  bank  stock.  The  same  day 
he  made  a  reply  in  the  same  prompt  and  fear- 
less spirit  as  the  former  report.  "  AVhether 
Mr.  Dallas  w\as  right  or  w^rong  in  his  bank 
plan,"  says  a  distinguished  historian  of  that 
period,  "  his  tone  to  congress,  in  the  face  of  tho 
country,  and  before  the  world,  was  a  stirring 
appeal  to  the  rising  spirit  of  the  nation."  For 
a  time  the  national  bank  project  failed  by 
reason  of  the  difficulty  of  harmonizing  the  dif- 
ferent views  and  plans ;  but  in  the  few  weeks  of 
his  administration,  Mr.  Dallas  had  already  by 
his  energy  and  ability  greatly  restored  the  pub- 
lic credit.  He  negotiated  in  October,  on  favor- 
able terms,  the  loan  which  Mr.  Campbell  had 
failed  in  procuring  in  August ;  and  after  much 
discussion,  in  Jan.  1815,  a  bill  chartering  a  na- 
tional bank  was  passed,  and  on  the  30th  was 
returned  by  the  president  witli  his  objections, 
which  were  to  the  effect  that  from  the  nature 
of  the  plan  it  w-ould  fail  to  accomplish  its  ob- 
ject.- This  bank  was  very  different  from  the 
one  proposed  by  the  secretary,  and,  requiring 
too  large  an  amount  of  coin,  would  have  had 
but  little  influence  on  the  fiscal  afiairs  of  the 
government.  Finallj',  on  April  10,  1810,  a  bill 
with  less  objectionable  features,  which  had  pass- 
ed both  houses,  received  the  signature  of  the 
president  and  became  a  law.  The  practical 
effect  of  Mr.  Dallas's  administration  of  liis  de- 
partment may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  treasury 
notes,  which  on  his  entering  office  in  Oct.  1814, 
"  none  but  necessitous  creditors,  or  contractors 
in  distress,  or  commissaries,  quartermasters, 
and  navy  agents,  acting  as  it  were  officially, 
seemed  willing  to  accept,"  were  on  Jan.  10  fol- 
lowing sold  at  par  with  interest  added.  This 
was  also  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  congress 
had  failed  to  act  with  promptness  and  energy  ia 
carrying  out  his  recommendations.  Peace,  how- 
ever, having  been  declared  on  the  ratification 
of  the  treaty  of  Ghent,  Feb.  17,  1815,  a  great 
change  immediately  took  place  in  the  finances 
of  the  country,  rendering  extraordinary  expen- 
ditures and  loans  unnecessary,  except  as  tem- 
porary measures.  In  Nov.  1816,  Mr.  Dallas 
resigned  the  position  which  he  had  held  with 
so  much  credit  to  himself  and  advantage  to  the 
country,  leaving  the  national  finances  in  tha 


218 


DALLAS 


most  flourishing  condition.  "When  it  became 
known  tliut  he  intended  to  resign,  he  was  urged 
to  allow  his  name  to  be  used  as  a  candidate  for 
congress  from  Philadelphia ;  but  this  he  prompt- 
ly declined,  intending  to  resume  the  practice  of 
Lis  i)rofession.  Ilis  plans  were,  however,  soon 
frustrated  by  his  death  from  an  attack  of  gout 
in  the  stomach,  of  24  hours'  duration.  Various 
marks  of  respect  were  paid  to  his  memory  by 
.the  citizens  of  Philadelphia,  by  the  various 
courts  of  the  county,  and  by  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States,  which  recognized 
liis  "  illustrious  talents  in  professional,  and  em- 
inent virtues  in  private  life."  One  among  his 
political  opponents  thus  spoke  of  him  at  that 
time :  "  As  a  husband,  a  parent,  and  a  friend, 
he  was  confessedly  most  amiable  and  exem- 
plary. But  it  was  by  the  sweet  amenity  of  his 
disposition,  his  open  hospitality,  and  the  genial 
courtesy  of  his  dept)rtment,  that  he  conciliated, 
even  in  the  worst  times  of  party  contentions, 
60  large  a  portion  of  the  community." 

DALLAS,  Geoege  Mifflin,  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Philadelphia,  July  10,  1792. 
lie  was  the  2d  of  3  sons  of  Alexander  James 
Dallas,  the  eldest  of  whom.  Commodore  A.  J. 
Dallas,  a  distinguished  officer  of  the  U.  S.  navy, 
died  in  1844.  George  M.  Dallas  Avas  graduated 
at  Princeton  college  in  1810,  and  commenced 
the  study  of  the  law  under  direction  of  his 
father,  and  in  April,  1813,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar.  The  United  States  being  then  at  war  with 
Great  Britain,  and  the  emperor  Alexander  hav- 
ing offered  to  mediate  between  the  belligerents, 
Albert  Gallatin  was  selected  to  fill  the  special 
mission  to  St.  Petersburg ;  and  from  him  Mr. 
Dallas  received  the  appointment  of  private  sec- 
retary, Avhich  he  accepted.  On  his  arrival  in 
St.  Petersburg,  Mr.  Gallatin  found  that  Great 
Britain  had  declined  the  proftered  mediation ; 
but  Mr.  Adams  and  he  resolved  to  ascertain  if 
possible  what  were  the  views  of  that  govern- 
ment ;  and  with  this  object,  Mr.  Dallas  was 
sent  to  London  Avith  despatches  to  the  Russian 
ambassador  at  the  court  of  St.  James.  This 
movement  resulted  in  the  appointment  of  the 
commission  to  Ghent,  which  after  prolonged 
negotiations  ended  in  the  treaty  of  Dec.  24, 
1814,  which  closed  the  war.  Mr.  Dallas,  after 
a  residence  of  several  months  at  Ghent,  was 
sent  home  by  the  American  commissioners  as 
bearer  of  important  despatchos,  after  which  he 
held  for  about  a  year  a  position  in  the  treasury 
department ;  relinquishing  this,  he  entered  on 
the  practice  of  his  profession  in  Philadelphia, 
and  became  the  solicitor  of  the  U.  S.  bank.  In 
1817  he  was  appointed  by  the  attorney-general 
of  Pennsylvania  his  deputy  for  Philadelphia 
county.  During  the  presidential  canvass  of 
1824  he  took  an  active  and  important  part, 
supporting  Jackson  for  that  office,  and  Mr.  Cal- 
lioun  for  vice-president.  In  1828  he  was 
elected  mayor  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia, 
which  office  he  resigned  in  the  following  year 
on  receiving  the  appointment  of  U.  S.  district 
attorney.    This  position  he  in  turn  resigned,  on 


being  elected  to  a  vacancy  in  the  U,  S.  senato 
ill  1831,  which  he  held  until  the  expiration  of 
tlie  term,  March  3,  1833.  During  this  brief 
occupancy  of  office,  he  displayed  ability  in  the 
advocacy  of  the  recharter  of  the  U.  S.  bank, 
and  of  a  protective  tariff,  as  well  as  of  other 
important  public  measures.  Declining  a  re- 
election, he  was  appointed  by  Gov.  Wolf  attor- 
ney-general of  Pennsylvania,  which  office  he 
lield  until  1835.  On  the  elevation  of  Mr.  Van 
Buren  to  the  presidency,  he  was,  in  1837,  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Russia.  Being  at  liis  own 
request  recalled  in  1839,  and  the  office  of  U.  S. 
attorney-general  having  recently  become  vacant 
by  the  death  of  Felix  Grundy,  it  was  tendered 
to  him  by  the  president,  but  was  declined,  and 
he  again  resumed  the  practice  of  his  profession 
in  Philadelphia.  In  May,  1844,  Mr.  Dallas 
was  nominated  for  vice-president  by  the  demo- 
cratic national  convention  at  Baltimore,  in  con- 
nection with  James  K.  Polk  for  president.  The 
ensuing  canvass,  w^hich  was  conducted  with 
great  spirit  by  the  two  great  parties  of  the 
country,  resulted  in  the  election  of  Messrs.  Polk 
and  Dallas,  who  received  each  170  out  of  275 
electoral  votes  cast.  The  great  and  im])ortant 
issues  which  this  contest  decided  were  the  policy 
of  the  country  with  reference  to  the  tariff  of 
duties  upon  imports,  and  the  annexation  of  Texas 
to  the  United  States.  While  the  friends  of  Mr. 
Polk  everywhere  boldly  avowed  themselves  in 
favor  of  "  annexation,"  they  were  by  no  means  so 
unanimous  in  reference  to  the  revenue  policy, 
being  in  favor  of  what  is  termed  free  trade  in 
one  section,  while  advocating  in  Pennsylvania 
the  most  positive  protectionist  principles.  The 
moral  influence  of  the  election  of  Mr.  Polk 
was  sufficient  to  bring  about  the  annexation 
of  Texas  under  the  administration  of  Mr.  Tyler 
3  days  before  his  successor  was  inaugurated. 
In  his  first  "  Report  on  the  Finances,"  in  Dec. 
1845,  Mr.  Robert  J.  Walker,  the  secretary  of 
the  treasury  in  the  new  administration,  took 
the  most  decided  ground  in  favor  of  the  aban- 
donment of  the  protective  policy,  and  recom- 
mended a  system  of  duties  for  revenue  alone, 
wliich  led,  on  July  28,  1846,  to  the  passage  of 
the  tariff  of  that  year — a  free  trade  measure. 
So  nearly  balanced  in  the  senate  were  the  friends 
and  thfe  opponents  of  this  radical  change  in  the 
revenue  system,  that  on  the  resignation  of  the 
rion.W.  II.  Haywood,  jr.,  of  North  Carolina,  the 
fate  of  the  bill  was  felt  to  depend  upon  the  vote 
of  the  Hon.  Spencer  Jarnigan  of  Tennessee,  a 
whig,  who  was  opposed  to  its  passage,  but  who 
had  received  from  the  legislature  of  that  state 
instructions  to  vote  for  a  bill  based  ujjon  the 
principles  of  that  measure.  Mr.  Jarnigan, while 
he  declined  to  vote  for  the  bill,  did  not  feel 
himself  at  liberty  to  vote  against  it,  and  he 
withheld  his  voice  entirely.  This  made  the 
result  depend  upon  Vice-President  Dallas,  who 
gave  his  casting  vote  for  tlie  bill,'  and  it  f Ims 
became  the  law  of  the  land.  That  Mr.  Dallas  was 
fully  aware  of  the  deep  responsibility  of  this  act 
is  quite  clear  from  his  address  to  the  senate  upon 


DALLAS 


DALLES 


219 


that  occasion.  "While  ho  stated  that  tlio  bill 
was  not  without  many  faults,  he  believed  that 
"  ample  proof  had  been  furnished  that  a  majority 
of  the  people  of  the  states  desired  a  change  to 
a  great  extent,  in  principle  if  not  fundamental- 
ly," and  as  well  for  these  as  for  other  weighty 
reasons,  he  was  induced  to  take  the  step  which 
he  then  took.  Mr.  Dallas  occupied  the  office 
of  vice-president  until  March  4,  1849,  when  lie 
was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Fillmore.  In  1855,  he 
was  spoken  of  as  a  candidate  for  the  presidency, 
but  his  name  was  not  brought  Ijefore  the  con- 
vention of  his  party  held  in  the  following  year. 
On  Mr.  Buchanan's  signifying  his  desire  to  be 
recalled  from  London,  Mr.  Dallas  was  nominated 
to  the  senate  on  Jan.  31,  and  confirmed  on  Feb. 
4,  1856,  as  minister  to  the  court  of  St.  James,  a 
position  which  he  still  (1859)  holds. 

DALLAS,  RoBEHT  Charles,  a  British  author, 
brother  of  Alexander  James  Dallas,  born  in 
Jamaica  in  1754,  died  at  St.  Adresse,  Normandy, 
Oct.  21,  1824.  The  higher  branches  of  his  edu- 
cation were  conducted  under  the  celebrated 
James  Elphinstone,  the  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson,  at 
his  school  at  Kensington,  London,  where  he 
met  with  Dr.  Franklin  as  well  as  with  Dr. 
Johnson.  At  a  subsequent  period  he  furnished 
to  John  Nichols  a  memoir  of  his  preceptor, 
which  was  abridged  and  used  in  Nichols's 
"  Literary  Anecdotes."  His  name  was  entered 
at  the  Inner  Tem[)le,  but  relinquishing  the  law 
he  returned  to  Jamaica  about  1775,  where  he 
remained  some  3  years,  when  he  again  visited 
England  and  was  married.  Once  more  he  de- 
termined to  settle  in  his  native  island,  intend- 
ing to  fulfil  the  duties  of  an  oflice  to  which  he 
had  recently  been  appointed ;  but  he  was  unable 
to  remain  there  long,  the  climate  being  unfavor- 
able to  the  health  of  his  wife.  He  visited  the 
continent  of  Europe,  and  afterward  came  to 
the  United  States,  for  the  purpose  of  again 
meeting  with  his  brother.  Early  in  1797  he 
published  the  first  of  his  works,  entitled  "  Mis- 
cellaneous Writings,"  which  was  followed  in 
rapid  succession,  between  that  date  and  1824, 
by  various  books  either  original  or  translated, 
covering  a  wide  range  of  subjects,  including 
natural  history,  history,  biography,  and  fiction. 
Ilis  writings  are  in  46  volumes  of  various  sizes 
and  styles.  In  1803-'4  he  published  the 
"  History  of  the  Maroons"  (2  vols.  8vo.),  a 
work  of  authority  which  is  often  referred  to  at 
the  present  time.  His  sister,  Charlotte  Hen- 
rietta, having  married  Capt.  George  Anson 
Byron,  R.  N.,  an  uncle  of  Lord  Byron,  Mr. 
Dallas  at  an  early  day  took  an  interest  in  the 
poet,  and  soon  discovered  in  his  writings  "  the 
marks  of  the  genius  which  has  been  since  so 
universally  acknowledged."  Immediately  after 
the  publication  of  the  "  Hours  of  Idleness,"  Mr. 
Dallas  commenced  a  correspondence  with  Byron, 
which  was  the  beginning  of  an  acquaintance 
which  soon  ripened  into  friendship.  On  the 
completion  of  his  "  English  Bards  and  Scotch 
Reviewers,"  in  1809,  Lord  Byron  placed  it  in 
ihe  hands  of  his  friend  for  publication.     Mr. 


Dallas  was  at  once  strongly  impressed  with  the 
power  which  it  displayed,  and  which  so  much 
surprised  those  who  had  judged  him  by  his 
previous  boi>k.  "  Were  you  sufficiently  ac- 
quainted with  my  mind  to  be  certain  tliat  it 
cannot  stoop  to  flattery,"  said  Mr.  Dallas  after 
reading  the  manuscript,  "  I  would  tell  you  that 
it  rivals  the  '  Baviad  and  Maiviad.'  "  When,  in 
March,  1809,  Lord  liyron  for  the  first  time  took 
liis  seat  in  parliament,  by  his  particular  rcipiest 
Mr.  Dallas  accompanied  him  on  that  occasion. 
In  July,  1811,  Byron  returned  to  England  after 
an  absence  of  more  than  2  years,  bringing  with 
him  the  1st  and  2d  cantos  of  "  Childe  Harold," 
which  he  at  once  presented  to  Mr.  Dallas,  with 
the  remark'  "They  are  not  worth  troubling 
you  with."  Throughout  the  intimacy  Avhich 
existed  between  Lord  Byron  and  Mr.  Dallas, 
the  latter  "  did  every  thing  that  a  friend  could 
do  to  win  him  to  the  cause  of  virtue."  After 
many  unsuccessful  attempts,  much  to  his  satis- 
faction Mr.  Dallas  succeeded  in  reconciling  him 
to  his  sister  Mrs.  Leigh,  from  whom  he  had  been 
estranged  for  several  years.  The  intimacy  be- 
tween I3yron  and  Mr.  Dallas  was  entirely  broken 
off  some  time  before  the  death  of  the  former ;  im- 
mediately after  which  last  event,  he  announced 
and  prepared  for  publication  in  London,  "  Private 
Correspondence  of  Lord  Byron,  including  his 
Letters  to  liis  Mother ;"  which  he  believed  him- 
self fully  warranted  in  doing,  by  permission,  if 
not  expressed,  at  least  implied,  by  their  author. 
An  application  for  an  injunction  was  made, 
however,  by  Byron's  executors,  and  the  publica- 
tion was  prevented.  Nevertheless,  Mr.  Dallas 
almost  at  once  commenced  tlie  i:)reparation  of 
his  "  Recollections  of  tlie  Life  of  Lord  Byron, 
from  the  year  1808  to  the  end  of  1814,"  which 
he  had  nearly  finished  Avhen  he  died,  after  an 
illness  of  3  months.  The  book  was  subsequently 
edited  and  published  by  his  son,  the  Rev.  A. 
R.  C.  Dallas. 

DALLES  (Fr.  dalle^  a  flagstone),  a  name 
given  by  the  Canadian  French  voyageurs  to 
deep  chasms  in  rocks,  forming  a  narrow  passage 
for  rivers.  The  word  is  applied  by  them  to  the 
trough  itself,  the  walls  of  which  are  composed 
of  rocky  slabs.  The  most  famous  locality  thus 
named  is  Long  Narrows  of  the  Columbia  river, 
43  m.  above  the  cascades.  In  this  passage  of 
^  m.  in  length,  the  i-iver  is  compressed  to  800 
feet  in  width,  and  rushes  impetuously  between 
walls  of  basaltic  rocks,  which  present  the  ap- 
pearance of  having  been  forcibly  rent  apart. 
Fremont  found  the  narrowest  place  only  58  yards 
across,  and  the  average  height  of  the  walls  25 
feet. — Upon  the  Wisconsin  river,  2  m.  above 
the  crossing  of  the  La  Crosse  and  Milwaukee 
railroad,  is  another  locality  called  by  the  same 
name.  The  gorge,  in  sandstone,  is  5  m.  long; 
the  vertical  walls  are  sometimes  more  than  100 
feet  high,  and  are  worn  into  fantastic  .shapes  by 
the  action  of  the  water.  When  the  stream  is 
low,  small  steamboats  may  pass  up  and  down; 
but  in  freshets  the  waters  rush  through  with 
destructive   violence.    An  arched  bridge  was 


220 


DALMATIA 


DALMATICA 


built  in  1853  across  the  chasm,  being  100  feet 
long  and  100  feet  above  tlie  bottom. 

DALMATIA,  a  kingdom  within  the  Austrian 
empire,  forming  a  small  coast  strip  along  the 
E.  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  and  on  the  W.  slope 
of  the  Julian  Alps,  which  form  its  frontier  tow- 
ard Turkey,  lies  between  lat.  42°  30'  and  44°  28' 
N.,  and  long.  14°  59'  and  19°  9' E.,  and  is  the 
Eouthernmost  province  of  Austria  ;  area,  4,928 
Bq.  m. ;  pop.  432,337,  mostly  of  Slavic  descent, 
but  there  are  also  numerous  Italians,  Arnauts, 
Greeks,  and  about  500  Jews.  The  Roman  Cath- 
olic religion  is  predominant;  tlie  non-united 
Greek  church  numbers  about  80,000  adherents  ; 
other  sects  are  less  numerous.  The  formation 
of  the  frontier  mountain  chain  (rising  to  a 
height  of  0,000  feet),  which  has  a  i)icturesque 
and  rugged  outline,  is  of  limestone,  with  many 
mammoth  caves,  not  perfectly  explored,  and 
subterranean  lakes  and  rivers ;  but  the  surface 
is  drj'  and  bare,  the  rivers  and  lakes  drying  up 
during  the  summer,  and  leaving  to  the  inhab- 
itants nothing  to  drink  but  cistern  or  marsh 
water.  The  slope  is  sudden,  the  rivers  descend- 
ing in  cataracts ;  the  few  fertile  valleys  are  nar- 
row. The  coast  consists  of  bold  promontories 
with  deeply  indented  bays,  before  which  a  series 
of  long  and  narrow  rocky  islands  stretch  in  a  S. 
E.  direction  nearly  parallel  to  the  Julian  Alps, 
forming  a  great  number  of  excellent  harbors. 
The  climate  is  mild  along  the  coast,  the  average 
temperature  atRagusa  being  59°  F.,  and  not  se- 
vere on  the  mountains,  ice  and  snow  being  almost 
unknown ;  rains  prevail  when  the  lora,  a  north- 
erly winter  storm,  blows,  but  the  average  annual 
fall  is  only  12  inches  at  Cattaro  and  Ragusa,  and 
further  north  somewhat  more.  In  spite  of 
this,  the  climate  is  not  very  healthy,  owing  to 
the  swamps  along  the  coast  range  of  mountains. 
Notwithstanding  the  limited  space  of  fertile 
land  (about  2,500,000  acres),  the  country  might 
support  a  far  larger  population  but  for  the  fre- 
quent emigrations,  and  the  quarrelsome  and 
indolent  habits  of  the  population.  Husbandry 
and  the  rearing  of  cattle  are  neglected,  and 
Dalmatia  is  less  productive  than  any  other  de- 
pendency of  Austria.  The  value  of  the  products 
was  estimated  at  about  $5,000,000  in  1855, 
of  which  timber  formed  about  i,  and  olive  oil, 
wine,  rK}uors,  fruit,  hides,  tallow,  and  wax,  the 
rest.  Olive  oil  is  largely  consumed  at  home,  and 
20,000  barrels  are  exported  annually.  About 
8,000,000  gallons  of  good  wine  are  produced,  of 
which  I  are  exported  and  -J  retained  for  homo 
consumption.  Of  figs  1,000,000  lbs.  are  ex- 
ported, beside  great  quantities  of  dates,  oranges, 
almonds,  and  raisins.  The  grain  crops  supply 
only  the  local  wants  for  6  or  8  months,  the  defi- 
ciencies being  imported  from  Turkey  and  Hun- 
gary. The  sardine  and  tunny  fisheries  em- 
ploy about  10,000  persons.  The  shipping  com- 
prises only  22,000  tons,  chiefly  small  craft.  The 
rnanufactures  are  insignificant,  excepting  the  dis- 
tillation of  si)irits  and  liquors,  of  which  Maras- 
cliino  is  the  most  celebrated.  The  total  exports 
are  valued  at  about  $2,500,000  •  the  imports  at 


$2,000,000.— Physically  the  Dalmatians  are  a 
fine  race,  tall,  of  regular  features  and  dark  com- 
plexion, and  make  excellent  soldiers,  particularly 
the  Morlaks,  who  live  in  the  interior.  They  are 
also  daring  sailors,  and  constituted  the  strength 
of  the  power  and  ascendency  of  Venice  in  the 
middle  ages,  the  violent  storms  and  the  perilous 
navigation  in  the  Dalmatian  archipelago  devel- 
oping their  vigor  and  skill.  They  love  liberty 
and  independence,  and  have  almost  always  siac- 
cessfuUy  withstood  the  aggressions  of  the  Turks, 
Their  language  is  Servian,  the  same  Slavic  dia- 
lect which  is  spoken  by  their  neighbors  in  the 
Herzegovina.  Education  is  much  neglected. 
There  are  5  theological  seminaries,  4  gymnasi- 
ums, and  251  badly  organized  and  ill-attended 
public  schools.  Dalmatia  is  divided  into  4  dis- 
tricts, Zara,  Spalato,  Ragusa,  and  Cattaro,  and 
contains,  beside  the  4  cities  of  the  same  names, 
15  other  cities,  and  35  towns.  The  Turkish 
portion  of  the  ancient  domain  of  Dalmatia  forms 
the  present  province  of  Herzegovina. — The  Ro- 
mans subjected  Dalmatia  after  a  struggle  of 
nearly  100  years,  under  Augustus  ;  and  under 
Diocletian  it  Avas  one  of  the  most  flourishing  por- 
tions of  the  empire,  he  having  his  residence  at 
Spalato.  The  Slavic  race  took  possession  of  it 
about  620,  when  the  great  Germanic  migra- 
tion had  scarcely  left  a  trace  of  the  ancient  in- 
habitants. The  N.  portion  of  the  country  was 
conquered  by  the  Hungarians  during  the  11th 
century,  and  the  southern  (the  Herzegovina) 
surrendered  itself  to  the  protection  of  Venice, 
which,  however,  could  not  prevent  it  from  be- 
ing, in  the  16th  century,  conquered  by  the  Turks, 
who  possessed  for  almost  100  years  the  whole 
of  Dalmatia.  By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Forraio 
(1797)  Austria  came  into  possession  of  the  Ve- 
netian portion,  united  it  with  the  Hungarian 
portion,  and  has  since  ruled  Dalmatia  with  the 
exception  of  the  period  1805-'13,  when  it  was 
under  the  sway  of  Napoleon,  who  strove  to  de^ 
velop  its  resources  for  a  navy.  Austria  has 
begun  in  the  last  decade  to  increase  its  com- 
mercial prosperity ;  she  has  established  a  naval 
academy  at  Spalato,  tried  to  deepen  several 
harbors,  and  to  encourage  ship-building.  Na- 
poleon conferred  the  title  of  duke  of  Dalmatia 
upon  Soult. 

DALMATICA,  a  kind  of  cloak  with  long 
sleeves,  the  use  of  which  came  originally  from 
Dalmatia.  It  was  this  garment  which  charac- 
terized those  nations  whom  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans designated  under  the  name  of  barbarians. 
"When  the  emperors  Commodus  and  Heliogaba- 
Ins  appeared  in  public  wearing  it,  it  was  regard- 
ed as  a  dishonor  by  the  Romans,  who  like  the 
Greeks  thought  men  effeminate  who  concealed 
their  arms  in  the  folds  of  their  cloak.  In  later 
times  the  dalmatica  became  the  distinguishing 
garment  of  deacons,  who  still  wear  it  when  they 
assist  the  priest  at  the  altar  or  at  any  other  cere- 
mony. According  to  Alcuin,  Pope  Sylvester  was 
the  first  who  made  deacons  exchange  the  colohi- 
um  or  robe  with  short  sleeves  for  the  dalmatica, 
because  he  blamed  the  custom  of  having  tho 


DALRYMPLE 


221 


arms  wncovered.  Artists  usnally  represent  St. 
Stephen,  the  first  deacon,  as  dothcd  with  a  dal- 
inatica,  wliich  is  an  anachronism.  The  form  of 
the  dahiiaticawas  the  same  as  tlmt  of  the  usual 
garment  of  the  ancient  oriental  nations  who 
Lorderedupon  the  Mediterranean.  As  now  worn 
by  Catholic  ecclesiastics,  it  has  lost  its  ancient 
shape.  It  is  made  of  very  stilt'  materials,  like 
the  chasuble,  and  the  loose  tiowinjf  sleeves  are 
replaced  by  a  short  covering  for  the  upper  part 
of  tlic  arm,  slit  underneath,  and  cut  otf  above 
the  elbow. 

DALRYMPLE,  the  name  of  a,  Scottish  fam- 
ily which  rose  into  importance  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  15tli  century.  The  following  are  its 
most  eminent  members  :  L  James,  viscount 
of  Stair,  born  in  Drummurchie,  Ayrshire,  in 
May,  1619,  died  Nov.  26,  1695.  lie  received 
his  education  at  the  university  of  Glasgow,  and 
in  the  22d  year  of  liis  age,  while  holding  a  cap- 
tain's commission  in  the  army,  was  appointed 
professor  of  philosophy.  Having  filled  this  po- 
sition for  several  years  with  credit,  he  was  ad- 
mitted in  1G48  an  advocate  at  the  Scottish  bar, 
and  soon  rose  to  eminence  in  civil  jiractice.  He 
Avas  secretary  of  the  commissions  sent  in  1649 
and  1650  to  treat  with  Charles  IL,  then  an  exile 
in  Holland ;  and  in  1657,  on  the  recommendation 
of  Gen.  Monk,  he  was  appointed  by  Cromwell 
one  of  the  "  commissioners  for  the  administra- 
tion of  justice,"  as  the  judges  of  the  court  of 
session  were  then  called.  After  the  restoration 
lie  was  appointed  by  Charles  H.  one  of  the  new 
lords  of  session,  but  resigned  office  in  1663,  from 
an  unwillingness  to  take  the  declaration  against 
the  national  covenant  of  1638,  and  tlie  solemn 
league  and  covenant  of  1643,  appended  to  the 
oath  of  allegiance.  The  king  refused  to  receive 
his  resignation,  and  made  him  a  baronet.  In 
1671  he  became  lord  president  of  the  court,  and 
availed  himself  of  his  position  to  make  some 
improvements  in  the  system  of  judicature.  In 
1681  lie  refused  to  take  the  new  test  oath,  and 
was  obliged  to  resign  office.  In  the  same  year 
he  published  his  "  Institutions  of  the  Law  of 
Scotland,"  a  work  held  in  no  less  esteem  in 
Scotland,  as  the  grand  text  book  of  the  law, 
than  are  Blackstone's  Commentaries  in  England. 
In  1682  he  experienced  such  persecution  from 
government  as  rendered  it  necessary  for  him  to 
take  refuge  in  Holland,  where  he  prepared  for 
publication  his  decisions,  and  published  in  1686, 
at  Leyden,  a  Latin  treatise  entitled  Philosophia 
Nova  Fxperimentalis.  He  accompanied  the 
prince  of  Orange  to  England,  exclaiming : 
''  Though  I  be  now  in  the  70th  year  of  my  age, 
I  am  willing  to  venture  that  (pointing  to  his 
head),  my  own  and  my  children's  fortune,  in 
such  an  undertaking."  He  was  rewarded  for 
his  adherence  to  William  and  Mary  by  a  reap- 
])i)intment  to  the  presidency  of  the  court  of  ses- 
sion, and  was  elevated  to  the  peerage  as  Vis- 
count Stair,  n.  John,  earl  of  Stair,  son  of 
the  preceding,  died  in  1707,  was  an  advocate  at 
the  Scottish  bar,  and  became  secretary  of  state 
for  Scotland.     He  was  created  an  earl  in  1703. 


His  complicity  in  the  Glencoe  massacre  has 
given  an  unenviable  notoriety  to  his  name.  In- 
fluenced, as  his  apologists  say,  by  an  intemper- 
ate and  remorseless  zeal  for  the  interests  of  the 
state,  he  conceived  an  intense  hatred  against 
the  Macdonalds  of  Glencoe  for  their  tardiness 
in  taking  the  oath  of  submission.  To  him  is  as- 
cribed the  infamy  of  having  united  with  Bread- 
albane  and  Argylo  to  obtain  from  William  the 
order  for  the  extirpation  of  the  clan,  without 
informing  him  of  the  submission  of  its  chief, 
Mclan,  and  of  carrying  it  into  effect.  After  a 
full  inquiry  the  Scottisli  parliament  pronounced 
him  the  original  author  of  the  massacre,  but 
failed  to  impute  to  him  such  criminality  as 
would  affect  his  life  or  his  estate.  HI.  Jonx, 
earl  of  Stair,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh, July  20,  1673,  died  there.  May  9,  1747. 
He  entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  19,  and 
served  with  great  distinction  under  Marlborough. 
On  the  accession  of  George  I.  he  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in  Scotland, 
and  for  several  years  was  ambassador  in  France, 
in  which  capacity  he  distinguished  himself 
equally  by  dij^lomatic  skill  and  magnificence  of 
living.  Subsequently  he  lived  many  years  on 
his  estates,  and  is  known  to  agriculturists  as 
the  first  to  plant  turnips  and  cabbages  in  open 
fields  in  Scotland.  IV.  Sir  David,  better 
known  as  Lord  Ilailes,  great-grandson  of  the 
1st  Viscount  Stair,  and  an  eminent  lawyer  and 
antiquary,  boi-n  in  Edinburgh,  Oct.  28,  1726, 
died  Xov.  29,  1792.  He  was  educated  at  Eton, 
studied  the  civil  law  at  Utrecht,  and  in  1748 
Avas  admitted  an  advocate  at  the  Scottish 
bar.  After  18  years  of  professional  life,  he  was 
made  a  judge  of  the  court  of  session,  imder  the 
title  of  Lord  Ilailes.  Ten  years  later  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  lord  of  justiciary,  a  position  which  he 
held  until  his  death.  As  a  criminal  judge  he 
was  distinguished  by  learning,  dignity,  and  a 
leaning  to  the  side  of  mercy.  He  wrote  much 
on  other  than  professional  subjects.  His  publi- 
cations, 48  in  number,  exclusive  of  articles  in 
reviews  and  magazines,  commence  with  the  year 
1751  and  extend  to  1790.  The  first  was  a  vol- 
ume of  paraphrases  and  translations  from  tho 
Scriptures  by  various  authors  ;  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  publication,  with  ample  notes  and 
illustrations,  of  a  variety  of  memorials  and  ori- 
ginal letters,  throwing  light  upon  the  history  of 
England  and  Scotland.  In  1769  he  produced 
a  historical  memoir  of  the  provincial  councils 
of  the  Scottish  clergy,  and  "Canons  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  drawn  up  in  the  Provincial 
Councils  held  in  Perth,  in  the  years  1242  and 
1269  ;"  and  in  the  succeedingyear  a  collection  of 
old  Scottish  poems  from  manuscript,  with  many 
curious  illustrations.  In  1773  appeared  his 
*'  Remarks  on  the  History  of  Scotland,"  and  in 
1776-79  his  "Annals  of  Scotland"  from  the 
time  of  Malcolm  Canmore  to  the  accession  of 
the  Stuarts,  his  most  popular  and  one  of  his  most 
useful  works.  The  same  year  he  published  an 
account  of  the  Christian  martyrs  of  Smyrna  and 
Lyons  in  the  2d  century  ;  which  was  succeeded, 


222 


DAL  SE^NO 


DALTON 


in  continuation  of  the  subject,  by  the  2  volumes 
of  "Remains  of  Cliristian  Antiquity."  In  his 
"Disquisitions  concerning  the  Antiquity  of  the 
Christian  Churcli,"  he  combated  many  of  the 
hypotheses  of  Gibbon  regarding  the  origin  and 
progress  of  Cliristianity.  "  An  Inquiry  into  the 
Secondary  Causes  which  Mr.  Gibbon  has  assign- 
ed for  the  Rapid  Growth  of  Christianity,"  pub- 
lished in  1786,  was  a  more  eUiborate  develop- 
ment of  his  ideas  upon  the  same  subject.  Ilis 
last  work  was  a  translation  of  tlie  address  of  Q. 
Septimius  Tertullus  to  Scapula  Tertullus,  pro- 
consul of  Africa,  with  notes,  to  illustrate  the 
state  of  the  church  in  early  times.  Most  of  these 
•works  were  published  at  his  own  expense.  V. 
Alexander,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Kew  Hailes,  Scotland,  July  24, 1737,  died  in  Lon- 
don, June  19,  1808.  lie  entered  the  East  India 
company's  service  at  the  age  of  16,  and  for 
many  years  occupied  the  position  of  hydrogra- 
pher  to  the  company.  His  published  works 
amount  to  about  60  in  number,  and  include  a 
great  variety  of  subjects,  though  the  greater 
part  arc  devoted  to  Indian  affairs.  He  also  pre- 
pared some  valuable  charts  of  the  eastern  seas. 
DAL  SEGNO  (It.  from  the  sign),  in  music,  a 
direction  to  the  performer  to  recommence  from 
that  part  of  the  piece  to  which  the  sign  :^:  is 
prefixed. 

DALTOX,  John,  an  English  chemist,  the  au- 
thor of  the  atomic  theory,  and  of  that  of  the 
constitution  of  mixed  gases,  born  Sept.  5,  1766, 
at  Eaglesfield,  near  Cockermoutb,  in  Cumber- 
land, died  in  Manchester,  July  27,  1844.  With 
his  parents,  he  belonged-  to  the  society  of 
Friends.  lie  received  his  first  instruction  at  the 
school  of  his  native  village,  and  in  1781  became 
usher  in  a  school  kept  by  one  of  his  relatives 
at  Kendal,  with  which  he  remained  connected 
until  1793.  Ilis  favorite  studies  were  mathe- 
matics and  natural  philosophy.  In  1788  he 
commenced  a  series  of  important  meteorologi- 
cal observations,  which,  in  the  course  of  some 
5  years,  amounted  to  the  number  of  2,000. 
The  nature  of  his  studies  and  his  high  moral 
character  procured  him  an  introduction  to 
Mr.  Gough,  the  blind  philosopher  of  Ken- 
dal, who  obtained  for  him  in  1793  the  ap- 
pointment of  professor  of  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy  in  a  college  or  seminary  at 
Manchester,  which  was  removed  to  York  in 
1799.  Dalton  continued  his  lessons  to  pupils  of 
both  sexes  in  private  schools  for  years,  occa- 
sionally giving  lectures  on  the  physical  and  ex- 
perimental sciences  in  neighboring  towns  and 
cities.  In  1793  he  published  his  first  separate 
work,  entitled  "  Meteorological  Essays."  This 
was  one  of  his  most  favorite  pursuits,  and  he 
continued  to  collect  and  record  meteorological 
.  observations  until  the  period  of  his  death.  In 
the  following  year  he  gave  an  account  of  a  sin- 
giilar  defect  in  his  own  vision  which  rendered 
him  incapable  of  distinguishing  certain  colors ; 
green,  red,  purple,  and  blue,  all  appearing  alike 
to  him.  lie  attributed  this  peculiarity  to  the  color 
of  the  retina  or  of  the  fluids  of  the  eye ;  but  after 


his  death,  no  abnormal  coloration  was  discov- 
ered on  dissection.  In  relating  to  a  friend  the 
manner  in  which  he  first  discovered  the  defect, 
he  stated  that  on  one  occasion,  when  a  boy, 
he  went  to  see  a  review  of  troops,  and  being 
suri)rised  to  hear  the  other  boys  admire  the  red 
coats  of  the  soldiers  and  the  purple  sashes  of  the 
ofliccrs,  he  could  not  understand  in  what  man- 
ner the  red  coats  differed  from  the  color  of  the 
grass  in  the  fields  where  the  review  took  place, 
lie  asked  the  boys  what  difference  they  could 
see  between  the  two ;  and  from  the  general 
burst  of  laughter  he  obtained  in  reply,  he  was 
led  to  suspect  there  must  be  some  defect  in  his 
own  vision,  which  rendered  him  unable  to  per- 
ceive the  difference.  This  peculiar  defect  of 
vision,  which  is  not  very  uncommon,  has  some- 
times been  called  Daltonism  in  England,  since 
the  publication  of  his  paper.  The  earliest  papers 
of  Dalton  consist  of  contributions  to  an  able 
pei-iodical  called  the  "  Gentleman's  and  Lady's 
Diary."  He  afterward  published  articles  in 
the  "  Memoirs  of  the  Manchester  Society,"  in 
"Nicholson's  Journal,"  the  "Philosophical  Maga- 
zine," and  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Soci- 
ety of  London."  In  1801  his  daily  occupation 
as  a  teacher  in  a  school  led  him  to  Avrite  and 
publish  an  "English  Grammar,"  In  1802  he 
wrote  6  dissertations  for  the  "Memoirs  of  the 
Manchester  Society,"  in  one  of  which  he  un- 
folded his  celebrated  theory  of  the  "Consti- 
tution of  Mixed  Gases."  His  views  on  this 
subject  were  for  some  time  strongly  opposed 
by  eminent  chemists,  but  they  are  now  univer- 
sally received.  Tlie  leading  feature  of  this 
theory  is  that  gases  which  do  not  form  new 
chemical  compounds  act  on  each  other  as  a 
vacuum,  diffusing  themselves  among  each  other 
by  their  own  elasticity.  The  greater  part  of 
the  experiments  of  Dalton  were  made  with  a 
view  to  ascertain  the  influence  of  heat  in  the 
production  of  physical  and  chemical  pheno- 
mena; and  much  of  the  progress  of  modern 
science  in  this  department  is  due  to  his  re- 
searches. Other  subjects  treated  in  these  papers 
were  the  "  Force  of  Vapor  of  Water  and  other 
Fluids  at  Different  Temperatures  in  the  Torri- 
cellian Vaciunn,  and  under  Atmospheric  Press- 
ure," and  the  "  Theory  of  Evaporation  and  the 
Expansion  of  Gases  by  Heat."  These  works  dis- 
play profound  reasoning  based  on  accurate  ob- 
servations; and  beside  establishing  the  high 
philosophical  reputation  of  the  author,  have  ren- 
dered great  service  to  the  progress  of  pneuma- 
tic chemistry,  and  of  modern  investigations  on 
the  specific  gravity  of  gases.  The  celebrity  of 
Dalton,  however,  rests  mainly  on  his  atomic 
chemical  theory,  w^hich  he  began  to  work  out 
in  1803.  The  first  developments  of  tliis  new 
theory  were  deemed  obscure  and  unsatisfac- 
tory by  English  chemists;  nor  did  they  gen- 
erally receive  it  after  he  had  done  his  best  to 
make  it  plain.  Dr.  Wollaston,  however,  in- 
vestigated the  subject  carefully,  and  admitted 
the  truth  of  the  system  at  an  early  period;  and 
Berzelius  gave  a  masterly  analysis  of  the  atomic 


DAM 


223 


theory,  and  placed  it  on  an  elevated  basis  of 
ftutliu'rity.  Prof.  Thom?on  of  Glasgow,  and  Dr. 
Henry  of  Mancliester,  gave  many  luminous  and 
popular  illustrations  of  the  doctrine  in  England  ; 
and  Dalton,  before  be  died,  was  universally 
honored  in  his  native  land,  as  well  as  among 
men  of  science  in  all  other  civilized  countries. 
The  atomic  theory  is  said  to  be  a  consequence 
of  the  investigations  of  Richter ;  a  theory  wbicb 
that  laborious  experimentalist  did  not  perceive, 
but  which,  it  is  atHrmed,  was  obscurely  indicat- 
ed in  a  paper  by  Dr.  Iliggins.  It  is,  neverthe- 
less, acknowledged  now  tliat  the  first  develop- 
ment of  its  general  principles,  and  the  important 
consequences  of  its  application  to  the  explana- 
tion of  chemical  and  natural  phenomena,  are  due 
to  Dalton.  The  atomic  theory  was  fully  pro- 
pounded by  Dalton  in  bis  "  New  System  of 
Chemistry,''  the  1st  volume  of  which  appeared 
in  1807,  and  the  2d  in  1810.  These  were  fol- 
lowed by  a  3d  in  1827.  The  elements  of  the 
mathematical  principles  of  the  science  are  fully 
explained  in  these  important  volumes.  In  bis 
papers  on  subjects  connected  with  meteorology, 
be  has  left  valuable  remarks  on  evaporation, 
rain,  the  aurora  borealis,  winds,  and  dew.  His 
observations  on  the  latter  contain  the  principles 
of  Dr.  Wells's  theory  of  dew,  and  of  Daniell's 
hygrometer.  In  1822  Dalton  visited  France, 
where  be  was  received  witb  much  distinction. 
In  the  reign  of  William  IV.  the  English  govern- 
ment gave  him  a  pension  of  £150  a  year,  which 
was  subsequently  increased  to  £300.  In  person, 
Dalton  was  of  middle  stature,  witb  a  good  con- 
stitution, though  not  robustly  formed.  His  ear- 
ly habits  as  a  member  of  the  society  of  Friends 
had  given  him  a  quiet,  grave  demeanor.  He 
was  never  married. 

DAM,  an  obstruction  of  wood,  stone,  or 
earth,  raised  to  keep  back  a  current  of  water, 
either  for  the  purpose  of  giving  power  by  in- 
creased bead,  for  holding  back  supplies  of 
water,  for  flooding  lands,  or  for  rendering  the 
stream  above  the  dam  navigable  by  increased 
depth.  The  earliest  dam  builders  were  the 
beavers.  "With  clay  and  earth  bound  together 
with  sticks,  they  construct  durable  piles  across 
rivers,  and  cause  the  marshy  lands  above  to  be 
converted  into  extensive  ponds.  Their  dams  in 
districts  long  since  deserted  by  them  remain  as 
monunients  of  their  wonderful  sagacity.  In 
Maine  they  have  sometimes  proved,  with  the 
materials  accumvdated  upon  them,  serious  im- 
pediments to  the  running  of  logs  down  the 
Btreams,  and  the  opening  of  a  way  through 
them  lias  often  been  a  matter  of  great  labor  and 
expense.  Some  of  the  dams  constructed  for 
manufacturing  purposes  in  Xew  England  are 
among  the  most  remarkable  of  tliis  class  of 
works.  The  largest  probably  in  the  United 
States  is  that  completed  in  Oct.  18-49,  at  South 
Hadley  Falls,  8  m.  N".  of  Springfield,  Mass.  It 
is  1,017  feet  long,  and  28  to  32  feet  high,  built 
of  timbers  a  foot  square  each,  which  are  laid  in 
tiers  crossing  each  other  and  bolted  together, 
bedded  and  secured  at  bottom  4  feet  in  the  rock, 


and  all  having  a  slope  up  stream.  The  spaces 
are  filled  in  with  stone  15  feet  from  the  bottom, 
and  gravel  is  laid  over  this  and  in  front.  The 
whole  width  at  base  is  90  feet,  and  the  slope 
from  the  top  to  the  upi)er  edge  of  the  base  is 
21.5°.  It  is  covered  with  6-inch  plank  bolted 
to  the  timbers,  and  the  ridge  is  double  planked, 
and  where  most  exposed  to  ice  is  further  pro- 
tected with  a  covering  of  boiler  plate  iron.  The 
structure  consumed  about  4,000,000  feet  of  tim- 
ber. The  roar  of  the  vast  sheet  of  water  fall- 
ing over  the  dam  is  said  to  be  heard  sometimes 
at  the  distance  of  40  miles;  and  the  vibrations 
are  at  times  distinctly  perceived  at  Springfield, 
where  the  windows  and  doors  of  some  of  the 
houses  are  rattled  in  uniform  pulsations  with 
those  observed  at  the  dam.  These  have  been 
counted  by  Prof.  Snoll  of  Amherst,  and  found, 
when  the  temperature  of  the  air  was  80°,  to  be 
137  per  minute.  With  the  temperature  at  70°, 
the  vibrations  were  130.  The  subject  of  the 
vibrations  of  dams  appears  to  have  been  first 
discussed  by  Prof.  Loomis,  in  a  paper  in  the 
"  American  Journal  of  Science,"  vol.  xlv.,  p. 
363  (1843).  lie  cites  several  instances  of  this 
phenomenon,  which  appears  to  liave  been  some- 
times a  cause  of  serious  annoyance  to  persons 
living  in  the  vicinity  of  dams  thus  affected.  Its 
occurrence  was  found  in  several  cases  to  be  de- 
pendent on  the  water  falling  in  an  uninterrupt- 
ed sheet ;  and  the  vibrations  ceased  when  this 
sheet  was  divided  by  a  floating  log  catching 
upon  the  top  of  the  dam,  or  b\'  strips  of  wood 
secured  at  intervals  upon  the  ridge  for  the  same 
purpose.  Prof.  Loomis  discusses  the  probable 
cause  of  the  vibrations,  and  mode  in  which  they 
are  communicated  to  distant  objects,  whether 
through  the  air  or  the  rock.  The  subject  was 
treated  by  Prof.  Snell  in  a  communication  pre- 
sented to  the  American  association  for  the  pro- 
motion of  science,  at  the  Montreal  meeting  in 
1857;  and  again  by  Mr.  Charles  Stodder  of 
Boston,  in  a  paper  read  the  same  year  before  the 
natural  history  society  of  Boston. — Probably 
the  highest  dam  ever  constructed  is  that  de- 
scribed by  Minard  in  his  Coins  de  construction 
des  ouvrages  qtii  etaNissevt  la  navigation  des 
rivieres  et  des  canaitx  (Li^-ge,  1851,  p.  204). 
It  is  in  the  province  of  Alicante  in  Spain,  be- 
tween two  steep  mountains  which  closely  ap- 
proach each  other.  Its  height  is  156-|-  feet,  its 
thickness  at  top  69+  feet,  and  its  length  272^ 
feet.  The  aqueduct  for  the  outlet  of  the  water 
is  excavated  through  the  mountain  on  one  side, 
discharging  below  the  dam  near  its  base  ;  and 
the  discharge  is  regulated  by  a  gate  above.  The 
dam  wasbmlt  in  1594,  and  is  used  for  collecting 
water  in  winter  to  be  used  for  irrigating  the 
vineyards  in  the  neighborhood. — A  Coffee 
Dam  is  a  tight  case  constructed  in  any  body  of 
water  to  prevent  its  encroachment,  while  exca- 
vations are  made  within  it  for  foundations  or 
other  purposes.  They  are  commonly  made  by 
rows  of  piles  driven  into  the  bottom,  those  of 
each  row  sometimes  close  together,  and  some- 
times connected  by  planking,  and  the   space 


224 


DAMAGE AM 


DAMASCENUS 


between  the  two  rows  filled  in  with  clay.  When 
it  happens  that  cofter  dams  are  required  upon  a 
bottom  of  (juicksaud,  their  construction  becomes 
a  work  of  great  dilficulty  and  exi)ense.  This 
was  especially  the  case  in  building  the  dry  dock 
for  the  navy  yard  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  For 
more  than  60  feet  below  the  superstratum  of 
black  mud,  where  the  work  was  laid  out,  tho 
bottom  consisted  of  an  impalpable  sand  con- 
.tainiug  much  mica,  and  this  when  loosened  and 
saturated  with  water  flowed  like  a  dense  liquid 
body.  In  this  material  a  pit  was  to  be  excavat- 
ed covering  a  surface  of  over  2  acres  at  top  and 
over  one  at  bottom,  reaching  42  feet  below  tho 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  37  below  mean  high 
water.  Piles  of  yellow  pine  35  to  40  feet  long, 
and  15  inches  square,  were  first  driven  in  close 
contact,  forming  3  rows  around  the  outer  end 
of  the  proposed  excavation,  the  intervals  be- 
tween the  rows  being  10  and  12  feet.  These 
were  filled  in  with  the  sand  excavated.  The 
piles  were  tied  together  with  oak  wales  and  2- 
inch  tie  bolts.  This  barrier  was  forced  inward 
by  a  pressure  of  less  than  10  feet  head  of  water, 
and  when  the  excavation  reached  30  feet  the 
water  came  in  under  the  piles  and  filled  the  pit. 
This  was  in  July,  1840  ;  in  September,  after  the 
breach  had  been  repaired,  the  water  again  burst 
in,  and  some  of  the  piles  settled  down  5-  to  6 
feet.  A  new  and  stronger  dam  was  then  the 
only  expedient.  Piles  10  to  15  feet  longer  than 
the  others  were  driven  close  together  in  2  rows 
SO  feet  apart,  outside  the  old  work,  and  tho 
space  between  the  2  rows  was  filled  with 
gravel  and  coarse  stone.  A  third  row  was 
driven  within  the  old  work,  to  the  depth  of 
12  to  15  feet  below  tho  proposed  level  of  the 
foundation,  and  gravel  filled  in  behind  them. 
Thus  constructed,  the  dam  was  retained  in  place 
during  the  progress  of  the  excavation  only  by 
the  closest  attention  and  care.  Unsupported 
within,  it  could  be  stayed  only  in  a  few  ])lace3 
by  mooring  chains  carried  to  the  shore.  These 
cables,  made  of  2-inch  iron,  wei*e  repeatedly 
snapped  asunder  by  the  pressure.  Six  of  them 
broke  in  one  night.  The  foundation  was  made 
with  piles  driven  over  the  area  of  the  pit,  and 
upon  these  the  masonry  was  laid.  As  the  ma- 
sonry was  carried  up  it  was  used  to  brace  against 
the  dam.  The  pressure  upon  it  moved  at  one 
time  a  mass  of  more  than  250  tons  weight.  Tho 
whole  number  of  piles  employed  in  the  dam 
was  3,504;  and  the  total  cost  of  this  part  of 
the  structure  alone  was  $206,378. 

DAMACiRAM,  a  province  of  Central  Africa, 
on  tho  N.  W.  frontier  of  Bornoo,  extending  from 
lat.  13°  20'  to  14°  JSr.,  and  from  long.  4°  30'  to 
10°  50'  E,  It  is  a  fertile  country,  but  the  in- 
liabitants  are  addicted  to  robbery  and  slave- 
stealing.  Beside  the  tropical  productions  of 
Soodan,  wheat,  cotton,  indigo,  palms,  melons, 
&c.,  are  cultivated.  The  common  domestic  ani- 
mals are  found  there,  as  are  lions,  wild  boars 
and  oxon,  jackals,  liyenas,  &c.  The  capital  was 
formerly  a  town  of  the  same  name,  but  is  now 
Zindoo,  which  name  is  sometimes  given  to  the 


province.  It  is  described  in  Petcrmann's  "  Ac- 
count of  the  Expedition  to  Central  Africa," 
1854,  and  was  visited  by  Dr.  Barth  in  1852. 

DAJMAR,  a  kind  of  indurated  pitch  or  tur- 
pentine, the  spontaneous  exudation  of  various 
trees  in  the  East  Indian  islands.  It  is  used  in 
China  and  Bengal  in  coating  the  bottoms  of 
ships  and  for  other  similar  purposes. 

DAMASCEISTUS,  Joannes,  a  saint  and  doctor 
of  the  church,  born  in  Damascus  about  676, 
died  at  the  monastery  of  St.  Sabas  in  Pales- 
tine in  780.  His  father,  a  Christian,  held  the 
office  of  chief  secretary  under  tho  Saracen  ca- 
liphs. On  the  death  of  his  father,  he  was  made 
by  the  caliph  Ali  governor  of  Damascus,  which 
office  Avas  continued  to  him  after  the  death  of 
Ali  and  change  of  dynasty.  The  luxury  and 
hazards  of  sncli  a  city  were  ill  suited  to  his  tastes, 
and  after  a  few  years  he  resigned  his  office,  and 
became  one  of  the  hermits  in  the  "  Lama"  of 
St.  Sabas  in  the  valley  of  the  Ividron.  The  old 
monk  Avho  was  here  assigned  as  his  spiritual 
instructor  laid  down  for  his  observance  the  fol- 
lowing 5  rules  :  1,  entire  self-renunciation  ;  2, 
dedication  of  all  labors  and  prayers  to  God ;  3, 
utter  humility,  preventing  all  boast  of  learning 
or  genius;  4,  constant  self-mistrust';  5,  habit- 
ual silence  and  reserve,  both  in  speaking  and 
writing.  He  was  sent  to  Damascus  to  sell  bas- 
kets, for  which  he  was  required  to  ask  an  un- 
reasonable price,  and  so  to  subject  himself  to 
the  insults  of  the  market  in  the  city  which  he 
had  ruled.  He  did  not  hesitate,  departed  on 
tlie  journey,  and  persevered  until  the  price  Avas 
paid.  On  another  occasion,  having  consoled  a 
brother  monk  in  aftliction  by  repeating  a  Greek 
verse,  he  was  excluded  from  his  cell  for  this  ex- 
hibition of  scholastic  vanity,  as  they  chose  to 
consider  it,  and  was  only  restored  after  the  most 
humble  protestations  and  the  promise  to  become 
the  scavenger  of  the  monastery.  When  his 
monastic  virtue  had  been  sufficiently  confirmed 
by  repeated  tests,  he  was  admitted  to  the  priest- 
hood, and  was  allowed  to  write  against  heretics 
and  in  defence  of  religious  customs.  His  first 
essay  was  against  the  Iconoclasts,  whose  doc- 
trines were  supported  by  the  edicts  of  Leo  the 
Isaurian,  at  this  time  emperor.  Ilis  most  elab- 
orate work  was  his  "  Accurate  Summary  of 
the  Orthodox  Faitli,"  a  compendium  of  tho 
doctrine  of  the  church  in  the  8th  century.  Sup- 
plementary to  this  treatise  he  published  numer- 
ous special  essays  on  controverted  points  of 
theology,  philosophy,  and  ethics.  In  the  Mono- 
thelite  and  Monophysite  controversies  he  took 
an  active  interest.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  tho 
"Trisagion,"  to  confute  the  Eutychians ;  a  work 
called  "  Parallels,"  which  lays  down  rules  of 
practical  morals  ;  an  abstract  of  Aristotle's  lo- 
gic and  physics ;  a  discussion  of  the  "  Eight 
Principal  Vices ;"  a  work  on  Lent  and  the  proper 
method  of  observing  it ;  a  biographical  sketch 
of  the  monk  Stephen  the  Younger ;  with  vari- 
ous other  essays.  He  contributed  numerous 
hymns  to  the  ritual  of  the  Greek  church,  and 
his  authority  as  a  doctor  and  a  saint  is  very  high 


DAMASCENUS 


DAMASCUS 


225 


in  all  the  East.  His  festival  is  observed  botli  in 
the  Iloiiian  and  Greek  clmrches.  The  best  edi- 
tion of  his  works  is  that  of  the  Dominican  Lo 
Quien  (2  vols,  folio,  Paris,  1712,  republished  at 
Verona  in  IT-iS). 

DAMASCENUS,  Nioolaus,  a  Greek  histo- 
rian and  philosopher,  contemporary  and  favorite 
of  tlie  emperor  Augustus  and  Ilerod  the  Great. 
He  was  born  at  Damascus,  studied  with  Ilerod, 
resided  at  his  court,  and  went  to  Rome  13  B.  C, 
where  Augustus  received  h'un  with  favor.  Of 
the  numerous  writings  of  Damascenus  we  liave 
only  some  fragments,  the  most  imjiortant  of 
which  are  from  bis  work  on  universal  history. 
They  are  frequently  referred  to  by  liawlinson, 
in  his  recent  translation  of  Herodotus,  in  illus- 
ti'ation  of  obscure  passages  in  that  historian. 

DAMASCIUS,  an  ancient  philosopher,  born 
probably  at  Damascus  about  A.  D.  480.  lie 
studied  for  a  time  at  Alexandria,  and  then  went 
to  Athens,  where  he  was  first  a  student,  and 
then  a  teacher,  of  the  Neo-Platonic  philosophy. 
When  the  heathen  schools  at  Athens  Avere 
closed  by  order  of  Justinian,  A.  D.  529,  Damas- 
cius  went  to  the  court  of  Chosroes,  king  of 
Persia ;  and  although  be  afterward  returned,  lit- 
tle is  known  with  regard  to  the  remainder  of  bis 
life.  Ilis  works,  some  of  which  are  extant,  in- 
cluded a  philosophical  treatise  entitled  "  Diffi- 
culties and  Solutions  of  First  Principles " 
(Frankfort,  1828),  and  commentaries  on  Aris- 
totle and  Plato. 

DAMASCUS  (Arabic,  Dimeslih  or  Esli  Shnni), 
anciently  the  capital  of  Syria,  and  justly  ac- 
counted one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the  world,  is 
situated  in  lat.  33°  32'  N.,  long.  36^  20'  E.,  136 
m.  N.  of  Jerusalera,180  m.  S.  W.  of  Aleppo,  and 
about  45  in.  E.  from  the  Mediterranean,  at  an 
altitude  of  2,344  feet  above  sea  level,  in  a  very 
fertile  and  extensive  i)lain,  80  m.  in  circumfer- 
ence, remarkable  for  its  beauty,  so  much  so  as  to 
be  called,  in  oriental  phrase,  one  of  the  4  ter- 
restrial paradises.  The  streams  from  the  adja- 
cent high  range  of  Anti-Libanus,  the  Barada  or 
Chrysorrboas,  and  the  Awadj,  are  supposed  to 
be  coincident  with  the  Abana  and  Pharpar  of 
Scripture  (2  Kings  v.  12).  For  many  miles  the 
city  is  surrounded  by  fertile  fields  and  gardens, 
which  are  "watered  by  rivulets  and  sparkling 
streams,  giving  to  the  vegetation  a  charming 
freshness  and  sweetness.  It  is  nearly  2  m.  in 
length,  and  half  a  mile  in  breadth ;  it  is  6  m.  in 
circumference,  and  has  a  double  brick  wall  on  3 
sides,  and  on  tlae  4th  a  small  square  citadel  flank- 
ed with  towers.  On  the  whole,  it  is  regular  and 
cleanly  for  an  oriental  city  ;  its  streets  are  long 
and  narrow,  and  tolerably  paved  -vvitb  basalt ; 
and  its  residences,  though  mean  and  unattract- 
ive externally,  are  many  of  them  full  of  magnifi- 
cence and  luxury  within.  The  market  places 
lire  well  constructed,  and  adorned  with  marble 
colonnades.  The  bazaars  are  numerous,  larger 
than  those  of  Aleppo,  and  more  airy  and  better 
lighted  than  those  of  Cairo  and  Constantinople. 
Each  class  of  merchants  and  artisans  has  its  own 
bazaar,  some  of  them  being  very  extensive,  as 
YOL.   VI. — 15 


those  of  the  goldsmiths,  the  druggists,  the  trad- 
ers in  cotton  stuffs,  the  pipe  makers,  &c.     The 
great  khan  of  Damascus  is  a  vast  and  striking 
building,  filled  with  various  commodities,  and 
frequented   by  merchants   from  distant  lands. 
Many  of  the  khans  are  of  great  antiquity,  and 
afford  even  in  their  present  state  a  good  idea 
of  the  manner  in  which  business  was  conduct- 
ed in  ancient  times.     The  mosque  of  Abd   el 
Malek,_G50  feet  in  length  by  150  in  breadth,  is 
the  chief  arcliitectural  ornament  of  the  city. 
There  are  several  other  mosques  of  much  beau- 
ty, 4  Jewish  synagogues,  and  Greek,  Maronite, 
Syrian,  and  Armenian  churches.     The  palaco 
of  the   pasha  is  a  large  fortified  building  in 
the  centre  of  the  city.     The  population  of  Da- 
mascus has  been  estimated  as  high  as  200,000, 
but  it  probably  does  not  much,  if  at  all,  ex- 
ceed 150,000,  comprising  130,000  Mohammed- 
ans and  Druses,  15,000  Christians,  and  5,000 
Jews.     Damascus  is  the  centre  of  the  commerce 
of  Syria;  and  its  trade  is  very  much  increased 
by  its  forming  the  rallying  point   of  all  the 
pilgrims  to   Mecca    from   the   north   of  Asia. 
The  number  of  pilgrims  who  make  Damascus 
their  place  of  rendezvous,  with   their  attend- 
ants, amounts  annually-  to  several  thousands. 
The  city  at  such  times  presents  the  ai)pearance 
of  a  vast  fair,  and  every  vacant  place  is  filled 
■with  camels,  horses,  mules,  and  merchandise. 
Caravans  proceed  from  Damascus  also  to  Bag- 
dad and  Cairo.     The  principal  imports  by  these 
various  channels  are  broadcloths,  different  sorts 
of  metals  from  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  shawls,  muslins,  and  Indian  stuffs,  which 
are  brought  by  way  of  England.   Its  own  manu- 
factures consist  chiefly  of  silk  and  cotton  fabrics, 
highly  finished  saddles  and  bridles,  fine  cabinet 
work,  jewelry,  gold  and  silver  trimming,  and 
excellent  soap,  made  of  olive  oil,  kali,  and  chalk. 
Pearls  and  precious  stones,  as  turquoises,  are  to 
be  met  with  in  the  bazaars,  and  large  quantities 
of  dried  fruits  and  sweetmeats  are  exported  to 
Constantinople,  to  the  annual  value,  it  is  said,  of 
$200,000.     In  former  days,  Damascus  was  cele- 
brated for  the  manufacture  of  sabres  of  such 
superior  excellence  that  they  would  bend  to  the 
hilt  without  breaking,  while  the  edge  was  so 
keen  as  to  divide  the  firmest  coat  of  mail.     (See 
Damascus  Blades.)    This  very  ancient  city  was 
built,  according  to  some  writers,  by  Uz,  the  son 
of  Aram ;  it  is  repeatedly  mentioned  in  the  his- 
tory of  Abraham.     It  was  the  residence  of  the 
kings  of  Syria  during  3  centuries,  and  has  ex- 
perienced many  and  great  changes  in  every 
period  of  its  history.     Iladad,  who  is  called  by 
Josephus  the  first  of  its  kings,  was  conquered 
by  David,  king  of  Israel,  but  its  subjection  was 
of  short  duration.     In  the  reign  of  Ahaz  it  wag 
taken  by  Tiglath-pileser,  who  slew  its  last  king 
Eezin,  and  added  its  provinces  to  the  Assyrian 
empire.     It  subsequently  came  under  the  rule; 
of  Babylonia  and  Persia.     After  the  battle  of 
Issus  (333  B.  C)  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  and  soon  after  became  a  part 
of  the  dominions  of  the  Seleucidse.    Pompey  at- 


22G 


DAMASCUS  BLADES 


tached  it  to  the  Eoman  empire.  Its  connection 
witli  the  life  and  career  of  St.  Paul  is  well  known 
(Acts  ix. ;  2  Cor.  xi.  32).  Many  Jews  had 
settled  in  Damascus  after  its  conquest  by  Alex- 
ander ;  and  Christianity  being  early  preached 
here,  it  became  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  Under 
the  emperors,  Damascus  was  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal Roman  arsenals  in  Asia,  and  is  denomi- 
nated by  Julian,  in  one  of  his  letters,  as  "the 
eye  of  the  whole  East."  The  Saracens  took  it 
shortly  after  the  death  of  Mohammed,  and  after- 
■ward  made  it  the  scat  of  the  calipliate,  and  the 
capital  of  the  Mohammedan  world.  The  Om- 
myiades  reigned  at  Damascus  for  more  than  90 
years.  On  their  fall  the  Abbassides,  their  suc- 
cessors, made  Bagdad  their  capital.  When  the 
family  of  the  Fatimites  obtained  the  supremacy, 
Damascus  fell  under  the  sway  of  these  Egyptian 
caliphs  ;  but  it  was  -wrested  from  them  by  the 
Seljook  Turks,  under  whom  it  was  in  vain  be- 
sieged by  Louis  VII.  of  France  and  Conrad  III. 
of  Gerniany,  in  1148.  Just  at  the  beginning 
of  the  15th  century  it  Avas  taken  by  Tamer- 
lane, after  a  protracted  resistance,  which  so 
enraged  the  conqueror  that  he  put  its  inhabi- 
tants to  the  sword  without  mercy.  The  Mame- 
lukes repaired  it,  when  they  gained  possession  of 
Syria;  but  the  Turks, under  Selim  I.,  took  it  from 
them  in  1516.  It  thus  became  part  of  the  Turk- 
ish empire.  In  1832,  Ibrahim  Pasha  took  it, 
and  added  it  to  the  pashalio  of  Egypt ;  but  in 
1840  it  was  restored  to  Turkey. — Damascus  is 
the  name  also  of  a  pashalic  extending  trom  the 
Jordan  valley,  the  Lebanon  range,  and  the  river 
Orontes  on  tlie  E.,  to  the  Euphrates  on  the  W., 
and  from  Ham  ah  on  the  N.  to  Petra  on  the  S. 
It  embraces  the  most  of  Palestine,  a  part  of 
the  country  of  the  Druses,  and  a  part  of  the 
Sj'rian  desert.  The  pasha  resides  in  Damascus, 
which  is  the  real  capital  of  Syria.  He  is  the 
head  of  the  civil  and  military  government,  and 
the  protector  of  the  caravans  which  annually 
proceed  from  Damascus  to  Mecca.  There  is 
little  agriculture  except  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
principal  city,  but  the  district  is  noted  for  its 
horses,  mules,  camels,  Arabian  sheep,  and  bees. 
The  population  is  estimated  from  1,000,000  to 
1,500,000,  consisting  chiefly  of  Osmans,  Arabi- 
ans, Turkomans,  Greeks,  Armenians,  and  Jews. 
The  commencement  of  a  macadamized  road,  YO 
m.  long,  between  Damascus  and  Beyroot,  was 
celebrated  Jan.  3,  1859. 

DAMASCUS  BLADES.  These  famous  wea- 
pons, though  in  use  among  nations  little  skilled 
in  the  metallurgic  arts,  long  before  the  Christian 
era,  and  made  familiar  to  the  European  nations 
from  the  time  of  the  crusades,  have,  until  a  very 
recent  period,  defied  all  attempts  to  imitate  them, 
and  to  reproduce  their  remarkable  qualities.  It 
appears  that  the  Indian  wootz  was  in  those  an- 
cient times  carried  from  the  region  of  Golconda 
in  Ilindostan  (where,  as  well  as  in  Persia,  it  still 
continues  to  be  manufactured  by  the  original 
rude  process),  and  being  delivered  at  Damascus, 
•was  there  converted  into  swords,  sabres,  and 
scymitars,  the  qualities  of  which  will  for  ages  to 


come  cause  tlie  name  of  this  ancient  city  to  be 
linked  with  the  most  perfect  productions  in  steel. 
The  articles  wore  particularly  distinguished  for 
their  keen  edge,  which  seemed  alike  adapted 
for  severing  the  heavy  iron  spears  opjiosed  to 
them,  or  cutting  as  by  a  flash  of  fire  the  most 
delicate  gossamer  fabric  floating  in  the  air  and 
oftering  no  oi)posing  weight  to  the  instrument. 
Their  polished  surfaces  were  covered  with  del- 
icate lines  appearing  as  black,  white,  and  silvery 
veins,  parallel  to  each  other  or  interlaced  and 
arranged  in  bundles  of  fibres,  which  cross  each 
other  at  various  angles,  or  in  knots  and  bunch- 
es. Constructed  without  doubt  by  some  ex- 
ceedingly simple  method,  the  highest  skill  of 
modern  science  was  long  taxed'in  vain  to  imitate 
this  variegated  or  watered  appearance,  and  the 
rare  qualities  associated  with  it.  Methods  of 
great  ingenuity  and  complexity  were  contrived, 
by  which  some  very  good  imitations  were  made ; 
but  it  was  not  till  after  the  investigations  of  M. 
Breant  and  of  the  Russian  general  Anossofi',  an 
account  of  which  was  published  in  the  "  Russian 
Mining  Annual "  a  few  years  ago,  that  the  sub- 
ject was  fully  comprehended.  Karsten  remarks 
that  the  true  Damascus  (leaving  aside  the  false, 
which  is  merely  engraving  upon  a  coating  of 
some  substance  laid  upon  the  steel)  is  a  certain 
proof  of  a  want  of  homogeneousness  in  the 
metal.  All  steel,  even  after  melting,  and  mal- 
leable iron  also,  shows  this  texture,  if  polished, 
plunged  in  acid,  and  examined  with  a  micro- 
scope ;  and  the  softer  the  metal  the  more  decid- 
ed this  is.  The  Damascus  appearance  may  be 
given  to  iron  by  welding  together  bars  of 
different  degrees  of  hardness,  drawing  them 
down,  and  repeating  the  process  several  times. 
Karsten  suggests  that  by  the  use  of  -bars  of 
good  steel  the  best  oriental  blades  may  have 
been  fashioned  in  this  way.  Such  was  the 
"  torsion"  process  of  Clouet  and  Hatchette, 
the  bars  being  well  twisted  between  each  weld- 
ing. The  "mosaic"  process,  also  practised  by 
them,  differed  from  the  other  by"  cutting  the  bar 
into  short  lengths  and  fagoting  these  pieces, 
the  cut  surfaces  always  being  placed  so  as  to  face 
outward.  Blades  of  great  excellence  were  thus 
produced,  but  still  Inferior  to  the  genuine  Da- 
mascus. Professor  Faraday  in  1819  detected 
aluminum  in  wootz  by  two  analyses,  and  was 
inclined  to  refer  the  peculiarities  of  the  steel  to 
this  alloy ;  but  Karsten  failed  to  find  any  ap- 
preciable quantity  of  this  metal,  and  other  chem- 
ists have  sought  in  vain  for  this  or  any  other 
ingredient,  to  which  its  excellence  could  pos- 
sibly be  attributed.  Eisner  entertained  the 
opinion,  which  is  generally  received  at  Sheffield, 
that  it  is  the  remelting  and  working  over  of 
the  steel  that  imparts  to  it  such  valuable  prop- 
erties. M.  Breant  appears  to  have  been  the 
first  to  suspect  the  real  nature  of  the  Indian 
process.  By  producing  the  steel  with  a  con- 
siderable excess  of  carbon,  and  by  a  suitable 
method  of  cooling,  he  found  that  two  distinct 
compounds  of  the  metal  with  carbon  were 
formed,  one  of  which  may  be  steel,   and  the 


DAMASCUS  BLADES 


227 


other  of  a  quality  approaching  cast  iron.  Left  to 
coul  slowly,  these  tend  to  sei)amte  from  their 
confused  mixture,  and  to  crystallize,  each  quality 
by  itself;  the  slower  the  cooling  the  more  com- 
plete is  tliis  separation,  and  the  coarser  the 
bauds  of  stripes  or  lines  in  the  hammered  steel. 
The  steel  was  prepared  by  M.  Breant  by  melt- 
ing soft  iron  with  5^  its  weight  of  lampblack ;  a 
much  more  ready  way  of  making  steel  than 
by  the  cementation  process,  but  manufacturers 
have  been  slow  to  adopt  and  improve  upon  it. 
With  this  he  made  excellent  blades,  and  also 
from  filings  of  gray  cast  iron  mixed  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  the  same  oxidized,  the  mate- 
rials being  carefully  stirred  during  their  fu- 
sion. The  more  oxidized  the  iron  the  better  the 
effect,  a  large  proportion  of  carbon  causing  the 
steel  to  work  badly,  under  the  hammer.  Gen. 
Anossoft",  however,  who  repeated  these  experi- 
ments, was  not  satisfied  with  the  results,  the 
steel  appearing  to  him  to  have  neither  the  true 
lines  of  the  Damascus  nor  its  excellent  quali- 
ties. The  Indian  method  of  carbonizing  the 
iron,  which  they  obtain  direct  from  the  ore, 
getting  only  about  15  per  cent,  of  metal  from 
the  magnetic  oxide  they  employ,  is  to  place  it  in 
crucibles  made  of  clay,  intermixed  with  straw, 
adding  about  10  per  cent,  of  dry  wood  in  small 
bits,  and  cover  it  in  the  crucible  with  2  or  3 
green  leaves ;  only  a  little  more  than  a  pound  of 
iron  is  the  charge  of  each  crucible.  They  exer- 
cise a  choice  in  the  wood  and  leaves,  selecting 
of  the  former  the  cassia  auriculata,  and  of  the 
latter  the  asclepias  gigaiitea  or  the  convolvu- 
lus laurifolius.  The  crucibles  are  then  closely 
covered  with  moistened  clay,  rammed  to  ex- 
clude the  air,  and  are  placed,  20  or  more  of 
them  together,  in  a  small  blast  furnace,  and, 
with  charcoal  for  fuel,  are  kept  at  as  high  a 
temperature  as  possible  for  about  2^  hours.  On 
removing  them  from  the  fire  and  cooling,  they 
are  broken,  and  the  steel  obtained  in  the  form 
of  a  melted  lump.  If  this  is  covered  upon  the 
surface  with  irregular  protuberances,  the  quality 
is  bad ;  but  if  the  surface  is  smooth,  and  cov- 
ered with  striae  radiating  from  the  centre,  the 
operation  has  succeeded,  and  the  steel  is  of  ex- 
cellent quality.  Four  or  five  of  these  lumps  are 
commonly  rejected.  The  best  are  reraelted,  and 
then,  on  account  of  their  brittleness,  they  are 
exposed  to  a  red  heat  for  some  hours  in  a  small 
wind  furnace,  by  which  a  portion  of  the  carbon 
is  removed,  and  the  steel  is  softened,  so  that  it 
can  be  easily  drawn  out  under  the  hammer. 
This  Indian  steel,  according  to  the  opinion  of 
Mr.  Stodart,  is  far  superior  for  cutlery  to  the 
best  English  cast  steel.  One  of  the  best  sam- 
ples selected  by  Gen.  AnossofF,  and  analyzed  by 
M.  Ilimoff,  gave  the  following  result :  iron,  98 ; 
carbon,  1.131;  sulpjhur,  0.014;  silicium,  0.5; 
aluminum,  0.055 ;  copper,  0.3  ;  silver,  traces. 
The  researches  of  Gen.  AnossoflT  were  made  with 
great  minuteness  of  detail,  and  their  results 
present  many  curious  and  interesting  particu- 
lars, which  are  highly  instructive  as  to  the  na- 
ture of  this  and  other  qualities  of  steel,  and  can 


be  gathered  from  no  other  source.  The  infor- 
mation he  acquired  upon  the  subject  led  to  the 
establishment  of  works  at  Zlatoosk  in  the 
Ural  mountains,  where  the  manufacture  of  Da- 
mascus steel  is  carried  on  by  a  process  of  his 
own  invention.  The  quality  of  the  steel  he  found 
to  be  indicated  by  the  appearance  of  the  lines 
upon  the  surface,  by  the  color  of  the  ground, 
and  by  that  of  the  light  reflected  from  its  face. 
The  scorias  detached  from  the  metal  in  forging 
receive  from  it  the  impression  of  its  linos,  and 
when  examined  by  the  aid  of  a  microscope, 
they  serve  better  to  denote  its  character  than 
the  metal  itself ;  but  much  expei'ience  is  re- 
quired to  distinguish  correctly  the  effects  of  the 
great  variety  of  lines.  Straight  lines  nearly  par- 
allel indicate  a  bad  quality  of  steel.  As  they 
shorten  and  curve,  the  quality  improves.  It  is 
still  better  when  the  short  lines  are  broken  up, 
and  the  spaces  between  them  are  dotted  over 
with  isolated  points,  particularly  if  they  become 
like  the  meshes  of  a  net,  and  are  connected  to- 
gether by  serpentine  lines  running  in  different 
directions.  The  most  perfect  quality  of  steel 
is  indicated  by  the  threads  or  lines  forming 
little  points  or  knots,  and  being  arranged  in 
groups  of  the  same  pattern  over  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  steel.  Figures  coarsely  and  strongly 
marked  are  much  to  be  preferred  to  fine  deline- 
ations. The  scoria;  also  indicate  the  depth  of 
the  color  of  the  steel ;  those  of  deep  color  and 
vitreous  are  the  best.  "When  the  cooled  surface 
of  the  melted  steel  in  the  crucible  is  not  uniform 
and  displays  no  colored  reflections,  the  quality 
is  bad.  The  more  brilliant  the  lustre  and  the 
more  decided  the  reflection,  the  betler  it  is,  es- 
pecially if  this  has  a  golden  yellow  tint.  It 
may  also  have  a  bluish  or  reddish  color.  The 
peculiarities  of  the  lines — whether  these  are 
properly  coarse,  or  whether  they  are  too  fine — 
appear  to  Gen.  Anossoft' to  depend  upon  the  pro- 
portion of  carbon  and  the  intimacy  of  its  com- 
bination with  the  iron.  The  color  of  the  water- 
ed lines  and  that  of  the  ground  depend  upon  the 
purity  of  the  iron  and  the  carbon ;  a  ground  of 
deep  shade  and  brilliant  lustre  with  undulations 
of  white  indicates  purity  of  materials.  Tlie  re- 
flection which  the  surface  of  the  steel  gives  is 
the  best  indication  of  the  condition  in  Avhich 
the  carbon  exists  in  it.  In  the  yellow-colored 
only  is  the  combination  of  carbon  and  iron  com- 
plete. When  the  reflection  is  red,  the  carbon  is 
mixed  with  some  strange  substance  ;  and  when 
there  is  no  reflection,  the  carbon  is  apparently 
unaltered  from  its  original  condition,  and  the 
steel,  if  largely  charged  with  it,  is  brittle.  By 
4  methods,  Anossoff  succeeded  in  producing 
steel  of  the  Damascus  qualities ;  only  one,  how- 
ever, appears  to  be  of  practical  importance. 
One,  which  was  melting  the  ore  with  graphite, 
requires  ore  of  great  purity  and  a  large  consump- 
tion of  fuel,  and  is  not  uniform  in  its  results.  It 
is  supposed  from  its  simplicity  to  have  been  the 
ancient  method  of  producing  this  steel.  The 
best  method  was  melting  the  iron  in  crucibles 
with  graphite.   A  charge  of  11  lbs.  of  iron,  or  a 


228 


DAMASCUS  BLADES 


smaller  one  for  a  very  hard  steel,  is  introduced 
into  the  crucible  with  -jL  as  much  graphite,  and 
J;  part  of  scales  of  iron,  together  with  a  certain 
quantity  of  some  flux,  as  dolomite.  This  being 
a  very  fusible  flux,  only  about  -^^  part  is  em- 
ployed. Being  well  covered,  the  crucible  is 
placed  in  the  fire,  and  the  blast  is  put  on.  In  3^ 
hours  the  surface  is  covered  with  a  thin  layer 
of  scoriio,  on  which  floats  the  excess  of  graphite ; 
one-fourth  of  it  has  disappeared.  The  metal 
has  acquired  a  weak  display  of  longitudinal 
lines,  a  clear  ground,  and,  if  the  grapliite  is 
good,  a  certain  degree  of  reflection.  By  contin- 
uing the  fusion  for  4  hours  the  loss  of  graph- 
ite is  ^,  and  the  lines  are  undulating.  In  4^ 
hours  i  the  graphite  is  taken  up,  and  the  lines 
attain  a  medium  degree  of  coarseness.  The 
crucible  generally  begins  to  fail  at  this  point, 
but  if  it  should  retain  its  shape  for  5  hours,  f 
of  the  graphite  will  have  disappeared,  the  lines 
will  be  reticulated  and  of  medium  coarseness, 
and  the  scoria  amount  to  nearly  |  a  pound 
in  weight.  By  continuing,  when  possible,  the 
fusion  for  another  half  hour,  the  graphite  will 
nearly  all  disappear,  the  scoria)  will  amount  to 
f  or  f  of  a  pound,  and  the  lines  upon  the  steel 
will  become  more  or  less  decided,  reticulat- 
ed, and  sometimes  zigzag.  The  following  are 
given  as  requisites  for  the  best  steel :  charcoal 
of  the  cleanest  sort,  as  pine ;  a  furnace  con- 
structed of  the  most  refractory  materials  ;  the 
test  quality  of  crucibles;  iron  also  the  best, 
very  malleable  and  ductile  ;  pure  native  graph- 
ite, or  that  obtained  by  breaking  up  the  best 
crucibles ;  flux  of  dolomite,  or  calcined  quartz ; 
a  high  temperature ;  fusion  as  long  continued  as 
possible.  The  blast  of  the  furnace  is  kept  on 
till  the  fuel  is  entirely  consumed ;  and  the 
crucible  is  not  removed  until  it  is  cold,  or  at 
least  black.  The  cover  is  then  taken  of^,  the 
graphite  removed,  the  scoriae  are  broken,  and 
the  lump  of  steel  is  extracted.  When  cold, 
this  presents  a  surface  of  uniform  appearance ; 
or  there  may  be  a  depression  in  the  centre  if 
the  steel  is  very  hard  and  shows  no  reflection ; 
or  if  steel  of  this  quality  exhibits  no  outward 
depression,  a  cavity  may  be  looked  for  in  the 
interior  of  the  lump,  which  is  the  eflEect  of  too 
rapid  cooling,  and  indicates  a  very  inferior  qual- 
ity. The  lump,  which  weighs  about  11  lbs.,  is 
drawn  out  under  the  hammer  with  3  to  9  heats ; 
it  is  then  separated  into  3  pieces,  each  of  which 
is  forged  anew.  Particular  care  is  required  in 
reheating  to  give  the  proper  temperature.  At 
a  white  heat  the  steel  if  hard  will  crumble ;  if 
tender,  it  loses  the  watered  lines.  The  best  steel 
may  be  drawn  out  cold  without  cracking,  and 
may  even  become  red  hot  by  hammering.  In 
working  the  bars  into  other  shapes,  they  ought 
not  to  be  heated  beyond  a  clear  red,  and  the 
last  heat  should  not  exceed  a  cherry  red.  It  is 
well,  as  the  lower  part  of  the  lump  is  always 
better  marked  than  the  upper,  to  keep  the  two 
original  sides  distinguished  from  each  other, 
that  the  cutting  edge  may  be  formed  out  of  the 
lower.    In  tempering  stsel,  the  different  heats 


are  distinguished  by  the  different  colors  the 
metal  assumes.  These  are  the  yellow,  violet, 
blue,  and  green.  The  hardest  temper  is  given 
at  the  straw-yellow,  the  greatest  elasticity  at 
the  blue ;  at  the  green  the  metal  begins  to  lose 
its  elasticity.  This  is  the  temper  for  scythes ; 
the  violet  for  chisels.  The  very  hard  Damascus 
is  tempered  in  grease ;  all  sword  blades  and 
anns  in  boiling  grease.  They  cool  more  quick- 
ly in  this  than  in  cold  grease,  as  the  former 
moves  more  freely  around  the  object  plunged 
into  it.  The  temper  is  first  given  to  the  whole 
instrument  heated  to  redness,  plunged  into  hot 
grease,  and  left  to  cool.  It  is  then  taken  out, 
wiped  clean,  and  rubbed  on  one  side  with  a 
whetstone,  the  better  to  judge  of  the"  pro- 
per temperature  for  reheating.  A  sabre  blade 
is  brought  at  the  point  to  a  blue  heat,  in 
the  middle  to  violet,  along  the  edge  to  yel- 
low, and  near  the  handle  to  green.  When  tem- 
pered it  is  dressed  with  the  hammer,  sharpened, 
and  plunged  while  hot  into  cold  water.  Great- 
er elasticity  is  given  to  the  whole  blade  by 
bringing  a  larger  proportion  of  it  to  a  blue  heat. 
The  edge  takes  a  harder  temper  by  being  filed 
thin.  Razors  and  some  other  instruments  are  tem- 
pered in  water ;  scythes  need  only  to  be  swung 
in  the  air.  The  processes  of  grinding,  whetting, 
and  polishing  are  liable  to  remove  the  temper, 
particularly  with  very  thin  blades.  After  grind- 
ing they  frequently  require  to  be  heated  to  a 
blue  color  and  plunged  into  water  ;  this  is  the 
process  called  blueing  of  steel.  The  grinding 
tends  to  bring  the  metal  in  places  to  a  green 
heat,  when  it  loses  its  elasticity  in  these  places. 
This  happens  even  if  the  stone  is  wet,  provided 
the  blade  be  pressed  hard  upon  it.  This  ac- 
counts for  the  difference  in  razors  made  of 
the  same  steel.  Rather  than  risk  injuring  tho 
temper,  it  is  better  not  to  give  a  high  polish  to 
the  blades  and  edges  of  instruments ;  those  of 
Damascus  steel  do  not  need  it,  for  after  the  lines 
are  brought  out  by  the  application  of  acids,  pol- 
ishing beyond  a  slight  rubbing  with  fine  emery 
and  oil  is  no  improvement.  This  last  process 
of  bringing  out  the  watered  appearance  is  ac- 
complished by  the  use  of  a  diluted  acid,  which 
acts  more  upon  the  ground  than  upon  the  lines. 
All  acids  are  not  equally  suitable  for  this  pur- 
pose. Nitric  acid  acts  not  only  upon  the  iron, 
but  also  upon  the  carbon,  and  moreover  injures 
the  lustre.  Sulphuric  acid,  having  no  effect  upon 
the  carbon  nor  the  reflection  of  the  surface,  is 
much  to  be  preferred,  especially  when  it  is  used 
in  the  state  of  a  sulphate;  and  a  sulphate  of  iron 
which  contains  a  certain  quantity  of  sulphate  of 
alumina  is  found  to  produce  the  best  effects. 
The  blade,  thoroughly  cleaned,  is  washed  with 
the  solution  by  pouring  it  over  the  surface,  and 
when  the  lines  are  developed  it  is  repeatedly 
washed  with  soap  and  water,  and  wiped  dry 
with  a  cloth,  care  being  taken  not  to  wet  any 
portion  after  it  has  been  once  dried.  Some  ve- 
getable acids,  as  lemon  juice  or  vinegar,  answer 
very  well  in  place  of  the  solution  of  sulphate 
of  iron.     The  last  operation  is  to  rub  the  sur- 


DAMASK 


DAMBOOL 


229 


face  over  with  pure  olive  oil  and  again  wipe  it 
dry. — Tlie  total  expense  of  the  production  of 
blades  by  these  processes  is  estimated  at  Zla- 
toosk  to  be  about  $110  per  lb.  They  prove  to 
be  of  similar  properties  to  those  of  the  famous 
oriental  blades,  the  accounts  of  which  have  not 
been  so  inucli  exaggerated  as  is  generally  sup- 
posed. Gen.  Anossotfhas  himself,  with  a  blade 
of  reticulated  lines  in  broad  stripes  and  showing 
a  bright  gilded  reflection,  cut  through  a  gauze 
handkerchief  in  the  air,  a  feat  which  cannot  be 
accomplished  with  the  best  English  steel.  Bones 
and  nails  may  be  cleft  without  injury  to  blades 
tempered  for  such  use,  and  other  steel  tempered 
to  the  same  point  may  be  nicked  liy  them  with- 
out'cfausing  a  gap.  Their  elasticity  is  so  great, 
that  one  may  put  his  foot  upon  the  end  of  the 
blade  and  bend  it  to  a  right  angle,  when  it  will 
fly  back  perfectly  unchanged.  Ktizors  are  said 
to  do  at  least  twice  as  much  service  as  those 
made  of  the  best  English  steel.  Articles  re- 
quiring great  sharpness  and  strength  should  be 
made  of  the  harder  quality  of  Damascus,  that 
which  displays  the  lines  before  the  treatment 
with  acids ;  those  requiring  great  elasticity 
should  be  made  of  the  softer  quality,  which  is 
prepared  with  a  smaller  proportion  of  graph- 
ite. Atkinson  in  his  late  work  on  Siberia  states 
that  Gen.  Anossoflf  died  in  1851,  and  that  his 
successor  at  the  works  had  failed  to  produce 
the  remarkable  blades  for  which  the  establish- 
ment had  become  celebrated.  The  wonderful 
quality  of  the  arms  previously  made  there  is 
particularly  noticed  by  Oapt.  James  Abbott, 
in  his  "  Journey  from  Heraut  to  St.  Peters- 
burg." The  observations  of  M.  Anossoff  upon 
the  introduction  of  other  metals  to  alloy  the  steel 
are  very  minute,  but  they  are  all  unfavorable 
to  any  mixtures  with  the  iron  and  carbon. — • 
These  researches  are  particularly  interesting, 
from  their  bearing  upon  the  new  process  of  pro- 
ducing cast  steel,  introduced  into  successful  op- 
eration in  this  country,  by  melting  malleable 
iron  in  crucibles  with  carbonaceous  fluxes,  thus 
avoiding  the  tedious  and  expensive  process  of 
cementation.     For  this  operation  see  Steel. 

DAMASK,  a  fabric  originally  manufactured 
at  Damascus,  whence  its  name.  It  was  made 
of  silk,  and  was  distinguished  by  its  ornamen- 
tal woven  figures  of  fruits,  flowers,  animals, 
and  landscapes.  It  is  still  distinguished  by 
these  ornaments,  and  by  the  mode  in  Avhich 
they  are  introduced  in  the  process  of  weaving, 
though  the  material  of  modern  damask  is  often 
linen,  sometimes  indeed  woollen,  or  even  cot- 
ton, or  a  mixture  of  linen  and  cotton.  The 
cotton  fabric,  from  its  want  of  durability  and 
beauty,  has  little  to  recommend  it  for  this  man- 
ufacture, particularly  as  it  is  only  by  great  care 
and  frequent  bleaching  that  it  can  be  made  to 
retain  its  whiteness.  Its  peculiar  texture  is  that 
called  tweeling  or  twilling,  in  which  the  warp 
and  the  woof  cross  each  other,  not  alternately, 
but  at  intervals  of  several  threads.  These  in- 
tervals being  at  every  8  threads  in  damask,  the 
6tuff  is  called  an  8-leaf  twill.    The  linea  dam- 


asks manufactured  at  Dunfermline  in  Scotland, 
and  atLisburnand  Ardoynein  Ireland,  are  used 
chiefly  for  table  cloths  and  napkins.  Diaper  is  a 
variety  of  damask,  differing  from  it  by  the  warp 
and  the  woof  crossing  each  other  at  intervals  of 
5  threads. 

DAMASKEENING,  the  art  of  ornamenting 
iron  or  steel  by  inlaying  with  gold,  silver,  or 
some  other  metal.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  adorn- 
ing sword  blades,  guards,  and  locks  of  pistols. 
The  most  beautiful  method  of  damaskeening 
consists  in  cutting  the  metal  deep  with  a  graver, 
and  filling  the  groove  with  thick  wire  of  gold 
or  silver.  In  this  way  the  wire  adheres  very 
strongly.  The  more  common  process  is  super- 
ficial only.  For  this,  the  metal  is  heated  to  a 
blue  color ;  it  is  then  hatched  with  a  knife,  and 
the  figure  desired  is  drawn  with  a  fine  brass 
bodkin  upon  the  hatching.  This  done,  a  gold 
wire  is  conducted  according  to  the  pattern  de- 
signed, and  sunk  carefully  into  the  metal  with  a 
copper  tool.  Of  late  a  method  is  in  practice  of 
eating  out  a  cavity  for  the  precious  petal  by 
means  of  acid.  The  art  was  carried  to  great 
perfection  in  Damascus,  in  Syria,  whence  its 
name.  It  is  of  great  antiquity,  its  invention 
being  attributed  by  Herodotus  to  Glaucus  of 
Chios,  490  B.  0. 

DAMAUN,  or  DAMA^',  a  seaport  on  the  coast 
of  N.  Concan,  belonging  to  the  Portuguese ;  pop. 
about  6,000.  It  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Dainaun  river,  on  the  gulf  of  Cambay,  100  m.  N. 
from  Bombay;  lat.  20=  2-i'  K,  long.  72°  53'  E. 
It  has  a  fine  appearance  from  the  sea ;  its  houses 
are  whitened,  and  it  contains  several  churches 
and  convents,  but  the  streets  are  narrow'and 
dirty.  It  is  fortified  by  a  rampart  and  a  castle. 
The  river  has  a  bar  at  its  mouth,  with  18  feet  of 
water  at  high  tide.  It  is  a  good  port  of  refuge 
and  of  repairs  for  small  vessels.  Ship-building 
is  carried  on  to  some  extent,  but  commerce  is 
declining.  The  Portuguese  sacked  and  burned 
the  town  in  1531,  and  in  1558  took  formal  pos- 
session of  it.  The  territory  which  they  hold 
here  is  10  m.  long  and  5  m.  broad. 

DAMAUN,  Daman,  or  The  Border,  a  district 
of  the  Punjaub,  formerly  included  in  Runjeet 
Singh's  kingdom  of  Lahore,  between  lat.  28°  40' 
and  33°  20'  K,  long.  69°  30'  and  71°  20'  E. ; 
length  300  m. ;  average  breadth  60  m.  It  lies  be- 
tween the  Indus  and  the  Suliman  mountains, 
and  extends  from  the  borders  of  Sinde  N.  to  the 
Kala  or  Salt  range.  The  irrigated  portions  are 
highly  fertile,  but  other  parts  of  the  country 
consist  of  burning,  sterile  plains,  sandy  deserts, 
or  jungles  infested  by  wild  beasts.  The  heat  in 
summer  is  intense,  but  ice  often  forms  in  winter. 
The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Juts  and  Beloochees, 
dark-complexioned,  ill-formed,  and  quarrelsome. 

DAMBOOL,  or  Dambolo,  a  village  in  the  isl- 
and of  Ceylon,  with  an  immense  rock'about  a 
mile  distant,  rising  550  feet  above  the  plain,  and 
called  DambooUagalla.  On  its  S.  side,  100  feet 
from  the  summit,  are  5  very  remarkable  caves, 
in  which  the  Ceylonese  monarch  Valogambahu 
concealed  himself  during  an  invasion  of  the  Mai- 


230 


DAMER 


DAMIROIT 


abars,  100  B.  C.  In  gratitude  for  the  protection 
thus  afforded,  lie  ordered  the  caves  to  be  en- 
larged, and  converted  thein  into  Buddhist  tem- 
ples. Images  of  the  god  were  placed  there, 
prieh;ts  appointed  to  conduct  the  worship,  and 
the  revenues  of  certain  lands  set  apart  for  their 
support ;  and  the  service  is  still  kept  up.  In  one 
of  the  caves  is  a  colossal  statue  of  Buddha  hewn 
out  of  the  rock;  a  long  inscription  found  in 
another  is  interesting  for  the  information  it 
conveys  concerning  the  government  of  Ceylon 
during  the  12th  century. 

DAMER,  Anne  Seymour,  an  English  sculptor, 
only  cliild  of  Field  Marshal  Conway,  born  in 
1Y48,  died  May  28,  1808.  She  imbibed  an  early 
love  for  literature,  and  was  celebrated  for  her 
accomplishments.  A  casual  conversation  with 
Hume  turned  her  attention  to  sculpture,  and  she 
took  lessons  from  Ceracchi  and  Bacon,  and  went 
to  Italy  to  prosecute  the  art.  She  was  also  an 
excellent  amateur  actress.  ,  The  productions  of 
her  chisel  are  numerous  and  admired.  Among 
them  are  a  bust  of  Nelson  in  the  Guildhall,  2 
colossal  heads  on  Henley  bridge,  and  a  statue 
of  George  III. 

DAMERGIT,  a  frontier  province  of  Bornoo, 
in  Central  Africa.  The  capital,  Olaloal,  lies  in 
about  lat.  14°  30'  K.  There  are  said  to  be  200 
or  300  towns  and  villages  in  the  country.  It  is 
very  productive,  and  the  granary  of  Aifr,  and 
chiefly  inhabited  by  slaves  of  the  Kelowis  under 
the  rule  of  the  Tuariks, 

DAMEROW,  HEiNKicn  PmLipp  August,  a 
German  psychologist,  and  superintendent  of  the 
insane  asylum  at  Halle,  born  in  Stettin  in  1798, 
is  one  of  the  greatest  authorities  in  Prussia  on 
all  subjects  pertaining  to  insanity,  established 
and  still  edits  the  Journal  fur  Psychintrie,  and 
has  written  Die  Elemente  der  ndchsten  Zuhunft 
der  Medecin  (Berlin,  1829)  ;  Ueher  die  relative 
Verlindung  der  Irren-,  Jfeil-,  inul  PJlege-An- 
stalten  (Leipsic,  1840) ;  and  Sefeloge^  eine  Wahn- 
sinnsstudie  (Halle,  1853). 

DAMIANI,  PiETRo,  an  Italian  prelate,  born 
in  Ravenna  about  988,  died  at  Faenza,  Feb.  22, 
10V2.  While  young  he  entered  the  monastery 
of  Font  Avellana,  of  which  he  became  abbot  in 
1041,  and  in  1057,  greatly  against  his  own  wiU, 
was  raised  by  Pope  Stephen  IX,  to  the  rank  of 
cardinal-bisliop  of  Ostia.  He  j^ersuaded  the 
simoniacal  Benedict  X.  and  the  antipope  Cada- 
lous  to  lay  aside  their  pretensions;  he  vigor- 
ously supported  the  measures  of  which  Hilde- 
brand  (Gregory  VII.)  was  the  prime  mover, 
and  he  was  in  consequence  persecuted  by  the 
disorderly  clergy  of  Milan,  to  whom  he  was 
sent  as  legate.  In  1002  he  withdrew  to  his 
Bolitude  at  Font  Avellana,  but  the  next  year 
■was  sent  to  France  by  Alexander  II.  to  investi- 
gate the  charges  of  simony  against  the  French 
clergy.  In  10G9  he  went  on  a  similar  mission 
to  Germany,  and  in  1071  he  left  his  monastery 
again  to  restore  order  in  Ravenna,  the  arcli- 
bishop  of  which  city  had  been  excommuni- 
cated. There  are  many  editions  of  his  writings, 
.comprising  sermons,  lives  of  saints,  treatises  on 


church  affairs,  and  a  work  on  the  abuses  of  the 
clergy. 

DAMIENS,  Robert  Fran(^ois,  executed  in 
Paris,  March  28,  1757,  for  his  attempt  on  tho 
life  of  Louis  XV.  He  was  born  near  Arras,  in 
1714,  and  his  character  was  of  the  worst  de- 
scription. "While  a  child  he  was  called  Robert 
le  Diahle  on  account  of  his  wickedness.  He 
enrolled  as  a  soldier,  but  deserted ;  afterward 
robbed  one  of  his  employers,  and  fled  to  Belgium. 

DAMIETTA  (Arab.  Dainiat,  anc.  Tamiathis), 
a  town  of  lower  Egypt,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  E.  branch  of  the  Nile,  6  m.  from  its 
mouth,  and  100  m.  N.  N.  E.  from  Cairo;  pop. 
about  28,000,  a  few  of  whom  are  Greeks  and 
Syrians,  and  the  rest  Egyptians.  Its  general 
appearance  is  that  of  a  straggling  collection 
of  poorly  built  houses,  relieved  by  magnificent 
mosijues,  bazaars,  and  marble  baths,  with  a  few 
brick  dwellings  of  a  better  sort  on  terraces  near 
the  river.  It  has  a  military  school  for  400  in- 
fantry officers,  a  cotton-spinning  factory,  a  large 
rice  mill,  and  a  good  coasting  and  interior  trade 
in  dried  and  salted  fish  from  Lake  Menzaleh, 
rice,  coffee,  beans,  dates,  flax,  linen,  &c.  It  was 
once  famous  for  the  manufacture  of  leather  and 
striped  cloth,  and  the  name  of  dimity  given  to 
the  latter  in  Europe  is  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  it.  Its  foreign  commerce  was  formerly 
large,  but  is  now  merged  in  that  of  Alexandria. 
Its  harbor  is  bad,  and  is  inaccessible  by  large 
vessels  owing  to  a  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile. 
The  ancient  town  of  Damietta  stood  about  5  m.  • 
nearer  the  sea  than  the  present.  Under  the 
Saracens  it  rose  to  great  importance,  and  the 
crusaders,  looking  upon  it  as  the  bulwark  of 
Egypt  on  the  Mediterranean  side,  made  it  the 
object  of  many  attacks.  In  one  of  these  sieges 
it  was  captured  by  the  French  king  Louis  IX. ; 
but  the  victorious  monarch,  liaving  fallen  soon 
after  into  the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  was  forced  to 
purchase  his  freedom  by  restoring  the  city  to 
its  former  owners.  The  sultan  of  Egypt,  about 
1251,  in  view  of  the  danger  of  its  exposed  po- 
sition, razed  it  to  the  ground,  built  the  present 
city,  and  blocked  up  that  mouth  of  the  Nile  by 
which  it  communicates  with  the  sea. 

DAMIRON,  Jean  Philibert,  a  French  eclec- 
tic philosopher,  born  at  Belleville,  May  10, 1794. 
A  pupil  of  the  normal  school,  he  tauglit  litera- 
ture and  philosophy  in  provincial  colleges,  and 
through  the  influence  of  Victor  Cousin  was 
called  to  Paris,  where  he  occupied  a  chair  of 
philosophy  in  3  of  the  principal  colleges,  and 
was  finally  appointed  professor  of  philosophy 
in  the  faculty  of  letters.  In  1886  he  was  elected 
to  the  academy  of  moral  and  political  sciences, 
where  he  succeeded  Destutt  de  Tracy.  He  first 
])ublished  Bmii  sur  VMstoire  de  la  philosophie 
en  France  ati  XIX'  siecle  (1828);  next  a  Conrs 
de  philosophie  (1831),  treating  of  ])sychology, 
logic,  and  morals.  His  Bssai  sur  Vhistoire  de 
la  philosophie  au  XVIP  siecle,  which  appeared 
15  years  later,  gives  a  synopsis  of  the  philo- 
sophical systems  of  Descartes,  Gassendi,  Spi- 
noza, Malebranche,  Bossuet,  and  Fenelon,  con- 


DAMJANICS 


DAMPIER 


231 


eluding  witli  liis  own  opiiiuMis.  In  1857  ;ip- 
pefired  liis  3Iemoiren  pour  servir  <i  Vhihtoircde  la 
philosophic  du  XVIII'  tiiecle.  He  also  edited 
Jouliroy's  Kouteaux  7nelan(je,%  witli  an  intro- 
ductory notice,  beside  publishing  a  variety  of 
miscellaneous  philosophical  memoirs,  including 
sketches  of  J3ayle,  Leibnitz,  Clarke,  llelvetius, 
Diderot,  and  others. 

DAMJANICS,  Janos,  general  in  the  Hun- 
garian war  of  18-i8-'49,  born  in  the  Military 
Frontier  district  of  Austria  in  1804,  executed  at 
Arad,  Oct.  G,  1849.  Tliough  a  Kascian  by  birth, 
and  serving  in  one  of  the  regiments  of  his  native 
district,  he  early  drew  upon  himself  the  atten- 
tion of  his  Austrian  superiors  by  manifestations 
of  a  liberal  and  national  Hungarian  tendency. 
After  the  outbreak  of  the  Hungarian  war  he 
■was  for  this  reason  to  be  sent  to  Italy,  but  he 
was  retained  by  the  Hungarian  ministry,  and 
subsequently  sent  as  commander  of  the  3d  and 
9tli  battalions  against  his  own  countrymen,  the 
Kascians,  in  southern  Hungary.  His  gigantic 
stature,  unsurpassed  valor,  and  revolutionary 
rigor,  soon  made  him  the  favorite  of  the  army 
and  nation,  and  the  terror  of  the  hostile  tril)es. 
He  won  the  battles  of  Lagerndorf  (Nov.  9, 1848), 
of  Alibunar  (Dec.  17),  and  when  recalled  to  join 
the  chief  central  army,  the  decisive  battle  of 
Szolnok  (March  5,  1849);  and  in  the  spring 
campaign  of  Gorgei  he  had  the  chief  merit  in 
the  successive  victories  of  Izsaszeg  (April  6), 
AVaitzen  (lOth),  Nagy-Sarlo  (19th),  and  before 
Comorn  (26th).  Having  accidentally  hurt  his 
leg,  he  was  prevented  from  entering  upon  the 
office  of  substitute  minister  of  war,  which  was 
tendered  him,  as  well  as  from  further  service 
in  the  iield.  Made  commander  of  the  recon- 
quered fortress  of  Arad,  he  surrendered  4  days 
alter  Gorgei  (Aug.  17)  to  the  Russians,  who 
soon  delivered  him  up  to  the  Austrlans.  He 
was  hanged  after  having  witnessed  the  execu- 
tion of  12  fellow  officers. 

DAMM,  Lake  of  {Dammische  See  or  Damm- 
sche  See),  a  lake  in  the  circle  of  Stettin,  province 
of  Pomerania,  Prussia.  It  is  formed  by  the  ex- 
])ansion  of  the  Oder,  near  its  moutli,  is  about 
10  m.  in  length  by  1^  in  breadth,  and  is  navi- 
gable in  its  whole  extent.  It  receives  the  wa- 
ters of  the  Una  and  the  Plone. 

DAMOCLES,  one  of  the  courtiers  of  Dio- 
nysius  the  Elder,  tyrant  of  Syracuse.  Damocles 
had  extolled  the  happiness  of  Dionysius  in  be- 
ing a  rich  and  powerful  king,  and  the  latter, 
wishing  to  show  him  the  nature  of  that  happi- 
ness, placed  liim  one  day  at  a  magnificent  ban- 
quet, with  a  naked  sword  suspended  above  his 
head  by  a  single  hair. 

DAMON  AND  PYTHIAS,  the  names  of  two 
celebrated  Syracusans,  Avhich  are  always  join- 
ed as  the  types  of  true  and  noble  friendsliip. 
They  were  both  Pythagoreans.  Pythias,  or  cor- 
rectly Phintias,  was  condemned  to  death  by 
Dionysius  the  Elder,  but  requested  to  be  tem- 
porarily released  in  order  to  arrange  his  atlairs, 
promising  to  procure  a  friend  to  take  his  place 
and  suffer  his  punishment,  if  he  should  not  re- 


turn. Pythias  was  allowed  to  depart,  and  Da- 
mon gave  himself  up  as  his  substitute.  Before 
the  time  appointed  for  the  execution,  Pythias 
returned,  and  Dionysius  set  both  of  them  free. 

DAMOKEAU,  Laure  Cinthie  (Montalant), 
a  French  vocalist,  born  in  Paris,  Feb.  0,  1801. 
ller  parents  were  employed  as  concierges  in  the 
conservatory,  and  Laure  was  not  yet  7  when 
she  became  one  of  the  pupils  of  that  institution. 
Her  talent  attracted  the  attention  of  Plantade, 
one  of  the  professors,  who  admitted  her  into  his 
singing  class,  and  afterward  introduced  her  to 
Louis  Napoleon's  mother,  Hortense,  who  became 
interested  in  the  little  girl.  In  1819  she  made 
her  first  appearance  in  Paris  under  the  name 
of  Mademoiselle  Cinti ;  but  her  reputation  was 
not  established  until  4  years  afterward.  In  1827 
she  left  the  Paris  opera  and  went  to  Belgium, 
where  she  married  M.  Damoreau,  an  actor  con- 
nected with  the  theatre  of  Brussels.  One  of 
her  most  memorable  achievements  was  in  1829, 
when  she  sang  in  the  first  act  of  the  Matri- 
monio  segreio  together  with  Malibran  and  Son- 
tag,  without  being  eclipsed  by  either  of  those 
artists.  In  1844  she  took  leave  of  the  French 
stage,  and  made  a  professional  tour  in  the  Unit- 
ed States;  after  which  she  became  professor  in 
one  of  the  singing  classes  of  the  conservatory. 
She  has  published  a  MetJiode  de  chant,  an  Air- 
hum  de  romances,  and  some  fugitive  pieces. 

DAMPE,  Jacob  Jacobsex,  a  Danish  profes- 
sor of  philosophy,  born  in  Copenhagen,  Jan.  10, 
1790,  died  in  1850.  The  liberal  sentiments  of 
his  lectures  on  philosophy  gave  umbrage  to  the 
government,  and  he  was  detained  in  prison  from 
1821  to  1841,  when  Christian  VIII.  restored  him 
to  liberty.  He  contributed  many  articles  to 
religious  and  political  publications,  and  is  the 
author  of  a  work  on  Danish  orthography,  of 
literary  essays  in  prose  and  verse,  and  of  a 
variety  of  books,  the  chief  object  of  which  is  to 
show  the  compatibility  of  liberal  institutions 
with  the  spirit  of  the  Christian  religion. 

DAMPIER,  William,  an  English  navigator, 
born  at  East  Coker,  Somersetshire,  about  1652; 
the  date  of  his  death  is  unknown.  His  father, 
a  farmer,  destined  him  for  commercial  pursuits, 
but  having  become  an  orphan  at  an  early  age, 
the  boy's  guardian  took  him  from  school,  and 
sent  him  to  sea  as  a  common  sailor,  in  which 
capacity  he  made  voyages  to  Newfoundland 
and  the  East  Indies.  War  having  broken  out 
between  England  and  Holland,  Dampier  enlist- 
ed on  board  a  ship  of  war,  was  present  in  two 
actions,  fell  sick,  was  invalided  and  sent  home. 
On  recovering,  he  undertook  for  6  months  the 
overseership  of  a  plantation  in  Jamaica.  Dis- 
liking that  obscure  life,  he  made  several  voyages 
in  a  Jamaica  coaster.  At  Kingston  he  became 
acquainted  with  a  party  of  lumberers  about  to 
sail  for  the  bay  of  Honduras,  to  cut  mahogany, 
and  readily  agreed  to  join  them.  He  remained: 
with  them  3  years.  Returning  to  London  in 
1678,  he  published  a  description  of  the  bay  of  . 
Honduras.  In  the  succeeding  year  he  left  Lon-  | 
don  for  South  America,  with  the  intention  to.  I 


233 


DAMPIER 


FRANCIS  DANA 


resume  lumbering;  but  at  Jamaica  lie  met  with 
a  part}'  of  buccaneer?,  who  Avere  about  to  make 
a  descent  on  the  Spanish  main,  and  he  and  his 
comrades  joined  them.  The  party  crossed  the 
isthmus  to  the  Pacific,  On  the  Pacific  coast, 
with  their  small  boats,  they  boarded  and  cap- 
tured several  ships,  which  they  converted  into 
cruisers,  and  with  them  pillaf!;ed  the  cities  on  the 
Peruvian  coast.  An  immense  amount  of  ])lun- 
der  fell  into  their  hands,  but  they  quarrelled  so 
much  about  its  distribution  that  Damj)ier  left, 
and  arrived  in  Virginia  in  1GS2.  On  Aug.  23, 
1683,  he  set  out  with  a  privateer,  Capt.  John 
Cook,  fur  the  Pacific  ocean,  via  Cape  Horn. 
Cook's  expedition  cruised  along  the  coasts  of 
Chili,  Peru,  and  Mexico,  making  depredations 
on  the  Spaniards.  In  1GS5  Dampier  joined  the 
command  of  Capt.  Swan  on  the  coast  of  Cali- 
fornia, in  hopes  to  intercept  the  Spanish  Manila 
galleon ;  but  that  rich  prize  did  not  fall  into 
their  hands,  and  they  set  sail  for  the  Philippine 
islands.  After  many  hardships  they  arrived,  in 
a  perishing  condition,  at  the  isle  of  Guam ;  thence 
they  steered  for  Mindanao,  the  crew  being  in  a 
state  of  mutiny ;  at  this  place  they  set  ashore 
Capt.  Swan,  and  those  who  were  favorable  to 
him.  Dampier  continued  to  cruise  with  the 
mutineers  in  the  Indian  archipelago,  where  he 
noted  some  islands  hitherto  unknown,  and  in 
the  course  of  the  voyage  touched  at  New  Hol- 
land, or  Australia.  Having  become  disgusted 
with  the  excesses  of  his  companions,  he  secreted 
himself  with  7  others  on  one  of  the  Nicobar 
islands,  and  on  the  departure  of  the  buccaneers, 
put  to  sea  in  a  canoe  to  reach  the  English 
factory  afc  Acheen,  Sumatra.  A  tempest  threw 
him  on  the  coast,  but  at  length  he  reached 
his  destii»ation.  From  Acheen  he  made  sev- 
eral commercial  voyages  to  Tonquin,  Malacca, 
Madras,  and  Bencoolen.  At  the  latter  place  he 
held  the  ofiice  of  master  of  the  artillery  for  5 
months.  From  Bencoolen  he  embarked  for 
England,  where  he  arrived  Sept.  16,  1691,  and 
published  his  "  Voyage  around  the  World." 
He  dedicated  the  book  to  Charles  Montague, 
earl  of  Halifax,  president  of  the  royal  society,  by 
"whom  he  was  recommended  to  the  admiralty, 
who  gave  him  the  command  of  the  Roebuck,  a 
government  vessel  of  12  guns,  for  the  purpose 
of  exploring  the  coast  of  New  Holland.  With 
tliis  ship  he  set  sail  from  the  Downs,  Jan.  26, 
1699,  and  having  run  across  to  Brazil,  turned 
his  course  eastward  to  the  coast  of  New  Holland, 
which  he  traced  for  nearly  300  leagues.  Being 
unable  to  effect  any  communication  with  the 
natives,  he  bore  up  for  the  Dutch  settlements 
to  refit.  On  his  departure  he  threaded  the 
archipelago,  and  on  Jan.  1,  1700,  came  on  the 
coast  of  New  Guinea,  which  he  surveyed,  pass- 
ing through  the  strait  which  separates  that 
island  from  New  Britain,  and  which  bears  his 
name.  After  numerous  other  discoveries,  he 
returned  by  a  new  route  to  Ceram,  in  the  Mo- 
luccas. On  his  way  to  England,  his  ship  found- 
ered off  the  island  of  Ascension.  Dampier  and 
his  crew  saved  themselves;  2  months  after,  in 


1701,  they  were  taken  from  the  island  by  a 
passing  ship,  and  carried  to  England,  where  ho 
published  an  account  of  the  exjjcdition.  Gov- 
ernment seems  to  have  been  dissatisfied  with 
the  result,  for  it  gave  him  no  further  employ- 
ment. The  rest  of  his  life  is  obscure.  In  1703 
we  find  him  making  an  unsuccessful  cruise  a3 
master  of  a  privateer  belonging  to  a  company 
of  English  merchants,  and  again  in  the  capacity 
of  pilot  to  a  privateering  expedition,  under  Capt. 
Woods  Rogers,  in  1711.  In  1707  he  published 
a  defence  of  his  buccaneering  on  the  Spanish 
main.  He  also  Avrote  a  treatise  on  winds  and 
tides.  Dampier's  style  of  relating  his  adventures 
is  interesting;  his  descriptions  are  vivid,  and 
his  facts  generally  correct.  The  best  edition 
of  his  collected  voyages  appeared  at  London  in 
1729,  in  4  vols.  8vo. 

DAN.  I.  One  of  the  so^s  of  Jacob.  II.  A 
tribe  of  Israel,  descendants  of  the  preceding, 
and  the  division  of  Palestine  allotted  to  them. 
The  latter  was  bounded  by  Ephraim,  Benjamin, 
Judah,  and  the  Mediterranean.  III.  A  town  of 
Palestine,  on  the  northern  boundary,  called 
Laish  before  its  conquest  by  the  Danites  from 
the  Phoenicians. 

DAN  RIVER,  a  river  of  Va.  and  N.  C.  It 
takes  its  rise  at  the  foot  of  the  Blue  Ridge  in 
Patrick  co.,  Va.,  and  flows  S.  E.  into  Surrey  co., 
N,  0.  It  then  turns  E.,  and  after  a  winding 
course  of  200  m.,  during  which  it  5  times 
crosses  the  boundary  between  the  2  states,  and 
drains  a  tract  of  country  4,000  sq.  m.  in  extent, 
it  unites  with  the  Staunton,  or  Roanoke  river, 
at  Clarksville,  Va.  It  is  navigable  by  boats  as 
far  as  Danville,  Va. 

DANA,  Francis,  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  June  18, 1743,  died  at  Cam- 
bridge, April  25,  1811.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1762,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1767.  The  state  of  public  aftairs  at  this 
period  attracted  the  zeal  or  the  foresight  of  the 
young  men  of  most  promise  in  the  profession. 
He  joined  the  "  Sons  of  Liberty,"  and  John 
Adams's  diary  of  Jan.  1766,  speaks  of  the  club 
in  which  "  Lowell,  Dana,  Quincy,  and  other 
young  fellows  "  were  not  ill  emjdoyed  in  length- 
ened discussions  of  the  right  of  taxation.  The 
repeal  of  the  stamp  act  gave  an  opening  to  prac- 
tice, in  which  Mr.  Dana  Avas  soon  much  engaged. 
He  was  of  counsel  in  the  well-known  Lechmere 
slave  case  in  1769,  decided  some  3  years  before 
that  of  Somerset,  and  to  the  same  ett'ect.  In  1 773 
he  acted  in  behalf  of  the  Rhode  Island  patriots 
in  concert  with  John  Adams  for  the  prosecution 
in  the  matter  of  Rome's  and  Moffat's  letters ; 
and  in  the  next  year  opposed,  though  one  of  the 
youngest  of  the  bar,  the  addresses  of  that  body 
to  Gov.  Hutchinson  on  his  departure.  In  Sept. 
1774,  he  was  chosen  delegate  from  Cambridge 
to  the  1st  provincial  congress  of  Massachusetts. 
In  the  beginning  of  April  following  he  sailed  for 
England  (where'his  brother  had  settled),  charged 
with  confidential  letters  to  Dr.  Franklin  on  the 
critical  state  of  affairs,  from  Warren,  the  elder 
(Quincy,  Dr.  Cooper,  and  other  leaders.     John 


FRANCIS  DANA 


233 


Adams,  in  a  letter  of  April,  177G,  introiluoes 
hiui  to  Washiiigtoii  as  "  a  f^ciitlcinan  of  family, 
fortune,  and  education,  wlio  lias  just  returned  to 
his  country  to  share  with  his  friends  in  their 
dangers  and  triumphs.  lie  will  satisfy  you  that 
we  liave  no  reason  to  ex{)ect  peace  from  Britain." 
His  connection,  through  liis  hrcjther's  marriage, 
with  the  Kinnairds  and  the  Pultencys,  among 
whom  he  also  met  Gov.  Johnstone,  enahled  him 
to  judge  of  the  state  of  English  feeling  beyond 
the  usual  American  circle  there.  lie  was  also 
intimate  with  Dr.  Price,  and  had  contributed  to 
the  material  of  the  work  published  by  him,  soon 
after,  in  defence  of  the  colonies.  In  the  May  after 
his  return  he  was  chosen  by  the  Massachusetts 
assembly  one  of  the  council,  who  at  that  time  act- 
ed not  only  as  a  senate  but  as  the  executive  of 
the  state ;  of  this  body  he  continued  a  member 
by  reelections  until  1780.  In  Nov.  1V76,  he  was 
chosen  a  delegate  from  Massachusetts  to  the 
congress  of  1777,  which  formed  the  confedera- 
tion, and  again  to  the  congress  of  1778,  where 
he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  committee  of  the 
first  importance  and  responsibility  at  that  junc- 
ture, charged  with  the  entire  reorganization  of 
the  army  and  its  establishments.  Accompanied 
by  President  Reed,  Gouverneur  Morris,  and  oth- 
ers of  the  committee,  he  passed  from  January  to 
April  of  that  year  in  the  camp  at  Valley  Forge, 
concerting  with  "Washington  the  plan  subse- 
quently transmitted  by  congress,  June  4,  1778,. 
to  the  connnander-in-chief,  "  to  be  proceeded 
in  with  the  advice  and  assistance  of  Mr.  Reed 
and  Mr.  Dana,  or  either  of  them."  He  was  also, 
with  G.  Morris  and  Drayton,  of  the  committee 
of  April  20,  1778,  upon  whose  well-known  re- 

Sort  tlie  so-called  conciliatory  bills  of  Lord 
forth  were  unanimously  rejected,  and  the  in- 
tended influence  of  the  peace  commission  of 
that  year  was  forestalled  and  frustrated.  His 
English  acquaintance  Johnstone  was  of  this  com- 
mission, and  had  hoped  to  secure  his  coopera- 
tion by  a  letter  addressed  to  him  immediately 
on  his  arrival ;  which  was,  however,  laid  before 
congress,  July  18,  with  the  more  obnoxious 
overtures  to  Reed  and  Robert  Morris.  On  Sept, 
29,  1779,  Mr.  Dana  was  chosen  secretary  to  Mr. 
Adams's  embassy,  to  negotiate  treaties  of  peace 
and  commerce  with  Great  Britain,  and  sailed 
with  the  minister  from  Boston,  Nov.  13,  in  the 
French  frigate  Sensible.  Landing  after  a  pas- 
sage of  25  days  at  Ferrol  in  Spain,  they  made  a 
toilsome  winter's  journey  across  the  mountains, 
and  arrived  at  Paris,  Feb.  9,  1780.  Events 
being  not  yet  ripe  for  negotiation,  and  his  re- 
lations with  Vergennes  not  cordial,  Mr.  Adams 
left  for  the  Netherlands,  July  27.  Mr.  Dana 
remained  until  Sept.  12,  when,  upon  receiving 
the  commission  of  congress  for  Mr.  Adams  and 
eventually  for  himself  to  raise  loans  in  Europe, 
he  joined  that  gentleman  in  Amsterdam,  and 
remained  with  him  in  Holland  until  December 
following.  March  15,  1781,  he  received  in 
Paris  the  congressional  appointment  (of  Dec. 
18, 1780)  of  minister  to  Russia,  and  leaving  that 
city  April  7,  again  joined  Mr.  Adams  in  Hol- 


land, where  he  was  detained  until  July  7,  when 
he  i)rocee(]ed  by  way  of  Frankfort  and  Berlin 
to  his  j)ost  at  St.  Petersburg.  His  powers 
extended,  beside  the  making  of  treaties  of 
amity  and  commerce,  to  an  accession  of  the 
United  States  to  the  "  armed  neutrality"  of 
tlie  north.  The  results  of  Mr.  Dana's  2  years' 
residence  at  the  court  of  St.  Petersburg  are 
given  in  detail  in  Sparks's  "Diplomatic  Cor- 
respondence of  the  Revolution,"  vol.  viii.  His 
intercourse  with  Count  Ostermann  of  the  for- 
eign othce  was  frequent  and  friendly,  but  in- 
formal. The  influence  of  England  was  strong, 
of  France  ambiguous  or  suspected ;  the  ])olicy 
and  perhaps  the  pride  of  Catliarine  prom- 
ised her  the  part  of  mediator  between  the 
three  powers,  which  she  was  no  wise  disposed 
to  sacrifice  to  an  immediate  recogniti(jn  of 
American  independence ;  and  she  maintained 
her  attitude  of  reserve  even  after  the  signature 
of  the  preliminaries  of  peace.  Having  ex- 
hausted every  resource  that  appeared  compati- 
ble with  the  dignity  of  his  country,  Mr.  Dana 
obtained  leave  from  congress,  and  quitted  St. 
Petersburg,  Sept.  4,  1783,  returning  direct  by 
ship  to  Boston,  where  he  arrived  in  December. 
To  the  diplomatic  controversy  of  Mr.  Adams 
with  Count  Vergennes  and  Dr.  Franklin,  Mr. 
Dana  was  not  a  party,  but  he  was  a  party  to 
the  facts  out  of  which  it  arose.  Mr.  Adams  says 
in  his  vindication  of  his  course :  "  I  had  the  ad- 
vice and  approbation  of  Chief  Justice  Dana,  thea 
with  me  as  secretary  of  the  legation  for  peace, 
to  every  clause  and  word  in  the  whole  corre- 
spondence. He  said  the  '  count  neither  wrote 
like  a  gentleman  himself,  nor  treated  me  like  a 
gentleman  ;  and  it  was  indispensably  necessary 
that  we  should  show  him  that  we  ha^l  some  un- 
derstanding and  some  feeling.'  "  In  Feb.  1784, 
Mr.  Dana  was  again  delegated  by  the  assembly 
to  the  general  congress,  where  he  took  his  seat 
May  24,  and  on  the  29th  was  selected  to  repre- 
sent Massacliusetts  on  the  committee  of  states, 
which  continued  in  session  until  Aug.  11,  being 
vested  with  many  congressional  powers  during 
the  recess,  Jan.  18,  1785,  he  was  appointed  by 
Gov.  Hancock  a  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Massachusetts.  Aug.  29,  1786,  he  was  chosen 
delegate  to  the  Annapolis  convention,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  call  of  the  convention  which  framed 
the  constitution  of  the  United  States.  To  this 
latter  body  he  was  also  appointed  a  delegate, 
April  9,  1787,  hut  his  judicial  duties  and  his 
health,  still  sutFering  from  his  residence  at  St, 
Petersburg,  prevented  his  attendance.  In  the 
Massachusetts  convention,  however,  for  the 
adoption  of  that  instrument  (Jan.  9,  1788),  ho 
took  a  leading  part  in  its  favor.  Nov.  29,  1791, 
he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  Massachusetts, 
and  during  his  15  years'  tenure  of  that  office 
kept  aloof  from  political  life  ;  unless  it  should 
now  be  considered  an  exception  that  he  was  a 
presidential  elector  in  1792  and  1800,  as  Avell  as 
in  1808.  lie  was  appointed  by  Mr.  Adams, 
June  5,  1797,  with  Cotesworth  Pinckney  and 
John  Marshall,  special  eftvoy  to  the  French 


234 


JAMES  DWIGHT  DANA 


republic ;  but  precarious  health  compelled  hira 
to  decline  that  office,  which  was  afterward 
conferred  ujjon  Mr.  Gerry.  After  retiring  from 
the  bencli  in  1806,  where  he  was  succeeded 
by  his  friend  Theophilus  Parsons,  Chief  Jus- 
tice Dana  took  no  official  part  in  public  affairs. 
Tlie  ardent  discussion  of  Mr.  Jefferson's  em- 
bariro  tliroughout  the  towns  of  New  England, 
called  out  his  eloquence  at  Cambridge,  where 
its  imi)ression  is  not  yet  lost.  This  was  not, 
however,  a  partisan  opposition,  as  he  had  al- 
ways strenuously  resisted  the  policy  of  suspend- 
ing commerce  when  it  had  been  advocated  on 
earlier  occasions. — A  succession  of  such  public 
trusts  during  30  years  of  the  first  period  of  the 
republic  attests  Mr.  Dana's  eminent  ability  and 
integrity ;  yet  one  is  additionally  struck,  in  the 
accounts  of  his  contemporaries,  by  a  peculiar 
impressiveness  of  personal  character,  and  an 
intiuence  out  of  the  common  range.  As  a  judge 
Le  was  well  read  and  apprehensive  of  principles, 
and  of  an  exemplary  austerity  toward  all  man- 
ner of  chicane  and  indirection,  a  discerning 
and  assiduous  diplomatist,  and  a  man  of  lead- 
ing in  elective  and  popular  assemblies,  where 
his  eloquence  exhibited  a  rare  union  of  impas- 
sioned feeling  with  natural  dignity.  He  w^as 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  academy 
of  arts  and  sciences,  and  his  retirement  was  en- 
livened by  his  interest  in  enterprises  for  the 
benefit  of  the  neighborhood  of  Boston,  and  by 
literary  and  other  cultivated  tastes.  His  house 
at  Cambridge  was  much  visited  by  his  old  fel- 
low leaders  of  the  federal  party,  and  by  younger 
men  from  the  university,  the  Channings,  All- 
6ton,  Buckminster,  and  others,  afterward  va- 
riously distinguished.  He  was  married  in  early 
life  to  a  daughter  of  "William  Ellery  of  Rhode 
Island,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  declaration  of 
independence,  and  was  the  father  of  Richard 
n.  Dana,  and  several  other  children, 

DANA,  James  Dwight,  LL.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can philosopher,  born  at  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Feb,  12, 
1813,  was  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1833, 
having  been  attracted  to  that  institution  by  the 
fame  of  the  elder  Silliman.  During  his  regular 
course  of  study,  Mr.  Dana  evinced  an  especial 
love  for  the  natural  sciences  and  mathematics. 
Soon  after  leaving  the  college  he  received  the 
appointment  of  teacher  of  mathematics  to  mid- 
sliipmen  in  the  U.  S.  navy,  and  sailed  to  the 
Mediterranean  in  the  Delaware  ship  of  the  line, 
returning  in  1835.  During  the  2  years  follow- 
ing he  acted  at  Yale  college  as  assistant  to 
Prof.  Silliman,  whose  successor  in  office  he  af- 
terward became.  In  Dec.  1836,  he  was  ap- 
pointed mineralogist  and  geologist  of  the  IJ. 
S.  exploring  expedition,  then  about  to  be  sent 
to  the  Southern  and  Paciiic  oceans.  The  squad- 
ron, under  the  command  of  Com.  "Wilkes,  sailed 
in  Aug.  1838,  and  returned  home  in  1842. 
During  the  13  years  following,  Mr.  Dana  Avas 
engaged  in  preparing  for  publication  the  various 
reports  of  this  expedition  committed  to  his 
charge,  and  in  pursuing  other  scientific  labors. 
He  resided  at  "Washfugton  from  1842  to  1844, 


and  then  returned  to  New  Haven,  where  he 
soon  after  married  Henrietta  Frances,  daugliter 
of  Prof.  Silliman,  and  where  he  has  since  re- 
sided. Before  going  to  tlie  Pacific  he  published, 
in  1837,  the  first  edition  of  his  "Mineralogy," 
a  work  of  high  repute  in  Europe  and  America, 
of  which  the  4th  revised  and  enlarged  edition 
api)earedinl854.  His  first  publication  connected 
with  the  observations  which  he  made  in  the  ex- 
ploring expedition  was  a  "  Report  on  Zoophytes," 
which  ajipeared  in  1846  (740  pp.  4to.),  with  an 
atlas  of  61  folio  plates.  In  this  work,  Mr.  Dana 
reviewed  the  Avhole  department  of  polyps,  com- 
bining his  own  observations  with  those  of  ear- 
lier authors,  and  proposed  a  new"  classification, 
bringing,  for  the  first  time,  the  actinia  and 
the  alcyonoid  polyps  into  their  true  relations 
to  the  astrceoid  polyps.  The  number  of  new 
species  Avhich  he  describes  is  230.  The  2d 
work  in  the  same  series  was  a  "  Report  on  the 
Geology  of  the  Pacific"  (756  pp.  4to.,  1849), 
with  an  atlas  of  21  plates.  This  work  pre- 
sents a  view  not  only  of  the  geology  of  parts 
of  Australia,  western  America,  and  the  isl- 
ands of  the  Pacific,  but  also  treats  at  length, 
and  with  original  views,  of  volcanic  phenom- 
ena, coral  reefs  and  islands,  and  the  general 
features  of  the  globe.  The  3d  work  pertain- 
ing to  the  exploring  expedition  was  a  "Re- 
port on  Crustacea"  (1620  pp.  4to.  1852-'54), 
with  an  atlas  of  96  folio  plates.  In  this  work 
680  species  are  described,  of  which  658  are 
new.  These  reports  were  published  by  the 
U.  S.  government,  and  only  200  copies  of  each 
have  thus  far  been  issued.  "With  few"  excep- 
tions, the  drawings  in  these  atlases  were  made 
by  Mr.  Dana  himself.  "While  engaged  in  pre- 
paring the  last  two  of  these  reports,  Mr.  Dana 
has  been  the  active  editor  of  the  "  American 
Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,"  founded  in  1819 
by  the  elder  Silliman,  and  well  known  as  the 
chief  repository  of  the  scientific  labors  of  their 
countrymen.  To  this  journal,  w^hich  completed 
its  76th  volume  in  1858,  as  well  as  to  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  American  academy  of  arts  and 
sciences  in  Boston,  the  lyceum  of  natural 
history  of  New  York,  and  the  academy  of 
natural  sciences  of  Philadelphia,  Mr.  Dana 
has  contribiited  various  important  scientific 
memoirs.  A  series  of  4  articles  from  his  pen, 
entitled  "Science  and  the  Bible,"  called  forth 
by  a  work  of  Prof.  Tayler  Lewis  on  the  "  Six 
Days  of  Creation,"  appeared  in  the  "  Bibliotheca 
Sacra"  in  1856-'7.  Soon  after  the  resignation  by 
Prof.  Silliman  of  the  chair  of  chemistry  and 
geology  in  Yale  college,  Mr.  Dana  entered,  in 
1855,  on  the  duties  of  the  office  of  Silliman 
professor  of  natural  history  and  geology  in 
that  institution,  to  which  place  he  had  been 
elected  in  1850 ;  his  brother-in-law.  Prof.  Ben- 
jamin Silliman,  jr.,  having  been  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  chemistry.  Prof.  Dana  is  now 
engaged  in  discharging  the  duties  of  his  pro- 
fessoVship,  and  in  editing  the  "American  Jour- 
nal of  Science."  A  text  book  on  geology  from 
his  pen  has  been  announced  as  nearly  ready  for 


DANA 


235 


pnblication.  In  1854  he  was  elected  president 
of  the  American  association  for  the  advance- 
ment, of  science,  having  been  for  many  years 
one  of  the  standing  committee  of  tliat  body,  and 
in  Aug.  1855,  he  delivered  the  annual  address 
before  that  association  at  its  meeting  in  Provi- 
dence. Prof.  Dana  has  been  elected  a  member 
of  various  learned  societies  in  Europe,  including 
the  royal  academy  of  sciences  in  Berlin,  the 
royal  academy  of  sciences  in  Munich,  the 
geological  and  Linnsean  societies  in  London, 
the  pliilomathic  society  in  Paris,  and  others. 

DANA,  James  Freeman,  an  American  chem- 
ist, born  in  Exeter,  N.  II.,  in  1793,  died  in  the  city 
of  New  York  in  1827.  He  was  the  son  of  Luther 
Dana,  an  othcer  in  the  American  naval  service 
in  the  revolution.  He  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard college  in  1813,  studied  medicine  with  Dr. 
Gorham  of  Boston,  spent  6  months  in  London 
in  the  study  of  chemistry  under  the  instruction 
of  the  celebi-ated  Accum,  and  on  his  return 
was  employed  to  refit  and  refurnish  the  labor- 
atory of  Harvard  college,  and  established  him- 
self in  Cambridge  as  a  physician,  holding  also 
the  office  of  assistant  to  the  professor  of  chem- 
istry. In  1819  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
chemistry  in  the  medical  school  of  Dartmouth 
college,  where  he  lectured  also  on  mineralogy 
and  botany.  In  1825  he  was  chosen  professor  of 
chemistry  in  the  New  York  college  of  physicians 
and  surgeons,  which  office  he  held  at  the  time 
of  his  death.  His  only  considerable  publication 
was  a  small  work  on  the  "  Mineralogy  and  Ge- 
ology of  Boston  and  its  Vicinity,"  written  in 
conjunction  with  his  brother,  Dr.  S.  L.  Dana. 

DANA,  KicnAED,  an  American  jurist,  born 
at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  July  7, 1699,  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  college  in  1718,  died  May  17,  1772. 
He  was  a  grandson  of  Richard  Dana,  the  first  of 
the  family  who  came  from  England  and  settled 
at  Cambridge  in  1640.  After  practising  law  for 
a  time  at  Marblehead  and  Charlestown,  he  re- 
moved to  Boston,  where  he  became  a  leading 
barrister.  Judge  Story,  in  his  work  on  Amer- 
ican precedents,  has  taken  more  examples  from 
him  than  from  any  other  pleader,  except  Judge 
Trowbridge.  In  the  obituary  notices  of  him 
lie  is  spoken  of  as  at  the  head  of  the  bar.  He 
was  more  generally  distinguished  for  his  prom- 
inence in  the  measures  of  resistance  which 
immediately  preceded  the  revolution.  His  age 
already  advanced,  his  office  of  magistrate  and 
position  at  the  bar  and  in  society,  and  the  in- 
trepidity of  his  character,  carried  great  weight 
to  the  side  of  liis  young  patriot  n-iends.  Al- 
though devoted  to  his  profession  and  deelin- 
ing  office,  he  was  a  leading  figure  in  those  im- 
portant political  assemblages,  where  he  some- 
times presided,  the  Boston  town  meetings  from 
1763  to  1772.  It  was  the  custom  of  Boston 
in  those  troubled  times  to  address  the  country 
at  large  on  i)ublic  aftairs  under  the  form  of 
published  instructions  to  the  representatives  of 
the  town.  Warren,  Hancock,  and  the  Adamses 
were  on  committees  for  this  purpose.  Mr.  Dana 
tvas  always  a  member,  and  often  at  their  head. 


He  reported  the  papers  of  Nov.  20, 1767,  and  May 
8,  1770,  noted  at  that  tinie.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  associati(Mi  of  the  sons  of  liberty,  and  at 
their  celebrated  meeting  of  Dec.  17,  1769,  ad- 
ministered to  Secretary  Oliver  the  oath  of  non- 
execution  of  the  stamj)  act,  and  made  and  signed 
a  solemn  official  record  of  that  fact,  by  Avhich 
he  would  seem  to  have  exposed  himself  to  the 
charge  of  treason  under  the  constructions  of 
those  days.  His  death,  Avhich  occurred  3  years 
before  the  battle  of  Lexington,  is  spoken  of  in 
the  letters  of  the  leading  patriots  as  a  great  loss 
to  the  cause.  He  was  married  to  the  sister  of 
Judge  Trowbridge,  and  was  the  father  of  Chief 
Justice  Francis  Dana. 

DANA,  RicnAKD  Henry,  an  American  poet 
and  essayist,  born  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Nov. 
15,  1787.  He  entered  Harvard  college  in  1804, 
where  he  remained  3  years,  but  did  not  gradu- 
ate, being  involved  in  the  noted  rebellion  of  the 
classes  in  1807.  He  passed  the  next  2  years 
at  Newport,  R.  I.,  in  completing  the  usual  col- 
legiate studies.  He  read  law  partly  Avith  his 
father.  Chief  Justice  Dana,  and  partly  in  Boston, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  there  in  1811,  and 
afterward,  with  a  view  to  practising  in  the 
latter  city,  to  the  bar  of  Baltimore,  after  an 
additional  short  term  of  study.  He  returned  in 
the  winter  of  1811-'12  to  his  native  town, 
where  he  entered  upon  his  profession,  and  was 
for  a  time  also  warmly  interested  in  politics,  on 
the  federal  side,  as  a  member  of  the  legislature 
and  otherwise.  His  paramount  tastes,  however, 
were  literary,  and  he  joined  in  1814  the  club  of 
gentlemen  in  Cambridge  and  Boston  by  Avhom 
the  "  North  American  Review  "  was  projected 
and  for  a  time  conducted.  His  earliest  writings 
Avere  published  in  that  periodical,  the  "  Essay 
on  Old  Times,"  and  an  article  upon  the  poems 
of  Washington  Allston,  afterward  his  brother- 
in-law.  In  1818-'19  he  was  associated  with 
Prof.  E.  T.  Channing  in  the  editorship  of  that 
review,  which  subsequently  passed  to  Mr.  Ed- 
ward Everett.  His  criticisms  at  that  time  ex- 
cited much  attention,  perhaps  as  much  surprise, 
and  even  some  indignation.  It  was  then  believed 
that  Pope  was  the  touchstone  of  English  poetry ; 
the  Elizabethan  writers  were  in  less  esteem, 
while  Wordsworth  and  the  names  associated 
with  his  were  a  matter  for  jest.  The  ethics  and 
educational  system  of  the  Edge  worths  were  also 
in  fasliion.  Mr.  Dana  expressed  a  very  different 
opinion  on  these  subjects.  In  1821-^22  he  pub- 
lished in  numbers  the  "  Idle  Man,"  with  some 
aid  from  his  friends  Bryant  and  Allston.  It  was 
read  and  admired  by  a  class  of  literary  men,  but 
this  was  too  small  a  public  for  its  continuance. 
His  first  pieces  in  verse,  the  "  Dying  Raven  " 
and  the  ^'  Husband  and  Wife's  Grave,"  appeared 
in  the  "  New  York  RevicAV,"  in  1825,  then 
edited  by  Mr.  Byrant.  In  1827  he  ventured  the 
"Buccaneer  and  other  Poems"  in  a  small  volume. 
This  was  well  received,  indeed  highly  commend- 
ed by  the  critics,  and  for  a  volume  of  American 
poetry  at  that  day  was  not  unsuccessful.  Wil- 
son's praise  of  the  "  Buccaneer "  in  "  Black- 


236 


DANA 


wood's  Maj^azine,"  as  "  the  most  powerful  and 
origiual  of  American  poetical  compositions," 
was  perhaps  not  without  an  eifect  on  tlie  al- 
ready changing  tendency  of  poetical  taste  in 
this  country.  In  1833  he  published  an  enlarged 
volume,  including  new  poems  and  the  papers  of 
the  "  Idle  Man ;"  and  again  in  1850,  "  Poems 
and  Prose  Writings,"  in  2  vols.,  in  which  to  the 
contents  of  the  fomner  volume  are  added  poems, 
the  essays  and  reviews  from  the  "  North 
American  Review,"  and  others  of  a  recent  date  ; 
being  a  complete  collection  of  his  writings, 
with  the  exception  of  a  series  of  8  lectures  upon 
Shakespeare,  prepared  at  the  instance  of  his 
cousin,  Dr.  Wm.  Ellery  Channing,  and  delivered 
with  marked  appreciation  before  the  best  au- 
diences in  Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia. 
In  the  controversy  between  the  Unitarian  and 
Trinitarian  Congregationalists  of  Massachusetts, 
in  1825-'35,  Mr.  Dana  took  an  active  part  with, 
the  latter.  For  many  years  past,  however,  he 
lias  been  connected  with  the  Episcopal  church. 
He  resides  in  Boston,  and  at  a  beautiful  summer 
retreat  on  the  shore  of  Cape  Ann. — The  success 
of  Mr.  Dana  as  an  author  is,  perliaps,  more 
noteworthy  for  its  quality  than  its  extent.  His 
peculiar  style  is  most  highly  appreciated  by 
lovers  of  the  simple  and  masculine  beauties  of 
the  older  English  writers.  In  dealing  with 
the  greater  passions,  the  handling  is  bold,  and 
the  language  instinctively  true,  but  the  manner 
is  dramatic,  not  melodramatic,  nor  what  is  called 
popular.  His  vein  of  sentiment  has  a  charm 
for  meditative  minds,  and  though  in  a  new 
country,  his  thoughts  turn  singularly  toward 
whatever  has  been  consecrated  by  reverence  or 
the  touch  of  time.  The  influence  of  his  critical 
principles  is  often  observable  in  that  order  of 
minds  which  form  the  minds  of  others,  and  has 
thus  been  greater  in  the  literature  of  the  coun- 
try than  may  at  first  appear. 

DANA,  KicuARD  Henry,  jr.,  an  American 
advocate,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  Aug.  1,  1815,  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1837.  Being  compelled  to  in- 
terrupt his  collegiate  course,  in  1834,  by  a  weak- 
ness of  the  eyes,  he  made  the  voyage  described 
in  his  "  Two  Years  before  the  Mast,"  to  Califor- 
nia, then  a  wild  and  almost  unknown  region.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Dane  law  school  from  1837 
to  1840,  under  Judge  Story  and  Prof.  Greenleaf, 
and  during  2  years  of  that  time  also  acted  as  ad- 
junct to  Prof.  Channing  in  the  department  of 
rhetoric  at  the  university.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  Boston  bar  in  1840,  and  was  directly  much 
employed  in  the  admiralty  courts,  having  been 
naturally  led  to  pay  special  attention  to  mari- 
time and  commercial  law.  In  1841  he  pub- 
lislied  a  manual  of  sea  usages  and  law,  "  The 
Seaman's  Friend,"  republished  in  England  as 
the  "  Seaman's  Manual."  A  letter  published  by 
liim  at  the  time  of  the  melancholy  affair  of  the 
U.  S.  brig  Somcrs,  1843,  and  in  detailed  explana- 
tion of  the  critical  position  of  tlie  officers  on 
that  occasion,  served  to  jnoderate  the  natural 
public  feeling,  and  rendered  it  more  favorable 


to  Capt.  Mackenzie,  Mr.  Dana's  practice  grad- 
ually became  general  in  the  law  courts,  where 
he  is  now  one  of  the  leading  advocates,  and 
has  been  engaged  in  a  larger  than  usual  pro- 
l)ortion  of  causes  of  public  interest ;  among 
others,  in  the  well-known  reinvestigation  of  the 
presumption  of  murder  .from  homicide  (York's 
case,  1845),  which  has  led  to  new  enactments 
on  the  general  subject  in  several  states ;  on 
the  legal  right  to  require  the  use  of  the  Bible 
in  the  common  schools  in  Maine  (Donahoe  vs. 
Richards,  1854) ;  on  the  canon  law  of  the  Epis- 
coi)al  church,  in  the  Rev.  Mr.  Prescott's  cases, 
1852 ;  on  the  title  to  public  and  religious  chari- 
ties, in  the  case  of  the  Presbyterian  synod  vs.  the 
parish  of  the  late  Dr.  Channing,  1854 ;  in  the 
numerous  trials  for  the  rescue  of  the  slave  Sha- 
drack  in  1853,  and  in  the  still  more  noted  case 
of  Anthony  Burns  in  1854.  He  appeared,  how- 
ever, voluntarily  in  1855,  against  the  removal  of 
Judge  Loring  in  the  then  state  of  the  law,  but  not 
after  the  Massachusetts  statute  of  May  21,  1855, 
under  which  the  removal  eventually  took  place. 
Mr.  Dana  has  not  been  a  candidate  for  office, 
but  his  political  course  has  been  one  of  some 
mark.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  free- 
6oil  party,  a  delegate  from  Boston  to  the  Buf- 
falo convention  of  1848,  and  ajjopular  speaker  in 
that  and  the  republican  movement  of  185G.  He 
was  one  of  the  ablest  members  of  the  Massachu- 
setts constitutional  convention  of  1853^  and  his 
speeches  in  that  body  have  received  high  praise 
in  the  chief  woi*k  of  an  eminent  foreign  pub- 
licist (Mold's  Geschichte  unci  Literatur  der 
StaatswissenscJiaften).  The  "  Two  Years  be- 
fore the  Mast,"  by  which  Mr.  Dana  is  so  well 
known,  is  the  ship  and  shore  life  of  a  common' 
sailor  detailed  from  personal  experience  by  a 
man  of  education.  It  gained  at  once  botli  in 
America  and  England  a  popularity  that  may  be 
compared  to  that  of  "  Robinson  Crusoe,"  It  is 
also  a  trustworthy  authority  on  a  subject  of 
some  importance,  the  distinctive  character  of 
the  American  merchant  service.  Mr.  Dana  has 
been  for  many  years  a  member  of  the  Episcopal 
convention  of  the  diocese  of  Massachusetts,  and 
taken  a  leading  part  in  its  proceedings.  He  has 
published  biographical  sketches  of  the  lament- 
ed Major  Vinton,  and  of  his  relatives,  Pi'of, 
Channing  and  Washington  Allston,  prefixed  to 
posthumous  volumes  of  their  writings.  He  has 
also  occasionally  contributed  to  the  "  North 
American  Review  "  and  the  "  Law  Reporter." 
DANA,  Samuel  Luther,  an  American  chem- 
ist, brother  of  James  Freeman  Dana,  born  at 
Amherst,  N.  IL,  July,  1795.  He  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  college  in  1813,  while  war  ra,;;ced 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
He  was  desirous  of  becoming  a  military  engi- 
neer, solicited  the  appointment  of  a  cadet  to 
enter  West  Point,  and  was  immediately  com- 
missioned a  lieutenant  in  the  1st  regiment  U, 
S.  artillery,"  and  served  both  in  New  York  and 
Virginia,  until  the  close  of  the  war.  He  was 
retained  on  the  peace  establishment  when  the 
army  was  disbanded,  but  resigned  his  commis- 


DANAt: 


DANCE 


237 


sion  in  June,  1815.  lie  immediately  commenced 
the  study  of  medicine,  and  received  tlie  degree 
of  M.D.  in  1818.  Practising  as  a  pliysician  from 
1810  to  182C),  in  Waltliam,  Mass.,  he  was  in  daily 
friendly  intercourse  witli  those  ahlc  and  enter- 
prising men  who  foimded  the  cotton  manufac- 
turing industry  of  the  state  ;  and  having  estab- 
lished on  liis  own  account  a  chemical  laboratory 
for  the  manufacture  of  oil  of  vitriol  and  bleach- 
ing salts,  he  founded  the  "  Newton  Chemical 
Company,"  of  which  he  was  the  chemist  till  1834. 
He  then  accepted  the  appointment  of  resident 
and  consulting  chemist  to  the  Merrimack  manu- 
facturing company,  the  duties  of  which  office  he 
still  performs.  In  his  first  work  he  was  associa- 
ted with  his  brother,  Prof.  James  F.  Dana,  in  pub- 
lishing the  "  Mineralogy  and  Geology  of  Boston 
and  its  Vicinity"  (1818).  His  next  publication, 
made  while  he  was  in  England  in  1833,  was  a 
clear  exposition  of  the  chemical  changes  occur- 
ring in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid.  This 
was  followed  by  a  report  to  the  city  council  of 
Lowell,  on  the  danger  arising  from  the  use  of 
lead  water  pipes.  About  this  period,  although 
the  responsible  duties  of  his  position  absorbed 
the  principal  portion  of  his  time,  the  experi- 
ments and  observations  which  have  connected 
his  name  with  agricultural  science  were  made, 
and  the  original  materials  obtained  for  the 
"Farmers'  Muck  Manual,"  published  in  1842. 
In  1843,  "  An  Essay  on  Manures  "  was  honoi'ed 
by  the  prize  of  the  Massachusetts  agricultural  so- 
ciety, and  has  been  printed  in  successive  editions, 
vdiile  his  labors  in  connection  with  the  agricul- 
tural and  geological  reports  of  the  state  sur- 
vey have  been  gratefully  acknowledged.  The 
translation  and  systematic  arrangement  of  the 
treatise  of  Tanquerel  on  lead  diseases,  was  a 
contribution  to  medical  knowledge  most  earn- 
estly called  for,  and  most  important  in  its  in- 
fluence. The  discussion  of  the  lead  pipe  ques- 
tion gave  rise  to  several  papers  and  pampldets 
froin  Dr.  Dana's  pen.  lie  has  also  contributed 
several  papers  to  the  "  North  American  Re- 
view," and  other  periodicals.  His  investiga- 
tions have  shed  light  on  the  more  obscure  points 
of  the  important  art  of  printing  cotton,  and  led 
to  many  improvements.  His  discoveries  in 
connection  with  bleaching  cotton  were  first 
published  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  societe  indus- 
trielle  de  Mlllhausen,  in  several  papers,  as  cor- 
respondence with  that  society.  ■  The  principles 
there  established  have  led  to  the  American 
method  of  bleaching,  of  which  that  acute  prac- 
tical chemist  Persoz,  in  his  Trait e  dc  rimpression 
des  tissus,  says  "  that  it  realizes  the  perfection 
of  chemiciil  operations."     (See  BLEAcnixo.) 

DANAE,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  daughter 
of  Acrisius,  king  of  Argos,  and  mother  of  Per- 
seus. An  oracle  had  predicted  that  a  son  of  Danae 
would  one  day  kill  Acrisius,  and  the  latter,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy, 
shut  up  Danaii  in  a  brazen  tower. '  But  Jupiter 
■v\"as  enabled  to  visit  her  by  transforming  him- 
self into  a  shower  of  gold,  and  descending 
through  the  rogf  of  the  tower,  and  DanaS  gave 


birth  to  a  son.  Seeing  his  designs  thus  thwart- 
ed, Agrisius  jjlaced  the  mother  and  child  in  a 
chest,  and  cast  them  into  the  sea.  But  Jupiter 
watched  over  their  safety,  and  wafted  them  to 
the  island  of  Seri|)hus,  where  they  were  kindly 
received  by  King  Polydcctes.  Perseus  grew  up, 
and  did  afterward  actually  kill  his  father  by  an 
accident.  Another  legend  relates  that  Danaii 
went  to  Italy,  where  she  became  the  mother  of 
Daunus,  the  ancestor  of  Turnus,  who  was  king 
of  the  Rutuli  when  iEneas  arrived  in  Italy. 

DANAIDES,  according  to  the  Grecian  legend, 
50  daughters  of  Danaus.  They  were  married  to 
the  50  sons  of  their  uncle  ^gyptus,  and  their 
father,  who  was  in  dread  of  ^gyptus  and  his 
sons,  made  them  promise  to  murder  their  hus- 
bands on  their  wedding  night.  This  promise 
they  all  fulfilled  except  Ilypermnestra,  who 
spared  her  husband  Lynceus.  For  their  pun- 
ishment they  were  condemned,  in  Hades,  to  fill 
sieves  with  water. 

DANAUS,  a  mythical  personage  in  Grecian 
story,  son  of  Belus,  and-twin  brother  of  ^-Egyp- 
tus.  He  had  received  from  his  father  the  king- 
dom of  Libya ;  but  fearing  ^gyptus,  he  fled  to 
Argos,  where  he  became  king.  According  to  one 
legend,  he  ■fl^as  afterward  killed  by  his  nephew 
Lynceus,  the  only  one  of  the  sons  of  ^gyptus 
who  escaped  death  at  the  hands  of  his  wife. 

D  ANBURY,  a  post  town,  and  one  of  the  capi- 
tals of  Fairfield  co..  Conn. ;  pop.  of  the  whole 
township  in  1850,  5,904.  It  is  a  handsome  town, 
built  principally  on  one  street,  over  a  mile  in 
length,  and  beside  the  county  buildings  contains 
7  churches,  2  banks,  a  savings  bank,  a  printing 
office,  4  fulling,  5  grist,  and  15  saw  mills,  numer- 
ous hat  factories,  and  3  comb  factories.  The 
Danbury  and  Norwalk  railroad  and  Still  river,  a 
good  mill  stream,  flowing  into  the  Housatonic, 
pass  through  it.  Value  of  real  estate  in  1857, 
$1,827,161.  In  1777  it  was  attacked  and  burned 
by  the  British,  on  whicli  occasion  Gen.  Wooster, 
the  American  commander,  w^as  killed.  Incor- 
porated in  1696. 

DANBY,  Francis,  a  British  painter,  born  at 
Wexford,  Ireland,  Nov.  16,  1793.  Among  the 
best  known  of  his  early  pictures  are  "  Christ 
"Walking  on  the  Sea,"  "  Cleopatra  setting  out 
to  meet  Anthony,"  the  "Opening  of  the  Seventh 
Seal,"  &c.  His  later  works  are  more  familiar 
to  the  general  public  through  the  medium  of 
the  illustrated  art  journals.  Such  are  the  "  Ship 
on  Fire,"  "Departure  of  Ulysses  from  Ithaca," 
"  Caius  Marius  among  the  ruins  of  Carthage." 
Mr.  Danby  has  2  sons  who  are  also  painters. 

DANCE,  George,  an  English  architect,  died 
Feb.  8, 1768.  As  architect  to  the  corporation  of 
■  London,  he  built  the  mansion  house  in  1739-40. 
He  was  also  architect  of  St.  Botolph's,  St.  Luke's, 
and  other  churches  in  London. — George,  jr., 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1740,  died  Jan.  14, 
1825,  Avas  the  architect  of  the  prison  of  New- 
gate and  of  St.  Luke's  hospital.  In  1789  he 
erected  the  front  of  Guildhall.  Among  his 
minor  works  are  the  British  institution.  Pall- 
mall,  and  the  theatre  at  Bath.    He  was  one  of 


238 


DANOE  OF  DEATH 


DANCING 


the  earliest  members  of  the  royal  academy,  and 
professor  of  architecture.  lie  published  q.  series 
of  portraits  of  artists  and  public  characters  in 
1811-'14,  engraved  by  William  Daniell,  R.  A., 
after  the  original  drawings. 

DANCE  OF  I)EATll\La.t.  chorea  machahce- 
orwn  ;  Fr.  danse  macabre^  and  danse  des  morts  ; 
Ger.  Todtentam)^  a  media3val  religious  dance, 
long  a  favorite  subject  of  painting  and  poetry, 
in  which  persons  of  all  ranks  and  ages  were  rep- 
resented as  dancing  together  with  the  skeleton 
form  of  death,  which  led  them  to  the  gi'ave. 
The  gaunt  and  stalking  anatomy,  in  which 
Gothic  imagination  personified  death,  was  treat- 
ed both  by  the  poets  and  populace  of  the  14th 
century  with  mingled  humor  and  seriousness. 
Masked  figures  representing  it  appeared  during 
carnival,  with  the  jirivilege  of  taking  by  the 
band  and  dancing  with  whomsoever  they  might 
meet.  With  the  approbation  of  tlie  clergy,  a 
8ort  of  masquerade  was  instituted,  which  was 
performed  in  the  churches,  in  which  the  chief 
characters  in  society  from  the  pope  to  the  beggar 
were  supported,  dramatic  conversations  being 
intermingled  between  death  and  the  persons  in 
the  procession,  each  of  whom  in  turn  vanished 
from  the  scene,  as  a  symbol  of  departure  from 
life.  This  custom,  as  represented  by  art,  ap- 
pears for  more  than  3  centuries  in  a  vast  num- 
ber of  forms,  most  various  in  pathos,  humor, 
and  grotesqueness ;  in  verse  in  nearly  every  Eu- 
ropean language;  and  in  paintings  on  town  halls, 
in  market  places,  in  the  arcades  of  burying 
grounds,  and  on  the  walls  of  palaces,  cloisters, 
and  churches.  One  of  the  most  interesting  poems 
on  the  subject  is  in  Spanish,  the  DanQa  general 
de  los  mucrtos  (found  entire  in  the  appendix  to 
Ticknor's  "  History  of  Spanish  Literature"), 
which  belongs  to  the  14th  century,  and  in  which 
death  summons  to  his  mortal  dance  first  the 
pope,  then  the  cardinals,  kings,  bishops,  and  so 
on,  down  to  day  laborers.  Each  makes  some 
remonstrance,  but  in  vain,  "  for  still  the  cry  is, 
haste!  and  haste  to  all."  Jacques  Jacques,  a 
facetious  canon  of  Ambrun  (1658),  gives  a  col- 
lection of  the  useless  excuses  which  were  of- 
fered, and  makes  death  exclaim:  "Were  I  not 
absolute  over  them,  they  would  confound  me 
with  their  long  speeches ;  but  I  have  business, 
and  must  gallop  on."  Poetical  inscriptions 
often  accompanied  the  paintings,  which  are  first 
traced  in  the  south-western  parts  of  Germany, 
in  Switzerland,  Alsace,  and  Swabia,  the  oldest 
being  that  in  a  convent  of  Basel,  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  inscribed  verses,  was  painted  in 
1312,  and  was  renewed  probably  in  the  IGth 
century.  Among  the  most  celebrated  dances 
of  death  are  those  of  the  cloister  of  the  Domin- 
icans at  Basel,  painted  in  1480  and  often  re- 
newed, of  the  palace  of  St.  Mary  at  Ltibeck,  in 
the  castle  and  cemetery  of  Dresden,  at  Lucerne, 
Anneberg,  Leipsic,  Strasbourg,  and  Rouen,  in  the 
church  of  the  innocents  at  Paris,  in  the  church 
of  La  chaise  Dieu  in  Auvergne,  in  the  crypts  of 
the  church  of  St.  Michel  at  Bordeaux,  in  the  ca- 
thedral of  Amiens,  in  the  church  of  St^Paul  in 


London,  to  ■which  John  Lydgate  added  ferses 
that  were  translated  from  the  French,  in  the 
palace  of  St.  lldefonso  in  Spain,  and  the  famous 
painting  of  the  Trionfo  delta  morte  in  the  cavi- 
po  santo  of  Pisa,  by  Andrea  Orcagna,  in  the 
14th  century.  Many  of  these  have  been  pre- 
served in  engravings,  are  found  on  missals 
and  on  the  margins  of  numerous  old  books,  and 
in  the  16th  century  were  reproduced  in  minia- 
ture as  ornaments  for  the  sheaths  of  swords  and 
poniards.  The  fresco  at  Basel  Avas  destroyed 
by  the  falling  of  the  walls  in  1805,  only  frag- 
ments of  it  being  preserved,  but  in  the  16th 
century  it  suggestetl  to  Holbein  his  celebrated 
series  entitled  the  "  Dance  of  Death,"  which 
combines  53  distinct  and  most  diverse  scenes. 
Death  here  assumes  various  ironical  costumes, 
wliile  meeting  with  and  overcoming  persons 
in  every  condition  of  life.  The  older  pictures 
are  not  divided  into  single  scenes,  but  the  skele- 
ton appears  leading  after  it  a  procession  of  all 
ranks  and  ages.  All  of  the  poems  and  paintings 
on  this  grim  subject  are  of  a  mingled  sublime 
and  grotesque  character,  betraying  a  sentiment 
of  profound  sadness  beneath  a  gay  and  ironical 
manner.  The  best  works  treating  of  it  are  Mass- 
mann,  Literaturder  TbtZ^c/^ianee  (Leipsic,  1841), 
Baseler  Todtentanze  (Stuttgart,  1847);  Peignot, 
Eecherches  sur  la  danse  des  morts  (Dijon  and  Pa- 
ris, 1826);  Langlois,  Essai  historique,  philoso- 
fhique^  et  pittoresque  sur  les  danses  des  morts, 
with  54  engravings  (2  vols.,  Rouen,  1852);  and 
Douce,  the  "  Dance  of  Death"  (London,  1833). 
DANCING  (Ger.  tanzen,  Fr.  danser^io  dance), 
the  art  of  rhythmical  movement,  consisting  of 
steps,  bounds,  and  inclinations  of  the  figure,  usu- 
ally performed  to  the  cadence  of  music.  Though 
the  feet,  by  which  the  body  changes  from  place 
to  place,  are  the  principal  agents  in  dancing,  yet 
all  the  slight  wavy  motions  of  the  bust,  head, 
and  arms  are  also  to  be  considered,  since  it  is 
by  the  harmony  of  all  the  movements  that  danc- 
ing becomes  a  thing  of  beauty  and  art.  Espe- 
cially when  several  persons  join  in  the  dance, 
the  most  diverse  postures  and  motions  have  a 
general  symmetry,  so  that  the  dancing  group 
presents  an  esthetic  unity.  Dancing  is  perhaps 
the  oldest  and  most  universal  of  the  fine  arts, 
and  has  been  in  vogue  for  various  purposes,  in 
greater  or  less  perfection,  from  the  earliest  times, 
equally  among  savage  and  civilized  nations. 
Among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  it  was  both  a 
social  recreation  and  a  religious  exercise.  Per- 
sons of  high  rank  did  not,  however,  indulge  in 
it  either  in  public  or  private  assemblies,  but  em- 
ployed professional  dancers,  like  the  almeh  and 
ghawazee  of  the  present  time,  who  obtained  a 
livelihood  by  performances  in  wealthy  houses. 
A  modern  Asiatic  ambassador  once  remarked 
to  his  European  host :  "  You  are  then  very  poor, 
since  you  are  obliged  to  dance  yourselves."  The 
object  of  Egyptian  dances  was  to  exhibit  a  great 
variety  of  graceful  gestures  and  attitudes.  They 
followed  the  music  of  the  harp,  lyre,  guitar, 
pipe,  tambourine,  or  drum,  or  even  the  clapping 
of  hands  or  snapping  of  fingers ;  many  of  their 


DANCING 


239 


postures  resembled  those  of  the  modern  ballet ; 
and  tho  pirouette  seems  to  have  been  a  fiivorito 
in  Egypt  4,000  years  ago.  There  was  a  figure 
dance  common  throughout  the  country,  in  which 
two  partners  advanced  toward  eacli  other,  stood 
face  to  face  upon  one  leg,  and  having  ])erformed 
a  series  of  movements,  retired  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, continuing  to  hold  each  otlior  by  one  hand, 
and  concluding  by  whirling  each  other  around. 
Tlie  costume  of  the  female  dancers  was  a  flowing 
and  ornamented  robe,  reaching  to  the  ankles, 
and  of  the  finest  texture,  so  as  hardly  to  conceal 
the  figure.  The  Egyptians  danced  also  at  the 
temples  in  honor  of  the  gods,  some  of  their  sa- 
cred dances  being  mysterious  imitations  of  the 
celestial  movements  and  of  the  harmony  of  the 
universe.  The  Hebrews  also  introduced  dancing 
into  solemn  festivities,  especially  on  occasions 
of  triumph  and  pleasure,  the  Hebrew  word  for 
dance  meaning  literally  to  "  leap  for  joy."  The 
description  given  of  Miriam  who  took  a  timbrel 
in  her  hand,  while  all  the  women  went  out  after 
her  with  timbrels  and  with  dances,  applies  to 
many  modern  oriental  dances,  led  by  a  principal 
person,  whose  steps,  gyrations,  and  songs,  often 
extemporaneous,  are  skilfully  imitated  by  the 
group  of  attendants.  Both  sexes  bore  a  part  in 
the  Hebrew  dancing  processions,  but  always 
remained  in  separate  companies.  In  Babylon 
the  worship  of  Astarte  was  celebrated  by  the 
dances  of  maidens  in  the  temples ;  and  a  Persian 
dance  is  mentioned  Avhose  movements,  per- 
formed to  tlie  music  of  the  flute,  consisted  in 
dashing  crescent-shaped  shields  together,  fall- 
ing upon  the  knee,  and  rising  again.  In  India 
the  most  ancient  sacred  writings  mention  the 
bayadeers,  or  dancing  girls,  whose  performances 
are  still  indispensable  in  religious  and  social  fes- 
tivities, and  whose  style  of  dancing,  unlike  that 
of  the  ballet,  consists  in  but  slightly  raising  the 
feet  and  in  expressing  vehemence  of  passion  by 
the  eyes  and  by  gliding  and  waving  movements 
of  the  neck,  bust,  and  arms.  The  dancing  girls 
of  Java  are  painted  entirely  white,  and  though 
they  move  their  feet  but  slightly,  they  keep 
their  arms  and  the  upper  portion  of  their  body 
in  so  ceaseless  and  rapid  circular  and  undulatory 
motion  that  it  is  impossible  for  the  eye  to  dis- 
tinguish any  definite  outlines  to  their  figure. — 
In  Greece  dancing  formed  a  part  of  the  educa- 
tion of  youth,  and  was  included  with  song  and 
poetry  in  the  wide  sense  of  music.  It  was  in 
high  esteem  from  the  heroic  ages,  was  connect- 
ed with  nearly  every  religious  ceremony,  and 
skilful  dancers  sometimes  were  honored  with 
golden  crowns,  and  had  statues  erected  to  their 
memory.  The  strophes  and  antistrophes  of 
odes  are  supposed  to  owe  their  origin  to  the 
alternate  movements  of  ditFerent  parties  of 
dancers,  and  the  dramatic  chorus  probably  con- 
sisted at  first  of  all  the  population  of  a  city 
•(meeting  in  a  public  place,  and  worshipping  the 
Igods  by  hymns  and  dances.  Plato  thought  that 
all  dancing  should  be  of  a  religious  character, 
and  should  be  an  object  of  legislative  care,  as 
being  essential  to  grace  of  motion.    The  Greek 


religious  dances,  excepting  the  Bacchic  and 
corybantian,  were  very  simple,  consisting  of 
gentle  inclinations  of  the  body  and  a  gliding 
promenade  around  the  altar.  Tho  Bacchic 
dance,  representing  tlio  adventures  of  the  god 
Dionysus,  was  common  tliroughout  Greece, 
forming  a  principal  part  of  the  Bacchanalian 
festivities  ;  and  the  most  illustrious  men  in  the 
state  combined  with  persons  representing  satyrs 
and  titans,  and  with  husbandmen,  in  performing 
it.  The  corybantian  dance,  known  chiefly  in 
Crete  and  Plirygia,  was  of  the  wildest  charac- 
ter, the  performers  being  armed  and  dashing 
together  tlicir  swords  and  shields  with  extrava- 
gant fury.  Greek  dancing  was  a  gymnastic  and 
military  as  well  as  a  mimetic  and  religious  exer- 
cise. The  Pyrrhic  dance,  which  existed  from 
the  mythical  age,  is  described  by  Plato  as  rep- 
resenting by  rapid  movements  of  tlie  body  the 
ways  of  avoiding  strokes  of  the  javelin  and 
sword,  and  the  mode  of  attacking  an  enemy. 
It  was  remarkable  for  somersets,  tumblings,  and 
swift  evolutions  in  the  midst  of  projecting  dag- 
gers and  drawn  swords,  and  seems  to  have  sur- 
passed in  skilful  escapes  any  thing  known  in 
modern  times.  Tacitus  mentions  that  the  Ger- 
man youths  were  taught  to  dance  amid  swords 
and  spears  pointed  at  them.  Prof.  Wilson,  who 
was  a  most  accomplished  athlete,  is  recorded 
to  have  mounted  one  of  the  tables  at  a  festival 
in  commemoration  of  Burns,  and  to  have  danced 
a  pas  seul  among  the  wine  glasses  and  decanters, 
without  causing  any  fracture  ;  but  this  precari- 
ous mode  of  dancing  has  rarely  been  cultivated 
in  modern  times,  except  by  professional  artists. 
In  many  of  the  Greek  states  dancing  was  car- 
ried to  great  perfection  by  the  hetmrm^  who 
were  often  admitted  to  divert  the  guests  at  the 
close  of  a  repast.i— Dancing  among  the  Eomans 
was  at  first  most  strictly  connected  with  religion, 
and  it  was  always  deemed  dishonorable  for  a 
Eoman  citizen  to  take  part  in  other  than  reli- 
gious dances.  During  the  latter  years  of  the  re- 
public this  art  was  even  deemed  unworthy  of  a 
free  man,  and  Cicero  affirmed  that  it  was  rare 
for  any  one  to  dance  who  was  not  either  intox- 
icated or  a  fool.  But  under  the  empire  the 
pantomime  and  mimetic  dances  attained  a  high 
degree  of  perfection.  The  performers  were  in 
such  esteem  that  when  at  the  approach  of  famine 
the  emperor  Constantius  banished  all  philoso- 
phers from  Rome,  he  retained  more  than  3,000 
dancers.  Lucian,  in  his  dialogue  on  dancing, 
maintains  that  the  mimetic  dancer  should  bo 
familiar  with  poetry,  geometry,  music,  and  even 
philosophy ;  he  should  be  a  good  rhetorician  to 
express  the  passions  of  the  soul,  and  a  good 
painter  and  sculptor  to  reproduce  attitudes  and 
countenances ;  he  should  rival  Chalcas  in  know- 
ing the  present,  past,  and  future,  and  Thucydi- 
des  in  the  sense  and  observation  of  decorum ; 
he  should  be  inventive,  judicious,  with  a  delicate 
ear,  a  quick  sensibility,  and  a  firm  and  supple 
body  ;  in  short,  it  would  seem  that  he  should  be 
the  most  perfect  of  men. — In  the  early  centuries 
of  the  church,  the  dance  was  sometimes  united 


240 


DANCING 


with   the  hymn  ia  Cliristian  festivities.     Ac- 
cordhis  to  Scaliger,  the  first  bishops  were  styled 
py-cpsuh's,  becmise  they  led  the  dance.     Pious 
dances  were  customary  in  the  churches  till  at 
least  the    12th  century.     Vanished  ht  length 
from   the  sanctuary  as  according  ill  with  the 
gravity  of  the  sacred  mysteries,  they  were  still 
perpetuated   till    the    17th   century  in   Spain, 
Portugal,  and  some  other  Catholic  countries. 
Cardinal  Ximenes  permitted  devotional   danc- 
ing in  church  at  Toledo  ;  the  Jesuit  Menestrier 
related  in  1682  that  it  was  not  then  uncommon 
for  the  clergy  to  dance  in  the  churches  with 
the  children  on  Easter  day ;  and  within  a  cen- 
tury, at  Limoges,  the  people  and  clergy  have 
danced  together  around  the  choir  of  the  church 
of  St.  Leonard  on  St.  Martial's  day.     The  bala- 
doir  dances  were  early  combination9  of  pagan 
ceremonies  with    Christian  festivities,    which 
were  censured  by  Pope  Zacharias  in  744,  but  3 
of  which  (the  May  dance,  the  dance  of  Saint 
John,  and  the  torch-light  dance)  remained  in 
France  throughout  the  middle  ages  as  frenzied 
and  extravagant  processions,  in  which  crowds 
of  people,  sometimes  nearly  naked,  but  crowned 
with  flowers,  marched  hand  in  hand  through 
the  streets  and  churches,  singing,  dancing,  and 
gambolling  with  such  fury  that  only  a  resort  to 
exorcism  could  check  them.    The  ambulatory 
dances,  many  of  them  of  Portuguese  origin,  were 
medifeval  allegorical  processions,  such  as  those 
of  the  famous  feasts  of  fools  and  of  asses,  pre- 
senting often  a  rude  spectacle  of  the  principal 
scenes  in  the  life  of  Christ,    With  such  solemni- 
ties the  canonization  of  Cardinal  Borromeo  and 
the  beatification  of  Ignatius  Loyola  were  cele- 
brated, the  theme  represented  on  the  latter  occa- 
sion being  the  siege  of  Troy. — The  Mohamme- 
dan religion  forbids  both  dancing  and  music,  not 
only  in  the  mosques,  but  even  within  the  harem. 
It  is  only  by  special  permission  obtained  at  Con- 
stantinople that  the  master  of  a  house  is  released 
from  this  law.     Dancing  is  not  one  of  the  pleas- 
ures of  paradise  promised  by  the  Koran.     The 
dervises,  celebrated  for  their  fantastic  dances, 
whirling  upon  their  feet  with  extraordinary  ra- 
pidity, sometimes  holding  lighted  coals  in  their 
teeth,  are  condemned  by  the  law  and  reproved 
by  religion.     The  modern   Christian    sect   of 
Shakers  make  their  worship  consist  largely  in 
dancing,  which  was  originally  of  a  violent  and 
irregular    character,    abounding  in  leaps  and 
shouts,  but  is  now  a  simple  and  uniform  move- 
ment around  the  hall  of  worship  to  the  music 
of  a  hymn  and  of  clapping  of  hands. — In  the 
14th    century  the   dance,    banished  from  the 
cities,  took  refuge  in  the  country  and  became 
the  deliglit  of  peasants,  who   were   excluded 
from  the  chivalric  diversions  of  the  nobles.    In 
this  way  originated  the  picturesque  rural  dances, 
which  in  the  next  century  were  borrowed  by 
the  courts  of  Italy  and  France.     Thus  at  the 
marriage  of  (Charles  VI.,  6  mountaineers  from 
the  Pyrenees  were  introduced  to  perform  one 
of  their  native  dances ;  and  at  the  festival  given 
by  Catharine  de'  Medici  to  the  duke  of  Alva  at 


Bayonno  there  were  troops  of  shepherds  and 
shepherdesses,  each  of  which  executed  the  dances 
peculiar  to   their  own  district.      Among  the 
dances  which  have  been  successively  favorites 
in  France  from  the  16th  to  the  19th  century  are 
the  Iiranle,  consisting  of  several  persons  join- 
ing hands,  leaping  in  circles,  and  keeping  each 
other  in  continual  agitation ;  the  minuet,  intro- 
duced from  Spain  under  the  auspices  of  Catha- 
rine de'  Medici,  and  of  a  slow  and  grave  char- 
racter;  the  pavane,  also  of  Spanish  origin,  proud 
and  stately  as  a  hidalgo,  in  which  the  perform- 
ers looked  upon  each  other  strutting  like  pea- 
cocks, and  in  which  Margaret  of  Valois  excelled ; 
the  galUarde,  a  Neapolitan   dance,  of  livelier 
movement  than    the  preceding  ;    the   gavotte, 
which  Marie  Antoinette  preferred  and  danced 
excellently,  which  was  modulated  to  a  quicker 
air  after  the  Terror,  was  performed  by  two 
persons  only,  and  abounded  in  salutations  and 
reverences ;  the  waltz,  which  was  introduced  by 
the  triumphant  soldiers  of  Napoleon  from  Ger- 
many ;  the  contre  danse,  the  country  dance  of 
England,  which  dethroned  the  minuet  in  France, 
by  which  Trenitz  gained  his  successes  in  the 
salons  of  the  consulate,  and  which  after  a  long 
reign  has  but  recently  ceased  to  be  d  la  mode  ; 
and  the  galo])  or  galopade,  the  most  rapid  of 
dances,  which  had  its  origin  in  Hungary,  made 
its  first  appearance  at  Vienna  or  Berlin  about 
1822,  was  introduced  into  France  at  the  balls 
given  by  the  duchess  of  Berry  during  the  car- 
nival of  1829,  and  which  is  famous  as  the  fu- 
rious and  dishevelled  gallop  Avhich  terminates 
the  masked  balls  at  the  French  opera,   and 
which  Auguste  Barbier  has  stigmatized  in  his 
verses.     Other  dances,  once  peculiar  to  particu- 
lar districts,  but  most  of  which  are  now  cosmo- 
politan, are   the  Scottish  jig,   the  Portuguese 
modinha,  the  Spanish  iolero,  fandango,  jota,  and 
cachiica,  the  Basque  step,  the  impetuous jTrtra/i- 
fZoZe  of  Languedoc,  the  polka,  mazourJca,  redoica, 
and  cracoioiaTc^  borrowed  from  the  peasants  of 
various  Slavic  countries,  the  cotillon  by  which 
Lauzun  made  his  singular  fortune,  the  schottisch 
which  Cellarius  made  popular,  and  the  simple 
ronde,  the  French  national  dance,  by  which  the 
peasants  celebrate  annually  the  gathering  of  the 
harvests,  and  which  is  esteemed  a  symbol  of 
union  and  strength.     The  gypsies  are  favorite 
dancers  in  Spain,  and  they  render  the  ole,  the 
jaleo  de  Xeres,  and  the  fandango  with   inim- 
imitable  grace  and  passion.     The  ole  especially 
delights    the  vehement  Andalusians,    and   its 
charm  consists  in  its  rapid  combinations  of  the 
most  various  motions,  while  the  vivid  gypsy 
eye   glaring  with  delirium  of  transport  holds 
the  spectators  entranced.     The  fandango  is  a 
love  scene,  consisting  of  successive  approaches 
by  the  danseur,  and  retreats  by  the  danseiise, 
till  at  last,  tired  of  the  contest,  both  parties 
approach,    at  first  with  hesitation,   and  then 
rushing  with  eagerness.     Many  of  the  Spanish 
dances  are  of  an  indelicate  character,  and  are 
prohibited  from  the  public  stage.     Fanny  Elss- 
ler  was  forbidden  in  some  of  the  cities  of 


DANCING  DISEASE 


DANDOLO 


241 


Envopo  to  (lance  t\iG  julco  de  Xci'ch.  Dancing 
exists  aiuoii*,^  all  savage  peoples  Avhi(!li  travellers 
liave  visited,  and  iioyroes  on  the  African  coast 
have  been  said  to  throw  themselves  at  the  feet 
of  a  European  playing  on  a  fiddle,  and  to  beg 
liini  to  desist  unless  ho  would  tire  them  to 
death;  for  while  lie  played  they  could  iwt  cease 
dancing.  Dancing  was  one  of  the  principal 
amusements  of  the  American  aborigines,  being 
more  common  among  them  than  in  any  civil- 
ized society.  It  entered  into  their  forms  of 
worship,  their  martial  celebrations,  and  tlieir 
jiiode  of  entertaining  strangers  of  distinction. 
The  term  scalp  dance  designates  a  custom,  prev- 
alent especially  among  the  Sioux,  of  dancing 
for  15  nights  in  succession  around  the  scalps 
brought  back  by  a  war  party.  They  dance  in 
a  circle,  with  their  heads  adorned  with  ostrich 
feathers,  leaping,  yelling,  brandishing  their  wea- 
])ons,  boasting  theii'  prowess,  distorting  their 
faces,  and  imitating  all  the  fury  of  battle.  This 
Celebration  is  usually  by  night,  by  the  light  of 
blazing  torches.  Young  women  may  assist  by 
chanting  in  chorus,  or  by  standing  in  the  centre 
of  the  ring,  but  are  rarely  permitted  to  join  in 
the  dance.     (See  also  Ball  aud  Ballet.) 

DANCING-  DISEASE,  or  Tarantismus,  an 
epidemic  nervous  aftection,  apparently  allied  to 
chorea,  occasionally  prevalent  in  Italy  and  other 
countries  in  the  south  of  Europe.  It  was  long 
supposed  to  be  caused  by  the  bite  of  a  large 
spider,  the  aranca  taranf.itJa ;  but  as  scarcely 
any  of  those  affected  with  it  had  any  conscious- 
ness of  having  been  bitten  by  a  spider  or  any 
other  insect,  and  as  it  has  been  in  every  instance 
propagated  mainly  by  physical  contagion,  like 
chorea,  demonomania,  and  other  kindred  affec- 
tions, there  is  every  reason  to  believe  it  origi- 
nated from  the  same  causes.  Tlie  tarantisnms 
was  first  noticed  in  the  15th  century,  a  period 
rife  witli  cerebral  and  nervous  affections,  and 
is  thus  described  byBaglivi:  "When  any  are 
stung  (or  attacked  with  the  disease),  shortly 
after  it  they  fall  upon  the  ground,  half  dead, 
their  strength  and  sense  going  quite  from  them. 
Sometimes  they  breathe  with  a  great  deal  of 
difficulty,  and  sometimes  they  sigh  piteously ; 
but  fre(]uently  they  lie  without  any  manner  of 
motion,  as  if  they-Avere  quite  dead.  Upon  the 
first  sounding  of  music  the  foremeutioned  symp- 
toms begin  slowly  to  abate  ;  the  patient  begins 
slowly  to  move  his  fingers,  hands,  feet,  and  suc- 
cessively all  parts  of  the  body,  and  as  the  music 
increases  their  motion  is  accelerated ;  and  if  he 
was  lying  upon  the  ground,  up  he  gets  (as  in  a 
fury),  falls  a  dancing,  sighing,  and  into  a  thou- 
sand inimic  gestures.  These  first  and  violent 
motions  continue  for  several  hours,  commonly 
for  2  or  3.  After  little  breathing  in  bed,  where 
he  is  laid  to  carry  off  tlie  sweat,  and  that  he 
may  pick  up  a  little  strength,  to  work  he  goes 
again  with  as  much  eagerness  as  he  did  before, 
and  every  day  spends  almost  12  hours  by  the 
clock  in  repeated  dancing ;  and,  which  is  truly 
wonderful,  so  far  is  he  from  being  wearied  or 
spent  by  this  vehement  exercise,  that,  as  they 
VOL.  VI. — 16 


eay,  it  makes  liim  more  sprightly  and  strong. 
There  are,  however,  some  stops  nuide  ;  not  from 
any  weariness,  but  because  they  observe  the 
musical  instruments  to  be  out  of  tune;  upon 
the  discovery  of  Avhich  one  could  not  believe 
what  vehement  sighings  and  anguish  at  heart 
they  are  seized  Avith,  and  in  this  case  they 
continue  till  the  instrument  is  got  into  tune 
again,  and  the  dance  renewed.  This  way  of  danc- 
ing c()U)moidy  holds  4  days;  it  seldom  reaches 
to  the  6th."  Other  observers  speak  of  those 
affected  with  tarantismus  as  howling  like  dogs, 
leaping,  running  wildly  about,  strii)ping  them- 
selves of  their  clothing,  expressing  a  like  or 
dislike  for  particular  colors,  "  and  never  better 
l)leased  than  when  soundly  drubbed  on  the 
breech,  heels,  feet,  or  back."  The  attack  Avas 
frequently  followed  by  melancholy,  the  lypema- 
iiia  of  the  medical  writers,  under  the  inlluence 
of  which  those  affected  sought  solitary  and  de- 
serted places,  graveyards,  and  the  like,  and  there 
remained  for  several  days.  Music,  generally 
on  the  guitar,  violin,  or  dulcimer,  was  the  es- 
tablished prescription  for  the  disease.  The 
dancing  mania  was  very  likely  to  recur  at  the 
anniversary  of  the  attack. 

DANDELION  {¥v.  dent  de  Hon;  leontodon 
taraxacum^  Linn.),  a  Avell-known  plant,  with  a 
perennial  root  and  bitter  milky  juice,  the  leaves 
of  which  when  blanched  are  used  as  a  salad ;  the 
root  also  is  sometimes  roasted,  and  used  as  a 
substitute  for  coffee,  or  to  adulterate  that  sub- 
stance. Under  cultivation,  the  plants  are  forced 
to  extraordinary  size,  to  vend  in  the  spring  for 
a  popular  and  much  esteemed  pot  herb  under  the 
name  of  greens.  In  medicine,  the  expressed 
juice,  especially  of  the  root,  is  employed  for  its 
aperient,  detergent,  and  strongly  diuretic  prop- 
erties, and  should  be  used  while  fresh.  The 
flowers  of  the  dandelion  are  very  conspicuous  in 
the  meadoAvs  and  grassy  fields  In  early  spring, 
and  are  hailed  as  the  liarbinger  of  Avarni  Avea- 
ther  and  returning  heat  in  the  north.  The  com- 
mon and  generic  names,  both  meaning  lion's 
tooth,  Avere  given  from  a  fancied  resemblance 
of  its  single  florets. 

D  ANDINI,  the  name  of  a  family  of  Florentine 
painters:  Cesare,  born  in  1595,  died  in  1658; 
ViKCExzo,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1607,  died  in  1675;  Pietro,  a  son  of  Cesare, 
born  in  1646,  died  in  1712,  an  artist  of  consider- 
able genius,  Avho  had  a  peculiar  talent  for  imi- 
tating the  Avorks  of  the  old  masters,  particu- 
larly those  of  the  Venetian  school;  and  Ot- 
taviano,  a  son  of  the  preceding. 

DANDOLO,  Enrico,  doge  of  Venice,  mem- 
ber of  a  patrician  Venetian  family,  which 
traced  its  origin  to  the  Roman  era,  born  about 
1110,  died  June  1,  1205.  He  served  the  repub- 
lic in  many  capacities,  and  at  one  time  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Constantinojile.  His  high 
rank  did  not,  lioweA^er,  protect  him  from  out- 
rage, and  at  tlie  command  of  Manuel  Comnenus, 
he  Avas  nearly  deprived  of  sight  by  having  his 
eyes  burned  Avith  hot  irons,  applied,  as  some 
historians  relate,  by  the  emperor  himself.     He 


242 


DANDOLO 


DANE 


was  appointed  (logre  in  1192,  when  he  was  above 
80  years  of  age,  but  lie  still  retained  all  the  fire 
and  vijfor  of  youth.  During  the  4tli  crusade,  the 
French  barons,  nnder  Baldwin  of  Flanders,  ap- 
]»lied  to  A'enice  for  aid.  After  some  delay,  the 
doge  himself  urging  the  suit  of  the  French  am- 
bassador;;, the  necessary  ships  were  supi)lied  on 
condition  of  85,000  marks  of  silver,  about  $850,- 
000,  being  paid  down  before  the  expedition  set 
sail.  Great  difficulty  having  been  experienced 
in  raising  all  the  money,  it  was  proposed  to 
capture  and  pillage  Zara,  a  city  on  the  Adriatic 
which  had  refused  to  join  the  league.  Zara 
was  accordingly  taken  and  sacked,  and  the 
booty  proving  amply  sufficient  for  all  expenses, 
the  expedition,  diverted  from  the  real  object  of 
these  religious  wars,  vengeance  against  the  in- 
fidel, set  sail  for  Constantinople,  on  the  pretext 
of  enabling  young  Alexis  Angelus  to  restore 
his  fother,  the  rightful  emperor,  who  had  been 
deposed  by  his  own  brother.  The  city  was  de- 
fended by  immense  fortifications,  by  deep  fosses 
and  strong  walls,  by  massive  chains  stretched 
across  the  harbor,  and  by  478  towers  placed  in 
a  circumference  of  18  miles.  The  aged  doge,  dis- 
playing the  gonfalon  of  St.  Mark's,  animated  Ins 
followers,  the  city  was  taken,  the  usurping  empe- 
ror fled,  and  the  rightful  monarch  was  restored. 
But  when  he  and  his  young  son  were  treach- 
erously murdered,  and  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople driven  into  exile,  the  city  was  again 
taken  and  given  np  to  pillage  (1204).  Dandolo 
died  the  following  year,  and  was  buried  beneath 
the  dome  of  St.  Sophia. — There  were  3  oth- 
er doges  of  the  same  family :  Giovanni,  who 
reigned  from  1279  to  1289  ;  Francesco,  from 
1328  to  1339  ;  and  Andkea,  from  1343  to  1354. 
The  last  incurred  the  jealousy  of  the  Genoese  by 
his  endeavor  to  establish  commercial  relations 
between  Venice  and  Egypt.  Hostilities  arose 
between  the  2  states,  and,  in  concert  with  the 
Byzantine  emperor  and  Aragon,  Dandolo  de- 
stroyed the  Genoese  fleet  at  Cagliari  (Aug.  29, 
1349).  Giovanni  Visconti,  the  new  ruler  of 
Genoa,  sent  Petrarch  as  ambassador  to  Venice 
to  negotiate  for  peace ;  but,  notwithstanding  the 
friendly  relation  that  existed  between  the  poet 
and  the  doge,  Andrea  anew  declared  war  against 
Genoa  in  1354,  shortly  before  his  death.  He 
was  also  one  of  the  earliest  historians  of  Venice. 
He  left  a  Latin  chronicle  which  comprises  the 
history  of  A^enice  from  the  earliest  times  to 
1342,  and  compiled  a  portion  of  the  Venetian 
laws.  A  new  edition  of  the  Liher  Albns,  treat- 
ing of  the  relations  of  Venice  with  Turkey,  and 
of  the  Liber  JJlancus,  treating  of  those  with 
the  states  of  Italy  (both  based  upon  tlie  chron- 
icles and  code  of  laws  left  by  Dandolo),  appear- 
ed in  Germany  in  1854. 

DANDOLO,  ViNCENzo,  an  Italian  chemist, 
and  for  a  short  time  governor  of  Dalmatia,  but 
not  a  member  of  the  above  family,  born  in 
Venice,  Oct.  20, 1758,  died  there,  Dec.  13, 1819. 
After  completing  his  studies  at  the  university 
of  Padua,  he  established  himself  as  chemist  in 
his  native  city.     Ilis  principal  work,  "Funda- 


mental Principles  of  Physical  Chemistry,  ap- 
plied to  the  Formation  of  Bodies  and  to  Natu- 
ral Phenomena,"  apjieared  in  1790,  and  passed 
through  G  editions.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  rev- 
olution, he  was  one  of  those  who  were  deputed 
by  the  people  to  solicit  Bonaparte's  protection  ; 
but  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  Venice  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Austria,  and  Dandolo,  rather 
than  render  allegiance  to  this  power,  establish- 
ed himself  at  Milan,  which  at  that  time  became 
the  capital  of  the  Cisalpine  republic.  In  1799, 
when  the  Paissians  invaded  the  town,  Dandolo 
betook  himself  to  Paris,  where  he  published  a 
])hiloso])hical  work  on  the  regeneration  of  man- 
kind. Afterward  he  devoted  himself  to  agricul- 
tural and  industrial  pursuits  near  Milan  ;  and  on 
Napoleon's  annexing  Dalmatia  to  his  kingdom 
of  Italy,  he  appointed  Dandolo  governor  of  that 
province,  over  which  he  presided  until  1809, 
Avhen  it  was  allotted  to  Illyria.  He  then  re- 
turned to  Venice,  with  the  title  of  count  con- 
ferred upon  him  by  the  French  emperor,  and 
ceased  to  take  any  further  part  in  public  afitiirs 
except  in  1813,  when  he  cooperated  in  quelling 
the  insurrection  which  had  broken  out  in  a 
neighboring  district.  Dandolo  translated  many 
of  the  leading  French  chemical  works  into 
Italian,  and,  apart  from  his  original  productions 
on  the  same  science,  conferred  a  great  service 
upon  Italian  silk  industry  and  a;nology,  by  his 
works  on  the  silkworm  and  Italian  wines. 

DANE,  a  S.  co.  of  Wis. ;  area,  1,235  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1855,  37,714.  The  surface  is  moderately 
hilly,  and  the  soil  calcareous  and  fertile.  In 
the  central  part  lie  some  sheets  of  water  called 
the  Four  Lakes,  the  largest  of  which  is  6  in, 
long.  They  are  connected  by  short  channels, 
and  have  their  outlet  through  Catfisli  river.  In 
the  western  part  of  the  county  is  a  hill  about 
1,000  feet  high,  called  Blue  Mound.  The  greater 
part  of  the  land  is  occupied  by  prairies  and  oak 
openings.  In  1850  the  productions  were  347,- 
250  bushels  of  wheat,  122,290  of  Indian  corn, 
243,601  of  oats,  and  206,214  lbs.  of  butter. 
There  were  4  churches,  and  2,707  pupils  attend- 
ing public  schools.  Organized  in  1839.  Three 
raih-oads  centre  at  Madison,  the  capital  of  the 
state  and  county. 

DANE,  Nathan,  an  American  jurist,  bom 
in  Ipswich,  Mass.,  in  1752,  died  in  Beverly  in 
1835.  lie  entered  Harvard  college  in  1774,  was 
graduated  in  1778  with  high  reputation,  studied 
law  in  Salem,  Mass.,  and  began  practising  in  the 
adjoining  town  of  Beverly  in  1782,  where  he 
resided  until  his  death.  He  was  among  the 
most  eminent  lawyers  in  New  England,  and 
was  repeatedly  placed  by  his  fellow  citizens  in 
offices  of  great  importance.  He  was  iii  1782, 
'S3,  '84,  and  '85  a  member  of  the  house  of  rep- 
resentatives of  Massachusotts ;  in  1785,  '86, 
and  '87,  a  delegate  to  the  continental  congress ; 
in  1790,  '94,  '96,  '97,  and  '98,  a  member  of  the 
senate  of  Massachusetts;  in  1795,  a  connnis- 
sioner  to  revise  the  laws  of  that  state  ;  in  1811, 
to  revise  and  publish  the  charters  which  had 
been  granted  therein ;   and  again  in  1812,  to 


DANE 


DANICAN 


243 


make  a  new  publication  of  the  statutes.  In  179-4 
lie  was  appointed  a  judge  of  tiic  court  of  coin- 
rnou  pleas  for  Essex  co.,  ^lass.,  and  took  the 
oaths  of  office,  hut  almost  inuncdiately  resigned. 
In  1812  he  was  chosen  an  eloctur  of  president 
of  the  United  States ;  in  ISl-i  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Hartford  convention  ;  and  in  1820  he 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  convention  for  re- 
vising tlie  constitution  of  Massaciiusetts;  but  a 
deafness  wliich  had  been  growing  upon  hina  for 
some  years  had  at  this  time  so  much  increased, 
that  he  decHned  for  this  reason  to  take  his  seat 
in  the  convention.  He  was  not  eloquent,  either 
at  the  bar  or  in  legislative  bodies;  nor  did  ho, 
perhaps,  possess  any  of  the  attributes  of  genius. 
But  he  liad  great  good  sense  and  a  sound  judg- 
ment, and  was  faitliful  to  all  his  duties,  and 
every  one  felt  perfect  confidence  in  his  industry, 
discretion,  and  integrity.  As  a  lawyer,  lie  was 
among  tlie  most  learned  in  his  province,  and 
Ills  large  and  diversified  experience  gave  him 
great  ability  and  success  in  the  conduct  of  cases. 
He  was  among  the  most  laborious  students  that 
this  country  ever  produced  ;  and  he  attributed 
his  capacity  for  continuous  toil  to  liis  having 
strengthened  his  constitution  by  working  on  his 
futlier's  farm  like  any  laborer  until  he  was  21 
years  of  age.  While  he  was  a  delegate  from 
Massachusetts  to  the  continental  congress  in 
I7S6,  the  best  method  of  providing  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  vast  territory  owned  by  the 
confederacy  north  and  west  of  the  Ohio  river 
came  into  consideration.  It  was  determined  to 
do  this  by  an  ordinance  which  should  establish 
with  much  detail  not  only  the  foundation  of 
that  government,  but  the  leading  principles 
which  should  prevail  in  the  systems  of  law  and 
public  policy  to  be  in  force  there.  The  drafting 
of  this  instrument  was  intrusted  to  Dane;  and 
it  was  adoj)ted  by  congress  without  a  single 
alteration,  on  July  13,  1787.  The  clause  in  it 
which  has  been  tlie  subject  of  most  frequent 
and  emphatic  remark  is  that  which  provides 
"  that  there  shall  be  neither  slavery  nor  involun- 
tary servitude  in  the  said  territory."  The  name 
of  the  "Northwest  Territory"  was  given  to  it; 
and  it  comprehended  all  the  territory  at  that 
time  belonging  to  tlie  confederacy  northwest  of 
the  Ohio.  Not  long  before  his  death,  he  stated 
in  conversation  that  not  until  this  ordinance 
was  on  the  eve  of  enactment  did  the  thought 
occur  to  him  of  inserting  in  it  this  clause  re- 
specting slavery.  He  incoii^orated  in  this  oi-di- 
nance  a  prohibition  against  all  laws  impairing 
the  obligation  of  contracts,  which  the  conven- 
tion that  formed  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States,  a  few  months  afterward,  extended  to  all 
the  states  of  the  union,  by  making  it  a  part  of 
that  constitution.  From  1823  to  1829  he  pub- 
lished his  "  Abridgment  and  Digest  of  Ameri- 
can Law,"  in  9  large  octavo  volun>es.  This 
Avork  will  always  be  a  storehouse  to  which 
all  must  resort  who  desire  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  origin  and  history,  and  what  may  be 
called  the  fundamental  principles,  of  the  law  of 
this  country.     In  1829  he  imparted  new  vigor 


and  life  to  the  law  school  in  Harvard  university, 
in  Cambridge,  by  giving  $10,000  (adding  $5,000 
more  in  I8;il)  for  the  foundation  of  the  Dane 
professorship  of  law,  witli  the  request  that  his 
friend  Judge  Story  should  hold  the  oflice,  which 
he  did  until  his  deatii.  During  50  years  he  de- 
voted his  Sundays  (the  hours  of  public  worship, 
of  whicli  he  was  a  regular  attendant,  alone  ex- 
cepted) to  theological  studies,  generally  reading 
the  Scriptures  in  their  original  languages. 

DANEGELT  (Sax.  gelt^  money),  an  ancient 
tax  paid  by  the  Saxons  in  England,  either  for 
buying  peace  with  the  Danes,  or  for  making 
]>reparations  against  tlie  inroads  of  that  nation. 
It  was  first  paid  in  the  year  991,  when  a  band 
of  Northmen  attacked  Ipswich,  and  advanced 
througli  an  unguarded  country  as  far  as  Maldon. 
Instead  of  meeting  the  enemy  in  the  field.  King 
Ethelred  accepted  the  counsel  of  his  nobles,  and 
purchased  the  retreat  of  the  invaders  by  a  bribe 
of  £10,000  in  silver.  This  .soon  became  a  per- 
manent tax  under  the  name  of  Danegelt,  raised 
by  an  assessment  upon  landed  property.  The 
last  instance  of  its  payment  was  under  Henry 
II.  in  1173. 

DANICAN,  FiJAxgois  Andre,  better  known 
as  PiiiLiuou,  a  French  composer  and  chess- 
player, born  at  Dreux,  Sept.  7,  1727,  died  in 
Loudon,  Aug.  30,  1795._  His  father  and  grand- 
father were  musicians,  and  the  latter,  who  was 
flutist  to  Louis  XIII.,  received  from  that  mon- 
arch the  surname  of  Philidor,  which  had  been 
borne  by  a  celebrated  hautboyist  of  the  time, 
and  this  name  was  retained  by  his  descendants. 
Andre  was  admitted  at  an  early  age  as  chor- 
ister in  the  chapel  of  Louis  XV.,  studied  coin- 
positiron  under  Campra,  and  at  15  years  of  age 
produced  a  motet  for  a  full  choir,  which  was 
performed  before  the  court  at  Versailles  to  the 
great  satisfaction  of  the  king.  Upon  leaving 
the  chapel  he  supported  himself  by  teaching 
and  copying  music,  and  in  1745  commenced 
a  tour  through  Germany,  Holland,  and  Eng- 
land, in  the  course  of  which  he  exhibited  his 
skill  in  the  game  of  chess,  which  he  had  a  short 
time  before  begun  to  cultivate.  He  returned 
to  Paris  in  1754,  and  devoted  himself  chiefly  to 
his  profession.  Failing  in  an  attempt  to  receive 
the  appointment  of  maitre  de  la  chajMlle^  he 
wrote  for  the  oju'ra  comique  with  considerable 
success.  In  1777  he  revisited  London,  where 
he  published  his  treatise  on  chess,  his  skill  in 
which  he  turned  to  a  very  profitable  account. 
He  continued  to  compose  for  the  comic  stage, 
and  produced  airs  and  choruses  for  the  Car- 
men  Seeulare  of  Horace,  performed  in  London 
in  1779;  but  the  last  10  years  of  his  life  were 
almost  entirely  devoted  to  his  favorite  game, 
which  had  become  a  jjassion  with  him.  In 
Paris  he  played  at  the  cafe  de  la,  regence^  where 
the  greatest  players  in  France  assembled,  and 
in  London  at  Parsloe's  club  in  St.  James's  street. 
At  both  places  he  maintained  a  supremacy 
which  his  contemporaries  rarely  disputed  on 
equal  terms,  and  wliich  reached  its  highest 
point  when  he  performed  what  was  then  con- 


244 


DANIEL 


sidercd  the  niarvellons  feat  of  playinj?  3  simul- 
taneous games  blindfolded,  against  skilful  antag- 
onists, eacli  of  whom  lie  defeated.  A  month 
before  his  death  he  jdayed  2  games  in  the  same 
manner,  and  was  again  successful.  His  death 
was  hastened  by  grief,  occasioned  by  tlie  refusal 
of  tlie  French  government  to  allow  him  to  re- 
turn to  his  native  country.  Danican's  mental 
powers  were  exercised  almost  exclusively  in 
chess  or  music.  In  other  respects  he  was  of 
less  than  ordinary  intelligence,  or,  as  Laborde 
once  said  of  liim :  "  He  has  no  common  sense;  it 
is  all  genius."  His  treatise  on  chess  has  been 
frequently  re])ublishcd  in  foreign  languages. 

DANIEL  (/.  e.  God  is  my  judge),  a  prophet 
in  the  Chaldean  and  Persian  period  of  sacred 
history.  He  was  descended  from  one  of  the 
highest  families  in  Judah,  if  not  even  of  royal 
blood.  Jerusalem  is  supposed  to  have  been  his 
birthplace.  At  the  age  of  12  or  16  we  find  him 
in  Babylon,  Avhither  he  had  been  carried  Avith 
3  other  Hebrew  youths  of  rank,  Ilananiah,  Mi- 
shael,  and  Azariah,  at  the  first  deportation  of  the 
people  of  Judah  in  the  4th  year  of  Jehoiakim. 
He  and  his  companions  were  selected  for  the 
purpose  of  being  instructed  in  the  language  and 
literature  of  the  Chaldeans,  with  a  view  to  their 
being  employed  in  the  service  of  the  court.  On 
this  occasion  the  names  of  all  4  were  changed, 
and  Daniel  was  henceforth  called  Belteshazzar, 
i.  c.  prince  of  Belus  or  Bel.  After  the  lapse  of  3 
years  we  find  him  interpreting  a  dream  of  the  king 
so  much  to  his  satisfaction  that  he  rose  into  high 
favor,  and  was  intrusted  with  the  governorship  of 
the  province  of  Babylon,  and  the  head  inspector- 
ship of  the  sacerdotal  caste.  Considerably  later 
in  the  reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  we  find  Daniel 
interpreting  another  dream  of  his,  to  the  effect 
that  in  consequence  of  his  pride  he  would  be  de- 
prived for  a  time  of  his  reason  and  his  throne, 
and  after  being  exiled  from  the  abodes  of  men, 
would  be  eventually  restored  to  his  senses  and 
his  rank.  Under  the  immediate  successor  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  Evil-Merodach,  the  prophet 
seems  to  have  been  forgotten.  No  mention  is 
made  of  him  during  this  reign,  or  in  the  short 
reign  of  his  successor ;  and  in  the  last  Chaldean 
reign  he  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
closing  scene  of  Belshazzar's  life.  Belshazzar 
having  had  a  remarkable  vision  of  a  handwrit- 
ing on  the  wall,  whicli  none  of  the  wise  men 
of  the  Chaldeans  could  read  and  interpret, 
Daniel,  at  the  instance  of  the  queen  mother, 
who  remembered  his  former  services,  was  call- 
ed in  and  read  the  writing,  and  announced 
to  the  king  the  impending  catastrophe  of  his 
empire.  Under  this  reign,  Daniel  had  two  of 
his  prophetic  visions  (ch.  vii.,  viii.).  After 
the  conquest  of  Babylon  by  the  united  powers 
of  Media  and  Persia,  Daniel  devoted  himself 
during  the  short  reign  of  Darius  the  Mode  to 
the  atMrs  of  his  people  and  their  possible  re- 
turn from  exile,  the  time  of  whicli,  according  to 
the  propliecies  of  Jeremiah,  was  fost  ajiproach- 
ing.  The  elevation  to  which  he  was  now  raised 
was  not  beheld  without  malice  and  envy,  and 


his  enemies  resolved  if  possible  to  compass  his 
overthrow.  They,  therefore,  under  plausible 
pretences,  secured  the  passage  of  a  law  that  no 
one  in  the  realm  should  be  allowed  for  a  certain 
time  to  offer  any  petition  to  any  god  or  man 
except  the  king,  on  penalty  of  being  thrown 
into  a  den  of  lions.  Daniel,  as  they  anticipated, 
was  the  first  to  disregard  this  law,  by  continu- 
ing his  regular  habit  of  worshipping  God  in 
prayer  3  times  a  day  with  his  window  open. 
The  consequence  was,  that  Daniel  was  cast  into 
the  den  of  lions,  but  was  miraculously  preserv- 
ed ;  and  this  was  the  means  of  his  being  raised 
to  more  exalted  lionor  (ch.  vi.).  He  had  at  last 
the  happiness  to  behold  his  peojde  restored  to 
their  own  land.  His  position  at  the  court  of  the 
Medo-Persian  government  gave  him  the  oppor- 
tunity of  rendering  material  aid  to  this  end.  Be- 
yond the  3d  year  of  Cyrus,  during  which  he  had 
another  series  of  remarkable  visions  (ch.  x.,  xi., 
xii.),  nothing  further  is  known  of  him. — The 
Book  of  Daxiel  takes  its  name  not  only  from 
the  principal  person  in  it,  but  also  and  chiefly 
from  him  as  its  author.  It  occupies,  however, 
but  a  third  rank  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  being 
inserted  not  among  the  prophets,  but  in  the 
Hagiographa,  for  which  various  reasons  have 
been  assigned  by  the  learned.  Among  these, 
the  most  probable  is,  that  the  book  was  origi- 
nally classed  with  the  prophets,  but  that  at  a 
later  period,  say  in  the  first  3^  centuries  A.  D., 
when  the  disputes  arose  between  the  Christians 
and  the  Jews  about  the  Messiah,  the  latter  felt 
tliemselves  to  be  so  pressed  by  tlie  prediction  in 
Dan.  ix.  respecting  the  TO  weeks,  that  they 
sought  to  give  the  book  a  lower  i)lace  than  it 
had  occupied  before,  and  thus,  by  detaching  it 
from  its  connection  with  the  other  prophets,  to 
diminish  the  force  of  the  argument  that  Jesus 
of  Nazareth  was  the  Christ.  The  genuineness 
and  authenticity  of  the  book  of  Daniel  were  for 
a  long  time  unquestioned  in  the  church.  Por- 
phyry, a  learned  adversary  of  the  Christian 
faith  in  the  3d  century,  having  been  the  first  to 
assail  its  authority.  His  objections  were  an- 
swered by  Eusebius,  Apollinarius,  Methodius, 
and  Jerome.  No  further  attack  was  made  until 
the  17th  century,  when  the  question  was  raised 
whether  the  wiiole  book  was  written  by  Daniel. 
But  in  more  recent  times  the  genuineness  of  the 
book  has  been  questioned  or  denied  in  whole  or  in 
part  by  men  of  high  repute  in  the  German  school 
of  criticism,  such  as  Corrodi,  Gesenius,  Dereser, 
Scholl,  Lengerke,  Eichhorn,  DeWette,  Griesen- 
ger,  Bertholdt,  Bleek,  Ewald,  Hitzig,  and  Kirms. 
It  has  been  defended,  on  the  other  hand,  by  the 
English  writers  generally,  and  among  the  Ger- 
mans by  Statidlin,  Beckhaus,  Jahn,  Iliivernick, 
Ilengstenberg,  and  others ;  but  more  especially 
by  Ilengstenberg,  whose  "  Authenticity  of  Dan- 
iel "  goes  over  the  whole  ground,  and  embodies 
the  ablest  defence  of  the  book  that  has  yet  ap- 
peared. For  a  detailed  view  of  all  the  argu- 
ments employed  on  both  sides  in  this  contro- 
versy, the  reader  is  referred  to  Mr.  Barnes's 
introduction  to  his  "  Notes  on  Daniel." 


DANIEL 


DANIELL 


245 


DANIEL,  Petku  Vyvian,  an  American  judge, 
born  ill  Stafford  co.,  Va.,  about  1785.  Ilis  an- 
cestors were  substantial  land  owners,  and  dur- 
ing the  revolution,  in  common  with  most  of 
their  class  at  that  day,  strenuously  advocated  re- 
sistance to  the  British  government.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  prevailing  practice  in  Virginia, 
lie  received  the  rudiments  of  his  education 
under  a  private  tutor,  and  was  graduated  at 
Princeton  college  in  1805,  after  which  he  stud- 
ied the  law  at  Kichmond  with  Edmund  Ran- 
dolph, whose  youngest  daughter  he  afterward 
married.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1808. 
In  1809  he  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  legisla- 
ture from  Staftbrd  co.,  and  was  reelected  in  1810. 
In  1812  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  privy 
council,  and  was  successively  reelected  council- 
lor until  the  adoption  of  the  new  constitution  in 
1830.  For  a  large  portion  of  this  time  he  was 
lieutenant-governor,  and  ex  officio  president  of 
the  council.  Upon  the  adoption  of  the  amended 
constitution  in  1830,  he  was  again  elected  privy 
councillor,  the  number  of  members  composing 
the  board  being  then  reduced  from  8  to  3.  In 
1835  the  whigs  had  a  majority  of  the  legislature, 
and  Judge  Daniel  with  other  democrats  was 
ejected  from  office.  He  was  restored  at  the  fol- 
lowing session,  the  democrats  having  regained 
their  ascendency.  In  1834,  when  Chief  Justice 
Taney  was  transferred  to  the  treasury  depart- 
ment from  the  office  of  attorney-general.  Judge 
Daniel  was  invited  to  the  vacant  position  by 
President  Jackson,  but  declined  the  appoint- 
ment. In  1836  lie  Avas  appointed  by  the  pres- 
ident judge  of  the  U.  S.  district  court  for  the 
district  of  Virginia,  to  fill  a  vacancy  occasioned 
by  the  transfer  of  PJiilip  P.  Barbour  to  the 
supreme  bench.  Upon  the  death  of  Judge 
Barbour  in  1840,  Judge  Daniel  was  appointed  as 
his  successor  by  President  Van  Bureu.  lie  still 
holds  the  office. 

DANIEL,  Samuel,  an  English  author,  born  in 
Somersetshire  in  1502,  died  in  Oct.  1619.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  music  master,  and  was  educated 
at  Magdalen  hall,  Oxford,  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Pembroke  family.  He  devoted  himself 
while  in  the  university  to  the  study  of  poetry 
and  history,  and  left  it  in  1582  without  taking 
his  degree.  He  resided  for  some  time  with  the 
earl  of  Pembroke,  and  became  tutor  to  Lady 
Anne  CliflFord,  subsequently  countess  of  Pem- 
broke. After  the  death  of  Spenser,  he  became 
"  voluntary  laureate  "  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  but 
was  soon  superseded  by  Ben  Jonson.  During 
the  reign  of  James  he  was  appointed  gentleman 
extraordinary  and  groom  of  the  privy  chamber 
to  Queen  Anne,  who  took  great  delight  in  his 
conversation  and  writings.  His  poems  are  nu- 
merous, comprising  an  epic  in  C  books,  on  the 
wars  of  the  Roses,  several  dramatic  pieces,  and 
many  short  poems.  They  are  marked  by  grace 
of  liUiguage  and  sweetness  of  thought,  and 
have  been  highly  esteemed  by  Wordsworth  and 
other  recent  popts.  He  sought  the  smoothness 
of  I'hythm  and  simplicity  of  narrative  character- 
istic of  much  of  the  Italian  and  Spanish  poetry, 


and  in  respect  of  language  ho  is  among  the  best 
writers  of  his  time.  Beside  his  poems,  he  wrote 
in  prose  a  "Defence  of  Rhyme,"  and  a  history 
of  England  fi-om  the  Norman  conquest  to  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Edward  HI.,  which  exhibit 
a  purity  of  style  hardly  equalled  by  any  other 
work  of  so  early  a  date. 

DANIELL,  John  Fkedehio,  an  English  nat- 
ural philosopher,  born  in  London,  March  12, 
1790,  died  there,  March  13,  1845.  He  was  a 
l)Upil  of  Brande,  and  afterward  began  business 
as  a  sugar  refiner.  In  1810  he  began,  in  con- 
nection with  Prof.  Brande,  the  "  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Science,"  of  which  they  published 
the  first  20  volumes.  In  1820  he  i)ublislied 
a  description  of  a  new  hydrometer,  by  which 
for  the  first  time  regular  and  accurate  observa- 
tions on  the  dryness  and  moisture  of  the  air  were 
made  practicable.  His  great  work,  "  Meteorolo- 
gical Essays,"  appeared  in  1823.  This  was  the 
first  attempt  to  explain  the  principles  of  mete- 
orology by  the  general  laws  regulating  the  tem- 
perature and  constitution  of  gases  and  vapors. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  of  his  theories  was 
that  which  he  proposed  to  account  for  the  ho- 
rary oscillations  or  periodic  daily  rise  and  fall  of 
the  barometer,  by  which  he  predicted  the  occur- 
rence of  a  fall  near  the  poles  coincident  with 
the  rise  at  the  equator,  a  conjecture  afterward 
confirmed  by  actual  observation.  In  1824  he 
published  an  essay  on  "  Artificial  Climate,"  and 
about  the  same  time  became  managing  director 
of  the  continental  gas  company,  and  travelled 
through  many  of  the  European  cities  making 
the  arrangements  by  which  they  are  lighted 
at  the  present  day.  He  was  also  the  invent- 
or of  a  process  for  extracting  inflammable  gas 
from  resin.  On  the  establishment  of  King's 
college  in  1831  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
chemistry,  which  office  he  held  until  Ins  death. 
About  this  time  he  published  an  account  of  his 
new  pyrometer  for  measuringhigh  temperatures, 
such  as  are  employed  in  fusing  metals,  in  fur- 
naces, &c.  Thenceforth  he  gave  his  attention 
principally  to  voltaic  electricity.  In  1836,  in  a 
paper  communicated  to  the  royal  society,  he  de- 
scribed his  valuable  improvement  in  the  voltaic 
battery,  by  which,  avoiding  the  rapid  decline  of 
power  in  the  ordinary  batteries,  he  showed  how 
a  powerful  and  continuous  current  may  be  kept 
up  for  an  unlimited  period.  In  1839  appeared 
his  "  Introduction  to  Chemical  Philosophy,"  a 
treatise  on  the  molecular  forces.  Beside  these 
works  there  was  hardly  a  year  of  his  life  in  which 
valuable  communications  from  his  pen  did  not 
appear  in  his  journal,  or  in  the  "Transactions  of 
the  Royal  Society."  He  was  the  only  person  who 
ever  received  the  3  medals  in  the  gift  of  the 
royal  society,  of  which  he  was  a  zealous  mem- 
ber, and  for  the  last  6  years  of  his  life  foreign 
secretary.  He  expired  suddenly  of  apoplexy, 
while  attending  a  meeting  of  the  council  of  the 
royal  society. 

DANIELL,  Samcel,  an  English  artist  and 
traveller,  born  in  1777,  died  in  the  island  of  Cey- 
lon in  ISll.     He  spent  3  years  at  the  cape  of 


24C 


DANEELL 


DANNEOKER 


Good  Hope,  and  afterward  proceeded  to  tho 
interior  of  Africa,  making  skctclics  of  tho 
scenery  and  people,  whicli  he  brouglit  home 
•with  liim  to  England  in  1804,  -when  they  Avere 
published,  with  an  account  of  the  animals  of 
southern  Africa.  lie  afterward  went  to  the 
island  of  Ceylon,  and  during  a  residence  of  6 
years  collected  a  large  amount  of  similar  mate- 
rials, one  volume  of  which  Avas  published,  with 
a  description  of  that  country  and  its  inhabi- 
tants, in  1808. 

DANIELL,  TnoMAS,  an  English  landscape 
painter  and  engraver,  born  in  1749,  died  in 
1840.  In  company  Avith  his  nephew,  William, 
he  inade  an  extraordinary  journey  tlirough  India, 
for  the  purpose  of  preparnig  sketches  and  illus- 
trations of  the  scenery,  which  were  afterward 
published.  He  was  originally  a  heraldry  paint- 
er, and  became  fellow  of  the  royal,  Asiatic, 
and  antiquarian  societies.  He  published  sevei'al 
works  on  India. 

DANIELL,  William,  an  English  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  17G9,  died  in  1837.  He  set 
out  at  the  age  of  14,  in  company  with  his  uncle 
Thomas,  upon  an  artistic  exploration  of  tlie 
peninsula  of  Hindostan.  They  commenced  their 
journey  at  Cape  Coraorin,  and  sketched  almost 
every  thing  beautiful  or  interesting  in  the  coun- 
try between  that  point  and  Serinagur,  in  the 
Himalaya  mountains.  They  were  occupied  10 
years  in  this  undertaking.  Of  their  immense 
number  of  sketches,  they  selected  and  published 
a  portion  in  a  great  Avork  entitled  "Oriental 
Scenery"  (6  vols,  folio,  1808).  Five  of  these 
A'olnmes  Avere  engraved  by  William,  or  under 
his  direction ;  the  other  Avas  engraved  by  Thomas, 
after  drawings  by  James  Wales.  William  also 
published  "  A  Picturesque  Yoyage  to  India," 
"Zoography,"  "Animated  Nature,"  &c.,  and 
from  1814  to  1825  Avas  engaged  in  making 
sketches  for  "A  Voyage  round  Great  Britain," 
a  work  of  a  similar  character  to  that  which  he 
had  executed  on  India.  Beside  these,  he  painted 
many  oil  paintings  of  Indian  scenery,  among 
them  a  panorama  of  Madras,  the  "  City  of  Luck- 
now,"  and  the  "  Elephant  Hunt,"  and  Avas  the 
chief  contributor  to  the  "  Oriental  Annual." 

DANILO  I.  (Petrovitch  Niegosii),  reigning 
prince  of  Montenegro,  born  May  25,  1826,  was 
educated  in  Vienna,  succeeded,  Oct.  31,  1851, 
his  uncle,  Peter  Petrovitch,  and  was  proclaimed 
vladika,  Jan.  13, 1852.  He  then  proceeded  to  St. 
Petersburg,  to  be  confirmed  in  his  dignity  by 
the  czar,  and  obtained  the  sanction  of  Russia  for 
various  innovations,  Avhich  he  carried  into  eifect 
on  his  return  to  Montenegro.  The  most  promi- 
nent of  these  Avas  the  separation  of  the  civil 
from  the  ecclesiastical  power  that  had  previously 
been  vested  in  the  vladika.  Conferring  the  lat- 
ter upon  one  of  his  relatives,  to  whom  he  gave 
the  title  of  archimandrite,  he  assumed  the  civil 
power  under  the  name  of  Danilo  I.  Other 
changes  Avhich  he  Iiad  projected  Avere  inter- 
rupted by  the  war  Avith  Turkey,  and  by  intes- 
tine commotions.  In  1855  Danilo  married  the 
daughter  of  a  banker  of  Trieste,  Avho  brought 


him  a  dowry  of  $50,000.  About  the  same  time, 
the  Avar  between  Russia  and  Turkey  and  her 
allies  Avas  brought  to  a  close.  The  prince  now 
endeavored,  but  in  vain,  to  be  recognized  as  an 
independent  soA^ereign  by  the  treaty  of  Paris. 
In  Sept.  185G,  he  addressed  a  note  to  the  prin- 
cipal European  poAvers,  urging  his  claims  to  the 
sovereignty  of  Montenegro,  and  proposing  to 
annex  a  portion  of  the  Herzegovina  and  Albania, 
and  the  port  of  Antivari  on  the  Adriatic.  Early 
in  1857  he  repaired  to  Vienna  and  Paris  to  plead 
his  cause  in  person,  appointing  his  brother  regent 
during  his  absence;  but  a  conspiracy,  instigated 
by  one  of  his  uncles,  soon  compelled  him  to 
return  to  Montenegro,  and  ho  has  since  been 
engaged  in  hostilities  with  Turkev. 

DANISH  LANGUAGE  and  LITERATURE. 
See  Denmark. 

DANNECKER,  Johann  Heinrich  ton,  a 
German  sculptor,  born  at  Waldenbuch,  near 
Stuttgart,  Oct.  15, 1758,  died  Dec.  8, 1841.  His 
father  was  groom  to  the  duke  of  Wiirtemberg, 
and  Dannecker  grew  up  with  a  very  limited 
education.  He  manifested  a  taste  for  drawing 
at  a  very  early  age,  and  for  Avant  of  better  mate- 
rials, resorted  to  the  yard  of  a  stone-cutter,  and 
covered  the  slabs  therein  with  his  designs.  In 
1771  he  entered,  in  spite  of  his  father's  opposi- 
tion, the  military  school  established  by  the  duke 
at  Ludwigsburg,  where,  on  his  examination,  his 
talent  for  art  Avas  clearly  evinced.  When  he 
Avas  16,  he  obtained  a  prize  for  his  model  of  Mile 
of  Crotona.  He  here  formed  a  friendship  Avith 
Schiller,  his  fellow  pupil,  which  lasted  Avhile  the 
poet  lived,  and  in  Avhose  memory  he  sculptured 
a  noble  statue  and  several  busts,  one  of  them  of 
colossal  size.  On  leaving  the  school  in  1780,  he 
was  appointed  statuary  to  the  court,  and  3  years 
afterAvard  went  to  Paris  on  foot,  having  only 
his  small  salary,  as  statuary,  of  about  $125  a 
year.  He  remained  2  years  in  Paris,  finding 
much  encouragement  from  his  master,  Pajou, 
and  then  made  his  way  on  foot  to  Rome.  Here 
he  became  acquainted  with  Canova,  Avho  ren- 
dered him  much  service.  His  first  work  in 
marble  Avas  chiselled  in  Rome,  where  he  made 
statues  of  Ceres  and  Bacchus,  "which  procured 
his  admission  into  the  academies  of  Milan  and 
Bologna.  In  1790,  after  having  spent  5  years 
in  Rome,  he  returned  to  his  native  country,  and 
was  made  a  professor  of  the  fine  arts  in  the 
academy  of  Stuttgart.  In  1790  he  produced  sev- 
eral works  in  marble,  among  them  a  Sappho ; 
and  afterward  was  employed  by  Frederic  of 
Wiirtemberg  upon  a  monument  to  Count  Zep- 
pelin, representing  a  figure  of  friendship  Aveeping 
over  a  cofiin.  This  he  finished  in  1804,  and  in 
1809  began  his  most  celebrated  work,  Ariadne, 
which  is  noAv  in  Bethmann's  garden,  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main.  In  1812  he  Avas  again  era- 
jiloyed  by  King  Frederic,  on  a  statue  of  Cupid. 
His  greatest  Avork  is  his  colossal  statue  of  Christ, 
on  which  he  spent  8  years.  This  Avas  order- 
ed by  the  empress-mother  of  Russia,  and  pre- 
sented to  her  son  Alexander  I.  In  1826  ho 
executed  a  statue  of  St.  John,  which  is  also 


DANNEMORA 


DANTE 


247 


ranked  among  liis  best  ])roduction3.  Among 
inotluni  sculptors  he  occupies  a  medium  place 
between  Canova  and  Thorwaldsen. 

DANNEMORA,  a  townsliip  of  Clinton  cc, 
N.  Y.,  150  m.  N.  of  Albany,  formed  from 
Beekmantovvn  in  ISo-i;  pop.  in  1855,  723.  It 
is  the  seat  of  Clinton  state  prison,  which  in 
1857  contained  274  convicts,  mostly  employed 
in  the  neighboring  iron  works  and  mines.  In 
1852,  when  the  number  of  inmates  was  only 
155,  the  annual  expenses  of  the  institution  ex- 
ceeded the  prisoners'  earnings  by  about  $27,000. 

DANNER,  LuisE  Ciikistina,  countess,  mor- 
ganatic wife  of  Frederic  VII.  of  Denmark,  bora 
in  Coi)enhagen,  April  21,  1814.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Rasnmssen.  She  was  only  15  when 
slie  attracted  the  attention  of  Frederic.  At 
first  she  supported  herself  as  a  governess  in  a 
Norwegian  family,  and  afterward  as  a  milliner. 
Toward  1845,  when  Frederic,  who  had  been 
absent  from  Copenhagen,  returned  to  the  Dan- 
ish capital,  lie  renewed  his  acquaintance  with 
her.  On  Jan.  20,  1848,  on  his  accession  to  the 
throne  of  Denmark,  he  conferred  upon  her  the 
title  of  Countess  Danner,  and  on  Aug.  7,  1850, 
contracted  a  morganatic  marriage  witli  her  in 
the  chapel  of  the  palace  of  Frederiksborg.  She 
lias  founded  several  cliaritable  institutions,  and 
in  1852  and  1854,  when  she  accompanied  the 
Danish  sovereign  in  his  tour  through  the  prov- 
inces, she  was  everywhere  received  with  great 
cordiality  by  the  people. 

DA  NT  AN,  Jean  Pierre,  a  French  sculptor, 
born  in  Paris,  Dec.  25, 1800.  lie  is  chiefly  dis- 
tinguished by  his  humorous  and  grotesque  busts 
of  eminent  contemporaries. 

DANTE  (Durante,  by  contraction  Dante) 
DEGLI  ALIGIIIERI,  the  illustrious  Italian  poet, 
was  born  at  Florence  in  1265,  probably  during 
the  month  of  May.*  This  is  the  date  given  by 
Boccaccio,  who  is  generally  followed,  though 
he  makes  a  blunder  in  saying,  sedendo  Urhano 
qxiarto  nella  cattedra  di  San  Pietro,  for  Urban 
died  in  Ootober,  1264.  Some,  misled  by  an  er- 
ror in  a  few  of  the  early  manuscript  copies  of 
the  Divina  Commedia^  would  have  liim  born 
5  years  earlier,  in  1260.  According  to  Arriva- 
bene  (Secolo  di  Dante,  Udine  edition  of  1828, 
vol.  iii.  part  i.  p.  578),  Sausovino  was  the  first 
to  confirm  Boccaccio's  statement  by  the  author- 
ity of  the  poet  himself,  basing  his  argument  on 
the  first  verse  of  the  Inferno  : 

Nelmiezzo  del  cammin  di  nostra  vita; 
the  average  age  of  man  having  been  declared 
by  the  Psalmist  to  be  70  years,  and  the  period 
of  the  [joefs  supposed  vision  being  unequivo- 
cally fixed  at  ISOO.t  Leonardo  Aretino  and 
Manetti  add  their  testimony  to  that  of  Boccaccio, 

*  The  Kouvelle  hiogrnphie  generale  civcs  ^lay  S  as  his 
birthday.  This  is  a  mere  .issuiiiption,  for  Boccaccio  only 
B.iys  penerally  May.  The  indication  which  Dante  himself 
gives  that  lie  was  born  when  the  sun  w.-is  in  Gemini  would 
cive  a  range  from  about  the  middle  of  May  to  about  the  mid- 
dle of  June,  so  that  the  Sth  is  certainly  too  early. 
_+ Arrivabene,  however,  is  wron<r.  Boccaccio' makes  pre- 
cisely the  .same  reckoning  in  the  first  note  of  Lis  commenta- 
ry (Uocc.  Comento,  &.c.,  Firenze,  1S44,  voL  i.  pp.  32,  33). 


and  1265  is  now  universally  assumed  as  tho 
true  date.  Voltaire  (IHci.  Phil.,  art.  "■  Dante"), 
nevertheless,  places  tlie  poet's  birth  in  1260, 
and  jauntily  forgives  Bayle  (who,  he  says, 
ecrivuit  cL  Itotterdam  curremte  calamo  ;;owr 
son  lihraire)  for  having  been  right,  declaring 
that  he  esteems  him  neither  more  nor  less  for 
having  made  a  mistake  of  5  years.  Oddly 
enough,  Voltaire  adopts  this  alleged  blunder  of 
5  years  on  the  next  page,  in  saying  that  Dante 
died  at  the  age  of  56,  thougli  he  still  more  oddly 
omits  the  undisputed  date  of  his  death  (1321), 
which  would  have  shown  Bayle  to  be  right.  Tho 
poet's  descent  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from 
a  younger  son  of  the  great  Roman  family  of  the 
Frangipani,  classed  by  the  popular  rhyme  with 
the  Orsini  and  Colonna: 

Colonna.  Orsini,  e  Frangipani, 
I'reudono  oggi  e  pagano  domani. 

That  his  ancestors  had  been  long  established  iu 
Florence  is  an  inference  from  some  expressions 
of  the  poet,  and  from  their  dwelling  having  been 
situated  in  the  more  ancient  part  of  the  city.  The 
most  important  fact  of  the  poet's  genealogy  is, 
that  he  was  of  mixed  race,  the  Alighieri  being  of 
Teutonic  origin.  Dante  was  born  (as  he  him- 
self tells  us,  Parad.  xxii.)  when  the  sun  was  in 
the  constellation  Gemini,  and  it  is  supposed 
from  a  passage  in  the  Inferno  (Canto  xv.)  that 
his  horoscope  was  drawn  and  a  great  destiny 
predicted  for  him  by  his  teacher,  Brunetto 
Latini.  The  Ottimo  Gomento  tells  ns  that  the 
Twins  are  the  house  of  Mercury,  wiio  induces 
in  men  the  faculty  of  writing,  science,  and  of 
acquiring  knowledge.  This  is  worth  mention- 
ing as  characteristic  of  the  age  and  of  Dante 
himself,  with  whom  the  influence  of  the  stars 
took  the  place  of  the  old  notion  of  destiny 
(Purg.  xvi.).  It  is  supposed  from  a  passage 
in  Boccaccio's  life  of  Dante,  that  Alighiero  the 
father  was  still  living  when  the  poet  was  9 
years  old.  If  so,  he  must  have  died  soon  after, 
for  Leonardo  Aretino,  who  wrote  with  original 
documents  before  him,  tells  us  that  Dante  lost 
his  father  while  yet  a  child.  This  circumstance 
may  have  been  not  without  influence  in  muscu- 
lariziug  his  nature  to  that  character  of  self-reli- 
ance which  shows  itself  so  constantly  and  sharp- 
ly during  his  after  life.  His  tutor  was  Brunetto 
Latini,  a  very  superior  man  (for  that  age),  says 
Aretino  parenthetically.  Like  Alexander  Gill, 
he  is  now  remembered  only  as  the  schoolmtis- 
ter  of  a  great  poet,  and  that  he  did  his  duty 
well  may  be  infen-ed  from  Dante's  speaking 
of  him  gratefully  as  one  who  by  times  "taught 
him  how  man  eternizes  himself."  This,  and 
what  Villani  says  of  his  refining  the  Tuscan 
idiom  (for  so  we  understand  his  farli  scorti 
in  iene  jyarhire*),  are  to  be  noted  as  of  probable 
influence  on  the  career  of  his  pupil.  Of  the 
order  of  Dante's  studies  nothing  can  be  certainly 

*  Though  he  himself  preferred'  French,  and  wrote  his  Tre- 
sorin  that  language  for  two  reasons,  I'una  percM  noi  al- 
amo in  Francia^'e.  I'altra  percJie  la  ]>arlatura  francesca 
e plu  dilettevnle  e  pii't  camuna  ehe  tuiti  li  altri  linguag-- 
gV    {Proemio,  suljine.} 


i48 


DANTE 


affirmed.  His  biographers  send  him  to  Bologna, 
Padiia,  Paris,  Naples,  and  even  Oxford.  All 
are  doubtful,  Paris  and  Oxford  most  of  all,  and 
the  dates  utterly  undeterminable.  Bologna  and 
Padua  ^ve  should  be  inclined  to  place  before 
his  exile,  Paris  and  Oxford,  if  at  all,  after  it. 
If  no  argUTnent  in  favor  of  Paris  is  to  be  drawn 
from  his  P(t2}e  Satan  {Inf.  canto  vii.)  and  tlio 
corresponding  jxd.v,  paix,  Sathan,  in  the  au- 
tobiography of  Cellini,  nor  from  the  very  defi- 
nite allusion  to  Doctor  Siger  (Pai'.  canto  x.),  we 
may  yet  infer  from  some  passages  in  the  Co?n- 
media  that  his  wanderings  had  extended  even 
further  (see  especially  //;/.  ix.  112  et  seg.  ; 
xii.  120 ;  xv.  4  et  seq. ;  xxxii.  25-30) ;  for 
it  would  not  be  hard  to  show  that  his  com- 
parisons and  illustrations  from  outward  things 
are  almost  invariably  drawn  from  actual  eye- 
sight. As  to  the  nature  of  his  studies,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  he  went  through  the  tririum 
(grammar,  dialectics,  rhetoric)  and  the  quadri- 
vium  (arithmetic,  music,  geometry,  and  astrono- 
my) of  the  then  ordinary  university  course.  To 
these  he  afterward  added  painting  (or  at  least 
drawing — designavo  itn  angelo  sojjra  certc  tuvo- 
lette—  Vit.  Nuov.  p.  61,  ed.  JPesaro,  1829),  theolo- 
gy, and  medicine.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
l>upilof  Cimabue,  and  was  certainly  the  friend  of 
Giotto,  the  designs  for  some  of  whose  frescoes  at 
Assisi  and  elsewhere  have  been  wrongly  attribut- 
ed to  him.  To  prove  his  love  of  music,  the  epi- 
sode of  Casella  were  enough,  even  without  Boc- 
caccio's testimony.  The  range  of  Dante's  study 
and  acquirement  would  be  encj'clopajdic  in  any 
age,  but  at  that  time  it  was  literally  possible  to 
master  the  omne  scihile,  and  he  seems  to  have 
accomplished  it.  How  lofty  his  theory  of  sci- 
ence was,  is  plain  from  this  passage  in  the  Oon- 
vito :  "  lie  is  not  to  be  called  a  true  lover  of 
wisdom  ijilosofo)  who  loves  it  for  the  sake  of 
gain,  as  do  lawyers,  physicians,  and  almost  all 
priests  {li  rcligiosi),  who  study,  not  in  order 
to  know,  but  to  acquire  riches  or  advance- 
ment, and  who  would  not  persevere  in  study 
should  you  give  them  what  they  desire  to  gain 

by  it And  it  may  be  said  that  (as  true 

friendship  between  men  consists  in  each  wholly 
loving  the  other)  tlie  true  philosopher  loves 
every  part  of  wisdom,  and  wisdom  every  part 
of  the  philosopher,  inasmuch  as  she  draws  all  to 
herself,  and  allows  no  one  of  his  thoughts  to 
wander  to  other  things."  (Tratt.  iii.  cap.  11.) 
The  Co7ivito  gives  us  a  glance  into  Dante's  li- 
brary. We  find  Aristotle  (whom  he  calls  the 
])hilosopher,  the  master)  cited  76  times ;  Cicero 
18;  Albertus  Magnus  7  ;  Boethius6;  Plato  (at 
second  hand)  4;  Aquinas,  Avicenna,  Ptolemj',  the 
Digest,  Lucan,  and  Ovid,  3  each ;  Virgil,  Juve- 
nal, Statius,  Seneca,  and  Horace,  twice  each; 
and  Algazzali,  Alfrogan,  Augustine,  Livy,  Oro- 
sius,  and  Homer  (at  second  hand),  once.  Of 
Greek  lie  seems  to  have  understood  little ;  of 
Hebrew  and  Arabic,  a  few  Avords.  But  it  was 
not  only  in  the  closet  and  from  books  that 
Dante  received  his  education.  lie  acquired, 
perhaps,  the  better  part  of  it  in  the  streets  of 


Florence,  and  later,  in  those  homeless  wander- 
ings whicli  led  him  (as  he  says)  Avherever  the 
Italian  tongue  was  spoken.  Ilis  were  the  only 
open  eyes  of  that  century,  and,  as  nothing  es- 
caped-them,  so  there  is  nothing  that  was  not 
photographed  upon  his  sensitive  brain,  to  be 
afterward  fixed  for  ever  in  the  Commedia. 
What  Florence  was  during  his  youth  and  man- 
hood, with  itsGuelphsand  Ghibellines,  its  nobles 
and  trades,  its  Bianchi  and  Neri,  its  kaleido- 
scopic revolutions,  "all  parties  loving  liberty 
and  doing  their  best  to  destroy  her,"  as  Voltaire 
says,  it  would  be  beyond  our  province  to  tell 
even  if  we  could.  Foreshortened  as  events  are 
when  we  look  back  on  them  across  so  many 
ages,  only  the  upheavals  of  party  conflict  catch- 
ing the  eye,  while  the  spaces  of  peace  between 
sink  out  of  the  view  of  history,  a  whole  cen- 
tury seems  like  a  mere  wild  chaos.  Yet  during 
a  couple  of  such  centuries  the  cathedrals  of 
Florence,  Pisa,  and  Sienna  got  built ;  Cimabue, 
Giotto,  Arnolfo,  the  Pisani,  Brunelleschi,  and 
Ghiberti  gave  the  impulse  to  modern  art,  or 
brouglit  it  in  some  of  its  branches  to  its  cul- 
minating point ;  modern  literature  took  its  rise ; 
commerce  became  a  science,  and  the  middle 
class  came  into  being.  It  was  a  time  of  fierce 
passions  and  sudden  tragedies,  of  picturesque 
transitions  and  contrasts.  It  found  Dante,  shaped 
him  by  every  experience  that  life  is  capable 
of,  rank,  ease,  love,  study,  affairs,  statecraft, 
hope,  exile,  hunger,  dependence,  despair ;  until 
he  became  endowed  with  a  sense  of  the  noth- 
ingness of  this  world's  goods  possible  only  to 
the  rich,  and  a  knowledge  of  man  possible  only 
to  the  poor.  The  few  well  ascertained  facts  of 
Dante's  life  may  be  briefly  stated.  In  1274  oc- 
curred Avhat  we  may  call  his  spiritual  birth,  the 
awakening  in  him  of  the  imaginative  faculty, 
and  of  that  profuunder  and  more  intense  con- 
sciousness which  springs  from  the  recognition 
of  beauty  through  the  antithesis  of  sex.  It  was 
in  that  year  that  he  first  saw  Beatrice  Portinari. 
In  1289  he  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Campal- 
dino,  fighting  on  the  side  of  the  Guelphs,  who 
there  utterly  routed  the  Ghibellines,  and  where, 
he  says,  "I  Avas  present,  not  a  boy  in  arms,  and 
Avhere  I  felt  much  fear,  but  in  the  end  the  great- 
est pleasure  from  the  various  changes  of  the 
fight."  (Letter  of  Dante,  now  lost,  cited  by 
Aretino.)  In  the  same  year  he  assisted  at  tlie 
siege  and  capture  of  Caprona.  (/«/.  xxi.  94.) 
In  1290  died  Beatrice,  married  to  Simone  del 
Bardi,  precisely  when  is  uncertain,  but  before 
1287,  as  appears  by  a  mention  of  her  in  her 
father's  A\ill,  bearing  date  Jan,  15  of  that 
year.  Dante's  OAvn  marriage  is  assigned  to  va- 
rious years,  ranging  from  1291  to  1294;  but 
the  earlier  date  seems  the  more  probable,  as 
he  was  the  father  of  7  children  (the  youngest  a 
daughter,  named  Beatrice)  in  1301.  His  Avife 
Avas  Gemma  dei  Donati,  and  through  her  Dante, 
whose  family,  though  noble,  was  of  the  lesser 
nobility,  became  nearly  connected  with  Corso 
Donati,  the  head  of  a  powerful  *clan  of  the 
graiidi  or  greater  nobles.     In  1293  occurred 


DANTE 


249 


•what  is  called  the  revolntion  of  Gian  Delia 
Bella,  in  -tt'hich  the  priors  of  the  trades  took 
the  power  into  their  own  hands  and  made  nobil- 
ity a  disqualification  for  office.  A  noble  was 
defined  to  be  any  one  who  counted  a  knight 
among  his  ancestors,  and  thus  tlie  descendant 
of  Cacciagnida  was  excluded.  Delia  Bella  was 
exiled  in  1295,  but  the  nobles  did  not  regain 
their  power.  On  the  contrary,  the  citizens,  hav- 
ing all  their  own  way,  proceeded  to  quarrel 
aaiong  themselves,  and  subdivided  into  the popo- 
lani  grossi  and  popolani  7ninuti,  or  greater  and 
lesser  trades,  a  distinction  of  gentility  some- 
what like  that  between  wholesale  and  retail 
tradesmen.  The  grandi  continuing  turbulent, 
many  of  the  lesser  nobility,  among  them  Dante, 
drew  over  to  the  side  of  the  citizens,  and  be- 
tween 1297  and  1300  there  is  found  inscribed 
in  the  book  of  the  physicians  and  apothecaries, 
Dante tV Aldighiero,  degll  Aldighieri, poeta  Fio- 
rentino.  (Balbo,  Vita  di  Dante,  Firenze,  1853, 
p.  117.)  Prof,  de  Yericour  ("  Life  and  Times  of 
Dante,"  London,  1858,  p.  80)  thinks  it  necessary 
to  apologize  for  this  lapse  on  the  part  of  the 
poet,  and  gravely  bids  ns  take  courage,  nor  think 
that  Dante  was  ever  an  apothecary.  In  1300 
we  find  him  elected  one  of  the  priors  of  the  cit\-. 
In  order  to  a  perfect  misunderstanding  of  every 
thing  connected  with  the  Florentine  politics  of 
this  period,  one  has  only  to  study  tlie  various 
histories.  The  result  is  a  spectrum  on  the 
mind's  eye,  Avhich  looks  definite  and  brilliant, 
but  really  hinders  all  accurate  vision,  as  if  from 
too  steady  inspection  of  a  Catharine  wheel  in 
full  whirl.  A  few  words,  however,  are  neces- 
sary, if  only  to  make  the  confusion  palpable. 
The  rival  German  families  of  Welfs  and  AYeib- 
lingens  had  given  their  names,  softened  into 
Guelfi  andGhibellini — from  which  Gabriel  Har- 
vey (notes  to  Spenser's  "  Shepherd's  Calendar") 
ingeniously,  but  mistakenly,  derives  elves  and 
goblins — to  two  parties  in  northern  Italy,  rep- 
resenting respectively  the  adherents  of  the 
pope  and  of  the  emperor,  but  serving  very  well 
as  rallying  points  in  all  manner  of  intercalary 
and  subsidiary  quarrels.  The  nobles,  especially 
the  greater  ones,  perhaps  from  instinct,  perhaps 
in  part  from  hereditary  tradition,  as  being  more 
or  less  Teutonic  by  descent,  were  commonly 
Gliibellines  or  imperialists ;  the  bourgeoisie 
were  very  commonly  Guelphs  or  supporters  of 
the  pope,  partly  from  natural  antipathy  to  the 
nobles,  and  partly,  perhaps,  because  they  be- 
lieved themselves  to  be  espousing  the  more 
purely  Italian  side.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
party  relation  of  nobles  and  burghers  to  each 
other  was  reversed,  but  the  names  Guelph  and 
Ghibelline  always  substantially  represented  the 
same  things.  The  family  of  Dante  had  been 
Guelphic,  and  we  have  seen  him  already  as  a 
young  man  serving  two  campaigns  against  the 
other  party.  But  no  immediate  question  as  be- 
tween pope  and  emperor  seems  then  to  have  been 
pending ;  and  while  there  is  no  evidence  that  he 
was  ever  a  mere  partisan,  the  reverse  would  be 
the  inference  from  his  habits  and  character. 


Just  before  his  assumption  of  the  prlorate,  how- 
ever, a  new  complication  had  arisen.  A  family 
feud  beginning  at  the  neighboring  city  of  Pis- 
toja,  between  the  Cancellieri  Neri  and  Cancel- 
lieri  Bianchi  (see  the  story  at  length  in  Balbo, 
Ft?afZiZ''<?!?e,  cap.  X.),  had  extended  to  Florence, 
where  the  Guelphs  took  the  part  of  the  Neri  and 
the  Ghibellines  of  the  Bianchi.*  The  city  was 
instantly  in  a  ferment  of  street  brawls,  as  act- 
ors in  one  of  which  sotne  of  the  Medici  are  in- 
cidentally named,  the  first  appearance  of  that 
family  in  history.  Both  parties  appealed  at 
different  times  to  the  pope,  who  sent  two  am- 
bassadors, first  a  bishop  and  then  a  cardinal. 
Both  pacificators  soon  flung  out  again  in  a  rage, 
after  adding  the  new  element  of  excommunica- 
tion to  the  causes  of  confusion.  It  was  in  the 
midst  of  these  things  that  Dante  became  one  of 
the  6  priors  (.June,  1300),  an  office  which  the 
Florentines  had  made  bimestrial  in  its  tenure,  in 
order  apparently  to  secure  at  least  6  constitu- 
tional chances  of  revolution  in  the  year.  He 
advised  that  the  leaders  of  both  parties  should 
be  banished  to  the  frontiers,  which  was  forth- 
with done,  the  ostracism  including  his  relative 
Corso  Donati  among  the  Xeri,  and  his  most  in- 
timate friend  the  poet  Guido  Cavalcanti  among 
the  Bianchi.  They  were  all  permitted  to  re- 
turn before  long  (but  after  Dante's  term  of  office 
was  over),  and  came  accordingly,  bringing  at 
least  the  scriptural  allowance  of  "  seven  other" 
motives  of  mischief  with  them.  Afl:airs  getting 
worse  (1301),  the  Xeri,  with  the  connivance  of 
the  pope  (Boniface  VIII.),  entered  into  an  ar- 
rangement with  Charles  of  Yalois,  who  was 
preparing  an  expedition  to  Italy.  Dante  was 
meanwhile  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Eome  TSept. 
1301,  according  to  Arrivabene,  Secolo  di  Dante, 
p.  654,  but  probably  earlier)  by  the  Bianchi,  who 
still  retained  all  the  offices  at  Florence.  It  is 
the  tradition  that  he  said  in  setting  forth :  "  If  I 
go,  who  remains?  and  if  I  stay,  who  goes?" 
Whether  true  or  not,  the  story  implies  what 
was  certainly  true,  that  the  council  and  influence 
of  Dante  were  of  great  weight  with  the  more  mo- 
derate of  both  parties.  On  Oct.  31, 1301,  Charles 
took  possession  of  Florence  in  the  interest  of 
the  Xeri.  Dante  being  still  at  Rome  (Jan.  27, 
1302),  sentence  of  exile  was  pronounced  against 
him  and  others,  with  a  heavy  fine  to  be  paid 
within  two  months ;  if  not  paid,  the  entire  confis- 
cation of  goods,  and,  whether  paid  or  no,  exile ; 
the  charge  against  him  being  pecuniary  malver- 
sation in  office.  The  fine  not  paid  (as  it  could 
not  be  without  admitting  the  justice  of  the 
charges,  which  Dante  scorned  even  to  deny),  in 
less  Than  fwo  months  (March  10, 1302)  a  second 
sentence  was  registered  by  which  he  with  others 
was  condemned  to  be  burned  alive  if  taken  with- 
in the  boundaries  of  the  republic.t     From  this 

•  ThnsFoscolo.  Perhaps  it  wonl'l  be  more  accurate  to  say 
that  at  first  the  blacks  were  the  extreme  Guelphs,  and  the 
•whiti^s  those  moderate  Guelphs  inclined  to  jnake  terms  with 
the  Ghibelline?.  The  matter  is  obscure,  and  Balbo  contra- 
dicts himself  about  it. 

t  That  Dante  was  not  of  the  graiidi  or  great  nobles 
(what  we  call  grandees),  as  Bome  of  his  biographers  hav8 


250 


DANTE 


time  the  life  of  Dante  becomes  semi-mythical, 
and  for  nearly  every  date  ^ve  are  reduced  to  the 
"  as  they  say"  of  Herodotus.     lie  became  now 
necessarily    identified   with   his    fellow   exiles 
(fragments   of  all   parties  united  by  common 
wrongs  in  a  practical,  if  not  theoretic,  Ghibellin- 
ism),  and  sh;ired  in  their  attempts  to  reinstate 
themselves  by  force  of  arms,     lie  was  cue  of 
their  council  of  12,  but  withdrew  from  it  on 
account   of  the   unwisdom  of  their  measures. 
Whether  he  was  present  at  their  futile  assault 
on  Florence  (July  22,  1304)  is  doubtful,  but 
probably  he  was  not.     From  the  Ottiino  Co- 
mento^  written  at  least  in  part*  by  a  contempo- 
rary as  early  as  1333,  we  learn  that  Dante  soon 
separated  liimself  from  his  companions  in  mis- 
fortune with  mutual  discontents  and  recrimina- 
tions.   {Ott.  Com.  Farad,  xvii.)   During  the  19 
years  of  Dante's  exile,  it  Avould  be  hard  to  say 
where  he  was  not.   In  certain  districts  of  north- 
ern Italy  there  is  scarce  a  village  that  has  not  its 
tradition  of  him,  its  sedia,  rocca,  s2JeIonca,,  or  torre 
di  Dante  ;  and  what  between  the  patriotic  com- 
plaisance of  some  biographers   overwilling  to 
gratify  as  many  provincial  vanities  as  possible, 
and  the  pettishness  of  others  anxious  only  to 
enub  them,  the  confusion  becomes  hopeless.t 
After  his  banishment  we  find  some  definite  trace 
of  him  first  at  Arezzo  with  Uguccione  della 
Faggiuola ;  then  at  Sienna  ;  then  at  A^erona  with 
thsScaligeri.  He  himself  says:  "  Through  almost 
all  parts  where  this  language  [Italian]  is  spoken, 
a  wanderer,  well  nigh  a  beggar,  I  have  gone, 
showing  against  my  will  the  wound  of  fortune. 
Truly  I  have   been  a  vessel   without   sail  or 
rudder,  driven  to  diverse  ports,  estuaries,  and 
shores  by  that  hot  blast,  the  breath  of  grievous 
poverty ;  and  I  have  shown  myself  to  the  eyes 
of  many  Avho  perhaps,  through  some  fame  of 
me,  had  imagined  me  in  quite  other  guise,  in 
whose  view  not  only  was  my  person  debased, 
but  every  work  of  mine,  whether  done  or  yet 
to  do,  became  of  less  account."   {Convito.,  tratt. 
i.  cap.    3.)     By  the  election   of  the  emperor 
Henry  VII.  (of  Luxemburg,  Nov.  1308),  and 
the  news  of  his  proposed  expedition  into  Italy, 
the  hopes  of  Dante  were  raised  to  the  highest 
pitch.     Henry  entered  Italy,  Oct.  1310,  and  re- 
ceived the  iron  crown  of  Lombardy  at  Milan,  on 
the  day  of  Epiphany,  1311.     His  movements  be- 
ing slow,  and  his  policy  imdecided,  Dante  address- 
ed him  that  famous  letter,  urging  him  to  crush 

tried  to  make  out,  is  plain  from  this  sentence,  wliere  his 
name  appears  low  on  tlie  list  and  with  no  ornamental  prefix, 
after  half  a  dnzrn  dnmini.  Bayle,  however,  is  equally  wrong 
in  supposinic  his  family  to  have  been  obscure. 

*  See  Witte,  Quamlo  e,  da  chi  sia  camposio  ItOtUmo  Co- 
tnento,  &c.  (Leipsic,  1847). 

t  The  loose  way  in  which  many  Italian  scholars  write  his- 
tory is  as  amazinp;  as  it  is  perplexing.  For  example :  Count 
Balbo's  "  Life  of  t)ante"  was  published  originally  at  Turin, 
in  1S39.  In  a  note  (lib.  i.  cap.  10)  he  expresses  a  doubt  wheth- 
er the  date  of  Dante's  banishment  should  not  be  1303,  and  in- 
clines to  think  it  should  be.  Meanwhile,  it  seems  never  to 
have  occurred  to  him  to  employ  some  one  to  look  at  tho 
original  decree,  still  existing  in  the  archives.  Stranger  still, 
Le  Monnier,  reprinting  tho  work  at  Florence,  in  1S53,  within 
a,  stone's  throw  of  the  document  itself,  .and  with  full  permis- 
liion  from  Balbo  to  make  corrections,  leaves  the  matter  just 
where  it  was. 


first  the  "  Hydra  and  Myrrha"  Florence,  as  the 
root  of  all  the  evils  of  Italy  (April  1 6, 1311).    To 
this  year  we  must  probably  assign  the  new  de- 
cree by  which  the  seignory  of  Florence  recalled 
a  portion  of  the  exiles,  excepting  Dante,  howev- 
er, among  others,  by  name.*     The  undertaking 
of  Henry,  after  an  ill-du-ected  dawdling  of  two 
years,  at  last  ended  in  his  death  at  Buoncon- 
vento  (Aug.  24,  1313 ;    Carlyle  says  wrongly 
Sept.),  poisoned,  it  was  said,  in  tho  sacramental 
bread,  by  a  Dominican  friar,  bribed  thereto  by 
Florence.    (See  Carlyle's  "  Frederic,"  Harper's 
ed.  vol.  i.  p.  1 12.)  The  story  is  doubtful,  the  more 
as  Dante  nowliere  alludes  to  it,  as  he  certainly 
Avould  have  done  had  he  heard  of  it.     According 
to  Balbo,  Dante  spent  the  time  from  Aug.  1313, 
to  Nov.  1314,  in  Pisa  and  Lucca,  and  then  took 
refuge  at  Verona,  with  Can  Grande  della  Scala 
(whom  Voltaire  calls,  drolly  enough,  le  grande- 
can  de  Yerone,  as  if  he  had  been  a  Tartar),  where 
be  remained  till  1318.     Foscolo  with  equal  posi- 
tiveness  sends  him,  immediately  after  the  death 
of  Henry,  to  Guido  da  Polentat  at  Eavenna,  and 
makes  him  join  Can  Grande  only  after  the  latter 
became  captain  of  the  Ghibelline  league  in  Dec. 
1318.     In  1316  the  government  of  Florence  set 
forth  a  new  decree  allowing  the  exiles  to  return 
on  conditions  of  fine  and  penance.   Dante  reject- 
ed the  offer  (by  accepting  which  his  guilt  would 
have  been  admitted),  in  a  letter  still  hot,  after 
these  5  centuries,  with  indignant  scorn.     "  Is 
this  then  the  glorious  return  of  Dante  Alighieri 
to  his  country  after  nearly  8  lustres  of  suffering 
exile?     Did  an  innocence  patent  to  all  merit 
this?     This,  the  perpetual  sweat  and  toil  of 
study  ?    Far  from  a  man  the  housemate  of  phi- 
losophy be  so  rash  and  earthen-hearted  a  humil- 
ity as  to  allow  himself  to  be  ofFe?ed  up  bound  like 
a  schoolboy  or  a  criminal !    Far  from  a  man  the 
preacher  of  justice  to  pay  those  who  have  done 
him  wrong  as  for  a  favor '     This  is  not  the  way 
of  returning  to  my  country;  but  if  another  can 
be  found  that  shall  not  derogate  from  tlie  fame 
and  honor  of  Dante,  that  I  will  enter  on  with 
no  lagging  steps.   For  if  by  none  such  Florence 
may  be  entered,  by  me  then  never !     Can  I  not 
everywhere  behold  the  mirrors  of  the  sun  and 
stars?     Speculate  on  sweetest  truths  under  any 
sky  without  first  giving  myself  up  inglorious, 
nay  ignominious,  to  the  populace  and  city  of 
Florence  ?     Nor  shall  I  want  for  bread."     Di- 
onisi  puts  the  date  of  this  letter  in  1315. J:     He 

*  Maechiavelli  is  the  authority  for  this,  and  is  carelessly 
cited  in  the  preface  to  the  Udine  edition  of  the  Codex  Bar- 
ioliiiitinus  as  placing  it  in  1312.  Maechiavelli  does  no  such 
thinff,  but  expressly  implies  an  earlier  date,  perhajis  1310. 
(See  Macch.  Op.  ed.  Baretti,  London,  1772,  vol.  i.  p.  60.) 

+  A  mistake,  for  Guido  did  not  become  lord  of  Eavenna  till 
several  years  later.  But  Boccaccio  also  as.signs  1313  as  tho 
date  of  Dante's  withdrawal  to  that  city,  and  his  first  protect- 
or may  have  been  one  of  the  other  Polentani  to  whom  (5uido 
(surnamed  Novello,  or  the  younger,  his  grandfather  having 
borne  the  same  name)  succeeded. 

X  Under  this  date  (1315)  a  4th  covdemnaiio  against  Dante 
is  mentioned,  facta  in  anno  1315  de  menxe  OctohiU  per 
J).  Raineritim  D.  Znckario  de  Urheveteri,  oUm  et  tunc 
vicarium  regiuin  ciritatis  Florentice,  &c.  It  is  found  re- 
cited in  the  decree  under  which  in  1342  Jacopo  di  Dante  re- 
deemed a  portion  of  his  father's  property,  to  wit :  Lna  pos- 
teasione  c^mi  vinea  et  cum  domibus  super  «a,  combustis  ti 


DANTE 


251 


is  certainly  wrong,  for  the  clccrec  is  dated  Dec. 
11,  1316.  Foscolo  places  it  in  1316,  Troja  early 
in  1317,  and  both  may  be  riglit,  as  tlio  year  began 
March  25.  Whatever  the  date  of  Dante's  visit  to 
Voltaire's  great  Khan*  of  A^'erona,  or  the  length 
of  his  stay  with  him,  may  have  been,  it  is  certain 
tliat  he  was  in  Ravenna  in  1320,  and  that  on 
his  return  thitlier  from  an  endjassy  to  Venice 
(concerning  which  a  curious  letter,  forged  prob- 
ably by  Doni,  is  extant),  he  died  on  Sept.  14, 
1321  ('l3tli  according  to  others).  lie  was  buried 
at  Ravenna  under  a  monument  built  by  liis 
friend,  Guido  Novello.t  Dante  is  said  to  have 
dictated  the  following  inscription  for  it  on  his 
deathbed  : 

.TVEA  MOKARCIlr.E  SvPEROS  PlII.EGETIIONTA  LACVSQVB 
LVSTRANDO  CECINI  VOLVEKVNT  FaTA  QVOVSQVE 
8eD  <JVIA  pars  CESSIT  MELIORinVS  lIOSriTA  CA8TRI3 
AVCTOREMQVE  SVVM  PETIIT  FEI.KIOR  ASTUIS 
HiC  CLAVDOE  DaNTES  PATRIIS  EXT0RUI8  AB  ORIS 
QVEM  GENVIT  PARVI  FlORENTIA  MATEP.  AMOBIS. 

Of  which  tliis  rude  paraphrase  may  serve  as  a 
translation : 

Tho  rishts  of  Monarchy,  the  Heavens,  the  Stream  of  Fire, 

the  Pit, 
In  vision  seen,  I  sansr  as  far  as  to  the  Fates  seemed  fit; 
IJiit  since  my  soul,  an  alien  here,  hath  flown  to  nobler  wars. 
And,  happier  now,  hath  gone  to  seek  its  Maker  'mid  tho 

stars. 
Here  am  I  Dante  shut,  exiled  from  the  ancestral  shove, 
Whom  Florence,  the  of  all  least-loving  mother,  bore.l 

If  these  be  not  tlie  words  of  Dante,  what  is  in- 
ternal evidence  worth?  Tlie  indomitably  self- 
reliant  man,  loyal  first  of  all  to  liis  most  unpop- 
ular convictions  (his  very  host,  Guido,  being  a 

non  combtistin,  posita  in  populo  8.  Miniaiin  de  Pagnola. 
In  the  ilojnihus  combtistis  we  see  the  blackened  traces  of 
,l)ante"s  kinsman  by  marriage,  Corso  Donati,  who  plundered 
and  burnt  the  houses  of  the  exiled  Bianchi,  during  the  occu- 
pation of  the  city  by  Charles  of  Valois.  (See  De  Komanis, 
notes  on  Tiraboschi's  Life  of  Dante,  in  the  Florence  ed.  of 
ls30,  vol.  V.  p.  119.) 

*  Voltaire's  blunder  has  been  made  part  of  a  serious  theory 
by  Mons.  E.  Aroux,  who  gravely  assures  us  that,  during  tho 
middle  ages,  Tartar  was  only  a  cryptcmyme  by  which  here- 
tics knew  each  other,  and  adds:  II  n'y  a  done  pas  trap  d 
a'etonner  des  vom.f  hizarres  de  Miistino  et  de  Cane  donnes 
d  ces  Delia  Sca/a.  {Danle.  heretique,  revoluiionnaire,  «t 
socialixte,  Paris,  1854,  pp.  llS-120.) 

t  If  no  monument  at  all  was  built  by  Guido,  as  is  asserted 
by  Balbo  ( Vita,  1.  ii.  cap.  xvii.),  whom  De  Vericour  copies 
without  question,  we  are  at  a  loss  to  account  for  the  preser- 
vation of  the  original'epitaph  replaced  by  Cardinal  Bembo 
when  he  built  the  new  tomb,  in  14S.3.  Bembo"s  own  in- 
scription implies  an  already  existing  monument,  and,  if  in 
disparaging  terms,  yet  epitaphial  Latin  verses  are  not  to  ba 
taken  too  literally,  considering  the  exigencies  of  that  branch 
of  literary  activity.  The  doggerel  Latin  hiis  been  thousht 
by  some  unworthyof  Dante,  as  Shakespeare's  doggerel  Eng- 
lish epitaph  has  been  thought  unworthy  of  him.  In  both 
cases  the  rudeness  of  the  verses  seems  to  us  a  proof  of  au- 
thenticity. An  enlightened  posterity  with  unlimited  super- 
latives at  command,  and  in  an  age  when  stone-cutting  was 
cheaj),  would  have  aimed  at  sornething  more  befitting  the 
occasion.  It  is  certain,  at  least  in  Dante's  case,  that  Cardi- 
nal Bembo  would  never  have  inserted  in  the  very  first  words 
an  allusion  to  the  De  Mondrchia,  a  book  long  before  con- 
demned .as  heretical. 

X  We  have  translated  lacmque  by  "the  Pit,"  as  being  the 
nearest  English  correlative.  Dante  probably  meant  by  it 
the  several  circles  of  his  Hell,  narrowinsr,  one  beneath  "the 
other,  to  the  centre.  As  a  curious  specimen  of  English  we 
subjoin  Prof.  De  Vericour's  translation:  ''I  have  sang  the 
rights  of  monarchy;  I  have  sang,  in  exploring  them,  the 
abode  of  God,  the  Phlegethon  and  the  impure  lakes,  as  long 
as  destinies  have  permitted.  But  as  the  part  of  myself, 
which  was  only  passing,  returns  to  better  fields,  and  hap- 
pier, returned  to  his  Maker,  I,  Dante,  exiled  from  the  re- 
gions of  the  fatherland,  I  am  laid  here,  I,  to  whom  Florence 
gave  birth,  a  mother  who  experienced  but  a  feeble  love." 
(The  "Life  and  Times  of  Dante,"  London,  1S5S,  p.  20S.) 


Guelph),  puts  his  Gliibcllinism  (j'tra  monar- 
chim)  in  the  front.  Tlie  man  whose  whole  life, 
like  tliat  of  selected  souls  always,  had  been  a 
warfare,  calls  Heaven  anotiier  camp — a  better 
one,  tliank  God !  Tlie  wanderer  of  so  many 
3'ears  speaks  of  his  soul  as  a  guest — glad  to  bo 
gone,  doubtless.  The  exile,  whose  sharpest  re- 
proaches of  Florence  are  always  those  of  an  out- 
raged lover,  finds  it  bitter  that  even  his  uncon- 
scious bones  should  lie  in  alien  soil. — Personal 
Characteristics  ;  Anecdotes.  Giovanni  Villani, 
the  earliest  authority,  and  a  contemporary,  thus 
sketches  him  :  "  This  man  was  a  great  scholar 
in  almost  every  science,  though  a  layman  ;  Avas 
a  most  excellent  poet,  jdiilosopher,  and  rhetori' 
cian ;  perfect,  as  well  in  composing  and  versi- 
fying as  in  liaranguing ;  a  most  noble  speaker. 

This  Dante,  on  account  of  his  learning, 

was  a  little  haughty,  and  shy,  and  disdainful, 
and  like  a  philosopher  almost  ungracious,  knew 
not  well  how  to  deal  with  unlettered  folk." 
Benvenuto  da  Imola  tells  us  that  he  was  very 
abstracted,  as  we  may  well  believe  of  a  man 
who  carried  the  Commcdia  in  his  brain.  Boc- 
caccio paints  him  in  this  wise  :  "  Our  poet  was 
of  middle  height;  his  face  was  long,  his  nose 
aquiline,  his  jaw  large,  and  the  lower  lip  pro- 
truding somewhat  beyond  the  upper;  a  little 
stooping  in  the  shoulders;  his  eyes  rather  large 
than  small ;  dark  of  complexion ;  his  hair  and 
beard  thick,  crisp,  and  black ;  and  his  counte- 
nance always  sad  and  thoughtful.  His  garments 
Avere  always  dignified,  the  style  such  as  suited 
ripeness  of  years  ;  his  gait  Avas  grave  and  gen- 
tlemanlike ;  and  his  bearing,  Avhether  public  or 
private,  wonderfully  composed  and  polished.  In 
meat  and  drink  he  Avas  most  temperate,  nor  Avas 
ever  any  more  zealous  in  study  or  Avhatever  oth- 
er pursuit.  Seldom  spake  he,  save  Avhen  spoken 
to,  though  a  most  eloquent  person.  In  his  youth 
he  delighted  especially  in  music  and  singing,  and 
was  intimate  Avith  almost  all  the  singers  and 
musicians  of  his  day.  lie  was  much  inclined  to 
solitude,  and  familiar  Avith  few,  and  most  asBid- 
uous  in  study  as  far  as  he  could  find  time  for  it. 
Dante  was  also  of  marvellous  capacity  and  the 
most  tenacious  memory."  Various  anecdotes 
of  him  are  related  by  Boccaccio,  Sacchetti,  and 
others,  none  of  them  verisimilar,  and  some  of 
them  at  least  15  centuries  old  Avhen  revamped. 
Most  of  them  are  neither  veri  nor  ten  troi-ati. 
One  clear  glimpse  Ave  get  of  him  from  the  Otti- 
mo  Comento^  the  author  of  which  says  {Inf.  x. 
85):  "I,  the  writer,  heard  Dante  say  that  never 
a  rhyme  had  led  him  to  say  other  than  he  would, 
but  that  many  a  time  and  oft  {molte  e  sjjcsse 
volte)  he  had  made  words  say  for  him  what  they 
were  not  Avont  to  express  for  other  poets." 
That  is  the  only  sincere  glimpse  we  get  of 
the  living,  breathing,  Avord-compelling  Dante. 
— The  Posthumous  Dante.  Looked  at  outward- 
ly*, the  life  of  Dante  seems  to  have  been  an 
utter  and  disastrous  failure.  What  its  iuAvard 
satisfactions  must  have  been,  we,  with  the  Pa~ 
radiso  open  before  us,  can  form  some  faint  con- 
ception.    To  him,  longing  with   an  intensity 


252 


DANTE 


wliicli  only  tlio  word  Dantesqtid  will  express 
to  realize  an  itloal  upon  earth,  and  continually 
baffled  and  misunderstood,  the  far  greater  part 
of  his  mature  life  must  have  been  labor  and  sor- 
row. We  can  see  how  essential  all  that  sad  ex- 
perience was  to  him,  can  understand  why  all 
the  fairy  stories  hide  the  luck  in  the  ugly  black 
casket;  but  to  hkn,  then  and  there,  how  seem- 
ed it? 

Thou  shalt  relinquish  every  thin(»  of  theo, 
Beloved  most  dearly;  tliis  that  arrow  is 
Bhot  from  the  bow  of  exile  first  of  all ; 
And  thou  shalt  prove  liow  salt  a  savor  hath 
The  bi-ead  of  others,  and  how  hard  a  i>ath 
To  climb  and  to  descend  the  stranger's  stairs! 

(Par.  xvii.) 

Coine  sa  di  sale !  Who  never  "wet  his  bread 
■vfith  tears,  says  Goethe,  knows  ye  not,  ye  hea- 
venly powers  !  Our  19th  century  made  an  idol 
of  the  noble  lord  who  broke  his  heart  in  verso 
once  every  G  months,  but  the  14tli  was  lucky 
enough  to  produce  and  not  to  make  an  idol  of 
that  rarest  earthly  phenomenon,  a  man  of  ge- 
nius who  could  hold  heartbreak  at  bay  for  20 
years,  and  would  not  let  himself  die  till  he  had 
done  liis  task.  At  the  end  of  the  Vita  Nuova^ 
his  first  work,  Danto  wrote  down  that  remark- 
able aspiration  that  God  would  take  him  to 
himself  after  he  had  written  of  Beatrice  such 
things  as  were  never  yet  written  of  woman.  It 
was  literally  fulfilled  when  the  Commedia  was 
finished  25  years  later. — Scarce  wasDanteat  rest 
in  his  grave  wlien  Italy  felt  instinctively  that  this 
was  her  great  man.  Boccaccio  tells  us  that  in 
1829*  Cardinal  Poggetto  (du  Poiet)  caused 
Dante's  treatise  De  MonarcJdd  to  be  publicly 
burned  at  Bologna,  and  proposed  further  to  dig 
up  and  burn  the  bones  of  the  poet  at  Ravenna,  as 
having  been  a  heretic ;  but  so  much  opposition 
was  roused  that  he  tliought  better  of  it.  Yet  this 
was  during  the  pontificate  of  the  Frenchman, 
John  XXII.,  the  reproof  of  whose  simony  Danto 
puts  in  the  mouth  of  St.  Peter,  who  declares  his 
seat  vacant  (Parad.  xxvii.),wliose  damnation  the 
poet  himself  seems  to  prophesy  (I/if.  xi.),  and 
against  whose  election  he  had  endeavored  to 
persuade  the  cardinals,  in  a  vehement  letter.  In 
1350  the  republic  of  Florence  voted  the  sum  of 
10  golden  florins  to  be  paid  by  the  hands  of  Mes- 
ser  Giovanni  Boccaccio  to  Dante's  daughter  Bea- 
trice, a  nun  in  tlie  convent  of  Santa  Cliiara  at 
Eavenna.  In  139G  Florence  voted  a  monu- 
ment, and  begged  in  vain  for  the  metapliorical 
ashes  of  the  man  of  whom  she  had  threat- 
ened to  make  literal  cinders  if  she  could  catch 
him  alive.  In  1429t  she  begged  again,  but  Ra- 
venna, a  dead  city,  was  tenacious  of  the  dead 
poet.  In  1519  Michel  Angelo  woidd  have  built 
the  monument,  but  Leo  X.  refused  to  allow  the 
sacred  dust  to  be  removed.  Finally,  in  1829, 
508  years  after  the  death  of  Dante,  Florence  got 
a  cenotaph  fairly  built  in  Santa  Oroce  (by  Ric- 
ci),  ugly  beyond  even  the  usual  lot  of  such,  with 
3  colossal  figures  on  it,  Dante  in  the  middle, 

*  lie  says  after  the  return  of  Louis  of  Bavaria  to  Germa- 
ny, whicli  took  iilace  in  that  year.  The  Z>e  MonarcJUd  was 
afterward  cundenined  by  the  council  of  Trent. 

t  i*ee  the  letter  in  Gaye,  Carteggio  inedito  (Variuti, 
vol.  i.  p.  123.  V, 


with  Italy  on  one  side  and  Poesy  on  the  other. 
The  tomb  at  Ravenna,  built  originally  in  1483, 
by  Cardinal  Bembo,  was  restored  by  Cardinal 
Corsi  in  1G92,  and  finally  rebuilt  in  its  present 
form  by  Cardinal  Gonzaga,  in  1780,  all  three 
of  whom  commemorated  tliemselves  in  Latin 
inscriptions.  It  is  a  little  shrine  covered  with 
a  dome,  not  unlike  the  tomb  of  a  Mohamme- 
dan saint,  and  is  now  the  chief  magnet  which 
draws  foreigners  and  their  gold  to  Ravenna. 
The  talet  de  place  says  that  Dante  is  not  buried 
under  it,  but  beneath  the  pavement  of  the  street 
in  front  of  it,  where  also,  he  says,  he  saw  my 
lord  Byron  kneel  and  weep.  Like  every  thing 
in  Ravenna,  it  is  dirty  and  neglected.  In  1373 
(Aug.  9)  Florence  instituted  a  chair  of  the  Litina 
Commedia,  and  Boccaccio  was  named  first  pro- 
fessor, lie  accordingly  began  his  lectures  on 
Sunday,  Oct.  8,  following,  but  his  comment  was 
broken  ofi"  abruptly  at  the  17th  verse  of  the  l7th 
canto  of  the  Inferno  by  the  illness  which  ended 
in  his  death,  Dec.  21,  1375.  Among  his  succes- 
sors were  Filippo  Villani  and  Filelfo.  Bologna 
was  the  first  to  follow  the  example  of  Florence, 
Benvenuto  da  Imola  having  begun  his  lectures, 
according  to  Tiraboschi,  as  early  as  1375.  Cliairs 
were  established  also  at  Pisa,  Venice,  Piacenza, 
and  Milan  before  the  close  of  the  century.  The 
lectures  were  delivered  in  the  churches  and  on 
feast  days,  which  shows  their  popular  character. 
Balbo  reckons  (but  this  is  guess  work)  that  the 
MS.  copies  of  the  Dicina  Commedia  made  dur- 
ing the  14th  century,  and  now  existing  in  the  li- 
braries of  Europe,  are  more  numerous  than  those 
of  all  other  works,  ancient  and  modern,  made_ 
during  the  same  period.  Between  the  inven- 
tion of  printing  and  the  year  1500  more  than  20 
editions  were  published  in  Italy,  the  earliest  in 
1472.  During  the  IGth  century  there  were  40 
editions ;  during  the  17th,  a  period,  for  Italy,  of 
sceptical  dilettantism,  only  3  ;  during  the  18th, 
34;  and  already,  during  the  first  half  of  the  19th, 
at  least  80.  The  first  translation  was  into  Span- 
ish, in  1428.*  M.  St.  Rene  Taillandier  says  that 
the  Commedia  was  condemned  by  the  inquisi- 
tion in  Spain,  but  this  seems  too  general  a  state- 
ment, for,  according  to  Foscolo  ("Dante,"  vol. 
iv.  p.  116),  it  was  the  commentary  of  Landino 
and  Vellutello,  and  a  few  verses  in  the  Inferno 
and  Parudiso,  which  were  condemned.  The  first 
French  translation  was  that  of  Grangier,  1596, 
but  the  study  of  Dante  struck  no  root  there  till 
the  present  century.  Rivarol,  who  translated  the 
Inferno  in  1783,  was  the  first  Frenchman  who 
divined  the  wonderfid  force  and  vitality  of  the 
Commedia.i  The  expressions  of  Voltaire  repre- 
sent very  well  the  average  opinion  of  cultivated 
persons  in  respect  of  Dante  in  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century.  lie  says :  "  Tlie  Italians  call  him 
divine  ;  but  it  is  a  hidden  divinity  ;  few  pcojde 
understand  his  oracles.  He  has  commentators, 
which,  perhaps,  is  another  reason  for  liis  not 
being  understood.     Ilis  reputation  will  go  on 

*  Paint  Pwen6  Taillandier,  In  Hevue  de  deux  mondt*,  Dec. 
1,  1S56. 
t  Ste.  Beuve,  Causeries  du  Zundi,  tome  xi.  p.  169^ 


DANTE 


253 


incrcasinir,  because  scarce  anybody  rcatls  liiin." 
{Diet.  Phil,  art.  "  Dante.")  '  To  Father  Betti- 
nelli  he  writes :  "  I  estimate  highly  the  courage 
■with  which  you  liave  dared  to  say  that  Dante 
■was  a  madman  and  his  -n'ork  a  monster."  But 
he  adds,  what  sliows  that  Dante  had  his  admir- 
ers even  in  that  flippant  century  :  "  There  are 
found  among  us,  and  in  the  18th  century,  peo- 
ple -who  strive  to  admire  imaginations  so  stu- 
pidly extravagant  and  barbarous."  (Corre»p. 
gen.,  ffi'Mi'««,  t,  Ivii.  pp.  80-81.)  Elsewhere  he 
says  that  the  Commedia  was  "  an  odd  poem, 
but  gleaming  witli  natural  beauties,  a  work  in 
■which  the  author  rose  in  parts  al)ove  tlie  bad 
taste  of  his  age  and  his  subject,  and  full  of  pas- 
sages written  as  purely  as  if  they  had  been  of 
the  time  of  Ariosto  and  Tasso."  (Essai  su)'  les 
inaurs,  CEuvres,  t.  xvii.  pp.  371-2.)  It  is  curious 
to  see  this  antipathetic  fascination  which  Dante 
exercised  over  a  nature  so  opposite  to  his  own. 
At  the  beginning  of  tliis  century  Chateaubri- 
and speaks  of  Daute  with  vague  commendation, 
evidently  from  a  very  superficial  acquaintance, 
and  that  only  with  the  Inferno,  probably  from 
Rivarol's  version.  {Genie  du  Christ ianistne,  t. 
iv.  cap.  14.)  Since  then  there  have  been  4  or 
5  French  versions  in  prose  or  verse,  includ- 
ing one  by  Lamennais.  But  the  austerity  of 
Dante  will  not  condescend  to  the  conventional 
elegance  Avhich  makes  the  charm  of  French, 
and  the  most  virile  of  poets  cannot  be  ade- 
quately rendered  in  the  most  feminine  of 
languages.  Yet  in  the  works  of  Fauriel,  Oza- 
nam,  Ampere,  and  Villemain,  France  has  given 
a  greater  impulse  to  the  study  of  Dante  than 
any  other  country  except  Germany.  Into  Ger- 
many the  Commedia  penetrated  later.  How 
utterly  Dante  was  unknown  there  in  the  16th 
century  is  plain  from  a  passage  in  the  "  Vanity 
of  the  Arts  and  Sciences"  of  Cornelius  Agrippa, 
"vv'here  he  is  spoken  of  among  the  authors  of 
lascivious  stories  :  "  There  have  been  many  of 
these  historical  pandars,  of  which  some  of  ob- 
scure fame,  as  ^Eneas  Sylvius,  Dantes,  and  Pe- 
trarch, Boccace,  Pontanus,"  itc.  (Ed.  Lond. 
1684,  p.  199.)  The  first  German  translation 
was  that  of  Kannegiesser  (1809).  Versions  by 
Streckfuss,  Kopisch,  and  Prince  John  (now  king) 
of  Saxony  followed.  Goethe  seems  never  to 
have  given  that  attention  to  Dante  which  his 
ever-alert  intelligence  might  have  been  expected 
to  bestow  on  so  imposing  a  moral  and  {esthetic 
phenomenon.  Unless  the  conclusion  of  the 
second  part  of  "  Faust "  be  an  inspiration  of  the 
Paradiso,  we  remember  no  adequate  word  from 
him  on  this  theme.  His  remarks  on  one  of  the 
German  translations  are  brief,  dry,  and  without 
that  breadth  which  comes  only  of  thorough 
knowledge  and  sympatliy.  But  German  schol- 
arship and  constructive  criticism,  through  AVitte, 
Kopisch,  AVegele,  Ruth,  and  others,  have  been  of 
preeminent  service  in  deepening  the  understand- 
ing and  facilitating  the  study  of  the  poet.  In  Eng- 
land, the  first  recoirnition  of  Dante  is  bv  Chaucer 
in  the  "  Ilugelin  of  Pisa"  of  the  "  Monkes  Tale,'"* 

*  It  is  worth  notice,  as  a  proof  of  Chaucer's  critical  judg- 


and  an  imitation  of  the  opening  verses  of  the 
3d  canto  of  the  Inferno  ("  Assembly  of  Foules"). 
In  1417  Giovanni  da  Serravalle,  bishop  of  Fer- 
mo,  completed  a  Latin  prose  translation  of  the 
Commedia,  a  copy  of  which,  as  he  made  it  at 
the  request  of  two  English  bishops  whom  he 
met  at  the  council  of  Constance,  was  doubtless 
sent  to  England.  Later  Ave  find  Dante  now  and 
then  mentioned,  but  evidently  from  hearsay 
only,*  till  the  time  of  Milton,  ■who  shows  that 
he  had  read  his  works  closely.  Thenceforward 
for  more  than  a  century  Dante  became  a  mere 
name,  used  without  meaning  by  literary  scio- 
lists. Lord  Chesterfield  echoes  A^oltaire,  and  Dr. 
Drake  in  his  "Literary  Hours"  (2d  ed.,  1800) 
could  speak  of  Darwin's  "Botanic  Garden" 
.as  showing  the  "  wild  and  terrible  sublimity 
of  Dante"  !  The  first  complete  English  transla- 
tion was  by  Boyd,  of  the  Inferno  1785,  of  tho 
whole  poem  1802.  There  have  been  6  other 
complete  translations,  begiiming  with  Gary's  in 
1814,  4  since  1850,  beside  several  of  the  Infer- 
no singly.  It  is  only  within  the  last  20  years, 
however,  that  the  study  of  Dante,  in  any  true 
sense,  became  at  all  general.  Even  Coleridge 
seems  to  have  been  familiar  only  with  the  In- 
ferno. In  America,  Prof.  Ticknor  was  the  first 
to  devote  a  special  course  of  illustrative  lec- 
tures to  Dante  ;  he  Avas  followed  by  Longfellow, 
Avhose  lectures,  illustrated  by  admirable  transla- 
tions, are  remembered  Avith  grateful  pleasure  by 
many  who  were  thus  led  to  learn  the  full  signifi- 
cance of  the  great  Christian  poet.  A  translation 
of  10  cantos  of  the  Inferno  into  quatrains  by  T. 
W.  Parsons  (1843)  ranks  Avith  the  best  for  spirit, 
faithfulness,  and  elegance.  The  entire  Inferno 
is  looked  for  soon  from  the  same  competent  hand. 
In  Denmark  and  Russia  translations  of  the  In- 
ferno have  been  published,  beside  separate  vol- 
umes of  comment  and  illustration.  We  have 
thus  sketched  the  steady  groAvth  of  Dante's 
fixme  and  influence  to  a  universality  unparalleled 
except  in  the  case  of  Shakespeare,  perhaps  more 
remarkable  if  we  consider  the  abstruse  and 
mystical  nature  of  his  poetry.  It  is  to  be  noted 
as  characteristic  that  the  A-eneration  of  Danto- 
philists  for  their  master  is  that  of  disciples  for 
their  saint.  Perhaps  no  other  man  could  haA-e 
called  forth  such  an  expression  as  that  of  Rus- 
kin,  that  "  the  central  man  of  all  the  world,  as 
representing  in  perfect  balance  the  imagination, 
moral  and  intellectual  facnlties,  all  at  their  high- 
est, is  Dante."— T^e  Works  of  Dante,  {a.)  the 
Vita  Kuova.  The  first  remark  to  be  made 
upon  the  writings  of  Dante  is  that  they  are  all 
(Avith  the  possible  exception  of  the  treatise  De 
Vidgari  Eloquio)  autobiographic,  and  that  all 
of  them,  including  that,  are  parts  of  a  mutually 

merit,  that  he  calls  Dante  "the  great  poet  of  Itaille,"  -while 
in  the  "Clerke's  Tale"  he  speaks  of  Petrarch  as  a  "worthy 
clerk,"  as  "the  laureat  poete"  (alhulini;  to  the  somewhat  sen- 
timental ceremony  at  Kome),  and  says  that  his 
"  Ehetoriko  sweete 
Enlumined  all  Itaille  of  poetry." 
*  It  is  possible  that  Sackville  ma}'  have  read  the  Inferno, 
and  it  is  certain  that  Sir  John  Harrington  had.    See  the  pre- 
fece  to  his  translation  of  the  Orlando  Furioso, 


254 


DANTE 


related  system,  of  which  the  central  point  is  the 
individuality  and  experience  of  the  poet.  In 
the  Vita  Nvova  he  recounts  the  story  of  liis 
love  Cor  Beatrice  Portinari,  showing  how  his 
grief  for  her  loss  turned  his  thoughts  first  in- 
ward upon  his  own  consciousness,  and,  failing 
all  help  there,  gradually  upward  through  plii- 
losophy  to  religion,  and  so  from  a  world  of  sha- 
dows to  one  of  eternal  suhstanccs.  It  traces 
with  exquisite  unconsciousness  the  gradual  hut 
certain  steps  by  which  memory  and  imagination 
transubstantiated  the  woman  of  flesh  and  blood 
into  a  holy  ideal,  combining  in  one  radiant  sym- 
bol of  sorrow  and  hope  the  faith  which  is  the 
instinctive  refuge  of  unavailing  regret,  the 
grace  of  God  which  higher  natures  learn  to 
find  in  the  trial  which  passeth  all  understand- 
ing, and  that  perfect  womanhood,  the  dream 
of  youth  and  the  memory  of  maturity,  which 
beckons  toward  the  for  ever  unattainable.  As 
a.  contribution  to  the  physiology  of  genius,  no 
other  book  is  to  be  compared  with  the  Vita 
Ukiova.  It  is  more  important  to  the  under- 
standing of  Dante  as  a  poet  than  any  other 
of  his  works.  It  shows  him  (and  that  in  the 
midst  of  atfairs  demanding  practical  ability 
and  presence  of  mind)  capable  of  a  depth  of 
contemplative  abstraction,  equalling  tliat  of 
a  Soofi  who  has  passed  the  fourth  step  of  ini- 
tiation. It  enables  us  in  some  sort  to  see  how, 
from  being  the  slave  of  his  imaginative  facul- 
ty, he  rose  by  self-culture  and  force  of  will  to 
that  mastery  of  it  which  is  art.  We  compre- 
hend the  Commedia  better  when  we  know  that 
Dante  could  be  an  active,  clear-headed  politi- 
cian and  a  mystic  at  the  same  time.  Various 
dates  have  been  assigned  to  the  composition 
of  the  Vita  Niiova.  The  earliest  limit  is  fixed 
by  the  death  of  Beatrice  in  1290  (though  some 
of  the  poems  are  of  even  earlier  date),  and 
the  book  is  commonly  assumed  to  have  been 
finislied  by  1295  ;  Foscolo  says  1294.  But  Pro- 
fessor Karl  Witte,  a  high  authority,  extends  the 
term  as  far  as  1300  {Dante  AUgMeri's  Jyrische 
Gedichte,  Leipzig,  1842,  TheilW.  pp. 4-9).  The 
title  of  the  book  also,  Vita  Nvova,  has  been 
diversely  interpreted.  Mr.  Garrow,  who  pub- 
lished an  English  version  of  it  at  Florence  in 
1846,  entitles  it  the  "Early  Life  of  Dante." 
Balbo  understands  it  in  the  same  way  (Vita, 
p.  97).  But  we  are  strongly  of  the  opinion  that 
"  New  Life  "  is  the  interpretation  sustained  by 
the  entire  significance  of  the  book  itself,  (b.) 
The  treatise  I)e  Monarchid.  It  has  been  gen- 
erally taken  for  granted  that  Dante  was  a 
Guelph  in  politics  up  to  the  time  of  his  ban- 
ishment, and  that  out  of  resentment  he  then 
became  a  violent  Ghibelline.  Not  to  speak  of 
tlie  consideration  that  there  is  no  author  whose 
life  and  works  present  so  remarkable  a  unity 
and  logical  sequence  as  those  of  Dante,  Profes- 
sor \Vitte  has  drawn  attention  to  a  fact  which 
alone  is  enougli  to  demonstrate  that  the  De 
Monarchid  was  written  before  1300.  That  and 
the  Vita  Nuova  are  the  only  works  of  Dante  in 
which  no  allusion  whatever  is  made  to  his  ex- 


ile. That  bitter  thought  was  continually  pres- 
ent to  him.  In  the  Convito  it  betrays  itself  often, 
and  witli  toucliing  unexpectedness.  Even  in  the 
treatise  De  V^tilffuri  Bloqvio,  he  takes  as  one  of 
his  examjdes  of  style:  "I  have  most  pity  for 
those,  whosoever  they  are,  that  languisli  in  exile, 
and  revisit  their  country  only  in  dreams."  We 
have  seen  that  the  one  decisive  act  of  Dante's 
priorate  was  to  expel  from  Florence  the  chiefs 
of  both  parties -as  the  sowers  of  strife,  and  he 
tells  us  (Parad.  xvii.)  that  he  had  formed  a 
party  by  himself.  The  king  of  Saxony  has  well 
defined  his  political  theory  as  being  "  an  ideal 
Ghibellinism  "  (comment  on  Farad,  vi.),  and  he 
has  been  accused  of  want  of  patriotism  only  by 
those  short-sighted  persons  who  cannot  see  be- 
yond their  own  parish.  Dante's  want  of  faith 
in  freedom  was  of  the  same  kind  witli  Milton's 
refusing  (as  Tacitus  had  done  before)  to  con- 
found license  with  liberty.  The  argument  of 
the  De  Monarchid  is  briefly  this :  As  the  ob- 
ject of  the  individual  man  is  the  highest  de- 
velopment of  his  faculties,  so  is  it  also  with 
men  united  in  societies.  But  the  individual 
can  only  attain  that  liighest  development  when 
all  his  powers  are  in  absolute  subjection  to 
the  intellect,  and  society  only  when  it  sub- 
jects its  individual  caprices  to  an  intelligent 
head.  This  is  the  order  of  nature,  as  in  fami- 
lies, and  men  have  followed  it  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  villages,  towns,  cities.  Again,  since 
God  made  man  in  his  own  image,  men  and  so- 
cieties most  nearly  resemble  him  in  proportion 
as  they  approach  unity.  But  as  in  all  societies 
questions  must  arise,  so  there  is  need  of  a  mon- 
arch for  supreme  arbiter.  And  only  a  universal 
monarch  can  be  impartial  enough  for  this,  since 
kings  of  limited  territories  would  always  be 
liable  to  the  temptation  of  private  ends.  With 
the  internal  policy  of  municipalities,  common- 
Avealths,  and  kingdoms,  the  monarch  would  have 
nothing  to  do,  only  interfering  when  there  Avas 
danger  of  an  infraction  of  tlie  general  peace. 
This  is  the  doctrine  of  the  first  book,  enforced 
sometimes  eloquently,  always  logically,  and  with 
great  fertility  of  illustration.  It  is  an  enlarge- 
ment of  some  of  the  obiter  dicta  of  the  Convito. 
The  earnestness  with  which  peace  is  insisted 
on  as  a  necessary  postulate  of  civic  well-being, 
shows  what  the  experience  had  been  out  of 
which  Dante  had  constructed  his  theory.  It  is 
to  be  looked  on  as  a  purely  scholastic  demon- 
stration of  a  speculative  thesis,  in  which  the 
manifold  exceptions  and  modifications  essential 
in  practical  application  are  necessarily  left  aside. 
Dante  almost  forestalls  tlie  famous  proposition  of 
Calvin,  "  that  it  is  possible  to  conceive  a  people 
without  a  prince,  but  not  a  prince  without  a 
people,"  when  he  says:  A^oti  enim  gens  propter 
regem,  sed  e  converso  rex  fropter  gentem.  And 
in  his  letter  to  the  princes  and  peoples  of  Italy 
on  the  coming  of  Henry  VII.  he  bids  them 
"obey  their  prince,  but  so  as  freemen  preserving 
their  own  constitutional  forms."  lie  says  also 
expressly  :  Animadvertendum  sane,  quod  cum 
dicitur  humanum  genus  potest  regi  per  unum 


DANTE 


255 


mpremtim  prineipem^  non  tic  intelligendum  est 
ut  ah  illo  1(1)0 pyodirejwssint  mu7tii'ij)ia  et  leges 
municipalea.  Ilahent  namquenationcs,  rcgna^  et 
clvitutcs  inter se  piroprietatcs qufM  Icgibus  differ- 
entihus  regulari  oportet.  Sclilossor  the  his- 
torian compares  Diinte's  system  witli  that  of 
tlie  United  States  {Dante^  Studien,  &c.,  1855, 
p.  144).  It  in  some  respects  resembled  more 
the  constitution  of  the  Netherhiiids  under  the 
supreme  stadtholder,  but  parallels  between  ideal 
and  actual  institutions  are  always  unsatisfactory. 
(Compare  also  Spinoza,  Tractat.  pvlit.  cap.  vi.) 
The  second  book  is  very  curious.  In  it  Dante 
endeavors  to  demonstrate  the  divine  right  of 
the  Roman  empire  to  universal  sovereignty. 
One  of  his  arguments  is  that  Christ  consented 
to  be  born  under  tlie  reign  of  Augustus;  an- 
other, that  he  assented  to  its  jurisdiction  in 
allowing  himself  to  be  crucified  under  a  decree 
of  one  of  ifes  courts.  The  atonement  could 
not  have  been  accomplished  unless  Christ  suf- 
fered under  sentence  of  a  court  having  juris- 
diction, for  otherwise  his  condemnation  would 
have  been  an  injustice,  and  not  a  penalty. 
Moreover,  since  all  mankind  was  typified  in 
the  person  of  Christ,  the  court  must  have 
been  one  having  jurisdiction  over  all  mankind  ; 
and  since  he  was  delivered  to  Pilate,  an  officer 
of  Tiberius,  it  must  follow  tliat  the  jurisdiction 
of  Tiberius  was  universal,  lie  draws  an  argu- 
ment also  from  the  wager  of  battle  to  prove 
that  the  Roman  empire  was  divinely  permitted, 
at  least,  if  not  instituted.  For  since  it  is  ad- 
mitted that  God  gives  the  victory,  and  since  the 
Romans  always  won  it,  therefore  it  was  God's 
will  that  the  .Romans  should  attain  universal 
empire.  In  the  third  book,  he  endeavors  to 
prove  that  the  emperor  holds  by  divine  right, 
and  not  by  permission  of  the  pope.  He  assigns 
supremacy  to  the  pope  in  spirituals,  and  to  the 
emperor  in  temporals.  This  was  a  delicate  sub- 
ject, and  though  the  king  of  Saxony  (a  Catho- 
lic) says  that  Dante  did  not  overstep  the  limits 
of  orthodoxy,  it  was  on  account  of  this  part  of 
the  book  that  it  was  condemned  as  heretical, 
(c.)  The  treatise  i)e  Vulgari  Ehquio.  Though  we 
have  doubts  whether  we  possess  this  book  as 
Dante  wrote  it,  inclining  rather  to  think  that  it 
is  a  copy  in  some  parts  textually  exact,  in  others 
an  abstract,  there  can  be  no  question  either  of 
its  great  glossological  value,  or  that  it  conveys 
the  opinions  of  Dante.  We  put  it  next  in  or- 
der, though  written  later  than  the  Convito^ovXj 
because,  like  the  De  MonarcJiid^  it  is  written  in 
Latin.  It  is  a  proof  of  the  national  instinct  of 
Dante,  and  of  his  confidence  in  his  genius,  that 
he  should  have  chosen  to  write  all  his  greatest 
works  in  what  was  deemed  by  scholars  a  ])atois^ 
but  which  he  more  than  any  other  man  made 
a  classic  language.  Had  he  intended  the  De 
Monarchid  for  a  political  pamphlet,  he  would 
certainly  not  have  composed  it  in  the  dialect  of 
the  few.  The  De  Vulgari  Eloquio  was  to  have 
been  in  4  bocrks.  Wliether  it  was  ever  finished 
or  not,  it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  only  2  books 
have  come  down  to  us.     It  treats  of  poetizing 


in  the  vulgar  tongue,  and  of  the  diOtrent  dia- 
lects of  Italy.  Tiie  Florentines  have  denied  its 
authenticity,  because  it  docs  not  allow  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Tuscan.  From  the  particularity 
Avith  which  it  treats  of  the  dialect  of  Bologna, 
it  has  been  supposed  to  have  been  written  in 
that  city,  or  at  least  to  furnish  an  argument  in 
favor  of  Dante's  having  at  some  time  studied 
there.  In  lib.  ii.  cap.  2,  is  a  remarkable  pas- 
sage in  which,  defining  the  various  subjects  of 
song  and  what  had  been  treated  in  the  vulgar 
tongue  by  ditierent  poets,  he  says  that  his  own 
theme  had  been  righteousness,  (d.)  The  Convito. 
This  also  is  imperfect.  It  was  to  have  consisted 
of  14  treatises,  but,  as  we  have  it,  contains  only 
4.  In  the  first  he  justifies  the  use  of  the  vulgar 
idiom  in  preference  to  the  Latin.  In  the  other  3 
he  comments  on  3  of  his  own  Cansoni.  It  will  be* 
impossible  to  give  an  adequate  analysis  of  tliis 
work  in  the  limits  allowed  us.  (A  very  good  one 
may  be  found  in  the  0th  volume  of  the  Molini 
edition  of  Dante,  pp.  391-433.)  It  is  an  epitome 
of  the  learning  of  that  age,  philosophical,  theolo- 
gical, and  scientific.  As  affording  illustration  of 
the  Commedia,  and  of  Dante's  style  of  thought, 
it  is  invaluable.  It  is  reckoned  by  his  country- 
men the  first  piece  of  Ita^an  prose,  and  there 
are  parts  of  it  Avhich  still  stand  unmatched  for 
eloquence  and  pathos.  The  Italians  (even  such 
a  man  as  Cantu  among  the  rest)  find  in  it  and  a 
few  passages  of  the  C'ornmedia  the  proof  that 
Dante,  as  a  natural  philosopher,  was  wholly  in 
advance  of  his  age — that  he  had,  among  other 
things,  anticipated  Newton  in  the  theory  of 
gravitation.  But  t^iis  is  as  idle  as  the  claim  that 
Shakespeare  had  discovered  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  before  Harvey  (see  Field's  ''  Theory  of 
Colors"),  and  one  might  as  well  attempt  to  de* 
throne  Newton  because  Chaucer  spea-ks  of  the 
love  which  draws  the  apple  to  the  earth.  The 
truth  is,  that  it  was  only  as  a  poet  that  Dante 
was  great  and  original  (glory  enough,  surely,  to 
have  not  more  than  two  competitors),  and  in 
matters  of  science,  as  did  all  his  contemporaries, 
sought  the  guiding  hand  of  Aristotle  like  a 
child.  Dante  is  assumed  by  many  to  have  been 
a  Platonist,  but  tliis  is  not  true,  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  word.  Like  all  men  of  great  ima- 
gination, he  was  an  idealist,  and  so  far  a  Plato- 
nist, as  Shakespeare  might  be  proved  to  have 
been  by  his  sonnets.  But  Dante's  direct  ac- 
quaintance Avith  Plato  may  be  reckoned  at  zerc», 
and  we  consider  it  as  having  strongly  influenced 
his  artistic  development  for  the  better,  that, 
transcendentalist  as  he  was  by  nature,  so  much 
so  as  to  be  in  danger  of  lapsing  into  an  oriental 
mysticism,  his  habits  of  thought  should  have 
been  made  precise  and  his  genius  disciplined  by 
a  mind  so  severely  logical  as  that  of  Aristotle. 
This  does  not  conflict  with  what  Ave  belicA-e  to 
be  equally  true,  that  the  Platonizing  commenta- 
ries on  his  poem,  like  that  of  Landino,  are  the 
most  satisfactory,  {e.)  Beside  the  prose  already 
mentioned,  Ave  have  a  small  collection  of  Dante's 
letter.s,  tlie  recovery  of  the  larger  number  of 
which  Ave  owe  to  Professor  "Witte.     They  are 


256 


DANTE 


all  interesting,  some  of  them  especiall}'  so,  as 
illustrating  the  prophetic  character  with  which 
Dante   invested  himself.      Tlie  longest  is  one 
addressed  to  Can  Grande  della  Scala,  explaining 
the  intention  of  the  Commcdia  and  the  method 
to  be  employed  in  its  interpretation.     The  au- 
thenticity of  this  letter  has  been  doubted,  but 
is  now  generally  admitted.     {/.)  The   Poems. 
There  is  first  a  collection  of  minor  poems,  full  of 
grace,  and  depth  of  mystic  sentiment,  and  which 
would  have  given  Dante  a  high  place  in  the  his- 
tory of  Italian  literature,  even  had  he  written 
nothing  else.     They  are  so  abstract,  however, 
that  without  the  extrinsic  interest  of  having  been 
written  by  the  author  of  the   Commedia,  they 
would  probably  find  few  readers.  All  thatis cer- 
tainly known  in  regard  to  tlie  Commedla  is  that 
it  was  composed  during  the  19  years  Avhich  inter- 
vened between  Dante's  banishment  and  death. 
Atten:ipts  have  been  made  to  fix  precisely  the 
dates  of  the  different  parts,  but  without  suc- 
cess, and  the  differences  of  oi^inion  are  bewilder- 
ing.    Foscolo  has  constructed  an  ingenious  and 
forcible  argument  to  show  that  no  part  of  the 
poem  was  published  before  the  author's  death. 
The  question  depends  somewhat  on  the  meaning 
we  attach  to  the  w(M'd  published.    In  an  age  of 
manuscript,  the  wide  dispersion  of  a  poem  so 
long  even  as  a  single  one  of  the  3  divisions  of 
the    Commedla  would   be   accomplished  very 
slowly.     But  it  is  difficult  to  account  for  the 
great  fame  which  Dante  enjoyed   during  the 
latter  years  of  his  life,  unless  we  suppose  that 
parts,    at    least,    of    his    greatest    work    had 
been  read  or  heard  by  a  large  number  of  per- 
sons.    This  need  not,  however,  imply  publica- 
tion ;  and  Witte,  whose  opinion  is  entitled  to 
great  consideration,  supposes  even  the  Inferno 
not  to  have  been  finished  before  1314  or  1315. 
In  a  matter  where  certainty  would  be  impos- 
sible, it  is  of  little  consequence  to  reproduce 
conjectural  dates.     In  the  letter  to  Can  Grande 
before  alluded  to,  Dante  himself  has  stated  the 
theme  of  his  song.     He  says  that  "the  literal 
subject  of  the  whole  work  is  the  state  of  the 
soul  after  death  simply  considered.     But  if  the 
work  be  taken  allegorically,  the  subject  is  man, 
as  by  merit  or  demerit,  through  freedom  of  the 
will,  he  renders  himself  liable  to  the  reward  or 
punishment  of  justice."     lie  tells  us  that  the 
Avork  is  to  be  interpreted  in  a  literal,  allegorical, 
moral,  and  anagogical  sense,  a  mode  then  com- 
monly employed  with  the  Scriptures,*  and  of 
which  he  gives  the  following  example :  "  To 
make  which  mode  of  treatment  more  clear,  it 
may   be  applied  in   the  following  verses:  In 
exitu  Israel  de  yEgypto^  domxis  Jacob  dcpopulo 
hnrhnro^fdcta  est  Judaa  sanctijicatio  ejus,  Israel 
fotestasejus.\   For  if  we  look  only  at  the  literal 
sense,  it  signifies  the  going  out  of  the  children  of 
Israel  from  Egypt  in  the  time  of  Moses ;  if  at  the 
allegorical,  it  signifies  our  redemption  through 
Cln'ist;  if  at  the  moral,  it  signifies  the  conver- 
sion of  tlie  soul  from  the  grief  and  misery  of  sin 

*  As  by  D.inte  himself  in  tho  Convito, 
t  Psalm  cxiv.  1,  2. 


to  a  state  of  grace ;  and  if  at  the  anagogical,  it 
signifies  the  passage  of  the  blessed  soul  from  the 
bondage  of  this  corruption  to  the  freedom  of 
eternal  glory."  A  Latin  couplet,  cited  by  one 
of  the  old  commentators,  puts  the  matter  com- 
pactly together  for  us : 

LUera  gestarefert;  ({md.  naAas  allegoria  ; 
Moraliv  quid  agas;  quiil  speres  onagogia. 

Dante  tells  us  that  be  calls  his  poem  a  comedy 
because  it  has  a  fortunate  ending,  and  gives  its 
title  thus:  "  Here  begins  the  comedy  of  Dante 
Alighieri,  a  Florentine  by  birth,  but  not  in  mo- 
rals."* The  poem  consists  of  3  parts,  Hell,  Pur- 
gatory, and  Paradise.  Each  part  is  divided  into 
33  cantos,  in  allusion  to  the  years  of  the  Sa- 
viour's life,  for  thougli  the  Hell  contain  34,  the 
1st  canto  is  merely  introductory.  In  the  fonn 
of  tho  verse  (triple  rhyme)  we  may  find  an  em- 
blem of  the  Trinity,  and  in  the  3  divisions,  of  the 
threefold  state  of  man,  sin,  grace,  and  beatitude. 
Symbolic  meanings  reveal  themselves,  or  make 
themselves  suspected,  everywhere,  as  in  the  ar- 
chitecture of  the  middle  ages.  An  analysis  of 
the  poem  would  be  out  of  place  here,  but  we  must 
say  a  few  words  of  Dante's  position  as  respects 
modern  literature.  If  we  except  Wolfram  von 
Eschenbach,  he  is  the  first  Christian  poet,  the 
first  (indeed  we  might  say  the  only)  one  whose 
whole  system  of  thought  is  colored  in  every 
finest  fibre  by  a  purely  Christian  theology.  Lapse 
through  sin,  mediation,  and  redemption,  these 
are  the  subjects  of  the  3  parts  of  the  poem;  or, 
otherwise  stated,  intellectual  conviction  of  the 
result  of  sin,  typified  in  Virgil  (symbol  also  of 
that  imperialism  whose  origin  he  sang)  ;  moral 
conversion  after  repentance,  by  divine  grace, 
typified  in  Beatrice;  reconciliation  with  God, 
and  actual  blinding  vision  of  him—"  the  pure  in 
heart  shall  see  Gotl."  The  model  of  the  poem  is 
that  of  the  Christian  basilica;  the  ethnic  fore- 
court of  those  who  know  not  God ;  the  purgato- 
rial middle  space  of  repentance,  confession,  and 
absolution ;  the  altar  of  reconciliation,  beyond 
and  over  which  liangs  the  emblem  of  the  Medi- 
ator, of  the  divine  made  human,  that  the  human 
might  learn  how  to  become  divine.  Here  are  gen- 
eral truths  Avhich  any  Christian  may  accept  and 
find  comfort  in.  But  the  poem  comes  nearer  to  us 
than  this.  It  is  the  real  history  of  a  brother  man, 
of  a  tempted,  purified,  and  at  last  triumphant 
human  soul ;  it  teaches  the  benign  ministry  of 
sorrow,  and  that  the  ladder  of  that  faith  by  which 
man  climbs  to  the  actual  fruition  of  things  not 
seen  ex  quovis  ligno  no)iJit,  but  only  of  the  cross 
manfully  borne.  The  poem  is  also,  in  a  very  in- 
timate sense,  an  apotheosis  of  woman.  Indeed, 
as  Jklarvell's  drop  of  dew  mirrored- the  whole 
firmament,  so  we  find  in  the  Commedla  the  image 
of  the  middle  ages,  and  the  sentimental  gynio- 
latry  of  chivalry,  which  was  at  best  but  skin- 
deep,  is  lifted  in  Beatrice  to  an  ideal  and  univer- 
sal plane.  It  is  the  same  with  Catholicism,  with 
imperialism,  with  the  scholastic  philosojihy ;  and 
nothing  is  more  w^onderful  than  the  power  of 

*  lie    commonly  prefaced    his  letters  with  some   such 
phrase  as  exul  immeritui. 


DANTE 


257 


absorption  anfl  assimilation  in  tliis  man,  who 
could  tako  np  into  himself  the  world  that  then 
was  and  reproduce  it  with  such  cosmo})olitan 
trutli  to  human  nature,  and  to  his  own  individu- 
ality, a3  to  reduce  all  coutemi)orary  history  to  a 
mere  comment  on  his  vision.  We  protest,  there- 
fore, against  the  parochial  criticism  which  would 
degrade  Dante  to  a  mere  partisan,  which  sees  in 
liini  a  Luther  before  his  time,  and  would  clap  the 
bonnet  rouge  upon  liis  heavenly  muse.  Like  all 
great  artistic  minds,  Dante  was  essentially  con- 
servative, and,  arriving  precisely  in  that  period 
of  transition  when  church  and  empire  were  en- 
tering upon  the  modern  epoch  of  thought,  he 
strove  to  i)reserve  both  by  presenting  the  theory 
of  both  in  a  pristine  and  ideal  perfection.  The 
whole  nature  of  Dante  was  one  of  intense  be- 
lief. Tliere  is  proof  upon  proof  that  he  be- 
lieved himself  invested  with  a  divine  mission. 
Like  tlie  Hebrew  prophets  with  whose  writ- 
ings his  whole  soul  was  imbued,  it  was  back 
to  the  old  worship  and  the  God  of  the  fathers 
that  he  called  his  people;  and  not  Lsaiah  him- 
self was  more  destitute  of  tliat  humor,  that  sense 
of  ludicrous  contrast,  which  is  an  essential  in 
the  composition  of  a  destructive.  In  Dante's 
time,  learning  had  something  of  a  sacred  charac- 
ter ;  the  line  was  hardly  yet  drawn  between  the 
clerk  and  the  possessor  of  supernatural  powers ; 
it  was  with  the  next  generation,  with  the  ele- 
gant Petrarch,  even  more  truly  than  Avith  the 
kindly  Boccaccio,  that  the  purely  literary  life, 
and  that  dilettantism  which  is  the  twin  sister 
of  scepticism,  began.  As  a  merely  literary  fig- 
ure, the  position  of  Dante  is  remarkable.  Not 
only  as  respects  tliouglit,  but  as  respects  aesthe- 
tics also,  his  great  i)oem'Stands  as  a  monument 
on  the  boundary  line  between  the  ancient  and 
modern.  He  not  only  marks,  but  is  in  himself, 
the  transition.  Arma  virumque  cano,  that  is 
the  motto  of  classic  song ;  the  things  of  this 
world  and  great  men.  Dante  says,  suhjectum 
est  homo,  not  vir;  my  theme  is  man,  not  a  man. 
The  scene  of  the  old  epic  and  drama  was  in  this 
world,  and  its  catastrophe  here;  Dante  lays  his 
scene  in  the  human  soul,  and  his  5th  act  in  the 
other  world.  He  makes  himself  the  protago- 
nist of  his  own  drama.  In  the  Commedia  for 
the  first  time  Christianity  wholly  revolution- 
izes Art,  and  becomes  its  seminal  principle.  But 
ajsthetically  also,  as  well  as  morally,  Dante 
stands  between  the  old  and  new,  and  reconciles 
them.  The  theme  of  his  poem  is  purely  sub- 
jective, modern,  what  is  called  romantic;  but 
its  treatment  is  objective  (almost  to  realism, 
here  and  there),  and  it  is  limited  by  a  form  of 
classic  severity.  In  the  same  way  he  sums  up 
in  himself  the  two  schools  of  modern  poetry 
which  had  preceded  him,  and,  while  essentially 
lyrical  in  his  subject,  is  epic  in  the  handling  of 
it.  So  also  he  comtaines  the  deeper  and  more 
abstract  religious  sentiment  of  the  Teutonic 
races  with  the  scientific  precision  and  absolute 
systematism  of  the  Romanic.  In  one  respect 
Dante  stands  alone.  "While  we  can  in  some  sort 
account  for  such  representative  men  as  Voltaire 
VOL.  VI. — 17 


and  Goetlie  (nay,  even  Shakespeare)  by  tho  in- 
tellectual and  moral  fermentation  of  the  age  in 
which  they  lived,  Dante  seems  morally  isolat- 
ed and  to  have  drawn  his  inspiration  almost 
wholly  from  his  own  internal  reserves.  Of  hia 
mastery  in  style  we  need  say  little  here.  Of 
his  mere  language,  nothing  could  be  better 
than  the  expression  of  Rivarol :  "  His  verse 
holds  itself  erect  by  the  mere  force  of  the  sub- 
stantive and  verb,  without  the  help  of  a  single 
ei)ithet."  We  will  only  add  a  word  on  what 
seems  to  us  an  extraordinary  misapprehension 
of  Coleridge,  who  disparages  Dante  by  com- 
paring his  Lucifer  with  Milton's  Satan.  He 
seems  to  have  forgotten  that  the  precise  meas- 
urements of  Dante  were  not  prosaic,  but  abso- 
lutely demanded  by  the  nature  of  his  poem. 
He  is  describing  an  actual  journey,  and  his  ex- 
actness makes  a  part  of  the  verisimilitude.  Wo 
read  the  "  Paradise  Lost"  as  a  poem,  the  Comme- 
dia as  a  record  of  fact ;  and  no  one  can  read 
Dante  without  believing  his  story,  for  it  is  plain 
that  he  believed  it  himself.  It  is  false  aesthe- 
tics to  confound  the  grandiose  with  the  imagi- 
native. Milton's  angels  are  not  to  be  compared 
with  Dante's,  at  once  real  and  supernatural ;  and 
the  Deity  of  Milton  is  theologic,  while  nothing 
in  all  poetry  approaches  the  imaginative  gran- 
deur of  Dante's  vision  of  God  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  Paradiso.  In  all  literary  liistory  there 
is  no  such  figure  as  Dante,  no  such  homogene- 
ousness  of  life  and  works,  such  loyalty  to  idea, 
such  sublime  irrecognition  of  the  unessential ; 
and  there  is  no  moral  more  touching  than  that 
the  contemporary  recognition  of  such  a  nature, 
so  endowed  and  so  faithful  to  its  endowment, 
should  be  summed  up  in  the  sentence  of  Flor- 
ence :  Igne  comburatur  sic  quod  rnoriatur. — In 
order  to  fix  more  precisely  in  the  mind  the  place 
of  Dante  in  relation  to  the  history  of  thought, 
literature,  and  events,  we  subjoin  a  few  dates: 
Dante  born,  1205  ;  end  of  crusades,  death  of  St. 
Louis,  1270;  Aquinas  died,  1274;  Bonaventura 
died,  1274;  Giotto  born,  1276 ;  Albertus  Magnus 
died,  1280;  Sicilian  vespers,  1282;  death  of 
L'golino  and  Francesca  da  Rimini,  1282;  death 
of  Beatrice,  1290;  Roger  Bacon  died,  1292; 
death  of  Ciraabue,  1302;  Dante's  banishment, 
1302 ;  Petrarch  born.  1304;  FraDolcino  burned, 
1307 ;  Pope  Clement  V.  at  Avignon,  1309  ;  Tem- 
plars suppressed,  1312  ;  Boccaccio  born,  1313  ; 
Dante  died,  1321  ;  Wycliffe  born,  1324;  Chaucer 
born,  1328. — The  best  authorities  on  the  life 
and  works  of  Dante  are :  Troya,  R  teltro  allegori/- 
co  (Firenze,  1826) ;  Arrivabene,  Tl  secolo  dl  Dante 
(Udine,  1827) ;  I"go  Foscolo,  Discorso  sul  teito 
(Lugano,  1827 ;  and  in  1st  vol.  Lond.  ed.  of 
Dante,  1843);  Dante,  edited  with  Ottimo  Co- 
mento (Pisa,  1827-29);  ditto,  edited  by  Ciarditti 
(5  vols.  8vo.,  Firenze,  1830;  and  6  vols.  8vo., 
'  Molini,  1830) ;  Rosetti,  SuUo  spirito  antipapale, 
&c.  (London,  1832);  Colomb  de  Batines,  5/6- 
liografia  Dantcsca  (Prato,  1845-'6)  ;  Balbo,  Vita 
di Dante (Fivenze,  1853);  Witte,  Dante''slyrisch« 
Gedichte  (Leipsic,  1842) ;  Dante  metrisch  uber- 
tragen,  etc.,  von  Philalethes  [king  of  Saxony] 


258 


DANTON 


DANTZIO 


(2(1  c(l.,  3  vols.  4to.,  Dresden  and  Leipsie,  1849; 
containing  the  best  notes  and  connnentaiy 
hitherto)  ;  Wegele,  Dante's  Lehea  und  Wcrhe 
(Jena,  1852);  Schlosser,  /Si?<(Z/e7i,  &c.  (Leipsie 
and  Heidelberg,  1855);  JBriice-Whyte,  Histoire 
des  langues  liomanes  (Paris,  1841,  t.  iii.) ; 
Aroux,  Dante^  heretique,  revoliitioniiaire,  et  so- 
cdal/ste  (Paris,  1854);  Fauriel,  Dante,  &c.  (Paris, 
1854j  ;  Ozanam,  Dante  et  la  lyhilowplde  cutho- 
lique,  &c.  (3d.  ed.,  Paris,  1855) ;  Villeniain,  Cours 
delitterature  Frangais,  (Paris,  1855,  t.  i.)  ;  Qni- 
net,  Les  redolutiom d' Italie,  &c.,  Paris,  1856 ;  St. 
Rene  Taillandier,  in  Becue  des  deux  mondcs^ov 
Dec.  1,  1856  (the  best  resume  of  Dantean  liter- 
ature and  criticism  up  to  the  present  time) ; 
Oarlyle,  "Heroes  in  History"  (London,  1841); 
Emerson, "  Representative  Men"  (Boston,  1850j ; 
and  Mariotti  (Gallenga),  "  Fra  Dolcino  and  his 
Times"  (London,  1853).  Of  English  translations, 
the  most  elegant  is  Gary's,  though  Dante  is  a 
little  Miltonized  in  it.  Cayley's  preserves  the 
original  metre,  the  difficulty  of  which  makes 
him  sometimes  obscure,  often  rugged  ;  but,  in 
parts,  it  is  admirably  Dantesque.  John  A.  Oar- 
lyle has  published  a  literal  prose  version  of  the 
Inferno,  perhaps  as  good  as  any  prose  rendering 
of  a  poem  remarkable  for  rhythm  can  be ;  his 
notes  are  good. 

DxiNTON,  Georges  Jacques,  a  French  revo- 
lutionist, born  at  Arcis-sur-Aube,  Oct.  28,  1759, 
executed  in  Paris,  April  5,  1794.  A  lawyer  by 
profession,  he  became  one  of  the  most  fervent 
champions  of  the  revolution.  He  had  some  in- 
tercourse with  Mirabeau,  and  while  the  latter 
was  exercising  his  influence  over  the  constituent 
assembly  and  the  middle  classes,  he  controlled 
the  populace,  whose  affections  he  won  by  his 
fervid  eloquence,  energetic  bearing,  and  cordial 
manners.  One  of  the  founders  of  the  club  of 
Cordeliers,  in  conjunction  with  Camille  Desmou- 
lins  and  Marat,  he  advocated  the  most  violent 
measures.  After  the  return  of  Louis  XVl.  from 
Varennes,  Danton  was  one  of  the  most  ardent 
promoters  of  the  petition  for  his  deposition. 
This  petition,  presented  for  signature  at  a  pop- 
ular mass  meeting,  resulted  (July  17,  1791)  in 
the  "  slaughter  of  the  Champ  de  Mars."  To- 
ward the  end  of  the  same  year  Danton  was  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  the  administration  of  the 
Seine  department,  and  assistant  attorney  of  the 
common  council  of  Paris.  This  official  situa- 
tion increased  his  ascendency,  and  he  used  it 
on  every  important  occasion.  He  w^as  fore- 
most in  organizing  and  conducting  the  attack 
of  the  people  upon  the  Tuileries,  Aug.  10, 
1792;  he  eagerly  participated  in  the  fight;  anti 
a  few  days  afterward  he  received,  as  a  reward 
from  the  legislative  assembly,  his  appointment 
to  tlie  ministry  of  justice.  On  the  invasion 
of  France  by  the  Prussian  army,  which  filled 
Paris  with  consternation,  he  showed  such  firm- 
ness and  confidence  that  the  assembly  and  the 
people  were  reassured ;  but  at  the  same  time 
he  cried:  "To  stop  tlie  progress  of  the  ene- 
mies, we  must  strike  the  royalists  with  terror!" 
A  few  hours  later  the  mob  broke  into  the  pris- 


ons of  Paris,  and  the  dreadful  "  slaughters  of 
September  "  ensued.  Danton  himself  is  said  to 
have  been  instrumental  in  bringing  about  tiiis 
bloody  work ;  at  any  rate,  it  is  certain  he  took 
no  measure  to  prevent  it.  On  being  elected  to 
the  convention  he  resigned  his  office  and  became 
one  of  the  leaders  of  that  body.  The  death  of 
the  king  Avas,  in  his  eyes,  a  political  necessity. 
"  We  have  no  right  to  be  his  judges,  it  is  true," 
he  said;  "well,  we  will  kill  him."  On  his  mo- 
tion a  levy  of  300,000  men  was  ordered,  and  the 
revolutionary  tribunal  establislied,  March  10, 
1793.  On  the  organization  of  the  committee  of 
public  safety,  April  6,  he  was  appointed  one  of 
its  members.  Associating  himself  with  Robes- 
pierre against  the  Girondists,  he  contributed  to 
their  fell,  but  he  would  willingly  have  spared 
their  lives.  In  his  opinion,  the  moment  had 
come  when  rigor  should  yield  to  forbearance. 
Robespierre,  however,  did  not  agree  with  him, 
and  availed  himself  of  the  occasion  to  rid  himself 
of  an  ally  whom  he  always  had  secretly  hated. 
Branded  as  a  modere,  Danton  was  seized  at  Ids 
house,  March  31,  1794,  and  imprisoned  at  the 
Luxembourg.  Some  among  the  members  of  the 
convention  desired  to  save  him ;  but  Robes- 
pierre, supported  by  St.  Just,  succeeded  in  ob- 
taining from  the  assembly  an  indirect  approval 
of  the  arrest ;  it  was  decreed  that  "  in  the 
name  of  virtue,  terror  was  irrevocably  the  order 
of  the  day."  Danton  was  arraigned  with  Ca- 
mille Desmoulins,  Lacroix,  Fabre  d'Eglantine, 
and  others  of  liis  friends,  before  the  revo- 
lutionary tribunal ;  charged  with  having  been 
the  accomplice  of  all  those  enemies  of  the  re- 
public whom  he  had  himself  destroyed,  he  was 
not  even  allowed  to  put  in  a  defence.  He  had 
himself  instituted  tliis  tribunal,  for  doing  which 
he  now  publicly  begged  pardon  of  God  and 
man.  '■  My  object,"  said  he,  "  was  to  prevent 
a  new  September,  and  not  to  let  loose  a  sco\irge 
upon  mankind.  These  Cains'  know  nothing 
about  government.  I  leave  every  thing  in  friglit- 
ful  disorder."  The  contempt  with  which  he 
treated  his  judges  hastened  his  sentence.  On 
hearing  it,  he  exclaimed :  "  We  fall  victims  to 
some  contemptible  cowards,  but  they  will  not 
long  enjoy  their  victory.  Robespierre  follows 
me;  I  drag  him  after  me."  On  tlie  road  to  the 
place  of  execution  he  preserved  the  most  perfect 
composure,  looking  disdainfully  at  the  mob  that 
followed  him  with  insults,  and  telling  Camille 
to  take  no  notice  of  such  a  vile  rabble,  iloved 
by  the  recollection  of  his  wife,  he  shed  a  few 
tears,  but  immediately  regaining  his  self-posses- 
sion, said :  "  Be  thyself,  Danton ;  no  weakness !" 
When  he  was  about  receiving  the  fatal  blow, 
he  said  to  the  executioner :  "  You  will  show  my 
head  to  the  crowd ;  it  is  worth  their  seeing." 

DANTZIC  (Ger.  Danzig;  Pol.  GdansTc),^{\-a. 
administrative  division  of  the  province  of  West 
Prussia,  extending  about  100  m.  along  the  Baltic, 
subdivided  into  7  districts,  containing  11  large 
and  6  small  towns,  and  1,875  villages;  area, 
3,222  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855,  436,000.  The  i)rin- 
cipal  river  is  the  Vistula.     The  soil,  sandy  aud 


DANTZIO 


DANUBE 


259 


Bwampy  in  some  parts,  is  generally  productive. 
The  area  of  woods  and  forests  is  estimated  at 
800,000  acres.  The  principal  products  are  grain, 
fruits,  and  timber.  TJie  rearing  of  horses  and 
cattle  and  the  lisheries  support  a  large  number 
of  the  population.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
linen,  woollen,  leather,  beer,  and  s[)irits. — The 
capital,  Dantzic,  with  a  population  in  1855  of 
03,461,  beside  8,800  soldiers,  is  an  important 
fortress  and  commercial  city,  situated  in  hit.  54° 
21'  N.,  long.  18°  39' E.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
principal  arm  of  the  Vistula,  about  3^  m.  from 
its  moutli,  with  a  circumference,  including  its  9 
suburbs,  of  more  than  1 2  m.  The  principal  build- 
ings are  3  citadels,  the  church  of  St.  !Mary,  one  of 
the  largest  in  Europe,  with  a  "  Judgment  Day" 
painted  by  Van  Eyck;  the  Catharinenkirche^ 
the  council  house,  the  gov-ernment  building,  the 
old  armory,  the  exchange,  and  175  granaries 
and  workshops  on  the  Speicher  (Granary)  isl- 
and, where  no  dwelling  house  is  allowed,  where 
no  fire  must  be  kindled,  and  where  at  night  all 
streets  are  closed  excepting  one.  There  are 
13  Protestant  and  6  Catholic  churches,  a  Men- 
nonite  church,  and  5  synagogues.  The  city. 
abounds  with  learned,  charitable,  and  artistic 
institutions,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  monuments 
and  antiquities,  which  have  been  recently  (1857) 
described  by  Prof.  Schultz.  The  harbor  was  ex- 
cellent np  to  1829  and  1840,  when  the  Vistula 
broke  above  the  city  through  the  high  ridge  of 
the  Downs,  and  formed  a  new  outlet,  reducing 
the  depth  of  tlie  old  branch,  so  that  a  new  port, 
Neufahrwasser,  had  to  be  built  at  its  mouth, 
which  is  defended  by  2  forts.  The  commerce 
of  Dantzic  was  at  an  earlier  period  far  more  im- 
portant than  since  the  first  partition  of  Poland, 
when  the  prohibitory  tariff  of  Russia,  the  sound 
dues,  the  sufferings  from  the  Napoleonic  wars, 
the  ascendency  of  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Stet- 
tin, made  it  decline ;  but  the  last  10  years  have 
given  it  a  new  impetus.  The  great  staples  are 
Polish  and  Prussian  grain,  especially  wheat,  and 
wood,  leather,  potash,  wool,  tallow,  pitch,  hemp, 
flax,  butter,  furs,  beer,  and  liquors.  In  exports 
it  is  tiie  first  Prussian  port;  in  imports,  the  sec- 
ond after  Swinemiinde.  Ship-building  is  ex- 
tensively carried  on.  Dantzic  owns  at  present 
115  sea-going  vessels  and  8  steamers,  tonnage 
about  75,000.  Entrances  in  1854, 1,504;  in  1855, 
1,381 ;  and  in  1856,  1,429  vessels.  Clearances  in 
1854,  1,500;  in  1855,  1,305  ;  and  in  1856, 1,427 
vessels.  The  value  of  the  grain  and  seeds  ex- 
ported in  1856  is  estimated  at  $2,700,000,  and 
of  the  wood  articles  at  $2,800,000.  Of  black 
beer  2,550  barrels,  or  20,400  kegs,  were  shipped 
during  the  same  year.  The  principal  imports 
are  coal  (269  cai-goes  in  1856,  against  190  in 
1855),  coffee,  rice,  guano,  pepper,  pimento,  and 
herrings.  Manufactures  are  gaining  ground 
rapidly.  Six  steam  sawing  works,  2  oil  mills, 
80  distilleries  of  liquor  (particularly  Danziger 
Goldirasser),  breweries,  refineries  of  sugar,  man- 
iifiu'tories  of  tobacco,  and  other  industrial  es- 
tablishments, are  in  a  flourishing  condition. 
The  eastern  Prussian  railway  connects  Dantzic 


with  Berlin  and  Kunigsberg,  and  a  branch 
road  with  Posen,  and  new  railroads  are  pro- 
jected.— Dantzic  was  founded  before  the  10th 
century.  In  1310  it  fell  under  the  sway  of  the 
order  of  Teutonic  knights,  and  became  a  Ger- 
man city  in  the  midst  of  a  Polish  population, 
and  up  to  this  day  is  nf)t  perfectly  Germanized. 
In  1454  it  subjected  itself  to  the  king  of  Poland, 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  from  him  commer- 
cial privileges,  became  a  free  city  with  some 
very  rich  territory,  and  fell  under  the  dominion 
of  Prussia  in  1793,  after  a  struggle  of  6  days. 
The  siege  by  Lefcbvre,  in  1807,  after  which  it 
became  a  so-called  free  city  under  Napoleonic 
protection,  with  a  strong  French  garrison,  and 
the  frightful  siege  in  1813  and  1814  (when 
Gen.  Rapp  made  a  famous  defence  of  12  months 
against  the  Prussians  and  Russians,  and  tlie  city 
was  half  destroyed  and  the  population  half 
starved),  the  French  war  contributions  and  con- 
tinental system,  gave  a  severe  blow  to  the  pros- 
perity of  Dantzic ;  from  which,  however,  it  has 
since  recovered,  especially  within  the  last  few 
years,  by  the  improvements  in  the  river,  by  being 
made  a  station  of  the  royal  fleet,  and  above  all 
by  railway  communication. 

DANUBE  (anc.  Damihin.%  or,  in  its  lower 
course,  Ister ;  Ger.  Donau),  the  largest  river 
of  Germany,  and,  next  to  the  Volga,  of  Europe. 
It  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  2  streams, 
Brese  and  Brigach,  rising  on  the  S.  E.  slope  of 
the^Black  Forest,  lat.  48°  6'  N.,  long.  8°  9'  E., 
about  24  m.  from  the  Rhine,  at  an  elevation  oi 
2,874  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Black  sea.  In 
an  air  line  the  distance  from  the  sources  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Danube  is  nearly  1,020  m.,  while 
the  length  of  its  course  is  1,770  m.  The  river 
system  of  the  Danube  and  all  its  tributaries  cov- 
ers an  area  of  308,000  sq.  m.  In  its  course  it 
traverses  nearly  22°  of  longitude,  and  8°  of  lat- 
itude. The  elevation  of  its  surface  above  the 
level  of  the  sea  is  at  Ulm,  the  head  of  steam 
navigation,  1,255  feet,  at  Donaiiworth  1,160,  at 
Ingolstadt  1,140,  at  Ratisbon  1,050,  at  Passau 
800,  at  Linz  650,  at  Vienna  421,  atPresburg401, 
at  Buda  348,  near  Zombor  272,  at  Moldova  200. 
Three  principal  divisions  of  the  river  basin  are 
indicated  by  the  character  of  the  adjacent  coun- 
try, and  the  river  itself:  the  upper  course,  teiTni- 
nating  at  Passau;  the  middle  course,  at  Gladova; 
the  lower  one,  at  the  mouth.  In  its  upper  course 
the  Danube,  flowing  in  an  easterly  direction, 
skirts  the  southern  base  of  the  sterile  table-land 
of  the  Rough  Alps  (Raiilie  Alp),  the  rapidity 
of  its  current  being  5^  feet  a  second.  Its  breadth 
having  increased  to  230  feet,  and  its  current 
slackened,  it  becomes  navigable  at  Ulm.  There, 
sweeping  to  the  N.  E.,  through  the  fertile  Ba- 
varian plain,  it  forms  a  curve,  of  which  the 
northern  apex  is  Ratisbon,  and  the  eastern  base 
Passau.  On  the  N.  side  the  Lndwigs-canal 
connects  it  with  the  Main  and  Rhine  rivers. 
Near  Passau  the  Bavarian  forest  on  the  one 
side,  and  the  northern  I'anges  of  the  Noric 
Alps  on  the  other,  approach  the  Danube,  nar- 
rowing its  bed  in  some  places  to  800  feet,  while 


260 


DANUBE 


iu  others  it  expands  to  a  breadth  of  5,000 
feet.  From  Pivssau  to  Lintz  the  ftiU  is  2Jfeet  in 
a  mile ;  from  there  to  Vienna  only  If  feet.  In 
tliis  portion  of  its  course  the  scenery  of  the 
Danube  fairly  rivals  that  oftheEhine,  and  even 
excels  it  in  sombre  grandeur.  Nearer  Vienna 
the  mountains  recede  from  the  banks,  and  the 
river  enters  a  large  j)l;iiu,  which,  being  but  scan- 
tily protected  by  dikes,  is  subject  to  terrible 
inundations.  Having  once  more  passed  between 
two  mountain  ranges,  the  Leytlia  on  the  south- 
ern and  the  lesser  Carpathians  on  the  northern 
bank,  the  Danube  emerges  into  the  fertile  and 
well  cultivated  region  of  western  Hungary. 
There,  spreading  out  in  several  branches,  it 
forms  a  great  number  of  islands,  among  which 
the  Great  Schiltt  (50  m.  long,  and  from  4  to  9 
m.  in  width)  and  the  Little  tSchiitt  (27  m.  long) 
are  the  largest.  Through  a  mountain  defile, 
formed  by  the  Neograd  range  of  the  Carpathians 
and  the  Bakony  forest,  the  Danulje  enters  the 
great  Hungarian  j^lain,  turns  abruptly  to  the 
S.  near  Waitzen,  and  slowly  winds  its  coui'se 
through  vast  level  bottom  lands  and  marshes, 
until  it  meets  the  Sirmian  I'ange,  and,  having 
received  the  waters  of  the  Drave,  is  again  de- 
flected toward  the  S.  E.  It  then  skirts  the  plain 
on  the  S.  tUl  it  arrives  near  Moldova,  where 
it  has  to  force  its  way  through  the  Transylva- 
nian  granite  hills  and  the  Servian  limestone 
range.  This  pass  (Klysura),  some  80  m.  in 
length,  offers  the  greatest  obstacles  to  tlie  navi- 
gation of  the  Danube.  Narrowed  down  to  800 
or  1,000  feet,  less  than  one-half  its  former 
breadth,  the  river  forms  in  7  places  between 
Alibeg  and  Gladova  rapids  and  whirlpools,  of 
w-hich  those  in  the  so-called  Iron  Gate  (^Dernir 
Kapi)^  below  Old  Orsova,  are  the  most  violent. 
There  the  river  rages  through  a  defile  7,200  feet 
long  and  GOO  wide,  with  a  fall  of  IG  feet,  and  a 
rapidity  of  10  to  15  feet  a  second,  over  a  number 
of  reefs  and  ledges  of  rocks,  defying,  as  it  would 
seem,  all  efforts  of  man  to  subdue  it.  Still,  after 
having  been  a  terror  to  flavigators  for  many 
centuries,  the  Iron  Gate  has  at  last  been  ren- 
dered navigable  for  steamers,  a  channel  having 
been  cut  through  the  ledge  by  which  vessels 
ply  from  Vienna  to  Galatz  witliout  a  portage. 
In  ancient  times  this  portion  of  the  river  course 
was  avoided  by  a  canal,  of  which  some  vestiges 
still  remain.  Near  Gladova  the  Danube  leaves 
the  mountains  and  enters  the  Bulgaro-Walla- 
chian  plains.  From  Cernetz  to  below  "Widin, 
it  runs  nearly  S.,  then  turns  to  the  E.  Slowly 
rolling  its  muddy  waters  round  the  extreme 
spurs  of  the  Balkan,  and  forming  numerous  isl- 
ands, it  reaches  a  point  only  32  m.  distant  from 
the  sea,  where  it  suddenly  bends  to  the  N.  In 
this  direction  it  flows  upward  of  100  m.  to  the 
junction  with  the  Sereth ;  tlicnco  again  east- 
ward ;  at  last,  having  been  joined  by  the  Pruth 
and  divided  into  several  branches,  which  slug- 
gishly wind  tlirough  a  low  and  dreary  alluvial 
country  (tlie  delta  of  the  Danube),  it  empties 
into  the  Black  sea  by  3  principal  ciiannels  (the 
Kilia.   Sulina,  and  St.  George's),  aud  4  lesser 


ones. — The  most  important  tributaries  of  the 
Daimbe  are,  on  the  right  or  southern  bank,  the 
Iller,  Lech,  Isar,  Inn,  Traun,  Enns,  Leytha,  Raab, 
Silrviz,  Drave,  Save,  and  Morava;  on  the  left 
bank  the  Brenz,  Warnitz,  Altnitihl,  Naab,  Re- 
gen,  Itz,  March,  AVaag,  Neutra,  Gran,  Eypel, 
Theiss,  Temes,  Aluta,  Ardshish,  Jalomnitza, 
Seretli,  and  Pruth.  The  principal  towns  on  its 
banks  are,  in  Wiirtemberg,  Dim ;  in  Bavaria,  Ra- 
tisbou  and  Passau  ;  in  Austria  proper,  Lintz  and 
Vienna ;  in  Hungary,  Presburg,  Comorn,  Gran, 
Buda,  aud  Pesth ;  in  the  Military  Frontier  dis- 
trict, Petervvardein  and  Orsova  ;  in  Turkey,  Bel- 
grade, Widin,  Nicopolis,  Roostchook,  Silistria, 
Hirsova,  and  Brahilov. — The  Danube  seems  to 
be  designed  by  nature  as  the  connecting  link  of 
central  Europe  and  the  Orient,  and  has  through 
all  history  been  of  great  political  importance.  It 
was  the  channel  tlirough  which  the  Mongolian 
element  endeavored  to  overflow  and  suppress 
the  feeble  and  not  yet  consolidated  civilization 
of  the  Germanic  races.  For  the  Huns,  the 
Avars,  Bulgarians,  Magyars,  Tartars,  and  Turks, 
the  Danube  valley  was  the  scene  of  their  efforts 
to  subdue  the  Occident.  While  the  other  great 
rivers  of  Europe,  flowing  in  a  northerly  or 
southerly  direction,  formed  barriers  against 
the  invasions  of  savage  nations,  the  Danube,  on 
the  contrary,  served  as  a  highway  from  East  to 
"West.  Hence,  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  great 
migration  of  nations  subsequent  to  the  down- 
fall of  the  Roman  empire  were  the  strongest  in 
the  basin  of  the  Danube,  and  for  long  centuries 
the  fate  of  European  civilization  depended  on 
the  contest  of  races  in  that  portion  of  the  con- 
tinent. The  western  nations  having  at  last 
established  their  supremacy,  the  valley  of  the 
Danube  was  turned  by  them  during  the  cru- 
sades into  a  higliway  toward  the  conquest  of 
the  Orient.  But  their  progress  in  that  direc- 
tion was  checked  by  the  growing  power  of 
Mohammedanism,  and  for  2  centuries  the  coun- 
tries bordering  upon  the  Danube  were  again 
the  theatre  of  a  conflict,  in  which  the  Occident 
was  frequently  compelled  to  assume  a  defensive 
position,  "VTithm  the  last  century  the  Moham- 
medan element  has  ceased  to  be  dangerous  to 
western  Europe ;  but  the  Slavic  element,  occu- 
pying by  its  natural  characteristics  as  well  as 
geographically  a  middle  position  between  the 
Occident  and  the  Orient,  has  become  formida- 
ble. Though  bafiied  for  the  time  being  by  the 
treaty  of  Paris  (185G)  in  her  designs  against  the 
countries  adjacent  to  the  lower  course  of  the 
Danube,  Russia  has  not  ceased  to  exert  her 
powerful  influence  on  the  Slavic  races  of  Turkey 
and  Austria.  The  difliculties  in  Montenegro 
and  Bosnia,  and  the  revolution  in  Servia  (Dec. 
1858),  are  the  latest  indications  of  the  contin- 
uous pressure  exerted  by  Russia  in  tliat  direc- 
tion. As  yet,  among  the  many  races  inhabiting 
tlie  valley  of  the  Danube,  the  German  predomi- 
nates as  well  in  numbers  as  in  intellectual  cul- 
ture. They  occupy  the  entire  upper  \k\>\\\,  and 
portions  of  the  middle  and  lower.  Tlic  Slavic 
race,  divided  into  many  distinct  tribes,  and  sub- 


DANUBE 


DANVERS 


261 


ject  to  different  governments,  is  distribnted  nlong 
both  banks  of  the  middle  course  of  the  river. 
The  Mag\'ars  also  inhabit  the  central  portion 
of  the  vallej'',  while  the  licumanians  are  the 
principal  occupants  of  the  lower  regions.  The 
entire  population  of  the  territory  of  which 
the  ])aiuihe  is  tlie  main  artery  is  estimated  at 
40,000.000  (German  14,000,000,  SIavicl2,000,- 
000,  Magyar  6,000,000,  WuUachiaa  0,000,000, 
Italian,  Turkish,  Jewish,  Armenian,  gypsy,  &c., 
2,000,000). — ^The  commercial  importance  of  the 
Danube  lias  scarcely  begun  to  be  developed. 
The  rai)idity  of  the  current  in  its  ui)per  course, 
the  reefs,  rapids,  whirlpools,  sudden  changes  of 
the  channel  and  banks,  the  shallowness  of  the 
river  where  it  passes  through  the  Hungarian 
jilains,  and  its  numerous  windings,  offered  so 
many  impediments  to  navigation,  that  up  to  a 
comparatively  recent  period  it  was  limited  to 
tlie  scantiest  intercourse  between  the  provinces 
immediately  adjoining  the  river.  It  is  true  that 
the  physical  obstacles  to  a  successful  navigation 
Avould  have  appeared  less  formidable  if  the  po- 
litical condition  of  the  Danubian  countries  had 
been  favorable  to  the  development  of  a  more 
extensive  commerce.  The  application  of  steam 
as  a  motive  power  inaugurated  a  new  era  in  the 
history  of  the  Danube.  Then  the  governments, 
becoming  aware  of  the  importance  of  the  river, 
adopted  a  system  of  improvements.  Reefs 
were  removed,  flats  deepened  by  narrowing  the 
channel,  canals  and  cut-offs  w^ere  constructed, 
and  railroads  built,  in  order  to  bring  remote 
regions  nearer  this  great  artery  of  commerce. 
By  the  treaty  of  Paris  (1856)  the  entire  freedom 
of  the  navigation  from  tolls  and  dues  was  stipu- 
lated for;  and  in  pursuance  of  this,  the  govern- 
ments of  the  states  through  which  the  river 
flows  agreed  upon  a  convention  (Nov.  7,  1857), 
by  which  vessels  of  all  nations  are  allowed  to 
ascend  the  Dannbe  from  its  mouth  to  any  point 
above,  while  the  navigation  between  different 
points  on  the  river  is  reserved  to  the  subjects 
of  the  ripuarian  states.  The  principal  draAV- 
back  to  the  importance  of  the  Danube  as  a 
channel  of  commerce  is  the  shallowness  of  its 
mouths.  The  3  outlets  enclosing  the  delta  (or 
rather  3  flat  islands,  Chetal,  Leti,  and  Moishe, 
the  highest  elevation  of  which  is  not  more 
than  6  or  7  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea),  the 
Kilia  Boghasi,  Sulina  Boghasi,  and  Kediskeh 
Boghasi  (St,  George's  channel),  have  a  length 
of  72,  53,  and  55  m.  respectively.  Formerly 
the  St.  George's  channel  was  used  almost  ex- 
clusively; but  having  been  choked  with  sand 
by  the  simultaneous  occurrence  of  a  strong 
freshet  in  the  river  and  a  violent  gale  from  the 
sea,  it  was  abandoned,  and  the  Sulina  channel 
resorted  to.  The  Turkish  government  took 
good  care  to  keep  this  channel  open  ;  but  when, 
by  the  treaties  of  1812  and  1829,  the  mouths  of 
the  Danube  passed  under  the  control  of  Russia, 
all  efforts  in  that  direction  ceased;  indeed,  it 
was  said  that  in  order  to  benefit  the  commerce 
of  Odessa,  Russia  rather  increased  than  dimin- 
ished the  natural  obstructions  of  the  Sulina 


mouth.  This,  however,  lias  been  denied.  The 
bar  of  the  Sulina  continues  1,000  yards  outside 
of  the  mouth ;  it  has  a  width  of  2  to  3  m.,  and 
a  depth  of  water  varying  from  10  to  14  feet.  It 
is  asserted  tiiat  dredging  can  never  permanently 
avail  on  a  bar  extending  far  into  the  sea,  and 
tliat  the  erection  of  2  large  breakwaters  from 
5,000  to  6,000  yards  long  will  prove  the  only 
means  of  effectually  removing  the  obstruction. 
However  this  may  be,  tlie  energetic  efforts 
made  by  the  Austrian  government  immediately 
after  the  retreat  of  the  Russians  (1854)  have  at 
last  succeeded  so  far  as  to  obtain  an  available 
average  depth  of  10  feet,  while  under  Russian 
rule  the  depth  had  been  reduced  to  7^  feet.  By 
the  treaty  of  Paris  an  international  committee 
was  appointed  for  the  regulation  of  the  mouths 
of  the  Danube.  The  majority  of  this  committee 
has  concluded  that  it  Avould  be  fe;usible  to  sup- 
press or  cut  off  2  of  the  principal  outlets,  and, 
by  leading  their  waters  into  the  3d,  increase  tlie 
volume  and  power  of  the  current  sufliciently  to 
sweep  away  the  mud  and  sand  banks.  A  special 
committee,  appointed  by  Austria,  reported  in 
1857  that  the  St.  George  channel,  if  restored  to 
its  former  condition,  would,  in  all  respects,  offer 
the  shortest  and  safest  outlet,  and  that  the  cost 
of  this  improvement  w^ould  not  exceed  3,700,000 
florins,  nor  the  cost  of  keeping  it  in  repair  05,000 
florins  per  annum.  It  does  not  appear  that  as 
yet  any  thing  has  been  done  toward  the  reali- 
zation of  either  scheme.  Another  scheme  Avas 
started  at  the  commencement  of  the  last  oriental 
war,  viz. :  the  construction  of  a  direct  ship  canal 
from  that  point  of  the  Danube  where  it  bends 
northward  (Czernavoda)  to  the  nearest  point  on 
the  Black  sea  (Kustendji),  thus  substituting 
about  30  m.  of  artificial  navigation  for  185  m. 
of  the  river.  This  scheme  was  eagerly  embraced 
by  Austria,  but  it  fell  to  the  ground  when  a 
thorough  exploration  of  the  country  proved  the 
assumption  on  which  the  project  was  based  to 
be  erroneous.  A  sandstone  ridge,  10  m.  wide, 
and  the  lowest  point  of  which  is  164  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  extends  along  the  belt  of 
land  which  would  have  to  be  traversed  by  the 
canal.  The  Danube  audits  principal  tributaries 
(the  Inn,  Drave,  Tlieiss,  Save)  are  navigated  by 
steam  vessels  for  an  aggregate  length  of  2,400 
m.  The  Bavarian  Danube  steam  navigation 
company  was  established  in  1838,  that  of  "SViir- 
temberg  in  1843.  The  Austrian  Danube  steam 
navigation  company  in  1857  employed  102 
steamboats  and  330  freight  boats.  Within  the 
last  2  or  3  years,  however,  the  net  receipts  of 
the  company  have  not  been  sufficient  to  pay  the 
interest  on  the  capital,  and  the  government  has 
been  obliged  to  cover  the  deficiency. 
=■  DANVERS,  a  post  township  of  Essex  co., 
Mass.,  with  manufactories  of  railroad  cars, 
coaches,  leather,  boots  and  shoes,  carpets,  &c. ; 
capital  employed  in  manufactures  in  1855,  over 
$150,000 ;  hands  employed,  3,000.  In  1855  Dan- 
vers  was  divided  by  the  incorporation  of  South 
Danvers  as  a  separate  town ;  pop.  of  the  former 
in  1855,  4,000,  of  the  latter  5,348.     In  1852  Mr. 


262 


DANVILLE 


DA  PONTE 


George  Peabody  of  London,  a  native  of  this 
town,  gave  $20,000  (to  which  he  afterward 
added  $30,000) "  for  the  promotion  of  knowledge 
and  morality"  among  the  inhabitants.  With  this 
donation  the  Peabody  institute  was  founded, 
and  enriched  with  a  library;  and  a  few  years 
later  the  same  gentleman  appropriated  $10,000 
for  the  establishment  of  a  branch  library  in 
North  Dan  vers. 

DANVILLE.  L  A  post  borongli  and  the 
capital  of  Montour  co.,  Penn.,  on  the  North 
branch  of  the  Susquehanna  river,  12  m.  above 
Sunbury,  and  07  m.  N.  E.  froni  Ilarrisburg ;  pop. 
in  1850,  3,302.  It  is  actively  engaged  in  the 
iron  manufacture,  for  which  it  possesses  every 
advantage,  and  contains  one  of  the  largest  es- 
tablishments for  making  railroad  iron  in  the 
United  States.  Montour's  ridge,  extending  near- 
ly 21  m.  along  the  river  near  tins  town,  abounds 
in  excellent  iron  ore,  and  in  limestone,  which 
is  used  as  a  Hux  in  smelting.  Kich  mines  of 
antliracite  coal  have  also  been  opened  in  the 
vicinity,  and  the  northern  branch  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania canal  aftbrds  means  of  transportation. 
Tlie  town  contains  5  blast  furnaces,  3  rolling 
mills,  2  founderies,  5  churches,  an  academy,  a 
bank,  and  2  weekly  newspaper  offices.  A  rail- 
road from  Philadelphia  to  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  passes 
through  it.  II.  A  post  town,  and  the  capital 
of  Boyle  co.,  Ky.,  on  a  small  branch  of  Dick's 
river,  42  m.  S.  from  Frankfort;  pop.  in  1854, 
about  2,650.  Previous  to  1792  it  was  the  cap- 
ital of  the  state.  It  is  noted  as  the  seat  of  tlie 
Danville  (Presbyterian)  theological  seminary, 
which  in  1857  had  4  professors  and  36  students ; 
of  Centre  college,  founded  in  1823,  having  in 
1858,  5  professors,  180  students,  and  a  library 
of  5,600  vols. ;  and  of  the  state  deaf  and  dumb 
asylum,  containing  about  70  inmates.  A  rail- 
I'oad  connects  it  with  Lexington. 

DAPHNE,  the  name  of  a  i)lace  near  Antioch 
in  Syria,  containing  a  large  and  beautiful  grove 
of  laurels  and  cypresses,  and  a  magnificent  tem- 
ple of  Apollo.  The  grove  was  consecrated  to 
this  god  by  Seleucus  Nicator.  Antiochus  Epi- 
plianes  built  the  temple,  and  other  buildings 
sprung  up  around  it.  The  most  licentious  scenes 
were  enacted  here,  and  the  Koman  general  Cas- 
sias would  not  allow  his  soldiers  to  visit  the 
place.  When  the  emperor  Julian  came  to  An- 
tioch the  temple  was  almost  deserted,  and  be- 
fore he  left  the  city  it  was  consumed  by  fire,  the 
work  probably  of  some  Christian  incendiary. 
It  was  never  rebuilt. 

DAPHNE,  a  genus  of  ornamental  plants,  na- 
tives of  the  more  temperate  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  Some  are  cult-ivated  for  beauty  and  fra- 
grance, as  the  D.  odora  ;  others  for  a  vivid  green 
foliage,  as  the  D.  Taureola  of  Britain ;  and  others 
are  useful  in  the  arts.  D.  mezereum,  a  deciduous 
plant  with  white  or  purple  fragrant  flowers 
closely  attached  to  the  shoots,  is  the  earliest 
blooming  shrub  of  our  gardens,  the  blossoms 
appearing  in  the  beginning  of  April,  before  the 
leaves  expand.  This  species,  notwithstanding 
its  beauty,  has  a  dangerous  reputation,  the  ber- 


ries being  used  in  Sweden  to  poison  wild  ani- 
mals, and  a  very  few  of  them  w^hen  eaten  by 
man  are  fatal.  Its  juice  is  acrid,  and  produces 
infiannnation  and  evei^  blisters  upon  the  skin. 
The  most  curious  property  of  the  daphne  is 
found  in  D.  lagetta,  or  the  lace  tree  of  Jamaica, 
the  inner  bark  of  which,  if  macerated  in  water, 
is  easily  separated  iutcj  thin  layers,  and  has  the 
texture  and  appearance  of  lace. 
_  DAPHNEPHOKIA  (Gr.  S<,(/).»?,  laurel),  a  Gre- 
cian festival  celebrated  every  9 th  year  at  Thebes, 
in  honor  of  Apollo.  For  this  a  youth  was 
chosen  from  one  of  the  noble  families  of  the  city 
to  be  the  daphnephorus  or  bearer  of  the  laurel 
bough,  and  the  priest  of  Apollo  for  that  year. 
Behind  him  came  a  troop  of  maidens  bearing 
boughs  and  singing  hymns.  The  Delphians  also 
had  a  custom  of  sending  every  9th  year  a  boy 
to  pluck  laurel  boughs  in  the  vale  of  Tempe,  in 
commemoration  of  the  purification  of  Apollo 
in  that  place  after  he  had  slain  the  Python. 

DA  PONTE,  LoKENzo,  an  Italian  poet,  best 
known  as  the  author  of  the  lyrical  dramas 
Don  Giovanni  and  Nozze  cli  Figaro,  born  at 
Ceneda,  a  small  town  in  the  A'enetian  states, 
March  10,  1749,  died  in  New  York,  Aug.  17, 
1838.  Ilis  natural  gifts  having  secured  for  him 
the  protection  of  the  bishop  of  his  diocese,  his 
education  was  well  cared  for.  After  filling  fc«' 
2  years  the  office  of  professor  of  rhetoric  in 
the  seminary  of  Porto  Guaro,  he  removed  to 
Venice.  Aspiring  to  an  elective  office  in  the 
state,  he  found  an  opponent  in  the  celebrated 
Count  Pisani,  against  whom  he  wrote  a  satiri- 
cal sonnet,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was 
driven  into  exile.  His  next  abode  was  in  Vien- 
na, where  his  merit  procured  for  him  the  post 
of  Latin  secretary  to  the  emperor  Joseph  II. 
Ho  now  commenced  writing  for  the  Italian 
theatres  of  Vienna  and  Prague,  and  produced 
the  librettos  of  a  number  of  operas  for  Salieri, 
Martini,  and  Mozart.  After  the  death  of  the 
emperor  Joseph,  a  green-room  quarrel  led  to 
his  second  exile — this  time  to  London.  As 
poet  and  secretary  of  the  Italian  opera,  then 
under  the  management  of  Taylor,  he  passed 
several  years  in  the  English  metropolis;  and 
"  Kelly's  Eerainiscences  "  contains  an  interest- 
ing mention  of  him  at  this  period  of  his  life. 
In  1805  another  turn  in  the  wheel  of  fortune 
caused  his  emigration  to  America.  Becoming 
naturalized  in  the  United  States,  he  thenceforth 
directed  his  energies  to  the  diffusion  of  his 
native  language  and  literature  among  the  edu- 
cated classes  of  New  York.  His  efforts  were 
crowned  with  success ;  and  he  was  appointed, 
in  his  80th  year,  to  the  professorship  of  his  na- 
tive tongue  in  Columbia  college.  He  died  in  full 
communion  with  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 
Beside  various  dramas,  he  is  the  author  of  me- 
moirs of  his  own  life,  of  a  number  of  sonnets, 
and  of  translations  of  Byron's  "Prophecy  of 
Dante,"  and  of  Dodsley's  "  Economy  of  Human 
Life,"  all  printed  in  New  York.  He  also  foUoW' 
ed  the  precepts  of  his  countryman  Cornaro;  he 
was  a  wise  liver,  and  reaped  his  reward  in  a 


DAPPES 


DARDANELLES 


263 


long  career  of  intellectual  brightness,  sustained 
to  the  last  moment.  Physically,  ho  was  power- 
fully constituted ;  possessing  a  tall  and  imposing 
form,  and  a  head  of  antique  beauty,  with  a  pro- 
fusion of  flowing  hair. — Loituxzo  L.,  son  of  the 
preceding,  and  i)rofessor  of  belles-lettres  in  the 
university  of  New  York,  born  in  London  in 
1805,  died  in  New  York  in  1841.  lie  is  the 
author  of  a  valuable  "  History  of  the  Florentine 
Kepublic"  (2  vols.  Svo.,  New  York,  1883). 

DAPPES  ( ValUe  dcs  Dappen),  a  valley  about 
4  m.  long  and  2  broad  in  the  Swiss  canton  of 
Vaud,  on  the  S.  W.  slope  of  tlio  Jura  moun- 
tains. Its  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea 
is  3,900  feet.  A  small  stream  from  which  the 
valley  takes  its  name  meanders  through  it.  It 
is  inhabited  by  100  or  150  herdsmen.  Without 
any  value  as  a  territorial  possession,  this  valley 
has  obtained  some  importance  from  the  fact 
that  it  offers  the  most  available  military  route 
from  France  to  Savoy.  In  1802  France  annex- 
ed it,  but  Switzerland  recovered  possession  in 
1814  and  maintained  it,  although  the  treaty  of 
Vienna  did  not  stipulate  for  its  relinquishment 
by  France.  On  several  occasions  France  has 
endeavored  to  regain  the  valley,  but  has  always 
been  stoutly  resisted  by  the  Swiss  confederation. 
The  last  of  these  conflicts  occurred  toward  the 
end  of  1858. 

DARABGERD  (Darae),  capital  of  the  dis- 
trict of  the  same  name  in  the  Persian  province 
of  Farsistan,  lat.  20°  N.,  long.  54°  50'  E. ;  pop. 
about  15,000.  It  was  formerly  a  town  of  som^ 
extent,  and  there  are  many  remains  of  antiqui- 
ty, including  the  ruins  of  an  aqueduct,  some 
sculptured  rocks,  and  a  caravansary  hollowed 
in  the  heart  of  a  mountain.  The  town  is 
situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Darakub,  cele- 
brated for  producing  mumia  nativa^  a  species 
of  liquid  petroleum,  which  is  believed  by  the 
Persians  to  possess  a  miraculous  healing  power. 

D'ARBLAY,  Madame.  See  Aeblat,  Ma- 
dame d'. 

DARCET,  Jean,  a  French  chemist,  born  in 
1727,  at  Donazit  (Landes),  died  in  Paris,  Feb. 
13,  1801.  From  his  earliest  youth  he  studied 
chemistry,  spent  a  fortune  in  the  pursuit  of  his 
favorite  science,  and  suffered  for  a  time  the  pri- 
vations of  poverty  while  continuing  his  inves- 
tigations. Having  accepted  the  tutorship  of 
the  sons  of  Montesquieu,  he  became  the  intimate 
friend  of  that  celebrated  man,  an  associate  in  all 
bis  labors,  and  defended  him  in  his  last  mo- 
ments against  the  attacks  of  the  Jesuits.  After 
the  death  of  Montesquieu  he  was  induced  to  de- 
vote himself  exclusively  to  chemistry.  His  ex- 
periments on  the  materials  of  porcelain  and  the 
modes  of  treating  them  in  manufacture  form  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  the  progress  and  improve- 
ment of  the  art,  as  practised  at  Sevres.  In  1770 
he  made  his  first  communication  to  the  academy 
of  sciences,  in  which  he  explained  his  investiga- 
tions into  the  chemical  nature  of  precious  stones, 
demonstrating  the  combustibility  of  the  dia- 
mond. He  discovered  the  method  of  extract- 
ing soda  from  marine  salt ;  the  means  of  manu- 


facturing soap  with  any  kind  of  grease  or  oil; 
tlie  means  of  calcining  calcareous  earth ;  the 
means  of  improving  various  processes  of  dyeing; 
and  also  the  means  of  more  accurately  assaying 
metals.  He  discovered  what  is  called  the  "fu- 
sible alloy"  of  tin  and  bismuth.  He  also  wrote 
an  interesting  paper  on  the  means  of  extracting 
nutritive  substances  from  bones.  He  was  gene- 
ral inspector  of  the  assay  office  of  the  mint  at 
Paris,  and  of  the  inanuf\icture  of  tapestry  at  the 
Gobelins.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution 
he  espoused  its  cause. 

DARDANELLES,  four  castles  or  forts  situ- 
ated on  the  opposite  shores  of  the  Hellespont,  or 
strait  of  the  Dardanelles,  which  joins  the  archi- 
pelago to  the  sea  of  Marmf)ra,  and  extends  in  a 
S.AV.  direction  upward  of  50  m.  between  lat.  40'^ 
and  40°  30'  N.,  and  long.  20°  and  27°  E.  The 
name  is  supposed  to  bo  derived  from  the  ancient 
city  of  Dardanus.  The  Dardanelles  are  generally 
considered  as  the  key  of  Constantinople,  tlie  ac- 
cess to  which  they  are  intended  to  connnand,  but 
in-  several  instances  ships  of  war  have  passed 
them  without  serious  injury.  Tlius  in  1770  the 
Russian  admiral  Elphinstone,  in  1801  Com. 
Bainbridge,  in  the  American  frigate  George 
Washington,  and  in  1807  the  British  admiral 
Duckworth,  sailed  through  the  strait.  The  2 
castles  at  the  entrance  of  the  strait  from  the 
archipelago,  Kumkale  or  Hissar  Sultani  on  the 
Asian  shore,  and  Sed-il-Bahr  on  the  European 
shore,  were  built  in  1058  by  Mohammed  IV.; 
they  are  in  good  repair,  but  inefhcient  in  con- 
sequence of  the  width  of  the  channel  at  that 
place  (4f  miles).  The  2  old  castles,  Tche- 
iiekalessi  or  Boghaz  Hissar,  in  Asia,  and  Kilid- 
il-Bahr  in  Europe,  command  the  strait  at  a 
point  where  it  is  only  800  yards  across,  and 
may  be  closed  by  chains.  The  principal  works 
of  defence  on  the  European  side  are  2  excellent 
coast  batteries,  Namasyah  and  Dagermen  Burun. 
All  the  forts  are  well  armed,  though  usually  ill 
manned.  Still,  even  if  fully  garrisoned,  the 
castles  and  batteries,  if  unsupported  by  a  field 
force,  could  hardly  defend  the  passage  of  the 
strait.  The  bastions  are  open  at  the  gorge,  the 
batteries  without  casemates,  and  both  are  com- 
manded by  hills  in  the  rear,  thus  requiring  a 
strong  movable  column  to  repel  a  flank  attack. 
Beside,  a  fleet  stationed  behind  Cape  Nagara 
Avould  be  indispensable  in  order  to  oppose  the 
ships  which  might  have  succeeded  in  passing  the 
forts  and  batteries.  The  town  of  Tchenekalessi 
is  an  indifferent  place,  containing  about  2,000 
houses.  To  the  N.  and  E.  from  it  a  narrow 
strip  of  land  projects  into  the  sea.  This  is  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Abydos,  and  a  similar  pro- 
jecting point  corresponds  to  it  on  the  European 
shore.  There  Xerxes  is  supposed  to  have  built 
his  bridge  uniting  the  2  continents;  there  also 
Alexander  the  Great  crossed  into  Asia ;  and 
there  the  crescent  was  for  the  second  time  plant- 
ed on  European  soil  by  Solyman  (1357).  Her© 
also  Leander  swam  across  the  strait  from  Aby- 
dos to  Sestos,  to  visit  his  beloved  Hero,  and 
Lord  Byron  and  Lieut.  Eckeuhead  swam  the 


264 


DAEDANUS 


DARGAN 


same  distance  in  70  minutes  (March  3,  ISIO), 
TheTurkisli  government  lias  always  maintained 
the  principle  that  no  foreign  vessel  of  war  should 
be  allowed  at  any  time  to  pass  the  Dardanelles, 
and  hence  in  tlie  Egyptian  war  (1833)  the  Brit- 
isla  and  French  fleets  were  not  |K,'rniitted  to 
enter  the  strait,  though  a  Russian  ileet  from  tlio 
Black  sea  was  anchored  at  Buyukdereh.  In  18-il 
the  5  great  powers  of  Europe  fully  recognized 
this  principle,  audit  was  reaffirmed  hy  the  treaty 
of  Paris  in  1856.  But  in  Nov.  1858,  the  U.  S. 
frigate  Wahash  passed  the  Dardanelles  and  an- 
chored at  Constantinople,  the  connnanding  ofh- 
cer  maintaining  that  the  IJnitcd  States,  heingno 
party  to  the  treaty  of  Paris,  were  not  bound  by 
its  stipulations.  Without  acknowledging  expli- 
citly the  correctness  of  this  ])osition,  the  Turkish 
government  received  the  Wabash  in  a  friendly 
spirit. — The  so-called  Lesser  Dardanelles  are 
2  large  castles  situate  on  the  capes  Rhiou  and 
Antirrliion,  in  the  gulf  of  Lepanto. 

DARDANUS,  according  to  the  ancient  le- 
gends, the  ancestor  of  the  Trojans.  The  Greek 
tradition  was  that  he  was  a  king  in  Arcadia,  and 
that  he  went  from  that  country  to  Samothrace, 
whence  he  afterward  i>assed  over  into  Asia 
Minor,  and  founded  the  town  of  Dardania.  The 
Italian  legend  said  that  Dardanus  was  a  native 
of  Etruria,  and  from  thence  went  to  Samothrace 
and  Plirygia. 

DARDEN",  Miles,  probably  the  largest  man 
on  record,  born  in  Nortli  Carolina  in  1798, 
died  in  Henderson  co.,  Tenn.,  Jan.  23,  1857. 
He  was  7  feet  and  G  inches  high,  and  in  1845 
weighed  871  lbs.  At  his  death  his  weight 
was  a  little  over  1,000  lbs.  Until  1853  he  was 
active  and  lively,  and  able  to  labor,  but  from 
that  time  was  obliged  to  stay  at  home,  or  be 
hauled  about  in  a  two-horse  wagon.  In  1839 
his  coat  was  buttoned  around  3  men,  each  of 
them  weighing  more  than  200  lbs.,  who  walked 
together  in  it  across  the  square  at  Lexington. 
In  1850  it  required  13^  yards  of  cloth,  one  yard 
wide,  to  make  him  a  coat.  Ilis  coffin  was  8 
feet  long,  35  inches  deep,  32  inches  across  the 
breast,  18  across  the  head,  and  14  across  the 
feet ;  and  24  yards  of  black  velvet  were  requi- 
site to  cover  its  sides  and  lid.  lie  was  twice 
married,  and  his  children  are  very  large,  though 
probably  none  of  them  will  ever  reach  half  the 
weight  of  their  father. 

DARE,  Virginia,  the  first  child  of  English 
parents  in  the  new  world,  born  at  Roanoke  in 
Aug.  1587,  and  named  after  the  district  of  Vir- 
ginia. She  was  the  granddaughter  of  John 
White,  who  was  governor  of  the  colony  sent 
by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  to  found  an  agricultural 
state,  Avhich  sailed  from  Plymouth,  April  26, 
1587,  and  reached  the  shores  of  Virginia  in  July 
of  the  same  year.  White's  daughter  was  mar- 
ried to  Mr.  Dare,  who  Avas  one  of  the  assistants 
of  the  governor,  and  Virginia  was  born  about  a 
Dionth  after  the  arrival  of  the  expedition. 

DARFOOR,  Darfdr,  Darfour,  Dae-Fur,  or 
Dab-el-Fuu,  a  country  of  central  Africa,  form- 
ing a  large  oasis  in  the  S.  E.  corner  of  the  great 


desert,  bounded  W.  by  Waday,  S.  by  Per  tit,  and 
E.  by  a  narrow  strip  of  country  inhabited  by 
wandering  Arabs,  which  separates  it  from  Kor- 
dofan.  It  lies  between  lat.  11°  and  16°  N.,  long. 
20°  and  30°  E.,  but  its  precise  limits  are  not 
known;  pop.  estimated  by  Browne  at  200,000, 
and  by  Mohannned  Ebn-Omar-cl-Tounsy  at 
8,000,000  or  4,000,000.  The  S.  part  of  the 
country  is  hilly,  and  embraces  many  well-water- 
ed valleys ;  the  N.  consists  chiefly  of  arid  plains. 
The  products  of  the  soil  are  millet,  rice,  maize, 
sesamnm,  legumes,  tobacco,  medicinal  ])lants,  dye 
stuffs,  and  fruit.  Cattle  form  the  principal  wealth 
of  the  people ;  camels,  small  elephants,  and  goats 
are  numerous,  and  tlieir  flesli  is  used  as  food ; 
horses  and  sheep  are  few  and  poor.  The  wild 
animals  embrace  the  lion,  leopard,  hyena,  wolf, 
jackal,  rhinoceros,  girafie,  liippopotamus,  croco- 
dile, and  buffalo.  Vultures,  Guinea  fowl,  turtle 
doves,  and  chameleons  are  abundant.  Among 
the  mineral  products  are  iron,  copper,  alabaster, 
marble,  and  nitre,  the  last  of  which  is  not  used. 
The  climate  is  excessively  hot,  and  during  the 
dry  season  the  country  is  almost  stripped  of 
vegetation.  Tlie  periodical  rains  last  from  the 
middle  of  June  to  the  middle  of  September. 
The  iuliabitants  are  Arabs  and  negroes,  pro- 
fessing the  Mohammedan  religion,  but  paying 
little  regard  to  its  stricter  precepts ;  in  morals 
and  manners  they  are  degraded  to  the  lowest 
degree.  They  practise  polygamy,  and  every  spe- 
cies of  labor  except  bearing  arms  is  exacted  of 
the  women.  Tlie  sovereign  is  a  despotic  sultan, 
whose  court  is  encumbered  with  an  absurdity 
of  ceremonial  seldom  paralleled.  He  never 
speaks  but  through  the  mouth  of  an  interpreter ; 
when  he  spits,  the  spittle  is  gathered  up  by  the 
hands  of  his  attendants ;  if  his  liorse  stumbles 
while  riding,  or  he  loses  his  seat,  every  one  of 
his  retinue  must  do  the  same ;  and  woe  betide 
the  courtier  who  when  the  sultan  sneezes  neg- 
lects to  sneeze  likewise.  The  royal  body  guard 
is  composed  of  old  women.  Darfoor  carries  on 
some  trade  with  upper  Egypt  in  slaves,  ivory, 
horn,  ostrich  feathers,  gum,  hides,  drugs,  copper, 
pimento,  tamarinds,  leathern  sacks  for  water, 
parroquets,  Guinea  hens,  and  monkeys,  in  ex- 
change for  which  it  receives  cotton  cloths,  glass 
ware,  various  trinkets  and  ornaments,  coifee, 
spices,  sugar,  Indian  merchandise,  nails,  metals, 
fruit,  grain,  firearms,  other  weapons,  slioes,  &c. 
The  chief  towns  are  Cobbe  and  Tendelty. 

DARGAN,  AVilliam,  a  public-spirited  Irish-  ■ 
man,  born  about  1801  in  the  county  of  Carlow, 
received  a  good  education,  was  placed  in  a  sur- 
veyor's office,  and  was  afterward  employed  in 
various  railway  works.  By  his  ability,  industry, 
and  integrity,  he  raised  himself  in  the  business 
of  a  railway  contractor  to  a  position  of  much 
influence,  and  to  the  possession  of  a  great  for- 
tune. He  is  known  to  the  public  in  consequence 
of  his  efforts  in  behalf  of  a  national  and  univer- 
sal exhibition  of  arts  and  manufactures  at  Dublin 
in  1853,  in  imitation  of  that  at  London  in  1851. 
The  money  requisite  for  the  execution  of  this 
project  was  advanced  by  Mr.  Dargan,  who  at  first 


DARTO 


DARIEN  COLONY 


265 


devoted  £20,000  for  tlio  purpose,  but  at  the 
tiiuo  of  tlic  opening  of  the  exliihition,  M;iy  12,  liis 
advances  ]i:id  reached  nearly  £100,000.  lie  was 
to  receive  payiuent  from  the  proceeds,  but  at 
the  concUisiou  of  the  exlubition  -was  left  a  loser 
to  the  extent  of  about  £20,000.  Tlie  (pieeu 
offered  him  the  lionor  of  knighthood,  which  he 
declined 

DAFJC,  properly  Daricus  (Gr.  AapuKos),  an 
ancient  Persian  coin  of  pure  gold,  specimens  of 
wliich  are  still  preserved  in  several  European 
collections,  bearing  on  one  side  the  image  of  a 
kneeling  archer,  on  the  other  that  of  a  royal  palla. 
It  was  known  to  the  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Jews ; 
the  latter  used  it  after  the  Babylonian  captivity, 
under  the  reign  of  the  Persians,  and  called  it 
adarcon  or  darlccmon  (mentioned  in  the  first 
book  of  Chronicles,  by  Esdras  and  Neliemiab). 
Its-  value  was  equal  to  20  silver  drachmae,  or  IGs. 
3(Z. ;  3,000  being  equal  (according  to  Xenophon) 
to  10  talents.  Its  name  is  variously  derived  from 
that  of  King  Darius  Ilystaspes,  who  regulated 
tlw)  Persian  currency,  and  from  several  Persian 
words  meaning  king,  palace,  and  bow.  The  so- 
called  silver  darics  were  not  designated  by  this 
name  in  antiquity. 

DARIEN,  tlie  capital  of  Mcintosh  co.,  Ga., 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Altamaha  river,  GO  m. 
S.  "W.  from  Savannah,  and  12  m.  from  the  sea. 
It  IS  a  port  of  entry,  and  exports  pine  lumber. 
The  shipping,  June  30,  1852,  was  306  tons 
registered,  and  859  tons  enrolled  and  licensed. 
Three  vessels,  tonnage  V24,  entered  in  1852 ; 
clearances,  G  vessels,  tonnage  1,359.  It  con- 
tains 5  churches  and  1  academy.     Pop.  600. 

DARIEN",  Colony  of,  had  its  origin  in  the 
energy  of  a  Scotchman  named  Paterson,  who, 
about  the  year  1680,  set  out  on  a  visit  to 
the  new  world.  He  was  led  in  the  course 
of  his  wanderings  to  the  isthmus  of  Darien, 
where  he  met  with  Dampier  and  others  of 
the  buccaneers,  then  in  the  heyday  of  their 
glory.  •  From  their  descriptions  lie  obtained 
the  notion  of  a  country  on  the  isthmus  which 
had  never  been  occupied  by  the  Spaniards, 
fertile  and  arable,  full  of  gold  and  precious 
metals,  easy  of  access  and  defensible,  with  an 
excellent  harbor,  and  rendered  healthy  and  hab- 
itable to  northern  constitutions  by  a  range  of 
mountains  Avhich  elevated  it  from  the  midst 
of  the  tropical  heats  into  a  delightful  tempera- 
ture. It  was  said  also  to  occupy  a  situation 
where  the  passage  between  the  oceans  could  be 
made  in  a  day,  and  to  be  pointed  out  by  nature 
for  the  highway  of  the  commerce  of  the  world. 
Hereupon  he  formed  the  plan  of  founding  a  col- 
ony there.  His  idea  was  to  assemble  under  the 
protection  of  some  powerful  government  an 
expedition  large  enough  to  acquire  undisputed 
possession  of  the  territory,  and  at  .the  same 
time  to  carry  with  it  the  civil  and  religious  in- 
Btitutions  of  the  country  from  which  they  emi- 
grated. In  order  to  submit  his  project  to  the 
English  government,  he  went  to  London,  where 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  several  eminent 
men,  who  found  his  ingenuity  of  advantage  in 


framing  the  first  law  for  establishing  the  bank 
of  England ;  but  in  his  own  cause  he  met  with 
less  success,  and  liis  colonial  project  was  dis- 
couraged. It  was  submitted  successively  to  the 
Dutch,  to  Hamburg,  and  to  the  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg ;  but  finally,  meeting  with  Fletcher  of 
Saltoun,  Paterson  went  on  with  him  to  Scot- 
land, and  there  the  project  was  ado])ted  by  the 
most  powerful  of  the  nobility.  In  .fune,  1G95, 
a  charter  was  [jrocured  from  parliament,  and 
ratified  by  the  king,  for  a  trading  company  to 
Africa  and  the  new  world,  with  power  to  jilant 
colonies  and  build  forts,  with  the  consent  of 
the  inhabitants,  in  places  not  possessed  by  other 
European  nations.  Immediately  people  of  all 
ranks  and  classes  of  society  rushed  to  subscribe 
their  names  to  the  stock,  and  to  obtain  a  share 
in  the  promising  adventure.  In  a  very  short 
time  the  subscription  amounted  to  £400,000, 
although  at  that  time  it  was  computed  that  there 
was  not  over  £800,000  in  cash  in  the  whole 
kingdom  of  Scotland ;  and  some  gentlemen 
being  deputed  to  receive  snbscrii)tions  from 
abroad,  £300,000  was  taken  by  the  English,  and 
£200,000  by  the  Dutch.  This  flattering  com. 
mencement,  and  the  expectations  excited  by  it, 
aroused  the  animosity  of  the  East  India  company, 
through  whose  efforts  some  very  severe  measures 
against  the  enterprise  were  passed  in  the  Eng- 
lish parliament,  and  the  Dutch,  Hamburg,  and 
London  merchants  withdrew  their  subscriptions. 
By  the  Scotch,  however,  this  opposition,  which 
was  ascribed  to  envy,  was  looked  upon  as  a 
more  certain  assurance  of  success.  They  took 
up  the  cause  of  the  company  unanimously  as 
a  nation,  defended  it  by  a  powerful  address 
to  the  king  in  parliament,  and,  although  the 
poorest  nation  in  Europe,  proceeded  to  fit  out 
the  best  appointed  colony  which  liad  ever  left 
the  old  world  for  the  new.  From  the  port  of 
Leith  1,200  men  sailed  on  July  26,  1C98,  in  5 
stout  'ships,  which  it  Avas  almost  impossible  to 
disembarrass  of  the  numbers  who  thronged  on 
board  anxious  to  join  the  expedition.  They  ar- 
rived at  the  isthmus  in  about  2  months.  A  large 
proportion  of  them  were  soldiers  discharged 
from  the  wars  of  William  III.,  imder  their  own 
officers,  and  in  a  state  of  military  discipline. 
Through  the  whole  extent  of  Spanish  America 
there  was  no  force  able  to  compete  with  them ; 
but  honorably  and  modestly  adhering  to  their 
peaceful  puri)ose,  they  commenced  the  founda- 
tion of  a  colony  at  a  place  called  Acta,  now 
marked  on  the  map  as  Port  Escoses,  about  50  m. 
N.  of  the  gulf  of  Darien.  They  gave  it  the  name 
of  New  St.  Andrew,  and  called  the  country 
New  Caledonia.  They  began  by  purchasing 
lands  of  flie  natives,  sent  messages  of  amity  to 
the  nearest  Spanish  governors,  and  dug  a  pas- 
sage for  their  ships  across  a  neck  of  land 
to  a  safe  harbor,  Avhile  their  first  ])ublic  act, 
adopted  at  the  instance  of  Paterson,  was  to  pub- 
lish a  declaration  of  freedom  of  trade  and  re- 
ligion to  all  people.  They  had  brought  with 
them  only  a  short  supply  of  provisions,  trust- 
ing to  obtain  Avhat  they  needed  from  the  Eiig- 


266 


DAPJEN  COLONY 


DARIEN  GULF 


lisli  colonics.  But  tlie  Dutcli  and  English  East 
Imli;i  companies  liad  united  in  procuring  orders 
from  the  king  forhidding  any  one  to  render 
them  any  assistance.  Thus  abandoned  to  the 
resources  of  tlie  country,  it  was  not  long  before 
disease  made  its  appearance  among  them.  In 
vain  the  hardy  highlanders  sought  the  coolest 
slopes  of  the  moinitains ;  in  that  fatal  climate 
the  colony  was  doomed.  Paterson  lingered  for 
8  months,  waiting  for  assistance  from  Scotland, 
and  nt)t  till  almost  all  had  died  or  departed  did 
he  consent  to  abandon  the  settlement,  which  he 
was  himself  the  last  to  leave.  In  the  mean 
tune  the  efforts  made  in  Scothind  had  brought 
together  a  reenforcement  of  1,300  men,  who  were 
despatched  in  ignorance  of  the  fate  of  the  first 
party.  The  king  of  Spain  had  also  presented 
at  London  Jiis  formal  ])rotcst  against  the  under- 
taking, and  tlie  Dutch  had  sent  an  address 
against  it  to  King  "William.  Tiie  second  party, 
more  hastily  prepared  than  the  first,  was  im- 
perfectly organized ;  one  of  their  vessels  was 
lost  at  sea,  many  died  on  the  passage,  and  those 
•who  arrived  were  dispirited  by  the  original  fail- 
ure. Tliey  also  bronglit  with  them  4  ministers 
appointed  by  the  general  assembly  of  Scotland 
to  take  charge  of  the  souls  of  the  colonists,  and 
to  set  over  them  a  faithful  church,  with  its 
deacons,  elders,  and  assembly,  according  to  the 
national  model.  This  work  could  not  be  car- 
ried out  without  interfering  more  or  less  with 
the  government,  and  differences  arose  between 
the  secular  and  ecclesiastical  power,  and  the 
colonists  became  divided  among  themselves. 
Tlie  principal  complaint  made  against  the  min- 
isters was  on  account  of  the  frequent  days  of 
fasting  enjoined,  and  the  length  of  the  sermons 
and  services,  extending  to  12  hours  in  the  day. 
In  addition  to  these  domestic  dissensions,  for- 
eign war  came  upon  them.  The  attention  of 
the  Spanish  government  had  been  drawn  to  the 
danger  of  a  successful  settlement  of  another 
people  and  religion  in  the  vicinitj^  of  their  own 
territories,  and  within  3  months  after  their  ar- 
rival the  colonists  received  intelligence  that  a 
Spanish  force  of  1,G00  men  was  waiting  at  Tu- 
bucantee  for  the  arrival  of  a  squadron  of  11 
ships,  with  which  they  were  to  be  attacked. 
Luckily  the  last  party  which  reached  the  col- 
ony was  headed  by  a  Capt.  Campbell,  who  came 
in  his  own  ship  with  a  company  of  highlanders 
from  his  own  estate,  which  he  had  commanded 
in  Flanders.  lie  was  offered  the  command,  and 
thinking  the  colony  too  feeble  to  await  the  at- 
tack, he  set  off  the  second  day  after  his  arrival, 
with  a  force  of  200  men,  for  the  Spanish  camp, 
stormed  it  in  the  night,  dispersed  the  hostila 
force,  and  was  back  again  on  the  5th  day.  But 
his  expedition  was  in  vain.  On  his  return  he 
found  a  Spanish  squadron  drawn  up  before  the 
harbor,  their  troops  landed,  and  all  hope  of  re- 
treat or  aid  cut  off.  Tlie  colonists  endured, 
liowever,  a  siege  of  nearly  G  weeks,  and  were  re- 
duced to  great  extremities.  "Wlien  at  last  they 
capitulated,  it  was  upon  terms  which  not  only 
obtained  them  the  honors  of  war  and  inviola- 


bility of  property,  but  even  hostages  for  tho 
performance  of  the  conditions.  Campbell,  how- 
ever, refused  to  be  included  in  the  cajjitulatioa 
to  enemies  whom  he  had  injured  so  deeply,  and 
succeeded  in  making  his  escaj)e  in  his  own  ves- 
sel, lie  arrived  safely  in  Scotland  by  way  of 
New  York,  and  his  services  were  acknowledged 
by  the  ju-esent  of  a  gold  medal  frf)m  the  com- 
pany. The  rest  of  the  colonists,  worn' out  by 
labor  and  disease,  were  unable  to  weigh  the 
anchor  of  the  Rising  Sun,  their  largest  ship, 
which  carried  GO  guns.  To  their  generous  ene- 
mies they  were  indebted  for  this  assistance,  and 
again  for  preservation  from  shipwreck  after 
tliey  had  gone  ashore  in  getting  out  of  the  har- 
bor. Their  ships  were  so  warped  and  leaky 
tliat  the  voyage  toward  home  was  long  and  dis- 
tressed. Everywhere  they  received  kindness 
from  the  Spaniards  and  inhospitality  from  their 
own  kindred.  The  Rising  Sun  was  wrecked  on 
the  bar  of  Charleston ;  only  one  small  ship  be- 
side Capt.  Campbell's  was  finally  saved,  and  of 
the  colony  only  about  30  survivors  ever  reached 
their  native  country.  The  destruction  of  this 
colony  was  a  great  blow  to  Scotland.  Almost 
all  the  available  resources  of  the  nation  had 
been  embarked  in  it,  and  their  loss  for  a  long 
time  made  the  national  poverty  more  pinching. 
The  manner  in  which  it  had  been  brought  about, 
through  the  open  and  secret  opposition  of  Eng- 
land and  the  Dutch,  touched  the  national  pride, 
and  long  embittered  the  feelings  of  the  Scotch 
against  their  more  opulent  neighbor.  Tales  of 
the  courage,  of  the  disasters,  and  miserable  fate 
of  the  colonists  circulated  in  prose  and  verse  over 
the  country,  and  produced  an  appreciable  effect 
among  the  causes  of  its  subsequent  unsettled 
state,  and  of  the  violent  opposition  to  the  union  of 
the  two  kingdoms.  Paterson  himself,  in  whose 
brain  the  enterprise  originated,  was  overcome 
by  its  failure.  His  labors  and  anxieties  brought 
on  a  fever  on  his  passage  home,  accompanied  by 
alienation  of  mind.  His  native  air,  however, 
restored  him,  and,  together  with  the  directors 
of  the  unfortunate  company,  he  made  an  effort 
to  revive  the  attempt  upon  the  footing  of  a  joint 
stock  company  of  £2,000,000,  |  of  which  to  be 
furnished  by  England  and  ^  by  Scotland.  To 
this  end  he  prepared  an  address  and  circular  of 
great  ability,  setting  forth  the  advantages  of 
the  project.  It  had  the  countenance  of  King 
"William,  but  the  obstacles  in  the  Avay  were  too 
great  to  be  overcome.  An  unsuccessful  attempt 
was  made  to  procure  him  some  relief  from  the 
equivalent  money  finally  paid  at  the  time  of  the 
union  by  England  to  Scotland,  in  consideration 
of  the  losses  of  the  Darien  company. — See 
"  Memoirs  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,"  by  Sir 
John  Dalrymple,  vol.  ii.,  and  Burton's  "  History 
of  Scotland,"  London,  1853. 

DARIEN,  Gulf  of,  a  portion  of  the  Carib- 
bean sea,  on  the  N.  coast  of  New  Granada,  in 
al)out  lat.  9°  N.  and  long.  78°  "W.,  bounded  "W. 
by  the  isthmus  of  Darien  or  Panama.  It  is 
about  26  leagues  long  from  N.  to  S.  by  9  from 
E.  to  W.    Its  shores  are  steep,  generally  inac- 


DAEIEN  ISTHMUS 


DAPJUS 


267 


ccssible  from  elioals,  and  in  somo  parts  the  an- 
chorage is  unsafe.  It  terminates  at  the  S.  in  tlio 
bay  of  Ohoco,  into  Avhicli  enters  the  river  Atrato. 

I)ARIEN,  Isthmus  of.     See  Panama. 

IJAKIUS  (Daryavesh  in  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures ;  Darayavush  in  tlie  Persian  i)art  of  the 
great  trilingual  inscription  at  liehistun,  on  the 
western  frontier  of  ancient  Media).  I.  King  of 
Persia,  521^85  13.  C,  was  the  son  of  llystasi)es, 
governor  of  Persis,  of  the  royal  race  of  the 
Achicmenidjo.  He  consj)ired  with  (Jtanes  to  de- 
throne the  pscudo  Smerdis,  the  Gomates  of  the 
Behistun  inscription,  who  had  been  made  by 
the  magi  king  of  Persia  during  the  absence  of 
Cambyses,  and  was,  after  the  death  of  tiio  usurp- 
er, the  most  fortunate  of  the  7  nobles  of  Persia 
who  aspired  to  the  throne,  the  choice  having 
been  decided,  according  to  Herodotus,  by  the 
neighing  of  a  horse.  To  strengthen  himself  on 
the  throne,  lie  married  a  daughter  of  Otanes, 
a  daughter  of  Smerdis,  and  two  daughters  of 
Cyrus,  one  of  whom,  Atossa,  attained  great  in- 
fluence at  his  court.  He  "was  a  monarch  of 
great  abilities,  enterprising,  despotic,  and  cruel, 
and  may  be  regarded  as  the  organizer  of  the 
Persian  empire.  He  was  a  zealous  adherent  of 
the  ancient  Aryan  or  dualistic  religion  of  his 
nation,  and  restored  its  prevalence  over  the  rival 
creed  of  Magism.  He  divided  Persia  into  20  sat- 
rapies, determined  the  regular  amount  of  their 
contributions,  in  produce  or  precious  metals,  for 
the  government,  army,  and  household  of  the 
king,  and  established  regular  conmiunication  by 
means  of  couriers  between  the  127  districts  of 
the  state,  which  extended  from  India  to  Ethio- 
pia. One  of  his  first  military  undertakings  was 
a  successful  expedition  to  restore  the  island  of 
Sanios  to  Syloson,  an  ancient  friend.  The  siege 
of  Babylon,  which  revolted  and  defended  its  in- 
dependence with  the  most  desperate  determina- 
tion, lasted,  according  to  Herodotus,  20  months ; 
and  it  was  conquered  only  by  the  savage  self- 
sacrifice  of  Zopyrus,  who  having  horribly  mu- 
tilated his  face  went  over  into  the  besieged 
city,  complained  of  the  cruelty  of  the  king,  be- 
came the  commander  of  the  defending  army,  and 
betrayed  it  to  Darius.  Tiie  monarch  wreaked 
his  vengeance  on  the  rebels,  by  impaling  near 
3,000  of  the  chief  citizens,  and  destroying  the 
gates  and  walls  of  the  city  (517).  This  narrative 
of  the  Greek  historian,  however,  is  not  supported 
by  the  inscription  of  the  monarch  himself,  ac- 
cording to  which  Babylon  twice  revolted  from 
him.  To  chastise  the  Scythians  around  the  north- 
ern shores  of  the  Black  sea,  for  ancient  incur- 
eions  to  Asia,  he  started  with  700,000  men  from 
Susa,  his  cai)ital,  on  an  expedition  to  Europe, 
passed  the  Bosporus  on  a  bridge  built  by  a 
Samian  Greek,  traversed  Thrace,  crossed  the 
Danube,  following  the  nomads,  who  had  only  to 
retreat,  driving  their  herds  before  them,  and  fill- 
ing up  the  wells  in  their  route,  in  order  to  conquer 
the  invaders,  without  a-  battle,  by  famine  and 
the  hardships  of  an  endless  march  through  their 
inhospitable  country.  The  greatest  part  of  his 
army  was  lost  when  he  returned,  leaving  the 


sick  and  the  aged  behind,  and  a  body  of  troops 
under  Megabazus  in  Thrace,  which  conquered 
the  P.'oones,  and  transplanted  them  to  Phrygia. 
Thus  a  European  ccnmtry  was  annexed  to  tho 
emi)ire.  Anotiier  exi)cdition  conquered  a  part 
of  India,  and  the  exi)lorations  down  tiie  Indus, 
and  around  the  shores  of  the  Mure  ErythrcB- 
um^  under  Scylax,  a  Carian  Greek,  even  gained 
maritime  glory  for  the  monarch.  Tho  revolt 
of  the  lonians,  the  support  given  them  by  the 
Athenians  and  Eretrians,  and  i)articularly  the 
burning  of  Sardis  (500),  incited  Darius  to  an 
exi)edition  against  Greece.  After  the  conquest 
of  Miletus,  an  army  under  Mardonius  and  a 
fleet  were  sent  to  subdue  the  Greeks ;  but  the 
attacks  of  the  Scythian  tribes  in  Thrace,  and 
temjjcsts  oir  Mount  Athos,  compelled  both  to  re- 
turn, and  the  Athenians  rejected  with  scorn  tho 
demand  for  earth  and  water  made  by  the  heralds 
of  the  great  king.  Anotiier  army,  sent  with 
600  vessels  under  the  command  of  Datis  and 
Artaphernes,  conquered  Naxos,  but  spared  the 
sacred  island  of  Delos  (while  the  other  Cyclades 
submitted  without  a  struggle),  destroyed  the 
betrayed  Eretria  on  the  island  of  Euboea,  and 
landed  in  Attica.  But  the  victorj'  of  the  Athe- 
nians under  Miltiades,  at  Marathon  (490),  de- 
feated the  army  of  Darius,  though  not  his  hope 
of  subduing  Greece.  Arming  again,  and  pre- 
paring the  whole  force  of  his  enqiire,  he  was 
cliecked  by  a  revolt  in  Egypt,  soon  after  whicb 
he  died,  leaving  the  accomplishment  of  his  de- 
signs of  revenge  to  liis  son  and  successor  Xerxes. 
Like  Cyrus,  Darius  favored  the  Jews,  and  it  was 
during  his  reign  that  they  rebuilt  the  temple  of 
Jerusalem.  II.  King  of  Persia,  423-405  B.  C, 
called  before  his  ascension  to  the  throne  Ochus, 
and  surnamed  by  the  Greeks  ISTothus,  or  the 
bastard.  He  became  king  by  putting  to  death 
his  natural  brother  Sogdianus,  who  liad  killed 
Xerxes  II.,  the  only  legitimate  son  of  Artaxerxes 
I.  He  was  a  weak  prince,  ruled  by  his  queen 
Parysatis,  a  cunning  and  ambitious  woman.  His 
reign  was  disturbed  by  rebellions,  among  which 
that  of  Amyrtffius  in  Egypt  was  particularly 
successful.  His  governors  in  Asia  Minor,  Tis- 
saphernes  and  Cyrus  (the  younger),  his  son, 
extended  the  influence  of  Persia  in  the  affairs 
of  Greece,  which  was  distracted  during  his  reign 
by  the  Peloponnesian  war.  His  successor  was 
his  son  Artaxerxes  II.  Mnemon.  III.  The  last 
king  of  the  ancient  Persian  monarchy  (33G-330 
B.  C),  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  eunuch  Ba- 
goas,  after  the  murder  of  Arses,  was  a  prince  of 
mild  and  humane  disposition,  but  inadequate  to 
defend  his  empire  against  a  conqueror  like 
Alexander  the  Great,  who  shortly  after  his  ac- 
cession commenced  the  attack  on  Persia,  passed 
the  Hellespont,  defeated  the  first  army  of  Darius 
in  the  battle  on  the  Granicus  (334);  the  king 
himself  at  Issus  (333),  where  his  mother,  wife, 
sister,  and  children  were  made  captives,  but 
treated  with  humanity ;  and,  after  the  conquest 
of  Syria  and  Egypt,  in  the  battle  of  Arbela  or 
Gaugamela  in  Assyria  (331).  The  great  armies 
of  Persia  were  destroyed  or  scattered,  and  Da- 


268 


DARJEELINO 


DAELEY 


rins  fled  from  province  to  province  tmtil  he  was 
overtaken  by  the  Macedoni;ui«,  when  he  was  be- 
trayed and  mortally  wounded  by  the  faithless 
satrap  Bessus.  After  having  asked  and  receiv- 
ed a  draught  of  water,  ho  exi)res^^ed  his  grati- 
tude to  the  giver,  and  to  Alexander  for  the  hu- 
mane treatment  of  his  kindred,  and  expired. 

DARJEELINCt,  or  Dahjilixg,  a  British  sani- 
tary station  in  the  territory  of  Sikkim,  lieut. 
governorship  of  Bengal,  situated  near  the  junc- 
tion of  the  rivers  Runjeet  and  Teesta,  at  an 
elevation  of  7,400  feet  above  the  sea,  318  m.  N. 
from  Calcutta.  It  has  a  moist  healthy  climate, 
and  is  surrounded  by  fine  mountain  scenery. 
It  was  obtained  from  the  rajah  of  Sikkini  in 
1835,  and  gave  its  name  to  a  district  which  was 
enlarged  in  1850  by  the  sequestration  of  adja- 
cent tracts,  and  now  comprises  about  300  sq.  m. 
In  1856  a  company  secured  about  14,000  acres  of 
land  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  European 
agricultural  settlement  in  this  district. 

DARKE,  aW.  co.  of  Ohio,  bordcringon  Ind., 
intersected  by  3  lines  of  railroad;  area,  609  sq. 
m.;  pop.  in  1850, 20,274.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and 
the  surface  generally  level,  occupied  partly  by 
prairies  of  no  great  extent,  and  partly  by  forests 
of  beech,  ash,  walnut,  hickory,  and  sugar  maple. 
In  1850  the  productions  were  590.077  bushels 
of  corn,  182,594  of  wheat,  115,095  of  oats, 
11,5]  9  tons  of  hay,  and  390,443  lbs.  of  butter. 
There  were  30  churches,  2  newspaper  establish- 
ments, and  7,585  pupils  attending  public  schools. 
The  county  was  organized  in  1809,  and  named 
in  honor  of  Gen.WiUiam  Darke.  Capital,  Green- 
ville. 

DARKE,  William,  an  American  officer  in  the 
revolutionary  war,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1736, 
removed  in  1740  with  his  parents  to  Jefferson  co., 
Va.,  and  died  there,  Nov.  26, 1801.  At  19  years 
of  age  he  served  with  the  Virginians  in  the  battle 
of  Braddock's  defeat,  and  afterward  in  the  war 
of  the  revolution.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  the 
battle  of  Germantown,  and  was  colonel  com- 
mandant of  the  Hampshire  and  Berkeley  regi- 
ments at  the  siege  of  Yorktown.  At  St.  Clair's 
defeat  he  commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  army, 
and  made  two  gallant  and  successful  charges 
with  the  bayonet,  in  the  second  of  which  his 
youngest  son,  Capt.  Joseph  Darke,  fell  mortally 
wounded  (Nov.  4,  1791).  His  father  paused 
but  a  moment  over  him,  and  rushed  with  re- 
doubled energy  into  the  conflict.  lie  was  re- 
peatedly a  member  of  the  Virginia  legislature, 
and,  as  member  of  the  convention  of  1788,  voted 
for  the  federal  constitution. 

DARLASTON,  a  town  and  parish  of  Staf- 
fordshire, England,  with  extensive  mines  of 
coal  and  iron,  and  manufactures  of  various  ar- 
ticles of  hardware.  The  ore  obtained  from  the 
mines  is  here  converted  into  iron  of  different 
kinds  and  of  superior  quality.  Pop.  of  the 
parish  in  1851,  10,590. 

DARLEY,  Felix  O.  C,  an  American  artist, 
born  in  Phiiadelphia,  Penn.,  June  28,  1822.  In 
boyhood  he  manifested  a  strong  taste  for  art 
and  an  inclination  to  make  it  his  profession. 


His  parents,  distrusting  his  ability  to  pursue  8uch 
a  career  with  success,  placed  him,  when  14  years 
of  age,  in  a  large  mercantile  establishment,  in 
the  hoi)e  that  his  thoughts  might  be  diverted 
into  another  channel.  Darley,  however,  spent 
all  his  leisure  liours  in  drawing,  for  which  his 
predilection  remained  unaltered,  and  in  which 
he  made  rapid  improvement.  .  Having  shown 
some  sketches  of  firemen,  fishwomen,  and  other 
l)rominent  types  of  city  life,  to  the  jjublisher 
of  the  "  Saturday  Museum,"  he  was  offered  a 
handsome  sum  for  them,  and  encouraged  to  rely 
wholly  upon  his  pencil  for  support.  For  sev- 
eral years  he  was  employed  by  large  publish- 
ing houses  in  Philadeli)hia,  and  soon  acquired  a 
considerable  reputation  for  the  vigor  and  humor 
of  his  designs.  The  series  published  in  the 
"  Library  of  Humorous  American  Works  "  was 
very  popular  in  the  southern  and  western  states. 
In  1848  he  removed  to  New  York,  where  he 
found  ample  occupation  in  illustrating  the 
"  Sketch  Book,"  "  Knickerbocker's  New  York," 
and  various  other  publications.  He  had  previ- 
ously made  a  series  of  designs  in  outline  from 
Judd's  novel  of  "Margaret,"  without  any  defi- 
nite intention  of  publishing  them.  The  commit- 
tee of  the  American  art  union  having  seen  them, 
at  once  gave  him  a  commission  to  illustrate  in 
a  similar  style  Irving's  "  Rip  Van  Winkle  "  for 
distribution  among  their  subscribers.  These  de- 
signs, 6  in  number,  were  followed  the  succeed- 
ing year  by  another  set  illustrating  the  same 
author's  "Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow;"  and  the 
two  series  were  recognized,  both  in  the  United 
States  and  England,  as  among  the  most  credit- 
able productions  of  the  kind  recently  published. 
Offers  were  made  to  the  artist  to  settle  in  Lon- 
don, which  he  declined.  In  1850  his  illustrations 
of  "  Margaret"  were  published  in  New  York  in 
a  folio  edition,  amply  confirming  the  expectations 
which  had  been  raised  by  the  long  delay  in  their 
appearance.  Of  late  years  he  has  given  much  at- 
tention to  the  preparation  of  vignettes  for  bank 
notes,  and  is  now  engaged  in  illustrating  an 
edition  of  Cooper's  works  in  32  vols.,  to  contain 
upward  of  500  designs,  A  large  copy  in  crayons 
from  one  of  these,  representing  the  death  of 
Scipio,  in  the  "  Red  Rover,"  was  in  the  exhi- 
bition of  the  American  academy  of  design  in 
1858.  His  drawing  of  the  massacre  at  Wyoming 
was  published  a  few  years  ago,  and  4  others, 
illustrating  passages  in  American  revolutionary 
history,  are  now  in  the  hands  of  the  engravers. 
For  Irving's  "  Life  of  Washington  "  and  Simms's 
novels  he  has  also  contributed  many  designs  of 
this  class  of  subjects.  Among  his  last  works  is 
an  illustration  of  the  wedding  procession  in 
Longfellow's  poem  of  the  "  Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish,"  which  Avas  published  in  New  York 
in  1858-9,  in  photographic  form. 

DARLEY,  Geokge,  a  British  author,  born 
in  Dublin  in  1785,  died  in  London  in  1849. 
lie  was  graduated  at  Twnity  college,  Dublin,  in 
1811,  went  to  London  in  1825,  and  becanic  at- 
tached to  the  "Literary  Gazette  "  and  "  Athe- 
naeum "  journals,  in  which  his  criticisms  of  poetry 


DARLING 


DARLINGTON" 


269 


jind  the  fine  arts  gave  him  a  favorable  reputa- 
tion in  the  literary  world.  lie  is  the  author  of 
the  "Labors  of  Idleness,"  "Silvia,"  and  mis- 
cellaneous works  of  a  mingled  philosophical  and 
poetic  character.  He  was  the  editor  of  Moxon's 
edition  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  and  also  i)ub- 
lished  an  edition  of  Euclid,  aud  other  mathe- 
matical works. 

DARLING,  one  of  the  principal  rivers  of 
central  Australia.  It  is  formed  by  the  union  of 
several  small  streams  in  the  proviuce  of  New 
South  Wales,  and  during  an  irregidar  course 
through  a  barren  country,  receives  the  river 
Bogan  from  the  S.  E.  Its  waters  are  salt  for  a 
great  distance  above  its  mouth.  It  empties  into 
Murray  river. 

DARLING,  Grace,  an  English  girl,  celebrat- 
ed for  her  heroic  conduct  in  rescuing  9  persons 
from  a  shipwreck,  born  Nov.  24,  1815,  at  Bam- 
borougli,  on  the  coast  of  Northumberland,  died 
Oct.  20,  1842.  Her  father  was  keeper  of  the 
Longstone  lighthouse,  on  one  of  the  most  ex- 
posed of  the  Fame  islands.  On  the  night  of 
Sept.  6,  1838,  the  Forfarshire  steamer,  proceed- 
ing from  Hull  to  Dundee,  was  wrecked  upon 
one  of  the  crags  of  the  Fame  group,  with  53 
persons  on  board,  of  whom  38  perished,  includ- 
ing the  captain  and  his  wife.  On  the  morning 
of  the  7th  the  survivors  were  discovered  by 
Grace  clinging  to  the  rocks  and  remnants  of  the 
vessel,  and  in  imminent  danger  of  being  Avashed 
off  by  the  returning  tide.  Grace,  with  the  as- 
sistance, but  against  the  remonstrances  of  her 
parents,  who  considered  the  undertaking  des- 
]ierate  and  hopeless,  immediately  launched  a 
boat  and  succeeded  in  rescuing  9  of  tliem,  and  6 
escaped  by  other  means.  Presents  and  demon- 
strations of  admiration  were  showered  upon  her 
from  all  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  a 
public  subscription  to  the  amount  of  £700  was 
raised  in  her  favor. 

DARLING  RANGE,  a  chain  of  g:-anite 
mountains  in  western  Australia,  running  par- 
allel with  the  coast  for  a  distance  of  250  m. 
The  highest  summit  has  an  elevation  of  2,000 
feet.  The  forests  with  which  these  mountains 
are  clad  contain  sandal  wood. 

DARLINGTON,  a  N.  E.  district  of  S.  C,  in 
the  alluvial  region  of  the  state,  bounded  N.  E. 
by  the  Great  Pedee,  S.  "W",  by  Lynch's  creek, 
and  N.  W.  by  Cedar  creek ;  area,  800  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1850,  16,830,  of  whom  10,041  were 
slaves.  Its  river  lands  are  of  great  fertility. 
The  uplands  are  inferior,  but  occasionally  well 
timbered.  Large  reclamations  frum  the  swamp 
borders  of  the  Pedee,  Lynch's,  aud  Black  river, 
have  yielded  vast  bodies  of  the  rich  swamp 
lands  to  tlic  hands  of  cultivation.  The  face  of 
the  country  is  undulatory,  sometimes  rising  into 
hills  of  300  feet.  It  has  no  mountains.  The 
district  is  well  watered.  The  Pedee  is  navigable 
by  steamers  its  whole  length,  and  Lynch's  foe 
80  ni.  from  its  junction  with  the  former  river. 
Darlington,  on  Swift's  dreek,  is  the  capital.  It 
contains  the  usual  public  buildings,  court  house, 
gaol,  &c.,  and  about  1,500  inhabitants.     The  dis- 


trict is  wholly  agricultural ;  the  staples  are  corn 
and  cotton,  and  the  productions  in  1850  were 
13,005  bales  of  cotton,  471,357  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  61,91G  of  oats,  and  119,283  of  sweet  ])Ota- 
toes.  There  were  14  grist  and  saw  mills,  3  tan- 
neries, 1  cotton  factory,  20  churches,  and  620 
pupils  attending  public  schools.  The  district  is 
intersected  by  the  Wilmington  and  Manchester 
railroad.     It  was  settled  by  Virginians  in  1750. 

DARLINGTON,  a  muuicijial  borough  and 
market  town  of  Durliam,  England,  on  the 
Skerne,  18  m.  S.  E.  of  Durliam,  and  235  m.  by 
the  great  northern  railway  N.  N.  W.  of  London ; 
pop.  in  1851,  11,228.  It  is  built  in  the  form  of 
a  square,  the  centre  being  occupied  by  a  mar- 
ket place,  from  which  radiate  several  streets  lo- 
cally called  gates.  It  is  generally  well  built, 
and  contains  a  Gothic  church  founded  in  1100, 
two  other  churches,  a  number  of  chapels,  a 
free  grammar  school,  an  academy  founded  by 
the  society  of  Friends,  a  national  school,  a 
town  hall,  a  central  hall,  several  alms  houses, 
a  dispensary,  a  mechanics'  institute,  a  public  li- 
brary, gas  works,  and  a  savings  bank.  The 
chief  branches  of  industry  are  the  carding  and 
spinning  of  wool,  flax  spinning,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  carpets,  brass,  and  iron.  There  is  an 
extensive  market  for  sheep  and  cattle  every 
fortnight.  The  town  is  governed  by  a  bailiff 
appointed  by  the  bishop  of  Durham,  and  gives 
the  title  of  earl  to  the  duke  of  Cleaveland. 

DARLINGTON,  William,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  botanist  and  politician,  born  of  Qua- 
ker parents  in  Birmingham,  Chester  co.,  Penn., 
April  28,  1782.  His  early  education  was  limit- 
ed to  that  of  a  common  country  school,  and  his 
youth  was  passed  in  agricultural  pursuits,  until 
at  the  age  of  18  he  commenced  the  study  of 
medicine  with  Dr.  John  A'auglian,  in  Wilmington, 
Del.  He  received  the  degree  of  M.D.  from  the 
university  of  Pennsylvania  in  1804,  and  after 
passing  2  years  at  his  father's  house,  devoted 
to  the  study  of  languages  and  botany,  but  gain- 
ing little  practice,  he  went  to  Calcutta  as  sur- 
geon on  a  merchant  ship.  A  sketch  of  his  voy- 
age, in  the  form  of  10  "  Letters  from  Calcutta," 
was  afterward  publislied  in  the  "Analectic  Ma- 
gazine." He  returned  from  India  in  1807,  mar- 
ried, and  for  several  years  practised  medicine 
successfully  at  West  Chester.  Here  he  soon 
entered  into  politics,  and  during  the  agitation 
which  preceded  the  war  of  1812  his  pen  was 
actively  employed  in  defending  the  policy  of  Mr. 
Madison.  On'the  breaking  out  of  hostilities  he 
aided  in  raising  an  armed  corps  in  his  neighbor- 
hood, and  after  the  sack  of  Washington  in  1814 
was  chosen  major  of  a  volunteer  regiment,  and 
elected  by  the  democratic  party  to  the  14th  and 
afterward  to  the  16th  and  17th  congresses,  where 
he  gained  reputation  less  as  a  debater  than  as  a 
useful  committee  man.  He  took  an  active  in- 
terest in  the  aflairs  of  West  Chester,  and  found- 
ed there  an  academy,  an  atheuffium,  and  a  pros- 
perous society  of  natural  history.  In  1813  he 
had  begun  making  a  descriptive  catalogue  of 
plants  growing  around  West  Chester.  This  was 


270 


DAEMSTADT 


DARTER 


published  in  182G  underthe  t\i\Q  of  Floruln  Ccs- 
trica,  and  was  afterward  merged  in  a  larger  and 
more  valuable  work,  the  Flora  Cestrica,  pub- 
lished iu  1837,  and  rewritten  and  republished  in 
1853,  containing  a  complete  description  and  cl.as- 
sification  of  every  plant  known  to  exist  in  the 
county.  In  1843  he  edited  the  correspondence 
of  his  friend  the  late  Dr.  William  Baldwin,  and 
accompanied  it  with  a  memoir,  the  wliole  ap- 
pearing nndar  the  iitlG  of  lieliqri  im  Baldir  in  iancc. 
In  1853  the  name  of  Darlingtonia  CaliJ'ornica 
was  given  in  his  honor  by  Dr.  Torrey,  of  New 
York,  to  a  new  and  remarkable  variety  of  pitch- 
er plant  found  in  California. 

DARMSTADT,  the  capital  of  the  grand  dnchy 
of  Ilesse-Darmstadt,  and  of  a  circle  of  its  own 
name  (pop.  54,800),  in  the  province  of  Star- 
kenburg,  situated  on  the  small  river  Darm, 
16  m.  by  railway  from  Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
and  30  m.  N.  from  Mannheim  and  Heidelberg ; 
pop.  27,200,  mostly  Protestants.  The  new  part 
of  the  town  cont^fins  beautiful  streets  and 
squares,  and  fine  pleasure  grounds.  The  re- 
markable buildings  are  the  ducal  i)alace  (with  a 
library  of  300,000  vols.),  the  chancery,  the  diet 
house,  the  stable  of  the  grand  duke,  the  mint, 
the  Catholic  church,  and  tlie  theatre  of  the 
court.  There  are  galleries  of  pictures,  of  stat- 
uary and  coins,  a  museum  of  natural  history, 
2  colleges,  a  gymnasium,  various  schools,  a 
botanic  garden,  a  military  academy,  an  exten- 
sive armory,  and  many  scientific  and  artistic 
societies.  Among  the  charitable  institutions 
are  2  for  the  benefit  of  poor  young  girls,  for 
orphans  and  widows,  and  a  deaconess  institute 
established  in  1857.  The  manufacturing  inter- 
est is  limited  to  linen  and  woollen  fabrics,  cai*- 
pets,  wax  candles,  musical,  surgical,  and  mathe- 
matical instruments,  colored  paper,  starch,  and 
coaches.  Darmstadt,  which  contained  toward 
the  close  of  last  century  only  about  7,000 
inhabitants,  is  greatly  indebted  for  its  growth 
to  the  grand  duke  Louis  I.,  whose  statue  adorns 
the  Lii isenplatz.  The  Theaterplatz  has  contain- 
ed since  1852  statues  of  Philip  the  Generous 
and  George  I.  A  bank  of  commerce  and  indus- 
try was  established  in  1854,  and  tlie  bank  for 
southern  Gevmanj  (Zettelbank)  in  1856.  Public 
conventions  have  been  often  held  in  Darmstadt, 
and  a  Zoll  congress  in  1854.  The  principal 
journal  is  the  I)armstddter  Zeitmig.  Liebig, 
the  chemist,  was  born  in  this  town. 

DARNEL  (loUum  perenne,  Linn.),  the  ray  or 
rye  grass,  has  been  recommended  to  be  sown 
among  other  grasses  on  poor  cold  soils,  and  is 
spoken  of  as  a  pretty  good  pasture  grass.  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  has  shown  that  in  1,000  parts  39 
are  nutritive  matter,  which  is  rather  more  than 
the  foxtail  {alopecurus 2>ratensis)  contains.  The 
L.  temulentum.,  or  bearded  darnel,  is  a  noxious 
weed,  and  even  poisonous  qualities  are  attrib- 
uted to  the  accidental  use  of  its  seeds  occurring 
among  other  grain.  Tiiis,  the  only  poisonous 
grass  known,  is  distinguished  by  its  two-sided 
spikes  and  one-valved  glumes.  Neither  is  indi- 
genous in  America;  the  former  from  Europe  has 


become  naturalized ;  the  other  is  an  adventitious 
weed. 

DARNLEY,  Hexet  Stuart,  lord,  the  2d  hus- 
band of  ^lary,  queen  of  Scots,  born  in  England 
in  154(5,  killed  near  Edinburgh,  Feb.  9,  1567.  He 
was  the  son  of  the  exiled  earl  of  Lennox  by 
Margaret  Douglas,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  An- 
gus by  Queen  Margaret,  widow  of  James  IV. 
and  sister  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  was  therefore 
cousin  german  of  Queen  Mary,  and  a  cousin 
of  Queen  Elizabeth.  On  his  father's  side  he 
was  descended  from  the  royal  line  of  Scotland. 
When  Mary  announced  her  intention  of  con- 
tracting a  second  marriage,  Darnley,  who  pos- 
sessed a  handsome  person  and  was  skilled  in 
many  of  the  accomplishments  of  the  age,  went 
to  Scotland  to  urge  his  suit,  and  was  accepted. 
His  marriage  with  Mary  took  place  at  Holyrood 
house,  July  29,  1565,  on  which  occasion  she 
proclaimed  him  king,  and  promised  to  induce 
the  Scottish  parliament  to  grant  him  a  crown 
matrimonial.  He  repaid  her  kindness  by  petu- 
lance and  insolence,  and  open  profligacy  and  in- 
fidelity; and  finally  alienated  her  afiections  by 
his  participation  in  the  murder  of  her  secre- 
tary, the  Italian  singer,  Rizzio.  A  few  days  af- 
terward he  had_  the  meanness  to  denounce  his 
confederates  in  this  act,  and  aided  Mary  in  driv- 
ing them  from  the  kingdom.  He  might  even 
after  this  have  become  reconciled  with  the  queen, 
but  his  vices  and  follies  continually  widened  the 
breach  between  them.  In  Jan.  1567,  while  at 
Glasgow,  he  was  taken  ill  with  the  small  pox, 
and  during  his  convalescence  was  removed  to  a 
solitary  house  called  the  Kirk  of  Field,  near 
Edinburgh,  from  an  apprehension  that,  if  taken 
to  Holyrood,  he  might  communicate  his  disease 
to  the  young  prince,  then  a  few  months  old. 
The  queen  visited  him  here  several  times,  and 
seemed  to  manifest  some  tenderness  for  him. 
On  the  niglit  of  Feb.  9  the  house  was  blown  up 
with  gunpoAvder,  and  the  dead  bodies  of  Darn- 
ley  and  his  servant  were  found  lying  uninjured 
near  tlie  ruins.  The  earl  of  Bothwell  was  the 
chief  actor  in  this  tragedy,  and  it  has  long  been 
a  moot  point  whether  the  queen  was  privy  to  it. 

DARTER,  a  bird  of  the  order  anseres,  family 
pelc'canidce,  and  genus  plotiis  (Linn.).  The  bill 
in  this  genus  is  longer  than  the  head,  straight, 
and  very  slender,  with  sides  much  compressed 
to  the  acute  tip,  and  the  lateral  margins  finely 
serrated;  the  nostrils  are  scarcely  visible ;  the 
wings  are  long,  the  2d  and  8d  primaries  the 
longest;  the  tail  is  long,  of  12  feathers,  and 
broad  toward  the  end,  which  is  rounded ;  the 
tarsi  are  short  and  strong;  the  toes  long,  united 
by  a  broad  web,  with  short,  sharp,  and  curved 
claws.  Four  species  are  described  by  Gray : 
P.  anhinga  (Linn.),  in  the  southern  states  of 
North  America;  P.  melanogaster  (Gmel.),  in 
Asia;  P.congcnsis  (Lecah),  in  Africa;  and  P. 
JSforce  IIollandicB  (Gould),  in  Australia.  They  are 
peculiar  to  vrarm  climates,  where  they  live  in  so- 
ciety on  fresh-water  rivers  and  lakes.  The  first 
named  species,  tlie  anhinga,  or  snake  bird,  or 
black-bellied  darter,  maybe  taken  as  the  type  of 


DARTER 


DARTFORD 


271 


the  genus.  The  bill  of  this  bird  is  about  3|  inches 
long,  the  length  to  end  of  tail  36  inches,  extent 
of  \vings44  inches,  tail  11^  inches,  tarsus  only  1| 
inches ;  weight  3^  lbs.  The  head  is  small,  the 
neck  very  long  and  slender,  and  the  body  elon- 
gated ;  at  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible,  around 
the  eye,  and  on  the  tliroat,  the  skin  is  bare,  and 
at  the  latter  part  dilated  a.s  in  the  cormorant. 
The  plumage  of  the  head,  neck,  and  body  is  close 
and  silky,  with  oblong  rounded  feathers ;  from 
near  tlie  eye  to  half  down  the  neck  on  each  side 
is  a  series  of  long,  narrow,  loose  feathers ;  the 
scapulars  are  elongated,  pointed,  compact,  and 
stiff'.  The  upper  mandible  is  olive,  the  lower 
yellow,  with  greenish  tips;  around  the  eye  green- 
ish, sac  on  throat  orange,  iris  bright  carmine; 
the  general  color  of  the  head,  neck,  and  body, 
glossy  dark  green,  and  of  the  scai)ulars,  Avings, 
and  tail,  l)lnish  black;  the  long  neck  feathers 
are  purplish  white  or  lilac ;  at  the  lower  part 
of  the  neck  behind  are  numerous  oblong  small 
white  spots,  forming  2  broad  bands  as  they  ex- 
tend backward ;  similar  rows  of  white  spots 
are  seen  on  the  smaller  wing  coverts ;  the  first 
row  of  small,  and  the  secondary  coverts,  arc 
white ;  the  tail  is  tipped  with  a  band  of  brown- 
ish red,  fading  into  white.  In  the  female, 
wliich  is  smaller,  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and 
the  hind  neck  are  dull  greenish  brown,  and  the 
fore  i)art  of  the  neck  pale  reddish  brown  with 
a  grayish  tinge,  extending  over  the  breast  and 
ending  abruptly  in  a  reddish  chestnut  band ; 
otherwise  the  colors  are  as  in  the  male,  except 
that  the  spots  are  less  distinct,  and  that  the  fore 
part  of  the  back  has  a  brownish  tint.  In  ap- 
pearance and  habits  the  darter  resembles  the 
cormorant,  especially  in  the  structure  of  the 
feet,  Avings,  and  tail ;  the  bill  is  like  that  of  the 
heron,  as  also  is  the  neck,  which  forms  the  same 
sudden  curvature  between  the  7th  and  8th  ver- 
tebra?. According  to  Audubon,  there  are  no 
external  nostrils  in  the  adult,  though  they  are 
found  of  small  size  in  the  young.  This  bird  is 
a  constant  resident  in  Florida,  and  the  lower 
parts  of  Louisiana,  Alabama,  and  Georgia;  in 
the  sjjring  they  go  as  far  up  as  North  Carolina, 
breeding  along  the  coast;  in  these  various  local- 
ities it  goes  by  the  names  of  water  crow,  Gre- 
cian lady,  and  cormorant.  They  arrive  in  the 
Carolinas  from  March  to  April,  and  remain  until 
November,  preferring  rivers,  Itikes,  and  lagoons 
in  the  interior,  in  low  situations  and  secluded 
spots;  though  sometimes  seen  near  the  sea, 
they  are  not  known  to  fish  in  salt  water ;  tliey 
do  not  like  rapid  streams  or  clear  water,  but  de- 
light in  the  slimy  and  stagnant  pools  of  inac- 
cessible morasses,  where  a  lew  large  and  naked 
trees  in  the  centre  afford  good  stands  for  taking 
their  prey  or  observing  an  enemy.  From  the 
character  of  the  water  they  prefer,  which  would 
prevent  their  seeing  a  fish  beneath  its  surface, 
they  do  not  dive  from  an  eminence  or  on  the 
wing,  like  the  fish  hawk  and  king-fisher,  but 
drop  silently  from  the  trees  into  the  water, 
swimming  about  and  diving  from  the  surface  like 
the  cormorant.     They  are  excellent  swimmers, 


very  light  on  the  water  when  not  afraid,  but 
sinking  all  but  the  head  and  neck  on  the  ap- 
proach of  an  enemy  ;  when  swimming  in  the  lat- 
ter manner,  tiie  sinuous  motions  of  the  head  and 
neck  resemble  the  movements  of  a  snake,  whence 
the  common  name  of  snake  bird.  After  secur- 
ing a  fish,  the  bird  comes  to  the  surface,  throws 
it  into  tlie  air  if  not  too  large,  and  swallows  it 
whole,  head  first.  Its  food  consists  of  various 
small  fishes,  crawfish,  shrimps,  young  reptiles, 
aquatic  insects,  eggs  of  frogs,  young  leeches, 
&c.,  and  in  confinement  even  boiled  maize.  The 
quantity  offish  they  will  consume  is  enormous; 
but  Hke  other  flesh  and  fish  eating  birds,  they 
can  remain  several  days  Avithout  food  Avith  im- 
punity. The  flesh  is  tough,  oily,  and  unfit  for 
food,  except  the  small  pectorals  of  the  female. 
They  are  gregarious  in  the  Avinter,  fisliing  en- 
tirely by  day,  and  fond  of  returning  nightly  to 
the  same  roosting  places,  which  are  ahvays  over 
water ;  thcjy  are  not  very  shy  in  their  favorite 
haunts,  where  they  are  seldom  molested.  Their 
flight  is  SAvift,  Avell  sustained,  and  often  at  an 
immense  height,  Avhere  they  sail  about  in  grace- 
ful curves,  especially  in  the  love  season ;  on 
land  they  Avalk  and  run  well,  much  better  than 
the  cormorant,  holding  the  tail  up,  and  darting 
the  head  about  continually,  distending  the  pouch, 
and  uttering  rough  guttural  sounds.  As  a  diver 
it  is  unsurpassed  by  fresh-water  birds,  disap- 
pearing Avith  the  utmost  quickness,  and  sAvira- 
ming  beneath  the  surface  for  along  distance  by 
means  of  the  feet,  the  Avings  ])artially  spread  and 
the  tail  expanded.  Asleep,  they  stand  with  the 
body  nearly  erect,  with  the  head  under  the 
scapulars.  In  East  Florida  they  breed  toAvard  the 
end  of  February,  in  Louisiana  in  April  or  May, 
and  in  South  Carolina  in  June  ;  Audubon  sup- 
poses the  same  birds  may  breed  tAvice  a  year  in 
Avidely  separated  localities.  The  nest  is  made  of 
sticks,  is  flattened  in  form,  generally  in  tall  wa- 
ter-surrounded cypresses ;  the  eggs  are  3  or  4, 
2^  inches  long,  of  a  light  blue  color,  covered 
Avith  a  Avhitish  chalky  substance.  They  attain 
their  full  plumage  during  the  first  year,  and  re- 
tain it  through  life.  "When  Avounded,  the  sharp 
bill  is  rather  a  formidable  Aveapon  of  defence. 
According  to  Audubon,  the  quills  and  tail  feath- 
ers, as  in  the  cormorant,  haA-e  the  shaft  holloAA', 
even  to  the  tip,  with  transparent  Avails  of  the 
same  nature  as  the  barrel,  which  last  is  the 
same  as  in  other  birds. 

DARTFORD,  a  market  toAvn  of  Kent,  Eng- 
land, on  the  Darent,  17  m.  by  the  Xorth  Kent 
railway  S.  E.  of  London ;  pop.  in  1851,  5,703.  It 
is  situated  in  a  valley  at  a  lord  in  the  riA-er,  from 
which  it  takes  its  name,  and  consists  chiefly  of 
one  wide  street  on  the  Dover  road.  It  has  a 
large  ancient  church,  a  number  of  chapels,  sca'- 
eral  schools,  an  alms  house,  the  ruins  of  a  nun- 
nery foiinded  in  1371,  a  large  ironfoundery  and 
machine  shop,  grain,  oil,  pOAvder,  paper,  and 
cotton  mills,  calico  and  silk  printing  Avorks,  and 
gas  Avorks.  The  first  mUl  for  rolling  and  slit- 
ting iron  established  in  England  Avas  in  the 
neighborhood  of  this  toAvn.     The  river  is  navi- 


272 


DARTMOOR 


DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE 


gable  from  this  point  to  its  junction  with  tho 
Thames.  Dartford  is  noted  in  history  as  tho 
residence  of  Wat  Tyler. 

DARTMOOR,  a  desolate  tract  of  land  in  Dev- 
onshire, England,  extending  from  N.  to  S.  about 
22  m.,  and  from  E.  to  W.  li  ni.,  at  an  elevation 
of  1,700  feet  above  the  sea ;  area  estimated  at 
about  150,000  acres.  The  surface  is  alternately 
swamp  and  barrens,  producing  a  coarse  grass  on 
Avliich  cattle  and  sheep  find  a  subsistence  during 
the  sunnner  months.  Numerous  hills  of  granite, 
called  io-r.%  break  the  surface  of  the  i)lain,  and 
rise  to  a  considerable  elevation.  Yes  tor  being 
2,050  feet,  and  Cawsand  Beacon  hill  1,792  feet 
above  the  surrounding  level.  Of  these  tors,  150 
are  enumerated  in  Carrington's  poem  on  Dart- 
moor. In  the  centre  of  the  moor  is  an  exten- 
sive swamp,  in  Avhich  the  rivers  Dart,  Teign, 
Taw,  Erme,  Yealm,  and  50  smaller  streams, 
take  their  rise.  The  climate  is  at  all  times  cold 
and  moist.  Storms  from  the  Atlantic  sweep 
over  the  moor,  and  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  a 
more  desolate  spot  during  winter.  A  few  scat- 
tered hamlets,  occupied  by  quarrymen,  con- 
tain the  only  population.  Dartmoor  is  chiefly 
noted  as  the  site  of  a  prison,  built  in  1809, 
at  a  cost  of  £127,000,  for  the  custody  of  French 
jirisoners  of  war.  At  one  time  it  contained 
10,000  inmates.  On  the  breaking  out  of  hostil- 
ities with  the  United  States  in  1812,  2,500  im- 
pressed sailors,  claiming  to  be  American  citi- 
zens, and  refusing  to  serve  in  the  British  navy 
against  their  country,  were  imprisoned  in  Dart- 
moor, where  most  of  them  were  kept  till  the 
end  of  the  war.  Accounts  of  the  harshness  of 
their  treatment  reached  the  United  States,  and 
created  nmch  feeling.  This  was  especially  tlie 
case  on  an  occasion  when  the  guard  fired  upon 
the  prisoners.  Exfilanations,  however,  have 
shown  that  the  occurrence  was  the  result  of  a 
mistake.  The  Dartmoor  prison  enclosures  oc- 
cujjy  an  area  of  30  acres,  encircled  by  a  double 
line  of  lofty  walls.  In  1850  the  prison  was  fitted 
for  the  reception  of  convicts.  Experiments  made 
in  cultivating  the  moor  by  the  labor  of  the  con- 
victs have  proved  satisfactory.  Over  100  acres 
around  the  prison  are  now  under  crop.  About 
one- half  the  annual  expense  of  maintaining  the 
institution  is  repaid  by  tho  industrial  employ- 
ments of  the  inmates. — Dartmoor  offers  con- 
siderable attraction  to  the  tourist  and  naturalist. 
Druidical  remains  may  be  traced.  The  greater 
part  of  the  tract  was  afibrested  under  the  name 
o;'  Dartmoor  forest  by  King  John.  Under  Ed- 
ward III.  it  was  united  to  tlie  ducliy  of  Cornwall. 

DARTMOUTH,  a  municipal  and  parliament- 
ary borough,  seaport,  and  market  town  of  Devon- 
shire, England,  on  the  W.  shore  of  a  bay  formed 
by  the  Dart  at  its  entrance  into  tho  English 
channel,  33  ni.  S.  "W.  of  Exeter;  pop.  in  1851, 
4,508.  It  is  built  on  tho  side  of  a  hill,  which  is 
so  steep  that  the  base  of  the  houses  in  the  up- 
per street  is  but  little  below  the  chimney  pots 
of  those  in  the  street  below.  The  ascent  is  facil- 
itated by  fl'glits  of  stc|)s.  The  thoroughfares 
are  dirty,  irregular,  and  narrow,  but  are  lighted 


with  gas.  Many  of  the  liouses  are  very  old, 
and  display  some  fine  specimens  of  wood-carv- 
ing. Tlie  town  contains  3  churches,  several 
chapels,  schools,  and  ilms  liouses,  a  market 
place.  And  remains  of  a  castle  sup[)Osed  to  be 
of  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  The  harbor,  Avhich 
is  entered  by  a  narrow  channel  between  the 
fort  and  battery  of  St.  Petrox  and  the  old 
castle,  is  safe,  convenient,  and  large  enough  to 
accommodate  500  ships.  A  great  many  ves- 
sels belonging  to  this  port  were  formerly  en- 
gaged in  the  Newfoundland  fisheries,  but  this 
branch  of  industry  has  greatly  declined.  Ship 
building,  rope  niaking,  and  paper  making  are 
carried  on  to  some  extent ;  there  is  an  export 
trade  in  woollen  goods,  cider,  and  barley,-  in 
exchange  for  wine,  oil,  salt,  and  fruit;  and  slate 
and  limestone  are  quarried  in  the  neighborhood. 
The  number  of  vessels  registered  as  belonging  to 
the  port,  Dec,  31,  1856,  was  398,  tonnage  34,- 
987 ;  number  of  vessels  entered  during  the  year 
757,  tonnage  39,969  ;  number  of  vessels  cleared 
391,  tonnage  19,026.  During  the  civil  wars  the 
town  was  twice  captured,  once  by  the  royalists, 
and  once  by  the  parliamentarians.  It  returns 
one  member  to  the  house  of  commons,  and  gives 
the  title  of  earl  to  the  Legge  family.  It  is  one 
of  the  quarantine  ports  of  the  channel. 

DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE,  a  seat  of  learn- 
ing in  Hanover,  N.  II.,  which  received  its  char- 
ter in  1769,  and  went  into  operation  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  under  the  presidency  of  Eleazar 
"Wheelock,  D.D.  It  grew  out  of  an  earlier 
school  established  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Wheelock  in 
Lebanon,  Conn.,  and  designed  for  the  education 
of  Indian  children.  The  idea  of  this  school 
had  been  suggested  to  him  by  his  success  in 
educating  a  young  Mohegan  Indian,  Samson 
Occom,  who  became  a  remarkable  preacher. 
Other  pupils  from  the  Delaware  tribe  were  af- 
terward received,  and  the  school  became  an 
object  of  ]niblic  attention  and  interest.  In 
1754,  a  farmer  named  Joshua  Moor  gave  a 
house  and  two  acres  of  land  for  the  purposes  of 
the  institution,  which  was  from  this  time  known 
as  Moor's  Indian  charity  school.  Occom,  ac- 
companied by  the  Rev.  Natlianiel  AVliitaker,  vis- 
ited England  to  collect  funds ;  a  sum  of  about 
£10,000  was  subscribed,  and  a  board  of  trustees 
was  there  organized,  of  which  Lord  Dartmouth, 
one  of  the  subscribers,  was  made  president. 
The  school  was  so  much  resorted  to  by  the  na- 
tive tribes  that  Dr.  Wheelock  determined  to 
transfer  it  to  some  place  nearer  to  them.  Many 
proffers  of  situations  were  extended  to  him,  but 
he  selected  the  town  of  Hanover,  on  the  Con- 
necticut river,  in  the  western  part  of  the  state 
of  New  Hampshire,  and  grants  of  about  44,000 
acres  of  land  were  made  to  liim.  The  institu- 
tion was  chartered  by  Gov.  Wentworth  under 
the  name  of  a  college,  with  all  the  privileges 
and  imimmities  of  any  university  Avithin  the 
]>ritish  realm  ;  and  the  name  of  Lord  Dart- 
mouth was  adopted  for  it.  Moor's  school  soon 
afterward  obtained  an  independant  charter,  and 
still  renuiius  as  an  academical  or  preparatory 


DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE 


DARU 


27; 


department.  In  1770  Dr.  "Wheelook  removed  his 
family  and  school,  consisting  of  18  wliites  and  G 
Indians,  from  Lei)anon  to  the  wilderness  of  Han- 
over, where  the  whole  colony  lived  in  log  huts. 
In  1771  the  first  class  of  4  students  was  gradu- 
ated. President  "VVheelock  retained  his  office  till 
liis  death  in  1779,  and  was  succeeded  l)y  liis  son 
John  Wheelock,  wlio  in  1782  was  sent  hy  the 
trustees  to  Europe  to  promote  the  interests  of 
the  college;  and  through  introductif)ns  hy  Gen. 
Washington,  Dr.  Franklin,  and  John  Adams, 
lie  ohtained  considerahle  sumsof  money,  philo- 
sophical instruments,  and  other  valualjle  dona- 
tions. The  prince  of  Orange  was  one  of  the 
donors.  He  returned  in  1784,  and  after  a  pres- 
idency of  36  years,  was  removed  from  the  of- 
fice by  the  trustees  in  1815.  This  act,  which 
was  occasioned  cMefly  hy  a  local  religious  con- 
troversy, led  to  a  conflict  with  the  legislature  of 
the  state ;  that  body  claimed  the  right  to  amend 
a  charter  of  wliich  it  was  the  guardian,  and  in 
1816  passed  acts  creating  a  new  corporation  in 
which  the  property  was  vested,  and  changing 
tlie  title  of  the  college  to  Dartmouth  university. 
The  old  trustees  began  a  suit  for  the  recovery 
of  the  college  property,  which  was  decided 
against  them  in  the  supreme  court  of  the  state. 
It  was  carried  by  appeal  before  Cliief  Justice 
Marshall  in  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States,  where  the  judgment  was  reversed,  and 
the  principle  of  the  inviolability  of  chartered 
property  fidly  established.  It  was  by  his  elab- 
orate argument  in  behalf  of  the  plaintiffs  in  this 
case  that  Daniel  Webster,  at  the  age  of  35,  took 
rank  among  the  most  distinguished  jurists  in 
the  country.  "  He  opened  his  cause,"  says  Mr. 
Ticknor,  "  with  perfect  simplicity  in  the  gene- 
ral statement  of  its  facts,  and  then  went  on  to 
nnfold  the  topics  of  his  argument  in  a  lucid  or- 
der, which  made  every  position  sustain  every 
other.  The  logic  and  the  law  were  rendered 
irresistible.  As  he  advanced,  his  heart  warmed 
to  the  subject  and  the  occasion.  Thoughts  and 
feelings  that  had  grown  old  Avith  his  best  affec- 
tions rose  unbidden  to  his  lips.  He  remember- 
ed that  the  institution  he  was  defending  was  the 
one  where  his  own  youth  had  been  nurtured ; 
and  the  moral  tenderness  and  beauty  this  gave 
to  the  grandeur  of  his  thoughts,  the  sort  of  re- 
ligious sensibility  it  imparted  to  his  urgent  ap- 
peals and  demands  for  the  stern  fulfilment  of 
what  law  and  justice  required,  wrought  xap  the 
whole  audience  to  an  extraordinary  state  of  ex- 
citement." Webster  was  associated  in  this  case 
with  Jeremiah  Smith  and  Jeremiah  Mason,  and 
opposed  to  John  Holmes  of  Maine,  William 
Pinkney,  and  William  Wirt.  The  question  ex- 
cited also  a  violent  controversy  in  the  local  news- 
papers. Wlieelock  was  raised  to  the  presidency 
of  the  university  by  the  new  board,  in  Feb. 
1817,  but  died  within  two  months,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  William  Allen,  D.D.,  who  retained 
the  office  till  the  decision  of  the  question  in 
favor  of  the  college  by  the  supreme  court,  in 
1819.  Francis  Brown,  D.D.,  was  the  successor 
of  Wheelock  as  president  of  the  college,  having 
VOL.  VI. — 18 


been  elected  by  the  old  hoard  in  1815,  and  re- 
tained the  olhce  till  his  death  in  1820.  He  was 
succeeded  in  the  ])residency  by  the  Rev.  Daniel 
Dana,  who,  after  one  year,  was  succeeded  by 
Bennet  Tyler,  D.D. ;  upon  whoso  resignation 
in  1828,  Nathan  Lord,  D.D.,  the  present  incum- 
bent, received  the  appointment.  The  college 
conqmses  also  a  medical  school,  and  the  Chand- 
ler scientific  school,  the  latter  of  wliich  went 
into  operation  in  1852,  l)eing  founded  by  a  do- 
nation of  $50,000  from  Abiel  Chandler,  to  give 
instruction  in  the  practical  and  useful  arts  of 
life,  as  mechanics,  engineering,  architecture, 
drawing,  and  the  modern  languages.  In  1858-'9 
there  were  50  students  in  the  medical  school, 
and  44  in  the  scientific.  The  faculty  of  the 
college  consists  of  the  president  and  16  profes- 
sors. The  whole  number  of  alumni  is  4,865, 
and  the  present  number  of  undergraduates 
(1859)  is  260.  The  different  libraries  connect- 
ed with  the  college  have  an  aggregate  of  about 
34,000  volumes.  An  astronomical  observatory, 
of  excellent  design  and  furniture,  has  lately 
been  erected  through  the  munificence  of  George 
C.  Shattuck. 

DARU,  PiEREE  Antoine  Noel  Bnrxo, 
count,  a  French  statesman  and  author,  born  at 
Montpellier,  Jan.  12,  1767,  died  near  Meulan, 
Sept.  6,  1829.  He  studied  with  excellent  suc- 
cess under  the  Oratorians  of  Tournon,  devoted 
himself  to  literature,  producing  poems  and 
translations,  most  of  which  remain  nnpublished, 
and  from  1784  to  1791  was  commissary  of  war. 
Adopting  the  principles  of  the  revolution,  he 
served  as  ordnance  commissary  in  the  army  of 
Brittany,  but  was  suspected  and  imprisoned  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  terror,  recovered  his  liberty  on 
the  9th  Thermidor,  in  1796  entered  into  the 
ministry  of  war  under  Petiet,  soon  after  became 
chief  commissary,  and  during  this  period  pur- 
sued his  literary  studies,  publishing  in  1797  a 
translation  of  Horace.  After  the  return  of  Na- 
poleon from  Egypt,  he  was  nominated  inspector 
of  the  troops  and  secretary  of  the  ministry  of 
war,  was  elected  tribune  in  1802,  and  under  the 
empire  in  1805  and  1806  became  counsellor  of 
state,  superintendent-general  of  the  house  of 
Napoleon,  superintendent-general  of  the  grand 
army,  and  member  of  the  French  academy.  He 
was  charged  with  the  execution  of  the  treaties 
of  Marengo,  Presburg,  and  Tilsit,  was  then  sent 
as  plenipotentiary  to  Berlin,  and  after  the  bat- 
tles of  Eckmtihl  and  Wagram  joined  the  empe- 
ror at  Ratisbon,  followed  him  to  Vienna,  and 
was  there  appointed  to  execute  the  treaty  of 
Vienna  and  to  administer  the  Austrian  states. 
He  opposed  the  alliance  of  the  emperor  by  mar- 
riage with  any  of  the  royal  families  of  Europe, 
maintaining  that  his  throne  was  founded  on  dif- 
ferent principles  from  theirs.  In  1811,  as  min- 
ister of  state,  the  whole  administration  of  the 
empire  rested  upon  him  ;  and  in  the  next  year 
he  strongly  opposed  the  Russian  campaign,  in 
which  as  superintendent-general  of  the  army  he 
displayed  all  the  resources  of  his  courage  and 
talent.     He  was  one  of  the  last  to  give  adher- 


274 


DARWAR 


DASHKOFF 


ence  to  the  reestablished  Bourbons,  and  was 
among  tlio  first  who  ralhed  about  Na[)()leon 
•when  lie  reapiJcared  from  Elba.  Retiring  from 
public  life  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  he  com- 
posed at  Bourges  and  on  his  estate  near^Ieulan 
hi?  llhtoire  de  Venise  (7  vols.,  Paris,  1811) ;  3d 
ed.,  1827),  one  of  the  most  thorough  and  inter- 
esting works  on  the  subject;  and  ia  1810  was 
recalled  from  exile,  entered  the  chamber  of 
peers,  took  his  place  on  the  left,  and  until  his 
death  was  an  eloquent  opponent  of  the  reaction- 
ary tendencies  of  the  government.  lie  was  as 
indefatigable  in  literature  as  in  administrative 
affairs,  and  published  several  elegant  poems  and 
satirical  epistles,  Elogcs  of  Sully,  Volney,  and 
Laplace,  a  Ilistoire  de  Bretagne  (Paris,  1826), 
and  reports  on  the  rupture  of  the  treaty  of 
Amiens,  the  monetary  system,  public  instruction, 
the  riglitof  petition,  individual  liberty,  and  the 
censorship  of  the  press. — Two  of  his  sons,  Napo- 
LEOM  and  Victor  Paul,  Avere  prominent  in 
French  politics  prior  to  the  cstablislimentof  the 
present  empire. 

DARWAR,  or  Dharwap.,  a  district  of  the 
Bombay  presidency,  British  India,  bounded  K. 
byBelgaum,E.  by  the  Nizam's  territory  andBel- 
lary,  S.  by  Mysore,  and  W.  by  North  Canara; 
area,  3,837  sq.  m. ;  pop.  754,385.  The  soil  and 
climate  are  adapted  to  the  growth  of  cotton,  and 
in  1843  the  New  Orleans  species  of  that  plant 
was  introduced  with  such  success,  that  in  1851 
nearly  43,000  acres  of  it  were  under  cultivation. 
The  cotton  is  shipped  at  Coomta,  from  which  the 
principal  marts  are  80  or  100  m.  distant.  The 
district  formed  part  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of 
Bejapoor,  and  was  overrun  by  Sevajee  in  1675, 
and  by  IlyderAli  in  1777.  It  is  comprised  in  the 
region  known  as  the  Soutli  Mahratta  country, 
but  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  are  Canarese.  It 
was  acquired  by  the  British  on  the  overthrow 
of  the  Peishwa  in  1818. — Darwar,  the  chief 
town  of  the  above  district,  is  situated  near  the 
W.  frontier,  70  m.  E.  from  Goa,  and  288  S.  E. 
from  Bombay,  It  is  defended  by  a  wall  and 
ditch,  and  a  fortress  originally  strong,  but  now 
much  decayed.  It  is  the  seat  of  8  government 
schools,  one  Mahratta,  one  Canarese,  and  one 
English.  It  was  captured  by  Hyder  Ali  in  1778, 
and  retaken  by  the  British  and  Mahrattas  in  1791 . 

DARWEN  OVER,  a  town  of  Lancashire, 
England;  pop.  in  1851,  11,702.  It  is  laid  out 
with  little  regularity,  but  is  well  built,  rapidly 
improving,  and  supplied  with  gas  and  abundance 
of  water.  The  principal  branches  of  industry 
pursued  here  are  the  cotton  manufactures,  paper 
making  and  staining,  silk  weaving,  and  carpet 
making.  The  cotton  mills,  which  are  the  most 
extensive  establishments  of  tlio  town,  contain 
3,800  looms  and  63,000  spindles. 

DARWIN,  Charles,  an  English  naturalist, 
was  engaged  on  board  the  Beagle,  Capt.  Fitzroy, 
in  that  oilicer's  exploring  expedition,  1832  to 
1836.  On  hia  return  he  published  several 
works,  principally  records  of  his  experience, 
and  of  the  geological  and  physiological  re- 
sults of  his  travels  and  observations.     Among 


these  are  the  "  Voyage  of  a  Naturalist ;"  "  Jour- 
nal of  Researches  into  the  Geology  and  Natural 
History  of  tlie  various  Countries  visited  by  11. 
;M.  S.  Beagle ;"  "  Geological  Observations  on 
Soutli  America;"  numerous  papers  on  the  islands 
of  Polynesia  and  Australia,  published  in  the 
"Proceedings  of  the  Geological  Society;"  and  a 
"Alonograph  of  the  Family  Cirripcdia,"  a  work 
of  extraordinary  scientific  ability,  published  by 
the  Ray  societv,  and  distributed  to  their  mem- 
bers in  1851-'53. 

DARWIN,  Erasmlts,  an  English  physiologist 
and  poet,  born  at  Elton,  Nottinghamshire,  Dec. 
12,  1731,  died  at  Derby,  April  18,  1802.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  was  graduated  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  settled  as  a  physician  at  Lichfield. 
The  work  by  which  he  is  best  known  is  the 
"  Botanic  Garden,"  a  poem  in  2  books,  the  first 
explaining  the  economy  of  vegetation,  the  2d 
personifying  *'  the  loves  of  the  plants."  Gnomes, 
syl[)hs,  nymphs,  and  salamanders  were  adopted 
to  give  machinery  to  the  poem.  He  next  pub- 
lished "  Zoonomia,  or  Laws  of  Organic  Life," 
a  curious  physiological  essay.  In  1800  he  pub- 
lished "  Phytologia,  or  Philosophy  of  Agricul- 
ture and  Gardening ;"  also  "  Letters  on  Female 
Education,"  addressed  to  his  daughters.  A 
poem,  entitled  the  "Temple  of  Nature,  "appeared 
after  his  death  (1803).  Darwin's  writings  had 
a  large  popularity  in  their  day.  Miss  Seward, 
in  1804,  published  his  memoirs. 

DASII,  N.  CisTERXE  deCotjrtiras  de  Saint 
Mars,  viscountess,  better  known  imder  the  title 
of  countess,  a  literary  Frencli  woman,  born  in 
Paris  about  1805,  received  an  excellent  educa- 
tion, was  married  at  an  early  age,  and  subse- 
quently, owing  to  pecuniary  reverses,  adopted 
literature  as  a  profession.  She  has  writiten 
about  40  novels,  of  which  not  fewer  than.  13 
appeared  between  1853  and  1857. 

DASIIKOFF,  Ekaterixa  Romanoyna,  a 
Russian  princess,  born  in  1744,  died  near  Mos- 
cow, Jan.  4,  1810.  She  was  the  3d  daughter 
of  Count  Roman  Worouzotf,  received  a  literary 
education,  and  was  at  an  early  age  attached  to 
the  person  of  tlie  future  empress,  Catharine  II. 
In  her  16th  year  she  married  Prince  Dashkoff, 
with  whom  she  lived  for  some  time  in  Moscow, 
and  then  returned  to  the  court,  wliere  her  sister 
Elizabeth  had  become  the  favorite  of  the  new 
emperor,  Peter  III.,  while  his  wife  Catharine 
was  treated  with  insulting  brutality.  Indig- 
nant at  tho  insolence  of  her  sister,  and  the  un- 
worthy situation  of  her  friend,  whose  ambition, 
passions,  and  love  of  study  were  congenial  to 
hers,  she  became,  at  the  age  of  18,  the  soul  of 
a  conspiracy  which  deprived  Peter  of  his  throne 
and  life,  and  made  his  German  wife  the  autocrat 
of  Russia.  The  means  she  employed  to  strength- 
en this  conspiracy  were  often  the  opposite  of 
pure ;  and  at  the  execution,  dressed  in  male  cos- 
tume and  mounted  ou  horseback,  slie  command- 
ed a  body  of  soldiers.  But  the  scanty  rewards 
the  empress  bestowed  upon  her  by  no  means  an- 
swered the  expectations  of  the  princess  ;  her 
request  to  receive  the  command  of  tho  imperial 


DASYA 


DATFKA 


liTO 


guard  -u-as  refused,  and  her  independence  of 
character  and  Vjluntness  of  manners  soon  de- 
prived her  of  the  imperial  friendship  and  favor. 
Retired  from  court,  she  devoted  lierself  to  study 
and  the  society  of  scholars ;  and  after  the  death 
of  her  husband,  she  travelled  throutrh  tlie  west 
of  Europe,  Avhere  she  made  the  ac(piaintance  of 
many  celebrated  men  of  the  age.  Among  others, 
she  visited  Voltaire  at  Ferney  in  1771.  On  her 
return  to  St.  Petersburg  in  1782.  she  met  with 
a  more  favorable  disjjosition  on  the  part  of  the 
empress,  who  appointed  her  to  the  presidency 
of  tlie  academy  of  sciences,  and  in  178-t  to  that 
of  the  new  Russian  academy,  established  upon 
her  proposition  in  imitation  of  the  French  acad- 
emy. She  took  an  active  part  in  tlie  elaboration 
of  the  great  Russian  dictionary,  whicli  was  com- 
pleted according  to  her  jilan.  She  also  wrote 
plays,  and  contributions  in  prose  and  verse  for 
periodicals,  and  edited  a  monthly  magazine.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  Catharine  (179G),  she  was  com- 
manded by  her  successor,  Paul,  who  was  no  ad- 
mirer of  the  acts  of  his  mother,  to  retire  to  a  poor 
village  in  the  govormnent  of  Xovgorod,  "  where 
she  could  meditate  on  the  events  of  1762." 
The  intercession  of  her  friends  finally  released 
her  from  this  exile,  and  she  spent  the  last  years 
of  her  life  on  an  estate  near  Moscow.  The 
"  Memoirs  of  the  Princess  Daschkaw,  Lady  of 
Honor  to  Catliarine  II.,  edited  from  the  Originals 
by  Mrs.  Br.adford"'  (2  vols.  8vo.,  London.  1840), 
Avere*  written  after  a  manuscript  of  the  princess 
Avhich  has  been  destroyed. 

DASYA,  a  beautiful  genus  of  the  red-seeded 
marine  alga?,  of  which  there  are  several  species 
peculiar  to  this  country.  The  pear-shaped 
spores  or  seeds  are  borne  upon  the  smaller 
branches  in  ovate  conceptacles.  D.  elegans  is 
found  upon  the  Xew  England  coasts.  ~ 

DATCHET,  a  pleasant  village  of  Bucking- 
hamshire, England,  on  the  Thames,  opposite 
Windsor,  much  resorted  to  in  summer  by  anglers 
.and  other  pleasure  seekers  ;  pop.  in  1851,  898. 
It  is  renowned  as  the  scene  of  Sir  John  Fal- 
statf' s  adventure  with  the  "  merry  wives  of 
Windsor"  on  Datchet  mead. 

DATE  PALM,  the  p7(0'«/.r  of  botanists,  the 
Greek  name  of  the  date,  probably  from  the 
word  Phoenicia,  from  which  country  the  best 
dates  were  brought.  It  grows  abundantly  in 
Egypt,  Ai-abia,  Persia,  and  the  neighboring 
countries,  contributing  largely  to  the  support  of 
the  inhabitants.  P.  dadylifera  is  a  lofty  palm. 
Scarcely  any  other  vegetable  enters  so  largely 
into  the  uses  of  man.  A  single  date  palm  will 
bear  upward  of  1  cwt,  and  sometimes  between 
2  and  3  cwt.,  of  dates  in  a  season.  Camels  are 
fed  upon  the  abortive  fruit  and  the  ground  date 
stones.  From  the  leaves  are  manufactured 
couches,  baskets,  bags,  mats,  brushes,  &c. ;  from 
the  trunk,  fences  for  gardens,  and  fuel.  The 
fibrous  pans  of  the  bases  of  the  leaves  afford 
thread  to  spin  into  ropes  and  rigging,  and  the 
sap  is  capable  of  fermentation  for  beverage. 
Even  the  young  slioots  are  used  as  a  delicate 
vegetable  resembling  asparagus,  and  the  central 


pith  yields  a  sort  of  starch  of  nutritive  prop- 
erties. Other  species  are  known  to  botanists, 
but  this  is  the  most  useful  to  man. 

DATE  PLUM((Zios/>t/ro«,  Linn.),  better  known 
in  tlie  western  states  of  tliis  country  as  the  per- 
simmon. Like  this,  the  fruit  of  all  the  date  plums 
are  small  and  at  first  astringent,  but  sweet  and 
edible  when  ripe.  D.  lotvs  bears  a  fruit  of  the 
size  of  a  cherry ;  D.  dutcolor  of  the  Philijipiue 
islands  jiroduces  a  fine  fruit ;  and  I).  Kaki  of 
Japan  bears  fruit  of  the  size  of  an  apricot,  wliich 
is  dried  as  a  sweetmeat  by  tlie  Chinese.  Most 
of  these  plants  are  tropical. 

DATISCA,  a  genus  of  plants  related  to  the 
nettles,  indigenous  to  the  south  of  Europe.  The 
D.  cnnnahnia  is  a  large,  coarse,  perennial,  her- 
baceous plant,  its  juices  possessing  a  bitter,  tonic 
property,  and  the  fibres  of  its  stalks  resem])lii)g 
those  of  liemp.  Its  flowers  are  borne  in  clusters 
in  the  axils  of  the  bracts^  and  are  of  no  partic- 
ular beauty. 

DATIVE,  in  grammar,  the  3d  case  in  the 
declension  of  nouns,  expressing  the  state  or  rela- 
tion of  a  thing  to  which  some  other  thing  is 
attributed  or  conferred.  It  derives  its  name 
from  the  passive  participle  of  the  Latin  verb 
meaning  "  to  give,"  and  designates  a  relation 
corresponding  to  that  expressed  in  English  by 
the  prepositions  to  and /or.  Thus  in  the  phrase, 
"  to  give  peace  to  the  republic,"  the  word  "re- 
public" would  in  the  classic  languages  be  put  in 
the  dative  case  without  a  preposition. 

DATURA,  a  genus  of  rank,  poisonous,  narco- 
tic plants,  having  showy  flowers,  some  of  which 
possess  fragrance  as  well  as  beauty.  Tlie  word 
datura  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Arabic 
tdtoraJi,  which  indicates  the  oriental  origin  of 
the  herb.  The  most  common  is  an  Asiatic  or 
perhaps  tropical  American  species  known  as 
thorn  apple  {D.  tatula),  found  about  waste 
grounds  near  dwellings.  This  is  considered  as  a 
variety  of  D.  strarnonium,  whose  blossoms  are 
white,  and  growing  near  the  sea-shores.  The 
leaves  and  the  seeds  of  the  stramonium  are 
officinal.  From  the  green  capsules  and  ripe  seeds 
an  alkaline  extract  is  obtained,  called  daturia, 
which  crystallizes  from  its  solution  in  alco- 
hol or  water  into  colorless,  shining,  aggregated 
prisms.  This  is  very  poisonous.  Stramonium 
produces  delirium,  and  even  maniacal  symptoms. 
The  delirium  is  peculiar,  disposing  to  ridiculous 
exhibitions.  The  dried  leaves,  when  smoked 
like  tobacco,  hav?  been  recommended  in  the 
treatment  of  asthma,  sometimes  with  benefit, 
and  the  plant  has  even  acquired  great  reputation. 
D.  fastuom  has  a  polished,  purple  stalk,  large 
leaves,  beautiful  flowers,  of  a  rich  purple  color 
outside,  pure  satiny  white  within,  of  an  agree- 
able odor,  sometimes  also  having  semi-double 
blossoms.  The  odor  of  D.  Wrightii  is  also 
pleasant ;  its  flowers  are  large,  of  a  creamy  white, 
delicately  tinted  with  violet  as  they  fade.  D. 
arhorea.  now  Brugmansia,  is  one  of  the  greatest 
ornaments  of  gardens;  its  flowers  are  trumpet- 
shaped,  nearly  a  foot  in  length,  coming  out  of 
the  division  of  the  branches,  of  a  pale  yellow- 


276 


DAUB 


DAFBENTON 


ish  color  outside  and  white  within,  and  diffusing 
a  delightful  fragrance  ia  the  open  air.  They 
are  all  raised  from  seeds  or  propagated  by  cut- 
tings, and  even  the  roots  of  the  herbaceous  kinds 
survive  by  protecting  them  from  severe  frosts. 

DAUB,  Karl,  a  German  theologian,  bom  in 
Cassel,  March  20,  1705,  studied  in  Marburg,  and 
was  professor  of  theology  in  Ileidelberg  from 
1794  to  his  death,  Nov.  22, 1830.  lie  wrote  Tlieo- 
?t*(/«?/ie/ia  (Heidelberg,  1800)  under  the  influence 
of  Schelling's  philosophy;  "  Judas  Iscariot,"  a 
treatise  on  the  origin  of  moral  evil  (Ileidelberg, 
1810) ;  "  Theological  and  Philosopliical  Lectures" 
(7  vols.,  Berlin,  1838-44);  and  "  Hypotheses  in 
regard  to  the  Freedom  of  the  Will "  (Altona, 
183-1),  a  valuable  criticism  on  the  ditTerent  theo- 
ries concerning  the  nature  and  freedom  of  th^will. 

DAUBENTON,  Louis  Jean  Mauie,  a  French 
naturalist,  born  at  Montbar,  Cote  d'Or,  May 
29, 1710,  died  in  Paris  Jan.  1, 1800.  His  father 
destined  him  for  the  Ihurch,  and  sent  him  to 
Paris  to  study  theology  ;  but.  he  secretly  devoted 
himself  to  medicine.  The  death  of  his  father 
left  him  A-ee  to  follow  his  inclination,  and  he 
took  his  medical  degrees  at  Kheims  iu  1740  and 
1741.  Buftbn,  who  had  taken  charge  of  the 
jardin  des  2)i(in,tes,  required  at  that  time  an 
assistant  of  an  observing  s\nrit  and  a  skilful 
hand,  content  to  occupy  a  secondaiy  position, 
as  it  were  the  eye  and  hand  of  his  governing 
mind;  and  such  an  assistant  he  found  in  his 
old  schoolmate  Daubenton.  The  prudence  of 
the  latter,  added  to  the  strength  of  his  associ- 
ate, gave  to  their  joint  work  on  quadrupeds  a 
completeness  and  accuracy  which  could  hardly 
have  been  expected  at  that  time ;  as  Cuvier 
says,  Daubenton  Avas  useful  to  Buffon,  not  so 
much  for  what  he  did  for  him,  as  for  that  which 
he  prevented  him  from  doing.  He  went  to  Paris 
about  1742,  and  was  made  demonstrator  and 
keeper  of  the  cabinet  of  natural  history  in  1745  ; 
his  salary  was  at  first  only  $150  per  annum,  but 
by  degrees  it  was  raised  to  $800,  with  certain 
perquisites  and  free  lodgings.  While  carrying 
out  zealously  the  views  of  Buffon,  he  was  also 
laying  the  foundation  for  his  own  fame  as  a  natu- 
ralist. It  is  principally  to  Daubenton  that  France 
owes  its  cabinets  of  natural  history  at  the  jardin 
des  plantes.  Before  his  time  this  collection  was 
little  more  than  a  drug-shop ;  in  the  course  of 
a  few  years  he  increased  the  specimens  in  every 
department  a  hundred  fold,  arranged  and  named 
them ;  discovered  and  perfected  processes  for 
the  preservation  of  organic  matters;  mounted 
birds  and  quadrupeds  in  the  most  natural  man- 
ner, displaying  every  characteristic.  The  study 
and  arrangement  of  these  objects  became  the 
all-absorbing  passion  of  his  life;  and  toward 
the  end  of  his  career,  when  the  victories  of 
Napoleon  brought  a  great  accession  of  specimens, 
lie  was  often  seen  in  the  museum  ;  even  in  his 
84th  year,  with  bent  \>odj  and  gouty  extrem- 
ities, lie  was  supported  daily  in  his  visit  to  the 
mineralogical  cabinet,  the  only  portion  whicli 
remained  in  his  charge  under  the  new  organiza- 
tion. In  the  "  History  of  Quadrupeds"  are  given 


descriptions  of  the  external  and  internal  organs 
of  182  species,  of  which  58  had  never  before 
been  dissected,  and  13  not  previously  described; 
there  are  also  external  descrij)tions  of  20  spe- 
cies, of  which  5  were  unknown ;  the  arrange- 
ment and  character  of  the  descriptions  are  ex- 
cellent ;  the  innumerable  new  facts  presented 
bearing  upon  internal  structure  may  be  consid- 
ered as  the  first  attempt  in  France  to  place 
comparative  anatomy  upon  a  basis  of  observa- 
tion. The  appearance  of  this  work  brought  him 
great  fame,  and  at  the  same  time  not  a  little  an- 
noyance. Reaumur  at  that  time  stood  at  the 
head  of  the  list  of  naturalists,  which  position  he 
deserved  for  his  observations  on  insects ;  he  was 
considerably  alarmed,  then,  to  find  himself  in 
danger  of  being  eclipsed  by  these  new  rivals, 
whose  novel  views  and  captivating  style  excited 
the  attention  of  the  public.  While  Daubenton 
was  receiving  the  homage  of  naturalists,  Buffon 
was  feted  and  praised  at  court ;  and  some  of  the 
flatterers  of  the  latter  persuaded  him  that  he 
would  do  better  to  dispense  with  the  services 
of  his  scientific  associate.  This  advice  Bufibn 
followed  in  his  8vo.  edition  of  the  Ilistoire  na- 
turelle  (13  vols.),  from  which  he  cut  out  all  the 
anatomical  details  and  descriptions  of  animals 
contributed  by  Daubenton ;  the  history  of  birds 
and  of  minerals  he  also  wrote  alone.  The  regrets 
of  naturalists  at  the  inferior  and  inaccurate 
execution  of  these  subsequent  works  of  Bufibn 
must  have  been  a  great  consolation  to  Dauben- 
ton, who,  beside  the  affront  thus  put  upon  him, 
lost  an  income  of  $2,400  a  year.  In  order  to 
retain  his  situation  ixiihe  jardin  des  x>lantes^  ho 
forgot  the  insult  and  the  loss,  and  quietly  con- 
tinued his  labors.  So  completely  indeed  did  he 
forget  BuflEbu's  injustice,  that  he  conti-ibuted  to 
many  parts  of  the  work,  without  attaching  his 
name  to  his  labors ;  and  it  is  certain  that  Buftbn 
used  his  manuscripts  in  his  "  History  of  Mine- 
rals." Their  intimacy  was  afterward  revived, 
and  was  interrupted  only  at  the  death  of  Buf- 
fon. During  the  18  years  of  the  publication  of 
the  4to.  edition  of  the  "History  of  Quadrupeds," 
Daubenton  contributed  but  little  to  the  memoirs 
of  the  academy ;  but  after  that  period  he  wrote 
much  in  the  publications  of  the  academy,  of  the 
institute,  and  of  medical  and  agricultural  soci- 
eties. He  discovered  0  new  species  of  mammals 
common  iu  France ;  he  first  applied  his  knowl- 
edge of  comparative  anatomy  to  the  determina- 
tion of  fossil  remains  of  quadrupeds ;  he  gave 
the  characteristic  difterences  between  man  and 
monkeys ;  he  made  many  valuable  additions  to 
the  sciences  of  mineralogy  and  vegetable  phys- 
iology ;  his  contributions  to  agriculture  and 
rural  economy  were  so  valuable,  and  made  his 
name  so  popular  among  the  masses,  that  he  had 
no  difficulty  in  retaining  his  position  of  director 
of  the  national  museum  through  the  stormy 
period  of  the  revolution,  which  menaced  even 
the  life  of  many  naturalists.  In  1773,  at  liis 
suggestion,  one  of  the  chairs  of  practical  medi- 
cine in  the  college  of  France  was  changed  into 
one  of  natural  history,  and  he  was  appointed  to 


DAUBENY 


DAUMAS 


277 


fill  it  in  1775;  .and  in  1783  ho  lectured  on  rural 
economy  at  the  veterinary  college  of  Alfort. 
l)isappointed  under  the  old  regime^  he  obtained 
from  the  national  convention  tlie  conversion  of 
the  cabinets  of  the  jardiii  des  jjlxntes  into  a 
special  school  of  natural  history,  in  which  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  inineralo<i:y ;  he  discharg- 
ed the  duties  of  this  office  until  his  death,  keep- 
ing fully  up  with  the  progress  of  this  rapidly 
advancing  science ;  even  at  the  age  of  80  he 
took  delight  in  explaining  to  his  classes  the  bril- 
liant discoveries  of  Haiiy,  his  former  pu])il.  lie 
gave  a  few  lectures  at  the  normal  school  during 
its  brief  existence,  always  exciting  the  greatest 
enthusiasm  in  his  numerous  audience.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  Encyclopedie  methodique  the 
articles  on  quadrupeds,  reptiles,  and  fishes,  re- 
markable for  their  exactness  and  clearness ;  he 
Avas  also  engaged  in  editing  the  Journal  des 
siwans.  With  a  feeble  constitution,  and  always 
at  work,  he  arrived  at  an  advanced  age  without 
painful  infirmities  ;  this  was  owing  to  a  careful 
study  of  himself,  and  the  avoidance  of  all  ex- 
cesses of  body  or  mind  ;  his  regimen  was  tem- 
perate and  uniform  ;  always  enjoying  the  com- 
forts of  life,  he  cared  not  for  fame  or  fortune, 
and  was  peculiarly  free  from  that  vanity  and 
love  of  approbation  which  has  been  the  stum- 
bling block  in  the  path  of  so  many  illustrious 
men.  His  studies  were  for  him  rather  an  amuse- 
ment tlian  a  task ;  a  portion  of  his  time  was 
daily  devoted  to  reading  with  his  wife  romances 
and  other  light  literature,  which  he  called  "put- 
ting his  mind  on  diet."  This  relaxation  from 
labor,  and  the  regularity  of  his  habits,  contrib- 
uted much  to  that  amenity  which  rendered  his 
society  so  agreeable.  He  had  naturally  a  good 
opinion  of  his  fellows ;  having  had  but  little 
intercourse  with  the  world,  and  absorbed  in  the 
contemplation  of  nature,  his  mind,  so  acute  in 
the  detection  of  scientific  error,  could  never 
suspect  falsehood  in  man  when  presented  under 
a  pleasing  exterior.  Chosen  a  member  of  the 
senate  in  Dec.  1799,  Daubenton  wished  to  per- 
form the  duties  of  his  office ;  being  obliged  to 
change  the  routine  of  his  simple  habits  and  to 
expose  himself  at  a  rigorous  teason  of  the  year, 
on  his  first  meeting  with  the  senate  he  was 
seized  with  apoplexy,  and  fell  senseless  into  the 
arms  of  his  colleagues;  notwithstanding  the  most 
prompt  and  scientific  medical  assistance,  he  re- 
gained consciousness  only  for  a  few  moments, 
during  which  he  displayed  the  greatest  calm- 
ness, indicating  the  progress  of  the  paralysis 
which  was  soon  to  prove  fatal.  His  funeral  was 
attended  by  citizens  of  all  ranks,  ages,  and  pro- 
fessions, anxious  to  show  the  last  tribute  of  re- 
spect to  a  public  benefactor.  His  remains  were 
interred  in  the  jardin  des  phntes,  which  he 
loved  so  well,  and  which  he  may  be  almost  said 
to  have  created ;  on  the  eastern  slope  of  a  hill 
near  the  conservatories  is  a  granite  column, 
supported  on  a  base  of  other  mineral  products, 
which  marks  his  grave. 

DAUBENY,  Charles  Giles  Bridle,  an  Eng- 
lish natural  philosopher,  born  in  Gloucestershire, 


distinguished  for  his  researches  in  chemistry, 
which  have  been  especially  directed  to  eluci- 
date the  phenomena  exhibited  by  volcanoes 
and  the  growtli  of  i)lants.  One  of  his  first  pub- 
lications was  "  An  Essay  on  the  Geology  and 
Chemical  Phenomena  of  Volcanoes"  (1824). 
Ilis  principal  work  on  the  same  subject  is  enti- 
tled "  A  Description  of  Active  and  Extinct  Vol- 
canoes" (2d  edition,  18-48).  The  subject  led  him 
to  investigate  the  composition  of  nnneral  and 
thermal  waters.  He  visited  the  United  States 
in  183^,  and  directed  his  observations  particu- 
larly to  mineral  springs,  of  which,  and  of 
the  geology  of  North  America,  he  published 
accounts  in  the  papers  of  the  Ashmolean  so- 
ciety and  of  the  British  association  in  1838, 
His  papers  upon  the  volcanoes  of  Italy,  and 
the  extinct  volcanoes  of  central  France,  possess 
great  geological  interest,  from  the  application 
of  the  principles  enunciated  to  explain  the 
changes  taking  place  in  the  interior.  He  pro- 
posed the  theory  of  the  bases  of  the  earths  ex- 
isting in  a  metallic  state,  and  by  their  oxidation 
giving  rise  to  the  ph»iomena  of  volcanic  fires. 
Those  upon  the  chemical  actions  exhibited  in 
the  growth  of  plants  display  a  similar  talent 
in  original  investigation, 

D'AUBIGNE.     See  Atibigne,  Merle  d'. 

DAUDIN,  Francois  Marie,  a  French  natu- 
ralist, born  in  Paris,  March  25,  1774,  died  in 
1804.  His  most  valuable  work  is  Histoire  natu- 
relle  generah  et  pai-ticuliere  des  rejitiles,  j)our 
/(lire  suite  d  Vllistoire  naturelle  de  Buffon 
(8  vols.  8vo.,  1802-4). 

DAULIS,  a  city  of  ancient  Greece,  in  Phocis, 
near  the  confines  of  Boeotia,  destroyed  by  the 
Persians  during  their  second  invasion  of  Hellas, 
and  subsequently  by  Alexander  the  Great,  But 
its  strong  position  on  the  summit  of  a  lofty  hill 
rendering  it  important  as  a  military  station,  it 
was  rebuilt,  and  survived  till  the  Christian  era. 
Daulis  is  famous  in  mythology  as  the  scene  of 
the  tragic  events  contained  in  the  myths  of  Te- 
reus,  Procne,  and  Philomela.  Its  ruins  are  still 
to  be  seen  near  the  modern  village  of  Dhavlia. 

DAUMAS,  Melchior  Joseph  Eugene,  a 
French  general,  born  Sept.  4, 1803,  distinguish- 
ed for  his  military  services  in  Algeria,  and  still 
more  for  the  important  part  which  his  famil- 
iarity with  the  language  and  characteristics  of 
the  native  population  enabled  him  to  take  in 
the  administration  of  the  colonial  government. 
After  his  return  to  France  he  was  intrusted 
(April,  1850)  with  the  direction  of  Algerian 
affairs  in  the  ministry  of  war.  He  published  in 
conjunction  with  M.  Ausonede  Chancel  a  com- 
prehensive work  on  the  southern  portion  of  the 
French  colonies  in  Algeria,  Le  Sahara  Algerien 
(Paris,  1845) ;  and  in  concert  with  M.  Fabar 
(who  died  in  1849  during  the  siege  of  Rome), 
La  grande  Kalylie^  etudes  historiqnea  (1847). 
He  has  also  supplied  the  leading  French  reviews 
with  valuable  information  on  the  same  subject, 
and  written  many  other  works  on  Algeria,  the 
most  important  of  which  are  Principes  gene- 
raux  du  cavalier  Arabe  (4th  ed.  1855),  trans- 


278 


DAUMER 


DAUPHIN 


lated  into  German;  Manrs  et  eoutumes  de  VAl- 
gerle  (3d  ed.  1857, 18mo.) ;  and  Les  chevaiix  du 
Sahara  (4th  ed.  1857),  translated  into  Spanish 
and  German. 

DAUMER,  Geokg  FniEDniCH,  a  German  poet 
and  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Nuremberg, 
March  5,  1800,  studied  at  the  gymnasium  of  his 
native  city,  at  that  time  under  the  direction  of 
Hegel,  and  subsequently  at  the  universities  of 
Erhmgen,  -where  iSchelling  was  his  professor  of 
philosophy,  and  of  Leipsic,  devoting  himself 
first  to  theology,  but  soon  after  to  phil#sophy. 
He  officiated  as  professor  at  the  gymnasium  of 
Nuremberg,  from  about  1822  to  1830,  when  he 
was  obliged  to  tender  his  resignation  in  conse- 
quence of  ill  health,  and  afterward  devoted  him- 
self exclusively  to  literary  labors.  His  works, 
some  of  which  have  appeared  under  the  noms 
de  plume  of  Amadeus  Ottokar  and  Eusebius 
Emmeran,  are  less  remarkable  for  their  origi- 
nality than  for  the  boldness  and  anti-christian 
tendency  of  his  theories,  which  are  chiefly  based 
upon  the  systems  of  Schelling  and  Hegel. 

DAUMIER,  Henei,  a^rench  artist,  one  of 
the  contributors  to  the  Paris  Charivari^  born 
in  Marseilles  in  1810.  Among  his  best  efforts 
are  his  illustrations  of  "  Robert  Macaire"  and  his 
caricatures  of  the  politicians  of  1848  {Repre- 
sentants  represcntes,  and  Idylles  parlementaires). 

DAUN,  Leopold  Joseph  Makia  vox,  count, 
generalissimo  of  the  imperial  troops  in  the  7 
years'  war,  born  in  Vienna,  April  25, 1705,  died 
Feb.  5,  176G.  He  took  a  distinguished  part  in 
the  war  against  the  Turks  (1737-39)  and  in  the 
Silesian  wars  (1740-41  and  1744-'45).  In  the 
7  years'  war  he  won  the  battles  of  Collin  (1757) 
and  Hochkirch  (1758),  and  captured  in  Saxony 
the  Prussian  general  Fink,  with  11,000  Prus- 
sians (1759).  Laudon  lost  the  same  year  the 
battle  of  Liegnitz,  because  Daun  failed  to  re- 
lieve him  ;  and  Daun  lost  the  battle  of  Torgau 
(17G0),  after  having  won  it  in  the  daytime,  by 
Ziethen's  cavalry  attack  at  night,  and  was  him- 
self wounded. 

DAUNOU,  Pierre  Clatjde  Feanqois,  a 
French  scholar  and  politician,  born  at  Bou- 
logne-sur-Mer,  Aug.  18,  1761,  died  at  Paris, 
June  20,  1840.  At  16  he  entered  the  order 
of  the  Oratorians,  and  taught  literature,  phi- 
losophy, and  theology  in  several  of  their  col- 
leges. In  1792  he  was  elected  to  the  national 
convention  by  the  department  of  Pas-de-Calais, 
in  conjunction  with  Carnot  and  Thomas  Paine. 
He  denied  the  right  of  the  convention  to  try 
Louis  XVI.,  and  voted  for  his  detention  only. 
On  the  fall  of  the  Girondists  he  signed  a  pro- 
test against  the  illegal  proceedings  of  May 
31,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was  arrested. 
He  resumed  his  seat  after  the  9th  Thermidor, 
and  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  framing 
of  the  constitution  of  the  year  III.  On  the 
establishment,  of  the  directory,  he  entered  the 
council  of  500,  of  which  he  was  the  first  presi- 
dent. In  1797  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he  par- 
ticipated in  the  organization  of  the  Roman 
republic.    Ho  was  reelected  to  the  council  of 


COO  in  1798,  and  was  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee appointed  after  the  18th  Brumaire  to 
prepare,  in  conjunction  with  the  provisional 
consuls,  the  new  constitution  of  the  year  VIII. 
He  declined  a  seat  in  the  council  of  state  of- 
fered to  him  by  Bonaparte,  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  tribunate ;  but  his  independence  of 
character  caused  him  to  be  ejected  from  this 
body  in  1802.  In  1804  he  was  appointed 
keeper  of  the  archives  of  the  legislative  body, 
and  in  1807  of  those  of  France,  which  office 
was  taken  from  him  in  1815  by  the  Bourbons, 
and  restored  to  him  in  1830  by  Louis  Phi- 
lippe. In  1818  he  was  made  jjrofessor  of  his- 
tory and  morals  in  the  college  of  France,  and 
elected  to  the  chamber  of  deputies,  and  became 
a  peer  in  1839.  His  publications,  which  are 
mostly  historical,  are  distinguished  by  thorough 
learning,  keen  criticism,  and  a  perspicuous  style. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  his  continuation 
of  Rulhiere's  Histoire  de  Vanarchie  de  Pologne  ; 
Essai  historique  sur  la  puissance  temporelle  de$ 
papa;  and  Cours  d'' etudes  Msto7'igues,  an  invalu- 
able repertory  of  knowledge,  published  after  his 
death.  He  was  also  an  important  contributor 
to  the  Journal  des  savans. 

DAUPHIN,  the  title  of  the  eldest  son  of  the 
king  of  France,  heir  presumptive  of  the  crown. 
The  title  descended  also  to  his  eldest  son,  as  after 
the  death  of  the  grand  dauphin,  son  of  Louis 
XIV.,  but  not  to  the  king's  brother.  The  of- 
ficial designation  was:  "By  the  grace  of  God, 
eldest  son  of  the  king  of  France,  and  dauphin 
of  Viennois."  It  was  first  connected  with  the 
reigning  family  upon  the  cession  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Dauphine,  April  23,  1349,  made  by  Hum- 
bert of  Viennois  (whose  ancestors,  according 
to  some  historians,  early  in  the  12th  century 
assumed  the  dolphin  as  their  device  or  sym- 
bol, whence  the  title),  to  Charles  (afterward 
Charles  V.),  grandson  of  Philip  VI.,  on  condi- 
tion that  the  eldest  sons  of  the  king  of  France 
should  thenceforth  bear  the  title  of  dauphin. 
The  last  dauphin  was  Louis  Antoine,  due  d'An- 
gouleme,  who  took  the  title  on  the  accession  of 
his  father  Charles  X.  to  the  throne.  After  the 
abdication  of  Charles  X.  he  also  abdicated  in 
favor  of  his  nephew  the  due  de  Bordeaux.  The 
seigneurs  of  the  house  of  Auvergne  were  also 
called  dauphins  d' Auvergne,  and  formerly  by 
colloquial  usage  the  eldest  son  of  any  family  was 
called  a  dauphin, 

DAUPHIN,  a  S.  E.  co.  of  Penn.,  bounded 
"W.  and  S.  W.  by  the  Susquehanna  river,  and 
drained  by  many  small  streams ;  area,  530  sq.  m.; 
pop.  in  1850,  35,754.  The  Kittatinny  or  Blue 
mountain  crosses  the  middle  of  the  county,  and 
several  parallel  ridges  extend  on  each  side  of 
it,  while  South  mountain  runs  along  the  S.  bor- 
der. Between  these  ranges  there  are  fertile  val- 
leys, those  of  the  S.  being  of  limestone  forma- 
tion and  especially  fruitful.  The  N.  part  is  rich 
in  anthracite  coal,  and  iron  ore  is  also  found. 
The  productions  in  1850  were  340,755  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  308,879  of  wheat,  370,027  of 
oats,  115,827  of  potatoes,  27  814  tons  of  hay, 


DAUPHINfi 


DAYENPOPwT 


279 


and  575,668  lbs.  of  butter.  There  Tvere  37 
grist  mills,  19  saw  mills,  2  coal  mines,  4  iron 
furnaces,  2  foundcries,  2  forges,  1  rolling  mill, 
1  powder  mill,  8  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  5  woollen  factories,  15  tanneries,  7 
newspaper  offices,  84  churches,  and  6,228  pupils 
attending  public  schools.  The  Susquehanna  ca- 
nal passes  along  the  W.  border,  and  the  county 
is  crossed  by  the  Union  canal,  and  by  the  east 
Pennsylvania,  Cumberland  valley,  and  northern 
central  railroads.  Organized  in  1785,  and  named 
in  honor  of  the  dauphin  of  France.  Capital, 
Harrisburg. 

DAUPIIINfi,  an  ancient  province  in  the  S. 
E.  part  of  France,  bounded  N.  and  W.  by  the 
Ehone,  E.  by  the  Alps,  S.  by  Provence.  Its 
surface  is  highly  varied  and  picturesque,  inter- 
sected by  branches  from  the  Alps.  Dauphine 
became  one  of  the  provinces  of  France  in 
1349,  when  the  eldest  son  of  the  king  assumed 
the  title  of  dauphin.  The  people  proved  faith- 
ful to  their  new  prince,  but  maintained  tlieir 
provincial  rights  and  privileges  with  unfailing 
firmness.  This  spirit  of  independence  broke 
out  on  the  eve  of  the  revolution,  and  the  pro- 
vincial estates  of  Dauphine  were  the  first  to 
urge  on  the  royal  government  the  necessity  of 
summoning  tlie  states-general  of  the  kingdom. 
The  province  now  forms  the  departments  of  the 
Isere  and  Hautes-AIpes,  and  part  of  the  Drome, 
with  an  aggregate  population  of  1,000,000. 
Grenoble  was  its  capital. 

DAVEXANT,  Sir  William,  an  English 
dramatist,  born  at  Oxford  in  1G05,  died  April 
17,  1068.  Shakespeare  on  his  journeys  from 
London  to  Stratford  was  in  the  habit  of  stop- 
ping at  the  tavern  kept  by  his  father  at  Ox- 
ford; and  there  is  a  scandalous  story  that  he 
was  the  natural  son  of  the  great  dramatist, 
which  does  not  seem,  however,  to  rest  on  any 
good  authority.  But  this  much  is  certain, 
that  a  striking  resemblance  existed  between 
him  and  Shakespeare,  and  that  the  latter  took 
considerable  notice  of  the  youth,  who,  at  the 
age  of  10  years,  penned  a  sonnet  "  in  remem- 
brance of  Master  William  Shakespeare."  Leav- 
ing college  without  completing  the  usual  aca- 
demic course,  he  became  page  to  the  duchess 
of  Eichmond,  and  afterward  to  Lord  Brooke, 
who,  himself  a  man  of  letters,  took  pleasure  in 
encouraging  his  page's  poetic  talents.  About 
1628  he  began  to  be  known  by  his  masques, 
which  were  played  at  court  by  the  nobility  of 
both  sexes.  In  1638,  on  the  death  of  Ben 
Jonson,  he  was  appointed  poet  laureate.  Dur- 
ing the  civil  wars  he  remained  faithful  to  the 
royal  cause,  for  which  the  king  knighted  him, 
and  also  made  him  a  lieutenant-general  of  artil- 
lery. He  was  once  arrested  as  a  royalist,  but 
effected  his  escape  to  France.  While  at  the 
court  of  the  queen-mother  Henrietta  he  con- 
ceived the  project  of  leading  a  colony  of  French 
artisans  to  Virginia.  The  ship,  however,  was 
captured  by  a  parliamentary  cruiser,  and  he 
was  carried  prisoner  to  England.  After  2 
years'  imprisonment  he  was  released,  on  tho 


intercession,  it  is  said,  of  the  poet  Milton. 
Being  without  means  of  support,  and  plays 
being  now  out  of  fashion,  he  composed  a  num- 
ber of  entertainments  of  a  moral  cast,  which 
proved  successful.  At  the  restoration  he  ob- 
tained the  privilege  of  forming  a  new  company 
of  comedians,  and  being  in  favor  with  the 
reigning  powers,  was  enabled  to  show  his  grat- 
itude to  Milton  by  interesting  himself  in  his 
behalf.  He  contributed  much,  as  manager  of 
the  court  theatre  in  the  reign  of  Ciiarles  II., 
to  improve  theatrical  performances.  He  intro- 
duced movable  scenery,  richer  costumes,  and 
closer  attention  to  the  accessories  generally. 
His  works  consist  of  fugitive  pieces  of  versifica- 
tion, dramas,  of  which  the  best  is  the  "  Siege 
of  Rhodes,"  masques,  and  an  unfinished  epic 
somewhat  ponderous  in  style,  entitled  "Gon- 
dibert." — Charles,  an  English  political  wri- 
ter, eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1656, 
died  Nov.  14,  1714.  He  was  graduated  as 
doctor  of  civil  law  at  Oxford,  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  parliament  in  1685,  1698,  and  1700. 
In  1685  he  was  appointed  inspector  of  plays, 
in  conjunction  with  the  master  of  the  revels, 
and  from  1703  to  the  time  of  his  death  he 
officiated  as  inspector-general  of  exports  and 
imports.  In  his  youth  he  composed  a  tragedy, 
called  "  Circe,"  in  which  he  himself  acted.  A 
selection  of  his  political  and  commercial  works 
was  pubhshed  by  Sir  Charles  Whitworth  (Lon- 
don, 5  vols.  8vo.). 

DAVENPORT,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Sc«tt 
CO.,  Iowa,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi, 
just  below  the  upper  rapids,  opposite  Rock  Isl- 
and, Illinois,  and  55  m.  E.  from  Iowa  City ;  pop. 
in  1840,  600;  in  1850,  1,848;  in  1856,  11,500: 
in  March,  1858,  16,677.  Of  the  last  number  50 
per  cent,  were  Americans,  20  per  cent.  Ger- 
mans, and  12  per  cent.  Irish.  In  the  town- 
ship outside  of  the  city  there  were  beside  about 
1,500  inhabitants.  The  city  is  built  at  the  foot 
of  a  blutf  rising  gradually  from  the  river,  and 
enclosed  on  the  land  side  by  an  amphitheatre  of 
regular  hills  half  a  mile  in  the  rear.  The  back 
country  is  a  rich  farming  region.  The  city  pre- 
sents the  aspect  of  a  prosperous  commercial  and 
manufacturing  mart.  It  has  direct  communi- 
cation with  Chicago  by  the  Chicago  and  Rock 
Island  railroad,  which  terminates  at  Rock  Island, 
and  with  Iowa  City  by  the  Mississippi  and 
Missouri  railroad,  finished  as  far  as  the  state 
capital,  and  designed  to  extend  to  the  W.  bor- 
der of  the  state.  A  magnificent  railroad  bridge 
across  the  Mississippi  connects  the  2  cities  of 
Davenport  and  Rock  Island.  It  is  1,582  feet 
long,  has  5  arches,  and  rises  21  feet  above  high- 
water  mark.  On  the  Iowa  side  there  is  a  draw 
for  steamboats,  but  the  work  has  been  much 
complained  of,  as  an  obstruction  to  navigation, 
particularly  by  citizens  of  St.  Louis,  and  a  legal 
decision  has  lately  been  rendered  against  the 
bridge.  It  was  commenced  in  1854  and  finish- 
ed in  1856.  Davenport  is  regularly  laid  out, 
and  beside  the  county  buildings,  contains  many 
imposing  edifices.    It  i3  tho  seat  cf  Iowa  col- 


280 


DAVENPORT 


DAVID 


lege,  opened  ia  1848,  and  now  occupying  a 
handsome  limestone  building,  3  stories  high, 
erected  on  an  eminence  in  1855  at  a  cost  of 
$22,000.  It  ha  a  library  of  1,800  volumes,  and 
numbers  about  100  students,  of  whom  ^  are 
young  ladies.  The  other  educational  establish- 
ments include  the  Mount  Ida  female  college,  a 
commercial  college,  7  public  schools,  with  an 
aggregate  average  attendance  of  988  pupils,  and 
numerous  private  seminaries.  There  are  17  re- 
ligious societies,  viz. :  3  Presbyterian,  1  Congre- 
gational, 2  Episcopal,  2  Metliodist,  1  Lutheran, 

2  Baptist,  3  Eoman  Catholic,  1  Disciples',  1  Free 
Thiukers'  association,  and  1  German  congrega- 
tion. One  monthly,  4  weekly,  1  tri-weekly,  and  2 
daily  newspapers  are  published,  and  the  city  con- 
tains 1  book  publishing  house,  8  banking  houses, 
15  hotels,  5  flour  mills,  5  saw  and  planing  mills, 

3  breweries,  7  brick  yards,  5  iron  works,  3 
marble  works,  9  manufactories  of  coaches  and 
wagons,  1  of  locomotives  and  railroad  cars,  4  of 
agricultural  implements,  4  of  soap  and  candles, 
and  1  of  piano  fortes,  1  tannery,  gas  works,  &c. 
The  statistics  of  the  chief  branches  of  trade  for 
the  year  ending  Dec.  31, 1857,  show  an  aggre- 
gate of  business  amounting  to  $14,485,812  24. 
The  imports  amounted  to  53,099  tons,  and  the 
exports  to  34,157  tons,  most  of  which  were 
transported  by  railroad.  The  receipts  of  lumber 
were  22,213,216  feet,  about  f  of  which  came  by 
river,  and  the  principal  receipts  by  railroad 
were  as  follows :  shingles,  3,370,000  ;  railroad 
iron,  1,593  tons ;  coal,  13,095  ;  oats,  33,843  bush- 
els ;  Indian  corn,  75,834 ;  wheat,  183,297 ;  pork, 
362,285  lbs. ;  machinery,  183,436.  Exports  by 
river  and  railroad:  wheat,  94,008 bushels ;  bar- 
ley, 20,607;  flour,  106,319  bbls. ;  coal,  5,647  tons; 
lumber,  16,048,112  feet;  shingles,  5,890,000. 
The  first  settlement  at  Davenport  was  made  in 
1836,  the  site  having  been  purchased  the  year 
before  by  a  company  for  $2,000.  It  was  organ- 
ized as  a  town  in  1839,  and  as  a  city  in  1851. 

DAVENPORT,  John,  1st  minister  of  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  born  in  Coventry,  England,  in 
1598,  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  15, 1670.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  became  an  eminent 
preacher  among  the  Puritans  in  London,  and 
minister  of  St.  Stephen's  church.  About  1630 
he  was  engaged  in  the  project  of  purchasing  the 
church  lands  in  England  in  the  hands  of  lay- 
men, for  the  benefit  of  poor  congregations,  and 
great  progress  was  already  made  in  the  execu- 
tion of  the  plan  when  it  was  interrupted  by 
Bishop  Laud,  who  was  apprehensive  that  it 
would  turn  to  the  profit  of  the  nonconformists. 
Soon  becoming  one  himself,  Mr.  Davenport  was 
obliged  to  resign  his  pastoral  charge,  and  retired 
to  Holland  in  1633.  There  he  became  engaged 
in  a  controversy,  taking  sides  against  the  gen- 
eral baptism  of  children,  as  was  then  practised, 
and  in  about  2  years  returned  to  London.  See- 
ing a  letter  from  Mr.  Cotton,  containing  a  fa- 
vorable account  of  the  Massachusetts  colony,  he 
went  to  Boston,  where  he  arrived  June  26, 1637. 
There  he  took  part  in  the  synod  held  soon  after, 
and  on  March  30,  1638,  sailed  with  a  company 


for  Quinnipiac,  or  New  Haven,  to  found  a  new 
colony.  The  first  Sabbath  after  their  arrival, 
April  15,  he  preached  under  an  oak.  He  was 
minister  there  for  30  years,  and  aided  in  estab- 
lishing the  system  of  civil  polity,  which  began 
by  the  declaration  that  "  all  of  them  would  be 
ordered  by  the  rules  which  the  Scriptures  held 
forth  to  them."  On  June  4,  1649,  holding 
their  constituent  assembly  in  a  barn,  the  "  free 
planters"  resolved  that  church  members  only 
should  be  burgesses,  and  Davenport  was  chosen 
one  of  the  "  seven  pillars  "  to  support  the  ordi- 
nai:^pe  of  civil  government.  He  exhorted  the 
governor  to  judge  justly,  and  the  "  cause  that 
is  too  hard  for  you  to  bring  it  to  me."  An- 
nual elections  were  ordained,  and  God's  word 
established  as  the  only  rule  in  public  affairs. 
In  his  carefulness  in  regard  to  the  admission 
of  members  to  the  church,  he  held  in  reality 
also  the  keys  of  all  political  power.  Such  was 
his  reputation  abroad,  that  be  was  invited  with 
Hooker  and  Cotton,  by  the  assembly  of  divines 
at  Westminster,  to  take  a  seat  among  them. 
When  the  messengers  of  the  king,  who  had 
come  to  New  England  in  pursuit  of  Goffe  and 
Wh alley,  the  regicide  judges  of  Charles  I.,  ap- 
proached New  Haven,  he  hid  the  fugitives  in 
his  house,  and  preached  to  his  congregation 
from  Isaiah  xvi.  3  and  4 :  "  Hide  the  outcasts : 
bewray  not  him  that  wandereth.  Let  mine  out- 
casts dwell  with  thee,  Moab  :  be  thou  a  covert 
to  them  from  the  face  of  the  spoiler."  After  the 
death  of  Wilson,  the  pastor  in  Boston,  in  1667,  he 
was  called  and  removed  there  to  succeed  him. 

DAVEZAC.     See  Avezao. 

DAVID,  the  2d  king  of  Israel,  was  the 
youngest  of  the  7  sons  of  Jesse  of  Bethlehem 
in  Judah,  and  was  still  tending  the  flocks  of  his 
father  when  he  was  chosen  by  the  prophet 
Samuel  as  the  future  king  of  his  nation.  He 
was  even  then  remarkable  for  beauty,  valor,  and 
skill  as  a  player  on  musical  instruments.  Hav- 
mg  been  brought  to  the  court  of  Saul  to  soothe 
the  melancholy  of  the  king  by  his  harp,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  challenging  and  slaying 
the  Philistine  giant  Goliath,  he  won  the  friend- 
ship of  Saul's  son  Jonathan,  and  the  love  of  his 
daughter  Michal,  as  well  as  the  admiration  of 
the  people;  but  he  at  the  same  time  drew  upon 
himself  the  jealousy,  and  finally  the  fury  of  the 
unhappy  king,  who  repeatedly  attempted  to  kill 
him,  though  he  gave  him  his  daughter  in  mar- 
riage. Saved  by  the  devotion  of  his  wife  and 
her  brother,  and  protected  by  the  favor  of  Sam- 
uel and  the  priests,  David  escaped  to  Philistia, 
and  afterward  collected  a  band  of  outlaws  and 
malcontents  in  the  southern  part  of  Judah,  at 
whose  head  he  bafiled  every  attempt  of  Saul  to 
capture  him,  and  even  twice  found  opportuni- 
ties of  taking  revenge  on  his  pursuer,  but  on  each 
occasion  dismissed  him  without  injury.  Liv- 
ing mostly  on  booty  from  the  hostile  neighbors 
of  the  Hebrews,  he  continued  a  roving  life  till 
the  death  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  in  the  battle 
of  Mount  Gilboa  (1055  B.  C),  when  he  was  ac- 
knowledged as  king  by  his  native  tribe,  and 


DAVID 


281 


made  Ilebron  liis  residence,  while  Abner,  the 
general  of  Saul,  proclaimed  Ishbosheth,  the  son 
of  the  latter,  as  the  legal  successor  to  the 
throne.  The  rivalry  of  the  2  houses  lasted  for  7 
years,  and  ended,  after  the  assassination  of  Ab- 
ner by  Joab,  the  general  of  David,  with  that  of 
Islibosheth  by  2  obscure  persons.  David,  now 
king  of  the  whole  nation,  conquered  the  citadel 
of  Zion  from  the  Jebusitcs,  made  Jerusalem  his 
capital  and  the  seat  of  the  national  worship, 
which  he  organized  with  the  aid  of  priests,  pro- 
phets, poets,  and  musicians,  entered  into  friendly 
relations  with  Phoenicia,  and  defeated  the  Phi- 
listines, the  Moabites,  the  Syrians,  the  Edomites, 
and  the  Anmionites,  thus  making  the  limits  of 
liis  country  to  extend  from  the  Euphrates  to 
the  Mediterranean,  and  from  Damascus  to  the 
Arabian  gulf.  The  military  power  of  the  state 
attained  its  highest  pitch  during  his  reign,  and 
a  corresponding  development  of  prosperity,  cul- 
ture, and  literature  was  at  least  prepared.  But 
the  prophet  Nathan  prohibited  him  from  build- 
ing the  temple,  which  he  intended,  because  of 
the  blood  he  had  shed  in  war.  The  later  years 
of  his  life  were  embittered  by  the  consequences 
of  polygamic  disorder  in  his  house,  and  the 
passions  and  ambition  of  some  of  his  sons,  by 
revolts,  conspiracies,  and  a  dreadful  pestilence. 
His  son  Absalom,  having  taken  a  bloody  re- 
venge on  his  half  brother  Amnon  for  the  rape 
of  his  sister  Tamar,  and  lived  for  some  years 
in  exile,  was  reconciled  with  his  fiither,  but 
afterward  conspired  against  him  and  brought 
about  an  almost  general  insurrection,  which, 
but  for  his  own  blunders  and  the  devotion  and 
courage  of  a  part  of  the  army,  would  have 
proved  fatal  to  David.  Absalom  fell  by  the 
hands  of  Joab  ;  Sheba,  a  Benjamite,  who  im- 
mediately after  him  raised  the  standard  of  v:e- 
bellion,  was  subdued  by  Amasa,  the  successor 
to  Joab  in  command  ;  a  conspiracy  of  Adoni- 
jah,  another  of  David's  sons,  was  baffled  by 
the  speedy  pi'oclamation  of  Solomon,  son  of 
Bath-sheba,  as  heir  and  king.  Shortly  afterward 
the  aged  monarch  died  (1015).  His  graceful 
elegy  on  Saul  and  Jonathan  is  one  of  the  most 
admirable  of  his  poems,  but  it  is  principally  the 
"  Psalms ,"  that  have  immortalized  his  name. 
(See  Psalms.) 

DAVID,  Felicien,  a  French  composer,  born  at 
Cadenet,  in  Vaucluse,  March  8, 1810.  His  ear- 
liest instruction  in  music  was  acquired  at  Aix, 
where  he  sang  in  the  choir  of  the  cathedral, 
and  whence  at  the  age  of  20  he  went  to  Paris, 
and  entered  the  conservatory.  Soon  after  he 
joined  the  St.  Simonians,  for  whom  he  com- 
posed the  music  of  the  choruses  sung  at  their 
establishment  at  Menilmontant,  and  with  some 
of  whom,  on  the  dissolution  of  the  sect,  he 
travelled  in  Egypt  and  the  East.  The  fruits  of 
his  travels  were  seen  in  the  Desert,  a  choral 
symphony,  published  in  1844,  several  years  af- 
ter his  return  to  Paris.  On  this  piece,  which 
aims  at  giving  impressions  of  the  physical  as- 
pects of  the  East,  and  which  abounds  in  melodic 
and  harmonic  beauties,  his  reputation  mainly 


rests.  He  has  written  a  number  of  operas,  of 
which  the  Perle  du  Bresil,  produced  in  1851, 
has  proved  the  most  successful,  and  has  recently 
finished  a  5  act  opera,  entitled  Lafindii  mo7ide. 
DAVID.  I.  Jacques  Loris,  a  French  painter, 
born  in  Paris,  Aug.  31,  1748,  died  in  Brussels, 
Dec.  29,  1825.  His  taste  for  painting  was  fos- 
tered by  his  uncle  Buron,  the  architect,  and 
further  developed  in  the  studio  of  the  historical 
painter  Vien,  the  same  who  subsequently  pre- 
sided over  the  French  academj'  at  Rome.  David, 
having  succeeded  in  1775  in  obtaining  the  great 
prize  for  one  of  his  paintings,  followed  his  mas- 
ter to  Rome,  and  there  imbibed  that  love  for 
classical  art  which  afterward  caused  him  to  be 
hailed  in  France  as  the  great  reformer  who  had 
wrought  the  same  change  in  painting  which 
Corneille  had  introduced  into  the  drama.  His 
first  important  work,  the  "  Plague  of  St.  Roch," 
was  executed  by  him  at  Rome  for  the  lazaretto 
of  Marseilles.  This  was  followed,  after  his 
return  to  Paris  in  1780,  by  "  Belisarius"  and 
"Andromache  lamenting  the  Death  of  Hec- 
tor." In  1784  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  there 
finished  his  great  picture  of  the  "  Horatii," 
which  was  greeted  with  enthusiasm  in  Italy  and 
France.  In  1787  he  produced  the  "  Death  of 
Socrates;"  in  1788,  the  "Loves  of  Paris  and 
Helen  ;"  and  in  1789,  his  famous  "  Brutus," 
which  had  been  ordered  by  Louis  XVI.  as  a 
pendant  to  the  "  Horatii."  In  1793  we  find  him 
in  the  convention  as  one  of  the  representatives 
of  the  city  of  Paris,  and  voting  for  the  death  of 
the  same  monarch  who  had  previously  been  his 
patron.  But  although  actively  engaged  in  poli- 
tics, he  was  far  from  neglecting  his  art,  and 
beside  the  "Oath  of  the  Tennis  Court,"  and 
the  "  Entry  of  Louis  XVI.  into  the  Assembly," 
executed  in  1790  for  the  constituent  assembly, 
he  found  in  the  tragical  incidents  of  the  reign 
of  terror  abundant  elements  for  the  exercise  of 
his  genius,  as  evidenced  by  his  pictures  of  the  as- 
sassination of  Le  Pelletier  and  of  Marat.  At  the 
same  time  he  became  the  great  oracle  on  all  pub- 
lic occasions  in  reference  to  the  arrangement  of 
festivals  and  the  costumes  of  civil  and  military 
ofiicers — a  task  peculiarly  congenial  to  him,  and 
at  the  same  time  enhancing  his  popularity  with 
the  people  of  Paris,  who  delighted  in  mimicking 
the  manners  of  the  republicans  of  antiquity.  The 
same  Grecian  and  Roman  predilection  which  he 
brought  to  bear  upon  his  paintings  swayed  his 
mind  in  these  arrangements,  and  also  appeared 
in  his  occasional  political  speeches.  After  the 
downfall  of  his  favorite  hero  Robespierre,  he 
was  put  in  prison,  released  after  4  months, 
through  the  intercession  of  his  pupils,  but  soon  ^ 
after  rearrested  and  detained  until  the  promul- 
gation of  the  amnesty  of  Oct.  24, 1795.  While 
in  prison,  he  commenced  his  celebrated  picture 
of  the  "  Sabines,"  which  he  finished  in  1799. 
He  was  engaged  upon  a  picture  of  Leonidas 
at  Thermopyke,  when  his  services  were  put  in 
requisition  by  Xapoleon,  for  whom  he  executed 
a  series  of  works  during  the  consulate  and  em- 
pire, of  which  the  "Coronation"  and  the  "Dis- 


282 


DAVID 


DAVIDSON 


tribution  of  Eagles  "  pleased  the  emperor  best ; 
while  the  ])icture  in  which  Bonaparte  is  repre- 
sented upon  an  irnpetuons  horse,  on  Mount  St. 
Bernard,  i)ointingout  to  his  soldiers  the  path  to 
glory,  whicli  is  now  in  the  Berlin  museum,  was 
the  most  popular.  Expelled  from  France  soon 
after  Napoleon's  downfall,  he  betook  himself  to 
Brussels,  but  not  without  having  before  his  de- 
parture from  Paris  given  another  proof  of  his 
patriotism  b}'  refusing  to  execute  the  portrait 
of  the  duke  of  Wellington.  In  his  exile  at  Brus- 
sels he  produced  "  Cupid  and  Psyche,"  the 
"Farewell  of  Telemachus  and  Eucharis,"  the 
*'  Wrath  of  Achilles,"  and  "  Mars  disarmed  by 
Venus,"  which  were  exhibited  all  over  Belgium 
for  charitable  purposes ;  while  a  copy  of  his 
"  Coronation  of  Napoleon,"  also  executed  by 
him  at  Brussels,  made  a  successful  tour  through 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  In  his 
later  pictures  we  find  the  classical  rigidity  of 
bis  previous  works  softened  to  some  extent  by 
a  greater  infusion  of  sentiment.  lie  excelled 
also  in  portrait  painting,  his  heads  of  Marat 
and  Pius  VII.  constituting  his  most  remark- 
able achievements  in  this  branch  of  art.  Giro- 
det,  Gros,  Gerard,  Drouais,  Ingres,  Isabey, 
David  d'Angers,  and  many  others  who  have 
become  eminent  artists,  were  among  his  pupils, 
and  became  the  disciples  of  the  new  school 
which  he  inaugurated.  Ilis  body  was  buried 
at  St.  Gudule,  in  Brussels,  and  his  heart  in 
Pere  la  Chaise,  where  his  family  have  erected 
a  monument  to  his  memory.  II.  Pieeee  Jean, 
a  French  sculptor,  commonly  called  David 
d'Angees,  after  the  town  of  Augers,  where  he 
was  born,  March  12, 1789,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  4, 
1856.  He  was  not  a  relative  of  the  famous 
painter  of  his  name,  although  he  was  his  pupil 
and  married  his  niece.  When  only  20  years 
old  he  obtained  a  medal  of  encouragement 
from  the  academy  of  fine  arts,  and  in  1811 
his  bass-relief  of  Epaminondas,  which  is  in  the 
museum  of  his  native  town,  gained  the  first 
prize  for  sculpture,  and  along  Avith  it  a  pension 
to  finish  his  education  in  Italy,  his  struggles 
with  poverty  liaving  previously  been  relieved 
by  an  annual  allowance  of  $50  from  his  towns- 
men of  Angers,  and  by  his  celebrated  name- 
sake, who  gave  him  gratuitous  instruction.  He 
passed  5  years  at  Rome ;  then  visited  London, 
where,  although  in  indigence,  he  rejected  an 
advantageous  offer  to  execute  a  monument 
commemorative  of  Waterloo;  and  on  his  re- 
turn to  Paris  established  his  reputation  by 
his  statue  of  Conde,  which  is  at  Versailles, 
and  by  one  in  marble  of  King  Rene  of  Anjou, 
for  the  town  of  Aix.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  academy  of  fine  arts,  Aug.  5,  1826,  and 
appointed  professor,  Dec.  6,  1826.  In  1828  he 
went  to  Weimar,  where  he  modelled  a  bust  of 
Goethe  in  marble,  and  presented  it  to  that  town ; 
he  also  executed  it  in  bronze  for  the  city  of 
Munich.  In  1834  he  revisited  Germany,  exe- 
cuting at  the  latter  city  a  bust  of  Schelling, 
at  Dresden  one  of  Tieck,  and  at  Berlin  one  of 
Rauch  and  one  of  Humboldt.     From  1835  to 


1837  he  was  employed  upon  his  sculptures  of 
the  Pantheon,  now  the  church  of  St.  Genevieve, 
at  Paris,  which  constituted  the  great  work  of 
his  life.  His  other  productions  embrace  bass- 
reliefs  for  the  palace  of  Fontainebleau ;  "  Christ," 
the  "  Virgin,"  and  "  St.  John,"  for  the  cathe- 
dral of  Angers  ;  "  St.  Cecilia  singing  the  Praise 
of  God,"  for  the  church  of  St.  Maurice  of  An- 
gers ;  "  A  Shepherd  Beholding  Himself  in  the 
Water,"  for  the  museum  of  the  same  place;  the 
"  Battle  of  Fleurus,"  and  the  "  Battle  of  Ileliopo- 
lis,"  for  the  triumphal  arch  at  Marseilles,  beside 
a  great  number  of  kindred  works  of  art.  He  also 
executed  medals,  busts,  and  statues  of  celebrities 
of  all  coimtries,  including  Washington  and  La- 
fayette, in  the  house  of  representatives  at  Wash- 
ington ;  Jefferson  and  Fenimore  Cooper,  in  New 
York;  Berzelius  in  Copenhagen;  Bentham  in 
England ;  Lady  Sydney  Morgan  in  Ireland  ; 
Gutenberg  at  Strasbourg ;  Corneille  at  Rouen  ; 
Racine  at  La  Ferte-Milon  ;  Cuvier  at  Mont- 
beliard,  and  at  the  jardin  des plantes  in  Paris  ; 
Talma,  Mile.  Mars,  and  Josejih  Chenier,  at  the 
theatre  Fravgau  in  Paris;  Henry  II.  at  Bou- 
logne ;  Francis  I.,  Louis  XVI.,  Bernardin  de  St. 
Pierre,  and  Casimir  Delavigne,  at  Havre ;  Fene- 
lon  at  Oambray  ;  Chateaubriand,  Lamartine, 
Walter  Scott,  Canning,  Victor  Hugo,  Beranger, 
Hahnemann,  Arago,  Lamennais,  Madame  de 
Sta6l,  Andre  Ch6nier,  Rossini,  Paganini,  in 
Paris ;  Borne,  General  Foy,  St.  Cyr,  Suchet, 
Gobert,  and  many  other  monuments,  at  Pere  la 
Chaise.  The  mausoleum  of  Marco  Bozzaris  at 
Missolonghi,  presented  by  him  as  a  token  of  his 
sympathy  with  the  Grecian  struggles  for  nation- 
al independence,  is  one  of  his  best  productions. 
His  last  Avork,  the  statue  of  Dr.  Bichat,  was 
placed  in  the  great  court  of  the  medical  school 
of  Paris  on  July  16,  1857.  In  politics  he  was 
an  ardent  republican.  He  was  a  representative 
of  the  people  of  his  native  department  of  Maine- 
et-Loire  in  the  constituent  assembly  of  1848,  in- 
variably voting  and  exerting  his  influence  and 
pen  in  favor  of  the  republican  party.  After  the 
cotipd''etatoS  Dec.  2, 1851,  his  name,  which  was 
endeared  to  the  people  and  in  the  same  propor- 
tion obnoxious  to  Louis  Napoleon,  appeared  iu 
one  of  the  earliest  lists  of  the  proscribed.  He 
took  refuge  at  Brussels,  and  was  not  permit- 
ted to  return  to  France  until  after  nearly  3  years 
of  exile,  during  which  time  he  visited  Greece. 
David  excelled  more  by  his  immense  capacity 
for  labor  than  by  originality  and  greatness  of 
genius,  many  of  his  productions  aiming  rather 
at  effect  than  at  fidelity  to  nature.  The  univer- 
sal regard  in  which  his  name  is  held  by  the  best 
minds  of  France  was  evident  at  his  funeral  at 
Pere  la  Chaise  on  Jan.  8, 1856,  when  an  extraor- 
dinary crowd  of  eminent  men  attended,  headed 
by  the  veteran  poet  Beranger,  while  Cavaignac 
was  one  of  the  pall  bearers,  both  of  whom  have 
since  followed  him  to  the  grave. 

DAVIDSON.  I.  A  W.  central  co.  of  N.  0. ; 
area,  630  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850, 15,820,  of  whom 
2,992  were  slaves.  The  Yadkin  river  washes 
its  western  border,  aad  several  smaller  streams 


DAVIDSON  COLLEGE 


DAVIES 


283 


Intersect  it.  The  surface  is  diversified  by  hills 
and  valleys,  and  nearly  all  of  tlio  land  is  fertile. 
Gold  has  been  found  in  tlie  southern  part  of  the 
county.  The  productions  in  1850  were  82,424 
bushels  of  wheat,  507,961  of  corn,  174,085  of 
oats,  and  932|  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  5 
saw  mills,  4  tanneries,  and  41  churches.  Formed 
from  Rowan  county  in  1822,  and  named  in 
honor  of  Gen.  William  Davidson.  IL  A  K  cen- 
tral CO.  of  Tenn.,  divided  into  2  nearly  equal 
parts  by  the  Cumberland  river ;  area,  750  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  38,881,  of  whom  14,175  were 
slaves.  The  surface  is  slightly  uneven ;  the  soil 
is  good  and  well  watered,  and  agriculture  is  in 
a  forward  state.  The  limestone  found  here  is 
of  excellent  quality.  lu  1850  the  jjroductions 
were  1,598,403  bushels  of  corn,  102,315  of  oats, 
108,351  of  sweet  potatoes,  201,304  lbs.  of  butter, 
38,322  of  wool,  and  1,277  bales  of  cotton.  There 
were  01  churches,  and  1,493  pupils  attending 
public  and  other  schools.  The  Cumberland 
river  in  this  part  of  its  course  is  navigable  for 
steamboats,  and  8  good  turnpike  roads,  leading 
to  different  parts  of  the  state,  meet  in  this 
county.  Nashville,  the  capital  of  the  state,  is 
the  seat  of  justice. 

DAVIDSON  COLLEGE,  a  post  village  of 
Mecklenburg  co.,  N.  C,  and  the  seat  of  David- 
son college,  an  institution  founded  in  1840,  and 
Laving  about  100  students,  and  a  library  of 
5,000  or  0,000  volumes. 

DAVIDSON,  LucRETiA  Maria,  an  American 
poetess,  born  at  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  27, 1808, 
died  Aug.  27,  1825.  She  wrote  verses  at  4 
years  of  age,  having  taught  herself  in  secrecy 
to  copy  the  letters  from  printed  books.  The 
earliest  of  her  productions  which  are  preserved 
were  written  when  she  was  9  years  old.  When 
she  was  10  she  was  placed,  through  the  care  of 
a  friend,  at  a  young  lady's  school  in  Troy,  where 
her  application  soon  undermined  her  health. 
She  was  still  allowed  to  continue  her  studies, 
even  when  weakened  by  medical  treatment, 
and  even  to  increase  her  labor  to  prepare  for 
a  public  examination,  the  result  of  which  was  a 
hectic  consumption  from  which  she  died.  Al- 
though a  great  part  of  her  compositions  were 
destroyed,  278  pieces  remain,  some  of  which 
were  published  in  1829,  with  a  memoir  by  Mr. 
S.  F.  B.  Morse,  afterward  republished  with  a 
life  by  Miss  Sedgwick;  The  volume  produced 
a  remarkable  sensation,  and  was  noticed  by 
Sou  they  in  the  "  Quarterly  Review"  with  the 
observation :  "  In  our  own  language,  except 
in  the  cases  of  Chatterton  and  Kirke  White, 
we  can  call  to  mind  no  instance  of  so  early,  so 
ardent,  and  so  fatal  a  pursuit  of  intellectual 
advancement." — Her  sister,  Margaret  Miller, 
born  March  20,  1823,  died  Nov.  25,  1837,  had 
the  same  sensibility  and  precocity,  and  began  to 
write  at  6  years  of  age.  At  10  she  wrote  and 
acted  in  a  passionate  drama  in  society  at  New 
York ;  and  notwithstanding  the  Avarning  of  her 
sister's  tate,  her  intellectual  activity  seems  to 
have  been  tolerated  rather  than  restrained.  But 
both  of  them  possessed  such  intiueuce,  through 


characters  of  almost  angelic  loveliness,  as  to 
make  it  impossible  to  deny  them  the  pleasure 
which  they  enjoyed  fwid  conferred  by  their  com- 
positions. Margaret's  poems  were  introduced 
to  the  world  under  the  auspices  of  Washington 
Irving,  and  tlie  works  of  both  sisters  were  pub- 
lished together  in  1850. 

DAVIDSON,  William,  an  American  general 
in  the  war  of  the  revolution,  born  in  Lancaster 
CO.,  Penn.,  in  1746,  fell  in  the  battle  of  Cowan's 
ford,  N.  C,  Feb.  1,  1781.  His  parents  removed 
to  Rowan  co.,  N.  C.,  when  he  was  4  yeai's  old, 
and  he  was  educated  at  the  Queen's  museum, 
afterward  styled  Liberty  Hall  academy,  at  Char- 
lotte. He  took  up  arms  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution,  Avas  major  of  one  of  the  first  regi- 
ments raised  in  Carolina,  was  appointed  briga- 
dier after  the  battle  of  Camden,  and  in  1781  was 
despatched  by  Greene  to  prevent  Cornwallis 
from  passing  the  Catawba  at  Cowan's  ford. 
With  his  death  in  the  battle  which  ensued,  and 
with  the  dispersion  of  his  troops,  began  the 
pursuit  of  Greene  by  Cornwallis. 

DAVIE,  a  W.  central  co.  of  N.  C. ;  area,  about 
250  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1850,  7,860,  of  whom  2,171 
were  slaves.  It  has  a  rough,  hilly  surface. 
Yadkin  river  and  Hunting  creek  are  the  prin- 
cipal streams.  In  1850  the  productions  were 
29,070  bushels  of  wheat,  301,010  of  corn,  and 
79,029  of  oats.  The  county  Avas  organized  in 
1830,  and  named  in  honor  of  Gen.  AVilliam  R. 
Davie.     Capital,  Mocksville. 

DAVIE,  William  Riohardson,  an  American 
revolutionary  ofiicer,  born  in  England,  June  21, 
1750,  died  at  Camden,  S.  C,  Nov.  8,  1820.  He 
was  brought  to  North  Carolina  wlien  he  was  6 
years  old,  and  was  graduated  at  Princeton,  N. 
J.,  in  1770.  He  returned  to  North  Carolina,  and 
began  to  study  the  law,  but  soon  entered  the 
revolutionary  army,  and  obtained  a  captaincy 
in  Pulaski's  legion.  At  the  time  of  Gates's  de- 
feat he  expended  the  last  shilling  of  an  estate 
bequeathed  him  by  his  uncle,  AVilliam  Richard- 
son, in  equipping  the  company  which  he  com- 
manded. He  rose  to  be  colonel  and  commissary, 
served  throughout  the  war,  and  was  a  favorite 
officer  under  Sumter  and  Greene.  At  the  peace 
he  returned  to  his  profession,  and  Avas  a  meni- 
ber  of  the  convention  to  form  the  U.  S.  consti- 
tution in  1787,  and  advocated  its  acceptance  in 
the  convention  of  North  Carolina.  Through 
his  influence  the  university  of  North  Carolma 
was  established.  He  was  elected  governor  of 
that  state  in  1799,  and  soon  after  appointed  by 
President  Adams  envoy  to  France,  being  joined 
with  Chief  Justice  EUsAVorth  and  Mr.  Murray. 
After  his  return  he  lived  in  South  Carolina. 

DAVIES,  Charles,  LL.D.,  an  American  ma- 
thematician, born  at  Washington,  Litchfield  co.. 
Conn.,  Jan.  22,  1798.  While  yet  a  lad  he  emigra- 
ted Avith  his  father  to  St.  LaAvrence  co.,  N.  Y., 
and  settled  on  the  shores  of  Black  lake,  then 
little  else  than  a  Avilderness.  Here  he  pursued 
the  usual  occupations  of  a  farmer  till  he  Avas  sent 
to  the  military  academy  at  West  Point,  which 
he  entered  as  a  cadet  in  1814.    From  that  in- 


284 


DAVEES 


DAVIESS 


Btitntion  he  was  frraduated  with  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant in  the  Uglit  artillery.  After  a  brief  but 
active  service  with  his  regiment,  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  corps  of  engineers,  and  assigned  to 
duty  at  the  academy  to  assist  as  teacher  in  a 
course  of  instruction  through  which  he  had  but 
recently  passed  as  a  pupil.  In  1816  he  relin- 
quished the  line  of  army  promotion  for  that  of 
the  academy,  and  after  filling  in  succession  the 
offices  of  assistant  professor  of  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy,  succeeded  to  tlie  charge  of 
the  mathematical  department,  and  was  commis- 
sioned professor  in  1823.  In  addition  to  the 
arduous  duties  incident  to  his  new  position,  he . 
undertook  the  preparation  of  a  series  of  text 
books  upon  his  favorite  study.  In  this  he 
sought  to  give  to  his  pupils,  by  a  connected 
course  of  mathematical  training,  the  free  and 
ready  use  of  their  mental  powers,  rather  than  a 
cellection  of  detached  propositions,  which,  how- 
ever valuable  as  elements  of  knowledge,  are  too 
often  wanting  in  logical  connection  as  a  means 
of  education.  While  engaged  in  the  execution 
of  this  project,  his  health  gave  way.  A  bron- 
chial atfection  suspended  for  a  while  his  labors, 
forced  him  to  resign  his  post  at  West  Point,  and 
in  1837  to  visit  Europe.  The  change  had,  as 
was  supposed,  the  desired  eifect,  and  soon  after 
his  return  he  accepted  the  professorship  of  ma- 
thematics in  Trinity  college,  Hai'tford,  Conn., 
and  resumed  his  labors  as  teacher  and  author. 
But  the  disease  of  the  throat  again  threatened, 
and  he  relinquished  this  position  for  that  of 
paymaster  in  the  army,  and  treasurer  of  West 
Point  academy.  These  posts  he  resigned  in 
1845,  and,  believing  his  health  firmly  restored, 
resumed  his  favorite  occupation  of  the  lecture 
room  and  the  desk  in  the  university  of  New 
York,  where  he  took  the  direction  of  the  de- 
partments of  mathematics  and  natural  phi- 
losophy. Shortly  afterward  he  retired  to  the 
country  to  seek  in  rural  pursuits  the  health  and 
repose  essential  to  the  realization  of  his  educa- 
tional plans,  and  at  his  residence  near  Fishkill 
Landing,  on  the  Hudson,  completed  his  series 
of  text  books.  Not  long  after  he  resumed  his 
professional  duties,  first  in  the  normal  school 
at  Albany,  and  afterward  in  Columbia  college, 
of  which  latter  institution  he  now  directs  the 
mathematical  studies.  His  works,  which  are 
numerous,  are  characterized  by  great  perspi- 
cuity and  clear  logical  arrangement,  and,  con- 
sidered as  a  series,  present  a  natural  order 
of  sequence  which  makes  them  a  valuable  con- 
tribution to  the  educational  resources  of  the 
country.  They  consist  of  a  "  Primary  Arith- 
metic and  Table  Book  ;"  "  First  Lessons  in 
Arithmetic ;"  "  Intellectual  Arithmetic ;"  "  New 
School  Arithmetic,"  with  key;  "University 
Arithmetic,"  with  key;  "Grammar  of  Arith- 
metic;" "Elementary  Algebra,"  with  key; 
"Elementary  Geometry  and  Trigonometry;" 
"Practical  Mathematics;"  " University  Alge- 
bra," with  key ;  "  Bourdon's  Algebra,"  with  key ; 
"  Legendre's  Geometry ;"  "  Elements  of  Survey- 
ing ;"  "Analytical  Geometry ;"  "  Difierential  and 


Integral  Calculus;"  "Descriptive  Geometry;" 
"Shades,  Shadows,  and  Perspective;"  "Logic 
of  Mathematics;"  and  a  "Mathematical  Dic- 
tionary." 

DA  VIES,  Sir  John,  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Tisbury,  Wiltshire,  in  1570,  died  in  1626.  He 
studied  at  Oxford  and  at  the  Middle  Temple, 
from  which  he  was  expelled  for  his  unruly  tem- 
per, and  during  his  exclusion  Avrote  most  of  bis 
poems.  In  the  reign  of  James  I.  he  was  attor- 
ney-general and  speaker  of  the  commons  in 
Ireland ;  sat  in  the  English  parliament,  and  at 
the  time  of  his  death  had  just  been  made  lord 
chief  justice.  His  principal  work  was  a  didac- 
tic poem  entitled  Nosce  Teipsum,  or  the  "  Soul 
of  Man,  and  the  Immortality  thereof  "  (London, 
1599),  which,  though  showing  no  passion  and 
little  fancy,  is  remarkable  for  its  condensation 
of  thought  and  felicitous  precision  of  style. 

DAVIeS,  Samuel,  D.D.,  an  American  divine, 
president  of  the  college  of  New  Jersey,  born  in 
New  Castle  co.,  Del.,  Nov.  3,  1724,  died  at 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  Feb.  4,  1761.  He  received  a 
careful  religious  education  at  home,  studied  the 
classics,  sciences,  and  also  theology,  at  Mr. 
Blair's  school  at  Fogg's  Manor,  and  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1746.  Ordained  in  the  next  year, 
he  was  at  his  request  appointed  to  officiate  at 
different  ]:)laces  of  worship  in  Hanover  co.,  Va., 
where,  the  Episcopal  church  being  then  the 
established  church  of  Virginia,  dissenters  were 
obnoxious  to  the  civil  authorities.  His  labors 
were  highly  successful,  and  led  to  a  controversy 
between  him  and  the  king's  attorney-general  as 
to  whether  the  act  of  toleration  which  had  been 
passed  in  England  for  the  relief  of  Protestant 
dissenters  extended  also  to  Virginia.  Tlie  ulti- 
mate decision  of  the  question  w^as  in  the  affirm- 
ative. In  1753  Mr.  Davies  was  sent  with  Gil- 
bert Tennent  to  England  to  solicit  funds  for  the 
college  of  New  Jersey,  was  received  with  favor 
as  a  preacher  in  England  and  Scotland,  and  was 
successful  in  the  object  of  his  mission.  He  re- 
sumed his  pastoral  labors  on  his  return,  amid 
the  excitement  of  the  French  and  Indian  war, 
and  after  the  defeat  of  Braddock  preached  a  ser- 
mon, which  was  published,  in  a  note  to  which  oc- 
curs the  passage  :  " that  heroic  youth.  Col. 

Washington,  whom  I  cannot  but  hope  Provi- 
dence has  hitherto  preserved  in  so  signal  a  man- 
ner for  some  important  service  to  his  country,'' 
The  first  presbytery  in  Virginia  was  established 
through  his  exertions  in  1755  ;  and  in  1758  he 
Avas  chosen  to  succeed  Jonathan  Edwai'ds  as 
president  of  the  college  of  New  Jersey.  This 
appointment  he  declined,  but  it  was  renewed 
the  next  year,  when  in  accordance  with  the 
Judgment  of  the  synod  he  accepted  it.  A  col- 
lection of  his  sermons  was  published  after  his 
death,  in  3  vols.,  and  passed  through  several 
editions  in  Great  Britain  and  in  America. 

DAVIESS,  the  name  of  3  counties  in  the 
United  States.  I.  A  N.  W.  co.  of  Ky.,  border- 
ing on  Ind. ;  area,  about  400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1850,  12,361,  of  whom  2,889  were  slaves.  The 
Ohio  river  bounds  it  on  the  N.,  and  Green  river, 


DAVILA 


DAVIS 


285 


a  navigable  stream,  touches  it  on  the  "W".  The 
surface  is  level  and  the  soil  generally  good.  Coal 
has  been  found  in  large  quantities.  The  pro- 
ductions in  1850  were  739,800  bushels  of  corn, 
21,953  of  wheat,  81,301  of  oats,  3,420,633  lbs. 
of  tobacco,  20,319  of  wool,  and  14,217  of  flax. 
The  county  was  organized  iu  1815,  and  since 
1850  has  been  divided  to  form  McLean  county. 
Named  in  honor  of  Col.  Joseph  II.  Daviess,  who 
fell  at  the  battle  of  Tippecanoe.  Capital,  Owen- 
borough.  II.  A  S.  W.  CO.  of  Ind.,  area  423  sq. 
m.,  between  the  E.  and  W,  forks  of  White  river, 
which  unite  at  its  S.  W.  angle ;  \)0\).  in  1850, 
10,352.  The  greater  part  of  tlio  laud  is  level  or 
rolling,  and  fertile.  There  are  large  beds  of  bi- 
tuminous coal  in  the  county.  In  1850  tlie  pro- 
ductions were  643,685  bushels  of  corn,  30,200 
of  wheat,  59,944  of  oats,  and  3,938  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  17  churches,  and  1,124  pupils  attend- 
ing public  schools.  Organized  in  1817.  Capital, 
Washington.  III.  A  N.  W.  co.  of  Mo.,  inter- 
sected by  Grand  river;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  ])op. 
in  1856,  7,970,  of  whom  401  were  slaves.  The 
surface  is  moderately  uneven  and  most  of  the 
soil  fertile.  Cattle  and  swine  are  raised  in  con- 
siderable numbers.  In  1850  the  county  pro- 
duced 212,536  bushels  of  corn,  19,168  of  wheat, 
45,936  of  oats,  and  742  tons  of  hay.  It  con- 
tained 2  churches,  and  there  were  300  pupils  ia 
the  public  schools.     Capital,  Gallatin. 

DAVILA,  Enrico  Cattapjno,  an  Italian  his- 
torian, born  near  Padua,  Oct.  30,  1576,  mur- 
dered near  Verona  in  July,  1031.  He  is  the 
author  of  the  celebrated  "  History  of  the  French 
Civil  W^ars  during  the  Eeigns  of  Francis  II., 
Charles  IX.,  Henry  III.,  and  Henry  IV."  Tliis 
work  is  perspicuous  and  trustworthy,  and  has 
been  accepted  as  a  standard  authority  and  trans- 
lated into  several  languages.  Protestant  wri- 
ters have  objected  to  the  favorable  view  taken 
in  this  work  of  Catharine  de'  Medici.  In 
this  opinion  Catholics  either  do  not  agree,  or 
find  excuse  in  the  circumstance  that  Queen 
Catharine  was  the  patron  of  his  family  and 
lumself.  The  work  is  divided  into  15  books, 
containing  a  record  of  the  events  from  the 
death  of  Henry  II.  in  1559,  till  the  peace  of 
Vervins,  1598.  Davila  was  the  youngest  son 
of  Antonio  Davila,  whose  ancestors,  for  100 
years,  had  been  constables  of  Cyprus,  from 
which  position  the  elder  Davila  was  driven  im- 
poverished, when  the  island  was  taken  by  the 
Turks.  Having  sought  refuge  at  the  court  of 
France,  Catharine  de'  Medici,  as  well  as  her  hus- 
band King  Henry  II.,  took  him  into  favor.  He 
thereon  sent  for  his  young  son  Arrigo,  whom 
he  named  Enrico  Cattarino,  in  honor  of  the  king 
and  quccu,  and  devoted  him  to  their  service. 
The  boy  commenced  life  as  the  king's  page;  at 
18  entered  the  army,  and  distinguished  liim- 
self  at  the  sieges  of  Ilonfleurs  and  Amiens.  Hav- 
ing retired  from  the  French  service  and  return- 
ed to  Italy,  he  devoted  himself  to  study,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  society  of  the  Innomi- 
nati.  A  duel  with  a  poet  who  lampooned  him, 
and  whom  he  rim  through  the  body,  caused 


him  to  flee  to  Venice.  That  republic  was  then 
raising  troops  for  one  of  its  frequent  wars.  Da- 
vila offered  to  enlist  300  men,  which  he  did, 
and  with  them  joined  several  expeditions;  con- 
tinuing to  rise  in  the  service,  until  he  held 
commands  successively  in  Friuli,  Candia,  Dal- 
matifi,  and  elsewliere.  The  dedicatory  epistle  of 
his  history  is  dated  froTU  Hrescia,  where  he  was 
governor.  For  these  services  he  received  a 
pension,  as  well  as  restoration  to  his  hereditary 
rank  of  constable  of  Cyprus.  The  circumstances 
of  his  death  were  curious.  Being  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Crema,  he  stopped  with  liis  family  and 
attendants  at  the  hamlet  of  S.  Michele,  near 
Verona,  to  demand  a  relay  of  horses.  This 
was  refused  by  the  postmaster,  who,  on  being 
reproved  for  his  insulting  conduct,  shot  Davila 
dead  with  an  arquebuse.  His  companions  then 
fell  upon  the  party,  killed  the  chaplain,  and 
wounded  several  otliers.  Davila's  son,  Antonio, 
killed  the  postmaster  on  the  spot,  and  his  ac- 
complices were  all  hanged.  Lord  Bolingbroke 
calls  Davila's  history  a  noble  writing,  in  many 
respects  equal  to  that  of  Livy.  It  was  first  pub- 
lished by  Baglioni,  the  printer  (Venice,  1630), 
The  best  editions  are  those  issued  from  the 
royal  press  (Paris,  folio,  1644),  and  by  Apostolo 
Zeno  in  2  vols,  fulio  (Venice,  1733),  the  latter 
with  a  biography  of  Davila. 

DAVIS.  I.  A  S.  E.  CO.  of  Iowa,  bordering  on 
!Mo. ;  area,  about  480  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1856, 
11,528.  Fox  river  flows  through  it,  and  it  is 
drained  by  the  sources  of  Wyaconda  and  Fa- 
bius  rivers.  It  has  an  undulating  surface  and 
a  rich  soil,  but  timber  is  scarce.  In  1856  the 
productions  were  1,056,735  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  95,212  of  wheat,  273,226  of  oats,  28,236 
of  potatoes,  13,738  lbs.  of  butter,  and  3,215  tons 
of  hay.  The  county  was  named  in  honor  of 
Garrett  Davis,  former  member  of  congress  from 
Kentucky.  Capital,  Bloomfield.  II.  A  N.  co. 
of  Utah ;  area,  more  than  1,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1850,  1,134.  It  lies  on  the  E.  shore  of  Great 
Salt  Lake,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Wahsatch 
mountains.  Productions  in  1850,  17,675  bush- 
els of  wheat  and  16,033  lbs.  of  butter.  Capital, 
Farmington. 

'  DAVIS,  Andrew  Jackson,  an  American 
clairvoyant,  born  at  Blooming  Grove,  Orange 
CO.,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  11,  1826.  While  yet  very 
young,  he  was  taken  into  the  employment  of  a 
neighboring  farmer,  and  uj)  to  his  12th  year 
spent  most  of  his  time  in  leading  cattle  to 
and  from  the  pasture,  and  watching  them  in 
the  fields.  In  !6ept.  1838,  he  removed,  with 
his  father's  family,  to  Poughkeepsie,  where,  up 
to  the  year  1843,  he  was  employed  mostly  as  a 
shoemaker's  apprentice.  Early  in  1843,  Mr. 
William  Levingston  of  Poughkeepsie  succeed- 
ed, by  mesmeric  passes,  in  throwing  him  into  a 
state  of  magnetic  somnambulism,  and  develop- 
ing in  him  surprising  phenomena  of  clairvoy- 
ance. Owing  to  the  extreme  poverty  of  his 
parents,  he  had  been  left  in  a  state  of  almost 
entire  ignorance,  the  whole  term  of  his  school 
tuition  not  exceeding  some  5  or  6  months ;  and 


286 


DAVIS 


in  his  normal  state  he  ("lisplayed  no  great  degree 
of  natural  talent.  The  magnetic  passes,  how- 
ever (as  is  asserted  hy  the  numerous  persons 
Avlio  were  intimate  with  him  at  tliis  time), 
seemed  to  transform  him  into  a  totally  different 
heing,  and  enahled  him  to  discourse  on  medical, 
psychological,  and  general  scientific  suhjects, em- 
ploying their  technical  terms  and  phrases  with 
the  facility  of  a  learned  professor.  Soon  after 
this,  he  associated  himself  with  Mr.  Levingston, 
his  magnetizer,  and  commenced  the  treatment 
of  the  diseased,  giving  diagnoses  and  prescrip- 
tions while  in  the  magnetic  trance.  In  this  he 
was  regarded  as  eminently  successful,  and  by 
tlie  mentaj  phenomena  which  he  exhibitedwhile 
in  this  state,  many  were  attracted  to  liim  as  to 
an  oracle  of  superior  wisdom.  On  March  7, 
1844,  without  the  assistance  of  the  mesmeric 
passes,  he  fell,  into  a  singular  trance,  during 
which,  wliile  mysteriously  hiding  liimself  from 
his  friends  for  IG  hours,  he  held  converse,  as  he 
asserts,  with  invisible  beings,  and  received  in- 
timations and  instructions  concerning  the  posi- 
tion lie  was  subsequently  to  occupy  as  a  teach- 
er from  the  interior  state.  In  the  summer  of 
1845  he  left  his  first  magnetizer,  Mr.  Levingston, 
and  associated  himself  with  Dr.  S.  S.  Lyon,  then 
of  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  but  who  soon,  by  direction 
received  from  him  while  in  the  trance,  removed 
with  him  to  New  York.  Tlicre,  in  Nov.  fol- 
lowing, he  induced  the  Rev.William  Fishbough 
(tlien  of  New  Haven)  to  join  him  as  an  amanu- 
ensis, and  commenced  tlie  dictation,  in  the 
clairvoyant  trance,  of  his  first  and  most  con- 
siderable work,  entitled  "  The  Principles  of 
Nature,  her  Divine  Revelations,  and  a  Voice 
to  Mankind."  The  matter  composing  this  oc- 
tavo of  nearly  800  pages  was  dictated  in  157 
essays.  These,  as  declared  by  the  amanuen- 
sis and  numerous  witnesses,  were  written  word 
for  word  as  they  were  enunciated,  and  subse- 
quently printed  in  strict  fidelity  to  the  ideas 
and  technical  terms,  the  very  phraseology  being 
preserved  as  far  as  possible,  though  much  gram- 
matical revision  was  found  to  be  necessary. 
The  book  embraces  a  wide  range  of  subjects, 
ontological,  cosmical,  theological,  spiritual,  and 
social,  Avhich  are  presented  in  the  aspect  of  a 
unitary  system,  the  pervading  anitmis  of  which. 
is  a  kind  of  attenuated  and  semi-spiritual  natu- 
ralism, which  ignores  and  repudiates  any  spe- 
cial divinity  or  sacreduess  attaching  to  the 
teachings  of  the  Bible.  After  the  completion 
of  this  book,  Mr.  Davis  ceased  to  submit  him- 
self to  magnetic  manipulations,  but  has  written 
several  other  works,  while  more  or  less  illumi- 
nated, as  he  claims,  by  the  infiuence  of  invisible 
spirits.  These  works  are  severally  entitled 
the  "  Great  Ilarmonia,"  4  vols.  ;  the  "  Ap- 
proaching Crisis,"  the  "  Penetralia,"  the  "  Pres- 
ent Age"  and  "Inner  Life,"  the  "  Magic  StaflF" 
(his  autobiography)  ;  beside  whicli  he  has  pub- 
lished a  few  minor  productions.  Tlie  philoso- 
phical and  theological  portions  of  these  works 
are  regarded  by  Mr.  Davis's  friends  as  little 
more  than  repetition  of  his  first  work,  inter- 


spersed with  startling  asseverations  concerning 
things  in  heaven  and  earth  that  admit  of  no 
direct  verification.  As  a  writer,  Mr.  Davis  has 
])een  more  successful  than  as  a  public  lecturer, 
though  in  this  latter  capacity  he  has  had  some 
influence ;  and  to  his  general  instrumentality 
that  modern  movement  known  as  "  spiritual- 
ism" partly  owes  its  inauguration. 

DAVIS,  CriAULEs  Henet,  an  American 
mathematician,  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  16, 
1807,  the  sou  of  the  late  Hon.  Daniel  Davis,  for 
many  years  the  solicitor-general  for  Massa- 
chusetts. He  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1823, 
and  received  in  1854  the  commission  of  com- 
mander, which  he  now  holds.  From  1844  to 
1849  he  was  an  assistant  in  the  U.  S.  coast  sur- 
vey, under  the  superintendence  of  Prof.  A.  D. 
Baclie.  In  the  years  184G-49,  lie  was  engaged 
in  a  careful  survey  of  the  waters  about  Nan- 
tucket, in  the  course  of  which  he  discovered  the 
"  new  south  shoal,"  and  several  smaller  shoals, 
directly  in  the  track  of  ships  sailing  between 
New  York  and  Europe,  and  of  coasting  vessels 
from  Boston.  These  important  discoveries  were 
thought  to  account  for  several  wrecks  and  acci- 
dents before  unexplained,  and  they  called  forth 
the  special  acknowledgments  of  insurance  com- 
panies and  merchants.  When  Commander  Davis 
left  the  survey,  for  the  purpose  of  taking  charge 
of  the  "  American  Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Al- 
manac," Prof.  Bache  addressed  a  letter  to  the 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  lamenting  his  loss  and 
complimenting  liim  in  very  high  terms  ("  Coast 
Survey  Report,"  1849,  p.  72).  During  and  since 
his  connection  with  the  coast  survey,  Com- 
mander Davis  has  been  appointed  on  several 
commissions  to  examine  the  state  of  the  har- 
bors of  Boston,  New  York,  Charleston,  &c. 
These  investigations  led  him  to  the  study  of 
the  laws  of  tidal  action.  See  his  important 
"  Memoir  upon  the  Geological  Action  of  the 
Tidal  and  other  Currents  of  the  Ocean"  ("Me- 
moirs of  the  American  Academy,"  new  series, 
vol.  iv.),  and  the  "  Law  of  Deposit  of  the  Flood 
Tide"  ("Smithsonian  Contributions,"  vol.  iii,, 
art.  G).  The  "Amei'ican  Nautical  Almanac"  owes 
its  foundation  directly  to  Commander  Davis's  pa- 
triotic eflbrts,  which  were  begun  and  sustained 
in  s[)ite  of  a  very  general  scepticism  with  re- 
gard to  its  success.  He  was  appointed  the  first 
superintendent  of  the  work  in  1849,  and  the 
organization  devised  for  it  by  him  at  the  very 
beginning  is  the  same,  in  every  important  par- 
ticular, as  that  under  which  it  still  continues  to 
be  executed.  lie  continued  at  the  head  of  this 
establishment  till  the  autumn  of  1856,  when  he 
was  ordered  to  naval  service  in  the  Pacific,  as 
commander  of  the  sloop  of  war  St.  Mary's,  and 
from  this  post  he  has  not  yet  (Jan.  1859)  re- 
turned. Commander  Davis  is  the  author  of  an 
English  translation  of  Gauss's  Tlieoria  Motus 
CorjyorumCcelestium  (Boston,  1858),  and  of  some 
shorter  translations  and  articles  in  the  depart- 
ments of  mathematical  astronomy  and  geodesy. 

DAVIS,  Edwix  IIamiltox,  an  American 
physician  and  archa3ologist,  born  in  Ross  co., 


DAVIS 


287 


Ohio,  Jan.  22,  1811.  ITo  was  educated  in  tho 
Sci<ito  valley,  so  renowned  for  the  number  and 
magnitude  of  its  ancient  earthworks.  Resid- 
ing in  the  same  county,  antl^  cognizant  of  tho 
labors  of  Atwater  and  other  pioneer  explorers 
in  this  department  of  science,  his  attention  was 
directed  at  a  very  early  age  to  tlio  subject  of 
American  antii|uities.  From  1829  to  1833, 
while  a  student  of  Kenyou  college,  he  conduct- 
ed a  series  of  explorations  in  the  mounds  of 
that  vicinity,  an  account  of  which  was  given  in 
a  paper  read  before  the  philomathesian  society, 
afterward  (by  recpiest  of  the  professors)  en- 
larged, and  delivered  as  a  literary  performance 
at  the  connnenccment  of  1833.  In  1833  he  had 
several  interviews  with  the  late  Daniel  AVeb- 
ster,  then  making  a  tour  of  the  West.  Tliis 
great  statesman,  who  was  deeply  interested  in 
western  antiquities,  was  pained  to  witness  their 
rapid  disappearance,  and  suggested  the  forma- 
tion of  a  society  to  purchase  and  preserve  some 
of  the  uKJst  remarkable  works  of  the  mound- 
builders.  The  opinion  of  such  a  man  was  well 
calculated  to  stimulate  the  youthful  mind  of 
Dr.  Davis  to  continue  these  researches.  For  15 
years  he  diligently  studied  the  subject,  and  the 
results  of  his  researches  are  embodied  in  tlie 
"  Monuments  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  which 
forms  vol.  i.  of  the  "  Smithsonian  Contributions 
to  Knowledge^'  Dr.  Davis  received  his  medi- 
cal degree  at  Cincinnati  in  1837,  after  which  he 
settled  and  practised  his  profession  in  Chilli- 
cothe  until  1850,  when,  on  the  establishment  of 
the  New  York  medical  college,  he  was  called  to 
fill  the  chair  of  materia  medica  and  therapeu- 
tics, which  he  still  holds.  lie  has  been  an  oc- 
casional contributor  to  some  of  the  scientific 
and  medical  journals,  beside  being  for  a  time 
one  of  the  conductors  of  the  "  American  Medi- 
cal Monthly."  During  the  spring  of  1854  he 
delivered  a  course  of  lectures  on  archaeology 
before  the  Lowell  institute  in  Boston. 

DAVIS,  IIenet,  an  American  divine  and 
scholar,  born  at  East  Hampton,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  15, 
17T0,  died  at  Clinton,  March  7,  1852.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1796,  then  became 
tutor  successively  at  Williams  and  at  Yale  col- 
leges, and  in  1806  professor  of  Greek  at  Union 
college.  In  1809  lie  was  chosen  to  the  presi- 
dency of  Middlebury  college,  Vt.,  and  in  1817 
accepted  that  of  Hamilton  college,  N.  Y.,  having 
in  the  year  preceding  declined  the  same  situation 
at  Yale  college,  ofiered  him  on  the  death  of 
President  Dwight.  He  continued  at  the  head 
of  Hamilton  college  until  1833,  and  was  mean- 
while active  in  the  establishment  of  the  theo- 
logical seminary  at  Auburn,  and  the  American 
board  of  commissioners  for  foreign  missions.  He 
possessed  considerable  merit  as  an  orator,  and 
was  tlie  author  of  various  occasional  sermons. 
In  1829  and  1830  no  students  were  graduated  at 
the  college  because  of  a  long  and  bitter  dispute 
between  the  president  and  trustees  upon  a  case 
of  discipline.  After  his  resignation  in  1833  he 
published  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Embarrassments 
and  Decline  of  Hamilton  College," 


DAVIS,  Jefferson,  an  American  soldier  and 
statesman,  born  June  3,  1808,  in  that  part  of 
Christian  co.,  Ky.,  which  now  forms  Todd  co. 
Soon  after  his  birth  his  father,  Sanuiel  Davis,  a 
planter,  who  served  during  the  revolutionary 
war  in  the  mounted  force  of  Georgia,  removed 
with  his  family  to  Mississippi,  and  settled 
near  Woodville,  Wilkinson  co.  Young  Davis 
received  an  academical  education,  and  was 
sent  at  the  usual  age  to  Transylvania  college, 
Ky.,  which  he  left  in  1824  to  enter  the  U.  S. 
military  academy  at  West  Point,  where  he  was 
graduated  in  1828,  and  was  appointed  brevet 
2d  lieutenant.  He  remained  in  the  army  7  years, 
and  served  as  an  infantry  and  staft'  oflicer  on 
the  N.  W.  frontier  in  the  Ijlack  Hawk  war  of 
1831-32,  with  such  distinction  that,  March  4, 
1833,  he  was  promoted  to  a  1st  lieutenancy  of 
dragoons,  in  which  capacity  he  w'as  employed  in 
1834  in  various  expeditions  against  the  Coman- 
ches,  Pawnees,  and  other  hostile  Indian  tribes. 
He  resigned  his  commission,  June  30,  1835, 
returned  to  Mississippi,  and  became  a  cotton 
planter,  living  in  retirement  till  1848,  wlien  he 
began  to  take  an  active  part  in  politics  on  the 
democratic  side,  and  in  1844  was  chosen  one 
of  the  presidential  electors  of  Mississippi  to  vote 
for  Polk  and  Dall.'is.  In  Nov.  1845,  he  was  elect- 
ed a  representative  in  congress,  and  took  his 
seat  in  December  of  that  year.  He  bore  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  discussions  of  the  session 
on  the  tariff",  on  tlie  Oregon  question,  on  milita- 
ry affairs,  and  particularly  on  the  preparations 
for  war  against  Mexico  and  on  the  organization 
of  volunteer  militia  when  called  into  the  service 
of  the  United  States.  While  in  congress,  in  July, 
1846,  the  1st  regiment  of  Mississippi  volun- 
teers, then  enrolled  for  service  in  Mexico,  elected 
him  their  colonel.  He  promptly  left  his  seat  in 
the  house,  and  overtaking  his  regiment  at  New 
Orleans  on  its  way  to  the  seat  of  war,  led  it  to 
reenforce  the  army  of  Gen.  Taylor  on  the  Rio 
Grande.  lie  was  actively  engaged  in  the  attack 
and  storming  of  Monterey,  Sept.  1846  ;  Avas  one 
of  the  commissioners  for  arranging  the  terms  of 
the  capitulation  of  that  city ;  and  highly  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista, 
Feb.  23,  1847,  where  his  regiment,  attacked 
by  an  immensely  superior  force,  maintained 
their  ground  for  a  long  time  unsiqiported,  while 
Col.  Davis  himself,  though  severely  wounded, 
remained  in  the  saddle  until  the  close  of  the 
action,  and  was  complimented  for  his  coolness 
and  gallantry  by  the  commander-in-chief  in  his 
despatch  of  JJarcli  6,  1847.  At  the  expiration 
of  the  term  of  its  enlistment,  in  July,  1847,  the 
Mississippi  regiment  was  ordered  home;  and 
Col.  Davis  while  on  his  return  received  at  New 
Orleans  a  commission  from  President  Polk  as 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  which  he  de- 
clined accepting  on  the  ground  that  the  consti- 
tution reserves  to  the  states  respectively  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  officers  of  the  militia,  and  that 
consequently  their  appointment  by  the  federal 
executive  is  a  violation  of  the  rights  of  the 
states.     In  Aug,  1847,  he  was  appointed  by  the 


288 


DAVIS 


governor  of  Mississippi  U.  S,  senator  to  fill  a 
vacancy,  and  at  the  ensuing  session  of  the  state 
legislature,  Jan.  11,  1848,  was  unanimously 
elected  to  tlie  same  office  for  the  residue  of  the 
term,  which  expired  March  4,  1851.  In  1850 
ho  was  reelected  for  the  ensuing  full  term. 
In  the  senate  he  was  chosen  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  military  aftairs,  and  took  a  prom- 
inent part  in  the  debates  on  the  slavery  ques- 
tion, in  defence  of  the  institutions  and  i)olicy 
of  the  slave  states,  and  was  a  zealous  advo- 
cate of  the  doctrine  of  state  rights.  In  Sept. 
1851,  he  was  nominated  candidate  for  governor 
of  Mississippi  by  the  democratic  party,  in  oppo- 
sition to  Ilenry  S.  Foote,  the  candidate  of  the 
union  party,  lie  resigned  his  seat  in  the  senate 
on  accepting  the  nomination,  and  was  beaten  in 
the  election  by  a  majority  of  999  votes ;  a  marked 
indication  of  his  personal  popularity  in  his  own 
state,  for  at  the  "  convention  election"  2  months 
before,  the  union  party  had  a  majority  of  7,500. 
After  his  defeat  Col.  Davis  remained  in  retire- 
ment until  the  presidential  contest  of  1852,  when 
he  took  the  stump  in  behalf  of  Gen.  Pierce  in 
Mississippi,  Tennessee,  and  Louisiana,  where  he 
rendered  essential  service  to  the  democratic 
party.  In  1853  he  was  appointed  by  President 
Pierce  secretary  of  war,  Avhich  post  he  held  till 
the  accession  of  President  Buchanan  in  1857. 
His  administration  of  the  Avar  department  was 
marked  by  ability  and  energy,  and  was  highly 
popular  with  the  army.  lie  proposed  or  carried 
into  effect,  among  other  measures,  the  revision  of 
the  army  regulations ;  the  introduction  of  camels 
into  America ;  the  introduction  of  the  light  in- 
fantry or  rifle  system  of  tactics ;  the  manufac- 
ture of  rifled  muskets  and  pistols  and  the  use  of 
the  Miuie  ball ;  the  addition  of  4  regiments  to 
the  army ;  the  augmentation  of  the  seacoast  and 
frontier  defences  of  the  country ;  and  tlie  system 
of  explorations  in  the  western  part  of  the  con- 
tinent for  geographical  purposes,  and  for  the  de- 
termination of  the  best  route  for  a  railroad  to 
the  Pacific  ocean.  Having  been  previously  re- 
elected, on  his  retirement  from  the  war  depart- 
ment Col.  Davis  reentered  the  senate  for  the 
term  ending  March  4,  1863.  In  the  sessions  of 
the  35th  congress  he  has  been  conspicuous  in 
the  discussions  on  the  French  spoliation  bill, 
which  he  opposed,  and  on  the  Pacific  railroad 
for  the  southern  route,  of  Avhich  he  is  a  zealous 
and  most  influential  advocate. 

DAVIS,  John,  an  English  navigator,  born  at 
Sandridge,  in  Devonshire,  died  in  1605.  He 
was  early  inured  to  a  sea-faring  life,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  3  voyages  between  1585 
and  1587  for  the  discovery  of  the  north- w»st 
passage.  He  discovei'ed  in  1585  the  strait 
which  bears  his  name,  and  in  the  following 
year  navigated  along  the  coast  of  Greenland  as 
far  northward  as  lat.  72°.  In  1591  ho  went  as 
second  in  command  with  Cavendish  in  his  un- 
fortunate voyage  tb  the  South  sea.  He  after- 
ward made  5  voyages  to  the  East  Indies,  and 
was  killed  in  the  strait  of  Malacca  by  Japanese 
pirates.    He  invented  a  quadrant  which  Avas  in 


use  for  taking  the  sun's  altitude  at  sea  till  it 
Avas  superseded  by  Iladley's  sextant,  and  pub- 
lished acccimts  of  two  of  his  voyages,  and  curi- 
ous Avorks  entitled  the  "  World's  Ih'drograjjhi- 
cal  Description"  (1595),  and  the  "Seaman's 
Secrets"  (1595). 

DAVIS,  John,  LL.D.,  an  American  jurist, 
born  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  Jan.  25,  1761,  died  in 
Boston,  Jan.  14,  1847.  He  Avas  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1781  Avith  reputation,  espe- 
cially as  a  poet  and  mathematician  ;  engaged  for 
a  time  as  teacher  in  the  family  of  Gen.  Joseph 
Otis  of  Barnstable,  a  brother  of  the  revolution- 
ary orator ;  completed  his  legal  studies  in  Bos- 
ton, and  began  the  practice  of  laAv  in  Plymouth 
in  1786.  His  first  public  office  Avas  as  delegate 
to  the  state  convention  on  the  question  of  adopt- 
ing the  federal  constitution.  He  was  the  young- 
est of  the  members  of  that  convention,  and 
lived  to  be  the  last  survivor.  For  several  years 
he  Avas  representative  in  the  state  legislature, 
was  elected  senator  from  Plymouth  county  in 
1795,  and  in  that  year  Avas  appointed  by  Wash- 
ington comptroller  of  the  treasury  of  the  United 
States.  Resigning  this  office  after  one  year,  he 
soon  received  the  appointment  of  United  States 
attorney  for  the  district  of  Massachusetts,  and 
removed  to  Boston.  In  1801  President  Adams 
appointed  him  judge  of  the  district  court,  and 
he  fulfilled  the  duties  of  this  office  for  more  than 
40  years.  Judge  Story  thus  bears  Avitness  to  his 
judicial  ability  in  dedicating  to  him  one  of  his 
Avorks:  "  Your  judgments  have  stood  the  test 
of  time,  and  are  destined  to  be  laid  up  among 
the  resfonm  pnulentium  for  professional  in- 
struction in  future  ages."  Throughout  liis  offi- 
cial career,  from  which  he  retired  in  1841,  he 
continued  his  studies  in  the  classics,  sciences,  and 
poetry;  and  his  character  is  rcA^ealed  in  his  favor- 
ite quotation  from  Malebranche :  "  Truth  loves 
gentleness  and  peace."  Especially  interested  in 
the  history  and  antiquities  of  New  England,  he 
Avas  a  member  of  the  historical  society  of  Mas- 
sachusetts from  the  year  of  its  organization 
(1791),  and  its  president  from  1818  to  1843, 
Among  his  publications  are  a  "  Eulogy  on 
George  Washington;"  an  "Attempt to  Explain 
the  Inscription  on  Dighton  Rock,"  in  Avhich  he 
ingeniously  supposes  the  figures  designed  to  com- 
memorate exploits  of  Indian  hunting ;  and  an 
edition  of  "  Morton's  New  England  Memorial," 
to  Avhich  he  added  copious  marginal  notes,  and 
an  appendix  replete  Avith  curious  information. 

DAVIS,  Jonx,  an  American  statesman,  bom 
at  Northborough,  Mass.,  Jan.  13,  1787,  died  at 
Worcester,  April  19, 1854.  His  father  was  a  New 
England  farmer,  in  moderate  circumstances.  His 
early  days  were  spent  on  his  father's  farm.  He 
Avas  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1812,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  of  Worcester  co.  in  1815.  In 
March,  1822,  he  married  Ehza,the  eldest  daughter 
of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Bancroft  of  Worcester.  In  1824, 
on  no  other  nomination  than  the  ncAA'spaper  sug- 
gestion of  an  unknown  friend,  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  congress,  and  continued  to  hold  that 
office  by  successive  reelections  until  Jan.  1834, 


DAVIS 


289 


■wlien,  having  been  elected  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, he  resigned  his  seat.  In  March,  1835, 
having  been  elected  to  the  U.  S.  senate,  he  re- 
signed the  office  of  governor,  but  reassumed  it 
in  1841,  and  continued  to  discliarge  its  duties 
till  Jan.  1843.  In  March,  1845,  he  was  again 
elected  to  the  U.  S.  senate,  and  remained  there 
until  March,  1853,  when  he  declined  a  reelection, 
and  retired  to  private  life.  In  the  early  part  of 
his  professional  career  Mr.  Davis  was  identified 
with  the  federal  party ;  but,  beyond  writing  oc- 
casionally for  the  local  journals,  had  little  to  do 
with  politics.  Ilis  practice  was  extensive.  His 
reputation  as  a  man  of  sound  learning,  of  prac- 
tical sagacity,  and  of  sterling  integrity,  made  him 
essential  to  one  or  the  other  litigant  in  every  im- 
portant cause  in  his  county.  This  left  him  little 
leisure  for  public  affairs.  His  first  entrance  on 
public  life  was  on  the  floor  of  congress.  Coming 
from  a  quarter  of  the  country  already  interested 
in  manufactures,  and  from  a  district  noted  for  the 
mechanical  skill  and  industry  of  its  population, 
he  naturally  became  an  advocate  for  protection 
to  American  industry.  The  tariff  of  1824  had 
not  given  satisfaction  to  the  manufacturing  in- 
terests, and  tlie  people  from  all  parts  of  the 
northern  and  middle  states  were  petitioning  con- 
gress to  interpose  legislative  aid  to  protect  the 
wool  growers  and  manufacturers.  Mr.  Davis 
was  a  protectionist  in  advance  of  public  opinion 
in  New  England.  He  thought  that  government 
should  so  lay  the  import  duties  which  Avere  ne- 
cessary for  revenue,  that  the  industry  of  the 
country  should  be  expanded,  and  its  labor  made 
more  productive  and  more  profitable.  He  advo- 
cated these  views  on  the  floor  of  congress  with 
zeal  and  power.  The  speeches  delivered  by  him 
in  the  sessions  of  1828,  1830,  and  1832,  in  reply 
to  Mr.  McDuffie,  Mr.  Oambreleng,  and  others, 
were  regarded  by  the  protectionists  as  the  best 
statements  and  defences  of  their  theories.  Dur- 
ing his  first  term  in  tlie  senate,  that  body  was 
mainly  occupied  with  the  controversy  with  Gen. 
Jackson's  administration,  of  which  he  was  a  con- 
sistent opponent.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  opposition  to  the  expunging  "i-esolutions, 
and,  it  is  understood,  drafted  a  part,  if  not  the 
whole,  of  the  famous  protest  against  them.  He 
also  acted  with  the  whig  party  in  opposing  the 
administration  of  Mr.  Yan  Buren,  and  contribut- 
ed, in  a  short  speech  against  the  sub-treasury  in 
1840,  the  most  efficient  electioneering  pamphlet 
for  the  canvass  of  that  year.  It  was  computed 
that  more  than  one  million  copies  of  this  speech 
were  circulated  among  the  voters.  Before  this 
time,  t?>e  long  public  service  and  incorruptible 
integrity  of  Mr.  Davis  had  gained  for  him  the 
popular  appellation  of  "  Honest  John  Davis," 
a  title  which  clung  to  him  through  life.  During 
his  second  term  as  governor,  the  so-called  Dorr 
rebellion  took  place  in  Ehode  Island.  He  was 
urged  by  each  side  to  render  it  aid,  but  refused 
to  abandon  the  neutrality  which  he  said  Massa- 
chusetts ought  to  observe.  For  this,  and  for  an 
imprudent  act  of  one  of  his  military  staff,  he 
faUed  of  s,  reelection  by  the  people,  and  the 

VOL.   YI. — 19 


legislature  after  a  protracted  struggle  supplant- 
ed him  by  a  democrat.  During  his  absence 
from  the  senate,  the  protective  tariff  of  1842 
had  gone  into  operation,  and  ui)on  his  return  ho 
found  a  democratic  administration  about  to  sub- 
stitute for  it  the  revenue  scale  of  184G.  In  the 
discussion  of  this  measure  he  resumed  in  the 
senate  the  place  in  the  protectionist  ranks  which 
he  had  formerly  held  in  the  house.  Mr.  Davis 
opposed  the  Mexican  war  from  the  beginning. 
He  was  one  of  the  two  senators  who  voted  that 
the  war  did  not  exist  by  the  act  of  the  republic 
of  Mexico.  He  supported  the  treaty  of  Guada- 
lupe Hidalgo  in  oj)position  to  his  colleague  and 
other  whig  senators.  In  the  great  controversy 
which  followed,  as  to  the  disposition  to  be  made 
of  the  territories  of  the  United  States,  he  was  de- 
cided and  earnest  in  favor  of  excluding  slavery 
from  them.  He  supported  what  is  known  as  the 
Wilmot  proviso  during  the  administration  of 
Mr.  Polk,  and  he  was  one  of  the  most  decided 
opponents  of  what  were  known  as  the  compro- 
mise acts  during  the  administration  of  Gen. 
Taylor  and  Mr.  Fillmore.  He  had  no  fear  of  a 
dissolution  of  the  union.  He  retired  from  pub- 
lic life  just  as  the  passage  of  the  compromise 
acts  had  completed  the  dissolution  of  the  whig 
party,  with  which  he  had  acted  during  his  whole 
career.  For  a  brief  period,  surrounded  by 
friends  whom  he  loved  and  respected,  his  favor- 
ite agricultural  pursuits  afforded  occupation  for 
his  leisure  hours.  But  his  constitution  Avas  un- 
dermined, and  a  short  but  painful  illness  soon 
terminated  his  life. 

DAVIS,  John  A.  G.,  professor  of  law  in  the 
university  of  Virginia,  born  in  that  state  in  1801, 
died  Nov.  14, 1840.  He  was  educated  at  William 
and  Mary  college,  and  commenced  the  practice 
of  law  in  the  county  of  Albemarle.  He  was  also 
for  a  time  editor  of  a  journal  published  at  Char- 
lottesville. In  1830  he  was  appointed  to  the 
law  professorship  in  the  university,  and  perform- 
ed its  duties  with  great  promise  and  success. 
He  was  for  some  time  chairman  of  the  faculty. 
Hearing  one  night  the  report  of  a  pistol  before 
his  door,  he  went  out  to  ascertain  the  cause,  and 
found  there  a  student  masked,  who  slowly  re- 
treated before  him,  and  deliberately  discharged 
a  pistol  at  him.  He  died  in  consequence.  He 
published  a  volume  on  criminal  law  for  the  use 
of  justices  of  the  peace,  the  copyright  of  which 
was  purchased  by  the  legislature  from  his  fam- 
ily for  $12,000. 

DAVIS,  Matthew  L.,  an  American  writer, 
bom  in  1766,  died  at  Manhattanville,  N.  Y.,  Jime 
21,  1850.  He  was  originally  a  printer  by  trade, 
and  acquired  in  the  course  of  that  business  a  des- 
ultory education  and  considerable  skill  as  a  wri- 
ter. He  early  attached  himself  in  politics  to  the 
fortunes  of  Aaron  Burr,  and  was  an  advocate  of 
his  elevation  to  the  presidency,  at  the  time  when 
the  balance  hung  so  long  undecided  between  him 
and  Jefferson.  For  many  years  he  was  the  cor- 
respondent at  "Washington  of  the  "  New  York 
Courier  and  Enquirer,"  under  the  signature  of 
"  The  Spy  in  "Washington."    For  the  "  London 


290 


DAVIS'S  STEAIT 


DAVY 


Times  "  also  he  wrote  under  the  name  of  the 
"  Genevese  Traveller."  During  many  years  be- 
fore the  death  of  Aaron  Burr  Mr.  Davis  was  ap- 
parently his  only  attached  friend,  and  the  most 
irai)ortant  of  his  writings  is  his  "  Memoirs  of  the 
Life  of  Aaron  Burr."  Burr's  diary  was  also 
edited  1)V  him. 

DAVIS'S  STRAIT,  an  arm  of  the  North  At- 
lantic ocean,  communicating  with  Baffin's  bay, 
and  separating  Greenland  on  the  east  from 
Cumberland  island  on  the  west.  It  stretches 
north  from  Cape  Farewell,  about  lat.  60°  N.,  to 
Disco  island,  near  lat.  70°  N.  Its  narrowest 
part,  where  it  is  cut  by  the  arctic  circle,  is  220 
miles  wide ;  its  greatest  breadtii  is  about  600 
miles.  Its  coasts  are  high,  rocky,  broken  by 
numerous  bays  and  inlets,  the  largest  of  which 
are  Northumberland  inlet  and  Hudson's  strait, 
almost  barren,  and  peopled  by  tribes  of  Esqui- 
maux, Notwithstanding  its  dangerous  currents 
and  vast  icebergs,  it  is  a  fixvorite  resort  for 
whalers,  the  whale  being  found  here  in  greater 
number  than  in  any  other  polar  waters. 

DAVITS,  the  projecting  arms  of  wood  or 
iron  upon  which  boats  are  hoisted  and  hung 
over  the  sides  or  stern  of  ships.  They  are  rig- 
ged with  sheaves  or  blocks  for  that  purpose. 

DAVOUST  (or  more  correctly  Davout), 
Louis  Nicolas,  a  French  general,  born  at  An- 
noux,  in  Burgundy,  May  10, 1770,  died  in  Paris, 
June  1,  1823.  A  schoolmate  of  Bonaparte  at 
the  military  school  of  Brienne,  he  was,  when 
only  15,  appointed  2d  lieutenant  in  a  cavalry 
regiment.  In  1791  he  served  as  major  in  the 
army  commanded  by  Dumouriez,  and  was  a 
brigadier-general  as  early  as  1793,  while  Bona- 
parte was  but  a  major.  In  that  capacity  he 
was  employed  for  3  years  in  the  armies  on 
the  Moselle  and  the  Rhine,  where  he  gained  the 
esteem  of  Moreau,  who  intrusted  him  with  im- 
portant commands.  He  accompanied  Bonaparte 
to  Egypt,  and  greatly  contributed  to  the  victory 
at  Aboukir,  On  his  return  to  France  he  Avas 
appointed  division-general  in  1800,  chief  com- 
mander of  the  consular  guard  in  1801,  and  in 
1804  marshal  of  the  empire.  He  took  a  distin- 
guished part  in  the  victories  of  Ulm  and  Aus- 
terlitz ;  and  on  the  same  day  that  Napoleon  con- 
quered the  Prussians  at  Jena  (Oct.  1-i,  1806),  he 
won  over  them  the  victory  of  Auerstadt,  and  re- 
ceived as  a  reward  the  title  of  duke  of  Auerstadt. 
In  1809  lieAvas  made  prince  of  Eckmiihl,  fur  his 
part  in  the  battle  of  that  name.  After  Wagram 
he  was  appointed  military  commander  in  Poland, 
which  country  he  ruled  with  an  iron  hand.  In 
the  Russian  campaign  he  defeated  Bagration  at 
Mohilev,  and  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  the 
Moskwa  (Borodino).  After  the  disastrous  re- 
treat from  Russia,  he  took  up  his  head-quarters 
at  Hamburg,  where  he  was  soon  besieged  by  the 
victorious  allied  armies.  He  boklly  opposed 
their  forces;  and  it  was  only  in  April,  1814,  that 
he  consented  to  deliver  the  city  into  the  hands 
of  Gen.  G6rard,  a  commissioner  of  Louis  XVIII. 
Napoleon,  on  his  return  from  Elba,  appointed 
him  minister  of  war.     After  the  defeat  at  Wa- 


terloo, he  was  placed  in  command  of  all  tho 
troops  in  and  around  the  capital,  and  was  ready 
for  the  contest  when  he  received  positive  orders 
from  the  provisional  government  to  negotiate 
with  the  allies.  In  consequence  of  this  order, 
he  signed,  July  3, 1815,  at  St.  Cloud,  the  capitu- 
lation of  Paris,  A  few  days  later  he  consented 
to  a  mere  acknowledgment  of  the  new  govern- 
ment, and  retired  from  active  life.  On  tlie  trial 
of  Marshal  Ney,  he  boldly  declared  that  ho 
would  not  have  signed  the  capitulation  of  Paris 
if  it  had  not,  in  his  opinion,  guaranteed  the 
safety  of  all  the  military  men  then  in  that  city. 
The  firmness  of  his  conduct  was  not  palatable 
to  the  Bourbons ;  he  was  not  fully  reinstated  in 
his  position  until  1818. — His  only  son,  born  in 
1818,  was  a  member  of  the  chamber  of  peers, 
and  for  some  time  connected  with  the  army,  but 
became  afterward  insane,  and  died  Aug.  18, 1858. 
DAVY,  Sir  Humphry,  an  English  chemist, 
born  at  Penzance,  Cornwall,  Dec.  17, 1778,  died 
at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  May  29, 1829.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Robert  and  Grace  Davy ;  he  was 
a  healthy,  active,  and  forward  child,  fond  of 
sports  and  stories,  of  retentive  memory,  and  of 
a  remarkably  affectionate  disposition.  He  made 
rapid  progress  at  his  first  school ;  at  the  gram- 
mar school,  kept  by  an  incompetent  teacher,  he 
followed  no  particular  course  of  study,  but  stud- 
ied what  and  wlien  he  pleased,  and  during  his 
stay  there  gave  no  indication  of  the  great  pow- 
ers he  exhibited  in  after  life  ;  he  acquired,  how- 
ever, a  good  knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek,  and 
appears  always  to  have  stood  at  the  head  of  his 
class.  Among  his  boyish  tastes  was  that  of  fishing, 
the  relish  for  which  he  never  lost,  and  which  was 
the  subject  of  his  delightful  book  "  Salmonia." 
At  the  age  of  9  he  went  to  live  with  Mr,  John 
Tonkin,  a  friend  of  his  mother,  who  from  regard 
to  her  in  a  manner  adopted  the  young  Humphry, 
when  his  family  removed  to  Varfell,  about  2i- 
miles  from  Penzance.  At  the  age  of  14  he 
went  to  Dr.  Cardew's  school  at  Truro,  where 
he  remained  nearly  a  year  at  the  expense  of 
his  kind  friend,  Mr.  Tonkin,  to  whose  house 
in  Penzance  he  returned  in  Dec.  1793  ;  his 
school  education  was  now  at  an  end,  and  his 
self-education,  to  which  he  owed  almost  every 
thing,  was  about  to  commence.  The  next  year 
was  passed  in  desultory  study,  in  active  sports 
with  gun  and  rod,  and  in  occasional  dissipation ; 
this  was  a  most  dangerous  period  of  his  life,  but 
he  resisted  the  temptations  which  beset  him, 
and  began  to  study  again  in  earnest.  The  death 
of  his  father  in  Dec.  1794,  and  the  narrow  cir- 
cumstances of  his  family,  gave  fixedness  to  his 
vacillating  purposes,  and  it  was  determined  that 
he  should  study  the  art  of  medicine;  accord- 
ingly, in  Feb.  1795,  he  was  apprenticed  to  Mr. 
Borlase,  a  surgeon  and  apothecary  of  Penzance, 
who  was  afterward  distinguished  as  a  physician. 
His  studies  were  now  followed  with  great  zeal; 
his  note  books  show  that  he  gave  attention  to  a 
great  variety  of  subjects  beside  those  coming 
within  the  strict  line  of  his  profession,  such  as 
the  modern  languages,  mathematics,  metaphys- 


DAVY 


291 


ics,  and  especially  chemistry  and  physics ;  he 
grappled  with  soino  of  the  hif,'liest  problems  of 
metaphysical  theology  and  mental  philosophy, 
and  at  one  time  seemed  lost  in  tlie  perplexities 
of  materialism.  While  cultivating  the  intellect 
his  imaginative  powers  were  not  neglected,  as 
is  proved  by  his  love  of  poetry  and  by  the  com- 
position of  verses  of  considerable  merit ;  his 
chosen  subjects  of  study  Avero  illustrated  by  the 
reading  of  the  best  Avorks  within  his  reach. 
From  physics  his  attention  was  naturally  turned 
to  cliemistry,  which  he  took  up  with  ardor  to- 
ward the  end  of  1797,  at  the  commencement  of 
his  19th  year,  though  only  in  reference  to  his 
medical  progress ;  the  reading  of  Lavoisier's 
"  Elements  of  Chemistry  "  first  led  him  to  the 
experimental  study  of  the  science  in  which  he 
was  destined  to  work  such  remarkable  changes ; 
his  apparatus  was  of  the  rudest  kind,  his  mate- 
rials such  as  are  most  commonly  used  in  medi- 
cine, and  his  first  experiments  very  simple ;  yet 
so  rapid  was  his  progress  that  in  4  months  he 
had  sent  to  Dr.  Beddoes,  an  Oxford  ex-profes- 
sor of  chemistry,  a  new  theory  on  "  Heat  and 
Light,"  to  which  the  latter  became  a  convert ; 
this  was  his  first  publication,  wliich  appeared  in 
1799.  Tiio  young  chemist's  mental  activity  was 
favored  by  the  acquaintance  of  Mr.  Gregory 
Watt,  a  son  of  the  famous  James  Watt,  who 
came  to  reside  at  Penzance  in  the  winter  of  1797 
for  the  benefit  of  his  health ;  in  the  society, 
conversation,  and  sympatliy  of  this  young  man, 
Davy  found  the  stimulus  he  needed  in  the  de- 
velopment of  his  intellectual  powers.  He  also 
became  acquainted  with  Mr.  Davies  Gilbert,  a 
scientific  and  highly  educated  man,  afterward 
his  successor  as  president  of  the  royal  society 
of  London.  The  mineralogical  and  geological 
structure  of  the  surrounding  country,  abounding 
in  tin  and  copper  mines,  the  lithological  charac- 
ters of  the  cliifs  and  headlands,  and  the  ever- 
changing  air  and  sea  of  that  tempestuous  cli- 
mate, invited  him  to  the  investigation  of  the 
operation  of  natural  causes ;  his  very  first  ori- 
ginal experiments,  at  the  age  of  18,  were  to  de- 
termine the  kind  of  air  which  filled  the  vesicles 
of  the  common  sea  weeds  thrown  upon  the  shore, 
and  he  demonstrated  that  the  marine  plants  act 
upon  the  air  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  the 
terrestrial,  by  decomposing,  under  the  influence 
of  the  sun's  rays,  carbonic  acid,  in  order  to  ob- 
tain the  carbon  necessary  for  their  growtli,  and 
the  oxygen  for  their  respiration.  The  state  of 
chemical  science,  too,  was  favorable  to  his  rapid 
advance,  as  it;3  boundaries  were  small,  its  theo- 
ries ill-defined,  most  of  its  departments  little 
developed,  and  Tast  unexplored  regions  waiting 
for  the  coming  of  a  master  spirit.  His  medical 
studies  must  have  been  zealously  pursued,  as  in 
their  4th  year  he  was  considered  by  Dr.  Bed- 
does  competent  to  take  charge  of  his  pneumatic 
institution  at  Clifton,  in  which  pulmonary  dis- 
eases were  treated  by  the  inlialation  of  different 
gases.  Mr.  Borlase  kindly  released  him  from 
his  apprenticeship,  and  early  in  Oct.  1798,  he 
left  Penzance,  before  he  was  20  years  old,  to 


commence  liis  public  career  at  Clifton,  near 
Bristol.  In  the  year  1799,  while  resident  at 
Clifton,  he  made  his  experiments  on  the  protox- 
ide of  nitrogen  (laughing  gas),  and  published 
the  results  in  1800;  he  described  its  effects, 
which  were  nmch  like  those  since  produced  by 
the  inhalation  of  sulphuric  ether ;  he  also  ex- 
perimented with  carburetted  hydrogen,  carbon- 
ic acid,  and  nitrogen,  tliereby  seriously  injuring 
liis  liealth.  About  the  same  time  he  liad  taken 
up  tiie  subject  of  galvanism,  wliich  afterward 
led  to  some  of  liis  greatest  discoveries  in  de- 
composing the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths.  The 
pneumatic  institution  soon  became  very  popu- 
lar under  his  management,  and  some  of  the 
most  obstinate  diseases  were  benefited  by  the 
new  remedies ;  the  nitrous  oxide  was  found 
very  beneficial  in  many  cases  of  palsy.  Tlie 
royal  institution  had  just  been  founded  after  a 
plan  of  Count  Rumford,  with  the  intention  of 
diftusing  a  knowledge  of  science  in  its  applica- 
tions to  the  common  purposes  of  life  ;  Davy  re- 
ceived and  accepted  the  invitation  to  become 
lecturer  on  chemistry,  and  in  ilarch,  1801,  he 
took  up  his  abode  in  London,  and  in  May,  1802, 
he  was  formally  appointed  professor  in  the  in- 
stitution. His  lectures  at  once  became  exceed- 
ingly popular ;  his  youth,  simple  manners,  elo- 
quence, his  knowledge  of  his  subject,  and  his 
brilliant  experiments,  excited  the  attention  of 
the  highest  ranks  in  London ;  his  society  was 
courted  by  all,  and  he  seemed  in  danger  of  be- 
coming a  votary  of  fashion  rather  than  of  sci- 
ence. During  the  11-^  years  that  he  spent  in 
the  rooms  of  the  royal  institution,  his  bachelor 
apartments  were  furnished  in  the  simplest  man- 
ner ;  in  the  adjoining  laboratory  he  spent  most 
of  his  time,  preparing  for  his  lectures,  and  con- 
ducting his  investigations  on  the  fixed  alkalies, 
on  astringent  vegetables  in  connection  with  the 
art  of  tanning,  on  the  composition  of  mineral 
substances,  on  agricultural  chemistry,  on  gal- 
vanism, and  on  electro-chemical  science,  which 
may  be  said  to  have  sprung  chiefly  from  his 
researches.  His  observations  on  tanning  were 
published  in  the  "Philosophical  Transactions" 
for  1803  ;  his  lectures  before  the  board  of  agri- 
culture, which  were  delivered  until  1818,  were 
published  under  the  title  of  "  Elements  of  Agri- 
cultural Chemistry,"  a  work  which  has  passed 
through  many  editions,  and  has  been  translated 
into  almost  every  European  language.  His  im- 
portant researches  in  electro-chemical  science 
liad  been  commenced  at  Clifton,  and  the  results 
are  published  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions "  from  1808  to  1812,  and  in  the  early  "  Ba- 
kerian  Lectures"  of  1806-'7,  the  base  potassium 
having  been  discovered  on  Oct.  6,  1807,  and  so- 
dium a  few  days  after,  by  decomposing  moist- 
ened potash  and  soda  by  several  voltaic  batter- 
ies ;  his  delight  was  most  extravagant  but  ex- 
cusable when  he  saw  the  globules  of  potassium 
appear  and  take  fire  as  they  entered  the  air. 
Tlie  mental  labor  of  his  experiments  and  the 
excitement  of  his  discoveries  threw  him  into  a 
typhoid  condition,  which  threatened  his  life  for 


292 


DAVY 


a  period  of  several  weeks ;  on  his  recovery  he 
experimented  witli  a  battery  of  2,000  plates,  dis- 
covered the  base  borou,  showed  tlie  simple  na- 
ture of  chlorine,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus,  the 
compound  nature  of  ammonia,  and  many  other 
important  facts.  In  1803  he  was  elected  a  fellow, 
and  in  1807  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  royal 
society,  which  ajjpointment  he  held  for  5  suc- 
cessive years,  an  honorable  and  acceptable  office 
to  him,  as  it  brought  him  into  friendly  inter- 
course with  scientific  men.  The  medical  pro- 
fession, which  he  had  laid  aside  on  coming  to 
London,  seems  now  to  have  been  resumed  for  a 
short  time ;  but  the  claims  of  science  had  too 
great  an  attraction,  and  he  gave  up  medicine  as 
he  had  previously  declined  an  invitation  to  en- 
ter the  church.  So  great  was  his  reputation  as 
a  lecturer  that  he  was  invited  to  deliver  courses 
before  the  Dublin  society  in  1810  and  1811,  for 
which  he  received  about  $6,000,  and  was  made 
doctor  of  civil  law  by  Triuity  college.  He 
was  knighted  in  April,  1812,  by  the  prince  re- 
gent, and  in  the  same  month  married  Mrs. 
Apreece,  the  widow  of  Shuckburgh  Ashby 
Apreece,  Esq.,  who  brought  him  a  considerable 
fortune ;  he  Avas  afterward  created  baronet.  In 
the  autumn  of  1813,  by  express  permission  of 
the  French  government,  granted  on  account  of 
his  scientific  reputation,  he  visited  the  continent 
during  the  war,  in  company  with  Mr.  Faraday 
"as  his  assistant  in  experiments  and  in  writ- 
ing ;"  the  assistant  has  proved  the  peer  of  his 
master.  While  in  Paris,  where  he  spent  2 
months,  he  became  acquainted  with  the  most 
eminent  men  of  science,  as  Cuvier,  Laplace, 
Gay-Lussac,  Humboldt,  and  Vauquelin ;  dur- 
ing this  brief  period  he  discovered  that  iodine 
is  a  simple  substance,  analogous  in  its  chemi- 
cal relations  to  chlorine.  He  remained  on  the 
continent  until  the  spring  of  1815,  visiting 
the  south  of  France,  Italy,  and  Switzerland, 
devoting  special  attention  to  the  volcanic  re- 
gions, and  pursuing  his  chemical  researches 
on  colors,  the  iodine  compounds,  and  oxyrau- 
riate  salts,  which  were  published  in  the  "  Phi- 
losophical Transactions"  for  1815.  As  one  of 
the  results  of  his  journey,  he  states  in  a  let- 
ter to  his  mother  that  "  England  is  the  only 
country  to  live  in,  however  interesting  it  may 
be  to  see  other  countries."  Already  in  the 
front  rank  of  scientific  men,  his  next  discovery 
placed  him  among  the  greatest  benefactors  of 
his  race.  In  1812  a  terrific  explosion  of  gas  took 
place  in  a  coal  mine,  causing  the  death  of  more 
than  100  men  ;  and  after  many  other  such  dis- 
asters, a  committee  of  proprietors  of  mines  wait- 
ed upon  Davy  to  see  if  his  knowledge  could 
devise  any  way  of  preventing  similar  accidents 
in  future.  He  began  by  analyzing  the  gas,  and 
ascertaining  in  what  proportions  its  mixture 
with  air  rendered  it  most  explosive,  and  the 
degree  of  heat  necessary  to  ignite  it ;  from  ob- 
Berving  that  the  combustion  did  not  take  place 
through  tubes  of  small  dimensions  from  the  re- 
frigerating effect  of  the  metallic  mass,  he  grad- 
ually reduced  the  length  of  the  tubes  till  ho 


found  that  a  simple  fine  metallic  gauze  was  suf- 
ficient so  to  cool  the  burning  gas  in  its  passage 
through  it  as  not  to  ignite  the  great  explosive 
mass  on  the  outside ;  he  accordingly  covered  the 
lamps  with  a  wire  tissue,  whose  interstices  were 
of  the  thickness  proper  to  cool  the  burning  gas 
which  passed  through  it  to  a  degree  to  prevent 
combustion,  being  permeable  to  air  and  light, 
but  not  to  flame.  This  simple  contrivance  con- 
stituted the  miner's  safety  lamp,  and  has  saved 
the  lives  of  thousands  ;  the  dangerous  gas  may 
burn  within  the  gauze,  and  thus  give  timely 
warning,  and  may  at  last  extinguish  the  lamp, 
but  even  then  a  suspended  platina  spiral  wUl 
remain  glowing  in  the  midst  of  the  explosive 
gas,  and  by  its  illumination  enable  the  miner  to 
see  as  long  as  the  air  is  fit  for  respiration.  His 
attention  was  first  drawn  to  the  subject  in  Aug. 
1815,  and  in  December  his  lamp  was  completed ; 
urged  by  a  friend  to  take  out  a  patent  for  his  in- 
vention, he  nobly  replied  :  "Ko,  my  good  friend, 
I  never  thought  of  such  a  thing ;  my  sole  object 
was  to  serve  the  cause  of  humanity ;  and  if  I 
have  succeeded,  I  am  amply  rewarded  in  the 
gratifying  reflection  of  having  done  so."  In 
May,  1818,  he  left  England  on  a  second  conti- 
nental journey,  visiting  Germany,  Hungary,  and 
Italy,  and  returning  to  England  in  June,  1819. 
On  the  death  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks  in  1820,  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  was  almost  unanimously  elected 
president  of  the  royal  society  of  London,  an  office 
to  which  for  7  years  afterward  he  was  annually 
elected  without  opposition ;  thus  the  poor  boy 
of  Penzance  by  the  strength  of  his  own  intellect 
had  attained  the  highest  honor  to  which  a  man 
of  science  in  England  can  aspire,  and  the  learned 
body  over  which  he  presided  lost  nothing  of  its 
ancient  reputation  during  his  official  connection 
with  it.  The  last  term  of  his  scientific  labors 
extends  from  1823  to  the  summer  of  1826,  dur- 
ing which  time  he  communicated  to  the  royal 
society  3  papers  on  the  preservation  of  metals 
by  electro-chemical  means,  and  the  Cakerian 
lecture  for  1826,  "On  the  Kelation  of  Electrical 
and  Chemical  Changes."  As  in  the  case  of  the 
safety  lamp,  it  was  to  remedy  a  practical  evil 
that  these  papers  were  prepared.  His  atten- 
tion was  directed  by  the  commissioners  of  the 
navy  to  the  corrosion  of  the  copper  sheathing 
on  the  bottoms  of  vessels  by  the  sea  water ;  he 
ascertained  that  the  popular  notion  that  impure 
copper  is  soonest  corroded  is  an  error,  and  that 
the  corrosion  is  owing  to  the  joint  action  of  the 
air  and  the  saline  ingredients  in  the  water ;  he 
succeeded  in  preserving  the  copper  sheathing 
from  corrosion  by  rendering  it  negatively  elec- 
trical by  small  pieces  of  tin  or  zinc,  or  ii'on  nails, 
these  metals  making  a  surface  of  copper  from 
200  to  300  times  their  own  size  so  electrical  as  to 
have  no  action  on  sea  water ;  the  very  perfection 
of  the  protection  rendered  this  method  practi- 
cally inapplicable  where  speed  was  requisite,  as 
shells  and  sea  weeds  adhered  to  the  non-corrod- 
ed surface.  This  principle  of  galvanic  protection 
has  been  successfully  applied  to  various  impor- 
tant uses  in  the  arts  and  sciences.     In  1824  he 


DAVY 


DAX 


293 


made  a  jonrney  to  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark, 
Holstein,  and  Hanover,  admiring  the  scenery, 
fishing  and  hunting,  and  communicating  with 
their  eminent  men,  among  whum  were  I5erze- 
lius,  Oersted,  Gauss,  Olbers,  and  Scliumacher, 
In  1825  he  began  to  experience  considerable 
indisposition,  which  ever  after  affected  iiis  ordi- 
nary elasticity  of  spirits,  depressed  also  by  the 
illness  and  death  of  his  mother  in  1826.  He 
had  suffered  for  more  than  a  year  with  numb- 
ness and  pain  in  his  right  arm,  when  toward 
the  close  of  1826  ho  had  a  paralytic  attack, 
affecting  the  right  side  of  the  body ;  his  mental 
faculties  were  not  impaired,  and  while  confined 
to  his  room  he  corrected  the  proof  sheets  of  his 
"  Discourses  to  the  Royal  Society,"  published  in 
Jan.  1827.  In  this  month  he  had  so  far  recov- 
ered as  to  start  on  a  journey  to  the  continent, 
going  through  France,  over  Mt.  Cenis  into  Italy, 
where  he  occupied  himself  in  hunting,  fishing, 
and  observations  on  natural  history  and  chemi- 
cal science,  for  about  3  months  ;  he  then  jour- 
neyed through  various  parts  of  southern  Ger- 
many and  Switzerland,  returning  in  October, 
with  health  and  strength  slightly  improved,  to 
England,  where  he  remained  until  March,  1828. 
"Salmonia,  or  Days  of  Fly-fishing,"  is  a  kind  of 
dramatization  of  the  most  interesting  parts  of 
his  journal  in  these  last  travels,  rendered  doubly 
valuable  by  his  observatidns  in  natural  history, 
and  glowing  with  the  most  exalted  ideas  of  God 
drawn  from  nature.  Finding  no  permanent  im- 
provement in  his  health,  he  left  London  again  in 
March,  1828,  for  the  Alpine  regions  of  southern 
Austria,  where  he  passed  the  summer,  spending 
the  winter  in  Italy ;  during  this  journey  he  wrote 
tho  "  Consolations  in  Travel,"  his  last  writing, 
which  Cuvier  calls  the  work  of  a  dying  Plato. 
On  Feb.  20, 1829,  he  experienced  at  Eome  a  sud- 
den and  severe  paralytic  attack,  which  ultimately 
proved  fatal,  though  he  so  far  improved  as  to  quit 
Eome  on  tiie  last  of  April  for  Geneva,  where  he 
arrived  May  28 ;  he  dined  at  5  P.M.  and  retired 
at  about  9^  o'clock ;  at  2^  the  following  morn- 
ing he  was  taken  alarmingly  ill,  and  in  a  few 
moments  expired ;  he  was  buried,  in  accordance 
with  his  expressed  wish,  where  he  died,  in  the 
city  of  Geneva,  on  -June  1.  His  brother  be- 
lieved that  the  paralysis  was  caused  by  soften- 
ing of  the  brain,  which,  with  some  enlargement 
of  tho  heart,  was  the  cause  of  his  death.  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  was  of  middle  stature,  5  feet  7 
inches  in  height,  well  proportioned  and  muscu- 
lar, and  able  to  endure  considerable  fatigue ;  of 
sanguine  temperament,  warm  in  his  feelings,  of 
cheerful  disposition,  fond  of  company,  persever- 
ing and  observing ;  he  devoted  himself  assiduous- 
ly to  science,  keeping  aloof  from  political  strife. 
He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  French  institute 
in  1817;  he  was  also  connected  with  most  of 
the  great  academies  of  Europe,  and  was  by 
universal  consent  considered  without  a  supe- 
rior, if  he  had  an  equal,  among  the  chemists 
of  his  time.  His  memory  is  dearly  cherished 
at  Geneva,  where  his  widow  founded  a  prize  in 
his  honor,  to  be  given  every  2  years  for  the 


most  original  and  important  discovery  in  chem- 
ical science.  Beside  the  life  ])y  his  brother,  there 
is  one  by  -Tohn  Ayrton  Paris,  M.D.  (2  vols.  8vo., 
London,  18.31). — Davy,  John,  M.D.,  a  younger 
brotlier  of  the  preceding,  and  tlie  writer  of  his 
biography.  After  taking  his  degree  of  doctor 
of  medicine  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh  in 
1804,  he  was  attached  to  the  English  army,  and 
travelled  extensively  in  the  East.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  works  of  merit,  the  principal 
of  which,  beside  the  life  of  his  brother,  in  2  vols. 
8vo.,  are :  "  An  Account  of  the  Interior  of  Cey- 
lon and  of  its  Inhabitants,  with  Travels  in  that 
Island  "  (4to.,  London,  1821 ;  this  work  is  espe- 
cially valuable  for  its  details  on  the  natural  his- 
tory of  Ceylon);  "Researches,  Physiological 
and  Anatomical"  (2  vols.  8vo.,  London,  1839); 
"  Notes  and  Observations  on  the  Ionian  Islands 
and  Malta,  with  some  Remarks  on  Constanti- 
nople and  Turkey"  (2  vols.  8vo.,  1842).  Dr. 
Davy  has  spent  most  of  his  life  in  the  for- 
eign army  service  of  his  country,  but  was  the 
travelling  companion  and  physician  of  his  il- 
lustrious brother  during  the  last  period  of  his 
life.  He  has  published  many  important  papers 
in  the  "Philosophical  Transactions,"  several 
of  which  are  collected,  with  illustrations,  in  his 
"Researches,  Physiological  and  Anatomical." 
In  1858  he  published  a  volume  entitled  "  The 
Fragmentary  Remains  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy." 

DAAVES,  RuFUs,  an  American  poet,  born  in 
Boston,  Jan.  26,  1803.  He  entered  Harvard  col- 
lege in  1820,  but  did  not  graduate  on  account  of 
a  charge  of  participating  in  some  disturbance. 
The  charge  was  afterward  disproved,  and  fur- 
nished the  occasion  for  his  first  published  poem, 
directed  against  the  Harvard  faculty.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  but  has  never  practised. 
He  was  a  contributor  to  the  "  U.  S.  Literary  Ga- 
zette," and  conducted  for  a  time  the  "Emerald," 
a  journal  printed  at  Baltimore.  He  published  in 
1830  the  "  Valley  of  the  Nashaway  and  other 
Poems ;"  and  in  1839,  "  Geraldine,  Athenia  of 
Damascus,  and  Miscellaneous  Poems,"  compris- 
ing descriptions  of  natural  scenery,  songs,  and 
odes.  The  next  year  he  published  "  Nix's  Mate," 
a  historical  romance.  Mr.  Dawes  is  a  Sweden- 
borgian,  and  has  frequently  oflBciated  in  the  pul- 
pits of  that  denomination. 

DAWSON,  Geoege,  an  English  clergyman 
and  lecturer,  born  in  London  in  1821,  was  edu- 
cated at  the  university  of  Glasgow,  and  became 
in  1844  the  pastor  of  the  Baptist  Mount  Zion 
chapel  in  Birmingham.  His  independence  of 
character  and  disregard  of  the  conventional 
usages  of  the  denomination  caused  a  separation* 
in  the  congregation  and  a  new  chapel  to  be  built 
for  the  minister,  which  was  opened  in  1847 
under  the  name  of  the  "  church  of  the  Saviour." 
.  He  has  been  very  successful  as  a  lecturer,  and  is 
a  proprietor  of  the  "  Birmingham  Daily  Press." 

DAX,  an  arrondissement  and  town  in  the 
S.  W.  of  France,  department  of  Landes ;  pop. 
of  the  former  in  1856, 113,794,  and  of  the  latter 
6,125.  The  town  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Adour,  about  30  m.  S.  "W.  from  Mont-de- 


294 


DAY 


Marsan,  and  is  a  principal  station  on  the  rail- 
way from  Bordeaux  to  Bayonne.  The  most 
remarkable  building  is  the  cathedral,  built  in 
1646  after  the  design  of  Vauban.  It  has  man- 
ufactories of  liquors  and  delft,  and  some  trade 
is  carried  on  in  grain,  wine,  timber,  vegetables, 
wax,  and  honey ;  aijd  the  town  is  a  considerable 
entrepot  of  goods  exported  from  France  to  Spain. 
It  is  of  ancient  origin,  and  has  hot  mineral 
springs,  whence  it  was  called  by  the  Ilomans 
Acpia)  Tarbellica),  afterward  by  the  French  Villa 
d'Acqs,  and  then  simply  Dax. 

DAY,  the  period  of  the  earth's  rotation  on 
its  axis.  This  is  not,  however,  the  .most  com- 
mon meaning  of  the  word,  which  cannot  be 
exactly  expressed  without  preliminary  explana- 
tions. The  motion  of  the  earth  upon  its  axis  is 
supposed  to  bo  perfectly  uniform.  If,  therefore, 
a  star  were  so  distant  that  its  apparent  position 
could  not  be  affected  by  the  earth's  annual  mo- 
tion in  its  orbit,  the  successive  returns  of  that 
star  to  the  meridian  would  be  at  equal  intervals ; 
and  the  fixed  stars  are  all  so  distant,  that  they 
may  practically  be  used  for  determining  these 
intervals,  which  are  called  sidereal  days.  The 
sidereal  day  is  usually  considered  as  the  time 
between  the  successive  passages  of  the  vernal 
equinox  over  the  meridian,  but  the  precession 
of  the  equinoxes  is  so  slow  that  a  single  sidereal 
day  thus  measured  does  not  differ  sensibly  from 
a  true  sidereal  day.  This  time  is,  however,  only 
of  use  in  observatories ;  for  civil  life  we  need 
the  solar  day,  measured  by  the  return  of  the 
sun  to  the  meridian.  The  solar  day  is,  from  a 
.variety  of  causes,  variable  in  its  length.  That 
jit  must  be  nearly  4  minutes  longer  than  a  side- 
'real  day  is  manifest  when  we  consider  that  the 
sun  apparently  travels  eastward  among  the 
stars  about  twice  his  own  breadth  each  day, 
in  the  accomplisliment  of  his  annual  journey. 
But  this  motion  is  due  east  only  at  the  solstices, 
and  varies  more  or  less  at  other  seasons  from 
the  direction  of  the  earth's  rotation.  Moreover, 
when  the  sun  is  nearer  the  poles  (at  the  solstices), 
an  equal  amount  of  motion  will  carry  him 
through  more  degrees  of  right  ascension  than 
when  he  is  near  the  equator.  Yet  further,  his 
motion  is  apparently  most  rapid  when  we  are 
nearest  to  him,  slowest  when  we  are  most  dis- 
tant. The  solar  day  is  thus  variable  in  length, 
since  it  differs  by  a  variable  amount  from  the 
constant  sidereal  day.  Clocks  and  watches  are 
therefore  regulated  to  run  to  the  average  length 
of  the  solar  day,  and  must,  of  course,  be  some- 
times faster  and  sometimes  slower  than  the  sun. 
Clock  time  is  called  true  time,  or  mean  solar 
time ;  while  the  time  which  is  measured  by  the 
sun  is  called  apparent  time.  The  difference 
between  the  time  by  the  clock  and  the  time 
by  sun,  that  is,  between  the  hour  of  mean  and 
of  apparent  time,  is  called  the  equation  of 
time.  Four  times  a  year  tlie  equation  of  time 
is  reduced  to  nothing,  and  twice  a  year  it 
amounts  to  about  16  minutes.  Mean  solar  time 
might  be  supposed  to  lie  measured  by  a  fictitious 
Bun  travelling  uniformly  in  the  equator,  and 


coming  to  the  vernal  equinox  at  the  same  instant 
with  a  second  fictitious  sun  travelling  uniformly 
in  the  ecliptic  and  coming  to  the  perigee  (be- 
tween Christmas  and  new  yeai-'s)  at  the  same 
instant  with  the  real  sun.  A  day  usually  signi- 
fies a  mean  solar  day.  A  sidereal  day  is  23h, 
56m.  4.09s.  of  solar  time.  In  astronomy  the 
solar  day  begins  at  noon,  but  in  civil  life  at  mid- 
night. In  all  countries  the  astronomical  hours 
are  numbered  from  noon  up  to  the  following 
noon,  from  1  to  24 ;  but  in  most  countries 
the  civil  day  is  divided  from  midnight  to  noon, 
and  again  from  noon  to  midnight,  each  period 
into  12  hours.  There  is  another  use  of  the 
word  day  as  opposed  to  night,  when  it  desig- 
nates the  time  during  which  the  sun  is  above 
the  horizon.  In  this  sense  of  the  word,  the 
length  of  the  day  varies  greatly  with  the  latitude 
of  the  observer,  and  with  the  season  of  the  year. 
On  the  equator,  the  day  is  always  a  few  minutes 
more  than  12  hours  in  length  ;  but  as  we  pro- 
ceed north  its  length  increases  in  summer,  and 
decreases  in  winter,  until  we  reach  the  arctic 
circle,  where  the  longest  day  is  more  than  24 
hours,  the  sun  not  setting  at  all  for  a  day  or  two 
about  June  20 ;  while  the  longest  night  is  nearly 
24  hours,  the  sun  barely  showing  himself  in  the 
southern  horizon  at  noon,  for  a  few  days  about 
Christmas.  At  the  poles,  the  day  is  a  little  over 
6  months  in  length,  and  the  night  nearly  as  long, 
DAY,  Jeremiah,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  late  president 
of  Yale  college,  born  in  New  Preston,  Conn,, 
Aug.  3,  1773 ;  entered  Yale  college  in  1789 ; 
on  account  of  infirm  health  was  notable  to  go 
on  with  the  class  to  which  he  at  first  belonged  ; 
but  after  an  absence  of  several  years  resumed 
his  college  studies,  and  was  graduated  with 
high  lionor  in  1795.  This  was  the  year  of  Dr. 
Dwight's  accession  to  the  presidency  of  the  col- 
lege, on  whose  removal  from  Greenfield  Mr.  Day 
was  invited  to  take  charge  of  the  school  in  that 
village,  which  had  flourished  so  greatly  under 
the  care  of  the  former.  This  invitation  he  ac- 
cepted, and  continued  there  for  a  year,  when  he 
was  elected  a  tutor  in  "Williams  college,  where 
he  remained  till  he  was  chosen  tutor  in  Yale 
college,  in  1798.  Having  early  made  choice  of 
the  profession  of  theology,  while  acting  as  tutor 
he  began  to  preach  as  a  candidate  for  the  minis- 
try ;  but  before  taking  charge  of  any  parish,  he 
was,  in  1801,  elected  to  the  professorship  of  ma- 
themathics  and  natural  philosophy  in  Yale  col- 
lege. His  health,  however,  still  being  feeble,  he 
was  not  able  to  enter  on  its  duties  till  1803  ;  but 
after  that  continued  in  them  till  1817,  when,  on 
the  death  of  Di*.  Dwight,  he  was  elected  his 
successor  in  the  presidency.  In  July  of  the 
same  year  he  was  formally  inaugurated,  and  on 
the  same  day  was  ordained  as  a  minister  of  the 
gospel.  In  1817  he  received  the  degree  of 
LL.D.  from  Middlebury  college,  and  in  1818 
the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Union  college,  and  the 
latter  also  from  Harvard  college  in  1831.  He 
continued  in  the  presidency  of  Yale  college  till 
1846,  when,  on  account  of  feeble  health,  he  re- 
signed ;  and  though  that  venerable  institution 


DAT 


295 


has  been  deemed  peculiarly  fortunate  in  its  pres- 
idents, it  may  with  truth  he  said  that  it  has 
at  no  time  been  more  prosperous  tliau  under  tlio 
presidency  of  Dr.  Day.  His  learning  and  tal- 
ent, united  to  great  kindness  of  heart,  sound- 
ness of  judgment,  and  urbanity  of  manner,  se- 
cured alike  the  respect  and  love  of  his  thou- 
sands of  pnpils,  all  of  whoni  looked  upon  him 
more  as  a  father  and  friend  than  as  a  mere 
teacher  and  guide  in  the  ways  of  knowledge. 
Dr.  Day  has  always  been  distinguished  as  a 
mathematician,  and  as  a  close  and  vigorous 
thinker  on  all  subjects  to  which  he  turned  his 
attention.  His  well-known  "Algebra,"  first 
published  in  1814,  has  passed  through  numer- 
ous editions;  and  a  new  and  much  improved 
and  extended  edition  of  it  was  issued  in  1852, 
by  the  joint  labors  of  himself  and  Prof.  Stanley. 
Uis  \tork  on  the  "  Mensuration  of  Superficies 
and  Solids"  was  published  in  1814,  his  "Plane 
Trigonometry"  in  1815,  and  his  "Navigation 
and  Surveying  "  in  1817.  These  works,  like  his 
"  Algebra,"  have  gone  through  numerous  edi- 
tions, and  are  adopted  extensively  as  standard 
works  in  the  colleges  and  seminaries  of  the 
land.  In  1838  Dr.  Day  puldished  an  "  Inquiry 
on  the  Self-Determining  Power  of  the  "Will,  or 
Contingent  Volition,"  and  a  second  edition  of  the 
same  in  1849.  In  1841  he  published  an  "Ex- 
amination of  President  Edwards's  Inquiry  as  to 
the  Freedom  of  the  Will."  He  has  also  publish- 
ed a  number  of  occasional  sermons,  and  con- 
tributed papers  to  the  "Journal  of  Science," 
the  "  New  Englander,"  &c.  He  still  lives  in 
New  Haven,  in  the  possession  of  all  his  faculties, 
and  the  enjoyment  of  a  ripe  old  age,  respect- 
ed and  esteemed  by  the  entire  community,  as 
well  as  by  thousands  in  every  part  of  the  land 
whom  he  has  aided  in  training  for  respectability 
and  usefulness. 

DAY,  John,  an  English  printer,  born  at  Dun- 
wich,  in  Sufiblk,  in  1522,  died  July  23,  1584. 
He  improved  the  Greek  types  then  in  use,  was 
the  first  who  printed  in  Saxon  characters  in 
England,  and  was  4  times  elected  warden  of  the 
stationers'  company,  and  in  1580  master  of  the 
same.  In  1544  he  carried  on  printing  in  Lon- 
don, a  little  above  Holborn  conduit,  in  partner- 
ship with  "William  Seres.  In  1549  he  removed 
to  Aldersgate  street,  near  St.  Anne's  church. 
Beside  this  printing  oflQce,  he  kept  several  shops 
where  his  books  were  sold.  In  15G2  he  print- 
ed the  first  edition  of  John  Fox's  "  Acts  and 
Monuments,"  with  cuts  representing  the  exe- 
cution of  Uuss,  Cobham,  Tyndal,  Lambert,  and 
other  martyrs.  Of  this  work  no  perfect  copy 
is  known  to  exist.  His  publications  materially 
aided  the  reformation. — Of  his  13  children,  John, 
born  in  1566,  died  in  1627,  at  Thurlow,  in 
Suffolk,  became  a  popular  preacher ;  and  Eion- 
ARD,  who  officiated  for  some  time  as  minister  at 
Ryegate,  in  Surrey,  translated  into  English  the 
De  Ghristo  Triumphante  Comcedia  of  Fox,  and 
followed  afterward  his  father's  business  as  print- 
er, which  for  many  years  he  carried  on  in  the 
Bame  place. 


DAY,  MAm.ON,  a  publisher  of  New  York, 
horn  in  Morristown,  N.  J.,  Aug.  27,  1790,  lost  on 
board  the  steamer  Arctic,  Sci)t.  20,  1854.  Ho 
was  a  member  of  the  society  of  Friends,  com- 
menced his  career  in  New  York  as  a  journeyman 
printer,  but  soon  accumulated  from  his  savings 
enough  to  embark  in  business  on  his  own  account, 
in  which  ho  took  up  a  department  i)reviously 
neglected,  that  of  the  publication  of  story  books 
and  toy  books  for  children.  He  also  commenced 
and  published  as  long  as  he  continued  in  business 
"  Day's  Bank  Note  List  and  Counterfeit  Detect- 
or." This  was  the  first  periodical  of  the  kind 
issued,  and  in  the  multiplication  of  banks  became 
important  and  indeed  necessary  to  the  business 
community.  The  profits  of  this  enterprise  en- 
abled Mr.  Day  to  retire  from  business,  and  the 
last  15  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  charitable 
and  public-spirited  labors.  He  was  a  manager 
of  the  house  of  refuge,  of  the  public  school 
society,  of  the  institution  for  the  blind,  and  of 
other  similar  institutions. 

DAY,  Stephen,  the  first  printer  in  New  Eng- 
land, born  in  England  in  1611,  died  iu  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  Dec.  22,  1668.  He  came  to  this 
country  in  1638,  and  commenced  printing  at 
Cambridge,  by  direction  of  the  magistrates  and 
elders,  in  1639.  The  first  thing  printed  was  the 
"  Freeman's  Oath,"  in  1639  ;  next  in  the  same 
year  an  almanac,  made  by  "Wm.  Pierce,  mariner ; 
then  the  Psalms,  "  newly  turned  into  metre,"  in 
1640.  He  also  printed  a  catechism ;  "Body  of 
Liberties,"  100  laws,  in  1641;  and  a  second 
edition  of  the  Psalms,  1647.  From  his  extant 
works  we  are  able  to  say  that  he  was  not  a  skil- 
ful printer.  The  printing  house  was  taken  from 
him  about  1648,  and  put  into  the  hands  of  Sam- 
uel Green. 

DAY,  Thomas,  an  English  author  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  London  in  1748,  died  Sept.  28, 
1789.  His  father,  a  collector  of  the  customs, 
died  when  Thomas  was  a  year  old,  leaving  him 
an  ample* fortune.  He  was  educated  at  the  char- 
terhouse, and  at  Corpus  Christi  college,  Oxford, 
which  he  left  after  3  years'  study,  without  taking 
a  degree.  He  at  once  began  his  romantic  and 
benevolent  course  of  life,  residing  successively 
in  difl:erent  parts  of  the  continent,  making  him- 
self familiar  with  the  mental  and  physical  wants 
of  the  lower  classes  of  society,  and  alleviating 
them  to  the  extent  of  his  power.  The  distresses 
which  he  witnessed  caused  him  temporary  mel- 
ancholy and  lasting  indignation  against  certain 
criminal  noblemen,  one  of  whom  he  vainly  chal- 
lenged to  single  combat.  "With  peculiar  views 
of  education,  he  selected  from  the  foundling 
hospital  at  Shrewsbury  2  girls  12  years  of  age, 
designing  to  educate  them  after  the  principlea 
of  Eousseau,  and  ultimately  to  marry  one  of 
them.  His  expectations,  however,  were  not 
realized,  and  he  gave  portions  to  his  i^roteg'ees 
on  their  marriage  with  persons  of  their  choice. 
In  1778  he  married  a  lady  of  Yorkshire,  having 
opinions  and  a  fortune  like  his  own,  and  retired 
to  his  estates  in  Essex  and  Surrey,  where  he 
took  an  active  part  in  public  meetings  as  an  ad- 


296 


DAYS  OF  GRACE 


DAYTON 


vocate  of  American  independence  and  parliamen- 
tary reform.  IIo  published  several  poems  and 
pamphlets  against  slavery  and  the  slave  trade, 
and  on  other  political  questions.  The  work  to 
which  he  owes  his  celebrity  is  the  "  History  of 
Sandford  and  Merton"  (3  vols.,  l783-'89),  one 
of  the  most  popular  of  the  books  designed  for 
the  information  of  youth,  written  with  freshness 
and  vigor,  and  inculcating  the  virtues  and  dis- 
interested philanthropy  which  characterized  its 
author.  It  was  followed  by  a  shorter  work  of 
fiction,  entitled  the  "  History  of  Little  Jack." 
Day  met  his  death  by  a  kick  from  a  young  horse, 
which  he  was  training  on  a  new  principle ;  and 
his  wife  was  so  afflicted  by  the  intelligence  that 
she  never  again  left  her  darkened  chamber, 
though  she  survived  him  2  years. 

DAYS  OF  GRACE,  in  commerce,  a  certain 
number  of  days  after  the  time  specified  by  a  note 
or  bill  of  exchange,  allowed  for  the  payment  of 
the  note  or  bill.  Though  formerly  gratuitously 
granted,  they  may  now,  in  accordance  with  cus- 
tom sanctioned  by  the  courts,  be  demanded. 
The  days  of  grace  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  are  3,  but  their  number  is  larger 
in  most  continental  European  countries. 

DAYTON",  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Montgom- 
ery CO.,  Ohio,  at  the  confluence  of  Mad  and  Great 
Miami  rivers,  66  m.  W.  S.  W.  from  Columbus ; 
pop.  in  1840,  6,067 ;  in  1^0,  10,976 ;  in  1853, 
16,562.  It  is  a  place  of  great  industrial  ac- 
tivity, and  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
interior  cities  of  the  United  States.  It  is  regu- 
larly laid  out  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Great 
Miami,  with  streets  100  feet  wide,  crossing 
each  other  at  right  angles,  lighted  with  gas, 
and  lined  with  tasteful  private  residences,  sur- 
rounded by  fine  gardens.  The  public  build- 
ings display  a  magnificence  rarely  equalled  in 
commercial  cities  of  such  rapid  growth.  The 
county  court  house,  planned  after  the  model  of 
the  Parthenon,  is  an  imposing  edifice,  127  feet 
long  by  62  feet  wide,  of  coarse  but  compact 
white  marble,  quarried  in  the  neighborhood. 
The  roof  is  of  stone,  the  doors  are  of  solid  iron, 
and  the  cost  of  the  whole  was  somewhat  over 
$100,000.  There  are  2  market  houses,  one  of 
which,  400  feet  long,  and  paved  with  blocks  of 
limestone,  has  accommodations  for  a  city  hall 
and  council  chamber  in  the  second  story.  The 
churches  are  17  in  number,  viz. :  1  Albright's, 
2  Baptist,  1  Dunkers',  1  Disciples',  2,  Epis- 
copal, 1  German  Reformed,  2  Lutheran,  2  Me- 
thodist, 1  New  Light,  2  Presbyterian,  and  2 
Roman  Catholic.  The  last  named  church  has 
an  orphan  asylum  and  2  female  academies, 
one  conducted  by  sisters  of  charity,  and  the 
other  by  sisters  of  Notre  Dame.  There  are 
5  public  common  schools,  1  high  school,  sev- 
eral private  seminaries,  a  large  seminary  called 
the  Cooper  female  academy,  a  prosperous  li- 
brary association  and  lyceum,  and  a  mechanics' 
benevolent  society.  The  newspaper  press  com- 
prises 4  daily  and  6  weekly  publications.  There 
are  2  private  banking  houses,  a  chartered  bank 
with  a  capital  of  $100,000,  and  a  branch  of  the 


etate  bank  of  Ohio.  There  is  an  immense  water 
power  within  the  city  limits,  a  great  part  of 
which  is  obtained  from  a  hydraulic  canal,  built 
by  a  company  in  1845,  and  drawing  its  supply 
from  a  point  on  the  Mad  river  4  m.  above  Day- 
ton. The  power  thus  obtained  is  leased  to  man- 
ufacturers, and  the  surplus  ultimately  finds  its 
way  to  the  Miami.  A  furtiicr  increase  of  water 
power  by  means  of  a  canal  from  the  Miami  has 
been  projected.  The  city  contains  2  flour  mills, 
4  saw  mills,  2  paper  miUs,  3  cotton  factories,  2 
woollen  factories,  3  iron  founderies,  5  machine 
shops,  6  large  breweries,  4  manufactories  of 
agricultural  implements,  the  value  of  whose 
products  in  1858  was  $385,000,  5  oil  mills, 
using  annually  180,000  barrels  of  flaxseed,  and 
manufactories  of  railroad  cars,  gun-barrels,  pegs 
and  lasts,  hollow  ware,  &c.  The  car  factories 
are  on  a  large  scale ;  the  paper  mills  supply  a 
considerable  part  of  the  "West ;  the  value  of  iron 
cast  is  about  $500,000  per  annum ;  and  the 
amount  of  superfine  flour  manufactured  is  about 
125,000  barrels  a  year.  The  assessed  value  of 
property  in  1853  was  $5,309,928.  The  Miami 
canal,  opened  in  1829,  connects  Dayton  with 
Lake  Erie,  and  the  following  railroads  give  it 
intercourse  with  all  parts  of  the  Union :  the  Mad 
river  and  Lake  Erie,  154  m,  long,  terminating 
at  Sandusky ;  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton,  and 
Dayton,  60  m.  long ;  the  Dayton  and  "Western, 
108  m.  long,  and  terminating  at  Indianapolis; 
the  Dayton  and  Michigan,  72  m.  long,  completed 
as  far  as  Lima ;  the  Dayt;on  and  Cincinnati 
short  line;  the  Dayton,  Xenia,  and  Belpre,  to 
Xenia;  and  the  Greenville  and  Miami,  47  m. 
long,  to  Union.  Dayton  was  laid  out  in  1799, 
and  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1805,  but  untU 
the  opening  of  the  Miami  caual  it  made  little 
progress.  It  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1841. 
It  is  divided  into  0  wards,  and  is  governed  by  a 
single  board  of  12  councillors. 

DAYTON,  a  post  village  of  Marengo  co., 
Ala.,  76  m.  S.  ^V.  from  Tuscaloosa.  It  is  a  pleas- 
ant and  prosperous  place,  situated  in  a  healthy 
country,  near  a  fertile  cotton-growing  region 
called  the  "  Oanebrake."  It  is  inhabited  in  part 
by  wealthy  planters,  whose  estates  lie  in  the 
vicinity,  and  is  better  known  as  a  quiet  retreat, 
with  good  society,  and  some  facilities  for  educa- 
tion, than  as  a  manufacturing  or  commercial 
village. 

DAYTON,  Elias,  an  officer  in  the  American 
revolution,  born  at  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.,  in  1737, 
died  there  in  1 807.  He  commenced  his  military 
career  in  1760,  when  he  joined  the  British  forces 
which  were  employed  in  completing  the  con- 
quest of  Canada  from  the  French ;  and  he  sub- 
sequently commanded  a  company  of  militia,  with 
which  he  marched  on  an  expedition  against  the 
northern  Indians.  It  is  probable  that  this  corps 
was  a  portion  of  the  original  "  Jersey  blues." 
At  the  commencement  of  hostilities  between  the 
mother  country  and  the  colonies,  he  was  appoint- 
ed a  member  of  the  committee  of  safety  for  Eliza- 
bethtown ;  and  in  1776  he  was  commissioned  as 
colonel  of  one  of  the  Jersey  regiments,  in  which 


DAYTOI?' 


DEACONESS 


297 


capacity  he  served  till  1783,  when  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  command  of  the  Jersey  brigade. 
In  June,  1776,  soon  after  the  battle  of  Bunker 
hill,  he  sij2:nalized  himself  by  the  capture  of  a 
British  transport  off  the  coast  of  New  Jersey, 
which  surrendered  to  an  expedition  of  armed 
boats  under  his  command  in  conjunction  with 
Lord  Stirling.  He  was  in  active  service  dur- 
ing the  whole  war,  and  took  part  in  the  battles 
of  Springfield,  Monmouth,  Brandywine,  Ger- 
mantown,  and  Yorktown.  He  had  3  horses 
shot  under  Ijim,  one  at  Springfield,  one  at  Ger- 
mantown,  and  one  at  Crosswick's  Bridge.  Af- 
ter the  war  he  served  several  terms  in  the 
legislature  of  his  native  state.  During  the  life 
of  Washington  he  was  on  terms  of  intimacy 
with  that  illustrious  man,  by  whom  he  was 
treated  with  distinguished  confidence.  Upon 
the  formation  of  the  New  Jersey  society  of  the 
Cincinnati,  Gen.  Dayton  was  chosen  its  presi- 
dent, and  held  that  olfice  until  his  death. 

DAYTON,  Jonathan,  LL.D.,  an  American 
statesman,  born  at  Elizabetlitown,  N.  J.,  Oct. 
IG,  1760,  died  there,  Oct.  9,  1824.  At  the  age 
of  16  he  was  graduated  at  the  college  of  New 
Jersey,  and  2  years  afterward,  in  l778,  he  en- 
tered the  army  as  a  paymaster.  He  held  several 
commissions  at  different  periods  of  the  war,  and 
after  the  peace  of  1783  he  was  elected  to  the 
legislature  of  his  native  state,  and  was  chosen 
speaker  of  the  house  in  1790,  In  June,  1787,ho 
was  appointed  one  of  the  delegates  from  New 
Jersey  to  the  convention  at  Philadelphia  for 
the  purpose  of  framing  the  federal  constitution. 
In  1791  ho  was  elected  by  the  federal  party  a 
representative  in  congress,  in  which  capacity  he 
served  for  3  successive  terms,  during  the  last 
2  of  which  he  was  speaker  of  the  house.  In 
1799  he  was  elected  to  the  U.  S,  senate.  When 
there  were  apprehensions  of  a  war  with  France, 
President  xVdams  sent  huu  a  commission  as  brig- 
adier-general, which  was  at  first  declined ;  but 
upon  being  informed  that  its  acceptance  would 
not  vacate  his  seat  in  the  senate,  he  consented 
to  retain  it.  He  afterward  served  several  terms 
in  the  council,  as  the  superior  branch  of  the  New 
Jersey  legislature  was  formerly  termed.  Among 
other  incidents  of  his  somewhat  eventful  life,  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  he  was  arrested  for  alleg- 
ed complicity  with  Aaron  Burr  in  his  conspiracy, 
but  no  further  proceedings  were  had  in  the  case. 

DAYTON,  William  Lewis,  an  American 
jurist  and  statesman,  born  at  Baskingridge,  N. 
J.,  Feb.  17,  1807.  He  is  the  son  of  Joel  Day- 
ton, a  farmer,  and  was  graduated  at  the  college 
of  New  Jersey  in  Sept.  1825  ;  commenced  soon 
afterward  the  study  of  the  law,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  of  his  native  state  in  May, 
1830.  In  1837  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
council,  or  senate,  as  it  is  now  called,  and  was 
made  chairman  .of  the  judiciary  committee. 
On  Feb.  28,  1838,  he  was  chosen  by  the  legis- 
lature as  one  of  the  associate  justices  of  the  su- 
preme court  of  New  Jersey,  which  position  he 
resigned  in  Nov.  1841;  and  on  the  decease  of 
the  Hon.  Samuel  L,  Southard,  a  U.  S.  senator, 


in  1842,  ho  was  appointed  by  the  governor  to 
fill  the  vacancy  so  caused.  In  March,  1845,  hia 
appointment  was  confirmed  by  the  legislature, 
and  he  was  also  elected  for  a  full  term  of  6 
years.  Ho  served  in  the  senate  from  July  6, 
1842,  to  March  4,  1851,  As  a  member  of  tho 
senate  ho  was  what  might  be  called  a  free-soil 
whig  ;  he  maintained  to  the  fullest  extent  the 
right  of  congress  to  legislate  Avith  respect  to 
slavery  in  the  territories  of  the  United  States, 
on  which  subject  he  expressed  his  views  in  a 
speech  on  tlie  treaty  with  Mexico  in  1847,  He 
was  an  intimate  and  influential  adviser  of  Pres- 
ident Taylor,  the  policy  of  whose  administra- 
tion he  warmly  supported.  He  advocated  the 
admission  of  California  into  the  Union  as  a  free 
state,  was  in  favor  of  the  abolition  of  the  slave 
trade  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  voted 
against  the  fugitive  slave  bill.  At  the  expira- 
tion of  his  term  the  democratic  party  was  in 
the  ascendency  in  the  New  Jersey  legislature, 
and  they  chose  Commodore  Robert  F.  Stockton 
as  his  successor.  Mr.  Dayton  now  resumed  the 
practice  of  his  profession  at  Trenton;  and  in 
1856  he  was  nominated  by  the  republican  na- 
tional convention  as  their  candidate  for  the  vice- 
presidency  of  the  United  States,  with  Col.  Fre- 
mont as  the  candidate  for  president.  In  March, 
1857,  he  was  appointed  attorney-general  of  the 
state  of  New  Jersey,  which  office  he  still  holds. 

DEACON  (Gr.  diuKovos,  minister,  servant), 
an  inferior  minister  of  the  Christian  church. 
The  apostles  appointed  7  deacons  (Acts  vi.), 
■whose  duty  it  was  to  superintend  the  temporal 
concerns  of  the  church,  and  to  distribute  alms 
from  the  common  fund.  Their  functions  were 
subsequently  enlarged,  and  in  the  Eoman  Cath- 
olic church  the  deaconship  is  a  major  order, 
ranking  next  below  the  priesthood.  The  deacon 
assists  the  priest  in  the  celebration  of  mass,  dur- 
ing which  he  wears  a  vestment  with  slit  sleeves 
called  a  dalmatica,  and  with  permission  of  the 
bishop  Aay  preach  and  baptize.  He  must  have 
entered  his  23d  year  before  being  ordained,  and 
is  bound  to  celibacy.  In  the  church  of  England 
he  occupies  a  somewhat  similar  position,  being 
allowed  to  exercise  all  priestly  functions  except 
consecrating  the  eucharist  and  pronouncing 
absolution.  He  may  administer  the  wine  at 
communion,  and  oflficiate  as  lecturer,  curate,  or 
private  chaplain,  but  is  incapable  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal preferment.  The  Presbyterians  and  Inde- 
pendents give  this  name  to  officers  elected  by 
the  church  members  to  distribute  the  bread  and 
wine  to  communicants;  the  German  Protest- 
ants apply  it  to  assistant  ministers ;  and  in  Scot- 
land it  is  the  title  of  overseers  of  the  poor,  and 
presidents  of  incorporated  companies, 

DEACONESS,  a  name  given  to  those  females 
in  the  early  church  who  were  consecrated  to  the 
service  of  the  sanctuary,  and  performed  for  wo- 
men the  offices  Avhich  deacons  filled  for  men. 
They  had  care  of  the  sick  and  poor  of  their  own 
sex.  The  order  has  been  abolished  in  the  Latin 
church  since  the  11th  century,  and  in  the  Greek 
church  since  the  12th  century. 


298 


DEAD  PwECKONING 


DEAD  SEA 


DEAD  RECKONING,  in  navigation,  the  esti- 
mation that  is  made  of  the  place  of  a  ship  with- 
out any  observation  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  The 
data  for  the  reckoning  are  the  distance  the  ship 
has  run  by  the  log,  and  the  course  she  has  taken 
by  tlie  compass ;  and  the  result  has  to  be  recti- 
fied by  due  allowances  for  drift,  leeway,  &c. 
This  r.eckoning  should  be  corrected  upon  the  first 
opportunity  for  an  observation  of  the  sun. 

DEAD  SEA,  called  by  the  Latin  geographers 
Zacns  Asphaltitcs,  and  by  the  Arabs  JJirket  or 
JBahr  Loot,  sea  of  Lot.  It  is  also  known  as  the 
sea  of  Sodom,  and  in  the  Scriptures  is  spoken  of 
as  the  Salt  sea,  sea  of  the  Plain,  and  Eastern  sea. 
Its  position  is  about  25  in.  to  the  e.ast  of  Jerusa- 
lem, between  the  mountains  of  Moab  on  the  east 
and  those  of  Hebron  on  the  west.  The  locality 
is  that  of  the  ancient  vale  of  Siddim,  which 
Lot  selected  when  he  parted  from  Abraham, 
and  which  was  then  an  attractive  region,  wa- 
tered by  the  Jordan,  and  containing  the  cities 
of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  Even  at  that  early 
period  the  district  was  probably  of  peculiar  geo- 
logical character,  the  vale  being  described  as 
"  full  of  slime  pits  "  (Gen.  xiv.  10).  The  catas- 
trophe w^hich  resulted  in  the  destruction  of 
these  cities,  and  in  the  formation  of  the  sea,  is 
computed  to  have  occurred  about  1900  years  be- 
fore the  Christian  era.  By  earthquake,  accom- 
panying volcanic  action  (Gen.  xix.  28),  the  valley 
appears  to  have  sunk  to  a  great  depth,  and  the 
waters  of  the  Jordan  flowing  in  produced  this 
sea,  which  was  made  intensely  salt  by  the  saline 
strata  exposed  to  their  action.  On  its  south- 
west side  is  a  mountain  retaining  the  name  of 
Sodom,  or  Oosdoom,  containing  strata  of  salt, 
out  from  which  stands  a  lofty  pillar  of  the  same 
material,  observed  by  Lieut.  Lynch,  of  the  U.  S. 
navy,  which  is  probably  what  travellers  often 
describe  by  the  name  of  Lot's  wife.  Josephus 
speaks  of  a  similar  pillar,  perhaps  the  same,  which 
he  himself  saw,  and  believed  to  bo  that  into 
which  Lot's  wife  was  transformed.  Clement  of 
Rome  and  Irenteus  also  make  mention  of  the 
same.  It  is  about  40  feet  high,  standing  upon  an 
oval  pedestal,  the  top  of  which  is  40  or  50  feet 
above  the  water.  The  pillar  of  salt  is  capped  by 
limestone.  Bitumen  or  asphaltum,  from  which 
the  sea  receives  one  of  its  names,  is  found  along 
the  shores  of  the  lake,  and  during  some  recent 
earthquakes,  to  which  the  region  is  still  sub- 
ject, it  was  thrown  up  in  large  quantities  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  sea.  The  hardened 
lumps  of  it  are  worked  into  rosaries  at  Jerusa- 
lem. From  its  abundance  in  this  i-egion  it  is 
often  called  Jews'  pitch.  Pieces  of  sulphur  are 
met  with  upon  the  shores,  and  sulphurous  ex- 
halations are  perceived  arising  from  the  ground. 
The  banks  are  slippery,  with  a  slimy  mud,  into 
which  the  foot  sinks  deep,  and  the  tracks  thus 
left  are  soon  lined  with  incrustations  of  salt.  A 
similar  mud  covers  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  bottom,  and  Avhen  brouglit  up  in  sounding, 
crystals  of  salt  are  found  sticking  to  it,  thus  in- 
dicating a  full  saturation  of  the  saline  mixture. 
But  a  portion  of  the  bottom  is  rough  and  rocky, 


and  sn'bjoct  to  sudden  and  great  _  changes  of 
depth.  This  feature,  in  connection  with  tlie  pieces 
of  lava  occasionally  found,  seems  to  indicate  a 
formation  due  to  volcanic  agency,  such  as  is 
produced  in  other  regions  where  "  the  smoke  of 
the  country  is  seen  to  go  up  as  the  smoke  of  a 
furnace."  The  water  is  dense  and  bitter  with 
its  heavy  charge  of  salt,  so  that  bodies  float  in  it 
with  much  greater  buoyancy  than  in  other  seas. 
In  bathing,  one  experiences  difliculty  in  keeping 
the  feet  down,  and  a  man  may  float  in  it  breast 
high  without  exertion.  The  southern  part  of 
the  lake  is  shallow,  giving  an  average  depth 
of  only  13  feet;  but  the  northern  portion,  as 
sounded  by  Lieut.  Lynch  and  others,  is  found  to 
reach  a  maximum  depth  of  more  than  1,300 
feet.  The  dimensions  as  given  by  him  are  43 
m.  from  north  to  south,  and  the  greatest  width 
nearly  10  m.  A  remarkable  feature  in  the  lake 
is  its  great  depression  below  the  level  of  the  Med- 
iterranean. By  the  levelling  conducted  by  Lieut. 
Syraonds  of  the  royal  engineers,  which  was 
confirmed  by  nearly  identical  results  afterward 
obtained  by  the  same  metliod  by  Lieut.  Lynch, 
the  difierence  of  level  of  the  two  surfaces  is 
1312.2  feet.  This  depression,  which  is  the  deep- 
est of  the  kind  known  upon  the  face  of  the  earth, 
extends  up  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  toward  the 
north  to  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  which  is  only  984 
feet  higher  than  the  Dead  sea.  The  stream  of 
the  Jordan  is  consequently  entirely  below  the 
flow  of  all  other  rivers,  and  even  far  below  the 
level  of  the  sea.  Yet  its  swift  current,  often 
rushing  on  in  rapids  dangerous  to  navigate,  even 
with  the  iron  boats  of  the  expedition  under  Lieut. 
Lynch,  pours  a  large  volume  of  water  into  the 
deep  basin,  from  which  there  is  no  outlet.  Dur- 
ing the  rainy  season  the  influx  is  so  great  from 
this  and  other  streams,  that  the  level  of  the  sea 
is  raised  10  or  15  feet,  and  its  dimensions  ex- 
tend, especially  in  a  southern  direction,  over  the 
low  flats,  far  beyond  the  ordinary  margin  of  the 
waters.  But  in  the  burning  heat  of  the  dry 
season,  when  the  beach  becomes  so  hot  as  to 
blister  the  feet,  and  the  water,  as  observed  by 
the  officers  of  the  expedition,  acquires  a  temper- 
ature of  90°  F.  a  foot  below  the  surface,  the 
evaporation  rapidly  carries  off"  the  excess  of 
water,  and  reduces  the  sea  to  its  lowest  level. 
The  vapors  are  seen  to  rise  in  columns,  resem- 
bling water  spouts,  but  far  exceeding  them  in 
size.  At  this  season  the  air  becomes  so  highly 
heated  in  the  deep  basin  between  the  precipitous 
mountains  which  enclose  it,  that  it  is  almost  irre- 
spirable,  and  the  thermometer  often  rises  to  106° 
or  more,  even  after  the  setting  of  the  sun.  At 
midnight  it  was  observed  to  be  98''.  Currents 
of  this  heated  air  are  set  in  motion,  and  sweep 
in  hurricanes  over  the  water.  As  described  by 
the  U.  S.  otficers,  the  hot  wind  blistered  the 
faces  of  the  men  exposed  to  it.  Every  metallic 
object  was  burning  hot ;  the  coolest  substances 
were  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  clothing.  If  a  popl 
of  fresh  water  were  found  to  bathe  in,  the  skin 
was  instantly  afterward  left  dry  and  parched. 
The  perspiration  disappeared  by  evaporation  as 


DEAD  SEA 


299 


rapidly  as  It  "wsig  produced.  Ii\  sncli  an  atmo- 
sphere, and  surrounded  in  tlie  intervals  of  the 
sweeping  wind  by  swarms  of  mosquitoes,  wliich 
tormented  the  men  abnost  to  madness,  they  cast 
themselves  upon  the  pebbly  l)each  and  souglit 
for  rest,  with  their  garments  wrapi)ed  around 
their  heads.  One  morning,  after  a  night  thus 
passed,  the  connnander  of  tlie  expedition  found 
a  young  quail  that  had  nestled  by  his  side, 
seeking  shelter  from  the  liot  blast  of  the  si- 
rocco. The  hills  upon  each  side  are  precipitous 
clifts  of  limestone  and  sandstone  in  horizontal 
strata.  On  the  east  they  are  rugged  moun- 
tains 2,000  to  2,500  feet  high,  traversed  by 
deep  chasms,  desolate  and  bare  of  vegetation. 
On  the  west  the  height  is  estimated  at  1,500 
feet ;  but  the  summit  level  upon  the  whole  is 
little  if  any  higher  than  the  surface  of  the 
Mediterranean.  Much  of  the  country  between 
the  two  seas  is  a  wilderness,  without  trees  or 
shrubs,  save  in  a  few  ravines  fed  by  small  water 
courses.  In  such  a  desolate  district  is  the  con- 
vent of  Mar  Saba,  so  near  the  Dead  sea  that 
the  sound  of  its  evening  bell  reaches  the  dreary 
solitudes  of  its  shores,  assuring  the  disheartened 
traveller  that  human  life  may  be  continued  in 
this  region  of  gloom  and  death.  Mr.  Oostigan, 
who  surveyed  the  sea  in  1835,  with  a  Maltese 
sailor  as  his  servant,  died  soon  after  completing 
its  tour.  Lieut.  Molyneux  of  the  royal  navy  ex- 
perienced the  same  fate  in  1847.  The  excessive 
heat  of  the  sun  was  no  doubt  the  direct  cause  of 
their  death.  Two  of  the  seamen  belonging  to  the 
American  expedition  were  sent  to  this  convent 
for  relief,  and  Lieut.  Dale,  the  2d  officer,  before 
the  party  left  the  country,  fell  a  Adctira  to  the 
fever  at  Beyroot,  where  Lieut.  Lynch  also,  and 
nearly  all  the  men  of  the  party,  were  attacked  by 
tlie  same  disease.  It  is  to  this  expedition,  de- 
spatched by  the  U.  S.  government  in  1847,  that 
we  are  indebted  for  most  of  our  exact  informa- 
tion relative  to  this  singular  spot ;  though  many 
other  travellers,  English,  French,  Russian,  and 
American,  also  have  been  led  by  its  ancient  celeb- 
rity and  mysterious  nature  to  venture  upon  its 
exploration,  and  their  accounts,  full  of  interest- 
ing particulars,  have  been  at  various  times  pre- 
sented to  the  public.  In  March,  1848,  the  Amer- 
ican party,  well  equipped,  passed  across,  with 
their  boats  drawn  on  trucks  by  camels,  from  the 
bay  of  Acre,  over  the  mountains  of  Lebanon, 
and  launched  them  in  the  lake  of  Gennesareth. 
Thence  they  descended  the  Jordan,  entering  the 
river  on  April  10,  and  passing  out  of  its  mouth 
into  the  Dead  sea  on  the  19th  of  the  same 
mouth.  Tlie  length  of  the  river  they  estimated  to 
be  at  least  200  m.,  though  in  a  direct  course  the 
two  lakes  are  only  about  60  m.  apart.  They 
spent  21  nights  upon  the  shores  of  the  Dead  sea, 
and  after  having  tliorouglily  explored  the  region, 
they  left  it  on  May  10,  sending  their  boats  across 
the  desert  to  Jerusalem.  Contrary  to  the  opin- 
ion generally  entertained  regarding  the  pesti- 
lential atmosphere  of  this  neighborhood,  they 
found  numerous  animals  living  upon  the  shores 
of  the  lake,  as  doves,  hawks,  partridges,  and 


hares,  and  also  ducks  swimming  upon  its  sur- 
face; and  a  curious  fact  regarding  the  birds,  in- 
sects, and  otlier  animals  here  met  with,  is  that 
they   are  all    of  a  stone  color,   described   as 
"  the   same  as  the  mountains  and  the  shore." 
"Whether  animal   life   exists  in  the  water  it- 
self is  not  so  certain,  tliough  some  authorities 
have  mentioned  tliat  living  shells  are  found  in 
the  sea,  and  one  small  species  of  fish  is  said  to  bo 
peculiar  to  it.   It  is  very  possible  that  the  shells 
may  have  been  swept  into  the  lake  from  tho 
Jordan  or  other  streams.     The  surface  was  in 
one  instance  at  night  observed  to  present  "  ono 
wide   sheet  of  phosphorescent  foam,  and  the 
waves,  as  they  broke  upon  the  shore,  threw  a 
sepulchral    light    upon   the   dead  bushes  and 
fragments  of  rocks."     This  is  probably  owing 
to  animalcules,  such  as  give  the  same  appearance 
to  the  ocean.     In  the  sample  of  water  brought 
back  by  the  party  no  vestige  of  animal  life  was 
detected ;  but  in  Jameson's  "Philosophical  Jour- 
nal "  of  Feb.  1850,  it  is  stated  that  Ehrenberg 
found  an  abundance  of  infusoria  of  brackish 
water  species  in  samples  of  the  water  and  sedi- 
ment brought  to  him  for  examination.     The 
want  of  vegetable  matter  for  food  must  neces- 
sarily to  a  great  extent  exclude  animal  life.     A 
few  plants  which  furnish  soda  in  their  ashes  are 
occasionally  found  upon  the  shore,  and  at  the 
foot  of  the  cliffs  is  noticed  a  scanty  vegetation 
of  cane  and  of  the  tamarisk  shrub,  their  foliage 
sometimes  of  a  light  green  and  sometimes  of  a 
yellow  hue,  stained  by  the  exhalations  of  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen ;  but  the  few  bushes  to  be 
seen  often  present  their  branches  leafless  and 
incrusted   with  salt,   and  the  trunks  of  dead 
trees  scattered  here  and  there  add  to  the  des- 
olation of  the  scene. — Various  analyses  have 
been  made  by  eminent  chemists  of  the  water 
taken  from  the  lake,  the  results  of  which  differ, 
in  consequence,  no  doubt,  of  the  diiferent  sea- 
sons of  the  year  and  portions  of  the  lake  at 
Avhich  the  samples  were  taken,  and  also  of  the 
diiferent  methods  of  conducting  the   analyses. 
The  specific  gravity,  as  stated  by  Lavoisier,  is 
1.240;  by  Klaproth,  1.24 ;  by  Marcet,  1.211 ;  by 
Gmehn,  1.212 ;  by  Apjohn,  1.153 ;  by  Salisbury, 
1.1877  ;  and  by  Lynch,  1.13.     The  constituents 
are  thus  given  by  different  authorities  : 


Subilonces. 

Pogg.  Ann. 

Booth  & 

Muckle,   depth 

1,U0  ft. 

(>!iith, 
1563.* 

Chloride  of  potassium.. 

"          sodium 

"          calcium 

•          magnesium. 

Bromide  of  magnesium. 

Sulpliato  of  lime 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Hydrat.  sesquioxido  of 

1.393 

6.57S 

2.S94 

10.543 

0.251 

o.oss 
0.663 

0.659 

7.855 
8.108 
14.590 
Brom.  potAssm. 
0.137 
0.070 

1.00S7 

7.5S39 

2.S9SS 

10.1636 

0.5341 
0.0901 
0.0043 

O.OOST 

0.0113 

Nitrosenous     organic 

0.0052 

Solid  parts  in  100.... 

21.773 

26.419 

22.30S6 

*  Water  brought  by  Rer.  Prof.  Osborn ;  •p.  gr.  1.182*. 


300 

Tabub IL 

Subsloncei. 

Uoriftte  of  limo 

"        jnagnesia 

"        soda  

Balphate  of  lime 

Water 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


Klnproth. 


10.60 

24.20 

7.60 


The  first  of  the  above  analyses  is  given  in 
Poggeudorff 's  Annalen,  of  a  sample  of  the  water 
procured  from  the  north  end  of  the  sea,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Jordan. 

DExVF  ANi>  DUMB,  persons  who  can  neither 
hear  nor  speak.  That  such  have  existed  in  all 
ages  is  evident  from  the  not  infrequent  allusions 
to  them  both  in  sacred  and  profane  writings. 
The  idea  of  attempting  the  restoration  of  the 
lost  faculties,  or  of  repairing  the  loss  by  educa- 
tion, seems  never  to  have  occurred  to  the  an- 
cients. In  many  instances  the  authorities  con- 
nived at,  if  they  did  not  openly  approve  of,  the 
destruction  of  such  children,  who  it  was  thought 
could  be  of  no  benefit  to  the  state.  Among  the 
Hindoos,  in  the  "  Ordination  of  the  Pundits," 
or  code  of  Gentoo  laws,  it  was  decreed  that 
whoever  was  "  deaf  from  his  mother's  womb," 
or  whoever  was  dumb,  should  be  classed  among 
persons  incapable  of  inheritance.  But,  though 
excluded  from  inheriting,  they  were  not  left 
without  provision ;  for  tlie  person  who  supersed- 
ed them  in  the  inheritance  was  bound  to  sup- 
port them — in  the  language  of  the  ordinance,  to 
aJlow  them  clothes  and  victuals.  The  code  of 
Justinian,  promulgated  in  the  6th  century  A.  D., 
assumes  throughout  that  deaf  mutes  fi-om  birth 
are  incapable  of  managing  their  own  affairs; 
placing  them  in  this  respect  on  a  footing  with 
the  insane,  idiots,  and  those  suffering  from 
permanent  and  incurable  disease,  in  requiring 
guardianship.  The  same  code  also  provides 
that  they  should  only  buy  and  sell  by  the  aid 
of  a  curator  or  guardian ;  that  they  should  not 
have  the  power  of  altering  the  descent  of  prop- 
erty, or  of  making  a  gift,  even  with  the  as- 
sistance of  a  curator.  They  could  not  make  a 
will,  or  a  codicil,  or  create  a  trust  estate,  or 
make  a  donation  contingent  on  the  death  of  the 
donor,  or  emancipate  a  slave.  A  singular  pro- 
vision of  the  code  deserves  notice.  Justinian 
allows  to  those  who  are  deaf  from  birth,  but  yet 
able  to  speak,  the  privileges  of  which  deaf  mutes 
had  been  deprived.  Pliny,  more  than  400  years 
earlier,  had  said:  "  There  is  no  person  deaf  from 
birth  who  is  not  also  dumb."  The  feudal  gov- 
ernments of  western  Europe,  making  the  code 
of  Justinian  the  basis  of  their  laws,  placed  the 
deaf  mute  under  similar  disabilities.  Pitiable 
indeed  was  the  fate  of  these  children  of  silence 
during  the  long  ages  of  ignorance  and  darkness. 
If  the  advent  of  Christianity  had  prevented  their 
murder  as  useless  incumbrances  to  society,  they 
were  still  left  as  fit  companions  for  the  idiot  and 
the  maniac.  Without  instruction,  or  any  means 
of  acquiring  it,  they  knew  nothing  of  the  earth  on 


which  they  trod  or  the  heavens  above  them ;  if 
their  powers  of  imitation  enabled  tl  i  em  to  acquire 
some  facility  in  the  mechanic  arts,  this  might  suf- 
fice to  supply  the  craving  of  the  body  for  employ- 
ment, but  what  should  satisfy  the  longings  of  the 
restless  spirit  ?  Some  witli  outstretched  hands 
sought  the  alms  they  could  not  ask;  others, 
grovelling  in  indolence,  sank  to  the  level  of  the 
idiots  with  whom  alone  they  could  associate. 
Yet  even  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Christian  era 
there  were  not  wanting  those  who,  with  infi- 
nite pains,  sought  to  communicate  instruction  to 
tlie  deaf  mute,  although  the  law  had  pronounced 
him  incompetent  to  receive  it.  The  venerable 
Bede  relates  that,  in  690,  John,  bishop  of  Hagul- 
stad,  taught  a  deaf  mute  to  speak,  and  to  repeat 
after  him  words  and  sentences.  In  1442  Kodol- 
phusAgricola  of  Groningen,  in  his  Be  Inventione 
DialeciiccB,  speaks  of  having  seen  a  deaf  and 
dumb  person  who  had  learned  to  understand  and 
practise  writing.  About  1550,  Pedro  Ponce  de 
Leon  undertook,  and  with  considerable  success, 
the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  Spain. 
His  labors  seem  to  have  been  confined  mainly 
to  teaching  reading  and  articulation.  He  relatea, 
as  instances  of  the  successful  results  of  his  teach- 
ing, that  one  of  his  pupils  received  ordination  as 
a  priest,  and  performed  his  parish  duties  ac- 
ceptably, and  that  another  became  a  military 
oflicer  and  distinguished  himself  in  martial 
exercises.  In  1560  Joachim  Pascha,  chaplain 
of  the  elector  Joachim  II.  of  Brandenburg,  in- 
structed his  own  deaf-mute  daughter,  by  means 
of  pictures,  mimic  signs,  and  other  methods  of 
his  own  devi.sing.  Not  far  from  the  same  time 
Girolimo  Cardan,  the  eccentric  Italian  philoso- 
pher, detailed,  in  an  essay  which  he  published, 
the  principles  of  deaf-mute  instruction,  though  he 
never  reduced  them  to  practice.  In  1620,  about 
36  years  after  the  death  of  Ponce  de  Leon,  Juan 
Paulo  Bonet,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  Spain,  pub- 
lished a  treatise  entitled  Eeihiccion  de  las  le- 
tras  y  artes  para  enseflar  a  hahlnr  los  mudos 
("  Keduction  of  Letters  and  Arts  for  Teaching 
the  Dumb  to  Speak").  In  this  treatise  he  repre- 
sents himself  as  the  inventor  of  the  processes 
he  describes,  viz.,  mimic  signs,  dactylologj',  the 
oral  alphabet,  and  writing.  His  work  contains 
the  first  engraving  of  the  single-hand  alphabet, 
so  generally  in  use  throughout  Christendom, 
and  he  is  believed  to  have  been  its  inventor. 
In  Italy,  at  this  time,  a  number  of  eminent  phi- 
losophers were  turning  their  attention  to  the 
subject.  Aflinate  published  an  essay  about  the 
commencement  of  the  17th  century  on  teaching 
the  deaf  to  speak.  Giovanni  Bonifacio  wrote  a 
treatise  on  .the  language  of  action  in  1616;  Fa- 
brizio  di  Acquapendente  wrote  upon  the  phe- 
nomena of  vision,  voice,  and  hearing,  and  on 
speech  and  its  instruments.  In  1G29,  Ramirez 
de  Carion  instructed  the  prince  of  Carignan,  a 
deaf  mute.  Some  authorities  say  that  Ramirez 
himself  was  deaf  and  dumb,  but  had  acquired 
sufficient  education  to  be  capable  of  teaching 
others.  Some  few  years  later,  Pietro  di  Castro, 
chief  physician  to  the  duke  of  Mantua,  instruct* 


DEAP  AND  DUMB 


301 


ed  tliG  son  of  Thomas,  prince  of  Savoy,  who 
■was  a  deaf  mute.     Castro  died  in  1CG3.     In 
Holland,  Peter  Montanus  publislied  a  work  on 
the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  1035. 
In  1644,  John  Bulwcr,  a  philanthropic  English 
physician,  published  his  "  Cliirologia,  or  Natural 
Language  of  the  Hand,"  and  in  1G48,  "Philo- 
coi)hus,  or  the  Deafe  and  Dumbe  !Man's  Friend." 
In  the  latter  work  he  refers  to  the  account  he 
had  received  froni  his  friend  Sir  Kenelm  Digby 
of  Pedro  Ponce's  success  in  the  instruction  of 
the  deaf  and  dumb.     Camerarius  and  Gaspard 
Schott  had,  in  tlie  early  part  of  the  17th  century, 
published  works  in  Germany,  on  the  instruction 
of  the  deaf  and  dumb.     In   1G53,   Dr.  John 
"Wallis,  mathematical  professor  at  Oxford,  men- 
tions, in  tlie  preface  to  the  5th  edition  of  his 
Grammaticci  Linrjuca  Anglicano',  that  ho  had 
instructed  two  deaf  mutes  to  articulate  distinct- 
ly, adding  that  lie  had  also  taught  them  (an 
.entirely  different  matter,  he  observes)  to  under- 
stand the  meaning  of  language,  and  thus  to  use 
it  in  speaking,  reading,  and  writing.     The  num- 
ber of  pupils  under  his  care  was  never  large, 
but  he  seems  to  have  contmued  to  instruct  deaf 
mutes  for  nearly  half  a  century ;  for  in  1698  he 
was  still  engaged  in  the  business,  and  gave  a 
detail  of  the  plan  he  was  pursuing  in  a  letter  to 
Thomas  Beverley.    He  deserves  the  credit  of 
being  the  first  practical  instructor  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb  in  England;  and  in  a  paper  published 
in  the  "Philosophical  Transactions"  in  1670,  he 
distinctly  enunciates  the  fundamental  pi-inciple 
of  De  r£pee  and  Sicard,  that  we  may  form  con- 
ceptions in  written  as  well  as  in  spoken  language, 
and  states  that  in  the  Avork  of  deaf-mute  in- 
struction he  proceeded  from  certain  actions  and 
gestures,  which  have  a  natural  signification,  to 
convey  ideas  not  already  understood.     The  pri- 
ority of  his  invention  was  disputed  by  Dr.  Wil- 
liam Holder,  rector  of  Bletchington,  who  as- 
serted that  he  had,  in  the  first  instance,  taught 
Popham,  one  of  Dr.  "VTallis's  pupils,  to  speak. 
Dr.  Holder  published  in  1669  "Elements  of 
Speech,  with  an  Apjjendix  concerning  Persona 
Deaf  and  Dumb."     In  1670,  George  Sibscota 
published  a  little  work  entitled  the  "  Deaf  and 
Dumb  Man's  Discourse."     The  work  is  mainly 
theoretical,  and  he,  like  "Wallis  and  Bulwer,  had 
derived  most  of  his  ideas  indirectly  from  Pedro 
Ponce.    The  same  year  the  Padre  Lana-Terzi, 
a  Jesuit  of  Brescia,  published  a  treatise  on  the 
education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the  blind. 
In  1680,  George  Dalgarno,   a  Scotchman,  but 
then  the  preceptor  of  a  grammar  school  at  Ox- 
ford, published   a  work  called  "  Didascaloco- 
phus,  or  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  Man's  Tutor,"  in 
which  he  expresses  a  preference  for  written 
language  and  a  manual  alphabet  over  articula- 
tion and  reading  from  the  lip.     He  Avas  the  in- 
ventor of   the  two-handed  alphabet  now   in 
general  use  in  Great  Britain.     The  "  Didasca- 
locophus"  was  republished  in  the  "  American 
Annals  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb"  for  Jan.  1857. 
The  editor.  Prof.  Porter,  remarks  of  it:  "It  is 
a  work  of  such  preeminent  ability,  and  so  re- 


plete with  sound  principles  and  important  sug- 
gestions of  practical  value,  that  it  ought  to  be 
familiarly  known  to  every  instructor."    In  1690, 
John  Conrad  Amman,  a  Swiss  physician,  resid- 
ing at  Haarlem,  undertook  the  instruction  of  a 
girl  deaf  and  dumb  from  birth.     His  methods 
were    founded  on    articulation.      His  success 
was  decisive ;  but  it  was  not  until  his  essay 
giving  an   account  of  his  jirocesses,  and  en- 
titled   Surdus  Loquens  (tlie  "  Speaking  Deaf 
Man"),  was  passing  through   the   j^ress,   that 
he  learned  what  others  had  done  in  this  field, 
and  commenced  a  correspondence  with  Wallis. 
He  subsequently  published    an  enlarged   edi- 
tion of  his  treatise,  under  the  title  of  Dlsser- 
tatio  de  Loquela.     In  1679  a  deaf  mute  from 
birth  in  France,  named  Guibal,  made  his  will  in 
writing ;  it  is  not  known  who  was  his  instruct- 
or.   In  1607  F.  M.  Van  Helmont  published  a 
small  tract  in  Holland,  entitled  Alphaietum 
Naturce,  in  which  he  explained  the  process  of 
reading  on  the  lip,  or  learning  what  another 
person  says  by  watching  the  motions  of  his  lips 
in  speaking.     About  the  commencement  of  the 
18th  century,  the  instruction  of  deaf  mutes  be- 
gan to  attract  the  attention  of  scientific  men 
throughout  Europe.     In  1704  Kerger  published 
a  narrative  of  the  results  of  his  efforts.     His 
sister  was  associated  with  him  in  the  work  of 
instruction.     The  means  he  used  were  drawing, 
pantomime,  articulation,  and  writing.     He  does 
not  seem  to  have  employed  dactylology,  but  he 
had  cultivated  the  language  of  signs  with  suc- 
cess.    Contemporary  with  Kerger  was  the  pas- 
tor Georg    Kaphel  of  Luneburg,  of  whose    6 
children  3  were  deaf  and  dumb.    Paternal  affec- 
tion had  inspired  him  with  zeal  and  skUl  in  their 
instruction,  and  in  1718  he  published,  for  the 
benefit  of  others,  the  result  of  his  labors.  A  few 
years  later,  Otho  Benjamin  Lasius  gave  to  the 
world  the  narrative  of  his  process  of  instruction 
of  a  deaf  and  dumb  pupil.    He  had  taught  artic- 
ulation and  writing,  and  at  the  end  of  2  years 
his  pupil  could  answer  important  questions  on 
religious  subjects.     The  pastor  Arnoldi  was  a 
contemporary  of  Lasius ;  he  gave  instruction  to 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  using  for  the  purpose  all 
the  methods  previously  emjjloyed — articulation, 
drawing,  dactylology,  writing,  and  the  natural 
signs.     Samuel  Heinicke  was,  however,  by  far 
the  most  distinguished  of  the  early  teachers  of 
the  deaf  and  dumb  in  Germany.     He  had  be- 
come interested  in  the  instruction  of  a  deaf  and 
dumb  child  as  early  as  1754.     In  1772  he  had 
4  deaf-mute  pupils,  to  whom  several  others  were 
afterward  added.     In  that  year  he  removed  to 
Leipsic  at  the  invitation  of  the  elector  of  Sax- 
ony, and  opened  a  school  for  the  deaf  and  dumb 
there  with  9  pupils,  the  first  ever  established 
or  supported  by  the  civU  government,  and  Avhich 
is  to  this  day  in  existence  and  prosperity.     His 
method  of  instruction  was  by  articulation  and 
reading  on  the  lip.     His  success  was  very  con- 
siderable, and  his  noble  and  generous  character 
endeared  him  greatly  to  the  people  of  Germany. 
In  a  controversy  with  the  abbe  de  I'Epee  on 


302 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


the  merits  of  their  respective  modes  of  in- 
struction, he  appears  to  less  advantage  than 
in  any  other  part  of  liis  career. — In  Franco, 
Fatlier  Vanin  or  Farnin,  a  member  of  the  or- 
der of  Christian  brothers,  attempted  the  in- 
struction of  deaf  mutes  toward  the  middle  of 
the  century  by  means  of  pictures  and  sensible 
objects.  The  ideas  thus  conveyed  seem  to  have 
been  very  crude  and  imperfect.  Rousset  of 
Nii^es  also  made  some  efforts  for  their  instruc- 
tion about  the  same  time.  A  more  remarkable 
and  successful  teaclier  of  these  unfortunates 
was  Jacob  Rodriguez  Pereira,  a  Spaniard  of 
Jewish  extraction,  who  commenced  their  in- 
struction in  1743,  and  in  1749  exliibited  some 
of  his  pupils  before  the  academy  of  sciences  at 
Paris.  From  the  report  of  that  committee  it 
appears  that  his  success  had  been  extraordinary 
for  that  period;  it  would  even  be  considered 
creditable  to  any  of  our  institutions  at  the  pres- 
ent day.  "  The  pupils,"  say  the  committee, 
"  were  able  to  understand  whatever  was  said  to 
them,  wlietlier  by  signs  or  by  writing,  and  re- 
plied either  viva  voce  or  by  writing;  they  could 
read  and  pronounce  distinctly  all  sorts  of  French 
expressions;  they  gave  very  sensible  replies  to 
all  questions  proposed  to  them;  they  under- 
stood grammar  and  its  applications ;  they  knew 
the  rules  of  arithmetic,  and  performed  exercises 
in  geography;  and  it  appeared  that  Pereira 
had  given  them,  with  speech,  the  faculty  of  ac- 
quiring abstract  ideas."  Pereira  carefully  con- 
cealed, even  from  his  own  family,  the  methods 
he  employed  in  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  tliough  he  offered  to  impart  them  to  the 
government  for  a  large  sum,  which  was  refused. 
It  was  his  intention  to  leave  them,  it  is  said,  as 
an  heirloom  to  his  family,  but  a  fire  which  oc- 
curred soon  after  his  death  destroyed  all  his 
papers,  and  thus  prevented  their  being  benefited 
by  them.  He  himself  had  attained  position  and 
wealt!)  by  his  instruction  of  the  children  of  some 
noble  families,  and  by  the  address  with  which 
he  followed  up  his  advantages.  Saboreux  de 
Fontenai,  one  of  his  most  distinguished  pupils, 
published  after  his  death  an  account  of  the 
means  adopted  by  his  teacher  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  deaf  and  dumb.  From  this  we  learn 
that,  beside  the  ordinary  methods  of  articula- 
tion, reading  from  the  lip,  and  the  manual  al- 
phabet, he  had  invented  a  syllabic  dactylology, 
by  the  use  of  which  he  could  communicate 
very  rapidly  with  his  pupils,  and  having  thus 
supplied  them  in  a  short  time  with  an  exten- 
sive vocabulary,  he  was  able  to  conduct  their 
farther  education  with  little  more  difficulty  tlian 
would  be  experienced  in  instructing  speaking 
pupils.  Ernaud  appeared  a  few  years  later  be- 
fore the  academy  of  sciences,  to  solicit  their  at- 
tention to  his  efforts  in  behalf  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb.  His  pupils  do  not  seem  to  have  made 
great  advancement  in  education,  but  he  had 
been  successful  in  restoring  hearing  to  several 
who  were  congeiiitally  deaf.  The  abbe  Des- 
cbanipa  of  Orleans  is  deserving  of  credit  for 
his  philanthropy,  at  least.     Commiserating  the 


condition  of  the  deaf  mntes,  he  devoted  his  life 
and  fortune  to  the  work  of  teaching  them,  but 
unfortunately  adopted  the  system  of  articula- 
tion, and  met  with  but  indifferent  success.  In 
1779  he  published  his  Cours  elhnentaire  iV edu- 
cation des  sourds-muets.  The  man,  however, 
to  whom  tlie  deaf  and  dumb  of  the  world  are 
more  indebted  for  the  means  of  education  than 
any  other,  is  the  abb6  de  I'Epee.  His  natural 
disposition,  habits,  early  training,  and  educa- 
tion, had  fitted  him  for  a  philanthropist,  and 
Avhen  two  young  deaf-mute  girls  were  thrown  in 
his  way  under  such  circumstances  as  to  call 
forth  his  sympathies,  he  entered  upon  the  work 
of  their  instruction  with  a  zeal  which  knew  no 
abatement  to  the  day  of  his  death.  His  first 
pupils  were  gathered  in  1755,  and  entirely  from 
the  indigent  deaf  and  dumb.  To  them  alone 
did  he  devote  himself,  refusing  the  children 
of  the  rich,  and  expending  with  the  most 
judicious  prudence  the  income  of  his  little 
patrimony  for  their  support  and  education.  At 
the  commencement  of  his  labors  he  had  read 
nothing  on  the  subject  of  tlie  instruction  of 
deaf  mutes,  and  it  was  not  till  the  second  year 
of  his  teaching  that  he  saw  a  copy  of  Bonet's 
treatise,  and  still  later  that  of  Amman.  He 
tried  at  first  the  method  of  articulation,  but  the 
number  of  his  pupils  increasing  he  became  dis- 
satisfied with  the  result ;  and  remembering  the 
principle  which  he  had  learned  in  youth,  that 
"there  is  no  more  natural  and  necessary  con- 
nection between  abstract  ideas  and  the  articu- 
late sounds  which  strike  the  ear,  than  there  is 
between  the  same  ideas  and  the  written  char- 
acters which  strike  the  eye,"  he  sought  for  some 
medium  other  than  articulate  sounds  by  which 
to  represent  to  the  minds  of  these  deaf-mute 
children  the  ideas  which  he  wished  to  convey 
to  them.  This  medium  he  found  in  the  lan- 
guage of  signs,  that  natural  method  of  commu- 
nication by  which  the  most  savage  tribes  of 
different  languages  and  countries  are  able  to 
converse  to  a  certain  extent  with  each  other. 
He  found  this  existing  to  a  considerable  degree 
among  the  uneducated  deaf  and  dumb,  as  being 
the  only  means  by  which  they  could  make 
known  their  physical  wants.  This  language 
he  amplified,  improved,  and  systematized,  with 
the  intention  of  making  it  an  equivalent  of  or- 
dinary language,  so  that  the  process  of  instruc- 
tion should  be  a  mere  translation  of  the  ideas 
of  written  language  into  the  language  of  signs. 
It  is  alleged,  and  with  some  truth,  that  he  for- 
got in  this  process  that  the  minds  on  which  he 
was  at  work  possessed  but  few  ideas,  and  that 
to  make  a  sign  to  them  of  whose  meaning  they 
had  no  conception,  and  then  to  show  them  that 
that  sign  was  equivalent  to  a  "word  of  whose 
meaning  they  Avere  also  ignorant,  was  but  to 
use  an  algebraic  formula — to  tell  them  that  x=x. 
That  the  good  abbe  too  often  mistook  signs  for 
ideas  is  probably  true ;  yet  there  is  abundant 
evidence  that  his  pupils  comprehended  very 
clearly  much  of  what  he  communicated  to  them. 
The  full  advantages  of  the  sign  language,  and  its 


DEAF  AND  DUM13 


303 


capacity  for  full  and  free  intercourse,  and  for 
more  ready,  coinplete,  and  extensive  expressions 
of  thought  and  feeling  than  any  written  lan- 
guage, seem  not  to  have  been  appreciated  by 
him,  at  least  not  to  the  same  extent  as  by  his 
successor;  but  to  the  abbe  do  I'fipeo  belongs 
without  question  the  honor  of  having  demon- 
strated the  capability  of  the  natural  language 
of  signs  for  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  when  collected  in  masses ;  and  also  of 
having  been  the  first  to  collect  together  indi- 
gent deaf  mutes  in  any  considerable  number  for 
education. — In  1700,  5  years  after  the  opening 
ofDe  rfipec's  school  in  Paris,  Thomas  Braid- 
wood  of  Edinburgh  advertised  that  at  his  acad- 
emy in  that  city  he  taught  the  dumb  to  speak, 
and  also  cured  impediments  in  the  speech.  Ai'- 
ticulation  was  taught,  and  little  or  no  attention 
given  to  the  language  of  signs.  At  a  period  a 
few  years  earlier,  Henry  Baker,  the  naturalist 
and  microscopist,  had  given  some  attention  to 
the  instruction  of  deaf  mutes  in  articulation. 
Both  Baker  and  Braidwood  kept  their  processes 
secret,  and  Braidwood  succeeded  in  monopoliz- 
ing in  his  own  family  and  near  relatives  the 
business  of  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb 
for  60  years.  In  1783  Braidwood  removed  his 
school  to  Hackney,  near  London,  where  he 
died  in  1806.  His  widow,  assisted  by  her  grand- 
children, maintained  the  school  till  1810,  when 
it  was  given  up.  Thomas,  the  elder  of  the  two 
grandsons,  took  charge  of  a  new  institution  at 
Edgebaston,  near  Birmingham;  and  John,  the 
younger,  went  at  first  to  Edinburgh,  and  after  a 
year  or  two  to  Virginia,  where  he  attempted  the 
establishment  of  an  institution  for  deaf  mutes; 
but  though  warmly  seconded  by  several  gentle- 
men of  wealth  and  influence,  he  was  so  ad- 
dicted to  habits  of  intemperance,  that  he  was 
under  the  necessity  of  giving  it  up.  The  pro- 
cesses of  the  Braidwoods,  though  guarded  from 
the  public  with  such  jealous  care,  seem  to  have 
differed  in  no  important  respect  from  those  of 
"Wallis  and  Dalgarno.  Their  success,  according 
to  the  testimony  of  impartial  observers,  was  not 
equal  to  that  of  the  abbe  de  I'Epee,  and  was 
very  far  inferior  to  that  of  Sicard  ;  and  though 
highly  commended  in  a  work  published  in  1783 
by  an  American  gentleman  whose  child  had  been 
educated  there,  under  the  title  of  Vox  Ocnlis  Suh- 
jecta^  yet  in  the  majority  of  instances  their  system 
made  the  pupils  mere  parrots  rather  than  intel- 
ligent, thinking,  educated  men  and  women.  Dr. 
Watson,  a  nephew  of  the  elder  Braidwood,  who 
acquired  his  knowledge  of  the  art  of  instructing 
the  deaf  and  dumb  from  his  uncle,  and  after- 
ward practised  it  at  the  asylum  in  Kent  road, 
London,  made  many  improvements  in  his  pro- 
cesses, and,  mingling  judiciously  the  use  of  nat- 
ural signs  with  articulation,  succeeded  in  giving 
to  his  pupils  a  much  better  education  than  Mr. 
Braidwood  had  ever  imparted. — Meantime  in 
France  the  abbe  Sicard,  a  hearing  pupil  of  De 
I'Epue,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  at  the  head 
€f  an  institution  for  deaf  mutes  at  Bordeaux,  had 
Bucceeded  him  at  Paris.     Though  inferior  to  his 


master  in  philanthropy,  ho  was  intellectually 
his  superior,  and  soon  found  opj)ortunity  to  im- 
prove the  methods  of  instruction  in  the  insti- 
tute, which  was  now  under  government  pa- 
tronage. He  expanded  and  simplified  the  sign 
language,  and  no  longer  bound  it  to  the  con- 
ventional rules  of  written  language.  Surviv- 
ing the  reign  of  terror  and  the  administration 
of  Napoleon,  in  neither  of  which  it  had  greatly 
prospered,  the  royal  institution  for  deaf  mutes, 
as  it  was  called  under  the  Bourbons,  saw  brighter 
days,  and  under  the  direction  of  Sicard  and 
Bebian  became  the  leading  institution  of  its  class 
in  Europe. — In  1815  several  gentlemen  in  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  whose  interest  in  the  education  of 
the  deaf  and  dumb  had  been  primarily  awakened 
by  the  fact  that  the  interesting  and  lovely 
daughter  of  one  of  their  number,  an  eminent  phy- 
sician of  the  city,  was  a  deaf  mute,  sent  the  Rev. 
Thomas  II.  Gallaudet,  a  young  and  highly  edu- 
cated clergyman,  to  Europe  to  qualify  himself  to 
become  a  teacher  of  the  deaf  and  dumb.  Mr. 
Gallaudet  sailed.  May  25,  1815,  for  Liverpool. 
Arrived  in  England,  he  immediately  sought  the 
accomplishment  of  the  object  of  his  mission ; 
but  found  himself  thwarted  by  the  influence  of 
the  Braidwoods  and  their  relatives,  who  re- 
fused to  communicate  to  him  their  alleged  secret 
processes,  except  on  condition  that  he  should 
remain  3  years  under  instruction,  and  then  take 
one  of  Dr.  Watson's  assistants,  or  John  Braid- 
wood, then  in  America,  into  partnership  with 
him.  As  the  parties  who  had  sent  out  Mr. 
Gallaudet  had  contemplated  nq  such  plan,  and 
as  it  was  not  only  unnecessary  but  illiberal,  Mr. 
Gallaudet  refused  to  enter  into  such  an  arrange- 
ment ;  and  after  attempting  in  vain  to  obtain 
the  requisite  instruction  at  Edinburgh,  where 
Mr.  Kinniburgh,  a  pupil  of  the  Braidwoods, 
was  teaching,  he  visited  France,  was  cordially 
received  and  cheerfully  instructed  by  the  abbe 
Sicard,  and  after  3  months  of  careful  investiga- 
tion of  the  processes  adopted  by  the  abbe,  re- 
turned to  the  United  States,  bringing  with  him 
M.  Laurent  Clerc,  an  educated  deaf  mute,  and 
one  of  the  abbe's  most  successful  teachers.  On 
April  15,  1817,  the  New  England,  or,  as  it  was 
soon  afterward  named,  the  American  asylum  for 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  was  opened  at  Hartford^ 
with  Mr.  Gallaudet  for  principal,  and  M.  Clei'C 
as  assistant  teacher.  It  received  a  donation  of 
$5,000  from  the  state,  which  was  subsequently 
expended  in  the  education  of  indigent  deaf 
mutes,  and  in  1819  from  congress  the  grant  of 
a  township  of  land  in  Alabama,  which  by  care- 
ful management  eventually  produced  a  fund  of 
nearly  $300,000,  the  income  of  which  is  applied 
toward  defraying  the  current  expenses  of  the 
asylum.  The  other  institutions  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb  having  been  established  at  a  latex  date, 
and  adopting  the  same  general  system  of  in- 
struction with  the  American  asylum,  the  method 
in  use  in  this  country  may  properly  be  termed  the 
American  system. — It  may  aid  in  giving  a  clear 
idea  of  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  if 
we  devote  a  little  space  to  the  consideration  of 


304 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


the  three  systems  which  have  been  adopted  in 
difterent  countries.  I.  The  system  of  Wallis, 
Pereira,  Ileinicke,  and  Braidwood  proceeded  on 
the  theory  that  articulation  is  necessai'y  to  the 
clear  comprehension  of  thought;  that  though 
eigns  may  communicate  vague  ideas,  there  can  be 
no  precision  of  thought  without  words.  This 
theory  has  been  so  utterly  overthrown  within 
a  few  years  past  that  it  is  not  probably  main- 
tained by  any  intelligent  instructor  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb  at  the  present  day ;  but  the  system 
of  instruction  inaugurated  under  it  is  still  prac- 
tised to  a  considerable  extent  on  the  continent 
of  Europe.  Under  tins  system  the  first  2  years 
of  instruction  were  devoted  to  learning  articu- 
lation almost  exclusively ;  this  was  eiiected  by 
placing  before  the  pupil  a  written  or  printed 
word,  which  the  teacher  pronounced  slowly 
and  audibly,  causing  the  pupil  to  place  his  hand 
upon  his  throat  and  to  watch  his  lips  as  he  did 
80.  The  pupil  was  then  required  to  make  the 
attempt  to  pronounce  the  word  himself;  and 
after  repeated  trials,  if  possessing  good  powers 
of  imitation,  he  generally  succeeded.  Another 
word  was  tlien  acquired  in  the  same  way,  and 
so  on.  It  must  be  obvious,  however,  that  un- 
less the  idea  of  the  meaning  of  the  word  was 
conveyed  to  the  mind  of  the  pupil  by  some 
other  process,  his  repetition  of  these  words  must 
be  like  that  of  a  parrot ;  and  this  can  only 
be  accomplished  by  signs  of  some  sort.  There 
is  a  marked  dilference  in  deaf  mutes  in  regard 
to  their  ability  to  acquire  the  power  of  articu- 
lation so  as  to  be  able  to  speak  intelligibly ; 
those  who  have  become  deaf  after  having  learned 
to  speak,  and  those  whose  vocal  organs  are 
pliable,  and  Avho  possess  the  imitative  faculty  in 
a  high  degree,  acquire  the  power  of  articulation 
with  great  readiness ;  while  those  whose  vocal 
organs  are  rigid,  who  are  congenitally  deaf  and 
dumb,  or  who  possess  sluggish  intellects,  find 
great  difiiculty  in  acquiring  the  power  of  speech. 
Most  deaf  mutes  who  speak  use  a  monotonous 
tone,  and  some  a  harsh  and  unpleasant  one, 
while  others  modulate  the  voice  without  any 
reference  to  the  sense.  Occasionally,  though 
rarely,  one  is  found  who,  by  thorough  familiarity 
with  the  structure  and  action  of  the  vocal  mus- 
cles and  long  and  patient  practice,  has  acquired 
the  art  of  speaking  so  well  as  to  excite  no  sus- 
picion of  deafness.  Probably  no  instructor  in 
articulation  ever  taught  it  so  successfully  as 
Pereira.  His  pupils,  Saboreux  de  Fontenai  and 
D'Azy  d'Etaviguy,  mingled  freely  in  society, 
and  were  in  tlie  constant  habit  of  conversing 
^uently ;  both  were  deaf  mutes  from  birth,  but 
there  is  abundant  evidence  that  nothing  in  their 
tones  of  voice  indicated  that  they  were  deaf. 
Seguin  even  alfirms,  in  his  life  of  Pereira,  as  a 
fact  of  which  he  was  personally  cognizant,  and 
which  was  Avell  known,  that  Pereira  himself 
being  a  native  of  Spain,  and  speaking  with  a 
Spanish  accent,  all  his  pupils  spoke  with  the 
same  accent.  The  mechanical  art  of  articula- 
tion and  of  reading  on  the  lip  being  acquired, 
the  pupil  is  thenceforth  taught  the  meaning  of 


words  and  the  sciences  in  much  the  same  way 
as  a  child  who  can  speak.  II.  The  system  of 
the  abbe  de  l'Ep6e,  as  improved  by  Sicard  and 
Bebian,  differs  from  the  preceding  in  every  re- 
spect. Starting  with  the  principles  that  there 
is  no  necessary  or  inevitable  connection  between 
the  word  which  is  the  arbitrary  sign  of  a  thing 
and  the  object  for  which  it  stands,  and  that 
evei-y  idea  of  which  the  human  mind  is  capable 
may  be  expressed  by  one  or  more  signs,  signs 
too  which  even  the  uneducated  can  generally 
understand,  the  process  first  attempted  was  to 
fix  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil  the  signs  which  rep- 
resented simple  objects,  and  those  which  readi- 
ly attracted  his  attention,  sucli  as  clothing,  food, 
di'inks,  parts  of  tlie  body,  the  ground,  water, 
grass,  fruits,  vegetables,  domestic  animals,  men, 
women,  &c.  ;  next,  the  various  relations  and 
circumstances  of  themselves  and  others,  such  as 
the  school,  institution,  college,  officers,  domes- 
tics, mechanics,  laborers,  merchants,  &c.  These 
attained,  subjects  more  abstruse  were  represent- 
ed by  the  same  language  of  signs,  such  as  the 
idea  of  God  and  spiritual  beings,  facts  of  his- 
tory, science,  pliilosophy,  chemistiy,  numbers, 
measures,  weight,  time,  &c. ;  then  the  organic 
qualities  of  man  and  animals,  diseases,  pi-operties 
of  matter,  action  of  the  body,  of  the  mind,  and 
finally  of  the  moral  nature.  At  an  early  period 
instruction  in  written  language  is  commenced, 
and  the  pupil  is  required  to  write  oiit  narra- 
tives communicated  to  him  in  the  sign  language, 
or  to  relate  by  signs  facts  Avhich  he  has  been 
made  to  read.  As  he  advances,  he  is  exer- 
cised in  the  same  way  on  abstract  ideas.  Hav- 
ing thus  acquired  two  languages,  that  of  signs 
and  written  language,  his  education  progresses 
much  in  the  same  way  as  that  of  ordinary 
children,  except  in  the  mode  of  communicating 
knowledge.  The  sign  language  is  the  natural 
mode  of  expressing  ideas  between  individuals 
who  cannot  speak  the  same  language ;  and  al- 
though the  usage  of  different  countries  would 
of  course  cause  differences  of  dialect,  yet  with 
such  care  have  the  signs  in  ordinary  use  been 
selected,  that  the  Rev.  W.  0.  Woodbridge  affirms 
that  "  he  has  employed  it  or  seen  it  employed 
with  success,  in  conversation  with  an  American 
Indian,  a  Sandwich  islander,  a  Chinese,  and 
with  deaf  mutes  in  various  parts  of  the  United 
States,  and  in  England,  Scotland,  France,  Ger- 
many, Switzerland,  and  Italy."  III.  The  Amer- 
ican system  may  best  be  described  in  the  words 
of  one  who  took  part  in  its  development,  and 
who  had  practised  it  for  many  years,  the  late 
Rev.  W.  0.  Woodbridge:  "Mr.  Gallaudet  has 
combined  the  fundamental  principle  of  Hei- 
nicke,  'first  ideas,  then  words,'  with  that  of  De 
I'Epee,  that  '  the  natural  language  of  signs  must 
be  elevated  to  as  high  a  degree  of  excellence  as 
possible,  in  order  to  serve  as  the  medium  for 
giving  the  ideas  clearly,  and  explaining  them 
accurately.'  He  has  added  another  of  no  small 
importance,  that  as  words  describe  rather  the 
impressions  or  states  of  mind  produced  by  ex- 
ternal  objects    than  those  essential  qualities 


DEAP  AND  DUMB 


305 


■which  are  beyond  our  reach,  the  process  of 
learning  thcni  would  be  facilitated  by  leading 
the  pupils  to  reflect  on  their  own  sensations  and 
ideas ;  and  lie  states  as  the  result  of  his  experi- 
ence, that  among  deaf  mutes  of  equal  capacities 
'  those  who  can  be  led  to  mark  or  describe,  with 
the  greatest  i)recision,  the  operations  of  their 
own  mind,  uniformly  make  the  most  rapid  pro- 
gress in  the  ae^iuisition  of  written  language,  and 
of  religious  truth.'  A  leading  object  therefore, 
in  connection  with  the  first  lessons,  in  which 
sensible  ideas  are  presented  and  named,  is  to  es- 
tablish a  free  communication  with  the  pui)il  in 
the  sign  language  in  reference  to  his  feelings 
and  thoughts  as  excited  by  the  objects  which  he 
sees,  or  the  events  of  his  own  life.  lie  easily 
comprehends  those  of  others,  and  is  thus  led  to 
learn  the  names  of  the  simple  emotions  and  acts 
of  the  mind.  Hence  he  is  brought  to  think  of 
an  invisible  agent  which  wo  term  the  soul,  as 
the  feeling  and  percipient  being ;  and  by  a  nat- 
ural transition  is  led,  by  tlie  use  of  signs  alone, 
to  the  Great  Spirit  as  the  first  cause ;  to  his  char- 
acter as  our  creator  and  benefactor ;  and  to  a 
knowledge  of  his  law  and  our  future  destiny. 
In  this  manner  the  deaf  mutes  in  the  institu- 
tions of  this  coimtry  are  made  acquainted  with 
the  simple  truths  of  religion  and  morality  in  one 
year,  a  period  in  which,  in  most  European  insti- 
tutions, they  are  scarcely  advanced  beyond  the 
knowledge  of  sounds,  and  the  names  of  sensible 
objects,  qualities,  and  actions,  or  tlie  most  com- 
mon plmises.  By  communicating  this  instruc- 
tion in  tlie  natural  sign  language,  pupils  wliose 
inferior  capacity  or  advanced  age  would  not  al- 
low them  to  acquire  enough  of  written  language 
to  receive  religious  truth  througli  tiiis  medium, 
have  been  early  prepared  to  enjoy  its  blessings 
and  hopes,  and  feel  its  sanction  as  a  restraint 
upon  their  conduct,  which  renders  their  gov- 
ernment more  easy,  while  it  aids  them  in  the 
formation  of  correct  habits."  Another  peculiar 
feature  of  the  American  system  intz'oduced  by 
Mr,  Gallaudet,  and  now  generally  adopted  in 
American  institutions,  is  conducting  the  daily 
and  weekly  devotional  exercises  in  the  sign 
language.  Tlie  English  schools,  which  began 
by  regarding  articulation  as  of  the  first  im- 
portance, now  make  extensive  use  of  the  lan- 
guage of  signs,  as  do  most  of  the  continental 
schools ;  while  the  French  schools  and  those  of 
tins  country  usually  have  a  class  in  articulation, 
generally  composed  of  those  who  had  learned  to 
talk  before  becoming  deaf,  or  the  flexibility  of 
whose  vocal  organs  renders  them  appropriate 
subjects  fur  the  exercise.  The  signs  are  divided 
by  the  teachers  of  deaf  mutes  into  two  classes, 
descriptive  and  methodical ;  the  first  consisting 
of  those  which  portray  the  object,  or,  by  some 
accepted  conventionalism,  imply  some  mental 
action  or  abstract  idea ;  the  second  representing 
those  connectives,  inflections,  and  other  changes 
in  the  form  of  expression,  which  vary  the  mean- 
iug  of  language.  The  latter  are  of  course  ar- 
bitrary, but  are  at  the  present  day  generally 
agreed  upon  and  easily  acquired  by  the  learner. 
VOL,  VI. — 20 


In  the  acquisition  of  so  large  an  amount  of  ideas 
as  is  necessary  for  a  good  education  to  the  deaf 
mute,  embarrassed  as  he  is  by  his  infirmity  and  l)y 
the  necessity  of  acquiring  two  languages,  it  must 
be  evident  tliat  the  period  of  3,  4,  or  5  years  is 
utterly  inadequate,  when  a  child  endowed  with 
all  his  faculties  lias  from  12  to  15  years  for  the 
attainment  of  an  ordinary  education  ;  and  it  is 
a  matter  of  congratulation  that  the  course  is 
very  generally  extended  to  7  or  8  years,  and  tliat 
in  several  institutions  a  high  class,  for  the  pros- 
ecution of  higher  brandies  of  study,  is  estab- 
lished. These  classes  give  to  the  deaf  mute  who 
is  desirous  of  intellectual  culture  opportunities 
almost  equivalent  to  those  of  a  collegiate  course. 
In  Paris  a  "class  of  perfection,"  answering  to 
the  American  high  class,  was  established  some 
years  since  in  the  national  institute,  through 
the  liberal  bequest  of  Dr.  Itard,  who  was  for 
many  years  physician  to  the  institute. — We  have 
adverted  in  the  commencement  of  this  article 
to  the  complete  mental  isolation  of  the  deaf 
mute,  but  it  may  be  of  interest  in  a  psychologi- 
cal point  of  view  to  give  in  a  few  words  tlie  re- 
sult of  an  extended  series  of  inquiries  made  of 
intelligent  educated  deaf  mutes  some  years  since 
in  Europe  and  this  country,  respecting  their 
ideas  before  receiving  any  education.  Of  some 
thousands  to  whom  such  inquiries  as  the  follow- 
ing were  addressed  :  What  were  your  ideas  of 
God  ?  What  of  the  creation  of  the  world  ?  What 
of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  ?  What  did  you  sup- 
pose to  be  the  object  of  public  religious  services 
on  the  Sabbath!  &c.,  the  answers  were  in  nearly 
all  cases  such  as  these  :  "  I  had  no  idea  of  God ;" 
"  I  sujiposed  God  to  be  a  strong  and  cruel 
man,  who  made  the  thunder  and  liglrtning  to 
frighten  us ;"  "  I  supposed  the  world  had  alwaye 
been;"  "I  had  no  ideas  of  the  origin  of  the 
world;"  "I  supposed  the  earth  was  very  much 
larger  than  the  sun  ;"  "  I  thought  the  sun  was  a 
man,  and  the  moon  another ;"  "  I  thought  peo- 
ple went  to  church  to  worship  the  minister ;" 
"  I  supposed  it  was  a  holiday,  and  the  people 
were  playing."  These  answers  might  be  great- 
ly multiplied,  but  those  already  given  are  suffi- 
cient to  show  that  in  mental  condition  the  deaf 
mute  is  in  no  respect  above  the  ignorant  and  un- 
tutored savage.  Their  mental  operations  before 
receiving  education  are  very  slow,  and  tlie  mind 
seems  to  be  in  a  torpid  state  from  which  the  dis- 
cipline of  an  education  rouses  it.  Under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  tliorough  course  of  instruction 
adopted  in  our  American  institutions  they  im- 
prove rapidly,  becoming  respectable  scholars, 
and  developing  vigorous  and  healthy  intellects. 
The  results  of  education  in  training  tlie  deaf  and 
dumb  to  self-support  and  independence  have 
been  very  remarkable.  Of  more  than  1,000 
pupils  who  have  spent  more  or  less  time  at  the 
American  asylum,  the  directors  and  officers  af- 
ter extensive  correspondence  cannot  find  more 
than  one  or  two  who  are  not  comfortably  sup- 
porting themselves,  and  many  of  them  their  fam- 
ilies. A  considerable  number  have  accumulated 
property.   Some  have  attained  distinction  in  the 


306 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


fine  arts.  In  the  French  magazine  Dlmpartinl 
(devoted  to  deaf  mutes)  for  Jan.  1856,  is  an  ac- 
count of  two  first  class  prizes  having  been 
awarded  to  deaf  mutes  at  the  Paris  industrial 
exhibition  of  1855.  One  was  to  a  M.  Maloisel* 
a  sculptor,  for  an  instrument  for  duplicating 
choice  statues,  &c.,  in  any  material ;  the  prize 
was  the  great  medal,  and  an  annuity  of  $00  per 
annum.  The  other  was  to  a  M.  Richardin  for 
a  machine  for  polishing  daguerreotype  plates, 
a  process  always  hitherto  performed  by  hand. 
There  were  also  several  smaller  prizes  conferred 
on  deaf  mutes.  When  it  was  proposed  to  erect 
a  monument  to  the  late  Dr.  Gallaudet,  the  deaf 
mutes  who  had  been  his  pupils  came  forward  and 
asked  the  privilege  of  taking  the  whole  matter 
into  their  own  hands.  The  plan  was  drawn  by 
a  deaf  mute,  and  a  copy  of  it  lithographed  by 
deaf  mutes.  The  monument,  which  is  really 
one  of  tlie  finest  conceptions  in  the  way  of  a 
commemorative  column,  is  entirely  due,  in  con- 
ception, design,  and  execution,  to  deaf  mutes. 
Within  the  past  5  or  6  years  the  educated  deaf 
and  dumb  in  this  country  have  been  in  the 
habit  of  holding  an  annual  convention  for  their 
improvement,  and  j^hey  have  in  these  conven- 
tions given  evidence  of  practical  talent  of  a  high 
order.  In  Europe,  owing  mainly  to  the  density 
of  the  population,  and  the  dilficulty  which  the 
laboring  classes,  even  when  possessed  of  all  their 
faculties,  find  in  procuring  subsistence,  it  has 
been  found  necessary  to  form  associations'for  the 
assistance  of  deaf  mutes.  Such  societies  have 
been  established  in  Paris,  Berlin,  Vienna,  and 
perhaps  in  some  other  cities.  Workshops  are 
hired  or  erected  by  these  societies,  the  raw  mate- 
rial procured  at  the  lowest  price,  and  they  are 
furnished  with  them  free  from  rent,  and  with- 
out the  necessity  of  making  advance  payment 
on  their  stock.  In  some  cases  they  are  also 
boarded  at  a  very  low  rate,  or  an  allowance 
is  made  them  weekly  toward  defraying  the 
expense  of  board. — The  proportion  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb  varies  greatly  in  different  coun- 
tries. In  China  it  is  said  to  be  very  small ; 
whether  the  prevalent  practice  of  infanticide 
may  not  reduce  the  number  by  destroying  those 
children  whose  faculties  seem  imperfect,  is  a 
questiou.  In  Africa  the  missionaries  report 
that  there  are  very  few  cases  among  the  native 
population ;  but  we  suspect  that  careful  and 
thorough  investigation  would  bring  to  light 
more  than  are  now  supposed  to  exist.  The 
following  table,  prepared  from  the  published 
census  reports  of  the  several  countries,  and  from 
other  authentic  sources,  gives,  it  is  believed,  a 
tolerably  accurate  view  of  the  prevalence  of  the 
infirmity  in  Europe  and  America.  There  is 
reason  to  believe,  however,  that  in  Switzerland, 
the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  and  perhaps  also  in 
Austria,  cretins  have  been  enumerated  with 
deaf  mutes.  As  a  general  rule,  the  ratio  of 
deaf  and  dumb  persons  to  the  population  is 
larger  in  mountainous  countries  and  in  districts 
which  are  so  far  isolated  as  to  render  inter- 
marriage of  relatives  frequent : 


Great  Britain 

IrL-larul 

Biiaiii 

I'ortiical 

France , 

Italy 

Grand  ducliy  of  Tuscany 

Switzerland 

Grand  duchy  of  Baden. . . 

"VVurtemberg 

Bavaria 

Austria 

Prussia 

Saxony 

Hanover 

Electoral  Ilesse 

Duchy  of  Nassau 

Brunswick 

Oldenburg 

Belsium 

Holland 

Denmark 

Sweden 

Norway 

Russia 

United  States 

Canada  


Number  of 

Diil«  of 

deaf  mutes. 

censui. 

12,553 

1851 

4,747 

1851 

12,000 

1851 

2,407 

1835 

29,512 

1852 

12,618 

1835 

697 

1846 

8,976 

1846 

1,983 

1,250 

1S50 

2,908 

1840 

85,568 

1S46 

11,973 

1849 

8S3 

1S49 

946 

1840 

400 

1835 

210 

1835 

176 

1S35 

167 

1835 

1,911 

1851 

1,393 

1850 

1,260 

1S50 

1,999 

1846 

1,176 

1850 

87,978 

1850 

9,803 

1850 

1,343 

1851 

1  in  1,670 
1  in  1,380 
1  in  1,500 
1  in  1,585 
1  in  1,212 
1  in  1,565 
1  in  2,171 
lin  502 
lin  559 
1  in  1,240 
lin  1,515 
lin  1,053 
lin  1,364 
1  in  2,180 
1  in  1,621 
1  in  1,375 
lin  1,428 
lin  1,170 
lin  1,590 
1  in  2,316 
1  in  2.209 
lin  1,714 
1  in  1,528 
1  in  1,485 
1  in  1,621 
1  in  2.345 
1  in  1,372 


— Causes  of  deafness.  About  §  of  the  cases  of 
deafness  are  congenital.  The  causes  of  this  are 
usually  either  hereditary  transmission,  direct  or 
indirect ;  intermarriage  of  near  relatives ;  or 
grief,  fright,  or  other  violent  emotions  of  the 
mother  during  pregnancy ;  and  sometimes  in- 
temperate or  vicious  habits  on  the  part  of  one 
or  both  parents.  In  hereditary  transmission  of 
the  infirmity,  it  often  occurs  that  the  children 
of  deaf  mutes  hear  while  their  children  are  deaf 
and  dumb.  The  infirmity,  too,  is  often  perpet- 
uated in  collateral  branches  of  the  family.  Were 
it  necessary,  volumes  of  statistics  might  be  com- 
piled to  Show  the  disastrous  results  of  the  inter- 
marriage of  near  relatives,  in  inducing  not  only 
congenital  deafness,  but  blindness,  insanity,  and, 
more  often  than  either,  idiocy.  The  following 
table  presents  an  interesting  summary  of  the  re- 
sults of  inquiry  in  England,  Ireland,  France,  and 
different  sections  of  our  own  country  : 

Statistics  of  American  Asylum  at  Hartford.— Oi  542  cases, 
95  had  either  parents,  grandparents,  uncles,  aunts,  or  cousins 
deaf  and  dumb;  27  more  remote  relatives  deaf  and  dumb. 
Of  911  families,  728  had  each  only  1  deaf  and  dumb  child ; 
109  had  2;  41  had  3;  18  had  4;  11  had  5;  2  had  6;  and  2 
had  7. 

Statistics  of  National  Institution,  Paris.— Of  102  families, 
81  had  only  1  deaf  and  dumb  child;  9  had  2;  7  had  3;  3 
had  4;  1  had  5;  1  had  7. 

Statistics  of  Yorkshire  Institution,  at  Dottcaster,  England. 
—Of  110  families,  74  had  but  1  deaf  and  dumb  child ;  IT 
had  2;  7  had  3;  2  had  4;  1  had  5. 

Statistics  of  Report  of  Secretary  of  State,  Ohio.— Of  407 
families,  827  had  but  1  deaf  and  dumb  child ;  49  families 
had  2  each;  17  had  3;  8  had  4;  2  had  5;  2  had  6;  'l  had  7; 
1  had  9.  Of  these  407  families,  the  parents  of  47  were 
known  to  have  been  cousins.  Of  these  47,  30  had  1  deaf 
and  dumb  child;  10  had  2;  4  had  3;  2  had  4;  1  had  5. 

Statistics  of  Ireland,  jn'epared  hy  Dr.  Wildes.— Of  170 
families  where  the  parents  were  known  to  be  first  cousins, 
109  had  1  deaf  and  dumb  child;  17  had  8;  3  had  4;  1  had 
7,  and  1  had  8.  In  471  cases  deafness  was  found  to  be 
hereditary,  of  which  249  were  cases  in  which  tlie  father 
or  some  relative  of  his  was  deaf  and  dumb,  and  222  whore 
the  mother  or  some  relative  of  hers  was  deaf  and  dumb. 

Where  not  congenital,  deaf-mutism  is  usually  the 
result  of  disease  or  accident  occurring  in  early 
life.  The  diseases  which  most  frequently  pro- 
duce this  result  are  fever  in  some  form,  con- 
tinued, typhus,  or  yellow,  scarlatina,  that  ter- 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


307 


rible  sconrge  of  childhood,  inflammation  of  the 
brain  or  ear,  dropsy  of  the  brain,  convulsions, 
and  local  paralytic  affections.  In  Europe  the 
small  pox  is  also  an  important  agent  in  causing 


this  infirmity.  The  following  table  of  causes  of 
deafness  when  not  congenital  is  made  up  from 
the  results  of  a  careful  and  tliorough  inquiry  in 
4  different  countries : 


Reports  of  what  inititution  or  country. 

i 
1 1 

.2   c 

i 

1  I' 

Ik 

a 

2 

s 

E 
in 

3 

to 

C 

8 

1 

s 

•f 

CO 

&• 
S 

m 
.£3 

i 

i 
1 

i 
•< 

t 

'm 
>» 

O 

1 

American  Asylum,  Hartford,  United  States. 

National  Institution,  Paris,  France 

Yorkshire  Institution,  Doncaster,  England. 
Dr.  Wildcs's  Irish  Tables , 

539 
50 

85 
375 

101 
10 

74 

99 

1 
6 
87 

3 

1 
3 

19 
2 
4 

10 

2 

is 

14 

85 
9 
9 

8 

1 

1 

13 

2 
53 

6 
6 
3 

40 

22 
1 

is 

2 

lOT 

4 

11 

100 

— Nature  and  cure  of  deafness.  The  diseases  to 
which  the  ear  and  parts  adjacent  are  subject, 
and  most  of  which  may  cause  or  accompany 
deafnes.s,  are  the  following :  Malformation  of 
the  external  ear;  a  diminished  or  excessive  se- 
cretion of  the  wax ;  obliteration  or  enlargement 
of  the  auditory  passage ;  exti-aneous  matter  in  the 
Eustachian  tube ;  a  diseased  or  paralyzed  condi- 
tion of  the  auditory  nerve  ;  disease  of  the  brain ; 
disease  of  the  throat  and  tonsils ;  the  growth  of 
polypi  from  the  lining  membrane  of  the  auditory 
passage  ;  inflammation  or  structural  disease  of 
the  tympanum.  Numerous  attempts  have  been 
made,  both  by  men  eminent  for  science  and  by 
quacks,  to  restore  hearing  to  the  deaf;  but,  with 
few  exceptions,  without  success,  where  the  deaf- 
ness was  nearly  or  quite  complete.  There  are 
not  probably  on  record  more  than  20  cases  of 
complete  recovery  where  the  deafness  was  en- 
tire. Of  those  who  have  devoted  attention  to 
this  subject,  none  probably  ever  brought  the 
entire  appliances  of  science  to  bear  upon  it  more 
fully  than  Dr.  Itard,  the  celebrated  surgeon  and 
philanthropist.  He  made  himself  completely 
master  of  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  ear, 
of  its  physiology,  and  of  its  diseases.  He  tried 
during  the  long  period  of  40  years  every  remedy 
which  seemed  to  give  any  promise  of  success, 
even  to  the  terrible  moxa  and  the  actual  cau- 
tery, but  could  report  success  in  but  two  cases 
out  of  the  hundreds  he  treated^  Dr.  Deleau, 
another  eminent  surgeon,  also  made  a  great 
number  of  experiments,  but  with  no  better  suc- 
cess.— "We  have  already  traced  the  origin  of  the 
early  deaf  and  dumb  institutions  of  France, 
Great  Britain,  and  Germany.  From  these  great 
centres  they  have  spread  over  the  whole  of  Eu- 
rope, until  now  there  are  more  or  less  in  each 
country,  and  many  of  them  of  very  superior 
character.  In  Great  Britain  none  of  the  original 
schools  organized  by  the  Braidwood  family  are 
in  existence ;  the  oldest  institution  being  that 
of  London,  founded  in  1792,  which  is  also  the 
largest  in  Europe,  numbering  over  300  pupils. 
In  1825  there  were  in  the  United  Kingdom  only  9 
institutions  for  deaf  mutes,  and  these  but  indif- 
ferently sustained;  in  1851  there  were  25,  all 
well  sustained,  employing  81  teachers,  and  con- 
taining over  1,400  pupils.  In  France  for  many 
years  there  Avere  no  institutions  for  deaf  mutes 


except  those  at  Paris,  Bordeaux,  and  Orleans; 
there  are  now  44,  with  63  teachers,  and  1,642 
pupils.  The  school  founded  by  De  I'fipee  is 
still  in  existence  as  the  national  institute  for 
young  deaf  mutes  in  Paris,  and  is,  after  that 
of  London,  the  largest  in  Europe.  The  school 
of  Heinicke  still  exists  at  Leipsic,  but  does  not 
now  follow  Heinicke's  methods.  After  France, 
Prussia  is  next  in  rank  in  her  devotion  to  the 
education  of  deaf  mutes.  She  has  25  schools, 
with  about  60  teachers  and  853  pupils.  Aus- 
tria has  19  institutions,  with  71  teachers  and 
643  pupils.  Belgium  has  10,  with  895  pupils; 
one  of  these,  that  of  Bruges,  under  the  direction 
of  the  abbe  Carton,  has  become  widely  known 
from  the  writings  of  its  able  director,  and  par- 
ticularly from  his  interesting  narrative  of  the 
deaf,  dumb,  and  blind  girl,  Anna  Temmermans. 
Bavaria  has  9,  with  21  teachers  and  229  pupils, 
and  has  made  so  thorough  an  investigation  of 
the  condition  of  its  deaf  and  dumb  and  its  blind 
inhabitants,  that  we  may  reasonably  expect 
hereafter  great  progress.  The  smaller  states 
of  Germany  are  well  supplied  with  schools  for 
deaf  mutes,  but  many  of  them  are  veiy  small. 
Italy  has  22,  several  of  which  have  only  from  5 
to  10  pupils;  the  whole  number  of  pupils  is 
only  442.  Russsia,  Spain,  and  Portugal  are  very 
poorly  supplied  with  schools  for  the  education 
of  this  class  of  unfortunates.  "We  subjoin  a. 
table  giving  the  population  of  each  country  in 
1850,  with  the  number  of  schools  for  deaf 
mutes  and  pupils  at  the  same  date  : 


Countries. 

Population, 
1850. 

Number 

of 
icbools. 

Number 

of 
pupilg. 

17.927,609 

6,515,794 

2,883,742 

85,783,170 

10,500,000 

36.514,397 

10,331.187 

4,559,452 

4,426.202 

8,056,591 

2,392,740 

1,402.876 

8,762,276 

16,500.000 

12,232,194 

8.473,758 

62,088,000 

13 
T 
5 

44 

46 

19 

25 

9 

10 

5 

7 

8 

2 

22 

3 

2 

5 

654 

288 

259 

1,642 

Germany about 

57T 
643 

653 

Bavaria 

226 
895 

Holland 

249 

140 

Denmark 

Sweden  and  Norway'. 

Italv 

225 
116 
442 

70 

50 

315 

Total 

240,854,988 

227 

7,844 

308 


DEAP  AM)  DUMB 


— "We  have  already  referred  incidentally  to  Mr. 
Gallaadet's  visit  to  England  in  1815,  and  tbo 
subsequent  organization  of  the  American  asy- 
lum for  the  deaf  and  dumb  at  Hartford.  That 
institution,  the  parent  of  American  deaf-mute 
institutions,  is  still  vigorous  and  flourishing. 
Mr.  Gallaudet  resigned  the  superintendency  in 
1830,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  "Weld,  then  at 
the  head  of  the  Pennsylvania  school.  On  the 
decease  of  Mr.  Weld  in  1853,  the  Rev.  W.  W. 
Turner,  the  present  principal,  was  elected.  The 
asylum  has  now  (1858)  17  teachers,  246  pupils, 
and  has  graduated  over  1,100  deaf  mutes.  The 
New  York  institution,  the  largest  in  this  coun- 
try, and  equal  in  size  to  any  in  Europe,  was  or- 
ganized in  1818,  but  owing  to  a  variety  of  causes 
met  with  but  indifferent  success  till  1831,  when 
its  present  president,  Harvey  P.  Peet,  LL.D., 
was  called  to  the  superintendency.  Under  his 
care  it  has  risen  to  the  first  rank  of  public  in- 
stitutions for  deaf  mutes,  in  the  extent  and 
thoroughness  of  its  course  of  instruction  and 
the  ability  of  its  corps  of  instructors.  It  has 
recently  removed  to  its  new  edifice  at  Fanwood, 
on  the  Hudson  river  railroad,  about  9  miles  from 
the  city  hall.  New  York,  where  it  has  accommo- 
dations for  about  500  pupils.  The  new  build- 
ings are  unsurpassed  in  magnificence  and  cost  by 
any  edifice  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  the  world. 
About  37  acres  are  included  in  the  grounds. 
The  entire  expense  of  buildings  and  grounds 
was  $563,000.  The  Pennsylvania  institution 
was  organized  by  Mr.  Olerc,  the  deaf  mute  who 
accompanied  Mr.  Gallaudet  to  this  country  in 
1816,  and  Mr.  Louis  Weld,  then  a  teacher  in 
the  Hartford  asylum,  became  its  principal.  On 
his  resignation  in  1830,  Mr.  Abraham  B.  Hut- 
ton,  the  present  principal,  was  elected.  The 
institution  is  in  a  highly  prosperous  condition. 
The  Kentucky  asylum  was  incorporated  in  1823. 
Its  principal,  Mr.  J.  A.  Jacobs,  like  those  of 
the  New  York,  Pennsylvania, Virginia,  and  Ohio 
asylums,  was  educated  for  his  position  at  Hart- 
ford. Mr.  Jacobs  has  distinguished  himself 
among  the  highly  intellectual  corps  of  super- 
intendents of  deaf  and  dumb  institutions  as 
an  able  writer  and  a  vigorous  thinker.  The 
Ohio  institution,  organized  in  1829,  has  been 
ably  managed  from  the  first,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  efiicient  of  the  western  schools.  It  has 
had  3  principals,  Mr.  IlubbeU,  Mr.  Gary  (both 
deceased),  and  Mr.  Stone,  the  present  incum- 
bent. AJl  had  been  teachers  at  Hartford.  The 
Virginia  institution,  located  at  Stannton,  was 
organized  in  1838.  It  contains  a  department 
for  the  blind.  It  is  finely  situated,  and  its  build- 
ings and  grounds  are  very  attractive.  The 
other  institutions  have  all  been  organized  since 
1845,  and  most  of  them  are  state  institutions. 
The  western  states  have  generally  been  vei-y 
liberal  in  their  appropriations  for  the  erection 
of  suitable  buildings  and  the  support  of  tlie 
institutions ;  but  in  some  of  them  partisan  poli- 
tics have  been  allowed  to  exert  an  unfavorable 
influence  in  inducing  frequent  changes  of  super- 
intendents.    The  table  on  the  next  page  gives  a 


comprehensive  view  of  the  present  condition 
of  the  institutions  in  the  United  States,  carefully 
compiled  from  their  latest  reports.  From  this 
it  appears  that  there  are  in  these  institutions 
about  1,800  deaf  and  dumb  pupils,  which,  esti- 
mating the  proportion  of  deaf  mutes  as  1  in 
2,000  of  the  population,  would  give  |  of  the 
whole  number  as  under  instruction.  Large  as 
this  proportion  is,  it  comprises,  according  to 
the  tables  of  Dr.  Peet,  published  in  1852,  only 
about  f  of  the  number  who  should  be  under  in- 
struction. The  term  of  life  with  the  deaf  mute 
is  shown  by  the  census  of  England  and  the 
United  States  to  be  below  the  average.  In 
England  47  per  cent,  of  the  whole  number  of 
deaf  mutes  are  under  20  years  of  age  ;  in  the 
United  States  about  50  per  cent,  are  under 
30  years.  The  deficiency  of  schools  in  this 
country  is  mainly  in  the  southern  and  west- 
ern states,  and  is  likely  to  be  remedied  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years.  In  Europe,  and  espe- 
cially in  Austria,  Spain,  Portugal,  and,  above 
all,  Russia,  the  provisions  for  their  education 
are  very  meagre  and  defective.  The  advancing 
light  of  civilization  will  undoubtedly  remedy 
this  in  time,  but  many  generations  of  the  un- 
fortunate deaf  and  dumb  must  first  perish  in  ig- 
norance.— The  number  of  deaf  mutes  who  have 
attained  to  eminence  in  science  and  art  is  much 
smaller  than  that  of  the  blind ;  but  occasionally 
we  find  a  superior  intellect  rising  above  the 
trammels  of  infirmity,  and  making  good  its 
claim  to  the  possession  of  genius.  Among  those 
who  have  distinguished  themselves  for  intel- 
lectual ability,  Jean  Massieu  deserves  notice; 
the  fellow  pupil  of  Olerc,  and  afterward,  under 
Sicard,  his  fellow  teacher,  he  displayed  meta- 
physical powers  of  a  high  order.  The  late  Wal- 
ter Geikie,  R.  A.  S.,  of  Edinburgh,  was  a  paint- 
er and  designer  of  extraordinary  ability,  and  it 
is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  title  of  the 
"  Scottish  Teniers,"  which  was  very  generally 
applied  to  him,  conferred  more  honor  on  the 
ancient  than  the  modern  painter.  He  left  about 
1,300  sketches,  many  of  them  etched  on  cop- 
per by  himself;  and  as  representations  of  com- 
mon life  in  Scotland  they  are  unsurpassed. 
We  might  add  to  this  catalogue  such  names  as 
that  of  the  linguist  Montbret  and  others,  who 
have  distinguished  themselves  in  their  several 
spheres;  but  the  living  deaf  mutes  who  have 
achieved  distinction  are  far  more  numerous 
than  the  dead.  Laurent  Clerc  and  Prof.  Le- 
noir, eminent  as  teachers  in  deaf  and  dumb 
institutions ;  Levi  S.  Backus,  editor  of  the  "  Ra- 
dii;" Edmund  Booth,  editor  of  the  "Eureka;" 
Albert  Newsam,  an  artist  of  decided  genius ; 
M.  Maloisel,  the  French  sculptor  ;  and  Mrs. 
Mary  ToUes  Peet,  whose  lyrical  powers  give  evi- 
dence not  only  of  poetic  genius  but  of  rhythmio 
ability  entirely  independent  of  the  accident  of 
hearing,  are  among  the  most  distinguished.  As 
education  progresses  among  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
Ave  may  confidently  expect  the  devclopnieut  ot 
higher  intellectual  powers,  and  a  more  facile  and 
skilful  use  of  them. 


DEAF  AKD  DUMB 


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310 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


DEAL 


Eminent  Deaf  Mutes. 

Juan  Femandez  do  Navaretto,  painter,  boi-n  1526,  dlod  1579, 
commonly  known  as  El  Miulo;  ho  was  regarded  as  tho 
Titian  of  Spain.  Ho  painted  many  of  the  finest  pictures 
of  tho  Escurial. 

Pedro  do  Velasco,  a  brother  of  tho  constable  of  Aragon,  born 

1540,  a  priest  of  the  Konian  Catholic  church  ;  Velasco, 

n  brother  of  tho  preceding,  born  1544,  an  officer  in  tho 
Spanish  army.  These  were  pupils  of  Todro  I'onco  do 
Leon,  and  wore  the  first  deaf  inutos  who  attained  distinc- 
tion. 

8tr  Edward  Gostwick,  magistrate,  born  about  1610 ; Oost- 

wick,  painter ;  brothers,  mentioned  by  Defoe  as  having  ob- 
t.iined  distinction;  they  wore  deaf  from  birth.  The  younger 
.ittained  to  ominenco  as  a  p.ainter  of  portraits. 

Emanuel  Philibert,  prince  of  Savoy,  born  about  1650,  died 
about  1700,  a  pupil  of  Eamlrez  de  Cariou,  who  acquired 
the  ability  to  re.ad  and  speak  4  languases. 

Miss  Loggin,  authoress,  born  about  1700;  also  mentioned  by 
Defoe,  who  speaks  of  her  as  a  miracle  of  wit  and  good  na- 
ture. 

Saboreux  de  Eontenai,  born  about  1780,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  Pereira's  pupils,  master  of  several  lan- 
guages, and  an  author. 

Je.an  M.assieu,  teacher  of  deaf  mutes,  born  1772,  died  1846,  was 
tho  most  eminent  of  Sicard's  pupils,  and  possessed  extra- 
ordinary logic.ll  powers.  Ho  was  director  of  the  deaf-muto 
institute  at  Lille. 

Eugene,  Baron  de  Montbret,  secretary  interpreter  to  tho 
minister  of  foreign  atfairs,  France,  born  17S5,  died  1847. 
After  Cardinal  Mezzofanti,  Baron  de  Montbret  was  perhaps 
the  best  linguist  in  Europe.  He  was  more  familiar  than 
any  other  man  with  the  Asiatic  languages.  He  became 
de.af  at  the  age  of  5  years.  He  left  $60,000  and  a  library  of 
60,000  volumes  to  tho  city  of  Rouen. 

Laurent  Clerc,  professor  at  Paris  and  Hartford,  born  1785, 
w.as  associated  with  Mr.  Gallaudot  in  founding  tho  Amer- 
ican asylum  for  deaf  and  dimib,  and  had  previously  been 
a  professor  at  Paris  under  Sicard.  Ho  is  still  living  at 
Hartford.  His  autobiography,  letters,  and  addresses  have 
been  published. 

Mrs.  Charlotte  Elizabeth  Tonna,  authoress,  born  1792,  died 
1846.  Mrs.  Tonna  was  one  of  the  most  voluminous  reli- 
gious writers  of  tho  present  century,  and  her  works  have 
had  a  largo  circulation.  She  became  deaf  in  childhood,  at 
the  age  of  9  or  10. 

■Walter  Geikie,  painter  and  engraver,  born  1795,  died  18.37, 
possessed  such  skill  in  the  portr.ilture  of  low  life  in  Scot- 
land that  ho  was  known  as  the  Scotch  Teniers.  A  volume 
of  his  etchings  has  been  published. 

Levi  S.  Backus,  teacher,  printer,  and  editor,  born  1803,  for- 
merly connected  with  tho  deaf  and  dumb  institute  at 
Canajoharie,  now  discontinued;  editor  and  publisher  of 
the  "Eadii,"  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y. 

John  Kitto,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  author  and  editor,  born  1804,  died 
1854.  Dr.  Kitto  was  regarded,  at  the  time  of  his  resigning 
Lis  connection  with  the  "Journal  of  Biblical  Literature," 
as  the  ablest  biblical  scholar  then  living.  Ho  was  the  edi- 
tor and  a  large  contributor  to  tho  "  Cyclopo?dia  of  Biblical 
Literature,"  author  of  "Daily  Bible  Illustrations,"  "Lost 
Senses,"  &c.    Ho  became  deaf  at  tho  age  of  13. 

Thomas  Brown,  mechanic,  born  1804,  has  presided  over  three 
sessions  of  the  convention  of  tho  deaf  and  dumb.  His  ad- 
dresses which  have  been  published  exhibit  decided  talent. 

Wilson  Whjton,  a  teacher  in  tho  American  asylum,  born 
1805.  Prof.  Whiton  has  not,  we  believe,  published  any 
thing,  but  bears  a  high  reputation  for  scholarship  and  in- 
tellectual ability. 

Alice  Cogswell,  born  1805,  died  1830,  one  of  tho  most  Inter- 
esting of  this  unfortunate  class.  She  possessed  in  a  high 
degi-eo  the  poetic  temperament.  It  was  in  consequence 
of  his  interest  in  her  that  Dr.  G.iUaudet  was  led  to  attempt 
the  education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb. 

George  H.  Loring,  teacher  in  the  American  asylum,  born  1807, 
died  1852,  was  one  of  tho  earliest  pupils  of  tho  asylum. 
He  was  a  writer  of  superior  ability. 

James  Nack,  poet  and  author,  born  1809,  became  deaf  at  the 
age  of  9  years;  has  an  office  under  the  N.  Y.  county  clerk; 
has  published  several  volumes  of  poems,  the  last  entitloa 
the  "  Romance  of  the  King"  (1859). 

David  M.  Phillips,  lieutenant-colonel  of  governor's  horse 
guards,  Louisiana,  born  1811,  was  educated  at  tho  deaf- 
mute  institute  in  Groningen,  but  has  resided  in  Kew  Or- 
leans since  1831.  He  has  filled  many  offices  with  fidelity 
and  distinction,  some  of  them  such  as  it  would  seem  impos- 
sible for  a  deaf  muto  to  fill. 

Edwin  John  Mann,  mechanic  and  author,  born  1811,  is  a 
graduate  of  tho  American  asylum  at  Hartford.  He  pub- 
lished in  1S36  a  volume  entitled  "  The  Deaf  .and  Dumb ;  a 
collection  of  articles  relating  to  the  condition  of  deaf 
mutes,  &c." 

Mrs.  Mary  Tolles  Peet,  teacher  and  poetess,  boru  1836,  has 


published  a  nntnber  of  fugitive  poems  of  groat  merit.  Sh? 
pos.sosses  what  deaf  mutes  seldom  attain,  an  accurate  per- 
ception of  rhythm  and  melody.  She  became  deaf  at  tho 
age  of  1.3. 

John  11.  Burnet,  farmer  and  author,  was  for  a  time  an  in- 
structor in  the  N.  Y.  institute;  now  resides  at  Livingston, 
N.  J.,  where  ho  has  a  farm.  Is  famili.ar  with  French  and 
German  literature.  He  has  published  "  Tales  of  tho  Deaf 
and  Dumb,  with  Miscellaneous  Poems,"  and  has  been  a 
frequent  contributor  to  tho  "Biblical  Kepository"  and 
"North  American  Review." 

Ferdinand  Berthier,  professor  at  Paris  and  author,  died  1857, 
wrote  an  able  memoir  of  Do  r£pec,  and  several  addresses 
which  wore  published. 

Professor  Lenoir,  of  Paris,  spoken  of  by  Mr.  Clerc  as  a  man 
of  decided  ability.     He  is  still  living. 

John  Carlin,  an  artist.  Mr.  Carlin  is  ono  of  the  most  gifted 
deaf  mutes  living.  As  an  artist  and  designer  he  possesses 
genius  of  a  high  order.  He  is  also  a  vigorous  and  able 
writer.     He  is  a  gr.aduate  of  the  Philadelphia  institution. 

Albert  Newsam,  artist  and  engraver.  Mr.  Newsam  stands 
in  the  first  rank  of  American  lithographic  artists.  Many 
of  his  engravings,  designed  entirely  by  himself,  aro  among 
tho  best  specimens  of  the  art  in  this  country. 

M.  Maloisel,  superintendent  of  turning  shop  in  Paris  institu- 
tion for  de.af  and  dumb.  M.  Maloisel  has  distinguished 
himself  as  an  inventor.  A  machine  invented  by  him  for 
executing  sculpture  received  the  great  medal  and  an  an- 
nuity of  $60  per  annum,  at  the  world's  fair  in  Paris,  1S55. 

M.  Richardin,  inventor  and  daguerrootypist.  M.  Richardin 
also  received  a  medal  for  an  ingenious  machine  for  polish- 
ing daguerreotype  plates — not  his  first  contribution  to  tho 
improvement  of  that  art. 

— The  following  works  may  be  consulted 
with  advantage  by  those  who  would  investi- 
gate the  subject  of  deaf-mute  instruction  more 
fully ;  the  earlier  ones,  except  some  2  or  3 
which  have  been  reprinted,  are  scarce:  Juan 
Pablo  Bonet,  Beduccion  de  lad  letras  y  artespara 
ensenar  a  Tiablar  loa  vnidos  (Madrid,  1620); 
George  Dalgarno,  "Didascalocophus,  or  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb  Man's  Tutor"  (Oxford,  1680),  re- 
printed in  the  "  Annals  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb," 
vol.  ix. ;  John  Wallis,  "  Letter  to  Thomas  Bever- 
ley," in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions,"  Oct. 
1698;  Joseph  Watson,  LL.D.,  "  Instruction  of 
the  Deaf  and  Dumb"  (London,  1809);  "Me- 
moirs of  Eev.  John  Townsend  "  (Boston,  1831 ; 
Mr.  Townsend  was  the  founder  of  the  London 
asylum  for  the  deaf  and  dumb) ;  Charles  Michel, 
abb6  de  I'Epee,  La  veritcMe  maniere,  &c.  (Pa- 
ris ;  this  is  De  l'£p6e's  best  work ;  it  was  trans- 
lated into  English,  and  published  at  London  in 
1801) ;  Charles  Baker,  "Contributions  to  Pub- 
lications of  the  Society  for  the  Ditfusion  of 
Useful  Knowledge,"  &c.  (piivately  reprinted, 
1842);  Abbe  Sicard,  several  works  on  the  in- 
struction of  deaf  mutes,  all  of  which  are,  how- 
ever, now  scarce;  Baron  de  Gerando,  De  la 
tienfaisance  and  De  Venseignement  des  sourds- 
muets,  the  latter  a  work  of  great  value ;  Annales 
de  Ved^ication  des  sourds-muets  et  des  aveugles, 
a  periodical  published  in  Paris,  1843-53 ;  Le 
Bienfaiteiii\  a  periodical,  1853-56  ;  L'lmpar- 
tial,  a  periodical,  1856;  "Annals  of  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb"  (Hartford,  1848-'58)  ;  "  Tribute  to 
Gallaudet,"  with  an  appendix  by  the  Hon.  Henry 
Barnard  (Hartford,  1852) ;  reports  of  the  va- 
rious deaf  and  dumb  institutions  in  Europe  and 
America ;  "  Life  of  the  Eev.  T.  II.  Gallaudet, 
LL.D.,"  by  tho  Eev.  Heman  Humphrey,  D.D. 
(New  York,  1858). 

DEAL,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  bor- 
ough, parish,  seaport,  market  town,  and  water-- 
ing  place  of  Kent.  England,  and  a  member  of 


DEAN 


DEANE 


311 


the  cinquo  port  of  Sandwich,  bnilt  on  an  open 
beach  on  the  North  sea,  between  the  N.  and  S. 
Forelands,  18  m.  S.  E.  of  Canterbury,  8  m.  N. 
E.  of  Dover,  and  102  m.  by  the  south-eastern 
railway  E.  8.  E.  of  London ;  pop.  in  1851, 7,067. 
It  is  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  Deal ;  the 
former,  comprising  the  residences  of  the  wealthy 
classes,  was  a  small  fishing  village  in  the  time 
of  Henry  VIIL  ;  the  latter,  built  on  3  streets 
parallel  with  the  coast,  is  entirely  of  modern 
date,  and  has  most  of  the  business  and  the 
bulk  of  the  population.  The  towu  contains  a 
spacious  esplanade,  a  i^ublic  library  and  reading 
room,  a  custom  house,  a  naval  yard  and  store- 
house, barracks,  a  pilot  station,  a  town  hall,  a 
gaol,  baths,  a  savings  bank,  boat-building  yards, 
gas  works,  a  nautical  school,  national  and  infant 
schools,  2  parish  churches,  a  chapel  of  ease,  and 
places  of  worship  for  dissenters.  At  its  S.  end 
is  a  fortress  built  by  Henry  VIIL  in  1539,  and 
on  the  N.  stands  Sandown  castle,  now  used  as 
a  coast  guard  station.  Tliere  is  no  harbor,  but 
vessels  of  all  diraensions  ride  safely  in  a  spacious 
roadstead  called  the  Downs,  between  the  shore 
and  the  Goodwin  sands.  The  latter  lie  directly 
opposite  the  town,  and  are  the  scene  of  frequent 
shipwrecks.  There  is  little  or  no  foreign  com- 
merce, but  a  brisk  trade  in  naval  supplies  is  car- 
ried on  with  vessels  which,  at  times  to  the 
number  of  400  or  500,  anchor  in  the  Downs 
while  waiting  for  favorable  winds.  Many  of 
the  inhabitants  are  fishermen  or  connected  in 
some  other  way  with  maritime  pursuits,  and  the 
skill  and  daring  of  the  Deal  boatmen,  both  as 
pilots  and  as  wreckers,'  are  almost  proverbial ; 
but  their  occupation  is  now  deserting  them. 
Of  the  licensed  or  branch  pilots  of  the  cinque 
ports,  56  are  attached  to  this  station.  The 
registered  shipping  of  the  port,  Dec.  31,  1856, 
amounted  to  18  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  ton- 
nage of  299.  Number  of  coasting  vessels  en- 
tered during  the  year,  72,  tonnage  5,335.  There 
were  no  returns  of  entrances  from  foreign  ports, 
nor  of  clearances  of  any  description.  Adjoining 
Deal  on  the  S.  is  the  suburban  village  of  Wal- 
mer,  where  is  situated  Walmer  castle,  the  ofii- 
cial  residence  of  the  warden  of  the  cinque  ports. 
In  the  same  suburb  is  a  royal  naval  and  military 
hospital,  now  converted  into  a  coast  guard  sta- 
tion. There  are  several  martello  towers  along 
the  coast.  The  borough  unites  with  Sandwich 
in  sending  2  members  to  the  house  of  commons. 
DEAN  (Lat.  decanus,  Fr.  doyen),  in  Eu^land, 
an  ecclesiastical  ofiicer,  so  called,  it  is  supposed, 
because  he  was  formerly  at  the  head  of  ten 
(lat.  decern)  canons  or  prebendaries.  Deans  are 
of  3  classes.  1.  The  dean  of  a  cathedral  church 
ranks  next  to  the  bishop,  and  is  chief  of  the 
chapter,  by  whom  he  was  originally  elected; 
but  in  bishoprics  erected  by  Henry  VIIL  he  is 
now  appointed  by  the  crown,  while  in  other 
sees  the  chapter  are  obliged  under  heavy  penal- 
ties to  choose  the  royal  nominee.  All  the  acts 
of  such  communities  are  in  the  name  of  the  dean 
and  chapter.  2.  Pau-al  deans  are  usually  beneficed 
clergymen  to  whom  is  committed  the  superin- 


tendency  of  a  certain  number  of  parishes.  They 
are  the  medium  of  communication  between  the 
higher  and  lower  orders  of  clergy ;  they  appear 
to  have  formerly  discharged  the  duties  now  per- 
formed by  clergymen  called  surrogates,  and  they 
had  their  public  seals.  The  office  probably  ex- 
isted in  England  before  tlio  Norman  conquest, 
and  subsequently  falling  into  disuse,  became 
merged  in  those  of  archdeacon  and  chancellor. 
An  attempt  has  been  made  to  revive  it  during 
the  present  century.  3.  Deans  in  peculiars  are 
ecclesiastics  i)ossessing  peculiar  privileges  and 
jurisdiction,  arising  in  most  instances  from  I'oyal 
foundations.  Such  are  the  deans  of  Westmin- 
ster, St.  George's  chapel  at  "Windsor,  Christ 
churcli  Oxford,  the  Arches,  the  King's  chapel, 
&c.,  most  of  whom  were  originally,  as  some  are 
now,  at  the  head  of  capitular  bodies.  There 
are  also  deans  of  faculties  in  the  universities, 
and  in  Scotland  deans  of  guild,  who  preside  over 
incorporated  bodies  of  tradesmen. 

DEAN  FOREST,  a  royal  forest  of  England, 
in  the  county  of  Gloucester ;  area,  about  22,000 
acres,  one-half  of  which  is  now  set  aside  for 
navy  timber ;  pop.  in  1851,  13,566,  mostly 
miners.  It  was  anciently  much  more  extensive 
than  at  present,  nearly  all  that  part  of  the 
county  lying  TV.  of  the  Severn  having  been  in- 
cluded within  its  limits.  It  embraces  a  num- 
ber of  plantations  of  oak,  beech,  and  other 
trees,  and  orchards  famous  for  the  production 
of  styre-apple  cider.  It  abounds  in  coal  and 
iron,  and  several  railways  have  been  construct- 
ed from  the  mines  to  the  Severn,  "Wye,  &c. 
Dean  Forest  is  divided  into  6  parochial  districts, 
and  is  the  property  of  the  crown.  The  inliab- 
itants  pay  no  county  rates,  and  enjoy  a  number 
of  ancient  privileges. 

DEANE,  James,  M.D.,  an  American  physi- 
cian, the  discoverer  of  the  fossil  footprints  of  the 
Connecticut  valley,  born  in  Coleraine,  Mass., 
Feb.  14,  1801,  died  at  Greenfield,  June  8,  1858. 
He  removed  to  Greenfield  in  1822,  where,  after 
■writing  in  a  public  oflBce  for  4  years,  he  studied 
medicine,  and  practised  as  a  physician  aiid  sur- 
geon from  1831  until  his  death.  As  a  medical 
writer  he  was  known  to  the  profession  by  his 
frequent  contributions  to  the  Boston  "Medical 
and  Surgical  Journal,"  and  by  a  communication 
•written  at  the  request  of  the  Massachusetts  med- 
ical society,  on  the  "Hygienic  Condition  of  the 
Survivors  of  Ovariotomy,"  in  which  he  establish- 
ed the  morality  of  the  operation.  In  the  spring 
of  1835  he  discovered  the  fossil  footprints  in  the 
red  sandstone  of  the  Connecticut  valley.  By 
means  of  diagrams  and  plaster  casts  he  succeed- 
ed in  calling  the  attention  of  eminent  scientific 
men  to  the  subject,  and  thus  gave  the  first  im- 
pulse to  its  thorough  investigation,  which  was 
afterward  prosecuted  by  Prof.  Edward  Hitch- 
cock and  others.  For  several  years  he  was  a  most 
successful  collector  of  specimens,  and  American 
geologists  were  early  convinced  of  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  footprints;  but  tlie  greatest 'scepti- 
cism existed  in  England  until,  in  1842,  Dr.  Deane 
prepai'ed  a  box  of  the  impressions,  whi^  he 


312 


DEANE 


DEATH 


sent  with  a  communication  to  Dr.  G,  A.  Man- 
tell,  by  whom  they  were  placed  before  the  geo- 
logical society  of  London ;  and  by  means  of 
these,  taken  in  connection  with  the  then  recent 
discovery  of  the  bones  of  the  dinornis  of  New 
Zealand,  the  doubts  of  Sir  Eoderic  Murchison 
(then  Mr.  Murchison),  tlie  ])resident  of  the  so- 
ciety, and  of  Dr.  Mautell  and  Prof.  Owen,  were 
removed,  and  they  yielded  their  assent  to  the 
conclusions  of  Dr.  Deane  and  Prof.  Hitchcock. 
Shortly  afterward  a  discussion  arose  between 
the  two  latter  gentlemen  as  to  their  respective 
claims  to  the  credit  of  the  discovery,  which 
appeared  in  "  Silliman's  Journal,"  vol.  xlvii.  Dr. 
Deaue  also  published  numerous  papers  in  the 
same  and  other  scientific  journals,  and  in  the 
memoirs  of  scientific  societies,  with  occasional 
illustrations ;  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  he  was 
engaged  in  the  preparation  of  an  elaborate 
memoir  upon  the  whole  subject  for  the  Smith- 
sonian institution,  with  lithographic  j^lates 
made  by  himself,  by  which  the  color  of  the 
rock  and  the  actual  appearance  of  the  footprints 
were  reproduced  with  singular  fidelity.  These 
plates  were  all  completed. 

DEANE,  Silas,  an  American  diplomatist, 
born  at  Groton,  Conn.,  died  at  Deal,  England, 
Aug.  23,  1789.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  college 
in  1758,  and  was  a  member  of  the  first  conti- 
nental congress  in  1774.  He  was  sent  by  con- 
gress to  France  as  a  political  and  financial  agent, 
and  arrived  at  Paris  in  June,  1776,  with  in- 
structions to  ascertain  the  temper  of  the  French 
government  concerning  the  rupture  with  Great 
Britain,  and  to  obtain  supplies  of  military 
stores.  But  he  did  not  confine  himself  to  his 
instructions,  but  made  promises  and  engage- 
ments on  all  sides,  which  afterward  brought 
the  congress  into  considerable  embitrrassment. 
When  in  September  it  was  determined  to  send 
ministers  to  negotiate  treaties,  Dr.  Franklin  and 
Mr.  Jefferson,  and,  on  the  declension  of  the  latter, 
Arthur  Lee,  were  commissioned  to  join  him  at 
Paris,  and  he  assisted  in  the  negotiation  of  the 
treaty  with  France.  In  consequence  of  the  ex- 
travagant contracts  he  had  entered  into,  he  was 
recalled,  Nov.  21,  1777,  and  John  Adams  ap- 
pointed in  his  place.  He  left  Paris,  April  1, 
1778,  and  upon  his  return,  being  called  upon  to 
give  an  account  of  his  proceedings  on  the  floor 
of  congress,  evaded  a  complete  disclosure  upon 
the  ground  that  his  papers  were  in  Europe.  He 
then  attacked  his  fellow  commissioners  and 
congress  itself  in  a  public  manifesto  for  the 
manner  in  whicli  he  had  been  treated,  but  did 
not  succeed  in  removing  the  public  suspicion 
from  himself.  He  afterward  published  in  1784 
an  address  to  the  citizens  of  the  United  States 
on  the  same  subject,  and  returning  to  Europe, 
died  in  great  poverty. 

DEARBORN,  a  S.  E.  co.  of  Ind.,  bordering 
on  Ohio,  drained  by  Whitewater  river ;  area,  291 
eq.  m. ;  pop,  in  1850,  20,166.  Part  of  the  sur- 
face is  level  and  pai-t  hilly  •  the  soil  is  general- 
ly fertile.  Limestone  is  the  principal  rock.  In 
1850  this  county  yielded  938,491  bushels  of 


corn,  70,506  of  wheat,  94,108  of  oats,  and 
13,889  tuns  of  hay.  There  were  47  churches, 
and  7,461  pupils  attending  public  schools. 
Capital,  Lawrenceburg. 

DEARBORN,  Heney,  an  American  general, 
born  in  Hampton,  N.  H.,  in  March,  1751,  died 
at  Roxbury,  Mass.,  June  6,  1829.  He  was 
practising  medicine  at  Portsmouth  when,  on 
hearing  the  news  of  the  battle  of  Lexington, 
April  20,  1775,  he  immediately  marched  with 
60  volunteers,  and  was  at  Cambridge  early 
the  next  day,  a  distance  of  65  m.  He  was 
made  a  captain,  was  at  the  battle  of  Bunker 
hill,  June  17,  and  accompanied  Arnold  on  the 
expedition  through  the  woods  of  Maine  to 
Quebec.  In  the  attack  on  that  place,  Dec. 
31,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  afterward  re- 
leased on  parole,  and  exchanged,  March,  1777. 
He  served  as  major  under  Gates  at  the  capture 
of  Burgoyne,  and  distinguished  himself  and  his 
regiment  by  a  gallant  charge  at  the  battle  of 
Monmouth  in  1778.  In  1779  he  served  in  Sul- 
livan's expedition  against  the  Indians,  in  1780 
with  the  army  of  New  Jersey  in  1781  at  York- 
town,  and  in  1782  was  on  garrison  duty  at 
Saratoga.  At  the  peace,  having  emigrated  to 
Maine,  ho  was  appointed  by  Washington  in 
1789  marshal  of  that  district.  He  was  twice 
member  of  congress,  and  for  8  years,  during  the 
presidency  of  Mr.  Jefferson,  secretary  of  war. 
In  1809  he  was  made  collector  of  Boston,  and 
on  Jan.  27,  1812,  became  senior  major-general 
in  the  U.  S.  army.  In  the  spring  of  1813  he 
captured  York,  in  Upper  Canada,  and  Fort 
George,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Niagara,  but  was 
recalled,  and  soon  afterward  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  military  district  of  New  York 
city.  Resigning  his  commission  in  the  army  in 
1815,  he  was  appointed.  May  7,  1822,  minister 
to  Portugal,  where  he  remained  2  years,  and 
was  recalled  at  his  own  request. 

DEATH.  With  all  our  science  and  philoso- 
phy we  cannot  obtain  a  better  definition  of 
death  than  that  it  is  a  cessation  of  life.  Of  life 
itself  we  know  nothing  beyond  what  we  can 
learn  from  the  observation  of  certain  phenomena 
presented  by  living  organized  bodies,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  those  exhibited  by  inorganic 
forms.  When  these  vital  phenomena  cease  to 
present  themselves,  we  have  death.  Human 
beings  seldom  or  never  reach  that  term  of  ex- 
istence that  nature  has  fixed.  Death  by  dis- 
ease or  violence  is  the  rule,  death  from  old  age 
the  exception.  When  disease  terminates  life 
gradually,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  trace  the 
precise  changes  which  lead  to  the  final  and 
fatal  result.  When,  however,  death  is  sudden, 
as  in  apoplexy,  concussion  of  the  brain,  suffoca- 
tion, and  hemorrhage,  its  immediate  cause  may 
be  more  readily  ascertained.  The  heart,  the 
lungs,  and  the  brain  were  called  the  tripod  of 
life  by  the  ancients,  who  thus  metaphorically 
described  the  fundamental  basis  upon  which  an- 
imal existence  is  erected.  Death  to  either  is 
necessarily  death  to  all,  as  each  of  these  organs 
ia  the  source  of  a  function  absolutely  essential  to 


DEATH 


313 


life.  The  cessation  of  the  action  of  the  lungs  and 
heart,  organs  intimately  associated  in  the  move- 
ment of  tlie  blood,  is  so  far  similar  in  effect,  tliat 
in  either  case  the  cause  of  death  is  to  be  attribut- 
ed to  default  of  the  circulation.  When  asphyxia 
or  suffocation  is  the  primary  difficulty,  and  the 
blood  is  consequently  not  aerated  on  account  of 
the  inaction  of  the  lungs,  whose  special  function 
it  is  to  breathe  in  the  air,  the  heart  continuing 
its  movement  sends  an  impure  fluid  to  the  brain 
which  acts  as  a  direct  poison  njjon  that  organ, 
and,  putting  a  stop  to  its  functions,  terminates 
life.  When  tlie  action  of  the  heart  is  first  de- 
stroyed, as  it  may  be  by  wounds,  ruptures,  dis- 
ease, or  the  nervous  effect  of  mental  emotions, 
joy,  grief,  anger,  or  fear,  the  brain  ceases  to  live 
at  once,  from  being  deprived  of  blood  in  conse- 
quence of  the  inability  of  the  heart  to  send  a  sup- 
ply, and  sudden  death  is  the  result.  When  death 
begins  by  the  lungs  or  by  the  heart,  the  fatal 
termination  is  more  rapid  than  when  it  begins  at 
the  brain.  The  last  is  the  centre  of  the  animal, 
while  the  other  two  are  the  chief  instruments  in 
the  maintenance  of  the  organic  functions ;  and  it 
is  well  known  that  the  animal  life  cannot  exist 
for  a  moment  after  the  death  of  the  organic,  al- 
though the  vitality  of  the  latter  is  possible  for  a 
greater  or  less  time  after  the  cessation  of  the  for- 
mer. When,  therefore,  the  action  of  the  brain 
is  first  arrested  by  disease  or  violence,  and  the 
animal  functions  of  sensation,  thought,  and  mo- 
tion cease,  tbe  organic  functions  of  respiration 
and  circulation  may  still  continue.  For  example, 
in  apoplexy,  a  disease  of  the  brain,  the  individ- 
ual falls  senseless  and  motionless,  but  his  lungs 
continue  to  operate  and  his  heart  to  beat.  These 
organs,  however,  are  affected  from  the  begin- 
ning, and  act  with  diminishing  power,  until  they 
cease  entirely,  and  death  is  the  result. — Fades 
Hippocratica  is  the  term  applied  to  the  ordinary 
appearance  of  the  dead  human  countenance,  from 
the  generally  truthful  description  given  by  Hip- 
pocrates, whose  words  have  been  thus  translated  : 
"  The  forehead  wrinkled  and  dry  ;  the  eye  sunk- 
en ;  the  nose  pointed  and  bordered  with  a  violet 
orhlack  circle ;  the  temples  sunken,  hollow,  and 
retired  ;  the  ears  sticking  up  ;  the  lips  hanging 
down ;  the  cheeks  sunken ;  the  chin  wrinkled 
and  hard ;  the  color  of  the  skin  leaden  or  violet ; 
the  hairs  of  the  nose  and  eyelashes  sprinkled  ^vith 
a  yellowish  white  dust."  Some  of  these  appear- 
ances, however,  show  themselves  previous  to 
death,  and  in  diseases  that  do  not  necessarily  ter- 
minate fatally,  while  many  of  them  are  entirely 
absent  in  those  who  die  suddenly,  or  of  ailments 
not  long  protracted  or  very  painful.  It  becomes 
therefore  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  decide 
whether  there  are  precise  indications  of  death, 
and  what  they  may  be ;  such  undoubtedly  exist, 
in  spite  of  the  vulgar  notion  of  their  frequent 
absence.  There  are  but  few  well  authenticated 
cases  of  premature  burial,  and  these  were  prob- 
ably from  design  or  barbarous  ignorance.  The 
horror  of  being  buried  alive  naturally,  how- 
ever, so  excites  the  imagination,  that  it  is  pre- 
pared to  receive  the  most  marvellous  fables  as 


if  they  were  authentic  facts.  A  French  writer 
named  Fontenelle  has,  in  his  work  on  the 
signs  of  death,  given  full  scope  to  his  credulity, 
and  accepts  witliout  hesitation  the  most  ab- 
sui-d  stories  of  persons  being  buried  alive.  He 
narrates,  with  a  faith  more  marvellous  than  are 
even  the  extraordinary  incidents  of  some  of  his 
recitals,  100  cases  of  premature  burial  gathered 
from  all  the  world  and  from  all  history,  and 
which  he  would  have  us  believe  are  truths,  but 
he  gives  no  evidence  of  their  genuineness.  Louis, 
a  French  writer  on  medical  jurisprudence,  relates 
that  a  patient  who  was  supposed  to  have  died 
at  the  hospital  was  removed  to  the  dissecting 
room.  Next  day  Louis  was  told  that  moans 
had  been  heard,  and  on  repairing  to  the  place 
he  was  persuaded,  as  the  winding  sheet  was 
more  or  less  disturbed,  that  the  supposed  dead 
had  revived  during  the  night,  and  had  died 
subsequently.  The  moans  heard  and  the  disar- 
rangement of  the  coverings  of  the  dead,  in  this 
case,  were  however  no  proofs  of  the  movements 
of  life,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  Louis  was 
misled  by  indications  that  have  often  seemed  to 
give  sanction  to  the  popular  notion  of  persons 
having  revived  after  apparent  death.  Bodies 
are  often  found  turned  in  their  coffins  and  their 
grave  clothes  disarranged.  These  eflects  are 
however  easily  explained  without  any  supposi- 
tion of  life  by  the  fact  that  the  gases  generated 
by  corruption  imitate  in  their  action  upon  an  in- 
animate body  some  of  the  movements  of  vitality. 
Dead  bodies  which  have  been  long  in  water, 
when  not  secured  to  the  dissecting  table,  have 
been  known  to  be  heaved  up  and  thrown  to  the 
ground  from  the  mere  effect  of  the  gases  devel- 
oped within  them  in  the  progress  of  corruption. 
This  is  in  fact  a  constant  effect  in  bodies  that  have 
been  interred,  and  undoubtedly  the  supposed 
moans  sometimes  heard,  the  changes  of  position 
observed,  and  the  horrible  idea  entertained  of 
the  flesh  being  gnawed  in  hunger,  may  be  ac- 
counted for  by  the  generation  of  the  gases  after 
death,  which  will  explode  with  a  noise,  twist 
the  body,  and  break  through  the  integuments. 
There  are  certain  indications  which  in  the  aggre- 
gate are  such  sure  proofs  of  death  that  none  but 
the  ignorant  can  be  in  doubt.  These  are  mainly 
cessation  of  breathing,  stoppage  of  the  heart, 
coldness  and  paleness  of  the  surface,  a  film  on 
the  eye,  rigidity  of  the  joints  with  subsequent 
flexibility,  loss  of  contractility  of  the  muscles 
under  the  stimulus  of  galvanism,  and  the  be- 
ginning of  corruption,  which  first  shows  itself  in 
a  dark  greenish  color  about  the  skin  of  the  ab- 
domen. For  a  long  time  both  science  and  pop- 
ular belief  considered  the  mirror  and  the  feather 
as  the  critical  tests  of  death.  These  were  held 
to  the  mouth  of  the  supposed  dead,  and  if  the 
surfiice  of  the  one  remained  undimmed,  and  the 
"light  and  weightless  down"  of  the  other  un- 
moved, all  hope  of  life  was  extinguished.  The 
surest  proof,  however,  of  the  cessation  of 
breath,  is  the  cessation  of  the  movement  of 
the  chest  and  abdomen,  which  will  continue  to 
rise  and  fall  as  long  as  the  least  respiration  re- 


814 


DEATH 


mains. — Lord  Bacon  says :  "  It  is  as  natural  to 
die  as  to  be  born ;  and  to  a  little  infant,  per- 
haps, one  is  as  painful  as  tlie  other."  The  im- 
agination naturally  shrouds  the  great  mystery 
of  death  with  a  solemnity  eo  great  that  none 
contemplate  its  approach  without  awe,  and  few 
"without  terror.  By  a  natural  association  in  the 
couiraon  mind  of  fear  with  suffering,  the  act  of 
dying  has  been  commoulj^  supposed  to  bo  painful. 
So  general  is  this  belief  that  the  term  "agony," 
or  the  expressions  the  "  pangs  of  death"  and 
"  last  struggle,"  are  almost  universally  applied 
to  the  terminatiou  of  life,  as  if  it  necessarily 
involved  violence  and  suffering.  "  Certainly," 
as  Bacon  says  in  his  essay  on  death,  "  the  con- 
templation of  death,  as  the  wages  of  sin  and 
passage  to  another  world,  is  holy  and  religious ; 
but  the  fear  of  it,  as  a  tribute  due  unto  nature, 
is  weak."  So  exaggerated  have  been  the  no- 
tions of  the  pain  of  the  last  moments  of  life, 
that  it  was  long  considered  an  act  of  humanity 
to  anticipate  nature  by  violence.  For  ages  it 
was  the  custom  in  Europe  to  remove  with  a 
sudden  jerk  the  pillow  from  the  head  of  the 
dying,  in  order  to  hasten  death  and  thus  prevent 
the  supposed  agony  of  the  last  struggle.  How- 
ever painful  the  mortal  disease,  there  i^  every 
reason  to  believe  that  the  moment  preceding 
death  is  one  of  calmness  and  freedom  from  pain. 
As  life  approaches  extinction,  insensibility  super- 
venes— a  numbness  and  disposition  to  repose, 
which  do  not  admit  of  the  idea  of  suffering. 
Even  in  those  cases  where  the  activity  of  the 
mind  remains  to  the  last,  and  where  nervous 
sensibility  would  seem  to  continue,  it  is  surpris- 
ing how  often  there  has  been  observed  a  state 
of  happy  feeling  on  the  approach  of  death.  "  If 
I  had  strength  enough  to  hold  a  pen,  I  would 
write  how  easy  and  delightful  it  is  to  die," 
were  the  words  of  the  celebrated  "William  Hun- 
ter during  his  last  moments.  "  If  this  be  dying, 
it  is  a  pleasant  thing  to  die,"  has  been  uttered 
in  the  enthusiasm  of  many  a  dying  person  ; 
and  Louis  XIV.  is  recorded  to  have  exclaim- 
ed with  his  last  breath :  "  I  thought  dying  had 
been  more  difficult."  Those  who  have  been 
snatched  from  the  very  jaws  of  death,  and  have 
lived  to  record  their  sensations,  have  almost 
unanimously  stated  that  the  apparent  approach 
of  the  last  moment  was  accompanied  by  not 
only  a  sense  of  ease  but  a  feeling  of  positive 
happiness.  Montaigne  in  one  of  his  essays 
describes  an  accident  which  left  him  so  sense- 
less that  he  was  taken  up  for  dead.  Ou  being 
restored,  however,  he  says  :  "  Methought  my 
life  only  hung  upon  my  lips;  and  I  shut  my 
eyes  to  help  to  thrust  it  out,  and  took  a  plea- 
sure in  languishing  and  letting  myself  go." 
The  pain  in  the  case  of  Montaigne,  and  in  that 
of  others  similarly  restored,  seems  not  to  have 
been  in  the  apparent  progress  to  death,  but  in 
the  return  to  life.  Cowper,  when  restored  from 
his  mad  attempt  at  suicide  by  lianging,  said  on 
reviving  that  he  thought  he  was  inheU.  With 
the  restoration  of  vigor  there  comes  a  renewal 
of  sensibility  and  a  consequent  power  of  suffer- 


ing, which  are  extinguished  in  the  paralysis  of 
approaching  death. — Of  all  deaths  called  violent, 
perhaps  those  by  some  of  the  poisons  are  the 
easiest,  such  as  prussic  acid  and  opium,  which 
act  directly  on  the  nervous  system,  first  lulling 
it  into  repose,  and  finally  sinking  it  into  the  in- 
sensibiUty  of  death.  Drowning  has  been  gen- 
erally supposed  to  be  a  painful  mode  of  termi- 
nating life.  This,  however,  would  seem  to  be 
an  error,  which  probably  has  become  common 
in  consequence  of  the  first  struggles  made  by  a 
drowning  person,  from  fear.  Captain  Burney, 
tlie  brother  of  the  famous  novelist  Madame 
d'Arblay,  who  had  a  remarkable  recovery  from 
drowning,  has,  in  a  description  which  he  has 
left  of  his  sensations  while  under  water,  declared 
that  they  were  totally  free  from  pain.  Another 
has  recorded  that  his  feelings  were  not  only  of 
comfort,  but  of  such  luxurious  delight  as  he 
groped  on  the  bottom  of  the  stream,  that  he  felt 
quite  indignant  at  those  who  pulled  him  out.  A 
writer  in  the  "  Quarterly  Review"  records  that 
a  gentleman  who  had  been  rescued  from  drown- 
ing declared  that  he  had  not  experienced  the 
slightest  feeling  of  suffocation.  "  The  stream 
was  transparent,  the  day  brilliant,  and  as  he 
stood  upright  he  could  see  the  sun  shining 
through  the  water,  with  a  dreamy  consciousness 
that  his  eyes  were  about  to  be  closed  on  it  for 
ever.  Yet  he  neither  feared  his  fate  nor  wished 
to  avert  it.  A  sleepy  sensation  which  soothed 
and  gratified  him  made  a  luxurious  bed  of  a 
watery  grave."  A  person  drowning  is  soon  de- 
prived of  air,  and  the  heart  supplies,  instead  of 
arterial,  venous  blood,  which  acts  upon  the  brain 
like  an  opiate,  and  deadens  its  sensibility.  Sud- 
den death  by  a  gun-shot  wound  is  also  supposed 
to  be  easy  ;  and  accordingly  the  practice,  which 
has  been  carried  out  so  frequently  during  the 
Indian  mutiny,  of  shooting  the  rebellious  sepoys 
from  the  cannon's  mouth,  is  not  so  severe  in  pain 
to  the  suffering  victims  as  it  appears  horrible  to 
the  terrified  beholder.  The  first  effect  of  a  fatal 
shot  would  appear  to  be  benumbing  to  the  sen- 
sibility ;  and  where,  after  the  mortal  wound, 
there  has  been  a  momentary  interval  of  life,  it 
has  been  frequently  observed  that  the  mind  is 
occupied,  not  with  a  sense  of  suffering,  but  with 
its  habitual  thought  and  feeling.  The  first  act 
of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  on  receiving  a  ball 
in  his  brain,  was  to  grasp  his  sword.  In  death 
by  cold,  it  is  only  in  the  preliminary  stage  where 
there  can  be  much  suffering,  for  the  first  evi- 
dence of  danger  is  a  state  of  drowsiness  and 
stupor  which  is  entirely  incompatible  with  pain.* 
Dr.  Solander,  who  accompanied  Cook  and  sub- 
sequently Sir  Joseph  Banks  on  their  expedi- 
tions, was  so  conscious  of  the  dangerous  symp- 
tom of  sleep,  in  those  exposed  to  excessive  cold, 
that  he  warned  all  against  it ;  and  at  the  same 
time  he  himself  was  so  bewitched  by  its  influ- 
ence as  to  be  among  the  first  to  lie  down  in  the 
snow  to  enjoy  the  fatal  slumber.  He  was,  how- 
ever, fortunately  aroused  in  spite  of  himself  by 
his  companions,  who  had  benefited  by  his  em- 
phatic lessons  proper  for  the  emergency.    So- 


DEATH 


DEATH-WATCH 


^315 


lander's  servant  did  as  his  roaster  did  and  not 

as  lie  said,  and  when  aroused,  witli  the  warning 
tliat  ho  would  die  if  ho  slept,  answered  that  that 
was  all  he  desired.  Similar  expressions  are  re- 
corded by  all  travellers  in  the  arctic  regions, 
and  Napoleon's  fatal  retreat  from  Moscow  was 
marked  at  every  step  by  those  who,  benumbed 
with  cold,  lay  down  only  to  sleep,  but  never 
awoke  again  to  life. — Justice,  which  has  always 
claimed  to  be  heaven-born,  has  more  often 
shown,  at  least  in  past  times,  a  lower  affinity. 
When  the  torture,  the  quartering,  and  the  burn- 
ing of  living  criminals  were  tho  manifestations 
of  tho  execution  of  law,  cruelty  succeeded  in 
giving  extreme  horror  and  sutferiug  to  death. 
As  late  as  tho  16th  century,  the  medical  school 
at  Montpellier  received  its  annual  tribute  of 
a  criminal  to  be  dissected  alive,  for  the  benefit 
of  science.  Ravaillac,  the  assassin  of  Eenry  IV., 
was  torn  limb  from  limb  by  horses,  while  yet 
alive,  and  during  the  agony  his  flesh  was  pulled 
away  in  bits  by  red-hot  pincers,  and  boiling  oil 
poured  upon  the  raw  wounds.  As  late  even  as 
the  time  of  Louis  XV.,  Damiens  met  with  a  fate 
eimilar  to  that  of  Ravaillac.  Even  in  England, 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  traitors  were 
disembowelled  during  life ;  and  in  the  time  of 
her  father,  Ilenry  VIH.,  boiling  to  death  was 
an  occasional  punishment.  It  was  only  within 
the  last  century  that  in  Great  Britain  justice,  in 
dealing  with  treason,  so  far  tempered  punish- 
ment witli  mercy  as  to  spare  the  traitor  the 
agonies  of  a  cruel  and  lingering  death.  In  all 
civilized  countries,  while  capital  punishment  has 
been  retained  for  certain  crimes,  ingenuity  has 
been  exei'cised  to  render  death  as  speedy  and  as 
little  painful  as  possible.  Loss  of  life,  without 
any  added  horror,  is  supposed  to  be  sufficiently 
effective  for  the  ends  of  justice.  Hanging  is 
the  mode  of  capital  punishment  practised  in  the 
United  States  and  in  England.  The  guillo- 
tine is  the  instrument  used  in  France,  and  the 
garotte  in  Spain.  The  cause  of  death,  in  hang- 
ing, is  ordinarily  suffocation  from  the  tightening 
of  the  rope  about  the  windpipe.  Occasion- 
ally, however,  the  neck  is  dislocated,  although 
rarely,  unless  the  executioner  should  give  a 
sudden  twist  to  the  body  when  he  swings  off 
his  victim,  or  a  kinsman  with  a  merciful  in- 
tent, as  in  some  countries  was  once  allowed, 
should  spring  with  his  full  weight  upon  his 
suspended  relative.  Hanging  is  not  supposed 
to  be  a  painful  mode  of  terminating  life.  Those 
who  have  lived  to  record  their  sensations,  after 
hanging  by  the  neck  until  they  became  in- 
sensible and  on  the  very  verge  of  death,  de- 
clare that  at  first  there  was  but  a  brief  period 
of  discomfort,  which  at  once  gave  way  to  de- 
lightful sensations  of  varied  lights  and  colors 
and  charming  visions.  "A  criminal,  who  es- 
caped," says  a  writer  in  the  "  Quarterly  Re- 
view," "  by  the  breaking  of  the  cord,  said  that 
after  a  second  of  suffering,  a  fire  appeared,  and 
across  it  the  most  beautiful  avenue  of  trees. 
Henry  IV.  of  France  sent  his  physician  to  ques- 
tion him,  and  when  mention  was  made  of  a 


pardon,  tho  man  answered  coldly  that  it  was 
not  worth  the  asking."  The  Spanish  garotte 
is  composed  of  a  metallic  collar  witli  a  screw 
by  which  it  is  tightened  about  the  neck  of  the 
criminal ;  its  effects  and  the  sensations  pro- 
duced must  be  similar  to  those  of  hanging.  The 
guillotine,  which  was  brought  into  operation 
in  France  at  the  suggestion  of  a  Dr.  Guillotin, 
can  hardly  bo  called  an  improvement  ujion  tho 
gallows.  Tliere  is  undoubtedly  more  suffering 
from  the  cutting  eflects  of  the  falling  blade  of 
the  instrument ;  but  after  the  head  is  severed, 
although  its  eyes  and  lips  may  move  and  tho 
muscles  of  tho  body  contract,  there  is,  notwith- 
standing some  have  argued  the  contrary,  an  end 
to  all  sensibility  to  pain.  Probably  crucifixion, 
with  its  cruel  nails,  its  torturing  strains,  and  its 
lingering  agonies,  is  the  most  painful  Y)unish- 
ment  ever  invented  by  the  ingenuity  of  cruelty. 
Travellers  now  and  then  record  the  existence 
of  the  most  horrible  tortures  practised  by  bar- 
barous nations  on  their  criminals  and  captives. 
— We  conclude  the  subject  with  that  remarkable 
passage  from  Montaigne,  from  which  the  wise 
Bacon  has  borrowed  a  sentence,  and  the  elo- 
quent Taylor  a  noble  passage.  Montaigne  says : 
"  I  have  often  considered  with  myself  whence 
it  should  proceed  that  in  war  the  image  of  death, 
whether  we  look  upon  it  as  to  our  own  particu- 
lar danger  or  that  of  another,  should  without 
comparison  appear  less  dreadful  than  at  homo 
in  our  own  houses  (for  if  it  were  not  so,  it 
would  be  an  army  of  whining  milksops) ;  and 
that  being  still  in  all  places  the  same,  there 
should  be,  notwithstanding,  much  more  assur- 
ance in  peasants  and  the  meaner  sort  of  people 
than  in  others  of  better  quality  and  education  ; 
and  I  do  verily  believe  that  it  is  those  terrible 
ceremonies  and  preparations  wherewith  we  set 
it  out  that  more  terrify  us  than  the  thing  itself. 
An  entirely  new  way  of  living,  the  cries  of 
mothers,  wives,  and  children,  the  visits  of  as- 
tonished and  afflicted  friends,  the  attendance  of 
pale  and  blubbering  servants,  a  dark  room  set 
round  with  burning  tapers,  our  beds  environed 
with  physicians  and  divines,  in  short,  nothing 
but  ghostliness  and  horror  round  about  us,  ren- 
der it  so  formidable  that  a  man  almost  fancies 
himself  dead  and  buried  already.  Children  are 
afraid  even  of  those  they  love  best  and  are  best 
acquainted  with,  when  disguised  in  a  visor,  and 
so  are  we :  the  visor  must  be  removed  as  well 
from  things  as  persons  ;  which  being  taken 
away,  we  shall  find  nothing  underneath  but  the 
very  same  death  that  a  mean  servant  or  a  poor 
chambermaid  died  a  day  or  two  ago,  without 
any  manner  of  apprehension  or  concern.  Happy, 
therefore,  is  the  death  that  deprives  us  of  the 
leisure  for  such  grand  preparations." 

DEATH-WATCH,  a  small  beetle,  of  the  fam- 
ily serrico7-?ies,  and  genus  anolium  (Fabr.). 
The  body  is  of  a  firm  consistence,  short,  and 
ovoid  in  shape  ;  the  rounded  head  is  almost 
entirely  received  into  an  arched  thorax  ;  the 
antennso  are  terminated  by  3  joints  larger  than 
the  rest,  the  last  being  ovale ;  the  mandibles  ai-e 


316 


DE  BAT 


DE  BOW 


short,  thick,  and  dentated  beneath  the  point; 
the  pulpi  are  very  short,  and  end  in  a  large  ovoid 
joint;  the  tibia3  are  not  dentated,  and  the  ter- 
minal spurs  are  very  small.  They  are  slow  in 
their  motions,  rarely  liy,  and  when  touched 
counterfeit  death  for  a  long  time ;  hence  their 
generic  name,  from  am^tov,  resuscitated.  Olivier 
states  that  they  will  allow  themselves  to  be 
pulled  to  pieces,  and  even  slowly  burned  to 
death,  without  |jiowing  the  least  sign  of  life. 
The  larvse  resemble  white  soft  worms,  with  6 
short  feet;  the  scaly  head  is  armed  with  two 
powerful  cutting  maxilla),  with  which  they  gnaw 
into  wood,  old  furniture,  books,  &c.,  leaving 
behind  them  small  round  holes  like  those  of  a 
gimlet,  whence  the  French  name  vrillettes;  their 
excrements  form  the  small  masses  of  worm- 
eaten  wood  often  seen  on  the  floors  of  old  and 
deserted  houses ;  the  larvoa  also  attack  the  flour 
of  various  grains,  wafers,  prepared  birds  and 
insect?,  concealing  themselves  in  grooves  or  gal- 
leries ;  they  pass  the  nymph  state  in  their  cells 
lined  with  a  few  silken  threads.  The  tick  of 
the  death-watch  is  made  by  the  perfect  insects, 
of  several  species,  by  striking  with  their  heads 
or  mandibles  against  the  wood  in  which  they 
are  concealed ;  these  strong  and  repeated  strokes, 
from  7  to  11,  resemble  the  regular  ticking  of  a 
watch,  and  are  supposed  to  be  the  means  by 
which  the  sexes  call  each  other.  There  are  10 
species  enumerated  by  Mr.  Stephens  in  Great 
Britain  alone,  which  make  this  much  dreaded 
sound.  One  of  the  most  common  is  the  A. 
sti'iatum,  with  striated  wing  covers,  considered 
by  some  the  same  as  the  A.  periinax  (Fabr.), 
of  a  dark  brown  color ;  another  is  the  A.  tessel- 
Za^MWi  (Fabr.),  with  the  wing  covers  handsomely 
tessellated.  The  tick  resembles  that  made  by 
tapping  the  finger-nail  gently  on  the  table,  so 
much  so  that  the  insect  hearing  it  may  often  be 
led  to  i-ecommence  its  sounds.  The  supersti- 
tious regard  this  sound  with  fear,  firmly  believ- 
ing that 

The  solemn  death-watch  clicks  tho  hour  of  death. 
Such  firm  hold  had  this  belief  in  Sir  Thomas 
Browne's  time,  that,  says  he,  "the  man  who 
could  eradicate  this  error  from  the  minds  of 
the  people  would  save  from  many  a  cold  sweat 
the  meticulous  heads  of  nurses  and  grand- 
mothers." The  wood  louse,  a  neuropterous  in- 
sect, of  the  tribe  termitince,  and  genus  psocus 
(Latr.),  makes  a  similar  tick.  The  P.  pulsatorius 
(Linn.)  is  very  small,  soft,  white,  and  slender, 
with  a  reddish  mouth ;  it  lives  in  old  wood  and 
books,  wall  paper,  collections  of  insects  and 
plants,  &c. ;  it  is  quick  in  its  motions,  darting 
into  dark  corners  ;  the  ticking  noise  is  made  by 
striking  the  wood  with  its  head,  and  probably 
for  the  same  purpose  as  in  anobium. 

DE  BAY.     See  Baius. 

DEBENTURE  (Lat.  debere,  to  owe),  the  draw- 
back or  right  allowed  to  merchants  of  claiming 
repayment  or  remission  of  duties  on  imported 
goods  when  the  goods  are  reexported.  The  term 
is  also  used  for  tho  custom  house  certificate  Avhich 
is  issued  as  a  voucher  for  such  right.  Goods  may 


be  entered  subject  to  debenture,  in  which  case 
the  original  invoice  is  left  with  the  collector;  but 
without  such  entry  at  the  time  of  importation, 
the  drawbuclv  may  be  obtained  upon  reexpor- 
tation by  making  satisfactory  proof  of  the  iden- 
tity of  the  goods.  It  is  required  that  they  be 
exported  in  the  original  packages,  casks,  &c., 
and  when  any  change  of  such  packages  may 
become  necessary,  it  must  be  made  under  the 
inspection  of  a  revenue  oflacer.  A  drawback 
of  duties  on  wines  and  spirits  is  not  allowed 
unless  such  liquors  have  beeii  deposited  in  pub- 
lic stores,  and  kept  there  from  the  time  of  land- 
ing until  re-shipment.  Three  years  from  the 
time  of  importation  is  allowed  for  reexportation 
with  drawback  of  duties,  but  such  exportation 
must  be  from  the  district  of  original  importa- 
tion. The  general  regulations  of  debenture  are 
contained  in  the  act  of  congress  of  March  2, 
1799,  but  modifications  have  been  made  by  va- 
rious other  acts. 

DE  BOW,  James  DtrsrwooDY  Brownson,  an 
American  journalist  and  statistician,  born  in 
Charleston.  S.  0.,  July  10,  1820.  His  father, 
Garrett  De  Bow,  was  long  a  merchant  in 
Charleston,  and  the  son  was  for  7  years  em- 
ployed in  a  mercantile  house  in  that  city.  But, 
as  he  manifested  an  inclination  for  intellect- 
ual pursuits,  his  father  determined  to  afford 
him  full  opportunity  for  acquiring  a  liberal  ed- 
ucation, and  he  was  graduated  at  Charleston 
college  in  1843.  He  next  studied'  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  Charleston  bar  in  1844. 
Owing  to  his  fondness  for  literature  and  statis- 
tics, he  made  little  effort  to  practise  his  profes- 
sion, but  became  a  contributor  to  the  "  South- 
ern Quarterly  Review,"  published  at  Charleston, 
and  in  1844  he  took  charge  of  that  periodical 
as  chief  editor.  Among  other  papers  prepared 
by  him  for  its  pages  was  an  elaborate  article, 
published  in  1845,  upon  "  Oregon  and  the  Or- 
egon Question,"  which  attracted  much  attention 
both  in  this  country  and  Europe.  It  was  trans- 
lated into  French,  and  was  the  occasion  of  a 
debate  in  the  French  chamber  of  deputies.  In 
the  latter  part  of  1845  he  withdrew  from  the 
"  Southern  Quarterly,"  removed  to  New  Or- 
leans, and  established  "  De  Bow's  Commercial 
Eeview."  This  enterprise  proved  successful, 
and  the  work  attained  a  circulation  greater  than 
has  ever  been  reached  by  any  similar  publica- 
tion in  the  South.  In  1848  Mr.  De  Bow  was 
elected  professor  of  political  economy  and  com- 
mercial statistics  in  tlie  university  of  Louisiana. 
This  position  he  held  but  a  short  time,  when  he 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  census  bureau  of 
Louisiana.  He  held  this  office  for  3  years,  dur- 
ing which  he  collected  and  published  a  great 
mass  of  valuable  statistics  in  reference  to  the 
population,  commerce,  and  products  of  that 
state.  In  March,  1853,  he  was  appointed  by 
President  Pierce  to  the  oflSce  of  superintendent 
of  tlie  U.  S.  census.  In  that  position  he  col- 
lected and  prepared  for  the  press  a  large  part  of 
tlie  material  for  the  quarto  edition  of  the  cen- 
sus of  1850.    He  afterward  compiled  the  Bvo. 


DEBKEOZm 


DEBTOR  AND  CEEDITOR 


317 


volume  entitled  "  Statistical  View  of  the  United 
States,"  being  a  compendiuin  of  the  7th  census. 
Of  this  work  150,000  copies  were  printed  by 
order  of  congress.  In  1853  ho  compiled  from 
his  review  a  work  in  3  vols.  8vo.,  which  ho 
published  under  the  title  of  "  Industrial  Re- 
sources of  the  Southwest."  During  Mr.  Do 
Bow's  official  career  he  continued  to  edit  liis 
review.  The  business  connected  with  the  cen- 
sus of  1850  was  completed  in  1855,  and  the  bu- 
reau was  discontinued.  Since  that  time  he  has 
devoted  his  time  to  the  review,  lecturing,  and 
other  literary  jiursuits.  lie  has  taken  an  active 
part  in  the  various  enterprises  tending  to  the 
advancement  of  the  material  and  intellectual 
interests  of  the  South.  lie  has  been  a  member 
of  nearly  every  southern  commercial  conven- 
tion since  that  at  Memphis  in  1845,  over  which 
the  late  John  0.  Calhoun  presided.  lie  was 
president  of  the  convention  at  Knoxville,  Tenn., 
In  1857.  lie  has  contributed  many  articles 
Upon  American  topics  to  the  new  edition  of  the 
"  Encyclopajdia  Britannica,"  has  delivered  va- 
rious addresses  before  literary,  agricultural,  and 
other  associations,  and  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  historical  society  of  Louisiana,  which  has 
since  been  merged  in  the  academy  of  science. 

DEBRECZIN  (Hung.  Delreczen),  after  Pesth 
the  largest  and  most  important  commercial  town 
of  Hungary,  capital  of  the  county  of  North 
Bihar,  in  the  district  of  Gross-Wardein  (accord- 
ing to  the  late  division — previously  Circle  be- 
yond the  Theiss),  is  situated  in  an  apparently 
boundless  sandy  but  fertile  plain,  in  the  IST.  E. 
part  of  the  Hungarian  Lowland  (AlfOld),  about 
ISO  m.  E.  from  Pesth;  lat.  47°  32'  N.,  long. 
21°  36'  E. ;  pop.  about  60,000.  It  is  an  open 
town  with  long  suburbs  ending  on  a  vast  heath, 
and  has  a  rustic  appearance  from  its  mostly 
one  story  thatched  houses,  with  large  yards, 
but  contains  also  a  number  of  fine  buildings, 
of  whicli  the  principal  are  the  town  house,  sev- 
eral churches,  the  Piarist  monastery,  and  the 
Protestant  reformed  college,  founded  in  1792. 
The  last  mentioned  possesses  a  large  library 
and  other  valuable  collections,  and  is  now  tlie 
best  frequented  seat  of  learning  for  the  Cal- 
vinist  youth  of  Hungary.  There  are  several 
other  higher  educational  institutions  belonging 
to  both  Protestants  and  Catholics,  as  well  as  a 
number  of  charitable  establishments  and  a  house 
of  correction.  The  principal  streets,  in  which 
a  few  years  ago  side  planks  still  served  to  lead 
the  passengers  through  the  deep  mud  in  winter 
and  the  dusty  sand  in  summer,  have  lately  been 
paved  with  brick.  The  inhabitants,  who  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  thousands  belong  to  the 
Protestant  religion,  are  robust,  hardy,  and  pa- 
triulic  Magyars,  and  are  regarded  as  the  very 
types  of  the  rural  portion  of  their  race.  They 
are  mostly  agriculturists,  and  many  of  them  re- 
tire several  times  in  the  year  with  their  fami- 
lies and  cattle  to  their  distant  fields  on  the  plain, 
where  they  live  for  weeks  in  huts  or  under  tents, 
performing  the  necessary  labors.  A  numerous 
elass  is  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse 


woollens,  sheepskins  for  clothing,  leather,  shoes 
and  boots,  saltpetre,  soap,  various  kinds  of  pot- 
tery, cutlery,  cooperage,  combs,  buttons,  pearl 
wreaths,  and  particularly  clay  tobacco  ]upes,  of 
which  several  millions  are  produced  annually. 
The  trade  of  Debreczin  is  equally  important, 
consisting  chiefly  in  cattle,  horses,  swine,  hides, 
bacon,  potash,  wine,  various  kinds  of  oils,  cheese, 
and  Vienna  haberdashery  and  colonial  articles, 
for  which  it  is  tlie  chief  depot  for  eastern  Hun- 
gary and  Transylvania.  Its  4  annual  fairs  are 
held  on  the  surrounding  plain,  an  immense  space 
of  which  is  then  covered  with  tents  and  huts, 
herds  and  wagons,  bales  and  cases,  and  thousands 
of  people  from  all  parts  of  the  country  and  the 
adjoining  provinces.  Numerous  railway  lines, 
Avhich  are  now  in  course  of  completion,  will 
soon  connect  Debreczin  with  all  parts  of  the 
Austrian  empire.  The  bread  of  Debreczin  is 
renowned,  but  the  town  suflers  from  scarcity 
of  water. — During  the  long  wars  between  the 
Ilapsburg  monarchs  of  Hungary,  the  Turks,  and 
the  princes  of  Transylvania,  Debreczin  was 
often  taken,  pillaged,  and  partly  destroyed. 
The  Turks  finally  left  it  in  1684.  Having  era- 
braced  Protestantism  in  the  first  half  of  the 
16th  century,  and  adopted  the  Helvetian  creed 
in  a  synod  held  there  in  1567,  it  suftered  bloody 
persecutions,  in  1686,  from  the  Austrian  gen- 
eral Caraffa.  It  also  sutFered  greatly  during  the 
insurrection  under  Rakoczy,  after  the  termina- 
tion of  which  it  was  made  a  free  royal  town  in 
1715.  In  the  earlier  part  of  1849  it  was  the 
seat  of  the  Hungarian  revolutionary  govern- 
ment under  Kossuth,  and  the  sessions  of  the 
diet  were  held  there  from  Jan.  9  to  May  30, 
in  the  most  important  of  which,  held  in  the 
Calvinist  chufch,  on  April  14,  the  independence 
of  Hungary  was  declared.  On  Aug.  2  the  flank 
guard  of  Gorgey,  under  Gen.  Nagy-Sandor,  was 
surprised  by  an  overwhelming  Russian  force  on 
the  plain  before  the  town,  and  was  dispersed 
after  a  short  though  lively  resistance. 

DEBTOR  AND  CREDITOR.  In  the  early 
laws  of  every  country  there  will  be  found  greater 
severity  against  debtors  than  there  is  at  a  later 
period  of  civilization.    The  reason  is  twofold : 

1,  the  want  of  sufiicient  intellectual  acumen  to 
distinguish  the  degrees  of  wrong  in  cases  of 
fraud  and  of  unforeseen  accident  and  misfortune; 

2,  the  actual  want  of  probity  in  the  earlier  pe- 
riod of  national  existence.  There  is  undoubted- 
ly a  prevalent  error  in  respect  to  the  latter  con- 
sideration. It  is  very  common  to  suppose  that 
in  a  rude  state  of  society  there  is  a  greater  de- 
gree of  honesty  and  fair  dealing  than  in  an  ad- 
vanced civilization.  But  that  this  is  a  mistake 
we  need  no  better  proof  than  the  history  of  the 
laws  of  the  Germanic  nations.  There  was  no 
lack  of  pei'sonal  independence,  at  least  of  intre- 
pidity in  war,  yet  in  judicial  proceedings  it  was 
found  that  no  reliance  whatever  could  be  placed 
upon  the  oaths  of  parties  or  witnesses.  Thus, 
instead  of  producing  witnesses  who  could  tes- 
tify to  the  fact  in  question,  numerous  compurga- 
tors or  conjurators  were  called  to  swear  that 


818 


DEBTOR  AND  OREDIIOR 


they  believed  the  statement  made  by  the  party 
wlio  called  them ;  and  even  this  was  found  so  un- 
certain that  the  trial  by  combat  was  preferred 
by  the  men  of  that  period,  as  a  better  mode  of 
determining  the  fact.  So  it  is  reasonable  to  in- 
fer by  analogy  that  the  cruelty  exhibited  in  the 
early  laws  of  the  Athenians^-and  in  the  Roman 
law  of  the  12  tables,  Avas  founded  upon  the  trick- 
ery and  .dishonesty  which  prevailed  at  Athens 
and  Rome.  It  was,  however,  a  barbarism  to 
involve  the  innocent  as  well  as  the  guilty  in  an 
lindiscriminating  condemnation.  The  right  of 
the  creditor  to  sell  the  debtor  as  a  slave  was 
abolished  by  Solon.  The  decemvirs  of  Rome, 
who  professed  to  follow  his  legislation,  did  not 
conform  to  it  in  this  particular,  but  enacted  a 
law  more  oppressive  tlian  the  Athenian,  or  in- 
deed than  any  other  law  of  which  we  have  an 
authentic  record,  whereby  the  debtor  was  subject 
to  be  taken  by  the  creditor  to  his  own  house,  and 
to  be  dealt  with  in  the  most  cruel  manner  for 
60  days,  after  which  he  could  be  sold  into  for- 
eign slavery.  The  atrocious  conduct  of  a  usurer 
ttiio  undertook  to  gratify  his  lust  upon  a  young 
man  who  had  surrendered  himself  for  a  debt  of 
his  father,  and  in  consequence  of  the  resistance 
of  the  prisoner  to  his  attempt,  scourged  and  other- 
wise maltreated  him,  led  to  an  outbreak  of  the 
people  and  the  passage  of  a  law  by  the  senate, 
A.  U.  0.  428,  by  which  creditors  were  prohib- 
ited from  taking  debtors  into  their  own  custody, 
but  the  right  of  selling  them  into  slavery  still 
remained.  This  power  of  the  creditor  over  the 
debtor  seems  to  have  become  practically  obso- 
lete, and  a  milder  mode  of  treatment  grew  up, 
under  the  emperors.  According  to  the  Institutes 
of  Justinian,  a  debtor  was  subject  only  to  loss 
of  property  for  payment  of  his  debts.  The  same 
practice  prevailed  in  England  at  an  early  period. 
Suits  were  commenced  by  a  summons,  and  if 
the  defendant  failed  to  appear,  process  was  is- 
sued for  the  attachment  of  his  property;  but  in 
actions  upon  contract  no  further  remedy  was 
given,  either  at  the  commencement  of  the  suit 
or  after  judgment.  In  actions  for  injuries  ac- 
companied with  force,  it  was,  however,  per- 
mitted to  issue  process  for  the  arrest  of  the 
person.  By  various  statutes  the  same  remedy 
was  extended  to  other  actions  in  which  there 
was  no  force,  as  actions  of  account,  debt,  deti- 
nue, and  actions  on  the  case.  In  the  court  of 
king's  bench,  however,  the  defendant  was,  with- 
or.fe  the  aid  of  these  statutes,  liable  to  arrest 
upon  process  issued  for  an  alleged  trespass,  and 
wheu  arrested  he  was  made  to  answer  for 
any  other  cause  of  action.  In  the  court  of  ex- 
chequer jurisdiction  was  obtained  by  a  similar 
fiction.  Upon  recovery  of  judgment  in  any 
action  in  which  an  arrest  was  allowed  upon 
mesne  process,  a  writ  could  be  issued  called 
a  capias  ad  satisfaciendum,  whereby  the  de- 
fendant could  be  arrested  and  committed  to 
close  custody  {in  arcta  custodia) ;  in  which  re- 
spect the  proceeding  was  more  rigid  than  it  was 
upon  mesne  process,  for  in  the  latter  the  de- 
fendant could  be  discharged  upon  giving  bail  for 


his  appearance,  whereas  upon  final  process  he 
could  not  be  allowed  to  be  at  large ;  and  if  he 
was  suffered  by  the  sheriff  to  be  outside  of  the 
gaol,  it  was  deemed  an  escape,  for  which  he  was 
made  liable  for  the  whole  amount  of  the  debt. 
In  the  United  States  the  same  forms  of  proceed- 
ing were  introduced,  but  were  gradually  modified 
in  advance  of  the  changes  which  were  made  in 
the  English  practice,  which  will  be  presently  ad- 
verted to.  Thus,  in  the  state  of  New  York  it  was 
provided  that  a  ca2nas  ad  satisfaciendum  shoxUd. 
not  be  issued  till  after  an  execution  against  the 
property  (called  a  fieri  facias)  had  been  first 
issued  and-  returned  unsatisfied.  In  1831  im- 
prisonment for  debt  upon  contract,  except  in 
certain  cases,  was  abolished  in  that  state.  The 
excepted  cases  were  where  fraud  had  been  com- 
mitted or  was  intended,  in  which  cases  an  ar- 
rest could  be  ordered  by  a  judge,  to  which  ex- 
ception was  added,  by  statute  of  1846,  the  case 
of  money  received  in  a  fiduciary  capacity ;  and 
by  a  subsequent  statute  imprisonment  for  inter- 
locutory costs  was  abolished.  The  principle 
embraced  in  these  laws  was  adopted  in  the  code 
of  procedure  of  1849.  Arrest  is  thereby  pro- 
hibited in  all  civil  actions,  except  in  certain  speci- 
fied cases,  viz. :  in  actions  for  injury  to  the  person 
or  character,  or  for  injuring  or  wrongfully  tak- 
ing or  detaining  property ;  in  cases  of  embezzle- 
ment by  public  oflicers,  or  persons  acting  in  a 
private  fiduciary  capacity  ;  for  misconduct  in  of- 
fice or  any  professional  employment ;  in  actions 
to  recover  the  possession  of  personal  property 
where  it  is  concealed  or  kept  out  of  the  reach, 
of  the  sheriff;  and  in  cases  where  the  defendant 
has  been  guilty  of  a  fraud  in  contracting  the  debt 
or  in  avoiding  the  payment  of  it.  In  the  ex- 
cepted cases  there  may  be  an  arrest  by  an  order 
of  a  judge,  in  which  order  the  amount  for  which 
the  defendant  shall  be  held  to  bail  is  specified ; 
and  when  there  has  been  arrest  upon  mesne 
process  the  like  remedy  in  all  cases  is  given  upon 
final  process.  No  provision  is  made  by  the  code 
for  a  discharge  from  an  arrest  under  such  order. 
Females  are  exempted  from  arrest  in  all  cases 
except  actions  for  wilful  injury  to  person,  char- 
acter, or  property.  The  legislation  of  the  state 
of  New  York  has  been  followed  in  several  other 
states,  and  may  be  assumed  in  its  general  fea- 
tures as  the  prevalent  system  throughout  the 
United  States,  in  respect  to  the  coercive  remedy 
for  the  collection  of  debts  by  process  against  the 
person. — In  England  important  modifications 
have  been  recently  made  in  the  laws  relating 
to  the  collection  of  debts.  In  1838  (by  stat.  1 
and  2  Victoria,  c.  110),  arrest  upon  mesne  pro- 
cess for  debts  exceeding  £20  was  abolished, 
except  in  cases  where  proof  was^  made  of  the 
intention  of  the  defendant  to  leave  England. 
Provision  was  also  made  for  discharge  from  lia- 
bility to  imprisonment  upon  final  process,  upon 
the  surrender  by  the  debtor  of  all  his  property 
for  the  payment  of  his  debts.  In  1842  (by  stat. 
5  and  6  Victoria,  c.  116),  similar  provision  was 
made  for  discharge  from  imprisonment  for  debts 
under  £20 ;  and  in  1844  (7  and  8  Victoria,  c.  96), 


DEBTOR  AND  CREDITOR 


319 


arrest  upon  final  process  in  an  action  for  a  debt 

not  exceeding  £20  waa  abolished,  except  whero 
there  was  fraud  in  the  contracting  of  the  debt,  or 
a  fraudulent  attempt  to  avoid  payment,  leaving 
it  to  the  discretion  of  a  judge  to  order  an  arrest 
upon  proof  of  any  such  fraud.  A  great  ameliora- 
tion was  effected  by  these  statutes.  Tlio  relief 
under  tlie  previously  existing  bankrupt  laws  ap- 
plied only  to  a  class  designated  as  traders,  leav- 
ing a  largo  proportion  of  debtors  entirely  unpro- 
vided for ;  and  the  relief  itself,  even  in»cases  to 
•whicli  it  was  applicable,  Avas  harsh  to  the  debtor, 
■wasteful  of  the  assets  devoted  to  the  creditors, 
and  not  unfrequently  aU  beneficial  effect  was 
defeated  by  the  technical  stringency  of  the  stat- 
utes, and  the  extreme  severity  of  the  courts. 
(See  Bankrupt.)  Then  as  to  the  relief  of  insol- 
vents, under  the  act  of  32  George  II.,  c.  28  (com- 
monly called  the  lords  act,  from  the  circum- 
stance of  its  having  originated  in  the  liouse  of 
lords),  it  was  limited  to  debtors  actually  in  cus- 
tody upon  execution  for  debts  under  £100 
(afterward  extended  to  £300) ;  and  notwith- 
standing the  surrender  of  the  debtor's  property 
as  provided  by  the  act,  the  creditor  could  still  if 
he  chose  detain  the  debtor  in  prison,  subject  only 
to  the  condition  that  he  was  to  allow  2s.  Ad. 
per  Aveek  for  his  support. — The  insolvent  laws 
of  the  state  of  New  York  are  of  a  twofold  char- 
acter. By  one  mode  of  proceeding,  the  debtor 
obtains  a  discharge  from  imprisonment  on  ac- 
count of  debts  upon  the  surrender  of  his  prop- 
erty, the  application  for  this  purpose  being 
made  by  the  debtor  upon  notice  to  all  his  cred- 
itors ;  by  another  mode  of  proceeding,  upon 
the  application  of  the  debtor  in  concurrence 
with  creditors  to  the  amount  of  two-thirds  of 
the  entire  indebtment,  he  obtains  a  discharge 
from  all  future  obligation  on  account  of  his 
debts,  or  in  other  Avords,  from  the  obligation 
of  his  debts.  In  both  these  cases  the  dis- 
chai'ge  is  Avithheld  when  the  debtor,  knowing 
bis  iusoh-ency,  has  made  disposition  of  any  part 
of  his  property  with  the  view  of  giving  a  pre- 
ference to  one  creditor  over  others.  The  practi- 
cal effect  of  this  provision  has  been  to  restrict 
the  benefit  of  the  statute  within  too  narrow 
limits,  as  there  are  few  cases  where  a  discharge 
could  be  obtained  if  the  restriction  should  be 
rigidly  enforced.  In  the  struggle  to  avoid  a 
failure,  peculiar  obligations  are  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  almost  always  incurred,  which  have 
a  claim  upon  the  debtor  superior  to  that  of  his 
ordinary  indebtment,  although  in  law  all  are 
placed  upon  the  same  footing.  Preferences 
Avill  accordingly  be  given  by  the  debtor  in 
sucli  cases,  even  at  the  peril  of  having  to  de- 
pend upon  the  gratuitous  consent  of  the  rest 
of  his  creditors  ibr  release  from  his  debts.  In- 
dividual hardship  AviU  thus  sometimes  occur,  but 
generally  relief  can  be  had  by  compromise  with 
the  creditors  upon  fair  terms  when  the  case  is 
free  from  fraud.  Greater  liberality  in  this  re- 
spect is  perhaps  to  be  found  in  this  country  than 
in  any  other.  In  both  of  these  insolvent  pro- 
ceedings, the  discharge  is  only  from  debts  upon 


contract ;  yet  a  judgment  for  a  cause  of  action 
ai'ising  ex  delicto  is  deemed  to  have  merged  the 
original  nature  of  the  debt,  and  is  included.  A 
3d  form  of  insolvent  proceedings  is  where  the 
debtor  is  in  custody  ujjon  execution,  in  which 
case  he  may  obtain  a  discharge  in  the  particu- 
lar suit  l^y  a  surrender  of  his  property,  Avithout 
being  precluded  by  having  given  preferences  in 
payment  of  debts ;  nor  is  it  prescribed  by  statute 
that  the  judgment  upon  Avhich  such  execution  has 
issued  must  have  been  recovered  upoik  contract. 
It  has  now  no  other  value  except  as  it  may  be 
available  for  a  discharge  in  actions  for  tort  and 
other  cases  in  Avliich  arrest  is  still  alloAved  by 
the  code.  A  similar  insolvent  procedure  has 
been  adopted  in  most  of  the  states,  so  far  as  re- 
spects relief  from  imprisonment,  but  tlie  experi- 
ment made  in  the  state  of  New  York  of  releas- 
ing the  obligation  of  debts  has  not  been  gener- 
ally acted  upon  in  other  states.  An  interesting 
question  in  respect  to  the  validity  of  insolvent 
laws  of  the  latter  description  has  been  brought 
into  discussion  in  the  U.  S.  courts,  under  the 
provision  of  the  federal  constitution  prohibiting 
the  passage  of  a  state  laAV  impairing  the  obli- 
gation of  contracts  (Constitution,  art.  1,  §  10), 
and  the  following  propositions  have  been  set- 
tled :  1,  that  an  insolvent  law  is  inoperative  to 
discharge  a  debt  existing  at  the  time  of  the  pas- 
sage of  the  law ;  2,  that  it  has  no  validity  for 
the  discharge  of  debts  due  to  citizens  of  other 
states,  or  rather  that  such  discharge  is  no  bar 
to  an  action  brought  by  citizens  of  other  states 
for  the  recovery  of  such  debts  in  the  courts  of 
the  United  States,  or  of  any  other  state  than 
that  Avhere  the  insolvent  discharge  was  granted ; 
3,  that  the  validity  of  such  discharge  is  not 
sustained  by  the  tact  that  the  contract  was 
made  in  the  state  where  it  is  disciiarged,  as 
against  citizens  of  other  states ;  4,  that  in  the 
courts  of  the  state  whose  insolvent  law  is  in 
question,  as  between  citizens  of  such  state,  it  is 
not  to  be  held  a  law  impairing  the  obligation 
of  contracts,  and  a  discharge  under  it  may  be 
properly  held  A'alid;  5,  that  a  citizen  of  an- 
other state  Avho  sues  in  the  courts  of  the  state 
AA'here  the  discharge  is  granted,  is  subject  to 
the  same  rule  as  a  citizen  of  such  state.  (Ogden 
Ts.  Saunders,  12  "Wheat.  213  ;  Boyle  vs.  Zacharie, 
6  Peters,  648.)  The  last  proposition  was  not 
necessarily  involved  in  the  decision  of  either 
of  the  above  cited  cases,  and  seems  scarcely 
consistent  with  the  harmony  of  the  courts  of 
the  different  states  and  of  the  United  States. 
Another  proposition  was  left  untouched,  viz. : 
what  is  the  rule  where  the  question  is  between 
parties  Avho  Avere  both  citizens  of  the  state 
where  such  an  insolvent  law  exists,  and  the 
contract  was  made  in  such  state,  but  the  cred- 
itor has  become  a  citizen  of  another  state  and 
sues  in  the  courts  of  the  United  States  or  of 
such  other  state.  Two  principles  combine  to 
make  the  discharge  valid,  viz. :  the  lex  loci 
contractus,  and  the  subjection  or  supposed  con- 
sent of  both  parties  to  the  laAv  of  the  state  of 
Avhich  they  were   citizens.     The  former  was 


320 


DECADE 


DECAMPS 


repudiated  by  tne  supreme  court  in  tne  cases 
above  cited,  but  the  latter  was  maintained  and 
much  insisted  upon  as  the  basis  upon  which 
alone  the  law  of  the  state  could  be  held  not  to 
impair  the  obligation  of  contracts. — By  the  laws 
of  most  countries  of  Europe,  the  cession  of  the 
property  of  an  insolvent  to  his  creditors  for  the 
payment  of  debts  is  not  a  ground  for  releasing 
his  future  acquisitions  from  liabilityfor  his  debts, 
but  only  for  discharging  the  debtor  from  process 
against  his  person.  In  France,  the  law  respect- 
ing imprisonment  {contrainte  2^^''i'  corps)  for 
debt  has  recently  undergone  great  modification. 
For  commercial  debts,  imprisonment  is  limited 
to  3  montlis  when  the  amount  does  not  exceed 
500  francs,  6  months  when  the  amount  does 
not  exceed  1,000  francs,  and  so  on  in  that  pro- 
portion, but  not  to  extend  beyond  3  years  for 
any  amount ;  and  in  the  case  of  a  man  having 
minor  children,  imprisonment  may  be  suspend- 
ed a  year.  Ecclesiastics,  minors,  septuagena- 
rians, and  women  not  engaged  in  commerce,  are 
exempt  from  imprisonment.  Officers  of  courts 
(greffiers^  notaires,  avoucs,  Imissiers,  &c.)  are 
subject  to  contrainte  par  corps  for  moneys  re- 
ceived by  them  officially  or  professionally,  and 
■wrongfully  withheld,  or  for  any  other  violation 
of  olEcial  or  professional  obligation  to  suitors. 
So  also  constraint  is  allowed  pour  stellionat, 
i.  e.  the  selling  or  hypothecating  property  be- 
longing to  another,  en  cas  de  redlntcgrande,  or 
action  for  the  recovery  of  property  wrongfully 
withheld,  and  various  cases  of  fraud  or  breach 
of  trust.  The  law  relating  to  this  subject  is  to 
be  found  in  the  Code  civile,  §  2,0G0  et  suivans; 
loi  27  Avril,  1832  ;  and  hi  13  Dec.  1848. 

DECADE  (Gr.  Sexn,  ten),  an  aggregate  of  ten. 
In  the  French  republican  calendai",  decades  of 
days  were  substituted  for  Aveeks  in  the  divi- 
sion of  the  year.  In  the  French  system  of 
•weights  and  measures,  the  prefix  deca  multiplies 
the  quantity  by  10,  wliile  deci  divides  by  10. 

DEC  ALOG  UE  (Gr.  Se/ca,  ten ,  and  Xoyoy,  word), 
the  Ten  Commandments,  or  more  properly,  ac- 
cording to  the  Hebrew,  the  Septuagint,  and  Vul- 
gate, the  ten  words  or  sayings  which  God  deliv- 
ered to  the  Jews  through  Moses.  They  contain 
the  fundamental  precepts  of  religion  and  morali- 
ty, and  are  almost  universally  regarded  as  the 
golden  rules  for  every  society,  age,  and  people. 
The  division  of  the  commandments  has  elicit- 
ed a  manifold  diiference  of  opinion.  Of  the 
various  modes  of  dividing  them  which  have 
found  both  numerous  and  weighty  defenders, 
the  following  may  be  regarded  as  historical- 
ly tlie  most  important :  tlie  Origenian  or  Phi- 
Ionic,  the  common  Jewish  or  Talmudic,  and  the 
two  Masoretic.  According  to  the  1st,  which 
is  supported  by  the  Jewish  testimony  of  Philo 
and  Josephus,  and  the  authority  of  Origen, 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  Jerome,  the  1st  pre- 
cept consists  mainly  in  the  words  :  "  Thou 
sbalt  have  no  other  gods  but  me ;"  the  2d 
forbids  images  of  God ;  the  3d  forbids  taking 
tbe  name  of  God  in  vain ;  the  4th  commands 
the  sanctification  of  the  sabbath  day ;  the  5th, 


to  honor  one's  father  and  mother ;  the  6th  for- 
bids murder ;  the  7th,  adultery ;  the  8th,  theft ; 
the  9th,  bearing  false  witness ;  and  the  10th, 
concupiscence.  This  division  has  been  adopted 
by  the  Helvetian  and  Anglican  churches,  by  the 
Lutherans  of  the  school  of  Bucer,  and  by  the  So- 
cinians.  The  Talmudic  division,  Avhich  is  also 
that  of  the  modern  Jews,  being  supported  among 
other  authorities  by  Maimonides's  "  Book  of  the 
Commandments,"  and  Aben  Ezra's  commentary 
on  the  Pentateuch,  differs  from  the  preceding 
only  in  making  the  words,  "I  am  the  Lord  thy 
God,  who  brought  thee  out  of  the  land  of 
Egypt,  out  of  the  house  of  bondage,"  the  1st 
commandment,  and  in  considering  the  prohibi- 
tion of  the  worship  of  other  gods  and  of  images 
as  the  2d.  This  division  is  proved  by  a  quota- 
tion from  Julian  in  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  to  have 
been  generally  known  in  the  early  centuries  of 
the  Christian  era,  and  has  through  the  authority 
of  Pseudo-Athanasius  also  been  adopted  by  the 
Greek  chiarclies,  including  the  Russian,  which 
has  sanctioned  it  in  its  catechism.  The  Maso- 
retic division,  in  both  forms,  so  called  on  ac- 
count of  its  being  based  on  the  Hebrew  text  as 
revised  according  to  the  rule  of  the  Masora, 
unites  the  passage  on  the  exclusive  worship  of 
God  with  the  prohibition  of  images  to  make  the 
1st  commandment,  and  restores  the  number  10, 
which  is  distinctly  specified  in  the  Scriptures, 
by  dividing  the  last  into  2 ;  the  text  of  Exodus 
separating  by  the  mark  of  division  (d)  the  pro- 
hibited coveting  of  a  neighbor's  house,  as  the 
9  th  commandment,  from  the  prohibited  covet- 
ing of  all  other  objects  as  the  10th,  while  the 
text  of  Deuteronomy  separates  and  gives  first 
the  commandment  against  coveting  another's 
wife.  The  division  according  to  Exodus  has 
been  adopted  by  the  Lutheran  church,  and  also 
by  the  council  of  Trent;  the  other  Masoretic 
form,  which  is  supported  by  the  Septuagint,  by 
St.  Augustine,  Bede,  and  Peter  Lombard.  The 
question,  how  many  of  the  ten  commandments 
were  engraved  on  each  of  the  stone  tables  of 
Moses,  has  been  agitated,  mostly  on  philosophical 
grounds.  Philo,  and  after  him  Irenajus,  are  for 
2  pentads ;  others  believe  the  commandments 
on  worship  alone  to  have  been  engraved  on  the 
1st  table,  which  is  regarded  by  some  as  the  more 
divine  of  the  two. 

DECAMPS,  Alexandre  Gabriel,  a  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1803.  In  early  life  he 
visited  Turkey,  and  afterward  executed  a  great 
number  of  pictures  of  oriental  scenery  and  char- 
acteristics. He  has  gained  a  high  reputation  by 
these  works,  as  well  as  by  his  pictures  of  ani- 
mals. Among  the  latter  are  many  representations 
of  apes;  one  of  them,  the  "Monkey  Connois- 
seurs," is  intended  as  a  satire  on  the  jury  of  the 
Paris  academy  of  painting,  on  account  of  the 
severe  criticisms  passed  upon  his  works.  One 
of  his  best  historical  paintings  represents  the 
"  Defeat  of  the  Cimbri."  About  60  of  his  works 
figured  at  the  great  exhibition  of  1855.  His 
style  of  painting  is  bold  and  original,  liis  color- 
ing brilliant,  and  he  is  especially  happy  in  pre- 


DE  CANDOLLE 


DECATUR 


321 


eCTiting  Btrong  contrasts  in  a  liumoroiis  and 
picturesque  manner,  but  has  often  bceu  cen- 
burcd  for  liis  want  of  correctness. 

DE  CANDOLLE.     See  CANnoi.i.K. 

DECAPOLIS  (Gr.  Sf^a,  ten,  ttoXis,  city,)  a  con- 
federacy of  eastern  Palestine,  wliich  contained 
the  following  10  cities:  Damascus,  Philadelphia, 
Rapliana,  Scythopolis,  Gadara,  Hippos,  Dion, 
l\'lla,  Galasa,"and  Canatha,  and  was  formed  by 
the  heathen  inhabitants  for  mutual  protection 
against  the  Asmonean  princes  of  Judiea.  These 
cities  appear  to  liave  possessed  similar  political 
institutions  and  privileges. 

DECATUR,  the  name  of  counties  in  several 
of  the  United  States.  I.  A  S.  TV.  co.  of  Ga., 
bordering  on  Fla.,  intersected  by  Flint  river, 
and  bounded  W.  by  the  Chattahoochee  ;  area, 
about  1,003  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  8,820,  of  whom 
3,949  were  slaves.  The  surface  is  irregular,  and 
the  soil  productive.  In  1850  the  harvest 
amounted  to  5,808  bales  of  cotton,  275,497 
bushels  of  corn,  105,889  of  sweet  potatoes,  and 
65  hogsheads  of  sugar.  Value  of  real  estate  in 
1856,  $1,379,470.  The  county  -was  named  in 
honor  of  Com.  Stephen  Decatur,  jr.  Capital, 
Bainbridge.  II.  A  W.  central  co.  of  Tenn. ;  area, 
325  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  6,003,  of  whom  723 
■were  slaves.  The  Tennessee  river  flows  along 
its  entire  E.  boundary,  and  Beech  river  inter- 
sects it.  The  surface  is  nearly  level,  and  almost 
all  the  land  is  fertile.  The  productions  in  1850 
were  261,790  bushels  of  corn,  43,555  of  oats, 
60,180  lbs.  of  tobacco,  and  52,211  of  butter. 
There  were  15  churches,  and  1,058  pupils  at- 
tending public  schools.  This  county  was  formed 
in  1840  by  the  division  of  Perry  county.  Cap- 
ital, Decaturville.  III.  A  S.  E.  co.  of  Ind. ;  area, 
372  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1850,  15,107.  It  is  drained 
by  several  small  streams.  It  has  a  level  or 
gently  undulating  surface,  and  the  soil  is  a  rich 
loam,  resting  on  a  basis  of  limestone.  Wheat 
and  live  stock  are  the  chief  articles  of  export. 
In  1850  the  productions  were  1,050,217  bushels 
of  corn,  88,493  of  wheat,  47,778  of  oats,  and 
5,587  tons  of  hay.  There  were  46  churches, 
and  3,721  pupils  attending  public  schools.  The 
county  was  organized  in  1821.  Capital,  Greens- 
burg.  IV.  A  S.  CO.  of  Iowa,  bordering  on  Mo. ; 
area,  528  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1856,  6,229.  It  has  a 
rolling  surface,  and  a  good  soil.  A  great  part 
of  the  land  is  occupied  by  prairies,  interspersed 
with  numerous  clusters  of  hard  timber,  scatter- 
ed along  the  "Weldon  river  and  other  streams, 
which  intersect  the  county.  In  1856  the  pro- 
ductions were  18,693  bushels  of  wheat,  32,332 
of  oats,  283,249  of  corn,  18,715  of  potatoes,  266 
tons  of  hay,  and  63,260  lbs.  of  butter. 

DECATUR,  a  prosperous  village  of  Ga.,  and 
capital  of  De  Kalb  co. ;  pop.  in  1850,  744.  It 
is  a  handsome  little  town,  noted  for  its  beauti- 
ful situation  and  healthy  climate.  It  is  the 
seat  of  2  seminaries.  About  6  m.  E.  of  the  vil- 
lage is  Stone  mountain,  an  isolated  granite  rock, 
nearly  2,200  feet  high,  which  is  annually  visited 
by  thousands  of  persons. 

DECATUR.     I.  Stephex,   a  commodore  in 

VOL.  VI. 21 


the  U.  S.  navy,  born  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  in  1751, 
died  in  1808,  obtained  the  command  of  a  vessel 
in  the  merchant  service  at  a  very  early  age. 
During  the  war  of  the  revolution  he  command- 
ed several  privateers,  and  acquired  some  repu- 
tation by  the  capture  of  English  ships.  At  the 
commencement  of  hostilities  with  France  iu 
1798,  he  received  the  commission  of  captain  in 
the  navy,  and  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  Delaware  of  20  guns,  in  which  ship  he  cruis- 
ed during  the  years  1798-99  on  the  American 
coast,  and  in  the  West  Indies,  capturing  at  dif- 
ferent times  the  French  privateers  Lc  Croyable 
of  14,  and  Marsuin  of  10  guns.  In  1800  he  com- 
manded a  squadron  of  13  sail  on  the  Guade- 
loupe station,  the  Philadelphia  frigate  of  38  guns 
being  his  flag  ship.  lie  was  discharged  from  the 
service  under  the  peace  establishment  in  Oct. 
1801,  and  engaged  in  commercial  pursuits  in 
Philadelphia.  II.  Stephex,  jr.,  a  commodore 
in  the  U.  S.  navy,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Sinnepuxent,  Md.,  Jan.  5,  1779,  killed  in  a 
duel,  March  22,  1820.  lie  entered  the  navy  as 
midshipman,  July,  1798,  was  promoted  to  a 
lieutenancy  in  July,  1799,  and  served  in  both 
grades  in  the  frigate  United  States,  on  the  West 
India  station,  under  the  command  of  Com. 
John  Barry,  during  the  qnasi  war  with  France. 
In  May,  1801,  he  joined  the  frigate  Essex,  Capt. 
William  Bainbridge,  one  of  a  squadron  of  3 
frigates  and  a  brig,  sent  to  the  Mediterranean, 
under  the  command  of  Com.  Richard  Dale,  in 
consequence  of  hostile  demonstrations  against 
the  United  States  by  Tripoli.  War  had  been 
actually  declared  by  Tripoli  before  the  arrival 
of  Com.  Dale  upon  the  station,  but  the  orders 
under  which  he  acted  were  prepared  in  igno- 
rance of  that  fact,  and  nothing,  therefore,  beyond 
blockading  Tripolitan  cruisers,  and  the  conse- 
quent protection  of  our  commerce,  was  effected 
by  this  squadron,  except  an  action  which  took 
place  off  Malta  between  the  Enterprise  of  12 
guns,  under  Lieut.  Sterrett,  and  a  Tripolitan 
cruiser  of  14  guns,  which  resulted  in  the  cap- 
ture of  the  latter.  Cora.  Dale  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  Dec.  1801,  and  early  in  the 
spring  of  1802  another  squadron  of  3  frigates,  2 
sloops  of  war,  and  a  brig  was  ordered  to  the  same 
station,  under  Com.  Valentine  Morris,  in  wliich 
Decatur  was  actively  employed  as  first  lieuten- 
ant of  the  frigate  New  York,  Capt.  James  Bar- 
ron. At  Malta  he  acted  as  second  in  a  duel  be- 
tween Midshipman  Joseph  Bainbridge  and  an 
English  oflicer,  which  terminated  fatally  to  the 
latter.  The  surrender  of  the  parties  concerned 
to  the  civil  authorities  was  demanded  by  the 
governor.  Sir  Alexander  Ball,  and  it  was  there- 
fore deemed  prudent  for  Decatur  to  leave  the 
squadron,  and  return  to  the  United  States.  Com. 
Morris  was  recalled  from  his  command  in  Nov. 
1803,  and  the  squadron,  having  been  materially 
strengthened,  was  placed  under  the  command 
of  Com.  Edward  Preble,  Decatur  serving  in  it 
at  first  in  command  of  the  brig  Argus  of  16 
guns,  and  subsequently  of  the  Enterprise,  12, 
having  been  superseded  in  the  Argus  by  Lieut. 


322 


DEOATUR 


Hull,  liis  senior  in  rank.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  Preble's  command,  and  in  fact  before 
he  had  time  to  appear  off  Tripoli  liiniself,  the 
frigate  Pliiladelphia  unfortunately  fell  into  the 
enemy's  hands ;  and  as  she  added  much  to 
the  defences  of  the  port,  and  would  doubtless 
be  eventually  sent  out  to  cruise,  it  was  deemed 
very  important  to  recapture  or  destroy  her, 
Capt.  Bainbridge,  then  a  prisoner  in  Tripoli,  and 
in  secret  correspondence  with  Preble,  suggested, 
in  a  letter  of  Dec.  5,  1803,  the  practicabihty  of 
destroying  her  by  fire,  although  she  was  in  a 
harbor  filled  with  cruisers,  and  surrounded  by 
batteries.  Preble  was  tlien  lying  at  Syracuse, 
the  rendezvous  of  the  squadron,  with  the  Enter- 
prise, Lieut.  Ooradt.  Decatur,  in  company.  The 
plan  was  mentioned  to  Decatur,  who  at  once 
entered  upon  it  Avith  great  ^eal  and  spirit.  A 
Tripolitan  mastico,  bound  to  Constantinople 
with  a  present  of  female  slaves  for  the  Porte, 
which  had  been  captured  by  the  Enterprise  a 
few  days  before,  attbrded  ready  means  for  car- 
rying it  into  execution,  and  she  was  taken  into 
the  service  for  the  i)urpose,  and  named  the  In- 
trepid. About  this  time  Lieut.  Comdt.  (now 
Counnodore)  Stewart,  of  the  brig  Siren,  of  16 
guns,  which  had  just  arrived  from  a  cruise, 
volunteered  to  cut  out  the  Philadelphia ;  but 
Preble  adhered  to  the  plan  already  formed,  and 
on  Feb.  3,  1804,  issued  the  order  for  carrying  it 
into  elfect.  That  evening  the  Intrepid,  convoy- 
ed by  the  Siren,  sailed  from  Syracuse  to  execute 
this  important  service.  The  officers  were  Lieut. 
Comdt.  Decatur,  Lieuts.  Lawrence,  Joseph 
Bainbridge,  and  Thorn,  Midshipman  Thomas 
McDonough,  and  Surgeon  Ileerman,  all  of  the 
Enterprise,  and  Midshipmen  Izard,  Morris, 
Laws,  Davis,  and  Rowe,  who  volunteered  from 
the  Constitution,  Com.  Preble's  flag  ship,  and 
Salvadoro  Catalano,  a  Greek,  acting  as  pilot  and 
interj)reter.  The  entire  crew  of  the  Enterprise 
volunteered  for  the  expedition,  but  only  62  of 
the  most  athletic  and  active  were  selected,  mak- 
ing, with  the  officers,  74  souls.  On  Feb.  9 
Tripoli  was  discovered,  but  bad  weather  pre- 
vemted  the  attempt  until  the  night  of  the  15th, 
when  the  party  in  the  Intrepid  was  reenforced 
by  Midn.  Anderson  and  8  men  from  the  Siren. 
About  10  o'clock  in  the  evening  the  Intrepid 
reached  the  mouth  of  the  harbor.  The  weather 
was  beautiful,  and  the  sea  and  bay  were  as 
smooth  as  in  summer.  She  entered  the  hostile 
port  slowly,  the  breeze  being  very  light.  De- 
catur stood  at  the  helm,  with  the  interpreter  be- 
side him,  the  men  lying  on  deck  out  of  sight;  a 
few  officers  only  remained  standing.  As  the 
frigate  was  neared,  Decatur  discovered  a  fe\Y 
of  her  crew  looking  over  the  hammock  rail,  and 
the  Intrepid  was  hailed  and  ordered  to  keep  off. 
The  pilot  answered,  according  to  previous  in- 
structions, that  they  were  from  Malta,  on  a  trad- 
ing voyage,  had  lost  their  anchors  in  a  late  gale, 
and  desired  to  ride  by  the  frigate  until  others 
could  be  procured.  The  Tripolitan  then  asked 
some  questions  about  the  brig  in  the  offing,  and 
was  told  that  it  was  the  Transfer,  a  former  Brit- 


ish vessel  of  war,  which  had  been  purchased  for 
theTripolitans,  and  was  daily  expected  to  arrive. 
During  this  conversation  warps  were  carried  to 
tlie  frigate,  where  tliey  were  received  and  made 
fast,  and  the  crew  of  the  Intrepid,  still  lying 
down,  began  to  warp  her  gently  alongside. 
Distrust  was  awakened  among  the  Triijolitaus 
by  the  discovery  of  the  anchors  of  the  Intrepid, 
and  the  cry  of  Americanos  was  raised.  A  vig- 
orous pull  brought  the  vessels  in  contact,  the 
order  to  board  was  given,  and  Midshipman 
Charles  Morris  stood  first  on  the  quarter  deck 
of  the  Philadelphia,  followed  immediately  by 
Decatur.  So  perfect  was  the  surprise,  and  so 
rapid  and  vehement  the  assault,  that  the  re- 
sistance Avas  very  slight,  and  in  less  than  10 
minutes  Decatur  was  in  undisturbed  posses- 
sion of  the  ship.  Her  foremast  was  want- 
ing, and  not  a  sail  Avas  bent,  or  yard  crossed. 
To  move  lier,  therefore,  was  impossible,  and  her 
destruction  w'as  instantly  resolved  upon.  The 
men  immediately  distributed  themselves,  ac- 
cording to  previous  instructions,  with  combusti- 
bles, Avhich  consisted  principally  of  canvas  sacks 
of  dry  pine  and  shavings,  well  covered  with  soft 
turpentine.  All  were  emptied  and  spread  in  the 
cock  pit  and  store  rooms,  and  demijohns  of 
spirits  of  turpentine  poured  down  upon  them 
from  the  gun  deck.  The  ship  Avas  inaA-erydry 
state,  and  the  conflagration  so  exti'emely  rapid 
that  the  assailants  escaped  vvith  difficulty.  When 
all  Avere  on  board  the  Intrepid,  she  Avas  cast  off, 
and  for  an  instant  was  in  great  danger,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  fouling  of  a  fast.  It  was  cut,  and 
the  little  vessel  dropped  clear  just  as  the  flames 
burst  forth  from  the  ports  of  the  frigate  over 
her  deck,  upon  which  a  large  mass  of  ammuni- 
tion Avas  lying  covered  with  tarpaulins.  The 
sweeps  Avere  now  manned,  and  the  Intrepid 
Avas  very  soon  at  a  safe  distance  from  tlie  burn- 
ing frigate.  When  a  few  lengths  from  her  the 
men  ceased  to  roAV  for  an  instant,  and  gave  3 
hearty  cheers.  A  light  land  breeze  sprung  up 
at  this  critical  moment,  Avhich  Avafred  the  little 
vessel  rapidly  out  of  the  harbor.  The  spectacle 
as  she  left  the  port  Avas  described  by  the  officers 
as  sublime  and  beautiful.  The  bay  Avas  com- 
pletely illuminated  by  the  conflagration,  and  the 
town,  castles,  minarets,  and  mosques  Avere  all 
brought  by  it  into  distinct  view.  By  the  light 
thus  aftbrded,  a  heavy  fire  was  opened  U[ion  the 
Intrepid  by  the  batteries  and  cruisers,  though 
without  effect,  one  shot  only  passing  through  a 
sail.  The  guns  of  the  frigate,  as  they  became 
heated,  began  to  go  off,  and  singularly  enough, 
her  broadsides  bore  upon  the  city  and  one  of  the 
principal  batteries.  The  Siren  Avas  soon  fallen  in 
Avirh  in  the  offing,  and  Decatur  went  on  board 
to  report  his  success.  The  arrangements  for  this 
expedition  Avere  perfect.  No  firearms  were 
used,  but  all  Avas  carried  by  the  cutlass.  Noth- 
ing was  Avanting,  nothing  defeated,  and  on  the 
part  of  the  Americans  but  a  single  casualty  oc- 
curred, one  man  being  slightly  wounded.  The 
loss  sustained  by  the  enemy  could  never  of  course 
be  correctly  ascertained.   Many  swam  on  shore, 


DECATUR 


32n 


and  to  the  nearest  cruisers,  and  20  were  report- 
ed to  have  been  killed.  The  effect  of  this  gal- 
lant exploit  wa!^  at  once  to  place  the  name  of 
Decatur  high  upon  the  list  of  the  most  distin- 
guished of  our  naval  officers.  Com.  Preble  re- 
commended him  for  ])romotion,  and  a  captain's 
commission  was  conferred  uj)on  him,  dated  on 
the  day  of  the  destruction  of  the  Philadelphia  ; 
a  sword  was  also  presented  him  by  congress, 
and  2  months'  pay  was  voted  to  each  of  his 
otKcers  and  crew.  In  the  subsequent  attacks 
upon  Tripoli  by  Com.  Preble's  squadron,  Decatur 
liorc  a  distinguished  part,  and  especially  in  the 
one  of  Aug.  3,  1804.  In  this  service  a  number  of 
gun-boats  and  bomb  vessels,  borrowed  from  the 
Neapolitan  government  (which  was  at  that  time 
at  war  with  Tripoli)  were  used,  and  in  the  at- 
tack referred  to,  Decatur  commanded  a  division, 
consisting  of  3  of  these  vessels.  The  special 
object  of  the  attack  was  a  flotilla  of  gun-boats, 
protected  by  batteries  on  shore,  and  a  10-gun 
brig,  and  there  is  hardly  a  record  in  naval  his- 
tory of  an  attack  made  with  such  a  disparity  of 
force  and  crowned  with  entire  success.  Each 
of  the  boats  of  Decatur's  division,  singling  out  an 
opponent,  boarded  and  carried  her,  after  a  des- 
perate hand-to-hand  confliet  with  cutlass  and  pis- 
tol. Decatur,  on  taking  possession  of  the  boat 
which  he  tirst  assailed,  took  her  in  tow,  and  bore 
up  for  the  next  one  to  leeward,  which  he  board- 
ed, with  most  of  his  officers  and  men,  attacking 
himself  the  Tripolitan  commanding  officer  the 
moment  he  attained  his  deck.  The  Tripolitan 
was  a  powerful  man,  of  large  stature,  and  a  des- 
perate personal  struggle  took  place,  in  which 
Decatur  fell  with  his  aiitagonist  upon  him. 
"With  one  hand  Decatur  grasped  firmly  that  of 
his  foe,  who  was  endeavoring  to  reach  his  yata- 
gan,  while  witli  the  other  he  drew  a  pistol 
from  his  vest  pocket,  passed  the  arm  around  the 
body  of  the  Tripolitan,  and  pointing  the  muzzle 
in,  fired.  The  ball  passed  through  the  body 
of  his  foe,  and  killed  him.  In  the  first  part  of 
this  contest  between  the  two  commanders,  De- 
catur's life  was  doubtless  saved  by  a  young 
American  sailor  named  Reuben  James,  who  in- 
tercepted a,  blow  aimed  at  the  head  of  his  com- 
mander, by  interposing  his  own  arm,  receiving 
thereby  a  very  severe  wound.  The  desperate 
nature  of  the  fighting  which  distinguished  this 
remarkable  assault  may  be  inferred  from  the 
foregoing  details,  and  the  amount  of  loss.  The  2 
boats  captured  by  Decatur  had  but  80  men  in 
them,  of  whom  52  are  known  to  have  been  kill- 
ed or  wounded.  In  another  Tripolitan  gun- 
boat, captured  by  Lieut.  Triple,  there  were  found 
living  and  dead  36  people,  of  whom  21  were  kill- 
ed or  wounded.  Three  gun-boats  were  sunk  in 
the  harbor,  in  addition  to  the  3  which  were 
taken ;  a  large  number  of  shells  were  thrown 
into  the  city,  and  the  batteries  were  much  in- 
jured. The  moral  efl^ect  upon  the  enemy  of  this 
and  subsequent  attacks  of  the  same  nature  was 
very  great.  The  superiority  of  the  Americans 
in  gunnery  had  been  already  admitted,  and  they 
had  now  overcome  the  Tripolitans  with  inferior 


numbers  hand  to  hand,  a  species  of  combat  in 
wbicli  the  latter  particularly  excelled.     In  the 
attack  of  the  3d  the  American  loss  was  but  14 
killed  and  wounded.     Among  the  killed  was 
Lieut.  James  Decatur,  a  younger  brother  of  Ste- 
l)hen,  and  an  officer  of  high  promise.     On  Aug. 
7,  just  at  the  conclusion  of  another  attack,  in 
which  Decatur  particijjated,  his  commission  aa 
captain  arrived  from  the  United  States  in  the 
John  Adams,  28,  Capt.  Isaac  Chauncey,  and  he 
subsequently  served  at  one  time  in  the  Consti- 
tution as  flag  captain,  and  at  another  in  the 
frigate  Congress  of  38  guns.     On  June  3,  1805, 
peace  was  proclaimed.     In  180G  Decatur  stood 
yth  on  the  list  of  captains,  and  between  the 
close  of  the  Tripolitan  war  and  the  declaration 
of  war  with  England  in  1812,  he  was  variously 
employed,  at  one  time  superintending  the  con- 
struction of  gun-boats.     After  the  alfair  of  the 
Chesapeake  our  ships  of  war  were  for  the  most 
part  kept  upon  our  own  coast,  in  anticipation 
of  hostilities  with  England,  and  Decatur  was 
then  in  command  of  a  squadron,  the  United 
States,  44,  bearing  his  flag.     On  June  18,  1812, 
war  with  England  was  declared,  and  on  Oct.  25 
Decatur,  still  in  comnu^nd  of  the  frigate  United 
States,  fell  in  with  and  captured,  after  an  action 
of  an  hour  and  a  half,  the  British  frigate  Mace- 
donian, 49,  commanded  by  Capt.  John  S.  Carden, 
an  officer  of  high  i-eputation. '  She  was  smaller, 
of  lighter  armament,  and  had  fewer  men  than 
the  United  States.    She  mounted  long  IBs  upon 
her  gun  deck,  and  32  lb.  carronades  upon  her 
quarter  deck  and  forecastle ;  while  the  main 
battery  of  the  United  States  consisted  of  long 
24s,"  M-ith  32  lb.  carronades  upon  the  upper  deck. 
But  though  it  is  admitted  that  the  American 
ship  was  the  heaviest,  her  superiority  was  cer- 
tainly not  in  proportion  to  the  execution  done  in 
this  combat.     The  Macedonian  being  to  wind- 
ward could  choose  her  distance,  and  the  action 
was  fought  for  the  most  part  at  long  shot.    She 
was  very  severely  cut  up,  her  mizzen  mast,  fore 
and  main  topmasts,  and  main  yard  being  shot 
away,  a  hundred  round  shot  in  her  hull,  while  of 
her  300  men  36  were  killed  and  08  wounded.  The 
United  States  suffered  but  little.    She  lost  a  top- 
gallant mast  and  was  otherwise  somewhat  cut  up 
aloft,  but  her  hull  was  very  slightly  injured ;  7 
men  were  killed  and  5  rounded.     The  Macedo- 
nian was  taken  into  Kew  York.  For  this  capture 
congress  voted  a  gold  medal  to  Decatur,  and 
silver  ones  to  each  commissioned  officer  under 
his  command.    On  May  24,  1813,  Decatur  sailed 
from  New  York  in  command  of  a  squadron, 
consisting  of  the  United  States  (flag  ship),  the 
Macedonian,  now  an  American  frigate,  and  the 
Hornet  sloop  of  war.    The  Sandy  Hook  channel 
being    blockaded    by  the    enemy,    he  passed 
through  Long  Island  sound,  and  on  June  1  at- 
tempted to  go  to  sea  by  running  out  past  Mon- 
tauk  point.    He  was  intercepted,  however,  by  a 
British  squadron  of  much  superior  force,  and 
compelled  to  enter  the  harbor  of  New  London, 
where  he  remained  closely  blockaded  until  the 
summer  of  1814,  when  he  was  transferred  to  the 


3i>4 


DECATUR 


DECAZES 


President,  44,  and  hoisted  hi.^  pennant  in  that 
gliij)  as  commander  of  a  squadron,  consisting 
of  3  vessels  of  Avar  and  a  store  ship,  destined 
for  a  cruise  in  the  East  India  seas.  So  closely 
•was  New  York  blockaded  that  he  did  not  get 
to  sea  until  the  middle  of  Jan.  1815,  when  he 
sailed  at  night.  Unfortunately,  the  pilots  miss- 
ed the  channel,  and  the  ship  struck,  and  heat 
very  heavily  upon  the  bar  for  an  hour  and  a  half. 
Upon  the  rising  of  the  tide  she  floated,  and 
went  to  sea,  though  obviously  much  injured,  it 
being  impossible  to  return.  At  daylight  the 
next  morning  4  ships  were  discovered  in  chase, 
one  on  each  quarter,  and  two  astern.  The  sail- 
ing of  the  President  was  so  much  impaired  by 
the  injuries  received  while  on  the  bar,  that  es- 
cape was  impossible,  and  she  was  brought  to 
action  about  3  P.  M.  by  the  frigate  Endymion 
of  40  guns.  A  running  fight  took  place,  which 
lasted  about  8  hours,  in  the  course  of  which 
Decatur  formed  the  bold  plan  of  carrying  the 
Endymion  by  boarding,  and  going  off  with  her, 
abandoning  the  Pi-esident  to  the  enemy.  He 
communicated  this  plan  to  his  men,  by  whom  it 
was  well  received,  and  attempted  to  execute  it, 
but  the  superior  sailing  of  the  enemy  enabled 
him  to  frustrate  the  efforts  made  to  close  with 
him.  At  11  P.  M.  the  Pomona,  38,  another  of 
the  pursuing  ships,  also  closed,  and  obtaining  a 
position  upon  the  weather  bow  of  the  President, 
fired  a  broadside  into  her ;  and  as  at  this  moment 
the  Tenedos,  38,  was  fast  closing  upon  the  quar- 
ter, and  the  razee  Majestic  was  within  gun-shot 
astern,  it  was  but  too  evident  that  further  resist- 
ance was  useless,  and  Decatur  therefore  sur- 
rendered, delivering  his  sword  to  the  captain  of 
the  Majestic,  the  senior  British  officer  present. 
Tlie  loss  of  the  President  during  this  long  action 
was  very  severe ;  80  were  killed  and  wounded. 
Among  the  former  were  Lieuts.  Babbitt,  Hamil- 
ton, and  Ilowell.  Her  fire  upon  the  Endymion 
was  principally  directed  at  the  spars,  with  a  view 
to  cripple  her,  and  the  loss  of  that  ship,  accord- 
ing to  the  published  reports,  was  11  killed  and 
14  wounded.  The  President  was  carried  into 
Bermuda,  and  both  she  and  the  Endymion  were 
dismasted  in  a  gale  before  reaching  port.  De- 
catur was  soon  released  on  parole,  and  on  his  re- 
turn to  the  United  States  was  honorably  acquit- 
ted by  a  court  of  inquiry  for  the  loss  of  the  ship. 
On  March  2, 1815,  immediately  upon  the  termi- 
nation of  the  war  with  Great  Britain,  congress 
passed  an  act  authorizing  hostilities  against 
Algiers,  that  power  having  for  some  time  be- 
fore been  engaged  in  depredations  upon  the 
little  American  commerce  that  remained  in  or 
near  the  Mediterranean.  On  May  21  a  squad- 
ron, consisting  of  3  frigates,  1  sloop  of  war,  and 
6  brigs  and  schooners,  sailed  from  New  York 
for  the  Mediterranean,  under  Decatur's  com- 
mand, the  Guerriere,  44,  being  his  flag  ship.  Mr. 
William  Shaler  was  on  board  to  act  jointly  with 
Decatur  in  negotiating  a  treaty  with  Algiers, 
should  she  be  disposed  to  come  to  terms.  On 
June  17,  when  off  Cape  de  Gatt,  on  the  coast  of 
Spain,  the  squadron  fell  in  with  and  captured 


the  Algerine  frigate  Mashouda,  40,  after  a  short 
running  fight,  in  which  the  Algerine  admiral 
and  nearly  100  of  his  oflicers  and  men  were 
killed  and  wounded.  The  prisoners  amounted 
to  406.  Two  days  later  an  Algerine  brig  of 
war,  the  Estido,  22,  was  chased  into  shoal  water 
oft'  Cape  Palos  by  the  small  vessels  of  our  squad- 
ron, and  captured  after  a  short  resistance.  The 
prizes  were  sent  into  Carthagena,  and  the  squad- 
ron arrived  oft'  Algiers,  June  28.  On  the  30th, 
just  40  days  after  its  departure  from  New  York, 
a  treaty,  dictated  to  the  dey  by  the  commis- 
sioners, was  concluded.  By  the  terms  of  this 
treaty  demands  upon  the  United  States  for 
tribute  were  for  ever  abolished.  A  mutual  lib- 
eration of  prisoners  and  restitution  of  property 
was  made,  and  it  was  stipulated  that  in  the 
event  of  future  wars  Algiers  was  not  to  treat 
American  prisoners  as  slaves.  As  a  personal 
favor  to  the  dey,  the  captured  frigate  and  brig 
were  restored,  though  the  commissioners  re- 
fused to  perafit  an  article  to  that  effect  to  he 
inserted  in  the  treaty.  Our  aftairs  with  Algiers 
being  thus  settled,  Decatur  proceeded  with  his 
squadron  to  Tunis  and  Tripoli,  and  made  recla- 
mations upon  those  powers  for  depredations 
committed  by  them  upon  American  commerce 
during  the  war  with  England,  obtaining  prompt 
redress  from  both.  As  soon  as  this  service  was 
concluded,  most  of  the  squadron  returned  to  the 
United  States,  and  in  Nov.  1815,  Decatur  was 
appointed  navy  commissioner,  which  position 
he  held  until  his  death.  He  fell  in  a  duel  fought 
near  Bladensburg,  Md.,  with  Com.  James  Bar- 
ron, which  grew  out  of  the  affair  between  the 
Chesapeake  and  Leopard.  Com.  Barron,  upon 
the  termination  of  his  suspension  from  duty, 
sought  professional  employment,  in  which  he 
was  warmly  opposed  by  Decatur,  and  this  led 
to  his  hostile  meeting  with  that  brave  but  un- 
fortunate oflicer.  Both  fell  at  the  first  fire,  De- 
catur mortally  and  Barron  very  severely  wound- 
ed. No  officer  of  the  navy  ever  occupied  a 
higher  place  in  public  estimation  than  Com. 
Decatur,  who,  among  brave  men,  was  noted  as 
a  person  of  the  coolest  and  most  determined 
courage.  He  was  rather  below  the  middle  size, 
but  of  a  remarkably  symmetrical  form.  His 
complexion  was  dark,  his  eyes  w^ere  black  and 
piercing,  and  altogether  he  was  a  man  of  re- 
markable appearance,  riveting  the  attention  of 
all  who  saw  him. 

DECAZES,  Ei.iE,  duke,  a  French  statesman, 
born  at  St.  Martin  du  Laye,  Gironde,  Sept.  28, 
1780,  filled  at  an  early  age  high  judicial  positions;, 
gained  the  confidence  of  Louis  Bonaparte,  king 
of  Holland,  whom  he  served  even  after  his  abdi- 
cation in  1810,  officiated  as  secretary  of  Letizia 
Bonaparte,  but  joined  the  cause  of  the  Bourbons 
in  1814,  and  under  the  second  restoration  dis- 
charged the  duties  of  prefect  of  police  at  Paris 
with  marked  ability.  He  became  an  intimate 
friend  of  Louis  XVIIL,  and  in  1815  a  member  of 
his  cabinet  as  minister  of  police.  By  his  concilia- 
tory policy  he  gave  umbrage  to  tlie  ultra  royal- 
ists, without  giving  satisfaction  to  the  extreme 


DECOAN 


DECEMVIRI 


alio 


liberal  party.  In  181 S  he  became  home  minis- 
ter, and  in  Nov,  181ii,  i>reniior.  Tiie  opposition 
of  tlie  royalist  party  broke  out  with  renewed 
virulence  on  occasion  of  the  assassination  of  the 
dnke  de  Berry,  in  1820,  wlien  a  deputy  cliarged 
liim  openly  with  bein<f  an  accomplice  of  the  mur- 
derer; and  Chateaubriand,  then  an  ultra  royal- 
ist, wrote  in  the  Con^ervateur :  '•  His  foot  slipped 
in  tlie  blood."  He  then  resigned,  wlien  Louis 
XVIII.  made  him  a  dnke,  and  his  ambassador 
to  England,  wliere  he  remained  till  Dec.  1821. 
Under  the  reign  of  Charles  X.  he  opposed  the 
extreme  measures  of  the  government,  and  after 
the  revolution  of  1830,  adhered  to  Louis  Philippe. 
In  1834  he  was  appointed  grand  referendary  of 
the  chamber  of  peers.  Of  late  years  he  has 
devoted  his  activity  to  tlie  superintendence  of 
large  iron  works  at  Decazeville  in  Aveyron. 
On  his  marriage  in  1818  with  his  second  wife. 
Mile,  de  Saint-Aulaire,  a  relative  of  the  late 
duke  of  Holstein-Gliicksbnrg,  the  title  of  duke 
of  Gllicksburg  was  conferred  on  him  by  Frederic 
VI.  of  Denmark. — His  eldest  son  by  his  second 
wife,  Loms  Chaules  Elie  Amanieu,  marquis 
Decazes.  duke  of  Glucksburg,  born  May  9, 1819, 
officiated  previous  to  the  revolution  of  1848  as 
French  ambassador  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 

DECCAN,  a  country  of  British  India,  lying  be- 
tween the  Nerbudda  and  Kistnah  rivers.  Under 
the  Moguls  the  country  N.  of  the  Vindhya  moun- 
tains was  called  Hindostan,  and  that  lying  to  the 
S.  the  Deccan.  Assigning  it  the  less  extended 
signification,  it  comprises  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  Bombay  presidency  except  Sinde ;  Nagpoor, 
Berar,  Sumbulpoor,  Cuttack,  and  part  of  the 
Saugur  and  Nerbudda  territories,  in  the  Ben- 
gal presidency  ;  the  Northern  Circars,  Guntoor 
excepted,  in  the  Madras  presidency;  and  the 
dominions  of  the  Nizam,  parts  of  those  of  Sin- 
dia  and  Holkar,  and  several  petty  native  states, 
toward  the  N.  E.  The  general  aspect  of  this  im- 
mense territory  is  an  elevated  table-land  of  tri- 
angular shape,  supported  by  the  mountain  walls 
of  the  Ghauts  on  the  E.  and  W.,  and  by  the 
Vindhya  range  on  the  N.  The  dip  of  the  coun- 
try is  toward  the  E.,  all  the  rivers  of  magnitude 
flowing  eastward  to  the  bay  of  Bengal.  The 
principal  of  these  rivers  are  the  Godavery,  flow- 
ing E.  with  a  course  of  850  m.,  and  the  Maha- 
nuddy,  650  m.  The  seaward  declivity  of  this 
table-land,  facing  the  bay  of  Bengal,  consists 
of  a  series  of  terraced  steeps,  abrupt  but  not 
precipitous.  The  interior  table-land  mostly  con- 
sists of  rolling  prairie.  A  variety  of  races,  num- 
bering perhaps  50,000,000  souls,  differing  in 
manners  and  customs,  inhabit  this  territory. 
The  remote  history  of  the  Deccan  is  lost  in  ob- 
scurity. An  ancient  division  of  the  country  into 
5  kingdoms  is  indicated  by  its  5  languages.  The 
first  irruption  of  Mohammedans  from  the  north 
took  place  in  1294,  under  Aladdin,  afterward 
king  of  Delhi.  He  was  followed  by  Mohammed 
Togluck,  who,  in  1325,  completed  the  subjuga- 
tion of  the  country.  Revolts  followed,  and  wars 
for  800  years,  ending  in  distribution  and  re-dis- 
tribution of  the  territory,  antil  in  1686  it  passed 


nnder  the  sway  of  the  Mogul  emperor  Anrung- 
zebe.  After  Anrungzebc's  death  it  fell  piece- 
meal into  the  liands  of  the  Mahrattas,  and  was 
subsequently  broken  up  into  the  feudal  sover- 
eignties which  yet  exist  in  name.  About  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  British  influence  be- 
came predominant,  and  by  eonciuest  and  annex- 
ation, especially  since  1818,  the  greater  part  of 
the  Deccan  has  been  absorbed  into  the  British 
Indian  empire,  and  was  little  disturbed  by  the 
recent  insurrection. 

DECEMBER,  the  12t]i  month  of  the  year, 
from  the  Latin  decern,  10,  The  Roman  year  be- 
gan with  March,  so  that  September  was  the  7th 
and  December  the  10th  month, 

DECEMVIRI  (ten  men),  the  name  of  tho 
members  of  several  Roman  magistracies,  distin- 
guished by  an  additional  denomination.  The 
elecemviri  legibus  Kcrihcndis  (appointed  to  digest 
a  written  code  of  laws)  were  first  elected  in  the 
j'ear  451  B,  C,  during  the  long  dissensions  be- 
tween the  two  orders  after  the  establishment  of 
the  tribunate.  The  tribune  Terentius  (or  Teren- 
tillus)  Arsa,  after  a  violent  exhibition  of  the 
grievances  of  the  plebeians,  and  the  usurpations 
of  the  patricians,  proposed  (460)  the  appointment 
of  10  commissioners  to  digest  a  regular  body  of 
laws  which  should  secure  the  rights  of  all,  and 
be  binding  alike  on  consuls,  senators,  patricians, 
and  plebs.  This  was  accomplished  after  9  years 
of  continued  disputes  and  struggles.  An  em- 
bassy, it  is  said,  was  sent  to  Greece  to  obtain 
information  concerning  the  laws  of  the  difi^er- 
ent  states,  and  particularly  concerning  those  of 
Solon  ;  and  after  their  return  10  distinguished 
patricians  were  appointed  for  a  year,  with  su- 
preme power,  to  frame  the  new  laws.  They 
commenced  and  continued  their  work  with  zeal 
and  accuracy,  and  exercised  their  power  with 
justice,  impartiality,  and  moderation,  each  pre- 
siding by  turns,  day  by  day,  and  he  only  using 
the  fasces.  The  new  laws,  engraved  on  10 
tables  of  brass,  were  placed  in  the  forum  and 
sanctioned  by  general  acclamation,  as  well  as 
by  the  sacred  rites  of  the  augurs.  But  the  ad- 
dition of  two  new  tables  being  required,  a  new 
decemvirate  was  elected  for  the  next  year,  in 
which  the  ambitious  patrician  Appius  Claudius 
managed  to  be  reelected,  and  to  introduce  a  few 
plebeian  members.  lie  thus  became  the  favor- 
ite of  the  people,  while  aiming  to  become  their 
master.  The  laws  were  completed,  and  after- 
ward known  under  the  name  of  "Laws  of  the 
XII.  Tables,"  and  were  admired  for  their  wis- 
dom, which,  according  to  Cicero,  surpassed  that 
of  all  the  books  of  philosophy.  But  now  the  de- 
cemvirs changed  their  conduct,  exercised  their 
power  over  aU  classes  of  the  people  with  op- 
pressive rigor,  and  continued  in  office  illegally 
after  the  expiration  of  their  term,  maintaining 
themselves  by  terror.  Their  oppression  waa 
endured  for  some  time  without  resistance,  until 
the  attempted  rape  of  Virginia  by  Appius  Clau- 
dius, under  the  guise  of  a  public  judgment,  and 
the  blood  of  the  virgin  shed  b}"  her  own  father 
to  save  her  honor,  roused  the  public  indigna< 


326 


DEOHAMPS 


DECIUS  MUS 


tion  to  an  outbreak,  -u-hich  overthrew  the  de- 
ceinvirate,  and  caused  its  abolition. — The  decern' 
virilitibus  (or  more  anciently  slUihus)  judican- 
dis  t'orrued  a  judicial  magistracy,  which  replaced 
the  former  authority  of  the  pontitices  in  matters 
relating  to  pei-sons  and  taxable  property,  and 
had  the  management  of  the  subJuxstationcs ; 
under  the  emjjerors  they  were  the  i)re.sidents 
of  the  centumviral  court. — The  decemviri  sacris 
fdciandis  (or  more  briefly  sacronnn)  formed  a 
priestly  college  for  the  interpretation  of  the 
Sibylline  books  (established  868  B.  C,  instead 
of  the  ancient  patrician  duumviri);  they  were 
chosen  for  life,  partly  from  the  patrician,  partly 
from  the  plebeian  order,  and  had  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Apollinian  and  secular  games.  At 
a  later  period  their  number  was  increased,  prob- 
ably by  Sylla,  to  15. 

DECIIAMPS,  Adolphe,  a  Belgian  journalist 
and  statesman,  born  at  Melle,  June  17,  1807. 
Early  in  life  a  disciple  of  Lameuuais,  he  subse- 
quently became  an  orthodox  Eoman  Catholic. 
From  1843  to  1845  he  was  minister  of  public 
works,  and  from  1845  until  Aug.  1847,  when 
the  triumph  of  the  liberal  party  led  to  liis  se- 
cession, minister  of  foreign  affairs.  From  1837 
to  1851  ho  conducted  the  Catholic  Revue  de 
Bruxelles^  founded  by  himself  and  Dedecker. 
He  is  an  able  administrator  and  an  influential 
parliamentary  speaker. 

DE  CIIAKMS,  EiCHAED,  an  American  cler- 
gyman and  author,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Oct.  17, 
1796.  Ilis  ancestors  on  the  male  side  were  Hu- 
guenots, who  took  refuge  in  England  upon  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  In  1793  his 
father,  a  physician  by  profession,  emigrated  to 
America,  and  died  of  the  yellow  fever  a  few 
weeks  before  the  birth  of  his  son.  The  latter, 
when  14  years  of  age,  supported  bis  mother  and 
himself  by  working  in  a  printing  office,  until  ill 
health  compelled  him  to  desist.  Subsequently  he 
found  the  means  to  enter  Yale  college,  at  which 
he  was  graduated  in  1826,  and  at  the  suggestion 
of  a  female  friend,  to  whom  he  was  indebted  for 
his  education,  commenced  the  study  of  theology 
in  London,  with  a  view  of  fitting  himself  for  the 
ministry  of  the  church  of  the  New  Jerusalem. 
During  the  2  years  he  remained  in  England  lie 
supported  himself  by  his  labor  as  a  journeyman 
printer.  He  has  been  settled  at  Cincinnati, 
Philadelphta,  and  Baltimore,  and  has  published 
several  collections  of  sermons  and  lectures  on 
the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Swedenborg.  To 
the  periodical  literature  of  his  church  he  has 
also  rendered  valuable  service  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  "  New  Jerusalem  Magazine"  in  Bos- 
ton, the  first  3  numbers  of  which  were  printed 
by  his  own  hands,  and  by  editing  the  "Precur- 
sor" and  "  New  Chui-chman."  His  chief  work 
is  the  "New  Churchman  Extra"  (1  vol.  8vo.), 
which  is  devoted  to  polemics  and  church  history. 

DECIDUOUS  (Lat.  deciduus,  from  decido,  to 
fall),  in  botany,  a  term  applied  to  such  plants 
as  drop  their  leaves  at  periodical  seasons.  In 
the  temperate  and  northern  latitudes  this  oc- 
curs for  the  most  part  on  the  approach  of  win- 


ter, or  in  early  autumn.  There  are,  however, 
marked  exceptions  ;  many  kinds  of  oak  retain 
their  dry  foliage  until  the  next  spring,  in  which 
case  the  leaves  are  called  persistent. 

DECIGllAMME.     See  Geamme. 

DECIMAL,  a  calculation  proceeding  in  a  geo- 
metrical progression  whose  ratio  is  10 ;  that  is, 
by  tens,  hundreds,  &c.,  or  by  tenths,  hundredths, 
and  so  on.  Decimal  arithmetic  is  the  system  in 
common  use,  in  which  the  value  of  a  figure  in- 
creases tenfold  with  every  remove  to  the  left, 
and  decreases  a  tenth  by  every  remove  to  the 
right,  the  point  between  the  units  and  tenths 
being  designated  by  a  period.  Decimal  divi- 
sion was  doubtless  suggested  by  the  fingers  of 
the  hand,  and  therefore  may  be  called  natural; 
hut  other  systems,  as  the  binary  and  duodeci- 
mal, possess  certain  advantages  over  it.  So 
long,  however,  as  arithmetic  uses  a  decimal  ra- 
tio, it  will  be  most  convenient,  for  all  purposes 
of  calculation,  to  have  money,  weights,  and 
measures  divided  decimally,  as  was  done  under 
the  French  republic. 

DECIMATION,  a  Eoman  military  punish- 
ment which  was  inflicted  when  the  entire  body 
of  criminals  was  too  large  for  condemnation. 
The  names  of  the  guilty  were  put  into  an  urn  or 
helmet,  and  as  many  having  been  drawn  out  as 
amounted  to  j\  of  the  entire  number,  these  were 
punished. — Blticher  decimated  a  corps  of  Saxon 
mutineers  just  before  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 

DECIUS,  Caius  Messics  Quintus  Teajanus, 
emperor  of  Eome  from  249  to  251,  born  in 
Pannonia,  was  the  successor  of  Philip.  When 
the  legions  of  Mcesia  revolted  against  that  em- 
peror, Decius,  who  had  spoken  in  the  senate 
against  submissive  measures,  was  sent  to  bring 
them  back  to  their  allegiance.  But  the  revolt- 
ed army  compelled  him,  under  threats  of  death, 
to  assume  himself  the  purple,  and  to  march  at 
their  head  against  Philip.  While  so  doing  he 
is  said  to  have  still  secretly  assured  his  former 
master  of  his  fidelity,  and  promised  submission 
as  soon  as  he  should  reach  Italy.  Philip  hast- 
ened to  meet  him  in  the  field,  but  lost  the  bat- 
tle of  Verona  and  his  life.  The  short  reign  of 
Decius  is  remarkable  for  a  severe  persecution 
of  the  Christians,  an  attempt  to  restore  the  an- 
cient independent  censorship,  and  with  it  the 
former  virtuous  manners  and  habits  of  the  re- 
public, and  for  the  first  invasion  of  the  Goths 
from  the  neighborhood  of  the  Black  sea.  To 
defend  the  northern  provinces  of  the  empire 
against  this  people,  Decius  hastened  to  the  Dan- 
ube, but  fell  with  his  son  in  battle. 

DECIUS  MUS,  PuBLius,  the  name  of  3  cel- 
ebrated Eoman  plebeian  consuls,  father,  son,  and 
grandson.  The  first  distinguished  himself,  in 
the  year  343  B.  C,  in  the  war  against  the  Sam- 
nites,  and  commanded,  in  840,  with  his  colleague 
Titus  Manlius  Torquatus,  against  the  Latins,  who 
at  that  time  were  trying  to  shake  off  the  yoke  of 
the  Eomans.  Before  a  decisive  battle,  it  is  said, 
both  consuls  liad  a  vision  informing  them  that 
the  infernal  gods  required  one  of  the  contend- 
ing armies  and  the  opposing  commander  to  bo 


DECIZE 


DEDECKER 


321 


devoted  to  them.  The  consuls  agreed  between 
themselves  that  he  whose  wing  should  first  wa- 
ver should  devote  himself  and  his  enemies  to 
death.  The  wing  of  Decius  gave  Avay  ;  ho  im- 
mediately caused  the  pontifex  maximus  to  per- 
form the  consecrating  rites,  wrapped  himself 
closely  in  his  robe,  spurred  his  liorse  into  the 
thickest  of  the  enemy,  and  perislied.  His  le- 
gions, sure  of  success,  rushed  on  anew  and  were 
victorious. — His  son  imitated  this  act  of  self- 
eacrifice  in  the  battle  of  Sentinum  (295),  where 
he  was  opposed  to  the  Gauls.  Similar  patriot- 
ism is  attributed  to  the  grandson  in  the  war 
against  Pyrrhus  and  the  Taren tines,  w'hich, 
however,  he  survived. 

DECIZE  (anc.  Decetia),  a  French  town,  ar- 
rondisscmcnt  of  Nevers,  department  of  Nievro, 
pop.  4,000,  built  on  an  island  in  the  Loire,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Aron  with  that  river  and 
at  the  head  of  the  Nivernais  canal,  connected 
with  one  bank  of  the  Loire  by  a  suspension, 
and  witli  the  other  by  an  immense  stone  bridge. 
On  a  rock  which  forms  the  highest  point  of 
the  island  stands  an  old  castle  formerly  belong- 
ing to  the  dukes  of  ISTevers,  and  used  since  1849 
as  a  hospital.  In  the  same  year  a  monument 
was  dedicated  here  to  Guy-Coquille,  the  fa- 
mous jurist  of  the  16th  century.  The  country 
around  Decize  contains  some  of  the  richest  coal 
mines  in  France,  and  the  town  has  large  iron 
works  and  an  extensive  manufactory  of  bottles. 
The  navigation  through  the  canal  of  Decize, 
which  is  a  branch  of  the  lateral  canal  of  the 
Loire,  amounted  in  1852  to  61,356  tons. 

DECKER,  or  Dkkkee,  Jeeemias  de,  a  Dutch 
poet,  born  at  Dort  about  1610,  died  in  Am- 
sterdam in  Xov.  1666.  His  writings  consist  of 
a  parai)hrase  of  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah, 
translations  and  imitations  of  classic  poets,  and 
a  great  number  of  epigrams.  The  most  celebrat- 
ed of  his  poems,  the  "Praise  of  Avarice"  {Lqf 
der  Geldzucht)^  has  earned  for  itself  a  place  be- 
side the  MoricB  Encomium  of  Erasmus.  A  first 
edition  of  these  appeared  in  Amsterdam  in  1656, 
another  edition  with  additions  in  1702,  and 
a  complete  collection  of  his  poetry  in  1726. 
Selections  of  his  epigrams  are  contained  in  Geys- 
beck's  Eiiigrammatisehe  Anthologie  (1821),  and 
of  his  poetry  in  Siegenbeck's  Proeven  van  JVe- 
derduitsche  Dichthunde  (1823). 

DECKER,  Thomas,  an  English  dramatic  au- 
thor, of  the  reign  of  James  I.,  supposed  to  have 
died  about  1638.  He  is  now  chiefly  remem- 
bered by  his  quarrel  with  Ben  Jonson,  who, 
representing  himself  as  Horace,  satirized  him  as 
Crispinus  in  the  "  Poetaster,"  to  which  Decker 
replied  by  attacking  Jonson  in  his  "Satyromas- 
tix"  under  the  name  of ''  Young  Horace."  Deck- 
er wrote  plays  in  conjunction  with  Massinger, 
"Webster,  and  Ford,  and  was  the  sole  author  of 
several  plays  of  considerable  merit.  Hazlitt 
remarks  of  one  of  them  that  it  unites  "  the  sim- 
plicity of  prose  with  the  graces  of  poetry."  He 
wrote  also  many  small  works  of  a  humorous 
cast,  in  the  most  important  of  which,  "  Gull's 
Hornbook"  ("London,  1609;  anew  edition  by  Dr. 


Nott,  4-to.,  1812),  he  ridicules  the  follies  of  Lon- 
don fashionable  life. 

DECLINATION  of  a  heavenly  body  corre- 
sponds to  latitude  upon  the  earth  ;  that  is  to  say, 
it  is  the  angle  wliich  a  line  drawn  from  the 
centre  of  the  earth  to  the  heavenly  body  makes 
with  the  plane  of  the  equator.  On  June  20,  the 
sun's  declination  is  about  23°  28'  N. ;  Dec.  20, 
23°  28'  S. ;  and  March  and  Sept.  20,  0°  0'. 

DECRESCENDO,  in  music,  a  direction  to 
the  performer  to  decrease  the  volume  of  sound 
from  loud  to  soft.     It  is  marked  thus  > ; 

DECRETALS,  letters  sent  by  the  pope  to 
bishops  or  chu relies  for  the  regulation  of  eccle- 
siastical affairs.  They  form  an  important  part 
of  canon  law,  and  enter  largely  into  tlie  collec- 
tions of  decrees  bearing  on  that  branch  of  legis- 
lation. The  earliest  known  decretals  are  those 
of  Pope  Siricius,  and  the  most  ancient  regular 
collection  of  them  is  found  in  the  famous  work 
of  Dionysius  Exiguus,  who  w*'ote  in  the  6th 
century.  In  a  synod  held  at  Rome  in  494  de- 
cretals were  pronounced  of  equal  authority  with 
the  decrees  of  councils.     (See  Canox  Law.) 

DECURIONES,  magistrates  in  the  provincial 
municipia  of  the  Roman  state,  corresponding  to 
the  senate  at  Rome.  In  the  later  times  of  the 
republic,  the  state  was  distinguished  into  two 
distinct  parts,  Italy  and  the  provinces.  Italy 
consisted,  so  to  say,  of  a  multitude  of  republics, 
whose  citizens  finally  became  members  of  the 
sovereign  people,  maintaining  the  internal  ad- 
ministration of  their  own  aftairs.  This  munici- 
pal constitution  was  of  great  importance  in  the 
development  of  Italy.  Originally  the  popular 
assemblies  had  the  sovereign  power  in.the  mu- 
nicipia, and  conferred  the  executive  authority 
upon  the  decuriones.  They  consisted  at  first 
of  10  men,  but  in  later  times  they  frequently 
numbered  more,  and  sometimes  even  amounted 
to  100.  Each  curia  deeurionum  was  presided 
over  by  2  members  who  were  called  duumviri, 
and  whose  powers  within  their  municipium 
resembled  those  of  the  Roman  consuls  during 
peace.  Under  the  republic  the  whole  ad- 
ministration of  the  internal  atfairs  of  their  re- 
spective cities. was  in  the  hands  of  the  decuri- 
ones, but  after  the  establishment  of  the  empire 
they  exercised  nearly  all  the  circumscribed 
rights  of  the  communities,  though  finally  they 
were  little  more  than  receivers  of  taxes.  The 
decuriones  were  created  by  election,  and  each 
decurio  was  required  to  be  at  least  25  years  old, 
and  to  possess  a  certain  annual  income.  Their 
election  took  place  on  the  kalends  of  March. 

DEDECKER,  Pierre  Jacques  Frax(;ois,  a 
Belgian  statesman,  born  at  Zele,  in  East  Flan- 
ders, Jan.  25,  1812.  -In  1837  he  established,  in 
concert  with  Dechamps,  the  Catholic  Retue  de 
Bruxelles^  which  was  continued  until  1851. 
Since  1839  he  has  been  a  member  of  the  cham- 
ber of  representatives,  in  which  he  is  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Catholic  party.  "With  his 
friend  Count  Yilain  he  formed  the  ministry 
of  March  30,  1855,  in  which  he  took  for  him- 
self the  department  of  the  interior.     When  the 


328 


DEDHAM 


DEE 


parliamentary  debates  on  a  new  charity  law 
called  torth  an  uncommon  political  excitement, 
he  tendered  his  resignation,  with  all  his  col- 
leagues, Oct.  31,  1857.  This  step  was  severely 
censured  by  a  large  portion  of  his  own  party, 
but  he  was  reelected  to  the  new  chamber.  He 
has  written  numerous  works,  among  which  are 
Religion  et  amour  (1835  et  seq.)  ;  Du  petitionne- 
ment  en  faveur  de  la  langue  Flamande  (1840); 
De  V influence  du  clergc  en  Belgigne  (1843) ;  and 
De  r influence  du  Uhre  arhitre  de  Vhommesur  les 
faits  sociuvx  (1848). 

DEDIIAM,  a  township  and  the  capital  of 
Norfolk  CO.,  Mass.,  on  Charles  river,  10  nvS. 
W.  from  Boston;  pop.  in  1855,  5,633.  It  is 
connected  with  Boston  by  a  branch  of  the  Bos- 
ton and  Providence  railroad,  and  is  a  favorite 
residence  for  persons  doing  business  in  that 
city.  Tlie  court  house  is  a  handsome  granite 
building,  having;  a  Doric  "portico  on  each  front. 
The  gaol  is  of  hewn  stone  and  well  arranged. 
A  canal  3  m.  long,  excavated  in  1G39  from 
Charles  to  Neponset  river,  gives  a  good  supply 
of  water  power,  which  is  used  chiefly  for  cot- 
ton and  woollen  mills.  Of  the  former  there  are 
2,  with  a  capital  of  $68,000,  and  of  the  latter 
there  is  1,  with  a  capital  of  $200,000.  There 
are  2  furnaces,  1  machine  shop,  1  soap  and  can- 
dle factory,  1  sugar  refinery,  1  card  factory,  2 
tanneries,  gas  works,  1  bank,  a  savings  bank,  1 
newspaper  office,  a  high  school,  9  grammar 
schools,  a  library  organized  in  1855,  2  fire  in- 
surance companies,  and  10  churches,  viz. :  1 
Episcopal,  2  Congregational,  2  Unitarian,  2  Bap 
tist,  1  Methodist,  1  Universalist,  and  1  Catholic. 

DEE,  tlie  name  of  several  rivers.  I.  A  river 
of  N.  Wales,  rising  among  the  mountains  of 
Merionethshire,  in  a  small  lake  called  Bala  or 
Llyn  Tegid,  flowing  N.  E.  through  the  vale  of 
Llangollen,  and  forming  part  of  the  boundary 
between  Cheshire  and  Denbighshire.  At  Aid- 
ford  it  enters  Cheshire,  and  passes  on  to  Ches- 
t-er,  which  it  nearly  encompasses,  and  where 
it  has  a  width  of  300  feet.  Thence  it  is  con- 
veyed in  an  artificial  channel  along  the  marshes, 
a  distance  of  9  m.,  and  finally  empties  into  the 
Irish  sea,  tlirough  an  estuary  14  m.  long  and 
from  2  to  6  ra.  broad.  Its  length,  exclusive  of 
the  estuary,  is  about  80  m.  It  is  much  ob- 
structed by  sand  banks  at  its  mouth,  and  is  not 
naturally  navigable,  but  has  been  improved  to 
admit  of  the  i>assage  of  small  vessels  to  a  point 
2  or  3  m.  above  Chester.  Near  Trevor  it  is 
spanned  by  an  aqueduct  1,007  feet  long,  120 
feet  above  the  water,  and  supported  by  18  stone 
piers,  which  carries  the  Ellesmere  canal  across 
the  vale  of  Llangollen ;  and  at  a  short  distance 
from  tliis  structure  is  another  of  still  greater 
size  and  beauty,  on  which  the  Shrewsbury  and 
Chester  railway  crosses  the  Dee  at  a  height  of 
150  feet  above  its  surface.  This  viaduct  has 
19  arches  of  90  feet  span,  is  1,530  feet  long, 
and  is  built  almost  wholly  of  stone.  II.  A  river 
of  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland,  rising  in  the  Cairn- 
gorm mountains,  flowing  E.  about  96  m.,  and 
entering  the  North  sea  at  Aberdeen.     It  has 


valuable  salmon  fisheries,  which  have  lately 
yielded  $40,000  a  year.  III.  A  river  of  Kirk- 
cudbrightsliire,  Scotland,  with  valuable  salmon 
fisheries.  It  enters  Solway  fritli  after  a  course 
of  about  50  m.  IV.  A  river  of  Ireland,  counties 
of  Meath  and  Loutli,  21  m.  long,  flowing  into 
Dundalk  bay.  V.  A  branch  of  the  river  Der- 
went,  in  Van  Diemen's  Land,  co.  of  Cumberland. 
DEE,  John,  an  English  matliematician  and 
astrologer,  born  in  London,  July  13, 1527,  died 
at  Mortlake  in  1607  or  1608.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge  university,  and  attained  much 
proficiency  in  the  science  of  the  time.  After  a 
short  tour  in  Holland  he  Avas  elected  fellow  of 
Trinity  college,  and  in  1548  took  his  degree  of 
master  of  arts.  Incurring  the  suspicion  of  being 
a  conjurer,  he  repaired  to  the  continent,  resid- 
ed 2  years  at  the  university  of  Louvain,  and 
visited  France,  spending  some  time  at  the  col- 
lege of  Rheims,  wliere  he  gave  several  lectures 
on  mathematical  theorems,  which  he  however 
elaborated  into  metaphysical  and  astrological 
dogmas  which  were  received  with  great  ap- 
plause. On  his  return  to  England  in  1551  Dee's 
learning  recommended  him  to  the  patronage  of 
Edward  VI.,  who  conferred  on  him  a  pension 
of  100  crowns,  which  he  afterward  relinquished 
for  the  rectory  of  Upton  on  Severn.  Shortly 
after  the  accession  of  Mary  he  was  accused  of 
practising  against  the  queen's  life  by  enchant- 
ment, and  he  was  subjected  to  a  protracted  trial 
and  long  imprisonment,  but  released  in  1555. 
On  Elizabeth's  accession  he  was  introduced  to 
the  queen,  and  requested  to  name  a  propitious 
day  for  the  coronation.  He  again  returned  to  the 
continent  for  some  time,  where  he  Avas  supposed 
to  have  acted  as  a  secret  agent  of  the  English 
government,  and  visited  the  court  of  Maximilian, 
to  Avhom  he  presented  and  dedicated  one  of  his 
works.  When  in  1571  he  fell  dangerously  ill 
abroad,  the  queen  sent  2  of  her  own  physicians 
to  his  relief.  After  his  return  he  settled  at  Mort- 
lake, Surrey,  where  he  was  engaged  for  some 
years  in  his  favorite  pursuits  and  studies,  and 
calculated  horoscopes  and  nativities  for  private 
patrons.  In  1576  the  people  in  the  neighborhood 
attacked  his  house  from  prejudice  against  his 
occult  science,  and  he  barely  escaped  with  life, 
his  furniture  and  apparatus  being  all  destroyed. 
He  was  sent  abroad  again  in  1578,  ostensibly  on 
a  mission  to  consult  Avith  German  physicians 
touching  Elizabeth's  health,  but  probably  for 
some  secret  political  object.  On  his  return  he 
began  that  career  on  which  his  celebrity  prin- 
cipally rests.  In  1581  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  one  EdAvard  Kelly,  an  apothecary  of  depraved 
character,  who  had  had  his  ears  cropped  for 
forgery,  but  of  considerable  talent.  This  man 
pretended  to  be  as  sincere  a  devotee  to  magic 
as  Avas  Dee  himself ;  and  with  his  assistance 
spirits  Avere  raised  and  information  obtained  by 
use  of  a  crystal,  or  magic  mirror,  in  which,  after 
invocation,  responses  Avere  granted  to  their  in- 
quiries. In  1583  they  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Albert  Laski,  a  Polish  nobleman,  an  inquirer 
into  kindred  subjects,  and  at  his  request  tliey 


DEED 


329 


accompaalod  liim  abroad.  They  exliibited  before 
the  emperor  at  Prague,  and  resided  there  for  a 
time,  asserting  that  they  had  the  art  of  trans- 
muting metals,  wliicli  enabled  them  to  live  in 
considerable  splendor.  At  Prague  Dee  and 
Kelly  separated.  The  former  returned  to  Eng- 
land, and  was  appointed  (Dec.  8,  15'J-i)  chan- 
cellor of  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  warden  of  Manchester  college, 
which  he  left  in  1G02  or  160-t  to  return  to  liis 
old  residence  near  London.  A  catalogue  of  his 
printed  and  published  writings  is  contained  in 
his  "Compendious  Rehearsal  of  his  Life  and 
Studies,"  i)repared  in  1592,  on  the  ajiporntment 
of  a  commission  by  Elizabeth  to  inquire  into  his 
circumstances.  His  diary  was  printed  in  1842 
by  the  Camden  society,  together  with  the  cata- 
logue of  his  library  of  MSS.,  which  he  had  made 
himself  before  the  pillage  of  his  house  by  the 
mob,  and  which  contains  the  titles  of  several 
mediajval  works,  not  now  known  to  be  in  exist- 
ence. Dr.  Dee's  "Relation  of  what  passed  for 
many  years  between  him  and  some  Spirits,"  ed- 
ited by  Casaubon,  appeared  in  London  in  lG59.ft 
One  of  his  magic  mirrors  is  in  the  British  museum. 
DEED  (Lat.  factum,  Nor.  Fr.  fait),  a  term 
originally  employed  to  express  an  act  for  the  dis- 
position of  lauds,  which  at  an  early  period  was  by 
the  actual  or  symbolical  delivery  of  possession 
in  the  presence  of  witnesses ;  but  when  a  writing 
was  substituted  in  place  of  this  formality,  the 
same  name  continued  to  be  applied.  A  deed  is 
now  understood  to  be  an  instrument  in  writing 
and  under  seal  whereby  real  estate  or  some  inter- 
est therein  is  transferred.  In  English  conveyanc- 
ing it  is  designated  as  an  indenture  where  there 
are  several  parties,  counterparts  being  made  on 
parchmeut,  the  edges  of  which  are  cut  like  the 
teeth  of  a  saw  to  correspond  each  with  the  other. 
A  deed  poll  (polled  or  shaved  even)  is  one  pur- 
porting to  be  executed  by  a  single  party.  The 
term  indenture  is  used  in  this  country  simply  as 
expressing  that  there  are  several  parties  ;  and 
though  in  form  the  deed  usually  purports  to  be 
executed  by  all  the  parties  named,  yet  in  fact  the 
ordinary  deed  of  lands  is  executed  by  the  grant- 
or only.  The  deed  which  is  chiefly  used  in  the 
United  States  is  what  in  the  English  law  is  called 
a  conveyance  by  bargain  and  sale  (see  that  arti- 
cle). In  some  of  the  states,  however,  no  partic- 
ular form  is  required  if  the  intention  be  clearly 
expressed ;  as  in  Massachusetts  by  a  provincial 
act,  in  New  York  by  the  Revised  Statutes  of  1830 
(1  R.  S.  T38),  and  in  several  other  states  by  a  simi- 
lar provision.  Even  in  those  states  where  no  stat- 
ute regulation  has  been  adopted,  a  simple  form 
has  generally  come  into  use,  having  very  little 
anah)gy  to  the  English  bargain  and  sale,  except 
that  the  technical  words  "bargain  and  sell"  are 
retained.  By  the  New  York  statute  the  word 
"  grant"  is  substituted  in  place  of  all  the  phrase- 
ology used  in  the  dilFerent  forms  of  English  con- 
veyances. By  a  singular  confusion  of  the  origi- 
nal intent  of  the  phrases  peculiar  to  each  con- 
veyance, before  the  enacting  of  that  statute  the 
whole  were  combined  together  in  a  deed  drawn 


with  much  professional  care,  as  enfeoff  or  grant, 
give,  bargain  and  sell,  demise,  release,  confirm, 
&c. ;  in  Avhich  we  have  the  operative  words 
of  a  feoffment,  donatit)n  or  gift  in  tail,  the 
conveyance  by  bargain  and  sale  under  the  stat' 
ute  of  uses,  and  the  conveyance  by  lease  and 
release;  and  this  undiscriminating  use  of  terms 
is  still  kept  up  to  some  extent  for  the  satis- 
faction of  those  who  attach  iin]>ortaiice  to  old 
forms  of  ex[)ression.  A  consideration  is  said 
to  be  essential  to  the  validity  of  a  deed,  but 
this  is  to  be  understood  with  reference  to  other 
persons  than  the  parties  to  the  deed.  A  gift 
or  voluntary  conveyance  is  effectual  except  as 
it  may  affect  creditors  or  subsequent  i)urchasers. 
Under  tlie  statutes  in  England  and  tliis  country 
against  fraudulent  conveyances,  a  deed  wholly 
without  consideration  would  be  held  void  as 
against  the  ci-editors  of  the  grantor  or  subsequent 
purchaser  without  notice.  In  England  it  is  held 
to  be  void  even  if  the  purchase  was  made  with 
knowledge  of  the  prior  voluntary  deed  ;  but  a 
different  rule  prevails  here.  A  consideration 
may  be  either  good  or  valuable,  the  former  being 
founded  upon  natural  affection  between  near 
relations,  and  it  is  ])resumable  that  it  ]nay  ex- 
tend to  those  who  hold  such  relationsliip  by 
adoption  ;  the  latter  {i.  e.  valuable)  is  wliat  has 
a  pecuniary  value,  as  money  or  its  equivalent. 
It  is  not  altogether  settled  how  far  a  consider- 
ation of  natural  affection  will  sustain  a  deed 
against  creditors;  it  probably  would  be  held 
suthcient  if  there  was  no  other  circumstance 
from  which  it  could  be  inferred  that  the  intent 
was  to  remove  the  property  out  of  the  reach  of 
creditors.  Insolvency  at  the  time  of  executing 
the  deed  would  be  such  a  circumstance ;  yet  if 
not  known  to  the  grantor  at  the  time,  it  would 
give  rise  to  a  serious  question.  The  Revised 
Statutes  of  New  York  declare  that  the  want  of 
a  valuable  consideration  shall  not  alone  be  suffi- 
cient to  avoid  a  deed  as  fraudulent  (2  R.  S.  137). 
In  common  law  conveyances  it  was  not  neces- 
sary that  the  consideration  should  be  expressed, 
nor  was  it  necessary  to  prove  one,  the  convey- 
ance itself  being  an  act  of  such  formality  that 
the  law  raised  the  presumption  of  a  consider- 
ation ;  but  in  deeds  which  were  introduced  un- 
der the  doctrine  of  uses  held  in  courts  of  equity, 
it  was  essential  that  a  consideration  should  be 
shown,  which  might  be  either  by  be.ingex])ressed 
in  the  deed,  and  then,  under  tlie  general  rule 
applicable  to  sealed  instruments,  it  could  not  be 
controverted  by  parties  or  their  privies  ;  or  it 
might  be  proved  whenever  the  deed  was  brought 
in  question.  It  was  necessary,  however,  that 
the  deed  should  purport  to  be  for  a  pecuniary 
consideration,  as  this  was  essential  in  order  to 
raise  a  use,  but  the  sum  need  not  be  mentioned  ; 
and  whatever  might  be  the  sum  expressed  or 
proved,  it  was  sufficient  to  give  effect  to  the 
deed.  Hence  arose  the  common  form  of  ex- 
jiressing  a  consideration  of  $1  ;  and  this  again 
gave  rise  to  an  anomaly  in  respect  to  sealed  in- 
struments, viz. :  that  the  actual  amount  of  the 
consideration,  and  whether  paid  or  not,  might 


330 


DEED 


be  inquired  into,  when  essential  for  otlier  pur- 
poses tliaa  tlic  mere  valiiJitj  of  the  deed,  not- 
■vvithstanding  a  sum  had  heen  named  or  the  re- 
ceipt acknowledged.  It  has  indeed  been  held 
that  in  order  to  prove  any  other  than  a  pecu- 
niary consideration  it  is  necessary  tliat  there 
should  be  some  expression  in  the  deed  to  ^Yar- 
rant  it,  as  "for  divers  other  considerations." 
Tliesc  rules,  which  had  respect  to  deeds  of  bar- 
gain and  sale,  will  generally  apply  to  the  sim- 
pler forms  which  have  been  substituted.  A 
deed  was  at  common  law  the  most  artificial  of 
all  forms  of  contract.  Certain  operative  words 
belonged  to  each  of  the  different  conveyances, 
and  no  others  could  be  used  with  tlie  same  legal 
effect,  as  enfeoff  or  give  {feoffari  or  dcdi)^  in  the 
conveyance  of  the  fee ;  give  or  grant  {dcdi  or 
concessi),  in  the  conveyance  of  incorporeal  here- 
ditaments ;  demise,  grant,  and  to  farm  let,  in  a 
lease:  and  so  of  others.  A  second  peculiarity 
was  that  certain  obligations  resulted  from  the  use 
of  these  terms  without  being  otherwise  express- 
ed, which  were  called  covenants  in  law.  Thus 
to  the  words  "  enfeoff  or  give"  was  annexed  a  4 
warranty  by  which  the  grantor  vouched  for  the 
title,  and  upon  failure  tliereof  was  bound  to  ren- 
der lands  of  equal  value ;  but  this  being  by  stat- 
ute limited  to  the  grantor,  an  express  clause  of 
warranty  was  introduced  into  the  deed  in  order 
to  bind  his  heirs.  This  gave  rise  to  what  Chief 
Justice  Coke  declared  to  be  "  one  of  the  most  cu- 
rious and  cunning  learnings  of  the  law."  The 
heir  was  bound  upon  the  presumption  of  law 
that  he  had  received  from  his  ancestor  an  equiva- 
lent; and  though  he  was  not  compelled  upon 
failure  of  title  to  render  an  equivalent  to  the 
grantee  unless  he  had  himself  received  other 
lands  by  descent  from  the  Avarranting  ancestor, 
yet  he  was  barred  from  making  a  claim  to  the 
lands  warranted  if  he  might  have  derived  title 
from  him  who  made  the  warranty.  The  same 
rule  was  unjustly  extended  to  a  case  Avhere  the 
title  to  the  warranted  lands  could  not  by  possi- 
bility have  come  from  the  warrantor;  as  when 
the  husband,  having  an  estate  for  life  as  tenant 
by  the  curtesy  in  lands  belonging  to  the  wife, 
conveyed  with  warranty,  the  son  who  would 
have  taken  as  heir  of  the  mothe'i"  was  barred 
from  claiming  the  estate.  Tins  is  the  doctrine 
of  lineal  and  collateral  warranties,  to  understand 
which  fully  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that 
it  was  first  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  avoid- 
ing the  old  feudal  rule  of  non-alienation  of  lands 
without  consent  of  the  heir.  By  various  stat- 
utes in  England,  collateral  warranties  are  now 
abrogated,  except  when  assets  have  descended 
from  the  ancestor  who  warranted.  Both  lineal 
and  collateral  warranties  have  been  abolished 
in  the  state  of  New  York,  and  it  is  further  de- 
clared that  no  covenant  shall  be  implied  in  imy 
conveyance  of  real  estate,  and  heirs  and  devi- 
sees are  liable  upon  the  express  covenant  of 
the  ancestor  or  testator  only  to  the  extent  of 
lands  which  descend  or  are  devised  to  them. 
(1  Rev.  Stat.  739,  §  140,  141.)  In  those  states 
where  similar  statutes  have  not  been  enacted,  it 


is  held  that  the  word  "give"  implies  a  warranty 
during  the  life  of  the  grantor;  that  the  words 
"  grant,  bargain,  and  sell  "  do  not  imply  a  cove- 
nant of  title  in  a  conveyance  in  fee,  but  that 
"  grant  or  demise"  does  imply  such  a  covenant  in 
a  lease  for  years.  Express  covenants  have  both 
in  England  and  this  country  taken  the  jdace  of 
the  ancient  warranty.  The  covenants  usually 
inserted  are  these :  1,  that  the  grantor  is  law- 
fully seized ;  2,  that  he  has  good  right  to  con- 
vey ;  3,  that  the  land  is  free  from  encumbrances ; 
4,  that  the  grantee  shall  quietly  enjoy ;  5,  that 
the  grantor  will  warrant  and  defend.  These  are 
personal  covenants,  and  the  remedy  for  a  breach 
is  only  against  the  covenanter  or  against  his 
heirs  or  assigns  to  the  extent  of  lands  descended 
or  devised.  The  covenants  of  warranty  and  for 
quiet  enjoyment  are  broken  only  by  actual  evic- 
tion ;  hence  they  are  said  to  run  with  the  lands, 
and  may  be  taken  advantage  of  by  the  heirs  or 
assignees  of  the  grantee.  But  the  other  cove- 
nants not  being  prospective,  but  being  broken 
if  at  all  at  the  time  of  the  execution  of  the 
deed,  become  what  are  called  choses  in  action, 
and  are  not  assignable.  The  measure  of  dam- 
ages for  a  breach  of  these  covenants  is  the  price 
paid  for  the  lands  with  interest,  the  rule  being 
founded  upon  the  supposed  value  of  the  lands 
at  the  time  of  the  execution  of  the  deed  ;  and  the 
rule  is  the  same  although  the  land  has  since  risen 
in  value,  or  the  grantee  has  himself  made  im- 
provements. The  covenant  against  encumbrances 
may  be  an  exception,  as  the  damages  recoverable 
is  the  sum  paid  to  discharge  the  encumbrance, 
and  this  may  in  some  cases  exceed  the  consider- 
ation or  price  of  the  lands.  As  to  the  parties 
to  a  deed,  the  general  rules  have  been  stated  in 
the  article  Contract.  An  important  innova- 
tion has,  however,  been  recently  made  in  many 
of  the  states  in  respect  to  the  capacity  of  a 
married  woman  to  convey,  which  will  be  more 
properly  considered  under  the  title  Husband 
AND  Wife. — The  recording  of  deeds  is  universal 
in  this  country ;  and  although  the  suggestion  was 
derived  from  a  local  practice  in  some  parts  of 
England,  yet  it  is  still  very  limited  in  that  king- 
dom, being  probably  uncongenial  to  the  large 
landed  proprietors,  who  usually  have  private  fam- 
ily arrangements  which  they  would  be  unwill- 
ing to  make  subject  to  public  inspection.  For  the 
purpose  of  recording,  it  is  a  requisite  in  all  the 
states  of  the  United  States,  that  the  deed  should 
be  acknowledged  or  proved  before  sonie  ofiicer 
authorized  to  take  such  acknowledgment  or 
proof,  whose  certificate  is  to  be  affixed  to  the 
deed ;  and  in  several  of  the  states  2  subscribing 
witnesses  are  required.  In  the  state  of  New  York 
a  subscribing  witness  is  not  required  when  the 
deed  is  acknowledged,  but  is  of  course  necessary 
when  it  is  proved.  The  general  provision  is, 
that  an  unrecorded  deed  is  inoperative  against  a 
subsequent  purchaser  in  good  faith  and  for  a  val- 
uable consideration,  whose  deed  shall  be  first  re- 
corded. It  is,  however,  understood  that  actual 
knowledge  of  a  previous  deed  by  the  subsequent 
purchaser  would  be  equivalent  to  a  registry, 


DEEG 


DEER 


331 


which  is  but  constructive  notice ;  or  in  other 
words,  lie  Avoukl  not  bo  held  to  be  a  hona  Jide 
purchaser  within  the  raeanirij^  of  the  statute. 

DEEG,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  in  the  native 
state  of  Bhurtpoor,  2-i  lu.  W.  from  Muttra,  hit. 
27°  29'  K,  long.  11°  23'  E.,  formerly  celebrated  as 
a  strong  fortress.  The  natives  supposed  it  im- 
pregnable, but  it  was  taken  by  storm,  Dec.  23, 
1804,  by  the  English,  and  was  dismantled  iu  1826 
after  the  capture  of  Bhurtpoor. 

DEEMSTERS,  or  Demsters  (Saxon  dema^  a 
judge,  or  umpire),  the  name  given  to  certain 
judges  in  the  isle  of  Man,  chosen  annually  from 
among  the  people.  Tliere  are  2  for  each  divi- 
sion of  the  island,  and  they  have  authority  in 
all  civil  and  criminal  cases.  In  deciding  the 
law  ill  cases  of  emergency,  they  have  the  assist- 
ance of  the  house  of  keys. 

DEEP  RIVER,  one  of  the  head  streams  of 
Cape  Fear  river.  It  rises  in  Guilford  co.,  N.  O., 
flows  S.E.  through  Randolph  co.,  then  nearly  due 
E.  into  Chatham  co.,  where  it  unites  with  Haw 
river  to  form  the  Cape  Fear.  It  is  about  100  m. 
long,  and  furnishes  good  water  power.  It  has 
recently  been  rendered  navigable  from  its  mouth 
to  the  mines  of  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal 
which  are  worked  near  its  banks  in  Chatham 
CO.     It  was  called  by  the  Indians  Sapponah. 

DEER,  the  common  name  applied  to  an  ex- 
tensive group  of  ruminating  animals,  embraced 
in  the  family  cervidce  of  authors.  This  group, 
whicli  includes  animals  varying  in  size  from  the 
small  muntjac  to  the  gigantic  moose,  is  charac- 
terized in  most  genera  by  the  presence  in  the 
males  of  solid  horns  arising  from  the  frontal 
bone,  falling  oif  annually  iu  the  largo  species, 
and  covered  when  first  developed  by  a  hairy 
skin.  They  are  remarkable  generally  for  the 
lightness  and  elegance  of  their  forms,  the  velo- 
city of  their  movements,  and  the  timidity  of 
their  disposition ;  they  are  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  world,  and  are  valuable  as  furnishing 
food,  clothing,  and  beasts  of  draft  for  many 
northern  nations.  The  forms  of  the  horns  or 
antlers  are  very  various,  being  sometimes  flat 
and  pahnated  as  in  the  moose,  or  nearly  round, 
and  brandling  as  in  the  stag ;  their  substance 
is  very  different  from  horn,  being  compact  and. 
solid,  without  any  central  core  like  that  of  the 
antelope  and  ox  family  ;  tlieir  production  is 
intimately  connected  with  the  generative  func- 
tion. In  the  young  animal  a  kind  of  exostosis, 
or  bony  growth  of  great  hardness,  is  perceptible 
on  each  side  of  the  frontal  bone ;  this  increases 
rapidly,  pushing  the  skin  before  it;  the  enlarged 
vessels  are  compressed  and  obliterated  by  the 
growing  liorn,  the  cutaneous  envelope  dies,  and 
the  exposed  horn  in  time  is  cast  ofi";  under  th© 
wound,  which  rai)idly  cicatrizes,  a  new  horn 
soon  rises  with  a  burr  around  it ;  during  the 
rutting  season  the  reproduction  of  the  horn  is 
most  active,  with  considerable  heat  and  irrita- 
tion ;  when  it  is  fully  developed  the  skin  falls 
as  before,  leaving  the  hard  and  bare  liorn,  which 
falls  and  is  reproduced;  at  each  successive 
growth  the  horn  iucreases  in  size  and  complex- 


ity, but  its  duration  is  the  same.  "When  the 
liorns  fall,  the  animal  retires  into  the  thick  for- 
ests, not  appearing  among  the  herd  of  females 
until  these  organs  reajipear ;  when  the  horns 
are  covered,  they  are  said  to  bo  '"in  the  velvet." 
The  broad  form  of  the  horns,  as  in  the  rein- 
deer, is  a  provision  of  nature  to  enable  them  to 
clear  away  the  snow  in  search  of  food.  Tho 
origin  of  the  horns  is  called  the  burr,  the  main 
shaft  tho  beam,  and  the  branche-s  the  antlers; 
the  latter  may  be  near  the  head,  when  they  aro 
termed  brow  antlers,  or  in  the  middle  of  th© 
beam  (median  or  bezantlers) ;  the  termination 
of  the  beam  is  sometimes  styled  a  perch,  and  the 
small  processes  snags  and  prickets.  The  teeth 
of  the  deer  are  8  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw, 
and  none  iu  the  upper,  in  their  place  being  a 
callous  pad ;  generally  there  are  no  canines,  but 
these  exist  iu  the  upper  jaw  alone  in  a  few 
species ;  there  is  an  empty  space  between  the 
incisors  and  the  grinders,  the  latter  being  6  on 
each  side  in  each  jaw,  with  the  crown  marked 
by  the  disposition  of  the  enamel  in  2  doublo 
crosses,  whose  convexity  is  turned  inward  in  the 
upper  teeth,  and  outward  in  the  lower.  The 
feet  end  in  2  toes,  each  with  its  sharp  hoof,  re- 
sembling a  single  hoof  which  has  been  cleft ; 
behind  and  above  those  are  2  small  rndiment- 
ary  toes  or  hoofs.  The  2  metacarpal  and  meta- 
tarsal bones  are  united  into  a  single  cannon- 
bone.  The  head  is  long,  and  terminated  in  most 
by  a  muzzle ;  tho  ears  are  large,  the  i>upils 
elongated,  and  the  tongue  soft ;  there  are  4  in- 
guinal teats.  The  skeleton  is  constructed  for 
lightness  and  rapid  springing  motions ;  the  neck 
is  long  to  permit  grazing,  and  the  spines  of  the 
dorsal  vertebraa  are  long  and  strong  for  the  ori- 
gin of  the  thick  ligamentnm  nuchas  to  support 
the  ponderous  head ;  the  cavity  of  the  skull  is 
small,  in  conformity  with  the  limited  intelli- 
gence of  the  group.  The  internal  structure  is 
that  of  other  ruminants  feeding  only  on  vege- 
table substances ;  they  have  no  gall  bladder. 
Tho  external  coveringconsists  of  close  and  thick 
crisp  hair,  with  a  kind  of  wool  next  the  skin  in 
the  species  of  cold  regions;  the  general  color  is 
a  variety  of  shades  of  brown,  with  rufous  tints 
and  white  spots.  The  senses  of  smell,  hearing, 
and  sight  are  very  acute,  enabling  them  to  de- 
tect their  enemies  at  a  distance,  and  escape  by 
flight ;  under  the  eye  in  most  is  a  sinus,  which 
has  been  supposed  by  some  to  communicate 
with  the  nose ;  it  secretes  largely  a  viscid  fluid 
like  tears,  whence  the  French  call  these  gland- 
containing  sacs  larmiers;  they  connnunicate 
Avith  the  nose  by  the  lachrymal  ducts ;  the  se- 
cretion is  the  most  profuse  during  the  rutting 
season.  Deer  are  capable  of  a  eei-tain  degree 
of  domestication,  and  the  reindeer  maybe  com- 
pletely subjected  to  man ;  some  species  reside 
in  thick  forests,  others  in  open  plains,  and  others 
in  swampy  districts. — All  the  arrangements  of 
this  group  are  more  or  less  artificial  and  unnat- 
ural ;  but  there  are  several  subdivisions  gen- 
erally admitted,  founded  on  similarity  of  struc- 
ture and  on  geographical  limitation,  which  are 


332 


DEER 


of  advantage  in  classification.  Cnvier,  De  Blain- 
ville,  and  more  especially  Col.  Hamilton  Smith, 
made  the  horns  the  basis  of  division  into  sub- 
genera; Mr.  J.  E.  Gray  and  Dr.  Sundevall  have 
pointed  out  some  other  external  distinctions 
^vhich  they  believe  more  characteristic  of  gen- 
era and  species  than  modifications  in  the  form 
of  the  skull,  teeth,  and  horns,  as  they  are  not 
changed  by  age,  and  are  evident  in  both  sexes. 
These  are  the  form  and  extent  of  the  muffle, 
and  the  metatarsal  hair-covered  glands  on  the 
hind  legs.  In  the  "  Annals  and  Magazine  of 
Katural  History"  (London,  vol.  ix.  1852,  p.  413) 
is  a  paper  by  Mr.  Gray,  which  presents  a  good 
synopsis  of  the  varieties  of  deer.  He  divides 
them  as  follows:  I.  Those  of  snowy  regions, 
with  broad  muzzle  entirely  covered  with  hair, 
expanded  and  palmated  horns,  short  tail,  and 
their  fawns  not  spotted  ;  containing  (a)  the  al- 
cine  deer,  with  no  basal  anterior  snag  to  the 
horns,  and  a  small  bald  muffle  between  the  nos- 
trils, as  in  the  genus  alee,  the  elk  or  moose;  (b) 
the  Tangerine  deer,  with  a  large  basal  anterior 
snag,  close  to  the  crown  or  burr,  and  no  muffle, 
as  in  tarandus,  the  reindeer.  II.  Those  of 
temperate  and  warm  regions,  with  a"' tapering 
muzzle  ending  in  a  bald  muffle;  the  fawns, 
and  sometimes  the  adults,  spotted;  containing 
(c)  the  elaphine  deer,  Avith  an  anterior  basal 
snag,  the  muffle  broad  and  separated  from 
the  lip  by  a  hairy  band,  and  the  tuft  of  hair 
on  the  outside  of  the  Iiind  leg  above  the  mid- 
dle of  the  metatarsus,  as  in  cervus,  the  stag, 
and  damn,  the  fallow  deer ;  (d)  the  rusine  deer, 
with  an  anterior  basal  snag,  the  muffle  very 
liigh  and  not  separated  from  the  edge  of  the  lip, 
and  the  metatarsal  tuft  as  in  the  last  division, 
as  in  the  genera  panolia,  ruccrvus,  rusa,  axis, 
hyela2)hvs,  and  cervulus ;  (e)  the  capreoline 
deer,  with  no  basal  anterior  snag,  the  first  branch 
being  at  some  distance  above  the  burr,  the  sub- 
orbital fossa  generally  small,  as  in  the  genera 
capreolus  (roebuck),  y«r(!J/er,  Mastocerus,  caria- 
cus  (American  deer),  and  coassus  (the  brocket). 
The  1st  and  2d  of  these  divisions  are  confined 
to  the  northern  parts  of  both  continents ;  the 
3d  to  Europe  and  Asia,  with  the  exception  of 
the  wapiti  of  North  America ;  the  4th  to  the 
warm  regions  of  Asia;  the  5th  to  America,  ex- 
cept the  roebuck  of  Europe,  and  the  ahu  of 
central  Asia.  The  alcine  deer  will  be  describ- 
ed in  the  article  Elk,  and  the  elaphine  under 
Stag;  the  rangerine  have  been  described  under 
Oakibou. — Of  the  rusine  group,  or  samboos, 
confined  to  south-eastern  Asia  and  its  islands, 
the  1st  genus  in  order  is  jmnolia  (Gray),  and  the 
species  sungnai  deer  (P.  Eldii,  Gray) ;  in  this 
genus  the  round  horns  curve  backward  and  out- 
ward, with  the  upper  part  bent  in  and  forked, 
rather  expanded  on  the  inner  edge ;  the  yellow- 
ish brown  fur  rigid  and  flattened ;  a  large,  ob- 
long, and  deep  suborbital  pit,  with  the  nasal 
bones  short,  broad,  and  dilated  behind  ;  the  fron- 
tal snag  sometimes  has  a  tubercle  or  branch  at 
the  base.  In  the  genus  rucerrvs  (Hodgson),  the 
liorna  are  cylindrical,  repeatedly  forked  at  the 


tip;  the  tail  short  and  thick,  a  well  developed 
tear-bag,  broad  rounded  ears,  covered  with 
hair,  and  narrow  compressed  hoofs;  the  fur  is 
soft,  with  indistinct  spots,  and  without  pale  tint 
on  the  rump;  the  face  is  long  and  narrow,  the 
opening  of  the  nose  large,  and  the  suborbital 
pit  shallow.  The  species  is  the  bahraiya  deer 
(E.  DuTauceUii,  Cuv.),  of  a  yellowish  brown 
color  on  the  tips  of  the  black  hairs;  an  indis- 
tinct dark  streak  on  the  back,  with  a  row  of 
white  spots  on  each  side ;  hair  of  neck,  throat, 
chest,  and  belly  longer,  with  scattered  grayish 
liairs ;  muzzle  and  front  of  leg  dark  ;  chin  white ; 
fur  in  winter  dark  brown.  In  the  genus  rusa 
(H.  Smith),  the  horns  are  on  a  moderately  long 
peduncle,  and  simply  forked  at  the  tip,  with  an 
anterior  frontal  snag  close  to  the  crown ;  the 
hair  is  hard,  rigid,  and  thick,  elongated  in  the 
males  of  the  larger  species  into  a  kind  of  mane 
on  the  neck  ;  tliey  have  canine  teeth.  The  black 
samboo  deer  {R.  Aristotelis,  Cuv.)  is  of  a  black- 
ish brown  color,  with  the  feet,  vent,  and  spot 
over  the  eye  fulvous ;  tail  brown,  with  dark 
tip ;  the  skull  is  about  17  inches  long,  with  a 
very  deep  triangular  suborbital  pit :  a  large  and 
beautiful  animal,  inhabiting  India  and  Ceylon. 
The  spotted  rusa  (i?.  dimorj)lie,  Hodgs.)  is  of  a 
red-brown  color,  with  Avhite  spots  on  the  back 
and  sides,  neck  and  belly  blackish,  chin  white. 
The  Malayan  samboo  {R.  equinus,  Cuv.)  is  plain 
brown,  with  a  rounded,  floccose,  black-tipped 
tail;  this  inhabits  Sumatra  and  Borneo,  and  is 
the  eland  or  elk  of  the  Dutch  sportsmen.  The 
Javan  rusa  (R.  hippelaphus,  Cuv.)  is  remarkable 
for  its  ample  mane,  giving  it  a  resemblance  to  a 
horse,  whence  its  specific  name;  its  color  is  dull 
brown,  and  the  hair  thick,  dry,  and  frizzled;  it 
stands  more  than  3  feet  high  at  the  shoulders ; 
it  inhabits  Java.  The  smaller  rusas  have  no 
manes,  and  the  elongated  peduncles  of  the 
horns  are  covered  with  hair.  Among  these  are 
the  smaller  rusa  {R.  Peronii,  Cuv.),  brown,  paler 
beneath,  with  the  anal  disk  white,  hind  part  of 
feet  hairy,  and  horns  thick  and  heavy,  inhabit- 
ing Timor  and  the  neighboring  islands;  the 
Philippine  rusa  {R.  Philippinus,  Desm.),  with 
brown  forehead,  end  of  nose  brownish,  feet 
naked  behind,  hair  rigid  and  not  waved,  re- 
sembling the  muntjac  in  its  horns,  but  without 
the  ridge  and  the  facial  grooves  of  the  latter;  and 
the  little  rusa  {R.  lepidris,  Sundev.)  of  Java,  of  a 
reddish  brown  color,  back  and  sides  varied  with 
pale,  vent  disk  white  with  black  edge  above, 
not  so  large  as  the  roebuck.  The  genus  axis 
(II.  Smith)  is  characterized  by  horns  similar  to 
those  of  rusa,  but  more  slender,  by  the  absence 
of  canines  and  mane,  by  an  elongaged  tail,  and 
by  the  smaller  size ;  the  hair  is  thick,  polislied, 
fulvous,  with  beautiful  white  spots  at  all  sea- 
sons ;  the  face  is  long  and  narrow,  the  ears 
large  and  acute,  the  legs  long  and  slender;  the 
suborbital  pit  is  small  but  deep.  The  spotted 
axis  {A.  macxilata,  Gray)  has  a  black  streak  on 
the  back  edged  with  a  series  of  white  spots ;_  on 
the  sides  is  an  oblique  curved  line  of  similar 
epots,  and  a  short  oblique  white  streak  across 


DEEPw 


333 


tho  haunches;  in  size  and  markings  it  resembles 
tho  fallow  deer,  but  its  horns  are  quite  diiferent, 
being  destitute  of  palniations.  Tliis  species  is 
abundant  in  Bengal,  and  is  frequently  hunted  ; 
it  frequents  thick  jungles  near  water,  feeds 
during  the  night,  and  is  very  timorous  except  in 
tho  breeding  season ;  it  is  easily  tamed,  and  in 
cai)tiv'ity  is  very  nice  in  tasting  its  food ;  the 
height  is  about  2^  feet  at  the  shoulders.  The 
genus  hyelcqihus  (Sundev.),  which  includes  tho 
hog  deer,  resembles  axis^  but  is  lower  on  the 
legs,  and  has  no  black  dorsal  streak,  nor  white 
streak  on  tlie  haunches;  tho  ears  are  short  and 
round.  The  porcine  deer  (i/".  porcimis,  Zim- 
merni.)  is  of  a  yellowish  brown  color,  with  ob- 
scure whitish  spots,  tho  front  of  face  and  legs 
darker,  and  white  on  the  inside  of  the  thighs ; 
it  inhabits  the  jungles  of  India,  and,  notwith- 
standing its  thick  and  clumsy  appearance,  is  a 
very  active  animal ;  the  tail  is  bushy,  and  often 
carried  erect.  The  genus  cerculus  (Blainv.),  the 
last  of  the  rusine  division,  inhabiting  eastern 
Asia,  will  bo  described  in  the  article  Muxtjac. — 
Of  the  capreoliue  deer,  the  genus  capreolus  (II. 
Smith),  containing  the  European  roebuck  and 
the  Siberian  ahu,  will  be  described  in  tho  article 
KoEBUCK.  The  genus  fuvcifer  (Wagner  and 
Sundev.)  has  the  horns  erect,  forked,  without 
any  basal  snag,  acute  narrow  ears,  and  a  short 
tail;  the  hair  is  thick,  brittle,  and  waved;  there 
is  a  distinct  pencil  of  hairs  on  the  inside  of  tho 
hock,  but  none  on  the  outer  side  of  the  metatar- 
sus (in  which  it  ditfers  from  caj^reolus).  The 
taruga  (F.  Antisieiisis,  D'Orbiguy)  is  of  a  yel- 
lowish gray  color,  with  the  edge  of  the  muffle 
and  throat  white ;  face  with  a  brown  streak, 
and  a  band  between  the  e3'es ;  hoofs  broad ;  it 
inhabits  the  mountains  of  Bolivia,  and  the  east 
coast  of  South  America.  The  gemul  (F.  kuamel^ 
II.  Smith)  is  darker  colored,  Avith  the  inside  of 
the  ears  white ;  this  species,  considerably  larger 
than  the  roebuck,  inhabits  the  mountains  of 
eastern  South  America  and  Patagonia.  Tiie 
genus  hlastocerus  (Wagn.  and  Sundev.)  has  horns 
straight,  erect,  3-branched,  without  basal  snag; 
a  very  short  tail  and  large  ears;  hair  very  thin 
and  soft,  the  tuft  on  legs  as  in  furcifer.  The 
guazupuco  deer  {B.  jyaliulosiis,  Desm.)  is  nearly 
as  large  as  tho  stag ;  the  general  color  is  fulvous, 
but  the  inside  of  the  ears  and  limbs  and  the 
lower  parts  of  the  breast  are  white ;  the  face 
marks  and  feet  are  blackish,  and  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  tail  white ;  it  inhabits  Brazil  and 
Paraguay.  The  guazuti  deer  (B.  campestris, 
Licht.)  is  much  smaller  than  the  last,  standing 
about  2i-  feet  high  at  the  shoulders ;  the  horns 
are  more  slender,  and  about  a  foot  long,  gen- 
erally with  2  snags;  the  color  is  fulvous  brown; 
the  hairs  of  the  nape  and  back  reversed; 
the  hoofs  are  narrow.  This  beautiful  animal 
inhabits  the  open  plains  of  Patagonia,  and  is 
60  swift  of  foot  that,  according  to  Azara,  a 
horse  cannot  overtake  it ;  the  flesh  of  the  young 
is  delicate,  but  that  of  the  adult  strongly  fla- 
vored.— The  genus  cariacus  (Gray),  which  con- 
tains our  common  deer,  has  the  horns  cylindri- 


cal, tending  to  flatten,  strongly  bent  back  and 
then  forward,  with  a  central  internal  snag,  the 
tip  bent  forward,  and  several  lower  branches  on 
tlie  hinder  edge ;  the  hair  is  soft  and  thin,  and 
the  moderately  long  tail  has  long  hair  on  the 
under  side;  the  ears  are  large  and  rounded; 
tliere  is  generally  a  tuft  of  white  hair  on  the 
hind  leg,  rather  below  tho  middle  of  the  nieta- 
tarsus ;  tho  suborbital  j)it  in  the  skull  is  shal- 
low, and  the  nasal  bones  broad  and  subtriangu- 
lar  behind;  the  hoofs  are  generally  narrow  and 
elongated.  The  common  American  deer  (G. 
Virginianiis,  Penn.)  has  rather  a  long  head  and 
sharp  muzzle,  large  and  lustrous  eyes,  and  the 
lachrymal  bags  covered  by  a  fold  of  the  skin ; 
tlio  legs  are  long  and  slender.  Tho  color  in 
summer  is  bright  fulvous,  in  autumn  of  a  lead- 
en hue,  and  in  winter  dark  brown,  when  it  is 
longer  haired  above ;  the  lower  parts  from  chin 
to  end  of  tail  are  white ;  the  sexes  are  very  much 
alike.  The  young,  till  about  the  age  of  4  months, 
are  bright  reddish  brown,  with  irregular  lon- 
gitudinal white  spots ;  after  this  age  they  re- 
semble the  old  ones.  The  length  of  this  species 
from  nose  to  root  of  tail  is  about  5  feet  4  inches, 
and  the  length  of  tail,  including  the  liair,  13 
inches,  the  bones  being  only  6  inches;  the  ear  is 
5i  inches  high.  From  the  observations  of  Dr. 
Bachman,  as  given  in  the  "  Quadrupeds  of 
North  America"  (vol.  iii.  p.  168),  it  appears 
that  in  the  one-year-old  male  the  horns  had  each 
a  rudimentary  prong  about  |  of  an  inch  long, 
and  another  scarcely  visible  ;  when  2  years  old, 
2  prongs,  from  4  to  6  inches  long ;  when  3  years 
old,  3  prongs,  the  longest  8  inches,  with  brow 
antlers;  when  4  years  old,  the  brow  antlers 
longer  and  curved,  and  larger  in  diameter  ; 
during  the  next  2  years,  the  animal  seemed  to 
lose  its  vigor,  and  the  horns  dirainislied  in  size ; 
perhaps  in  the  wild  state  the  horns  would 
have  been  somewhat  larger.  As  a  general  rule, 
the  horns  become  annually  longer  and  more 
branched,  until  tho  animal  arrives  at  maturity, 
when  they  begin  to  decline  ;  when  the  opera- 
tion of  castration  is  performed  while  the  horns 
are  fully  grown,  they  are  said  to  continue  for 
years,  and  after  they  have  dropped  there  is 
no  subsequent  growth.  This  graceful  animal 
is  the  most  useful  of  the  wild  game  of  North 
America ;  its  flesh  forms  a  palatable  and  easily 
digestible  article  of  food  ;  its  skin  is  made  into 
various  articles  of  clothing  both  for  civilized  man 
and  the  savage ;  its  horns  are  useful  for  handles 
of  different  kinds  of  cutlery ;  its  very  sinews 
fonn  the  bow-strings  and  snow-shoe  netting 
of  the  North  American  Indian.  Though  very 
timid,  it  lingers  around  its  old  haunts  when  in- 
vaded by  man  and  persecuted  by  the  hunter  ; 
during  the  day,  it  retires  to  thickets  and 
swamps,  coming  out  to  feed  and  drink  by  night; 
in  hot  weather,  it  is  fond  of  immersing  itself 
deeply  in  ponds  and  streams.  The  food  of  the 
deer  in  winter  consists  of  buds  of  the  wild  rose, 
hawthorn,  brambles,  and  various  berries  and 
leaves,  and  in  spring  and  summer  of  the  tender- 
est  grasses ;  it  not  unfrequently  visits  the  fields 


334 


DEER 


of  wheat,  oats,  maize,  and  cow  peas;  'berrieg, 
nuts,  acorns,  and  persimmons  are  also  favorite 
articles  of  food.  They  are  in  fine  order  from  Au- 
gust to  November,  when  in  the  southern  states 
the  rutting  season  begins;  during  this  period, 
which  lasts  about  2  months,  the  neck  of  the 
male  increases  in  size  ;  the  males  meeting,  tre- 
mendous battles  ensue,  resulting  often  in  the 
death  of  one  or  both  of  the  combatants  ;  about 
January  the  horns  jire  droj)ped,  and  they  as- 
sociate peaceably  together,  as  if  conscious  of 
their  weak  and  defenceless  condition ;  in  about  3 
weeks  after  the  shedding  of  the  horns,  the  swell- 
ings of  the  new  ones  begin  to  appear,  soft,  ten- 
der, vascular,  rapidly  growing,  accompanied  by 
considerable  heat,  and  covered  by  a  soft  downy 
skin  called  the  velvet ;  when  these  are  fully 
grown,  in  July  or  August,  this  dry  covering  is 
rubbed  off  against  the  trees,  and  the  horns  be- 
come solid  and  smooth.  The  females  are  fattest 
from  November  to  January,  gradually  getting 
thinner  toward  the  end  of  gestation,  and  grow- 
ing quite  lean  while  suckling  the  young.  The 
young  are  born  in  April,  May,  or  June,  accord- 
ing to  latitude ;  Audubon  says  that  in  Florida 
and  Alabama  most  of  the  fawns  are  brought 
forth  in  November.  The  young  are  carefully 
concealed,  and  are  visited  by  day  only  occa- 
sionally, as  at  morning,  noon,  and  night ;  they 
are  easily  domesticated,  but  are  troublesome 
pets.  The  hind  does  not  produce  yoimg  until  she 
is  2  years  old,  and  the  number  of  fawns  varies 
from  1  to  3  at  a  birth ;  she  is  much  attached  to 
her  young,  and  the  imitation  of  their  cry  is  often 
practised  by  the  Indians  to  bring  the  mother 
within  reach  of  their  weapons.  Deer  are  gre- 
garious, being  found  in  herds  of  several  hun- 
dreds, the  sexes  separate  except  during  the 
rutting  season  ;  their  sense  of  smell  and  hear- 
ing are  very  acute,  as  every  hunter  knows ;  the 
sense  of  sight  is  not  so  acute,  and  the  voice  is 
quite  imperfect.  Preferring  to  roam  at  night 
in  search  of  food,  it  frequents  the  banks  of  wa- 
ter courses  and  the  salt  licks,  where  great  num- 
bers are  destroyed.  In  walking,  the  deer  carries 
the  head  low,  the  largest  animal  usually  leading 
the  herd,  which  advances  in  single  tile ;  when 
alarmed,  it  gives  2'  or  3  high  and  exceedingly 
graceful  springs,  and,  if  it  sees  any  danger, 
rushes  off  with  the  speed  of  a  race  horse,  run- 
ning low,  with  the  head  in  a  line  with  the  body. 
Deer  take  to  water  readily,  and  swim  with 
their  bodies  deeply  submerged,  and  so  rapidly 
that  nothing  but  an  Indian  canoe  can  easily 
overtake  them.  The  deer  has  been  hunted  by 
the  Indians  for  ages  with  the  bow  and  arrow  ; 
the  white  man  hunts  it  with  the  rifle  in  the 
rocky  districts,  chases  it  with  hounds  in  the 
open  country  of  the  South,  or  kills  it  when  daz- 
zled by  a  bright  light  in  the  woods.  The  deer 
are  growing  scarce  in  all  but  the  unsettled  parts 
and  inacessible  swamps  and  thickets  of  the 
United  States,  and  will  soon  become  extinct 
unless  stringent  laws  are  made  and  enforced 
against  killing  them  out  of  season ;  they  are 
found,  however,  in  every  state  of  the  union,  in 


Canada  and  the  British  provinces,  in  Texas  and 
in  Mexico ;  in  California  this  is  replaced  by  the 
black-tailed  species.     Those  found  in  the  moun- 
tains are  larger  and  shorter  legged  than  those  of 
the  swamps  of  Carolina  and  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board.   It  is  generally  believed  that  the  C.  Mex- 
icanus  (Licht.),  G.  nemoralis  {\l.  Smith),  and  C. 
gymnotis  ( Wiegm.),  all  from  Mexico,  are  only  va- 
ric'ties  of  the  common  Virginian  deer.     A  dif- 
ferent species,  however,  is  the  black-tailed  or 
Californian   deer   {C.   Richardsonii^  And.  and 
Bach. ;  G.  Coliimbianus,  Rich.).     The  male  is  a 
little  lai'ger  than  the  common  deer,  but  shorter 
and  stouter  in  form ;  the  horns  are  twice  forked, 
the  first  fork  being  10  inclies  from  the  base,  the 
antlers  somewhat  like  those  of  the  European 
stag ;  the  ears  are  of  moderate  size,  the  head 
shorter  and  the  nose  broader  than  in  the  first 
species;  the  hoofs  are  narrow  and  pointed  ;  the 
lachrymal  openings  large,  and  close  under  the 
eye;  the  tail  short  and  bushy.   The, general  col- 
or is  reddish  brown  above  and  white  beneath, 
with  no  light  patch  on  the  buttocks  ;  the  chest 
blackish  brown,  which   encircles  the  shoulder 
like  a  collar ;  a  dark  line  from  under  chest  to 
middle  of  belly ;  the  tail  dark  brown,  becoming 
black  at  the  top,  and  white  below.     The  length 
to  root  of  tail  is  5^  feet,  tail  9  inches ;  height  at 
shoidders  2^  feet ;  Avidth  of  horns  between  su- 
perior prongs  If  feet.     First  noticed  by  Lewis 
and  Clark  near  the  Columbia  river,  it  has  be- 
come recently  Avell  known  to  the  Californian 
miners ;  it  seems  to  replace  the  common  deer  to 
the  west  of  the  Rocky  mountains.     The  flesh  is 
tender  and  of  good  flavor.    Less  graceful  than 
the  common  deer,  and  more  bounding  in  its 
movements,  it  is  said  to  be  very  swift ;  it  also 
breeds  earlier  in  the  season.     It  is  found  from 
California  to  the  Russian  possessions.     The  Co- 
lumbian black-tailed  deer  ((7.  Lcwisii^  Peale)  may 
be  merely  a  variety,  according  to  season  or  lo- 
cality, of  the  last  named;   but  Audubon  and 
Bachman   think  it  will  prove  difterent.     The 
long-tailed  deer  (6'.  leucuriis^  Douglass)  is  small- 
er than  the  Virginian,  with  the  head  and  back 
fawn-colored,    mixed    with   black ;    sides   and 
cheeks  paler  ;  white  beneath ;    tail  brownish 
yellow  above,  reddish  near  tip,  and  cream-white 
below.    The  form  is  elegant,  lachrymal  opening 
small,  limbs  slender,  hoofs  sharp-pointed,  and 
tail  long ;  the  fur  dense,  coarse,  and  long,  with 
a  tuft  on  the  belly  between  the  thighs.     The 
length  is  only  4  to  5  feet  to  root  of  tail ;  tail  13 
inches.    In  appearance  and  manner  of  jumping 
it  resembles  the  roebuck ;  the  flesh  is  excellent. 
According  to  Richardson,  this   species  is  not 
found  on  the  east  side  of  the  Rocky  mountains 
beyond  lat.  54°,  nor  to  the  eastward  of  long. 
105°;  Douglass  says  that  it  is  the  most  com- 
mon deer  in  the  districts  adjoining  the  Columbia 
river ;    it  is  also  met  Avith  on  the  upper  Mis- 
souri and  Platte  rivers,  and  in  Washington  ter- 
ritory.    The  mule  deer  {G.  macrotis,  Say.)  is 
intermediate  in  size  between  the  wapiti  and  the 
common  deer,  and  is  a  noble-looking  animal, 
the  only  drawback  being  its  long  ears;   the 


DEER 


DEFIANCE 


335 


liorns  are  twice  forked  ;  the  lachrymal  aperture 
is  long,  the  hair  coarse  and  crimped,  the  hoofs 
short  and  wide,  and  the  tail  almost  without 
hair  beneath.  The  general  color  of  the  hair 
above  is  brownish  gray,  shading  into  fulvous, 
the  chin  without  any  dark  markings;  the  fore- 
Iicad  dark  brown,  and  tlie  dorsal  line  nearly 
black;  below  grayish  white;  a  yellowish  white 
spot  on  the  buttocks ;  tail  pale  ferruginous,  with 
a  black  tuft  at  the  end;  the  glandular  o[)enings 
on  the  sides  of  the  hind  legs  are  very  long.  la 
the  female,  the  form  and  length  of  the  ears  re- 
semble so  much  those  of  the  mule  that  the  or- 
igin and  appropriateness  of  the  coTumon  name 
are  very  evident.  The  length  of  a  female  meas- 
ured by  Audubon  and  Bachman  was  4§  feet  to 
the  root  of  the  tail,  and  the  tail  to  end  of  hair 
10  inches;  the  height  at  the  shoulders  oj  feet, 
at  rump  3^^  feet;  length  of  ears  7  inches;  the 
weiglit  132  lbs.  The  male  would  be  considera- 
bly larger  tlian  this.  Their  habits  are  more 
like  those  of  the  stag  than  of  the  conmiou  deer ; 
they  fly  far  from  the  settlements,  and  when 
started,  run  a  mile  or  two  before  stopping.  The 
female  brings  forth  one  or  two  young  iu  the 
month  of  June.  This  species  ranges  along  the 
eastern  sides  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  from  54° 
N.  to  north-western  Texas ;  it  is  found  on  the 
upper  Missouri  and  Platte  rivers  and  in  Oregon, 
not  extending  to  the  Pacific.  It  is  very  likely 
that  otlier  species  of  this  genus  will  be  found  in 
Central  America  by  the  various  exploring  and 
hunting  expeditions  constantly  fitted  out  by  in- 
dividuals and  the  government. — In  the  genus 
co(t.ssus  (Gray;  sitbulo,  H.  Smith),  the  horns  are 
simple,  straight,  and  round,  like  those  of  a  deer 
of  the  first  year,  and  *inclining  backward ;  the 
ears  are  short,  broad,  and  almost  naked;  tail 
sliort;  face  rather  convex;  the  fur  short,  elon- 
gated into  a  tuft  on  the  forehead ;  legs  with- 
out any  external  metatarsal  tuft,  but  with  a 
pencil  of  hairs  on  the  inside  of  the  hocks ;  the 
suborbital  pit  is  small  and  shallow.  This  genus, 
which  includes  the  brockets,  is  confined  to  trop- 
ical South  America;  they  are  of  small  size,  liv- 
ing iu  woods  and  jungles.  The  pita  brocket  (G. 
rufus,  F.  Cuv.)  is  of  a  shining  red  color,  with 
the  crown  and  neck  gray ;  the^'oung  are  spotted 
with  white,  and  the  females  are  of  a  lighter  red, 
with  more  gray.  They  inhabit  the  low,  moist 
woods,  and  are  polygamous,  there  being  about  10 
females  in  company  with  one  male ;  they  are  very 
fleet  for  a  short  distance,  but  are  soon  tired  out. 
The  height  at  the  shoulders  is  about  2  feet.  The 
apara  brocket  (C.  nemorivagiis,  F.  Cuv.)  is  about 
2(j  inches  long,  and  resembles  a  sheep  more  than 
,  a  deer.  The  lower  parts  of  the  head  and  lips  are 
whitish ;  the  inside  of  the  fore  legs,  and  from  the 
lower  breast  to  the  buttocks,  pale  cinnamon-col- 
ored ;  the  neck  and  rest  of  the  body  grayish 
brown.  The  eyebrowed  brocket  (C.  supercili- 
ari.\  Gray)  differs  from  the  pita  in  the  deeply 
arched  mutile  and  the  white  stripe  over  the 
eyes.  The  large-eared  brocket  (0.  aurltus, 
Grny)  resembles  the  Asiatic  muntjac  in  color, 
and  the  ears  are  large,  broad,  more  than  half 


the  length  of  the  head,  with  2  lines  of  hairs. 
All  these  species  inhabit  Brazil  and  the  eastern 
coast.  On  the  western  coast  is  another  species, 
the  venada  deer  (C.^iudu,  Mol.),  with  ears  thick- 
ly covered  with  hair,  a  deep  suborbital  pit,  and 
large  molars ;  the  fur  is  rufous,  blackish  in  front 
and  behind ;  the  ears  and  tail  are  very  short.  It 
inhabits  Chili. 

DEER  GRASS  (rhexla  Virginica,  Linn.),  the 
New  England  representative  of  the  Asiatic  fami- 
ly of  plants  called  melastomacew,  of  which  only 
8  species  are  found  in  the  United  States.  The 
flowers,  in  common  with  those  of  the  family, 
are  conspicuous  and  showy,  witli  bright  rosy 
purple  petals,  and  render  the  meadows  unusually 
gay  when  enamelled  with  patches  of  this  lovely 
plant,  entitling  it  to  the  common  name  of  the 
meadow  beauty. 

DEFFAND,  Marie  (de  Yicnr-CHAMROND), 
marquise  du,  an  accomplished  French  woman, 
born  in  1097,  died  in  Paris,  Sept.  24,  1780.  She 
was  of  noble  birth,  and  was  educated  in  a  con- 
vent, but  at  an  early  age  astonished  her  parents 
by  her  sceptical  opinions  on  religious  subjects. 
At  20  years  of  age  she  was  married  to  the  mar- 
quis du  Deffand,  from  whom  her  indiscretions 
soon  caused  her  to  be  separated,  after  w'hich 
she  launched  into  a  career  of  fashionable  dissipa- 
tion, and  for  many  years  Avas  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  ornaments  of  the  court  of  the  regent 
and  of  Louis  XV.  Although  incapable,  from  a 
natural  selfishness  and  want  of  sympathy,  of 
entertaining  the  passion  of  love,  she  knew  how 
to  inspire  it  in  others ;  and  over  the  greater 
part  of  her  numerous  lovers,  among  whom,  it  is 
said,  was  the  regent  liimself,  her  influence  re- 
mained unimpaired  until  their  dotage.  Her 
conversational  powers  and  clear,  cool  judgment 
caused  her  to  be  courted  by  the  most  eminent 
men  of  the  time,  and  when  in  her  5Gth  year 
she  became  totally  blind,  her  saloons  in  the 
convent  of  St.  Joseph's  were  the  favorite  re- 
sort of  Montesquieu,  Voltaire,  President  He- 
nault,  David  Hume,  D'Alembert,  and  many 
others.  At  this  period  of  her  life  she  became 
acquainted  with  Horace  Walpole,  between 
whom  and  herself  a  correspondence  was  for 
many  years  carried  on.  As  she  grew  old  her 
selfish 'traits  developed  more  disagreeably,  and 
the  ungenerous  manner  in  which  she  treated 
her  companion  and  reader,  Mademoiselle  de 
Lespinasse,  alienated  many  of  her  friends.  Her 
latter  years  were  marked  by  peevishness  and 
ennui,  and  she  died  unhappy  after  several  un- 
availing efforts  to  consecrate  herself  to  the  life 
of  a  devotee.  Her  epistolary  writings  comprise 
her  correspondence  with  Henault,  Montesquieu, 
D'Alembert,  and  the  duchess  of  Maine,  and 
with  Horace  Walpole,  the  latter  being  com- 
piled from  the  original  letters  deposited  at 
Strawberry  Hill.  Her  style  is  a  model  of  ele- 
gance. 

DEFIANCE,  a  N.  W.  co.  of  Ohio,  bordering 
on  Ind. ;  area,  414  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  6.966, 
The  St,  Joseph's  and  Maumee  are  the  principal 
rivers.     The  surface  is  level,  the  soil  good,  and 


336 


DEFLAGRATION 


DEFOE 


timber  very  abundant.  In  1850  the  productions 
•were  90,601  bushels  of  corn,  47,806  of  wheat, 
26,471  of  oats,  2,372  tons  of  hay,  and  19,241 
busliels  of  potatoes.  There  were  6  churches,  2 
newspaper  offices,  and  1,220  pupils  attending 
pubUc  schools. — The  capital,  Defiance,  a  flour- 
ishing village  and  township,  pop.  in  1853,  about 
1,000,  is  agreeably  situated  at  the  junction  of 
Auglaize  and  Maumee  rivers,  and  at  high  wa- 
ter is  accessible  by  steamboat.  A  fort,  called 
by  the  same  name  as  the  town,  was  built  hero 
by  Gen.  Wayne  in  1794.  The  place  was  then 
occupied  by  a  large  tribe  of  Indians,  who  owned 
extensive  corn  fields  and  orchards. 

DEFLAGRATION  (Lat.  deflugro,  to  burn), 
the  sudden  combustion  which  takes  place  when 
an  inflammable  substance,  like  sulphur  or  char- 
coal, is  mixed  with  nitrate  or  chlorate  of  potash 
and  projected  into  a  red-hot  crucible.  The  in- 
stantaneous decomposition  of  the  salt,  and  the 
uniting  of  its  oxygen  with  the  combustible 
body,  give  rise  to  the  explosion  Avhich  is  called 
deflairration. 

DEFLECTION.     See  Diffeaotion. 

DEFOE,  Daniel,  an  English  novelist  and  po- 
litical writer,  born  in  London  in  1661,  died  in  the 
same  city,  April  24,  1731.  The  son  of  James 
Foe,  a  butcher  and  dissenter  of  the  parish  of  St. 
Giles,  Cripplegate,  he  was  admitted  by  right 
of  his  birth  to  the  freedom  of  the  city  in  1688, 
under  the  name  of  Daniel  Foe,  but  afterward 
assumed  the  prefix  De,  as  one  of  his  enemies 
asserted,  to  escape  the  reputation  of  an  English 
origin.  He  was  educated  at  a  dissenting  acad- 
emy at  Newington  Green,  near  London;  was 
strongly  impressed  both  by  his  parents  and 
teachers  with  religious  sentiments  and  princi- 
ples ;  and,  after  leaving  the  academy  in  1680, 
was  nominated  a  Presbyterian  minister.  It  was 
Lis  disaster,  however,  as  he  expresses  it,  "  first 
to  be  set  apart  for,  and  then  to  be  set  apart 
from,  that  sacred  employ;"  and  he  became  in- 
terested in  politics  more  tlaan  divinity.  There  is 
attributed  to  liim  a  pamphlet  published  in  1682, 
entitled  "  Speculum  Orape-Gownorum ;  or,  a 
Looking-Glassfor  the  Young  Academics,"  which 
was  a  lampoon  on  prevalent  high-church  no- 
tions, and  an  answer  to  Sir  Roger  L'Estrange's 
"  Guide  to  the  Inferior  Clergy."  In  1683, 
while  war  existed  between  the  Austrians  and 
Ottomans,  he  issued  his  "Treatise  against  the 
Turks,"  combating  the  general  sentiment  in 
favor  of  the  latter,  and  arguing  that  it  was 
"  better  that  the  popish  house  of  Austria 
should  ruin  the  Protestants  in  Hungary,  than 
that  the  infidel  house  of  Ottoman  should  ruin 
both  Protestants  and  Papists."  In  1685  his 
zeal  for  the  Protestant  succession  led  him  to 
join  the  standard  of  the  unfortunate  duke 
of  Monmouth  ;  but  unlike  many  of  his  asso- 
ciates, he  escaped  both  the  hazards  of  the  field 
and  the  sanguinary  campaign  of  Judge  Jeflfreys, 
which  succeeded  the  suppression  of  the  rebel- 
lion. He  repaired  to  London,  engaged  in  trade 
as  a  hose  factor  in  Cornhill,  published  in  1687 
a  tract  assailing   the   proclamation   of  King 


James  for  the  repeal  of  the  penal  laws,  hail- 
ed the  revolution  of  1688  as  tlie  salvation  of 
Protestantism,  was  one  of  the  superbly  mounted 
escort  of  volunteers  who  attended  William  and 
Mary  from  Whitehall  to  the  mansion  house, 
Oct.  29,  1689,  and  in  1692  was  declared  bank- 
rupt and  was  obliged  to  abscond,  but  succeeded 
in  making  a  composition  with  his  creditors,  they 
accepting  his  personal  bonds,  which  by  unwea- 
ried diligence  he  punctually  paid.  Subsequent- 
ly he  discharged  his  full  liabilities  to  such  of  his 
creditors  as  had  themselves  fallen  into  distress. 
In  1694  his  friends  arranged  a  mercantile  enter- 
prise for  him  at  Cadiz,  but  he  declined  it,  "Provi- 
dence," as  he  remarks,  "  wliich  had  other  work 
for  him  to  do,  having  placed  a  secret  aversion  in 
his  mind  to  quitting  England."  In  the  next  year 
he  was  appointed  without  solicitation  account- 
ant to  the  commissioners  of  the  glass  duties,  in 
which  service  he  continued  till  the  suppression 
of  the  tax  in  1699.  The  many  inventions  of  that 
period  and  his  own  numerous  schemes  suggest- 
ed to  him  the  "Essay  on  Projects"  (1697),  the 
perusal  of  which  quickened  the  mental  energies 
of  Franklin,  and  which  has  been  said  to  contain 
the  ideas  of  the  French  revolution  without  its 
follies.  He  published  a  variety  of  political 
pamphlets  during  several  years,  the  most  suc- 
cessful of  which  was  the  "True-born  English- 
man" (1699),  a  poetical  satire  commencing  with 
the  well-known  couplet : 

Wherever  God  erects  a  house  of  prayer, 
The  devil  always  builds  a  chapel  there. 

It  was  designed  to  vindicate  King  William  from 
the  odium  of  foreign  birth,  had  an  almost  un- 
exampled sale,  and  obtained  for  the  author 
direct  personal  intercoui«se  with  the  king.  In 
1701,  when  the  bearers  of  the  famous  Kentish 
petition  were  imprisoned  by  order  of  the  house 
of  commons,  Defoe  composed  and  presented  a 
threatening  remonstrance,  signed  "  Legion," 
claiming  to  be  sent  by  200,000  Englishmen, 
which  produced  immense  commotion,  deter- 
ring for  a  time  several  of  the  members  from 
attending  the  house.  Two  other  tracts  speed- 
ily followed,  in  one  of  Avhich  he  maintained 
the  original  rights  of  the  collective  body  of 
the  people,  and  in  the  other  declared  the  rea- 
sons against  a  war  with  France.  The  latter 
is  one  of  the  ablest  tracts  in  the  language, 
and  though  it  was  adverse  to  the  favorite 
policy  of  William,  it  did  not  excite  his  displea- 
sure ;  he  was  till  his  death  the  patron  and 
friend  of  Defoe,  who  vindicated  his  character 
and  memory  as  well  as  many  of  his  measures. 
In  1702  he  published  the  "Shortest  Way  with 
Dissenters,"  in  which,  with  exquisite  irony,  he 
assumed  the  tone  of  a  high  churchman,  and 
gravely  proposed  to  establish  the  church  and  rid 
the  land  of  dissenters  by^ hanging  their  minis- 
ters and  banishing  their  people.  Ilis  satires  had 
already  mortified  and  offended  many  of  the 
tory  leaders,  through  whose  influence  his  pam- 
phlet was  now  voted  a  libel  on  the  house  of 
commons  and  was  ordered  to  be  burned  by  the 
common  hangman.     The  proclamation  issued 


DEFOE 


Vdl 


for  his  arrest  furnishes  our  best  knowledge  of 
his  personal  appearance,  describing  him  as  "  a 
middle-sized,  spare  man,  about  40  years  old,  of 
a  brown  complexion,  and  dark  brown  colored 
hair,  but  wears  a  wig;  a  hooked  nose,  sharp 
chin,  gray  eyes,  and  a  large  mole  near  his 
mouth."  lie  was  at  this  time  owner  Df  some 
brick  and  pantile  works  near  Tilbury  fort,  from 
which  he  absconded;  but  he  gave  himself  up 
when  a  prosecution  was  begun  against  his  pub- 
lisher, and  was  condemned  to  be  lined,  pilloried, 
and  imprisoned.  lie  wrote  a  hymn  to  the  pil- 
lory, pronouncing  it 

A  hieroulynhio  statu  machine, 
Condeijinca  to  iiuiiish  fhuojyn  ; 

and  during  his  2  years'  imprisonment  at  New- 
gate began  a  periodical  paper,  entitled  the  "  Re- 
view," published  twice  a  week,  which  was  con- 
tinued till  1713,  and  was  the  foreruimer  of  those 
popular  miscellanies  which  were  soon  made  at- 
tractive by  the  wit  and  taste  of  Addison  and 
Steele.  His  enfranchisement  was  due  to  the  so- 
licitation of  Harley,  afterward  earl  of  Orford. 
Though  occasionally  employed  in  the  service  of 
the  queen,  and  once  upon  a  secret  mission  in  a 
foreign  country,  he  continued  his  literary  labors, 
and  published  in  1705  the  "  Consolidator,"  or 
memoirs  of  transactions  in  the  moon,  in  wliich 
he  developed  a  lunar  language,  and  made  the 
lunar  politicians  discuss  tlie  wars  of  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden;  in  1706,  the  satire  of  Jure 
Divino,  in  which  he  attacked  the  doctrines  of 
passive  obedience  and  divine  right;  and  also 
several  excellent  treatises  relating  to  the  union 
with  Scotland,  which  he  was  efficient  in  pro- 
moting, being  sent  by  the  cabinet  of  Queea 
Anne  on  a  special  important  mission  to  Edin- 
burgh ;  in  1709,  a  "History  of  the  Union," 
which  is  the  most  authentic  on  the  subject ;  and. 
from  1711  to  1713,  a  series  of  pamphlets  against 
the  insinuations  of  the  Jacobites  and  the  schemes 
of  the  pretender.  The  irony  of  some  of  these 
was  misapprehended,  and  he  was  again  fined 
and  for  a  short  time  committed  to  Xewgate,  July 
29, 1712,  where  he  finished  his  "Review,"  which 
thus  had  both  its  beginning  and  end  in  prison. 
After  the  death  of  the  queen,  his  enemies  as- 
sailed him  from  every  quarter,  so  overwhelm- 
ing him  with  the  "  rage  of  men,"  that  in  1715 
he  published  a  general  defence  of  his  conduct 
under  the  title  of  an  "  Appeal  to  Honor  and 
Justice."  He  had  hardly  finished  this  when 
he  was  struck  with  apoplexy,  the  result  of 
anxiety  and  despondence,  and  after  languishing 
for  6  weeks  recovered.  He  now  determined 
to  abandon  political  satire,  and  write  works 
for  the  promotion  of  religion  and  virtue. 
Such  were  his  "  Family  Instructor  "  (1715)  and 
"Religious  Courtship"  (1722).  In  1719  ap- 
peared the  "Life  and  surprising  Adventures  of 
Robinson  Crusoe,"  the  most  popular  of  novels, 
which  has  uniformly  been  a  favorite  of  the 
young  and  old,  learned  and  unlearned,  which 
was  to  constitute  the  library  of  Rousseau's 
Eraile,  or  perfectly  educated  young  man,  which 
was  one  of  the  three  books  that  Dr.  Johnson 
VOL.  VI. — 22 


wished  had  been  longer,  and  which  by  universal 
admission  is  as  moral  as  it  is  charming.  The' 
prototype  of  Crusoe  was  Alexander  Selkirk,  a 
brief  narrative  of  whose  adventures  on  the 
desert  isle  of  Juan  Fernandez  had  been  publish- 
ed in  1712  ;  and  the  hint  thus  given,  according 
with  the  injured  feelings  and  lonely  contempla- 
tions of  the  unprosperous  man  of  genius,  was 
elaborated  by  him  into  a  complete  and  delight- 
ful romance.  It  was  followed  by  a  series  of 
remarkably  ingenious  fictions,  as  the  "  Life  and 
Piracies  of  Captain  Singleton"  (1720).  the 
"  Fortunes  and  Misfortunes  of  Moll  Flanders  " 
(1721),  the  "Life  of  Colonel  Jack"  and  the 
"Journal  of  tho  Plague  in  1GG5"  (1722),  the 
"  Adventures  of  Roxana"  (172-4),  a  "  New  Voy- 
age round  the  World,  by  a  Course  never  sailed 
before  "  (1725),  the  "  Memoirs  of  a  Cavalier," 
the  "  Political  History  of  the  Devil,"  and  several 
others.  He  also  wrote  important  economic  and 
commercial  treatises,  entitled  an  "  Essay  on  the 
Treaty  of  Commerce  Avith  France,"  a  "  Plan  of 
the  English  Commerce,"  and  "  Giving  Alms  no 
Charity."  Of  his  later  novels  Charles  Lamb 
said :  "  "While  all  ages  and  descriptions  of  peo- 
ple hang  delighted  over  Robinson  Crusoe,  and 
shall  continue  to  do  so,  we  trust,  while  the 
world  lasts,  how  few  comparatively  will  bear 
to  be  told  that  there  exist  other  fictitious  nar- 
ratives by  the  same  writer,  four  of  them  at  least 
of  no  inferior  interest :  Roxana,  Singleton,  Moll 
Flanders,  Colonel  Jack,  are  all  genuine  oflspring 
of  the  same  father.  They  are,  in  their  way,  as 
fuU  of  incident,  and  some  of  them  every  bit  as 
romantic."  The  most  prominent  characteristic 
of  his  fictions  is  the  distinctness  of  reality 
which  he  gives  to  them  by  the  elaborate  and 
precise  statement  of  details.  It  is  this  quality 
which  made  Dr.  Johnson  esteem  the  account  of 
Captain  George  Carleton  a  record  of  facts.  Lord 
Chatham  quote  the  "Memoirs  of  a  Cavalier"  as  a 
genuine  piece  of  biography,  Dr.  Mead  regard  his 
narrative  of  the  plague  in  London  as  the  result 
of  personal  observation,  and  which  surprised 
the  mass  of  readers  into  giving  credence  to  the 
apparition  of  Mrs.  Veal  at  Canterbury,  "Sept.  8, 
1705."  His  style  is  distinguished  by  a  simplicity 
and  homeliness  which  he  may  have  learned  from 
reading  Bunyan.  After  an  indefatigable  and 
checkered  life,  Defoe  died  in  the  parish  of  his 
birth,  insolvent,  and  the  author  of  210  books 
and  pamphlets.  He  thus  summed  up  the  scenes 
of  his  career  in  a  distich  : 

No  man  has  tasted  different  fortunes  more ; 
And  thirteen  times  1  have  been  rich  and  poor. 

He  adds:  "  In  the  school  of  afiliction  I  have  learn- 
ed more  philosophy  than  at  the  academy,  and 
more  divinity  than  from  the  pulpit ;  .  .  .  .  and  in 
less  than  half  a  year  have  tasted  the  diflerence 
between  the  closet  of  a  king  and  the  dungeon 
of  Newgate.  1  have  suftered  deeply  for  cleaving 
to  principles."  Though  remembered  chiefly  as  a 
novelist,  he  was  during  80  years  a  leader  in  the 
fierce  partisan  strife  by  which,  under  TTilliam 
of  Orange,  constitutional  liberty  was  realized  in 
England,  and  has  been  pronounced  "  the  most 


338 


DEFRfiMERY 


DEGREE 


thorough  Englishman  and  writer  of  his  day,  a 
model  of  integrity,  and  as  consistent,  sincere,  and 
brave  as  he  was  gifted."  The  best  editions  of  his 
works,  though  incomplete,  are  that  of  London  (3 
vols.  1840-43),  with  a  memoir  by  William  Haz- 
litt,  and  that  of  Oxford  (20  vols.,  1840-'41),  with 
memoirs  and  notes  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  others. 

DErRf:MERY,  Chakles,  a  French  oriental- 
ist, born  at  Cambrai,  Dec.  8, 1822,  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  the  Arabic  and  Persian  lan- 
guages, and  in  1843  became  a  member  of  the 
Asiatic  society  in  Paris.  He  is  the  author  of 
several  translations  from  oriental  languages, 
among  others  of  the  travels  of  Ibn  Batuta,  pub- 
lished with  annotations  (1848-51,  2  vols.  8vo; 
reprinted,  with  the  original  Arabic,  1853-56,  3 
vols.  8vo.),  and  of  many  other  translations  from 
the  Persian  and  Arabic,  and  is  one  of  the  con- 
tributors to  the  Journal  Asiatique  of  Paris. 
The  first  part  of  a  series  of  original  articles  writ- 
ten by  him  for  that  periodical  was  published 
in  1856,  under  the  title  of  Memoires  (ThUtoire 
orientale. 

DEFTER-DAR  (a  Persian  word  signifying 
literally  book-keeper),  the  title  in  Persia  and 
Turkey  of  the  finance  minister.  In  the  Ottoman 
empire,  he  sits  in  the  divan,  disposes  of  all  the 
public  money,  and  publislies  firmans  in  his  own 
name  without  referring  to  the  grand  vizier. 
The  defter-dar  capoussy,  or  department  of  the 
ministry  of  finance,  has  33  bureaus,  3  of  which 
are  designed  only  for  the  registry  of  pious 
foundations  in  favor  of  hospitals,  mosques,  and 
temples,  not  only  at  Constantinople,  but  in  the 
most  distant  provinces  of  the  empire.  Among 
the  other  bureaus  ai"e  distributed  the  care  of  the 
taxes  and  tributes,  the  products  of  the  mines 
and  other  state  property,  and  the  payment  of 
all  the  officers,  civil  and  military,  of  the  empire. 

DEGER,  Eknst,  a  German  painter  of  the 
Diisseldorf  school,  born  at  Buckenera,  Hanover, 
April  15, 1809.  He  studied  at  Berlin  and  after- 
ward at  Dusseldorf,  under  Wilhelm  von  Scha- 
dow.  Ilis  first  efforts  were  oil  pictures,  among 
which  there  are  some  altarpieces  of  merit, 
especially  a  madonna  and  child  in  the  church 
of  St.  Andrew,  at  Dusseldorf.  In  1851  he  com- 
pleted the  fresco  painting  for  the  church  of 
St.  ApoUinaris,  near  Remagen,  on  the  Rhine. 
Since  1851  he  has  been  engaged  upon  paintings 
for  the  chapel  of  the  castle  of  Stolzenfels.  In 
1857  he  sent  for  exhibition  at  the  salon  of  Paris 
a  picture  of  the  infant  Jesus.  He  is  a  professor 
in  the  academy  of  fine  arts  in  Munich. 

DE  GERANDO.     See  Gerando. 

DEGRAND,  Pierre  P.  F.,  a  public-spirited 
Frenchman,  born  in  Marseilles  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  18th  century,  died  Dec.  23,  1855,  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  where,  since  the  beginning  of  this 
century,  he  had  been  established  as  a  broker 
and  merchant.  For  many  years  he  published 
a  commercial  paper,  the  "  Weekly  Report."  He 
zealously  promoted  railroads  and  other  public 
enterprises.  He  bequeathed  about  $120,000  to 
public  uses.  A  large  part  of  this  was  left  to 
Harvard  college,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying 


the  library  with  French  books  on  scientific 
subjects ;  another  part  was  given  to  the  city  of 
Boston,  the  income  to  be  exjiended  in  purchas- 
ing books  of  amusement  for  the  use  of  the  chil- 
dren of  the  public  schools ;  the  reet  was  divided 
among  8  charitable  institutions. 

DEGREE,  in  algebra,  the  number  express- 
ing the  greatest  number  of  times  Avhich  an  un- 
known quantity  enters  any  term  as  a  factor. 
Thus,  if  X  be  an  unknown  quantity,  4:X^-\-^x'=S, 
is  an  equation  of  the  third  degree.  The  unknown 
quantity  may,  in  general,  have  as  many  differ- 
ent values  as  there  are  units  in  the  degree  of 
the  equation. — A  degree  in  trigonometry  signifies 
gV  part  of  a  right  angle,  and  is  indicated  by  a  small 
circle  near  the  top  of  the  figure ;  thus,  30°  sig- 
nifies the  ^  part  of  a  riglit  angle.  Each  degree 
may  be  divided  into  60  minutes,  each  minute 
into  60  seconds;  thus,  31°  12'  15"  is  read  31 
degrees,  12  minutes,  15  seconds.  In  the  French 
decimal  system  the  right  angle  was  divided 
into  100°,  each  degree  into  100  minutes,  &c.  ; 
but  that  method  never  came  into  general  use. 
— A  Degree  of  Latitude  is  the  distance  N".  or 
S.  between  2  places  on  the  same  meridian  at 
which  plumb  lines  would  make  an  angle  of  one 
degree  with  each  other.  Owing  to  the  flatten- 
ing of  the  earth  toward  the  poles,  this  distance 
increases  in  length  as  the  observer  goes  N.  or 
S. ;  being  about  2,740  feet  more  at  latitude  60° 
than  at  the  equator.  Many  careful  measure- 
ments of  a  degree  bave  been  made,  by  various 
European  governments,  not  only  in  their  own 
territories,  but  in  South  America,  India,  and 
Africa.  The  most  northern  accurate  measure- 
ment Avas  in  Lapland ;  the  most  southern  at  the 
cape  of  Good  Hope ;  and  measurements  have 
also  been  taken  both  in  India  and  South  Amer- 
ica, almost  exactly  upon  the  equator.  The 
longest  arcs  measured  are  those  in  France, 
measured  by  Mechain  and  Delambre,  and  that 
in  India,  measured  by  Col.  Lambton  and  Capt. 
Everest;  the  first  being  over  12°,  the  second 
nearly  16°.  From  a  complete  discussion  of  all 
the  observations,  Bessel  deduces  the  follow- 
ing results:  the  diameter  of  tlie  earth  at  the 
equator  is  41,847,194  English  feet ;  the  diame- 
ter through  the  poles  41,707,308  English  feet; 
so  that  the  difference  of  the  diameters,  divided 
by  the  longest  diameter,  gives  us  almost  ex- 
actly the  quotient  of  1  divided  by  300  {^\n). 
Tliese  results  of  Bessel  are  adopted  in  the 
United  States  coast  survey,  and  agree  not  only 
with  the  results  of  terrestrial  measurements,  but 
with  the  celestial  phenomena  that  depend  upon 
the  ellipticity  of  the  earth.  It  is  remarkable 
that  this,  the  only  way  of  determining  the  size 
of  the  earth,  was  invented  and  put  in  practice 
by  Eratosthenes,  in  Egypt,  in  the  3d  century  B.C. 
— A  Degree  of  Longitude  is  the  distance  be- 
tween 2  places  of  the  same  latitude,  the  differ- 
ence of  whose  clocks  is  exactly  4  minutes — in 
other  words,  the  planes  of  whose  meridians 
make  an  angle  of  1°  with  each  other.  The 
length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  is  at  the  equator 
69.16  statute  miles ;  at  latitude  20°  it  is  about 


DEHAVEN 


DE  KALB 


339 


05.015  miles;   at  latitude  30° it  is  reduced  to 
59.944 ;  at  40°  to  53.053  ;  and  at  50=  to  44.342. 

DEIIAVEJSr,  Edwin  J.,  an  officer  in  tlie  U.  S, 
navy,  a  native  of  Pennsylvania,  entered  the  navy 
as  inidsliipman  in  Oct.  1829,  and  in  now  (Jan. 
1859)  near  tlie  head  of  the  list  of  lieutenants. 
He  served  in  tlie  exploring  expedition  under 
Lieut.  Wilkes,  1839  to  1842,  and  coinnuinded 
with  distinguished  ability  and  zeal  the  first  expe- 
dition fitted  out  at  the  expense  of  Henry  Grin- 
nell,  Esq.,  of  New  York,  to  search  for  Sir  John 
Franklin.  Tliis  expedition  sailed  from  New 
York,  May  24, 1850,  and  was  absent  a  little  over 
16  months,  Avintering  within  the  arctic  circle. 
It  consisted  of  2  small  brigs,  the  Advance  of  140, 
and  the  Rescue  of  90  tons.  A  particular  ac- 
count of  it  has  been  given  by  Dr.  Kane. 

DEHON,  Theodore,  D.D.,  bishop  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  church  in  South  Carolina, 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1776,  died  suddenly 
of  malignant  fever  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  Aug.  6, 
1817.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  college 
in  1795,  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Episcopal 
church,  became  rector  of  Trinity  church,  Ne^v- 
port,  R.  I.,  in  1798,  and  rector  of  St.  Michael's 
church,  Charleston,  in  1809.  In  1812  he  ac- 
cei^ted  the  episcopate  of  South  Carolina,  and 
during  the  succeeding  5  years  labored  earnestly 
and  zealously  in  the  discharge  of  his  weighty 
duties.  Beside  a  number  of  occasional  sermons 
pubhshed  during  his  lifetime,  2  volumes  of  his 
"Discourses"  were  issued  in  1821.  Bishop  De- 
hon  ranked  high  in  his  day  as  a  preacher,  and 
died  very  much  lamented. 

DEISM  (Lat.  Deiu^,  God),  the  belief  in  the 
existence  of  God.  By  usage,  the  term  deist  is 
applied  only  to  those  who  profess  natural  and 
deny  revealed  religion,  and  is  specially  applied 
to  the  English  free-thinkers  of  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries.  The  earliest  of  these  was  Lord  Her- 
bert of  Cherbury,  whose  work  De  Veritate  was 
published  at  Paris  in  1624.  Dr.  Leland  in- 
cludes in  his  "View  of  the  Deistical  Writers" 
Herbert,  Hobbes,  Blount,  Toland,  Shaftesbury, 
Anthony  Collins,  Woolston,  Tindal,  Morgan. 
Chubb,  Hume,  and  Bohngbroke. 

DEJAZET,  Marie  Virginie,  a  French  act- 
ress, born  in  Paris  about  1797,  began  her  career 
at  the  ago  of  5,  in  the  theatre  des  Capucines,  and 
continued  on  the  stage  in  Paris  and  the  provin- 
ces, wath  but  little  intermission,  till  1855,  when 
she  played  a  farewell  engagement  at  the  Gaiete 
theatre — the  graceful  and  sprightly  qualities 
which  for  so  many  years  had  made  her  a  public 
favorite  in  France,  being  but  little  impaired  by 
age.  She  excelled  in  the  personification  of  sou- 
brettes  and  in  male  attire ;  and  won  perhaps  her 
most  brilliant  laurels  in  Les  premieres  armes  de 
Richelieu  and  in  Kapoleon  d  Brienne.  What 
added  powerfully  to  the  interest  which  she  cre- 
ated was  her  manner  of  singing  the  songs  inter- 
spersed in  the  plays. 

DEJEAN,  Jean"  Franqois  Aime,  count,  a 
general  and  peer  of  France,  born  Oct.  6,  1749, 
died  May  12,  1824,  gained  a  high  reputation  by 
his  administrative  and  militaiy  abilities. — His 


pon,  Pierre  Francois  Attguste,  born  Aug.  10, 
1780,  died  in  1845,  likewise  held  a  high  position 
in  tlie  army,  and  was  an  eminent  entomologist, 
and  one  of  the  most  celebrated  collectors  of 
colcoptera  in  modern  times.     He  published  a 
catalogue  of  Ins  collection  (3d  ed.,  Paris,  1837- 
'38),  exhibiting  the  number  of  species  in  each 
genus,  and  indicating  their  localities.     Ho  is  the 
author  of   Species  generaJes  des  coleopteres   (6 
vols,  in  7,  8vo.,  Paris,  1825-'39),  and  wrote  in 
concert  with  Boisduval  and  Aulie,  Iconographie 
et  Mstoire  naturelle  des  colefqythes  d'' Europe  (5 
vols.  8vo.,  with  264  colored  plates,  1829-'40). 
DE  KALB.     I.  A  N.  W.  co.  of  Ga.,  bounded 
N.  by  Chattahoochee  river;    area,  291  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1852, 16,552,  of  whom  3,708  were  slaves. 
It  has  an  elevated  and  somewhat  uneven  sur- 
face.    Stone  mountain,  in  the  eastern  part,  is 
considered  one  of  the  greatest  natural  curiosi- 
ties in  the  state.     The  soil  of  the  river  bottoms 
is  remarkably  rich.     Iron  is  found  in  the  county, 
granite  is  abundant,  and  gold  has  been  discov- 
ei-ed  in  small  quantities.     At  Decatur  are  chaly- 
beate springs.     The  productions  in  1850  (since 
which  time  the  county  has  been  divided  to  form 
Fulton)  were  2,397  bales  of  cotton,  432,435 
bushels  of  corn,  86,047  of  oats,  and  73,070  of 
sweet  potatoes.     There  were  34  churches,  and 
728  pupils  attending  public  schools.     Value  of 
real  estate  in  1856,   $1,077,478.     The  county 
was  named  in  honor  of  Baron  De  Kalb,  who 
fell  at  the  battle  of  Camden   in  1780.     The 
Georgia  railroad  passes  through  Decatur,  the 
capital.     II.  A  N.  E.  co.  of  Ala.,  bordering  on 
Ga.,  drained  by  Willis  creek,  an  affluent  of  Coosa 
river,  and  Town  creek,  of  the  Tennessee ;  area, 
about  775  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  8,245,  of  whom 
506  were  slaves.     The  valley  of  Willis  creek  is  a 
fertile  and  well  cultivated  tract  of  country,  about 
60  m.  long  by  5  m.  broad,  enclosed  by  Lookout 
mountain  on  the  S.  E.  and  Sand  mountain  on 
the  N.  W.     The  county  is  well  supplied  Avith 
"water  power,   and   abounds  with   magnificent 
scenery.     In  1850  the  productions  were  363,225 
bushels  of  corn,  75,550  of  oats,  and  34,377  of 
sweet  potatoes.     There  were  22  churches,  and 
565  pupils  attending  public  schools.     Capital, 
Lebanon.     III.  AN.  central  co.  of  Tenn.  ,•  area, 
about  300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  8,016,  compris- 
ing 668  slaves.     It  is  watered  by  a  number  of 
mill  streams,  and  has  a  diversified  surface  and  a 
good  soil.     In  1850  it  produced  417,251  bushels 
of  corn,  and  57,361  lbs.   of  tobacco.     It  con- 
tained 12  churches,  and  there  were  1,912  puj/ils 
in  the  public  schools.     Capital,  Smithville.    IV. 
A  N.  E.  CO.  of  Ind.,  bordering  on  Ohio,  drained 
by  the  St.  Joseph's  and  some  smaller  rivers ; 
area,  346  sq.  in. ;  pop.  in  1850,  8,251.     The  sur- 
face is  undulating.     The  soil  is  fertile,  and  in 
1850  produced  139,986  bushels  of  corn,  75,995 
of  wheat,  34,366  of  oats,  and  4,660  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  2  churches,  and  1,600  pupils  atteud- 
ing  public  schools.     The  countv  was  formed  in 
1836.     Capital,  Auburn.     V.  A  N.  co.  of  111. ; 
area,  648  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855, 13,636.     It  has  a 
rolling  surface,  and  a  fertile  soil.    Most  of  the 


340 


DE  KALB 


DELAGOA  BAY 


land  is  occupied  by  prairies,  but  there  are  tracts 
of  valuable  timber.  In  1850  the  productions 
Tvere  221,796  bushels  of  wheat,  215,733  of  corn, 
138,903  of  oats,  21,193  tons  of  hay,  and  138,989 
lbs.  of  butter.  There  were  2  churches,  and 
1,865  pupils  attending  public  schools.  Capital, 
Sycamore.  VI.  A  N.  W.  co.  of  Mo.,  drained  by 
several  small  streams  which  flow  into  Grand  and 
Platte  rivers ;  area,  441  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1856, 
2,689,  comprising  77  slaves,  TliC  surface  is 
occupied  partly  by  prairies  and  partly  by  wood- 
lands. The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  in  1850  pro- 
duced 103,865  busliels  of  corn,  11,731  of  wheat, 
13,547  of  oats,  108  tons  of  hay,  aud  30,375  lbs. 
of  buttei*.  De  Kalb  was  formed  out  of  a  por- 
tion of  Clinton  co.     Capital,  Maysville. 

DE  KALB,  John,  baron,  a  major-general  in 
the  American  army  during  the  war  of  the  revo- 
lution, born  about  1732,  in  Alsace,  a  German 
province  in  possession  of  France,  and  educated 
in  the  art  of  war  iu  the  French  army.  In  1762 
he  visited  the  Anglo-American  colonies  as  a 
secret  agent  of  the  French  government.  lie  was 
a  brigadier  in  the  French  service,  when,  Nov. 
Y,  1776,  ho  made  witli  Franklin  and  Silas  Deane 
an  engagement  to  serve  in  the  forces  of  the  re- 
volted colonies;  and  in  1777  he  accompanied 
Lafayette  to  America.  Congress  appointed  him 
a  major-general,  Sept.  15,  1777,  after  which 
he  joined  the  main  army  under  "Washing- 
ton, and  was  active  in  the  events  near  Phila- 
delphia, which  preceded  the  encampment  at 
Valley  Forge.  He  served  in  New  Jersey  and 
Maryland,  till,  in  April,  1780,  he  was  sent  to  re- 
enforce  Gen.  Lincoln,  then  besieged  in  Charles- 
ton, but  arrived  too  late.  He  was  second  in 
command  under  Gen.  Gates ;  and  in  the  disas- 
trous battle  of  Camden,  Aug.  16,  1780,  was  at 
the  head  of  the  Maryland  and  Delaware  troops, 
who  maintained  their  ground  till  Cornwallis 
concentrated  his  whole  force  upon  tliem.  He 
fell,  pierced  with  11  wounds,  in  the  charge  upon 
his  regiments  before  they  gave  way.  He  died 
at  Camden  3  days  afterward,  and  a  monument 
was  erected  there  to  his  memory  in  1825,  La- 
fayette placing  the  corner  stone. 

DE  LA  BECIIE,  Siq  Henet  Thomas,  an 
English  geologist,  born  near  London  in  1796, 
died  April  13,  1855.  He  was  the  only  son  of 
Col.  Thomas  de  la  Beche  of  Jamaica,  and  was 
educated  for  the  army,  which  he  entered  in 
1814.  Soon  afterward  he  retired,  and  in  1818 
married  and  settled  in  Dorsetshire.  In  1817  he 
became  a  fellow  of  the  geological  society,of  which 
he  was  subsequently  elected  secretary,  and  in 
1847  president.  During  these  and  some  succeed- 
ing years  he  pursued  investigations  into  the 
geology  of  the  counties  of  Devon,  Dorset,  and 
Pembroke ;  wrote  "  Observations  on  the  Tem- 
perature and  Depth  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva;" 
and  subsequently,  in  conjunction  with  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Conybeare,  published  an  account  of  the 
plesiosaurus,  under  the  title  of  "  Discovery  of  a 
new  Fossil  Animal  forming  a  Link  between  the 
Ichthyosaurus  and  Crocodile."  In  1824  he  visit- 
ed his  patrimonial  estate  iu  Jamaica,  attempted 


to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  his  slaves,  and 
wrote  a  paper  on  the  geology  of  the  island. 
Returning  to  England,  he  continued  his  geolo- 
gical researches  with  great  assiduity.  In  1831 
he  published  his  "  Geological  Manual,"  in  1834 
"  Researches  in  Theoretical  Geology,"  in  1835 
a  volume,  "  How  to  observe  Geology,"  aud  in 
1851,  "  Geological  Observer."  A  suggestion 
which  he  offered  in  connection  Avith  the  gov- 
ernment topographical  survey  then  being  made, 
led  to  his  being  appointed  director-general  of 
the  geological  survey  of  the  United  Kingdom  ; 
and  when,  mainly  by  his  exertions,  a  geological 
museum  with  free  lectures  was  added  thereto, 
he  was  further  nominated  director  of  the  mu- 
seum of  practical  geology  (now  merged  in  the 
school  of  mines  and  of  science),  whicli  appoint- 
ments he  held  till  his  death,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded in  the  latter  office  by  the  present  incum- 
bent. Sir  Roderic  Murchison.  Beside  these,  he 
was  member  of  many  scientific  commissions  ap- 
pointed by  the  government,  as  on  the  health  of 
towns,  explosions  in  collieries,  selection  of  coal 
for  the  steam  navy,  building-stone  for  the  houses 
of  parliament,  mining  department  of  the  world's 
fair,  &c.  Toward  the  close  of  his  life  he  was 
knighted,  made  a  chevalier  of  the  Belgian  order 
of  Leopold,  and  of  the  Danish  order  of  Danne- 
borg,  and  a  corresponding  member  of  the  French 
academy  of  sciences.  For  several  years  his  limbs 
were  paralyzed,  but  his  intellect  remained  un- 
impaired, and  he  retained  the  tact,  capacity  for 
work,  and  cheerful  temperament  of  his  earlier 
days.  He  was  buried  in  Kensal  Green  ceme- 
tery, London. 

DELACROIX,  Ferdinand  Victor  Eugene,  a 
French  painter,  born  near  Paris,  April  26,  1799. 
He  first  became  known  by  some  able  criticisms 
on  art ;  studied  painting  under  Pierre  GuC^rin  ; 
but  from  tlie  A'ery  commencement  of  his  career 
he  abandoned  the  classic  school,  and  may  be 
considered  the  founder  of  the  romantic.  His 
first  picture,  "  Dante  and  Virgil,"  was  exhibit- 
ed in  1822.  His  second  work,  the  "Massacre 
of  Scio,"  is  considered  one  of  the  most  striking 
pictures  of  the  French  school  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury. He  has  since  executed  an  inmiense  num- 
ber of  works  on  a  wide  range  of  subjects.  In 
1832  he  was  sent  by  the  government  on  a  mis- 
sion to  Morocco,  and  Avhile  there  he  sketched  a 
great  variety  of  views  and  costumes,  which  were 
afterward  reproduced  in  some  very  interesting 
and  original  pictures.  The  decoration  of  one 
of  the  halls  of  the  palais  Bourbon,  consisting  of 
4  allegorical  paintings,  was  his  work.  His  pro- 
ductions are  distinguished  by  their  life  and  en- 
ergy, but  his  coloring  is  more  powerful  than 
harmonious.  His  most  esteemed  works  figured 
at  the  great  exhibition  of  1855,  as  well  as  a 
new  picture  representing  a  "  Lion  Hunt." 

DELAGOA  BAY,  the  largest  bay  on  the 
S.  E.  coast  of  Africa,  in  lat.  26°  S.,  and  long. 
33°  E.  It  is  formed  by  the  Indian  ocean,  and 
stretches  K  and  S.  about  50  m.,  witli  a  breadth 
of  from  16  to  20  m.  It  is  accessible  and  affords 
a  good  anchorage  to  vessels  of  the  largest  class, 


DELALANDE 


DE  LAXCEY 


341 


and  will  doubtless  continue  an  important  place, 
as  there  is  no  other  port  within  a  great  distance 
admitting  vessels  drawing  over  8  feet  of  water. 
The  land  near  tlic  shore  is  low  and  marshy, 
but  rises  after  a  short  distance  inland, 

DELALANDE,  Pierre  Antoixe,  a  French 
naturalist  and  traveller,  born  at  Versailles,  March 
27,  1787,  died  July  27,  1823.  lie  was  early 
employed  with  his  father  in  the  museum  of  nat- 
ural history  in  Paris,  devoted  himself  for  a  time 
tj  painting,  and  became  assistant  of  Geoffroy 
St.  liilaire,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his  scicn 
tific  expedition  to  Portugal  in  1808.  In  1813 
ho  was  sent  to  the  south  of  France  as  agent  of 
the  museum.  In  1816  he  went  to  Brazil  to  col- 
lect objects  of  natural  history.  His  most  impor- 
tant scientific  voyage  was  to  Cape  Colony,  the 
country  of  the  Hottentots,  and  CafR-aria,  in  the 
south  of  Africa,  in  1818  and  1819,  in  which  he 
made  a  zoological  collection  of  13,500  specimens, 
belonging  to  more  tlian  1,600  different  species ; 
an  herbarium  of  more  than  6,000  specimens, 
comprising  920  species ;  and  collected  800  valu- 
able mineralogical  specimens,  and  10,000  speci- 
mens of  insects.  Among  the  animals  were  a 
hippopotamus,  double-horned  rhinoceros,  giraffe, 
Avhale,  and  aard  wolf.  He  also  brought  back 
many  human  crania.  His  death  occurred  before 
he  was  able  to  write  the  narrative  of  his  obser- 
vations, lie  read  a  summary  of  them  before  the 
academy  of  sciences,  Avhich  was  printed  in  vol.  viii, 
of  the  Memolres  du  museum  cChistoire  naturelle. 

DELi\3IBRE,  Jeax  Baptiste  Joseph,  a 
French  astronomer,  born  in  Amiens,  Sept.  19, 
1749,  died  in  Paris,  Aug.  19, 1822.  Till  the  age 
of  20  years  his  eyes  were  so  weak  that,  in  anti- 
cipation of  blindness,  ho  devoted  himself  with 
the  greatest  zeal  to  his  studies.  Becoming  a 
private  tutor  after  leaving  college,  he  occupied 
his  leisure  in  reading  Italian,  English,  and  Greek 
literature,  studying  mathematics  at  first  only 
sufficiently  to  teach  his  pupils.  From  1780  he 
devoted  himself  to  astronomy,  being  first  the 
pupil  and  then  the  collaborator  of  Lalande,  who 
said  that  "■  Delambre  was  his  best  work."  la 
1790  he  gained  the  prize  of  the  academy  of 
sciences  for  his  tables  of  Uranus,  though  that 
planet  had  completed  but  a  small  arc  of  its  orbit 
after  its  discovery  by  Herschel ;  and  in  1792 
another  prize  was  given  to  him  for  his  tables 
of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter.  For  these  labors 
he  was  unanimously  elected  a  member  of  the 
academy  in  1792.  He  was  associated  with  Me- 
chain  in  measuring  an  arc  of  the  meridian  from 
Dunkirk  to  Barcelona,  an  important  labor, which, 
being  interrupted  by  the  revolution,  was  not 
finished  till  1799,  and  a  complete  account  of 
which  was  given  by  Delambre  in  his  Base  du 
systeme  metrique  decimal  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1806- 
'10).  He  entered  the  bureau  of  longitudes  in 
1795,  the  institute  of  France  at  its  formation  in 
the  same  year,  became  inspector-general  of  stud- 
ies in  1802,  perpetual  secretary  of  the  institute 
for  mathematical  sciences  in  1803,  successor  of 
Lalande  in  the  college  of  France  in  1807,  and 
treasurer  of  the  imperial  university  in  1808. 


This  office  was  suppressed  at  the  restoration, 
and  from  that  time  he  pursued  his  researches 
in  retirement.  After  having  spent  30  years  of 
his  career  in  the  most  severe  astronomical 
and  mathematical  calculations,  he  undertook  to 
write  the  history  of  astronomy  from  the  remo- 
test period,  5  volumes  of  which  were  published 
before  his  death  (Paris,  1817-21),  and  a  posthu- 
mous volume  on  the  history  of  astronomy  in 
the  18th  century  was  issued  in  1827.  This  work 
abounds  in  original  materials  culled  from  the  sci- 
entific treatises  of  different  ages  and  many  lan- 
guages. Among  his  other  writings,  all  of  which 
are  marked  by  an  elegant  simplicity  of  style,  are 
a  report  on  the  progress  of  the  mathematical 
sciences  since  1789  (Paris,  1810);  Astronomie 
theorique  et  frat'iqve (3  vols.,  Paris,  1814) ;  and 
numerous  papers  in  the  transactions  of  different 
European  academies  of  science. 

DE  LANCEY,  William  Heathcote,  D.D., 
D.C.L.,  an  American  Episcopal  divine,  bishop 
of  the  diocese  of  western  New  York,  born  in 
Westchester  co.,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  8,  1797.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1817,  studied  the- 
ology under  the  direction  of  Bishop  Ilobart,  and 
received  deacon's  orders  in  1819.  Ordained  to 
the  priesthood  in  Trinity  church,  New  York, 
in  1822,  he  soon  after  became  personal  assist- 
ant of  the  venerable  Bishop  White  of  Phila- 
delphia, in  the  3  churches  of  which  that  prel- 
ate was  rector,  and  in  the  succeeding  year  he 
was  unanimously  elected  one  of  the  regular 
assistant  ministers  of  those  churches.  He  was 
annually  chosen  secretary  of  the  diocesan  con- 
vention of  Pennsylvania  from  1823  till  1830, 
and  was  secretary  of  the  house  of  bishops  in 
the  general  convention  of  the  Episcopal  church 
of  the  United  States  from  1823  till  1829.  Upon 
the  reorganization  of  the  university  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1828,  he  was  chosen  provost  of 
that  institution,  and  thereupon  resigned  his 
pastoral  charge.  He  remained  provost  5  years, 
and  then  resumed  the  office  of  assistant  min- 
ister of  St.  Peter's  church,  one  of  the  3  of 
which  Bishop  White  was  rector.  He  travelled 
in  Europe  in  1835,  and  on  his  return,  after 
the  death  of  Bishop  White,  succeeded  to  the 
rectorship  of  St.  Peter's  church.  In  1838  the 
diocese  of  New  York,  comprising  the  whole 
state,  was  divided,  the  eastern  portion  retaining 
the  old  name  ;  and  at  the  primary  convention 
of  the  new  diocese,  held  at  Geneva,  Nov.  1, 
1838,  Dr.  De  Laucey  was  chosen  its  first  bishop, 
and  he  was  consecrated  May  9,  1839.  He  re- 
moved to  Geneva,  the  seat  of  the  diocesan  col- 
lege, now  called  the  Hobart  free  college,  which 
was  chiefly  indebted  to  his  efficient  efforts  for  its 
support.  He  also  instituted  a  system  of  diocesan 
missions,  by  Avhich  a  corps  of  laborers  unusually 
large  in  proportion  to  the  population  and  wealth 
of  the  diocese  have  been  sustained  to  the  pres- 
ent time,  without  incurring  debt.  In  1840,  by 
his  recommendation,  a  fund  for  the  relief  of  in- 
firm and  aged  clergy  of  the  diocese  was  estab- 
lished, which,  beside  accomplishing  its  object, 
has  accumulated  a  capital  of   about  $5,000. 


342 


DELANE 


DELAROCHE 


His  sermon  on  the  oftice  of  bishop,  preached 
Dec.  29,  1842,  at  the  consecration  of  Dr,  East- 
burn  as  bishop  of  Massachusetts,  was  widely 
circulated  and  highly  esteemed.  In  1846,  at 
a  meeting  of  the  trustees  of  the  general  theo- 
logical seminary  of  New  York  city,  ho  made  a 
proposition  for  the  dissolution  of  that  school 
as  a  general  institution  of  the  church,  with 
the  view  of  counteracting  the  distrust  and  hos- 
tility of  which  it  was  the  object,  and  also  of 
preparing  the  Avay  for  the  realization  of  his  own 
scheme  of  diocesan  schools.  Though  this  meas- 
ure was  not  adopted,  in  1855  he  brought  for- 
ward his  plan  for  a  diocesan  "training  school," 
to  be  supported  by  a  charity  foundation,  and  to 
afford  the  requisite  education  to  all  persons 
qualified  and  disposed  to  enter  upon  the  work 
of  the  ministry.  In  1852  he  visited  England  as 
a  delegate  from  the  Episcopal  bishops  of  the 
United  States.  In  1858  Bishop  De  Lancey  had 
ordained  113  deacons  and  125  priests,  had  con- 
secrated 80  church  edifices,  and  admitted  to  the 
communion  of  the  church  by  the  rite  of  confir- 
mation 14,697  persons. 

DELANE.  I.  AViLLiAM  Atjgtjstus  Feederio, 
an  English  journalist,  born  in  1793,  died  in 
Norwich,  July  29,  1857.  He  was  memorable 
for  his  long  and  successful  connection  with  the 
"London  Times,"  which  earned  its  sobyiquet 
of  the-  "  Thunderer"  during  his  administration 
of  its  affairs,  from  the  strong  and  telling  char- 
acter of  the  articles  contributed  by  his  friend 
and  associate,  Capt.  Edward  Sterling.  Mr.  De- 
lane  was  a  man  of  great  executive  capacity, 
extreme  good  sense,  and  practical  sagacity.  He 
wrote  indeed  but  little,  and  earned  the  reputa- 
tion for  ability  which  he  enjoyed  among  his 
associates,  rather  by  the  steady  and  uniform  ex- 
hibition of  an  imperturbable  discretion  in  judg- 
ing what  should  be  said,  and  who  should  say  it, 
than  by  his  own  lucubrations.  He  was  also  for 
some  time  charged  with  grave  financial  respon- 
sibilities in  connection  with  the  "  Times,"  and 
came  in  this  way  to  be  so  vexatiously  implicated 
in  certain  transactions  of  Mr.  T.  M.  Alsager  that 
he  conceived  it  to  be  due  to  himself  to  break  oft' 
his  connection  with  the  Messrs.  "Walter,  the  pro- 
prietors of  the  "  Times."  This  he  did,  however, 
without  impairing  the  friendly  relations  that  sub- 
sisted between  them  in  private  life,  and  without 
any  imputation  upon  his  own  character.  He  was 
afterward  for  a  short  time  intrusted  with  the 
charge  of  the  "Daily  News,"  but  eventually 
accepted  the  oflice  of  treasurer  of  the  Kent 
county  courts,  and  retired  from  journalism  alto- 
gether, lie  died  at  Hillesden,  the  residence  of 
his  oldest  son,  in  Norfolk;  and  it  curiously 
illustrates  the  studiously  impersonal  character 
sought  to  be  stamped  upon  the  "  Times,"  that 
no  notice  whatever  was  taken  by  that  journal 
of  the  decease  of  a  man  to  whom  it  was  so  much 
indebted  for  the  successful  establishment  of  its 
system  of  management.  II.  Joim  Thaddeus, 
the  2d  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  1819,  took 
his  degree  as  bachelor  at  Magdalen  hall,  Ox- 
ford, in  1840,  and  as  master  of  arts  in  1846. 


He  completed  his  terms  as  a  barrister,  but  has 
never  engaged  in  the  actual  practice  of  his  pro- 
fession. He  was  at  first  employed  as  a  loading 
writer  upon  the  "  Times,"  but  on  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  staff  of  tbat  journal,  after  his  father's 
retirement,  he  assumed  the  political  control  of 
it,  tlie  financial  and  general  business  manage- 
ment passing  into  the  hands  of  Mr.  Mowbray 
Morris.  Mr.  Delane  is  the  first  English  journal- 
ist who  has  achieved  a  prominent  contemporary 
recognition,  by  the  public  at  large,  of  his  connec- 
tion with  the  "  Times."  Tiie  exposures  made 
by  the  "  Times"  and  its  correspondents,  during 
the  Crimean  war  in  1854,  of  military  misman- 
agement on  the  part  of  the  English  government, 
brought  Mr.  Delane  conspicuously  forward  as 
an  individual,  and  invested  him  suddenly  with 
something  of  the  formidable  power  that  had 
previously  been  conceded  to  that  mysterious  be- 
ing, "the  editor  of  the  Times."  In  1856,  at  the 
time  of  the  presidential  election,  Mr.  Delane 
visited  the  United  States,  making  a  tour  of  4 
months,  in  the  course  of  which  he  made  himself 
acquainted  with  the  leading  men  of  all  parties, 
and  familiarized  himself  with  the  best  aspects 
of  American  life.  The  results  of  this  brief  but 
varied  experience  have  since  been  discernible 
in  the  much  greater  intelligence,  justice,  and 
good  will  with  which  American  affairs  have  been 
treated  by  the  journal  over  which  he  presides. 

DELAROCHE,  Hippolyte,  better  known  as 
Paul,  which  name  he  assumed  at  the  age  of 
15  or  thereabout,  an  eminent  Fi'ench  historical 
painter,  born  in  Paris,  Jvdy  17, 1797,  died  there, 
Nov.  4,  1856.  Early  evincing  a  taste  for  paint- 
ing, he  studied  landscape  in  order  not  to  inter- 
fere with  the  prospects  of  an  elder  brother 
who  had  devoted  himself  to  the  department  of 
history.  After  several  fruitless  attempts  to  se- 
cure the  academy  prize  for  landscape  painting, 
he  renounced  that  branch  of  the  art,  and  in 
1816,  in  obedience  to  his  inclinations,  entered 
the  studio  of  Baron  Gros,  where  his  talents  were 
rapidly  developed.  Gros  had  succeeded  to  a 
great  extent  in  freeing  himself  from  the  influ- 
ence of  David's  dry,  classic  style,  and  his  pupil 
avoided  it  still  more,  without  however  adopting 
all  the  ideas  of  the  romantic  school.  He  chose 
rather  to  take  a  middle  course  between  the  two, 
and  to  create  a  sort  of  eclectic  style,  which 
should  represent  all  the  improvements  in  art 
and  its  general  progress  during  the  19th  cen- 
tury. Hence  he  and  his  school  have  been  called 
the  "Eclectics,"  in  contradistinction  to  the  ro- 
mantic school  of  Delacroix  and  the  classic  school 
of  David.  In  1819  his  first  picture,  "Naplitali 
in  the  Desert,"  was  exhibited,  and  from  that 
time  until  the  great  industrial  exhibition  in  Paris 
in  1855,  when  a  collection  was  made  of  his 
chief  productions,  almost  every  year  witnessed 
the  execution  by  his  pencil  of  one  or  more  strik- 
ing works.  His  subjects  were  generally  taken 
from  EngHsh  or  French  modern  history,  and  he 
was  fond  of  drawing  upon  the  misfortunes  of 
fallen  greatness  as  a  source  of  inspiration.  His 
"  ChUdren  of  Edward  IV.  in  the  Tower,"  "  Joau 


DELAROOIIE 


DELAVIGNE 


848 


of  Arc  in  Prison,"  the  "  Execution  of  Lady  Jane 
Grey,"  "  Charles  I.  in  the  Guardroom  insulted 
by  tlio  Parliamentary  Soldiers,"  "  Strafford  on 
his  way  to  the  Scaffold,"  the  "  Young  Pretender 
succored  by  Flora  Macdonald,"  and  "Marie 
Antoinette  before  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal," 
are  good  specimens  of  the  subdued  yet  impres- 
sive manner  in  which  ho  was  accustomed  to 
handle  tliis  class  of  subjects.  Still  more  pow- 
erful was  his  "  Cromwell  contemplating  the 
Corpse  of  Charles  I.,"  generally  considered  the 
best  of  his  series  illustrating  tlio  civil  wars  in 
England,  and  indeed  of  all  his  pictures  on  Eng- 
lish subjects.  This  purely  imaginative  scene  is 
treated  with  a  simplicity  and  dignity  in  keeping 
"with  the  theme,  and  aptly  illustrates  Dclaroche's 
capacity  to  delineate  a  striking  historical  epi- 
sode without  resortin'g  to  exaggeration  of  form 
or  expression.  His  "  Death  of  Queen  Elizabeth," 
an  earlier  work,  is  less  severe  in  style,  and  less 
historically  accurate.  Among  his  pictures  from 
French  history  may  be  mentioned  a  "  Scene  in 
the  Massacre  of  St.  J3artholomew ;"  "  Cardinal 
Richelieu  in  a  Barge  on  the  Rhone  conducting 
De  Thou  and  Cinq-Mars  to  Execution;"  the 
"Death  of  Cardinal  Mazarin  ;"  the  "Assassina- 
tion of  the  Duke  of  Guise,"  a  work  of  great 
power,  for  which  the  duke  of  Orleans  is  said  to 
have  paid  52,000  francs ;  a  series  of  4,  repre- 
senting the  "  Baptism  of  Clovis,"  the  "  Oath  of 
Pepin  the  Short,"  the  "Passage  of  the  Alps  by 
Charlemagne,"  and  the  "  Coronation  of  Charle- 
magne at  Rome,"  painted  for  the  gallery  of 
Versailles;  the  "Destruction  of  the  Bastile," 
and  the  "Girondists  in  Prison,"  one  of  his  last 
works.  In  addition  to  these,  his  "  Napoleon  at 
Fontainebleau,"  and  "Napoleon  at  St.  Bernard," 
of  both  of  which  he  made  several  copies,  have 
obtained  great  popularity.  The  work,  how- 
ever, which  occupied  the  greatest  share  of  his 
attention,  and  upon  which  he  intended  that  his 
reputation  should  rest,  is  his  fresco  painting  of 
the  hemicycle  of  the  Palais  dcs  beaux  aj'ts,  a 
composition  of  great  size  and  merit,  represent- 
ing the  illustrious  masters  of  art  of  all  ages. 
Apelles,  Phidias,  and  Ictinus  preside  over  this 
assemblage  ;  at  their  feet  stand  4  female  figures, 
typifying  Greek,  Roman,  Middle  Age,  and  Re- 
naissance art,  while  below,  on  each  side  in  ani- 
mated groups,  are  seen  the  great  painters,  sculp- 
tors, and  architects  of  the  world.  This  picture 
includes  upward  of  80  figures  of  the  size  of  life, 
and  is  admirable  for  its  elevated  tone,  simplicity 
of  arrangement,  and  fulness  and  force  of  expres- 
sion. It  cost  Delaroche  4  years  of  incessant 
labor,  and  has  been  beautifully  engraved  by 
Henriquel  Dupont.  In  the  winter  of  1855  the 
picture  was  much  injured  by  fire,  and  the  anx- 
iety and  labor  attendant  upon  the  work  of  res- 
toration, Avhich  Delaroche  lived  to  complete 
with  his  own  hand,  are  supposed  to  have  hast- 
ened his  death.  At  various  times  of  his  life, 
but  particularly  in  the  latter  part  of  it,  he  paint- 
ed sacred  compositions,  which  are  inferior  gen- 
erally in  elevation  and  character  to  his  histori- 
cal subjects.    "  Ilerodias  with  the  Ilead  of  John 


the  Ba])tist"  is  among  the  best.  Some  of  his 
purely  domestic  subjects,  sucli  as  a  "  Mother 
fondling  her  Children,"  are  full  of  grace  and 
sweetness.  He  painted  likenesses  of  Guizot, 
Thiers,  Lamartine,  his  father-in-law  Horace 
Vernet,  and  other  distinguished  Frenchmen, 
which  sliow  considerable  talent  for  portraiture. 
Delaroche  has  not  escaped  censure  for  an  al- 
leged wantof  force  and  imagination  in  his  works, 
as  well  as  for  the  simi)licity  and  meagreness  of 
his  details.  The  accessories  are  sometimes  also 
so  highly  finished  as  to  detract  from  the  general 
eftect  of  his  jnctures.  But  for  elevated  man- 
ner, cori'ectness  of  design,  and  beauty  of  draw- 
ing and  color,  he  was  unsurpassed  by  any  of  his 
contemporaries.  His  powers  seemed  to  ripen 
and  mellow  with  age,  and  his  latest  works,  like 
the  first,  continued  to  reflect  his  somewhat  mel- 
ancholy and  saturnine  temperament.  His  schol- 
arly attainments  and  mastery  of  a  wide  field  of 
art  gave  great  weight  to  his  opinions,  and  he 
was  regarded  as  a  sort  of  oracle  among  his  as- 
sociates. In  personal  appearauce  he  bore  a  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  the  emperor  Napoleon 
I.  The  greater  part  of  his  works  are  familiarly 
known  through  the  medium  of  excellent  engrav- 
ings, and  in  1858  a  magnificent  collection  of  pho- 
tographs of  his  finished  pictures  and  of  many  of 
his  sketches  and  cartoons  was  published  in  Paris. 
DELAVIGNE,  Germain,  a  French  dramatic 
author,  born  at  Giverny,  Feb.  1, 1790.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Napoleon  lyceum,  and  received 
imder  Louis  Philippe  an  office  from  the  crown. 
In  his  literary  labors,  as  in  his  college  studies, 
he  has  been  associated  with  Eugene  Scribe,  in 
collaboration  with  whom  he  has  written  a  large 
number  of  highly  esteemed  vaudevilles,  operas, 
comic  operas,  and  some  short  romances,  as  Les 
mysteres  cV  Vdolphe  (1852),  La  nonne  sanglante 
(1854).  With  his  brother  Casimir  he  wrote  the 
OT^Qv&o?  Charles  VI.  (1843). 

DELAVIGNE,  Jean  Feanqois  Casimie, 
younger  brother  of  the  preceding,  a  French 
lyric  and  dramatic  poet,  born  at  Havre,  April 
4,  1793,  died  at  Lyons,  Dec.  11,  1843.  He  Avas 
the  son  of  a  merchant,  and  at  first  a  laborious 
rather  than  brilliant  student  at  the  Napoleon 
lyceum  in  Paris.  Only  in  the  latter  years  of 
his  course  he  manifested  his  poetical  tastes  and 
talent,  while  his  brother  Germain  and  his  life- 
long friend  Eugene  Scribe,  then  his  fellow  stu- 
dents, were  his  most  intimate  associates.  His 
own  early  ambition  was  to  compose  an  epic 
poem,  while  that  of  Germain  was  for  success  in 
dramatic  composition,  and  that  of  Scribe  to  be- 
come a  leader  at  the  bar.  In  1811  he  composed 
a  dithyramb  on  the  birth  of  the  king  of  Rome, 
which  was  printed,  attracted  general  attention, 
and  obtained  for  him  the  encouragement  of  An- 
drieux,  whose  uniform  custom  was  to  dissuade 
young  men  from  a  literary  career,  and  the  more 
useful  protection  of  Franf  ais  of  Nantes,  a  high 
officer  of  state,who  delighted  in  playing  the  part 
of  Ma3cenas.  From  the  latter  he  received  a 
slight  office,  the  condition  being  that  he  should 
appear  at  his  desk  only  once  a  month,  on  the 


344 


DELAVIGNE 


DELAWARE 


<lay  of  payment.  Several  of  his  sliort  pieces 
had  been  lionoi'ably  mentioned  by  the  academy, 
■when  lie  utloptcd  a  national  subject,  and  pub- 
lished in  1818  his  3  admirable  elegies,  the  Mes- 
senienius,  so  called  in  allusion  to  the  songs  by 
wliich  the  conquered  Messenians  lamented  their 
country's  disasters.  Two  of  tliese  liad  before 
been  "vvidcly  circulated  in  manuscript.  France, 
completely  exhausted,  twice  conquered,  and  suf- 
fering the  indignities  of  invasion,  first  learned 
from  Iiim  the  accents  of  grief  for  the  issue  at 
Waterloo,  of  indignation  for  the  devastation  of 
the  hniseum,  itself  the  fruit  of  conquest,  and  was 
nrged  by  him  anew  to  union  and  patriotism  when 
the  foreign  occupation  had  ended.  Within  a 
year,  22,000  copies  of  the  Messeniennes  were 
sold  ;  tliey  accorded  so  nearly  with  the  national 
spirit  without  exciting  partisan  passion,  that 
Louis  XVIII.  ordered  a  fjinecure  librarianship  to 
be  bestowed  upon  the  author ;  and  Delavigne 
was  from  this  time  the  favorite  poet  of  the  lib- 
eral opposition.  lie  wrote  2  elegies  on  tlie  life 
and  death  of  Joan  of  Arc,  and  then  produced 
his  first  tragedy,  the  Vepres  Siciliennes,  which 
was  performed  at  the  Odeon  in  1819,  and  was 
received  with  entlmsiasm.  It  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  the  Comklicns^  written  to  ridicule  the 
company  of  the  theatre  Frangais  by  which  his 
first  drama  had  been  rejected,  and  in  1821  by 
the  Paria,  in  which  he  pleads  the  principle  of 
the  natural  equality  of  men.  His  liberal  ideas, 
repeated  in  several  new  lyrics;  to  which  also  he 
gave  the  name  of  Messeniennes^  and  liis  associ- 
ation with  some  of  the  leaders  of  the  opposition, 
Cixused  him  to  lose  his  humble  place  under  the 
government,  when  the  duke  of  Orleans  made 
him  librarian  of  the  ^aZ«/s  royal.  The  schism 
between  the  favorite  author  and  the  first  dra- 
matic company  of  the  time  having  been  ended, 
he  produced  in  1823  his  ^cole  ties  vieillards,  in 
which  Talma  and  Mle.  Mars  played  the  prin- 
cipal parts,  which  is  esteemed  his  masterpiece 
in  his  first  dramatic  manner,  and  which  gained 
him  in  1825  admission  into  the  French  academy. 
He  had  long  aspired  to  this  honor,  but  when  he 
had  presented  himself  at  the  first  election  a 
bishop  had  been  preferred  to  him,  at  the  second 
an  arclibishop,  and  he  had  declined  persisting 
when  there  was  a  third  vacancy,  saying  that 
doubtless  the  pope  would  be  his  rival.  Refus- 
ing a  pension  now  ofi(|red  liim  by  the  govern- 
ment, which  he  believed  hostile  to  public  lib- 
erty, lie  resided  during  a  year  in  Italy,  and  re- 
turned to  find  that  a  great  change  had  taken 
place  in  the  public  taste.  The  classical  drama 
seemed  to  have  died  with  Talma,  and  the  ro- 
mantic school  had  brought  into  vogue,  and  Avas 
winning  the  popular  favor  for,  anotlier  class 
of  ideas  and  dramatic  combinations,  and  even 
a  new  style  and  new  forms  of  versification.  His 
comedy,  tlfe  Princesse  Aurelie  (1828),  was  the 
least  favorably  received  of  all  his  works.  While 
a  war  of  epigrams  raged  between  the  defenders 
of  the  three  unities  and  the  champions  of  an 
atidacious  eccentricity,  Delavigne  conceived  the 
idea  of  conciliating  the  two  schools,  of  uniting 


classical  elegance  and  purity  with  romantic  bold- 
ness— ayiroject  wliich  was  the  ambition,  not  to 
say  the  illusion,  of  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He 
joined  himself  with  the  romanticists,  with  the 
purpose  of  proving  to  them  that  pity,  ten'or, 
and  overpowering  interest  were  not  incompati- 
ble Avith  sobriety  of  action  and  correctness  of 
language.  His  Jlar-hio  Faliero  (182i'i),  in  Mrh\ch 
he  first  departed  from  the  ancient  rules,  min- 
gling tragedy  Avith  comedy,  and  dignity  of  ex- 
pression Avith  light  vivacity,  obtained  great  suc- 
cess. He  had  in  Italy  begun  the  tragedy  of 
Louis  AT.,  but  had  abandoned  it  tn  the  death 
of  Talma,  despairing  to  find  any  other  qualified 
to  perform  tlie  principal  part,  till  he  witnessed 
the  powers  of  Ligier,  in  ilm  part  of  Faliero.  He 
now  set  himself  to  finish  it,-and  Avas  only  briefly 
interrupted  by  the  revolution  of  1830,  impro- 
vising the  Parislenne,  the  most  popular  song 
at  the  time  of  insurrection,  and  Avriting  also  d 
ncAV  Messenicnne  entitled  Une  semdine  d  Paris. 
Declining  any  personal  favor  from  the  triumph 
of  the  liberal  cause,  he  resumed  his  labors,  and 
completed  Loiiis  XL,  which  was  produced  in 
1832 ;  it  is  the  greatest  Avork  of  Delavigne  in  his 
second  style,  and  has  remained  one  of  tlie  most 
remarkable  dramas  on  the  stage.  It  Avas  fol- 
lowed by  Les  en/ants  (TJ^dovard  (1833),  Pon 
Juan  d  Autriclie,  in  prose,  and  one  of  his  best 
pieces  (1835),  Une  famille  au  tcwps  de  Luther 
(1836),  La  popularite  (1838),  La  jUle  du  Cid, 
in  which  he  returned  to  his  early  manner 
(1839),  and  Le  conseiller  rapportevr  (1841).  It 
was  his  custom  to  compose  his  dramas  entire 
before  Avriting  a  word  of  them,  and  he  liad  al- 
ready completed  in  his  mind  another  tragedy, 
Mehisine,  wliich  was  his  favorite  piece,  the  hero 
of  which  was  a  sort  of  oriental  Faust,  when  his 
health  rapidly  failing  prevented  him  from  writ- 
ing more  than  the  first  act  and  a  part  of  the  sec- 
ond. At  the  approach  of  winter  lie  started  for 
Italy,  but,  unable  to  support  the  fatigue  of  the 
journey,  died  at  Lyons,  Avhile  his  Avife  was  read- 
ing to  him  Sir  Walter  Scott's  "  Guy  Manner- 
ing."  His  funeral  at  Paris  was  attended  not 
only  by  the  most  eminent  men  in  literature, 
art,  and  politics,  but  by  the  populace  in  throngs. 
The  personal  character  of  Delavigne  Avas  most 
estimable.  His  Avorks  are  distinguished  as  much 
for  their  purity  of  sentiment  as  their  perfection 
of  art ;  and  notwithstanding  the  concessions 
which  he  made  to  the  reigning  scliool,  he  may 
justly  be  called  a  great  classical  dramatist. 
Among  his  occasional  pieces  are  lyrics  in  be- 
half of  Greece  and  Poland.  The  standard  edi- 
tion of  his  Avorks  is  that  of  1846,  in  6  vols., 
which  has  been  several  times  reproduced,  and 
contains  a  memoir  by  his  brother  Germain. 

DELAWARE,  one  of  the  original  states  of 
the  Ameucan  union,  situated  between  lat.  38° 
28'  and  39°  50'  N.  and  long.  75°  and  75°  46'  W., 
having  a  length  N.  and  S.  of  96  m.,  and  a  breadth 
varying  from  9  to  12  m.  in  the  N.  to  36  or  37  m. 
on  the  S.  line;  area  2,120  sq.  m.,  or  1,356,800 
acres ;  bounded  N.  by  Pennsylvania,  W.  and  S. 
by  Maryland,  and  E.  by  Delaware  river  and  bay 


DELAWARE 


345 


(separating  Delaware  and  New  Jersey)  and  the 
Atlantic  ocean.  The  state  is  divided  into  3  coun- 
ties, viz. :  New  Castle  in  the  N.,  Kent  in  the  mid- 
dle, and  Sussex  in  the  S. ;  and  these  are  sub- 
divided into  hundreds,  Wilmington,  the  most 
populous  and  important  city,  is  situated  between 
Brandywino  and  Christiana  creeks,  about  1  m. 
above  tlieir  confluence.  The  principal  part  of 
the  city  is  built  on  the  S.  W,  side  of  a  hill, 
109  feet  above  tide.  On  the  N.  E.  side  of  the 
same  hdl  on  the  Brandywine  are  a  number  of 
flouring  mills  which  have  long  been  celebrated, 
Wilmington  is  also  largely  engaged  in  the 
niaimfacture  of  steam  engines  (land  and  ma- 
rine), railroad  cars,  machinery  generally,  &c., 
and  also  powder.  The  Christiana  creek  admits 
vessels  drawing  14  feet  of  water  to  the  town, 
and  those  drawing  Y  or  8  feet  can  ascend  8  m. 
further.  The  Brandywine  has  7  feet  of  water 
to  the  milk  Pop.  in  1850,  18,979,  and  in  1853, 
1G,1G3.  Dover,  the  state  capital,  is  situated  on 
Jones's  creek,  5  m,  from  the  Delaware.  New 
Castle,  on  the  Delaware,  5  m.  S,  of  Wilmington, 
is  a  manufacturing  town,  and  carries  on  a  con- 
siderable trade.  The  other  principal  places  are 
Georgetown  and  Lewes  in  Sussex  co. ;  Mil- 
ford  and  Smyrna  in  Kent  co. ;  and  Port  Penn 
and  Delaware  City,  New  Castle  co,  Newark  is 
the  seat  of  Delaware  college.  The  population 
of  Delaware  in  1790,  and  at  subsequent  decen- 
nial periods  down  to  the  year  1850,  has  been  as 
follows : 


Cunsu.. 

White. 

Free 
colored. 

Sluvo. 

Total. 

1790 

ISOO 

46,310 
49,852 
55.861 
55,2S2 
57,601 
58,561 
71,169 

3,899 
8,263 
13,136 
12,958 
15,855 
16,919 
18,073 

8,887 
6,153 
4,177 
4,509 
3,292 
2,605 

59,094 
64,273 

ISIO 

1S20 

1&80 

1S40 

72,674 
72,749 

76,748 
78,085 

ISoO 

2,290 

91,582 

Of  the  white  population  in  1850,  there  were 
29,259  males  and  29,302  females ;  of  the  free 
colored  (blacks  16,425,  and  mulattoes  1,048), 
9,035  males  and  9,038  females  ;  and  of  the  slave 
(blacks  2,207,  and  mulattoes  83),  1,174  males 
and  1,116  females.  Density,  43.18  to  a  square 
mile ;  proportion  to  the  population  of  the 
whole  Union,  0.39  per  cent.  Families  (white 
and  free  colored),  15,439 ;  dwellings,  15,290. 
Deaf  and  dumb,  54 :  white  48,  free  colored  4, 
slave  2 ;  blind,  39  :  white  25,  free  colored  14, 
slave  0  ;  insane,  68 :  white  48,  free  colored  20, 
slave  0  ;  idiotic,  92  :  white  74,  free  colored  14, 
slave  4.  Births  (white  and  free  colored), 
2,405;  marriages,  564;  deaths,  1,188,  Total 
deaths  (including  slaves),  1,209,  Ages  (all  class- 
es): under  1  year,  2,554;  1  and  under  5,  10,- 
899  ;  5  and  under  10, 13,071 ;  10  and  under  15, 
11,700;  15  and  under  20,  10,142;  20  and  un- 
der 30,  15,994;  30  and  under  40,  11,208;  40 
and  under  50,  7,488;  50  and  under  QO,  4,491 ; 
60  and  under  70,  2,484;  70  and  under  80, 1,101 ; 
80  and  under  90,  279;  90  and  under  100,  54; 
100  and  upward,  9;  unknown,  58.  Of  persons 
100  and  upward :  white  2,  free  colored  5,  and 


slave  2,    White  and  free  colored  (total,  89,242), 
born  in  Delaware,  72,351 ;  born  in  other  states 
of  the  Union,  11,017 ;  born  in  foreign  countries, 
5,211 ;  and  born  in  parts  unknown,  03.    Natives 
of  Delaware  resident  in  other  states,  31,965. 
Occupations  of  22,001  (white  and  free  colored) 
males  over  15  years  of  age :  5,633,  commerce, 
trade,  manufactures,  mechanic  arts,  and  min- 
ing; 7,884,  agriculture;  6,663,  labor  not  agri- 
cultural; 743,  sea  and  river  navigation;  251, 
law,  medicine,  and  divinity ;  581,  otlier  pur- 
suits requiring  education ;  124,  government  civil 
service;  69,  domestic  service;  113  unspecified. 
Slaveholders,  809,  viz, :  holders  of  1  slave,  320 ; 
of  1  and  under  5,  352;  of  5  and  under  10,  117; 
and  of  10  and  under  20,  20.    Paupers  (in  1849- 
'50),  667,  viz. :  569  native  and  128  foreign,  costing 
in  the  year  $17,730.    Criminals  convicted  (1849- 
'50),  22,  all  native,  and  (June  1,  1850)  in  prison 
14,  all  native.    Federal  population  (all  free  and 
I  slaves),  90,616,  wh^ch  entitled  the  state  to  one 
representative  in  the  national  congress. — Dela- 
ware comprehends  the  N.  E.  portion  of  the  low 
peninsula  between  Chesapeake  bay,  Delaware 
rivers,  and  the  Atlantic  ocean.     It  contains  no 
mountains,  but  in  the  N.  the  surface  is  beauti- 
fully diversified  by  hill  and  dale.    Southward  of 
Christiana  creek  the  surface  is  almost  a  perfect 
level,  and  is  only  relieved  by  a  low  table-land  or 
sand  ridge,  nowhere  more  than  60  or  70  feet  in 
height,  which  traverses  the  state  N.  and  S.  near 
the  W.  boundary,  and  forms  the  watershed  of  the 
peninsula.    This  table-land  abounds  in  swamps, 
in  which  most  of  the  rivers  and  streams  have 
their  sources,  some  flowing  W.  into  Chesapeake 
bay,   and  others  E,  into   the  Delaware.     The 
Choptank,  Nanticoke,  and  Pokomoke,  the  head 
waters  of  which  are  in  this  state,  have  their  great- 
est lengths  in  Maryland  and  flow  into  the  Ches- 
apeake.    The  Appoquinnimink,  Duck,  Jones's, 
Murderkill,   Mispilion,    Broadkill,  Indian,   and 
other  rivers  and  creeks  are  affluents  of  the  Dela- 
ware and  Atlantic.  The  most  important  streams 
of  Delaware,  however,  are  the  Brandywine  and 
Christiana  creeks,  the  former  coming  in  from 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  latter  from  the  S,  W. 
These  unite  below  Wilmington,  and  pour  their 
united  waters  into  the  Delaware  1  m.  below 
their  junction.     Many  of  the  smaller  rivers  are 
navigable  for  coasting  vessels,  but  the  Christi- 
ana is  the   only  one  in  the  state  that  admits 
of  the  entrance  of  merchant  ships,     Delaware 
bay  is  a  fine  estuary,  about  60  m,  in  length 
by  25  or  30  in  greatest  breadth,  but  contracting 
toward  the  N.  to  less  than  5  m. ;  and  where  it 
opens  to  the  sea  between  Cape  May  (lat.  38° 
56'  and  long.  74°  38')  and  Cape  Ilenlopen  (lat. 
38°  48'  and  long.  75°  6'),  the  width  is  not  more 
than  15  m.     The  main  channel  admits  the  larg- 
est vessels  to  the  head  of  the  bay  and  into  the 
river,  having  from  35  to  75  feet  of  water;  but 
the  course  is  made  tortuous  and  intricate  by 
the  numerous  shoals  which  nearly  fill  the  cen- 
tral portion.     The  western  shore  of  the  bay  is- 
marshy  and  low,  and  that  on  the  Atlantic  is  be- 
set with  sand  beaches  which  enclose  shaUo-vf 


346 


DELAWARE 


bays,  or  raoro  properly  lagoons.  Rehobotli  bay, 
at  tho  mouth  of  Indian  river,  is  a  basin  of 
this  description,  but  admits  vessels  drawing  6 
feet  of  water.  At  the  S.  extremity  of  the  state 
is  the  Cypress  swamp,  a  morass  12  m.  long  and 
6  m.  wide.  This  swamp  contains  a  great  va- 
riety of  trees  and  evergreen  shrubs,  and  is  in- 
fested with  noxious  reptiles.  For  8  or  10  rn. 
inland  from  the  Delaware  the  soils  are  generally 
rich  clays,  but  thence  to  tho  swamps  and  south- 
ward sand  prevails.  Bog  iron  ore  is  found  in 
the  swamps,  and  shell  marl  occurs  abundantly. 
In  the  N.  there  are  deposits  of  kaolin,  or  porce- 
lain clay,  which  have  supplied  the  Philadelphia 
works  with  that  valuable  earth.  The  climate 
is  in  general  mild  and  highly  favorable  to  agri- 
cultural pursuits.  The  N.  and  more  elevated 
region  has  a  remarkably  salubrious  atmosphere; 
but  where  the  surface  is  swampy,  as  in  the  S. 
parts  of  the  state,  endemic  sickness  prevails  to 
a  considerable  extent.  The  natural  productions 
are  similar  to  the  middle  region  of  the  United 
States  generally. — In  1850  Delaware  contained 
6,063  farms  and  plantations,  enclosing  956,144 
acres  of  land,  of  which  580,862  acres  were  im- 
proved. Cash  value  of  farms  $18,880,031,  and 
of  farming  implements  and  machinery  $510,279. 
Average  of  farms  158  acres,  and  of  value  $3,198. 
Live  stock  upon  farms,  &c.  (1850) :  horses  13,- 
852,  asses  and  mules  791,  milch  cows  19,248, 
working  oxen  9,797,  other  cattle  24,166,  sheep 
27,503,  swine  30,261,  in  all  valued  at  $1,849,- 
281 ;  and  value  of  animals  slaughtered  (1849- 
'50),  $373,065.  Agricultural  products  (1849) : 
wheat  482,511,  rye  8,006,  oats  604,518,  Indian 
corn  3,145,542,  barley  56,  and  buckwheat  8,615 
bushels;  potatoes,  Irish,  240,542,  and  sweet, 
05,443  bushels;  hay,  30,159  tons;  hops,  348 
lbs. ;  clover  seed,  2,525,  and  other  grass  seed, 
1,403  bushels;  butter,  1,055,308,  and  cheese,  3,- 
187  lbs. ;  peas  and  beans,  4,120  bushels  ;  mar- 
ket garden  ])roducts,  $12,714,  and  orchard  pro- 
ducts, $46,574 ;  beeswax  and  honey,  41,248 
lbs. ;  home-mado  manufactures,  $38,121 ;  flax- 
seed, 904  bushels;  flax,  11,174  lbs.;  molasses, 
50  gallons ;  avooI,  57,708  lbs, ;  wine,  145  gal- 
lons. The  average  grain  crops  of  Delaware 
(bushels  per  acre)  were  as  follows  :  wheat  11, 
Indian  corn  20,  oats  20,  and  buckwheat  10. 
The  total  value  of  agricultural  products  re- 
turned by  the  census  of  1840  Avas  $2,877,350, 
and  by  that  of  1850,  $3,117,505.  Manufactures, 
raining,  and  the  meclianic  arts  :  establishments, 
531;  capital,  $2,978,945;  raw  material  used, 
$2,864,007;  hands  employed,  3,888,  viz. :  3,237 
males  and  051  females;  annual  wages,  $936,924; 
products,  $4,649,296;  profit,  28.46  per  cent. 
Cotton  factories  12,  capital  $460,100,  cotton 
used  4,730  bales,  total  value  of  raw  material 
$312,008,  products  $538,439 ;  woollen  factories 
8,  ciipital  $148,500,  wool  used  393,000 lbs.,  value 
of  raw  material  $204,172,  products  $251,000; 
cast-iron  works  13,  capital  $373,000,  pig  iron 
consumed  4,400  tons,  value  of  raw  material 
$153,852,  products  $267,462;  wrought-iron 
works  3,   capital  $75,000,  value  of  raw  ma- 


terial $35,410,  and  products  $38,200,  Tho 
manufactures  of  Delaware  (including  family 
products)  were  valued  in  1820  at  $1,318,891, 
in  1830  at  $1,991,000,  in  1840  at  $2,709,068, 
and  in  1850  at  $4,687,427.— The  exports  of 
Delaware  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1858, 
were  valued  at  $106,571,  and  the  imports  at 
$2,821 ;  and  the  shijjpiug  cleared  amounted  to 
2,871  tons,  and  entered  to  845  tons,  all  Amer- 
ican. Tlie  coasting  trade  is  more  extensive,  and 
is  carried  on  chietly  for  the  supply  of  the  Phila- 
delphia markets.  Shipping  owned  in  the  state 
21,258  tons,  viz.:  3,643  registered  and  11,992 
enrolled  and  licensed;  and  of  this  15,635  (in- 
cluding 1,057  steam)  belonged  to  the  Wilming- 
ton, and  5,623  (including  203  steam)  to  the 
New  Castle  district.  In  1859  (Jan.),  Delaware 
had  12  banks,  capital  $1,638,185,  loans  and  dis- 
counts $3,000,285,  stocks  $22,610,  real  estate 
$81,499,  due  by  other  banks  $308,222,  notes  of 
other  banks  $01,440,  specie  funds  $114,812, 
specie  $217,312,  circulation  $900,840,  deposits 
$832,057,  due  to  other  banks  $80,180.  On  June 
30,  1858,  Delaware  contained  115  m.  of  com- 
pleted railroad,  viz. :  the  Delaware  railroad,  71 
m.  long,  extending  from  Seaford  to  a  junction 
with  the  New  Castle  and  Prenchtown  railroad,  7 
m.W.  from  New  Castle,  cost$l,14e,310;  the  New 
Castle  and  Frenchtown  railroad,  16  m.  long,  from 
New  Castle  on  the  Delaware  to  Frenchtown  ou 
Elk  creek,  an  arm  of  Chesapeake  bay,  cost  $380,- 
000 ;  the  New  Castle  and  Wilmington  railroad, 
4.7  m.,  cost  $100,000 ;  and  a  section  of  the  Phila- 
delphia, Wilmington,  and  Baltimore  railroad, 
about  23  m.  This  system  connects  Wilmington 
with  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore,  and  with  the 
state  throughout  its  whole  length,  and  also  the 
waters  of  the  Delaware  and  Chesapeake.  There 
are  also  in  course  of  construction  2  other  rail- 
roads, viz. :  the  Junction  and  Breakwater,  intend- 
ed to  connect  Milford  and  Lewes  with  the  Dela- 
ware railroad;  and  tha Delaware  and  Maryland, 
an  extension  of  the  same  line  from  Seaford  to 
the  liead  of  steam  navigation  on  the  Nanticoke. 
Ultimately,  however,  it  is  proposed  to  carry  the 
main  line  of  road  through  Maryland  and  Vir- 
ginia to  Cape  Charles.  From  the  Nanticoke  and 
the  cape,  Norfolk  will  be  reached  by  steamers. 
The  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  canal  connects 
by  a  channel  navigable  for  coasting  vessels  the 
waters  so  called.  It  extends  from  Delaware 
City,  46  ra.  below  Philadelphia,  to  Back  creek,  a 
navigable  branch  of  Elk  river  in  Maryland,  13^ 
m.,  and  is  66  ft,  wide  at  the  top  and  10  ft.  deep, 
with  2  tide  and  2  lift  locks,  and  a  deep  cut  for  4  m. 
through  a  hill  90  ft.  high.  This  important  work 
was  completed  in  1829  at  a  cost  of  $2,250,000. 
The  total  length  of  post  routes  in  tlie  state  on 
June  30, 1858,  was  562  ra.,  of  Avhich  85  m,  was 
railroad,  303  ra.  coach,  and  174  m,  not  specified, 
— The  census  of  1850  presents  the  following  sta- 
tistics regarding  churches,  schools,  the  press,  &c. 
Churches  180,  viz. :  Baptist  12,  Episcopal  21, 
Friends  9,  Methodist  106,  Presbyterian  26,  Ro- 
man Catholic  3,  Union  1,  and  minor  sects  2, 
which  together  furnished  accommodation  for 


DELAWARE 


347 


55,711  persons,  and  "vrere  valued  at  $340,345. 
Colleges  2,  ])rofessors  IG,  students  144,  annual 
income  $17,200;  academies  and  private  schools 
65,  teacliers  94,  pupils  2,011,  annual  income 
$47,832  ;  primary  and  public  schools  194, 
teacliers  214,  pupils  8,970,  annual  income  $43,- 
8G1.  The  number  of  children  attending  school 
during  the  year  as  returned  by  families  was 
14,403,  viz. :  14,077  natives,  and  320  foreign- 
ers. Newspapers  and  periodicals  10  (circulat- 
ing 75,000,  or  annually  421,200  copies),  viz.  :  3 
semi-weekly  and  7  weekly,  of  which  2  were  lite- 
rary and  miscellaneous,  and  8  political.  Libra- 
ries (other  than  i)rivat-c)  17,  with  17,950  volumes, 
viz. :  public  4,  with  10,250  vols. ;  Sunday-scliool 
12,  with  2,700  vols.;  and  college  1,  with  5,000 
vols.  The  number  of  free  schools  in  opei*ation  in 
185(5  was  233  ;  scholars,  11,408  ;  average  length 
of  schools,  7.0  months ;  receipts,  $80,509,  of 
^  which  from  school  fund,  $27,452,  and  district 
contributions,  $53,057  ;  expenditures,  $78,253. 
The  capital  of  the  permanent  school  fund 
amounts  to  $440,505.  The  collegiate  institutions 
are :  Delaware  college  at  Newark,  founded  in 
1833,  and  which  in  1858  had  6  professors,  50 
students,  and  a  library  of  10,000  vols. ;  and 
St.  Mary's  college  at  Wilmington,  a  Roman 
Catholic  school,  founded  in  1847,  and  which 
in  1858  had  7  professors,  110  students,  and  a 
library  of  2,500  vols. — The  constitution  of 
Delaware  grants  the  right  of  voting  to  all  free 
white  male  citizens  21  years  of  ago,  who  have 
resided  in  the  state  one  year,  and  in  the 
county  one  month  next  preceding  an  elec- 
tion. The  general  assembly  consists  of  a  sen- 
ate of  9  members  (3  from  each  county),  chosen 
for  4  years,  and  a  house  of  representatives  of 
21  members,  chosen  for  2  years.  Senators  must 
be  27  years  of  age,  and  be  possessed  of  200  acres 
of  freehold  land,  and  representatives  must  be 
24  years  of  age.  Pay,  $3  per  diem  and  mile- 
age. The  sessions  are  biennial.  The  governor 
is  elected  for  4  years,  and  has  a  salary  of  $1,333  ; 
he  must  be  30  years  of  age,  and  have  resided 
in  the  state  6  years  next  before  election.  The 
state  treasurer  and  auditor  (salary  $500  each) 
are  elected  by  the  general  assembly  for  2  years ; 
the  term  of  the  secretary  of  state  (salary  $400 
and  fees)  is  4  years.  There  are  5  judges,  one  of 
whom  is  chancellor  and  president  of  the  orphans' 
court,  and  of  the  other  4  one  is  chief  justice  of 
the  state,  and^  are  associate  justices,  one  resi- 
dent in  each  county.  The  chief  justice  and  2  of 
the  associates  form  the  superior  court  and  court 
of  general  sessions,  and  all  the  judges,  except 
the  chancellor,  form  the  court  of  oyer  and 
terminer.  The  court  of  errors  and  appeals  is 
composed  of  3  or  moi*e  judges.  The  orphans' 
court  consists  of  the  chancellor  and  the  associate 
judge  of  the  county.  Judges  are  appointed  by 
the  governor,  and  hold  office  during  good  beha- 
vior. Probate  courts  are  held  by  registers  of 
wills,  witli  appeal  to  the  superior  court.  The 
public  income  is  derived  from  corporation  taxes, 
dividends,  interest  on  loans,  &c.,  and  in  1857 
amounted  to  $40,000.     The  disbursements  for 


the  year  were  about  $39,000.  The  state  has  no 
debt,  but  has  permanent  resources  amounting 
to  $549,755,  viz. :  invested  capital  §109,250,  and 
school  fund  $440,505.  The  valuation  of  taxable 
property  in  1850  was  $30,406,924.  There  is, 
Jiowever,  no  taxation  for  state  purposes. — Del- 
aware takes  its  name  from  Lord  l)e  La  Ware, 
governor  of  Virginia,  who  entered  the  bay  in 
1010 ;  but  the  discovery  of  tlic  Delaware  was 
made  by  Hudson  in  1609.  \\\  1029,  one  Godyn, 
a  director  in  the  Dutch  AVest  India  company,  in 
whose  service  Hudson  had  sailed,  i)urchased  of 
the  natives  a  tract  of  land  near  the  mouth  of 
the  river ;  and  next  year  Do  Vries  with  30  colo- 
nists, arriving  out  from  Holland,  settled  near 
Lewes.  Three  years  later  the  whole  colony 
was  destroyed  by  the  natives.  \\\  1037  the 
Swedish  West  India  company  sent  out  a  colony 
of  Swedes  and  Finns,  which  arrived  at  Cape 
Ilenlopen  early  in  1038,  and  after  purchasing 
all  the  lands  from  the  capo  to  the  falls  near 
Trenton,  erected  a  fort  at  the  mouth  of  Christiana 
creek.  They  named  the  country  Nya  Sveriga, 
or  New  Sweden.  The  subsequent  settlements 
of  the  Swedes  Avere  mostly  Avithin  the  present 
limits  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1643  their  head- 
quarters were  erected  on  the  island  of  Tinicum, 
a  few  miles  below  Philadelphia.  These  pro- 
ceedings were  protested  against  by  the  Dutch 
of  New  Amsterdam,  who  claimed  the  country 
by  right  of  discovery  and  settlement,  and  with 
a  view  to  the  expulsion  of  the  intruders  built 
Fort  Casimir  (now  New  Castle),  5  m.  S.  of  Fort 
Christiana.  This,  however,  was  captured  by  the 
Swedes  in  1054;  but  the  next  year  the  Dutch 
from  New  Netherlands  attacked  and  reduced 
the  Swedish  forts,  and  sent  to  Europe  all  the 
colonists  who  refused  allegiance  to  Holland. 
Thus  ended  the  transient  connection  of  Sweden 
with  the  colonial  history  of  the  United  States. 
From  this  period  to  1064,  when  New  Neth- 
erlands was  conquered  by  the  English,  the  Del- 
aware settlements  continued  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  Dutch  authorities.  The  duke  of 
York  now  came  into  possession  of  all  the  Dutch 
had  occupied,  and  the  English  laws  were  estab- 
lished on  both  sides  of  the  river.  In  the  mean 
time,  however.  Lord  Baltimore  asserted  his 
claim  to  the  country  on  the  west  side  of  the 
river  as  a  part  of  his  grant,  which  extended  to 
lat.  40°  N.,  but  excepted  tracts  then  already 
occupied;  and  frequent  incursions  were  made 
from  Maryland  with  the  view  of  driving  away 
the  settlers.  At  length  William  Penn,  having 
obtained  a  grant  of  Pennsylvania,  and  being 
desirous  of  owning  the  laud  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Delaware  to  the  sea,  procured  from  the 
duke  of  York  a  release  of  all  his  title  and  claim 
to  New  Castle  and  12  m.  round  it,  and  to  the 
land  between  this  tract  and  the  sea.  In  Oct. 
1682,  he  arrived  at  New  Castle,  and  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  inhabitants  produced  liis  deeds  and 
accepted  the  surrender  of  the  territory.  Lord 
Baltimore  still  asserted  his  claim,  but  Penn  re- 
sisted it  on  the  ground  that  at  the  time  of  the 
grant  of  Maryland  the  territory  was  occupied, 


848 


DELAWARE 


DELAWARE  RIVER 


and  in  1C85  the  lords  of  trade  and  plantations 
decided  in  Penn's  favor.  The  conflicting  claims, 
however,  were  subsequently  adjusted  by  com- 
promise. The  tracts  now  constituting  the  state 
Penn  called  the  "territories  or  3  lower  coun- 
ties on  the  Delaware."  For  20  years  they  were 
governed  as  a  part  of  Pennsylvania,  each  coun- 
ty sending  6  delegates  to  the  general  assem- 
bly. In  1703  the  territories  obtained  liberty  tO' 
Eceede,  and  Avere  ever  afterward  allowed  a  dis- 
tinct assembly.  The  proprietary,  however,  until 
the  commencement  of  the  revolution  retained 
all  his  rights,  and  the  same  governor  uniform- 
ly presided  over  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware. 
Slieltered  by  the  surrounding  colonies,  Delaware 
enjoyed  an  entire  exemption  from  wars,  except 
those  in  which  as  a  part  of  the  British  empire 
she  was  obliged  to  participate.  In  the  war  with 
France  which  terminated  in  1763,  she  was 
second  to  none  in  active  zeal ;  and  in  the  revo- 
lutionary war  the  Delaware  regiment  was  one 
of  the  most  efficient  of  the  continental  aiTny. 
In  177G  the  inhabitants  declared  themselves  an 
independent  state,  and  framed  a  constitution. 
In  1792  a  second  constitution  was  established, 
which  with  subsequent  amendments  still  forms 
the  fundamental  law  of  the  state.  The  federal 
constitution  was  ratified  by  Delaware,  Dec.  7, 
1787. 

DELAWARE.  L  A  S.  E.  co.  of  K  Y., 
bounded  IST.  W.  by  the  E,  branch  of  the  Sus- 
quehanna, and  S.  W.  by  Delaware  river,  which 
separates  it  from  Penn. ;  area,  1,550  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1855,  39,749.  It  is  drained  by  the  head 
streams  of  the  Delaware,  has  a  hilly  surface, 
and  a  soil  wliicli  in  the  vallej's  is  extremely  fer- 
tile. The  productions  in  1855  were  119,883 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  416,659  of  oats,  9,494 
of  wheat,  209,567  of  potatoes,  103,896  tons  of 
hay,  and  4,026,575  lbs.  of  butter.  There  were 
26  flour  mills,  224  saw  mills,  24  tanneries,  4 
■woollen  factories,  and  5  carding  and  fulling  mills. 
Six  newspapers  were  published  in  the  county ; 
there  were  92  churches,  and  314  school  houses. 
The  Delaware  and  Susquehanna  rivers,  from  the 
former  of  which  the  county  is  named,  are  here 
navigable  by  boats,  and  are  the  channels  through 
which  vast  quantities  of  lumber  are  annually 
exported.  Capital,  Delhi.  II.  A  S.  E.  co.  of 
Penn.,  bordering  on  Del.,  separated  from  N.  J. 
on  the  S.  E.  by  the  Delaware  river,  and  drained 
by  a  number  of  small  streams;  area,  108  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  24,679.  The  surface  in  the 
S.  E.  part  is  generally  level,  but  in  other  places 
is  hilly.  A  large  proportion  of  it  is  occupied  as 
grazing  land,  and  the  markets  of  Philadelphia 
are  supplied  with  milk,  butter,  and  cheese 
mainly  from  the  dairies  in  this  county.  The 
soil  is  not  naturally  fertile,  but  by  the  use  of 
manures  has  been  rendered  extremely  produc- 
tive. The  most  important  minerals  are  mica 
elate,  extensively  used  for  building,  and  gneiss. 
Whetstones  are  procured  near  Derby,  and  ex- 
ported to  nearly  all  parts  of  the  nnion.  The 
water  ])ower  with  which  the  county  is  abund- 
antly supplied  is  employed  in  numerous  manu- 


factories of  cotton  and  woollen,  flour,  saw,  and 
paper  mills,  and  other  establishments.  The 
agricultural  productions  in  1850  were  294,209 
bushels  of  corn,  121,096  of  wheat,  169,764  of 
oats,  108,508  of  potatoes,  27,932  tons  of  hay, 
and  1,342,243  lbs.  of  butter.  There  were  68 
cliurches,  and  2,995  pupils  in  the  public  schools. 
The  county  was  settled  by  Swedes  in  1643,  or- 
ganized in  1789,  and  named  from  Delaware  river. 
Capital,  Media.  III.  A  central  co.  of  Ohio,  trav- 
ersed by  the  Scioto  and  Olentangy  rivers,  well 
supplied  with  water  power ;  area,  478  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1850,  21,817,  It  has  an  even  surface,  a 
fertile  soil,  and  in  1850  produced  774,289  bush- 
els of  corn,  44,523  of  wheat,  142,992  of  oats, 
22,021  tons  of  hay,  and  124,064  lbs.  of  wool. 
There  were  45  churches,  and  8,261  pupils  at- 
tending public  schools.  At  Delaware,  the  capi- 
tal, ai-e  several  excellent  sulphur  springs.  IV. 
An  E.  CO.  of  Ind.,  drained  by  White  and  Mis-^ 
sissinewa  rivers,  and  consisting  in  great  part  of 
low  marshy  prairies,  suitable  for  pastures ;  area, 
400  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  10,843.  The  surface 
is  generally  level,  and  the  soil  fertile.  In  1850 
the  productions  were  429,209  bushels  of  corn, 
65,078  of  w-hea^,  41,992  of  oats,  and  4,957  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  15  churches,  and  1,894 
pupils  attending  public  schools.  Tlie  county 
was  named  from  the  Delaware  Indians,  who 
once  owned  the  soil.  Capital,  Muncie,  V.  An 
E.  CO.  of  Iowa,  well  supplied  with  water  and 
timber,  and  having  a  healthy  climate,  a  fertile 
soil,  and  a  rough  hilly  surface  ;  area,  576  sq.  m.; 
pop.  in  1856,  8,099.  In  the  same  year  it  pro- 
duced 117,700  bushels  of  wheat,  113,747  of  oats, 
342,271  of  corn,  57,368  of  potatoes,  and  126,330 
lbs.  of  butter.     Capital,  Delhi. 

DELAWARE  BAY.     See  Delaware. 

DELAWARE  COURT  HOUSE,  or  Dela- 
ware, a  post  town  and  capital  of  Delaware  co., 
Ohio;  pop.  in  1850,  2,074.  It  is  pleasantly 
situated  on  rolling  ground,  on  the  right  bank 
of  Olentangy  river,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a 
bridge.  It  is  a  handsome  place,  neatly  built, 
and  the  seat  of  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  university, 
established  in  1845.  A-  sulphur  spring  in  the 
vicinity  is  much  resorted  to.  Two  newspapers 
are  published  in  the  town;  there  are  5  or  6 
churches,  and  a  branch  of  the  state  bank  of 
Ohio. 

DELAWARE  RIVER  (Indian  name,  Malce- 
riskitton),  a  large  river  of  the  United  States, 
formed  by  two  small  streams  called  the  Oquago 
(or  Coquago)  and  the  Popacton,  which  rise  on 
the  western  declivity  of  the  Oatskill  mountains, 
N  .Y.,  and  unite  on  the  boundary  line  between 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  near  the  N.  K 
angle  of  the  latter.  Flowing  S.  E.,  it  separates 
those  states  for  about  70  ra.,  until  it  reaches 
Kittatinny  (or  Shawangunk)  mountain,  near 
Port  Jervis.  At  this  place  it  makes  .i  sliarp 
turn  to  the  S.  W.,  and  forms  the  dividing  line 
between  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania.  At 
the  N.  extremity  of  Northampton  co.  it  pass- 
es through  a  precipitous  defile,  formed  by  per- 
pendicular rocks  on  either  side  1,000  or  1,200 


DELAWARES 


DELESSEPwT 


349 


feet  high,  and  known  as  the  Delaware  "Water 
Gap.  A  few  miles  below  Easton  it  turns  again 
to  the  S.  E.,  and  after  passing  Trenton  meets 
the  tide  water  132  m.  from  the  sea.  The  stream 
now  becomes  much  wider,  and  ac(iuire3  sufficient 
depth  for  the  passage  of  steamboats.  Phila- 
delphia, on  the  right  bank,  is  the  head  of  navi- 
gation lor  ships  of  the  largest  size.  On  the 
other  side  of  the  river  are  the  towns  of  Burling- 
ton and  Camden,  the  latter  being  just  ojiposito 
Philadelphia.  The  channel  is  here  about  1  m, 
wide,  and  divided  by  a  small  island.  A  uumljer 
of  other  islands,  none  of  them  of  great  extent, 
occur  in  various  parts  of  the  stream.  Bridges 
connect  the  opposite  banks  at  Trenton  and  sev- 
eral other  points.  About  40  m.  below  Phila- 
delphia the  river  discharges  itself  into  Delaware 
bay,  after  a  total  course  of  300  m.  Tlie  Dela- 
ware and  Hudson  and  the  Jilorris  canals  con- 
nect the  stream  with  the  Hudson,  and  a  canal 
from  Easton  to  Bristol  passes  near  its  banks. 
The  N.  Y.  and  Erie  railroad  runs  in  the  valley 
of  the  Delaware  for  a  distance  of  nearly  90  m. 
The  shad  fisheries  in  the  lower  part  of  the  river 
are  very  proiitable.  During  the  winter  of  1851 
-52  a  solid  bridge  of  ice  formed  in  the  channel 
at  Philadelphia,  an  event  which  occurs  only  in 
seasons  of  excessive  severity. 

DELAWAPvES,  called  in  their  own  language 
the  Lenapes,  one  of  the  Algonquin  tribes  of 
American  Indians,  now  established  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  Kansas,  which  occupied  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  16th  century  the  valley  of  the  Dela- 
ware river  and  the  banks  of  the  Schuylkill. 
According  to  tlieir  traditions  they  were  in  past 
ages  eminent  for  valor  and  wisdom,  and  held  a 
])rominent  place  in  Indian  history,  exerting  an 
authoritative  influence  from  the  Chesapeake  to 
the  Hudson.  This  claim  seems  to  be  recognized 
by  the  other  tribes  of  their  lineage,  who  apply 
to  them  the  honorable  title  of  grandfather.  On 
the  rise  of  the  Iroquois  power  they  lost  their 
independence ;  and  in  the  large  assembly  of 
tribes  which  concluded  the  treaty  at  Lancaster 
in  iT-l-t,  the  Iroquois  denied  the  right  of  the 
Delawares  to  alienate  their  lands.  The  latter, 
being  immediately  ordered  by  their  masters  to 
remove  to  the  banks  of  the  Susquehanfla,  left 
for  ever  the  region  of  their  native  Delaware. 
In  1751  they  are  found  at  Shamokin  and  "Wya- 
lusiiig  on  the  Susquehanna,  positions  where 
they  were  exposed  to  the  violence  both  of  the 
Iroquis  and  of  white  emigrants.  It  was  their 
misfortune  to  be  regarded  by  the  English  as 
under  French  intiuence,  an  opinion  which  lost 
none  of  its  force  from  the  fact  that  many  of  the 
Delawares  had  adopted  the  jirinciples  of  peace 
and  non-re-;istance  taught  by  Penn  and  Zinzen- 
dorf.  The  Iroquois  were  also  offended  by 
their  neutrality,  and  because  they  apjilied  them- 
selves to  agriculture  and  grazing,  refusing  to 
join  in  forays  of  plunder  and  murder,  while  the 
Indian  and  French  war  Avas  raging  on  the  fron- 
tier from  Quebec  to  New  Orleans.  A  tragical 
result  at  length  followed.  In  1781  nearly  400 
Moravian  Delawares,  settled  on  the  Muskingum, 


were  plundered  by  a  liostile  Indian  party,  and 
ordered  to  remove  to  Sandusky,  on  Lake  Erie. 
Being  permitted  to  return  in  the  next  year,  their 
movement  was  regarded  as  a  hostile  one  by  the 
British  frontiersmen,  who  united  and  surprised 
the  unresisting  Moravians  at  Muskingum,  and 
massacred  nearly  100  of  them.  In  a  treaty  at 
Fort  Pitt,  in  1778,  the  Delawares  entered  into 
terms  of  amity  with  the  United  States,  granting 
power  to  march  armies  througli  their  country 
on  condition  .that  a  fort  should  be  built  for  their 
protection.  This  was  the  origin  of  Fort  Mcin- 
tosh. In  1795  they  were  parties,  with  the  Wyan- 
dots,  Shawnees,  Miamies,  and  other  western 
tribes,  to  the  general  pacification  of  Fort  Gren- 
ville.  These  relations  were  further  strengthened 
by  the  treaties  of  Fort  Wayne  (1803)  and  Vin- 
cennes  (1804);  and  the  frontiers  were  not  mo- 
lested by  their  war  parties  till  the  primary 
movement  of  Tecumseh  in  1811-'12.  They  did 
not  long  rest  upon  the  Susquehanna,  but  grad- 
ually continued  their  migration  westward,  re- 
suming their  habits  of  war  and  hunting,  and 
stopping  for  a  time  on  the  White  AVater  river, 
in  Indiana.  Thence  they  crossed  the  Mississip- 
pi, and  are  now  established  on  fertile  tracts  on 
the  Kansas  river,  in  the  territory  of  that  name. 
A  portion  of  them  went  into  Texas,  where  they 
have  an  excellent  reputation  as  guides,  hunters, 
and  woodsmen.  They  possess  375,000  acres  of 
land  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kansas  river,  and  3 
times  this  amount  at  higher  points  on  that  river 
and  its  tributaries.  Their  number  was  returned 
in  1840  at  830;  in  1850,  at  1,500;  and  is  now 
estimated  at  above  2,000.  A  considerable  por- 
tion of  them  are  cultivators  of  the  soil,  raise 
horses,  cattle,  and  hogs,  and  dress  in  many  re- 
spects in  civilized  costume.  The  United  States 
hold  in  trust  for  them  a  school  fund  of  $7,806, 
and  a  general  fund  of  $915,375. 

DELESSERT,  Benjamin,  a  French  financier 
and  philanthropist,  born  in  Lyons,  Feb.  14, 1773, 
died  in  Paris,  March  1, 1847.  After  completing 
his  early  education,  he  visited  Edinburgh  and 
London,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of  Adam 
Smith,  Dugald  Stewart,  Playfair,  and  Watt, 
lie  served  in  Belgium  as  captain  of  artillery 
under  Pichegru,  but  on  the  death  of  his  eldest 
brother  resigned  his  commission  to  assume  the 
direction  of  his  father's  bank.  In  1801  he 
established  a  sugar  refinery  at  Passy,  and  he 
contributed  much  to  the  success  of  the  man- 
ufacture of  beet  root  sugar  in  France.  Such 
was  his  reputation  for  skill  and  integrity,  that 
before  he  was  30  he  was  appointed  regent  of 
the  bank  of  France,  which  post  he  held  for 
nearly  half  a  century.  Ho  was  a  patron  of 
savings  banks,  primary  schools,  houses  of  refuge, 
and  other  charitable  institutions.  He  was  an 
associate  of  the  academy  of  sciences,  and  forfced 
magnificent  botanical  and  conchological  collec- 
tions ;  his  herbal,  which  had  been  commenced 
for  his  sister  by  J.  J.  Rousseau,  ccyitains  no  less 
than  86,000  specimens  of  plants,  3,000  of  which 
were  previously  unknown.  His  botanical  col- 
lections are  illustrated  in  the  important  work, 


350 


DELFT 


DELHI 


in  which  he  was  a  collaborator  with  De  Can- 
doUe,  Iconc»  selectm  Plantarvm  (2  vols.  4to., 
Paris,  1820-'46),  and  his  conchological  treasures 
were  described  ia  1847  by  Dr.  Clienu,  Beside 
his  political  speeches  delivered  in  the  chamber  of 
deputies,  where  for  years  he  occupied  a  seat 
among  the  conservative  party,  and  his  pamphlets 
on  savings  banks,  he  published  a  philosophical 
tract,  Le  guide  du  Vonheur,  which  has  been  sev- 
eral times  reprinted,  and  other  writings. 

DELFT,  one  of  the  oldest  Dutch  towns,  in  the 
province  of  South  Holland,  8^  m.  by  rail  from 
Kotterdam,  on  the  small  river  Seine,  and  con- 
nected by  canals  and  railways  with  the  other 
principal  towns  of  Holland  ;  pop.  about  18,000, 
of  whom  6,000  are  Catholics,  and  the  remain- 
der chiefly  Protestants,  It  is  intersected  in  all 
directions  by  ^anals,  which  are  crossed  by  69 
bridges.  The  principal  public  buildings  are  the 
town  hall ;  the  palace  or  prinsenhof^  originally 
the  convent  of  St.  Agatha,  once  the  occasional 
residence  of  William  I.  of  Orange,  and  the  scene 
of  his  assassination  (July  10,  1584),  now  con- 
verted into  barracks  ;  the  new  church,  with  a 
huge  square  tower  and  celebrated  chimes,  con- 
taining the  mausoleum  of  William  L,  and  the 
tombs  of  the  Orange  family,  and  of  Hugo  Gro- 
tius,  who  was  born  in  Delft ;  the  old  church, 
distinguished  by  a  leaning  tower,  containing 
the  oldest  organ  in  Holland,  the  monument  of 
Admiral  Van  Tromp,  and  the  tombs  of  Leeu- 
wenhoeck,  the  naturalist,  and  other  eminent  citi- 
zens of  Delft ;  two  Eoman  Catholic  churches, 
several  other  churches  for  various  Protestant 
denominations,  and  a  chapel  for  Jansenists. 
There  are  also  a  gymnasium  and  17  other 
schools,  an  academy  for  civil  engineers  and 
industry,  several  associations  for  the  promotion 
of  art,  science,  and  literature,  and  various  be- 
nevolent institutions.  Delft  was  formerly  cel- 
ebrated for  its  potteries  (delft  ware),  but  this 
manufacture  is  now  almost  entirely  superseded 
by  the  superior  articles  made  in  England.  The 
little  earthenware  now  made  here  is  of  the  coarser 
kind.  Of  the  other  manufactures,  those  of  mathe- 
matical instruments  are  most  renowned.  Near 
the  entrance  of  the  town  is  the  state  arsenal  of 
Holland,  originally  the  Dutch  East  India  house,  to 
which  a  college  for  engineers  is  attached.  Delft 
was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  fire  in  1536, 
and  again  in  1654,  when  an  explosion  of  the 
powder  magazine  reduced  500  houses  to  ashes, 
and  killed  1,200  persons.  But  by  being  fre- 
quently rebuilt,  the  town  was  so  much  improved 
that  Pepys  in  his  diary  (May  18, 1760)  describes 
it  as  "a  most  sweet  town,  with  bridges  and 
rivers  in  every  street."  In  1797  the  Delft  re- 
ligious association  (Ghristo  sacrum)  was  estab« 
lished  here  by  members  of  the  French  reformed 
church,  with  the  view  of  forming  a  nnion  be- 
tween all  Christian  sects,  but  is  now  almost  ex- 
tinct.— Delft  is  connected  by  a  canal  with  its 
port,  Delft-JIavejst  or  Delftstiaven,  a  small 
town  on  the  right  bank  of  theMeuse,  2  m.  from 
Kotterdam,  with  8,200  inhabitants,  engaged  in 
distilleries,  herring  and  cod  fisheries,  and  ship- 


building. Delft-Haven  is  celebrated  in  American 
history  as  the  place  where  the  pilgrim  fathers 
embarked  for  Southampton,  July  22,  1620. 

DELFT  WARE,  a  kind  of  pottery  of  clay, 
or  clay  mixed  with  sand,  and  covered  with  a 
white  enamel,  which  gives  to  it  the  appearance 
of  porcelain.  The  vessels  composed  of  this  pre- 
paration are  first  moulded,  then  slightly  baked, 
in  which  state  they  readily  receive  the  enamel, 
when  a  stronger  heat  is  applied  for  tlie  purpose 
of  fusing  the  enamel  uniformly  and  to  complete 
the  baking  process.  Sometimes  this  pottery 
is  finely  ornamented  with  painting.  The  more 
common  and  coarser  kinds,  however,  better 
resist  a  sudden  heat.  The  preparation  of  the 
enamel  is  an  important  part  of  the  process  in 
making  delft  ware,  and  various  receipts  are 
given  for  it.  It  should  be  made  so  opaque  that 
the  ware  cannot  be  seen  through  it. 

DELHI,  or  D'iiilli,  formerly  an  administra- 
tive division  of  the  N".  W.  provinces,  British 
India,  comprising  the  districts  of  Paniput,  Rho- 
tuk,  Hurriana,  Goorgaon,  and  Delhi ;  area,  6,- 
274  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1853,  2,195,180.  The  dis- 
trict of  Delhi  lies  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Jumna, 
between  lat.  28°  24'  and  28°  54'  N.,  long.  76°  49' 
and  79°  29'  E.;  area,  789  sq.  m.;  pop.  435,744, 
of  whom  316,065  are  Hindoos,  and  the  rest 
mainly  Mohammedans.  The  surface  is  rough  in 
some  parts,  but  not  mountainous.  The  soil,  like 
that  of  the  4  other  districts,  is  naturally  barren, 
but  by  means  of  works  of  irrigation  a  valuable 
extent  of  land  has  been  made  arable.  More 
than  ^  of  the  whole  surface,  however,  is  unculti- 
vated. About  3,300  acres  are  devoted  to  cotton, 
yielding  a  crop  of  about  300,000  lbs.,  cleaned. 
The  other  principal  productions  are  barley,  pulse, 
and  wheat.  The  climate  is  commonly  dry ;  the 
temperature  ranges  from  56°  in  January  to  92° 
in  June,  but  at  certain  seasons  the  district  is 
swept  by  hot  winds  of  fearful  intensity,  accom- 
panied hy  tornadoes  and  rain  storms.  In  ^n. 
1859,  the  Delhi  division  was  detached  from  The 
N.W.  provinces,  and  formed,  with  the  Punjaub, 
the  Trans-Sutlej  and  Cis-Sutlej  states,  into  a 
heutenant-governorship  called  the  Punjaub  and 
its  dependencies. — Delhi,  the  capital  of  the 
above  district,  and  the  Mohammedan  metro- 
poUs  of  India,  is  built  principally  on  a  short 
offset  of  the  Jumna,  about  a  mile  from  the 
right  bank  of  the  main  stream,  115  m.  N.  N.  W. 
from  Agra,  40  m.  S.  W.  from  Meerut,  and  830 
m.  N.  W.  from  Calcutta ;  lat.  28°  39'  N.,  long. 
77°  18'  W. ;  pop.  in  1853,  152,406,  of  whom 
76,372  Avere  returned  as  Hindoos  and  76,034  as 
Mohammedans,  no  account  being  given  of  the 
Christian  inhabitants.  The  city  is  7  m.  in  cir- 
cumference, and  enclosed,  except  on  part  of  the 
water  front,  by  a  wall  of  red  sandstone,  with 
bastions,  martello  towers,  and  11  gates,  4  of 
which  face  the  river.  There  is  also  a  dry  ditch 
20  feet  wide,  and  on  the  island  formed  by  the 
Jnnina  and  its  ofi'set  stands  the  old  fort  of  Se- 
limgurh,  whence  a  bridge  of  boats  crosses  the 
main  stream.  The  defences  were  built  by  Shah 
Jehan  and  improved  by  the  British.     Delhi  con- 


DELHI 


351 


tains  many  good  brick  and  stone  houses,  and, 
fer  an  Asiatic  city,  is  remarkably  clean.  The 
Chandnee  Ohowk,  or  silversmiths'  street,  the 
main  thoroughfare,  is  150  feet  wide,  "lined  with 
gay  bazaars,  and  traversed  by  a  canal  bordered 
with  trees.  At  its  head,  abutting  on  the  river 
and  defended  by  a  broad  moat,  stands  the  im- 
perial palace  of  Shah  Jehan,  once  of  almost  un- 
paralleled magnificence,  but  now  filthy  and  neg- 
lected. It  is  a  collection  of  buildings  surrounded 
by  a  wall  40  feet  high,  and  f  of  a  mile  in  circuit, 
including  a  private  royal  mosque,  large  gardens, 
and  apartments  for  several  thousand  persons. 
Here,  too,  are  the  white  marble  council  cham- 
ber with  its  4  cupolas,  and  the  public  audi- 
ence hall  in  which  stood  the  famous  "  peacock 
throne,"  formed  entirely  of  gold  and  jewels,  and 
valued  at  $30,000,000.  The  jumma  musjid,  or 
chief  mosque,  in  Mohammedan  eyes  the  won- 
der of  the  world,  built  by  Siiah  Jehan  in  6  years, 
stands  on  a  paved  platform,  450  feet  square,  on 
a  rocky  height  near  tlie  centre  of  the  city.  It 
is  approached  by  broad  stone  steps,  and  makes 
one  side  of  a  quadrangle,  the  other  sides  of 
which  are  formed  by  pavilions  and  arcades.  It 
is  261  feet  long,  lined  ami  faced  with  white 
marble,  surmounted  by  3  domes  of  the  same 
material  striped  with  black,  and  having  at  eifch 
end  of  tlie  front  a  high  minaret.  Scattered 
through  and  around  the  city  there  are  more  than 
40  other  mosques,  some  mean  Hindoo  temples, 
and  tombs  of  the  emperors  and  Mussulman 
saints.  Nine  miles  S.  is  the  Cuttub  (Kuttub  or 
Kutb)  Minar,  242  feet  high,  said  to  be  the  tallest 
column  in  the  world,  and  close  to  it  is  the  em- 
peror's country  residence.  Among  the  Euro- 
pean buildings  are  the  British  residency,  St. 
James's  and  several  missionary  churches,  a  bank, 
a  lunatic  asylum,  the  courts  of  justice,  and  a 
government  college  attended  chiefly  by  native 
students.  The  last  is  managed  by  a  council  of 
Europeans  and  natives,  has  an  income  of  about 
$18,750,  and  is  divided  into  4  departments: 
English,  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Sanscrit.  There 
are,  moreover,  in  and  near  the  city,  about  300 
schools,  and  a  newspaper  oflice.  There  are  2 
arsenals,  one  outside  the  walls,  the  other  with- 
in. The  latter,  prior  to  1857,  was  the  most  im- 
portant in  India,  and  contained  300  guns  and 
mortars,  20,000  stand  of  arms,  and  200,000  shot 
and  shells,  beside  gunpowder  and  other  warlike 
stores.  The  Jumna  is  impregnated  with  natron, 
but  the  city  is  supplied  with  water  by  a  canal 
70  m.  long,  built  under  Shah  Jehan  and  restored 
by  the  British.  Another,  called  the  Doab  canal, 
for  irrigation,  built  by  the  same  emperor,  fed 
by  tlie  -Jumna,  and  joining  that  river  again  near 
here  after  a  course  of  135  m.,  was  also  repaired 
by  the  British  in  1830.  Delhi  has  manufacto- 
ries of  cotton,  indigo,  and  shawls.  The  fabrics 
of  Cashmere  are  brought  here  to  be  embroidered 
with  gold  and  silk,  and  an  active  trade  in  horses, 
fruit,  precious  stones,  (fee,  is  kept  up  with  Cash- 
mere and  Cabool.  The  gi-eat  East  India  rail- 
way, wheii  completed,  will  connect  the  imperial 
city  with  Calcutta  and  Lahore,  and  a  tram  road 


has  been  projected  to  unite  it  with  Futtehghur. 
— If  wo  are  to  trust  Abul  Fazl,  no  less  than  7 
cities  have  occupied  the  site  of  Delhi.  The  first 
was  Indraprast  'ha,  or  Indraput,  where  the  Hin- 
doo rajahs  had  their  capital  at  least  as  early  as 
the  lOtli  century.  In  1193  it  was  capjtured  by 
Mohammed  of  Ghor ;  and  Cuttub-ud-deen,  a 
lieutenant  of  the  victor,  founded  here  a  dynasty 
known  to  Europeans  as  the  Putan  or  Afghan, 
and  to  oriental  historians  as  that  of  the  "slaves 
of  the  sultan  of  Ghor."  The  house  of  Cuttub 
was  overthrown  in  1288  by  the  Afghan  Ghiljies 
or  Kliiljis,  who  were  in  turn  displaced  by  the 
Togluck  princes  in  1321,  In  1398  the  city 
was  desolated  by  Tamerlane ;  in  1450  it  was 
acquired  by  the  Afghan  tribe  of  Lodi ;  and  in 
1526  it  was  seized  by  the  renowned  Baber, 
the  founder  of  the  long  line  of  Mggul  emperors. 
"With  these  changes  of  the  sceptre  the  empire 
alternately  w\axed  and  waned,  at  one  time  (1340) 
embracing  almost  the  whole  peninsula,  at  an- 
other (1398)  restricted  to  a  few  miles  around  the 
capital.  Under  the  Moguls  it  recovered  more 
than  half  its  former  possessions.  Akbar  re- 
moved the  throne  to  Agra,  but  Shah  Jehan  in 
1631  built  the  present  city  close  to  old  Delhi, 
and  made  it  the  royal  residence.  The  Moham- 
medans still  call  it  Shahjehanabad,  the  "city  of 
the  king  of  the  world."  Nadir  Shah,  the  Per- 
sian usurper,  captured  it  in  1739,  massacred  the 
inhabitants  from  the  dawn  of  light  till  day  was 
far  spent,  and  bore  away  plunder  to  the  value 
of  nearly  $100,000,000,  including  the  famous 
peacock  throne  and  the  great  koh-i-noor  dia- 
mond, now  in  the  possession  of  Queen  Victoi'ia. 
From  this  time  dismemberment  rapidly  went 
on.  The  Great  Mogul  lost  all  but  the  shadow 
of  sovereignty,  and  at  last  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Mahrattas,  who  were  defeated  near  Delhi, 
Sept.  11,  1803,  with  dreadful  slaughter,  by  the 
British  under  Lord  Lake.  The  titular  empe- 
ror was  released  from  captivity,  a  pension  of 
$500,000  a  year  was  assigned  him,  a  resident 
was  appointed  at  his  court,  and  the  British  ex- 
ercised the  government  in  his  name.  In  1827 
the  empty  show  of  power  was  taken  from  him, 
$250,000  were  added  to  his  allowance,  and 
though  still  revered  by  Mohammedans  as  the 
descendant  of  Timour,  his  sway  was  thenceforth 
confined  to  the  12,000  members  of  his  family 
who  filled  his  palace  and  swallowed  up  his  pen- 
sion. At  the  time  of  the  revolt  in  1857,  the 
garrison  of  Delhi  consisted  of  the  38:h,  54th, 
and  74th  regiments  of  native  infantry,  and  one 
battalion  of  native  artillery,  the  only  European 
soldiers  being  the  48  oiBcers'by  whom  this  force 
was  commanded.  On  May  10  three  regiments 
mutinied  at  Meerut  and  marched  off  to  Delhi, 
where  they  arrived  the  next  day.  The  garrison, 
after  a  show  of  resistance,  joined  their  ranks, 
and  in  a  short  time  the  whole  populace  was  in 
arms.  Some  of  the  ofiicers  and  civilians  es- 
caped to  Meerut,  Umballa,  Kurnaul,  and  other 
places,  but  a  large  number  of  Europeans  of 
both  sexes  were  butchered  with  refined  cruelty. 
The  arsenal  was  held  by  Lieut.  Willoughby  and 


352 


DELHI 


8  Europeans,  -who  stoutly  defended  it  against 
several  hundred  sepoys  until  their  position  be- 
came desperate,  and  then  blew  up  the  magazine. 
Hundreds  of  sepoys — some  say  1^000 — were 
killed  by  the  explosion,  but  the  brave  young  of- 
ficer in  command,  and  some  of  his  companions, 
escaped  for  the  time  with  severe  injuries.  Mean- 
while the  aged  king  took  command  of  the  city, 
appointed  officers,  and  resumed  the  imperial 
state  to  which  he  bad  long  been  a  stranger. 
News  of  this  disaster  was  telegraphed  to  Um- 
balla  the  same  day,  and  the  British  lost  no  time 
in  preparing  for  the  reconquest  of  a  city  on 
which  the  fate  of  India  was  thought  to  hang. 
Three  brigades  were  ordered  to  march  from 
Umballa  and  Meerut,  under  Brigadiers  Wilson, 
Halifax,  and  Jones ;  and  Gen.  Anson,  the  com- 
mander-in-chi^f,  left  Simla  to  place  himself  at 
their  head,  but  on  reaching  Kurnaul  died  of 
cholera.  May  27.  The  command  now  devolved 
on  Sir  Henry  I3arnard,  who,  after  one  or  two 
victories,  appeared  before  Delhi,  June  8.  The 
rebels  were  found  posted  on  a  rocky  ridge 
1,500  yards  from  the  north  wall  of  the  city,  but 
by  a  rapid  movement  Sir  Henry  attacked  them 
in  flank,  swept  their  position,  and  captured  26 
guns.  The  British  camp  was  then  pitched  about 
1^  m.  from  the  north  wall,  screened  by  the 
ridge,  the  left  resting  on  the  river,  and  the  rear 
on  a  canal.  For  many  days  it  required  all  the 
efforts  of  the  besiegers  to  hold  their  own  ground. 
They  were  too  weak  either  to  risk  an  assault  or 
to  cut  off  the  reenforcements  which  the  muti- 
neers continued  to  receive  from  all  parts  of  Ben- 
gal. Moreover,  they  were  yet  without  heavy 
artillery,  while  the  rebels  had  nearly  200  guns, 
which  they  managed  with  a  skill  equal  if  not 
superior  to  that  of  the  besiegers.  For  2  months 
a  day  seldom  passed  without  sorties,  in  which 
both  parties  suffered  severely.  June  12,  the  in- 
surgents attacked  both  flanks,  and  were  twice 
repulsed.  On  the  17th  they  were  gallantly  dis- 
lodged from  an  unfinished  battery  near  the  Sub- 
zee  Muudee  suburb  in  advance  of  the  besiegers' 
right ;  on  the  19  th  a  serious  attack  was  made  on 
the  camp  from  the  rear ;  and  on  the  23d,  the  cen- 
tenary of  the  battle  of  Plassey,  a  still  harder 
contest  was  fought  on  the  right,  lasting  all  day, 
and  signalized  by  the  bravery  of  the  "  guides," 
a  native  corps  of  picked  men,  mostly  Punjau- 
bees,  who  on  this  occasion  fought  uninterrupted- 
ly for  15  hours  without  food.  On  July  1,  at  sun- 
set, an  action,  which  lasted  22  hours,  began  on 
the  extreme  right,  where  300  Europeans  and 
guides  held  at  bay  throughout  the  night  a  force 
of  nearly  5,000  men.  On  the  5th  Gen.  Barnard 
died  of  cholera,  and  was  succeeiled  by  Gen. 
Eeed,  wlio  before  the  end  of  the  month  resigned 
on  account  of  sickness  to  Gen.  Archdale  Wilson. 
On  the  31st  an  immense  force  began  a  general 
attack  on  the  advanced  posts  of  the  British,  as- 
sailing them  from  two  quarters  at  once  with  unu- 
sual skill  and  determination.  Tlie  battle  raged 
day  and  night  until  Aug.  2  at  noon,  when 
the  rebels  withdrew,  leaving  the  field  heaped 
with  their  dead.    On  the  24:th,  7,000  mutineers 


left  the  city  to  intercept  the  siege  battery,  then 
on  tlic  way  from  Ferozepoor^  and  were  imme- 
diately pursued  by  Gen.  Nicholson,  who  had 
joined  Wilson  on  the  8th.  He  overtook  them 
at  Nujuftghur,  and  routed  them  so  completely, 
that  they  fled  back  to  Delhi.  By  Sept.  8  all  the 
reenforcements  had  arrived,  and  i)reparations 
were  made  to  besiege  the  city  in  form.  TJie 
force  at  Gen.  Wilson's  disposal  amounted  to 
9,866  effective  men,  without  counting  tlie  Cash- 
mere contingent,  2,200  strong,  some  hundred 
men  under  the  rajahs  of  Jheend  and  Putialah, 
and  about  3,000  in  hospital.  It  embraced  Eu- 
ropeans (abeut  -J),  Sikhs,  Gorkhas,  Punjau- 
bees,  Beloochees,  and  Afghans,  and  was  distrib- 
uted as  follows:  infantry  6,089,  cavalry  1,705, 
artillery  and  engineers  2,072.  The  mutineers 
are  supposed  to  have  numbered  14,000,  beside 
cavalry.  On  the  11th  the  new  battery  opened 
fire,  and  a  furious  bombardment  was  kept  up 
day  and  night  by  44  heavy  guns  and  many  of 
small  calibre.  On  the  night  of  the  13th  two 
breaches,  one  near  the  Cashmere  and  the  other 
near  the  Water  bastion,  were  found  practicable. 
The  storming  party  was  now  arranged  in  4  col- 
umns. The  1st,  of  1,000  men  under  Nicholson, 
was  to  assault  the  main  breach,  and  escalade  the 
face  of  the  Cashmere  bastion ;  the  2d,  of  850 
men  under  Brigadier  Jones,  was  to  move  against 
the  Water  bastion ;  the  3d,  of  950  under  Col. 
Campbell,  preceded  by  an  explosion  party,  was 
to  force  the  Cashmere  gate ;  and  the  4th,  consist- 
ing mainly  of  natives,  led  by  Major  Reid,  was  to 
assail  the  enemy's  strong  position  in  the  Kissen- 
gunje  and  Pahareepoor  suburbs.  The  reserve, 
1,300  strong,  had  orders  to  await  the  result  of 
the  first  attack.  At  4  o'clock  on  the  morning  of 
the  14th  the  troops  left  the  camp,  and  concealed 
themselves  near  some  advanced  posts  on  the  left 
until  the  signal  for  assault  was  given  by  Nichol- 
son. On  emerging  upon  open  ground  they  Avere 
met  by  fearful  volleys  of  musketry,  thinning 
their  ranks  so  fast  that  for  full  10  minutes  it  was 
impossible  to  plant  the  ladders  in  the  ditch. 
But  the  columns  never  wavered;  they  soon 
mounted  the  scarp,  and  with  a  ringing  cheer  the 
1st  and  2d  divisions  sprang  upon  the  breaches, 
and  carried  them  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet. 
Once  within  the  walls,  they  fought  their  way 
inch  by  inch  along  the  ramparts,  occupying  the 
bastions,  and  turning  the  guns  against  the  city. 
They  secured  the  Moree  and  Cabool  gates,  but 
were  beaten  back  from  the  W.  wall  with  the  loss 
of  the  gallant  Nicholson.  In  the  mean  time  Lieuts. 
Home  and  Salkeld,  with  3  non-commissioned 
officers  and  a  few  native  sappers,  undertook  the 
dangerous  task  of  blowing  up  the  Cashmere 
gate.  In  full  daylight  they  marched  boldly  up 
through  a  shower  of  balls,  arranged  the  pow- 
der bags  in  the  face  of  a  murderous  discharge  of 
musketry  through  an  open  wicket,  and  fired  the 
train.  The  gate  fell  with  a  crash,  but  Lieut. 
Salkeld,  a  sergeant,  a  corporal,  and  2  natives 
were  killed.  The  3d  column  now  dashed  for- 
ward, entered  the  city  at  10  o'clock,  just  as  the 
1st  and  2d  gained  the  breaches,  and  pushed  on 


DELILLE 


DELINIERS 


853 


toward  the  jnrama  musjid,  but  was  beaten  back 
with  great  loss  to  the  Cashmere  gate,  where  the 
reserve  came  to  its  support.  The  4th  column 
sustained  a  defeat  in  the  suburbs,  and  retreated 
to  the  camp.  When  night  closed,  the  British 
found  themselves  in  possession  of  the  N.  ram- 
parts, and  of  several  strong  posts  in  that  part  of 
the  city,  and  at  dawn  on  the  15th  commenced 
the  work  of  dislodging  the  rebels  from  the 
loopholed  houses  and  public  buildings.  The 
arsenal,  which  Lieut.  Willoughby's  exploit  had 
but  half  destroyed,  was  stormed  on  the  IGth, 
and  its  guns  Avero  turned  against  the  palace. 
The  Burn  bastion  was  surprised  on  the  same 
evening ;  the  great  mosque  was  entered  on  the 
I7th,  and  by  the  afternoon  of  the  20th,  after  a 
desperate  street  conflict  of  nearly  7  days,  the  Brit- 
ish were  again  masters  of  all  Dellii.  No  quarter 
was  given,  even  to  the  sick  and  wounded.  Wo- 
men and  children  were  invariably  spared,  but 
the  conquerors  did  not  always  discriminate  be- 
tween armed  rebels  and  peaceable  inhabitants. 
Large  bodies,  liowever,  made  their  escape  while 
the  fighting  was  going  on,  and  among  them  was 
the  ex-king,  who  took  refuge  in  the  suburban 
palace  near  the  Outtub  Miuar.  The  next  day  he 
surrendered  to  Capt.  Hodson,  on  promise  of  his 
life,  and  on  the  22d  3  of  the  royal  princes  were 
captured  at  the  tomb  of  Humayoun,  and  imme- 
diately shot.  The  trial  of  the  ex-king,  now  90 
years  old,  commenced  Jan.  27, 1858,  in  his  own 
palace.  He  was  found  guilty  of  complicity  in 
the  mutiny  and  its  attendant  atrocities,  was  con- 
demned to  transportation  for  life,  and  in  Dec. 
1858,  was  removed  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
The  Britisli  losses  in  this  memorable  siege  were 
3,837  killed,  wounded,  and  missing.  On  Sept. 
1-i  the  casualties  were  8  officers  and  265  men 
killed,  52  officers  and  822  men  wounded.  Of 
the  number  of  insurgents  who  perished  no  au- 
thentic record  could  bo  obtained,  but  it  must 
have  been  great.  Over  1,500  are  supposed  to 
have  fallen  on  the  day  of  assault. 

DELLLLE,  Jacques,  a  French  poet,  born  at 
Aigues-Persc,  Auvergne,  June  22,  1738,  died  in 
Paris,  May  1,  1813.  He  was  a  natural  son  of  a 
lawyer  named  Montanier,  and  his  only  for- 
tune was  a  good  education  and  an  income  of 
300  francs  a  year.  He  became  known  in  1769, 
by  his  translation  of  Virgil's  Georgics,  which 
won  the  highest  praise  from  competent  critics. 
Louis  Racine,  who  had  urged  him  to  the  work, 
gave  it  unlimited  approbation ;  and  Voltaire 
insisted  upon  the  title  of  academician'  being 
at  once  conferred  upon  him.  This  distinction 
he  received  2  years  later,  and  he  was  soon 
afterward  appointed  professor  of  Latin  poetry 
in  the  college  of  France.  In  1782,  on  the  pub- 
lication of  his  original  poem,  Lesjardins,  he  was 
presented  through  the  favor  of  Count  d'Artois 
with  an  abbey,  with  a  yearly  income  of  30,000 
livres.  Li  1784  he  visited  Greece  and  Turkey 
in  company  with  Choiseul  Gouffier,  the  French 
ambassador  to  Constantinople.  The  revolution 
deprived  him  of  his  office  and  the  greater  part 
of  Ms  income.  He  was  arrested  during  the 
VOL.  VI. — 23 


reign  of  terror,  but  saved  by  the  interposition 
of  Chaumette.  For  the  celebration  of  the  Fete 
de  Vetre  stijjreme,  he  wrote,  at  the  request  of 
Robespierre,  an  ode  in  praise  of  the  immortality 
of  the  soul.  In  1705  he  completed  his  trans- 
lation of  Virgil's  Aine'id,  and  subseciuently  visit- 
ed Switzerland,  Germany,  and  England.  On 
his  return  to  Franco  in  1802  he  was  reinstat- 
ed in  his  professorship,  resumed  his  literary 
pursuits,  and  published  successively  the  various 
poems  which  he  had  jjartly  prepared  during  his 
travels  :  L'homme  des  champs  (1800) ;  La  pitie, 
a  touching  poem  on  the  victims  of  the  revolu- 
tion (1803) ;  his  translation  of  Milton's  "Paradise 
Lost"  (1805)  ;  L'' Imagination  (1806);  Les  trois 
regnes  de  la  nature^  with  annotations  by  Cuvier 
(1809);  La  conversation  {1S12).  His  later  years, 
during  which  he  became  blind,  were  spent 
quietly  at  Nanterre.  His  last  composition, 
which,  however,  he  did  not  live  to  complete, 
was  entitled  La  vieiUesse,  and  he  used  to 
say  jestingly  that  ho  was  "full  of  his  subject." 
His  translation  of  Pope's  "  Essay  on  Man,"  and 
his  poem  Le  depart  d^Eden,  were  published 
after  his  death.  The  most  complete  edition  of 
his  works  was  published  by  Michaud  (16  vols. 
8vo.,  1824-'25). 

DELINIERS,  Jacques  Antoine  Marie,  vice- 
roy of  Buenos  Ayres,  born  at  Niort  in  France, 
Feb.  6, 1756,  shot  at  Buenos  Ayres  in  1810.  In 
his  earlier  years  he  served  in  the  Spanish  navy, 
and  having  attained  the  rank  of  captain  he  was 
sent  during  the  war  with  Great  Britain  on  a 
mission  to  South  America.  In  June,  1806,  an 
English  squadron  made  its  appearance  before 
Montevideo,  and  landed  1,100  men  under  Gen. 
Beresford.  The  Spanish  army  which  opposed 
them  was  routed,  and  on  July  2  the  English  took 
possession  of  the  city.  Deliniers  was  then  at  Mon- 
tevideo. Having  received  intelligence  of  what 
had  taken  place,  he  assembled  the  forces  at  his 
command  and  marched  against  the  English, 
whom,  after  some  hard  fighting,  he  compelled  to 
capitulate,  leaving  to  the  conquerors  1,600  mus- 
kets, 26  cannon,  and  4  howitzers.  For  this  ex- 
ploit, in  accordance  with  the  wish  of  the  people, 
he  was  elevated  to  the  viceroyalty  of  Buenos 
Ayres.  On  July  1,  1808,  he  fought  an  obstinate 
battle  with  the  English  in  the  vicinity  of  that 
city  ;  but  although  the  loss  of  the  Spaniards  is 
said  to  have  been  less  than  that  of  the  English, 
the  former  were  compelled  to  retire  within  the 
walls.  The  English  immediately  laid  siege  to  the 
city,  but  were  unable  to  make  themselves  masters 
of  it,  and  were  at  last  obliged  to  retire,  having 
suffered  great  loss.  Deliniers  shortly  afterward 
compelled  them  to  make  a  treaty  by  which  they 
agreed  to  abandon  Montevideo,  and  the  whole 
country  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  La  Plata, 
within  2  months.  This  achievement  gave  him 
great  reputation,  and,  in  return  for  it,  he  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  by  the  king  of  Spain. 
He  was  now  at  the  height  of  his  popularity,  but 
the  people  of  Buenos  Ayres  were  anxious  for  in- 
dependence, and  Deliniers,  having  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  king,  excited  a  powerful  party 


354 


DELIRIUM  TREMENS 


DELOS 


against  him,  and  found  himself  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  retiring  into  exile.  It  was  not  long, 
however,  before  he  recovered  his  power,  and  he 
was  in  possession  of  it  when  a  new  viceroy,  Don 
Balthasar  de  Cisneros,  was  sent  out  from  Spain 
to  replace  him.  He  at  the  same  time  received 
the  title  of  count  of  Buenos  Ayres,  but  was  or- 
dered to  return  to  Europe.  This  he  refused  to 
do,  and  retired  to  Meudoza.  The  deposition  of 
Deliniers  produced  a  revolution  which  compel- 
led Cisneros  to  abdicate.  But  when  Deliniers 
with  2,000  men  attempted  to  reestablish  the 
royal  authority,  he  was  met  by  the  revolution- 
ists, his  army  dispersed,  and  he  himself  taken 
prisoner.  He  was  brought  to  Buenos  Ayres, 
where  he  was  shot  with  several  other  royalist 
leaders,  by  order  of  the  revolutionary  junta. 

DELIRIUM  TREIVIENS,  Delirium  Ebriosi- 
TATis,  Mania  a  Potu,  a  disease  caused  by  the 
abuse  of  spirituous  liquors,  and  characterized 
by  tremor,  sleeplessness,  and  delirium.  It  is 
remarkable  that  a  disease  so  well  marked 
and  so  easily  recognized  as  delirium  tremens 
should  up  to  the  early  part  of  the  present  cen- 
tury have  been  confounded  with  inflammation 
of  the  membranes  of  the  brain,  and  that,  thus 
misled  by  a  name,  most  physicians  bled,  blis- 
tered, and  mercurialized  their  patients,  thus 
adding  vastly  to  the  mortality  of  a  complaint 
already  sufficiently  fatal.  Delirium  tremens 
sometimes  makes  its  appearance  in  consequence 
of  a  single  debauch  ;  commonly  it  is  the  result 
of  protracted  or  long  continued  intemperance. 
Occasionally,  where  the  indulgence  is  very  ex- 
cessive, the  attack  occurs  while  the  patient  still 
continues  his  potations ;  more  generally  it  is  the 
result  of  some  cause  by  which  they  are  tem- 
porarily interrupted;  the  patient's  stomach  gives 
out  and  refuses  the  accustomed  draught,  he  re- 
ceives a  hurt,  or  he  is  aftected  by  some  of  the 
ordinary  causes  of  illness.  If  the  patient  be  now 
noticed,  he  will  be  found  to  be  nervous  and  un- 
easy ;  he  is  startled  by  any  sudden  noise,  the 
opening  of  a  door,  the  entrance  of  a  visitor ;  he  is 
restless ;  the  hands  and  tongue  are  tremulous ; 
he  complains  of  inability  to  sleep,  and  if  he  dozes 
for  a  moment  he  is  awakened  by  frightful 
dreams ;  with  all  this,  his  skin  is  commonly  cool 
and  soft,  his  pulse  slow,  and  his  tongue  moist. 
Soon  delirium  manifests  itself;  if  questioned,  the 
patient  often  answers  rightly  enough,  but  if  left 
to  himself  he  begins  to  talk  or  mutter ;  he  is 
surrounded  by  frightful  or  loathsome  animals ; 
he  is  pursued  by  some  one  who  has  a  design 
upon  his  life  ;  he  has  terrible  and  ghastly  visions. 
Though  most  commonly  of  a  frightful  or  terrify- 
ing character,  tlie  delirium  is  not  invariably  so ; 
occasionally  the  appearances  are  droll  or  ludi- 
crous, and  the  patient  seems  amused  by  them. 
He  is  rarely  dangerous;  his  predominant  emotion 
is  fear ;  but  in  the  eilbrt  to  escape  an  imaginary 
enemy,  he  may  be  guilty  of  a  murderous  assault, 
or  more  probably  of  taking  his  own  life.  The 
delirium  continues  until  the  patient  dies  ex- 
hausted, or  until  he  sinks  into  a  sleep  from  which 
he  awakes  comparatively  rational.    When  the 


strength  of  the  patient  has  not  been  seriously 
impaired  by  long  continued  excesses,  delirium 
tremens  is  rarely  fatal ;  but  those  whose  consti- 
tutions have  been  broken  dowji  by  a  long  course 
of  intemperance  frequently  succumb.  In  such 
cases  death  is  often  sudden ;  the  patient  rises  for 
some  trivial  purpose,  and  falls  in  a  faint  from 
which  he  never  recovers.  At  other  times,  after 
passing  many  nights  without  sleep,  he  sinks  into 
a  state  of  coma,  which  terminates  in  death.  It 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  same  habits 
Avhich  cause  repeated  attacks  of  delirium  cause 
likewise  organic  affections  of  the  viscera,  more 
particularly  of  the  liver  and  kidneys,  and  that 
these  seriously  influence  the  result  of  each  new 
attack. — Treatment.  When  nausea  is  present, 
and  the  tongue  large  and  coated,  it  is  well  to 
commence  the  treatment  by  an  emetic  or  an 
emeto-purgative  ;  in  mild  cases,  and  when  the 
strength  of  the  patient  will  admit,  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  keep  him  walking  with  a  careful 
attendant  until  fatigue  induces  a  tendency  to 
sleep.  In  severer  cases,  opium  is  the  article 
mainly  relied  on  by  practitioners,  and  in  most 
instances  it  will  not  disappoint  their  expecta- 
tions ;  still  there  is  a  class  of  cases  rebellious 
to  its  influence,  whatever  dose  may  be  given. 
Sometimes  here  the  inhalation  of  chloroform 
comes  to  our  aid,  and  accomplishes  that  which 
opium  unassisted  could  not  do  ;  in  other  cases 
the  use  of  small  doses  of  tartar  emetic  and  laud- 
anum produces  the  happiest  effects.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  maintain  the  patient's  strength  by  the 
administration  of  suitable  nourishment,  and  in 
some  cases  the  use  of  stimulants  will  be  found 
not  only  beneficial  but  indispensable. 

DEL  NORTE,  a  N.  W.  co.  of  Cal.,  bordering 
on  the  Pacific  ocean  and  Oregon.  A  great  part 
of  the  surface  is  mountainous,  and  the  coast 
range  runs  along  its  border.  It  was  formed  in 
Feb.  1857,  from  the  N.  part  of  Klamath  co.,  to 
which  it  is  attached  for  representative  purposes. 
Capital,  Crescent  City. 

DELOLME,  Jean  Louis,  author  of  a  celebrat- 
ed work  on  the  English  constitution,  born  at 
Geneva  in  1740,  died  in  Switzerland,  July  16, 
1806.  Having  published  a  pamphlet  which 
gave  umbrage  to  the  authorities  of  his  native 
city,  in  which  he  had  been  established  as  a 
lawyer,  Delolme  repaired  to  England.  Here 
he  found  in  the  study  of  British  institutions  an 
ample  field  for  his  observant  nature,  and  at 
the  same  time  a  congenial  political  atmosphere. 
He  was  the  author  of  various  Avorks  and  essays 
on  political  affairs,  but  his  fame  rests  upon  his 
book  on  the  English  constitution.  First  written 
in  French  and  published  at  Amsterdam  in  1771, 
it  met  with  a  favorable  reception,  which  induced 
Delolme  to  enlarge  and  improve  it,  and  to  pub- 
lish a  new  edition  in  English,  which  appeared  in 
1772.  The  demand  for  it  became  so  great  that 
4  new  editions  were  sold  within  20  years,  and 
a  German  translation  appeared  at  Altona  in 
1784.  A  new  edition,  with  life  and  notes  by  J. 
Macgregor,  M.  P.,  was  published  in  1853. 

DELOS,  or  Delus,  now  Dili  or  Sdilli,  the 


DELPHI 


355 


smallest  island  of  the  Cyclades,  called  also  by 
the  ancients  Asteria,  Ortygia,  or  Chlamydia. 
One  of  their  legends,  probably  alluding  to  its 
origin  by  a  volcanic  eruption,  represents  it  as 
having  risen  from  the  waves  of  the  sea  at  a 
stroke  of  the  trident  of  Neptune,  and  floated  on 
the  ^gajan,  until  it  was  moored  to  its  bottom 
with  adamantine  chains  by  Jupiter,  in  order 
that  it  might  become  a  place  of  refuge  for  La- 
tona,  who  was  delivered  there,  on  a  desert  rock 
and  iinder  a  shady  tree,  of  Apollo  and  Diana, 
hence  called  Delius  and  Delia.  To  them  the 
island  was  sacred,  and  in  accordance  with  a 
vow  of  Latona  a  temple  was  erected  by  Erysich- 
thon,  son  of  Cecrops,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Cyn- 
tluis,  which  in  due  time  was  enriched  by  the 
gifts  of  nations,  and  remained  unshaken  by  the 
earthquakes  that  often  desolated  neighboring 
islands.  The  oracle  of  Apollo,  who  gave  re- 
sponses here  in  sununer,  and  at  Patara  in  Lycia 
in  winter,  was  regarded  as  the  most  distinct  and 
trustworthy.  Delian  festivals  Avere  held  here 
every  4  years  ;  the  Athenians  sent  there  yearly 
their  Theoria  with  choruses  and  dances.  Latona 
had  also  her  temple.  Delos  was  colonized  by  the 
lonians,  became  the  centre  of  splendid  festivals 
in  honor  of  Apollo,  and  was  ruled  by  kings, 
who  at  the  same  time  performed  tlie  functions 
of  priests.  In  later  times  it  became  dependent 
upon  the  Athenians,  who  performed  there  2 
purifications,  first  under  Pisistratus,  and  sec- 
ondly in  the  6th  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war 
(426  B.  C,  as  described  in  the  3d  book  of 
Thucydides),  by  removing  the  tombs  and  dead 
bodies  to  a  neighboring  island,  and  who  also 
enacted  a  law  to  guard  the  sacred  ground  from 
the  pollution  of  births  and  deaths.  Its  towns, 
haWng  no  walls,  were  guarded  by  their  sanctity ; 
its  temple  and  immense  treasures  were  un- 
touched by  the  Persians  in  their  invasion  ;  and 
during  the  following  Avars  it  became  the  seat 
of  the  common  treasury  of  the  Grecian  states. 
When  this  was  removed  to  Athens,  Delos  de- 
cayed, but  was  still  remarkable  for  commerce ; 
and  after  the  destruction  of  Corinth  by  the  Ro- 
mans (146  B.  C),  was  the  chief  emporium  of  the 
slave  trade,  and  a  flourishing  seat  of  art.  The 
city  and  temple  were  plundered  and  destroyed 
by  Menophanes,  general  of  Mithridates,  king  of 
Pontus,  and  the  women  and  children  sent  as 
slaves  to  Asia.  The  remains  of  the  splendid 
ancient  buildings  were  at  a  later  period  carried 
away  by  the  Venetians  and  Byzantines ;  but  a 
few  broken  pillars  and  architraves  are  still  to  be 
seen  on  the  almost  desert  island,  Avhither  shep- 
herds from  tlie  neighboring  islands  transport 
their  flocks,  its  climate  being  regarded  as  un- 
healthy for  inhabitation. 

DELPHI,  or  Dei.phos  (Gr.  6i  AfX^ot),  a  small 
town  of  ancient  Phocis,  of  high  importance  in 
the  history  of  Greece  as  the  seat  of  the  oracle 
of  Apollo.  It  was  built  in  the  form  of  an  am- 
phitheatre, on  the  steep  S.  W.  extremity  of 
Mount  Parnassus,  in  a  secluded  mountain  region, 
in  the  midst  of  wild  peaks,  rocks,  and  cliff's.  Its 
name  had  its  origin,  according  to  the  legends  of 


Greece,  either  from  Delphos  the  son  of  Apollo, 
or  from  a  dolphin  (SeX^ti',  or  fieX^ir),  in  the 
form  of  which  Apollo  rushed  into  tlie  sea, 
after  having  killed  the  dragon  Pytho,  and  deter- 
mined on  the  erection  of  a  temple  on  the  spot. 
Boarding  a  Cretan  vessel,  he  made  it  pass  by 
the  place  of  its  destination,  Pylos,  and  entered 
the  harbor  of  Cirrha,  where  the  Cretans  on 
landing  were  again  struck  by  the  appearance  of 
the  god  as  a  beautiful  yonth,  and  with  songs 
and  hymns  followed  him  to  serve  as  his  priests 
at  Delphi,  wliich  they  founded.  The  first  sanc- 
tuary of  Apollo  was  a  rude  shelter  of  laurel 
boughs,  soon  replaced  by  a  temple  which  stood 
700  years,  and  was  burned  in  548  B.  C.  The 
Amphictyons  contracted  with  the  rich  Athenian 
Alcmfeonida3  for  its  rebuilding,  who  did  more 
than  they  promised,  making  the  front  of  the 
splendid  edifice  of  pure  Parian  marble  instead 
of  comnion  stone.  The  cold  stream  of  the  Cas- 
talian  spring  flowed  by  it,  as  it  also  did  by  the 
temples  of  Latona,  Diana,  and  Minerva.  It 
enclosed  the  cavern  Pythium,  containing  a  fis- 
sure, out  of  which  arose  mephitic  vapory  of  in- 
toxicating and  convulsing  power.  This  was  dis- 
covered by  a  shepherd,  who,  tending  his  goats  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Parnassus,  and  following  them 
to  the  brink  of  the  chasm,  fell  into  prophetic 
ecstasy.  It  was  above  the  chasm  that  the  high 
tripod,  covered  with  laurels,  Avas  fixed,  on  which 
the  Pythia  or  priestess  of  the  god  was  placed, 
after  haA'ing  bathed  in  the  Castalian  spring,  and 
wreathed  her  hair  with  a  garland  of  laurel. 
She  was  convulsed  to  ecstasy,  sometimes  even 
to  fatal  frenzy,  by  the  suffocating  exhalations, 
and  by  chewing  the  leaves  of  a  laurel  branch 
which  she  held  in  her  hand ;  the  color  of  her 
face  changing,  her  limbs  shivering,  her  hair 
bristling,  her  eyes  beaming,  and  her  lips  foaming, 
she  uttered  wild  groans  and  bowlings,  as  well 
as  single  confused  words  and  sounds.  In  the 
earlier  times  these  were  carefully  collected,  ar- 
ranged in  verse,  usually  in  ambiguous  phrases, 
and  rendered  in  writing  as  the  divine  ansAvers. 
The  Pythia,  who  often  fell  a  victim  to  the  ex- 
citement of  her  office,  was  bound  for  life  and  to 
the  strictest  chastity.  At  first  only  poor  young 
girls  were  selected  for  the  service,  but  afterward 
Avomen  of  the  age  of  50  at  least,  and  natives  of 
Delphi.  The  management  of  the  temple  of  Del- 
phi, and  especially  of  its  treasury,  which  was  en- 
riched by  the  donations  of  those  consulting  the 
god,  by  the  tithes  of  the  spoils  of  the  conquered, 
by  consecrated  presents,  and  the  regular  deposits 
of  states  and  individuals,  was  intrusted  to  the 
Amphictyons,  or  the  deputies  of  the  surround- 
ing cities  and  states  who  assembled  there  ;  but 
the  oracle  Avas  ruled  by  the  priests,  natives  of 
the  town,  or  rather  under  the  influence  of  an 
aristocracy  of  its  inhabitants,  who  were  all  re- 
garded as  the  sacred  family  of  Apollo,  and  de- 
lighted in  continual  sacrifices,  festivals,  feasts, 
and  processions,  as  Avell  as  in  the  Pythian  games, 
which  were  held  in  the  plain  between  Delphi 
and  Cirrha.  The  place  was  believed  to  be  the 
centre  of  the  earth,  and  indeed  was  called  its 


356 


DELPHIN 


DELUC 


navel,  two  eagles  Bent  by  Jupiter  from  east  and 
west  liaving  met  there.  The  influence  of  Del- 
phi through  the  oracle  on  the  affairs  of  Greece 
and  other  nations  was  immense.  Its  treasures, 
monuments,  and  statues,  particularly  those  of 
tlie  temple  of  Apollo,  were  prodigious  in  num- 
ber, value,  and  splendor.  There  could  be  seen, 
beside  the  countless  statues  of  gods,  demigods, 
and  illustrious  men,  the  extravagant  gifts  of 
Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  the  portico  with  the  in- 
scriptions of  the  Y  sages,  Persian  bucklers  from 
the  battle  of  Marathon,  the  beaks  of  Persian 
ships  taken  in  naval  victories,  the  shields  of 
the  invading  Gauls,  an  image  of  Homer,  the 
grave  of  Neoptolemus,  son  of  Achilles,  the  chair 
of  Pindar,  with  many  paintings  and  other  works 
of  art.  These  treasures  tempted  the  avarice  of 
Xerxes,  whose  ti'oops  were  frightened  away  by 
skilful  miracles,  as  were  afterward  the  invading 
Gauls ;  mauy  of  them,  however,  were  taken  and 
wasted  by  the  Phocians  in  their  wars  against 
the  Amphictyons ;  they  were  borrowed  by 
Sylla,  who  could  not  be  awed  by  miracles,  and 
plundeued  by  Nero.  The  decayed  place  was 
still  further  stripped  by  Constantine  the  Great, 
and  Julian  the  Apostate  could  as  little  restore 
its  splendor  as  he  could  the  worship  of  the  an- 
cient gods. 

DELPHIN,  the  name  applied  to  a  celebrated 
edition  of  the  Latin  classics,  which  was  prepared 
in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  by  39  of  the  best 
scholars  of  the  time,  for  the  use  of  the  dauphin 
(i«.  tistim  Delphini). 

DELPHINIUM,  the  name  of  an  extensive 
genus  of  annual  or  perennial  herbaceous  plants 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  of  ranunculacecB. 
They  have  handsome  irregular  flowers,  resem- 
bling somewhat  the  fanciful  figures  of  the  dolphin 
or  the  spurs  of  larks,  and  are  commonly  known 
as  larkspurs.  The  genus  is  nearly  allied  to  the 
aconites.  The  seeds,  especially  of  D.  staphisa- 
gria  (stavesacre)  and  I),  consolida  (branching 
larkspur),  are  powerfully  cathartic,  and  owing 
to  the  violence  of  their  operation  are  seldom 
given  internally  ;  they  are,  however,  employed 
in  destroying  vermin.  The  extract  {delphi- 
nia)  has  recently  been  used  in  tic  douloureux, 
paralysis,  and  rheumatism.  The  blossoms  of 
the  delphiniums  are  very  showy,  and  in  some 
sorts  they  are  even  extremely  rich  and  mag- 
nificent. Those  known  as  the  rocket  lark- 
spurs have  elegantly  colored  flowers,  though 
they  are  apt  to  exhibit  too  light  and  less  showy 
tints.  The  double  kinds  of  these  are  very  at- 
tractive to  the  eye  in  early  summer.  Then* 
seeds  are  sown  in  finely  pulverized  and  rich  soil 
in  the  autumn,  either  in  beds,  in  patches,  or 
in  single  rows,  as  fancy  or  taste  may  dictate,  and 
the  young  plants  thinned  out  when  it  is  neces- 
sary. If  allowed  to  stand  too  close  together,  the 
flower  spikes  are  not  so  well  developed.  Some- 
times they  are  used  to  succeed  the  blooming  of 
hyacinths,  and  are  accordingly  sown  in  or  near 
hyacinth  beds.  The  interstices  of  tidip  beds  are 
sometimes  sown  with  them  in  the  same  way ; 
and  thus  the  period  of  the  fading  of  the  flowers 


of  the  bulbs  is  enlivened  by  the  spikes  of  the 
larkspurs  bearing  their  hyacinth-hke  blooms. 
The  few  weeks  previous  to  the  proper  time 
for  taking  up  the  bulbs  suflice  to  exhaust  the 
beauty  of  the  larkspurs,  so  that  they  can  be 
removed  together.  The  perennial  delphiuiums 
are  conspicuous  for  size  and  altitude.  They 
vary,  however,  in  both  these  particulars.  Some 
grow  from  5  to  6  feet  high  in  a  few  weeks,  hav- 
ing spikes  of  coarse  blue  or  pale  blue  flowei-s. 
Others  are  more  supine,  have  weaker  flower 
stems,  and  a  more  divided  and  more  graceful 
and  delicate  foliage.  The  blossoms  of  such  are 
proportionably  more  beautiful,  varying  from  the 
intensest  blue  or  azure  to  a  paler  color,  and  so 
shading  off  by  degrees  to  a  pearly  or  opalescent 
tint.  Cultivation  has  produced  many  extra- 
ordinary and  double  sorts,  of  which  the  D. 
grandlflorum^  or  Chinese,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  and  Buck's  seedling  are  among  the  fin- 
est. These  perennials  are,  however,  herbace- 
ous, aU  dying  down  to  the  root  and  rising  again 
with  strong  shoots  in  the  next  year.  From 
a  singular  resemblance  of  the  inner  petals,  es- 
pecially in  the  single  flowers,  to  the  body  of 
a  bee,  they  have  been  called  bee  larkspurs, 
the  pubescence  accompanying  them  helping 
the  illusion  by  its  seeming  to  be  hairs.  The 
species  native  in  the  United  States  are  D. 
exaltatum  (Mx.),  with  a  stem  from  2  to  5  feet 
high  and  purplish  blue  flowers,  occurring  in 
Pennsylvania ;  D.  tricorne  (Mx.),  a  pretty  species 
of  a  foot  high,  seen  in  Ohio ;  and  J),  azureum 
(Mx.),  a  characteristic  species  in  Iowa  and  Min- 
nesota. One  other  is  becoming  naturalized,  D. 
consolida  (Linn.),  having  escaped  from  grain 
fields  and  appearing  on  the  sides  of  the  roads,  like 
many  other  foreign  species  introduced  by  seeds 
from  abroad,  either  for  the  garden  or  in  field 
husbandry.  A  splendid  scarlet-flowered  del- 
phinium was  discovered  by  Dr.  Parry  in  1850, 
on  the  mountains  east  of  San  Diego.  It  is  D. 
coccineum  (Torrey,  in  "Mexican  Boundary 
Survey").  Another  scarlet-flowered  species  is 
known  as  D.  nudicante.  Both  are  deemed  likely 
to  become  great  acquisitions  to  the  gardens. 

DELTA,  the  name  given  to  the  triangular 
alluvial  region  included  between  the  mouths  of 
the  Nile,  from  its  resemblance  in  form  to  the 
Greek  letter  of  this  name,  A.  The  term  after- 
ward came  to  be  applied  in  general  to  similar  al- 
luvial formations  at  the  mouths  of  large  rivers, 
whatever  might  be  their  shape. 

DELTA,  the  southernmost  co.  of  the  upper 
peninsula  of  Michigan,  washed  by  Lake  Michi- 
gan and  by  Green  Bay ;  area,  about  3,500  sq.  m. 
The  Menomonee  river  on  the  S.  W.  separates  it 
from  Wisconsin.  It  lias  a  hilly,  well  wooded 
surface,  and  contains  abundance  of  limestone 
and  sandstone.  The  census  of  1850  gives  no 
information  respecting  this  county,  which  was 
then  but  partially  organized.  It  was  probably 
named  from  its  triangular  shape. 

DELUC,  Jean  Andke,  a  Swiss  natural  j^hi- 
losopher,  born  in  Geneva,  Feb.  8,  1727,  died 
in  Windsor,  near  London,  Nov.  7,  1817.     His 


DELUC 


DELUGE 


357 


father,  an  anthor  of  considerable  merit,  "^as  able 
to  give  liiin  an  excellent  education,  though  he 
devoted  him  to  commercial  pursuits,  in  which 
the  first  half  of  Tiis  life  was  spent.  During  the 
numerous  journeys  which  his  business  required 
him  to  make  into  the  neighboring  countries,  he 
made,  with  the  assistance  of  his  brother,  Guil- 
laume  Antoine,  a  fine  collection  of  objects  of 
natural  liistor}'.  In  1773,  obliged  by  commer- 
cial misfortune  to  leave  his  native  city,  he 
went  to  England,  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
royal  society  of  London,  and  was  appointed 
reader  to  the  queen ;  this  situation  he  held 
for  44  years,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  making 
several  tours  in  central  Europe,  passing  6  years 
in  Germany,  and  after  his  return  in  1804  making 
a^geological  tour  in  England ;  he  received  at 
Gottingen  the  appointment  of  honorary  profes- 
sor of  geology  in  that  university,  though  he 
never  entered  upon  its  duties ;  he  was  also  a  cor- 
responding member  of  the  French  academy,  and 
fellow  of  several  other  scientific  associations. 
His  principal  writings  treat  ot  geology  and  me- 
teorology; his  first  important  work  in  the  order 
of  publication  was  Rcchcrchcs  sur  Ics  modifica- 
tions de  V  atmospTiere  (2  vols.  8vo.,  Geneva,  1772), 
which  contains  many  valuable  suggestions  on 
the  applications  of  barometers,  thermometers, 
and  hygrometers  to  practical  purposes ;  he  sub- 
stituted mercury  for  spirits  of  wine  in  Reaumur's 
thermometer,  and  invented  a  portable  barome- 
ter, establishing  correct  rules  for  determining 
by  this  instrument  the  height  of  mountains  and 
the  depth  of  mines;  other  papers  on  subjects  con- 
nected with  meteorology  are  scattered  through 
the  "Philosophical  Transactions"  from  1771 
to  1792.  lie  inherited  a  great  veneration  for 
the  Holy  Scriptures  from  his  father,  who  had 
Avritten  much  in  refutation  of  the  doctrines  of 
Mandeville  and  other  sceptical  authors,  and  his 
religious  fervor  is  manifest  in  all  his  works,  con- 
trasting strikingly  with  the  prevailing  infidel 
spirit  of  the  age.  In  1778-80  he  published  the 
Lettres  physiques  et  morales  sur  Vhistoire  de  la 
terre  (6  vols.  8vo.,  La  Haye) ;  this  work  treats 
particularly  on  the  comparatively  recent  origin 
of  the  present  continents  and  their  mountains, 
and  the  difficulty  of  carrying  back  this  origin  to 
a  period  more  remote  than  that  assigned  by  the 
Mosaic  chronology  to  the  flood.  Though  all  his 
conclusions  are  not  now  admitted  in  geology,  he 
extended  the  limits  of  this  science,  and  estab- 
lished many  important  points  by  his  experiments 
in  various  branches  of  natural  philosophy  con- 
nected with  it.  Ilis  reverence  for  the  Bible  led 
hira  to  explain  any  apparent  contradiction  be- 
tween geological  phenomena  and  the  Mosaic 
account  of  creation  ;  he  considers  the  6  days 
of  Genesis  as  so  many  periods  of  immense  and 
indefinite  duration  preceding  the  epoch  of  the 
actual  condition  of  the  globe,  and  attributes 
the  deluge  to  the  filling  up  of  cavities  supposed 
to  have  been  left  void  in  the  earth's  crust ;  the 
work  is  written  in  a  truly  religious  spirit,  and 
abounds  in  noble  thoughts  and  interesting  ob- 
servations on  men  and  manners.     In  his  Traite 


eUmentaire  de  geologic  (Svo.,  Paris,  1809),  he  op- 
poses the  system  of  Ilutton  and  Playfair,  which 
attributes  the  changes  in  the  earth's  structure 
to  the  action  of  fire,  and  advocates  the  agency 
of  water,  and  the  lesser  antiquity  of  the  pres- 
ent state  of  the  continents.  Cuvier  ranks  him 
among  the  first  geologists  of  his  age.  He  con- 
tributed many  papers  to  the  Journal  de  phy- 
sique^ the  Journnl  des  mines,  and  the  "  Philo- 
sophical Magazine,"  on  mineralogy,  geology, 
and  electricity ;  he  separated  the  chemical 
from  the  electrical  eflfects  of  the  voltaic  pile,  and 
constructed  an  ingenious  but  incomplete  instru- 
ment, the  dry  electric  column,  for  measuring 
the  electricity  of  the  air.  Some  of  his  theories 
are  not  a  little  fanciful,  and  he  strenuously  op- 
posed the  discovery  of  the  chemical  composition 
of  water ;  still  his  meteorological  experiments 
on  heat  and  moisture  are  of  great  value.  He 
published  also  several  volumes  of  his  geological 
travels  in  England,  and  northern  and  central 
Europe,  and  works  on  the  Baconian  philoso- 
phy, the  religious  education  of  children,  and  on 
Christianity. — GuiLLArME  ANTorsE,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  1729,  died  in  Geneva, 
Jan.  26,  1812.  He  travelled  extensively,  visit- 
ing Vesuvius  and  Etna  in  l756-'57,  making  fine 
collections  of  volcanic  products,  fossil  shells,  and 
other  objects  of  natural  history;  he  was  a  close 
observer,  exact  reasoner,  and  clear  and  vigorous 
writer.  His  papers  on  mineralogy  and  geology 
may  be  found  in  the  Journal  de  physique,  1798 
to  1804 ;  BihliotMque  Britannique,  1801  to  1809 ; 
and  Mercure  de  Fi-ance,  1806-'7.  He  was  ex- 
ceedingly fond  of  music,  and  an  enthusiastic  col- 
lector of  coins,  of  which  he  had  a  fine  cabinet. 

DELUGE,  an  overflow  of  water,  flooding  the 
land,  commonly  applied  to  designate  the  No- 
achian  flood  of  the  Scriptures.  This  great  nat- 
ural phenomenon  is  described  in  the  first  book 
of  Moses  as  occurring,  as  ordinarily  calculated, 
in  the  1656th  year  after  the  creation,  and  the 
600th  year  of  the  life  of  Noah.  A  similar  ca- 
tastrophe is  also  recorded  in  the  legends  and 
traditions  of  almost  all  races  upon  the  earth ; 
and  in  most  instances  the  descriptions,  though 
sometimes  in  an  allegorical  form,  so  closely  re- 
semble the  particulars  of  the  account  given  by 
Moses,  that  they  have  been  generally  regarded 
as  referring  to  the  same  great  event.  Among 
the  nations  of  eastern  and  southern  Asia,  with 
whom  the  modes  of  life  are  least  changed  from 
those  of  remote  antiquity,  these  traditions  have 
been  handed  down  from  the  period  of  their  earli- 
est histories.  The  Chinese  have  been  understood 
to  refer  to  it  as  the  great  event  which  divided 
the  race  of  men  into  the  higher  and  lower  ages. 
Davis,  however,  in  his  work  on  the  Chinese, 
attaches  less  importance  to  the  traditional  ef- 
fects of  their  deluge,  and  suggests  that  from  their 
own  account  of  it  the  flood  may  have  been  but 
an  overflow  of  the  waters  of  the  great  YeUow 
river,  which  by  their  inundation  might  now 
sweep  over  extensive  and  thickly  populated 
plains.  But  in  the  fanciful  picturing  of  the  Hin- 
doo tradition  of  the  god  Vishnu  meeting  and 


358 


DELUGE  • 


•  ■warning  the  prince  Satyavarata,  and  farnisLing 
him  with  a  large  vessel,  in  which  the  prince 
with  7  Nishis  and  their  wives  were  saved,  we 
appear  to  recognize  the  same  event  which  oc- 
curred to  the  Jewish  race,  the  identity  made 
still  more  positive  by  the  same  narrative  of 
what  afterward  happened  to  the  prince  and  his 
eons.  The  Parsees  in  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Persians  preserve  the  record  of  a  universal  flood 
of  waters  brought  upon  man  for  the  corrup- 
tions introduced  by  Ahriman,  the  evil  spirit. 
The  Chaldeans  retained  a  similar  account  to  that 
of  Moses,  representing  like  it  a  race  of  giants  as 
living  before  the  time  of  the  flood,  on  account 
of  whose  impieties  this  punishment  was  inflict- 
ed. Berosus,  in  whose  writings  this  narrative 
was  found  and  appealed  to  by  Josephus,  as  cor- 
roborating the  Jewish  account,  states  that  the 
remains  of  the  ark  were  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
mountains  of  Armenia,  and  that  the  people  con- 
tinued to  collect  the  asphaltum  from  it  for  a 
charm.  Abydenus  found  in  the  archives  of  the 
Medes  and  Babylonians  a  similar  statement  of 
the  ark  being  in  preservation  at  these  mountains, 
and  visited  by  people  for  the  purpose  of  obtain- 
ing relics  of  it.  He  speaks  of  Noah  as  a  king, 
whom  he  calls  Seisithrus,  and  narrates,  as  many 
of  the  other  traditions  do,  the  sending  out  of 
birds  from  the  ark,  and  their  return  with  traces 
of  mud  upon  their  feet.  Some  of  the  Christian 
fathers,  as  Theophilus  and  Chrysostom,  speak 
of  the  ark  as  existing  even  in  their  time.  The 
Noah  of  the  Greeks  was  Deucalion,  and  the 
account  given  of  the  flood,  in  which  he  and  his 
wife  Pyrrha  were  saved  in  a  ship,  is  remark- 
ably similar  to  that  of  the  Noachian  deluge. 
While  connected  with  this  in  most  of  its  par- 
ticulars, one  incident  on  the  other  hand  serves 
to  give  it  a  close  relation  to  the  more  obscure 
traditions  preserved  by  very  difierent  races  in 
a  far  distant  part  of  the  globe.  After  leaving 
the  ship,  it  is  stated  to  have  been  the  first  care 
of  Deucalion  to  consult  the  oracle  of  Themis 
as  to  the  means  by  which  the  earth  should  be 
repeopled.  The  response  of  the  oracle  was  that 
Deucalion  and  Pyrrha  should  veil  their  faces, 
unloose  their  girdles,  and  throw  behind  their 
backs  the  bones  of  their  great  mother.  Constru- 
ing this  to  mean  the  earth,  they  threw  behind 
them  the  stones  gathered  from  the  surface. 
Those  thrown  by  Deucalion  became  men,  and 
those  thrown  by  Pyrrha  became  women.  The 
Mexicans  are  described  by  Humboldt  as  having, 
with  many  of  the  rude  nations  of  the  new  world, 
their  traditions  of  the  great  deluge.  They  say 
a  man  and  woman  were  saved  upon  a  high 
mountain  named  Tamanacu,  and  casting  behind 
tliem  over  their  heads  the  fruit  of  the  mauritia 
palm  tree,  they  saw  men  and  women  spring 
up  from  the  seeds  of  these  fruits,  Prescott 
("  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  vol.  iii.  p.  373)  no- 
tices other  traditions  resembling  the  Scripture 
account  of  the  deluge.  The  Peruvians  date 
back  the  period  of  the  deluge  to  a  time  long 
anterior  to  the  existence  of  their  incas.  The 
original  inhabitants  of  the  island  of  Cuba  are 


said  to  have  been  found  possessed  of  the  story 
of  the  deluge  with  the  incidents  of  that  of  Noah, 
the  ark,  the  animals  introduced  into  it,  the  send- 
ing out  a  bird  (in  this  instance  a  crow)  to  look  for 
dry  land,  and  its  return  to  the  ark.  Our  native 
Indians  possessed  traditions  of  a  great  chief  be- 
ing preserved  upon  a  raft  with  pairs  of  all  the 
animals,  and  finally  reaching  the  new  earth  pre- 
pared for  him  by  the  Great  Spirit.  The  inhab- 
itants of  the  South  sea  islands  preserve  similar 
records  ;  but  among  these  and  most  barbarous 
tribes  the  traditions  are  modified  by  the  pecu- 
liar habits  of  thought  of  the  people,  each  giving 
a  color  reflected  from  familiar  circumstances 
and  modes  of  life,  and  each  placing  the  scene 
of  the  great  event  in  their  own  country. — These 
numerous  traditions  are  variously  regarded  by 
different  writers.  To  some  they  are  the  strong- 
est testimony  corroborating  their  understanding 
of  the  Scripture  statement — that  at  some  time 
in  the  early  history  of  the  race  the  whole  human 
family  were  nearly  exterminated  by  a  terrible 
and  universal  flooA  Others  regard  them  as  prov- 
ing too  much  ;  for  on  the  supposition  of  the  va- 
rious tribes  having  continued  to  occupy  the  ter- 
ritories they  make  the  scene  of  the  deluge  from 
the  period  of  its  occurrence,  each  must  have 
had  its  own  ark  and  its  own  Noah ;  while,  they 
say,  modern  researches  into  the  characteristics 
and  history  of  the  species  are  opposed  to  the 
probability  of  the  different  races  having  sprung 
and  been  distributed  from  one  common  centre 
within  the  time  passed  since  this  catastrophe, 
as  assigned  by  their  traditions.  Many,  there- 
fore, consider  these  histories  as  referring  to 
local  floods,  to  which  all  countries  are  more  or 
less  subject,  and  the  accounts  of  which  have 
been  often  unwittingly  modified  by  these  who 
received  them,  generally  through  languages  im- 
perfectly understood,  and  with  feelings  predis- 
posed to  find  resemblances  to  the  story  which 
formed  a  part  of  their  faith.  "What  really  was 
the  extent  of  territory  covered  by  the  waters 
has  long  been  a  question  of  great  interest  to 
scholars  and  theologians.  An  account  of  their 
various  theories  and  reasonings  would  here  be 
out  of  place.  Though  the  direct  evidence  of 
the  deluge,  which  geology  might  naturally  be 
expected  to  unfold,  has  been  controverted  re- 
peatedly, the  pursuit  of  the  science  has  nev- 
ertheless brought  together  multitudes  of  in- 
stances of  partial  catastrophes  of  this  nature, 
Avliich  have  occurred  at  various  times  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  world.  The  possibility  of  ele- 
vated lakes,  by  the  sinking  of  their  barriers, 
flooding  large  territories,  was  long  since  shown 
by  Sir  Charles  Lyell ;  and  he  also,  by  reference 
to  the  sinking  of  extensive  areas,  such  as  is  now 
known  to  occur,  showed  in  how  simple  a  man- 
ner the  vast  low  district  bordering  the  Euxine 
and  the  Caspian  might  be  flooded.  The  late 
Hugh  Miller  takes  up  and  develops  tliis  view 
in  the  last  of  his  works,  the  "Testimony  of  the 
Eocks;"  and  as  this  presents  the  opinions  now 
entertained  by  many  minds  of  the  highest  or- 
der in  both  science  and  religion,  it  may  well  be 


DELUGE 


359 


presented  in  these  pages  as  the  most  plaus- 
ible exposition  of  this  subject  :  "Tliere  is  a 
remarkable  portion  of  tlie  globe,  chiefly  in 
the  Asiatic  continent,  thougli  it  extends  into 
Eurbjie,  and  which  is  nearly  equal  to  all  Eu- 
rope in  area,  wliose  rivers  (some  of  them,  such 
as  the  Volga,  the  Ural,  the  Silion,  the  Koor,  and 
the  Amoo,  of  great  size)  do  not  fall  into  the 
ocean,  or  into  any  of  the  many  seas  wliich  com- 
municate with  it.  They  arc,  on  the  contrary, 
all  turned  inward,  if  I  may  so  express  myself, 
losing  themselves  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
tract,  in  the  lakes  of  a  rainless  district,  in  which 
they  supply  but  the  waste  of  evaporation,  and 
falling  in  tlie  western  parts  into  seas  such  as 
the  Caspian  and  the  Aral.  In  this  region  there 
are  extensive  districts  still  under  the  level  of 
the  ocean.  The  shore  line  of  the  Caspian,  for 
instance,  is  rather  more  than  S3  feet  beneath 
that  of  the  Black  sea ;  and  some  of  the  great 
flat  steppes  which  spread  out  around  it,  such  as 
what  is  known  as  the  steppe  of  Astrakhan,  have 
a  mean  level  of  about  30  feet  beneath  that  of  the 
Baltic.  Were  there  a  trench-like  strip  of  coun- 
try that  communicated  between  the  Caspian 
and  the  gulf  of  Finland  to  be  depressed  beneath 
tlie  level  of  the  latter  sea,  it  would  so  open  up 
the  fountains  of  the  great  deep  as  to  lay  under 
water  an  extensive  and  populous  region,  con- 
taining the  cities  of  Astrakhan  and  Astrabad, 
and  many  other  towns  and  villages.  Nor  is  it 
uuwortliy  of  remark,  surely,  that  one  of  the  de- 
pressed steppes  of  this  peculiar  region  is  known 
as  the  'Low  Steppe  of  the  Caucasus,*  and  forms 
no  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  great  recog- 
nized centre  of  the  human  family.  The  Mount 
Ararat  on  which,  according  to  many  of  our 
commentators,  the  ark  rested,  rises  immedi- 
ately on  the  western  edge  of  this  great  hollow ; 
the  Mount  Ararat  selected  as  the  scene  of  that 
event  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  certainly  not  with- 
out some  show  of  reason,  lies  far  within  it. 
Vast  plains,  white  with  salt,  and  charged  with 
sea  shells,  show  that  the  Caspian  sea  was  at  no 
distant  period  greatly  moje  extensive  than  it  is 
now.  In  an  outer  region,  which  includes  the 
vast  desert  of  Khiva,  shells  also  abound ;  but  they 
seem  to  belong,  as  a  group,  rather  to  some  of  the 
later  tertiary  eras  than  to  the  recent  period.  It 
is  quite  possible,  however,  that,  as  on  parts  of 
the  western  shores  of  our  own  country,  where 
recent  marine  deposits  lie  over  marine  depos- 
its of  the  pleistocene  age,  while  a  terrestrial 
deposit,  representative  of  an  intervening  parox- 
ysm of  upheaval,  lies  between  ;  it  is  possible,  I 
say,  that  in  tliis  great  depressed  area,  the  re- 
gion covered  of  old  by  a  tertiary  sea,  which  we 
know  united  the  sea  of  Aral  with  the  Caspian, 
and  rolled  over  many  a  wide  steppe  and  vast 
plain,  may  have  been  again  covered  for  a  brief 
period  (after  ages  of  upheaval)  by  the  breaking 
in  of  the  great  deep  during  that  season  of  judg- 
ment when,  with  the  exception  of  one  family, 
the  whole  human  race  was  destroyed.  It  seems 
confirmatory  of  this  view,  that  during  even  tlje 
historic  period  at  least  one  of  the  neighboring 


inland  seas,  though  it  belongs  to  a  different 
system  from  that  of  the  Caspian  and  the  Aral, 
covered  a  vastly  greater  area  than  it  does  now — • 
a  consequence  apparently  of  a  more  considerable 
depression  in  the  Caucasian  region  than  at  pres- 
ent exists.  Herodotus,  as  quoted  by  Cuvier  in 
his  'Theor}'  of  tlie  Earth,'  represents  the  sea 
of  Azov  as  equal  in  extent  to  the  Euxine.  With 
tlie  known  facts  then  regarding  the  depressed 
Asiatic  region  before  us,  let  us  see  whether  we 
cannot  originate  a  theory  of  the  deluge  free 
from  at  least  the  palpable  monstrosities  of  the 
older  ones.  Let  us  suppose  tliat  the  human 
family,  still  amounting  to  several  millions, 
though  greatly  reduced  by  exterminating  wars 
and  exhausting  vices,  were  congregated  in  that 
tract  of  country,  which,  extending  eastward 
from  the  modern  Ararat  to  far  beyond  the  sea 
of  Aral,  includes  the  original  Caucasian  centre 
of  the  race;  let  us  suppose  that,  the  hour  of 
judgment  having  at  length  arrived,  the  land  be- 
gan gradually  to  sink,  as  the  tract  in  the  Run 
of  Cutch  sank  in  the  year  1819,  or  as  the  tract 
in  the  southern  part  of  North  America,  known 
as  the  '  sunk  country,'  sank  in  the  year  1821 ; 
further,  let  us  suppose  that  the  depression  took 
place  slowly  and  equally  for  40  days  together, 
at  the  rate  of  about  400  feet  per  day — a  rate  not 
twice  greater  than  that  at  which  the  tide  rises 
in  the  straits  of  Magellan,  and  which  would 
have  rendered  itself  apparent  as  but  a  persist- 
ent inward  flowing  of  the  sea ;  let  us  yet  further 
suppose  that,  from  mayhap  some  volcanic  out- 
hurst,  coincident  with  the  depression,  and  an 
effect  of  the  same  deep-seated  cause,  the  atmo- 
sphere was  so  afl:ected,  that  heavy  drenching 
rains  continued  to  descend  during  the  whole 
time,  and  that  though  they  could  contribute  but 
little  to  the  actual  volume  of  the  flood — at  most 
only  some  5  or  6  inches  per  day— they  at  least 
seemed  to  constitute  one  of  its  main  causes,  and 
added  greatly  to  its  terrors  by  swelling  the 
rivers,  and  rushing  downward  in  torrents  from 
the  hills.  The  depression  wliich,  by  extending 
to  the  Euxine  sea  and  the  Persian  gulf  on  the  one 
hand,  and  to  the  gulf  of  Finland  on  the  other, 
would  open  up  by  3  separate  channels  the  foun- 
tains of  the  great  deep,  and  which  included,  let 
us  suppose,  an  area  of  about  2,000  miles  each 
way,  would,  at  the  end  of  the  40th  day,  be 
sunk  in  its  centre  to  the  depth  of  16,000  feet — a 
depth  sufliciently  profound  to  bury  the  loftiest 
mountains  of  the  district ;  and  yet,  having  a 
gradient  of  declination  of  but  16  feet  per  mile, 
the  contour  of  its  hills  and  plains  would  remain 
apparently  what  they  had  been  before ;  the 
doomed  inhabitants  would  see  but  the  water 
rising  along  the  mountain  sides,  and  one  refuge 
after  another  swept  away,  till  the  last  witness 
of  the  scene  would  have  perished,  and  the  last 
hilltop  would  have  disappeared ;  and  when 
after  150  days  had  come  and  gone  the  depress- 
ed hollow  would  have  begun  slowly  to  rise, 
and  when  after  the  5th  month  had  passed  the 
ark  would  have  grounded  on  the  summit  of 
Mount  Ararat,  all  that  could  have  been  seea 


860 


DEMADES 


DEMBINSKI 


from  the  tipper  window  of  tno  vessel  would  b© 
simply  a  boundless  sea,  rongLened  by  tides,  now 
flowing  outward,  with  a  reversed  course,  to- 
ward the  distant  ocean,  by  the  3  great  outlets 
which,  during  the  period  of  depression,  had 
given  access  to  the  waters.  Noah  would  of 
course  see  that  'the  fountains  of  tlio  deep  were 
stopped,'  and  that  the  waters  returned  from  off 
tlio  earth  continually  ;  but  whether  the  deluge 
had  been  partial  or  universal,  he  could  neither 
see  nor  know.  His  prospect  in  either  case 
would  have  been  equally  that  described  by  the 
poet  Bowles : 

The  mighty  ark 
Rests  upon  Ararat;  but  nauglit  around 
Its  inmates  can  behold,  save  o'er  the  expanse 
Of  boundless  waters  the  sun's  orient  orb 
Stretching  the  hull's  loiig  sliadow,  or  the  moon 
In  silence  through  the  silrcr-curtained  clouda 
Sailing,  as  she  herself  were  lost  and  left 
In  hollow  loneliness." 

DEMADES,  an  Athenian  orator  (died  818 
B.  C),  who,  from  being  a  sailor  or  fishmonger, 
raised  himself  to  a  prominent  position  at  Athens. 
He  belonged  to  tlie  pro-Macedonian  or  peace 
party,  and  was  the  virulent  opponent  of  De- 
mosthenes. He  fought,  however,  at  Ohferonea 
in  defence  of  Grecian  liberty,  and  was  taken  pris- 
oner, but  Philip  restored  him  his  freedom,  and 
treated  him  with  marked  distinction.  He  used  his 
influence  with  the  conqueror  to  obtain  favorable 
terms  for  his  native  city.  After  the  death  of  Philip 
he  became  the  steady  supporter  of  Alexander's 
supremacy  ;  and  when  after  the  destruction  of 
Thebes  Alexander  demanded  the  surrender  of 
Demosthenes,  Deraades,  under  the  incentive  of  a 
bribe  from  the  friends  of  the  latter,  interceded 
with  the  king,  and  mitigated  his  vengeance. 
Afterward,  when  Demosthenes  and  his  friends 
left  the  city  on  the  approach  of  Antipater  and 
Craterus,  he  induced  the  people  to  pronounce 
sentence  of  death  against  them.  Having  been 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Antipater,  the  latter  put 
him  to  death  on  discovering  letters  of  his  in 
which  he  urged  the  enemies  of  that  general  to 
attack  him.  Demades  was  a  great  wit,  and  ex- 
celled as  an  extempoi-aneous  orator.  A  large 
fragment  of  an  oration  commonly  ascribed  to 
Demades,  in  which  he  defends  liis  political  con- 
duct din-ing  Alexander's  reign,  is  contained  in 
the  collective  edition  of  the  Attic  orators,  but 
its  genuineness  is  contested.  Cicero  and  Quin- 
tilian  both  assert  that  Demades  left  no  orations 
behind  him. 

DEMAVEND,  Mount,  the  highest  summit 
of  the  Elbrooz  mountains  in  Persia,  between 
the  provinces  of  Irak-Ajamee  and  Mazanderan, 
lat.  35°  50'  N.,  long.  52°  E.  It  is  an  extinct  vol- 
cano, conical  in  shape,  and  about  15,000  feet 
high.  It  yields  large  quantities  of  pumice  stone 
and  pure  sulphur,  and  around  its  base  are  sev- 
eral hot  springs. 

DEMBINSKI,  Henrtk,  a  Polish  general,  born 
in  the  palatinate  of  Cracow,  Jan.  16,  1791.  His 
fatlier,  a  zealous  adherent  of  the  anti-Russian 
party,  and  of  the  constitution  of  Maj^  3,  urged 
■npon  his  young  sons  in  his  will  the  duty  of  de- 
fending the  same  principles  through  life ;  his 


mother,  a  patriotic  and  accomplished  woman, 
educated  them  accordingly.  Having  studied  for 
2  years  at  the  Vienna  academy  of  engineers, 
Henryk  left  it  in  1809,  refusing  to  accept  a 
commission  from  the  Austrian  government,  and 
enlisted  as  a  common  soldier  in  the  national 
army  of  the  newly  created  duchy  of  "Warsaw. 
He  became  a  lieutenant  at  the  opening  of  the 
campaign  against  Russia  in  1812,  was  made 
captain  by  Napoleon  on  the  battle  field  of 
Smolensk,  distinguished  himself  in  the  battle 
of  Leipsic,  was  subsequently  attaclied  to  Gen. 
"Wielohorski,  then  at  Paris,  and  returned  to  his 
native  country  after  the  fall  of  the  French  em- 
pire. Having  married,  he  engaged  successfully 
in  agricultural  pursuits,  and  in  1825  was  elect- 
ed a  member  of  the  Polish  diet,  where  he  acted 
with  the  opposition.  After  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  at  Warsaw  (Nov.  1830),  he  was  ap- 
pointed major  of  a  regiment  formed  in  his 
native  palatinate,  was  intrusted  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  mobile  national  guard  of  the  same, 
marched  with  his  troops  to  the  capital  in  Eeb. 
1831,  received  from  Skrzynecki  the  command 
of  a  cavalry  brigade,  and  tought  bravely  at 
Dembe  and  Liw,  and  with  still  greater  dis- 
tinction at  Kuflew,  against  the  overwhelming 
army  of  Diebitsch.  Sent  to  defend  a  bridge  of 
the  Narew,  he  repulsed  the  Russians  after  a 
bloody  battle  of  14  hours.  He  was  next  at- 
tached to  the  expedition  to  Lithuania,  which, 
being  undertaken  too  late  and  under  Gielgud 
and  Chlapowski,  proved  a  failure  after  a  few 
successful  engagements.  Gielgud  was  shot  as  a 
traitor  by  one  of  his  followers ;  Chlapowski 
crossed  the  Prussian  frontier  and  surrendered. 
Dembinski  alone  led  his  detachment  through 
the  marshes  and  forests  of  Lithuania,  partly 
amid  and  partly  behind  the  Russian  armies, 
back  to  the  capital,  where  he  unexpectedly  ap- 
peared on  Aug.  5,  and  was  received  with  great 
enthusiasm  by  the  people,  and  with  public 
thanks  by  the  diet.  Made  governor  of  "Warsaw, 
he  was  also  for  a  few  days  successor  in  the  chief 
command  to  Skrzynecki,  but  soon  disappointed 
the  hopes  he  had  excited.  After  the  fall  of 
Warsaw  in  September  he  followed  Rybinski  to 
Prussia,  went  thence  to  France,  where  he  pub- 
lished his  Memoires  sur  la  campagne  de  Lithu- 
anie  (Strasbourg,  1832),  and  in  1833  to  Egypt, 
to  assist  in  the  organization  of  the  army  of  Me- 
hemet  Ali,  whose  offensive  operations,  through 
Ibrahim  Pasha,  against  the  Porte,  which  was 
supported  by  Russia,  promised  to  offer  a  new 
theatre  of  war  against  the  latter  power.  This 
hope,  however,  soon  vanished,  and  Dembinski 
returned  to  France,  where  he  lived  in  compara- 
tive retirement  till  1848,  when  after  the  out- 
break of  February  he  went  to  Germany,  and  was 
present  at  the  so-called  Slavic  congress  of  Prague. 
Having  returned  to  Paris,  he  was  persuaded  by 
Count  Teleky  to  accept  a  command  in  Hungary, 
while  his  old  colleague  Bem  was  already  en- 
gaged in  reconquering  Transylvania.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  passing  through  Germany  and  over 
the  Austrian  frontier,  arrived  at  Debreczin  ia 


DEMBINSKI 


DEMETRIUS 


361 


Jan.  1849,  made  his  first  appearance  on  tlie  bat- 
tle field  in  the  camp  of  Perczcl,  who  was  then 
executhig  a  snccessfiil  mancjetivro  against  tlio 
Austriaiis  on  tlie  right  l)ank  of  the  Theiss  (Jan. 
23),  and  received  the  chief  command  of  the 
main  Hungarian  army  on  Feb.  5  The  maclii- 
nations  of  Gorgcy,  liowever,  who  was  impatient 
of  being  subordinate  to  another,  and  he  a  for- 
eigner, soon  liindered  the  plans  and  opera- 
tions of  Dembiuski.  The  Austrian  general 
Schlick,  allowed  to  retreat  from  Kaschau,  baffled 
Dembinski's  attempt  to  stop  him  at  Putnok, 
forced  his  way  through  the  mountains  of  G6- 
mor  and  lleves,  and  appeared  on  the  right 
flank  of  the  Hungarian  army,  in  the  great  bat- 
tle of  Kdpohia  (Feb.  2^?,  27),  where  the  latter 
was  attacked  while  marching  to  take  the  of- 
fensive. This  unexpected  event,  and  the  want  of 
precision  in  the  execution  of  the  orders  on  the 
part  of  Gorgey's  divisions,  owing  in  part  to 
their  distribution  on  the  vast  battle  field  in  con- 
sequence of  Dembinski's  distrust  of  that  general, 
caused  the  retreat  of  the  Hungarian  army  to 
Kovesd,  where  an  attack  of  the  enemy  (Feb. 
28)  was  successfully  repulsed,  and  finally  be- 
yond the  Theiss,  amid  difliculties  caused  by  the 
marshy  nature  of  the  ground,  deficiency  of 
provisions,  and  attacks  of  the  Austrians.  On 
their  arrival  at  Fi'ired  several  of  the  officers 
openly  declared  their  want  of  confidence  in  the 
abilities  of  the  Polish  general,  and  the  govern- 
ment was  thus  compelled  to  deprive  him  of  the 
cliief  command.  In  the  spring  he  received  the 
command  of  a  corps  in  the  north  of  Hungary, 
which,  however,  he  soon  resigned  to  Gen.  Wy- 
socki,  being  unable  to  agree  with  the  ministry 
of  war  regarding  the  operations.  On  July  2, 
when  Gorgey's  continued  disobedience  amid 
the  advance  of  the  Russians  and  Austrians  from 
every  quarter  finally  forced  Kossuth  to  more 
decisive  action,  Dembinski  received  the  virtual, 
and  his  friend  Lieutenant  Field  Marshal  Me- 
szaros  the  nominal  command  of  all  the  Hun- 
garian armies.  But  the  order  for  concentration 
was  not  executed ;  Gorgey  still  acted  independ- 
ently, and  reached  the  Theiss  only  after  a 
lengthened  though  victorious  retreat,  and  when 
the  Russians  had  crossed  it ;  Dembinski  was 
defeated  at  Szoreg  (Aug.  5),  and  forced  to  give 
up  the  lines  of  the  Theiss  and  Maros.  Instead 
of  falling  back  upon  Arad,  where  Gorgey's  army 
was  expected  to  arrive,  Dembinski,  dreading 
either  the  treachery  of  that  rival,  or  the  relief 
of  Teraesvar,  which  was  about  to  surrender,  by 
the  enemy,  retreated  toward  the  latter  fortress, 
and  there  lost  (Aug.  9)  the  bloody  battle  which 
sealed  the  fate  of  the  revolution,  in  spite  of 
the  cooperation  on  that  day  of  Bem,  Guyon, 
Kmety,  Perczel,  Wysocki,  and  other  leaders. 
The  remnants  of  the  army  retreated  toward 
Lugos,  Gorgey  surrendered  (Aug.  13),  and  Dem- 
binski sought  refuge  with  Kossuth  in  Turkey, 
whence,  as  a  citizen  of  France,  he  was  allowed 
to  return  to  that  country  in  1850.  A  Polish 
pamphlet  entitled  "  A  Glance  at  the  Last  Events 
of  the  Polish  Revolution,"  was  published  by  him 


in  Paris,  in  1837;  his  memoirs  of  the  Hunga- 
rian campaign  are  still  expected. 

DEMERARA,  one  of  the  3  counties  into 
which  the  colony  of  British  Guiana  in  South 
America  has  been  divided  since  1831,  derives  its 
name  from  the  river  Demerara.  It  lies  between 
lat.  0°  40'  and  8°  40'  N.,  and  long.  57°  and  61° 
W.,  is  situated  between  the  other  2  counties, 
Esscquibo  and  Berbice,  and  occupies  the  centre 
of  the  seaboard  for  about  90  m.  Pop.  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1851,  75,707,  including  that 
of  Georgetown  (25,508),  which  is  the  cai)ital  of 
the  county  and  of  the  colony.     (See  Guiana.) 

DEMETER.     See  Cekes. 

DEMETZ,  Fredekio  Auous'ra:,  a  French  phi- 
lanthropist, born  May  12,  1796.  He  w-as  bred  to 
the  law,  and  officiated  for  several  years  as  one 
of  the  judges  of  the  court  of  ^oZ/ce  correctionclle 
at  Paris.  Thus  his  attention  was  called  to  the 
great  number  of  juvenile  offenders,  for  whom  at 
that  time  there  was  no  house  of  correction,  or 
place  of  confinement,  except  with  the  adult  pris- 
oners, from  whom  they  soon  learned  to  become 
adepts  in  crime.  Fortunately,  about  this  period 
M.  Lucas,  the  inspector-general  of  prisons,  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  establishing  a  benevolent 
institution,  with  a  view  to  aid  in  the  reforma- 
tion of  some  of  these  juvenile  criminals.  Of 
this  society  M.  Demetz  early  became  an  active 
member,  and  was  finally  sent  Avith  M.  Leon 
F.'uicher  by  the  society  to  investigate  the  con- 
dition and  results  of  tlie  agricultural  colonies 
Avhich  had  been  established  in  Belgium  and 
Holland  for  the  reformation  of  young  offenders. 
M.  Demetz  also  visited  Hamburg,  and  at  the 
raulies  Hcvus^  near  that  city,  then  as  now  under 
the  superintendence  of  Dr.  "VVichern,  he  found 
the  model  of  a  reformatory  colony  which  he 
had  thus  far  sought  in  vain.  Having  returned 
to  France,  M.  Demetz,  in  connection  Avith  the 
viscount  do  Oourteilles,  established  in  1839  the 
colony  of  Mettrai,  near  Tours,  the  viscount  offer- 
ing a  portion  of  his  own  estate  for  the  experiment. 
In  July  of  that  year  they  assembled  23  young  men 
of  good  families  there,  and  occupied  themselves 
in  training  them  for  teachers  for  the  young  of- 
fenders who  Avere  to  be  brought  there.  In  Jan. 
1840,  they  admitted  12  young  criminals,  and 
gradually  increased  the  number,  till  now  they 
have  more  than  700  of  this  class  under  training. 
Since  the  death  of  Oourteilles  (1854)  the  super- 
intendence of  the  establishment  has  devolved  on 
M.  Demetz.  The  success  of  this  colony  has  led 
to  the  organization  of  many  similar  establish- 
ments in  Great  Britain  and  in  continental  Eu- 
rope. M.  Demetz  has  aided  many  of  these 
enterprises  by  his  presence  and  personal  influ- 
ence, particularly  in  England.  He  has  published 
Rapports  (h  M.  le  comte  dc  Ifontalivet  sur  les 
penitcnciers  des  ^tats  Uiiis,  the  result  of  his  in- 
vestigations during  his  visit  to  the  United  States 
in  1836,  in  company  with  M.  de  Tocqueville. 

DEMETRIUS,  or  Dmitri,  the  name  of  seve- 
ral Russian  princes,  who  reigned  in  the  13th, 
14th,  and  I7tli  centuries.  The  most  important 
of  them  is  known  under  the  name  of  Dmitri 


362 


DEMETRIUS 


Samozvanietz,  or  the  Pseudo  Demetrius,  and  is 
generally  believed  to  have  falsely  assumed  the 
name  of  the  younger  surviving  son  of  Ivan  tlie 
Terrible,  who  during  the  reign  of  the  elder 
son,  the  feeble  Fedor,  was  confined  by  Boris 
GodunofF,  the  brother-in-law  and  ruler  of  the 
czar,  in  the  town  of  Uglitch,  and  died  there  in 
1591  a  violent  death,  which  was  attributed  by  his 
mother  to  the  treachery  of  Boris.  The  young 
prince  was  found  in  his  blood,  the  knife  with 
which  he  had  been  playing  in  his  throat ;  some 
visitors  from  the  court  were  pointed  out  by  the 
lamenting  mother  as  the  murderers,  to  the  ga- 
thering people  of  the  place,  wjio,  fanatically 
revering  the  house  of  Rurik,  and  hating  the 
usurper,  rushed  upon  the  strangers  and  massa- 
cred tliem.  Boris  took  fierce  revenge  for  this 
insult  on  the  people  and  town  of  Uglitch,  and 
ample  testimony  was  procured  to  prove  before 
his  tribunal  that  Demetrius  died  accidentally. 
His  despotic  though  energetic  reign  before  and 
after  the  death  of  Fedor,  the  last  of  the  Ruriks 
(1598),  had  prepared  the  minds  of  the  Russians 
for  a  rebellion,  when  rumors  of  Demetrius  hav- 
ing escaped  the  hands  of  the  assassins  by  the 
substitution  of  another  victim  spread  over  the 
country.  The  pretender,  whose  real  name  and 
origin  are  still  a  mystery,  made  his  first  dis- 
closures in  1603  at  the  court  of  Prince  Adam 
"Wisniowiecki  in  Lithuania,  where  he  was  serv- 
ing in  the  capacity  of  a  page.  Prince  Constan- 
tine  Wisniowiecki,  the  brother  of  Adam,  intro- 
duced him  to  his  father-in-law,  Mniszek,  palatine 
of  Sandomii'.  Some  of  the  Polish  nobles  and 
their  friends  were  gained  by  the  persuasive  skill 
of  the  pretender,  others  were  incited  by  hopes 
of  adventures  or  gain  to  support  him,  while 
Mniszek  was  fascmated  by  the  prospect  of  seat- 
ing upon  the  throne  of  Russia  his  beautiful  and 
ambitious  daugliter,  Maryna,  for  whom  the 
youth  declared  his  love.  An  audience  of  the 
king,  Sigismund  III.,  was  easily  gained,  and,  the 
interests  of  both  the  state  and  the  Catholic 
church  decisively  pleading  in  favor  of  the  cause, 
the  nobles  were  allowed  to  set  on  foot  an  expe- 
dition to  Moscow,  independently  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  future  czar  was  zealously  assisted 
by  the  Jesuits,  whose  influence  had  now  begun 
to  be  of  great  weight  in  the  councils  of  Poland, 
and  some  historians,  therefore,  suspect  him  to 
have  been  the  elhe  and  tool  of  the  order.  A 
Bimultaneous  revolt  of  the  Russian  Cossacks 
against  the  rule  of  Boris,  under  the  lead  of 
Grishka  (Gregory)  Otrepietf,  a  runaway  monk, 
seconded  the  enterprise.  The  menaced  prince, 
in  order  to  degrade  his  rival,  identified  him 
with  the  leader  of  the  Cossacks,  a  statement 
which  afterward  misled  some  intelligent  writers. 
The  invading  army,  about  5,000  strong,  was  re- 
enforced  in  Russia  by  detachments  of  Cossacks. 
Some  of  the  strongest  cities,  summoned  in  the 
name  qi  the  son  of  Ivan,  voluntarily  opened 
their  gates;  others  were  taken.  Novgorod 
Seversk  alone,  defended  by  Basmanoff,  success- 
fully checked  their  march,  thus  etfectually  as- 
sisting the  operations  of  the  opposing  army. 


Having  vanquished  Prince  Mstislavski  in  Dec. 
1G04,  the  pretender  was  in  his  turn  defeated  by 
the  same  general  in  Jan.  1605,  and  pressed  back 
to  Pootivl ;  but  the  sudden  death  of  Boris  by 
apoplexy  or  poison  soon  terminated  the  war. 
Basmanotf,  made  commander  of  the  army  by 
his  son  and  successor,  Fedor,  came  into  the 
camp  of  the  enemy  to  implore  his  mercy.  A 
deputation  from  Moscow  offered  to  surrender 
the  capital,  the  new  czar  and  his  family  were 
surprised  in  the  Kremlin  and  thrown  into  prison, 
and  the  victor  entered  Moscow  in  triumph  amid 
the  shouts  of  the  peoi)le  (June,  1605),  and  was 
crowned  as  Czar  Demetrius.  Fedor  and  his 
mother  had  been  murdered,  perhaps  by  his  com- 
mand ;  other  members  of  the  imhappy  family 
also  were  made  victims  of  his  cruelty  or  policy, 
but  a  daughter  of  Boris  was  spared  to  become 
his  concubine.  The  widow  of  Czar  Ivan  was 
now  brought  forth  from  the  convent,  in  which 
she  had  so  long  been  secluded,  and  her  tears  and 
embraces  gave  public  sanction  to  the  identity 
of  the  new  czar  with  her  son  Demetrius.  His 
reign  was  marked  from  the  beginning  by  vigor 
and  energy  as  well  as  ability ;  but  his  love  of 
innovations,  his  undisguised  predilection  for  the 
culture,  institutions,  and  even  religion  of  Poland, 
and  his  often  expressed  contempt  of  the  cus- 
toms, superstitions,  and  barbarons  ignorance  of 
his  subjects,  soon  made  him  the  object  of  na- 
tional hatred.  The  arrival  of  his  foreign  spouse, 
with  a  large  and  pompous  train  of  Polish  nobles, 
warriors,  and  Jesuits,  the  arrogant  and  reckless 
behavior  of  some  of  these  followers,  and  ru- 
mors of  the  czar's  intended  apostasy  from  the 
Russian  church,  finally  undermined  his  throne. 
A  few  days  after  the  celebration  of  his  nuptials 
with  Maryna,  and  her  coronation,  a  band  of  con- 
spirators, led  by  Prince  Shuiski,  who  was  in- 
debted to  Demetrius  for  the  generous  pardon  of 
a  former  plot,  assaulted  the  Kremlin.  Demetrius 
found  some  faithful  defenders,  and  evinced  ex- 
treme boldness  in  the  defence  of  his  life,  but  in 
vain.  Thousands  of  his  men,  including  nearly 
all  the  Poles,  Avere  mercilessly  butchered  with 
him,  by  the  infuriated  people  (May  16,  1606). 
Prince  Shuiski  was  proclaimed  czar  under  the 
name  of  Basil  III.,  but  being  attacked  by  a  new 
pretender,  also  calling  himself  Demetrius,  and 
by  the  Poles  and  Swedes,  was  obliged  to  resign 
his  throne.  The  origin  and  previous  history  of 
the  new  Demetrius  are  unknown;  his  abilities 
were  of  an  inferior  kind,  but  his  depredations 
made  him  an  object  of  terror,  and  even  the 
capital  was  held  by  him  in  a  kind  of  blockade 
for  more  than  a  year.  Some  of  his  men  hav- 
ing captured  Maryna,  who  had  been  released 
from  prison  to  return  to  her  country,  the  ambi- 
tious princess  acknowledged  him  as  her  lawful 
husband.  But  the  pretender  was  soon  after 
murdered  by  a  Tartar  chief  of  his  guards,  and 
the  degraded  tzaritza  perished  miserably,  ac- 
cording to  some,  in  the  waters  of  the  Ural,  but 
according  to  others,  in  prison.  Even  after  the 
accession  of  the  house  of  Romanoff  to  the 
throne  of  Moscow  (1013),  the  convulsions  caused 


DEMETKIUS  PHALEREUS 


DEMETRIUS  POLIORCETES       363 


by  pretenders,  one  of  whom  called  himself  a 
8on  of  the  first  of  them,  were  but  slowly  sup- 
pressed. The  history  of  the  first  samozvanictz 
has  been  poetically  adorned  by  Bulharin,  Push- 
kin, and  Choniiakolf,  and  made  the  subject  of 
an  unfinished  drama  by  Scliiller. — Compare  P. 
Merimee,  Les  faux  Demetrius  (Paris,  1854). 

DEMETRIUS  PHALEREUS,  so  called  from 
being  a  native  of  the  district  of  Phalerus,  an 
Athenian  orator  and  statesman,  born  about  345, 
died  about  282  B.  0.  The  son  of  poor  parents,  he 
studied  oratory,  poetry,  philosopliy,  and  states- 
manship, particularly  under  the  guidance  of  the 
philosopher  Theophrastus,  and  began  his  politi- 
cal career  in  325,  as  an  eloquent  champion  of 
the  democratic  or  anti-Macedonian  party.  This 
party  being  expelled  from  power,  he  retired  into 
voluntary  exile,  but  was  afterward  reconciled 
with  his  former  opponents;  and  when,  in  317, 
Cassander  of  Macedon  became  virtually  master 
of  Athens,  he  became  governor  in  his  belialf, 
being  supported  by  a  Macedonian  garrison. 
He  thus  ruled  Athens  for  10  years  with  moder- 
ation and  success,  though  not  without  pervert- 
ing the  rich  revenues  of  the  state  to  his  personal 
luxury  and  dissipation.  The  degenerate  Athe- 
nians rewarded  his  services  by,  erecting  in  his 
honor  as  many  statues  as  their  year  contained 
days,  but  these  were  scornfully  broken  when 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes  surprised  the  city,  in  307, 
and  compelled  Phalereus  to  retire.  Condemned 
to  death  in  his  absence,  he  went  to  Thebes,  and 
afterward  to  Egypt,  where  he  was  well  treated 
by  Ptolemy,  son  of  Lagus,  but  banished  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  country  by  his  son  Philadel- 
phus,  who  had  been  made  heir  against  his  ad- 
vice. He  is  said  to  have  died  of  the  bite  of  a 
snake.  The  foundation  of  tlie  Alexandrian  li- 
brary has  been  attributed  by  some  writers,  but 
with  little  reason,  to  his  influence  with  the  1st 
Ptolemy.  In  Egypt  Demetrius  composed  nu- 
merous historical,  philosophical,  and  literary 
works,  of  which  only  a  few  fragments  are  ex- 
tant, the  work  on  elocution  which  is  known 
under  his  name  being  the  production  of  an  Al- 
exandrian sophist.  He  is  one  of  the  last  Athe- 
nian orators  who  deserved  the  name ;  hia  elo- 
quence, however,  was  distinguished  by  grace 
and  refinement  rather  than  by  power. 

DEMETRIUS  POLIORCETES  (the  city-be- 
sieger), one  of  the  most  conspicuous  personages 
in  the  history  of  the  long  and  bloody  conten- 
tions which  followed  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  born  shortly  before  the  accession  of  that 
conqueror  to  the  throne  of  Macedon,  was  the 
son  of  Antigonus,  who,  in  the  first  division  of 
the  Macedonian  empire,  received  several  prov- 
inces of  Asia  Minor  for  his  share.  In  the  wars  of 
his  father  against  Eumenes  and  Ptolemy,  De- 
metrius early  evinced  valor  and  devotion  to  his 
father's  cause.  Commanding  in  Syria,  he  was 
defeated  by  Ptolemy  in  the  battle  of  Gaza  (312 
R.  C),  but  soon  restored  tlie  balance  of  the  war 
by  a  victory  over  one  of  his  generals,  on  which 
occasion  he  dismissed  without  ransom  several 
thousands  of  his  captives,  thus  repaying  a  simi- 


lar magnanimous  act  of  his  enemy.  A  treaty 
of  peace  was  concluded  soon  after,  but  this  was 
of  short  duration,  and  the  war  was  continued 
with  various  success.  More  decisive  were  his 
services  to  his  father  in  the  expedition  to  Greece, 
the  most  important  places  of  which  had  beeu 
occupied  and  garrisoned  by  Cassander,  son  of 
Antipater  of  Macedon.  Sailing  from  Ephesus 
(307)  to  Athens,  Demetrius  entered  the  harbor 
of  the  Piraeus  with  his  fleet,  which  was  mistaken 
for  that  of  Egypt,  without  meeting  with  any  re- 
sistance. Demetrius  Phalereus,  who  had  ruled 
Athens  for  10  years,  in  allegiance  to  Macedon, 
was  compelled  to  retire  to  Thebes;  Munychia 
and  Megara,  which  were  defended  by  garrisons 
in  the  interest  of  Cassander,  were  unable  to 
withstand  the  skill  and  engines  of  the  besieger, 
and  he  finally  made  his  triumphant  entry  into 
Athens.  Having  announced  the  restoration  of 
the  ancient  democratic  institutions,  and  prom- 
ised distributions  of  corn  and  ship  timber,  ho 
was  received  with  the  most  abject  flatteries  as 
god  and  deliverer  (acorrjp)  by  the  degenerate 
people,  who  now  broke  the  360  statues  recently 
erected  in  honor  of  Demetrius  Phalereus.  Sum- 
moned to  the  assistance  of  his  father  in  his  war 
against  Ptolemy,  he  crossed  over  to  Cyprus,  de- 
feated the  Egyptian  fleet,  and  made  himself 
master  of  that  island,  having  taken  Salamis,  its 
chief  city;  after  which  both  his  father  and  him- 
self assumed  the  title  of  king,  and  their  exam- 
ple was  followed  by  the  rival  potentates  of 
Egypt,  Thrace,  and  Syria — Ptolemy,  Lysima- 
chus,  and  Seleucus.  Demetrius  next  undertook 
an  invasion  of  Egypt  by  sea  and  land,  which 
failed,  his  forces  being  repulsed  with  great  loss. 
He  now  turned  toward  Rhodes,  which  he  be- 
sieged for  more  than  a  year ;  but  the  Rhodians, 
supplied  and  reenforced  by  the  allied  enemies 
of  his  father,  withstood  bravely,  and  the  siege 
was  terminated  by  a  treaty.  Poliorcetes  then 
sailed  to  Greece,  which  was  again  threatened 
with  the  sway  of  Cassander.  He  compelled  the 
Boeotians  to  relinquish  their  alliance  with  Mace- 
don, expelled  Cassander  from  Attica,  and  made 
himself  master  of  Corinth,  Argos,  Sicyon,  and 
most  of  the  towns  of  Arcadia.  In  Athens  the 
deified  deliverer  was  received  with  the  wonted 
honors,  and  resided  as  the  guest  of  Minerva  in 
the  Parthenon,  which  he  polluted  by  shameless 
debauchery.  His  pleasures  and  the  equally  de- 
grading manifestations  in  his  honor  were  again 
interrupted  by  the  call  of  his  father,  which  he 
was  always  ready  to  obey.  He  hastened  to 
Asia,  and  fought  in  the  great  battle  of  Ipsus,  in 
Phrygia.  The  rival  forces  were  nearly  equal; 
but  Demetrius,  with  imprudent  valor,  pushed 
too  far  the  victorious  advance  of  his  wing ;  the 
centre,  commanded  by  his  father,  was  broken, 
and  the  old  man  was  slain  while  yet  expecting 
relief  from  his  son.  His  dominions  were  broken 
up,  the  greater  part  falling  into  the  hands  of 
Seleucus.  Demetrius,  retiring  with  the  rem- 
nant of  his  army,  embarked  at  Ephesus  for  Ath- 
ens, but  met  on  his  voyage  with  envoys  from 
that  city,  who  announced  to  him  that  he  would 


a64 


DEMETRIUS  SOTER 


DEMIDOFF 


not  be  admitted.  This  defection  was  followed 
by  the  loss  of  his  other  possessions  in  Greece, 
his  garrisons  being  expelled  from  every  town. 
lie  succeeded,  however,  in  restoring  his  fortunes 
by  an  alliance  with  Seleucus,  to  whom  he  gave 
his  daughter  Stratonice  in  marriage.  The  treaty 
of  alliance  stipulated  that  Demetrius  should  re- 
tain possession  of  Cilicia,  Cyprus,  and  a  part  of 
the  coast  of  Syria.  He  now  armed  for  the  re- 
conquest  of  Greece,  besieged  and  after  a  long 
resistance  took  Athens  (295),  and  made  a  suc- 
cessful expedition  into  the  Peloponnesus,  when 
his  attention  was  turned  to  Macedon.  Oassan- 
der  and  his  eldest  son  Philip  had  died ;  the  two 
remaining  sons,  Antipater  and  Alexander,  were 
engaged  in  a  bloody  struggle  for  the  throne,  and 
the  latter  invoked  the  aid  both  of  Demetrius 
and  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus.  Pyrrhus  appeared  first 
and  vanquished  Antipater ;  Demetrius  came 
after  him,  and  deprived  Alexander,  who  is  said 
to  have  attempted  his  assassination,  both  of  his 
tin-one  and  life  (294).  While  he  was  thus  suc- 
cessful in  Europe,  he  lost  his  possessions  in  Asia, 
which  were  taken  by  Ptolemy  and  Seleucus. 
The  following  4  years  were  occupied  by  two 
sieges  of  Thebes,  an  invasion  of  Thrace,  and  a 
war  with  Pyrrhus  and  the  ^tolians,  after  the 
termination  of  «which  he  was  preparing  for  a 
new  campaign  in  Asia,  when  he  was  attacked 
(287)  by  a  triple  invasion  from  Thrace,  Epirus, 
and  Egypt.  While  marching  against  the  Epi- 
rotes  he  was  deserted  by  his  Macedonian  troops, 
who  proclaimed  Pyrrhus  as  their  king.  Deme- 
trius escaped  to  his  son  Antigonus  Gonatas, 
who  had  maintained  possession  of  Greece,  and 
succeeded  in  saving  a  part  of  his  dominion  by  a 
treaty  with  Pyrrhus.  Leaving  his  son  in  Greece, 
he  crossed  over  to  Miletus,  and  fought  his  way 
as  far  as  the  northern  mountain  range  of  Syria, 
but  was  finally  compelled  to  surrender  to  Se- 
leucus, who  kept  his  father-in-law  in  confine- 
ment at  Apamea  in  Syria  till  his  death  in  283. 
Antigonus,  who  had  lost  almost  all  Greece,  of- 
fered in  vain  the  remainder  of  his  possessions 
and  himself  for  the  freedom  of  his  father,  who 
in  turn  ceded  to  him  all  his  claims,  spending  his 
last  days  in  effeminate  amusements  unworthy 
of  his  warlike  career. 

DEMETRIUS  (I.)  SOTER  (the  deliverer), 
king  of  Syria,  born  about  1 87,  died  150  B.  0.  He 
was  the  son  of  Seleucus  Philopator,  and  grand- 
son of  Antiochus  the  Great.  Sent  as  hostage 
to  Rome  by  his  father,  he  remained  there  dur- 
ing the  whole  reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
after  whose  death,  in  164,  he  besought  the  sen- 
ate to  release  him  and  acknowledge  him  as  king 
of  Syria.  This  being  refused,  he  followed  the 
advice  of  his  friend,  the  historian  Polybius,  and 
escaped  secretly  from  Rome.  He  landed  at  Tri- 
polis,  in  Plioenicia,  and  was  hailed  as  king  by 
the  Syrians ;  the  young  Antiochus  V.  and  his 
tutor  Lysias  were  put  to  death  (162);  and  rich 
presents  and  ready  subservience  procured  the 
acknowledgment  of  the  new  reign  by  the  Ro- 
naans.  Delivering  Babylon  from  the  tyranny 
of  a  despotic  governor,  he  received  his  surname 


of  Soter,  from  the  gratitude  of  tliat  city.  In  his 
war  against  the  revolted  Jews  his  lieutenant 
Nicanor  was  routed  by  Judas  Maccabeus,  who 
also  concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  Ro- 
mans against  Demetrius.  His  interference  in 
the  affairs  of  Cappadocia  still  more  alienated 
from  him  the  senate  of  the  republic,  and  his 
oppressive  rule  and  debauchery  disgusted  his 
own  people.  Instigated  by  the  deposed  gov- 
ernor of  Babylon,  one  Balas  rose  against  him, 
claiming  to  be  Alexander,  son  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  and  meeting  with  assistance  from 
the  Romans,  Jews,  and  Cappadocians,  finally 
vanquished  him  in  a  battle.  Demetrius  was 
slain  in  his  flight,  after  having  performed  prod- 
igies of  valor.  Both  Demetrius  Nicator  and 
Antiochus  Sidetes,  his  sons,  reigned  successively 
after  him. 

DEMIDOFF,  a  noble  and  wealthy  Russian 
family,  the  most  distinguished  members  of 
which  are  the  following :  I.  Nikita,  with  whom 
the  name  and  nobility  of  the  house  originated, 
born  after  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  the 
son  of  a  serf  in  the  government  of  Toola,  be- 
came a  blacksmith  and  a  manufacturer  of  arms, 
and  having  acquired  great  skill  in  the  working 
of  metals,  established  for  tlie  government  the 
first  iron  foundery  in  Siberia  at  Neviansk,  near 
Ekaterinburg  (1699).  This  served  as  a  model 
of  many  other  flourishing  establishments  in  the 
Ural  mountains,  and  was  presented  to  him  with 
its  dependencies  by  Peter  the  Great,  who  also 
ennobled  him.  II.  Akinfi,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, discovered  important  mines  of  gold,  silver, 
and  copper  in  diflTerent  regions  of  Siberia,  which 
he  and  his  son  Nikita  were  allowed  by  the  gov- 
ernment to  work  for  their  own  profit  by  Ger- 
man miners.  He  founded  the  extensive  iron 
founderies  of  Lower  Tagielsk,  was  made  coun- 
cillor of  state,  and  died  about  1740.  III.  Paul, 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Revel  in  1738, 
died  in  1826.  He  travelled  through  several 
countries,  studied  metallurgy  at  Freiberg  in 
Saxony,  and  natural  science  under  Linnfcus  at 
Upsal,founded  at  Moscow  a  public  cabinet  of  na- 
tural history,  a  botanical  garden,  and  a  professor- 
ship of  natural  science,  and  a  flourishing  lyceum 
at  Yaroslav.  IV.  Nicolai,  nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  1774,  served  in  two  campaigns 
against  the  Turks,  travelled  through  Germany, 
Italy,  France,  and  England,  equipped  at  his  own 
expense  and  commanded  a  regiment  during  the 
invasion  of  Napoleon,  was  made  colonel,  count, 
and  privy  councillor,  and  died  in  1828.  He  en- 
larged the  wealth  of  his  family  by  mining  enter- 
prises, and  added  to  the  collections  of  the  Mos- 
cow university  a  new  cabinet  of  natural  history. 
He  is  also  remarkable  as  an  author  on  political 
economy  in  French.  V.  Anatol,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Florence  in  1812,  was  edu- 
cated in  France,  travelled  through  southern 
Russia  and  adjoining  countries,  was  made  prince 
of  San  Donato  by  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany, 
and  married  the  princess  Mathilde  de  Montfort, 
daugliter  of  Jerome  Bonaparte  and  Catharine 
of  Wurtemberg.     But  having  obliged  himself 


DEMIURGE 


DEMOCRACY 


365 


to  bring  up  his  children,  if  any  should  bo  born, 
in  tlie  Roman  Catholic  religion,  contrary  to  tho 
rule  of  his  own  country  and  his  own  religion, 
he  lost  for  some  time  the  favor  of  the  emperor 
Nicholas,  was  summoned  home  to  answer  for 
this  offence,  but  was  soon  allowed  to  continue 
his  residence  in  foreign  countries,  and  lived  al- 
ternately in  France  and  Italy,  llis  marriage, 
however,  had  no  issue,  and  was  soon  dissolved. 
On  tho  outbreak  of  the  Russian  war  against 
Turkey  in  1858,  he  was  attached  to  tho  Russian 
legation  at  Vienna,  and  made  councillor  of  state. 
On  vai'ious  occasions  he  has  evinced  a  liberality 
not  inadequate  to  his  immense  possessions,  by 
donations  and  foundations  for  public  cluirity  and 
the  promotion  of  science.  He  wrote  in  part 
tho  Voyage  dans  la  Hussie  inerklionale  et  la 
Crimee^  par  la  Ilongrie^  la  Valuchie,  et  la  Mol- 
davie  (4  vols.  Paris,  1839-'41),  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  several  French  scholars  and  artists 
who  accom|)anied  him. 

DEMIURGE,  a  Greek  word,  meaning  literally 
a  handicraftsman,  but  Avhich  was  applied  by  the 
Platonists  to  an  exalted  agent  or  ^on  employed 
by  the  Deity  in  the  creation  of  the  universe.  The 
Platonizing  Christians  regarded  the  second  per- 
son in  the  Trinity,  the  Divine  Word,  as  one  of 
an  infinite  series  of  creators  or  demiurgi.  The 
adjective  demiurgic  is  used  in  sacred  geology 
to  designate  the  6  days  in  which  the  world  was 
created,     (See  Gnostics.) 

DEMMIN",  the  capital  of  a  circle  of  the  same 
name  in  the  Prussian  district  of  Stettin ;  pop.  of 
the  circle  48,400,  and  of  the  town  7,759.  The 
latter  is  situated  on  the  frontiers  of  Meckleu- 
burg-Schwerin,  70  m.  from  Stettin,  in  a  valley 
surrounded  by  hills,  on  the  bank  of  the  river 
Pcene.  It  consists  of  the  town  proper  and  3 
suburbs,  and  has  manufactories  of  woollens, 
linens,  hats,  and  hosiery,  and  an  active  trade  in 
tobacco,  corn,  and  timber.  The  town  proper  is 
suiTounded  by  a  wall  with  3  gates,  and  was  a 
place  of  great  importance  in  the  time  of  Char- 
lemagne. It  has  sustained  numerous  sieges, 
suffered  severely  during  the  30  years'  war,  and 
was  in  1807  the  scene  of  several  engagements 
between  the  French  and  Russians. 

DEMOCEDES,  a  Greek  physician,  borij  at 
Crotona,  in  Magna  Grrocia,  about  550 13.  C.  He 
was  supposed  to  have  had  the  benefit  of  general 
training  under  Pythagoras.  The  severity  of  his 
father,  Calliphon,  caused  him  to  leave  his  home 
and  settle  at  iEgiua,  where  he  was  very  suc- 
cessful. Thence  he  went  on  invitation  to  Athens, 
and  soon  afterward  he  entered  the  service  of 
Polycrates,  tyrant  of  Samos.  Accompanying 
his  patron  on  his  visit  to  Oroetes,  satrap  of  Sar- 
dis,  he  sh  ired  that  patron's  misfortune,  and 
became  a  slave.  "When  Oroetes  was  put  to 
death  by  order  of  the  great  king,  Democedes 
was  seized  as  one  of  his  slaves,  and  sent  to  Susa. 
Darius  Hystaspes,  then  monarch  of  Persia,  hav- 
ing sprained  his  foot  badly  when  leaping  from 
his  horse,  suflfered  severely,  and  could  obtain  no 
relief  until  some  one  recollected  the  Greek  sur- 
geon who  had  been  seized  at  Sardis,  and  who, 


in  chains  and  rags,  was  brought  to  the  royal 
chamber.  At  first  Democedes  denied  his  surgi- 
cal skill,  but  threats  of  torture  were  sufficient 
to  make  him  confess  the  truth.  IIo  cured  tho 
king,  and  was  royally  rewarded,  both  by  Darius 
and  by  the  women  of  the  harem.  Democedes 
wished  to  return  home,  but  the  king  would  not 
grant  him  permission  ;  and  ho  had  before  him, 
of  all  things  the  most  unpleasant  to  a  Greek, 
the  prospect  of  spending  his  days  in  a  foreign 
land,  when  circumstances  wrought  his  liberation. 
His  professional  services  were  sought  by  Atossa, 
the  principal  wife  of  Darius.  She  was  aftlicted 
with  a  tumor  on  the  breast,  and  called  in  the 
Greek,  who  promised  to  cure  her  if  she  would 
swear  to  do  for  him  any  thing  he  might  ask. 
Having  promised,  and  the  euro  effected,  sho 
readily  sought  to  pi'ocure  him  permission  to  re- 
turn to  Greece,  which  was  what  he  asked  for  his 
reward.  Knowing  that  direct  means  would  be 
useless,  he  taught  her  to  deceive  the  king,  though 
it  is  not  probable  she  was  aware  of  his  purpose. 
When  Darius  told  her  that  he  was  abolit  to  un- 
dertake an  expedition  against  the  Scythians,  she 
asked  him  to  change  his  purpose,  and  to  attempt 
the  conquest  of  Greece,  alleging  that  she  desired 
some  Greek  maidens  for  slaves,  and  telling  him 
that  Democedes  was  the  best  person  to  give 
information  about  his  country.  The  king  was 
induced  to  send  the  surgeon  to  Greece,  accom- 
panied by  15  Persians,  on  a  secret  mission.  The 
Greek  promised  to  return,  and  to  delude  the  king 
refused  to  take  any  of  his  own  property,  saying 
he  should  like  to  find  things  as  they  were  on 
coming  back  to  Susa.  Laden  with  rich  pres- 
ents, he  went  to  Sidon,  where  he  and  his  com- 
rades embarked,  and  a  survey  of  Greece  was 
made  (518  B.  C).  Passing  to  Italy,  Democedes 
persuaded  the  ruler  of  Tarentum  to  seize  the 
Persians  as  spies,  wliile  he  continued  his  journey 
to  Crotona.  The  Persians  were  soon  released, 
and  proceeding  to  Crotona,  seized  Democedes  in 
the  market  place ;  but  he  Avas  rescued  by  his 
fellow  citizens,  who  also  robbed  the  Persians  of 
their  store  ship.  On  parting  with  his  Persian 
companions,  he  bade  them  tell  Darius  he  was 
about  to  marry  the  daughter  of  Milo  the  wi*est- 
ler,  whose  fame  had  reached  to  Susa.  The  Per- 
sians were  shipwrecked  on  their  way  home  and 
made  slaves,  but  were  recaptured  and  restored 
to  their  home  by  a  Tarentine  named  Gillus. 
Nothing  more  is  known  of  the  career  of  De- 
mocedes ;  he  is  said  to  have  written  a  work  on 
medicine,  and  his  professional  reputation  was 
almost  equal  to  that  of  Hippocrates. 

DEMOCRACY  (Gr.  drjfxos,  people,  and  Kparea, 
to  i*ule),  the  government  of  the  people  by  them- 
selves. By  the  Greeks  democracy  was  under- 
stood to  mean  the  goveiyiment  of  a  state  by  a 
large  body  of  citizens,  in  opposition  to  aristocra- 
cy, the  government  by  a  few  rich  or  high-born 
families.  In  most  of  the  Greek  republics  there 
was  a  perpetual  struggle  for  political  power  be- 
tween two  classes  or  factions  of  the  citizens,  whose 
general  broad  distinction  was  into  poor  and  rich, 
or  into  the  many  and  the  few,  which,  as  Aristotle 


866 


DEMOCRACY 


DEMOCRITUS 


remarks,  are  convertible  terms,  for  it  is  always 
the  rich  who  are  the  few  and  the  not  rich  who 
are  the  many.  The  contests  of  these  factions 
led  to  frequent  revolutions,  and  a  state  was  said 
to  be  democratic  or  aristocratic  as  the  one  or 
tlie  other  prevailed.  But  the  Greek  republics 
were  never  at  any  time  democracies  in  the  mod- 
ern sense  of  the  term.  They  were  all  aristocra- 
cies, some  of  them  with  a  broad,  others  with  a 
narrow  basis  of  citizenship.  Of  government 
by  the  people,  meaning  by  the  people  all  the 
adult  males  of  a  nation,  ancient  history  gives  us 
no  example.  The  fundamental  basis  of  democ- 
racy is  the  recognition  of  the  rights  of  man  as 
man.  Its  central  principle  is  the  equality  of  all 
men  before  the  law,  without  regard  to  birth, 
property,  or  social  rank ;  from  which  principle 
is  deduced  the  right  of  all  men  to  an  equal  voice 
or  vote  in  deciding  upon  public  aftairs,  or  in  se- 
lecting agents  and  representatives  to  perform 
the  functions  of  legislation  and  to  execute  the  • 
laws.  The  principles  of  democracy  are  forcibly 
and  clearly  stated  in  the  American  declaration 
of  independence,  in  the  words  of  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son, who  has  been  called  "  the  apostle  of  de- 
mocracy "  :  "  "We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self- 
evident  :  that  all  men  are  created  equal ;  that 
they  are  "Endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain 
inalicinable  rights ;  that  among  these  are  life, 
liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness.  That,  to 
secure  these  rights,  governments  are  instituted 
among  men,  deriving  their  just  powers  from  the 
consent  of  the  governed."  These  principles  are 
still  more  fully  developed  in  the  constitutions 
of  the  states  of  the  Union.  The  constitution 
of  New  Hampshire  (1792)  says:  "All  men  are 
born  equally  free  and  independent ;  therefore  all 
government  of  right  originates  from  the  people. 
.  .  .  All  power  residing  originally  in  and  being 
derived  from  the  people,  all  the  magistrates  and 
officers  of  government  are  their  substitutes  and 
agents,  and  at  all  times  accountable  to  them." 
The  bill  of  rights  prefixed  to  the  constitution 
of  Virginia  in  1776,  adopted  by  the  convention 
of  1829-30,  and  re-adopted  by  the  convention 
of  1850-51,  says:  "AH  men  are  by  nature 
equally  free  and  independent,  and  have  certain 
inherent  rights,  of  which,  when  they  enter  into 
a  state  of  society,  they  cannot  by  any  compact 
deprive  or  divest  their  posterity ;  namely,  the 
enjoyment  of  life  and  liberty,  with  the  means 
of  acquiring  and  possessing  property,  and  pur- 
suing and  obtaining  happiness  and  safety.  All 
power  is  vested  in,  and  consequently  derived 
from,  the  people  ;  magistrates  are  their  trustees 
and  servants,  and  at  all  times  amenable  to  them." 
The  constitution  of  Florida  (1838)  says,  "  that 
all  elections  shall  be  free  and  equal,  and  that  no 
property  qualification  ibr  eligibility  to  office,  or 
for  the  right  of  suffrage,  shall  ever  be  required 
in  this  state."  The  Greek  republics  were  found- 
ed on  principles  very  different  from  these.  Po- 
litical power  among  them  was  never  given  to 
the  mass  of  the  people.  It  was  carefully  kept 
in  the  hands  of  a  privileged  class,  even  when 
the  most  liberal  parties  were  in  the  ascendant. 


In  the  Athenian  republic,  the  most  democratic 
of  the  Greek  states,  when  the  population  and 
the  suifrage  were  most  extended,  in  317  B.  C, 
there  were  but  21,000  persons  entitled  to  vote 
out  of  a  total  number  of  more  than  500,000.  In 
444  B.  C.  there  were  19,000,  but  upon  a  revi- 
sion of  the  lists  being  made  at  the  suggestion  of 
Pericles,  nearly  5,000  names  were  struck  o& 
because  those  who  bore  them  did  not  belong  to 
the  privileged  class.  Thus  at  the  most  splendid 
period  of  Athenian  history,  only  14,000  persons, 
or  about  1  in  40  of  the  population,  had  a  right 
to  vote.  In  aristocratic  England  about  1  in  20 
are  voters,  while  with  truly  democratic  institu- 
tions in  any  conntry  the  proportion  of  voters  to 
the  population  will  be  as  1  to  5  or  6.  Sparta 
was  still  more  undemocratic  than  Athens.  The 
number  of  voters  in  Laconia  at  the  time  of  the 
Persian  wars,  according  to  Herodotus,  was  only 
8,000,  while  the  number  of  free  citizens  who 
were  rigidly  excluded  from  political  power  is 
computed  to  haVe  been  16,000,  exclusive  of 
women,  children,  and  slaves.  In  369  B.  C.  the 
number  of  Spartan  voters  had  fallen  to  2,000 ; 
fifty  years  later  there  were  scarcely  1,000,  and 
in  244  B.  0.  they  had  diminished  to  700.  The 
Roman  citizens,  93  B.  C,  numbered  463,000, 
which  was  probably  about  -jV  of  the  popula- 
tion of  Italy  at  that  period.  The  Italian  repub- 
lics of  the  middle  ages  were  also  far  from  being 
democratic  in  their  institutions.  In  fact,  real 
democracy  was  first  put  in  practice  in  govern- 
ment by  the  colonies  of  New  England.  In 
Connecticut,  in  1639,  the  elective  franchise  was 
given  to  all  nien  who  had  taken  an  oath  of  alle- 
giance to  the  commonwealth ;  the  magistrates 
and  legislature  were  chosen  annually  by  ballot ; 
and  the  representation  was  apportioned  to  the 
population.  To  this  day  the  most  perfect  de- 
mocracies in  the  world  are  the  towns  of  New 
England,  where  the  whole  adult  male  popula- 
tion assemble  together  and  decide  by  their  votes 
their  own  public  affairs. — Much  confusion  of 
ideas  on  the  subject  of  democracy  has  been 
caused  by  not  discriminating  between  political 
and  social  democracy,  between  the  democracy 
of  laws  and  the  democracy  of  sentiment  and 
manners.  The  principle  of  the  legal  and  politi- 
cal equality  of  men  is  not  inconsistent  with  the 
utmost  variety  of  natural  and  social  distinctions. 
It  only  forbids  the  creation  by  law  of  artificial 
distinctions.  The  example  of  the  American  peo- 
ple shows  that  democratic  political  institutions 
are  compatible  with  very  great  inequalities  in 
cultivation,  manners,  style  of  living,  social  con- 
sideration, and  the  distribution  of  property. 

DEMOCRITUS,  the  father  of  the  atomistic 
philosophy,  born  in  Abdera,  Thrace,  about  460 
B.  C,  died  in  361.  He  inherited  a  large  for- 
tune, travelled  extensively  in  Asia,  made  himself 
acquainted  with  the  various  schools  of  philos- 
ophy of  his  day,  and  was  promoted  to  high 
offices  on  his  return  to  his  native  country.  He 
was  called  the  "  laughing  philosopher,"  in  con- 
trast to  the  "  weeping  philosopher"  Heraclitus, 
because  he  taught  that  a  philosopher  must  never 


DEMOIVRE 


DEMON 


367 


troTible  liimeelf  about  the  follies  of  man,  but 
regard  tliein  with  the  most  serene  equanimity. 
He  wrote  many  works  on  pliysical,  moral,  ma- 
thematical, musical,  and  techni(!al  subjoxits.  The 
most  complete  collection  of  the  small  remnants 
of  his  writings  extant  is  that  of  MuUach  (I3er- 
lin,  1843).  "  Every  thing,"  he  says,  "  is  com- 
posed of  atoms  or  infinitely  small  elements,  each 
with  a  definite  quality,  form,  and  movement, 
whose  inevitable  union  and  se[)aration  shape 
all  different  things  and  forms,  laws  and  effects, 
and  dissolve  them  again  for  new  combinations. 
The  gods  themselves  and  the  human  mind  origi- 
nate from  such  atoms.  There  are  no  casual- 
ties ;  every  thing  is  necessary  and  determined 
by  tiie  nature  of  the  atoms,  which  have  certain 
mutual  aflfinities,  attractions,  and  repulsions." 

DEMOIVRE,  Abkaiiam,  a  French  mathema- 
tician, born  at  Vitry,  in  Champagne,  May  26, 
1667,  died  in  London,  Nov.  27,  1754.  Upon 
the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  he  took 
refuge  in  England,  and  devoted  himself  to  teach- 
ing mathematics.  He  soon  became  connected 
with  Halley  and  Newton,  was  admitted  into  the 
royal  society  of  London  in  1697,  and  was  one 
of  the  committee  appointed  to  decide  on  the 
rival  claims  of  Leibnitz  and  Newton  to  the  in- 
vention of  the  method  of  fluxions.  He  survived 
most  of  his  early  associates,  and  his  subsistence 
latterly  depended  upon  his  solutions  of  prob- 
lems relative  to  games  of  chance,  which  he  was 
accustomed  to  give  in  a  coffee  house.  Beside 
memoirs  in  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions," 
he  published  the  "  Doctrine  of  Chances"  (1718), 
the  "Annuities  on  Lives"  (1724),  and  Miscel- 
lanea Analytica,  de  Seriebus  et  Quadraturls 
(1730). 

DEMON  (Gr.  daificov),  a  name  given  by  the 
ancients  to  a  spirit,  or  immaterial  being,  sup- 
posed to  hold  a  middle  place  between  men  and 
the  celestial  deities.  Demonology  plays  a  prom- 
inent part  in  the  oldest  religions  of  the  East, 
and  it  was  an  element  in  the  original  worship 
of  the  dark-colored  primitive  inhabitants  prior 
to  the  Aryan  migration — of  the  whole  Fin- 
nish-Turkish-ifongolian  stock,  including  the  oc- 
cupants of  China,  Thibet,  and  Furtlier  India. 
More  ancient  in  India  than  the  Vedas,  it  has 
maintained  itself  there  either  secretly  or  by 
public  sanction  alike  in  Brahuiinism,  Buddhism, 
and  Islamism.  Its  fullest  and  most  systematic 
development  is  found  in  Buddhism,  which  reck- 
ons 6  classes  of  beings  in  the  nniverse,  2  only 
of  which,  those  of  men  and  gods,  are  account- 
ed good;  the  other  4 — the  Asuras,  irrational 
animals,  Pretas  or  goblins,  and  the  denizens 
of  hell — being  esteemed  evil.  The  Asuras  are 
the  most  i)owerful  of  the  wicked  spirits,  and, 
like  the  Greek  Titans  and  the  Scandinavian 
Jotuns,  are  in  constant  warfare  with  the  gods 
i-Devas),  the  contest  being  already  begun  in  the 
age  of  the  Vedas.  They  dwell  beneath  the  3- 
pronged  root  of  the  world-mountain,  occupying 
the  nadir,  while  their  great  enemy  Indra,  the 
highest  Buddhist  god,  sits  upon  the  pinnacle  of 
tho  mountain  in  the  zenith.     The  Meru,  which 


stands  between  the  earth  and  the  heavens, 
around  wliich  the  heavenly  bodies  revolve, 
causing  day  and  night  according  as  they  are  on 
one  side  or  the  other  of  it,  is  the  battle  field  of  the 
Asuras  and  the  Devas.  The  3  lower  divisions  of 
the  Meru  are  held  by  various  races  of  demons, 
the  4th  being  the  lowest  heaven,  and  occupied 
by  the  4  Maliaradshas,  who  are  appointed  to  be 
kings  of  the  demons.  Around  the  Asuras  cluster 
numerous  associated  groups,  as  the  Rakshasas, 
probably  of  Aryan  origin,  appearing  sometimes 
as  gigantic  opponents  of  the  gods,  sometimes  as 
terrible  ogres  with  bloody  tongues  and  long  tusks, 
eager  to  devour  human  flesh  and  blood,  and 
lurking  in  fields  and  forests;  the  Jakshas,  ma- 
lignant and  mischievous,  yet  little  to  be  feared, 
honored  by  the  original  Asiatics  as  aerial  spirits, 
and  exalted  by  the  Brahmins  to  be  servants  of 
Kuvera ;  the  Nagas,  snakes  with  human  coun- 
tenances;  the  Mahoragas,  great  dragons;  the 
Khumbandas,  shapeless  dwarfs,  of  uncertain 
origin,  but  unknown  to  the  Brahminic  demon- 
ology; the  Kinnaras,  horned,  and  having  a 
horse's  head,  the  musicians  of  Kuvera,  and 
dangerous  to  men  ;  the  Gandharbas,  the  musi- 
cians of  Indra ;  the  Garudas,  kings  of  birds ; 
and  the  Picatshas,  or  vampires.  According  to 
their  nature  and  office,  the  different  species  of 
demons  dwell  in  the  air,  the  water,  the  earth, 
in  holes  and  clefts,  in  the  lower  portions  of  the 
Meru,  with  the  gods  whose  servants  they  are, 
or  on  the  golden  mountains  which  enclose  the 
inland  seas  in  the  Buddhistic  system  of  worlds. — 
Among  the  Persians  the  Indian  terminology  is 
transposed,  the  great  Asura representing  thegood 
creating  principle,  and  the  devs  being  the  evil 
spirits;  thus  indicating  that  religious  antago- 
nism at  some  time  existed  between  the  eastern 
and  western  Aryans.  As  completed  by  Zoroas- 
ter, the  Persian  system  made  the  principle  and 
personifications  of  evil  nearly  an  equal  balance 
and  eternal  parallel  with  the  good  principle  and 
its  personifications.  Ormuzd  created  6  resplen- 
dent angels  of  love  and  holiness,  called  Amshas- 
pands,  himself  being  the  7th  and  highest ;  Aliri- 
man  then  created  the  6  archdevs,  to  oppose 
the  Amshaspands,  to  paralyze  tlieir  efforts  for 
good,  and  substitute  evil.  Ornmzd  created  28 
Izeds,  or  beneficent  spirits,  who  presided  over  the 
heavenly  bodies,  and  showered  good  gifts  upon 
men ;  but  Ahriman  made  tlie  28  devs  to  coun- 
teract their  influence,  and  to  cause  all  manner 
of  turmoil  and  distress.  The  most  powerful  and 
pernicious  of  the  devs  was  the  two-forked  ser- 
pent Ashmogh.  The  next  series  of  Ormuzd's 
creations  was  an  infinite  number  of  Fervers, 
spirits  representing  the  archetypes  of  all  things, 
and  which  became  the  guardian  angels  of  men, 
animals,  and  plants.  Ahriman  made  an  equal 
number  of  corresponding  evil  spirits,  so  that 
every  man  and  thing  has  its  attendant  bad  as 
well  as  good  genius.  To  arrest  the  progress  of 
evil,  Ormuzd  made  an  egg  filled  with  spii'its 
of  light,  but  Ahriman  made  an  egg  which  con- 
tained an  equal  force  of  spirits  of  darkness, 
and  then  broke  both  together,  so  that  good  and 


\ 


868 


DEMON 


evil  were  ouly  the  more  confounded.    Ormuzd 
created  the  material  world,  but  could  not  ex- 
clude Ahriman  and  his  ministers  from  its  deep 
opaque  elements.     Ormuzd  created  a  bull,  the 
symbol  of  life,  which  Ahrimausle\v.     From  its 
blood  grew  the  original  plants  and  animals,  to 
harass  and  destroy  which  Ahriman  made  wolves, 
tigers,  serpents,  and  venomous  insects.     From 
its  bleached  elementary  particles  grew  the  ri- 
bas  tree,  into  the  stems  of  which  Ormuzd  in- 
fused the  breath  of  life,  and  they  became  the 
first  man  and  the  first  woman ;  but  every  hu- 
man being  is  tempted  through  his  whole  career 
by  Ahriman  and  his  devs,  which  slip  into  the 
body  and  produce  all  diseases,  and  into  the  mind 
and  produce  all  malice,     "While  human  life  thus 
Langs  wavering  between  two  antagonistic  agen- 
cies, each  of  which   would  be  infinite  but  for 
the  other,  it  is  declared  that  ultimately  Ahri- 
man shall  be  overpowered,  driven  through  tor- 
rents of  melted  lead,  purified,  and  forgiven,  and 
Ormuzd  shall  reign  supreme. — In  the  ancient 
Egyptian  religion,  Seth  (or  Typhon)  was  the 
manifestation  of  the  abstract  idea  of  evil,  as 
Osiris  was  of  good.    It  is  abundantly  illustrated 
in  the  earlj^  sculptures  that  they  were  regarded 
as  brothers,  as  parts  of  the  same  divine  system, 
and  both  worshipped  as  gods.    The  emblems 
were  designed  to  show  that  good  and  evil  af- 
fected the  world  equally,  and  existed  together 
as  a  necessary  condition  of  human  existence ; 
thus  the  Indian  systems  had  admitted  both  the 
ci'eator  and  destroyer  as  characters  of  the  divine 
being.     So  nearly  equal  in  esteem  were  Seth 
and  Osiris,  that  their  names  are  sometimes  in- 
terchanged as  if  synonymous  in  the  titles  of  the 
older  kings  ;  and  Seth  is  represented  in  attend- 
ance with  other  gods  pouring  from  a  vase  the 
symbols  of   life   and  power  over  the  newly 
crowned  king.      At  a  later  period,    probably 
through  the  influence  of  foreigners  from  Asia, 
evil  -was  resolved  into  sin ;  Seth  was  confounded 
with  the  snake-giant  Apophis,   the  enemy  of 
gods  and  men;    and  the  brother  of  Osiris  no 
longer  received  divine  honors.     His  name  and 
square-eared  figure  were  effaced;  he  ceased  to  be 
esteemed  a  necessary  antagonistic  companion  to 
Osiris,  and  was  regarded  as  acting  in  opposition 
from   his  own  free  will,  as  Ahriman  opposed 
Ormuzd,  or  as  the  Manichajan  Satan  opposed 
God;  aud  he  was  expelled  from  the  Egyptian 
pantheon,  perhaps  in  the  time  of  the  22d  dy- 
nasty.    The   representation   of  the  great  ser- 
pent Apophis,  the  symbol   of    sin,  as  pierced 
by  the  spear  of  Atmoo  (or  Ilorus),  may  have 
been  the  antetype  of  the  python  slain  by  Apol- 
lo.— Demons  first  appear  distinctly  in  the  reli- 
gious world  of  the  Greeks,  in  the  "  Works  and 
Days"  of  Hesiod.     In  Homer  they  are  not  dis- 
tinguished from  the  gods,  aud  the  name  is  applied 
to  the  Olympian  divinities.     The  Homeric  per- 
sonages most  nearly  corresponding  to  the  ori- 
ental and  mediajval  demons  are  the  Titans,  the 
representatives  of  force  acting  against  the  di- 
vine government,  and  especially  Ate,  the  rep- 
resentative of  guile  and  mischief.     Ate  is  the 


power  that  tempts  and  misleads  men  to  their 
own    cost  aud  ruin,   as  they  afterward    find 
out.     Slie  may  even  tempt  the  Deity  also,  for 
she  beguiles  Jupiter  himself  when   Hercules  is 
about  to  be  born  (Iliad,  xix.  95).    Mr.  Gladstone 
thinks  her  traditionally   connected    with    the 
Hebrew  conception  of  the  Evil  One,  and  says 
that  her  nature  and  function  are  best  expressed 
by  the  English   word    "temptress."      Hesiod 
makes  the  demons  genericaUy  different  from  the 
gods,  but  yet  essentially  good.     They  Avere,  ac- 
cording to  him,  the  long  departed  golden  race 
of  men,  who  after  death  had  become  guardian 
terrestrial   demons,  Avatching  unseen  over  the 
conduct  of  mankind,  with  the  regal  privilege, 
granted   by   Zeus,   of  dispensing  wealth    and 
taking  account  of  good  and  bad  deeds.     They 
formed  the  intermediate  agents  and  police  be- 
tween the  gods  and  men.     The  demon  of  Soc- 
rates is  an  eminent  example  of  faith  in  a  minis- 
tering and  benevolent  spirit,  specially  devoted 
to  the  welfare  of  a  single  person,  and  inspir- 
ing him  with  wisdom ;  and  bears  resemblance 
to  the  guardian  angels  in  Christian  conception, 
and  to  the  familiar  spirits  of  mediasval  magi- 
cians.    The  Ilesiodic  creed  received  an  impor- 
tant modification  from  the  later  philosophers. 
Empedocles  first  introduced  the  distinction  of 
beneficent  and  maleficent  demons,  with  every 
grade  of  each ;  and  was  followed  by  Xenocrates, 
Plato,  Chrysippus,  and  Plutarch.     Perhaps  the 
reckless  and  half  wicked  silver  race  which  He- 
siod represents  as  buried  in  the  under  world, 
where,  though  not  recognized  as  demons,  they 
nevertheless  had  a  name,  dignity,  and  substan- 
tive existence,  may  have  been  the  germ  of  the 
conception  of  perverse  and  malignant  demons. 
This  modification  of  the  doctrine,  as  Plutarch 
says,  relieved  the  philosopher  from  great  difii- 
culties  in  the  consideration  of  divine  providence, 
since  many  phenomena  which  could  hardly  be 
attributed  to  the  gods,  could  thus  be  explained 
by  referring   them  to  the  agency  of  demons. 
The  old  myths  had  erred  in  assigning  to  the 
great  divinities  proceedings  inconsistent  with 
their  dignity ;  and  both  the  truth  of  the  legends 
and  the  exaltation  of  the  divine  character  were 
saved  by  supposing  that  the  terrific  combats, 
Titanic  convulsions,  the  abductions,  flights,  con- 
cealments, and  other  discreditable  mythological 
actions,  had  been  the  work  of  bad  demons,  who 
were  far  beneath  and  unworthy  the  notice  of  the 
tranquil  and  immortal  gods.     The  objectionable 
religious  mysteries  and  ceremonies,  too,  which 
custom  retained,  were  necessary  as  the  only 
means  of  appeasing,  not  the  gods,  but  the  malig- 
nant demons.     This  distinction  served  an  im- 
portant purpose  in  the  first  controversies  be- 
tween paganism  and  Christianity,  the  Christian 
writers,  as  Clement  and  Tatian,  finding  ample 
warrant  in  the  earlier  pagan  authors  for  treat- 
ing all  the  gods  as  demons,  and  in  the  later  for 
denouncing  the  demons  generally  as  evil  beings. 
The  insensible  change  which  had  taken  place  in 
the  meaning  of  the  word  was  thus  overlooked, 
aud  it  could  be  answered  by  the  pagan  authors 


DEMON 


369 


that  the  audience  of  Empedocles  would  repudi- 
ate one  branch  of  the  Christian  statement,  and 
that  of  Ilesiod  tlie  other.  How  many  of  the 
minor  Greek  divinities  were  latterly  included 
in  popular  conception  or  even  by  the  philoso- 
phers among  demons  is  indeterminate,  but  the 
early  Christians  traced  the  whole  system  of  pa- 
ganism to  the  agency  of  Satan,  making  all  the 
characters  of  the  mythology  fallen  angels.  The 
pagan  demons  were  long  lived,  but  not  immor- 
tal ;  Plutarch  records,  "  Great  Pan  is  dead ;" 
and  it  is  a  very  ancient  belief  that  the  oracles 
became  dumb  at  our  Saviour's  birth. — In  the 
angelology  of  the  Jews  the  distinction  between 
upright  and  fallen  spirits  appears  clearly  in 
many  passages  of  the  Old  Testament,  though 
at  a  later  period  it  was  corrupted  by  popular 
superstitions.  With  the  mingling  of  Jewish 
and  Hellenic  ideas  in  the  first  Christian  cen- 
turies, and  with  the  speculations  especially  of 
the  Alexandrian  philosophers,  began  the  mani- 
fold developments  in  the  doctrine  of  demons 
by  the  cabalists  and  other  students  of  the 
black  art,  which  were  increased  by  the  intro- 
duction of  foreign  elements  from  the  Scandina- 
vian mythology,  from  the  Saracens  of  Spain, 
and  from  the  Orient  through  the  returning  cru- 
saders, and  formed  the  complicated  and  fan- 
tastic systems  that  in  the  middle  ages  were  im- 
portant elements  alike  in  popular  belief,  poet- 
ry, and  magic.  From  the  Saracens  were  derived 
tlie  (Ijinns  of  Arabian  and  Persian  romance, 
and  from  the  Xorthmen  came  a  knowledge  of 
Loki,  the  calumniator  of  the  gods,  the  grand 
contriver  of  deceit  and  fraud,  who  is  beautiful 
in  figure,  but  whose  mind  is  evU,  and  who  is 
unsurpassed  in  the  arts  of  perfidy ;  in  ven- 
geance for  his  stratagems  against  gods  and 
men  he  has,  according  to  tho  Edda,  been  seized 
and  confined  in  a  cavern  formed  of  3  keen- 
edged  stones,  where  he  rages  with  a  violence 
which  dauses  all  the  earthquakes,  and  where 
he  shall  remain  captive  till  the  end  of  the  ages, 
when  he  shall  be  slain  by  the  doorkeeper  of 
the  gods.  The  Talmudists  say  that  Adam  had 
a  wife  called  Lilis,  before  he  married  Eve,  and 
that  of  her  he  begat  nothing  but  devils.  This 
Lilis  or  Lilith  was  a  famous  mediaeval  witch, 
and  is  introduced  by  Goethe  in  the  Walpurgis 
night  scene  in  ''Faust."  The  cabalists  made 
Adam  the  natural  king  of  the  world  of  spirits 
prior  to  his  fall,  and  described  Solomon  as  a 
most  accomplished  magician.  They  people  the 
fire,  air,  earth,  and  water  with  salamanders, 
sylphs,  gnomes,  and  undines,  to  one  of  which 
classes  all  evil  spiritual  agencies  belong.  This 
classification  appears  to  have  been  borrowed 
from  Michael  Psellus,  a  Byzantine  writer  of  the 
11th  century,  who  however  reckoned  6  classes. 
Other  writers  made  9  kinds  of  demons,  the 
same  number  that  Dionysius  made  of  angels. 
The  1st  rank  consists  of  the  false  gods  of  the 
gentiles,  whose  prince  is  Beelzebub  ;  the  2d,  of 
liars  and  equivocators,  as  the  Pythian  Apollo ; 
the  3d,  of  inventors  of  mischief  and  vessels  of 
anger,  whose  prince  is  Belial ;  the  4th,  of  mali- 
VOL.  Yi. — 24 


cious  revenging  devils,  whose  prince  is  Asmo- 
deus;  the  5th,  of  cozeners,  as  magicians  and 
witches,  whose  y)rince  is  Satan ;  the  6th,  of 
those  aerial  devils  spoken  of  in  the  Apocalypse 
who  corrupt  the  air  and  cause  plagues,  thun- 
ders, and  fires,  and  whoso  prince  is  Meresin ; 
the  7th  is  a  destroyer,  causing  wars,  tumults, 
combustions,  uproars,  who  is  mentioned  in  the 
Apocalypse,  and  called  Abaddon ;  the  8th  is  that 
accusing,  calumniating  devil,  called  Diabolus, 
that  drives  men  to  despair ;  the  9th  embraces 
tempters  of  several  sorts,  whose  prince  is  Mam- 
mon. Gregorius  Tolosanus  makes  7  kinds  of 
ethereal  spirits,  according  to  the  number  of  the 
7  planets,  and  esteems  the  good  angels  to  be  those 
which  are  above  and  the  demons  those  which  are 
below  the  moon.  Marsilius  Ficinus  made  devils 
the  6th  in  his  9  classes  of  inteUigent  beings. 
Wierus,  a  celebrated  demonographer  of  the  16th 
century,  in  his  PaexidomonarcMa  Dcemonum,  fol- 
lowingold  authorities,  establishes  a  complete  in- 
fernal court,  with  its  princes,  nobles,  oflicers.  and 
dignities.  According  to  him,  Satan  is  no  longer 
the  sovereign  of  hell,  but  Beelzebub  reigns  in. 
his  place.  The  following  is  an  outline  of  the 
court:  Beelzebub,  supreme  chief  of  the  infernal 
empire,  founder  of  the  order  of  the  fly ;  Satan, 
leader  of  the  opposition  ;  Eurynomns.  prince  of 
death,  and  grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the  fly ; 
Moloch,  prince  of  the  realm  of  tears,  grand 
cross  of  the  order ;  Pluto,  prince  of  fire  ;  Leon- 
ard, grand  master  of  the  sabbats,  knight  of  the 
fly ;  Baalberith,  master  of  alliances ;  Proser- 
pine, archdevil,  sovereign  princess  of  malignant 
spirits ;  Xergal,  chief  of  the  privy  police  ; 
Baal,  commander-in-chief  of  the  infernal  ar- 
mies, grand  cross  of  the  order ;  Leviathan,  lord 
admiral,  knight  of  the  fly ;  Belphegor,  ambas- 
sador in  France ;  Mammon,  ambassador  in  Eng- 
land ;  Belial,  ambassador  in  Turkey ;  Rimmon, 
ambassador  in  Russia ;  Thamuz,  ambassador  in 
Spain  ;  Hutgin,  ambassador  in  Italy ;  Martinet, 
ambassador  in  Switzerland;  Lucifer,  highest 
ofiicer  of  justice  ;  Alastor,  executive  oflBcer  in 
great  undertakings;  Xisroch,  chief  cook;  Be- 
hemoth, chief  cup-bearer ;  Dagon,  chief  pant- 
ler;  Mullin,  chief  talet  de  chamhre ;  Kobal, 
director  of  spectacles  and  amusements ;  Asmo- 
deus,  superintendent  of  gambling-houses ;  Xyb- 
bas,  master  of  pageants ;  Antichrist,  conjurer  and 
necromancer.  According- to  Pai'acelsus,  the  air 
is  not  so  full  of  flies  in  summer  as  it  is  at  aU 
times  of  inviaible  de%"ils.  Xot  so  much  as  a 
hair's  breadth  is  freefrom  them  in  heaven,  earth, 
or  waters,  above  or  under  the  earth.  Yet  the 
sublunary  spirits  who  alone  intertere  in  human 
life  have  no  power  over  the  stars  and  heavens ; 
they  could  not  seduce  the  moon  from  its  orbit, 
turn  the  planets  from  their  courses,  or  stop 
rivers ;  they  are  confined  beneath  the  moon  till 
the  day  of  judgment,  and  can  work  no  further 
than  God  and  the  four  elements  permit  them. 
Demons  and  sorcerers  celebrate  their  nocturnal 
orgies  in  an  assembly  called  the  sabbat,  which 
was  first  convened,  say  some  cabalists,  by  the 
great  Orpheus.    Others,  however,  derive  it  from 


3T0 


DEMON 


the  Bacchanalian  revelries,  bnt  no  allusion  to  a 
sabbat  is  found  in  the  fathers  of  the  church  or 
in  the  decrees  of  councils.  Sorcerers  or  witches 
bear  a  mark  upon  their  bodies  imprinted  by  the 
devil,  which  by  a  certain  inward  sensation  gives 
notice  of  the  hour  of  gathering;  or  in  a  case 
of  urgency,  a  sheep  is  made  to  appear  in  the 
sky  in  a  cloud,  which  is  seen  only  by  the  min- 
isters of  Satan,  who  hasten  in  a  moment.  Or- 
dinaril}'  it  is  necessary  either  to  sleep  or  to  close 
one  eye  before  proceeding,  and  sorcerers  always 
fly  to  the  sabbat  through  the  air  on  staffs  or 
broomsticks,  or  on  the  backs  of  subaltern  de- 
mons, and  are  often  transformed  into  goats,  cats, 
or  other  animals.  They  usually  issue  from  their 
houses  through  the  chimney.  Master  Leonard, 
in  the  fixvorite  form  of  a  three-horned  goat  with 
a  black  human  countenance,  presides  at  the  sab- 
bat, and  every  guest  does  homage  to  him. 
Stolen  children  are  brought  to  him,  and  swear 
through  their  godparents  to  renounce  God,  the 
Holy  Virgin,  and  the  saints,  and  are  marked  by 
one  of  his  horns  with  a  sign  which  they  bear  dur- 
ing their  novitiate.  Singing,  dancing,  and  horri- 
ble feasting  are  continued  till  the  first  crowing  of 
the  cock,  when  the  assembly  suddenly  disperses. 
Demons  also  retreat  from  the  sound  of  bells. 
Angels  and  demons  have  been  said  to  be  incor- 
poreal as  compared  to  mankind,  but  corporeal 
as  compared  to  God.  It  is  remarkable  that 
the  Europeans  more  frequently  represent  de- 
mons as  black,  but  the  negroes  of  Africa  on 
the  contrary  suppose  them  to  be  white.  Bodin 
makes  them  and  also  the  souls  of  departed  men 
not  only  corporeal,  but  round  in  shape  like  the 
sun  and  moon,  because  that  is  the  most  perfect 
form,  being  without  roughness,  fractures,  or 
prominences ;  yet  they  can  assume  any  shape 
at  their  pleasure,  appear  in  what  likeness  they 
will,  traverse  miles  in  an  instant,  transform  the 
bodies  of  others  into  whatsoever  shape,  and  re- 
move them  from  place  to  place ;  the  most  power- 
ful magicians,  too,  as  Simon  Magus,  Apollonius 
of  Tyana,  Pasetes,  lamblichus,  and  Odo  de  Stel- 
lis,  can  force  them  to  deceive  all  the  senses,  build 
castles  in  the  air,  represent  armies  and  prodi- 
gies, command  treasures,  reveal  secrets  and  fu- 
ture events,  and  perform  many  other  such  won- 
ders. Jason  Pratensis  says  that  the  devil,  being 
a  slender  incomprehensible  spirit,  can  easily  wind 
himself  into  human  bodies,  couch  in  the  bowels 
and  hinder  their  operation,  vitiate  the  health, 
and  terrify  the  soul.  Burton  calls  melancholy 
the  devil's  bath  {balneum  diaboU),  since  it  is 
caused  by  the  devil's  mingling  himself  with 
the  bodily  humors. — Sorcery,  or  black  magic, 
is  the  art  of  invoking  the  infernal  powers  in 
order  to  obtain  from  them  supernatural  know- 
ledge, or  the  power  of  performing  supernat- 
ural things.  Cardan  relates  that  his  father, 
after  the  accustomed  solemnities,  conjured  up, 
Aug.  13,  1491,  7  devils  in  Greek  apparel,  about 
40  years  of  age,  some  of  ruddy  and  some  of 
pale  complexion,  who  boasted  their  superior- 
ity to  men,  and  affirmed  that  their  average  life 
was  TOO  or  800  years.    Erie,  king  of  Sweden, 


is  recorded  to  have  had  an  enchanted  cap,  by 
virtue  of  which  and  some  magical  words  he 
could  command  spirits  to  trouble  the  air,  make 
the  wind  blow  which  way  he  would,  and  raise 
tempests.  There  are  witches  in  Sweden  and 
Norway  who  make  a  business  of  selling  favor- 
able winds  to  sailors.  The  most  mighty  cabal- 
istic word  is  agla,  which  being  uttered  toward 
the  east  will  either  drive  away  malignant  spirits 
or  produce  marvellous  revelations.  In  Web- 
ster's "  Witchcraft  "  an  account  is  given  of  a 
child,  who,  having  heard  some  fearful  spell  mut- 
tered, caught  the  words,  and  afterward  repeated 
them  till  such  tempests  and  thunderings  were 
produced  that  a  whole  village  was  burned  by 
tlie  lightning.  Jacob  Boehm  declared  that  he 
could  not  without  peril  to  his  soul's  safety  dis- 
close the  original  name  of  Lucifer,  so  tremendous 
would  be  its  influence.  In  the  black  art  there 
is  either  a  compact  with  the  devil,  when  he  is 
ever  at  hand  to  do  the  behests  of  his  victim,  or 
the  sorcerer  invokes  diabolical  aid  on  special  oc- 
casions. The  devil  usually  appears  uncalled  to 
persons  in  distress,  and  avails  himself  of  the 
temptation  of  the  moment  to  conclude  a  pact 
with  them,  by  which  he  extricartes  them,  and 
serves  them  for  a  specified  number  of  years,  af- 
ter which  he  shall  own  their  soul.  Thus  Faust, 
in  vain  pursuit  of  perfect  knowledge,  sold  him- 
self to  Mephistopheles,  the  second  in  power  of  the 
fallen  archangels ;  and  thus  young  men,  ruined 
by  play,  were  often  supposed  to  do.  The  com- 
pact must  be  written  in  blood.  To  invoke  a 
demon,  it  is  necessary,  for  safety,  that  the  per- 
son first  enclose  himself  in  a  magic  circle 
drawn  with  charcoal  and  blessed  water,  which 
no  evil  spirit  can  cross.  The  awful  formulas 
of  conjuration  being  then  repeated,  the  demons 
first  appear  with  frightful  bowlings,  flashings, 
and  tremblings,  vomiting  fire  and  fumes  of 
brimstone  all  about  the  circle.  The  conjurer 
must  not  exhibit  a  tremor  if  he  would  keep  his 
ascendency,  but  must  firmly  pronounce  all  the 
forms  of  constriction,  till  at  length  he  reduces 
them  to  the  human  form  and  to  gentle  counte- 
nance and  behavior.  The  conjuration  must  be 
in  different  words  to  different  demons,  and  at 
different  hours  on  the  various  days  of  the 
week ;  it  is  also  different  according  to  the  pur- 
pose to  be  served ;  but  rightly  performed,  it  is 
a  spell  which  no  demon  can  resist.  Even 
the  most  malignant  of  them  can  be  compelled 
by  a  great  magician  to  be  a  dutiful  servant ; 
thus  Paracelsus  was  believed  to  carry  a  demon 
about  with  him  in  the  hilt  of  his  sw^ord,  which 
the  alchemists,  however,  maintained  to  be 
the  philosopher's  stone,  and  no  demon;  and 
the  magicians  of  Salamanca  and  Toledo  im- 
prisoned demons  in  rings,  vials,  boxes,  and 
caskets.  Solomon  is  reputed  to  have  had  a  sig- 
net ring  with  the  mystic  word  ShemTiamjihorash 
engraved  upon  it,  which  gave  him  command  of 
the  spirits,  and  transported  him  every  day  at 
noon  into  the  firmament,  where  he  heard  the  se- 
crets of  the  universe.  Cardan  aflarms  that  no 
man  was  ever  great  in  any  art  or  action  that 


DEMOiT 


371 


did  not  have  one  of  these  demons  to  aid  hira. 
The  conjurer  should  warily  guard  against  wiles 
and  fraud  on  the  part  of  the  fiends,  and  can 
only  leave  his  circle  and  depart  home  in  safety 
after  the  shrieks  of  the  retiring  demons  have 
died  away,  and  every  trace  of  brimstone  has  dis- 
appeared. If  a  demon  has  entered  into  a  person 
and  "  possessed  "  him,  he  can  be  expelled  by 
means  of  exorcism.  Exorcists  were  recognized 
by  the  council  of  Antioch  (341)  as  a  special 
ecclesiastical  order,  and  in  the  Latin  church  are 
still  one  of  the  4  minor  orders  of  the  clergy. 
Holy  words,  as  the  names  of  God,  Christ,  and 
the  saints,  holy  water,  the  sign  of  tlie  cross,  the 
recitation  of  psalms,  litanies,  prayers,  and  ad- 
jurations, are  used  to  expel  tlie  evil  spirits  who 
by  divine  permission,  it  is  believed,  not  only 
tempt  the  soul  of  man,  but  sometimes  also  pos- 
sess the  human  body.  At  the  time  of  tlie  refor- 
mation, the  power  of  casting  out  devils  was 
claimed,  like  the  power  of  working  miracles, 
as  one  of  the  tests  of  the  Catholic  church,  and 
the  Jesuits  denied  that  heretical  teachers  had 
ever  exhibited  such  power.  There  was  also  a 
popular  belief  in  charms  and  talismans,  as  capa- 
ble of  warding  oif  their  attacks. — As  exhibited 
in  the  grim  superstitions  and  fantastic  illusions 
of  medifeval  science,  deraonology  is  poetically 
interesting;  but  it  has  historical  and  tragical  in- 
terest, as  manifested  in  demoniacal  possessions. 
To  attribute  certain  nervous  maladies  and  mys- 
terious diseases  to  demoniacal  agency  has  been 
as  universal  as  the  belief  in  ilemons.  The  pheno- 
menon of  preternatural  and  involuntary  activity 
is  often  presented,  followed  by  a  cataleptic  or 
trance-like  state  which  overwhelms  the  suffer- 
er. So  wonderful  is  the  power  of  sympathy, 
that  the  mania  is  often  contagious,  constraining 
the  beholder,  by  a  sort  of  fascination,  to  be- 
come an  actor.  A  noted  ancient  example  is 
the  Corybantic  and  Bacchantic  fury  of  the 
Greeks,  manifested  in  violent  dancing,  subse- 
quent exhaustion,  and  optical  delusions,  by 
which  men  were  mistaken  for  wild  beasts ; 
thus  Euripides  (Hipp.  v.  141)  makes  the  chorus 
address  Phedra :  "  O  j'oung  girl,  a  god  possesses 
thee ;  it  is  either  Pan,  or  Hecate,  or  the  venerable 
Corybantes,  or  Cybele,  that  agitates  thee."  At 
the  commencement  of  our  era  the  belief  was  gen- 
eral throughout  the  known  world,  and  was  rec- 
ognized in  the  Gospels,  where  Christ  is  repre- 
sented as  casting  out  demons.  Avicenna  first 
designates,  under  the  name  of  lycanthropia,  the 
madness  of  men  who  lie  hid  by  day,  and  howl 
about  graves  and  deserts  in  the  night,  and  will 
not  be  persuaded  but  that  they  are  wolves.  It 
was  to  this  disease,  perhaps,  that  Pliny  referred 
(lib.  viii.  cap.  22),  when  he  said  that  some  men 
were  turned  into  wolves  in  his  time,  and  from 
wolves  back  to  men  again.  Donat  ab  Alto- 
mari  says  that  he  saw  two  of  them  in  his  time, 
and  that  they  had  hollow  eyes,  scabbed  legs 
and  thighs,  and  were  very  dry  and  pale. 
Wierus  gives  an  account  of  one  that  appeared 
in  the  streets  of  Padua  in  1541,  and  Olaus  Mag- 
nus says  that  they  were  common  in  Sweden. 


This  hallucination  spread  throngh  the  whole 
of  central  and  southern  Europe.  Voltaire  re- 
lates that  in  the  district  of  the  Jura,  between 
1598  and  1600,  more  than  600  lycanthropes 
were  put  to  death  by  a  single  judge.  Another 
of  the  early  modern  epidemics,  attributed  to 
demoniacal  agency,  began  at  Aix  la  Chapelle. 
Amid  the  festivities  of  midsummer  day,  in  1374, 
a  large  troop  of  men  and  women  from  the  adja- 
cent country  rushed  into  the  city,  and  in  the 
public  squares  and  churches  danced  in  circles 
with  the  utmost  violence  for  hours  together,  ap- 
parently unconscious  of  the  presence  of  spec- 
tators, till  at  last  they  sank  to  the  ground  ex- 
hausted, groaning  fearfully.  In  this  state  they 
professed  to  see  visions  of  good  and  evil  spirits, 
whose  names  they  shouted  out.  Incredulous 
spectators,  who  came  to  witness  the  phenome- 
non, were  themselves  seized  with  an  irresistible 
impulse,  and  danced  and  became  ecstatic  in  their 
turn.  The  epidemic  spread  in  a  few  months 
through  the  Netherlands  and  the  Rhenish  ])roy- 
inces,  and  though  regarded  as  an  atfair  for  the 
clergy  rather  than  the  medical  faculty,  yet  the 
powers  of  exorcism  could  not  always  drive  away 
the  evil  spirits.  The  authorities  of  the  Rhenish 
provinces  having  decided  to  banish  from  the 
country  every  person  who  was  attacked,  the 
disease  soon  subsided.  It  reappeared  at  Stras- 
bourg in  1418,  and  the  persons  who  were  taken 
with  it  could,  according  to  Paracelsus,  do  no- 
thing but  dance  until  they  were  dead  or  cured. 
Sufferers  found  a  resource  in  the  legend  of  St. 
Vitus,  and  entitled  the  malady  St.  Vitus's  dance 
(chorus  snncti  Viti),  and  they  were  accustomed 
to  appeal  to  that  saint  for  healing.  The  disease 
continued  in  Germany,  and  Paracelsus  boasts 
of  the  number  he  had  cured  of  it.  About 
the  middle  of  the  15th  century  a  rumor  spread 
through  the  Pays  de  Vaud  that  the  environs 
of  Bern  and  Lausanne  were  filled  with  sor- 
cerers and  cannibals.  Children  Avere  reported 
to  have  disappeared ;  persons  being  arrested 
and  tortured  confessed  that  they  were  possess- 
ed by  devils,  and  great  numbers  of  them  were 
executed.  In  1549  many  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Artois  were  charged  with  sorcery,  and  confessed 
not  only  the  murder  and  bewitching  of  infants 
and  adults,  but  also  participation  in  the  orgies 
of  the  sabbat  and  association  with  the  horrible 
incubi  and  succubi.  In  spite  of  tortures  and 
burnings,  the  epidemic  of  bewitchment  spread 
before  the  close  of  the  century  through  Mentz, 
Treves,  Saltzburg,  Constance,  and  Ravensburg. 
In  1491  the  nuns  of  Cambrai  were  seized  with 
demonomania,  and  for  4  years  ran  like  dogs 
across  the  country,  sprang  into  the  air  like  birds, 
climbed  trees  like  cats,  hung  on  the  branches, 
imitated  the  cries  of  animals,  and  divined  hid- 
den things.  At  last  the  exorcists  forced  the 
devil  to  confess  himself  the  cause  of  these  things. 
The  schools,  convents,  and  nunneries  were  long 
favorite  localities  of  the  malady,  which  in  these 
assumed  its  most  hysterical  forms.  The  re- 
markable possession  of  the  Ursuline  nuns  of 
Loudun  in  1634,  which  was  attributed  to  tho 


372 


DE  MORGAN 


DEMOSTHENES 


black  arts  of  the  priest  Grandier,  presented  tlie 
usual  fiintastic  contortions  and  hysterical  ravings, 
though  it  was  perhaps  chiefly  a  scheme  of  Car- 
dinal Richelieu  to  wreak  vengeance  on  a  person- 
al enemy.  The  delusion  of  witchcraft  contin- 
ued, thousands  suffering  death  by  fire  annually 
throughout  Eurojie.  In  the  reign  of  Francis  I. 
more  than  100,000  witches  are  said  to  have  been 
put  to  death.  The  first  settlers  in  America 
brought  with  them  the  demoniacal  traditions  of 
Europe,  and  the  fearful  judicial  condemnations 
of  witchcraft  which  began  at  Salem  in  1692,  were 
an  exhibition  of  the  ideas  and  a  repetition  of  the 
measures  which  had  been  in  vogue  for  centuries. 
The  mania,  first  detected  in  the  strange  caprices 
of  a  little  girl,  spread  through  the  community, 
and  Cotton  Mather  regarded  "•  the  assault  of  the 
evil  angels  upon  the  country  as  a  particular  defi- 
ance unto  himself."  Since  then  occasional  relig- 
ious excitements  in  this  country  and  Europe  have 
presented  violent  phenomena  which  associate 
them  with  thedemonomanias  of  the  middle  ages. 
— Among  the  best  treatises  on  the  subject  are : 
Horst,  Ddmonomagie  (Fi-ankfort,  1817) ;  Ukert, 
Ueler  Ddmonen,  Ileroen,  unci  Gcnien  (Leipsic, 
1805) ;  Bodin,  Demonomanie  (Paris,  1587) ;  Colin 
de  Plaucy,  Dictionnaire  infernal  (3d  ed.,  Paris, 
1844)  ;  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "  Letters  on  Demonol- 
ogy  and  Witchcraft "  (1830);  and  Henry  Christ- 
mas, the  "Phantom  World"  (London,  1850). 

DE  MORGAN,  Augustus,  an  English  math- 
ematician, born  on  the  island  of  Madura,  in  the 
East  Indies,  in  1806.  His  father  was  an  officer 
in  the  British  army,  and  he  was  educated  at 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  bachelor  of  arts  in  1827.  lie  had  be- 
gun his  studies  for  the  bar  when,  in  1828,  on  the 
foundation  of  the  university  of  London  (known 
since  1837  as  University  college,  London),  lie 
was  appointed  to  the  professorship  of  mathe- 
matics in  that  institution.  He  resigned  this  po- 
sition in  1831,  but  returned  to  it  on  the  death 
of  his  successor,  in  1836,  and  has  since  retained 
it.  He  has  written  voluminously  on  the  prin- 
ciples and  history  of  mathematics,  and  has  pub- 
lished "works  on  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry, 
trigonometry,  the  dilferential  and  integral  cal- 
culus, the  theory  of  probabilities,  the  use  of 
globes,  a  bibliography  of  arithmetical  books 
from  the  invention  of  printing  to  the  presemt 
time,  and  a  work  entitled  the  "Book  of  Alma- 
nacs," by  -which  the  full  almanac  of  any  year 
up  to  A.  D.  2000,  in  either  the  old  or  new 
style,  may  be  turned  to  at  once.  He  fui-nished 
many  articles  on  mathematics  and  astronomy  to 
the  "  Penny  Cyclopaadia,"  was  a  contributor  to 
the  publications  of  the  society  for  the  diftusion 
of  useful  knowledge,  and  is  the  author  of  many 
papers  in  the  transactions  of  learned  societies. 
His  work  on  "Formal  Logic"  (1847)  occasioned 
a  controversy  with  Sir  William  Hamilton,  as  to 
which  of  them  was  the  discoverer  of  a  certain 
new  principle  in  the  theory  of  syllogisms.  Mr. 
De  Morgan  has  .ilso  been  a  prominent  writer  in 
favor  of  the  system  of  decimal  coinage. 

DEMOS   (hrjuos),    a  Greek  word,   meaning 


people,  and  also  found  in  the  compound  word 
democracy,  meaning  rule  of  the  people.  It  was 
also  the  name  applied  to  the  100,  in  later  times 
177,  smaller  districts  into  which  Attica,  includ- 
ing Athens,  Avas  divided,  and  10  of  which  form- 
ed a  phyle.  Each  demos  had  its  own  muni- 
cipal officers,  its  assemblies,  and  even  separate 
religious  usages.  The  demarch  was  the  repre- 
sentative of  its  interests.  The  chief  of  the  exe- 
cutive summoned  the  assemblies,  and  had  the 
management  of  the  public  estates  and  police. 

DEMOSTHENES,  the  most  illustrious  of  the 
Athenian  statesmen  and  orators,  was  born  in 
Pseania,  one  of  the  877^01,  or  districts,  of  Atti- 
ca, a  few  miles  from  the  city  of  Athens,  in  the 
interior,  on  the  east  side  of  Mt.  Hymettus,  near 
the  present  village  of  Liogesi.  His  father  was 
an  Athenian  citizen  of  the  same  name;  his  mo- 
ther was  a  daughter  of  Gylon,  also  an  Athe- 
nian, who,  having  been  exiled  from  Athens  on 
a  charge  of  betraying  Nymphseura  to  the  en- 
emy, established  himself  near  the  Bosporus,  and 
married  a  woman  of  that  neighborhood,  prob- 
ably the  daughter  of  a  Greek  settler.  There 
were  two  daughters  of  this  marriage,  both 
of  whom  were  sent  to  Athens  by  their  father, 
and  married  to  Athenian  citizens,  one  to  Demo- 
chares,  father  of  Demochares  the  orator,  and 
the  other,  Cleobule,  to  Demosthenes,  the  fa- 
ther of  the  subject  of  the  present  notice.  The 
date  of  the  birth  of  Demosthenes  is  uncertain. 
Tlie  statements  vary  from  885  to  381  B.  C. 
The  received  opinion  now  is  in  fiivor  of  385. 
Demosthenes  and  a  younger  sister  were  left  or- 
phans by  the  death  of  their  father,  he  at  the  age 
of  7  years,  and  the  sister  at  the  age  of  5.  A 
considerable  fortune,  consisting  partly  of  capital, 
and  partly  of  a  manufactory  of  bedsteads  and 
cutlery,  was  left  in  charge  of  3  guardians,  Apho- 
bus,  Demophon,  and  Therippides.  Under  a  pro- 
vision of  the  Attic  law,  it  was  stipulated  by  the 
will  of  the  elder  Demosthenes  that  Aphobus 
should  marry  the  widow,  with  a  dowry  of  80 
minae  ($1,533) ;  that  Demophon  should  marry 
the  daughter,  when  she  readied  the  proper  age, 
with  a  dowry  of  2  talents  (about  $2,000) ;  and 
that  Therippides  should  receive  the  interest  of 
70  mina)  ($1,166  62,  at  12  per  cent.,  the  legal 
rate  at  Athens,  $139  99  annually)  until  the  son 
should  come  of  age.  The  whole  estate  was  valued 
at  something  more  than  14  talents  (about  $14,- 
000),  which  made,  according  to  the  standard  of 
those  times,  a  handsome  fortune.  The  guard- 
ians were  unfaithful  to  their  trust,  and  not  only 
failed  to  comply  with  the  provisions  of  the  will 
in  the  matter  of  the  marriages,  but  squandered 
a  large  part  of  the  property,  or  appropriated  it 
to  their  own  use.  Instead  of  receiving  his  for- 
tune, largely  increased,  as  it  should  have  been, 
when  Demosthenes  attained  the  legal  age  he 
found  it  reduced  to  70  min*.  The  early  educa- 
tion of  the  future  statesman  was  not  neglected. 
According  to  his  own  assertion,  in  the  oration 
on  the  crown,  he  received  the  literary  training 
which  was  suitable  to  his  rank  and  fortune. 
Several  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  his  age 


DEMOSTHENES 


373 


are  incntioned  as  liis  teachers,  and  among  them 
Plato,  Isocrates,  and  Isceus.  Tliere  is  consider- 
able doubt  with  regard  to  the  first  two,  but  tho 
influence  of  Isasus  is  thought  to  be  perceptible 
in  the  style  of  the  earliest  speeches,  especially 
of  those  delivered  in  the  suit  against  the  guar- 
dians. On  coming  of  age,  in  806,  Demosthenes 
commenced  legal  proceedings  for  the  recovery  of 
his  property.  The  case  was  not  finally  decided 
until  2  years  later,  although  the  ditetcta),  or  board 
of  arbitrators,  by  whom  the  case  was  twice  ex- 
amined, had  rendered  a  decision  in  favor  of 
Demosthenes.  In  the  year  364  Demosthenes 
brought  an  action  against  Aphobus  alone,  before 
the  arclion.  Aphobus  was  condemned  to  pay  10 
talents  ($10,000).  The  pleas  of  the  young  orator 
in  these  trials  are  i)reserved.  They  are  models 
of  clear  statement,  logical  argument,  and  close 
application  of  the  principles  of  the  law ;  but 
tliey  show  scarcely  any  traces  of  that  vehement 
and  overpowering  oratory  for  which  Demos- 
thenes was  afterward  so  distinguished.  They 
give  us  a  favorable  opinion  of  the  discretion  of 
the  young  man,  and  of  the  calm,  judicial  char- 
acter of  the  court.  The  prosecution  of  the 
guardians  brought  upon  Demosthenes  the  hos- 
tility of  Midias,  a  rich  and  powerful  citizen, 
who  manifested  his  insolence  and  hatred,  and 
his  disregard  of  the  laws,  by  a  series  of  outrages, 
public  and  private.  He  forced  his  way  into  the 
house  of  Demosthenes  and  insulted  his  family, 
for  which  the  latter  prosecuted  him  and  ob- 
tained a  verdict  (361)  ;  but  Midias  found  pre- 
texts for  evading  tho  payment  of  the  penalty. 
In  354  Demosthenes  came  forward  and,  with 
great  public  spirit,  offered  to  assume  the  cost 
of  the  ehorcgia  of  his  tribe,  which  had  for 
the  two  preceding  years  neglected  to  make 
the  usual  provision  for  the  lyrical,  musical, 
and  dramatic  entertainments  at  the  Diony- 
sian  festival.  Midias  showed  his  malignant 
disposition  by  every  species  of  impertinent  an- 
noyance, and  he  finally  proceeded  to  open  vi- 
olence, by  entering  the  goldsmith's  shop  and 
endeavoring  to  destroy  the  golden  crowns  which 
Demosthenes  had  provided  for  his  chorus,  by  in- 
flicting blows  upon  Demosthenes  in  the  orches- 
tra, while  he  was  performing  his  duties  in  tlie 
sacred  character  of  choragus,  and  by  tearing  tho 
festal  robe  which  he  wore  on  that  occasion.  De- 
mosthenes brought  an  action  against  him,  first 
under  the  form  of  npo^oXr)  (a  process  like  the 
modern  inquest  before  the  grand  jury),  before 
the  people,  who  decided  that  there  was  a  suffi- 
cient ground  for  referring  the  case  to  one  of  the 
courts.  Whether  it  ever  came  to  trial  is  doubt- 
ed. Midias  endeavored  to  intimidate  Demos- 
thenes, but  without  success ;  it  is  asserted,  how- 
ever, by  Plutarch  that  he  finally  consented  to  ac- 
cept 30  minns,  and  to  withdraw  the  accusation, 
^schines,  in  the  oration  against  Ctesiphon,  re- 
proaches Demosthenes  with  having  accepted 
money  for  blows ;  but  Mr.  Grote  is  of  opinion 
that  the  trial  actually  took  place,  and  the  lan- 
guage of  the  oration  itself  seems  to  imply  that 
all  offers  of  compromise  were  rejected.     The 


date  of  these  transactions  is  353  B,  0.  Demos- 
thenes had  already,  two  years  before,  delivered 
the  oration  against  the  law  of  Leptines.  This 
oration  is  of  great  importance  as  illustrating  the 
high  moral  principles  which  Demosthenes  ap- 
plied to  public  no  less  than  to  private  conduct. 
In  it  the  orator  discusses  Avith  consummate 
ability  the  whole  doctrine  of  the  sacredness  of 
the  public  faith  and  tho  inviolability  of  con- 
tracts. In  the  same  year  he  delivered  the  ora- 
tion against  Audrotion,  and  in  353  that  against 
Timocrates.  In  354,  having  been  appointed 
by  lot  a  member  of  the  jSovXr],  or  senate,  he 
passed  the  scrutiny  required  by  law,  in  spite 
of  the  opposition  of  Midias  and  his  party.  la 
the  following  year  he  was  chief  of  the  Theoria^ 
or  state  deputation  sent  from  Athens  to  the 
festival  of  the  Nemean  Zeus.  He  took  an  ac- 
tive part  at  this  time  in  the  public  debates  on 
questions  of  foreign  policy.  He  opposed,  but 
not  successfully,  the  expedition  to  Euboea  in 
354,  and  delivered  an  able  oration  against  the 
scheme,  then  nmch  favored  by  the  political  lead- 
ers of  Athens,  of  making  war  against  Persia 
(7re/H  (TVfinopio)v).  In  the  following  year  he  de- 
livered the  oration  in  behalf  of  the  Megalopoli- 
tans,  and  in  opposition  to  tho  request  of  the 
Spartans  for  aid  in  conquering  them.  The  re- 
lations between  the  states  of  Greece  and  King 
Philip  of  Macedon  called  the  genius  and  elo- 
quence of  Demosthenes  into  fuller  play.  That 
ambitious  monarch  aimed  at  the  subjugation  of 
the  Hellenic  world  as  a  preliminary  step  to  the 
conquest  of  Asia.  He  was  a  man  of  great  tal- 
ent, craft,  and  subtlety,  and  not  destitute  of  a 
taste  for  the  intellectual  culture  which  distin- 
guished the  Hellenic  name.  The  Athenians  had 
colonial  possessions  along  the  north-western 
coast  of  the  jEga?an  sea,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  territories  of  Philip.  As  early  as  858  B,  0. 
he  had  commenced  a  series  of  encroachments, 
which  brought  on  a  state  of  hostilities  between 
him  and  the  Athenians.  He  gained  possession 
of  Amphipolis,  Pydna,  Potidsea,  and  Methone. 
Demosthenes  early  saw  through  his  designs,  and 
had  the  courage  to  set  himself  in  stern  opposi- 
tion to  them.  He  felt  the  necessity  of  union 
among  the  Grecian  states,  and  urged  every  con- 
sideration that  patriotic  ardor  and  unsurpassed 
ability  suggested,  with  a  perseverance  that  no 
fatigue  could  wear  out,  and  a  courage  greater 
than  that  shown  by  the  warrior  on  the  field  of 
battle.  The  Philippics,  so  called  because  they 
are  aimed  against  the  policy  of  Philip,  are  ani- 
mated by  the  loftiest  spirit  of  devotion  to  his 
country,  and  are  among  the  most  brilliant  speci- 
mens of  his  eloquence.  But  the  demoralized 
condition  of  the  states,  the  corruptibility  of  the 
public  men,  the  fondness  for  pleasure,  the  reluc- 
tance to  submit  to  the  hardships  and  disciplme 
of  former  times,  made  his  efforts  unsuccessful, 
except  for  brief  moments  of  alarm,  and  he  fail- 
ed to  bring  about  a  permanent  union.  The 
first  Philippic  was  delivered  in  352.  In  349 
Philip  attacked  the  Olynthians,  who  had  made 
a  treaty  with  Athens.     They  sent  embassies  to 


374 


DEMOSTHENES 


Athens,  imploring  aid  against  Philip,  and  De- 
mosthenes supported  their  cause  by  delivering 
the  three  admirable  Olynthiacs,  vhich  roused 
the  Athenians  to  vigorous  efforts  to  save  them. 
These  efforts,  however,  were  not  suflBcient,  and 
finally  Olynthus  fell  into  the  hands  of  Philip, 
through  the  treachery  of  Lasthenes  and  Euthy- 
crates.  The  town  was  destroyed,  and  the  men, 
women,  and  children  sold  as  slaves.  During 
J,he  Olynthian  war  Philip  had  thrown  out  hints 
of  a  desire  to  make  a  treaty  of  peace  and  alli- 
ance with  Athens.  On  the  motion  of  Philocra- 
tes,  an  embassy  was  sent  to  open  negotiations 
with  the  king.  Philocrates,  ^schines,  and  De- 
mosthenes were  members  of  the  embassy.  Phil- 
ip appears  to  have  evaded  their  demand  that 
Phocis,  then  in  alliance  with  the  Athenians, 
should  be  included  in  the  treaty.  The  am- 
bassadors returned,  and  with  them  came  min- 
isters from  Philip.  The  terms  of  the  peace 
were  discussed  in  two  assemblies  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  were  finally  agreed  to  on  the  part  of 
the  Athenians,  the  customary  oath  having  been 
given  to  the  ambassadors.  A  second  embassy, 
of  which  uiEschines  and  Demosthenes  were 
again  members,  was  sent  to  Philip,  under  in- 
structions to  make  all  haste  to  receive  the  oaths 
from  him ;  to  go  wherever  they  should  learn 
that  Philip  was  at  the  moment  of  their  ar- 
rival, in  order  that  as  short  a  time  as  possible 
might  intervene,  because  it  was  apprehended 
that  Philip  would  not  cease  his  encroachments 
until  the  treaty  was  completely  ratified.  But 
instead  of  going  to  Macedonia  by  sea,  they  took 
the  longer  way  by  land;  instead  of  finding 
Philip  at  once,  they  waited  3  months  for  his 
return  from  an  expedition  to  the  Bosporus  in 
which  he  was  then  engaged ;  and  finally  they 
allowed  him  to  defer  taking  the  oaths  until 
he  had  completed  his  preparations  against  the 
Phocians.  They  accompanied  him  on  his  march 
into  Thessaly,  arid  the  oaths  were  not  adminis- 
tered until  they  arrived  at  Phera).  The  Pho- 
cians were  excluded  from  the  treaty.  The  am- 
bassadors having  returned  to  Athens,  Demos- 
thenes accused  his  colleagues  of  treachery  and 
of  being  bribed  by  the  king.  Philip's  object  was 
accomplished.  He  passed  through  Thermopyla), 
and  conquered  Phocis  without  resistance.  The 
oration  on  the  peace  was  delivered  in  346.  From 
this  time  Demosthenes  was  the  head  of  the  anti- 
Macedonian  party,  and  the  vehement  political 
antagonism  between  him  and  jS^lschines,  whose 
oratorical  ability  made  him  the  leader  on  the 
other  side,  commenced.  The  oration  ntpi  irapa- 
Trpt (^^etas  (the  corrupt  conduct  in  the  embassy) 
belongs  to  the  year  343.  Philip  continued  his 
intrigues  in  the  mean  time  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
and  Demosthenes  was  unwearied  in  his  labors 
to  thwart  them.  He  went  on  embassies  to  the 
several  states,  and  employed  all  his  powers  of 
argument,  persuasion,  and  denunciation.  Philip 
sent  a  deputation  to  Athens,  charging  the  Athe- 
nians with  favoring  the  Spartans  in  their  de- 
signs against  the  liberties  of  the  Peloponnesians. 
An  assembly  was  called,  Philip's  ministers  were 


heard,  and  in  the  discussion  of  the  answer  to 
be  made,  Demosthenes  (344)  delivered  the  sec- 
ond Philippic.  In  the  following  year  Philip 
took  Halonesus  from  the  pirates.  The  Atheni- 
ans claimed  it  as  an  ancient  possession  of  their 
own.  Philip,  denying  their  right  to  it,  offered 
it  to  them  as  a  gift ;  and  it  was  on  this  oc- 
casion that  the  oration  yrfpt  'AXoinjcrov  was  de- 
livered, though  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  is 
a  work  of  Demosthenes.  The  Athenians  now 
made  vigorous  efforts  to  counteract  the  schemes 
of  Philip  in  Acarnania,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  and 
in  Thrace.  Philip  again  complained  of  their 
course,  and  in  this  year,  342,  Demosthenes 
delivered  the  oration  on  the  Ohersonesus,  and 
the  3d  Philippic,  a  most  vigorous  and  daring 
attack.  Demosthenes  next  caused  the  expul- 
sion of  the  tyrants  who  had  been  established 
and  supported  by  Philip  in  Eubcea.  In  340, 
the  Athenians,  under  the  influence  of  Demos- 
thenes, took  the  most  energetic  measures  to 
relieve  Byzantium,  which  the  king  was  besieg- 
ing. They  sent  a  fleet  which  compelled  him  to 
withdraw,  without  accomplisliing  his  purpose. 
In  the  same  year  he  introduced  a  reform  into 
the  naval  «ystem,  by  which  the  burdens  of  this 
department  of  the  public  service  were  more 
equitably  distributed,  and  its  eflBciency  increased. 
At  the  Amphictyonic  assembly,  held  at  Delphi 
in  the  spring  of  340,  vEschines  proposed  a 
decree  against  the  Locrians  of  Amphissa,  for 
having  sacrilegiously  occupied  a  portion  of  the 
lands  belonging  to  the  temple.  The  Amphissians 
forcibly  resisted  the  execution  of  the  decree,  and 
an  extraordinary  meeting  of  the  Amphictyons 
was  summoned  to  consider  what  should  be  done. 
Demosthenes,  foreseeing  the  evil  consequences 
likely  to  result  from  such  a  step,  persuaded  the 
Athenians  to  send  no  deputies  to  the  meeting. 
The  assembly  met,  declared  war  against  the  Am- 
phissians, and  placed  Cottyphus,  an  Arcadian 
commander,  at  the  head  of  the  Amphictyonic 
forces.  But  many  causes  conspired  to  render 
the  undertaking  a  failure,  so  that  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  at  the  regular  meeting  of  the 
assembly,  the  partisans  of  Philip  were  suffi- 
ciently powerful  to  supersede  Cottyphus  by  ap- 
pointing Philip  in  his  place.  This  gave  him  the 
opportunity  ho  had  long  desired,  of  marching 
with  a  strong  force  into  the  heart  of  Greece. 
He  occupied  at  once  the  important  post  of 
Elatea.  The  news  of  this  movement,  arriving 
at  evening,  caused  the  greatest  alarm  at  Ath- 
ens. An  assembly  was  called  early  the  next 
morning,  and  all  business  was  suspended  in  the 
Agora.  In  the  midst  of  the  universal  dismay, 
Demosthenes  took  the  bema,  and  in  a  pow- 
erful speech,  the  substance  of  which  he  re- 
capitulates in  the  oration  on  the  crown,  ad- 
vocated an  alliance  with  Thebes,  as  the  only 
means  of  warding  off  the  impending  danger. 
The  proposal  was  carried  without  a  dissenting 
voice,  and  Demosthenes  himself  immediately 
went  to  Thebes  as  head  of  the  embassy.  The 
alliance  was  concluded,  and  the  united  armies 
marched  northward  to  encounter  Philip.    The 


DEMOSTHENES 


375 


great  defeat  of  Chseronca  (338)  struck  ft  dis- 
astrous blow,  and  overturned  the  hopes  of  the 
patriotic  i)arty.  Yet  Demostlicnes  did  not  lose 
the  confidence  of  the  country.  "With  a  just 
pride,  ho  relates  that,  in  all  the  freshness  of 
their  sorrow,  the  people  appointed  him  to  deliver 
the  funeral  oration  over  the  remains  of  those 
who  had  fallen  on  that  disastrous  day.  He  was 
also  charged  -with  the  duty  of  sui)erintenduig 
the  fortification  of  the  city,  in  anticipation  of 
an  immediate  attack.  But  his  antagonists  and 
enemies  failed  not  to  seize  the  opjjortunity  of 
assailing  him  by  every  form  the  laws  of  Athens 
allowed,  and  he  was  daily  harassed  by  the  vex- 
atious annoyances  of  such  conteinptiljle  charac- 
ters as  Sosicles,  Diondas,  Melanthus,  and  other 
sycophants,  with  whom  the  city  swarmed.  To 
put  an  end  to  this  warfare,  and  to  test  tlie 
strength  of  public  feeling  in  favor  of  the  great 
orator,  Otesiphon,  a  political  friend,  not  other- 
wise known  to  history,  introduced  into  the  sen- 
ate a  resolution  to  confer  a  golden  crown  on 
Demosthenes  as  a  suitable  acknowledgment  for 
his  patriotic  spirit  and  his  public  services.  Before 
the  proposition  could  become  a  law,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  pass  it  through  the  popular  assembly,  and 
in  the  interval  any  citizen  might  prosecute  the 
author  of  it  by  an  action  called  ypacfir]  napavofxcov, 
or  i-ndictrnent  for  illegal  propositions.  yEschines 
accordingly  came  forward  and  arrested  the  pro- 
ceeding by  prosecuting  Ctesiphon.  Technically 
the  accused  party  was  Otesiphon,  but  in  reality 
Demosthenes  was  put  on  trial  for  the  whole  of 
his  ])oIitical  life.  For  some  reason,  not  clearly 
explained,  tlie  trial  did  not  take  place  within  a 
year,  as  the  Attic  law  apparently  required.  It 
was  postponed  8  years,  and  finally  was  held 
in  330.  Demosthenes  appeared  in  the  formal 
character  of  counsel  for  Otesiphon,  but  in 
reality,  of  course,  in  his  own  defence.  The 
orations  delivered  by  the  rival  statesmen  were 
elaborated  to  tlie  highest  point  of  their  abilities, 
and  must  be  considered  their  masterpieces;  but 
that  of  Demosthenes,  in  force  and  cogency  of 
argument,  in  severity  of  invective,  in  loftiness 
of  ethical  spirit,  and  in  ardent  patriotism,  far 
surpassed  the  oration  of  iEschines.  The  result 
was  remarkable.  j^Eschines  exposed  himself  to 
the  penalties  of  malicious  prosecution,  inasmuch 
as  he  failed  to  obtain  a  fifth  part  of  the  votes. 
In  consequence  of  this  he  left  Athens,  and 
never  returned.  King  Philip  was  assassinated 
in  336,  two  years  after  the  battle  of  Oha^ronea, 
and  4  years  before  the  trial  on  the  crown. 
This  event  led  Demosthenes  to  renew  his  efforts 
to  unite  the  Grecian  states  against  Macedon. 
But  the  unexpected  vigor  of  the  youthful  Alex- 
ander (pienched  his  kindling  hopes.  An  em- 
bassy was  sent  from  Athens  to  sue  for  peace, 
and  Demosthenes  was  one  of  those  selected  for 
this  painful  duty.  He  set  out  upon  the  mission, 
but  after  proceeding  part  of  the  way,  his  feel- 
ings overcame  him,  and  he  returned.  A  false 
report  of  the  death  of  Alexander  caused  an- 
other rising  among  the  Greeks,  and  Demos- 
thenes, at  his  own  expense,  sent  a  supply  of 


arms  to  Thebes,  the  only  state  which  showed 
energy  in  the  movement.  But  Alexander  sud- 
denly appeared  before  that  ill-fated  city,  and 
coini)letely  subdued  tlie  spirit  of  the  people  by 
levelling  to  the  ground  its  walls  and  all  its 
l)uildings  except  the  house  of  Pindar,  335  B.  0. 
Soon  after,  Alexander  started  on  his  Asiatic 
expedition,  having  appointed  Antipatcr  regent 
of  Macedon  during  his  absence.  Greece  re- 
mained (juiet  for  several  years,  but  the  lead- 
ers were  eagerly  watching  every  opportunity 
for  another  outbreak.  Nothing  of  consequence 
occurred,  however,  until  the  arrival  of  llarpa- 
lus  in  Greece.  This  person  had  been  left  by 
Alexander  in  charge  of  immense  treasures  at 
Babylon,  while  he  ])rosecuted  his  victorious 
march  to  India.  He  proved  faithless  to  his 
trust,  and  came  to  Athens  in  325  for  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  the  protection  of  the  city. 
The  Macedonian  regent  demanded  the  surren- 
der of  the  fugitive,  and  the  trial  of  tlie  poi)ular 
leaders  who  were  accused  of  having  accepted 
his  bribes.  Demosthenes,  being  among  the  ora- 
tors thus  implicated,  voluntarily  offered  himself 
for  trial.  His  whole  conduct  was  inconsistent 
with  the  theory  of  guilt,  the  motives  of  his 
enemies  in  bringing  the  charge  were  quite  ap- 
parent, and  there  is  not  a  tittle  of  trustworthy 
evidence  against  the  illustrious  patriot.  But  so 
great  was  the  influence  of  the  Macedonian  fac- 
tion that  he  was  declared  guilty,  and  thrown 
into  prison  ;  from  which,  however,  he  escaped, 
it  is  said,  with  the  connivance  of  the  magistrates, 
lie  passed  the  time  of  his  exile  partly  at  Troe- 
zen  and  partly  in  ^gina,  gazing  daily  over  the 
sea  to  the  shores  of  his  native  land,  which  are  in 
sight  from  those  famous  places.  When  the  news 
of  Alexander's  death  arrived,  the  Greeks  made 
a  fresh  effort  to  throw  off'  the  Macedonian  yoke. 
Demosthenes  joined  the  ambassadors  sent  from 
Athens  to  the  several  states,  and  again  put  forth 
all  the  power  of  his  eloquence  in  the  cause  of 
freedom  and  independence.  Demon,  a  relative, 
now  proposed  a  decree  recalling  him  from  ex- 
ile. He  was  brought  from  ^gina  in  a  public 
ship,  and  was  met  on  landing  at  the  Piraeus 
by  crowds  of  Athenian  citizens  and  the  prin- 
cipal magistrates,  who  welcomed  him  home 
with  the  most  enthusiastic  demonstrations  of 
joy.  He  pronounced  it  the  happiest  day  of  his 
life.  The  new  hopes  of  the  Greeks  met  with 
speedy  disappointment.  The  battle  of  Oranon 
(322)  and  the  gradual  desertion  of  the  com- 
mon cause  by  the  confederate  states,  one  after 
another,  left  Athens  to  contend  single-handed, 
with  Autipater.  Peace  was  accordingly  made 
upon  his  own  terms.  Antlpater  and  Craterus 
marched  upon  Athens,  and  Demosthenes  and 
his  friends  fled.  In  the  midst  of  the  panic 
Demades  proposed  that  they  should  be  con- 
demned to  death,  and  the  cowardly  decree 
was  passed.  Demosthenes  took  refuge  in  the 
temple  of  Poseidon,  on  the  little  island  of  Oalau- 
rea ;  but  the  right  of  asylum  could  not  protect 
him  from  the  rage  of  Archias,  the  brutal  officer 
of  Antipater,  who  pursued  him  to  his  retreat. 


376 


DEMOSTHENES 


DEMOTICA 


Finding  himself  at  tho  mercy  of  his  remorseless 
enemies,  lie  took  poison  wliich  he  had  kept  in  a 
quill,  and  died  322  13.  0.  at  the  age  of  03.— There 
is  a  statue  of  Demosthenes  in  tlie  Nuovo  Braecio 
of  tho  Vatican — the  noblest  portnut  statue  in 
existence.  It  represents  the  orator  in  the  act 
of  addressing  an  assembly.  Tho  nervous  tem- 
perament, the  spare  figure,  the  concentrated  fire 
and  energy  exhibited  in  the  face  and  brow,  era- 
body  his  character  with  wonderful  truth.  De- 
mosthenes inherited  a  delicate  constitution, 
wliich  prevented  him  from  engaging  in  the  gym- 
nastic exercises  and  field  sports  of  his  contem- 
poraries ;  but  he  overcame  this  natural  defect 
by  the  most  rigid  temperance  in  food  and  drink. 
He  never  indulged  in  wine  ;  he  was  one  of  the 
earliest  water-drinkers  on  record.  He  was  nat- 
urally afHicted  with  a  hesitation  in  speech  and 
a  shortness  of  breath ;  but  by  incredible  force 
of  will  he  cured  himself  of  these  impediments. 
It  is  said  that  he  forced  himself  to  speak  with  a 
pebble  in  his  mouth,  and  that,  in  order  to  ac- 
custom himself  to  the  tumults  of  the  popular 
assembly,  he  declaimed  on  the  beach  of  Pha- 
lerum  to  the  waves  as  they  swept  along  the  shore. 
In  the  formation  of  his  style  he  took  unwea- 
ried pains.  Whether  he  copied  Thucydides  8 
times,  according  to  the  tradition,  may  be  doubt- 
ed ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  from  his 
early  youth  to  the  last  oration  he  ever  spoke, 
he  never  ceased  to  give  the  profoundest  study 
both  to  matter  and  form.  He  seldom  or  never 
addressed  an  assembly  in  an  extemporaneous 
speech ;  his  rivals  and  detractors  used  to  say 
that  his  speeches  smelt  of  the  lamp.  If  by  this 
charge  it  was  meant  that  tho  style  of  the  great 
orator  was  unduly  elaborate  in  the  structure  of 
his  sentences,  or  overloaded  with  ornaments,  or 
artificially  balanced  and  formal,  nothing  can  be 
more  untrue.  The  labor  of  Demosthenes  was 
expended  in  making  the  thought  clear,  and  then 
in  making  his  language  a  perfectly  transparent 
medium  for  his  thought.  He  worked  upon  his 
orations  in  order  to  remove  from  his  ideas  every 
obscurity,  and  from  his  expression  every  thing 
imperfect,  inexact,  or  ambiguous.  Demosthenes 
was  never  misunderstood  by  his  hearers.  More- 
over, he  adapted  his  style  with  a  curious  felicity 
to  his  subject.  In  his  legal  argmnents,  it  is 
precise,  clear,  technical  when  necessary,  with 
no  attempt  at  the  impassioned  eloquence  which 
would  be  out  of  place  on  such  subjects  and 
such  occasions.  In  his  deliberative  and  political 
speeches,  he  blends  with  the  closest  logic  every 
form  of  vehement  appeal  to  the  feelings  which 
the  moment  of  public  peril  or  of  patriotic  ex- 
citement is  fitted  to  arouse.  He  begins  in  a 
moderate  tone,  with  the  simplest  language  and 
the  most  undeniable  propositions.  He  grows 
warm  with  his  subject ;  the  mighty  forms  of  the 
great  departed  seem  to  rise  before  him ;  the  illus- 
trious dead  start  from  their  tombs ;  the  august 
ininge  of  his  beloved  country  is  a  living  presence 
to  his  excited  mind  ;  his  language  continues  sim- 
ple, while  his  meaning  becomes  deeper,  and  his 
feeling  more  intense.     Nothing  can  stand  before 


such  a  combination  of  power,  enthusiasm,  hon- 
esty, reason,  and  passion.  No  wonder  he  swayed 
his  contemporaries  as  no  other  man  did.  No 
wonder  his  orations  are  still  studied,  as  the 
highest  models  of  all  that  is  pure  and  exalted  in 
eloquence.  And  so  it  happened  that  his  style 
grew  better  as  he  grew  older.  Compare  the 
oration  against  Midias  with  the  oration  on  the 
crown.  In  both  the  instrument  is  admirable, 
but  the  sujierior  mastery  displayed  in  the  latter 
has  been  acquired  by  constant  practice  during  the 
24  intervening  years.  In  private  life,  the  man- 
ners of  Demosthenes  appear  to  have  been  some- 
what austere.  He  was  a  man  of  ardent  and 
concentrated  feelings,  with  but  little  taste  for 
the  festive  enjoyments  in  Avhich  the  Athenians 
generally  delighted.  His  tone  of  sentiment 
was  lofty  and  pure  ;  his  domestic  life  was  as 
stainless  as  his  public  life  was  incorruptible. 
In  all  the  virtues  of  the  republican  citizen,  he 
left  an  example  which  none  of  his  country- 
men ever  surpassed,  and  which  the  men  of 
other  races  and  after  ages  can  never  cease  to 
venerate.  Athens,  his  beloved  city,  is  again 
redeemed  to  letters,  art,  and  freedom.  The 
Bema  still  stands,  venerable  with  the  associa- 
tions of  ancient  glory.  The  Propylsea  and  the 
Parthenon,  splendid  and  pathetic  in  their  ruins, 
are  the  more  grand  and  imposing  because  his 
eye  rested  upon  them,  and  his  voice  appealed 
to  them  in  the  moments  of  his  country's  great- 
ness. Across  the  Sarouic  gulf,  on  the  little 
island  of  Poros,  the  ancient  Calaurea,  are  traces 
still  of  the  temple  of  Poseidon,  sacred  to  mem- 
ory as  the  last  resting  place  of  the  hunted  and 
wearied  patriot ;  and  the  waves  of  that  classic 
sea,  as  they  gently  lave  the  island's  rocky  shore, 
seem  eternally  to  chant  his  requiem. — Of  the 
works  of  Demosthenes  there  are  many  editions. 
One  of  the  most  convenient  is  that  of  Dobson, 
in  the  Oratorcs  Attici.  Others  are  those  of 
Taylor,  Reiske,  Dukas,  Bekker,  Baiter,  and 
Saupe.  The  orations  of  Demosthenes  alone 
have  been  edited  by  Wolf,  Auger,  and  Schaefer. 
Dindorf 's  text  (Leipsic,  1825)  is  excellent ;  still 
better,  that  of  Bekker  in  3  vols.  (Leipsic,  1855). 
The  editions  of  single  or  selected  orations  are  too 
numerous  to  be  mentioned.  For  the  use  of  the 
American  student  the  oration  on  the  crown, 
edited  by  Prof.  Champlin,  the  popular  orations 
by  the  same,  and  the  Philippics  by  Pi-of.  Smead, 
are  the  best.  Dissen's  Oratio  de  Corona,  with  a 
Latin  commentary,  is  admirable.  The  transla- 
tions in  Bohn's  "  Classical  Library"  are  furnish- 
ed with  useful  introductions  and  illustrative  es- 
says.    (See  also  Athens,  vol.  i.  pp.  275-278.) 

DEMOTIC  ALPHABET.  See  Hieeoglyphics. 

DEMOTICA,  a  town  of  European  Turkey,  in 
Roumelia,  20  m.  S.  of  Adrianople ;  pop.  about 
10,000.  It  is  situated  on  the  Maritza,  at  the  foot 
of  a  conical  hill,  on  the  summit  of  which  stands 
a  citadel,  wherein  is  a  palace  that  was  occasion- 
ally occupied  by  the  Turkish  sultans  while  Adri- 
anople was  the  capital  of  their  empire.  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden  found  a  retreat  in  this  town  for 
some  time  after  his  defeat  atPultowa. 


DEMPSTER 


DEMURRAGE 


377 


DEMPSTER,  TnoMAS,  a  learned  Scottish 
professor  and  author,  born  at  Cliftbog,  Aber- 
deenshire, Aug.  23,  1579,  died  at  Butri,  near 
Bologna,  Sept.  6,  1025.  He  was  the  24th  ont 
of  a  family  of  29  children  by  the  same  mother, 
and  at  the  age  of  3  gave  a  proof  of  his  literary 
jirecocity  by  mastering  the  alphabet  in  one  hour. 
The  brutal  violence  of  his  eldest  brother,  James, 
who  ended  a  lawless  life  in  the  military  service 
in  Flanders  by  being  torn  to  pieces  by  4  horses, 
for  an  act  of  gross  insubordination,  having 
brought  the  family  into  disrepute  at  home,  ho 
went  in  his  lOtli  year  to  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  studied  for  some  time  at  Pembroke 
hall,  whence  ho  passed  over  to  France.  For  sev- 
eral years  he  wandered  from  one  university  to 
another,  and  in  1590,  being  then  17  years  of  age, 
he  received  the  degree  of  D.C.L.,  and  was  ap- 
pointed regent  of  the  college  of  Navarre  in 
Paris.  At  this  time,  and  indeed  throughout  his 
whole  life,  he  was  scarcely  less  renuxrkable  for 
his  violence  and  quarrelsome  disposition  than 
for  his  learning,  and  was  continually  involving 
himself  in  broils  with  professors  and  fellow  stu- 
dents, being  as  ready  to  draw  his  sword  as  his 
pen.  He  soon  terminated  his  connection  with  the 
college  of  Navarre,  was  subsequently  professor 
for  brief  periods  at  Toulouse  and  Nimes,  and 
in  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century  returned 
to  Scotland  to  recover  a  portion  of  the  pater- 
nal property.  Having  previously  espoused  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith,  he  found  little  favor  from 
his  family  or  the  Scottish  clergy,  and  returned 
to  Paris,  where  for  7  years  he  was  connected 
with  various  colleges  of  the  university.  While 
occupying  temporarily  tlie  office  of  principal  of 
the  college  of  Beauvais,  he  proved  his  capacity 
and  intention  to  preserve  discipline  by  causing 
a  student  of  high  family,  who  had  sent  a  chal- 
lenge to  another,  to  be  "  horsed  "  and  flogged  in 
the  presence  of  the  whole  college.  The  young 
man  procured  the  assistance  of  several  of  his 
kinsmen,  who  were  members  of  the  king's  body 
guard ;  but  such  was  the  energy  of  Dempster 
that  his  assailants  were  overpowered  and  im- 
prisoned in  the  college  belfry.  Deeming  it  pru- 
dent after  this  to  absent  himself  from  Paris,  he 
went  to  England,  and  was  appointed  by  James 
I.  historiographer  royal.  In  1615  he  received 
from  the  king  a  handsome  present  in  money, 
but  his  hopes  of  preferment  being  defeated  by 
the  «pi)osition  of  the  clergy  on  account  of  his 
religious  opinions,  he  betook  himself  in  1616  to 
Pisa,  where  for  several  years  he  lectured  on  the 
civil  law.  A  personal  difficulty  induced  him  to 
go  to  Bologna,  where,  after  engaging  in  a  more 
than  ordinary  number  of  disputes,  he  rose  to 
great  eminence  as  professor  of  humanity,  was 
knighted  by  the  pope,  and  loaded  with  distinc- 
tions. In  the  midst  of  this  prosperity  his  wife, 
a  woman  of  great  beauty,  eloped  with  a  student, 
and  the  mental  and  physical  suffering  which  he 
experienced  in  an  attempt  to  overtake  the  fugi- 
tives put  an  end  to  his  life.  Dempster's  works 
are  exceedingly  numerous,  numbering  probably 
over  50,  and  embrace  a  variety  of  subjects.    He 


wrote  and  spoke  with  great  facility  the  Greek 
and  Latin  languages,  was  thoroughly  versed  in 
philosoi)hy,  civil  law,  and  history,  and  in  such 
elaborate  works  as  his  Antuiuitutum  Romana- 
rxim  Corpus  AhHolatimimum  and  De  Etruria 
Eegall^  which  are  chiefly  of  an  antiquarian 
character,  evinced  remarkable  industry  and 
erudition.  His  IliatorM  Ecclesiastica  Gcntis 
Scotoi-um,  the  work  by  Avhich  he  is  now  best 
known,  is  a  sort  of  biographical  dictionary  of 
Scottish  worthies,  in  which  fable  and  fact  are 
pretty  equally  mingled.  Many  names  of  au- 
thors who  never  were  in  Scotland  are  claimed 
as  Scottish,  and  the  history  of  many  others  who 
never  existed  is  given  with  such  particularity, 
that  we  must  conclude  that  Dempster  either 
wilfully  fabricated  his  statements  entire,  or  that 
his  credulity  was  imposed  upon ;  the  latter 
opinion  being  the  more  probable,  if  the  testi- 
mony of  Bishop  Lloyd  may  be  credited,  that 
"he  was  as  well  inclined  to  believe  a  lie  as  any 
man  in  his  time."  Baillet,  on  the  other  hand, 
accuses  him  of  wilful  forgery.  He  was  an  inde- 
fatigable student,  working  14  hours  a  day,  and 
possessed  so  extraordinary  a  memory  that  he 
is  said  never  to  have  forgotten  what  he  liad 
once  learned. 

DEMURRAGE  (Lat.  demoror,  to  delay),  in 
maritime  law,  the  detention  of  a  vessel  beyond 
the  time  allowed  by  the  charter  party  (or  by 
custom  if  there  is  no  special  contract)  for 
loading  or  unloading  or  sailing  ;  also  the  com- 
pensation paid  or  damages  claimed  for  such  de- 
tention. It  is  usually  stipulated  in  the  contract 
between  the  owner  of  the  ship  and  the  freighter 
that  the  ship  shall  not  he  detained  beyond  a 
certain  time  for  the  loading  of  goods  on  board, 
or  for  the  delivery  of  such  goods,  or  for  sailing. 
If  there  is  no  such  stipulation,  the  time  is  fixed 
by  usage,  and  called  lay  days.  The  claim  for 
demurrage  is  reciprocal,  by  the  owner  against 
the  freighter,  and  by  the  freighter  against  the 
owner — the  latter  case  being,  however,  only  for 
delay  in  sailing.  Demurrage  is  allowed  only  for 
voluntary  detention,  and  not  for  any  accidental 
delay ;  as  if  a  vessel  is  detained  for  a  cargo  over 
the  stipulated  time,  and  after  sailing  is  driven 
back  by  a  storm,  which  would  have  been  avoided 
if  she  had  started  at  the  time  appointed,  no 
damages  are  allowed  for  the  incidental  delay. 
Yet  it  would  perhaps  be  otherwise  if  by  the  de- 
tention a  further  delay  is  caused  by  any  thing 
which  could  be  foreseen,  as  a  periodical  wind,  or 
the  freezing  up  of  a  harbor,  or  the  like.  In  in- 
land transpoi'tation,  where  the  latter  cause  of 
delay  most  frequently  occurs,  as  upon  rivers  or 
canals,  the  rule  is  that  the  carrier  is  not  respon- 
sible for  the  delay  when  there  has  been  no  fault 
on  his  part,  but  is  entitled  to  deliver  the  cargo 
after  the  breaking  up  of  winter,  and  earn  the 
entire  freight ;  or  if  the  freighter  elect  to  take 
the  goods  at  the  place  of  detention,  ho  must. pay 
pro  rata  itineris.  But  if  there  has  been  volun- 
tary delay  by  either  party,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  vessel  is  frozen  up  by  the  coming  on 
of  winter,  he  is  responsible  to  the  other  for 


378 


DEMURRER 


DENDERAH 


damages ;  bu+.  the  measure  of  sticli  'damages 
would  not  be  according  to  the  mle  of  demur- 
rage in  respect  to  sea  vessels. 

DEMURRER,  in  law,  a  suspension  of  the  pro- 
ceedings in  a  cause  until  some  point  is  determin- 
ed hj  the  court;  in  other  words,  the  interrup- 
tion of  the  preparation  for  a  final  trial  or  hearing 
until  some  preliminary  objection  is  disposed  of. 
A  demurrer  is  a  pleading  in  equity  as  well  as  at 
law,  and  in  hoth  it  raises  a  question  as  to  the 
sufficiency  of  the  case  as  stated  by  the  opposite 
party,  or  some  particular  part  thereof  At  law 
a  demurrer  may  be  general  or  special ;  the  for- 
mer specifying  no  particular  ground  of  objection, 
and  tlierefore  raising  only  the  question  of  the 
sufficiency  in  substance  of  the  pleading  demur- 
red to;  the  latter  being  a  specification  of  certain 
objections  to  the  form  of  the  jdeading.  By  the 
recent  changes  in  the  practice  both  in  England 
and  this  country  the  distinction  has  become  un- 
important, as  no  objection  can  now  be  insisted 
upon  under  a  general  demurrer  but  what  can  be 
raised  at  the  trial  or  hearing,  while  the  special 
demurrer  has  become  of  comparatively  little 
consequence  by  reason  of  the  liberty  of  amend- 
ing pleadings  which  is  now  allowed. 

DENAIN,  a  French  town,  in  the  department 
of  Nord,  arroudissement  of  Douai,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Scheldt,  which  is  here  navigable,  6 
m.  from  Valenciennes,  14  m.  from  Douai.  Ow- 
ing to  the  successful  working  of  the  neighbor- 
ing coal  and  iron  mines,  the  population  has  in- 
creased from  900  in  1826,  to  about  9,000  in  1852. 
Denain  was  the  scene  of  the  brilliant  victory 
achieved  in  1712  by  the  French  under  Villars 
over  the  allies. 

DENARIUS,  a  Roman  silver  coin,  containing 
at  first  10,  and  afterward  16  asses.  Also  a  gold 
coin  of  25  silver  denarii.  The  average  weight 
of  a  large  number  of  denarii  shows  them  to 
have  contained  about  as  much  silver  as  3  half 
dimes  of  our  currency. 

DENBIGH,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough,  market  and  co.  town  of  Denbighshire, 
North  Wales,  built  on  an  eminence  near  the 
centre  of  the  vale  of  Clwytl,  22  m.  W.  of  Ches- 
ter, and  213  m.  N.  W.  of  London ;  pop.  of  the 
borough  in  1851,  5,498.  Tiie  principal  edifices 
are  2  churches,  a  lunatic  asylum,  and  a  spacious 
market  hall.  The  shoe  and  leather  trade  is  the 
main  support  of  the  town,  but  Denbigh  is  best 
known  as  a  pleasant  spot  for  retirement.  Den- 
bigh castle,  a  magnificent  edifice,  parts  of  which 
are  well  preserved,  is  supposed  to  have  been  built 
by  Henry  Lacy,  earl  of  Lincoln,  who  received  the 
lordship  of  this  place  from  Edward  I.  Edward 
IV.  was  besieged  in  it  by  the  army  of  Henry  VI., 
and  Cliarles  I.  took  refuge  here  after  the  battle 
of  Rowton  Moor  in  1645.  During  the  civil  war 
it  was  garrisoned  by  royalists,  but  after  a  siege 
of  two  mouths  surrendered  to  the  parliamen- 
tarians by  order  of  the  king.  Its  walls  and  de- 
fences were  blown  up  after  the  restoi-ation  of 
Charles  II. 

DENBIGHSHIRE,  a  maritime  co.  in  the 
N.  of  Wales,  bounded  N.  by  the  Irish  sea,  and 


bordering  on  England ;  area,  603  sq.  m. ;  pop.  iu 
1851,  92,583.  Its  surface  is  much  diversified. 
There  are  some  level  tracts  in  the  N.,  but  along 
the  E.  and  AV.  borders  extend  mountain  ridges. 
The  valleys  and  level  tracts  are  remarkably  fer- 
tile, producing  grain,  beans,  and  peas;  the  up- 
lands yield  some  crops  of  barley,  oats,  and  pota- 
toes, but  are  mostly  occupied  by  pastures;  black 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  are  reared  in  great 
numbers,  and  excellent  cheese  is  made.  Among 
the  minerals  are  coal  and  iron,  both  very  valu- 
able, lead,  slate,  freestone,  and  millstone.  Im- 
mense quantities  of  limestone,  used  for  flux- 
ing ironstone,  are  exported  into  Staffordshire, 
and  the  yield  of  one  quarry,  near  Llangollen,  is 
said  to  be  sometimes  between  70,000  and  100,- 
000  tons  in  a  single  year.  The  principal  rivers 
are  tlie  Conway,  the  Dee,  and  the  Clwyd,  none 
of  which  are  navigable  within  its  borders.  It 
has  no  seaport,  and  its  chief  channel  of  trans- 
portation is  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  railway, 
which  crosses  it  near  the  coast.  The  Chester 
and  Shrewsbury  railway  runs  S.  about  14  miles, 
just  within  its  E.  boundary.  A  branch  of  the 
Ellesmere  canal  traverses  the  vale  of  Llangollen. 
Chief  towns,  Denbigh,  Ruthin,  and  Wrexham. 
Before  the  Roman  conquest  Denbighshire  was 
the  territory  of  the  Ordovices,  and  was  annexed 
to  the  empire  only  after  long  struggles.  It  con- 
tains several  interesting  Roman  remains.  It  was 
the  scene  of  many  a  fierce  contest  under  the 
Saxons  and  the  Normans,  in  the  wars  of  the 
roses,  and  in  the  revolution  of  the  17th  century. 

DENDER,  or  Dendre,  a  river  of  Belgium,  in 
the  provinces  of  Hainault  and  E.  Flanders,  53  ra. 
long,  joining  the  Scheldt  at  Dendermonde.  It  is 
made  navigable  by  locks  to  Ath,  40  m.,  and  is 
largely  used  for  the  transportation  of  coal. 

I)ENDER,  a  river  in  Abyssinia  and  Nubia, 
tributary  to  the  Blue  Nile,  which  it  joins  40  m. 
N.  of  Sennaar.  It  rises  in  a  mountain  range  W. 
of  Lake  Dembea,  skirts  Abyssinia  for  about  95 
m.  before  entering  Nubia,  and  has  a  total  course 
of  about  260  m. 

DENDERAH  (anc.  Tentyra\  a  ruined  town 
of  upper  Egypt,  near  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile, 
famous  for  its  antiquities,  which  are  among  the 
most  interesting  and  complete  in  that  country. 
The  principal  building  is  a  magnificent  temple, 
enclosed  with  some  other  edifices,  in  a  space  1,000 
feet  square,  by  a  wall  of  sun-dried  brick,  15  feet 
thick,  and  35  feet  high.  It  was  dedicated  to 
the  goddess  Athor  or  Aphrodite,  or,  as  some 
believe,  to  Isis.  Facing  it  there  is  a  richly  sculp- 
tured gateway  in  the  enclosing  wall,  on  which 
the  emperors  Domitian  and  Trajan,  whose  names 
occur  in  accompanying  inscriptions,  are  repre- 
sented in  the  act  of  worship.  The  portico  or 
pronaos  of  the  temple  is  135  feet  in  width,  and 
has  24  columns  arranged  4  deep,  each  32  feet 
high,  and  nearly  22  feet  in  circumference.  The 
capitals  have  a  full  face  of  the  presiding  divinity 
on  each  of  their  4  sides ;  the  architrave  is  cover- 
ed like  the  portal  with  sculptures  representing 
a  religious  procession,  and  the  projecting  fillet 
of  the  cornice  bears  an  inscription  in  Greek, 


DENDERMONDE 


DENGUE 


379 


setting  forth  that  the  portico  was  added  to  the 
temple  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius  Ccesar,  in  honor 
of  the  goddess  Ai)ln-odite.  On  tlio  ceiling  of 
the  portico  is  tlie  famous  zodiac,  discovered  iu 
1799  by  the  French  savans  under  Bonaparte, 
and  on  tlio  ceiling  of  one  of  the  inner  chambers 
there  was  a  small  and  somewhat  similar  plani- 
sphere, which  was  removed  to  Paris  in  1821. 
Taken  as  an  ancient  rejjresentation  of  the  zo- 
diac, intersecting  the  equator  at  a  very  differ- 
ent point  from  the  present  ecjuinoxes,  it  was 
rashly  considered  to  prove,  by  the  precession  of 
the  equinoxes,  its  own  date  to  be  from  15,000 
to  17,000  years  B.  0.  All  scholars  are  now 
agreed  that  it  is  not  older  than  the  Ptolemies, 
and  that  a  zodiac  was  not  used  by  tlie  ancient 
Egyptians.  Seyffarth  finds  in  the  zodiac  of 
Denderah  the  planets  placed  iu  such  order  as  to 
indicate  the  year  of  Nero's  birtli,  A.  D.  37 ;  the 
temple  having  been,  as  he  supposes,  built  or  re- 
built under  that  emperor.  In  the  pronaos  or  on 
the  front  of  the  temple  may  also  be  distinguish- 
ed the  names  of  Augustus,  Caligula,  Claudius, 
Nero,  Ptolemy  Casarion,  and  his  mother  Cleo- 
patra. The  last  2  personages  are  also  represent- 
ed by  rude  portraits.  The  interior  consists  of  3 
large  halls,  an  isolated  sanctuary,  and  several 
small  chambers.  Rows  of  columns  stand  in  some 
of  tlie  rooms,  displaying  on  their  capitals  the 
budding  lotus,  and  all  the  apartments  but  2  are 
profusely  sculptured.  The  roof  is  flat  and  form- 
ed of  oblong  masses  of  stone.  Small  holes  cut 
in  the  ceiling  or  sides  admitted  the  only  light 
which  the  interior  of  this  gloomy  but  magnifi- 
cent building  received,  and  some  of  the  rooms 
on  the  ground  floor  were  lighted  only  by  the 
few  rays  which  found  their'way  through  aper- 
tures communicating  with  the  rooms  above. 
Tliere  are  2  smaller  temples  of  Roman  date  near 
that  of  Athor,  one  dedicated  to  Isis,  and  the 
other,  it  is  said,  to  the  evil  genius,  though  some 
believe  it  to  appertain  to  the  great  temple. 
Works  are  now  established  at  Denderah  for  ex- 
tracting saltpetre  from  the  ruins. 

DENDERMONDE,  or  Termonde,  a  Belgian 
arrondissement  in  the  province  of  E.  Flanders, 
pop.  in  1857,  97,289,  with  a  strongly  fortified 
capital  of  its  own  name.  The  latter  is  situated 
at  the  junction  of  the  Scheldt  and  Dender  rivers, 
at  a  distance  of  16  m.  by  rail  from  Brussels ;  pop. 
in  1857,  8,662.  It  contains  9  places  of  worship, 
many  charitable  and  educational  institutions,  an 
academy  of  design  and  architecture,  and  several 
fine  private  collections  of  art.  In  tlie  church  of 
Notre  Dame  are  2  pictures  by  Vandyke  and 
other  works  of  art,  and  David  Teniers  was  for 
some  time  a  resident  of  the  town.  The  sur- 
rounding country  is  fertile  and  famous  for  pro- 
ducing the  finest  flax  in  Flanders.  An  active 
trade  is  carried  on  in  this  article,  in  grain,  lin- 
seed, hemp,  and  oil,  and  in  the  various  manu- 
factures, the  most  important  of  which  are  wool- 
len cloths,  cotton  yarn,  and  lace.  The  town  is 
among  tlie  oldest  in  Belgium,  and  many  Roman 
antiquities  have  been  found  in  the  neighbor- 
hood.   In  1667  it  resisted  a  siege  of  Louis  XIV. 


by  opening  tlio  sluices.  In  1706  it  was  taken 
by  Marlborough,  and  in  1745  by  the  French. 
The  present  fortifications  date  from  1822,  and 
the  bridge  over  the  Scheldt  from  1825. 

DENDROBIUM,  a  genus  of  epiphytes  or  pa- 
rasitical plants,  found  chiefly  in  the  damj)  ti-ojii- 
cal  parts  of  Asia,  and  belonging  to  an  order 
remarkable  for  the  grotcsqueness  as  well  as 
beauty  of  its  flowers.  The  species  are  numer- 
ous; and  in  some  instances  they  aftect  dry 
and  open  places  on  the  bark  of  trees  in  New 
Holland,  and  even  on  bare  rocks  exposed  to  tho 
sun.  Dr.  Royle  found  D.  alpestre  on  the  Him- 
alaya mountains,  at  an  elevation  of  7,500  feet. 
The  flowers  are  generally  very  beautiful,  vary- 
ing in  color  from  a  deep  yellow  to  nearly  white. 
They  possess  a  high  fragrance.  In  cultivation 
they  thrive  best  when  planted  in  pots  filled  with 
earth,  but  require  an  artificially  elevated  tem- 
perature to  insure  success. 

DENGUE,  called  also  Dingee,  Dunga,  Dan- 
dy, Bouquet  Feyee,  Bucket  Fevek,  Break- 
bone  Fever,  &c.,  a  peculiar  febrile  epidemic, 
which  at  varying  periods  has  pervaded  the  East 
and  West  Indies  and  the  southern  and  middle 
states  of  the  United  States.  Its  first  known  ap- 
pearance was  in  1780,  when  it  broke  out  at  Phil- 
adelphia suddenly  in  the  autumn,  and  raged  for 
2  or  3  mouths.  Both  sexes  and  all  ages  were 
alFected  by  it,  and  in  the  district  where  it  oc- 
curred hardly  any  one  was  exempted  from  its 
attack.  It  w'as  named  by  the  people.  Dr.  Rush 
states,  the  breakbone  fever.  Its  next  appear- 
ance was  at  Calcutta  in  1824-'5 ;  here  it  is  very 
fairly  described  by  Dr.  Mellis.  In  1826  it  seems 
to  have  occurred  in  a  mild  form  at  Savannah, 
and  perhaps  elsewhere.  In  the  autumn  of  1827 
it  appeared  in  the  West  Indies,  occurring  as  be- 
fore as  a  universal  epidemic.  In  St.  Thomas 
the  negroes  gave  it  the  name  of  the  "  dandy 
fever,"  from  the  stiff  gait  and  appearance  of 
those  aftected  by  it.  When  it  appeared  in  Cuba 
this  name,  in  undergoing  the  Spanish  pronunci- 
ation, was  changed  iutodunga  or  dengue,  which 
it  has  since  retained.  It  appeared  again  at 
Savannah  in  1827,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1828 
raged  through  most  of  the  southern  cities.  It 
disappeared  in  the  winter.  A  few  cases  were 
seen  in  1831.  In  1844  it  appeared  at  Mobile, 
and  in  1848  at  Natchez.  In  1850  it  again 
spread  over  the  southern  states,  and  presented 
the  same  characteristics  as  in  the  previous  epi- 
demics. The  usual  symptoms  of  dengue  are 
pain,  stiffness  and  swelling  of  some  of  the  small- 
er joints,  usually  of  the  hand  or  foot,  or  of  the 
muscles  of  a  limb,  stiffness  of  the  neck,  aching 
of  the  back  and  loins.  These  symptoms  are  soon 
followed  by  fever,  headache,  sufl'usion  of  tho 
eyes,  full,  quick,  frequent  pulse,  hot,  dry  skin, 
restlessness  and  thirst.  The  fever  seldom  re- 
mits, but  generally  declines  and  disappears  on 
the  2d  or  3d  day.  At  this  time  the  skin  loses 
its  dryness,  and  abundant  perspiration  takes 
place,  with  considerable  relief  of  the  pains  in  the 
joints ;  during  tliis  deceptive  lull  of  the  disease 
many  consider  themselves  recovered,  but  soon 


380 


DENHAM 


DENIZEN 


discover  their  error,  as  usually  on  tfte  4th 
day  a  disturbed  and  irritable  condition  of  the 
stomach,  vomiting,  languor,  lassitude,  and  debil- 
ity, occur.  On  the  5th  or  6th  day  an  eruption 
appears,  relieving  the  lassitude  and  uneasiness, 
but  bringing  on  a  recurrence  of  the  pains  in  the 
joints  and  muscles.  The  eruption,  %vliicli  resem- 
bles scarlatina  in  some  particulars,  and  is  ac- 
companied with  a  sensation  of  itching  and  burn- 
ing, usually  subsides  in  2  or  3  days,  and  is  at- 
tended with  desquamation  of  the  cuticle.  The 
artliritic  pains  are  usually  of  longer  duration, 
and  often  render  the  patient  lame  for  some 
weeks.  The  disease  is  very  rarely  fatal.  In 
1780  the  break  bone  fever  occasionally  proved 
so,  perhaps  from  the  resort  to  depleting  meas- 
ures, which  seem  to  be  contraindicated  in  this 
disease.  The  treatment  adopted  has  usually 
been  the  administration  of  one  or  more  emetics 
or  a  mild  purgative,  followed  by  diaphoretics 
and  anodynes ;  occasionally  opium  has  been  ad- 
ministered in  some  form  to  allay  the  arthritic 
pains.  After  the  subsidence  of  the  eruption  the 
use  of  tonics,  and  particularly  of  the  various 
preparations  of  cinchona,  is  indicated. 

DENHAM,  Dixox,  an  African  traveller,  born 
in  London,  Jan.  1,  1786,  died  at  Sierra  Leone, 
June  8,  1828.  He  served  with  credit  through- 
out the  Peninsular  war,  and  at  Waterloo.  In 
1822  he  joined  Clapperton  and  Dr.  Oudney  in 
their  exploring  expedition.  Setting  out  from 
Tripoli,  the  travellers  crossed  the  desert  and 
reached  Lake  Tchad,  the  coasts  of  which  to  the 
west  and  north  were  examined  by  Denham. 
lie  was  separated  from  his  companions,  and  after 
great  sufferings  returned  to  England  in  1825. 
The  result  of  their  travels  was  published  in  1826 
under  the  title  of  "  Narrative  of  Travels  and 
Discoveries  in  Northern  and  Central  Africa,  in 
the  years  1822,  1823,  and  1824."  Soon  after- 
ward Denham  was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel, 
and  superintendent  of  the  liberated  African  de- 
partment of  Sierra  Leone,  and  in  1828  governor 
of  the  colony,  but  died  in  the  same  year. 

DENHAM,  Sir  Jonu,  an  English  poet,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1615,  died  in  1688.  In  1641  he  pub- 
lished "The  Sophy,"  a  tragedy  which  was  praised 
by  Waller,  and  had  an  immediate  success,  and  in 
1643  appeared  his  poem  "Cooper's  Hill,"  on 
which  his  fame  rests.  The  following  two  fa- 
mous lines  occur  in  the  apostrophe  to  the  river 
Thames,  in  that  poem : 

Though  fleep,  yet  clear;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull; 
Strong  without  rage,  without  o'erflowing  full 

DENINA,  GiAooMo  Maria  Carlo,  an  Italian 
historian,  born  at  Revello,  Piedmont,  Feb.  28, 
1731,  died  in  Paris,  Dec.  5,  1813.  He  took  holy 
orders,  acted  as  professor  at  Pinerolo  and  Turin, 
was  subjected  to  persecutions  on  the  part  of 
the  Jesuits,  repaired  (about  1782)  to  Berlin,  in 
compliance  with  an  invitation  of  Frederic  II., 
for  the  purpose  of  writing  a  history  of  the  Ger- 
man revolutions  (which  appeared  at  Florence, 
8  vols.,  1804),  and  wrote  there  several  other 
Avorks  relating  to  the  king  himself,  and  to  Rus- 
sian literature,  also  an  eflTusion  in  praise  of 


Peter  the  Great  {La  Hvssiade,  Berlin,  1790; 
written  in  French,  as  well  as  some  of  his  other 
works).  While  at  Mentz  in  1804,  ho  was  intro- 
duced to  Napoleon,  to  whom  he  dedicated  his 
Clef  des  langxieii  (Berlin,  1804),  and  who  shortly 
afterward  appointed  him  imperial  librarian  at 
Paris.  Denina  wrote  many  other  literary,  crit- 
ical, and  historical  works.  One  of  them  {Discorso 
sopra  le  vicende  delta  letteratura,  2  vols.,  Turin, 
1761 ;  4  vols.,  Berlin,  1792-1811 ;  German  trans- 
lation, 1785-88)  displays  considerable  biblio- 
graphical erudition  in  treating  of  the  progress 
of  the  literature  of  various  European  nations. 
But  his  literary  fame  rests  chiefly  upon  liis  great 
work  on  the  revolutions  of  Italy  {Istoria  delle 
rivoluzioni  d''Italia;  last  edition,  5  vols.,  Ve- 
nice, 1800),  translated  into  several  European 
languages,  containing  a  general  history  of  that 
country  from  the  time  of  the  Etruscans  down 
to  1792.  He  left  in  MS.  3  vols,  of  a  history 
of  Piedmont,  which  have  not  been  published  in 
Italian,  but  have  appeared  in  a  German  transla- 
tion (Geschichte  Piemonts  tindderuhrigen  Staat- 
en  des  Konigs  von  Sardinien,  Berlin,  1800-'3). 

DENIS,  Saint,  apostle  and  first  bishop  of  Pa- 
ris in  the  8d  century.  He  was  one  of  a  com- 
pany of  missionaries  who,  after  the  persecution 
of  Severus,  were  sent  from  Eome,  about  250,  to 
revive  the  drooping  church  in  Gaul ;  and  after 
preaching  in  various  parts  of  that  country  and 
sufiering  much  at  the  hands  of  the  pagans,  he 
arrived  at  Lutetife  or  Paris,  where  he  made 
many  converts.  He  built  a  church  there,  and 
made  it  the  seat  of  his  bishopric.  During  the 
persecution  under  Aurelian  he  was  condemned  to 
death  by  the  Roman  governor  Pescennius,  and 
with  a  priest  named  Rusticus,  and  a  deacon 
Eleutherus,  was  beheaded  in  272.  The  bodies 
of  the  martyrs  were  thrown  into  the  Seine,  but 
were  recovered  by  a  Christian  woman,  Catulla, 
who  caused  them  to  be  interred  near  the  scene 
of  the  execution,  A  chapel  was  built  over  the 
spot,  and  after  it  had  fallen  to  ririn  was  re- 
placed by  St.  Genevieve  with  a  church  in  469, 
which  was  aftern^ard  united  to  the  famous  ab- 
bey of  St.  Denis.  A  number  of  French  church- 
es are  said  to  have  been  founded  by  this  saint 
or  his  companions ;  he  became  the  patron  of 
the  kingdom,  and  his  name  served  as  a  war  cry 
to  the  French,  who  used  to  rally  in  battle  at  the 
words  Montjoye  Saint  Denis.  His  festival  is 
kept  Oct.  9.  The  popular  belief  that  after  his 
decapitation  he  walked  about  with  his  head  in 
his  hands,  may  have  originated  in  the  ancient 
paintings,  which  represented  him  so  engaged,  as 
an  emblem  of  the  manner  of  his  death. 

DENIZEN,  in  English  law,  an  alien  born  who 
has  received  by  letters  patent  from  the  king 
certain  privileges  belonging  to  natural  born  sub- 
jects. Thus  he  may  take  lands  by  purchase  or 
devise,  but  not  by  descent.  In  American  law 
there  is  no  middle  class  of  this  kind  between 
aliens  and  citizens,  unless  we  may  designate  as 
such  those  who  have  declared  an  intention  to 
become  citizens,  but  have  not  become  fully  natu- 
ralized under  the  laws  of  the  United  States,    In 


DENMAN 


DENMAEK 


381 


some  of  the  states,  by  statute,  such  persons  are 
allowed  to  take  and  convey  real  estate,  tiie  differ- 
ence between  them  and  aliens  being  that,  al- 
though the  latter  can  take  real  estate  and  hold  it 
until  some  proceeding  is  taken  by  public  authori- 
ty to  divest  his  title,  commonly  called  office-found 
(t.  e.  an  inquest  by  official  action),  yet  upon  such 
proceeding  being  had,  the  land  would  escheat  to 
the  state  although  the  alien  should  have  con- 
veyed to  another.  Another  signification  is 
sometimes  attached  to  the  term,  in  a  more  popu- 
lar sense,  though  it  is  also  to  be  fouud  in  some  law 
writers,  viz.,  a  resident.  This  meaning  is  not 
wholly  inconsistent  with  the  other,  as  it  may  at 
an  early  period,  when  the  doctrine  of  citizen- 
ship was  not  well  settled,  have  been  understood 
of  the  children  of  aliens  born  in  England.  By 
the  present  law  of  that  country  such  children 
are  recognized  as  subjects,  except  in  certain 
cases,  as  the  children  of  persons  representing 
or  in  the  service  of  foreign  governments  who 
are  temporarily  in  England.  The  same  rule  is 
recognized  in  the  United  States,  and  as  a  con- 
sequence it  was  thought  necessary  to  provide 
by  law  that  tlie  children  of  Americans  born 
abroad  should  be  held  to  be  American  citizens. 

DENMAN,  Thomas,  lord  chief  justice  of  Eng- 
land, born  in  London,  July  23,  1779,  died  of 
apoplexy,  at  Stoke  Albany,  ISTorthamptonshire, 
Sept.  22,  1854r.  The  only  son  of  an  eminent 
physician  and  medical  writer,  he  was  graduated 
in  1800  at  St.  John's  college,  Cambridge,  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1806,  returned  to  parliament 
for  Wareham  at  the  general  election  of  1818,  and 
in  1820  for  Nottingham.  In  the  latter  year  he 
took  a  distinguished  part  as  solicitor  in  the  trial 
of  Queen  Caroline.  In  1822  he  was  appointed 
common  serjeant  of  the  city  of  London;  from 
1830  to  1832  he  officiated  as  attorney-general ; 
in  March,  1834,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage, 
and  from  1832,  when  he  retired  from  parlia- 
ment, until  1850,  he  was  chief  justice  of  the 
king's  bench.  Ilis  high  personal  character,  his 
great  abilities  as  a  lawyer  and  magistrate,  and 
his  zeal  in  belialf  of  the  abolition  of  slavery  and 
of  various  liberal  measures,  gained  for  him  a 
distinguished  place  among  the  chief  justices  of 
England. 

DENMARK  (Dan.  Danmarl  ;  Ger.  Danc- 
marh ;  Fr.  Danemark),  "the  land  or  mark  of 
the  Dane,"  called  also  the  DansTce  Stat,  "  states 
of  Deimiark,"  a  kingdom  in  the  north  of  Europe, 
between  lat.  53^  and  58^  N.,  long.  7°  and  13*^ 
E.,  bounded  N.  by  the  Skager  Rack,  N.  E.  by 
the  Cattegat,  E.  and  S.  E.  by  the  Sound  and  the 
Baltic,  S.  by  the  free  states  of  Liibeck  and  Ham- 
burg, the  grand  duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Schwe- 
rin,  and  t!ie  kingdom  of  Hanover,  and  "W.  by 
the  German  ocean.  It  consists  of  tne  peninsula 
of  Jutland,  the  islands  of  Seeland,  Funen,  Laa- 
land,  Falster,  Langeland,  Alsen,  MOen,  Samsoe, 
Liisoe,  Femern,  Bornholm,  and  many  smaller 
ones,  and  the  duchies  of  Schleswig,  Ilolstein, 
and  Lauenburg ;  beside  which  it  possesses  the 
Faroe  islands,  Iceland,  Greenland,  and  the  isl- 
ands of  Santa  Cruz,  St.  Thomas,  and  San  Juan, 


in  the  "West  Indies.  The  following  table  shows 
the  population  of  Denmark  proper  in  1858,  and 
of  the  duchies  and  colonies  in  1855  : 


Coponhasoii 

Seeland  and  Moen 

Bornholm 

Funen  and  Langeland . . 
Laaland,  Falster,  &c. .. 

Jutland 

Duchiei. 

Schleswig 

Holstein 

Lauenburg 


Colonies. 

Fiiroe  Islands 

Iceland 

Greenland 

West  India  islands 


Total 445,705     2.5SS,996 


Population. 


!•  2,833 

143,591 
400,166 

218 

2S.949 

1,284 

196,811 

647 

S4.096 

9,096 

&t6,23T 

3,545 

395,860 

3,269 

528,.52S 

413 

49,475 

21,900 

2,468,713 

495 

8,6.51 

33,200 

64,603 

334,000 

9,892 

110 

37,13T 

The  sea-coast  of  continental  Denmark,  extending 
about  460  m.  along  the  German  ocean  and  the 
Skager  Rack,  and  650  m.  along  the  Cattegat,  the 
Little  Belt,  and  the  Baltic,  is  generally  low,  flat, 
and  sandy.  The  W.  coast  of  Schleswig  is  pro- 
tected from  the  ocean  by  dikes,  but  the  E, 
coast  of  that  duchy  and  the  shores  of  some  of 
the  islands  present  abrupt  chalk  or  limestone 
cliffs.  The  fiords,  or  arms  of  the  sea  which  in- 
dent the  coasts,  are  among  the  most  remarkable 
natural  features  of  the  kingdom.  Tlie  Lym 
fiord,  which  entirely  insulates  the  N.  part  of 
Jutland,  occupies  nearly  252  sq.  m.  It  was 
formerly  separated  from  the  German  ocean  by 
a  narrow  strip  of  land,  through  which  in  1825 
the  sea  broke  in  2  places.  The  RingkiObing  and 
Ise  fiords  are  also  notable  for  their  size ;  and  the 
Kieler  fiord,  in  the  duchy  of  Holstein,  forms  the 
spacious  harbor  of  Kiel,  in  which  the  British 
fleet  anchored  in  1854.  The  lakes  of  Denmark 
are  numerous,  and  some  contain  excellent  fish, 
but  all  are  small.  AVith  the  exception  of  the 
Elbe,  which  forms  part  of  the  S.  boundary,  there 
are  no  large  rivers,  the  most  considerable  being 
the  Eider,  105  m.  long,  navigable  almost  to  its 
source,  and  flowing  into  the  German  ocean ; 
the  Trave,  65  m.  long,  and  also  navigable,  flow- 
ing into  the  Baltic  ;  and  the  Guden,  80  in.  long, 
discharging  itself  into  the  Cattegat,  The  broad 
passage  called  the  Great  Belt  separates  the 
islands  of  Seeland  and  Funen,  and  the  Little 
Belt  the  latter  from  the  coasts  of  Jutland  and 
Schleswig.  The  surfiice  of  the  kingdom  is  an 
almost  unbroken  plain,  elevated  in  most  places 
but  a  few  feet  above  the  ocean,  and  in  others 
depressed  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  N. 
^\.  part  of  the  peninsula  is  a  desolate  region, 
over  which  tempests  and  drifting  sands  sweep 
with  destructive  fury.  To  consolidate  the  soil 
and  break  the  force  of  the  winds,  various  kinds 
of  trees  and  shrubs,  of  which  the  improvidence 
of  former  generations  had  nearly  stripped  the 
country,  are  now  planted  here,  and  their  de- 
struction is  forbidden  under  severe  penalties. 
From  the  promontory  of  Skagen  at  the  extreme 
N.,  a  low  barren  ridge  runs  through  continental 
Denmark  into  Germany,  the  highest  summit  at- 


382 


DENMARK 


taining  an  elevation  of  about  1,200  feet.  The 
island  of  Fnnen  contains  a  range  culminating  at 
the  height  of  400  feet,  called  the  Funen  Alps, 
and  Seeland  has  eminences  560  feet  above  the 
sea.  All  the  rocks  belong  to  the  tertiary  and 
upper  secondarj'  formations,  and,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  hill  of  Gipsberg,  -which  seems  to 
have  been  upheaved  from  far  below  the  surface, 
have  apparently  been  deposited  from  water  in 
regular  strata.  Several  species  of  chalk  are 
found,  above  which  is  an  extensive  bowlder  for- 
mation traversed  by  seams  of  lignite,  and  above 
this  again  beds  of  clay  and  marl  are  spread  over 
a  large  part  of  the  country.  The  soil  is  almost 
wholly  alluvial,  and  in  the  E.  part  of  Jutland 
and  in  the  duchies  is  covered  with  rich  vegeta- 
ble mould.  The  N.  and  "W.  parts  of  Jutland, 
however,  are  sandy  wastes,  and  for  a  distance 
of  200  m.  along  the  coast  there  is  an  almost 
continuous  line  of  sterile  flats  called  Mitten. 
The  larger  islands  are  fertile  and  characteriz- 
ed b}-  a  rich  marshy  loam,  interspersed  with 
occasional  tracts  of  moor.  The  climate,  ow- 
ing to  the  low  and  almost  insulated  position 
of  the  country,  is  temperate  and  humid,  the 
cold  being  greatest  in  Jutland.  The  winters  are 
seldom  severe  for  that  high  latitude,  the  mean 
temperature  from  November  to  March  ranging 
from  7°  to  25°  F.,  though  in  January  and 
February  the  thermometer  sometimes  falls  22° 
below  zero.  From  June  to  the  middle  of  Au- 
gust the  mean  temperature  ranges  from  59°  to 
73°,  and  the  extreme  heat  is  89°.  The  shortest 
day  is  6i  hours,  and  the  longest  17|.  The 
weather  is  very  variable,  but  thunder' storms 
are  rare.  Violent  winds,  rains,  and  fogs  fre- 
quently occur,  and  drought  is  seldom  felt.  The 
mineral  products  are  of  little  value,  and  are  con- 
fined principally  to  fullers'  earth,  potters'  and 
porcelain  clays,  freestone,  and  salt.  Coalmines 
were  formerly  worked  in  the  island  of  Born- 
holm,  but  are  now  abandoned ;  there  is  one 
establishment  for  making  salt  in  ITolstein;  peat 
is  abundant,  and  amber  is  collected  on  the  shore 
of  the  German  ocean.  The  fine  forests  which 
once  adorned  Denmark  have  decayed  or  been 
cut  down,  and  of  the  scant  woods  which  remain, 
chiefly  on  the  E.  coast  of  Jutland  and  in  the 
island  of  Funen,  ^  is  the  property  of  the  crown. 
Pine,  beech,  oak,  and  birch  are  the  principal 
varieties  of  timber.  The  alimentary  crops  are 
wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  buckwheat,  peas  and 
beans,  potatoes,  other  common  vegetables,  and 
fruits.  The  average  annual  yield  of  wheat  is 
estimated  at  3,200,000  bushels,  rye  1,280,000, 
oats  3,000,000,  barley  16,000,000,  buckwheat 
1,000,000,  peas  and  beans  2,000,000,  and  pota- 
toes 2,250,000  tons.  About  450,000  lbs.  of  to- 
bacco are  produced,  2,500  cwt.  of  hops,  and 
large  quantities  of  rapeseed,  hemp,  and  flax.  A 
great  proportion  of  the  land  is  devoted  to  pas- 
turage, and  the  rearing  of  horses  and  cattle 
forms  an  important  branch  of  industry,  and  a 
considerable  source  of  national  wealth.  Cattle 
are  valued  chiefly  in  connection  with  the  dairy, 
from  which  is  drawn  the  principal  revenue  of 


the  farm.  The  breeds  of  horses  are  excellent  for 
cavalry  or  for  draught ;  sheep  are  kept  more  for 
,  their  milk  (of  which  butter  is  made)  and  their 
flesh  than  for  their  wool ;  there  are  3  species 
of  swine,  and  poultry  of  all  kinds  abound.  The 
rivers  and  fiords  furnish  valuable  fish,  among 
which  are  the  herring,  cod,  mackerel,  and  sal- 
mon.— The  inhabitants  of  Denmark  are  of  5  dis- 
tinct races,  viz. :  1,  tlie  Danes,  who  occupy  Jut- 
land, Seeland,  and  part  of  Schleswig  ;  2,  the 
pure  Germans  of  Holstein,  Lauenburg,  and  the 
greater  part  of  Schleswig;  3,  the  Frieslanders, 
who  dwell  on  the  W.  coast  of  Schleswig,  and 
the  small  islands  in  the  German  ocean ;  4,  the 
Angles,  inhabiting  the  regions  between  the 
Flensburg  fiord  and  the  Sley  ;  and  5,  the  Nor- 
wegians of  Iceland  and  the  Filroe  islands.  Of 
these,  the  first  comprise  nearly  ^  of  the  entire 
population.  About  f  of  the  inhabitants  use  the 
Danish  language,  and  the  r^st  speak  German. 
The  Danes  are  strong,  well  made,  patient,  indus- 
trious, and  contented.  They  have  regular  fea- 
tures, blue  eyes,  and  light  hair.  They  make  bold 
seamen  and  brave  soldiers,  but  have  little  enter- 
prise. The  proportion  of  paupers  is  3  per  cent., 
only  }  of  that  of  Holland.  About  60  per  cent,  of 
the  population  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  which 
is  conducted  with  great  industry ;  but  from  the 
subdivision  of  land  into  small  farms,  the  posses- 
sion of  a  few  acres  being  the  summit  of  a  Dan- 
ish husbandman's  ambition,  it  is  seldom  carried 
on  with  appliances  requiring  much  outlay.  The 
art  of  husbandry,  however,  is  steadily  progress- 
ing, and  Holstein  and  Lauenburg,  notwith- 
standing heavy  dues  and  taxes,  are  tilled  with 
considerable  skill.  About  f  of  the  available 
land  are  devoted  to  useful  purposes.  Both 
agricultural  and  industrial  resources  are  more 
fully  developed  in  the  duchies  than  in  Denmark 
proper,  and  Holstein  is  probably  the  most  flour- 
ishing part  of  the  whole  kingdom.  Manufac- 
tures generally  are  in  a  backward  state ;  they 
comprise  silk,  linen,  woollen,  and  cotton  goods, 
leather,  lace,  gloves,  straw  hats,  sail  cloth, 
thread,  paper,  soap,  glass,  earthenware,  plated 
ware,  iron  ware,  saltpetre,  gunpowder,  arms, 
refined  sugar,  tobacco,  soda,  potash,  brandy,  and 
malt  liquors.  The  peasantry  make  most  of  their 
wearing  apparel  and  domestic  utensils  with  their 
own  hands. — Lying  between  two  seas,  in  easy 
communication  with  all  the  maritime  nations  of 
Europe,  commanding  the  entrance  to  the  Baltic, 
abounding  in  good  harbors,  and  possessing  a 
large  body  of  hardy  and  excellent  seamen,  Den- 
mark enjoys  unrivalled  facilities  for  commerce, 
and  beside  its  own  import  and  export  traffic, 
conducts  a  large  carrying  trade  for  other  coun- 
tries. The  principal  articles  of  export  are  grain, 
butter,  cheese,  brandy,  smoked  and  salted  meats, 
horned  cattle,  horses,  skins,  hides,  wliale  and 
train  oils,  fish,  eider  down,  woollens,  tallow,  and 
bristles.  Among  the  imports  are  wines,  salt, 
drugs,  silk,  wools,  cotton,  cotton  fabrics,  timber, 
coal,  iron,  colonial  produce,  spirits,  glass,  flax, 
hemp,  coffee,  rice,  tobacco,  and  whalebone.  The 
value  of  imports  from  all  countries  in  IbaO  was 


DENMARK 


383 


68,325,291  rix  dollars  ($37,373,934  TJ.  S.  cur- 
rency), and  that  of  exports  34,535,059  rix  dollars 
($18,880,677).  The  following  table  shows  the 
sliare  in  the  above  amounts  of  the  countries 
chiefly  concerned  in  the  Danish  trade: 


Countriet. 

Valua  in  r 

z  dollara. 

Iraporti. 

Eiporl*. 

llainburc 

23,051.062 
12,089,623 
6,.%1.412 
3..^16,191 
2,511.081 
1,771,44-5 
2,1S4,.593 
107,s.57 
3,457,072 

9,lSl,7S-'< 

8,442,604 

6,825,150 

289,609 

993,479 

1,727,230 

25,111 

29.232 

West  Indies  (Danish  and  foreign). . . 

293,595 

The  entrances  at  the  various  ports  were  71,361 
vessels  of  1,719,643  tons,  and  the  clearances  71,- 
094  vessels  of  1,649,339  tons.  Until  about  the 
close  of  the  18th  century  the  ccjminerce  of  Den- 
mark was  oppressed  by  legislative  enactments 
which  tended  more  to  the  immediate  emolument 
of  the  crown  than  to  the  general  prosperity  and 
wealth  of  the  kingdom.  Imported  manufactures 
had  to  be  sold  at  auction  by  the  revenue  oflBcers, 
and  the  importer  received  the  proceeds  after  the 
duties  had  been  deducted.  These  duties  were  ex- 
cessively high ;  monopolies  were  often  granted  to 
rich  companies  for  trading  even  with  the  colonies; 
and  heavy  taxes  were  also  laid  on  the  domestic 
traffic  between  different  provinces.  But  toward 
.the  year  1797  a  more  liberal  policy  began  to  pre- 
vail •,  the  customs  regulations  assumed  the  form 
of  a  more  permanent  tariff ;  many  of  the  most 
burdensome  restrictions  were  taken  off,  and 
commercial  treaties  have  since  been  made  on  a 
basis  of  reciprocity  with  the  United  States  and 
other  nations.  Connected  with  the  commercial 
regulations  is  the  question  of  the  Sound  dues, 
which  a  few  years  ago  acquired  considerable 
prominence.  The  Sound  is  a  strait  leading  from 
the  Cattegat  into  the  Baltic,  between  the  isl- 
and of  Seeland  and  Sweden,  its  width  at  the 
narrowest  part  being  about  3  m.  Both  coasts 
were  once  owned  by  Denmark,  which  has  con- 
sequently from  a  forgotten  period  claimed  the 
right  of  imposing  tolls  on  all  vessels  navigat- 
ing this  passage.  This  exaction  was  from  time 
to  time  resisted  by  various  nations,  and  several 
obtained  exemption  either  by  payment  of  an 
annual  commutation  or  by  treaty,  but  at  the 
congress  of  Vienna  the  Danish  claims  were  gen- 
erally admitted.  Subsequently  the  question  of 
their  abolition  was  agitated.  A  meeting  of 
representatives  of  several  European  powers 
was  held  in  Copenhagen  in  the  first  months  of 
1856,  and  Denmark  agreed  to  accept  as  com- 
pensation for  the  removal  of  the  tolls  the  sum 
of  35,000,000  rix  dollars  ($19,145,000  U.  S.  cur- 
rency), payment  of  which  was  to  be  apportioned 
among  the  various  states  interested  in  the  trade 
of  the  Baltic.  The  proposal  was  accepted  by 
the  United  States  as  well  as  other  powers,  and 
a  convention  between  the  former  and  Denmark 
was  signed  in  Washington,  April  11,  1857. 
Great  Britain  paid  28.90  percent,  of  the  indem- 


nity, Russia  27.80  per  cent.,  Prussia  12.60  per 
cent.,  and  the  United  States  2.03  per  cent,  or 
$393,011.— The  domestic  shipping  trade  of  Den- 
mark is  very  large,  and  as  no  inland  point  is 
much  more  than  40  m.  from  the  sea,  most  of 
the  internal  communication  is  carried  on  by 
water.  There  are  4  large  canals,  one  of  which, 
called  the  canal  of  Kiel,  from  the  town  of  that 
name  on  the  Kieler  fiord,  to  a  navigable  jjart  of 
the  Eider,  23  m.  distant,  connects  the  Baltic 
with  the  German  ocean,  and  is  navigable  by  ves- 
sels of  150  tons.  It  has  7  sluices,  and  the  same 
number  of  bridges.  The  Steckuitz  canal,  in 
Lauenburg,  completes  a  chain  of  communica- 
tion between  the  Baltic  and  the  Elbe.  The 
Daneskiold  canal  is  in  the  island  of  Seeland, 
and  that  of  Odense  connects  the  capital  of 
Funen  with  the  sea.  There  are  3  railways, 
viz. :  from  Copenhagen  via  Roeskilde  to  Cor- 
soer  on  the  Great  Belt ;  from  Altona,  opj)Osite 
Hamburg,  to  Kiel,  with  branches  to  Gllick- 
stadt  and  Itzehoe,  and  to  Rendsburg  ;  from 
Toenningen  to  Flensburg,  with  a  branch  to 
Rendsburg.  The  high  roads,  which  are  wide, 
macadamized,  and  well  kept,  are  under  the  care 
of  a  corps  of  royal  engineers. — The  religion 
of  Denmark  is  Lutheran,  but  all  creeds  are  tol- 
erated. The  national  church  is  governed  by  11 
bishops  nominated  by  the  crown.  It  embraces 
almost  the  whole  population,  and  has  at  Copen- 
hagen a  missionary  college  founded  in  1777,  and 
a  seminary  for  approved  candidates  in  divinity, 
beside  12  religious  communities  in  various  parts 
of  Denmark  proper  and  the  duchies.  The  .Jews 
number  4,143;  Mormons,  2,044;  Baptists,  1,- 
548;  Roman  Catholics,  1,151;  Anglicans,  140; 
others  not  of  the  established  religion,  1,555. 
Great  attention  is  paid  by  government  to  edu- 
cation, and  there  is  in  the  ministry  a  department 
of  public  worship  and  instruction,  under  which 
are  superintendents  for  the  several  divisions  of 
the  kingdom.  The  ministers  appoint  teachers 
and  regulate  the  course  of  studies  in  the  public 
schools,  of  which  some  are  free.  Every  village 
has  at  least  one  school,  and  there  are  moreover 
30  or  40  gymnasia,  and  several  normal  semina- 
ries. Copenhagen  and  Kiel  have  their  univer- 
sities, the  former  attended  by  1,200,  the  latter 
by  300  students.  There  are  asylums  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  and  literary  and  scientific  insti- 
tutions of  various  kinds  are  established  through- 
out the  country.  Every  child  between  the  ages 
of  7  and  14  is  obliged  by  law  to  attend  some 
school,  and  it  is  rare  to  meet  a  Danish  peasant, 
however  poor,  who  cannot  read  and  write.  The 
number  of  periodicals  is  large  in  proportion  to 
the  population. — The  government  of  Denmark 
is  a  hereditary  constitutional  monarchy.  By  the 
constitution  of  Oct.  2,  1855,  the  king  must  con- 
fess the  Evangelical  Lutheran  religion,  be  at 
least  18  years  of  age,  and  give  his  oath  to  the 
privy  council  of  state  that  he  will  maintain  the 
fund'amental  laws.  His  dignity  is  inviolate,  and 
all  his  ordinances  must  be  countersigned  by  the 
minister  of  state,  who  is  appointed  by  him,  and 
■who  is  responsible  to  the  king  or  diet  before 


384 


DENMAEK 


the  supreme  court  of  the  state.     The  king  ap- 
points officers,  declares  war,  and  conchides  trea- 
ties of  peace,  alliance,  and  trade ;  but  he  can- 
not alienate  the  territory  or  essentially  modify 
the  political  relations  of  the  state  without  the 
consent  of  the  diet.     The  legislative  power  is 
divided  between  the  king  and  diet,  which  con- 
sists of  80  members,  20  of  whom  are  appointed 
by  the  king,  30  by  the  representative  assemblies 
of  ditferent  portions  of  the  state,  and  30  by  elec- 
tion of  the  citizens.     It  sits  once  in  2  years  in 
Copenhagen;  its  president  and  vice-president 
are  appointed  by  the  king ;  and  its  proceedings 
are  either  in  the  Danish  or  German  language. 
It  proposes  laws,  which  are  not  valid  till  sanc- 
tioned by  the  king;    and  taxes  cannot  be  im- 
posed without  its  consent.     The  supreme  court 
of  the  kingdom  consists   of  15  members,  5  of 
"whom  are  chosen  from  the  diet,  and  10  from  the 
high  courts  of  the  country.     Personal  freedom, 
freedom  of  the  press,  religious  freedom,  the  in- 
violability of  private  residences,  and  the  right  of 
public  assembly,  are  secured.    The  highest  court 
of  the  kingdom  is  the  privy  council  of  state,  con- 
sisting of  5  ministers  for  the  entire  monarchy  (3 
for  Denmark,  1  for  Schleswig,  and  1  for  Holstein- 
Lauenburg),  and  presided  over  by  the  king.  The 
administration  of  the  government  is  carried  on 
by  5  ministries :  of  foreign  affiiirs,   of  interior 
affairs,  of  war,  of  naval  affairs,  and  of  the  finan- 
ces.    The  estimated  revenue  of  the  whole  king- 
dom for  the  fiscal    period  of  2  years  ending 
March  31,  1860,  is  $18,563,650  ;    and  the  ex- 
penses, of  which  $875,200  were  for  the  civil 
list,  were  estimated  at  the  same  sum.     The  na- 
tional debt,  April  1, 1858,  was  $62,942,196.  The 
numerical   strength  of  the   army  on   a  peace 
footing   is  nominally  40,000,   but  only  10,000 
men  are  actually  employed.      The  navy  com- 
prises 4  ships  of  the  line,  9  frigates,  7  corvettes, 
4  brigs,  3  schooners,  17  transports,  and  78  oth- 
er vessels  of  different  kinds.     The  capital  and 
principal  town  is  Copenhagen. — There  is  no  au- 
thentic account  of  the  early  settlement  of  Den- 
mark, but  the  Cimbri  seem  to  have  occupied  it 
toward  the  end  of  the  2d  century  B.  C.     In 
A.  D.  250  the  country  was   occupied  by  the 
Goths  under  the  half  fabulous  Odin  or  Wodin, 
whose  son  Skiold  is  mentioned  as  first  monarch 
of  Denmark.     During  the  8th  and  9th  centu- 
ries the  Danes  began  to  acquire  renown  by  their 
maritime  expeditions,  in   which  they  invaded 
England  and  Scotland  and  conquered  Norman- 
dy.    In  the  9th  century  the  different  states  of 
Denmark  became  united  under  one  monarch, 
and  in  1000  and  1014  Norway  and  the  greater 
part   of  England  were  added  to  the  growing 
Idngdom.     In  1016  Canute,  under  whom  Den- 
mark became  Cliristian,  completed  the  conquest 
of  England,  where  his  race  continued  to  rule 
until  1042.     The  feudal  system  was  introduced 
into  Denmark  in  the  12th  century,  and  contests 
took  place  here  between  the  sovereign  and  the 
barons  similar  to  those  Avhich  convulsed  Eng- 
land during  the  same  period.  In  1387Mai-garet, 
styled  the  northern  Semiramis,  widow  and  suc- 


cessor of  Ilaco,  king  of  Norway,  and  daughter 
of  Waldemar   III.,   a  descendant  of    Canute, 
mounted  the  thrones  of  Denmark  and  Norway, 
and,  claiming  the  Swedish  crown  also  in  right 
of  her  husband,  vanquished  a  competitor  in  that 
country,  and  united  the  3  powers  by  the  com- 
pact of  Calmar  in  1397.     But  the  Swedes  always 
resisted  this  union,  and  after  a  series  of  contests, 
in  which  they  were  finally  led  by  the  famous 
Gustavus  Vasa,  seceded  from  it  in  1523.     Dur- 
ing this  troubled  period  the  population  dwin- 
dled, the  seas  swarmed  with  pirates,  commerce 
fell  away,  and  incessant  quarrels  between  the 
king  and  his  nobles  or  the  latter  and  the  clergy 
added  to  the  disasters  of  the  kingdom.     After 
the  extinction  of  Margaret's  line  in  1439,  and 
the  deposition  of  Eric  VII.,  the  states  elected 
Christian,  count  of  Oldenburg,  king,  from  whose 
grandson,  the  ill-famed  Christian  II.,  tlie  crown 
passed  in  1523  to  Frederic  I.,  duke  of  Schles- 
wig and  Holstein.      Frederic's  son,   Christian 
III.,  united  these  2  duchies  to  the  crown  11 
years  later,  and  divided  the  greater  part  of  them 
between  his  brothers,  a  measure  Avhieh  caused 
a  long  series  of  disturbances.     In  his  reign  a 
code  of  laws  called  the  "Recess  of  Kolding" 
was  promulgated.     In  the  17th  century  Chris- 
tian IV.  sided  with  the  Protestants  in  the  great 
religious  war,  but  was  worsted  by  Wallenstein  in 
1626-7,  and  compelled  to  sue  for  peace.  Eleven 
years  later  commenced  the  first  of  several  wars 
with   Sweden,  which   lasted  until    1645,   and 
cost  Denmark  several  extensive  provinces.     A 
few   years  later   the   Swedes    under    Charles 
Gustavus  overran  Holstein,  crossed  the  frozen 
Belt  into  Funen,  took  Odense,  and  invested  Co- 
penhagen, but  were  successfully  opposed  by 
Frederic  III.     In  1658  they  again  besieged  Co- 
penhagen, and  continued  their  operations  until 
the  death  of  Charles  Gustavus  in  1660,  when 
Denmark  secured  a  peace  by  the  sacrifice  of 
territory.     The  same  year  was  marked  by  the 
restriction   of  the  power  of  the  nobility  and 
the  extension  of  the  royal  prerogative.  The  suc- 
cession, too,  which  had  formerly  been  to  some 
extent  elective,  washy  the  commons,  who  sided 
with  the  king  in  his  struggle  with  the  nobles, 
acknowledged  hereditary  in  the  fomily  of  Fred- 
eric.   A  new  war  with  Sweden  terminated  in 
1669,  and  another  was  occasioned  in  1699  by 
an  attempt  of  Frederic  IV.  to  invade  the  do- 
minions of  the  duke  of  Holstein,  an  ally  of 
Sweden.     Copenhagen  again  became  the  seat 
of  war,  when  the  Danes,  terrified  by  the  energy 
of  the  young  Charles  XII.,  bought  peace  by  the 
payment  of  a  sum  of   money,  and  remained 
neutral  until  the  disasters  of  the  Swedes  in  the 
Ukraine  tempted   them   to    renew  hostilities. 
The  war  lasted  until  the  death  of  Charles  XII. 
in  1718,  after  which  Sweden  began  to  decline 
and  Denmark    to   pursue  the  wise  policy  of 
peace.     By  a  defensive  alliance,  however,  with 
Russia,  Prussia,  and  Sweden  in  1801,  she  in- 
volved herself  in  a  quarrel  with  England,  suffer- 
ed severely  in  the  naval  battle  off  Copenhagen, 
and  lost  her  colonies  in  the  East  and  West  Indies, 


DENMARK 


DENMARK  (Language,  &c.)        385 


wliich  were  restored  to  her,  however,  by  tho 
treaty  of  peace  wliicli  followed.  In  1807,  Napo- 
leon liaviiig  threatened  to  make  Denmark  tako 
part  in  tlie  war  against  England,  the  latter  sent 
a  large  arniainent  to  the  Baltic  to  compel  tho 
surrender  of  tlie  entire  Danish  navy.  Tho 
British  forces  landed  near  the  capital,  and  soon 
forced  the  government  to  give  up  its  fleet.  A  war 
of  exasperation  naturally  followed.  Hostilities 
were  carried  on  by  sea,  i)artly  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Baltic,  partly  off  the  Norwegian  coast, 
tiie  Danes  fighting  with  spirit,  and  sometimes 
witli  success,  and  both  parties  suffering  severely 
in  their  commerce.  Denmark  again  lost  her 
West  India  islands,  and  again  recovered  them  on 
the  peace  concluded  in  1814,  but  Heligoland  and 
her  fleet  remained  in  the  possession  of  her  ene- 
my. It  was  stipulated  that  Norway  should  be 
ceded  to  Sweden,  as  an  equivalent  for  Pomera- 
nia,  which  province  Denmark  had  received  from 
Sweden,  and  which  in  1815  she  made  over  to 
Prussia,  in  exchange  for  the  duchy  of  Lauenburg 
and  a  large  sum  of  money.  Serious  complications 
now  arose  between  the  crown  and  the  duchies. 
The  population  of  Ilolstein  especially  sympa- 
thized more  with  the  German  empire  than  with 
Denmark,  and  an  antipathy  of  races  sprang  up, 
which  various  political  measures  deepened  into 
an  alarming  disaffection.  A  prominent  subject 
of  complaint  was  the  royal  succession.  The  ex- 
pected extinction  of  the  male  line  in  the  reign- 
ing family  afforded  a  prospect  of  rendering  the 
duchies  independent  of  the  Danish  crown,  and 
the  project  of  annexing  Schleswig  to  the  Ger- 
man confederation  was  openly  advocated  in  the 
provincial  assembly.  In  this  state  of  affairs 
the  king  issued  letters  patent,  proclaiming  that 
Avith  tlie  exception  of  certain  parts  of  Holstein 
the  laws  of  succession  should  be  uniform  in  all 
jjarts  of  his  dominions,  the  effect  of  which 
was  to  add  greatly  to  the  popular  discontent ; 
and  when  the  present  monarch,  Frederic  VII., 
mounted  the  throne  in  1848,  the  duchies  re- 
sorted to  arms,  and  appealed  to  their  German 
brethran  for  assistance.  They  were  aided  by 
Prussia,  who,  being  pressed  by  the  revolutionary 
movements  of  Germany,  sent  a  large  force  into 
Sclileswig,  drove  out  the  Danes,  who  had  found 
little  difficulty  in  putting  down  the  insurgents 
there,  and  followed  up  her  success  by  an  invasion 
of  Jutland.  Meanwhile  England  and  Russia  in- 
terfered ;  an  armistice  was  signed,  Aug.  26,  on' 
terms  highly  displeasing  to  the  duchies ;  and  al- 
thougli  Prussia  undertook  a  second  campaign  in 
the  s[)ring  and  summer  of  1849,  Schleswig  and 
Ilolstein  thenceforth  relied  mainly  on  their  own 
resources.  They  placed  their  army  under  Gen. 
"Willisen,  a  brave  and  able  soldier,  and  main- 
tained a  spirited  resistance,  until  signally  de- 
feated at  Idstedt,  July  23,  1850.  Prussia  had 
now  definitely  withdrawn  from  the  contest,  and 
with  Austria  gave  her  influence  on  the  side  of 
Denmark.  The  mediating  powers  prepared  to 
occupy  the  strongholds  of  the  country ;  the 
duchies  were  forced  to  submit,  and  the  question 
of  succession  was  referred  to  a  conventiou  of 
TOL.  VI. — 25 


the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  principal  powers  of 
N.  and  W.  Europe.  By  a  treaty  signed  by  these 
representatives,  May  8, 1852,  tlie  succession  was 
settled  upon  Prince  Christian  of  the  Sonder- 
burg-Gli'icksburg  line  and  his  male  heirs;  an 
arrangement  wliich  gave  great  dissatisfaction 
both  to  Denmark  and  to  Schleswig  and  Holstein, 
as  in  the  event  of  the  extinction  of  this  family 
Russia  reserved  the  ancient  right  of  succeeding 
to  a  portion  of  tho  duchies.  The  new  order 
was  announced  to  the  diet  in  Oct.  1852,  and 
was  at  once  rejected.  It  met  the  same  fate  be- 
fore a  new  assembly  in  Feb.  1853  ;  but  the  king, 
feeling  himself  pledged  to  the  foreign  p)Ower3, 
resolved  upon  a  second  dissolution,  and  the 
measure  was  finally  adopted  by  a  third  parlia- 
ment, June  24. 

DENMARK,  Language  and  LixEnATiTRE 
OF.  The  Danish  language  {DansTce  Sprog)  is  a 
sister  of  the  Swedish  and  Norwegian,  and  a  de- 
scendant of  the  Dansica  or  Norrana  Tunga, 
northern  tongue,  as  the  Sagas  call  what  became 
the  Icelandic,  which  is  also  called  in  Danish 
gamle  Nordiske,  the  old  northern  language. 
After  the  separation  of  its  offspring,  tlie  Norrcsna 
received  the  name  of  IdemTca^  from  Iceland, 
discovered  in  860  and  settled  in  870,  by  Norwe- 
gians. The  Dansk,  Svensk,  Norsk,  with  their 
still  hale  and  vigorous  mother  in  Iceland,  consti- 
tute a  group  collateral  to  that  of  the  Germanic 
or  more  southern  tongues ;  both  groups  issuing 
from  one  powerful  and  deeply  rooted  trunk. 
Both  Northmen  and  Germans  are  traceable  to 
the  regions  about  the  Euxine,  to  Thrace,  and 
eastw^ard  as  far  as  the  region  of  the  Oxus  river, 
where  they  had  been  connected  with  other 
branches  of  the  Aryan  family,  whose  most  de- 
veloped eastern  language  was  the  Sanscrit.  Re- 
lations with  the  Lettic  and  Latin,  with  the  Do- 
ric and  ^olian  dialects,  and  with  adventitious 
Armenian,  Finnic,  and  other  elements,  cannot 
be  discussed  here.  The  Moeso-Gothic,  Norrtena, 
and  Anglo-Saxon  are  the  3  ancient  branches  of 
the  Scandinavo-Gerinan  stem.  The  branches 
of  the  Norrtena  are,  in  the  order  of  their  affinity 
to  it,  the  following  :  that  on  the  FilrOe  (sheep) 
isles,  that  of  the  Dalarne  or  dales  of  the  Swed- 
ish higlilands,  the  Svensk,  the  Dansk,  and  the 
Norsk,  which  last  differs  by  a  peculiar  accent 
from  the  Danish.  This  stands  in  a  similar  rela- 
tion to  the  Icelandic  with  that  of  the  Italian  to 
Latin;  having  become  weaker,  simpler,  mure  vo- 
cal, and  shorn  of  most  of  the  original  grammat- 
ical forms.  It  is  also  most  affected  by  German 
influence. — Beside  the  literary  language  in  Den- 
mark proper,  there  are  two  groups  of  popular  dia- 
lects, the  first  of  which  consists  of  the  idioms 
of  northern  Seeland,  of  southern  Seeland,  of 
Fyen  (Ftinen),  of  Falster,  and  of  Langeland,  to- 
gether with  the  very  peculiar  idiom  of  Born- 
holm  ;  while  the  second  group  comprehends  the 
North  Jutic  or  Normano-Jutic  in  the  N.  and  W. 
region  of  the  peninsula,  and  the  South  Jutic  or 
Dano- Jutic  in  Schleswig  on  the  coast  of  the  Little 
Belt.  The  dialect  of  ^Mors,  near  the  N.  coast  of 
Jutland,  i3  very  peculiar,  and  that  of  Schonen  has 


386 


DENMARK  (Language  a>x  Literature} 


become  Svio-Gothic  since  the  commencement  of 
the  17th  century.  Owing  to  the  extraordinary 
richness  of  the  Icelandic  in  roots,  the  Danish 
abounds  in  cgmpact  and  intuitive  words  for  all 
natural  objects,  especially  in  nautical  and  eco- 
nomical, also  in  concise  ascetic  and  law  terms. 
This  great  store  is  increased  by  the  modifying 
influence  of  prefixes  and  suffixes,  and  by  the 
Germauicfacilitj' of  combining  simple  words  into 
clearly  intelligible  compounds.  The  Danisli  is, 
however,  more  mild  than  the  German,  having 
fewer  aspirated  and  hissing  sounds.  Germanic 
elements  were  introduced  into  it  in  two  ways, 
to  wit :  Anglo-Saxon,  by  the  Danish  invasions 
of  and  rule  (Canute  the  Great,  1016-35,  Hardi- 
canute,  1035-'42)  in  England,  whence  mission- 
aries were  also  sent  to  convert  the  Danes ;  Ger- 
man, in  consequence  of  the  warlike  expeditions  of 
the  Waldemars  (1st,  115r-'82 ;  2d,  1202-'41  ;  3d, 
13-iO-'7o,  &c.)  and  of  other  Danisb  kings,  of  the 
wars  and  commerce  witli  the  Ilansa,  of  the  rule 
of  German  dynasties  (Eric  VII.  of  Pomerania, 
Christopher  of  Bavaria,  Christian  I.  of  Olden- 
burg, 1448,  and  his  successors),  also  in  conse- 
quence of  the  journeys  of  Scandinavians  during 
the  13th  century  and  afterward,  and  their  studies 
in  German  universities,  Luther's  reformation, 
however,  exerted  the  greatest  influence  on  the 
Danish  language;  although  it  was,  independently 
of  this  event,  rapidly  rising  in  vitality  and  im- 
portance, probably  from  the  same  predisposing 
circumstances  which  gave  birtli  to  the  general 
reawakening  of  the  European  mind.  Tiiis  is 
evident  from  Peders6n  Jertegn's  PostilU  of 
1518,  and  liis  version  of  the  New  Testament  in 
1529,  both  of  which  exhibit  an  energy,  fulness, 
and  flexibility  of  speech,  that  cannot  be  as- 
cribed to  the  religious  metamorphosis  of  the 
century.  Obstacles  to  the  free  expansion  of  the 
national  language  were  found  in  the  use  of  the 
German  as  the  court  language  on  the  one  hand, 
and  in  that  of  the  Latin  as  the  literary  language 
on  the  other.  Toward  the  close  of  the  17th 
century  the  Danish,  however,  began  to  flourish 
again,  thanks  to  the  fashion  of  writing  hymns 
in  it.  The  inroads  of  French  taste  soon  blasted 
this  tender  vegetation,  and  overwhelmed  the  lan- 
guage with  Gallicisms  in  words  and  phrases.  In 
the  2d  half  of  the  ISth  century,  German  culture, 
becoming  predominant,  overcame  that  evil,  aid- 
ed by  tlie  reformatory  eftbrts  of  native  poets, 
such  as  John  Ewald  and  others.  The  independ- 
ent development  of  the  Danish  into  a  literary 
language,  in  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century, 
is  due  to  the  revival  of  ancient  Norsk  studies,  as 
well  as  to  its  masterly  management  by  Bag- 
gesen,  Oehlenschliiger,  Grundtvig,  &c. ;  so  that 
it  now  stands  in  the  front  rank  among  the 
mildest  and  richest  languages  of  Europe.  —It  is 
Bpoken  not  only  in  Denmark,  but  also  exclusively 
in  the  islands  and  in  Jutland,  and  in  a  part  of 
Schleswig.  It  is  used  in  the  churches  among 
the  Esquimaux  in  Greenland ;  as  a  business 
language  on  the  isles  of  St.  Croix,  St.  Thomas, 
and  San  Juan,  and  in  the  former  Danish  factories 
in  Guinea.    Well  educated  Icelanders  and  Nor- 


wegians also  si)eak  Danish. — In  time  the  ancient 
16  runes  (Euiiir),  brought  from  Thrace,  were 
sujiplanted  by  the  German  angular  ali)habet, 
which  in  its  turn  was  superseded  by  the  Roman 
cliaracters.  At  present,  the  Danish  letters,  ac- 
cording to  Erasmus  Rask  and  other  authorities, 
are  27  in  number,  as  follows:  a,  i,  o,  u  (all 
pronounced  as  in  German  and  Italian),  e  (both 
6  and  6  French),  y  (u  French,  ti  German) ;  5,  c, 
/,  k,  I,  m,  n,  2).,  t,  v  (all  as  in  English),  d  (of  4 
kinds :  final  after  a  vowel,  like  tlie  English  ih 
in  birth;  between  vowels  very  soft;  final  after 
a  consonant,  as  in  English;  after  I,  n,  r,  al- 
most silent,  rendering  those  liquids  nearly 
double,  as  in  vold^  full,  voU),  g  (always  hard,  as 
in  go,  give),  h  (always  aspirated),  j  (like  the 
English  y  in  yes,  aye),  r  (always  rough),  s  (al- 
ways hard  as  in  son),  x  (always  Jis)  ;  the  pecu- 
liar 4  vowels :  d  or  aa  (like  English  a  in  warm, 
or  oa  in  broad),  (e  (like  ai  in  sail,  German  a), 
0  (French  eu  in  peu)^  6  (French  eu  in  veuve^  enu 
in  coiur).  Diplithongs:  «j,  <'j,  oj,  i/j,  6j ;  av,  ev, 
iv,  oi\  CBi\  cv  (the  j  like  our  y,  and  both  j  and 
V  softer  than  before  vowels,  as  ja,  t'a,  &c.)  ;  im- 
properly so  called,  since  they  rather  form  im- 
pure syllables.  The  combinations  Z"j,  <7J,  some- 
what resemble  the  French  mouille  sounds,  the 
j  (our  y)  being  very  mild  and  liquid.  The 
Danes  have  not  the  sounds  of  our^  in  jar,  ch  in 
chat,  sh  in  sliell,  th  in  thick. — The  accent  of 
genuine  Danish  Avords  is  mostly  on  the  radical 
vowel ;  but  in  many  foreign  words  it  affects  the 
last  syllable,  as  in  French.  The  grammatic 
forms  are  less  explicit  than  in  the  Icelandic. 
The  definite  article  of  adjectives  is  det^  neuter 
or  objective,  (Ze«,  common  or  personal,  de,  plu- 
ral; thus:  det  slconne  Land^  the  fine  country;  den 
gamle  Stol,  the  old  chair ;  plural,  de  gamle  Stole. 
It  is  suffixed  to  substantives,  after  dropping  the 
d;  thus:  Land-et,  Stol-en,  the  country,  the 
chair;  but  it  is  ne  or  ene  in  the  plural,  as 
Lande-ne.  The  indefinite  article,  derived  from 
eet,  een,  a,  one,  is  et,  n,  en  ;  e.  g. :  et  Land,  a  coun- 
try, en  Stol,  a  chair ;  Lande,  countries,  with- 
out the  ai-ticle.  The  declension  of  substantives 
is  confined  to  the  suffix  s  or  es  for  the  genitive 
of  both  numbers.  The  plural  is  indicated  in  4 
ways,  viz. :  by  change  of  the  radical  vowel  (as 
in  English  mouse,  m/ce),  as  Sprog,  language, 
Sj^r^g,  languages ;  or  by  suffixing  e,  as  Land-e  ; 
or  by  er,  as  Sag,  thing,  Sag-er,  things ;  or  by 
both  metaphony  and  the  suffix  er,  as  Bog,  book, 
Bog-er,  books.  Adjectives  become  neuter  by 
the  suffix  t ;  thus :  &tor,  Latin  magiim  and  mag- 
na ;  start,  magnum ;  plural  store.  The  com- 
parative degree  is  formed  by  adding  re  or  ere  ; 
the  superlative  by  ste  or  este  ;  e.  g. :  et  Icerd-ere 
Fruentimmer,  a  more  learned  woman;  den  Iivi- 
deste  Farve,  the  whitest  color.  Some  of  the 
irregulars  are :  img-t,  yngre,  yngst,  young, 
younger,  youngest;  lidet,  mindre,  mindst,  lit- 
tle, lesser,  least;  me^et,  mere,  meest,  much, 
more,  most;  mange,  flere, Jieest,  m&nj,  more, 
most ;  god-t,  ledre,  ledst,  good,  &c. ;  ond-t,  or 
slem-t,  vcerre,  vwrst,  evil  or  bad,  worse,  worst ; 
gammel-t,  aildre,  celdst,  old,  &c.;  nmr-t,  rmrmere, 


DENMARK  (Language  and  Litkkatcre) 


387 


norrmest,  near,  nearer,  next ;  iid,  ydre,  yderst^ 
out,  utter,  utmost,  «Sec.  The  numerals  are  :  eet^ 
em,  \\to,%\  tre,  3  \fire,  ^\fem,  5  ;  sex,  6;  syi\ 
7;  aatte,  8;  ni,  9;  ti,  10;  elleve,  tolv,  tretten, 
fjorten,  &c. ;  trjte,  20  ;  tredire,  30  ;  fyrretyve, 
40  ;  but  the  following  4  decades  are  peculiar : 
halctres  or  hahtrenndstyve  (lialf  GO  and  20)  for 
50;  (res  or  tre^nndstyve  (3  times  20),  GO ;  hah- 
fjers  or  liahfjersiiKhtyce  (half  80  and  20,  only 
equal  to  60),  used  for  70 ;  firs  or  firsimtyve 
(4  times  20),  80  ;  halrfems  or  halvfenuindstyre 
(also  unaccountable  literally),  90 ;  hundrede, 
100;  tusende,  1,000.  Tres,firs,  and  ferns  being 
taken  for  60,  80,  100,  supposing  them  to  be 
doubled,  the  halvtrcs,  halrfjers,  and  halrfems 
are  taken  for  50,  70,  and  90,  as  the  decades  half- 
way toward  60,  80, 100.  The  ordinals  are  :  det^ 
den  f&rste,  the  first ;  det  andet,  den  anden,  the 
other,  or  2d ;  the  rest  are  formed  by  suffixing 
de  or  te.  Time  (French ./bw)  is  Gang,  as  anden 
Gang,  the  2d  time,  &c.  The  personal  pronouns 
are  :  jeg,  I ;  mig,  me  ;  du,  thou ;  dig,  thee  ;  ?ian, 
he ;  hiin,  she ;  hans,  his ;  hendes,  (of)  her ;  luun, 
him;  hende,  her;  vi,  we;  vores,  ours;  05,  us;  /, 
you ;  eders  (jer),  yours ;  cder  (jer),  you ;  sig, 
himself,  herself,  themselves.  The  demonstra- 
tives de,  deres,  dern,  are  used  for  they,  their, 
them.  Selv,  self,  selves;  but  Jian  self,  himself, 
means  also  master  of  the  house,  hi'in  selv,  her- 
self, the  house-lady,  &c.  The  possessives  are  : 
mit,  min,  plural  mine,  my,  mine  ;  dit,  din,  dine, 
thy,  thine  ;  sit,  sin,  sine,  its,  his,  her,  their;  vort, 
vor,  vore,  our,  onvs;  jer,  jere,y onv,  yours.  The 
demoastratives  are  :  det,  den,  genit.  dels,  dens  ; 
plural  de,  dem,  genit.  deres  (also  used  in  conver- 
sation with  one  or  more  persons,  like  the  Ger- 
man Sie,  Ihnen,  Ihr,  you,  your) ;  dette,  denne, 
disse,  this,  these;  hint,  hin,  hinne,  that,  those; 
aaadant,  saadan,  saadanne,  and  sligt,  slig,  slige, 
such.  The  relatives  are :  der,  who  ;  som,  who, 
whom,  that;  and  also  interrogatives :  hrern, 
who  ;  hvad,  what ;  htilket,  &c.,  which ;  hvor- 
dant,  &c.,  how.  Indefinite  pronouns :  der,  it, 
there,  also  with  passive  verbs  ;  man  (also  Ger- 
man, the  French  on),  one,  some  one  ;  noget,' 
nogen,  plural  nogle,  some,  any ;  somme,  some 
people  ;  intet,  ingen,  nobody;  alt,  al,  plural  alle, 
all;  htert,  ethvert,  every ;  hinanden,  each  other; 
hverandre,  one  another.  The  theme  of  the  verb 
is  the  imperative ;  the  conjugation  comprehends 
2  orders  subdivided  into  3  classes  each,  accord- 
ing to  the  form  of  the  past  tense. 

I. — Simple  Oedee  (present  and  past  indicative,  and  par- 
ticiple past). 
( 1.  Klager,  complain,  klagede,  klaget. 
1st  conj.-<  2.  Brander,  i)nrn,  brandte.  brcendt. 
(  3.  I'elger,  follow,  fulgde,  j'ulgt. 

II. — Complex  Order, 
Beder,  be?,  pray,  bad,  bedei  or  ledt. 
Faar,  receive,  Jik,  faaet. 
Ladei;  load,  lod,  Uidet. 

il.  Slipper,  escape,  slip,  slap  (plnr,  sluppe),  nhip- 
pet  or  duppen. 
2.  Jiiver,  tear,  np,  rev  (plur.  reve),  revet,  reren, 
3.  Byder,  invite,  bitd  (plur.  bude),  budet,  buden. 

The  persons  are  distinguished  by  pronouns  or 
other  words;  even  the  numbers  are  often  alike 
or  confounded  in  commou  speech,  even  when 


2d  conj 


II 


distinguished  In  writing.  The  passive  voice 
admits  of  no  distinctiou  of  numbers  or  persons, 
but  merely  of  tenses  and  modes.  It  is,  how- 
ever, distinguished  from  the  Germanic  dialects 
by  having  a  simjjle  form  in  the  present  and 
past,  by  means  of  the  suffix  s  or  es;  thus:  Jeg 
elsl-es,  I  am  loved ;  jeg  ehkedes,  I  was  loved 
(from  jeg elsker,  I  love;  jeg  cWkede,  I  loved  or 
have  loved).  Tlie  infinitive  is  sometimes  de- 
noted by  at,  to  ;  thus:  at  elske,  to  love;  tho 
participle  present  by  7ide  final.  There  are  also 
deponent  verbs,  analogous  to  those  of  the  Latin. 
The  auxiliary  or  periphrastic  verbs  arc:  shil, 
plural  sl-ulle,  shall ;  sJciiMe,  should,  &c. ;  til, 
plural  rille,  will ;  tiMe,  participle  tillet,  would ; 
har  (from  haver),  have  ;  passive  haves,  be  pos- 
sessed by ;  er,  am ;  tar,  was  ;  var,  be  ;  faar, 
get ;  maa,  may,  must ;  lean,  can,  may ;  tvr,  dare, 
need ;  lader,  let,  cause  to,  &c.  Bliver,  remain, 
forms  the  passive  sense ;  e.  g. :  hliver  fundet,  is 
found.  Har  and  faar  with  an  infinitive  also 
express  duty  :  Jeg  har  at  sige  Bern,  I  have  to  say 
(to)  you.  The  Danish  has  more  varieties  of 
circumlocution  than  the  English,  and  its  aux- 
iliaries are  less  defective.  The  syntax  resem- 
bles that  of  the  English.  The  definite  ar- 
ticle may  be  omitted  ;  but  it  is  sometimes 
used  where  the  English  omits  it ;  thus :  Na- 
tur-en,  nature;  Liv-et,  life,  &c.  The  noun  which 
governs  a  genitive  is  usually  without  the  arti- 
cle ;  e.  g. :  Verdens  Alder,  the  age  of  the  world ; 
et  Legemes  (body)  Tyngde,  the  gravity  of  a 
body  ;  Mange  Yandes  Lytl  (many  waters  loud), 
the  sound  of  many  waters.  The  preposition  of 
is  omitted  with  quantities,  as  en  Mangde  Men- 
nesl-er,  a  crowd  of  people  ;  unless  the  thing  mea- 
sured be  definite,  as  en  Slio-jipe  af  den  ny  Hvede, 
a  bushel  of  the  new  wheat.  Adjectives  follow 
only  surnames,  as  Knud  den  Store,  Canute  the 
Great.  Le,  when  used  instead  of  thou,  takes  the 
singular  of  the  verb,  as  Gaar  De  faa  Komedie  ? 
Do  you  go  to  the  theatre  ?  The  active  partici- 
ple in  cnde  final  is  never  used  as  a  gerund,  but 
mostly  as  an  adjective,  and  the  English  parti- 
ciple in  ing  must  often  be  rendered  by  the  in- 
finitive ;  thus :  det  er  na^ppe  vord  at  se,  it  is 
scarcely  worth  (to  see)  seeing.  Prepositions 
sometimes  must  be  translated  by  other  words  ; 
thus :  i,  in ;  i  Gaar  Aftes  (in  yester  eve's),  last 
evening ;  i  Marges,  this  morning ;  i  Aar,  this 
year ;  i  Morgen,  to-morrow,  &c.  Pan,  on,  upon : 
paa  Sondag,  next  Sunday.  Ad,  to,  up,  of:  ad 
Aare,  next  year.  Om,  for,  about :  5  Rigsbanlc- 
daler  om  Maaneden,  $5  a  month,  &c.  We  sub- 
join a  specimen  of  Danish  construction : 

EnKebmand    modtog    enFem-shillings-Mynt 

A     merchant    received  (took)  a    five      shilling      coin 
der  ilcke   syntes  ham  at  vsere  aegte,  og 

(mint)  that     not      seemed    him     to        be        good,     and 

spiirgde  derfor  en       Sagferer,      som  gik  forbi 

asked     therefor  a    lawyer  (sake-farer),  who  went     by 

hans  Butik,  hvad   han        meente       om    den. 

his       shop,     what        he    thought  (meant)  about     it. 

Denne  besaae       den         opmasrksomt, 

This  (he)    looked  at  (be-saw)  it  attentively  (upmarksomel, 

forsikrende      den  var  god,  puttede  den  til 
^tssuring  (for-securing)    it     was    good,       put         it      ta 


188 


DENMARK  (Language  and  Liteeatuke) 


s5g,  og   forlilngte 

himself   (Lat.  sectmi,  in    his   pocket),  nnd  demanded  (for- 
endnii  1  Sliilling  8  Pence,  da  de  engelske 
longed)  beside    1    shilling    8   pence,  since  the     English 
Love  have      fastsat      en  Taxt  af  G  Shilling  8 

law      had    fixed  (fast-set)    a      tax      of     6     shillings     3 

Pence  fur  et  hos  en  Sagf  <3-rer         indhentet 
pence   for  one  of     ft       lawyer      received  (into-hondcd) 

Raad. 

advice  (Ger.  Rath). 

For  a  thorough  study  of  this  admirable  language 
the  following  works  may  be  consulted :  Peder 
Sy  V,  Simbrial-e  Sprog  (16G3),  the  Cimbric  being 
tiie  basis  of  the  Danish  orthography ;  Erasmi 
Pontopidani  Grammatica  Danica  (16G8);  Otho 
Sperling,  De  DaniccB  Linguoi  Antiqua  Gloria 
(1694) ;  J.  Baden,  Roma  Danica,  sive  Rannonia 
Lingum  Danicce  cum  Latina  (1G99) ;  IljOsgaard 
made  the  system  of  10  vowels,  (l'r43) ;  J.  II. 
Schlegel  on  the  advantages  and  defects  of  the 
Danish  language  (in  Danish,  17G;3)  ;  Erasmus 
Eask's  grammar  for  Englishmen  (1830  and 
184G).  Dictionaries:  II.  van  Alphelen,  "Royal 
Dictionary"  (in  Danish,  l764r-'72),  and  Diction- 
naire  Frangais- Danois  et  Danois-  Frangais 
(1772-'6,  3  vols.);  Dansh  Ordbog  (Danish 
Wordbook),  under  the  direction  of  the  society 
of  sciences,  by  Moller,  Viborg,  Thorlachus, 
MuUer,  &c.  (1793-1825,  5  vols.);  Bjorn  Haider- 
son,  lexicon,  Icelandic,  Latin,  and  Danish,  ed- 
ited by  R.  K.  Eask  (1814) ;  Danish-English,  by 
Eerral  (1845-54)  ;  Dansk  ancient  glossary,  by 
Molbech  (1853) ;  history  of  the  language,  by 
Petersen  (also  Swedish),  Molbech. — During  the 
middle  ages  there  appears  to  have  been  no  Dan- 
ish literature,  and  from  the  general  Scandinavian 
literature,  of  which  the  ancient  popular  and  he- 
roic songs,  or  Vjiimpeviser  (collected  for  the  first 
time  by  A.  S.  Vedel,  1591 ;  latest  edition  by  Ras 
mussen  and  Nyerup,  1821),  are  the  most  note- 
worthy remains.  The  codes  of  the  ancient  Dan- 
ish kings,  dating  back  to  the  12th  century,  the 
"  Book  of  Medicine,"  by  Ilenrik  Ilarpestreng, 
supposed  to  have  been  written  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury (latest  edition  by  Molbech,  182G) ;  a  "Chro- 
nicle in  Rhyme,"  written  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  15th  century  (ed.  by  Molbech,  1825) ;  and 
Peder  LoUe's  collection  of  proverbs,  probably 
dating  from  the  earlier  part  of  the  16th  century 
(ed.  by  Nyerup,  1828),  are  the  only  extant  relics 
of  the  Danish  literature  of  the  middle  ages.  The 
separation  of  Denmark  from  the  united  Scan- 
dinavian empire  (1523),  and  the  reformation 
(1527-1537),  wrought  as  great  a  change  in  the 
literary  as  in  the  political  development  of  the 
kingdom.  The  reformation  introduced  into 
Denmark  not  only  German  intellectual  culture, 
but  at  the  same  time  the  classical  study  as 
opposed  to  the  dry  scholasticism  of  the  middle 
ages.  From  that  time  the  literature  of  Den- 
mark began  to  emulate  that  of  the  other  Euro- 
pean nations.  Christian  Pcdersen's  fii'st  trans- 
lations into  Danish  of  the  New  Testament  and 
the  Psalms  (1529),  raised  the  Danish  to  a  na- 
tional language.  Its  musical  softness  as  well  as 
its  clearness  and  perspicuity  in  tlie  expression 
of  abstract  ideas  favored  its  application  to  poet- 


ical effusions  in  preference  to  prose  writing,  and 
even  now  the  prose  writing  of  Denmark  is  hard- 
ly equal  in  value  to  its  poetry.  Thus,  during  tlic 
IGth  and  I7th  centuries,  the  principal  Danish 
works  were  poems,  mostly  of  a  religious  charac- 
ter. Anders  Arreboe  ( 1587-1 G37)  may  bo  call- 
ed the  father  of  Danish  poetry.  Anders  Bord- 
ing  (1G19-1G97),  Thomas  Kingo  (1G34-1723), 
the  author  of  a  number  of  excellent  hymns,  and 
Jorgen  Sorterug  (died  1722),  who  revived  the 
old  Scandinavian  epic  in  a  true  national  spirit, 
are  the  most  prominent  among  the  many  writ- 
ers of  that  time  whose  names  are  preserved  in 
the  history  of  Danish  literature.  A  more  popu- 
lar kind  of  poetry  was  cultivated  by  Peder  Dass 
(died  1708),  Jens  Sten  Schested  (died  1G95),  and 
Povel  Inul  (died  1723).  Dramatic  versions  of 
biblical  history  were  a  favorite  subject  of  the 
Danish  poets.  Of  this  class  of  productions,  Kong 
Salomons  Ilylding,  by  Justesen  Ranch  (1585), 
Samsons  Fdngsel  (1G33),  Karrig  Nidding  (1633), 
and  Susanna,  by  Peder  Ilegelund  (1578),  were 
the  most  successful.  As  a  humorous  poet,  Toger 
Reenberg  (1G5G-1742)  distinguished  himself  by 
his  ready  wit  and  sound  moral  sentiment.  Re- 
searches into  the  earlier  times  of  Scandinavian 
history  were  prosecuted  with  great  eagerness 
by  Danish  scholars,  and  some  of  their  historical 
writings  are  of  great  value  even  now,  though 
they  partake  more  of  the  character  of  chroni- 
cles than  of  modern  philosophical  historiogra- 
phy. Arild  Ilvitfeld's  Danmarl's  Biges  Krd- 
nihe  (1595-1604),  Lyschander's  Danslce  Kongars 
Slagtehog  (1622),  and  Arent  Berndtsen's  Dane- 
marks  og  Norgesfrugthare  HerligJied  (1656),  de- 
serve to  be  mentioned.  Northern  archfeology 
was  cultivated  by  Gudmund  Andrec^  Runolf 
and  Arnin  Johnson,  Thomas  Bartholin,  Peder 
Rosen,  Broder  Bickerod,  and  Peder  Syv.  Still, 
the  poetical  and  historical  wi'itings  of  that  pe- 
riod of  Danish  literature  were  not  sufficiently 
conspicuous  to  attract  the  attention  of  other  na- 
tions. During  the  17th  century  Denmark's  fame 
in  the  republic  of  letters  was  principally  estab- 
lished by  such  scholars  as  Tycho  Brahe,  the 
great  astronomer  (1546-1601),  Kaspar  Bartho- 
lin (1585-1630),  Thomas  Bartholin  (1616-1680), 
the  greatest  anatomist  of  his  time,  Christian 
Longomontanus  (died  1647),  Ole  Romer  (1644 
-1710),  Holger  Rosenkranz  (died  1642),  &c. 
The  classical  period  of  Danish  literature  was 
inaugurated  by  Ilolberg  (1684-1754),  who,  as 
a  dramatic  poet,  a  historian,  a  writer  of  fiction, 
and  a  popular  philosopher,  held  a  prominent 
place  in  the  literary  history  of  the  last  century. 
A  strong,  bracing  realism  pervades  his  produc- 
tions. Most  of  his  works  have  been  translated 
into  German,  and  the  near  affinity  between 
the  literature  of  the  two  countries  having  be- 
come evident,  a  close  reciprocity  ensued.  Jo- 
hannes Ewald  (1743-1781),  a  lyrical  poet  and 
dramatist  of  great  merit,  holds  a  relation  to 
Ilolberg  similar  to  that  of  Schiller  to  Goethe ; 
both  their  names  stand  as  representatives  of 
what  has  been  termed  the  golden  era  of  Danish 
literature.    Next  to  them  the  following  authors 


DENMARK 


DENNER 


m 


of  that  period  have  justly  obtained  an  extensive 
popularity:  Joh.  Herrmann  Wessel  (died  1785), 
Johann  v.  Wibo  (died  1782),  Frederik  Wilh. 
"Wiwet  (died  1793),  Joh.  Cleinend  Todo  (died 
1806),  Enevold  Falsen  (died  1808),  and  Christian 
Olufsen  (died  1822),  by  their  comedies,  none  of 
whom,  however,  rank  Avith  Peder  Andreas 
Heiberg  (1758-1841);  Ole  Johann  Samsoe  and 
Levin  Christian  Sander,  by  their  excellent 
tragedies ;  Thomas  Tliaarnp,  by  his  vaudevilles ; 
the  brothers  Friman  and  Joh.  v.  Brunn  (died 
1816),  by  their  lyrical  poems;  Jens  Zctlitz  and 
the  brothers  Trojel,  by  humorous  songs;  Chris- 
tian Pram  by  his  romantic  epic  Stdrkodder 
(1785);  Wilh.  Helf  and  Christian  Falster  (died 
1752),  by  their  satirical  poems;  Hans  Adolf 
Brorsonby  his  hymns;  Johann  Nordahl,  by  his 
patriotic  songs ;  and  Jens  Baggesen,  the  favorite 
songster  of  the  nation,  by  his  lyrics  and  his 
comic  epics.  A  new  impulse  was  given  to  tho 
national  literature  by  Adam  Oehlenschliiger 
(1779-1850),  who  holds  an  equally  conspicuous 
place  in  the  literature  of  his  own  country  and 
in  that  of  Germany,  Imbued  with  the  spirit 
o^  the  romantic  school,  he  sought  in  the  primi- 
tive history  of  his  country  for  those  popular 
traditions  and  reminiscences  by  which  the  in- 
dividuality of  national  literature  is  defined  and 
intensified.  As  an  epic  poet,  Oehlenschlager 
holds  a  position  among  the  greatest  of  modern 
times.  Next  to  him  stand  Bernhard  Severin 
Ingemann  (born  1789),  the  author  of  the  epics, 
Waldemar  de  Store,  Dronning  Margrete,  and 
Holger  Dansie,  and  Fr.  Paludan-Miiller,  whose 
Adam  Homo  (a  composition  wliich  may  with 
equal  justice  be  classed  among  epic,  didactic, 
or  satiric  poetry)  is  perhaps  the  most  remark- 
able production  of  modern  Danish  literature. 
Among  living  lyrical  poets,  Chr.  Winther, 
Hendrik  Hertz,  Clir.  Hendersen,  Chr.  K.  F. 
Molbech,  and  Rosenhofi^,  are  the  most  eminent. 
As  a  composer  of  hymns,  F.  S.  Grundtvig  is 
unrivalled.  Tho  most  fertile  field  of  modern 
Danish  literature  is  found  in  the  drama  and  the 
novel.  Johann  Ludwig  Heiberg  (born  1791),  a 
son  of  Peder  Andreas  Heiberg,  a  philosophical 
and  archa3ological  writer  of  great  merit,  is  also 
the  first  among  the  living  Danish  dramatists ;  but 
he  confines  himself  to  comedy  and  vaudeville. 
The  tragedies  of  Oehlenschliiger  have  not  yet 
been  equalled  by  more  modern  poets.  Most  of 
the  lyrical  poets  mentioned  before  are  also  au- 
thors of  serious  dramas  or  comedies,  and  some 
of  them,  as  Hendrik  Hertz  and  Ingemann,  have 
obtained  a  well  deserved  reputation  beyond  the 
limits  of  their  own  country.  P.  Chievitz,  Th. 
Overskou,  C.  Hostrup,  F.  H.  Guldberg  (died 
1852),  and  Erik  BOgh,  deserve  to  be  noted 
among  modern  Danish  dramatists.  The  num- 
ber of  popular  novelists  is  large.  The  first  place 
among  them  seems  to  be  conceded  to  Hans 
Christian  Andersen,  thougli  tlie  novels  publish- 
ed anonymously  by  Heiberg  are  scarcely  inferior 
to  his.  Sten  Stensen  Blieher,  Ingemann,  Kier- 
kegaard, H.  P.  Hoist,  F.  C.  Sibbern,  Torkel 
Traue,   E.  Lobedanz,  and  several  others  have 


published  novels,  some  of  which  rise  above  tho 
average  of  modern  works  of  fiction.  Great  ac- 
tivity prevails  in  Denmark  in  the  writing  of 
history,  national  arch;eology,  and  philology.  In 
metaphysics  and  jesthetics  tbo  modern  Danish 
authors  have,  with  few  exceptions,  followed  tho 
track  of  the  Germans.  F.  C.  Sibbern  is  per- 
haps the  most  independent  thinker.  In  natu- 
ral philosophy,  Oersted  has  acquired  a  world- 
wide reputation.  His  most  celebrated  work, 
Aanden  i  Katuren,  has  been  translated  into  all 
European  languages,  J,  F.  Schouw  ranks  highly 
among  modern  physicists  and  geographers. 
Eschricht,  Paulsen,  Sars,  Steenstrup,  are  au- 
thors of  valuable  works  on  zoology;  Schuma- 
cher, Hornemann,  Dreier,  M.  Vahl,  and  Lieb- 
mann,  have  written  meritorious  works  on  bot- 
any ;  Forchhammer  and  Puggaard,  on  geognosy; 
Johann  Madtvig  and  G.  F.  Boissen  rank  high 
among  modern  philologists;  Peder  Olaf  Brond- 
sted  (died  1842),  Johann  Ludwig,  Ussing,  and  F. 
Chr.  Petersen,  among  archaeologists.  To  Rask, 
Westergaard,  and  Fausboll,  linguists  are  indebt- 
ed for  valuable  researches.  Among  those  scho- 
lars who  have  devoted  themselves  particularly  to 
the  study  of  Danish  literature  and  literary  his- 
tory, Nyerup,  Petersen,  Rask,  P.  E.  Miiller,  and 
Molbech  are  the  most  prominent.  Of  the  re- 
mains of  the  ancient  Scandinavian  and  Danish 
literature,  numerous  critical  editions  have  been 
published  by  Halfdan  Einersen,  Johann  Erich- 
sen,  Olaf  Olavius,  Hans  Finsen,  Finn  Johnsen, 
Bjorn  Haldersen,  Steph.  Bjornsen,  John  Olav- 
sen,  Sknle  Thorlacius,  G.  J.  Thorkelin.  The 
number  of  Danish  historians  within  the  2  last 
centuries  has  been  very  great.  Erik  Pontop- 
pidan  (died  1764)  stands  at  the  head  of  those 
of  the  18th  century,  while  Grundtvig  has  at- 
tained to  the  highest  reputation  among  those 
of  the  present  day. — See  Nyerup's  Almindelig 
Moersl-ahsldsning  i  Danmarh  og  Norge  (1816)  ; 
Molbech's  Fordasninger  over  den  nyere  Danske 
Foesie  (1831-'32);  Thortsen,  Rist.  Udsigt  over 
den  Dansl-e  Litteratur  (1839)  ;  Tli.  H.  Erslew, 
Almhidcligt  Forfatter-Lexicon  for  Danmarh 
(1843-'53,  3  vols. ;  suppl.  vol.,  1856-'58). 

DENNER,  Balthasar,  a  German  portrait 
painter,  born  in  Altona  or  Hamburg  in  1685, 
died  in  the  latter  place,  April  14,  1747,  or  ac- 
cording to  another  account  at  Rostock,  in  1749, 
He  was  employed  by  Frederic  II.  and  many 
other  German  princes,  and  was  also  invited  by 
George  I.  to  England,  where,  however,  he  met 
with  little  encouragement.  His  chief,  if  not  his 
whole  merit,  consists  in  the  mechanical  finish 
of  his  pictures,  some  of  which,  it  is  said,  require 
to  be  examined  by  a  magnifying  glass  in  order 
to  appreciate  the  labors  of  the  artist.  There  is 
a  head  of  an  old  woman  by  him  in  the  gallery 
of  Vienna,  in  which  even  the  down  on  the 
cheeks  and  the  pores  of  the  skin  are  represented 
witli  scrupulous  exactness.  This  picture  was 
purchased  by  the  emperor  Cliarles  VI.  for 
4,700  imperial  florins,  and  the  artist  Avas  com- 
missioned to  furnish  a  companion  piece  of  an 
old  man,  which  is  not  less  carefully  finished. 


390 


DENNIE 


DENNIS 


DENNIE,  Joseph,  an  American  author  and 

journalist,  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Aug.  30,  1768, 
died  in  Pluladelphia,  Penn.,  Jan.  7, 1812.  After 
a  brief  experience  of  mercantile  life,  he  entered 
Harvard  college,  where,  notwithstanding  his 
vivacious  temperament  on  several  occasions 
brought  him  into  collision  with  tiie  authorities, 
he  was  graduated  in  1790.  In  the  same  year 
he  commenced  the  study  of  law  in  Charles- 
town,  N.  II.,  and  was  subsequently  admitted  to 
the  bar,  at  which,  however,  his  practice  was 
very  inconsiderable.  During  several  months  in 
1793  he  read  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church 
eervice  on  Smidays  to  some  members  of  that 
denomination  in  Claremont,  and  showed  such 
excellent  powers  of  elocution  that  he  was  soli- 
cited to  enter  holy  orders,  with  the  promise  of 
a  settlement  in  Portsmouth.  In  1795,  having 
previously  acquired  some  reputation  by  literary 
contributions  to  various  newspapers,  under  the 
title  of  the  "  Farrago,"  which  had  been  very 
generally  copied,  he  became  connected  with  a 
small  weekly  journal  published  in  Boston,  called 
the  "  Tablet."  This  publication  survived  its 
establishment  but  3  months,  and  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1795  Dennie  removed  to  "Walpole,  N. 
H.,  and  accepted  a  permanent  engagement  on 
the  "Farmer's  "Weekly  Museum,"  a  newspaper 
which  enjoyed  an  extensive  popularity  toward 
the  close  of  the  last  century.  Ills  most  notable 
contributions  to  tliis  were  a  series  of  essays,  en- 
titled the  "  Lay  Preacher,"  in  which,  to  use  his 
own  language,  he  sought  to  "  unite  the  famil- 
iarity of  Franklin  with  the  simplicity  of  Sterne." 
The  articles  were  discursive  and  lively,  were 
widely  copied  by  the  newspapers  of  the  Union, 
and  procured  for  their  author  an  established  po- 
sition among  the  few  literary  men  whom  the 
country  then  possessed.  Shortly  afterward  Den- 
nie assumed  the  editorship  of  the  "Museum," 
and  by  collecting  around  him  a  number  of  able 
contributors  so  increased  its  reputation  and  cir- 
culation, that  in  the  latter  part  of  1797  the  pub- 
lisher announced  with  some  exultation  tliat  the 
journal  was  read  by  upward  of  2,000  persons, 
and  had  its  patrons  in  Europe  and  on  the  banks 
of  the  Ohio.  In  1798  the  bankruptcy  of  tho 
publisher  irretrievably  ruined  the  prospects  of 
the  "  Farmer's  Museum,"  and  Dennie  was  soon 
after  induced  by  his  friends  to  become  a  candi- 
date for  congress  from  New  Hampshire.  Hav- 
ing been  defeated,  he  left  Walpole  in  1799  for 
Philadelphia,  to  fill  the  position  of  confidential 
secretary  to  the  department  of  state,  over  which 
Timothy  Pickering  then  presided.  He  remained 
in  office  but  a  few  months,  and  in  the  latter  part 
of  1800,  in  connection  with  Asbury  Dickins, 
commenced  the  publication  in  Philadelphia  of 
the  "Portfolio,"  in  which  he  adopted  tho  edi- 
torial cognomen  of  "  Oliver  Oldschool."  At  tho 
outset  a  quarto  weekly,  it  subsequently  became 
a  monthly  publication.  Apart  from  the  contri- 
butions of  the  editor,  it  was  tho  vehicle  of  fre- 
quent communications  from  John  Quincy  Ad- 
ams, whose  letters  from  Silesia  were  originally 
published  in  it,  Horace  Binney,  Judge  Hopkin- 


8on,  Eobert  "Walsh,  Charles  Brockden  Brown, 
and  other  literary  men  of  the  time,  and  main- 
tained for  many  years  a  considerable  reputa- 
tion. In  1803  Dennie  was  indicted  for  a  libel 
against  the  federal  government,  published  in  his 
journal,  but  was  acquitted.  He  continued  to  be 
connected  with  the  "Portfolio"  until  his  death, 
and  was  highly  esteemed  for  bis  social  qualities 
as  well  as  for  his  literary  abilities, 

DENNIS,  a  post  village  and  township  of 
Barnstable  co.,  Mass.,  on  the  peninsula  of  Cape 
Cod.  The  township  extends  entirely  across  the 
peninsula,  here  8  m.  wide,  and  is  separated  from 
Yarmouth  by  Bass  river.  It  contains  6  churches, 
a  bank,  and  some  ship  yards.  Most  of  the  inhabi- 
tants are  engaged  in  commerce  and  the  fisheries. 
About  250  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  burden  of 
35,000  tons,  are  employed  in  the  coast  trade; 
10  or  12  ships  are  engaged  in  the  freighting  busi- 
ness, and  in  1853  there  were  48  vessels  (aggre- 
gate tonnage  3,160)  in  the  mackerel  fisheries. 
The  first  settlement  was  made  at  Dennis  village, 
in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  township.  Pop. 
in  1855,  3,497.  Value  of  property  in  1854  esti- 
mated at  over  $1,000,000. 

DENNIS,  John,  an  English  critic,  born  in 
London  in  1657,  died  Jan.  6, 1733.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  tradesman,  but  received  a  liberal  educa- 
tion, and  took  the  degree  of  A.M.  at  Cambridge 
in  1683.  Afterward  he  travelled  on  the  conti- 
nent, and  returned  with  a  strong  dislike  to  the 
forms  of  government  existing  there.  He  became 
a  whig  in  politics,  and  mingled  much  in  the 
society  of  the  politicians  of  that  school,  and  of 
the  literary  men  of  London.  Among  his  friends 
were  Dryden,  Halifax,"Wycherley,  and  Congreve. 
By  his  expensive  habits  he  soon  dissipated  a 
small  fortune  which  had  been  left  him  by  an 
uncle,  and  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  hearing  of 
his  difficulties,  obtained  for  him  an  appointment 
in  the  customs  worth  £120  a  year;  but  he  was 
compelled,  after  a  while,  to  sell  this  to  satisfy 
pressing  demands,  only  reserving  from  the  sale, 
at  the  suggestion  of  Lord  Halifax,  a  small  pen- 
sion for  himself  for  a  term  of  years.  This  term 
he  however  outlived,  and  was  in  consequence 
reduced  to  great  poverty,  and  becoming  blind, 
was  compelled  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  to  de- 
pend upon  the  charities  of  literary  friends,  many 
of  whom  he  had  grossly  calumniated.  As  a 
dramatist  he  hardly  deserves  mention,  though 
some  of  his  plays  obtained  a  transient  popularity, 
especially  the  one  entitled  "  Liberty  Asserted," 
in  which  the  French,  with  whom  the  English 
were  then  at  war,  were  roughly  handled.  Of  his 
essays  the  best  are  the  "  Grounds  of  Criticism," 
and  those  on  Addison's  "  Cato,"  and  Pope's 
"  Kape  of  the  Lock,"  though  the  2  latter  are 
characterized  by  the  bitterness  with  which  he 
usually  spoke  of  his  contemporaries.  Addison 
had  been  one  of  his  friends,  but  he  took  offence 
at  something  which  appeared  in  the  2d  and  3d 
numbers  of  the  "  Spectator,"  and  which  he  sup- 
posed to  refer  to  himself,  and,  in  revenge,  wrote 
the  essay  on  "  Cato."  He  was  a  man  of  a  very 
peevish  and  suspicious  disposition,  and  was  al- 


DENOMIXATOR 


DENTISTRY 


391 


most  always  engaged  in  controversy.  II o  at- 
tacked Pope,  Addison,  and  Steele ;  and  Pope  in 
return  satirized  him  in  several  works,  especially 
in  tlie  "  Dnnciad."  lie  had  also  a  most  exagger- 
ated idea  of  his  own  importance.  While  the  ne- 
gotiations were  in  progress  previous  to  the  peace 
of  Utrecht,  he  was  in  great  fear  that  the  French 
king  would  refuse  to  make  peace  except  on  con- 
dition that  the  author  of  "Liherty  Asserted" 
should  be  delivered  over  to  him.  One  day,  being 
at  the  house  of  a  friend  on  tlie  Sussex  coast,  and 
perceiving  a  vessel  in  the  distance,  he  was  seized 
■with  the  idea  that  it  was  coming  to  carry  him 
away  to  France,  and  that  he  had  been  inveigled 
thither  for  that  purpose.  Accordingly  he  imme- 
diately set  out  for  London,  congratulating  him- 
self on  his  escape.  He  had  invented  a  new  way 
of  imitating  thunder  for  his  play  of  "Appius  and 
Virginia,"  which  was  brought  out  and  failed  in 
1708 ;  shortly  afterward,  during  the  performance 
of"  Macbeth,"  hearing  the  thunder  produced  by 
Ins  apparatus,  he  rose  in  the  pit,  and  exclaimed  : 
"S'death  !  how  these  rascals  use  me;  they  will 
not  let  my  play  run,  yet  they  steal  my  thunder." 

DENOMINATOR,  in  algebra  and  arithme- 
tic, the  divisor  used  in  producing  a  fraction. 
The  denominator  of  a  decimal  fraction  is  not 
written  ;  it  is  equal  to  1,  with  as  many  ciphers 
annexed  as  there  are  places  in  the  fraction.  The 
name  denominator  is  derived  from  its  arithmet- 
ical use,  since  it  gives  the  denomination  or 
name  to  the  fraction,  3ds,  5ths,  Tths,  &c.,  while 
the  numerator  gives  the  number  of  parts  taken. 

DENON,  DoMiNiQiTE  ViVANT,  baron,  a  French 
archoaologist,  born  at  Chalons-sur-Saone,  Jan.  4, 
1747,  died  in  Paris,  April  27, 1825.  He  accom- 
panied Bonaparte  to  Africa  as  a  member  of  the 
Egyptian  commission.  His  Voyage  dans  la 
basse  et  la  Jiaute Fgypte,vrhich excited  much  in- 
terest on  its  publication  in  1802,  was  a  forerun- 
ner of  the  magnificent  work  afterward  published 
by  the  Egyptian  commission. 

DENSITY,  a  term  somewhat  indefinite  in 
meaning,  being  sometimes  used  in  its  true  sense, 
and  referring  to  the  number  of  particles  of  mat- 
ter comprised  in  a  given  space ;  sometimes  in 
a  secondary  sense,  as  synonymous  witli  specific 
gravity.  In  the  first  sense  it  is  opposed  to  rar- 
ity, and  the  density  of  one  substance  cannot 
properly  be  compared  with  that  of  anotlier,  there 
being  no  mode  of  measuring  the  absolute  size  of 
particles  of  matter,  or  their  absolute  weight.  All 
bodies  are  believed  to  be  to  some  extent  com- 
pressible, and  gases  are  compressible  in  exact 
proportion  to  the  force  used  in  compressing 
them ;  at  least,  this  is  the  result  obtained  by  ex- 
periment ;  but  it  may  not  be  the  exact  law,  and 
probably  does  not  hold  true  when  the  gas  is 
nearly  compressed  into  a  liquid,  or  when  the 
pressure  is  almost  nothing. 

DENT,  a  S.  central  co.  of  Mo.,  recently  form- 
ed out  of  the  N.  part  of  Shannon  co.,  and  named 
in  honor  of  Frederic  Dent,  an  early  settler  in 
Missouri.  Tlie  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  surface  is 
much  diversified.  Pop.  in  1856,  3,207,  of  whom 
118  were  slaves. 


DENT,  .Jonrf  II.,  a  captain  in  the  U.  S.  navy, 
a  native  of  Maryland,  died  in  July,  1823.  He 
commenced  his  career  as  midshipman  in  March, 
1798,  under  the  command  of  Com.  Thomas 
Truxton,  in  the  frigate  Constellation  of  36 
guns,  and  was  attached  to  that  ship  when  she 
captured  the  French  frigate  Insurgente,  on  Feb. 
1,  1799.  Soon  after  the  engagement  he  was 
promoted,  and  served  in  the  same  ship  as  4th 
lieutenant  when  she  ca[)tured  tlie  French  frig- 
ate La  Vengeance,  on  Feb.  1,  1800.  He  served 
in  command  of  the  schooners  Nautilus  and 
Scourge,  in  the  squadron  of  Com.  Edward 
Preble,  during  the  war  with  Tripoli,  and  partici- 
pated in  the  several  attacks  upon  that  city  and 
harbor  in  the  months  of  July,  August,  and  Sep- 
tember, 1804.  He  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  master  commandant  in  Sept.  1804,  and  to  that 
of  captain  in  Dec.  1811. 

DENTATUS,  Marcus  Cueitts,  a  Roman  con- 
sul, who  flourished  in  the  1st  half  of  the  3d  cen- 
tury B.  C.  He  was  of  Sabine  origin,  and  the 
first  of  his  family  that  ever  filled  any  high  public 
office.  In  290  B.  C.  he  subjected  the  Samnites  ; 
in  275  he  vanquished  Pyrrhus  in  two  great  bat- 
tles ;  in  274  he  subdued  the  Samnites,  Lucanians, 
and  Bruttians.  On  the  conclusion  of  his  3d  con- 
sulship he  retired  to  a  small  farm  in  the  country 
of  the  Sabines,  and  cultivated  it  with  his  own 
hands.  While  thus  engaged  the  Samnites  sent 
an  embassayto  him  with  costly  presents.  They 
found  him  sitting  at  the  hearth  cooking  vege- 
tables for  his  dinner.  He  rejected  their  gifts, 
telling  them  that  he  w^ould  rather  rule  over 
those  who  possessed  wealth  than  possess  it  him- 
self. In  272  B.  C.  he  was  called  to  fill  the  office 
of  censor,  in  which  capacity  he  constructed  an 
aqueduct  which  conveyed  water  from  the  Anio 
into  the  city,  and  by  a  canal  he  carried  oflF  the 
water  of  the  lake  Velinus  to  the  Nar,  and  thus 
gave  to  the  Reateans  a  large  tract  of  excellent 
land.  He  is  said  to  have  been  born  with  teeth ; 
hence  his  surname  of  Dentatus. 

DENTISTRY,  Dental  Suegekt  (Lat.  dens, 
tooth),  the  surgical  treatment  of  the  teeth,  in- 
cluding, beside  their  extraction,  the  remedying 
of  their  serious  defects,  and  the  mechaniciU 
operation  of  making  and  fitting  artificial  teeth' 
to  supply  the  places  of  those  lost.  Although  it 
is  only  within  less  than  a  century  that  this  art 
has  taken  the  rank  of  a  distinct  profession,  atten- 
tion was  directed  from  the  earliest  periods  to 
the  means  of  preserving  and  improving  the 
beauty  of  the  teeth.  The  ancient  Hebrew  writ- 
ers evidently  appreciated  their  importance  in 
giving  expression  to  the  countenance,  as  when 
Jacob  blessing  Judah  says :  "  His  teeth  shall  be 
white  with  milk"  (Gen.  xlix.  12) ;  and  Solomon 
compares  a  fine  set  of  teeth  to  a  flock  of  sheep 
even  shorn  (Song  of  Solomon,  iv.  2).  In  the 
time  of  Herodotus  the  art  of  dentistry  ap- 
pears to  have  been  practised  in  Egypt  as  a  dis- 
tinct branch  of  surgery,  as  was  also  the  treat- 
ment of  the  diseases  of  the  eye  and  of  the  ear. 
Little,  however,  is  known  of  the  attainments  of 
these  early  practitioners.    In  the  ancient  tombs 


392 


DENTISTRY 


of  this  people  artificial  teeth  of  ivory  or  wood 
were  found  by  Belzoni  aud  others,  some  of 
which  were  fastened  upon  gold  plates.  It  is 
also  stated  that  teeth  of  the  mummies  have  been 
found  tilled  with  gold.  Thus  it  would  seem  that 
the  ancient  Egyptians  understood  processes  of 
the  art  which  are  commonly  regarded  only  as 
inventions  of  the  refined  nations  of  modern 
times.  Artificial  teeth  are  alluded  to  by  sev- 
eral of  the  Greek  and  Latin  poets,  as  Ovid, 
Martial,  Horace,  &c.  The  works  of  Galen, 
written  in  the  2d  century,  contain  the  earliest 
treatises  upon  this  subject,  aud  they  continued 
to  be  the  best  until  the  works  of  Fallopius,  Eu- 
stachius,  and  Ambrose  Pare  appeared  in  the 
14th,  15th,  and  IGth  centuries.  Daring  the 
18th  century  the  attention  of  medical  men  in 
France  aud  England  was  directed  to  the  subject, 
and  a  number  of  elaborate  works  were  pub- 
lished devoted  exclusively  to  the  art.  These,  and 
prominently  among  them  the  treatise  of  John 
Hunter  (1771-78),  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
English  school  of  dentistry.  The  subject,  how- 
ever, was  treated  anatomically  and  philosophi- 
cally rather  than  practically  ;  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  the  writings  of  the  eminent  French 
surgeon  of  this  period,  Bichat.  Neither  of  these 
was  a  practical  dentist,  and  the  subsequent  pub- 
lications of  Dr.  Blake  in  1708,  aud  of  Fox  in 
1803  and  1806,  as  of  others  at  later  dates,  served 
rather  to  elucidate  the  physiology  of  the  teeth 
and  the  nature  of  the  diseases  to  which  they 
are  subject  than  the  method  of  treating  them. 
From  advertisements  in  the  newspapers  of  1703 
the  practice  of  the  art,  making  teeth  and  clean- 
ing them,  appears  to  have  been  in  the  hands 
of  silversmiths  or  jewellers.  In  1826  the  emi- 
nently practical  work,  "  Principles  of  Dental 
Surgery,"  of  Leonard  Koecker,  M.D.,  who  had 
practised  dentistry  from  1807  to  1822  in  Balti- 
more and  Philadelphia,  appeared  in  London,  and 
fully  established  the  claims  of  the  art  to  take 
rank  as  a  distinct  branch  of  science.  From 
that  time  new  treatises  by  able  Avriters  and 
practitioners  have  continued  frequently  to  ap- 
pear. The  progress  of  the  French  school  was 
very  rapid  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  cen- 
tury. Prof.  Baume's  treatise  on  first  dentition 
and  the  diseases  that  accompany  it  appeared  in 
the  year  1800 ;  and  2  years  afterward,  a  work 
on  the  theory  and  practice  of  the  art,  by  La- 
forgue.  The  former  has  been  translated  into 
English,  and  incorporated  into  the  "  American 
Journal  of  Dental  Science."  The  works  of 
Duval,  interesting  for  their  historical  research 
as  well  as  their  practical  instruction,  have  been 
much  read.  Leroy's  work  on  diseases  of  the 
gums  (1806)  has  been  translated  and  published 
in  the  "American  Journal."  A  number  of 
works  Avere  published  by  Delabarre  between 
the  years  1815  and  1826  on  dififerent  subjects  re- 
lating to  the  teeth  and  their  treatment.  Among 
them  is  a  treatise  on  "Mechanical  Dentistry," 
published  in  1820,  and  iUustrated  with  42  plates. 
It  was  during  this  period,  when  publications 
apon  dentistry  were  frequently  appearing  in 


France,  that  the  manufacture  of  artificial  teeth  of 
porcelain  was  introduced  ;  and  in  1821  a  work 
upon  this  subject  was  publisiiod  by  Audibrau 
of  nearly  200  pages,  entitled  Esmi  historique 
et  in-atique  sur  les  dents  artificielles  incorrup- 
tihies.  By  this  it  appears  that  Fauchard  in 
1728  proposed  their  manufacture ;  and  that  in 
1776  Ducliateau,  a  chemist  of  St.  Gennain-en- 
Laye,  attempted  to  produce  them,  and  finally 
succeeded  with  the  aid  of  Dubois,  a  dentist  of 
note  in  Paris.  The  latter  imitated  the  colors  of 
the  natural  teeth  and  gums  by  the  use  of  min- 
eral oxides,  and  obtained  royal  letters  patent 
from  Louis  XVI.  for  the  invention.  The  pro- 
gress of  this  branch  of  the  art  will  be  particular- 
ly noticed  in  the  latter  part  of  this  article. — The 
practice  of  dentistry  was  introduced  into  the 
United  States  by  Le  Mair,  of  the  French  forces 
which  joined  our  army  during  the  revolutionary 
war.  An  Englishman  named  Whitlock  also  com- 
menced the  practice  soon  after  the  arrival  of 
Le  Mair.  About  the  year  1788  Mr.  John  Green- 
wood established  himself  in  New  York,  the  first 
American  of  this  profession.  In  1790,  and  again 
in  1795,  he  carved  in  ivory  an  entire  set  of  teeth 
for  Gen.  Washington.  They  were  secured  by 
spiral  springs,  and  the  neatness  and  ingenuity 
of  the  work  was  considered  equal  to  any  exe- 
cuted at  that  period  abroad.  Other  dentists 
soon  appeared  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and 
Baltimore.  Their  work  included  the  extracting 
of  teeth,  filing  and  cleaning  them,  and  replacing 
the  natural  teeth  when  lost  with  artificial  ones, 
commonly  made  of  ivory.  Dr.  Hudson,  former- 
ly of  Dublin,  who  had  settled  in  Pliiladelphia, 
first  directed  his  attention  particularly  to  the 
cure  of  the  diseases  of  the  teeth,  and  to  arrest- 
ing the  progress  of  dental  caries.  In  1820  the 
number  of  practitioners  in  the  United  States 
was  probably  little  more  than  100.  Ten  years 
afterward,  as  estimated  by  Dr.  C.  A.  Harris,  in 
his  work  on  the  "  Pfinciples  and  Practice  of 
Dental  Surgery,"  there  were  about  300,  of  whom 
probably  not  more  than  ^  were  well  instructed. 
But  the  increase  in  their  numbers  was  after- 
ward very  raipd.  In  1842  they  were  believed 
to  number  about  1,400,  and  in  1858  about  4,000. 
An  important  event  in  the  history  of  dental  sur- 
gery in  this  country  was  the  establishment  of 
the  "  American  Journal  and  Library  of  Dental 
Science"  in  Baltimore,  in  1839.  The  society  of 
dental  surgeons  was  soon  after  formed,  and  at 
its  second  annual  meeting  the  "  Journal "  was 
made  the  property  and  organ  of  the  association. 
Maryland,  which  appears  to  have  taken  the  lead 
of  the  oUier  states  in  this  department  of  science, 
founded  by  its  legislature,  a  few  months  previ- 
ous to  the  organization  of  the  society  above 
named,  a  college  of  dental  surgery,  with  4  pro- 
fessorships, designed  for  instruction  in  the  prin- 
ciples and  mechanical  practice  of  the  art.  Two 
years  afterward  another  society  of  dentists,  hke 
that  of  Baltimore,  was  organized  at  Richmond, 
Va.,  and  in  Aug.  1844,  a  third  was  formed  at 
Cincinnati,  Oliio,  styled  the  "Mississippi  Valley 
Association  of  Dental  Surgeons."    A  college  of 


DENTISTRY 


393 


dentistry  has  also  been  established  in  Philadel- 
phia and  another  in  Cincinnati,  and  state  and 
local  dental  societies  in  various  parts  of  the 
country.  In  Aug.  1855,  the  national  conven- 
tion of  dentists  was  organized,  through  the  act- 
ive exertions  of  Dr.  Elisha  Townsend  of  Phila- 
delphia, and  its  first  annual  meeting  was  held  in 
that  city.  Dr.  John  B.  Eich  of  New  York  was 
its  first  president.  Beside  the  reports  of  these 
societies,  which  have  disseminated  a  knowledge 
of  the  discoveries  and  improvements  made  in 
the  science,  many  very  valuable  works  of  a  prac- 
tical nature  have  been  published  by  xVmerican  au- 
thors, among  which  may  be  noticed  a  treatise  by 
J.  Gardette  of  .Philadelplya,  originally  of  Paris. 
This  was  published  in  1821.  In  1822  appeared 
in  New  York  and  London  an  essay  on  the  "  Dis- 
orders and  Treatment  of  the  Teeth,"  by  Dr.  E. 
Parmly;  also,  the  same  year,  2  volumes  by 
Dr.  L.  S.  Parmlv,  and  a  work  called  the  "Fam- 
ily Dentist,"  by  J.  F.  Flagg,  M.D.,  of  Boston.  In 
1829  a  comprehensive  treatise,  and  probably  the 
most  valuable  ever  published  to  that  time,  ap- 
peared, in  one  volume  of  over  500  pages,  written 
by  S.  S.  Fitch,  M.D. ;  in  1835  a  second  and  im- 
proved edition  was  published.  A  poetical  essay, 
entitled  Dentohgia^  by  Dr.  Solyman  Brown,  with 
notes  by  Dr.  E.  Parmlj-,  is  a  curious  and  inge- 
nious production,  which  appeared  in  1833.  The 
same  author  also  published  other  works  and 
many  valuable  papers  on  dentistry.  The  "  Guide 
to  Sound  Teeth,"  by  S.  Spooner,  ^.D.,  is  a  val- 
uable work,  pi-inted  in  1836.  The  "  Principles 
and  Practice  of  Dental  Surgery,"  by  Prof.  C.  A. 
Harris,  of  the  Baltimore  college,  is  a  standard 
text  book  of  GOO  pages  8vo. ;  the  second  edition 
was  published  in  1845.  Dr.  Harris  also  publish- 
ed a  large  8vo.  dictionary  of  dental  surgery.  In 
185-4  a  comprehensive  8vo.  volume  was  pub- 
lislied  by  A.  Snowden  Piggot,  M.D.,  entitled 
"  Chemistry  and  Metallurgy  as  applied  to  the 
Study  and  Practice  of  Dental  Surgery,"  A  num- 
ber of  periodicals  are  supported  by  the  profes- 
sion, as  the  '"Dental  Register  of  the  West,"  a 
quarterly,  published  in  Cincinnati ;  "  Dental  Re- 
view," St.  Louis,  quarterly ;  "  Dental  News  Let- 
ter," Philadelphia;  the  "Obturator,"  New  Or- 
leans, &c. — From  this  sketch  of  the  history  and 
progress  of  the  science,  it  is  apparent  how  highly 
its  cultivation  is  appreciated  among  civihzed  na- 
tions. Ruder  people  also  show  a  regard  for  the 
teeth,  which  is  oftener  displayed,  however,  in 
attempts  to  ornament  them  by  coloring  and  giv- 
ing to  them  grotesque  shapes,  than  by  devising 
means  to  preserve  them.  This  last,  indeed,  is 
little  required  with  people  living  the  inartificial 
life  of  savages,  and  subsisting  upon  the  simple 
food  they  use.  Their  teeth  partake  of  the  per- 
fect development  of  their  physical  constitution, 
and  are  generally  sound,  healthy,  and  beautiful- 
ly white.  The  natives  of  Hindostan,  and  the 
high  caste  Brahmins  especially,  are  said  to 
devote  particular  care  to  the  preservation  of 
these  organs.  AVith  them  it  is  a  religious  duty, 
inculcated  in  their  most  ancient  books,  to  pay 
scrupulous  regard  to  their  cleanliness.     Every 


morning  they  spend  an  hour  rubbing  them  with, 
a  twig,  while  performing  at  the  same  time  their 
devotional  exercises.  Tlio  result  is  that  they 
have  the  finest  teeth  of  any  people. — The  pro- 
gress of  dentistry  as  a  science  has  been  neces- 
sarily consequent  upon  that  of  anatomy.  As 
the  ])hysiology  of  the  system  was  better  under- 
stood, the  relations  of  the  various  organs  to 
each  other,  and  their  mutual  dependence,  were 
more  clearly  perceived.  Dentistry  ceased  to 
be  a  merely  mechanical  art,  when  the  treat- 
ment of  the  teeth  demanded  a  comprehension 
of  these  relations,  and  when  he  who  jiractised 
it  paused  before  operating,  to  consider  whether 
the  pain  he  hoped  to  remove  with  instruments 
might  not  better  be  alleviated  by  proper  medi- 
cal treatment,  by  the  application  of  leeches  to 
the  gums,  or,  when  it  Avas  of  the  nature  of  neu- 
ralgia, b}'  the  surgical  operation  of  dividing  the 
atfected  nerve.  So  intimately  connected  is  the 
welfare  of  the  teeth  Avith  that  of  the  general 
system,  that  some  knowledge  of  medicine,  and 
of  the  diseases  Avhose  eflfects  may  reach  these 
organs,  is  indispensable  to  the  scientific  dentist. 
His  knowledge  of  anatomy  is  not  confined  to 
the  bony  structure  of  the  tooth,  to  the  soft 
pulp  which  fills  its  internal  cavity,  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  nerves  which  communicate  its  com- 
plaints to  the  brain,  nor  to  the  manner  in  whichi 
it  is  held  so  fast  in  its  socket.  His  science  in- 
volves an  acquaintance  with  the  anatomical 
relations  of  the  organs  of  the  mouth  Avith  all 
parts  of  the  system.  The  mucous  membrane 
that  lines  it  extends  to  the  stomach  and  other 
internal  organs,  as  the  liver,  intestinal  canal, 
and  those  of  respiration,  through  the  larynx, 
trachea,  and  bronchi.  An  unhealthy  condition 
in  one  part  of  this  membrane  is  manifested  in 
another.  Canker,  the  cause  of  Avhich  is  in  the 
stomach,  appears  as  a  disease  of  the  gums  or 
the  tongiie.  When  this  member  is  furred  or 
coated  with  an  unhealthy  secretion,  it  is  an 
indication  of  disease  in  the  intestines  or  other 
internal  organs.  The  teeth  may  be  injuriously 
afiected  by  this  unhealthy  secretion,  the  remedy 
for  Avhich  is  to  be  applied  to  other  organs.  The 
nerves,  spread  like  a  network  throughout  the 
whole  system,  are  afiected  frequently  in  the 
teeth  by  the  diseases  of  distant  members ;  and 
an  operator  unskilled  in  their  affections  often 
sacrifices  sound  teeth  without  benefiting  the 
sufierer  by  their  removal.  Dr.  Harris  mentions 
an  instance  of  a  gentleman,  who,  atfiicted  by 
such  an  affection  of  the  nerves,  had  all  the  teeth 
on  the  right  side  of  both  jaws  thus  uselessly  re- 
moved. Mr.  Fox,  the  anatomist  and  physiolo- 
gist, as  well  as  dentist,  being  applied  to  in  a 
similar  case,  suspected  the  real  nature  of  the 
disease,  and  taking  the  patient  to  Sir  Astley 
Cooper,  a  radical  cure  was  effected  by  the  opera- 
tion of  dividing  the  affected  nerve.  The  effects 
of  this  connection  through  the  nerves  are  re- 
ciprocal, and  other  members  suflfer  in  conse- 
quence of  diseased  teeth,  Baglivi  noticed  this 
in  his  Canones  Medicince,  published  in  1710: 
"  Persons  whose  teeth  are  in  an  unclean  and 


894 


DENTISTRY 


viscid  state,  thongli  daily  washed,  have  uni- 
formly a  weak  stomach,  bad  digestion,  an  of- 
fensive breath,  headache  after  meals,  generally 
bad  health,  and  low  spirits."  Physicians,  when 
consulted  in  chronic  and  nervous  affections,  of- 
ten now  examine  the  teeth,  and  refer  the  patient 
to  the  dentist.  Many  cases  of  that  terrible  dis- 
ease, neuralgia  faciei,  which  have  resisted  all 
other  treatment,  have  been  cured  by  the  re- 
moval of  diseased  teeth.  The  nerves  belonging 
to  the  eye,  ear,  nose,  mouth,  and  which  pass 
over  the  cheek  and  are  distributed  in  many 
branches  through  the  teeth,  are  ramifications 
of  the  great  nerve  of  sensation,  the  5th  of 
the  anatomist.  Whatever  part  of  this  chain 
be  irritated,  the  pain  may  be  experienced  in 
any  other  part.  Thus,  stumps  of  teeth,  lying 
apparently  harmless,  may  be  the  cause  of  terri- 
ble neuralgic  pains  in  the  head,  as  well  as,  for 
the  otlier  reason  above  given,  of  a  number  of 
other  diseases  apparently  originating  from  tlie 
stomach,  or  often  attributed  in  common  lan- 
guage to  impure  condition  of  the  blood. — The 
means  of  preventing  the  diseases  to  which  the 
teeth  are  subject,  is  a  branch  of  dental  science 
quite  as  important  as  that  relating  to  the  ar- 
rest and  cure  of  these  diseases.  These  means 
consist,  first,  in  giving  what  assistance  nature 
requires  to  bring  the  teeth  of  second  denti- 
tion into  a  regular  arrangement ;  and  secondly, 
in  the  care  of  the  individual  himself  in  pre- 
serving the  teeth  uniformly  clean.  As  the 
temporary  or  first  set  of  teeth  drop  out,  which 
as  a  general  rule  they  should  be  allowed  to  do, 
by  their  roots  being  absorbed,  the  second  set 
already  formed  succeed  and  take  their  places. 
Of  the  temporary  teeth  there  are  but  20,  and 
these  are  of  small  size.  The  teeth  of  the  sec- 
ond dentition  are  32  in  number,  with  one  or  two 
exceptions  are  of  larger  size  than  their  prede- 
cessors, and  consequently  occupy  a  greater 
space.  Yet  these,  appearing  one  by  one,  take 
their  places,  and  should  occupy  in  the  harmo- 
nious process  of  the  growth  of  all  the  parts  the 
same  room  apparently  that  was  filled  by  the  20 
deciduous  teeth.  This  is  accomplished  by  the 
elongation  forward  of  tho  jaw,  and  the  arch 
gradually  assuming  the  form  of  a  semi-ellipse 
in  place  of  that  of  a  semi-circle.  But  if  any 
of  the  first  teeth  have  been  indiscreetly  removed 
before  their  time,  or  as  indiscreetly  allowed 
to  remain  so  as  to  interfere  with  the  growth 
of  the  permanent  teeth,  an  inequality  of  resist- 
ance is  offered  to  the  progress  of  some  of  the 
second  set,  which  is  apt  to  cause  an  irregularity 
in  their  arrangement.  The  same  effect  is  often 
produced  without  any  apparent  cause  other  than 
that  the  increase  of  the  teeth  and  that  of  the 
jaw  do  not  proceed  pari  passu.  A  tendency  to 
this  is  often  noticed  to  be  hereditary.  Teeth 
irregularly  arranged,  interfering  with  each  oth- 
er, or  as  they  sometimes  do  with  the  lips,  or 
pointing  inward  so  as  to  be  removed  from  the 
healthy  action  of  mastication,  or  twisted  in 
their  sockets,  are  not  only  disfiguring,  but  are 
particularly  liable  to  disease  and  decay.     From 


their  first  appearance  to  the  age  of  16  of  the 
individual,  they  may  be  treated  by  various  me- 
chanical applications  attached  to  the  other  teeth 
and  bearing  suitably  upon  those  to  be  brought 
into  place,  so  that  without  violence  the  work 
of  nature  is  gently  assisted,  and  a  perfect  set  is 
gradually  formed.  So  essential  is  this  to  the 
future  welfare  of  the  teeth,  that  by  due  atten- 
tion of  this  kind,  in  the  opinion  of  an  eminent 
dentist,  "  there  would  not  be  one  decayed  tooth 
where  now  there  are  a  dozen."  (llaiTis,  p.  134, 
2d  ed.)  Cleanliness  is  the  second  requisite  for 
sound  teeth.  The  principal  cause  of  their  de- 
cay is  generally  admitted  to  be  the  presence  of 
decomposing  particles  of  food  lodged  between 
them.  All  dentists  strongly  urge  the  impor- 
tance of  children  early  acquiring  the  habit  of 
brushing  the  teeth  twice  daily,  I)r.  L,  S.  Parm- 
ly  goes  so  far  as  to  say  :  "  Where  the  teeth  are 
kept  literally  clean,  no  disease  will  ever  be  per- 
ceptible. Their  structure  will  equally  stand  the 
summer's  heat  and  winter's  cold,  the  changes 
of  climate,  the  variation  of  diet,  and  even  the 
diseases  to  which  the  other  parts  of  the  body 
may  be  subject  from  constitutional  causes,"  By 
neglect  of  this  duty  the  teeth  are  likely  to  be 
soon  affected  with  caries.  This  disease  may  go 
on  insidiously  and  unsuspected,  involving  not 
merely  the  risk  of  loss  of  these  organs,  but,  un- 
less exposed  by  the  intense  pain,  which  by  a 
wise  and  beneficial  provision  it  commonly  in- 
volves, affecting  the  general  health  of  the  in- 
dividual, and  inducing  maladies  of  the  most 
alarming  character.  Many  cases  of  disease  thus 
engendered  it  is  too  often  the  province  of  the 
dentist  to  treat,  and  the  life  of  the  patient  is 
not  always  saved  even  by  the  sacrifice  of  all  the 
teeth.  Caries  of  the  teeth  is  also  induced  by 
vitiated  secretions  of  the  mouth  arising  from  se- 
vere constitutional  disorders,  or  the  continued 
administration  of  different  kinds  of  medicine; 
or  it  is  sometimes  due  to  a  predisposition  inher- 
ited from  one  or  both  parents.  Its  treatment  is 
to  remove  the  affected  part,  when  this  is  super- 
ficial, by  the  use  of  the  file.  The  surface  of  the 
bone  from  which  the  enamel  is  removed  must 
be  left  smooth  and  polished,  and  if  proper  care 
be  afterward  taken  in  keeping  it  clean,  the 
disease  may  not  return.  If  the  decay  has  ex- 
tended into  tho  bony  substance  of  the  tooth, 
the  filing  is  then  only  preparatory  to  the  com- 
plete removal  of  the  diseased  portion  by  ex- 
cavating with  suitable  instruments,  and  filling 
the  cavity  with  some  proper  material.  Much 
attention  was  formerly  given  to  shaping  the 
cavity,  in  order  that  by  its  contracted  aper- 
ture the  filling  should  be  held  in  as  by  dovetail- 
ing ;  but  by  the  use  of  gold  foil  and  sponge 
gold  specially  prepared  for  tliis  purpose,  it  is 
now  found  practicable  to  ajiply  the  metal  in 
successive  portions,  and  build  up  a  solid  block 
of  any  shape  by  incorporating  each  portion 
with  that  which  preceded  it.  This  is  done  by 
a  sort  of  stippling  with  suitable  instruments, 
and  the  gold  may  be  thus  rendered  so  compact, 
it  is  aflfirmed,   that  its  specific  gravity   shall 


DENTISTRY 


S95 


equal  that  of  the  cast  metal.  In  wide-mouthed 
cavities  the  filling  is  secured  by  being  built  upon 
plugging  carefully  introduced  into  the  cavilies 
of  the  roots,  and  also  by  lateral  pins  of  tlie  gold 
filling  made  to  enter  from  this  into  little  holes 
or  grooves  drilled  for  the  purpose  into  the 
walls  of  the  tooth.  In  order  to  destroy  the  sen- 
Bitiveness  of  the  exposed  nerve,  Dr.  Spooner  of 
Montreal  first  recommended  the  use  of  arsenic, 
and  tills  was  made  public  in  a  treatise  of  his 
brother.  Dr.  S.  Spooner  of  New  Tork.  For  kill- 
ing the  nerve  and  for  deadening  tho  sensitive- 
ness of  the  bone  of  tho  tooth,  when  but  a  thin 
shell  of  this  covers  the  nerve,  it  is  now  used  in 
combination  with  sulphate  of  morphine  and  tan- 
nin, in  the  proportion  of  3  parts  of  each  of  the 
last  two  named  to  1  part  of  arsenic.  A  portion  of 
a  grain  weight  of  the  mixture  is  introduced  into 
the  cavity,  and  allowed  to  remain  long  enough 
to  accomplish  the  object.  It  has  been  generally 
considered  impracticable  to  jireserve  a  tooth 
when  the  decay  has  reached  into  the  internal 
or  pulp  cavity.  In  this  condition  intlammation 
often  takes  place  at  the  root,  and  matter  collects, 
forming  an  ulcer  between  the  periosteum  of  the 
tooth  and  the  bone.  If  the  discharge  of  this 
be  stopped  by  filling  the  cavity,  the  matter  will 
find  its  way  through  the  gum,  causing  a  gum 
boil  near  the  root ;  or  it  produces  inflammation 
of  the  face,  often  attended  with  great  suflering, 
which  is  relieved  only  by  the  removal  of  the 
tooth.  The  modern  treatment  is  to  perforate 
the  sac  at  the  root  by  a  fine  drill  passed  througli 
the  cavity ;  and  if  the  nerve  be  sensitive,  this 
is  cut  out  and  removed  by  a  delicate  steel 
wire  furnished  with  a  hook  at  the  end,  so  small 
that  it  can  pass  freely  into  tlie  nerve  cavity. 
A  weak  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  is  then 
forcibly  injected  into  the  cavity,  the  curved 
beak  of  the  syringe  being  surrounded  with  wax, 
which  is  crowded  into  the  tooth  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  the  caustic  solution.  This  is  immedi- 
ately washed  out,  and  a  piece  of  the  solid  caustic 
is  introduced  into  the  lanced  gum  boil,  wliich 
connects  with  the  diseased  fang.  The  unhealthy 
portions  are  thus  cauterized,  and  after  creosote 
introduced  into  the  cavity  has  remained  a  few 
days,  and  healthy  action  has  taken  place,  the  tooth 
may  be  safely  filled,  with  the  liability  of  further 
trouble  from  the  same  cause  greatly  reduced. 
— The  only  unobjectionable  material  for  filling 
teeth  is  gold  foil  or  the  sponge  gold  specially 
prepared  for  this  purpose.  Tlie  latter  excellent 
material  is  produced  by  dissolving  gold  free 
i'vom  copper  in  nitro-hydrochloric  acid,  placing 
the  solution  in  a  flat-bottomed  vessel,  and  heating 
and  precipitating  by  strong  solution  of  oxalic 
acid.  In  a  few  hours  the  gold  is  wholly  depos- 
ited, and  the  sui^ernatant  liquid  may  be  decant- 
ed off,  taking  care  not  to  disturb  the  gold  at  the 
bottom.  The  vessel  is  then  several  times  filled 
with  boiling  water  and  decanted,  until  the  last 
washings  contain  no  more  oxalic  acid.  The  gold 
is  now  carefully  slipped  on  to  a  piece  of  filtering 
paper,  and  by  means  of  a  spatula  gently  pressed 
Into  the  form  of  the  desired  cake,  but  a  little 


thicker.  It  is  then  removed  to  a  porcelain  cruci^ 
ble,  and  heated  for  a  short  time,  somewhat  be- 
low a  red  heat,  when  it  shrinks  and  becomes 
coherent.  This  process  was  described  to  tho 
London  chemical  society  by  Mr.  D.  Forbes  in 
1857.  Tin  foil  may  be  used,  and  its  malleability 
and  cheapness  well  adapt  it  for  large  and  badly 
shaped  cavities,  and  for  temporary  fillings  in 
sensitive  teeth,  but  it  is  liable  to  oxidize  and 
produce  discoloration.  The  mineral  cement,  or 
amalgam  of  mercury,  silver,  and  tin,  has  been 
found  by  some  dentists  a  very  convenient  mate- 
rial for  inserting  in  its  soft,  fresh  state  into 
cavities,  particularly  when  these  arc  large,  badly 
shaped,  and  the  tooth  very  sensitive.  It  very 
soon  sets,  forming  an  imperishable  and  exceed- 
ingly hard  filling.  Many  dentists  approve  of 
its  occasional  use,  provided  it  is  composed  of 
cliemically  pure  materials.  Others  loudly  con- 
demn it,  asserting  that  it  is  liable  to  occasion 
salivation,  inflammation  of  the  periosteum,  and 
of  the  gums  and  mucous  membrane. — The  ex- 
traction of  the  teeth  is  an  important  branch 
of  dental  practice — safe  and  easy  with  good 
instruments  in  skilful  hands,  but,  as  practised 
by  the  unprofessional  operator,  not  a  little  haz- 
ardous. This  is  apparent  from  the  cases  re- 
corded of  the  extraction  in  one  instance  of  6, 
and  in  another  5  teeth  at  once,  together  with  the 
tearing  away  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  plates 
of  the  cavity  called  the  antrum  in  the  roof  of 
the  mouth,  which  occurred  in  one  case  in  Vir- 
ginia, and  in  the  other  in  North  Carolina,  a 
blacksmith  being  the  operator  in  each  case.  Am- 
broise  Pare  particularly  notices  the  danger  of 
inexpert  operators  attempting  to  extract  teeth. 
Speaking  of  his  "  tooth  mullets,"  he  observes : 
"  Unless  the  person  knows  readily  and  cunningly 
how  to  use  them,  he  can  scarcely  so  carry  him- 
self but  that  he  will  force  out  3  teeth  at 
once."  The  improved  instruments  of  modern 
times,  however,  have  greatly  lessened  this  risk, 
and  pain  is  avoided  by  the  use  of  anaesthetic 
agents,  if  necessary,  or  by  the  application  of  the 
galvanic  current.  In  this  process,  which  is  a 
late  American  discovery,  the  current  from  the 
common  electro-magnetic  machine  used  for 
medical  purposes  is  caused  to  pass  through  a 
wire,  one  end  of  which  is  held  in  the  hand  of 
the  patient,  and  the  other  is  attached  to  the  in- 
strument. This  end,  however,  is  bi'oken,  and 
is  closed  only  when  the  operator  has  fixed  the 
instrument  and  is  ready  to  draw  the  tooth.  He 
then  presses  with  his  foot  upon  a  board  which 
closes  the  circuit,  causing  a  slight  shock  to  pass 
through  the  jaw.  Unless  the  gum  is  inflamed 
and  sore,  the  eftect  is  almost  always  to  benumb 
the  nerves,  so  that  the  tooth  is  removed  with  lit- 
tle or  no  pain. — Tho  last  department  of  dentistry 
to  be  noticed,  is  the  construction  and  application 
of  artificial  teeth.  These  were  formerly  carved 
from  ivoryof  the  tusk  of  the  elephant  or  the  tooth 
of  the  hippopotamus.  They  were  obtained  also 
by  altering  the  shape  of  the  teeth  of  neat  cattle, 
of  sheep,  &c. ;  and  the  crowns  of  human  teeth 
were  often  conveniently  ingrafted  upon  the  roots 


396 


DENTISTRY 


of  the  original  front  teeth.  All  those  materials 
are  objectionable  from  their  susceptibility  to  the 
action  of  the  fluids  of  the  mouth ;  ivory  soon 
becomes  oftensive  from  being  saturated  witli 
these  fluids,  and  all  of  them  are  liable  to  decay, 
inducing  at  the  same  time  disease  in  tiie  sound 
teeth  remaining.  Porcelain  teeth,  well  named 
incorruptible,  perfectly  resist  the  corrosive  action 
of  the  fluids  of  the  mouth ;  and  as  they  are 
now  manufactured,  the}''  imitate  so  perfectly  in 
color  and  animated  appearance  the  natural  teeth, 
that  they  are  often  not  easily  distinguished  from 
them,  unless  their  superior  beauty  excite  sus- 
picion of  their  true  character.  Though  of  French 
invention,  they  owe  their  present  perfection  in 
great  part  to  the  skill  of  American  dentists. 
But  their  manufacture  being  a  distinct  art 
from  that  which  properly  pertains  to  dentistry, 
and  requiring  peculiar  skill  and  experience,  it  is 
now  mostly  carried  on  by  persons  not  belonging 
to  the  profession.  Single  teeth  are  thus  prepared 
of  all  the  varieties  that  may  be  required,  and  sold 
to  the  dentists  at  very  low  prices.  The  first  ex- 
periments in  this  branch  in  the  United  States 
appear  to  have  been  made  by  Mr,  Charles  W, 
Peale  of  Philadelphia,  who,  compelled  at  an  early 
age  to  use  artificial  teeth  of  ivory,  and  seeing  in 
the  newspapers  about  1807  an  account  of  mineral 
teeth,  procured  pure  qualities  of  clay  and  silex, 
and,  constructing  his  own  furnace  and  muffles, 
moulded  the  artificial  teeth  and  gums  in  wax, 
made  casts  in  plaster  and  brass,  and  swaging  the 
gold  plates,  fitted  them  with  platinum  wire  and 
gold  springs  of  his  own  manufacture,  and  pro- 
duced sets  for  himself  and  some  of  his  friends. 
He  made  a  set  for  his  son,  Rembrandt  Peale,  in 
1808,  and  gave  instructions  in  his  methods  to 
Mr.  Barabino,  a  dentist  then  practising  in  Phila- 
delphia. The  first  regular  manufacturers  were 
Greenwood,  Woffendale,  and  Parkhurst,  who 
were  engaged  in  the  business  about  1825.  French 
artificial  teeth  were  made  in  Philadelphia  from 
1827  to  1830,  by  Plantau  and  McHenry.  In 
1829  Mr.  Villers  came  to  New  York  from  Eng- 
land, bringing  with  him  mineral  teeth,  which  he 
claimed  to  have  made  by  a  process  he  discovered 
in  1819.  The  proportions  of  the  ingredients  he 
used  in  1830  are  similar  to  those  employed  at 
present,  viz. :  4  ounces  of  feldspar,  1  of  crystal- 
lized quartz,  and  12  grains  of  kaolin.  The 
manufacture  of  mineral  teeth  for  the  supply  of 
dentists  was  first  undertaken  by  Mr.  Daniel  W. 
Stockton,  in  Philadephia,  about  tJie  year  1885  ; 
and  to  him,  together  with  Neal  and  Alcock,  is 
due  the  credit  of  establishing  this  branch  of 
business  in  the  United  States.  Other  persons  fol- 
lowed their  example,  until  in  the  difterent  cities 
of  the  United  States  there  are  no  less  than  9 
manufactories  devoted  to  this  business,  the  ag- 
gregate annual  production  of  which  is  over 
2,000,000  teeth.  The  consumption  of  platinum 
for  the  little  pins  which  fasten  these  upon  the 
plates  is  estimated  at  about  $40,000  worth  an- 
nually. They  produce  both  single  teeth  and 
teeth  in  blocks  of  several. — Various  methods  of 
securing  artificial  teeth  in  their  places  have  been 


in  use.  So  long  ago  as  400  years  before  the 
Christian  era,  they  were  fastened  by  ligatures 
of  flax  and  of  silk,  and  with  wire  of  gold  and  of 
silver,  to  the  natural  teeth  that  remained.  The 
insertion  of  pivots  of  gold  into  the  roots  of  the 
natural  teeth  for  attaching  to  these  artificial 
crowns  was  long  since  practised,  and  platinum 
and  hickory  wood  liave  been  substituted  for 
gold.  In  modern  times  metallic  clasps,  spiral 
springs,  and  fastenings  of  gutta  percha  and  of 
caoutchouc,  have  been  used  for  this  purpose; 
and  a  dentist  of  London  has  lately  contrived  a 
covering  of  vulcanized  caoutchouc  to  slip  over 
the  wires,  to  protect  the  natural  teeth  from  their 
wearing  action.  But  the  most  perfect  method 
is  to  secure  the  teeth,  eiLlier  in  whole  or  partial 
sets,  to  a  plate  of  gold  or  other  metal,  which  is 
so  accurately  fitted  to  the  gums  that  it  is  firmly 
retained  by  atmospheric  pressure.  Plate-work 
involves  several  distinct  operations.  The  first 
object  is  to  obtain,  in  some  hard  metal,  an  exact 
model  of  the  mouth  in  which  the  plate  is  to  be 
fitted.  For  this  purpose,  yellow  or  white  wax, 
free  from  mixture  of  grease,  and  softened  by 
warm  water,  is  placed  in  a  shallow  vessel,  called 
an  impression  cup,  which  may  be  introduced 
into  the  mouth.  Plaster  of  Paris  made  into 
paste  may  be  substituted  for  the  wax.  The  con- 
tents of  the  cup  are  firmly  pressed  around  the 
gimis,  and,  if  for  the  upper  jaw,  are  made  to 
cover  the  roof  of  the  mouth  as  well.  "With 
care,  an  experienced  operator  thus  obtains  in 
a  few  minutes  an  exact  mould  of  the  parts  to 
which  the  material  is  applied.  The  teeth,  if 
any  are  present,  leave  their  forms  faithfully  im- 
pressed in  their  true  positions,  and  the  cavities 
between  are  represented  by  corresponding  pro- 
jections in  the  wax  or  hardened  plaster.  The 
impression  removed  from  the  moutli  serves  to 
furnish  a  model  of  the  jaw,  which  may  be  taken 
in  plaster  of  Paris  also.  This  is  used  as  a  pat- 
tern in  moulding  sand,  and  a  cast  is  then  ob- 
tained in  any  metal,  as,  for  instance,  zinc ;  and 
by  pouring  melted  lead  upon  the  zinc,  which 
is  turned  over  upon  its  face  and  surrounded 
with  a  brass  or  iron  collar  for  retaining  the 
lead,  a  mould  in  tliis  metal  is  obtained  precisely 
like  the  original  one  in  Avax ;  or  the  same  may 
perhaps  be  more  surely  secured  by  pressing  the 
cast  into  the  surface  of  melted  lead,  and  holding 
it  till  tlie  lead  cools.  By  means  of  the  zinc  cast 
and  lead  mould,  the  exact  shape  of  the  parts  is 
transferred  to  the  sheet  of  gold  or  other  metal, 
this  being  placed  between  the  two,  and  made, 
by  hammering  and  swaging,  to  assume  all  their 
irregularities  of  surface.  The  fit  is  the  more 
readily  made,  if,  from  the  plaster  model,  the 
teeth  have  been  cut  off  before  making  the  me- 
tallic casts.  A  duplicate  plaster  cast  serves  to 
give  the  position  of  those  teeth  to  which  the 
piate  is  to  be  finally  fitted.  The  edges  of  the 
plate  are  cut  to  fit  between  the  teeth,  and 
where  there  are  none,  they  bend  over  the 
rounded  gum  with  its  exact  curve.  The  metal 
commonly  used  for  the  plate  is  gold,  more  or 
less  alloyed ;  for  cheap  sets  silver  is  eometimes 


DENTISTRY 


397 


whstltutctl.  "When  it  has  received  its  proper 
6luii)e,  a  ritlge  of  wax  is  laid  around  tlio  lingual 
Bide,  and  it  is  placed  in  the  mouth,  in  order 
that  the  patient,  by  opening  and  shutting  the 
jaws,  may  indent  the  impressions  of  the  teeth 
in  tlie  opposite  jaw,  which  will  indicate  the  ar- 
rangement and  lengtli  of  the  artificial  ones  to 
be  attached  to  tlie  plate.  The  phxtQ  with  the 
wax  is  then  taken  out  of  the  mouth,  and  brush- 
ed over  with  sweet  oil.  It  is  then  laid  upon  its 
face,  and  plaster  is  poured  over  it,  imbedding  in 
it  a  wire  frame,  which  is  bent  around  some- 
what in  the  form  of  the  jaw,  and  projects  be- 
hind the  plaster.  When  the  plaster  is  hardened, 
another  portion  is  poured  over  the  otiier  side, 
and  in  this  a  similar  wire  is  introduced.  The 
oil  prevents  adherence  of  the  plaster  to  the  plate 
and  wax.  The  two  frames  being  hinged  toge- 
ther, and  set  at  the  right  distance  apart,  rep- 
resent the  two  jaws ;  they  are  called  the  articu- 
lator, and  are  used  for  temporarily  holding  the 
artificial  teeth,  while  they  arc  selected  and 
placed  in  their  correct  positions,  with  reference 
particularly  to  their  articulating  properly  with 
those  in  the  opposite  jaw.  A  little  wax  laid 
upon  the  alveolar  ridge  of  the  plaster  model 
causes  the  teeth  to  adhere  as  they  are  pressed 
back  upon  it.  In  the  same  way  they  are  held 
when  transferred  to  the  plate,  upon  which  the 
ridge  of  wax  lies  behind  tiiem.  To  secure  them 
and  admit  of  the  removal  of  the  wax,  the  front 
portion  of  the  plate  is  imbedded  in  a  mixture 
of  plaster  of  Paris  and  either  sand  or  asbestus, 
which  mixture  e'ntirely  covers  the  fronts  of  the 
teeth.  The  wax  can  then  be  taken  away,  and  the 
backs  of  the  teeth  be  exposed  without  displac- 
ing them.  The  next  step  is  to  fasten  these  by 
a  lining  of  the  same  metal  as  the  plate  attached 
to  each  tooth  by  the  little  pin  in  its  back,  and  to 
the  plate  by  soldering.  This  being  securely  done, 
the  plate  and  teeth  thoroughly  cleansed,  and 
the  metal  poUshed,  it  is  ready  for  the  mouth. 
— The  numerous  joints  and  open  spaces,  which 
were  liable  to  catch  and  retain  particles  of  food, 
formerly  rendered  this  work  very  imperfect.  The 
improvements  which  have  brought  it  to  its  pres- 
ent state  of  perfection  are  due  to  the  skill  of 
American  dentists.  A  variety  of  materials  have 
been  experimented  upon,  in  which  to  securely 
imbed  the  bases  of  the  teeth.  Gutta  percha  has 
been  used  to  contain  them ;  but  its  texture  and 
strength  were  in  a  short  time  destroyed  by  the 
action  of  the  fluids  of  the  mouth.  It  was 
then  applied  vulcanized  or  mixed  with  sulphur ; 
and  caoutchouc  is  employed  in  the  same  way. 
These  prove  to  be  important  auxiliaries  in 
mechanical  dentistry,  especially  for  temporary 
sets  of  teeth.  They  do  not,  however,  readily 
take  the  colors  which  may  be  applied  to  more 
suitable  substances.  A  method  has  recently 
been  invented  by  Dr.  A.  A.  Blandy  of  Balti- 
more, and  called  by  him  the  cheoplastic,  by 
which  the  teeth  are  secured  in  an  alloy  of  great 
fusibility,  and  not  liable  to  change  its  form  in 
cooling.  By  the  specification  this  alloy  may 
consist  of  10  to  20  parts  of  tin.  1  to  5  of  bis- 


muth, 1  to  4  of  antimony,  and  1  to  2  of  silver ; 
to  these  5  to  15  parts  of  cadmium  may  be  added 
to  increase  the  strength  of  the  alloy.  In  case 
an  unpleasant  taste  should  be  experienced  from 
the  mixture,  it  may  be  electro-gilded.  This 
recommendation  implies  a  possibility  of  the 
alloy  being  atlected  by  the  action  of  the  fluids 
of  the  mouth,  and  time  is  required  for  its  capa- 
bility of  resisting  this  action  to  be  fully  tested. 
The  alloy  is  to  be  run  into  a  mould  of  the 
gums,  and  the  plate  is  thus  cast  instead  of  being 
shaped  by  swaging.  The  teeth,  previously  ar- 
ranged in  the  mould,  are  secured  in  their  places 
by  this  melting  of  the  alloy  around  tliem. — 
Another  process  lately  introduced  is  to  dispense 
with  metallic  plates,  and  mould  the  mineral 
paste  into  complete  sets,  as  in  making  small 
blocks  of  teeth.  This  method  is  objectionable 
from  the  difticulty  of  procuring  a  perfect  fit, 
and  the  liability  to  entire  loss  of  the  set  by  ac- 
cidental fracture. — In  1851  the  process  called 
continuous  gum  was  invented  by  Dr.  John 
Allen,  late  professor  in  the  Ohio  college  of 
dental  surgery.  In  this  a  silicious  compound, 
similar  in  composition  to  that  of  which  the 
teeth  are  made,  but  more  fusible,  is  applied  in 
the  form  of  a  paste  over  the  fastenings  at  the 
back  of  the  teeth,  and  also  in  the  front,  so  as 
entirely  to  bury  the  ends  of  the  teeth,  as  the 
natural  ones  are  buried  in  the  gums.  To  with- 
stand the  high  degree  of  heat  requisite  for  bak- 
ing this  upon  the  plate,  piatinum  is  substituted 
for  gold.  Platinum  has  beside  the  advantage  of 
forming  at  a  high  heat  a  close  union  with  the  sili- 
cious compound,  which  is  spread  over  the  lin- 
gual side  of  the  plate  as  well  as  over  the  bases 
of  the  teeth.  When  thoroughly  dry,  the  work 
is  baked  at  a  white  heat  in  the  muffle  of  an  as- 
saying furnace.  A  new  application  of  the  paste 
is  then  made  to  fill  all  the  crevices  caused  by 
shrinking,  and  upon  this  coating  are  made  nu- 
merous ridges  and  depressions  with  the  spatula, 
which,  when  afterward  covered  with  the  color- 
ing enamel,  cause  this  to  assume  dilferent  shades 
of  the  color,  and  present  the  appearance  of  the 
veins,  rug83,  &c.,  seen  upon  the  natiu-al  gums 
and  roof  of  the  mouth.  The  baking  is  repeated, 
and  after  this  the  coating  of  coloring  matter,  call- 
ed the  gum  enamel,  is  applied,  when  a  third  bak- 
ing completes  the  process.  The  process  claimed 
by  Dr.  Hunter  is  similar  to  that  above  described. 
The  compositions  made  use  of  are  empirical  mix- 
tures of  pure  silica  and  feldspar,  with  suitable 
flux  to  produce  a  fusible  compound,  possessing 
sufficient  strength,  hardness,  and  permanency 
of  character.  The  work  can  easily  be  repaired 
when  broken,  or  alterations  made  when  required 
by  changes  in  the  mouth,  by  building  upon  it 
more  of  the  paste  and  again  baking ;  in  this  way 
even  the  length  of  the  artificial  teeth  can  be  in- 
creased and  new  ones  introduced.  In  the  same 
way  the  artificial  processes  called  cheek  restorers 
were  applied  by  Dr.  Allen,  which  are  projecting 
portions  built  upon  the  artificial  gums  far  back 
in  the  mouth,  and  serve  to  distend  the  cheeks 
when  these  are  fallen  in.    The  composition  of 


398 


DENTITIOIT 


the  paste  for  the  gnmslias  been  perfected  by  Dr. 
E.  A.  L.  Roberts  of  New  York,  who  has  large- 
ly raanufoctured  it  for  Dr.  Allen,  and  given  it 
increased  density  and  strength,  overcoming  in  a 
great  measure  itsbrittleness,  and  causing  it  most 
effectually  to  resist  the  action  of  the  fluids  of 
the  mouth.  In  the  application  of  these  arti- 
ficial substitutes  various  kinds  of  professional 
talent  and  meclianical  skill  are  called  into  play  ; 
and  the  operator,  in  order  to  give  the  natural 
expression  to  the  mouth,  imitating  the  true 
colors  and  proportions  of  the  teeth  and  of  the 
gums,  must  even  possess  a  certain  degree  of  that 
genius  and  taste  which  guide  the  pencil  of  the 
artist  or  the  chisel  of  the  sculptor.  The  me- 
chanical operations  connected  with  the  work 
have  led  to  increased  knowledge  in  the  use  of 
plastic  compounds,  and  introduced  improved 
methods  of  treating  the  metals  employed.  (See 
Blowpipe,  Fuknace.) 

DENTITION.  In  all  the  higher  animals  the 
teeth  are  developed  directly  from  the  mucous 
membrane,  and  are  therefore,  like  hair,  nails, 
feathers,  &c.,  appendages  of  the  skin,  and  form 
no  part  of  the  true  osseous  system.  As  early 
as  the  5th  week  of  foetal  life,  according  to  the 
observations  of  Prof.  Goodsir,  a  deep,  narrow 
groove,  between  the  lip  and  the  rudimentary 
palate  in  the  upper  jaw,  indicates  the  future 
situation  of  the  teeth.  "Within  the  next  3  weeks 
papillae  developed  at  the  bottom  of  the  groove 
become  the  germs  of  the  future  milk  or  tem- 
porary teeth.  In  the  progress  of  development 
the  papillfo  are  enveloped  in  open  follicles,  and 
these  again  are  converted  into  shut  sacs  ;  con- 
temporaneously with  these  changes,  the  edges 
of  the  dental  groove  are  themselves  growing,  so 
that  by  the  14th  week  they  meet,  enclosing  the 
tooth  sacs.  "Within  the  sacs  the  papillaiy  pulp 
is  gradually  converted  into  dentine,  of  which 
the  body  of  the  tooth  is  composed,  while  the 
enamel  is  formed  from  a  separate  pulp  con- 
nected with  the  opercnla  of  the  sacs.  (See  Den- 
>risTEY.)  As  teeth  are  required  before  the  jaws 
have  attained  their  growth,  and  yet  from  their 
structure  are  incapable  of  enlarging  ^rtri  passu 
with  the  bones  in  which  they  are  jjlaced,  provi- 
sion is  made  for  a  temporary  set,  which,  when 
they  have  served  their  purpose,  are  replaced  by 
the  permanent  teeth.  As  early  as  the  14th 
week  minute  crescentic  depressions  of  mucous 
membrane  may  be  discovered  above  and  at  the 
inner  part  of  the  opercula  of  the  milk  teeth ; 
these  depressions  soon  become  converted  into 
minute  compressed  sacs,  which  gradually  sink 
behind  and  below  the  sac  of  the  milk  teeth,  and 
in  these  sacs  are  developed  the  first  10  perma- 
nent teeth  of  each  jaw  ;  the  other  6  are  devel- 
oped in  sacs  placed  posterior  to  those  of  the  last 
milk  teeth,  which  are  formed  in  a  manner  pre- 
cisely similar  to  those  of  the  milk  teeth  them- 
selves. The  ossification  of  the  permanent  teeth 
commences  a  little  before  birth  with  that  of  the 
first  molar,  and  proceeds  during  the  first  3  years 
of  infancy  successively  in  the  incisors,  the 
canines,  and  the  bicuspids.    The  approach  of 


the  time  for  the  eruption  of  the  temporary  teeth 
is  announced  by  an  increased  secretion  of  saliva. 
In  the  earlier  months  of  infancy  the  mouth  is 
comparatively  dry,  but  as  the  teeth  shoot  into 
the  gums  the  mouth  becomes  moist  and  the 
child  begins  to  drivel.  The  progress  of  dentition 
is  not  apparently  continuous,  but  after  the  erup- 
tion of  each  successive  pair  a  pause  of  one  or  two 
months  generally  follows.  The  central  incisors 
commonly  pierce  the  gum  in  the  course  of  the 
Vth  month  after  birth,  those  of  the  lower  jaw 
preceding  the  upper  ones  by  a  short  interval ;  . 
between  tlie  7th  and  10th  months  the  lateral 
incisors  make  their  appearance  ;  from  the  12th 
to  the  14th  month  the  anterior  molars,  and  be- 
tween the  14th  and  20th  the  canines  are  cut ;  and 
the  first  dentition  is  completed  between  the  18th 
and  36th  months  by  the  protrusion  of  the  pos- 
terior molars.  Both  the  time  and  the  order  of 
appearance  of  the  first  set  of  teeth  admit  of 
a  good  deal  of  variation,  their  progress  being 
hastened  or  delayed  sometimes  for  a  period  of  6 
or  7  months,  by  a  lateral  incisor,  or  even  a  molar 
or  canine  tooth,  cutting  the  gum  before  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  central  incisors.  The  period 
of  primary  dentition  is  one  looked  forward  to 
with  much  anxiety,  and  is  justly  regarded  as 
i).ttended  with  increased  risk  to  the  life  of  the 
infant.  Statistical  inquiries  show  that  during 
its  continuance  the  proportionate  mortality 
becomes  much  increased,  and  in  the  bills  of 
mortality  numerous  deaths  are  ascribed  to 
teething  alone.  It  must  be  ren:embered,  how- 
ever, tliat  at  this  time  all  the  functions  of 
the  young  being  are  in  a  state  of  great  activ- 
ity, and  that  teething  is  but  one  in  a  series  of 
changes  by  which  the  infant  is  prepared  to 
substitute  for  the  milk  provided  by  its  mother, 
food  suitable  to  the  conditions  of  its  future 
existence.  In  a  healthy  infant  dentition  in 
itself  is  attended  with  little  inconvenience  and 
no  danger ;  Avhen  the  teeth  come  to  distend 
and  stretch  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
gums,  there  is  probably  a  little  tenderness  and 
pain,  somefretfulness,  and  perhaps  slight  febrile 
excitement ;  but  in  the  absence  of  other  causes 
of  disease,  this  soon  passes  over ;  if,  however,  the 
nervous  system  is  unduly  excitable,  dentition 
may  seriously  complicate  other  maladies.  "When 
the  process  of  dentition  is  advancing  normally, 
it  sliould  never  bo  interfered  with  ;  when  the 
gum  is  red,  swollen,  and  painful,  scarification 
may  be  resorted  to  with  advantage,  and  may  be 
repeated  if  necessary,  the  trifling  loss  of  blood 
afl:brding  relief  to  the  inflamed  gum.  "When  the 
tootli  is  evidently  about  to  pierce  the  gum,  if 
the  child  appears  to  suffer,  it  may  be  freed  by 
cutting  down  to  it  with  the  gum  lancet.  In 
cases  Avhere  convulsions  supervene  suddenly 
without  an  evident  cause,  if  dentition  is  pro- 
ceeding actively  and  the  gums  are  tense  and 
swollen,  the  gum  lancet  may  be  resorted  to. 
In  the  convulsive  affections  which  take  place 
in  children  whose  nervous  systems  have  been 
rendered  irritable  by  improper  diet,  or  an  im- 
pure or  vitiated  atmosphere,  the  late  Dr.  Mar- 


DENTON 


DE  PEYSTER 


399 


sliall  ITall  was  a  strennous  advocate  of  tho 
free  incision  of  the  gums  even  when  dentition 
was  not  making  active  progress;  but  in  such 
cases  the  immediate  exciting  cause  of  the  con- 
vulsions must  be  sought  elsewhere  than  in 
the  gums,  and  the  attacks  are  to  be  relieved 
by  removing  the  cause  when  it  can  be  discov- 
ered, while  their  recurrence  is  guarded  against 
by  change  of  air  and  a  more  appropriate  diet. 
Occasionally  dentition  is  attended  with  a  good 
deal  of  fever  and  much  derangement  of  the 
digestive  organs,  while  a  sloughy  unhealthy 
ulceration  makes  its  appearance  on  the  gum 
over  the  teeth  just  about  to  protrude,  or  at 
the  edge  of  the  gum  of  those  Avhich  have  re- 
cently been  cut.  In  these  cases  the  gum  lancet 
does  positive  harm,  while  tney  readily  yield  to 
a  properly  regulated  diet,  and  to  the  use  of  the 
chlorate  of  potash  in  solution,  in  doses  of  one 
or  two  grains  repeated  every  4  hours.  During 
the  earlier  period  of  childhood  a  bony  plate  or 
partition  separates  the  permanent  from  the 
fangs  of  the  temporary  teeth  ;  as  the  period  ap- 
proaches in  which  the  latter  are  to  replace  the 
former,  this  partition  disappears,  and  the  crown 
of  the  enlarged  permanent  tooth  makes  its  way 
into  the  cavity  of  the  temporary  fang.  As  the 
permanent  tooth  advances,  the  fang  of  the  milk 
tooth  is  absorbed,  not  however  from  any  pres- 
sure exercised  by  the  one  upon  the  other,  the 
two  never  coming  in  contact;  and  as  the  crown 
of  the  milk  tooth  falls  oft"  the  permanent  tooth 
is  ready  to  replace  it.  The  first  anterior  or  true 
molar  usually  appears  at  about  6^  years  ;  about 
the  same  time  or  a  few  months  later  the  central 
permanent  incisors  appear ;  the  lateral  ones  are 
developed  at  8,  the  anterior  and  posterior  bicus- 
pids at  9  and  10,  the  canines  from  11  to  12,  the 
2d  true  molars  from  12  to  13,  and  the  wisdoni 
teeth  from  17  to  19.  From  the  investigations 
of  Mr.  Edwin  Saunders  ("  The  Teeth  a  Test  of 
Age,  considered  with  reference  to  the  Factory 
Children"),  it  would  appear  that  the  2d  denti- 
tion furnishes  the  best  physical  evidence  of  tho 
age  of  children  within  our  reach ;  in  the  large 
majority  of  instances  he  found  its  indications 
coincided  very  closely  with  the  real  age  of  the 
children,  and  when  they  failed  the  extreme  de- 
viation Avas  but  a  year. 

DENTON",  a  N.  E.  county  of  Texas,  drained 
by  two  forks  of  Trinity  river,  and  occupied 
partly  by  prairies  and  partly  by  vast  forests 
called  the  Cross  Timbers  ;  area,  900  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1858,  3,907,  of  whom  195  were  slaves.  In 
1850  it  produced  14,171  bushels  of  corn,  980  of 
oats,  and  18,728  lbs.  of  butter.    Capital,  Denton. 

DENUELLE,  Dominique  Alexandre,  a 
French  decorative  artist,  born  in  Paris  in  1818. 
He  studied  under  Paul  Delaroche  and  Duban, 
the  architect  of  the  Louvre  restoration,  and 
passed  several  years  in  Italy.  Since  1844,  when 
he  first  became  known,  he  has  been  extensive- 
ly employed  in  restoring  mural  paintings  in 
public  buildings,  many  of  which  have  also  been 
decorated  from  his  own  designs.  He  has  been 
employed  upon  the  churches  of  St.  Germain 


dcs  Pr6s,  Ste.  Clotilde,  Notre  Dame,  and  many 
others  in  Paris,  Lyons,  Orleans,  Beauvais,  &c. 

DEODAND  (Lat.  Deo  dandum^  a  thing  to 
bo  given  to  God).  A  superstitious  practice 
prevailed  in  England  from  the  earliest  time 
until  a  very  recent  period,  whereliy  a  chattel 
which  had  been  the  ininiediate  instrument  or 
cause  of  death  to  a  human  being  was  forfeited 
to  the  king,  to  be  applied  by  him  to  pious  uses. 
Omnia  qua  movent  ad  mortem  sunt  Deo  danda 
(all  things  which  Avhile  in  motion  cause  death 
are  to  be  offered  to  God),  is  the  rule  stated  by 
Bracton.  It  is  suj)posed  by  Blackstone  that 
the  origin  of  this  practice  was  the  religious 
doctrine  of  making  expiation  for  the  souls  of 
such  as  were  carried  off  by  sudden  death.  A 
singular  distinction  was  made  between  an  infant 
and  an  adult,  viz. :  that  an  infant  falling  from  a 
cart  or  horse  not  being  in  motion,  there  was  no 
forfeiture  ;  whereas  in  the  case  of  an  adult  the 
horse  or  cart  was  a  deodand.  Yet  if  a  horse 
or  other  animal  should  of  his  own  motion  kill 
either  an  infant  or  adult,  or  if  a  cart  should  run 
over  him,  in  either  case  the  animal  or  cart  was 
forfeited  as  a  deodand.  Another  rule  equally 
inexplicable  was,  that  when  a  thing  not  in  mo- 
tion was  the  occasion  of  a  man's  death,  only  that 
part  which  was  the  immediate  cause  was  forfeit- 
ed ;  but  if  the  thing  was  in  motion,  then  the  whole 
was  forfeited ;  as,  if  a  man  was  run  over  by  a 
cart  wheel,  the  whole  cart  was  a  deodand.  It 
made  no  difference  although  the  owner  of  the 
chattel  was  not  in  fault;  it  was  equally  a  for- 
feiture as  if  he  had  contributed  to  the  death. 
This  absurd  custom  gave  rise  to  a  clause  in  indict- 
ments, which  was  held  to  be  essential,  viz :  a  find- 
ing by  the  2:i'and  jury  what  was  the  instrument 
of  death,  and  its  value ;  and  so  also  in  a  verdict 
of  a  coroner's  jury  in  cases  of  homicide.  By  the 
act  9  and  10  Victoria,  c.  62  (1846),  the  forfeiture 
was  abolished ;  and  by  the  act  14  and  15  Victoria, 
c.  100  (1851),  it  was  declared  unnecessary  to  set 
forth  in  indictments  the  instrument  of  death. 

D'EON,  Chevalier.     See  Eon. 

DEPART  CPE,  in  navigation  and  surveying, 
the  distance  apart  of  two  meridians,  one  drawn 
through  each  extremity  of  a  line,  such  as  a 
ship's  course. 

DE  PEYSTER.  I.  Johanxes,  one  of  the  early 
settlers  of  New  Amsterdam,  now  New  York, 
born  in  Haarlem,  Holland,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  17th  century,  died  in  New  York  about  1685. 
He  was  of  a  French  Huguenot  family  who  took 
refuge  in  the  United  Provinces  about  the  time 
of  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  and  in  the 
course  of  a  long  life  held  many  offices  of  trust 
and  honor  under  Dutch  and  English  colonial 
rule.  During  the  short  period  in  1673-'4  in 
which  the  Dutch  recovered  possession  of  the 
province,  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  con- 
duct of  public  aflfairs,  and  was  one  of  the  last 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  British 
crown  upon  the  final  cession  of  the  New  Neth- 
erlands to  that  power ;  notwithstanding  which 
he  was  subsequently  at  different  times  alderman, 
deputy  mayor,  and  mayor.     At  his  death,  he 


400 


DE  PEYSTER 


DEPPING 


was  one  of  tlie  richest  citizens  in  the  colony. 
n.  AuRAHAM,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  New  York,  July  8,  1658,  died  there,  Aug. 
10,  1728.  He  was  by  profession  a  merchant, 
and  amassed  considerable  wealth  in  lands  and 
goods;  and  also  filled  many  important  public 
offices  after  the  final  cession  of  the  New  Neth- 
erlands to  Great  Britain.  Between  1G91  and 
1G95  he  was  mayor  of  New  York,  and  subse- 
quently became  chief  justice  of  the  province, 
and  president  of  the  king's  council,  in  which 
latter  capacity  in  1701  he  acted  as  colonial  gov- 
ernor. He  Avas  also  colonel  of  the  forces  of  the 
city  and  county  of  New  York,  and  treasurer  of 
the  provinces  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey. 
lie  possessed  great  inlluence  in  the  councils  of 
his  native  city  from  his  administrative  talent, 
integritj-,  and  liberal  sentiments,  and  was  the 
intimate  friend  and  correspondent  of  William 
Penn,  and  of  the  colonial  governor,  the  earl 
of  Bellamont.  The  mansion  erected  by  him 
in  Pearl  street  in  1G95,  which  was  at  one  time 
the  head-quarters  of  General  "Washington,  re- 
mained standing  until  1856.  The  bell  presented 
by  him  to  the  middle  Dutch  church  in  Nassau 
street  a  short  time  before  his  death,  now  hangs 
in  the  Reformed  Dutch  church  in  Lafiiyette 
place. — Of  the  other  children  of  Johannes  De 
Peyster,  Joiiaiv'nes  filled  the  mayoralty  chair  of 
New  York,  Isaac  was  member  of  the  provin- 
cial legislature,  and  Coexelius  was  the  first 
chamberlain  of  the  city  of  New  York,  beside 
filling  various  other  public  ofl^ces.  One  of  his 
granddaughters  was  the  mother  of  Major-Gen- 
eral  William  Alexander,  the  claimant  of  the 
Scottish  earldom  of  Stirling. — Of  the  descend- 
ants of  Col.  Abraham  De  Peyster,  his  eldest  son, 
Abraham,  was  for  many  years  treasurer  of  the 
province  of  New  York ;  and  his  great-grandson, 
Abraiiaji,  commanded  a  detachment  of  royal 
troops  under  Col.  Ferguson  at  the  battle  of 
King's  Mountain.  After  the  war  he  was  treas- 
urer of  the  province  of  New  Brunswick,  and 
commander  of  the  militia.  James,  a  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  also  an  officer  in  the  Brit- 
ish army,  and  fell  at  the  battle  of  Lincelles,  in 
the  Netherlands,  in  1793.  III.  Arent  Scnry- 
LER,  grandson  of  Col.  Abraham  De  Peyster,  and 
a  colonel  in  the  British  army,  born  in  New 
York,  June  27, 1736,  died  at  Dumfries,  Scotland, 
in  Nov.  1832.  He  entered  the  8tli  or  king's  re- 
giment of  foot  in  1755,  served  in  various  parts 
of  North  America  under  his  uncle,  Col.  Peter 
Schuyler,  and  commanded  at  Detroit,  Micliili- 
mackinac,  and  various  places  in  Upper  Canada, 
during  the  American  revolutionary  war.  The 
Indian  tribes  of  the  north-west  were  then  decid- 
edly hostile  to  the  British  government,  but  the 
prudent  measures  adopted  by  Col.  De  Peyster 
tended  to  conciliate  and  finally  to  detach  them 
entirely  from  the  American  cause.  To  his  in- 
fluence over  the  Indians  several  American  mis- 
sionaries and  their  families  were  on  one  occa- 
sion indebted  for  the  preservation  of  their  lives. 
Having  risen  to  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  com- 
manded his  regiment  for  many  years,  he  re- 


tired to  Dumfries,  the  native  town  of  his  wife, 
where  he  resided  until  his  death.  During  the 
French  revolution  he  was  instrumental  in  era- 
bodying  and  training  the  1st  regiment  of  Dum- 
fries volunteers,  of  which  Robert  Burns  was  an 
original  member.  He  was  on  terms  of  friend- 
ship with  Burns,  who  addressed  to  him  one  of 
his  fugitive  pieces,  and  with  whom  he  once  car- 
ried on  a  poetical  controversy  in  the  columns 
of  the  "  Dumfries  Journal."  He  died  as  full  of 
honors  as  of  years,  having  held  the  king's  com- 
mission upward  of  77  years,  and  being  prob- 
ably at  the  time  the  oldest  officer  in  the  service. 
His  nephew.  Captain  Aeent  Schuyler  De  Pey- 
ster, was  an  American  navigator,  who  sailed 
several  times  around  the  globe,  and  in  a  passage 
from  the  "western  coast  of  America  to  Calcutta, 
discovered  a  group  of  islands,  called  after  him 
the  De  Peyster  or  Peyster  islands. 

DEPOSITION,  inlaAv,  the  testimony  of  a  wit- 
ness reduced  to  writing  in  due  form  of  law,  taken 
by  virtue  of  a  commission  or  other  authority  of 
a  competent  tribunal.  When  taken  by  commis- 
sion, depositions  are  usually  in  answer  toques- 
tions  upon  the  examination  in  chief,  and  upon 
cross-examination,  prepared  and  submitted  to 
the  court  from  which  the  commission  issues.  In 
other  cases  they  are  taken  by  consent  of  counsel 
or  in  due  course  of  law,  the  privilege  of  cross- 
examination  being  always  preserved,  except  in 
some  cases  where  depositions  of  matters  with- 
in the  knowledge  of  persons  of  great  age  are 
allowed  to  be  taken  for  the  purpose  of  perpet- 
uating their  testimony,  and  in  cases  where  im- 
mediate death  by  violence  is  expected.  This 
must,  when  possible,  be  sworn  to  and  signed  by 
the  witness.  In  the  United  States,  compulsory 
process  is  usually  allowed  to  procure  this  evi- 
dence.— In  ecclesiastical  law,  deposition  is  the 
act  of  depriving  a  clergyman  by  a  competent 
tribunal  of  his  clerical  orders,  in  punishment  of 
some  offence,  and  to  prevent  his  acting  in  his 
clerical  character. 

DEPPING,  Georges  Beenard,  a  French  nat- 
uralist and  historian,  born  at  Minister,  Westpha- 
lia, May  11,  1784,  died  in  Paris,  Sept.  5,  1853. 
He  went  to  Paris  in  1803,  and  first  devoted  him- 
self to  teaching,  and  afterward  to  miscellaneous 
literary  labor.  Ilis  juvenile  works,  Les  soirees 
cVhiver  (3d  ed.  1832  ;  translated  into  many  Euro- 
pean languages)  and  Merveillcs  et  heautes  de  la 
nature  en  France  (9th  ed.  1843),  became  as  pop- 
ular abroad  as  at  home.  He  joined  Malte  Brun 
in  his  eifortsto  promote  the  knowledge  of  geog- 
raphy in  France,  and  wrote  a  great  number  of 
geographical  works.  His  intimacy  with  the 
Danish  poets  Baggesen  and  Oehlenschlager  led 
him  to  apply  himself  to  the  study  of  Scandina- 
vian literature,  history,  and  archjsology,  and  so 
successfully  that  he  won  the  prize  offered  by 
the  institute  in  1820  for  the  best  work  onthe 
maritime  expeditions  of  the  Normans  into 
France  in  the  10th  century.  This  work  was 
followed  by  his  "History  of  Normandy  from 
10(16  to  1204"  (1835).  Among  the  most  impor- 
tant of  his  other  writings  are  a  "History  of  the 


DEPTFORD 


DE  QUINCEY 


401 


Commerce  between  tlie  Levfint  and  Europe  from 
the  time  of  the  Crusades  to  the  Colonization  of 
America  "  (1830) ;  and  a  "  History  of  the  Jews 
in  the  Middle  Ages"  (1834). 

DEPTFORD,  a  town  and  naval  arsenal  in 
Kent  and  Surrey,  England,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Thames,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ravcnsbourne, 
on  the  Croydon  and  Greenwich  railways,  and 
at  the  junction  of  the  Croydon  and  Surrey  ca- 
nals, 3  m.  S.  E.  from  London  bridge,  and  con- 
tiguous to  Greenwich ;  pop.  in  1851,  27,896.  It 
contains  a  royal  naval  school  incorporated  in 
1840,  and  2  ancient  hospitals  for  decayed  pilots 
and  shipmasters  or  their  widows.  Its  principal 
feature,  however,  is  the  dock  yard,  established 
by  Henry  VIII.,  and  now  enclosing  an  area  of 
81  acres.  There  are  8  slips  for  ships  of  the  line 
on  the  river  front,  2  for  smaller  vessels  opening 
into  a  basin  2 CO  by  220  feet,  and  2  dry  docks, 
one  communicating  with  the  basin,  and  the 
other,  a  double  dock,  with  the  Thames.  Ad- 
joining the  dock  yard  is  the  victualling  yard, 
containing  sheep  and  cattle  pens,  slaughter 
houses,  salting  establishments,  a  mill  of  great 
capacity,  bakeries,  a  brewery,  and  a  cooperage 
in  which  casks  are  made  by  machinery.  The 
number  of  persons  employed  in  time  of  war  in 
tlie  docks  has  been  about  1,500,  and  in  the  vic- 
tualling yard  about  1,200. 

DE  QUINCEY,  Thomas,  an  English  author, 
often  styled  "the  English  opium-eater,"  from 
the  remarkable  personal  experiences  detailed  in 
his  celebrated  work  bearing  that  title,  born  in 
Greenhay,  a  suburb  of  Manchester,  in  1786. 
Many  of  his  writings  are  autobiographical,  but 
in  the  minute  account  he  has  given  of  liis  ad- 
ventures and  suiferings,  fiction  is  supposed  to  be 
mixed  with  fact  to  such  a  degree  as  to  render 
it  impossible  in  many  cases  to  discriminate  be- 
tween them.  He  was  the  5th  child  of  a  mer- 
chant who  spent  most  of  his  time  at  foreign 
ports,  and  who  at  his  death  in  1793  left  to  his 
family  a  fortune  of  £1,600  a  year.  His  child-' 
hood  was  cliiefly  passed  in  rural  seclusion,  with 
8  sisters  for  playmates.  The  death  of  one  of 
these  when  he  was  2^  years  old  caused  him  not 
so  much  sorrow  as  a  sad  perplexity ;  it  appalled 
him  by  its  mystery,  but  he  was  solaced  by  a 
trust  that  she  would  return  again  like  the  cro- 
cuses and  roses.  A  few  years  later,  the  death 
of  a  second  sister  overwhelmed  him  with  grief, 
and  the  sentiments  of  love  and  religion  which 
it  awoke  were  nursed  by  him  in  silent  reverie, 
and  deepened  the  naturally  solemn  tone  of  his 
mind.  "  If,"  he  says,  "  I  should  return  thanks 
to  Providence  for  all  the  separate  blessings  of 
my  early  situation,  these  four  I  should  single  out 
as  worthy  of  special  commemoration :  that  I 
lived  in  rustic  solitude;  that  this  solitude  was 
in  England ;  that  my  infant  feelings  were  mould- 
ed by  the  gentlest  of  sisters,  and  not  by  horrid 
pugilistic  brothers ;  finally,  that  I  and  they  were 
dutiful  and  loving  members  of  a  pure,  holy, 
and  magnificent  church."  He  was  sent  to  va- 
rious schools,  and  early  distinguished  himself  by 
his  proficiency  in  Greek ;  at  the  grammar  school 
VOL.  VI. — 26 


of  Bath,  where  he  studied  from  his  12th  till  his 
14th  year,  the  master  said  of  him  that  he  "  could 
harangue  an  Athenian  mob."  He  was  transfer- 
red to  a  school  at  Winkfield,  where  he  remained 
a  year  in  discontent,  entreating  his  guardian  to 
send  him  to  the  university,  but  in  vain,  though 
tlie  income  of  his  patrimony  was  sufficient  for 
his  support.  Resolved,  however,  to  be  no  longer 
numbered  among  school  boys,  he  borrowed  from 
a  lady  of  rank  10  guineas,  ran  away  from  school 
witli  a  volume  of  Euripides  in  his  pocket,  and  by 
accident  directed  his  wanderings  toward  North 
Wales.  The  inns  rapidly  exhausted  his  money, 
and  after  a  few  weeks  he  was  obliged  first  to 
limit  himself  to  one  meal  a  day,  and  then  to 
subsist  only  on  blackberries,  hips,  haws,  and 
casual  hospitalities.  He  contrived  in  May,  1 800, 
to  obtain  a  passage  to  London,  and  there  a  fiercer 
stage  of  his  sufferings  began.  For  16  weeks  he 
constantly  endured  the  physical?  anguish  of 
hunger,  and  that  he  did  not  sink  under  his  tor- 
ments he  ascribes  to  his  constant  exposure  to 
the  open  air,  since  he  was  houseless,  seldom 
sleeping  under  a  roof.  He  was  at  length  per- 
mitted by  an  eccentric  character  to  sleep  in  a 
large  unoccupied  house,  where  he  found  a  for- 
saken, friendless,  hunger-bitten  girl,  apparently 
10  years  of  age,  for  his  companion,  who  rejoiced 
in  obtaining-  a  protector  during  the  darkness 
amid  the  rats  and  ghosts.  He  has  written  pa- 
thetic sketches  of  his  associations  at  this  time  ^ 
with  some  of  the  refuse  members  of  London 
society.  He  had  in  vain  resorted  to  a  Jew  for 
an  advance  of  money  on  the  strength  of  his 
future  expectations,  when  at  length  an  opening 
was  made  for  reconciliation  with  his  friends; 
and  he  attended  school  and  visited  in  different 
parts  of  England  and  Ireland  till  he  went  to 
Oxford  in  Dec.  1803.  After  having  been  an 
unknown  and  unacknowledged  vagrant,  a  house- 
less wanderer  in  Wales,  and  a  solitary  roamer 
in  the  streets  of  London,  he  speaks  of  himself 
as  now  for  the  first  time  becoming  an  object  of 
notice  to  a  large  society,  and  bm-dened  with 
the  anxieties  of  a  man  and  of  a  member  of  the 
world.  He  was  a  student  at  Oxford  till  1808. 
He  first  resorted  to  opium  on  a  visit  to  London 
in  the  autumn  of  1804,  with  a  view  of  lulling 
the  pains  of  rheumatism.  He  took  it;  and 
in  an  hour,  "  O  heavens !  what  a  revulsion ! 
what  an  upheaving  from  its  lowest  depths  of 
the  inner  spirit!  what  an  apocalypse  of  the 
world  within  me !  That  my  pains  had  vanislied 
was  now  a  trifle  in  my  eyes ;  this  negative  effect 
was  swallowed  up  in  the  immensity  of  those 
positive  effects  which  had  opened  before  me,  in 
the  abyss  of  divine  enjoyment  thus  suddenly 
revealed."  He  says  that  for  10  years  he  "lived 
on  the  earth  the  life  of  a  demiurgus,  and  kept 
the  keys  of  paradise."  It  was  his  custom  to 
drink  laudanum  either  on  a  Tuesday  or  Saturday 
night  once  in  3  weeks.  On  Tuesday  night  he 
went  to  the  opera,  where  in  the  elaborate  har- 
mony and  scenic  display  he  saw  unfolded  before 
him,  as  in  a  piece  of  aiTas-work,  the  whole  of 
his  past  life,  with  its  passions  exalted,  spiritual- 


402 


DE  QUINCEY 


ized,  and  sublimed  ;  not  as  if  recalled  by  an  act 
of  memory,  but  as  if  present  and  incarnated 
in  the  music.  On  Saturday  night  he  used  to 
wander  forth  through  the  markets  of  London, 
where  the  poor  were  expending  their  money, 
and  listen  to  the  consultations  of  family  parties 
on  their  ways  and  means,  making  himself  famil- 
iar with  their  wishes,  difficulties,  and  opinions, 
and  philosophically  observing  as  lie  listened  that 
expressions  of  patience,  hope,  and  tranquillity 
were  tar  more  common  than  murmurs  of  dis- 
content. Such  were  his  delights,  and  such 
were  the  pictures  which  at  a  later  time  tyran- 
nized over  his  dreams.  In  1809,  soon  after 
leaving  the  university,  he  took  the  cottage  at 
Grasmere,  among  the  lakes  and  mountains  of 
Westmoreland,  which  AVordsworth  had  occu- 
pied before  him ;  and  he  retained  it  27  years. 
Among  his  associates,  with  whom  he  had  formed 
acquaintance,  in  prior  visits,  were  Wordsworth 
and  Coleridge  at  Grasmere,  Southey  at  Keswick, 
Charles  Lloyd  at  Brathay,  and  Wilson  at  EUe- 
ray.  He  often  visited  London,  Bath,  and  Edin- 
burgh; his  most  intimate  friend  in  London  being 
for  many  years  the  celebrated  peripatetic  known 
as  "  Walking  Stewart."  He  was  occupied  espe- 
cially with  the  study  of  German  literature  and 
philosophy,  made  translations  from  Lessing 
and  Richter,  and  was  among  the  first  in  Eng- 
land to  interpret  Kant,  Fichte,  and  Schelling. 
Though  he  took  opium  on  Saturday  nights,  it 
had  not  disordered  his  health,  and  he  was  ig- 
norant and  unsuspicious  of  its  avenging  horrors. 
But  in  1813  an  ii-ritation  of  the  stomach,  the 
consequence  of  his  early  sufferings,  returned 
with  a  violence  which  yielded  to  no  remedies 
but  opium.  From  this  time  he  became  a  regu- 
lar and  confirmed  opium-eater,  taking  it  daily, 
and  the  first  effect  of  this  change  was  that  black 
vapors  seemed  to  roll  away  from  his  brain,  his 
mind  resumed  its  functions,  and  a  latter  spring 
came  to  close  up  the  season  of  his  youth.  But 
within  a  year  began  his  "  Iliad  of  woes."  It 
had  been  the  aim  of  his  whole  life,  with  refer- 
ence to  which  he  had  directed  all  his  intellect- 
ual labors,  to  construct  one  single  work,  to 
which  he  purposed  giving  the  title  of  an  unfin- 
ished work  of  Spinoza,  De  Emendatione  IIu- 
mani  Intdlectus.  The  studies  of  many  years 
had  laid  the  foundation,  but  he  could  not  com- 
mand the  efforts  to  rear  the  superstructure.  In 
what  he  terms  his  state  of  imbecility  he  turned 
his  attention  for  amusement  to  political  econo- 
my. He  welcomed  the  treatise  of  Ricardo  in 
1819  as  the  first  profound  work  on  the  subject, 
and  it  roused  him  to  an  activity  M-hich  enabled 
him  to  draw  up  his  "Prolegomena  to  all  Future 
Systems  of  Political  Economy."  Yet  opium 
paralyzed  his  efforts  to  complete  even  that  short 
work.  He  failed  to  accomplish  the  preface,  the 
arrangements  for  its  publication  were  counter- 
manded, and  it  first  appeared  in  1824:  under  the 
title  of  "  Templars'  Dialogues."  It  is  one  of  the 
most  thorough,  as  well  as  briefest  exhibitions 
of  the  Ricardian  theory  of  value.  Seldom  could 
he  prevail  on  himself  to  write  even  a  letter.     A 


cbange  took  place  in  his  contemplations,  and  in 
his  dreams.  He  was  inclined  to  solitude  and 
reverie,  and  mentions  that  on  summer  nights  at 
his  open  window,  overlooking  the  town  and  sea 
at  a  little  distance  before  him,  he  often  sat 
from  sunset  to  sunrise,  motionless,  and  without 
wishing  to  move.  While  lying  awake,  he  could 
see  vast  processions  pass  along  in  mournful  pomp, 
friezes  of  never-ending  processions,  that  seem- 
ed to  him  as  sad  and  solemn  as  if  they  were 
histories  of  "  times  before  (Edipus  or  Priam,  be- 
fore Tyre,  before  Memphis  ;"  and  in  his  dreams 
a  theatre  seemed  suddenly  opened  and  lighted 
up  within  his  brain,  which  presented  nightly 
spectacles  of  more  than  earthly  splendor.  Space 
seemed  immeasurably  expanded,  buildings  and 
landscapes  assumed  proportions  too  vast  for  the 
scope  of  the  eye,  time  became  infinitely  elastic, 
stretching  out  to  boundless  and  vanishing  ter- 
mini, and  a  single  night  would  leave  the  im- 
pressions of  millennia  passed  in  that  time.  With 
deep-seated  anxiety  and  gloomy  melancholy 
he  seemed  every  night  to  descend  literally  into 
chasms  and  sunless  abysses,  depths  below  depths 
from  which  it  appeared  hopeless  that  he  could 
ever  reascend.  From  the  gorgeous  scenery  and 
terrific  events  of  his  dreams  he  often  awoke  in 
struggles,  crying  aloud  :  "  I  will  sleep  no  more." 
Twice  he  triumphed  over  the  physical  necessity 
for  opium,  and  twice  he  relapsed.  In  a  third  at- 
tempt he  found  it  impossible  to  retrace  his  steps, 
and  in  the  imagery  of  his  dreams  he  ''saw 
through  vast  avenues  of  gloom  those  towering 
gates  of  ingress,  which  hitherto  had  always 
seemed  to  stand  open,  now  at  last  barred  against 
his  retreat,  and  hung  with  funeral  crape."  In 
1821  he  went  to  London  with  literary  purposes, 
and,  as  collaborator  in  the  "  London  Magazine," 
became  at  once  associated  with  Charles  Lamb, 
Hazlitt,  Allan  Cunningham,  Hood,  Cary  (thte 
translator  of  Dante),  and  with  other  authors. 
His  "  Confessions  of  an  English  Opium-Eater  " 
appeared  in  that  periodical  in  1821,  and  in  a 
volume  in  1822.  They  immediately  obtained 
for  him  a  high  reputation,  and  have  remained 
his  most  powerful  and  artistic  production  dur- 
ing a  long  career  of  authorship.  He  has  been 
a  frequent  contributor  to  Bi'itish  periodicals, 
chiefly  to  "  Blackwood's  Magazine,"  "  Tait's 
Edinburgh  Magazine,"  and  the  "  North  British 
Review,"  of  autobiographical  sketches,  literary 
reminiscences,  miscellaneous  essays,  and  his- 
torical, philosophical,  and  critical  discussions. 
He  also  furnished  several  articles  to  the  "  En- 
cyclopa3dia  Britannica."  The  notices  of  his  dis- 
tinguished contemporaries  and  associates  which 
give  interest  to  several  of  his  writings,  it  has 
been  said,  would  have  been  more  appropriate 
if  marked  by  greater  reserve.  All  his  works 
show  a  wide  range  of  learning  and  speculation, 
a  delicate  and  subtle  critical  faculty,  and  a  fe- 
licitous selection  of  words.  As  improvisations 
they  would  be  admirable  displays  of  niental 
power,  but  most  of  them  are  so  unartistically 
constructed,  the  main  idea  and  purpose  being 
lost  by  unceasing  discursions,  that  they  are  ex- 


DERA  GHAZEE  KUAN- 


DERBY 


403 


cellent  only  in  fragments  and  passages.  His 
highest  and  most  peculiar  merit  is  as  a  writer 
of  imaginative  and  highly  impassioned  prose, 
the  best  examy)les  of  which  are  contained  in  his 
"  Confessions,"  and  "  Suspiria  de  Profundis." 
Such  are  his  splendid  personifications  of  those 
various  forms  or  powers  of  sorrow  which  hold 
dominion  over  man  and  human  life  :  "  the  three 
ladies  of  sorrow,  our  lady  of  tears,  our  lady  of 
sighs,  and  our  lady  of  darkness."  After  alter- 
nating for  a  time  between  the  lakes  and  London, 
Mr.  De  Quincey  has  since  1843  resided  at  Lass- 
wade,  a  village  about  12  miles  from  Edinburgh. 
In  person  he  is  described  as  far  from  prepossess- 
ing, being  diminutive  in  his  stature  and  awk- 
ward in  his  movements,  with  a  shrivelled  and 
yellow  parchment-like  skin.  He  daily  performs 
set  tasks  of  walking  in  his  garden,  and  often  dis- 
appears untraced  for  several  days  together  from 
his  home.  lie  has  offered  his  body  after  death 
for  dissection,  as  a  contribution  to  i)hysiological 
science,  believing,  or  affecting  to  believe,  that 
the  dreadful  gnawing  of  the  stomach  which  he 
experiences  is  caused  by  the  ravages  of  a  living 
animal.  His  works  have  been  collected  in  Bos- 
ton (21  vols.,  1851-59),  and  a  select  edition  is 
now  (April,  1859)  pul)lishing  in  London  and 
Edinburgh. 

DERA  GHAZEE  KHA¥,  a  large  town  of 
the  Punjaub,  4  m.  from  the  right  or  W.  bank  of 
the  Indus,  in  the  district  of  Damaun ;  pop.  about 
25,000,  of  whom  one-half  are  Hindoos,  and  one- 
half  Mohammedans.  It  contains  a  dirty,  ill- 
built  bazaar  with  1,600  shops.  It  has  manufac- 
tories of  silk,  cotton,  and  mixed  fabrics,  and 
cutlery  to  the  estimated  amount  of  $100,000 
yearly.  The  surrounding  country  is  fertile, 
producing  sugar,  cotton,  indigo,  and  excellent 
fruits. 

DERAYEH,  El,  a  town  of  Arabia,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Nedjed,  lat.  25°  15'  K,  long.  56°  80'  E. 
It  lies  in  a  fertile  and  well  watered  valley  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Khoor,  was  strongly  fortified 
in  the  oriental  style,  and  contained  about  15,- 
000  inhabitants,  30  mosques,  and  30  schools,  in 
the  earlier  part  of  this  century,  when  it  was 
famous  throughout  the  Mohammedan  world  as 
the  capital  and  stronghold  of  the  "Waliabees.  In 
1819  it  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  Ibrahim  Pa- 
sha, after  a  siege  of  7  moutlis. 

DERBEND,  or  Deebent,  a  fortified  town 
of  Russian  Daghestan,  on  the  W.  shore  of  the 
Caspian  sea,  lat,  42°  12'  N,,  long.  48°  25'  E. ; 
pop.  about  12,000,  consisting  of  Georgians, 
Armenians,  and  Jews,  It  is  built  in  the  pass 
of  Derbend,  the  ancient  Albanife  Portge,  lying 
between  the  sea  and  the  extremity  of  a  spur 
of  the  Caucasus.  It  is  defended  on  the  N.  and 
S.  by  walls  of  great  strength  with  2  iron  gates, 
through  which  the  road  passes,  and  from  which 
it  has  its  name,  signifying  "  closed  gates."  The 
pass  was  fortified  by  the  first  JDarius  against  the 
Scythians,  and  the  present  walls  are  said  to 
have  been  built  by  Chosroes.  It  was  afterward 
taken  by  the  Saracens,  recovered  by  the  Per- 
sians, captured  by  Russia  in  1722,  restored  to 


Persia  in  1735,  and  taken  again  in  1795  by  tha 

Russians,  who  have  kept  it  since. 

DERBY,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  bor- 
ough and  the  county  town  of  Derbyshire,  Eng- 
land, on  the  Derwent,  whicli  is  navigable  hence 
to  its  junction  with  the  Trent,  distant  N.  N.  W. 
from  London  132  m.  by  the  London  and  North- 
western and  Midland  Counties  railways ;  poj). 
in  1851,  40,609.  There  are  8  churches,  a  Cath- 
olic cathedral,  and  13  dissenting  chapels.  The 
free  grammar  school,  said  to  be  one  of  the  old- 
est institutions  of  the  kind  in  England,  has  10 
exhibitions  to  Emmanuel  college,  Oxford,  There 
are  6  national,  several  British,  a  female  normal, 
a  diocesan,  a  Wesleyan  Methodist,  and  2  infant 
schools,  a  librarj-,  a  mechanics'  institute,  and  a 
philosophical  society  founded  by  Dr.  Darwin. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  the  town 
is  a  botanical  and  pleasure  garden  called  the  ar- 
boretum, founded  by  the  liberality  of  Mr.  Joseph 
Strutt,  a  citizen  of  Derby,  and  laid  out  with 
great  taste,  at  the  donor's  expense,  by  the  late 
J.  C.  Loudon.  The  manufactures  are  extensive, 
and  embrace  silk,  lace,  cotton,  porcelain,  jew- 
elry, carriages,  iron  boilers,  iron  plates,  red  and 
white  lead,  sheet  lead,  &c.  Various  beautiful 
ornaments  are  made  of  the  marbles,  spars,  and 
petrifactions  found  in  the  vicinity, 

DERBY,  Edward  Geoffrey  Smith  Stanley, 
14th  earl  of,  and  Baron  Stanley,  a  British  states- 
man, born  at  Knowsley  Park,  Lancashire,  March 
29,  1799.  At  an  early  age  he  was  sent  to  Eton 
college,  whence,  after  the  usual  residence  at  that 
institution,  he  was  removed  to  the  university  of 
Oxford,  and  entered  as  a  student  of  Christchurch. 
Although  his  academic  career  was  more  than  or- 
dinarily distinguished,  he  was  never  graduated. 
He  entered  parliament  in  1821  as  member  for 
Stockbridge,  and  made  his  maiden  speech  on 
the  Manchester  gas-light  bill,  March  30,  1824, 
of  which  Hansard  remarks  (vol.  si.  p.  11),  that 
Mr.  Stanley  addressed  the  house  "  in  a  maiden 
speech  of  much  clearness  and  ability."  He  soon 
took  rank  in  the  house  of  commons  among  the 
ablest  debaters  and  most  prominent  leaders  of 
the  whig  opposition  to  the  ministry  of  the  earl 
of  Liverpool.  He  was  elected  member  for  the 
town  of  Preston,  Lancashire,  in  1826,  and  on 
March  11,  1827,  took  office  as  under  secretary 
for  the  colonies  in  George  Canning's  administra- 
tion, which  office  ho  continued  to  hold  after  the 
death  of  that  great  statesman,  in  the  Goderich 
(earl  of  Ripon)  cabinet,  until  its  dissolution  in 
Jan.  1828.  During  tlie  3  years  of  the  AVelling- 
ton  government  which  followed,  Mr.  Stanley 
was  among  the  first  and  most  eloquent  of  the 
prominent  orators  and  statesmen  who  then  oc- 
cupied seats  in  the  popular  branch  of  the  Brit- 
ish legislature.  On  the  formation  of  the  reform 
cabinet  of  Lord  Grey  in  1880,  he  was  appointed 
to  the  arduous  and  responsible  office  of  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet, 
an  honor  rarely  united  with  that  appointment. 
The  acceptance  of  office  having  vacated  his  seat 
in  parliament,  on  presenting  himself  to  the 
electors  of  Preston  for  reelection,  he  was  de* 


404 


DERBY 


DERBYSHIRE 


feated  by  the  radical  agitator  Henry  Hunt,  but 
iTas  soon  afterward  returned,  by  the  retirement 
of  Sir  Uussey  Vivian,  for  the  borough  of  Wind- 
sor, which  he  continued  to  represent  until  1832, 
when  he  was  elected  for  one  of  the  divisions  of 
Lancashire.  In  the  great  parliamentary  strug- 
gle of  1832-3,  which  resulted  in  the  passage  of 
the  reform  bill,  the  church  tern  porah ties  bill, 
and  the  bill  to  establish  national  education  in 
Ireland,  Mr.  Stanley  took  a  brilhant  and  effect- 
ive part.  His  speeches  during  that  stormy  ses- 
sion, in  reply  to  the  fierce  assaults  of  Daniel 
O'Connell,  Richard  Lalor  Shell,  and  others,  are 
splendid  efforts  of  parliamentary  eloquence.  In 
1833  Mr.  Stanley  exchanged  the  troublesome 
office  of  chief  secretary  for  Ireland  for  that  of 
secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies,  lie  was  nom- 
inated to  this  post  with  the  special  object  of  car- 
rying the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  West  Indies, 
which  was  effected  under  his  auspices.  In  the 
following  year,  on  the  death  of  his  grandfather 
and  the  succession  of  his  father  to  the  earldom, 
he  became  known  by  the  courtesy  title  of  Lord 
Stanley,  and  in  the  same  year  retired  from  the 
cabinet  in  company  with  Sir  James  Graham,  the 
earl  of  Ripon,  and  the  duke  of  Richmond,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  and  his  three  colleagues'  non- 
concurrence  with  the  ministerial  proposition  to 
appropriate  the  surplus  funds  of  the  Irish  church 
establishment  for  secular  education.  In  the  brief 
administration  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  (Dec.  1834,  to 
April,  1835),  Lord  Stanley  refused  to  take  of- 
fice. But  long  before  the  6  years  of  the  whig 
dominion  under  Lord  Melbourne  had  elapsed,  he 
and  his  followers,  facetiously  known  as  "  the 
Canning  leaven  of  the  whig  administration," 
were  found  voting  steadily  with  the  conserva- 
tive opposition,  as  avowed  members  of  the  con- 
servative party.  In  1841  the  whigs  went  out 
of  office,  and  Sir  Robert  Peel  formed  a  cabinet 
in  which  Lord  Stanley  occupied  a  seat  as  colo- 
nial secretary.  In  1844,  while  his  father  was 
still  living,  he  was  summoned  by  writ  to  the 
house  of  peers  as  Baron  Stanley  of  BickerstaflFe, 
and  assumed  the  leadership  of  the  conservative 
party  in  that  body.  When  Sir  Robert  Peel  re- 
solved in  1845  to  adopt  a  free  trade  policy,  and 
remove  prohibitive  duties  on  foreign  grain  and 
breadstufFs,  Lord  Stanley  left  the  cabinet  and 
became  the  leader  of  the  protectionist  opposi- 
tion. When,  in  Dec.  1845,  Sir  Robert  tendered 
his  resignation  to  the  queen.  Lord  Stanley  was 
invited  by  her  majesty,  at  the  instance  of  Lord 
John  Russell,  to  form  a  protectionist  cabinet,  but 
he  resolutely  decUned  the  offer.  During  the  6 
years  of  Lord  John  Russell's  tenure  of  the  pre- 
miership. Lord  Stanley  added  to  his  already  high 
fame  as  an  orator  and  a  statesman,  by  his  frank, 
manly,  and  magnanimous  course  as  leader  of  the 
opposition  in  the  hereditary  branch  of  the  legis- 
lature. His  speech  on  the  Irish  poor  laws  in 
1849,  his  speech  on  the  affairs  of  Greece  in  1850, 
and  his  famous  explanation  of  the  reasons  why 
he  declined  the  premiership  when  offered  to  him 
in  Feb.  1851,  when  Lord  John  Russell's  minis- 
try were  defeated  in  the  house  of  commons  on 


Mr.  Locke  King's  motion  for  an  extension  of  the 
franchise,  are  among  the  most  remarkable  of  his 
forensic  efforts.  On  June  30, 1851,  on  the  death 
of  his  father  at  the  advanced  age  of  76,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  earldom  and  the  vast  ancestral  es- 
tates in  England  and  Ireland  which  are  attached 
to  it.  On  Feb.  20,  1852,  Lord  John  Russell  hav- 
ing sustained  another  defeat  on  the  militia  bill, 
Lord  Derby  was  again  called  by  the  queen  to 
construct  a  cabinet,  and  succeeded  in  perform- 
ing the  task  within  a  week  after  the  overthrow 
of  the  whig  chieftain.  In  July  of  the  same  year 
parliament  was  dissolved,  and  the  new  parlia- 
ment assembled  in  December.  On  one  of  the 
first  test  divisions  the  ministry  were  defeated  by 
a  majority  of  19  in  an  imusually  full  house,  and 
after  10  months'  tenure  of  office,  they  Avere  suc- 
ceeded by  the  so-called  coalition  cabinet,  of 
which  the  earl  of  Aberdeen  Avas  the  head.  When 
in  his  turn  this  last  mentioned  nobleman  was 
driven  from  power,  the  seals  of  office  were  again 
offered  to  and  declined  by  Lord  Derby,  and 
finally  intrusted  to  the  care  of  Lord  Palmerston, 
who  continued  to  hold  them  until  1858,  when, 
by  the  same  majority  of  19  by  which  Lord  Derby 
was  overthrown  6  years  before,  Palmerston  was 
defeated  by  the  adoption  of  Mr.  Milner  Gibson's 
amendment  on  the  second  reading  of  the  conspir- 
acy to  murder  bill.  On  the  resignation  of  Lord 
Palmerston,  Lord  Derby  was  again  "sent  for" 
by  the  queen  to  form  the  cabinet  over  which, 
with  one  or  two  unimportant  changes,  he  stiU 
(April,  1859)  continues  to  preside.  Lord  Derby 
was  elected  chancellor  of  the  university  of  Ox- 
ford on  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Wellington,  is 
an  elder  brother  of  the  Trinity  house,  governor 
of  the  Charter  house,  a  trustee  of  the  British 
museum  and  of  the  Hunterian  museum,  and  fiUs 
other  honorary  posts.  On  May  31, 1825,  he  mar- 
ried the  Hon.  Emma  Caroline  Wilbraham,  2d 
daughter  of  Edward,  Lord  Skelmersdale,  by 
whom,  beside  two  sons  and  one  daughter  who 
died  in  infancy,  he  has  issue,  the  Right  Hon. 
Edward,  Lord  Stanley,  now  secretary  of  state 
for  India,  the  lady  Emma  Charlotte,  and  the 
Hon.  Frederic  Arthur  Stanley,  an  officer  in  the 
British  army. — The  earldom  of  Derby  was  con- 
ferred by  Henry  VII.  in  1485  on  the  then  rep- 
resentative of  the  old  and  heroic  family  of  Stan- 
ley of  Lancashire,  for  acts  of  prowess  and  devo- 
tion at  the  battle  of  Bosworth.  For  more  than 
2  centuries  the  earls  of  Derby  were  sovereigns 
of  the  isle  of  Man,  under  the  suzerainty  of  the 
British  king,  and  it  was  not  until  the  reign  of 
George  III.  that  the  sovereignty  of  that  island 
was  transferred  to  the  British  crown. 

DERBYSHIRE,  a  central  co.  of  England, 
consisting  of  a  level  or  moderately  hilly  district, 
abounding  in  fine  scenery,  fertile,  well  cultivat- 
ed, and  rich  in  minerals ;  area,  1,028  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1851,  296,084.  It  is  watered  by  the 
Derwent,  Trent,  Dove,  Wye,  Erewash,  and 
Rother.  The  S.  And  E.  parts  produce  wlieat, 
barley,  and  other  kinds  of  grain;  the  N".  i  art, 
where  the  surface  is  more  hilly,  and  tlie  climate  . 
colder,  is  occupied  chiefly  by  oat  fields  and  pas- 


DERBYSHIRE  SPAR 


DERMODY 


405 


tnres.  The  elevated  region  called  the  High  peak, 
consisting  of  a  succession  of  bleak  hills,  some 
of  which  rise  2,000  feet  above  sea  level,  inter- 
spersed with  narrow  valleys,  is  famous  for  its 
romantic  scenery.  Dairy  husbandry  is  carried 
on  in  nearly  all  quarters  of  the  county,  and 
yields  upward  of  2,000  tons  of  cheese  every 
year.  Among  the  hills  are  reared  small  sheep, 
and  a  breed  of  light,  slender  Jiorses.  Among 
the  minerals  are  coal,  iron,  lead,  zinc,  copper, 
gypsum,  black  and  variegated  marble,  fluor  spar, 
small  crystals  called  Derbyshire  diamonds,  chal- 
cedony, jasper,  and  a  few  onyxes.  The  coal 
field  covers  an  area  of  about  190,000  acres, 
and  belongs  to  the  same  great  field  wliich  ex- 
tends over  part  of  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire and  part  of  Nottinghamshire.  The  lead 
mines  have  from  time  immemorial  been  let  on 
lease,  and  are  the  subjects  of  several  very  ancient 
and  peculiar  laws.  Courts  for  the  adjustment 
of  disputes  occurring  and  debts  contracted  in 
working  these  mines  are  established  in  each 
mining  district,  and  are  presided  over  by  the 
lessee's  steward,  assisted  by  24  jurymen.  There 
is  another  officer,  called  the  barmaster,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  put  miners  into  possession  of  veins 
which  they  may  have  discovered,  and  to  collect 
the  rent  due  the  lessee  of  the  crown  or  the  lord 
of  the  manor.  Derbyshii'e  is  traversed  by  the 
Grand  Trunk,  or  Trent  and  Mersey,  the  Ere- 
wash,  the  Derby,  the  Cromford,  the  Nutbrook, 
the  Chesterfield,  the  Peak  forest,  and  the  Ashby 
de  la  Zouch  canals,  and  by  the  Cromford  and 
High  Peak,  the  North  Midland,  the  Midland 
Counties,  the  Birmingham  and  Derby  grand 
junction,  and  several  branch  railways,  beside  a 
number  of  private  railways  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  produce  of  the  mines.  The  manufactures 
are  important,  and  comprise  cotton,  silk,  calico, 
cambric,  fustian,  muslin,  tape,  candle  wicks,  ma- 
chinery, agricultural  implements,  leather,  hats, 
paper,  and  porcelain.  In  the  mountain  district 
there  are  numerous  tepid  mineral  sprincs. 

DERBYSHIRE  SPAR,  a  variety  of  fluor  spar 
found  in  DerbysTiire,  England,  which  is  distin- 
guished by  its  fine  shades  of  purple,  blue,  red, 
and  yellow.  These,  together  with  the  sound- 
ness of  the  stone,  render  it  well  adapted  for  or- 
namental purposes.  The  manufocture  of  cups, 
tables,  vases,  inkstands,  and  other  objects,  is  ex- 
tensively carried  on  in  several  towns  in  the  coun- 
ty, as  at  Derby,  Buxton,  Castleton,  Bakewell,  &c. 
The  stone  takes  a  high  polish  for  one  so  soft ; 
but  the  property  which  renders  it  easy  to  be 
worked,  makes  it  liable  to  be  soon  defaced  by 
scratches.  It  is  found  near  Castleton  in  fissures 
in  the  limestone  rocks. 

DERFFLINGER,  Georgvox  roriginally  Dor- 
fling),  a  general  of  the  great  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg, born  in  Bohemia  in  March,  1606,  died 
Feb.  4,  1695.  A  tailor's  apprentice,  he  took 
service  as  a  soldier,  and  fought  at  the  battle 
of  Prague,  after  which  he  entered  the  Swe- 
dish army  as  an  officer  under  Gu-^tavus  Adol- 
phus.  He  served  under  Bauer  and  Torstensen, 
contributed  to  the  Swedish  victory  at  Leipsic 


in  1642,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  Afterward  lie  entered  the  service  of 
Brandenburg,  and  distinguished  himself  against 
the  Poles,  Swedes,  and  French.  In  1670  he 
became  field  marshal,  and  in  1674  baron  of 
the  German  empire ;  routed  the  Swedes  near 
Rathenau,  June  15,  1675,  and  at  Fehrbellin  3 
days  afterward,  and  secured  the  greater  portion 
of  Pomerania  for  the  elector.  In  the  winter 
campaign  of  1678-9  he  caused  9,000  soldiers 
and  30  guns  to  cross  the  ice  on  sleds  as  far  as 
Tilsit,  and  routed  the  Swedes  under  Horn  near 
the  latter  city. 

DERG,  Lough,  a  lake  in  the  co.  of  Donegal, 
Ireland,  about  7  m.  S.  E.  of  Donegal,  3  m.  long, 
and  2^  m.  wide  at  the  broadest  part.  It  is  en- 
closed on  all  sides  except  the  S.  by  steep,  barren 
mountains,  which  give  a  wild  and  desolate  char- 
acter to  the  surrounding  scenery.  Its  shores 
are  rough  and  precipitous.  It  lies  467  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  75  feet  deep.  A 
multitude  of  little  islands  dot  its  surface,  one  of 
which,  called  Station  island,  about  an  acre  in 
extent,  contains  a  cave  known  as  St.  Patrick's 
Purgatory,  to  which  between  10,000  and  15,000 
Roman  Catholic  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  Ire- 
land resort  annually  between  Aug,  1  and  15, 
They  remain  on  the  island,  which  contains  2 
chapels,  a  house  for  the  priests,  and  a  few  cab- 
ins, from  3  to  9  days,  their  only  food  during 
that  time  being  bread  and  water. 

DERHAM,  William,  an  English  divine  and 
natural  philosopher,  born  at  Stoughton,  near 
Worcester,  in  Nov.  1657,  died  at  Uptninster, 
near  London,  April  5,  1735.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  his  published  works  are :  "  The  Artificial 
Clockmaker"  (4th  edition,  1734);  "Physico- 
Theology"  (16  discourses  preached  at  Bovle"s 
lecture,  1711),  and  "Astro-Theology"  (1714), 
designed  to  prove  the  existence  and  attributes 
of  God  from  an  examination  respectively  of  the 
works  of  creation  and  of  the  heavenly  bodies ; 
and  "  Christo-Theology"  (1730),  a  sermon  t9 
prove  the  divine  origin  of  Christianity. 

DERIVATION,  in  modern  algebra,  is  the 
mode  of  developing  one  function  from  another, 
according  to  some  fixed  law.  By  a  function  is 
here  meant  any  algebraical  expression  of  a  quan- 
tity dependent  for  its  value  upon  other  quanti- 
ties. The  most  usual,  and  perhaps  the  most 
important  derivative  functions,  are  Differen- 
tials and  Integrals,  which  see, 

DERMODY,  Thomas,  an  Irish  poet,  born  at 
Ennis  in  1775,  died  at  Sydenham,  near  London, 
in  1802.  His  father  was  a  schoolmaster,  and  is 
said  to  have  employed  him  while  only  in  his 
9th  year  as  his  assistant  in  teaching  Latin  and 
Greek.  Thomas,  however,  soon  after  ran  away 
from  home,  enlisted  in  the  array,  and  served  in 
the  expedition  to  Holland  under  the  earl  of 
Moira,  who  promoted  him  to  a  second  lieuten- 
antcy ;  but  by  his  intemperate  habits  he  lost  the 
favor  of  his  patron,  and  afterward  lived  some 
time  in  London,  and  died  in  extreme  poverty. 
A  small  volume  of  poems  written  by  him  in  his 
13th  year  appeared  in  1792,     In  1793  he  pub- 


406 


DERVISE 


DERWENTWATER 


lishcd  a  pamphlet  on  the  French  revolution,  to 
which  was  appended  a  poem  entitled  "The 
Reform." 

DERVISE,  a  Persian  -word  meaning  poor  or 
indigent,  used  in  Mohammedan  countries  sub- 
sUintially  Mke  the  Arabic  faMr,  to  designate  a 
class  of  religious  people  who  in  some  respects 
resemble  the  monks  of  Christianity.    Their  rule 
commands  an  austere  piety,  religious  contempla- 
tion, poverty,  chastity,  modesty,  patience,  hu- 
mility, and  charity.    They  live  in  convents  under 
the  direction   of  a  sheikh,  but  are  allowed  to 
marry,  on  the  condition,  however,  of  passing 
two  nights  of  the  week  among  their  associates. 
They  live  by  the  labor  of  their  liands,  men- 
dicity being  forbidden,  except  in  the  order  of 
the  Bektashis,  but  their  convents  have  generally 
been  supplied  by  the  donations  of  the  sultans. 
Beside  the  fast  of  the  Ramadan,  they  observe 
one  weekly  fast  from  morning  to  sunset.    They 
hold  religious  meetings  on  Tuesdays  and  Fri- 
days, in  which  they  perform,  to  the  sound  of  a 
flute,  sacred  dances,  whirling  around  with  ex- 
treme velocity,  and  stopping  at  once  when  the 
music  ceases.     Some  lead  a  A-agrant  life,  and 
traverse  all  the  countries  of  the  East  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  Ganges,  being  lodged  and 
fed  in  the  convents  of  their  order.     They  wear 
coarse  robes,  and  walk  bare-legged  with  the 
breast  uncovered.     The  use  of  intoxicating  liq- 
uors, as  well  as  of  opium,  is  stated  to  be  common 
among  them.     In  general  they  are  said  to  en- 
joy little  esteem  among  the  people,  who  despise 
them  as  idlers.     Some  of  them  also  act  as  jug- 
glers, sorcerers,  and  charmers.     The  order  of 
the   Rufals,  founded  in  the   12th   century  by 
Sheikh  Ahmed  Rutai,  is  distinguished  by  fanati- 
cal excesses  of  self-mortification.     At  their  as- 
semblies some  are  seen  holding  a  piece  of  red- 
hot  iron  between  their  teeth,  others  making 
incisions   in  their  flesh.     The  Calenders  are 
remarkable  for  their  strange  dress,  sometimes 
consisting  of  a  sheep's  or  tiger's  skin ;  they 
wear  feathers  in  their  ears,  and  frequently  go 
about  half  naked.  The  principal  order  is  that  of 
the  Maulavis,  whose  chief  convent  is  at  Konieh, 
in  Asia  Minor.     The  origin  of  the  dervises  can 
be  traced  back  to  the  first  centuries  of  the  He- 
gira.     The  foundation  of  some  of  the  orders  is 
attributed  to  Abubekr,  Ali,  and  others;  and 
passages  of  the  Koran,  which  extol  the  merits  of 
poverty  and  an  independent,  contemplative  life, 
are  quoted  in  support  of  the  institution,  which 
tradition  also  represents  as  having  existed  in 
the  times  of  Elijah,  of  Jacob,  and  even  of  Seth. 
DERWENT,  the  name  of  several  rivers  of 
England.    I.  A  river  of  Cumberland,  32   m. 
long,  rising  in  the  district  of  Borrowdale,  and 
flowing  N.  and  then  S.  W.  into  the  Irish  sea, 
which  it  enters  near  "Workington.    It  forms  the 
lake  of  Derwentwater  near  Keswick,  where  it 
is  joined  by  the  Greta ;  expands  into  Bassen- 
thwaite-water  at  the  town  of  that  name,  and 
receives  the  river  Cocker  at  Cockermouth.     Its 
banks  abound  in  rich  and  varied  scenery.     II. 
A  river  of  Derbyshire,  rising  in  a  place  called 


"  the  trough,"  in  the  mountains  which  extend 
along  the  N.  boundary  of  the  county,  and  unit- 
ing with  the  Trent  near  the  borders  of  Leiees- 
tei-j^hire,  after  a  course  of  about  50  m.  Its  general 
course  is  S.  E.  It  passes  Chatsworth  house  and 
the  towns  of  Matlock,  Belper,  and  Derby.  Its 
scenery,  particularly  in  the  upper  part,  is  beau- 
tifully diversified.  The  Wye  is  its  largest  trib- 
utary. III.  A  river  of  Yorkshire,  East  Riding, 
rising  near  Ilarwood  dale,  flowing  nearly  S.  with 
many  windings,  and  falling  into  the  Ouse  at 
Barmby,  after  a  course  of  about  CO  m.  It  is 
navigable  to  Malton,  27  m.  above  its  mouth. 

DERWENT,  a  river  rising  near  the  centre  of 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  flowing  S.  E.  into  the  dis- 
trict of  Norfolk,  and  entering  the  S.  Pacific 
ocean  through  an  estuary  which  separates  the 
districts  of  Hobart  Town  and  Richmond.  The 
estuary  is  about  4  m.  broad  at  its  entrance,  and 
retains  this  width  for  a  distance  of  6  or  8  m.  in- 
land. On  an  island  at  its  mouth  is  a  lighthouse 
VO  feet  above  the  sea. 

DERWENTWATER,  James  Eadcliffe,  earl 
of,  a  leader  in  the  English  rebellion  of  1715, 
born  in  1689,  beheaded  Feb.  24,  1716.    He  be- 
longed to  an  ancient  Catholic  family  in  North- 
umberland.    Sir  Francis  Radcliffe  was  created 
earl  of  Derwentwater  by  James  II.  in  1688,  and 
his  son  Francis  married  a  natural  daughter  of 
Charles  II.   Ilis  grandson  James  was  brought  up 
at  St.  Germain,  and  succeeded  to  the  earldom  in 
1705.     Personal  attachment  to  the  members  of 
the  Stuart  family,  as  well  as  political  principle, 
disposed  the  earl  of  Derwentwater  to  attempt 
the  restoration  of  that  house  to  the  throne  of 
England,  and  he  entered  into  arrangements  for 
that  purpose  with  many  other  gentlemen  and  no- 
blemen of  the  north  and  west  of  England.     The 
plot  was  betrayed  to  the  government  of  George 
I.,  who  immediately  suspended  the  habeas  c&ifus 
act  and  issued  warrants  against  the  suspected. 
The  standard  of  rebellion  having  been  raised  in 
Scotland,  Lord  Derwentwater,  at  the  instigation 
of  his  countess,  as  it  is  said,  commenced  the 
movement  in  England,  Oct.  6,«1715.   The  death 
of  Louis  XIV.  disappointed  the  hopes  of  foreign 
aid,  and  at  the  first  rendezvous  there  were  but 
60  persons  present.  Mr.  Forster,  member  of  par- 
liament ,for  Cumberland,  was  chosen  leader,  a 
selection  in  which  his  Protestantism  was  alone 
considered.     They  soon  marched  south,  and  ap- 
proached Newcastle,  which  they  failed  in  sur- 
prising.   Volunteers  came  in  slowly,  and  they 
were  even  compelled  to  decline  the  services  of 
some  for  want  of  arms.     Being  joined  by  a  par- 
ty from  Scotland,  who  were  somewhat  better, 
though  imperfectly,  equipped,  they  retreated 
toward  the  border,  where  they  were  joined  by 
another  body,  under  Mackintosh.     The  com- 
bined army  now  amounted  to  about  2,000  men. 
Two  plans  were  proposed :  one  to  take  the  south- 
ern Scottish  towns  and  to  operate  against  the 
duke  of  Argyle ;  the  other  to  march  south  and 
encounter  Gen.  Carpenter,  who  was  at  the  head 
of  an  inferior  body  of  hastily  levied  troops.  But 
the  Englishmen  would  not  go  into  Scotland,  nor 


DERWENTWATER 


DESAIX  DE  VEYGOUX 


407 


the  highlanders  into  England.  Marching  along 
the  border,  the  dissension  soon  caino  to  an  open 
rupture.  Lord  Derwentwater  endeavored  to 
compromise  matters,  and  advised  tlie  advance 
into  Scotland  ;  and  finally  they  inarched  against 
Dumfries,  whose  inhabitants  threw  uj)  intrench- 
ments  to  oppose  them.  Without  fighting,  it  was 
decided  to  march  into  England.  At  this  a  large 
number  of  the  men  retired  at  onco,  while  the 
earl  of  Wintoun,  Lord  Derwentwater,  and  oth- 
ers accompanied  the  advance  rather  than  give  up 
the  cause.  At  Penrith  they  were  encountered  by 
the  posse  comitatusoiCnmherland,  lieaded  by  the 
resident  nobles  and  gentr}'.  But  this  body  fled  on 
getting  sight  of  the  rebels,  who  continued  their 
march,  seizing  the  public  funds  where  they  could. 
They  were  joined  by  a  small  party  of  Lancashire 
gentlemen,  and  being  informed  tliat  Manches- 
ter had  proclaimed  King  James,  tliey  advanced 
toward  that  town.  They  occupied  Lancaster, 
and  afterward  Preston,  which  Stanhope's  regi- 
ment of  dragoons  evacuated  on  their  approach. 
Here  they  received  an  accession  of  about  1,200 
gentlemen  and  peasants,  mostly  unarmed  and 
undisciplined.  But  Wills  was  now  advanc- 
ing against  them,  and  Carpenter  was  closing 
in  on  their  rear.  The  insurgents  were  totally 
ignorant  of  their  critical  position,  which  was 
only  revealed  by  a  letter  from  a  private  friend 
to  Loi-d  Derwentwater.  Its  contents  were  at 
once  communicated  to  Forster,  w-ho  was  com- 
pletely paralyzed  by  it.  Lord  Derwentwater 
and  others  threw  up  some  barricades,  but  neg- 
lected to  defend  the  approaches  to  the  town, 
where  a  good  resistance  might  have  been  made. 
The  first  attack  of  Wills  was  beaten  back  with 
considerable  loss.  Lord  Derwentwater  and  his 
brother  Charles  Radclitfe  showing  great  cour- 
age. The  arrival  of  Carpenter  made  aftairs 
desperate.  The  Scots  were  determined  to  sell 
their  lives  deai-jy,  and  in  this  they  were  joined 
by  Lord  Derwentwater ;  but  the  English  com- 
mander Forster  and  others  of  his  countrymen, 
dismayed  at  their  hopeless  situation,  sent  a  se- 
cret message  to  treat  for  a  •  surrender.  After 
some  difficulty  Wills  was  brought  to  promise  to 
spare  their  lives  if  they  would  surrender  at  dis- 
cretion, and  the  following  day  these  hard  terms 
were  accepted,  and  the  royal  troops  entered  the 
place.  Little  mercy  was  shown  by  the  govern- 
ment ;  many  of  the  common  men  were  sent  to 
the  plantations  in  America,  and  the  more  im- 
portant prisoners  were  carried  to  London.  Lord 
Derwentwater  was  impeached  and  brought  to 
trial,  Jan.  19,  1716.  He  pleaded  guilty,  and 
threw  himself  on  the  mercy  of  the  crown,  alleg- 
ing his  youth  and  inexperience  as  an  excuse ;  he 
was  condemned  to  death  as  a  traitor.  The 
greatest  efl:orts  were  made  to  obtain  his  par- 
don. His  wife  had  a  personal  interview  with 
the  king,  but  to  no  purpose.  Endeavors  were 
made  in  both  houses  of  parliament  to  obtain  a 
reprieve,  wliich  was  granted  for  two  of  the  pris- 
oners. Lords  Carnwath  and  Widdrington,  but 
the  3  others  were  ordered  for  immediate  execu- 
tion.   Lord  Nithisdale,  by  the  stratagem,  of  Ms 


devoted  wife,  succeeded  in  making  his  escape 
from  the  tower,  but  Lord  Derwentwater  was 
beheaded  on  Tower  hill.  He  died  with  firm- 
ness, protesting  his  loyalty  to  James  HL,  and 
asserting  that  "dishonorable  terms  had  been 
proposed  to  liiin  as  the  price  of  his  life,  which 
he  had  refused  to  accept."  The  estates  of  Der- 
wentwater were  confiscated,  and  afterward  set- 
tled on  the  hospital  for  seamen  at  Greenwich. 
The  body  of  the  earl  was  conveyed  by  night 
through  the  country  to  his  ancestral  dwelling, 
and  there  buried.  In  1805  the  coflin  wa^  opened 
and  the  body  found  entire,  and  the  liead  lying 
by  it  still  showed  the  marks  of  the  axe. — 
The  countess  of  Derwentwater  died  at  the  age 
of  30,  of  small  pox,  in  Deershaven,  Flanders. 

DERZHAYIN,  Gabriel  Romaxovitch,  a 
Russian  lyrical  poet,  born  in  Kasan,  July  3, 
1743,  died  July  6,  1816,  gained  distinction  ia 
the  military  and  civil  service,  was  made  secre- 
tary of  state  in  1791  by  Catharine  II.,  with 
whom  he  ingratiated  himself  by  his  panegyri- 
cal odes,  minister  of  justice  in  1802,  and  re- 
tired in  the  following  year  on  a  full-pay  pen- 
sion. Many  of  his  poems  abound  with  beautiful 
moral  sentiments  and  expressions,  especially 
his  ode  to  God,  which  was  not  only  trans- 
lated into  several  European  languages,  but  also 
into  Chinese  and  Japanese.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  hung  up  in  the  palace  of  the  emperor  of 
China,  printed  in  gold  letters  on  white  satin ; 
and,  according  to  Golownin's  account,  it  was 
placed  in  the  same  manner  in  the  temple  of 
Jeddo.  His  complete  works  appeared  in  St, 
Petersburg  (5  vols.,  1810-'15). 

DESAIX  DE  YEYGOUX,  Loris  Chaeles 
AxTorxE,  a  French  general,  of  a  noble  but  poor 
familv,  born  at  the  castle  of  Ayat  in  Auvergne, 
Aug.'l7, 1768,  killed  at  Marengo,  June  14, 1800. 
He  was  gratuitously  educated  at  the  military 
school  of  Etfiat,  Avhich  he  left  at  15  to  enter  the 
regiment  of  Brittany  under  the  name  of  the 
chevalier  de  Veygoux.  His  regular  conduct  and 
strict  attention  to  duty  commended  him  to  his 
superiors,  while  his  liberal  opinions  estranged 
him  from  the  class  to  which  he  belonged,  and 
from  his  family.  In  the  beginning  of  the  rev- 
olution he  was  attached  to  the  staff  of  Marshal 
Luckner.  After  Aug.  10, 1792,  having  signed  a 
protest  against  the  decree  by  which  the  legis- 
lative assembly  suspended  the  authority  of  the 
king,  he  was  cashiered,  and  afterward  imprison- 
ed, but  Carnot  reinstated  him.  He  served  on 
the  Rhine  under  Pichegru  and  Moreau,  with 
such  ability  that  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  general  of  division.  In  1796  he  seconded 
Moreau  in  his  campaign  through  Bavaria,  and 
in  the  famous  retreat  which  won  for  that  gene- 
ral the  reputation  of  a  great  strategist.  On  the 
return  of  the  army  to  the  Rhine,  Desaix  defend- 
ed the  fort  of  Kehl;  and  notwithstanding  the 
dilapidated  condition  of  the  place,  he  held  it 
for  2  months  against  the  repeated  efforts  of 
the  archduke  Charles,  and  finally  concluded  a 
highly  honorable  capitulation.  The  next  year 
he  again  led  the  army  across  the  Rhine,  an  op- 


408 


DESAUGIERS 


DES  BARRES 


eration  in  which  he  showed  consummate  skill. 
In  the  expedition  to  Egypt  he  received  the  com- 
mand of  a  division,  and  after  the  storming  of 
Alexandria,  marched  to  Cairo  with  the  vanguard. 
He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  the  pyramids,  and 
being  ordered  to  pursue  Murad  Bey,  defeated  him 
in  several  encounters,  and  driving  him  into  Nu- 
bia, conquered  the  whole  of  upper  Egypt.  Here 
he  established  a  regular  government,  and  inspired 
the  Egyptians  Avith  such  esteem  that  they  called 
him  the  "just  sultan."  When  Bonaparte  em- 
barked from  Egypt,  ho  placed  Kleber  in  com- 
mand of  the  French  troops,  and  ordered  De- 
saix  to  follow  him.  The  latter  sailed  on  board 
a  Ragusan  bark,  but  on  neariog  his  destina- 
tion was  intercepted  by  an  English  frigate,  and 
was  detained  a  prisoner  for  30  days.  Being 
at  last  released,  ho  arrived.  May  3,  1800,  at 
Toulon,  and  hastened  to  join  Bonaparte  in  Italy, 
where  he  arrived  June  11,  and  -was  put  in  com- 
mand of  a  division,  with  orders  to  prevent  the 
army  which  liad  just  taken  Genoa  from  joining 
that  under  Melas  at  Alessandria.  He  was  con- 
sequently at  some  distance  from  the  main  army 
on  the  morning  of  June  14,  but  on  hearing  the 
artillery,  he  hastily  returned,  and  arrived  in 
time  to  change  the  nearly  lost  battle  of  Marengo 
to  a  complete  victory.  But  he  did  not  witness 
the  result  of  his  movement ;  he  was  sliot  through 
the  heart  as  ho  was  entering  the  action.  Bona- 
parte wept  for  him,  had  a  medal  struck  in  his 
honor,  and  decreed  that  a  statue  should  be  erect- 
ed to  his  memory  in  the  ^^^a^e  des  victoires  at 
Paris,  and  that  his  grave  should  be  placed  on 
the  summit  of  the  Alps,  under  the  care  of  the 
monks  of  St.  Bernard. 

DESAUGIERS,  Maro  Antoine  Madeleiot:, 
a  French  song-writer  and  dramatist,  born  at 
Frejus,  Nov.  17, 1Y72,  died  in  Paris,  Aug.  9, 1827. 
At  the  age  of  17  he  produced  a  successful  one- 
act  comedy.  He  was  in  St.  Domingo,  whither 
he  had  accompanied  his  sister,  who  was  married 
to  a  planter,  when  the  insurrection  of  the  blacks 
broke  out,  from  which  he  barely  escaped  with 
his  life  to  the  United  States,  where  he  earned  a 
living  by  teaching  pianoforte  playing.  He  re- 
turned to  France  in  1797,  and  wrote  songs  and 
light  comedies.  Some  of  his  plays,  such  as  Les 
petites  Danaides,  La  chatte  merveilleiise,  and  if. 
Vautoitr,  had  an  unprecedented  run  ;  while  his 
songs  were  more  popular  than  those  of  any 
other  writer  except  Beranger. 

DESAULT,  Pierre  Joseph,  a  French  sur- 
geon, born  of  humble  parentage  at  Magny-Ver- 
nais,  a  village  of  Franche  Comt6,  in  1744,  died 
in  Paris,  June  1,  1795.  He  commenced  his 
education  for  the  church  in  a  Jesuit  school,  but 
exhibiting  a  strong  inclination  toward  the  study 
of  surgery,  was  permitted  to  acquire  the  rudi- 
ments of  the  art  from  the  barber-surgeon  of 
his  native  village,  after  which  he  was  sent  to 
the  military  hospital  at  Befort,  where  he  re- 
mained 3  years,  giving  special  attention  to  gun- 
Bhot  and  sword  wounds.  "While  here  he  trans- 
lated Borelli's  treatise  Be  Ilotu  Animalium. 
In  17G4  he  went  to  Paris,  and  there  availed 


himself  of  the  facilities  for  dissection  with  such 
success  tiiat  he  was  soon  competent  to  open  a 
course  of  demonstrations  in  anatomy.  In  1776 
he  became  a  member  of  the  college  of  surgery. 
Thereafter  his  progress  was  rapid,  having  suc- 
cessively become  chief  surgeon  to  the  hospital 
of  the  college,  consulting  surgeon  to  St.  Sulpice, 
in  1782  surgeon-major  to  La  Charit6,  and  finally 
chief  surgeon  to  the  Hotel  Dieu,  with  the  rep- 
utation of  being  the  most  skilful  operator  in 
France.  In  connection  with  the  Hotel  Dieu 
he  instituted  a  clinical  class  Avhich  attracted 
many  students.  The  chief  cases  that  came  be- 
fore the  class  were  reported  in  a  serial,  entitled 
Journal  de  chirurgie,  edited  by  the  pupils.  In 
tlie  revolution  he  was  arrested  wliile  lecturing. 
May  28,  1793,  and  carried  to  the  Luxembourg, 
from  which,  however,  he  Avas  liberated  at  the 
end  of  3  days,  more  from  need  of  his  profession- 
al skill  than  from  any  leniency  in  his  accusers. 
Having  been  employed  to  attend  the  daupliin, 
during  the  imprisonment  of  that  unfortunate 
youth  in  the  temple,  he  bestowed  on  him  un- 
remitting care.  Suddenly  he  himself  was  seized 
with  illness,  "which  almost  immediately  termi- 
nated in  delirium  and  death.  The  rumor  of  tho 
time  asserted  that  he  was  poisoned,  because  he 
refused  to  lend  himself  to  the  murder  of  his 
patient.  This  supposition  was  fi^vored  by  the 
coincidence  that  Dr.  Chopart,  who  succeeded 
Desault  in  his  attendance,  died  witli  equal  sud- 
denness, and  that  soon  afterw\ard  the  young  prince 
was  reported  dead.  An  autopsy  in  the  case  of 
Desault  showing  no  trace  of  poison,  his  death 
was  set  down  to  ataxic  fever.  The  republic 
pensioned  his  widow.  Desault  in  manner  was 
abrupt,  even  to  rudeness,  but  under  this  rough 
husk  lay  many  kindly  qualities.  His  pupils 
gave  him  the  name  of  le  lourroii  Menfaisant. 
He  introduced  numerous  improvements  into 
his  art,  both  in  instruments  and  their  use,  espe- 
cially in  the  treatment  of  fractures  and  ligature 
of  arteries.  In  conjunction  with  his  friend 
Chopart,  he  wrote  the  Traite  des  maladies  cM- 
rurgicales  (2  vols.  Svo.,  1780),  which  has  been 
translated  into  English  by  Trumbull. 

DES  BARRES,  Joseph  Feederio  Wallet, 
an  English  soldier  and  hydrographer,  born  in 
1722,  died  in  Halifax,  N.  S.,  Oct.  24,  1824, 
Avhile  on  his  way  to  England.  He  was  de- 
scended from  the  Protestant  branch  of  a  noble 
French  family,  which  emigrated  after  tho  revo- 
cation of  tlie  edict  of  Nantes.  He  received  his 
education  under  the  Bernouillis,  entered  the 
royal  military  college  at  Woolwich,  and  was 
ottered  the  choice  of  a  commission  either  in 
the  royal  artillery  or  corps  of  engineers.  Pre- 
ferring immediate  active  service,  he  embarked 
in  March,  1756,  as  lieutenant  in  the  60th  regi- 
ment of  foot,  for  America;  where,  having  raised 
above  300- recruits  in  Pennsylvania  and  Mary- 
land, ho  was  ordered  to  form  and  discipline 
them  as  a  corps  of  field  artillery,  which  he 
commanded  until  the  arrival  of  one  of  tho  bat- 
talions of  the  royal  train  from  England.  In 
1757  he  commanded  a  detachment  of  volunteers 


DES  BARRES 


DESCARTES 


409 


against  the  Indians,  who  had  committed  depre- 
dations in  tlie  neigliborliood  of  Schenectady  and 
other  frontier  towns ;  surprised  tlie  cliiefs,  whom 
he  made  prisoners,  and  soon  after  gained  their 
confidence  so  completely,  that  tliey  not  only 
•were  restrained  from  further  acts  of  hostility, 
but  became  useful  to  the  army,  in  which  a 
corps  of  them  continued  to  be  employed  to  the 
end  of  the  war.  In  1758  he  was  engaged  in 
the  ex[)edition  against  Louisburg,  where  he 
had  the  good  fortune  to  eflfect  a  landing  in  a 
violent  surf,  and  to  take  from  the  enemy  an  in- 
trenchment  by  which  the  debarkation  of  the 
army  was  greatly  facilitated.  At  this  siege  ho 
was  on  a  critical  occasion  ordered  to  the  duty 
of  an  engineer,  and  after  the  capitulation  he 
employed  himself  in  drawing  a  chart  on  a  large 
scale,  from  papers  and  plans  obtained  tliere, 
which  was  found  very  useful  in  the  next  spring, 
as  tlie  navigation  of  the  river  St.  Lawrence  was 
then  known  only  to  a  few  Canadian  pilots.  At 
the  siege  of  Quebec  he  served  under  Wolfe  as 
an  aide-de-camp,  and  was  making  his  report 
Avheu  that  hero  received  his  mortal  wound,  and 
fell  dying  in  his  arms.  By  the  expenditure  of 
lives  in  the  catnpaign  of  1759  and  the  ensuing 
winter,  and  in  the  unsuccessful  battle  fought 
by  Gen.  Murray,  April  28,  1760,  the  army  in 
Canada  was  reduced  to  less  than  2,000  men  fit 
for  duty.  The  fortifications  of  Quebec  being  in 
a  dismantled  state,  tlie  preservation  of  what 
had  been  acquired,  as  well  as  the  expectation 
of  future  conquests,  seemed  to  rest  on  the  opera- 
tions for  its  actual  defence.  The  conducting  of 
these  operations  fell  to  Des  Barres  as  directing 
engineer,  and  here,  and  subsequently  in  the  re- 
duction of  Fort  Jacques  Cartier  and  other  strong 
])laces,  wliich  completed  the  conquest  of  Canada, 
his  endeavors  proved  successful.  He  was  after- 
ward ordered  to  Nova  Scotia  to  assist  Gen,  Bas- 
tide  in  tracing  designs  and  making  estimates  of 
the  expense  for  fortifying  the  harbor  of  Halifax, 
and  securing  its  dock  yard.  In  1762  he  served 
as  directing  engineer  and  quartermaster-general 
in  the  expedition  for  retaking  Newfoundland, 
and  was  honored  with  public  thanks,  as  having 
essentially  contributed  to  the  recovery  of  that 
island.  After  making  surveys  of  some  of  its 
principal  harbors,  he  was  ordered  to  repair  to 
New  York,  to  proceed  on  reconnoitring  excur- 
sions and  report  observations  on  the  expediency 
of  establishing  a  chain  of  military  posts  through- 
out tlie  British  colonies.  In  1763  LordColville 
received  instructions  to  employ  him  on  the  sur- 
vey of  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  which  was  pro- 
jected by  Admiral  Spry,  who  proposed  the  un- 
dertaking to  senior  oflicers  prior  to  recommend- 
ing Des  Barres  to  the  admiralty  for  that  duty. 
In  this  work  he  was  engaged  until  1773,  and 
on  liis  return  to  England,  1774,  the  king  express- 
ed his  commendation  of  the  manner  in  which 
this  duty  had  been  performed.  Previous  to  this, 
Jiianj'  of  the  fine  harbors  of  Nova  Scotia  were 
known  only  to  fishermen,  and  the  isle  of  Sable 
was  a  terror  to  all  navigators.  The  want  of 
torrect  charts  of  the  coast  of  North  America 


for  the  use  of  the  fleet  engaged  in  carrying  on 
the  American  revolutionary  war,  began  at  this 
time  to  be  felt ;  and  on  Earl  Howe  represent- 
ing the  immediate  necessity  of  their  being  ])re- 
pared,  Des  Barres  was  selected  to  adapt  the 
surveys  of  Holland,  De  Brahm,  and  others  to 
nautical  purposes.  These  he  published  in  1777 
under  the  title  of  the  "Atlantic  Neptune,"  in 
2  large  folio  volumes.  In  1784  the  government 
of  tlie  island  of  Cape  Breton  was  conferred  on 
him,  with  the  military  command  of  tliat  and 
of  Prince  Edward's  island ;  and  soon  after  ho 
commenced  building  the  town  of  Sydney,  and 
opened  and  worked  the  valuable  coal  fields  at  the 
entrance  of  the  river.  From  his  official  position 
he  was  engaged  in  aiding  and  removing  tho 
royalists  from  the  United  States  after  the  Avar 
of  the  revolution.  In  1804  he  was  appointed 
lieutenant-governor  and  commander-in-chief  of 
Prince  Edward's  island,  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence, being  then  in  his  82d  year.  In  person  he 
was  short,  and  at  the  age  of  95  lithe  and  active ; 
about  which  time  he  talked  of  making  the  tour 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  to  which  he  allotted  2 
years ;  this  performed,  he  was  to  commence  that 
of  Europe,  which  he  calculated  would  take  3 
years  more;  after  which  it  was  his  intention  to 
return  to  his  native  place,  and  there  spend  tho 
remainder  of  his  days.  lie  was  Capt.  Cook's 
teacher  in  navigation. 

DESCANT,  in  music,  an  old  term,  now  under- 
stood to  be  synonymous  with  counterpoint.  It 
signifies  strictly  an  unpremeditated  enlargement 
upon  a  given  subject,  which,  sung  by  another 
voice  or  by  voices,  formed  the  accompaniment 
of  the  descant.  Musicians  distinguished  between 
plain,  figurative,  and  double  descant. 

DESCARTES,  Rene  (Lat.  Rexatus  Caetesi- 
rs),  a  French  philosopher,  born  in  La  Haye,  be- 
tween Tours  and  Poitiers,  in  Touraine,  March  31, 
1596,  died  in  Stockholm,  Feb.  11,  1650.  He  was 
the  youngest  son  of  a  councillor  of  the  parliament 
of  Rennes,  of  an  ancient  and  noble  ftimily,  and 
early  in  life,  when  as  yet  a  mere  boy,  evinced  such 
a  disposition  to  inquire  into  the  nature  and  causes 
of  things,  that  he  passed  under  the  sobriquet  of 
the  young  philosopher.  His  education  was  con- 
ducted in  the  Jesuit  college  of  La  Fl(^che,  where, 
in  spite  of  the  extreme  delicacy  of  his  physical 
constitution,  he  made  rapid  progress  in  the  Greek 
and  Latin  classics,  and  the  other  ordinary  studies 
of  such  an  institution.  He  contracted  also  while 
there  a  friendsliip  with  Mersenne,  which  lasted 
until  the  end  of  his  life ;  and  though  Mersenne 
became  a  monk,  it  was  chiefly  through  him 
that  Descartes  communicated  from  the  pro- 
found scholastic  retirement  whicli  he  sedulously 
sought  witli  tho  outside  learned  world.  After 
leaving  college,  in  his  16th  year,  he  occupied 
himself  in  acquiring  the  manly  accomplishments 
of  riding  and  fencing,  with  a  view  to  the  military 
life,  to  which  he  was  destined  by  tlie  Avishes  of 
his  fiiniily  and  the  spirit  of  the  times.  But  his 
health  did  not  allow  him  to  enter  the  service  im- 
mediately, and  he  was  sent  to  Paris  with  a  tutor, 
in  order  to  pass  two  years  in  the  further  prose- 


410 


DESCARTES 


cution  of  liis  studies.  In  1616  he  joined  the 
army  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  and  while  in  garri- 
son at  Breda  composed  his  Compendium  MusiccB^ 
which  seemed  a  prelude  to  the  research  for  har- 
mony wliich  he  was  soon  about  to  carry  into 
all  the  realms  of  knowledge.  He  was  driven  to 
it,  doubtless,  by  tlie  painful  uncertainty  and  clia- 
otic  confusion  whicli  reigned  in  nearly  all  the 
departments  of  human  inquiry.  As  a  reaction 
against  the  prevailing  tone,  which  was  the  des- 
potism of  authorities,  many  of  the  finest  in- 
tellects had  taken  refuge  in  scepticism,  so  that 
Mersenne  could  write  in  1623:  "There  are 
50,000  atheists  in  Paris  ;"  and  the  most  i)opular 
verses  of  the  Agrippine  of  Cyrano  were  those 
which  sang: 

£7fl«  heure  apres  la  mart,  notre  Ame  evanouie 
Sera  ce  qu'elle  etait  xme  heure  avant  la  vie  ; 

which  may  be  translated: 

An  hour  after  death,  our  soul,  releasefl  from  earth, 
Win  be  just  what  it  was  an  hour  before  its  birth. 

At  the  same  time  there  was  a  bitter  reaction 
against  the  past  in  the  scientific  aspirations  of 
those  students  of  Italy,  France,  Germany,  and 
England,  who  began  to  cast  off  the  fetters  of  the 
scholastic  logic,  and  to  open  new  methods  of 
investigation  into  nature,  by  means  of  observa- 
tion and  experiment.  Descartes  was  torn  by 
the  doubts  of  his  epoch,  but  he  shared  also  in 
its  grand  hopes  ;  and  if  he  doubted,  it  was  only 
to  cleanse  his  mind  of  the  errors  of  the  past, 
and  to  enable  it  to  move  more  freely  toward  the 
grand  constructions  of  tlie  future.  In  1619  he 
left  the  Dutch  army,  and  entered  as  a  volun- 
teer into  the  service  of  the  duke  of  Bavaria ; 
he  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Prague  in  1620, 
and  made  the  campaign  of  Hungary  in  1621. 
The  atrocities  which  he  witnessed  in  this  war 
are  said  to  have  been  the  occasion  of  his  resign- 
ing his  commission  ;  but  the  probability  is  that 
his  active  mind  had  exhausted  the  uses  of  that 
mode  of  life,  and  he  was  eager  to  enlarge  his 
knowledge  of  men  and  society  by  more  exten- 
sive travel.  Quitting  the  profession  of  arms  al- 
together, therefore,  he  visited  the  greater  part 
of  the  north  of  Europe,  then  returned  to  France, 
where  ho  sold  his  estates,  and  speedily  resumed 
his  journeys.  He  spent  considerable  time  in 
Switzerland  and  Italy,  being  present  at  Rome 
during  the  jubilee  of  1625,  and  wherever  he 
went  observing  the  grand  phenomena  of  nature, 
and  perfecting  himself  in  the  acquisition  of  all 
existing  knowledge.  It  was  at  the  town  of 
Neuburg,  on  the  Danube,  where  he  passed  the 
winter,  that  the  plan  of  devoting  the  remainder 
of  his  days  to  tlie  reconstruction  of  the  princi- 
ples of  human  knowledge,  which  had  long  been 
maturing  in  his  mind,  took  a  definite  shape. 
"While  he  wandered  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, he  was  digesting  the  outlines  of  the 
great  discoveries  in  geometry  and  method,  des- 
tined soon  to  change  the  intellectual  currents  of 
the  world.  He  was  but  just  33,  and  in  the 
height  and  vigor  of  his  powers.  Repairing  first  to 
Paris,  where  he  moved  about  from  one  obscure 
house  to  another  to  escape  the  intrusions  of 


friends,  he  next  settled  in  the  neighboring  conn- 
try,  and  being  disturbed  there,  finally  fixed  his 
retreat  in  Holland,  "the  busy  hive  of  labor  and 
liberty,"  where  he  found  it  more  easy  to  create 
the  solitude  necessary  to  his  profound  medita- 
tions. His  life  became  that  of  an  ascetic,  eman- 
cipated from  all  social  ties  and  relations,  in  order 
that  he  might  devote  himself  the  more  exclu- 
sively to  what  was  now  his  only  wedded  wife, 
the  truth.  He  did  not  refuse,  however,  all  par- 
ticipation in  tlie  affairs  of  the  wo,rld;  in  1633 
he  made  a  brief  visit  to  England,  the  following 
year  to  Amsterdam ;  and,  indeed,  he  constantly, 
througli  the  inediation  of  Mersenne,  maintained 
an  active  correspondence  with  the  learned  inen 
who  sought  his  instruction  or  his  friendship. 
In  1637  he  began  a  more  open  career  by  tlio 
publication  of  a  volume  from  the  press  of  Ley^ 
den,  entitled  Discours  de  la  methode^  which 
contained  treatises  on  method,  on  dioptrics,  on 
meteors,  and  on  geometry.  The  first  of  these, 
beside  an  admirable  picture  of  his  life  and  of 
the  progress  of  his  studies,  furnished  a  clear 
outline  of  a  new  science  of  metaphysics  only 
expanded  in  his  later  and  larger  works.  In 
1641  he  published  in  Latin,  from  the  press  of 
Paris,  his  Meditationes  de  Prima  Philosophia, 
which  carried  his  speculations  into  abstruse  ques- 
tions as  to  the  existence  of  God  and  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul.  He  invited  criticisms  of  these, 
which,  in  later  editions,  are  arranged  and  re- 
plied to  under  7  heads,  wherein  he  consid- 
ers all  the  objections  raised  to  his  original  sys- 
tem. These  works  filled  Europe  with  his  name, 
and  at  the  close  of  the  year  1641  he  was 
invited  to  France  by  King  Louis  XIII.,  but  he 
refused  to  quit  his  retirement.  In  1644  his 
Principia  Philosophic  appeared,  which  3  years 
later  was  translated  into  French  by  one  of  his 
friends,  Claude  Picot.  He  then  went  to  France, 
where  a  pension  of  3,000  livres  a  year  was  con- 
ferred upon  him ;  but  as  Queen  Christina  of  Swe- 
den invited  him  to  Stockholm,  at  the  same  time 
appointing  him  director  of  an  academy  which 
she  proposed  to  establish,  at  a  salary  of  3,000 
crowns  a  year,  he  was  induced  once  more  to 
abandon  his  native  country.  It  was  a  fatal 
choice  for  him,  for  the  rigors  of  the  climate, 
"combined  with  the  unusually  early  hours  exact- 
ed from  him  by  the  queen,  in  an  eccentric  wish 
to  take  lessons  from  him,  led  to  his  death  in  less 
than  two  years.  He  was  buried  at  Stockholm, 
but  16  years  afterward  Louis  XIV.  caused  his. 
remains  to  be  disinterred  and  carried  to  France, 
where  he  was  entombed  in  the  church  of  Ste. 
Genevieve  du  Mont,  in  the  midst  of  magnifi- 
cent ceremonies,  and  of  the  almost  universal 
homage  of  his  enlightened  countrymen. — Des- 
cartes was  an  encyclopredic  genius,  and  it  would 
be  impossible,  in  an  article  like  this,  to  describe 
the  entire  scope  and  influence  of  his  activity. 
He  created  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  tlie  hu- 
man mind,  and  can  only  be  classed  with  men 
of  the  first  order,  like  Plato,  Aristotle,  Bacon, 
Newton,  and  Kant.  With  Bacon,  he  was  one 
of  the    founders  of  modern    philosophy,  but 


DESCARTES 


411 


ho  pushed  his  inquiries  further  tlian  Bacon  in 
inauy  respects,  and  in  a  somewhat  ditiercnt 
Bplicre.  What  tlie  latter  accoinphslied  for  nat- 
ural science,  Descartes  accomplished  for  moral 
and  metaphysical ;  and  it  is  no  exaggeration 
which  considers  him  as  the  father  of  that  stu- 
pendous movement  of  intellectual  investigation 
•which  has  given  to  the  world  Malebranche  and 
Spinoza,  and  after  them  the  entire  school  of  the 
great  German  idealists,  beginning  with  Leibnitz 
and  Wolf,  and  culminating  in  Kant  and  Hegel. 
As  a  metaphj'sician,  he  was  the  fountain  head  of 
the  s[)eculation  of  a  whole  subsequent  century, 
while  he  added  to  his  glory  in  that  s])here  the 
scarcely  inferior  distinction  of  a  great  discoverer 
in  the  mathematics,  and  of  an  earnest  and  sedu- 
lous laborer  in  nearly  all  the  broad  domains 
of  physical  science  then  known.  Not  wholly 
exempt  from  the  errors  of  his  day,  he  was  yet 
immeasurably  in  advance  of  his  day  ;  while  he 
enjoys  this  singular  eminence  among  the  greater 
number  of  philosophers,  too  mucli  given  to  tlie 
jargon  of  learned  words  and  abstruse  phrases, 
that  his  style,  his  manner  of  expression,  is  as  clear 
and  beautiful  as  his  thouglit  is  great.  French 
style  appears  nowhere  more  simple,  limpid,  and 
direct  than  in  the  varied  dissertations  of  Des- 
cartes, even  when  he  treats  of  subjects  the  most 
recondite  and  difficult.  Sir  James  Stephen  com- 
pares the  language  of  Descartes  to  the  "atmo- 
sphere, by  the  intervention  of  which  we  see, 
though  it  is  itself  invisible.  It  is  the  nearest 
possible  approacli  to  that  inarticulate  speech  in 
which  disembodied  spirits  may  be  supposed  to 
interchange  their  thoughts.  It  has  no  technical 
terms,  no  appeals  to  the  memory,  no  coloring  of 
imagination  or  of  art,  no  trope  or  epigram  or 
antithesis,  no  rhetoric  and  no  passion;  and  yet 
it  wants  neither  elegance  nor  warmth.  The 
warmth  is  the  warmth  of  a  devout  solicitude  to 
attain  truth  and  to  impart  it.  The  elegance 
consists  in  tlie  felicity  with  which  every  word, 
sentence,  paragrapli,  and  discussion  falls  into  its 
proper  place,  and  exactly  fulfils  its  appropriate 
office."  It  was  owing  to  this  admirable  clear- 
ness, perhaps,  as  much  as  to  the  more  essential 
merits  of  his  system,  that  it  was  said,  at  the 
time  of  Descartes'  death,  that  everybody,  great? 
or  small,  in  England  and  France,  who  thought 
at  all,  thought  Cartesiauism.  The  fundamental 
principles  of  the  philosophy  of  Descartes  relate 
to  his  method,  which  takes  its  point  of  depart- 
ure in  universal  doubt,  and  places  the  criterion 
of  all  certitude  in  evidence,  or  in  other  words, 
in  reason,  as  the  sovereign  judge  of  the  true  and 
the  false  ;  to  the  erection  of  the  individual  con- 
sciousness into  tlie  fundamental  ground  and 
source  of  all  correct  philosophy — cogito,  ergo 
sum  ;  to  the  radical  distinction  which  is  drawn 
between  the  soul  and  the  body,  the  essential 
attribute  of  the  former  being  thought,  and  that 
of  the  latter,  extension  ;  to  the  demonstration 
of  the  existence  of  God  from  the  very  idea  of 
the  infinite;  to  the  division  of  ideas  into 
tliose  which  are  innate,  or  born  within  us  as 
uecessary  or  inspired,   those  which  are  fac- 


titious, or  created  by  us,  and  those  which  aro 
adventitious,  or  come  from  without  by  means 
of  the  senses;  to  the  definition  of  substance, 
as  that  which  so  exists  as  to  need  nothing 
else  for  its  existence,  and  which  is  applicable 
in  the  liighest  sense  only  to  God,  Avho  has 
his  ground  in  himself,  but  only  relatively  to 
the  thinking  and  cori)oreal  substances,  which 
need  the  cooperation  of  God  to  their  existence ; 
and  to  the  affirmation  that  the  imiverse  depends 
upon  the  productive  power,  not  only  for  its  first 
existence,  but  for  its  continued  being  and  oper- 
ation, or  in  other  words,  that  conservation  is 
perpetual  creation.  Other  points  in  this  ])hi- 
losophy  are  important,  and  other  aspects  of  it 
are  to  be  regarded  by  the  student ;  but  for  the 
popular  reader  these  chiefly  deserve  attention, 
because  these  were  characteristic  and  creative, 
and  furnished  the  themes  for  the  greater  part 
of  the  agitated  discussions  of  later  years.  From 
his  theory  of  doubt,  except  upon  evidence,  for 
instance,  the  philosophy  of  the  17th  century,  and 
the  whole  of  modern  philosophy,  in  fact,  derived 
that  disdain  for  the  authority  which  formerly 
fettered  the  free  movements  of  the  mind,  and 
that  reliance  upon  reason,  which  Arnauld,  Male- 
branche, Pascal,  Bossuet,  Fenelon,  and  others 
appealed  to  so  etfectively.  This  vivid  determi- 
nation of  the  consciousness,  or  the  Me,  as  the 
proper  object  of  metaphysical  investigation,  was 
the  starting  point  of  those  great  systems  of 
thought,  both  Scotch  and  German,  which  are 
.  such  remarkable  phenomena  in  the  history  of  in- 
tellectual development.  It  is  easy  to  trace,  also, 
to  his  doctrine  of  substance,  the  vast  pantheistic 
speculations  of  Spinoza,  and  more  lately  of  Fichte 
and  Hegel.  In  short,  the  schemes  of  Geulincx, 
Leibnitz,  Wolf,  Kant,  and  perhaps  of  Sweden- 
borg,  are  all  more  or  less  directly  affiliated  to  the 
great  leading  ideas  of  the  French  thinker.  As  a 
whole,  therefore,  we  are  not  surprised  to  learn 
that  when  his  system  appeared,  it  produced  an 
instant  and  vivid  sensation.  The  scholastics 
were  astonished  by  an  assault  at  once  so  radical 
and  so  vital ;  the  sceptics  saw  with  stupefaction 
a  scepticism  more  searching  than  theirs  rising 
into  the  most  solid  religious  faith ;  while  the  in- 
dependent men  of  science,  who  had  long  been 
struggling  against  the  methods  of  the  old  dialec- 
tics, received  with  joy  and  gratitude  a  doctrine 
which  seemed  to  place  their  researches  on  an  im- 
movable foundation  of  truth,  and  to  promise  to 
crown  them  with  the  richest  fruits  of  progress. 
For  a  while  Descartes  threatened  to  succeed  to 
the  place  of  absolute  dictation  and  mastery  which 
had  been  so  long  assigned  to  Aristotle.  His  in- 
fluence passed  from  the  oratory  and  the  study  to 
the  popular  literature ;  all  the  great  writers  of 
the  age  of  Louis  XIV.  were  tinctured  by  it ;  but 
just  as  it  appeared  to  have  attained  a  universal 
acceptation,  it  began  as  rapidly  to  fade  and 
shrink.  The  reasons  of  this  decline  are  to  be 
found  partly  in  the  growth  of  Locke's  sensation- 
al philosophy ;  partly  in  the  demonstrated  im- 
potence of  Descartes'  principles  to  resolve  many 
of  the  higher  problems  to  which  ho  aspired ;  but 


412 


DESCENT 


chiefly-  in  the  discoveries  of  Newton  and  the 
progress  of  physics,  which  discredited  his  phy- 
sical tlieories,  and  therefore  brougiit  his  meta- 
physical conchisions  into  distrust.  The  theory 
of  vortices,  by  whicli  he  endeavored  to  explain 
the  movements  of  tlie  heavenly  bodies,  gave 
place  to  the  simpler  theory  of  Newton  as  to  a 
law  of  universal  gravitation ;  but  science  has 
not  ceased  in  consequence  to  confess  its  obliga- 
tions to  Descartes  for  his  important  discoveries 
as  to  the  application  of  algebra  to  geometry,  his 
£ontributions  to  dioptrics,  to  mechanics,  and  to 
hydrostatics,  and  for  that  fearless  spirit  of  in- 
vestigation, which,  if  it  led  him  into  mistakes, 
enabled  him  also  to  anticipate  many  truths  as- 
cribed to  a  later  period. — After  the  death  of 
Descartes,  in  addition  to  the  works  we  have 
already  mentioned,  there  were  published  :  Le 
monde  cle  Descartes^  ou  l-e  trditc  de  la  htmiere 
(12mo.,  Paris,  1664) ;  Le  traite  de  Vhomme  et  de 
la  formation  du  fcetus  (4to.,  Paris,  1664) ;  Les 
lettres  dc  Rene De*cartes{i  vols.  4to.,  1657-67). 
The  principal  complete  editions  of  liis  writings 
are  Opera  Omnia  (8  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1670- 
'83) ;  (Euvres  completes  de  Descartes  (9  vols., 
Paris,  1724);  CEuvres  co77ipletes  de  Descartes,  by 
Victor  Cousin  (11  vols.,  1824-'26),  Avhich  is 
perhaps  the  most  perfect  edition ;  CEuvres  p)hi- 
losopJiiquesde  Descartes  (1835),  by  Garnier,  who 
added  a  life,  and  a  thorough  analysis  of  all  his 
writings.  On  the  philosoi)hy  of  this  master, 
the  dissertations  are  almost  without  number, 
but  the  few  most  useful  or  curious  are  com-, 
prised  in  the  following  list :  Recueil  de  pieces 
ciirievses  concernant  la  2}hilosopkie  de  Descartes 
(Amsterdam,  1684,  published  by  Bayle) ;  Me- 
moires  pour  servir  d  Vhistoiredri  Cartesianisme, 
by  Huet  (Paris,  1693) ;  Memoires  stir  la  per- 
secution du  Cartesianisme,  by  Cousin  (Paris, 
1838)  ;  Histoire  et  critique  de  la  revolution 
Cartesienne,  by  M.  Francisque  Boullier  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1842)  ;  Le  Cartesianisme,  ou  la  veritable 
renovation  des  sciences,  by  M.  Bordau  Demoulin 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1843).  Of  late  years  the  study 
of  Descartes  has  revived  among  the  French  plii- 
losophers.  See  Damiron's  Essai  sur  VMstoire 
de  la  pMlosophie  en  France  axi  XIX'  siecle, 
which  contains  a  report  in  6  memoirs  read  to 
the  academy,  on  the  philosophy  of  Descartes  and 
its  effects. 

DESCENT,  in  law,  is  the  transmission  of  an 
estate  in  lands  by  operation  of  law,  upon  the 
decease  of  a  proprietor,  without  any  disposition 
thereof  having  been  made  by  him.  The  terra 
is  derived  from  a  principle  existing  until  very 
recently  in  the  English  law,  tliat  an  inheritance 
could  never  lineally  ascend,  yet  upon  failure  of 
lineal  descendants,  it  could  ascend  collaterally. 
Thus  the  father  could  not  be  the  heir  of  his  son, 
hut  the  uncle  could  inherit  from  the  nephew. 
There  was  therefore  an  inaptness  in  the  expres- 
sion even  as  used  in  the  common  law  doctrine 
of  inheritance,  and  still  greater  incongruity  in 
American  law,  which  allows  a  lineal  ascent 
from  the  son  to  the  father.  Succession  is  the 
more  appropriate  phrase  in  the  Roman  law, 


and  from  that  adopted  in  the  French  and  other 
modern  systems  of  law.  Gibbon  has  well  re- 
marked that  the  Roman  law  of  hereditary  suc- 
cession "deviated  less  from  tlie  equality  of 
nature  than  the  Jewish,  Athenian,  or  English 
institutions."  The  oldest  son  of  a  Hebrew  in- 
herited a  double  portion.  By  the  Athenian  law 
the  sons  inherited  jointly,  but  the  daughters 
were  wholly  dependent  upon  what  provision 
their  brothers  might  choose  to  give  them  by 
way  of  marriage  portion.  The  English  law  of 
primogeniture  gives,  not  a  larger  proportion,  but 
the  whole,  to  the  eldest  son  ;  and  in  various 
other  respects  which  will  be  presently  referred 
to,  the  natural  order  of  equity  is  singularly  dis- 
regarded in  the  law  of  descent.  On  the  other 
hand,  by  the  Roman  law,  when  a  man  died  in- 
testate, all  his  children,  both  sons  and  daugh- 
ters, inherited  alike ;  and  in  case  of  the  decease 
of  either,  the  descendants  of  the  decedent 
would  take  such  share  as  would  have  belonged 
to  him  or  her.  The  distinction  of  agnates  and 
cognates  was  indeed  introduced  at  an  early  pe- 
riod, whereby  the  descendants  of  females,  who 
were  called  cognates,  were  excluded ;  but  by 
imperial  constitutions  they  were  restored  to 
the  right  of  succession,  with  a  diminution  of  a 
third  in  favor  of  the  agnates,  that  is,  descend- 
ants of  males,  and  even  this  discrimination  was 
abrogated  by  Justinian.  On  failure  of  lineal 
descendants,  the  father  and  mother  or  other 
lineal  ascendants  were  admitted.  Such  was 
the  rule  as  to  lineal  succession.  In  respect  to 
collateral  inheritance,  by  the  law  of  the  12 
tables,  agnates,  whether  male  or  female,  were 
admitted  alike,  but  by  the  later  law  all  females 
of  collateral  kindred  were  excluded  ;  the  hard- 
ship of  the  rule  was  in  some  measure  relieved  by 
the  prastor,  who  gave  to  females  thus  excluded 
a  share  of  the  personal  estate.  Justinian  re- 
stored the  right  of  succession  as  it  had  origi- 
nally existed.  Descendants  of  females  of  the 
collateral  kindred  were  still,  however,  left  un- 
provided for.  Thus,  though  a  sister  could  in- 
herit from  her  brother,  yet  her  children  could 
not ;  but  the  reverse  of  the  rule  did  not  hold, 
for  there  was  no  corresponding  disability  in 
the  brother  to  inherit  from  the  children  of  his 
sister.  The  rule  of  collateral  succession  was 
that  the  nearest  agnate  (or  all  the  agnates  of 
the  same  degree)  took  the  whole  estate.  The 
mode  of  estimating  the  degree  of  consanguinity 
was  by  tlie  Roman  law  to  take  the  entire  num- 
ber of  intermediate  persons  in  the  ascending 
and  descending  scale  between  the  parties  whose 
relationship  was  in  question.  Thus,  first  cou- 
sins would  be  related  in  the  fourth  degree, 
being  each  two  removes  from  the  common  an- 
cestor ;  whereas  by  the  canon  law,  which  has 
been  taken  as  the  basis  of  the  English  rule  of 
descent,  the  consanguinity  is  measured  by  the 
number  of  degrees  between  the  most  remote  of 
the  two  persons  and  the  common  ancestor,  which 
in  the  case  of  cousins  would  be  two  degrees  ; 
and  it  would  be  the  same  between  uncle  and 
nephew.    The  rules  of  descent  by  the  common 


DESCENT 


413 


law  of  England  are  exceedingly  artificial,  being 
derived  chiefly  from  the  old  feudal  system,  and 
by  usage  become  fixed,  though  the  reasons  that 
first  gave  rise  to  them  have  long  ceased  to  exist. 
The  pj-incipal  of  these  rules  are  as  follows:  1. 
The  estate  descends  lineally  to  the  oldest  son, 
to  the  exclusion  of  all  others ;  or  if  ho  is  de- 
ceased, then  to  his  descendants,  male  or  female, 
following  the  same  rule  of  preference  in  all 
respects  as  prescribed  in  this  and  the  following 
rules.  2.  In  case  of  the  decease  of  the  oldest 
son  without  issue,  then  to  the  next  oldest  and 
his  descendants,  and  so  to  the  last  of  the  males. 
3.  In  case  of  failure  of  male  issue,  then  to  the 
daughters,  who,  contrary  to  the  order  prescrib- 
ed in  the  preceding  rules,  do  not  take  succes- 
sively, but  become  seized  jointly  of  a  peculiar 
estate  called  coparcenery,  the  incidents  of 
which  we  need  not  now  stop  to  discuss,  fur- 
ther than  to  say  that  each  coparcener  has  an 
absolute  undivided  interest,  which  she  may  con- 
vey, or  which  on  her  decciase  will  descend  to 
her  heirs.  4.  Failing  all  lineal  descendants, 
the  estate  does  not  ascend  lineally-^that  is  to 
say,  to  the  father  or  graudfother,  who  by  the 
common  law  are  incapacitated  to  take  directly 
from  the  son  or  grandson,  though  they  may 
indirectly  through  collateral  heirs — but  to  the 
nearest  collateral  kindred,  still  following  the 
preference  of  males  to  females,  and,  of  the  males 
of  the  same  degree,  the  oldest  having  the  ex- 
clusive right.  Thus  the  oldest  brother  and  his 
descendants  will  take  ;  failing  whom,  the  next 
brother  and  his  descendants ;  or  in  default  of 
brothers,  then  all  the  sisters  in  copercenery ; 
but  if  there  be  no  brothers  or  sisters,  then 
the  kindred  of  next  degree  will  succeed,  subject 
to  the  same  rules  of  preference.  5.  In  respect 
to  collateral  succession,  several  other  rules  ap- 
ply, (a.)  The  heir  must  be  not  oidy  the  near- 
est of  kin  of  the  person  last  seized,  but  must  be 
of  the  whole  blood,  that  is  to  say,  must  be  de- 
scended from  the  same  two  ancestors,  male  and 
female  ;  as,  if  A  and  B  are  brothers  having 
the  same  father  but  not  the  same  mother,  if  au 
estate  descends  to  A  from  the  father  and  he 
dies,  B  shall  not  inherit  from  him,  although  if 
A  had  died  before  the  father,  B  would  have  been 
the  heir  of  the  father.  So  far  was  this  exclu- 
sion carried  by  the  common  law,  that  a  sister 
of  the  whole  blood  would  take  in  preference  to 
a  brother  of  the  half  blood,  and  the  estate  would 
even  escheat  rather  than  it  should  descend 
to  the  latter ;  and  the  same  rule  prevailed  in 
respect  to  more  remote  collateral  relatives. 
(P.)  It  is  also  necessary,  in  order  to  inherit  col- 
laterally, to  be  of  the  blood  of  the  first  purcha- 
ser, that  is  to  say,  of  the  person  who  first  ac- 
quired the  estate  ;  as,  if  A  purchase  land  and 
it  descends  through  several  generations  to  B, 
who  dies  without  issue,  no  collateral  relative 
of  B  can  take  the  estate  unless  he  is  also  of  the 
blood  of  A^  from  whom  it  originally  came,  (c.) 
Kindred  on  the  side  of  male  ancestors,  how- 
ever remote,  are  preferred  to  kindred  descended 
from  females,  however  near,  unless  the  estate 


descended  from  a  female,  in  which  case  the  kin- 
dred of  such  female  can  alone  inlierit.  Thus 
the  relatives  on  the  father's  side  are  preferred  to 
the  motlier's,  and  on  the  grandfather's  to  the 
grandmother's,  and  so  in  all  the  degrees  of  ances- 
try, (d.)  In  Computing  degrees  of  consanguin- 
ity, the  rule  of  the  canon  law  is  adopted  as  be- 
fore mentioned,  whereby  the  relationship  to  tlio 
common  ancestor  is  alone  considered.  Accord- 
ing to  this  rule,  brothers  are  related  in  the  first 
degree,  cousins  in  the  second  ;  but  as  this  would 
often  make  a  different  degree  of  relationship  be- 
tween the  same  parties,  according  as  it  was  com- 
puted from  one  or  the  other  to  the  common  an- 
cestor, it  was  found  necessary  to  adopt  a  further 
rule,  that  the  consanguinity  of  each  to  the  other 
was  to  be  determined  by  that  of  the  most  re- 
mote from  the  common  ancestor.  Again,  there 
might  sometimes  be  different  sets  of  kindred  in 
the  same  degree  of  relationship  by  referring  to 
different  ancestors,  a^  a  nephew  is  in  the  same 
degree  as  an  uncle,  the  common  ancestor  of  the 
one  being  the  father,  of  the  other  the  grand- 
father ;  in  such  a  case,  another  rule  intervenes, 
viz. :  that  the  relative  representing  the  nearest 
ancestor  shall  take  priority,  according  to  which 
the  nephew  would  inherit  before  the  uncle. 
Several  important  changes  have  been  made  in 
the  law  of  descent  by  statute  3  and  4  William 
IV.,  c.  106  (1833),  the  principal  of  which  are: 

1,  that  a  lineal  ancestor  is  permitted  to  inherit, 
and  takes  precedence  of  a  cohateral  heir;  thus 
the  father  is  preferred  to  the  brother  or  sister ; 

2,  relatives  of  the  half  blood  are  relieved  from 
disability  to  inherit,  and  succeed  next  after  rel- 
atives of  the  same  degree  of  the  whole  blood  ; 
8,  several  provisions  are  made  for  the  determi- 
nation of  the  question  who  was  the  purchaser 
from  whom  by  the  rules  of  common  law  the 
descent  was  to  be  traced.  The  person  last  en- 
titled is  to  be  deemed  a  purchaser,  unless  it  be 
shown  that  he  took  by  inheritance,  and  so  of 
any  preceding  ancestor.  In  the  case  of  a  devise 
by  a  man  to  his  heir,  such  heir  shall  be  deemed 
to  have  taken  by  the  devise  and  not  by  descent, 
and  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  purchaser.  When 
land  is  purchased  under  a  limitation  to  the  heirs 
of  a  particular  ancestor,  such  ancestor  is  deemed 
the  purchaser.  From  this  summary  of  the  Eng- 
lish law  of  descent,  which  gives  only  the  gen- 
eral rules  Avithout  noticing  certain  exceptions 
which  are  said  to  exist  by  ancient  usage  in  some 
places,  it  is  apparent  that  the  basis  of  the  system 
was  a  condition  of  society  no  longer  existing. 
The  theory  of  seeking  for  a  single  male  heir 
to  the  exclusion  of  all  others  belongs  to  the 
turbulent  period  when  a  military  head  of  a 
family  was  needed,  and  all  the  other  members 
of  the  family  found  shelter  in  a  common  man- 
sion, under  the  protection  of  an  organized  do- 
mestic force.  The  perpetuation  of  the  rule,  in 
a  period  of  private  immunity  from  violence, 
can  serve  no  other  purpose  than  to  keep  toge- 
ther the  estates  of  great  land  proprietors.  This 
may  be  essential  for  maintaining  the  respecta- 
bility of  the  titles  of  nobility,  but  is  inapplica- 


414 


DESCENT 


DESi:ZE 


ble  to  all  othei-  proprietors ;  and  moreover,  per- 
sonal property,  which  was  comparatively  unno- 
ticed by  the  feudal  law,  but  which  has  become 
a  large  proportion  of  the  wealth  of  the  kingdom, 
is  distributed  by  another  rule,  conforming  to  the 
equitable  principle  of  the  civil  law.  The  reten- 
tion of  this  part  of  the  old  feudal  law  is  there- 
fore mainly  attributable  to  the  stern  prejudice 
in  favor  of  ancient  usage  which  has  always  been 
peculiar  to  the  English  people. — The  law  of 
descent  in  the  United  States  is  based  upon  the 
English  statute  (22  and  23  Cliarles  II.)  for  the 
distribution  of  the  personal  estate  of  intestates, 
which  statute  is  substantially  in  conformity 
with  the  civil  law.  In  most  of  the  states  real 
and  personal  estate  descend  by  the  same  rule, 
with  the  exception  only  of  the  interest  of  the 
husband  and  wife  respectively,  the  former  of 
whom  has  an  estate  for  life  in  all  the  lands  be- 
longing to  a  deceased  wife,  and  the  wife  has  an 
estate  for  life  in  one  third  of  the  lands  belong- 
ing to  a  deceased  husband,  which  is  called 
dower.  The  rule  of  descent  in  the  state  of 
New  York,  which  may  be  taken  as  the  law  of 
most  of  the  other  states,  is  :  1,  of  the  lineal 
descendants  of  the  intestate,  an  equal  propor- 
tion to  all  who  are  of  equal  degree  of  consan- 
guinity, whether  male  or  female ;  but  in  the 
case  of  the  decease  of  any  one  of  them,  then 
his  or  her  descendants  take  the  proportion  that 
would  liave  belonged  to  such  deceased  party  if 
living;  thus,  should  the  intestate  leave  2  chil- 
dren and  3  grandchildren,  descendants  of  a  de- 
ceased child,  tlie  estate  will  be  divided  into  3 
parts,  tb(j  3  grandchildren  taking  the  i  which 
would  have  belonged  to  tlie  parent  whom  they 
represent ;  2,  upon  foilure  of  lineal  descend- 
ants, the  father  of  the  intestate  will  inherit,  un- 
less the  estate  came  on  the  part  of  the  mother; 

3,  if  the  father  is  not  living,  or  cannot  for  the 
reason  above  mentioned  take  the  estate,  the 
mother  will  be  entitled  to  hold  it  for  life,  the 
reversion  to  belong  to  the  brothers  and  sisters ; 

4,  if  no  lineal  descendants  or  father  or  mother, 
then  the  estate  wiU  descend  to  the  nearest  col- 
lateral relatives  of  equal  degree,  and  the  same 
rule  applies  as  in  the  case  of  lineal  descend- 
ants, that  the  descendants  of  a  deceased  party 
take  the  same  share  that  such  ancestor  would 
have  been  entitled  to  if  living.  The  rules  as  to 
collateral  succession  are  as  follows  :  (a)  bro- 
thers and  sisters,  or  the  children  of  deceased 
brothers  and  sisters,  are  first  entitled ;  but  in 
case  no  brother  or  sister  is  living,  but  there  are 
descendants  of  several,  then  such  descendants 
take  equally  per  capita^  and  not  J'CT  stirpes  or 
representation,  as  would  be  the  case  if  one  of 
the  brothers  or  sisters  were  living  ;  (5)  if  no 
brothers  or  sisters  of  the  intestate  nor  descend- 
ants of  deceased  brothers  or  sisters,  the  next 
heirs  are  uncles  and  aunts  on  the  father's  side, 
or  failing  these,  the  same  relatives  on  the 
mother's  side ;  if,  however,  the  estate  came  on 
the  part  of  the  mother,  then  her  relatives  have 
the  ])refereuce ;  but  if  the  estate  had  not  de- 
scended from  either  father  or  mother,  then  the 


relatives  on  the  part  of  both  take  equally.  In 
the  descent,  both  lineal  and  collateral,  relatives 
of  the  half  blood  are  equally  entitled  with  those 
of  the  whole  blood.  The  rules  of  succession  by 
the  French  civil  code  are  nearly  the  same  as 
those  prevailing  in  this  country.  The  variations 
are  principally  these:  1,  if  there  are  father 
and  mother  (or  either  of  them)  and  brothers  and 
sisters,  the  estate  is  divided  into  2  parts,  one  of 
which  belongs  to  the  father  and  mother  in  equal 
proportion,  the  other  to  the  brothers  and  sis- 
ters or  descendants  of  a  deceased  brother  and 
sister,  such  descendants  taking  by  representation 
the  share  that  the  child  whom  they  represent 
would  have  taken ;  if  either  father  or  mother  is 
deceased,  his  or  her  share  vests  in  the  brothers 
and  sisters ;  2,  if  there  is  a  father  or  mother,  but 
no  brothers  or  sisters,  the  collateral  relatives 
take  a  half ;  3,  if  there  are  children  of  ditferent 
father  or  mother,  the  estate  is  divided  into  2 
parts,  the  paternal  line  taking  one  part  and  the 
maternal  or  uterine  the  other ;  children  of  the 
whole  blood  take  a  share  in  each  moiety. 

DESERET,  a  co.  of  Utah,  bounded  E.  by 
Great  Salt  Lake,  and  W.  by  California.  It  is 
drained  by  the  Mary  or  Humboldt  river,  and 
traversed  by  several  mountain  ranges. — The 
name  of  Deseret  was  also  given  by  the  Mormons 
to  the  territory  around  the  Great  Salt  lake,  but 
was  not  accepted  by  congress,  who  substituted 
therefor  the  name  of  Utah.  According  to  the 
Mormons,  "  Deseret"  signifies  "  the  land  of  the 
honey  bee." 

DESERTER,  in  military  affairs,  an  officer, 
soldier,  or  sailor  who  abandons  the  public  ser- 
vice in  the  army  or  navy,  without  leave.  In 
England  the  punishment  for  desertion  is,  with 
certain  limitations,  left  to  the  discretion  of  court 
martials,  death  being  the  extreme  penalty.  By 
the  articles  for  the  government  of  the  navy  of 
the  United  States  (art.  12),  it  is  enacted  that 
"  if  any  person  in  the  navy  shall  desert  to  an 
enemy  or  rebel,  he  shall  suffer  death,"  and  (art. 
13)  "if  any  person  in  the  navy  shall  desert  in 
time  of  war,  he  shall  sufier  death,  or  such  other 
punishment  as  a  court  martial  shall  adjudge." 
The  rules  and  articles  for  the  government  of 
the  land  forces  of  the  United  States  authorize 
the  infliction  of  corporal  punishment  not  ex- 
ceeding 50  lashes  for  desertion  in  time  of  peace, 
by  sentence  of  a  general  court  martial ;  and 
the  laws  do  not  permit  punishment  by  stripes 
and  lashes  for  any  other  crime  in  the  land  ser- 
vice. In  time  of  Avar  a  court  martial  may  sen- 
tence a  deserter  to  suffer  death,  or  otherwise 
punish  at  its  discretion. 

DESEZE,  Raymond,  a  French  magistrate, 
born  in  Bordeaux  in  IVoO,  died  in  Paris  in  1828. 
A  lawyer  in  his  native  city,  he  was  called  to 
Paris  by  the  count  De  Vergennes,  gained  repu- 
tation in  several  important  lawsuits,  was  chosen 
one  of  the  counsel  of  King  Louis  XVI.  when 
arraigned  before  the  convention,  and  delivered 
an  eloquent  defence  in  his  behalf  He  was  ar- 
rested, but  liberated  after  the  9th  Thermidor, 
lived  in  retirement  during  the  consulate  and  the 


DESFONTAINES 


DESMIDIEiE 


415 


empire,  and  on  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons 
was  appointed  president  of  the  court  of  cassation. 

DESFONTAINES,  Pieerr  Fkan^ois  Gut- 
dot,  a  Frencli  critic,  born  at  Rouen  in  1685,  died 
Dec.  16,  1745.  lie  studied  under  the  Jesuits, 
received  orders,  and  was  a  successful  teacher  of 
rhetoric  in  the  college  of  Bourges.  lie  was  in- 
vited to  Paris  in  1724,  to  restore  the  Journal 
des  savants^  which  had  fallen  into  discredit.  In 
this  ho  succeeded,  and  published  afterward, 
sometimes  alone,  and  sometimes  in  conjunction 
with  others,  several  periodicals,  among  which 
Avere  the  Observations  sur  les  ecrits  nouveaux. 
Ilis  criticisms  were  marked  by  severity  and 
rudeness,  and  among  the  many  enemies  whom 
he  made  by  his  trenchant  pen  was  Voltaire,  who 
had  once  saved  him  from  prison,  or  perhaps  the 
galleys.  The  paper  warfare  between  the  critic 
and  the  philosopher  attracted  general  attention, 
and  ended  in  the  discomfiture  of  the  former. 
The  principal  works  of  Desfontaines  are  a  Dic- 
tionnaire  neologique,  and  a  translation  of  the 
JEne\d. 

DESFONTAINES,  Rene  Louiche,  a  French 
botanist,  born  in  Tremblay,  in  Brittany,  in 
1752,  died  in  Paris,  Nov.  16,  1833.  After  study- 
ing at  the  college  of  Rennes,  he  wont  to  Paris 
to  prepare  for  the  medical  profession,  but  de- 
voted himself  chiefly  to  botany.  He  was  re- 
ceived into  the  academy  of  sciences  in  1782,  the 
custom  of  the  time  being  to  admit  young  men 
of  approved  capacity,  with  a  view  of  encoui-ag- 
ing  them  to 'greater  accomplishments.  He  im- 
mediately embarked  for  the  Barbary  states,  and 
during  two  years  explored  the  natural  history, 
especially  the  flora,  of  the  north  of  Africa.  He 
published  the  result  of  his  investigations  in  the 
lioi'a  Atlantlca  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1798),  which 
gave  descriptions  of  1,600  species  of  plants,  300 
of  which  were  new.  On  his  return  to  Paris  in 
1785  he  was  appointed  by  Buffon  to  succeed 
Lemonnier  as  professor  in  i\\QJardin  desplantes^ 
and  from  this  time  he  was  occupied  with  his 
lectures.  He  was  the  first  to  indicate  the  differ- 
ence in  growth  and  structure  between  the  mono- 
cotyledonous  and  the  dicotyledonous  plants, 
lie  made  a  catalogue  of  the  jardin  des  plantes 
(1804;  3d  ed.  in  Latin,  1829);  continued  the 
Collection  des  velin-sdic  imiseum  d^histoirenatu- 
relle,  which  had  been  begun  for  Gaston  of  Or- 
leans ;  and  published  numerous  memoii's  in  the 
transactions  of  learned  societies. 

DESIIA,  a  S.  E.  co.  of  Ark.,  bordering  on  the 
Mississippi,  intersected  by  Arkansas  and  White 
rivers;  area,  869  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1854,  3,971,  of 
whom  1,840  were  slaves.  The  surface  is  low, 
level,  and  subject  to  inundation.  The  soil  is 
alluvial,  and  in  1854  produced  6,940  bales  of 
cotton,  and  130,055  bushels  of  corn.  Number 
of  pupils  in  the  public  schools,  40.  Capital,  Na- 
poleon. 

DESIRADE,  or  Deseada,  a  rocky  island  of 
the  Little  Antilles,  in  the  Caribbean  sea,  E.  of 
Guadeloupe,  of  which  it  is  a  dependency.  It  is 
scantily  furnished  with  wood  and  fresh  water. 
Area,    10,695   acres;    pop.  in   1856,  1,235,  of 


whom  284  were  whites.  It  was  the  first  island 
discovered  by  Columbus  in  his  -second  voyage, 
on  which  he  set  out,  Sept.  25,  1493. 

DESHOULIfiRES,  Antoinette  (du  Ligieb 
PE  LA  Gaude),  a  French  authoress,  born  in  Paris 
about  1634,  died  in  the  same  city,  Feb.  17,  1694, 
The  daughter  of  a  rnaitre  d'hote!  of  Marie  de' 
Medici  and  Anne  of  Austria,  she  was  early  noted 
for  beauty  and  wit,  and  received  a  brilliant  edu- 
cation under  the  best  masters.  She  studied  tho 
Latin,  Italian,  and  Spanish  languages ;  read  the 
long  romances  of  D'Urfe,  La  Cali)renede,  and 
Mile,  de  Scudery,  which  were  then  the  delight 
of  the  court ;  and  early  began  to  write  verses, 
her  first  attempts  being  corrected  by  the  poet 
Hesnaut.  In  her  18th  year  she  was  married  to 
Guillaume  de  la  Fon  de  Boisguerin  (seigneur  des 
Houlieres),  who  in  the  troubles  of  the  Fronde 
embraced  tlie  party  of  the  prince  of  Conde,  and 
was  exiled.  Mme.  Deshoulieres  subsequently 
rejoined  her  husband  at  the  court  of  Brussels, 
where  she  became  an  object  of  suspicion,  and  wa3 
imprisoned  in  1657  in  the  castle  of  Vilworde, 
where  she  read  the  Scriptures  and  fathers  of  the 
church,  was  rescued  by  her  husband  by  a  coup 
de  main  after  8  months,  and  on  her  return  to 
France  after  the  amnesty  became  a  fovorite  at 
the  court  of  Anne  of  Austria.  She  wrote  poems 
in  almost  all  styles  from  the  madrigal  to  tragedy, 
and  was  intimate  with  the  two  Corneilles,  with 
Flechier,  Mascaron,  Quinault,  Benserade,  and 
Menage,  and  with  the  dukes  of  Montausier,  La 
Rochefoucauld,  Nevers,  and  Saint  Aignan.  Sho 
attained  the  best  success  in  pastorals  and  ia 
moral  and  pliilosophical  pieces.  Her  idyls,  es- 
pecially those  entitled  Les  moutons  and  Les 
fleurs^  were  most  admired,  and  gained  her  the 
appellation  of  the  10th  muse  and  the  French 
Calliope ;  and  the  subsequent  ill  success  of  her 
tragedies  caused  the  advice,  of  proverbial  fame, 
to  be  given  her,  de  reiourner  d  ses  moutons. 
She  became  a  member  of  the  academy  of  the 
Hicovrati  of  Padua  in  1684,  and  of  the  acad- 
emy of  Aries  in  1689.  Like  Mme.  de  St-vign^, 
she  belonged  to  the  literary  clique  hostile  to 
Racine.  Voltaire  said  that  of  all  French  ladies 
who  had  cultivated  poetry,  Mme.  Deslioulieres 
had  succeeded  best,  since  more  of  her  verses 
than  those  of  any  other  were  known  by  heart. 
The  principal  editions  of  her  works  are  those  of 
1747  and  1799,  each  in  2  vols, 

DESMIDIE^'E,  minute  and  interesting  algse, 
which  grow  in  fresh  water,  and  whose  contour 
and  forms  present  singularly  beautiful  appear- 
ances under  the  microscope.  For  a  long  time 
claimed  both  as  animals  and  plants,  they  seem 
to  stand  on  the  limits  of  either  kingdom.  The 
controversy  as  to  their  true  place  has  enlisted  a 
great  number  of  observers,  who  have  submitted 
every  fact  connected  with  their  study  to  the 
most  rigorous  examination.  Ehrenberg  has 
claimed  them  as  animalcules;  and  in  the  "  An- 
nals of  Natural  History"  (London,  1840),  Mr. 
Dalrymple  has  given  extended  observations  of 
a  similar  character  upon  a  single  genus  (clos- 
terium),  which  appeared  to  him  to  indicate 


416 


DESMIDEEiE 


animality.  In  the  "  American  Journal  of  Sci- 
ence and  Arts"  (vol.  xli.,  1841),  Professor  Bailey 
admits  the  general  correctness  of  Mr.  Dalrym- 
ple's  ohservations,  yet  differs  from  him  in  some 
respects.  He  considers  the  desmidiese  as  an- 
imalcules, and  includes  them  in  his  sketch  of 
the  infusoria.  In  a  memoir  "On  the  Organ- 
ization of  the  Polygastric  Infusoria,"  in  Weig- 
mami's  Arc fiiv  for  1846,  C.  Eckhard  advocates 
their  animality.  He  notices  only  the  closteria, 
and  derives  his  argument  for  their  heing  animals 
partly  from  tlieir  motion,  partly  from  their  or- 
ganization. According  to  Pritchard,  in  his  "His- 
tory of  Infusoria,  living  and  fossil"  (London, 
1842),  Dr.  Meyen  shows  that  Ehreuherg  has  de- 
scrihed  and  represented  in  his  great  work  a  very 
considerable  number  of  organized  bodies  looked 
upon  by  botanists  as  belonging  to  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  In  these  representations  naturalists 
have  been  able  to  attain  what  has  been  long  de- 
sirable ;  for  although  in  respect  to  the  more  high- 
ly developed  and  complete  vegetable  beings  the 
truest  delineations  are  indispensably  necessary 
at  the  present  day,  it  is  much  more  requisite 
that  every  one  of  these  lower  and  microscopic 
organisms  should  be  laid  before  us  in  the  same 
tangible  manner.  Ehrenberg  has  not  only  given 
systematic  descriptions  of  these  questionable 
animals  or  plants,  but  his  own  observations,  cou- 
pled with  tliose  of  his  predecessors,  upon  the 
nature  of  tliese  bodies,  will  be  found  copiously 
detailed  by  him.  It  is,  however,  apparent  that  all 
the  facts  known  upon  the  subject  are  interpreted 
as  if  these  creations  were  undoubtedly  animals, 
■while  the  same  facts  would  bear  a  very  different 
signification  if  we  proceeded  upon  the  supposi- 
tion that  they  were  merely  plants.  Meyen  con- 
tended for  the  vegetable  character  of  the  des- 
midieai,  and  was  the  first  to  detect  the  presence 
of  starch  in  tlie  cells ;  and  the  accuracy  of  his 
remarks,  which  had  been  doubted,  was  fully 
confirmed  by  Ralfs,  Jenner,  and  other  recent 
algologists.  The  presence  of  starch  in  the  des- 
midiea)  can  be  readily  detected  by  treating 
them  with  a  solution  of  iodine  ;  all  vegetable 
tissues  in  which  starch  grains  are  found  assume 
a  purplish  or  violet  color  on  its  application. 
Prof.  Hailey  did  not  consider  this  a  conclusive 
proof  of  tlieir  vegetable  nature,  since,  if  animal, 
the  starch  might  have  been  swallowed.  But  it 
is  affirmed  that  no  starch  is  to  be  detected  in 
the  young  cell,  while  upon  the  growth  of  the 
sporangium  or  seed-vessel  it  appears  and  in- 
creases rapidly,  as  in  the  seeds  of  the  higher 
plants,  in  which  it  generally  abounds.  Of  all 
the  circumstances  which  indicate  the  vegetable 
nature  of  the  desmidiea3,  this  is  the  most  im- 
portant, since  it  can  be  so  easily  submitted  to 
experiment.  In  certain  cavities  in  closterium, 
Mr.  Dalrymple  noticed  a  peculiar  motion  of 
molecules  on  which  he  laid  some  stress.  This 
motion  has  been  frequently  noticed,  and  is  to 
be  seen  in  many  plants.  At  first  sight  it  would 
seem  to  denote  an  animal  function,  yet  really 
in  the  desmidieto  it  becomes  a  proof  of  their 
vegetabUity.    It  has  been  termed  swarming,  on 


account  of  the  commotion  which  arises  within 
the  cell,  as  if  all  its  contents  were  endowed  with 
life ;  as  the  disturbance  increases,  the  cell  opens, 
when  the  molecules,  or  rather  zoospores,  hasten 
from  their  prison,  darting  about  in  every  direc- 
tion, until  at  length  they  settle  down  into  a 
state  of  repose.  The  presence  and  functions  of 
zoospores  in  plants  of  entirely  differing  ftunilies 
and  groups,  render  their  occurrence  in  tli(jse 
under  consideration  no  evidence  of  their  being 
animals.  That  the  desmidiea)  resist  decompo- 
sition, exhale  oxygen  on  exposure  to  the  sun, 
preserve  the  purity  of  the  water  containing 
them,  and  when  burned  do  not  emit  the  peculiar 
odor  usually  so  characteristic  of  animal  com- 
bustion, are  also  important  facts  respecting  this 
family.  Berkeley,  in  his  "Introduction  to 
Cryptogamic  Botany,"  remarks  that  much  con- 
troversy has  existed  with  respect  to  their  true 
nature,  but  that  at  the  present  day  few  persons 
will  adopt  the  views  of  Ehrenberg ;  for  if  in 
some  points  there  be  anomalies,  as  in  closterhtm, 
their  whole  history  is  so  evidently  vegetable, 
their  mode  of  increase,  growth,  &c.,  that  if  we 
refuse  them  the  title  of  vegetables,  we  may  as 
well  dispute  that  of  the  whole  tribe  of  zoospo- 
rous  algfe.  As  to  their  occasionally  producing 
bodies  endowed  with  active  motion,  it  is  now 
a  matter  of  certainty  that  such  bodies  exist  in 
a  variety  of  alga)  of  very  different  construction ; 
and  in  order  that  the  cellulose  (or  peculiar  ma- 
terial of  the  cell  walls  of  vegetables)  should  ex- 
hibit the  proper  reaction  when  acids  are  applied 
for  tests,  the  membranes  of  cells  or  of  the  fronds 
must  be  thoroughly  cleansed  from  all  extraneous 
mattei's.  But  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all 
is  the  fact  that,  under  the  influence  of  light,  they 
give  out  oxygen,  which,  added  to  the  other  char- 
acteristics, is  quite  convincing. — Considering  the 
desmidiea)  as  vegetable  productions,  we  find 
them  peculiar  for  their  beauty,  variety  of  forms, 
and  the  external  markings  and  appendages  to 
be  noticed  upon  them.  They  are  mostly  of  an 
herbaceous  green  color,  and  contain  a  green  in- 
ternal matter.  The  frond  divides  into  two  valves 
or  segments,  by  a  sort  of  voluntary  action ;  a 
mode  of  growth  in  the  bisection  of  cells  that 
Meyen  and  others  have  proved  to  be  frequent  if 
notuniversalinthe  more  simple  alga3.  Inthedes- 
midiea3  the  multiplication  of  the  cells  by  repeated 
division  is  full  of  interest,  both  on  account  of 
the  remarkable  manner  in  which  it  takes  place, 
and  because  it  unfolds  the  process  of  cell- growth 
in  the  tissue  of  other  plants,  thus  furnishing 
valuable  facts  in  general  vegetable  physiology. 
The  compressed  and  deeply  constricted  cells  of 
eriastrum  offer  most  favorable  opportunities  for 
ascertaining  the  manner  of  this  division;  for 
although  the  frond  is  really  a  single  cell,  yet  this 
cell  in  all  its  stages  appears  like  two,  the  seg- 
ments being  always  distinct,  even  from  the  com- 
mencement. As  the  connecting  portion  is  so 
small,  and  necessarily  produces  the  new  seg- 
ments, which  cannot  arise  from  a  broader  base 
than  its  opening,  these  are  at  first  very  minute, 
though  they  rapidly  increase  in    size.     The 


DESMIDIE^ 


DESMOND 


417 


segments  are  separated  by  the  elongation  of 
the  connecting  tube,  -whicli  is  converted  into 
two  roundish  hyaline  lobules.  These  lobules 
increase  in  size,  acquire  color,  and  gradually  put 
on  the  appearance  of  the  older  portions.  Of 
course,  as  they  increase,  the  original  segments 
are  pushed  further  asunder,  and  at  length  are 
disconnected,  each  taking  with  it  a  new  segment 
to  supply  the  place  of  that  from  which  it  has 
separated.  All  the  desmidieai  are  gelatinous. 
In  some  the  mucus  is  condensed  into  a  distinct 
and  well  defined  hyaline  slieath  or  covering;  in 
others  it  is  more  attenuated,  and  the  fact  that 
it  forms  a  covering  is  discerned  only  from  its 
preventing  the  contact  of  the  colored  cells.  In 
general,  its  quantity  is  merely  sufficient  to  hold 
the  fronds  together  in  a  kind  of  filmy  cloud, 
which  is  dispersed  by  the  sliglitest  touch.  "When 
they  are  left  exposed  by  the  evaporation  of  the 
water,  this  mucus  becomes  denser,  and  is  appa- 
rently secreted  in  larger  quantities  to  protect 
them  from  the  eftects  of  drought.  Their  normal 
mode  of  propagation  seems  to  be  by  the  pro- 
duction of  single  large  spores  or  sporangiums, 
Avhich  derive  their  existence  from  the  union 
of  the  green  coloring  matter  (endochromes) 
of  two  contiguous  plants.  These  spores  are 
mostly  globular,  although  they  exhibit  a  great 
variety  of  forms  with  reference  to  their  external 
surfaces.  Sometimes  they  hear  no  resemblance 
to  the  parent  plant.  But  once  formed,  they  are 
propagated  by  division,  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  ordinary  cells,  and  in  the  3d  generation 
acquire  their  regular  form,  which  they  may 
continue  to  propagate  for  years,  without  ever 
j)roducing  a  true  spore. — Very  little  is  known 
respecting  the  uses  of  the  desmidiea3.  Probably 
they  assist  in  preserving  tlie  purity  of  the  water 
in  which  they  grow ;  a  function  whicli  l^iey 
may  fulfil  in  the  economy  of  nature  in  com- 
mon with  most  aquatic  vegetables.  The  food 
of  bivalve  mollusks  belonging  to  fresh  waters 
seems  to  be  made  up  of  them.  They  are  found 
principally  where  there  is  some  admixture  of 
peat,  and  in  clear  pools  rather  than  in  running 
streams.  They  abound  in  open  places,  and 
are  rarely  seen  in  shady  woods  or  in  deep 
ditches.  According  to  Brebisson,  the  calcai'eous 
districts  of  France  are  very  unproductive  of 
them.  So  numerous  are  the  species  and  so 
diversified  their  shapes  and  characters,  that  they 
have  been  divided  into  distinct  genera  as  natural 
series  present  themselves  in  turn.  In  the  first 
of  these  series  we  discover  the  plant  an  elon- 
gated, jointed  filament,  which  may  be  cylindri- 
cal, sub-cylindrical,  triangular  or  quadrangular, 
plane  with  the  margins  even  and  smooth,  or 
with  tbe  margins  incised  and  sinuated.  In  Jiynlo- 
theca  we  have  the  mucous  envelope  alluded  to 
above,  within  Avhicli  are  numerous  joints,  which 
are  usually  broader  than  long ;  and  as  each  has 
a  shallow  groove  passing  round  it,  it  resembles 
a  small  pulley  wheel.  Tlie  minuteness  of  the 
plant  may  be  estimated  from  the  length  of  these 
joints,  which  vary  from  ^-fV ^  to  j^-^  of  an  inch. 
H.  dissiliens  (Breb.)  is  found  in  North  America 
TOL.  VI.— ^27 


as  well  as  in  Europe.  In  desmidivm,  the  jointa 
arebidentate  at  the  angles;  tlie  filament  is  fragile 
and  of  a  pale  green  color ;  the  length  of  the  joint 
is  from  2  Ao  *"  resn  of  an  i"ch.  Z>.  Swnrtzii  (Ag.) 
is  common  throughout  the  United  States.  In 
viicrasterias  we  have  a  simple,  lenticular  frond, 
deeply  divided  into  two-lobed  segments,  each 
lobe  inciso-dentate  and  generally  radiate.  Many 
species  of  this  beautiful  plant  are  common  in  this 
country.  We  have  also  found  euastrum,  Avhich 
belongs  to  the  same  series,  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. Certain  curious  spiny  objects  detected  in 
a  fossil  state  in  flint  in  Euroi)e  remind  us  of  xcm- 
thidiwn,  but  which  probably  are  spores ;  the 
compressed  bipartite  and  bivalved  frond  of  the 
xanthidium  being  represented  in  the  fossils  by 
one  that  is  globose  and  entire.  The  constriction 
about  the  middle  of  the  frond  is  lost  in  closterium, 
which  also  differs  in  shape,  it  being  crescent-like 
or  arcuate.  The  species  of  this  are  common  and 
numerous.  The  fronds  of  anl-istrodesmns  are 
aggregated  into  fagot-like  bundles.  Pediastrwn 
tetras,  occurring  from  Maine  to  Virginia,  accord- 
ing to  Bailey,  has  an  extremely  minute  frond 
composed  of  4  cells,  which  make  a  star-like 
figure ;  while  P.  hiradiatinn,  found  in  New 
Jersey  (Bailey)  as  well  as  in  Germany  (Meyen), 
has  many  more  cells,  yet  still  arranged  in  a 
stello-radiate  manner. — In  collecting  the  des- 
midiefe,  the  student  must  seek  in  proper  situa- 
tions the  sediment  observable  in  the  form  of  a 
dirty  cloud  or  greenish  scum  upon  the  stems 
and  leaves  of  filiform  aquatic  plants.  This  is  to 
be  carefully  transferred  to  a  bottle  of  pure  water, 
and  thus  he  will  secure  many  beautiful  species 
for  his  microscopes.  If  the  bottle  be  exposed 
to  the  light,  the  little  plants  will  continue  in 
good  condition,  and  thrive  for  several  months, 
thus  furnishing  subjects  for  examination  ready 
at  hand. 

DES  MOINES,  a  S.  E.  co.  of  Iowa,  border- 
ing on  III.,  washed  by  the  Mississippi  on  the  E. 
and  S.  E.,  bounded  S.  W.  by  Skunk  river,  and 
drained  by  Flint  creek ;  area,  408  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1856,  20,198.  Limestone  and  anthracite  are 
the  principal  mineral  productions.  The  sur- 
face is  much  diversified  and  occupied  by  prairies 
and  tracts  of  timber.  The  soil  is  fertile,  well 
cultivated,  and  in  1856  yielded  11,274  tons  of 
hay,  221,109  bushels  of  wheat,  359,938  of  oats, 
1,456,491  of  corn,  206,026  lbs.  of  butter,  and 
20,056  of  wool.     Capital,  Burlington. 

DES  MOINES,  the  largest  river  of  Iowa.  It 
rises  in  the  S.  W.  part  of  Minnesota,  and  takes 
a  S.  E.  course  to  Emmet  co.,  Iowa.  Thence  it 
runs  nearly  S.  S.  E.  to  the  Mississippi,  which  ii 
joins  about  4  m.  below  Keokuk.  The  country 
through  which  it  flows  is  an  undulating,  fertile 
region,  interspersed  with  tracts  of  prairie.  The 
state  government  has  recently  undertaken  to 
render  the  river  navigable  as  far  as  Fort  Des 
Moines,  a  distance  of  over  200  m. 

DESMOND,  Earls  of,  an  ancient  family  of 
great  influence  in  the  S.  "W.  of  Ireland,  from 
the  year  1329  to  1583.  The  line  numbered  15 
earls.     The  title  and  family  are  now  extinct. 


418 


DESMOND 


DESMOULINS 


Before  the  English  gained  a  footing  in  Ireland, 
the  kingdom  of  Cork  was  a  separate  sovereignty, 
embracing  much  of  the  present  province  of 
Munster.  It  was  divided  into  Desmond,  or 
Soutl)  Munster,  Muskerry,  or  West  Munster,  and 
Carbery,  on  the  S.  "W.  In  1172  Dermod  Mac 
Carthy,  king  of  Cork,  with  the  view  of  aggran- 
dizing liimself  by  the  aid  of  so  powerful  an 
ally,  swore  fealty  to  Henry  II.,  but  soon  after- 
ward broke  his  plight  and  attacked  his  liege's 
forces.  He  was  overpowered,  and  Henry,  in 
1177,  bestowed  the  kingdom  on  Robert  Fitz 
Stephen  and  Milo  de  Cogan.  Cogan's  share, 
falling  ultimately  to  co-heiresses,  was  divided  be- 
tween Robert  Carew,  Patrick  Courcey,  and  Mau- 
rice Fitz  Thomas.  The  last  was  created  by  the 
English  monarch  1st  earl  of  Desmond  in  1329. 
By  aggressions  on  the  lands  of  Courcey  and 
Carew,  and  by  other  acquisitions,  the  estates  of 
the  Desmonds  so  increased  that  the  8th  earl 
was  possessor  of  almost  the  whole  of  the  former 
kingdom  of  Cork.  This  earl  exercised  rights 
of  sovereignty  with  such  a  high  hand  that  he 
was  attainted  of  treason,  and  beheaded  at 
Drogheda,  Feb.  15,  14G7.  His  estates,  being 
suffered  to  remain  in  his  family,  continued  to 
augment  until  Gerald,  the  last  earl,  owned  a  ter- 
ritory extending  150  miles  through  the  counties 
of  "Waterford,  Cork,  Kerry,  and  Limerick,  and 
comprising  500,000  acres  of  tenants'  land.  These 
earls  never  yielded  more  than  a  nominal  alle- 
giance to  the  English  crown.  One  of  them  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  agreed  with  Francis 
I.  of  France  that  he  would  take  up  arms  when 
required,  and  not  lay  them  down  till  he  had 
conquered  one  half  of  Ireland  for  himself  and 
the  remainder  for  Richard  de  la  Pole,  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  house  of  York.  Francis  with- 
drew from  the  agreement,  leaving  the  earl  to 
explain  it  to  his  sovereign  as  he  best  might. 
The  country  of  the  Desmonds  was  Irish  in  lan- 
guage, habits,  and  religion.  Hence  it  was  deem- 
ed a  favorable  locality  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  in 
the  days  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  to  attempt  the  con- 
quest of  Ireland.  Accordingly,  on  July  1, 1578, 
a  body  of  Italian  troops,  under  the  command 
of  James  Fitz  Maurice,  brother  of  the  earl  of 
Desmond,  and  accompanied  by  Saunders,  the 
pope's  legate,  landed  in  the  Desmond  country, 
where  tliey  were  immediately  joined  by  Sir  John 
of  Desmond  and  James  Fitzgerald,  other  brothers 
of  the  earl.  At  first  Earl  Desmond  made  some 
show  of  resistance,  but  subsided  at  length  into 
neutrality.  On  this,  Lord  Justice  Pelham  sum- 
moned him  to  surrender  his  castles  to  thequeen. 
Desmond  refused,  whereon  he  and  all  of  his 
name  were  proclaimed  traitors,  Nov,  1,  1579. 
Desmond  now  raised  the  standard  of  revolt,  sum- 
moned his  people  to  meet  him  at  Ballyhowra, 
Cork,  to  support  the  Catholic  cause,  and  his 
dependants  responded  to  the  call.  He  seized 
on  the  town  of  Youghal,  and  until  Nov.  1583, 
maintained  a  determined  warfare.  Being  by 
that  time  driven  from  his  strongholds,  one 
after  another,  he  was  compelled  to  seek  safety 
in  concealment.     He  wandered  over  the  coun- 


try for  months,  and  was  at  last  killed  by  a 
peasant  named  Kelly,  in  a  cabin  where  he  had 
taken  shelter.  His  estates  were  divided  among 
the  captains  of  Elizabeth's  army.  Sir  "Walter 
Raleigh  received  20,000  acres,  which  he  sold 
cheaply  to  Richard  Boyle,  afterward  earl  of 
Cork. — Jeanne  Fitzgerald,  wife  of  James,  14th 
earl,  lived  to  an  age  exceeding  140  years.  Her 
husband  presented  her  at  the  court  of  Edward 
IV.,  where  she  danced  with  the  duke  of  Glouces- 
tor,  afterward  Richard  III. ;  she  was  widowed 
during  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  and  died  in 
the  reign  of  James  I.,  some  time  after  1608.  At 
the  age  of  140  she  travelled  from  her  hdme  at 
Inchiquin,  Ireland,  by  the  way  of  Bristol,  to 
London,  to  urge  some  claim  against  the  govern- 
ment. At  that  time  she  was  quite  vivacious 
and  in  possession  of  all  her  faculties.  Sir  Wal- 
ter Raleigh  says :  "  I  myself  knew  her."  ("His- 
tory of  the  World,"  book  i.,  cap.  5.)  Bacon 
mentions  that  the  old  countess  of  Desmond  had 
thrice  renewed  her  teeth. 

DESMOULINS,  Benoit  Camille,  a  French 
revolutionist,  born  at  Guise  in  Picardy  in  1762, 
guillotined  in  Paris,  April  5,  1794.  He  was  a 
lawyer  in  Paris  when  the  revolution  broke  out ; 
he  ardently  adopted  its  principles,  and  be- 
came one  of  the  favorite  orators  of  the  crowd 
which  gathered  at  the  palais  royal  to  hear  the 
news  of  the  day.  On  the  dismissal  of  Neck- 
er,  July  12,  1789,  he  mounted  a  table  and 
in  an  impassioned  speech  called  the  people  to 
the  defence  of  their  threatened  liberty ;  he 
boldly  declared  that  he  would  not  be  deterred 
from  speaking  by  fear  of  the  police,  and  with  a 
loaded  pistol  in  each  hand,  swore  that  he  would 
not  be  taken  alive.  He  advised  the  patriots  to 
wear  a  green  badge  as  a  rallying  sign,  and  as 
theje  was  not  a  sufficient  quantity  of  ribbon,  he 
gave  them  the  green  leaves  of  the  trees  in  the 
garden.  The  cry  "To  arras!"  was  raised;  the 
crowd  seized  upon  all  the  arms  they  could  find 
at  the  gunsmiths',  and  forming  in  procession, 
carried  through  the  streets  the  bust  of  the  dis- 
missed minister  in  conjunction  with  that  of  the 
then  popular  duke  of  Orleans.  The  next  day  the 
muskets  and  cannon  at  the  Invalides  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  people,  and  on  July  14  the  Bastile 
was  taken.  Camille,  who  had  given  the  first, 
if  not  the  controlling  impulse  to  this  insurrec- 
tion, figured  conspicuously  among  the  combat- 
ants, and  at  once  gained  popularity  as  one  of 
the  most  influential  democratic  leaders.  His 
popularity  was  enhanced  by  a  pamphlet.  La 
lanterne  aux  Parisiens,  in  which  he  styled  him- 
self the  "attorney-general  of  the  lamp-post." 
The  success  of  this  publication  encouraged  him 
to  commence,  under  the  title  of  Les  resolutions 
de  France  et  de  Bralant,  a  newspaper  whidi 
commanded  a  large  sale  and  exercised  great  in- 
fluence by  its  vigor  of  thought,  sparkling  wit, 
and  lively  style.  Such  was  the  importance  of 
this  periodical,  thatMirabeau  sought  to  conciliate 
its  editor,  whom  he  soon  treated  as  a  friend,  and 
whose  support  was  not  useless  to  the  great  tri- 
bune.   Camille  bad  been  a  schoolmate  of  Robes- 


DESMOULINS 


DE  SOTO 


419 


pierro,  and  lived  on  intimate  terms  witli  thefutnro 
dictator  of  the  revolution,  who  was  then  but  an 
obscure  member  of  tlie  constituent  assembly. 
Ho  was  also  acquainted  with  Marat,  the  epilep- 
tic editor  of  L  Ami  du  pciiple ;  but  his  bosom 
friend  was  Danton,  whoso  energetic  character 
entirely  controlled  the  somewhat  wavering  mind 
of  the  young  and  brilliant  writer.  The  destinies 
of  both  were  closely  connected  from  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  club  of  the  Cordeliers.  Camillo 
was  instrumental  in  the  insurrection  of  Aug.  10, 
1792,  and  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  minis- 
try of  justice  Avhen  Danton  received  that  office 
from  the  legislative  assembly.  He  must  have 
had  a  share  in  the  massacre  of  September,  but 
he  used  his  influence  to  preserve  the  lives  of 
several  intended  victims.  With  Danton,  he  was 
elected  to  the  national  convention,  and  acted 
and  voted  in  accordance  with  his  friend's  direc- 
tions. In  the  contest  between  the  Girondists 
and  the  Montagnards,  he  contributed  to  bring 
the  former  into  distrust  and  contempt  by  his 
Histoire  des  Brissotins^  a  pamphlet  in  which 
ridicule  was  skillfully  blended  with  serious 
charges.  Satisfied  with  their  fall  as  a  party,  he 
would  have  saved  them  individually,but  this  was 
beyond  his  power.  Both  ho  and  Danton  now 
tried  to  bring  the  convention  to  a  milder  policy, 
and  Caraille  established  a  journal  toward  the 
end  of  Jan.  1794,  Le  vieux  Cordelier,  in  which  he 
advocated  conciliatory  measures  with  as  much 
earnestness  as  he  had  urged  a  contrary  course 
ia  his  former  publication.  His  eloquent  pen 
shone  to  advantage  in  the  cause  of  justice  and 
mercy.  Denouncing  the  system  of  proscription, 
he  demanded  the  establishment  of  a  committee 
of  clemency  as  a  preliminary  step  to  clearing  the 
prisons  of  the  suspected.  This  generous  effort, 
which  he  supported  by  biting  satires  against 
the  Montagnards,  was  answered  by  accusations 
brought  against  him  in  the  club  of  the  Jacobins. 
Eobespierre,  with  hypocritical  generosity  to- 
ward an  old  friend,  defended  him  on  two  occa- 
sions; he  represented  Caraille  as  a  wayward 
child,  whose  person  it  was  not  necessary  to  in- 
jure, but  demanded  that  his  writings  should  be 
burned.  "  To  burn  is  not  to  answer,"  exclaimed 
the  headlong  journalist ;  and  from  that  day  his 
fate  was  sealed.  He  was  arrested  on  the  same 
night  with  Danton,  arraigned  with  him  before 
the  revolutionary  tribunal,  sentenced  to  death, 
and  with  him  sent  to  the  scaffold.  On  his  way 
there,  while  Danton  stood  composed  and  im- 
movable, Camille  became  almost  frantic,  strug- 
gling with  his  bonds,  and  appealing  to  the  peo- 
ple. His  friend  vainly  motioned  him  to  keep 
quiet ;  he  continued  to  address  the  crowd,  and 
recalled  to  their  memory  all  that  he  had  done 
in  their  service.  "  Behold,"  he  cried  in  despair, 
"  beliold  the  recompense  reserved  to  the  first 
apostle  of  the  revolution!"  His  young  and 
beautiful  wife,  who  had  A^ainly  implored  his 
pardon  from  the  old  friendship  of  Robespierre, 
tried  to  raise  a  riot  to  save  him,  but  she  Avas 
arrested,  and  suffered  death  a  few  days  later. 
Camille  Desmoulins  holds  a  distinguished  rank 


among  French  pamphleteers.  His  Vieux  (J<yr- 
delier  was  reprinted  in  1833. 

DESNA,  a  large  river  of  Russia,  which  rises 
in  the  government  of  Smolensk,  flows  through 
those  of  Orel  and  Tchernigov,  and  falls  into  tho 
Dnieper  a  few  miles  above  Kiev.  It  is  a  fine 
stream,  abounding  in  fish,  and  navigable  for  the 
greater  part  of  its  course  of  600  m.  It  has  been 
proposed  to  open  a  water  conmiunication  be- 
tween tlie  Caspian  and  the  Black  and  Baltic 
seas  by  means  of  a  canal  connecting  this  river 
with  the  river  Oka. 

DESNOYERS,  Attgtjste  Gaspard  Louis 
BoucnEK,  baron,  a  French  engraver,  born  in 
Paris,  Dec.  20,  1779,  died  tliere,  Feb.  15,  1857. 
At  the  age  of  20  he  received  a  i)rize  of  $400  for 
an  engraving  of  Venus  disarming  Cupid,  and  in 
1801  established  his  reputation  by  tho  repro- 
duction of  Raphael's  ]3ell6  jardiniere,  in  the 
gallery  of  the  Luxembourg.  His  most  admired 
productions  are  copies  of  that  great  master's 
works,  and  prominent  among  them  is  an  engrav- 
ing of  the  "  Transfiguration."  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  institute  in  1816,  appointed 
chief  engraver  to  tlie  king  in  1825,  created  baron 
in  1828,  and  ofiicer  of  the  legion  of  honor  in 
1835. 

DE  SOTO.  I.  A  N.  W.  co.  of  Miss.,  bordering 
on  Tenn.,  and  bounded  N.  W.  by  tne  Mississippi 
river ;  area,  960  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  19,042,  of 
whom  9,553  were  slaves.  The  surface  is  gen- 
erally level,  and  occupied  chiefly  by  cotton 
plantations.  There  are  extensive  swamps  in  the 
western  part.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  in  1850 
produced  20,278  bales  of  cotton,  741,519  bush- 
els of  corn,  10,272  lbs.  of  rice,  and  32,907  of 
beeswax  and  honey.  There  were  22  churches, 
and  416  pupils  attending  public  schools.  The 
county  was  organized  in  1836.  Capital,  Her- 
nando. II.  A  N.  W.  parish  of  Louisiana,  bor- 
dering on  Texas,  drained  by  Red  and  Sabine 
rivers  ;  area,  910  sq.'  m. ;  pop.  in  1855,  9,703, 
of  whom  5,939  were  slaves.  By  means  of  Red 
river  it  has  steamboat  commimication  with  New 
Orleans.  In  1855  the  productions  were  9,361 
bales  of  cotton,  and  340,034  bushels  of  Indian 
corn.     Capital,  Mansfield. 

DE  SOTO,  Fernando,  a  Spanish  officer,  the 
discoverer  of  the  Mississippi,  born  at  Xeres  de 
los  Caballeros,  in  Estremadura,  in  1500,  died  on 
the  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  June  5,  1542.  Of  a 
noble  but  reduced  family,  he  was  enabled  by  the 
favor  of  Pedrarias  Davila  to  spend  several  years 
at  one  of  the  universities,  probably  that  of  Sa- 
ragossa,  and  distinguished  himself  in  literary 
studies,  and  especially  in  the  athletic  accom- 
plishments of  knighthood.  In  1519  he  accom- 
panied his  patron  on  his  second  expedition  to 
America  as  governor  of  Darien,  and  was  the  most 
intrepid  opponent  of  the  oppressive  administra- 
tion of  that  officer.  He  supported  Hernandez  in 
Nicaragua  in  1527,  who  perished  by  the  hand  of 
Davila,  in  consequence  of  not  heeding  his  advice. 
Withdrawing  from  the  service  of  Davila,  he  ex- 
plored in  1528  the  coast  of  Guatemala  and  Yuca- 
taa  for  700  m,,  in  search  of  the  strait  which  was 


420 


DE  SOTO 


DES  PLAINES 


supposed  to  connect  the  two  oceans.  It  was  by 
special  request  of  Pizarro  in  1532  that  De  Soto 
joined  him  in  his  enterprise  for  conquering  Peru, 
with  the  promise  of  being  appointed  second  in 
command.  Being  sent  in  1533,  with  50  horsemen 
and  a  few  targeteers,  to  explore  the  highlands 
of  Peru,  he  encountered  and  defeated  2,000  In- 
dians, penetrated  through  a  pass  in  tlie  moun- 
tains, and  discovered  the  great  national  road 
which  led  to  the  Peruvian  capital,  and  was  soon 
after  selected  by  Pizarro  to  visit  the  inca  Ata- 
huallpa  as  ambassador.  After  the  plot  for  the 
capture  of  the  inca  had  proved  successful,  and 
the  latter  had  paid  an  immense  sum  for  ran- 
som, De  Soto  in  vain  expostulated  with  Pizarro 
for  treacherously  refusing  to  release  the  Peru- 
vian monarch,  lie  was  prominent  in  the  en- 
gagements which  completed  the  conquest  of 
Peru,  and  was  the  hero  of  the  battle  which  re- 
sulted in  the  capture  of  the  metropolis,  Cuzco. 
He  soon  after  returned  to  Spain  witli  a  fortune 
of  $500,000 ;  met  a  flattering  reception  from 
the  emperor  Charles  V.,  made  a  splendid  dis- 
play at  court,  and  married  the  daughter  of 
Davila,  the  object  of  an  early  attachment.  In 
1536  the  belief  was  entertained  that  in  the  vast 
region  then  called  Florida  was  a  new  El  Dorado, 
richer  than  any  that  had  been  discovered.  Of 
this  faith  De  Soto  became  the  martyr.  He  pro- 
posed to  the  emperor  to  undertake  the  conquest 
of  Florida  at  his  own  expense ;  and  the  privi- 
lege being  conceded  to  him,  many  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  cavaliers  were  ambitious  to  enroll 
themselves  among  his  followers.  "With  600  men, 
tlie  flower  of  the  peninsula,  exclusive  of  24  ec- 
clesiastics and  20  oflicers,  he  set  sail  from  San 
Lucar  early  in  April,  1538.  After  stopping  at 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  and  then  at  Havana,  where  it 
■was  decided  that  the  ladies  attached  to  the  ex- 
pedition should  remain  till  after  the  conquest  of 
Florida,  he  crossed  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  an- 
chored in  the  bay  of  Spirita  Santo  (Tampa  bay), 
May  25,  1539.  His  route  was  through  a  coun- 
try already  made  hostile  by  the  violence  of  the 
Spanish  invader  Narvaez,  and  he  was  constantly 
deluded  by  the  Indians,  whose  policy  it  was  to 
eend  their  unwelcome  visitors  as  far  away  as 
possible  by  telling  them  of  gold  regions  at  remote 
points.  In  July,  1539,  he  sent  back  all  his  ships 
to  Havana.  He  discovered  a  Spaniard,  Juan 
Ortiz,  who  had  been  in  slavery  from  the  time 
of  Narvaez,  and  who  now  served  as  his  inter- 
preter. He  passed  the  first  winter  in  the  coun- 
try of  the  Appalachians,  E.  of  the  Flint  river. 
Directed  then  to  the  N.  E.,  he  reached  in  April, 
1540,  the  Ogeechee ;  thence  proceeding  to  the 
S.,  he  reached  the  Coosa,  and  on  Oct.  18  the  vil- 
lage of  Mavilla  or  Mobile,  on  the  Alabama.  The 
engagement  which  ensued  here  was  one  of  the 
most  sanguinary  battles  ever  fought  between 
Europeans  and  the  North  American  Indians; 
the  loss  of  the  Spaniards  was  80  men  and  42 
horses ;  that  of  the  Indians  was  reported  at 
2,500  men.  Ships  had  meantime  arrived  at 
Ochus  (Pensacola),  but  De  Soto  proudly  re- 
fused to  send  back  any  message  of  his  fortunes. 


He  passed  the  second  winter  in  the  country  of 
the  C'lickasaws,  who  in  the  spring  burned  his 
camp  and  their  own  village,  when  he  attempted 
to  force  them  to  carry  his  baggage.  Forty 
Spaniards  perished  in  the  flames,  and  in  the  night 
attack.  Soon  after  beginning  his  march  to  the 
N.  TV.,  a  pestilential  fever  carried  otf  nearly  a 
score  of  his  men.  He  reached  the  Mississippi 
after  journeying  for  7  days  through  a  wilder-, 
ness  of  forests  and  marshes,  was  nearly  a  month 
in  constructing  8  large  barges  to  transport  his 
army,  and  having  crossed  the  river  went  N.  to 
Pacaha,  where  be  remained  from  June  19  till 
July  29.  Thence  he  marched  successively  S.  "W". 
and  N.  W.  till  he  reached  the  highlands  of  the 
"White  river,  in  the  eastern  portion  of  what  is  now 
the  Indian  territory.  This  was  the  western  Ihnit 
of  his  rambles.  He  then  proceeded  S.  by  the  hot 
springs  of  Arkansas,  which  his  companions  at 
first  supposed  to  be  the  fabled  fountain  of  youth, 
and  made  his  third  winter  station  at  Autiamque 
on  the  Washita  river.  In  March  and  April,  1542, 
he  continued  S.  along  the  "Washita  to  the  Mis- 
sissippi, and  while  in  vain  attempting  to  descend 
the  banks  of  the  latter,  through  the  bayous  and 
marshes,  he  was  attacked  with  a  malignant  fe- 
ver, and  died,  after  appointing  Luis  de  Moscoso 
his  successor.  ''  His  soldiers,"  says  Bancroft, 
"pronounced  his  eulogy  by  grieving  for  their 
loss ;  the  priests  chanted  over  his  body  the 
first  requiems  that  were  ever  heard  on  the  wa- 
ters of  the  Mississippi.  To  conceal  his  death, 
his  body  was  wrapped  in  a  mantle,  and,  in  the 
stillness  of  midnight,  was  silently  sunk  in  the 
middle  of  the  stream.  The  wanderer  had  cross- 
ed a  large  part  of  the  continent  in  search  of  gold, 
and  found  nothing  so  remarkable  as  his  burial 
place."  His  followers,  reduced  more  than  one- 
half  in  number,  venturing  E.,  were  driven  back- 
ward to  the  river,  where  they  passed  the  next 
winter.  In  the  spring  of  1543  they  embarked 
in  7  boats,  and  after  nearly  3  months  the  sur- 
vivors reached  the  Mexican  town  of  Panuco, 
now  in  the  department  of  Vera  Cruz,  where 
they  dispersed.  The  wife  of  De  Soto  expired 
at  Havana  on  the  third  day  after  learning  his 
fate. — A  history  of  his  life  and  travels,  by  L.  A. 
"Wilmer,  was  published  at  Philadelphia  in  1858. 

DESPAKD,  Edward  Maeous,  an  Irish  sol- 
dier, beheaded  in  London,  March  21, 1803.  He 
was  a  native  of  Queen's  co.,  Ireland,  a  soldier  in 
the  "West  Indies,  and  superintendent  of  the  Eng- 
lish colony  in  Honduras.  In  consequence  of 
complaints  made  against  him  he  was  recalled  in 
1790,  but  he  could  never  procure  an  examina- 
tion into  his  administration.  This  made  him 
disaifected,  and  he  was  arrested  for  seditious 
conduct,  but  after  his  liberation  he  was  only 
the  more  inflamed.  He  seduced  some  of  the  sol- 
diers, and  matured  a  plan  to  assassinate  the  king 
on  his  way  to  open  parliament.  The  conspira- 
tors were  arrested  and  tried  by  special  commis- 
sion at  Southwark,  Feb.  5,  1803.  There  being 
no  doubt  of  their  guilt,  Despard  and  9  of  his  as- 
sociates suffered  death. 

DES  PLAINES,    or  Aux  Plaines  (Indian 


DESSAIX 


DESSALINES 


421 


appellation,  She-sMlc-mah,-o\  a  river  of  Illinois, 
rising  in  the  S.  E.  part  of  Wisconsin,  flowing 
S.  and  S.  W.,  and  uniting  with  the  Kankiikee 
at  Dresden,  to  form  the  Illinois.  It  is  about  150 
m.  long,  and  derives  its  name  from  a  species  of 
maple  called  by  the  French  plnine. 

DESSAIX,  JoBEPii  Marie,  a  French  general, 
born  in  Thonon,  Savoy,  Sept.  24,  1764,  died  Oct. 
26,  1834.  He  was  a  physician  at  Piiris,  and  in 
1791  returned  to  his  native  country  to  diffuse 
democratic  principles  and  organize  a  corps  of 
volunteers.  He  served  at  the  siege  of  Toulon, 
and  in  Italy  under  Bonaparte ;  was  elected  in 
1798  to  the  council  of  500,  where  ho  opposed 
the  coup  (Vetat  of  the  18th  Brumaire;  made  a 
brigadier-general  by  Bonaparte  in  1803,  and, 
in  the  campaign  of  1809  against  Austria,  a  gen- 
eral of  division,  receiving  from  the  emperor  the 
surname  of  Vintripidet  and  the  title  of  count 
of  the  empire.  Being  wounded  during  the  ex- 
pedition to  Russia,  he  was  put  in  command  of 
the  city  of  Berlin,  and  in  1813  was  intrusted 
with  the  defence  of  France  on  the  line  of  the 
Alps.  In  1814  he  was  kindly  treated  by  the 
Bourbons,  notwithstanding  which  he  joined  the 
standard  of  Napoleon  after  his  landing  at  Cannes, 
and  was  imprisoned  for  6  months  in  1816.  Af- 
ter the  revolution  of  1830,  he  was  elected  com- 
mander of  the  national  guards  at  Lyons. 

DESSALINES,  Jean  Jacques,  emperor  of 
Hayti  under  the  name  of  Jean  Jacques  I.,  born 
about  1760,  killed  Oct.  17, 1806.  He  was  a  na- 
tive of  Guinea,  and  when  a  boy  he  was  sold  to  a 
French  planter  whose  name  he  adopted.  On  the 
revolt  of  1791,  Dessalines  joined  the  insurgent 
army,  and  by  energy  and  shrewdness,  though 
entirely  uneducated,  soon  obtained  a  prominent 
position.  He  became  adjutant-general  of  the 
negro  commander  Jean  Franf  ois,  who  united  his 
forces  with  those  of  the  Spaniards  against  the 
French ;  and  when  Toussaint  L'Ouverture  sud- 
denly left  his  Spanish  alUes  and  went  over  to  the 
French  side,  Dessalines  adhered  to  his  fortunes. 
Having  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general,  he  led  a  successful  campaign  against  the 
mulatto  chief  Rigaud.  The  promptness  and  en- 
ergy evinced  in  this  movement  recommended 
Mm  to  Toussaint,  who  thenceforward  always 
sent  him  where  the  utmost  severity  was  consid- 
ered necessary.  His  name  spread  terror  wher- 
ever he  went.  Thousands  of  mulattoes  were 
slaughtered,  drowned,  or  shot  by  his  orders.  At 
the  same  time  he  led  a  most  dissolute  life,  and 
enriched  himself  by  extensive  robberies  perpe- 
trated in  the  guise  of  legal  confiscations.  When 
Napoleon  sent  his  brother-in-law,  Leclerc,  to 
reconquer  Hayti,  Dessalines  conducted  a  bloody 
guerrilla  war  against  the  Frencli,  to  which  his- 
tory scarcely  furnishes  a  parallel.  One  of  his 
most  remarkable  feats  was  the  obstinate  defence 
of  the  town  of  St.  Marc  against  Gen.  Boudet. 
When  unable  to  hold  the  town  any  longer,  he 
burned  it  down,  himself  setting  fire  to  his  own 
palace,  butchered  all  the  white  inhabitants  of 
the  place,  and  likewise  all  whom  he  fell  in 
with  on  his  retreat.     Peace  having  been  made 


in  1802,  by  Christophe,  Dessalin<5g  beCcam©  a 
French  general  and  governor  of  tho  southern 
portion  of  tho  island.  Here  he  plunged  once 
more  into  debauchery,  but  at  the  same  time  he 
intrigued  against  Toussaint,  and,  it  is  believed, 
secretly  betrayed  him.  WIienToussaint's  nephew 
Belair  rose  against  the  tyranny  of  the  French, 
Dessalines  treacherously  enticed  him  by  prom- 
ises of  assistance,  and  had  him  murdered  in 
cold  blood  with  300  of  his  followers.  But  las 
loyalty  to  the  French  was  of  short  duration. 
Rochambeau,  having  succeeded  Leclerc  in  the 
chief  command  of  the  Frencli  army  of  occupa- 
tion, vied  in  bloodthirstiness  with  the  savage 
negroes.  Among  others,  he  tortured  to  death 
the  negro  general  Maurepas  and  his  whole  fam- 
ily. Dessalines  resolved  upon  a  terrible  retri- 
bution. He  erected  500  gibbets,  and  hung  half 
a  regiment  of  French  whom  he  had  captured 
by  a  bold  countermarch.  A  brief  war  of  exter- 
mination followed,  and  in  Dec.  1803,  aided  by 
an  English  squadron,  he  definitively  expelled 
the  French  from  Hayti.  In  Jan.  1804,  the 
army  elected  him  governor-general  of  the  new 
republic.  For  a  few  months  he  ruled  in  a  spirit 
of  moderation,  and  took  some  wise  and  just 
measures  toward  a  liealthy  reorganization  of 
the  commonwealth.  But  soon  his  brutal  nature 
prevailed  over  his  judgment,  and  he  returned  to 
his  favorite  occupation  of  exterminating  the 
whites.  In  April,  1804,  he  made  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  conquer  the  Spanish  portion  of  tlie 
island,  and  after  his  return  he  became  more 
frantic  than  ever.  In  imitation  of  Napoleon,  he 
assumed  the  imperial  crown  (Oct.  8,  1804),  and 
proclaimed  a  new  constitution,  which  concen- 
trated all  real  power  in  his  own  hands.  A  num- 
ber of  organic  laws  followed,  most  of  them  ju- 
dicious, but  inefiicient,  since  his  recklessness  and 
eccentricities,  bordering  on  absolute  lunacy, 
frustrated  their  execution.  His  extravagance 
deranged  the  finances,  his  dissoluteness  corrupt- 
ed the  morals  of  all  classes.  Beside  his  legiti- 
mate wife,  he  kept  20  concubines,  who  drew 
their  salary  from  the  public  treasury.  His  thirst 
for  blood  became  more  and  more  insatiable. 
Suspicious  of  traitors  and  assassins,  he  put  to 
deatli  every  one  whom  he  supposed  to  have  any 
independence  of  character.  At  last  some  of  his 
generals  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against  him, 
and,  entrapping  him  into  an  ambuscade,  cut  him 
to  pieces.  Of  all  fiends  in  human  form  who 
have  obtained  a  place  in  history,  Dessalines  was 
undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  remarkable.  In 
a  slender  and  hideous  frame  he  united  the  wild- 
est passions  of  the  ferocious  savage  with  extra- 
ordinary shrewdness,  an  undeniable  keenness  of 
judgment,  and  a  clear  statesmanlike  knowledge 
of  the  men  and  things  he  had  to  deal  with. 
However  abominable  his  character  may  appear, 
it  is  nevertheless  true  that  he  understood  the 
means  of  accomplishing  the  independence  of 
Hayti  better  than  even  Toussaint  himself.  But 
he  left  Hayti  a  ruined  and  desolate,  though  an 
independent  state.  His  widow,  to  whose  in- 
fluence are  ascribed  the  few  acts  of  forbearance 


422 


DESSAU 


DESTUTT  DE  TKACY 


lie  exercised  toward  the  whites,  died  in  Go- 
naives,  Aug.  8,  1858,  at  a  very  advanced  age. 

DESSAU,  or  Dessaw,  the  capital  of  the  Ger- 
man duchy  of  Anhalt-Dessau,  on  the  river  Mulde, 
2  m.  from  its  junction  with  the  Elbe,  and  on  the 
Berlin  and  Leipsic  railway,  67  m.  S.W.  from  Ber- 
lin; pop.  12,000.  The  ducal  residence  is  large, 
and  has  a  fine  park  and  a  picture  gallery.  The 
theatre,  the  residence  of  the  hereditary  prince, 
the  council  house,  the  castle  church,  the  govern- 
ment building,  the  gymnasium,  St.  Mary's  church 
■with  some  pictures  by  Lucas  Cranach  the  young- 
er, and  the  fine  cemetery,  are  the  most  attractive 
features  of  the  town.  There  are  many  scientific, 
artistic,  rehgious,  and  industrial  institutions  and 
societies,  a  commercial  school,  a  large  ducal 
library,  an  oi'thoptedic  institution,  and  a  bank 
with  a  capital  of  about  $2,000,000.  The  manu- 
factures embrace  woollen,  linen,  and  cotton  fab- 
rics, musical  instruments,  hats,  leather,  and  to- 
bacco. An  important  wool  market  is  held  here, 
and  a  flourishing  trade  in  grain  and  other  pro- 
duce is  carried  on.  Moses  Mendelssohn,  the  phi- 
losopher, was  born  here  in  1729.  Dessau  was 
noted  as  early  as  1213,  and  in  1313  had  a  school 
independent  of  the  church.  In  the  German  rev- 
olution of  1848  it  was  one  of  the  most  demo- 
cratic cities  of  Germany.  Its  environs  are 
adorned  with  beautiful  gardens,  which  have  been 
reclaimed  from  sandy  wastes. 

DESSOLLES,  Jean  Joseph  Paul  Augustus, 
marquis,  a  French  general  and  statesman,  born 
at  Auchj  Oct.  3,  1767,  died  Nov.  4,  1828.  Hav- 
ing distinguished  himself  in  Italy  under  the 
command  of  Bonaparte,  he  was  appointed  brig- 
adier-general, May  31,  1797.  A  suceessfid  ex- 
pedition in  Valtehna  was  rewarded,  April  13, 
1799,  with  the  rank  of  general  of  division. 
,After  the  defeat  of  the  French  at  Novi,  where 
the  commander-in-chief,  Joubert,  Avas  killed, 
Dessolles  joined  the  army  on  the  Rhine,  then 
under  the  command  of  Moreau,  and  participated 
in  the  two  campaigns  of  1 800.  He  became  attach- 
ed to  his  new  commander,  and  from  this  period 
a  coolness  seems  to  have  existed  between  him 
and  Bonaparte.  He  was,  however,  appointed 
a  member  of  the  council  of  state,  and  placed 
for  a  whUe  in  command  of  the  French  army  in 
Hanover,  but  was  soon  superseded  by  Berna- 
dotte.  In  1808  he  commanded  a  division  in 
Spain.  On  the  faU  of  Napoleon  in  1814,  the  pro- 
visional government  appointed  him  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Parisian  national  guards  and  the 
regular  troops  in  the  1st  military  district.  He 
was  present  at  the  meetings  of  the  allied  sover- 
eigns at  Talleyrand's,  to  decide  upon  the  gov- 
ernment to  be  given  to  France.  He  strenuously 
opposed  the  establishment  of  a  regency  under 
Marie  Louise,  and  on  the  arrival  of  Count  d'Ar- 
tois  he  received  the  title  of  minister  of  state, 
and  was  appointed  major-general  of  all  the  na- 
tional guards  of  France.  When  the  news  of 
Napoleon's  landing  at  Cannes  reached  Paris, 
DessoUes  issued  energetic  orders  to  interrupt 
the  progress  of  the  usurper,  and  he  retained  his 
command  until  after  the  departure  of  the  king 


on  the  morning  of  March  20,  1815.  He  then 
retired  to  his  estate  near  Paris,  where  he  lived 
unmolested  during  the  Hundred  Days.  On  the 
second  restoration,  he  resumed  the  command  of 
the  national  guard,  but  soon  gave  it  up,  being 
unwilling  to  support  the  reactionary  policy 
then  prevailmg.  In  the  chamber  of  peers  he 
advocated  the  freedom  of  the  press.  On  Dec. 
28,  1818,  he  was  appointed  to  the  premiership 
and  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  receiving  about 
the  same  time  the  title  of  marquis;  but  the 
king  having  determined  that  tlie  electoral  law 
of  1817  should  bo  altered,  Dessolles  resigned  his 
office,  but  continued  to  serve  as  a  peer  tiU  his 
death. 

DESTERRO,  Nossa  Sexhoea  do  Destekro, 
or  Santa  Catiiarina,  a  city  of  Brazil,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Santa  Catharina,  on  the  W. 
coast  of  the  island  of  that  name  ;  pop.  with  the 
adjoining  district,  6,000.  It  has  a  small  but 
excellent  and  well  fortified  harbor,  and  is  the 
centre  of  an  active  commerce,  the  cofiee  ex- 
ported hence  bearing  a  high  reputation.  Ar- ' 
tificial  flowers  made  of  fish  scales,  feathers, 
beetles'  wings,  &c.,  are  also  important  articles 
of  trade.  The  city  has  little  or  no  arcbitectural 
beauty,  but  is  a  favorite  resort  for  invalids  on 
account  of  its  salubrious  climate. 

DESTOUCHES,  Philippe  Heeicattlt,  a 
French  dramatist,  born  in  Tours  in  1680,  died 
July  4,  1754.  After  leading  a  somewhat  adven- 
turous life,  he  was  hospitably  entertained  at  Lau- 
sanne by  M.  de  Puysieux,  the  French  envoy  to 
Switzerland.  His  first  comedy,  Le  curieux  im' 
pertinent,  was  performed  there  with  great  ap- 
plause, and  was  scarcely  less  successful  when  it 
appeared  at  Paris.  Some  other  plays  of  his, 
among  them  Virresolu,  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  regent  duke  of  Orleans,  who  appointed 
him  to  several  missions,  the  most  important 
being  that  to  London,  where  in  1717  he  accom- 
panied the  abbe,  afterward  cardinal  Dubois. 
After  his  return  in  1723,  on  the  sudden  death 
of  the  regent,  he  retired  to  his  country  seat 
near  Melun,  where  he  wrote  a  number  of  come- 
dies, the  best  of  which  are  Le  philosopTie  marie 
and  Le  gl&rievx,  performed  with  great  success 
in  1727  and  1732.  His  collected  works  were 
published  in  1750,  in  4  vols.  4to. 

DESTUTT  DE  TRACY,  Antoine  Loma 
Claude,  a  French  philosopher,  born  at  Paray-le- 
Fresil,  near  Moulins,  in  the  province  of  Bourbon- 
nais,  July  20, 1754,  died  near  Paris,  March  9, 1836. 
The  descendant  of  a  noble  Scottish  family,  he 
entered  the  array,  and  was  a  colonel  when  the 
revolution  broke  out.  As  a  deputy  to  the  con- 
stituent assembly,  he  advocated  liberal  reforms, 
while  adhering  to  the  moderate  party.  In  1*791 
he  retired  to  his  country  seat  at  Auteuil,  and 
devoted  his  time  to  philosophical  studies.  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  terror  he  was  imprisoned,  but 
liberated  after  the  9th  Thermidor.  The  consular 
government  appointed  him  a  senator,  and  he 
was  subsequently  created  a  count  of  the  empire. 
He  published  his  Elements  d'ideologie  in  1801, 
bis  Grammaire  in  1803,  and  his  Logique  in  1805, 


DETMOLD 


DETROIT 


423 


and  was  elected  to  the  French  academy  in  1808. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  fall  of  the  empire ; 
presented,  April  2,  1814,  in  the  senate,  the  mo- 
tion of  forfeiture  against  Napoleon ;  and  entered 
the  royalist  chamber  of  peers,  where  ho'  always 
voted  with  the  majority.  His  Traite  de  la  vo- 
lonU  et  de  ses  effets  appeared  in  1815.  He 
also  wrote  an  Essai  sur  le  genie  et  les  ouvrages 
de  Montesquieu,  followed  by  a  Commentaire  sur 
VEsprit  des  his.  A  disciple  of  Locke,  Condil- 
lac,  and  Ilobbes,  he  belongs  to  the  sensational  or 
materialist  school  of  philosophy.  His  theory  of 
language  is  considered  a  masterpiece  of  analysis. 

DETMOLD,  the  capital  of  the  little  sovereign 
principality  of  Lippe-Detmold,  in  Germany,  on 
the  river  Werra  and  on  the  E.  slope  of  the 
Teutoburg  mountains;  pop.  4,716.  In  the  vi- 
cinity was  fought  the  celebrated  battle  in  which 
Arminius  destroyed  the  army  of  Varus,  A.  D. 
9,  and  also  a  battle  between  Charlemagne  and 
the  Saxons,  in  783. 

DETROIT,  the  chief  city  of  Michigan,  and 
capital  of  Wayne  co.,  situated  on  the  N.  W.  side 
of  the  Detroit  river  or  strait,  extending  along 
the  river  nearly  4  m.,  of  which  over  2  m.  pre- 
sents a  city-like  appearance.  The  centre  of 
the  city  is  about  7  m.  from  Lake  St.  Clair  and 
18  m.  from  Lake  Erie,  80  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Lan- 
sing, 302  m.  W.  of  Buffalo,  and  526  m.  from 
Washington;  lat.  42°  20'  N.,  long.  82^^  58'  W. 
The  river  runs  from  Lake  St.  Clair  to  a  point 
just  below  the  city,  in  a  direction  about  30° 
S.  of  W.,  and  from  thence  it  runs  nearly  S.  to 
Lake  Erie,  a  distance  of  15  m.  The  original 
bed  of  the  river,  before  it  was  narrowed  by 
docking  out,  was  from  48  to  52  chains  in  width ; 
but  from  the  docks  of  the  central  portion  of  the 
city  to  the  opposite  docks  of  Windsor,  in  Cana- 
da, it  is  only  about  half  a  mile.  The  depth,  in 
June,  1841,  varied  from  12  to  48  feet,  averag- 
ing about  32  feet.  The  descent  from  Lake  St. 
Clair  to  Lake  Erie  is  about  6  feet,  or  3  inches  to 
the  mile.  The  velocity  of  the  current  in  the 
channel  opposite  the  city  is  about  2^  m.  per 
hour.  It  rises  and  falls  with  the  surfaces  of 
the  great  lakes  of  which  it  is  a  connecting 
link,  the  average  annual  variation  being  only 
about  2  feet,  and  the  extreme  variation,  from 
Feb.  1819,  when  it  was  the  lowest,  to  July, 
1838,  when  it  was  the  highest  ever  known,  Avas 
only  about  6  feet.  The  waters  of  the  river  and 
lakes  rise  during  a  succession  of  wet  seasons, 
and  fall  during  a  succession  of  dry  ones.  The 
Detroit  river  is  so  deep,  and  its  current  so 
strong  and  uniform,  that  it  keeps  itself  clear, 
and  its  navigation  is  not  affected  (as  the  Ohio, 
Mississippi,  and  most  other  rivers  are)  by  floods, 
droughts,  sand  bars,  trees,  sawyers,  rocks,  or 
dams  of  ice. — Where  the  principal  part  of  the 
city  is  situated,  the  ground  rises  gradually  from 
the  river  to  the  height  of  from  20  to  30  feet,  at 
a  distance  of  15  to  30  rods  from  the  river  bank ; 
it  then  falls  oft'  a  little,  and  again  rises  gradual- 
ly to  the  height  of  40  to  50  feet  above  the  river, 
which  renders  the  drainage  very  good.  The 
Vvhole  country  for  more  than  20  m.  back  of  the 


city  is  excessively  level,  rising  gently  and  with 
great  uniformity  at  the  rate  of  about  5  feet  in 
the  mile.  The  Detroit  river  was  visited  by  the 
French  as  early  as  1610,  but  the  first  permanent 
settlement  Avhere  the  city  of  Detroit  now  stands 
was  made  in  1701  by  a  party  under  Antoine  de 
la  Motte  Cadillac.  It  fell*  into  the  hands  of  the 
British  in  1700,  and  was  ceded  with  the  coun- 
try to  the  United  States  by  the  treaty  of  peace 
of  ]  783.  Nearly  the  whole  town  was  burned 
in  1805,  after  which  its  plot  was  changed  under 
an  act  of  congress  in  1806.  A  portion  of  the 
city  is  regularly  laid  out,  the  streets  running 
parallel  with  the  river,  and  crossing  each  other 
at  right  angles  thereto,  though  there  are  numer- 
ous irregularities.  The  streets  and  avenues  vary 
in  width  from  50  to  200  feet,  the  most  of  them 
being  either  60  or  66  feet,  but  some  are  80,  some 
100,  some  120,  and  a  few  avenues  200  feet  in 
width.  The  inhabitants  are  supplied  with  water 
taken  from  the  river  opposite  the  upper  part  of 
the  city,  and  raised  by  means  of  a  hydraulic  es- 
tablishment and  steam  forcing  pumps  into  a  large 
reservoir  about  half  a  mile  back  from  the  river, 
sufficiently  elevated  to  carry  it  in  iron  pipes  to 
all  parts  of  the  city.  Buildings  are  in  course 
of  erection  (1859)  for  a  court  house,  custom 
house,  and  post  office.  The  Michigan  insurance 
company  bank  is  a  fine  building  of  shell  lime- 
stone, which  presents  on  its  surface  many  beau- 
tiful petrifactions.  The  firemen's  hall,  odd  fel- 
lows' hall,  and  some  of  the  public  school  houses 
are  also  fine  buildings.  There  are  about  30 
churches,  of  which  several  are  large  and  splen- 
did ;  many  spacious  and  beautiful  stores ;  some 
large  and  elegant  dwelling  houses,  and  several 
extensive  hotels.  There  are  various  charitable 
institutions,  and  in  1857  there  were  35  public 
and  22  private  schools.  There  are  3  daily  news- 
papers, each  of  which  publishes  a  semi-weekly 
and  weekly  edition ;  there  are  also  5  other  weekly 
newspapers,  a  monthly  medical  journal,  a  month- 
ly journal  devoted  to  education,  and  2  serai- 
monthly  "  bank-note  detectors."  The  following 
table  shows  the  increase  of  the  population : 


Tear.  Pop. 

1810 110 

1S20, 1,44-2 

1830 2,2i;2 

1834 4,903 

1840 9,102 

1845 13,065 


Year.  Pop. 

1850 21,019 

1S54 40,373 

1855,  estimated  at.  51,000 

1856 59,1.00 

1858 TO,00O 


In  1858  there  were  about  12,000  to  15,000  Irish, 
an  equal  number  of  Germans,  and  about  4,000 
French. — The  U.  S.  government  made  5  great 
leading  roads  (post  roads)  in  Michigan  while 
it  was  a  territory,  all  diverging  from  Detroit. 
The  Michigan  central  railroad  was  finished  to 
Ypsilanti,  30  m.  from  Detroit,  in  1837;  to  Ann 
Arbor,  38  m.,  in  1839 ;  to  Kalamazoo,  145  m.,  in 
1845;  and  to  Chicago,  282  m.,  in  1851.  The 
railroad  from  Detroit  to  Toledo  (60  m.)  was  com- 
pleted in  1857,  connecting  at  Monroe  with  the 
Michigan  southern  road.  The  Detroit  and  Mil- 
waukee road,  from  Detroit  to  Lake  Michigan, 
opposite  Milwaukee,  was  opened  for  travel  in 
1858 ;  and  a  road  from  Detroit  to  the  foot  of- 


424 


DETROIT 


DEUX  PONTS 


Lake  Huron,  opposite  Port  Sarnia,  the  termi- 
nation of  the  Grand  Trunk  railway  in  Canada, 
will  be  finished  in  the  course  of  1859. — Detroit 
is  the  great  concentrating  point  of  the  produce, 
commerce,  banking,  and  heavy  business  of  the 
whole  state.  There  are  numerous  large  ware- 
houses on  the  river,  beside  the  great  freight 
depot  of  the  Central  railroad,  which  is  800  feet 
long  and  100  feet  wide.  The  retail  trade  of 
the  city  is  very  large,  and  the  wholesale  busi- 
ness has  become  extensive  also.  Nearly  all  the 
merchants  in  the  upper  lake  region,  as  well  as 
in  the  interior  of  the  state,  make  many  of  their 
purchases  in  Detroit,  and  a  large  proportion  of 
them  buy  all  their  goods  there.  The  largest  branch 
of  industry  is  the  sawing  of  lumber.  There  are 
on  the  river  within  the  city  limits  9  large  steam 
saw  mills,  which  cut  from  3,000,000  to  8,000,- 
000  feet  each  per  annum,  making  in  the  whole 
about  40,000,000  feet  annually  of  pine  lumber, 
the  logs  being  floated  down  to  the  mills  from 
Lake  Huron  and  the  creeks  and  streams  which 
fall  into  the  St.  Clair  river.  Ship  and  boat 
building  has  also  been  a  very  large  and  impor- 
tant branch  of  business.  The  Michigan  central 
railroad  company  have  an  extensive  workshop  for 
the  manufacture  of  cars,  and  for  repairing  their 
locomotive  engines.  The  Detroit  locomotive 
works  are  connected  with  a  large  foundery,  ma- 
chine shop,  and  boiler  factory,  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  locomotive  and  other  engines,  and  the 
casting  of  miU  irons  and  machinery  of  various 
kinds.  There  are  many  other  establishments, 
large  and  small,  for  all  kinds  of  machine  work, 
and  brass  and  iron  casting,  beside  shops  for 
working  in  wood,  making  sash,  blinds,  doors, 
casings,  &c. ;  2  steam  pail  factories,  one  steam 
flouring  mill,  2  large  tanneries,  and  several  brew- 
eries. Two  mUes  below  the  city  works  have 
been  erected  and  in  operation  several  years  for 
smelting  native  copper  and  copper  ore  from  the 
shores  of  Lake  Superior;  10  m.  below,  a  blast 
furnace  and  rolling  mill  have  been  in  operation 
several  years.  The  furnace  is  employed  in  smelt- 
ing ironstone  from  the  upper  peninsula.  From 
10  to  15  m.  from  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior there  are  several  hills  of  ironstone,  very 
rich  in  the  finest  quality  of  iron,  which  will  fur- 
nish an  inexhaustible  supply.  The  following 
table  shows  the  industrial  progress  of  the  city 
from  1855  to  1857 : 


EBtablishmentfl. 

1855. 

185S. 

1857. 

Stores 

835 
260 
49 
175 
843 
46 
24 
10 

r 

IT 

21 

9 

8 

6 

883 

247 

52 

236 

899 

50 

26 

11 

8 

20 

27 

9 

4 

6 

420 

280 

Taverns 

Offices 

Mechanic  shops 

Stationary  sfeam  engines 

56 
255 
421 

69 

Forwardino;  houses 

tron  machine  shops 

29 
10 

11 

Breweries 

23 

Bakeries 

Fire  engine  houses 

Flour  mills 

28 
13 
5 

Baw  mills 

9 

foreign  imports  $1,139,791  64.  The  imports  by 
railway  of  flour  and  grain  in  1857  and  1858  were 
as  follows : 


Flour,  bbls 

Wheat,  bushels. 
Corn,  " 

Oats,  " 


482,192 
650,874 
447,219 
196,564 


1858. 


592,287 
839,704 
231,040 
150,486 


The  number  of  vessels  built  in  the  Detroit  collec- 
tion district  during  the  fiscal  years  1856-"7,  end- 
ing June  30,  with  their  aggregate  tonnage  and 
the  total  tonnage  of  the  district,  are  as  follows : 


Steamers 

Ships  and  barks.. 

Brigs 

Schooners , 

Sloops  and  boats. 


Total  nmnber  built. 

Tonnacre  of  do 

Tonnage  of  district. 


9 

10 

1 

1 

1 

22 

T 

1 

10 

33 

29 

7,626 

6,7M 

58,688 

57,707 

The  estimated  value  of  the  leading  articles  of 
export  in  1857  was  $10,996,399,  and  of  the  total 


The  assessed  valuation  for  purposes  of  taxation 
was,  in  the  latter  part  of  1858,  $16,360,000,  with 
a  city  debt  of  about  $300,000. 

DETROIT  RIVER.     See  Detroit. 

DEUCALION",  king  of  Phthia,  in  Thessaly, 
and  son  of  Prometheus  and  Clymene.  Accord- 
ing to  ancient  tradition,  being  forewarned  by 
his  father  of  an  approaching  deluge,  he  built  a 
ship  in  which  he  and  his  wife  Pyrrha  were 
saved  from  an  inundation  which  destroyed  all 
the  rest  of  mankind.  When  the  waters  sub- 
sided, their  vessel  rested  on  Mount  Parnassus, 
and  their  first  care  was  to  consult  the  oracle  of 
Themis  as  to  how  the  world  should  be  repeopled. 
Being  advised  to  throw  behind  their  backs  the 
bones  of  their  great  mother,  and  interpreting  mo- 
ther to  mean  the  earth,  they  cast  stones  behind 
them,  from  which  sprang  up  men  and  women. 

DEUTERONOMY  (the  second  law ;  Gr.  8ev- 
Tfpos,  second,  pofj.os,  law),  the  5th  book  of  the 
Pentateuch,  containing  the  history  of  what  pass- 
ed in  the  wilderness  during  about  5  Aveeks  (from 
the  beginning  of  the  11th  month  to  the'7th  day 
of  the  12th  mouth),  in  the  40th  year  after  the 
departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt.  In  it 
Moses  recites  to  the  people  the  events  which 
had  taken  place  in  their  history,  and  explains 
again  the  law  which  had  been  received  at  Sinai. 

DEUX  PONTS  (Ger.  Zweiirucien,  two 
bridges),  a  canton  and  town  in  the  circle  of  the 
Palatinate,  Bavaria;  pop.  of  the  canton,  about 
150,000  ;  of  the  town,  7,920.  The  canton  was 
formerly  an  independent  duchy,  and  in  1795 
came  by  inheritance  into  the  possession  of  the 
king  of  Bavaria.  During  the  wars  of  the  French 
revolution  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
French,  to  whom  its  possession  was  confirmed 
by  the  treaty  of  Limeville  in  1801.  In  1814  it 
w^as  finally  restored  to  Bavaria.  Much  of  the 
canton  is  mountainous,  but  in  the  valleys  and 
on  the  lower  hiUs  agriculture  is  carried  on  to  a 
considerable  extent.  It  has  extensive  forests, 
and  iron,  copper,  and  freestone  are  found. 
Much  attention  is  also  paid  to  the  raismg  of 


DEV 


DE  VERE 


425 


horses,  cattle,  and  sheep. — ^The  town  of  Denx 
Ponts  was  the  capital  of  the  ancient  duchy,  and 
once  possessed  a  handsome  ducal  palace,  which 
was  partially  destroyed  by  the  French,  and  has 
since  been  converted  into  a  church.  The 
name  of  the  town,  which  in  Latin  is  Bipontium^ 
was  given  to  it  on  account  of  the  two  bridges 
across  the  Erlbach,  near  the  old  castle  of  the 
dukes.  The  Bipont  editions  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  classics  were  commenced  hero  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  18th  century. 

DEV  (Sanscrit,  div^  to  play,  desire,  shine,  be 
mad  or  proud,  tease,  &c. ;  Slavic,  div-iti,  to 
wonder ;  dzrir,  wild),  the  Parsee  name  of  the 
peetiare  Ahriman,  or  evil-breeding  principle, 
and  of  his  progeny  of  night,  death,  darkness, 
drought,  dulness,  dearth,  dirt,  negation,  and  star- 
vation. ITie  devs  were  the  producers  of  these 
and  of  all  other  dire  and  dreadful  calamities,  as 
well  as  the  seducers  of  men  to  all  moral  evils; 
the  prototypes  of  the  devils  of  Christian  history. 
For  the  8ia^o\os  (scatterer,  confounder)  itself 
seems  to  be  of  recent  formation  in  this  sense, 
having  been  unknown  to  the  ancient  Greeks. 
As  Ahriman,  though  akin  to  Ormuzd,  both  being 
the  offspring  of  Zervane  Akerene  (Slav,  trvanie, 
duration,  a  privative,  and  Slav.  Jcraj,  margin), 
or  endless  time,  was  his  antagonist,  so  were  the 
6  arch-devs  opposed  to  as  many  Amshaspands 
representing  the  principles  of  light,  life,  love, 
law,  right  existence,  and  happiness ;  both  being 
also  the  prototypes  of  the  7  choirs  of  devils 
and  of  angels.  Beside  the  regular  army  of  evil 
spirits,  rushing  down  from  the  desert  of  Gobi 
upon  the  south-western  people  of  Ormuzd,  com- 
pelling them  to  leave  their  native  land,  Eeriene 
A^eedjo  (Iran,  pure),  under  the  guidance  of 
Jemshid,  and  to  change  their  settlements  13 
times,  there  were  especial  devs  of  falsehood, 
envy,  putridity,  and  all  other  evil  things,  dis- 
tinguished by  specific  names,  such  as  Esliem, 
the  man-killer ;  Akuman,  the  ugliest  of  all ; 
Epeosho,  the  destroyer  of  waters  in  the  shape 
of  a  dragon- star  (probably  a  comet),  &c.  The 
DaiTidjs,  a  particular  sort  of  devs,  opposed  to 
the  good  Izeds,  or  secondary  good  genii,  are 
also  conspicuous.  The  ever  renewed  contest  of 
the  two  principles  will  end  with  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  earth  by  the  comet  Gurzsher.  The 
cosmogony  and  theology  of  the  Parsees  is  con- 
tained in  the  Zend  Avesta. 

BEVA  (Lat.  deus,  diviis),  among  the  Aryans 
in  general,  an  epithet  of  divine  persons  and 
things ;  hence  often  opposed  to  the  dev  of  the 
Parsees.  It  is  commonly  applied  to  the  goddess 
Durga,  the  wife  of  Siva,  of  terrific  form  and 
irascible  temper.  Devakutmajii  is  the  mother 
of  Krishna,  who  is  also  named  Deviiki.  Deva- 
tarti  is  the  holy  fig-tree,  belonging  to  Sverga 
or  paradise.  Devatii  denotes  a  deity ;  Deva- 
datta,  the  younger  brother  of  Buddha,  who  is 
called  Devadattarraja  (Deodatus  senior).  Deva- 
deva  is  a  name  of  Brahma ;  Devapati  is  Indra, 
the  god  of  the  sky ;  Devayajna  is  the  Homa 
or  burnt  sacrifice ;  Devarishi,  a  celestial  saint. 
There  are  a  great  many  classes  or  choirs  of  in- 


ferior devatas,  who  are  ministers  to  the  higher 
gods,  such  as  the  12  Adityas  or  forces  of  the 
sun  ;  the  Maruts  or  winds,  the  celestial  musi- 
cians ;  in  short,  endless  motley  hosts  with  vari- 
able attributes.     (See  Beaiima.) 

DEVANAGAPJ.     See  Sanscrit. 

DEVAPRAYAGA,  a  town  of  Gurhwal,  Hin- 
dostan,  situated  at  the  place  where  the  rivers 
Bhagirathi  and  Alakananda  unite  and  form  tho 
Ganges.  This  portion  is  considered  by  the 
Hindoos  as  the  most  sacred  part  of  that  holy 
river,  and  is  believed  by  them  to  have  the  prop- 
erty of  washing  away  sins.  The  town  is  not 
large,  and  is  inhabited  principally  by  Brahmins, 
who  are  supported  chiefly  by  the  contributions'of 
yjilgrims.  It  is  built  on  an  eminence  about  100 
feet  above  the  river,  and  contains  a  celebrated 
Hindoo  temple,  built  of  large  stones  joined  to- 
gether without  the  use  of  mortar. 

DEVENTER,  or  Dewexter,  a  fortified  city 
of  Holland,  province  of  Overyssel,  on  the  Yssel, 
8  m.  N.  from  Zutphen ;  pop.  in  18.50,  14,378.  It 
has  narrow  streets,  spacious  market  places,  hand- 
some public  promenades,  a  large  town  house,  a 
court  house,  a  prison,  a  weigh-house,  5  churches, 
a  synagogue,  various  literary  and  educational 
institutions,  6  hospitals,  and  an  orphan  asylum. 
It  has  an  excellent  harbor,  a  prosperous  trade, 
and  extensive  manufactories  of  Turkey  carpets, 
stockings,  iron  ware,  &c.  It  exports  annually 
about  600,000  lbs.  of  butter. 

DE  YERE,  Maximilian  Schele,  professor 
of  modern  languages  and  belles-lettres  in  the 
university  of  A'irginia,  born  near  Wexio,  in 
Sweden,  Nov.  1,  1820.  He  first  entered  the 
military  and  afterward  the  diplomatic  service 
of  Prussia.  Emigrating  finally  to  the  United 
States,  he  was  appointed  in  1844  professor  in 
the  university  of  Virginia,  a  position  which  he 
continues  to  occupy.  Prof.  De  Vere  has  been 
an  industrious  and  extensive  writer,  as  well  as  a 
laborious  student  and  teacher.  His  contribu- 
tions upon  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  of  a  his- 
torical, literary,  and  scientific  character,  have 
appeared  in  the  British  quarterly  reviews,  the 
"  Southern  Literary  Messenger,"  in  "  Putnam's" 
and  "  Harper's"  magazines,  and  elsewhere.  He 
has  published  2  volumes :  the  first  in  1853, ''  Out- 
lines of  Comparative  Philology ;"  the  second 
in  1856,  "  Stray  Leaves  from  the  Book  of  'i^a.- 
ture."  The  former  is  a  very  full  and  compre- 
hensive treatise,  now.  in  use  as  a  text  book  at 
the  university  of  A'irginia;  the  latter  a  graceful 
and  pleasing  series  of  papers,  dealing  with  a 
number  of  curious  and  interesting  subjects, 
chiefly  in  the  department  of  the  minute  natural- 
ist. The  miscellaneous  articles  contributed  by 
Professor  De  Vere  to  the  periodicals  mention- 
ed above  have  been  valuable  and  interesting  ; 
among  them  we  refer  especially  to  a  series  of 
papers  in  the  '"Southern  Literary  Messenger," 
entitled  ''Glimpses  of  Europe  in  1848,"  which 
are  remarkable  for  political  insight  and  vivid 
coloring.  He  has  made  himself  master  of  Eng- 
lish, and  writes  it  with  much  perspicuity,  force, 
and  elegance. 


426 


DEVEREUX 


DEVEREFX,  Egbert,  1st  earl  of  Essex,  born 
about  1540,  died  in  Dublin,  Sept.  22, 1576.  He 
succeeded  liis  grandfatber  early  in  the  title  of 
Viscount  Hereford,  and  recommended  himself  to 
Queen  Elizabeth  by  liis  bravery  and  good  con- 
duct in  suppressing  the  rebellion  of  the  earls  of 
Northumberland  and  Westmoreland,  in  1569. 
For  his  service  in  driving  them  into  Scotland 
be  received  the  garter  and  the  earldom  of  Essex. 
Afterward,  in  1573,  he  was  persuaded  to  under- 
take an  expedition  against  Ireland,  in  company 
with  other  noblemen  and  gentlemen.  In  consid- 
eration of  his  contract  to  furnish  half  the  ex- 
pense of  the  enterprise,  he  was  to  have  one-half 
of  the  colony  as  soon  as  it  was  established.  The 
expedition  was  directed  against  the  Irish  prov- 
ince of  Ulster,  but  in  its  prosecution  Essex  was 
subjected  to  many  trials  and  disappointments,  to 
the  desertion  of  his  friends,  and  inability  to 
carry  out  his  plans.  Ho  was  obliged  to  make 
peace  with  O'Neal,  when,  by  continuing  the 
war,  he  had  the  fairest  prospects  of  driving  him 
out  of  the  country.  Harassed  with  his  difficul- 
ties, he  retired  to  England,  but  was  again  in- 
duced to  return,  with  the  title  of  earl  marshal 
of  Ireland  and  the  promise  of  suppoi-t  and  assist- 
ance. As  these  promises  were  but  poorly  kept, 
be  was  overcome  with  grief,  and  the  agitation 
of  his  mind  threw  him  into  a  fatal  dysentery. 
There  was  suspicion  of  poison,  which  was  not 
diminished  by  the  marriage,  soon  after,  of  his 
countess  to  the  earl  of  Leicester. 

DEVEREUX,  Robert,  son  of  the  preceding, 
2d  earl  of  Essex,  born  at  Netherwood,  in  Here- 
fordshire, Nov.  10, 1567,  executed  in  the  court  of 
the  tower,  Feb.  25,  1601.  He  succeeded  to  bis 
title  in  bis  10th  year,  and  in  1578  was  sent  by 
his  guardian  Lord  Burleigh  to  Trinity  college, 
Cambridge,  where  after  4  years  he  took  the 
degree  of  master  of  arts.  He  retired  to  his  seat 
at  Lampsie,  in  South  Wales,  but  appeared  at 
court  in  his  17th  year,  and  his  youth,  address, 
and  spirit  soon  captivated  Elizabeth.  In  1585 
he  accompanied  the  earl  of  Leicester  to  Holland, 
and  displayed  bis  personal  courage  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Zutphen,  in  which  Sir  Philip  Sidney  fell 
mortally  wounded.  In  1587  he  was  appointed 
to  the  honorable  post  of  master  of  the  horse,  and 
in  the  following  year  the  queen  ostentatiously 
showed  her  favor  for  him  while  reviewing  the 
army  at  TUbury,  created  him  captain-general  of 
the  cavalry,  and  conferred  on  him  the  honor  of 
the  garter.  He  succeeded  Leicester  as  prime  fa- 
vorite, and  his  attendance  was  constantly  requir- 
ed at  court.  In  1589,  when  an  expedition  against 
Portugal  was  undertaken  by  Drake  and  Norris, 
Essex  suddenly  disappeared  from  court,  followed 
the  armament,  and  joined  it  on  the  coast  of 
Portugal,  where  he  was  a  leader  in  taking  the 
castle  of  Peniche  and  in  advancing  upon  Lisbon. 
Though  he  had  departed  without  the  permission 
of  the  queen,  he  was  quickly  reconciled  with 
her  after  his  return,  and  at  once  assumed  a 
superiority  over  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  and  Sir 
Charles  Blount,  the  rival  competitors  for  royal 
favor.      He  was    challenged    by  Blount  and 


•wounded  in  the  knee,  and  the  queen  is  said 
to  have  expressed  her  gratification  that  some 
one  had  taken  him  in  hand,  as  otherwise  there 
would  be  no  ruling  him.  In  1590  he  married  the 
daughter  of  Sir  Francis  Walsingham,  the  widow 
of  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  and  in  the  following  year 
had  command  of  a  fruitless  expedition  in  Brit- 
tany against  the  Spaniards,  who  were  attempt- 
ing its  conquest.  When,  in  1596,  alarm  was 
excited  by  the  hostile  preparations  in  the  Span- 
ish harbors,  he  was  joined  with  Lord  Admiral 
Howard  in  command  of  the  expedition  against 
Cadiz,  and  entered  the  city  by  land  soon  after 
the  engagement  in  the  harbor,  in  which  13 
Spanish  ships  of  war  were  taken  or  destroyed. 
The  intrigues  of  the  Cecils,  who  had  regarded 
Essex  with  jealousy  from  his  first  introduction 
at  court,  caused  him  to  be  coolly  received  on 
his  return ;  but  he  quickly  recovered  favor,  the 
queen  preferring  him  as  an  accomplished  courtier 
and  Sir  Robert  Cecil  as  a  man  of  business.  Two 
subsequent  expeditions  which  he  conducted 
against  Spanish  shipping,  in  one  of  which  Lord 
Thomas  Howard  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  were  his 
seconds,  met  with  little  success.  The  queen  re- 
ceived him  with  frowns  and  reproaches,  and  he 
retired  to  Wanstead ;  nor  would  he  be  pacified 
by  her  acknowledgment  that  the  charges  against 
him  were  unfounded,  but  after  a  long  negotia- 
tion he  accepted  the  office  of  hereditary  earl 
marshal  as  indemnity  for  the  promotion  that  had 
been  given  to  bis  rivals.  In  1598  he  quarrelled 
with  the  queen  about  the  appointment  of  deputy 
in  Ireland,  and  when  she  boxed  him  on  the  ear, 
and  bade  him  "  go  and  be  hanged,"  for  turning 
his  back  to  her  in  presence  of  her  ministers,  he 
swore  that  he  would  not  endure  such  an  affront 
even  from  Henry  VIII.  himself,  and  withdrew 
from  court.  Only  a  formal  reconciliation  was 
ever  effected.  In  1599  the  province  of  Ulster 
was  in  rebellion,  and  Essex,  invested  with  un- 
usual powers,  accepted  the  lord-lieutenantcy  of 
Ireland.  His  campaign  resulted  only  in  a  tem- 
porary armistice,  and  completed  his  ruin.  He 
returned  in  haste,  retired  from  his  first  audience 
with  a  cheerful  countenance,  but  was  imme- 
diately ordered  to  consider  himself  a  prisoner  in 
his  own  house,  and  was  for  a  time  delivered  to 
the  lord  keeper  to  be  kept  in  "  free  custody." 
After  months  of  hesitation,  both  on  his  own 
part  and  that  of  Elizabeth,  he  at  length  con- 
ceived the  plan  of  forcibly  banishing  his  ene- 
mies from  her  majesty's  council.  At  the  bead 
of  a  force  of  80  knights  or  gentlemen,  and  about 
200  other  persons  attached  to  him  by  friendship 
or  fear,  he  made  his  way  into  the  city,  but  was 
disappointed  in  expecting  the  people  to  rise  in 
his  favor;  he  completely  failed  in  his  design, 
and  took  refuge  in  Essex  house,  where  he  was 
besieged  and  forced  to  surrender.  He  was  com- 
mitted to  the  tower,  tried  for  treason,  condemn- 
ed, and  executed,  the  queen  reluctantly  and  ir- 
resolutely signing  the  warrant.  He  was  an  ac- 
complished scholar,  a  patron  of  literature,  and 
the  most  frank  and  impetuous  of  the  politicians 
of  his  time.     He  erected  a  monument  to  Spen- 


DEVEREUX 


DEVIL-FISH 


427 


«er,  gave  an  estate  to  Bacon,  and  was  the  friend 
of  Wotton  and  other  men  of  learning. 

DEVEREUX,  RoBEPT,  son  of  the  preceding, 
3d  earl  of  Essex,  born  in  Loudon  in  1592, 
died  in  the  same  city,  Sept.  14,  1040.  He  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  at  Merton  college,  Oxford. 
He  succeeded  to  his  title  in  1603,  and  in  his 
15th  year  was  married  to  Lady  Frances  Howard, 
who  was  a  year  younger  than  himself  He  pro- 
ceeded to  the  university  and  thence  to  the  conti- 
nent, while  his  wife  remained  at  court,  and  num- 
bered Prince  Henry  and  Rochester  (afterward 
eai'l  of  Somerset)  among  her  admirers.  A  di- 
vorce ensued  between  her  and  the  eai-l  of  Essex, 
on  the  plea  of  his  natural  incapacity,  and  she 
was  soon  after  married  to  Rochester.  Essex 
led  a  solitary  life  in  his  country  house,  till  in 
1620  he  raised  a  troop  and  served  under  the 
elector  palatine  in  the  wars  of  the  Nether- 
lands. He  was  engaged  in  several  campaigns 
abroad,  and  as  vice-admiral  commanded  a  fruit- 
less expedition  sent  by  England  against  Spain. 
His  second  marriage  resulted  unhappily  and  in 
a  divorce.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  civU  war  he 
was  appointed  lord  general  by  the  parliament, 
laid  siege  to  Portsmouth,  and  was  proclaimed  a 
traitor  by  Cliarles.  He  fought  against  the  king 
at  Edgehill  (1642),  captured  Reading  (1643), 
advanced  into  Cornwall,  and,  after  refusing  to 
negotiate  with  the  royalists,  met  with  a  succes- 
sion of  disasters  which  forced  his  army  to  capit- 
ulate, he  himself  escaping  in  a  boat  to  Plymouth. 
He  repaired  to  London,  where  a  parliamentary 
deputation  waited  on  him  in  honor  of  his  faith- 
ful services.  He  again  raised  a  corps,  but  ill 
health  soon  obliged  him  to  quit  his  command. 
As  early  as  1644  he  suspected  Cromwell  of  a 
design  to  obtain  the  supreme  command  of  the 
army,  abolish  the  house  of  lords,  and  erect  a 
new  government  according  to  his  own  princi- 
ples. He  therefore  urged  his  impeachment  be- 
fore the  house  of  lords,  and  Cromwell  took  re- 
venge by  proposing  the  "self-denying  ordinance," 
by  which  members  of  both  houses  were  exclud- 
ed from  all  offices,  whether  civil  or  military. 
This  measure  "having  passed,  Essex  ceased  to  be 
a  parliamentary  general,  but  for  his  services 
£10,000  per  annum  was  voted  to  him  out  of 
the  sequestered  estates  of  the  loyalists.  He 
died  in  the  next  year,  and  was  interred  inTTest- 
minster  abbey,  the  houses  of  parliament  express- 
ing their  respect  for  his  memory  by  attending 
his  funeral. 

DEVIL  (Gr.  Sta/3oXor,  scatterer  or  accuser), 
in  Jewish  and  Christian  theology,  the  sov- 
ereign spirit  of  evil.  The  doctrine  of  the  fa- 
thers of  the  church,  founded  upon  certain  pas- 
sages of  the  Scriptures,  makes  him  the  leader 
of  a  rebellion  in  the  angelic  world,  the  enemy 
of  God,  the  author  and  constant  promoter  of 
sin,  now  suffering  chastisement  for  his  crimes, 
and  destined  to  eternal  punishment.  Though 
called  the  prince  of  this  world,  and  though  all 
heathendom  was  the  effect  of  his  agency,  yet 
his  power  was  broken  by  the  work  of  Christ,  so 
that  Christians  can  rise  superior  to  the  might 


of  his  influence.  As  sovereign  of  the  demons, 
he  figured  prominently  in  the  practice  of  magic 
and  in  many  of  the  poetical  legends  of  the  mid- 
dle ages.  In  the  mysteries  he  was  often  rei)re- 
sented  on  the  stage,  with  black  complexion, 
flaming  eyes,  sulphuric  odor,  horns,  tail,  hooked 
nails,  and  cloven  hoof.  Milton  in  the  character 
of  Satan,  and  Klopstock  in  that  of  Abbadonna, 
have  personiMed  the  devil  as  a  fallen  angel,  still 
bearing  traces  of  his  former  dignity  amid  the 
disfigurements  caused  by  sin.  The  Mephisto- 
pheles  of  Goethe  is  a  more  malignant  character, 
and  chuckles  in  anticipating  the  ultimate  ruin 
which  he  is  preparing  by  his  arts. — The  Yezidis, 
a  singular  race  found  in  Koordistan  and  Ar- 
menia,  are  perhaps  the  only  acknowledged  wor- 
shippers of  the  devil.  They  seem  to  have  onco 
pi'ofessed  Christianity,  then  Mohammedanism, 
and  now  risk  their  destiny  on  devilism.  Ad- 
mitting that  the  mighty  angel  Satan,  the  chief 
of  an  angelic  host,  at  present  has  a  quarrel  with 
God,  they  yet  believe  that  a  reconciliation  will 
hereafter  take  place,  and  that  he  will  be  restored 
to  his  high  estate  in  the  celestial  hierarchy.  This 
is  the  foundation  of  their  hope,  and  they  esteem 
their  chance  for  heaven  a  better  one  than  if 
they  trusted  to  their  own  merits  or  to  the  merits 
of  the  leader  of  any  other  religion  whatsoever. 
(See  Dkmoxs.) — Among  the  most  complete 
theological  treatises  on  the  subject  are  those  of 
Mayer,  Eistoria  Diaboli  (2d  ed.,  Tubingen, 
1780);  Semler,  Versuch  cineriiMischen  Ddmon- 
ologie  (Halle,  1785);  and  Schulz,  Ifntersuchung 
uler  die  Bedeutung  des  Wo'ts  Tevfel  iind  Satan 
ill  del-  Bibel. — The  devil,  as  the  ideal  of  evil,  vice, 
craft,  cunning,  and  knavery,  has  played  a  prom- 
inent part  in  literature.  The  following  are  ex- 
amples :  Hocker,  Wider  den  Bann-  Tenfel  (Mag- 
deburg, 1564);  Musculus,  Wider  den  Ehe-Teiif el 
(Frankfort,  1566) ;  Fabricius,  Der  heilige,  Tcluge, 
und  gelehrte  Teitfel  (Eislingen,  1567)  ;  Luberti, 
Fast-Nachts-Tevfel  (Liibeck,  1573);  Brand- 
miiller,  Der  Geiz-Tcvfel  (Basel,  1579) ;  Musaus, 
MelancJiolischerTeiifel  (Tham,  1572),  and  Spe- 
culativisclier  Tevfel  (Magdeburg,  1579) ;  the 
Theatnim  Dialolorum  (Frankfort,  1565,  con- 
taining 20  old  German  writings  similar  to  the 
preceding) ;  Velez  de  Guevara,  El  diabolo  co- 
xuelo  (Barcelona,  1646);  Damerval,  Le  livre  de 
la  diablerie  (Paris,  1508) ;  Ze  diahle  bossu,  Le 
diahle  femme^  Le  diahle  pendu  et  dependu,  Le 
diable  d'argent,  Le  diable  babillard  (all  early 
in  the  18tli  century);  Le  diahle  confondit 
(the  Hague,  1740);  Le  diable  hermite  (xbuster- 
dam,  1741)  ;  Le  Sage,  Le  diable  boiteux  (Paris, 
1755);  Frederic  Soulie,  Memoires  du  diahle 
(Paris,  1844);  the  "Parlyament  of  Deuylles," 
printed  by  Wynkin  de  Worde  (1509) ;  the  "  Wyll 
of  the  Deuvll  and  Last  Testament ;"  the  "  Dev- 
ill's  White  Boyes"  (1644);  "Devil  turaed Round- 
head''(London,  1642);  the  "  Devill  of  Mascon" 
(Oxford,  1658);  and  Defoe,  the  "Political  His- 
tory of  the  Devil,  as  weU  Ancient  as  Modern" 
(London,  1726). 

DEA^IL-FISH,  a  cartilaginous  fish  of  the  ray 
family,  and  the  genus  cephaloptera  (Dumoril). 


428 


DEVIL-FISH 


In  this  genus  the  head  is  truncated  in  front,  and 
provided  on  each  side  with  a  pointed,  wing-like 
process,  separate  from  the  pectoral  fins,  and  ca- 
pable of  independent  motion ;  these  processes, 
however,  seem  sometimes  to  be  prolongations 
of  the  pectorals,  and  give  the  name  to  the  ge- 
nus, which  signifies  wings  upon  tlie  head.  The 
pectorals  are  of  great  breadth,  triangular,  re- 
sembling wings,  and  making  the  transverse  diam- 
ter  of  the  fish  greater  than  the  longitudinal, 
with  the  tail  included ;  the  jaws  are  at  the  end 
of  the  head ;  the  lower  are  the  most  advanced  ; 
the  eyes  are  prominent  and  lateral ;  the  tail  is 
armed  with  one  or  two  serrated  spines,  and  is 
long  and  slender;  in  front  of  the  spine  is  a 
small  dorsal  fin  with  36  rays;  the  teeth  are 
small,  numerous,  flat,  and  arranged  in  many 
rows ;  the  small  nostrils  are  placed  near  the  an- 
gles of  the  mouth,  and  openings  (probably  the 
auditory)  are  situated  on  the  dorsal  aspect  of 
the  appendages  to  the  head,  behind  the  eyes ; 
the  branchial  openings  are  5  on  each  side,  large, 
linear,  near  each  other,  the  5th  being  the  small- 
est ;  the  ventral  fins  are  small,  rounded,  near  the 
base  of  the  tail ;  the  skin  is  rough  to  the  touch, 
like  that  of  some  sharks  ;  the  skeleton  is  carti- 
laginous. The  old  genus  cephaloptera  has  been 
divided  by  Muller  and  Ilenle,  and  the  genus  ce- 
ratoptera  added.  In  the  first  the  mouth  is  on 
the  ventral  aspect,  and  the  pectorals  are  pro- 
longed forward  to  a  point  beyond  the  head, 
resembling  horns ;  4  species  are  described.  In 
the  second  the  mouth  is  at  the  end  of  the 
snout,  the  upper  jaw  is  crescentic,  and  the 
under  convex ;  there  are  no  teeth  in  the  upper 
jaw,  and  they  are  small  and  scale-like  on  the 
under ;  the  pectorals  are  separated  from  the  pre- 
cephalic  fins  by  a  rayless  space ;  this  includes  3 
species,  and  among  them,  probably,  the  one  men- 
tioned below  as  caught  at  Kingston,  Jamaica. 
The  devil-fish  mentioned  by  Catesby,  in  his 
"  Natural  History  of  Carolina,"  is  probably  the 
same  as  the  gigantic  ray  described  by  Mitchill  in 
vol  i.  of  the  "  Annals  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural 
History  of  New  York,"  under  the  name  of  the 
"vampire  of  the  ocean"  {C.  vampyrus^  Mitch.). 
This  specimen  was  taken  in  the  Atlantic,  near 
the  entrance  of  Delaware  bay,  in  1823,  and  was 
60  heavy  as  to  require  3  pair  of  oxen,  a  horse, 
and  several  men  to  drag  it  on  shore ;  it  was 
estimated  to  weigh  about  5  tons,  and  measured 
I7i  feet  long  and  18  feet  wide ;  the  skin  on  the 
back  was  blackish  brown,  and  on  the  belly 
black  and  white,  and  very  slimy ;  the  mouth 
was  2|  feet  wide,  the  greatest  breadth  of  the 
skull  5  feet,  and  the  distance  between  the  eyes  4| 
feet ;  the  cranial  appendages  were  2^  feet  long 
and  a  foot  wide,  tapering,  supported  internally 
by  27  parallel  cartilaginous  articulated  rays,  al- 
lowing free  motion  in  almost  all  directions,  and 
probably  used  as  prehensile  organs  ;  the  im- 
mense pectorals  were  attached  to  the  scapular 
arch,  and  contained  77  articulated  parallel  car- 
tilaginous rays,  and  were  used  like  wings  to  fly 
through  the  water.  The  specific  name  of  this 
ray  was  given  by  Mitchill  from  its  size,  repre- 


senting in  its  family  what  the  vampire  does  in 
the  bat  family.  This  specimen  was  again  de- 
scribed by  Lesueur  in  the  "  Journal  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Natural  Sciences"  (vol.  iv.,  1824),  as  G. 
giorna  (Lacep.).  Cuvier  and  Dekay  consider 
the  latter  a  distinct  species,  rarely  exceeding 
the  weight  of  50  lbs.  The  devil-fish  is  occa- 
sionally seen  by  the  fishermen  on  the  coast  of 
the  southern  states  in  summer  and  autumn,  and 
many  wonderful  stories  are  told  of  its  strength 
and  ferocity,  its  extraordinary  shape  and  size 
having  transformed  a  powerful  but  inoflfensive 
animal  into  a  terrible  monster  in  the  eyes  of 
those  who  cannot  see  the  admirable  adaptation 
of  means  to  ends  even  in  the  most  hideous 
creatures.  Other  species  of  the  genus  are  met 
with  in  the  tropical  parts  of  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific,  both  in  mid  ocean  and  on  sandy  coasts, 
which  they  approach  to  bring  forth  their  young ; 
and  doubtless  many  of  the  marvellous  stories  of 
the  sea  serpent  and  other  marine  monsters  have 
arisen  from  the  sight  of  these  animals  sporting 
on  the  surface  of  the  water,  or  dimly  seen  be- 
neath the  vessel's  keel.  They  are  not  uncom- 
mon in  the  West  Indies,  and  Dr.  Bancroft,  in 
vol.  iv.  of  the  "  Zoological  Journal,"  describes 
one  which  was  captured  in  1828  in  the  harbor 
of  Kingston,  Jamaica,  after  a  resistance  of  sever- 
al hours,  .which  had  strength  sufficient  to  drag  3 
or  4  boats  fastened  together  at  the  rate  of  4  miles 
an  hour.  In  this  specimen,  Avhich  was  smaller 
than  the  one  described  by  Mitchill,  the  mouth 
was  27  inches  wide,  opening  into  a  cavity  4^ 
feet  wide  and  3  feet  deep,  and  so  vaulted  that  it 
could  easily  contain  the  body  of  a  man.  He 
named  it  C.  manta^  which  is  doubtless  a  syno- 
nyme  of  C.  vampyrns  (Mitch.).  In  Anson's 
"  Voyage  round  the  World "  there  is  an  ac- 
count of  an  immense  fish  which,  "  broad  and 
long,  like  a  quilt,  wraps  its  fins  round  a  man  that 
happens  to  come  within  its  reach,  and  immedi- 
ately squeezes  him  to  death."  Another  writer 
says  that  it  is  so  inimical  to  the  pearl  diver  that 
it  darts  at  him  "  immediately  that  he  submerges, 
and  envelops  and  devours  him."  The  fish  thus 
characterized  is,  no  doubt,  the  ray  called  devil- 
fish, but  it  is  anatomically  impossible  that  it  can 
so  seize  its  prey  ;  the  accounts  above  mentioned 
are  mere  traditions,  as  it  does  not  appear  that 
any  one  has  ever  been  a  Avitness  of  such  an 
event.  The  pectoral  fins  of  the  devil-fish  are 
too  thick  at  their  base  and  anterior  margin,  and 
their  cartilages  are  too  rigid,  to  allow  of  their 
being  so  bent  downward  as  to  enfold  a  man  or 
any  other  prey  in  the  manner  alluded  to  ;  they 
are  composed  of  a  great  number  of  joints,  more 
than  600,  and  must  be  capable  of  a  considerable 
variety  of  motions  calculated  to  impel  the  ani- 
mal through  the  water  with  great  strength  and 
speed ;  any  one  who  has  caught  a  skate,  and 
experienced  the  resistance  of  a  fish  2  or  3  feet 
in  diameter,  can  readily  believe  that  an  ani- 
mal 18  feet  in  extent  of  fins  might,  if  entangled 
in  the  cable  of  a  small  vessel,  draw  it  for  miles 
with  considerable  velocity,  as  was  observed  by 
Catesby,  and  has  since  happened  La  the  harbor 


DEVIL'S  ADVOCATE 


DEVONIAN 


429 


of  Cliarleston,  S.  C. ;  it  is  equally  conceivable 
that  by  means  of  the  immense  pectorals  they 
could  raise  a  great  commotion  on  the  surface 
of  the  water,  and  even  leap  entirely  out,  yet 
the  pectorals  must  be  considered  as  organs 
of  locomotion,  and  not  of  prehension.  The 
appendages  to  the  head  can  hardly  be  used  in 
locomotion ;  Lieut.  St.  John,  who  lias  watched 
attentively  the  movements  of  this  fish,  says 
that  these  flaps  are  used  in  driving  a  large 
quantity  of  water  toward  the  mouth  when  the 
animal  is  at  rest,  feeding;  they  can  be  bent  in 
front  of,  and  even  into  the  mouth,  and  are  prob- 
ably prehensile  organs  for  various  purposes; 
when  swimming,  the  flexible  ends  are  coiled 
up.  The  nature  of  the  teeth,  and  the  narrow- 
ness of  the  gullet,  also  render  it  improbable 
that  this  fish  feeds  upon  any  thing  but  small 
fry,  which  it  sweeps  toward  the  mouth  by  its 
cranial  flaps.  The  truth  appears  to  be  that  the 
devil-fish,  though  powerful  and  hideous,  is  a 
timid  and  harmless  creature,  avoiding  rather 
than  attacking  man;  but  when  attacked  and 
defending  itself,  the  serrated  spine  of  the  tail 
would  prove  a  dangerous  weapon,  inflicting  a 
deep,  lacerated,  and  possibly  fatal  wound  to  man 
or  fish  within  its  range.  They  are  gregarious, 
and  are  pursued  by  fishermen  for  the  oil  which 
the  liver  contains. — Another  large  and  hideous 
fish,  sometimes  called  sea  devil  and  devil-fish, 
is  the  lophius  piscatorim  (Linn.),  which  will  be 
described  under  the  title  of  Goose  Fisu. 
DEVIL'S  ADVOCATE.      See  Advooatus 

DlABOLI. 

DEVIL'S  BRIDGE,  a  remarkable  stone 
bridge  over  the  Reuss,  in  Switzerland.  It  is 
on  the  road  from  Germany  to  Italy,  over  the 
pass  of  St.  Gothard,  and  crosses  the  river  from 
mountain  to  mountain,  a  distance  of  about  75 
feet.  It  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  structures 
of  the  kind  in  Switzerland,  though  there  are 
others  which  surpass  it  in  height,  length,  and 
width.  The  surrounding  country  abounds  in 
romantic  and  beautiful  scenery. 

DEVIL'S  "WALL,  a  name  given  during  the 
middle  ages  to  the  remains  of  some  Roman  for- 
tifications designed  to  protect  the  Ronian  settle- 
ments on  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube  against  the 
inroads  of  the  free  German  tribes.  These  de- 
fences originally  consisted  of  a  row  of  palisades, 
in  front  of  which  extended  a  deep  ditch.  The 
emperor  Probus  strengthened  them  by  the  erec- 
tion of  a  wall  368  m.  long,  passing  over  rivers 
and  mountains,  and  through  valleys,  and  protect- 
ed by  towers  placed  at  intervals.  The  only  por- 
tions of  this  wall  now  distinguishable  are  be- 
tween Abensberg,  in  Bavaria,  and  Cologne,  on 
the  Rliine.  In  some  places  the  ruins  are  over- 
grown with  oaks,  in  others  they  form  elevated 
roads  or  pathways  through  dense  forests,  while 
not  unfrequently  modern  edifices  have  been  built 
above  them. 

DEVISE.  By  this  term  is  designated  the 
disposition  of  lands  to  take  efiect  after  the  death 
of  the  devisor.  It  is  of  Norman  origin,  and  sig- 
nified at  first  any  division  of  lands,  marque  dt 


division  ou  partake  de  terres,  from  the  Latin 
divido.  The  instrument  by  which  lands  are 
devised  is  called  a  will;  the  disposition  of  per- 
sonal estate  to  take  efiect  after  the  death  of  tho 
person  making  it  is  in  legal  language  a  testa- 
ment ;  but  tho  common  appellation,  where  both 
real  and  personal  estate  are  included,  is  last  will 
and  testament.  The  Roman  teatamentum  ap- 
plied equally  to  the  disposition  of  real  or  per- 
sonal estate,  and  the  same  rules  were  observed 
in  either  case.  But  the  mode  of  executing  a 
will  has  been  always  more  formal  in  England 
than  was  required  for  the  validity  of  a  testa- 
ment.— For  a  further  explanation  of  tho  prin- 
ciples applicable  to  devise,  see  Will. 

DEVIZES,  a  parliamentary  borough  and 
market  town  of  Wiltshire,  England,  built  on  a 
fine  eminence  on  the  Kennet  canal,  82  m.  S.  W. 
of  London ;  pop.  in  1851,  6,554.  It  has  3  silk  fac- 
tories ;  the  woollen  manufacture,  once  carried  on, 
is  now  extinct.  The  town  is  supposd  to  owe  its 
origin  to  a  strong  castle  built  here  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  I.  by  Roger,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  and 
dismantled  toward  the  close  of  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.  The  grain  market  held  here  every 
Thursday  has  been  famous  ever  since  the  time 
of  Henry  VIII. 

DEVONIAN,  the  name  of  one  of  the  great 
geological  formations,  including  the  old  red 
sandstone,  and  the  groups  below  it  to  those  of 
the  upper  silurian.  It  is  named  from  South 
Devon  in  England,  where  its  strata  were  first 
distinguished  in  1837  from  those  of  the  silu- 
rian and  carboniferous  by  Prof.  Sedgwick  and  Su" 
R.  Murchison.  The  formation  is  recognized  by 
its  fossils  and  relative  position  in  various  parts 
of  Europe  ;  but  it  is  nowhere  found  so  largely 
developed  as  in  the  United  States.  In  the  New 
York  system  of  the  rocks  it  includes  the  follow- 
ing groups,  though  it  is  thought  by  Prof.  Hall 
that  the  fossils  of  the  3  last  named  nearly  re- 
semble those  of  the  Ludlow  group  of  Murchison, 
and  that  these  should  consequently  be  referred 
to  the  upper  silurian : 

Approximate  thick* 

Namei.  ness  in  X.  Y. 

Catskill  group,  or  old  red  sandstone 2,000  feet 

Chemuntc 1,500    " 

Po^'^*^  i 1,000    " 

Genesee  f  ' 

Tullv 15  « 

Hamilton 1.000  « 

Marcellus 50  " 

Corniferous  )  50  " 

Onondaga     )   

Schoharie          I  jg  « 

Caudi-gaUigrit  J 

Oriskany  sandstone 5  to  30  " 

Of  these  groups,  some  of  the  thickest  thin  away 
in  other  states,  while  others,  as  the  calcareous 
strata  of  the  corniferous  and  Onondaga  groups, 
which  together  seldom  exceed  50  feet  in  thick- 
ness in  New  York,  spread  out  over  the  western 
states  between  tlie  great  lakes  and  the  Ohio  and 
Tennessee  rivers  in  almost  continuous  strata 
of  coralline  rocks.  Sir  Charles  Lyell  notices  a 
fine  display  of  these  calcareous  rocks  at  the  faUs 
of  the  Ohio  at  Louisville.  In  the  horizontal 
•water-worn  strata,  "the  softer  parts  having  de- 


430 


DEVONPORT 


DEVONSHIRE 


composed  and  wasted  away,  the  harder  calca- 
reous corals  stand  out  in  relief,  their  erect  stems 
sending  out  branches  precisely  as  when  they 
were  living."  Fine  specimens  of  various  species 
of  coralline  are  obtained  at  this  locality,  and 
new  are  continually  brought  out  by  the  action 
of  the  river  upon  the  rocks,  and  may  be  col- 
lected at  low  stages  of  the  water.  But  only  G 
species  found  in  this  country  in  the  whole  De- 
vonian series  are  identified  with  the  46  British 
Devonian  corals  described  in  1853  by  Milne- 
Edwards  and  Jules  Haime.  The  formation 
abounds  with  the  greatest  variety  of  fossil  mol- 
luscous animals  and  crinoidea,  the  genera  of 
which,  and  some  of  the  species,  are  identified 
with  the  Devonian  fossils  of  Europe. 

DEVONPORT,  a  parliamentary  and  muni- 
cipal borough  and  naval  arsenal  in  Devonshire, 
England,  built  on  the  Tamar,  where  that  river 
makes  a  bold  sweep  toward  the  E.,  and  widens 
into  the  fine  estuary  called  the  Hamoaze,  just 
before  its  entrance  into  Plymouth  sound,  218  m. 
S.  W.  of  London,  and  H  ™-  W.  of  Plymouth ; 
pop.  in  1851,  50,159.  Its  harbor,  one  of  several 
remarkable  natural  havens  opening  into  the 
sound,  is  4  m.  long,  ^  m.  Avide,  from  15  to  20 
fathoms  deep,  perfectly  safe,  and  capable  of 
sheltering  the  whole  British  navy  at  once;  but  it 
is  difficult  of  entrance.  The  town  is  bounded 
S.  and  W.  by  the  river,  and  E.  by  a  creek 
which  separates  it  from  Stonehouse,  contiguous 
to  Plymouth.  With  these  two  places  it  is  so 
closely  connected,  that  the  3  may  almost  be  said 
to  form  a  single  city,  and  it  was  not  until  1824 
that  Devonport  acquired  separate  municipal  priv- 
ileges, and  changed  its  old  name  of  Plymouth 
Dock  for  that  which  it  now  bears.  A  fluted 
column  of  the  Doric  order,  approached  by  a  flight 
of  140  steps,  was  erected  in  commemoration  of 
the  event.  There  are  6  churches,  2  chapels  of 
ease,  17  places  of  worship  for  dissefliters,  17  prin- 
cipal schools,  including  a  naval  and  military  free 
school,  and  an  institution  in  which  100  girls  are 
educated  and  clothed,  a  public  library,  orphan 
asylums,  and  a  theatre.  Water  is  brought  from 
Dartmoor,  in  a  winding  conduit  nearly  30  m. 
long.  With  the  exception  of  some  breweries 
and  soap-boiling  houses,  Devonport  contains  no 
factories  of  importance.  The  density  of  the 
population  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
place  in  England,  there  being  no  fewer  than 
26,000  people  living  on  ^  of  a  sq.  m.,  with  an 
average  of  10  individuals  to  each  house,  where- 
as the  proportion  in  Liverpool  is  but  7,  and  in 
Manchester  but  6.  Devonport  is  fortified  on 
the  N.,  S.,  and  E.  by  a  wall,  a  breastwork,  and 
a  deep  ditch,  while  the  entrance  from  the  sea 
is  commanded  by  several  heavy  batteries.  These 
works  were  begun  by  George  II.  The  chief 
feature  of  the  town  is  the  dock  yard,  commenced 
by  William  III.,  who  built  the  basin  and  2 
docks.  It  has  a  river  front  of  3,500  feet,  and  a 
maximum  breadth  of  1,600  feet,  the  area  en- 
closed being  about  96  acres.  There  are  2  dry 
docks,  one  double  and  one  single  dock  for  ships 
of  the  line,  one  graving  dock,  5  building  slips, 


and  vast  aocks  or  basins  at  Point  Keyham  for 
fitting  and  repairing  war  steamers,  commenced 
in  1844,  and  embracing  an  area  of  72  acres.  The 
immense  roofs  over  the  docks,  consisting  of 
single  arches,  without  buttresses  or  pillars,  are 
wonders  of  architectural  skill.  A  canal  70  feet 
wide  runs  nearly  through  the  yard,  communi- 
cating with  the  boat  pond.  On  the  S.  side 
are  an  outer  mast  pond  and  mast  house,  timber 
berths,  saw  pits,  a  smithery  with  48  forges,  an 
inner  mast  house  and  ma^t  locks,  a  building  in 
which  planks  are  steamed  and  curved,  a  hemp 
magazine,  and  a  rope  factory,  consisting  of  2 
stone  and  iron  buildings,  each  1,200  feet  long 
and  8  stories  high.  The  number  of  men  em- 
ployed in  the  whole  establishment  sometimes 
amounts  to  3,000. 

DEVONSHIRE,  a  maritime  co.  of  England, 
second  in  size  only  to  that  of  York,  its  great- 
est extent  from  N.  to  S.  being  71  m.,  from  E. 
to  W.  72  ra. ;  area,  2,585  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1841, 
532,959;  in  1851,  567,098.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  and  N.  W.  by  the  Bristol  channel;  on 
the  W.  by  the  river  Tamar  and  Marsland-wa- 
ter,  which  separate  it  from  Cornwall ;  on  the  S. 
and  S.  E.  by  the  British  channel ;  and  on  the  E. 
and  N.  E.  by  the  counties  of  Dorset  and  Som- 
erset. The  rivers  of  Devon  are  the  Taw,  Tor- 
ridge,  Tamar,  Dart,  Teign,  Exe,  Tavy,  Plym, 
Yealm,  Erme,  Avon,  Otter,  Sid,  Axe,  and  Lyn. 
Trout  are  found  in  great  plenty  in  most  of  these ; 
the  Tamar  and  Tavy  furnish  valuable  salmon  fish- 
eries; the  Exe  salmon  are  thought  the  best  in 
England;  and  at  the  mouths  of  the  various 
streams  are  found  plaice,  kingfish,  torpedoes,  and 
cuttle  fish.  The  county  has  3  canals :  the  Great 
Western,  35  m.  long,  connecting  the  S.  E.  coast 
with  the  Bristol  channel,  the  Tamar  canal,  and 
the  Tavistock  canal.  The  Bristol  and  Exeter  and 
the  South  of  Devon  railways  also  traverse  the 
county.  Devonshire  is  a  rich  mineral  country, 
furnishing  copi)er  and  lead  in  considerable  abun- 
dance, with  smaller  quantities  of  tin,  iron,  bis- 
muth, and  many  other  mineral  substances,  be- 
side coal  and  marble.  It  is  supposed  that  the 
inhabitants  worked  the  iron  and  other  metallio 
mines  before  the  arrival  of  the  Romans.  The  tia 
mines  were  anciently  numerous  and  valuable, 
but  are  now  nearly  abandoned,  those  of  Corn- 
wall being  so  much  richer.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  lead  ore,  one  of  which  is  very  rich 
in  silver.  Cobalt,  antimony,  and  native  silver 
have  been  found  in  considerable  quantities.  The 
marbles  quarried  from  the  limestone  rocks  on  the 
E.  and  S.  coasts  are  of  fine  colors  and  beauti- 
fully veined,  hard,  susceptible  of  a  good  polish, 
and  much  resemble  Itahan  marble.  Fine  pipe 
clay,  potters'  clay,  which  is  exported  to  other 
countries,  and  slate  of  excellent  quality,  are 
found  abundantly.  The  agriculture  of  Devon- 
shire is  in  a  flourishing  condition.  Of  the 
1,654,400  acres  of  land,  about  1,200,000  are 
under  cultivation.  The  S.  and  S.  E.  parts  of 
the  county  contain  extensive  wastes,  the  sur- 
faces of  which  are  covered  with  immense  rocks 
and  detached  masses  of  granite.    To  the  N. 


DEVONSHIRE 


DEVRIENT 


431 


and  K  "W.  are  found  large  tracts  of  swampy 
ground  and  many  peat  bogs  of  great  depth. 
The  vale  of  Exeter,  containing  about  200  sq.  m., 
consists  of  some  very  fine  land,  and  is  one  of 
the  richest  valleys  in  the  kingdom.  The  dis- 
trict called  South  Hams,  extending  from  Tor- 
bay  round  to  Plymouth,  is  known  as  the  gar- 
den of  Devonshire,  and  is  finely  diversified 
and  very  productive.  In  the  vale  of  Exeter 
are  raised  wheat,  beans,  barley,  peas,  and  flax. 
The  pasture  lands  are  chiefly  devoted  to  dairy 
uses,  though  some  attention  is  paid  to  raising 
sheep  and  cattle.  In  West  Devon  f  of  the  en- 
closed lands  are  alternated  with  corn  and  vari- 
ous kinds  of  grasses,  such  as  red  clover,  rye 
grass,  white  clover,  and  trefoil.  Irrigation  is 
commonly  practised,  as  also  peat  burning ;  or- 
chards and  apple  trees  in  hedges  are  common, 
and  oats,turnips,  and  potatoes  arc  raised  in  many 
districts.  The  yield  of  wheat  is  from  16  to  25 
bushels  per  acre ;  of  barley,  from  35  to  50. 
Devonshire  is  celebrated  for  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  its  cider.  Butter  is  made  in  consider- 
able quantities,  the  average  produce  of  cows  be- 
ing a  pound  per  day.  Devonshire  cows  are  noted 
throughout  England,  and  have  been  imported 
into  the  United  States.  The  purest  breeds  are  dis- 
tinguished by  a  high  red  color,  without  white 
spots ;  they  are  fine  in  the  bone  and  clean  in 
the  neck,  thin  skinned,  and  silky  in  liandling ; 
have  horns  of  medium  length  bent  upward,  a 
small  tail  set  on  very  high,  a  light  dun  ring 
around  the  eye,  and  are  noted  for  feeding  at  an 
early  age.  A  good  Devonshire  cow  will  yield, 
for  the  first  20  weeks  after  calving,  about  3 
gallons  of  milk  per  day.  The  cows  weigh  from 
420  to  460  lbs.,  the  oxen  from  700  to  820 
lbs.  The  North  Devon  cattle,  another  variety, 
are  in  great  demand  for  the  firm  grain  of  their 
meat,  and  the  superior  qualities  of  the  oxen 
for  work.  The  native  horses  are  small,  but 
hardy,  and  much  accustomed  to  the  pack  sad- 
dle. The  breed  of  sheep  is  various,  but  mostly 
of  the  Dorsetshire  kind.  Landed  property 
in  Devonshire  seems  to  be  more  regularly  di- 
vided than  ill  most  other  counties,  there  being 
few  very  large  freeholds ;  the  farms  are  held 
generally  by  leases  of  3  lives,  or  for  99  years. 
As  the  lives  drop,  new  ones  are  put  in,  on  pay- 
ment of  an  adequate  sum.  Farms  average 
from  100  to  200  acres.  Devonshire  formerly 
manufactured  thin  woollen  goods,  and  carried 
on  a  considerable  woollen  trade  with  Spain,  but 
this  branch  of  industry  has  greatly  declined; 
the  spinning  and  weaving  of  a  species  of  serge, 
known  as  long  ells,  being  the  only  remains  of 
it.  The  spinning  of  linen  yarn,  and  manufacture 
of  linen  goods,  have  superseded  the  former  indus- 
try ;  also,  in  and  about  Tiverton,  great  quanti- 
ties of  lace  and  lace  net  are  made,  which  find  a 
market  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Ship-build- 
ing is  another  branch  of  labor  giving  employment 
to  numbers  of  men.  The  chief  ship  yard  is  the 
royal  dock  yard  at  Devonport.  The  county  con- 
tains 38  hundreds,  465  parishes,  and  36  market 
towns.     The  annual  value  of  real  property  as- 


sessed to  property  tax,  1850-'51,  was  £2,736,361. 
The  county  town  is  Exeter,  where  the  assizes  are 
held.  The  county  is  in  the  episcopal  see  of  Exe- 
ter, and  is  included  in  the  western  circuit.  It 
returns  in  all  22  members  to  parliament,  viz. :  4 
for  the  county  (2  for  the  northern  and  2  for  the 
southern  division),  2  for  each  of  the  towns  of 
Barnstaple,  Tiverton,  Exeter,  Devonport,  Iloni- 
ton,  Plymouth,  Tavistock,  and  Totness,  and  1 
each  for  Ashburtou  and  Dartmouth.  It  has  1,614 
day  schools,  with  64,266  scholars,  and  772  Sun- 
day schools,  with  58,408  scholars;  1,297  places 
of  worship,  of  Avhich  549  belong  to  the  establisli- 
ed  church.  The  county  gives  the  title  of  duko 
to  the  Cavendish,  and  of  eai-1  to  the  Courte- 
nay  family.  There  are  ancient  ruins  in  various 
parts  of  the  county,  among  which  are  several 
abbeys,  and  numerous  old  British  cairns.  The 
chief  noblemen's  and  gentlemen's  seats  are  Cas- 
tle hill,  seat  of  Earl  Fortescue ;  Stover  lodge, 
that  of  the  duke  of  Somerset ;  Endsleigh,  of  the 
duke  of  Bedford ;  Saltram,  of  the  earl  of  Morley ; 
Mount  Edgecumbe,  of  the  earl  of  Mount  Edge- 
cumbe;  Bagtor  manor,  of  Lord  Cranstoun; 
Exeter  palace,  of  the  bishop  of  Exeter ;  Bicton, 
of  the  late  Lord  RoUe ;  Haldon  house,  of  Sir  L. 
Palk,  bart. ;  andEscot,  of  Sir  J.  Kennaway,  bart. 
DEVRIENT,  the  name  of  a  distinguished 
family  of  German  actors,  of  whom  the  most 
eminent  are :  I.  Ludwig,  born  in  Berlin,  Dec. 
15,  1784,  died  Dec.  30, 1832.  His  father,  a  silk 
mercer,  intended  him  for  a  mercantile  life,  but 
in  obedience  to  his  instincts  he  forsook  the  pater- 
nal mansion  at  the  age  of  18,  joined  a  company 
of  strolling  actors,  and  made  his  first  appear- 
ance upon  the  stage  in  Schiller's  "Bride  of  Mes- 
sina." He  afterward  travelled  with  the  same 
company  through  Saxony,  and  in  1806  accepted 
an  engagement  at  the  court  theatre  of  Dessau, 
from  which  he  was  tempted  to  retire  on  the 
promise  of  his  father  to  pay  his  debts  if  he 
would  renounce  the  stage.  Devrient,  however, 
rejected  the  otfer.  Soon  after  the  demands  of  his 
creditors  compelled  him  to  take  refuge  in  Bres- 
lau,  where  he  acted  with  great  success  for  several 
years.  At  the  suggestion  of  the  actor  Iffland, 
Avho  at  the  close  of  his  career  recognized  in 
Devrient  a  fit  successor  to  himself,  he  was  in- 
duced to  go  to  Berlin,  where  in  1815  he  ap- 
peared for  the  first  time  as  Franz  Moor,  in 
Schiller's  "  Robbers."  From  that  time  until  his 
death  he  stood  at  the  head  of  his  profession  in 
Germany,  and  was  in  the  highest  degree  popu- 
lar with  Berlin  audiences.  A  fatal  passion  for 
spirituous  liquors,  which  he  had  indulged  for 
many  years,  brought  him  to  a  premature  grave. 
Devrient  was  not  less  esteemed  for  his  amia- 
ble and  almost  childlike  character  than  for  his 
histrionic  powers.  His  eminence  as  an  actor 
was  the  offspring  of  his  natural  genius,  rather 
than  the  result  of  study  or  reflection.  He  was 
equally  great  in  comedy  and  tragedy.  He  was 
married  at  the  outset  of  his  career,  but  left  no 
children.  II.  Karl  August,  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Berlin,  Aug.  5,  1798.  He 
served  in  a  regiment  of  hussars,  in  the  campaigo 


432 


DEW 


of  1815  against  France,  and  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Waterloo ;  w&s  afterward  engaged  in 
mercantile  pursuits,  and  in  1819  made  Lis  debut 
on  the  stage  at  Brunswick.  In  1823  he  was 
married  to  the  celebrated  singer,  Wilhelmine 
Schroeder,  from  whom  he  was  divorced  in  1828. 
He  has  acted  in  all  parts  of  Germany,  but  for 
many  years  past  has  been  established  at  Hano- 
ver, lie  was  long  celebrated  for  his  spirited 
personation  of  leading  parts  in  genteel  comedy. 
III.  Pjiilipp  Eduaed,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Berlin,  Aug.  11,  1801.  lie  commenced 
his  artistic  career  as  a  bariton  singer,  but  after- 
ward appeared  almost  exclusively  in  the  spoken 
drama.  He  has  less  natural  genius  than  any 
of  his  family,  but  is  a  careful  and  cultivated 
actor,  a  successful  writer  of  dramas,  and  an  au- 
thority on  all  that  pertains  to  the  profession. 
His  chief  works  were  published  in  6  vols.,  in 
Leipsic,  in  184C-'9,  under  the  title  of  Drama- 
tische  unci  dramaturgische  Schriften,  and  in- 
clude several  plays,  miscellaneous  publications 
relating  to  the  stage,  and  a  history  of  the  drama 
iu  Germany.  IV.  Gustav  Emil,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Berlin,  Sept.  4,  1803. 
Like  his  two  brothers  and  his  uncle,  he  was 
intended  for  the  mercantile  profession ;  but  an 
irresistible  inclination  led  him  in  1821  to  the 
theatre,  where  he  soon  rose  to  great  eminence. 
He  is  well  known  on  almost  every  stage  in  Ger- 
many, and  has  assumed  with  success  many  of  the 
parts,  both  in  tragedy  and  comedj^,  with  which 
his  uncle  Ludwig's  name  is  identitied.  His  wife, 
Dorothea  Boehler,  from  whom  he  was  divorced 
in  1842,  was  an  excellent  comic  actress,  and  ably 
seconded  her  husband  for  many  years.  On  Nov. 
11, 1857,  the  98th  anniversary  of  Schiller's  birth- 
day, 3  members  of  the  Devrient  family,  Gustav 
Emil,  Karl  August,  and  Karl's  son,  appeared  to- 
gether at  Hanover,  in  the  play  of  "  Don  Carlos." 
V.  Wilhelmine  Schroedee  Deveient,  a  well- 
known  singer  on  the  German  stage,  born  in  Ham- 
burg, Oct.  6,  1805.  From  her  mother,  the  cele- 
brated actress  Sophie  Schroeder,  she  inherited 
considerable  dramatic  talent,  and  in  1820,  having 
from  the  age  of  5  upward  distinguished  herself  in 
children's  parts,  and  in  the  coi-jys  de  iallet,  she 
appeared  iu  Vienna  as  Aricie  in  Schiller's  trans- 
lation of  the  Phedre  of  Eacine.  She  soon  after 
devoted  herself  to  the  study  of  music,  and  in  1 821 
made  her  debut  as  Pamina  in  Mozart's  Zatiber- 
Jidte.  The  beauty  of  her  voice,  her  artistic  skill 
and  dramatic  powers,  soon  placed  her  in  the 
first  rank  of  German  prime  donne,  and  for  many 
years  she  had  no  superior  on  the  German  stage 
iu  such  parts  as  Donna  Anna  in  Don  Giovanni, 
Leonora  in  Fidelio,  the  Vestale  in  Spontini's 
opera  of  that  name,  the  Euryanthe  of  Von 
Weber,*  and  others  of  a  similar  character.  She 
has  also  sung  in  Paris  and  London,  but  her  chief 
laurels  have  been  gained  in  Germany.  She  was 
married  in  1823  to  Karl  August  Devrient,  was 
divorced  from  him  in  1828,  and  in  1850  con- 
tracted a  second  matrimonial  engagement  with 
a  Livonian  nobleman,  named  Von  Bock. 
DEW,  the  humidity  of  the  air  deposited  on 


surfaces  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  The 
atmosphere  always  contains  within  it  more  or 
less  aqueous  vapor  in  an  invisible  form.  The 
vapor  appears  to  be  dissolved  in  it,  as  salt  is 
held  dissolved  in  clear  sea  water ;  and  as  the 
capacity  of  a  fluid  to  hold  salts  in  solution  de- 
pends commonly  on  its  temperature,  so  does 
that  of  the  air  to  retain  vapor.  If  the  temper- 
ature be  depressed,  the  vapor  begins  to  appear. 
When  a  body  of  warm  air  strikes  the  summit 
of  a  cold  mountain,  the  moisture  is  precipitated 
in  the  form  of  rain.  Partially  cooled,  it  takes 
the  form  of  mist  or  fog,  and  floats  in  a  dense 
cloud  in  the  low  places  where  the  soil  is  warmer 
than  the  air.  A  current  of  warm  air  dissolves 
the  vapor,  and  the  fog  "lifts."  Dew  is  the  va- 
por of  the  air,  extracted  by  the  gi-eater  chilliness 
of  the  surfaces  upon  which  the  moisture  is  de- 
posited. It  may  be  made  to  separate  from  the 
apparently  dry  air  of  a  warm  room,  by  placing 
in  it  a  pitcher  of  cold  water.  The  air  in  con- 
tact with  the  pitcher  sheds  its  moisture,  which 
collects  in  minute  drops,  and  more  is  added  from 
adjoining  strata  of  air,  so  long  as  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  pitcher  is  kei)t  sufficiently  below 
that  of  the  room.  The  degree  of  temperature 
to  which  the  air  must  be  reduced  for  it  to  begin 
to  deposit  its  moisture,  is  called  the  dew  point. 
It  varies  with  the  greater  or  less  quantity  of 
moisture  which  the  atmosphere  happens  to  con- 
tain for  its  actual  temperature.  If  it  has  just 
been  deprived  of  a  considerable  proportion,  and 
has  acquired  a  higher  temperature,  it  must  be 
reduced  to  as  great  a  degree  of  cold  as  before 
to  part  with  any  more  moisture ;  but  if  already 
saturated  with  as  much  moisture  as  it  can  con- 
tain at  its  temperature,  any  chilliness  being 
induced  will  cause  its  precipitation  to  com- 
mence. Dew  is  not  therefore,  as  it  has  been 
generally  described  by  poets,  a  shower  "which 
falls  like  gentle  rain  from  heaven."  Almost 
universally  its  nature  has  been  misconceived. 
Horace  speaks  of  ?'OTrsj9Zw«w;  Virgil  says:  ro- 
rantia  vidimus  asira  ;  and  Pliny  :  cum  ros  ceci- 
disset ;  and  our  common  form  of  expression  at 
this  day  speaks  of  the  dew  drops.  Aristotle  alone 
appeal's  to  have  conceived  its  true  nature,  when 
he  describes  it  as  the  moisture  separated  fi-om 
the  cold  air.  Mysteriously  appearing  upon  the 
blades  of  grass,  and  refreshing  the  vegetation  in 
climates  where  rain  rarely  if  ever  falls,  and 
gathering  upon  the  herbage  in  sparkling  beads, 
while  it  avoided  the  barren  and  rocky  surface, 
the  simple  peasant  might  well  look  upon  it  as 
a  special  blessing  sent  like  manna  direct  from 
heaven,  and  possessed  of  wonderful  virtues,  far 
transcending  those  of  other  crystal  waters,  how- 
ever pure.  Hence  it  came  to  be  prescribed  for  re- 
storing to  the  features  the  fresh  charms  of  youth, 
and  by  the  alchemists  to  be  used  in  their  pro- 
cesses as  a  solvent  of  subtle  and  mysterious 
powers.  And  when  at  the  close  of  life  the  an- 
cient patriarch  confers  his  blessing  in  the  words: 
"  God  give  thee  of  the  dew  of  heaven,"  the 
simple  dew  drop  seems  to  typify  all  heaven's 
choicest  gifts.    The  phenomena  attending  the 


DEW 


433 


production  of  clew  wero  imperfectly  compre- 
liondod  previous  to  the  researches  of  Dr.  Wells, 
and  the  pubhcation  in  1814  of  his  essay  upon 
the  subject.  This  treatise,  pronounced  by  Dr. 
Thomson  to  be  "one  of  the  most  beautiful  ex- 
amples of  inductive  reasoning  in  the  English 
language,"  presents  in  clear  form  tlie  various 
phenomena  as  observed  by  him  for  two  suc- 
cessive years  in  the  vicinity  of  London.  The 
observations  are  criticized  by  Sir  John  Leslie 
for  want  of  address  and.  delicacy  in  the  ex- 
periments, and  omission  to  make  use  of  the 
hygrometer  and  pyroscopo  ;  and  he  expresses 
much  regret  that  Dr.  Wells  should  have  sought 
to  explain  the  production  of  the  cold  by  the 
aid  of  the  "  very  loose,  cumbrous,  and  vision- 
ary hypothesis  of  M.  Prevost  of  Geneva,  con- 
cerning what  is  gratuitously  called  radiant 
heat."  According  to  Prof,  Leslie,  the  low  tem- 
perature of  the  bodies  upon  which  the  dew  col- 
lects is  induced  by  the  descent  of  cold  air,  which 
is  precipitated  in  distinct  pulsations,  determined 
by  the  application  of  the  ffitheriscope,  by  which 
their  intensity  also  is  measured.  Two  requisites 
are  essential,  it  appears,  for  the  abundant  pre- 
cipitation of  dew ;  one  is  the  saturation  of  the 
atmosphere  with  moisture,  and  the  other  a 
chilled  surface  to  condense  it.  The  atmosphere 
is  likely  to  contain  the  most  moisture  for  its 
temperature  after  rains,  when  the  air  is  cooled, 
and  abundant  evaporation  is  going  on  from  ob- 
jects upon  the  surface,  and  through  the  pores 
of  the  soil.  This  evaporation  tends  to  chill  the 
surfaces  from  which  it  is  taking  place,  and  the 
blades  of  grass  and  all  ehrubs  and  light  bodies 
near  the  ground  assume  a  much  lower  tempera- 
ture than  that  of  the  air  above  them.  Dr.  Wells 
states  that  this  ditference  of  temperature  be- 
tween the  grass  and  the  air  4  feet  above  the 
ground  amounts  in  clear  and  still  nights  to  8° 
or  9°,  and  in  one  instance  he  observed  a  dif- 
ference of  14°  ;  but  in  cloudy  nights  the  grass 
was  sometimes  as  warm  as  the  air.  Bodies  of 
a  filamentous  structure,  like  cotton,  flax,  hair, 
silk,  gossamer,  i&c,  and  of  a  downy  nature,  as 
swan's  down  especially,  are  particularly  subject 
to  be  thus  affected,  and  the  deposit  of  dew  first 
takes  place  upon  them.  Each  growing  plant 
has  its  own  peculiar  power  of  condensing  moist- 
ure, which  is  no  doubt  proportioned  to  its  re- 
quirements of  this  refreshing  agent.  When  the 
rays  of  the  sun  cease  to  strike  directly  upon  the 
surface,  tlie  dew-gathering  objects  soon  mani- 
fest the  want  of  that  temperature  which  dur- 
ing the  heat  of  the  day  had  kept  them  above  the 
dew  point.  If  no  wind  is  stirring  to  mix  the 
air  and  produce  uniformitj'  of  temperature,  the 
blades  of  grass  may  exhibit  moisture  upon  their 
surface  before  the  sun  has  reached  the  horizon, 
and  soon  after  having  passed  it  drops  are  likely 
to  collect.  If  it  be  a  cool  night  of  spring  or 
autumn,  succeeding  a  hot  day,  the  deposition 
of  dew  is  likely  to  increase  as  the  night  becomes 
colder ;  and  in  the  latter  half  more  is  precipi- 
tated than  in  the  early  part  of  the  night.  Should 
clouds  gather,  the  process  ceases,  these  seeming 
VOL.  VI. — 28 


to  reflect  the  heat  that  radiates  from  the  sur- 
face, and  turn  it  back,  so  tliat  the  requisite  dif- 
ference of  temperature  between  the  surface  and 
the  air  can  no  longer  exist.  Any  other  over- 
shadowing object,  as  a  tree  or  a  bush,  has  the 
same  eflect  as  the  cloud  ;  and  the  gardener,  fear- 
ing that  when  the  dew  is  changed  to  hoar  frost 
the  results  of  this  radiation  may  reach  upon  the 
plants  the  freezing  temj)erature,  tlirows  over 
them  a  thin  sheet  or  mat,  which  retains  the  radi- 
ating lieat  as  it  is  retained  by  a  cloud.  Numerous 
observations  have  been  made  upon  the  relative 
capacity  of  metals  and  other  substances  to  receive 
dew.  It  is  probable  that  they  may  be  arranged 
in  the  same  order  as  that  which  would  repre- 
sent the  relative  rapidity  at  which  they  would 
be  cooled  down  when  exposed  under  a  clear  sky. 
This  ratg  of  cooling  would  evidently  vary  in  the 
same  substance  according  to  its  structure  and 
the  smoothness  or  roughness  of  its  surface. 
Twigs  and  bushes  change  their  temperature 
much  more  rapidly  than  the  same  material 
would  in  a  solid  block.  The  polished  surfaces 
of  metals  receive  less  dew  than  other  sub- 
stances ;  and  bodies  laid  upon  them  lose  in  part 
their  capacity  for  receiving  this  deposit  by  rea- 
son of  the  contact.  Probably  the  worst  con- 
ductors of  heat  as  a  general  rule,  other  circum- 
stances of  texture,  smoothness,  &c.,  being  the 
same,  receive  the  most  dew.  It  is  deposited 
freely  upon  glass.  The  electrical  condition  of 
these  objects  has  no  influence  upon  their  col- 
lecting dew.  The  quantity  of  dew  which  has 
gathered  in  a  single  night  has  been  so  great, 
that  it  could  be  determined  by  the  rain  gauge. 
Dr,  Dalton  estimates  the  amount  precipitated 
annually  in  England  to  be  5  inches.  In  some 
countries  it  is  so  copiously  produced,  that  the 
want  of  rains  such  as  fall  in  other  regions  is  not 
seriously  felt  by  the  vegetation.  Along  portions 
of  the  Avestern  coast  of  both  North  and  South 
America  rain  clouds  are  rarely  seen  in  many 
3'ears  ;  the  Cordilleras  have  stripped  the  air  pass- 
ing over  them  in  the  trade  winds  of  nearly  aU 
its  moisture,  and  the  pleasantly  cool  and  clear 
nights  along  the  Pacific  coast  are  particularly 
favorable  for  the  deposition  of  dew.  In  the  dry 
regions  of  Palestine,  according  to  Maundrell,  the 
dew  gathering  upon  the  tents  wets  them  as  if  it 
had  rained  all  night.  The  great  deserts  alone 
receive  no  moisture  by  rain  or  by  dews.  Their 
heated  surface  presents  no  cool  object  to  arrest 
any  vapor  that  may  pass  over  it ;  and  the  fall  of 
the  temperature  of  this  surface  can  rarely  reach 
a  point  at  which  the  little  moisture  contained  in 
the  air  above  could  be  so  condensed  as  to  satu- 
rate it.  The  vapors  of  the  Mediterranean  may 
be  swept  by  the  Etesian  winds  over  the  sandy 
plains  of  Sahara,  but  the  clouds  are  no  sooner 
touched  by  the  burning  rays  reflected  from  these 
than^they  disappear  like  the  morning  mists  be- 
fore the  rising  sun. 

DEW,  TnoMAs  Roderic,  an  American  writer 
on  government,  history,  and  political  economy, 
born  in  King  and  Queen  co.,  Va.,  Dec.  5,  1802, 
died  in  Paris,  France,  Aug.  6, 1846,     He  was 


434 


DEW 


DEWEES 


graduated  at  "William  and  Mary  college,  and 
began  tlio  study  of  the  law ;  but  his  health 
failing,  he  spent  2  years  in  the  south  of  Europe, 
in  the  autumn  of  1827  was  elected  professor 
of  political  economy,  history,  and  metaphysics 
in  William  and  Mary  college,  and  in  183G  was 
made  president  of  that  institution.  In  1829 
he  published  his  "Lectures  on  the  Kcstrict- 
ive  System,"  which  had  been  delivered  be- 
fore his  college  class.  It  was  brought  out  at  a 
moment  when  feeling  ran  high  on  the  subject 
of  the  tariff,  between  protectionists  and  free- 
traders ;  and  though  emanating  from  the  closet 
of  a  thinker  removed  from  the  agitations  of  po- 
litical warfare,  it  took  a  strong  hold  on  the  pub- 
lic mind,  and  the  subsequent  adoption  of  the 
compromise  of  1832  may  be  attributed  in  part 
to  its  silent  influence.  About  the  same  time, 
a  serious,  and  it  was  thought  at  first  alarming 
rebellion  of  the  slave  population  was  quelled 
in  Southampton  co.,  Va.  So  great  were  the 
terrors  inspired  by  this  event,  that,  combining 
with  a  preiixistent  desire  to  abolish  slavery  on 
the  part  of  the  leading  men  of  the  common- 
wealth, they  led  to  an  able  and  protracted  de- 
bate in  the  Virginia  legislature,  in  which  the 
diversity  of  sentiment  was  by  no  means  so 
great  upon  the  policy  of  emancipation  as  with 
respect  to  the  mode  in  which  this  should  be 
eftected.  At  this  juncture,  Mr.  Dew's  essay 
on  "  Slavery  "  appeared.  The  change  of  opin- 
ion it  brought  about  was  extraordinary  and  in- 
stantaneous. Whatever  may  be  thought  of 
the  positions  taken  by  the  writer,  it  must  be 
admitted  by  all  that  he  sustained  them  with 
great  ability,  and  it  is  certain  that  the  essay  set 
at  rest,  at  that  time,  the  question  of  emancipa- 
tion in  Virginia.  Mr.  John  Quincy  Adams  de- 
clared that  this  essay  inaugurated  a  new  era  in 
the  history  of  the  country,  and  it  is  believed 
that  the  pro-slavery  doctrines  now  so  generally 
entertained  in  the  southern  states  of  the  Union 
are  chiefly  due  to  the  moral  weight  of  the  novel 
argument  in  favor  of  domestic  servitude.  When 
the  "  Southern  Literary  Messenger"  was  estab- 
lished in  the  year  1834,  Mr,  Dew  became  one 
of  its  regular  contributors,  and  published  in 
its  pages  a  series  of  papers  on  the  distinguish- 
ing characteristics  of  the  sexes,  which  attracted 
much  attention.  But  his  most  elaborate  work 
was  published  in  New  York,  in  1853,  7  years 
after  his  death,  under  the  title  of  "A  Digest  of 
the  Laws,  Customs,  Manners,  and  Institutions 
of  the  Ancient  and  Modern  Nations."  It  was 
modestly  called  by  the  author  "  Notes  on  His- 
tory," and  had  been  previously  printed  in  sheets, 
though  in  an  unfinished  state,  for  the  use  of  his 
classes  in  college.  It  is  a  treatise  on  the  history 
of  the  world  from  the  earliest  ages  down  to  the 
first  French  revolution,  and  deals  more  Avith  the 
philosophy  of  history  than  the  mere  relation  of 
events,  but  it  exhibits  all  tlie  best  traits  of  the 
author's  mind.  In  person,  Mr.  Dew  was  tall  and 
lithe,  his  temperament  was  nervous,  and  his 
movements  were  somewhat  awkward  and  con- 
strained ;  yet  in  the  social  circle  he  was  always 


eagerly  welcomed  for  the  richness  and  variety 
of  his  conversation.  In  the  sununer  of  1846  he 
married,  and  immediately  afterward  embarked 
with  his  bride  for  a  short  European  tour.  He 
lived  only  to  reach  Paris,  and  died  there  sud- 
denly on  the  night  of  his  arrival.  His  remains 
repose  in  the  cemetery  of  Montmartre. 

DEWEES,  William  Potts,  an  American  phy- 
sician, professor  of  obstetrics  and  diseases  of 
women  and  children  in  the  university  of  Penn- 
sylvania, born  at  Pottsgrove,  Pcnn.,  May  5, 1768, 
died  in  Philadelphia,  May  18, 1841.  His  great- 
grandfather, who  was  a  Swede,  was  one  of  the 
early  settlers  on  the  banks  of  the  Delaware 
river,  before  the  arrival  of  William  Penn.  The 
father  of  Dr.  Dewees  died  while  the  subject  of 
this  notice  was  yet  young ;  and  being  left  with- 
out any  pecuniary  means,  he  was  emphatically 
the  architect  of  his  own  fortune.  He  attended 
several  courses  of  lectures  at  the  university  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  in  1789,  without  taking  any 
formal  degree,  commenced  the  practice  of  med- 
icine at  Abington,  Penn.  The  degree  of  M.D. 
was  at  a  subsequent  period  conferred  on  him  by 
the  university.  The  yellow  fever,  which  visited 
Philadelphia  in  the  summer  and  autumn  of 
1793,  having  sadly  thinned  the  ranks  of  the 
physicians  there,  ;n  December  of  that  year  Dr. 
Dewees  resolved  upon  selecting  this  new  and 
enlarged  field  for  his  labors.  Here  he  achieved 
for  himself  a  high  and  enduring  reputation, 
more  especially  in  that  important  department 
to  which  he  devoted  particular  attention,  mid- 
wifery, previously  much  neglected  in  America. 
To  no  one  in  this  country  is  the  medical  pro- 
fession more  indebted  for  its  progress  in  this 
branch  of  the  science  than  to  Dr.  Dewees.  In 
1812,  being  threatened  with  a  pulmonary  aff'ec- 
tiou,  he  relinquished  the  practice  of  his  profes- 
sion, and  for  the  5  subsequent  years  devoted 
himself  to  the  severe  physical  labor  of  agri- 
culture, at  Phillipsburg,  Penn.  In  1817,  how- 
ever, he  returned  to  the  field  of  his  former 
triumphs.  Subsequently  he  published  "Inau- 
gural Essays,"  "Medical  Essays,"  "System  of 
Midwifery,"  of  which  latter  12  editions  have 
been  printed;  in  1825,  "A  Treatise  on  the 
Physical  and  Medical  Treatment  of  Children," 
and  in  1826,  "A  Treatise  on  Diseases  of  Fe- 
males," of  wiiich  2  last  named  volumes  10  edi- 
tions have  been  printed.  His  last  systematic 
work  was  his  "Practice  of  Medicine,"  which 
was  published  in  1830.  In  1826  he  was  elected 
adjunct  professor,  and  in  1834  professor  of  ob- 
stetrics and  diseases  of  women  and  children  in 
the  university  of  Pennsylvania.  In  this  latter 
year,  although  attacked  by  paralysis,  he  was 
not  prevented  from  delivering  the  full  course 
of  lectures  for  the  season  of  1834-'5.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  following  year  he  was 
obliged  to  resign,  and  to  seek  a  more  genial 
climate.  After  spending  one  winter  in  Cuba, 
and  the  following  summer  in  the  North,  he  set- 
tled in  Mobile.  About  a  year  before  his  death 
he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  resided 
when  he  died. 


D'EWES 


DEWEY 


435 


D'EWES,  Sir  Stmonds,  an  English  antiquary, 
born  in  Coxden,  Dorsetshire,  Dec.  18,  1602, 
died  April  18,  1650.  lie  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  hut  never  practised  law,  and  lived  on  his 
property  at  Stow  Hall,  in  Suffolk.  He  was 
high  sheriff  of  Suffolk  in  1639,  and  was  one  of 
the  Puritan  menihers  expelled  from  the  house 
of  commons  by  "Pride's  purge."  He  com- 
menced collecting  materials  for  a  history  of 
England  at  the  age  of  18,  and  though  the  fruits 
of  his  research  were  not  published  by  him,  they 
were  of  great  use  to  Selden  and  other  writers. 
After  his  death  a  valuable  compilation  of  his 
was  given  to  the  Avorld  by  his  nephew  Paul 
Bowes,  under  the  title  of  "  The  Journals  of  all 
the  Parliaments  during  the  Reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth"  (folio,  London,  1682).  His  "Auto- 
biography and  Correspondence,"  edited  by  J.  O. 
Halliwell  (2  vols.  8vo.,  London,  1845),  contains 
some  interesting  pictures  of  his  times  and  con- 
temporaries, intermixed  with  much  that  is  use- 
less and  with  a  comical  display  of  vanity. 

DE  WETTE,  WiLHELM  Martin  Leberecht, 
a  German  theologian  and  biblical  critic,  born  at 
Ulla  near  Weimar,  Jan.  14,  1780,  died  at  Basel, 
June  16,  1849.     Having  studied  at  Weimar  and 
Jena,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy, 
and  subsequently  of  theology,  at   Heidelberg, 
and   received  in  1810  a  professorship   at  the 
university  of  Berlin.     This  situation  he  lost  in 
consequence  of  a  letter  of  consolation  written 
to  the  mother  of  Sand,  the  murderer  of  Kot- 
zebue,  which  was  regarded  by  the  government 
as  extenuating  this  act  of  political  fanaticism. 
He  retired  to  Weimar,  and  was  afterward  elect- 
ed professor  of  theology  by  the  university  of 
Basel.  Here  he  met  with  an  undisturbed  acknow- 
ledgment of  his  merits,  was  made  citizen  of  Ba- 
sel, member  of  the  committee  of  education,  and 
shortly  before  his  death  rector  of  the  university. 
De  AVette  distinguished  himself  by  his  lectures 
and  sermons  as  well  as  by  numerous  works. 
The  latter  belong  to  the  most  remarkable  pro- 
ductions  of  German  theological    science   and 
criticism.     The  most  important  of  them  are: 
"  Contributions  to  an  Litroduction  to  the  Old 
Testament"  (2   vols.,  1806-7) ;    "Commentary 
on  the   Psalms"  (1811);  "Manual   of  Jewish 
Archaiology"   (1814);  "Religion   and  Theolo- 
gy" (1815);    "Christian  Dogmatics"  (2   vols., 
1813, 1816)  ;  "Critical  and  Historical  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Old  and  New  Testaments"  (1817-26 ; 
the  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament  was  trans- 
lated and  enlarged  by  Theodore  Parker,  Boston, 
1843,  2d  ed.  1858 ;  and  that  to  the  New,  by 
Frederic  Frothingham,  Boston,  1858)  ;  "Chris- 
tian Morality"  (3  vols.,  1819-'21);  "Theodore, or 
the  Sceptic's  Conversion"  (1822  ;  translated  by 
James  F.  Clarke,  Boston,  1841)  ;  "Lectures  on 
Practical  Ethics"  (1823  ;  translated  by  Samuel 
Osgood,  Boston,  1842)  ;    Opxiscula   Theologica 
(1830);    "The    Essence  of    Christian  Faith" 
(1846);  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible,  executed 
together  with  Augusti  in  6  vols.  (1809-14) ;  and 
an  unfinished  edition  of  Luther's  works. — Lud- 
wiG,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Berlin  about 


1814,  published  a  "  Journey  through  the  United 
States  and  Canada  in  1837"  (Leipsic,  1838). 

DEWEY,  CiiKsTEK,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Ameri- 
can clergyman  and  teacher,  born  at  Sheffield, 
Mass.,  Oct.  25,  1784.  He  was  graduated  at 
Williams  college  in  1806  ;  studied  for  the  min- 
istry ;  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1808,  and  dur- 
ing the  latter  half  of  that  year  officiated  in  Tyr- 
ingham  in  western  Massachusetts.  The  same 
year  he  accepted  a  tutorship  in  Williams  college, 
and  in  1810  was  appointed  professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  natural  philosophy,  an  office  which 
he  discharged  for  17  years.  During  his  connec- 
tion with  the  college  he  did  much  to  advance  the 
standard  of  scholarship,  and  enlarge  the  course 
of  study  in  his  own  and  kindred  departments. 
Over  the  students  his  influence  was  often  bene- 
ficially exerted.  Between  1827  and  1836  he  was 
principal  of  the  "  Gymnasium,"  a  high  school 
for  boys  in  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  and  in  the  latter 
year  he  removed  to  Rochester,  where  he  was 
principal  of  the  Rochester  collegiate  institute 
until  1850,  when  he  was  elected  professor  oi 
chemistry  and  natural  philosophy  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Rochester,  which  position  he  still 
holds.  Professor  Dewey  has  been  a  frequent 
contributor  to  the  "  American  Journal  of  Science 
and  Arts,"  and  is  the  author  of  several  special 
botanical  treatises,  including  a  "  History  of  the 
Herbaceous  Plants  of  Massachusetts,"  written 
for  the  state  government.  Until  recently  he 
has  been  in  the  habit  of  employing  his  vacations 
in  lecturing  at  the  medical  colleges  of  Pittsfield 
and  Woodstock,  Vt.  In  the  course  of  his  long 
career  as  a  teacher  of  youth  he  has  delivered 
over  4,000  lectures,  and  preached  nearly  as 
many  sermons.  He  has  effected  much  for  the 
advancement  of  public  schools,  and  was  active 
in  the  establishment  of  the  "  Teachers'  Insti- 
tute," of  which  he  has  been  president. 

DEWEY,  Orville,  D.D.,  an  American  cler- 
gyman, born  at  Sheffield,  Mass.,  March  28, 1794, 
was  graduated  at  Williams  college  in  1814 ;  pur- 
sued his  divinity  studies  at  Andover  theological 
seminary  from  1816  to  1819 ;  preached  8  months 
as  agent  for  the  American  education  society ; 
declined  an  immediate  and  permanent  settle- 
ment on  account  of  unfixed  opinions  in  the- 
ology, but  accepted  a  temporary  call  at  Glouces- 
ter, Cape  Ann  (with  a  candid  explanation  of 
his  unsettled  views),  and  here  became  a  Uni- 
tarian ;  soon  after  became  an  assistant  of  Dr. 
Channing,  preaching  two  years  in  his  pulpit, 
and  forming  with  him  a  life-long  intimacy; 
in  1823  accepted  the  pastorate  of  the  Uni- 
tarian church  in  New  Bedford,  where  he  re- 
mained 10  years,  until,  broken  in  health,  he 
sought  restoration  in  his  first  voyage  to  Eu- 
rope, June,  1833.  The  "Old  World  and  the 
New  "  (2  vols.,  1836),  one  of  the  freshest  and 
most  instructive  records  of  travel,  contains  the 
history  of  his  two  years'  absence.  In  1835  he 
was  called  to  the  2d  Unitarian  church  in  New 
York,  which,  during  his  ministry,  built  the 
"  church  of  the  Messiah,"  and  became  a  very 
large  and  prosperous  society.  In  1842,  his  health 


436 


DE  WITT 


again  failing,  he  ■vrent  abroad  for  two  years,  and 
returning:  in  1844  to  his  post,  was  compelled  by 
continued  ill  health  to  dissolve  his  connection 
with  his  church  in  1848,  and  retire  to  his  pater- 
nal farm  in  Sheffield,  long  and  piously  preserved 
by  him,  at  great  sacrifices,  for  the  .use  of  his 
mother  and  sisters.  Here  he  devoted  the  rem- 
nants of  his  strength  to  the  preparation  of  a 
course  of  lectures  for  the  Lowell  institute  at 
Boston,  on  the  "  Problem  of  Human  Life  and 
Destiny,"  which  was  repeated  twice  in  New 
York,  and  in  Brooklyn,  New  Bedford, Baltimore, 
Washington,  Charleston,  St,  Loais,  Louisville, 
Nashville,  Madison,  Cincinnati,  and  Sheffield. 
This  course  was*  followed,  in  1855,  by  another 
Lowell  course  on  the  "  Education  of  the  Human 
Race,"  which  was  almost  as  widely  repeated. 
Meanwhile  he  filled  the  Unitarian  pulpit  in 
Albany  one  winter,  and  in  Washington  two. 
In  1858  he  was  again  settled  as  pastor  over  the 
Unitarian  society  in  Church  Green,  Boston, 
known  as  the  "  New  South,"  where  he  now  is. 
The  first  book  which  Dr.  Dewey  published  was 
a  little  work,  which  made  a  noise  in  its  day,  en- 
titled "  Letters  on  Revivals."  During  his  min- 
istry at  New  Bedford  he  contributed  much  to 
the  "Christian  Examiner"  and  the  "North 
American  Review."  On  leaving  New  Bedford, 
he  published  a  volume  of  sermons,  which  pro- 
duced a  marked  sensation.  His  various  works 
since  have  been  collected  and  published  in  3 
vols.  (New  York,  1847).  They  consist  of  "Dis- 
courses on  Human  Nature,"  "Discourses  on 
Human  Life,"  "  Discourses  on  the  Nature  of 
Religion,"  "  Discourses  on  Commerce  and  Busi- 
ness," "Miscellaneous  and  Occasional  Discours- 
es," "  The  Unitarian  Belief,"  "  Discourses  and 
Reviews,"  including  several  articles  which  first 
appeared  in  the  "Christian  Examiner."  His 
works  have  been  reprinted  in  London,  1844,  in 
an  octavo  volume  of  nearly  900  pages. — The 
application  of  religion  to  the  whole  sphere  of 
human  life  is  the  characteristic  of  Dr.  Dewey's 
writings,  and  the  central  purpose  of  his  mind. 
For  this  work  he  is  admirably  fitted  both  by 
native  endowment  and  the  discipline  of  ex- 
perience. His  writings  exhibit  a  philosophical 
tendency,  much  practical  knowledge,  wide  and 
lively  sympathies,  and  rare  dramatic  talent.  As 
a  pulpit  orator,  he  enjoys  a  high  reputation  for 
earnestness,  originality,  and  power  of  impres- 
sion. 

DE  WITT.  I.  A  S.  E.  co.  of  Texas,  drained  by 
the  Guadalupe  river ;  area,  898  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1858,  3,786,  of  whom  1,189  were  slaves.  It 
abounds  in  fine  scenery,  and  has  a  hilly  or  roll- 
ing surface.  The  soil,  particularly  in  the  valley 
of  the  Guadalupe,  is  fertile.  In  1850  it  pro- 
duced 547  bales  of  cotton,  and  67,560  bushels  of 
corn.  Value  of  real  estate  in  1858,  $545,000. 
The  county  was  named  in  honor  of  De  Witt,  an 
empresario  under  the  Mexican  government  of 
what  was  called  De  Witt's  colonj'.  Capital, 
Clinton.  II.  A  central  co.  of  Illinois,  mostly 
level,  comprising  forests  of  valuable  timber  and 
fertile  prairies,  remarkably  easy  of  cultivation ; 


area,  675  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855,  18,508.  In 
1850  the  productions  were  704,600  bushels  of 
corn,  22,401  of  wheat,  45,737  of  oats,  2,083  tons 
of  hay,  and  18,833  lbs.  of  wool.  There  were  6 
churches.  Bituminous  coal  is  the  chief  mineral 
product.  The  county  was  named  in  honor  of 
De  Witt  Clinton.     Capital,  Clinton. 

DE  WITT,  Jan,  a  Dutch  statesman,  born  in 
Dort,  Sept.  1(525,  murdered  at  the  Hague,  Aug. 
20, 1 672.  From  his  father,  who  had  been  a  mem- 
ber of  the  states  of  Holland,  he  inherited  republi- 
can principles  opposed  to  the  power  of  the  house 
of  Orange,  which  had  been  regarded  with  suspi- 
cion from  the  time  of  Barneveldt.  In  1652  he  be- 
came grand  pensionary  of  Holland,  an  office  which 
gave  him  great  influence  in  the  federal  assem- 
bly of  the  Seven  United  Provinces ;  and  he  im- 
mediately exerted  himself  to  break  up  that  com- 
bination of  offices  in  the  hands  of  the  princes  of 
Orange,  which  had  made  their  power  almost  sov- 
ereign. The  last  stadtholder  had  died  in  1650, 
and  his  son,  afterward  William  HI.  of  England, 
was  an  infant ;  and  at  this  favorable  time  the 
party  of  De  Witt  succeeded  in  abolishing  the 
office  of  stadtholder,  and  declaring  the  states- 
general  supreme.  In  1654  he  negotiated  the 
peace  of  Westminster  with  Cromwell,  by  a  secret 
article  of  which  the  members  of  the  house  of 
Orange  were  in  future  excluded  from  the  high- 
est offices  of  state.  After  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.,  England  declared  war  against  Hol- 
land ;  but  though  her  arms  were  at  first  suc- 
cessful, the  sagacity  of  De  Witt  restored  the 
fortunes  of  his  countrymen,  and  obliged  her  to 
sue  for  peace.  The  negotiations  were  hasten- 
ed by  the  appearance  of  De  Ruyter  with  a  pow- 
erful fleet  in  the  Thames,  where  he  burned  the 
English  shipping  in  the  Medway ;  and  a  treaty 
was  concluded  at  Breda  in  July,  1667.  When 
the  aggrandizing  policy  of  Louis  XIV.  began  to 
aim  at  the  possession  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands, 
De  Witt  became  obnoxious  to  a  strong  party  in 
the  state,  which  souglit  to  elevate  William  of 
Orange  to  the  dignity  of  his  ancestors.  He 
hastened  to  form  a  triple  alliance  with  Sweden 
and  England,  but  violated  the  federal  constitu- 
tion by  causing  the  treaty  to  be  at  once  ratified 
by  the  states-general,  instead  of  being  first  refer- 
red to  the  council  of  each  province.  Though  the 
measure  may  have  been  justified  by  the  emer- 
gency, it  was  a  principal  cause  of  the  hostility  to 
De  Witt.  Louis  XIV.  succeeded  in  detaching 
England  from  the  alliance,  and  in  forming  a 
counter  alliance  between  England  and  France 
against  Holland  ;  and  in  1672  the  United  Prov- 
inces were  invaded  by  French  armies,  which 
advanced  nearly  to  Amsterdam.  The  blame  was 
thrown  on  the  grand  pensionary ;  and  by  the 
popular  voice  the  young  prince  of  Orange  was 
called  to  command  the  Dutch  forces  by  land  and 
sea,  and  was  nominated  stadtholder.  Cornelius, 
the  brother  of  Jan  De  Witt,  was  suspected  of 
having  plotted  against  the  life  of  the  prince,  and 
was  imprisoned  at  the  Hague.  Tlie  grand  pen- 
sionary resigned  his  office,  went  to  visit  his 
brother,  and  perished  with  him  by  the  violence 


DEXTEPw 


DEYRA  BOON 


437 


of  a  mob.  Ilis  abilities  and  exemplary  private 
character  were  applauded  even  by  his  political 
opponents.  His  principal  political  work,  on  the 
"  True  Interest  and  Political  Maxims  of  the  Re- 
public of  Holland,"  was  translated  into  English 
by  Dr.  Campbell  (London,  174G). 

DEXTER,  Samuel,  an  American  statesman 
and  jurist,  born  in  Boston  in  1701,  died  while 
on  a  journey  at  Athens,  N,  Y.,  in  1816.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  university  in  1781,  with 
the  highest  honors  of  his  class,  and  received  in 
1813  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  same  univer- 
sity. Immediately  after  leaving  college  he  began 
the  study  of  law,  and  being  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1784,  after  some  years  of  practice  in  Lunen- 
burg, in  Chelmsford,  in  Billerica,  and  in  Charles- 
town,  he  removed  to  Boston,  and  had  his  home 
there  during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  was 
repeatedly  choseu  to  the  legislature  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  in  1798  was  elected  senator  of  the 
United  States.  While  senator  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  war  by  John  Adams  in  1800,  and 
in  the  same  year  secretary  of  the  treasury.  He 
was  afterward,  at  difterent  times,  offered  for- 
eign missions,  but  always  refused  them.  About 
the  year  1802  he  withdrew  from  political  life, 
and  returned  to  his  profession ;  and  there  he 
occupied  a  high,  and  in  some  respects  the  highest 
place.  He  was  not  regarded  as  a  man  of  exten- 
sive professional  learning,  or  as  eloquent  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  that  'term  ;  but  he  was  well 
acquainted  with  the  leading  principles  of  law, 
and  possessed  the  faculty  of  learning  rapidly 
and  Avell  all  that  was  needed  in  any  particular 
case,  by  study  in  rem.  While  he  seldom  in- 
dulged in  figures  or  ornaments  of  any  kind,  his 
powers  of  argument  were  almost  irresistible. 
He  was  often  spoken  of  as  "  the  lawyer  for  des- 
perate cases,"  because  no  case  seemed  desperate 
in  his  hands.  As  a  politician  he  was  in  early 
life  a  decided  federalist ;  and  he  never  approved 
all  the  principles  or  doings  of  the  republican 
party  of  that  day.  He  argued  against  the  va- 
lidity of  the  embargo  with  all  his  strength,  and 
always  maintained  the  unconstitutionality  of 
that  measure.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  he  dif- 
fered from  his  party  in  reference  to  the  war  of 
1812.  While,  however,  he  left  his  own  party, 
he  could  not  be  said  to  have  joined  the  other ; 
and  when  they  nominated  him  as  the  republican 
candidate  for  governor,  in  1814,  he  immediately 
published  an  address  to  the  electors  of  Massa- 
chusetts, in  which  he  declared  that  he  did  not 
belong  to  the  party  which  had  nominated  him, 
and  differed  radically  from  them.  He  was,  how- 
ever, retained  as  their  candidate;  and  his  com- 
petitor. Gen.  Brooks,  the  candidate  of  the  fed- 
eralists, was  elected  by  a  majority  of  only  2,000 
out  of  47,000  votes.  He  was  the  first  president 
of  the  first  society  formed  in  Massachusetts  for 
the  promotion  of  temperance. 

DEXTRINE,  also  known  as  British  Gum,  a 
soluble  variety  of  starch,  obtained  by  boiling 
starch  in  water,  or  heating  it  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  392°,  or  by  the  action  upon  it  of  dias- 
tase or  acids.    In  the  malting  of  grain  it  is  pro- 


duced with  the  forming  of  the  sprout,  the  dias^ 
tase  and  acetic  acid  first  appearing,  and  then 
converting  the  starch  of  the  grain  into  dextrine, 
from  which  it  passes  into  sugar,  and  this  into 
alcohol.  When  starch  is  boiled  to  produce  this 
gum  for  stiffening  linens,  its  change  into  sugar 
may  bo  efiTected  by  continuing  the  boiling.  No 
change  in  the  chemical  composition  takes  place 
in  this  process,  but  the  alteration  is  probably  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  pah-ticles  among  them- 
selves. In  both  starch  and  dextrine  the  con- 
stituents are,  carbon  12  atoms,  and  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  10  atoms  each.  Grape  sugar,  into 
which  they  pass,  differs  from  tliem  only  by  tak- 
ing another  atom  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  or, 
what  is  the  same  thing,  one  atom  of  water. 
Dextrine  forms  a  mucilaginous  solution  with  hot 
or  cold  water,  from  which  it  is  precipitated  by 
alcohol.  It  is  prepared  in  France  to  considerable 
extent  from  potato  starch,  to  be  afterward  fer- 
mented and  converted  into  brandy.  It  is  also 
used  by  the  French  j)astry  cooks  and  confection- 
ers. In  medicine  it  may  serve  the  same  uses 
as  gum  arable,  and  in  surgery  it  is  applied  to 
the  preparation  of  bandages  for  fractures.  For 
this  purpose  it  is  triturated  with  f  of  its  weight 
of  camphorated  spirit,  till  it  acquires  the  con- 
sistency of  honey.  Water  is  then  added,  and 
the  bandage  is  immersed  in  the  mixture.  As 
British  or  "  artificial"  gum,  it  is  employed  by 
the  calico  printers  for  thickening  their  colors. 
It  is  sold  in  the  form  of  a  brilliant  Avhite  pow- 
der, as  a  mucilage,  and  in  lumps  like  those  of 
natural  gums.  Its  smell  and  taste  of  potato  oil 
distinguishes  it  from  gum  arabic,  and  it  differs 
from  natural  gums  in  not  forming  mucic  acid 
by  the  action  of  nitric  acid,  and  in  being  con- 
vertible into  grape  sugar.  The  name  is  derived 
from  its  property  of  turning  more  than  any 
other  body  the  plane  of  polarization  to  the  right 
hand  side. 

DEY,  in  Algiers,  from  1600  to  1710,  the  com- 
mander of  the  armies  of  the  state,  subject  to  a 
pasha  appointed  by  the  Porte.  In  1710  the  dig- 
nity of  pasha  was  united  Avith  that  of  dey,  and 
the  dey  was  the  highest  officer  of  Algiers  from 
that  time  till  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the 
French  in  1830. 

DEYRA  DOON,  or  Dkiiea  Doon,  a  fertile 
valley  of  British  India,  between  the  S.  "W.  base 
of  the  lowest  and  outermost  ridge  of  the  Hima- 
layas, and  the  N.  E.  slope  of  the  Sewalik  moun- 
tains, the  former  having  an  elevation  of  7,000 
or  8,000  feet,  and  the  latter  of  about  3,000; 
lat.  30°  and  80°  32'  K,  long.  77°  43'  and  78° 
24'  E. ;  area,  673  sq.  m.  ;  length,  5  m. ;  breadth, 
from  15  to  20  m.  It  is  bounded  S.  E.  by  the 
Ganges  and  N.  by  the  Jumna,  is  drained  by 
their  tributaries,  and  with  the  hilly  region  called 
Jounsar  Bawur  forms  a  district  under  the  lieu- 
tenant-governorship of  the  IsT.  W.  provinces. 
The  productions  are  rice,  maize,  grain,  cotton, 
sugar,  opium,  indigo,  jjlantain,  and  hemp.  Every 
English  plant  is  said  to  thrive  luxuriantly,  and 
considerable  success  has  attended  the  cultivation 
of  tea.    The  climate  during  part  of  the  year  is 


DEZFOOL 


DIABETES 


very  unhealthy.  This  district  was  formerly  part 
of  the  dominions  of  the  rajah  of  Gurhwal,  was 
overrun  by  the  Goorkhas  in  1803,  and  in  1815, 
during  the  Nepaul  war,  was  invaded  by  the 
British,  who  suffered  great  loss  hero,  and  who, 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  Goorkhas,  kept  pos- 
session of  the  territory. — Deyea,  the  principal 
town  of  the  district,  is  situated  in  the  midst 
of  dense  mango  groves,  at  the  intersection  of  2 
routes  of  trade,  2,869  feet  above  the  sea. 

DEZFOOL,  Dezful,  or  Dezphoul,  a  city  of 
Persia,  in  the  province  of  Khoozistan,  on  the 
eastern  bank  of  a  river  of  the  same  name ;  pop. 
estimated  at  15,000.  It  is  the  principal  mart 
of  the  province,  and  has  a  fine  bridge  of  22 
arches,  said  to  have  been  built  by  command  of 
the  celebrated  Sapor.  About  10  miles  S.  "W. 
from  the  city  are  mounds  of  ruins  which  cover 
the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Susa. 

D'HILLIERS.     SeeBAEAGUAY  d'Hilliees. 

DIABETES,  Glttcosueia,  Diabetes  Melli- 
TtJS,  Gluooh^mia  (Gr.  dia^aivu,  to  pass  through), 
a  disease  characterized  by  an  excessive  secretion 
of  saccharine  urine.  Though  disease  marked 
by  diuresis  and  attended  with  wasting  of  the 
body  was  frequently  spoken  of  by  earlier  au- 
thors, Willis  (1659)  was  the  first  who  noted  the 
distinctive  character  of  the  complaint,  the  pres- 
ence of  sugar  in  that  fluid.  Since  his  time 
diabetes,  which  is  not  a  very  rare  complaint, 
has  been  frequently  made  a  subject  of  study, 
yet  still  a  great  deal  of  obscurity  envelops  its 
causes,  its  essential  charaoter,  and  its  treat- 
ment. The  invasion  of  diabetes  is  commonly 
insidious.  The  attention  of  the  patient  is  per- 
haps first  attracted  by  the  quantity  of  urina 
he  passes  and  by  the  frequent  calls  to  void  it, 
or  he  notices  that  while  his  appetite  is  greatly 
increased  he  is  growing  weaker  and  thinner. 
If  the  urine  be  now  examined,  it  is  found  to  be 
not  only  greatly  increased  in  quantity,  but  some- 
what changed  in  appearance ;  it  is  paler,  trans- 
parent when  first  passed,  and  assumes  on  stand- 
ing an  opalescent  tint  like  the  Avhey  of  milk  or  a 
solution  of  honey  in  water.  It  has  no  odor,  or 
a  somewhat  aromatic  one,  compared  by  some  to 
that  of  new-made  hay,  by  Dr.  Watson  to  that 
of  a  room  in  which  apples  have  been  kept.  If 
kept  for  a  few  days  at  a  moderately  elevated 
temperature,  instead  of  acquiring  an  ammonia- 
cal  odor  like  ordinary  urine,  it  has  a  sharp  vinous 
smell,  and  will  be  found  to  be  acid  rather  than 
alkaline.  The  urine  has  commonly  a  decidedly 
sweet  taste  ;  drops  of  it  upon  the  patient's  linen 
or  clothes  stiffen  tliem  like  starch,  and  some- 
times leave  on  evaporation  a  powdery  efflores- 
cence. The  specific  gravity  of  the  urine  is 
greatly  augmented ;  instead  of  being  from  1.015 
to  1.020,  as  is  commonly  the  case,  it  ranges  from 
1.025  to  1.050;  M.  Bouchardat  reports  it  even 
as  high  as  1.074.  Two  or  three  simple  and  easily 
applied  tests  are  sufficient  to  render  the  presence 
of  sugar  certain.  In  what  is  called  Trommer's 
test,  a  drop  or  two  of  the  solution  of  the  sul- 
phate of  copper  is  added  to  a  little  of  the  urine 
ui  a  test  tube ;  a  solution  of  caustic  potash  is 


now  added  in  excess,  and  the  mixture  gently 
boiled  over  a  spirit  lamp  for  a  few  minutes ;  if 
sugar  is  present,  a  precipitate  of  a  reddish  or 
yellowish  brown  (suboxide  of  copper)  wNl  be 
thrown  down,  otherwise  the  precipitate  will  be 
black  (common  oxide).  In  Moore's  test,  a  little 
of  the  suspected  urine  is  mixed  in  a  test  tube 
with  about  ^  its  volume  of  liquor  potassto,  and 
the  mixture  boiled  for  5  minutes  ;  if  sugar  be 
present,  the  fluid  will  acquire  a  brown  hue, 
otherwise  it  remains  unchanged.  A  3d  test  is 
founded  on  the  fact  that  diabetic  urine  rapidly 
undergoes  fermentation  when  mixed  with  a  little 
yeast  and  kept  in  a  warm  place.  The  sugar 
to  Avhich  diabetic  urine  owes  its  peculiar  prop- 
erties exists  in  the  form  of  glucose  or  grape 
sugar.  This  is  present  in  all  proportions,  from 
a  mere  trace  to  30,  50,  and  even  134  parts  in 
1,000.  The  quantity  of  solid  matter  thus  drain- 
ed from  the  system  is  very  great ;  Dr.  Thomas 
Watson  estimates  it  on  the  average  at  1^  lbs.  per 
day,  but  it  sometimes  amounts  to  many  times 
this  quantity  ;  and  it  is  this  drain  of  solid  matter, 
together  with  the  large  amount  of  urine  passed, 
which  gives  rise  to  the  constant  thirst  and  the 
enormous  appetite  of  diabetic  patients.  Early 
in  the  disease,  as  was  before  observed,  the  symp- 
toms are  not  well  marked  ;  when  the  complaint 
is  established,  and  the  large  excretion  of  urine 
begins  to  attract  attention,  the  patient  com- 
plains that  despite  his  excessive  appetite  he 
grows  thinner  and  weaker;  the  mouth  is  pasty, 
the  skin  dry  and  hard,  the  bowels  constipated. 
The  digestive  functions,  at  first  normal,  become 
deranged ;  the  patient  is  troubled  with  heartburn, 
with  a  feeling  of  weight  and  pain  in  the  epigas- 
trium, Bometimes  witli  vomiting.  The  strength 
declines,  the  patient  becomes  emaciated,  the 
generative  functions  are  impaired  or  lost;  vision 
often  becomes  dim,  the  gums  are  spongy,  there 
is  tenderness  and  swelling  about  the  orifice  of 
the  urethra,  the  memory  and  intellect  fail, 
and  the  temper  becomes  irritable.  In  the 
course  of  the  disease  pulmonary  consumption  is 
very  apt  to  supervene  and  carry  off  the  patient. 
Toward  the  last,  diarrhoea,  fetid  breath,  effusion 
into  the  great  cavities,  and  oedema  of  the  ex- 
tremities, precede  death.  Diabetes  is  essentially 
a  chronic  disease,  lasting  often  many  years; 
it  is  also  an  obstinate  and  intractable  one,  al- 
though most  of  the  cases  seem  benefited  by 
treatment,  and  sometimes  it  would  appear  to 
be  completely  cured. — Treatment.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  the  present  century  Dr.  EoUo  found 
that  the  amount  of  urine  in  diabetic  patients 
as  well  as  its  sweetness  was  very  much  dimin- 
ished by  confining  them  to  an  animal  diet. 
When  the  ready  conversion  of  starch  into  grape 
sugar  became  known,  this  was  assumed  to  be 
the  origin  of  the  sugar,  and  the  benefit  derived 
from  an  exclusively  animal  diet  was  thus  explain- 
ed. Unfortunately,  few  patients  have  the  reso- 
lution to  restrict  themselves  for  any  length  of 
time  to  such  a  diet,  and  even  when  persevered  in 
it  is  found  to  be  merely  palliative.  The  experi- 
ments of  0.  Bernard  have  thrown  a  new  light 


DIAGNOSIS 


439 


upon  the  subject.  Ho  has  ascertained  that  sugar 
is  a  normal  secretion  of  the  liver  in  all  classes  of 
animals,  carnivorous  as  well  as  herbivorous ;  that 
it  takes  place  in  the  liver  of  the  foetus  as  well 
as  in  tbat  of  the  adult ;  that  irritating  the  origin 
of  the  8tb  pair  of  nerves  in  the  4tb  ventricle 
increases  tlie  secretion  of  sugar,  producing  an 
artificial  diabetes.  In  a  state  of  health  the  nor- 
mal secretion  of  sugar  poured  into  tlio  circula- 
tion by  the  hepatic  veins  is  rapidly  decomposed 
and  excreted  by  the  lungs ;  wben  the  amount  is 
increased  by  disease,  the  excess  passes  olf  by  the 
kidneys.  Under  the  influence  of  diastase,  sugar 
is  likewise  formed  from  the  starch  of  the  food 
in  the  process  of  digestion,  as  a  necessary  pre- 
liminary to  its  absorption.  When  diabetic  pa- 
tients are  placed  upon  an  animal  diet,  this  source 
of  supply  is  cut  off,  and  the  amount  of  sugar  in 
the  urine  is  diminished,  but  it  is  still  present, 
since  the  liver  keeps  up  the  supply.  M.  Mialhe, 
influenced  by  the  theoretic  belief  that  sugar  in 
the  course  of  the  circulation  is  decomposed 
under  the  influence  of  the  alkalinity  of  the 
blood,  and  that  in  diabetes  the  blood  is  deficient 
in  alkalinity  either  positively  or  relatively  to 
the  amount  of  sugar  contained  in  it,  recom- 
mends the  use  of  the  bicarbonate  of  soda  in 
large  doses.  He  recommends  ^  a  dram  to  be 
taken  3  times  a  day,  morning,  noon,  and  night ; 
this  is  gradually  increased  until  from  180  to  270 
grains  are  taken  in  the  course  of  tlie  day.  In 
addition,  the  patient  is  directed  to  take  Vichy 
■water  with  his  meals,  and  is  recommended  to 
drink  lime  Avater  to  the  extent  of  2  or  3  pints 
daily.  He  is  permitted  to  indulge  in  the  or- 
dinary variety  in  his  diet,  but  the  quantity 
of  farinaceai  is  reduced  -^  or  at  least  ^.  Flan- 
nel is  ordered  to  be  worn  next  the  skin;  the 
vapor  bath  is  administered  2  or  3  times  a 
week.  By  these  means  M.  Mialhe  reports  a 
number  of  cases  to  have  been  cured.  Dr.  A. 
Clark  of  New  York  (New  York  "  Medical  and 
Surgical  Journal,"  Jan.  1859)  reports  several 
cases  of  diabetes  either  cured  or  greatly  bene- 
fited by  the  use  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  of 
blisters  to  the  nape  of  the  neck.  Dr.  Clark  ad- 
ministered the  soda  in  doses  of  11  grains,  to  be 
taken  as  frequently  as  could  be  borne  until  the 
urine  was  rendered  alkaline  or  the  stomach  was 
nauseated.  Beside  the  alkaline  treatment,  the 
means  principally  relied  on  have  been  restrict- 
ing the  quantity  of  farinaceous  matter  in  the 
patient's  diet  as  far  as  possible,  indulging  him 
in  watery  vegetables  (spinach,  turnips,  cabbage, 
&c.)  rather  than  in  bread  or  potatoes,  and  the 
use  of  opium.  This  last  remedy  allays  the  ner- 
vous irritability  of  the  patient,  and  diminishes 
the  thirst  and  the  amount  of  the  urinary  secre- 
tion. 

DIAGNOSIS  (Gr.  Bia'^vaais,  examination,  de- 
cision), a  term  in  medicmo  indicating  that  de- 
partment of  pathology  whose  object  is  the  dis- 
tinguisliing  of  diseases  by  the  knowledge  of  their 
special  pathognomonic  signs.  To  distinguish  a 
disease  under  all  its  various  forms,  and  when 
complicated  by  symptoms  of  other  affections,  is 


of  the  first  importance  in  practical  medicine, 
and  requires  all  the  acuteness  and  discrimina- 
tion of  the  physician  ;  witliout  a  correct  diagno- 
sis, treatment  must  be  empirical  and  hazardous. 
A  mere  acquaintance  witli  the  symptoms  of 
each  disease  cannot  enable  the  j)hysician  to 
make  his  diagnosis.  These  symptoms  are  given 
briefly  under  the  different  dise.'ises  ;  diagno- 
sis will  be  treated  here  only  as  a  branch  of  gen- 
eral pathology.  Of  the  symptoms  of  disease, 
some  are  characteristic  and  pathognomonic, 
essential  and  always  present ;  some  are  common 
to  other  diseases,  and  are  of  value  only  when 
taken  in  connection  with  the  former  class.  Ex- 
amples of  the  former  are  the  eruptions  of  the 
exanthemata,  and  the  mobility  of  the  ends  of 
broken  bones ;  of  the  latter,  the  increased  fre- 
quency of  the  pulse,  heat  of  the  skin,  and  thirst, 
common  to  many  different  diseased  states.  A 
physician  must  know  how  to  examine  and  inter- 
rogate a  patient,  to  use  his  own  senses  of  sight, 
hearing,  and  touch,  to  sift  the  statements  of  at- 
tendants, to  weigh  justly  positive  and  negative 
signs  ;  which  he  can  only  learn  by  a  knowledge 
of  anatomy  and  pathology,  by  experience  at  the 
bedside,  by  an  acquaintance  Avith  the  physiolo- 
gical functions  of  organs,  and  by  familiarity  witli 
the  physical  examinations  of  the  sick.  His  fin- 
gers must  be  educated  to  a  sensibility  equal  to 
that  of  the  blind  man's  ;  his  ear,  armed  with 
the  stethoscope,  must  hear  the  first  footsteps  of 
disease  in  the  heart  and  lungs,  or  the  first  mur- 
mur of  life  in  the  gravid  uterus ;  his  eyes,  assisted 
by  the  microscope,  must  follow  the  course  of 
morbid  growths  back  even  into  the  primary 
structure  of  the  cell ;  he  must  press,  percuss,  and 
measure  with  the  greatest  delicacy  and  exact- 
ness ;  he  must  be  familiar  with  chemical  reac- 
tions, in  order  to  detect  and  neutralize  poisons, 
and  arrest  the  formation  of  dangerous  precipi- 
tates in  the  nutrient  and  excrementitious  fluids. 
By  this  manner  of  interrogating  and  examining, 
both  by  physical  and  rational  signs,  every  organ 
and  function,  the  seat,  extent,  and  nature  of  the 
disease  are  ascertained ;  and  it  is  in  making  a 
diagnosis,  more  than  in  the  treatment,  that  one 
physician  excels  another ;  for  though  a  blind 
exhibition  of  remedies  may  occasionally  be  suc- 
cessful in  arresting  disease,  it  must  be  obvious 
to  every  reasoning  mind  that  a  knowledge  of 
the  disease  is  the  first  and  great  essential  to  its  ra- 
tional treatment.  There  are  many  causes  which 
render  the  diagnosis  of  disease  diflScult  and  un- 
certain— such  as  the  advanced  stage  at  which 
many  affections  are  seen ;  the  unusual  predomi- 
nance of  certain  merely  sympathetic  phenomena, 
which  mask  the  primary  lesion  ;  the  occurrence 
of  new  and  anomalous  types  of  disease ;  the 
complication  with  other  diseases;  and  the  tender 
age,  imbecility,  insanity,  dissimulation,  and  de- 
ceit of  patients.  It  must  be  evident  from  this, 
what  a  union  of  rare  faculties  and  varied  ac- 
quirements is  necessary  to  enable  a  physician  to 
make  a  correct  diagnosis  of  disease ;  and  also 
that,  without  this  primary  result,  all  speculation 
as  to  its  progress  and  termination  is  mere  con- 


440 


DIAGORAS  OF  MELOS 


DIAMAGNETISM 


jecture,  and  all  treatment  blind  and  base  empi- 
ricism. The  French  school  of  medicine  is  famous 
for  the  stress  it  lays  on  diagnosis ;  and  students 
from  other  pai-ts  of  Europe,  and  more  especially 
from  the  United  States,  flock  to  Paris  to  acquire 
the  elements  and  practice  of  this  most  essential 
branch  of  their  profession. 

DIAGORAS  OF  MELOS,  surnamed  the  Athe- 
ist, a  Greek  philosopher,  lived  in  the  time  of 
Socrates  and  Aristophanes,  but  neither  the  date 
of  his  birth  nor  that  of  his  death  is  known.  He 
must  have  removed  from  his  native  island  to 
Athens  before  the  performance  of  the  "  Clouds  " 
of  Aristophanes  (424  B.C.),  for  he  is  alluded  to 
in  that  piece  as  one  well  known  to  the  Athe- 
nians. He  was  a  disciple  of  Democritus  of 
Abdera.  He  ridiculed  the  popular  religion,  and 
attacked  especially  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  on 
account  of  which  he  was  accused  of  impiety 
(411  B.  C).  Fearing  the  result  of  a  trial,  he 
made  his  escape  from  the  city.  He  was  con- 
demned to  death  by  the  court,  and  a  price  set 
upon  his  head.  Notwithstanding  this,  after  liv- 
ing for  a  time  at  Pallene,  he  finally  died  at  peace 
in  Corinth.     His  works  are  all  lost. 

DIAL.  Sun  dials  are  among  the  most  an- 
cient of  human  inventions,  and,  although  some- 
times said  to  have  been  invented  in  Lacedaamon, 
were  more  probably  derived  by  the  Greeks 
from  eastern  nations.  The  dial  of  Ahaz,  the 
king  of  Judah,  is  one  of  the  earliest  mentioned 
in  the  history  of  the  East,  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  Jews  learned  the  use  of  this  invention 
from  the  Babylonians.  According  to  "Wilkin- 
son, "  there  are  no  indications  in  the  sculptures 
to  prove  the  epoch  when  the  dial  was  first 
known  in  Egypt."  The  modern  improvements 
in  artificial  modes  of  measuring  time  are  so 
great,  that  sun  dials  are  now  more  a  matter 
of  curiosity  than  of  use.  They  may  be  divided 
into  2  essentially  difi:erent  kinds,  one  of  which 
we  may  call  geometrical,  the  other  algebraical. 
In  order  to  comprehend  the  first,  we  need  only 
observe,  that  if  a  rod  or  gnomon  be  placed  par- 
allel to  the  axis  of  the  earth,  its  shadow,  con- 
ceived of  as  a  sheet  of  darkness  passing  in  a 
plane  from  the  rod  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
sun,  would  swing  steadily  and  equally  round  the 
rod  as  a  hinge,  so  long  as  the  sun  shone  upon  it. 
Upon  whatever  surface  this  shadow  fell,  Avhether 
horizontal,  vertical,  or  inclined,  its  place  could 
be  used  as  a  means  of  measuring  time.  And  if 
upon  this  surface  lines  were  drawn,  marking 
the  place  of  the  shadow  at  definite  hours  of  the 
day,  the  rod  might  be  made  as  short  as  wo 
pleased,  reduced  indeed  to  a  single  ball,  held  in 
the  place  where  the  extremity  of  the  rod  had 
been,  and  the  shadow  of  this  ball  would  mark 
the  time  upon  the  lines  of  the  shadow  of  the 
rod.  The  other  sort  of  dial,  the  algebraical,  is 
more  diflicult  to  explain  without  the  use  of  a 
diagram.  It  is  drawn  upon  a  piece  of  card,  to 
which  is  attached  a  plumb  line  with  a  bead 
sliding  upon  it ;  the  card  being  held  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  upper  edge  shall  point  at  the 
sun,  its  plane  being  vertical,  the  bead  marks  the 


hour  upon  the  face  of  the  card.  Tliis  dial  has 
the  advantage  of  being  portable.  Dials  of  the 
first  kind,  of  a  rude  nature,  may  be  made  port- 
able by  liaving  the  rod  and  the  dial  surface  light 
enough  to  be  balanced  upon  a  compass  needle. 
Beautifully  engraved  sun  dials,  for  the  regulating 
of  clocks,  are  manufactured  by  the  electrotype 
process  in  copper. — The  term  dial  is  also  applied 
to  any  graduated  surface,  sucli  as  a  clock  or  watch 
face,  upon  which  time  is  marked  out. 

DIALLAGE  (Gr.  diaXXayrj,  change,  altera- 
tion), a  mineral  of  the  augite  family,  so  named 
from  its  tendency  to  cleave  in  different  direc- 
tions. It  is  a  variety  of  hornblende,  in  thin 
foliaj,  of  various  shades  of  green,  gray,  brown, 
and  bronze  colors,  and  is  found  in  serpentine 
and  greenstone.  Its  specific  gravity  is  3.25. 
Diallage  rock,  also  called  euphotide,  is  a  com- 
pound rock  of  diallage  and  feldspar. 

DIAMAGNETISM.  In  the  native  magnet 
(an  ore  of  iron)  a  peculiar  force  resides,  which, 
if  a  mass  of  this  body  be  suspended  freely,  turns 
or  directs  it  into  a  line  varying  slightly  from 
the  course  of  a  meridian  on  the  earth's  surface. 
The  same  end  of  the  magnet  being  always  di- 
rected toward  the  north,  this  has  been  termed 
its  N.  pole ;  the  opposite,  its  S.  pole.  Certain 
bodies,  especially  iron,  brought  near  to  a  mag- 
net, have  the  magnetic  condition  induced  in 
them,  the  extremity  nearest  either  magnetic 
pole  becoming  a  pole  of  the  opposite  name,  that 
most  remote  a  pole  of  the  same  name.  This 
result  is  in  accordance  with  the  law  that  like 
poles  repel,  while  unlike  attract  each  other.  A 
soft  iron  bar,  around  which  the  electrical  cur- 
rent is  made  to  circulate  upon  a  coiled  conductor, 
or  helix,  becomes  magnetic  for  the  time,  but 
loses  its  magnetism  when  the  current  ceases. 
Small  magnetizable  particles,  as  iron  filings, 
dusted  upon  a  surface  on  which  a  magnet  rests, 
or  agitated  near  it,  become  arranged  in  lines 
which,  between  unlike  poles  that  are  presented 
to  each  other,  run  across  in  straight  lines,  while 
about  these  on  either  side  they  form  curves, 
making  larger  and  larger  sweeps  into  space. 
The  lines  thus  indicated  have  been  named  mag- 
netic curves,  or  lines  of  force.  Until  recently, 
the  number  of  magnetic  bodies  was  supposed  to 
be  very  small.  Becquerel,  in  1827,  found  that 
a  needle  of  wood  playing  freely  on  a  pivot  took 
a  direction  across,  not  in,  the  magnetic  curves ; 
and  in  1829  Le  Bailli  also  observed  that  bis- 
muth repelled  the  magnetic  needle.  But  the 
significance  of  these  facts  was  not  understood 
until  an  accidental  discovery  of  Faraday,  in 
1845,  led  that  philosopher  into  a  full  investiga- 
tion of  the  phenomenon.  In  the  course  of  his 
experiments  on  magnetic  rotary  polarization,  he 
observed  that  a  bar  of  so-called  "  heavy  glass," 
suspended  between  the  poles  of  an  electro-mag- 
net, moved,  as  soon  as  by  the  passage  of  the 
electrical  current  magnetism  was  induced  in  the 
latter,  into  a  position  crossing  the  lines  of  force, 
or  at  right  angles  to  the  line  joining  the  poles. 
Terming  the  position  assumed  by  a  soft  iron 
bar  which  is  lengthwise  between  the  two  poles, 


DIAMAGNETISM 


DLiMOND 


441 


or  from  one  to  the  other,  axial,  Faraday  gave  to 
the  now  direction  assumed  by  the  p;lass  the  name 
of  equatorial.  The  glass  was  not  merely  thus 
directed,  it  was  repelled  by  either  pole ;  and  if, 
reduced  to  the  form  of  a  small  mass  or  cube,  it 
was  thrown  out  of  the  line  joining  the  poles  to 
one  side  or  the  other,  it  moved  into  the  position 
of  weakest  magnetic  action.  This  new-found 
property  of  certain  bodies  Faraday  termed 
diamagnetism ;  and  in  contrast  with  this,  he  de- 
nominated the  familiar  form  of  magnetic  action 
paramagnetism.  Ilis  experiments  warrant  the 
conclusion  that,  with  a  sufficiently  powerful 
electro-magnet,  all  substances  whatever  can  be 
shown  to  exhibit  one  or  other  of  these  proper- 
ties. Liquids  and  solutions  were  examined  by 
being  suspended  in  glass  vials,  the  known  influ- 
ence of  the  glass  being  allowed  for.  Among 
paramagnetic  substances,  by  far  the  most  pow- 
erful is  iron,  then  nickel  and  cobalt,  and,  in  a 
slight  degree,  manganese,  palladium,  crown 
glass,  platinum,  osmium,  and  some  others. 
Vacuum  serves  as  zero  in  the  scale.  Then, 
passing  from  the  less  to  the  more  diamagnetic 
bodies,  are  found  arsenic,  ether,  alcohol,  gold, 
water,  mercury,  flint  glass,  tin,  heavy  glass,  an- 
timony, phosphorus,  and,  by  far  the  most  pow- 
erful, bismuth.  Flames  are  diamagnetic,  being 
so  strongly  repelled  by  the  poles  that  they  di- 
vide and  pass  up  on  either  side,  a  descending 
current  of  air  going  down  in  the  middle.  Most 
organic  substances  are  diamagnetic;  wood, 
starch,  sugar,  leather,  bread,  and  even  animal 
tissues  and  blood,  are  instances.  Oxygen,  and 
perhaps  nitrous  gas,  are  the  only  gases  which 
are  known  to  be  ordinarily  magnetic ;  and 
when  it  is  added  that  oxygen  loses  in  a  degree, 
though  not  wholly,  its  magnetic  condition  by 
increase  of  temperature,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  properties  of  this  constituent  of  our  atmo- 
sphere probably  have  important  bearings  on  the 
production  of  terrestrial  magnetism.  Green 
glass  is  magnetic  in  consequence  of  the  iron  it 
contains;  and  to  render  wood  ordinarily  mag- 
netic, it  is  only  necessary  to  cut  a  chip  of  it 
with  a  common  knife.  The  magnetic  condition 
of  any  compound  body  is  found  to  be  deter- 
mined by  what  may  be  called  the  algebraic  sum 
of  the  magnetic  and  diamagnetic  powers  of  its 
constituents.  Thus  a  compound  or  solution 
containing  much  iron  will  always  be  paramag- 
netic in  greater  or  less  degree ;  but  if  the  iron 
be  blended  with  comparatively  large  amounts 
of  water  and  other  diamagnetics,  it  may  be 
brought  to  the  neutral  point,  or  the  compound 
may  be  actually  diamagnetic.  Under  all  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  the  decidedly  magnetic  or 
diamagnetic  bodies  give  to  combinations  their 
own  character.  Another  important  point  is  the 
influence  of  enveloping  material.  Certain  sub- 
stances that  are  repelled,  and  take  the  equatorial 
position  in  air,  are  attracted  and  set  axially  in 
water ;  and  even  a  solution  of  iron,  magnetic 
in  air,  if  weaker  than  anotlier  solution  in  which 
it  is  immersed,  will  stand  equatorially,  and  act 
as  a  diamagnetic.    In  terming  a  body  magnetic 


or  diamagnetic,  then,  we  mean  that  it  is  such 
with  reference  to  the  medium  in  which  it  is  tried ; 
and  as  this  medium  is  conmionly  air,  in  which 
the  magnetism  of  the  oxygen  dominates  over  the 
opposite  property  of  the  nitrogen,  it  is  evident 
that  some  so-called  diamagnetics  are  only  rela- 
tively such.  With  refez-ence  to  the  theory,  Far- 
aday now  considers  that  the  dianiugnet  is  not 
rendered  polar,  as  is  the  magnet,  but  simply  re- 
pelled. Prof  W.  Thomson  has  supposeil  tho 
diamagnet  to  be  simply  a  body  less  magnetizable 
than  air,  but  still  polar.  In  this  case  it  would 
move  away  for  the  more  magnetic  air,  just  as  in 
gravitation  smoke  makes  way  and  ascends  above 
the  more  strongly  gravitating  cold  air.  Pliicker, 
Tyndall,  and  others  adhere  to  a  modified  form 
of  Prof  Faraday's  earlier  view,  namely,  tliat 
the  diamagnet  is  a  body  susceptible  in  greater  or 
less  degree  of  a  double  polarity  opposite  in  char- 
acter to  the  double  polarity  of  the  magnet ;  or, 
in  the  language  of  Ampere's  theory,  that  as  the 
currents  induced  in  soft  iron  are  parallel  to  the 
currents  in  the  inducing  magnet  or  battery  wire, 
so,  in  bismuth  and  other  diamagnetics,  the  cur- 
rents are  induced  in  contrary  directions,  so  that 
these  bodies  become  inverted  magnets,  and  place 
themselves  across  tho  magnetic  lines  of  force. 

DIAMANTINA,  formerly  Tejuco,  a  city  of 
Brazil,  and  capital  of  the  diamond  district,  situ- 
ated in  a  valley  of  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes, 
at  an  elevation  of  5,Y00  feet  above  the  sea ;  lat. 
18°  28'  S.,  long.  43°  50'  W.;  pop.  about  6,000. 
It  is  built  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  with 
wide,  ill-paved  streets,  and  handsome  churches, 
one  of  which,  belonging  to  negroes  from  the 
coast  of  Africa,  contains  an  image  of  a  black 
Virgin.  Most  of  the  houses  are  surrounded  by 
pleasant  gardens,  and  the  environs  of  the  city 
are  adorned  with  orange  and  banana  trees.  The 
climate  is  mild.  The  inhabitants  are  employed 
chiefly  in  tlie  gold  or  diamond  trade. 

DIAMETER,  a  straight  line  passing  through 
the  centre  of  a  circle,  terminated  at  each  end 
by  the  circumference.  Straight  lines  holding 
an  analogous  relation  to  curves,  such  as  the 
conic  sections,  are  also  called  diameters  of  those 
curves. 

DIAMOND  (from  adamant,  and  this  from 
Gr.  a  privative  and  Sa/xaoj,  to  subdue),  so  named 
on  account  of  its  extreme  hardness  and  inde- 
structibility, a  gem  distinguished  above  all  other 
precious  stones  for  its  brilliant  lustre  and  hard- 
ness. It  is  met  with  in  solid  pieces  of  small 
size  in  alluvial  deposits  which  are  Avorked  for 
gold.  In  a  few  instances  diamonds  have  been 
found  attached  to  loose  pieces  of  brown  hema- 
tite, and  one  was  discovered  in  a  kind  of  con- 
glomerate rock,  composed  of  rounded  silicious 
pebbles,  quartz,  and  chalcedony,  cemented  toge- 
ther by  ferruginous  clay ;  but  no  positive  know- 
ledge is  had  of  the  particular  rock  in  which 
they  originated,  more  than  that  it  is  one  of  those 
belonging  to  the  metamorphic  group,  which  yield 
gold.  In  the  districts  where  they  occur,  a  pe- 
culiar variety  of  light  yellowish  and  white  quartz 
rock,  of  laminated  structure,  called  itacolumite, 


442 


DIAMOND 


is  very  commonly  met  with  in  these  rocks.  It 
is  remarkable  for  its  flexibility,  and  the  peculiar 
manner  in  which  the  long  strips  yield  to  a  slight 
pressure  without  parting,  as  if  broken  in  their 
interior.  It  is  found  in  Brazil,  and  in  Georgia 
and  North  Carolina,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lo- 
calities that  furnished  the  few  diamonds  discov- 
ered in  these  states.  In  the  Golconda  district 
the  diamond  is  found  in  a  black  carboniferous 
boggy  earth,  in  which  the  natives  ^eek  for  it  by 
feeling  with  their  feet.  The  belief  is  current  with 
them  that  in  this  material  it  grows.  In  Brazil 
diamonds  have  been  found  massive,  in  the  form 
of  pebbles.  Their  color  is  black ;  specific  gravity, 
3.012  to  3.41G  ;  composition  carbon,  with  some- 
times 2  per  cent,  foreign  matter.  This  quality  is 
valued  at  75  cents  the  carat  of  4  grains  nearly. 
The  brilliancy  and  indestructibility  of  the  dia- 
mond attracted  attention  to  it  at  very  early 
periods,  and  caused  it  to  be  highly  esteemed  as  a 
gem.  It  was  long  known  in  Asia  before  it  was 
discovered  in  any  other  quarter ;  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  supplies  have  been  from  that  part  of 
the  world.  Indeed,  it  was  not  until  the  early 
part  of  the  last  century  that  diamonds  were 
known  to  exist  elsewhere.  The  mines  of  Brazil 
were  then  discovered,  and  from  ITSO  to  1814, 
according  to  Baron  d'Eschwege,  their  produc- 
tion was  at  the  rate  of  36,000  carats  per  annum. 
After  1814  it  fell  off  greatly;  but  from  1845  to 
1858  there  has  been  an  enormous  increase,  the 
statistics  of  which  have  been  already  furnished 
in  the  article  Brazil.  In  the  gold  region  of  Si- 
beria a  few  have  been  obtained,  and  within  the 
last  20  years  a  few  also  in  that  of  North  Caro- 
lina and  Georgia.  In  Asia,  the  most  noted  lo- 
calities were  the  island  of  Borneo,  Bengal, 
and  the  famous  mines  of  the  kingdom  of  Gol- 
conda in  Hindostan.  The  city  of  this  name  was 
the  repository  of  the  diamonds  collected  in  the 
territory  of  the  kings  of  Golconda.  These  mines, 
celebrated  as  having  produced  some  of  the  most 
valued  precious  stones  in  the  world,  have  for 
some  time  past  been  unproductive,  and  are  not 
now  worked. — The  diamond  is  pure  crystallized 
carbon.  Its  hardness  =  10,  the  highest  number 
of  the  scale ;  but  the  external  coat  is  harder  than 
the  internal  portion,  and  maybe  rated  at  10.5  or 
11.  The  following  are  ascertained  specific  gravi- 
ties of  different  varieties:  Brazilian,  3.444;  Bra- 
zilian yellow,  3.519  ;  oriental,  3.521 ;  oriental 
green,  3.524 ;  oriental  blue,  3.525.  The  primitive 
form  of  the  crystal,  and  that  into  which  the  nu- 
merous secondary  forms  may  be  converted  by 
cleavage,  is  the  regular  octahedron,  consisting  of 
2  four-sided  pyramids  joined  at  their  bases.  The 
faces  of  the  crystals  are  often  rounded  off,  so  as  to 
present  a  convex  surface,  and  the  edges  are  also 
often  curved.  The  cleavage  planes  greatly  facili- 
tate the  cutting  of  the  diamond,  and  also  present 
the  most  brilliant  natural  surfaces.  Some  dia- 
monds found  of  a  spherical  figure  are  deficient  in 
these  planes,  or  they  lie  in  a  concentric  arrange- 
ment which  renders  their  cutting  almost  imprac- 
ticable by  any  known  process.  The  diamond  is 
not  acted  upon  by  acids  or  alkalies,  and  when  pro- 


tected from  the  action  of  the  air  may  be  heated 
to  whiteness  without  injury.  Exposed  to  the 
intense  heat  produced  by  a  powerful  Bunsen's 
battery,  or  by  a  condensed  mixture  of  carbonic 
oxide  and  oxygen  gas,  it  fuses,  and  is  converted 
into  a  mass  resembling  coke,  and  its  specific 
gravity  is  reduced  in  some  cases  to  2.678.  Heat- 
ed in  the  open  air,  it  burns  at  the  temperature 
of  14°  Wedgwood,  or  about  that  of  melting  sil- 
ver, and  is  dissipated  in  the  form  of  carbonic 
acid  gas,  thus  proving  its  composition  to  be  pure 
carbon.  Its  inflammability  was  suspected  by 
Boetius  de  Boodt  in  1607,  and  in  1673  Boyle 
discovered  that  it  was  dissipated  in  vapor  at  a 
high  heat.  Its  combustibility  was  first  X)roved 
by  the  Florentine  philosophers  in  1694,  by  sub- 
jecting the  gem  to  the  solar  rays  concentrated 
in  the  focus  of  the  large  parabolic  reflector  made 
for  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  when  it  burned  with  a 
blue  lambent  flame.  The  experiment  has  been 
several  times  repeated  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy 
with  the  same  speculum,  and  by  Lavoisier,  Mr. 
Tennant,  and  others,  by  different  processes.  Sir 
George  Mackenzie  made  use  of  the  diamond  for 
furnishing  the  carbon  to  convert  iron  into  steel. 
The  property  of  phosphorescence  has  been  at- 
tributed to  the  diamond  after  it  has  been  exposed 
to  a  heat  approaching  redness,  or  to  the  action 
of  the  solar  rays,  especially  the  blue  rays ;  and 
it  has  been  stated  that  when  the  phenomenon 
is  produced  by  the  latter  method  the  effect  con- 
tinues some  time  after  the  stone  is  removed 
from  the  light.  But  this  is  not  confirmed  by  late 
authorities.  Experiments  conducted  through 
several  months  in  1858  at  Messrs.  Tiffany  and 
company's,  of  New  York,  failed  to  develop  any 
save  negative  evidence ;  and  when  they  were 
renewed  in  January,  1859,  for  the  purposes  of 
this  article,  they  were  abruptly  terminated 
through  the  carelessness  of  a  workman,  by  the 
unfortunate  destruction  of  a  valuable  gem  oblig- 
ingly lent  by  them.  In  no  instance  did  any 
symptom  of  phosphorescence  appear;  but  a  re- 
markable increase  in  refraction  was  several 
times  observed,  and  this  appeared  to  be  per- 
manent. The  diamond  possesses  single  or  double 
refraction  according  to  its  different  crystalline 
forms ;  and  it  has  an  extraordinary  power  of  re- 
fracting light,  the  index  of  refraction  being  2.44, 
which  led  Sir  Isaac  Newton  to  suspect  its  in- 
flammable composition.  The  dispersive  quality 
of  diamond  is  high;  its  index  is  equal  to  0.0109. 
Its  refraction  index  (exceeded  only  by  that  of 
chromate  of  lead)  equals  2.439  ;  of  sOme  brown 
stones  it  has  been  observed  to  be  2.470,  2.487, 
and  2.775. — Diamonds  are  found  of  various 
colors,  as  well  as  colorless  and  perfectly  trans- 
parent. The  latter  are  most  esteemed,  and  are 
distinguished  as  diamonds  of  the  first  water 
from  their  semblance  to  a  drop  of  clear  spring 
water.  When  of  a  rose  tint  and  of  clear  water, 
they  are  also  highly  valued.  A  yellow  shade 
is  objectionable,  as  is  a  cinnamon  color,  a  stone 
having  these  rarely  being  clear  and  sound. 
Next  to  the  rose,  a  green  color  is  the  least  ob- 
jectionable; many  very  fine  diamonds  have  this 


DIAMOND 


443 


tint ;  and  some  are  found  of  a  bluish  color,  and 
some  black.    For  the  valuation  of  diamonds 
an   arbitrary  rule   has  been  given,  which   is, 
however,  little  regarded  in  actual  sales  of  the 
most  costly  of  these  gems.    Purchasers  for  such 
,  being  few,  tlie  only  real  rule  adopted,  as  in  the 
sale  of  many  other  commodities,  is  to  demand 
the    highest    price   there   is  the  least  proba- 
bility that  one  may  be  induced  to  pay.     The 
mere  statement  of  the  rule  is  sufficient  to  show 
its  indefiniteness.    It  is  to  multiply  the  square 
of  the  weight  in  carats  by  a  sum  varying  ac- 
cording to  the  state  and  quality  of  the  stone. 
If  clear  and  of  good  shape,  this  sum  is  £2 ;  if 
perfect  and  well  cut,  £6  or  £8  for  the  brilliant  or 
rose,  but  a  lower  figure  for  the  table.   The  rate 
is  now  $15  in  place  of  the  £2  above,  and  a 
specimen  brilliant  is  worth  $75.    For  diamonds 
of  moderate  size  the  rates  vary  as  little  as  those 
of  exchange  between  countries.     They  follow 
from  the  natural  proportions  in  which  diamonds 
are  found.     Diamonds  weighing  over  10  carats 
are  generally  esteemed  at  a  higher  proportional 
rate  than  the  smaller  sizes ;  yet  the  latter  can 
commonly  be  sold  at  higher  proportional  rates, 
on  account  of  the  few  purchasers  for  those  of 
large  size.     In  the  great  sale  of  jewels  in  Lon- 
don in  1837,  on  the  distribution  of  the  Deccan 
booty  obtained  by  the  army  of  the  marquis  of 
Hastings,  the  splendid  Nassuck  diamond,  weigh- 
ing 357i  grains,  and  of  the  jiurest  water,  brought 
only  £7,200.  The  present  value  of  diamonds  may 
be  inferred  from  the  price  paid  in  Dec.  1858,  for 
a  stone  weighing  Gl  carats,  £33,000.    A  pair  of 
drop-shaped  diamonds  for  ear-rings  were  bought 
at  the  same  sale  fur  £15,000.    A  steady  increase 
has  taken  place  since  the  last  century,  and  a  much 
more  rapid  increase  in  the  price  of  fine  gems  is 
to  be  expected,  from  the  increased  demand  and 
diminished  supply.   It  is  an  interesting  fact  that 
the  finest  gems  of  commerce  are  now  in  great 
part  supplied  by  the  old  jewels  of  Portuguese, 
Spanish,  French,  and  English  families,  the  pro- 
portions from  each  nation  in  the  order  named  ; 
and  that  the  best  market  for  them  is  now  the 
United  States. — The  art  of  cutting  and  polishing 
probably  originated  in  Asia,  at  a  very  early  pe- 
riod, but  was  first  introduced  into  Europe  about 
the  middle  of  the  15th  century  by  Louis  Berquen 
of  Bruges,  who  accidentally  discovered  that  by 
rubbing  2  diamonds  together  their  surfaces  might 
be  abraded.   The  powder  obtained  in  this  way  is 
used  for  polishing  the  stone.     Diamond  cutting 
was  for  a  long  time  a  monopoly  in  Holland,  and 
the  business  is  at  the  present  day  mostly  con- 
fined to  Amsterdam.  The  process,  which  consists 
of  grinding  down  the  surfaces  as  well  as  cutting, 
is  slow  and  tedious,  and  being  done  entirely  by 
hand,  occupies  for  a  single  stone  the  continual 
labor  of  monthsj     The  Pitt  diamond  indeed  re- 
quired 2  years  for  the  completion  of  the  process. 
Two  diamonds  are  employed,  each  cemented 
into  the  end  of  a  stick  or  handle,  a  model  in 
lead  being  taken  of  the  one  to  be  cut,  by  which 
the  faces  are  determined.     The  stones  are  then 
rubbed  together  with  a  strong  pressure,  being 


held  over  a  metal  box  having  a  double  bottom, 
the   uijper  one    perfoi-ated   with  sniall  holes, 
tlirough  which  tlie  diamond  dust  falls.    Tliis  is 
afterward  carefully  collected,  mixed  with  vege- 
table oil,  and  used  for  polislung  the  gem  upon  a 
revolving  cast-iron  disk.    "When  a  largo  piece  is 
to  be  removed  from  the  stone,  it  is  sometimes 
cut  off"  by  means  of  a  steel  wire  covered  with 
diamond  powder,  and  sometimes  by  the  use  of  a 
chisel  and  hammer,  though  in  this  way  there  la 
danger  of  destroying  the  stone.     The  workman 
should  understand  perfectly  the  position  of  the 
cleavage  planes,  as  it  is  only  upon  tliem  that 
pieces  can  be  removed  by  the  chisel.   The  forms 
usually  adopted  in  cutting  the  diamond  are  tho 
brilliant,  the  rose,  and  the  table.  .  The  first  shows 
the  gem  to  the  best  advantage.     It  is  composed 
of  a  principal  face  called  the  table,  surrounded 
by  a  number  of  facets,  which  is  all  that  is  visiblo 
above  the  bezil  when  set.    The  stone  in  depth  be- 
low the  bezil  should  be  equal  to  half  its  breadth. 
On  the  under  side  it  terminates  in  a  small  table, 
which  is  connected  with  the  upper  surface  by 
elongated  facets.     As  the  brilliant  is  the  most 
economical  of  material,  and  shows  the  stone  most 
advantageously,  it  is  usually  preferred  to  any 
other.    The  rose,  which  is  very  brilliant,  is  flat 
below  and  cut  into  facets  entirely  over  the  upper 
sm-face.   The  table  is  least  beautiful,  and  is  used 
mostly  in  India  for  thin  stones  Avith  a  large 
surface,  which  are   ornamented  by  being  cut 
into  facets  at  the  edges. — Among  the  most  cel- 
ebrated diamonds  known,  that  obtained  by  Mr. 
Pitt,  governor  of  Madras,  is  perhaps  one  of  the 
finest  and  most  perfect.     It  is  known  as  the  re- 
gent.  Its  w'eight  before  cutting  was  410  carats, 
and  by  this  process,  which  occupied  2  years,  it 
was  reduced  to  136  carats,  and  was  purchased  by 
the  regent  duke  of  Orleans  in  1743  for  $675,000. 
Its  present  value  is  estimated  at  $1,000,000.     It 
was  placed  by  Napoleon  in  the  hilt  of  the  sword 
of  state.    A  splendid  diamond  recently  found  in 
Brazil,  and  imported  into  France,  is  called  tho 
"  Star  of  the  South."  It  weighs  in  its  rough  state 
254^  carats.     Its  general  form  is  a  rhomboidal 
dodecahedron,  and  upon  its  faces  are  impressions 
which  appear  to  have  been  made  by  other  dia- 
monds, so  that  the  whole  was  probably  a  group 
of  diamond  crystals.    The  famous  diamond  in 
possession  of  tiie  king  of  Portugal  is  also  from 
Brazil.  If  genuine,  of  which  there  is  some  doubt, 
its  value,  according  to  the  rule  of  computation, 
should  be  $28,000,000,  weighing  as  it  does  in  the 
rough  1,680  grains. — The  famous  Koh-i-noor  or 
"  Mountain  of  Light"  is  noAV  in  possession  of  the 
queen  of  England.     This  wonderful  stone,  inter- 
esting alike  for  its  historical  associations  and  for 
its  intrinsic  beauty,  was,  according  to  Indian  tra- 
dition, obtained  before  the  Christian  era  from 
one  of  the  mines  of  Golconda.     From  the  rajah 
of  Oojein,  who  seems  to  have  possessed  it  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  it  passed  to  suc- 
cessive sovereigns  of  central  India,  and  in  the 
early  part  of  the  14th  century  was  added  to 
the  treasures  of  Delhi  by  the  Patau  monarch 
Aladdin.     It  remained  in  possession  of  the  rul- 


444 


DIAMOKD 


ing  fiimilies  of  the  empire  until  the  irruption  of 
the  Persian  conqueror  Nadir  Shah,  wlio  saw  it 
glittering  in  the  turban  of  the  vanquished  Mo- 
hammed Shah,  and  proposing  an  exchange  of 
head  dress  as  a  mark  of  friendsliip,  bore  it  away 
with  him,  and  gave  it  the  name  by  which  it  is 
still  known.  After  the  assassination  of  Nadir 
it  passed  through  the  hands  of  Ahmed  Shah  of 
Cabool  to  Shah  Soojah,  who  paid  it  as  the  price 
of  his  liberty  to  his  conqueror  Eunjeet  Singh, 
the  "lion  of  the  Punjaub,"  in  1813.  On  the 
annexation  of  the  Punjaub  to  the  East  India 
company's  territory  in  1849,  it  was  stipulated 
that  the  Koh-i-noor  should  bo  surrendered  to 
the  queen  of  England,  to  whom  it  was  accord- 
ingly delivered  by  the  company,  July  3,  1850. 
At  this  period  its  weight  was  186  carats.  It 
was  exhibited  at  the  crystal  palace  in  London 
in  1851,  where  it  attracted  universal  attention; 
but  when  found  to  exhibit  an  inferior  display  of 
colors  to  its  glass  model,  and  that  it  was  neces- 
sary to  surround  it  with  a  number  of  vivid 
lights  to  develop  its  colored  refractions,  multi- 
tudes turned  away  disappointed  from  the  world- 
renowned  "  Mountain  of  Light,"  An  examina- 
tion was  made  of  it  by  scientific  gentlemen, 
with  reference  to  the  propriety  of  recutting  the 
gem.  After  obtaining  the  opinions  of  skilful 
cutters  at  Amsterdam,  it  was  decided  that  the 
attempt  should  be  made,  though  some  fears 
were  entertained  as  to  its  success.  Being  the 
largest  diamond  cut  in  Europe  for  a  long  time, 
it  was  a  work  of  no  common  interest.  Orders 
were  given  that  the  proper  machinery  should 
be  prepared,  and  a  small  steam  engine  was  pro- 
cured for  the  purpose.  The  duke  of  Wellington 
commenced  the  work.  The  stone  being  im- 
bedded in  lead,  excepting  only  that  portion 
which  was  first  to  be  cut,  he  held  it  firmly 
against  a  rapidly  revolving  wheel,  wliich  by  its 
friction  removed  the  angle  exposed,  and  thus 
the  first  facet  of  the  fresh  cutting  was  accom- 
plished. The  operation  was  continued  and  suc- 
cessfully completed  by  careful  and  experienced 
workmen.  Now,  the  splendid  Koh-i-noor,  freed 
from  all  blemishes  and  defects,  blazes  brilliantly 
among  the  crown  jewels  of  the  sovereign  of 
England. — The  diamond  so  long  in  possession 
of  the  sultan  of  Matan,  of  the  island  of  Borneo, 
is  remarkable  for  its  size  and  purity.  It  weighs 
36T  carats,  and  should  be  worth  at  least  $3,- 
500,000,  It  is  shaped  like  an  egg  with  an  in- 
dented hollow  in  the  smaller  end.  It  was  dis- 
covered at  Landak.  The  Orloff  diamond  pur- 
chased for  the  empress  Catharine  of  Russia  is 
about  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  and  weighs  195 
carats.  It  is  said  to  have  formed  the  eye  of  a 
famous  idol  in  a  temple  of  Brahma  at  Pondi- 
cherry.  A  French  deserter  robbed  the  jjagoda 
of  this  valuable  stone.  After  passing  through 
the  hands  of  various  purchasers,  it  came  into 
the  possession  of  a  Greek  merchant,  who  re- 
ceived for  it  from  the  empress  $450,000,  an 
annuity  of  $20,000,  and  a  title  of  nobility.  The 
Austrian  diamond  is  of  a  beautiful  lemon  color, 
and  cut  in  rose;  its  weight  is  139  carats.    Its 


value  is  less  than  it  would  be  but  for  its  color 
and  the  form  in  which  it  is  cut,  ranking  as  worth 
$500,000  instead  of  $750,000.  The  most  valua- 
ble diamond  found  in  the  United  States  was 
picked  up  by  a  workman  at  Manchester,  on  the 
banks  of  the  James  river,  opposite  Richmond,  iu. 
1856.  The  locality  is  in  the  tertiary  formation, 
and  the  diamond  originally  belonged,  no  doubt, 
to  the  gold  region  up  the  river.  It  is  of  curvi- 
linear octahedral  form,  specific  gravity  3.503, 
and  weighs  23.7  carats.  It  is  lightly  chatoyant, 
and  would  probabl}'  cut  white  ;  but  an  original 
flaw  was  increased  by  the  rough  treatment  it 
received  from  those  into  whose  hands  it  fell,  so 
that  its  value  was  greatly  deteriorated.  It  is 
now  in  possession  of  Prof.  Dewey.  Another 
valuable  diamond,  owned  by  Thomas  G.  Clem- 
son,  Esq.,  was  found  among  the  gold  washings 
of  North  Carolina  about  the  year  1842.  This 
was  of  curvilinear  form,  and  was  set  without 
cutting.  Others  of  less  importance  have  been 
found  in  Georgia. — The  imitation  of  diamonds 
has  been  carried  to  an  astonishing  degree  of 
perfection  among  the  French.  M.  Bourguignon 
has  been  especially  successful  in  this  manufac- 
ture. The  sand  employed  for  the  production 
of  his  splendid  diamonds  is  procured  from  the 
forest  of  Fontainebleau,  and  forms  a  consider- 
able article  of  trade.  The  setting  of  these  mock 
stones  is  always  of  pure  gold,  and  of  the  newest 
fashion,  and  the  ornaments  when  completed 
rival  in  delicacy  and  lustre  the  purest  diamonds 
which  nature  has  produced,  and  only  by  the 
closest  inspection  can  the  dilFerence  be  detect- 
ed. The  chief  objection  to  them  is  their  liabil- 
ity to  become  dull  in  time  by  deliquescence. — 
The  process  of  collecting  diamonds  is  similar  to 
that  of  collecting  gold  in  the  alluvial  deposits. 
The  coarse  gravel  and  rolled  pebbles  derived 
from  the  primary  and  metamorphic  rocks,  form 
the  lowest  stratum  among  the  sands  and  clays 
of  the  alluvium.  This  stratum,  resting  upon 
the  surface  of  the  rock,  is  the  repository  alike 
of  gold  and  of  diamonds.  It  is  laid  bare  in 
the  beds  of  the  streams,  when  these  cease  to 
flow  in  the  dry  season,  or  are  drawn  off"  by 
sluices  made  for  the  purpose.  From  these  beds, 
as  well  as  from  excavations  in  the  bottom,  the 
gravel  is  removed,  to  be  washed  when  conve- 
nient. This  in  Brazil  is  usually  in  the  rainy 
season,  and  the  work  is  done  in  a  long  shed, 
through  which  a  stream  of  Avater  is  conveyed, 
and  admitted  into  boxes  in  which  the  gravel  is 
washed.  A  negro  works  at  each  box,  and  in- 
spectors are  placed  to  watch  the  work,  and  to 
prevent  the  laborers  from  secreting  the  dia- 
monds. It  is  the  custom  to  liberate  the  negro 
who  finds  a  diamond  weighing  17^  carats.  Dr. 
Beke,  in  a  paper  read  at  a  meeting  of  the  Brit- 
ish association,  relates  that  a  slave  in  Brazil 
seeking  for  diamonds  in  the  bed  of  a  river  broke 
with  his  iron  bar  through  a  crust  of  silicious 
materials,  cemented  together  by  oxide  of  iron, 
in  which  he  discovered  a  bed  of  diamonds, 
which  were  afterward  sold  for  $1,500,000.  This 
immense  quantity,  being  carried  to  England,  so 


DIAMOND 


DIAMOND  DISTRICT 


445 


overstocked  the  market  that  few  of  the  English 
houses  were  able  to  stand  up  against  it. — Besido 
their  use  as  ornaments,  diamonds  are  applied 
to  several  practical  purposes.  Those  that  are 
unfit  from  their  imperfections  for  jewelry,  are 
sold  under  the  technical  name  of  bort.  They 
are  cruslied  to  fine  powder  in  a  steel  mortar, 
and  used  for  coating  the  metallic  disks  employ- 
ed by  lapidaries  for  producing  Hat  surfaces  on 
precious  stones  of  great  hardness.  Tiio  fine 
si)linters  are  made  into  drills,  for  piercing  small 
holes  through  rubies  and  other  hard  stones. 
The  property  i)Ossessed  by  the  diamond  of  cut- 
ting glass  is  due  not  merely  to  its  extreme 
hardness,  but  to  the  peculiarity  of  its  crystalli- 
zation in  rounded  foces  and  curvilinear  edges. 
The  natural  crystal  only  is  suitable  for  this  pur- 
pose. According  to  Dr.  WoUaston,  many  hard 
stones,  and  even  flint  cut  in  this  form,  possess  the 
same  property,  but  soon  lose  it  in  use,  for  want 
of  hardness.  Small  microscopes  of  a  single  lens, 
and  of  great  power  and  clearness,  have  been  cut 
out  of  diamonds. — The  diamond  exhibiting  the 
physical  properties  of  matter  in  their  highest 
state  of  perfection,  and  proving  after  all  to  bo 
of  the  simplest  chemical  composition,  it  has 
been  a  matter  of  no  little  scientific  interest  to 
study  the  peculiarities  of  its  construction,  and  to 
determine  if  possible  the  secret  processes  by 
which  nature  has  elaborated  the  most  perfect 
gem  from  so  homely  a  substance  as  charcoal. 
Its  hiigh  value  has  stimulated  these  researches,  in 
the  hope  of  individual  profit  by  its  artificial  pro- 
duction. But  though  more  complicated  forms  of 
matter  have  been  successfully  reproduced,  car- 
bon has  not  yet  been  made  to  attain  the  simple 
perfection  of  the  diamond,  unless  it  be  in  crys- 
tals invisible  to  the  naked  eye ;  nor  have  we  yet 
learned  from  what  department  of  nature's  works 
the  material  has  been  taken,  that  has  been  so 
beautifully  perfected.  The  vegetable  kingdom 
may  have  furnished  it,  after  itself  receiving  it 
from  the  atmosphere,  or  it  may  have  been  un- 
locked from  those  repositoi'ies  of  carbon  shut  up 
from  remote  geological  periods  in  the  carbonic 
acid  of  the  calcareous  rocks,  or  from  such  collec- 
tions of  fossilized  plants  as  are  now  seen  in  vari- 
ous stages  of  change  to  mineral  substance.  But 
if  the  direct  object  of  these  researches  has  not 
been  attained,  the  forces  which  have  acted 
upon  it  to  give  to  it  some  of  its  peculiarities 
have  been  ])artially  determined,  as  also  a  pre- 
vious condition  in  which  it  must  have  existed. 
Sir  David  Brewster,  from  the  exhibition  of 
polarized  light  around  the  minute  and  irregu- 
lar cavities  in  diamonds,  has  concluded  that  the 
substance  has  once  been  in  a  soft  state,  and 
compressed  in  these  parts  by  the  expansive 
action  of  a  gas  or  fluid  contained  in  the  cavities ; 
and  as  various  circumstances  indicate  that  this 
softness  was  not  the  efiect  of  either  solvents  or 
heat,  he  is  of  opinion  that,  like  amber,  the  dia- 
mond is  a  vegetable  substance,  slowly  consoli- 
dated into  a  crystalline  form.  The  nearest  ap- 
proach to  its  reproduction  has  been  in  the  ex- 
periments of  M.  Despretz,  announced  in  the 


year  1853.  By  long  continued  voltaic  action, 
carbon  free  from  every  trace  of  mineral  sub- 
stance, prepared  from  crystallized  sugar  candy, 
was  made  to  deposit  microscopic  crystals  in 
black  octahedrons,  in  colorless  translucent  octa- 
hedrons, and  in  colorless  and  translucent  plates, 
the  whole  of  which  had  the  hardness  of  the 
powder  of  the  diamond,  and  which  disappeared 
in  combustion  without  leaving  any  perceptible 
residue.  Being,  however,  only  in  powder,  it 
■was  impossible  to  isolate  and  weigh  these  crys- 
tals, or  to  determine  their  index  of  refraction 
and  angles  of  polarization.  It  is  said  that  a 
similar  result  has  been  obtained  by  decomi»osing 
a  mixture  of  chloride  of  carbon  and  alcohol  by 
weak  galvanic  currents. — The  principal  English 
works  on  the  subject  are  D.  Jeffrey's  "•  Treatise 
on  Diamonds  and  Pearls"  (8vo.,  London,  iToO) ; 
J.  Mawe's  "Treatise  on  Diamonds  and  Precious 
Stones"  (Bvo.,  London,  182G). 

DIAMOND  DISTRICT,  a  part  of  the  dis- 
trict of  Serro  Frio,  in  the  province  of  Minas  Ge- 
raes,  Brazil,  famous  for  the  production  of  dia- 
monds. It  is  a  mountainous  tract,  not  far  from 
Villa  do  Principe,  extending  about  16  leagues 
from  N.  to  S.  and  8  from  E.  to  ^Y.  The  dia- 
monds were  first  discovered  hero  by  a  company 
of  gold  miners  in  1730.  At  first  they  were  ig- 
norant of  tlie  value  of  the  gems,  and  threw  away 
many  of  them  as  useless.  Others  were  sent  to 
the  governor  of  Brazil,  who  supposed  them  to  be 
curious  crystals.  A  few  of  the  stones  having 
been  carried  to  Lisbon  were  shown  to  the  Dutch 
consul,  Avho  recognized  them  as  diamonds,  and 
had  them  transmitted  to  Holland.  Immense 
numbers  of  the  gems  were  now  exported  from 
Brazil,  and  the  Portuguese  government  soon 
took  measures  to  secure  a  monopoly  of  the  val^ 
uable  trade.  The  district  was  surrounded  by 
lines  of  demarkation,  which  were  guarded  with 
the  utmost  strictness.  No  one  was  permitted  to 
pass  these  in  either  direction  without  a  permit 
from  the  intendant  of  the  mines,  and  travellers 
leaving  the  diamond  ground  were  obliged  to  sub- 
mit to  a  thorough  examination  of  their  persons, 
baggage,  and  horses.  A  peculiar  system  of  po- 
lice was  established  for  the  regulaticm  of  the 
district,  and  stringent  laws  were  passed  to  pro- 
vide for  the  registering  of  the  inhabitants,  the 
admission  of  settlers,  the  erection  of  inns  and 
shops,  and  the  punishment  of  infringements  of 
the  government  monopoly.  The  diamond  mines 
were  at  first  rented  to  private  individuals,  but 
the  frauds  and  violations  of  contract  of  which 
these  persons  were  constantly  guilty  induced 
the  government  to  take  the  matter  into  its  own 
hands,  and  the  mines  were  long  worked  under 
the  direction  of  oflScers  of  the  crown.  The 
precious  stones  are  found  in  a  kind  of  gravel, 
called  cascalhuo,  which  is  dug  up  and  removed 
to  a  convenient  place  for  washing.  A  shed, 
about  25  or  30  yards  long  and  15  wide,  consist- 
ing simply  of  upright  posts  and  a  thatched 
roof,  is  erected  over  the  spot  where  the  heaps 
of  cascalhao  are  to  be  deposited.  Through  the 
centre  of  this  shed  is  conducted  a  stream  of 


446 


DIAMOND  HARBOR 


DIAPHORETICS 


water,  on  one  side  of  which  is  a  ranpe  of  sloping 
troughs,  each  about  3  feet  wide,  and  communi- 
cating with  the  stream  at  the  upper  end.  Op- 
posite to  the  troughs  are  high  chairs  placed  at 
equal  distances  for  the  overseers,  or  feitores. 
A  slave  stations  himself  in  each  trough,  and  with 
a  short-handled  rake  draws  up  a  pile  of  50  or 
80  pounds  of  cascalhao.  He  lets  in  water  upon 
this,  to  wash  away  the  earthy  particles,  and 
after  throwing  out  the  largest  stones,  examines 
the  rest  with  great  care  for  diamonds.  As  soon 
as  he  finds  one,  he  stands  upright,  claps  his 
hands,  and  holding  it  between  his  finger  and 
thumb  shows  it  to  the  overseer,  who  receives 
it  from  him,  and  places  it  in  a  bowl  half  full  of 
water,  suspended  from  the  centre  of  the  struc- 
ture. The  mines  are  now  open  to  all  who 
choose  to  invest  their  capital  in  them,  and  the 
cost  of  working  them  has  been  estimated  at 
about  $8  per  carat.  They  give  employment  and 
support  to  about  10,000  persons. 

DIAMOND  HARBOR,  a  roadstead  in  the 
river  Hoogly,  presidency  of  Bengal,  British  In- 
dia, 29  m.  below  Calcutta.  It  was  the  first 
place  in  Bengal  acquired  by  the  East  India 
company,  and  is  now  a  shipping  depot.  The 
climate  is  very  unhealthy;  the  neighboring 
swamps  exhale  the  most  noxious  vapors,  and 
the  night  dews  are  remarkably  heavy.  An  ex- 
cellent road  and  an  electric  telegraph  connect 
the  place  with  Calcutta. 

DIANA,  an  ancient  Italian  divinity,  identified 
by  the  Romans  with  the  Artemis  of  the  Greeks. 
Servius  Tullius  is  said  to  have  introduced  her 
worship  at  Rome,  dedicating  to  her  a  temple  on 
thoAventine.  As  goddess  of  light  she  represent- 
ed the  moon.  The  root  of  her  name  seems  to  bo 
the  same  as  that  of  the  word  dies.  In  images 
and  legends  of  a  later  period  she  fully  answers 
to  the  Grecian  Artemis.     (See  Artemis.) 

DIANA  OF  Poitiers,  duchess  of  Valentinois, 
mistress  of  Henrv  II.  of  France,  born  Sept.  3, 
1499,  died  in  Anet,  April  22,  1566.  She  was 
maid  of  honor  to  Queen  Claude,  and  when  her  fii- 
ther,  the  count  of  St.  Vallier,  had  been  condemn- 
ed to  death  for  favoring  the  escape  of  the  consta- 
ble Bourbon,  she  so  touched  the  heart  of  the  sus- 
ceptible Francis  I.  by  her  tears  and  beauty,  that 
the  punishment  was  commuted.  At  the  age  of 
13  she  became  the  wife  of  Louis  de  Breze,  count 
of  Maulevrier,  by  whom  she  had  2  daughters. 
In  1531  her  husband  died,  and  Diana,  putting 
on  a  widow's  weeds,  expressed  a  resolve  to  wear 
them  to  her  grave ;  but  this  did  not  prevent  her 
when  nearly  40  years  old  from  becoming  the 
mistress  of  the  dauphin,  afterward  Henry  II. 
The  duchess  of  Etampes  then  possessed  the  af- 
fections of  Francis  I.,  and  the  2  favorites  divided 
the  court  until  the  accession  of  the  dauphin, 
when  Diana's  rival  was  sent  into  exile.  Diana 
now  became  almost  mistress  of  the  kingdom. 
The  beauty  and  accomplishments  of  the  young 
queen,  Catharine  de'  Medici,  could  not  prevail 
against  her  infiuence.  The  king  delighted  in 
giving  public  tokens  of  his  infatuation,  and  not 
content  with  wearing  her  colors  and  blazoning 


the  palaces  and publicbuildingswithheremblems 
and  devices,  he  admitted  her  to  his  councils,  and 
in  1548  created  her  duchess  of  Valentinois.  She 
retained  her  ascendency  until  Henry's  death  in 
1559,  when  she  retired  to  the  palace  built  for  her 
by  her  royal  lover  at  Anet ;  but  in  1561  she  was 
recalled  by  Catharine  de'  Medici  to  exert  her  in- 
fluence in  detaching  the  constable  de  Montmo- 
rency from  the  Chatillons.  From  that  time  until 
her  death  she  remained  in  retirement,  retaining 
her  personal  charms,  of  which  she  had  always 
taken  the  most  extraordinary  care,  to  the  last. 
Her  power  over  the  king,  even  when  she  had 
reached  the  ripe  age  of  60,  was  due  no  less  to 
her  beauty  than  to  her  intellectual  gifts.  She 
seldom  made  a  bad  use  of  her  position,  and  she 
spent  large  sums  in  charity. 

DIAPASON  (Gr.  8ta,  through,  and  Tra?,  all), 
a  term  employed  by  the  old  Greek  and  Latin 
musicians  to  denote  the  scale  or  octave.  Mod- 
ern musicians  sometimes  employ  it  in  a  similar 
manner.  The  diapason  stops  of  an  organ  are 
so  called  because  they  run  through  the  whole 
register  of  the  keyboard. 

DIAPER,  a  linen  fabric,  said  to  have  been 
originally  made  at  Ypres  in  Belgium,  and  hence 
known  as  d'Ypres,  whence  its  present  name.  It 
is  distinguished  by  its  flowered  patterns,  and 
sometimes  resembles  damask.  It  is  largely 
manufactured  for  napkins,  table-cloths,  &c.  Ire- 
land, Germany,  and  Scotland  especially  produce 
excellent  qualities  of  the  article. 

DIAPHORETICS,  or  Sudorifics  (Gr.  Siac^f- 
pew,  to  carry  through),  stimulant  medicines, 
which  increase  the  cutaneous  transpiration.  In 
this  class  were  formerly  included  many  sub- 
stances, especially  the  mints  and  similar  plants, 
which  are  only  diaphoretic  in  virtue  of  the 
abundant,  warm,  and  watery  infusion  in  which 
they  are  administered.  There  are,  however, 
certain  substances,  vegetable  and  mineral,  which 
exert  a  special  action  upon  the  skin,  stimu- 
lating the  sudoriferous  glands,  and  eliminated 
by  the  cutaneous  surface.  Warm  water  is  an 
excellent  diaphoretic,  either  simple  or  in  the 
form  of  the  many  domestic  herb  teas ;  the  va- 
por and  warm  baths  are  effectual  and  natural 
stimulators  of  the  skin  ;  the  cold  bath,  and  the 
various  applications  of  the  hydrotherapic  meth- 
od, are  sure  but  disagreeable  and  often  danger- 
ous sudorifics.  Among  vegetable  remedies  of 
this  class  are  aconite,  opium  (alone  or  combined 
in  the  form  of  Dover's  powder),  dulcamara, 
guaiacum,  sarsaparilla,  mezereon,  and  squill.  At 
the  head  of  the  mineral  diaphoretics  stand  the 
antimonials ;  others  are  sulphur  and  the  prep- 
arations of  ammonia.  The  ethers,  especially  the 
nitrous,  are  powerfully  diaphoretic  wlien  the 
surface  is  kept  warmly  covered.  Indeed,  many 
of  the  so-called  diaphoretics,  if  the  body  be  not 
kept  warm,  act  as  diuretics,  increasing  the  uri- 
nary secretion ;  and  almost  any  stimulating  med- 
icine will  increase  the  secretion  of  the  skin,  if 
the  surface  bo  warmed  or  prevented  from  losing 
its  heat  by  evaporation.  Deficient  action  in 
the  skin  is  seen  in  a  great  variety  of  complaints, 


DIAPHRAGM 


DIARBEKIR 


447 


and  in  certain  Btages  of  almost  all  fevers,  and 
the  choice  of  the  proper  remedy  to  stimulate  its 
action  often  requires  the  highest  skill  of  the 
physician.  Diaphoretics  are  employed  to  most 
advantage  in  chronic  diseases  of  the  skin,  in 
gout  and  rheumatism,  syphilis,  dropsy,  and 
catarrhal  affections.  When  we  consider  the 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  and  azotized  matters 
thrown  oft'  by  the  skin,  in  its  vicarious  and  al- 
ternating performance  of  the  offices  of  the  lungs 
and  kidneys,  we  can  understand  how  necessary 
it  is  to  keep  this  surface  in  a  healthy  condition. 
The  skin  is  a  most  important  respiratory  organ, 
and  will  keep  up  the  standard  of  animal  heat 
when  the  lungs  are  almost  destroyed  as  aerating 
organs,  giving  a  niost  valuable  therapeutic  in- 
dication in  the  treatment  of  pulmonary  affec- 
tions. According  to  Mr.  Wilson,  the  total  num- 
ber of  pores  of  the  sudoriferous  glands  on  tlie 
surface  of  the  human  body  is  about  7,000,000, 
and  the  length  of  the  perspiratory  tubing  con- 
nected therewith  nearly  28  miles.  Such  an  ex- 
tensive system  as  this  cannot  be  neglected  in 
disease  with  impunity,  and  the  medicines  which 
can  stimulate  it,  when  depressed  or  obstructed, 
must  be  among  the  most  useful  in  the  materia 
medica.  It  is  highly  probable  that,  in  many 
forms  of  fever,  the  suppression  of  the  perspira- 
tion is  the  cause  of  the  disordered  vascular 
action ;  and  that  deficient  action  of  the  cutane- 
ous glandulfB,  from  want  of  exercise  and  inat- 
tention to  cleanliness,  is  a  frequent  source  of 
disease,  from  the  accumulation  in  the  blood  of 
decomposing  organic  matter  who^  natural  out- 
let is  the  skin.  The  cutaneous  surface  seems  to 
be  the  natural  channel  for  the  elimination  of 
many  morbid  products,  and  the  use  of  diapho- 
retics to  be  the  only  rational  method  of  remov- 
ing such  from  the  system.  The  experience  of 
physicians  in  tropical  climates  shows  that  the 
great  art  of  preserving  liealth  there  consists  in 
attention  to  the  regular  performance  of  the  cu- 
taneous functions,  and  that  the  adynamic  fevers 
of  those  unhealthy  regions  are  best  treated  by 
active  diaphoretics, 

DIAPHRAGM,  the  transverse  muscle  which 
separates  the  thoracic  from  the  abdominal  cav- 
ity in  mammalian  vertebrates.  It  is  flattened 
in  shape,  nearly  circular,  fleshy  at  the  edges, 
tendinous  in  the  centre,  elongated,  and  ending 
in  a  point  behind.  In  front  it  is  attached  to 
tlie  ensiform  cartilage  of  the  breast  bone,  on  the 
sides  to  the  posterior  surface  of  the  last  6  ribs, 
behind  to  the  transverse  process  of  the  1st  lum- 
bar vertebra  and  to  the  bodies  of  the  first  3 
vertebrae  of  the  loins  by  tendinous  slips;  the 
fleshy  fibres  of  the  last  form  the  pillars  of  the 
diapliragm,  and  their  fasciculi  cross  each  other 
in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  2  openings,  one  supe- 
rior and  most  anterior,  giving  passage  to  the 
oesophagus  and  par  vagum  nerve,  the  other  in- 
ferior and  more  to  the  left,  for  the  passage  of 
the  aorta,  thoracic  duct,  and  vena  azygos  ;  the 
tendinous  centre  has  been  compared  to  a  leaf  of 
clover.  Between  the  middle  and  right  portion 
of  the  tendinous  centre  is  the  opening  for  the 


passage  of  the  inferior  vena  cava.  The  dia- 
phragm is  in  relation,  above,  with  the  pericar- 
dium in  the  middle,  and  with  the  pleune,  base 
of  tlie  lungs,  and  walls  of  tlie  chest  on  the  sides ; 
below,  with  the  aorta  in  the  middle,  the  kid- 
neys, renal  capsules,  pancreas,  and  duodenum ; 
on  tlie  right  side  with  the  liver,  and  on  the  left 
with  the  stomach  and  spleen.  The  direction  of 
the  posterior  fibres  is  nearly  vertical ;  all  the 
others  converge  toward  the  tendinous  centre. 
The  diaphragm  is  the  great  muscle  of  respira- 
tion ;  when  it  contracts,  its  upward  convexity 
becomes  a  plane  surface,  the  cavity  of  the  chest 
is  enlarged,  and  air  rushes  in  to  expand  the 
lungs  during  the  act  of  inspiration ;  when  forci- 
bly contracted,  it  may  act  as  an  assistant  to  the 
abdominal  expiratoi-y  muscles  by  diminishing 
the  size  of  the  base  of  the  chest ;  by  its  action 
on  the  abdominal  viscera  it  aids  in  the  expul- 
sion of  faeces  and  urine ;  in  ordinarily  tranquil 
breathing  the  diaphragm  is  sufficient  for  the 
performance  of  the  function.  In  animals  the 
extent  and  position  of  the  diaphragm  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  the  ribs ;  in  those 
whose  ribs  extend  nearly  to  the  pelvis,  as  in 
the  horse,  the  thoracic  convexity  of  the  dia- 
phragm is  much  greater  than  in  man.  This 
important  muscle  is  liable  to  malformations, 
wounds,  and  morbid  conditions;  its  total  ab- 
sence is  incompatible  with  any  other  than  intra- 
uterine life,  as  aerial  respiration  would  be  im- 
possible ;  its  partial  absence,  like  dilatation  of  its 
natural  openings,  or  laceration  of  its  fibres,  is  ac- 
companied by  the  passage  of  more  or  less  of  the 
abdominal  viscera  into  the  chest,  impeding  the 
action  of  the  heart,  lungs,  and  digestive  organs ; 
in  such  cases,  the  liver,  stomach,  omentum,  ile- 
um, csecum,  and  part  of  the  colon,  have  been 
found  above  the  diaphragm.  This  partition  is 
also  liable  to  penetrating  wounds,  and  to  rup- 
ture from  external  violence,  the  latter  being  the 
most  dangerous ;  in  either  case,  nature  alone 
can  remedy  the  evil.  It  is  sometimes  inflamed, 
and  in  the  rheumatic  diathesis  is  tlie  seat  of  the 
most  acute  pain,  increased  by  every  respiratory 
act,  and  forcing  the  patient  to  breathe  almost 
entirely  by  means  of  the  abdominal  muscles. 
Spasmodic  contractions  are  familiarly  known  by 
the  phenomenon  of  hiccough ;  this  is  sometimes 
merely  a  nervous  affection,  and  at  otliers  is  a 
symptom  of  peritonitis,  strangulated  hernia, 
and  other  abdominal  diseases.  Paralysis  of  the 
diaphragm  is  speedily  fatal,  from  the  suspension 
of  respiration. 

DIARBEKIR,  Diyar-Bekr,  or  Diaebeke, 
a  town  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  formerly  capital  of 
an  ancient  pashalic  of  the  same  name,  on  a 
rocky  eminence  a  short  distance  from  the  right 
bank  of  the  river  Tigris,  in  lat.  37°  55'  30"  N., 
long,  39°  52'  E.  A  fertile  and  .well  cultivated 
plain  surrounds  the  city,  which  is  encompassed 
by  walls  pierced  by  4  gates,  and  surmounted  by 
many  towers.  In  the  K.  E.  portion  of  the  town 
are  the  ruins  of  the  citadel,  formerly  the  resi- 
dence of  the  pasha.  The  town  was  once  a  very 
flourishing  place,  and  contained,  it  is  said,  200,- 


448 


DIAI^vRHCEA 


DIAS 


000  inhabitants;  but  owing  to  the  predatory 
disposition  of  tlie  Koords,  who  by  tlieir  attacks 
have  rendered  unsafe  the  intercourse  with  Bag- 
dad and  Aleppo,  its  prosperity  has  declined,  and 
it  now  contains  no  more  than  40,000  inhabitants, 
the  greater  part  Turkish,  the  rest  mostly  Ar- 
menian. Some  trade  is,  however,  carried  on 
with  Aleppo,  and  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and 
silk  goods,  though  much  diminished,  is  still  con- 
tinued. The  streets,  like  those  of  other  eastern 
cities,  are  narrow  and  dirty,  and  most  of  the 
houses  are  constructed  of  rough  stone  covered 
with  a  i)laster  composed  of  mud  and  straw. 
The  town  contains  many  mosques,  an  Armeni- 
an cathedral  and  other  Christian  churches,  nu- 
merous baths,  caravansaries,  and  bazaars,  and 
is  w^ell  supplied  with  water,  which  is  introduced 
by  a  fine  aqueduct,  and  distributed  through  the 
city  in  numerous  stone  fountains.  The  walls  are 
built  of  a  dark-colored  basalt,  quarried  in  the 
neighborhood,  aud  many  of  the  principal  build- 
ings of  the  city  are  constructed  of  the  same  ma- 
terial, w'hence  the  Turks  call  the  place  Kara 
Amid,  or  Black  Amid;  Amida  being  the  an- 
cient name  of  the  town.  A  British  consul  re- 
sides here. 

DIARRHCEA  (Gr.  Siappeco,  to  flow  through), 
a  disease  characterized  by  the  occurrence  of 
frequent,  loose,  alvine  discharges.  In  a  proper 
system  of  nosology  diarrhoea  would  scarce  find  a 
place;  it  is  a  symptom  rather  than  a  disease,  and 
is  produced  by  a  number  of  different  patholo- 
gical conditions.  It  is  present  in  the  course  of 
typhoid  fever,  is  a  frequent  accompaniment  of 
phthisis,  aud  is  sometimes  an  attendant  upon 
albuminuria  and  other  forms  of  blood  poisoning; 
it  is  caused  by  inflammation  and  ulceration  of 
the  bowels.  Those  slighter  forms  of  the  com- 
plaint only  will  be  noticed  here  which  are  inde- 
pendent of  constitutional  causes,  aud  which  are 
produced  by  a  temporary  irritation  or  sub-in- 
flammation of  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane. 
Diarrha^a  is  often  caused  by  the  use  of  crude  and 
indigestible  food,  or  even  by  food  ordinarily 
wholesome  taken  in  too  great  quantity  or  va- 
riety. Fruit,  particularly  when  acid  and  unripe, 
uncooked  vegetables,  as  cucumbers  and  salads, 
food  in  a  state  of  incipient  decomposition,  the 
flesh  of  immature  animals,  as  young  veal,  &c., 
are  all  liable  to  act  upon  the  bowels.  Certain 
articles,  as  mushrooms,  shellfish,  the  richer  va- 
rieties of  ordinary  fish,  as  salmon,  from  pecu- 
liarity of  habit  disagree  with  particular  indi- 
viduals and  produce  diarrhoja.  The  same  is 
true  of  a  total  change  of  diet ;  food  pei'fectly 
wholesome  to  those  accustomed  to  it,  and  the 
water  used  habitually  in  certain  districts  of 
country,  often  cause  bowel  complaints  in  the 
stranger.  Emotions  of  the  mind,  particularly 
grief  and  anger,  in  some  p'ersons  promptly  occa- 
sion an  attack  of  diarrhoea ;  others  are  atfected 
in  the  same  way  by  sudden  changes  of  temper- 
ature, wet  feet,  or  exposure  to  cold.  Where 
diarrhoja  is  caused  by  the  ingestion  of  food  ren- 
dered irritating  by  its  quantity  or  quality,  the 
purging  itself  soon  removes  the  cause  of  irrita- 


tion and  the  diarrhoea  ceases;  if  this  should  not 
be  the  case,  a  moderate  opiate  or  an  anodyne 
combined  AvitTi  an  astringent  are  all  that  will  be 
found  necessary.  When  diarrhaja  is  dependent 
on  exposure  to  cold,  a  bland,  unirritating  diet, 
the  warm  bath,  and  the  use  of  opium  or  of  opium 
and  ipecacuanha  in  small  doses,  may  be  had  re- 
course to  ;  in  such  cases  the  patient  is  generally 
benefited  by  wearing  a  flannel  bandage  around 
the  abdomen. — Young  infants  at  the  breast 
sometimes  suflfer  from  bowel  complaint ;  here 
it  is  commonly  caused  by  over-feeding.  Ordi- 
narily nature  provides  against  this  by  the  facil- 
ity with  which  the  infant  vomits;  the  stomach 
frees  itself  from  the  excess  of  food,  and  no  mis- 
chief is  done;  but  when  the  infant  does  not 
vomit,  diarrhoea  is  caused,  and  undigested  curd 
is  present  in  large  quantity  in  the  evacuations. 
The  obvious  remedy  is  a  prolongation  of  the 
intervals  at  which  the  child  is  suckled.  During 
dentition  in  infants,  from  the  large  quantity  of 
blood  sent  to  the  digestive  organs,  and  the  rapid 
evolution  which  they  are  undergoing,  the  bowelg 
are  irritable,  and  diarrhoea  often  supervenes; 
this  is  best  guarded  against  by  care  in  the  diet 
and  a  proper  observance  of  hygienic  regulations. 
The  severer  forms  of  the  complaint  which  occur 
in  large  cities,  from  the  combined  eflfect  of  an 
impure  atmosphere  and  the  excessive  heat  of 
our  summers,  are  spoken  of  under  the  head  of 
CnoLEKA  Infantum. 

DIAS,  A.  GoNgALTEz,  a  Brazilian  poet,  born 
in  Caxias,  Aug.  10,  1823.  lie  was  educated  in 
Portugal,  and»  returning  to  his  native  country, 
published  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  184G  a  volume 
of  poems  entitled  Primeiros  cantos,  which  was 
followed  by  his  drama  of  Leonor  de  MendonQa 
(1847),  Scgundos  cantos  (1848),  and  Ulthnos 
cantos  (1850).  In  1848  he  was  chosen  profes- 
sor of  national  history  in  the  college  of  Don 
Pedro  II. ;  in  1850  he  was  sent  on  a  scientific 
mission  to  the  provinces  bordering  on  the  Aina; 
zon  ;  on  his  return  he  was  employed  in  the  oflSce 
of  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  in  1855  was 
charged  with  a  scientific  mission  to  Europe.  His 
poetry  is  exceedingly  popular  in  Brazil. 

DIAS,  Baktholomeo,  a  Portuguese  naviga- 
tor, born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  15tli  centur}-, 
lost  in  a  storm  at  sea.  May  29,  1500,  while  on 
his  w'ay  from  Brazil  to  India.  In  1486  he  sail- 
ed on  an  expedition  to  explore  the  W.  coast  of 
Africa,  and  without  knowing  it  "vvas  carried 
around  the  southern  point  of  the  continent  and 
landed  at  the  mouth  of  Great  Fish  river,  where 
he  discovered  that  he  was  on  the  E.  coast.  The 
stormy  cape  he  called  Cabo  Tormentoso,  a  name 
which  the  king  of  Portugal  changed  into  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  Dias  subsequently  sailed  on  an- 
other African  expedition  under  Vasco  da  Gama, 
and  he  commanded  one  of  the  vessels  in  the  fleet 
with  which  Cabral  discovered  Brazil.  It  was 
on  this  expedition  that  he  perished. 

DIAS,  IIeneique,  a  Brazilian  general,  born  at 
Pernambuco  at  the  beginning,  died  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  17th  century.  He  was  a  freed  negro, 
who  by  his  superior  attainments  rose  in  1C39  to 


DIASTASE 


DIATHERMANCY 


449 


the  supreme  command  of  the  colored  soldiery 
of  the  Brazilian  army.  He  took  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  protracted  warfare  which  finally  led 
to  the  overthrow  of  Dutch  supremacy  in  Brazil. 

DIASTASE  (Gr.  Su(rr7;/xi,  to  separate).  When 
the  grain  of  wheat,  oats,  or  barley  begins  to 
germinate,  there  is  formed  at  the  base  of  the 
sprout  a  peculiar  nitrogenous  compound,  very 
soluble  in  water,  called  diastase,  the  exact  com- 
position of  which  has  never  been  determined. 
It  is  also  found  in  the  germ  of  the  potato. 
It  seems  to  be  gluten  in  an  altered  form.  By 
the  action  of  this  substance  and  of  acetic  acid, 
which  also  now  first  appears  in  the  seed,  the 
mncilap:inou3  substance  called  dextrine,  formed 
from  the  starch  of  the  grain,  is  converted  into 
starch  sugar.  This  by  fermentation  passes  into 
alcohol.  It  is  therefore  an  essential  element  for 
the  process  of  brewing.  It  may  be  obtained  by 
digesting  bruised  barley  malt  with  a  little  cold 
water,  then  expressing  it  through  cloth.  The 
liquor  is  then  treated  with  sufficient  alcohol  to 
destroy  its  viscidity  and  cause  the  albumen  to 
separate.  This  is  removed  by  filtration.  An 
additional  quantity  of  alcohol  then  throws  down 
the  diastase  in  an  impure  state.  It  is  redissolved 
in  water  and  again  precipitated  with  alcohol. 
"When  separated  and  dried,  it  is  a  white,  taste- 
less, solid  substance,  without  action  upon  gum 
or  sugar,  but  capable  at  a  temperature  of  160° 
of  converting  starcli  suspended  in  water  into 
dextrine,  and  this  into  grape  sugar.  One  part 
of  dextrine,  it  is  found,  is  sufficient  to  cause 
2,000  parts  of  starch  to  undergo  this  chansj^e. 

DIATHERMAI^CY  and  ATIIERMA'NCY. 
The  various  dispositions  of  light  entering  the 
substance  of  different  bodies  are  familiar. 
Some  bodies,  extinguishing  the  light,  are  term- 
ed opaque  ;  others,  through  which  it  passes 
without  sensible  diminution,  transparent,  or 
diaphanous;  but  in  most  media  both  diapha- 
neity and  extinction  occur,  in  degree.  Results 
entirely  similar  are  now  found  to  hold  in  the 
case  of  heat.  All  may  observe  that  the  sun- 
beams after  passing  through  the  air  or  through 
window  glass  are  still  very  sensibly  warm, 
wlule  the  glass  and  the  air  may  remain  at  the 
same  time  in  a  great  degree  unwarmed.  By 
a  double  convex  lens  of  ice,  the  heat  of  the  solar 
beam  has  been  brought  to  a  focus,  and  gun- 
powder and  other  combustibles  fired,  while  the 
ice  itself  remained  quite  unaffected  by  the 
heat  passing  through  it.  A  pane  of  glass  held 
before  a  fire,  however,  stops  the  transmission 
of  the  heat  strilcing  it,  and  becomes  warmed. 
From  these  facts,  we  conclude  that  from  sources 
of  heat  there  proceed  outward  on  all  sides  rays 
of  heat,  just  as  from  luminous  bodies  we  have 
light  rays ;  moreover,  that  there  are  media,  as 
the  air,  whicli  transmit  heat  rays  freely,  while 
others  arrest  (or,  as  it  is  often  with  doubtful 
propriety  plnvased,  absorb)  these  rays;  still  a 
third  class  of  bodies  both  transmitting  and 
arresting  portions  of  thera.  Bodies  of  the  first 
of  these  classes  are  termed  diathermanous ; 
those  of  the  second,  athermanous ;  those  of  the 
VOL.  VI. — 29 


third  are  imperfectly  diathermanous.  These 
subjects  were  first  investigated  in  1811-'12,  by 
M.  Prevost  of  Geneva,  and  M.  de  la  Roche  in 
France,  but  our  knowledge  of  them  is  mainly 
due  to  M.  Melloni,  who  began  in  1832  a  series 
of  remarkable  investigations,  which  won  for 
him  from  M.  de  la  Rive  the  title  of  "  the  New- 
ton of  heat."  These  researches,  determining 
as  they  did  the  transmission  of  an  invisible 
agent,  heat,  and  often  in  degrees  far  too  feeble 
to  be  detected  by  the  nicest  sensibility  of  the 
hand  or  by  the  ordinary  means,  would  have 
been  impossible  but  for  the  invention,  by  Nobili 
and  Melloni,  of  a  new  thermoscopic  apparatus, 
consisting  of  a  thermo-electric  pile  connected 
with  a  highly  sensitive  galvanometer ;  the  del- 
icacy of  the  arrangement  being  such  that  if, 
in  a  room  at  ordinary  temperatures,  the  human 
hand  were  presented  in  a  line  with  the  appa- 
ratus and  at  the  distance  of  several  feet,  the 
heat  radiating  from  the  hand  would  cause  the 
needle  to  be  sensibly  deflected.  Some  of  the 
results  discovered  with  the  aid  of  this  appa- 
ratus will  be  briefly  stated.  A  plate  or  crystal 
of  rock  salt,  even  if  an  inch  in  thickness,  was 
found,  after  diminishing  the  incident  heat  7.7 
per  cent,  by  reflection,  to  transmit  the  en- 
tire remainder  ;  this  body,  only,  arrested  within 
its  substance  no  sensible  portion  of  the  heat 
rays.  Hence,  rock  salt  has  been  styled  the 
true  glass  for  heat;  and  its  permeability  by 
heat  exceeds  even  that  of  glass  by  light. 
Smoked,  or  coated  with  soot,  so  as  to  be  quite 
opaque,  this  body  still  allowed  many  of  the 
heat  rays  to  pass  through  it ;  and  the  same 
was  true  of  smoked  quartz  and  black  glass.  But 
citric  acid,  alum  water,  and  limpid  candj',  al- 
though quite  transparent,  almost  totally  arrest- 
ed the  heat  of  the  sun,  of  a  flame  or  other  source 
of  intense  heat,  while  they  cut  o1S  entirely  the 
rays  from  bodies  raised  to  about  red  heat,  and 
of  all  temperatures  below.  Bodies  are  not, 
therefore,  diathermanous  in  proportion  as  they 
are  transparent.  But  the  amount  of  trans- 
mission of  heat  rays  is  found  to  depend  oa 
at  least  4  particulars:  1,  the  nature  of  the 
source  of  heat;  2,  the  intensity  of  heat  of 
the  source ;  3,  the  nature  of  the  medium  ;  and 
4,  its  thickness.  Solar  heat  has  the  greatest 
penetrating  power ;  that  of  bodies  in  an  in- 
candescent state  passes  through  the  same  me- 
dium in  greater  quantity  than  that  of  bodies  at 
a  dark  heat ;  while  of  the  heat  of  naked  flame 
rock  salt  transmits  92.3  per  cent.,  Iceland  spar 
passes  39,  white  topaz  33,  and  alum  9  per  cent. ; 
and  up  to  a  certain  thickness  in  every  case,  the 
amount  transmitted  diminishes  with  increase 
of  thickness  of  the  medium.  Beyond  a  certain 
increase  of  the  number  or  thickness  of  the 
plates,  however,  the  diminution  of  heat  ceases. 
The  heat  rays  that  can  get  through  the  first  half 
inch  or  inch  of  glass,  for  example,  will  then  go  on 
undiminished  through  a  much  greater  distance ; 
60  that  it  seems  that  certain  heat  rays  are  sift- 
ed out  by  each  medium,  as  being  incapable  of 
moving  through  it  with  freedom ;  the  others 


450 


DIATOMACE^ 


then  pass  on.  If,  again,  the  heat  heam  which 
suffers  uo  more  loss  hy  going  tln-ough  glass  bo 
now  received  in  rock  crystal,  in  the  first  part 
of  this  medium  it  suffers  a  remarkable  diminu- 
tion ;  other  rays  are  sifted  out,  and  a  diminish- 
ed beam  passes.  The  same  thing  happens  with 
light  in  colored  media.  The  sunbeam  in  going 
through  a  certain  depth  of  a  red  glass  or  solu- 
tion has  its  bluish  green  rays  sifted  out  and  ex- 
tinguished ;  the  remainder,  on  being  passed  into 
a  bluish  green  medium,  is  lost  in  like  manner ; 
a  feeble  beam  only  escapes,  or  none  at  all.  llence, 
the  heat  beam,  like  the  beam  of  light,  is  regard- 
ed as  a  sheaf  of  heat  rays  of  varying  degrees 
of  refrangibilit}' ;  or  Ave  have  a  true  heat  spec- 
trum. Dark  and  feeble  sources  of  heat,  it  is 
found,  emit  rays  analogous  to  blue  and  violet 
rays  of  light  (Whewell),  and  highly  luminous 
sources  such  as  are  analogous  to  yellow  and  red 
rays.  The  former,  however,  are  proved  to  be 
the  less  refrangible  heat  rays ;  so  that  it  is  the 
more  refrangible  heat  rays  which  are  the  more 
transmissible.  This  department  of  the  subject 
has  received  the  name  of  thermochrosy,  or 
heat  coloration.  In  this  view,  then,  rock  salt 
is  a  body  (juite  colorless  to  heat ;  while  alum, 
water,  and  some  other  transparent  bodies,  are 
nearly  heat-black.  The  true  heat  color  of 
water,  however,  is  dark  red,  since  the  feAV  rays 
it  transmits  are  of  the  more  refrangible  class  ; 
and  if  this  beam  be  received  in  a  glass  tinged 
green  with  copper,  and  the  heat  color  of  which 
may  he  considered  blue,  the  remaining  rays 
are  lost;  the  heat  beam  is  entirely  arrested, 
though  a  greenish  light  still  passes.  This  com- 
bination is  then,  apparently,  a  total  black  for 
heat.  Where  it  is  required  to  admit  light  with- 
out heat,  therefore,  this  combination,  or,  as  or- 
dinarily more  convenient,  a  solution  or  plate  of 
alum,  may  be  made  the  medium ;  where  heat  is 
to  be  admitted  without  light,  smoked  rock  salt 
or  black  glass  serves  the  purpose.  In  some 
operations  in  the  arts,  workmen  exposed  to  an 
intense  heat  protect  their  faces  to  a  good  de- 
gree by  wearing  a  glass  mask. 

DIATOMACE^,  minute  plants  growing  in 
moist  situations,  in  collections  of  fresh  water 
or  in  the  sea,  consisting  of  frustules  of  various 
forms,  the  walls  of  which  contain  a  large  quan- 
tity of  silex,  and  are  often  beautifully  diversified 
and  marbled  by  stria)  or  by  dots.  Notwith- 
Btanding  the  general  resemblance  of  these 
curious  vegetations  to  the  species  of  desmi- 
diea),  they  are  clearly  made  distinct  by  the 
flinty  fronds,  singular  striation,  and  absence  of 
green  coloring  matter.  Agardh  asserts  that 
many  of  these  organisms  have  as  much  affinity 
with  the  mineral  kingdom  as  with  the  vegetable, 
being  in  fact  vegetable  crystals,  bounded  by  right 
lines  and  collected  into  a  crystalliform  body,  and 
having  no  other  difference  from  minerals  than 
that  the  individuals  have  the  power  of  again 
separating  from  each  other.  As  in  the  case  of 
the  desmidieas,  there  are  solitary  species,  and 
others  grouped  so  as  to  form  lines  and  mem- 
branes.    In  some,  the  production  of  new  plants 


from  spores  presents  the  same  dissimilarity  be- 
tween the  young  and  the  adult  forms.  There 
are  also  numerous  genera  which  can  be  accu- 
rately distinguished  not  only  by  the  diffei-ence 
of  form  or  outline,  but  by  their  own  peculiar 
striations,  markings,  and  dots.  Both  in  the  sin- 
gle and  associated  species  there  is  a  distinct  pel- 
lucid peduncle  or  footstalk.  This  is  sometimes 
considerably  dilated  above,  or  else  foi-ked,  some- 
times repeatedly.  In  this  case,  each  frustule 
remains  attached,  the  base  dilating  as  may  be 
required.  This  arrangement  gives  a  fan-like 
appearance  of  great  beauty.  But  in  the  thread- 
like species  it  is  only  the  corners  that  remain 
attached  ;  as  no  stem  or  footstalk  is  visible  here, 
it  has  been  conjectured  that  it  exists  only  in  those 
plants  which  have  grown  from  spores  or  in  the 
seedling  forms.  Certain  channels  or  apertures  are 
so  arranged  as  to  convey. the  water  to  the  inner 
cellular  membranes,  and  thus  to  afford  nutriment. 
The  same  curious  conjugation  to  be  seen  in  other 
algfe  has  been  detected  in  the  diatomacese  by 
Thwaites,  and  has  been  confirmed  by  Berkeley 
and  Broome.  It  is  computed  that  vast  areas  of 
solid  earthy  matter  are  due  to  the  growth,  pres- 
ence, and  decay  of  these  minute  organisms. 
Many  of  the  most  beautiful  are  found  in  the 
guano  of  commerce,  doubtless  swallowed  in 
the  food  of  bii'ds,  and  still  remaining  in  perfect 
preservation.  In  the  United  States,  masses  of 
several  inches  in  thickness  are  found  on  the 
bottom  of  ponds,  composed  of  myriads  of  these 
organisms,  which  on  being  exposed  to  desicca- 
tion become  as  white  and  friable  as  chalk. 
Even  peat  bogs  and  meadows  abound  with  them. 
The  polishing  powders  sold  under  the  name 
of  Tripoli  are  composed  of  these  natural  sili- 
cious  fragments.  The  soundings  on  the  shores 
of  Victoria  Barrier,  in  water  whose  average 
depth  is  1,800  feet,  were  found  by  Dr.  Hooker 
to  be  invariably  charged  with  diatomaceous  re- 
mains. These  fossil  species  are  often  so  identi- 
cal with  recent  ones,  that  it  were  scarcely  too 
extravagant  to  admit  the  assertion  of  Ehren- 
berg,  that  species  'are  to  be  found  in  a  living 
state  in  situations  where  they  have  been  propa- 
gated from  times  far  anterior  to  the  existence 
of  man.  The  United  States  are  rich  in  the 
diatomaccEB,  both  fossil  and  living.  We  are  in- 
.  debted  to  the  perseverance  and  scientific  skill 
of  the  late  Prof.  J.  W.  Bailey,  of  West  Point, 
E".  Y.,  for  a  list  and  arrangement  of  species 
detected  by  him.  In  the  tertiary  infusorial 
stratum  of  Eichmond,  Va.,  Ehrenberg  detected 
20  genera  and  46  species,  of  which  all  Avere 
also  European  excepting  two.  This  group  of 
American  forftis  is  of  peculiar  interest,  because 
the  strata  at  Eichmond  are  decidedly  of  marine 
origin,  and  consequently  give  at  once  a  general 
view  of  these  marine  microscopic  forms  along 
the  North  American  coast.  We  shall  briefly  no- 
tice, in  conclusion,  som>e  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  these  vegetable  organisms  occurring  in  the 
United  States  and  not  uncommon  in  Europe. 
Of  the  perfectly  free  diatoms  we  have  many 
species  of  navkuliicexB  remarkable  for  beauty^ 


DIATOMACE^ 


DIAZ 


451 


symmetry,  delicacy,  or  else  for  their  strifitions. 
The  largest,  most  common,  and  most  easily  dis- 
tinguished, is  2^.  viridi%  found  in  every  ditch 
and  pond,  of  an  oblong  outline.  It  can  be 
detected  in  great  abundance  in  tlic  ashes  of 
peat,  and  in  the  deposits  of  infusorial  earths. 
Its  length  is  about  gV  of  a  line.  Several  of  a 
sigmoid  outline  are  very  remarkable  for  the 
delicacy  of  their  stria?,  of  which  may  be  nien- 
tioned  pleurosigma  Baltica,  P.  hipjwcampus, 
but  more  particularly  P.  angulatn.  The  lines 
of  striation  upon  Nitzschia,  sigmoidea  are  about 
TT^slffBTi  of  '1"  inch  apart.  In  fragilnria  we 
have  long  tlireads  of  frustules  adhering  with 
considerable  firnmess  at  their  conunissures; 
but  in  diatoma  they  adhere  only  at  a  single 
point,  so  as  to  form  curious  chains  of  divided 
or  separated  joints.  Prof.  Bailey  describes 
hacillaria  paradoxa  as  a  very  interesting  spe- 
cies, presenting  by  its  curious  motions  and  its 
paradoxical  appearance  an  object  well  calcu- 
lated to  astonish  all  who  behold  it.  At  one 
moment  the  needle-shaped  frustules  lie  side 
by  side,  forming  a  rectangular  plate ;  sudden- 
ly one  of  the  frustules  slides  forward  a  little 
way,  the  next  slides  a  little  also,  and  so  on. 
through  the  whole  number,  each,  however, 
retaining  a  contact  through  part  of  its  length 
with  the  adjoining  ones.  By  this  united  mo- 
tion the  parallelogram  is  changed  into  a  long 
line ;  then  some  of  the  frustules  slide  together 
again,  so  that  the  form  is  then  nuich  like  a 
banner.  Similar  motions  are-  constantly  go- 
ing on,  and  with  such  rapidity  that  the  eye  can 
scarcely  follow  them.  The  cause  of  this  motion 
is  Avholly  unknown,  but  it  is  most  probably  me- 
chanical and  not  vital.  Mr.  Smith,  in  his  work 
on  the  diatomacea?,  estimates  this  motion  as  be- 
ing :^go  inch  per  second.  In  meridion  vernnle 
we  have  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  fresh- 
water diatoms.  It  consists  of  spiral  or  helicoid- 
al  chains,  to  perceive  which  tha  specimens  must 
be  tilted  on  edge.  It  occurs  in  immense  quan- 
tities in  mountain  brooks,  covering  every  sub- 
merged stone,  or  twig,  or  spear  of  grass,  in  the 
early  days  of  spring.  Among  the  groups  with 
vittate  or  ribbon-like  fronds,  we  may  notice  stri- 
atella  arcuata^  occurring  in  vast  quantities  on 
the  filiform  marine  alga?,  and  covering  them  so 
much  oftentimes  as  to  make  them  glitter  in 
the  sunbeams  as  if  invested  with  crystals.  In 
still  another  natural  group,  where  the  striaa 
arc  no  longer  visible  in  the  frustules  or  fronds, 
"we  find  a  multitude  of  microscopic  objects, 
furnishing  sources  for  fresh  admiration  when- 
ever they  are  examined.  In  some  of  these  the 
fronds,  which  are  disciform,  are  marked  with 
radiating  lines,  of  which  coscinodiscus,  very 
common  in  a  fossil  state  in  the  Richmond  earth 
and  elsewhere,  is  most  beautiful.  In  C.  linea- 
tus  the  cellules  of  the  frond  form  parallel  lines 
in  whatever  direction  they  may  be  viewed,  and 
C.  oculns  iridis  gives  curious  colored  rings. 
When  perfect,  the  disk  of  coseinodiscus  is  covered 
with  circular  spots  in  rows  corresponding  with 
the  radii.    In  consequence  of  this  arrangement 


they  also  form  beautiful  spiral  rows  in  other 
directions,  so  that  the  curves  present  no  incon- 
siderable resemblance  to  patterns  produced  by 
engine-turning ;  at  other  times  the  spots  are 
found  to  form  3  sets  of  lines,  making  angles  of 
G0°  and  120°  with  each  other;  and  on  others 
tlie  spots  are  disi)osed  Avithout  much  apparent 
regularity,  frequently  having  a  star-like  figure 
in  the  centre.  The  spots  are  so  small  on  some 
of  the  disks  as  to  bo  almost  invisible  even  by 
the  highest  magnifying  powers ;  on  others  they 
are  quite  large  and  hexagonal.  In  ^jocZ/sc'/s 
Rogerii  (Bailey),  the  whole  surface  is  so  beau- 
tifully punctate,  that  no  engraving  could  do  it 
justice.  The  most  comi)licated  markings  on 
the  co.icinodisciis  scarcely  rival  the  elaborate 
ornaments  of  this  truly  elegant  organism.  It 
has  proved  very  common  in  Virginia  and  Mary- 
land in  a  fossil  condition.  The  beauty  of  isth- 
mia  ohliquata^  detected  in  the  mud  of  Boston 
harbor,  can  only  be  appreciated  by  ocular  ex- 
amination. Tiie  diatomacea?  enter  largely  into 
the  food  of  the  mollusca.  Dr.  Hooker  found 
dictyoclia  aculeata  in  the  stomachs  of  salpiB 
taken  oft'  Victoria  Land,  and  remains  of  diato- 
macese  occurred  in  the  same  ascidiums  examined 
between  the  latitudes  of  the  N.  tropic  and  80°  S. 
The  medusas  are  also  in  particular  often  filled 
Avith  these  forms. — See  Bailey  in  "  American 
Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,"  vols,  xli.,  xlvi. ; 
"  Proceedings  of  Essex  Institute,"  vol.  i.,  pp. 
33-48,  and  vol  ii.,  pp.  YO,  71 ;  Smith's  "  Brit- 
ish Diatomacea?  ;"  Kiitzing's  Spjecies  Algarum 
(Leipsic,  1849) ;  Berkeley's  "  Introduction  to 
Cryptogamic  Botany"  (London,  1857). 

DIAZ,  Miguel,  an  Aragonese  explorer,  born 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  century,  died  about 
1514.  He  took  part  in  the  2d  expedition  of 
Columbus,  and  having  arrived  in  St.  Domingo 
in  1495,  he  became  involved  in  a  duel  which 
forced  him  to  flee  to  the  southern  part  of  the 
island,  where  he  married  the  female  ruler  of  the 
tribe.  From  information  given  by  her,  and  with 
the  cooperation  of  Bartholomew  Columbus,  who 
was  governor  of  the  colony,  he  discovered  tlie 
gold  mines  of  St.  Christopher,  and  afterward 
took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  foundation  of 
ISTueva  Isabella  (afterward  St.  Domingo)  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  gold  districts.  He  faithfully  ad- 
hered to  the  cause  of  Columbus  until  his  death. 

DIAZ  DEL  CASTILLO,  Bernal,  a  Spanish 
adventurer  and  chronicler,  born  in  Medina  del 
Campo,  Old  Castile,  about  the  close  of  the  15th 
century.  He  went  to  seek  his  fortune  in  the 
new  world  in  1514,  and  joined  the  expeditions 
which  sailed  from  Cuba  to  Yucatan  under  Fer- 
niindez  de  Cordova  in  1517,  and  under  Grijal- 
va  in  1518.  He  afterward  attached  himself 
to  the  fortunes  of  Cortes,  and  followed  that 
chief  in  all  his  most  important  battles  and 
marches  with  distinguislied  valor  and  loyalty. 
In  1568  he  was  regidor  of  the  city  of  Gua- 
temala. When  Gomara's  "  Chronicle  of  Few 
Spain"  appeared,  Diaz  began  his  Historia  ver- 
dadera  de  la  conquista  de  la  Nueva  Uspafia, 
the  object  of  which  was  to  correct  the  many 


452 


DIBDIN 


DICE 


misstatements  of  liis  rival,  and  to  claim  for 
himself  and  Lis  comrades  a  share  of  the  glory 
which  CTomara  gave  almost  wholly  to  Cortes. 
The  work  was  finished  in  1558,  and  though 
destitute  of  literary  merit,  and  disfigured  hy  the 
autlior's  vanity,  it  nowhere  betrays  a  wilful 
perversion  of  truth,  and  is  prized  for  its  sim- 
plicity of  style.  It  was  first  published  at  Madrid 
in  1632.  An  English  translation  by  J.  I.  Lock- 
hart  appeared  in  1844.  A  recent  American 
writer  has  assailed  the  authenticity  of  the  nar- 
rative, which  he  attempts  to  resolve  into  a  col- 
lection of  fables.  (Sec  Wilson's  "  New  History 
of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  Philadelphia,  1859.) 
DIED  IN.  I.  CnAKLES,  an  English  song  writer 
and  composer,  born  in  Southampton  in  1745, 
died  July  25,  1814.  He  was  the  18th  child  of 
his  parents,  who  intended  him  for  the  church. 
Following  his  own  inclinations,  however,  he 
cultivated  the  study  of  music,  and  at  the  age  of 
16  went  to  London,  where  at  first  he  supported 
himself  by  composing  ballads  for  the  music 
sellers  and  by  tuning  pianos.  In  l763-'4  the 
opera  of  the  "  Shepherd's  Artifice,"  written 
and  composed  by  him,  was  produced  at  Covent 
Garden  theatre,  after  which  he  appeared  for 
several  years  in  the  joint  capacity  of  actor  and 
composer.  Among  his  most  popular  works  were 
the  "  Padlock,"  the  "  Deserter,"  the  "Water- 
man," and  the  "  Quaker,"  produced  at  Drury 
Lane,  under  the  management  of  Garrick.  Hav- 
ing quarrelled  with  the  latter,  he  was  for  several 
years  engaged  in  various  theatrical  speculations 
as  manager  or  proprietor,  and  in  1789  instituted 
a  species  of  musical  entertainment,  in  which  he 
was  the  sole  author,  composer,  and  performer. 
So  successful  did  the  enterprise  prove,  that  in 
1796  he  erected  a  small  theatre  in  Leicester 
fields,  called  Sans-Souci,  in  which  he  performed 
until  1805,  when  he  retired  from  professional 
life  in  somewhat  embarrassed  circumstances, 
owing  to  his  improvident  habits.  A  pension 
of  £200  was  procured  for  him,  of  which  in 
1806  he  was  deprived  by  the  whig  ministry  of 
Lord  Grenville.  The  tory  administration,  which 
came  into  power  the  succeeding  year,  restored 
his  name  to  the  pension  list,  but  his  improv- 
idence kept  him  in  poverty  until  his  death. 
His  theatrical  compositions,  47  of  which  are 
enumerated  in  the  "  Biographia  Dramatica," 
amount  to  about  100.  Upon  his  songs,  how- 
ever, of  which  he  is  said  to  have  written  up- 
ward of  1,000,  his  reputation  mainly  rests. 
Most  of  these  were  ephemeral  productions,  and 
many  were  below  mediocrity  ;  but  his  nautical 
songs  and  ballads  are  among  the  finest  specimens 
of  their  kind  in  the  language  ;  and  some  of  them, 
like  "  Poor  Tom  Bowling,"  wi'itten  on  the  death 
of  his  brother  Thomas,  a  sea  captain,  and  "  Poor 
Jack,"  are  established  favorites.  They  were  set 
to  simple  and  expressive  melodies,  and  were  ex- 
ceedingly popular  at  the  beginning  of  the  pres- 
ent century,  having,  it  is  said,  been  influential  in 
supplying  the  navy  with  volunteers.  He  pub- 
lished a  history  of  the  stage  and  some  miscel- 
laneous works  of  no  great  value.    A  new  edition 


of  his  songs,  with  a  memoir  by  T.  Dibdin,  illus- 
trated by  George  Cruikshank,  was  published  in 
London  in  1850.  II.  Thomas,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  London  in  1771,  died  there,  Sept. 
10,  1841.  He  adopted  the  profession  of  his 
father,  and  for  many  years  appeared  before  the 
public  as  actor,  author,  and  composer.  His 
songs  and  dramatic  pieces  are  probably  as  nu- 
merous as  those  of  his  father,  but  are  now 
comparatively  forgotten.  He  died  in  poverty, 
while  employed  in  compiling  an  edition  of  his 
father's  sea  songs,  for  which  he  received  an 
allowance  from  the  lords  of  the  admiralty.  III. 
Thomas  Feognall,  D.D.,  an  English  bibliog- 
rapher, nephew  of  Charles  Dibdin,  born  in 
Calcutta  in  1775,  died  Nov.  18,  1847.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford  and  studied  for  the  law,  but 
afterward  took  orders.  In  1807  he  became  ed- 
itor of  a  weekly  journal  called  the  "  Director," 
and  in  1809  published  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue 
his  "  Bibliomania,"  reprinted  with  great  enlarge- 
ments in  1811.  In  1818  he  travelled  abroad, 
and  in  1824  was  appointed  to  the  rectory  of  St. 
Mary's,  Bryanstone  square,  which  he  held  until 
his  death.  In  1814-'15  he  published,  under  the 
title  of  "  Bibliotheca  Spenceriana,"  an  account 
of  the  rare  books  in  Earl  Spencer's  library,  to 
which  he  afterward  added  a  description  of  the 
earl's  seat  at  Althorp,  and  an  account  of  the 
Cassano  library  purchased  by  him.  The  work 
is  often  referred  to,  but  is  inaccurate.  In  his 
latter  years  Dr.  Dibdin  was  involved  in  pecu- 
niary embarrassment.  His  principal  works, 
beside  those  above  mentioned,  are:  "Typo- 
graphical Antiquities  of  Great  Britain"  (4  vols., 
1810-20);  "Bibliographical  Decameron"  (3 
vols.  8vo.,  1817) ;  "  BibMographical,  Antiqua- 
rian, and  Picturesque  Tour  in  France  and  Ger- 
many" (3  vols.  8vo.,  1821);  "Introduction  to  a 
Knowledge  of  rare  and  valuable  Editions  of  the 
Greek  and  Koman  Classics  "  (4th  ed.,  2  vols.  8vo., 
1827);  "Eemmiscences  of  a  Literary  Life"  (2 
vols.  8vo.,  1836);  "Bibliographical,  Antiquarian, 
and  Picturesque  Tour  in  the  Northern  Counties 
of  England  and  Scotland"  (3  vols.  8vo.,  1839). 
DICE  (plural  of  die),  small  cubes  of  ivory, 
bone,  serpentine  stone,  or  close-grained  wood, 
used  in  gaming.  Each  of  their  6  faces  is  marked 
with  a  difterent  number  of  points,  from  1  to  6,  in 
such  a  way  that  the  numbers  upon  any  2  oppo- 
site sides  together  count  7.  They  are  shaken 
and  thrown  from  a  box  on  to  a  table,  and  the 
game  depends  upon  the  number  of  points  pre- 
sented by  the  upper  faces.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  ancient  of  games,  and  was  said  to  have  been 
invented  by  the  Greeks  to  divert  themselves 
during  the  siege  of  Troy.  Plutarch  makes  it 
an  early  invention  of  the  Egyptians,  in  whose 
mythological  fables  it  is  mentioned.  Dice  have 
been  discovered  in  Thebes,  made  of  bone  or 
ivory,  and  similar  to  those  in  use  at  present. 
Herodotus  ascribes  the  invention  of  this,  as  of 
all  other  gaAes  of  chance,  to  the  Lydians.  It  is 
alluded  to  as  a  favorite  amusement  by  ^Eschylus 
and  Sophocles.  The  chief  distinction  between 
the  ancient  and  the  modern  game  is,  that  in  the 


DICE 


DICKENS 


453 


former  ?.  dice  were  emploj'ed,  and  in  tlio  latter 
ordinarily  but  2.  The  Greeks  gave  to  the  va- 
rious throws  that  were  possible  the  names  of 
their  gods,  heroes,  princes,  and  hetferro,  the  best 
throw  being  called  Ajjhrodite.  This  game  was 
adopted  by  the  Romans,  and  the  example  of 
Borae  of  the  emperors,  especially  of  Nero,  gave  to 
it  a  dangerous  pop\ilarity.  Wealthy  Romans, 
during  the  declining  period  of  the  empire,  fre- 
quently staked  their  entire  fortunes  upon  a  sin- 
gle chance.  It  was  introduced  into  France  in 
the  reign  of  Philip  Augustus,  and  has  continued 
from  that  time  a  favorite  game. 

DICE  (Gr.  AtKr;),  in  ancient  mythology,  a  god- 
dess of  justice,  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Themis, 
and  sister  of  Eunomia  (good  rule)  and  Irene 
(peace).  She  appears  as  one  of  the  Ilora?,  and 
as  attendant  of  the  father  of  the  gods,  and  in 
the  tragedians  also  as  an  avenging  and  reward- 
ing divinity.  Her  business  was  not  only  to 
punish  iniustice,  but  to  reward  virtue. 

DICENTRA  (Borkh.),  the  generic  name  of 
some  very  showy  herbaceous  perennials,  of  which 
there  are  several  species  fotmd  wild  in  the  United 
States.  Of  these  latter,  a  very  delicate  and  sin- 
gularly flowered  one  is  I).  cucuUaria  (De  Can- 
dolle),  called  Dutchman's  breeches,  the  form  of 
the  corolla,  with  its  spurs,  reminding  us  of  that 
article  of  apparel  suspended  in  an  inverted  posi- 
tion. These  blossoms  are  cream-colored  tipped 
with  white,  and  hang  in  a  simple  raceme  upon 
a  slender  drooping  scape,  rising  fron^  the  bo- 
som of  a  set  of  tender,  deeply  cut,  long-stalked 
leaves.  Both  the  flowers  and  leaves  soon  fade 
away  on  the  approach  of  summer,  and  leave 
exposed  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  clusters 
of  little  grain-shaped  tubers,  arranged  in  the 
form  of  scaly  bulbs.  A  second  species,  called 
squirrel  corn  (D.  Canadensis,  De  C),  has  scatter- 
ed, round,  flattened  tubers,  as  large  as  grains  of 
Indian  corn,  to  the  resemblance  to  which  it  owes 
its  name.  Its  flowers  are  greenish  white,  tinged 
with  red,  and  possess  the  fragrance  of  hya- 
cinths. It  is  found  in  rich  woodlands.  JD.  ex- 
imia  (De  C),  found  in  W.  New  York,  and  among 
the  Alleghanies  of  Virginia,  is  larger  than  the 
others,  with  reddish-purple  flowers  on  a  com- 
pound, clustered  raceme,  and  with  the  lobes 
of  the  leaves  broadly  oblong.  D.  chrysanthft 
(Hooker  and  Arnott),  a  native  of  California,  has 
large,  showy,  golden-yellow  flowers,  leaves  2 
and  3  pinnately  divided,  glaucous,  with  linear, 
acute  segments,  and  a  stem  2  or  3  feet  high, 
leafj'  branching.  But  the  most  remarkable  of 
all  was  introduced  from  Japan  in  1846.  From 
thick,  brittle,  fleshy  roots  there  arise,  early  in  the 
spring,  numerous  stout  hollow  stems  about  3  feet 
high,  bearing  large,  spreading,  deeply  divided, 
compoundly  ternate  leaves  of  a  glaucous  hue, 
not  unlike  some  of  the  tree  paaonias,  from  which 
issue  strong  flower  stalks,  branching  into  axil- 
lary and  smaller  racemes,  loaded  with  large,  rosy 
blossoms,  each  flower  being  about  an  inch  long. 
In  the  early  stoge  of  the  inflorescence  the  buds 
have  a  deeper  tint,  which  is  very  beautiful.  Sev- 
eral weeks  elapse  from  the  commencement  of  the 


expansion  r)f  the  first  blossoms  until  the  period 
of  blossoming  is  over;  but  sometimes  a  few 
smaller  racemes  will  appear  again  toward  the 
end  of  the  summer.  It  does  not  seem  to  ma- 
ture seeds  readily,  and  as  yet  no  new  varieties 
are  known  to  florists.  This  fine  species  has  re- 
ceived the  appropriate  name  of  JJ.  speetaMlis, 
Side  shoots  or  cuttings  taken  otT  early  in  spring, 
and  planted  out,  will  flower  in  August  and  Sep- 
tember;  but  for  early  forcing  it  is  better  to  put 
them  into  suitably  sized  pots,  and  suffer  them 
to  ripen  away  the  foliage  that  lias  been  produced 
in  this  condition,  in  preparation  for  another 
season,  taking  due  care  lest  they  strike  their 
freely  growing  root  fibres  through  the  bottom 
of  the  pots.  To  prevent  this,  they  may  be 
placed  upon  a  platform,  on  the  stone  or  brick 
pavement,  or  even  on  the  hard  ground  ;  in  the 
latter  case,  it  is  better  to  move  the  pots  at  least 
once  a  week.  On  the  approach  of  severe  frost, 
the  i)ot3  should  be  removed  to  the  shed  of  the 
greenhouse,  or  placed  under  the  stage,  or  pro- 
tected in  frames,  or  even  put  into  the  cellar, 
whence  they  are  to  be  removed  into  a  warmer 
atmosphere  as  they  are  needed  for  flowering. 
For  early  blossoming  parlor  plants  we  scarcely 
know  of  any  other  so  easily  prepared,  or  so  sure 
of  successful  management,  or  which  will  so  well 
reward  any  attention.  In  the  garden  the  di- 
ccntra  spectabilis  thrives  in  any  good  soil,  but 
that  which  is  light,  rich,  and  deep  suits  it  best ; 
in  such  a  situation  it  will  produce  a  dozen  or 
more  stems  covered  with  flowers.  A  slight  pro- 
tection of  leaves  and  litter  is  sufficient  in  winter. 
It  should  be  allowed  abundance  of  room. 

DICK,  Thomas,  a  Scottish  scientific  winter, 
born  in  Dundee  in  1772,  died  at  Broughty  Ferry, 
July  29, 1857.  He  was  educated  for  the  ministry, 
and  was  ordained  and  settled  as  pastor  of  the  Se- 
cession church  in  Stirling,  but  became  so  much 
devoted  to  scientific  pursuits,  that  he  relinquish- 
ed his  profession,  and  for  10  years  was  engaged 
as  a  teacher  at  Perth.  While  there  he  wrote  the 
"  Christian  Philosopher,"  a  work  which  brought 
him  considerable  reputation,  and  some  pecuni- 
ary remuneration.  From  this  time  he  devot- 
ed himself  more  exclusively  to  the  writing  of 
popular  scientific  works,  which,  though  success- 
ful, were  not  a  source  of  much  pecuniary  profit  to 
theii*  author,  who  was  during  part  of  his  life  in 
straitened  circumstances.  His  works  having 
had  a  large  sale  in  the  United  States,  a  subscrip- 
tion was  taken  up  for  liis  benefit  in  this  coun- 
try some  years  before  his  death,  and  by  this 
means,  as  well  as  by  the  contributions  of  some 
gentlemen  of  Dundee,  and  the  aid  of  a  small 
pension  from  the  government,  he  was  enabled 
to  pass  the  latter  years  of  his  life  in  comfort. 
Among  his  works  may  also  be  mentioned,  "  Phi- 
losophy of  Religion"  (1825);  "Improvement 
of  Society  by  the  Diftusion  of  Knowledge;" 
"  Philosophv  of  a  Future  State"  (1828) ;  "Mental 
Illumination  of  Mankind  "  (1885)  ;  "  Celestial 
Scenery"  (1838);  " Sidereal  Heavens"  (1840) ; 
"Telescope  and  Microscope  "  (1851). 

DICKENS,  CixAELEs,   an   English  novelist, 


454 


DICKENS 


born  at  Portsmouth,  Feb.  7,  1812.  His  father, 
"\rr,  John  Dickens,  who  liad  held  for  many  years 
an  oflBco  in  the  navy  pay  /department,  retired  on 
a  pension  in  1815  ;  and  being  a  man  of  some 
literary  faculty,  he  became  a  reporter  for  the 
daily  press  in  London.  He  intended  his  son 
for  the  profession  of  an  attorney,  and  placed 
him  in  an  attorney's  office  for  that  purjjose. 
Here  the  youth  acquired  that  knowledge  of  the 
machinery  and  technical  phraseology  of  tlie 
law  Avhich  he  has  turned  to  such  good  account 
in  many  of  his  works  of  fiction.  But  the  drud- 
gery of  his  work  weighed  heavily  upon  his 
spii-it ;  a  taste  for  literature,  manifested  mainly 
by  an  indiscriminate  reading  of  novels  and  plays, 
began  to  develop  itself;  and  las  father's  con- 
nections enabled  him  to  exchange  his  unconge- 
nial occupation  for  the  more  agreeable  duties 
of  a  newspaper  critic  and  reporter.  lie  was 
attached  to  the  "True  Sun,"  and  afterward  to 
the  "  Mprning  Chronicle,"  which  was  at  that 
time  a  daily  paper  of  large  circulation  and  in- 
fluence. A  series  of  sketches  of  London  life, 
manners,  and  localities,  published  in  the  even- 
ing edition  of  the  "Chronicle,"  under  the  sig- 
nature of  "Boz,"  attracted  much  attention,  and 
showed  the  unknown  writer  to  be  possessed  of 
a  remarkable  and  original  vein  of  observation 
and  reflection,  though  by  some  it  was  regretted 
that  such  powers  were  exercised  to  so  great 
an  extent  in  the  delineation  of  scenes  of  vice 
and  misery,  and  the  exposure  of  the  weaknesses 
and  infirmities  of  humanity.  The  sketches 
■were  afterward  collected  and  published  (1836) 
in  2  volumes.  The  ability  displayed  in  these 
sketches  was  so  great  that  Mr.  Hall,  of  the  firm 
of  Chapman  and  Hall,  proposed  to  the  writer 
the  scheme  of  preparing  a  work  of  fiction,  to 
appear  in  monthly  numbers,  with  illustrations 
by  Mr.  Seymour,  a  popular  comic  draughtsman. 
It  was  suggested  that  the  adventures  and  mis- 
haps of  a  club  of  originals  would  furnish  a 
happy  medium  for  the  powers  both  of  author 
and  artist.  Upon  tliis  hint  the  first  number  of 
the  "  Pickwick  Papers"  was  written,  and  pub- 
lished with  illustrations  by  Mr.  Seymour.  This 
clever  artist  died  by  his  own  hand  before  the 
appearance  of  the  second  number ;  and  the  task 
of  illustration  devolved  upon  Mr.  H.  K.  Browne, 
who  under  the  signature  of  "Phiz"  contin'ued 
with  great  spirit  the  style  of  pictorial  embellisli- 
ment  which  his  predecessor  had  so  happily  be- 
gun. The  work  was  completed  and  published 
collectively  in  1837.  But  before  it  was  finished 
it  had  attained  a  degree  of  popularity  to  which 
nothing  in  English  literature  since  the  publica- 
tion of  the  "Waverley  novels  could  furnish  a  par- 
allel. Everybody,  both  in  England  and  Ameri- 
ca, was  laughing  over  the  ludicrous  adventures 
of  Mr.  Pickwick  and  his  associates,  the  trial 
scene  of  Bardell  vs.  Pickwick,  and  the  quaint 
sayings,  grotesque  comparisons,  and  inimitable 
conversations  of  the  elder  and  younger  Weller. 
Between  the  appearance  of  the  first  and  last 
numbers  the  author  rose  to  be  the  most  popular 
living  writer  in  the  English  language.    By  some 


the  "  Pickwick  Papers"  is  still  esteemed  Dick- 
ens's best  work.  We  cannot  subscribe  to  this 
judgment;  but  we  admit  that  there  are  parts  of 
it  which  he  has  never  excelled,  and  that  he  has 
never  drawn  a  character  more  original  in  con- 
ception and  more  happily  sustained  than  that 
of  Sam  Weller.  His  next  work,  "  Oliver  Twist," 
appeared  originally  in  monthly  numbers  in 
"  Bentley's  Miscellany,"  a  magazine  of  which 
Dickens  assumed  for  a  time  the  editorship,  and 
was  published  collectively  in  1838.  This  novel 
fully  sustained  the  high  reputation  acquired  by 
the  "  Pickwick  Papers."  If  the  humor  was 
not  so  rich,  so  abundant,  so  genial,  there  was  a 
deeper  tragic  power,  especially  in  painting  the 
darker  passions  of  the  soul  and  the  terrible  re- 
tributions of  guilt.  Next  appeared  in  serial 
numbers,  published  collectively  in  1839,  the 
"  Life  and  Adventures  of  Nicholas  Nickleby  ;" 
which,  with  some  little  hesitation,  we  should 
place  at  the  head  of  all  Dickens's  novels,  as  being 
the  most  carefully  constructed,  and  containing 
the  widest  range  of  character  and  the  greatest 
variety  of  inventive  power.  From  no  other 
work  of  his  could  one  who  had  never  rend  any 
thing  from  his  pen  derive  a  more  just  estimate 
of  all  the  wealth  of  his  genius.  "  Master  Hum- 
phrey's Clock,"  comprising  the  stories  since 
separately  known  as  the  "  Old  Curiosity  Shop" 
and  "  Barnaby  Eudge,"  appeared  in  weekly  num- 
bers during  1840  and  1841.  This  was  received, 
and  deservedly  so,  with  a  degree  of  favor  equal 
to  that  which  had  been  accorded  to  his  previ- 
ous productions.  Indeed,  the  character  of  little 
Nell  awakened  a  depth  and  fervor  of  sympa- 
thetic admiration  which  no  earlier  creation  had 
won.  After  the  publication  of  this  work,  Dick- 
ens made  a  visit  to  America,  arriving  in  Boston 
Jan.  22,  1842,  and  sailing  for  England  on  June 
3  following.  He  was  everywhere  received  with 
a  degree  of  enthusiasm  proportionate  to  his 
popularity  as  a  writer  and  the  excitable  char- 
acter of  the  American  people.  His  views  of 
American  life  and  manners  were  published  upon 
his  return,  at  the  close  of  1842,  under  the  title 
of  "  American  Notes  for  General  Circulation ;" 
a  work  which  added  nothing  to  his  reputation, 
though  it  was  brightened  here  and  there  with 
gleams  of  his  peculiar  humor.  In  1843  he  wrote 
ins  "  Christmas  Carol,"  a  short  story  inculcating 
the  virtues  of  benevolence  and  generosity,  which 
was  received  with  great  favor.  Several  similar 
productions  have  since  from  time  to  time  appear- 
ed from  his  pen,  under  the  general  title  of  Christ- 
mas stories,  of  various  degrees  of  merit,  though 
no  one  can  be  pronounced  quite  equal  to  the  first 
of  the  series.  In  1844  he  published  in  monthly 
numbers  the  "  Life  and  Adventures  of  Martin 
Chuzzlewit ;"  and  toward  the  close  of  the  same 
year  he  went  to  Italy  with  his  family,  and  re- 
sided there  for  some  time.  On  Jan.  1, 1846,  he 
assumed  the  editorship  of  the  "  Daily  News," 
a  morning  newspaper  started  in  London,  on  the 
liberal  side  in  politics,  to  which  several  able 
writers  were  secured  as  contributors.  In  this 
journal  were  originally  published  his  "  Pictures 


DICKENS 


DICKINSON 


455 


of  Italy,"  wliich  were  gathered  into  a  volume 
and  issued  in  1840  ;  a  work  of  a  peculiar,  al- 
most unique  character,  containint^  as  it  does 
the  impressions  of  a  man  of  orifxinal  genius  who 
views  Italy  not  as  a  scholar,  an  antiquary,  or 
an  artist,  l^ut  as  a  humorist.  He  did  not  con- 
tinue long  in  liis  new  post  of  editor  of  a  daily 
newspaper.  His  next  publication,  "  Dealings 
with  the  Finn  of  Dombey  and  Son,"  came  out 
in  monthly  numbers,  during  1847  and  1848.  In 
this  novel  the  beautiful  sketch  of  little  Paul  and 
the  humorous  delineation  of  Cai)t.  Cuttle  recall- 
ed the  best  efforts  of  his  genius,  and  renewed 
the  admiration  awakened  by  his  earlier  works. 
Then  followed  the  "  History  of  David  Copper- 
field,"  in  monthly  numbers,  concluded  in  1850. 
In  this  year  he  assumed  the  editorship  of  a 
■weekly  periodical,  started  by  himself,  called 
"  Household  Words,"  which  has  ever  since  con- 
tinued to  be  published  under  his  charge,  and  has 
a  wide  circulation  both  in  England  and  America. 
Here  appeared  his  "  Child's  History  of  England," 
republished  separately  in,  1852;  and  his  story 
of  "  Hard  Times,"  republished  in  one  volume, 
1854.  In  185.3  was  finished  "Bleak  House," 
which  had  been  issued  in  montlily  numbers; 
and  in  1856  and  1857  "  Little  Dorrit "  was  given 
to  the  world,  by  parcels,  in  the  same  way.  Be- 
side the  above  works,  Dickens  is  tlie  author  or 
editor  of  the  "  Memoirs  of  Joseph  Grimaldi," 
published  in  1836.  Such  a  list  proves  him  to 
be  a  man  of  vigorous  industry  and  methodical 
habits  of  labor ;  and  his  example  is  valuable  as 
showing  that  the  highest  genius  is  not  incom- 
patible with  uniform  diligence  and  a  life  of 
steady  toil. — The  great  popularity  which  Dick- 
ens enjoys  wherever  the  English  language  is 
spoken  renders  it  a  superfluous  task  for  us  to 
enter  upon  any  extended  or  elaborate  criticism 
of  his  works.  He  has  opened  a  new  and  origi- 
nal vein  of  fictitious  composition.  His  popular- 
ity is  not  a  transient  whim  or  fleeting  fashion, 
but  is  fairly  earned  by  great  and  obvious  excel- 
lences. His  place  in  EnHish  literature,  through- 
out all  time,  will  be  as  secure  as  that  of  Sterne, 
Fielding,  or  Scott.  He  is  peculiarly  and  preemi- 
nently a  man  of  genius.  He  has  fashioned  him- 
self upon  no  existing  models;  no  writer  draws 
more  exclusively  from  innate  and  self-contained 
sources ;  in  no  one  do  we  see  fewer  indications  of 
the  influence  of  other  men's  minds.  Very  rarely 
in  Dickens  do  we  find  a  quotation  from,  or  an  al- 
lusion to.  any  other  writer.  His  novels,  as  works 
of  art,  are  open  to  obvious  criticism.  His  plots 
are  not  skilfully  constructed ;  many  incidents  are 
introduced  which  are  improbable  in  themselves, 
and  do  not  of  necessity  contribute  any  thing  to 
the  final  catastrophe.  His  leading  quality  is  his 
humor,  which  is  original  in  its  essence  and  bound- 
less in  its  supply.  His  combinations,  quaint, 
startling,  and  grotesque,  are  never  forced,  but  are 
the  spontaneous  growth  of  a  mind  of  inexhausti- 
ble fertility.  In  pathos,  the  reverse  pole  of  hu- 
mor, his  merit  is  hardly  less  conspicuous.  He 
has  a  peculiar  comprehension  of  the  sorrows  and 
Bufiierings  of  childhood ;  and  some  of  the  most 


beautiful  and  effective  of  his  pathetic  passages 
have  been  drawn  from  this  source.  He  is  a  very 
sharp  observer,  and  an  excellent  artist  in  that 
style  of  verbal  painting  in  whicli  the  eflfects  are 
produced  by  the  minute  delineation  of  particu- 
lars. Tliis  jiower,  it  must  be  admitted,  he  uses 
rather  too  freely ;  and  many  of  his  descriptions, 
especiall}'  in  his  later  works,  would  be  improved 
by  compression.  The  charm  and  success  of  his 
writings  are  in  some  degree  to  be  asci-ibed  to 
the  fact  thiit  they  are  so  strongly  infused  with 
the  personal  qualities  of  the  writer.  He  is  a 
man  of  genial  nature  and  humane  spirit,  with  a 
vehement  hatred  of  injustice  and  oppression,  a 
strong  aversion  to  cant  and  liypocrisy,  and  gen- 
erous and  expanded  sympathies.  His  powerful 
and  popular  j)en  has  always  been  exerted  on 
the  side  of  social  reform.  Through  these  traits 
of  character,  as  revealed  in  his  writings,  a  sort 
of  personal  relation  is  established  between  him 
and  his  readers,  which  makes  them  very  kind 
to  his  literary  virtues,  and  a  little  blind  to  his 
literary  faults.  It  has  been  objected  to  his 
novels  that  they  set  too  high  value  upon  good 
temper  and  geniality — the  easy  growth  of  a 
healthy  organization  and  happy  temperament — 
as  compared  with  the  sterner  virtues  which  are 
the  fruit  of  self-discipline  and  self-control ;  and 
that  they  make  convivial  pleasures  too  attract- 
ive, and  fail  to  warn  against  convivial  excesses. 
— Mr.  Dickens  has  also  acted  with  distinguished 
success  in  private  theatricals,  and  has  ])ublicly 
read  his  own'  works  to  large  and  gratified  au- 
diences in  almosi  every  part  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  In  1858  he  amicably  separated 
from  Mrs.  Dickens,  with  whom  he  had  lived 
some  20  years,  and  had  several  children.  The 
cause  was  an  uncongeniality  of  temper,  imply- 
ing no  dishonor  to  either  partv. 

DICKINSON,  a  N.  W.  co.  of  Iowa,  bordering 
on  Minnesota ;  area,  430  sq.  m.  Tlie  surface  is 
diversified  by  a  number  of  small  lakes,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  is  Spirit  lake.  The  largest  river 
is  the  Okoboji,  an  affluent  of  the  Little  Sioux. 
This  county  is  of  very  recent  formation,  and  is 
not  included  in  the  census  of  1850. 

DICKINSON,  Daxiel  Stevens,  a  U.  S.  sena- 
tor from  New  York,  born  in  Goshen,Conn.,  Sept. 
11,  1800.  The  family  removed  in  1800  to  the 
state  of  New  York,  and  settled  in  the  beautiful 
valley  of  the  Chenango,  where  Daniel  was  in- 
ured to  the  hardy  life  of  a  plain  farmer's  son. 
He  also  worked  for  a  while  at  a  mechanical 
trade.  During  his  boyhood  he  was  able  to  ac- 
quire only  the  rudiments  of  learning  under  a  sys- 
tem of  common  schools  then  in  its  infancy.  Hav- 
ing a  natural  inclination  to  politics,  he  became  an 
ardent  member  of  the  democratic  party,  and  was 
rewarded  for  his  zeal  first  by  an  election  to  the 
office  of  town  constable,  and  then  by  an  ap- 
pointment as  deputy  sheriff  of  Chenango  co. 
Thus  brought  in  contact  with  the  local  courts, 
he  took  a  fancy  to  the  legal  profession,  studied 
law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  about  1820-7, 
soon  became  famous  in  the  Chenango  valley  as  a 
"  rough  and  ready  "  practitioner  before  justices 


456 


DICKINSON 


of  the  peace,  and  worked  his  way  steadily  up- 
ward, till  lie  obtained  a  good  position  and  a 
fair  business  in  the  highest  tribunals.  He  was 
chosen  in  1836  a  member  of  the  state  senate 
from  the  6tli  district,  for  4  years.  He  took  a 
leading  part  in  disposing  of  the  many  important 
questions  that  agitated  the  senate  of  New  York 
in  these  4  years — as  the  general  banking  law, 
the  small  bill  law,  the  bank  suspension  law,  and 
other  financial  measures  arising  out  of  the  over- 
throw of  the  U.  S.  bank  and  the  establishment 
of  the  independent  treasury,  the  construction 
of  the  Erie  railroad,  the  enlargement  of  the  Erie 
canal,  and  other  works  of  internal  improvement; 
and  he  frequently  delivered  ojjinions  upon  grave 
legal  questions  brought  before  tlie  senate,  which, 
as  the  court  for  the  correction  of  errors,  was 
then  the  highest  judicial  body  in  the  state.  He 
won  so  much  reputation  during  these  4  years 
in  the  legislature  that  at  tlie  close  of  his  term 
the  democratic  party  put  him  in  nomination  for 
lieutenant-governor.  He  was  defeated,  but  2 
years  subsequently  (1842)  he  was  triumphantly 
elected,  tliereupon  becoming  ex  officio  jn-esident 
of  the  senate,  of  the  court  of  errors,  and  of  the 
canal  board,  for  2  years.  In.  1844  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  convention  that  nominated  Mr.  Polk 
for  the  presidency,  and  was  subsequently  one  of 
the  electors  at  large  for  the  state  of  New  York, 
In  December  of  that  year  he  was  appointed  by 
Gov.  Bouck,  and  afterward  chosen  by  the  legis- 
lature, to  the  U.  S.  senate,  in  the  place  of  N.  P. 
Tallmadge,  where  he  continued  till  March  4, 
1851 .  During  7  eventful  sessions  he  took  a  prom- 
inent share  in  the  discussion  otthe  questions  that 
convulsed  that  body,  such  as  Texas  annexation, 
Oregon  joint  occupation,  the  Mexican  war  and 
its  consequent  territorial  acquisitions,  the  Wil- 
mot  proviso,  and  the  compromise  measures  of 
1850.  On  the  power  and  duty  of  congress  to 
prohibit  slavery  in  the  territories,  he  differed 
with  his  colleague.  Gen.  John  A.  Dix,  as  also 
with  his  subsequent  colleague.  Gov.  Seward. 
In  Dec.  1847,  he  introduced  in  the  senate  two 
resolutions  respecting  territorial  government, 
which  embodied  the  doctrine  of  "  popular  sov- 
ereignty," so  called.  This  being  anterior  to  the 
Nicholson  letter  of  Gen.  Cass,  and  long  previ- 
ous to  the  Kansas-Nebraska  act  of  Judge  Doug- 
las, the  credit  of  propounding  that  doctrine  be- 
longs to  him  rather  than  to  either  of  them. 
"While  in  the  senate  he  was  the  ardent  advocate 
of  a  branch  mint  in  the  city  of  New  York,  of 
the  coinage  of  three-cent  pieces,  and  of  the  free 
circulation  of  weekly  newspapers  through  the 
mails  within  the  counties  where  they  are  pub- 
lished, lie  was  an  effective  debater,  exerted  a 
strong  influence  in  the  senate,  and  was  honored 
by  it  with  the  chairmanship  of  the  committee 
of  finance.  Mr.  Dickinson's  course  on  the 
slavery  question  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the 
conservative  or  "hunker"  section  of  the  de- 
mocracy of  New  York,  and  rallied  around  him 
nuniert)us  friends  in  all  parts  of  the  Union,  and 
especially  in  the  southern  states.  He  was 
brought  forAvard  as  a  democratic  candidate  for 


the  presidency  in  1852,  and  on  one  of  the  bal- 
lots in  the  national  convention  he  received  the 
influential  vote  of  Virginia.  But  the  hostility 
of  the  radicals  in  the  New  York  delegation  was 
implacable.  They  rallied  upon  Gov.  Marcy  as 
their  candidate.  The  inability  of  Mr.  Dickin- 
son to  secure  the  united  vote  of  his  state  in  the 
convention  was  sufficient  (had  there  been  no 
other  obstacle)  to  prevent  his  nomination.  On 
the  election  of  Mr.  Pierce  to  the  ])residency, 
Mr.  Dickinson  was  strongly  pressed  for  the  sec- 
retaryship of  state.  His  rival.  Gov.  Marcj-,  was 
selected,  while  he  was  appointed  collector  of 
the  port  of  New  York,  but  he  refused  the  ofiice. 
For  4  years  Marcy  wielded  the  federal  patron- 
age of  the  state  against  him.  Tliis  was  a  heavy 
blow  to  his  political  influence.  Still  a  large 
band  of  adherents  continued  faithful  to  him. 
The  spirit  with  which  he  spurned  the  collector- 
ship  was  generally  applauded  by  his  friends. 
He  now  withdrew  to  his  rural  retreat  at  Bing- 
hamton,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  practice  of 
the  law  ;  and  for  the  last  few  years  he  has  in- 
dicated only  tlirough  an  occasional  letter  or 
speech  that  he  still  takes  an  interest  in  public 
affairs.  Mr.  Dickinson  is  a  ready  nisi  prius 
lawyer,  a  strong,  dashing  speaker,  quick  to  see 
and  seize  tlie  point  in  controversy,  apt  at  repar- 
tee, with  a  strong  vein  of  humor,  and  well  suited 
to  the  exigencies  of  American  politics,  whether 
encountered  on  the  "  stump,"  in  the  convention, 
or  the  senate  chamber. 

DICKINSON,  John,  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Maryland,  Nov.  13,  1732,  died  in  Wil- 
mington, Delaware,  Feb.  14,  1808.  He  studied 
law  in  Philadelphia,  and  subsequently  at  the 
Temple,  London,  and  upon  returning  to  Ameri- 
ca practised  with  considerable  success  at  the 
bar.  Upon  being  elected  to  the  Pennsylvania 
house  of  assembly  in  1764,  he  evinced  unusual 
capacities  for  a  legislator,  and  was  on  all  occa- 
sions a  ready  and  energetic  debater.  At  the 
same  time  he  became  known  by  his  publications 
upon  the  attempts  of  the  mother  country  to  in- 
fringe the  liberties  of  the  colonies.  In  1765  he 
was  elected  a  deputy  from  Pennsylvania  to  the 
first  colonial  congress,  the  resolutions  passed 
by  which  were  drawn  up  by  him.  In  1768 
he  published  his  "Farmer's  Letters  to  the  In- 
habitants of  the  British  Colonies,"  which  were 
republished  in  London  with  a  preface  by  Dr. 
Franklin,  and  subsequently  in  French  in  Paris. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  first  continental  con- 
gress in  1774,  and  of  the  state  papers  put  forth 
by  that  body  some  of  the  most  important,  in- 
cluding the  "  Declaration  to  the  Armies,"  the 
2  petitions  to  the  king,  and  the  "Address  to  the 
States,"  were  the  production  of  his  pen.  He, 
however,  opposed  the  adoption  of  the  "  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,"  believing  that  the 
movement  was  premature,  and  that  compromise 
was  still  practicable,  and  was  one  of  the  few 
members  of  congress  who  did  not  sign  that  in- 
strument. So  unpopular  did  he  become  with 
his  constituents  for  his  course  on  this  occasion, 
that  for  several  years  ho  was  absent  from  the 


DICKINSON 


DICTATOR 


457 


pulilio  councils,  although  in  the  interim  ho  sig- 
iiilied  his  devotion  to  the  American  cause  by 
serving  as  a  private  soldier  in  Delaware  against 
tlio  British  forces.  In  1779  he  returned  to  con- 
gress as  a  member  from  Delaware,  and  wrote  the 
"  Address  to  the  States"  of  May  2G.  lie  was 
subsequently  president  of  the  states  of  Delaware 
and  Pennsylvania  successively,  and  a  member 
of  the  federal  convention  for  framing  a  consti- 
tution. In  1788  appeared  his  "Fabius"  letters, 
advocating  the  adoption  of  the  new  constitu- 
tion. Another  series  over  the  same  signature, 
on  the  relations  of  the  United  States  with 
France,  published  in  1797,  was  his  last  work. 
His  political  writings  were  published  in  2  vols. 
in  1801.  He  was  a  man  of  elegant  learning  and 
fine  conversational  powers. 

DICKINSON,  JoNATHAX,  an  American  Pres- 
byterian clergyman,  born  in  Hatfield,  Mass., 
April  22,  1G88,  died  in  Elizabethtown,  N.  J., 
Oct.  17,  1747.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  col- 
lege in  170G,  and  2  or  3  years  afterward  was 
installed  as  pastor  of  the  only  Presbyterian  con- 
gregation at  that  time  existing  in  Elizabethtown, 
N.  J.,  which  I'elationship  continued  until  his 
death.  His  parish  comprised  not  only  Eliza- 
bethtown, but  the  adjoining  townships  of  Rah- 
way,  Westfield,  Union,  Springfield,  and  part  of 
Chatham.  After  the  separation  of  the  New 
Jersey  churches  from  the  synod  of  Philadelphia 
in  1741,  it  was  determined  to  establish  a  col- 
legiate institution  in  the  former  colony,  and  a 
charter  for  the  college  of  New  Jersey  was  ob- 
tained from  acting  Governor  Hamilton.  The 
first  classes  were  opened  in  Elizabethtown,  and 
Dickinson  was  elected  president.  His  services 
were  acceptable  in  an  eminent  degree,  but  he 
did  not  live  to  confer  the  scholastic  degrees 
upon  his  first  class.  His  high  reputation  among 
his  contemporaries,  as  a  preacher  and  a  contro- 
versialist, is  well  sustained  by  his  published  ser- 
mons and  theological  treatises. 

DICKINSON  COLLEGE.    See  Caelisle. 

DICKSON,  a  N.  N.  W.  co.  of  Tenn.,  bound- 
ed N.  E.  by  Cumberland  river,  and  drained  by 
several  of  its  affluents  ;  area,  about  650  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1850,  8,404,  of  whom  2,118  were  slaves. 
It  has  a  rolling  surface  and  a  tolerably  fertile 
soil.  Grain,  hay,  and  live  stock  are  the* principal 
staples.  In  1850  the  productions  were  388,731 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  60,985  of  oats,  and  10,- 
148  lbs.  of  wool.  There  were  20  churches,  and 
1,755  pupils  attending  public  schools.  The  Cum- 
berland river  is  navigable  by  steamboats  along 
the  border  of  the  county.     Capital,  Charlotte. 

DICKSON,  Samitel  Henry,  an  American  phy- 
sician, born  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  in  Sept.  1798. 
He  was  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1814, 
and  immediately  after  commenced  the  study  of 
medicine  in  his  native  city;  during  the  prev- 
alence of  the  yellow  fever  there  in  1817,  ho 
practised  for  a  time.  In  1818-19  he  attended 
the  medical  course  of  lectures  of  the  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  graduating  in  the  latter 
year,  at  once  entered  upon  the  practice  of  his 
profession.    He  was  instrumental  in  the  estab- 


lishment of  a  medical  college  in  Charleston,  and 
on  its  organization  in  1824  he  was  called  to  tho 
chair  of  institutes  and  practice  of  medicine.  In 
1832  he  retired  from  this  position,  but  in  the 
following  year,  on  the  reorganization  of  the  in- 
stitution as  the  medical  college  of  the  state  of 
South  Carolina,  he  was  reelected.  In  1847  he 
was  called  to  succeed  Dr.  Revere  in  the  profes- 
sorship of  the  practice  of  medicine  in  the  uni- 
versity of  New  York,  which  he  filled  during  3 
successive  years,  till  in  1850  he  was  induced, 
at"  tlie  earnest  solicitation  of  his  former  asso- 
ciates in  the  medical  college  of  the  state  of 
South  Carolina,  to  ^-eturn  to  his  professorship 
in  that  institution.  In  1858  he  was  called  to 
the  chair  of  practice  of  medicine  in  the  Jeffer- 
son medical  college,  Philadelphia,  which  he  now 
fills.  Dr.  Dickson  has  contributed  many  papers 
on  subjects  connected  with  his  profession  to 
various  medical  journals  througliout  the  United 
States,  and  is  beside  the  author  of  the  follow- 
ing books  :  "  Manual  of  Pathology  and  Practice 
of  Medicine,"  published  in  New  York ;  "  Essays  on 
Pathology  and  Therapeutics"  (2  vols.  8vo.,  New 
York,  1845) ;  "  Essays  on  Life,  Sleep,  Pain,  &c." 
(12mo.,  Philadelphia,  1852);  "Elements  of  Medi- 
cine (8vo.,  Philadelphia,  1835).  In  addition  to 
these  professional  labors,  he  has  delivered  nu- 
merous speeclies,  lectures,  and  addresses  on 
various  subjects  of  general  utility  or  interest. 
It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  note  that  he  delivered  the 
first  temperance  address  ever  heard  south  of 
Mason  and  Dixon's  line. 

DICQUEMARE,  Jacques  Feaxoois,  a  French 
naturalist  and  astronomer,  born  in  Havre,  March 
7,  1733,  died  March  29s  l'J'89-  He  was  a  Cath- 
olic priest;  became  professor  of  experimental 
physics  at  Havre,  member  of  the  academy  of 
Rouen  and  of  the  royal  marine  academy,  and 
invented  several  useful  instruments  in  connec- 
tion with  astronomy  and  navigation.  He  is 
better  known,  however,  by  his  researches  into 
the  natural  history  of  zoophytes,  infusoria,  and 
mollusks,  and  particularly  by  his  interesting  dis- 
coveries relative  to  sea  anemones,  on  which  he 
published  an  essay  in  French  and  English  (4to., 
London,  1774).  He  designed  an  instrument 
called  the  cosmoplane,  by  means  of  which  he 
solved  problems  in  nautical  astronomy.  Beside 
more  than  60  papers  in  the  Journal de 2iJiysique, 
he  left  an  Index  geographique  (4to.,  1769) ; 
Ideegenerale  de  Vastronomie  (Paris,  1769) ;  Coji- 
naissance  de  Vastronomie  (8vo.,  1771). 

DICTATOR,  the  chief  magistrate  in  the 
cities  of  the  ancient' Latin  confederacy,  in  Alba, 
Tusculum,  &c.  The  Romans  adopted  the  word 
from  their  Latin  neighbors,  and  applied  it  in 
the  earliest  period  of  the  republic  to  exception- 
al magistrates  appointed  in  times  of  danger, 
with  nearly  absolute  power  over  life  and  prop- 
erty, from  which  there  was  no  appeal  to  law 
or  people.  The  dictator  was  usually  nominated 
by  the  senate,  and  appointed  by  one  of  the  con- 
suls, for  6  months,  during  which  time  the  con- 
suls and  other  regular  magistrates  continued  in 
their  oflice,  though  subject  to  his  dictates,  and 


4^8 


DICTATOR 


DICTIONARY 


deprived  temporarily  of  their  badges  of  digni- 
ty. The  i><)\ver  of  the  dictator  was  mostly  limit- 
ed to  one  object,  and  particularly  to  foreign 
affairs.  Being  elected,  he  appointed  his  lieu- 
tenant or  master  of  the  horse  {nuigister  eqiii- 
tum),  and  surrounded  liimself  with  his  24  lie- 
tors  (twice  as  many  as  attended  the  consuls), 
armed  witli  fa-^ces  and  axes,  and  Avell  adapted 
to  strike  terror  into  the  people.  lie  was  lim- 
ted  only  in  regard  to  the  use  of  the  public 
money,  and  responsible  only  after  the  expira- 
tion of  his  term ;  he  was  not  allowed  to  leave 
Italy,  or  to  appear  on  horseback  witliin  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  city.  Officers  bearing  the  same 
title  were  also  sometimes  appointed  for  certain 
civil  or  religious  purposes,  as  for  public  solem- 
nities, fixing  the  nail  in  the  Capitoline  temple 
of  Jupiter  {duvijigoidl  caiisd),  &c.  Thisofiice 
was  quite  harmless,  but  in  later  periods  dicta- 
tors were  api)ointed  reipubliccB  constituendm 
causa  (to  form  a  new  constitution),  such  as  Sylla 
and  Oresar,  whose  arbitrary  poAver  destroyed 
the  republic.  The  first  Roman  dictator,  Lar- 
tins,  was  appointed  9  years  after  the  establish- 
ment of  the  republic  (501  B.  C),  to  save  the 
state  from  the  threatening  allies  of  Tarquin,  the 
esi^elled  king,  and  the  more  dangerous  disturb- 
ances within  the  walls.  The  young  republic, 
based  on  aristocratic  foundations,  was  distract- 
ed by  the  greedy  and  exclusive  spirit  of  the 
patricians,  and  the  threats  of  the  oi^pressed  but 
unsubmissive  and  unruly  plebeians.  The  pub- 
lic lands  were  in  the  grasp  of  the  former,  the 
latter  were  poor  and  degraded.  The  danger 
from  the  supporters  of  Tarquin  was  imminent; 
the  senate  commanded  new  levies,  but  the  peo- 
ple refused  to  obey,  declaring  that  they  had 
nothing  to  defend,  and  that  no  foreign  yoke 
could  bring  upon  them  greater  hardships  than 
those  they  endured.  In  their  disobedience  they 
were  protected  by  the  law  recently  passed 
through  the  efforts  of  Valerius  Poplicola,  which 
permitted  every  citizen,  condemned  to  any  severe 
jjunishment,  to  appeal  to  the  people.  To  evade 
the  force  of  this  popular  law,  the  senate  agreed 
upon  the  extraordinary  measure  of  electing  a 
single  magistrate  with  almost  regal  power.  The 
people  confirmed  the  decree,  and  the  success 
and  honesty  of  Lartius  proved  worthy  of  the 
new  dignity.  In  the  following  year,  another 
dictator,  Aulus  Posthumius,  destroyed  the  last 
hopes  of  the  banished  king,  in  a  battle  fought 
near  Lake  Regillus.  This  battle,  in  which  the  2 
sons  of  the  unhappy  Tarquin  fell,  gave  peace  to 
the  Romans.  Not  less  remarkable  were  the  ser- 
vices of  the  dictator  L.  Quintius  Cincinnatus. 
"When  he  was  chosen  dictator,  the  iEqui  had 
surrounded  and  threatened  to  destroy  a  consu- 
lar army.  Cincinnatus  routed  them,  and  the 
vanquished  army  had  to  pass  under  the  yoke. 
Rewarded  with  a  triumph,  and  with  the  pardon 
of  his  banished  son  Oasso,  he  resigned  his  dig- 
nity within  17  days.  0.  M,  Rutilus  (356  B.  0.) 
was  the  first  plebeian  appointed  to  the  dictator- 
ship, and  M.  G.  Pera  (216)  was  the  last  dic- 
lator,  in  the  original  sense  of  the  word;  for 


the  same  dignity,  as  bestowed  on  Sylla  (82), 
and  3  times  on  Cfesar  (47,  45,  and  44),  meant 
only  unlimited,  despotic  sway.  Mark  Antony 
abolished  it  altogether. — In  modern  history,  the 
word  dictator,  beside  being  a  title  of  some  reg- 
ular chief  magistrates  in  South  America,  desig- 
nates a  man  api)ointed  in  times  of  danger,  le- 
gally or  illegally,  to  save  a  struggling  nation, 
and  vested  with  all  its  power,  without  any  re- 
gard to  law  or  constitution.  This  power  has 
often  been  exercised  in  ancient  and  modern 
times,  though  not  always  under  the  same  name. 
In  the  French  revolution  it  was  the  dream  of 
Marat,  and  Robespierre  exercised  it  almost  fully, 
by  the  influence  of  terrorism  on  the  people  and 
the  convention,  but  fell  before  he  could  achieve 
his  fanatical  design  of  remodelling  the  world. 
Poland  had  an  eminent  dictator  in  Kosciuszko 
(1794).  The  revolution  of  1830  proclaimed 
(Dec.  6)  Gen.  Chlojjicki  naczelnilc ;  he  was  a 
good  general,  but  proved  a  wavering  and  worse 
than  useless  dictator ;  he  resigned,  and  fought 
as  a  brave  soldier.  In  the  unhappy  rising  of 
1846,  Tyssowski  was  for  a  few  days  dictator  in 
Cracow.  In  the  late  Hungarian  revolution, 
Kossuth  exercised  dictatorial  influence  before 
and  after  the  declaration  of  independence,  April 
14,  1849,  but  within  the  strictest  limits  of  con- 
stitutionality, voluntarily  narrowed  by  himself. 
Gorgey  took  the  name  and  burden  of  dictator- 
ship only  for  a  few  days,  and  for  the  use  of  it 
in  the  surrender  of  Vilagos,  Aug.  13,  1849,  re- 
ceived the  curse  of  his  army  and  nation.  Ma- 
nino  in  Venice,  and  Mazzini  in  Rome  (1848-9), 
acted  like  Kossuth,  with  the  same  zeal  and  ac- 
tivity, and  the  same  result.  The  establishment 
of  a  dictatorship  was  unsuccessfully  attempted 
in  Paris,  shortly  after  the  revolution  of  February 
(May,  1848). 

DICTIONARY  (Lat.  dictio,  a  word),  in  its 
ordinary  acceptation,  a  book  containing  the 
words  of  a  language,  in  alphabetical  order,  with 
a  definition  annexed  to  each.  A  complete  dic- 
tionary would  fulfil  the  same  oflBce  with  respect 
to  language  that  a  universal  cyclopasdia  fulfils 
with  respect  to  arts,  sciences,  and  literature — 
giving  an  account  of  the  origin  and  applications 
of  the  verbal  symbols  of  ideas  and  facts,  as  the 
latter  gives  an  account  of  the  ideas  and  facts 
themselves.  It  Avould,  therefore,  state  the  ety- 
mology of  words,  and  note  their  variations  in 
meaning  through  the  successive  periods  of  a 
literature.  A  glossary  is  a  dictionary  of  obso- 
lete, pirovincial,  or  technical  words;  and  the 
term  lexicon,  though  hardly  distinguished  by  us- 
age from  dictionary,  is  more  frequently  applied 
to  vocabularies  of  the  ancient  and  learned  lan- 
guages, with  the  definitions  and  explanations  in 
some  modern  language.  The  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans appear  not  to  have  employed  dictionaries 
in  learning  foreign  languages,  but  uniformly  to 
have  availed  themselves  of  conversation  with 
foreigners.  Nor  have  any  early  attempts  at 
Greek  lexicography  been  preserved.  The  old- 
est extant  Greek  dictionary  is  by  Apollonius 
ot  Alexandria,  a  contemporary  of  Augustus 


DICTIONARY 


459 


whose  "  ITomeric  Lexicon  "  {At^eis  'OfirjptKai), 
tlioiigh  much  interpolated,  lias  becMi  of  value  in 
modern  times  in  inter|)retiiig  the  idioms  of  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey.  Erotianns.  a  Cireek  writer 
in  the  reign  of  Nero,  made  a  glossary  of  all 
the  learned  words  found  in  Hippocrates.  Sub- 
serpK-nt  (Jreek  dictionaries  were  the  "  Ono- 
masticon"  of  Julius  Pollux  (about  A.  D.  177), 
contniniug  explanations  of  the  most  important 
words  relating  to  various  prominent  subjects, 
the  arrangement  being  topical  instead  of  alpha- 
betical ;  the  dictionary  (KKXoyt])  of  Attic  words 
and  phrases,  by  Phryinchus,  an  Arabian  or  Bi- 
thynian,  who  lived  under  Marcus  Aurelius;  the 
dictionary  of  the  Avords  that  occur  in  Plato, 
by  Tinifous  the  sophist,  probably  of  the  3d  cen- 
tury, which,  though  brief,  contains  the  best  ex- 
planations of  terms  that  have  come  down  from 
the  ancient  grammarians;  a  lost  universal  lexi- 
con by  Diogenianus  of  Ileraclea,  which  is  often 
quoted  by  Hesychius  and  Suidas,  and  which 
was  abridged  from  an  elaborate  work  by  Pam- 
philus,  also  lost ;  the  dictionary  to  the  works 
of  10  Attic  orators,  by  Valerius  Ilarpocration, 
of  unknown  date,  compiled  from  works  now 
lost,  and  of  the  highest  importance  for  its  ex- 
planations of  legal  and  political  terms,  and  its 
accounts  of  persons  and  things  mentioned  in  the 
Attic  orations;  the  comprehensive  Greek  dic- 
tionary of  Hesychius,  an  Alexandrian  gramma- 
rian of  the  4th  century,  which,  though  much 
disfigured  and  interpolated  in  its  present  form,  is 
a  vast  accumulation  of  most  heterogeneous  ma- 
terials, and  has  been  a  principal  source  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  Greek  language  and  of  many 
ancient  customs ;  the  lexicon  (Xe^fov  T.waycoyr}) 
attributed  to  Photius,  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople (died  A.  D.  891) ;  and  the  Greek  lexicon 
ascribed  to  Suidas,  of  unknown  date,  first  quoted 
in  the  12th  century,  which  contains  both  com- 
mon and  proper  names  alphabetically  arranged, 
and  is  valuable  for  the  literary  history  of  anti- 
quity, and  for  its  citations  from  ancient  authors, 
as  well  as  for  its  explanations  of  words. — The  first 
Roman  writer  on  lexicography  was  the  learned 
M.  Terentius  Varro,  whose  work,  De  Lingua 
Ldtina,  is  however  rather  a  voluminous  treatise 
on  the  etymology  and  peculiar  uses  of  words 
than  a  dictionary.  Fragments  only  of  it  have 
been  preserved.  Tlie  elaborate  work  of  Verrius 
Flaccus,  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  1st  century, 
entitled  i>(j  Signifimtu  Verhorum,  \s  lost;  but 
it  was  the  basis  of  a  valuable  compilation  by 
Pompeius  Festus,  in  the  3d  or  4th  century,  en- 
titled De  Significationo  Verboriini,  which  was 
abridged  by  Paulus  Diaconus  in  the  8th  cen- 
tury. Oidy  one  imperfect  copy  of  the  work  of 
Festus  is  preserved.  The  words  are  classified 
alphabetically  according  to  the  initial  letter  of 
each,  but  the  order  of  the  subsequent  letters  is 
not  observed.  The  information  which  it  con- 
tains has  been  of  great  importance  on  many 
obscure  points  connected  with  antiquities,  my- 
tliology,  and  grammar.  Near  the  middle  of  the 
11th  century  Papias  of  Lombardy  compiled  a 
Latin  dictionary  from  the  glossaries  of  the  6th 


and  7th  centuries.  An  indication  of  progres- 
sive learning  in  Italy  in  the  13th  century  was 
the  C'atholicon  of  Giovanni  IJalbi,  a  Genoese 
moidc,  consisting  of  a  Latin  granunar  followed 
by  a  copious  dictionary.  The  work  is  in  Latin, 
forms  a  volume  of  great  bulk,  was  written  in 
1286,  and  is  now  celebrated  as  a  rare  typo- 
graphical curiosity,  its  first  edition  having  been 
jn-inted  by  Gutenberg  in  14G0.  The  Cornucopia 
of  Perotti,  bishop  of  Siponto,  printed  in  1489, 
was  a  copious  commentary  on  Miutial,  followed 
by  an  alphabetical  index  of  words,  and  was  of 
much  service  to  subsequent  compilers.  The 
first  edition  of  Calepino's  Latin  dictionary  ap- 
peared at  Reggio  in  1502.  At  first  only  a  Latin 
lexicon,  additions  of  the  corresponding  Italian, 
Greek,  German,  &c.,  Avords  Avere  successively 
made,  till  it  Avas  extended  (Basel,  1590-1027) 
to  11  languages;  and  it  is  still  the  most  complete 
polyglot  lexicon  for  the  European  languages. 
The  French  giA'e  the  name  calepinio  any  volumi- 
nous compilation.  An  epoch  in  Latin  lexicogra- 
phy was  made  by  the  publication  of  Robert 
Stephens's  Thesaurus  Linguce  Latince  (1532  ;  3d 
enlarged  edition,  1543),  Avhich  attempted  to  ex- 
hibit the  proper  use  of  Avords,  not  only  in  all  the 
anomalies  of  idiom,  but  in  every  minute  varia- 
tion of  sense.  The  most  noted  of  subsequent 
Lfctin  dictionaries  \s  t\xQ  Lexicon  totius  Latinita- 
tis  of  Facciolati  and  Forcellini  (Padua,  1771  ; 
3d  edition,  1831),  in  Avhich  every  Avord  is 
accompanied  by  its  Italian  and  its  Greek  cor- 
relative, and  Avhich  illustrates  every  meaning 
by  examples  from  the  classical  authors.  An 
English  edition,  edited  by  James  Bailey,  Avas 
published  in  London  in  1828.  Sir  Thomas 
Elyot  was  the  author  of  the  first  Latin-English 
dictionary  (London,  1538),  beyond  the  mere 
vocabularies  of  school  boys.  He  was  a  dis- 
tinguished scholar,  and  friend  of  Sir  Thomas 
More,  and  his  work  reached  the  3d  edition  in 
1545.  The  largest  similar  work  that  liad  pi'e- 
ceded  it  wastlie  Oriis  Vocahulorum,  printed  by 
Wynkin  de  Worde  in  1500  (5th  ed.,  1518),  which 
by  successive  improvements  became  the  popular 
Latin-English  dictionary  of  Ainsworth  (1736). 
The  most  eminent  Latin  lexicographers  since 
Forcellini  are  the  German  scholars  Scheller, 
Freund,  and  Georges.  The  Avork  of  Forcellini 
was  the  basis  of  the  Latin-English  dictionary 
of  F.  P.  Leverett  (Boston,  1830) ;  and  that  of 
Freund,  of  the  Latin-English  lexicon  of  E.  A. 
Andrews  (New  York,  1856). — The  first  modern 
Greek-Lalin  dictionary  was  that  of  Johannes 
Crastonus  of  Piacenza  (Milan,  1480  ;  printed 
also  by  Aldus,  1497),  AA^iich  Avas  for  many 
years  the  only  lexicographic  aid  for  the- stu- 
dent of  Greek.  Robert  Constautine  published 
at  Basel,  in  1562,  a  thesaurus  of  the  Greek 
language,  in  Avbich  he  had  the  assistance  of 
Gesner,  Turnebus,  Camerarius,  and  other  learn- 
ed contemporaries.  It  was  superseded  by  the 
Thesaurus  Lingum  Gracm  of  Henry  Stephens 
(Paris,  1572),  the  result  of  12  years'  labor, 
Avhicli  has  hardly  been  surpassed  in  the  compre- 
hensive and  copious  interpretation  of  Avords. 


460 


DICTI02^APwY 


DICTYS  OF  CRETE 


Its  arrangoment  is  not  in  the  alphabetical  order 
of  words  but  of  roots,  the  derivatives  and  com- 
pounds being  collected  after  each  root.  It  was 
the  basis  of  the  works  of  Scapula  and  Schre- 
veliiis.  The  most  thorough  subsequent  Greek 
lexicons  are  the  German  works  of  Schneider, 
Passow,  Seiler,  Eost,  and  Papo.  The  work  of 
Passow  was  the  basis  of  the  Greek-English 
lexicon  of  Liddell  and  Scott  (Oxford,  1845  ; 
New  York,  edited  by  Henry  Drisler,  1848). 
The  Greek  language  was  long  studied  through 
the  medium  of  the  Latin,  and  no  Greek-English 
lexicon  was  projected  until  the  present  cen- 
tury. The  first  of  these  that  was  announced 
was  that  of  John  Pickering  (Boston,  1826  ; 
many  subsequent  editions),  which  was  partially 
executed  in  1814.  It  was  preceded  in  publica- 
tion only  by  tlie  similar  English  work  of  John 
Jones  (1823). — The  first  standard  dictionaries 
of  modern  languages  were  produced  under  the 
patronage  of  learned  academies ;  the  oldest 
being  the  Italian  Vocahxilario  delta  Crusca^  first 
published  in  1612,  which  was  avowedly  found- 
ed on  Tuscan  principles,  made  the  14th  centu- 
ry the  Augustan  period  of  the  language,  and 
slighted  the  great  writers  of  the  16th  century. 
In  Spain  the  lexicon  of  Lebrixa  (1492)  and  the 
Tesoro  of  Covarrubias  (1611)  were  the  only 
dictionaries  of  note  till  the  new  academy  pro- 
duced its  great  work  (6  vols.,  Madrid,  1726-39), 
an  abridgment  of  which  was  immediately  pre- 
pared, the  5th  revised  edition  of  which  was 
issued  in  1817. — Though  German  lexicography 
begins  with  Hrabanus  Maurus,  a  contemporary 
of  Charlemagne,  yet  the  first  noteworthy  Ger- 
man lexicon  was  Lie  Teutsch  Sitrach  of  Maaler 
(Zurich,  1561),  and  the  first  learned  and  critical 
work  of  the  kind  was  Frisch's  Deutsch-  La  t.  TFor- 
terluch  (Berlin,  1741).  All  others  have  been 
superseded  successively  by  the  work  of  Adeluug 
(Leipsic,  1774),  and  that  of  the  brothers  Grimm 
(Leipsic,  1852  et  8eq. ;  the  2d  vol.,  reaching  to 
the  letter  E,  is  nearly  completed,  April,  1859). — 
The  dictionary  of  the  French  academy  was  pub- 
lished in  1694,  and  adopted  the  alphabetical  order 
in  its  2d  edition  in  1718.  The  6th  edition  was 
issued  in  1835.  The  first  volume  of  a  new,  re- 
vised, and  greatly  enlarged  edition  appeared  in 
1859.  It  reaches  only  to  the  word  abvsivement, 
and  the  work  if  continued  upon  the  same  scale 
promises  to  occupy  the  academy  for  many  gener- 
ations. The  dictionary  of  Trevoux,  named  from 
the  town  where  it  was  first  published  in  1704,  is 
at  once  a  dictionary  and  a  cyclopa3dia  of  curious 
knowledge.  It  was  enlarged  in  successive  edi- 
tions, till  in  1771  it  reached  its  present  magnitude, 
in  8  large  folio  vols.,  and  it  abounds  in  items 
of  antiquarian  and  philological  information. — ■ 
The  object  of  the  first  lexicographical  labors  in 
England  was  to  facilitate  the  study  of  the  Latin 
language,  and  bilingual  dictionaries  had  become 
connnon  while  those  designed  for  merely  Eng- 
lish readers  were  rare  and  meagre  productions. 
One  of  the  earliest  of  the  latter  was  that  of  Dr. 
John  Bullokar,  entitled  the  "  English  Exposi- 
tour"  rLondon,  1616),  explaining  5,080  of  what 


were  esteemed  the  "  hardest  words."  It  pass- 
ed through  many  editions.  Subsequent  works 
were  the  "  Glossographia,  or  Dictionary  of  Hard 
Words,"  by  Thomas  Blount  (London,  1656); 
the  "  New  World  of  English  Words,"  by  Edward 
Phillips,  the  nephew  and  pupil  of  Milton  (1658) ; 
and  tlie  "  Universal  Etymological  English  Dic- 
tionary," by  Nathan  Bailey  (London,  1726),  in 
which  the  first  attempt  was  made  to  give  a 
complete  collection  of  the  words  of  the  language, 
and  which  was  long  in  the  highest  repute,  and 
passed  through  at  least  27  editions.  An  in- 
terleaved copy  of  a  folio  edition  of  Bailey's 
dictionary  was  the  repository  of  the  articles 
collected  by  Dr.  Johnson  in  preparing  his  dic- 
tionary. The  work  of  Johnson,  after  8  years  of 
arduous  labor,  appeared  in  1755,  and  has  exerted 
an  influence  superior  to  any  other  in  fixing  the 
external  form  of  the  language  and  settling  the 
meaning  of  Avords.  He  first  introduced  into 
English  lexicography  the  plan  of  illustrating  the 
various  significations  of  words  by  examples  ex- 
tracted from  the  best  authors.  It  was  mucht  en- 
larged by  Todd  in  the  editions  of  1814  and  1827, 
and  has  been  the  basis  of  many  smaller  works. 
The  most  important  subsequent  dictionaries  are 
those  of  Richardson,  Webster,  and  Worcester. 
Richardson's  "  New  Dictionary  of  the  English 
Language"  (London,  2  vols.  4to.,  1835-'37)  is 
an  elaborate  work,  especially  valuable  to  the 
student  of  the  history  of  the  language.  Its  ar- 
rangement is  in  the  alphabetical  order  of  the 
primitives,  beneath  each  of  which  its  derivatives 
are  grouped.  Dr.  Noah  Webster  was  engaged 
36  years  on  his  "American  Dictionary  of  the 
English  Language,"  the  first  edition  of  which 
was  issued  in  1828,  in  New  York  (2  vols.  4to.), 
when  the  author  was  in  his  70th  year.  A  re- 
vised edition  appeared  in  1840  (2  vols.  8vo.), 
with  the  addition  of  several  thousand  words 
which  in  the  intervening  12  years  had  passed 
from  technological  science  into  common  lan- 
guage; and  a  revised  appendix  was  added  in 
1843.  A  new  edition,  revised  and  enlarged  by 
Prof.  C.  A.  Goodrich,  was  published  in  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  in  1848  (1  vol.  4to.,  1400  pages). 
This  work  surpasses  any  that  had  preceded  it 
in  the  comprelicnsiveness  of  its  plan,  the  copi- 
ousness of  its  vocabulary,  the  fulness  of  its  ety- 
mological department,  and  the  accuracy  and 
completeness  of  its  definitions.  Dr.  J.  E,  Wor- 
cester's quai'to  dictionary,  which  has  been  pre- 
ceded by  two  minor  and  preparatory  Avorks  of 
high  authority,  is  announced  to  be  issued  in  1859 
in  a  volume  of  about  1800  pages. — The  title  of 
dictionary  is  sometimes  given  to  alphabetically 
arranged  cyclopaadias,  as  dictionaries  of  biog- 
raphy, of  the  arts  and  sciences,  of  medicine, 
law,  manufactures,  commerce,  and  various  other 
departments.     (See  Cyclopaedia.) 

DIOTYS  of  Crete,  a  pseudonyme  of  the  au- 
thor of  a  history  of  the  Trojan  war,  from  which 
some  ancient  grammarians  have  imagined  that 
Homer  drew  materials  for  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey. 
The  MS.  of  the  work,  written  in  Phoenician 
characters,  is  said  to  have  been  found  in  the  au« 


DIDEROT 


461 


tlior's  tomb  at  Cnossns,  in  the  reign  of  Nero, 
who  caused  it  to  be  translated  into  Greek.  A 
Latin  version  of  the  first  5  hooks  has  come  down 
to  us,  but  the  work  is  commonly  regarded  as  a 
foro-ery.  Dictys  is  said  to  have  followed  Ido- 
meneus,  king  of  Crete,  to  the  siege  of  Troy. 

DIDEROT,  Denis,  a  French  writer  and 
philosopher,  born  in  Langres,  Oct.  5,  1713,  died 
in  Paris,  July  30,  1784.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
cutler,  and  was  first  educated  for  tlie  church, 
but  soon  gave  up  theology  to  enter  an  attorney's 
office  in  the  French  metropoUs.  Law,  however, 
did  not  occupy  his  time  so  mucli  as  literature 
and  science,  which  he  studied  with  enthusiastic 
diUgence.  He  was  then  ordered  by  his  father 
to  select  a  profession,  or  return  home ;  but  neg- 
lecting to  do  either,  he  was  deprived  of  his 
monthly  allowance  and  found  himself  without 
means.  Not  discouraged  in  the  least,  he  tried 
to  make  a  living  by  teaching  ;  and  though  often 
reduced  to  the  greatest  poverty,  his  devotion  to 
letters  and  his  careless  and  enthusiastic  disposi- 
tion carried  him  through  all  his  troubles,  not^ohly 
during  his  early  years,  but  during  the  whole  of 
his  life.  Still  penniless  and  unknown,  he  was 
married  in  1743,  under  somewhat  romantic  cir- 
cumstances, to  Mile.  Champion,  who  was  no  bet- 
ter treated  by  fortune  than  himself;  and  then  it 
was  that  he  began  to  try  his  pen.  He  wrote  an 
abridged  translation  of  Stanyan's  "  History  of 
Greece,"  and  contributed  to  a  "  Dictionary  of 
Medicine,"  accepting  at  the  same  time  any  lit- 
erary employment  that  was  ofl:ered  him  ;  thus  he 
wrote  for  a  preacher  6  sermons  which  brought 
him  50  crowns  apiece,  and  this  he  frequently  al- 
luded to  afterward  as  one  of  the  best  bargains 
he  ever  made.  His  domestic  life  was  far  from 
exemplary,  and  it  was  to  satisfy  the  pecuniary 
demands  of  a  woman,  Madame  de  Puisieux,  with 
whom  he  had  contracted  an  intimacy,  that  he 
wrote  his  Bssai  sin'  le  merite  et  la  vertu,  in  174-5 ; 
his  Pensees  philosophiqiies,  in  1746,  the  boldness 
of  which  made  a  deep  sensation,  and  was  pun- 
ished by  a  sentence  of  the  parliament ;  his  Bi- 
joux iiuliscrets,  a  collection  of  obscene  tales,  of 
which  he  was  himself  ashamed ;  and  his  Lettres 
sur  led  aveugles,  "for  the  use  of  those  who  see,"  in 
1749,  which  procured  him  at  once  an  acquaint- 
ance with  Voltaire  and  3  months'  imprisonment 
at  Vincennes,  where  he  was  often  visited  by 
Rousseau.  On  his  liberation,  having  got  rid  of 
his  mistress,  he  breathed  a  little  more  freely, 
and,  in  conjunction  with  D'Alembert,  framed 
the  plan  of  the  work  upon  which  his  reputation 
is  mostly  founded,  the  Encydopedie.  Its  pro- 
fessed aim  was  to  present  in  a  single  work  the 
truths  of  science,  the  principles  of  taste,  and  the 
processes  of  all  the  arts ;  but  it  was  in  fact  a 
vehicle  for  the  diffusion  of  new  ideas  among  the 
reading  public.  This  colossal  undertaking,  not- 
withstanding all  sorts  of  troubles  and  difficulties, 
■was  carried  through  by  the  unflinching,  energy 
of  Diderot,  who  was  the  soul  of  it.  The  pros- 
pectus of  the  work,  the  philosophical  system  of 
human  knowledge,  nearly  all  the  articles  upon 
ancient  philosophy,  and  all  those  on  the  trades 


and  industrial  pursuits,  are  from  his  fertile  pen, 
while  after  the  withdrawal  of  D'Alembert  he 
had  the  exclusive  supervision  of  the  whole. 
While  preparing  articles  on  the  mechanic  arts 
he  often  passed  entire  days  in  workshops,  ex- 
amuiing  the  machines  in  operation,  and  receiv- 
ing explanations  from  the  workmen,  not  unfre- 
quently  taking  their  place  himself.  The  most 
eminent  liberal  thinkers  of  France  ranged  them- 
selves imder  the  banner  of  the  Encyclojjklie,  2 
volumes  of  which  appeared  in  1751.  Its  hos- 
tility to  Christianity  had  been  anticipated,  and 
a  religious  party  was  already  formed  to  assail 
it.  Complaints  were  made  to  the  king,  and  by 
a  decree  of  the  royal  council  (Feb.  7,  1752)  the 
2  volumes  were  suppressed  and  the  printing  of 
others  forbidden  during  18  months.  This  suspen- 
sion was  revoked,  5  new  volumes  had  apj)eared 
in  1757,  and  the  work  had  4,000  subscribers, 
when  it  was  again  assailed  with  a  tempest  of 
denunciations.  Pompignan. attacked  Xho. pJiilo- 
sophes  in  the  academy,  Freron  in  the  Aniiee  lit- 
teraire,  Palissot  satirized  them  on  the  stage,  Le 
Chapelain  fulminated  against  them  in  ti  sermon 
before  the  king,  and  Le  Hayer  wrote  a  work  of 
21  volumes  (1757)  in  refutation  of  them.  The 
court,  the  parliament,  the  Sorbonne,  and  the 
threatre  combined  against  the  Encydopedie, 
which  was  again  suspended  (March  8,  1759). 
D'Alembert,  either  wearied  or  frightened,  de- 
serted his  partner,  and  Voltaire  advised  Diderot 
to  flee  from  his  country,  and  to  complete  his 
work  enjoying  the  hospitality  of  Catharine  of 
Russia.  He,  however,  struggled  firmly  against 
all  obstacles,  replying  to  no  raillery,  and  man- 
aging so  well  that  he  interested  in  his  behalf  the 
dukeof  Choiseul,  Malesherbes,  and  even  Madame 
de  Pompadour.  Permission  was  obtained  to 
continue  the  publication  at  Paris,  without  sub- 
jecting it  to  censorship ;  but  on  the  title-page 
Neufchatel  was  to  be  printed  instead  of  Paris, 
and  the  name  of  the  editor  was  left  blank.  The 
10  additional  volumes  were  thus  produced  with 
no  further  difficulty,  except  that  the  publisher 
clandestinely  mutilated  many  of  the  articles  in 
the  Litter  volumes  after  the  final  proofs  had  been 
received  from  the  editor.  While  engaged  on  the 
Encydopedie^  Diderot,  whose  elastic  mind  could 
grasp  every  subject,  wrote  books  of  various  kinds 
in  his  own  name,  and  greatly  contributed  to 
those  by  his  friends.  Thus  a  large  portion  of  Ray- 
nal's  Histoire pliiloiopMque  du  cammerce  des  Eu- 
ropeens  dans  les  deux  Indes  belongs  to  him,  whUe 
the  most  eloquent  pages  of  De  Vesprit,  by  Hel- 
vetius,  and  of  the  Systeme  de  la  nature^  by  D'Hol- 
bach,  are  attributed  to  his  pen.  The  artistical 
part  of  Grimm's  correspondence,  known  as  Les 
salons,  was  written  by  him,  and  several  letters  on 
different  subjects  bear  unmistakable  marks  of 
his  hand.  Under  the  impulse  of  his  generous 
nature,  Diderot  was  always  ready  to  help  the 
needy,  his  study  being  a  sort  of  consulting  office, 
where  every  one  was  welcome  to  good  advice 
or  more  substantial  aid.  His  personal  influence 
over  his  tiine  could  scarcely  be  overrated.  In 
1757  and  1758  he  produced  2  domestic  dramas, 


462       DIDIUS  SALVIUS  JULIANUS 


DIDOT 


Le  fih  natnrel  and  Le  pere  de  famille,  which, 
though  dull  performances,  paved  the  way  to  the 
change  afterward  accomplished  in  the  dramatic 
stylo  in  France.  Ilis  industry  brought  him  in 
money,  but  his  careless  manner  of  spending  it 
and  his  dissipated  habits  frequently  involved  him 
in  pecuniary  difficulties.  In  1765  he  was  con- 
strained to  offer  his  library  for  sale.  Catharine 
II.  of  Russia,  being  apprised  of  the  fact,  pur- 
chased it  for  15,000  francs,  bu|t  on  condition 
that  he  would  be  the  keeper  of  it  at  a  salary  of 
1,000  francs  a  year;  she  moreover  ordered  50 
years'  income  to  be  paid  at  once.  When  the 
Encydo^Ji'die  was  completed,  Diderot  paid  a 
visit  to  his  protectress,  and  spent  several  months 
at  her  court,  where  he  was  treated  Avith  great 
resf)ect.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he  published 
Jacques  le  fatal iste  and  Lareligieuse^  2  novels 
which  have  been  very  extensively  read,  and 
in  17V9  his  Essai  stir  les  regiies  de  Claude  et 
de  Neron^  which  is  nothing  else  than  an  enco- 
mium of  Seneca.  His  later  years  were  passed 
in  comparative  quiet  and  comfort.  He  super- 
intended the  education  of  his  daughter,  and, 
to  the  astonishment  of  his  friends,  used  to  read 
the  Bible  with  the  young  girl.  He  had  been 
all  his  life  considered  a  couiirmed  atheist,  a  rep- 
utation which  his  vehement  attacks  on  the  re- 
ligion of  the  day  served  to  sustain.  During 
the  last  year  of  his  life,  he  was  frequently  vis- 
ited by  the  curate  of  St.  Sulpice,  with  whom 
he  was  pleased  to  talk  on  religious  subjects ;  and 
if  he  did  not  consent  to  any  recantation  of  his 
philosophical  opinions,  he  showed  no  particular 
enmity  to  Chi-istianity.  Toward  the  end  of 
1783  he  had  an  apoplectic  fit,  and  peacefully 
breathed  his  last  among  a  circle  of  afflicted 
friends.  He  left  an  only  daughter,  Mme.  de 
Vatideul,  Avho  wrote  Memoires  of  his  life.  His 
friend  Naigeon  published  an  edition -of  his 
works,  in  15  vols.  8vo.,  1798 ;  but  a  more  com- 
plete one,  in  22  vols.,  appeard  in  1822.  To  this 
must  be  added  his  Memoires  et  ceuvres  inedites, 
4  vols.  8vo.,  printed  in  1830. 
■  DIDIUS  SALVIUS  JULIA:N'US,  Maeous, 
Eoraan  emperor  for  a  short  time  imder  the 
name  of  Marcus  Didius  Commodus  Severus  Ju- 
lianus,  born  about  A.  D,  183,  killed  June  2,  193. 
Having  filled  successively  the  offices  of  quaestor, 
a?dile,  and  prfBtor,  he  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  a  legion  in  GrPrmany,  and  afterward  to 
the  government  of  Belgica.  Here  he  showed 
much  energy  in  repressing  an  insurrection  of 
the  Chanci,  a  tribe  living  on  the  banks  of  the 
Elbe,  and  as  a  recompense  for  this  service  he 
was  made  consul.  He  also  distinguished  him- 
self against  the  Catti,  was  governor  of  Dalmatia, 
and  afterward  of  Lower  Germany,  and  was  then 
appointed  to  the  charge  of  the  commissariat 
in  Italy.  Having  been  accused  of  conspiring 
against  the  emperor  Commodus,  he  was  acquit- 
ted of  the  charge,  while  liis  accuser  was  con- 
denmed  to  death.  After  this  he  was  governor 
of  IVithynia  in  Asia  Minor,  was  again  consul,  A, 
D.  179,  and  having  filled  the  oftice  of  proconsul 
of  Africa,  returned  to  liome,  where  he  was 


made  commander  of  the  city  guards,  and  where 
he  lived  in  an  extravagant  and  licentious  man- 
ner. After  the  assassination  of  Pertinax,  the 
prretorian  guards  who  committed  the  deed  of- 
fered the  imperial  throne  to  him  who  would 
pay  the  highest  price ;  and  after  a  brisk  compe- 
tition wath  Sulpicianus,  the  prefect  of  the  city, 
Didius  succeeded  in  obtaining  it.  The  senate 
was  obedient  to  the  will  of  the  unruly  soldiery, 
and  Didius  was  acknowledged  emperor.  But 
the  people  were  not  so  cringing,  and  the  new- 
made  ruler,  whenever  he  appeared  in  public,  was 
received  with  cries  of  "  Eobber  and  parricide." 
Moreover,  he  Avas  not  recognized  as  emperor  by 
Septimius  Severus,  who  held  command  of  3 
legions  in  Illyria,  by  Olodius  Albinus,  nor  by 
Pescennius  Niger,  who  held  like  commands  in 
Britain  and  Syria  respectively.  Severus,  having 
been  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  troops,  marched 
upon  Rome,  and  was  recognized  by  the  senate. 
Deserted  by  almost  all  his  former  friends  and 
adherents,  Didius  was  murdered  in  his  palace 
by  a  common  soldier,  having  reigned  a  little 
more  than  2  months,  and  Severus  established 
himself  in  his  place. 

DIDO,  or  Elissa,  a  Phoenician  princess  and 
founder  of  Carthage,  daughter  of  Mutgo,  Being, 
or  Agenor,  king  of  Tyre.  According  to  Justin, 
she  was  the  wife  of  her  uncle  Acerbas,  priest  of 
Hercules,  who  w^as  murdered  for  his  wealth  by 
Pygmalion,  the  son  and  successor  of  Mutgo. 
Dido  dissembled  her  sorrow,  and  with  a  num- 
ber of  disaffected  Tyrian  nobles  succeeded  in 
escaping  from  her  native  country,  bearing  with 
her  the  treasures  of  her  murdered  husband. 
The  party  first  landed  at  the  island  of  Cyprus, 
whence  they  carried  oflf  by  force  80  maidens, 
and  then  pursuing  their  journey  disembarked 
on  the  coast  of  Africa,  purchased  as  much  land 
as  might  be  covered  with  tlie  hide  of  a  bull,  and 
by  cutting  the  hide  into  thin  strips  enclosed  a 
large  tract  of  country,  on  which  the  city  of 
Carthage  soon  began  to  rise.  The  colony  pros- 
pered so  well  as  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  a  neigh- 
boring chief,  Iliarbas,  who  demanded  the  hand 
of  Dido  in  marriage,  and  threatened  her  with 
war  in  case  of  refusal.  The  queen  asked  3 
months  for  consideration,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  she  caused  a  funeral  pile  to  be  prepared, 
and  mounting  upon  it  plunged  a  sword  into  her 
breast.  Her  story  has  been  told  with  many 
variations  and  embellishments,  and  Virgil,  with 
a  disregard  of  chronology,  which  the  chai'm  of 
his  narration  may  well  excuse,  represents  her 
as  killing  herself  for  unrequited  love  of  ^neas. 
The  date  of  her  founding  of  Carthage  is  thought 
to  be  878  B.  C,  though  Philistus  ""places  it  37 
or  even  50  years  before  the  taking  of  Troy 
(1234  B.  C),  and  Servius  as  late  as  40  years 
before  the  founding  of  Rome  (793  B.  C). 

DIDOT,  the  name  of  a  French  family  of 
printers  who  have  greatly  contributed  to  im- 
prove the  art  of  printing  in  their  country.^  The 
firm,  now  existing  under  the  name  of  Firmin 
Didot  freres,  was  first  established  in  1713  by 
Feanqois  Didot,  who  made  himself  known  by 


DIDOT 


DIEBITSCH 


463 


several  important  publications,  and  gained  such 
popularity  as  to  Ije  ajipoiiited  syndic  of  tho 
booksellers'  corporation.  His  two  sons,  Fran- 
gois  Ambeoise  (1730-1804)  and  Piehke  Fran- 
cois (1732-95),  increased  the  business,  and  paid 
especial  attention  to  the  printing  department. 
■While  the  latter  estabUshed  paper  nulls  at  Es- 
Bonne,  near  Paris,  tjie  former  materially  improv- 
ed the  casting  of  types,  the  best  specimens  of 
which  ever  seen  in  Franco  were  from  his  type 
foundery ;  and  liis  standard  editions  were  ad- 
mired for  tbeir  correctness  and  beauty.  The 
Collection  dArtois  (G-i  vols.  ISino.),  and  the 
Collection  cles  cla$siques  Fran^uis,  printed  at 
once  in  4to.,  8vo.,  and  18mo.,  by  order  of  Louis 
XVI.,  are  still  liighly  valued.  Among  tbe  sons 
of  Pierre,  IIexki,  a  type-founder,  is  known  for 
the  microscopical  types  with  which  he  print- 
ed some  little  volumes  which  are  esteemed  as 
gems  of  their  kind ;  and  St.  Lkger  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  paper.  The  sons  of  Fran- 
cois Ambroise,  Pierre  (1760-1853)  and  Firmix 
(1764-1836),  wJio  succeeded  their  father  at  the 
beginning  of  the  revolution,  added  to  the  good 
name  of  the  firm  by  publishing  magnificently 
executed  folio  editions  of  French  and  Latin 
writers,  such  as  Racine,  Horace,  Virgil,  &c., 
known  as  Editions  du  Louvre.  Firmiu  also 
aimed  to  furnish  the  general  reader  with  cheap 
and  correct  editions.  He  invented,  or  more 
correctly,  revived  the  stereotype  process,  which 
he  brouglit  at  once  to  comparative  perfection, 
and  which  has  proved  so  invaluable  to  the 
public  and  tlie  book  trade.  A  rhan  of  classi- 
cal attainments,  he  translated  Virgil's  "Bucol- 
ics" and  Theocritus's  "  Idyls."  He  was  elect- 
ed in  1827  to  the  chamber  of  deputies.  His 
sons,  Ambroise  Firmin,  born  in  1790,  and  Hta- 
cixtde,  born  in  1794,  have  succeeded  him  in 
the  management  of  the  firm,  enhancing  its  im- 
portance by  well  devised  improvements  and 
additions.  Their  publishing  establishment  has 
scarcely  a  rival  in  the  world.  Its  head-quar- 
ters are  in  the  rue  Jacob  in  Paris,  while  the 
various  manufactories,  oflaces,  and  shops  con- 
nected with  it  are  established  in  the  suburbs 
or  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Paris.  While  the 
greatest  attention  is  given  to  perfecting  the 
present  system  of  printing,  every  new  process 
receives  a  fair  trial.  The  assortment  of  type  is 
jierhaps  the  richest  to  be  found  in  any  private 
establishment,  including  not  only  every  possible 
variety  of  modern,  but  also  Greek  and  oriental 
characters.  A  complete  catalogue  of  their  pub- 
lications would  cover  hundreds  of  pages,  and 
include  tho  titles  of  thousands  of  works.  Among 
those  especially  worthy  of  notice,  we  mention : 
Monuments  de  VEgi/jjte  et  de  la  JS'uiie,  by  Cham- 
poUion  the  younger;  Voyage  de  Jacquemont  dans 
VInde  ;  Expedition  scientifique  des  Frangais  en 
Moree  ;  Thesaurus  Linguce  Grcecm  of  Henry  Ste- 
phens, Avith  annotations  and  additions  by  the 
best  French  and  German  scholars;  a  complete 
Bibliotheque  des  auteurs  Grecs,  a  very  cheap  and 
correct  edition  of  tbe  Greek  Avriters,  with  copious 
notes  and  Latin  translations.     Their  editions  of 


the  French  classics  are  as  numerous  as  they  are 
valuable ;  while  their  popular  publications,  such 
as  E  univers  pittoresque,  E  encyclopedic  moderne., 
La  noutelle  biographie  generaie,  &c.,  leave  noth- 
ing to  be  desired  in  point  of  cheapness  and  cor- 
rect execution.  An  idea  may  be  formed  of  tho 
importance  of  their  present  transactions  by  the 
fact,  that  on  an  average  they  print  140  reams 
of  paper,  or  about  70,000  sheets,  a  day.  Tho 
two  heads  of  the  firm  are  now  aided  by  their 
sons  Paul  and  Alfred,  who  have  been  by 
special  training  prepared  to  conduct  the  busi- 
ness of  the  firm  and  maintain  its  reputation. 

DIDROX,  Adolpiie  Napoleox,  a  French 
writer  upon  Christian  art  and  archa3ology,  bora 
in  Hautevillers,  department  of  Marne,  March  13, 
1806.  He  travelled  on  foot  tlirough  France, 
examining  all  the  remarkable  mediteval  monu- 
ments, particularly  those  of  Normandy.  In  1838 
he  delivered  in  the  lilliotheque  royale  a  course 
of  lectures  on  Christian  iconography,  after  which 
he  made  a  journey  to  Greece  to  compare  the  art 
of  the  Greek  church  with  that  of  the  West,  and 
to  obtain  access  to  certain  mediceval  manu- 
scripts. On  his  return  to  Paris  he  delivered 
another  course  of  lectures,  and  in  1845  founded 
there  an  archajological  publishing  house,  and  a 
manufactory  of  painted  glass.  He  was  appointed 
in  1835  by  the  minister  of  public  instruction  sec- 
retary of  the  historical  committee  of  arts  and 
monumente,  and  is  the  author  of  the  elaborate 
and  interesting  reports  issued  by  that  commit- 
tee. He  is  also  the  editor  of  the  "  Archteological 
Annals,"  a  periodical  established  by  him  in  1844, 
devoted  particularly  to  the  archeology  of  the 
middle  ages,  and  in  preparing  which  he  is  as- 
sisted by  the  principal  archajologists,  architects, 
designers,  and  engravers  of  Europe.  His  most 
important  publication  is  his  "  Christian  Iconog- 
raphy," of  which  an  English  translation  was 
published  in  London  (12mo.  1851). 

DIDYMIUM  (Gr.  StSu/zos-,  twin),  a  metal  dis- 
covered in  1841  by  Mosander  in  the  mineral 
cerite,  and  named  for  its  resemblance  to  the 
metal  lanthanum,  which  occurs  in  the  same 
mineral,  and  for  the  persistence  with  which  its 
salts  remain  combined  with  those  of  this  metal. 
The  rose  color  of  the  salts  of  lanthanium  is 
probably  due  to  the  presence  of  didymium.  But 
neither  of  the  two  metals,  nor  the  cerium  with 
which  they  occur,  possesses  any  special  interest. 

DIDYMUS,  an  Alexandrian  grammarian  and 
critic,  born  about  64  B.  C.  He  was  remarkable 
for  his  industry  and  the  voluminousness  of  his 
writings,  in  consequence  of  which  he  received 
the  nicknames  of  XaXKfvrepos,  or  brazen-bow- 
elled,  and  Bi,iXio\a&as,  or  forgetter  of  his  books. 
The  number  of  his  works  is  stated  by  AthenaBUs 
at  3,500,  and  by  Seneca  at  4,000. 

DIEBITSCH,  Haxs  KARL'FRiEDuicn  Axtox, 
count,  a  general  in  the  Russian  service,  born  at 
Gross-Leippe,  Silesia,  May  13,  1785,  died  at 
Kleczewo,  near  Pultusk,  in  Poland,  June  10, 
1831.  His  father,  who  served  under  Frederic 
the  Great  and  Frederic  William  II.  of  Prussia, 
and  subsequently  under  Paul  in  Russia,  sent  him 


464 


DIEBITSCE 


DIEL  DU  PARQUET 


in  1797  to  the  house  of  cadets  in  Berlin,  but 
made  him  enter  the  ranlis  of  the  Paissiau  imperial 
guard  in  ISOl.     lie  fought  bravely  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Austerlitz  in  1805,  in  those  of  Eylau  and 
]Fricdlai:d  in  1807,  was  made  captain,  devoted 
himself  with  zeal  to  the  study  of  military  science 
during  the  5  years  of  peace  which  followed  the 
treaty  of  Tilsit,  served  with  great  distinction 
under  Wittgenstein  during  the  invasion  of  the 
French  in  1812,  compelled,  or  rather  persuaded, 
the  Prussian  general  York  to  capitulate,  was 
active  as  chief  of  "Wittgenstein's  staff  in  1813, 
distinguished  himself  at  Ltitzen,  and  was  then 
attached  as  quartermaster-general  to  the  corps 
of  Barclay  de  Tolly  in  Silesia.     Here  he  con- 
tributed to  the  conclusion  of  the  secret  treaty  of 
Eeichenbach  between  Russia,  Prussia,  Austria, 
and  England,  in  June,  1813,     He  fought  at  Dres- 
den, as  well  as  at  Leipsic,  where  he  was  made  by 
Alexander  lieutenant-general  on  the  battle  field. 
In  the  French  campaign  of  1814,  when  Schwartz- 
enberg,  frightened  by  the  bold  march  of  Napo- 
leon, who  threw  himself  between  his  army  and 
the  Rhine,  advised  the  retreat  of  the  allied  ar- 
mies, it  was  Diebitsch  who  decided  for  the  march 
on  Paris,  which  terminated  the  war.    Arrived  at 
Montmartre,  the  emperor  Alexander  embraced 
him,  and  decorated  him  with  the  order  of  Alex- 
ander Nevskoi.     In  1815  he  was  married  to  a 
niece  of  I3arclay  de  Tolly.     After  the  return  of 
Napoleon  from  Elba  he  was  sent  to  the  first 
corps,  but  was  soon  recalled  to  serve  as  adjutant 
of  the  emperor.    Being  made  chief  of  the  staff 
of  the  army,  he  accompanied  Alexander  on  his 
journey  through  the  south  of  Russia,  and  was 
present  at  his  death  at  Taganrog  in  1825.     Hav- 
ing been  sent  with  the  news  of  this  event  to  the 
grand  duke  Constantine  at  "Warsaw,  he  returned 
to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  distinguished  him- 
self during  the  revolutionary  outbreak  of  Dec. 
25    by  intrepidity,   prudence,   and  humanity. 
The  new  emperor,  Nicholas,  rewarded  his  ser- 
vices with  the  title  of  baron,  and  afterward 
with  that  of   count.     In  the  war  of  1828-'9 
against  Turkey,  he  acquired  new  renown  by  the 
taking  of  Varna,  and  by  the  crossing  of  the  Bal- 
kan, which  forced  the  Porte  to  make  the  peace 
of  Adrianople,  and  procured  him  the  name  of 
Zabalkanskoi  (Transbalkanian).     Having  spent 
some  time  at  Berlin,  he  hastened  to  St.  Peters- 
burg at  the  news  of  the  outbreak  of  the  revolu- 
tion in  Warsaw,  Nov.  29,  1830,  and  was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief  of  the  army  which 
was  sent  to  put  it  down,  as  well  as  governor 
of  the  pi'ovinces  adjoining  Poland.     Commenc- 
ing the  campaign  in  the  midst  of  winter,  he 
crossed  the  Polish  frontier,  Jan.  25,  1881 ;  but 
the  first  engagements  at  "Wisniew  and  Stoczek, 
]Feb.  11,  at  Dobre  on  the  18th,  at  Grochow  and 
"Wawer  on  tlie  19th,  in  which  the  Poles  fought 
heroically  against  overwhelming  numbers,  and 
still  more  the  battles  fought  about  the  end  of 
March  in   the  vicinity  of  Praga,  proved  that 
fortune  had  left  his  banners.     AVithout  profiting 
by  the  favorable  issue  of  the  bloody  battles  of 
Nur,  Lomza,  and  Ostroleuka  (May  15-26),  he 


removed  his  camp  to  Kleczewo,  where  he  was 
suddenly  overtaken  by  death,  which  was  ofii- 
cially  attributed  to  the  cholera,  but  by  general 
rumor  to  poison.  Certain  it  is,  that  his  deposi- 
tion was  determined  upon,  and  that  shortly  be- 
fore Count  Orloff  had  arrived  at  the  camp  from 
St.  Petersburg  to  examine  into  the  condition  of 
the  army. 

DIEFFENBACH,  Johann  FEiEDRicn,  a  Ger- 
man surgeon,  born  in  Konigsberg,  Prussia,  in 
1792,  died  in  Berlin,  Nov.  11,  1847.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  professor  of  theology,  and  at  first 
devoted  himself  to  that  study,  but  broke  off  this 
peaceful  pursuit  to  join  in  the  war  against  Na- 
poleon, serving  as  a  volunteer  in  a  company  of 
Mecklenburg  troops  from  1813  to  1815.  He 
afterward  resumed  his  theological  studies,  which, 
however,  he  exchanged  for  the  more  congenial 
pursuit  of  medicine.  Having  taken  his  medi- 
cal degree  at  Wiirzburg  in  1822,  he  established 
himself  at  Berlin,  where  he  had  great  success  as 
a  surgeon,  and  where,  in  1830,  he  was  appoint- 
ed head  surgeon  of  one  of  the  hospitals,  2  years 
after  professor  in  the  university,  and  in  1840 
director  of  clinical  surgery  in  the  same  institu- 
tion. Dieffenbach  was  especially  distinguished 
for  his  remarkable  dexterity  in  the  use  of  the 
scalpel,  for  the  success  of  his  operations  in  the 
formation  of  artificial  noses,  cheeks,  lips,  &c., 
and  for  the  cures  which  he  effected  in  cases  of 
squinting  and  stammering.  He  was,  however, 
not  eminent  as  a  lecturer.  Among  his  works 
may  be  mentioned  the  "Operative  Surgery," 
his  masterpiece,  which  has  been  translated  into 
several  different  languages;  "Surgical  Experi- 
ences, especially  with  regard  to  the  Restoration 
of  Portions  of  the  Human  Body  which  have 
been  destroyed ;"  "  The  Cure  of  Stammering  by 
a  new  Surgical  Operation ;"  and  "  On  the  Cut- 
ting of  the  Sinews  and  Muscles." 

DIEL  DU  PARQUET,  Jaoqttes,  a  Frencli 
colonial  governor,  died  at  St.  Pierre,  Martinique, 
Jan.  8,  1658.  In  1638  he  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Martinique  by  his  uncle,  D'Euambuc, 
the  founder  of  the  French  colony  on  that  island, 
and  also  of  that  on  the  island  of  St.  Christopher. 
This  appointment  was  afterward  confirmed  by 
the  company  which  then  had  control  of  French 
aftairs  in  the  islands  of  America,  and  Du  Parquet 
held  the  oflBce  until  his  death.  Pie  exerted  him- 
self vigorously  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the 
colony,  which  was  in  a  miserable  condition 
when  he  assumed  the  control  of  its  affairs,  and 
his  efforts  were  attended  with  a  gratifying  suc- 
cess. He  purchased  from  a  Carib  chief  one  of 
the  small  islands  of  the  "West  Indies,  and  the 
seller,  afterward  repenting  of  his  agreement, 
made  w\ar  upon  the  colonists  whom  Du  Parquet 
had  established  there.  The  contest  was  long 
and  bloody,  but  at  last  the  French  compelled  the 
savages  to  submit.  Du  Parquet  introduced  the 
cultivation  of  the  sugar  cane  into  Martinique. 
In  1650  he  went  to  France,  where  he  purchased 
for  a  large  sum  of  money  and  an  annual  rent  the 
ownership  of  the  islands  of  Martinique  Sainte 
Alousie,  Grenada,  and  the  Grenadines.     He  ad- 


DIEPPE 


DIET 


465 


ministered  tlio  affairs  of  the  colony  with  success 
for  a  period  of  nearly  20  years,  and  after  liis 
death,  his  wife,  who  vas  a  woman  of  great  en- 
ergy, governed  in  his  place  for  a  time ;  hut 
having  been  struck  with  paralysis,  she  embarked 
for  Europe,  and  died  on  the  i)assage  in  Aug.  1G59. 
DIEPPE,  a  seaport  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Seine-Inlerieure,  on  the  English 
channel,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Arques,  93  m. 
N.  N.  W.  from  Paris ;  lat.  49°  5G'  N.,  long.  1°  5' 
E.;  pop.  in  1856,  18,220.  It  extends  a  mile 
along  the  coast,  has  wide  and  regular  streets, 
and  its  houses,  mostly  of  the  same  style,  are 
built  of  brick,  2  stories  high,  with  balconies 
toward  the  street.  The  finest  hotels  and  resi- 
dences are  near  the  harbor,  on  the  Grand  rue, 
or  main  street,  which  runs  parallel  with  the 
sea  the  whole  length  of  the  town.  The  most 
remarkable  public  edifices  are  the  churches 
of  St.  Kemy  and  St.  Jacques.  The  latter  is  a 
large  structure  in  tlie  Gothic  style,  was  com- 
menced in  1200,  and  not  completed  till  after 
three  centuries,  and  is  built  entirely  of  stone 
brought  from  England.  The  former  is  in  the 
mixed  Gothic-Saracenic  style.  Dieppe  is  well 
supplied  with  water  by  means  of  an  aqueduct 
3  m.  in  length,  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  which 
supplies  68  public  and  numerous  private  foun- 
tains. The  port,  enclosed  by  2  jetties,  is  spa- 
cious and  secure,  with  a  basin  of  sufiicient  depth 
for  vessels  of  600  tons,  but  the  entrance  to  it 
is  difticult.  Dieppe  has  2  suburbs,  La  Barre 
and  Le  Pollot,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  court  of  first 
resort  and  of  a  communal  college.  Its  manu- 
factures in  ivory  are  the  most  famed  in  Europe. 
Its  present  distinction,  however,  is  due  mainly  to 
its  sea-baths,  which,  with  its  pure  air  and  pic- 
turesque situation,  have  made  it  the  chief  wa- 
tering place  of  France.  The  principal  bathing 
establisliment  is  an  immense  hotel,  combining 
reception  rooms,  ball,  concert,  and  billiard  rooms,  • 
a  theatre,  and  literary,  social,  and  convivial  sa- 
loons. In  the  early  part  of  thi^centurj^  it  first 
became,  under  the  patronage  of  the  gay  duchess 
de  Berry,  the  rendezvous  during  the  summer 
of  the  noblest  families  in  France.  Dieppe  was 
founded  in  the  10th  century,  in  so  favorable  a 
position  that  in  less  than  4  centuries  it  had  be- 
come the  rival  of  Rouen.  Dieppe  mariners  dis- 
covered Canada  in  the  middle  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury, and  formed  the  first  French  settlements  on 
tlie  banks  of  the  Senegal.  It  was  bombarded 
by  the  English  and  Dutch  in  1694. 

DIEREVILLE, ,  a  French  traveller,  born 

in  Pont  r£  veque  in  the  ITth  century.  lie  sailed 
for  Acadia  in  1699,  i-emained  there  one  year,  and 
on  his  return  published  an  account  of  the  coun- 
try, at  first  in  verse,  and  afterward  in  prose 
(Paris,  Rouen,  and  Amsterdam,  1Y08-'12).  lie 
brought  back  from  America  several  new  plants, 
one  of  which  Tourgefort  named  after  him. 

DIES  IR^,  the  opening  words  of  a  celebrated 
Latin  hymn  upon  the  last  judgment,  which,  on 
account  of  the  sublimity  of  its  ideas,  and  the 
fervent  sentiment  which  pervades  it,  was  early 
received  into  the  liturgy  of  the  Catholic  church. 
VOL.  VI. — 30 


The  authorship  of  this  terrible  and  beautiful 
poem  has  been  variously  ascribed  to  Gregory 
the  Great  in  the  Yth  century,  to  St.  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux  in  the  12th,  and  to  two  Dominican 
monks  and  devotional  i)oets,  Umbertus  and 
Frangipani,  in  the  13th.  It  is  more  probable 
that  the  true  author  was  a  Franciscan,  Thomas 
de  Celano,  who  was  born  in  Abruzzo  in  1221,  was 
appointed  guardian  of  the  Minorite  cofavents 
at  Mentz,  Worms,  and  Cologne,  and  in  1230 
returned  to  Italy,  where  he  died  in  1255.  When 
the  Catholic  church  adopted  this  hymn  into  its 
liturgy,  and  added  it  to  the  service  for  the  dead, 
cannot  be  precisely  known,  though  it  was  cer- 
tainly before  the  year  1385.  At  that  time  the 
text  suffered  some  modifications;  the  beginning 
was  omitted,  and  some  verses  added,  composed 
by  Felix  Ilaemmerlin,  who  was  hence  for  along 
time  regarded  as  the  author  of  the  entire  hymn. 
It  is  as  thus  modified  that  it  was  included  in  the 
Roman  missal,  published  in  1567  by  order  of  the 
council  of  Trent,  which  is  still  used  by  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  church.  The  original  text,  Dies 
ir(P,  dies  ilia,  is  engraved  upon  a  marble  tablet 
in  the  church  of  St.  Francis,  at  Mantua. 

DIESKAU,  Ll'dwig  Augtjst,  a  German  gen- 
eral who  served  in  France,  Germany,  and  Amer- 
ica, born  in  1701,  died  at  Surenne,  near  Paris, 
in  1767.  lie  was  adjutant  of  Marshal  Saxe,  in 
whose  interest  he  visited  St.  Petersburg  in  1741. 
He  accompanied  him  in  the  campaigns  against 
the  Netherlands,  and  became  in  1748  brigadier- 
general  of  infantry,  and  commander  of  Brest. 
In  1755  he  sailed  as  field  marshal  to  Canada,  at 
the  head  of  French  troops,  to  assist  in  the  cam- 
paign against  the  English.  With  600  Indians,  as 
many  Canadians,  and  200  regular  troops,  he  as- 
cended Lake  Chamiilain  with  the  design  of  at- 
tacking Fort  Edward.  He  defeated  a  detach- 
ment under  Col.  E.  Williams,  which  had  been 
sent  against  him,  and  pursued  them  to  the 
British  camp  with  the  hope  of  entering  it. 
The  savages,  however,  halted  just  without  the 
intrenchments,  the  Canadians  became  alarmed, 
and  the  regulars  perished  before  the  fire  of  New 
England  marksmen.  Dieskau,  thrice  wounded, 
refused  to  retire  from  the  field,  but,  indignant  at 
the  conduct  of  his  troops,  seated  himself  on  the 
stump  of  a  tree,  exposed  to  the  rattle  of  the  bul- 
lets. He  Avas  hit  by  a  random  shot  after  the 
flight  of  his  army,  and  though  wounded  incura- 
bly, returned  to  Europe  and  lived  several  years, 
receiving  a  pension  from  France. 

DIET  (Fr.  d'iete),  a  term  -applied  to  several 
political  bodies  of  mediajval  and  modern  Eu- 
rope, corresponding  to  the  parliament  in  Great 
Britain,  the  cortes  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  the 
states-general,  national  assembly,  and  chambers 
in  the  history  of  France,  and  the  congress  in 
the  United  States.  Tlie  derivation  of  the  terra 
from  the  Latin  dies,  day,  as  meaning  a  day  fixed 
for  the  national  deliberations  on  public  affairs, 
is  proved  by  the  corresponding  words  in  Ger- 
man (Beichstag),  Dutch  {Rijksdag),  Swedish 
(Biksdag),  and  Danish  (^liigsdag),  all  of  which 
mean  day  of  the  empire  ;  by  the  similar  Swiss 


466 


DIET 


DIETERICI 


term  for  tlje  ITclvetican  diet  {Tagsatziing),  and  by 
the  verbs  tagen,  to  be  asseiiibled,  in  German, 
and  ajom-ner,  to  adjourn,  in  French,  derived 
respectively  from  Tag  and  jour,  day.  It  is  used 
by  English  and  French  historians  of  the  state 
assemblies  of  the  German  empire  and  confedera- 
tion, Poland,  Hungary,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  and 
some  other  countries,  to  which  the  Germans  apply 
the  distinctive  appellations  of  Jieichstag,  Land- 
tag, Landstdnde,  Bundestag,  Tagsatzung,  &c. 
The  constitutional  organization  of  the  diets  still 
existing  in  European  states  is  described  under 
the  respective  heads  of  the  countries,  while  we 
add  here  a  few  remarks  on  those  which,  belong- 
ing to  the  past,  are  only  historically  important. 
The  diet  of  the  German  empire,  which  must  not 
be  confounded  Avith  the  popular  assemblies  of 
the  Germanic  nations  in  the  Carloviugian  times, 
or  with  the  assembly  (^Bundestag)  of  the  German 
confederation  as  established  by  the  congress  of 
Vienna,  had  its  rise  after  the  dissolution  of  the 
Frankish  empire,  and  was  slowly  developed  un- 
der the  successive  German  houses,  undergoing 
material  changes,  particularly  in  the  reigns  of 
the  emperors  Charles  IV.  in  the  14tli  century, 
Frederic  III.  in  the  loth,  and  Charles  V.  in 
the  16th,  until  it  received  its  ultimate  modifica- 
tions by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  in  1648,  and 
the  session  of  Ratisbon  in  1663.  From  this 
date  down  to  the  dissolution  of  the  empire  in 
1806,  Ratisbon  became  its  permanent  seat,  while 
in  previous  times  the  emperor  had  the  privilege 
of  choosing  the  place  of  its  sessions.  The  em- 
peror, who  formerly  appeared  in  person,  was 
now  represented  by  a  principal  commissary,  and 
all  members  of  the  empire  by  plenipotentiaries 
or  agents.  The  diet  consisted  of  3  divisions, 
the  so-called  colleges  of  electors,  princes,  and 
imperial  cities.  The  elector  of  Mentz,  the  arch- 
chancellor  of  the  empire,  presided  in  the  elec- 
toral college,  the  archbishop  of  Saltzburg  and 
the  archduke  of  Austria  alternately  in  the  col- 
lege of  princes,  and  the  city  Avhere  the  session 
was  held  in  that  of  the  cities.  The  electors 
and  cities  had  individual  votes,  as  Avell  as  the 
chief  members  of  the  college  of  princes,  while 
the  imperial  counts  and  imperial  prelates,  who 
belonged  to  the  latter,  had  only  collective  votes 
by  benches,  of  which  there  were  4  of  counts 
and  2  of  prelates.  Resolutions  were  passed  by 
majority,  except  in  religious  matters  and  those 
concerning  individual  members  of  the  empire 
alone.  But  the  concurrence  of  all  the  8  colleges 
and  the  ratification  of  the  emperor  were  required 
to  establish  a  decree  of  the  empire  (HeicJis- 
schliiss).  Concurrence  in  case  of  difference  of 
opinion  was  obtained  by  reeonsideration  and 
conference.  The  emperor  had  the  right  of 
rejection,  but  not  of  modification.  The  collec- 
tion of  resolutions  passed  and  sanctioned  by 
a  diet  was  termed  imperial  recess  (EeicJis- 
ahsehied).  The  diet  framed  the  laws  of  the 
empire,  abolished  and  explained  them,  de- 
clared war  and  made  peace,  received  and  sent 
ambassadors,  and  concluded  treaties.  Imperial 
wars  were  proposed  by  the  emperor,  decided 


upon  by  majority,  and  carried  on  by  the  con- 
tingents of  both  the  majority  and  the  minority. 
— The  Polish  diet  {nejm)  dates  principally  from 
the  reign  of  Ladislas  the  Short,  who  in  1331  as- 
sembled all  the  nobles  of  his  kingdom.  Its  form 
was  established  by  law  under  Casimir  IV.  In  the 
last  period  of  independent  Poland  it  was  conven- 
ed regularly  every  2  years,  for  a  session  of  no 
more  than  6  weeks,  twice  successively  in  Warsaw 
and  tlie  3d  tiniQ  at  Grodno,  in  Lithuania.  It 
consisted  of  a  senate  and  a  chamber  of  deputies 
(2Josel,  plur.  j^oslowie).  The  latter  Avere  elected  in 
previous  municipal  or  district  assemblies  (sejmiJc^ 
little  diet).  After  the  verification  of  tljeir  pow- 
ers, the  diet  elected  their  president  or  marshal 
{^marszalek).  The  most  remarkable  feature  of 
the  Polish  diet  is  the  so-called  liherum  veto,  or 
the  right  of  each  member  to  prevent  the  enact- 
ment of  a  law  or  measure  by  individual  opposi- 
tion {nie  pozicalam,  I  do  not  allow,  or  veto). 
This  extreme  of  liberty,  unknown  in  tbe  history 
of  any  other  nation,  was  remedied  in  part  by 
confederations  formed  by  the  majority  for  the 
execution  of  its  designs,  and  by  timely  applica- 
tion of  violence,  wliich  silenced  bribed  or  treach- 
erous opponents ;  but  it  also  led  to  fatal  dis- 
tractions, scenes  of  bloodshed,  the  permanence 
of  factions,  and  finally,  Avith  other  causes,  to  the 
fall  of  Poland.  The  diet  of  election  Avas  pre- 
ceded by  a  diet  of  convocation,  the  archbishop 
of  Gnesen,  the  primate  of  the  state,  having  an- 
nounced in  a  circular  the  death  of  the  king,  and 
the  vacancy  of  the  throne.  Hereupon  all  nobles 
appeared  personally,  assembling  on  the  plain  of 
Wola,  near  WarsaAV,  the  senate  in  a  shed  (szopa), 
the  common  nobles  in  the  Icolo  (circle).  A  diet 
of  coronation,  and,  if  that  of  election  had  been 
stormy,  another  of  pacification,  followed. — The 
diet  of  Hungary  {dieta,  or  orszdggyulh),  for- 
merly convened  at  various  places,  Avas  finally  reg- 
ularly held  at  Presburg,  except  in  the  revolu- 
tionary periods,  under  Rakuczy  and  Kossuth.  It 
consisted  of  2  houses,  the  upper,  or  table  of 
magnates,  and  the  lower,  or  table  of  deputies. 
In  the  latter,  previous  to  the  law  of  1848,  only 
the  representatives  of  the  nobles  in  the  counties 
had  a  decisive  personal  vote. 

DIETERICI,  Karl  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  a 
German  statistician  and  economist,  born  in 
Berlin,  Aug.  23, 1Y90.  He  began  his  university 
studies  in  Konigsberg,  devoting  particular  at- 
tention to  mathematics,  and  continued  them  in 
Berlin,  Avhere,  in  1812,  he  became  tutor  in  the 
family  of  Klewitz,  minister  of  state.  He  stu- 
died history  and  law  under  Eichhorn,  Riihs, 
Savigny,  and  Hofimann.  In  1813  he  Avas  ap- 
pointed engineer  in  the  army  of  Bllicher,  and 
in  this  position  made  the  campaigns  of  1813 
and  1814.  In  1815  he  again  serA'ed  under 
Bllicher,  and  in  1820  he  was  employed  in  tiie 
ministry  of  public  instruction  under  Stein. 
In  1834  he  was  appointed  V"ofessor  _  of  politi- 
cal science  in  the  university  of  Berlin,  and  in 
1844  succeeded  Hoffmann  in  the  direction  of 
the  statistical  bureau.  -His  Avritings  are  numer- 
ous, principally  upon  subjects  of  political  econ- 


DIETETICS 


467 


omy.  The  most  valuable  of  them  are  his  "Sta- 
tistical Survey  of  the  most  important  Objects 
of  Traffic  and  Consumption  in  the  Prussian  State 
and  the  German  Commercial  Union,"  and  his 
"Prosperity  of  the  People  in  tlie  Prussian  State." 
DIETETICS.  For  his  complete  nutrition  man 
must  liave  presented  to  him  in  his  food  the  al- 
bumen or  fibriuc  of  which  his  tissues  are  mainly 
composed,  the  iron  and  the  salts  contained  in 
those  tissues  and  in  the  blood  and  fatty  matter, 
or  some  substance  which  can  readily  be  con- 
verted into  fat,  which  enters  into  the  composi- 
tion of  his  body,  and  which  serves  to  maintain 
the  animal  heat.  (See  Aliment,  Animal  Heat, 
and  Abstinence.)  But  food  must  not  only  con- 
tain all  the  principles  necessary  to  nutrition,  it 
must  lilcewise  be  digestible  and  assimilable ;  it 
must  be  capable  of  being  disintegrated  and  dis- 
solved in  the  alimentary  canal,  so  that  it  may 
be  absorbed,  and  finally  converted  into  blood 
from  which  the  waste  of  the  tissues  may  be 
supplied.  Digestibility  and  nutritive  value 
bear  no  necessary  relation  to  each  otiier ;  an 
article  of  food  may  be  highly  nutritious  and  yet 
exceedingly  indigestible,  or  it  may  be  easily  di- 
gestible and  yet  alford  but  little  nutriment. 
While  certain  articles  and  classes  of  articles  are 
in  general  more  digestible,  there  is  no  rule  of 
invariable  application.  There  are  innate  differ- 
ences in  kind  as  well  as  in  degree  in  the  diges- 
tive as  in  the  intellectual  powers  of  mankind ; 
and  Avhat  will  oftend  the  stomach  of  one  man, 
another  no  stronger  or  healthier  will  digest  with 
ease.  But  aside  from  individual  peculiarities, 
of  whicli  more  will  be  said  further  on,  there 
are  otlier  causes  of  difference  more  general  in 
their  cliaracter.  1.  Habit  has  in  this  way  great 
influence.  What  men  have  been  used  to,  they 
digest  with  greater  facility.  An  American  or 
Englishman  visiting  the  continent  of  Europe  is 
frequently  attacked  with  diarrhoja  from  an  un- 
accustomed diet,  which  experience  proves  is 
equally  wholesome  with  his  own.  Daring  the 
revolutionary  war  numbers  of  the  troops  from 
the  southern  states  while  on  duty  at  the  North 
became  ill,  and  their  health  was  only  restored 
by  an  allowance  of  fct  bacon.  The  ill-fed  Irish- 
man on  enlisting  into  the  British  army  fre- 
quently is  affected  with  what  is  termed  a  "meat 
fever;"  liis  new  diet  is  so  much  superior  to 
what  he  was  accustomed  to,  that  his  organs  do 
not  readily  adapt  themselves  to  the  change.  2. 
The  circumstances  of  the  system  have  a  great 
influence  on  the  digestibility  of  food.  A  diet 
suited  to  Canada  or  Labrador  would  be  oppres- 
sive and  injurious  in  the  West  Indies  or  on  the 
isthmus  of  Panama;  the  season,  amount  of 
clothing,  exposure,  exercise,  have  an  influence 
on  the  digestive  capacity  as  well  as  on  the  re- 
quirements of  the  system.  3.  The  digestibility 
of  food  is  much  influenced  by  our  liking  for  it ; 
within  certain  limits,  what  we  are  fond  of  agrees 
with  us,  and  what  we  dislike  is  not  apt  to  di- 
gest well.  The  haut  gout  Avhich  excites  the 
appetite  of  the  epicure  provokes  nausea  in  a 
less    cultivated    stomach.      Still    despite    the 


various  sources  of  diversity,  some  articles  are 
for  the  majority  of  men  of  comparatively  easy 
digestion,  others  are  assimilated  with  greater 
difficulty. — Food  is  commonly  classed  in  2  great 
divisions,  according  as  it  is  derived  from  the  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  kingdom.  Animal  food  again 
may  bo  subdivided  into  the  flesh  of  mammals, 
bii-ds,  fishes,  reptiles,  crustaceans,  and  moUusks. 
The  flesh  of  the  mammals,  and  indeed  of  the 
birds  and  fishes  used  for  food,  differs  very  little 
in  chemical  composition.  Tlie  fibrine,  albumen, 
and  gelatine  of  which  chiefly  they  are  made  up, 
may  be  considered  as  chemically  identical,  from 
whatever  animal  they  may  be  derived.  The 
fats  differ  in  the  relative  proportions,  and  some- 
times in  the  character  of  the  fatty  acids  whicli 
enter  into  their  composition.  The  saline  mat- 
ters, varying  in  their  proportions,  are  mainly  of 
the  same  character,  while  the  immense  variety 
of  flavors  by  which  they  are  distinguished  de- 
pend upon  principles  existing  in  exceedingly 
minute  proportions,  and  for  the  most  part  solu- 
ble in  water.  The  difterence  in  meats  arises 
from  the  varying  proportions  of  fibrine,  gelatine, 
and  fat,  and  from  variations  in  mechanical  tex- 
ture, and  to  these  circumstances  is  due  their 
difference  in  digestibility.  Whatever  renders 
the  animal  fibre  harder,  makes  the  meat  less 
digestible;  whatever  renders  it  more  delicate 
and  tender,  more  easily  separated  and  disin- 
tegrated, makes  it  more  easily  soluble  in  the 
juices  of  the  stomach.  Provided  an  animal  has 
reached  maturity,  the  tenderness  of  its  meat  is 
increased  by  youth,  by  its  not  having  been 
worked,  by  its  being  in  good  condition,  the 
muscular  fibres  interpenetrated  and  separated 
by  minute  proportions  of  fatty  tissue.  Keeping 
tends  very  much  to  improve  the  tenderness  of 
meat.  Few  animals  are  fit  to  be  eaten  the  day 
they  are  killed ;  but  when  kept,  long  before  the 
slightest  taint  can  be  detected,  a  change  takes 
place  that  renders  the  fibres  more  easily  sepa- 
rated and  disintegrated,  more  readily  broken 
down  and  comminuted  during  mastication,  and 
more  quickly  reduced  and  assimilated  by  the  sto- 
mach. Of  the  different  meats,  venison  that  has 
been  well  kept  is,  in  its  season,  perhaps  the  most 
tender  and  digestible.  In  Dr.  Beaumont's  ex- 
periments he  found  that  in  St.  Martin  a  meal  of 
broiled  venison  steak  was  completely  digested 
and  removed  from  the  stomach  in  1^  hours,  a 
shorter  time  than  Avas  required  by  any  otlier 
meat.  "Wether  mutton  of  a  proper  age,  tliat  has 
hung  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  is  scarcely 
inferior  in  digestibility  to  venison.  Beef  ranks 
next  to  mutton.  The  flesh  of  the  lamb  and  of 
the  calf  are  less  digestible  than  mutton  or  beef, 
and  of  the  two.  veal  is  less  readily  digested  than 
lamb.  Of  all  the  meats  in  ordinary  use,  pork  is 
most  refractory  to  the  gastric  juices;  and,  con- 
trary to  what  holds  with  regard  to  beef  and  mut- 
ton, tlie  sucking  pig  is  more  digestible  than  pork. 
Tiie  fiit  of  meats  generally,  and  all  varieties  of 
fatty  matters,  are  difficult  of  assimilation ;  they 
are  particularly  offensive  to  weak  stomachs, 
sometimes  appearing  to  form  an  oily  pellicle, 


468 


DIETETICS 


which,  floating  on  the  partially  chymlfied  mass, 
becomes  rancid  and  occasions  distressing  heart- 
burn and  nausea,  or  causes  eructations  of  acrid 
matter  which  leave  a  peculiarly  disagreeable 
taste  upon  the  palate.  The  mode  of  dressing 
meat  has  a  great  influence  upon  its  digestibility ; 
that  which  agrees  best  with  the  majority  of 
stomachs  is  broiling.  The  fire  should  be  brisk, 
so  tliat  the  albumen  on  the  surface  of  the  meat 
may  be  rapidly  coagulated ;  this  preserves  the 
juices  of  the  meat,  and  it  is  rendered  at  once 
more  savory  and  more  tender.  The  same  rule 
applies  to  boihng  and  roasting.  When  the  meat 
is  to  be  cooked,  if  boiled,  it  should  be  at  once 
plunged  into  boihng  water ;  the  coagulation  of 
the  albumen  on  the  surface  thus  produced,  pro- 
tects the  interior  from  loss ;  while  if  soup  is 
to  be  made,  the  meat  should  be  put  into  cold 
water  and  the  temperature  slowly  and  gradu- 
ly  raised,  thus  extracting  its  nutritious  fluids 
to  the  greatest  possible  extent.  Of  all  methods 
of  cooking,  frying  is  the  most  objectionable ; 
not  only  is  the  meat  rendered  harder  than  when 
boiled,  and  thus  more  indigestible,  but  it  be- 
comes imbued  with  boiling  fat,  and  is  thus  ren- 
dered still  more  refractory  to  the  gastric  juice. 
Kich  stews  are  objectionable  on  tlie  same  ac- 
count ;  the  fat  set  free  by  the  heat  penetrates 
and  is  absorbed  by  the  meat,  and  renders  it 
liable  to  offend  delicate  stomachs.  By  the  ac- 
tion of  salt  on  muscular  flesh,  the  juices  of  the 
meat  are  abstracted;  in. this  manner  not  only  is 
its  nutritive  value  impaired  (see  Aliment),  but 
it  is  rendered  harder  and  drier  and  consequently 
more  indigestible ;  the  longer  the  flesh  is  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  salt,  the  harder  and  drier 
it  becomes.  Perhaps  all  fats  form  an  exception 
to  the  fact  that  meat  is  rendered  more  indiges- 
tible by  salting  ;  they  have  little  water  to  lose, 
and  their  texture  cannot  consequently  become 
consolidated ;  fat  pork  is  even  rendered  more 
digestible  by  salting.  St.  Martin,  according  to 
Dr.  Beaumont's  observations,  digested  recently 
salted  pork  when  raw  or  broiled  in  from  3  hours 
to  3  hours  and  15  minutes;  the  same  article 
fried  occupied  him  4  hours  15  minutes  for  its 
reduction ;  while  fresh  pork,  fat  and  lean,  roast- 
ed, required  5  hours  15  minutes.  On  the  other 
hand,  boiled  fresh  beef  with  a  little  salt  was  di- 
gested in  2  hours  45  minutes,  while  old  salted 
beef  required  4  hours  15  minutes  when  dressed 
in  the  same  manner.  All  empyreumatic  sub- 
stances impair  digestion  by  interfering  with  the 
action  of  the  animal  matter,  the  pepsin,  which 
is  the  principal  solvent  agent  of  the  gastric 
juice.  In  this  manner  smoking  impairs  the  di- 
gestibility of  meat ;  few  things  are  more  diffi- 
cult of  management  by  a  feeble  stomach  than 
old  and  weU-smoked  beef.  Of  poultry,  the 
turkey  is  most  digestible.  St.  Martin  found 
fowls,  roasted  or  boiled,  of  slower  digestion  than 
beef;  ducks  and  geese,  as  might  be  supposed 
from  the  amount  of  fat  they  contain,  are  assim- 
ilated with  difficulty.  Fish  furnishes  an  abun- 
dant and  digestible  variety  of  food.  The  dry, 
white  sorts,  cod,  haddock,  bass,  &c.,  are  the 


most  digestible ;  while  the  richer  kinds,  salmon, 
shad,  mackerel,  eels,  &c.,  are  less  apt  to  agree 
with  the  stomach.  St.  Martin  digested  boiled  or 
fried  salmon  trout  in  1^  hours,  boiled  dried  cod 
in  2  hours,  fried  catfish  in  3  hours  20  minutes, 
and  boiled  pickled  salmon  in  4  hours.  Milk,  the 
only  food  during  the  earlier  months  of  infancy, 
contains  from  12  to  13  per  cent,  of  solid  matter, 
about  ^  of  Avhat  is  contained  in  flesh ;  it  is  poor- 
er in  plastic  and  richer  in  respiratory  food  ;  its 
ash  furnishes  but  0.47  per  cent,  of  iron,  while 
those  of  flesh  and  wheat  flour  yield  1  per  cent.  It 
is  not  digested  so  quickly  as  would  be  supposed, 
and  in  this  respect  boiled  has  the  advantage  of 
imboiled  milk  ;  the  one  took  St.  Martin  2  hours, 
the  other  2^,  to  convert  into  chyme.  Milk  dis- 
agrees with  a  great  many  persons  ;  this  is  often 
connected  with  the  readiness  with  which  it 
undergoes  change  when  exposed  to  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  this  change  commences  long  before 
it  can  bo  recognized  by  the  taste.  Milk  just 
drawn  from  the  cow  agi'ees  perfectly  with  many 
persons  who  are  unable  to  take  it  when  a  few 
hours  old.  "When  cows  are  kept  in  an  impure 
and  confined  atmosphere,  it  has  been  conclu- 
sively shown  that  their  milk  produces  disturb- 
ance of  the  digestive  organs  and  diarrhoea  in 
infants  who  are  fed  upon  it,  and  there  is  good 
reason  to  believe  that  constitutional  diseases, 
scrofula  and  phthisis,  may  be  thus  developed. 
The  caseine  of  milk,  coagulated,  generally  mix- 
ed with  more  or  less  butter,  and  pressed  so  as 
to  free  it  from  the  whey,  constitutes  cheese. 
Its  richness  varies  with  the  quantity  of  butter 
it  contains ;  some  varieties,  Stilton  for  instance, 
are  made  from  milk  to  which  an  additional 
quantity  of  cream  has  been  added.  Salt  is  used 
to  preserve  it,  and  some  kinds,  as  Dutch  cheese, 
are  very  highly  salted.  When  cheese  is  kept 
for  a  length  of  time,  it  undergoes  a  number  of 
changes,  partly  dependent  on  the  liberation  of 
the  volatile  fatty  acids  existing  in  the  butter, 
partly  in  the  richer  varieties,  on  the  commence- 
ment of  putrefactive  fermentation.  The  firm, 
close  texture  of  cheese  renders  it  always  hard 
of  digestion,  and  the  rich  and  strong-smelling 
varieties  are  particularly  to  be  avoided  by  deli- 
cate stomachs.  Fresh  sweet  butter  is,  perhaps, 
the  most  wholesome  and  digestible  of  fatty 
matters ;  by  heating  or  rancidity  its  digestibility 
is  greatly  impaired. — Of  farinaceous  articles, 
light  Avell-made  wheaten  bread,  from  12  to  24 
hours  old,  is  the  most  generally  digestible; 
warm  bread  is  indigestible,  because  it  forms  a 
tough  mass  not  readily  penetrated  by  the  saliva 
and  rebellious  to  the  gastric  juices.  Unleavened 
bread,  maccaroni,  and  vermicelli  are  wholesome, 
and  agree  well  with  the  stomach ;  on  the  other 
hand,  flour  combined  with  fatty  matter,  wheth- 
er in  the  form  of  pastry,  cake,  or  pudding,  is 
more  or  less  indigestible,  according  to  its  tex- 
ture and  richness.  Next  to  wheat  flour,  rye  af- 
fords the  best  and  most  wholesome  bread.  In  va- 
rious countries  oatmeal,  barley,  and  maize  are 
used  as  substitutes  for  wheat ;  they  form  kinds 
of  bread  wholesome  enough  for  those  habituated 


DIETRICH 


DIFFERENTIAL  CALCULUS        469 


to  its  Tiso,  but  apt  to  disagree  with  strangers. 
In  tropical  countries  rice  to  a  great  extent 
takes  the  place  of  the  other  cereals,  and  per- 
haps a  larger  population  mainly  subsist  on  it 
than  on  any  other  single  article  of  food.  It  af- 
fords very  little  of  plastic  or  blood-making  ma- 
terial, and  hence  when  taken  alone  is  consumed 
in  enormous  <piantity ;  as  an  adjunct  it  forms 
an  unstimulating  and  digestible  article  of  food. 
The  leguminous  seeds,  peas  and  beans,  alibrd  a 
nutriment  rich  in  plastic  matter,  but  hard  of  di- 
gestion and  predisposing  to  flatulence.  Sngar  is 
used  chieHy  as  ijn  addition  to  other  articles  of 
diet;  when  refined,  it  contains  no  plastic  matter, 
and  is  simply  a  heat-producing  aliment,  in  gen- 
eral abundantly  wholesome;  the  popular  preju- 
dice tliat  it  produces  caries  of  the  teeth  has  no 
good  foundation.  Closely  allied  to  sugar  are 
the  various  forms  of  fecula,  arrow  root,  tapioca, 
sago,  potato  starch,  &c.  They  consist  of  mi- 
nute granules  enclosed  in  a  membranous  enve- 
lope ;  tliis  membrane  must  be  burst  by  heat  or 
panification  before  the  starch  is  digestible.  It 
is  tlien  an  unstimulating  food,  entirely  respira- 
tory in  its  character,  it  containing  little  or  no 
plastic  matter.  Contrary  to  general  opinion, 
young  infants  digest  starch  with  difficulty,  and 
when  fed  largely  upon  it,  pass  it  unchanged  by 
stool.  Vegetables  constitute  an  important  part 
of  our  diet.  With  few  exceptions  their  nutri- 
tive value  is  low ;  they  consist  largely  of  water 
holding  organic  salts  in  solution,  of  starch  gran- 
ides,  of  small  quantities  of  albuminous  matter, 
and  of  cellulose  and  epidermis.  The  cellulose, 
thougli  possessing  a  chemical  constitution  iden- 
tical with  that  of  starch,  when  at  all  firm,  re- 
sists the  action  of  the  gastric  juice,  and  passes 
unchanged  through  the  intestinal  canal.  They 
are  valuable  on  account  of  their  large  quantities 
of  organic  salts,  of  the  bulk  which  they  give  to 
the  food,  and  of  their  stimulating  eflfect  upon 
the  peristaltic  action  of  the  intestines.  These 
latter  qualities  make  them  disagree  where  the 
digestive  organs  are  feeble  and  irritable.  They 
are  digestible  in  proportion  to  their  tenderness 
and  the  readiness  with  which  they  can  be  bro- 
ken up  into  a  pulp.  The  potato  has  about  the 
same  nutritive  value  as  rice ;  it  requires  to  be 
thoroughly  masticated,  and  is  therefore  an  un- 
suitable article  for  young  children,  St.  Martin 
found  potatoes  roasted  and  baked  disposed  of 
more  readily  than  when  boiled,  the  one  taking 
2  hours  and  30  minutes  to  be  converted  into 
chyme,  the  other  an  hour  longer.  The  same 
rule  applies  to  fruits  as  to  vegetables ;  they  are 
digestible  just  in  proportion  to  the  readiness 
with  which  they  can  be  completely  reduced  to 
a  pulp.  Ripe  strawberries,  peaches,  oranges, 
grapes,  rarely  disagree,  while  cherries,  apples, 
pears,  &c.,  are  more  indigestible;  roasting 
improves  the  digestibility  of  apples  by  rup- 
turing the  cells  in  which  their  juices  are  im- 
prisoned. 

DIETRICH,  Christian  "Wiltielm  Ernst,  also 
called  DiETRioT,  a  German  painter  and  engraver, 
born  in  Weimar,  Oct.  30,  1712,  died  in  Dresden 


April  24, 1774,  excelled  principally  in  the  imita- 
tion of  tbe  great  masters,  especially  Rembrandt, 
though  he  copied  with  great  success  the  styles 
of  other  emi nent  painters. 

DIFFERENTIAL  CALCULUS,  the  science 
called  by  the  English  fluxions,  is  the  most 
valuable  of  mathematical  modes,  from  the  great 
variety  of  subjects  to  which  it  is  applicable,  and 
from  the  strength  of  its  solvent  power.  Its 
discovery  is  justly  assigned  to  the  latter  part  of 
the  l7th  century,  although  there  were  doubtless 
some  hints  of  it  among  earlier  Avriters.  Archi- 
medes had  demonstrated  the  area  of  a  parabola 
to  bo  f  of  its  circumscribing  rectangle,  and 
also  the  truth  of  his  celebrated  propositions 
concerning  the  sphere  and  the  cylinder.  Kep- 
ler, seizing  the  spirit  of  his  method,  introduced 
the  words  infinite  and  infinitesimal  into  ge- 
ometry. Cavalieri,  Roberval,  and  Fermat  en- 
larged the  application  of  his  mode.  In  the 
meanwhile  Yieta,  Cardan,  Harriot,  and  others 
had  improved  algebra,  and  Descartes  had  ap- 
plied it  to  geometry  by  his  invaluable  system  of 
variable  coordinates.  Thus  the  way  was  pre- 
pared for  Leibnitz  and  Newton,  who,  independ- 
ently of  each  other,  invented  the  differential 
calculus,  although  differing  in  the  form  in 
which  they  conceived  of  and  expressed  the  same 
truths.  Newton's  discovery  or  invention  was 
made  in  1665,  and  that  of  Leibnitz  several  years 
later.  The  notation  of  the  latter  was  so  con- 
venient, and  his  mode  of  attacking  the  subject 
had  such  a  practical  superiority  for  the  learner, 
that  Newton's  method  of  fluxions  has  now  gone 
completely  out  of  use  ;  although  in  a  metaphys- 
ical point  of  view  Newton's  mode  is  not  open 
to  the  objections  which  may  be  brought  against 
that  of  Leibnitz.  The  discovery  of  this  method 
originated  in  the  investigation  of  curved  lines, 
but  is  extended  to  the  consideration  of  every 
species  of  magnitude.  Newton  conceived  of  a 
curved  line  as  generated  by  the  motion  of  a 
point ;  and  the  spirit  of  his  method  consists  in 
determining  the  velocity  with  which  the  point, 
at  each  instant,  is  moving  in  a  given  direction 
different  from  that  of  the  line ;  that  is,  e.  g.,  if 
the  point  be  moving  in  a  general  southwesterly 
direction,  in  determining  the  velocity  with 
which  it  souths  compared  with  that  with  which 
it  wests.  The  spirit  of  Leibnitz's  method  con- 
sists in  supposing  the  curve  to  be  composed  of 
infinitely  short  straight  lines,  and  in  determining 
the  direction  of  each  of  these  little  straight 
arcs.  What  Newton  called  the  inverse  method 
of  fluxions  is  now  called  the  integral  calculus. 
It  consists  in  finding  from  the  ratio  of  infinites- 
imal changes  the  magnitude  and  law  of  connec- 
tion of  the  changing  quantities.  The  whole  cal- 
culus is  too  difficult  and  abstruse  for  any  popular 
exposition.  The  reader  may  find  general  views 
upon  the  subject  in  Davies's  "  Logic  of  Mathe- 
mathics,"  and  Comte's  "Philosophy  of  Mathe- 
matics," translated  by  Prof.  Gillespie,  or  in 
French  in  Carnot's  J^efcriom.  For  gaining  a 
practical  acquaintance  with  the  science  there 
are  numerous  accessible  treatises,  among  which 


470 


DIFFRACTION  OF  LIGHT 


Ohurch's  and  Courtenay's  are  well  adapted  to 
ordinary  students,  but  Peirce's  conducts  much 
more  rapidly  into  the  highest  walks.  Of  English 
treatises,  Price's  holds  the  highest  rank.  The 
French  have  been  prolific  writers  upon  the  sub- 
ject ;  among  them  Duhamel  perhaps  holds  as 
high  a  rank  as  any. 

DIFFIIACTION  OF  LIGHT,  the  deviation 
from  a  sti-aight  line  which  a  ray  of  light  under- 
goes in  passing  near  the  edge  of  an  opaque  body. 
In  whatever  way  light  be  transmitted,  the  lumi- 
nous influence  may  be  regarded  as  propagated 
in  the  manner  of  a  succession  of  hollow  spheres, 
or  shells,  that  spring  forth  from  the  surface  of 
the  luminary  and  enlarge  with  almost  incon- 
ceivable rapidity  on  all  sides  of  it  through  space. 
In  the  undulatory  theory  of  light,  each  of  these 
shells  is  considered  to  be  a  wave,  or  we  may 
say,  a  wave-front,  advancing  in  the  form  of  a 
spherical  surface,  as  ripples  about  an  agitated 
point  upon  a  pond  of  water  spread  outward  in 
concentric  circles.  But  in  a  homogeneous  me- 
dium, the  line  of  effect,  or  that  in  which  the 
agitation  is  propagated  outward  from  the  cen- 
tre of  disturbance,  is  a  straight  line  ;  and  thus 
we  say  that  light  advances  in  rays,  and  that  in 
a  unilbrm  medium  these  ai'e  straight.  To  this 
law,  however,  one  important  general  exception 
has  been  found.  Grimaldi,  an  Italian  Jesuit, 
about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  observed 
that  when  through  2  small  orifices  near  to- 
gether 2  pencils  of  the  sun's  light — diverging, 
of  course,  in  consequence  of  the  size  of  the  sun's 
disk — were  admitted  to  faU  on  a  screen  at  sev- 
eral feet  distance  in  an  otherwise  dark  room, 
the  overlapping  parts  of  the  2  disks  of  light  thus 
obtained  were  brightly  illuminated,  while  on 
either  side  of  this  central  bright  band  there 
were  alternating  curved  bands  of  less  and  great- 
er illumination  and  showing  the  prismatic  colors. 
The  effect  is  still  better  seen  when  the  pencils 
are  made  more  divergent  by  being  each  brought 
by  a  convex  lens  to  form  a  minute  focus,  beyond 
which  the  rays  must  again  separate.  These 
bands  are  known  as  "  Grimaldi's  fringes."  If 
2  narrow  slits  in  the  shutter  are  employed,  the 
result  is  a  bright  band  running  longitudinally 
through  the  middle  of  the  space  occupied  by 
their  light  on  the  screen,  with  alternating 
fringes  on  the  2  sides.  So,  if  in  the  centre  of  a 
single  divergent  beam  a  small  opaque  body  be 
held,  the  actual  complete  shadow  of  it  on  the 
screen  is  less  in  size  than  the  geometrical  sha- 
dow ;  but  it  is  surrounded  by  alternating  light 
and  dai'k  bands  to  a  distance  which  again  causes 
the  shadow  in  part  to  encroach  on  the  surroimd- 
ing  space.  The  same  result,  in  a  degree,  really 
happens  with  a  single  small  pencil ;  and  in  fact, 
all  shadows  are  in  this  way  to  some  extent  en- 
croached on  by  surrounding  light,  and  all  edges 
of  light  by  shadows.  Here,  then,  is  a  set  of 
cases  in  which  the  rays  of  light  deviate  from 
straight  lines ;  and  it  may  be  stated  that,  gener- 
ally, rays  of  light  grazing  upon  the  edges  of 
orifices  or  of  bodies  are  bent  more  or  less  out 
of  a  straight  line,  being  tm-ned  apparently  both 


within  and  without  their  previous  direction. 
This  action  is  the  diffraction  of  light.  Newton 
attempted  to  explain  this  action  of  the  edges  of 
bodies  in  accordance  with  the  theory  of  emis- 
sion, by  supposing  that  the  edges  exerted  some 
influence  of  attraction  or  repulsion,  according 
to  the  condition  in  which  the  imagined  lumi- 
nous particles  met  them.  But  it  was  found 
tliat  when  the  light  employed  in  these  experi- 
ments was  monochromatic,  as  red  only,  or  yel- 
low, the  bands  produced  in  any  case  were  sim- 
ply light  and  dark,  i.  e.,  of  the  given  color  and 
absolutely  black.  And  Dr.  Ypung  discovered 
in  1803  that  in  order  to  obliterate  all  the  special 
fringes  obtained  in  the  case  of  2  orifices,  it  was 
only  necessary  to  cover  up  one  of  them ;  portions 
of  the  spot  obtained  from  the  other  which  were 
before  crossed  by  dark  bands  immediately  be- 
came light.  It  thus  became  evident  that  light 
can  be  added  to  light  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce 
darkness.  In  water  waves,  a  crest  and  a  trough 
of  equal  depth,  that  is,  2  equal  waves  in  opposite 
phases,  coming  together,  neutralize  each  other, 
and  give  still  water  over  the  space  thus  occu- 
pied ;  and  2  sound  waves  may  also  so  blend  as 
to  produce  silence.  Fresnel  in  1815-16  read 
before  the  French  academy  of  sciences  the  re- 
sults of  his  investigations  of  this  set  of  pheno- 
mena, which  he,  as  well  as  Dr.  Toung  before 
him,  judged  could  not  be  explained  by  the 
theory  of  emission,  but  which  he  found  perfect- 
ly in  harmony  with  consequences  flowing  from 
Huyghens's  imdulatory  theory  of  light.  By 
varying  the  material  and  shape  of  the  orifices, 
he  found  no  effect  whatever  upon  the  appear- 
ance of  the  fringes,  except  that  when  razor-edges 
were  employed  the  rays  were  bent  about  these 
more  than  about  rounded  edges,  an  effect  Avhich 
has  been  termed  inflection  of  the  light.  But 
he  wholly  disproved  the  Newtonian  view,  by 
throwing  a  diverging  pencil  from  the  focus  of  a 
lens  on  2  mirrors  slightly  inclined  to  each  other, 
so  as  to  make  the  reflected  rays  cross  in  their 
coiu-se :  here  were  no  edges ;  yet,  when  the  2 
sets  of  rays  were  received  on  a  screen,  the  light 
and  dark  bands  were  perfectly  formed  ;  and  by 
covering  one  mirror,  the  bands  disappeared,  the 
other  giving  light  only.  This  phenomenon  then, 
in  all  its  forms,  is  due  to  interference,  and,  ac-. 
cording  to  the  undulatory  theory,  that  of  2 
waves  or  sets  of  waves,  so  managed,  in  the  case 
of  the  mirrors,  that  they  shall  intersect  each 
other  at  points  along  their  course ;  where,  in 
homogeneous  light,  crests  conspire  with  crests, 
or  troughs  with  troughs,  producing  increased 
brightness,  but  where  crest  and  trough  combine 
at  the  same  point,  producing  rest  of  the  vibra- 
ting medium,  that  is,  darkness.  In  compound 
or  solar  light,  however,  the  effect  of  the  inter- 
ference is  to  separate  the  ray  into  its  element- 
ary colore.  In  the  case  of  rays  grazing  the 
edges  of  orifices  or  bodies,  the  points  at  which 
the  rays  thus  touch  become  points  of  origin  of 
new  agitations  or  waves,  which  spread  out  from 
these  points  as  centres  beyond  the  body,  and  by 
so  doing  intersect  each  other  and  produce  light 


DIFFRACTION  OF  LIGET 


DIGAMMA 


471 


and  dark  bands.  Mathematically,  it  is  easily 
proved  that  those  surfaces  of  intersection  along 
which  crests  will  conspire  to  give  increased 
liglit,  and  also  those  along  wliicli  crests  and 
troughs  will  coniljine  to  give  darkness,  must 
form  along  the  middle  line  one  continued  plane 
surface,  and  on  both  sides  of  this,  receding  hy- 
perboloid  surfaces ;  and  experiment,  as  in  plac- 
ing the  screen  successively  at  various  distances, 
marks  out  exactly  these  curves  about  a  middle 
bright  band,  as  those  actually  formed.  The 
bands  thus  formed  are  broadest  in  tlic  least  re- 
frangible (red)  rays,  and  narrowest  and  most 
crowded  in  the  most  refrangible  (violet)  light. 
Tlie  accurate  measurement  with  a  micrometer 
of  the  distances  of  the  successive  bands  from 
the  central  line,  together  with  the  other  known 
distances  in  tlie  case,  becomes  a  ready  means  of 
determining  the  wave  lengths  of  the  different 
colored  rays  composing  wliite  liglit;  and  it  is 
by  observing  that  when  either  of  2  pencils  form- 
ing them  is  retarded,  the  fringes  must  shift  to 
that  side,  and  finding  that  when  one  of  the  pen- 
cils passes  through  a  thin  film  of  mica,  or  a  tube 
of  water,  the  fringes  do  actually  move  to  the 
side  occupied  by  this  pencil,  that  it  has  lately 
been  proved,  in  different  ways  severally  by 
Arago,  Foucault,  and  Fizeau,  that  light  moves 
less  rapidly  in  the  denser  of  2  media,  a  fact 
which  has  given  to  the  emission  theory  of  light 
its  final  overthrow.  As  consequences  of  this 
view  of  the  production  of  the  fringes,  it  follows 
also  that  the  centre  of  the  shadow  of  a  small 
opaque  body  Iield  in  a  diverging  pencil  of  light 
should  be  a  minute  bright  spot,  while  the  cen- 
tre of  the  light  of  the  pencil  without  the  opaque 
body  should  be  a  small  dark  spot ;  both  these 
results  are  found  to  hold  true.  By  varying  the 
shape  of  the  orifice,  the  form  of  the  dark  or 
light  space  will  be  changed.  Shadows,  as 
formed,  do  not  correspond  accurately  with  the 
geometrical  shadows  of  the  bodies  projecting 
them  ;  but  in  the  case  of  large  bodies  or  aper- 
tures the  fringes  are  less  sensible.  In  order  to 
witness  the  effect  of  diffraction  by  a  simple  ex- 
periment, make  a  smooth  pin-hole  in  a  piece 
of  card  paper,  or  a  clean  cut  down  into  one 
of  its  sides':  by  looking  through  this,  in  a  room 
otherwise  dark,  at  a  minute  crevice  admitting 
light  by  the  shutter  or  door,  or  at  the  tiame  of 
a  candle,  either  of  these  will  present  numerous 
light  and  dark  bands,  the  candle  flame  being  mul- 
tiplied apparently  into  a  number  of  flames,  less- 
ening out  on  either  side,  and  showing  the  pris- 
matic colors.  Bring  a  bright  star  or  the  light 
of  a  lamp  at  a  distance  just  over  the  edge  of  an 
intervening  body,  as  the  hand  or  a  bar  in  the 
shutter,  and  a  good  eye  will  detect  that  in  a 
position  just  preceding  that  of  the  disappear- 
ance of  tlie  light  it  is  decomposed,  showing  the 
prismatic  colors,  the  red  and  green  very  dis- 
tinctly. Many  cases  of  diffraction  occur  in  na- 
ture. Among  these  are  the  colored  fringes  seen 
by  looking  in  certain  directions  at  or  along  the 
course  of  fine  fibres  of  any  kind,  as  the  spider's 
web,  fine  wires,  and  the  fibres  upon  black  fab- 


rics, when  illuminated  by  the  sun ;  the  fringes 
sometimes  bordering  the  shadows  of  such  bodies ; 
the  colors  seen  by  looking  through  a  fine  dew  oi' 
mist  between  2  plates  of  glass,  or  upon  a  mii*- 
ror  on  which  lycopodium  has  been  dusted,  held 
in  the  sun ;  the  changeable  colors  of  the  plu- 
mage of  birds,  and  those  of  mother-of-pearl  and 
other  grooved  or  striated  surfaces,  the  origin  of 
the  colors  in  the  latter  cases  being  proved  by 
taking  casts  of  such  surfaces  in  black  wax, 
which  immediately  become  iridescent,  like  the 
natural  objects,  and  by  grooving  metallic  sur- 
faces with  5,000  to  10,000  fines  to  the  inch,  as 
in  Barton's  iris  buttons,  in  which  the  same  re- 
sult appears. 

DIFFUSION  OF  GASES,  a  term  applied  by 
Priestley  (who  first  observed  the  phenomenon, 
and  published  an  account  of  it'  in  the  4th  vol- 
ume of  the  "  Transactions  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society")  to  the  property  possess- 
ed by  gaseous  bodies  of  intermingling  with  each 
other,  whatever  may  be  their  differences  of 
specific  gravity,  or  whatever  their  repugnance 
to  enter  into  chemical  combinations.  Priestley 
found  the  new  force  so  strong  that  the  gases 
would  in  time  penetrate  animal  membrane  that 
'  separated  them  and  that  was  regarded  air-tight, 
and  be  found  constituting  similar  mixtures  on 
each  side  of  it.  To  this  principle  he  correctly 
attributed  the  uniformity  of  the  composition  of 
the  atmosphere.  Dalton,  who  afterward  inves- 
tigated the  subject,  explained  the  phenomenon 
on  the  assumption  that  the  particles  of  one  gas 
are  liighly  repulsive  to  each  other,  but  do  not 
repel  those  of  another  gas.  So,  when  a  jar  of 
hydrogen  is  inverted  over  another  filled  Avith 
carbonic  acid,  the  light  gas  finds  its  way  be- 
tween the  particles  of  the  heavy  gas,  and  this 
works  upward  into  the  other,  till  they  are  at  last 
equally  diffused.  Thus  he  supposed  one  gas 
to  act  as  a  vacuum  to  another,  with  which  it 
does  not  enter  into  chemical  combination ;  with 
this  difference,  however,  that  the  particles  of 
one  present  a  mechanical  impediment  to  the  dif- 
fusion, so  that  a  longer  time  is  required  for  it  to 
take  place.  This  explanation  accounts  also  for 
the  uniform  diffusion  of  vapors  through  gases  and 
through  each  other.  Prof.  Graham  of  Glasgow 
made  some  further  interesting  investigations  as 
to  the  relative  rate  of  diffusion  of  different  gases. 
Gas  contained  in  a  glassjar  slightly  cracked  was 
found  to  escape  into  the  air,  and  the  air  at  the 
same  time  to  pass  through  and  mingle  with  the 
gas,  and  the  relative  quantities  that  passed  each 
way  were  found  to  depend  upon  the  comparative 
densities  of  the  two  elastic  fluids ;  the  lightest 
gases  passing  through  most  rapidly,  th«  rate  of 
diffusion  being  inversely  as  the  square  root  of 
the  density  of  the  gas.  This  law  would  seem 
to  confirm  the  hypothesis  that  gases  act  as  va- 
cuums to  one  another ;  for  it  is  found  that  the 
velocities  of  gases  flowing  into  a  vacuum  main- 
tain the  same  ratio,  being  inversely  as  the  square 
root  of  tlie  densities  of  the  gases. 

DIGAMMA  (double  gamma),  so  called  from 
its  form  (F)  resembling  2  gammas  (r),  the  6th 


472 


DIGBY 


DIGESTION 


letter  in  the  ancient  alphabet  of  the  Greeks, 
corresponding  to  the  Hebrew  i  and  the  Latin 
f^  and  probably  equivalent  in  sound  to  the  Eng- 
lish w.  It  continued  latest  in  the  yEolic  dialect, 
but  early  became  obsolete  in  the  Attic  alphabet, 
and  subsequently  in  the  Gi'eek  language ;  though 
its  original  existence  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  the  5th  letter  (e)  is  the  numerical  symbol 
for  5,  but  the  next  letter  {(}  for  7.  It  does 
not  appear  in  the  Homeric  poems,  though  they 
were  composed  when  it  was  in  use ;  but  its  force 
remained  in  the  metre  after  its  form  had  disap- 
peared, and  its  latent  existence  at  the  beginning 
of  many  words  and  syllables  apparently  com- 
mencing with  a  vowel  made  preceding  short 
syllables,  if  ending  with  a  consonant,  long  by 
position,  or,  if  ending  with  a  vowel,  prevented 
a  hiatus.  In  passing  into  the  Latin  language 
it  was  written  v,  thus:  iampos  (FESIIEPOS), 
vesperus  ;   mov  (QFON),  oxv7n. 

DIGBY,  a  S.  W.  co.  of  Nova  Scotia,  border- 
ing on  the  Atlantic;  pop.  in  1851,  12,252.  'it 
has  a  highly  diversified  surface,  and  comprises 
within  its  limits  several  small  lakes,  which  give 
rise  to  numerous  rivers.  The  underlying  rock 
is  sandstone  of  various  colors.  Copper  and  sil- 
ver mines  have  been  worked  with  some  profit. 
In  the  N.  W.  part  is  a  deep  and  narrow  bay  of 
the  Atlantic  called  St.  Mary's  bay,  enclosed  on 
the  N.  by  Brial's  island  and  a  narrow  headland 
known  as  Digby  neck.     Capital,  Digby. 

DIGBY,  Sir  Kenelm,  an  English  philoso- 
pher and  cliemist,  born  in  Gothurst,  Bucking- 
hamshire, in  1G03,  died  in  London  in  1665.  He 
was  the  son  of  Sir  Everard  Digby,  who  was  ex- 
ecuted for  complicity  in  the  gunpowder  plot, 
when  the  subject  of  this  sketch  was  about  3 
years  old.  He  was  educated  in  the  Protestant 
faith,  and  showed  early  tokens  of  remai'kable 
talent.  In  1C21,  having  finished  his  education 
at  Oxford,  he  visited  the  continent,  where  he 
travelled  for  about  2  years.  On  his  return 
he  was  made  gentleman  of  the  bedchamber  by 
Charles  L,  and  received  other  marks  of  the 
royal  favor.  In  1628  he  sailed  Avith  a  squad- 
ron fitted  out  at  his  own  expense,  to  fight  the 
Algerines  and  the  Venetians,  with  whom  the 
English  had  quarrelled,  and  gained  nmch  cre- 
dit by  his  courage  and  success  on  this  expedi- 
tion. In  1636,  while  in  France,  he  became 
a  convert  to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion ; 
and,  having  afterward  retm-ned  to  England, 
and  taken  part  with  the  king  in  the  civil  war, 
was  imprisoned  by  order  of  parliament.  Dur- 
ing his  confinement  he  employed  himself  with 
literary  labors,  was  released  in  1643  in  con- 
sequence of  the'  intercession  of  the  queen  of 
France,  and  retired  to  that  country,  -where  he 
was  received  with  great  honor,  and  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  Descartes  and  other  eminent 
Frenchmen.  From  this  time  till  1661  he  lived 
mostly  on  the  continent,  and  especially  in  France, 
employing  himself  with  literary  and  scientific 
labors.  Having  returned  to  England,  he  enjoyed 
the  favor  of  Charles  II.,  and  continued  his  philo- 
sophical studies  until  his  death.     His  principal 


works  are :  "  A  Conference  with  a  Lady  about 
the  choice  of  a  Religion ;"  "  Observations  on 
Religio  Medici ;"  a  "Treatise  on  the  Nature  of 
Bodies;"  a  "Treatise  on  the  Soul,  proving  its 
Immortality ;"  a  "  Treatise  of  adhering  to  God ;" 
"  Of  the  Cure  of  Wounds  by  the  Powder  of 
Sympathy  ;"  "  Private  Memoirs  of  Sir  Kenelm 
Digby,  &c.,  written  by  Himself,"  first  published 
in  1827. 

DIGESTION,  a  function  peculiar  to  the  ani- 
mal kingdom,  by  which  organic  alimentary 
substances,  introduced  into  the  stomach  and 
intestines,  are  converted  into  the  nutritive  fluid, 
chyle,  and  mixed  indirectly  with  the  blood,  the 
excrementitious  and  useless  matters  being  re- 
jected and  cast  out  of  the  body.  The  organs  by 
which  this  function  is  performed  in  the  higher 
animals  are  the  mouth,  pharynx,  oesophagus,  sto- 
mach, and  intestines,  with  their  accessory  sali- 
vary glands,  pancreas,  liver,  and  mucous  follicles. 
The  first  act  to  which  food  is  subjected  is  the 
mechanical  division  by  the  teeth ;  so  important 
is  this  in  order  that  it  may  be  influenced  by  the 
salivary  secretion,  that  it  may  be  said  as  an 
axiom  that  "  food  well  chewed  is  half  digested." 
As  a  people  the  Americans  are  singularly  guilty 
of  life-long  and  constant  infraction  of  this  rule, 
paying,  however,  the  penalty  of  dyspepsia  with 
its  numerous  train  of  evils  and  prematiire  de- 
cay. The  action  of  the  gastric  juice  and  of  the 
pancreatic  and  biliary  secretions  has  been  de- 
scribed in  the  articles  Chyme  and  Chyle.  While 
some  of  the  nutritive  matters  are  dissolved  in 
and  absorbed  directly  from  the  stomach,  otliers 
require  further  preparation,  and  are  taken  up  by 
the  vessels  and  absorbents  of  the  intestines  ;  by 
the  time  that  the  residue  arrives  in  the  cascum, 
almost  all  the  alimentary  matter  has  been  ex- 
tracted, and  the  insoluble  portions  with  the 
excess  of  biliary  and  mucous  secretions  are  void- 
ed at  the  anal  termination  of  the  canal.  The 
digestive  process,  upon  the  proper  performance 
of  which  the  health  of  all  the  organs  must  de- 
pend, can  hardly  be  separated  from  absorption, 
which  takes  up  the  nutritive  materials,  and 
assimilation,  which  converts  them  into  a  fluid 
resembling  blood,  poured  into  the  circulation 
near  the  heart.  Though  inorganic  substances 
are  necessary  for  the  support  of  the  body,  the 
organic  alone  are  generally  considered  as  food 
and  as  subjects  for  the  digestive  process.  Organic 
substances  used  as  food  may  be  conveniently  ar- 
ranged under  4  heads  :  1,  the  saccharine  group, 
embracing  substances  composed  of  oxygen,  hy- 
drogen, and  carbon,  resembling  sugar  in  compo- 
sition, and  readily  convertible  into  it ;  such  are 
starch,  gum,  woody  fibre,  and  the  cellulose  of 
plants ;  2,  the  oleaginous  group,  with  a  great 
preponderance  of  hydrogen  and  carbon,  small 
proportion  of  oxygen,  and  absence  of  nitrogen, 
including  vegetable  oils  and  animal  fats;  3,  the 
albuminous  group,  containing  a  large  proportion 
of  nitrogen,  comprising  animal  and  vegetable 
substances  allied  in  chemical  composition  to 
albumen  and  animal  tissues;  4,  the  gelatinous 
group,  including  animjil  substances  closely  allied 


DIGESTION 


473 


to  gelatine;  also  containing  nitrogen.  The  sac- 
charine substances  cannot  form  part  of  any  ani- 
mal tissue,  but,  when  converted  in  the  body  into 
those  of  the  oleaginous  group,  may  like  these 
last  go  to  nourish  the  adipose  and  nervous  tis- 
sues; but  by  far  their  greater  portion  is  used  in 
the  maintenance  of  the  animal  heat.  Starch 
seems  to  be  converted  into  sugar,  and  sugar  into 
lactic  acid,  in  which  form  it  is  oxidized  and 
burned  off;  oleaginous  matters  appear  to  under- 
go oxidation  without  any  preliminary  change  ; 
these  non-nitrogcnized  compounds  cannot  min- 
ister to  the  plastic  growth  of  the  body,  as  is 
proved  by  the  death  from  inanition  of  animals 
fed  exclusively  upon  them.  The  articles  of  the 
albuminous  group  serve  not  only  for  nutrition, 
but  for  the  maintenance  of  heat,  if  required,  by 
their  decomposition ;  the  proportion  of  their  4 
elements  is  the  same  in  all,  and  they  are  all 
capable  of  reduction  to  a  like  condition  by  the 
digestive  process,  so  that,  as  far  as  nutrition 
goes,  the  fibrine  of  animals,  the  albumen  of  eggs, 
the  caseine  of  milk,  and  the  gluten  of  wheat  are 
equally  acceptable  to  the  organism.  No  one  of 
these,  however,  is  alone  sufficient  to  support 
life ;  it  is  very  remarkable,  as  Dr.  Prout  has 
observed,  that  the  only  single  article  of  food 
naturally  provided  for  the  continued  growth  of 
animals,  milk,  contains  albuminous  caseine  in 
its  curd,  a  good  deal  of  oily  matter,  and  con- 
siderable sugar. — Supposing  mastication  to  have 
been  thoroughly  performed,  the  food  is  first 
acted  upon  by  the  salivary  fluid,  which  is  se- 
creted by  the  parotid,  sublingual,  and  submax- 
illary glands,  and  the  follicles  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth.  Saliva  is  but  little 
heavier  than  water,  contains  minute  corpuscles 
and  epithelial  scales,  and  in  health  has  an  alka- 
line reaction  greatest  during  and  after  meals. 
It  consists  of  about  995  parts  of  water  in  1,000, 
and  5  parts  of  solid  matters;  of  the  latter  the 
most  remarkable  is  ptyalin,  to  which  the  pecu- 
liar properties  of  the  fluid  are  due;  it  closely 
resembles,  but  is  not  identical  with,  albumen 
and  caseine  ;  it  acts  the  part  of  a  ferment,  and, 
according  to  Mialhe,  1  part  is  suflBcient  to  con- 
vert 2,000  parts  of  starch  into  sugar ;  it  also 
contains  a  compound  of  sulpho-cyanogen,  not 
known  to  occur  in  any  other  animal  product, 
and  interesting  in  a  medico-legal  point  of  view ; 
its  salts  are  nearly  those  of  the  blood,  and  its 
alkaline  reaction  seems  to  be  due  to  the  basic 
phosphate  of  soda ;  the  "  tartar  "  of  the  teeth 
and  salivary  concretions  consist  principally  of 
eai'thy  phosphates  and  animal  matter.  The 
limpid  secretion  of  the  parotid  and  sublingual 
glands  saturates  the  food  during  proper  masti- 
cation, while  the  viscid  submaxillary  fluid  facil- 
itates swallowing  when  the  tongue  carries  the 
mass  back  toward  the  pharynx.  The  amount 
of  saliva  secreted  daily  by  man  will  average,  ac- 
cording to  Bidder  and  .Schmidt,  3^  lbs.,  though 
it  varies  with  the  character  and  frequency  of  the 
meals.  Beside  its  mechanical  action,  it  is  be- 
lieved that  the  saliva,  by  its  peculiar  ferment, 
acts  chemically  upon  the  farinaceous  elements  of 


the  food,  leading  to  thd  conversion  of  the  starch 
into  sugar,  the  action  conti;ming  even  in  pres- 
ence of  the  acid  of  the  stomach ;  there  is  no 
satisfoctory   evidence    that    saliva  exerts  any 
other  than  a  i)hysical  action  upon  nitrogcnized 
substances.   When  the  food  reaches  tlie  stomach 
the  digestion  is  continued  by  the  gastric  juice, 
secreted  by  the  numerous  follicles  of  the  mu- 
cous membrane,  lined  with  lobular  cells  and 
glandular  epithelium.     Bernard's   experiments 
show  that  the  secretion  is  mainly  poured  out 
toward  the  pyloric  extremity  of  the  organ.  The 
nature  of  the  digestive  process  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  speculation  in  ])ast  times.     It 
was  at  first  supposed  that  the  aliments  under- 
went a  coction  similar  to  that  which  they  would 
experience  in  a  vessel  with  hot  water ;  to  this 
succeeded  the  theory  of  acid  fermentation,  then 
of  putrefaction,  of  trituration,  and  of  macera- 
tion, till  the  present  belief  in  the  solvent  action 
of  the  gastric  juice  was  established.   The  gastric 
juice  is  transparent,  nearly  colorless,  and  with 
very  slight  viscidity.     Its  most   characteristic 
feature  is  acidity,  which  is  even  perceptible  to 
the  taste.     Many   eminent   chemists  maintain 
that  the  real  agent  in  the  solvent  process  is  free 
lactic  acid,  while  others  are  in  favor  of  free  hy- 
drochloric acid ;  the  latter  seems  to  be  true  of 
man,  and  the  former  of  dogs  and  pigs,  which  have 
been  the  most  frequent  subjects  of  experiment. 
The  peculiar  organic  ferment  of  the  gastric  juice 
is  pepsin,  which  disposes  albuminous  matters  to 
undergo  solution  by  the  contained  hydrochloric 
acid,  which  they  would  otherwise  only  partially 
do  unless  exposed  to  a  high  temperature.     The 
secretion  of  the  empty  stomach  is  neutral  or 
alkaline,  but  it  becomes  acid  on  the  introduction 
and  during  the  digestion  of  food,  resuming  its 
neutral  character  when  this  process  is  finished. 
From  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Dalton,  it  appears 
that  an  ounce  of  gastric  juice  will  dissolve  a 
little  over  30  grains  of  fresh  lean  meat ;  at  this 
rate  the  full  digestion  of  a  pound  of  raw  meat 
would  require  2  gallons  of  gastric  juice ;  and 
this  apparently  enormous  quantity  will  not  be 
considered  incredible,  if  it  be  recollected  that 
this  fluid  after  it  has  done  its  work  of  solution  is 
at  once  reabsorbed  into  the  circulation,  so  that 
even  this  quantity  might  be  secreted  during  the 
3  or  4  hours  of  the  digestive  process,  at  an  ex- 
pense to  the  blood  of  not  more  than  2  or  3  oz. 
of  fluid  at  any  one  time  ;  the  fluid  does  not  ac- 
cumulate in  the  stomach,  but  its  watery^  por- 
tions are  in  continual  process  of  secretion  and 
reabsorption  as  long  as  any  food  remains  undi- 
gested, within  reasonable  limits  as  to  quantity 
ingested.     Many  of  the  most  important  phe- 
nomena of  gastric  digestion  have  been  rendered 
familiar  and  visible  by  the  experiments  of  Dr. 
Beaumont  and  others  within  a  few  years  on 
Alexis  St.  Martin,  through  an  opening  in  whose 
stomach  the  effect  of  food,  stimulants,  and  seda- 
tives coifld  be  seen.   The  color  of  the  membrane 
was  pale  pink,  its  appearance  velvet-like,  and 
its  surface  lined  with  a  transparent  viscid  mu- 
cus ;  the  irritation  of  food  caused  the  innumer- 


474 


DIGESTION 


DIGGES 


able  follicles  to  become  prominent,  and  to  pour 
out  the  acid  gastric  juice;  small  quantities  of 
very  cold  water,  or  ice,  after  the  primary  seda- 
tive ett'ect,  caused  turgidity  of  the  membrane 
and  copious  secretion,  -while  ice  in  large  amount 
and  long  continued  retarded  the  process.  The 
amount  of  gastric  juice  secreted  depends  on  the 
requirements  of  the  system,  and  not  on  the 
quantity  of  food  taken  into  the  stomach ;  this 
is  most  important  to  be  remembered,  since, 
after  the  fluid  secreted  has  dissolved  all  it 
can,  any  excess  of  food  must  remain  undigest- 
ed, pass  into  the  intestines  in  a  crude  state, 
and  become  a  source  of  pain  and  irritation  until 
it  is  expelled.  When  the  system  is  diseased, 
there  is  no  craving  for  food,  wliich  if  taken 
would  not  cause  the  secretion  of  the  gastric 
juice,  but  would  remain  undigested  for  24  or  48 
hours,  adding  its  irritation  to  the  general  dis- 
eased state.  Excess  in  eating  or  drinking  causes 
erythematic  inflammation  of  the  stomach,  and 
acridity  of  the  secreted  fluid,  which  if  long  con- 
tinued disorders  digestion,  and  betrays  itself  to 
the  physician  by  aphthous  ulcerations  and  other 
morbid  appearances  of  the  mouth  and  tongue. 
The  secretion  of  gastric  juice  is  influenced  by, 
though  not  dependent  on,  nervous  agency;  it  is 
well  known  that  mental  emotion  will  put  a  stop 
to  the  digestive  process,  and  section  of  the 
pneumogastric  nerves  arrests  for  a  time  the 
elaboration  of  the  gastric  fluid.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  process  of  gastric  digestion  is 
essentially  one  of  chemical  solution,  the  solvent 
fluid  being  prepared-by  the  follicles  of  the  stom- 
ach, and  its  action  assisted  by  the  peristaltic 
muscular  movements  of  the  organ ;  the  experi- 
ments on  St.  Martin  fully  prove  these  facts, 
both  in  natural  and  artificial  digestion.  Eapidity 
of  digestion  depends  so  much  on  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  the  food,  the  state  of  health,  the 
condition  of  the  mind,  and  the  habits  of  exer- 
cise, that  it  is  diflicult  to  determine  the  relative 
digestibility  of  difierent  articles  of  diet ;  it  ap- 
pears from  Dr.  Beaumont's  researches  that,  other 
things  being  equal,  the  flesh  of  wild  animals  is 
more  easily  digested  than  that  of  the  allied  do- 
mesticated races ;  in  this  respect  venison  stands 
first,  then  turkey,  then  beef,  mutton,  and  veal, 
in  the  order  mentioned.  A  certain  bulk  of 
food  is  necessary  for  healthy  digestion,  as  has 
long  been  practically  known  by  uncivilized  na- 
tions ;  soups  and  fluid  aliment  are  not  more  read- 
ily chymified  than  solid  substances,  and  cannot 
alone  support  the  system  in  vigor.  Moderate 
exercise  before  a  meal  facilitates  digestion.  A 
temperature  of  98°  to  100°  F.  ia  requisite  for 
the  perfect  action  of  the  gastric  juice ;  hence 
the  ingestion  of  cold  and  iced  substances,  so 
generally  used  at  the  present  day,  must  be  very 
prejudicial  to  digestion.  The  most  recent  ex- 
periments go  to  show  that  the  action  of  the 
gastric  juice  is  confined  to  nitrogenized  sub- 
stances, and  that  it  exerts  no  influence  on 
Btarchy,  saccharine,  or  oily  matters.  Starch  is 
acted  upon  by  the  salivary  fluid,  sugar  is  dissolv- 
ed, and  oily  substances  are  reduced  to  a  state  of 


fine  division  ■without  the  agency  of  the  gastric 
juice.  Its  action  6n  albuminous  matters  is  to 
reduce  them  to  a  complete  solution,  alter  their 
chemical  properties,  and  convert  them  into  al- 
buminose  (a  kind  of  imperfect  albumen),  in 
which  form  they  are  readily  assimilated.  In  this 
condition  they  form  definite  combinations  with 
the  solvent  liquid,  which  have  been  called  pep- 
tones ;  these  are  not  mere  solutions  of  the  respec- 
tive substances  in  acidulated  fluids,  for  a  convert- 
ing power  is  exerted  by  the  pepsin,  the  solvent 
power  being  due  to  the  acid  of  the  gastric  juice. 
The  process  of  digestion  is  far  from  being  com- 
pleted in  the  stomach  ;  the  action  of  the  biliary 
and  pancreatic  fluids  has  been  noticed  under  Bilk 
and  Chyle,  and  the  end  of  the  digestive  act  un- 
der C^ouM.  As  mental  depression  will  retard 
digestion,  so  a  mind  at  ease  and  a  joyful  spiiit 
Avill  promote  it.  The  merry  laugh  not  only  in- 
dicates a  mental  condition  favorable  for  the 
natural  secretion  of  the  gastric  juice,  but  by 
shaking  the  sides  favors  the  movements  of  the 
stomach  so  essential  to  perfect  digestion ;  so  that 
the  saying,  "  Laugh  and  grow  fat,"  is  founded 
upon  physiological  principles.  Until  digestion 
has  been  partially  completed,  both  orifices  of  the 
stomach  are  closed,  a  beautiful  provision  of  na- 
ture keeping  the  pylorus  shut,  and  allowing  no 
undigested  matter  to  pass  out,  unless  its  faithful 
fibres  are  overpowered  by  too  much  or  improper 
food.  Indeed,  the  digestive  system  affords  some 
of  the  most  admirable  proofs  of  creative  design, 
whether  we  consider  the  mechanism  of  chewing 
and  swallowing,  the  reduction  of  different  ali- 
mentary articles  to  ajiomogeneous  chyme,  the 
absorption  of  some  parts  by  the  stomach  itself 
and  of  others  by  the  special  lacteals,  the  changes 
effected  by  the  secretions  of  the  liver  and  pan- 
creas, or  the  removal  of  superfluous  and  injuri- 
ous substances.  When  it  is  remembered  what 
control,  for  good  or  for  evil,  the  human  race  has 
over  these  processes,  it  must  be  admitted  that  a 
knowledge  of  the  physiology  of  digestion  is  of 
the  first  importance  to  health  and  happiness. — 
For  further  details  on  the  subject  of  digestion, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Todd  and  Bowman's 
"Physiological  Anatomy,"  Carpenter's  works 
on  physiology,  and  the  work  of  Dr.  Beaumont 
on  "  Digestion,"  edited  by  Dr.  Andrew  Combe ; 
and  for  fuller  information  on  articles  of  food  to 
the  titles  Aliment  and  Dietetics. 

DIGGES,  Leonard,  an  English  mathemati- 
cian, born  in  the  parish  of  Barham,  Kent,  died 
about  1574,  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  was 
possessed  of  an  ample  fortune,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  mathematical  studies.  He  wrote  "  Tec- 
tonicum,  briefly  showing  the  exact  Measuring 
and  speedy  Reckoning  of  all  manner  of  Lands, 
Squares,  Timber,  Stones,  Steeples,  &c."  (1556) ; 
Pantometriai  a  practical  geometrical  treatise 
(1591);  and"PrognosticationEverlastingof  right 
good  effect,  or  Choice  Rules  to  judge  the  Wea- 
ther by  the  Sun,  Moon,  and  Stars''  (1555).—- 
Thomas,  only  son  of  tlie  preceding,  died  in  1595. 
lie  was  graduated  at  Oxford,  adopted  the  profes- 
sion of  a  soldier,  and.was  appointed  muster-mas- 


DIGIT 


DII 


475 


ter  general  of  the  forces  sent  out  by  Elizabeth  to 
assist  the  Netherlands.  lie  wrote  several  mathe- 
matical treatises  and  other  works,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  Alte,  sen  Scales  Mathemat- 
iecB  (1573);  "A  Letter  on  Parallax"  (1573); 
"A  Geometrical  Treatise  named  Stratioticos, 
requisite  for  the  Perfection  of  Soldiers  "  (15!)0) ; 
"A  Perfect  Description  of  the  Celestial  Orbs 
according  to  the  most  ancient  Doctrine  of  the 
Pytliagoreans"  (1592),  and  some  otliers. 

DIGIT  (Lat.  digitus,  finger),  in  arithmetic, 
one  of  the  10  figures  or  symbols  by  moans  of 
which  all  numbers  are  expressed.  In  astronomy, 
it  designates  a  12th  part  of  the  diameter  of  the 
sun  or  moon.  Thus,  an  eclipse  is  said  to  be 
of  9  digits  when  tln-ee-fourths  of  the  diameter 
of  its  disk  are  concealed. 

DIGITALIS,  a  genus  of  exogenous  plants  be- 
longing to  the  natural  order  scrophuluriacece. 
Digitalis  pxnyurea  (Linn.),  purple  foxglove, 
is  a  small  shrub  found  in  pastures  and  about 
hedges  on  banks  of  streams,  in  a  gravelly  or 
sandy  soil.  Calyx  5-parted,  unequal ;  corolla 
campanulate,  the  limbs  obliquely  4-lobed;  sta- 
mens 4;  stigma  simple;  capsule  ovate-acumi- 
nate ;  root  of  numerous  long  slender  fibres, 
biennial ;  stem  erect,  3  or  4  feet  high,  commonly 
simple  roundish  with  slight  angles,  downy ; 
leaves  alternate,  ovate-lanceolate  or  elliptic- 
oblong,  crenate,  downy,  rugged,  and  veiny,  of 
a  dull  green  color,  tapering  at  the  base  into 
winged  footstalks,  lower  ones  largest;  raceme 
terminal,  long,  simple,  of  numerous  large,  pen- 
dulous, odorless  flowers.  Fuchsius  is  regarded 
as  the  earliest  botanist  who  mentions  this  plant, 
which  he  named  digitalis  (Germ.  Fingerliut,  fin- 
ger stall),  on  account  of  the  blossoms  resembling 
the  finger  of  a  glove.  The  term  foxe-glove  oc- 
curs in  a  MS.  Glossarium  ^'ElfriccB,  written  be- 
fore the  Norman  conquest,  and  in  a  MS.  Saxon 
translation  of  Apuleius,  both  of  which  are  among 
the  Cotton  MSS.  in  the  British  museum  ;  but  no 
Latin  or  Greek  name  was  given  to  this  plant 
previous  to  Fuchsius  in  1542.  This  beautiful 
shrub  derives  its  chief  interest  from  its  medicinal 
properties,  which  reside  in  the  leaves  and  seeds, 
the  latter  being  small,  roundish,  and  of  a  grayish- 
brown  color.  The  eftect  of  foxglove  has  been 
tried  on  dogs,  horses,  rabbits,  turkeys,  the  do- 
mestic fowl,  and  frogs,  and  on  all  it  has  been 
found  to  act  as  a  poison.  According  to  Orfila, 
the  first  symptom  of  ])oisoning  in  carnivorous 
animals  is  vomiting.  The  cerebro-spinal  symp- 
toms observed  in  animals  are  diminished  mus- 
cular power,  convulsive  movements,  tremors, 
and  insensibility.  When  given  in  small  doses 
to  man,  it  is  found  to  exercise  a  remarkable  in- 
fluence over  the  circulation,  frequently  reducing 
the  pulse  from  70  or  80  to  40  or  60  beats  in  the 
minute.  Dr.  Baildon  found  that  his  own  pulse 
was  reduced  by  the  use  of  digitalis  from  110 
to  40  beats  per  minute  while  he  occupied  a  re- 
ciimbent  position,  but  upon  rising  it  increased 
to  70  beats.  This  action,  however,  is  far  from 
being  uniform.  Dr.  Sanders  indeed  asserts  that 
its  use  is  invariably  attended  by  an  increased 


action  of  the  pulse.  The  eflTects  of  digitalis 
more  closely  resemble  those  of  tobacco  than 
any  other  agent.  It  possesses  in  common  Avith 
green  tea  the  property  of  preventing  sleep.  In 
medicine  it  is  usually  emplcjyed :  1,  to  reduce 
the  heart's  action ;  2,  to  promote  the  action  of 
the  absorbents ;  3,  as  a  diuretic ;  and  4,  on , 
account  of  its  influence  over  the  cerebro-spinal 
system.  Large  quantities  of  digitalis  are  ex- 
ported from  Germany  to  Cuba,  where  it  is 
mixed  with  tobacco  in  the  manufacture  of 
cigars. 

DIGITIGRADES,  the  tribe  of  the  typical  car- 
nivora,  so  called  because  they  walk  on  the  ends 
of  the  toes,  as  distinguished  from  the  planti- 
grades, which,  like  the  bear,  place  the  wliole 
foot  upon  the  ground.  This  tribe  includes  the 
innstelidm  or  weasels,  the  cuaidoi  or  dogs,  and 
the  fclid(B  or  cats.  All  have  the  cheek  teeth 
with  cutting  edges,  the  lower  shutting  within  the 
upper,  dividing  the  flesh  of  their  prey  like  the 
blades  of  scissors.  As  their  food  would  indicate, 
they  have  a  simple  stomach  and  a  short  intes- 
tine. Their  carnivorous  propensity  may  be 
measured  by  the  tubercle  or  heel  on  the  lower 
carnivorous  tooth,  and  the  number  of  false  mo- 
lars in  front  and  of  tuberculous  teeth  behind  it ; 
those  having  the  simplest  carnivorous  teeth,  and 
the  fewest  molars  in  front  and  behind,  like  the 
cats  and  the  weasels,  are  the  most  sanguinary. 
The  characteristic  marks  in  the  skeleton  are  tho 
long  metacarpus  and  metatarsus,  the  elevation 
of  the  OS  calcis,  and  the  shortness  of  the  pha- 
langes which  alone  rest  upon  the  ground  ;  and 
in  the  cats,  the  retractile  claws.  The  extremities 
are  formed  for  leaping  and  springing ;  from  the 
pelvis  as  the  fixed  point,  the  3  portions  of  the 
limbs  are  movable  in  alternately  opposite  di- 
rections ;  by  the  simultaneous  flexion  of  these 
jomts,  and  their  sudden  extension  by  means  of 
powerful  muscles,  the  greatest  force  is  given  to 
the  spring,  the  elevated  and  elongated  heel  af- 
fording the  principal  mechanical  advantage  in 
the  digitigrade  foot. 

DII,  the  Latin  generic  name  for  all  the  gods. 
The  instinctive  tendency  of  man,  prompted  also 
by  every  thing  in  the  external  world,  is  to  believe 
in  a  divine  agency  and  government.  Amid  tho 
grand  movements  of  the  universe,  and  with  con- 
sciousness of  noble  passions  and  faculties,  he  de- 
mands the  origin,  the  law,  and  the  destiny  of  him- 
self and  the  objects  by  which  he  is  surrounded ; 
he  asks  what  absolute  masters  govern  the  phe- 
nomena of  nature,  impel  the  streams,  unchain 
the  tempests,  illumine  and  move  the  skies,  guide 
tho  procession  of  the  seasons,  and  start  tho 
germs  of  life.  Asia,  the  birthplace  of  man,  and 
the  theatre  of  the  earliest  human  societies,  gave 
the  first  answers  to  these  inquiries,  sometimes 
deifying  the  elements,  the  heavenly  bodies,  and 
eminent  men  ;  sometimes  marking  tho  con- 
stant antagonisms  of  nature — how  the  shore 
confronts  tlie  sea,  the  wind  and  ocean  wrestle 
together,  and  conscience  and  passion  strive  for 
the  mastery  of  the  human  will — and  therefore 
deifying  two  opposite  principles  of  good  and  evil. 


476 


DII 


DIKE 


either  of  which  would  be  supreme  bnt  for  the 
other ;  and  sometimes  attaining  the  conception 
of  one  supreme  deity  wliose  spirit  pervades  all 
tilings.  The  Greek  and  Roman  mythology, 
though  it  received  some  elements  from  the  crea- 
tions of  the  East,  was  mainly  the  work  of  the 
poets  and  legislators  of  Greece.  Created  and 
professed  by  the  most  artistic  people  of  the  past, 
it  was  submitted  to  by  the  triumphant  Romans ; 
during  many  centuries  morality  found  support  in 
it,  and  misfortune  a  refuge  ;  philosophy  adopt- 
ed it,  and  poetry  rendered  it  immortal.  The 
principal  divisions  of  nature  were  personified 
into  great  divinities,  and  forms,  attributes,  and 
a  name  were  given  to  the  smallest  objects  in  the 
universe.  Fable  too  and  tradition  become  trans- 
figured into  mythology,and  many  of  the  gods  and 
demigods  were  but  the  kings,  heroes,  and  sages 
who  preceded  the  historical  times.  Of  divinities 
of  various  ranks,  Ilesiod  says  there  were  no  few- 
er than  30,000  who  inhabited  the  earth,  and  to 
this  immense  number  many  more  were  after- 
ward added.  The  Romans  generally  made  3 
classes  of  the  gods.  The  first  of  these,  the  dii 
majores,  were  12  in  number,  6  males  and  6 
females,  and  their  names  are  thus  combined  by 
Ennius  in  2  hexameters : 

Juno,  Vesta,  Minerva,  Ceres,  Diana,  Venus,  Mars, 
Mercurius,  Jovi,  Neptunus,  Vulcanus,  Apollo. 

These  deities  corresponded  with  the  12  Olym- 
pian gods  of  the  Greeks,  and  constituted  the 
divine  council  which  presided  over  the  course 
of  human  affairs.  The  Greeks  added  to  these 
12,  Alexander  the  Great  as  the  god  of  conquests, 
but  he  was  not  recognized  as  such  by  the  Ro- 
mans. The  second  class  were  the  8  dii  selecti, 
Janus,  Saturn,  Genius,  Sol,  Bacchus,  Tellus, 
Pluto,  Luna,  who  were  sometimes  classed  with 
the  superior  gods.  The  third  class  were  the  dii 
minorcs,  comprehending  a  crowd  of  beings  to 
whom  limited  divine  honors  were  paid,  and  who 
were  regarded  as  possessing  a  species  of  divine 
nature.  Among  these  were  the  indigenous  gods, 
attached  to  certain  places  of  which  they  were 
the  guardians,  as  the  jjenatea  and  lares^  the  pro- 
tectors of  home  and  family.  The  woods,  rivers, 
fields,  mountains,  forests,  and  solitudes  were  all 
peopled  with  fauns,  sylvans,  satyrs,  nymphs, 
dryads,  and  hamadryads.  The  agitation  of  the 
air  came  from  the  flight  of  the  Zephyrs ;  the 
rainbow  was  the  scarf  of  Iris  ;  sound  reverber- 
ating through  the  rocks  was  the  nymph  Echo; 
and  all  nature  under  the  charm  af  this  mytholo- 
gy became  endowed  with  life  and  intelligence. 
There  were  the  implacable  Parc£B  in  collision 
with  the  sharply-cut  Greek  personality ;  and 
the  avenging  Furies,  side  by  side  with  the 
more  heroic  than  moral  Greek  instincts.  Some 
tneologians  have  considered  mythology  founded 
«pon  religious  ideas  once  revealed  to  man,  but, 
in  consequence  of  length  of  time  and  the  action 
of  an  exuberant  imagination,  at  length  over- 
grown with  fable.  It  was  never  so  native  to 
the  Romans  as  to  the  Greeks,  and  before  the 
era  of  Augustus  the  faith  in  it  had  ceased  to  be 
either  a  strong  religious  or  fosthetic  feeling.    It 


was  degraded  by  the  apotheosis  of  impious  and 
monstrous  Roman  emperors,  and  passed  away 
as  Christianity  gradually  advanced. 

DIJON  (anc.  Dihio  or  Divio),  a  town  of 
France,  former  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Burgun- 
dy, now  the  chief  town  in  the  department  of 
Cote  d'Or,  seat  of  a  bishopric,  of  a  royal  court, 
of  tribunals  of  the  first  resort,  and  of  a  univer- 
sity with  faculties  of  law,  the  sciences,  and 
belles-lettres ;  pop.  in  1856.  29,766.  It  is  of  an 
oval  form,  with  several  suburbs,  and  lies  at  the 
foot  of  a  chain  of  mountains  in  a  fertile  vale,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Ouche  and  Suzon,  on 
the  railway  from  Paris  to  Lyons,  160  miles  S. 
E.  of  Paris.  It  is  generally  well  built,  and  has 
numerous  handsome  public  places  and  elegant 
houses.  It  is  enclosed  by  ramparts,  and  its  en- 
virons furnish  delightful  promenades.  Dijon 
contains  many  remarkable  buildings,  the  princi- 
pal of  which  are  the  cathedral,  formerly  the 
Cistercian  abbey  of  St.  Benigne,  a  massive 
Gothic  edifice  founded  in  535  and  rebuilt  in 
1271,  which  contains  the  magnificent  mauso- 
leums of  Philip  the  Bold  and  of  John  the  Fear- 
less; the  church  of  Notre  Dame,  built  in  the 
13th  and  14th  centuries;  the  church  of  St. 
Michael,  which  dates  from  the  15th  century, 
remarkable  for  its  front  and  its  castle-like  solid- 
ity ;  an  ancient  castle,  the  work  of  Louis  XL, 
which  served  for  a  time  in  the  18th  century  as 
the  prison  of  the  duchesse  de  Maine,  Mirabeau, 
and  the  chevalier  d'Eon;  the  state  palace, 
which  contains  archives  and  monuments  of  the 
middle  ages  of  great  value ;  and  a  palace  of  the 
princes  of  Conde,  built  by  Louis  XL  and  XII. 
It  has  also  a  school  of  the  fine  arts,  8  colleges, 
and  2  libraries,  one  of  which  contains  40,000 
volumes.  Its  industry  is  active  and  varied,  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  linens,  hosiery, 
vinegar,  and  candles,  in  distilleries  and  bleach- 
eries,  and  in  commerce  in  gi-ain  and  wines. 
The  origin  of  Dijon  is  traced  back  to  times  pre- 
ceding the  Roman  dominion.  Under  Marcus 
Aurelius  it  was  surrounded  by  walls  flanked 
with  towers,  and  was  embellished  and  enlarged 
by  Aurelian.  It  was  burned  by  the  Saracens  in 
the  8th  century,  and  sacked  by  the  Normans  in 
the  9th.  It  was  again  ravaged  by  fire  in  1127, 
and  was  for  3  centuries  the  residence  of  the 
dukes  of  Burgundy  and  the  seat  of  their  bril- 
liant court.  By  them  its  present  fortifications 
were  constructed.  In  1513  it  was  besieged  by 
the  Swiss,  and  saved  itself  only  by  a  humiliating 
treaty.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  some  of  the  most 
eminent  men  of  France,  of  Bossuet,  Orobillon 
the  elder,  Piron,  Rameau,  Longepierre,  Lamon- 
noye,  Cazotte,  Guyton-Morveau,  and  the  duke 
of  Bassano. 

DIKE,  in  geology,  a  wall  of  trap  or  other  ig- 
neous rock,  which  traverses  other  rocks,  and 
appears  to  have  Been  produced  by  the  flowing 
of  melted  matter  into  a  deep  rent_  or  fissure. 
Dikes  are  distinguished  from  veins  by  the 
greater  uniformity  of  their  contents,  by  the  par- 
allelism of  their  sides,  by  their  not  ramifying 
into  smaller  veins,  and  by  their  usually  larger  di- 


DIKE 


DILETTANTE 


477 


raensions.  The  name  was  given  them  from 
their  frequently  projecting  above  the  surface  like 
a  wall,  owing  to  the  degradation  of  the  softer  rock 
around  them,  dike  being  la  the  north  of  Eng- 
land and  in  Scotland  a  provincial  name  for  wall. 
They  are  met  with  from  a  few  inches  to  more 
than  a  mile  in  thickness.  In  volcanic  eruptions 
they  are  seen  in  process  of  formation,  as  deep 
rents  open  and  are  filled  with  liquid  lava.  In 
the  English  coal  mines  trap  dikes  are  occasion- 
ally met  with  in  underground  operations.  They 
there  form  a  wall  across  the  line  of  the  coal 
beds,  cutting  them  off,  and  causing  them  at 
times  to  be  thrown  out  of  place.  In  the  United 
States  they  occur  likewise  in  the  gold  mines  of 
North  Carolina  and  in  other  metalliferous  dis- 
tricts.— The  term  is  also  used  to  denote  a  ditch, 
and  is  probably  derived  from  the  word  to  dig ; 
but  as  applied  to  a  sea  wall  or  embankment,  it 
comes  no  doubt  from  the  Dutch  word  dijh^  of 
tlje  same  signification.  Such  earth  works  were 
in  former  times  a  common  means  of  defence, 
and  were  built  around  castles  and  fortresses. 
In  Holland  are  the  most  remarkable  dikes  in  the 
world,  constructed  to  prevent  the  overflow  of 
the  lands  reclaimed  from  the  sea.  Their  im- 
mense importance  may  be  appreciated  from  the 
fact  that  a  single  inundation  from  the  sea  in 
the  year  1277  caused  the  destruction  of  44 
villages;  and  in  1287,  only  10  years  afterward, 
80,000  persons  were  destroyed  by  another,  and 
its  present  extent  and  shape  were  given  to  the 
Zuyder  Zee.  In  the  15th  century  about  100,000 
persons  were  again  destroyed  through  the  im- 
perfection of  the  dikes,  when  their  construction 
was  imdertaken  in  the  most  thorough  manner, 
and  a  law  was  enacted  enforcing  their  being 
kept  in  order.  At  present  this  work  is  con- 
ducted on  a  systematic  plan  and  at  great  cost. 
Embankments  are  made  toward  the  sea  with 
heavy  timbers  filled  in  with  stone,  and  the  sur- 
face is  covered  with  bundles  of  flags  and  reeds 
fiistened  down  by  stakes.  Piles  also  are  driven 
into  the  sand,  and  protected  by  planking  as  well 
as  by  earth,  turf,  and  stones.  These  artificial 
dikes  are  often  40  feet  above  ordinary  high 
water,  and  wide  enough  at  top  for  a  common 
roadway.  Frequently  the  slopes  are  covered 
with  wicker  work  made  of  willow  twigs,  and 
the  willow  tree  is  extensively  cultivated  to  fur- 
nish these  supplies,  which  require  frequent  re- 
newal, as  also  to  bind  together  by. its  roots  the 
loose  sands.  "Walls  of  masonry  are  built  in  some 
of  the  most  exposed  situations,  and  rows  of 
l)iles  outside  protect  the  dikes  from  the  action 
of  the  waves.  It  is  estimated  that  the  annual 
expense  of  keeping  up  the  dike  of  Helder  and  that 
of  West  C'ajjpel,  at  the  western  extremity  of 
the  island  of  Walcheren,  is  about  $30,000  each. 
The  whole  expenditure  in  Holland  for  maintain- 
ing its  dikes  and  regulating  the  water  levels  is 
annually  from  $2,000,000  to  $2,500,000.  Engi- 
neers are  constantly  employed,  and  every  provi- 
sion is  made  of  materials  that  may  be  required 
for  immediate  repairs.  "Watchmen  are  employed 
during  the  winter  months  to  patrol  the  dikes 


by  day  and  night,  and  give  alarm  wlienever  the 
danger  appears  imminent  and  the  tide  threatens 
to  overflow.  The  people  then  hasten  to  tho 
I)oint,  and  by  mats  of  straw  and  rushes  and 
large  sheets  of  sail-cloth  buried  in  tho  sand  they 
raise  a  temporai-y  bulwark,  to  be  more  securely 
built  before  tho  ap})roach  of  tho  next  tide. — 
Dikes  are  often  constructed  as  barriers  for  res- 
ervoirs of  water,  and  for  this  purpose  they  aro 
built  on  several  well  established  plans.  The 
loose  materials  excavated  for  tho  channel  or 
basin  are  piled  up  in  a  firm  bank  and  consoli- 
dated by  rolling  with  heavy  rollers.  Some- 
times they  are  rendered  more  secure  by  build- 
ing within  them  along  their  central  line  a  pud- 
dle bank  of  selected  clayey  earth,  mixed  with 
sufticient  sand  to  give  it  tenacity,  so  as  not  to 
crack  in  drying.  This  should  be  carried  down 
to  a  solid  foundation,  and  may  be  advantage- 
ously bedded  upon  a  layer  of  concrete.  It  is 
built  up  a  little  later  than  the  bank  on  each 
side  of  it,  and  both  are  rolled  on  the  addition 
of  every  layer  of  6  inches  with  a  heavily  ribbed 
roller  of  cast  iron.  The  use  of  any  material 
of  the  nature  of  quicksand  is  to  be  carefully 
avoided  in  any  part  of  the  embankment.  Next 
the  water  it  is  well  to  face  the  work  with  a 
layer  of  broken  stone  that  will  pass  through  a 
2  inch  ring,  and  over  this  should  be  laid  a  slop- 
ing wall  of  flat  stone  at  an  inclination  of  1  base 
to  1  vertical,  or  from  that  to  one  of  3  base  to  1 
vertical.  The  broken  stone  within  is  a  guard 
against  the  embankment  being  penetrated  by 
any  small  water  animals.  The  dike  around  the 
great  reservoir  of  106  acres  in  the  central  park, 
New  York,  is  made  on  the  plan  given  above, 
which  is  approved  by  the  engineers  of  France 
and  England.  It  is  16  feet  8  inches  wide  at 
top,  with  an  inner  and  outer  slope  of  1^  baso 
to  1  vertical.  The  puddle  bank  of  clay  in  the 
centre,  which  reaches  to  within  a  few  feet  of 
the  top,  is  16  feet  thick.  The  depth  of  water 
around  the  margin  is  34  feet.  At  the  surface 
of  the  water  the  thickness  of  the  embankment 
is  24  feet  9  inches,  and  at  30  feet  below  it  is  114 
feet  9  inches.  The  French  engineers  give  the 
preference  to  this  mode  of  construction  to  that 
of  a  wall  of  masonry  alone  or  of  an  embank- 
ment within  a  wall.  Stone  work  by  settling  is 
liable  to  injury  that  can  be  repaired  only  at 
great  cost,  especially  if  the  structure  be  con- 
cealed within  an  embankment.  "Where  room 
is  an  object,  as  in  the  streets  of  a  citj",  the  outer 
sides  of  the  dike  are  conveniently  held  up  by 
steep  walls  of  stone,  the  object  of  which  is 
neither  to  add  to  the  strength  nor  to  the  im- 
permeability of  the  work. 

DILETTANTE  (pi.  dilettanti),  an  Italian 
term,  naturaUzed  in  France,  England,  and  Ger- 
many, signifying  an  amateur,  and  applied  to  a 
person  who  especially  interests  himself  in  any 
art,  without  knowing  its  fundamental  principles, 
and  without  making  it  an  object  of  thorough 
study.  The  term  dilettante  designated  original- 
ly a  lover  of  Italian  vocal  music,  and  was  at  one 
time  the  name  of  a  party  which  maintained  the 


478 


DILKE 


DILLENIUS 


superiority  of  that  music.  In  England,  a  society 
called  the  "  Dilettanti  Society"  was  originated 
in  1760,  by  gentlemen  who  had  travelled  in 
Italy,  at  first  for  social  purposes ;  but  it  after- 
ward acquired  celebrity  by  devoting  its  funds 
to  the  encourageraeut  of  the  study  of  classical 
art,  by  sending  out  travellers,  and  by  publishing 
books  on  antiquarian  subjects. 

DILKE,  Chaeles  Wentworth,  an  English 
journalist,  born  Dec.  8,  1789.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Cambridge,  and  became  employed  in 
the  navy  pay  office,  where  ho  remained  20 
years.  During  this  time  he  had  contributed 
largely  to  the  "  "Westminster  Keview,"  the 
"  Ketrospective  Review,"  and  other  periodicals 
of  note.  In  1830  Mr.  Dilke  became  editor  of 
the  "  Athenaeum,"  which,  from  having  been 
but  very  partially  successful  under  its  original 
proprietors,  Mr.  James  Silk  Buckingham  and  Mr. 
Stirling,  speedily  rose  to  the  rank  it  now  holds 
in  English  periodical  literature.  He  not  only  im- 
proved its  quality,  but  diminished  its  cost  to  the 
public ;  it  had  formerly  been  sold  for  Is.,  but 
Mr.  Dilke  reduced  the  price  to  4*:?.  In  1846, 
having  intrusted  the  editorship  of  the  "  Athe- 
najuni"  to  Mr.  Thomas  Kibble  Hervey,  Mr. 
Dilke  undertook  the  editorship  of  the  "  Daily 
News,"  a  large  newspaper  which  had  recently 
appeared  under  the  auspices  of  Mr.  Charles 
Dickens.  "With  the  cooperation  of  Mr.  Dilke, 
and  the  application  by  him  of  the  principle  of 
reduction  in  price,  the  success  of  the  "Daily 
News"  was  very  remarkable.  In  the  second  year 
of  its  existence  more  than  12,000  copies  were 
printed.  This  prosperity  speedily  and  perma- 
nently declined,  however,  on  the  surrender  of 
the  editorship  by  Mr.  Dilke  in  1849 — a  decline 
accelerated  also  by  a  mistaken  resolution  on  the 
part  of  the  new  director  to  increase  the  price. 
Tiie  consequence  was  a  reduction  of  the  issue 
to  4,000,  which  it  has  not  since  exceeded. 
— Charles  Wentworth,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  in  London,  Feb.  18,  1810.  He  was 
graduated  and  studied  law  at  Cambridge,  but 
did  not  during  that  time  contribute,  as  he  is 
reputed  to  have  done,  to  the  columns  of  the 
"  Atlienjeum."  He  manifested  early  that  bias 
for  the  conduct  of  industrial  and  artistic  or- 
ganization, the  development  of  which  in  subse- 
quent enterprises  has  proved  a  source  of  public 
benefit,  and  of  honor  to  himself.  In  1844  he 
submitted  to  the  society  of  arts,  of  which  he  was 
a  member,  and  is  now  the  vice-president,  a  plan 
for  the  exhibition  of  English  industrial  products, 
which  contained  the  germ  of  the  idea  more  fully 
realized  in  the  universal  exhibition  of  1851.  A 
connnission  of  inquiry  was  instituted  to  ascer- 
tain the  measure  of  assent  and  cooperation  that 
might  be  expected  for  the  project  from  various 
quarters,  but  met  with  little  encouragement. 
Mr.  Dilke  persisted  in  his  endeavors,  and,  in 
conjunction  with  Mr.  Henry  Cole  and  ^fr.  Scott 
Russell,  ])resented  iiis  original  plan  to  Prince 
Albert,  president  of  the  society  of  arts  ;  and  af- 
ter combating  various  obstacles,  he  had  the  grat- 
ification of  seeing  it  realized  in  the  exhibition 


which  took  place  in  the  apartments  of  the  so- 
ciety in  1846,  and  which  was  renewed  in  the 
following  year.  Among  many  tokens  in  recog- 
nition of  his  labors  received  by  Mr.  Dilke,  was 
his  appointment  by  Prince  Albert  as  a  member 
of  the  royal  commission,  in  which  capacity  until 
his  resignation  he  rendered  important  service. 
For  this  it  was  desired  to  bestow  upon  him  some 
special  acknowledgment,  but  as  he  constantly 
refused  profilers  either  of  honor  or  emolument, 
the  queen  forwarded  to  his  wife  a  bracelet  of 
diamonds.  In  1853  he  was  a  British  commis- 
sioner to  the  industrial  exhibition  in  New  York. 

DILIGENCE,  a  kind  of  stage  coach  drawn  by 
from  3  to  6  horses,  which  was  the  principal  public 
conveyance  in  France  before  the  introduction  of 
railways,  and  which  is  still  in  use  in  many  parts 
of  Europe.  The  French  4-wheeled  diligence  is 
composed  of  3  compartinents.  The  front  divi- 
sion (coii])(')  is  the  most  expensive,  and  holds  3 
persons.  The  middle  division  {interieur)  ac- 
commodates 6  persons  at  a  lower  rate.  Behind 
the  inside  is  the  rotonde,  a  much  less  comfortable 
place,  which  aflfords  the  same  number  of  seats 
at  a  still  lower  rate.  There  is  also  room  for  4 
persons  including  the  conductor  on  the  roof  over 
the  coiqye  {banqnette  or  imperiale),  which  is  the 
cheapest  place.  "With  a  full  number  of  persons 
the  diligence  weighs  about  5  tons,  exclusive  of 
baggage.  The  Spanish  and  Italian  diligences  are 
superior  to  the  French.  The  German  diligences 
{Postwaffen,  Bihcagen)  are  attached  to  the  post 
office;  so  are  those  of  Switzerland.  In  Russia 
diligences  are  built  with  a  succession  of  conpes, 
each  capable  of  containing  2  or  3  passengers; 
others  have  2  or  3  coupes,  and  then  a  rotonde 
holding  4  persons.  The  conductor's  seat  is  in 
front,  and  beside  him  sits  the  yamtchik  (post 
boy) ;  the  number  of  horses  is  generally  4,  har- 
nessed abreast,  but  to  these  2  leaders  are  fre- 
quently added,  and  on  the  off  horse  sits  another 
post  boy. 

DILL,  the  common  name  of  tne  anethicm 
grareolens  (Linn.),  an  annual  plant  of  the  natural 
order  of  the  umhellifei'oi,  a  native  of  Spain,  but 
naturalized  in  tlie  south  of  France  and  Germany. 
It  has  an  upriglit  smooth  stem,  much  dissected 
leaves,  yellow  flowers,  and  small  oblong  seeds, 
with  sliarp,  filiform  dorsal  ridges.  It  is  culti- 
vated for  the  carminative  and  stimulant  proper- 
ties of  its  seeds.  They  are  imported  in  large 
quantities  from  the  south  of  France  into  Eng- 
land, where,  beside  their  medicinal  use,  tliey  are 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  British  gin. 
In  Germany  they  are  used  in  pickling  cucum- 
bers and  in  the  manufacture  of  sour  crout. 

DILLENIUS,  JoHANN  Jakob,  a  German  bot- 
anist, born  in  Darmstadt  in  1687,  died  in  Oxford, 
April  2,  1747.  Following  a  not  uncommon  Ger- 
man custom  of  the  time,  each  generation  of  his 
family  added  some  letters  to  their  name,  his 
grandfather  being  called  Dill,  his  father  Dillen, 
and  himself  Dillenius.  He  studied  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Giessen,  and  was  received  a  member 
of  the  society  of  "  Inquirers  into  Nature,"  under 
the  auspices  of  which  he  published  a  "  Disser- 


DILUVIUM 


479 


tat'ion  upon  tlie  Plants  of  America  naturalized 
in  Europe  ;"  u  "  Treatise  upon  Coffee,"  with  an 
account  of  the  seeds  which  might  displace  it, 
giving  tlie  preference  to  burnt  rice ;  and  a  vol- 
ume of  "  Observations  upon  the  Mode  of  Devel- 
opment of  Ferns  and  Mosses,"  in  wliich  he  con- 
firmed the  theory  of  dilferent  sexes  in  plants. 
lie  first  obtained  a  reputation  among  naturalists 
by  his  "  Catalogue  of  the  Flora  of  Giessen," 
published  in  1719.  The  great  merit  of  Dillenius 
as  a  botanist  consists  in  a  constant  attention  to 
the  discrimination  of  the  genera  by  the  parts  of 
the  flower  and  fruit,  a  principle  of  classification 
fifst  ])roposed  by  Gesner  and  which  became  the 
foundation  of  the  system  of  Linnaeus.  William 
Slierard,  a  scientific  English  traveller,  succeeded 
in  persuading  Dillenius  to  leave  Germany  for 
England.  Ho  arrived  in  London  in  1721,  and 
had  a  rich  garden  at  Eltham  placed  at  liis  dis- 
position by  James  Sherard,  a  brother  of  William. 
He  edited  an  enlarged  edition  of  Eay's  "  Synop- 
sis of  British  Plants,"  which  he  enriched  with 
engravings  of  his  own.  In  1728  William  Sher- 
ard died,  and  founded  by  his  will  a  chair  of  bot- 
any at  Oxford,  to  which  Dillenius  was  appointed, 
who  in  1732  published  his  Hortus  Elthamensis, 
containing  not  only  descriptions  of  plants  ar- 
ranged in  alphabetical  order,  but  also  324  plates 
engraved  by  himself  on  pewter.  This  work  was 
enthusiastically  received  by  his  contemporaries, 
among  others  by  Liunaius,  then  commencing  his 
labors.  In  1741  he  published  his  "History  of 
Mosses,"  his  greatest  work,  which  places  him  in 
the  first  rank  of  the  botanists  of  the  last  century. 
He  was  more  than  20  years  in  collecting  the  ma- 
terials of  this  work,  which  is  a  noble  monument 
of  acute  discrimination  and  miiuite  research. 
The  plates,  numbering  85,  and  the  descriptions 
were  all  by  his  own  hand.  He  published  no 
subsequent  work,  but  many  of  his  drawings  and 
collections  are  preserved  in  the  Sherardian 
museum  at  Oxford.  The  isolation  which  the 
labors  of  Dillenius  required  affected  his  social 
qualities.  He  thought  only  of  his  own  knowl- 
edge and  opinions,  and  believed  himself  the 
prince  of  botanists.  Linna3us  visited  him  in 
1736,  and  implicitly  adopted  some  of  his  faulty 
views  in  opposition  to  his  own  better  judgment ; 
and  the  subsequent  correspondence  between 
these  two  naturalists  sliows  a  polite  condescen- 
sion on  the  part  of  the  Swede  to  the  pretensions 
of  the  Oxford  professor.  Linna;us  dedicated  to 
Dillenius  a  magnificent  genus  of  plants  of  tropi- 
cal India,  wliich  is  the  type  of  the  family  of 
the  Dillenincem. 

DILUVIUM,  Deift,  Bowlder  Formation, 
the  deposits  of  clay,  sand,  gravel,  and  bowlders 
spread  over  the  surface  of  the  polar  regions  and 
adjacent  portions  of  the  temperate  zones.  For 
a  time  these  deposits  were  confounded  with 
those  called  alluvial,  and  when  it  Avas  seen  that 
tliey  could  not  have  been  produced  by  the  ac- 
tion of  existing  currents,  their  origin  was  com- 
monly referred  to  the  Noachian  deluge.  As  the 
extent,  depth,  and  nature  of  the  materials  con- 
stituting the  formation  came  to  be  better  under- 


stood, this  opinion,  too,  was  necessarily  abandon- 
ed ;  for  it  was  a[)parent  that  no  transient  deluge 
could  have  product-d  effects  so  vast  as  those  ex- 
hibited in  this  formation.  In  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere the  drift  is  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America,  extending  from  the  polar  regions  to- 
ward the  equator,  and  disappearing  on  the  con- 
tinent of  North  America  about  lat.  38°.  In 
Europe,  all  trace  of  it  is  lost  in  the  countries 
bordering  the  Mediterranean.  Its  distribution 
southward  on  the  two  continents  appears  to 
accord  with  tho  deflections  of  the  j)resent  lines 
of  equal  winter  temperature.  In  South  Ameri- 
ca it  is  recognized  in  Patagonia,  and  traced  from 
Cape  Horn  to  lat.  41°  S.  Throughout  these  re- 
gions the  features  of  the  formation  are  the  same. 
The  surface  is  irregularly  covered  with  the  de- 
posits above  named.  Sometimes  they  are  so 
arranged  in  strata  as  to  indicate  that  a  long  time 
lias  been  occupied  in  their  deposition ;  while 
occasional  marine  shells,  nearly  all  of  recent 
species,  testify  to  tranquil  action  in  the  localities 
where  they  are  met  with,  and  to  an  epoch  of 
production  closely  approximating  to  the  recent 
period.  The  superficial  strata  of  sand  and 
gravel  are  found  at  times  300  feet  or  more  in 
thickness.  They  rest  upon  geological  forma- 
tions of  all  ages  up  to  the  beds  of  older  plio- 
cene, such  as  the  mussel  and  clam  beds  found 
at  Augusta  and  Gardiner  in  Maine,  CO  feet 
beneath  the  sand  and  gravel,  and  filled  with 
shells  scarcely  distinguishable  from  those  in  our 
harbors.  The  drift  is  met  with  upon  the  sum- 
mits of  high  mountains ;  it  is  seen  3,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  Baltic,  and  upon  the 
highest  points  of  the  Grampian  hills,  4,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  Everywhere  the  formation  is 
characterized  by  loose  masses  of  rock  scattered 
over  the  surface,  more  or  less  rounded  in  form, 
and  differing  from  the  solid  ledges  beneath  them. 
As  already  described  in  the  article  Bowlder, 
they  are  often  of  great  dimensions,  and  their 
sizes  increase  as  they  are  traced  toward  the 
pole  to  tlieir  parent  beds.  In  Russia  they  have 
thus  been  identified  with  ledges'more  than  800 
m.  distant  toward  the  north.  Bowlders  of  the 
same  kind  of  granite,  easily  recognized,  traced 
from  Moscow  to  St.  Petersburg,  vary  from  2  to 
3  feet  in  diameter  at  the  former  to  as  many  yards 
at  the  latter  point.  Instances  of  these  phenom- 
ena are  everywhere  to  be  seen  in  the  northern 
United  States.  In  southern  Wisconsin  pieces  of 
native  copper  were  often  found  in  the  superficial 
deposits  long  before  the  mines  of  this  metal  were 
discovered  on  the  S.  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  300 
m.  to  the  north.  The  N.  shores  of  Long  island 
are  strewn  with  bowlders  of  red  sandstone,  and 
of  granite  and  other  primary  rocks,  arranged  in 
groups  which  correspond  with  the  position  of 
the  ledges  of  the  same  rocks  in  Connecticut, 
across  the  sound  to  the  north.  So  on  the  Eu- 
ropean continent,  the  stratified  rocks  of  which 
the  whole  region  on  the  S.  side  of  the  gulf  of 
Finland  is  composed,  are  covered  with  granitic 
bowlders  from  the  primary  region  of  Scandina- 
via on  the  other  side  of  the  gulf.     The  surface 


480 


DILUVIUM 


of  the  bowlders  is  often  found  to  be  striated  and 
grooved,  as  if  worn  by  hard  rubbing  over  rough 
surfaces ;  but  sometimes  it  is  smooth  and  almost 
polished.  The  solid  ledges  of  rock  when  ex- 
posed to  view  very  frequently  display  a  similar 
grooved  and  worn  surface.  The  furrowed  lines, 
called  diluvial  scratches,  are  sometimes  seen  in 
2  sets,  one  mucli  fainter  than  the  other,  the  2 
crossing  each  other  at  a  sharp  angle.  Their 
general  direction  is  that  in  whicli  the  bowlders 
are  traced  to  their  parent  ledges.  In  the 
northern  states  this  is  usually  from  S.  S.  E.  to 
N.  N.  W.  Upon  the  slopes  of  high  lands  greater 
abrasion  and  grooving  are  observed  on  the  N. 
than  on  the  S.  sides ;  but  if  these  elevated  tracts 
were  opposed  to  a  great  current,  they  do  not 
appear  to  have  had  the  effect  of  diverting  this 
from  its  course,  except  it  may  have  been  in  the 
great  valleys  of  drainage,  where  the  strias  have 
been  observed  in  some  instances  to  coincide 
with  their  direction.  The  bowlders  in  an  open 
country  are  usually  scattered  about  without  reg- 
ularity, but  in  some  localities  they  are  traced 
in  long,  narrow,  and  well  defined  belts,  which 
cross  the  summits  of  ridges  in  lines  oblique  to 
the  direction  of  these.  That  all  parts  of  the 
region  covered  with  drift  did  not  occupy  tlieir 
present  elevation  at  the  time  its  deposition  took 
place,  is  proved  by  the  deposits  of  clay  contain- 
ing marine  shells  found  in  many  localities  in 
New  England  and  New  York,  reaching  at  a 
maximum  about  500  feet  above  the  present  level 
of  the  sea,  and  overlaid  by  the  sand  and  gravel 
of  the  drift.  The  valleys  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  of  Lake  Champlain  were  thus  depressed, 
and  the  waters  of  the  ocean  must  at  that  time 
have  reached  the  basin  of  Lake  Ontario.  Some 
regard  tljis  as  evidence  that  all  the  neighboring 
territories  now  covered  with  drift  were  similarly 
submerged,  but  such  beds  of  shells  are  only  met 
with  in  the  valleys  named  and  in  certain  locali- 
ties not  far  removed  from  the  present  margin  of 
the  sea.  Sir  Chai'les  Lyell  observes  of  the  drift 
fossils  of  Canada  found  near  Montreal  and  Que- 
bec, and  of  those  of  Scotland,  that  they  are  of 
species  indicating  a  colder  climate  than  now  be- 
longs to  the  regions  in  Avhich  they  are  found. 
He  also  noticed  near  Upsal  in  Sweden,  in  a  ridge 
of  stratified  diluvial  sand  and  gravel,  a  bed  of 
marl  100  feet  above  the  present  level  of  the  gulf 
of  Bothnia,  containing  myriads  of  the  peculiar 
forms  of  shells  still  common  to  the  brackish 
waters  of  the  Baltic,  and  which  must  have  origi- 
nally formed  the  bottom  of  the  sea  before  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  bowlders ;  for  upon  the  top  of 
the  ridge  are  several  huge  blocks  belonging  to 
the  drift.  lie  hence  infers  that  the  transport 
of  the  bowlders  continued  after  the  sea  was  in- 
habited by  existing  testacea,  and  after  the  con- 
tinent had  assumed  its  peculiar  configuration, 
by  which  the  Baltic  is  separated  from  the  salt 
Avaters  of  the  North  sea,  and  the  gulf  of  Both- 
nia is  made  to  have  only  i  the  saltness  of  the 
ocean.  The  shells  found  in  the  drift  refer  the 
period  of  its  production  to  a  time  subsequent  to 
the  jjliocene  epoch.    It  preceded  the  extinction 


of  the  mastodon  gigantetis,  for  the  bones  of 
this  animal  are  exhumed  in  New  Jersey  and 
New  York  from  bogs  in  the  surface  of  the  drift, 
wliere  they  have  lain  undisturbed,  not  separated 
even  from  the  decayed  contents  of  the  stomach 
of  the  animal,  since  life  departed  from  them. 
With  the  remains  of  the  mastodon  occur  sev- 
eral species  of  fluviatile  shells,  such  as  now  live 
in  fresh  water.  The  deposit  containing  these 
and  also  well  preserved  mastodon  bones  is  iden- 
tified on  both  sides  of  the  great  chasm  of  the 
Niagara  valley,  in  situations  where  it  could  only 
have  been  formed  before  this  chasm  was  in  ex- 
istence. Thus,  according  to  the  calculations  of 
Sir  Charles  Lyell,  the  period  of  production  of 
the  drift  formation  cannot  approach  within  some 
30,000  years  the  time  commonly  assigned  for 
the  introduction  of  the  human  race  upon  the 
earth. — Various  theories  have  been  devised  to 
explain  the  phenomena  of  the  drift.  Under 
date  of  Nov.  21,  1825,  Mr.  Peter  Dobson,  of 
Vernon,  Conn.,  addressed  a  short  communica- 
tion to  Prof.  Silliman,  making  a  page  of  the  10th 
vol.  of  the  "  American  Journal  of  Science" 
(1826),  which,  as  remarked  by  Sir  R.  I.  Mur- 
chison  in  his  address  before  the  geological 
society  of  London  in  1842,  contains  the  essence 
of  the  modified  glacial  theory  since  arrived  at 
after  much  debate,  and  a  previous  acquaintance 
with  which  might  have  saved  volumes  of  dis- 
putation on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  Mr, 
Dobson  describes  the  appearance  of  the  bowl- 
ders abraded  and  scratched,  "  as  if  done  by  their 
having  been  dragged  over  rocks  and  gravelly 
earth  in  one  steady  position,"  and  adds :  "  I  think 
we  cannot  account  for  these  appearances,  unless 
we  call  in  the  aid  of  ice  as  well  as  water,  and 
that  they  have  been  worn  by  being  suspended 
and  carried  in  ice  over  rocks  and  earth  under 
water,"  The  transportation  of  masses  of  rock 
by  icebergs  as  they  drift  along  the  currents 
which  set  from  the  polar  regions,  and  the  distri- 
bution of  their  loads  over  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean  as  the  bergs  melt  away,  present,  in  the 
view  of  many,  a  repetition  of  the  process  by 
which  in  remote  times  the  surfaces  of  the  pres- 
ent continents  were  covered  with  the  drift  ma- 
terials. LyeU  supposes  that  the  lands,  with  their 
present  irregularities  of  surface  already  defined, 
were  slowly  submerged,  while  islands  of  float- 
ing ice  passed  along  in  the  polar  currents, 
grounding  on  the  coast  and  on  shoals,  and  push- 
ing forward  the  loose  sand  and  gravel  spread 
over  the  bottom.  Thus  abraded  down  to  the 
solid  rock,  and  the  surface  of  this  grooved  and 
striated,  the  shoals  by  continued  subsidence 
passed  down  to  great  depths,  where  the  loose 
materials  gathering  upon  them  were  no  longer 
disturbed.  Finally  he  supposes  the  direction 
of  the  movement  to  have  been  reversed,  and  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean  to  have  been  again  raised  to 
form  dry  land  ;  and  that  during  its  reemergence 
tlie  arrangement  of  the  materials  which  cover  it 
was  modified  by  exposure  to  the  distributing  and 
stratifying  action  of  the  waves,  tides,  and  cur- 
rents.   The  dearth  of  fossil  shells  in  the  clays  of 


diluviiim: 


48X 


the  drift  would  bo  aoconntcd  for  under  this  hy- 
pothesis by  tlio  unfavorable  influence  of  the  ice- 
bergs on  the  growth  of  tlie  testacca  in  the  shallow 
waters  frequented  by  them,  while  in  other  parts 
of  the  ocean  the  depth  would  be  too  great  for 
their  existence  to  be  possible.  The  extent  and 
immense  number  of  modern  icebergs  seem  to 
prove  their  capacity  to  reproduce  upon  the  slioals 
and  over  the  bottom  of  the  Atlantic  nearly  all  the 
l)lienomena  of  the  drift  formation.  Measured  as 
tlicy  are  by  miles  in  length,  and  rising  at  times 
more  than  300  feet  in  height,  Avith  only  \  of  their 
bulk  then  visible  above  the  water,  they  may 
well  lloat  otf  and  distribute  along  their  track 
the  largest  bowlders  which  they  have  abstracted 
from  the  rocky  cliffs  down  which  they  moved  as 
glaciers  into  the  sea.  So  extensive  are  these 
floating  ice  islands  that  they  have  been  mistaken 
by  those  travelling  upon  their  surface  for  the 
Bolid  continent ;  and  one  has  been  known  to  be 
aground  where  the  soundings  gave  a  depth  of 
1,500  feet  of  water.  Urged  on  by  the  broad 
current  in  which  they  float,  such  masses  must 
exert  an  enormous  power  upon  obstacles  pre- 
sented to  their  progress.  "Where  they  rub  upon 
the  bottom,  this  must  be  worn  and  grooved 
in  parallel  furrows  on  the  line  of  the  straight 
course  of  the  berg,  and  other  sets  of  scratches 
would  be  produced  by  succeeding  bergs,  which 
might  deviate  slightly  by  a  difterent  slant  of  the 
current,  or  possibly  by  the  effect  of  a  strong 
wind  upon  the  floating  mass,  from  the  exact 
bearing  of  the  former  set.  Tlie  chief  objection 
to  the  theory  of  the  distribution  of  tlie  drift  by 
icebergs  is,  that  no  evidence  is  furnislied  of  the 
great  body  of  lauds  covered  with  this  forma- 
tion having  been  submerged  immediately  before 
or  at  the  time  of  its  deposition.  The  beds  of 
clay  containing  marine  sliells,  found  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Lake  Champlain, 
and  in  other  localities  near  the  coast,  are  not 
traced  into  the  hills  of  the  interior,  nor  to  ele- 
vations exceeding  500  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  In  the  strata  of  other  formations,  even 
of  the  most  ancient  periods,  the  occurrence  of 
marine  fossil  shells  affords  unmistakable  evi- 
dence of  the  locality  having  been  covered  by 
the  ocean ;  but  in  this  instance  this  familiar 
proof  is  wanting  over  areas  of  vast  extent,  large 
l)ortions  of  wldch  have  been  carefully  explored 
by  the  most  critical  observers.  It  is  disputed 
tliat  icebergs  could  produce  the  parallel  scratch- 
es on  the  rocks ;  and  it  is  contended  that  if 
the  northern  part  of  the  continent  were  beneath 
the  sea,  the  effect  would  be  to  mitigate  the 
coldness  of  the  climate,  and  render  this  un- 
favorable for  the  required  production  of  ice- 
bergs. It  is  also  objected  that  the  extent  to 
which  the  bowlders  are  commonly  traced  from 
their  parent  ledges  upon  the  North  American 
continent  is  usually  limited  to  from  20  to  200 
m.,  while  the  bergs  which  now  drift  from 
northern  seas  bring  the  stones  with  which  they 
are  charged  from  1,000  to  2,000  m. ;  and  that, 
moreover,  they  travel  a  very  circuitous  route, 
the  currents  changing  their  course  with  the  ii'- 
VOL.  VI. — 31 


regularities  of  the  coast  line,  and  counter  cur- 
rents giving  diverse  directions  to  the  modern 
drift,  while  the  distribution  of  that  of  ancient 
times  was  remarkably  uniform  in  its  direction. 
It  is,  however,  impossible  to  show  that  the 
contour  of  the  ancient  continents  was  incom- 
patible with  the  existence  of  more  uniform  cur- 
rents than  those  of  modern  seas ;  and  in  the 
diluvium  of  Scandinavia  and  Russia  the  trans- 
portation of  the  bowlders  appears  to  have  been 
over  nearly  as  many  degrees  of  latitude  as  are 
traversed  by  modern  icebergs. — Anotlier  class 
of  natural  agents  are  observed  to  bo  in  oper- 
ation, producing  effects  similar  to  those  wit- 
nessed in  the  drift.  These  are  the  glaciers, 
vast  accumulations  of  ice,  which  gather  in  ele- 
vated regions,  and  are  slowly  and  irresistibly 
])ushed  down  to  lower  levels.  In  their  pro- 
gress they  score  and  groove  the  surface  over 
which  they  pass,  and  rend  masses  of  rock  from 
the  cliffs,  moving  the  fragments  forward,  and 
finally  leaving  them  rolled  in  the  shapes  of 
bowlders,  and  grooved  by  the  rubbing  to 
which  they  were  subjected  when  fixed  in  the 
ice.  In  the  Alpine  regions  of  Europe  the  effects 
thus  produced  are  so  remarkable,  and  sj)read 
over  such  extensive  districts,  that  eminent  ge- 
ologists who  have  made  them  their  study  have 
been. disposed  to  refer  all  the  phenomena  of  the 
drift  to  the  action  of  glaciers  ;  and  in  this  dis- 
position they  have  been  confirmed  by  finding 
unmistakable  evidence  of  the  extent  of  the 
glacial  action  from  the  Alps  having  in  former 
])eriods  reached  full  50  m.  beyond  their  present 
limits.  The  researches  of  the  late  Dr.  Kane 
have  made  us  acquainted  with  a  field  in  which 
these  operations  are  now  going  on  upon  the 
grandest  scale.  Nearly  the  whole  interior  of 
Greenland,  a  continent  in  itself,  appears  to  be 
covered  with  one  broad  glacier.  From  its 
edges,  extending  many  hundred  miles  along  the 
northern  seas,  its  fringe  is  ever  falling  in  vast 
masses  of  ice  and  rock  into  the  deep  waters  to 
be  floated  off"  as  icebergs,  while  from  the  interior 
the  great  field  itself  is  slowly  urged  on  in  por- 
tions following  the  same  unvarying  directions. 
Such  phenomena  furnish  an  explanation  for  sev- 
eral examples  of  diluvium,  which  do  not  admit 
of  reference  to  the  drifting  of  icebergs  in  a 
polar  current.  In  the  extreme  northern  part 
of  Lapland,  for  instance,  the  distribution  of  the 
bowlders  appears  to  have  been  from  the  interior 
toward  the  White  sea  and  the  Arctic  ocean.  But 
geologists  are  for  from  generally  admitting  the 
probability  that  the  large  portions  of  the  earth's 
surface  now  covered  with  the  drift  formation 
were  ever  in  a  condition  to  have  been  under  the 
action  of  glaciers  moving  in  one  general  direc- 
tion; nor  does  it  appear  necessary  to  have 
recourse  to  them,  when  icebergs  are  now  pro- 
ducing analogous  effects,  and  upon  a  scale  com- 
mensurate with  the  ancient  distribution  of  the 
drift. — Beside  these  explanations  to  account  for 
the  phenomena,  drawn  from  operations  now 
going  on,  the  extent  of  which  we  can  investigate, 
and  in  some  measure  appreciate,  a  third  hypotlie- 


482 


DIME 


DINGELSTEDT 


Bis  has  been  advanced  by  the  Professors  Rogers, 
which  also  appears  to  have  been  adopted  by 
Murchison.  liejecting  the  sujiposition  "that 
the  cutting  fragments  and  particles  were  ever 
pressed  u^jon  by  ice,  it  appeals  to  the  enormous 
erosive  power  which  a  tliick  and  ponderous 
sheet  of  angular  fragmentary  rock  Avould  possess 
if  driven  forward  at  a  high  velocity  under  the 
waters  of  a  deep  and  general  inundation,  excited 
and  kept  in  motion  by  an  energetic  upheaval  and 
undulation  of  the  earth's  crust  during  an  era  of 
earthquake  commotion."  By  the  uplifting  of 
the  floor  of  an  arctic  sea,  accompanied,  it  may  be, 
by  an  equal  subsidence  of  the  country  south,  a 
mass  of  water  is  conceived  to  be  converted  by 
earthquake  pulsations  into  a  series  of  stupendous 
and  rapidly  moving  waves  of  translation.  These, 
helped  on  by  the  still  more  rapid  flexures  of  the 
floor  over  which  they  move,  are  considered  to 
be  agents  adequate  to  i)roduce  the  results  ex- 
hibited in  the  phenomena  of  the  drift  formation. 
Dr.  Wliewell,  recognizing  the  wave  of  transla- 
tion as  a  mechanical  agent,  cautions  against  its 
being  regarded  as  a  current  which  flows  con- 
tinuously. Its  effect  must  be  to  carry  a  single 
mass  along  with  it  at  its  own  velocity,  or  to  give 
a  transient  motion  to  a  series  of  masses  in  suc- 
cession as  it  passes  over  each,  moving  each  but 
a  small  distance.  A  series  of  waves,  each_  pro- 
duced by  some  paroxysmal  action,  would  math- 
ematically account  for  any  amount  of  result. 
He  presents  some  simple  numerical  calculations, 
in  which  the  quantities,  it  is  true,  are  hypothet- 
ical, and  which  as  they  are  modified  would  pro- 
portionately modify  the  result  by  which  he  ar- 
rives at  the  conclusion  that  a  sea  bottom  450 
m.  long,  100  m.  broad,  and  500  feet  below  the 
surface  of  the  water,  raised  either  at  once  or  by 
paroxysmal  lifts,  would  produce  waves  of  trans- 
lation with  an  effect  equivalent  to  the  disper- 
sion of  the  whole  body  of  northern  drift. 

DIME  (Fr.  dime.,  contraction  of  dixieme),  a  sil- 
ver coin  of  the  United  States,  of  the  value  of  10 
cents,  or  jL  of  a  dollar.  It  was  first  coined  in 
1796  in  pursuance  of  the  act  of  April  2,  1792, 
though  pattern  pieces  were  struck  in  1792.  Its 
legal  standards  have  been  as  follows  :  by  act  of 
April  2, 1792,  fineness  892.4  thousandths,  weight 
41.6  grains;  by  act  of  Jan.  18,  1837,  fineness 
900  thousandths,  weight  41 J  grains ;  by  act  of 
Feb.  21, 1853,  fineness  900  thousandths,  weight 
38.4  gi-ains.     (See  Coins.) 

DIMSDALE,  Thomas,  baron,  an  English 
physician,  born  in  Thoydon-Garnon,  co.  of  Es- 
sex, in  1712,  died  in  Hertford,  Dec.  30,  1800. 
He  was  especially  noted  for  his  zeal  in  promot- 
ing inoculation  for  the  small  pox,  his  success  in 
which  caused  him  to  bo  invited  to  Russia  by 
the  empress  Catharine  II.  in  1768,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  inoculating  herself  and  her  son.  Cath- 
arine rewarded  him  with  the  title  of  baron  and 
large  ])resents.  He  afterward  visited  Frederic 
II.  of  Prussia,  at  Sans-Souci,  and  then  return- 
ed to  England,  where,  in, 1776,  he  published  a 
treatise  on  inoculation,  which  was  translated 
into  all  the  European  languages.     In  1780  ho 


was  elected  to  the  house  of  commons,  and  in 
1781  made  a  second  professional  visit  to  Russia. 
Beside  the  treatise  above  mentioned,  he  pub- 
lished several  paniphlets  on  the  same  subject. 

DINAGEPOOR,  or  Dinajpoke,  a  district  of 
British  India,  under  the  lieut.  gov.  of  Bengal, 
bounded  N.  E.  by  Bootan,  between  lat.  24°"53' 
and  26°  38'  K,  long.  88°  2'  and  89°  16'  E.; 
length  from  N.  to  S.,  130  m.;  breadth,  75  m.; 
area,  3,820  sq.  m. ;  pop.  1,200,000.  It  is  a  level 
country,  watered  by  the  Teesta  and  a  vast  num- 
ber of  other  streams,  and  fertile  in  rice,  pulse,  oil 
seeds,  pepper,  ginger,  turmeric,  coriander,  cap- 
sicum, potatoes,  jdantains,  many  other  esculent 
vegetables,  and  the  sugar  cane.  Small  quanti- 
ties of  wheat,  barley,  tobacco,  and  a  poor  kind  of 
cotton,  are  also  produced.  Silkworms  are  ex- 
tensively reared. — Dinagepoor,  the  capital  of 
the  district,  is  a  clean  but  ill-built  town,  on  the 
river  Purnabada,  261  m.  N.  from  Calcutta,  and 
the  residence  of  the  British  authorities  ;  pop. 
about  25,000. 

DINAPORE,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the 
district  of  Patna,  lieut.  governorship  of  Bengal, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  10  m.  W.  from 
Patna  and  411  N.  "W.  from  Calcutta;  pop.  about 
16,000.  It  is  an  important  military  station, 
noted  for  its  handsome  and  extensive  canton- 
ments. On  July  25,  1857,  a  mutiny  occurred 
here  which,  though  attended  with  little  im- 
mediate bloodshed,  was  one  of  the  most  mor- 
tifying and  serious  disasters  which  befell  the 
British  during  that  year.  The  garrison  con- 
sisted of  3  full  native  infantry  regiments,  beside 
a  European  field  battery  and  parts  of  the  10th 
and  37th  European  foot,  commanded  by  Gen. 
Lloyd.  When  symptoms  of  revolt  became  un- 
mistakable, this  ofiicer  took  the  weak  precau- 
tion of  removing  the  percussion  caps  from  the 
armory  to. the  officers'  mess-room,  and  then  re- 
quiring the  sepoys  to  give  up  the  caps  already 
issued.  The  latter  order  was  resisted,  and 
when  the  British  troops  were  called  out  to  en- 
force it,  the  rebels  were  seen  running  at  full 
speed  across  the  fields  with  their  arms  and  ac- 
coutrements. They  laid  siege  to  Arrah,  attach- 
ed themselves  to  the  notorious  Kcer  Singh,  and 
gave  great  trouble  throughout  the  revolt.  No 
pursuit  of  them  was  made  until  the  27th,  when 
an  effort  to  relieve  Arrah  terminated  with  great 
loss  to  the  British.  Gen.  Lloyd,  who  had  served 
with  distinction,  but  was  now  far  advanced  la 
age,  fell  into  disgrace  on  this  occasion,  and  was 
superseded  by  Sir  James  Outram. 

DINDORF,  WiLHELM,  a  German  philologist, 
born  in  Leipsic  in  1802.  In  1819,  at  the  age 
of  17,  he  published  a  continuation  of  the  com- 
mentaries on  Aristophanes  begun  by  Beck.  In 
1828  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  history 
of  literature  in  the  university  of  Leipsic,  but  re- 
signed this  ofiice  in  1833.  lie  has  edited  De- 
mosthenes, ^schylus,  Sophocles,  Euripides,  Ar- 
istophanes, &c.,  for  the  university  of  Oxford ; 
also  many  works  published  at  Paris  and  Leipsic. 

DINGELSTEDT,  Franz,  a  German  poet,  born 
in  the  Hessian  village  of  Halsdorf  in  1814.    He 


DINKA 


DINOENIS 


483 


made  himself  first  known  in  litcratnro  by  apub- 
lication  of  poems  in  1838,  which  was  followed 
by  a  series  of  novels,  without,  however,  winning 
much  reputation  until  1840,  when  his  Liecler 
eines  IcosmopolitiscTien  Kachtwdchters  appeared, 
ftncc  then  he  has  published  a  great  variety  of 
poems,  tales,  books  of  travel,  &c.,  among  which 
his  Gedichte  (Stuttgart,  1845)  are  the  most  suc- 
cessful. In  1850  he  was  appointed  director  of 
the  royal  theatre  at  Munich  on  account  of  the 
success  of  his  tragedy  DasIIaus  des  Barneveldt. 
His  attention  was  probably  drawn  to  the  stage 
by  Jenny  Lutzer,  the  Viennese  prima  donna, 
who  became  his  wife  in  1844, 

DINKA,  Denka,  or  Donka,  a  district  of 
eastern  Soodan,  Africa,  between  lat.  9'' and  12° 
K,  extending  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Bahr- 
el-Abiad,  or  White  Nile,  which  separates  it  from 
the  territory  of  the  Shillooks,  S.  W.  of  Sennaar 
and  N.  of  the  river  Sobat,  which  separates  it 
from  the  laud  of  the  Nuehrs ;  the  eastern  boun- 
dary is  unknown.  It  consists  of  a  low  and 
marshy  plain,  subject  to  frequent  inundations, 
and  containing  but  few  isolated  mountains, 
among  which  is  the  Jebel  Niemati,  or  mountain 
of  the  Dinkas.  A  number  of  long  swampy  isl- 
ands covered  with  reeds  and  a  dense  growth  of 
creeping  plants,  which  extend  along  the  right 
bank  of  the  Bahr-el-Abiad,  are  described  as 
forming  a  barrier  against  invasion  from  that 
quarter  on  the  W.  boundary.  The  shores  pre- 
sent magnificent  scenery,  being  lined  with  tam- 
arinds, creepers  of  a  large  species,  and  the  lotus 
sliining  in  great  numbers  like  double  white  lilies. 
The  inhabitants,  called  Dinkas,  are  a  savage  and 
ugly  race  of  negroes.  They  are  said  to  worship 
the  moon,  and  never  to  commence  warfare  when 
that  luminary  is  above  the  horizon.  They  are 
ruled  by  chiefs  and  a  king,  and  have  a  city  on 
the  Bahr-el-Abiad. 

DINORNIS  (Gr.  huvoi^  terrible,  and  opi/if, 
bird),  a  gigantic  extinct  bird,  whose  bones  have 
been  found  in  New  Zealand.  The  history  of 
this  genus,  established  by  Prof.  Owen,  is  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  examples  of  tlie  correct- 
ness of  the  great  laws  of  the  correlation  of  parts 
so  beautifully  elaborated  by  Cuvier.  In  vol.  iii. 
of  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Zoological  Society 
of  London,"  p.  29,  is  the  first  paper  by  Owen  on 
tltis  subject.  He  had  received  from  New  Zea- 
land a  fragment  of  a  femur,  6  inches  long,  and 
with  both  the  extremities  broken  ;  from  its  tex- 
ture and  size  he  concluded  that  it  belonged  to  a 
bird  of  the  struthious  order,  but  heavier  and 
more  sluggish  than  the  ostrich ;  the  bone  was 
not  mineralized,  and  retained  much  of  its  ani- 
mal matter,  though  it  had  evidently  remained 
in  the  ground  for  some  time ;  this  was  in  1839. 
In  a  2d  memoir  (p.  235),  communicated  in 
1843,  he  gives  descriptions  of  portions  of  the 
skeletons  of  6  species  of  a  struthious  bird,  which 
he  called  dinornis,  which  appeared  to  have  be- 
come extinct  within  the  historical  period  in  the 
north  island  of  New  Zealand,  as  the  dodo  had 
in  Mauritius ;  these  specimens,  47  in  number, 
had  been  sent  to  Dr.  Buckland  by  the  Rev.  Mr. 


Williams,  a  missionary  long  resident  in  New  Zea- 
land, whose  letter  states  that  they  were  taken 
from  the  banks  and  bed  of  fresh-water  rivei-s, 
buried  only  slightly  in  the  nnid,  and  probably 
quite  recently ;  that  the  birds  formerly  existed 
in  considerable  numbers,  and  must  have  attained 
during  a  very  long  life  a  height  of  14  or  16  feet. 
The  bird  to  which  these  bones  belonged  was 
called  moa  by  the  natives.    The  names  given  by 
Owen  were  dinornis  giganteris^  height  at  least  10 
feet;  D.  ingens^  9  feet;  D.  struthoides,  7 feet ;  D. 
dromioides,  5  feet ;  D.  didiforinis,  4  feet ;  and  D. 
otidi/ormis,  of  the  size  of  the  great  bustard. 
From  these  specimens  he  inferred  that  the  wings 
were  quite  rudimentary ;  that  the  large  cervical 
vertebrae  supported  a  powerful  beak ;  and  that 
its  strong  legs  were  used  in  scratching  up  the 
soil  to  obtain  the  nutritious  roots  of  the  ferns 
which   are  so  characteristic  of  those  islands, 
lie  draws  a  portrait  of  this  gigantic  bird,  the 
highest  living  form  in  that  part  of  the  globe, 
with  no  terrestrial  mammal  to  contest  its  pos- 
session of  the  soil  before  the  arrival  of  the  first 
Polynesian  colony.     Such  large  and  probably 
stupid  birds,  without  the  instinct  or  perhaps  the 
ability  to  escape  or  defend  themselves,  would 
soon  become  extinct  under  the  persecution  of 
man,  whose  sole  aim  would  be  to  obtain  a  sup- 
ply of  animal  food  from  such  easy  prey ;  the 
diminutive  ajJteryx  would  escape  for  a  longer 
period,  but  even  this  is  almost  on  the  point  of 
extinction.     In  a  3d  memoir  (p.  307),  read  in 
1846,  an  examination  of  a  larger  number  of 
specimens  confirmed  the  deduction  as  to  the 
rudimentary  condition  of  the  wings  by  the  dis- 
covery of  a  keelless  sternum  ;  showed  that  the 
species  of  this  essentially  terrestrial  genus  were 
heavier  and  more  bulky  in  proportion  to  their 
height,  more  powerful  scratchers,  and  less  swift 
of  foot  than  the  ostrich,  but  in  different  degrees 
according  to  the  species ;  and  indicated  an  af- 
finity to  the  dodo  in  the  shape  of  the  skull,  with 
a  lower  cerebral  devel<«pment,  and  consequently 
greater   stupidity.     He  formed  a  new  genus, 
palapteryx,  of  the  species  ingens  and  dromioi- 
des,  characterized  by  a  posterior  or  4th  toe, 
the  3  of  the  dinornis  all  being  anterior  toes ; 
he  added  the  3  new  species,  D.  crassus,  D.  casu- 
arinits,  and  J),  ciirtiis,  all  of  small  size.     In  a 
4th  paper  (p.  345),  read  in  1848,  he  establishes 
a  new  genus,  aptornis^  in  which  he  places  what 
he  formerly  called  D.  otidiformis ;  this  has  a 
large  surface  for  the  hind  toe,  a  strong  perfo- 
rated calcaneal  process,  and  a  more  posterior 
position  of  the  condyle  for  the  inner  toe ;  it  re- 
sembles the  ap>teryx  in  the  comparative  short- 
ness of  the  metatarsus.     In  this  he  describes 
perfect  skulls  and  beaks  of  these  birds,  from 
which  he  concludes  that  the  dinornis,  though 
resembling  the  strutUonidoim  the  extraordinary 
development  of  the  legs  and  the  rudimentary 
condition  of  the  wings,  does  not  come  very  close 
to  any  existing  struthious  birds  in  its  adze-like 
beak,  crocodilian  cranium,  form  of  the  pelvis, 
and  proportions  of  the  metatarsus.     The  genus 
2Hdapteryx,  belongs  to  the  struthionld/B^  being  in 


484 


DINOENIS 


DIKOTHEKIUM 


some  respects  intermediate  between  apteryx  and 
dromaius.   The  law  of  the  geographical  localiza- 
tion of  animals,  so  remarkably  illustrated  in  the 
recent  progress  of  geology,  receives  an  addi- 
tional confirmation  by  this  occurrence  in  the 
river  banks  of  New  Zealand  of  remains  of  gigan- 
tic birds  allied  to  the  small  species  still  existing 
onlyin  the  same  islands.  In  vol.  iv.  of  the  "Trans- 
actions" (p.  1),  in  1850,  the  feet  and  the  ster- 
num are  described,  and  2  new  species  are  alluded 
to,  viz. :  D.  rheidcs,  and  P.  rohustus;  further  de- 
scriptions of  the  skull,  beak,  and  legs  are  given  on 
pp.  59, 141,  of  the  same  volume.  Some  years  be- 
fore the  discovery  of  these  bones  in  New  Zealand, 
attention  had  been  drawn  to  remarkable  impres- 
sions in  the  new  red  sandstone  of  the  Connec- 
ticut river  valley,  in  Massachusetts,  Avhich  were 
believed  to  be  footprints  of  birds,  the  largest 
of  which  must  have  exceeded  the  ostrich  in 
size.     Geologists  were  unwilling  to  admit  the 
existence  of  birds  at  this  remote  epoch  on  the 
simple  ground  of  these  tracks,  and  did  not  dare 
to  construct  even  in  imagination  a  bird  of  such 
stupendous  size  as  would  be  required  for  the 
largest  footprints.     But  the  subsequent  discov- 
ery of  D.  gigcmteus  demonstrated  the  existence 
of  birds,   at  a  comparatively  recent    period, 
Avhose  tracks  would  have  been  larger  than  the 
fossil  impressions  ;   these  recent  birds  would 
have  made  tracks  22  inches  long  and  6  wide, 
considerably  larger  than  those  of  the  Connec- 
ticut valley.    The  occurrence  of  tbese  gigantic 
birds  in  New  Zealand,  with  their  wingless  bodies, 
and  reptile-like  condition  of  the  respiratory  ap- 
paratus  (from  the   non-permeability  of   their 
bones  to  air),  adds  much  to  the  evidence  that 
similar  apterous  and  low-organized  birds  existed 
in  America  during  the  red  sandstone  epoch, 
"the  age  of  reptiles,"  when  the  cold-blooded 
and  slow^-breathing  ovipara  exhibited  such  va- 
rious forms  and  so  great  a  number  of  species. 
It  has  been  suggested  by  Prof.  Owen  that  New 
Zealand  may  be  the  remnant  of  a  large  tract 
over  which    the    struthious    family  formerly 
ranged ;  he  says :   "  One  might  almost  be  dis- 
posed to  regard  New  Zealand  as  one  end  of  a 
mighty  wave  of  the  mistable  and  ever-shifting 
crust  of  the  earth,  of  which  the  opposite  end, 
after  having  been  long  submerged,  has  again 
risen  with  its  accumulated   deposits  in  North 
America,  showing  us  in  the  Connecticut  sand- 
stones of  the  permian  period  the  footprints  of 
the  gigantic  birds  wliich  trod  its  surface  before 
it  sank  ;  and  to  surmise  that  the  intermediate 
body  of  the  land- wave,  along  which  the  dinornis 
may  have  travelled  to  New  Zealand,  has  pro- 
gressively subsided,  and  now  lies  beneath  the 
Pacific  ocean."  {Op.  cit.  vol.  iii.  p.  328.)  Though 
many  of  these  bones  are  apparently  of  recent 
date,  and  though  it  is  not  impossible,  in  the 
opinion  of  some,  that  the  dinornis,  like  the  ap- 
teryx, may  still  exist  in  the  interior  of  these 
islands,  they  belong  to  a  certain  extent  to  the 
class  of  extiuct  genera.   Dr.  Mantell  thinks  they 
belong  to  a  period  as  remote,  in  relation  to  the 
surface  of  New  Zealand,  as  the  diluvium  con- 


taining the  bones  of  tlie  Irish  elk,  mammoth, 
&c.,  to  that  of  England;  and  that  the  last  of 
the  moas  was  destroyed  by  tlie  earliest  inhab- 
itants of  New  Zealand,  as  the  dodo  was  extir- 
pated by  the  Dutch  colonists  of  Mauritius,  and 
the  Irish  elk  by  the  early  British  and  Celtic 
tribes.  In  a  more  recent  paper  in  the  "  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Zoological  Society,"  for  April  8, 
185G,  Prof.  Owen  describes  the  D.  elephanto- 
pus,  the  most  extraordinary  of  all  for  the  massive 
strength  of  the  limbs,  and  the  general  propor- 
tions of  the  breadth  and  bulk  to  the  height ;  he 
states  it  to  be  the  opinion  of  Mr,  Mantell  that 
this  species  existed  in  the  middle  island  with, 
the  fii'st  Maori  natives.  From  a  consideration 
of  these  species,  it  appears  that  those  of  the 
north  island  were  distinct  from  those  of  the 
south ;  Cook's  straits  proved  an  insurmountable 
barrier  to  birds  which  could  not  fly,  and  could 
hardly,  if  at  all,  swim. 

DINOTHERIUM    (Gr.    bavos,  terrible,  and 
6r]piou,  animal),  an  extinct  pachyderm  of  im- 
mense size,  whose  bones  have  been  found  in  the 
middle  tertiary  or  miocene  deposits  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Australia.    A  few  teeth  were  found 
in  France  during  the  last  century,  and  the  early 
part  of  the  present.     In  1829  Prof.  Kaup  dis- 
covered in  the  sands  of  Eppelsheim  a  sufficient 
number  of  bones  to  lead  him  to  form  a  new 
genus  for  this,  the  largest  of  terrestrial  quadru- 
peds.  Cuvier  thought  it  allied  to  the  tapir  from 
the  character  of  its  premolar  teeth,  and  many 
writers,  and  among  them  Pictet,  classed  it  with 
the  manati  and  herbivorous  cetaceans.    Prof, 
Xaup  considered  it  a  pachyderm,  intermediate 
between  the  mastodon  and  the  tapir.     In  1836 
the  discovery  of  a  cranium  by  Dr.  Klipstein 
seemed  to  settle  the  position  of  the  dinotherium 
among  the  pachyderms;  in  1837,  this  head  was 
exhibited  at  Paris,   where  several  casts  were 
taken.     It  is  nearly  4  feet  long,  2  feet  broad, 
and  1^  feet  high,  its  summit  divided  into  2  parts 
by  a  well-marked  ridge,  and  its  occipital  surface 
wide  and  oblique,  witli  a  globular  occipital  con- 
dyle ;  the  nasal  aperture  is  very  large,  as  in  the 
elepliant  and  mastodon,  with  the  large  suborbital 
foramina  indicating  the  possession  of  a  proboscis. 
The  lower  jaw  is  remarkable  for  its  curve  down- 
ward, and  its  2  tusks  pointing  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, forming  a  hook  about  3  feet  in  length  and 
describing  J  of  a  circle.  The  primary  teeth  appear 
to  have  been  12,  3  on  each  side  of  each  jaw,  and 
the  permanent  teeth  20,  5  on  each  side  of  each 
jaw ;  the  front  2  on  each  side,  making  8,  are  pre- 
molars, and  resemble  those  of  the  tapir ;  the  up- 
per 12  teeth,  the  true  molars,  resemble  those  of 
the  mastodon  in  their  transverse  ridges,  but  differ 
from  them  in  their  square  form  ;  they  are  devel- 
oped vertically,  as  in  man  and  most  mammals, 
while  those  of  the  elephant  family  are  developed 
horizontally.     If  the  bones  of  the  trunk  and 
extremities  attributed  to  this  animal  really  be- 
long to  it,  which  is  exceedingly  doubtful,  it  would 
have  a  length  of  18  feet  and  a  height  of  14, 
2  feet  longer  and  higher  than  the  largest  mas- 
todon discovered.     The  shoulder  blade  is  de- 


DINWIDDIE 


DIOCESE 


485 


Bcrlbed  as  like  that  of  the  mold,  indicating  that 
tho  fore  feet  \vere  adapted  for  digging  in  the 
earth.  It  is  not  very  easy  to  decide  wliether 
this  animal  was  most  terrestrial  or  aciuatic  in  its 
habits.  Pictet,  in  his  Traite  de  jiaUontologie 
(1853,  vol.  i.  p.  371),  expresses  tho  opinion  that 
it  was  a  herbivorous  cetacean,  from  the  long 
and  hanging  tusks  which  a  terrestrial  animal 
could  hardly  use,  the  depression  of  the  occipital 
bone  (this  being  nearly  vertical  in  the  pachy- 
derms), the  wide  opening  of  the  nasal  fossa),  the 
form  of  the  intermaxillaries  and  of  the  ocular 
and  temporal  fossa) ;  he  would  make  it  an  aqua- 
tic animal,  though  coming  nearer  the  probos- 
cidians than  does  the  existing  manati ;  living 
near  the  mouths  of  rivers,  it  fed  upon  the  fleshy 
portions  of  plants  which  it  rooted  up  with  its 
tusks.  On  the  contrary,  Owen,  Kaup,  and  De 
Blainville  consider  it  a  terrestrial  proboscidian, 
intermediate  between  the  mastodon  and  tapir. 
Tiiese  two  opinions  ai'e  really  not  very  different 
from  each  other,  since  it  is  now  generally  agreed 
that  the  manati  and  dugong,  or  the  herbivorous 
cetacea,  must  be  removed  from  the  order  of 
cetacea  and  placed  among  the  pachydermata, 
of  which  last  they  are  the  embryonic  type. 
(For  details  on  this  subject  see  the  "  Proceedings 
of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,"  3d  meeting,  in  Charleston, 
S.  C,  March,  1850,  p.  42.)  Considering  then  the 
dinotherium  to  be  a  true  pachyderm,  its  fevorite 
element,  air  or  water,  may  be  a  matter  of  ques- 
tion. It  has  no  incisor  teeth  ;  its  inferior  tusks 
seem  admirably  adapted  to  drawing  its  heavy 
body  out  of  water  upon  the  banks  of  rivers ; 
they  would  also  serve  for  rooting  up  aquatic 
plants,  assisted  by  the  mole-shai)ed  fore  feet. 
Dr.  Buckland  suggests  that  the  tusks  served  to 
anchor  the  animal  to  the  shore,  while  it  slept  in 
the  water.  It  cannot  be  far  from  the  truth  to 
call  it  an  aquatic  pachyderm,  similar  in  habits 
to  the  hippopotamus,  living  in  lakes  and  marshes. 
The  best  known  species  {D.  giganteum,  Kaup) 
was  found  at  Eppelsheim,  a  few  leagues  south 
of  Mentz,  in  clayey  marl  about  18  feet  below 
the  surface,  in  connection  with  bones  of  other 
pachyderms ;  their  remains  have  been  found 
only  in  the  miocene  strata.  Other  smaller  spe- 
cies are  described,  as  the  IK  Cuvieri  (Kaup), 
D.  minutum  (II.  de  Meyer),  and  D.  jiroavum 
(Eichwald),  in  Europe ;  D.  Indicum  (Oautley  and 
Falconer),  from  the  Sivalik  hills ;  and  the  D. 
australe  (Owen),  of  Australia. 

DINWIDDIE,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Va.,  bound- 
ed N.  by  the  Appomattox  river,  and  S.  "W.  by 
the  Nottoway  ;  area,  540  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850, 
25,118,  of  whom  10,880  were  slaves.  It  has  a 
rolling  surface  and  a  soil  well  adapted  to  grain 
and  tobacco.  In  1850  it  produced  304,556  bush- 
els of  Indian  corn,  60,275  of  wheat,  and  1,782,521 
lbs.  of  tobacco.  There  were  3  cotton  foctories, 
25  flour  and  grist  mills,  3  newspaper  offices,  36 
churches,  and  1,092  pupils  attending  schools  and 
academies.  Value  of  real  estate  in  1856,  $2,- 
537,279.  It  is  intersected  by  the  railroad  from 
Richmond  to  Veldon,  N.  C.     The  county  was 


organized  in  1752,  and  named  in  honor  of  Gov. 
Dinwiddie.     Capital,  Dinwiddie  Court  House. 

DINWIDDIE,  RonEUT,  lieutenant-governor 
of  Virginia,  born  in  Scotland  about  1690,  died 
in  England,  Aug.  1, 1770.  While  acting  as  clerk 
to  a  collector  of  the  customs  in  one  of  the  Brit- 
ish West  India  islands,  he  was  instrumental  in 
detecting  and  exjjosing  tho  frauds  practised  by 
his  principal,  and  as  a  reward  for  his  services 
he  was  soon  after  appointed  lieutenant-governor 
of  Virginia,  lie  arrived  in  the  colony  in  1752, 
and  remained  until  Jan.  1758,  when  he  returned 
to  England.  Ilis  administration  covered  a  stir- 
ring period  in  colonial  history,  and  he  proved 
himself  a  zealous  and  active  officer,  although 
totally  ignorant  of  military  affairs.  Ho  had, 
however,  the  sagacity  to  discern  the  capacity  of 
Washington,  whom  in  1753  he  appointed  adju- 
tant-general of  one  of  the  4  military  districts  of 
Virginia,  and  sent  as  a  commissioner  to  expos- 
tulate with  the  French  commander  on  the  Ohio 
for  his  aggressions  upon  British  territory.  At 
the  outbreak  of  hostilities  with  the  French  and 
Indians,  he  called  upon  the  governors  of  the 
other  provinces  to  make  common  cause  against 
them,  and  convened  the  house  of  burgesses 
of  Virginia  to  devise  measures  for  the  public 
security.  Entertaining  peculiar  notions  of  the 
royal  prerogative  and  of  his  own  importance, 
ho  was  highly  incensed  at  the  tardiness  of  the 
latter  body  in  voting  money  for  the  public  de- 
fence, and  at  their  refusal  to  put  it  under  his 
absolute  disposal.  In  1754  he  suggested  to 
the  British  board  of  trade  the  propriety  of 
taxing  the  colonies  for  the  purpose  of  raising 
funds  to  carry  on  the  war,  and  in  the  suc- 
ceeding year  he  was  one  of  the  5  colonial  gov- 
ernors who  at  an  interview  with  Gen.  Braddock, 
at  Alexandria,  Va.,  memorialized  the  ministry 
to  the  same  eflfect.  After  the  defeat  of  Brad- 
dock,  he  continued  to  busy  himself  with  the 
military  operations  on  the  frontiers,  displaying 
great  incapacity,  and  wearying  Washington,  then 
in  command  of  the  colonial  troops,  by  frequent 
exhibitions  of  ill  temper,  folly,  or  caprice.  He 
enjoyed  little  popularity  in  Virginia,  where  his 
arrogance  brought  him  into  collision  with  the 
legislature,  while  his  avarice  led  him  to  exact 
illegal  or  obsolete  fees,  such  as  a  pistole  for  every 
patent  granted,  a  perquisite  which  no  governor 
had  claimed  for  many  years.  At  the  time  of 
his  departure  he  was  also  charged  with  having 
appropriated  to  his  own  use  the  sum  of  £20,000 
which  had  been  sent  by  the  British  government 
as  a  compensation  to  Virginia  for  moneys  ex- 
pended by  her  beyond  her  proportion,  and  which 
he  never  satisfactorily  accounted  for. 

DIOCESE  (Gr.  SiocKija-is,  administration),  an 
ecclesiastical  division  of  a  state,  the  circuit  of  a 
bishop's  jurisdiction.  In  Roman  antiquity,  the 
term  diocossis  designated  one  of  the  4  prefect- 
ures or  civil  divisions  into  which  the  empire 
was  partitioned  by  Constantino  the  Great ;  and 
at  a  later  period  the  empire  became  divided  into 
14  dioceses  or  prefectures,  which  comprehended 
120  provinces.     The  civil  constitution  was  fol- 


486 


DIOCLETLNJ^ 


lowed  in  the  government  ©f  the  church,  and 
the  diocese  was  originally  a  great  ecclosiastical 
district,  embracing  several  bishoprics,  and  under 
tlie  primacy  of  the  bishop  of  the  principal  city, 
wlio  bore  the  title  eitlier  of  metropolitan,  arch- 
bishop, exarch,  or  patriarch,  Tho  diocese  is 
now  in  the  Koman  CathoHc  church  tho  district 
subject  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  to  the  authority 
of  an  archbishop  or  bishop;  in  the  episcopal 
Protestant  churches,  the  district  ruled  by  a 
bishop  ;  juid  in  the  Evangelical  church  of  Ger- 
many, the  combination  of  parishes  under  the 
care  of  a  superintendent.  In  England,  every 
diocese  is  divided  into  archdeaconries;  each 
archdeaconry  at  least  nominally  into  rural  dean- 
ei'ies ;  and  every  deanery  into  parishes. 

DIOCLETIAN,  Valerius,  a  Roman  emperor, 
born  at  Doclea  or  Dioclea,  a  small  village  near 
Salona  in  Dalmatia,  A.  D,  245,  died  in  Salona 
in  313.  lie  was  of  obscure  parentage,  but  by 
his  abilities  rose  rapidly  in  the  army.  On  the 
death  of  Numerian  in  284,  he  was  named  em- 
peror by  the  troops,  then  returning  from  the 
Persian  expedition  which  they  had  commenced 
under  Carus,  but  had  abandoned  on  the  sudden 
death  of  the  latter.  They  retreated  under  his 
son  Numerian,  who  died  on  the  march,  not  im- 
probably at  the  instigation,  if  not  by  the  hand,  of 
Arrius  Aper,  his  father-in-law.  The  death  of  Nu- 
merian  was  concealed  for  a  time,  but  the  soldiers, 
having  discovered  it,  chose  Diocletian  emperor, 
and  the  latter  immediately  plunged  his  sword 
into  the  bosom  of  Aper,  thus  avenging  the  death 
of  Numerian,  and  at  the  same  time  happily  ful- 
filling an  old  prophecy  which  he  had  received 
from  a  druidess  in  Gaul,  to  the  effect  that  he 
would  reign  when  he  shoxdd  have  slain  the  wild 
boar  (Lat.  aj)er).  But  Diocletian  was  not  with- 
out a  rival ;  Carinus,  brother  of  Numerian,  was 
recognized  as  emperor  in  Europe.  The  armies  of 
the  hostile  sovereigns  met  near  the  small  city 
of  Margus,  not  far  from  the  Danube  in  Mcesia, 
where  victory  declared  itself  in  favor  of  the 
veteran  legions  of  the  West ;  but  Oarinus,  eager- 
ly following  the  flying  enemy,  was  killed  by 
one  of  his  own  oflicers,  and  his  army  readily 
acknowledged  Diocletian  as  his  successor.  Tho 
latter  soon,  however,  thought  it  necessary  to  as- 
sociate with  himself  a  colleague  in  the  supreme 
dominion,  and  fixed  his  choice  on  Maximian, 
his  old  companion  in  anus,  a  rough  barbarian, 
whom  he  invested  with  the  imperial  dignity  in 
286,  and  in  whom  ho  found  a  useful  assistant 
and  a  constant  friend.  The  Roman  empire  was 
beset  with  enemies  and  torn  by  factions.  Tho 
peasants  of  Gaul  rose  in  arms;  Mauritania  was 
in  rebellion ;  Egypt  was  disturbed  by  external 
enemies  and  internal  convulsions ;  whde  all 
along  the  frontier,  from  the  Euphrates  to  the 
Rhine,  the  barbarians  were  threatening  to  de- 
stroy the  empire  by  the  invasions  of  their  count- 
less hordes.  Maximian  subdued  the  Gallic  peas- 
ants, Bagaudaj,  as  they  were  styled,  but  Diocle- 
tian was  compelled  to  strengthen  the  empire  by 
raising  two  more  Roman  soldiers  to  the  purple, 
Galerius,  son  of  a  Dacian  shepherd,  and  Con- 


stantius,  surnamed  Chlorus,  son  of  a  noble  Mo8- 
sian,  and  father  of  Constantino  tlie  Great.  These 
two  princes  received  the  title  of  Coesars,  and  hav- 
ing repudiated  their  wives,  Galerius  married  the 
daughter  of  Diocletian,  and  Constantius  the  step- 
daughter of  Maximian.  Britain,  Gaul,  and  Spain 
Avere  assigned  to  Constantius  ;  Galerius  received 
tho  Illyrian  and  Danubian  provinces ;  Italy,  Af- 
rica, with  Sicily,  and  the  islands  of  the  Tyrrhe- 
nian sea,  were  held  by  Maximian ;  while  Diocle- 
tian, tho  head  of  all,  retained  under  his  own 
dominion  Thrace,  Egypt,  and  the  provinces  of 
Asia.  By  this  arrangement,  on  the  death  of 
either  of  the  Augusti,  as  Maximian  and  Diocle- 
tian were  styled,  the  Ciosar  Avho  had  been  as- 
sociated with  him  was  to  be  his  successor,  and 
another  Ctesar  was  to  be  appointed.  These 
four  princes,  it  was  thought,  would  hold  one  an- 
other in  check,  so  that  no  one  of  them  would 
be  able  to  attain  to  uncontrolled  power.  The 
plan  was  for  a  time  successful.  Maximian  sub- 
dued the  rebellious  provinces  of  western  Afri- 
ca ;  Diocletian  reduced  and  secured  Egypt ; 
Galerius  not  only,  under  the  superintendence 
of  his  father-in-law,  compelled  the  haughty  Per- 
sians to  make  a  treaty  which  secured  the  fron- 
tiers of  that  part  of  the  empire  for  40  years,  but 
also  vigilantly  guarded  the  Danubian  frontier ; 
while  Constantius  invaded  Britain,  which  for 
several  years  had  been  detached  from  the  rest 
of  the  empire  under  the  rule  of  the  usurper 
Carausius,  and  restored  that  island  to  the  con- 
trol of  the  Roman  emperors.  But  the  evils  of 
this  system  of  division,  though  not  immediate, 
were  certain ;  and  the  permanent  splitting  of 
the  empire  into  2  distinct  governments  was  its 
legitimate  result.  After  a  prosperous  reign  of 
about  21  years,  Diocletian,  moved  by  his  infirm 
health,  or,  as  is  said,  by  the  persuasions  or  men- 
aces of  his  son-in-law  Galerius,  voluntarily  re- 
signed the  throne  (305),  and  retired  to  Salona  in 
his  native  country  of  Dalmatia,  where  he  passed 
the  remaining  8  years  of  his  life  in  retirement. 
Maximian,  according  to  a  previous  agreement, 
abdicated  at  the  same  time,  but  was  not  so  con- 
tented in  a  private  station  as  Diocletian,  and,  a 
few  years  later,  wrote  to  his  former  colleague, 
proposing  to  him  to  resume  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment. The  reply  of  Diocletian  has  become  cele- 
brated. "  Would  you  could  see,"  he  says,  "  the 
cabbages  planted  by  my  hand  at  Salona ;  you 
would  then  never  think  of  urging  such  an  at- 
tempt." Diocletian  introduced  great  changes 
in  the  Roman  state.  He  struck  a  severe  blow 
at  the  waning  influence  of  the  senate  by  the  re- 
moval of  his  court  from  Rome  to  Nicomedia, 
reduced  the  numbers  and  the  importance  of  tho 
pra3torian  guards,  divided  the  provinces  so  as  to 
lessen  the  power  of  the  provincial  governors, 
and  increased  the  dignity  and  ceremony  with 
which  the  emperor  was  surrounded.  He  is  de- 
servedly censured  for  persecuting  the  Christians ; 
but  it  is  supposed,  as  he  himself  seemed  to  be 
favorably  disposed  to  them  during  the  greater 
part  of  his  reign,  and  as  he  Avas  much  under  the 
influence  of  Galerius,   a  superstitious  savage, 


DIODATI 


diogeot:s 


487 


that  he  may  have  been  inclucod  to  pnrsne  this 
course  by  the  artful  persuasions  of  the  latter. 
It  must  bo  remembered  also,  that  the  greater 
part  of  these  persecutions  took  place  after.  Dio- 
cletian had  resigned  his  authority. 

DIODATI,  DoMENico,  an  Italian  archoaolo- 
gist  and  theologian,  born  in  Nai)les  in  1736, 
dieil  there  in  1801.  lie  wrote  several  works  on 
ecclesiastical  history,  and  one  on  the  coins  of  the 
Italian  states ;  but  the  work  by  which  he  became 
widely  known,  and  which  will  remain  one  of 
the  most  curious  monuments  of  ingenious  spec- 
ulation, is  entitled  De  Christo  Greece  loquente 
Exercilatio,  qua  osienditur  Grcecam  site  Helle- 
nisticam  TAnguam cum  Judceis omnibus^  tumi2)si 
adeo  Ckristo  Domino  et  Apostolis,  nativam  ae 
vernaculam.  fuisse  (Naples,  1767).  The  strange 
theory  that  Greek  was  the  native  language  of 
the  Jewish  people  in  the  time  of  Christ,  not  only 
familiar  to  the  cultivated  classes,  but  the  dialect 
of  the  common  people,  is  advocated  in  this  work 
with  remarkable  subtlety,  nice  comparison  of 
passages,  and  a  great  variety  of  proofs,  both  ex- 
ternal and  internal.  The  Delia  Cruscan  academy 
made  him  at  once  one  of  its  associate  members, 
and  the  delighted  empress  of  Russia,  patron  of 
the  Greek  church,  sent  a  gold  medal  to  the  man 
who  had  done  such  service  to  the  language  of 
the  sacred  records. 

DIODATI,  Giovanni,  a  Swiss  theologian,  born 
in  Geneva  in  1576,  died  in  1649.  His  parents, 
refugees  from  persecution,  had  found  that  home 
in  Geneva  which  was  denied  them  in  their  na- 
tive city  of  Lucca.  At  21  years  he  became,  on 
tlie  nomination  of  Beza,  a  professor  of  Hebrew. 
In  1608  he  was  made  parish  minister  in  the 
Iwcformed  church,  and  in  1609  became  professor 
of  theology.  On  a  visit  to  Venice  he  had  sev- 
eral interviews  with  Fulgentius  and  Fra  Paolo 
Sarpi,  the  famous  historian  of  the  council  of 
Trent,  at  the  time  that  they  were  resisting  the 
secular  influence  of  the  papacy.  In  1618-'19 
Diodati,  already  noted  as  a  preacher  both  in 
France  and  Switzerland,  attended  the  synod  of 
Dort,  where,  with  Theodore  Tronchin,  he  repre- 
sented the  church  of  Geneva,  and  was  one  of 
the  6  ministers  appointed  to  draw  up  the  ar- 
ticles of  faith.  In  this  synod  he  showed  him- 
self a  zealous  Calvinist,  and  oftended  many  by 
his  bitterness  against  the  Remonstrant  party. 
In  1633  he  drew  up,  along  with  Le  Clerc,  a 
preface  to  the  confession  of  faitli  of  Cyril  Lucar, 
patriarch  of  the  Greek  church  at  Constantinople. 
This  remarkable  and  unfortunate  prelate  had 
been  for  many  years  the  associate,  correspond- 
ent, and  admirer  of  the  leading  reformers,  and 
was  indefatigable  in  his  efforts  to  engraft  Lu- 
theran and  even  Calvinistic  ideas  upon  the  creed 
of  the  eastern  church.  In  1645  Diodati  relin- 
quished his  office  as  professor,  and  passed  the 
remaining  years  of  his  life  in  retirement.  He 
was  considered  by  many  to  be  the  most  learned 
biblical  scholar  of  his  day.  Among  his  works 
are  an  It^alian  version  of  the  Bible  (1607) ;  a  free 
Italian  translation  of  the  New  Testament  (1608) ; 
Mortis  Meditatio   Theologica  (Geneva,  1619)  ; 


the  "Papal  Fiction  of  Purgatory"  (1619);  a 
French  translation  of  Job,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Can- 
ticles (1638),  of  the  Psalms  (1640),  and  of  the 
whole  Hebrew  Bible  (1644) ;  Olossm  in  Sancta 
Biblia  (fol.  Geneva,  1641),  in  Italian;  and  a 
great  number  of  other  theological  and  contro- 
versial writings, 

DIODOKUS,  commonly  called  Diodorus  Si- 
cuLfs,  a  Sicilian  historian  of  the  time  of  Caesar 
and  Augustus,  was  born  in  Agyrium,  but  the 
precise  epochs  both  of  his  birth  and  of  his 
death  are  unknown.  He  spent  30  years  in  com- 
posing a  universal  history,  and  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  work  he  traversed  a  large  portion 
of  Europe  and  Asia.  The  first  0  books  treated 
of  the  times  anterior  to  the  Trojan  war ;  the 
11  following  extended  to  the  deatli  of  Alexander 
the  Great ;  while  in  the  26  remaining,  the  his- 
tory was  brought  down  to  the  time  of  Julius  Ca3- 
sar.  Of  this  extensive  work,  which  was  styled 
Bi,3Xto5r;/<r;,  or  Bij3Xio6r]Kr^  'laropiKr]  (library,  or 
historical  library),  we  have  now  only  15  books 
entire,  and  a  few  fragments  of  the  rest.  The 
first  5  books,  containing  the  ancient  history  of 
the  eastern  nations,  the  Ethiopians,  Egyi)tians, 
and  Greeks,  and  the  10  from  the  11th  to  the 
20th  inclusive,  comprising  the  history  of  events 
from  the  second  Persian  war,  480  B.  C,  down  to 
302  B.  C,  remain  entire.  Many  fragments  of 
the  other  books  are  preserved  in  the  works  of 
Photius,  and  in  the  Eclogm,  or  selections,  made 
by  order  of  the  emperor  Constantine  Porphy- 
rogenitus.  The  Bibliotheca  is  the  only  work 
of  Diodorus  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge, 
the  collection  of  letters  attributed  to  him  being 
probably  a  forgery.  It  is  written  in  the  style  of 
annals,  and  the  events  are  narrated  in  a  confus- 
ed and  discordant  manner ;  but  the  work  is  val- 
uable as  giving  us,  if  not  always  information  of 
facts,  at  least  of  the  opinions  of  men,  with  regard 
to  a  period  in  history  concerning  Avhich  our  in- 
formation is  so  exceedingly  meagre,  that  the 
slightest  addition  to  it  is  of  great  value.  _  The 
first  5  books  are  especially  prized  on  this  ac- 
count. Most  of  the  events' treated  in  the  other 
ten  are  better  told  by  Thucydides  and  Xenophon, 
who  are  silent,  however,  upon  the  Carthaginian 
wars  in  Sicily  related  by  Diodorus.  The  best 
modern  editions  of  his  works  are  those  of  L. 
Dindorf  (6  vols.  8vo.,  Leipsic,  1828),  and  Muller 
(Paris,  1842-4).  •  That  portion  of  his  liistory 
which  relates  to  the  successors  of  Alexander 
was  translated  into  English  by  Thomas  Stocker 
(4to.,  London,  1569).  His  whole  work  was  trans- 
lated by  Thomas  Cogan  (fol.,  London,  1653), 
and  by  G.  Booth  (fol.,  London,  1700  or  1721 ; 
republished,  2  vols,  royal  8vo.,  London,  1814). 

DIOGEXES,  a  Cynic  philosopher,  born  in  Si- 
nope,  in  Pontus,  Asia  Minor,  about  412.  died 
near  Corinth,  323  B.  C.  His  lather  was  a  bank- 
er, and  was  condemned  for  having  adulterated 
the  coinage ;  and  W'hether  his  son  was  involved 
in  the  same  condemnation  or  not,  it  is  certain 
that  the  latter  left  his  native  country  and  took 
refuge  in  Athens.  Here  he  became  a  disciple  of 
Antisthenes,  the  founder  of  the  Cynic  school  of 


488 


DIOGENES 


DIOGENES  LAERTIUS 


philosophy.  The  latter  was  at  first  unwilling  to 
receive  him,  driving  him  rudely  from  his  door, 
and  threatening  him  with  his  staff".  "  Strike," 
said  Diogenes ;  "  you  cannot  find  a  stick  so  hard 
as  to  compel  me  to  go  away,  while  you  speak  that 
which  I  wish  to  hear."  Diogenes  soon  gained  a 
reputation  superior  to  that  of  his  master  for 
rough  and  caustic  wit.  The  anecdotes  related 
of  him,  whether  they  are  all  true  or  not,  will  help 
ns  to  form  a  judgment  of  the  character  of  the 
man.  One  day  at  Athens  the  citizens  saw  him 
with  a  lantern  in  his  hand,  although  it  was 
broad  day,  apparently  searching  for  something. 
On  being  asked  what  he  was  seeking,  he  replied  : 
"  A  man."  He  had  found  children,  he  said,  in 
Sparta,  and  women  in  Athens,  but  men  he  had 
never  seen.  At  another  time  he  called  out : 
"  Approach,  all  men ;"  and  when  the  citizens 
drew  near,  beat  them  back  with  a  stick,  saying: 
"  I  called  for  men,  but  ye  are  excrements."  Ho 
used  to  carry  a  small  drinking  vessel  with  him, 
but  broke  it  on  seeing  a  boy  drink  from  the 
hollow  of  his  hand.  He  slept  either  under  the 
portico  of  some  building,  or  in  a  tub,  which 
was  his  ordinary  dwelling,  and  which  he  car- 
ried about  with  him.  The  truth  of  this  popular 
statement,  however,  has  been  much  disputed 
both  by  ancient  and  modern  critics.  He  taught 
in  the  streets  and  public  places,  speaking  with  the 
utmost  plainness,  often  with  rudeness,  and  was 
altogether  insensible  to  reproaches  and  insults. 
His  wit  was  ready  and  severe.  Plato  defined 
man  as  a  two-legged  animal  without  feathers ; 
whereupon  Diogenes,  having  stripped  a  fowl  of 
its  plumage,  threw  it  among  the  scholars  of  the 
great  academician,  bidding  them  behold  one  of 
Plato's  men.  Being  asked  which  is  the  most 
dangerous  animal,  he  answered  :  "  Of  wild  ani- 
mals, the  slanderer ;  of  tame,  the  flatterer."  On 
a  voyage  to  the  island  of  ^Egina,  he  was  cap- 
tured by  pirates,  and  afterward  sold  as  a  slave. 
While  in  the  market  place,  waiting  for  a  pur- 
chaser, being  asked  what  he  could  do,  he  an- 
ewered  that  he  knew  how  to  govern  men,  and 
bade  the  crier  to  ask :  "  "Who  wants  to  buy  a 
master  ?"  He  was  purchased  by  Xeniades,  a 
Corinthian,  who  carried  him  home,  and  after- 
ward set  him  at  liberty,  intrusting  to  him  the 
education  of  his  children.  The  rest  of  his 
days  Diogenes  divided  between  Athens  and 
Corinth,  and  it  was  at  the  latter  place  that  his 
celebrated  but  apocryphal  interview  with  Alex- 
ander the  Great  is  said  to  have  taken  place.  The 
king  of  Macedon,  surprised  at  the  indifference 
■with  which  he  was  regarded  by  the  ragged  phi- 
losopher, who  was  comfortably  basking  in  the 
eun  before  his  tub,  said  to  him :  "  I  am  Alexan- 
der." "  And  I,"  was  the  reply,  "  am  Diogenes." 
Alexander  desired  him  to  ask  a  favor ;  but  all 
that  the  Cynic  wished  was,  that  Alexander 
would  not  stand  between  him  and  the  sun. 
Struck  with  this  extraordinary  insensibility  to 
the  usual  weaknesses  of  humanity,  the  Macedo- 
nian remarked :  "  Were  I  not  Alexander,  I  would 
\>e  Diogenes."  He  loved  to  display  his  contempt 
of  the  common  courtesies  of  life.    Plato  was 


giving  a  magnificent  dinner  to  some  friends, 
and  Diogenes  entered  unbidden,  and,  stamping 
with  his  dirty  feet  on  the  carpets,  exclaimed: 
"  Tlius  I  trample  on  the  pride  of  Plato."  '"  But 
with  greater  pride,  O  Diogenes,"  replied  Plato. 
Surly,  independent,  constantly  grumbling  at  the 
vices  of  mankind,  a  voluntary  outcast  among 
his  fellow-men,  he  lived  on  to  a  great  age,  and 
died  in  his  90th  year.  According  to  Diogenes 
Laertius,  he  wrote  several  works,  but  nothing 
has  come  down  to  us  with  the  exception  of 
some  sayings  jj^eserved  by  the  above-men- 
tioned author,  and  it  is  even  doubted  by  some 
whether  he  ever  wrote  any  thing.  He  did  not 
teach  by  lectures,  but  uttered  his  philosophy  in 
short,  pithy  sentences,  as  occasion  ottered. 

DIOGENES  OF  Apolloxia,  a  Greek  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Apollonia  in  Crete,  flourished  in 
the  5th  century  B.  C.  Very  little  is  known 
of  his  life.  He  was  at  Athens  probably  about 
460,  and  became  involved  in  some  trouble 
there,  perhaps  in  consequence  of  his  philosoph- 
ical speculations.  These  latter  were  devel- 
oped in  his  work  Ilepi  ^vaeos,  "On  Nature," 
which  was  still  extant  in  the  6th  century, 
but  of  which  we  have  at  present  only  a  few 
fragments,  preserved  in  the  works  of  Aristotle, 
Diogenes  Laertius,  and  Simplicius.  His  great 
object  was  to  find  the  first  principle  of  the 
world,  out  of  which  all  things  were  evolved. 
Like  his  master  Anaximenes,  he  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  this  great  first  principle  was  air. 
Air  of  various  degrees  of  condensation  formed 
the  atmosphere,  fire,  water,  and  earth,  and  out 
of  these  every  thing  else  was  evolved.  But  he 
went  beyond  his  master  in  endowing  this  subtle 
first  principle  with  a  certain  intelligence,  pre- 
siding over  the  arrangement  of  the  universe, 
the  marks  of  which  are  visible  in  the  order  and 
beauty  of  creation.  The  brutes,  he  says,  are 
inferior  to  man,  because  they  inhale  an  air  less 
pure,  holding  tlieir  heads  near  the  ground.  The 
world,  too,  he  supposed  to  be  animated,  and  he 
imagined  the  stars  to  be  its  organs  of  respiration. 
The  fragments  of  Diogenes  which  have  come 
down  to  us  were  published  by  Panzerbeiter 
(Leipsic,  1830). 

DIOGENES  LAERTIUS,  an  ancient  historian 
of  philosophy,  who  probably  lived  toward  the 
end  of  the  2d  century,  though  the  dates  of  his 
birth  and  of  his  death  are  alike  unknown,  and 
his  hfe  has  been  placed  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Augustus,  and  as  late  as  that  of  Constantine 
the  Great.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  born 
in  Laerte,  in  Cilicia,  but  of  his  life  we  know 
absolutely  nothing.  He  wrote  a  history  of  phi- 
losophy in  Greek,  divided  into  10  books,  and  giv- 
ing an  account  of  the  philosophers,  anecdotes  of 
their  lives,  and  illustrations  of  their  teachings. 
He  considers  Grecian  philosophy  not  to  have 
been  derived  from  without,  but  to  have  been 
indigenous,  and  he  divides  it  into  two  schools  : 
the  Ionic,  commencing  with  Anaximander  and 
ending  with  Clitomachus,  Chrysippus,  and 
Theophrastus,  and  of  which  the  Socratic  school 
forms  a  part ;  and  the  Italian,  whose  founder  is 


DIOMEDES 


DION  OASSIUS  OOCOEIANUS     489 


Pythagoras,  and  whoso  last  master  is  Epicnrns, 
and  wliich  inchides  in  its  comprehensive  em- 
brace lleraclitus,  the  Eleatics,  and  the  Sceptics. 
The  account  of  these  two  scliools  comprises  tho 
whole  of  the  Avork,  with  tho  exception  of  tho 
first  book,  which  contains  the  history  of  tho 
7  wise  men  of  Greece,  whom  he  considers  ra- 
ther as  precursors  to  Grecian  philosophy  than 
as  properly  belonging  to  it.  The  work  of  Dio- 
genes is  valuable  for  information  which  wo 
could  obtain  from  no  other  source ;  but  it  is  ill- 
digested,  written  without  critical  judgment,  and 
often  inaccurate.  Diogenes  is  supposed  to  havo 
written  some  other  works,  among  which  was  a 
volume  of  epigrams,  but,  judging  from  the  speci- 
mens of  bis  talent  in  this  sort  of  composition 
which  are  found  interwoven  with  his  philosoph- 
ical history,  we  havo  no  cause  to  regret  their 
loss.  A  good  edition  of  his  history  is  that  of 
n.  G,  Iltibner  (2  vols.  8vo.,  Leipsic,  1828-'31). 
A  translation  into  English  was  published  (2 
vols.  Bvo.,  London,  1G88).  There  is  another 
translation  by  0.  D.  Youge  in  Bohn's  "  Classical 
Library." 

DIOMEDES.  I.  One  of  tho  most  famous  of 
the  Grecian  heroes  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  and, 
after  Achilles,  considered  the  bravest  of  all  tlie 
Greeks.  According  to  Homer,  his  father  Ty- 
deus  was  one  of  tho  leaders  in  the  memorable 
expedition  of  the  seven  against  Thebes,  and  was 
killed  before  tho  walls  of  that  city,  while  Dio- 
medes  was  still  a  boy.  The  latter,  however, 
having  arrived  at  the  age  of  manhood,  joined  tho 
second  expedition  against  Thebes,  and  avenged 
his  father's  death.  With  80  ships  he  sailed  in 
the  groat  Grecian  armament  to  the  siege  of 
Troy,  where,  beside  a  multitude  of  victories  over 
heroes  of  less  note,  he  engaged  and  put  to  flight 
Hector  and  ^neas,  and  also  wounded  both  Ve- 
nus and  Mars,  tlie  divine  defenders  of  the  city. 
lie  was  also  famed  for  his  wisdom  in  council, 
and  when  Agamemnon,  dispirited  by  adversity, 
proposed  to  abandon  the  siege,  Diomedes  de- 
clared that  he  with  his  friend  Sthenelus  would 
remain,  at  all  events,  until  Troy  should  fall. 
According  to  later  legends,  he  carried  off  with 
Ulysses  the  palladium  from  Troy.  Of  his  his- 
tory after  the  fall  of  Troy  Homer  gives  us  no 
account,  but  later  writers  tell  us  that,  having 
returned  to  Argos  and  found  his  wife  unfaithful, 
he  abandoned  his  native  country,  and  sought  a 
home  elsewhere.  Traditions  differ  with  regard 
to  his  after  life.  According  to  some  accounts, 
lie  went  to  ^tolia,  and  afterward  returned  and 
gained  possession  of  Argos.  Another  relates 
that,  in  attempting  to  return  to  Argos,  he  was 
driven  by  a  storm  upon  the  coast  of  Italy,  where 
he  was  kindly  received  by  King  Daunns,  whom 
be  assisted  in  a  war  against  a  neighboring 
tribe,  and  whose  daughter  Euippe  he  received 
in  marriage.  II.  A  king  of  the  Bistones  in 
Thrace,  son  of  Mars  and  Cyrene,  celebrated  for 
his  mares,  which  he  fed  upon  human  flesh.  To 
obtain  possession  of  these  mares  was  one  of  the 
12  labors  of  Hercules.  The  hero  slew  Diomedes, 
whose  body  he  gave  to  the  mares,  and  they, 


though  previously  savage,  became  tamo  after 
eating  their  muster's  flesh. 

DION"  OF  Sykaouse,  a  disciple  of  Plato,  cele- 
brated for  having  overthrown  the  power  of 
Diouysius  the  Younger,  tyrant  of  that  city,  born 
toward  the  close  of  the  5th  century  B.C.,  killed 
in  353.  Under  Dionysius  tho  Elder,  who  was 
married  to  liis  sister  Arist<jmache,  he  enjoyed  tho 
favor  of  the  court,  and  amassed  great  wealth ; 
but  when  the  younger  Dionysius  succeeded  to 
the  throne,  Dion,  whose  austere  manners  wero 
a  constant  rebuke  of  the  royul  debaucheries, 
fell  into  disgrace,  and  at  last  was  banished  from 
Sicily.  lie  found  refuge  and  a  friendly  recep- 
tion in  Greece,  Avhere  he  lived  for  a  while  in 
affluence,  his  income  being  still  allowed  to  reach 
him.  Soon,  however,  this  was  cut  off,  and  to 
completo  his  disgrace,  his  wife  Arete  was  com- 
pelled to  marry  another  man.  Dion  knew  tliat 
the  Syracusans  hated  their  tyrannical  ruler, 
and  he  now  resolved  to  avenge  himself  and 
his  country  at  the  same  time.  Having  assem- 
bled a  body  of  about  800  troops,  he  sailed  from 
Zacynthus,  landed  in  Sicily,  and  easily  obtained 
possession  of  Syracuse  in  the  absence  of  Diony- 
sius. The  troops  of  the  tyrant,  however,  still 
held  the  citadel  on  the  neighboring  island  of 
Ortygia,  whence  they  made  a  sally  soon  after 
the  arrival  of  Dion,  and  were  repulsed  only 
after  a  fierce  combat,  during  which  Dion  him- 
self displayed  great  courage.  He  was  at  first 
received  by  the  citizens  with  enthusiasm,  and 
on  his  entry  into  the  city  he  proclaimed  liberty 
to  Syracuse.  But  irritated  by  his  harsh  man- 
ners, suspecting  his  designs,  and  incited  by  the 
demagogue  Heraclides,  the  people  afterward  ex- 
pelled him  and  his  troops.  The  Syracusans  soon 
had  reason  to  repent  of  their  conduct,  for  the 
soldiers  of  Dionysius,  aware  of  their  dissensions, 
made  a  sally,  regained  part  of  the  city,  set  firo 
to  the  houses,  and  began  a  fearful  massacre. 
The  banished  philosopher  was  entreated  to  re- 
turn, and  marching  immediately,  he  succeeded 
after  a  hard  contest  in  obtaining  full  control  of 
Syracuse.  It  is  not  improbable  that  he  intended 
to  establish  an  oligarchical  government,  though 
he  has  been  suspected  of  an  intention  to  retain 
the  supreme  power  in  his  own  hands.  He 
caused  his  opponent  Heraclides  to  be  put  to 
death.  This  act  greatly  injured  his  popularity, 
already  damaged  by  his  repellant  and  austere 
manners ;  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him, 
and  he  was  not  long  after  assassinated. 

DION"  CASSIUS  COCCEIANUS,  an  ancient 
historian  of  Rome,  born  in  Nice  in  Bithynia 
about  A.  D.  155,  went  to  Rome  about  180, 
where  he  was  made  senator.  He  was  after- 
ward appointed  to  many  ofiices  of  trust  by  dif- 
ferent emperors,  and  was  twice  raised  to  tho 
consulship.  Having  become  odious  to  the  prae- 
torian guards,  because,  it  is  said,  of  the  severe 
discipline  which  he  had  imposed,  he  obtained 
permission  from  the  emperor  Alexander  Severus, 
in  229,  to  retire  to  his  native  city  of  Nice, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days.  His 
great  work  was  a  history  of  Pvome  ('Pa)/;iaVK>; 


490 


DION  CHRYSOSTOMUS 


DION^A 


'Io-To/3ta),written  in  Greek,  divided  into  80  books, 
and  contcaining  an  account  of  tlie  rise  and  pro- 
gress of  tlie  state  from  the  landing  of  ^neas  in 
Italy  until  A.  D.  229,  giving  only  a  slight  sketch 
of  events  down  to  the  time  of  Julius  Oa3sar,  but 
dwelling  with  more  minuteness  on  the  history 
of  later  times,  and  especially  on  that  of  the 
autlior's  own  age.  Of  this  work,  which  is 
written  with  clearness,  diligence,  and  general 
accuracy,  but  in  a  faulty  style,  20  books  (from 
the  36th  to  the  54th)  remain  entire.  Fragments 
of  the  first  35  have  been  collected,  and  there 
are  abridgments  of  the  last  25  and  of  the  entire 
work.  One  of  the  best  editions  of  Dion  Cas- 
sias is  that  of  Sturz  (9  vols.  8vo.,  Leipsic,  1824- 
'25-43).  An  English  translation  of  Xiphilin's 
abridgment  was  published  in  London  (2  vols. 
8vo.,  1704). 

DION  CHRYSOSTOMUS  (i.  c,  Dion  the 
golden-mouthed),  a  Greek  rhetorician,  born  in 
Prusa  (now  Broussa),  in  Bithynia,  about  the 
middle  of  the  1st  century,  died  in  Rome  about 
A.  D.  117.  In  the  practice  of  his  art  at  Rome,  he 
incurred  the  hostility  of  the  emperor  Domitian, 
and  in  consequence  of  a  decree  of  the  senate 
he  was  obliged  to  flee  from  Italy.  In  the  habit 
of  a  beggar,  with  Plato's  "  Phasdon"  and  De- 
mosthenes's  "  Oration  on  the  Embassy"  in  his 
pocket,  he  wandered  through  Thrace  and  the 
countries  bordering  on  the  lower  Danube,  and 
on  receiving  intelligence  of  the  death  of  Domitian 
(90)  used  his  influence  and  his  oratorical  powers 
with  the  army  stationed  on  that  frontier  in  fa- 
vor of  Nerva.  It  is  probable  that  he  returned 
to  Rome  on  the  accession  of  this  emperor,  from 
whom  as  well  as  from  his  successor  Trajan  he 
received  tokens  of  marked  kindness.  About 
A.  D,  100  he  returned  to  Prusa,  but  remained 
but  a  short  time,  and  then  went  back  to  Rome. 
He  was  an  essayist  rather  than  an  orator,  and 
his  writings  are  distinguished  for  elegance  of 
style.  Of  his  orations  80  have  come  down  to 
us.  There  is  a  very  good  critical  edition  of 
them  by  Reiske  (2  vols.  Svo.,  Leipsic,  1784), 

DION^A  (X>.  mtiscipula,  Ellis),  Venus's  fly 
trap,  a  plant  inhabiting  the  savannas  around  Wil- 
mington, N.  C,  and  extending  N.  as  far  as  New- 
bern,  N.  0.  Elliott,  on  the  authority  of  Gen, 
Pinckney,  says  that  it  grows  along  the  lower 
branches  of  the  Santee  in  South  Carolina.  Mr. 
Audubon  informed  Mr,  Curtis,  with  the  plant  be- 
fore him,  that  he  had  seen  it  in  Florida  of  enor- 
mous size.  Specific  characters :  calyx  herbaceous ; 
petals  5,  hypogynous  on  the  margin  of  the  dilated 
receptacle,  alternate  with  the  sepals;  stamens 
10  to  20,  hypogynous  within  the  petals,  shorter 
than  they ;  filaments  filiform  ;  anthers  oblong, 
of  2  ])arallel  cells  without  connection;  pollen 
of  pretty  large,  grains,  composed  of  4  united  ; 
ovary  depressed,  ovoid,  one-celled,  5  lobes,  the 
lobes  alternate  with  tlie  petals ;  style  colum- 
nar, pretty  large,  undivided;  stigmas  5,  corre- 
sponding with  the  lobes  of  the  ovary ;  ovules 
indefinite,  erect,  sessile  on  and  uniformly  cover- 
ing tlie  nearly  flat  basilar  placenta,  which  occupies 
the  whole  bottom  of  the  cell ;  herb  acaulescent, 


smooth,  with  fibrous  roots,  and  a  cluster  of  spread- 
ing yellowish  green  leaves,  traversed  by  a  strong 
midrib  bearing  on  its  apex  an  orbicular  herba- 
ceo-coriaceous  lamina,  emarginato  at  both  ends, 
fringed  with  a  row  of  bristles,  the  2  sides  con- 
duplicate,  the  upper  surface  dotted  with  minute 
glands,  in  which  the  sensitiveness  of  the  leaf 
chiefly  resides.  The  lobes  or  sides  of  the  lami- 
na are  folded  at  night,  but  spread  during  the 
day,  when  if  the  glands  be  roughlj'  touched,  or 
an  insect  alights  upon  them,  the  sides  suddenly 
close  on  the  intruder.  After  remaining  con- 
tracted for  some  time,  the  trap  again  opens,  ready 
to  enclose  a  new  intruder  ;  but  by  repeated  irri- 
tation at  short  intervals  its  movements  become 
languid,  and  its  sensibility  is  for  the  time  entire- 
ly exhausted.  The  best  popular  description  of 
this  singular  plant  is  given  by  Curtis  in  his  enu- 
meration of  plants  growing  spontaneously  around 
Wilmington,  N,  C,  communicated  to  the  Boston 
society  of  natural  history  in  1834,  and  published 
in  the  proceedings  of  that  society.  "  The  leaf," 
remarks  Mr.  Curtis,  "which  is  the  only  curious 
part,  springs  from  the  root,  spreading  upon  the 
ground  or  at  a  little  elevation  above  it.  It  is 
composed  of  a  petiole  or  stem  with  broad  mar- 
gins like  the  leaf  of  the  orange  tree,  2  to  4 
inches  long,  which  at  the  end  suddenly  expands 
into  a  thick  and  somewhat  rigid  leaf,  the  2  sides 
of  which  are  semi-circular,  about  |  of  an  inch 
across,  and  fringed  around  the  edge  with  some- 
what rigid  ciliai  or  long  hairs  like  eyelashes.  It 
is  very  aptly  compared  to  2  upper  eyelids  joined 
at  their  bases.  Each  side  of  the  leaf  is  a  little 
concave  on  the  inner  side,  where  are  placed  3 
delicate  hair-like  organs  in  such  an  order  that 
an  insect  can  hardly  traverse  it  without  inter- 
fering with  one  of  them,  when  the  2  sides  sud- 
denly collapse  and  enclose  the  prey  with  a  force 
surpassing  an  insect's  eflforts  to  escape.  The 
fringe  or  hairs  of  the  opposite  sides  of  the  leaf 
interlace,  like  the  fingers  of  the  2  hands  clasped 
together.  The  sensitiveness  resides  only  in  these 
hair-like  processes  on  the  inside,  as  the  leaf  may 
be  touched  or  pressed  in  any  other  part  Avith- 
out  sensible  efiects.  The  little  prisoner  is  not 
crushed  and  suddenly  destroyed,  as  is  some- 
times supposed,  for  I  have  often  liberated  cap- 
tive flies  or  spiders,  which  sped  away  as  fast  as 
fear  or  joy  could  hasten  them.  At  other  times 
I  have  found  them  enveloped  in  a  fluid  of  a 
mucilaginous  consistence,  which  seems  to  act 
as  a  solvent,  the  insects  being  more  or  less  con- 
sumed by  it.  This  circumstance  has  suggested 
the  possibility  of  their  being  made  subservient  to 
the  nourishment  of  the  plant,  through  an  ap- 
paratus of  absorbent  vessels  in  the  leaves." 
The  discovery  of  this  plant  has  led  naturalists 
to  make  experiments  upon  plants  with  the  view 
of  ascertaining  the  possibility  of  thoir  appropri- 
ating animal  matter  to  their  own  nourishment, 
wnth  such  success  as  to  lead  to  the  belief  that 
the  form  and  organization  of  the  diancea  musci- 
2)ula  is  really  intended  to  entrap  its  insect  prey, 
for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  a  kind  of  food  to 
the  plant,  which,  although  not  essential  to  its 


DIONYSIUS  (of  Alexandria) 


DIONYSroS  (THK  Elder)  491 


existence,  performs  an  important  part  in  its 
economy. 

DIONYSIUS  OF  Alexandria,  saint  and 
bishop  of  the  church,  born  in  Alexandria,  in 
Egypt,  in  the  last  years  of  the  2d  century,  died 
in  tliat  city,  A.  D.  265.  He  was  of  a  noble  and 
wealthy  family.  His  parents  were  pagans ;  but 
in  the  course  of  his  early  philosopliical  studies 
his  attention  was  turned  to  the  Christian  sacred 
writings,  especially  the  epistles  of  Paul,  and  he 
became  a  convert.  He  left  the  heathen  schools, 
became  a  pupil  of  Origen,  was  ordained  priest, 
and  in  232  was  chosen  to  succeed  Heraclas  as 
chief  of  the  Alexandrian  school  of  theology.  In 
248  he  was  raised  to  the  office  of  bishop,  made 
vacant  by  the  death  of  Heraclas.  Shortly  after 
this,  violent  persecutions  broke  out  against  the 
Christians.  The  populace  of  Alexandria  had 
been  stirred  up  against  them  by  a  certain 
heathen  false  prophet,  and  the  edict  of  Decius, 
which  reached  that  city  A.  D.  250,  put  arms  in 
the  hands  of  the  enraged  enemies  of  the  Chris- 
tian name.  Dionysius,  who  had  taken  an  active 
part  in  preparing  the  Christians  for  the  coming 
trial,  Tv'as  marked  for  a  victim,  was  arrested,  sent 
to  be  put  to  death,  rescued  by  a  band  of  peas- 
ants, and  he  remained  concealed  more  than  a 
year  in  the  Libyan  desert,  sending  continual 
messages  meanwhile  to  his  brethren  in  the  city. 
In  the  persecution  under  Valerian  in  the  year 
257,  Dionysius  was  again  exiled  from  his  see. 
After  his  restoration  (A.  D.  200),  he  was  more 
than  once  called  to  mediate  on  occasions  of  pub- 
lic strife. — The  writings  of  Dionysius  were  nu- 
merous, but  most  of  them  have  been  lost.  They 
were  mainly  controversial.  In  opposition  to 
Nei)Os,  bishop  of  Arsinoe,  who  preached  the 
millennial  earthly  reign  of  the  Saviour  at  his 
second  coming,  Dionysius  wrote  2  books  re- 
futing the  theory.  In  opposition  to  Sabellius, 
who  denied  the  distinct  personality  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Trinity,  he  wrote  several  books 
and  epistles,  caused  the  heresy  to  be  condemned 
by  a  council,  and  insisted  upon  the  distinction 
between  the  Son  and  the  Father  so  strongly, 
that  it  brought  upon  him  the  charge  of  deny- 
ing the  divinity  of  Christ,  against  which  he  de- 
feuded  himself.  According  to  Basil,  he  also 
defended  the  doctrine  of  the  divinity,  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  In  opposition  to  Paul  of  Samo- 
sata,  Dionysius  maintained  the  consubstantial 
nature  of  the  Son  and  the  Father.  The  frag- 
ments of  his  writings  were  collected  by  Simon 
de  Magistris  (Rome,  1796)  in  a  folio,  and  are 
also  contained  in  the  3d  volume  of  the  Biblio- 
thcca  Patrum. 

DIONYSIUS  THE  Areopagite,  an  Athenian, 
styled  by  Suidas  a  master  of  Greek  erudition, 
and  who  was  one  of  the  council  of  the  Areo- 
pagus when  St.  Paul  preached  to  the  Athe- 
nians. He  is  said  to  have  studied  first  at 
Athens,  and  afterward  at  Heliopolis,  in  EgyiJt. 
There  is  a  legend  that  when  he  observed  in 
Egypt  the  darkening  of  the  sun  Avliich  occurred 
(luring  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  Christ,  he  ex- 
claimed :  "  Either  God  himself  is  sutiering,  or 


19  sympathizing  with  some  one  who  is  suffer- 
ing." lie  was  converted  by  the  preaching  of 
Paul,  about  A.  D.  50 ;  is  mentioned  in  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  (xvii.  34),  and  was  the  first  bish- 
op of  Athens,  having  been  appointed  to  that 
office,  it  is  said,  by  St.  Paul  himself.  It  is  prob- 
able that  he  suffered  death  by  martyrdom,  but 
in  what  year  is  not  known.  It  is  not  certain 
that  Dionysius  the  Areopagite  ever  wrote  any 
thing,  but  his  name  has  been  given  to  several 
theological  treatises,  imbued  with  the  mystical 
doctrines  of  the  Alexandrian  Platonism.  These 
works,  4  in  number,  are  first  mentioned  in  the 
6th  century,  contain  allusions  to  facts  and  quo- 
tations from  authors  subsequent  to  the  apostolic 
age,  and  were  probably  written  by  some  Neo- 
Platonic  Christian  of  the  4th  or  5th  century. 
They  exei'cised  a  great  influence  upon  the  de- 
velopment of  Christian  doctrine  in  the  middle 
ages,  were  translated  into  Latin  by  Scotus  Eri- 
geua,  and  gave  the  first  impulse  to  that  theology 
which  the  combined  efforts  of  mystics  and 
schoolmen  maintained  for  centuries.  The  fact 
that  this  Dionysius  became  confounded  with  the 
patron  saint  of  France  perhaps  invested  these 
writings  with  an  importance  which  they  would 
not  have  acquired  from  their  intrinsic  merits. 

DIONYSIUS  THE  Elder,  tyrant  of  Syracuse, 
son  of  Hermocrates,  born  in  430  B.  C,  died  in 
307.  While  a  clerk  in  a  public  office,  he  came 
forward  in  the  popular  assembly  as  the  accuser 
of  the  unsuccessful  Syracusan  commanders,  who 
had  suffered  Agrigentum  and  other  foremost 
cities  of  Sicily  to  be  taken  by  the  Carthaginians, 
He  displayed  so  much  vigor  of  character,  and 
the  condition  of  Syracuse  was  so  critical,  that 
even  men  like  the  historian  Philistus  saw  in 
him  the  only  safety  for  the  country.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  a  decree  for  deposing  the 
obnoxious  generals,  and  for  appointing  others 
in  their  stead,  and  was  himself  elected  among 
the  new  officers.  He  then  brought  false  accu- 
sations against  his  associates,  and  the  people 
determined  to  depose  them,  and  appointed  him, 
405  B.  C,  sole  general,  with  fuU  powers,  and 
allowed  him  to  protect  himself  by  a  body  guard. 
He  now  began  those  measures  which  made  him 
proverbial  in  antiquity  as  a  tyrant ;  and  concern- 
ing himself  no  longer  for  the  deliverance  of  Sicily 
from  the  Carthaginians,  aimed  only  to  subdue 
his  native  city.  He  induced  the  Syracusans  to 
double  the  pay  of  the  soldiers,  appointed  offi- 
cers who  were  in  his  own  interest,  and,  by  mar- 
rying the  daughter  of  the  patriot  Hermocrates, 
secured  the  support  of  the  partisans  of  that 
leader.  He  was  received  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Sicilians,  who  had  concentrated 
their  forces  at  Gela,  and  he  offered  battle  to  the 
Carthaginians  in  so  unskilful  a  manner  as  to 
make  it  probable  that  he  did  not  regret  the  de- 
feat in  which  it  resulted.  He  withdrew  the 
inhabitants  of  Gela  and  Camarina  to  Leontini, 
and  left  the  whole  of  the  western  coast  to  the 
Carthaginians,  This  reverse  gave  a  shock  to 
his  popularity,  and  enabled  his  enemies  to  raise 
a  revolt  in  Syracuse,  where  he  was  now  looked 


492 


DIONYSIUS  (the  Eldkb) 


DIOITYSIUS  EXIGUUS 


upon  as  a  manifest  traitor.  They  gained  pos- 
session of  the  city,  but  their  plans  being  discon- 
certed by  the  sudden  return  of  Dionysins,  they 
were  driven  out,  thougli  not  until  his  wife  had 
fallen  a  victim  to  their  cruelty.  The  Cartha- 
ginian generals  now  besieged  Syracuse,  but  the 
plague  having  broken  out  in  their  camp,  they 
were  satisfied  with  the  immense  advantages 
offered  them  by  Dionysius  without  storming 
the  place.  He  was  recognized  as  ruler  of 
Syracuse,  and  of  a  district  of  land  around  the 
city,  but  was  to  resign  all  claim  to  dominion 
over  the  island.  He  availed  himself  of  the 
peace  to  establish  his  tyranny  on  firmer  foun- 
dations ;  and  having  fortified  the  isle  of  Or- 
tygia,  and  excluded  from  it  all  but  his  imme- 
diate dependants,  he  built  upon  it  a  citadel 
which  might  serve  as  an  impregnable  asylum. 
The  Carthaginians  lost  the  advantages  of  the 
peace  through  negligence.  Syracuse  had  in  6 
years  recovered  her  strength,  and  Dionysius 
undertook  the  recapture  of  the  cities  which  he 
had  surrendered.  The  immense  preparations 
which  he  made  form  an  epoch  in  ancient  mili- 
tary history.  His  machinists  invented  engines 
for  throwing  missiles,  and  especially  devised  the 
catapult,  which  may  be  termed  the  artillery  of 
the  ancients.  He  also  constructed  ships  having  4 
or  5  banks  of  rowers,  instead  of  the  old  triremes. 
He  gained  at  first  great  success  in  the  war,  and 
conquered  Motya,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  Car- 
thaginian dominion.  His  fleet,  however,  was 
defeated  by  that  of  the  Carthaginians,  which 
then  ravaged  the  northern  coast  of  the  island, 
overpowered  Messana  and  Catana,  and  laid 
siege  to  Syracuse.  But  the  plague,  or  some 
malady  resembling  it,  breaking  out  in  the  camp 
of  the  enemy,  proved  the  safety  of  the  city. 
Nearly  the  whole  Carthaginian  army  was  lost 
by  the  fearful  pestilence,  and  the  remainder  pur- 
chased from  Dionysius  the  privilege  of  a  free 
departure.  In  the  treaty  which  followed,  the 
restrictions  which  had  been  imposed  by  the  last 
treaty  upon  the  government  of  Syracuse  were 
removed.  Dionysius  carried  on  also  a  3d  and 
4th  war  with  Carthage,  the  results  of  which 
seem  to  have  been  only  to  reestablish  the  terms 
of  the  former  peace.  The  intervals  between 
these  wars  were  harassed  by  the  revolts  of  his 
subjects,  which  he  avenged  with  cruelties ;  and 
the  frequent  attempts  upon  his  life  made  him 
suspicious.  He  dared  not  trust  even  his  rela- 
tives, and  his  body  guard  was  formed  of  for- 
eigners. No  one  was  admitted  to  his  presence 
till  after  being  searched,  and  often  an  innocent 
pleasantry  of  conversation  was  punished  as  a 
menace.  His  palace  was  surrounded  by  a 
ditch,  which  was  crossed  by  a  drawbridge, 
and  when  he  harangued  the  people  it  was  from 
the  top  of  a  lofty  tower.  He  built  the  terrible 
prison  of  the  lautumm,  cut  deep  into  the  solid 
rock,  and  another  of  his  prisons  was  so  arranged 
that  every  word  spoken  within  it  was  reechoed 
into  his  chamber ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  passed 
entire  days  listening  to  the  complaints  of  his 
victims.    Tradition,  in  making  of  Dionysius  the 


type  of  cruelty,  has  doubtless  transmitted  somo 
unauthenticated  stories  concerningliim;  but  even 
a  legend  like  that  of  Damocles  and  the  sword 
shows  his  mind  always  alarmed,  and  his  hand 
always  raised  to  defend  his  imperilled  life. 
Dionysius  was  long  engaged  in  ambitious  pro- 
jects against  the  Greek  cities  of  southern  Italy. 
He  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Locrians,  and 
after  suffering  some  reverses  besieged  and  con- 
quered Ehegium.  Italy  was  now  open  to  him, 
and  he  souglit  by  establishing  colonies  upon  the 
Adriatic  to  secure  for  himself  a  way  into  Greece. 
Already  his  name  was  known  in  the  Peloponne- 
sus, where  he  had  contracted  an  alliance  with 
the  Lacedaemonians.  He  was  now  the  recog- 
nized master  of  southern  Italy,  interfered  in  the 
affairs  of  the  Illyrians,  sent  an  army  into  Epirus, 
and  received  an  offer  of  friendship  from  the 
Gauls,  who  had  burned  Rome.  His  settlements 
upon  the  Adriatic  increased  his  wealth  and 
strengthened  his  power,  but  they  were  his  last 
great  undertakings,  and  henceforth  he  disappears 
from  history.  He  was  so  detested  in  Greece, 
that  the  auxiliaries  which  he  sent  to  his  allies 
the  Spartans  only  drew  upon  the  latter  the  ha- 
tred of  all  their  countrymen.  His  reign  lasted 
38  years,  and  became  milder  toward  its  latter 
part.  He  left  an  immense  military  force  and  a 
powerful  empire,  and  though  he  had  governed 
as  a  tyrant,  the  old  republican  forms  remained. 
Niebubr  affirms  that  a  republic  was  as  great  an 
impossibility  at  Syracuse  under  Dionysius  as  at 
Rome  under  Cfesar,  and  blames  him  therefore  for 
not  having  given  to  his  countrymen  institutions 
suited  to  them,  instead  of  allowing  the  old 
democratic  forms  to  exist  in  all  their  impotent 
absurdity,  merely  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  him 
to  carry  out  his  will.  Dionysius  had  a  singular 
passion  for  literature,  wrote  lyrics  and  tragedies, 
and  it  was  necessary'  for  every  one  who  sat  at 
his  table  to  praise  not  less  the  poet  than  the 
warrior.  It  is  said,  probably  as  a  sarcastic  jest, 
that  Philoxenus,  one  of  his  guests,  chose  the 
penalty  of  being  sent  to  work  in  the  quarries 
rather  than  listen  complacently  to  some  of  the 
tyrant's  verses. 

DIONYSIUS  EXIGUUS  (the  Little),  so  nam- 
ed from  his  small  stature,  a  Roman  monk  in  the 
early  part  of  the  6th  century.  He  Avas  origi- 
nally from  Scythia,  but  became  abbot  of  a  mon- 
astery in  Rome,  where  he  died  in  A.  D.  540, 
during  the  reign  of  Justinian.  He  is  praised  by 
Cassiodorus,  the  best  authority  of  the  time,  for 
his  great  erudition,  writing  in  Greek  or  Latin 
with  equal  facility,  and  having  profoundly  stud- 
ied theology.  He  gave  to  the  western  church 
the  first  regular  collection  of  ecclesiastical  laws, 
comprising  the  canons  of  the  apostles  and  of 
several  councils,  and  the  decrees  of  some  of  the 
popes.  But  his  chronological  labors  have  given 
him  greater  celebrity.  He  is  reputed  the  founder 
of  the  era  which  for  more  than  10  centuries  has 
been  observed  by  Christian  nations.  Before  him 
the  Christian  era  had  been  calculated  from  the 
death  of  Christ ;  he  first  fixed  the  year  of  the 
incarnation  in  the  753d  year  of  Rome,  and  this, 


DIONYSIUS  (of  Hauoaenasstts) 


DIP 


493 


at  least  after  the  8th  century,  was  universally 
adopted  as  the  cornmeuceraeut  of  the  era. 

DIONYSIUS  OF  IlALiGAKNAssxrs,  a  Greek 
historian  and  rhetorician,  born  in  llalicarnassus, 
in  Caria.  lie  removed  to  Rome  early  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  and  22  years  later,  shortly 
before  his  death,  published  his  work,  entitled 
'PofxaiKr)  Apxai^oXoyia,  or  "  Eouian  Antiquities." 
It  was  in  20  books,  and  contained  tlie  history  of 
Home  from  the  earliest  mythical  times  to  the  era 
of  the  Punic  wars,  where  the  history  of  Polybius 
begins.  There  remain  only  the  first  11  books, 
which  stoj)  with  the  year  441  B.  C,  a  few  years 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  decemvirs.  Several 
fragments  and  extracts  from  tlie  last  9  books 
have  been  preserved  in  the  collections  made  by 
command  of  the  emperor  Constantino  Porphyro- 
geuitus  in  the  10th  century.  The  best  editions 
of  his  works  are  those  of  Hudson  (Oxford,  1704) 
and  Reiske  (Leipsic,  1774-'6).  His  rhetorical 
compositions  have  been  published  separately  by 
Gross  and  by  Westermann.  There  is  an  English 
translation  of  the  "  Roman  Antiquities,"  by 
Edward  Spelman  (4  vols.  4to.,  London,  1758). 

DIOl^YSIUS  THE  Younger  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther Dionysius  the  Elder,  as  tyrant  of  Syracuse, 
367  B.  0.  At  that  time  he  was  a  reckless  young 
man,  educated  in  luxury,  and  unused  to  public 
affairs.  He  hastened  to  conclude  a  peace  with 
the  Carthaginians,  abandoned  his  father's  pro- 
jects of  foreign  settlements  and  power,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  pleasure.  The  philosopher 
Dion  was  his  uncle,  and  undertook  to  excite 
him  to  a  noble  career,  lie  conversed  with 
him  of  the  doctrines  of  Plato,  and  through 
his  influence  that  philosopher  was  invited  to 
visit  the  court  of  Syracuse.  On  coming,  Plato 
proposed  an  amendment  to  the  constitution, 
changing  the  government  from  nominal  de- 
mocracy and  real  despotism  to  a  confederate 
authority,  in  which  the  sovereignty  should  re- 
side in  all  the  members  of  the  ruling  family, 
who  should  form  together  a  college  of  princes. 
The  monarch  rejected  this  proposal,  and  soon 
after  took  up  his  residence  in  Locri,  and  gained 
some  advantages  against  the  Lucanians ;  but  the 
wild  orgies  to  which  he  surrendered  himself 
di'ew  upon  him  the  contempt  both  of  his  sub- 
jects and  of  foreigners.  With  a  small  band  of 
exiles,  and  with  two  vessels  laden  with  arms, 
Dion  landed  in  Sicily  (359  B.  C),  and  was  joined 
by  thousands  as  he  marched  toward  Syracuse. 
Dionysius  had  instantly  returned  from  Locri, 
but  his  troops  were  defeated,  and  he  was  obliged 
to  retreat  to  the  citadel ;  and  finding  it  impos- 
sible to  retain  his  power,  he  collected  his  most 
valuable  property,  and  sailed  away  to  Italy, 
while  his  friends  still  kept  possession  of  the 
stronghold.  In  34G  he  availed  himself  of  in- 
ternal dissensions  to  recover  his  power  in  the 
city,  and  continued  to  reign  there  during  the 
next  3  years.  But  the  former  Syracusan  empire 
was  now  in  fragments ;  and  even  the  garrison 
which  defended  the  tyrant  in  the  citadel  was 
rebellious.  Timoleon  now  appeared  upon  the 
stage,  marched  against  Syracuse  in  343,  and 


Dionysius  consented  to  an  arrangement,  by 
which  he  was  allowed  to  depart  in  safety  to 
Corinth.  lie  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life 
in  a  private  condition,  with  low  associates,  jier- 
forming,  according  to  various  traditions,  tho 
parts  of  schoolmaster,  actor,  and-  mendicant 
priest  of  Cybele. 
DIONYSUS.  SeeBAcomis. 
DIOPIIANTUS  OF  Alexandria,  the  only 
Greek  writer  on  algebra,  first  mentioned  by 
John,  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  8th  century, 
unless  he  bo  identical  with  the  astronomer  Dio- 
phantus,  on  whose  work  Hypatia  is  said  by 
Suidas  to  have  written  a  commentary.  Thero 
are  no  more  definite  indications  of  his  era. 
When  his  MSS.  came  to  light  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury, 13  books  of  his  ApidntriKa  were  announced, 
only  6  of  which  have  been  produced.  ^Vnother 
treatise  by  him,  Ilept  twv  Apidficov  UoXvyoivoii/ 
("  On  Polygonal  Numbers  "),  is  extant.  Theso 
books  contain  a  system  of  reasoning  on  num- 
bers with  the  use  of  general  symbols,  and  are 
therefore  algebraical  treatises,  though  the  de- 
monstrations are  written  out  at  length  in  com- 
mon language.  The  terra  Diophautine  was  ap- 
plied by  some  modern  mathematicians,  as  Gauss 
and  Legendre,  to  the  peculiar  analysis  employed 
in  investigating .  the  theory  of  numbers.  The 
similarity  of  the  Diophantine  and  Hindoo  alge- 
bra renders  it  probable  that  both  had  a  common 
origin,  or  that  one  was  derived  from  the  other. 
The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  Fermat, 
in  Greek  and  Latin,  published  posthumously 
(Toulouse,  1670).  They  were  translated  into 
German  by  Schuh  (Berlin,  1821).  The  6  books 
of  the  "  Arithmetic"  were  translated  into  French 
by  Stevin  and  Girard  (Paris,  1625).  A  com- 
plete translation  of  his  works  into  English  was 
made  by  the  late  Miss  Abigail  Lousada,  but  has 
not  been  published. 

DIOPTRICS,  that  part  of  optics  which  treats 
of  refracted  light.     See  Optics. 

DIOSCORIDES,  Pedacius  or  Pedaottjs,  a 
medical  and  botanical  writer  of  the  1st  or  2d 
century  A.  D.,  probably  a  native  of  Anazarbus 
in  CiHcia.  He  made  collections  of  plants  in 
Italy,  Gaul,  Greece,  and  Asia  Minor,  and  wrote 
a  treatise  in  5  books  on  materia  medica  (llepi 
'YXrjs  larpiKTjs),  a  work  which  enjoyed  the  high- 
est reputation  until  the  I7th  century.  It  is  now 
chiefly  valuable  as  illustrating  the  opinions  of 
physicians  in  ancient  times,  and  as  giving  us 
some  idea  of  their  attainments  in  natural  history. 
It  has  been  translated  into  the  Arabic,  Italian, 
Spanish,  French,  and  German  languages,  and 
many  editions  of  it  have  been  published  in  Latin 
and  Greek. 

DIP,  in  geology,  the  inclination  of  a  stratum 
of  rock  from  a  horizontal  line.  The  angle  of 
inclination  is  measured  by  an  instrument  called 
a  clinometer,  and  the  magnetic  needle  which  is 
commonly  with  it  gives  the  point  of  the  com- 
pass toward  which  the  rock  slopes  or  dips. — In 
terrestrial  magnetism,  it  is  the  inclination  which 
a  needle  makes  from  a  horizontal  line  after  it 
has  been  magnetized,  when  before  this  it  was 


494 


DIPHTHERIA 


perfectly  balanced  in  a  horizontal  position.  In 
tlie  nortlicru  hemisphere  the  north  pole  of  the 
needle  dips  toward  the  north  pole  of  the  earth, 
and  in  the  southern  hemisphere  the  south  pole 
is  depressed  toward  the  south  pole  of  the  earth. 
The  line  called  the  magnetic  equator,  upon 
which  a  needle  continues  in  the  same  horizontal 
plane  before  and  after  it  is  magnetized,  is  a 
curved  line,  not  varying  from  the  geographical 
equator.  From  this  toward  either  pole  the  dip 
increases  in  intensity,  and  by  means  of  a  needle 
constructed  with  great  delicacy,  and  furnished 
with  a  graduated  vertical  arc,  called  a  dipping 
needle,  the  angle  is  measured  and  determined 
for  different  places  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
It  is  found,  however,  not  to  be  constant  in  any 
place,  but  to  follow  the  motion  of  the  mag- 
netic poles,  which  appear  to  move  westward 
at  an  annual  rate  of  about  11'  4".  The  posi- 
tion of  these  poles  is  ascertained  by  compari- 
son of  the  angles  given  by  the  dipping  nee- 
dle in  different  latitudes.  In  1831  Commander 
Ross  succeeded  in  reaching  the  spot  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  calculated  to  be  the  N. 
magnetic  pole,  lat.  70°  5'  17"  K,  long.  96°  46' 
45"  "W.,  where  he  found  the  dipping  needle  to 
take  a  position  within  1'  of  the  vertical,  and  the 
compass  needles  to  be  as  perfectly* indifferent  to 
polarity  as  if  they  possessed  no  magnetic  prop- 
erties. For  compasses  intended  to  be  used  over 
a  wide  range  of  latitude,  provision  has  to  be 
made  to  counteract  the  effect  of  dip,  in  order 
that  the  needle  may  retain  a  horizontal  position. 
This  is  effected  by  a  small  weight,  so  adjusted 
as  to  be  slid  along  the  bar  as  may  be  required. 
In  passing  from  the  northern  to  the  southern 
hemisphere,  it  must  be  taken  off  the  south  pole 
of  the  needle  and  placed  upon  the  north  end. 
Dipping  needles  require  to  be  made  with  the 
nicest  accuracy,  and  to  be  free  as  possible  from 
friction  and  every  other  impediment  to  their 
motion.  By  means  of  a  universal  joint,  or  by 
reference  to  a  variation  compass,  the  needle  is 
made  to  move  always  in  a  vertical  plane  coin- 
ciding with  the  magnetic  meridian  of  the  place. 
— The  dip  of  the  horizon  is  the  angle  which  a 
line  to  the  visible  horizon  makes  with  a  horizon- 
tal plane ;  its  magnitude  depends  upon  the  height 
to  which  the  observer's  eye  is  elevated. 

DIPUTHEFvIA  (Gr.  Stqfc^epa,  skin),  the  most 
recent  name  of  a  disease  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes first  described  by  Bretonneau  as  diph- 
therite,  characterized  by  the  exudation  of  a 
thick  leathery  membrane  in  the  throat ;  it 
may  occupy  also  any  portion  of  the  air  pas- 
sages even  to  the  bronchi,  the  gastro-intestinal 
surfaces,  the  points  of  junction  of  the  skin 
and  mucous  membrane,  and  the  skin  itself 
Avhere  it  is  delicate  or  deprived  of  its  epidermis. 
It  is  allied  to  some  forms  of  scarlatinous  inflam- 
mation, to  croup,  and  to  quinsj',  with  which  it 
is  often  confounded.  It  is  probably,  as  it  has 
occurred  during  the  last  few  years  in  France 
and  England,  only  an  intense  epidemic  form  of 
an  old  disease,  manifesting  itself  in  various  forms 
of  throat  disease.    In  the  formation  of  firm  con- 


cretions and  in  its  tendency  to  spread  when  epi- 
demic, it  resembles  in  some  respects  the  disease 
of  infants  known  as  mtiguet.  Various  causes 
have  been  assigned  for  it,  and  it  is  generally  ad- 
mitted to  be  a  specific  disease.  Dr.  Laycock  and 
otliers  regard  it  as  due  to  the  oidium  albicans^ 
a  parasitic  fungus,  whose  sporules  and  mycelium 
have  been  found  on  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  mouth,  fauces,  and  alimentary  canal;  its 
irritation  induces  in  the  enfeebled  membranes  an 
increased  secretion  of  epithelial  scales  and  ex- 
udation corpuscles,  which  with  the  fungus  con- 
stitute the  membrane  or  pellicle ;  it  seems  to 
act  upon  the  capillaries  of  the  subjacent  tissue, 
which  is  red  and  bleeding.  Syphilitic,  scarla- 
tinic,  or  rubeolic  inflammation  may  take  on  the 
diphtheritic  form  during  an  epidemic,  and  the 
fungus  may  excite  an  irritation  without  forming 
a  pellicle  ;  it  is  not  vesicular  nor  ulcerative  like 
aplitlifo,  and  the  redness  is  deeper.  These  mi- 
croscopic parasitic  organisms  doubtless  cause 
more  diseased  conditions  than  physicians  are  as 
yet  aware  of,  and  the  question  naturally  arises 
whether  the  fungous  growth  is  the  primary  pro- 
cess, or  whether  it  is  secondary,  requiring  the 
nidus  of  a  previously  diseased  membrane  for  its 
development.  From  the  occurrence  of  similar 
growths  in  a  variety  of  diseases,  they  would 
seem  a  consequence  rather  than  a  cause,  spring- 
ing up  wherever  they  find  a  suitable  nidus, 
complicating  and  often  masking  the  original  dis- 
ease ;  the  fungus  of  diphtheria,  however,  is  said 
to  be  peculiar,  and  different  from  other  similar 
parasites.  The  sporules  may  and  do  pass  from 
one  person  to  another,  and  the  disease  is  conse- 
quently contagious,  rendering  necessary  the  iso- 
lation of  the  sick.  It  is  most  common  in  the 
foul  districts  of  the  large  cities  of  France  and 
England,  and  is  attributed  to  the  action  of  pu- 
trid efSuvia  on  the  fauces,  especially  the  foul  air 
of  sewers  and  cess-pools ;  according  to  the  re- 
port of  the  registrar-general,  in  March,  1858, 
2,000,000  of  the  people  of  London  live  over  such 
subterranean  structures,  so  imperfectly  secured 
that  any  variation  in  the  pressure  of  the  atmo- 
sphere forces  up  the  foul  air  and  sends  it  along 
every  street  and  into  every  house,  as  if  it  were 
an  apparatus  specially  contrived  for  passing  cur- 
rents of  poisonous  vapor  steadily  over  the  peo- 
ple. The  same  authority  states  that  in  1857 
15,000  deaths  in  London  were  attributed  to  the 
aggregate  effects  of  impure  air  and  other  sani- 
tary defects,  and  recommends  the  conducting 
off  of  the  effluvia  of  these  receptacles  through 
pipes  running  as  high  as  the  chimneys.  It  is 
altogether  probable  that  many  epidemics  in  this 
country  have  had  a  similar  origin,  and  from  the 
account  of  the  symptoms  and  successful  treat- 
ment of  the  recent  epidemic  of  singular  throat 
disease  in  Albany,  it  would  seem  that  it  was 
diphtheria ;  it  was  found  in  all  parts  of  the  city, 
and  in  almost  every  block,  and  raged  for  several 
months  with  a  mortality  of  about  5  per  cent. — As 
diphtheria  most  severely  attacks  debilitatedcon- 
stitutions,  in  addition  to  hygienic  and  sanitary 
measures,  the  general  treatment  should  be  by 


DIPLOMACY 


495 


antiseptic  tonics  and  stimnlants.  To  destroy  the 
fungous  growth,  the  best  local  applications  seein 
to  be  a  saturated  solution  of  borax,  and  alkalies ; 
the  chlorate  of  potash ;  the  liuiment  of  acetate 
of  copper;  corrosive  sublimate  gargles;  solu- 
tions of  the  sulphates  of  zinc,  iron,  and  copper ; 
alkaline,  and  even  common  salt  gargles.  Ni- 
trate of  silver,  though  the  most  popular,  has  not 
proved  the  most  successful  application.  Wounds 
affected  with  the  fungus  should  be  treated  on 
similar  princii)los. 

DIPL0M:ACY  (Gr.  St7rXa)/xa,  from  SotXow,  to 
double  or  fold),  the  science  or  art  of  conducting 
the  official  intercourse  of  independent  states, 
and  particularly  of  negotiating  treaties.  The 
terra  is  of  very  recent  origin,  having  first  como 
into  general  use  in  the  courts  of  Europe  since 
the  end  of  the  18th  century.  It  is  not  to  be 
found  in  Johnson's  dictionary,  and  a  French 
writer  on  the  subject  states  that  it  is  not  in  any 
dictionary  anterior  to  1819.  The  art  itself,  how- 
ever, is  as  ancient  as  the  division  of  mankind 
into  peoples  and  nations.  In  the  earliest  periods 
of  history  heralds  and  ambassadors  make  their 
appearance,  bearing  messages  from  king  to  king 
or  from  state  to  state.  The  Romans  had  a  col- 
lege of  lieralds,  20  in  number,  supposed  to  have 
been  instituted  by  Numa,  whose  functions  em- 
braced every  thing  connected  -with  the  decla- 
ration of  war  and  the  making  of  treaties.  But 
regular  and  permanent  embassies  at  foreign 
courts  do  not  seem  to  have  been  maintained  by 
any  nation  until  the  16th  century  A.  D.  Am- 
bassadors were  sent  for  special  occasions,  and 
returned  home  when  they  had  accomplished  the 
particular  object  of  their  mission,  or  had  found 
its  accomplishment  impracticable.  They  were 
clothed  with  a  sacred,  and  to  some  extent  a 
priestly  character,  and  their  personal  privileges 
were  seldom  disregarded  even  by  the  rudest 
barbarians.  The  heralds  whom  Darius  the  Per- 
sian king  sent  to  the  Grecian  cities  to  demand  the 
symbols  of  submission,  earth  and  water,  some  of 
wliom  were  put  to  death  at  Sparta  and  at  Athens, 
were  looked  upon  less  as  ambassadors  than  as 
bearers  of  a  hostUe  and  insulting  message  ;  yet 
both  the  Spartans  and  Athenians  afterward  ex- 
pressed their  regret  for  the  act,  and  attributed 
some  of  the  misfortunes  which  subsequently  be- 
fell them  to  divine  judgments  for  the  crime.  The 
peculiar  and  complicated  relations  of  the  Grecian 
states  with  each  other  gave  rise  to  a  very  active 
diplomatic  intercourse  between  them,  carried  on 
generally  by  means  of  formal  deputations  of  en- 
voys, at  the  head  of  whom  was  sometimes  placed 
a  man  of  distinguished  eminence.  Throughout 
antiquity,  indeed,  embassies  of  importance  do 
not  appear  to  have  been  confided  to  the  discre- 
tion of  a  single  person,  but  rather  to  a  commission 
of  2  or  3  or  even  more  of  equal  rank.  Ancient 
diplomacy  appears  to  have  been  guided  by  no 
other  rules  than  those  of  apparent  self-interest, 
though  to  some  extent  a  kind  of  international 
law  Avas  recognized  among  the  Grecian  repub- 
lics. Engagements  and  treaties  were  observed 
only  so  long  as  it  seemed  profitable  to  observQ 


or  not  dangerous  to  disregard  thera.  To  o]/pres9 
the  weak,  to  deceive  the  strong,  to  employ  by 
turns  force  or  artifice  as  policy  seemed  to  re- 
quire— such  was  the  aim  and  such  was  the  art 
of  ancient  diplomacy.  The  liomans  professedly 
regarded  all  foreign  nations  as  barbarians,  to  be 
subdued  and  made  tributary  whenever  oppor- 
tunities occurred.  They  made  treaties  and 
formed  alliances,  but  renounced  both  without 
scruple  when  it  became  convenient  to  do  so. 
Christianity  first  elevated  diplomacy  to  a  nobler 
position  by  teaching  the  brotherhood  of  man 
and  of  nations,  within  the  pale  of  the  church  at 
least,  and  by  giving  them  the  supreme  law  of 
the  gospel,  and  finally,  during  the  middle  ages, 
by  recognizing  the  pope  as  the  supreme  head 
and  arbiter  of  the  Christian  commonwealth. 
The  most  ancient  specimens  of  diplomatic  cor- 
respondence which  have  come  down  to  us  are 
those  contained  in  the  Excerpta  Legationum^  vol. 
i.  of  the  Byzantine  historians,  or  the  53d  book 
of  the  great  historical  compilation  made  by  or- 
der of  the  emperor  Constantine  Porphyrogeni- 
tus.  Among  them  is  a  curious  account  of  tho 
embassy  of  Maximin,  a  high  officer  of  the  By- 
zantine court,  who  was  sent  by  the  emperor 
Theodosius,  about  the  middle  of  tho  5th  cen- 
tury, on  a  mission  to  Attila,  the  king  of  the 
Uuns,  who  received  him  in  his  capital  on  the 
banks  of  the  Danube,  at  or  near  the  place  Avhere 
the  city  of  Buda  now  stands.  The  details  of 
this  mission  are  highly  interesting,  and  it  would 
seem  to  have  been  conducted  very  much  in  the 
manner  of  an  embassy  of  modern  times. — In  the 
middle  ages  diplomacy  partook  of  the  general 
rudeness,  and  was  comparatively  crude  and  sim- 
ple. The  relations  of  states  were  not  compli- 
cated, and  little  forethought  for  any  thing  beyond 
immediate  emergencies  seems  to  have  been  ex- 
ercised by  the  statesmen  of  the  period,  except 
by  the  popes,  who  had  almost  constantly  ia 
view  a  well-defined  policy  for  extending  and 
strengthening  their  ecclesiastical  dominion.  It 
is  to  the  Italian  republics  that  we  owe  the  first 
marked  development  of  the  science  of  diplo- 
macy, the  characteristic  of  which  is  that  as  far 
as  possible  it  substitutes  reason  and  intellect  for 
brute  force,  and  teaches  respect  for  justice  and 
the  rights  of  others,  and  is  therefore  peculiarly 
favorable,  when  not  perverted,  to  weak,  unwar- 
like,  and  commercial  states.  The  Italian  repub- 
lics, exposed  to  the  attacks  of  great  military 
monarchies,  cultivated  diplomacy  with  peculiar 
care.  Their  politicians,  conspicuous  among 
whom  was  Macchiavelli,  whose  diplomatic  cor- 
respondence has  been  pronounced  the  finest 
in  existence,  became  celebrated  for  their  un- 
rivalled skill  in  the  science,  and  it  was  long  the 
practice  of  the  greater  states  of  Europe  to  em- 
ploy Italians  in  negotiation,  on  account  of  their 
supposed  peculiar  aptitude  for  the  subtleties 
of  the  profession.  The  ambassadors  of  Venice 
were  especially  famous,  and  the  relations  of 
their  missions  which  they  regularly  made  to 
the  senate  have  a  high  reputation  among  histo- 
rians, for  the  deep  and  accurate  insight  which 


496 


DIPLOMACY 


they  give  into  the  policy  and  maiwiers  and 
characters  of  the  courts  to  which  they  were 
accredited.  Italian  plomacy  was  in  general 
profound,  cautious,  and  unscrupulous.  It  occu- 
pied itself  much  in  forming  combinations  and 
alliances,  and  did  not  disdain  to  buy  or  bribe 
ministers,  confessors,  and  mistresses,  to  corrupt 
generals,  steal  or  forge  documents,  and  some- 
times even  to  employ  poisoning  and  other  forms 
of  assassination  to  accomplish  or  promote  its 
objects.  These  malpractices,  however,  were  not 
confined  to  Italy,  but  characterized  the  diplo- 
macy of  all  Europe  to  as  late  a  period  as  the 
16th  century. — A  great  i'mpulse  Avas  given  to 
diplomacy  by  the  fall  of  the  Byzantine  empire, 
the  invention  of  printing  and  of  gunpowder,  the 
discovery  of  America,  and  the  general  intellec- 
tual development  and  political  fermentation  of 
Europe  in  the  15th  century.  Henry  III,  of 
France  created  the  office  of  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  the  last  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  first 
minister  appointed  to  it  was  Louis  de  Revol,  who 
held  the  post  from  Jan.  1, 1589,  to  Sept.  IT,  1594. 
But  it  is  to  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  of  France 
(1589-1610)  that  the  origin  of  the  modern  system 
of  diplomacy  has  been  traced  by  writers  on  tho 
subject.  That  monarch  was  served  by  distin- 
guished statesmen  and  negotiators,  preeminent 
among  them  the  famous  Sully,  by  whom  the  forms 
and  usages  of  diplomacy  were  brought  to  a  de- 
gree of  perfection  before  unknown.  Diplomacy, 
indeed,  was  a  favorite  instnnnent  with  Henry 
IV.,  who  was  all  his  life  surrounded  by  singular- 
ly delicate  anddiflicult  complications  of  a  mixed 
political  and  religious  character.  He  was  the 
inventor  of  the  system  of  mediations,  which  has 
often  since  been  found  so  convenient  a  mode 
of  averting  war  without  wounding  the  pride  of 
nations.  He  had  great  and  comprehensive  plans 
of  federation  and  for  the  preservation  of  perpet- 
ual peace  among  the  states  of  Europe,  to  effect 
which  he  relied  chiefly  upon  diplomacy.  The 
despatches  of  his  ambassadors  and  ministers  are 
remarkable  for  their  ability,  sagacity,  and  ele- 
vation of  sentiment.  Cardinal  Richelieu  (1624 
-42)  continued  in  the  foreign  policy  of  France 
the  method  of  Henry  IV.,  and  directed  his  di- 
plomacy chiefly  against  the  house  of  Austria. 
He  is  generally  considered  the  founder  of  the 
present  system  of  maintaining  permanent  lega- 
tions at  foreign  courts,  instead  of  sending  spe- 
cial and  transient  embassies,  though  long  before 
his  time  resident  embassies  were  kept  by  the 
Venetians  at  several  courts.  It  was  during  his 
administration  that  French  began  to  supersede 
Latin  as  the  language  of  diplomacy  in  Europe, 
for  whicli  it  is  peculiarly  well  adapted  by  its 
clearness  and  precision.  Diplomacy  greatly  en- 
larged its  field  of  action  in  the  17th  century.  Em- 
bassies were  sant  from  western  Europe  to  coun- 
tries that  had  been  hitherto  out  of  the  pale  of 
civilized  intercourse — to  Russia,  to  Persia,  to 
Siam,  and  to  other  remote  and  barbarous  re- 
gions. The  ambitious  and  warlike  policy  of 
Louis  XIV.  exercised  a  marked  influence  upon 
the  character  of  the  diplomacy  of  his  times. 


Statesmen  occupied  themselves  incessantly  with 
projects  of  aggression  or  defence,  and  with 
forming  or  dissolving  leagues  and  combinations. 
Aspirations  after  universal  emjiire  were  enter- 
tained on  the  one  hand,  and  apprehended  on 
the  other.  Artifices  unknown  to  primitive  di- 
plomacy were  freely  resorted  to,  such  as  secret 
articles  and  separate  articles  in  treaties  ;  and  it 
has  been  suspected  that  even  sham  treaties 
were  promulgated  to  mislead  or  blind  tlie  gen- 
eral public.  This  period  is  also  remarkable  for 
the  number  of  its  treaties  for  the  regulation  of 
commerce  and  navigation. — During  the  period 
between  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713)  and  the 
beginning  of  the  French  revolution  (1789)  the 
diplomacy  of  Europe  assumed  an  aspect  very 
different  from  that  of  the  preceding  century. 
Exhausted  by  foreign  and  civil  wars,  the  nations 
longed  for  repose.  France  and  Austria  saw 
themselves  counterbalanced,  and  their  dreams 
of  universal  dominion  dissipated,  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  new  powers  on  the  stage.  Russia 
and  Prussia  took  their  place  in  the  front 
rank  of  European  nations,  while  Great  Britain 
acquired  the  mastery  of  the  seas,  and  devel- 
oped prodigiously  her  commerce,  industry,  and 
internal  resources.  This  was  an  age  of  intel- 
lectual and  moral  revolutions,  which  preceded 
and  prepared  the  stupendous  political  revolu- 
tions that  marked  the  latter  part  of  the  cen- 
tury. New  ideas,  new  opinions,  new  motives, 
gained  admission,  and  acquired  predominant 
influence  in  the  minds  of  the  ruling  classes  of 
Europe,  especially  in  France,  Germany,  and 
England.  The  extension  of  commerce  and  the 
growth  of  colonies  in  America,  Africa,  and  the 
East  Indies,  led  to  the  remodelling  of  a  branch 
of  diplomatic  service,  the  consular  system,  and 
to  its  restriction  within  nearly  its  present  limits. 
— The  French  revolution  and  the  long  wars 
that  sprung  from  it  wrought  a  great  change  in 
the  materials  and  tendencies  of  diplomacy,  by 
sweeping  from  the  map  of  Europe  a  number  of 
effete  states,  by  raising  up  gigantic  combinations 
against  Napoleon  and  against  the  revolutionary 
spirit,  and  by  converting  the  current  of  events 
in  Europe  from  a  mere  contest  for  supremacy 
between  monarchs  into  a  conflict  of  antagonis- 
tic principles,  and  a  desperate  struggle  for  ex- 
istence on  the  part  of  the  royal  and  privileged 
families  against  the  increasing  intelligence  and 
aspirations  of  the  people.  In  1815  the  diplor 
macy  of  the  great  continental  powers  sought  to 
strengthen  itself  against  revolution  by  assuming 
the  cloak  of  sanctity,  by  forming  the  holy  alli- 
ance, the  object  of  which  Avas  to  maintain  AAdiat 
was  called  legitimacy,  to  keep  things  as  they 
were,  to  regulate  as  one  family  the  Christian 
states  of  Europe,  and  especially  to  check  the  ten- 
dencies of  the  smaller  kingdoms  toward  consti- 
tutional government.  The  diplomatists  of  this 
period  were  remarkable  for  ability  and  for  the 
world-wide  celebrity  that  some  of  them  attained, 
as  the  Frenchman  Talleyrand,  the  Austrian  Met- 
ternich,  and  the  Russian  Nesselrode.  Several 
very  memorable  congresses  of  diplomatists  also 


DIPLOMACY 


DIPTERA 


497 


distlnguislied  this  period,  such  as  that  at  Vienna 
(1814),  at  Aix  la  Cliapelle  (1818),  at  Troppau 
(1820),  at  Laybacli  (1821),  and  at  Verona  (1822). 
Tiio  rapid  decay  of  the  Turkisli  empire,  and 
the  changes  made  in  it  by  the  sej)aration  of 
Greece  and  the  long  revolt  of  the  pasha  of 
Egypt,  together  with  the  audjitious  designs 
of  Russia,  have  opened  a  new  and  wide  field  to 
European  diplomacy  since  1820,  whicii  has 
been  still  further  enlarged  by  the  renewal  of 
revolutionary  outbreaks  in  1848,  and  the  revival 
of  the  French  empire  in  the  person  of  Louis 
Napoleon  in  1852.  The  prodigious  growth  of 
the  United  States  of  America  during  the  same 
period  has  also  introduced  a  new  and  pecu- 
liar element  into  diplomacy,  by  raising  to  the 
position  of  a  power  of  tlie  first  rank  a  repub- 
lic which  does  not  acquiesce  in  all  the  princi- 
ples of  international  law  established  by  the 
monarchies  of  Europe,  and  holds  itself  en- 
tirely aloof  from  the  sphere  of  their  traditional 
policy.  In  practice,  the  diplomacy  of  the  United 
States,  inaugurated  by  Franklin,  Adams,  Jay, 
and  Jefferson,  has  maintained  an  honorable  repu- 
tation for  directness,  intelligence,  and  success, 
though,  unlike  all  other  civilized  governments, 
the  republic  does  not  maintain  a  regularly 
trained  corps  of  diplomatic  agents  especially 
educated  for  and  devoted  to  the  profession. 
Among  the  most  striking  instances  of  the  suc- 
cess of  American  diplomacy  may  be  meutioued 
the  negotiations  conducted  by  Commodore 
Perry  aad  Mr.  Townsend  Harris,  which  have 
resulted  in  opening  Japan  to  the  commerce  of 
tho  world.  More  recently  the  chief  exertions 
of  American  diplomacy  have  been  directed  to 
tlie  condition  and  destiny  of  the  island  of  Cuba 
and  of  the  Spanish  American  republics.  A  lino 
of  policy  in  these  quarters,  marked  by  novel 
and  decided  features,  was  shaped  out  under  the 
administration  of  President  Pierce,  and  con- 
tinued by  President  Buchanan,  of  which  the 
fullest  expositions  are  contained  in  the  document 
commonly  called  the  Ostend  manifesto,  though 
it  was  actually  issued  from  Aix  la  Chapello 
(1854),  and  the  annual  message  of  President 
Buchanan  in  1858. — The  superintendence  of  the 
diplomatic  relations  of  a  country  is  in  modern 
times,  and  among  civilized  nations,  generally 
intrusted  to  a  jiarticular  oflicer  of  state,  who, 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  is  usually  styled 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  (in  some  instances  the 
prime  minister  is  at  tbe  same  time  minister  of 
foreign  affairs) ;  in  England,  the  secretary  of 
state  for  foreign  affairs ;  in  the  United  States, 
simply  the  secretary  of  state.  The  appointment 
of  diplomatic  agents  belongs  to  the  executive, 
though  in  the  United  States  the  appointment 
must  be  confirmed  by  the  senate.  The  highest 
grade  of  diplomatic  agent  is  that  of  ambassador. 
In  the  diplomacy  of  the  Roman  Catholic  states 
of  Europe  the  legates  and  nuncios  of  the  pope 
take  rank  with  the  highest  class.  The  second 
grade  of  diplomatic  agents  includes  envoys,  or- 
dinary and  extraordinary,  ministers  plenipoten- 
tiary, the  internuncios  of  the  pope,  and  all  agents 
VOL.  VI. — 3  2 


accredited  directly  to  sovereigns.  The  third  or- 
der of  diplomatic  agents,  charges  d'afthircs,  are, 
with  few  exceptions,  accredited  not  to  the  sov- 
ereign of  the  country  to  Avhich  they  are  sent, 
but  to  the  department  of  foreign  affairs.  The 
diplomatic  agents  of  the  United  States  are 
classed,  by  act  of  congress,  185G,  as  ambassa- 
dors, envoys  extraordinary  and  ministers  pleni- 
potentiary, ministers  resident,  commissioners, 
and  charges  d'affaires.  Consuls-general  and 
consuls  are  also  sometimes  invested  with  diplo- 
matic powers  in  countries  where  the  United 
States  have  no  other  authorized  representatives. 
— See  Marten,  Precis  du  droit  des  genHmodcrnes 
de  VEuroj)e  (new  edition,  Paris,  1857). 

DIPLOMATICS,  the  science  of  the  knowledge 
of  ancient  documents,  and  esi)ecially  of  their  age 
and  authenticity.  The  charters  of  grants  from 
sovereigns  to  individuals  and  corporations  were 
formerly  called  diplomas,  and  the  word  is  applied 
to  all  letters,  documents,  and  pieces  of  writing  of 
a  public  nature  that  have  come  down  to  us  from 
the  middle  ages  and  the  subsequent  centuries. 
The  public  documents  of  the  ancients,  that  is 
to  say,  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  have  per- 
ished, except  such  as  were  inscribed  on  stone 
or  metal.  But  a  vast  mass  of  MSS.  of  the  mid- 
dle ages  exists  in  Europe,  whose  dates  and 
authenticity  can  only  be  settled  by  careful  and 
skilful  investigation.  The  quality  of  the  parch- 
ment or  paper,  and  of  the  ink,  and  the  style  of 
the  handwriting,  afford  the  means  which  are 
relied  ujjou  by  those  versed  in  the  science  of 
diplomatics  to  determine  the  age  of  the  docu- 
ment. Formerly  ink  was  made  of  soot,  and  red 
ink  made  of  vermilion  was  sometimes  used. 
Those  wlio  apply  themselves  to  the  study  of 
diplomatics  can  easily  distinguish  the  ink  and 
the  parchment  and  paper  of  one  epoch  from 
those  of  another.  The  variations  in  handwrit- 
ing are  also  so  great  that  by  the  character  alone 
it  is  possible  to  pronounce  within  40  or  50 
years  when  any  diploma  was  written.  In 
Europe  the  study  of  diplomatics  has  been  much 
cultivated.  The  standard  book  of  reference  on 
the  subject  is  the  Nouveau  traite  do  diploma- 
tique^ par  deux  Benedictiri^  (G  vols.  4to.,  Paris, 
1Y50). 

DIPTERA  (Gr.  bis,  twice,  and  ivrepov,  wing), 
an  order  of  insects,  containing  the  fly,  mos- 
quito, &c.,  characterized  by  2  wings,  2  knobbed 
threads  (halteres,  balancers  or  poisers)  behind 
the  wings,  and  a  horny  or  fleshy  proboscis. 
They  undergo  a  complete  transformation ;  the 
larva3,  usually  called  maggots,  have  no  feet, 
and  have  the  breathing  holes  generally  in  tho 
posterior  part  of  the  body ;  the  pupa3  or  nymphs 
are  either  incased  in  the  dried  skin  of  the  larva?, 
or  naked,  showing  the  wings  and  legs  free  and 
unconfined.  The  head  is  large,  globular,  con- 
nected with  the  body  by  a  very  slender  neck, 
and  is  capable  of  a  considerable  pivot-like  mo- 
tion ;  the  greater  part,  especially  in  the  males, 
is  occupied  by  the  brilliant  compound  eyes,  the 
single  ocelli,  when  they  exist,  being  on  the  top 
of  the  head.    Under  the  head  is  the  proboscis 


498 


DIPTERA 


or  sucker,  which  in  some  kinds  can  be  drawn  np 
and  concealed  in  the  mouth ;  it  consists  of  a 
long  channel,  ending  in  2  fleshy  lips,  and  enclos- 
ing on  its  upper  side  from  2  to  6  lino  bristles, 
sharp  as  needles,  and  making  the  punctures 
so  familiarly  known  in  the  case  of  mosquito 
bites ;  as  this  apparatus  takes  the  place  of  the 
jaws  of  other  insects,  these  wounds  may  prop- 
erly be  called  bites.  The  saliva  which  flows 
into  the  wounds  causes  the  well-known  swell- 
ing and  itching,  the  irritation  in  some  skins 
amounting  to  inflammation.  The  sheath  serves 
to  maintain  the  lancets  in  position,  and  the  lat- 
ter having  made  their  punctures  form  a  groove 
along  which  the  vegetable  or  animal  fluids  rise 
by  the  suctorial  power  of  the  insect  and  the 
force  of  capillary  attraction.  In  tiie  flies  which 
only  lap  their  food  the  proboscis  is  large  and 
fleshy.  The  antenno9  in  the  gnats  are  long  and 
many-jointed,  in  the  flies  short  and  thick,  at  the 
base  of  the  proboscis.  The  wings  are  generally 
horizontal,  delicate,  with  many  simple  veins  in 
them ;  tlie  posterior  wings  are  metamorphosed 
into  the  balancers  or  poisers.  Some  entomolo- 
gists, as  Latreille,  think  the  poisers  do  not  cor- 
respond to  posterior  wings,  but  are  vesicular 
appendages  connected  with  the  posterior  respi- 
ratory tracheas  of  the  chest.  Just  behind  the 
wing  joints,  and  in  front  of  the  jjoisers,  are  2 
small  convex  scales,  opening  and  shutting  with 
the  wings,  and  called  winglets.  The  thorax  is 
often  the  hardest  part  of  the  insect,  composed 
principally  of  the  intermediate  mesothorax. 
The  abdomen  is  not  always  united  to  the  thorax 
by  the  whole  of  its  posterior  diameter,  and  in 
many  females  ends  in  a  retractile  jointed  ovi- 
positor by  which  the  eggs  are  deposited.  The 
legs,  6  in  number,  are  usually  long  and  slender, 
with  5  articulate  tarsi  and  2  claws  at  the  end, 
beside  2  or  3  little  cushion-like  expansions,  by 
means  of  which  they  are  able  to  ascend  the 
smoothest  surfaces  and  to  walk  with  the  back 
downward  with  perfect  security.  According  to 
Marcel  de  Serres,  the  dorsal  vessel  (the  heart)  in 
diptera  is  narrow  and  its  pulsations  frequent. 
Respiration  in  the  adult  is  carried  on  by  vesic- 
ular and  tubular  trachea}.  The  nervous  system 
consists  of  an  aggregate  of  cerebral  ganglia,  and 
in  some  of  9  other  ganglia,  3  in  the  thorax  and  6 
in  the  abdomen,  connected  by  longitudinal  sim- 
ple commissures  or  cords  ;  the  larva3  have  usu- 
ally one  more  pair  of  ganglia  than  the  adults, 
and  have  the  commissures  often  double.  The 
proboscis  being  the  transformed  under  lip,  often 
geniculate,  the  perforating  bristles  may  be  re- 
garded as  maxilla),  mandibles,  and  tongue.  In 
those  larvaa  which  have  a  distinct  head,  as  in 
the  mosquito,  the  jaws  are  arranged  for  masti- 
cation, though  some  of  the  pieces  are  wanting ; 
but  in  the  acephalous  maggots  the  mouth  is 
suctorial.  Communicating  with  the  gullet  is  a 
thin-walled  vesicle,  the  sucking  stomach,  in 
which  the  fluids  swallowed  are  temporarily 
deposited ;  the  stomach  proper  is  long  and  nar- 
row, and  makes  many  convolutions  in  the  ab- 
domen.    The  end  of  the   intestine  is    short, 


muscular,  and  pyriforra.  The  uriniferous  ves- 
sels are  long,  and  generally  4  in  number,  open- 
ing into  the  lower  extremity  of  the  stomach ; 
the  ovaries  consist  usually  of  numerous  short  3 
or  4-chambered  tubes,  terminating  in  a  short  or 
a  convoluted  oviduct ;  the  testicles  are  2,  simple, 
and  generally  of  an  oval  or  pyriform  shape, 
with  long  vasa  deferentia  ending  in  the  ejacu- 
latory  duct  in  common  with  2  simple  accessory 
mucous  glands,  and  with  horny  valves  envelop- 
ing the  projecting  copulatory  organ.  The  larvas, 
or  maggots,  are  without  legs,  generally  whitish, 
and  vary  exceedingly  in  form  and  habits ;  the 
larva3  of  the  mosquito  are  aquatic,  breathing 
with  the  head  downward  through  the  tubular 
tail  surrounded  with  feather-like  appendages, 
and  the  pupas  tumble  about  in  water  by  means 
of  2  oval  fins.  These  larvre,  and  those  of  most 
flies  which  have  4  or  6  bristles  in  the  proboscis, 
have  a  distinct  horny  head,  and  cast  their  skins 
to  become  pupte,  which  are  generally  of  a 
brownish  color ;  many  have  thorns  and  prickles 
on  the  body  by  which  they  work  their  way  out 
of  their  coverings ;  a  few  cover  themselves  with 
silken  webs  and  spin  cocoons.  The  larvfe  of 
other  flies,  with  a  soft  retractile  head,  linng  by 
suction,  increase  rapidly  in  size,  and  change 
their  form  without  casting  off  their  skins,  which 
shorten  and  harden,  forming  a  case  within  which 
the  larva  changes  into  a  pupa,  which  comes 
forth  a  fly  by  forcing  o&  one  end  of  the  case. 
Though  this  order  contains  the  bloodthirsty 
mosquito,  the  disgusting  flesh  fly,  and  many  in- 
sects depositing  their  eggs  in  the  bodies  of  liv- 
ing animals,  it  is  a  most  useful  one,  supplying 
food  to  insectivorous  birds,  and  themselves  con- 
suming decomposing  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances which  would  otherwise  infect  the  air. 
Their  life  in  the  perfect  state  is  short,  very  few 
surviving  the  rigor  of  winter.  Among  the 
genera  with  many-jointed  antennas  the  follow- 
ing are  the  most  interesting  and  best  known  : 
Culex  (Linn.),  containing  the  well-known  gnats 
and  mosquitoes,  whose  larvfe  and  pup;o  are  so 
coHimon  in  stagnant  water,  called  wigglers  and 
tumblers,  and  whoso  adult  females  pierce  with 
their  lancets  and  annoy  by  their  nocturnal  hum 
the  human  race  from  Lapland  to  the  tropics ; 
the  best  known  species  are  the  G.  2^ipi-cns  of 
Europe,  and  the  G.  Arncricaniis  of  this  country, 
which  is  probably  distinct.  The  genus  cecido- 
myia  (Latr.)  includes  many  species  interesting 
to  the  agriculturist,  as  the  Hessian  fly  (G.  de- 
structor. Say),  the  wheat  fly  {G.  tritici,  Kirby), 
the  willow  gall-fly  ( G.  salicis,  Fitch),  injurious  iu 
the  larva  state.  The  genus  tijmla  (Linn.),  espe- 
cially the  T.  oleracea  (Linn.),  commonly  known 
in  England  by  the  name  of  Harry  Long-legs,  is 
noted  for  its  depredations  in  the  larva  condition 
on  the  tender  roots  of  meadow  plants.  In  the 
genus  simulmm  (Latr.)  are  the  black  fly  and  the 
midges  of  the  northern  parts  of  this  country ; 
the  black  fly  {S.  molestum,  Harris)  fills  the  air 
during  the  month  of  June  in  Canada  and  the 
northern  states ;  it  flies  in  the  daytime,  and  is 
60  savage  that  every  bite  draws  blood,  in  some 


DIPTERA 


49D 


skins  accomp.anied  by  considerable  irritation ; 
it  is  black,  with  transparent  wings,  and  about 
~,y  of  an  inch  long.  After  continuing  through 
June,  it  is  followed  by  another  species  {S.  noci- 
xv.m,  Harris),  called  "  no-see-'eni "  by  the  In- 
dians of  Maine  from  their  minuteness  ;  they 
come  forth  toward  evening,  creep  under  any 
kind  of  garment,  and  produce  a  sharp,  fiery  pain 
without  drawing  blood ;  they  are  very  trouble- 
some to  travellers  and  new  settlers  in  July  and 
August.  Among  those  with  few  joints  in  the 
antemina  is  the  genus  tnhanus  (Linn.),  which  con- 
tains the  large  horse  flies,  as  the  T.  iovimis 
(Linn.),  of  a  dark  brown  color,  and  an  inch  long, 
common  in  Europe,  where  there  are  more  tlian 
40  other  species ;  the  most  common  of  the 
American  species  are  the  7'.  atratus  (Fabr.),  of  a 
black  color,  with  a  whitish  bloom  on  the  back ; 
the  eyes  are  very  large,  of  a  shining  black  color, 
with  2  jet-black  bands  across  them;  it  is  about 
an  inch  long,  with  an  expanse  of  wings  of  2 
inches ;  the  orange-belted  horse  tly  (  T.  cinctus, 
Fabr.)  is  smaller  and  less  common,  black,  with 
the  first  3  rings  of  the  body  orange ;  a  smaller 
species  is  the  T.  lineola  (Fabr.),  with  a  whitish 
line  along  the  top  of  the  hind  body.  In  the 
summer  these  flies  are  very  troublesome  to  cat- 
tle and  horses,  being  able  to  pierce  through 
the  thickest  hide  with  their  6-armed  proboscis; 
a  strong  decoction  of  walnut  leaves  applied  as  a 
wash  is  said  to  keep  them  off.  The  golden-eyed 
forest  flies  (chrysojis,  Meig.)  are  known  by  their 
brilliant  spotted  eyes  and  their  banded  wings ; 
smaller  than  horse  flies,  they  resemble  them  in 
their  habits,  frequenting  woods  and  thickets  in 
July  and  Aug>ist ;  some  are  wholly  black, 
others  striped  with  black  and  yellow.  The 
bee  fly  (homhylius  cequalis,  Fabr.)  flies  with  great 
swiftness  through  sunny  paths  in  the  woods, 
hovering  over  flowers  and  sucking  their  honey, 
like  humming  birds;  it  is  about  f  of  an  inch 
long,  shaped  like  a  humble-bee,  and  covered 
with  yellowish  hairs;  the  expanse  of  the  wings 
is  about  an  inch;  they  are  divided  longitudi- 
nally into  2  equal  parts  by  the  colors,  the  outer 
half  being  dark  brown  and  the  inner  colorless. 
Among  the  flies  which  prey  on  other  insects, 
seizing  them  on  the  wing  or  on  plants,  is  the 
genus  midus  (Latr.),  of  which  the  orange-banded 
species  (M.  Jilatus,  Fabr.)  is  sometimes  1|^  inches 
long  and  2J  inches  in  expanse  of  wings ;  the 
general  color  is  black  ;  it  frequents  the  woods 
in  July  and  August,  where  it  may  be  often  seen 
flying  or  basking  in  the  sun  ;  the  larva  is  a  cy- 
lindrical maggot,  growing  to  the  length  of  2 
inches;  the  pupa  measures  IJ  inches  in  length, 
is  of  a  brown  color,  with  forked  tail,  8  thorns 
on  the  fore  part  of  the  body,  and  numerous 
sharp  teeth  on  the  edges  of  the  abdominal  rings ; 
it  pushes  itself  half  out  of  its  hole  when  the  fly 
is  about  to  come  forth.  The  genera  laphria 
(Fabr.)  and  asilns  (Linn.)  are  also  predaceous  in 
the  winged  state ;  in  the  former  the  antennae 
are  blunt  at  the  end,  in  the  latter  slender-point- 
ed ;  the  former  resemble  large  humble-bees  in 
their  thick  and  heavy  bodies  and  legs ;   in  the 


larva  state  these  asilians  live  in  the  ground, 
wliere  they  do  much  mischief  to  the  roots  of 
plants.  The  soldier  flies  (stratiomyfM)  have  2 
spines  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  thorax;  tlie 
proboscis  contains  only  4  bristles,  and  ends  with 
fleshy  lips  adapted  for  sucking  vegetable  juiqes ; 
they  are  fond  of  wet  places,  and  their  larvas 
live  in  stagnant  pools,  some  thrusting  theu' 
breathing  tube  out  of  the  water;  they  undergo 
transformation  within  the  hardened  larval  skin. 
The  genus  stratiomys  ((Teoff.)  has  a  broad  oval 
body,  of  a  dark  color,  with  yellow  markings  on 
each  side,  and  the  anteanaj  somewhat  spindle- 
shaped.  The  genus  sargns  (Fabr.)  is  said  to 
have  no  spines  on  the  thorax,  a  slender  body, 
of  a  brilliant  grass-green  color,  about  \  an  inch 
long,  with  a  bristle  on  the  end  of  the  antennaij. 
These  insects  delighj  in  sunny  weather,  being 
dull  and  inactive  in  cloudy  days ;  the  larvce  are 
found  in  dung  and  rich  mould.  The  syriyhidm 
have  also  a  fleshy  proboscis,  and  live  on  the 
honey  of  flowers;  they  resemble  bees,  wasps, 
and  hornets  in  the  shape  and  colors  of  their 
bodies,  and  they  sometimes  lay  their  eggs  in  the 
nests  of  these  insects ;  others  drop  their  ova 
among  plant  lice,  which  the  young  eagerly  feed 
upon.  The  larvje  of  the  genus  helophilus  (ileig.) 
were  named  by  Reamnur  rat-tailed  maggots, 
from  the  great  length  of  their  tubular  tails,  which 
serve  as  respiratory  organs;  the  experiments  of 
Reaumur  show  that  while  the  insect  lies  con- 
cealed in  mud,  its  respiratory  tube  may  r6ach 
5  inches  to  the  surface  of  the  water  ;  it  seems 
to  be  composed  of  2  portions,  which  slide  one 
into  the  other  hke  the  joints  of  a  telescope ; 
some  of  the  larva)  of  this  family  live  in  rotten 
wood.  The  family  conopidm  resemble  slender- 
bodied  wasps;  the  antennse  are  long  and  3- 
jointed;  the  proboscis  long,  slender,  and  genic- 
ulate. The  genus  conops  (Linn.)  is  generally  of 
a  black  color,  and  about  ^  an  inch  long  ;  more 
than  20  species  are  described,  usually  found  on 
flowers  in  June  and  July,  but  not  in  large  num- 
bers ;  the  females  deposit  tlieir  eggs  in  the 
larvfo  and  the  perfect  insects  of  the  humble-bee, 
in  whose  bodies  their  young  undergo  metamor- 
phosis. The  common  stable  fly  belongs  to  the 
genus  stomoxys  (Fabr.) ;  the  flesh  fly  to  the  genus 
sarcophaga  Qleig.) ;  the  house  fly  and  the  meat 
fly  to  the  genus  musca  (Linn.) ;  the  flower  flies 
to  the  genus  anthomyia  (Meig.) ;  the  cheese  fly 
to  the  genus  piophila  (Fallen.) ;  the  dung  fly  to 
the  genus  scafophaga  (Meig.) ;  the  fruit  and  gall 
flies  to  the  genera  o rtal is  (FaWen.)  and  tephritis 
(Latr.) ;  these  will  be  described  in  tlie  article  Flt. 
The  gadflies  or  hot  flies,  comprising  the  genera 
ce-striis  (Linn.)  and  gasterophilus  (Leach),  aSect- 
ing  respectively  the  ox  and  the  horse,  will  be 
described  under  Gadfly.  Various  winged  and 
wingless  ticks,  infesting  the  horse,  sheep,  and 
birds,  belonging  to  the  order  of  diptera,  but 
forming  with  the  spider  flies  the  order  horacu- 
lop>tei'a  of  Leach  and  the  English  entomologists, 
will  be  treated  in  the  article  Tick;  they  in- 
clude the  genera  hippol/osca  (Linn.),  vielopTia- 
gus  (Latr,),  and  ornithorayia  (Latr.). — At  the 


500 


DIPTYCHA 


DIRECTORY 


end  of  tliis  order  may  be  mentioned  the  genus 
nycteribia  (Latr.),  the  spider  fly,  a  wingless 
insect  resembling  a  spider  ;  the  small  head 
seems  a  mere  tubercle  on  the  anterior  and  dor- 
sal portion  of  the  thorax  ;  the  eyes  are  like 
minute  grains;  the  thorax  is  semicircular;  the 
antennaj  are  extremely  short,  inserted  close 
together,  and  immediately  in  front  of  the  eyes. 
This  genus  nestle  in  the  hair  of  bats,  among 
which  they  move  with  great  rapidity ;  according 
to  Col.  Montagu,  when  they  suck  tlie  blood  of 
bats  they  are  obliged  to  place  themselves  on 
their  backs  on  account  of  ■the  dorsal  position  of 
the  head.  This  last  division  of  the  dlptera  is 
not  produced  from  eggs  deposited  in  the  usual 
manner,  but  the  larva  is  hatched  and  developed 
within  the  body  of  the  mother,  and  is  not  bora 
till  it  arrives  at  the  state  of  i)upa ;  hence  these 
genera  have  been  called  j!)?/^j/^jrt.ra  by  Latreille ; 
the  pupa  when  born  is  nearly  as  large  as  the 
parent,  enclosed  in  a  cocoon,  the  altered  skin  of 
the  larva  at  first  soft  and  white,  but  soon  grow- 
ing hard  and  brown  ;  it  is  notched  at  one  end, 
where  the  mature  insect  escapes.  The  order  of 
diptera  makes  up  for  the  small  size  of  its  mem- 
bers by  their  countless  swarms. 

DIPTYCHA  (Gr.  Str,  twice,  and  tttv^,  fold, 
tablet),  registers  used  during  the  first  Christi^m 
centuries,  formed  of  2  tablets  of  wood  or  ivory, 
upon  which  were  inscribed  the  names  of  those 
most  distinguished  in  church  and  state.  They 
were  thus  of  2  kinds,  the  sacred  and  profane.  On 
the  former  were  catalogued  the  names  of  popes, 
bishops,  martyrs,  founders  of  religious  establish- 
ments, and  in  general  all  benefactors  of  the  clergy. 
The  names  of  the  living  were  on  one  side  of  the 
tablet,  and  of  the  dead  on  the  Other.  It  was  the 
deacon's  office  to  recite  these  names  during  the 
service.  The  profane  diptycha  belonged  espe- 
cially to  the  consular  dignity,  and  upon  their 
tablets  were  engraved  the  name  and  titles  of  the 
consul,  and  also  animals  and  gladiators  as  sym- 
bols of  the  games  which  he  was  going  to  ex- 
hibit to  the  public  in  entering  upon  his  duties. 
Every  consul  after  his  nomination  had  several 
of  these  diptycha,  which  he  distributed  among 
his  principal  officers,  as  modern  princes  some- 
times send  their  portraits  to  privileged  favorites. 

DIRECTORY,  Executive  (Fr.  directoire  exe- 
cutif),  the  name  given  to  the  executive  govern- 
ment of  the  first  French  republic  by  the  constitu- 
tion of  Fructidor,  year  III.  (Aug.  1795).  This 
constitution  was  framed  by  the  moderate  repub- 
lican party,  whose  influence  prevailed  in  the 
convention  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre  and  the 
committee  of  public  safety,  and  was  adopted  in 
the  primary  assemblies  of  the  people.  The  leg- 
islative power  was  vested  by  it  in  2  assemblies, 
the  council  of  500,  and  the  council  of  ancients, 
which  numbered  half  as  many  members,  aged 
at  least  40.  Both  were  chosen  by  graduated 
elections,  and  ^  of  each  were  renewed  every 
year.  The  former  had  exclusively  the  right  of 
proposing  laws,  the  latter  that  of  sanctioning 
them.  The  judicial  authority  was  committed 
to  elective  judges.    The  executive  directory 


consisted  of  5  members,  and  was  chosen  one 
each  year  by  the  council  of  ancients  from  a  list 
of  candidates  presented  by  that  of  500.  The 
directory  promulgated  the  laws  and  enforced 
their  execution,  appointed  the  ministers  and 
other  principal  functionaries  of  the  state,  had 
the  management  of  the  military  and  naval  forces, 
finances,  and  foreign  aflairs,  and  the  right  of 
repelling  bostUities,  though  not  of  declaring 
war.  The  directors  received  a  large  salary,  the 
palace  of  the  Luxembourg  as  their  residence,  and 
a  guard  of  240  men.  They  were  responsible,  de- 
cided questions  by  a  majority  vote,  and  presided 
by  turns  3  months  each,  the  presiding  member 
having  the  signature  and  the  seal.  During  their 
term  of  oflice  none  of  them  could  liave  a  per- 
sonal command,  or  absent  himself  for  longer 
than  5  days  from  the  place  where  the  councils 
held  their  sessions,  without  their  permission ; 
and  after  they  had  left  ofiiee  they  could  hold  no 
command  for  2  years,  nor  be  reelected  for  5. 
In  those  days  of  violent  struggles  at  home  and 
abroad,  the  balance  of  power  established  by 
this  constitution  excited  antagonism  between 
the  difierent  branches  of  the  government,  and 
usurpations  followed  as  a  natural  consequence. 
The  convention  decreed,  by  a  law  not  included 
in  the  constitution,  that  in  the  first  election  | 
of  the  members  of  the  2  councils  should  be 
chosen  from  its  own  body.  This  arbitrary  act 
led  to  violent  agitations  in  Paris,  and  finally  to 
an  insurrection  of  the  royalist  sections  on  the 
13th  Vendemiaire  (Oct.  5,  1795),  which  was 
suppressed  by  Barras  and  Bonaparte.  The  con- 
vention having  held  its  closing  session  on  Oct. 
26,  the  2  councils  held  their  iirst  on  the  28th, 
and  on  JSTow  1  elected  Barras,  Lareveilliere- 
Lepeaux,  Rewbell,  Letourneur,  and  Carnot,  as 
directors,  all  of  whom  had  voted  for  the  death 
of  Louis  XVI.  Their  first  proclamation,  writ- 
ten on  a  broken  table  in  a  destitute  room  of  the 
Luxembourg,  promised  a  firm  rule,  and  inspired 
confidence ;  and  in  spite  of  the  exhausted  po- 
sition of  the  state,  the  terrible  depreciation  of 
the  currency,  the  destitution  of  the  army,  and  a 
pressing  famine,  trade,  speculation,  and  even  lux- 
ury soon  revived.  The  democratic  and  commu- 
nistic conspiracy  of  Babeuf  was  easily  suppressed 
(May,  1796).  Carnot  organized  the  armies,  and 
directed  their  movements  and  victories;  Moreau 
received  the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine, 
Jourdan  that  of  the  Sambre  and  Meuse  ;  Hoche 
suppressed  the  insurrection  in  the  Vendee,  and 
Bonaparte  conquered  Italy.  But  the  elections 
of  tlie  year  V.  (May,  1797)  gave  the  royalists  a 
preponderance  in  the  councils,  which  was  sup- 
ported by  the  minority  of  the  directory,  while 
Barras,  Lareveilliere,  and  Rewbell  sided  with 
the  minority  in  the  legislative  bodies.  The 
movements  of  the  royalists  became  more  and 
more  threatening,  when  the  majority  of  the 
directors  agreed  to  save  the  republic  by  an 
act  of  violence.  This  was  executed  witli  the 
aid  of  the  army  on  the  18th  Fructidor  (Sept. 
4,  1797).  More  than  50  members  of  the  2 
councils,  with  Carnot  and  Bartheiemy,  who  had 


DIS 


DISCIPLES 


501 


replaced  Letournenr,  and  a  number  of  other 
inlluential  persons,  were  condemned  to  trans- 
portation, and  a  persecution  of  both  royahsts 
and  anarchists  was  commenced.  Merlin  of 
Douai  and  Fran(,^ois  of  Neufchateau  were  sub- 
stituted for  the  2  proscribed  directors,  of  whom 
Carnot  escaped  to  Germany.  Saved  by  the 
army  of  the  interior,  the  republican  rule  was 
maintained  by  the  victories  and  extortions  of 
the  armies  abroad.  The  treaty  of  Cainpo  For- 
mio  was  concluded  ;  Switzerland  and  tlic  states 
of  the  church  were  overrun  and  revolutionized ; 
Bona[)arte  was  sent  to  Egypt  to  attack  indirectly 
England,  the  only  remaining  enemy  of  the  re- 
public. But  the  extreme  revolutionary  party 
carried  the  elections  for  the  year  VI.  (May,  1798), 
a  part  of  which  were  annulled  by  another  vio- 
lation of  the  constitution.  A  new  coalition 
against  France  was  formed.  Tiio  state  was  ex- 
hausted and  avowedly  bankrupt.  Switzerland 
and  Italy  were  lost  as  rapidly  as  won,  Tlie  re- 
publicans, too,  were  impatient  of  the  dictatorial 
rule  of  the  directory,  in  which  Treilhard  had 
replaced  Frangois,  and  Sieyes,  an  enemy  of  the 
directorial  constitution,  was  now  elected  (May 
16, 1798)  instead  of  Rewbell.  Finally  the  coun- 
cils, having  declared  themselves  permanent, 
compelled  Treilhard,  Merlin,  and  Lareveilliere 
to  resign  on  the  30th  Prairial  (June  18,  1799). 
Barras  saved  his  office  by  the  desertion  of  his 
associates,  and  maintained  himself  with  Sieyes 
and  the  3  new  directors,  Gohier,  Moulins,  and 
Roger  Ducos,  till  the  18th  Brumaire  (N^ov.  9, 
1799),  when  Bonaparte,  suddenly  returning  from 
Egypt,  by  a  bold  coup  cVetat  overthrew  the  di- 
rectory and  the  constitution,  and  became  master 
of  France  under  the  title  of  consul.  The  direc- 
tory ruled  France  4  years  and  a  few  days,  and 
had  altogether  13  members,  of  whom  only  Bar- 
ras officiated  during  tlie  whole  period. 

DIS,  a  contraction  of  dkcs^  rich,  the  Latin 
name  of  Pluto  (the  giver  of  wealth),  and  hence 
sometimes  of  the  lower  world.  He  was  espe- 
cially worshipped  among  the  Gauls,  who  be- 
lieved themselves  his  descendants,  and  therefore 
reckoned  their  time  by  nights  instead  of  days. 

DISCIPLES,  Chueoh  of  the.  The  religious 
body,  variously  designated  as  "Disciples  of 
Christ,"  "  Christians,"  the  "  Church  of  Christ," 
&c.,  resulted  from  an  effort  to  efYect  union 
among  the  Protestant  denominations  in  western 
Pennsylvania.  In  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  several  religious  movements  for  this 
purpose  occurred  in  different  parts  of  the  United 
States,  independently  of  each  other,  and  with- 
out preconcert.  The  one  which  gave  hnmediate 
origin  and  distinctive  character  to  the  body 
now  known  as  "Disciples,"  was  initiated  in 
1809  by  Thomas  Campbell,  a  preacher  of  piety 
and  distinction  among  the  Seceders,  aided  by  his 
son  Alexander,  to  whose  ability  and  energy  its 
successful  progress  is  mainly  attributed,  and  by 
whom  it  has  been  chiefly  directed.  The  original 
purpose  was  to  heal,  if  possible,  the  divisions  of 
teligious  society,  and  to  develop  and  establish 
a  common  basis   of  Christian  union.     It  was 


thought  that  these  desirable  objects  could  be  at- 
tained by  taking  tlie  Bible  alone  as  a  guide,  and 
its  express  teacliings  as  the  only  authoritative 
standard  of  faith  and  practice,  allowing  mean- 
while entire  liberty  of  oi^nion  in  relation  to  aU 
matters  not  fully  revealed.  Upon  these  prin- 
ciples a  considerable  society  was  formed,  con- 
sisting claefly  of  members  from  Presbyterian 
churches,  and  meetings  were  held  statedly  for 
the  promotion  of  the  cause  of  union  and  for 
religious  Avorship  and  instruction.  After  some 
time,  the  question  of  infant  baptism,  and,  as 
connected  with  it,  the  use  of  sprinkling  as  bap- 
tism, became  matters  of  investigation  in  the 
society,  and  it  was  finally  after  some  months 
decided  by  a  large  majority  that  there  was  no 
Scripture  warrant  for  either  practice,  and  that 
conseipiently,  upon  tlieir  own  principles,  they 
were  compelled  to  renounce  them.  Becoming 
then  a  society  of  immersed  believers,  they  soon 
after  were  united  with  the  Redstone  Baptist 
association,  sti[)u]ating,  liowever,  in  writing, 
that  '•  no  standard  of  doctrine  or  bond  of  church 
union,  other  than  the  Holy  Scriptures,  should  be 
required."  By  means  of  this  union  with  the 
Baptists,  the  principles  and  views  of  the  Disci- 
ples, ably  developed  and  defended  by  Alexander 
Campbell  in  his  vrritings  and  public  discussions, 
were  widely  disseminated,  and  adopted  by  many. 
Meanwhile,  the  diligent  study  of  the  Scriptures, 
contemplated  as  it  were  cle  novo,  and  from  a 
standpoint  outside  of  all  denominational  and  sec- 
tarian lines,  led  by  degrees  to  the  discovery  and 
introduction  of  several  characteristics  of  primi- 
tive Christianity  which,  as  the  Disciples  held,  had 
been  long  overlooked  and  neglected.  Among 
these,  a  prominent  one  was  "baptism  for  the  re- 
mission of  sins."  As  the  apostle  Peter,  to  whom 
the  keys  of  tlie  kingdom  of  heaven  were  com- 
mitted, commanded  believing  penitents  who 
asked  what  they  should  do  to  be  "  baptized  in 
the  name  of  Christ  for  the  remission  of  sins," 
and  in  order  that  they  "might  receive  the  gift 
of  the  Holy  Spirit "  (Acts  ii.),  it  was  believed 
that  the  same  answer  should  still  be  given  to 
such  inquirers,  and  that  it  was  the  divine  plan 
thus  to  impart  through  the  significant  institu- 
tion of  baptism  that  assurance  of  pardon  which 
many  in  modern  times  have  been  taught  to 
seek  in  vague  emotional  impressions.  This  be- 
came therefore  a  distinguishing  feature  of  the 
reformation  urged  by  the  Disciples.  Another 
characteristic  was  the  practice  of  weekly  com- 
munion, after  the  example  of  the  primitive 
church.  In  pressing  these  matters  upon  the  ac- 
ceptance of  the  Baptists,  a  spirit  of  opposition  was 
at  length  aroused  in  various  quarters,  especially 
in  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  and  a  separation  to 
some  extent  ensuexl,  many  of  the  Baptists  re- 
maining connected  with  the  Disciples.  Not 
long  afterward,  at  the  close  of  1831,  their  num- 
bers were  still  further  augmented  by  a  union 
between  them  and  a  numerous  body  which  had 
originated  in  Kentucky  and  some  other  western 
states,  under  the  labors  of  B.  W.  Stone  and 
others,  who,  some  years  prior  to  the  movement 


502 


DISCIPLES 


DISINFECTANTS 


led  by  Thomas  and  Alexander  Campbell,  had 
Beparated  from  the  Presbyterian  communion, 
and  in  like  manner  attempted  to  effect  a  maiou 
of  Christians  upon  the  Bible  alone.  These  re- 
formers, readily  adopting  baptism  for  remission 
of  sins,  and  the  ancient  order  of  things  as  prac- 
tised by  the  Disciples,  became  entirely  assimi- 
lated with  the  latter.  Since  this  period  there 
has  been  a  great  and  constantly  increasing  ac- 
cession both  from  the  world  and  from  other  re- 
ligious denominations,  and  it  is  believed  that  the 
number  of  members  in  the  United  States  is  now 
about  300,000,  There  are  many  churches  also 
established  in  British  America,  in  Great  Britain, 
and  in  Australia.  Although  the  Disciples  reject 
creeds  as  bonds  of  fellowship,  and  disapprove  of 
the  technical  language  of  popular  theology,  hold- 
ing themselves  bound  to  speak  of  the  "things 
of  the  Spirit"  in  the  language  of  Scripture,  they 
do  not  materially  differ  from  the  evangelical 
demoninatious  in  their  views  of  the  great  mat- 
ters of  Christianity.  The  following  synopsis 
from  the  pen  of  Alexander  Campbell  is  a  fair 
expression  of  their  sentiments  on  the  points  in- 
volved: "1,  I  believe  that  all  Scripture  given 
by  inspiration  of  God  is  profitable  for  teaching, 
for  conviction,  for  correction,  for  instruction  in 
righteousness,  that  the  man  of  God  may  be  per- 
fect and  thoroughly  accomplished  for  every 
good  work.  2.  I  beHeve  in  one  God,  as  mani- 
fested in  the  person  of  the  Father,  of  the  Son, 
and  of  the  Holy  Spirit — wlio  are,  tlierefore,  one 
in  nature,  power,  and  volition.  3.  I  believe  that 
every  human  being  participates  in  all  the  con- 
sequences of  the  tall  of  Adam,  and  is  born  into 
the  world  frail  and  depraved  in  all  his  moral 
powers  and  capacities,  so  that  without  faith  in 
Christ  it  is  impossible  for  him,  while  in  that 
state,  to  please  God.  4.  I  believe  that  the 
Word,  which  from  the  beginning  was  with  God, 
and  which  was  God,  became  riesh  and  dwelt 
among  us  as  Immanuel  or  '  God  manifest  in 
the  flesh,'  and  did  make  an  expiation  of  sin, '  by 
the  sacrifice  of  himself,'  which  no  being  could 
have  done  that  was  not  possessed  of  a  super- 
human, superangelic,  and  divine  nature.  6.  I 
believe  in  the  justification  of  a  sinner  by  faitb 
without  the  deeds  of  law,  and  of  a  Christian, 
not  by  faith  alone,  but  by  the  obedience  of 
faith.  G.  I  believe  in  the  operation  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  through  the  word,  but  not  without  it,  in 
the  conversion  and  sanctification  of  the  sinner. 
7.  I  believe  in  the  right  and  duty  of  exercising 
our  own  judgment  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
Iloly  Scriptures.  8.  I  believe  in  the  divine  in- 
stitution of  the  evangelical  ministry;  the  author- 
ity and  perpetuity  of  the  institution  of  baptism 
and  the  Lord's  supper."  ("Millennial  Harbinger" 
for  1846,  p.  885.)  It  is  proper  to  remark,  how- 
ever, that  with  the  Disciples  the  Christian  faith 
does  not  consist  in  the  belief  of  these  or  any  other 
tenets  as  intellectual  conceptions  of  religious 
truth,  but  in  a  simjjle  trust  or  personal  reliance 
on  Christ  as  the  Son  of  God  and  the  Saviour  of 
ginners.  They  hence  require  of  candidates  for 
baptism  no  other  confession  of  faith  than  this, 


following  the  example  of  Philip  (Acts  viii.  ST). 
As  to  government,  each  church  is  independent, 
but  the  churches  cooperate  with  each  other  in 
sustaining  Bible  societies  and  missionaries  at 
home  and  abroad.  Two  classes  of  officers  are 
recognized,  elders  or  bishops  and  deacons,  who 
are  chosen  by  the  members  of  each  church,  and 
to  whom  the  interests  of  the  congregation  are 
confided. 

DISCORD,  in  music,  a  combination  of  sounds 
inharmonious  and  disagreeable  to  the  ear,  so 
called  in  opposition  to  concord.  Discords  are 
employed  to  relieve  a  succession  of  pure  con- 
cords, being  as  jiecessary  in  music  as  shade  is  in 
painting,  and  are  introduced  by  certain  prepar- 
atives and  succeeded  by  concords  to  which  they 
have  a  relation. 

DISCOUNT,  a  sum  of  money  deducted  from 
a  debt  due  at  some  future  period  in  considera- 
tion of  immediate  payment.  In  commercial 
transactions  it  is  customary,  when  a  bill  is  to 
be  discounted,  to  pay  to  the  holder  or  presenter 
the  amount  minus  the  simple  interest  calcu- 
lated for  the  time  the  bill  has  to  run.  Thus  a 
person  holding  a  bill  for  $100  payable  in  one 
year  at  7  per  cent,  would  receive  $93,  which 
would  be  considered  its  present  value.  The 
true  discount,  however,  of  any  sum  for  any 
given  time,  is  such  a  sum  as  will  in  that  time 
amount  to  the  interest  of  the  sum  to  be  dis- 
counted. Thus,  in  the  above  instance,  the  sum 
to  be  deducted  from  the  bill  would  be,  not  $7, 
but  $6  54  and  a  fraction,  which  would  amount 
at  the  end  of  a  year  to  $7.  The  true  rule  for 
computing  discount  would  therefore  be:  "As 
the  amount  of  $100  for  the  given  rate  and  time 
is  to  the  given  sum  or  debt ;  so  is  $100  to  the 
present  Avorth,  or  so  is  the  interest  of  $100  for 
the  given  time  to  the  discount  of  the  given 
sum."  Elaborate  tables  have  been  calculated 
on  this  principle,  but  as  abatement  of  the  sim- 
ple interest  is  generally  resorted  to,  they  are  of 
little  practical  value. — Discount  on  merchan- 
dise, sometimes  called  Rebate,  is  a  deduction 
of  so  much  per  cent,  from  the  price  of  goods 
sold  on  credit  when  tlie  buyer  finds  means  to 
make  his  payment  before  the  stipulated  time. 

DISCUS,  among  the  ancients,  the  name  of  a 
circular  mass  of  stone  or  metal,  used  for  throw- 
ing, as  an  exercise  of  strength.  This  practice 
was  of  great  antiquity  among  the  Greeks.  Ho- 
mer gives  an  account  of  a  trial  of  strength  of 
this  kind  at  the  funeral  games  in  honor  of  Pa- 
troclus.  In  this  case  the  discus  was  a  large 
globular  mass  of  iron.  Ordinarily  it  was  of  a 
flattened  form,  and  about  10  or  12  inches  in 
length,  80  that  when  held  in  the  hand  ready  to 
be  thrown,  it  would  extend  a  little  above  the 
middle  of  the  forearm. 

DISINFECTANTS,  substances  used  to  coun- 
teract or  destroy  noxious  odors  and  exhalations, 
or  whatever  may  produce  infection.  The  term 
is  also  made  to  embrace  substances  used  to  pre- 
vent decay  of  organic  bodies,  such  as  may  be 
found  treated  of  in  the  articles  Antiseptics  and 
Embalming.     In  the  j)resent  article  disinfect- 


DISINFECTANTS 


503 


ants  •will  bo  considered  as  agents  for  deodoriz- 
ing and  fumigating.     As  the  causes  of  infection 
exist  in  tlio  atmospliere,  and  are  spread  over  wide 
districts,  disinfectants  ])roperly  include  whatever 
is  made  use  of  to  purify  the  air,  and  the  term 
may  even  be  applied  to  the  means  cmi)loyed  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  noxious  miasmata,  jjs 
to  a  proper  system  of  drainage,  the  destruction 
by  fire  of  vegetable  matter  exposed  to  decay, 
the  thorough  ventilation  of  buildings,  the  pro- 
visions for  abundant  supplies  of  pure  air  and 
light,  and  the  free  use  of  clear  water  for  wash- 
ing away  unclean  matters.     No  more  powerful 
disinfectant  exists  than  the  fresh  wind,  which 
Btirs  up  the  infectious  vapors,  dilutes  them  with 
pure  air,  and  sweeps  them  away.    The  great 
plague  of  London  was  preceded  by  an  unusual 
calm.  Violent  winds,  as  hurricanes,  are  observed 
to  arrest  the  progress  of  disease ;  eflicient  venti- 
lation has  in  many  hospitals  reduced  its  ravages 
to  a  wonderful  extent.     The  light  and  warmth 
of  the  sun  has  also  an  extraordinary  influence 
in  promoting  health  and  vigor,  and  destroying 
some  of  the  causes  of  injurious  exhalations. 
Thougii  the  nature  of  the  action  of  light  upon 
the  animal  system  is  little  understood,  its  bene- 
ficial effects  are  too  well  established  for  its  claim 
as  an  important  natural  disinfectant  to  be  disre- 
garded.    Other  agents  are  abundantly  provided 
by  nature  which  man  may  employ  to  remove 
infectious  matters.     They  may  be  swept  away 
by  running  water,  or  their  gaseous  emanations 
be  absorbed  by  the  earth  in  which  they  are 
buried.     Exposure  to  heat  may  change  their 
properties,  or  cause  their  elements  to  enter  into 
new  and  harmless  combinations;  or  by  a  freez- 
ing temperature  decomposition  may  be  arrested, 
and  the  formation  of  noisome  gases  prevented. 
Peat  bogs  present  their  antiseptic  qualities  as 
means  of  accomplishing  the  same  end,  and  the 
astringent  extracts  of  the  bark  of  trees,  such  as 
are  employed  in  tanning,  possess  the  qualities 
of  disinfectants. — In  the  selection  and  prepara- 
tion of  these  agents,  none  is  found  more  efficient 
than  that  which  imitates  the  great  natural  dis- 
infectant, a  strong  current  of  heated  air.     The 
method  of  artificially  applying  it  to  the  removal 
of  noxious  effluvia  from  clothes  and  articles  of 
merchandise  has  been  patented  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  introduced  into  various  manufacturing 
estahlishments.     The   articles   are   exposed  in 
large  chambers  to  rapid  currents  of  air,  heated 
from  200="  to  250°  F.     The  infectious  matters 
present  are  decomposed  by  the  heat'-,  or  swept 
oft"  in  the  hot  blasts,  while  these  are  kept  at  too 
low  a  temperature  for  the  fabrics  to  be  injured 
by  them.     It  is  a  method  highly  recommended 
for  the  use  of  hospitals,  quarantine  stations,  and 
other  establishments  particularly  subject  to  in- 
fectious diseases.     Earth  and  porous  bodies  gen- 
erally are  employed  to  absorb  injurious  vapors ; 
none  possess  this  property  in  so  remarkable  a 
degree  as  charcoal.     De  Saussure  found  that  a 
single  volume  of  this  substance,  prepared  from 
boxwood,  absorbed  90  volumes  of  ammonia;  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  it  took  up  55  times  its 


own  bulk ;  of  carbonic  acid,  35  times  ;  of  car- 
bonic oxide,  9.42  ;  of  oxygen,  9.25 ;  of  nitrogen, 
Y.50 ;  and  of  hydrogen,  1.75.  Bodies  of  animals 
have  been  buried  in  charcoal  powder,  which, 
while  it  did  not  prevent  decay,  still  arrested  all 
escape  of  disagreeable  odors.  The  gases  it  re- 
tained indicated  that  it  exerts  an  influence  in 
causing  the  decomposition  of  the  exhalations, 
and  the  combination  of  their  elements  to  form 
new  compounds  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 
These  properties  have  caused  it  to  be  intro- 
duced in  the  form  of  coarse  grains  into  a  metal- 
lic respirator,  intended  to  be  worn  over  the 
mouth  where  noxious  vapors  are  present  in  the 
air,  and  it  is  recommended  to  be  used  for  pre- 
venting the  escape  of  bad  odcjs  from  j)utrefying 
substances,  though  it  has  no  effect  as  an  anti- 
septic to  arrest  their  decay.  Chlorine,  which 
has  for  many  years  been  in  use  in  hospitals  and 
other  places  exposed  to  noxious  exhalations,  acts 
as  a  powerful  disinfectant  by  producing  a  cliem- 
ical  change  in  the.injurious  compounds,  and  also 
by  arresting  decay.  It  is  generated  by  the  de- 
composition of  hydrochloric  acid,  which  is  effect- 
ed by  adding  to  it  some  black  oxide  of  manga- 
nese, and  convenient  vessels  are  prepared  for 
producing  the  gas  as  may  be  required,  in  large 
or  small  quantities.  The  chloride  of  lime,  as 
it  is  commonly  known,  is  the  usual  medium, 
however,  for  distributing  it,  tlie  gas  being  free- 
ly evolved  on  the  exposure  of  the  salt  to  the 
air.  It  is  set  free  by  the  presence  of  any  acid 
fumes,  and  as  carbonic  acid  is  evolved  in  the 
decomposition  of  organic  matters,  the  noxious 
effluvia  themselves  provide  one  of  the  agents  for 
their  own  disinfection.  Vinegar  or  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid,  however,  added  to  the  chlorinated 
lime,  causes  a  more  rapid  evolution  of  tlie  dis- 
infecting gas.  In  consequence  of  the  acrid  na- 
ture of  the  vapor,  it  should  be  used  for  fumigat- 
ing rooms  only  when  these  are  not  occupied  by 
invalids  ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  tbe  dis- 
infecting solutions,  as  of  the  hyperchloride  of 
soda,  of  which  chlorine  is  the  active  agent.  The 
more  powerful  fumes  of  nitrous  acid,  which  pos- 
sess the  highest  disinfectant  qualities,  are  liable 
to  the  same  objection ;  yet  so  important  is  their 
application  regarded  that  Dr.  Carmichael  Smyth, 
who  first  proposed  their  use,  received  therefor 
from  the  British  government  the  sum  of  £5,000. 
The  unwholesome  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  de- 
composed by  these  fumes,  as  it  is  by  chlorine,  the 
sulphur  being  set  free  and  the  hydrogen  uniting 
with  the  disinfectants.  In  combination  with 
some  of  the  metals,  chlorine  has  been  much 
used  as  a  disinfectant,  especially  with  zinc,  in 
the  aqueous  solution  of  the  chloride  of  the  met- 
al, which  is  known  as  the  disinfecting  fluid  of 
Sir  WUham  Burnett.  Its  use  is  somewhat  ob- 
jectionable, from  its  poisonous  qualities.  The 
same  compound  is  advantageously  applied  to 
arresting  that  form  of  decay  in  timber  called 
dry  rot.  Its  properties  as  a  disinfectant  are 
fully  treated  in  the  reports  of  the  British  navy, 
extracts  from  which  may  be  found  in  the  "  Lon- 
don Medical  Times  and  Gazette,"  Oct.  1853. 


504 


DISINFECTANTS 


DISLOCATION 


Chloride  of  manganese  is  an  efficient  salt  of  sim- 
ilar properties,  and  being  the  refuse  of  chlorine 
manufucture,  may  he  cheaply  procured.  The 
sesquicliloride  of  iron  is  another  cheap  and  effi- 
cient agent  of  this  class.  It  is  prepared  by  dis- 
solving calcined  iron  pyrites  in  strong  hydro- 
chloric acid.  Its  use  is  attended  with  none  of 
the  objections  belonging  to  the  poisonous  metal- 
lic combinations  with  chlorine.  Nitrate  of  lead 
has  been  recommended  for  its  disinfectant  prop- 
erties, particularly  in  the  solution  known  as  Le- 
doyer's  disinfecting  fluid.  It  corrects  the  fetid 
odors  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  hydrosul- 
phuret  of  ammonia  by  decomposing  these  com- 
pounds, but  it  has  no  antiseptic  properties,  and  is 
objectionable  on  account  of  its  cost  and  poison- 
ous nature. — None  of  the  agents  yet  named  com- 
bine so  many  advantages  as  sulphurous  acid  and 
its  compounds  with  lime  or  magnesia.  In  the 
form  of  fumes  from  burning  sulphur  it  has  al- 
ways been  highly  esteemed  for  its  purifying 
nature,  and  its  chemical  action  upon  organic 
compounds  has  long  been  applied  in  bleaching. 
Beside  the  property  of  decomposing  and  thus 
destroying  effluvia,  it  also  acts  as  an  antiseptic, 
checking  fermentation  and  the  formation  of  pu- 
trid substances.  The  objection  to  its  use  is  its 
own  sutibcating  odor.  This  is  avoided  by  using 
the  acid  in  combination,  as  in  the  form  of  sul- 
phate of  soda,  an  excellent  antiseptic  for  pur- 
poses of  embalming.  Combined  with  lime  and 
magnesia,  it  is  recommended  as  the  best  of  all 
disinfectants.  It  is  thus  prepared  by  the  pa- 
tentees, Dr.  It.  Angus  Smith  and  Mr.  A.  Mc- 
Dougall,  of  Manchester,  England ;  and  so  highly 
is  it  approved  that  the  British  government  have 
ordered  it  to  be  furnished  to  every  transport 
ship  containing  horses.  Applied  to  manures,  it 
destroys  the  disagreeable  smell  without  impair- 
ing their  properties  as  fertilizers ;  on  the  con- 
trary, the  salts  of  which  it  is  composed,  even  if 
in  great  excess,  act  themselves  as  stimulants  to 
vegetation  on  being  converted  into  sulphates, 
as  they  are  when  spread  upon  the  ground.  In 
treating  of  its  qualities  Dr.  Muspratt,  in  his 
"  Chemistry,"  remarks  as  follows :  "  When  mag- 
nesia is  united  with  sulphurous  acid,  the  most 
eflective,  perhaps  the  only  compound  capable 
of  serving  both  ends"  (deodorizing  and  preserv- 
ing from  j)utrefaction),  "  is  then  produced.  Me- 
tallic salts  have  no  beneficial  action  on  manures  ; 
magnesia  alone  preserves  the  jjliosphoric  acid 
and  the  ammonia.  To  the  mixture  already 
mentioned  a  few  per  cent,  of  carbolic  acid,  or 
rather  of  carbolate  of  lime,  are  added ;  the  lat- 
ter has  been  found  by  experience  to  assist  in 
destroying  one  portion  of  the  odor  with  great 
rapidity.  Being  a  fine,  dry,  white  powder,  it 
absorbs  moisture  in  stables,  &c.,  wherever  it 
is  deposited  ;  metallic  salts,  on  the  contrary, 
must  be  in  solution,  and  the  wet  is  injurious, 
not  only  to  the  hoofs,  but  also  to  the  health 
generally  of  cattle.  In  the  sick  room  it  is  said 
to  preserve  the  atmosphere,  when  sprinkled  on 
offensive  substances,  in  great  purity.  In  the 
veterinary  hospitals  of  barracks  it  has  been 


proved  to  be  very  valuable A  disin- 
fectant uniting  efficiency,  cleanliness,  agreeable 
manipulation,  and  cheapness  in  an  equal  degree 
witli  this  will  not  bo  easily  found." 

DISLOCATION  (Lat.  cUs,  apart,  and  locus, 
place),  a  term  used  by  geologists  to  indicate  that 
change  which  takes  place  in  tlie  position  of  rocks 
when  torn  from  their  original  place,  either  by 
upheaval  or  subsidence. — It  is  most  commonly 
applied,  however,  to  that  displacement  in  the 
osseous  structure  Avhich  results  from  the  direct 
application  of  force  or  other  long-continued 
cause.  All  the  joints  are  liable  to  dislocation, 
but  it  most  commonly  occurs  to  those  which 
possess  the  greatest  mobility;  hence  the  shoulder 
joint  is  of  all  others  the  most  frequent  seat  of 
this  accident.  The  head  of  the  humerus  or 
bone  of  the  upper  arm,  forming  a  ball  and  socket 
joint  in  connection  Avith  the  scapula  or  shoulder 
blade,  is  regulated  in  its  motions  by  very  strong 
muscles,  and  is  but  slightly  impeded  in  its  free 
motions  by  the  very  shallow  socket  in  which  it 
rest:^.  "While  this  arrangement  bestows  great 
freedom  of  action  upon  this  joint,  it  renders  it 
liable  to  dislocation  in  almost  every  direction. 
The  most  common  is  that  which  occurs  when 
the  arm  is  elevated  above  the  head,  by  means 
of  which  the  head  of  the  humerus  is  thrown 
into  the  armpit.  Next  in  frequency  is  the  dis- 
location of  the  hip  joint,  which  is  generally 
produced  by  a  sudden  blow  upon  the  knee 
when  the  thigh  is  flexed  toward  the  abdomen, 
whereby  the  head  of  the  thigh  bone  is  drawn 
backward  by  the  action  of  the  gluteal  mus- 
cles upon  the  dorsum  of  the  ileum  or  pelvis. 
The  jaw  bone  is  often  thrown  out  of  place  in 
laughing,  and  much  more  frequently  in  yawn- 
ing. Tills  accident  sometimes  occurs  while 
speaking  under  undue  excitement.  The  writer 
was  cognizant  of  a  case  in  which  a  female  who 
was  talking  in  an  excited  manner,  while  under 
the  influence  of  a  violent  fit  of  passion,  had  her 
discourse  suddenly  arx'ested  by  dislocation  of 
the  jaw.  This  displacement  may  be  easily 
remedied  by  placing  the  thumbs  on  the  back 
teeth  so  as  to  press  them  downward  while  the 
chin  is  raised  by  the  fingers  slowly  upward. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  remove  the  thumbs 
quickly  on  the  restoration  of  the  joint,  or  they 
may  be  painfully  compressed  between  the  teeth. 
— The  chief  difficulty  in  restoring  a  dislocation 
consists  in  the  opposition  offered  by  the  muscles, 
rendered  acutely  irritable  by  the  unnatural  posi- 
tion of  the  head  of  the  luxated  bone.  This  is 
often  overcome  by  reducing  the  heart's  action 
by  general  bleeding.  The  warm  bath  and  eme- 
tics are  likewise  used  to  relax  the  muscles,  and 
Avith  the  same  view  tobacco  moistened  with 
Avater  is  sometimes  laid  upon  the  abdomen  until 
it  induces  sickness  and  a  disposition  to  syncope. 
The  surgeon  in  reducing  a  luxated  joint  en- 
deavors, by  a  steady  application  of  force  exerted 
in  the  direction  of  the  joint,  either  to  fatigue 
the  muscles,  or  seize  some  moment  Avhen  they 
are  relaxed  to  slip  the  joint  into  its  socket.  Va- 
rious degrees  of  force  and  different  appliances 


DISMAL  SWAMP 


DISRAELI 


505 


are  nscd  to  effect  this  object.  In  the  ease  of  the 
shoulder  joint  tlio  surgeon  freciuently  forms  a 
lever  with  the  heel  of  liis  boot  placed  in  tlio 
armpit,  over  which,  by  pressing  the  arm  inward 
toward  the  body,  he  overcomes  the  resistance 
of  the  muscles,  and  restores  the  joint.  In  the 
case  of  the  hip  joint,  the  force  is  necessarily 
great,  and  pulleys  are  often  resorted  to,  by  which 
means  not  only  a  greater  but  a  steadier  force 
is  exerted.  A  recent  dislocation  is  much  more 
easily  reduced  than  one  of  long  standing ;  indeed, 
no  time  should  he  permitted  to  elapse  between 
the  accident  and  an  attempt  at  its  reduction,  for 
every  hour  adds  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  suc- 
cess of  the  operation.  The  bones  of  the  spine 
frequently  sulfcr  a  partial  dislocation  which  ad- 
mits of  no  relief,  and  notunfrcqucntly  terminates 
in  paralysis  from  the  pressure  on  the  spinal  col- 
unm,  or  death.  The  hangman  in  suspending  a 
criminal  dislocates  the  second  vertebra  of  the 
neck.  This  sometimes  occurs  in  other  ways, 
A  fellow  student  of  the  writer,  while  playing 
at  ball,  struck  his  companion  an  accidental  blow 
with  his  club  upon  the  back  of  the  neck,  which 
dislocated  this  bone  and  produced  almost  imme- 
diate death. 

DISMAL  SWAMP,  Great,  a  large  morass  in 
Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  extending,  accord- 
ing to  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  40  m.  S.  from  near  Nor- 
folk, in  the  former  state,  and  25  m.  E.  and  W. 
The  soil  consists  of  black  vegetable  matter  to  the 
depth  of  15  feet,  saturated  with  water,  yielding 
to  the  tread  of  man,  and  during  a  large  part  of 
the  year  covered  in  many  places  with  stagnant 
pools.  Several  small  streams  flow  through,  and 
in  the  centre  is  Lake  Drummond,  6  nl.  long  and 
3  m.  W'ide,  the  surface  of  which  is  21  feet  above 
tide  water.  A  large  proportion  of  the  swamp 
Avas  originally  covered  with  a  thick  forest  of 
cypress,  white  cedar,  and  other  timber,  and  por- 
tions are  overgrown  with  reeds.  Nearly  all  the 
most  valuable  timber  has  been  cut  down  to  fur- 
nish shingles,  ship  timber,  and  rails,  the  last  being 
exported  to  New  York  and  other  places,  under 
the  name  of  cedar  rails.  The  shingle  trade  is  enor- 
mous, and  some  of  the  many  proprietors  among 
whom  the  swamp  is  divided  employ  over  100 
hands  in  cutting  shingles  alone.  Since  the  woods 
have  been  thinned  out,  great  quantities  of  timber 
have  been  procured  from  beneath  the  surface, 
where  fallen  trunks  have  been  preserved  by  the 
wetness  of  the  soil.  The  supply  thus  obtained, 
however,  is  beginning  to  fail,  and  the  lumber 
trade  of  the  swamp  is  losing  its  importance.  The 
lumbermen  are  slaves,  who  are  hired  of  their 
owners  by  the  proprietors  of  the  swamp  lands, 
and  sent  into  the  swamp  in  gangs,  under  white 
overseers.  There  they  remain  5  months  out 
of  every  fi,  camping  out  in  rude  huts.  An  ac- 
count is  kept  of  the  number  of  shingles  cut  by 
each  man,  for  which  a  fixed  sum  per  1,000  is 
allowed,  and  after  the  value  of  the  food  and 
clothing  furnished,  and  the  hire  paid  to  the 
owner,  have  been  deducted  from  the  amount, 
the  surplus  is  given  to  the  slave.  The  great 
channel  of  transportation  is  the  Dismal  Swamp 


canal,  made  by  the  assistance  of  the  national 
government  and  the  state  of  Virginia,  Avho  are 
the  principal  owners.  It  is  G  feet  deep,  fed  by 
Lake  Drummond,  and  passes  for  20  m.  through 
the  swamp,  atfording  an  outlet  not  only  for 
lumber  but  for  much  of  the  agricultural  pro- 
duce of  the  E.  part  of  North  Carolina.  Its  an- 
nual freightage  was  stated  in  185G  to  be  about 
24,000,000  siiingles,  0,000,000  staves,  165,000 
cubic  feet  of  i)lank,  scantling,  and  ship  timber, 
700  bbls.  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  4,500  bales  of 
cotton,  2,000,000  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  30,000 
of  wheat,  25,000  of  x>eas,  5,000  cwt.  of  bacon, 
1,300  kegs  of  lard,  50,000  bbls.  of  shad  and  her- 
rings, and  30,000  of  naval  stores.  Roads  are 
made  in  the  swamp  by  laying  logs  8  or  10  feet 
long  side  by  side  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  or 
"sponge."  They  are  passable  by  mules  and 
oxen,  but  carrying  is  done  mostly  by  hand  to 
the  creeks  and  ditches  communicating  with  the 
canal.  Along  the  coast  of  North  Cm'olina  are 
the  Little  Dismal  and  several  smaller  swamps, 
covering  in  the  aggregate  about  2,000,000  acres, 
and  mostly  state  property.  The  "  Dismals,"  as 
they  are  locally  called,  are  noted  retreats  of 
runaway  negroes,  whose  children  have  beea 
born,  lived,  and  died  here.  They  depend  for 
support  on  stealing  or  charity,  and  chance  em- 
ployment from  the  lumbermen  and  poor  white 
settlers.  Their  number  is  said  to  have  been 
nmch  diminished  within  a  few  years.  A  part 
of  the  Great  Dismal  has  been  drained  and  de- 
voted to  agriculture. 

DISPENSATION,  the  act  by  which  an  ex- 
ception is  made  to  the  rigor  of  the  law  in  favor 
of  some  person.  To  make  a  dispensation  is  an 
attribute  of  sovereign  power.  In  the  United 
States  no  power  exists,  except  in  the  legisla- 
ture, to  dispense  with  law,  and  then  it  is  rather 
a  change  of  the  law  than  a  dispensation. — In 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  a  dispensation  is  an 
exemption  from  obedience  to  disciplinary  enact- 
ments (see  Canon  Law),  and  is,  more  strictly  de- 
fined, a  release  from  the  obligation  of  observing 
some  ecclesiastical  law,  granted  to  a  person  foi* 
just  and  rational  causes,  by  the  proper  authority. 
The  pope  has  reserved  to  himself  the  granting 
of  dispensations  in  the  more  important  cases,  but 
bishops  and  priests  may  grant  them  in  lesser  ones. 

DISRAELI,  Benjamin,  a  British  statesman, 
orator,  and  novelist,  was  born  in  London  in 
December,  1805,  and  is  the  eldest  son  of  Isaac 
Disraeli,  the  author  of  the  "Curiosities  of 
Literature."  His  mother's  maiden  name  was 
Basevi.  He  received  his  early  education  at 
a  private  academy  in  the  suburbs  of  London, 
whence  while  yet  a  boy  he  was  transferred  to 
the  office  of  an  attorney  as  an  articled  clerk, 
where  he  remained  3  years.  At  length  weary 
of  the  drudgery  of  his  duties,  and  with  am- 
bitious views  far  beyond  the  brightest  dreams 
of  the  most  successful  attorney,  '*  Disraeli  the 
Younger,"  as  he  loved  to  style  himself,  availing 
himself  of  the  assistance  of  his  father's  distin- 
guished friends,  obtained  admission  into  what  is 
called  in  London  "  the  best  society."    His  per- 


506 


DISRAELI 


Bonal  beauty,  refined  manners,  and  remarkable 
powers  of  conversation,  soon  made  him  a  great 
favorite.  At  the  age  of  19  he  visited  Germany, 
and  on  his  return  to  England  pi;bUshed  in  1826 
-7  his  famous  novel  "Vivian  Grey,"  the  chief 
characters  in  which  were  faithful  pictures  of  him- 
self and  of  persons  well  known  in  English  society. 
The  originality,  vivacity,  and  wit  of  this  book 
gave  it  great  celebrity,  and  it  was  translated  into 
the  principal  languages  of  Europe.  Simulta- 
neously with  its  publication  the  author  became 
editor  of  a  short-lived  daily  political  paper 
entitled  the  "Representative,"  on  which  John 
Murray,  the  publisher,  between  Jan.  25,  1826, 
and  July  29  following,  is  said  to  have  expended 
$350,000.  In  1828  Mr.  Disraeli  published  in 
one  volume  the  "  Voyage  of  Captain  Popanilla," 
a  gay  and  good-humored  but  flimsy  satire, 
which  met  with  little  success.  In  1829  he  left 
England  to  make  an  extended  tour  in  Italy, 
Greece,  Albania,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Nubia,  and 
returned  in  1831.  lie  was  in  Albania  at  the 
time  of  the  massacre  of  the  beys  by  Reshid 
Pasha,  and  witnessed  many  of  the  scenes  of  the 
civil  war  then  raging  there.  Shortly  after 
his  return  he  published  his  second  fashionable 
novel,  the  "  Young  Duke ;"  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  issued  from  the  press  another  novel, 
"Contarini  Fleming,  a  Psychological  Autobi- 
ography," which  Heine  the  German  poet  has 
pronounced  to  be  "  one  of  the  most  original 
works  ever  written."  Its  subject  is  the  devel- 
opment of  the  poetical  nature,  and  it  contains 
brilliant  sketches  of  Italy,  Spain,  Greece,  Asia 
Minor,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  At  this  time  Mr.  Dis- 
raeli made  his  first  attempt  to  enter  parliament. 
He  presented  himself  to  the  electors  of  High  "Wy- 
combe, in  Buckinghamshire,  as  a  tory-radical, 
and  was  defeated  by  the  whig  candidate.  In 
December,  1834,  he  again  sought  the  support  of 
the  Wycombe  electors,  and  was  again  defeated. 
Perceiving  that  tory-radicalism  did  not  find  fa- 
vor with  the  English  people,  he  next  appeared, 
in  May,  1835,  at  Taunton,  as  a  thorough-going 
conservative.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that, 
when  charged  by  somebody  in  the  crowd  with 
*'  O'Connellism,"  he  called  tlio  great  Irish  agita- 
tor a  "  bloody  traitor;"  to  which  Mr.  O'Connell 
made  the  memorable  retort :  "  For  aught  I  know, 
the  present  Disraeli  is  the  true  heir  at  law  of  the 
impenitent  thief  who  died  on  the  cross."  Ex- 
asperated by  this  taunt,  Mr.  Disraeli  challenged 
O'Connell's  son,  Morgan  O'Connell,  who  had 
taken  up  his  father's  quarrel ;  but  the  challenge 
was  not  accepted.  In  the  meanwhile  Mr.  Dis- 
raeli wrote  and  published  several  books :  the 
"  Wondrous  Tale  of  Alroy,"  an  oriental  romance 
of  extraordinary  eloquence  and  power,  based  on 
the  adventures  of  a  prince  of  the  bouse  of  David, 
who  in  the  12th  century  proclaimed  himself  the 
Messiah,  and  called  the  Jews  of  Persia  to  arms, 
appeared  in  1833,  accompanied  by  "  The  Rise 
of  Iskander,"  a  tale  founded  on  the  revolt  of  the 
famous  Scanderbeg  against  the  Turks  in  the  15th 
century  ;  apolitical  pamphlet  entitled  "  What  Is 
He?"  in  1834,  in  which  he  tried  to  explain  his 


political  views;  the  "  Revolutionary  Epic  "  and 
the  "  Crisis  Examined  "  in  the  same  year,  and 
"  A  Vindication  of  the  English  Constitution  "  in 
1835.  In  1836,  being  still  unable  to  get  a  seat 
in  the  house  of  commons,  he  published  a  series 
of  letters  in  the  London  "  Times"  under  the  sig- 
nature of  "  Runnymede,"  which  were  read  with 
great  interest  on  account  of  their  remarkable  wit 
and  sarcasm.  Toward  the  close  of  the  same  year 
he  published  a  love  story,  "Henrietta  Temple ;" 
and  in  the  spring  of  1837  appeared  "  Venetia,"  a 
novel,  in  which  he  portrayed  the  characters  and 
appearance  of  Lord  Byron  and  Percy  Bysshe 
Shelley.  At  last  he  achieved  the  great  object  of 
his  ambition.  In  the  first  parliament  of  the  reign 
of  Victoria,  Mr.  Disraeli,  being  then  32  years  of 
age,  obtained  a  seat  as  representative  of  the  con- 
servative borough  of  Maidstone,  His  maiden 
speech  was  a  lamentable  failure.  Ignorant  of 
the  tastes  and  temper  of  his  audience,  and  with 
the  most  violent  and  grotesque  gestures,  he 
poured  forth  the  grossest  abuse  of  O'Connell,  the 
only  effect  of  which  was  to  call  forth  the  laugh- 
ter and  ridicule  of  the  house.  He  closed  this 
now  famous  speech  in  the  following  words:  "  I 
am  not  surprised  at  the  reception  I  have  expe- 
rienced. I  have  begun  several  times  many 
things,  and  I  have  often  succeeded  at  last.  I 
shall  sit  down  now ;  but  the  time  will  come  when 
you  will  hear  me."  In  July,  1839,  this  predic- 
tion first  began  to  be  fulfilled.  He  made  a  speech 
which  was  listened  to  with  attention,  and  prais- 
ed for  its  ability.  In  that  year,  too,  he  pub- 
lished his  5  act  tragedy,  the  "  Count  Alarcos," 
founded  on  an  old  Spanish  ballad,  and  was  re- 
lieved from  pressing  pecuniary  difficulties  by  a 
marriage  with  the  wealthy  widow  of  Wyndham 
Lewis,  his  friend  and  colleague  in  the  repre- 
sentation of  Maidstone.  The  happy  influence 
of  this  union  upon  his  career  he  has  himself 
acknowledged  in  the  graceful  dedication  of  one 
of  his  novels  to  a  "perfect  wife."  In  1841  he 
was  elected  as  one  of  the  representatives  of  the 
borough  of  Shrewsbury,  and  in  1844  published 
his  most  successful  novel,  "  Coningsby,  or  the 
New  Generation,"  which  within  3  months  of  the 
date  of  publication  had  run  through  3  editions, 
and  was  translated  into  several  foreign  languages. 
The  cause  of  its  extraordinary  popularity,  apart 
from  its  great  literary  merit,  was  the  fact  of  its 
principal  characters  being  drawn  from  well- 
known  persons  then  living.  It  was  regarded 
also  as  an  exposition  of  the,  views  and  designs 
of  the  famous  half  literary,  half  political  party 
then  attracting  public  attention  under  the  name 
of  "  Young  England,"  of  which  Mr.  Disraeli  was 
one  of  the  most  conspicuous  leaders.  In  1845  he 
published  "  Sibyl,  or  the  Two  Nations."  In  1847 
lie  was  returned  as  one  of  the  members  for  Buck- 
inghamshire, and  in  the  same  year  he  pubhshed 
''  Ixion  in  Heaven,"  with  other  tales,  and  also 
"  Tancred,  or  the  New  Crusade."  His  reputa- 
tion as  a  parliamentary  debater,  and  as  a  lead- 
ing member  of  the  conservative  party,  was  now 
established.  His  severe  and  effective  attacks 
on  Sir  Robert  Peel,  for  the  alleged  treachery  of 


DISRAELI 


507 


that  statesman  to  his  party  in  the  adoption  of  liis 
free  trade  policy,  are  among  tlio  most  remark- 
able speeches  to  bo  found  in  the  amuils  of  the 
British  legislature.  They  established  Disraeli's 
reputation  as  one  of  the  most  powerful  debaters 
and  keen  and  polished  satirists  in  tliat  body.  In 
1849  he  became  the  recognized  leader  of  the  con- 
servative party  in  parliament.  A  biography  of 
his  father,  Isaac  Disraeli  (1849),  and  a  memoir 
of  his  personal  and  political  friend,  Lord  George 
Bentiuck  (1852),  were  his  next  literary  produc- 
tions. In  March,  1852,  in  the  first  Derby  admin- 
istration, Mr.  Disraeli  received  the  appointment 
of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  was  made  a 
member  of  the  privy  council,  and  became  leader 
of  the  ministerial  party  in  tlie  house  of  commons. 
He  went  out  of  olhce  with  the  rest  of  the  Derby 
ministry  in  Dec.  of  the  same  year.  In  Feb.  1858, 
when  Lord  Derby  again  accepted  the  task  of 
forming  a  new  cabinet  after  the  downfall  of  Lord 
Palmerstou,  Mr.  Disraeli  was  again  selected  to  fill 
the  responsible  office,  the  duties  of  which  he  had 
discharged  with  great  ability  6  years  before.  In 
Feb.  1859,  he  brought  forward  in  parliament  an 
elaborate  plan  of  electoral  reform,  a  principal 
feature  of  which  was  the  extension  of  the  suf- 
frage to  the  whole  body  of  the  educated  class 
without  regard  to  property.  The  bill  was  de- 
feated in  the  house  of  commons,  March  31, 
1859,  whereupon  parliament  was  dissolved.  The 
political  career  of  Mr.  Disraeli  thus  far  is  one  of 
the  most  extraordinary  in  English  history.  By 
force  of  talent,  industry,  and  perseverance,  un- 
aided by  wealth  or  family  connections,  in  spite 
of  the  disadvantages  of  his  Jewish  origin  and  of 
his  reputation  as  a  mere  novelist,  he  has  raised 
himself  to  the  position  of  leader  of  the  house  of 
commons  and  of  minister  of  finance  in  the  great- 
atest  commercial  empire  of  the  world. 

DISRAELI,  Isaac,  an  English  author,  born 
near  Enfield  in  May,  IVGG,  died  Jan.  19, 1848.  His 
father  removed  to  England  in  1748  from  Venice, 
whither  his  ancestors,  of  Hebrew  race,  had  fled 
in  the  15th  century  from  the  inquisition  in  Spain. 
In  Venice  they  assumed  the  name  of  Disraeli 
(originally  written  D'Isi-aeli),  "  a  name  never 
borne  before  or  since  by  any  other  family,  that 
their  race  might  be  for  ever  recognized."  Isaac 
was  an  only  son,  and  was  intended  for  the  pur- 
suits of  commerce,  by  which  his  father  had  at- 
tained to  fortune.  The  latter  was  sei-iously 
alarmed  when  his  son  during  his  school  days 
produced  a  poem ;  "  the  loss  of  one  of  his  ai-- 
gosies  uninsured  could  not  have  filled  him  with 
more  blank  dismay."  He  was  sent  to  a  college 
at  Amsterdam,  where  he  studied  the  philosoph- 
ical works  in  fashion  at  the  time,  and  when  18 
years  of  age  returned  to  England  a  disciple  of 
Rousseau.  TVhen  informed  that  a  place  in  the 
establishment  of  a  great  merchant  was  prepared 
for  him,  he  replied  that  he  had  written  and  in- 
tended to  publish  a  poem  of  considerable  length 
against  commerce,  which  was  the  corrupter  of 
man ;  and  he  at  once  enclosed  his  poem  to  Dr. 
Johnson,  who  however  was  in  his  last  illness 
and  was  "unable  to  read  it.    Of  a  pensive  and 


sensitive  character,  fond  of  solitude  and  the  so- 
ciety of  books,  he  found  no  literary  friend  and 
counsellor,  and  was  sent  by  his  parents,  to  whom 
he  was  an  enigma,  to  travel  in  France,  Avith  the 
hope  that  adventures  and  change  of  scene  might 
divert  him  from  the  eccentricity  of  his  course. 
He  lived  in  Paris,  associating  with  learned  men 
and  frequenting  libraries,  till  1788.  On  his  re- 
turn he  published  anonymously  a  satire  "  On 
the  Abuse  of  Satire,"  in  polished  verses,  which 
was  directed  against  Peter  Pindar,  then  in  tho 
height  of  his  popularity.  This  venture  obtained 
for  him  the  friendship  of  Mr.  Pye,  afterward 
poet  laureate,  through  whose  influence  the  elder 
Disraeli  was  persuaded  to  renounce  the  efiltrt  to 
convert  a  poet  into  a  merchant,  and  was  finally 
induced  to  furnish  means  sufficient  to  enable  his 
son  to  gratify  his  passion  for  book-collecting  and 
for  tranquil  study.  The  son  now  wrote  some 
metrical  pieces  in  the  magazines,  and  in  1803 
published  a  volume  of  romantic  tales.  In  1791 
lie  published  the  first  volume  of  his  "  Curiosities 
of  Literature"  (2d  vol.  in  1793 ;  new  edition  of 
both  vols,  in  1794),  a  product  of  curious  and  ele- 
gant erudition,  abounding  in  discursive  and  auec- 
dotical  criticism.  A  volume  of  "Miscellanies, 
or  Literary  Recreations,"  was  published  in  179G. 
After  residing  for  a  time  in  Exeter  he  removed 
to  London,  and  resolved  to  devote  the  rest  of 
his  life,  not  to  authorship,  but  to  the  acquisition 
of  knowledge.  Ten  years  were  occupied  chiefly 
with  acquiring  that  store  of  facts  which  was  the 
foundation  of  his  future  speculations,  and  it  was 
not  till  the  age  of  45  that  he  resolutely  began 
his  career  of  authorship.  In  1812  appeared  his 
"Calamities  of  Authors;  including  some  In- 
quiries respecting  their  Moral  and  Literary 
Character;"  in  1814,  his  "  Quarrels  of  Authors; 
or  some  Memoirs  for  our  Literary  History,  in- 
cluding Specimens  of  Controversy  to  the  Reign 
of  Ehzabeth ;"  and  in  1816,  the  most  finished 
of  his  compositions,  his  "Illustrations  of  the 
Literary  Character  ;  or  the  History  of  Men 
of  Genius,  drawn  from  their  own  Feehngs  and 
Confessions."  All  of  these  works  are  amusing 
and  anecdotical,  and  reveal  the  author  not  only 
as  a  literary  antiquary,  but  as  a  man  of  humor, 
thoughtfulness,  and  elegant  tastes.  His  "  Curi- 
osities of  Literature"  had  reached  the  5th  edi- 
tion, when  in  1817  he  added  a  new  volume, 
containing  more  elaborate  essays  than  the  pre- 
ceding, and  the  success  of  the  publication  was 
such  that  he  rapidly  produced  3  additional  vol- 
umes. He  was  5  years  in  the  composition  of 
his  work  on  the  "  Life  and  Reign  of  Charles  I.," 
which  appeared  in  1828-31,  and  gained  for  him 
the  degree  of  D.C.L.  from  Oxford.  Ho  had 
long  meditated  a  history  of  English  literature, 
for  which  all  his  previous  writings  had  been 
preparatory,  but  in  1839  a  paralysis  of  the  optic 
nerve  prevented  him  from  pursuing  his  re- 
searches, and  a  selection  from  his  numerous 
manuscripts  was  given  to  the  public  in  1841 
under  tho  title  of  "  Amenities  of  Literature." 
During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  resided  on 
his  manor  of  Bradenham  in  Buckinghamshire. 


508 


DISSEISIN 


DISTILLATIOIT 


"He  was,"  says  his  son,  "a  complete  literary 
character,  a  man  who  really  passed  his  life  in  his 
library.  Eveu  marriage  produced  no  change 
in  these  habits ;  he  rose  to  enter  the  chamber 
where  lie  lived  alone  with  hisbooks,  and  at  night 
his  lamp  was  ever  lit  within  the  same  walls.  In 
London  his  only  amusement  was  to  ramble 
among  booksellers ;  in  the  country  he  scarcely 
ever  left  his  room  but  to  saunter  in  abstraction 
upon  a  terrace,  muse  over  a  chapter,  or  coin 
a  sentence."  A  new  edition  of  his  works  is  now 
in  process  of  publication  in  London,  edited  and 
annotated  by  his  son,  the  Eight  Hon.  Benjamin 
Disraeli.  His  "  Curiosities  of  Literatiu-e"  was 
published  in  Boston  in  1858,  in  4  vols. 

DISSEISIN,  a  term  used  in  the  English  law 
to  express  the  turning  a  man  out  of  possession  of 
a  freehold  estate  in  lands,  that  is  to  say,  an  estate 
in  fee  or  for  life.  It  is  not  applied  to  disposses- 
sion of  a  term  of  years,  nor  is  it  strictly  applicable 
to  an  incorporal  estate,  inasmuch  as  that  spe- 
cies of  estate  does  not  admit  of  actual  posses- 
sion in  a  literal  sense ;  yet  constructively  there 
may  be  disseisin  of  incorporal  rights,  as  an 
office,  rent,  and  the  like.  According  to  the 
old  common  law,  disseisin  always  imported  a 
wrongful  putting  of  another  out  of  possession. 
An  entry  by  a  stranger  after  the  death  of  the 
owner  of  a  freehold,  and  before  the  heir  or  de- 
visee had  taken  possession,  was  called  an  abate- 
ment; an  entry  after  the  determination  of  a 
particular  estate,  before  the  person  entitled  to 
the  reversion  or  remainder,  was  an  intrusion ; 
and  an  alienation  by  tenant  for  life  for  a  longer 
terra  than  he  was  entitled  to  convey  was  a  dis- 
continuance ;  and  ditferent  remedies  were  ne- 
cessary for  the  recovery  of  the  possession  while 
the  old  forms  of  real  actions  were  in  use.  As 
disseisin  commenced  by  a  wrongful  act  of  the 
disseizor,  the  person  disseized  could  repossess 
himself  by  an  entry  upon  the  lands ;  but  if  the 
disseizor  died  in  possession,  there  could  be  no 
entry  against  his  heir,  but  the  rightful  owner 
was  then  put  to  an  action  for  the  recovery  of 
the  possession.  This  rule,  however,  was  sub- 
ject to  certain  exceptions,  as  disability  of  the 
person  entitled  to  make  the  entry  ;  and  finally 
by  statute  6  years'  possession  by  the  disseizor 
before  his  death  was  necessary  in  order  to  take 
away  the  right  of  entry.  It  was  required  that 
the  entry  should  be  peaceable,  for  if  force  was 
used  a  summary  process  was  given  by  statute 
to  restore  the  possession  to  the  person  thus  put 
out,  although,  as  before  supposed,  his  possession 
was  wrongful,  provided  he  or  those  from  whom 
be  claimed  had  held  the  premises  3  years.  Pos- 
session, although  not  conclusive  evidence  of  the 
right  of  property,  was  yet  deemed  of  such  im- 
portance that  it  could  be  the  subject  of  an  ac- 
tion without  involving  the  question  of  the  real 
ownership  of  the  fee.  The  old  forms  of  proceed- 
ing by  writ  of  entry,  assize  of  novel  disseisin, 
and  the  like,  were  possessory  actions.  The  title 
to  the  fee  could  be  determined  only  by  a  writ 
of  right  or  other  analogous  proceeding.  A 
limitation  of  time  was  prescribed  for  the  bring- 


ing of  possessory  actions,  which  has  varied  at 

difterent  periods ;  but  now,  by  statutes  3  and  4 
William  IV.,  c.  27  (1833),  no  entry  can  be 
made  nor  action  brought  but  within  20  years 
after  the  right  of  entry  or  action  accrued;  de- 
scent cast  (as  it  was  called  when  the  disseizor 
died  in  possession)  is  not  allowed  to  defeat  such 
entry  or  action,  and  all  the  real  actions  formerly 
used  are  abolished,  except  actions  for  dower, 
quare  impedit  (which  relates  to  certain  in- 
corporal rights),  and  ejectment,  which  last  is 
the  mode  by  which  all  titles  to  corporal  estates 
are  now  tried.  In  this  country,  these  provisions 
have  been  long  since  generally  adopted,  and 
even  still  greater  changes  made  ;  and  the  term 
disseisin  has  been  little  used  in  American  law, 
and  merely  as  synonymous  with  dispossession. 

DISSENTEE,  one  who  differs  from  another 
in  opinion.  It  is  the  general  name  in  England 
for  those  Protestants  who  disagree  as  to  doc- 
trines or  ceremonies  with  the  established  church. 
The  beginning  of  dissent  in  England  was  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI.,  soon  after  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Anglican  church.  The  two  parties 
were  then  designated  conformists  and  noncon- 
formists. Subsequently  the  name  of  Puritans 
was  for  a  century  the  general  appellation  of  dis- 
senters. The  legal  toleration  of  dissenters  in  Eng- 
land dates  only  from  the  revolution  of  1088,  and 
during  the  present  century  they  have  been  placed 
much  more  nearly  than  ever  before  upon  an 
equality  with  the  adherents  of  the  established 
church. 

DISTAFF,  the  first  instrument  employed  in 
spinning,  and  the  ancient  emblem  of  female  dil- 
igence. It  consisted  of  a  staff  on  one  end  of 
which  was  rolled  the  wool.  It  was  held  in  the 
left  hand  of  the  spinner,  while  the  right  hand 
was  occupied  in  drawing  out  the  fibres  of  the 
wool,  and  at  the  same  time  twisting  them.  A 
small  piece  of  wood  called  a  spindle  was  attached 
to  the  thread,  the  weight  of  which  continually 
carried  it  down  ns  it  was  formed.  "When  the 
spindle  reached  the  ground  it  was  unfastened, 
tlie  thread  which  had  been  formed  was  wound 
around  it,  and  it  was  then  again  fastened  near  the 
beginning  of  the  new  thread. 

DISTEMPEE,  in  painting,  a  mixture  of 
opaque  color  with  water  and  size,  or  with 
glutinous  matter,  much  used  in  scene  painting. 

DISTICH,  a  couplet,  in  Greek  and  Latin 
poetry  consisting  of  one  hexameter  and  one  pen- 
tameter verse.  The  Greeks  did  not  always  com- 
plete the  sense  in  the  two  verses,  but  the  Latins 
imposed  this  restraint  upon  themselves.  There 
are  numerous  ancient  poems  consisting  wholly 
of  distichs,  but  it  required  all  the  art  of  the  best 
writers  to  avoid  excessive  monotony  in  a  kind 
of  poetry  which  admits  of  so  little  variety  in 
the  succession  of  sounds.  Its  gentle  and  mel- 
ancholy rhythm  made  it  a  fiivorite  verse  of  the 
elegiac  poets,  and  it  is  in  distichs  that  nearly  all 
the  moral  precepts  of  the  ancients  were  dictated. 

DISTILLATION  (Lat.  dis,  asunder,  apart,  and  - 
stillare,  to  fall  in  drops),  the  separating  two 
bodies  which  may  be  mixed  or  combined,  by 


DISTILLATION 


DISTILLERY 


509 


converting  tlie  more  volatile  one  into  vapor  "with 
tlio  aid  of  heat,  and  condensing  this  product.  On 
heating  sea  -water,  the  vapor  whieii  ])as6es  oft' 
leaves  behind  the  impurities  mechanically  mixed, 
and  the  salts  that  were  held  in  cheuncal  solution ; 
the  steam  condenses  upon  cold  surfaces,  and 
forms  drops  of  pure  distilled  water.  Such  is  tho 
rain,  and  such  are  the  dew  droi)s,  which  in  na- 
ture's laboratory  are  distilled  from  all  Huid 
sources  exposed  to  evaporation,  even  the  most 
ini[)ure.  By  this  process  a  more  volatile  liquid 
may  be  6ei)arated  from  others  less  so,  as  ether, 
alct)liol,  or  ammonia,  &c.,  from  tho  water  with 
which  they  may  be  mixed.  The  volatile  prin- 
ciples of  plants,  extracted  by  their  solution  in 
water  or  in  other  fluids,  are  thus  separated  from 
the  substances  with  which  they  were  associated, 
and  remain  with  these  fluids  on  their  distillation. 
The  vai)or  of  Avater  may  itself  be  made  to  take 
up  the  volatile  vegetable  principles,  as  this  is 
evolved  in  tho  process  of  distillation.  Vegetable 
and  animal  substances  undergo  a  process  of 
destructive  distillation  by  being  exposed  to  the 
action  of  heat  in  close  vessels,  the  effect  of 
which  is  to  separate  the  volatile  fluids  and  gas- 
eous matters,  leaving  the  solid  portions  in  the 
retorts.  Wood  is  thus  distilled,  producing  char- 
coal, tar,  the  volatile  pyroligneous  acid,  naphtha, 
&c. ;  bituminous  coal  also  producing  coke,  coal 
tar,  ammoniacal  liquors,  inflammable  gases,  &c. 
New  combinations  of  the  elements  of  organic 
bodies  are  produced  in  this  process  of  destruc- 
tive distillation.  When  the  vapor  produced  con- 
denses in  a  solid  form,  as  when  sulphur,  arsenic, 
or  camphor  is  volatilized,  the  operation  is  called 
sublimation,  and  the  product  a  sublimate,  as  in 
the  other  case  it  is  called  a  distillate.  In  tho 
chemical  laboratory  the  process  of  distillation  is 
commonly  conducted  in  vessels  called  retorts, 
which  are  usually  of  glass.  The  liquid  to  be 
boiled  is  held  in  the  body  of  the  vessel,  and  the 
vapor  passes  through  the  neck,  which  turns  over 
to  one  side  from  the  top,  and  connects  with  an- 
other glass  vessel  called  a  receiver.  This  and  tho 
neck  of  the  retort  being  kept  cool  by  the  appli- 
cation of  cold  water  upon  the  outside,  the  va- 
pors are  condensed  and  collect  in  the  receiver. 
Glass  flasks  with  bent  glass  tubes  closely  fitted 
in  their  necks  furnish  convenient  substitutes  for 
retorts.  If  the  supply  of  vapor  is  large,  more 
eflicient  means  must  be  resorted  to  for  its  con- 
densation. Such  is  furnished  in  the  worm  of 
the  still,  a  metallic  pipe  coiled  around  within  a 
tub,  and  kei)t  cool  by  the  water  fiUiug  the  tub, 
which  is  removed  constantly  as  it  becomes  heat- 
ed, and  is  replaced  by  cold  water  flowing  in. 
The  vapors  j)assing  through  the  pipe  drop  out 
condon^od  from  its  lower  end,  which  projects 
through  the  bottom  or  side  of  the  tub.  The 
still  itself  is  a  metallio  vessel  of  any  convenient 
form  for  a  boiler,  furnished  with  a  head,  whicli 
accurately  fits  upon  the  body  and  connects  this 
with  the  worm  or  condenser  at  the  other  end. 
For  the  laboratory  metallic  stills  are  little  used ; 
the  steam  produced  in  the  operation  of  distill- 
ing acting  upou  most  metallic  surfaces,  and  the 


product  being  rendered  impure  by  the  presence 
of  foreign  matter  thus  introduced,  tho  object  of 
distillation,  which  in  chemical  operations  is  to 
obtain  ])ure  products,  is  thus  defeated. 

DISTILLERY,  works  in  which  the  manufac- 
ture of  ardent  spirits  is  conducted.  The  opera- 
tion is  commonly  called  distillation,  though  this 
is  but  the  last  of  several  distinct  processes  in- 
volved in  the  manufacture.  The  preparation  of 
a  highly  intoxicating  liquor,  by  separating  the 
more  volatile  portions  of  the  fermented  juices 
of  sweet  fruits  and  infusions  of  grains,  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  understood  by  the  ancients. 
Dr.  Ure  states  that  "  it  seems  to  have  been  in- 
vented by  the  barbarians  of  tho  north  of  Eu- 
rope as  a  solace  to  their  cold  and  luauid  clime ; 
and  was  first  made  known  to  the  southern  na- 
tions in  the  writings  of  Arnoldus  do  Villa  Nova 
and  his  pupil  Raymond  Lully,  of  Majorca."  Yet 
there  are  but  few  nations  at  the  present  time, 
above  the  condition  of  savages,  who  are  not  in 
the  habit  of  preparing  some  form  of  intoxicat- 
ing liquors  by  distillation.  In  the  articles  Alco- 
hol and  Bkandy  the  processes  have  been  ex- 
plained by  which  the  ardent  spirit  is  produced  in 
the  course  of  fermentation  of  saccharine  juices ; 
and  in  Beek  and  Brewing  the  generation  of  the 
same  spirit  is  described  as  resulting  from  amyla- 
ceous fruits  or  grains,  or  those  containing  starch, 
by  causing  this  starch  to  be  converted  into  grapo 
sugar,  the  fermentation  of  which  produces  alco- 
Vol.  The  fermented  juice  of  the  grape,  or  wine, 
and  the  fermented  infusion  of  grape  sugar  de- 
rived from  malted  liquors,  contain  the  same  in- 
toxicating principle,  which  it  is  the  object  of 
distillation  to  separate  ;  and  Avhich,  when  sepa- 
rated from  vegetable  substances  of  such  diverse 
qualities,  retains  the  peculiar  aroma  or  flavor 
of  the  plant,  until  by  repeated  distillations  or 
rectifications  the  pure  spirit  is  at  last  obtained 
free  from  the  volatile  oil  and  other  matters  to 
which  the  flavor  is  due.  All  the  juices  of  plants 
which  can  undergo  vinous  fermentation,  and 
all  vegetable  matters  which  contain  starch,  may 
thus  be  made  to  produce  distilled  liquors  ;  and 
many  kinds  obtained  from  very  cheap  and  infe- 
rior materials  are  by  the  introduction  of  flavor- 
ing matters  made  to  pass  for  those  which  natu- 
rally possess  the  most  esteemed  aroma.  Some 
animal  fluids  also,  which  contain  saccharine 
matters,  may  by  fermentation  produce  alcohol. 
Milk  is  one  of  these,  and  from  that  of  the  mare 
the  Tartars  manufacture  an  ardent  spirit ;  the 
fermented  milk  is  also  used  by  them  without 
distilling.  A  large  proportion  of  the  substances 
used  for  the  food  of  man  may  thus  be  applied 
to  the  preparation  of  ardent  spirit.  The  fruits 
of  each  country  furnish  spirits  of  their  peculiar 
flavors,  when  these  are  obtained  directly  from 
the  fermented  juice ;  but  if  the  juices  are  first 
allowed  to  crystallize,  the  sugar  thus  obtained, 
on  being  redissolved  and  fermented,  is  found  to 
liave  lost  the  aroma  of  the  plant.  Thus  the 
high  flavor  of  the  rum  distilled  from  fresh  cano 
juice  is  missed  when  the  distillation  is  con- 
ducted from  fermented  sugar  and  molasses  ; 


610 


DISTILLERY 


tlie  product  is  then  a  comparatively  insipid 
vrhiskey.  The  distilled  liquors  of  each  country 
are  those  of  its  peculiar  fruits.  Sugar-grow- 
ing countries  produce  rum,  vine-growing  coun- 
tries hrandy,  and  grain-growing  countries  whis- 
key and  gin.  The  Chinese  manufacture  a  dis- 
tilled liquor  from  rice,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
Xamtchatka  another  from  mushrooms.  The 
processes  of  obtaining  these  liquors  are  essen- 
tially the  same,  excepting  that  the  grains  re- 
quire some  preparatory  operations  before  they 
are  ready  like  the  saccharine  juices  for  im- 
mediate fermentation.  These  operations  are 
in  fact  the  same  as  those  required  in  brew- 
ing. The  grain  is  first  subjected  to  the  process 
of  "mashing,"  and  then  to  that  of  "cooling," 
when  the  infusion  is  ready  for  fermentation, 
after  which  follows  the  distillation. — A  short 
account  of  the  manufacture  of  whiskey  as 
prosecuted  in  the  great  distilleries  of  Scotland 
will  sufficiently  explain  the  various  operations. 
In  different  establishments  the  proportions  and 
kind  of  grain  vary  considerably.  Barley  is 
commonly  employed,  more  or  less  mix'^d  with 
oats,  rye,  or  other  grains.  It  may  be  malted 
wholly  or  in  part,  or  may  be  nsed  with  sugar ; 
and  sugar  and  molasses  may  also  answer  with- 
out grain.  Barley  malt  is  the  best  material,  but 
the  heavy  duty  imposed  upon  it  restricts  its  use. 
The  effect  of  the  malt  is  to  convert  tlie  starch 
into  sugar,  as  explained  in  the  article  Diastase, 
and  a  small  proportion  will  accomplish  this  re- 
sult. If  used  in  the  proportion  of  ■^,  it  is  well ; 
but  it  often  forms  no  more  than  |  of  the  mix- 
ture. Dr.  Thomson  gives  an  account  of  the  pro- 
cess long  conducted  with  great  success  in  some 
of  the  Scotch  distilleries,  in  which  40  bushels 
of  ground  barley  are  mixed  with  20  bushels  of 
bruised  malt  in  a  mash  tun  of  cast  iron,  together 
with  about  750  wine  gallons  of  water  at  the 
temperature  of  about  150°  F.  The  mashing  is 
continued  by  hand  labor  or  machinery  for  1-^ 
hours,  or  longer,  with  a  greater  proportion  of 
raw  grain.  About  500  gallons  more  of  water 
at  190°  to  205°  are  introduced  at  intervals  to 
keep  up  the  heat.  The  whole  is  then  allowed  to 
infuse  for  2  hours.  During  this  time  the  grain 
subsides,  and  the  liquid  above  it  is  a  saccharine 
jnuddy  fluid,  called  wort.  As  the  starch  con- 
tinues to  change  into  grape  sugar  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  diastase  in  the  malt,  the  sweetness 
of  this  fluid  increases.  After  the  infusion  the 
greater  part,  usually  -§-,  of  the  wort  is  drawn  off 
from  the  top.  In  brewing,  the  whole  contents 
ai*e  drawn  off  together  from  the  bottom.  The 
infusion  upon  the  same  grain  is  then  renewed 
with  500  gallons  more  of  water  at  190'',  and 
continued  another  hour  and  a  half;  and  a  third 
infusion  after  the  wort  has  been  drawn  off  suc- 
ceeds this  with  800  gallons  of  boiling  water. 
This  being  well  stirred  for  20  minutes  and  then 
left  for  about  half  an  hour,  the  saccharine  matters 
are  found  to  be  extracted  from  the  grain ;  the 
wort  is  drawn  off,  and  is  either  boiled  down  to 
bi'ing  it  to  the  required  strength,  or  is  added  to 
the  1st  and  2d  worts,  or  is  kept  to  be  used  in- 


stead of  pure  water  for  the  first  infusion  of  the 
next  mashing.  Strong  worts  are  not  desirable, 
the  fermentation  being  more  complete  and  the 
yield  of  spirits  greater  when  these  are  of  moder- 
ate specific  gravity.  By  the  old  excise  laws  of 
Great  Britain  they  were  required  to  be  of  a  cer- 
tain high  degree  of  strength,  but  in  Scotland 
and  Ireland  they  are  now  allowed  to  range  from 
specific  gravity  1030  to  1080,  that  of  water  be- 
ing 1000.  The  next  process  is  that  of  cooling 
the  worts,  and  in  consequence  of  the  tendency 
of  those  produced  from  raw  grain  to  become 
acid,  this  must  be  rapidly  accomplished.  In 
some  distilleries  the  liquors  are  run  into  large 
shallow  coolers,  placed  in  an  exposed  situation 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  building,  and  filled  only 
a,  few  inches  deep ;  and  artificial  arrangements 
are  made  for  producing  currents  of  air  over  the 
surface.  In  others,  which  are  supplied  with 
abundance  of  cold  water,  the  worts  are  passed 
through  tin  or  copper  pipes  surrounded  with 
this  cooling  medium.  When  reduced  in  cold 
weather  (which  is  the  most  suitable  for  this 
business)  to  a  temperature  between  52°  and  65°, 
the  worts  are  transferred,  together  with  the 
starchy  matter  which  subsides  in  the  cooling,  to 
the  fermenting  tuns.  In  the  improved  process 
of  'rapid  fermentation  now  adopted,  the  worts 
are  more  commonly  of  the  temperature  of  from 
65°  to  76°,  and  the  process,  instead  of  being 
conducted  as  formerly  by  adding  at  intervals  of 
each  day  quantities  of  brewer's  yeast  for  4  or  5 
days  and  protracting  the  operation  through  a 
period  of  about  10  days,  is  completed  in  2  or  3 
-  days.  The  yeast  is  added  at  once,  a  gallon  or 
a  gallon  and  a  half,  according  to  the  season,  to 
each  100  gallons  of  wort;  and  if  the  fermentation 
does  not  go  on  briskly  enough,  more  is  added  the 
next  day.  Upon  the  quality  of  the  yeast  the 
success  of  the  important  process  of  fermentation 
in  great  measure  depends.  The  object  is  to  de- 
compose the  largest  possible  proportion  of  the 
saccharine  matter,  and  convert  it  into  alcohol; 
but  the  presence  of  the  alcohol  as  it  is  formed 
impedes  the  progress  of  this  change,  and  a 
quantity  often  amounting  to  ^  of  the  whole 
saccharine  matter  escapes  decomposition;  in 
strong  worts  this  proportion  is  greater  than  in 
weak  worts.  By  the  invention  of  Mr.  Sheridan 
in  fermenting  the  wash  in  close  tuns,  and  caus- 
ing the  alcohol  to  evaporate  by  nsing  a  powerfid 
air  pump,  the  whole  saccharine  matter  was  al- 
coholized, but  the  excise  restrictions  prevented 
the  adoption  of  this  improvement.  As  the  pro- 
cess goes  on  the  fluid  becomes  of  less  specific 
gravity,  and  when  successfully  conducted  its 
density  is  found  to  be  the  same  as  that  of  water. 
If  it  be  pushed  too  ftxr,  or  go  on  sluggishly  or  at 
too  high  a  temperature,  loss  will  result  by  a  por- 
tion of  the  alcohol  passing  to  acetic  acid,  the  pres- 
ence of  which  is  indicated  by  increase  of  spe- 
cific gravity,  as  well  as  by  its  pecuhar  odor  and 
taste.  The  nndecoraposed  portion  of  the  wort, 
or,  as  it  is  called  after  fermentation,  the  wash,- 
is  a  loss  to  the  distiller,  the  only  use  made  of  it 
being  to  feed  cattle  and  swine,  for  which  its 


DISTILLERY 


511 


sweetness  renders  it  a  fattening  material.  The 
fermenting  tuns  are  liuge  vats  of  wood  or  iron, 
and  when  of  the  latter  material  are  so  con- 
structed that  hot  or  cold  water  may  be  applied 
to  the  outside  to  regulate  the  temperature  of 
the  contents.  The  operation  as  it  goes  on  is 
thus  described  by  Dr.  Thomson  in  tlie  "Eec- 
ords  of  General  Science,"  vol.  ii. :  "  Its  first 
effects  are  indicated  round  the  sides  of  the  back 
(tun)  by  the  appearance  of  a  scuininy-looking 
matter  on  the  surface  of  the  worts,  and  the 
emission  of  small  bubbles,  which  contain  car- 
bonic acid  gas.  The  temperature  increases  as 
fermentation  advances;  its  progress  is  rather 
slow  at  first,  but  gradually  increases,  and  after 
some  time  proceeds  with  prodigious  rapidity. 
Large  bubbles  of  carbonic  acid  gas  escaping 
set  the  whole  in  motion,  as  if  in  a  state  of  vio- 
lent ebullition ;  a  large  quantity  of  froth  col- 
lects on  the  surface  of  the  liquor  (which  is  now 
called  wash),  which  often  accumulates  with  such 
rapidity  that  several  men  are  required  to  beat  it 
down  with  oars,  to  prevent  its  spilling  over  the 
top  ;  indeed,  on  some  occasions,  the  beating  on 
the  top  has  been  found  ineffectual,  and  the  dis- 
tiller forced  to  pump  a  portion  of  the  wash  up 
to  the  coolers  to  lower  its  temperature,  and 
then  return  it,  after  which  the  process  proceed- 
ed at  a  moderate  rate ;  and  in  all  cases,  toward 
its  close,  the  rate  of  fermentation  gradually 
diminishes,  and  the  temperature  decreases,  till 
at  last  the  wash  acquires  the  temperature  of  the 
tun  room,  and  remains  quiescent." — The  pro- 
cess of  distillation,  which,  by  distinguishing  the 
preparation  of  ardent  spirits  from  that  of  fer- 
mented liquors,  gives  its  name  to  the  whole 
ojjeration,  now  succeeds.  It  is  conducted  in 
stills  of  various  sizes  and  forms,  some  of  which 
in  the  largest  eetablishments  have  a  capacity 
equal  to  distilling  2,000  gallons  of  wash  per 
hour;  one  at  Leith  is  described  as  exceeding 
even  this  by  more  than  ^.  As  formerly  con- 
structed, this  apparatus  was  made  large,  but  of 
such  depth  that  its  contents  were  evaporated 
only  once  in  a  whole  week.  Duties  in  Scotland 
being  imposed  upon  the  works,  based  on  the 
dimensions  of  the  stills,  led  the  distillers  to  en- 
large the  size  of  the  bottoms  exposed  to  the 
fire,  by  Avhich  the  time  of  the  operation  was 
reduced  to  a  few  hours.  As  the  duty  was  sub- 
sequently increased,  but  still  based  on  the  same 
principle,  the  distUlers  contrived  to  increase  the 
production  of  the  stills  without  enlarging  them, 
until  by  working  them  rapidly,  Avith  great  con- 
sumption of  fuel,  one  of  the  capacity  of  80  gal- 
lons C(ndd  be  completely  distilled  off,  emptied, 
and  ready  for  a  new  operation,  in  S^  minutes, 
and  in  some  cases  in  3  minutes,  and  one  of  40 
gallons  in  2^  minutes.  In  1815  this  mode  of 
assessing  the  duties  was  abolished ;  but  the ' 
large  diameter  of  the  bottoms  of  the  stills  is 
retained,  and  the  operations  are  more  rapidly 
conducted  than  elsewtere. — In  distilling  a  mix- 
ture of  li'iuids,  as  alcohol  and  water,  the  boiling 
points  of  which  are  not  the  same,  the  more  vola* 
tile  fluid,  as  the  former  in  this  instance,  begins  to 


be  converted  into  vapor  near  the  mean  tempera- 
ture between  the  2  boiling  points,  which  is  about 
190°,  alcohol  boiling  at  ITO""  and  water  at  212°. 
As  the  proportion  of  alcohol  diminishes  by 
reason  of  its  forming  the  principal  ])ortion  of 
the  first  products  of  the  distillation,  the  boiling 
point  of  the  mixture  becomes  higher,  till  it  ap- 
proaches that  of  water.  The  process  is  then 
stopped,  aqueous  vapor  forming  tlic  principal 
I)art  of  the  product.  The  litjuor  which  remains 
in  the  still  is  let  off,  and  is  of  no  further  value 
but  to  feed  cattle.  In  condensing  the  products 
of  the  distillation,  the  same  law  is  observed  of 
the  alcohol  and  water  reassuming  the  liquid 
state,  which  regulated  their  leaving  it.  When- 
ever the  vapors  are  cooled  below  212°,  the 
aqueous  portion  condenses ;  but  the  greater  part 
of  the  alcoholic  vapors  remains  uncondensed  till 
their  temperature  falls  below  their  boiling  ])oint. 
By  keeping  up  the  heat,  and  gradually  diminish- 
ing it  through  a  series  of  condensing  vessels, 
similar  to  the  apparatus  called  the  Woulfe  bot- 
tles, used  in  chemical  laboratories  for  impreg- 
nating liquids  with  gases,  the  products  may  be 
in  great  part  separated  from  each  other,  those 
furthest  off  from  the  still  receiving  the  most 
volatile  or  the  most  alcoholic  vapors,  while  the 
water  is  arrested  in  those  of  higher  tempera- 
ture into  Avhich  the  vapors  are  first  received. 
Some  volatile  oils  also,  which  are  produced 
with  the  alcohol  and  communicate  to  it  an  un- 
pleasant flavor,  are  more  readily  condensed  than 
this,  and  are  consequently  detained  and  got  rid 
of  together  with  the  aqueous  portion  of  the 
mixture.  It  is  on  this  principle  that  the  great 
improvements  have  been  inti'oduced  in  the  mod- 
ern stills,  the  old  form  of  th^  worm  having  the 
great  imperfection  of  letting  the  vapors  all  con- 
dense and  run  together  into  one  receiver.  The 
idea  of  this  application  was  suggested  in  the  year 
1801  to  a  Frenchman,  £douard  Adam,  who  is  de- 
scribed as  an  uneducated  man,  a  distiller  by  trade, 
though  ignorant  of  the  art.  He  saw  the  Woulfe 
apparatus  at  a  chemical  lecture  which  he  attend- 
ed at  Montpellier,  and  soon  constructed  a  sim- 
ilar arrangement  for  condensing  brandy  distilled 
from  wine.  This  succeeded  so  well  that  the 
whole  process  of  distillation  was  soon  comj^lete- 
ly  changed.  The  restrictions  of  the  excise  laws 
of  Great  Britain  prevented  the  introduction  of 
the  improvement  into  that  country  until  after 
their  modification  in  1815.  Adam's  apparatus 
was  in  the  mean  time  much  improved  in  France 
by  the  inventions  of  Isaac  Berard,  Blumenthal, 
and  Derosne,  by  which  the  process  w^as  made 
continuous,  the  wine  being  supplied  at  one 
place,  and,  when  deprived  of  its  alcohol,  escap- 
ing at  another  in  a  continued  stream.  The  por- 
tions first  condensed,  least  rich  in  alcohol,  were 
made  to  flow  back  into  the  still  by  pipes  ar- 
ranged for  the  purpose.  In  England  the  same 
form  of  stiU  has  been  greatly  improved  to  adapt 
it  to  the  immense  scale  upon  which  the  opera- 
tions are  there  conducted.  The  most  efficient 
apparatus  of  this  kind  for  the  production  of 
grain  whiskey  is  that  invented  by  Mr.  Coffee 


512 


DISTILLERY 


of  Dublin,  and  for  the  production  of  malt  wliis- 
key  tliat  of  Stein,  whicli  is  based  upon  the  same 
priuciple,but  is  intended  to  retain  the  volatile  oils 
which  impart  flavor  to  the  spirits.  They  are  too 
complicated  for  any  intelligible  description  to  bo 
given  of  them  without  drawings.  They  work 
continuously;  that  is,  so  long  as  the  operation 
is  kept  up  new  wash  continues  to  be  sui)plied. 
The  wash,  already  heated  before  it  enters  the 
apparatus,  is  exposed  in  a  series  of  shallow 
chambers  to  currents  of  steam  which  take  up 
the  alcoholic  vapors  and  carry  them  into  the 
condensing  part  of  the  apparatus.  This  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  chambers,  which  are  succes- 
sively colder  as  their  distance  increases  from 
the  entering  point  of  the  hot  vapors.  They  col- 
lect the  condensed  fluid  of  all  degrees  of  strength 
and  of  the  utmost  jjurity.  The  strongest  com- 
mercial spirits  of  wine  are  thus  produced  by  a 
single  operation,  rendering  the  old  processes  of 
rectification  quite  unnecessary.  But  in  produc- 
ing these  strong  spirits  the  flavor  is  lost,  and 
the  product  is  conset^uently  not  a  favorite  with 
whiskey  drinkers.  It  is,  however,  often  made 
to  suit  their  taste  by  dilution  with  water  and 
flavoring  "with  a  dose  of  the  most  odorous 
malt  spirit."  Such  is  said  to  be  the  mode  of 
manufacturing  the  greater  part  of  the  so-called 
malt  whiskey,  and  nearly  all  the  Scotch  whis- 
key sold  in  England.  The  economy  of  Coffee's 
still  is  very  striking.  "The  water  for  supply- 
ing the  boiler  passes  through  a  long  coil  of 
pipe  immersed  in  the  boiling  hot  spent  wash,  by 
which  means  it  is  raised  to  a  high  temperature 
before  it  reaches  the  boiler.  The  vapor  which 
passes  through  this  apparatus  is  all  condensed 
by  the  wash,  not  by  the  water,  so  that  no  heat 
is  wasted.  It  is  stated  that  about  f  of  the  fuel 
used  with  the  common  stills  is  saved  by  this 
ap])aratu9.  By  the  usual  process,  to  distil  a 
gallon  of  proof  spirits  12  lbs.  of  coal  are  required, 
9  lbs.  of  which  are  saved  by  this  apparatus. 
Supposing  the  whole  quantity  of  spirits  distilled 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  to  be  30,000,000 
gallons,  and  that  the  improved  still  is  adopted, 
the  saving  of  fuel  would  amount  to  140,000  tons 
of  coal  per  annum." — The  products  of  the  dis- 
tilleries of  ditTerent  localities  are  distinguished 
by  peculiar  flavors,  which  give  a  reputation 
to  their  liquors.  These  have  for  the  most  part 
little  to  do  with  the  original  qualities  of  the 
materials  from  which  the  ardent  spirits  are  ob- 
tai-ned,  but  are  commonly  derived  from  the  fuel 
burned  in  drying  the  malt.  Much  of  the  Scotch 
highland  and  Irish  whiskey  possesses  a  peculiar 
flavor  of  peat  smoke,  possibly  derived  from  the 
bog  water  in  which  the  malt  is  steeped;  other 
qualities  liave  a  birch  oil  or  Russia  leather  fla- 
vor from  the  use  of  birch  for  fuel.  Brandies 
manufactured  from  wines  have  their  peculiar 
flavors  from  the  distillation  being  conducted  at 
sufficiently  high  temperature  to  carry  over  the 
volatile  oils,  some  acetic  acid,  acetic  ether,  and 
other  matters,  and  these  are  retained  together 
with  so  much  water  that  their  strength  is  con- 
siderably below  that  of  the  ardent  spirits  pro- 


duced in  Great  Britain  ;  they  commonly  consist 
of  more  than  half  water.  Gin,  known  also  by 
the  names  Schiedam,  Hollands,  and  Geneva,  has 
long  been  manufactured  at  Schiedam  in  Holland, 
by  the  same  process  at  the  ditTerent  distilleries. 
The  materials  are  112  lbs.  of  barley  malt  (weight 
about  37  lbs.  to  the  bushel)  and  228  lbs.  of  rye 
meal  mashed  with  460  gallons  of  water  at  162°. 
After  infusing,  cold  water  is  added  till  the 
strength  is  reduced  to  45  lbs.  per  barrel,  of  spe- 
cific gravity  1 .047.  At  the  temperature  of  80°  it 
is  run  into  the  fermenting  tubs,  and  half  a  gal- 
lon of  good  yeast  is  added  for  every  500  gallons 
of  liquor.  The  temperature  rises  to  90°,  and  in 
48  hours  the  attenuation  is  complete.  From  12 
to  15  lbs.  of  undecomposed  saccharine  matter 
still  remain  in  the  liquor.  Both  the  wash  and 
grains  are  put  into  the  still,  and  the  whole  of 
the  low  wines  are  distilled  off.  These  are  again 
distilled,  and  after  rectification,  in  which  juni- 
per berries  and  sometimes  hops  are  added  to  give 
the  flavor,  the  product  is  the  famous  Geneva. 
The  process  is  peculiar  in  the  fermentation  not 
being  prosecuted  to  the  usual  extent,  and  in 
the  small  quantity  of  yeast  added  to  promote  it. 
Gin  manufactured  in  England,  and  rum  also,  is 
whiskey  disguised  with  suitable  flavorings. — In 
France  several  distilleries  are  engaged  in  man- 
ufacturing ardent  spirits  from  potatoes,  both  by 
fermenting  the  steamed  and  mashed  potato, 
and  by  treating  the  starch  previously  prepared 
from  the  tuber  with  sulphuric  acid,  thus  con- 
verting it  into  sugar.  The  advantages  of  the  pro- 
cess are  said  to  be  the  cheapness  of  the  material, 
the  excellence  of  the  spirit,the  saving  of  the  more 
valuable  grains  for  otlier  uses,  and  the  economy 
in  yeast.  The  residuum  of  the  process  is  also 
good  food  for  cattle.  It  is  found  that  110.3  lbs. 
avoirdupois  of  potato  starch  produce  from  4.4  to 
5.5  imperial  gallons  of  alcohol  at  0.935.  From 
some  experiments  of  Dr.  Hare  upon  sweet  po- 
tatoes, it  would  appear  that  they  are  as  well' 
adapted  as  malt  for  the  manufacture  of  ale,  and 
so  probably  for  ardent  spirits.  Five  bushels  of 
potatoes  are  thought  to  produce  as  much  Avort 
as  3  of  malt,  and  the  residue  to  be  worth  half 
the  cost  of  the  potatoes  as  food  for  cattle.  Car- 
rots also  have  produced  liquor  of  good  quality 
and  a  residue  making  excellent  feed  for  stock. 
The  molasses  of  beet  sugar  factories  is  used  for 
the  same  purpose.  The  manufacture  of  spirit 
from  the  washings  of  madder,  which  have  here- 
tofore been  allowed  to  run  to  waste  in  the  dj-e- 
iug  establishments,  is  now  carried  on  at  several 
distilleries  in  France  and  at  one  in  Glasgow. 
Two  tons  of  madder  liquor  at  30°  are  stated  to 
produce  about  60  gallons  of  spirit.  In  the  north 
of  France  the  berries  of  the  mountain  ash,  sor- 
hus  ancv^Mria^  are  made  to  produce  brandy 
equal,  it  is  said,  to  the  best  made  from  wine. 
The  second  distillation  is  from  the  first  distillate 
mixed  with  very  fresh  and  finely  powdered 
charcoal  in  the  proportion  of  8  or  9  lbs.  to  every 
40  gallons  of  weak  spirit.  Charcoal^  coarsely 
ground  is  used  in  many  of  the  distilleries  of  the 
United  States  as  a  filter  for  purifying  whiskey. 


DISTRESS 


513 


—All  the  spirits  obtained  from  these  various 
Bourcos  are  but  mixtures  of  alcohol  and  water, 
disf^uised  by  the  peculiar  Havors  of  the  princi- 
pal materials  employed,  orof  those  incidentally 
introduced,  as  the  yeast,  soap  thrown  into  the 
stills  to  check,  by  the  oily  scum  it  produces, 
a  boiling  over  of  the  liquors,  or  the  peat,  &g. 
These  flavors  are  removed  by  the  process  of 
rectification,  which  succeeds  that  of  the  dis- 
tillation j)roper,  and  in  England  is  commonly 
but  not  always  conducted  at  a  separate  estab- 
lishment. It  involves  further  distillations  from 
substances  introduced  into  the  spirits,  which 
combine  with  the  essential  oils  and  other  nox- 
ious ingredients  and  render  them  fixed,  wliile 
the  alcoholic  portions  are  distilled  over.  Tlje 
crudest  spirits  of  whatever  origin,  contaminated 
with  the  unwholesome  fusel  oil,  or  the  disagree- 
able yeast,  are  thus  brought  to  the  same  degree 
of  i)urity  with  the  choicest  products  of  distilla- 
tion, and  then  by  the  art  of  the  rectifying  dis- 
tiller are  converted  into  imitations  of  any  gen- 
uine liquors  or  cordials,  and  sold  as  such.  A 
great  number  of  substances  are  employed  for 
purifying  the  liquors ;  caustic  potassa,  under  the 
name  of  gray  salts,  and  pearl  ash,  called  white 
salts,  are  commonly  used  in  tlie  proportion  of  4 
lbs.  of  each  to  every  VOO  gallons  of  crude  spirits. 
Charcoal  and  ashes  are  also  employed,  the  latter 
to  neutralize  any  acid  present. — The  total  reve- 
nue of  Great  Britain  from  spirits  for  the  year 
ending  Jan.  5, 1854,  was  £0,760,422  Gs.  Gd.—ThQ 
distilleries  of  the  United  States,  though  no  doubt 
far  more  extensive  than  the  good  of  the  people 
requires,  are  much  behind  those  of  Great  Brit- 
ain in  the  j)erfection  of  their  machinery  and 
the  wonderful  capacity  of  production  of  single 
establishments.  Whiskey  from  rye  and  Indian 
corn  is  the  product  of  American  distilleries ; 
rum,  manufactured  from  West  India  molasses,  is 
pioJuced  to  a  limited  extent,  and  brandy  is  made 
from  some  of  the  fruits  upon  a  very  small  scale. 
The  manufiicture  of  whiskey  is  conducted  in  a 
great  number  of  small  distilleries  along  the  sea- 
board, and  large  quantities  of  the  raw  liquor  are 
exported  to  France  to  be  there  rectified  and 
converted  into  French  brandy.  The  distilleries 
of  the  western  states,  particularly  of  Ohio  and 
western  Pennsylvania,  produce  immense  quanti- 
ties of  whiskey,  which  are  sent  down  the  rivers 
to  find  a  market  in  New  Orleans,  whence  they 
are  largely  exported. 

DISTRESS  (Lat.  distringo,  to  press,  straight- 
en, wring  out),  a  term  applied  to  the  taking  of 
property  of  a  tenant  for  non-payment  of  rent ; 
also  to  the  seizing  of  cattle  for  damage  done  by 
them  ;  and  lastly  to  a  proceeding  for  the  coer- 
cion of  a  defendant  to  appear  in  a  cause  after 
service  of  the  summons  by  which  an  action  was 
at  an  ancient  period  commenced.  In  the  two 
cases  first  mentioned,  the  landlord  or  person 
who  had  been  injured  could  make  the  seizure 
himself  or  by  his  deputy — an  anomalous  author- 
ity, entirely  at  variance  with  a  fundamental 
principle  of  law  that  parties  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  redress  their  own  injuries  without  judi- 
VOL.  VI. — 33 


cial  process.  The  recaption  of  property  which 
has  been  wrongfully  taken  away,  or  wrongfully 
detained,  or  the  reentry  upon  lands  of  which  a 
man  has  been  dispossessed,  though  analogous  in 
one  respect  to  distress  for  rent  or  damage  feok^ 
saiit,  yet  difier  in  another,  viz. :  that  such  re- 
caption or  reOntry  cannot  be  made  with  force, 
whereas  a  distress  may  be  executed  in  like  man- 
ner as  process  upon  a  judgment,  that  is  to  say, 
force  may  be  used  in  case  of  resistance.  The 
3d  case  above  mentioned,  viz.,  distress  to  com- 
pel an  appearance,  was  by  a  judicial  writ  called 
a  distringas,  which  it  will  be  unnecessary  to 
consider  further  under  this  head,  as  it  belongs 
more  properly  to  the  practice  of  courts.  In  a 
popular  sense,  a  distress  is  understood  only  of  the 
taking  property  of  a  tenant  or  wrong  doer  in 
satisfaction  of  rent  or  damages,  and  to  this  we 
shall  limit  our  remarks  in  the  residue  of  this 
article.  The  term  is  with  some  incongruity  ap- 
I)lied  as  well  to  the  property  taken  as  to  the 
act  of  taking.  Formerly,  the  property  distrain- 
ed was  deemed  a  mere  pledge,  and  the  dis- 
trainor had  no  power  over  it  except  that  of 
detaining  it  till  satisfaction  of  the  rent  or  dam- 
ages for  which  the  distress  was  made ;  but  for 
the  security  of  the  owner  it  was  required  that 
the  property  should  be  kept  in  a  pound  (parens, 
which  signifies  any  enclosure) ;  and  if  the  dis- 
tress consisted  of  live  animals,  it  was  required 
that  they  should  be  impounded  within  3  miles 
of  the  place  where  they  were  taken.  If  put 
into  a  public  pound,  the  risk  and  expense  of 
keeping  the  same  devolved  upon  the  owner 
without  notice  from  the  distrainor.  By  statute 
11  George  II.,  c.  19,  the  distrainor  was  author- 
ized to  make  a  special  pound  upon  the  prern- 
ises  where  the  distress  was  taken,  in  which 
case  notice  to  the  owner  was  required ;  but  the 
liability  to  provide  necessaries  for  animals  be- 
longed to  the  owner  as  in  the  other  case.  The 
distrainor  was  bound  to  keep  a  distress  of  chat- 
tels which  might  be  injured  by  exposure  to  the 
weather  in  a  pound  covert.  A  distress  was 
allowed  only  by  daylight,  except  in  the  case  of 
beasts  damage  feasant,  which  might  be  taken 
at  night,  lest  they  should  escape.  Formerly  the 
landlord  could  distrain  only  such  goods  as  were 
found  upon  the  premises  for  which  rent  was 
due,  but  by  statute  goods  which  have  been  clan- 
destinely removed  may  be  followed  within  30 
days  after  the  rent  accrues.  In  making  the 
distress  the  landlord  is  not  permitted  to  break 
open  the  outer  door  of  the  house,  but  being  onco 
in,  he  can  break  an  inner  door,  being  the  same 
rule  as  in  levy  upon  execution.  As  to  the 
amount  of  distress,  the  only  protection  of  the  ten- 
ant is  by  an  ancient  statute  (52  Henry  III.,  c.  4) 
under  which  an  action  may  be  brought  for  the 
taking  of  an  unreasonable  or  excessive  amount. 
After  the  impounding  of  the  property,  by  the 
ancient  law  the  remedy  of  the  distrainor  ceased ; 
but  by  various  modern  statutes,  when  the  dis- 
tress is  for  rent,  it  may  be  sold  after  the  expira- 
tion of  5  days  for  payment  of  the  rent.  Such 
is  the  present  law  of  England  in  respect  to  dis- 


514 


DISTRICT  OP  COLUMBIA 


tresses.  In  tlie  United  States  important  modi- 
fications have  been  made.  In  the  state  of  New 
York,  distress  for  rent  was  abohslied  in  1846; 
it  is  still,  however,  allowed  for  injuries  done  by- 
animals,  but  provision  has  been  made  for  a  sale 
of  such  animals  in  satisfaction  of  damages  and 
expenses,  in  like  manner  as  provided  in  England 
respecting  a  distress  for  rent. 

DISTPJCT  OF  COLUMBIA,  atradt  of  terri- 
tory containing  the  seat  of  government  of  the 
United  States,  and  subject  to  the  exclusive 
jurisdiction  of  congress.  It  is  about  300  miles 
from  the  ocean  by  the  Potomac  river  and  Ches- 
apeake bay,  and  lies  between  lat.  38°  51'  and 
39°  K,  and  long.  76°  58'  and  77°  06'  W.  It  was 
named  in  honor  of  Christopher  Columbus,  and 
also  with  some  reference  to  the  poetical  use  of 
the  term  Columbia  as  a  designation  for  the  Unit- 
ed States.  It  is  bounded  on  the  S.  "W.  by  the 
Potomac,  and  on  all  other  sides  by  Maryland, 
and  is  10  m.  long  from  N.  "W.  to  S.  E.,  with  an 
area  of  about  60  sq.  m.  It  forms  the  county 
of  "Washington,  and  contains  2  cities,  Washing- 
ton and  Georgetown.  The  greater  part  of  the 
area  is  outside  the  boundaries  of  these  cities. 
The  surface  is  undulating,  with  hills  sufBciently 
high  to  command  extensive  views  and  afford 
fine  sites  for  public  edifices.  The  soil  is  light 
and  moderately  fertile.  The  agricultural  pro- 
ducts comprise  wheat,  rye,  Indian  corn,  oats, 
barley,  buckwheat,  peas,  beans,  Irish  and  sweet 
potatoes,  hops,  and  tobacco.  A  few  hundred 
gallons  of  wine  are  made  annually.  Two  con- 
siderable streams  empty  into  the  Potomac  within 
the  district,  Rock  creek,  and  the  Anacostia  or 
Eastern  branch.  There  are  also  several  small 
brooks,  to  one  of  which  the  name  of  the  Tiber  was 
given  by  the  early  settlers  in  the  17th  century, 
because  a  planter  named  Pope  lived  near  it.  The 
climate  is  moist  and  warm,  and  there  is  much 
local  miasma.  In  the  summer  and  autumn  fe- 
vers prevail  in  many  parts,  especially  in  the  low 
grounds  near  the  Potomac.  The  population  of 
the  district  by  the  census  of  1850  was  51,687,  of 
whom  37,941  were  whites,  10,059  free  colored, 
and  3,687  slaves.  At  present  (1859)  the  popu- 
lation is  estimated  at  65,000.  The  commerce  of 
the  district  is  very  small,  and  is  carried  on  chief- 
ly through  Georgetown.  The  value  of  exports 
to  foreign  countries  in  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1858,  amounted  to  $16,710 ;  of  imports,  $26,520. 
The  shipping  owned  within  the  district  amount- 
ed to  33,974  tons,  of  which  656  tons  was  regis- 
tered, and  the  remainder  employed  in  the  coast- 
ing trade  and  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal. 
The  steam  shipping  amounted  to  3,971  tons.  The 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal  passes  through  a 
portion  of  the  district,  and  crossing  the  Potomac 
at  Georgetown  terminates  at  Alexandria.  A 
branch  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad  ter- 
minates in  Washington,  and  a  railroad  connects 
Washington  with  Alexandria.  There  are  2  col- 
leges in  the  district,  Georgetown  college  and  Co- 
lumbian college.  The  former  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Jesuits,  and  was  founded  as  an  acad- 
emy in  1789  and  chartered  as  a  college  in  1792. 


In  1818  congress  gave  it  authority  to  confer  de- 
grees. It  occupies  2  brick  buildings  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  Georgetown,  and  owns  a  large  and 
valuable  tract  of  land.  It  has  a  museum  of  natural 
history,  an  extensive  philosophical  apparatus,  and 
a  botanic  garden.  Connected  with  it  is  a  flour- 
ishing female  seminary  taught  by  nuns.  In  1858 
this  college  had  21  instructors,  245  students, 
and  26,000  volumes  in  its  libraries.  Columbian 
college  stands  in  a  plot  of  46  acres  just  outside 
the  northern  boundary  of  Washington  city.  It 
was  founded  in  1821  under  the  ausjjices  of  the 
Baptist  general  convention.  It  occupies  a  build- 
ing 117  feet  by  47,  4  stories  high,  and  costing 
$35,000.  The  funds  contributed  to  the  college 
since  its  fouudation  amount  to  $187,000.  It 
has  a  library  of  7,500  volumes  and  property  es- 
timated at  $170,000.  In  1858  there  were  8  pro- 
fessors and  66  students.  From  a  census  taken  by 
a  committee  of  the  Columbian  teachers'  associ- 
ation in  Dec.  1857,  it  appears  that  only  about  one 
half  of  the  white  children  in  the  district  are  re- 
ceiving school  education.  Of  10,697  children  in 
Washington  city  between  the  ages  of  5  and  18, 
5,069  were  not  attending  any  school. — After 
the  adoption  of  the  articles  of  confederation  by 
the  United  States,  the  question  of  fixing  upon 
a  seat  of  government  for  the  Union  excited 
great  interest,  and  called  forth  much  sectional 
rivalry.  During  the  period  between  the  con- 
clusion of  the  revolutionary  war  and  the  adop- 
tion of  the  present  constitution,  congress  met 
alternately  at  Princeton,  Annapolis,  Trenton, 
and  New  York.  After  the  organization  of  the 
government  under  the  constitution  on  March  3, 
1789,  warm  discussions  took  place  in  congress 
on  the  location  of  the  capital,  which  were  finally 
settled  by  the  passage,  June  28,  1790,  of  an  act 
containing  the  following  clause  :  "  That  a  dis- 
trict of  territory  on  the  river  Potomac,  at  some 
place  between  the  mouths  of  the  Eastern  branch 
and  the  Connogacheague,  be,  and  the  same  is 
hereby  accepted  for  the  permanent  seat  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States."  The  same 
act  provided  that  congress  should  hold  its  ses- 
sions at  Philadelphia  until  the  1st  Monday  in 
November,  1800,  when  the  government  should 
remove  to  the  district  selected  on  the  Potomac. 
The  area  fixed  upon  for  the  district  was  a  square 
of  10  miles,  or  100  square  miles.  It  embraced 
about  60  square  miles  of  Maryland,  Avhich  was 
ceded  by  that  state  to  the  United  States  in  1788, 
and  40  square  miles  of  Virginia,  ceded  in  1789, 
Tlie  portion  on  the  Virginia  side  of  the  Potomac 
was  retroceded  to  that  state  in  1846.  The  con- 
stitution of  the  United  States  confers  upon  con- 
gress the  exclusive  legislative  control  over  the 
district,  but  does  not  allov/  the  inhabitants  any 
representation,  or  any  vote  for  national  officers. 
The  district  is  governed  by  laws  enacted  by 
congress  and  by  the  laws  of  Maryland  in  force 
at  the  time  of  the  cession  to  the  United  States. 
A  code  of  laws  prepared  by  commissioners  un- 
der the  sanction  of  congress  was  submitted  to 
the  people  in  1858  and  rejected  by  a  decisive 
vote.     The  official  expenses  of  the  district  are 


DITHYRAMBUS 


DITTOS 


515 


paid  by  the  federal  government.  The  following 
table  shows  the  amount  expended  by  the  United 
States  for  iinprovenients  in  the  district  up  to 
June  30,  1857: 


Ye«r». 

For  the  gov't. 

For  tho  district. 

1800  '48      

$6,530,814  42 

63,045  99 

69.945  01 

157,370  78 

403,205  69 

882,223  05 

429,884  03 

1,074,749  65 

1,278,230  35 

1,859,313  36 

$2,708,253  8S 

1848  '49          

189,000  00 

1849-50 

195.126  03 

1850-51 

1851-52 

1852-"53 

1853-'54 

279,901  08 
15S,8G9  03 
154,0-30  03 
9.M,910  81 

1854-\')5                 

129,1(;5  53 

1855-56 

1856-'57 

200,405  26 
250,073  77 

Total 

$12,748,842  33 

$5,120,435  47 

(See  Georgetown  and  Washington.) 

DITHYRAMBUS,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a  song 
Bung  in  the  vintage  season  in  honor  of  Bacchus. 
The  origin  of  these  songs  is  traced  to  the  ear- 
liest ages  of  Greek  civilization,  and  the  most 
famed  of  the  early  composers  of  them  was 
Arion  of  ^lethymna.  But  few  fragments  of  an- 
cient dithyrambic  poetry  remain,  and  it  is  only 
by  tradition  that  we  know  the  successes  of 
Melanippides,  Pindar,  and  Philoxenus,  in  this 
style  of  composition.  The  character  of  the 
dithyrayibus  was  primitively  religious,  it  being 
designed  for  showing  gratitude  to  the  deity ;  and 
it  was  livelj',  rapid,  brilliant,  and  disordered, 
like  the  joy  and  intoxication  of  a  Bacchanalian 
festival.  In  the  heat  of  improvisation,  the  po- 
ets allowed  themselves  to  unite  several  words 
into  one,  from  whicli  there  resulted  expressions 
so  voluminous  and  sonorous  that  they  wearied 
alike  the  ear  and  imagination.  The  Latins 
had  the  good  taste  not  to  borrow  from  the 
Greeks  this  kind  of  poetry,  which  in  the  age  of 
Pericles  was  the  object  of  the  railleries  even  of 
the  Athenians.  A  parody  of  Aristophanes  in- 
forms us  that  the  extravagance  of  the  dithyram- 
bic poets  had  in  his  time  become  proverbial. 

DITMARSH,  DiTMARSCH,  Ditmaushes,  Dith- 
MARsn,  DiTiiMARScnEN,  or  DiTMARSEN,  the  west- 
ernmost division  of  the  duchy  of  Holstein,  Den- 
mark, bounded  IST.  by  the  Eider  river,  W.  by 
the  Wilstermarsh,  S.  by  the  Elbe,  and  E.  by 
the  German  ocean ;  area,  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1855,  61,388.  Consisting  almost  wholly  of  low 
marshes  protected  against  the  sea  by  dikes,  it  is 
better  suited  for  cattle-raising  than  for  agricul- 
ture. But  its  chief  importance  is  historical  and 
ethnological.  The  inhabitants,  supposed  by  some 
to  be  descendants  of  the  old  Marsi,  have  pre- 
served all  prominent  features  of  the  primitive 
Teutonic  character  in  the  most  marked  form, 
and  may  in  some  respects  be  called  a  relic  of 
the  specific  German  culture  of  the  earliest  times. 
Through  all  vicissitudes  of  time  they  have  faith- 
fully clung  to  their  ancient  institutions  of  muni- 
cipal self-government,  equality  of  all  freeholders 
(there  never  has  been  a  nobility  among  them), 
and  many  peculiar  social  customs,  the  origin  of 
wliich  dates  back  to  a  time  before  the  Germans 
were  converted  to  Christianity.  They  are  a  hardy 
and  tough  race,  and  in  their  struggles  to  maintain 
their  independence  they  have  shown  great  devo- 


tion, courage,  and  persistency.    Yet  they  have 
not  always  acted  on  the  defensive.  There  was  a 
time  in  their  history  when  they  frequently  emerg- 
ed from  their  inaccessible  marshes  like  the  old 
Northmen,  in  order  to  suijject  the  neighboring 
tribes.  From  the  Gth  to  the  9 th  century  Ditmarsli 
was  a  portion  of  northern  Albrigia.    In  021  the 
country  was  given  in  ficf  by  the  German  emperor 
to  the  counts  of  Stade.    In  1072  it  was  conquered 
by  the  duke  of  Mecklenburg,  Kruko,  but  after 
his  death  the  counts  of  Stade  ruled  it  once  more. 
The  tyranny  of  some  of  these  drove  the  inhabit- 
ants to  open  rebellion,  and  they  slew  tlieir  op- 
pressors.   In  consequence,  Henry  the  Lion,  duke 
of  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  invaded  their  country 
and  chastised  them  severely,  but  after  his  death 
the  emperor  united  the  territory  with  the  bishop- 
ric of  Bremen.    They  improved  this  opportunity 
to  drive  all  knights  and  noblemen  from  among 
them.     Near  the  end  of  the  12th  century  they 
subjected  themselves  voluntarily  to  Danish  rule, 
but  threw  oif  their  allegiance  in  1227.     From 
that  time  they  were  almost  constantly  in  feud 
with  the  dukes  of  Ilolstein  and  kings  of  Den- 
mark, who  for  3  centuries  were  unable  to  ob- 
tain a  firm  foothold  in  their  country,  while  on 
the  contrary  the  Ditmarshers  very  frequently 
invaded  the  Danish  territory.     In  1500  King 
John  of  Denmark,  with  an  army  of  80,000  men, 
marched  into  Ditmarsh,  took  the  town  of  Mel- 
dorf,  and  butchered  all  the  inhabitants,  without 
distinction  of  age  or  sex.     Then  it  was  that  the 
sturdy  peasants,  led  by  one  of  their  number.  Wolf 
Iseband,  intrusted  their  banner  to  a  maiden,  Else 
of  Oldenwoerde,   and  after  a  hotly  contested 
battle,  opened  the  sluices  of  the  dikes,  thus  in- 
undating the  whole  country,  and  drowning  some 
20,000  Danes.     For  60  years  after  this  victory 
Ditmarsh  enjoyed  perfect  independence ;  but  in 
1559  Frederic'  II.  of  Denmark  conquered  it, 
after  a  manful  resistance.     Since  that  time  Dit- 
marsh has  been  a  portion  of  Holstein,  but  it  has 
always  been  treated  as  a  quasi  independent  terri- 
tory, and  its  administration  is  directed  by  a  spe- 
cial code  of  laws,  dating  back  to  the  year  1321. 
DITTON,  Humphrey,  an  English  mathema- 
tician, born   in  Salisbury,  May  -29,  1675,  died 
Oct.  15, 1715.     He  received  an  excellent  private 
education,  and  it  was  doubtless  owing  to  the 
nonconformist  principles  of  his  parents  that  he 
studied  at  neither  of  the  universities.     At  his 
father's  solicitation  he   studied  theology,  and 
filled  for  several  years  the  functions  of  a  minis- 
ter at  Tunbridge,  in  Kent.     Upon  the  death  of 
his  father  he  relinquished  the  clerical  profes- 
sion, and  devoted  himself  to  the  more  congenial 
study  of  mathematics.     He  was  encouraged  by 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  through  whose  influence  he 
was  elected  professor  in  the  newly  created  math- 
ematical school  of  Christ's  hospital,  a  position 
which  he  retained  till  his  death.     In  1714  he 
published,  with  Whiston,  an  advertisement  of 
a  new  method  of  finding  the  longitude  at  sea. 
The  plan  was  approved  by  Newton,  but  rejected 
by  the  board  of  longitude ;  and  it  is  said  that  the 
chagrin  caused  by  this  disappointment,  and  by 


516 


DIU 


DIVER 


some  sarcastic  verses  of  Dean  Swift,  occasioned 
the  premature  death  of  Ditton.  He  "was  the  au- 
thor of  numerous  mathematical  treatises,  among 
■which  are  tlie  following:  "  Of  tlie  Tangents  of 
Curves  ;"  "  General  Laws  of  Nature  and  of  Mo- 
tion;" an  "Institution  of  Fluxions;"  and  the 
"  New  Law  of  Fluids,  or  a  Discourse  concerning 
the  Ascent  of  Liquids  in  exact  Geometrical  Fig- 
ures, between  two  nearly  contiguous  Surfaces." 
His  writings  upon  theology  are  the  least  of  his 
titles  to  fame. 

-  DIU,  an  island  of  Hindostan,  belonging  to 
the  Portuguese,  formerly  a  fortified  place  of 
great  trade.  It  lies  south  of  Guzerat,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  a  narrow  channel,  in  lat.  20° 
42'  N.,  long.  70°  52'  E.  It  is  about  1^  m. 
in  breadth,  and  stretches  parallel  to  the  coast 
for  a  distance  of  7  m.  The  Portuguese  took 
possession  of  Diu  in  1535,  and  immediately 
provided  it  with  strong  fortifications.  It  had 
an  important  commerce  until  the  decline  of  the 
Portuguese  power,  but  Avas  taken  and  plundered 
by  the  Muscat  Arabs  in  1670,  and  has  never  re- 
covered its  prosperity.  The  town  of  Diu  lies  on 
the  east  end  of  the  island,  and  has  a  population 
of  4,000.  The  island  is  generallly  unfit  for  cul- 
tivation, and  its  water  is  brackish ;  but  provi- 
sions are  plentifully  supplied  from  the  main- 
land, and  water  is  secured  in  reservoirs  during 
the  rainy  season. 

DIVAN,  an  oriental  word  found  in  the  Ara- 
bic, Turkish,  and  Persian  languages,  and  applied 
in  the  East  to  every  seat  of  authority,  to  the 
place  where  the  sultan,  the  minister,  the  gov- 
ernor, the  bey,  the  pasha,  or  the  dey  pronounces 
his  orders,  receives  communications,  and  con- 
ducts his  administration.  It  designates  not  only 
the  ofBcial  habitation,  the  chamber  of  a  func- 
tionary, but  also  the  series  of  cushions  and 
couches  ranged  along  the  walls  which  serve  as 
the  seats  of  all  subordinate  officers. — In  litera- 
ture, divan  designates  among  the  Persians  and 
Turks  a  collection  of  songs.  A  complete  divan 
contains  as  many  poems  as  there  are  letters  in 
the  alphabet,  and  each  poem  rhy^ies  through- 
out, every  line  terminating  with  the  same  letter, 
which  is  different  in  the  different  poems.  Goethe 
collected  some  of  his  minor  poems  under  the 
title  of  divan. 

DIVER  {colymiiis,  Linn.),  a  bird  of  the  order 
anseres,  and  family  colymbidce,  the  latter  con- 
taining the  divers  and  the  grebes.  The  bill  in  this 
genus  is  long,  strong,  straight,  curved  slightly 
at  the  tip,  which  is  sharp,  with  compressed  sides ; 
the  nostrils  are  in  a  membranous  groove ;  the 
wings  are  moderate  and  pointed,  the  first  and 
second  quills  the  longest ;  the  tail  is  very  short 
and  rounded ;  the  tarsi  rather  short,  compressed, 
and  covered  with  reticulated  scales ;  the  toes 
long,  the  3  anterior  united  by  an  entire  web, 
and  the  inner  side  of  the  internal  toe  margined 
■with  membrane  ;  the  hind  toe  short,  with  a 
small  membranous  margin  ;  the  claws  moderate, 
depressed,  and  broad.  Only  3  species  are  well 
ascertained,  the  C.  glacialis,  C.  arcticus,  and  G. 
eejitentrionalii  (Linn.),  -which  belong  to  the 


arctic  circle,  migrating  to  the  northern  temper- 
ate regions  of  America  and  Europe.  The  great 
northern  diver,  generally  called  loon  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  (C.  glacialis),  is  a  large,  powerful,  and 
handsome  bird ;  the  largest  males  measure  about 
3  feet  to  the  end  of  tail,  with  an  extent  of  wings 
of  nearly  5  feet,  and  a  weight  of  from  8  to  10  lbs. 
The  head  is  moderate,  narrowed  in  front ;  the 
neck  thick  and  long ;  the  body  elongated  and 
depressed  ;  the  feet  very  fiir  back ;  the  plumage 
is  short  and  dense.  The  bill  is  black,  iris  deep 
bright  red,  feet  of  a  grayish  blue,  with  the  webs 
brownish  black;  the  head  and  neck  are  dark 
greenish  blue,  with  purple  reflections ;  on  the 
throat  there  is  a  transverse  white  patch,  with 
longitudinal  dusky  streaks  ;  in  the  middle  of  the 
neck  are  2  white  patches,  continuous  behind, 
but  separated  an  inch  in  front ;  the  sides  of  the 
neck  at  the  lower  part  are  streaked  longitudi- 
nally black  and  white,  there  being  on  each  feather 
2  oblong  spots  of  the  latter  hue ;  the  upper  parts 
are  glossy  black,  with  spots  of  white  in  regular 
transverse  curved  lines  with  the  convexity  back- 
ward, the  spots  being  rounded  and  small  toward 
the  neck,  sides,  and  tail  coverts,  larger  and  quad- 
rangular on  the  middle  of  the  back,  largest  on 
the  scapulars ;  the  lower  parts  are  white,  ex- 
cept on  the  sides  under  the  wing,  which  are  black 
with  elliptical  white  spots,  a  faint  dusky  band 
across  the  vent,  and  the  lower  tail  coverts,  which 
are  blackish,  tipped  with  white ;  the  tail  is 
brownish  black,  with  a  paler  tip.  The  female 
resembles  the  male  in  colors,  but  is  smaller  in 
size.  The  young  in  winter  are  dark  grayish 
brown  above,  white  underneath,  with  the  sides 
dusky ;  toward  spring  the  white  spots  begin  to 
appear,  and  the  plumage  is  that  of  the  adult  at 
the  end  of  summer ;  they  go  further  south  than 
the  adults.  The  flight  is  rapid,  long  sustained, 
and  at  a  considerable  elevation.  The  gait  of  the 
bird  on  land  is  generally  slow  and  awkward ;  on 
the  water,  when  at  ease,  it  swims  lightly,  but 
when  alarmed  it  sinks  the  body  so  deeply  that 
not  more  than  an  inch  of  its  back  can  be  seen. 
As  a  diver  it  is  unsurpassed  except  by  the 
darter  and  the  auk,  disappearing  quickly,  fly- 
ing rapidly  beneath  the  surface,  remaining  un- 
der w'ater  a  long  time,  and  coming  up  again  at 
a  great  distance  from  the  spot  of  its  disappear- 
ance. Loons  are  occasionally  found  drowned 
in  fishermen's  nets,  and  are  sometimes  caught 
on  hooks.  The  curiosity  of  the  loon  is  often 
taken  advantage  of  to  draw  them  within  shot, 
as  the  bird  will  almost  always  approach  any 
bright  colored  object  waved  by  a  concealed 
gunner.  Its  notes  are  so  loud  and  plaintive 
that  to  be  "  as  noisy  as  a  loon  "  has  become  a 
proverb.  Its  food  consists  of  fish,  lizards,  frogs, 
aquatic  insects,  and  the  roots  of  fresh-water 
plants;  it  fishes  in  both  salt  and  fresh  water, 
and  usually  swallows  its  food  beneath  the  sur- 
face. Though  the  flesh  is  tough  and  rank,  it  is 
occasionally  used  as  food.  The  loon  breeds  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  States  from  Maine 
to  Maryland,  according  to  Audubon,  and  Dr. 
Richardson  states  that  it  is  found  breeding  as 


DIVI 


DIVIDING  ENGINE 


517 


far  as  70°  N.  The  nest  is  built  near  the  water, 
in  niarslio«,  on  the  ground,  and  of  rushes  and 
grasses  growing  in  the  vicinity.  The  eggs  arc 
generally  3,  about  3|  inches  long  by  2|  broad, 
elongated,  with  a  narrow  point ;  their  color  is 
dull  greenish  ochry,  with  indistinct  spots  of 
dark  uniber,  most  numerous  toward  the  larger 
end.  The  geographical  range  of  the  loon  is  very 
extensive,  from  the  Atlantic  to  tlie  Pacific,  and 
from  the  fur  countries  to  Florida ;  it  is  found 
also  in  Europe  and  northern  Asia.  Tlie  black- 
throated  diver  ((7.  arcticus)^  next  in  size  to 
the  loon,  is  29  inches  long  to  the  end  of  tail, 
with  an  extent  of  wings  of  about  40  inches. 
The  upper  parts  are  glossy  black,  with  a  green- 
ish tinge  anteriorly  and  brownish  beliind,  the 
head  and  hind  neck  being  hoary ;  on  the  fore 
part  of  the  back  are  2  longitudinal  bands  of 
white  bars,  the  feathers  tipped  with  white ;  the 
scapulars  and  wing  coverts  with  white  spots ; 
the  quills  are  blackish  brown,  with  a  gray  tinge 
externally  ;  on  the  front  of  the  neck  for  about 
6  inches  is  a  purplish  black  patch,  ending  angu- 
larly below,  with  a  band  of  white  spots  above  ; 
the  sides  of  the  neck  are  blackish  brown,  with 
longitudinal  white  streaks ;  the  lower  parts  are 
pure  white,  except  a  dusky  band  under  the 
wings.  The  female  is  smaller  than  the  male, 
but  eimilarly  colored.  This  species  breeds  in 
the  far  north,  where  the  old  birds  principally 
remain,  and  whence  the  young  wander  over 
North  America  and  northern  and  eastern  Eu- 
rope. Birds  in  full  plumage  are  rarely  obtained 
In  the  United  States,  and,  according  to  i\.udu- 
bon,  never  further  south  than  Delaware ;  along 
the  eastern  shores  they  are  seen  frona  autumn 
until  spring.  Their  flight  is  rapid  and  well  sus- 
tained, and  performed  with  the  neck  and  feet 
stretched  out  at  full  length.  The  red-throated 
diver  (C  septentrionalis)  is  about  26  inches 
long,  with  an  extent  of  wing  of  43  inches,  and 
a  weight  of  4  lbs.  It  resembles  the  preceding 
species  except  in  the  rich  brownish  red  color 
of  the  anterior  neck,  and  the  lines  of  black  and 
white  on  the  hind  head  and  neck ;  in  the  young 
males  the  fore  neck  is  merely  dotted  with  red. 
They  begin  to  fly  north  to  breed  from  early 
spring  to  the  middle  of  May ;  they  are  found  on 
the  coast  from  Maryland  to  Maine,  from  autumn 
to  spring;  the  younger  the  birds,  the  further 
soutli  they  go,  and  it  is  rare  to  find  an  old  one 
soutli  of  Boston ;  they  abound  in  the  bay  of 
Fundy.  They  are  very  shy,  and  always  ap- 
proach their  nests  from  the  water.  Both  sexes 
incubate.  The  full  beauty  of  the  plumage  is  not 
attained  until  the  4th  year.  They  are  rarely  seen 
inland,  and  almost  never  out  of  the  breeding 
season.  Along  the  New  England  coast  and  in 
the  bay  of  Fundy  they  are  commonly  called 
"  cape-racer  "  and  "  scapegrace." 

DIVI,  or  Divi-Divi,  the  pod  of  a  leguminous 
shrub,  ccesalpinia  coriaria,  a  native  of  the  north- 
ern parts  of  South  America  and  the  West  India 
islands,  used  for  tanning,  for  which  purpose  it 
is  exported  to  Europe  and  other  countries.  The 
plant  grows  to  the  height  of  20  or  30  feet,  and 


the  pods,  which  are  of  a  dark  brown  color,  and 
curl  up  in  drying,  attain  a  length  of  3  inches. 
The  rind  has  a  strongly  astringent  and  bitter 
taste  from  the  tannin  contained  between  the 
outer  layer  and  the  husk  that  encloses  the  seed. 
The  leather  prepared  with  it  is  very  porous, 
and  acquires  a  deep  brownish  red  color.  The 
astringent  property  of  the  pod  recommends  it  as 
a  mordant  in  dyeing,  and  it  is  used  to  some  ex- 
tent for  this  purpose  instead  of  sumacli.  Almost 
the  only  ports  of  shipment  are  Maracaibo,  Rio 
Ilacha,  and  Savanilla.  The  exportations  to  vari- 
ous parts  of  Great  Britain,  principally  to  Liver- 
pool, in  1856,  were  4,186  tons. 

DIVIDING  ENGINE.  Instruments  for  as- 
tronomical or  geodetical  purposes  were  former- 
ly divided  by  hand,  and  but  few  artists  possessed 
the  faculty  of  dividing  them,  so  that  even  good 
instruments  for  the  common  purposes  of  navi- 
gation were  difficult  to  be  obtained.  Mr.  Jesse 
Kamsdcn,  a  cloth  presser  by  trade,  who  subse- 
quently turned  his  attention  to  engraving,  being 
brought  in  contact  with  mathematical  instru- 
ment makers,  was  led  to  construct  the  engine 
which  for  many  years  was  called  by  his  name. 
At  that  time  (1775)  it  was  considered  so  valua- 
ble that  the  commissioners  of  longitude  entered 
into  a  contract  with  him  to  instruct  a  certain 
number  of  persons,  not  exceeding  10,  in  the 
method  of  making  and  using  it,  and  to  divide 
sextants  and  octants  at  certain  prices  as  long 
as  the  engine  remained  in  his  possession,  they 
becoming  the  purchasers  for  the  sum  of  £315, 
and  giving  £300  in  addition  for  the  invention. 
Perfect  as  the  instrument  was  then  considered, 
it  has  since  been  greatly  improved,  so  that  it  is 
now  automatic,  the  whole  operation  of  dividing 
a  circle,  after  it  has  been  placed  on  the  engine, 
being  performed  by  a  motion  given  by  the  de- 
scent of  a  weight,  or  by  a  crank  turned  by  hand. 
The  engine  consists  of  a  large  wheel  of  bell 
metal,  the  circumference  being  ratched  into  720, 
1,080,  1,440,  2,160,  or  4,320  teeth,  or  any  num- 
ber which,  divided  by  2,  3,  4,  6,  or  12,  would 
give  360.  These  teeth  are  cut  with  great  ac- 
curacy, and  the  wheel  is  turned  on  its  centre 
by  an  endless  screw,  by  which  it  may  be  moved 
any  number  of  degrees  or  parts  desired.  The 
dividing  point  is  fixed  in  a  frame  which  admits 
of  a  free  and  easy  motion  to  and  from  the  cen- 
tre. In  England,  Troughton,  Simms,  Thomas, 
Jones,  and  afew  others,  have  been  successful  in 
making  these  engines,  while  many  others  have 
failed.  On  the  continent  of  Europe  they  were 
first  made  automatic,  and  other  improvements 
were  also  made  in  them.  Gambey  of  Paris  has 
so  arranged  his  as  to  divide  an  instrument  with- 
out any  eccentricity,  even  when  placed  in  a 
slightly  eccentric  position  on  the  engine.  Oert- 
ling  of  Berlin  has  an  arrangement  for  correcting 
any  original  errors  in  the  teeth  while  dividing, 
while  other  mechanists  of  celebrity  have  con- 
structed them  to  suit  their  own  views,  and  for 
their  own  use.  In  the  United  States  there  is  a 
large  one  belonging  to  the  coast  survey,  made  by 
Simms  of  London,  and  afterward  made  auto- 


518 


DIVINATIOIT 


matic  by  Saxton ;  also  one  in  Philadelphia  mado 
by  Young,  and  one  in  New  York  by  the  Messrs. 
Blunt,  both  of  which  are  automatic.  There  is  no 
branch  of  the  mechanic  arts  whicli  requires  more 
skill  in  the  use  of  tools,  more  geometrical  knowl- 
edge, and  greater  patience,  than  the  construction 
of  a  circular  dividing  engine.  The  large  astro- 
nomical instruments  are  divided  in  a  different 
manner,  and  unless  placed  on  a  large  engine 
from  which  the  divisions  may  be  in  a  manner 
copied,  are  ori?,nnal  divisions.  Troughton,  Simms, 
and  Jones  of  London  have  used  movable  micro- 
scopes with  micrometers,  the  method  of  the 
former ;  while  others  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope have  availed  themselves  of  the  feeling 
lever,  a  powerful  instrument  for  that  purpose 
invented  by  the  astronomer  Bessel.  Straight 
line  divisions  for  scales,  &c.,  are  made  by  means 
of  a  screw,  a  milled  roller,  or  a  wedge  which  is 
employed  to  move  a  platform  sliding  freely  be- 
neath a  cutting  frame,  and  carrying  the  scale  to 
be  divided.  In  the  use  of  the  screw  much  de- 
pends on  its  accuracy,  and,  with  regard  to  the 
roller  or  wedge,  on  the  working  or  manner  of 
applying  them.  When  great  accuracy  is  re- 
quired, the  divisions  are  tested  by  means  of  two 
microscopes,  and  an  error  can  be  detected  of 
To.500-  *^f  ^^  inch.  The  ruling  machines  used 
by  engravers  in  this  country  are  well  calculated 
for  this  purpose. 

DIVIiSrATIOISr  (Lat.  dlvinatio,  from  divinus, 
divinely  or  prophetically  inspired),  a  general 
term  for  the  various  pretended  arts  of  discov- 
ering things  secret  or  future  by  preternatural 
means.  These  arts  appear  in  the  remotest  anti- 
quity, furnished  with  rules,  founded  on  mysteri- 
ous principles,  intimately  connected  with  reli- 
gion, and  fortified  by  the  pretences  of  a  science. 
Both  as  a  learned  doctrine  and  a  popular  faith, 
divination  has  always  existed  in  the  East,  and 
was  common  in  Europe  throughout  classical  an- 
tiquity and  during  the  middle  ages.  It  was  dis- 
tinguished by  the  Greeks  as  natural  or  artificial ; 
the  former  being  a  presage  of  future  events  by 
a  spontaneous  mental  process,  by  a  sort  of  inspi- 
ration or  frenzy,  which  was  possible  only  to 
persons  specially  favored  by  the  Deity,  as  the 
priestesses  of  the  oracles ;  the  latter  being  found- 
ed on  careful  observation  of  certain  natural 
phenomena  which  were  believed  to  have  mys- 
terious relations  with  future  events.  Astrolo- 
gers, augurs,  sorcerers,  gypsy  fortune  tellers, 
and  Scotch  second-sighted  persons,  are  eminent 
examples  of  diviners.  The  following  are  among 
the  principal  of  the  numerous  and  diverse  forms 
of  artificial  divination  practised  in  antiquity : 
Alectryomancy  was  practised  by  drawing  a  cir- 
cle and  dividing  it  into  24  equal  parts,  into  each 
of  which  were  put  a  letter  of  the  alphabet  and 
a  grain  of  wheat ;  a  cock  was  then  placed  in 
the  centre,  and  the  letters,  being  put  together 
in  the  order  that  the  grains  were  eaten  by  it, 
made  a  word  which  solved  the  question  of  the 
diviner.  Thus  lamblichus  of  Apamea  is  said  to 
have  learned  the  name  of  the  successor  of  the  em- 
peror Valens.    Arithmomancy  depended  upon 


the  secret  operation  of  numbers  and  magical 
squares,  and  the  numerical  value  of  letters;  it 
was  practised  by  the  Chaldeans,  and  formed  a 
part  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Pythagoreans,  Neo- 
Platonists,  and  cabalists.  Axinomancy  consisted 
in  suspending  an  axe  from  an  upright  stick,  and 
the  names  of  suspected  persons  being  pronounced 
it  was  supposed  to  indicate  the  guilty  by  its  mo- 
tion. Belomancy  consisted  in  the  choice  of  ar- 
rows by  chance  from  a  bag  containing  many  of 
them  inscribed  with  various  responses ;  it  was 
in  use  especially  among  the  Arabians.  Capno- 
raancy  consisted  either  in  observing  the  direc- 
tion taken  by  sm^ke,  or  in  inhaling  the  smoke 
of  victims,  which  was  believed  to  produce  pro- 
phetic inspiration.  Dactylomancy  was  prac- 
tised by  enchanted  rings,  or  rings  that  were 
made  in  harmony  with  tlie  position  of  the  ce- 
lestial bodies.  Its  origin  is  attributed  to  Helen, 
the  wife  of  Menelaus.  It  is  by  one  of  these  rings 
that  Gyges  is  said  to  have  rendered  himself  in- 
visible. A  favorite  method  was  to  suspend 
the  ring  by  a  hair  within  a  goblet,  when  it 
began  to  swing,  the  motion  gradually  increas- 
ing till  it  struck  the  tumbler  once  or  twice  for 
yes  or  no,  as  previously  deteraiined.  Gyroman- 
cv  consisted  in  walking  round  in  a  circle,  the 
circumference  of  which  was  marked  with  letters, 
the  presage  being  drawn  from  the  letters  on 
which  the  inquirers  stumbled  when  they  became 
too  dizzy  to  stand.  Ilydromancy,  or  divination 
by  water,  the  invention  of  which  is  attributed 
to  the  Persians,  consisted  in  observing  the  colors 
and  images  presented  by  water  in  a  vase,  either 
when  motionless  or  when  disturbed  by  dropping 
little  stones  into  it.  The  motions  of  the  agitat- 
ed waves  of  the  sea  were  also  studied  for  pur- 
poses of  divination,  especially  by  the  ancient 
Sicilians  and  Euboeans.  Lampadomancy  fur- 
nished presages  for  the  future  from  the  form, 
color,  and  various  fluctuations  of  the  flame  of  a 
lamp.  Lithomancy  was  a  method  of  divination 
by  means  of  precious  stones.  The  sounds  of 
stones  striking  each  other  gave  presages,  and 
the  amethyst  was  believed  to  have  the  virtue  of 
sending  dreams  prophetic  of  future  events  to 
whoever  possessed  it.  The  iceti/lia,  or  animated 
stones,  of  which  the  Greeks  learned  from  the 
Persians,  and  which  were  believed  to  bear  ora- 
cles, are  celebrated  instances.  Ornithomancy, 
or  divination  from  the  flight  and  song  of  birds, 
was  a  principal  function  of  the  Roman  augurs. 
(See  Augur.)  The  flame  of  fire  (pyromancy), 
the  accidental  opening  of  a  book  (rhapsodoman- 
cy),  the  combinations  of  cards  (chartomancy), 
the  drawing  of  lots,  the  dropping  of  staffs  or 
observation  of  cups  (especially  in  use  among  the 
old  Egyptians),  the  interpretation  of  dreams, 
the  reflections  of  mirrors,  and  the  contortions 
of  serpents,  are  other  means.  Several  of  these 
methods  of  divination  are  yet  in  use  among  the 
superstitious,  even  in  the  most  enlightened 
countries  of  Europe  and  America. — Some  of  the 
more  remarkable  forms  of  divination  are  fully 
treated  in  special  articles,  as  Astrology,  CaiBO- 
MANOY,  Divining  Eod,  and  Magio. 


DIVING 


519 


DIVIKG.  Thoncjh  the  natural  constitution 
of  man  entirely  unfits  liim  iov  remaining  under 
■water  witli  safety  for  more  tlian  two  minutes  at 
a  time,  the  desire  of  obtaining  valuable  articles 
lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  has  led  him  to 
devise  numerous  expedient-*,  by  \vhich  he  is  en- 
abled to  lengthen  his  continuance  at  moderate 
depths.  By  long  practice,  such  as  that  of  the 
Indian  pearl  divers  of  Ceylon,  it  is  stated  that 
.  this  is  extended  to  even  6  minutes ;  but  such 
accounts  are  not  credited.  Admiral  Hood,  who 
took  pains  to  time  their  diving  by  the  watch, 
found  that  they  were  under  water  in  no  instance 
more  than  a  minute.  The  instance  narrated  by 
Dr.  Ilalley  of  a  Florida  Indian  diver  at  Ber- 
muda, who  could  remain  two  minutes  under 
■water,  is  regarded  as  an  extreme  case.  In 
Franchere's  "  Narrative  of  a  Voyage  to  the  N. 
W.  Coast  of  America,"  mention  is  made  of  the 
feats  of  diving  of  the  Sandwich  islanders.  Two 
of  them  were  induced  to  go  down  in  14  fathoms 
of  water  in  search  of  a  couple  of  sheaves  lost 
overboard.  They  went  down  several  times, 
each  time  bringing  up  shells  as  a  proof  that  they 
had  been  to  the  bottom.  "  We  had  the  curi- 
osity to  hold  our  "watclies  while  they  dove,  and 
were  astonished  to  find  that  they  remained 
4  minutes  under  the  water.  Tliat  exertion  ap- 
peared to  me,  however,  to  fatigue  them  a  great 
deal,  to  such  a  degree  that  the  blood  streamed 
from  their  nostrils  and  ears.  At  last  one  of 
them  brought  up  the  sheaves,  and  received  the 
promisedjecompense,  which  consisted  of  4  yards 
of  cotton."  Tomlinson  states  "that  there  is 
no  authentic  case  of  a  man  being  able,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  to  take  in  a  supply  of 
air  sufficient  to  maintain  him  under  water  for 
two  minutes;"  and  the  authorities  generally 
agree  in  this.  Some,  however,  regard  the  state- 
ments that  the  divers  of  Ceylon,  in  rare  instances, 
remain  6  minutes  under  "s\-ater,  as  not  admitting 
of  question,  and  the  statement  of  Mr.  Franchere 
is  entitled  to  the  same  consideration.  And  facts 
are  stated  by  other  authorities  which  appear 
to  warrant  the  supposition  that  this  time  may 
possibly  be  somewhat  extended.  The  lungs  re- 
tain at  each  ordinary  expiration  some  carbonic 
acid  gas  among  their  passages.  By  breathing 
hard  for  a  short  time  this  is  expelled ;  and  if  a 
full  inspiration  is  then  taken,  the  lungs  are 
charged  ■witli  a  large  supply  of  oxygen,  and  are 
capable  of  being  sustained  a  longer  time  than 
usual  without  its  renewal.  The  knowledge  of 
this  fact  might  be  of  service  in  some  other  cir- 
cumstances, in  "which  it  is  important  to  retain 
the  breath  the  longest  possible  time,  as  well  as 
in  diving.  Again,  it  is  stated  that  the  engineer 
Brunei,  wishing  to  examine  a  break  in  the 
Thames  tunnel,  was  lowered  with  another  per- 
son in  a  diving  bell  to  the  depth  of  30  feet,  and 
the  break  not  permitting  the  bell  to  go  deeper, 
he  dived  into  the  water,  holding  a  rope  in  his 
hand.  He  found  no  difficulty  in  continuing 
under  the  water  fully  two  minutes,  wliich  is 
explained  by  the  air  he  inhaled  being  taken 
into  tlie  lungs  under  the  pressure  of  a  column  of 


water  30  feet  high,  and  consequently  condensed 
into  but  little  more  than  ^  its  ordinary  bulk. 
The  lungs,  receiving  of  this  air  their  full  capa- 
city, -svere  furnished  with  nearly  double  their 
usual  supply  of  oxygen.  The  pressure  which 
thus  lessens  the  bulk  of  air  is  exerted  upon  all 
parts  of  the  body.  It  is  felt  by  the  diver  de- 
scending from  the  surface,  when  at  the  depth 
of  15  feet,  as  a  force  of  900  lbs.  upon  every 
square  foot  of  surface,  and  increasing  about 
60  lbs.  ■n-itli  every  additional  foot  of  descent. 
The  air  is  with  difficvdty  retained  in  tlie  chest; 
the  eyes  become  blood-shot,  and  blood  is  eject- 
ed from  the  mouth.  Neither  these  difficulties, 
ho'wever,  nor  the  dangers  from  sharks,  deter  the 
natives  of  Ceylon. from  pursuing  their  avocation 
as  pearl  divers,  nor  those  of  the  Grecian  archi- 
pelago from  gathering  the  sponges  and  coral  at- 
tached to  the  rocks  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  In 
collecting  pearls,  10  divers  generally  go  in  each 
boat,  half  of  them  resting  while  the  others  dive. 
Each  diver  is  furnished  with  a  sack  for  securing 
the  oysters  he  hurriedly  gathers  at  the  bottom. 
He  descends  holding  a  rope,  by  which  he  is 
afterward  drawn  up,  and  is  carried  quickly 
down  by  placing  in  his  toes  another  rope 
fastened  to  a  large  heavy  stone,  which  sinks 
with  him.  This  also  is  drawn  up  to  be  used  by 
the  next  diver.  Some  divers  carry  in  their 
mouth  a  sponge  wet  with  oil,  the  object  of 
which  is  probably  to  still  the  ripple  upon  the 
surface,  and  render  this  smooth  and  glassy,  by 
which  the  light  is  more  clearly  transmitted  to 
the  bottom. — The  artificial  expedients  contrived 
to  render  a  longer  stay  beneath  the  water  prac- 
ticable consist,  beside  the  diving  bell,  to  be  par- 
ticularly described  hereafter,  either  of  a  partial 
covering  for  the  body,  made  water-tight,  with  a 
metallic  helmet  entirely  protecting  the  head  ;  or 
of  water-tight  vessels  of  metal  made  to  enclose 
the  whole  body,  and  furnished  with  flexible  arms 
and  with  eye  plates  of  strong  glass.  Their  ca- 
pacity is  sufficient  for  air  to  support  life  for  a 
certain  time,  the  quantity  absolutely  necessary 
for  this  being  at  least  200  cubic  inches  per  min- 
ute ;  several  times  as  much  is  allowed.  The 
case  is  suspended  by  ropes  from  a  vessel,  and  is 
moved  about  from  above,  the  man  within  giv- 
ing signals  by  a  small  line  held  in  the  hand  ;  his 
position  is  face  downward,  and  his  hands  pro- 
jecting in  the  flexible  sleeves  .are  at  liberty  to 
attach  the  rope  he  carries  to  any  objects  within 
his  reach.  In  deep  water  the  pressure  is  se- 
verely felt,  forcing  the  arms  and  shoulders  into 
the  case,  so  that  even  a  sort  of  saddle  is  requir- 
ed upon  the  back  of  the  man  by  which  he  may 
brace  himself  more  effectually  against  it.  This 
might  be  remedied  by  forcing  air  through  flexi- 
ble pipes  into  the  case  from  above.  The  ma- 
chine was  contrived  by  Mr.  Jvowe  in  1T53, 
and  within  the  last  20  years  has  been  much 
improved  in  the  United  States.  The  partial 
covering,  as  contrived  by  M.  Klingert,  and 
described  in  a  pamphlet  published  in  Breslau 
in  1798,  possesses  important  advantages  over 
the  tight  case,  but  i3  still  limited  in  its  use 


520 


DIVING  BELL 


to  depths  not  exceeding  12  or  15  feet.  The 
hehnet  is  made  to  connect  water-tifjht  with  a 
metallic  armor  around  the  body,  and  this  with 
short  leather  sleeves,  and  drawers  of  the  same 
material  strengthened  within  with  iron  hoops, 
and  securely  fastened  above  tlio  knees.  Two 
flexible  pipes  coiuiect  the  interior  of  the  helmet 
with  the  air  above,  one  furnished  with  an  ivory 
mouthpiece  through  which  the  air  is  inhaled 
The  air  is  expelled  from  the  nostrils  and  passes 
out  through  the  other  tube.  Heavy  weiglits 
enable  the  man  to  keep  at  the  bottom.  In  1856 
Mr.  E.  P.  Harrington  of  Westfield,  N.  Y.,  re- 
covered the  iron  safe  of  the  steamer  Atlantic, 
sunk  4  years  previously  in  Lake  Erie  in  about 
170  feet  of  water.  The  safe, itself  was  at  the 
depth  of  157  feet.  lie  made  use  of  a  common 
flexible  India  rubber  armor,  unprotected  with 
metal,  and  supplied  with  air  from  an  air  pump 
above,  this  being  sent  down  through  a  tube  of 
■|  inch  bore,  composed  of  9  alternate  layers  of 
canvas  and  rubber,  with  a  copper  Avire  coiled 
inside  to  prevent  collapse.  He  also  wore  shoes 
of  lead,  and  carried  weights  of  lead  amounting 
in  all  to  248  lbs.  His  first  descent  was  on  June 
19,  and  the  18th  and  last  was  on  the  22d,  Avheu 
he  succeeded  in  attaching  a  line  to  the  safe, 
which  was  in  a  state  room  on  the  upper  deck, 
and  it  was  hauled  up.  The  time  of  his  remain- 
ing below  increased  from  one  minute  the  first 
descent  to  11  minutes  at  the  last.  At  50  to  70 
feet  depth  all  light  disappeared.  The  deck  was 
already  covered  with  a  sediment  a  few  inches 
thick.  Mr.  H.  suffered  from  extreme  chilliness; 
his  strength  too,  he  thinks,  was  diminished  yjy. 
The  pressure  sometimes  caused  a  violent  rush 
of  blood  to  the  head,  causing  the  appearance 
of  bright  flashes  like  electrical  sparks. — Dur- 
ing the  revolutionary  war  an  ingenious  but 
complicated  machine,  called  the  American  turtle 
or  torpedo,  was  contrived  by  Mr.  David  Bush- 
nell  of  Connecticut,  designed  for  a  sort  of  sub- 
marine boat,  which  could  be  propelled  along 
close  to  the  surface  by  a  man  within.  It  con- 
tained air  sufiicient  to  last  half  an  hour.  By 
admitting  a  little  water  in  a  receptacle  made 
for  the  purpose,  it  was  made  to  siidc,  and  could 
be  kept  at  any  desired  depth.  The  water  be- 
ing ejected  by  two  small  brass  forcing  pumps, 
the  machine  rose  again  to  the  surface.  A  ves- 
sel containing  powder  enough  to  blow  up  a  ship 
was  attached  outside,  and  could  be  freed  from 
the  machine,  and  secured  to  any  object  it  touch- 
ed. An  apparatus  running  by  clock-work  caus- 
ed the  powder  to  be  ignited  at  any  desired 
interval  of  time  after  it  was  left  by  the  operator. 
This  machine  occasioned  the  greatest  alarm 
among  the  British  ships  in  New  York  harbor. 

DIVING  BELL,  a  hollow  inverted  vessel,  in 
which  when  lojvered  into  the  water  persons 
may  descend  to  considerable  depths,  fresh  air 
being  forced  down  from  above  to  supply  the 
amount  required  for  breathing ;  and  under  which 
upon  the  bottom  they  may  work  to  prepare 
foundations,  or  to  secure  articles  of  value.  The 
jjrinciplo  of  the  diving  bell  is  seen  in  pressing 


any  vessel  like  a  tumbler  mouth  downward  into 
the  water.  The  air  within  the  vessel  prevents 
the  water  from  rising  and  filling  it,  but  being 
highly  elastic  and  compressible,  it  is  made  to  oc- 
cupy less  space  as  tlie  pressure  is  increased  with 
the  increasing  depth  of  the  water.  If  the  vessel 
were  forced  down  to  the  depth  of  33  feet,  it 
would  be  found  that  the  water  Avould  half  fill 
it,  the  air  being  compressed  into  half  its  bulk. 
A  little  burning  taper  made  to  float  upon  the  . 
surface  of  the  water  within  the  vessel  makes 
the  relative  position  of  the  air  and  water  more 
conspicuous.  Such  is  the  simplest  form  of  the 
diving  bell,  as  it  Avas  known  probably  in  the 
time  of  Aristotle,  mention  being  made  that  di- 
vers at  that  period  took  down  Avith  them  a  kind 
of  kettle  to  enable  them  to  remain  longer  under 
the  Avater.  Beckmann  in  his  "  History  of  In- 
ventions" expresses  the  opinion  that  little  Avas 
knoAvn  of  it  before  the  16th  century.  During 
the  reign  of  Charles  V.  a  satisfactory  experi- 
ment Avas  tried  by  2  Greeks  at  Toledo,  in  Spain, 
in  the  presence  of  the  monarch  and  his  court,  of 
descending  in  a  large  inverted  kettle  into  the 
water  with  a  burning  light,  and  coming  up  dry. 
But  this  experiment,  made  by  order  of  Charles  to 
prove  the  possibility  of  the  thing,  and  others  also 
undertaken  for  practical  purposes  (as  recovering 
sunken  treasure)  in  the  course  of  the  succeeding 
200  years,  Avere  imperfect  as  there  Avas  no  provi- 
sion for  rencAving  the  supply  of  air  as  it  became 
exhausted,  nor  for  keeping  the  vessel  free  from 
the  Avater  forced  by  the  pressure  to  rise  Avithin  it. 
Beckmann  also  furnishes  an  interesting  account 
of  a  sliip  carpenter,  named  William  Phipps,  from 
Boston,  Mass.,  Avho  persuaded  King  Charles  II., 
in  1683,  to  furnish  him  with  a  ship  and  the  ne- 
cessary apparatus  for  exploring  for  a  rich  Span- 
ish ship  sunk  on  the  coast  of  Hispaniola.  The 
experiment  Avas  unsuccessful,  but  on  a  second 
trial  made  in  1G87,  Phipps  Avas  so  fortunate  as 
to  raise  from  the  depth  of  6  or  7  fathoms  so 
much  treasure  that  he  returned  to  England  Avith 
the  value  of  £200,000  sterling.  The  account  is 
found  in  the  "  History  of  the  British  Empii-e  in 
America,"  by  J.  Wynne  (London,  1770),  and  is 
noticed  in  Campbell's  "  Lives  of  the  Admirals." 
About  the  year  1715,  Dr.  Halley  contrived  a 
method  of  furnishing  air  to  the  bell  Avhile  it  Avas 
at  the  bottom,  thus  rendering  it  unnecessary 
to  hoist  it  to  the  surface  for  new  supplies. 
He  had  two  tight  barrels  prepared,  each  with  an 
open  bung  beloAv,  and  a  hose  attached  to  the 
top  long  enough  to  reach  outside  beloAV  the 
bottom,  in  Avhich  position  the  air  could  not  es- 
cape througli  it.  These,  loaded  Avith  weights, 
were  sunk  alternately,  like  tAVO  buckets  in  a 
well,  or,  by  guys  attached  to  the  bell,  Avere 
made  to  drop  alongside  of  it.  A  person  Avithin, 
reaching  out  into  the  water  under  the  mouth 
of  the  bell,  could  draw  in  the  hose,  and  rais- 
ing the  end  of'  it  above  the  level  of  the  top 
of  the  cask,  the  air  would  be  forced  upAvard 
and  furnish  a  new  supply  to  the  bell.  All 
the  Avater  Avould  thus  be  displaced,  and  one 
could  step  about  upon  the  bottom  over  the  area 


DIVING  BELL 


521 


covered  by  the  bell.  The  air  contaminated  by 
brcatliiug  was  let  olFby  a  stop-cock  in  the  roof, 
and  pieces  of  glass  set  in  hero  admitted  the 
light.  In  the  apparatus  thus  prepared  Dr. 
Halley  descended  with  4  others,  and  remain- 
ed 1^  hours  in  water  over  9  fathoms  deep, 
lie  soon  afterward  devised  an  apparatus  with 
which  one  could  leave  the  hell,  and  walk  on 
the  bottom  for  a  considerable  distance.  The 
diver  was  furnished  with  a  heavy  metallic  cap, 
which  was  connected  with  a  long  flexible  tube 
for  conveying  air  within  the  bell.  Ileavy  weights 
were  attached  to  his  belt  and  also  to  the  feet  to 
counteract  the  buoyancy  of  the  bt)dy  at  great 
depths.  Numerous  modifications  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  bell  continued  to  be  made  by 
others,  none  of  which  however  proved  to  be  of 
much  importance  until  Smeaton,  the  engineer, 
applied  the  air  pump  about  the  year  1779  to 
forcing  down  the  air,  and  made  the  first  ap- 
plication of  tho  apparatus  to  engineering  pur- 
poses. In  1788  he  constructed  a  bell  of  cast 
iron,  in  the  form  of  a  chest,  4i  feet  long,  4^  feet 
high,  3  feet  wide,  and  weighing  2^  tons,  so  as 
to  sink  by  its  own  gravity.  Those  previously 
made  were  of  wood,  loaded  externall}"  with 
weights.  With  this  he  cleared  the  foundations 
for  a  pier  in  Eamsgate  harbor,  removing  stones 
of  over  a  ton  in  weight  with  great  facility ;  and 
some  years  afterward  it  was  employed  with 
equal  advantage  in  renewing  the  foundations, 
which  had  been  at  first  made  with  caissons 
and  failed,  with  regularly  built  masonry,  con- 
sisting of  large  stones  dovetailed  together.  A 
bell  of  this  size  aftbrds  room  for  two  laborers  to 
work  at  the  bottom,  and  contains  air  enough,  be- 
ing of  the  capacity  of  more  than  50  cubic  feet,  to 
sustain  the  life  of  two  persons  for  more  than  an 
hour.  In  the  bell  they  are  supported  by  seats 
attached  to  the  sides  for  the  purpose.  The  air 
pump,  stationed  in  a  boat  above,  requires  the 
force  of  several  men  (sometimes  4)  to  work  it. 
The  quantity  of  air  actually  required  for  each 
man  is  about  200  cubic  inches  per  minute  at  the 
ordinary  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  In  the 
compressed  air  of  the  diving  bell  the  same  bulk 
is  inhaled,  expired,  and  vitiated  at  each  respira- 
tion of  the  lungs,  consequently  more  is  needed 
than  at  the  surface ;  and  a  still  larger  supply  also 
is  requisite  to  prevent  the  air  from  becoming  so 
impure  by  the  mixture  of  that  expired  as  to  en- 
danger the  health  of  the  workmen ;  it  is  conse- 
quently well  to  provide  many  times  the  amount 
of  air  that  is  indispensable.  Tho  impure  gases 
rise  by  their  greater  heat  to  the  top  of  the  bell, 
where  thej^  escape  through  the  valves  provided 
for  this  purpose.  The  glass-covered  apertures 
let  in  sufficient  light  to  render  objects  clearly 
visible  when  the  water  is  limpid ;  even  the  calo- 
rific action  of  the  solar  rays  is  not  destroyed  by 
their  passage  through  the  water.  An  instance  is 
narrated  of  a  diver  at  the  depth  of  about  55  feet 
finding  all  at  oiice  the  bell  to  be  filled  with 
smoke.  He  soon  discovered  that  this  came 
from  his  cap,  which  was  set  on  fire  by  being 
in  the  focus  of  one  of  the  glass  lights,  through 


which  tho  solar  rays  were  concentrated.  If 
tlic  water  is  not  clear,  the  darkness  is  inde- 
scribably dense,  even  at  the  depth  of  only  12 
feet.  A  candle  may  then  be  used  to  advantage 
if  the  air  is  liberally  supjdied.  The  increase  of 
pressure  experienced  in  descending  in  a  bell  af- 
fects individuals  differently.  Usually  a  pain  is 
felt  upon  the  tympanum  of  the  ear,  caused  by 
the  pressure  upon  the  outside  not  being  at  once 
counterbalanced  by  the  air  within  the  tympan- 
ic cavity  having  ac(iuired  the  '  same  density. 
Tlie  construction  of  the  Eustachian  txibe,  lead- 
ing from  the  mouth  to  the  internal  part  of  the 
ear,  is  such  that  a  little  time  is  necessary  for  the 
compressed  air  to  make  its  way  within.  This 
usually  takes  place  by  a  sudden  impulse,  which 
may  be  hastened  by  an  effort  of  the  individual 
like  that  of  swallowing,  the  mouth  and  nos- 
trils being  closed  at  the  time.  When  one  is 
unaccustomed  to  going  down,  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  stop  the  descent  at  short  intervals  to 
give  time  for  this  action  to  take  place.  Having 
reached  the  bottom,  all  disagreeable  sensations 
pass  away;  but  on  ascending,  the  expansion  of 
the  air  within  the  head  excites  a  painful  feeling 
of  distention,  Avhich  is  relieved  so  soon  as  the 
internal  and  external  pressure  can  be  equalized. 
The  practice  of  descending  in  diving  bells  lias 
been  thouglit  to  be  beneficial  in  some  cases  of 
deafness,  and  also  in  some  affections  of  the  re- 
spiratory organs.  As  the  workmen  below  wish 
to  communicate  with  those  above,  they  strike  a 
certain  number  of  blows  upon  the  side  of  the 
bell,  which  indicate  the  desired  message  accord- 
ing to  a  system  of  preconcerted  signals.  The 
sound  is  readily  heard  above,  though  noises 
made  at  the  surface  are  not  heard  below.  By 
such  signals,  or  by  messages  written  on  wood 
or  other  substance,  those  above  are  directed 
to  hoist  or  lower  the  bell,  to  move  it  by  the 
boom  from  which  it  is  suspended,  to  renew  the 
eupply  of  air,  or  to  send  down  or  draw  np  the 
buckets  in  which  are  placed  articles  found  on 
the  bottom.  In  1820  a  bell  was  in  use  for 
clearing  out  Howth  harbor  near  Dublin,  which 
measured  6  feet  in  length,  4  in  breadth,  and  5 
in  height.  It  was  of  iron  cast  in  one  piece,  the 
metal  being  3  inches  thick  at  the  bottom,  and 
half  that  thickness  at  the  top ;  the  whole  weight 
was  4  tons,  wliich  was  much  more  than  sufficient 
to  carry  it  doAvn.  This  bell  afforded  room  enough 
for  4  men.  At  the  bottom  they  could  fill  the 
iron  baskets  with  stones  to  be  hoisted  up,  and 
drill  the  rock  for  blasts. — In  vol.  xxii.  of  the 
"American  Journal  of  Science"  is  an  interest- 
ing account  of  the  experiments  made  with  a 
diving  bell  in  Portsmouth  harbor,  N.  H.,  in 
1805.  The  bell  inside  was  5  feet  in  diameter 
at  the  bottom,  3  feet  at  the  top,  and  5f  feet 
high.  Two  men  descended  in  it  at  a  time. 
When  about  12  feet  below  the  surface,  the  pain- 
ful sensation  experienced  in  the  ears  would  pass 
off  with  a  sudden  shock,  and  this  would  be  i-e- 
peated  at  each  interval  of  about  12  feet.  It  might, 
they  found,  be  avoided  by  having  the  bell  raised 
a  foot  or  two  every  8  or  10  feet  of  the  descent. 


522 


DIVINING  EOD 


The  greatest  descent  made  was  about  72  feet. 
"  In  a  clear  day  and  with  an  unruffled  sea  they 
had  light  sufficient  for  reading  a  coarse  print 
at  the  greatest  depth.  As  they  moved  the  peb- 
bles with  their  gaff  at  the  bottom  of  the  river, 
fish  in  abundance  came  to  the  place  like  a  flock 
of  chickens,  and  as  devoid  of  fear  as  if  it  was 
a  region  wliere  they  had  never  been  molested 
by  beings  from  the  extra-aquatic  world.  From 
the  description  of  the  adventurers,  no  scenery 
in  nature  can  be  more  beautiful  than  that  view- 
ed by  them  in  a  sunshiny  day  at  the  bottom  of 
the  deep  Piscataqua.  It  does  not  appear  that 
the  health  of  either  of  the  men  was  in  the  least 
impaired  by  their  submarine  excursions.  Their 
pulsations  were  quick  and  their  perspiration  was 
very  profuse  while  under  water;  and  upon  com- 
ing out  of  it  they  felt  themselves  in  a  flt  condi- 
tion for  a  comfortable  sleep."  One  of  the  men, 
it  is  further  stated,  found  himself  much  relieved 
of  rheumatic  complaints  from  which  he  was 
suffering,  Avhich  is  attributed  by  a  writer  in  the 
Bihliotheque  iinuerselle^  in  which  the  account 
was  translated,  to  the  great  heat  produced  in 
the  bell,  wliich  is  like  thai  of  a  steam  bath. — An 
improved  form  of  the  diving  bell  has  been  re- 
cently brought  into  notice,  to  which  the  name  of 
nautilus  has  been  given,  and  a  patent  has  been  is- 
sued to  Major  Sears  of  New  York,  who  has  per- 
fected its  construction.  Like  the  torpedos,  one 
form  of  which  has  been  noticed  in  the  preceding 
article,  it  is  provided  with  chambers  distinct  from 
those  occupied  by  the  divers,  but  under  tlieir 
control,  so  that  they  may  at  their  will  be  filled 
either  with  air  or  water.  By  this  means  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  machine  is  made  to  vary 
so  that  the  bell  may  rise  to  the  surface  or  sink 
to  any  desired  depth.  The  trap  door  in  the  bot- 
tom being  raised,  communication  is  thus  open- 
ed with  objects  outside  of  or  below  the  bell. 
Guy  ropes  from  the  surface  pass  through  the 
chamber  occupied  by  the  operators,  being  se- 
cured by  stuffing  boxes  in  the  sides.  By  draw- 
ing upon  these  the  bell  is  moved  in  any  direction 
by  the  persons  within.  The  apparatus  has  been 
recently  used  with  success  in  New  York  harbor. 
A  diving  bell  was  employed  in  the  operations 
connected  with  the  removal  of  the  rocks  known 
as  Diamond  reef  in  New  York  harbor,  in  1S5S, 
which  contained  a  new  feature  introduced  by 
Mr.  Kyerson  of  New  York.  In  the  lower  com- 
partment, which  was  suSiciently  capacious  to 
accommodate  6  persons,  or  for  4  laborers  to 
work  together,  an  arrangement  was  provided 
around  the  sides  by  which  jets  of  water  were 
allowed  to  play  in,  causing  a  fine  spray,  the  ef- 
fect of  which  was  to  wash  the  air  and  free  it  in 
part,  at  least,  of  the  carbonic  acid  generated  by 
respiration. 

DIVINING  EOD.  The  increase  of  knowl- 
edge has  not  yet  expelled  even  from  the  best 
educated  portions  of  the  United  States  all  faith 
in  tlie  magic  virtues  of  this  instrument.  There 
is  a  mystery  in  the  hidden  flow  of  subterrane- 
an courses  of  water,  and  in  the  occurrence  of 
deposits  of  valuable  ores,  which  encourages  a 


resort  to  mysterious  methods  for  discovering 
them.  If  the  wise  can  point  to  no  sure  clue 
to  them,  the  ignorant  pretender  does  not  fail 
to  find  one,  which  to  many  is  all  the  more 
acceptable  for  its  extravagant  pretensions  and 
inexplicable  nature.  It  is  stated  by  a  writer 
in  the  "American  Journal  of  Science"  (vol.  xi., 
1826)  that  the  divining  rod  has  been  in  frequent 
use  since  the  11th  century.  A  work  was  pub- 
lished in  France  in  1781  detailing  GOO  experi- 
ments made  to  ascertain  the  facts  attributed  to 
it,  "  by  which  is  unfolded,"  according  to  this 
work,  "their  resemblance  to  the  admirable  and 
uniform  laws  of  electricity  and  magnetism." 
These  sciences  still  continue  to  be  appealed  to 
in  order  to  support  in  some  vague  way  phenom- 
ena which  defy  other  means  of  explication. 
As  commonly  used,  the  divining  rod  is  a  forked 
slender  stick  of  witch  hazel ;  elastic  twigs,  how- 
ever, of  any  sort,  or  even  2  sticks  of  whalebone 
fastened  together  at  one  end,  do  not  appear  to 
be  rejected  in  the  want  of  the  hazel  tree.  One 
branch  of  the  twig  is  taken  in  each  hand  be- 
tween the  thumb  and  fore  finger,  the  2  ends 
pointing  down.  Holding  the  stick  in  this  posi- 
tion, the  palms  toward  the  face,  the  gifted  oper- 
ator passes  over  the  surface  of  the  groimd ;  and 
wherever  the  Tipper  point  of  the  stick  bends 
over  and  points  downward,  there  he  alfirmsthe 
spring  or  metallic  vein  will  be  found.  Some 
even  pretend  to  designate  the  distance  below 
the  surface  according  to  the  force  of  the  move- 
ment, or  according  to  the  diameter  of  the  circle 
over  which  the  action  is  perceived,  one  rule  being 
that  the  depth  is  half  the  diameter  of  this  circle ; 
whence  the  deeper  the  object  is  below  the  sur- 
face the  further  is  its  influence  exerted.  It  is 
observable  that  a  rod  so  held  will  of  necessity 
turn,  as  the  hands  are  closed  more  tightly  upon 
it,  though  this  has  at  first  the  appearance  of 
serving  to  resist  its  motion.  From  the  charac- 
ter of  many  who  use  the  rod  and  believe  in  it,  it 
is  also  plain  that  this  force  is  exerted  without 
any  intention  or  consciousness  on  their  part, 
and  that  they  are  themselves  honestly  deceived 
by  the  movement.  On  putting  the  experiment 
to  the  test  by  digging,  if  water  is  found  it  proves 
the  genuineness  of  the  operation ;  if  it  is  not 
found,  something  else  is,  to  which  the  effect  is 
attributed,  or  the  water  which  attracted  the  rod 
is  sure  to  be  met  with  if  the  digging  is  only 
continued  deep  enough.  Some  ingenuity  is 
tlierefore  necessary  to  expose  the  deception. 
The  writer  above  referred  to  succeeded  in  show- 
ing the  absurdity  of  the  operation  by  taking  the 
diviners  over  the  same  ground  twice,  the  second 
time  blindfolded,  and  each  time  marking  the 
points  designated  by  the  rod.  This,  however,  is 
a  test  to  which  they  are  not  often  willing  to  sub- 
ject their  art.  Some  operators  do  not  require 
a  forked  twig.  There  was  in  1857,  and  may  be 
still,  Avithin  less  than  100  miles  of  New  York 
city,  a  man  who  believed  himself  gifted  in  the 
use  of  the  divining  rod,  and  was  occasionally 
sent  for  to  go  great  distances  to  determine  the 
position  of  objects  of  value  sunk  in  the  lakes, 


DIVISIBILITY 


DIVORCE 


523 


of  ores,  and  of  wells  of  water.  He  carried 
several  little  cylinders  of  tin,  but  what  they 
contained  was  a  secret.  One  had  an  attraction 
for  iron,  another  for  copper,  a  3d  for  water, 
&G.  He  had  in  his  hand  a  little  ratan  cane, 
which  he  used  as  not  likely  to  excite  the  obser- 
vation of  those  he  met.  Taking  one  of  tlie 
cylinders  out  of  his  pocket  he  slijipcd  the  ratan 
into  a  socket  in  its  end,  and  holding  in  his  hands 
the  other  end  of  the  stick,  he  set  the  contriv- 
ance bobbing  np  and  down  and  around.  Tliat 
it  was  attracted  and  drawn  toward  any  body  of 
ore  in  the  vicinity  he  was  evidently  convinced. 
DIVISIBILITY.  To  what  extent  particles 
of  matter  may  be  subdivided  we  are  restricted 
from  ascertaining  by  experiment,  through  the 
imperfection  of  our  senses ;  or  by  metaphysical 
reasoning,  through  our  want  of  mental  capacity. 
Dr.  Thomson  caused  a  grain  weiglit  of  nitrate  of 
lead  dissolved  in  500,000  parts  of  water  to  be  de- 
composed, andthesulphurct  ofthe  metal  formed 
by  the  action  of  a  current  of  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen to  appear  in  a  visible  form  diffused  through- 
out the  whole  quantity  of  water.  Each  drop  and 
each  microscopic  portion  of  a  drop  contained  the 
metallic  salt,  which  he  hence  concluded  was 
divided  into  at  least  500,000,000,000  parts,  and 
each  of  these  contained  its  proportional  quan- 
tity of  lead  and  of  sulphur.  The  mechanical 
subdivision  of  ductile  metals  is  hardly  less  re- 
markable. By  drawing  a  wire  coated  with  8 
grains  of  gold,  this  may  be  made  to  rcacli  2^ 
miles.  Wollaston  drew  down  a  platinum  wire 
ofthe  diameter  of  j^g  of  an  inch,  enclosed  in  a 
coating  of  silver  making  the  thickness  j  of  an 
inch,  until  the  two  were  reduced  to  j-^^^  of  an 
inch.  The  silver  being  dissolved  by  nitric  acid, 
the  platinum  wire  was  left,  the  thickness  of 
which  must  have  been  30,^0-0  of  an  inch.  The 
microscopic  observations  of  Leeuwenhoeck  have 
developed  some  wonderful  facts  respecting  the 
tenuity  of  the  spider's  web.  The  common 
thread  is  known  to  be  made  of  4  strands,  each 
of  which  is  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  this  is 
found  to  consist  of  at  least  1,000  small  threads 
which  issue  from  as  many  orifices  in  the  spin- 
ner of  the  animal.  Of  the  smallest  spiders 
Leeuwenhoeck  estimated  that  the  quadrupled 
thread  was  so  minute  that  at  least  4,000,000 
of  them  would  not  exceed  in  thickness  one  of 
the  hairs  of  his  beard ;  and  as  each  of  these 
is  made  up  of  at  least  4,000  fibres,  it  must 
foUow  that  each  fibre  can  be  no  larger  than 
Tff.oiro.Voo.oTo  of  ^  human  hair.  Nothing  per- 
haps more  sensibly  exhibits  the  principle  of 
the  extreme  divisibility  of  matter  than  the  dif- 
fusion of  odors.  Musk,  without  appreciable 
diminution  of  weight,  continues  for  months 
to  impart  its  odor  to  an  apartment,  the  air  of 
which  is  constantly  renewed.  Every  portion 
of  the  air  that  has  passed  through  the  room 
has  evidently  taken  with  it  a  portion  of  musk, 
and  yet  so  small  is  the  aggregate  amount  that 
we  have  no  other  means  of  showing  that  the 
original  quantity  has  been  diminished.  Accord- 
ing to  the  demonstration  of  Dr.  KeiU,  any  given 


quantity  of  matter,  however  small,  may  be  dif- 
fused through  any  given  finite  space,  however 
large,  and  so  fill  it  that  there  shall  be  no  pore 
in  it  the  diameter  of  which  shall  exceed  any 
given  line. 

DIVORCE.  In  a  popular  sense,  divorce  is  a 
dissolution  of  the  bond  of  matrimony,  for  causes 
occurring  after  marriage.  Jurists,  however,  in 
treating  of  the  subject,  usually  include  also  an- 
other class  of  cases,  viz. :  tliose  in  Avliicli  the 
marriage  may  bo  deemed  by  a  court  to  have 
been  null  ai  initio  upon  antecedent  grounds  ;  as 
where  such  marriage  was  accomj)lislied  by  force 
or  fraud,  or  wliere,  by  reason  of  near  consan- 
guinity of  the  parties,  the  marriage  was  unlaw- 
ful. The  common  law  allowed  divorces  caitsa 
impotentice  scu  frigiditatis^  if  such  impotence 
or  frigidity  existed  before  marriage,  this  being 
deemed  a  fraud ;  but  it  was  no  ground  of 
divorce  if  it  supervened  after  marriage  ;  and  it 
is  the  only  kind  of  fraud  of  which  we  find  men- 
tion in  the  English  cases  as  a  ground  of  annul- 
ling a  marriage.  Fraudulent  representations 
by  either  party  in  respect  to  his  or  her  condi- 
tion in  life,  pecuniary  circumstances,  family 
connections,  bodily  health,  and  the  like,  how- 
ever material  tliese  may  have  been  in  inducing 
a  consent  to  the  contract,  still  are  unavailable 
as  an  impeachment  of  tlie  marriage.  A  false 
personation  of  another,  or  any  fraud  by  which 
one  of  the  parties  is  deceived  in  respect  to  the 
person  Avith  whom  the  marriage  is  solem- 
nized, is  a  sufficient  cause  for  annulling  the 
marriage ;  but  this  is  put  upon  the  ground  of 
want  of  consent,  it  being  equally  essential  to 
this  as  to  other  contracts  that  there  should 
be  the  animus  contrahendi.!  and  the  contract 
cannot  take  efl:ect  contrary  to  the  real  intention 
of  the  party  who  is  to  be  bound.  In  the  Eng- 
lish courts  the  proceeding  causa  jactitationis 
matrimonii  was  intended  for  relief  in  such 
cases ;  in  form,  being  an  action  by  the  one  party 
for  an  alleged  assertion  by  the  other  that  a  mar- 
riage has  taken  place,  whereupon  the  matter 
is  tried,  and  unless  the  defendant  proves  that 
there  was  a  marrige  he  is  prohibited  from  aver- 
ring the  same,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  decree 
that  tliere  v/as  no  such  marriage.  In  the  state 
of  New  York  it  was  formerly  held  that  phys- 
ical incapacity  existing  before  marriage  was 
not  a  ground  of  divorce,  for  winch  decision  the 
reason  assigned  was  tliat  the  English  ecclesias- 
tical law  had  never  been  adopted  in  this  country. 
By  the  Revised  Statutes  of  New  York  it  is  pro- 
vided that  a  divorce  may  be  granted  where  one 
of  the  parties  was  physically  incapable  of  enter- 
ing into  the  marriage  state,  and  also  where  the 
consent  of  one  of  the  parties  was  obtained  by 
force  or  fraud  (2  R.  S.  142).  The  nature  of 
the  fraud  referred  to  is  not  defined,  but  it  may 
be  presumed  that  it  must  be  some  imposition 
or  deception  relating  to  the  ceremony  itself; 
and  probaUy  it  would  be  held,  in  conformity 
with  the  English  rule,  that  if  it  was  really 
intended  that  the  marriage  should  take  place, 
and  if  it  has  in  fact  been  solemnized  with  the 


524 


DIVORCE 


person  intended,  such  marriage  will  be  valid, 
notwitbstauding  consent  was  obta'ined  by  fraud- 
ulent representations  in  respect  to  other  mat- 
ters which  may  have  constituted  the  induce- 
ment to  the  consent.  If,  however,  there  has 
been  any  intimidation  used,  it  is  a  sufBcient 
cause  for  annulUng  the  marriage,  and  this  seems 
to  have  been  the  true  ground  of  the  decision  in 
the  case  of  Fierlat  vs.  Gojon  (Ilopkins's  Eep. 
478),  though  it  was  put  mainly  upon  the  ground 
of  fraud.  Voluntary  cohabitation  of  the  parties 
as  husband  and  wife  is  a  bar  to  dissolution  of 
the  marriage,  either  for  force  or  fraud. — The 
degree  of  kindred  in  which  marriage  is  lawful 
in  England  is  the  4th,  according  to  the  com- 
putation of  the  civil  law  ;  that  is,  counting  the 
degrees  of  the  ascending  and  descending  lines. 
Marriage  is,  therefore,  lawful  between  first  cous- 
ins, or  between  great  uncle  and  niece,  but  not 
between  uncle  and  niece.  And  the  same  pro- 
hibition extends  to  relationship  by  marriage; 
therefore  a  man  is  not  permitted  to  marry  his 
deceased  wife's  sister,  mother,  or  aunt,  nor  his 
stepdaughter  nor  daughter-in-law.  By  statute 
in  the  state  of  New  York  the  prohibition  ex- 
tends only  to  relatives  who  are  lineally  related, 
and  to  brothers  and  sisters,  whether  of  the  half 
or  whole  blood  (2  R.  S.  129),  In  France  mar- 
riage is  prohibited  between  lineal  ascendants 
and  descendants ;  between  brothers  and  sisters, 
whether  legitimate  or  illegitimate ;  between  un- 
cle and  niece,  aunt  and  nephew ;  and  also  be- 
tween those  Avho  are  related  by  affinity  in  the 
same  degrees ;  but  in  the  case  of  uncle  and 
niece  or  aunt  and  nephew  a  dispensation  can 
be  granted  for  weighty  reasons.  (Code  civile, 
art.  101-164.)  The  same  was  Bubstantially 
the  rule  of  the  Roman  law,  except  that  mar- 
riage of  uncle  and  niece  or  aunt  and  nephew 
■was  considered  incestuous,  and  under  no  cir- 
cumstances was  admitted,  and  the  prohibition 
■was  extended  to  uncle  and  grand  niece  or  aunt 
and  grand  nephew.  Relationship  by  adAption 
was  equally  within  the  prohibition  while  such 
relationship  continued  to  exist,  as  between  bro- 
ther and  adopted  sister ;  but  if  the  sister  was 
emancipated,  marriage  between  them  became 
lawful;  and  without  such  emancipation,  the 
brother  could  marry  an  adopted  sister's  daugh- 
ter. But  there  could  be  no  marriage  between 
those  lineally  related  by  adoption,  either  before 
or  after  emancipation,  as  between  father  and 
adopted  daughter  or  granddaughter.  (Justinian, 
Inst.,  lib.  i.  tit.  10.)  In  the  English  ecclesiasti- 
cal courts  there  was  formerly  another  ground 
upon  which  marriage  could  be  annulled,  viz., 
a  prior  engagement  with  another  party.  But 
this  was  abrogated  by  stat.  20  George  II.,  c. 
33,  which  prohibited  all  suits  to  enforce  per- 
formance of  a  marriage  contract;  the  parties 
being  thus  left  to  an  action  for  damages  upon 
refusal  to  perform  it. — We  have  next  to  con- 
sider divorce  for  causes  occurring  after  mar- 
riage. In  England,  from  a  very  early  period, 
divorce  a  vinculo  matrimonii  was  not  allowed 
for  such  causes,  but  only  a  separation  a  mensa 


et  thoro,  which  did  not  authorize  either  party  to 
marry  again.  This  practice  was  derived  from 
the  canon  law,  which  held  marriage  to  be  a  sa- 
crament, and  that  it  could  not  be  dissolved  for 
any  cause  whatever.  But  by  statute  20  and  21 
Victoria,  c.  85  (1857),  divorce  a  vinculo  is  now 
allowed  on  the  petition  of  the  husband  for  the 
adultery  of  the  wife,  and  on  the  petition  of  the 
wife  when  the  husbaud  has  been  guilty  of  in- 
cestuous adultery,  rape,  bestialitj',  or  adultery 
accompanied  by  cruelty.  Divorce  a  mensa  et 
thoro  is  by  the  same  act  denominated  a  decree 
of  judicial  separation,  and  under  that  designation 
is  allowed  for  the  same  causes  as  heretofore.  A 
new  tribunal,  called  the  court  for  divorce  and 
matrimonial  causes,  has  been  established,  and 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  has 
been  entirely  superseded  in  such  matters,  except 
the  granting  of  marriage  licenses. — By  the  Ro- 
man law  marriage  was  held  to  be  dissoluble  at 
the  pleasure  of  either  party,  the  dissolution  be- 
ing called  in  such  cases  divortium  sine  causa  or 
sine  nlla  querela.  Augustus  attempted  to  im- 
pose restrictions  upon  voluntary  divorces,  but 
his  authority  was  unavailing  against  this  evil. 
Justinian,  by  an  imperial  edict,  prohibited  vol- 
untary divorces ;  but  this  was  repealed  by  his 
successor,  Justin,  and  the  old  law  was  restored, 
allowing  full  freedom  of  dissolving  marriage  by 
mutual  consent.  It  appears  that  under  the 
Christian  emperors  divorces  sine  causa,  or  at  the 
option  of  one  of  the  parties,  were  no  longer  al- 
lowed, but  the  causes  which  were  held  sufficient 
afibrded  ample  facility  for  separation,  with  a 
preponderating  advantage  in  favor  of  the  hus- 
band, "In  the  most  rigorous  laws  a  wife  was 
condemned  to  support  a  gamester,  a  drunkard, 
or  a  libertine,  unless  he  were  guilty  of  homicide, 
poison,  or  sacrilege,  in  which  cases  the  marriage, 
as  it  would  seem,  might  have  been  dissolved  by 
the  hand  of  the  executioner."  (Gibbon,  c,  44,) 
Adultery  of  the  wife  Avas  available  to  the  hus- 
band as  a  ground  of  divorce,  and  either  party 
was  allowed  a  release  from  the  matrimonial  ob- 
ligation for  incurable  impotence  of  the  other 
party,  whether  existing  before  marriage  or  oc- 
curring afterward;  for  desertion,  or  long  absence ; 
and  on  the  assumption  of  the  monastic  profes- 
sion,— The  Codecivile  of  France  allowed  divorce : 
1,  for  adultery  of  the  wife,  hut  not  for  adultery  of 
the  husband  except  when  he  brought  a  pai'amour 
or  concubine  into  his  own  house  ;  2,  to  either 
party  for  any  outrage,  cruelty,  or  grievous 
wrong  inflicted  upon  him  or  her  by  the  other 
party  (pour  exces,  seviccs,  ou  injures  graves);  3, 
to  either  upon  the  condemnation  of  the  other  to 
an  infamous  punishment  (condemnation  d  une 
peine  in/aniantc),  which  is  elsewhere  defined  to 
be  either  imprisonment,  banishment,  loss  of  civil 
rights,  or  being  placed  in  the  public  stocks  (at- 
tache aic  carcans  sur  la  jjlace  puMique  ;  Code  pe- 
nal, arts,  8  a-nd  22) ;  4,  by  mutual  consent,  with 
other  satisfactory  proof  that  the  continuance  of 
the  marriage  would  be  insupportable  (que  la  vie 
commune  Icur  est  inszipportable).  These  provi- 
sions were  rescinded  in  the  religious  reaction  of 


DIVORCE 


525 


1816.  A  law  was  passed  (Ifay  8,  1816)  eifacing 
divorce  from  the  Code  civile,  and  reC-stablishing 
the  old  law,  which  allowed  only  separation  par 
corps.  Ineffectual  attempts  were  made  in  1831 
and  1832  to  repeal  this  law,  and  there  is  there- 
fore at  present  no  divorce  a  vinado  matrimo- 
nii in  France. — The  Prussian  laws  (Landrecht), 
framed  under  Frederic  the  Great,  who  is  well 
known  to  have  been  by  no  means  a  friend  of 
marriage  life,  have  established  a  facility  of  di- 
vorce greatly  beyond  any  precedent  in  modern 
Europe;  as  for  incurable  impotency,  although 
occurring  after  marriage ;  madness  continuing 
a  year;  inexcusable  desertion  (Verlassiinff)\ 
drunkenness,  or  other  disorder,  of  long  contin- 
uance ;  ineradicable  repugnance,  and  several 
other  causes. — The  law  of  divorce  in  the  United 
States  is  various  in  different  states.  In  New 
York,  jurisdiction  of  all  cases,  whether  of  divorce 
a  vinculo,  or  of  limited  divorce  a  mensa  ct  tlioro, 
was  given  by  statute  to  the  court  of  chancery, 
and  upon  the  abolition  of  that  court  it  vested  in 
the  supreme  court  in  the  exercise  of  equity  power. 
Adultery  of  either  party  is  the  sole  cause  occur- 
ring after  marriage,  for  which  a  divorce  a  vinculo 
can  be  granted.  It  is,  however,  provided  that 
sentence  of  imprisonment  to  the  state  prison  for 
life  is  civil  death  (2  R.  S.  701),  and  the  husband 
or  wife  of  such  imprisoned  person  is  at  liberty 
to  marry  again  without  the  necessity  of  any  ju- 
dicial action.  Imprisonment  for  a  less  terra  than 
for  life  merely  suspends  civil  rights,  but  does  not 
abrogate  them ;  and  the  convict,  upon  expiration 
of  his  term,  resumes  his  marital  rights.  ISTo  pro- 
vision is  made  by  law  for  the  case  of  long  con- 
tinued absence,  except  that  there  is  an  exemption 
from  the  penalty  of  the  statute  against  bigamy 
in  the  case  of  a  second  marriage,  when  the 
former  husband  or  wife  has  been  absent  5  suc- 
cessive years  without  being  known  to  the  other 
to  be  living  (2  R.  S.  687),  but  the  second  mar- 
riage is  not  thereby  made  valid.  In  some  of 
the  states  jurisdiction  has  not  been  conferred 
upon  the  courts  to  grant  divorces,  and  the 
power  rests  solely  with  the  legislature ;  and  in 
others,  although  there  is  judicial  authority,  yet 
applications  to  the  legislature  are  also  made. 
In  all  the  states  adultery  of  either  party  is  a 
ground  of  divorce.  In  Massachusetts,  Maine, 
and  New  Jersey,  wilful  desertion  for  5  years; 
in  Indiana  and  Missouri,  desertion  for  2  years, 
cruel  and  inhuman  treatment  by  the  husband, 
or  his  habitual  drunkenness  for  2  years;  in 
Ohio,  wilful  desertion  for  3  years,  and  habitual 
drunkenness  for  the  same  period ;  in  Vermont, 
imprisonment  in  state  prison  for  3  years ;  in 
Pennsylvania,  wilful  desertion  for  2  years;  in 
Connecticut,  wilful  desertion  for  3  years,  or  7 
years'  absence  without  being  heard  of;  also 
constitute  sufficient  grounds  of  divorce.  In 
the  state  of  oSTew  York  a  limited  divorce  a 
mema  ct  tlioro  is  granted  on  the  complaint  of 
the  wife  for  cruel  and  inhuman  treatment,  or 
such  conduct  as  makes  it  unsafe  and  improper 
for  her  to  cohabit  witli  her  husband,  or  for  wil- 
ful desertion  and  refusal  or  neglect  to  provide 


for  her.  Applications  to  the  legislature  for  a 
divorce  have  been  most  frequent  in  Vermont, 
Connecticut,  and  some  of  the  western  states.  In 
Connecticut  no  petition  for  a  divorce  can  be 
acted  upon  in  a  case  where  the  courts  are  com- 
petent to  give  rehef.  In  other  states,  as  Virginia 
and  Kentucky,  such  an  application  is  usually  re- 
ferred to  the  courts  for  investigation.  An  inter- 
esting and  difficult  question  often  arises  as  to  the 
effect  to  be  given  in  one  state  to  a  divorce  ob- 
tained in  another.  It  has  been  incidentally  held 
by  the  federal  courts  that  laws  for  the  dissolution 
of  the  marriage  contract  for  cause,  are  not  with- 
in the  prohibition  of  the  constitution  against 
laws  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts, 
though  it  might  be  otherwise  as  to  a  law  which 
should  allow  a  dissolution  without  cause.  A  di- 
vorce granted  by  the  courts  of  the  state  where 
the  parties  are  domiciled,  or  rather  where  the 
defendant  is  domiciled,  at  the  time  the  divorce 
is  pronounced,  may  be  considered  as  valid  every- 
where. This  should  perhaps  be  qualified  by  a 
further  assumption  that  the  parties  have  been 
regularly  brought  before  the  court  or  legislature 
by  proper  process.  It  is  a  fundamental  princi- 
ple that  no  one  is  bound  by  any  judicial  proceed- 
ing to  which  he  has  not  been  regularly  made  a 
party  by  personal  service  of  process,  or  such  no- 
tice as  is  declared  by  law  to  be  equivalent  there- 
to. As  between  citizens  of  the  came  state  (or 
perhaps  it  Avould  be  more  proper  to  say  residents, 
for  there  is  no  distinctive  citizenship  of  a  state 
except  residence),  any  provision  of  law  substitut- 
ing notice  by  publication  or  otherwise  instead 
of  personal  service,  would  undoubtedly  be  bind- 
ing; but  when  the  defendant  in  the  proceeding 
is  at  the  time  of  the  commencement  thereof  a 
resident  of  another  state,  it  is  questionable  if  any 
thing  but  personal  service  within  the  state  where 
the  proceeding  is  commenced,  would  be  held 
sufficient  to  give  jurisdiction.  In  the  state  of 
New.  York  it  was  held  that  a  divorce  granted  by 
a  court  in  Vermont,  in  a  suit  in  which  there  had 
been  no  service  of  process  except  by  publica- 
tion, defendant  being  then  a  resident  of  New 
York,  was  void,  although  the  record  recited 
that  the  defendant  had  been  duly  notified  to  ap- 
pear. (Borden  vs.  Fitch,  15  Johnson,  121.)  Later 
cases  in  that  state,  however,  would  rather  lead 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  record  will  be  held 
to  be  conclusive,  except  that  when  an  appear- 
ance has  been  entered  by  attorney  the  authority 
of  such  attorney  may  be  disproved.  (Shumway 
vs.  Stillman,  4  Cowen,  292.)  Still  it  has  been 
denied  that  there  can  be  any  proper  record  if 
the  parties  have  not  been  regularly  before  the 
court  (Starbuck  vs.  Murrav,  5  "Wendell,  148 ; 
Bradshaw  vs.  Heath,  13  Wendell,  407) ;  and  a  late 
decision  in  the  court  of  appeals  takes  the  broad 
ground  that  even  in  the  same  state  in  which  a 
judgment  was  rendered,  the  judgment  is  of  no 
validity  against  a  party  not  personally  served 
with  process  (Oakley  vs.  Aspinwatl,  4iComstock, 
513).  If,  however,  an  inhabitant  of  one  state 
goes  into  another  for  the  express  purpose  of  get- 
ting a  divorce  for  a  cause  which  would  not  au- 


526 


DIVORCE 


DIX 


thorize  a  divorce  in  the  state  of  his  domicile,  this 
has  been  held  to  be  a  fraud,  and  that  the  divorce 
would  not  be  recognized  in  the  latter  state. 
(Barber  !•«.  Root,  10  Mass.  Rep.  264;  Mass.  Rev. 
Stat.) — In  respect  to  divorces  by  foreign  tribu- 
nals, it  may  be  safely  laid  down  as  a  general  rule 
that  they  are  valid  if  the  parties  were  properly 
before  the  court.  For  this  purpose  it  would  be 
necessary  that  the  defendant  should  have  been 
served  with  process  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  foreign  court.  There  has  been  a  serious  con- 
flict between  the  courts  of  England  and  Scotland 
as  to  the  effect  of  a  divorce  in  the  latter  country 
for  causes  not  admitted  as  a  sufficient  ground  in 
the  former.  The  English  courts  formerly  insisted 
that  the  lex  loci  contractus  must  govern,  and 
that  an  English  marriage  could  not  therefore  be 
dissolved  by  the  courts  of  another  country,  al- 
though the  parties  (or  the  defendant,  which  it 
may  be  presumed  is  all  that  is  material)  should 
be  domiciled  in  such  country.  (Lolly's  case,  1 
Dow  P.  0.  124 ;  Tovey  vs.  Lindsay,  1  Dow  Rep. 
117;  Conway  ts.  Beazley,  3  Ilagg  Eccl.  Rep. 
639.)  But  it  was  finally  decided  by  the  house 
of  lords  that  a  valid  dissolution  of  marriage 
contracted  in  England  might  be  made  in  Scot- 
land. (Warrender  xs.  Warrender,  9  Bligh,  89.) 
Yet  it  is  still  maintained  in  the  English  courts 
that  no  decision  made  in  the  courts  of  another 
country  can  affect  the  rights  of  parties  to  lands 
in  England,  and  therefore  that  the  child  of 
unmarried  parents  domiciled  in  Scotland  who 
afterward  married  there,  could  not  inherit  lands 
in  England.  (Birtwhistler*.  Vardill,  9  Bligh,  72.) 
With  some  incongruity  the  same  courts  have 
held  that  the  right  of  succession  to  lands  in 
Scotland,  by  a  child  of  parents  residing  in  the 
state  of  New  York  who  were  afterward  mar- 
ried, must  be  determined  by  the  law  of  New 
York  and  not  of  Scotland.  But  whatever  may 
be  the  doctrine  of  the  English  courts,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  in  this  country  a  foreign  de- 
cree of  divorce  would  be  recognized  as  valid  in 
any  case  where  jurisdiction  had  been  properly 
acquired  by  service  of  process  on  the  party 
against  whom  such  decree  is  made. 

DIX,  DoEOTHEA  L.,  an  American  philanthro- 
pist, born  in  Worcester,  Mass.  Her  father  Avas 
a  physician,  and  after  his  death  she  supported 
herself  by  teaching  a  select  school  for  young 
girls  in  Boston.  While  thus  engaged  she  Avas 
one  day  passing  through  a  street  of  that  city, 
and  overheard  two  gentlemen  who  were  walk- 
ing before  her  conversing  upon  the  state  prison 
at  Charlestown,  and  complaining  of  the  neg- 
lected condition  of  the  convicts.  Their  remarks 
affected  her  so  powerfully,  that  sho  could  not 
rest  until  she  had  visited  the  prison  herself. 
She  became  deeply  interested  in  the  welfare  of 
the  unfortunate  and  suflering  classes,  for  whose 
elevation  she  labored  until  1834,  when,  her  health 
becoming  impaired, '  she  gave  up  her  school, 
and  embarked  for  Europe.  Shortly  before  this 
she  had  inherited  from  a  relative  sutficient  prop- 
erty to  render  her  independent  of  daily  exertion 
for  support.   In  1837  she  returned  to  Boston,  and 


devoted  herself  to  investigating  the  condition 
of  paupers,  lunatics,  and  prisoners.  Iti  this  work 
she  Avas  warmly  encouraged  by  her  friend  and 
pastor,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Channing,  of  whose  children 
she  had  been  the  governess.  Since  1841  Miss 
Dix  has  given  her  time  and  influence  entirely 
to  this  work,  and  in  the  prosecution  of  it  has 
made  many  long  and  laborious  journeys,  having 
visited  every  state  of  the  Union  east  of  the 
Rocky  mountains,  examining  poorhouses,  pris- 
ons, lunatic  asylums,  and  endeavoring  to  per- 
suade legislatures  and  influential  individuals  to  ^ 
take  measures  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  and 
Avretched.  Her  exertions  contributed  greatly 
to  the  foundation  of  state  lunatic  asylums  in 
Rhode  Island,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Indi- 
ana, Illinois,  Lousiana,  and  North  Carolina. 
She  presented  a  memorial  to  congress  during 
the  session  of  1848-'9,  asking  an  appropriation 
of  5,000,000  acres  of  the  public  lands  to  endow 
hospitals  for  the  indigent  insane.  The  measure 
failed,  but  she  renewed  the  appeal  in  1850,  ask- 
ing for  10,000,000  acres.  The  committee  of  the 
house  to  whom  the  memorial  was  referred  made 
a  favorable  report,  and  a  bill  such  as  she  asked 
for  passed  the  house,  but  fciled  in  the  senate  for 
want  of  time.  In  April,  1854,  however,  in  con- 
sequence of  her  unwearied  exertions,  a  bill  pass- 
ed both  houses  of  congress,  appropriating  10,- 
000,000  acres  to  the  several  states  for  the  relief 
of  the  indigent  insane ;  but  the  bill  was  A^etoed 
by  President  Pierce,  chiefly  on  the  ground  that 
the  general  government  had  no  constitutional 
power  to  make  such  appropriations.  Miss  Dix 
has  published  several  Avorks  anonymously.  The 
first,  the  "  Garland  of  Flora,"  appeared  in  Boston 
in  1829,  and  Avas  succeeded  by  a  number  of  books 
for  children,  among  Avhich  were  "  Conversations 
about  Conmion  Things,"  "Alice  and  Ruth," 
and  "  Evening  Hours."  She  has  also  published 
a  variety  of  tracts  for  prisoners,  and  has  written 
many  memorials  to  legislative  bodies  on  tho 
subject  of  lunatic  asylums.  Miss  Dix  is  gifted 
Avith  a  singularly  persuasive  voice,  and  with 
manners  that  are  said  to  possess  a  remarkably 
controlling  influence  over  the  fiercest  maniacs. 
She  has  recently  been  in  Europe,  and  is  now 
(April,  1859)  again  exploring  the  United  States 
on  her  ceaseless  mission  of  benevolence. 

DIX,  JonN  Adams,  a  U.  S.  senator  from  Ncav 
York,  born  in  Boscawen,  N.  H.,  July  24,  1798. 
During  the  war  of  1812-15  he  served  on  the 
frontier  as  an  ensign,  and  subsequently  acted  as 
adjutant  of  a  battalion.  At  a  later  period  he 
was  aide-de-camp  to  Gen.  Brown,  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army.  Having  married,  and 
travelled  extensively  abroad,  he  established  him- 
self about  the  year  1828  as  a  lawyer  at  Coopers- 
town,  N.  Y.,  and  becoming  identified  with  the 
democratic  party,  he  soon  turned  his  attention 
to  politics.  In  1830  Gov.  Throop  appointed  him 
adjutant-general  of  the  state.  In  Jan.  1833,  ho 
was  chosen  secretary  of  state.  By  virtue  of  his 
oflace  he  was  supei'intendent  of  common  schools 
and  a  member  of  the  canal  board,  and  one  of  the 
commissioners  of  the  canal  fund.    The  last  tAVO 


DIXON 


DIXON 


527 


bodies  have  cLarp^e  of  the  vast  works  of  internal 
improveiiieut  of  New  York,  and  also  of  its  com- 
plicated tiuancial  aifuirs.  "While  he  was  in  office 
new  canals  were  being  constructed,  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  Erie  canal  was  commenced,  and  the 
network  of  railways  that  now  covers  the  state 
was  just  starting  into  existence.  Having  been 
out  of  office  for  some  time,  he  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  assembly  in  1842,  from  Albany  co., 
and  in  the  Avinter  of  1845  was  chosen  to  fill  a 
vacancy  in  the  U.  S.  senate,  caused  by  the  elec- 
tion of  Silas  Wright  as  governor.  He  remained 
in  this  new  field  till  March  4,  1849,  and  bore  a 
distinguished  i)art  in  discussing  the  great  ques- 
tions of  that  stormy  period — the  annexation  of 
Texas,  the  war  with  Mexico,  the  joint  occupa- 
tion and  disputed  boundary  of  Oregon,  and  the 
power  of  congress  over  slavery  in  tlie  territo- 
ries. On  the  question  of  slavery  he  was  the  ex- 
ponent of  the  views  of  the  free-soil  section  of 
the  democratic  party  in  New  York,  whose  can- 
didate for  governor  he  was  in  1848,  when  Mr. 
Van  Buren  was  a  candidate  for  the  presidency 
in  opposition  to  Gen.  Cass,  both  Dix  and  Van 
Buren  standing  upon  the  "  Buffalo  platform." 
"While  in  the  senate,  he  was  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  commerce,  and  a  leading  mem- 
ber of  the  committee  on  military  affairs.  He 
brought  in  a  bill  for  reciprocal  freedom  of  trade 
with  the  British  provinces — substantially  like 
that  passed  G  years  later — and  supported  it  in 
2  speeches  which  display  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  the  trade  and  resources  of  both  coun- 
tries. He  was  the  author  of  the  act  defining 
the  duties  and  reducing  the  salaries  of  officers 
of  the  customs  in  the  large  ports.  The  divisions 
in  the  democratic  party  of  New  York,  arising 
out  of  the  slavery  question,  rendered  his  reelec- 
tion to  the  senate  impossible ;  and  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Mr.  Seward.  Having  taken  an  active 
part  in  1852  in  favor  of  the  election  of  Mr. 
Pierce  to  the  presidency,  his  immediate  friends 
in  the  democratic  party  desired  that  he  should 
be  appointed  secretary  of  state,  and  he  was  at 
first  selected  for  that  post  by  Mr.  Pierce.  But, 
difficulties  seeming  to  arise  in  the  mind  of  the 
president  elect.  Gen.  Dix  was  induced  to  decline 
in  favor  of  Gov.  Marcy.  He  afterward  accept- 
ed in  1853,  as  a  temporary  employment,  the  post 
of  assistant  treasurer  in  New  "Tork  city ;  but 
dissatisfied  with  the  president's  conduct  in  rela- 
tion to  the  appointment  of  a  minister  to  France, 
he  resigned  his  office,  and  has  since  taken  no 
part  in  politics  beyond  an  occasional  speech  be- 
fore some  popular  meeting  of  the  democratic 
party.  He  has  travelled  extensively  in  Europe, 
and  now  devotes  much  attention  to  study  and 
the  management  of  a  large  estate.  He  is  the 
author  of  "  Resources  of  the  City  of  New  York" 
(8vo.,  New  York,  1827) ;  "  Decisions  of  the  Su- 
perintendent of  Common  Schools  of  New  York, 
and  Laws  relating  to  Common  Schools"  (8vo., 
Albany,  1837) ;  "A  "Winter  in  Madeira"  (12mo., 
New  York,  1851) ;  and  "  A  Summer  in  Spain  and 
Florence"  (12mo.,  New  York,  1855). 
DIXON,  Geoege,  an  English  navigator,  died 


about  1800.  He  sailed  in  Cook's  3d  expedition. 
On  his  return  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
captain  in  the  navy,  and  in  1785  in  concert  with 
Capt.  Portlock  sailed  on  a  new  expedition,  con- 
sisting of  2  vessels,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Nootka  sound  company.  In  the  course  of  their 
joint  explorations  they  discovered  a  number  of 
harbors,  ports,  bays,  and  small  islands  on  the 
coast  of  North  America,  and  arrived  at  Hawaii, 
Sept.  28,  1786,  whence  Dixon  proceeded  to 
China.  He  is  the  author  of  a  descri|)tion  of  his 
own  expedition,  under  the  title  of  "A  Voyage 
round  the  World,  but  more  particularly  to  the  N. 
"W.  Coast  of  America,"  &c.  (London,  l785-'88). 

DIXON,  James,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman 
of  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  church,  entered  the 
Wesleyan  conference  in  1812  ;  in  1824  was 
stationed  in  the  Gibraltar  mission,  where  he 
labored  for  3  years ;  in  1828  he  was  stationed 
on  one  of  the  London  circuits,  and  remained 
in  London  until  1833 ;  thence  he  was  sent  to 
Liverpool,  and  afterward  was  successively  super- 
intendent of  Sheffield  and  Manchester  circuits. 
In  1848  he  was  appointed  by  the  Wesleyan  con- 
ference a  delegate  to  the  general  conference  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  which  was  held 
at  Pittsburg,  Penrt.  On  his  return  home  he 
published  an  account  of  his  visit  to  the  United 
States.  In  1841  he  was  chosen  president  of  the 
British  conference,  and  i.i  accordance  with 
established  usage  he  preached  the  "  conference 
sermon,"  in  1842,  on  "Methodism,  its  Origin, 
Economy,  and  Present  Position."  This  sermon 
was  subsequently  elaborated  into  a  book  bear- 
ing the  same  title,  beside  which  he  published  a 
"  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  William  E.  Miller,"  and 
about  the  same  time  a  work  entitled  "  The  Pres- 
ent Position  and  Aspects  of  Popery,  and  the 
Duty  of  exposing  the  Errors  of  Papal  Rome," 
and  "  Letters  on  the  Duties  of  Protestants  with 
regard  to  Popery." 

DIXON,  William  Hepworth,  an  English 
author  and  critic,  editor  of  the  London  "  Athe- 
naeum," born  in  the  county  of  York  in  1821. 
He  was  educated  at  a  provincial  school,  and 
evinced  an  early  genius  for  literature  by  the 
composition  of  a  tragedy  in  5  acts.  After  con- 
ducting a  newspaper  for  a  considerable  period 
at  Cheltenham,  he  gained  prizes  for  two  suc- 
cessive essays  thrown  open  to  unlimited  com- 
petition by  Mr.  Madden  of  London,  proprietor 
of  the  "  Prize  Magazine."  These  attracted  the 
attentionof  many  eminent  persons,  among  others 
of  Mr.  C.  Wentworth  Dilke,  who  soon  engaged 
Mr.  Dixon  as  a  contributor  to  tlie  columns  of  the 
"  Athenffium."  In  a  short  time  he  became  the 
critical  editor  of  this  periodical,  and  on  the  re- 
tirement of  Mr.  T.  K.  Hervey  in  1853  was  ap- 
pointed to  its  sole  direction,  an  office  which  he 
continues  to  hold.  He  removed  to  London  in 
1845,  since  which  time  his  pubhshed  works, 
chiefly  historical  and  biographical,  have  taken 
standard  rank.  The  first  was  entitled  "John 
Howard  the  Philanthropist,  and  the  Prison 
World  of  Europe"  (London,  1850  ;  5th  ed.  1854), 
and  was  followed  in  the  same  year  by  the  "  Lon- 


528 


DIXWELL 


DNIEPER 


don  Prisons,"  a  volume  amplified  from  a  series 
of  communications  to  the  "  Daily  News"  news- 
paper. In  1851  appeared  his  "Life  of  William 
Penn,"  and  the  3d  edition  in  1856,  with  an 
"Extra  Chapter  on  the  Macaulay  Charges," 
concerning  which  much  controversy  has  arisen. 
His  "Life  of  Admiral  Blake,"  based  on  family 
and  state  papers,  was  published  in  1852  (2d  ed. 
1858).  After  the  publication  of  his  biography  of 
Penn,  the  Pennsylvania  historical  society  elected 
bini  an  honorary  member.  lie  also  produced  in 
1852  a  work  entitled  the  "French  in  England ;  or 
Both  Sides  of  the  Question  on  Both  Sides  of  the 
Channel."  As  deputy  royal  commissioner  for  the 
great  exhibition  of  1851  he  was  eminently  suc- 
cessful ;  and  as  a  i*epresentative  of  the  ballot  so- 
ciety, the  principles  of  which  he  advocated  in  an 
extensive  political  tour,  he  received  the  offer  of  a 
seat  in  parliament.  He  declined  the  honor,  being 
resolved  upon  the  execution  of  a  national  work, 
a  history  of  England  during  the  rebellion  and 
under  tlie  commonwealth.  For.  this  he  has  ran- 
sacked the  state  paper  office,  and  explored  every 
site  and  scene  in  the  old  world  at  all  connected 
with  the  events  of  the  period,  studying  docu- 
ments, men,  and  manners.  He  purposes  also  to 
visit  America  with  similar  objects  in  view.  In 
his  capacity  of  editor  of  the  "Athenaeum"  Mr. 
•Dixon  forms  the  centre  of  a  large  and  brilliant 
Jiterary  circle. 

DIXWELL,  John,  colonel,  one  of  the  judges 
of  Cliarles  L,  born  in  1C08,  died  March  18, 1689. 
After  the  reaction  in  England  which  placed 
Cliarles  II,  upon  the  throne,  and  caused  him- 
self and  his  associates  to  be  condemned  to  death, 
he  escaped  to  America.  He  changed  his  name, 
taking  that  of  John  Davids,  and  lived  undis- 
covered among  the  inhabitants  of  New  Haven, 
■\viiere  he  was  married  and  left  children.  In 
1664  he  visited  two  of  his  fellow  regicides,  AYhal- 
ley  and  Goffe,  who  had  found  a  refuge  amid  the 
solitudes  of  Hadley,  a  township  of  Massachusetts. 
His  favorite  study  in  exile  was  the  "  History  of 
the  World,"  which  Ealeigh  had  Avritten  in  pri- 
son, and  he  cherished  a  constant  faith  that  the 
spirit  of  liberty  in  England  would  produce  a  new 
revolution. 

DLUGOSZ  (Lat.  Longinm),  Jan,  a  Polish 
historian,  born  at  Brzeznica  in  1415,  died  in 
Cracow,  May  29,  1480.  He  studied  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Cracow,  found  a  patron  in  the  cardi- 
nal Zbigniew  Olesnicki,  took  orders,  was  made 
canon  of  Sandomir,  and  subsequently  of  Cra- 
cow. Casiniir  IV.  employed  him  in  several  im- 
portant diplomatic  missions  to  John  Hunniades, 
governor  of  Hungary,  the  pope,  the  emperor, 
George  Podiebrad  of  Bohemia,  the  grand  master 
of  the  Teutonic  order,  and  Matthias  Corvinus 
of  Hungary.  Casirair  also  intrusted  him  with 
the  education  of  two  of  his  sons,  Ladislas,  who 
still  remained  under  his  guidance  when  elected 
king  of  Bohemia,  and  John  Albert,  afterward 
king  of  Poland.  Shortly  befoi'e  his  death  he 
was  appointed  archbishop  of  Lemberg.  He  left 
in  manuscript  a  number  of  works  in  Latin,  of 
which  the  history  of  Poland,  from  the  origm  of 


the  nation  down  to  the  last  year  of  the  author's 
life,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  historical  pro- 
ductions of  that  age.  The  first  partial  edition 
of  this  work  appeared  at  Dobromil  in  1615 ;  the 
first  complete  edition  in  2  vols,  at  Frankfort 
and  Leipsic  in  1711  and  1712,  under  the  title 
of  Joannis  Dlugossi  seu  Longini  Canonici  quon- 
dam Gracov.  EistorioB  Polonim  lilri  XII.  Mea- 
sures for  the  publication  of  a  new  Latin  and 
Polish  edition  of  his  complete  works  were  set 
on  foot  in  1858,  under  the  auspices  of  Count 
Vladimir  Plater. 

DMITPJEFF,  Ivan  Ivanovitch,  a  Ptussian 
poet  and  minister  of  justice,  born  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Simbeersk  in  1760,  died  in  Moscow 
in  Oct.  1837.  Having  studied  for  some  time  at 
Kasan  and  Simbeersk,  he  removed  with  his  fa- 
ther, on  the  revolt  of  Posgatcheff,  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, where  he  entei'ed  a  military  school,  and 
subsequently  the  active  service.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Paul  he  left  the  army  with  the  rank  of 
colonel,  sat  in  the  senate,  "was  made  privy  coun- 
cillor, and  under  Alexander  I.  became  ministcD 
of  state,  which  office  he  resigned  after  4  years, 
and  retired  into  private  life.  He  aided  Karam- 
sin  in  promoting  a  new  movement  in  the  Russian 
language  and  literature,  writing  himself  popular 
songs,  fables,  and  tales,  mostly  after  Lafontaine, 
Florian,  and  others,  excellent  satires,  and  an 
epico-dramatic  poem,  Yermalc^  as  well  as  his  own 
memoirs,  a  part  of  which  he  published.  There 
are  several  editions  of  his  complete  works. 

DNIEPER,  Dniepr,  or  Dnepr  (anc.  Barys- 
thenes,  also  Danajyris)^  next  to  the  Volga  the 
largest  river  of  Russia  in  Europe,  rises  on  the 
S.  slope  of  the  Volkonsky  plateau,  near  Dne- 
provsk  in  the  government  of  Smolensk,  flows  S. 
between  woody  marshes  as  far  as  Drohobush, 
thence  W.  between  more  elevated  banks  to  Smo- 
lensk, continues  its  western  course  as  far  as  Or- 
sha, takes  then  a  S.  course,  passes  through  the 
meadowy  valleys  and  fertile  plains  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  Mobile  V  down  to  Kiev,  turns  then  S. 
E.  through  the  steppes  of  the  Ukraine,  passes  by 
Krementshug  and  Ekaterinoslav,  flows  S.  as  far 
as  Alexandrovsk,  and  then  W.  S.W.  to  its  mouth 
below  Kherson,  emptying  into  the  Black  sea 
between  Kinburn  and  Otchakov.  Its  whole 
course  is  about  1,100  m.  Its  chief  tributaries 
are,  on  the  right,  the  Beresina,  the  Pripetz, 
which  empties  into  it  the  waters  of  the  Lith- 
uanian marshes,  and  the  Inguletz ;  on  the  left,  the ' 
Desna  and  Vorskla,  Though  large,  the  Dnieper 
was  formerly  hardly  navigable,  owing  to  nat- 
ural obstructions  in  its  lower  course  and  at  the 
mouth.  Some  of  these  have  been  removed  by 
the  Russian  government,  but  its  commercial 
importance  is  still  lessened  by  its  frequent  shal- 
lowness. About  lat.  48°  20'  N.  it  commences  a 
course  of  more  than  40  m.  over  a  rugged  bed 
of  granite,  forming  below  Ekaterinoslav  a  num- 
ber of  cataracts  and  rapids  (in  Russian  porogs, 
whence  the  name  of  Zaporogian  Cossacks),  and 
separates  into  a  great  number  of  courses,  em- 
bracing many  woody  islands.  Reuniting,  it  be- 
comes navicable  in  its  lower  course  for  flat- 


DNIESTER 


DOBBIN 


529 


bottomed  vessels,  among  which  stearahoats  have 
been  employed  since  1838  in  carrying  the  pro- 
duce of  the  interior,  timber,  corn,  linen,  iron, 
and  coal,  to  the  Black  sea.  The  Beresina, 
Oginski,  and  King's  canals,  connecting  tributa- 
ries of  the  Dnieper  with  the  Diina,  Niemen,  and 
N".  Bug,  form  water  communications  through 
tliese  rivers  between  the  Baltic  and  Black  seas. 
The  estuary  or  lake  (Buss.  Ihna/i),  formed  by 
the  mouths  of  the  Dnieper  as  well  as  by  that  of 
the  Bug,  is  verj^  shallow,  and  emits  noxious  ex- 
halations during  the  hot  summer  months.  The 
Dnieper,  like  the  Volga,  abounds  in  sturgeon, 
carp,  pike,  and  shad.  In  its  long  course  it 
passes  through  the  most  fertile  provinces  of 
Russia,  and  through  ditierent  climates.  At  Smo- 
lensk it  freezes  in  November  and  remains  ice- 
bound till  April ;  at  Kiev  it  is  frozen  over  from 
January  to  March,  The  most  remarkable  bridges 
over  the  river  are  in  these  2  cities.  The  ancients 
regarded  the  Borysthenes  as  the  largest  river 
of  the  world  next  to  the  Nile,  and  entertained 
an  exaggerated  opinion  of  the  fertility  of  the  sur- 
rounding country.  They  knew  only  its  lower 
course.  Near  its  mouth  was  Olbia,  or  Olbiopo- 
lis,  a  colony  of  Miletus,  which  carried  on  trado 
with  the  nomadic  tribes  of  the  interior. 

DNIESTER,  or  Dniestr  (anc.  Tyras  and 
Danaster)^  a  river  of  eastern  Europe,  Avhich  rises 
on  the  N.  side  of  the  Carpathian  mountains,  near 
Turka  in  Austrian  Galicia,  flows  mostly  S.  E. 
for  about  500  m.,  passes  by  Sambor,  Halicz,  and 
Mariampol  in  Galicia,  and  Chocim,  Mohilev, 
and  Bender  in  Russia,  separates  the  Russian 
province  of  Bessarabia  from  Podolia  on  the  "W. 
and  Kherson  on  the  E.,  and  empties  into  the 
Black  sea  between  Akerman  and  Ovidiopol. 
Its  principal  tributaries  are  the  Stry  and  Sered. 
There  is  Ijut  little  navigation  ;  its  mouth  is  en- 
cumbered with  flats  and  sandbanks. 

DOAB  (Sanscrit,  two  waters),  a  name  given 
in  Hindostan  to  any  tract  of  country  included 
between  3  rivers.  It  is  especially  applied  to  the 
tract  lying  between  the  Ganges  and  the  Jum- 
na, and  when  applied  to  other  similar  districts 
is  joined  with  some  distinctive  appellation,  as 
the  Jallunder  Doab,  between  the  Beas  and  the 
Satlej,  and  the  Rukna  Doab,  between  the  Ra- 
vee  and  the  Chenab.  The  Doab,  so  called  by 
way  of  eminence,  is  a  large  tract  reaching  from 
Allahabad  in  the  south  to  Saharanpoor  in  the 
north,  and  forming  the  finest  and  most  fertile 
part  of  tlie  province  of  Agi'a.  It  contains  many 
thriving  towns,  and  the  whole  territory  has 
been  brought  into  a  highly  productive  state  by 
means  of  a  system  of  irrigation. 

DOANE,  George  Washixgtox,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
an  American  clergyman,  2d  bishop  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  church  in  the  diocese  of  New 
Jersey,  born  at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  in  1799,  died 
at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  April  27,  1859.  He  was 
graduated  at  Union  college,  Schenectady,  in 
1818;  in  1821  was  admitted  to  holy  orders; 
ofiiciated  for  3  years  in  Trinity  church,  New 
York ;  in  1824  was  appointed  the  first  profes- 
sor in  "Washington  (now  Trinity)  college,  Hart- 
YOL.  VI. — 34 


ford.  In  1828  he  became  assistant  minister,  and 
then  rector  of  Trinity  church,  Boston,  where  ho 
continued  to  officiate  until  1832,  when  he  was 
elected  and  consecrated  bishop  of  New  Jersey, 
whereupon  he  removed  to  Burlington,  and  be- 
came rector  of  St.  Mary's  church  in  that  city. 
Here  he  devoted  his  energies  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  comprehensive  system  of  Christian 
education  for  females.  In  pursuance  of  this 
plan,  in  1837  he  established  St.  Mary's  hall,  a 
boarding  school  fur  girls,  beautifully  situated  on 
the  shore  of  the  Delaware,  in  which  200  girls 
from  every  state  in  the  Union,  as  well  as  from 
foreign  countries,  are  carefully  educated  in  the 
tenets  of  the  Episcopal  church.  In  consequence 
of  the  great  success  of  this  enterprise,  he  found- 
ed Burlington  college  in  1846,  under  a  charter 
from  the  state  legislature  ;  on  Jan.  1,  1858,  this 
institution  had  29  instructors  and  118  students. 
Bishop  Doane's  theological  controversies  were 
frequent.  As  a  writer  and  preacher  his  style  is 
not  only  peculiar,  but  his  language  robust  and 
eloquent.  His  contributions  to  literature  and 
theology  were  many  and  voluminous,  and  his 
poems  have  been  much  admired.  Under  his 
episcopate  the  church  in  New  Jersey  experi- 
enced an  unexampled  increase  in  the  number 
of  its  communicants,  from  801  in  1832  to  4,500 
in  1858,  while  the  clergy  increased  from  14  to 
90  in  the  same  jjcriod,  and  tlie  number  of  par- 
ishes from  31  to  79, 

DOBBIN,  a  family  in  Baltimore,  long  con- 
nected with  the  newspaper  press  of  that  city, 
Ap.cniBALD  DoBBix,  and  his  sons  Thomas, 
Akchibald,  George,  and  Robert,  emigrated 
from  the  north  of  Ireland,  and  settled  in  Bal- 
timore in  1790.  Thomas  Dobbin  published 
the  first  daily  newspaper  in  that  city  in  1795, 
called  the  "  Baltimore  Telegraph,"  which  was 
continued  after  his  death  in  1809  by  his 
brother  George,  in  connection  with  Thomas 
Murphy,  under  the  name  of  the  "  American." 
George  Dobbin  died  in  1811,  leaving  two  sons. 
RoRERT  A.  and  George  W.  Robert  A.  suc- 
ceeded in  the  management  of  the  newspaper, 
and 4s  still  connected  with  it.  The  "American" 
is  one  of  tlie  oldest  commercial  journals  of  the 
Union,  and  has  been  under  the  control  of  the 
same  family  for  64  years.  It  is  now  published 
by  R.  A.  Dobbin  and  Charles  0.  Fulton,  under 
the  title  of  the  "  Baltimore  American  and  Com- 
mercial Advertiser." 

DOBBIN,  James  CocnEAXE,  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Fayetteville,  N.  C,  in  1814, 
died  there,  Aug.  4,  1857.  He  Avas  graduated  at 
the  university  of  North  Carolina  intl832,  and 
3  years  later  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Fayette- 
ville, where  he  commenc-ed  the  practice  of  the 
law.  In  1845  he  entered  public  life  as  a  mem- 
ber of  congress  from  the  Raleigh  district,  and 
in  1848  and  again  in  1850  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  North  Carolina  house  of  commons,  on 
the  latter  occasion  serving  in  the  capacity  of 
speaker.  In  1852  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Bal- 
timore convention-  which  nominated  Mr.  Pierce 
for  the  presidency,  and  in  the  same  year  he  was 


530 


DOBELL 


DOBROVSKY 


again  a  member  of  the  state  legislature  and  an 
nnsuccessfnl  candidate  for  the  oflBce  of  U.  S. 
senator  from  North  Carolina.  Upon  tlie  inaugu- 
ration of  President  Pierce  in  1853  he  received 
tlie  appointment  of  secretary  of  the  navy,  which 
he  retained  until  the  close  of  the  administration. 

DOBELL,  Sydney,  an  English  poet,  born  at 
Peckham  Rye,  near  Loudon,  in  182-4.  In  1835 
his  father,  a  wine  merchant  in  London,  re- 
moved his  business  to  Cheltenliam,  and  at  this 
fjlace,  or  at  a  country  house  in  the  neighboring 
valley  of  Chai'lton  Kings,  young  Dobell  lived 
until  his  marriage  in  184A.  It  is  said  that  he 
fell  in  love  at  10,  became  engaged  at  15,  and. 
was  married  at  20.  At  the  age  of  12  his  edu- 
cation, which  had  been  conducted  entirely  at 
home,  Avas  completed,  and  he  entered  the  count- 
ing room  of  his  father,  with  whom  he  remained 
in  the  capacity  of  a  clerk  for  15  years.  "While 
thus  employed  he  devoted  his  leisure  hours  to 
literary  pursuits,  and  in  1850  produced,  under 
the  nom  de2ylume  of  "  Sydney  Yendys,"  which 
he  retained  for  several  years,  his  poem  of  the 
"  Roman."  Tliis  and  "  Balder,"  which  appeared 
4  years  later,  found  many  admirers,  who  hailed 
the  author  as  the  originator  of  a  new  era  in 
English  poetry.  The  2  poems  were,  however, 
subjected  to  much  severe  criticism,  and  the  lat- 
ter of  them  was  travestied  by  Mr.  Aytoun  in  his 
"Firmilian."  In  1855  Mr.  Dobell  published,  in 
connection  with  Alexander  Smith,  a  volume  of 
"  Sonnets  on  the  "War,"  and  in  the  succeeding 
year  another  volume  of  poems  entitled  "  Eng- 
land in  time  of  War,"  in  whicli  his  peculiarities 
of  rhythm,  language,  and  thought  are  fully  de- 
veloped. 

DOBREE,  Peter  Paul,  an  English  scholar, 
and  professor  of  Greek  in  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge, born  in  Guernsey  in  1T82,  died  Sept. 
24,  1825.  After  the  death  of  Porson  he  was 
intrusted  with  the  task  of  editing  a  part  of  his 
notes,  and  published  in  1820  all  that  Porson 
had  left  upon  Aristophanes,  together  with  learn- 
ed notes  by  himself.  In  1823  he  was  appointed 
regius  professor  of  Greek,  and  at  the  time  of 
his  deatli  was  preparing  an  edition  of  Demos- 
thenes, and  writing  a  course  of  lectures  on 
Greek  literature. 

DOBREXTEY,  Gaeor,  a  Hungarian  author, 
born  at  ISTagy-SzollOs  in  1786,  died  in  1851.  He 
studied  philology  and  history  at  Wittenberg  and 
Leipsic ;  in  1810  established  the  "  Transylvania 
Museum,"  a  periodical  which  exercised  so  con- 
siderable an  influence  upon  the  devleopment  of 
the  Hungarian  language  and  literature  that  no 
Hungarian  library  is  thought  complete  without 
it.  In  1820  he  removed  to  Pesth,  where  he 
continued  subsequently  to  reside,  actively  en- 
gaged in  literary  labors,  while  also  holding  va- 
rious civil  offices.  In  1822  he  was  one  of  22 
savants  invited  to  assemble  at  Buda  to  devise  a 
plan  and  constitution  for  the  Hungarian  academy, 
and  in  1831  was  appointed  a  member  and  sec- 
retary of  that  body.  During  the  same  time  he 
was  engaged  upon  the  groat  work  of  his  life, 
the  "Ancient  Monuments  of  the  Hungarian  Lan- 


guage." Four  volumes  of  this  were  publi:>hed 
during  his  life,  and  a  6th  was  left  by  him  nearly 
completed.  He  also  wrote  several  biographical 
sketches  of  old  Hungarian  authors,  liis  poems 
consist  of  odes,  epigrams,  and  elegies ;  he  also 
translated  Shakespeare's  Macbeth,  Moliere's 
Avare,  and  several  tragedies  of  Schiller,  into 
Hungarian. 

DOBRIZHOFFER,  Martin,  a  Jesuit  mission- 
ary, born  at  Gratz,  in  Styria,  in  1717,  died  in 
Viennain  1791.  He  passed  18  years  among  the 
Indians  inhabiting  the  W.  bank  of  the  Paraguay 
river.  South  America,  and  the  interior  of  Para- 
guay. Wlien  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from 
the  Spanish  colonies  he  went  to  Vienna,  where 
he  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Maria  Theresa.  His 
principal  work  is  a  history  in  Latin  of  the  Abi- 
ponians  (Vienna,  1784),  of  which  a  German 
translation  appeared  in  Pesth  in  the  same  year, 
and  an  English  translation  in  London  in  1822. 

DOBRODJA,  a  district  in  European  Turkey, 
on  the  right  side  of  the  Danube,  extending  from 
Silistria  and  Varna  to  the  mouth  of  that  river, 
offering  the  most  accessible  route  from  the  north 
for  armies  to  reach  Constantinople.  The  Rus- 
sians commenced  here  their  operations  against 
Turkey  in  1828 ;  and  again  in  1854,  after  having 
crossed  the  Danube  at  Braila  and  Galatz,  they 
gained  an  important  advantage  by  securing 
Matshin,  one  of  the  principal  towns  of  the  dis- 
trict. The  Dobrodja  belonged  to  Russia  after 
1829,  was  restored  to  Turkey  by  the  treaty  of 
peace  of  185G,  and  now  forms  a  part  of  the 
eyalet  of  Silistria,  and  is  the  most  S.  E.  portion 
of  Bulgaria.  The  population  consists  of  16,000  to 
20,000  families  of  various  eastern  and  northern 
tribes,  who  support  themselves  chiefly  by  the 
raising  of  cattle  and  bees,  by  tlie  manufacture 
of  salt,  and  by  fisheries.  The  soil  is  but  little 
cultivated,  and  the  district  is,  at  most  seasons,  a 
wilderness.  The  scanty  herbage  dries  up  early 
in  the  summer,  aud  the  flocks  of  sheep  and  herds 
of  buffaloes  repair  to  the  borders  of  the  Danube 
for  pasture. 

DOBROVSKY,  Jozef,  a  Slavic  scholar,  born 
near  Raab,  Hungary,  Aug.  17,  1753,  died  in 
Brtinn,  Moravia,  Jan.  6, 1829.  lie  early  applied 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  German  language, 
and  acquired  afterward  still  greater  knowledge 
of  that  of  Bohemia,  of  which  country  his  father 
was  a  native.  Previous  to  attending  the  uni- 
versity of  Prague,  he  had  studied  at  a  neighboi*- 
ing  college  of  Jesuits,  and  after  having  become, 
in  Oct.  1772,  a  member  of  that  order  in  Brunn, 
he  devoted  himself  from  the  time  of  its  dissolu- 
tion, in  Aug.  1773,  to  literature  generally,  with- 
out, however,  neglecting  the  study  of  theology, 
which  he  continued  to  pursue  at  Prague.  Hav- 
ing made  his  debut  in  literature  in  1778  by  a 
critical  work  which  attracted  much  attention, 
he  increased  his  reputation  by  conducting 
from  1780  to  1787  a  journal  devoted  to  Bohe- 
mian and  Moravian  literature.  He  achieved 
most  abiding  fame,  however,  by  his  subsequent 
works  on  the  Slavic  languages  and  history, 
which  gained  for  him  the  reputation  of  having 


DOBSON 


DOCK 


531 


laid  the  foundation  of  Slavic  philology.  The 
most  celebrated  of  them  is  his  Imtitutiones 
Lingum  SlariccB  Dialecti  Teteris  (Vienna,  1822). 
In  1792  and  1794  he  visited  Sweden,  Russia, 
and  western  Europe,  fur  the  purpose  of  col- 
lecting diDcunients  bearing  upon  Slavic  history. 
On  his  return  he  was  for  several  years  afflicted 
■with  insanity,  brouglit  about  by  the  intensity 
of  his  labors.  lie  recovered  his  health,  however, 
in  1803.  An  account  of  his  life  and  writings 
was  published  by  Palacky  at  Prague  in  1838. 

DOBSON,  Thomas,  a  bookseller  and  author 
of  Philadelphia,  died  March  8,  1823.  lie  re- 
published the  "  Eneyclopa3dia  Britannica"  (21 
vols.  4to.,  iucluding  the  supplement,  1798-1803), 
and  wrote  "Letters  on  the  Ciiaractcr  of  tbe  Deity 
and  the  MoralState  of  Man"(2  vols.  12nio.,  1807). 

DOBSON,  William,  an  English  painter,  born 
in  London  in  1610,  died  iu  1G40.  He  served 
an  apprenticeship  with  a  picture  dealer,  and 
availed  himself  of  the  opportunity  thus  offered 
him  to  copy  some  of  the  works  of  Titian  and 
Vandyke.  One  of  his  pictures  fell  by  chance 
under  the  eye  of  Vandyke,  who  was  so  much 
struck  by  its  merit  that  he  presented  the  painter 
to  Charles  I.,  who  sat  to  Dobsoii  for  his  picture, 
and  upon  the  death  of  Vandyke  conferred  upon 
him  the  title  of  his  chief  painter.  Several  of 
his  pictures  are  in  the  cabinet  of  the  duke  of 
Northumberland. 

DOCE,  a  river  of  Brazil,  rising  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Minas  Geraes,  and  entering  the  Atlantic 
in  hit.  19°  3G'  S.;  length,  330  m.,  or,  including 
windings,  about  500.  For  about  half  its  course 
it  flows  IsT.,  then  turns  nearly  E.,  intersecting  the 
province  of  Espiritu  Santo,  and  is  bordered  by 
a  ricli,  beautiful,  but  much  neglected  country. 
Its  navigation  is  greatly  impeded  by  numerous 
cataracts. 

DOCETyE,  in  the  primitive  church,  the  par- 
tisans of  those  doctrines  which  admitted  the 
appearance  hut  denied  the  reality  of  the  human 
form  and  nature  of  Jesus  Christ.  Those  who 
looked  upon  matter  as  essentially  evil,  a  view 
derived  from  a  perverted  Platoaism  or  from 
oriental  theories,  were  offended  at  the  idea  of  a 
revelation  of  Deity  through  sensible  objects. 
Accordingly  they  declared  that  every  thing  cor- 
poreal in  Christ  was  only  in  appearance,  and  for 
the  manifestation  of  the  spirit,  and  that  his  life 
was  merely  a  continued  theophany.  It  was 
probably  against  Docetic  errors,  which  had  ap- 
peared even  in  the  time  of  the  apostles,  that 
some  passages  in  the  gospel  and  epistles  of  St. 
John  were  directed.  Docetism,  of  which  there 
were  various  forms,  was  itself  a  form  of  Gnos- 
ticism, and  its  teachers,  as  Valeutinus  and  Bar- 
desanes,  are  reckoned  among  the  Gnostics.  It 
was  thought  by  its  believers  to  reconcile  the 
narrative  of  the  Gospels  with  the  respect  due  to 
the  Deity,  in  maintaining  that  the  sutierings  and 
death  of  Christ  were  only  apparent. 

DOOIIART,  a  lake  in  the  parish  of  Killin, 
Perthshire,  Scotland.  Its  banks  are  clothed 
with  gi'oves  of  remarkable  beauty ;  it  contains 
a  curious   floating  island,   and  another  small 


isle  on  which  stand  the  rains  of  an  ancient  cas- 
tle. The  lake  is  about  3  m.  long,  and  has  its 
outlet  through  a  river  of  the  same  name,  which 
waters  Glen-Dochart  and  falls  into  the  Lochy. 

DOCIMASIA  (Gr.  toKifMacTia,  trial),  in  ancient 
Athens,  a  scrutiny  into  the  life  and  conduct  of 
any  person  chosen  to  hold  a  puldic  oflice.  Ar- 
chons,  senators,  generals,  and  other  magistrates 
were  exposed  to  this  scrutiny,  which  was  con- 
ducted by  selected  persons.  The  examination 
for  the  archonshii)  was  intrusted  to  the  senators 
themselves.  The  docimasia  was  not  limited  to 
candidates  for  public  offices,  but  a  scrutiny  might 
be  denounced  against  any  orator  or  other  emi- 
nent person  wlio  had  been  accused  of  flagitious 
crime;  and  he  was  then  obliged  to  prove  his  in- 
nocence before  a  court  of  justice,  or  suflter  dis- 
grace and  exclusion  from  the  assemblies. 

DOCK,  an  artificial  basin  for  the  reception 
of  ships,  either  for  their  security  or  for  the  pur- 
pose of  building,  repairing,  or  examining  them. 
Docks  are  of  2  sorts,  wet  and  dry.  The  for- 
mer are  usually  constructed  with  gates  to  re- 
tain the  water.  Ships  are  admitted  at  high 
water,  and  kept  afloat  by  closing  the  gates. 
Basins  are  wet  docks  without  gates,  the  water 
ebbing  and  flowing  with  the  tide.  Dry  docks 
sometimes  become  dry  by  the  ebbing  of  the 
tide,  but  are  usually  pumped  out  by  the  steam 
engine ;  they  are  closed  by  gates  carefully  con- 
structed to  prevent  the  ingress  of  the  water. 
The  most  common  form  for  this  purpose  is  that 
of  swinging  gates,  opening  in  the  middle  like 
the  lock  gates  of  a  canal.  The  floating  gate  or 
caisson  is  a  vessel  with  keel  and  stem,  construct- 
ed to  fit  grooves  in  the  masonry  at  the  entrance 
of  the  dock ;  water  being  admitted  into  this 
vessel,  it  sinks  in  the  grooves,  forming  a  closed 
gate;  it  is  removed  fi'om  its  place  by  pump- 
ing out  water  sufficient  to  float  it  clear  of 
the  grooves.  These  caissons  are  more  cheaply 
constructed  than  swinging  gates,  occupy  less 
space,  are  more  easily  repaired,  and  the  same 
caisson  may  be  used  at  different  times  for  dif- 
ferent docks. — Wet  docks  have  proved  a  very 
important  auxiliary  to  navigation  and  commerce. 
By  their  means  vessels  are  more  safely  moored 
and  protected  against  winds,  tides,  and  currents, 
and,  with  suitable  police  regulations,  are  less  lia- 
ble to  fire,  robbery,  &c.  Wet  docks  also  effect  a 
great  saving  in  the  time  and  expense  of  loading 
and  unloading  vessels.  The  principal  docks  on 
the  Thames  are  the  East  and  West  India  docks, 
the  London  docks,  the  St.  Katherine's,  the  Com- 
mercial, and  the  Victoria  docks.  The  West 
India  docks  were  commenced  in  Feb.  1800,  and 
opened  in  Aug.  1802.  They  stretch  across 
the  isthmus  joining  the  Isle  of  Dogs  to  the 
Middlesex  side  of  the  Thames,  and  consisted 
originally  of  an  import  and  export  dock,  each 
of  which  communicated  by  means  of  locks  with 
a  basin  of  5  or  G  acres  in  extent  at  the  end  next 
Blackwall,  and  with  another  of  more  than  2 
acres  at  the  end  next  Limehouse,  hoth  of  these 
basins  in  turn  communicating  with  the  Thames. 
The  south  dock,  which  runs  parallel  to  the  ex- 


532 


DOCK 


port  dock,  was  added  in  1S29.  The  export  dock, 
appropriiitod  to  sliips  loading  outward,  is  about 
870  yards  in  length  by  135  in  width,  covering 
an  area  of  nearly  25  acres.  The  import  dock, 
appropriated  to  ships  entering  to  discliarge,  Ls 
as  long  as  the  export  dock,  and  166  yards  wide  ; 
its  extent  is  nearly  30  acres.  The  south  dock  is 
1,183  yards  long,  and  is  used  indiscriminately 
for  vessels  either  loading  or  discharging ;  it  has 
an  entrance  to  the  river  at  each  end.  At  the 
highest  tides  the  depth  of  water  in  the  docks  is 
24  feet,  and  the  whole  will  readily  contain  600 
vessels  of  from  250  to  500  tons.  The  import 
and  export  docks  are  parallel  to  each  other,  and 
divided  by  a  range  of  warehouses  which  are 
chiefly  used  for  the  reception  of  spirituous 
liquors ;  smaller  warehouses  and  sheds  on  the 
quays  of  the  export  and  south  docks  are  used 
to  receive  goods  sent  down  for  exportation, 
while  the  Avarehouses  for  imported  goods  are 
on  the  4  quays  of  the  import  dock.  An  idea 
may  be  formed  of  the  extent  of  these  docks, 
when  it  is  stated  that  there  have  been  deposited 
at  the  same  time  upon  the  quays,  under  the 
sheds,  and  in  the  warehouses,"  148,563  hhds.  of 
sugar,  70,875  casks  and  433,648  bags  of  coffee, 
35,158  puncheons  of  rum  and  pipes  of  Madeira 
wine,  14,021  logs  of  mahogany,  21,350  tons  of- 
logwood,  &c.  The  whole  area  occupied  is  about 
295  acres ;  the  establishment  is  surrounded  with 
a  high  wall,  and  so  strict  are  the  precautions 
against  fire  and  pilfering,  that  as  soon  as  a  ship 
enters  the  docks  the  crew  is  discharged,  and 
no  person  whatever  is  allowed  to  remain  on 
l»oard  or  within  the  premises,  the  gates  of  whicli 
are  shut  at  a  certain  hour.  In  almost  all  docks 
a  serious  evil  is  felt  from  the  accumulation  of 
mud  and  consequent  diminution  in  depth  of  the 
water,  and  scouring  and  dredging  have  been 
deemed  the  only  relief;  but  in  the  West  India 
docks  the  evil  has  been  obviated.  The  water  of 
the  Thames  is  very  muddy,  and  when  admitted 
in  large  quantities  to  repair  the  loss  caused  by 
evaporation, '  leakage,  lockage,  &c.,  the  deposit 
is  very  considerable ;  the  loss  or  waste  of  water 
from  the  docks  was  found  to  be  upon  an  aver- 
age equal  to  5  inches  in  depth  over  the  entire 
.surface  every  24  hours,  and  not  only  was  this 
loss  to  be  supplied,  but  it  was  necessary  that 
the  water  in  the  docks  and  basins  should  be 
kept  up  to  a  point  higher  than  that  of  the  high- 
est spring  tides,  since  all  the  gates  of  the  locks 
point  inward,  to  sustain  the  water  of  the  docks. 
To  supply  this  want,  the  company  have  con- 
structed 3  reservoirs,  2  of  which  ai'e  filled  from 
the  river  by  a  culvert  with  sluices ;  the  water  is 
tlien  allowed  to  settle,  and  afterward  pumped 
by  an  engine  ^nto  an  elevated  reservoir,  from 
which  the  docks  are  constantly  supplied  with 
clear  water.  This  establishment  was  formed 
by  subscription,  and  the  property  vested  in  the 
"West  India  company,  the  afltairs  of  which  were 
managed  by  21  directors.  All  "West  India  ships 
frequenting  the  Tliames  were  obliged  to  use 
them  for  a  period  of  20  years  from  their  com- 
pletion.    The  dividends  were  limited  by  the  act 


of  incorporation  to  10  per  cent.  So  successful 
was  the  company  that  in  1819  a  surplus  fund 
of  nearly  £400,000  had  been  accumulated ;  but 
having  reduced  their  charges  very  materially, 
the  surplus  has  been  absorbed.  The  engineer 
of  these  docks  was  William  Jessop,  and  the 
total  expense  of  their  erection  was  about  £1,- 
500,000.— The  East  India  docks  at  Blackwall 
were  originally  intended  only  to  accommodate 
vessels  engaged  in  the  East  India  trade,  but  are 
now  open  to  vessels  from  all  i)arts.  There  are 
2  docks,  the  import  dock  containing  about  18 
acres,  and  the  export  dock  about  9  acres.  The  en- 
trance basin  connecting  the  docks  with  the  river 
contains  about  2|  acres;  the  length  of  the  en- 
trance lock  is  210  feet,  and  the  width  of  the  gates 
48  feet  clear.  The  depth  of  water  in  the  docks 
is  never  less  than  23  feet,  and  there  is  attached 
to  them  a  quay  fronting  the  river  nearly  700 
feet  in  length.  Both  these  and  the  West  India 
docks  are  now  under  the  control  of  the  East  and 
West  India  dock  company,  the  tinion  having, 
been  effected  in  1838.  The  capital  of  this  com- 
pany amounts  to  over  £2,000,000,  and  the  man- 
agement is  .vested  in  a  board  of  32  directors. 
— The  London  docks  are  situated  in  Wapping, 
and  Avere  principally  intended  to  receive  ships 
laden  with  wine,  brandy,  tobacco,  and  rice.  They 
were  begun  in  1800,  and  opened  in  Feb.  1805. 
The  western  dock  is  20  acres  in  extent,  and  the 
new  or  eastern  dock  about  7.  The  tobacco  dock, 
which  lies  between,  and  is  appropriated  solely 
to  tobacco  ships,  exceeds  one  acre  in  extent.  On 
the  north  side  of  this  dock  is  the  great  tobacco 
warehouse,  a  building  which  occupies  under  one 
roof  between  4  and  5  acres  of  ground.  It  is 
said  to  be  capable  of  containing  25,000  hhds.  of 
tobacco,  while  the  vaults  underneath  will  accom- 
modate as  many  pipes  of  wine.  All  ships  bound 
for  the  Thames,  laden  with  wine,  brandy,  to- 
bacco, or  rice  (except  ships  from  the  East  and 
West  Indies),  were  obliged  to  unload  in  these 
docks  for  21  years ;  this  monopoly  expired  in 
1826,  and  the  use  of  the  docks  is  now  optional. 
The  entrances  were  formerly  by  the  basins  at 
Wapping  and  Hermitage,  but  another  entrance 
was  completed  a  few  years  ago  from  old  Shad- 
well  dock  to  the  eastern  dock.  The  stock  of 
the  company  amounts  to  nearly  £4,000,000,  a 
considerable  portion  of  which  was  required  to 
purchase  the  houses,  some  1,300  in  number,  that 
occupied  the  site  of  the  docks.  The  board  of 
directors  consists  of  25  members,  the  mayor  of 
the  city  of  London,  as  conservator  of  the  river 
Thames,  being  one.  Two  new  docks  have  been 
recently  constructed  at  the  London  docks  (200 
and  150  feet  long  respectively,  60  feet  wide ;  depth 
of  water  28  feet),  as  well  as  a  new  basin,  780 
feet  by  450  feet,  and  extensive  warehouses. — St, 
Katherine's  docks,  situated  immediately  below 
the  tower,  were  executed  in  a  year  and  a  half, 
and  first  opened  Oct.  25,  1828.  The  entire 
property  covers  an  extent  of  24  acres,  11  of 
which  are  occupied  by  the  2  docks,  which  com- 
municate by  a  basin.  The  entrance  lock  is  180 
feet  long  and  45  broad,  and  ships  of  over  800 


DOCK 


5a3 


tons  register  are  docked  and  undockcd  witli  fa- 
cility. The  warehouses  are  very  commodious, 
and  heing  built  close  to  the  water's  edge,  goods 
can  be  transferred  to  them  directly  froni  the 
hold  of  the  vessel,  without  a  preliminary  land- 
ing on  quays,  as  in  the  docks  before  mentioned, 
thus  ejecting  a  great  economy  of  time  and  labor, 
— The  Commercial  docks  are  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  river,  and  existed  in  IGGO  under  the  name 
of  the  Ilowland  great  wet  dock,  and  subsequent- 
ly of  the  Greenland  docks,  having  been  prepared 
for  the  express  purpose  of  accommodating  Green- 
land whaling  vessels.  In  1807  they  were  greatly 
enlarged,  and  received  their  present  name.  They 
are  used  chiefly  to  receive  vessels  laden  with 
corn,  iron,  lumber,  guano,  and  otlier  bulky  com- 
modities. They  cover  an  area  of  120  acres,  70 
of  whi^i'h  are  water.  The  granaries  will  contain 
140,000  quarters  of  corn.  A  new  dock  at  the 
Commercial  docks  was  opened  in  1855. — The 
Victoria  docks  are  situated  on  the  Plaistow 
marshes,  on  the  N.  side  of  the  Thames,  imme- 
ately  below  the  East  and  West  India  docks.  The 
company  own  200  acres,  7-i  of  which  are  occu- 
pied by  the  dock,  which  afibrds  23^  feet  depth 
of  water.  The  entrance  into  the  Thames  is  at 
Bow  creek,  by  a  lock  300  feet  long  and  80  feet 
wide.  There  is  also  a  half-tide  basin  of  16  acres, 
and  5  jetties  with  warehouses  containing  over 
11  acres  of  warehouse  floor.  The  company  own 
in  addition  an  acre  and  a  half,  between  Thames 
street  and  the  river,  on  which  to  erect  ware- 
houses. These  docks  were  completed  in  1855. 
The  lock  gates,  cranes,  and  capstans  are  all 
worked  by  hydraulic  power.  A  special  object 
of  the  company  is,  by  the  construction  of  a 
collier  dock,  to  withdraw  from  the  Thames  a 
portion  of  the  coal  trade  of  the  port,  thus  re- 
lieving the  tratfic  on  the  river  from  serious  ob- 
struction, and  extending  greater  facilities  of  dis- 
charge to  the  colliers. — The  Southampton  dock 
company  Avas  incorporated  in  1836,  and  have  at 
present  built  2  wet  docks,  one  an  open  dock  of 
16  acres,  and  with  a  depth  of  18  feet  at  low  wa- 
ter, and  the  second  a  close  dock  (the  first  of  an 
intended  series  of  3),  with  an  area  of  10  acres, 
and  a  permanent  average  water  depth  of  23  feet. 
Both  docks  are  surrounded  by  extensive  bonded 
warehouses,  vaults,  sheds,  &c.  Attached  to  the 
wet  docks  are  3  dry  docks,  the  largest  of  which 
is  450  feet  in  length,  with  80  feet  gates  and  25  feet 
depth  of  water.  At  the  Grand  Surrey  dock,  a 
new  dock  entrance,  inner  dock,  ba-sin,  and  tim- 
ber'dock  are  in  course  of  formation  (1859),  and 
are  estimated  to  cost  upward  of  £100,000.  Ex- 
tensive docks  have  also  been  formed  at  Brentford 
in  connection  Avith  the  canal  terminus  and  the 
Great  Western  railway. — The  Liverpool  docks 
are  very  numerous,  and  have  greatly  contributed 
to  the  growth  and  consequence  of  the  port.  The 
first  dock,  constructed  in  1715,  had  an  area  of 
3i  acres.  It  was  filled  up  in  1826,  in  order  to 
erect  the  custom  house  on  its  site.  Between 
1830  and  1852  no  fcAver  than  22  docks  and  ba- 
sins were  opened  ;  the  total  water  space  is  about 
200  acres,  and  the  entu-e  dock  estate  712  acres. 


The  Huskisson  dock,  constructed  in  Liverpool 
between  1852  and  1859  for  the  accommodation 
of  ocean  steamships,  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the 
world.  The  widtli  of  the  E.  lock  gates  is  SO 
feet,  of  the  W.  lock  gates  70  feet,  and  the  water 
area  is  about  14  acres,  witli  quay  space  to  tlie  ex- 
tent of  1,122  yards.  The  docks  all  extend  along 
and  parallel  w  ith  tlie  river,  and  the  river  wall 
is  5  miles  200  yards  long,  while  the  quays  mea- 
sure 14  miles  in  length.  The  dock  estate  is 
managed  by  a  committee  of  24,  who  have  charge 
of  aU  the  docks.  The  warehouses  do  not  gen- 
erally belong  to  the  dock  estate,  but  are  mostly 
private  property.  Many  are  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  quays,  and  the  inconvenience 
arising  from  this  arrangement  has  lately  induced 
the  construction  of  warehouses  around  the  Al- 
bert and  Stanley  dock,  and  they  are  also  to 
be  built  around  the  new  Wapping  dock.  Tho 
docks  at  Birkenhead,  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Mersey  and  directly  opposite  Liverpool,  were 
commenced  in  1844,  and  the  first,  called  the 
Morpeth  dock,  was  opened  by  Lord  Morpeth 
(the  present  earl  of  Carlisle),  April  5,  1847 ;  it 
communicates  on  the  S.  E.  with  a  tidal  basin  of 
16  acres  for  coasters.  The  Wallasey  pool  is  to 
form  a  wet  basin  or  float  of  150  acres,  and  the 
total  dock  accommodation  is  intended  to  be  over 
200  acres.  The  first  warehouses  of  the  Birken- 
head warehouse  dock  company  were  opened  in 
April,  1847,  and  are  ca])able  of  stowing  away 
80,000  tons  of  goods.  Within  the  last  few  years 
the  works  have  been  renewed  at  Birkenhead  on 
a  large  scale,  and  a  considerable  extension  has 
been  commenced  (1859)  in  tlie  docks  of  Liver- 
pool. In  1857  a  vast  floatiug  stage  was  con- 
structed under  the  direction  of  Sir  W.  Cubitt, 
at  a  cost  of  £140,000,  and  moored  in  its  place 
at  Prince's  pier.  It  is  100  feet  long  by  82  feet 
wide,  and  weighs  upward  of  3,000  tons ;  it  is 
supported  on  63  air-tight  rectangular  pontoons, 
of  which  12  are  each  96  feet  long,  12  feet  wide, 
and  5  feet  deep ;  49  each  80  feet  long,  10  broad, 
and  5  deep,  and  3  of  somewhat  smaller  size. — At 
Newport  a  new  dock  (950  feel;  by  350  in  the 
widest  part;  area  8  acres;  cost  £64,000)  was 
opened  in  March,  1858.  Docks  covering  an  area 
of  13  acres  were  begun  at  Swansea  in  1853. 
Extensive  works  were  also  in  progress  in  tho 
docks  of  Southampton  and  of  other  places  in  the 
same  year.  Hull  has  5  docks,  which  occupy  with 
their  basins  a  water  area  of  49^  acres.  At 
Dundee  there  are  2  wet  docks,  viz. :  King  Wil- 
liam's of  6i  acres,  and  Earl  Grey's  of  5  J  acres ; 
the  breadth  of  the  lock  of  the  former  is  40  feet, 
and  of  the  latter  55.  A  wet  dock  of  14^  acres 
is  now  being  constructed,  with  a  lock  of  60 
feet,  &nd  an  additional  dock  of  11  acres  is  pro- 
jected ;  there  is  also  a  fine  dry  dock  in  connec- 
tion with  the  King  William  dock.  Leith,  tho 
port  of  Edinburgh,  has  3  wet  docks,  which 
furnish  a  water  area  of  about  15  acres.  The 
Bute  dock  Avas  constructed  by  the  marquis  of 
Bute  at  CardilT,  between  1834  and  1839,  at  an 
expense  of  £300,000  ;  it  contains  a  water  space 
of  about  20  acres,  and  the  main  entrance  lock  is 


534 


DOCK 


152  feet  long  and  36  feet  wide.  A  new  grav- 
ing dock  was  constructed  at  Cardiff  in  1858,  as 
•well  as  other  works  in  connection  with  the  Buto 
docks. — At  Havre  there  are  3  old  docks  or  ba- 
sins, which  can  accommodate  200  to  300  vessels; 
a  fourth,  the  lassin  de  Vauian,  situated  outside 
the  walls,  is  larger  than  any  of  the  others,  and 
furnished  with  Avarehouses  of  the  best  construc- 
tion ;  it  was  completed  in  1842.  A  fifth  dock 
has  also  recently  been  constructed  for  steamers. 
The  harbor  of  Marseilles  is  a  basin  in  the  centre 
of  the  city,  1,050  yards  in  length  by  about  300 
in  breadth  ;  the  depth  of  water  ranges  from  12 
to  24  feet,  and  dredging  machines  are  kept  con- 
stantly at  work  to  clear  out  the  mud,  and  pre- 
vent the  basin  from  filling  up.  Three  extensive 
basins  were  constructed  at  Antwerp  in  1803  ; 
these  are  sufficiently  deep  to  admit  vessels  of 
large  size,  Avhich  are  enabled  to  penetrate  the 
heart  of  the  city  by  means  of  8  canals.  The 
docks  at  Cherbourg  were  commenced  by  Napo- 
leon I.,  and  the  first  basin  was  opened  in  Aug. 
1813  ;  the  work  was  completed  and  the  last  ba- 
sin opened  in  Aug.  1858.  (See  Cheeboueg.) 
The  dry  docks  at  Sebastopol,  -which  were  main- 
ly destroyed  after  the  capture  of  the  city,  Sept. 
8,  1855,  were  situated  considerably  above  the 
level  of  the  Black  sea,  and  the  expense  of  pump- 
ing was  entirely  avoided  ;  ships  were  raised  into 
a  general  dock  basin  by  a  series  of  3  locks,  each 
of  which  had  a  rise  of  10  feet.  The  water  for 
supplying  the  basin,  for  filling  the  docks,  and  for 
working  the  locks,  was  brought  by  a  canal  12 
miles  long,  Avhich  taps  a  mountain  stream.  Ves- 
sels, after  being  elevated  into  the  general  basin, 
•were  floated  into  one  of  these  dry  docks,  and,  the 
gates  being  closed,  the  water  was  let  off  into  the 
sea,  through  a  subterranean  culvert.  The  Bra- 
zilian government  has  been  engaged  for  several 
years  in  the  construction  of  a  dry  dock,  the 
work  on  which  is  performed  by  convicts.  It 
is  excavated  out  of  the  solid  rock,  and  is  to  be 
300  feet  long,  92  feet  broad,  and  32  feet  deep.— 
In  the  United  States  are  to  be  found  the  finest 
dry  docks  in  the,world.  The  largest  is  the  gran- 
ite dry  dock  at  the  Brooklyn  navy  yard,  situated 
on  the  "Wallabout  bay,  directly  opposite  New 
York  city.  It  -was  commenced  in  Aug.  1841, 
and  comiileted  in  Aug.  1851.  The  main  cham- 
ber of  the  dock  is  286  feet  long  and  30  feet  wide 
on  the  bottom,  and  307  feet  long  and  98  feet 
■wide  on  the  top,  and  by  using  the  caisson  or  float- 
ing gate  instead  of  the  folding  gates  an  addition- 
al length  of  52  feet  may  be  obtained ;  the  least 
•width  is  at  the  hollow  quoins,  where  the  walls 
are  66  feet  apart  at  mean  high  water  line;  the 
least  depth  of  the  dock  is  over  the  mitre  sills, 
where  there  is  26  feet  of  "water  at  mean  high 
tide  ;  the  whole  height  of  the  walls  is  36  feet. 
The  caisson  is  an  iron  vessel  66  feet  long,  16  feet 
beam,  and  30  feet  hold ;  it  is  used  in  case  the  turn- 
ing gates  require  repair,  or  to  relieve  the  strain 
on  them  by  dividing  the  pressure  of  the  water. 
The  pumping  engines  are  sufficiently  powerful 
to  empty  the  dock  in  about  2  hours  10  minutes, 
the  amount  of  water  pumped  out  in  that  time 


being  610,000  gallons.  "WTien  a  ship  is  to  be 
docked,  the  filling  culverts  are  closed,  as  well  as 
the  passages  from  the  dock  chamber  to  the 
draining  culverts  leading  to  the  pump  well, 
and  tlie  water  is  pumped  from  the  latter ;  the 
ship  is  then  admitted  and  placed  over  the  keel 
block  in  the  centre  of  the  dock ;  the  caisson  is 
next  floated  to  its  place,  over  the  recess  or 
groove,  and  filled  with  water  until  it  sinks 
down  to  the  bottom  of  the  masonry  fitted  to 
receive  its  keel ;  after  which  the  turning  gates 
are  closed  by  men  standing  on  the  bridge,  and 
working  the  4  hand  wheels  that  move  the  ma- 
chinery. The  culvert  gates  in  the  dock  cham- 
ber are  next  drawn  and  the  water  allowed  to 
flow  into  the  draining  culvert  and  well,  by 
which  means  the  water  is  lowered  several  inches 
in  the  dock  in  a  few  minutes,  thus  hastening 
the  shoring  and  producing  an  immediate  pres- 
sure on  the  gates,  so  as  to  effectually  prevent 
the  admission  of  water  and  fix  them  steadily. 
A  complete  command  of  the  level  at  the  mo- 
ment the  gates  are  closed,  or  when  a  ship,  espe- 
cially a  large  one,  is  about  to  touch  the  blocks 
and  requires  the  placing  of  shores,  is  important; 
and  the  above  method  gives  a  more  perfect  con- 
trol of  the  operation  for  the  first  foot  than  could 
be  obtained  by  the  best  regulated  pumps  and 
machinery  for  driving  them.  The  water  re- 
maining in  the  dock  is  afterward  pumped  out 
of  the  well  into  the  reservoir,  from  which  it  is 
discharged  into  the  culvert  leading  to  the  bay, 
the  ship  being  continually  shored  up,  as  the 
process  of  emptying  is  carried  on. — There  are 
also  numert)U3  floating  dry  docks  at  New  York, 
owned  and  controlled  by  private  companies; 
the  principal  of  these  are  the  balance  docks, 
the  floating  sectional  docks,  and  the  hydrosta- 
tic screw  dock.  The  balance  dock,  patented  by 
Gilbert,  combines  the  principles  of  the  caisson 
and  the  camel,  united  together  in  a  walled  dock, 
in  the  middle  compartment  of  which  the  vessel 
rests  after  the  water  is  pumped  out;  the  side 
compartments  or  balancing  chambers  butt  into 
a  caisson,  the  inner  walls  of  the  chambers  be- 
ing sloped,  and  the  entire  structure  strongly 
braced  and  trussed,  both  transversely  and  longi- 
tudinally. It  received  the  name  of  balance  dock 
from  the  facility  of  preserving  an  exact  equilib- 
rium and  level  by  means  of  water  let  into  or 
pumped  out  of  the  separate  compartments  of 
either  of  the  side  chambers,  all  of  which  com- 
municate with  the  pump  well  by  means  of 
valves.  The  New  York  balance  dock  company 
own  2  of  these  docks,  the  smaller  one  being  210 
feet  long,  70  feet  wide,  and  30  feet  deep ;  while 
the  larger  one  is  325  feet  long,  100  feet  broad, 
and  40  feet  deep.  The  lifting  power  of  this 
large  dock  is  8,000  tons,  and  it  is  worked  by  2 
steam  engines  of  100  horse  power  each,  setting 
in  motion  14  pumps,  each  40  inches  in  diameter 
and  5  feet  stroke.  As  an  instance  of  its  power, 
it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  Russian  frigate 
General  Admiral,  an  immense  vessel  of  6,000 
tons  burden,  and  weighing  3,680  tons,  was 
taken  up  on  this  dock,  Nov.  20,  1858,  in  the 


DOCK 


535 


epace  of  1^  hours.  Docks  of  this  description  aro 
now  in  use  at  tlie  Portsmouth  navy  yard,  and 
at  Savannali,  Mohile,  Cliarleston,  and  New  Or- 
leans; fdso  at  Uavre  and  Marseilles;  and  tho 
Austrian  government  is  now  building  one  at 
Trieste  equal  in  dimensions  to  the  larger  New 
York  dock.  In  docking  a  vessel  on  the  balance 
dock,  the  pumps  are  first  set  in  motion  by  tho 
steani  engines  on  the  deck  above,  and  the  dis- 
charge opening  being  closed  by  a  gate  for  that 
purpose,  the  water  rises  in  the  cluvmber  above 
the  pumps  until  it  is  full  to  the  deck  of  the  dock. 
It  is  next  allowed  to  flow  into  the  ujjper  cham- 
ber of  the  dock  until  its  weight,  acting  as  bal- 
last, sinks  tlie  dock  to  the  required  depth. 
When  the  ship  is  floated  into  the  dock,  this  bal- 
last is  drawn  off'  by  means  of  valves,  causing  tho 
dock  to  rise  by  its  own  specific  gravity  until  it 
touches  the  bottom  of  the  ship,  after  whicli  tho 
vessel  is  lifted  by  pumping  the  water  out  of  the 
side  chambers  and  bottom  tank ;  and  as  the  dock 
rises,  the  water  around  the  ship  in  the  middle 
chamber  ebbs  out,  so  that  the  quantity  of  water 
to  be  exhausted  in  raising  a  vessel  is  in  propor- 
tion to  her  weight  and  not  to  her  bulk. — The 
New  York  sectional  floating  dock  company  was 
formed  in  1838,  and  the  first  dock  was  begun  in 
1839  by  Messrs.  Burgess  and  Dodge,  tho  paten- 
tees. This  form  of  dock  derives  its  name  from  its 
consisting  of  distinct  sections  of  timber  framing, 
forming,  as  in  the  case  of  the  balance  dock,  a 
floating  dock  into  which  ships  can  enter.  In 
the  sections  on  each  side  are  balance  tanks, 
raised  and  lowered  by  means  of  a  rack  and  pin- 
ion; also  tanks  which  by  being  filled  with  water 
cause  the  dock  to  sink,  and  by  the  water  being 
pumped  out  enable  it  to  be  raised  to  any  re- 
quired height  out  of  the  water,  the  ship  resting 
on  the  platform  within.  On  the  top  of  the  sec- 
tion is  machinery  for  working  the  racks  and 
pinion,  and  pump  work.  The  present  number 
of  sections  owned  by  the  company  is  18,  and 
they  generally  form  3  docks  of  4,  6,  and  8  sec- 
tions respectively,  but,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  vessel  to  be  raised,  any  number  of  sections 
may  be  used,  as  convenience  suggests.  Each 
section  is  92  feet  broad  externally,  and  64  feet 
internally,  and  23  feet  long ;  the  sections  are 
also  38  feet  high  externally,  exclusive  of  engine 
house,  and  28  feet  high  internally  to  the  top  of 
the  standards.  Each  section  may  be  considered 
as  consisting  of  3  parts,  viz. :  2  lateral  scaffold- 
ings, or  framings  of  standards  within  which  tho 
balance  tanks  run,  and  a  central  platform  con- 
necting them.  The  process  of  docking  is  as  fol- 
lows :  the  dock  is  sunk  to  any  required  depth, 
by  opening  the  gates  or  valves  with  which  each 
water  tank  is  furnisl>ed  ;  the  ship  is  then  intro- 
duced between  the  vertical  side  framing  and  rests 
upon  the  keel  blocks,  being  supported,  on  tho 
sides ;  the  valve  which  previously  admitted  the 
water  into  the  water  tanks  is  then  closed,  and  the 
water  being  pumped  out  tlie  air  again  fills  the 
tanks,  which  rise,  bringing  with  them  the  vessel 
to  the  required  height ;  by  again  admitting  water 
into  the  tanka  the  vessel  is  imdooked. — The  New 


York  screw  dock  company  own  a  screw  dock  and 
a  hydrostatic  screw  dock.  In  the  former  dock, 
the  vessel  is  floated  on  to  a  timber  platform, 
which  is  suspended  from  strong  manning  pieces 
of  beams  on  each  side,  laid  on  the  quay  walls,  by 
8  suspending  screws  4^  inches  in  diameter  ;  tho 
platform  can  be  sunk  about  10  feet  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  to  receive  the  vessel,  which  is 
properly  shored  by  timbers  resting  on  the  plat- 
form. In  a  dock  of  this  kind  at  Baltimore,  tho 
platform  is  suspended  by  40  screws  of  about  5 
inches  in  diameter.  The  hydrostatic  screw,  or 
lifting  dock,  is  an  improved  form  in  which  hy- 
drostatic power  is  brought  to  bear  as  the  lifting 
force ;  it  forms  a  slip  abutting  on  the  shore, 
witli  a  suspended  keel,  allowing  vessels  to  be 
raised  up  vertically  ;  this  keel  consists  of  2  out- 
er and  parallel  ranges  of  piling,  each  bearing  a 
way  at  the  top  from  which  are  suspended  chains 
with  transverse  beams  or  swing  beams  slung 
to  them,  over  which  tho  vessel  to  be  docked 
floats;  and  having  arrived  over  this  movable 
platform  or  grating,  the  chains  are  raised  by  a 
hydrostatic  press  and  the  vessel  brought  to  the 
level  of  the  permanent  way.  The  dock  is  165 
feet  long  internally  and  35  feet  wide ;  the  dis- 
tance from  tlie  outside  of  one  mainway  to  the 
outside  of  the  other  is  51  feet.  The  mainways 
abut  on  the  land,  and  run  about  38  feet  beyond 
the  head  of  the  dock  on  to  the  land,  resting  on 
a  solid  quay  of  masonry,  to  which  they  are  bolt- 
ed down  and  which  supports  the  machinery.  A 
number  of  docks  on  this  principle  have  been 
constructed  by  the  same  company. — Beside  the 
dry  docks  enumerated,  New  York  possesses  a 
basin  of  considerable  extent  called  the  Atlantic 
basin,  situated  in  Brooklyn,  opposite  Governor's 
island.  This  work  was  constructed  by  the  At- 
lantic dock  company,  incorporated  in  1840  with 
a  capital  of  $1,000,000  ;  the  entire  area  occupied 
is  about  80  acres,  42  of  which  form  a  water  sur- 
face. The  basin  was  formed  by  enclosing  this 
area  with  piers  and  bulkheads ;  the  piers  are  150 
feet  wide ;  those  which  form  the  front  of  the 
basin  on  the  stream  are  divided  by  an  entrance 
200  feet  in  width ;  the  depth  of  water  in  a  por- 
tion of  the  basin  is  equal  to  25  feet  at  low  tide. 
Spacious  warehouses  are  erected  on  the  piers 
and  surround  the  basin.  A  somewhat  similar 
basin  was  constructed  at  Albany,  at  the  terminus 
of  the  Erie  canal,  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
canal  boats  and  of  the  ordinary  shipping.  The 
basin,  containing  about  82  acres,  was  formed  by 
erecting  a  pier  80  feet  in  width  along  the  "W. 
bank  of  the  Hudson  ;  this  was  laid  out  into  lots 
30  feet  in  front,  with  warehouses  on  the  same 
50  feet  deep.  The  pier  is  connected  with  the 
main  shore  by  drawbridges,  and  is  accessible  at 
all  times. — In  addition  to  the  New  York  dry 
dock  already  mentioned,  there  are  naval  dry 
docks  at  the  navy  yards  of  Boston,  Portsmouth, 
Philadelphia,  Norfolk,  Pensacola,  and  San  Fran- 
cisco, costing  in  the  aggregate,  and  exclusive  of 
the  New  York  dock,"  no  "less  than  $5,000,000. 
The  Boston  dry  dock  is  of  granite  ;  it  was  com- 
menced in  June,  182T,  and  completed  in  March, 


.536 


DOCK 


DOCTOR 


1834 ;  its  location  is  not  in  Boston  proper,  but  in 
Cbarlestown.  The  interior  of  the  cliamber  at 
top  is  86  feet  wide  and  253  feet  lonji;,  to  tlie  face 
of  the  arch  above  the  water  sill,  being  the  por- 
tion that  can  be  used  for  docking  vessels  inside 
of  the  turning  gates ;  in  addition,  however,  the 
space  between  the  turning  and  floating  gates, 
53  feet,  can  be  used  by  blocking  up  to  the  level 
of  the  mitre  sills,  making  the  total  length  of  tlie 
dock  30G  feet.  The  width  of  the  chamber  floor 
is  30  feet,  and  length  228  feet;  the  depth 
from  coping  to  mitre  sill  is  30  feet ;  depth  of 
water  at  ordinary  liigh  tide  over  mitre,  25  feet. 
The  dry  dock  at  Norfolk  is  also  granite,  and  is 
located  on  the  southern  branch  of  tlio  Eliza- 
beth river,  about  1^  miles  from  Norfolk  and 
adjoining  Gosport.  It  was  commenced  in  Nov. 
1827,  and  completed  in  March,  1834.  Before  its 
completion,  the  ship  of  the  line  Delaware  was 
docked  in  it  on  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of 
Bunker  hill  (June  IT,  1833),  being  the  first  na- 
tional ship  ever  docked  in  a  dry  dock  of  the 
United  States.  In  dimensions  and  character  it 
is  almost  precisely  similar  to  the  Boston  dock, 
described  above,  having  been  built  from  the 
same  working  plans,  and  under  the  direction  of 
the  same  chief  engineer.  The  dock  at  the  Phila- 
delphia navy  yard  consists  of  a  sectional  float- 
ing dry  dock  of  9  sections,  and  a  permanent 
stone  basin,  with  2  marine  railways  extending 
from  one  of  its  3  sides.  It  is  located  npon  the 
Delaware  river.  The  sectional  dock  consists  of 
9  sections,  3  of  which  are  30  feet  and  the  re- 
maining 6  32  feet  in  width,  each  consisting 
essentially  of  a  main  tank,  2  end  frames,  and  2 
end  floats ;  the  main  tanks  are  each  105  feet  in 
length,  30  or  32  feet  in  width,  11  feet  high  at 
the  ends,  and  11-J-  feet  at  the  centre.  There  are 
2  beam  engines  of  20  horse  power,  and  2  of  12 
horse  power,  each  with  locomotive  boilers,  which 
move  the  machinery  for  working  the  3  pmnps 
at  each  end  of  each  section,  and  the  end  floats ; 
the  9  sections  are  often  arranged  into  2  floating 
docks,  2  of  the  engines  being  employed  for  each 
dock.  As  a  general  rule,  the  largest  ships  of 
the  line  and  steamers  may  be  docked  upon  6 
sections,  while  a  sloop  of  war  can  be  docked 
upon  the  remaining  3 ;  or  afrigate  may  be  docked 
upon  5  sections,  and  smaller  vessels  upon  the 
remaining  4,  This  form  of  dock  can  be  readily 
repaired,  and  one  section  may  bo  raised'by  2  oth- 
ers for  that  purpose.  The  bottom  of  the  basin  is 
850  feet  long  and  226  feet  Avide,  and  12  feet  9 
inches  to  the  top  of  the  side  and  end  walls,  and 
6o  constructed  as  to  have  10  feet  9  inches  of 
water  in  the  basin  above  the  floor,  at  mean  high 
tide.  Each  marine  railway  consists  of  3  parallel 
■ways  of  white  oak,  the  centre  way  being  in- 
tended to  sustain  tlie  weight  of  the  vessel  upon 
her  keel,  and  the  other  2  at  equal  distances  jProm 
the  centre  way  to  keep  the  vessel  steady  upon 
her  keel  during  the  operation  of  sliding  her  on 
shore ;  there  are  also  temporary  bedways  for 
placing  upon  the  deck  of  the  dock,  and  when 
used  to  be  accurately  alligned  with  tlie  bedways 
on  shore.   The  cradle  is  constructed  to  be  placed 


under  the  keel  and  bilges  of  tho  vessel,  to  sus- 
tain her  with  her  keel  upon  the  centre  bedway 
and  her  bilges  upon  the  bilgeways  ;  for  the 
latter  jmrpose  each  side  of  the  vessel  is  blocked 
up  with  square  blocks  of  timber,  from  the  bilge- 
way  of  the  cradle.  This  dock  was  commenced 
in  Dec.  1849,  and  completed  in  June,  1851.  The 
San  Francisco  dock  is  also  a  sectional  floating 
dock,  similar  to  that  at  Philadelphia,  but  ex- 
ceeding the  latter  in  displacement  and  lifting 
power  about  10  per  cent.  It  consists  of  10  sec- 
tions, each  100  feet  long,  32  feet  broad,  and  11 
feet  9  inches  high,  with  2  end  floats  to  every 
section,  each  26  feet  8  inches  long,  15  feet  wide, 
and  8  feet  high.  The  construction  of  the  dock 
was  commenced  in  New  York  in  June,  1851, 
and  it  was  completed  ready  for  shipment  early 
in  tlie  spring  of  1852.  The  dock  at  Ports- 
mouth, N.  II.,  is  situated  on  the  Piseataqua 
river,  and  consists  of  a  balance  dry  dock,  a  stone 
basin,  and  railways.  The  balance  dock  is  350 
feet  long,  105  feet  4  inches  broad,  and  38  feet 
deep.  The  chambers  on  each  side  are  7  feet  8 
inches  wide,  reducing  the  interior  width  to  90 
feet.  The  basin  is  860  feet  long,  and  .120  feet 
wide  on  the  bottom,  the  walls  14  feet  high,  bat- 
tening back  3  feet  on  all  sides,  from  the  bottom 
to  the  top  of  the  basin.  The  railways  are  similar 
in  character  and  dimensions  to  those  at  the 
Philadelphia  navy  yard.  The  dock  was  con- 
tracted for  on  Nov.  11,  1848,  and  completed  in 
Nov.  1851.  The  dock  at  Pensaeola  consists  of 
a  balance  dock,  basin,  and  marine  railways. 
The  balance  dock  is  precisely  similar  to  that 
at  Portsmouth,  except  that  it  is  provided  with 
extra  fixtures  to  steady  vessels,  when  used  as  a 
camel  for  carrying  them  over  the  bar  of  the  bay. 
The  railways  are  the  same  as  those  constructed 
for  the  Philadelphia  dock. — For  a  description 
of  the  government  dock  yards  of  Great  Britain, 
see  Chatham,  Deptfoed,  Devoxport,  Poets- 
Moirxn,  Sheerness,  Woolwich,  &c. 

DOCTOR  (Lat.  doceo,  to  teach),  a  person  who 
has  taken  aU  the  degrees  of  a  faculty,  and  is 
empowered  to  teach  and  practise  it.  It  is  be- 
stowed by  universities  and  colleges  as  an  hon- 
orary distinction.  The  doctorate  and  the  de- 
grees which  conduct  to  it  were  first  instituted 
early  in  the  12th  century.  The  first  ceremonious 
installation  of  a  doctor  was  at  the  university  of 
Bologna,  Avhen  Bulgarus  was  pjromoted  to  tho 
doctorate  of  the  civil  and  canon  law.  The 
learned  Irnerius,  one  of  the  revivers  of  the 
Roman  law  at  that  time,  composed  the  formu- 
lary which  has  been  followed  since,  and  Avhich 
gives  great  solemnity  to  the  reception  of  tho 
degree.  The  usage  was  immediately  adopted  by 
the  university  of  Paris,  which  in  1145  conferred 
the  degree  of  doctor  upon  Peter  Lombard  and 
Gilbert  de  la  Porree,  two  of  the  most  eminent 
theologians  of  that  period.  According  to  anoth- 
er tradition,  tlie  title  was  first  applied  to  those 
teachers  who  explained  to  their  scholars  Lom- 
bard's "  Book  of  Sentences,"  which  was  not  pub- 
lished till  1140.  It  was  at  that  time  substituted 
for  the  title  of  master,  which  had  grown  too  com- 


DOCTOR 


DOCTEIFAIRES 


537 


mon  and  familiar.  The  title  and  degree  of  doc- 
tor were  in  use  in  England  under  King  John, 
about  1207.  In  Germany  duriug  the  middle  ages 
a  doctor  of  law  enjoyed  tlie  same  privileges  a3 
knights  and  prelates.  The  first  doctors  were  only 
of  law  and  theology ;  medicine  was  afterward 
added ;  and  in  1340  in  the  university  of  Paris  the 
4  faculties  of  law,  theology,  medicine,  and  the 
arts  or  letters,  were  organized  as  they  are  now. 
At  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  recently  also 
in  some  of  the  German  and  American  univer- 
sities, diplomas  of  doctor  of  music  have  been 
given.  The  title  of  doctor  has  occasionally  been 
bestowed  upon  women.  In  1787  the  university 
of  GOttingen  decreed  the  title  of  doctor  of  plii- 
losophy  to  Dorothea  Schlozer;  in  1817  the 
university  of  Giessen  gave  the  title  of  doctor  of 
medicine  to  Mariane  (Charlotte  von  Siebold;  in 
1827  the  university  of  Marburg  pronounced 
Johanna  "Wyttenbach  doctor  of  philosophy. 
Still  more  recently  several  young  Avomen  have 
received  the  title  of  doctor  of  medicine  from 
foreign  and  from  American  schools.  The  comic 
authors  of  the  last  century  show  that  the  title 
of  doctor  had  even  theniallen  into  discredit  and 
was  a  connnon  theme  for  ridicule.  In  a  French 
dictionary  of  that  era,  under  the  word  "  forget," 
■was  found  the  following  explanation  :  "  A  bach- 
elor is  a  man  who  learns ;  a  doctor  is  a  man 
who  forgets."  In  the  universities  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  and  in  most  of  the  European  uni- 
versities, a  student  who  is  to  receive  the  degree 
of  doctor  has  to  prepare  one  or  more  theses,  which 
in  Germany  are  called  the  inaugural  theses.  In 
the  United  States  the  title  is  conferred  upon 
those  of  eminent  learning  or  ability  in  their  pro- 
fession, without  demanding  from  them  aiiy  learn- 
ed exercise  in  return ;  excepting  in  the  medical 
profession,  where  it  is  bestowed  at  the  end  of  a 
course  of  study.  The  title  had  an  existence  out- 
ride of  the  universities  during  the  middle  ages, 
and  was  bestowed  upon  every  one  of  singular 
learning.  Thus  Alexander  Hales  was  called  the 
irrefragable  doctor;  Tliomas  Aquinas,  tlie  an- 
gelic doctor;  Bonaventura,  the  seraphic  doctor ; 
Duns  Scotus,  the  subtle  doctor ;  Eoger  Bacon, 
the  admirable  doctor ;  "William  Occam,  the  sin- 
gular doctor ;  Denys  le  Chartreux,  the  ecstatic 
doctor ;  and  Alain  de  Lille,  the  universal  doctor. 
The  title  of  doctor  has  been  given  to  some  of 
the  fathers  of  the  church  whose  teachings  have 
the  highest  authority.  At  an  early  period  there 
were  accounted  -i  doctors  of  the  Greek  church, 
St.  Athauasius,  St.  Basil,  St.  Gregory  Nazian- 
zen,  and  St.  Chrysostom  ;  and  also  of  the  Latin 
church,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Jerome,  St.  Gregory 
the  Great,  and  St.  Ambrose.  Pope  Pius  V.  as- 
signed the  oth  place  among  the  Latin  doctors  to 
St.  Thonuis  Aquinas,  and  Sixtus  V.  gave  the 
6th  place  to  St.  Bonaventura.  St.  Bernard  was 
added  to  the  series  by  Pius  VIII.  Tiie  title 
of  doctor  of  the  law  existed  among  the  ancient 
Jews.  Tliose  who  figure  in  the  Talmud  are 
called  doctors  of  the  Talmud,  or  distinctively 
doctors  of  the  Mishna  and  of  the  Gemara,  ac- 
cording to  the  division  of  that  book  in  which 


they  appear.  They  were  also  called  rabbis,  a 
title  bestowed  also  on  Jewish  scholars  of  a  later 
period.  These,  however,  are  not  called  doctors. 
The  Jewish  doctors  were  invested  with  the  dig- 
nity by  receiving  into  their  hands  a  key  and  a 
tablet  book.  The  key  was  the  symbol  of  the 
science  shut  up  in  the  heart,  which  the  doctor 
was  to  open  to  impart  to  his  discii)les. 

DOCTOKS'  COMMONS,  the  college  of  civil- 
ians in  London,  near  St.Paul's  churchyard,  found- 
ed by  Dr.  Henry  Harvey,  dean  of  the  arches,  for 
the  doctors  of  tlie  civil  law,  burned  down  in 
the  great  fire  of  IGfiO,  and  rebuilt  in  1G72,  at  the 
cost  of  the  profession.  In  the  cominon  hall 
were  held  until  1S58  the  sessions  of:  1,  the  court 
of  arches,  the  chief  ecclesiastical  court  of  the 
province;  2,  the  prerogative  court,  for  the  trial 
of  testamentary  causes ;  3,  the  consistory  court 
of  the  bishops  of  London;  4,  the  court  of  admi- 
ralty. The  most  interesting  part  of  doctors'  com- 
mons was  the  prerogative  will  office,  in  which 
were  kept  all  wills  admitted  to  probate  in  the 
prerogative  court  of  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, which  had  jurisdiction  over  nearly  all  such 
business  in  the  kingdom.  The  original  testa- 
ments preserved  here  dated  from  1483  ;  the  co- 
pies from  1383.  Great  care  was  taken  to  prevent 
mutilation.  No  stranger  was  allowed  to  make 
a  memorandum  from  either  the  wills  or  the  in- 
dex ;  extracts  or  transcripts,  when  wanted,  were 
written  out  by  the  attending  copyists,  but  any 
person  was  allowed  to  examine  a  will  on  pay- 
ment of  the  regular  fee.  Attached  to  the  col- 
lege there  were  34  proctors,  who  gave  licenses  for 
marriages,  and  pert\)rmed  the  duties  of  solicitors. 
Only  doctors  of  the  civil  law,  however,  were 
allowed  to  practise  in  the  courts  held  in  doctors' 
commons.  By  acts  of  parliament  passed  Aug. 
25  and  28,  1857,  and  Aug.  2,  1858,  the  impor- 
tance of  doctors'  commons  was  for  ever  destroy 
ed.  Jurisdiction  in  all  testamentary,  divorce, 
and  matrimonial  cases  was  transferred  from  the 
ecclesiastical  tribunals  to  a  court  of  probate,  and 
a  court  for  divorce  and  matrimonial  causes.  A 
central  office  for  the  registry  of  wills  was  opened 
with  branches  in  the  chief  towns  of  the  king- 
dom, and  judges  of  ecclesiastical  courts  were 
ordered  to  transmit  to  it  all  wills  in  their  pos- 
session. Serjeants  and  barristers  at  law  were 
admitted  to  practise  in  the  probate  court,  but 
compensation  was  made  to  the  displaced  proc- 
tors to  the  amount  of  i  the  average  profits 
of  their  business,  payable  during  their  natural 
lives,  and  officers  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts 
were  transferred  to  corresponding  positions  ia 
the  new  probate  court.  Marriage  licenses  were 
to  be  granted  as  before.  The  same  restric- 
tions relative  to  the  examining  of  wills  continue 
in  force  in  the  new  registry  office,  and  drew 
forth  a  remonstrance  from  literary  men  early 
in  1859. 

DOCTRINAIRES,  a  French  constitutionalist 
party,  which  originated  after  the  restoration  of 
the  Bourbons,  and  represented  the  interests  of 
liberalism  and  progress  as  opposed  to  the  ultra 
royalists  in  the  executive  government  and  legis- 


538 


DOD 


DODD 


lature.  Camillo  Jordan,  Docazes,  Royer-Col- 
lard,  and  Guizot  were  leaders  of  this  party. 
They  were  called  doctrinaires  because  they  in- 
sisted that  the  state  should  be  administered  in 
accordance  with  the  abstract  doctrine  of  right, 
rather  than  with  the  mere  expediency  and  pas- 
sion of  tlie  hour.  After  the  revolution  of  July, 
1830,  when  they  came  into  power,  they  assumed 
a  conservative  position  in  antagonism  with  the 
republicans  and  radicals,  who  then  came  upon 
the  stage.  After  the  revolution  of  Feb.  1848, 
the  doctrinaires  were  no  more  heard  of. 

DOD,  Ai-BEKT  Baldwin,  D.D.,  an  American 
scholar,  born  in  Mendham,  N.  J.,  March  24, 
1805,  died  iu  Princeton,  Nov.  20, 1845.  He  was 
of  a  family  remarkable  for  mathematical  talent, 
liis  father  being  an  eminent  mechanician.  He 
was  graduated  at  Princeton  college  in  1822, 
and,  after  having  spent  more  than  3  years  in 
private  teaching  in  Fredericksburg,  returned  to 
Princeton  in  1826  as  a  student  in  the  theological 
seminary.  In  the  following  year  he  accepted  a 
tutorship  in  the  college,  which  he  retained  till 
1829,  being  in  the  mean  time  licensed  to  preach 
by  the  presbytery  of  New  York.  In  1830  he 
was  elected  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  col- 
lege, and  continued  in  this  position  till  his  death. 
In  addition  to  his  official  duties  he  lectured 
upon  architecture  and  political  economy,  and 
wrote  occasional  review  articles,  especially  for 
the  "  Biblical  Picpertory,"  to  which  he  was 
one  of  the  favorite  contributors.  An  article 
written  by  him  on  capital  punishment,  and  in 
answer  to  objections  urged  against  it,  was  adopt- 
ed by  a  committee  of  the  New  Yoi'k  legislature 
as  their  report.  His  talent  lay  in  the  clearness 
and  vivacity  of  bis  intellect,  and  was  best  ex- 
hibited in  philosophical  discussion.  He  there- 
fore excelled  as  a  preacher  and  lecturer,  and  es- 
pecially in  conversation.  He  declined  an  invi- 
tation to  the  chaplaincy  and  professorship  of 
moral  philosophy  in  the  military  academy  at 
"West  Point. — Daniel,  an  American  machinist, 
father  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Yirginia,  Sept. 
28,  1788,  died  in  New  York,  May  9,  1823.  His 
father  was  distinguished  for  his  versatile  me- 
chanical genius,  and  after  having  taken  part 
in  the  war  of  the  revolution,  labored  alternate- 
ly as  blacksmith,  gunsmith,  silversmith,  land 
surveyor,  and  manufacturer  of  mathematical 
instruments.  Daniel  received  a  thorough  sci- 
entific education,  and  declined  an  appointment 
as  professor  of  mathematics  in  Eutgers  college 
to  devote  himself  to  the  manufacture  of  steam 
engines  for  steamboats,  then  a  new  invention. 
He  established  himself  at  Elizabethtown,  N.  J., 
and  built  for  the  steamboat  Seahorse  an  engine 
of  difterent  construction  from  any  that  had  pre- 
ceded it ;  but  it  proved  to  be  superior  to  all 
former  ones,  was  genei'ally  adopted,  and  has 
continued  without  much  modification  the  usual 
model  of  the  steam  engine  until  the  present 
time.  In  1818  he  built  anengirte  for  the  steam- 
ship Savannah,  which  the  next  year  made  the 
first  voyage  across  the  Atlantic  ever  performed 
by  a  steamshi-p,  and  returned  in  safety  after 


visiting  England  and  Pussia.  Tlie  experiment 
was,  however,  pecuniarily  unprofitable,  and  was 
not  immediately  repeated.  Mr.  Dod  removed 
in  1821  to  New  York  city,  Avliero  he  continued 
his  employment,  and  was  reputed  the  most  suc- 
cessful engine  builder  in  the  United  States.  In 
1823,  after  having  altered  the  machinery  of  a 
steamboat,  he  went  on  board  of  her  to  Avitness 
in  a  ti'ial  trip  on  the  East  river  the  eftect  of  his 
changes.  The  boiler  of  the  engine  exploded,  so 
severely  injuring  Mr.  Dod  that  he  survived  the 
calamity  but  a  few  days. 

DOD,  Charles  Koger,  an  English  journalist, 
born  May  8,  1793,  died  Feb.  21,  1855.  lie  was 
educated  for  the  legal  profession,  but  began 
early  to  Avrite  for  periodicals,  and  in  1832  be- 
came connected  with  the  London  "  Times." 
He  had  under  his  care  the  biographical  depart- 
ment of  that  paper,  and  the  rejjorts  of  parlia- 
mentary debates.  He  also  edited  the  "Parlia- 
mentary Pocket  Companion,"  and  the  "Manual 
of  the  Peerage,  Baronetage,  and  Knightage"  of 
Great  Britain. 

DODD,  Kalpk,  an  English  engineer,  born  in 
Cheltenham  in  1756,  died  April  11,  1822.  He 
first  studied  drawing  at  the  schools  of  the  royal 
academy,  but  abandoned  this  pursuit  to  follow 
his  genius  as  a  civil  engineer.  In  1798  he  pub- 
lished in  London  plans  for  several  public  works, 
some  of  which  were  carried  into  effect.  Among 
these  were  schemes  for  tunnelling  the  Tliames, 
for  a  canal  from  Gravesend  to  Chatham,  for  the 
East  London  water  works,  and  for  a  bridge  at 
Vauxhall.  He  obtained  a  patent  for  a  steamboat 
on  the  Thames  between  London  and  Graves- 
end,  but  the  project  was  not  carried  out.  He 
was  seriously  injured  by  the  explosion  of  the 
boiler  of  asteam  packetat  Gloucester,  andtliough 
he  languished  for  some  time  after  it,  he  never 
recovered.  Beside  the  plans  above  mentioned, 
he  published  an  "Account  of  the  Principal 
Canals  in  the  Known  World,  with  Eeflections 
on  the  Utility  of  Canals"  (8vo.,  1795),-  "Re- 
ports, with  Plans  and  Sections,  of  tlie  proposed 
Dry  Tunnel  from  Gravesend  to  Tilbury"  (4to., 
1798);  and  "Letters  on  the  Iinpi-ovement  of 
the  Port  of  London,  demonstrating  its  practi- 
cability without  Wot  Docks"  (1799). 

DODD,  William,  an  English  clergyman,  cele- 
brated for  his  talents,  his  follies,  and  his  misfor- 
tunes, born  at  Bourne,  Lincolnsliire,  in  May, 
1729,  executed  in  London,  June  27,  1777.  He 
studied  at  the  university  of  Cambridge,  where 
he  displayed  rare  talents,  and  at  an  early  age' 
distinguished  himself  as  a  writer  both  of  prose 
and  poetry.  He  left  Cambridge  for  London  in 
1750,  and  the  next  year  married  a  young  lady 
who  possessed  neither  virtue  nor  fortune,  and 
whose  tastes  were  even  more  extravagant  than 
his  own.  He  was  ordained  deacon  the  same  year, 
and  priest  in  1753,  and  was  appointed  to  the  vic- 
arage of  West  Ham,  near  London,  Avhere  he  ob- 
tained great  success  by  the  amiability  of  his  char- 
acter and  his  impressive  eloquence.  His  reputa- 
tion so  increased  that  he  was  quickly  called  \x> 
London  as  a  preacher,  at  the  same  time  retaining 


DODDRIDGE 


53g 


his  former  bencfico.  ITg  now  abandoned  Lim- 
self  to  extraviiganco  and  excesses.  In  the  liopo 
of  being  able  to  meet  his  increasing  expenses, 
he  multiplied  his  labors  as  editor  and  author,  and 
in  the  course  of  several  years  published  various 
original  pieces,  translations,  and  new  editions  of 
esteemed  works.  He  wasintrusted  in  17C3  with 
the  care  of  the  education  of  Pliilip  Stanhope, 
afterward  earl  of  Chesterfield,  and  obtained  from 
his  patrons  an  appointment  as  one  of  the  chap- 
lains of  the  king.  In  1766  lie  took  the  degree 
ofdoctor  of  laws  at  Cambridge.  His  dissipations 
increased  with  his  income,  and  tliougli  he  drew 
a  lottery  prize,  and  received  numerous  salaries 
and  the  income  from  several  benefices,  he  did 
not  succeed  in  improving  his  financial  condition. 
Pursued  by  his  creditors,  and  ambitious  of  a 
still  higher  position  than  he  had  yet  obtained, 
he  ventured  to  write  to  the  wife  of  the  lord 
chancellor  an  anonymous  letter,  ottering  her 
£3,000  if  by  her  influence  he  might  be  pro- 
moted to  the  rectory  of  St.  George,  Hanover 
square.  This  letter,  being  communicated  to  the 
chancellor,  laid  before  the  king,  and  traced  to 
the  author,  caused  his  name  to  he  stricken  from 
the  list  of  the  royal  chaplains.  The  scandals  of 
his  past  life  then  became  a  theme  of  public  re- 
mark and  ridicule,  and  he  fled  from  England  to 
Geneva,  where  his  pupil,  the  young  Lord  Ches- 
terfield, was  then  residing.  The  latter,  taking 
into  considerati(5n  the  painful  situation  of  his 
former  instructor,  gave  him  a  sum  of  money  to 
satisfy  his  creditors,  and  presented  him  to  a 
living  in  Buckinghamshire.  But  Dodd  was  in- 
corrigible, and  went  directly  with  his  money  to 
France,  where  he  spent  it  in  an  nnecclesiastical 
manner,  at  one  time  appearing  in  a  phaeton  at 
the  races  at  Sablons,  near  Paris,  dressed  like 
a  Parisian  sportsman.  On  his  return  to  Eng- 
land in  1776  he  resumed  with  gravity  his  pas- 
toral functions,  and  preached  witli  a  fluency  and 
unction  worthy  of  a  purer  reputation.  His  last 
sermon  was  at  the  Magdalen  chapel,  Feb.  2, 
1777.  Two  days  after  this  he  forged  a  bond 
upon  his  late  pupil,  Lord  Chesterfield,  for  £4,200, 
on  which  he  borrowed  money.  The  fraud  was 
discovered  before  the  criminal  had  time  for 
flight.  He  was  imprisoned,  tried  at  the  Old  Bai- 
ley, and  condemned  to  death.  Though  recom- 
mended by  the  jury  to  the  royal  clemency,  and 
though  numerous  noble  protectors,  many  cler- 
gymen, and  a  petition  from  the  city  of  London 
bearing  23,000  signatures,  prayed  for  the  inter- 
ference of  the  crown,  he  was  executed  at  Tyburn. 
0£.the  many  writings  of  this  strange  moralist, 
the  "Thoughts  in  Prison,"  a  poem  in  blank  verse, 
written  during  the  progress  of  his  trial,  and  his 
"  Refiections  on  Death,"  are  the  only  ones  which 
are  not  now  forgotten. 

DODDRIDGE,  a  N.  W.  co.  of  Va.,  drained  by 
Hughes  river ;  area,  about  300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in 
1850,  2,750,  of  whom  31  were  slaves.  The  land 
is  mostly  hilly  and  adapted  to  pasturage,  but  In- 
dian corn  and  oats  are  also  raised  in  consider- 
able quantities,  and  lumber  is  exported.  In 
1850  the  productions  were  59,423  bushels  of 


Indian  corn,  13,398  of  oats,  1,800  tons  of  hay, 
and  35,200  lbs.  of  butter.  The  county  contained 
one  church,  and  there  were  115  pupils  attend- 
ing pulilic  schools.  Value  of  real  estate  in 
1856,  $742,306.     Capital,  West  Union. 

DODDRlDiiE,  Philip,  an  American  lawyeV 
and  politician,  born  in  Brooke  co.,  Va.,  in  1772, 
died  in  Washington,  Nov.  19,  1832.  His  fam- 
ily were  associated  witli  the  ])ioneer  settle- 
ments on  the  Ohio  river,  and  as  a  boy  he  worked 
with  his  own  hands  at  the  plough.  But  failing 
in  health  in  consequence  of  severe  physical  ex- 
ertion, ho  was  placed  at  school  when  10  years 
of  age,  and  made  rapid  progress  in  his  studies. 
A  too  close  application  to  his  books  having  ren- 
dered it  necessary  for  him  to  intermit  his  edu- 
cational pursuits,  and  having  been  invited  to 
join  two  or  three  young  men  of  his  own  age, 
who  Avere  going  to  New  Orleans  with  produce, 
ho  embarked  in  a  flat-boat,  and  floated  down 
the  Ohio  and  Mississippi.  On  reaching  Natchez, 
then  in  the  possession  of  the  Spaniards,  the 
young  boatmen  found  the  place  under  strict 
police  regulations,  which  forbade  the  admission 
of  strangers  into  the  town;  but  Doddridge  de- 
termined to  take  a  walk  around  the  environs, 
and  actually  began  to  ascend  the  hill.  Here  lie 
was  met  by  an  ofiicer  who  addressed  him  in 
Spanish.  Doddridge  replied  in  Latin,  and  the 
Spaniard,  who  proved  to  be  the  governor  of  the 
post,  was  so  much  struck  with  the  learning 
manifested  by  a  boy  engaged  in  the  manage- 
ment of  an  Ohio  flat-boat,  that  he  invited  him 
to  dine,  and  upon  his  departure  gave  him  let- 
ters of  introduction  which  admitted  him  into 
society  at  New  Orleans.  Upon  his  return  home 
he  commenced  the  study  of  the  law,  and  having 
entered  upon  the  practice  of  it  soon  gained  a 
local  reputation,  especially  as  an  advocate  be- 
fore a  jury,  hardly  inferior  to  that  enjoyed  by 
Patrick  Henry  in  the  tide-water  portion  of  the 
commonwealth.  He  entered  public  life  as  dole- 
gate  from  Brooke  co.  to  the  lower  house  of  the 
Virginia  legislature  in  1815,  and  continued  for 
several  years  at  various  times  to  represent  that 
constituency.  But  it  was  not  until  the  consti- 
tutional convention  of  1829-'30  had  commenced 
its  sessions,  that  the  full  intellectual  stature  of 
the  man  was  displayed.  He  was  one  of  the 
members  chosen  for  the  district  composed  of  the 
counties  of  Ohio,  Tyler,  Brooke,  Monongalia, 
and  Preston,  and  one  of  his  colleagues  was  Al- 
exander Campbell,  the  founder  of  the  religious 
sect  known  as  the  "Disciples  of  Christ."  Mr. 
Doddridge  was  the  acknowledged  leader  in  the 
convention  of  the  party  in  favor  of  tlie  white 
oasis  of  representation,  and  maintained  his 
ground  in  the  great  debate  in  which  Randolph, 
Leigh,  Upsliur,  Stanard,  and  Tazewell  support- 
ed the  other  side.  In  this  discussion  and  the 
innumerable  debates  which  sprung  out  of  it, 
Mr.  Doddridge  was,  according  to  Mr.  Grigsby, 
the  historian  of  the  convention,  "a  gushing 
fountain  of  facts  and  figures."  lie  had  few  of 
the  graces  of  the  accomplished  orator ;  his 
voice  was  not  musical,  and  he  had  little  skill  in 


540 


DODDRIDGE 


.  DODINGTON 


its  maiicagement ;  in  person  lie  was  of  a  short 
and  stout  stature ;  Lis  features  were  immobile, 
even  heavy ;  and  lie  was  singularly  negligent 
of  the  proprieties  of  dress;  so  that  his  success 
in  parliamentary  conflicts  was  due  to  a  close 
ratiociuation,  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject, great  energy  of  manner,  and  a  wonderful 
command  of  terse,  appropriate  words,  lie  was 
elected  to  congress  soon  after  the  adjournment 
of  the  convention,  from  the  "Wheeling  district, 
but  his  career  was  brought  to  a  close  before  his 
first  congressional  term  had  expired.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  engaged  in  codifying 
the  laws  for  the  District  of  Columbia  as  one 
of  a  committee  appointed  by  congress  for  that 
purpose. 

DODDRIDGE,  Pniup,  an  English  divine, 
born  in  London,  June  2G,  1702,  died  in  Lisbon, 
Oct^  26,  1T51.  He  was  of  a  pious  dissenting 
family,  and  his  earliest  years  were  devoted  to 
the  acquisition  of  religious  knowledge.  Even 
before  he  could  read,  his  mother  had  made  him 
familiar  with  the  history  contained  in  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments.  Left  an  orphan  at  the  age  of 
13  years,  he  was  removed  from  London  to  a  pri- 
vate school  at  St.  Albans,  where  he  made  tlie  ac- 
quaintance of  a  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke,  who  became 
interested  in  him  for  the  love  of  learning  which 
he  displayed.  Doddridge  was  at  this  time  hes- 
itating as  to  what  profession  he  should  follow. 
The  duchess  of  Bedford  oifered  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  his  education  at  either  university,  a 
proposal  which  inspired  him  with  gratitude,  but 
which  he  declined,  on  account  of  the  implied 
condition  that  he  should  become  a  clergyman 
in  tlie  church  of  England.  Some  of  his  friends 
dissuaded  him  from  the  ministry,  and  he  pur- 
posed for  some  time  the  study  of  the  law.  At 
length,  however,  he  determined  to  follow  his 
own  early  inclinations,  and  in  1719,  by  the  ad- 
vice and  assistance  of  Dr.  Clarke,  he  entered 
a  dissenting  academy  at  Kibworth,  under  the 
charge  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Jennings,  to  prosecute 
his  theological  studies.  From  1723  to  1729  he 
fulfilled  pastoral  duties  at  Kibworth  and  the 
neighboring  town  of  Market  Ilarborough,  and 
in  that  retired  district  pursued  his  studies,  read- 
ing frequently  his  favorite  authors,  Baxter, 
Howe,  and  Tillotson.  In  1729,  Mr.  Jennings 
having  previously  died,  Mr.  Doddridge  took 
charge  of  the  dissenting  academy  where  he  had 
been  himself  educated,  established  it  first  at 
Market  Ilarborough,  where  he  then  resided,  and 
within  a  year  removed  it  with  him  to  Northamp- 
ton, whither  he  had  been  invited  as  pastor.  It 
was  at  this  academy  that  the  most  distinguished 
dissenting  ministers  near  the  middle  of  the  last 
century  were  educated.  Dr.  Doddridge  presided 
over  it  for  20  years,  and  during  the  same  time 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher  and  an 
author.  It  was  his  aim  to  revive  the  ancient 
fervor  of  the  dissenting  body,  which  seemed  to 
him  to  be  declining ;  hence  all  his  pastoral  in- 
tercourse was  marked  by  spiritual  earnestness, 
his  sermons  urged  with  zeal  the  practical  duties 
of  life  and  explained  the  realities  of  faith  with 


simplicity,  and  his  books  have  continued  Bince 
his  death  among  the  most  valued  devotional 
literature  of  the  religious  community  to  which 
he  belonged.  In  1750  his  constitution,  always 
feeble,  began  to  show  signs  of  decline,  and  yield- 
ing to  the  advice  of  physicians  that  ho  should 
pass  the  winter  in  a  warmer  climate,  he  sailed 
to  Lisbon,  where  he  died  13  days  after  his  ar- 
rival. Ilis  most  popular  and  useful  works  are 
the  "  Rise  and  Progress  of  Religion  in  the  Soul," 
which  has  been  translated  into  several  foreign 
languages,  and  his  "  Family  Expositor,"  contain- 
ing a  version  and  paraphrase  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, with  notes.  He  also  yjublishcd  several 
volumes  of  sermons,  the  "Principles  of  the 
Christian  Religion,"  a  "Treatise  on  Regenera- 
tion," and  several  minor  works.  His  "  Course 
of  Lectures  on  the  Principal  Subjects  in  Pneu- 
matology,  Ethics,  and  Divinity"  was  published 
posthumously  (London,  1763),  and  gives  the  out- 
lines of  a  system  of  metaphysics  and  divinity. 
His  works  were  collected  in  10  vols.  (Leeds, 
1802),  and  his  "Private  Life  and  Correspond- 
ence," by  one  of  his  descendants,  appeared  in 
5  vols.  (London,  1831).  Accounts  of  his  life 
were  also  published  by  his  contemporary  Job 
Orton,  and  his  pupil  Dr.  Kippis. 

DODGE,  a  S.  E.  co.  of  Wisconsin,  intersected 
by  Rock  river  and  one  or  two  smaller  streams ; 
area,  936  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855,  34,540.  There 
are  prairies  in  various  j^arts  of  the  county,  in- 
terspersed with  oak-openings,  and  covered  hero 
and  there  with  small  clusters  of  burr  and  pin 
oaks.  The  valleys  of  the  streams  are  occupied 
Dy  extensive  forests  of  oak,  ash,  elm,  maple,  &c. ; 
the  soil  is  calcareous  and  highly  fertile.  About 
44  sq.  m.  of  the  surfjice  are  covered  by  an  im- 
mense swamp  or  sliallow  pond,  called  Winne- 
oago  marsh.  The  staples  are  grain,  potatoes, 
butter,  and  swine ;  and  the  productions  in  1850 
amounted  to  327,936  bushels  of  wheat,  127,672 
of  Indian  corn,  204,197  of  oats,  158,228  of  po- 
tatoes, and  331,246  lbs.  of  batter.  There  were 
10  churches,  and  3,243  pupils  attending  pub- 
lic schools.  Value  of  real  estate  in  1855,  $3,- 
842,700.  Limestone  suitable  for  building  is 
found  in  large  quantities.  The  Fond  du  Lac 
and  Chicago  railroad  passes  through  the  county, 
and  Rock  river  is  navigable  by  small  boats. 
Capital,  Juneau. 

DODINGTON,  George  Bubb,  Baron  Mel- 
combe,  an  English  politician,  born  in  Carlisle  in 
1691,  died  July  28, 1762.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, and  in  1715  was  chosen  a  member  of  parlia- 
ment for  Winchelsea.  His  talents  soon  attracted 
attention,  and  he  was  appointed  to  accompany  Sir 
Paul  Methuen  to  Madrid,  and  not  long  afterward 
was  made  envoy  extraordinary  to  Spain.  In  poli- 
tics he  was  a  whig,  and  joined  himself  to  Wal- 
Tjole,  but  on  the  minister  refusing  him  a  peer- 
age, which  W'as  the  chief  object  of  Doding- 
ton's  life,  and  to  which  his  vast  Avealth  was  his 
principal  title,  he  went  into  opposition,  and  be- 
came a  patriot.  Patriotism  not  proving  profit- 
able, his  relations  with  "Walpole  were  resumed, 
and  he  received  several  valuable  appointments. 


DODO 


541 


He  remembered  the  old  refusal,  however,  better 
than  the  new  appointments,  and  was  conspicu- 
ous in  those  assaults  on  Walpolo's  ministry  that 
finally  Avorked  its  fall,  lie  was  not  inuncdiately 
rewarded,  but  at  last  got  the  post  of  treasurer 
of  the  navy.  Again  changing  his  views,  he 
joined  the  prince  of  Wales's  faction  in  1749,  and 
by  Frederic  ho  was  permitted  to  kiss  hands  on 
the  promise  of  a  peerage  and  a  cabinet  office, 
to  be  conferred  when  the  prince  should  be- 
come king.  A  reward  hardly  less  shadowy  was 
his  appointment  to  the  place  of  treasurer  of 
the  chambers  in  the  prince's  household,  which 
was  specially  created  for  him.  The  prince  and 
Dodington  settled  the  former's  first  ministry ; 
but  in  the  middle  of  their  scheming  the  prince 
died  suddenly,  much  to  Dodington's  chagrin, 
his  disappointment  taking  a  pious  form  of  ex- 
pression. "  Father  of  mercy,"  ho  wrote  in  his 
lamous  "  Diary,"  "  thy  hand  that  wounds  alone 
ounsave!"  In  1755  he  Avas  once  more  ap- 
pointed treasurer  of  the  navy,  but  soon  lost 
tlie  office.  In  1701,  when  he  was  70  years  old, 
he  obtained  the  ol)ject  of  his  life,  being  made 
Baron  Melcombe  of  Melcombe  Kegis,  shortly 
after  the  accession  of  George  III.,  and  through 
the  favor  of  Lord  Bute.  This  success,  which 
gave  him  the  most  childish  pleasure,  he  did  not 
live  long  to  enjoy,  and  on  his  death  the  title  be- 
came extinct.  Ilis  estates  fell  to  Richard  Gren- 
ville,  Earl  Temple,  and  his  personal  property 
■was  bequeathed  to  Thomas  Wyndliam.  Mr. 
AVyndham  died  in  1777,  and  his  relative,  Henry 
P.  Wyndham,  published  Dodington's  "Diary"  in 
1784r.  This  diary  was  kept  from  March  8, 1749, 
to  Feb.  6,  1701,  but  there  are  some  breaks  in 
it.  It  affijrds  a  lively  picture  of  the  parties, 
politics,  and  public  men  of  the  last  years  of 
George  II.'s  reign,  and  the  portrait  he  draws  of 
his  own  selfishness  and  egotism  is  almost  as 
frank  as  if  it  had  been  written  in  the  palace  of 
truth,  llis  mind  is,  as  it  Avere,  mirrored  in 
its  pages,  and  from  the  state  in  which  it  was 
left  he  evidently  naeant  it  for  publication.  There 
are  attached  to  it  several  of  the  author's  politi- 
cal papers.  The  volume,  to  which  Mr.  Wyndham 
attached  the  appropriate  motto  of  Et  tout  pour 
la  trippe,  from  Rabelais,  has  been  frequently  re- 
printed, and  has  some  value  as  historical  mate- 
rial. Dodington  was  a  man  of  much  wit,  and 
some  of  his  mots  are  still  repeated.  He  was, 
however,  a  butt  for  ridicule  in  his  own  day, 
and  is  remembered  chiefly  as  the  type  of  the 
corrupt  and  inconstant  politician. 

DODO  (didus  ineptiis^  Linn.),  a  large  bird  of 
the  island  of  Mauritius,  at  present  placed  in  a 
subfonfily  of  the  order  columh/^,  or  pigeons.  It 
has  become  extinct  within  2  centuries.  This 
remarkable  l)ird  was  discovered  by  Vasco  da 
Gama  in  1497,  and  was  mentioned  by  various 
voyagers  from  the  Dutchmen  Jacob  van  Neck 
and  Wybrand  van  Warwijk  in  1598,  to  Captain 
Talbot  in  1097.  In  the  work  of  Messrs.  Strick- 
land and  Melville  on  "The  Dodo  and  its  Kin- 
dred" (4to.,  London, 1848)  are  given  many  quaint 
descriptions  and  figures  of  the  bird,  which  it  ap- 


pears was  not  uncommon  in  the  17th  century, 
and  was  frequently  used  as  food  by  the  crews  of 
vessels.  In  1038  Francois  Gauche  says  that  ho 
saw  in  Mauritius  birds  "larger  than  a  swan, 
covered  with  a  black  down,  with  curled  feathers 
on  the  rump,  and  similar  ones  in  place  of  wings ; 
that  the  beak  was  largo  and  curved,  the  legs 
scaly,  the  nest  made  of  herbs  heaped  together ; 
that  they  lay  but  one  egg  of  the  size  of  a  half- 
penny roll  or  of  that  of  a  pelican,  and  that  the 
young  ones  have  a  stone  in  the  gizzard."  In  the 
same  year  a  living  specimen  Avas  exhibited  la 
London,  and  described  by  Sir  llamon  Lestrango 
as  a  "great  fovvle,  somewhat  bigger  than  the 
largest  turkey  cock,  and  so  legged  and  footed, 
but  stouter  and  thicker  and  of  a  more  erect 
shape,  colored  before  like  the  breast  of  a  young 
fesan,  and  the  back  of  dun  or  deare  color."  In 
1044  the  Dutch  began  to  colonize  the  island, 
and  these  birds  were  soon  exterminated  by  the 
colonists,  and  by  the  dogs,  cats,  and  rats  which 
folloAved  in  their  train,  Avho  devoured  the  eggs 
and  the  young  in  the  nests;  after  the  French 
took  possession  in  1715,  and  named  it  the  Isle 
of  France,  the  dodo  is  no  longer  mentioned 
as  a  living  bird.  This  is  a  most  remarkable 
and  clearly  proved  instance  of  the  extinction 
of  an  animal  by  human  agency ;  and  as  yet 
the  data  for  determining  the  species  are  less 
than  those  left  by  many  animals  which  per- 
ished ages  ago  from  geological  causes.  Beside 
the  rude  drawings  of  the  early  voyagers  given 
in  the  work  of  Mr.  Strickland,  there  are  at 
least  6  oil  paintings  by  eminent  artists  which 
are  no  doubt  foithful  copies- of  the  living  origi- 
nals. The  first  of  these  paintings,  the  one  copied 
in  all  books  on  natural  history,  and  now  in  the 
British  museum,  is  anonymous,  but  probably  by 
one  of  the  artists  who  painted  the  folloAving 
ones;  there  are  3  pictm-es  by  Roland  Savery, 
one  at  the  Hague,  another  in  Berlin  dated  1026, 
and  the  3d  in  Vienna  dated  1028  ;  a  5th  paint' 
ing  is  in  the  Ashmolean  museum,  by  John  Savery, 
dated  1051 ;  and  a  Gth  in  the  gallery  of  the  duke 
of  Northumberland,  at  Sion  House,  painted  by 
Goeimare,  and  dated  1027,  The  principal  re- 
mains of  the  dodo  are  a  foot  in  the  British  mu- 
seum, and  a  head  and  foot  in  the  Ashmolean 
museum  at  Oxford,  England,  rendered  ttimiliar 
by  numerous  casts;  the  latter  are  all  that  is  left 
of  the  specimen  in  Tradescant's  museum,  and  all 
■  that  Avas  saved  from  the  flames  Avhich  consumed 
the  decayed  specimen  by  the  order  of  the  trus- 
tees ;  the  head  preserves  the  beak  and  nostrils, 
the  bare  skin  of  the  face,  and  the  partially  fea- 
thered occiput ;  the  eyes  are  dried  within  the 
sockets,  but  the  horny  end  of  the  beak  is  gone. 
A  cranium  exists  in  the  museum  at  Copenhagen; 
a  collection  of  bones  at  Paris,  much  incrusted 
Avith  stalagmite,  carried  there- in  1830;  and 
others  sent  by  Mr.  Telfair  to  the  Andersonian 
museum  at  Glasgow  and  to  the  London  zoologi- 
cal society  in  1833.  The  latter  included  a  tibia 
and  the  head  of  a  humerus  of  large  size,  with  a 
broad  articulating  surface  and  a  sudden  reduc- 
tion of  the  size  of  the  shaft.  The  generic  charac- 


542 


DODO 


DODOI^A 


-I 


ters  are  a  strong  bill,  mach  longer  than  the  head, 
■with  the  cnlmen  straight  at  first  and  then  arched 
to  the  tip,  whicli  is  acute  and  overlaps  the  lower 
mandible;  the  latter  has  the  gonjs  short  and 
suddenly  curved  upward  ;  the  nostrils  are  in  the 
membranous  portion  (which  occupies  |  of  the 
bill),  oblique  and  exposed ;  tlie  wings  imperfect ; 
the  tail  apparently  a  tuft  of  5  feathers,  broad 
and  curved  upward ;  the  tarsi  robust,  moder- 
ately long,  and  scaled ;  the  outer  toe  is  shorter 
than  the  inner,  and  the  anterior  toes  are  all  free 
at  the  base ;  the  hind  toe  is  long,  on  the  same 
plane  with  the  others,  and  scaled  ;  the  claws  are 
short,  strong,  and  blunt.  From  the  imperfect 
materials  at  his  command,  Cuvier  ranked  the 
dodo  with  gallinaceous  birds ;  others  have  traced 
out  its  analogies  with  the  ostrich  and  with  the 
penguin.  Most  writers,  before  the  work  of  Mr. 
Strickland,  considered  it  a  modified  form  of 
raptorial  bird,  and  among  others  De  Blainville, 
"Broderip  (in  the  "  Penny  Cycloptedia"),  and 
Owen.  Prof.  Owen,  in  a  memoir  read  before 
the  zoological  society  in  1840,  and  published  in 
its  "Transactions"  (vol.  iii.  p.  331),  from  obser- 
vations on  the  dissected  foot  and  on  the  cranium 
of  the  Oxford  specimen,  thinks  that  the  rapto- 
rial character  prevails,  tliough  in  an  extremely 
modified  form,  and  that  the  bird  subsisted  prin- 
cipally upon  decaying  organized  matter,  with 
such  reptiles,  fishes,  and  Crustacea  as  it  could 
seize  by  means  of  its  well-developed  toes  and 
claws.  Prof.  Reinhardt  of  Copenhagen  first  re- 
ferred the  dodo  to  tlie  pigeon  family,  and  Messrs. 
Strickland  and  Melville  followed  out  this  idea 
ir.  the  book  before  alluded  to  ;  their  conclusions 
can  only  be  glanced  at  here.  They  consider  it 
a  frugivorous  terrestrial  pigeon,  colossal  and 
brevipennate,  coming  near  in  the  bill  to  the 
genus  ^rt'?-tin  (VieiU. ;  vuiago,  Cuv.).  The  chief 
external  characters  of  resemblance  are  the  soft, 
depressed,  and  vascular  nature  of  the  long  basal 
portion  of  the  bill ;  the  extent  of  the  bare  skin 
around  the  eyes  and  forehead ;  the  hooked  and 
compressed  corneous  portion  of  the  upper  man- 
dible, overhanging  the  lower;  the  position  of 
the  nostril  in  the  middle  of  the  beak,  and  near 
its  lower  margin  ;  the  sudden  sinking  from  tlie 
forehead  to  the  beak,  and  the  rapid  narrowing 
in  front  of  the  orbits ;  the  short,  robust  tarsi, 
and  expansion  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  toes ; 
the  low  plane  of  the  hind  toe;  the  relative 
lengths  of  the  toes  as  compared  with  the  ground 
pigeons,  the  absence  of  interdigital  webs,  and  the 
short  blunt  claws.  Among  internal  characters 
gathered  from  the  narratives  of  voyagers  and 
the  paintings  of  the  bird  from  nature,  are  the 
presence  of  a  large  crop,  a  very  muscular  gizzard, 
the  palatableness  of  the  flesh,  and  the  laying 
of  a  single  egg.  Beside  these  characters  are 
the  absence  of  the  vomer ;  the  form  and  direc- 
tion of  the  bones,  processes,  and  foramina  o-f  the 
skull ;  the  form  of  the  metatarsal  and  tarso-me- 
tatarsal  bones,  processes,  and  canals  ;  and  es\)e- 
cially  the  passage  of  these  canals  on  the  outside 
of  the  posterior  tarsal  ridge.  Mr.  Allis  has 
detected  the  presence  of  only  11  sclerotic  plates, 


as  in  the  pigeons,  no  other  birds  having  a  simi- 
lar or  so  small  a  number,  the  fewest  in  the 
raptores  being  14.  The  few  points  in  which 
the  dodo  difiers  from  the  typical  pigeons,  as 
in  the  non-development  of  the  wings,  the 
small  size  of  the  cranium  compared  to  the  beak, 
and  the  form  of  the  nostrils,  do  not  afford  any 
ground  for  approximating  it  to  the  raptores. 
Its  food  was  probably  dates,  cocoanuts,  man- 
goes, and  such  other  fruits  as  would  fall  from 
the  tropical  trees;  their  husks  it  would  tear  off 
with  its  beak,  and  even  the  hardest  kernels  it 
could  digest  with  its  muscular  stomach.  It 
must  have  been  a  clumsy  bird,  ungraceful  in  its 
form  and  motions,  to  use  Mr.  Strickland's  words, 
like  "  a  young  duck  or  gosling  enlarged  to  the 
dimensions  of  a  swan ;  .  .  .  a  permanent 
nestling,  clothed  with  down  instead  of  feathers, 
and  with  the  wings  and  tail  so  short  and  feeble 
as  to  be  utterly  unsubservient  to  flight."  At 
the  same  time  that  Mr.  Strickland  was  prepar- 
ing his  work  in  England,  Dr.  S.  Cabot,  jr.,  of 
Boston,  published  a  paper  in  the  "Journal  of 
the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History"  (vol.  v. 
p.  490),  entitled  "  The  Dodo  a  Rasorial  and  not 
a  Rapacious  Bird ;"  in  this  he  comes  to  the  same 
conclusions  as  the  first  mentioned  author,  and 
without  any  knowledge  of  his  views;  he  places 
the  dodo  among  the  pigeons,  near  vinago,  and 
lays  special  stress  on  the  high  forehead,  the 
bulging  out  of  the  lower  mandible  on  its  sides 
beyond  the  upper,  the  general  shape  and  pro- 
portions of  the  foot,  the  arrangement  of  the 
scales,  the  shape  of  the  claws,  and  the  absence 
of  callosities  on  the  soles  ;  beside,  the  bird  was 
very  fat,  its  fiesh  edible,  and  its  stomach  very 
muscular,  which  is  not  the  case  with  any  rapa- 
cious birds.  He  says  "that  the  dodo  was  a 
gigantic  pigeon,  and  that,  as  its  general  shape, 
feathering,  &c.,  resemble  more  strongly  the 
young  than  the  adult  pigeon,  we  may  perhaps 
be  allowed  to  surmise  that  it  properly  belongs 
to  an  earlier  epoch  than  the  present,  and  has 
become  extinct  because  its  time  was  run." 
Prof.  Brandt  of  St.  Petersburg,  in  1848,  main- 
tained the  affinity  of  the  dodo  to  the  chara- 
driadm  or  plovers,  which  he  styles  pigeon- 
formed  or  dove-like  waders.  The  testimony, 
as  at  present  collected,  seems  overwhelming  in 
favor  of  the  columbine  afiSnities  of  the  dodo. — 
In  the  island  of  Rodriguez  lived  another  large 
brevipennate  bird,  the  solitaire,  allied  to  the 
pigeons. 

DODONA,  a  city  of  Epirus,  in  the  N,  of 
Greece,  celebrated  as  the  seat  of  the  most  an- 
cient oracle  of  Greece.  It  was  one  of  the  three 
greatest  oracles,  ranking  with  those  of  *Delphi 
and  Ammonium.  Though  so  famous  in  its  day, 
no  vestige  of  either  the  city  itself  or  its  temple  of 
Jupiter  can  now  be  discovered.  It  is  the  only 
place  of  great  celebrity  in  Greece  of  which  the 
situation  is  not  exactly  known.  Before  the 
erection  of  this  temple  the  oracles  are  said  to 
have  been  delivered  from  a  large  oak  tree,  from 
the  whispering  branches  of  which  the  mysteri- 
ous sayings  of  the  deity  were  uttered  ;  and  the 


DODSLEY 


DOG 


543 


old  poets  have  ascribed  to  the  oak  grove  at  Do- 
dona  the  power  of  speech.  The  teiuple  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  ^Etolians  under  Dorimachus,  219 
B.  (3.,  but  it  was  afterward  rebuilt,  and  is  men- 
tioned by  Pausanias  as  standing  in  tlie  2d  cen- 
tury of  our  era.  According  to  the  account  given 
by  Lucrctiusi,  the  fountain  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  temple  at  Dodona  was  inlluiniaable. 

DODSLEY,  Robert,  an  English  jmblisher 
and  miscellaneous  author,  born  in  Mauslield, 
Nottinghamshire,  in  1703,  died  in  Durham, 
Sept.  25,  1704.  He  was  originally  a  servant, 
but  having  produced  in  1732  a  volume  of  po- 
etical pieces,  under  the  title  of  the  ''Muse  iu 
Livery,"  and  subsequently  a  dramatic  piece  call- 
ed the  "  Toy  Shop,"  which  met  Avith  the  appro- 
bation of  Pope,  and  was  acted  with  great  success 
at  Covent  Garden  theatre  in  1735,  he  was  soon 
ia  a  position  to  abandon  his  humble  vocation 
and  embark  in  business  as  a  bookseller.  Patron- 
ized by  Pope,  his  shop  became  in  time  one  of 
the  leading  establishments  in  the  British  me- 
tropolis. In  1737  he  brought  out  a  farce  styled 
"  The  King  and  the  Millei'  of  Mansfield,"  which 
was  received  with  applause  at  Drury  Lane ;  and 
a  few  years  subsequently  a  ballad  farce  entitled 
the  "Blind  Beggar  of  Bethnal  Green."  In 
1746  he  projected  "  The  Museum,  or  the  Litar- 
ary  and  Historical  Register,"  which  numbered 
among  its  contributors  some  of  the  most  eminent 
literati  of  the  day.  In  1748  he  started  another 
periodical  called  the  "Preceptor,"  the  preface 
of  which  was  written  by  Dr.  Johnson,  and  in 
1749  he  paid  the  latter  15  guineas  for  his  "  Van- 
ity of  Human  Wishes."  In.  1750  he  published 
a  work  styled  the  "Economy  of  Human  Life," 
which,  though  ascribed  by  some  to  Lord  Ches- 
terfield, was  from  the  first  generally  supposed, 
and  is  now  universally  admitted,  to  have  been 
liis  own  production.  Iu  1758  his  tragedy  of 
"  Cleone  "  was  represented  at  Covent  Garden 
theatre,  on  which  occasion  Dr.  Johnson  declared 
that  "  if  Otway  had  written  it,  none  of  his  other 
pieces  would  have  been  remembered."  In  the 
same  year,  in  connection  with  Ednmnd  Burke,  he 
projected  and  started  the  "Annual  Register," 
which  is  still  published.  He  was  the  first  to  col- 
lect and  republish  the  "  Old  English  Plays,"  by 
his  selection  of  which  (1st  ed.  edited  by  T.  Cox- 
eter,  1744;  2d  ed.  by  Isaac  Reed,  12  vols.  8vo., 
1780)  his  name  is  now  most  frequently  recalled. 
He  retired  from  business  in  17'33  with  a  hand- 
some fortune.  A  collected  edition  of  Dodsley's 
dramas,  in  one  volume,  appeared  in  1748,  and 
a  2d  volume,  entitled  "  Miscellanies,"  in  1772. 

DODWELL,  Edwaed,  an  English  author, 
born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century,  died 
in  Rom.e,  May  14,  1832.  In  1819  he  published 
in  2  quarto  volumes  "  A  Classical  and  Topo- 
graphical Tour  through  Greece  during  the  years 
1801,  1805,  and  1806."  Dodwell  made  numer- 
ous drawings  of  ruins  and  scenery  in  Greece  and 
Italy,  and  after  his  death  a  collection  of  some 
of  them  was  published,  entitled  "Views  and 
Descriptions  of  Cyclopean  or  Pelasgic  Remains 
in  Greece  and  Italy;  with  Constructions  of  a 


later  Period,  from  Drawings  by  the  late  Edward 
Dodwell,  Esq.,  F.S.A.,  &c.,  intended  as  a  Sup- 
plement to  his  Classical  and  Topographical  Tour 
in  (ireece,"  &c. 

DODWELL,  IIexhy,  an  Irish  writer,  born  in 
Dublin  about  1G42,  died  in  Shottesbrook,  Berk- 
shire, June  7, 1711.  lie  was  graduated  at  Trinity 
college,  Dublin,  and  settled  iu  London  in  1074. 
Ue  was  for  about  3  years  Camden  professor  of 
history  at  Oxford,  but  lost  this  office  on  account 
of  his  refusal  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
William  and  Mary,  lie  is  known  especially  as 
a  writer  on  classical  and  religious  subjects. 
Among  his  works  may  bo  mentioned  Annales 
Thucydidci  et  XenopJiontei ;  Amiales  Vellciani, 
Quintiliani,  Statiani;  Dg  Veterilyus  Graco- 
ru7n,  Eomanorumque  Cyclis,  obiterque  de  Cyclo 
JudcBonim  ac  ^lEtate  Christi^  Dlssertationes;  and 
"An  Epistolary  Discourse,  proving  from  the 
Scriptures  and  the  first  Fathers,  that  the  Soul  is 
a  principle  naturally  mortal,  but  immortalized 
actually  by  the  pleasure  of  God,  to  punishment 
or  to  reward,  by  its  union  with  the  divine  baptis- 
mal Spirit ;  wherein  it  is  proved  that  none  have 
the  power  of  giving  this  divine  immortalizing 
Spirit  since  the  Apostles,  but  only  the  Bishops." 
This  work,  as  might  be  supposed,  raised  a  great 
outcry  against  tlie  author,  who  would  thus  ex- 
clude the  larger  part  of  mankind  from  any 
future  existence.  See  "  Life  of  Dr.  Henry  Dod- 
well," by  Francis  Brokesby  (London,  1715j. 

DOG,  a  digitigrade  carnivorous  mammal,  be- 
longing to  the  genus  canis,  and  to  the  family 
canidce,  which  also  include  the  wolf,  fox,  and 
jackal.  The  species  of  this  family  are  so  nearly 
alike  in  structure  that  the  genera  canis,  lupus, 
vulpes,  &c.,  have  been  established  on  characters 
considered  of  inferior  importance  in  other  fam- 
ilies; even  the  intellectual  and  instinctive  fac- 
ulties have  been  employed  by  F.  Cuvier  and 
others  in  distinguishing  the  species,  the  domes- 
tic dogs  being  regarded  as  derived  from  several 
distinct  though  nearly  allied  wild  canines.  Ex- 
cept in  the  size  of  the  bones,  there  is  nothing  in 
the  osteology  of  this  family  which  can  be  made 
characteristic  of  the  wild  species  or  of  the  do- 
mestic races  when  compared  with  each  other, 
though  as  a  family  group  they  are  collectively 
quite  distinct  from  other  digitigrades.  In  the 
skulls,  the  different  species  of  wolf  diflfer  more 
from  each  other  than  do  many  domestic  dogs 
from  the  wolves ;  as  a  general  rule,  the  cranial 
cavity  bears  a  greater  proportion  to  the  face  as 
the  intelligence  of  the  animal  is  more  marked. 
The  teeth  of  dogs,  which  are  largest  in  the  wild 
species,  consist,  in  the  upper  jaw,  of  6  incisors 
in  the  intermaxillary  bones ;  2  canines,  strong, 
curved,  and  separated  by  an  interval  from  the 
incisors ;  and  6  molars  on  each  side,  the  first  3,  in 
interrupted  series,  being  small,  but  with  cutting 
edges,  and  called  also  false  molars ;  the  4th  or 
carnivorous  tooth  is  bicuspid,with  a  small  tuber- 
cle anteriorly  on  the  inner  side ;  the  5th  is  less 
cutting,  bicuspid,  with  a  large  internal  tubercle  ; 
the  Cth  and  last  is  small  and  tubercidar.  In  the 
lower  jaw  there  are  6  incisors ;  2  canines,  con- 


544 


DOG 


tinuons  in  tho  series,  and  7  molars  on  each  side, 
of  •wliicli  4  are  false,  the  4th  being  bicuspid ;  tho 
5th  or  carnivorous  tooth  has  its  tubercular  3d 
lobe  entirely  posterior ;  behind  this  are  2  tuber- 
cular teeth,  the  last  being  very  small  and  fre- 
quently absent  in  the  adult  animal.  The  incisors 
are  regular,  the  outer  being  tho  largest,  and 
nearly  perpendicular  in  the  upper  jaw ;  tlie 
lower  canines  shut  in  front  of  tho  upper;  the 
tubercular  character  of  the  other  teeth  indicates 
a  less  carnivorous  propensity  than  in  the  cat 
family,  and  that  their  nartural  diet  is  not  ex- 
clusively animal,  being  better  suited  for  carrion 
and  broken  bones  than  for  the  flesh  of  a  living 
prey.  In  some  species,  as  the  buansu  and  the 
dhole,  the  2d  tubercular  tooth  is  constantly 
wanting,  according  to  Hamilton  Smith.  The 
brain  cavity  is  comparatively  small;  the  crests 
of  the  skull  and  the  large  temporal  fossfo  indi- 
cate powerful  muscles  of  mastication ;  the  eyes 
are  directed  forward ;  the  nostrils  are  largely 
opened  in  a  movable  glandular  muzzle;  the 
tongue  is  soft,  thin  at  the  edges,  and  capable  of 
considerable  extension  beyond  the  teeth,  as  is 
seen  during  rapid  breathing  in  warm  weather ; 
the  pupil  is  round,  as  in  other  diurnal  canidm. 
The  fore  feet  have  5  toes,  the  hind  feet  4  or  5  ; 
the  2  middle  toes  are  the  longest  and  equal ;  tho 
5th  toe,  when  present,  does  not  reach  the  ground ; 
the  claws  are  blunt,  strong,  not  retractile,  and 
formed  for  digging ;  the  soles  are  furnished  with 
tubercles,  and  in  some  arctic  dogs  with  hair  to 
protect  them  from  cold.  The  hair  is  of  2  kinds, 
soft  and  woolly  near  the  skin,  longer  and  coarser 
externally  ;  some  of  the  dogs  of  India  have  the 
skin  entirely  naked,  this  condition  originating 
probably  from  some  mangy  disease.  The  tail  is 
generally  long,  and  is  curled  upward ;  the  number 
of  mammaa  varies  from  6  to  10  ;  the  size,  form, 
and  color  are  ditTcrent  according  to  the  variety. 
The  young  are  born  with  the  eyes  closed,  and 
open  them  on  the  10th  or  12th  day;  the  1st 
teeth  begin  to  be  shed  at  the  4th  month,  and  the 
growth  ceases  at  about  2  years  of  age ;  gesta- 
tion is  abiuit  9  weeks,  and  the  duration  of  life 
is  about  10  years,  though  sometimes  prolonged 
to  20.  Though  strong,  they  are  not  courageous 
in  proportion  to  their  strength ;  hearing  is 
acute,  and  the  senses  of  smell  and  vision  are 
proverbially  delicate,  the  former  in  the  blood- 
hound, the  latter  in  the  greyhound;  taste  is  so 
dull  or  perverted  that  even  luxuriously  fed  pets 
will  not  disdain  a  meal  of  decaying  flesh.  Dogs 
are  not  so  cleanly  in  their  habits  as  cats;  they 
drink  by  lapping,  require  water  often,  and  turn 
round  frequently  before  lying  down ;  their 
habits  of  defecation  and  micturition  are  char-- 
acteristic  and  well  knoNyn ;  their  bark  is  very 
different  from  the  howl  of  wild  canines,  and  ex- 
presses by  its  intonation  fear,  sorrow,  anger, 
joy,  and  other  feelings.  Dogs,  like  all  canines, 
seem  to  have  a  natural  antipathy  to  the  cat 
family.  All  canines,  both  wild  and  domesti- 
cated, and  the  nearly  allied  hyajna,  are  subject 
to  the  terrible  disease,  hydrophobia.  They  are 
spread  over  all  parts  of  the  earth,  and  all,  even 


the  wildest,  are  capable  of  some  degree  of  do- 
mestication ;  as  the  companions  of  man,  dogs 
are  found  under  all  circumstances  of  human 
existence. — It  would  be  useless  here  to  intro- 
duce anecdotes  proving  the  sagacity,  faithful- 
ness, affection,  gratitude,  courage,  velocity,  and 
other  useful  qualities  of  the  dog  ;  these  have 
been  known  from  remote  antiquity,  and  are  rec- 
ognized in  the  earliest  systems  of  pagan  theol- 
ogy and  astronomy.  From  books,  inscriptions, 
and  monuments,  we  know  that  in  the  remotest 
historic  period  the  domestic  dogs  were  not  un- 
like tho  present  races ;  and  anterior  to  written 
history  there  must  have  been  a  long  period 
during  which  the  wild  originals  were  educated 
to  be  useful  companions.  What  these  wild  ori- 
ginals were  it  is  impossible  to  settle  definitely. 
Some  naturalists  would  make  the  wolf,  others  the 
fox,  the  stock  from  Avhich  our  dogs  have  come ; 
these  opinions  can  now  hardly  be  seriously  en- 
tertained ;  the  most  that  can  be  asserted  with 
confidence  is  that  no  one  animal  can  claim  the 
exclusive  paternity  of  these  useful  races.  "We 
know  that  there  are  several  species  of  wild  dogs 
in  different  parts  of  the  earth,  all  of  which  may 
have  been  pressed  into  the  service  of  man ;  the 
crossings  of  these  with  each  other,  with  the 
wolf  in  the  north,  the  jackal  in  the  east,  the 
aguara  canines  in  the  south,  the  fennec  in  Afri- 
ca, and  the  fox  everywhere,  with  the  care  of 
man  to  develop  special  breeds  according  to  his 
wants,  are  sufiicient,  though  they  cannot  be  fol- 
lowed in  their  details,  to  account  for  all  and 
more  than  the  varieties  of  our  domestic  dogs. 
When  restored  to  the  wild  state,  they  approxi- 
mate more  or  less  closely  to  their  original  type, 
whether  it  be  wolf,  fox,  jackal,  or  other  wild 
canine.  Dogs  differ  in  stature,  in  the  shape  of 
their  ears  and  tails,  and  in  the  number  of  their 
caudal  vertebra) ;  some  have  an  additional  claw 
on  tho  hind  foot,  or  an  extra  false  molar  tooth 
on  one  side ;  the  hair  differs  in  color,  texture, 
and  length ;  and  all  these  differences  may  re- 
main as  permanent  varieties,  like  some  human 
races,  as  long  as  the  circumstances  Avhich  gave 
rise  to  'them  continue  essentially  the  same. 
We  shall  sec  that  there  are  several  undoubted 
species  of  wild  dogs,  to  say  nothing  of  wolves, 
foxes,  and  jackals,  and  the  capacity  for  varia- 
tion within  definite  limits  is  certainly  great  in 
all  domestic  animals ;  and  it  may  be  true  that, 
if  Ave  begin  to  make  species,  we  shall  not  know 
exactly  when. to  stop;  still,  the  necessary  com- 
plication of  these  only  shows  how  vague  is  the 
meaning  of  the  word  species,  and  how  difficult 
it  is  to  draw  the  line  between  species  and  va- 
rieties, especially  when  the  former  are  veiy 
nearly  allied.  If  the  wild  original  be  a  wolf,  who 
Avill  indicate  what  species  of  wolf  is  the  true 
and  only  one?  and  so  of  the  other  assumed 
types.  There  is  no  other  instance  in  the  whole 
range  of  mammals  where  man  has  been  able 
to  develop  and  combine  such  different  and  op- 
posite faculties  and  forms  as  are  seen  in  do- 
mestic dogs,  unless  tlie  typical  species  were  in 
possession  of  the  rudiments ;  neither  food,  nor 


DOG 


545 


climate,  nor  Luman  contrivance?,  could  so  widen 
or  trunciito  the  muzzle,  elevate  the  frontal  bones, 
diminish  the  delicacy  of  smell,  and  elongate 
the  limb-s,  imless  different  types  had  furnished 
the  properties  which  man  lias  modilied  to  suit 
las  purposes.  In  the  absence  of  positive  proof, 
we  have  every  reason  to  doubt  that  our  domestic 
dogs  can  be  referred  to  any  single  wild  original ; 
it  is  much  more  reasonable  to  admit  several 
aboriginal  species,  with  the  faculty  of  intermix- 
ing, including,  beside  wild  dogs  (like  the  buansu, 
dingo,  &c.),  tlie  wolf,  jackal,  and  fox,  as  parents 
of  our  dogs ;  that  a  dhole  or  a  thous  may  have 
been  the  father  of  the  greyhound  races ;  that  a 
lost  or  undiscovered  species,  allied  to  canis  tri- 
color or  liycena  Tenatica,  may  have  been  the 
source  of  the  short-muzzled,  strong-jawed  mas- 
tiffs. Hamilton  Smith  classes  the  dogs  accord- 
ing to  their  apparent  affinities  with  wild  canines 
in  corresponding  latitudes ;  tlie  arctic  dogs  with 
wolves ;  the  dogs  of  the  south  with  the  jackal 
in  the  old  world,  and  with  tlie  aguara  canines 
in  South  America.  The  Indian  dogs  may  be 
traced  to  the  prairie  wolf  and  the  Mexican 
coyotl,  and  in  Asia  to  the  jungle  koola.  What- 
ever may  have  been  their  originals,  it  is  alto- 
gether probable  that  the  primitive  dogs,  like  the 
other  domestic  animals,  were  very  different 
from  any  of  the  present  races,  and  perhaps  from 
any  now  existing  canines. — The  first  genus  of 
.wild  dogs  is  lycmiis  (Smith),  embracing  the 
prairie  wolf  and  coyotl  of  North  America,  and 
the  koola  of  India ;  the  head  is  broad,  the  muz- 
zle ])oiuted,  ears  erect,  fur  short,  tail  bushy ; 
stature  about  26  inches ;  the  disposition  is  more 
peaceable  than  that  of  the  wolf;  the  voice  bark- 
ing ;  they  are  gregarious  and  live  in  burrows. 
It  is  probable  that  the  aboriginal  Indian  dog  is 
derived  from  the  first  two ;  the  color  is  ashy 
gray,  with  some  white  on  the  tail  and  breast ; 
and,  when  hunting  in  packs,  these  animals  are 
hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  domestic  dogs. 
They  are  named  L.  latrans,  L.  cagottis,  and  L. 
tigris.  The  red  wild  dogs,  forming  the  genus 
chryseus  (Smith),  are  found  in  the  warmer  parts 
of  Asia,  Africa,  and  the  Australian  islands ;  the 
muzzle  is  less  pointed  than  in  lycisciis,  and  the 
tail  less  bushy ;  they  are  sliy  and  fierce,  seldom 
burrow,  hunt  in  troops,  and  bark,  and  are  about 
24  inches  high ;  they  want  the  2d  tubercular 
tooth  in  the  lower  jaw,  and  are  said  to  have  the 
soles  of  the  feet  hairy ;  they  destroy  many  of 
the  young  of  the  larger  cats;  they  differ  from 
wolves  and  jackals  in  their  habits  and  instincts, 
and  approximate  the  domestic  dog  in  the  small 
size  of  the  anal  glands.  The  presence  of  one  of 
these  species  in  Europe  probably  gave  rise  by 
their  nightly  hunting  to  the  German  legend  of 
the  wild  hunter  and  his  demon  hounds.  The 
buansu  of  Nepaul  (C.  priiinvtiis,  Ilodg.)  is  of  a 
deep  rust  color  above  and  yellowish  below  ;  it 
is  intermediate  in  size  between  a  wolf  and  jack- 
al, hunting  by  day  or  night  by  the  scent  chiefly, 
in  small  troops ;  there  are  several  varieties  in 
the  wooded  mountains  of  British  India.  The 
dhole  of  India  {C.  scylax,  Smith)  is  more  sleu- 
VOL.  VI. — 35 


der  than  the  buansu,  higher  on  the  legs,  with  a 
sharper  muzzle,  long  close-haired  tail,  and  large 
dark  ears  ;  the  color  is  a  light  bay.  The  dhole 
of  Ceylon  (0.  Ceylonicu.%  Shaw)  is  an  allied,  if 
not  the  same  species.  The  i)ariah  cur  dogs  of 
India  are  not  merely  degraded  mongrels,  bnt 
are  the  offspring  of  an  indigenous  wild  species 
living  in  the  jungles  and  in  the  lower  Elimalaya 
range  ;  this  resembles  the  jackal  more  than  the 
wolf,  but  is  more  bulky  in  body  and  lower  oa 
the  legs ;  the  voice  is  yeli)ing  and  howling. 
Other  red  wild  dogs  are  found  in  Sumatra  and 
Java.  The  New  Ifollaiul  dingo  (C.  AiistralasicB 
of  authors)  is  a  wild  dog  which  has  been  par- 
tially domesticated  by  the  natives,  and  is  no 
doubt  an  indigenous  inhabitant,  not  introduced 
by  man  ;  in  its  native  wilds  it  howls  m  a  mel- 
ancholy manner,  and  it  is  more  than  a  match 
for  a  domestic  dog  of  the  same  size ;  it  hunts 
in  small  packs,  sometimes  in  pairs,  and  is  very 
active  and  fierce.  It  stands  about  2  feet  high  ; 
the  color  above  is  fulvous,  spotted  with  white, 
paler  on  the  sides  and  throat,  and  whitish  be- 
low; it  carries  the  tail  horizontally,  and  runs 
with  the  head  high  and  the  ears  turned  for- 
ward. The  genus  thons,  of  which  the  typical 
species  is  the  wild  dog  of  Egypt  (C.  antliiis, 
F.  Cuv.),  resembles  the  wolf  on  a  small  scale, 
being  not  more  than  18  inches  high,  of  a  light 
structure,  with  rather  short  tail,  close,  ochry 
fur,  barred  or  pencilled  with  black  and  white ; 
the  species  do  not  burrow,  and  are  not  grega- 
rious, seldom  howl,  and  have  no  offensivo 
smell ;  they  all  have  the  tip  of  the  tail  black, 
and  prefer  rocky,  sandy  districts,  where  there 
are  bushes  and  water.  Hamilton  Smith  is  of  the 
opinion  that  the  greyhound  of  the  desert  was 
originally  derived  from  one  of  the  species  of 
this  section.  It  is  found  from  Egypt  and  Arabia 
to  the  cape  of  Good  Hope.  South  America, 
when  first  discovered  by  the  Spaniards,  had  its 
indigenous  canines,  all  with  a  tendency  to  ellip- 
tical pupils,  though  less  so  than  in  true  foxes ; 
among  these  are  the  aguara  dogs,  genus  dusicyon 
(Smith).  These  are  between  the  wolf  and  fox 
in  form,  with  bulky  body  and  short  legs ;  they 
burrow  and  are  more  social  and  gentle  than  the 
aguara  wolf  {C.  jnhitus,  Desm.).  This  group 
seems  to  represent  the  thons  of  the  old  world, 
though  the  forehead  is  more  rounded,  and  the 
tail  consists  of  an  imperfect  brush ;  the  pre- 
vailing color  is  fulvous  brown,  often  with  a 
hoary  tinge ;  the  face  looks  like  that  of  the  fox ; 
they  are  not  very  shy,  and  are  capable  of  being 
domesticated ;  they  are  great  thieves,  with  a 
propensity  to  conceal  objects  of  no  use  as  food  ; 
beside  the  usual  articles  of  diet,  they  avOI  eat 
fish,  crabs,  reptiles,  insects,  small  birds,  and  even, 
mollusks  and  berries  ;  they  are  generally  silent 
animals,  and  hunt  by  day  or  by  moonlight ;  they 
are  good  swimmers.  There  are  several  species 
described,  ranging  from  Surinam  to  the  Falkland 
islands  ;  the  domesticated  specimens  differ  but 
little  from  the  wild  originals,  except  in  the  tail 
being  less  bushy ;  the  average  height  is  from 
14  to  16  inches;  there  are  5  toes  to  each  foot, 


546 


DOG 


and  the  gape  of  the  mouth  is  large  and  wolf- 
like  ;  they  hunt  pacas,  agoutis,  and  wild  galli- 
naceous birds.  AH  these  wild  dogs  cross  with 
the  domesticated  ones  of  the  country,  forming 
the  most  comi)licated  intermixtures. — Before 
proceeding  to  the  proper  domesticated  dogs,  it 
will  he  well  to  notice  certain  varieties  which 
have  relapsed  into  a  wild  state,  and,  subsisting 
for  several  generations  by  their  own  resources, 
have  resumed  most  if  not  all  of  the  original 
characteristics  of  that  state.  In  Asia  Minor 
there  is  a  race  of  these  feral  dogs  (as  Hamilton 
Smith  calls  them),  of  nearly  the  size  of  the  local 
wolf,  and  resembling  the  sbepherd's  dog  except 
that  they  have  a  more  bushy  tail,  sharper  nose, 
and  the  fur  rufous  gray,  and  that  they  hunt  in 
packs  in  open  day.  A  smaller  breed  is  found  in 
Eussia.  In  St.  Domingo  there  is  a  large  feral 
dog  of  the  race  of  hounds  formerly  nsed  by  the 
Spaniards  in  their  western  conquests;  this  dog 
is  of  large  size,  about  28  inches  high,  with  a 
head  like  a  terrier,  and  the  general  color  pale 
bluish  ash ;  its  scent  is  very  fine,  and  it  follows 
its  prey  with  great  speed,  attacking  it  with 
ferocity  when  overtaken  ;  flocks  sometimes  suf- 
fer from  its  depredations ;  it  is  believed  that  it 
was  introduced  into  Spain  from  the  north,  such 
is  its  resemblance  to  the  Danish  dog.  In  the 
pampas  of  Soutli  America  are  troops  of  feral 
dogs,  a  mixture  of  all  the  breeds  of  the  country ; 
their  ears  are  erect  as  in  true  wild  canines ;  they 
are  bold  and  cunning,  destroying  many  of  the 
young  of  the  wild  herds  of  cattle  and  horses ; 
when  redomesticated,  they  are  remarkable  for 
their  courage,  sagacity,  and  acute  sense  of  smell. 
— Of  the  true  domesticated  races,  the  arctic  dogs 
of  both  hemispheres  are  of  large  size,  wolfish 
aspect,  with  pointed  nose,  erect  ears,  and  long 
hair  of  mixed  black  and  white  colors;  they  are 
fierce  in  their  dispositions,  bold,  and  strong ; 
they  swim  excellently,  burrow  in  the  snow,  and 
will  drag  the  native  sledges  for  hours  at  a  time 
several  miles  an  hour.  The  recent  arctic  voy- 
ages in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin  have  made 
the  reader  familiar  with  the  habits  and  valuable 
properties  of  the  Esquimaux  dogs,  and  even 
their  appearance  is  well  known  from  specimens 
brought  home  by  the  returned  explorers.  This 
species  (canis  iorealis,  Desni.)  is  probably  the 
same  as  the  Siberian  dog.  The  Hare  Indian  dog 
((7.  lagopm,  Rich.),  according  to  Sir  John  Rich- 
ardson, is  peculiar  to  the  region  of  the  Macken- 
zie river  and  Great  Bear  lake ;  it  is  interme- 
diate in  size  between  the  wolf  and  fox,  has  erect 
ears,  bushy  tail,  and  a  general  gray  color,  with 
white  and  black  markings ;  the  hair  is  long,  and 
at  its  base,  as  in  all  arctic  dogs,  is  a  thick  wool ; 
it  is  about  14  inches  high,  and  is  used  for 
hunting  and  not  for  draught ;  it  is  playful  and 
affectionate,  though  not  very  docile.  These  arc- 
tic canines,  if  not  pure  wild  species,  are  prob- 
ably the  result  of  a  mixture  of  the  wolf  and 
the  lyciscan  dogs  before  described.  In  the 
territory  of  the  Uudson's  bay  company,  in  Can- 
ada, and  in  the  Lake  Superior  mineral  dis- 
trict, there  is  a  mongrel  race  of  dogs  which  taka 


the  place  of  horses  during  the  winter  season, 
travelling  over  the  snow,  attached  to  the  dog 
train,  transporting  provisions,  merchandise,  and 
even  the  mails ;  they  are  hardy,  easily  managed, 
strong,  bearing  abuse,  scanty  food,  and  fatigue 
without  murmur  ;  they  are  invaluable  to  the 
hunter,  Indian,  half-breed,  and  traveller  in  these 
snow-clad  regions  ;  no  particular  breed  is  sought 
for,  the  only  qualities  valued  being  strength  and 
endurance.  The  Newfoundland  dog  (C.  Tfrrce 
I^ova,  Smith)  seems  to  he  indigenous  to  Ameri- 
ca; it  is  longer  than  the  Esquimaux  dog,  less 
compact,  with  a  wider  muzzle,  drooping  ears, 
and  with  long  hair  disposed  to  curl ;  it  is  a 
handsome  and  powerful  dog,  very  intelligent 
and  trusty,  and  of  a  kind  disposition  ;  the  pure 
breed  is  almost  semi-palmated,  making  them  the 
best  water  dogs ;  crossed  with  the  hound,  they 
attain  an  enormous  size ;  the  general  color  is 
black,  with  some  fulvous  about  the  eyes,  nose, 
throat,  and  joints,  and  white  about  the  feet  and 
end  of  the  tail.  Anecdotes  of  the  sagacity  of 
this  well-known  breed  are  innumerable.  The 
Nootka  dog  (C.  lanigcr,  Smith)  is  noted  for  its 
thick  and  matted  fur,  which  the  natives  mix 
with  wool  and  make  into  garments ;  the  de- 
scriber  of  this  species  thinks  that  it  indicates 
that  the  Esquimaux  and  Newfoundland  races 
were  derived  from  Asiatic  originals,  perhaps 
from  the  dog  of  Siberia.  At  the  head  of  the 
list  of  the  domestic  canines  of  temperate  Europe 
stands  the  shepherd's  dog  (C.  dojncsticus,  Linn.), 
still  with  the  wolf-like  statui-e,  head,  and  hair; 
its  appearance  is  rather  unpromising ;  its  shaggy 
hair  is  generally  varied  black  and  gray,  the 
ears  are  short  and  erect,  and  the  tail  is  bushy 
and  curved ;  having  been  trained  from  time 
immemorial  to  the  care  of  flocks,  its  peculiar 
faculties  seem  to  be  instinctive,  and  its  saga- 
city, fidelity,  and  courage  are  not  excelled  by 
any  species  of  dog ;  the  height  is  not  quite  2 
feet,  but  the  form  is  muscular.  This  breed  is 
confined  to  temperate  and  southern  Europe. 
The  true  shepherd's  dog  attends  the  flocks, 
keeps  them  together,  and  protects  them  from 
violence.  A  variety  called  the  drover's  dog, 
somewhat  larger  and  more  rugged,  is  of  great 
assistance  in  driving  sheep  and  cattle  to  market. 
The  great  wolf-dog  (C.  Pomeranus?  Linn.)  has 
all  the  sagacity  of  the  shepherd's  dog,  with  a 
strength  which  enables  him  to  resist  success- 
fully the  attack  of  a  wolf ;  it  is  of  large  size, 
whitish  clouded  with  brown,  with  pointed  nose, 
erect  ears,  and  long  silky  hair ;  it  is  most  com- 
mon in  southern  Europe.  The  Alpine  or  dog 
of  St.  Bernard  is  universally  known  for  his  eer- 
vices  in  discovering  and  assisting  snow-bewil- 
dered travellers  in  the  higher  Alps  ;  the  old 
race  resembled  the  Newfoundland  dog,  but  the 
present  dogs  are  short-haired,  with  very  broad 
feet,  and  generally  of  a  fown  color  ;  their  bark 
is  uncommonly  loud  and  deep.  They  are  train- 
ed to  carry  food,  wine,  and  Avarm  coverings,  at- 
tached to  their  bodies  and  necks  ;  they  depart 
in  the  morning,  after  violent  snow  storms,  in 
Bearch  of  buried  travellers,  and  are  followed  by 


DOG 


547 


the  monks.  Many  lives  liavo  been  saved  through 
their  instrumentality  ;  but  at  the  present  time, 
when  the  roads  are  better  and  more  easily  fol- 
lowed, and  the  inhabitants  in  the  upper  valleys 
more  numerous,  their  services  are  less  frequent- 
ly called  for.  In  the  subdivision  of  the  watch 
dogs  of  F.  Cuvier  are  found  some  of  the  largest 
canines,  and  especially  the  fierce  races  mention- 
ed by  ancient  authors  ;  they  have  short  hair 
and  a  jvide  muzzle,  but  in  their  skulls  they  re- 
semble the  wolf;  the  typical  color  is  rufous, 
which  is  more  or  less  mixed  with  black  and 
white ;  occupying  the  northern  temjjerate  zone, 
they  are  probably  descended  from  tlie  lyciscan 
dogs,  mixed  toward  the  south  with  the  mastiff 
race.  They  are  less  docile  and  sagacious  than 
the  former  groups,  but  more  watchful  and  noisj^, 
and  with  considerable  courage,  and  are  there- 
fore generally  kept  by  the  humbler  classes  to 
protect  their  farms  ;  from  this  cause  they-are 
greatly  crossed,  and  are  doubtless  the  progeni- 
tors of  the  mongrel  races  of  w'estern  Europe; 
from  their  moderate  powers  of  smelling  they 
are  of  little  use  in  hunting.  The  Suliote  dog  (C 
Suillus,  Gmel.),  sometimes  called  boar  hound  in 
Germany,  is  oneofthelargestaudfiercest  breeds; 
it  has  been  known  to  be  nearly  4  feet  high  at 
the  shoulder.  Resembling  this  is  the  Danish 
dog  (G.  glaucus,  Smith.),  but  smoother,  with 
shorter  ears,  and  of  a  slaty  blue  color.  The 
matin  dog  (C.  Icmiarius,  Linn.)  has  the  head 
elongated  and  the  forehead  flat,  the  ears  pendu- 
lous at  the  tips,  the  hair  rugged,  of  a  yellowish 
fawn  color  with  blackish  rays  ;  the  height  is 
about  2  feet ;  being  bold,  strong,  and  active,  it 
is  valuable  for  a  house  and  sheep  dog.  The  Poe 
dog  (  G.  Pacificus,  Smith)  seems  to  be  indige- 
nous to  the  South  sea  islands,  and  once  was 
very  abundant  in  the  Sandwich  group  ;  the 
muzzle  is  pointed,  the  ears  erect,  the  back  long, 
the  limbs  crooked,  and  the  hair  smooth  and 
tan-colored  ;  its  food  is  vegetable,  with  a  little 
fish,  and  it  is  much  esteemed  by  the  natives 
as  au  article  of  diet ;  the  aboriginal  race  is 
now  lost,  from  mixture  with  the  imported 
dogs  of  Europe.  The  dogs  of  Patagonia  are  as 
large  as  fox  hounds,  and  wolf-like  in  appear- 
ance ;  those  of  Terra  del  Fuego  are  smaller,  re- 
sembling a  cross  between  the  fox,  shepherd's 
dog,  and  terrier  ;  their  dogs  are  of  great  value 
to  the  natives  of  these  regions.  In  France  and 
several  other  countries,  especially  Holland,  dogs 
are  frequently  employed  as  draught  animals, 
and  in  Kamtchatka  and  Greenland,  almost  ex- 
clusively for  the  same  purpose. — From  the 
above  remarks  it  must  be  evident  that  the 
dogs  are  the  most  complete  and  useful  con- 
quest ever  made  by  man  ;  all  their  faculties 
have  been  rendered  subservient  to  him,  for 
his  pleasure  and  profit,  for  his  safety  against 
his  own  kind  and  other  animals.  Cuvier  has 
asserted  that  the  dog  was  perhaps  necessary 
for  the  establishment  of  human  society ;  though 
this  may  not  be  apparent  in  the  most  highly 
civilized  communities,  a  moment's  reflection 
"will  convince  us  that  barbarous  nations  owe 


much  of  their  elevation  above  the  brute  to 
the  i)Ossession  of  the  dog.  That  man  has  been 
able  to  make  such  extensive  use  of  this  animal 
must  depend  on  innate  qualities  in  the  races,  as, 
for  instance,  keenness  of  scent  and  the  desire  to 
chase,  in  the  hound;  the  impulse  to  seek  ob- 
jects, in  the  spaniel  and  pointer  ;  the  tendency 
to  watch  and  guard,  in  the  ehephcrd's  dog  and 
mastiff.  Tlie  activity  of  tiieir  brain  is  shown 
by  their  proneness  to  dream,  during  which  state 
they  go  through  all  the  mental  exercises  they 
would  use  when  awake.  It  is  said  that  the 
ancients  were  fond  of  the  flesh  of  dogs;  it  is 
well  known  that  the  Polynesians,  Chinese,  and 
American  Indians  consider  it  a  great  delicacy ; 
when  fed  principally  on  vegetable  food,  it  is  pal- 
atable and  nutritious,  as  many  a  traveller  in  the 
Eocky  mountains  and  in  the  northwest  territo- 
ries has  had  occasion  to  experience. — The  mon- 
uments of  Egypt  show  that  dogs,  like  men,  were 
as  distinct  in  their  races  thousands  of  years  ago 
as  at  the  present  day ;  and  it  becomes  interest- 
ing to  inquire  if  there  are  fossil  dogs.  Fossil  ca- 
nines have  certainly  been  found,  but  these  have 
without  examination  been  referred  as  a  matter 
of  course  to  wolves,  foxes,  and  jackals,  and  not 
to  dogs;  these  are  chiefly  met  with  in  the  plio- 
cene caves,  in  the  drift,  and  in  the  alluvium.  It 
has  been  already  mentioned  that  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  distinguish  the  different  species  of  can- 
idce  by  their  skeletons,  except  by  the  size  of  the 
bones.  The  teeth  of  the  domestic  dog  have  the 
last  tubercular  tooth  wider  than  that  of  the  wolf, 
and  the  teeth  of  many  of  the  cave  dogs  differ 
from  those  of  the  domestic  races  only  in  being 
larger.  Dr.  Lund  discovered  fossil  dogs  larger 
than  any  now  living  in  the  caves  of  Brazil,  asso- 
ciated with  an  extinct  monkey ;  a  similar  asso- 
ciation has  been  found  in  a  stratum  of  marl, 
under  compact  hmestone,  in  the  Pyrenees.  Dr. 
Schmerling  has  described  several  fossils  of  the 
true  dog,  evidently  belonging  to  2  distinct  va- 
rieties, differing  in  size  from  those  of  the  woLf 
and  fox  found  in  the  same  locality.  Cuvier  saja 
of  the  bones  of  a  fossil  canis  from  the  cave  of 
Gaylenreuth,  that  they  resemble  those  of  the 
dog  more  than  the  wolf,  yet  he  does  not  posi- 
tively declare  them  to  belong  to  the  former. 
Marcel  de  Serres  has  described  2  species  of 
dogs  found  in  a  marine  tertiary  limestone, 
one  resembling  the  pointer,  the  other  much 
smaller.  The  ii-ontal  elevation  in  the  skull  of 
the  dog  is  gi-eater  than  that  of  the  wolf,  and  the 
skull  of  a  smaU  canine  with  this  character 
strongly  marked,  from  a  bone  cave  in  England, 
was  pronounced  by  Mr.  Clift  that  of  a  small 
bull-dog  or  a  large  pug.  Distinct  traces  of  at 
least  4  types  of  dogs  have  been  found  in  a  fossil 
state,  the  Canary  dog,  the  pointer,  the  hound, 
and  the  bull-dog,  with  a  smaller  one  classed  by 
Schmerling  with  the  turnspit ;  and  as  many  of 
these  are  known  to  be  hybrids,  the  list  must 
probably  be  further  enlarged.  The  certain  an- 
tiquity of  these  bones,  whether  they  have  been 
referred  to  the  proper  race  of  dogs  or  not,  is 
sufficient  to  destroy  the  claims  of  the  wolf,  or 


548 


DOG  DAYS 


DOG  STAR 


jackal,  or  fox,  to  the  exclusive  paternity  of  the 
domestic  dogs.  As  there  are  undoubted  wild  ca- 
nines which  are  true  dogs,  there  is  no  improba- 
bility that  some  of  these  fossil  remains  may  have 
belonged  to  such  prior  to  their  subjugation  and 
domestication  by  man ;  and  there  is  no  more 
necessity  of  referring  the  fossil  canines  "to  a  sin- 
gle species  than  the  domesticated  ones.  The 
size  of  the  fossil  dogs  is  no  greater  than  that  of 
some  living  races  mentioned  in  the  text. — Those 
desirous  of  pursuing  the  subject  of  dogs  more 
fully  are  referred  to  the  writings  of  Bufton, 
Frederic  Cuvier,  and  Col.  Hamilton  Smith.  (See 
also  Beagle,  BLOoonorxD,  Btll-Dog,  Geey- 
noiTN^D,  HouiTD,  Mastiff,  Pointee,  Spaxiel, 
Teeeier.) 

DOG  DAYS  (Lat.  dies  crmimlares),  among 
the  ancients,  the  period  of  greatest  heat  in  sum- 
mer, so  named  because  in  the  latitudes  of  the 
Mediterranean  this  period  nearly  corresponded 
with  that  in  which  the  dog  star  rose  at  the 
same  time  with  the  snn.  To  this  conjunction 
all  antiquity,  and  all  the  later  followers  of  judi- 
cial astrology,  ascribed  a  malignant  influence. 
The  heliacal  rising  of  the  dog  star  is  a  very  in- 
definite phenomenon  ;  its  precise  dates  cannot 
be  determined,  and  owing  to  the  precession  of 
the  equinoxes  it  does  not  now  occur  till  about 
Aug.  10,  when  the  greatest  heat  of  the  season 
is  often  over.  So  uncertain  is  the  time  that  the 
ancients  indiscriminately  ascribe  the  evil  influ- 
ence to  Sirius  and  Procyon  (the  largest  stars  re- 
spectively of  Canis  Major  and  Minor),  though 
there  is  several  days'  difference  in  their  heliacal 
risings.  The  modern  almanac  makers  some- 
times reckon  the  dog  days  from  July  24  to 
Aug.  24,  and  sometimes  from  July  3  to  Aug.  11. 

DOG-FISH,  a  cartilaginous  plagiostome,  of 
the  family  squalidm  or  sharks,  and  the  genus 
ucanthias  (Eisso),  of  the  class  selachians  of 
Agassiz.  This  genus  is  characterized  by  2  dorsal 
ins  with  a  strong  spine  before  each  ;  the  1st  dor- 
^'al  is  behind  the  line  of  pectorals,  the  2d  be- 
Jween  the  ventral  and  caudal  spaces ;  no  anal  fin ; 
temporal  orifices  large ;  skin  rough  in  one  direc- 
tion, the  scales  heart-shaped  with  a  central 
gpine  directed  backward  ;  teeth  in  several  rows, 
sharp  and  cutting,  with  the  points  directed 
backward  and  outward.  The  common  dog-fish 
{A.  Americanvs,  Storer)  has  the  upper  part  of 
the  body  of  a  slate  color,  deepest  on  the  head 
and  lightest  on  the  sides,  and  white  below ;  just 
under  the  anterior  portion  of  the  lateral  line  is 
a  row  of  circular  white  spots,  and  a  few  similar 
ones  are  irregularly  distributed  on  the  back ; 
the  young  are  still  more  spotted ;  the  length 
does  not  exceed  5  feet.  The  species  is  found 
from  Davis's  straits  to  New  Jersey.  Dog-fish 
in  spring  and  autumn  appear  in  large  numbers 
in  Massachusetts  bay,  and  the  residents  of  some 
towns  on  Cape  Cod  give  up  all  other  business  at 
these  times  to  fish  for  them  ;  they  are  valuable 
for  the  oil  from  the  livers,  for  the  food  of  cattle, 
and  for  the  polishing  proi)erty  of  their  skin. 
The  weight  varies  from  8  to  25  lbs. ;  they  re- 
<aaia  in  shallow  "water  3  or  4  days,  at  which 


time  they  are  easily  caught  by  the  hook ;  they 
feed  on  garbage,  and  may  properly  bo  called 
the  scavengers  of*  the  sea.  The  young  are 
brought  forth  alive,  and  are  often  seen  swim- 
ming about  with  the  yolk  bag  attached.  In  the 
British  provinces  they  are  dried,  and  in  the 
winter  given  to  pigs,  which  thrive  well  upon, 
them ;  the  refuse  parts  are  used  for  manure. 
The  dog-fish  (wa?«<^«a5)  of  Europe  is  a  diflTerent 
species ;  its  flesh  is  eaten  in  Scotland.  Along 
the  east  coast  of  England  it  is  called  the  bone- 
dog  ;  it  is  a  great  pest  to  the  fishermen  by  cut- 
ting off  their  hooks ;  according  to  Mr.  Couch,  it 
bends  itself  into  a  bow  for  the  purpose  of  using 
its  spines,  and  then  by  a  sudden  motion  causes 
them  to  spring  asunder  in  opposite  directions. 
Three  species  of  scylliiim  (Cuv.),  of  a  reddish- 
brown  color  with  numerous  spots,  are  called 
dog-fish  in  Europe.  There  is  another  shark 
(miistclus  canis,  Mitch.),  also  viviparous,  called 
dog-fish.  In  this  genus  the  teeth  are  blunt, 
forming  a  close  pavement  in  each  jaw  ;  the  first 
dorsal  is  in  advance  of  the  ventrals  ;  there  are 
no  spines ;  the  body  is  cylindrical  and  elongated, 
of  a  uniform  slate  color  on  the  back  and  sides, 
and  dusky  white  below;  the  head  is  flat  be- 
tween the  eyes.  This  shark  grows  to  a  length 
of  5  feet,  and  is  very  common  in  Long  Island 
sound,  where  it  is  taken  in  nets  spread  for  other 
fish  ;  from  the  form  of  the  teeth  it  is  probable 
that  the  food  consists  i^rincipally  of  Crustacea 
and  moUusks ;  it  is  not  common  on  the  coast  of 
Massachusetts,  but  is  abundant  on  the  shores  of 
New  Jersey,  where  it  is  very  troublesome  to 
the  fishermen  by  stealing  their  baits  and  driving 
away  other  more  eatable  species;  its  flesh  is 
coarse,  rank,  and  unpalatable,  though  occasion- 
ally eaten.  In  Europe  the  species  of  this  genus 
are  often  called  hound-fish ;  the  M.  Icevis  (Cuv.) 
is  called  the  smooth  hound  from  the  softness 
of  the  skin,  and  ray-mouthed  dog-fish  from 
the  peculiar  conformation  of  the  teeth.  These 
sharks  are  called  dog-fish  probably  from  their 
hunting  for  prey  or  food  in  large  packs,  like 
hounds.  The  dog-fish  of  the  great  lakes  of 
North  America  is  a  soft-rayed  bony  fish,  gen- 
erally placed  in  the  herring  fomily,  and  the 
genus  a77iia  (Linn.) ;  the  spotted  Iota,  one  of 
the  cod  family  inhabiting  fresh  water,  is  also 
incorrectly  called  dog-fish  by  Lesueur. 

DOG  GRASS.     See  Coucn  Geass. 

DOG  STAR,  or  SiRirs,  the  brightest  and  in 
appearance  the  largest  of  the  fixed  stars,  named 
from  the  constellation  Canis  Major  in  which  it 
appears.  It  is  the  Sothis  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, and  is  one  of  the  6  fixed  stars  Avhich 
Ptolemy  enumerates  in  his  catalogue  as  of  a 
fiery  red  ('nroKippos)  color.  Seneca  also  calls  it 
(JSFat.  Quwst.  i.  1)  redder  than  Mars.  It  has  at 
present  a  perfectly  white  light,  and  furnishes 
the  only  example  of  a  historically  proved  change 
of  color  in  the  appearance  of  a  star.  It  was 
undoubtedly  already  white  in  the  time  of  Tycho 
Brahe,  but  of  the  period  of  its  change  there  is 
little  evidence.  The  Arabic  astronomer  El  Fra- 
gaui  (Alfraganus),  of  the  10th  century,  invari- 


DOGE 


DOGGERBANK 


549 


ably  follows  Ptolemy,  and,  if  Sirius  had  then 
been  white,  would  hardly  have  failed  to  notice 
and  remark  upon  the  change.  The  Egyptians 
reckoned  their  year  from  one  heliacal  rising  of 
the  dog  star  to  another,  which  was  therefore 
called  tlie  "  Sothic  year." 

DOGE  (Lat.  dux,  a  leader),  the  title  of  the 
elective  cliief  magistrate  in  the  republiqs  of 
Venice  and  Genoa.  Tlie  dignity  or  olhce  was 
called  dofjato.  The  doges  of  Venice  w^ere  elect- 
ed for  life.  The  first  of  them  was  called  to  the 
dignity  in  the  year  G97,  when  Venice  had 
scarcely  risen  to  the  importance  of  a  city,  and 
he  and  his  successors  ruled  it  as  sovereigns,  with 
nearly  absolute  power.  But  when  the  state 
grew  mightier,  both  on  land  and  sea,  through 
connnerce  and  compiests,  its  pruud  and  wealtliy 
nobles  continually  strove  to  check  the  power 
and  influence  of  their  elective  head,  and  the 
government  became  more  and  more  oligarchical, 
its  form  more  and  more  republican,  the  dogate 
a  magistracy,  and  finally  a  mere  title.  A  great 
change  in  the  constitution  toward  the  end  of 
the  12  th  century  put  the  whole  legislative 
power  into  the  hands  of  the  council  of  470 ;  this 
elected  the  executive  council  of  G,  and  the  60 
pregadi,  and  the  doge  was  elected  by  12  electors, 
chosen  by  24  members  of  the  great  council. 
The  first  chief  magistrate  thus  elected  was  Se- 
bastiauo  Ziani  (1173),  who,  in  order  to  make  his 
dignity,  now  stripped  of  every  power,  at  least 
pojmlar,  distributed  money  among  the  people 
at  his  installation ;  an  act  adopted  by  his  succes- 
sors as  one  of  the  ceremonies  of  inauguration. 
Another  ceremony,  introduced  by  the  same 
doge,  was  that  of  marrying  the  sea,  by  a  ring 
thrown  into  the  waves  of  the  Adriatic,  which 
emblem  of  power  over  the  mighty  element  was 
bestowed  upon  him  with  many  other  marks  of 
dignity  by  Pope  Alexander  III.,  whom  he  sup- 
ported in  his  long  and  bloody  struggle  against 
the  emperor  of  Germany,  Frederic  Barbarossa. 
A  new  council  of  40,  established  in  1179,  and 
vested  with  supreme  juridical  power,  also  served 
to  circumscribe  the  prerogatives  of  the  doge. 
It  was  in  vain  that  many  a  chief  magistrate 
covered  his  office  and  the  state  with  glory, 
in  vain  that  Enrico  Dandolo,  the  nearly  blind 
octogenarian,  led  the  victorious  fleet  of  the 
4th  crusade  to  Constantinople  (1202-''4),  that 
he  was,  at  both  attacks,  among  the  first  to 
storm  it,  that  he  refused  the  conquered  impe- 
rial crown ;  the  growing  and  grasping  might 
of  the  nobility  Wiis  incessantly  bent  on  the 
humiliation  of  the  so-called  chief  of  the  state, 
which  was  completed  in  the  2d  half  of  the  13th 
century,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  next,  by 
the  new  and  last  election  law,  the  most  com- 
plicated instrument  of  indirect  exercise  of 
sovereignty  that  has  ever  been  framed,  by  the 
introduction  under  Gradenigo  of  the  hereditary 
nobility  and  its  golden  book,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  terrible  council  of  10,  supreme 
in  power,  irresponsible,  and  judges  of  the  doge 
himself.  Stripped  of  nearly  all  his  prerogatives, 
the  power  of  the  doge  was  confined  to  the  com- 


mand of  the  army  and  the  opportunity  of  profit- 
ing by  the  frequent  strifes  and  contentions  of 
the  different  councils  and  classes ;  and  the  office 
became  so  burdensome,  that  a  law  had  to  be 
framed  (1389)  prohibiting  any  one  from  laying 
it  down,  and  that,  in  1307,  Contarini  had  to  be 
forced  to  accept  it.  The  doge  was  now  but  the 
president  of  the  council,  the  mouthpiece  of  the 
republic;  he  received  ambassadors,  but  could 
give  them  no  answer  of  his  own,  and  their  let- 
ters he  opened  in  the  presence  of  the  senate;  ' 
money  was  struck  in  his  name,  but  without  his 
stamp  or  arms.  lie  was  not  allowed  to  leave 
the  city,  to  announce  his  accession  to  any  but 
princes  of  Italy,  to  accept  presents,  to  pos- 
sess estates  in  foreign  countries,  or  to  marry  his 
daughters  to  foreigners.  His  children  and  rela- 
tives w'ere  excluded  from  every  important  office, 
lie  was  surrounded  by  spies,  fined  for  every 
transgression,  and  his  conduct  scrutinized  after 
his  death  by  a  tribunal  of  3  inquisitors  and  5 
correctors.  The  chief  magistrate  was  powerless, 
while  the  republic  was  mighty  from  its  con- 
quests in  Greece,  rich  from  the  commerce  of  the 
East,  and  glorious  in  the  sciences  and  art ;  ho 
remained  powerless  when  the  republic,  stripped 
of  its  eastern  possessions  by  the  Turks,  of  its  com- 
mei'ce  and  wealth  by  the  new  maritime  discov- 
eries, languished  and  decayed.  The  oflSce  was 
destroyed  with  the  state  in  1797,  by  the  French, 
under  Bonaparte. — In  Genoa,  the  first  doge  was 
elected  for  life  in  1339,  after  the  victory  of  the 
popular  party  over  that  of  the  nobility,  and  vol- 
untarily shared  his  power  with  a  council  of  state 
consisting  of  12  members,  6  from  the  nobUity, 
and  6  from  the  people.  But  during  the  long 
internal  and  external  contentions  of  this  repub- 
lic, almost  continually  agitated  by  schemes  of 
conquest  and  party  struggles,  the  dogate  was 
often  modified,  and  sometimes  even  abolished. 
Andrea  Doria,  the  great  admiral,  and  the  de- 
liverer of  the  republic  from  the  yoke  of  the 
French  in  1528,  reorganized  it,  and  his  consti- 
tution remained,  but  slightly  altered,  till  the 
time  of  the  French  conquest  (1797).  According 
to  it,  the  doge,  who  must  be  a  noble,  and  50 
years  of  age,  was  elected  for  2  years ;  he  pre- 
sided in  the  2  legislative  councils,  of  300  and  of 
100 ;  had  the  right  of  proposing  and  vetoing 
laws;  exercised  the  executive  power  with  12 
secret  councillors ;  and  resided  in  the  palace  of 
the  republic.  The  ceremonies  and  restrictions 
connected  with  his  election  and  dignity  were 
similar  to  those  in  Venice.  Napoleon,  having 
founded  the  republic  of  Liguria,  restored  this 
ancient  dignity  (1802),  and  abolished  both  when 
elected  emperor  of  the  French  (1804). 

DOGGER,  the  name  of  a  small  vessel  used 
by  the  Dutch  fishermen,  especially  in  fishing  on 
the  Doggerbank.  It  has  2  masts,  and  is  not 
unlike  a  ketch. 

DOGGERBANK,  an  extensive  shoal  in  the 
centre  of  the  North  sea.  The  water  on  this  bank 
where  it  is  most  shallow  is  9  fathoms  in  depth, 
and  abounds  in  fish.  An  obstinate  naval  battle 
was  fought  there  on  Aug.  5,  1781,  between  the 


550 


DOGS 


DOLABELLA 


Dutch  and  English  fleets,  in  -which  both  vrera 
much  crippled,  and  neither  could  claim  the  vic- 
tory. 

DOGS,  Isle  of,  or  Poplae  Marshes,  a  pen- 
insula in  the  river  Thames,  3  m.  below  London, 
and  opposite  Greenwich.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  West  India  docks,  and  is  rapidly 
filling  up  with  establishments  for  heavy  manu- 
facturing, iron  ship  building,  gas  works,  &c.  The 
name  is  derived  from  its  having  been  formerly 
the  place  where  the  king's  hounds  were  kept. 

DOGWOOD  (cor?ins,  Linn.),  a  shrub  or  tree 
of  the  order  tetrandria  monogynia^  under  the 
middle  size,  deciduous,  a  native  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  iSTorth  America,  of  "which  there  are  several 
varieties.  G.  alternifolia  (Linn.),  the  alternate- 
leaved  dogwood,  is  a  small  deciduous  tree  in- 
digenous to  North  America,  and  is  found  in 
shady  woods  or  by  river  banks  in  every  latitude. 
It  frequently  attains  a  height  of  15  to  20  feet. 
The  leaves  are  alternate,  ovate,  and  acute;  flow- 
ers white.  May  to  July ;  fruit  purple,  ripening  in 
October.  Of  all  the  species  of  the  genus  the 
florida  dogwood  {G.Jlorida^  Linn.)  is  the  mos^ 
beautiful,  and  in  its  native  soil  under  favorable 
circumstances  attains  a  height  of  30  to  35  feet. 
The  specific  name  florida^  from  floreo^  to  blos- 
som, was  bestowed  because  of  the  profusion  of 
the  flowers  it  puts  forth.  Specific  characters : 
branches  shining ;  leaves  ovate,  acuminate,  pale 
beneath  ;  flowers  umbellate,  protruded  after 
the  leaves ;  leaves  of  involucre  large,  roundish, 
retuse;  pomes  ovate;  flowers  white  and  very 
large.  It  is  found  as  far  north  as  New  Hamp- 
shire, but  particularly  abounds  in  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Virginia,  where  the 
soil  is  moist ;  in  Florida  and  the  Carolinas  it  de- 
serts the  barrens  and  is  found  only  in  swamps. 
In  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee,  it  is  not  found 
in  the  forests  except  where  the  soil  is  gravelly. 
It  was  first  described  in  Kay's  Historia  Planta- 
rum,  published  in  1680,  and  afterward  by  Cates- 
by  in  his  "Natural  History  of  Carolina."  Wil- 
liam Bartram,  in  his  "Travels  in  Carolina  and 
Florida,"  published  in  1791,  describes  a  remark- 
able grove  of  dogwood  trees  in  Alabama,  ex- 
tending for  9  or  10  miles.  The  trees  were  about 
12  feet  high,  spreading  horizontally,  their  limbs 
meeting  and  interlocking  with  each  other  so 
as  to  form  one  vast,  shady,  cool  grove,  so  dense 
and  humid  as  to  exclude  the  sunbeams  and 
prevent  the  intrusion  of  almost  every  other 
vegetable.  The  wood  of  this  tree  is  hard,  fine- 
grained, and  susceptible  of  a  high  polish.  It 
enters  into  the  construction  of  many  articles  of 
ornament  and  utility,  such  as  the  handles  of 
mallets,  toys,  harrow  teeth,  hames  for  horse 
collars,  and  the  shoeing  of  sleds.  The  inner 
bark  of  the  tree  is  very  bitter,  and  has  proved 
an  excellent  substitute  for  Peruvian  bark  in  in- 
termittent fever.  Dr.  Walker  of  Virginia,  in  a 
dissertation  on  the  comparative  virtues  of  the 
bark  of  these  2  plants,  says  that  a  summary 
recapitulation  of  the  experiments  made  by  him 
shows  that  the  corntis  florida  and  the  Peruvian 
bai'k  possess  the  same  constituents,  that  is,  gum, 


mucilage,  and  extracts,  which  last  contain  the 
tannic  and  gallic  acid,  though  in  different  propor- 
tions. Their  medicinal  virtues  appear  similar 
and  equal  in  both  forms.  The  extract  and  re- 
sin possess  all  their  active  powers.  The  bark 
may  likewise  be  substituted  for  galls  in  the 
manufacture  of  ink.  From  the  bark  of  the 
roots  the  Indians  extract  an  excellent  scarlet  dye. 
The  florida  dogwood  is  often  cultivated  as  an 
ornamental  tree,  its  large  flowers,  which  rival 
the  whiteness  of  snow,  affording  a  pleasing  con- 
trast with  the  deep  green  of  the  surrounding 
foliage. — The  name  dogwood  is  improperly  giv- 
en in  some  parts  of  the  United  States  to  the 
rTius  venenata,  a  species  of  poisonous  sumach. 

DOHNA,  a  German  family  of  counts  {Burg' 
graf),  who  trace  their  origin  to  the  times  of 
Charlemagne,  and  many  of  whom  have  occupied 
high  positions  in  the  military  and  civil  service 
of  Prussia. — Ivael  Feiedeich  Emil,  born  March 
4,  1784,  president  of  the  military  department 
in  the  Prussian  cabinet  and  general  of  cavalry 
in  1854,  when  he  retired  from  active  service, 
died  in  Berlin,  Feb.  21,  1859. 

DOKOS,  or  DoKOEs,  a  race  of  negroes  said 
to  inhabit  a  region  of  tropical  Africa,  S.  of 
Abyssinia,  near  the  river  Gojeb.  They  were  first 
fully  described  by  the  missionary  Dr.  Krapf,  on 
the  credit  of  a  Galla  slave  who  had  visited  their 
country,  and  whose  relation  was  thought  to  bear 
every  mark  of  truth,  and  was  corroborated  by 
other  native  accounts.  According  to  this  man, 
the  Dokos  are  4  feet  high,  of  a  dark  olive  com- 
plexion, and  perfectly  wild.  They  go  naked, 
feed  on  ants,  snakes,  mice,  and  fruits,  evince 
considerable  intelligence,  and  are  in  great  re- 
quest by  the  people  of  Ivafta  as  slaves.  They 
have  no  government,  no  laws,  no  priority  of 
rank,  no  national  feelings,  no  idea  of  marriage, 
and  very  little  sense  of  religion.  The  mother 
abandons  her  child  as  soon  as  it  is  able  to  pro- 
cure its  own  food.  Their  country  is  subject  to 
almost  incessant  rains,  and  on  account  of  the 
hostility  of  the  surrounding  nations  is  difficult 
of  access.  It  is  rarely  visited  except  by  slave 
dealers,  who  surround  the  wretched  savages  in 
their  thick  forests,  entice  them  down  from  the 
trees  in  which  they  take  refuge,  and  drive  them 
into  the  plains,  where  immense  numbers  of  them 
are  captured.  They  have  a  horror  of  slavery, 
but  easily  become  attached  to  their  masters. 
They  are  supposed  to  be  the  "  pigmies"  whoso 
existence  has  been  a  favorite  belief  since  the 
days  of  Homer. 

DOL,  a  French  town,  capital  of  a  canton  of 
the  same  name,  in  the  department  of  Ille-et- 
Vilaine;  pop.  4,181.  It  is  wretchedly  built,  but 
contains  a  fine  cathedral,  and  possesses  consider- 
able historical  interest.  During  the  middle  ages 
it  was  again  and  again  besieged,  and  passed  into 
many  different  hands.  In  1793  it  was  garrisoned 
by  the  Vendeans,  and  successfully  resisted  an  at- 
tack of  the  republican  troops.  The  old  fortifica- 
tions of  the  town  are  still  standing.  Its  trade  is 
principally  in  corn,  hemp,  and  cider. 

DOLABELLA,  Publitjs  Coenelius,  a  Roman 


DOLCI 


D0LG0RUE3 


551 


general,  celebrated  for  his  iirofligacy,  born  about 
70  B.  C,  (lied  43  B.  C.  XutwitliBta'ndingbis  de- 
bauched cliaracter,  ho  became  the  sou-iii-law  of 
Cicero,  and  enjoyed  several  hiyh  offices  of  state. 
After  the  death  of  Ctesar,  Dulabella,  although 
the  former  had  always  been  his  frit-nd,  professed 
the  utmost  contempt  for  his  memory,  and,  being 
supposed  a  good  republican,  obtained  the  con- 
sulship, and  afterward  from  Antony  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  province  of  Syria.  On  his  way 
thither,  however,  ho  committed  such  atrocious 
extortions  and  crimes  that  the  senate  declared 
him  an  enemy  of  the  republic,  and  he  was  kill- 
ed by  one  of  his  soldiers  at  his  own  order,  to 
avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies. 

DOLCI,  or  Dolce,  Carlo,  or  Caelixo,  an 
Italian  painter,  born  in  Florence,  May  25,  161G, 
died  there,  Jan.  17,  1G80.  His  father,  grand- 
father, and  uncle  were  all  painters,  and  after  the 
death  of  his  father,  his  mother  placed  him  at  the 
age  of  9  with  Jacopo  Yignali.  Under  Yignali's 
tuition  Carlo's  genius  developed  itself  with  such 
remarkable  rapidity  that  after  a  few  years  he  "was 
able  to  attempt  successfully  a  full-length  figure 
of  St.  John.  lie  next  produced  a  picture  of  his 
mother,  and  the  delicacy  and  tenderness  "which 
marked  these  early  productions  attracted  much 
attention,  and  procured  for  him  employment  at 
home  and  abroad.  Pietro  de'  Medici  "svas  among 
his  earliest  patrons,  and  brought  him  into  notice 
at  court.  He  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively 
to  sacred  subjects,  a  branch  of  the  art  in  harmony 
■ft'ith  his  devout  disposition.  Ilis  works  are  de- 
ficient in  imaginative  genius,  but  they  are  all 
distinguished  by  agreeable  coloring,  a  remark- 
able relief  produced  by  his  skilful  management 
of  chiaroscuro,  a  singular  delicacy  of  composi- 
tion, and  a  finish  in  which  he  approached  al- 
most the  consummate  patience  and  industry  of 
the  great  Dutch  masters.  Although  he  was 
proverbially  slow  in  the  execution  of  his  paint- 
ings, he  amassed  sufficient  "wealth  for  tlie  honor- 
able support  of  his  family  of  8  children.  The 
sameness  of  expression  iu  most  of  his  pictures 
facilitates  copies  and  imitations,  which  conse- 
quently abound  all  over  Europe.  He  excelled 
most  in  small  pictures,  and  the  themes  in  "which 
he  was  most  successful  are  borrowed  from  the 
New  Testament.  Among  his  best  works  are  the 
"  St.  Anthony"  in  the  Florentine  gallery,  the 
"St.  Sebastian"  in  the  palazzoCorsini,  the  "Four 
Evangelists"  in  the  palazzo  Eicardi  at  Florence, 
and  "Christ  Breaking  the  Bread,"  in  England, 
in  the  marquis  of  Exeter's  collection  at  Burleigh. 
Dresden  possesses  several  of  his  works,  includ- 
ing "  Ilerodias  with  the  Head  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist" and  "  St.  Cecilia,  or  the  Organ  Player." 
Another  of  his  chief  productions,  "  Christ  on 
the  Mount  of  Olives,"  is  at  the  Louvre  in  Paris. 
— Agxese,  one  of  his  daughters,  who  married  a 
merchant  named  Carlo  Baci,  "was  one  of  his 
best  pupils,  and  the  most  successful  copyist  of 
his  works. 

DOLE,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  an  arron- 
dissement  of  the  same  name,  in  the  department 
of  the  Jura;  pop.  of  the  town  in  1856,  9,443, 


and  of  the  arrondiseement  72,185.  It  is  neat  and 
well  built,  and  situated  on  the  slope  and  at  the 
foot  of  a  hill  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Doubs,  near  the  canal  that  joins  the  Rhone  and 
the  Rhine.  The  railway  from  Dijon  to  Besan- 
fon,  which  passes  the  town,  gives  it  some  im- 
portance as  a  place  of  transit  between  Paris  and 
Switzerland.  It  is  of  great  antiquity,  ha"ving 
been  founded  by  the  Romans,  and  is  situated  on 
the  old  road  leading  from  Lyons  to  the  Rhine. 
Some  remains  of  this  work,  as  "well  as  of  an  an- 
cient aqueduct  and  theatre,  are  still  to  be  seen. 
It  "was  for  a  time  the  capital  of  Franche  Comte, 
and  the  seat  of  a  parliament.  After  having  beea 
taken  once  or  twice  previously,  it  was  captured 
and  dismantled  by  the  French  in  1674. 

DOLET,  Etiexxe,  a  French  scholar  and 
printer,  born  in  Orleans  in  1509,  burned  as  a 
heretic  in  Paris,  Aug.  3,  1546.  He  "was  very 
fond  of  classical  studies,  and  was  one  of  the 
especial  admirers  of  Cicero,  who  were  ridiculed 
by  Erasmus,  and  warmly  defended  by  Dolet  and 
others.  He  was  of  a  rash,  impetuous  disposition, 
which  made  him  many  enemies,  who  lost  no 
opportunity  of  persecuting  him.  Having  been 
often  accused  of  cherishing  heretical  sentiments, 
he  was  at  last  adjudged  an  atheist  by  an  ecclesi- 
astical court  at  Paris,  in  consequence  of  an  ex- 
pression which  he  made  use  of  in  his  translation 
of  the  Axiochiis  of  Plato,  "v\-hich  "was  not  to  be 
found  in  the  original ;  and  for  this  he  was  con- 
demned and  burned. 

DOLGORUKI,  the  name  of  a  princely  Rus- 
sian family,  whose  origin  is  carried  back  to 
Rurik,  and  several  members  of  which  occupy 
a  place  in  the  history  of  their  country.  I. 
Grigori,  distinguished  himself  by  the  valiant 
defence  of  a  monastery  near  Moscow  against  the 
Poles  under  Sapieha  and  other  generals  (1608- 
'10).  II.  Maria,  was  married  in  1624  to  Czar 
Michael,  the  first  of  the  house  of  Romanoff",  but 
died  4  months  after.  III.  Tuei,  a  general  in 
the  reigns  of  Alexis  and  Fedor,  was  killed  in 
the  revolt  of  the  Strelitzes  after  the  death  of 
the  latter  czar  in  1682,  while  defending  the 
right  of  the  young  Peter  the  Great  to  the 
throne.  lY.  Mihail,  son  of  the  preceding,  and 
minister  of  Fedor,  perished  with  his  father.  V. 
Yakob,  a  senator  of  Peter  the  Great,  noted  for 
hLs  boldness  and  frankness  toward  his  master, 
died  in  1720.  It  is  said  that  one  day,  ha"dng 
torn  to  pieces  an  imperial  ukase  in  full  councU 
of  the  senate,  he  appeased  the  wrath  of  the 
czar,  Avho  threatened  to  kill  him,  by  the  words : 
''You  have  but  to  imitate  Alexander,  and  you 
"will  find  a  Clitus  in  me."  YI.  Iva:s",  was  the 
friend  of  Peter  II.,  to  whom  his  sister  Catharine 
"was  betrothed  ;  but  the  young  czar  having  died 
on  the  day  fixed  for  the  marriage  (1730),  he  "was 
exiled  to  Siberia  with  all  his  family  by  Biron, 
duke  of  Courland,  the  favorite  of  the  empress 
Anna.  Recalled  from  exile,  he  was  accused  of 
a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of  the  empress,  and 
executed  at  Novgorod  in  1739,  other  members 
of  the  family  being  beheaded  or  exiled^  YII. 
Yasili,  commanded  tlie  army  of  Catharine  I. 


652 


DOLLAB 


BOLLINGER 


in  tho  war  against  Persia,  was  mado  field  mar- 
shal in  1728,  banished  to  Siberia  in  1739  as  an 
accomplice  of  the  preceding,  recalled  by  tho 
empress  Elizabeth,  and  died  in  1755.  VIIL 
Vasiij,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  counnander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  of  Catharine  IL,  conquered 
the  Crimea  in  a  short  campaign  in  1771,  and  re- 
ceived from  the  empress  the  surname  of  Krim- 
skoi.  IX.  Vladimir,  resided  for  25  years  as 
minister  of  Catharine  IL  at  the  court  of  Frederic 
the  Great,  whose  fi-icndship  he  gained.  X. 
Yuri,  commanded  in  the  wars  of  Catharine  11. 
against  the  Turks  and  Poles,  signalizing  himself 
by  his  valor.  XL  Ivan,  one  of  the  classical 
poets  of  Russia,  was  horn  in  1754,  and  died  in 
St.  Petersburg  in  1823.  XII.  Pavel,  was  the 
author  of  a  Notice  sur  les  principales  /mnilles 
de  Bnssie  (Brussels,  1843),  an  English  transla- 
tion of  which,  Avith  annotations  and  an  intro- 
duction, appeai'ed  in  London  in  1858. 

DOLLAR,  tho  monetary  unit  in  the  United 
States  and  several  other  countries,  both  of  coin- 
ed money  and  money  of  account.  All  values  in 
the  United  States  are  expressed  in  dollars  and 
cents,  or  hundredths.  The  term  mill,  for  the 
■rsQo  of  a  dollar,  is  rarely  employed.  The  dol- 
lar unit,  as  a  money  of  account,  was  established 
by  act  of  congress  of  April  2, 1792,  and  the  same 
act  provides  for  the  coinage  of  a  silver  dollar 
"  of  the  value  of  a  Spanisli  milled  dollar  as  the 
same  is  now  current."  The  silver  dollar  was 
first  coined  in  1794,  weighing  416  grains,  of 
which  3711  grains  were  pure  silver,  the  fineness 
heing  892.4  thousandths.  The  act  of  Jan.  18, 
1837,  reduces  the  standard  weight  to  412|  grains, 
but  increases  the  fineness  to  xVAi  the  quantity 
of  pure  silver  remaining  371^  grains  as  before  ; 
and  at  these  rates  it  is  still  coined,  in  limited 
amount.  The  smaller  silver  coins  are  not  of 
equal  weight  proportionally.  (See  Coixs.)  The 
act  of  March  3, 1849,  directs  the  coinage  of  gold 
dollars.  They  were  issued  the  same  year,  weigh- 
ing 25  j^  grains,  y^  fine,  23yY5^  grains  being  pure 
gold.  All  other  coins  of  the  United  States  arc 
either  multiples  or  subdivisions  of  the  dollar. 
The  term  dollar  is  of  German  origin.  During  the 
years  15l7-'26  the  counts  of  Schlick,  under  a 
right  of  mintage  conferred  by  the  emperor  Sigis- 
mund  in  1437  upon  their  grandfather,  Casper 
Schlick,  caused  to  be  struck  a  series  of  silver 
coins  of  1  ounce  weight,  and  worth  about  113 
cents  of  our  money.  These  pieces  were  coined 
at  Joachimsthal  (Joachim's  valley),  a  mining 
town  of  Bohemia,  and  came  to  be  known  in  cir- 
culation as  JoachimsthaUr,  and  then  for  short- 
ness Thaler ;  and  this  name  for  coins  and  money 
of  account  has  been  widely  used  in  the  German 
states  ever  since.  Some  German  scholars,  how- 
ever, derive  the  term  Thaler  from  talent^which 
was  used  in  the  middle  ages,  designating  a  pound 
of  gold.  In  Norway  and  Sweden  wo  find  tho 
daler,  and  in  Spain  the  dalera,  the  famous  Span- 
ish dollar  which  for  centuries  figured  so  con- 
spicuously in  the  commerce  of  the  worlU.  It 
was  the  Spanish  pillar  dollar  (called  also  the  mill- 
ed dollar  for  its  milled  edge)  that  was  taken  as 


tho  basis  of  the  United  States  coinage  and  money 
of  account.  By  the  act  of  April  2,  1792,  37li 
grains  of  pure  silver  and  24f  grains  of  pure  gold 
were  declared  to  be  equivalent  one  to  the  other, 
and  to  the  dollar  of  account.  At  that  time,  as 
now  in  Great  Britain,  113  grains  of  pure  gold 
were  the  equivalent  of  the  pound  sterling.  The 
value  of  £1  in  federal  money,  therefore,  was 
$4  56.5.  Prior  to  this  date,  and  during  the  con- 
federation, the  dollar  of  account,  as  compared 
with  sterling  currency,  had  been  rated  at  is.  Gd., 
■which  was  an  exaggerated  valuation  of  the 
Spanish  dollar;  and  in  precise  accordance  with 
this  valuation  the  congress  of  the  confederation 
had  established  $4  44.4  as  the  custom  house  value 
of  the  pound  sterling.  The  effect  of  the  act  of 
1792  was  really  to  reduce  the  value  of  our  dol- 
lar of  account,  but  apparently  to  increase  the 
value  of  the  pound  sterling  about  2f  per  cent. 
By  the  act  of  June  28,  1834,  the  weight  of  fine 
gold  to  the  dollar  was  reduced  from  24.75  to  23.20 
grains ;  and  3  years  later,  Jan.  18,  1837,  it  was 
fixed  at  23.22  grains,  where  it  now  remains. 
Comparing  this  latter  weight  with  the  pound 
sterling  of  113  grains,  we  find  an  apjjarent  in- 
crease in  the  value  of  £1  to  $4  86.6,  an  advance 
of  exactly  91-  per  cent,  upon  the  old  valuation 
of  $4  44.4.  We  have  here  the  explanation  of 
the  existing  practice  in  this  country  of  quoting 
sterling  exchange  at  9|  per  cent,  premium,  when 
it  is  really  at  par.  A  much  more  simple  and 
intelligible  method  would  be  to  state  in  dollars 
and  cents  the  ruling  rate  per  pound  sterling  for 
bills  on  London,  e.  g.  $4  84,  $4  87,  $4  90,  &c. 
Spanish  dollars  were  chiefly  coined  in  the  Span- 
ish American  colonies.  The  best  known  variety 
was  the  pillar  dollar,  so  called  from  the  2  pil- 
lars on  its  reverse,  representing  the  "  Pillars  of 
Hercules,"  the  ancient  name  of  the  opposite  pro- 
montories at  the  straits  of  Gibraltar.  The  rude 
imitation  of  these  pillars  in  writing,  connecting 
them  by  a  scroll,  is  said  to  have  been  the  origin 
of  the  dollar  mark  ($),  now  universally  familiar. 
A  more  plausible  explanation  is  that,  as  the  dol- 
lar consisted  of  8  reals^  8  R.  being  stamped  upon 
it,  the  mark  was  designed  to  stand  for  the  "  piece 
of  eight,"  as  the  dollar  was  commonly  called. 
The  two  vertical  lines  distinguished  it  from  the 
figure  8.  The  Spanish  American  dollars  ceased 
to  be  coined  when  tho  colonies  became  indepen- 
dent, and  since  1822  their  place  in  commerce 
has  been  supplied  by  the  dollars  of  Mexico, 
Bolivia,  and  Peru.    (For  values,  &c.,  see  Coins.) 

DOLLART  BAY,  or  The  Dollart  (Lat. 
Sums  Emdanus  or  DoUarivs),  an  arm  of  the 
German  ocean,  about  10  m.  in  length  from  N. 
to  S.,  and  7  m.  in  breadth.  It  lies  between 
Hanover  and  tho  Netherlands,  and  extends  to 
the  estuary  or  mouth  of  the  river  Ems.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  been  formed  by  a  terrible  in- 
undation in  1277,  which  destroyed  nearly  50 
villages.  The  sea  has  since  receded  in  some 
measure  from  the  Hanoverian  shore,  and  several 
thousand  acres  of  land  have  been  recovered. 

DOLLINGER,  Ignaz,  a  German  physiologist, 
born  in  Bamberg,  May  24, 1770,  died  in  Munich, 


DOLLOND 


DOLOMITE 


553 


Jan.  14,  1841.  Ho  was  professor  of  physiology 
at  Batnbei-g,  and  afterward,  when  tins  univer- 
sity was  dissolved,  at  Wurzbiirg.  In  1823  ho 
became  a  iiicinber  of  tlie  academy  and  a  professor 
of  medicine  in  Municli,  and  in  182G  professor 
of  anatomy.  Among  his  princij)al  works  is 
Grundriss  der  NcUurlehre  dcs  mcnschlichcn  Or- 
ganiamus  (Bamberg,  1805). 

DOLLOND,  -JouN,  an  English  optician,  born 
in  Spitalfields,  June  10,  1701),  died  in  London, 
Sept.  30,  1761.  He  was  descended  from  a 
French  refugee  family,  and  was  originally  a  sillc 
■weaver,  but  conceiving  a  passion  for  llie  science 
of  optica,  he  Avent  into  partnership  with  liis 
son  as  an  optical  instrument  manufacturer.  Ho 
commenced  a  series  of  experiments  on  the  dis- 
persion of  light  and  other  subjects  connected 
with  the  improvement  of  telescopes  and  micro- 
scopes, the  results  of  which  were  comnnini- 
catcd  to  the  royal  society  in  a  series  of  papers, 
which  appeared  in  its  "Transactions"  during 
the  years  1753,  1754,  and  1758.  These  papers 
were  deemed  so  important  by  the  council  of 
that  learned  body,  that  it  awarded  to  Dollond 
the  Copley  medal,  and  in  1761  sanctioned  his 
election  as  a  member  of  tlie  society.  He  was 
the  discoverer  of  the  laws  of  the  dispersion  of 
light,  and  the  inventor  of  the  achromatic  tele- 
scope.— Peter,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Spitallields  in  1730,  died  in  Kenuington  in 
1820.  Soon  after  entering  into  jiartnership 
with  his  father  he  removed  his  business  from 
Spitalfields  to  St.  Paul's  churchyard,  where  he 
met  with  great  success.  He  made  several  im- 
portant improvements  in  optical  instruments, 
and  contributed  some  valuable  papers  to  the 
"  Transactions "  of  the  royal  society,  one  of 
which  was  a  vindication  of  his  father's  claim 
to  the  discovery  of  the  true  theory  of  the  re- 
frangibility  of  light,  which  appeared  in  the 
"  Transactions  "  for  1789.  The  "  Dollond  opti- 
cal establishment"  is  still  flourishing. 

DOLOMIEU,  Deodat  Guy  Silvain  Tax- 
OEEDE  Gratet  de,  a  French  geologist,  born 
in  the  village  of  Dolomieu,  in  the  department 
of  Isere,  June  24,  1750,  died  in  Chateauneuf, 
Saone-et-Loiro,  Nov.  26,  1801.  Wliile  yet  very 
3'Oung  he  killed  in  a  duel  a  knight  of  Malta, 
of  which  order  he  was  himself  a  member.  He 
was  condemned  to  death,  but  the  sentence  was 
commuted  to  imprisonment,  and  in  his  dun- 
geon he  devoted  himself  with  ardor  to  the 
study  of  the  natural  sciences.  On  recovering 
his  liberty  he  obtained  a  commission  in  the 
army,  but  did  not  relinquish  his  scientific  in- 
vestigations, of  which  the  first  fruits  appeared 
in  1775  in  his  essay  Sur  la  2^csanteur  des  corps 
d,  differentes  distances  du  centre  de  la  terre,  and 
in  two  translations  into  Italian  on  the  sub- 
ject of  mineralogy  and  of  volcanic  .substances. 
Made  a  corresponding  member  of  the  acad- 
emy of  sciences,  he  quitted  the  military  profes- 
eion  and  devoted  the  rest  of  his  life  to  science. 
For  a  series  of  j'eai's  he  was  engaged  in  explor- 
ing Portugal,  Spain,  Italy,  and  afterward  Egypt, 
Whither  he  went  with  Napoleon's  expedition. 


After  having  completed  his  survey  of  the  valley 
of  the  Nile,  ho  was  on  the  point  of  exploring 
the  Libyan  desert  when  his  failing  health  com- 
pelled him  in  1799  to  retiu-n  to  Fraiu;e.  "While 
on  his  way  to  Marseilles,  his  ship  was  overtaken 
by  storm  and  driven  into  the  gulf  of  Taranto. 
Seized  by  the  Neapolitans,  who  at  that  time 
were  at  war  with  France,  he  was,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  former  offence  against  the  order  of 
Malta,  detained  in  prison,  while  the  other  pas- 
sengers were  after  a  short  time  restored  to 
liberty.  In  the  prison  of  iMessina  he  wrote  on 
the  margin  of  the  Bible,  with  a  bone  sharpened 
against  the  walls  for  a  pen,  and  the  black  of  his 
lamp  smoke  mixed  with  water  for  ink — the  only 
writing  materials  at  the  prisoner's  command— 
his  Traite  de x>lillosoi)liie  mineraloglque^  and  his 
Memoire  sur  Vespece  minerale.  He  recovered  his 
hberty,  March  15,  1801,  with  impaired  health ; 
and  died  soon  afterward,  Avhile  (>n  a  visit  to  his 
sister.  The  results  of  his  researches  are  embod- 
ied in  his  contributions  to  the  Journal  de  pliy- 
sique.,JournaldcV  institute  Journal  des  mines^&cc. 
More  than  50  distinct  memoirs,  many  of  which 
contain  valuable  additions  to  the  knowledge  of 
geology  and  mineralogy,  can  thus  be  traced  to 
his  pen,  beside  his  contributions  to  the  Diction- 
naire  mineralogique  and  the  Nouvelle  encyclo- 
pedie.  His  most  interesting  essays  are :  Me- 
moires  sur  le  tremllementde  la  terre  en  Calalrie; 
Voyage  anx  iles  de  Lipjuri ;  Memoires  sur  les  iles 
Ponces,  ct  Catalogue  raisonne  des  produits  de 
VEtna  ;  and  on  the  nature  of  leucite,  anthracite, 
pyroxene,  &c.  The  Journal  du  dernier  voyage 
du  citoyen  Dolomieu  dans  les  ^IZ/^t'S  was  publish- 
ed by  Brunn-Neegaard  at  Paris  in  1802. 

DOLOMITE,  a  mineral  species  named  in 
honor  of  the  French  geologist  Dolomieu.  It 
occurs  crystallized  in  rhombohedral  forms,  and 
also  as  a  rock  of  granular  and  crystalline  struc- 
ture. The  mineral  species  includes  several  vari- 
eties, as  brown  spar,  pearl  spar,  &c.  Its  hard- 
ness is  3.5-4;  specific  gravity,  2.85-2.92.  The 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  the  rock  is  consequent- 
ly about  ISO  pounds.  Dolomite  is  a  magnesian 
carbonate  of  lime,  consisting  of  one  equivalent 
of  carbonate  of  magnesia  and  one  of  carbonate 
of  lime,  or,  in  100  parts,  45. G5  of  the  former 
and  54.35  of  the  latter.  It  is  usually  white,  but 
is  also  found  of  various  colors.  The  geological 
position  of  the  rock  is  in  the  primary  and  met- 
amorphic  group.  Of  these  it  is  an  important 
member,  being  extensively  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  lime,  and  also  as  a  building  stone.  It 
is  found  abundantly  along  the  eastern  part  of 
the  middle  states,  its  range  extending  through 
the  gold  region  of  the  southern  states,  north- 
ward, passing  near  "Washington,  Baltimore, 
Philadelpliia,  thence  crossing  northern  New 
Jersey,  and  to  the  south  of  the  liighlands 
across  the  Hudson,  through  western  Massaclm- 
setts  and  "Vermont  into  Canada.  The  rock 
also  occurs  at  many  localities  to  the  eastward 
of  this  metamorpliic  range.  The  lime  made 
from  dolomite  varies  in  quality,  not  only  with 
the  purity  of  the  rock,  but  also  with  its  tex- 


554 


DOLOMITE 


DOLPHIN 


tore,  and  the  manner  of  burning  it,  No  lime 
is  more  higlily  prized  by  masons  than  that 
made  of  the  close,  compact  dolomite  called 
the  "liard  jointer"  of  Smithfield,  R.  L  It  is 
perfectly  Avhite,  is  very  strong,  taking  a  great 
deal  of  sand,  and  set^  quickly.  But  the  same 
kind  of  rock  of  other  localities,  if  burned  in 
the  common  anthracite  kiln,  finds  little  favor 
"with  masons  from  its  not  slacking  uniformly. 
Lumps  of  it  remain  without  slacking  until  after 
it  has  been  laid  upon  the  walls,  where  they  form 
blotches,  which  by  the  masons  is  called  "  pit- 
ting out."  This  is  in  great  measure  obviated  by 
a  proper  method  of  burning,  and  particularly 
by  the  use  of  wood  or  a  blazing  coal  instead  of 
anthracite.  Lime  of  very  superior  quality  has 
thus  been  made  of  the  white  crystalline  dolo- 
mite found  on  the  Hudson  at  Hastings  and 
Sing  Sing.  Its  strength  was  such  as  to  take 
about  i  more  sand  than  other  limes  in  use  of 
the  best  qualities.  For  agricultural  purposes 
magnesian  lime  is  not  in  good  repute,  though 
the  fact  of  its  inferiority-  does  not  appear  to  be 
well  established.  As  a  building  stone,  dolomite 
ranks  among  the  best,  possessing  in  a  high  de- 
gree the  properties  of  durability  and  ease  of 
working.  It  is  obtained  in  large  blocks  of  sound 
and  uniform  texture,  with  good  grain  for  split- 
ting, and  unmixed  with  foreign  matters.  But 
ditferent  layers  in  the  same  quarry  vary  greatly 
in  quality,  so  that  care  is  required  in  selecting 
them.  The  softness  of  the  stone  admits  of  its 
being  easily  sawn  into  ashlar  and  carved  into 
ornamental  mouldings.  It  forms  a  considerable 
part  of  the  white  marble  used  in  the  construction 
of  the  capitol  at  "Washington.  The  custom  house 
in  New  York  city  is  built  of  this  stone  from  the 
Tuckahoe  quarries  on  the  Harlem  railroad,  and 
the  new  custom  house  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  is 
built  of  the  same  from  the  quarries  at  Hast- 
ings on  the  Hudson.  In  England,  dolomite  has 
proved  so  durable  and  excellent  a  stone,  that  a 
variety  of  it  found  at  Bolsover  moor  was  select- 
ed by  the  commissioners  appointed  by  the  Brit- 
ish parliament  for  investigating  tlie  qualities  of 
the  various  bilikling  stones  of  the  kingdom,  and 
choosing  from  them  tlie  best  for  the  new  houses 
of  parliament.  The  choir  of  Southwell  cliul'ch, 
which  was  built  of  this  variety  of  stone  in  the 
12th  century,  was  found  by  the  commissioners 
to  be  in  so  perfect  a  state  that  "  the  mouldings 
and  carved  enrichments  were  as  sharp  as  when 
first  executed."  After  describing  other  exam- 
ples illustrating  the  durability  of  this  rock,  the 
commissioners  say :  "  We  may  here  remark,  that 
as  far  as  our  observations  extend,  in  proportion 
as  the  stone  employed  in  magnesian  limestone 
buildings  is  crystalline,  so  does  it  appear  to  have 
resisted  the  decomposing  effects  of  the  atmo- 
sphere ;  a  conclusion  in  accordance  with  the 
opinion  of  Professor  Daniell,  who  has  stated 
that,  from  the  results  of  exiieriments,  he  is  of 
opinion  that  '  the  nearer  the  magnesian  lime- 
stones approach  to  equivalent  proportions  of 
carbonate  of  lime  and  carbonate  of  magnesia, 
the  more  crystalline  and  better  they  are  in 


every  respect.' "  The  following  analyses  of  some 
of  the  best  of  the  American  dolomites  show  how 
near  they  correspond  in  composition  to  the  re- 
quisite of  Professor  Daniell : 


Marblo  of 

Analyzed  by 

Carbonate 
cf  lime. 

Carbonate  d 
magnesia. 

Hastings,  N.Y.. 
Sing  Sing,    "     .. 
Tuckahoe,  "     . . 
Eoxbury,  Vt 

J.  W.  Draper,  M.T).. 
Lewis  0.  Beck,  M.D. 

T.S.Hunt 

.52.82 
53.24 
61.T5 
63.90 

45.78 
45.89 
88.25 
44.04 

DOLPHIN  (delphinus,  Cuv.),  a  cetacean  mam- 
mal, carnivorous  in  its  habits,  and  found  in  most 
of  the  seas  of  the  world.  The  dolphins,  as  gen- 
erally restricted,  have  a  convex  forehead,  and  a 
beak  or  snout,  armed  with  teeth,  separated  from 
the  forehead  by  a  well-marked  furrow ;  they 
do  not  acquire  the  dimensions  of  the  whales, 
being  rarely  more  than  9  feet  long.  The  body 
is  fusiform  in  shape,  without  evident  neck,  and 
terminated  by  the  horizontal  tail  common  to 
all  cetaceans  ;  the  head  is  not  disproportion- 
ately large,  and  both  jaws  are  toothed ;  there 
are  2  pectoral  fins,  and  toward  the  middle 
of  the  back  there  is  a  fold  of  the  skin  which 
may  be  called  a  dorsal  fin;  the  eyes  are  small, 
with  bare  lids  ;  the  external  opening  of  the 
ear  is  small ;  the  tongue  is  thick,  soft,  and  but 
slightly  movable ;  the  skin  is  naked  and  soft, 
covered  only  by  a  thick  mucosity.  The  teeth 
are  simple,  conical,  and  numerous,  varying  in 
number  even  in  individuals  of  the  same  species. 
The  cranium  is  very  small  compared  with  the 
face,  concave,  and  much  elevated  in  front  and 
arched  behind ;  the  snout  is  narrow  and  elon- 
gated from  the  prolongation  of  the  maxillaries 
and  intermaxillaries,  which  are  not  curved  for- 
ward above;  the  upper  jaw  is  a  little  shorter 
than  the  lower;  the  maxillaries  extensively 
overlap  the  frontals ;  the  tubercles  which  rep- 
resent the  nasal  bones  are  above  the  intermax- 
illaries, resting  on  the  frontals  ;  theparietals  are 
below  the  maxillaries,  and  quite  on  the  side; 
the  symphysis  of  the  lower  jaw  is  exten.sive,  and 
the  bone  is  light  and  hollow.  The  cervical  ver- 
tebra), 7  in  number,  are  very  thin,  and  united 
together  in  the  different  genera;  the  dorsals  are 
13,  with  as  many  pairs  of  ribs,  their  articular 
processes  becoming  effaced  by  age,  commencing 
posteriorly,  and  the  transverse  being  about  as 
long  as. the  spinous  processes;  the  lumbar  ver- 
tebra) are  18,  with  very  long  transverse  and  spi- 
nous processes ;  a  sacral  vertebra  can  hardly  be 
said  to  exist,  as  the  pelvis  consists  of  a  rudi- 
mentary bone  on  each  side  suspended  in  the 
muscles ;  the  caudal  vertebrfe  are  about  28,  grad- 
ually decreasing  in  size,  the  transverse  processes 
disappearing  about  the  16th,  and  the  spinous 
about  the  20th ;  exclusive  of  the  cervicals,  there 
are  about  GO  vertebra)  in  all ;  the  V-shaped 
bones  on  the  under  surface  of  the  bodies  begin 
about  the  6th  caudal.  The  breast  bone  is  com- 
posed of  3  bones,  the  1st  very  Avide,  grooved 
in  front,  and  usually  pierced  with  a  hole;  the 
shoulder  blade  is  fan-shaped,  slightly  concave ; 
the  clavicle  is  absent ;  the  pectoral  fin  is  com- 
posed of  a  veiy  short  humerus,  with  a  large 


DOLPHUT 


555 


upper  tuberosity,  its  lower  extremity  compress- 
ed antero-postcriorly,  aud  uniting  by  a  carti- 
laginous articulation  on  an  irregular  line  with 
the  bones  of  tlie  forearm  ;  the  latter  are  almost 
rectangular,  sliort  and  Hat,  the  radius  in  front 
and  the  widest;  the  bones  of  tlie  wrist,  6  or 
7  in  number  iu  2  rows,  form  a  flat  pavement- 
like surface  united  by  cartilage  to  tlie  radius 
and  ulna ;  there  is  a  mere  vestige  of  thumb,  ac- 
cording to  Cuvier,  the  index  linger  being  the 
longest  and  having  9  articulations  with  its  met- 
acarpal bone  and  phalanges,  the  3d  with  7,  the 
4th  with  4,  and  the  5th  a  mere  tubercle.  This 
anatomical  description  will  answer  generally  for 
dolphins  and  porpoises,  and  the  allied  genera. 
Dolphins  are  among  the  swiftest  of  cetaceans, 
and  their  speed  is  owing  to  the  strokes  of  the 
powerful  tail ;  the  pectoral  fins  serve  merely  to 
balance  and  guide  the  body,  and  to  carry  the 
young.  The  eye  and  ear  are  constructed  on  the 
mammalian  type ;  the  nasal  passages  seem  des- 
tined only  for  the  expulsion  of  water  from  the 
mouth  and  for  the  introduction  of  air  into  the 
lungs,  and  are  generally  considered  as  not  en- 
dowed with  an  average  sense  of  smell ;  the  al- 
lied sense  of  taste  must  be  very  imperfect,  and 
the  sensibility  of  the  naked  skin  low.  The 
teeth  are  formed  only  for  seizing  and  retaining 
prey,  which  is  swallowed  whole.  Authors  dif- 
fer as  to  the  stomach,  some  making  it  single, 
but  most  dividing  it  into  3,  4,  or  5  compartments 
more  or  less  complicated ;  the  intestine  is  sim- 
ple, 10  or  11  times  as  long  as  the  body,  aud 
gradually  diminishing  in  size  from  the  stomach 
to  the  anus.  As  the  dolphin,  like  the  other  ce- 
tacea,  is  not  a  fish  but  an  air-breathing  mam- 
mal, warm-blooded,  viviparous,  and  suckling  its 
young,  its  respiration  must  be  carried  on  by  the 
usual  mechanism  of  lungs,  diaphragm,  rib?,  and 
respiratory  muscles.  Though  shaped  like  fishes, 
inhabiting  the  water  exclusively,  and  moving  in 
the  same  manner  with  them,  it  must  come  to  the 
surface  by  means  of  its  horizontal  tail,  and  take 
in  air  through  the  single  spiracle  on  the  top  of 
the  head,  which  it  can  do  when  the  mouth  is 
full  of  water  by  means  of  the  upward  prolon- 
gation of  the  larynx  into  the  nasal  passages,  and 
the  shutting  oft"  of  its  cavity  by  muscular  action 
from  the  mouth  and  oesophagus  ;  the  external 
opening  of  the  spiracle  is  guarded  by  a  valve, 
which  prevents  the  entrance  of  water  when  the 
animal  plunges  beneath  the  surface.  The  water 
which  is  taken  into  the  mouth  with  the  food 
can  be  made  to  pass  out  in  a  jet  from  the  spir- 
acle, by  the  closing  of  the  pharynx,  and  the 
forcing  of  the  liquid  into  the  nose  through  the 
passage  in  which  the  larynx  is  elevated  during 
respiration.  Under  the  skin,  in  front  of  the 
nostrils,  are  2  large  cavities  covered  with  mus- 
cles ;  into  these  the  water  is  sent,  and  remains 
until  the  animal  chooses  to  eject  it ;  then,  closing 
a  valve  at  their  entrance,  the  water  is  sent  forth 
by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles.  The  dol- 
phin family  make  a  feeble  moaning  or  plaintive 
noise,  which  has  often  been  noticed  when  they 
have  been  stranded  alive.     The  circulation  is 


carried  on  as  in  other  mammals ;  oniy,  m  order 
to  enable  them  better  to  remain  under  water, 
there  is  a  plexiform  aiTangement  of  the  arteries 
within  the  chest  and  near  the  spine,  which 
servo  as  reservoirs  of  pure  blood  during  immer- 
sion ;  these  do  not  communicate  directly  with 
veins,  and  their  contents  can  be  taken  into  the 
circulation  as  circumstances  require.  There- 
productive  organs  are  the  same  as  in  other 
mammals,  and  their  functions  are  similarly  per- 
formed ;  the  testes  are  within  the  abdomen ; 
the  prostate  gland  is  large,  but  the  seminal  ves- 
icles are  absent ;  the  mamma)  are  2,  with  the 
nipples  concealed  in  a  fold  of  skin,  except  dur- 
ing lactation,  when  they  protrude  on  each  side 
of  the  genital  opening.  The  kidneys  are  made 
up  of  many  small  glands  united.  The  brain  is 
very  wide,  the  hemispheres  however  covering 
only  a  portion  of  the  cerebellum  ;  the  convolu- 
tions are  numerous  and  complicated,  but  nar- 
row ;  the  olfactory  lobes  seem  to  be  wanting ; 
the  cerebellum  is  Avell  developed,  with  distinct 
median  and  lateral  lobes.  This  great  cerebral 
development  afl:brds  some  ground  for  the  an- 
cient belief  in  the  superior  intelligence  of  the 
dolphin;  the  history  of  this  animal,  sacred  to 
Apollo,  though  encumbered  with  fabulous  and 
superstitious  accounts,  doubtless  contains  much 
truth  which  whale-hunting  moderns  have  not 
cared  to  examine. — As  the  dolphin  family  till 
recently  included  all  ordinary  cetaceans  with 
small  heads,  the  divisions  which  have  since  been 
made  are  very  numerous,  and  do  system  of 
classification  as  yet  oftered  can  be  called  nat- 
ural ;  in  this  condition  of  cetology,  it  would  bo 
out  of  place  to  attempt  here  to  introduce  order 
into  this  class  of  animals ;  such  only,  therefore, 
as  would  not  come  more  properly  under  whales, 
porpoises,  and  other  popular  titles,  will  be  brief- 
ly alluded  to ;  those  who  wish  to  pursue  the 
subject  into  its  details  can  consult  the  writings 
of  Lacepede,  the  Cuviers,  De  Blainville,  Lesson, 
Eschricht,  Gray,  and  others.  At  the  head  of 
the  list  is  the  common  dolphin  (D.  deljjhis, 
Linn.) ;  this,  from  the  shape  of  the  beak,  is  vul- 
garly called  the  " goose  of  the  sea;"  it  was  the 
Jiieros  ichthys  (sacred  fish)  of  the  ancients,  the  fa- 
vorite of  Apollo  (whose  most  famous  oracle  bore 
its  name),  and  the  supposed  benefactor  of  man  ; 
it  is  seen  on  very  ancient  coins  and  medals,  and 
formed  a  conspicuous  object  on  tlie  coat  of  arras 
of  the  princes  of  France ;  from  it  was  named 
the  province  of  Dauphine,  which  gave  the  title 
to  the  heir  apparent  to  the  French  throne.  It 
attains  a  length  of  from  6  to  10  feet,  and  its 
proportions  are  admirably  adapted  for  the  speed 
which  is  its  characteristic.  The  color  is  dark  on 
the  back,  grayish  on  the  sides,  and  satiny  white 
underneath.  The  geographical  range  of  this 
species  is  extensive,  embracing  the  seas  of  Eu- 
rope, the  Mediterranean,  and  the  northern  and 
temperate  Atlantic  ;  other  species  are  found 
in  the  seas  of  America,  Asia,  and  Africa. 
Vessels  frequently  meet  them  in  large  num- 
bers, shooting  under  the  bows,  springing  out 
of  the  water,  and  playfully  racing  with  their 


556 


DOLPnnr 


fellows ;  tlieir  speed  is  such  that  the  swiftest 
sailing  vessel  seems  stationary  beside  them. 
,The  dorsal  fin  is  about  9  inches  high,  a  little 
beliind  the  middle  of  the  back ;  the  pectorals, 
about  2  feet  from  the  snout,  are  somewhat 
longer  than  the  dorsal,  narrow  and  rounded; 
the  tail  is  crescent-sliaped,  witli  a  notch  in 
the  middle,  and  about  a  foot  wide;  the  jaws 
have  from  32  to  47  teeth  on  each  side,  according 
to  age,  simple,  conical,  largest  in  the  middle  of 
the  series.  During  rapid  motion  the  tail  is  bent 
under  the  body,  and  then  suddenly  brought  into 
a  straight  hue.  The  dolphin  is  voracious,  living 
principally  upon  fish,  which  it  boldly  pursues, 
even  into  the  midst  of  the  fishermen's  nets.  F. 
Cuvier  is  inclined,  with  the  ancients,  to  con- 
sider it  an  intelligent  and  docile  auinuil ;  seeing 
in  the  fabulous  stories  of  antiquity  the  symbols 
of  hidden  truth,  he  thinks  an  examination  of 
tlie  habits  of  the  dolphin  will  disclose  to  natu- 
ralists a  foundation  in  fact  for  the  supposed  in- 
telligence of  this  species.  In  former  times  the 
flesh  of  the  dolphin  was  as  much  esteemed  for 
food  as  it  is  now  neglected ;  in  the  16th  century 
its  price  was  so  high  that  it  was  only  seen  on 
the  tables  of  the  rich  ;  in  the  time  of  Dr.  Caius, 
the  founder  of  the  college  of  that  name  at 
Cambridge,  a  dolphin  was  thought  a  worthy 
present  for  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  who  in  turn 
distributed  it  to  his  friends,  who  roasted  and 
ate  it  with  porpoise  sauce;  in  France,  the  dol- 
phin could  be  eaten  by  Roman  Catholics,  espe- 
cially during  Lent,  without  sin ;  at  that  time  all 
cetaceans  were  considered  fish,  though  really 
their  flesh  was  as  much  meat  as  that  of  the 
ox  or  sheep  ;  the  meat  is  dark-colored,  palata- 
ble and  nutritious,  and  is  now  often  eaten 
by  seafiiring  men  on  long  voyages.  The  '^D. 
*  tursio  .(Fabr.),  the  7iesarnalc  of  the  Green- 
landers,  has  a  tliick  body,  a  flattened,  short  beak, 
obtuse  teeth,  a  dorsal  fin,  and  a  blackish  color, 
except  a  small  part  of  the  abdomen,  which  is 
whitish ;  it  attains  a  size  of  9  to  15  feet,  has  from 
88  to  100  teeth,  and  inhabits  the  Atlantic  from 
the  shores  of  Europe  to  those  of  Greenland;  it  is 
less  active  than  the  common  dolphin.  Another 
name  for  it  is  the  bottle-nosed  dolphin  or  whale. 
Other  dolphins  are  the  lead-colored  dolphin  {D. 
phcmheus,  Dussumier),  about  8  feet  long,  of  a 
leaden-gray  color,  rather  sluggish  in  its  move- 
ments, with  about  130  teeth,  found  on  the  coast 
of  Malabar,  near  the  shore,  where  it  pursues  the 
pilchards;  the  bridled  dolphin  (D,  frenatus, 
Diiss.),  less  than  6  feet  long,  having  on  the  ash 
color  of  the  cheeks  a  black  band  extending  from 
the  angle  of  the  mouth  below  the  eye,  found 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Cape  Verd ;  the  eye- 
browed  dolphin  (D.  s2q}e7'ciliosus,  Lesson),  about 
4  feet  long,  of  brilliant  blackish-blue  color  above, 
silvery  below,  with  a  white  streak  over  the  eye, 
found  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cape  Horn  ;  the 
funenas  of  the  Chilians  {D.  limafus,  Less.), 
about  3  feet  long,  with  a  slender  beak,  fawn- 
colored  above,  white  below,  with  a  dark  brown 
cross  on  the  back,  in  front  of  the  dorsal  fin, 
numerous  in  Conception  bay.    Among  the  delr 


2)hinidm  which  'would  not  be  better  described 
elsewhere,  is  the  genus  deJphinapterus  of  Lac6- 
ptde,  having  no  dorsal  fin,  and  a  slender  trans- 
versely flattened  beak,  separated  from  the  cra- 
nium by  a  deep  furrow.  Puron's  dolphin  {D. 
Pcronii,  Cuv.)  is  about  6  feet  long,  elegant  in 
form  and  proportions,  of  a  deep  bluish-black 
color  above,  with  the  snout,  sides,  pectorals, 
abdomen,  and  part  of  the  tail  silvery  white ;  the 
teeth  are  about  39  on  each  side  of  each  jaw ; 
like  the  rest  of  the  genus,  it  is  found  in  high 
southern  latitudes.  The  allied  genus  leluga 
(Bon.)  has  an  obtuse,  conical,  and  rounded  head, 
without  prominent  beak,  and  without  dorsal  fin. 
The  whitefish,  or  white  whale  (J3.  horealiSy 
Less.),  is  a  very  swift  dolphin,  of  a  beautiful 
cream-white  color  and  symmetrical  shape,  not 
unlike  in  its  general  outline  the  new  steamship 
of  the  Messrs,  Winans  of  Baltimore,  that  is,  a 
double  cone,  of  which,  however,  one  end  is 
shorter  and  less  sharp  than  the  other  in  the 
cetacean ;  the  length  varies  from  12  to  20  feet ; 
the  teeth,  according  to  Cuvier,  are  f:| ;  being 
well  covered  with  fat,  it  is  sometimes  chased  by 
coast  whalers,  especially  about  the  mouths  ot 
rivers,  where  it  feeds  upon  the  cod,  haddock, 
flounder,  and  other  fish;  it  is  essentially  an 
arctic  species,  though  it  descends  to  the  tem- 
perate regions  of  both  hemispheres ;  it  has  been 
seen  in  the  river  St.  Lawrence  as  high  up  as 
Quebec.  The  genus  glohicephalus  (Less.)  in- 
cludes the  D.  glohice2)S  (Cuv.),  commonly  called 
the  deductor,  social,  bottle-head,  or  howling 
whale  ;  it  resembles  the  leluga  in  the  shape  of 
the  head,  but  differs  from  it  in  having  a  dorsal 
fin;  the  length  is  from  16  to  24  feet,  and  the 
general  color  of  a  shining  jet  black  ;  the  teeth 
are  from  20  to  28  in  each  jaw  ;  its  favorite  re- 
sort is  the  northern  temperate  ocean,  in  both 
hemispheres;  it  is  included  by  Dekay  in  the 
fauna  of  New  York  ;  it  is  remarkable  for  its 
sociable  disposition,  herding  together  in  great 
numbers,  apparently  following  a  leader,  and 
easily  driven  upon  beaches ;  the  proper  name  is 
glohice2)Tialus  mclas  (Less.) ;  some  species  of  the 
genus  have  been  found  in  the  Mediterranean. 
The  grampus  and  the  porpoise  will  be  described 
under  their  respective  titles.  The  heterodons  of 
Do  Blainville,  in  which  the  teeth  are  absent  or 
very  few,  though  belonging  to  the  deJj)hinid(ie; 
are  generally  called  whales,  and  will  be  better 
introduced  with  them ;  they  include  the  genera 
diodon  (Linn.),  or  2-toothed  whales,  hyperoodon 
(Cuv.),  with  protuberances  on  the  palate,  aodon 
(Less.),  the  toothless  whale  (by  Gray  consider- 
ed synonymous  with  the  last),  and  monodon 
(Linn.),  or  narwhal.  The  long-beaked  dolphins 
(delphinorhynelius^  Lacep.)  are  distinguished 
by  having  a  prolonged  snout,  thin  and  narrow, 
not  separated  from  the  cranium  by  a  furrow; 
the  straight  jaws  ai'o  furnished  with  numer- 
ous sharp  teeth,  and  the  dorsal  fin  is  single ; 
some  of  the  species  attain  the  length  of  36  feet: 
The  best  known  species  {D.  micropteriis^  Cuv., 
and  D.  Sowerbyi,  Desm.)  is  remarkable  for  the 
snout  being  4  times  the  length  of  the  cranium, 


DOLPnnr 


DOMAIN 


557 


and  for  tho  cnrvatnro  upward  find  forward  of 
the  posterior  part  of  the  iiitcrmaxillaries,  car- 
ryinj^  with  them  the  maxiUaries,  frontab,  and 
occipital ;  it  is  a  northern  species,  and  has  been 
found  stranded  on  the  English  and  French  coasts. 
There  are  2  remarkable  genera  of  fresh-water 
dolphins,  one  of  which,  the 'dolphin  of  tho 
Ganges  {platanista  Oangetim^  Gray.),  will  bo 
described  under  Soosoo,  the  Bengalee  name. 
The  otlicr  is  the  Bolivian  dolphin  (^inia  BoUvi- 
ensis,  D'Orb.),  found  in  the  tributaries  of  tho 
Amazon  and  the  neighboring  streams  and  lakes, 
even  to  the  foot  of  the  Andes  ;  tho  beak  is  long 
like  that  of  the  dolphin,  but  cylindrical,  bristled 
round  with  strong  hairs,  and  obtuse  at  tho  end; 
the  teeth  are  about  134,  resembling  incisors 
in  front  and  molars  behind ;  tlic  body  is  short 
and  slender,  the  pectorals  large,  tho  dorsal 
small  and  behind  tlie  middle  of  tho  back;  the 
skin  is  fine  and  smooth ;  tho  average  length  of 
tho  adult  is  about  7  feet ;  tho  color  varies  from 
a  pale  blue  to  a  blackish  color  above,  and  is 
rosy  beneath.  It  comes  frequently  to  the  sur- 
face, and  is  comparatively  slow  in  its  move- 
ments ;  its  food  consists  almost  entirely  of  fish, 
which  arc  devoured  with  the  snout  above  Avater ; 
it  is  killed  by  the  natives  for  its  oil.  This  cu- 
rious animal  seems  to  form  an  intermediate  tj'po 
between  the  carnivorous  and  the  herbivorous  or 
sirenoid  cetaceans.  The  dclj}hinid(e  are  of  little 
value  to  the  whaler,  as  they  are  difficult  to 
catch  from  their  speed  and  strength,  and  their 
covering  of  fat  is  nmch  less  than  in  the  whales. 
Near  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  on  the  coasts 
herds  of  them  are  occasionally  hunted  Avith 
profit  for  their  oil  and  their  skins,  and  in  high 
northern  regions  even  for  food.  Many  genera 
of  delphinidm  inhabited  the  seas  during  the  ter- 
tiary epoch,  some  very  like  the  present  dolphins, 
others  very  difierent  from  them.  Their  fossil  re- 
mains arc  found  abundantly  i^i  the  miocene,  plio- 
cene, and  diluvial  strata  of  America  and  Europe. 
— The  name  of  dolphin  was  long  ago  given  by 
Dutch  navigators  to  ascombcroid  fish  of  tho  genus 
cori/phm)ia  (Linn.),  inhabiting  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  seas  of  warm  and  temperate  regions. 
The  genus  has  no  detached  finlets,  no  isolated  dor- 
sal spines,  and  no  armature  on  the  tail;  the  body 
is  moderately  long,  more  or  less  compressed,  and 
covered  with  small  scales;  there  is  a  single  dorsal 
fin,  with  flexible  rays,  extending  from  the  head 
to  near  the  caudal ;  the  ventrals  are  thoracic. 
The  generic  name  is  derived  from  Kopvcprj,  sum- 
rait,  in  reference  to  the  elevated  shape  given  to 
the  forehead  by  a  bony  crest  of  the  interparietal 
and  frontal  which  rises  between  the  intermax- 
illaries  and  extends  to  the  occiput ;  this  gives  a 
trenchant  aspect  to  the  head,  with  a  very  convex 
focial  profile;  the  eyes  consequently  seem  low. 
The  mouth  is  large,  having  card-like  teeth  on 
the  jaws  and  palatal  bones.  The  dolphin  of  tho 
Mediterranean,  so  famous  for  the  beauty  of  its 
colors  wlien  dying,  is  the  C.  hqjpurus  (Linn.). 
Most  writers,  and  especially  the  poets,  have  fol- 
lowed tiie  Dutch  error  as  to  the  name  of  this 
fish,  and  the  term  dolphin  by  sailors  is  taken 


away  from  tho  cetacean  and  given  to  tho  scom- 
beroid.  This  species  grows  to  the  length  of 
about  5  feet ;  tho  colors  arc  bluish  green  above, 
with  azure  and  golden  reflections,  and  citron 
yellow  below,  witli  pale  blue  tints ;  the  pectorals 
arc  partly  leaden  and  partly  yellow,  the  ventrals 
yellow  below  and  black  above,  the  aniil  yellow, 
and  the  iris  golden.  In  the  Atlantic  is  tho  G. 
equisetk  (Linn.),  with  a  shorter  body  and  more 
elevated  head.  On  the  coast  of  South  America 
is  tho  G.  dorade  (Val.),  from  tho  name  given  to 
the  genus  by  the  rortugucse.  About  a  dozen 
other  species  are  described  in  difterent  parts  of 
tho  globe.  They  are  exceedingly  active,  strong, 
and  voracious,  pursuing  the  flying  fisli,  forcing 
them  to  leave  the  water,  and  seizing  them  as 
they  descend  into  it  again.  Their  beauty  is  not 
confined  to  the  dying  state;  when  following 
vessels,  as  they  often  do,  nothing  can  bo  more 
beautiful  in  a  calm  sunny  day,  in  the  clear  Avater 
of  mid  ocean,  than  to  see  these  brilliant  crea- 
tures darting  around  the  vessel,  displaying  their 
ever-varying  tints  of  golden,  blue,  and  green, 
with  every  movement.  They  gather  around 
any  floating  object,  and  are  readily  caught  by  a 
hook  or  harpoon ;  when  brought  upon  deck  the 
beautiful  play  of  rapidly  changing  colors  com- 
mences, which  has  caused  the  poet  to  say : 

Parting  (lay 
Dies  like  the  dolphin,  whom  each  pang  Imbues 
With  a  new  color  as  it  gasps  away, 
The  last  still  loveliest,  till  'tis  gone,  and  all  is  gray. 

These  colors  are  produced,  as  in  the  chameleon 
and  the  cuttle-fish,  by  changes  in  the  surface 
by  muscular  action,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  con- 
stant undulation  of  the  long  dorsal  fin.  (See 
Chameleon.)  The  flesh  of  this  fish  is  consid- 
ered good  food ;  it  is  white,  though  rather  dry. 
Sailors  have  an  idea,  which  is  probably  true,  that 
it  is  sometimes  unwliolesome  and  even  poison- 
ous, and  they  are  in  the  habit  of  boiling  a  piece 
of  silver  money  with  the  fish'  to  detect  the  fact ; 
if  the  piece  be  tarnished  by  tho  boiling,  the  fish 
is  rejected ;  if  it  remain  bright,  it  is  considered 
fit  for  the  table. 

DOMAIN,  or  Demesne  (mediaeval  Lat.  cZo- 
manium,  the  dominion  of  the  lord),  in  England, 
lands  retained  by  the  great  landed  proprietors  for 
their  own  use;  the  tci'rcs  dominicales  or  demesne 
lands  being  occupied  by  the  lord  or  domimis 
manor il ;  the  other  or  tenemental  lands  being 
distributed  among  the  tenants.  The  demesne 
lands  of  the  king,  terrce.  dominicales  regis,  Avhich 
were  at  an  early  i)eriod  very  large,  and  to  which 
additions  Avere  made  by  forfeitures  and  other- 
wise, had  been,  at  the  time  Avhen  Blackstone 
Avrote,  almost  entirely  alienated ;  but  as  a  portion 
of  them  were  not  conveyed  absolutely  in  fee, 
but  upon  long  leases,  they  will  revert  to  the 
crown  upon  the  expiration  of  those  leases.  The 
principal  importance  of  the  royal  demesne  lands 
grows  out  of  certain  incidents  that  at  an  early 
period  attached  to  the  estate  of  the  tenants  of 
those  lands.  The  tenure  by  which  such  estates 
Avere  held  is  designated  by  old  Avriters  as  ancient 
demesne;  and  to  some  extent  it  stiU  continues  to 


558 


DOMAIN 


DOME 


exist.  Strictl}^  lands  so  held  were  copyhold,  and 
as  such  were  excepted  by  the  statute  12  Charles 
II.  c.  24,  by  which  military  tenures  were  abolish- 
ed. One  incident,  showing  that  the  tenure  was 
originally  a  species  of  villenage,  is  that  the  lands 
do  not  pass  by  the  common  conveyances,  but  by 
surrender  to  .the  lord  in  the  manner  of  copy- 
hold estates,  for  certain  uses  mentioned  in  the 
surrender,  and  a  new  grant  by  the  lord  in  pur- 
suance thereof  to  the  cestuy  que  use. — The  pub- 
lic domain  of  the  United  States  is  almost  be- 
yond calculation.  According  to  the  report  of 
the  secretary  of  the  interior,  made  in  Dec.  1858, 
there  were  on  Sept.  30,  1858,  on  sale  at  the 
different  land  offices  ov^er  80,000,000  acres 
of  land,  and  an  additional  amount  of  nearly 
62,000,000  acres  had  been  surveyed,  and  was 
ready  to  be  brought  into  market.  Prior  to  the 
same  period  more  than  55,000,000  acres  Jiad 
been  selected  and  reported  as  inuring  to  the 
several  states  under  acts  of  congress  of  1849 
and  1850,  granting  to  such  states  the  swamp  and 
overflowed  lands  within  their  respective  limits, 
to  enable  said  states  to  reclaim  them  for  cultiva- 
tion.— In  France,  the  term  domain  is  applied  to 
all  public  property,  whether  personal  or  real, 
which  is  classified  as  follows :  1,  domaine  de 
rStat,  which  includes  highways,  harbors,  fortifi- 
cations, forfeited  estates,  &c. ;  2,  doviaine  or  do- 
tation de  la  couronne,  to  which  belong  palaces, 
gardens,  forests,  farms,  crown  jewels,  and  the 
like;  these  constitute  the  separate  property 
of  the  crown,  but  are  inalienable ;  3,  domaine 
wive,  the  private  estate  of  the  sovereign,  which 
lie  holds  and  can  dispose  of  the  same  as  any 
subject,  by  will  or  otherwise ;  but  if  not  dis- 
posed of  at  his  death,  it  is  merged  in  the  do- 
main of  the  crown  and  passes  to  his  successor. 

DOMAT,  or  Daumat,  Jean,  a  French  ju- 
rist, born  in  Clermont-Ferrand,  Nov.  30,  1625, 
died  in  Paris,  March  14,  1696.  For  30  years 
he  was  king's  advocate  at  Clermont.  His  great 
work  was  published  in  1694,  under  the  title  of 
Lois  civiles  dans  leur  ordre  7iaturel  (English 
translation  by  W.  Strahan,  2  vols.  foL,  London, 
1737;  edited  by  L.  S.  Cushing,  2  vols.  8vo.,  Bos- 
ton, 1 850).  Domat  is  called  by  Victor  Cousin ' '  in- 
comparably the  greatest  jurisconsult  of  thel7th 
century,"  and  by  Boileau  "  the  restorer  of  rea- 
son to  jurisprudence."  The  intimate  friend  of 
Pascal,  and  his  associate  in  many  of  his  experi- 
ments in  natural  philosophy,  he  was  distinguish- 
ed for  his  taste  for  mathematics  and  philosophi- 
cal pursuits  as  well  as  for  his  legal  attainments. 

DOMBROWSKI,  Jan  Henryk,  a  Polish  gen- 
eral, born  in  Pierszowice,  Aug.  29,  1755,  died 
in  Winagora,  June  26,  1818.  He  entered  the 
arniy  under  Prince  Albert  of  Saxony  in  1770, 
afterward  joined  the  Polish  forces  commanded 
by  Prince  Joseph  Poniatowski  in  the  campaign 
against  the  Prussians  in  1792,  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  1793,  took  part  in  the  insurrection 
of  1794  under  Kosciuszko,  but  w^as  compelled 
tosurrender  after  the  fall  of  AVarsaw.  Having 
rejected  flattering  offers  from  both  Russia  and 
Prussia,  he  accepted  a  commission  from  the 


French  directory  la  1796  to  enroll  a  Polish  le- 
gion at  Milan,  and  after  serving  Avith  honor  in. 
tlie  Italian  campaigns  under  Napuleun,  Gouvion 
Saint  Cyr,  and  Massena,  entered  the  service  of 
the  Cisalpine  republic  in  1802.  In  1806  he 
joined  Napoleon  at  Berlin,  published  a  famous 
proclamation  calling  upon  the  Polos  to  rise,  and 
soon  entered  Warsaw  in  triumph  at  the  head  of 
two  national  divisions.  In  the  battle  of  Fried- 
land,  to  the  favorable  issue  of  which  he  greatly 
contributed,  he  was  wounded ;  in  1809  he  fought 
with  Poniatowski  against  the  Austrians  ;  in  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812  he  commanded  a  di- 
vision of  the  grand  army ;  in  1813  his  Poles 
fought  bravely  in  Germany,  particularly  at  Leip- 
sic ;  and  on  the  creation  of  the  kingdom  of  Po- 
land he  was  raised  by  the  czar  Alexander  to  the 
rank  of  general  of  cavalry  and  senator  palatine. 
He  left  his  memoirs  to  the  society  of  the  friends 
of  science  at  Warsaw.  His  name  is  inscribed 
on  the  arc  de  Vetoile  at  Paris. — His  son,  Beo- 
,  NisLAw,  took  part  in  the  Polish  insurrection  of 
1848  in  the  duchy  of  Posen. 

DOME  (Gr,  ho^o^,  Sw/na,  building;  Lat.  domtis, 
a  house ;  mediaaval  Lat.  doma,  a  cupola),  a  con- 
cave covering  to  a  building  or  part  of  a  build- 
ing. The  Italians  apply  the  term  il  duomo  to 
the  principal  church  of  a  city,  and  the  Ger- 
mans call  every  cathedral  church  Dom;  and 
it  is  supposed  that  the  word  in  its  present 
English  sense  has  crept  into  use  from  the 
circumstance  of  such  buildings  being  frequent- 
ly surmounted  by  a  cupola.  Some  writers  on 
architecture  restrict  the  term  dome  to  the  con- 
vex surface  of  the  roof,  and  cupola  (It.  cnpo, 
deep)  to  its  concave  part.  The  dome  may 
be  a  segment  of  a  sphere,  spheroid,  ellipse, 
polygon,  or  any  similar  figure,  but  in  all  cases 
every  horizontal  section  should  have  a  common 
vertical  axis ;  it  is  called  surmounted  when  it 
rises  higher  than  the  radius  of  its  base,  sur- 
based  or  diminished  when  its  height  is  less  than 
the  radius  of  its  base.  The  thickness  should 
increase  toward  the  base,  where  the  structure  is 
weakest,  and  where  the  spreading  force  of  the 
superincumbent  weight  tends  to  burst  the  dome 
outwardly.  To  counteract  this  pressure,  iron 
hoops  or  chains  are  often  employed.  When 
built  of  stone  the  dome  is  stronger  than  the 
arch,  as  the  tendency  of  each  of  its  parts  to  fall 
inward  is  resisted  not  only  by  the  parts  above 
and  below  it,  but  also  by  those  on  each  side. 
The  constituent  pieces  are  formed  somewhat 
like  the  frustum  of  a  pyramid,  so  that  when 
placed  in  their  positions  their  4  angles  may  point 
toward  the  axis  of  the  dome.  Each  course  is 
thus  self-supporting,  and  not  only  may  the 
whole  be  constructed  without  centring,  but  an 
aperture,  called  the  eye,  is  frequently  left  in  the 
top  without  damage  to  the  security  of  the  struc- 
ture.— The  dome  seems  to  have  been  invented 
by  the  Romans  or  Etruscans,  and  in  the  time 
of  Augustus  was  a  common  feature  in  Roman 
architecture.  There  is  no  proof  that  the  Greeks 
or  Egyptians  had  any  knowledge  of  it,  nor  is  it 
found  in  any  of  the  early  monuments  of  Hin- 


DOME 


559 


dostan,  but  after  the  Moliainmedan  invasion  of 
India  it  was  generally  adopted  in  that  country. 
The  grandest  dome  that  lias  remained  to  us  from 
anti([uity  is  that  of  the  Pantheon  at  Home, 
■\vliicli,  though  nearly  19  centuries  have  passed 
over  it,  retains  all  its  stability  and  magnificenco 
of  proportions.  Its  exterior  presents  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  truncated  segment  of  a  sphere, 
considerably  less  than  a  hemisphere,  and  has 
a  circular  opening  in  the  top  28  ft.  6  in.  iu 
diameter.  The  base  consists  of  a  large  plinth, 
with  6  smaller  ones  above  it.  It  ajjpears  that 
originally  there  were  flights  of  steps  at  inter- 
vals all  around  the  dome  leading  up  to  the  eye, 
but  only  one  such  means  of  ascent  is  now  visi- 
ble, the  others  having  been  covered  with  lead. 
The  interior  is  a  hemisphere  of  about  Yl^  ft. 
radius,  and  the  distance  from  the  floor  to  the 
top  of  .the  dome  is  equal  to  the  diameter.  The 
>  thickness  is  17  ft.  at  the  base,  5  ft.  1|^  in.  at  the 
top  of  the  highest  plinth,  and  4  ft.  7  in.  at 
the  eye.  The  ceiling  is  ornamented  with  5 
rows  of  quadrilateral  compartments  converg- 
ing toward  the  top,  each  large  compartment 
having  4  smaller  ones  sunk  one  within  an- 
other, which  were  probably  once  ornamented 
with  plates  of  silver  or  covered  with  bronze. 
The  dome  is  built  of  brick  and  rubble,  and  rests 
on  a  circular  wall  20  ft.  thick.  The  baths  of  an- 
cient Eomc  afford  many  examples  of  this  kind 
of  roof:  those  of  Diocletian  had  3  domes,  2  of 
■which  remain  ;  and  those  of  Titus  are  crowned 
by  2,  each  84  ft.  in  diameter.  Near  Pozzuoli 
may  be  seen  an  ancient  circular  building  with  a 
dome  of  volcanic  tufa  and  pumice  stone,  and  the 
temple  of  Minerva  Medica  had  a  polygonal  dome 
of  10  sides,  constructed  of  pumice  stone  and  brick. 
That  of  the  famous  church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Con- 
stantinople was  built  in  the  reign  of  Justinian, 
with  the  professed  design  of  rivalling  the  glory 
of  the  Pantheon.  The  plan  of  the  church  was 
a  cross,  and  at  the  angles  of  the  square  where 
the  transepts  cut  the  nave,  the  architect  placed 
4  columns  at  a  distance  of  about  115  ft.  apart, 
and  over  them  threw  arches.  The  triangular 
spaces  at  the  corners  were  then  filled  up  to  a 
level  with  the  extradoses  of  the  arches,  and  on 
the  ring  thus  formed  the  dome  was  built.  In 
ignorance  of  the  principle  of  hooping,  the  build- 
er resorted  to  various  expedients  to  resist  the 
lateral  pressure  of  the  superstructure,  and  after 
it  had  twice  fallen  in,  was  obliged  to  fill  up  the 
large  arcades  on  the  N.  and  S.  sides  with  8  tiers 
of  small  arches.  This  dome  was  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake  a  few  years  after  its  completion. 
The  present  one  is  of  nearly  the  same  diameter 
(115  ft.),  40  ft.  high,  supported  by  corbellings 
at  the  angles  of  the  square,  and  encircled  by  a 
row  of  windows  with  exterior  columns.  It  is 
surmounted  bj'-  a  lantern.  The  church  of  St. 
Mark  at  Venice,  built  about  973,  has  5  domes ; 
the  central  one,  which  is  much  larger  than  the 
others,  was  hooped  with  iron  in  1523.  The  dome 
of  San  Vitale  at  Ravenna  consists  of  a  hemi- 
Bphere  resting  on  an  octagon  with  8  piers  at  its 
angles,  and  a  window  on  each  face.     The  great 


dome  of  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  the 
cathedral  of  Florence,  was  begun  by  Arnolfo  di 
Lapo  6v  Arnolfo  di  Cambio  daCalle  about  1298, 
but  after  the  death  of  the  original  architect 
about  1300  no  one  could  be  found  for  120  years 
to  finish  his  work  ;  it  was  finally  undertaken 
by  Filippo  Brunelleschi,  who  brought  it  nearly 
to  completion,  lie  improved  somewhat  upon 
the  original  design  by  carrying  up  i)er[)endicu- 
lar  walls  in  the  shape  of  an  octagon  to  a  lieight 
of  175  ft.,  and  uiion  these  jilaciiig  2  concentric 
domes,  the  internal  one  being  138  ft.  6  in. 
in  diameter  and  133  ft.  6  in.  high,  from  the  top 
of  the  internal  cornice  of  the  supporting  walls 
to  the  eye  of  the  lantern.  This  is  the  first 
double  dome  with  which  we  are  acquainted. 
That  of  St.  Peter's  at  Pome,  the  grandest  in  the 
world  after  that  of  the  Pantheon,  is  also  double. 
It  stands  upon  4  piers,  each  Gl  ft.  11  in.  high  and 
30  ft.  10  in.  thick,  from  Avhich  spring  arches 
supporting  corbellings  finished  by  an  entabla- 
ture. The  entablature  upholds  a  plinth,  circular 
within  and  octagonal  without,  and  on  the  latter 
rests  a  circular  stylobate  28  ft.  C^in.  thick  and 
12  ft.  4iin.  high,  divided  into  3  parts  by  pas- 
sages, forming  flights  of  steps  communicating 
with  4  spiral  staircases  in  the  thickness  of  the 
wall  of  the  drum,  which  rises  immediately  from 
the  stylobate.  The  drum  is  pierced  with  16 
Avindows,  between  which  are  a  corresponding 
number  of  solid  buttresses  51  ft.  6  in.  liigh. 
Above  it  is  placed  a  circular  attic  19  ft.  2^  in. 
in  height,  and  on  this  rests  the  greats,  double 
dome,  the  internal  diameter  of  which  at  the 
base  is  138  ft.  5  in.  and  the  external  148  ft.  To 
the  height  of  27  ft.  8  in.  the  dome  is  solid.  Its 
curve  describes  externally  the  arc  of  a  circle 
whose  radius  is  a  little  over  84  ft.,  and  its  height 
from  the  attic  to  the  top  of  the  internal  dome 
is  83  ft.  10  in.  It  is  pierced  outwardly  by  3  rows 
of  small  windows  and  strengthened  by  10  pro- 
jecting vertical  bands.  The  whole  is  crowned 
by  a  lantern  resting  on  a  platform  surrounded 
by  an  iron  railing  and  having  a  cross  on  the  top, 
the  height  fi'om  the  external  plinth  of  the  dome 
to  the  cross  being  203  ft.  The  top  of  the  cross 
is  430  ft.  above  the  ground  line.  This  great 
work  was  planned  by  Michel  Angelo,  who  died 
before  its  completion,  and  was  finished  under  the 
pontificate  of  Sixtus  V.,  who  caused  the  exterior 
to  be  covered  with  lead,  and  the  bands  with 
bronze  gilt.  Owing  to  the  haste  with  which  the 
work  was  pushed  forward  the  domes  settled  ver- 
tically in  many  places,  and  the  band  of  iron  around 
the  inner  dome  was  broken.  Six  iron  circles  were 
consequently  placed  around  the  outer  dome,  se- 
cured in  their  places  by  iron  wedges,  and  the 
fi'actured  hoop  w^as  repaired.  The  dome  of  St. 
Paul's,  London,  built  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren, 
is  double,  and  rests  on  an  attic  and  a  drum  placed 
on  4  great  arches  over  the  intersection  of  the  4 
naves.  The  external  dome  is  of  wood,  covered 
with  lead,  and  ornamented  with  panels  formed 
by  projecting  ribs.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  lan- 
tern supported  on  a  conical  tower  terminated 
by  a  spherical  dome.    The  height  of  the  tower 


560 


DOMENICIIINO 


DOMESDAY  BOOK 


is  8G  ft.  9  in.,  and  that  of  the  whole  structure 
from  the  ground  line  is  305  ft.  The  diameter  of 
the  dome  is  145  ft.,  and  its  internal  height  from 
the  springing  51  ft.  Tlie  dome  of  the  Pantheon 
(or  St.  Genevieve's)  at  Paris  is  entirely  of  stone, 
and  is  supported  by  4  triangular  piers  rising  from 
the  centre  of  a  Greek  cross.  It  is  triple,  liaviug 
beside  the  inner  and  outer  vaults  an  interme- 
iate  structure  built  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
the  lantern.  The  internal  dome  is  G6  ft,'  8h  in.  in 
diameter  at  the  springing ;  the  external  77  ft.  8} 
in.  The  height  of  the  edifice  above  the  ground 
line  is  190  feet.  The  new  reading  room  of  the 
British  museum,  opened  in  May,  1857,  is  covered 
by  a  magnificent  dome  140  ft.  in  diameter  and 
106  ft.  high.  It  is  built  principally  of  iron,  Avith 
brick  arches  between  the  main  ribs  supported 
by  20  iron  piers.  Between  the  vaulting  and  the 
exterior  covering  of  copper  a  space  is  left  for 
the  equalization  of  the  temperature,  and  between 
the  vaulting  and  the  inner  decorated  ceiling  there 
is  a  similar  air  chamber  for  purposes  of  ventila- 
tion. There  are  20  large  windows  around  the 
base  of  the  dome,  and  an  eye  in  the  top  40  ft.  iu 
diameter.  The  new  cast-iron  dome  of  the  capi- 
tol  at  "Washington  has  a  height  of  about  55  ft., 
and  an  internal  diameter  of  94  ft.  9  in.  The 
height  of  its  ceiling  from  the  floor  of  the  build- 
ing is  200  ft.  The  exterior  of  the  structure 
presents  a  peristyle  124  ft.  9i-  in.  in  diameter, 
with  columns  27  ft.  high,  from  which  springs 
an  attic  44  ft.  high,  supporting  the  great  dome 
of  a  semi-ellipsoidal  form,  the  top  of  which  is 
230  ft.  above  the  pavement.  Above  this  rises 
a  lantern,  52  ft.  high  and  17  ft.  in  diameter, 
crowned  with  a  bronze  statue  of  Freedom  18  ft. 
high.  In  the  interior  there  is  a  vertical  wall 
raised  upon  the  cornice  of  the  rotunda,  with  a 
panel  9  ft.  high  richly  sculptured ;  above  this 
is  a  series  of  attached  columns  and  large  win- 
dows, and  above  these  springs  a  dome  which, 
contracting  to  a  diameter  of  65  ft.,  permits  a 
second  dome,  73  ft.  in  diameter,  resting  also  on 
a  colonnade,  to  be  seen  through  the  opening. — 
Domes  are  sometimes  made  convex  below  and 
concave  above,  in  which  form  they  take  the 
name  of  Moresque,  Turkish,  or  Hindoo.  In 
Russia  they  are  very  frequently  built  of  a  bul- 
bous shape,  somewhat  like  an  onion.  The 
Isaac's  church  at  St.  Petersburg,  built  by  the 
czar  Nicholas,  is  surmounted  by  an  iron  dome 
covered  with  gilded  copper,  with  a  small  ro- 
tunda rising  from  its  centre. 

DOMENICIIINO,  or  DoME^^co,  Zampieri, 
an  artist  of  the  Bolognese  school,  born  in  Bo- 
logna in  1581,  died  in  Naples,  April  15,  1641. 
His  first  master  was  Dionysius  Oalvart,  from 
whose  tyranny  he  took  refuge  in  the  school  of  the 
Carracci,  of  which,  in  spite  of  a  natural  timidity 
and  a  slowness  which  Jiis  fellow  pupils  attrib- 
uted to  stupidity,  he  was  eventually  considered 
the  most  distinguished  pupil.  Nicolas  Poussin 
even  ranks  him  next  to  Raphael.  He  lived 
apart  from  men,  and  rarely  went  abroad  save  to 
make  studies  for  future  use.  After  studying  the 
Works  of  Correggio  at  Parma,  he  joined  his  mas- 


ter, Annibale  Carracci,  at  Rome,  and  assisted  him 
in  decorating  tlie  Farnese  palace.  He  soon  after 
received  commissions  from  Cardinals  Borghese, 
Farnese,  Aldobrandi,  and  others,  for  whom 
he  painted  works  which  increased  his  reputa- 
tion, but  unfortunately  raised  about  him  a  host 
of  enemies  whose  bitter  persecutions  rendered 
his  life  miserable.  His  celebrated  picture  of 
the  "  Communion  of  St.  Jerome,"  now  in  the 
Vatican,  which  has  been  called  second  only  to 
Raphael's  "  Transfiguration,"  was  discovered  to 
bear  a  slight  resemblance  to  a  composition  on  the 
same  subject  by  Agostino  Carracci,  and  Lan- 
franco,  a  former  fellow  pupil,  took  advantage 
of  the  fact  to  decry  the  picture  and  the  artist. 
Domenichino  was  finally  compelled  by  the 
jealousy  of  his  rivals  to  retire  to  Bologna, 
whence  he  was  recalled  by  Gregory  XV.  in  a 
few  years  to  become  principal  painter  and  archi- 
tect in  the  pontifical  palace.  He  here  renewed 
his  triumphs,  and  at  Naples,  whither  he  was  in- 
vited to  paint  the  chapel  of  St.  Januarius,  in- 
creased his  reputation.  His  enemies,  however, 
left  him  no  peace,  and  he  died  before  the  com- 
pletion of  his  work,  not  without  suspicion  of 
poison.  Among  his  chief  works  are  the  "  Four 
Evangelists,"  in  S.  Andrea  della  Valle  at  Rome ; 
"Adam  and  Eve,"  the  "Martyrdom  of  St. 
Agnes,"  and  "  Diana  and  her  Nymphs."  His 
fresco  paintings,  of  which  the  scenes  from  the 
life  of  the  Virgin  in  the  Duomo  at  Fano  are  the 
best  specimens,  are  admirable.  His  landscapes, 
although  of  rather  a  decorative  character,  are 
uniformly  good.  He  never  wholly  freed  himself 
from  the  mannerism  of  his  school,  and  was  de- 
fective in  invention ;  but  in  artlessness,  in  the 
free  conception  of  nature,  and  in  the  expression 
of  emotion,  he  approached  nearer  Raphael  and 
his  contemporaries  than  any  of  the  eclectics. 
Many  of  his  works  have  been  engraved  by 
Raphael  Morghen  and  others. 

DOMESDAY  (or  Doomsday)  BOOK,  or  Book 
OF  AY  iNCHESTER,  a  register  of  the  lands  of  England, 
framed  by  order  of  William  the  Conqueror.  Ac- 
cording to  some  historians  it  was  begun  in  1080 
or  1083,  according  to  others  at  the  close  of  1085 ; 
the  book  itself  records  its  completion  in  1086. 
Persons  called  the  king's  justiciaries  visited  in 
person  or  by  deputy  the  greater  part  of  the 
kingdom,  and  obtained  the  required  particulars 
on  oath  from  the  sherifis,  lords  of  manor,  parish 
priests,  reeves  of  hundreds,  bailiffs,  and  villeins 
of  each  vill.  The  record  contained  a  list  of  the 
bishops,  churches,  religious  houses,  great  men, 
king's  manors,  king's  tenants  in  cajyitc,  and  under 
tenants ;  the  partictdars  of  the  name  of  each 
place,  its  holder,  its  extent,  the  extent  of  wood, 
meadow,  and  pasture,  the  ponds  and  mills,  the 
quantity  of  live  stock,  the  value  of  the  whole, 
the  homages  of  each  manor,  the  number  of  vil- 
leins, cotarii^  servi,  and  freemen,  and  how  much 
each  freeman  or  soc-man  had.  Three  estimates 
of  the  estates  were  made,  viz. :  as  they  were  in 
the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor;  as  they 
Avere  bestowed  by  William ;  and  as  they  Avere  at 
the  time  of  the  survey.   The  jurors  Avere,  more- 


DOMICILE     ■ 


561 


over,  required  to  state  Tvhether  any  advance 
could  bo  made  in  the  value.     The  returns  of  the 
justiciaries  were  sent  to  "Winchester,  and  being 
there  digested  were  entered  in  2  volumes,  whicli 
were  carried  about  with  the  king  and   great 
seal,  or  deposited  in  a  chapel  or  vault  of  the 
cathedral  called  Doimis  Dei.     From  the  last 
circumstance  the  name  Domesday  is  thought 
by  some  to  bo  derived.     Others  ascribe  it  to  a 
parallel  drawn  between  the  decisions  of  the 
book  and  tlioso  of  the  day  of  doom.     The  first 
volume,  called  the  "  Great  Domesday,"  consists 
of  382  folio  pages  closely  written  on  vellum, 
and  contains  the  survey  of  31  counties  ;  the  sec- 
ond, or  "Little  Domesday,"  is  in  quarto,  of 
450  pages,  and  comprises  the  returns  from  Essex, 
Norfolk,  and  Suffolk.     It  has  also  a  list  of  "  in- 
vasions," or  lands  possessed  without  royal  au- 
thority.     Neither   Northumberland,    Cumber- 
land, Westmoreland,  nor  Durham  appears  in 
the  record,  for  which  various  reasons  are  as- 
signed.    Other   counties  are   described,  either 
wholly  or  in  part,  under  adjacent  divisions.  No 
account  is  given  of  Winchester  or  of  London. 
As  a  census  of  the  population  the  Domesday 
book  is  of  no  value,  but  with  regard  to  the  an- 
cient tenure  of  lands  its  authority  is  supreme. 
It  names  only  1,400  tenants  in  capite  and  8,000 
under  tenants,  and  mentions  a  total  population 
of  282,242.     The  book  is  now  preserved  in  the 
chapter   house  at   Westminster.      A  facsimile 
of  it  was  published  by  order  of  government  in 
1783,  having  been  10  years  in  passing  through 
the  press,  and  in  1816  the  commissioners  on 
public  records  published  2   supplementary  vol- 
umes, one  containing  a  general  introduction  to 
the  survey  with  indexes,  and  the  other  the  4 
similar  records  called  the  "  Exon  Domesday," 
the  Inqxnsitio  BUcnsis,  the  Liber   Winton,  and 
the  "  Boldon  Book,"  or  survey  of  Durham.  The 
last  of  these  was  made  by  Bishop  Hugh  Pudsey 
in  1183  ;  the  Inquisitio  'Eliensis  is  of  the  13th 
century ;  the  others  are  contemporary  with  the 
Domesday  book.     In  the  exchequer  office  there 
are  2  other  large  volumes  under  the  latter  title, 
■which  are  merely  abridgments  of  the  original 
register.     Many  interesting  particulars  relating 
to  the  survey  are  found  in  Kelham's  "  Domes- 
day Book  illustrated" (8vo.,  London,  1788) ;  and 
a  work  on  the  same  subject  has  lately  been  pub- 
lished by  Mr.  James  F.  Morgan  (''  England  un- 
der the  Norman  Occupation,"     London   and 
Edinburgh,  1858). 

DOMICILE,  the  place  where  a  man  is  deemed 
by  law  to  reside,  which  is  not  always  the  place 
of  his  actual  residence.  There  has  been  much 
confusion  and  even  conflict  of  judicial  opinion  as 
to  what  constitutes  a  domicile.  The  difficulty  has 
arisen  from  the  application  of  the  terra  in  various 
relations  involving  diverse  considerations  of  pub- 
lic policy.  Instead,  therefore,  of  attempting  to 
institute  a  general  rule  which  shall  comprehend 
all  the  ditierent  senses  in  which  the  term  is  used, 
which  is  clearly  impracticable,  we  shall  limit  our- 
selves to  an  exposition  of  the  principles  by  which 
the  question  is  determined  in  ditTereni  cases. 
VOL.  VI. — 36 


1.  It  is  recognized  as  ft  general  nde  that  a  person 
wlio  is  residing  in  a  foreign  country  for  com- 
mercial purposes  will  be  deemed  a  subject  of 
that  country  in  resj)ect  to  all  the  incidents  of 
that  relation,  as  regulated  by  the  laws  of  nations, 
in  time  of  war,  Aviiether  the  country  of  his  resi- 
dence bo  belligerent  or  neutral.     Thus,  if  he  re- 
side in  a  country  which  is  at  war  with  another, 
Ills  property  will  be  hiwful  prize  as  belonging  to 
a  belligerent ;  or  if  the  country  be  neutral,  he  is 
entitled  to  the  privileges  of  a  neutral  in  respect 
to  honajidc  trade.  Tl  le  residence  which  gives  this 
neutral  right  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  a  domi- 
cile, but  it  is  obvious  tliat  tlie  term  as  thus  used 
has  no  other  meaning  than  actual  residence  and 
engagement  in  business,  which  it  will  be  seen 
will  not  per  se  constitute  a  domicile  in  respect  to 
other  legal  incidents.   A  single  exception  is  made 
in  the  case  of  a  person  who  leaves  his  own  coun- 
try j^«(7r««fe  leUo^  it  being  thought  inconsistent 
with  his  natural  allegiance  that  he  should  be 
permitted  to  enter  into  neutral  relations  Avith 
the  enemy  after  war  had  actually  commenced. 
Upon  tlie  same  principle  greater  strictness  would 
probably  be  insisted  upon  in  regard  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  residence  when  the  question  was  be- 
tween the  emigrant  and  his  native  country,  even 
if  he  went  abroad  before  the  breaking  out  of  hos- 
tilities ;  yet  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  it  could  even 
in  that  case  be  required  tliat  a  domicile  should 
have  been  acquired  other  than  results  from  actual 
residence  abroad  for  Z)(?«rt^(?e  business  pmrposes. 
2.  In  the  class  of  cases  where  the  question  is  as 
to  the  civil  rights  of  a  foreign  resident,  or  the 
legal  rule  applicable  to  his  property,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  ascertain  with  certainty  the  domi- 
cile.    Thus,  in  case  of  intestacy,  the  distribution 
of  his  property  will  not  be  according  to  the  laws 
of  the  place  where  he  may  be  temporarily  abid- 
ing, but  will  be  determined  by  the  law  of  the 
place  of  his  domicile ;  and  the  best  test  where 
that  is  to  be  found  is  by  assuming  it  to  be  where 
it  is  shown  to  have  been  at  any  former  period 
i;ntil  a  new  domicile  is  proved  to  have  been  sub- 
stituted.    The  cases  are  often  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult of  distinction,  and  it  is  more  usually  a 
question  of  fact  than  of  legal  construction.   The 
intention  is  what  must  determine,  but  this  is 
for  the  most  part  to  be  got  at  only  by  incidental 
circumstances,  and  the  reported  cases  have  been 
decided,  each  upon  their  own  circumstances, 
without  furnishing  any  positive  test  of  general 
application.     The  rule  of  the  civil  law  that  a 
man  may  have  two  domiciles,  as  where  he  re- 
sides a  part  of  the  year  in  one  place  and  a  part 
in  another,  or  where  he  is  carrying  on  business 
in  two  places,  is  repudiated  in  England  and  in 
the  United  States,  though  it  was  said  by  Lord 
Lougbl)orough  in  the  case  of  Bempde  rs.  John- 
stone (3  A'esey,  198),  that  if  the  question  were 
an  open  one,  it  admitted  of  a  good  deal  of  argu- 
ment, whether  in  case  of  a  person  dying  intes- 
tate and  leaving  property  in  two  different  places, 
it  would  not  have  been  the  better  rule  that  the 
law  of  each  place  should  control  in  the  distri- 
bution of  the  property  situated  there.    Nor  is 


562 


DOMINANT 


DOMINIC  DE  GUZMAN 


the  definition  of  domicilo  in  tlio  civil  law  of 
much  practical  use  in  the  present  changed  re- 
lations of  business  and  habits  of  life,  although 
Btill  retained  by  continental  European  jurists, 
and  often  quoted  in  English  and  A  merican  cases : 
Uhi  quis  larem  rcrumque  ae  fortunarum  su- 
arum  summam  coiistituit,  uncle  non  est  disccs- 
surus  si  nihil  avocet^  unde  cum  profecttis  est 
peregrinari  vidctui\  quo  si  rediit  ^>e?Yv7?'J?irtri 
jam  dcstitit.  (Cod.  10,  39,  1 ;  Dig.  50,  1,  27.) 
It  should  be  remarked  that  the  law  of  the  domi- 
cile is  to  be  understood  as  affecting  only  personal 
property  ;  real  estate  is  subject  to  the  law  of  the 
place  where  it  is  situated.  So  also  the  law  of 
the  domicile  applies  to  the  disposition  of  prop- 
erty by  testament  or  otherwise,  as  well  as  to 
distribution  upon  intestacy.  If  a  testament  is 
executed  according  to  the  law  of  the  place 
where  a  man  is  domiciled,  it  is  sufficient  to  dis- 
pose of  his  personal  property  in  another  country, 
although  not  executed  in  the  form  required  by 
the  law  of  such  country.  In  cases  of  insolvency, 
the  distribution  of  assets  will  also  be  according 
to  the  law  of  the  domicile ;  or  rather  the  assets 
will  be  transmitted  to  the  country  of  the  domi- 
cile for  distribution,  except  that  the  domestic 
debts,  that  is  to  say,  such  as  are  due  in  any 
place  where  the  property  of  the  insolvent  is 
situated,  will  be  first  provided  for ;  but  it  is  not 
entirely  settled  whether  they  shall  be  preferred 
for  the  full  amount,  or  shall  be  entitled  only  to 
the  distributive  share  allowed  by  the  law  of  the 
domicile.  3.  In  respect  to  Avbat  may  be  called 
statutory  non-residence  and  the  remedies  given 
to  creditors  in  such  case,  there  is  a  good  deal 
of  confliction.  Thus,  in  the  state  of  New  York 
an  attachment  may  be  issued  against  the  prop- 
erty of  any  person  not  a  resident  of  the  state 
for  the  purpose  of  making  distribution  among 
the  creditors  generally.  (2  Rev.  Stat.  3.)  Again, 
by  the  code  an  attachment  may  be  issued  in  a 
suit  against  a  defendant  not  a  resident  of  the 
state,  in  which  case  it  inures  to  the  sole  benefit 
of  the  plaintiff  in  the  suit.  (Code,  §  227.)  The 
apparent  intention  in  both  these  cases  was  to 
provide  a  remedy  where  from  the  absence  of  the 
debtor  there  was  none  by  the  usual  course  of 
proceeding,  and  the  question  of  domicile  does  not 
seem  to  be  involved.  Yet  it  has  been  held  by 
some  of  the  courts  that  a  man  who  is  daily  in 
the  city  of  New  York  attending  to  business,  but 
goes  at  night  to  an  adjoining  state,  and  has  his 
family  there,  is  a  non-resident  within  the  mean- 
ing of  the  statute. 

DOMINANT,  in  music,  a  name  sometimes 
given  to  the  5th  note  or  tone  of  any  scale.  The 
term  is  also  used  for  dominant  chord,  or  the 
common  chord  of  which  the  5th  of  any  key  or 
scale  is  the  fundamental  tone. 

DO^kllNIC  DE  GUZMAN,  a  saint  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  church,  founder  of  the  order  of 
preacliing  friars,  born  in  Calavega,  in  Old  Cas- 
tile, in  1170,  died  in  Bologna,  Aug.  6, 1221.  His 
lineage  was  illustrious.  At  the  age  of  14  he 
was  sent  by  his  uncle,  the  archpriest  of  Gumiel 
do  Izan,  to  the  school  of  Paleucia,  where  he  re- 


mained 10  years  in  the  practice  of  strict  asceti- 
cism. Martin  de  Bazan,  bishop  of  Osma,  sum- 
moned the  young  scholar  to  assist  him  in  the 
reform  of  his  diocese.  Nine  years  were  spent 
by  him  in  preaching,  exhortation,  and  correction 
of  irregularities.  This  charge  did  not,  how- 
ever, confine  Dominic  to  one  place.  Ho  ex- 
ecuted numerous  missions,  taught  theology  and 
hermeneutics  in  the  university  of  Palencia,  and 
in  the  quality  of  archdeacon  visited  the  various 
churches  in  his  province.  In  1203  he  was  the 
associate  of  the  bishop  Diego,  successor  of  De 
Bazan,  in  a  diplomatic  mission.  The  king  of 
Castile,  Avishing  to  marry  his  son  to  the  daugh- 
ter of  a  northern  prince,  sent  the  bishop  of  Os- 
ma to  negotiate  the  matter.  The  mission  was 
successful,  and  on  their  return  to  Spain  the 
same  parties  were  designated  to  conduct  the 
bride  and  her  party  to  her  new  home.  Her  un- 
expected death  defeated  the  plan,  and  instead 
of  leading  in  a  bridal  journey,  Diego  and  his 
friend  could  only  follow  a  funeral.  The  course 
of  their  journeys  had  taken  them  through  the 
land  of  the  Albigenses,  of  whose  number  and 
obstinacy  they  had  frequent  evidence.  So  deep 
was  their  sense  of  danger  to  the  church  from 
this  source,  that  when  the  death  of  the  princess 
of  Lusignan  had  rendered  their  mission  fruitless, 
instead  of  returning  directly  to  Spain  they  went 
to  Rome  to  solicit  from  Innocent  III.  leave  to  re- 
main in  France  and  convert  these  erring  breth- 
ren. This  was  readily  granted,  and  a  2  years' 
dispensation  from  his  episcopal  duties  was  per- 
mitted to  the  bishop  of  Osma.  Stopping  at  the 
abbey  of  Citeaux  on  their  return,  to  consult  with 
the  monks  upon  the  best  way  of  destroying  the 
heresy,  they  proceeded  to  Montpellier,  where,  in 
conjunction  with  the  appointed  Cistercian  dig- 
nitaries, they  commenced  their  work.  The  meth- 
od of  conversion  at  first  followed  was  public  con- 
ference. For  8  days  Dominic  and  his  friends 
disputed  with  the  Albigensian  teachers  near 
Montpellier,  8  days  more  at  Beziers,  and  15  days 
at  Montreal,  converting  some  in  every  place,  and 
in  the  last  named  place  150.  According  to  the 
Dominican  writers,  miracles  aided  them.  At 
Faureau,  a  writing  of  Dominic  in  defence  of 
the  Catholic  faith,  thrice  cast  into  the  fire,  is 
said  to  have  been  thrice  withdrawn  uninjured; 
while  a  writing  of  the  heretics,  thrown  in  at 
the  same  time,  was  instantly  consumed.  In  1207 
the  joint  mission  of  the  Spaniards  and  Cis- 
tercians was  closed  by  a  conference  in  the 
castle  of  Count  Raymond  of  Foix,  whose  wife 
and  sisters  were  Albigenses,  Various  eminent 
converts  were  made  ;  and  then  the  bishop 
Diego  returned  to  his  diocese,  and  the  Cistei'- 
cian  monks  went  back  to  their  monastery, 
leaving  Dominic  in  sole  charge  of  the  mission. 
The  connection  of  Dominic  with  his  Cistercian 
cou:ipanions  had  not  been  altogether  harmoni- 
ous. His  method  had  differed  from  theirs,  and 
with  tlie  violent  and  sanguinary  temper  of  the 
legate  Peter  of  Casteluau  he  had  no  sympathy. 
This  man  was  quite  ready  to  employ  the  secular 
powei'  in  the  extermination  of  heretics,  and 


DOMINIC  DE  GUZMAN 


563 


■when,  in  Jan.  1208,  he  was  assassinated  by  a 
servant  of  Count  Raymond  of  Toulouse,  there 
were  more  to  applaud  tlie  criiue  tlian  to  aid 
the  avengers.  Tlic  attempt  to  punish  this  crime 
was  the  signal  for  a  bloody  religious  war.  A 
new  crusade  was  preached;  Innucent  urged  the 
kings  of  Frai!ce  and  England  to  forget  their  quar- 
rels and  combine  against  tlie  Albigenses;  and 
into  the  doomed  region  armies  marched  such  as 
those  which  liad  fouglit  in  Syria  against  the  Sara- 
cens. Raymond  of  Toulouse,  jn-otector  of  here- 
tics, was  stigmatized  as  a  murderer,  and  his  he- 
reditar}-  foe,  Simon  de  Montfort,  was  allowed  to 
ravage  the  province,  to  hale  to  death  its  tenants, 
and  to  ruin  the  heritage  of  this  lukewarm  son 
of  the  cluircli.  How  far  Dominic  took  part  in 
these  religious  wars,  is  vehemently  disputed. 
According  to  Sismondi,  he  directed  tiiese  perse- 
cutions from  the  beginning.  His  latest  biogra- 
phers, on  the  contrar\',  offer  documents  to  prove 
that  Dominic  had  nothing  to  do  with  any  acts  of 
violence.  Tlie  public  opinion  of  several  centuries 
has  assigned  to  Dominic  the  fame  of  founding  the 
inquisition,  but  his  name  is  not  mentioned  in  the 
decree  of  the  inquisition  wliich  bears  the  date 
of  1215,  and  the  special  charge  of  the  holy  office 
was  not  intrusted  to  the  Dominicans  until  1233, 
12  years  after  his  death.  Tliis  first  crusade 
against  the  Albigenses  lasted  7  years,  from  1208 
to  1215,  when  the  surrender  of  Toulouse  and 
the  opening  of  its  gates  to  the  crusaders  seemed 
for  a  time  to  close  tlie  war.  A  permanent  me- 
morial of  Dominic  in  this  period  is  the  institu- 
tion of  the  rosary,  which  has  been  of  universal 
use  among  Catholics  since  his  day.  More  than 
one  before  him  had  prescribed  similar  methods 
of  prayer  and  meditation,  but  his  method  is  the 
earliest  of  the  kind  tliat  still  remains  in  use. 
The  great  event  of  1215  in  the  history  of  the 
church  is  the  foundation  of  the  order  of  preach- 
ing friars.  "When  Dominic  entered  Toulouse 
with  4  associate  priests,  a  rich  citizen,  Peter 
Cellani,  ofiered  his  house  for  the  use  of  the 
brethren,  and  with  another  citizen,  Thomas  by 
name,  joined  himself  to  their  band;  so  that 
there  were  7  in  all,  vowed  to  labor  together  for 
the  conversion  of  souls.  When  the  plan  was 
submitted  to  the  pope,  he  rather  advised  the  re- 
form of  orders  already  existing.  Finally,  how- 
ever, Dominic  received  permission  to  make  rules 
for  his  desired  order,  although  one  of  the  canons 
of  the  4th  council  of  Lateran  forbids  the  crea- 
tion of  any  new  religious  order.  The  difficulty 
was  evaded  by  the  adoption  for  the  new  monas- 
tic body  of  the  rules  of  St.  Augustine,  modified 
by  the  rule  of  the  Premonstratensian  convents, 
and  on  Dec.  26,  1216,  two  papal  briefs  formally 
established  the  order  of  preaching  friars.  The 
pope  also  now  created  the  office  of  master  of  the 
sacred  palace,  to  which  he  appointed  Dominic. 
It  is  the  duty  of  this  functionary  to  take  charge 
of  all  theological  matters  in  the  papal  mansion,  to 
nominate  the  preachers,  to  authorize  the  books, 
and  to  decide  all  minor  questions  of  doctrine  or 
discipline  which  may  come  up  in  the  domestic 
circle  of  the  pontiff.     The  duties  of  this  office 


did  not  keep  Dominic  in  Rome.  He  made  jour- 
neys into  Languedoc,  into  Spain,  and  as  far  as 
Paris,  attending  everywhere  to  the  consolida- 
tion of  his  new  brotherJiood.  In  1219  he  preach- 
ed in  Paris,  and  so  charmed  the  rude  king  of  Scot- 
land, at  that  time  sojourning  in  the  French 
capital,  that  at  the  recjuest  of  this  monarch,  that 
northern  land  was  added  to  the  field  which  tlie 
preaching  friars  miglit  occupy.  In  the  same 
year  his  most  important  acquisition  was  made 
in  the  gift  of  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas  at  Bo- 
logna, and  the  enrollment  of  a  large  number  of 
professors  and  dignitaries  as  members  of  the 
order.  Henceforth  Bologna  became  the  chief 
Dominican  centre,  as  it  has  ever  been  the  goal 
of  pilgrimage  to  all  of  the  fraternity.  Here  the 
alternate  general  chapters  of  the  order  were 
held.  The  second  chapter  (1221)  was  the  last 
meeting  of  the  order  that  Dominic  attended. 
His  health  now  began  to  fail,  and  after  return- 
ing from  a  visit  to  Venice,  he  was  seized  with  a 
dysentery  and  fever  from  which  he  died.  His 
body  was  buried  under  the  pavement  of  the 
church  of  St.  Nicholas,  and  in  1233  the  remains, 
which  were  found  to  be  perfect,  were  trans- 
ported into  the  new  church  and  interred  in  the 
south  transept.  TLe  decree  of  canonization 
was  passed  July  4,  1234,  and  his  anniversary  is 
celebrated  on  Aug.  4.  Nicolo  di  Piso  decorated 
the  tomb  with  bass-reliefs  representing  the  mir- 
acles of  the  saint.  Alfonso  the  Lombard  added 
to  tliem  in  the  IGth  century  another  series,  and 
Michel  Angelo  crowned  the  gorgeous  monument 
with  a  statue  of  St.  Petronius.  The  church 
which  covers  this  tomb  now  bears  the  name  of 
St.  Dominic.  In  the  sacristy  is  a  statue  of  the 
saint,  carved  from  the  wood  of  a  cypress,  which, 
according  to  the  legend,  the  hand  of  tiie  saint 
himself  had  planted. — The  character  of  Dominic 
has  been  difierently  judged,  according  as  it  has 
been  viewed  from  a  Catholic  or  a  Protestant 
standpoint.  By  the  one  party  he  is  eulogized 
as  a  pattern  of  every  virtue  ;  by  the  other  he  is 
condemned  as  bigoted,  ci-uel,  and  tyrannical. 
Commonly  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  in- 
quisition, all  the  excesses  of  that  tribunal  have 
been  imputed  to  him  for  guilt.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  he  allowed  bloodshed  which  he 
might  have  prevented,  and  that  he  loved  ortho- 
doxy more  than  peace.  Ilis  consistency  cannot 
be  questioned.  He  was  industrious,  frugal,  and 
temperate  in  his  habits,  and  had  a  singular  fac- 
ulty of  winning  and  holding  the  love  of  his 
brethren.  Of  his  sermons  and  commentaries 
none  are  preserved,  and  all  that  now  testifies  to 
his  literary  or  theological  powers  is  the  system 
of  rules  prescribed  to  the  order,  and  a  few 
epistles.  Frequent  allusions  are  made  in  the 
writings  of  the  biographers  to  his  notes  upon 
the  psalter,  the  epistles  of  Paul,  and  the  Gospel 
of  Matthew,  but  these  are  lost  beyond  recovery. 
— The  life  of  St.  Dominic  has  been  written  in 
Latin  by  D'Apolda,  in  Italian  by  Bottoni,  in 
Spanish  by  Juan  Lopez,  in  French  by  Father 
Touron  (Paris,  1739),  by  the  Bollandists,  and  by 
several  others.    See  also  Vie  d«  Snint  JJomi- 


564 


DOMINICA 


DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 


nique,  by  Lficordaire  (Paris,  8d  ed.  1844),  and 
Saint  Dominique  et  Us  Dominicains,  by  Elme 
Marie  Ciiro  (Paris,  1853). 

DOMINICA,  a  British  West  India  island,  one 
of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  Leeward  gronp,  29  in.  S. 
of  Guadelonpe,  in  lat.  15'  18'  N.  and  long.  61° 
32'  W. ;  length  from  N.  to  S.  29  lii. ;  breadth 
16m.;  area,  291  sq.  m. ;  pop.  22,469  (according 
to  the  "  American  Almanac"  for  1859),  of  whom 
only  a  small  number  are  whites,  the  majority 
being  emancipated  slaves.  It  is  of  volcanic  ori- 
gin, and  when  viewed  from  the  sea  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  confused  mass  of  mountains. 
The  highest  summit  has  an  elevation  of  5,300 
feet.  Dominica  is  well  watered,  having  upward 
of  30  rivers  and  numerous  rivulets.  It  has  also 
sulphurous  and  thermal  springs,  and  a  deep  lake 
on  a  high  mountain  6  m.  from  Roseau.  In- 
terspersed among  its  mountains  arc  many  fer- 
tile valleys,  with  a  black  and  rich  soil  well 
adapted  for  raising  every  tropical  production. 
In  1850  the  imports  Avere  valued  at  £57,656, 
and  the  exports  at  £58,265,  The  principal  ex- 
ports in  1853  Avere  65,788  cwt.  of  sugar,  35,794 
gallons  of  rum,  81,016  of  molasses,  67,594  lbs. 
of  coffee,  69,296  of  cacao,  3,525  of  arrow  root, 
8,250  of  cotton  wool,  5,062  gallons  of  lime  juice, 
and  1,354,020  oranges.  The  revenue  amounted 
to  £7,336  in  1855,  and  to  £12,918  in  1856.  The 
expenditures  in  the  year  ending  Dec.  1,  1855, 
were  £9,245,  and  in  that  ending  Dec.  31,  1856, 
£10,487  (comprising  £800  for  educational  pur- 
poses). There  are  about  10  free  schools,  but 
the  bulk  of  the  population  being  Roman  Catho- 
lics, education  is  chiefly  controlled  by  the  clergy 
of  that  persuasion.  The  property  annually  cre- 
ated on  the  island  has  been  estimated  at  £250,- 
000,  and  the  aggregate  movable  property  at 
£1,500,000.  The  Avoods  of  Dominica  swarm 
with  bees,  which  produce  great  quantities  of  Avas 
and  honey.  This  is  the  European  bee,  much 
larger  than  the  native  bee  of  the  West  Indies,  and 
must  have  been  transported  thither. — Dominica 
was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1493 ;  and  being 
equally  claimed  by  England,  France,  and  Spain, 
it  Avas  considered  a  neutral  island  by  those  3 
powers  till  1759,  Avhen  it  Avas  captured  by  the 
Englisli ;  and  it  was  ceded  to  England  by  France 
in  1763.  It  Avas  recaptured  by  the  French  in 
1778,  and  again  restored  to  England  in  1783. 
Its  government  is  administered  by  a  lieutenant- 
governor,  a  council  of  12  members  appointed  by 
the  crown,  and  an  assembly  of  19  representa- 
tives chosen  by  the  people.  Capital,  Roseau,  on 
the  S.  W.  side  of  the  island ;  pop.  about  4,000. 

DOMINICAL  LETTER,  the  letter  denoting 
Sunday  for  a  given  year.  The  council  of  Nice, 
A.  D.  325,  established  the  rule  that  Easter  Sun- 
day should  bo  the  first  Sunday  after  the  full 
moon  Avhich  happens  upon  or  next  after  March 
21.  For  the  purpose  of  determining  Avhen 
Easter  falls,  and  for  other  similar  problems  con- 
cerning the  day  of  the  week  and  the  day  of  the 
year,  it  Avas  early  found  convenient  to  place  the 
first  7  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  succession  against 
the  days  of  the  months,  putting  A  to  Jan.  1,  and 


repeating  the  7  letters  as  often  as  necessary  until 
Dec.  3L  The  letter  Avliich  falls  against  the  first 
Sunday  in  January  Avill  fall  against  every  Sun- 
day in  the  year,  and  this  is  the  dominical  letter 
for  that  year,  unless  it  be  leap  year ;  and  then, 
as  Feb.  29  as  well  as  March  1  is  n-yirked  D,  the 
dominical  letter  for  the  last  10  months  of  the 
year  will  be  the  preceding  letter  of  the  alphabet. 
To  find  the  dominical  letter  Avill  manifestly  en- 
able you  to  find  what  day  of  the  Aveek  a  given 
date  in  the  year  is.  But  the  dominical  letter, 
being  known  for  any  one  year,  can  be  found  for 
any  other,  by  simply  remembering  that  an  ordi- 
nary year  is  52  Aveeks  and  one  day,  a  leap  year 
52  Aveeks  and  2  days,  so  that  the  dominical 
letter  Avill  go  backAvard  from  G  toward  A,  ono 
letter  for  a  common  year  and  2  for  a  leap  year. 
This  gives  rise  to  an  arithmetical  rule  for  finding 
the  dominical  letter,  Avhich  may  be  thus  ex- 
pressed :  To  the  number  of  the  year  add  \  of 
itself,  neglecting  fractions,  and  divide  the  sum 
by  7 ;  then  for  the  19th  century  subtract  the  re- 
mainder from  8,  or,  if  it  is  0,  from  1,  and  the 
new  remainder  will  indicate  the  place  of  the 
dominical  letter  in  the  alphabet;  for  the  18th 
century  subtract  from  7;  for  the  17th  century 
and  back  to  1582  subtract  from  6,  or  if  the  re- 
mainder is  more  than  6,  from  13  ;  for  dates  pre- 
vious to  1582  subtract  from  3  or  10.  (But  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  dominical  letter  thus 
obtained  for  a  leap  year  belongs  to  the  time  after 
Feb.  29,  and  that  for  the  preceding  2  months 
the  dominical  letter  was  the  succeeding  letter  in 
the  alphabet.)  This  new  remainder  is  also  the 
date  of  the  first  Sunday  in  .January  for  that  year. 
The  same  date  in  February  will  fall  on  Wednes- 
day ;  in  March,  on  Wednesday ;  in  April,  on 
Saturday,  &c. ;  as  may  easily  be  seen  from  the 
fact  that  the  first  days  of  the  12  months  have 
annexed  to  them  in  the  calendar  the  initials  of 
the  words:  At  Dover  Dwell  George  Brown, 
Esquire,  Good  Christopher  Finch,  And  David 
Friar.  For  example,  the  day  of  the  Aveek  on 
which  New  York  Avas  incorporated,  June  12, 
1665,  is  thus  found:  (1665-|-416)-5-7=297,  with 
a  remainder  of  2  ;  and,  it  being  the  17th  cen- 
tury, 6 — 2=4,  which  shows  the  dominical  letter 
for  that  year  to  have  been  D.  Then,  as  June 
begins  with  E,  it  is  plain  that  June  1,  1665, 
was  Monday,  and  the  12th  Avas  Friday. 

DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC,  the  eastern  por- 
tion of  the  island  of  Ilayti,  comprising  nearly 
I  of  the  island.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the 
ancient  Spanish  appellation  of  the  island,  San 
Domingo.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  17,500  sq.  m. 
Its  population  is  about  136,000,  of  whom  one- 
tenth  claim  to  be  Avhites ;  the  rest  are  of  Afri- 
can descent,  or  of  mixed  African  and  European. 
The  boundary  between  it  and  the  Haytian  re- 
public is  an  irregular  line  drawn  from  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Massacre  on  the  north  coast  of  the 
island  to  the  river  Anses-a-Pitre  or  Pedernales 
on  the  south  coast.  The  interior  of  the  repub- 
lic consists  of  mountain  ranges,  rising  to  an 
elevation  of  6,000  to  8,000  feet,  and  covered 
Avith  magnificent  tropical  forests.    From  the 


DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 


665 


base  of  these  mountains  largo  plains,  watered 
by  nuiiierous  streams,  stretch  toward  the  coast. 
Of  these  plains  the  Vega  Keal  (Royal  plain), 
and  those  of  the  Jayua,  the  Azua,  and  the  Ney- 
bo,  are  the  most  densely  popidated.  Among 
the  rivers,  most  of  which  bear  the  character 
of  mountain  torrents,  the  Great  Yaqui,  empty- 
ing into  the  bay  of  Monte  Cliristo,  the  Yuma, 
whose  embouchure  is  in  the  bay  of  Samana, 
the  Iliguey,  the  Gaboon,  Soco,  Socaris,  Bru- 
juelas,  Ozoma,  Jayna,  Xisao,  Bani,  and  Neybo 
deserve  to  be  mentioned.  The  harbor  of  San 
Domingo  city  is  one  of  the  best ;  next  to  it  the 
bay  of  8amana  offers  an  excellent  roadstead.  Of 
the  lesser  islands  on  the  coast  belonging  to  the 
republic,  Beata  and  Saona  are  the  most  consid- 
erable. The  climate,  though  tropical,  is  less  un- 
wholesome than  elsewhere  in  the  West  Indies, 
The  soil  is  exceedingly  fertile,  but  the  industry 
of  the  inhabitants  is  not  ecpial  to  the  immense 
resources  of  the  country.  Gold,  silver,  and  iron 
abound  in  the  mountains,  but  no  mines  are 
worked.  Cattle-raising  in  the  level  country, 
and  ebony-cutting  in  the  mountainous  regions, 
are  the  principal  occupations  of  the  people,  ag- 
riculture being  mainly  confined  to  the  raising 
of  the  manioc  root,  which  is  used  as  a  substitute 
for  grain.  Politically  the  republic  is  divided 
into  5  provinces,  viz. :  Azua  de  Compostella, 
San  Domingo,  Santa  Cruz  del  Seybo,  Concep- 
cion  de  la  Vega,  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros. 
These  are  also  the  names  of  the  jjrovincial 
capitals,  of  which  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros 
is,  next  to  the  city  of  San  Domingo,  the  most 
important.  The  inhabitants  are  Roman  Cath- 
olics ;  an  archbishop  resides  at  the  city  of  San 
Domingo.    The  army  is  nominally  about  20,- 

000  strong.     The  navy  consists  of  2  corvettes, 

1  brigantine,  and  4  schooners,  Tlie  seal  of 
state  represents  a  cross,  supporting  an  open 
Bible,  surrounded  by  arms  and  the  motto: 
Dies,  Patria,  y  Libertad.  The  language  of 
the  people  is  Spanish.  The  constitution,  like 
that  of  most  Spanish  American  republics,  is 
modelled  after  that  of  the  United  States,  It 
provides  for  a  president,  to  be  elected  for  the 
term  of  4  years,  a  senate  of  5,  and  a  house  of 
representatives  of  15  members.  The  munici- 
palities into  which  the  provinces  are  subdivided 
are  organized  on  the  basis  of  self-government. 
The  conditions  upon  which  foreigners  may  be 
naturalized  are  very  liberal,  and  no  distinction 
is  drawn  in  favor  of  colored  persons.  Free 
farms,  farming  utensils,  and  provisions  for  G 
months  are  offered  to  settlers.  The  commerce 
of  the  country  is  as  yet  limited,  owing  partly 
to  the  deranged  state  of  the  circulation  and  ex- 
changes. The  exports  from  this  republic  into 
the  United  States  during  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1858,  amounted  to  $109,3*70,  and  the 
imports  from  the  United  States  to  $112,427. 
The  coins  are  gourdes  (piastres,  dollars),  half 
gourdes,  gourdins  (quarters),  escalins  (eighths), 
and  half  escalins  (sixteenths). — The  present 
Dominican  republic  was  a  Spanish  colony  un- 
til 1795,   when,   by  the  treaty  of  Basel,   the 


whole  island  was  united  under  French  rule. 
"When,  after  terrible  struggles,  the  colored  pop- 
ulation of  the  island  had  become  independent 
of  France,  the  tyranny  of  Dessalines  drove  the 
Dominicans  back  into  the  arms  of  Spain,  wliicli 
thus  regained  possession  of  its  former  colony 
in  1808.  The  next  year  the  Dominicans  de- 
clared their  independence,  abolished  slaverj', 
and  remained  in  an  unsettled  state  until  1822, 
when  the  whole  island  was  united  under  a  re- 
publican form  of  government,  and  Boyer,  the 
president  of  Ilayti,  was  chosen  president  foe 
life.  But  in  1844,  the  negroes  of  Ilayti  having 
succeeded  in  elevating  Gen.  Riviere  to  the  pre- 
sidency, the  Dominicans,  encouraged  by  the 
friendly  assurances  of  the  French  consul-general 
Moges,  again  formed  a  separate  government 
(Feb,  27),  under  the  auspices  of  the  "  libera- 
tor "  Pedro  Santana,  who  defeated  Riviere 
near  Santiago  (April  9),  thus  securing  the  inde- 
pendence of  his  country.  Recognized  by  France, 
a  treaty  of  friendship  and  commerce  with  which 
power  was  concluded,  Oct.  22,  1848,  and  by 
Great  Britain  (treaty  of  amitj'',  commerce,  and 
navigation  concluded  in  May,  1850),  the  Domin- 
ican republic  upheld  her  independence  success- 
fully against  repeated  efforts  of  Soulouque, 
the  ruler  of  Ilayti,  The  presidential  term  of 
Santana  having  ended  in  1849,  Jimenes  was 
elected  his  successor.  Though  of  Caucasian 
blood,  the  latter  secretly  conspired  with  Sou- 
louque, who  invaded  the  territory  of  the  re- 
public at  the  head  of  20,000  men,  and  defeated 
the  Dominicans  in  some  skirmishes  near  Azua 
and  Las  Matas,  In  tliis  extremity  Santana  was 
recalled  by  the  people.  He  dispersed  the  Haytiau 
army,  April  22,  near  Savanna  Numero,  so  com- 
pletely that  the  war  for  the  time  being  was  at 
an  end,  Jimenes  sought  a  refuge  with  Sou- 
louque, who  made  him  one  of  his  dukes,  while 
Santana  resigned  his  dictatorship  in  favor  of 
the  newly  elected  constitutional  president,  Bue- 
naventura Baez.  In  1850  Soulouque  once  more 
invaded  the  countiy  unsuccessfully.  Baez,  hav- 
ing during  the  latter  part  of  his  administration 
favored  the  policy  of  the  clerical  party,  was 
rejected  by  the  people  in  1853,  and  Santana 
reelected  president.  He  compelled  the  arch- 
bishop to  swear  allegiance  to  the  constitution, 
and  endeavored  to  free  himself  from  French  in- 
fluence. His  sympathies  with  the  United  States 
induced  him  to  enter  into  negotiations  with  a 
secret  diplomatic  agent  of  President  Pierce, 
Gen.  Cazneau,  and  to  negotiate  with  him  a 
treaty  (Oct.  5,  1854),  the  secret  stipulations  of 
which  provided,  it  is  believed,  for  the  cession  to 
the  United  States  of  the  bay  of  Samana.  But 
this  treaty  was  never  ratified,  nor  has  the  Do- 
minican republic  ever  been  recognized  by  the 
United  States.  It  is  probable  that  the  failure 
of  Santana  to  obtain  this  recognition  facil- 
itated the  efforts  of  the  French  and  British 
agents  to  render  him  unpopular  and  once  more 
elevate  Baez,  now  the  recognized  leadei-  of  the 
clerical  party,  to  the  presidency  (Feb.  1857), 
But  his  triumph  was  short-lived.    Dissatisfac- 


566 


DOMINICANS 


tion  with  his  rule  spread  so  rapidly  that  Santana 
was  enabled  to  liead  a  revolutionary  niovoincnt 
(Sept.  1857),  which  eventually  led  to  the  expul- 
sion of  JJaez  (1858),  and  tlie  restoration  of  the 
liberal  rule.  In  consequence  of  the  downfall  of 
Soulouque  in  Ilayti  (Jan.  1859),  Santana  offered 
his  hearty  congratulations  to  President  Geffrard, 
and  it  was  generally  expected  that  a  close  al- 
liance would  again  be  established  between  the 
two  republics. 

DOMINICANS  (preaching  fvlars^fratresjyrcE- 
dicatorcs),  a  monastic  order  of  the  Konian  Cath- 
olic church,  founded  in  1215  by  Dominic  de 
Guzman,  on  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine  and  a  part 
of  the  statutes  of  thePremonstratenses.  Its  main 
object  was  to  labor  by  preaching  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  Catholic  church  and  the  ex- 
termination of  heresies,  especially  of  that  of  the 
Albigenses.  The  order  received  the  papal  rati- 
fication in  1216.  At  its  first  general  chapter 
in  Bologna  in  1220,  it  renounced  the  possession 
of  all  i)roperty,  and  decreed  that  none  of  its 
convents  should  receive  lay  brothers.  The  con- 
stitution Avhich  it  adopted  is  strictly  monarchi- 
cal, like  that  of  all  the  other  mendicant  orders. 
The  convent  is  governed  by  a  prior ;  a  com- 
bination of  several  convents,  called  a  province, 
by  a  provincial ;  the  whole  order  by  a  general, 
the  last  to  be  elected  by  the  general  chapter, 
which  is  to  meet  once  every  year.  The  extension 
of  the  order  was  very  rapid.  At  the  2d  chapter 
in  1221,  France,  Italy,  Spain,  Germany,  Hungary, 
and  England  were  represented.  In  1278  the 
number  of  convents  amounted  to  417.  The  in- 
fluence and  the  reputation  of  the  order  increas- 
ed greatly,  when  in  1233  the  pope  placed  them 
at  the  head  of  the  inquisition,  Avhich,  in  Italy, 
Spain,  and  Portugal,  became  gradually  their  ex- 
clusive domain.  Though  endowed  in  1272  with 
all  the  privileges  of  the  mendicant  orders,  tliey 
acquired  in  1425  the  right  of  receiving  dona- 
tions, and  many  of  their  convents  became  very 
rich.  A  new  period  in  the  history  of  the  order 
commences  with  the  establishment  of  a  Domin- 
ican professorship  of  theology  at  Paris  in  1228, 
which  in  1230  was  followed  by  a  second.  As 
the  Franciscans  soon  succeeded  in  securing  theo- 
logical chairs  for  their  order  also,  that  grand 
theological  emulation  sprang  up  between  these 
2  orders,  the  history  of  Avhich  is  almost  equiva- 
lent to  that  of  theological  literature  in  general 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  middle  ages,  and  in 
which  the  Dominicans  distinguished  themselves 
as  Nominalists,  Augustinians,  Thomists,  and 
opponents  of  the  immaculate  conception  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  Their  missionary  activity  com- 
menced as  early  as  the  13th  century  ia  Asia, 
and,  especially  in  Armenia,  many  schismatics 
were  converted  by  them  to  the  Catholic  church. 
In  America  they  protected  the  natives  from  be- 
ing enslaved,  and  here  as  well  as  in  the  East 
Indies  they  exceeded  all  other  orders  in  power, 
number,  and  wealth.  They  had  a  controlling 
influence  over  the  literature  of  the  Catholic 
church  through  their  prescriptive  possession  of 
the  ofl5ce  of  master  of  the  sacred  palace  at  Rome, 


and  the  supreme  censorship  of  books,  which  is 
connected  with  that  office.  But  great  losses 
were  inflicted  on  them  by  the  reformation.  In 
the  countries  where  Protestantism  became  pre- 
dominant they  lost  more  than  400  convents,  and 
at  many  Catholic  courts  and  universities  their 
influence  was  supplanted  by  that  of  the  Jesuits, 
But  they  still  counted  in  the  18th  century  more 
than  1,000  convents  of  monks  and  nuns  in  45 
provinces,  11  of  which  were  out  of  Europe.  By 
the  French  revolution  they  lost  all  their  con- 
vents in  France  and  Belgium,  nearly  all  in  Ger- 
many, and  many  in  Italy,  They  have  since  also 
been  suppressed  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Sardinia, 
but  maintained  their  ground  in  Sicily,  and  to  a 
great  extent  in  Hungary  and  Switzerland.  In 
France  they  reappeared  during  the  reign  of  Louis 
Philippe.  The  order  early  relaxed  tlje  strictness 
of  its  ancient  rule.  Several  attempts  to  restore 
it  Avere  made  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  but 
Avith  only  partial  and  transitory  results.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  Avas  never  a  permanent  schism 
in  the  Dominican  order  as  in  that  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans. When  Pius  IX.  declared  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  religious  orders  to  be  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal cares  of  his  pontificate,  the  Dominicans 
Avere  among  the  first  Avith  regard  to  Avhom  the 
purpose  of  the  pope  was  put  in  execution.  The 
efforts  of  the  pope  were  effectiX'ely  seconded 
by  the  small  number  of  convents  which  Father 
Lacordaire,  by  f;xr  the  most  distinguished  mem- 
ber of  the  order  in  the  present  century,  bad 
founded  in  France.  The  pope  suspended  tem- 
porarily the  right  of  the  general  chapter  to  elect 
a  general,  and  appointed  one  of  the  French 
disciples  of  Lacordaire,  Father  Jeandel,  vicar- 
general  of  the  order.  Since  then  the  reforma- 
tion has  been  carried  through  in  many  couA-ents, 
in  some  cases  not  Avithout  a  A^iolent  opposition. 
In  Austria  it  was  commenced  in  1857,  with  the 
cooperation  of  the  bishops  and  the  gOA'ern- 
ment,  in  the  convent  of  Vienna,  The  order 
has  also  made  preparations  to  enlarge  its  mis- 
sionary territory  in  Asia  Minor.  There  are  at 
present  convents  in  Italy,  Austria,  France,  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  Ireland,  Poland,  Russia,  Turkey, 
Asia  Minor,  India,  China,  North  and  South 
America.  In  South  America  the  order  is  on  the 
decline,  but  it  makes  progress  in  North  America, 
and,  though  slowly,  in  France.  It  has  given  to  the 
church  a  large  number  of  bishops  and  archbish- 
ops, 66  cardinals,  and  4  popes.  Innocent  V.,  Bene- 
dict XL,  Pius  v.,  and  Benedict  XIII.  Among  its 
most  illustrious  members  were  Albertus  Mag- 
nus, Thomas  Aquinas,  Master  Eckard,  John  Tau- 
ler,  Henry  Suso,  Savonarola,  Las  Casas,  Vincent 
Ferrier,  Vincent  of  BeauA-ais,  and,  at  the  present 
day,  Lacordaire.  The  habit  of  the  order  con- 
sists of  a  Avhite  gown,  scapular  and  calotte,  and 
black  cloak  and  pointed  hood. — An  order  of 
Dominican  nuns  Avas  established  by  St.  Dominic, 
in  1206,  at  Prouille,  near  Toulouse.  The  first 
members  Avere  mostly  converts  from  the  Albi- 
genses, This  order  counted  at  the  time  of  its 
greatest  prosperity  about  400  convents  in  Eu- 
rope and  America,  and  abandoned  the  strictness 


DOMIOTS 


DOMITIAN" 


567 


of  the  original  discipline  even  sooner  than  tho 
monks.  They  took  part  in  tlic  various  reforms  of 
the  latter,  and  split  into  a  minilKTof  similar  con- 
gregations. At  present  tliey  liave  convents  in 
Italy,  France,  Belgium,  Austria,  Bavaria,  Switz- 
erland, Poland,  North  and  South  America.  East 
Tonquin,  in  Further  India,  had,  at  the  heginning 
of  the  present  century,  25  convents  of  native 
nuns,  following  the  rule  of  St.  Dominic,  with 
about  COO  inmates ;  but  a  great  number  of  them 
have  been  dispersed  by  a  cruel  persecution. 
There  was  also  a  third  order  (tertiarians)  of  St. 
Dominic,  which  was  called  the  militia  of  Jesu3 
Christ,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  they  owe  their  ori- 
gin to  St.  Dominic  himself.  Later,  they  appear 
in  history  under  the  name  of  brothers  and  sis- 
ters of  penitence  of  St.  Dominic.  St.  Catharine 
of  Sienna  and  St.  Eosa  of  Lima  were  members 
of  this  order. 

DOMINIS,  Maeo'  Antonio  de,  a  theologian 
and  natural  pliilosopher,  born  in  Arbe,  on  the 
coast  of  Dalmatia,  in  15G6,  died  in  Home  in  Sept. 
162-i.  lie  was  a  relative  of  Pope  Gregory  X., 
studied  at  Loretto  under  the  direction  of  the 
Jesuits,  and  became  a  member  of  their  order. 
He  taught  mathematics  and  philosophy  with 
great  success  in  several  of  the  large  cities  of 
Italy.  After  being  for  20  years  a  member  of 
the  society  of  Jesus,  he  left  it  in  order  to  become 
a  bishop,  and  was  appointed  in  1602  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Spalato,  and  to  the  primacy  of 
Dalmatia  and  Croatia.  He  now  began  to  op- 
pose some  of  the  measures  of  the  court  of  Kome, 
and  his  writings  were  condemned  by  sentence 
of  the  inquisition.  This  gained  for  him  the  sym- 
pathies of  Protestants,  by  wliom  he  was  induced 
in  1616  to  pass  into  England,  where  he  became 
useful  to  James  I.  lie  embraced  Protestant- 
ism, was  made  dean  of  Windsor,  and  though 
his  avowed  aim  Avas  to  effect  a  reunion  of 
the  2  great  divisions  of  Christendom,  he  wrote 
and  preached  with  vehemence  against  Eoman 
Catholicism.  In  his  work  De  EepulUca  Eccle- 
siastica,  which  he  published  in  England,  he 
maintained  that  the  papacy  was  a  human  insti- 
tution, a  temporal  monarchy,  and  was  not  the 
divinely  appointed  Christian  church.  This  book 
was  immediately  censured  by  the  theological 
faculty  of  Paris,  and  burned  by  order  of  the  in- 
quisition. Loaded  with  tokens  of  friendship  and 
esteem  by  tlio  king  and  clergy  of  England,-  ho 
suddenly  reverted  to  his  former  theological 
views;  and  wishing  to  signalize  his  return  to 
Catholicism  by  a  brilliant  action,  he  ascended  a 
pulpit  in  London,  and  retracted  all  that  he  had 
ever  written  against  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 
He  was  immediately  banished  from  England,  and 
repairing  to  Rome  abjured  his  apostasy  before 
a  public  consistory.  His  inconstant  humor  did 
not  long  leavp  him  in  repose,  and  it  was  soon 
discovered  that  he  had  repented  his  last  conver- 
sion, and  was  meditating  a  return  to  Protestant- 
ism, lie  was  imprisoned  by  Pope  Urban  VIII., 
and  his  sudden  death  soon  after  caused  the  report 
that  he  was  poisoned  ;  being  convicted  of  her- 
esy, his  body  was  disinterred  and  burned  along 


with  his  writings.  His  chief  philosophical  work 
is  entitled  De  Had  lis  Visus  et  Lucis.  Newton 
ascribes  the  lirst  suggestion  of  the  true  expla- 
nation of  the  rainbow  to  this  work. 

DOMIN(_)  (It.),  a  hood  and  cloak  enveloping 
the  entire  jierson,  and  worn  at  masked  balls  as  a 
disguise.  It  originall}'  designated  the  camail, 
which  was  the  ordinary  robe  of  ecclesiastics  in 
the  winter,  and  the  name  was  borrowed  by  tho 
maskers  frona  the  resemblance  of  their  disguises 
to  the  clerical  attire. 

DOMINOS.  This  game  has  been  traced  by 
some  authors  to  the  Greeks,  Hebrews,  and  Chi- 
nese. Its  first  appearance  in  western  Europe, 
however,  is  not  ancient,  it  having  been  intro- 
duced into  France  from  Italy  about  the  middle 
of  the  last  century.  It  is  now  played  in  all  the 
cafes  of  France,  and  less  commonly  in  the  tav- 
erns of  England  and  America,  and  is  a  favor- 
ite pastime  of  small  social  circles.  The  dom- 
ino is  a  small  flat  oblong  of  ivory  or  bone,  di- 
vided on  one  side  by  a  line  into  2  compartments. 
Each  of  these  is  marked  with  a  certain  number 
of  dots,  "from  1  to  6,  or  is  left  a  blank,  so  that 
upon  eacli  domino  there  is  a  different  combina- 
tion of  numbers.  Tho  game  is  played  with  28 
dominos,  the  reverse  sides  of  which  are  un- 
marked and  all  alike.  This  side  being  up,  each 
player  takes  an  equal  number  of  the  dominos. 
The  person  who  has  drawn  the  one  which  has  the 
highest  number  of  points  puts  it  down ;  the  next 
domino  played  has  to  be  one  with  a  number 
the  same  as  one  of  the  2  numbers  presented  by 
the  first,  and  the  2  similar  ends  are  joined.  The 
third  player  may  match  the  remaining  number 
of  either  the  first  or  the  second  domino,  and  thus 
the  game  continues  till  one  of  the  jjlayers  has 
put  down  all  his  pieces.  The  combinations 
of  this  game  are  neither  very  varied  nor  intri- 
cate, and  yet  it  requires,  though  in  a  less  degree 
than  many  other  games,  memory  and  calcula- 
tion. 

DOMINUS  (Lat.  lord,  master),  an  ancient  title 
of  honor  prefixed  to  the  name  of  the  person  who 
bore  it,  who  was  usually  either  a  knight  or  a 
clergyman.  It  was,  however,  sometimes  given 
to  gentlemen  who  were  not  knights,  especially 
if  they  wei-e  manor  lords.  The  title  is  applied 
at  the  present  time  in  Holland  to  ministers  of 
the  Reformed  church. 

DOMITIAX,  Titus  Flavius  AuorsTrs,  a  Ro- 
man emperor,  born  Oct.  24,  A.  D.  51,  mur- 
dered Sept.  18,  96.  He  was  the  younger  son 
of  Vespasian,  and  narrowly  escaped  death  at 
Rome  by  concealing  himself  when  his  father  was 
proclaimed  emperor  by  the  legions  of  the  East. 
On  the  fall  of  Vitellius  he  ruled  the  capital  as 
Cfesar  till  tho  return  of  his  father.  Having  ex- 
hibited in  that  short  period  a  sanguinary  and 
licentious  temper,  he  was  excluded  both  by  Ves- 
pasian (69-79)  and  Titus  (79-81)  from  all  share 
in  public  affairs,  and  spent  his  time  on  an  estate 
near  Rome,  in  elfeminate  pleasures,  as  well  as  in 
writing  and  reciting  poetical  compositions.  On 
the  death  of  Titus,  which  was  ascribed  to  him  by 
tho  people,  he  was  hailed  emperor  by  the  sol- 


568 


D0MK£MY 


DON  JUAX 


diers.  At  tbe  beginuing  of  bis  reign  be  con- 
cealed his  vices,  and  even  displayed  some  firm- 
ness in  the  regular  management  of  alfairs  ;  but 
this  Avas  of  short  duration.  An  outbreak  in 
Germany  brought  bis  bloodtliirsty  disposition 
into  full  activity,  and  from  that  time  the  vic- 
tims of  his  fear  or  wounded  vanity  were  num- 
berless. In  his  wars  he  was  i)ersonally  unsuc- 
cessful against  the  Chatti  and  other  German 
tribes,  as  well  as  against  the  Dacians,  whose 
king  Decebalus  compelled  him  to  purchase  peace 
on  humiliating  terms.  These  reverses,  bow- 
ever,  did  not  prevent  him  from  triumphing  and 
decorating  himself  Avith  the  names  of  German- 
icus  and  Dacicus.  Government  officials,  says 
a  historian,  were  busy  in  keeping  the  peopls  of 
Eome  from  laughing  on  such  occasions.  Games 
were  employed  to  amuse  them.  Agricola,  the 
heroic  commander  in  Britain,  was  recalled  be- 
cause of  bis  victories,  and  the  jealousy  of  his 
fame  jirobably  caused  his  subsequent  death. 
War  having  been  terminated  by  an  ignomini- 
ous peace  with  Decebalus  in  89,  Domitian  sa- 
tiated bis  thirst  for  blood  at  home,  until,  as  Taci- 
tus says,  silent  fear  reigned  at  Rome.  This  liis- 
torian,  the  son-in-law  of  Agricola,  has  branded 
the  memory  of  Domitian  in  eloquent  terms.  Af- 
ter many  conspiracies  which  were  discovered, 
one  succeeded  in  ending  tbe  reign  and  life  of 
the  tyrant. 

DOMRfiMY,  or  DoMEfiiiY  la  Pucelle,  a 
French  village,  in  the  department  of  Vosges,  7 
m.  from  Neufchateau,  on  the  Meuse,  the  birth- 
place of  Joan  of  Arc.  The  cottage  in  which  she 
was  born  has  been  repaired  at  the  expense  of 
tbe  government  and  a  free  school  for  girls  estab- 
lished in  it.  A  chapel  has  also  been  dedicated 
to  her  and  a  monument  raised  in  her  honor,  to 
which  Louis  Philippe  contributed  a  cast  of  the 
statue  of  the  maid  of  Orleans  executed  by  bis 
daughter,  Princess  Marie. 

DON,  a  title  of  honor,  chiefly  used  among  the 
Spaniards.  The  corresponding  title  among  the 
Portuguese  is  dom^  the  right  to  which  is  con- 
sidered as  an  especial  privilege  which  no  one  can 
assume  without  the  consent  of  the  sovereign. 
Dom  is  also  sometimes  employed  in  France  as  a 
clerical  title.  The  word  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  ^vord  dominus^  lord  or  master.  The  old 
English  form  of  the  word  is  daii^  frequently  oc- 
curring in  Chaucer. 

DON".  I.  A  river  of  Russia,  tbe  Tanais  of  tbe 
ancients,  and  the  Tuna,  Doona,  or  Dana  of  the 
Tartars.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  Eu- 
rope. It  rises  in  a  small  lake  in  the  government 
of  Toola,  flows  S.  E.  and  S.  W.,  passes  Voronezh, 
Pavlovsk,  Novo  Tcherkask,  Tcherkask,  Nakb- 
itcbevan,  Rostov,  and  Azof,  and,  having  sepa- 
rated into  3  branches,  enters  the  sea  of  Azof 
through  channels  so  shallow  that  only  flat-bot- 
tomed boats  can  pass  through  them.  Its  lengtli 
in  a  direct  liue  is  408  m.,  but  including  windings 
it  is  995  m.  In  tbe  summer,  navigation  on  the 
Don  is  difficult,  but  in  winter  the  water  is  high 
enough  for  vessels  of  great  size.  Tbe  course  of 
the  river  lies  through  a  low  country,  covered 


with  vast  forests  of  oak  and  pine.   Tlie  current  is 

sluggish,  and  sand  banks,  over  which  there  are 
often  only  2  feet  of  water,  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. The  j)rincipal  tributaries  of  the  Don  aro 
the  Sosna  and  the  Donetz  on  the  right,  and  the 
Voronezh  (or  Voronetz),  the  Khoper,  the  Med- 
vieditza,  the  Sal,  and  the  Manitcli  on  the  left. 
II.  A  river  of  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland,  next  to 
the  Dee  in  size,  but  of  little  commercial  impor- 
tance. It  rises  on  the  declivity  of  Ben  Aven, 
flows  S.  E.  02  m.,  and  enters  tbe  German  ocean 
near  the  town  of  Aberdeen.  It  is  navigable  for 
a  very  short  distance  from  tbe  sea.  Near  ita 
moutii  stands  tbe  celebrated  one-arched  Gothic 
bridge  of  Balgounie,  mentioned  by  Byron  in  one 
of  bis  early  poems.  A  handsome  new  bridge  of 
5  arches  has  been  built  a  little  below  the  old 
structure.  The  salmon  fisheries  of  the  Don 
were  lately  rented  for  £2,000  per  annum.  III. 
A  river  of  Yorkshire,  England,  55  m.  long,  ris- 
ing near  the  borders  of  Cheshire,  and  flowing 
into  the  Ouse.  It  is  navigable  from  Sheffield, 
40  m.,  and  communicates  by  canal  with  the 
Trent  and  the  Calder. 

DON  JUAN,  a  mythical  personage,  a  type  of 
licentiousness  and  dissipation,  accomplished  and 
wicked,  represented  -with  all  tbe  graces  which 
win  woman's  heart,  and  at  the  same  time  with 
all  the  snares  which  beguile  woman's  virtue.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition,  the  patrician  family  Tenorio 
of  Seville  was  the  first  to  produce  a  Don  Juan  of 
sufficiently  remarkable  character  to  become  the 
representative  man  of  tbe  order.  His  life  is 
placed  by  some  legends  in  the  14th  century 
under  the  reign  of  Pedro  the  Cruel,  and  by 
others  in  the  IGtb  century  in  the  era  of  Charles 
V.  He  is  represented  to  have  been  in  the  act 
of  abducting  a  daughter  of  the  governor  of 
Seville  when  caught  by  her  father ;  a  duel  en- 
sued, in  which  the  governor  was  the  victim. 
A  statue  having  been  erected  to  tbe  deceased  in 
tbe  family  vault  in  tbe  convent  of  San  Francis- 
co, Don  Juan  enters  tbe  vault,  and  invites  the 
statue  to  join  him  in  his  revels.  The  stony 
guest  appears  at  the  banquet  to  the  great  amaze- 
ment of  Don  Juan,  and  terminates  the  festivity 
by  consigning  his  godless  entertainer  to  the  in- 
fernal regions.  The  story  was  first  dramatized 
at  the  beginning  of  tbe  I7tb  century  by  the 
Spanish  ])oet  Gabriel  Tellez,  commonly  called 
Tirso  de  Molina,  under  tbe  title  of  El  hurlador 
de  Sec  ilia,  6  el  convivado  de  piedra.  Tliis  dra- 
ma was  soon  after  its  publication  adapted  for 
tbe  Italian  stage,  and  thence  found  its  way  to 
Paris,  where  it  became  the  basis  of  several 
French  adaptations,  of  wliicb  Moliere's  Don 
Juan,  ou  Ic  festiii  de  picrre,  and  Thomas  Cor- 
neille's  production,  modelled  after  Moliere's  play, 
are  the  most  celebrated.  In  England  a  play 
written  by  Shad  well,  called  "  The  Libertine,"  and 
treating  the  same  subject,  was  performed  in 
1070.  The  subject  was  not  produced  ou  tbe 
Spanish  stage  in  its  present  form  till  about 
1075,  when  it  was  rewritten  by  Antonio  do 
Zamora.  This  version  of  Zamora  furnished  the 
groundwork  of  the  modern  treatment  of  tbe 


DONAKIUM 


DONATISTS 


569 


themo.  GoldonipuUisliedliis  G lovanni  Tenorto 
ill  the  first  lialf  of  the  18Lh  century.  Gliick 
followed  with  a  ballet  in  1Y05,  Yinceiizo  liif^luiii 
vitli  an  opera  in  1777,  and  Lorenzo  da  I'onto 
with  the  text  to  Mozart's  opera  in  1787,  which 
aiipeared  in  the  same  year.  This  is  the  master- 
piece of  this  great  composer,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  most  remarkable  production  to  which 
the  legend  of  Don  Juan  has  given  rise.  Apart 
from  the  opera  and  tlie  drama,  the  Don  Juan 
literature  has  found  in  the  present  century  a 
new  field  in  the  sphere  of  romance  and  poetry 
in  Spain  and  France ;  while  in  England  the  name 
of  Don  Juan  was  adoi)ted  by  Byron  as  a  conge- 
nial title  for  his  famous  poem.  The  2  characters 
of  Faust  and  Don  Juan  are  blended  in  one  and 
the  same  personage  in  a  German  drama  by 
Grabbe,  while  a  great  number  of  plays,  nov- 
els, and  translations  from  the  Spanish  on  Don 
Juan  abound  among  German  books  of  the  pres- 
ent day.  Scheible's  Kloster  (vol.  iii.,  part  2, 
Stuttgart,  1846)  contains  a  full  account  of  the 
tradition  and  literature  of  the  subject. 

DOXARItIM,  a  metal  discovered  by  Dr.  Berg- 
man in  a  mineral  from  Brerig  in  Norway,  and 
named  for  the  Scandinavian  god  Donar.  The 
mineral  contained  a  yellowish  red  substance  giv- 
ing a  light  orange  powder,  of  hardness  between  4 
and  5,  andspecilicgravity  5.397.  Heated  in  aglass 
tube,  it  gives  otf  watery  vapor,  and  in  the  flame 
of  a  lamp  decrepitates.  It  does  not  melt  before 
the  blowpipe  on  charcoal ;  with  borax  it  gives 
a  bead,  j'ellow  while  hot,  colorless  Avheu  cold. 
It  is  decomposed  by  acids.  By  analysis  it  proves 
to  be  a  silicate  of  the  oxide  of  the  new  metal, 
containing  71.247  per  cent,  of  the  oxide,  17.095 
of  silicic  acid,  69  of  water,  and  4.042  of  car- 
bonate of  lime.  The  metal  is  obtained  as  a 
black  powder  by  treating  the  oxide  with  potas- 
sium. It  takes  fire  in  a  flame,  burns  with  a  red- 
dish light,  and  is  converted  into  the  red  oxide. 
The  specific  gravity  is  nearly  7.35. 

DOXATELLO,  or  properly  Donato  di  Bel- 
TO  DI  Bakdi,  one  of  the  revivers  of  sculpture 
in  Italy,  born  in  Florence  in  1383,  died  in 
1466.  He  was  of  the  family  of  Donato,  which 
has  counted  many  learned  men  among  its  mem- 
bers, and  which  after  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century  gave  several  doges  to  the  republic  of 
Venice.  He  was  educated  under  the  care  of  a 
rich  relative,  and  found  in  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  the 
chief  of  the  Florentine  republic,  a  patron  able 
to  perceive  and  to  reward  his  merits.  The  "  St. 
Peter"  and  "  St.  Mark"  which  adorn  the  church 
of  St.  Michael  in  his  native  city  were  his  first 
2  great  works.  He  afterward  studied  in  Rome, 
and  occupied  himself  particularly  with  repair- 
ing the  injuries  that  had  been  wrought  upon  the 
ancient  productions  of  sculpture.  The  natural 
tendency  of  his  mind  led  him  toward  an  imita- 
tion of  the  antique ;  yet  his  manner  was  bold 
and  indepeudent,  and  his  success  was  such  that 
his  contemporaries  thought  that  nothing  was 
Avanting  to  the  proportion  of  form  and  vivacity 
of  expression  which  he  gave  to  marble.  The 
Budden  progress  which  the  art  of  sculpture 


made  under  hU  labors  challenged  the  utmost 
exertions,  even  if  it  did  not  excite  the  jealousy, 
of  the  first  ])ainters  of  the  age.  He  particularly 
excelled  in  works  in  r/^/ei'o,  among  wliich  were 
his  "  Nativity  and  Burial  of  Christ,"  and  the 
"Assumption  of  the  Virgin."-  His  most  cele- 
brated statues,  the  group  of  "Judith  and  IIolo- 
fernes,"  executed  in  bronze  for  the  conununity 
of  Florence,  that  of  "  St.  George,"  the  finest 
ornament  of  the  church  of  St.  Michael,  and  his 
"  Zuccone,"  his  own  favorite  piece,  representing 
afl  old  man  in  the  costume  of  a  senator,  all  yet 
remain,  and  have  met  with  the  nniform  appro- 
bation of  succeeding  times.  Dcjnatello  was 
buried  according  to  his  desire  in  the  church  of 
San  Lorenzt),  by  the  side  of  his  friend  Cosmo 
de'  Medici.  His  liberality  and  disinterestedness 
were  such,  that  ho  kept  his  money  in  an  open 
basket  hung  on  the  wall  of  his  rooni  for  the  free 
use  of  his  workmen.  Nothing  irritated  him 
more  than  to  see  his  works  sold  to  persons  un- 
able to  appreciate  them ;  he  sometimes  broke 
a  finished  piece  to  fragments  to  save  it  from 
such  a  destiny. 

DONATISTS,  the  name  given  to  a  schismat- 
ical  and  afterward  heretical  party  in  the  Afri- 
can church.  Connected  with  this  party  were 
several  persons  luimcd  Douatus,  2  of  Avhom, 
Donatus  of  Casoo  Nigra),  in  Numidia,  and  Do- 
natus  of  Carthage,  were  eminent.  From  one, 
or  perhaps  both  of  these  men,  the  schism  re- 
ceived its  designation.  Its  first  outbreak  was 
in  the  opposition  of  the  Numidian  bishops  to 
the  confirmation  of  C;ecilianus  as  successor  to 
Mensurius  (A.  D.  311)  in  the  episcopal  see  of 
Carthage.  It  was  alleged  as  an  oflence  both  of 
Mensurius  and  Ca?cilianus  that  they  had  receiv- 
ed back  into  the  church,  and  admitted  to  full 
fellowship,  some  of  those  traditores  whom  the 
discipline  of  the  church  had  strictly  condemned. 
Traditores  was  the  designation  of  a  class  of 
Christians  who,  in  the  recent  persecution  under 
Diocletian,  had  obeyed  the  imperial  order,  and 
had  given  up  their  Bibles  and  their  sacred  ves- 
sels to  be  destroyed  by  the  pagan  officers.  A 
rich  lady  of  Carthage,  whose  excessive  reverence 
fbr  relics  Ctecilianus  had  rebuked,  lent  to  the 
discontented  the  weight  of  her  influence.  The 
Numidian  priests,  complaining  that  they  liad  not 
been  summoned  to  the  election  of  the  bishop, 
as  they  should  have  been,  met  in  council  at 
Carthage,  and  sent  for  Ctecilianus  to  appear  be- 
fore them  and  explain  his  conduct;  and  on  his 
failure  to  do  so  declared  his  deposition,  on  the 
double  ground  of  heresy  in  the  matter  of  the 
traditores  and  of  illegality  in  the  election. 
Majorinus,  the  domestic  chaplain  of  the  noble 
lady  Lucilla,  above  mentioned,  was  chosen  as 
bishop  in  the  jilace  of  Cajcilianus.  An  appeal 
was  made  by  Ciccilianus  to  Constantine,  and  the 
emperor  referred  the  matter  to  a  council,  which 
was  held  at  Rome  in  313,  and  which,  under 
the  direction  of  Jtriltiades,  bishop  of  Rome,  de- 
clared Caicilianus  innocent,  and  reinstated  him 
in  his  bishopric,  while  it  regretted,  rather  than 
condemned,  the  acts  of  the  schismatic  party. 


570 


DONATISTS 


DONOASTER 


The  Donatists  did  not  obey  this  sentence,  and  a 
new  and  more  imposing  council  held  at  Aries 
in  814  was  eciually  barren  of  result,  except  to 
inflame  partisan  Avrath.  Apjjealing  to  Constan- 
tiue,  the  Donatists  found  no  help ;  the  emperor 
fixvorcd  the  moderate  party,  and  consented  to 
the  decision  of  the  council.  The  death  of  Ma- 
jorinus  in  810  did  not  open  the  way  to  a  recon- 
ciliation. The  Nuniidian  party  chose  in  his 
place  another  Donatus,  a  man  of  largo  scholar- 
ship, pure  character,  singular  benevolence,  and 
incorruptible  firmness.  The  new  bishop  at 
once  devoted  himself  to  the  organization  of  the 
schism.  He  encouraged  his  followers  to  main- 
tain the  position  they  liad  taken.  He  counsel- 
led them  to  a  more  austere  morality,  and  a  more 
strict  observance  of  the  Christian  ritual.  They 
Avere  fined,  imprisoned,  expelled  from  the 
churches,  driven  to  the  mountains ;  but  they 
constantly  rallied,  returned,  and  drove  out  their 
rivals.  In  a  great  council  at  Carthage  of  270 
bishops,  they  affirmed  that  theirs  was  the  only 
Catholic  ciuirch,  and  that  the  churches  of 
Europe  Avere  schismatic.  Constantino  at  last, 
weary  of  the  fruitless  eflFbrt  to  silence  them, 
ceased  to  molest  them.  The  episcopal  life  of 
Donatus  of  Carthage  seems  to  have  continued, 
in  varying  fortunes,  for  more  than  30  years,  in 
which  time  the  Donatist  party  had  grown  to  be 
the  dominant  church  of  Africa,  numbering  more 
than  800  bishops.  In  the  towns  and  cities,  the 
members  of  the  sect  confined  themselves  mostly 
to  the  milder  measures  of  preaching  and  writing 
to  defend  their  cause.  But  about  the  year  347 
a  fanatical  party  appeared  in  the  mountains, 
who  delivered  themselves  to  the  Avildest  excess- 
es, going  about  the  country  plundering,  burning, 
even  murdering,  and  courting  martyrdom  as  a 
joy  and  a  privilege.  These  Circumcelliones  (for 
such  was  tiie  designation  of  this  party)  resorted 
often  to  suicide  as  a  substitute  for  legitimate 
martyrdom,  and  sometimes  compelled  strangers, 
■whom  they  met  on  the  roads,  to  murder  them. 
These  excesses  found,  if  not  a  defend(?r,  at  least 
an  apologist,  in  Donatus,  who  Avould  not  lend 
himself  as  an  instrument  of  the  emperor's  ven- 
geance, contending  that  it  was  an  affair  of  the 
church  and  not  of  the  empire.  Paul  and  Maca- 
rius,  the  envoys  of  the  emperor,  Avere  forced  to 
employ  the  army  to  disperse  and  destroy  these 
ignorant  fanatics.  These  violent  measures  only 
strengthened  the  hatred  of  the  Donatists  against 
tlie  Catholics.  The  sympathy  of  the  civil  poAver 
Avas  drawn  to  them,  and  not  bishops  only,  but 
governors  and  judges,  took  the  side  of  the  schism. 
Tiio  reign  of  Julian  Avas  still  more  favorable  to 
tlieir  cause.  They  dared  to  defend  the  out- 
rages connnitted  in  the  name  of  a  pure  religion. 
Parmenian,  successor  of  Donatus  in  Carthage, 
Avrote  an  apology  for  the  sect.  This  Avas  an- 
swered by  Optatus,  and  afterward  by  Augus- 
tine, to  Avhom,  more  than  any  other  Avriter,  the 
downfall  of  the  schism  is  due.  Half  a  century 
longer  tha  contest  between  the  2  parties  con- 
tinued to  rage,  the  issue  gradually  turning 
against  the  schism.     In  the  bcGrinninff  of  the 


5th  century  the  emperor  Honorins  attempted  a 
new  persecution;  and  in  411,  in  a  conference 
between  the  Catholics  and  Donatists  at  Car- 
thage, the  hitter  Avere  condemned  and  severo 
laws  passed  against  them.  A  few  bishops  of  the 
Donatist  party  succumbed  and  Avere  received 
into  the  church ;  but  most  of  them  resisted,  and 
Avere  driven  and  hunted  into  the  interior  region, 
and  forced  to  hide  themseh'es  in  the  mountains 
and  the  desert.  A  few  ineffectual  attemi)ts  at 
union  were  made  by  the  party  under  succeeding 
emperors,  but  before  the  close  of  the  century 
the  sect  had  become  virtually  extinct,  existing 
only  in  fragments  in  parts  remote  from  the 
coast.  The  Vandal  invasion  overwhelmed  at 
once  Catholic  and  heretic,  and  in  its  great  ruin 
made  the  church  forget  all  minor  strifes. — The 
heresy  of  the  Donatists  Avas  twofold,  a  heresy  of 
theory  and  of  practice.  Tlie  theoretical  heresy 
consisted  in  asserting  that  the  character  of  the 
minister  influenced  his  ministration,  and  that 
the  sacraments  from  the  hand  of  one  not  prop- 
erly ordained  for  the  Avork  were  of  no  value, 
whatever  the  spirit  of  the  recipient.  Tlie  prac- 
tical heresy  consisted  in  rebaptizing  those  who 
came  from  the  Catholic  churches  into  their 
communion,  and  consecrating  anew  the  sacred 
edifices  which  they  took  from  their  rivals.  The 
ground  of  their  condemnation  Avas  that  they 
Avere  exclusive  and  bigoted,  and  that  they  treat- 
ed the  Catholics  as  no  better  than  Jews  or  idol- 
aters. Donatus  and  others  of  his  party,  indeed, 
Avere  accused  of  denying  the  Trinity ;  but 
from  this  charge  they  are  expressly  absolved  by 
Augustine,  Avho  shows  that  tliey  differ  from  the 
Arian  party  in  recognizing  but  one  divine  sub- 
stance. The  Arians  sought  in  vain  to  unite  the 
Donatists  to  their  party. — An  account  of  the 
Donatists  may  be  found  in  the  works  of  St. 
Optatus  ;  in  Tillemont,  vol.  vi. ;  in  the  "Disser- 
tation" of  Collina  (Bologna,  1758);  in  Ballerini's 
history  ;  in  De  Potter's  "  History  of  Christian 
Churclies,"  vol.  ii.  (Paris,  1830);  in  Yillemain's 
Tableau  de  Veloquence  Chreticnne  au  Y'  siecla 
(ncAV  edition,  1854)  ;  and  in  Ribbeck's  Danatus 
und  Augustinus  (Elberfeld,  1857). 

DONCASTER,  a  parish  and  handsome  mar- 
ket town  of  England,  in  the  couutv  of  York, 
AVest  Riding  ;  pop.  in  1851,  12,052.  The  town 
is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  river  Don,  here 
navigable  and  crossed  by  2  stone  bridges.  It  is 
in  the  centre  of  a  populous  and  liighly  cultivat- 
ed district,  but  is  indebted  for  its  celebrity  to  its 
horse  races,  Avhich  have  an  almost  unrivalled 
reputation  in  the  sporting  Avorld.  They  Avero 
established  in  1703,  and  the  list  of  Avinners  since 
tliat  time  includes  the  best  borscv?  that  have  been 
bred  in  England.  The  famous  St.  Leger  stakes 
Avere  founded  in  1770.  The  race  course  is  2 
miles  in  length,  and  one  of  the  finest  in  tlie  king- 
dom. The  expense  of  improving  it  since  1777  is 
said  to  haA-e  amounted  to  £20,000.  The  races 
arc  held  annually  in  the  3d  week  of  September, 
and  continue  for  5  days.  Doncaster  is  the  Da- 
■num  mentioned  in  the  itinerary  of  Antoniims; 
hence  its  Saxon  name  Dona  Castre.,  and  its  pres- 


DONEGAL 


DONIZETTI 


573 


ent  name.  It  was,  prior  to  tlio  reformation,  the 
seat  of  several  convents  of  Carinelites,  and  wJiite, 
black,  and  gray  friars.  It  is  the  birthplace  of 
liichurd  Plantagenct,  of  Conisbnrgh,  and  Sir 
Martin  Frobislicr.  A  new  parish  chnrch  fin- 
ished in  1858,  at  a  cost  of  £52,000,  is  said  to  be 
the  finest  in  England.  Roman  antiquities  are 
frequently  found  in  the  city  and  vicinity. 

DONEGAL,  a  maritime  county  of  Ireland, 
bounded  on  the  1^.  and  AV.  by  the  Atlantic,  on 
the  E.  by  the  counties  of  Londonderry,  Tyrone, 
and  Fermanagh,  and  on  the  S.  by  the  counties 
of  Fermanagh  and  Leitrim,  and  by  Donegal  bay ; 
area,  1,8G5  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1851,  255, KiO.  The 
shores  are  deeply  indented  by  bays,  the  princi- 
pal of  which  are  Sheephaven,  (iliddore,  Guy- 
barra,  and  Lochrus  bays.  There  are  numerous 
islands  otf  the  coast,  and  several  lakes  within 
the  limits  of  the  county.  The  general  aspect  of 
the  surface  is  mountainous.  Nearly  |-  of  the 
land  consist  of  bogs  or  sterile  hills,  incapable  of 
cultivation.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Swilly 
and  the  Leenan,  and  the  principal  towns  Bally- 
shannon,  Letterkenny,  Ramclton,  Donegal,  and 
Killybegs.  Oats,  barley,  fiax,  and  potatoes  are 
the  staple  agricultural  productions.  Tlie  total 
extent  of  land  under  crops  comprised  232,353 
acres  in  1854,  and  228,083  in  1855.  The  fishery 
districts  employ  about  2,000  vessels  and  9,000 
hands.  The  linen  manufacture  is  actively  car- 
ried on  in  several  parts  of  the  county,  and  there 
are  also  many  corn  mills,  but  the  export  trade 
is  chiefly  carried  on  through  the  i>ort  of  Lon- 
donderry.    Capital,  Donegal. 

DONETZ,  or  Donets,  a  river  of  Russia,  prin- 
cipal affluent  of  the  Don,  about  400  m.  long. 
It  rises  in  the  government  of  Koorsk,  pursues  a 
S.  E.  course  through  the  government  of  Khar- 
khov  and  the  country  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  and 
joins  the  Don  on  the  right.  Its  banks  are  gen- 
erally fertile,  and  its  channel  is  wide  and  deep. 
The  Oskol,  the  Aidar,  the  Ivalitva,  and  some 
smaller  branches  join  it  on  the  N. ;  and  it  is 
navigable  from  its  mouth  to  Zmiev. 

DONGOLA,  a  province  of  upper  Nubia,  on 
the  Nile,  between  lat.  IS''  and  19°  30'  N.; 
length,  about  150  m. ;  breadth  equal  only  to  the 
strip  of  alluvial  land  lying  between  the  river 
and  the  desert,  and  varying  from  2  to  6  m.  It 
contains  the  towns  of  New  Dongola,  or  Maraka, 
Dongola  Agous,  or  Old  Dongola,  Debbah,  and 
Korti.  It  was  a  .Christian  country  until  the 
14th  century,  was  ravaged  and  subdued  by  the 
Sheygia  Arabs  in  the  18th  century,  and  is  now 
subject  to  the  pasha  of  Egypt,  and  governed  by 
a  bey  who  resides  at  New  Dongola.  The  inhab- 
itants are  black,  but  not  negroes,  and  resemble 
the  people  of  lower  Nubia.  The  productions 
are  indigo,  durra,  barley,  beans,  sheep,  goats, 
cattle,  and  horses,  which  rival  in  beauty  and 
surpass  in  size  the  best  breeds  of  Arabia. 

DONIPHAN,  a  N.  E.  co.  of  Kansas,  bound- 
ed N.  by  Nebraska,  and  separated  from  Missouri 
on  theE.  by  the  Missouri  river ;  area,  about  312 
sq.  m. ;  aggregate  pop.  of  12  principal  towns  in 
J859,  4,'''00'     It  is  well  watered  by  the  Missouri 


and  several  small  streams,  is  well  timbered  with 
Cottonwood,  elm,  sycamore,  &c.,  abounds  with 
building  stone,  and  is  the  3d  co.  of  the  territory 
in  wealth  and  population.  The  surface  consists 
in  part  of  rolling  ])rairics,  somewhat  broken 
near  the  streams,  but  gently  undulating  in  the 
interior.  The  river  bottoms  have  a  rich  soil, 
generally  timbered.  Tiie  old  overland  route  to 
California  crosses  the  county,  and  the  Hannibal 
and  St.  Joseph  railroad  terminates  at  St.  Joseph, 
Mo.,  opposite  Elwood.  Five  newspapers  aro 
published  in  the  county.     Capital,  Troy. 

DONIZETTI,  Gaetano,  an  Italian  composer, 
born  in  Bergamo,  Sept.  25,  1797,  died  there, 
April  8,  1848.  lie  was  originally  destined  for 
the  law,  but  showing  an  unusual  taste  for  art, 
he  was  placed  at  the  musical  institute  of  Ber- 
gamo, then  under  the  direction  of  Simon  !Mayer, 
and  subsequently  studied  at  Bologna,  under  Pi- 
lotti  and  Mattel.  At  the  age  of  20  he  had  com- 
posed some  short  pieces  of  religious  and  instru- 
mental music,  evincing  the  severity  of  his  studies 
and  the  direction  of  his  taste,  when  the  brilliant 
career  of  Rossini  captivated  him,  and  he  deter- 
mined to  write  for  the  stage.  His  father  opposed 
his  plans,  and  in  a  fit  of  pique  Donizetti  entered 
the  Austrian  military  ser\nce,  and  while  in  gar- 
rison with  his  regiment  in  Venice  produced  iu 
1818  his  first  opera,  Enrico  dl  Borgogna.  Sev- 
eral other  works  followed,  and  in  1822  his  Zo- 
raide  di  Gramfn,  produced  in  Rome,  procured 
him  his  discharge  from  the  army,  with  which 
he  had  become  heartily  disgusted.  His  works 
now  begijn  to  succeed  each  other  with  great  ra- 
pidity, and  in  1827  he  accepted  an  engagement 
with  Barbaja,  the  director  of  the  theatres  at 
Naples,  to  write  4  operas  a  year,  2  serious  and 
2  butfo,  for  4  years.  In  1830,  when  his  Anna 
Bolcna  was  produced  at  Milan,  he  had  written 
31  operas,  nearly  all  of  which  were  successful, 
but  short-lived.  At  this  time  Bellini  appeared, 
and  Donizetti,  who  had  hitherto  been  a  professed 
imitator  of  Rossini,  modified  his  style  by  bor- 
rowing somewhat  of  the  tenderness  and  pathos 
of  his  young  contemporary.  lie  even  went  to 
Paris  in  1835  to  compete  with  him,  but  without 
success,  his  Marino  Faliero  being  eclipsed  by 
Bellini's  Puritani.  lie  returned  at  once  to  Na- 
ples, and  in  G  weekscomposed  his  Lucia  di  Lam- 
mermoor,  the  success  of  which  repaid  him  for 
his  disappointment.  It  was  produced  through- 
out Europe  and  even  in  Paris  in  the  succeeding 
year  with  a  success  which  seems  undiminished 
at  the  present  day.  In  1840  he  returned  to  Paris, 
and  immediately  brought  out  Lcs  marfi/rs,  La 
favorita^  and  ImJUU  du  regiment,  the  last  2  of 
which  are  still  universal  favorites.  The  reputa- 
tion acquired  by  these  and  other  works  procured 
him  the  appointment  of  professor  of  counter- 
point at  the  royal  college  of  music  in  Naples,  and 
of  chapelmaster  and  cc)mposer  to  the  court  of 
Vienna.  His  last  operas  were  Bon  Sehastien 
(produced  at  Paris  in  1844,  and  which  he  wrote 
out  in  2  months,  remarking  at  the  close  of  his  la- 
bors :  "  Bon  Sebastien  will  be  the  death  of  me''), 
and  Catarina  Cornaro,  produced  at  Naples  in 


DONNE 


DONOSO  COPwTES 


1844.  Soon  afterward  a  mental  affection,  tlie  re- 
sult of  early  Labits  of  dissipation  and  of  excessive 
application,  compelled  him  to  abstain  from  work 
of  every  description,  and  for  tlie  last  few  years 
of  his  life  he  was  the  inmate  of  a  lunatic  asy- 
lum. In  addition  to  the  works  specilied,  he  com- 
posed Lucrezia  Borgia  (Milan,  1833),  Linda  di 
Chamounix  (Vienna,  1842),  Don  I'asquale  (Pa- 
ris, 1843),  and  Maria  di  liohan  (Vienna,  1843), 
all  of  which  are  constantly  performed  in  Europe 
and  America.  Donizetti  produced  upward  of 
GO  operas  in  the  course  of  his  life,  most  of  which, 
however,  in  consequence  of  the  haste  and  care- 
lessness with  which  he  wrote,  have  sunk  into 
obscurity.  In  the  fulness  and  variety  of  his 
melodies,  and  in  his  appreciation  of  dramatic 
fitness  in  single  or  concerted  scenes,  he  stands 
almost  unrivalled,  and  gome  of  his  works  are 
likely  to  long  retain  their  hold  upon  popular 
favor.  His  facility  was  such  tliat  he  is  known 
to  have  written  out  the  score  of  an  opera  in 
2  days.  Toward  the  close  of  his  life  his  operas 
showed  a  marked  improvement. — Ilis  brother 
Giuseppe  officiated  for  many  years  as  director 
of  the  military  music  of  the  sultan,  and  died  in 
Constantinople  in  Feb.  1856. 

DONNE,  John,  an  English  poet  and  theolo- 
gian, born  in  London  in  1573,  died  in  1631.  He 
was  of  a  Roman  Catholic  family,  studied  both 
at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  though  designed 
by  his  parents  for  the  law,  relinquished  it  in  his 
19th  year  for  theology,  which  was  the  chief  in- 
terest and  passion  of  the  time.  He  abandoned 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  for  tlie  Anglican, 
and  travelled  and  tarried  some  time  in  Spain  and 
Italy.  On  his  return  to  England  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  to  Sir  Thomas  Egerton,  keeper 
of  the  great  seal,  which  post  he  held  for  5  years ; 
but  having  secretly  married  Anne,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Sir  George  More,  and  tlie  niece  of  Lady 
Egerton,  he  was  dismissed  from  his  situation  and 
for  a  time  imprisoned  in  the  tower,  lie  Avas 
reconciled  to  Sir  George  by  the  mediation  of  Sir 
Francis  Wooley.  He  afterward  accompanied  Sir 
Robert  Drury  to  Paris,  and  returning  to  England 
was  presented  to  James  I.,  by  whose  command  he 
wrote  the  "Pseudo-Martyr  "  to  prove  that  Ro- 
man Catholics  might  conscientiously  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance.  At  the  age  of  42  he  entered 
into  orders,  and  having  at  once  distinguished 
himself  as  a  preacher  he  was  made  by  the  king 
liis  chaplain  in  ordinary  and  dean  of  St.  Paul's, 
and  received  from  tho  university  of  Cambridge 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity.  His  failing 
liealth  obliged  him  to  desist  from  preaching,  but 
a  calumnious  whisper  having  reached  him  that 
his  sickness  was  feigned  because  he  chose  to  be 
idle,  he  ascended  the  pulpit  and  preached  what 
his  biographer  has  called  his  own  funeral  ser- 
mon, which  was  afterward  printed  with  the 
siguificant  title  of  "Death's  Duel."  He  died 
soon  after,  admired  and  almost  reverenced  for 
his  holiness.  He  left  sermons  and  devotional 
and  controversial  works,  but  he  is  best  known 
as  a  itoet.  His  poems  consist  of  satires,  elegies, 
epigrams,    and    religious    and    complimentary 


verses.  His  subtle  and  vivid  imagination,  and 
his  great  simplicity  and  tenderness  of  character, 
are  manifest  amid  his  vast  learning  and  tho 
abounding  vicious  conceits  of  his  style.  Ho 
was  the  first  of  the  series  of  English  poets  char- 
acterized by  Dr.  Jolinson  as  metaphysical.  Ilia 
rugged  numbers  and  laborious  faults  made  him 
little  esteemed  during  the  last  century,  but 
lately  the  scattered  gems  of  poetry  and  melody 
in  his  books  have  recalled  something  of  his 
first  reputation,  and  his  works  have  been  repub- 
lished under  the  editorial  care  of  the  Rev.  Henry 
Alford  (6  vols.  Svo.,  London,  1839).  His  life  was 
written  by  a  contemporary  and  very  congenial 
spirit,  the  angler  Izaak  "Walton,  whose  admira- 
tion of  him  was  unbounded. 

DONNYBROOIv,  or  St.  Mart's  or  Do^^^^- 
BROOK,  a  jiarisli  and  village  of  Ireland,  co.  of 
Dublin.  The  parish  contains  the  villages  of 
Irishtown,  Donnybrook,  Merrion,  Ringsend,  and 
Sandymount;  area,  1,689  acres;  pop.  in  1851, 
ll^lY7._The  village,  2  miles  S.  E.  of  Dublin, 
of  which  it  is  a  suburb,  is  situated  on  the  Dod- 
der, here  crossed  by  a  handsome  bridge,  and 
contains  a  fine  church,  several  chapels,  a  Mag- 
dalen asylum,  a  dispensary,  a  lunatic  asylum, 
classical  and  other  schools,  a  hat  manufactory, 
and  a  number  of  mills.  It  is  celebrated  for  its 
fair,  granted  by  King  John,  and  formerly  held 
during  15  days  from  Aug.  26,  but  now  lasting 
only  a  week,  and  being  merely  a  pleasure  fair. 
It  was  originally  for  the  sale  of  horses  and  black 
cattle,  but  became  notorious  by  frequent  scenes 
of  riot,  bloodshed,  and  debauchery.  Tho  ma- 
gistrates have  succeeded  of  late  years  in  repress- 
ing such  disorders. 

DONOSO  CORTES,  Juax  Francisco  Maria 
DE  LA  Saluu,  marquis  de  Valdegamas,  a  Span- 
ish writer  and  statesman,  born  in  Valle  de  la  Sa- 
rena,  in  Estremadura,  May  6, 1809,  died  in  Paris, 
May  3,  1853.  At  the  age  of  12  he  had  finished 
his  classical  studies,  and  entered  upon  a  courso 
of  law  at  the  university  of  Salamanca.  He  was 
entirely  prepared  to  receive  his  degree  at  tho 
age  of  16,  but  the  rules  not  permitting  it  imtil 
the  age  of  25,  he  went  to  Seville,  and  employed 
the  intervening  years  in  the  study  of  philoso- 
phy, history,  and  literature.  He  commenced  his 
public  career  as  pjrofessor  in  the  college  of  Cace- 
res.  During  the  divisions  which  took  place  in 
Spain  in  1832,  with  regard  to  the  right  of  suc- 
cession to  the  tlirone,  Ddnoso  presented  a  me- 
moir to  Ferdinand  VII.,  in  which  he  pleaded 
the  Lberal  cause  with  great  eloquence.  The  king 
rewarded  him  by  a  distinguished  place  in  the 
ministry  of  justice.  After  the  death  of  Ferdinand 
he  warmly  defended  the  cause  of  Queen  Isabel 
and  her  mother.  He  was  elected  to  tlie  cortes, 
and  afterward  appointed  secretary  to  tlie  minis- 
terial council.  Differing  essentially  from  Men- 
dizabal,  who  was  at  its  head,  he  resigned  his  post, 
and  devoted  himself  zealously  to  the  tribune  and 
tlie  ])ress.  Defending  a  middle  ground  between 
absolute  power  and  revolutionary  government, 
he  was  at  this  period  one  of  the  foremost  rep- 
resentatives of  liberalism.    He  was  for  somo 


DONOVAN 


DOOR 


573 


time  the  editor  of  the  Bevisfa,  find  n  loading  con- 
tributor to  the  Piloto^  a  ncwspajier  founded  by 
himself.  At  the  same  time  he  j^uve  at  Madrid  a 
course  of  lectures  on  political  rights.  Durinj? 
the  dictatorship  of  Espartero,  Donoso  defended 
the  interests  of  Maria  Christina.  In  this  con- 
test ho  was  vanquished,  and  shared  the  exile  of 
the  queen  mother  to  France  as  her  private  sec- 
retary, and  also  accompanied  her  on  her  return 
to  Spain  iu  1843.  He  was  afterward  appointed 
secretary  to  Queen  Isabel,  and  director  of  her 
studies ;  he  was  reestablished  as  member  of  tlie 
cortes,  and  the  post  of  minister  was  oftcred 
him,  but  he  declined  it.  Shortly  afterward  he 
was  appointed  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the 
court  of  Berlin.  The  death  of  a  brother  made  a 
great  impression  on  Donoso,  and  from  that  time 
his  writings  acquired  a  strong  religious  tendency. 
In  his  speech  in  the  cortes,  Jan,  4,  1849,  he  re- 
nounced all  liberal  ideas,  which  he  designated  as 
sterile  and  disastrous  to  human  society,  wlioso 
peace  had  been  disturbed  by  them  for  3  centuries. 
This  discourse  made  a  great  sensation  in  France 
and  Spain.  A  work  of  his  in  French,  entitled  Es- 
saisiir  le  Catlwlickme,  le  lihi'mlisme^  et  le  socia- 
lisme  (1  vol.,  Paris,  1851),  maintained  that  the- 
ology is  the  proper  basis  of  politics.  It  was 
attacked  by  both  radicals  and  Galileans.  Its 
author  answered  by  sending  it  to  Rome,  con- 
demning in  anticipation  whatever  Eome  should 
condemn ;  but  hitherto  Eome  has  not  spoken, 
and  the  congregation  of  the  Index  has  not  inter- 
dicted the  book.  Among  his  principal  writings 
maybe  mentioned  Consideracions  sobre  In  dlplo- 
mncia,  y  sn  influencia  en  el  cstado  politico  y 
social  de  Europa  (Madrid,  1834);  Lc^  ley  elec- 
toral^ conslderada  en  su  base  y  en  su  relacion 
con  il  espiritu  de  niiestras  instituciones  (Madrid, 
1835);  and  a  collection  of  his  speeches  and 
early  writings  (Madrid,  1840-'5O).  The  3d  and 
last  volume  of  a  complete  French  edition  of  his 
works  appeared  in  Paris  in  1859. 

DONOVAN,  Edward,  an  English  popular 
■writer  upon  subjects  of  natural  history,  died 
Feb.  1, 1837.  His  first  publication  was  a  "  Nat- 
ural History  of  British  Insects"  (16  vols,  royal 
8vo.,  London,  1792-1813);  of  a  similar  character 
to  wliich  were  his  "  Natural  History  of  British 
Birds" (10 vols. royal 8vo.,  1794-1818);  "Fishes" 
(5  vols,  royal  8vo.,  1802-8);  "Shells"  (5  vols, 
royal  8vo.,  1803-'4)  ;  and  "  Quadrupeds"  (3  vols, 
royal  8vo.,  1820).  In  1798  he  published  in  4to. 
an  "Epitome  of  the  Natural  History  of  the  In- 
sects of  China,"  which  was  followed  by  works 
on  the  insects  of  India  (1800),  and  of  islands  in 
the  Indian  and  South  Pacific  oceans  (1805). 
He  also  published  a  little  book  of  instructions 
concerning  the  collection  and  preservation  of 
subjects  of  natural  history.  His  later  works 
were  a  narrative  of  "Excursions  through  South 
Wales  and  Monmouthshire"  (2  vols.  8vo.,  Lon- 
don, 1805) ;  a  periodical  publication,  entitled  the 
"  Naturalist's  Repository  ;"  and  an  "  Essay  on 
the  Minute  Parts  of  Plants."  The  works  of  Mr. 
Donovan  were  not  designed  for  the  instruction 
of  men  of  science,  but  they  have  been  service- 


able in  creating  a  general  interest  in  tho  sub- 
jects of  which  he  wrote. 

DOOLY,  a  S.  W.  co.  of  Ga.,  with  a  level  sur- 
face, Avell  watered  by  many  small  creeks,  bound- 
ed W.  by  Flint  river ;  area,  530  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1852,  9,321,  of  whom  3,483  Avcre  slaves. 
Pine  forests  occupy  much  of  the  land,  but  the 
soil  is  fertile,  and  the  cultivated  tracts  produce 
excellent  crops  of  grain,  cotton,  sugar  cane,  and 
potatoes.  In  1850  the  county  yielded  5,962 
bales  of  cotton,  289,378  bushels  of  Indian  corn, 
and  94,645  of  sweet  potatoes.  There  were  225 
pupils  in  the  public  schools.  Value  of  real 
estate  in  1«56,  $1,205,575.  The  county,  organ- 
ized in  1821,  was  named  in  honor  of  Col.  John 
Dooly,  a  revolutionary  officer.    Capital,  Vienna. 

DOOLY,  Joira  Mitchell,  an  American  law- 
ver,  born  in  Lincoln  co.,  Ga.,  about  1772,  died 
"May  26,  1827.  His  father,  Col.  John  Dooly,  em- 
igrated from  North  Carolina  at  the  beginning 
of  the  American  revolution,  and  did  good  ser- 
vice throughout  that  struggle.  In  1802  John 
M.  Dooly  was  appointed  solicitor-general  of  the 
western  circuit,  to  fill  a  vacancy,  and  in  1804 
he  was  elected  to  the  same  office  by  the  legisla- 
ture. He  was  elected  judge  of  the  western  cir- 
cuit in  1816  ;  and  in  1822  was  elected  the  first 
judge  of  the  newly  made  northern  circuit,  to 
which  office  he  was  reelected  in  1825.  Though 
a  man  of  vigorous  intellect  and  one  of  the  most 
successful  lawyers  of  his  day,  he  is  more  widely 
known  as  a  wit  and  humorist  than  in  any  other 
capacity,  and  probably  a  greater  number  of  an- 
ecdotes', are  related  of  him  than  of  any  other 
man  who  ever  lived  in  Georgia. 

DOON,  a  lake  and  river  of  Scotland,  in  Ayr- 
shire. Loch  Doon  is  about  8  m.  in  length,  and 
at  no  place  exceeds  f  of  a  mile  in  breadth.  It 
is  enclosed  by  the  Star  mountains  of  Kirkcud- 
bright, from  the  base  of  which  the  river  Doon 
takes  its  rise,  while  from  their  opposite  side  the 
river  Dee  starts.  The  lake  abounds  in  trout, 
and  has  an  islet  on  which  stands  an  old  castle, 
reputed  to  have  once  been  the  residence  of  Ed- 
ward, brother  of  Robert  Bruce.  The  river  Doon 
issues  from  the  lake,  and  after  pouring  impet- 
uously for  about  a  mile  through  a  wild  and 
rocky  ravine,  called  Ness  Glen,  passes  into 
gentle  and  sylvan  scenery,  and  after  a  N.  ^Y. 
course  of  16  m.  falls  into  the  frith  of  Clyde,  2 
m.  S.  of  Ayr.  About  a  mile  from  the  sea, 
close  by  the  side  of  the  river,  stands  a  monu- 
ment to  Burns,  Avho  sang  of  the  "banks  and 
braes  o'  bonny  Doon." 

DOOR  (Sax.  dor),  a  movable  shutter,  usually 
of  framed  timber,  placed  upon  hinges,  or  sliding 
in  grooves,  and  employed  for  closing  an  open- 
ing termed  a  doorway.  Doors  are  of  various 
materials,  sizes,  patterns,  and  forms.  Those 
used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  in  their  domes- 
tic architecture  were  of  wood,  usually  native, 
though  often  stained  to  resemble  rare  foreign 
woods.  In  the  mansions  of  the  wealthier  classes 
it  was  customary  to  build  porches  or  porticos  in 
front  of  the  outer  doors  ;  these  were  about  12 
or  15  feet  in  height,  slightly  exceeding  that  of 


574 


DOOR 


DORCHESTER 


the  cornices  of  the  doors,  and  the  cohimns  sup- 
porthig  them  were  often  docked  with  hunncrs 
or  ribhons.  Above  the  door  was  sometimes 
inscribed  a  sentence,  as  "Tlie  good  house,"  or 
the  name  of  the  king  under  Avliom  tlie  owner 
bad  perhaps  lield  oflice.  Tlie  doors  were  eitlier 
of  one  or  two  leaves,  turning  on  pins  of  metal, 
and  secured  Avithin  by  a  bar  or  bolts  ;  the  fold- 
ing doors  had  bolts  in  the  centre,  sometimes 
above  as  well  as  below,  and  a  bar  was  placed 
across  from  one  wall  to  the  other.  According 
to  Hamilton,  no  vestiges  of  doors  have  been  dis- 
covered in  the  temples  of  Egypt,  though  in  some 
cases  lioles  have  been  observed  in  the  stone 
lintels  and  floors,  in  which  they  might  have 
turned,  as  well  as  those  for  the  bolts  and  bars, 
and  the  recess  for  receiving  the  opened  leaves ; 
it  seems  highly  probable  that  doors  were  em- 
ployed,  and  perhaps  of  bronze,  as  the  Egyptians 
possessed  the  art  of  working  in  metals  much 
earlier  than  the  time  of  Herodotus,  who  de- 
scribes the  door  of  the  temple  of  Belus  at  Ba- 
bylon as  made  of  metal,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  bronze.  Wood  was  used  for  con- 
structing the  doors  of  Solomon's  temple :  "  And 
for  the  entering  of  the  oracle  he  made  doors  of 
olive  tree ;  the  lintel  and  side  posts  were  a  fifth 
part  of  the  wall.  The  two  doors  also  were  of 
olive  tree;  and  he  carved  upon  them  carvings 
of  cherubims  and  palm  trees  and  open  flowers, 
and  overlaid  them  with  gold,  and  spread  gold 
upon  the  cherubims  and  upon  the  palm  trees." 
(1  Kings,  vi.  31,  32.)  The  doors  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  of  the  Romans,  opened  inward  in  all 
cases,  and  the  latter  were  expressly  forbidden 
to  make  a  street  door  open  outward  without  a 
special  permission;  the  custom  of  the  Greeks 
was  exactly  the  reverse,  and  they  were  conse- 
quently obliged  to  strike  on  the  inside  of  the 
street  door  before  they  opened  it,  in  order  to 
warn  persons  passing  by.  The  Roman  and  Gre- 
cian doors  were  often  elaborately  ornamented 
with  ivory  and  precious  metals.  Those  of  the 
middle  ages  were  frequently  constructed  with 
skill,  and  embellished  with  ornamented  handles, 
knockers,  locks,  and  tracery ;  but  the  existing 
examples  are  not  numerous,  on  account  of  their 
fragility  as  compared  with  the  materials  of  the 
buildings  to  which  they  belonged. — The  propor- 
tions of  doors  vary  according  to  the  size  and  in- 
tention of  the  building;  as  a  general  rule,  for 
large  doors  the  breadth  may  be  ^  the  height, 
and  in  small  doors  ^.  In  buildings  of  any  mag- 
nitude, the  principal  entrance  should  be  in  the 
centre,  both  as  producing  greater  symmetry  of 
appearance,  and  as  communicating  more  readily 
with  all  portions  of  the  interior ;  in  the  princi- 
pal rooms  the  door  should  be  at  least  2  feet  from 
the  return  of  the  wall,  to  admit  of  furniture 
being  placed  in  the  corner  if  desired. 

DOOR,  a  N.  E.  co.  of  Wis.,  consisting  of  a 
marrow  peninsula  between  Green  bay  and  Lake 
Michigan ;  area,  G25  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855,  739. 
It  was  formed  in  1851  out  of  a  portion  of  Brown 
county.  Value  of  real  estate  in  1855,  $120,000. 
Capital,  Gibraltar,  or  Bailey's  Harbor. 


DOOSTEE,  DusTEE,  DrsEE,  Doost,  Dotjst, 
or  DcsT,  a  river  of  Beloochistan,  the  position  of 
Avhose  source  is  unknown.  Flowing  from  the 
interior,  it  traverses  the  i)rovince  of  Meki-an,  and 
enters  the  Indian  ocean  in  hit.  25°  15'  N.,  long. 
Gl°  50'  E.  Its  total  course  under  various  names 
is  supposed  to  be  about  1,000  m.,  but  it  is  gener- 
ally shallow,  and  is  of  little  commercial  impor- 
tance. 

DORAT,  Claude  Joseph,  a  French  poet,  born 
in  Paris,  Dec.  31, 1734,  died  April  29,  1780.  He 
was  intended  for  the  bar,  but  at  the  age  of  20 
commenced  a  literary  career  by  producing  an 
unsuccessful  tragedy.  He  then  turned  his  at- 
tention to  light  poems,  tales,  and  sketches,  which 
he  threw  off  with  great  rapidity,  and  by  which 
he  acquired  considerable  reputation,  although 
the  extravagant  profuseness  with  which  he  illus- 
trated his  most  trifling  works  involved  him  in 
pecuniary  ruin.  He  wrote  several  more  pieces 
for  the  stage,  which  exposed  him  to  ridicule 
from  contemporary  wits.  He  failed  to  obtain 
admission  to  the  academy,  and  but  for  the  char- 
ity of  Beaumarchais  and  Mme.  de  Beauharnais 
he  might  have  died  of  starvation.  He  expired 
in  the  act  of  correcting  a  proof  sheet.  His  works 
fill  20  vols.,  but  are  not  highly  esteemed.  His 
tales  are  humorous  but  indecent. 

DORCHESTER,  a  S.  E.  co.  of  Md.,  bordering 
on  Delaware  and  on  Chesapeake  bay,  bounded 
N.  and  N.  W.  by  Choptank  river,  and  S.  E.  by 
the  Nanticoke,  both  of  which  are  here  naviga- 
ble; area,  040  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  18,887,  of 
Avhom  4,282  were  slaves.  It  has  a  level  and 
partly  marshy  surface,  with  a  soil  sandy  in  some 
places  and  clayey  in  others.  The  productions 
in  1850  were  55,000  bushels  of  Indian  corn, 
137,470  of  wheat,  8,496  of  oats,  and  84,816  lbs. 
of  butter.  There  were  2  coach  fiictories,  1  hat 
factory,  2  newspaper  oflSces,  26  churches,  and 
798  pupils  attending  public  schools.  Organized 
in  1GG9.     Capital,  Cambridge. 

DORCHESTER,  a  township  of  Norfolk  co., 
Mass.,  on  Dorchester  bay,  an  arm  of  Boston 
harbor,  contiguous  to  Soutli  Boston ;  pop.  in 
1855,  8,340.  It  is  a  fertile,  highly  cultivated, 
and  diversified  part  of  the  count}',  laid  out  in 
numerous  villages,  and  a  favorite  residence  for 
the  business  men  of  Boston.  It  communicates 
with  that  metropolis  by  the  Old  Colony  and  the 
New  York  and  Boston  central  railroads,  and  by 
a  horse  railroad.  In  1855  it  contained  1  iron 
furnace,  1  forge,  1  manufactory  of  britannia 
ware,  1  of  starch,  1  of  cordage,  3  of  railroad 
cars,  carriages,  &c.,  2  of  soap  and  candles,  3  of 
tin  ware,  1  of  refrigerators,  3  of  chocolate,  3  pa- 
per mills,  and  1  gas  manufactory.  In  1859  it 
liad  2  banks,  1  insurance  office,  2  libraries,  11 
churches,  an  industrial  school  for  girls,  a  literary 
aiisociation,  and  a  historical  and  antiquarian  so- 
ciety in  Dorchester  village.  The  township  con- 
tains 4  post  oftices,  viz. :  Dorchester,  Neponset, 
Harrison  Square,  and  Mattapan.  It  was  first 
settled  by  a  party  of  English  Puritans,  headed 
by  the  Rev.  John  White  of  Dorchester,  England, 
who  landed  at  Nantasket,  June  11,  1630,  and 


DORCHESTER 


DORIA 


575 


established  tliemselves  vvitlihi  tlie  limits  of  tho 
present  township  on  the  IVthof  tho  same  month. 
They  soon  erected  a  cliurch,  but  no  trace  of  it 
now  remains,  and  no  one  can  point  out  where 
it  stood.  The  first  water  mill  in  America  was 
built  here  in  1G33,  and  Dorchester  has  the  honor 
of  having  originated  about  the  same  time  the 
New  England  cod  fishery.  In  ISO-t  the  N.  E. 
part  of  Dorchester  was  annexed  to  the  capital 
under  the  name  of  South  Boston.  "Washington 
village  was  incorporated  with  Hostun  in  May, 
1855,  and  that  part  of  Dorchester  called  Scjuan- 
tum  Avas  added  to  the  town  of  CJuincy  at  the 
same  time.  Edward  Everett  was  born  in  this 
town. 

DORCHESTER,  a  decayed  village  at  the  head 
of  Ashley  river,  Colleton  district,  S.  C,  18  m. 
N.  N.  W.  from  Charleston.  It  was  distinguished 
during  the  revolutionary  war  as  a  military  post, 
both  of  the  Americans  and  the  British,  and  as 
the  theatre  of  a  varietj^  of  interesting  incidents. 
It  was  settled  originally  in  1G9G  by  the  mem- 
bers of  a  Congregational  church  from  Dorches- 
ter, Mass.,  under  the  spiritual  charge  of  the  Rev. 
Joseph  Lord,  and  in  its  palmy  days  held  a  per- 
manent population  of  300  or  400  inhabitants. 
By  an  act  of  the  assembly  in  1723,  and  while  it 
was  yet  a  frontier  post,  it  was  established  as  a 
"fair  and  public  market,"  and  was  therefore  a 
place  of  gathering  for  the  people  of  the  borders, 
white  as  well  as  red.  It  was  garrisoned  by  the 
Americans  and  British  during  the  revolution,  as 
each  party  had  possession,  and  an  old  fortress 
still  remains,  one  of  the  few  evidences  of  the  old 
settlement.  Several  brisk  actions  took  place  in 
and  about  the  precinct. 

DORCHESTER,  a  municipal  and  parliament- 
ary borough,  market  town,  and  the  capital  of 
Dorsetshire,  England,  near  the  river  Erome,  141 
m.  S.  "W.  from  London  by  the  London  and  South- 
western railway;  pop.  in  1851,  6,394.  It  con- 
4;ains  3  churches,  several  schools  and  charitable 
institutions,  a  theatre,  large  cavalry  barracks, 
and  a  county  museum.  It  has  considerable 
trade  in  beer,  butter,  sheep,  and  lambs.  It  was 
fortified  by  the  Romans,  who  surrounded  it  with 
a  wall.  Athelstan  made  it  the  seat  of  2  mints, 
and  during  the  civil  war  it  witnessed  many  se- 
vere battles.  In  the  vicinity  are  the  remains 
of  a  Roman  ampitheatre  and  camp,  and  of  a 
British  station  called  Maiden  castle. 

DORCHESTER,  a  river  port,  and  the  capital 
of  "Westmoreland  co.,  New  Brunswick,  on  tho 
left  bank  of  the  Peticodiac  river,  a  little  above 
its  mouth  in  Shepody  bay.  A  valuable,  brilliant 
black  inflammable  mineral,  containing  a  large 
quantity  of  gas  of  high  illuminating  power,  is 
found  in  the  vicinity.  It  is  called  by  some  jet 
coal,  and  by  others  is  thought  to  be  pure  asphal- 
tnra. 

DORDOGNE,  a  S.  W.  department  of  France, 
composed  of  portions  of  the  ancient  provinces 
of  Guienne,  Agenois,  Perigord,  Limousin,  and 
Angouraois ;  area,  3,492  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1856, 
504,051.  It  is  divided  into  5  arrondissements, 
47  cantons,  and  585  communes.     Capital,  Peri- 


gueux.  A  largo  part  of  the  land  is  occupied 
by  marshes ;  nearly  |  are  considered  unfit  for 
cultivation,  but  the  dei)artment  is  very  rich  in 
minerals.  Iron,  copper,  lead,  coal,  manganese, 
lithographic  stones,  and  marble  are  found  in 
large  quantities.  The  surface  is  hilly,  and  cov- 
ered in  many  i)laces  with  extensive  forests. 
Chestnuts  are  abundant,  and  are  cultivated  to  a 
considerable  extent.  Game  is  plentiful,  but 
cattle,  owing  to  the  poorness  of  the  pasture 
lands,  are  raised  in  very  small  numbers.  Red 
and  white  wines  of  good  quality  are  produced  ; 
the  crops  of  grain  are  fair,  and  the  truffles  of 
Dordogne  are  esteemed  the  best  in  France.  The 
principal  mauufiictures  arc  iron,  ])aper,  brandy, 
and  liqueurs.  The  largest  rivers  are  the  Dor- 
dogne (from  which  the  department  is  named) 
and  the  Vezere,  both  of  which  are  navigable. 

DORfi,  Paul  Gustave,  a  French  artist,  born 
in  Strasbourg  in  Jan.  1833.  He  received  his 
education  at  the  li/cee  Charlemagne  in  Paris, 
and  since  1848  has  been  constantly  before  the 
public  as  a  painter  of  landscape  and  genre,  and 
as  a  designer  for  illustrated  editions  of  Balzac, 
Rabelais,  and  other  authors.  His  series  illus- 
trating the  legend  of  the  ""Wandering  Jew" 
(1856)  possesses  a  remarkable  grotesqueness  and 
power.  The  vividness  of  his  imagination  fre- 
quently, however,  leads  him  into  exaggeration. 

DORIA,  a  family  of  Genoa,  celebrated  in  his- 
tory for  the  great  number  of  distinguished  men 
which  it  has  produced  since  tlie  12th  century. 
The  influence  which  this  familj^and  that  of  the 
Fieschi,  the  Grimaldi,  and  the  Spinolas  exerted 
upon  the  destinies  of  Genoa  was  so  powerful, 
that  the  4  families  were  called  Magnce  quatuor 
Prosuino'^  the  Dorias  and  the  Spinolas  siding  with 
the  Ghibelline  party,  and  the  other  two  with  the 
Guelphs.  As  early  as  the  12th  century  many 
high  offices  in  the  state  were  held  by  members 
of  the  Doria  family,  and  4  of  them  were  distin- 
guished admirals  before  the  14th  century.  Their 
&me,  however,  was  eclipsed  by  Andrea  Doria, 
the  celebrated  ruler  of  Genoa,  and  admiral,  born 
in  Oneglia,  Nov.  30,  14G8,  died  in  Genoa,  Nov. 
25,  1560.  In  early  life  he  was  successively  em- 
ployed in  the  service  of  Pope  Innocent  VIIL,  of 
the  duke  of  Urbino,  of  Ferdinand  and  Alfonso 
II.  of  Naples ;  and  liaving  passed  some  time  in 
the  Holy  Land,  where  he  became  a  member  of 
the  order  of  St.  John,  he  distinguished  himself 
after  his  return  to  Italy  by  his  exploits  against 
Gonsalvo  de  Cordova  and  the  Corsicans.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  IGth  century  he  was  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  navy  of  Genoa,  and  soon 
displayed  the  remarkable  naval  abilities  for 
which  he  was  distinguished,  especially  by  clear- 
ing the  waters  of  Genoa  of  pirates  and  corsairs. 
"When  the  political  troubles  in  Genoa  induced 
him  to  remove  to  Monaco,  he  showed  as  much 
public  zeal  in  his  retirement  as  he  had  while  in 
power,  and  fitted  out  at  his  own  expense  12 
galleys  which  he  had  taken  from  the  corsairs. 
"When  the  war  between  Francis  I.  and  Charles 
y.  broke  out,  he  accepted  the  command  of  the 
French  galleys.     After  defeating  the  imperial 


576 


DORIA 


DORIS 


fleet  at  Harseillos  in  1524,  and  rendering  various 
other  signal  services  to  the  cause  of  France,  ho 
took  umbrage  at  the  attempt  of  Francis  to 
injure  Genoa,  by  setting  up  a  rival  for  her  in 
fortifying  the  city  of  Havona,  and,  displeased  at 
the  same  time  with  the  personal  treatment  to 
■which  he  was  subjected,  he  left  the  French 
service  to  join  that  of  Cliarles  V.,  with  whom 
he  stipulated  for  the  freedom  of  Genoa  as  the 
price  of  his  services.  By  going  over  to  the 
Spanish  Austrian  party  he  paralyzed  the  pro- 
gress of  the  French  arras  in  Italy,  and  became 
the  ^deliverer  of  his  country  by  expelling  the 
French  from  Genoa.  This  happened  in  1528. 
After  the  conclusion  of  peace  on  Aug.  5  of  the 
following  year,  Doria  was  invested  with  the  su- 
preme power  of  Genoa,  although  he  declined  to 
accept  the  official  dignitj''  of  doge,  as  this  would 
have  prevented  him  from  remaining,  as  he  wish- 
ed, attached  to  the  service  of  Charles  V.  The 
senate  conferred  upon  hira  the  name  of  "  the 
father  of  peace,"  and  ordered  a  statue  to  be 
erected  to  him  and  a  palace  to  be  placed  at  his 
disposal.  He  inaugurated  a  new  form  of  gov- 
ernment, making  the  office  of  doge  biennial  in- 
stead of  for  life,  terminated  the  fatal  dissensions 
between  the  Adorni  and  Fregosi,  and  recalled 
the  banished  members  of  tlie  Genoese  aristoc- 
racy, without  however  granting  them  on  their 
return  any  privileges  over  the  other  classes  of 
society.  While  restoring  order  and  governing 
the  altairs  of  the  republic,  he  continued  to  ren- 
der himself  useful  to  Charles  V.,  who  appointed 
him  commander-in-chief  of  his  nav}',  invested 
him  witli  the  order  of  the  golden  fleece  and  the 
principality  of  Melfi,  and  raised  the  number  of 
liis  galleys  to  22.  The  favors  of  the  emperor 
were  fully  repaid  by  Doria's  achievements  in  the 
interests  of  the  empire.  In  1532  he  took  from 
the  Turks  the  towns  of  Coron  and  Patras  in 
Greece,  and  ravaged  the  whole  coast  of  that 
country,  compelling  the  sultan  by  this  diversion 
to  evacuate  Austria  and  Hungary.  The  con- 
quest of  Tunis  in  1535  was  mainly  due  to  his 
skill  and  bravery.  In  153 G  he  took  part  in  the 
invasion  of  Provence,  captured  Toulon,  and  car- 
ried the  war  to  the  gulf  of  Lyons.  After  tlie 
defeat  of  tiie  imperial  army  by  the  French,  he 
accompanied  the  emperor  to  Barcelona  ;  and 
when,  under  the  auspices  of  Pope  Paul  III.,  a 
truce  was  concluded  between  the  2  parties,  tlie 
interview  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I. 
took  place  on  board  of  one  of  Doria's  galleys, 
this  opportunity  serving  at  the  same  time  to  ef- 
fect a  reconciliation  between  himself  and  his  for- 
mer master,  the  king  of  France.  In  Doria's  sub- 
sequent career  in  the  service  of  Charles  liis  good 
fortune  seems  to  have  abandoned  him.  In  1539 
he  neglected  to  avail  himself  of  his  superior 
force  for  the  purpose  of  defeating  at  Prevesa  the 
Turkish  fleet  under  Khair-ed-Deen  of  Algiers, 
brother  of  the  famous  Barbarossa;  and  in  1541, 
during  the  fatal  expedition  of  Charles  to  Algiers, 
he  lost  11  of  his  galleys.  On  his  return  to  Ge- 
noa he  applied  himself  for  the  rest  of  his  life  to 
the  administration  of  the  aftairs  of  the  republic, 


which  however  was  disturbed  by  the  revolution 
instigated  by  the  yieschi  family.  In  the  first 
outbreak  of  1547  his  nepliew  Gianettino  Doria 
lost  his  life  (which  caused  Andrea  to  punish 
the  conspirators  with  great  severity),  and  Fies- 
co  himself  was  drowned  accidentally.  Doria's 
death,  at  the  age  of  92,  was  deplored  as  a  na- 
tional calamity,  and  as  the  news  of  it  spread 
over  Genoa,  the  people  exclaimed :  "  Andrea 
Doria  is  dead;  the  republic  is  left  without  a 
champion."  The  statue  erected  to  him  at  Ge- 
noa  bears  an  inscription  characterizing  him  as 
"the  father  of  his  country." 

DORIANS,  the  name  by  which  one  of  the  4 
chief  branches  of  the  Hellenes,  the  descendants 
of  Dorus,  son  of  Hellen,  were  distinguished  in 
the  history  of  ancient  Greece.  In  the  remotest 
period  they  appear  on  the  classical  ground  of 
fabulous  antiquity,  between  Mount  Olympus  and 
Ossa;  then,  by  turns  conquering  and  conquered, 
in  Macedon,  on  the  island  of  Crete,  in  Doris, 
where  they  founded  the  Tetrapolis,  and  in  tho 
Peloponnesus,  which  they  entered  under  the  re- 
turning Ileraclidffi,  and  where  they  became  mas- 
ters of  Sparta,  Argos,  and  Messenia.  They  dis- 
tinguished themselves  from  other  Hellenic  tribes, 
particularly  from  the  lonians,  by  a  character  of 
dignified  solidity,  of  rigid  and  often  rough  grav- 
ity. This  manifested  itself  not  only  in  their 
manners,  laws,  and  institutions,  so  much  in  con- 
trast with  those  of  the  milder  lonians,  but  also 
in  their  dialect,  broad  and  rough,  but  strong 
and  solemn,  and  therefore  well  suited  to  sacred 
hymns  and  choruses  ;  in  the  light  hunting  dress 
of  their  women,  in  the  strong  and  unadorned 
Doric  column,  in  the  warlike  sounds  of  their 
music,  and  even  in  the  spirit  of  the  Pythagorean 
philosophy ;  while  every  thing  Ionian  was  mark- 
ed by  a  character  of  softness,  elegance,  and 
taste.  Colonies  of  the  Dorians  flourished  in 
Italy,  Sicily,  and  Asia  Minor.  Tlie  best  author- 
ity on  the  Dorians  is  K.  O.  Midler,  Die  Dorier 
(2d  ed.  3  vols.,  Breslau,  1844). 

DORING,  TiiEODOE,  a  German  actor,  bom  in 
Warsaw  in  1808,  since  1840  connected  with  the 
royal  theatre  of  Berlin,  celebrated  for  his  ad- 
mirable personations  of  Mephistopheles,  Shy- 
lock,  Richelieu,  and  similar  characters. 

DORIS,  now  belonging  to  the  eparchy  of 
Phocis,  in  N.  Greece,  a  small  mountainous  re- 
gion, watered  by  the  Mavropotamo,  anciently 
one  of  the  smallest  divisions  of  Hellas,  inhabit- 
ed by  the  Dorians,  and  bounded  by  Thessaly, 
Phocis,  Locris,  and  ^tolia.  Of  its  4  confed- 
erate cities,  the  so-called  Tetrapolis,  built  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  (Eta,  none  was  adorned  by  great 
names  or  events  of  Grecian  history.  They 
were  soon  destroyed  by  hostile  neighbors,  and 
were  in  ruins  in  the  time  of  the  Romans. — Do- 
i?is  in  Asia  Minor,  a  part  of  the  coast  of  Caria, 
settled  by  a  colony  of  Dorians,  contained  a  con- 
federacy of  6  cities,  wliicb,  though  dependent 
at  every  period  of  history  on  some  larger  state, 
had,  on  the  promontory  of  Triopion,  a  place  of 
national  assembly,  where  festivals  and  games 
were  celebrated,  and  common  afiairs  discussed. 


DORKING 


DORPAT 


577 


DORKHSTGr,  or  Darkhtg,  a  market  town 
and  parish  of  Surrey,  England,  situated  in  a 
beautiful  valley  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mole,  21 
m.  S.  W.  of  London;  pop.  in  1851,  5,990.  It  is 
noted  for  its  romantic  scenery.  The  Dorking 
fowls,  celebrated  for  their  excellent  qualities, 
and  in  such  demand  for  the  London  market,  are 
supposed  to  have  been  introduced  here  by  the 
Romans.  They  are  usually  whito  or  of  a  par- 
tridge color,  and  have  5  claws  on  each  foot. 
Tlie  neighboring  country  contains  many  beau- 
tiful residences,  among  which  are  Dcejidene,  the 
seat  of  the  late  Thomas  Hope,  and  the  Rookery, 
where  Maltlius  was  born. 

DORMOUSE,  a  small  rodent  of  the  jerboa 
family,  belonging  to  the  '^enusmyoxus  (Gmelin); 
this  genus  has  since  been  subdivided,  with  the 
addition  of  the  genera  mmcardinus  (Ray)  and 
grapMurus  (F.  Ciiv.).  The  genus  mijoxiis  has  2 
incisors  above  and  below,  and  4  molars  on  each 
side  of  each  jaw  divided  by  numerous  transverse 
bands ;  the  eyes  are  large  and  prominent ;  the 
ears  large;  the  whiskers  long;  no  cheek  pouch- 
es ;  foro  feet  with  4  toes  and  the  rudiment  of  a 
5th;  hind  feet  5 -toed  ;  tail  long  and  hairy;  fur 
soft;  claws  sharp.  Dormice  live  pnncipally  on 
trees,  eating  fruits,  and  pass  the  winter  in  a 
state  of  lethargy,  having  collected  a  store  of  food 
for  use  in  the  spring.  All  are  said  by  Cuvier  to 
be  destitute  of  a  cascuni.  The  best  known  spe- 
cies are  all  European.  The  largest  species,  the 
fat  dormouse  or  loir  {M.  glis,  Linn.),  is  about  6 
inches  long,  of  an  ashy  brown  above,  whitish 
below,  with  brown  about  the  eyes;  the  whisk- 
ers are  strong;  the  tail  is  hairy  its  whole  length, 
nuich  like  that  of  a  squirrel.  This  animal  re- 
sembles the  squirrel  in  its  manners,  though  it 
is  less  active,  climbing  trees  with  facility,  and 
rarely  descending  to  the  ground ;  it  makes  a 
nest  of  moss  in  hollow  trees,  coujdes  in  the 
spring,  and  brings  forth  4  or  5  at  a  birth  ;  it  is 
6onfined  to  the  south  of  Europe,  and  in  Italy 
has  from  remote  times  been  used  as  food.  As 
cold  weather  approaches,  the  dormouse  rolls  it- 
self into  a  ball,  and  in  this  state  is  found  iu  win- 
ter in  holes  of  trees  and  clefts  of  rocks ;  if  kept 
in  a  warm  room  during  winter,  it  continues  ac- 
tive like  ordinary  animals  ;  when  the  thermo- 
meter descends  to  about  48'^  F.  it  begins  to  grow 
torpid,  and  becomes  entirely  so  at  about  42° ; 
according  to  the  experiments  of  M.  Mangili  of 
Pavia,  a  tem])erature  in  the  neighborhood  of 
and  below  32°  revives  the  animal.  "Wlien  tor- 
pid, it  appears  as  if  dead,  with  the  eyes  closed, 
the  breathing  being  suspended  for  a  period  of 
from  5  to  20  minutes,  and  then  renewed  for 
from  15  to  30  respirations,  with  a  correspond- 
ing retardation  of  the  circulation ;  the  nature 
of  this  state  will  be  more  fully  discussed  in  the 
article  IIibernatiox.  The  garden  dormouse,  or 
lerot  (M.  quercimw,  Linn.),  is  smaller,  with  a 
thicker  body,  more  pointed  muzzle,  and  more 
thinly  haired  tail;  the  color  is  reddish  gray 
above  and  white  below,  black  round  the  eyes 
to  the  shoulders,  tail  black  with  a  white  tuft. 
As  the  name  indicates,  this  species  lives  in  gar- 
YOL.  VI. — 37 


dens,  and  sometimes  enters  houses ;  it  often 
does  mischief  in  orchards,  always  selecting  the 
choicest  fruit ;  it  hibernates,  8  or  10  being 
sometimes  found  together  rolled  up  in  a  maga- 
zine of  food  ;  tlio  scent  is  like  that  of  the  rat, 
and  the  jlesh  is  not  used  as  food ;  it  is  confined 
to  temperate  Europe.  The  common  dormouse 
(muscardiuus  avcUanarius,  Linn.)  is  not  much 
larger  than  a  mouse,  but  the  head  is  shorter,  the 
muzzle  less  jjointed,  and  the  eyes  larger;  the 
color  above  is  a  cinnamon  red,  and  whitish  be- 
low ;  the  tail,  as  long  as  the  body  and  flattened 
horizontally,  is  covered  with  hair,  quite  short, 
and  arranged  on  each  side  like  the  barbs  of  a 
feather.  This  species  inhabits  the  woods,  hi- 
bernating in  the  clefts  of  trees,  and  is  rarely 
found  in  gardens  or  houses.  The  name  dor- 
mouse, or  sleeping  mouse,  is  best  applied  to  this 
species,  as  it  most  readily  falls  into  the  lethargic 
state,  from  which  it  is  roused  cither  by  a  too 
high  or  a  too  low  temperature,  becoming  ac- 
tive in  less  than  half  an  hour ;  when  awakened, 
like  the  otlier  species,  it  partakes  moderately 
of  food.  One  of  these,  exposed  in  a  lethargic 
state  to  a  cold  which  killed  it  in  20  minutes, 
presented  on  examination  the  heart,  great  ves- 
sels, and  lungs  distended  and  gorged  with  blood. 
It  is  found  in  temperate  Europe,  occasionally  in 
England.  The  cape  dormouse  {grapMunis  ea- 
pensis,  F.  Cuv.)  is  found  in  South  Africa ;  the 
length  is  7i  inches,  of  which  the  tail  is  3  ^ ;  the 
color  is  bluish  gray  above  and  whitish  below; 
the  muzzle  and  spots  above  and  behind  the  ear 
white,  behind  the  chin  rufous;  tail  bushy  and 
penniform,  grayish  above  and  blackish  below. 
— Dormice  are  kept  as  pets,  and  may  be  fed  on 
all  kinds  of  grain  and  nuts ;  the  inner  part  of 
the  cage  should  be  stuffed  witli  fine  hay,  and 
the  whole  kept  very  clean ;  in  winter  they  should 
be  kept  iu  a  warm  room  to  prevent  their  going 
to  sleep. 

DORiST,  -JonAXNES  ALBEEcnT  Berxhard,  a 
German  orientalist,  born  at  Scheuerfeld,  Saxe- 
Coburg,  May  11,  1805.  He  Avas  professor  of 
oriental  languages  at  the  Russian  university  of 
Kharkov  from  1829  to  1835,  when  he  removed 
to  St.  Petersburg.  Since  1843  he  has  been  at 
the  head  of  tlie  imperial  library,  and  presides 
over  the  Asiatic  museum,  of  which  he  published 
a  description  in  1846.  He  has  written  several 
works  on  the  Afghan  language  and  other  ori- 
ental subjects,  and  is  noted  for  his  knowledge 
of  the  history  and  geography  of  the  Caucasus, 

DORPAT,  D(")RPT,  or  Dekpt,  a  Russian  town, 
capital  of  a  circle  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  the 
government  of  Livonia ;  area  of  the  latter,  4,257 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  190,000.  The  former  is  situated  on 
the  Embach,  here  crossed  by  a  granite  bridge ; 
pop.  in  1851,  12,683.  It  is  on  the  road  from 
Riga  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  has  2  suburbs  bear- 
ing the  names  of  those  cities.  Its  distance  from 
the  former  is  150  m.,  and  from  the  latter  170. 
It  has  a  neat  and  picturesque  appearance,  being 
ranged  in  a  semicircle,  with  clean,  well-paved 
streets,  and  a  sj)acious  market  place.  The  most 
noteworthy  of  the  public  buildings  is  the  univer- 


578 


DORR 


DORSETSHIRE 


sity,  founded  in  1G32,  when  the  town  belonged 
to  Sweden,  by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  suppressed 
by  the  Russians  in  1650,  and  reestablished  in 
1802-'3  by  the  emperor  Alexander.  Connected 
with  it  are  a  normal  school  called  the  Profes- 
soren-Iiistitut,  founded  in  1828,  and  an  observa- 
tory which  Tycho  Brahe  rendered  famous,  and 
which  in  modern  times  has  derived  additional 
celebrity  from  tlio  labors  of  Struve  and  other 
astronomers.  The  university  has  a  library  of 
about  60,000  volumes,  a  museum,  and  a  botan- 
ical garden.  It  is  held  in  high  repute,  and 
students  (numbering  from  GOO  to  700)  resort  to 
it  from  every  part  of  the  empire.  The  rector 
of  the  university  is  now  appointed  by  the  em- 
peror ;  previous  to  1851  he  was  selected  by  the 
professors  from  their  own  body.  Dorpat  also 
contains  a  college  founded  in  1589,  a  number 
of  other  schools  and  academies,  handsome  law 
courts,  and  an  ancient  cathedral,  now  partly  in 
ruins.  In  former  times  the  town  was  fortified, 
but  the  defences  have  been  disma-utled  and  con- 
verted into  pleasure  gardens.  It  was  founded 
in  1030,  and  anciently  possessed  great  com- 
mercial importance,  ranking  as  one  of  the 
Ilanse  towns.  The  Teutonic  knights  took  it 
from  the  Russians  in  1223,  and  erected  it  into 
a  bishopric  the  following  year.  This  rendered 
it  a  place  of  considerable  note,  and  for  upward 
of  3  centuries  the  bishop  exercised  almost  sov- 
ereign power  within  his  diocese.  The  see  was 
abolished  in  1558,  when  the  town  passed  again 
into  the  hands  of  the  Russians.  The  Poles 
seized  it  in  1582,  and  the  Swedes  took  it  from 
them  in  1625.  Peter  the  Great  recaptured  it 
in  1704,  and  it  has  remained  ever  since  in  the 
possession  of  Russia.  The  vernacular  language 
is  Esthonian,  but  the  best  educated  classes  speak 
German. 

DORR,  Thomas  Wilsoit,  an  American  poli- 
tician, born  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  in  1805,  died 
there,  Dec.  27, 1854.  He  was  the  son  of  Sulli- 
van Dorr,  a  successfid  manufacturer,  was  edu- 
cated at  Phillips  academy,  Exeter,  N.  H.,  and 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1823.  Ho 
studied  law  in  New  York  in  the  office  of 
Chancellor  Kent,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1827,  and  commenced  practice  in  Providence. 
Originally  a  federalist  in  politics,  he  became  a 
democrat  in  1837.  The  government  of  Rhodo 
Island  at  that  time  was  based  upon  a  charter 
granted  by  Charles  II.  in  1663,  and  the  appor- 
tionment of  representation  in  the  legislature  was 
greatly  at  variance  with  the  distribution  of  pop- 
ulation. The  elective  franchise  was  limited  to 
the  holders  of  a  certain  amount  of  real  estate 
and  to  tlieir  eldest  sons.  About  one  third  only 
of  the  citizens  were  voters.  Mr.  Dorr  was  elect- 
ed a  member  of  the  assembly  in  1833-''4-'5-'6- 
'7,  and  exerted  himself  to  procure  the  substitu- 
tion of  a  liberal  constitution  in  place  of  the  old 
charter,  but  his  movement  for  reform  obtained 
in  the  legislature  only  7  out  of  70  votes.  He 
resorted  to  popular  agitation,  and  organized  a 
suffrage  party  in  opposition  to  the  charter  party. 
The  suffrage  party,  after  holding  several  large 


mass  conventions  in  1841,  called  a  delegate  state 
convention  to  frame  a  new  constitution,  which 
was  submitted  for  ratification  to  the  popular 
vote.  It  received  14,000  votes,  a  clear  ma- 
jority of  the  citizens  of  the  state.  The  charter 
party,  however,  contended  that  the  whole  pro- 
ceeding was  seditious,  and  that  a  large  propor- 
tion of  these  votes  were  frauduleut.  -Mr.  Dorr 
and  his  party  assumed  that  the  new  constitution 
was  the  fundamental  law  of  the  state,  and  pro- 
ceeded in  accordance  with  it  to  hold  an  election 
for  state  officers.  Mr.  Dorr  was  chosen  gov- 
ernor, and  a  legislature  composed  exclusively 
of  his  supporters  was  elected,  to  meet  at  Provi- 
dence on  the  first  Monday  of  May,  1842.  The 
charter  party  also  held  a  legal  election  for 
state  officers,  polling  5,700  votes,  while  the 
suftrage  party  claimed  to  have  polled  7,300. 
On  May  3,  Mr.  Dorr's  government  attempted  to 
organize  at  Providence  and  to  seize  the  reins  of 
power.  They  were  resisted  by  tlie  legal  state 
government,  which  organized  at  Newport  on 
the  same  day,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Gov. 
Sanmel  "W.  King.  Both  sides  appealed  to  arms. 
Gov.  King  proclaimed  the  state  under  martial 
law,  called  out  the  militia,  and  asked  and  ob- 
tained the  aid  of  the  United  States  to  suppress 
the  insurrection.  A  precept  was  issued  for  the 
arrest  of  Mr.  Dorr,  charged  with  treason.  On 
May  18  a  portion  of  the  suftrage  party  assembled 
at  Providence  under  arms,  and  attempted  to 
seize  the  arsenal,  but  dispersed  on  the  approach 
of  Gov.  King  with  a  military  force.  They  as- 
sembled again  to  the  nmnber  of  several  hun- 
dred. May  25,  at  Chepachet,  10  m.  from  Provi- 
dence, but  being  attacked  by  the  state  forces  they 
dispersed  without  resistance,  and  the  affair  was 
over  on  the  28th.  Mr.  Dorr  took  refuge  in  Con- 
necticut, and  afterward  in  New  Hampshire.  A 
reward  of  $4,000  was  offered  for  his  apprehen- 
sion by  the  authorities  of  Rhode  Island.  He 
soon  returned  to  the  state,  was  arrested,  tried, 
and  convicted  of  high  treason,  and  sentenced 
to  imprisonment  for  life.  He  Avas  pardoned  in 
1847,  and  in  1853  the  legislature  restored  to 
him  his  civil  rights,  and  ordered  the  record  of 
his  sentence  to  be  expunged.  He  lived  to  see 
his  state  under  a  liberal  constitution,  and  his 
party  in  legal  possession  of  the  government. 

DORSETSHIRE,  a  maritime  co.  of  England, 
on  the  British  channel;  greatest  length  from 
E,  to  "W.  57  m ;  greatest  breadth,  40  m. ;  area, 
987  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1851,  184,207.  The  sea- 
coast  is  very  irregular,  running  out  in  several 
promontories,  and  broken  by  Poole  harbor  and 
Weymouth  or  Melcombe  Regis  bay.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Stour,  Frome,  and  Piddle.  Tho 
face  of  the  country  is  undulating,  there  being 
no  mountains,  and  the  highest  point,  Pillerden 
Pen,  being  only  934  feet  above  the  sea.  A  range 
of  chalk  downs,  entering  the  county  from  Wilt- 
shire on  the  N.,  passes  S.  W.  and  W.  to  tho 
border  of  Somersetshire  on  the  W.,  and  is  called 
the  North  downs;  while  a  similar  range,  under 
the  name  of  South  downs,  runs  S.  and  S.  E. 
from  the  W.  terminus  of  the  otherj  nearly  par- 


DOESEY 


DORT 


579 


allel  with  the  coast,  to  Poole  harbor.  The  soil 
consists  mainly  of  loose  sand  or  gravel,  inter- 
spersed ■with  clay  and  chalk,  and  in  some  places 
mixed  with  these  last,  the  conglomerate  thus 
produced  being  the  most  fertile  in  the  county. 
Beside  the  chalk  formation,  Dorsetshire  contains 
pipe,  plastic,  and  ])()ttcrs'  clays,  and  has  famous 
quarries  of  Portland  stone,  so  called  from  the 
locality  in  which  it  is  found,  and  which  is  ex- 
ported to  various  parts  of  England,  Ireland,  and 
France.  There  are  no  ores  nor  coal.  The  downs 
are  employed  chictly  as  sheep  pastures,  and  it 
is  estimated  that  the  sheep  stock  amounts  to 
G32,000,  and  the  annual  yield  of  wool  to  10,000 
packs.  Tlie  Dorset  sheep  are  noted  as  a  prolit- 
able  breed,  and  "Southdown  mutton"  has  a 
high  reputation.  Tliere  is  another  and  very 
small  breed  in  the  island  of  Purbeck,  much 
prized  by  epicures.  A  large  proportion  of  land 
is  devoted  to  the  use  of  the  dairy.  Excellent 
butter  is  made,  but  the  cheese  is  of  poor  quality. 
The  principal  grain  crops  are  wheat  and  barleJ^ 
Potatoes,  tlax,  and  hemp  are  also  raised,  but 
husbandry  is  in  a  backward  state.  The  manu- 
factures comprise  silk,  woollens,  cottons,  blan- 
kets, canvas,  ducks,  fabrics  of  flax,  gloves, 
parchment,  buttons,  strong  beer,  ale,  and  cider. 
Herrings,  salmon,  oysters,  and  large  quantities 
of  mackerel  are  taken  off  the  coast.  The  chief 
towns  are  Dorchester,  the  county  seat,  Brid- 
port,  Lyme  Regis,  Weymouth,  Poole,  Shaftes- 
bury, Wareham,  and  Shcrbourne.  Dorset  re- 
turns 13  members  to  parliament,  3  of  whom  are 
for  the  county  proper, 

DORSET,  Jonx  Stng,  an  American  physi- 
cian, born  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  23,  1783,  died 
Nov.  12,  1818.  He  was  educated  in  his  native 
city  at  a  school  belonging  to  the  society  of 
Friends,  studied  medicine  with  his  relative  Dr. 
Physick,  and  received  the  degree  of  M.D.  in 
1802.  lie  visited  France  and  England,  and  re- 
turning home  in  Dec.  1804,  began  the  practice 
of  his  profession,  in  which  his  success  was  rapid. 
la  1807  he  was  elected  adjunct  professor  of  sur- 
gery in  the  Philadelphia  medical  school,  was 
afterward  transferred  to  the  chair  of  materia 
medica,  and  having  given  2  courses  of  lectures 
on  that  subject,  was  chosen  to  succeed  Dr. 
"Wistar  in  the  professorship  of  anatomy.  On 
the  evening  after  delivering  his  introductory 
lecture  he  was  attacked  by  a  fever,  and  died  at 
the  end  of  a  week,  having  gained  at  the  age  of 
35  the  reputation  of  one  of  the  first  surgeons 
of  America.  He  contributed  valuable  papers  to 
several  periodicals,  and  published  "Elements 
of  Surgery"  (2  vols.  8vo.,  1813),  which  was 
adopted  as  a  text  book  in  the  university  of 
Edinburgh. 

DORT,  or  DoEDREcnx  (Lat.  Dordracum)^  an 
ancient  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  South  Holland,  situated  on  an  island  in 
the  Merwede,  a  river  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  Meuse  and  the  TTaal;  pop.  in  1856,  22,000. 
The  advantages  of  its  position,  10  miles  from  Rot- 
terdam, near  the  sea,  accessible  from  the  Rhine 
through  the  "Waal,  aud  having  easy  commuiiica- 


tion  with  an  extensive  inland  district,  have  ren- 
dei-ed  it  one  of  the  first  commercial  towns  of 
Holland.  From  Liege  it  receives  coal,  lime,  and 
millstones.  The  vineyards  on  the  Rhine  sup- 
ply it  with  wine,  and  from  Switzerland  and  up- 
per Germany  it  obtains  timber,  which  drifts 
down  the  river  in  largo  rafts  like  floating  islands, 
and  is  here  collected,  serving  for  ship-building 
and  other  purjjoses.  The  surrounding  waters 
afford  plenty  of  good  fish  and  wild  fowl.  A 
flourisliing  trade  is  carried  on  in  uil,  seeds,  grain, 
flax,  and  stock  fish.  There  are  oil  mills,  saw 
mills,  salt  and  sugar  refineries,  bleaching  grounds, 
and  factories  of  white  lead,  tobacco,  steel 
pens,  and  window  glass.  The  port  is  excellent. 
There  are  canals  leading  to  the  interior  of  the 
town,  and  a  number  of  quays.  The  houses 
have  an  exceedingly  antiquated  appearance ;  the 
windows  are  grotesquely  ornamented,  and  the 
gable  ends  generally  face  the  street.  The  pub- 
lic buildings  are  numerous,  and  some  of  them 
possess  considerable  historical  interest.  Three 
old  houses  formerly  used  as  doele?is,  or  places  of 
i-endezvous  for  armed  burghers,  are  still  standing. 
In  one  of  these,  now  used  as  a  public  house,  was 
held  the  famous  Protestant  synod  of  Dort,  in 
1618-19,  which  condemned  the  doctrines  of  Ar- 
minius.  The  provincial  synods  of  South  Holland 
were  held  regularly  in  the  same  place  until  1731, 
after  which  they  convened  in  the  great  church. 
Another  of  the  doelens  has  been  converted  into 
a  court  house,  and  a  public  school  is  taught  in 
the  third.  Among  the  churches,  the  chief  is  St. 
Mary's,  an  immense  building  of  great  antiquity, 
originally  used  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  and 
then  containing  no  less  than  20  chapels  and  40 
altars.  It  has  a  square  tower  of  considerable 
height,  and  a  vaulted  stone  roof.  The  pulpit  is 
a  fine  piece  of  workmanship,  of  white  marble 
elaborately  sculptured.  The  church  is  now  held 
by  the  Protestants,  who  have  beside  2  other 
places  of  worship.  There  are  also  a  new  Ro- 
man Catholic  church,  a  congregation  of  Jan- 
senists,  numbering  about  100,  and  a  Jewish  syn- 
agogue. The  town  hall  is  a  very  old  building, 
but  still  in  good  preservation.  Dort  also  has  a 
corn  exchange,  a  bank,  an  artillery  arsenal,  clas- 
sical, agricultural,  and  other  schools,  an  orphan 
asylum,  alms  houses,  an  infirmary,  and  a  lunatic 
asylum.  In  1421  it  was  involved  in  a  terrible 
inundation,  which  is  said  to  have  swallowed  up 
70  villages,  and  to  which  the  island  of  Dort  owes 
its  formation,  the  city  having  previously  stood 
on  the  mainland.  A  conflagration  in  1457  con- 
sumed upward  of  2,000  houses,  including  many 
of  the  public  edifices.  At  the  time  of  the  re- 
formation the  new  doctrines,  which  were  so  well 
received  in  many  towns  of  Holland,  found  few 
supporters  here  at  first,  though  they  were  after- 
ward received  with  avidity.  The  spot  where  the 
reformers  first  preached  in  Dort  in  1572,  beneath 
a  linden  tree  which  stood  in  front  of  one  of 
the  old  doelens,  is  still  pointed  out  to  strangers. 
The  first  meeting  of  the  states-general,  at  which 
the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces  Avas 
declared,  was  held  here  during  the  same  year. 


580 


DORT 


DORY 


Whilo  tho  disptites  about  the  stadtholdersliip 
were  raging  in  1672,  the  inhabitants  of  this  town 
sided  with  the  liouse  of  Orange  ;  in  1786,  when 
similar  difBculties  arose,  and  Prussia  interverusd, 
Dort  took  a  decided  stand  against  that  kingdom, 
and  succeeded  in  obtaining  advantageous  terms. 
During  the  wars  of  Napoleon  the  burghers  dis- 
played an  undaunted  spirit  in  maintaining  their 
national  independence. 

DORT,  Synod  of.  See  Reformed  Duxon 
Onuiicn. 

DORTMUND,  a  town  of  Prussia,  province  of 
"Westphalia,  and  capital  of  a  circle  of  the  same 
name  ;  pop.  in  1855,  20,000.  It  is  enclosed  by 
walls,  has  5  gates,  several  churches,  2  hospitals, 
and  some  other  public  buildings,  manufactories 
of  woollen,  linen,  cotton,  &c.,  4  annual  fairs, 
and  a  considerable  trade.  It  was  important  at 
an  early  day,  and  was  a  member  of  the  ETanse- 
atic  league,  but  its  prosperity  afterward  de- 
clined. Formerly  a  free  imperial  city,  it  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  family  of  Nassau-Diez 
in  1802,  and  into  the  hands  of  Prussia  in  1815. 

DORUS-GRAS,  Emilie,  a  French  singer,  born 
in  Valenciennes  in  1813.  Ilcr  father,  an  officer 
under  the  first  empire,  was  her  earliest  instruct- 
or in  music,  and  at  the  age  of  8  she  was  sent  to 
the  conservatoire  of  Paris.  Having  completed 
her  education  there,  she  made  her  debut  at  Brus- 
sels in  1830;  but  returning  to  France  in  conse- 
quence of  the  revolution  in  Belgium,  she  ac- 
cepted an  engagement  at  the  grand  opera  in 
Paris,  where  she  remained  upward  of  20  years, 
most  of  the  time  in  the  capacity  of  leading  pri- 
Ina  donna.  Her  chief  parts  were  in  Ouillaume 
Tell,  La  miictte  de  Portici,  Fernand  Cortez., 
Rohert  le  dialle,  Les  Huguenots,  and  La  Juue. 
Her  voice  has  great  compass  and  flexibility,  and 
she  is  distinguished  by  brilliancy  of  execution 
and  dramatic  delivery.  In  1833  she  was  married 
to  M.  Gras,  an  eminent  violinist,  with  whom  sev- 
eral years  ago  she  retired  from  professional  life. 

DORY,  the  name  of  a  family  of  scomberoid 
fishes,  distinguished  from  tho  others  of  the 
group  by  having  protractile  mouths.  This  fa- 
mily of  zeidcB  contains  the  6  genera  of  zeus 
(Linn.),  capros  (Lac6p.),  caiyrophonus  (Miill.  and 
Trosch.),  lampris  (Risso),  equula  (Ouv.),  and 
mene  (Lac6p.)  The  name  of  dory  is  generally 
restricted  to  the  genus  zeus  (Linn.),  character- 
ized by  one  dorsal  fin  deeply  notched,  or  2  con- 
tiguous dorsals  of  which  the  anterior  is  spinous, 
with  delicate  filaments  projecting  far  beyond  the 
spines ;  the  ventrals,  also  spiny,  are  a  little  in 
advance  of  the  pectorals;  there  are  2  anals,  or 
2  divisions  of  a  single  anal,  the  anterior  portion 
being  spinous  and  the  posterior  soft,  like  the 
dorsals ;  tho  caudal  is  distinct  and  rounded  at 
tho  end  ;  there  are  several  bony  dermal  bifur- 
cated plates  or  shields  along  the  basis  of  tho 
dorsal  and  anal  fins ;  the  branchiostegal  rays 
are  7 ;  the  teeth  numerous,  small  and  feeble ; 
the  stomach  large  and  cffical,  with  very  numer- 
ous pyloric  cjeca ;  air  bladder  large,  simple,  and 
oval.  Tho  bes*t  known  species  is  the  common 
01'  John  dory  (Z.  fuber,  Linn.),  a  fish  attaining 


a  length  of  over  2  feet,  of  a  grotesque  form, 
and  a  yellowish  tint ;  the  body  is  oval,  much 
compressed,  with  a  smooth  surface ;  the  mouth 
is  capable  of  such  protrusion  that  the  length 
from  the  point  of  the  lower  jaw  to  the  posterior 
angle  of  the  operculum  may  be  made  as  great 
as  from  this  angle  to  the  base  of  the  tail ;  the 
mouth  is  large,  and  tlie  teeth  are  in  a  single 
row  ;  the  eyes  are  large,  lateral,  high  up  on  the 
head,  and  with  yellow  irides ;  behind  and  over 
each  eye  is  a  spine.  The  general  color  is  olive 
brown  tinged  with  yellow,  with  blue,  white, 
and  golden  reflections  rapidly  varying ;  on  each 
side,  very  near  the  middle  of  the  oval,  is  a  round 
black  spot  surrounded  by  a  narrow  light  ring. 
This  fish  was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  who 
expressed  their  regard  for  it  by  giving  it  the 
name  of  Jupiter.  It  has  received  a  number  of 
popular  names,  among  others  that  of  "  St. 
Peter's  fish ;"  with  the  haddock  it  disputes  the 
honor  of  having  been  the  species  out  of  whose 
mouth  this  apostle  took  the  tribute  money,  bear- 
ing on  its  sides,  according  to  one  popular  tradi  tion, 
the  black  spots  indicating  the  marks  of  his  finger 
and  thumb ;  another  tradition  assigns  the  origin 
of  these  spots  to  the  similar  touch  of  St.  Christo- 
pher as  he  bore  the  Saviour,  wading  through  an 
arm  of  the  sea.  The  name  of  dory  has  been  de- 
rived from  the  French  adoree  (worshipped),  and 
doree  (golden) ;  the  prefix  of  John  has  been 
derived  from  the  French jrt?<?ie (yellow);  others 
consider  John  dory  a  corruption  of  il  janitore 
(the  gate-keeper),  a  name  given  to  this  species 
by  the  Adriatic  fishermen,  in  allusion  to  St. 
Peter,  who  is  often  pictured  as  bearing  the  keys 
of  the  gates  of  heaven.  From  the  resemblance 
of  the  first  dorsal  fin  to  a  cock's  comb,  it  has  been 
called  sea-chicken,  gal,  gallo,  and  in  Gascony 
jau  (cock),  to  which  also  some  have  traced  the 
epithet  of  John,  the  whole  name  meaning  tho 
"  gilt  cock  of  the  sea."  This  species  is  found  in 
the  Mediterranean,  along  the  western  coast  of 
Europe,  at  the  Canary  islands,  and  on  the  Eng- 
lish and  Irish  coasts;  in  England  it  is  most 
common  on  the  coasts  of  Devonshire  and  Corn- 
wall. Its  forbidding  appearance  has  prevented 
it  from  being  so  much  prized  as  an  article 
of  food  as  it  deserves ;  it  was  highly  esteemed, 
however,  by  the  ancient  Romans,  and  is  now 
a  favorite  fish  in  many  parts  of  England  ;  it 
appears  that  Mr.  Quin,  equally  famous  as  a 
comedian  and  an  epicure,  in  the  middle  of  tho 
18th  century,  first  in  England  discovered  the 
excellence  of  the  dory  for  the  table,  and  it  is 
said  that  the  English  name  of  John  dory  was 
first  given  to  the  fish  by  him.  It  is  a  deep- 
water  fish,  and  feeds  on  the  fry  of  other  spe- 
cies, shrimps,  and  mollusks;  the  average  weight 
in  the  London  market  is  3  or  4  lbs.,  but  some 
from  the  bay  of  Biscay  have  been  seen  weigh- 
ing 12  to  16  lbs. ;  it  often  follows  the  pilchards, 
and  is  caught  in  the  same  nets  Avith  them  ;  it 
readily  takes  the  hook  when  baited  with  a  liv- 
ing fish;  very  voracious,  it  seizes  its  prey  by 
means  of  its  protractile  jaws,  lying  concealed 
among  weeds  and  grasses.     Tho  elongation  of 


DOSITHEANS 


DOUBLOON 


581 


the  mouth  is  due  x)i'iiicipally  to  the  mobihty  of 
the  iiitcnnaxillary  and  lower  jaw  hones,  espe- 
cially to  the  lengtli  of  the  ascending  portion  of 
the  former.  A  second  species  (Z.pungio,  Val.)  is 
found  in  the  Mediterranean  ;  iu  this  the  spines 
oftlie  1st  dorsal  are  much  larger,  the  bifurcated 
spines  along  the  2d  arc  5  or  G  instead  of  9  or  10, 
the  osseous  plates  which  bear  them  are  stronger 
and  more  oval,  and  the  scapular  bone  terminates 
in  a  large,  round,  pointed  spine;  the  length  is 
about  17  inches,  and  the  coh)r  blackish  brown. 
A  species  2  feet  long  (Z.  ccqicmis^  Val.)  occurs  at 
the  cape  of  Good  Ilo[)e  ;  another  {Z.  Juponicus^ 
Val.),  of  a  grayish  yellow  color,  "with  a  deep 
blue  spot,  is  found  in  Japan  ;  and  still  another 
species  in  the  Australian  seas.  In  June,  1858, 
Dr.  D.  II.  Storer  described  the  first  species  of 
this  genus  found  in  American  waters,  iu  the 
"Proceedings  of  the  Bostcm  Society  of  Nat- 
ural History"  (vol.  vi.,  p.  385);  this  is  the  spot- 
ted dory  (Z.  ocellatus,  Storer),  captured  at  Prov- 
incetown,  Mass.  The  color  is  cupreous,  marked 
with  numerous  more  or  less  circular  dark  spots ; 
the  base  of  the  2d  dorsal  is  longer  tlian  that  of 
the  1st ;  along  the  dorsal  fin  are  7  bony  spinous 
plates,  along  the  anal  5,  along  the  abdomen 
8,  and  along  the  throat  4 ;  the  length  was  G 
inches. — The  name  of  dory  has  been  applied 
in  this  country  to  other  scomberoid  fishes  of  the 
genera  Jjl-epharis  (Cuv.),  ar(jyrciosus  (Lacep.), 
and  vomer  (Cuv.),  which  were  included  by  Lin- 
naeus and  Bloch  in  the  genus  zeus^  from  which 
they  were  separated  by  Cuvier.  These  American 
dories  have  a  very  compressed  body,  and  very 
singular  forms.  In  the  geuus  hlepharis  the 
body  is  sharp  on  the  edges,  with  a  brilliant 
smooth  skin ;  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  have  long 
filamentous  rays  from  4  to  12  inches  in  length, 
Avhich  from  their  resemblance  to  wax-ends  have 
obtained  for  them  in  the  West  Indies  the  name 
of  cordonniers  (shoemakers).  In  the  genus  ar- 
gyreiosxis  the  2d  and  3d  rays,  or  only  the  1st,  of 
one  or  both  dorsals  are  filamentous ;  the  great 
perpendicularity  of  the  facial  line  gives  a  ridic- 
ulously solemn  expression  to  this  genus;  these 
fishes  are  occasionally  taken  in  the  waters  of 
New  York,  and  are  considered  excellent  arti- 
cles of  food.  The  genus  vomer  has  a  similar 
vertical  profile  and  silvery  lustre,  but  no  fila- 
ments or  prolongations  of  the  fins ;  it  is  esteem- 
ed for  food;  the  V.  Broicnil  (A'"al.)  of  the  New 
York  coast  is  from  8  to  12  inches  long. 

DOSITHEANS,  an  ancient  sect  of  the  Samari- 
tans, so  called  from  tlieir  founder  Dositheus, 
who  was  a  contemporary  and  companion  of 
Simon  Magus,  and  flourished  in  the  1st  century 
A.  D.  According  to  one  account  Dositheus  was 
a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist^  and,  after  the 
death  of  the  latter,  endeavored  to  place  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  followers  of  that  prophet. 
Another  account  tells  us  that  ho  tried  to  per- 
suade tbe  Samaritans  to  receive  liim  as  the  Mes- 
siah. There  were  still  in  the  -ith  century  a  few 
Dositheans  who  adhered  to  their  master  as  the 
true  Messiah,  but  the  sect  was  never  of  much 
importance. 


DOUAY,  or  Doitai,  a  town  of  France,  capital 
of  an  arrondissement  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
department  of  Nord,  18  m.  S.  of  Lille;  pop.  in 
185G,  18,777.  It  is  situated  on  the  river  Scarpe, 
and  on  the  northern  railway,  thus  having  con- 
nection with  the  princiiml  towns  of  France  and 
Belgium.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls,  is  strongly 
fortified,  and  contains  several  literary  and  sci- 
entific institutions,  a  jniblic  library,  school  of 
artiUery,  an  arsenal  and  cannon  foundery  belong- 
ing to  the  government,  and  has  manufactories 
of  lace,  embroidery,  cotton,  linen,  leather,  delft 
ware,  glass,  paper,  refined  sugar,  salt,  &c.,  several 
breweries,  distilleries,  and  oil  mills,  and  an  ex- 
tensive trade.  Douay  is  a  very  ancient  town, 
and,  according  to  some,  existed  in  the  time  of 
the  Romans.  It  was  a  town  of  considerable 
importance  when  iu  possession  of  the  counts  of 
Flanders,  from  whom  it  came  into  the  power 
of  the  king  of  Spain,  and  in  1G67  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Louis  XIV.  Though  taken  by  the 
duke  of  Marlborough  in  1710,  it  was  soon  re- 
taken by  the  French,  and  its  possession  was  final- 
ly confirmed  to  them  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 
in  1713.  During  the  religious  troubles  in  Eng- 
land in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  it  acquired 
considerable  celebrity  as  the  seat  of  a  Eoman 
Catholic  college  and  ecclesiastical  seminaiy, 
founded  by  Dr.  William  (afterward  Cardinal)  Al- 
len, for  the  education  of  English  youths.  Stud- 
ies were  commenced  at  this  institution  in  15G8, 
and  for  about  10  years  its  prosperity  was  unin- 
terrupted. But  in  the  course  of  time  the  towns- 
people of  Douay,  then  subjects  of  the  king  of 
Spain,  grew  jealous  of  their  English  neighbors, 
and  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  magistrates  to 
preserve  peace,  disturbances  were  of  frequent 
occurrence.  To  prevent  further  miscliief  the  col- 
lege was  removed  to  Rheims  in  1578,  where  it 
was  protected  b}^  the  Guise  family.  In  1593  it 
was  again  established  at  Douay,  and  remained 
thereuntil  finally  broken  up  by  the  French  rev- 
olution in  1793.  A  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
English  was  made  at  this  college  by  Dr.  Greg- 
ory Martin,  assisted  by  Dr.  Allen,  Dr.  Richard 
Bristow,  and  Dr.  John  Reynolds.  The  New 
Testament  was  published  at  Rheims  in  1582,  and 
the  Old  Testament  at  Douay  in  1609  and  1610. 
This  is  the  translation  received  in  the  English 
Roman  Catholic  church,  and  known  as  the 
Ehemish  or  Douay  version. 

DOUBLEDAY,  Edward,  an  English  natu- 
ralist, born  iu  1810,  died  in  London  in  1849. 
At  an  early  age  he  made  a  tour  of  the  United 
States,  and  on  his  return  published  a  paper  on 
the  "Natural  History  of  North  America,"  and 
was  appointed  one  of  the  curators  of  the  British 
museum.  The  most  valuable  of  his  contributions 
to  science  are  the  results  of  his  res'earches  con- 
cerning butterflies,  published  in  a  work  "  On  the 
Genera  of  Diurnal  Lepidoptera,"  which,  how- 
ever, he  left  unfinished  at  his  death.  He  was 
also  the  author  of  a  variety  of  papers  on  orni- 
thology, entomology,  and  zoology,  published  in 
the  "Entomological Magazine"  and  elsewhere. 

DOUBLOON   (Sp.   dohlon),   a  well  known 


582 


DOUBS 


DOUGLAS 


gold  coin  of  Spain  and  Spanish  America,  origi- 
nally coined  of  the  same  weight  and  fineness  as 
the  Spanish  dollar,  and  valued  at  $16.  Its  sub- 
divisions in  gold  were  the  half  doubloon,  the 
quarter  or  pistole,  the  eighth  or  escudo,  and  in 
Spain  the  sixteenth  or  Teintein.  It  is  still  coined 
in  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  most  of  the 
South  American  states,  but  owing  to  a  reduc- 
tion of  fineness  is  worth  only  from  $15  50  to 
$15  GO  of  our  money.     (See  Coixs.) 

DOUBS,  a  department  on  the  E.  frontier  of 
France,  named  from  the  river  Doub?,  wliich  rises 
in  the  Jura,  and  empties  into  the  Saone ;  area, 
2,020  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1856,  286,888.  Its  sur- 
face is  for  the  most  part  mountainous,  gradually 
rising  from  the  more  level  country  in  the  N.  W. 
of  the  department  to  tlie  rugged  and  sterile 
mountain  peaks  on  the  frontier  of  Switzerland. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Doubs  and  the 
Oignon,  though  there  is  a  large  number  of 
smaller  streams.  Agriculture  is  carried  on  to 
some  extent,  but  the  grain  raised  is  insufficient 
for  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants.  Much  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  the  raising  of  horses  and  cattle, 
and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  department 
is  devoted  to  pasturage.  There  are  some  iron 
mines,  wliich  are  worked,  and  coal,  gypsum, 
building  stone,  and  salt  are  also  produced.  The 
manufactures  comprise  clocks,  paper,  leather, 
woollen  and  cotton  cloth,  iron  and  steel  ware, 
butter,  cheese,  &c.  The  climate  is  somewhat 
variable,  but  is  on  the  whole  cold,  and  in  the 
lower  parts  of  the  department  much  rain  falls. 
The  country  is  nevertheless  healthy,  and  the 
ialiabitants  vigorous  and  sturdy.  It  is  divided 
into  4  axTondissements.     Capital,  Besanoon. 

DOUCE,  Francis,  an  English  antiquary,  born 
in  1762,  died  in  London,  March  80,  1834.  He 
collected  a  great  number  of  rare  books,  prints, 
medals,  coins,  &c.,  the  most  important  of  which 
he  bequeathed  at  his  death  to  the  Bodleian  li- 
brary. His  papers  he  gave  to  the  British  mu- 
seum, on  condition  that  the  box  which  contained 
them  should  not  be  opened  until  the  year  1900. 
Mr.  Douce  contributed  some  papers  to  the  "Ar- 
chffiologia,"  and  to  the  "Gentleman's  Magazine," 
and  was  the  author  of  "Illustrations  of  Shake- 
speare and  Ancient  Manners"  (3  vols.  8vo.,  Lon- 
don, 1807),  and  a  "Dissertation  on  the  Dance 
of  Death"  London,  1833). 

DOUGHTY,  TnoMAs,  an  American  landscape 
painter,  born  in  Philadelphia,  July  19,  1793, 
died  in  New  York,  July  24,  1856.  He  was  ap- 
prenticed in  his  youth  to  a  leather  manufac- 
turer, and  afterward  carried  on  the  business 
on  his  own  account.  A  growing  taste  for  art, 
however,  induced  him  in  his  28th  year,  con- 
trary to  tlie  advice  of  his  friends,  to  become  a 
painter.  He  had  previously  attempted  a  few 
paintings  in  oil,  which  he  himself  has  character- 
ized as  "  mere  daubs,"  and  had  received  a  quar- 
ter's tuition  in  India  ink  drawing.  He  practised 
his  profession  for  many  years  in  the  United 
States,  and  also  in  London  and  Paris.  For  some 
years  previous  to  his  death  his  pencil  was  less 
active. 


DOUGLAS.  I.  A  S.  TV.  co.  of  Oregon,  bound- 
ed E.  by  the  Cascade  range,  and  drained  by  Ump- 
qua  river  and  its  branches ;  pop.  in  1858,  2,105, 
Organized  in  1855.  Capital,  AVinchester.  II.  An 
E.  CO.  of  Nebraska,  bounded  E.  by  the  Missouri, 
which  separates  it  from  Iowa,  and  W.  by  the 
Platte  river.  It  is  drained  by  Elkhorn,  Big 
Papillon,  and  Little  Papillon  rivers.  Capital, 
Omaha  City.  III.  An  E.  co.  of  Kansas,  bounded 
N.  by  Kansas  river,  and  drained  by  tlie  "Wauka- 
rusa;  area,  500  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1859,  about  12,- 
000.  It  consists  chiefly  of  rolling  uplands,  with 
a  black  loamy  soil,  well  timbered,  and  producing 
Indian  corn,  wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  sorghum,  and 
hemp.  The  minerals  are  coal  and  carboniferous 
limestone.  The  county  was  settled  in  1854, 
and  its  name  was  changed  to  Lincoln  in  1859. 
Chief  towns,  Lawrence  and  Lecompton ;  the 
latter  is  the  capital  of  the  territory. 

DOUGLAS.  I.  A  seaport  town  on  the  E.  coast 
of  the  isle  of  Man ;  pop.  in  1851,  9,880.  It  is  the 
capital  of  the  island,  and  a  watering  place  of  much 
resort.  It  has  a  harbor  capable  of  admitting 
vessels  of  10  or  12  feet  draught  at  high  water, 
and  a  pier  520  feet  in  length.  Steamers  from 
Liverpool,  Glasgow,  and  A'arious  ports  of  Ire- 
land, often  touch  here.  Ship-building  is  carried 
on  to  some  extent,  and  many  of  the  inhabitants 
are  employed  in  the  coasting  trade  and  the  fish- 
eries. II.  A  village  and  parish  of  Lanarkshire, 
Scotland,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name ;  pop.  in 
1851,  2,611.  The  parish  is  owned  almost  entire- 
ly by  the  heir-at-law  of  tlie  Douglas  family,  who 
takes  from  this  place  his  title  of  baron.  The  duke 
of  Hamilton  is  marquis  of  Douglas.  Near  thQ 
village  are  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  church  of  St. 
Bride,  noted  for  its  numerous  family  tombs, 
among  which  is  a  monument  to  "  the  good  Lord 
James,"  the  friend  of  Robert  Bruce  and  the  hero 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  tale,  "Castle  Dangerous." 

DOUGLAS,  a  Scottish  family,  once  so  power- 
ful that  it  passed  into  a  proverb :  "  No  man  may 
touch  a  Douglas,  nor  a  Douglas's  man,  for  if  ho 
do,  he  is  sure  to  come  by  the  waur  (worse)."  The 
fiimily  has  been  connected  with  the  most  dis- 
tinguished nobles  of  England,  Scotland,  Franco, 
and  Sweden,  and  has  intermarried  11  times 
with  the  royal  houses  of  Scotland,  once  with 
that  of  England,  and  in  1841  with  a  princess 
of  Baden.  It  held  for  a  time  the  earldom  of 
Athol,  and  one  of  its  members  acquired  in  the 
14th  century  the  title  of  earl  of  Douglas  and 
Mar.  The  earls  of  Angus  afterward  became 
the  heads  of  the  family,  and  the  11th  of  that 
title  was  created  marquis  of  Douglas  in  1683, 
wdiile  another  branch  acquired  the  earldom  of 
Queensberry.  The  3d  marquis  was  made  a  duke, 
but  dying  without  issue  the  title  of  marquis  of 
Douglas  fell  to  the  duke  of  Hamilton,  and  tho 
chief  dignities  of  the  family  are  now  held  by  tho 
houses  of  Buccleugh  and  Queensberry.  Baron 
James  Douglas  of  Douglas  was  a  son  of  Archibald 
Stewart,  nephew  of  Archibald,  duke  of  Douglas, 
whose  legitimacy  was  contested  by  the  duke  of 
Hamilton;  it  being  alleged  on  Stewart's  behalf 
that  he  was  one  of  a  pair  of  twins  born  in  Pariay 


DOUGLAS 


583 


July  10,  1748,  when  his  motlior  was  in  lier  51st 
year ;  the  other  twin  was  said  to  liave  died  in  in- 
fancy, Tlie  Sootcli  courts  determined  in  favor 
of  Ilaniiiton,  but  the  liouse  of  lords  reversed  the 
judgment.  This  suit,  known  as  the  Douglas  case, 
was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  ever  liti- 
gated in  Great  Britain.  Mr.  Stewart  was  ele- 
vated to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Douglas  in  1790. 
Baron  James,  the  late  peer,  died  April  G,  1857, 
when  this  title  became  extinct,  and  the  estates  de- 
volved on  his  half  sister,  Lady  Montagu.  Among 
the  present  representatives  of  tlie  great  Douglas 
family  is  Sir  Robert  Douglas,  an  officer  in  the 
army,  born  July  19,  1837. 

DOUGLAS,  David,  a  British  botanist,  born  in 
Scone,  Scotland,  in  1798,  killed  in  the  Sandwich 
islands,  July  12,1834.  Having  been  employed  as 
a  laborer  in  the  Glasgow  botanic  garden,  his  in- 
telligence attracted  the  notice  of  Dr.  (afterward 
Sir  William)  Uooker,  who  procured  for  liim  an 
appointment  as  botanical  collector  to  the  horti- 
cultural society  of  London.  In  this  capacity  lie 
travelled  extensively  in  America;  in  1824  ex- 
plored the  Columbia  river  and  California,  and 
in  1837  traversed  the  continent  from  Fort  Van- 
couver to  Hudson's  bay,  where  he  met  Sir  John 
Franklin,  and  I'eturned  with  liim  to  England. 
He  made  a  second  visit  to  the  Columbia  in  1829, 
and  afterward  went  to  the  Sandwich  islands. 
His  death  was  caused  by  falling  into  a  pit  made 
to  entrap  wild  cattle,  where  he  was  killed  and 
mutilated  by  an  animal  previously  entrapped. 
Through  his  agency  217  new  species  of  plants 
W'ere  introduced  into  England.  He  collected 
800  specimens  of  the  California  flora.  A  gigan- 
tic species  of  pine  which  he  discovered  in  Cali- 
fornia is  named  after  him  plnus  iJovglnsii. 

DOUGLAS,  Gawix,  or  Gavix,  a  Scottish  poet, 
bishop  of  Dunkeld,  youngest  son  of  Archibald, 
5th  earl  of  Angus,  born  in  Brechin  about  1474, 
died  of  the  plague  in  London  in  1521  or  1522. 
He  was  educated  for  the  church,  partly  in  Scot- 
Land  and  partly  at  Paris,  and  when  22  years  of 
age  was  appointed  rector  of  Hawick.  AVhile  in 
this  office  he  translated  into  verse  Ovid's  "  Rem- 
edy of  Love."  In  1501  he  stddressed  to  King 
James  IV.  the  "  Palace  of  Honor,"  an  allegory 
which  resembles  so  much  in  structure  the  "Pil- 
grim's Progress,"  that  Bunyan  has  been  thought 
to  have  borrowed  the  idea  of  his  work  from 
that  of  the  Scotch  bishop.  In  1509  he  was  ap- 
pointed provost  of  St.  Giles's,  Edinburgh.  At 
the  solicitation  of  Lord  Sinclair,  who  afterward 
fell  at  Flodden,  he  translated  the  iEneid  into 
Scottish  verse,  Tlie  original  issue  bears  the 
title  page  :  "  The  xiii.  bukes  of  Encados  of  the 
famosc  poet  Virgill,  trauslatet  out  of  Latyne 
verses  into  Scottish  metir,  bi  the  Reuerend 
Father  in  God,  Mayster  Gawin  Douglas,  Bish- 
op of  Dunkel,  &  vukil  to  the  Erie  of  Angus : 
euery  buke  hauiug  hys  perticular  prologe " 
(4to.,  London,  1553).  This  work  was  written 
in  16  months  and  finished  in  1513,  though  first 
printed  40  years  later.  It  is  praised  for  its 
spirit  and  fidelity.  The  13th  book  was  the  pro- 
duction of   Mapheus  Vegius.     In  Sept.    1513, 


"the  provost  of  St.  Giles,"  as  he  was  now  call- 
ed, accom])anied  the  king  to  Flodden  field, 
where  liis  2  elder  brothers,  the  master  of  An- 
gus and  Sir  William  Douglas,  with  200  gen- 
tlemen of  their  name,  were  slain.  Soon  after- 
ward the  earl  his  fatlier  died  of  grief.  The 
chief  of  Douglas  was  now  the  young  earl  of 
Angus,  nejihew  of  Gawin.  This  youth  married 
the  queen  regent,  and  was  the  means  of  Gawin's 
obtaining  the  abbacy  of  Aberbrotliwick,  and  a 
nomination  to  the  archbishopric  of  St.  Andrew's, 
which  would  have  made  him  head  of  the  church 
in  Scotland.  The  pope  would  not  assent  to  this 
appointment,  and  as  the  partisans  of  the  various 
candidates  appealed  to  arms,  it  ended  in  Gawin's 
abbacy  being  taken  from  him.  Thereupon  the 
queen  made  him  bishop  of  Dunkeld,  in  1515. 
On  taking  pos,session  of  his  see  he  found  it  in 
armed  possession  of  the  earl  of  Athol's  brother, 
Andrew  Stewart.  Douglas's  friends  rallied  in 
force  and  took  the  cathedral,  after  which  the 
contention  went  on  for  years  between  the  rival 
fiimilies  of  Angus  and  Hamilton,  and  in  April, 
1520,  both  families  met  in  Edinburgh  to  fight  it 
out.  Bishop  Gawin,  foreseeing  bloodshed,  be- 
sought Beaton,  archbishop  of  Glasgow,  a  par- 
tisan of  the  Ilamiltons,  to  prevent  the  fray. 
The  arclibishop,  who  was  in  canonical  habit, 
struck  his  hand  on  his  breast  and  declared  on 
his  conscience  that  he  knew  nothing  of  any  at- 
tempted violence.  Unfortunately  the  archbishop 
had  armor  under  his  gown,  intending  himself 
to  take  part  in  the  fight ;  his  gesture  of  assev- 
eration caused  the  steel  to  clash.  "  Methinks," 
said  Douglas  drily,  "  your  conscience  clatters." 
Douglas's  intercessions  Avere  of  no  aVail ;  the 
forces  of  the  rival  lords  met.  Hamilton  was 
defeated,  and  the  bishop  had  the  revenge,  later 
in  the  day,  of  saving  the  life  of  Beaton,  whom 
the  victors  were  about  to  slay  on  the  altar  of 
Blackfriars'  church.  Xext  year  the  regent  Al- 
bany called  tlie  Angus  party  to  account,  and 
the  earl,  with  Gawin  and  the  chief  men  of  his 
name,  were  forced  to  fly  to  England,  where 
Henry  VIII.  received  them  well,  and  allowed 
Gawin  a  pension.  An  allegorical  poem  of  his, 
entitled  "King  Hart,"  was  left  in  manuscript, 
and  published  by  Pinkerton  in  his  "Ancient 
Scottish  Poems,"  1788.  According  to  Hallam, 
"  the  character  of  Douglas's  original  poetry 
seems  to  be  that  of  the  middle  ages  in  general — 
prolix,  though  sometimes  animated,  description 
of  sensible  objects."  Warton  thinks,  on  the 
contrary,  that  his  metrical  prologues  are  "  often 
highly  poetical,  and  show  that  Douglas's  proper 
walk  was  original  poetry." 

DOUGLAS,  Sir  Howakd,  an  English  general,, 
born  in  Gosport,  Hampshire,  July  1,  1776.  He 
entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  served  in  Wal- 
cheren,  and  in  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  cam- 
paisxns  in  1808-'9-"ll-'12.  He  succeeded  his 
bro"ther  as  3d  baronet,  May  24,  1809.  In  1823: 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  Xew  Brunswick, 
and  held  that  office  until  1829,  in  which  year  he 
received  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  from  the  univer- 
sity of  Oxford.    He  was  lord  high  commissioner 


584 


DOUGLAS 


of  the  Ionian  isLancls  from  1835  to  1840,  and- 
member  of  parliament  for  Liverpool  from  1842 
to  1847.  lie  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  general 
in  1851.  Sir  Howard  is  the  author  of  several 
valuable  works  on  military  science,  among  wliich 
are  an  essay  "  On  the  Construction  of  Military 
Bridges,"  &c.  (1817),  and  "  A  Treatise  on  Faval 
Gunnery"  (1819).  In  a  4th  edition  of  the  lat- 
ter Avork,  published  in  1855,  he  reviewed  very 
severely  the  military  operations  in  the  Crimea. 
DOUGLAS,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  pre- 
late, born  in  Pittenweem,  Fift-sliire,  Scotland, 
in  1721,  died  in  Salisbury,  May  18,  1807.  Ho 
was  chaplain  to  a  regiment  of  foot  guards 
serving  in  Flanders,  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  Fontenoy  (1745),  and  was  employed  Ijy  Gen. 
Campbell  in  carrying  orders.  After  having  held 
various  ecclesiastical  benefices,  chiefly  through 
the  patronage  of  the  earl  of  Bath,  in  1781  he 
"was  chosen  president  of  Sion  college;  in  1787 
was  made  bishop  of  Carlisle  ;  in  the  succeeding 
year  became  dean  of  Windsor;  and  in  1792  was 
translated  to  the  see  of  Salisbury.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  royal  society,  and  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  antiquarian  society.  Beside  an 
early  literary  effort  entitled  "A Vindication  of 
Milton  from  the  charge  of  Plagiarism,"  Dr. 
Douglas  wrote  many  religious  and  political  pam- 
phlets, lie  also  superintended  in  17G2  the  pub- 
lication of  the  2d  Lord  Clarendon's  '-'Diary  and 
Letters;"  in  1777,  Lord  llardwick's  "Miscella- 
neous Papers,"  and  Capt.  Cook's  second  voyage ; 
and  in  1781,  Capt.  Cook's  last  voyage.  His  reli- 
gious writings  Avere  several  anniversary  ser- 
mons ;  the  "  Criterion,  or  Miracles  Examined," 
intended  as  a  vindication  of  the  Christian  mir- 
acles from  the  attacks  of  Hume ;  with  sundry 
controversial  discourses  against  the  llutchin- 
sonians,  Methodists,  and  other  sects.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  club  instituted  by  Dr.  Johnson, 
and  is  accordingly  mentioned  by  Boswell  and 
Goldsmith. 

DOUGLAS,  Stephen  Arnold,  an  American 
statesman,  born  at  Brandon,  Eutland  co.,  Vt., 
April  23,  1813.  His  father  was  a  native  of  the 
state  of  New  York,  and  a  physician  of  consider- 
able reputation.  He  died  suddenly  of  apoplexy 
when  Ids  son  Stephen  Arnold  was  but  little  more 
ithan  2  months  old.  The  widow,  with  her  infant 
and  a  daughter  only  18  months  older,  retired  to 
a  farm  which  she  had  inherited  conjointly  with 
:an  unmarried  brother.  At  the  age  of  15  her  son, 
'Who  had  received  a  good  common  school  educa- 
•tion,  desired  to  prepare  for  college ;  but  his  family 
proving  unable  to  bear  the  requisite  expense,  ho 
left  the  farm,  determined  to  earn  his  own  living, 
and  engaged  himself  as  an  apprentice  to  the  trade 
of  cabinet  making,  at  which  he  worked  a  year 
and  a  dialf,  partly  at  Middlebury  and  partly  at 
Brandon,  when  his  health  became  so  imj)aired 
by  the  severity  of  the  labor  that  he  abandoned 
=the  occupation  altogether.  He  has  often  since 
.said  that  the  happiest  days  of  his  life  were  passed 
in  the  workshop.  He  now  entered  the  academy 
at  Brandon  as  a  student,  and  remained  there  a 
;year.  .His  mother  about  this  time  was  married 


to  Mr.  Granger,  of  Ontario  co.,  K  Y.,  to  whose 
son  her  daughter  had  been  previously  married. 
Young  Douglas  removed  with  his  mother  to  Can- 
andaigua,  and  entered  as  a  student  the  academy 
of  that  pilace,  in  which  he  continued  till  1833. 
He  studied  law  in  the  office  of  the  Messrs.  Hub- 
bell,  at  the  same  time  that  he  pursued  his  aca- 
demical coursCj  having  fmally  adopted  that  as  his 
profession.  In  the  spring  of  1833  he  Avent  to  the 
West  in  search  of  an  eligible  place  in  Avhich  to 
establish  himself  as  a  lawyer.  At  Cleveland  he 
Avas  detained  the  Avhole  summer  by  severe  illness, 
after  his  recovery  from  Avhicli  he  went  to  Cincin- 
nati, Louisville,  St.  Louis,  and  Jacksonville,  111. 
At  Jacksonville  he  found  his  funds  reduced  to 
37i  cents,  and  accordingly  walked  to  AVinches- 
ter,  a  little  toAvn  IG  miles  distant,  Avhere  he  hoped 
to  get  employment  as  a  school  teacher.  He  found 
there  a  large  croAvd  assembled  to  attend  the  auc- 
tion sale  of  the  stock  of  a  deceased  trader.  The 
auctioneer  Avas  without  a  clerk  to  keep  the  ac- 
count of  the  sale,  and  perceiving  that  Mr,  Doug- 
las, Avho  stood  among  the  spectators,  looked  like 
a  man  Avho  could  write  and  keep  accounts,  re- 
quested him  to  serve  in  that  capacity.  Mr. 
Douglas  consented,  and  acted  as  clerk  during 
the  three  days  of  the  sale,  receiving  for  his  ser- 
vices $6..  With  this  capital  in  hand  he  prompt- 
ly opened  a  school,  and  obtained  40  pupils, 
Avhom  he  taught  for  3  montlis  at  $3  a  quarter, 
devoting  his  evenings  to  the  study  of  some  law 
books  Avhich  he  had  borrowed  in  Jacksonville, 
and  on  Saturday  afternoons  practising  in  petty 
cases  before  the  justice  of  peace  of  the  toAvn.  In 
March,  1834,  he  opened  an  office  and  began 
practice  in  the  higher  courts,  for  which,  after 
examination,  he  had  obtained  license  from  the 
judges  of  the  supreme  court.  He  Avas  remark- 
ably successful  at  the  bar,'  as  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  within  a  year  from  his  admis- 
sion, Avhile  not  yet  22  y€ars  of  age,  lie  was 
elected  by  tlie  legislature  attorney-general  of 
the  state.  This  office  he  resigned  in  L)ec.  1835, 
in  consequence  of  having  been  elected  to  the 
legislature  by  the  democrats  of  Morgan  co.  Ho 
took  his  seat  in  the  house  of  representatives,  the 
youngest  member  of  that  body.  In  1837  he  Avas 
appointed  by  President  Van  Buren  register  of 
the  land  office  at  Springfield,  111.,  a  post  which 
he  resigned  in  1839.  In  Nov.  1837,  Mr.  Doug- 
las received  the  democratic  nomination  for  con- 
gress, although  he  Avas  under  25  years  of  age, 
and  consequently  ineligible.  He  however  at- 
tained the  requisite  age  before  the  day  of  elec- 
tion, Avhich  Avas  the  1st  Monday  in  Aug.  1838. 
His  congressional  district  Avas  then  the  most 
populous  one  in  the  United  States,  and  the  can- 
vass Avas  conducted  Avith  extraordinary  zeal  and 
energy.  Upward  of  30,000  votes  Avere  cast, 
and  the  whig  candidate  Avas  declared  to  be 
elected  by  a  majority  of  5  only.  A  number  of 
ballots  sufficient  to  have  changed  the  result 
Avere  rejected  by  the  canvassers  because  tho 
name  of  Mr.  Douglas  Avas  incorrectly  spelled. 
After  this  defeat,  Avhich  under  the  circum- 
stances Avas  claimed  by  his  friends  as  a  victory, 


DOUGLAS" 


585 


Mr.  Douglas  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  liis 
profession  until  18-iO,  ■when  he  entered  into  the 
famous  presidential  campaifj;n  of  tliat  year  with 
so  nnich  ardor  that  he  traversed  the  state  in  all 
directions  for  7  months,  and  addressed  more  than 
200  political  gatherings.  To  his  exertions  was 
ascribed  the  adherence  of  Illinois  at  that  electinn 
to  the  democratic  party.  In  Dec.  1 840,  Mr.  Doug- 
las Avas  appointed  secretary  of  state  of  Illinois. 
In  Fob.  18-41,  he  was  elected  by  the  legislature 
a  judge  of  the  supreme  court,  which  office  ho 
resigned  in  1843  to  accept  the  democratic  nom- 
ination for  congress,  which  was  urged  upon  him 
against  his  known  wishes,  on  the  ground  that 
he  was  the  only  democrat  who  could  be  electe<l. 
After  a  spirited  canvass  Mr.  Douglas  was  chosen 
by  upward  of  400  majority.  lie  was  reelected 
in  1844  by  a  majority  of  1,900,  and  again  in 
1846  by  nearly  3,000  majority.  He  did  not, 
however,  take  his  seat  under  the  lust  election, 
liaving  in  the  mean  time  been  chosen  to  the 
senate  of  the  United  States  for  G  years  from 
March  4,  184T.  In  the  house  of  representatives 
Mr.  Douglas  was  prominent  among  those  avIio, 
in  the  Oregon  controversy  with  Great  Britain, 
maintained  that  our  title  to  the  whole  of  Oregon 
Bp  to  lat.  54°  40'  was  "  clear  and  uncpiestiona- 
ble."  lie  declared  that  "  he  never  would,  now 
or  hereafter,  yield  up  one  inch  of  Oregon,  either 
to  Great  Britain  or  any  other  government."  He 
advocated  the  policy  of  giving  notice  to  termi- 
nate the  joint  occupation ;  of  establishing  a  ter- 
ritorial government  over  Oregon,  protected  by 
a  sufficient  military  force ;  and  of  putting  the 
country  at  once  in  a  state  of  preparation,  so 
that  if  war  sliould  result  front  the  assertion  of 
our  just  rights,  we  might  drive  "  Great  Britain 
and  the  last  vestiges  of  royal  authority  from  the 
continent  of  North  America,  and  make  the 
United  States  an  ocean-bound  republic."  He 
denied  the  right  of  the  federal  government  to 
prosecute  a  system  of  internal  improvements  in 
the  states,  though  he  maintained  the  constitu- 
tionality and  expediency  of  improving  rivers, 
harbors,  and  navigable  waters,  and  advocated  a 
scheme  of  tonnage  duties  for  that  purpose,  to  bo 
levied  and  expended  by  the  local  authorities. 
He  was  mainly  instrumental  in  securing  the 
passage  of  the  law  extending  the  maritime  and 
admiralty  jurisdiction  of  the  federal  cqiirts  over 
the  great  chain  of  northern  lakes,  having  re- 
ported the  bill  as  a  member  of  the  judiciary 
committee,  and  put  it  upon  its  passage,  when  a 
member  of  the  house  of  representatives.  He 
Avas  among  the  earliest  advocates  of  the  annex- 
ation of  Texas,  and  after  the  treaty  for  that  ob- 
ject had  failed  in  the  senate,  he  was  one  of  those 
who  introduced  propositions,  in  the  form  of  joint 
resolutions,  as  a  substitute  for  that  treaty.  As 
chairman  of  the  committee  on  territories  in 
1846  he  reported  the  joint  resolution  declaring 
'  Texas  to  be  one  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
and  he  vigorously  sitstained  the  administration 
of  President  Polk  in  the  measures  which  it  ad- 
opted for  the  prosecution  of  the  war  with  Mex- 
ico, which  was  the  ultimate  consequence  of  that 


act.  As  chair)  nan  of  the  territorial  committee, 
first  in  tlie  house  of  representatives,  and  after- 
ward in  the  senate,  he  rejiorted  and  successfully 
carried  through  the  bills  to  organize  the  territo- 
ries of  Minnesota,  Oregon,  New  Mexico,  Utah, 
AVasliington,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska,  and  also 
the  bills  for  the  adiiiission  into  the  Union  of  the 
states  of  Iowa,  "Wisconsin,  California,  Minnesota, 
and  Oregon.  So  far  as  the  question  of  slavery 
wa.s  involved  in  the  organization  of  territories 
and  the  ad  mission  of  new  states,  he  early  took  the 
position  that  congress  should  not  interfere  on  the 
one  side  or  tlie  other,  but  that  the  people  of  each 
territory  and  state  should  be  allowed  to  form 
and  regulate  their  domestic  institutions  to  suit 
themselves.  In  accordance  with  this  principle 
he  opposed  the  "  "Wilmot  proviso  "  when  first 
passed  in  the  house  of  representatives  in  1847, 
as  an  amendment  to  the  bill  appropriating 
$3,000,000  to  enable  President  Polk  to  make  a 
treaty  of  peace  with  Mexico,  and  afterward  in 
the  senate  when  oiTered  as  an  amendment  to 
the  bill  for  the  organization  of  the  territory  of 
Oregon.  In  August,  1848,  however,  he  offered 
an  amendment  to  the  Oregon  bill,  extending 
the  Missouri  compromise  line  indefinitely  west- 
ward to  the  Pacific  ocean,  in  the  same  sense  and 
with  the  same  understanding  with  which  it  was 
originally  adopted  in  1 820,  and  extended  through 
Texas  in  1845,  prohibiting  slavery  in  all  the  ter- 
ritory north  of  the  ])arallel  of  30°  30',  and  by 
implication  recognizing  its  existence  south  of 
that  line.  This  amendment  was  adopted  in  the 
senate  by  a  decided  majority,  receiving  the  sup- 
port of  every  southern,  together  with  several 
northern  senators,  but  was  defeated  in  the 
house  of  representatives  by  nearly  a  sectional 
vote.  The  refusal  of  the  senate  to  adopt  the 
policy  of  congressional  prohibition  of  slavery 
in  all  the  territories,  and  the  rejection  in  the 
house  of  representatives  of  the  proposition  to 
extend  the  Missouri  comproinise  to  the  Pacific 
ocean,  gave  rise  to  the  sectional  agitation  of 
1849-50,  which  Avas  temporarily  quieted  by 
the  legislation  known  as  the  compromise  meas- 
ures of  1850.  Mr.  Douglas  supported  these 
measures  with  zeal  and  vigor ;  and  on  his  return 
to  his  home  in  Chicago,  finding  them  assailed 
with  great  violence,  he  defended  the  Avliole 
series  in  a  speech  to  the  people  (Oct.  24,  1850) 
which  is  regai'ded  by  his  friends  as  one  of  the 
ablest  he  has  ever  made.  In  tins  speech  he  de- 
fined the  principles  on  Avhich  the  compromise 
acts  of  1850  were  founded,  and  upon  Avhich 
he  subsequently  defended  the  Kansas-Nebras- 
ka hill,  in  these  Avords :  "  Tliese  measures  are 
predicated  on  the  great  fundamental  principle 
that  every  people  ought  to  possess  the  right 
of  framing  and  regulating  their  OAvn  internal 
concerns  and  domestic  institutions  in  their  own 

waj' These  things  are  all  confided  by  the 

constitution  to  each  state  to  decide  for  itself, 
and  I  knoAvofno  reason  aa'Iiv  the  same  principle 
should  not  be  extended  to  the  territories."  Mr. 
Douglas  Avas  an  unsuccessful  candidate  before 
the  democratic  national  convention  at  Baltimore 


586 


1>0UGLAS 


DOUGLASS 


in  1852,  for  the  nomination  for  the  presidency. 
On  the  SOtli  ballot  be  received  92  votes,  tbe 
higbest  number  given  to  any  candidate  on  tbat 
ballot,  out  of  a  total  of  288  votes.  At  the 
congressional  session  of  1853-4,  be  reported 
from  tbe  committee  on  territories  tbe  cele- 
brated bill  to  organize  tbe  territories  of  Kansas 
and  Nebraska,  wbicb  eflectually  revolutionized 
political  parties  in  tbe  United  States,  and  form- 
ed tbe  issues  upon  wbicb  tbe  democratic  and 
republican  parties  became  arrayed  against  each 
other.  Tbe  passage  of  this  bill  caused  great 
excitement  in  the  iree  states  of  the  Union,  and 
Mr.  Douglas  as  its  author  was  widely  and  vebe- 
bemently  denounced,  and  in  many  places  was 
banged  and  burned  in  effigy.  The  whole  contro- 
versy turned  on  tbe  provision  repealing  the  Mis- 
souri compromise,  which  Mr.  Douglas  maintain- 
ed to  be  inconsistent  with  the  principle  of  non- 
intervention by  congress  with  slavery  in  states 
and  territories.  After  repealing  tbe  Missouri  re- 
striction, tbe  bill  declared  it  to  be  the  "true  intent 
and  meaning  of  the  act,  not  to  legislate  slavery 
into  any  state  or  territory,  nor  to  exclude  it 
therefrom,  but  to  leave  tbe  people  thereof 
perfectly  free  to  form  and  regulate  their  do- 
mestic institutions  in  their  own  way,  subject 
only  to  the  constitution  of  the  United  States." 
"Whatever  diversity  of  opinion  may  exist  in 
regard  to  the  correctness  of  this  principle  and 
tbe  propriety  of  its  application  to  the  terri- 
tories, it  must  be  admitted  tbat  Mr.  Douglas 
has  proved  faithful  to  it  under  all  circum- 
stances, and  defended  it  whenever  assailed  or 
violated.  In  1856  Jtlr.  Douglas  was  again  a 
candidate  for  tbe  presidential  nomination  be- 
fore tbe  democratic  national  convention  at  Cin- 
cinnati. Tbe  highest  vote  he  received  was  on 
the  16th  ballot,  wbicb  stood,  for  Mr.  Buchanan 
168,  for  Mr.  Douglas  121,  for  Mr.  Cass  6.  In 
the  congressional  session  of  1857-8,  be  de- 
nounced and  opposed  with  energy  and  ability 
tbe  Lecompton  constitution,  upon  the  distinct 
ground  that  it  was  not  tbe  act  and  deed  of  the 
people  of  Kansas,  and  did  not  embody  their 
will.  Before  the  adjournment  of  that  session 
of  congress  he  returned  home  to  vindicate  his 
action  before  the  people  of  Illinois  in  one  of  the 
most  exciting  and  well-contested  political  can- 
vasses ever  known  in  the  United  States.  He 
bad  to  encounter  the  determined  hostility  of 
the  federal  administration  and  all  its  patronage, 
and  tbe  powerful  opposition  of  the  republican 
party.  But  be  succeeded  in  carrying  the  elec- 
tion of  a  sufficient  number  of  state  senators  and 
representatives  to  secure  his  return  to  the  U.  S. 
senate  for  6  years  from  March  4,  1859,  by  54 
votes  for  him  to  46  for  Abraham  Lincoln,  his 
able  and  distinguished  opponent.  It  was  mani- 
fest, however,  by  the  popular  vote  for  certain 
state  officers  who  Avere  chosen  simultaneously 
with  tbe  members  of  the  legislature,  tbat  a 
majority  of  the  people  were  opposed  to  Mr. 
Douglas.  Tbe  republican  candidate  for  super- 
intendent of  common  schools  received  124,566 
votes;    tbe  Douglas  candidate  for  the   same 


office,  122,413;  and  the  Buchanan  or  adminis- 
tration candidate,  5,1Y3.  During  the  whole  of 
that  contest  he  maintained  and  defended  the 
doctrine  of  non-intervention  and  popular  sov- 
ereignty, in  tbe  same  sense  in  which  be  had 
previously  proclaimed  it  in  congress.  Subse- 
quently, in  a  debate  in  the  senate  (Feb.  23, 1859), 
be  avowed  and  defended  the  same  doctrine 
when  assailed  by  several  of  the  ablest  senators 
of  tbe  democratic  party. — Mr.  Douglas  has  been 
remarkably  successful  in  promoting  tbe  local 
interests  of  his  own  state  during  his  congres- 
sional career.  To  him,  more  than  to  any  other 
individual,  is  Illinois  indebted  for  the  magnifi- 
cent grant  of  lands  which  secured  the  construc- 
tion of  tbe  Illinois  central  railroad,  and  con- 
tributed so  much  to  restore  tbe  credit  and  de» 
velop  the  resources  of  the  state.  lie  has  always 
been  a  warm  supporter  and  advocate  of  a  rail- 
road from  the  Mississippi  river  to  the  Pacific 
ocean,  having  been  a  member  of  tbe  various 
select  committees  of  congress  on  that  subject, 
and  being  the  author  of  several  bills  reported 
by  those  committees.  Mr.  Douglas's  views  in 
regard  to  our  foreign  relations  have  seldom  been 
in  accordance  with  the  policy  of  the  adminis- 
tration. He  opposed  tbe  treaty  with  England 
limiting  tbe  Oregon  territory  to  the  49tb  par- 
allel, contending  that  England  bad  no  rights  on 
that  coast,  and  that  tlie  United  States  should 
never  recognize  her  claim.  He  opposed  the 
treaty  of  peace  with  Mexico  on  the  ground  that 
the  boundaries  were  unnatural  and  inconvenient, 
and  tbat  the  provisions  in  regard  to  tbe  Indians 
could  never  be  executed.  The  United  States 
have  since  paid  Mexico  $10,000,000  to  change 
the  boundaries  and  relinquish  the  stipulations 
in  regard  to  the  Indians.  He  opposed  the  rati- 
fication of  tbe  Clayton  and  Bulwer  treaty,  and 
endeavored  to  procure  its  rejection,  upon  tbe 
ground,  among  other  things,  that  it  pledged  the 
faith  of  tbe  United  States  in  all  time  to  come 
never  to  annex,  colonize,  or  exercise  dominion 
over  any  portion  of  Central  America.  He  de- 
clared tbat  he  did  not  desire  to  annex  tbat  coun- 
try at  tbat  time,  but  maintained  that  the  isth- 
mus routes  must  be  kept  open  as  highways 
to  tbe  American  possessions  on  tbe  Pacific, 
that  tbe  time  would  come  when  the  United 
States  would  be  compelled  to  occupy  Central 
America,  and  that  he  would  never  pledge  the 
faith  of  tbe  republic  not  to  do  in  the  future  in 
respect  to  this  continent  what  its  interests  and 
safety  might  require.  He  has  also  declared  him- 
self in  favor  of  tbe  acquisition  of  Cuba  whenever 
tbe  island  can  be  obtained  consistently  with  the 
laws  of  nations  and  the  honor  of  the  United 
States. — ^Mr.  Douglas  was  married,  April  7, 
1847,  to  Miss  Martha  D.  Martin,  daughter  of 
Col.  Robert  Martin  of  Rockingham  co.,  N.  0., 
by  whom  be  bad  3  children,  2  of  whom  are  liv- 
ing. She  died  Jan.  19,  1853.  He  was  again 
married,  Nov.  20,  1856,  to  Miss  Adele  Cutts, 
daughter  of  James  Madison  Cutts  of  Washing- 
ton,"D.  C,  second  controller  of  tlio  treasury. 
DOUGLASS,  David  Bates,  LL.D.,  an  Amer- 


DOUGLASS 


DOUPwO 


587 


lean  engineer,  born  in  Pompton,  N.  J.,  March 
21,  1790,  died  in  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  19,  1849. 
He  was  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1813,  en- 
tered the  army  as  2d  lieutenant  of  engineers, 
and  was  stationed  at  West  Point.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1813  he  was  ordered  to  the  Niagara 
frontier,  and  arrived  just  in  time  to  take  part  as 
a  volunteer  in  the  battle  of  Niagara.  In  the 
subsequent  defence  of  Fort  Erie,  in  August  and 
September,  he  distinguislied  himself,  and  was 
at  once  promoted  to  a  first  lieutenancy,  with 
the  brevet  rank  of  captain.  Ho  was  ordered  to 
"West  Point,  Jan.  1,  1815,  and  made  assistant 
professor  of  natural  and  experimental  philoso- 
phy. In  1819  he  acted  durhig  the  summer  re- 
cess as  astronomical  surveyor  of  the  boundary 
commission  from  Niagara  to  Detroit,  and  in 
the  summer  of  1820  accompanied  Gov.  Cass  in 
a  similar  capacity  to  the  nortliwest.  In  August 
of  the  same  year,  while  on  this  duty,  he  was 
prom.oted  to  the  professorship  of  mathematics 
in  the  military  academy  at  West  Point,  vacant 
by  the  death  of  his  father-in-law.  Prof.  Andrew 
Ellicott,  with  the  rank  of  major  in  the  army.  In 
1823  he  was  transferred  at  his  own  desire  to  the 
professorship  of  civil  and  military  engineering. 
The  science  of  engineering  was  then  new  in 
this  country,  and  few  great  works  had  been  ex- 
ecuted. He  devoted  himself  to  it  with  unspar- 
ing energy,  and  soon  acquired  a  wide  reputa- 
tion. Many  advantageous  offers  were  made 
him,  but  he  chose  to  remain  at  West  Poitit. 
He  was  however  employed  by  the  state  of  Penn- 
sylvania during  the  summer  recesses  from  1826 
to  1830  as  a  consulting  engineer,  and  charged 
with  the  surveys  of  several  of  the  more  difficult 
parts  in  its  system  of  public  works.  In  1831  he 
resigned  his  professorship,  and  became  chief  en- 
gineer of  the  Morris  canal,  residing  in  Brook- 
lyn, In  1832  he  was  appointed  professor  of  civil 
architecture  in  the  new  university  of  the  city 
of  New  York,  and  prepared  the  designs  for 
its  building.  In  June,  1833,  he  commenced  his 
surveys  for  the  great  work  of  supplying  New 
York  with  water,  and  in  November  submitted 
his  first  report,  demonstrating  the  feasibility  of 
such  a  supply,  and  showing  how  to  obtain  it 
from  the  Croton  river.  He  reviewed  his  sur- 
veys in  1834,  and  prepared  plans  and  estimates 
for  the  city  authorities,  and  the  next  spring  it 
was  determined  by  a  vote  of  the  citizens  that 
the  aqueduct  should  be  built.  Water  commis- 
sioners were  appointed,  and  Major  Douglass  was 
at  once  elected  chief  engineer,  and  proceeded  to 
lay  out  minutely  the  line  of  the  aqueduct  and 
complete  his  plans.  He  had  accomplished  his 
preliminary  work  when  he  was  superseded.  In 
1839  he  planned  and  laid  out  Greenwood  ceme- 
tery. In  1840  he  was  elected  president  of  Ken- 
yon  college,  Ohio,  and  removed  to  Gambler 
in  the  spring  of  1841.  He  withdrew  from  this 
office  in  1844,  and  returned  to  the  vicinity  of 
New  Y'ork.  In  1845  he  delivered  a  course  of 
lectures  at  New  Haven  on  the  Niagara  cam- 
paign. They  had  been  originally  delivered  in 
New  Y'ork  in  1839,  and  soon  afterward  repeated 


at  Albany  during  the  session  of  the  legislature, 
in  the  liall  of  assembly,  and  at  Buffalo.  In 
1845-'G  he  laid  out  the  cemetery  at  Albany, 
and  in  1847  was  employed  in  developing  tlie 
landscape  features  of  Staten  island.  In  1848  ho 
laid  out  the  Protestant  cemetery  at  Quebec,  and 
in  the  same  year  he  was  elected  professor  of 
mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  in  Geneva 
college.  He  accepted  the  office,  and  entered 
upon  its  duties  in  October,  but  died  the  next 
yeai*.  His  published  writings  consist  chiefly  of 
reports  on  the  numerous  works  on  Avhich  ho 
was  employed,  and  which  he  projected. 

DOUGLASS,  FiiEDERiCK,  an  Amei-ican  aboli- 
tionist, born  at  Tuckahoe,  near  Easton,  Talbot 
CO.,  Md.,  about  1817.  His  mother  was  a  negro 
slave  and  his  father  a  white  num.  He  was 
reared  as  a  slave  on  the  i)lantation  of  Col. 
Edward  Lloyd,  until  at  the  ago  of  10  he  was 
sent  to  Baltimore  to  live  with  a  relative  of  his 
master.  He  secretly  taught  himself  to  read  and 
write,  was  employed  in  a  ship  yard,  and,  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  resolution  long  entertained  to 
achieve  his  freedom,  at  the  age  of  21  fled  from 
Baltimore  and  from  slavery,  Sept.  3,  1838.  He 
made  his  way  to  New  Y''ork  and  thence  to  New 
Bedford,  where  he  married  and  lived  for  2  or  3 
years,  supporting  himself  by  day  labor  on  the 
wharves  and  in  various  woi-ksliops.  In  the 
summer  of  1841  lie  attended  an  anti-slavery 
convention  at  Nantucket,  and  made  a  speech 
which  was  so  well  received  that  at  the  close  of 
the  meeting  he  was  offered  and  accepted  the 
position  of  agent  of  the  Massachusetts  anti- 
slavery  society,  to  deliver  public  addresses  on 
slavery.  In  this  capacity  he  travelled  and  lec- 
tured through  Massachusetts  and  other  New 
England  states  for  4  years.  In  1845  he  pub- 
lished an  autobiography,  entitled  the  "  Life  of 
Frederick  Douglass,"  and  soon  after  its  appear- 
ance he  went  to  Europe  and  lectured  on  slavery 
to  crowded  audiences  in  nearly  all  the  large 
towns  of  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Wales. 
In  1846  his  friends  in  England  contributed  £150 
to  buj'  him  from  his  claimant  in  Maryland,  and 
have  him  regularly  manumitted  in  due  form  of 
law.  He  remained  2  years  in  Great  Britain, 
and  on  his  return  to  the  United  States  in  1847 
he  began  at  Pochester,  N,  Y.,  the  publication  of 
"  Frederick  Douglass's  Paper,"  a  weekly  journal 
which  he  still  continues  to  edit.  Mr.  Douglass, 
at  the  beginning  of  his  public  career  as  a  lec- 
turer and  editor,  was  a  Garrisonian  disunionist. 
Several  years  ago,  however,  he  renounced  dis- 
nnionism,  and  now  maintains  in  his  paper  and 
in  his  public  addresses  that  slavery  is  illegal  and 
unconstitutional.  In  1855  he  rewrote  and  en- 
larged his  autobiography,  Tinder  the  title  of 
"My  Bondage  and  my  Freedom,"  of  which  the 
18th  thousand  was  published  at  New  York  and 
Auburn  in  1857, 

DOURO,  or  DuEKO,  one  of  the  largest  rivers 
of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  rises  on  the  frontiers 
of  the  provinces  of  Soria  and" Burgos,  and  flows 
into  the  Atlantic  at  Oporto.  Its  current  is  rapid, 
and  its  course,  for  the  most  part,  through  nar- 


588 


DOUVILLE 


DOVE 


row  valleys.  For  a  considerable  distance  it 
forms  the  boundary  between  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal. It  is  navigable  for  small  vessels  as  far  as 
the  Si)anisli  frontier,  and  receives  the  waters  of 
the  risucrga,  Seco,  Esla,  Sabor,  Tua,  Tamega, 
Adnjn,  Tormes,  Turon,  Coa,  and  Tavora,  beside 
many  smaller  streams.  Navigation  is  often  in- 
terrupted by  freshets,  and  the  river  is  but  little 
used  for  commercial  purposes.  On  its  banks 
are  the  vineyards  which  produce  tlie  celebrated 
■wines  of  Oporto.  Its  length,  including  wind- 
ings, is  estimated  at  from  400  to  500  miles. 

DOUVILLE,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French  trav- 
eller and  naturalist,  born  in  Ilambie,  Feb.  15, 
1794.  The  death  of  a  rich  relative  gave  him  the 
means  of  gratifying  a  taste  for  adventure,  and 
lie  travelled  in  Europe,  South  America,  and  Asia, 
landing  at  Genoa  on  his  return  in  1824.  In  1826 
he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  was  made  member  of 
the  geographical  society.  He  sailed  from  na\Te, 
Aug.  6  of  the  same  year,  for  Buenos  Ayres,  where 
he  arrived  Oct.  29.  The  La  Plata  was  at  that 
time  under  blockade  by  the  Brazilians,  and  the 
French  vessel  was  captured  while  endeavoring 
to  violate  it ;  but  Douville  was  befriended  by 
the  Brazilian  admiral,  and  after  a  short  sojourn 
at  Montevideo,  was  sent  to  Buenos  Ayres,  where, 
finding  his  resources  nearly  exhausted,  he  at- 
tempted to  replenish  them  by  mercantile  opera- 
tions. Having  been  accused  of  some  fraudulent 
transaction  in  business,  of  which  he  was  after- 
ward acquitted,  he  left  Buenos  Ayres  in  dis- 
gust, and  went  to  Rio  Janeiro,  Aug.  1827.  On 
Oct.  15  he  embarked  for  Congo,  whence  he  re- 
turned to  France  in  1831.  The  stories  of  his 
discoveries  in  several  kingdoms  hitherto  almost 
unknown  to  Europeans,  and  of  his  exploration 
of  the  Congo  or  Zaire  and  other  rivers,  aroused 
great  enthusiasm  among  the  Parisians.  He  re- 
ceived a  medal  from  the  geographical  society ; 
his  researches  Avere  published  under  the  title  of 
Voyage  au  Congo  etdans  V Afrique  equinoxiale 
(4  vol:?.,  with  a  map,  Paris,  1832),  and  his  book 
aud  chart  were  used  as  the  basis  of  subsequent 
maps  of  Africa.  But  the  evident  exaggeration 
of  some  of  his  statements  soon  awakened  suspi- 
cion. The  English  "Foreign  Quarterly  Re- 
view" assailed  him  as  au  impostor,  and  a  few 
weeks  later  his  deceptions  were  more  fully  ex- 
posed in  the  Revue  des  deux  mondcs.  To  cover 
his  shame  by  real  discoveries,  he  sailed  for  Bra- 
zil in  1833,  and  penetrated  to  the  interior  of 
South  America,  by  the  Amazon.  Nothing  has 
since  been  heard  of  him.  Recent  discoveries  in 
Africa  prove  the  truth  of  the  accusations  against 
him,  although  it  is  supposed  tliat  he  reached  the 
interior  of  tliat  country,  or  that  at  least  he  ob- 
tained his  information  from  Portuguese  docu- 
ments before  unpublished ;  and  some  geogra- 
phers of  repute  still  credit  a  portion  of  his 
narrative. 

DOUW,  or  Dow,  Gekai:d,  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  in  Leydeu  in  1G13,  died  there  in  1G80. 
He  had  been  engaged  for  some  lime  in  painting 
on  glass,w]ien  he  became  a  pupil  of  Rembrandt, 
Under  whom  he  studied  for  3  years.     He  began 


with  portrait  painting,  but  was  so  extremely 
slow  in  finishing  that  no  one  would  submit  to 
the  tediousness  of  sitting  to  him.  He  then  de- 
voted himself  to  painting  domestic  scenes.  He 
was  so  exact  in  the  imitation  of  objects,  that  a 
glass  is  needed  to  appreciate  the  skill  and  delicate 
finish  of  his  work,  llis  drawing  was  neither  bold 
nor  correct,  but  his  figures  are  not  wanting  in 
life  and  expression,  and  his  coloring  is  strong, 
fresh,  aud  harmonious.  He  shared  none  of  the 
poetical  taste  of  his  master,  for  his  pictures 
generally  consist  of  2  or  8  figures  engaged  in 
the  most  trivial  and  often  disagreeable  occupa- 
tions, as  many  of  their  titles  indicate.  Among 
the  most  celebrated  are  the  "Dropsical  Woman," 
the  "Village  Grocer^s  Wife,"  the  "Dentist," 
aud  the  "  Violin  Player."  His  works  are  to  bo 
found  in  all  the  public  galleries  of  Europe,  but 
private  fortunes  were  hardly  sufficient  to  com- 
mand them,  for  it  was  the  rule  of  Douw  to  be 
paid  for  his  pictures  according  to  the  time  they 
cost  him. 

DOVE,  a  river  of  England,  noted  for  its  pic- 
turesque scener3%  It  rises  near  Buxton,  among 
the  hills  of  the  Peak  of  Derbyshire,  and  falls  into 
the  Trent,  after  a  southerly  course  of  39  miles. 
Near  the  town  of  Ashbourne  it  flows  through  a 
remarkable  winding  chasm  2  miles  in  length, 
called  Dovedale. 

DOVE,  IlEiNEicn  WiLHELM,  a  German  me- 
teorologist, born  in  Liegnitz,  Prussian  Silesia, 
Oct.  6,  1803.  He  was  educated  at  Breslau  and 
Berlin,  in  1826  became  a  teacher  and  subse- 
quently a  professor  extraordinary  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Ivonigsberg,  and  in  1829  was  invited  to 
Berlin,  where  he  has  since  filled  the  professor- 
ship of  physics.  For  a  series  of  years  he  has  de- 
voted much  attention  to  the  investigation  of  the 
laws  which  regulate  atmospheric  phenomena, 
and  which  he  has  evolved  with  clearness  and 
precision.  His  reports  and  isothermal  maps, 
prepared  from  an  immense  number  of  isolated 
observations,  afforded  the  first  representation 
of  the  isothermal  lines  of  the  whole  globe  for 
every  month  of  tlie  year,  beside  much  kindred 
information,  the  importance  of  which  to  meteor- 
ologists can  scarcely  be  overestimated.  His 
investigations  on  the  thermal  influence  of  the 
gulf  stream  and  on  kindred  subjects  have  also 
attracted  tlie  favorable  notice  of  scientific  men. 
As  an  experimenter  in  electricity  he  was  the 
first  to  announce  the  presence  of  a  secondary 
current  in  a  metallic  wire,  at  the  moment  that 
tlic  circuit  of  the  principal  current  is  completed. 
Of  his  works,  many  of  which  have  appeared  in 
the  "Transactions"  of  tlie  Berlin  academy  of 
sciences,  and  in  Poggendorf's  Ajmalen,  the 
principal  are:  Ueicr  Mass  vndMessen;  Mete- 
orologhche  Untersuchungcn ;  JJeber  die  nicht 
pcriodiscJien  Aeiulcrungcn  der  Temperaturver- 
thcilung  auf  dcr  Ohcrfiache  der  Erde ;  Unter- 
suchungen  im  Gehiete  derlnductionselelctricitdt; 
TemperatxLVtafeln  ;  MonatsisotJiermen,  &c.  In 
a  more  popular  style  he  has  written  several  trea- 
tises on  meteorological  and  electrical  phenom- 
ena, which  have  found  many  readers.    In  the 


DOVER 


589 


capacity  of  director  of  the  Prussian  observato- 
ries he  publishes  each  year  tlie  results  of  their 
labors.  Among  liis  most  recent  writings  are 
Klunntologkche  Beitrar/e  (Berlin,  1857). 

DOVER.  I.  A  city  and  caj.ital  of  Strafford 
co.,N.  II.,  situated  12  m.  from  the  ocean,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Cocheco  river,  68  m.  X.  of  Boston, 
and  12  m.  N.  TV.  of  Portsmouth ;  pop.  in  1775, 
1,666  ;  1820,  2,871 ;  1830,  5,449  ;  1840,  6,458  ; 
1850,  8,166  ;  1859,  about  9,200.  The  Cocheco 
river  runs  tlarough  the  township,  and  furnishes 
great  motive  power,  the  principal  fall  being  32^ 
feet.  The  supply  of  water  is  maintained  through 
the  dry  season  by  draining  Bow  pond  in  the  town 
of  Strafford,  which  has  been  converted  into  an 
immense  reservoir.  The  falls  are  situated  at  the 
head  of  tide  water,  to  which,  point  the  river  is 
navigable  for  sloops  and  schooners.  The  Co- 
checo company  is  one  of  the  oldest  incorporated 
manufacturing  companies  in  the  United  States, 
and  its  operations  have  been  among  the  most 
successful.  It  has  4  large  mills  for  the  manu- 
facture of  print  cloths,  also  a  large  printery  and 
machine  shop,  turning  out  about  9,000,000  yards 
per  annum,  and  employing  about  2,000  persons, 
the  majority  of  whom  are  females.  The  mills  are 
in  the  form  of  a  quadrangle,  and  make  an  im- 
posing appearance.  There  is  also  a  mill  for  the 
manufacture  of  woollens,  also  an  iron  foundery, 
several  tanneries,  and  other  manufactures.  The 
total  capital  employed  is  about  $2,500,000, 
Black  river,  in  the  south  part  of  the  town,  a 
smaller  stream,  furnishes  water  power  which  is 
used  by  establishments  for  the  manufacture  of 
flannels,  carriages,  and  for  various  other  mechan- 
ical employments.  The  town  was  settled  in  1G23 
by  the  Laconia  company  of  fishmongers  of  Lon- 
don, and  is  the  oldest  in  the  state.  The  first  set- 
tlement was  made  on  the  tongue  of  land  formed 
by  the  union  of  Cocheco  and  Piscataqua  rivers. 
The  settlement  at  "  Strawl)erry  Bank,"  or  Ports- 
mouth, was  made  about  the  same  time,  on  the 
bank  of  the  Piscataqua,  a  short  distance  down  the 
river.  It  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  townships 
in  the  state,  and  the  farms  are  in  a  high  state 
of  cultivation.  The  city  is  regularly  laid  out, 
and  contains  many  elegant  private  residences. 
It  is  connected  with  Boston  and  Portland  by 
the  Boston  and  Maine  railroad,  and  also  with 
"Winnepiseogee  lake  by  the  Cocheco  road  ;  the 
last  named  is  a  favorite  route  to  the  TVhite 
mountains.  The  3d  Congregational  church  in 
the  state  was  organized  in  this  town  about  1638. 
The  first  church  edifice  in  the  state  stood  on 
the  ridge  of  land  which  rises  gradually  from 
the  Piscataqua  river,  and  was  surrounded  by 
palisades  as  a  protection  from  the  Indians. 
Jeremy  Belknap,  the  first  historian  of  the  state, 
and  the  author  and  editor  of  several  important 
works,  was  pastor  of  the  church  for  20  years  from 
1767  to  1787.  There  are  10  churches  in  the  town, 
and  about  70  stores.  The  city  hall  is  a  commo- 
dious and  substantial  brick  edifice.  The  schools 
are  excellent,  and  the  high  school  building  re- 
cently erected  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  state. 
A  monthly  magazine  and  3  weekly  newspapers 


arc  published  here.  II.  A  post  tov>'n,  capital  of 
the  state  of  Delaware  and  of  Kent  co.,  on  Jones's 
creek,  5  m.  above  Delaware  river ;  jjop.  in  1850, 
4,207.  It  is  regularly  built,  mostly  of  brick,  on 
high  ground,  .50  m.  S.  from  Wilmington,  and  114 
N.  E.  from  Washington.  The  streets  are  Mide, 
straight,  and  cross  each  other  at  right  angles. 
The  principal  public  buildings  face  an  open 
scjuare,  tlie  E.  side  of  which  is  occupied  by  a 
handsome  state  house.  In  1850  there  were  4 
churches,  2  large  hotels,  a  newspaper  office,  an 
academy,  9  schools,  3  grist  mills,  and  2  saw 
mills.  The  town  contains  a  monument  to  the 
memory  of  Col.  John  Haslett,  who  fell  in  the 
battle  of  Princeton,  a  telegraph  oflSce,  and  one 
bank.  The  line  of  the  Delaware,  ISTew  Castle 
and  Wilmington,  and  Wilmington  and  French- 
town  railroads,  from  Philadelphia  to  Seaford, 
passes  through  it.  The  trade  is  chiefly  in  flour 
with  Philadelphia.  III.  A  village  and  township 
of  Tuscarawas  co.,  Ohio,  on  the  right  bank  of 
Tuscarawas  river,  near  the  mouth  of  Sugar 
creek,  98  m.  S.  from  Cleveland ;  pop.  of  the 
township  in  1850,  3,248;  of  the  village  in  1853, 
1,500.  It  is  regularly  laid  out,  on  the  W.  side 
of  the  Ohio  canal,  across  which  and  the  river 
there  is  a  bridge  346  feet  long.  It  is  tlie  ship- 
ping point  for  large  quantities  of  Avheat  and 
flour ;  in  1851  the  amount  was  stated  at  534,415 
bushels  of  wheat,  and  40,495  barrels  of  fluur. 
The  town  has  great  facilities  for  manufacturing, 
and  in  1854  contained  a  woollen  factory.  2  fur- 
naces, 3  tanneries,  a  sawmill,  2  grist  mills,  and 
churches  of  6  denominations.  The  name  of  its 
post  oflice  is  Canal  Dover. 

DOVER  (Fr.  Donvres;  anc.  Di/lris),  a  parlia- 
mentary and  municipal  borough,  cinque  port, 
and  fashionable  watering  place  of  Kent.  England, 
situated  on  the  X.  W.  shore  of  the  strait  of  Do- 
ver ;  pop.  in  1851,  22,244.  It  is  built  mainly  in  a 
valley,  partly  encompassed  by  an  amphitheatre 
of  chalk  hills,  clifts,  and  downs,  on  which  stand  a 
castle,  a  citadel,  and  several  fortresses.  The  cas- 
tle, an  immense  structure,  whose  walls  enclose  35 
acres  of  ground,  is  supposed  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  the  Romans.  Other  portions,  however, 
are  of  Xorman  and  Saxon  construction,  while 
others  again  belong  to  still  later  epochs.  It 
contains  a  spacious  keep,  used  as  a  magazine 
and  considered  bomb-proof,  and  barracks  for 
2,000  men,  beside  which  extensive  barracks 
for  the  ofiicers,  outside  of  the  castle,  were  erect- 
ed in  1857.  Within  the  precincts  of  the  cas- 
tle stands  an  octagonal  watch  tower,  interesting 
not  only  as  the  earliest  specimen  of  Roman 
architecture,  but  also  as  one  of  the  most  ancient 
pieces  of  regular  mason-work  in  Great  Britain. 
In  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor  Dover 
castle  was  considered  the  key  to  the  whole 
kingdom.  In  1296  the  French  made  a  descent 
upon  this  place,  and  committed  great  depjreda- 
tions  in  the  neighbouring  country.  It  witnessed 
the  landing  of  Charles  II.  on  his  restoration  to 
theBritisirthrone.  May  27, 1660,  andtheembark- 
ation  of  Louis  X VIII.,  April  24, 1814,  on  the  res- 
toration of  the  Bourbons  in  France.   Dover  now 


590 


DOVER 


DOW 


consists  of  an  old  and  a  new  town ;  the  former  is 
the  seat  of  most  of  the  trade,  and  has  narrow  and 
irreguLar  streets.  The  new  portion  is  huilt  with 
more  taste,  and  contains  a  numher  of  good 
liouses,  chiefly  occupied  by  siuunier  visitors. 
Tlie  importance  of  the  town  is  principally  ow- 
ing to  its  position  as  a  channel  of  communica- 
tion between  England  and  tlie  continent.  It 
was  formerly  the  chief  port  of  embarkation, 
but  Ikis  been  partially  superseded  in  that  respect 
by  Folkestone.  The  Southeastern  and  Dover 
railway,  which  enters  the  town  through  a  tun- 
nel cut  in  the  cliffs,  connects  it  witli  the  cities 
of  Great  Britain,  and  it  has  continual  steam- 
boat intercourse  with  Calais  and  Boulogne. 
Large  sums  of  money  have  been  spent  at  various 
times  upon  its  harbor,  wliich  consists  of  3  basins, 
the  outer  one  enclosed  between  2  piers  150  feet 
apart,  but  the  entrance  is  unfortunately  ob- 
structed by  a  movable  sliingle  bar.  It  has  been 
determined  to  construct  here  a  harbor  of  refuge, 
and  the  sum  of  £2,500,000  has  been  appropri- 
ated for  the  erection  of  immense  jetties  to  reach 
far  out  into  the  sea.  The  submarine  telegraph 
between  England  and  the  continent  extends 
across  the  channel  from  Dover  to  Calais;  it 
was  completed  in  Oct.  1851.  In  the  vicinity 
of  the  town,  abutting  on  the  sea,  stands  the  re- 
markable chalk  cliff  called  Shakespeare's  or 
Hay  clitT,  described  in  "  King  Lear ;"  it  is  350 
feet  high  and  almost  perpendicular.  In  May, 
lS-i7,  a  huge  mass  of  this  cliff,  254  feet  in  height, 
15  feet  thick,  and  estimated  to  contain  48,000 
tons  of  challL,  scaled  off  and  fell  to  the  base. 
Another  mass  of  10^000  cubic  yards  fell  soon 
after.  There  are  a  number  of  ship  yards  on  the 
coast,  and  many  of  the  inhabitants  are  employed 
in  sail  and  rope  making.  The  registered  ship- 
ping of  the  port  in  185(5  was  55  vessels  of  3,553 
tons;  the  entrances  were  473  sailing  vessels, 
tonnage  43,487,  and  21  steam  vessels,  tonnage 
2,679;  clearances,  121  sailing  vessels,  tonnage 
5,112,  and  5  steam  vessels,  tonnage  G63.  The 
coasting  trade  of  Dover  is  flourishing,  and  its 
fisheries  are  extensive  and  profitable.  It  imports 
from  France  large  quantities  of  eggs,  fruit,  and 
other  rural  produce.  There  are  several  large 
paper  mills  in  the  neighborhood.  The  principal 
buildings  in  the  town  are  2  hospitals,  2  parish 
churches,  a  number  of  chapels,  a  synagogue,  the 
custom  house,  town  hall  and  gaol,  workhouse, 
assembly  rooms,  theatre,  museum,  baths,  news 
rooms,  bonding  warehouses,  and  many  good 
hotels.  Dover  is  the  seat  of  government  and 
principal  station  of  the  cinque  ports,  and  re- 
turns 2  members  to  the  house  of  commons. 

DOVER,  Strait  of  (Fr.  Pas  de  Calais  ;  anc. 
Fretum  GalUcum),  a  strait  connecting  the  Eng- 
lish channel  with  the  German  ocean,  and  sep- 
arating England  from  France.  It  extends  from 
Dungeness  and  Cape  Gris  Nez  N.  E.  to  the  S. 
Foreland  and  Calais  ;  length,  22  m. ;  breadth  at 
Dover,  where  it  is  narrowest,  21  m. 

DOVER'S  POWDERS,  a  preparation  of 
ipecacuanha  and  opium,  each  a  drachm,  and  of 
sulphate  of  potassa  an  ounce,  rubbed  together 


into  a  very  fine  powder.  Though  called  by  the 
name  of  Dr.  Dover,  it  differs  from  that  origi- 
nally recommended  by  him,  which  contained 
nitrate  of  potash  and  licorice  in  addition  to 
tlio  ingredients  named.  It  is  a  medicine  admi- 
rably adapted  for  in-omoting  perspiration,  and 
possesses  at  the  same  time  the  properties  of  an 
anodyne.  It  is  given,  after  depletion,  in  cases 
requiring  profuse  diaphoresis,  and  is  particular- 
ly used  in  dysentery,  diarrhoja,  and  affections 
of  the  liver  and  of  the  bowels,  sometimes  com- 
bined with  small  quantities  of  calomel. 

DOVREFIELD,  Dovrefjeld,  or  Dofrines 
(Norw.  Daavrefjeld),  a  name  sometimes  given, 
to  the  whole  system  of  the  Scandinavian  Alps, 
which  extend  from  Cape  Lindesnaes  on  the  Cat- 
tegat,  along  the  dividing  line  between  Sweden 
and  Norway,  to  Cape  Sviatoi,  at  the  W.  entrance 
to  the  White  sea.  The  Dovrefield  mountains, 
however,  properly  consist  only  of  the  central 
part  of  this  range,  extending  in  an  E.  N".  E.  direc- 
tion from  the  valley  of  Lessoe,  where  the  Lang- 
field  range  or  S.  portion  terminates,  to  tha 
Syltfjrdlet,  where  the  chain  of  Kiolen  or  Kioel 
begins.  They  are  composed  mostly  of  gneiss 
and  micaceous  schist.  Tlie  principal  peak  is 
the  Skagstols-tind,  a  snow-capped  mountain, 
having  an  altitude  of  8,390  feet.  It  is  the 
highest  summit  in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula. 
There  are  4  passes  across  this  range,  along 
which  at  intervals  of  10  m.  there  are  houses  for 
the  reception  of  travellers.  The  most  frequent- 
ed of  these  roads  leads  frdin  Christiania  to 
Trondhjem,  and  passes  along  the  E.  declivity 
of  the  peak  of  Sneehaettan.  It  reaches  in  some 
places  an  altitude  of  4,200  feet.  The  Dovre- 
field mountains  derive  their  name  from  Daavre, 
a  small  village  of  Norway,  and  Jield  or  fjeld, 
a  mountain  ridge. 

DOW,  Lorenzo,  an  American  preacher,  bora 
in  Coventry,  Conn.,  Oct.  10,  1777,  died  in 
Georgetown,  D.  C,  Feb.  2, 1834.  When  about  14 
years  of  age  he  began  to  be  agitated  by  religious 
speculations,  had  frequent  dreams  and  visions, 
and  was  so  troubled  by  his  meditations  upon 
the  "  doctrine  of  unconditional  reprobation  and 
particular  election,"  that  on  one  occasion  he  was 
on  the  point  of  putting  an  end  to  his  life.  Fi- 
nally he  adopted  the  doctrines  of  the  Methodists, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1796,  after  many  mental 
struggles  and  against  the  wishes  of  his  family, 
became  an  itinerant  preacher  of  that  persua- 
sion. His  youth  and  eccentricity  of  character 
for  a  long  time  prevented  his  recognition  by  tha 
conferences  of  the  Methodist  church,  and  he 
was  at  one  period  even  prompted  to  renounce 
the  name  of  Methodist.  He  finally  received  a 
regular  license  to  preach,  and,  in  spite  of  con- 
tumely and  rebuffs,  frequently  from  members 
of  his  own  sect,  and  ceaseless  hardships  and 
dangers  of  all  kinds,  persevered  for  nearly  40 
years,  with  an  enthusiasm  which  never  relaxed, 
and  often  with  astonishing  effect.  In  the  course 
of  his  ministry  he  travelled  over  many  parts  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  in  1799  and 
again  in   1805  visited  England  aud   Ireland, 


DOTTER 


591 


"wlicre  n:9  peculiar  eloquence  attracted  much 
attention  and  on  several  occasions  subjected  him 
to  persecution.  His  wife,  Pegj^y  Dow,  to  whom 
he  was  married  in  1804,  was  a  woman  of  char- 
acter and  qualities  very  similar  to  his  own,  and 
accompanied  liim  fearlessly  in  all  his  peregrina- 
tions. Dow's  eccentricity  of  manner  and  dress 
for  a  long  time  excited  a  prejudice  against  him, 
and  in  many  parts  of  the  coimtry  lie  was  famil- 
iarly known  as  "crazy  Dow."  In  person  ho 
was  awkward  and  ungainly,  his  voice  was  harsh, 
and  his  delivery  not  such  as  would  impress  a 
cultivated  mind.  But  to  the  class  whom  he 
most  frequently  addressed,  his  simple  fervor, 
though  coupled  with  illiterate  phraseology,  sup- 
plied the  place  of  eloquence,  and  he  seldom 
failed  of  having  attentive  and  even  enthusiastic 
hearers.  Many  anecdotes  are  related  of  his 
courageous  bearing,  when  threatened  with  vio- 
lence by  lawless  men.  His  journal,  containing 
the  history  of  his  life  to  his  40th  year,  together 
with  some  of  his  miscellaneous  writings,  and  a 
Bhort  autobiography  of  Peggy  Dow,  was  pub- 
lished in  Xew  York  in  1856. 

DOAVER  (law  Lat.  doarium,  or  doxiarium  ; 
Fr.  doitaire),  the  estate  which  the  wife  has  by 
operation  of  law  in  the  property  of  her  de- 
ceased husband.  Strictly  it  applies  only  to  what 
the  law  gives  her  independent  of  any  act  of  the 
husband,  and  which,  in  fact,  it  is  not  in  his  power 
to  bar.  A  marriage  portion,  tlicrefore,  whether 
given  with  the  wife  or  secured  to  her  use,  and 
whether  so  given  or  secured  by  the  father  or 
other  relative,  or  by  the  husband  himself,  is  not 
dower ;  and  yet  the  term  by  which  such  mar- 
riage portion  was  designated  in  the  Roman  law 
(^dos)  was  used  by  Bracton  and  other  English 
writers  for  the  right  of  the  widow  in  the  lands 
of  her  deceased  husband  given  to  her  by  the 
common  law,  as  well  as  the  endowment  in  con- 
templation of  marriage,  which  last  was  also 
called  donatio  ante  mtptias.  The  English  Avord 
dower  expressed  the  former,  and  also  the  dona- 
tion before  marriage,  which  was  in  two  modes, 
viz. :  ad  ostium  ccdesicp,  and  ex  assensu  patris. 
Both  of  these  were  made  at  the  porch  of  the 
church,  after  affiance  and  before  marriage ;  in 
the  one,  the  husband  endowed  the  wife  of  lands 
of  which  he  was  himself  seized ;  in  the  other, 
with  consent  of  his  father,  he  endowed  her  of 
lands  belonging  to  his  father ;  and  it  was  usual 
to  specify  the  particular  lands  intended.  En- 
dowment at  the  church  door  was  the  common 
mode  of  providing  for  the  wife  in  the  time  of 
Bracton,  and  no  other  mode  could  be  substi- 
tuted, as  by  Avill  or  any  other  conveyance ;  the 
object  of  which  was  to  prevent  fraud :  Kon  enim 
talent  facta  in  lecto  mortali,  nee  in  camera,  aut 
alihinhi  clandestina  fuerunt  conjugia.  The  feu- 
dal restriction  against  alienation  of  lands  was, 
however,  extended  to  dower,  and  the  husband 
"Was  not  allowed  to  endow  tlie  wife  ad  ostium 
ewlesia;  of  more  than  a  third  part  of  his  lands. 
This  gave  rise  to  the  common  law  rule  which 
has  ever  since  prevailed.  In  the  absence  of 
Buch  dotation,  or  in  case  of  the  omission  to 


specify  the  particular  lands,  it  was  prescribed 
that  tlie  wife  should  be  entitled  to  one-third  of 
the  lands  of  the  husband  for  life  if  she  survived 
him,  which  was  called  dos  rationahilis.  It  was  at 
first  limited  to  the  lands  which  the  Imsband  had 
at  the  time  of  tlie  dotation,  unless  lie  specially 
charged  his  future  acquisitions  ;  and  in  case  ho 
had  no  lands,  or  not  sufficient,  he  was  permitted 
to  endow  his  wife  of  personal  property,  which 
Avas  held  to  be  a  bar  against  any  claim  to  dower 
of  lands  thereafter  acquired.  But  in  Magna 
Charta  it  was  provided  that  the  wife  should  have 
for  dower  the  third  part  of  all  the  lands  which 
the  husband  had  held  during  his  lifetime,  unless 
she  had  been  endowed  with  less  ad  ostium  ec- 
clcsicBi  In  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  it  was  de- 
nied that  the  wife  could  be  endowed  of  her 
husband's  goods  and  chattels;  and  Littleton, 
who  wrote  in  tlie  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  asserted 
that  she  could  be  endowed  ad  ostium  ecdesim 
of  more  than  a  third  part  of  the  lands,  and  that 
she  had  the  election  after  the  husband's  death  to 
accept  it  or  to  take  her  dower  at  common  law. 
In  consequence  of  this  uncertainty,  that  mode  of 
endowment  fell  into  disuse,  but  was  never  abol- 
ished by  law  until  recently  by  act  3  and  4  Wil- 
liam IV.,  c.  105  (1833).  Dower  at  common  law 
's  ditfercnt  from  the  dotation  of  other  countries, 
in  being  limited  wholly  to  lands,  and  to  such 
only  as  the  husband  holds  in  fee.  By  the  civil 
law  the  donatio  ante  7iuptias  (or,  as  Justinian 
called  it,  2)'>'02>ter  nvj^tias)  was  all  the  provision 
made  for  the  wife.  It  might  consist  of  either 
lands  or  personal  property ;  but  though  it  went 
into  the  possession  of  the  husband,  it  could  not, 
if  it  consisted  of  lands,  be  alienated  by  him  even 
with  the  consent  of  the  wife,  for  which  the  rea- 
son given  is  the  fragility  of  the  female  sex  {ne 
sexus  vitiUehris  fragilitas  in perniciem  sul)stan- 
tiw  earum  convei'tatur).  Upon  the  death  of  the 
husband,or  dissolution  of  the  marriage  otherwise, 
the  wife  only  took  Avhat  had  been  given  with  her 
on  the  marriage,  or  of  which  a  donation  had  been 
made  during  the  marriage.  Of  the  other  proper- 
ty of  the  husband  she  could  take  nothing  either 
as  Avidow  or  heir. — In  France,  the  two  modes 
of  providing  for  the  Avife  are  designated  by  the 
discriminative  terms  dot  and  douaire;  the  for- 
mer of  which  is  defined  to  be  that  which  the 
wife  brings  in  marriage  (ce  que  la  fcmme  ap- 
porte  en  mariage)  ;  the  latter  is  the  right  Avhich 
the  Avife  has,  by  custom  or  matrimonial  con- 
tract, to  a  certain  portion  of  the  estate  of  the 
husband  upon  his  death  (^la  jouissance  que  la 
coutume  ou  Ics  contentions  matrimoniales  ac- 
cordent  d''une  ccrtaine portion  des  immeuhles  du 
mari  d  lafeinme  qni  lui  survit).  The  origin  of 
douaire  was  that  in  some  provinces  of  France, 
called  France  coutuiniere,  Avomen  Avere  not  en- 
dowed on  marriage  (n\woicnt  pas  de  dot  de  leur 
parens) ;  and  hence  grcAV  up  the  custom  that  the 
husband  at  his  death  should  leave  something  for 
the  support  of  the  Avife.  "What  was  so  left  Avas 
called  either  dot  or  douaire,  the  wife  being  said, 
to  be  douce  or  dotee.  But  as  it  was  intended  for 
her  support  merel}',  it  Avas  provided  that  after 


592 


DOWER 


DOWLER 


her  death  it  should  go  to  the  children  of  tho 
husband  if  he  left  any,  Philip  Augustus  fixed 
tho  dower  of  the  ^yife  at  one-half  of  the  goods 
which  tlie  husband  liad  at  the  marriage.  Henry 
11.  of  England  established  in  his  French  prov- 
inces a  rule  that  dower  should  be  one-third, 
and  this  difference  continued  to  exist  on  the  op- 
posite sides  of  tho  Loire,  until  the  customary 
law  was  swept  away  by  tho  legislation  which 
Buccoeded  the  revolution  of  1789.  By  the  pres- 
ent law  of  France  married  persons  may,  by 
stipulation  made  before  marriage,  become  sub- 
ject to  the  law  of  community,  or  to  the  law  of 
dowry.  If  the  former,  it  brings  into  common 
stock  all  the  movables  of  which  tho  parties 
are  possessed  at  the  time  of  marriage,  and  of 
immovables  whicli  shall  be  acquired  during 
marriage.  Dower  {la  dot)  is  what  the  wife  brings 
to  the  husband  in  marriage,  and  it  may  bo 
either  by  donation  from  another  or  by  a  settle- 
ment of  the  wife  upon  hQisali  {tout  cc  que  la 
femme  se  constitue  ou  qui  lui  est  donnc  en  con- 
trat  de  marlage  est  dotal),  and  it  may  extend 
to  all  the  present  or  future  property  of  the  wife, 
but  cannot  be  constituted  or  augmented  dur- 
ing marriage.  The  parties  may  stipvdate  for  a 
community  of  future  acquisitions  only.  Tlie 
husband  has  the  management  of  dotal  property, 
but  is  accountable  as  a  usufructuary,  and  in 
case  it  be  put  in  peril,  the  wife  may  obtain  a 
separation  of  goods. — The  English  law  of  dower 
has  recently  undergone  very  great  changes.  By 
Stat.  3  and  4  William  IV.,  c.  105,  the  widow  is 
not  entitled  to  dower  of  lands  which  the  hus- 
band has  disposed  of  in  his  lifetime,  or  by  will. 
All  charges  by  will,  and  all  debts  and  encum- 
brances to  which  the  estate  of  the  husband  is 
subject,  take  priority  of  dower;  and  dower  is 
made  subject  to  any  restrictions  which  the 
husband  may  impose  by  will.  But  on  the  other 
hand,  tlie  wife  is  entitled  to  equitable  dower 
of  any  beneficial  interest  of  tho  husband  which 
shall  amount  to  an  estate  of  inheritance  in  pos- 
session, except  joint  tenancy  ;  and  no  gift  of 
personal  property  by  tho  husband  can  invali- 
date tho  riglit  to  dower,  unless  expressly  so 
declared  by  will.  Tins  modification  of  the  law 
of  dower  has  probably  grown  out  of  the  gen- 
eral custom  prevailing  in  England  among  land 
proprietors  of  making  marriage  settlements.  In 
cases  where  this  is  omitted,  the  wife  still  has 
some  provision  under  tho  statute  of  distribu- 
tion (29  Charles  IL),  which  gives  her  one-third 
of  the  personal  estate  of  the  husband  when  he 
dies  intestate,  not  for  life  merely,  but  abso- 
lutely.— In  the  United  States,  tho  general  rule 
prevails  of  allowing  to  the  widow  an  estate  for 
life  in  one-third  of  all  tho  lands  of  which  tho 
husband  was  seized  in  fee.  The  rule,  however, 
varies  in  different  states  in  two  particulars.  In 
the  state  of  New  York,  and  most  other  states, 
dower  is  a  charge  upon  all  the  lands  of  which  the 
husband  was  seized  at  any  time  during  the  mar- 
riage, except  such  as  she  has  released  by  joining 
in  the  conveyance  thereof  by  the  husband.  In 
Bome  of  the  states,  as  Vermont,  Connecticut, 


Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  and  Georgia,  it  13 
limited  to  the  lands  of  which  tho  husband  was 
seized  at  the  time  of  his  death  ;  but  the  hus- 
band is  not  allowed  to  bar  dower  by  will,  nor 
by  a  voluntary  conveyance,  in  which  any  bene- 
fit is  reserved  to  himself.  Again,  in  Penn- 
sylvania, Tennessee,  and  Missouri,  dower  does 
not  attach  to  lands  sold  under  judicial  process, 
nor  to  lands  sold  under  a  moi'tgage  executed 
by  the  husband  alone.  The  rule  is  general, 
perhaps  universal,  that  tho  wife  takes  one-third 
of  the  personal  estate  upon  the  death  of  the 
husband,  in  accordance  with  the  English  statute 
of  distribution. 

DOWLER,  Benxet,  an  American  physician 
and  physiologist,  born  in  Ohio  co.,  Va.,  April 
16,  1797.  He  was  educated  at  tho  university 
of  Mar^-land,  where  in  1827  he  received  the  de^ 
gree  of  doctor  of  medicine.  During  the  last  23 
years  he  has  practised  his  profession  in  New 
Orleans,  and  since  March,  1854,  has  been  tho 
editor  of  the  "  New  Orleans  Medical  and  Sur- 
gical Journal."  From  an  early  period  in  his 
career  experiments  upon  the  human  body,  im- 
mediately or  very  soon  after  death,  occupied  a 
large  share  of  his  attention,  and  the  results  of 
his  investigations,  comprising  some  important 
discoveries  with  regard  to  contractility,  calori- 
fication, capillary  circulation,  &c.,  were  given 
to  tho  world  in  a  series  of  essays  in  1843-'4, 
Since  that  time  these  and  other  original  experi- 
ments have  been  extended,  generalized,  and 
analyzed  by  him.  With  one  exception  he  has 
found  in  the  course  of  his  experiments  no  fact 
invalidating  the  fundamental  laws  which  he 
announced  in  his  first  publications  relative  to 
post  mortem  contractility  of  tho  muscular  sys- 
tem. He  had  prematurely  assumed,  early  in  his 
researches,  in  accordance  with  the  prevailing 
theory,  that  the  death  rigidity,  or  rigor  mortis, 
is  antagonistic  to,  or  incompatible  with,  the  co- 
existence of  muscular  contraction ;  but  he  soon 
found  instances  which  led  him  to  maintain  that 
the  contractile  function  exists  in  all  bodies  im- 
mediately after  death,  although  in  some  it  is 
scarcely  appreciable,  while  in  others  it  is  absent' 
or  feeble  at  first,  but  gradually  increases.  In 
all  it  is  intermittent,  and  may  be  economized 
by  proper  management,  or  overtasked  and  ex- 
hausted, or  even  destroyed  by  a  severe  blow. 
He  was  consequently  led  to  the  conclusion  that 
this  force  is  inherent  in  tho  muscular  tissue, 
and  in  every  portion  of  it,  being  wholly  inde- 
pendent of  the  brain,  spinal  cord,  and  nerves. 
During  the  last  18  years  Dr.  Dowler  has  shown 
by  experiments  on  hundreds  of  human  bodies 
that  the  capillary  circulation  is  often  active  for 
some  minutes,  and  even  for  hours,  after  the  res- 
piration and  the  action  of  the  heart  have  ceased, 
and  occasionally  after  the  removal  of  this  organ; 
and  that  in  tho  same  cadaver  a  high  degree  of 
calorification,  together  with  active  capillary  and 
chylous  circulations,  may  continue  simultane- 
ously for  several  hours.  His  researches  on  ani- 
mal heat,  in  health,  in  disease,  and  after  death, 
which  have  from  time  to  time  been  published 


DOWLER 


DOWLETABAD 


593 


in  medical  journals,  have  led  to  important  dis- 
coveries, particularly  with  roforonce  to  post 
mortem  cak)rilicatioii,  wiiich  iiis  experiiiit'iits 
have  shown  will,  after  dcatli  from  lever, 
cholera,  or  sun-stroke,  &c.,  rise  in  some  cases 
much  higher  than  its  antecedent  maximum  dur- 
ing tlie  i)rogress  of  the  disease.  From  these 
experimental  researches,  as  well  as  from  a  ra- 
tional interpretation  of  the  respiratory  action 
of  the  lungs,  either  in  their  natural,  diseased, 
ohstructed,  or  disorganized  conditions.  Dr. 
Dowler  has  been  led  to  reject  the  long  re- 
ceived theory  which  ascribes  animal  heat  to 
the  lungs,  as  the  sole  heating  apparatus  of  the 
animal  economy.  He  maintains  that  the  chem- 
ical history  of  respiration  may  be  interpreted 
either  as  a  refrigeratory  or  lieat  equalizing  pro- 
cess, and  that  while  the  absorption  of  oxygen 
during  respiration  may  genej'ate  he;it,  on  the 
other  hand  the  parting  of  carbonic  acid  gas  and 
aqueous  vaporization  from  tlie  lungs,  togetlier 
with  the  incessant  respiration  of  the  air,  almost 
always  much  cooler  than  the  body,  must  re- 
frigerate the  animal  economy  ;  that  for  all  that 
has  been  proved  to  'the  contrary,  oxidation  and 
deoxidation,  repair  and  waste,  composition  and 
decomposition,  inhalation  and  exhalation,  are 
mutually  compensating  or  equiponderant  in  the 
regulation  of  animal  heat;  and  that,  wliile  it 
may  be  plausibly  assumed  that  nearly  the  whole 
series  of  organs  and  organic  functions,  especially 
those  of  nutrition,  contribute  directly  or  indi- 
rectly to  the  origin  and  distribution  of  animal 
heat  during  life,  jwst  mortem  calorification  might 
to  some  extent  be  accounted  for  l)y  assuming 
that  respiration  is  not  a  heating,  but  a  refriger- 
atory i)rocess,  which,  ceasing  with  apparent 
death,  ceases  to  liberate  the  free  caloric  of  the 
economy  ;  whence  the  calorifacient  function, 
not  being  in  many  instances  extinguished  with 
the  respiration,  persists,  and  for  a  long  time 
accumulates  faster  than  it  can  be  radiated  into 
the  surrounding  media.  lie  has  not,  however, 
been  able  to  trace  a  necessary  connection,  ante- 
cedence, or  parallelism  between  post  mortevi 
calorification  and  muscular  contractility,  the 
development,  degree,  and  duration  of  which 
may  or  may  not  coincide.  In  March,  1845,  Dr. 
Dowler  commenced  a  series  of  experiments  in 
comparative  physiology  on  the  great  saurian  or 
alligator  of  Louisiana,  wliicli  lie  regarded  as 
much  better  for  the  purpose  than  any  of  the 
cold-blooded  animals  usually  selected  for  vivi- 
section. From  these  experiments,  which  em- 
brace a  period  of  10  years,  he  has  ascertained 
that  after  decapitation  the  head,  and  more  espe- 
cially the  trunk,  afford  unequivocal  evidences 
of  possessing  the  faculties  of  sensation  and  voli- 
tion for  hours  after  a  complete  division  of  the 
animal.  The  headless  trunk,  deprived  of  all  the 
senses  but  that  of  touch,  perceived,  felt,  willed, 
and  acted  with  unerring  intelligence  in  re- 
moving or  avoiding  an  irritant,  such  as  an  ig- 
nited matcli  or  bit  of  paper  ;  when  even  a  simple 
touch  or  apositive  irritant  was  applied  laterally, 
the  body  curved  or  receded  in  a  contrary  direc- 

VOL.  TI. — 38 


tion,  while  the  most  convenient  limb  was  also 
directed  to  the  exact  place  where  the  foreign 
liody  impinged,  in  order  to  remove  it,  if  possible. 
After  as  well  as  before  decapitation,  after  com- 
I)lete  evisceration,  and  after  the  subdivision  of 
the  spine  and  its  cord  in  2  or  3  places,  each  sec- 
tion mutually  and  simultaneously  perceived  or 
felt  in  common  the  presence  or  contact  of  a 
pain-producing  agent.  In  some  instances  Dr. 
Dowler  oltservcd  that  the  separated  head  could 
see  a  body,  like  the  finger,  purjiosely  directed 
close  to  the  eye,  as  was  shown  by  the  violent 
opening  of  the  mouth,  as  if  to  bite,  and  by  the 
head  jumping  several  feet  from  the  operating 
table  to  the  tloor.  The  vivisection  of  the  spinal 
cord  satisfied  him  also  that  neither  root  of  the 
spinal  marrow  is  the  exclusive  seat  of  sensation 
or  of  motion,  and  that  motion  as  well  as  sen- 
sory phenomena  may  be  excited  by  irritation 
of  either  root ;  a  result  directly  opjjosed  to  the 
celebrated  theory  of  Sir  Charles  Bell  on  the 
functions  of  these  roots.  The  vivisection  of 
the  inferior  animals  (hitherto  the  basis  of  ex- 
perimental physiology),  as  well  as  the  patho- 
logical, anatomical,  and  experimental  phenom- 
ena observed  in  man,  has  therefore  led  Dr. 
Dowler  to  the  following  conclusions  :  that  the 
functions  and  structures  of  the  nervous  system 
constitute  a  unity  altogether  inconsistent  with 
the  anatomical  assumption  of  4  distinct  and 
separate  sets  of  nerves,  and  a  corresponding 
fourfold  set  of  functions  ;  that  there  is  no  ana- 
tomical or  other  proof  that  one  set  of  nerves 
transmits  impressions  to,  and  a  separate  set 
from,  a  sensorial  spot  somewhere  in  the  brain, 
nor  that  the  nerves  themselves  are  simple  con- 
ductors and  wholly  insensible  ;  that  the  2  sepa- 
rate sets  of  nerves  usually  assigned  to  what  is 
called  the  excito-motory  action  of  the  spinal 
cord  are  wholly  hypothetical ;  that  instead  of 
4  travelling  impressions  there  is  but  one,  the 
primary  or  sensiferous  impression,  which  is  si- 
multaneously cognized  upon  the  periphery  as 
well  as  in  tlie  centre,  and  not  solely  by  an  un- 
known spot  in  the  brain  through  the  interme- 
dium of  a  secondarily  transmitted  impression, 
being  intuitively  felt  where  it  really  is;  and 
that  sensuous  cognition  or  sensation  is  imme- 
diate, intuitive,  and  not  representative,  nor  the 
result  of  transmitted  secondary  impressions,  but 
a  directly  felt  relation,  cib  initio,  between  an 
object  and  a  sentient  subject,  and  not  one  be- 
tween a  mere  secondary  representation,  idea,  or 
transmitted  impression  of  an  object. — The  assid- 
uous devotion  of  Dr.  Dowler  to  researches  con- 
nected with  medical  and  physiological  science 
has  won  for  him  a  wide  reputation  as  an  expe- 
rimenter, an  anatomist,  and  a  pathologist. 

DOWLETABAD,  Dowlatabad,  DowLrTA- 
BAD,  DouLETABAD,  or  DEOoniK  (the  fortunate 
city),  a  town  and  fortress  of  Hyderabad,  in 
the  Nizam's  territory,  Ilindostan,  about  10  m. 
N.  "W.  from  Aurungabad.  The  fortress  is  situ- 
ated on  a  hill  about  500  feet  in  height,  aboirt 
150  feet  of  which  rises  nearly  perpendicularly, 
like  a  waU.     The  entrance  is  by  a  passage  cut 


594 


DOWN 


DOWNES 


thron,Lch  the  rock.  Xotwithstandiiig  its  natural 
strength,  the  Ibrtrcss  has  been  several  times 
taken,  and  ]jas  fallen  under,  the  douiiaioii  of 
various  masters.  Near  the  town  aro  the  re- 
markable cave  temples  of  Ellora. 

UOWN,  a  maritime  co.  in  the  N.  E.  part  of 
Ireland,  province  of  Ulster ;  greatest  length, 
N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  51  m. ;  greatest  breadth,  38  m. ; 
area,  956  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1851,  328,883.  Near 
the  middle  of  t-he  county  is  a  group  of  hills,  and 
in  its  S.  W.  part  are  the  Mourne  mountains,  some 
of  whose  summits  are  among  tlie  highest  peaks 
in  Ireland  ;  but  with  these  exceptions  the  sur- 
face of  the  county  is  for  the  m(«t  part  tolerably 
even.  Thero  are  several  rivers  and  numerous 
lakes,  both  abounding  in  fish,  but  insignificant 
in  size.  Lough  Strangford  in  tlie  E.  part  of 
the  county,  though  almost  surrounded  by  land, 
is  yet  only  a  large  inlet  of  the  sea,  witli  which 
it.  communicates  by  a  channel  navigable  for  large 
vessels.  The  county  contains  many  mineral 
springs,  and  is  one  of  the  best  cultivated  of  all 
tlie  counties  of  Ireland,  producing  large  crops 
of  grain,  peas,  beans,  potatoes,  turnips,  &c.  The 
total  extent  of  land  under  crops  in  1855  was 
310,424  acres.  The  raising  of  cattle  is  carried 
on  mostly  for  dairy  purposes,  large  quantities 
of  butter  being  annually  made  and  exported ; 
and  hogs  are  reared  in  great  numbers.  There 
are  extensive  quarries  of  limestone,  sandstone, 
and  slate  ;  and  granite,  coal,  and  chalk  also 
occur.  The  most  important  manufacture  is  that 
of  linen,  though  there  are  also  cotton  and  wool- 
len mills.  The  climate  is  healthy  and  somewhat 
cold,  and  the  people  generally  are  in  a  better 
condition  than  those  of  most  Irish  counties. 
The  fishery  occupies  many  of  tlie  inliabitants, 
though  not  to  an  extent  commensurate  with 
the  facilities  for  it.  Some  interesting  remains 
of  antiquity  are  found,  and  there  are  also  ruins 
of  abbeys  and  castles  of  the  middle  ages.  Four 
members  are  returned  to  the  house  of  commons, 
two  for  the  county,  and  one  each  for  the  towns 
of  Downpatrick  and  Newry. 

DOAVNES,  Jon.v,  a  commodore  in  the  U.  S. 
navy,  born  in  Canton,  Norfolk  co.,  Mass.,  in  1786, 
died  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  Aug.  11,  1855.  He 
entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  June,  1802, 
and  his  first  service  was  in  the  frigate  New  York 
during  the  war  with  Tripoli.  In  May,  1803,  he 
distinguished  himself  in  a  boat  attack  upon  some 
Tripoiitan  feluccas,  which  had  been  chased  into 
the  port  of  Old  Tripoli.  In  March,  1807,  Downes 
was  promoted  to  a  lieutenancy,  and  during  the 
war  of  1812  served  as  executive  officer  of  the 
frigate  Essex,  Capt.  Porter,  during  her  cele- 
brated cruise  in  the  Pacific  ocean.  Among  the 
numerous  prizes  of  the  Essex  was  the  Avhale 
ship  Georgiana,  which  Capt.  Porter  fitted  as  a 
cruiser,  with  16  guns,  named  the  Essex  Junior, 
and  placed  under  the  command  of  Lieut.  Downes 
witli  a  crew  of  41  men.  Finally,  after  the  cap- 
ture of  the  Essex  at  Valparaiso  by  the  British 
frigate  Plicebe  and  sloop  Cherub,  the  Esses 
Junior  was  converted  into  a  cartel  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  Capt.  Porter  and  his  surviving 


officers  and  men  to  the  United  States,  In  June, 
1813,  Lieut.  Downes  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  master  commandant,  and  in  March,  1815,  ho 
commanded  the  brig  Epervier  of  18  guns  in  the 
squadron  employed  against  Algiers  in  that  year, 
under  Commodore  Stephen  Decatur.  On  June 
17, 1815,  the  Epervier  assisted  in  the  cai)tureof 
the  Algerine  frigate  Mashouda  off"  Cape  de  (}att. 
Two  days  afterward  the  Epervier  and  3  of  tho 
smaller  vessels  of  the  squadron  captured  tlio 
Algerine  brig  of  war  Estido,  22  guns  and  180 
men,  which  had  been  chased  into  shoal  water 
off  Cape  Palos.  After  the  conclusion  of  the 
treaty  of  peace  with  Algiers,  Commodore  De- 
catur transferred  Downes  to  his  own  ship,  the 
Guerriere,  while  the  Epervier,  which  was  sent 
to  the  United  States  with  the  treaty,  was  never 
afterward  heard  from  ;  it  was  supposed  that  she 
foundered  in  a  heavy  gale  near  tlie  Western 
islands.  In  March,  1817,  he  was  promoted  to  a 
captaincy,  and  from  1819  to  1821  commanded 
the  Macedonian  frigate  of  50  guns  in  the  Pacific. 
In  1828-9  he  commanded  the  frigate  Java  in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  from  1832  to  1834  the 
squadron  in  the  Pacific  ocean.  On  his  way  to 
his  station  he  anchored,  Feb.  5,  1832,  ofl:'  Quallah 
Batoo,  on  the  coast  of  Sumatra,  where  an  outrage 
had  been  committed  on  an  American  vessel. 
His  ship,  the  Potomac  of  50  guns,  was  disguised 
as  a  merchantman.  The  town  was  supposed  to 
contain  not  less  than  500  fighting  men,  and  was 
defended  by  5  forts,  owned  and  commanded  by 
different  rajahs  or  chiefs.  The  coramodoro  had 
obtained  tolerably  correct  information  of  their 
positions,  as  well  as  of  the  general  topography 
of  the  place,  but  nevertheless  deemed  it  advisa- 
ble to  make  an  actual  reconnoissance  if  possible. 
An  attempt  was  made  to  land  a  party  of  officers 
for  this  purpose,  in  citizens'  dress,  but  as  the 
boat  (rowed  by  officers  disguised  as  seamen)  ap- 
proached the  landing,  such  hostile  demonstra- 
tions were  made  by  the  natives  that  she  was 
recalled.  Preparations  for  an  attack  were  now 
made,  and  about  2  o'clock  in  the  morning  of 
Feb.  6,  about  150  officers,  seamen,  and  marines 
were  landed  under  the  command  of  Lieut.  Irvine 
Shubrick,  the  1st  lieutenant  of  the  ship.  This 
force  was  organized  in  divisions,  tho  marines 
under  Lieuts.  Edson  and  Terrett,  the  seamen  in 
4  divisions  commanded  by  Lieuts.  Pinkham, 
Iloff",  Ingersoll,  and  Sailing-master  Totten.  To 
each  division  a  particular  duty  was  assigned, 
and  although  the  surprise  Avas  not  quite  per- 
fect, the  result  was  entirely  successful.  Af- 
ter 2^  hours  of  severe  fighting,  the  town  was 
nearly  reduced  to  ashes,  many  of  the  natives 
were  killed,  and  4  of  the  forts  were  captured 
and  blown  up.  This  being  accomplished,  the 
expedition  reembarkcd  in  perfect  order,  and 
returned  to  tho  ship  with  a  loss  of  13  killed  and 
wounded.  A  flag  of  truce  was  immediately  sent 
oft'  from  the  town,  and  peace  sued  for,  which 
was  granted.  Several  of  the  rajahs  from  tho 
towns  in  the  vicinity  sent  deputations,  declaring 
t'leir  friendly  disposition  to  the  Americans,  to 
which  tho  commander  gave  corresponding  as- 


DOWNING 


DOWSE 


595 


snrances,  and  soon  after  sailed  for  the  Pacific. 
Our  commerce  at  Quallah  Batoo  lias  never  since 
been  molested.  The  sea  service  of  Com.  Downes 
terminated  with  tliis  cniiso.  From  1887  to  1S42, 
and  from  1850  to  1852,  he  commanded  the  navy 
yard  at  IJoston. 

DOWNING,  AxDEEw  Jackson^,  an  American 
landscape  gardener,  born  in  Newburg,  N.  Y., 
Oct.  30,   1815,  drowned  in  tlie  Hudson  river, 
near  Yonkers,  July  28,  1852.     From  an  early 
age  liis  tastes  were   directed  to  liorticulture, 
botany,  and  the  natural  sciences,  which  the  oc- 
cupation of  liis  father,  Avho  carried  on  business 
as  a  nurseryman  in  the  vicinity  of  Newburg, 
gave  him  many  opportunities  to  cultivate.    His 
school  education  was   acquired   chiefly  at  an 
academy  in  the  neighboring  town  of  Montgom- 
ery, from  which  he  returned  home  at  the  age 
of  16  to  assist  an  elder  brother  who  had  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  the  management  of  the 
nursery.     At  school  lie  was  a  tlioughtful,  re- 
served   boy,    made    few  friend^hips,  and   sel- 
dom joined  in  boyish  pastimes;    but  he  was 
always  a  diligent  reader  and  a  close  observer, 
and  now  endeavored  to  compensate  for  what  he 
considered  a  premature  removal  from  his  stu- 
dies by  a  course  of  self-instruction  in  his  favor- 
ite sciences.     In  the  intervals  of  his  labors  in 
the  garden  he  read  treatises  on  landscape  gar- 
dening, botany,  the  culture  of  fruits  and  flow- 
ers, and  in  general  every  tiling  pertaining  to  tlie 
economy  of  rural  life  ;  and  found  time  also  to 
make  himself  familiar  with  poetry,  art,   and 
elegant  literature.     At  20  years  of  age  he  de- 
termined to  become  a  rural  architect,  and  with 
a  mind  richly  stored  with  knowledge  suitable 
to  his  vocation,  he  began  to  visit  the  neighbor- 
ing estates  on  the  Hudson  river,  to  enlarge  his 
experience  and  confirm  his  theories  of  art  in 
landscape  gardening.     Three  years  later  he  was 
married  to  Miss  Caroline  De  Wint,  and  almost 
immediately  afterward,  commenced  the  erection 
on  his  little  paternal  estate  of  an  elegant  man- 
sion, which,  with  its  tastefully  arranged  grounds, 
afforded  the  first  practical  illustration  of  the 
builder's  conception  of  an  American  rural  home. 
He  had  previously  written  a  few  fugitive  pieces 
for  the  newspapers,  but  his  career  as  an  author 
properly  commences  with   the  publication  in 
18-11  of  his  "Treatise  on  the  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice of  Landscape  Gardening."     As  a  pioneer 
work  of  its  class  in  this  country,  it  necessarily 
attracted  attention,  and  the  author's  extensive 
information,  correct  ideas  of  taste,  and  appre- 
ciation of  the  conditions  of  rural  architecture 
in  America,  gave  it  immediate  popularity  and  a 
position  as  a  standard  authorit}'.     In  England 
it  was  highly  commended  by  such  competent 
judges  as  Loudon  and  Dr.  Lindley,  the  latter  of 
whom  said  that  he  "  knew  of  no  work  in  which 
the  fundamental  principles  of  this  profession 
were  so  well  or  so  concisely  expressed."     The 
"  Cottage  Residences,"  which  followed  in  the 
succeeding  year,  was  received  with  equal  favor; 
and  until  his  death  Downing  continued  to  be 
the  chief  American  authority  in  rural  art.     The 


appreciation  in  which  be  was  regarded  abroad 
was  evinced  by  his  election  as  corresponding 
member  of  many  of  the  chief  horticultural 
societies  of  Europe.  In  1845  appeared  simul- 
taneously in  London  and  New  Y'^ork  his  "  Fruits 
and  Fruit  Trees  of  America,"  of  which  more 
than  14  editions  have  been  published ;  and  in 
1846  he  became  the  editor  of  the  "Horticul- 
turist," a  monthly  magazine  published  in  Al- 
bany, f6r  which  he  wrote  an  essay  every 
montli  until  the  close  of  his  life.  In  1849  he 
wrote  "  Additional  Notes  and  Hints  to  persons 
about  building  in  this  country"  for  an  Ameri- 
can reprint  of  Wightwick's  "  Hints  to  Young 
Architects,"  and  in  1850  published  his  "  Archi- 
tecture for  Country  Houses."  His  remaining 
work  was  an  edition  of  Mrs.  Loudon's  "  Garden- 
ing for  Ladies."  The  summer  of  1850  he  i)assed 
in  England,  chiefly  among  the  great  country 
seats,  of  which  he  wrote  some  genial  descriptions. 
On  iiis  return  to  America,  having  determined  to 
devote  himself  exclusively  to  architecture  and 
building,  he  received  many  private  commis- 
sions, and  was  intrusted  by  President  Fillmore 
in  1851  with  the  laying  out  of  the  public  grounds 
in  the  city  of  Washington,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
capitol,  the  president's  house,  and  the  Smith- 
sonian institution.  In  the  midst  of  these  labors 
he  took  passage  at  Newburg  on  July  28,  1852,  in 
the  steamboat  Henry  Clay,  for  New  York. 
When  near  Y'onkers,  about  20  miles  above  New 
Y'ork,  the  Henry  Clay,  which  had  been  racing 
with  a  rival  steamboat,  was  discovered  to  be  on 
fire,  and  was  immediately  steered  for  the  shore. 
In  the  confusion  of  the  moment  Mr.  Downing 
was  separated  from  his  Avife,  and  when  the  heat 
of  the  conflagration  had  compelled  him  with 
many  others  to  jump  overboard,  he  was  seen 
for  the  last  time  struggling  in  the  water,  with 
several  persons  clinging  to  him.  His  body  was 
subsequently  recovered  and  sent  to  Newburg 
for  interment.  A  memoir  of  him  by  George 
W.  Curtis,  and  a  "  Letter  to  his  Friends,"  by 
Miss  Bremer,  who  had  been  his  guest  during 
her  visit  to  America,  were  prefixed  to  a  collec- 
tion of  his  contributions  to  the  "Horticulturist," 
published  in  1854,  under  the  title  of  "Rural 
Essays."  The  labors  of  Mr.  Downing  gave  a 
great  impulse  to  the  dissemination  of  correct 
taste  in  rural  architecture  among  the  American 
people,  and  of  a  love  for  rural  life. 

DOWNS,  a  term  applied  in  England  to  hills 
of  shifting  sand  along  the  coast;  also  called 
Duxes,  which  see.  Barren  tracts  of  hilly  laud 
used  for  sheep  pasture  are  also  called  downs. 
A  portion  of  the  English  channel,  aflbrding  ex- 
cellent anchorage,  and  much  used  by  the  British 
navy,  bears  the  same  name. 

DOWSE,  Thomas,  an  American  mechanic, 
who  has  obtained  considerable  celebrity  as  a 
lover  of  books  and  the  collector  of  a  valuable 
library,  born  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  Dec.  28, 
1772,' died  in  Cambridgeport,  Nov.  4,  1856. 
He  has  sometimes  been  called  "  the  literary 
leather  dresser."  His  father,  Eleazer  Dowse, 
was  a  leather  dresser,  and  was  driven  with  his 


596 


DOWSE 


family  from  Cliarlcsto"wn  on  Juno  17,  1775,  Lis 
house  being  ono  of  tliosc  destroyed  by  the  con- 
flagration of  that  day.  After  a  short  time 
])assed  at  IloUiston,  lie  established  himself  at 
Sherborn,  a  small  town  in  Middlesex  cu.,  the 
original  seat  of  the  family,  and  there  resumed 
Lis  occupation  as  a  leather  dresser.  At  the  age 
of  6,  Thomas  was  severely  injured  by  a  fall 
from  a  tree  ;  and  a  rheumatic  fever  setting  in 
before  lie  had  recovered  from  the  efiects  of  this 
accident,  a  lameness  resulted  which  continued, 
■with  frequent  attacks  of  severe  pain,  through 
life.  At  the  proper  age,  Thomas  began  to  work 
with  his  lather,  at  his  trade  and  on  the  farm ; 
forming  at  the  same  time  a  taste  for  reading, 
which  he  indulged  with  so  much  eagerness 
that,  by  the  age  of  18,  he  had  read  all  the  books 
he  could  procure  in  Sherborn.  All  his  little 
earnings  were  expended  in  the  purchase  of 
books.  lie  had  no  education  but  what  could 
be  obtained  at  the  town  school.  lie  contin- 
ued to  live  at  Jiome  as  an  apprentice  to  his 
father  till  he  had  attained  his  majority.  He 
was  then  seized  with  a  desire  to  visit  foreign 
countries.  A  neighbor  of  his  father's,  who  com- 
manded a  vessel  that  traded  from  Norfolk  in 
Virginia  to  London,  otfered  him  a  free  passage ; 
he  w"as,  however,  to  reach  Norfolk  at  his  own 
expense.  Too  poor  to  accompany  the  captain 
by  land,  he  engaged  a  passage  in  a  coasting  ves- 
sel from  Boston.  Head  winds  prevented  the 
departure  of  the  coaster  till  the  vessel  had  sailed 
from  Norfolk,  and  thus  Thomas  Dowse  lost  the 
opi>ortunity  of  visiting  foreign  countries.  An- 
other never  presented  itself.  He  immediately 
sought  employment  in  the  business  in  which  he 
had  been  brought  up,  and  entered  the  service 
of  Mr.  Wait,  a  leather  dresser  and  wool  puller 
at  Roxbury,  Mass ,  at  $12  a  month  wages.  His 
pay  Avas  afterward  raised  to  $25.  He  remained 
in  this  employ  10  years.  He  once  informed  a 
friend  that  at  the  age  of  28  his  highest  income 
was  $25  a  month ;  that  he  had  never  jjaid  $5 
for  conveyance  from  one  place  to  another,  never 
owned  a  pair  of  boots,  and  was  then  the  posses- 
sor of  several  hundred  volumes  of  good  books 
well  bound.  In  1803  he  set  up  in  business  at 
Cambridge  port,  with  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Wait, 
who  advanced  the  capital  and  shared  the  profits. 
This  partnership  was  dissolved  at  the  end  of 
the  year;  after  which  Mr.  Dowse  carried  on 
the  business  of  a  leather  dresser,  wool  puller, 
and  glover,  at  first  with  a  succession  of  partners, 
and  afterward  alone,  till  he  was  far  advanced 
in  life.  His  business  was  successful,  and  the 
articles  manufactured  by  him  enjoyed  the  rejiu- 
tation  of  being  the  best  of  their  kind  in  the 
market.  In  1814  he  erected  a  large  and  com- 
modious dwelling-house  and  shop  in  Cambridge- 
port,  and  laid  out  2  or  3  acres  as  a  garden  ;  and 
here  he  lived  unmarried  the  .rest  of  his  days. 
From  the  earliest  period  he  devoted  a  large  ]iart 
of  hi.s  income  to  the  purchase  of  books.  The 
working  hours  of  the  day  were  devoted  to  his 
shop  or  business  connected  with  it ;  but  the 
Darly  morning  and  the  evening  hours   were 


em])loycd  in  reading.  He  thus  acquired  an  in- 
telligent knowledge  of  the  contents  of  his  steadi- 
ly increasing  library.  Having  formed  a  taste, 
not  only  for  good  books  but  for  handsome  edi- 
tions, in  which  the  American  press  was  then 
greatly  deficient,  ho  was  accustomed  to  import 
them  directly  from  London.  Aliout  the  year 
1820  his  agent  in  England  sent  him  the  pros- 
pectus of  a  lottery  for  the  disposal  of  the  sets 
of  a  costly  collection  of  engravings  of  the  most 
famous  works  of  tlie  old  masters,  and  of  the  wa- 
ter-color copies  made  from  the  originals,  for 
the  ]nn-poses  of  this  publication.  Mr.  Dowse 
bought  3  tickets  in  this  lottery,  and  drew  2 
prizes,  one  prize  consisting  of  2  sets  of  the  en- 
gravings, colored  and  uncolored ;  the  other 
prize  being  ^  of  the  water-color  copies  framed, 
52  in  number.  He  thus  became  possessed  of  a 
large  collection  of  admirable  copies  of  some  of 
the  most  celebrated  i)aintings  in  England.  In 
the  judgment  of  Mr.  Washington  Allston,  it  af- 
forded ampler  means  for  the  study  of  art  than 
were  elsewhere  to  be  found  at  that  time  in  the 
United  States.  The  paintings  were  advanta- 
geously arranged  in  rooms  adjoining  Mr.  Dowse's 
library,  and  formed  with  it  an  attraction  of 
steadily  increasing  interest  to  men  of  letters  and 
taste  resident  in  the  neighborhood,  and  to  stran- 
gers. Mr.  Dowse's  bodily  infirmity  unfitted  him 
for  much  active  intercourse  with  society,  and 
his  disposition  naturally  inclined  him  to  retire- 
ment and  solitary  occupation.  He  abstained 
from  public  life  in  all  its  forms,  and  though  a 
diligent  reader,  committed  nothing  to  writing. 
He  continued  to  work  at  his  trade  till  after  ho 
was  70  years  of  age  ;  but  for  the  last  10  years 
of  his  life,  though  his  shop  remained  open  in 
the  lower  story  of  his  dwelling,  the  business 
was  conducted  by  j^ersons  in  his  employ.  Of 
the  eminent  men  whom  the  country  has  pro- 
duced, Franklin  w^as  one  of  the  special  objects 
of  Mr.  Dowse's  admiration.  Toward  the  closo 
of  his  life  he  expressed  this  sentiment  by  the 
erection,  at  his  own  expense,  of  a  substantial 
granite  obelisk  at  Mount  Auburn,  by  the  side  of 
his  own  tomb.  With  the  exception  of  the  sta- 
tue of  Franklin  presented  by  Mr.  Bingham  to 
the  public  library  at  Philadelphia,  and  the  urn 
in  Franklin  place,  Boston,  which  is  rather  an 
ornamental  than  a  commemorative  work,  the 
obelisk  erected  by  Mr.  Dowse  is  believed  to  have 
been  the  first  monument  dedicated  to  the  mem- 
ory of  Franklin  in  the  LTnited  States.  As  Mr. 
Dowse  was  childless,  the  destination  of  his  libra- 
ry after  his  decease  was  a  matter  of  some  curios- 
ity among  those  acquainted  with  its  value.  A 
few  months  before  his  death  he  formed  the  reso- 
lution to  present  it  to  the  Massachusetts  histori- 
cal society ;  and  on  July  30, 1856,  the  formal 
transfer  was  made.  The  library,  however,  was 
left  by  the  society  in  the  possession  of  M.  Dowso 
during  the  brief  remainder  of  his  life.  It  con- 
sisted of  about  5,000  volumes  of  a  miscellaneous 
character,  generally  in  good,  often  in  elegant 
bindings,  and  of  the  best  editions.  It  is  almost 
exclusively  an  English  library,  though  contain* 


DOXOLOGY 


DRACO 


597 


ing  translations  of  the  principal  authors  in  tho 
ancient  lanj^uages,  and  the  cultivated  languages 
of  modern  Europe.  It  is  estimated  to  have  cost 
Mr.  Dowse  $40,000  witliout  interest.  After  his 
death  tho  library  was  deposited  in  the  historical 
(Society's  building,  in  an  inner  room  fitted  up  for 
the  purjjose,  and  arranged  in  tasteful  cabinets  at 
a  cost  of  $8,000  advanced  by  his  executors,  in  ad- 
dition to  a  sum  of  !{^10,000  also  given  by  them  as 
a  permanent  fund  for  tlie  conservation  and  caro 
of  the  library.  Mr.  Dowse  in  his  will  made 
provision  for  his  relatives  to  tlic  extent  of  $25,- 
000.  The  residue  of  his  property,  atnounting  to 
about  $40,000,  was  placed  at  the  disposal  of  his 
executors,  to  be  by  them  api)ropriated  to  liter- 
ary, scientific,  or  charitable  ])urposes.  Tiie  col- 
lection of  Avater-colors  was  given  by  tliem  to 
the  Boston  Athenteum,  ^vhere  it  is  dis])layed  in 
an  apartment  exclusively  devoted  to  that  pur- 
pose. Handsome  donations  have  been  made  by 
the  executors  to  the  botanic  garden  of  tlie  uni- 
versity at  Cambridge,  and  to  other  meritorious 
public  objects  in  Cambridge  and  Boston.  The 
t)owse  high  school  has  been  founded  by  them 
at  Sherborn,  where  lie  passed  his  youth  and 
learned  his  trade ;  and  tho  Dowse  institute 
established  at  Cambridgeport,  in  tho  immediate 
vicinity  of  his  residence.  A  commemorative 
discourse  was  delivered  by  Mr.  Edward  Ever- 
ett, at  the  opening  of  the  Dowse  institute,  Dec. 
7,  1858,  and  before  the  Massachusetts  histori- 
cal society  on  Dec.  9.  A  fine  portrait  of  Mr. 
Dowse  was  painted  a  short  time  before  his  de- 
cease by  AVight  of  Boston,  at  the  request  of  the 
eociety,  and  now  adorns  the  room  in  which  his 
library  is  deposited. 

DOXOLOGY  (Gr.  to^a,  glory,  and  Xeyco,  to 
ascribe),  in  general,  a  prayer  to  celebrate  the 
grandeur  and  majesty  of  God.  In  the  Eoman 
Catholic  church  it  is  applied  particularly  to  the 
angelic  hymn  or  canticle  of  praise  which  is  sung 
in  celebrating  tlie  mass,  and  is  otherwise  called 
the  Gloria  in  excclm.  This  is  also  styled  the 
greater  doxology,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  less- 
er, or  Gloria  Patri,  whicli  is  usually  sung  after 
the  chanting  or  recitation  of  a  psalm.  Both 
doxologies  are  traced  to  the  earliest  periods  of 
the  church,  and  though  slightly  and  temporarily 
modified  during  the  prevalence  of  some  here- 
Bies,  have  not  been  permanently  changed.  They 
both  have  a  place  in  the  liturgy  of  the  Anglican 
church,  and  are  of  common  use  in  tho  service 
of  other  branches  of  Protestantism. 

DOYLE,  RioiiARD,  an  English  humorous  art- 
ist, born  in  London  in  1820.  From  his  father, 
Mr.  John  Doyle,  an  able  political  caricaturist,  he 
inherited  a  taste  for  humorous  illustration,  and 
a  few  years  after  the  establishment  of  "Punch" 
became  known  to  the  public  by  his  designs  pub- 
lished in  that  paper.  His  pulitical  caricatures 
are  singularly  free  from  direct  personalities  or 
the  appearance  of  malice,  but  his  humorous  il- 
lustrations of  London  life  aftord  the  best  exam- 
ples of  his  harmless  wit  and  graceful  fancy. 
The  series  entitled  "Manners  and  Customs  of  y° 
Englyshe,"  though  ostensibly  caricatures,  are  iu 


fiict  sketches  of  the  every-day  life  of  the  people, 
and  for  liveliness  of  invention  and  various  tech- 
nical merits  may  be  regarded  as  unique  per- 
formances. The  "Continental  Tour  of  Messrs. 
Brown,  Jones,  and  Robinson,"  perhaps  the 
most  pojiular  of  his  works,  is  in  like  manner 
a  somewhat  exaggerated  view  of  tlie  lights  and 
sliadows  of  travel  on  the  continent.  In  1850 
;Mr.  Doyle,  taking  umbrage  at  the  severe  at- 
tacks of  "Punch"  upon  the  llomau  Catliolic 
hierarchy,  severed  his  connection  with  that 
paper,  since  which  time  he  has  employed  his 
pencil  chiefly  in  illustrating  books  of  fairy 
tales,  and  similar  ])ublications,  including  the 
"  Fairy  Pting,"  "  Fairy  Tales  from  all  Nations," 
Leigh  Hunt's  "Jar  of  Honey,"  Buskin's  "King 
of  the  Golden  River,"  &c.  He  fails  in  attempt- 
ing to  depict  the  merely  p.osaic  or  the  senti- 
mental, and  his  illustrations  to  Thackeray's 
"JSTewcomes"  are  comparatively  feeble. 

DRACIIENFELS  (Dragon's  Rock),  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Siebongebirgo  range,  or  "  seven 
hills"  (though  their  number  is  really  more  than 
7),  on  the  riglit  bank  of  the  Rhine,  near  Bonn. 
Tlie  ascent  of  the  mountain,  which  is  1,056 
feet  high,  is  fatiguing  from  its  steepness,  but 
amply  rewards  the  traveller  by  tho  majestic 
beauty  of  the  scenery  of  the  river  and  valley 
beneath,  and  of  the  adjoining  panorama  of 
ruin-clad  mountains.  Upon  the  summit  of  the 
Drachenfels  are  the  ruins  of  a  castle  of  the 
12th  centur}',  a  monument  erected  in  1814  by 
the  Siebengebirge  militia  to  their  gallant  leader' 
Genger,  Avho  died  on  the  battle  field,  and  an- 
other in  August,  1858,  in  commemoration  of  the 
German  war  of  independence.  Here  also  is  a 
famous  quarry  which  furnished  stone  for  the 
cathedral  of  Cologne,  and  hence  called  Doni- 
iruch  ('lome  or  cathedral  quarry).  The  beauty 
of  this  far-famed  mountain  has  been  a  fruitful 
theme  with  poets  of  every  land,  but  to  Eng- 
lish readers  it  is  familiar  chiefly  fronj  the  well- 
known  verses  of  Byron.  Its  name  is  explained 
by  a  tradition  of  a  dragon  which  inhabited  a 
cavern  in  its  sides,  and  was  slain  by  Siegfried, 
tlie  hero  of  the  Nibelungen  lay. 

DRACHMA,  a  measure  both  of  weight  and 
value  among  the  ancient  Greeks.  In  either 
case  it  was  composed  of  G  oboli,  and  was  the 
Tffo  V^^'^  of  the  mina,  and  the  yo%o  P^^^t  of  the 
Attic  talent.  The  drachma  was  the  principal 
silver  coin  of  the  Greeks,  and  its  value  was  from 
15.20  to  17.05  cents.  The  drachma  or  drachm 
mentioned  by  Jewish  Avriters  was  the  Greek 
coin  which  became  current  among  the  Jews 
in  the  latest  period  of  their  national  existence. 

DRACO,  tbe  author  of  the  first  written  code 
of  laws  at  Athens,  which  he  is  supposed  to  have 
published  in  the  4th  year  of  the  39tli  Olym- 
piad, G21  B.  C.  He  was  of  distinguished  birth 
and  virtue,  honored  for  his  severe  manners  and 
his  large  exjierience  in  public  atJ'airs ;  and  the 
people  of  Atliens,  a  prey  to  anarchy,  besought 
him  to  give  them  a  code  of  laws.  Like  all  the 
other  legislative  systems  of  antiquity,  the  system 
which  he  proposed  linked  together  civil  and 


598 


DRACUT 


DEAGON 


moral  duties.  He  took  the  citizen  at  the  moment 
of  his  birtli,  prescribed  tlie  manner  in  wliich  he 
should  he  nourished  and  educated,  foUowcd  liiin 
with  directions  througli  the  ditfereiit  epoclis  of 
life,  and  llattered  himself  tliat  lie  should  make 
men  free  and  virtuous.  The  penalty  of  death 
was  to  be  inllicted  for  almost  every  crime,  for 
homicide  and  idleness,  for  sacrilege  and  the 
stealing  of  garden  herbs.  The  slightest  otience, 
he  said,  deserved  death,  and  he  knew  no  punish- 
ment more  severe  for  the  greatest.  lie  even 
carried  his  severity  to  a  fantastic  extreme,  or- 
dering punishment  to  be  inflicted  upon  inani- 
mate things,  as  for  instance  on  a  statue  whose 
foil  had  injured  a  man.  So  violent  a  code  could 
not  last,  and  within  30  years  Athens  was  again 
in  anarchy.  Recourse  was  then  had  to  Solon, 
whose  wisdom  and  moderation  gave  to  the 
Athenians,  not,  as  he  himself  said,  the  best  laws, 
but  the  best  that  they  were  able  to  support. 
Draco  died  at  the  culmination  of  his  glory  upon 
tlie  isle  of  ^Egina.  As  he  entered  the  tlieatre 
he  received  the  acclamations  of  the  people,  and 
was  stifled  amid  the  mass  of  caps,  robes,  and 
cloaks,  which  they  in  accordance  with  their 
custom  threw  upon  him  as  a  mark  of  honor. 

DRACUT,  a  post  village  and  township  of 
Middlesex  co.,  Mass.,  on  the  N.  bank  of  Merri- 
mack river,  opposite  Lowell,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  2  bridges,  28  m.  N.  AY.  from  Bos- 
ton, and  IG  N.  E.  from  Concord;  pop.  of  the 
township  in  1850,  3,450  ;  in  1855,  1,9G(3,  a  por- 
tion of  it  having  been  annexed  to  Lowell  in 
1851.  It  borders  on  New  Hampshire,  and  is 
traversed  by  Beaver  river,  which  supplies  it 
Avith  water  power.  It  is  mainly  an  agricul- 
tural town,  but  in  1855  had  1  cotton  mill  manu- 
facturing $62,000  worth  of  goods  per  annum, 
1  woollen  mill  producing  475,000  yards  of  stuff, 
and  2  paper  mills  producing  $10,500  worth  of 
paper.     In  1858  it  contained  4  churches. 

DRAFT,  a  word  used  indiscriminately  with 
the  synonymous  terra  Dr.AtJGnT,  from  which, 
according  to  Dr.  Webster,  it  is  corrupted.  Al- 
though no  less  than  17  definitions  are  given  in 
his  dictionary,  no  mention  is  made  in  this  or  in 
Worcester's  of  the  common  use  of  the  word  to 
express  a  current  of  air ;  as  the  draft  of  a  chim- 
ney— to  sit  in  a  draft  of  air.  In  tlie  former  ap- 
plication it  is  also  used  to  express  quality,  as  a 
chimney  of  strong  draft ;  so  the  word  is  used  in 
the  example  given  by  Dr.  Webster  of  a  cart  of 
easy  draft,  expressing  "the  quality  of  being 
drawn." 

DRAGOMAN,  an  oriental  word  signifying 
Interpreter.  It  is  applied,  in  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire and  the  courts  of  the  further  East  and 
of  Barbary,  to  men  who  know  several  lan- 
guages, and  make  it  their  business  to  act  as  in- 
terpreters between  foreigners  and  the  natives. 
What  was  formerly  a  necessity  for  commercial 
relations,  has  since  become  so  for  purposes  of 
diploraacj'.  At  Constantinople  the  office  of 
prime  dragoman,  through  whom  the  sultan  re- 
ceivea  the  communications  of  Christian  ambas- 
sadors, is  oiu)  of  the  most  important  of  the  Sub- 


lime Porte,  and  is  usually  held  by  a  Greek,  be- 
longing to  one  of  the  most  illustrious  families 
of  his  nation.  Most  foreign  ambassadors  and 
consuls  in  the  ports  of  the  Levant,  and  many 
travellers,  keep  private  dragomans  at  their  own 
expense. 

DRAGON"  (draco,  Linn.),  an  iguanian  lizard, 
of  the  subfamily  of  acrodonts,  or  those  having 
the  teeth  implanted  in  the  bony  substance  of  the 
jaws,  to  which  they  firndy  adhere  by  the  base 
of  the  roots.  The  head  of  these  reptiles  is  trian- 
gular, flattened,  and  covered  with  small  irregular 
scales,  sometimes  ridged ;  the  small  circular  and 
tubular  nostrils  open  at  the  end  of  the  obtuse 
snout ;  the  tongue  is  thick  and  spongy,  with  a 
round  single  extremity  ;  the  anterior  teeth  are 
3  or  4,  and  resemble  incisors  ;  behind  these  the 
median  ones  are  conical,  like  canines,  and  there 
are  generally  2  pairs  in  each  jaw ;  the  posterior 
teeth,  or  molars,  are  tricuspid  and  compress- 
ed ;  under  the  neck  is  a  long  crest  or  dewlap, 
and  on  each  side  a  triangular  cutaneous  fold 
placed  horizontally,  all  3  having  in  their  thick- 
ness a  process  from  the  hyoid  bone;  there  is 
generally  a  small  cervical  crest.  While  some 
species  have  no  external  ear,  in  others  there  is  a 
small  circular  membranous  tympanum.  The 
neck  is  slightly  compressed;  the  body  has  a 
central  dorsal  depression,  and  is  covered  above 
and  below  Avith  small  imbricated  ridged  scales. 
Dragons  are  at  once  distinguished  from  all  other 
reptiles  of  this  order  by  the  horizontal  expan- 
sion of  the  skin  of  the  sides  into  a  kind  of  Aving, 
supported  chiefly  by  the  first  6  false  ribs,  Avhich 
are  extended  horizontally  outward  instead  of 
surrounding  the  abdomen.  This  flying  mem- 
brane, of  a  semicircular  form,  is  about  as  Avide 
as  the  arm  is  long,  free  infront,  but  attached  be- 
hind to  the  anterior  part  of  the  thigh ;  in  a  state 
of  rest  the  animal  keeps  it  folded  like  a  fan 
along  the  body,  and  spreads  it  like  a  parachute 
to  sustain  it  Avhen  leaping  from  branch  to 
branch ;  it  cannot  be  moved  as  an  active  organ 
of  flight  like  the  Aving  of  a  bird  or  the  mem- 
brane of  the  bat,  but  serves  only  as  a  passiA-Q 
supporting  instruinent  like  the  parachute  mem- 
brane of  the  flying  squirrel ;  both  surfaces  of 
this  membrane  are  furnished  Avith  very  small 
smooth  scales.  The  fore  and  hind  limbs,  each 
Avith  5  toes,  are  of  about  the  same  length,  the 
latter  being  flattened,  Avith  the  posterior  border 
fringed  with  serrated  scales ;  there  are  no  fem- 
oral pores ;  the  tail  is  A^ery  long,  slender,  Avido 
and  flat  at  the  base,  round  at  the  end,  Avith 
rhomboidal  imbricated  scales,  stror>gly  ridged 
beneath.  Among  the  species  Avith  a  visible  tym- 
panum, and  the  nasal  openings  directed  lateral- 
ly, are  :  1,  the  fringed  dragon  (D.  Jimhriatus, 
Kuhl),  Avith  the  thighs  fringed  behind  Avith  tri- 
angular scales,  and  Avith  longitudinal  white  lines 
on  the  wings ;  the  general  color  above  is  aq 
olive  gray  Avith  shades  of  brown  in  trans- 
verse bands,  and  Avhitish  below  ;  this  is  the 
largest  species  described  by  Dumeril  and  Bibron, 
the  total  length  being  about  11  inclies,  of  Avhich 
the  body  is  only  3  ;  it  is  peculiar  to  Java :  2, 


DKAGOIT 


DRAGOJ^-FLY 


599 


the  flying  dragon  (D.  Daudinil,  Dum.),  from 
Java,  of  a  grayisli  color  above  Avith  black  spots, 
and  the  wings  marbled  with  the  same  ;  total 
length  about  9  inches :  3,  the  Timor  dragon 
(Z*.  Timorensis,  Peroii.),  with  wings  spotted 
with  brown  on  a  reddish  ground,  and  a  row  of 
ridged  scales  larger  than  the  rest  on  each  side 
of  the  median  line  of  the  back  ;  length  about  8 
inches;  probably  a  variety  of  the  last:  4,  the 
banded  dragon  (A  quinqucfanciatus,  Gray), 
with  5  brown  bands  traversing  the  upper  sur- 
face of  wings  and  back  ;  from  the  East  Indies; 
about  10  inches  long.  The  dragon  of  Dussu- 
mier  (Z*.  Dussum{eri,  Dum.)  has  the  nostrils 
opening  vertically,  the  wings  spotted  with 
brown  near  tiie  body  and  widely  marbled  with 
the  same  on  their  upper  free  edge,  and  a  black 
band  across  the  lower  surface  of  the  neck ; 
length  about  8  inches  ;  it  is  a  native  of  the  con- 
tinent of  India.  The  red-bearded  dragon  {D. 
haimatoijogon^  Boie),  from  Java,  has  vertical 
nostrils,  and  a  large  black  spot  on  each  side  of 
the  red  gnlar  pouch ;  length  about  9  inches. 
There  are  2  species  which  have  the  tympanum 
concealed  under  the  skin,  constituting  the  genus 
<ZracMnc«ii«  of  Wiegmann  ;  these  are  the  lined 
dragon  (i).  lineatvs,  Daudin)  of  Amboyna  and 
Celebes,  about  GMnches  long,  witli  the  back  ash- 
colored,  and  the  wings  grayish  brown  with 
longitudinal  white  lines;  the  Philippine  dragon 
(iJ.npilopf.erus,  Wiegm.),  from  the  neighborhood 
of  Manila,  about  8^  inches  long,  with  red  wings 
spotted  with  black  or  brown,  and  throat  yellow 
with  black  dots.  Dragons  live  almost  entirely 
in  trees,  and  feed  upon  insects,  which  they  catch 
with  dexterity. 

DRAGON,  an  animal  often  alluded  to  in  the 
Bible,  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  crocodile,  and 
by  others  to  refer,  in  some  passages,  to  a  species 
of  giant  serpent,  or  to  a  wild  beast  like  the  jack- 
al or  wolf.  According  to  Robinson's  Calmet,  it 
is  not  improbaljle  that  St.  John  had  in  mind 
the  enormous  boa  of  Africa  and  the  East  when 
he  described  tlie  symbolic  great  red  dragon. — 
In  mythology,  the  dragon  is  a  fantastic  animal, 
varii)usly  reitresented  as  of  immense  size,  with 
wings,  thorny  crests,  powerful  claws,  and  a 
snaky  tail  and  motion.  He  figured  in  the  an- 
cient conceptions  of  the  Orient  and  of  the  clas- 
sical nations,  was  a  familiar  subject  in  the  middle 
ages,  is  still  an  emblem  of  universal  use  among 
the  Chinese,  and  seems  to  have  existed  almost 
everywhere  except  in  nature. 

DRAGOX-FLY  (UbeUula,  Linn.),  an  insect 
of  the  family  suhulicornes  of  l^atreille,  and  the 
order  neuroptera.  The  insects  of  this  genus,  in 
this  country  commonly  called  "  devil's  needles," 
in  the  perfect  form  are  light  and  graceful  fliers, 
of  the  most  brilliant  and  beautiful  colors,  with 
4  large,  shining,  delicate  wings  of  nearly  ecjual 
size  ;  the  mouth  is  arranged  for  crushing  insect 
pre}-,  provided  with  strong  horny  mandibles  and 
Bpiny  maxillffi ;  the  eyes  are  lateral,  large,  and 
brilliant,  with  3  stemmata  upon  the  top  of  the 
head ;  the  antenna3  consist  of  from  3  to  G  joints ; 
Ihe  legs  are  short,  6  in  number,  directed  forward, 


arising  from  a  firm  thorax  formed  of  3  united 
segments;  the  abdomen  is  very  long,  a  flattened 
cylinder,  soft,  without  sting  or  piercer,  and  in 
the  males  terminated  by  2  lamellar  appendages. 
In  some  genera  the  male  sexual  organs  are 
l)laced  in  tiie  2d  abdominal  ring,  and  those  of 
the  female  in  the  last  ring,  which  requires  an 
unusual  position  in  the  act  of  reproduction ;  the 
female  deposits  her  eggs  on  aquatic  plants  be- 
neath the  surface  of  the  water.  From  their 
lightness  and  beauty  the  French  call  them  de- 
moiselles. Kirby  speaks  of  their  "  dress  "  as 
"silky,  brilliant,  and  variegated,  and  trimmed 
with  the  finest  lace ;"  Mauffet  says  they  "  set 
fortli  nature's  elegancy  beyond  the  expression 
of  art ;"  yet  with  all  their  gay  coloring  they  are 
among  the  most  voracious  and  cruel  of  insects, 
darting  with  hawk-like  swiftness  and  ferocity 
upon  gnats,  mosquitoes,  butterflies,  and  almost 
any  soft-bodied  winged  insect,  eating  even  their 
own  species.  They  are  not  only  in  no  way  inju- 
rious to  man,  attacking  neither  his  person,  cattle, 
nor  crops,  but  are  directly  beneficial  in  destroy- 
ing many  noxious  insects.  They  hover  over  pools 
in  search  of  prey,  or  dart  from  a  post  or  fence  up- 
on insects  coming  near ;  having  caught  one,  they 
alight  to  devour  it,  first  pulling  olf  the  wings;  in 
their  habits  they  resemble  the  fly-catchers  among 
birds.  They  are  equally  carnivorous  in  the  larva 
state,  which  they  pass  in  the  water.  The  larv.'o 
are  without  wings;  they  have  G  feet,  and  a  very 
complicated  arrangement  of  the  parts  forming 
the  under  lip,  which  covers  the  face  like  a  mask, 
concealing  the  mouth,  and  serving  by  the  unfold- 
ing of  its  plates  for  seizing  and  conveying  food 
to  the  mouth ;  they  crawl  stealthily  along  the 
bottom,  like  a  cat,  and  when  within  reach  spring 
their  jointed  mask  upon  insects  and  even  small 
fishes  with  great  precision.  By  a  valvular  ap- 
paratus at  the  end  of  the  tail,  these  larvae  draw 
in  and  expel  water,  using  the  jet  against  the 
surrounding  stationary  fluid  as  a  means  of  loco- 
motion; the  currents  thus  produced  also  bring 
insects  within  reach  of  the  jaws,  and  doubtless 
serve  some  of  the  purposes  of  respiration,  though 
respiratory  tracheje  also  exist  on  the  sides  of  the 
body.  They  remain  several  months  in  the  wa- 
ter, and  change  their  skins  several  times.  The 
nymphs  have  rudimentary  wings,  and  when 
they  are  ready  to  assume  their  final  change,  the 
brilliant  eyes  of  the  future  fly  may  be  seen 
through  the  envelope,  which  becomes  more 
transparent;  they  crawl  out  of  the  water  upon 
some  bank  or  aquatic  plant,  where  the  pupa  skin 
becomes  dry  and  crisp  and  bursts  open  on  the 
back ;  tlie  head  and  legs  of  the  perfect  insect 
are  slowly  thrust  and  drawn  out,  the  wings  grad- 
ually expand  themselves  and  become  smooth, 
and" the  body  and  limbs  assume  tlieir  just  pro- 
portions. During  the  drying  of  the  wings  the 
insect  bends  the  body  into  a  crescentic  form, 
that  their  delicate  tissue  may  not  be  disturbed 
by  contact  with  any  foreign  substance.  The 
anterior  nervures  of  the  wings  must  be  rery 
strong,  though  light,  to  enable  the  rapid  vibra-- 
tions  of  these  organs  to  be  performed ;  their  sec- 


600 


DRAGON'S  BLOOD 


DRAINAGE 


tion,  as  ia  the  butterfly,  ■would  probably  present 
the  form  found  by  engineers  to  be  that  of  the 
beam  of  greatest  strength  and  liglitness,  viz. : 
the  greatest  amount  of  material  tlirown  into  the 
oval  flanges,  connected  by  the  tliinnest  possible 
median  support.  According  to  Drury,  these  in- 
sects are  2  years  in  reaching  the  perfect  form 
from  the  egg  ;  after  flying  about  a  few  weeks, 
and  having  performed  the  act  of  reproduction, 
the  wings  become  ragged,  the  strength  fails,  and 
they  soon  die.  They  are  sometimes  seen  in  im- 
mense swarms ;  M.  Poey  says  that  at  certain 
seasons  of  the  year  the  north  winds  sweep  hosts 
of  them  into  the  neighborhood  of  Havana ;  in 
Belgium  in  185-i  a  swarm  was  seen  extending  f 
of  a  mile,  and  requiring  nearly  an  hour  to  pass 
a  given  spot,  the  lowest  individuals  flying  at  a 
height  of  about  0  feet.  The  restricted  genus 
lihellula^  of  which  nearly  20  species  inhabit 
New  England,  has  a  flattened,  moderately  long 
body,  an  almost  globular  head,  the  eyes  contigu- 
ous or  approximate,  and  the  Avings  horizontal 
when  at  rest.  The  larvas  are  short  and  thick, 
of  a  rough  a])pearance,  and  a  dirty  color;  they 
have  5  a]jpendages  to  the  tail.  The  genus  ash- 
na  (Fab.)  includes  the  large  species,  with  long 
slender  bodies,  which  keep  the  wings  expand- 
ed when  at  rest  ;  tlie  larvae  are  larger,  long 
and  slender,  with  the  abdomen  flat  below  and 
rounded  above;  this  includes  the  L.  grandis 
(Linn.),  the  largest  and  most  predaeeous  of  the 
British  genera ;  there  are  about  a  dozen  species 
in  Massachusetts.  In  the  genus  agrion  (Fab.) 
the  wings  are  perpendicular  during  repose,  the 
head  transversal,  and  the  eyes  far  apart ;  this 
includes  the  species  with  the  slender  and  filiform 
abdomen,  sometimes  of  extraordinary  length  ; 
the  larvas  are  small,  with  round  slender  bodies 
terminating  in  3  feathery  appendages ;  there  are 
about  10  northern  species  well  known,  many  of 
them  delicate  and  beautiful ;  among  the  foreign 
species  are  some  of  the  most  brilliant  of  insects. 
Many  of  the  finest  American  species  of  this 
family  are  described  and  figured  by  Drury. 

DRAGON'S  BLOOD.    "See  Balsams. 

DRAGOONS  (Fr.  dmgons^h-om  Lat. dmcona- 
rtus,  a  standard  bearer),  a  species  of  cavalry  first 
introduced  by  Marshal  de  Brissac  in  France  in 
the  16th  century,  when  they  were  armed  with 
muskets  and  trained  to  figlit  according  to  cir- 
cumstances either  as  cavalry  or  infantry.  They 
manoeuvred  either  in  or  out  of  the  line,  extended 
themselves  as  skirmishers  on  the  Avings,  fired 
upon  the  enemy,  and  then  deployed  beliind  a 
column  of  infantry  to  reload  their  pieces,  prompt- 
ly returning  again  upon  their  adversaries.  They 
were  subsequently  of  especial  service  in  passing 
rivers  and  defiles,  and  as  an  escort  for  the  bag- 
gage and  convoys  of  artillerj'.  In  the  18th  cen- 
tury they  lost  their  hybrid  character,  were  gen- 
erally used  as  cavalry,  and  now  form  in  most  of 
.the  European  armies  a  grade  between  cuirassiers 
:and  hussars,  mounted  on  horses  too  lieavy  for 
the  latter  and  too  light  for  tlie  former.  Nicho- 
'Ifts  of  Russia  created  a  dragoon  corps  of  8  regi- 
ments'designed  to  act  either  as  cavalry  or  in- 


fantry, but  they  were  reduced  to  simple  cavalry 
by  liis  successor.  The  first  corps  of  dragoons 
in  England,  called  the  royal  regiment  of  dr.'v- 
goons  of  North  Britain,  was  raised  in  1681,  and 
is  now  the  Scots  greys.  There  are  two  regi- 
ments of  dragoons  in  the  U.  S.  army.  (See  also 
Cavalry.) 

DRAGUIGNAN,  a  town  of  France,  capital 
of  the  department  of  Var,  41  m.  N.  E.  from  Tou- 
lon ;  pop.  in  1856,  9,900.  It  rises  in  the  midst 
of  a  fertile  valley,  surrounded  by  high  hills  cov- 
ered with  rich  vineyards.  It  is  well  built,  with 
several  elegant  edifices,  and  numerous  fountains. 
It  contains  a  library  of  15,000  volumes,  among 
which  are  a  few  very  valuable  works,  a  cabinet 
of  medals  and  of  natural  history,  law  courts,  a 
parish  church,  and  a  fine  clock  tower.  The  in- 
habitants arc  employed  chiefly  in  the  silk  mills 
and  soap  works  of  the  environs,  and  in  i)repar- 
ing  and  selling  olive  oil.  Draguignan  is  an  an- 
cient town  ;  was  last  fortified  in  1615  ;  and  its 
possession  was  a  matter  of  contention  in  many 
of  the  wars  of  France. 

DRAINAGE,  the  art  of  freeing  land  from  su- 
perfluous water  by  causing  it  to  flow  olf  in  chan- 
nels or  through  porous  substances.  The  system 
of  drainage  adopted  for  cities  and  towns  is  com- 
monly described  as  Seweeage,  and  will  be  no- 
ticed under  this  head,  as  that  of  mines  in  the 
article  devoted  to  that  subject.  (See  also  Pump.) 
The  art  is  of  especial  interest  in  its  application 
to  the  reclaiming  of  wet  lands,  and  the  improve- 
ment of  those  through  which  the  water  that  falls 
upon  them  in  rain,  or  is  bi'ouglit  by  subterra- 
nean channels,  does  not  find  a  ready  exit.  The 
importance  of  this  branch  of  the  art  appears  to 
have  been  appreciated  by  the  ancient  Romans, 
who  are  known  to  have  constructed  open  drains 
for  conveying  away  the  superficial  Avater  from 
their  lands,  and  to  have  laid  underground  wa- 
ter pipes  of  earthenware,  Avhich  some  suppose 
were  for  the  same  purpose,  but  Avliich  are  Avith 
more  probability  referred  by  others  to  the  pur- 
poses of  aqueducts  for  supplying  Avater  to  their 
houses.  In  England  public  attention  Avas  di- 
rected to  the  injurious  effects  of  water  retained 
in  cultivated  lands  by  the  treatise  of  Capt.  Wal- 
ter Blyth  in  1G52.  In  this  Avork  the  tendency 
of  wet  lands  to  produce  the  flag  and  rush  in- 
stead of  useful  crops  was  forcibly  portrayed,  and 
the  remedy  of  deep  drainage  as  strongly  urged. 
The  author  condemned  the  shalloAv  open  drains 
in  common  use,  and ,  recommended  straight 
trenches  reaching  below  the  spring  of  "  cold, 
spewing,  moyst  Avater,"  Avliich  he  regarded  as 
the  source  of  the  "  corruption  that  feeds  and 
nourishetli  the  rush  or  flagg,"  even  to  the  depth 
of  3  or  4  feet,  and  the  filling  in  of  the  trenches 
with  stones,  or  Avith  faggots  covered  over  with 
turf.  It  Avas  long,  however,  after  his  time  be- 
fore the  excellence  of  this  system  Avas  generally 
recognized,  and  little  attention  appears  to  have 
been  directed  to  the  subject  until  the  latter  part 
of  the  next  century.  About  the  year  1764  a 
shrewd  farmer  of  Warwickshire,  Mr.  Elkington, 
undertook  to  investigate  the  peculiar  qualities 


DEAINAGE 


601 


of  one  of  Lis  fields  in  which  tho  sheep  were 
badly  affected  by  tlie  rot.  lie  discovered  tliat 
when  an  impervious  stratum  boueatli  tlie  soil  was 
j)erforatcd  with  an  iron  bar,  the  water  confined 
l)eh)W  welled  up  and  llowed  away  ;  and  lie  lieiico 
inferred  that  the  water  in  wet  lands  came  chief- 
ly from  subterranean  sources,  and  might  be  re- 
moved by  tapping  the  stratum  that  confined 
it,  and  thus  letting  off  the  superfluous  (pian- 
tity.  On  this  theory  he  established  an  origiiud 
system  of  drainage,  and  was  himself  remarkaljly 
successful  in  seeking  out  the  sources  of  the  wa- 
ter, the  supplies  of  which,  after  reaching  by  an 
auger,  he  drew  off:"  in  a  single  deep  channel  dug 
for  the  puri)ose.  Tliis  system  came  into  exten- 
sive practice  in  England  and  Scotland,  and  its 
imperfections  Avere  not  fully  api)reciated  till 
after  the  introduction  of  the  system  of  ]\Ir. 
James  Smith  of  Deanston,  first  brought  forward 
in  1823.  This,  which  its  inventor  called  fre- 
quent or  thorough  drainage,  and  others  named 
the  Deanston  system,  Ava.s  contrived  with  refer- 
ence to  the  removal  of  tho  water  collected  by 
rains  upon  the  surface,  as  well  as  that  lying  be- 
neath tho  soil,  and  was  in  fact  the  practice 
recommended  nearly  200  years  before  by  Cajjt. 
Blyth.  A  series  of  parallel  drains  were  sunk  in 
the  direction  of  most  rapid  descent,  and  be- 
ing partially  filled  with  stones  small  enough  to 
pass  through  a  3-inch  ring,  were  covered  over 
with  soil.  At  the  bottom  a  main  drain  was  con- 
structed, of  sufficient  capacity  to  convey  away 
all  the  water  from  the  smaller  drams,  and  this 
lie  directed  should  be  made  in  stone  work  or 
with  tiles.  The  new  practice  met  with  great 
opposition  from  the  advocates  of  the  method  of 
Elkington,  but  finally  came  to  be  regarded  as 
the  only  complete  system  applicable  in  all  cases. 
In  some  instances  the  other  plan  may  no  doubt 
be  economically  adopted.  The  drains  came  at 
last  to  be  made  chiefly  of  tiles,  for  the  manu- 
facture of  which  the  first  machine  was  invented 
by  the  marquis  of  Tweeddale.  The  practice  has 
been  successfully  introduced  into  the  United 
States;  and  in  Albany  and  New  York  draining 
tiles  are  already  a  ccftisiderable  branch  of  manu- 
facture. They  are  also  made  in  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio.  Their  forms  and  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  used  will  be  described 
after  a  few  remarks  upon  the  necessity  and 
effects  of  drainage. — Wet  lands  are  well  known 
to  be  unfavorable  to  the  production  of  large 
crops ;  it  is  also  true  that  grains,  potatoes,  grass, 
&c.,  arc  of  sounder  and  better  quality  when 
grown  upon  lands  not  subject  to  excess  of  moist- 
ure. The  soils  that  retain  it  are  correctly  de- 
scribed as  cold,  while  the  more  porous  soils 
of  a  sandy  nature  are  called  warm.  The  former 
are  chilled  by  the  evaporation  continually  going 
on,  while  the  latter  are  warmed  below  by  the  rain 
water  which  percolates  through  from  the  sur- 
face, and  are  heated  by  the  direct  action  of  the 
sun's  rays.  By  tlie  experiments  of  Mr.  Parkes 
in  a  bog  in  Lancaslure,  it  appears  that  by  giving 
free  passage  to  tlie  water  through  a  cold  soil 
by  thorough  drainage,  its  temperature  at  the 


depth  of  7  inches  may  bo  raised  10"  above  that 
of  undrained  adjoining  land  of  the  same  quality. 
Thus  drainage  produces  the  effect  of  a  warmer 
climate,  and  may  add  in  fact  many  days  to  tho 
length  of  the  season;  and  this  not  merely  by 
reason  of  tho  wamnth  extended  for  a  longer 
period,  but  in  the  spring  the  soil  is  sooner  pre- 
pared for  cultivation,  and  may  be  in  condition 
for  ploughing  and  planting  even  two  weeks  be- 
fore neighboring  land  of  similar  (puility  in  other 
respects  would  admit  of  the  passage  of  oxen  and 
horses  for  working.  An  instance  of  such  a  gain 
in  titne  was  reported  in  185G  by  the  secretary 
of  the  board  of  agriculture  of  the  state  of  Maine. 
In  the  late  spring  of  the  northern  states,  where 
the  snow  often  lies  in  April,  and  tlie  ground  is 
saturated  with  moisture  in  May,  the  advantage 
thus  secured  is  of  great  importance.  "While 
frequent  accession  of  water  is  a  great  benefit  to 
lands  through  which  it  finds  a  ready  passage, 
its  retention  impairs  in  various  ways  the  fertil- 
ity of  the  soil.  It  pre\'ents  the  pulverization 
of  the  earth  by  the  plough  and  harrow,  and  the 
circulation  of  air  to  the  roots  of  the  plants. 
It  nourishes  a  growth  of  noxious  plants,  and  in 
woodlands  its  injurious  effect  is  seen  in  the  pro- 
duction of  many  lichens,  fungi,  and  other  para- 
sites upon  the  trees.  Even  the  cattle  and 
sheep  pastured  upon  Avet  lands  are  subject  to 
diseases  from  which  those  in  dry  fields  are  com- 
paratively free,  and  are  moreover  pestered  by 
swarms  of  flies  and  mosquitoes,  which  disappear 
as  the  same  lands  are  drained.  Man  himself  is 
often  the  greatest  suff'erer  from  undrained  lands, 
which  tend  to  engender  fevers  and  agues ;  and 
these  are  known  to  prevail  long  after  the  forests 
have  been  removed,  showing  that  the  cause  is 
not  so  much  the  decay  of  large  bodies  of  vegeta- 
ble matter,  as  the  cold  dampness  produced  by 
the  saturation  of  the  earth  Avith  moisture.  By 
the  recent  researches  of  Dr.  II.  I.  Bowditch  of 
Boston,  it  appears  that  consumption  also  is  more 
prevalent  in  those  localities  in  Massachusetts 
Avhich  are  badly  drained,  50  out  of  55  districts  in 
the  state  of  decidedly  consumptive  character  be- 
ing found  Avet  by  contiguity  to  ponds  or  marshes, 
or  by  reason  of  Ioav  and  springy  lands.  In  the 
vicinity  of  the  Avet  and  unhealthy  localities  are 
often  found  others  which  appear  to  be  as  free 
from  any  tendency  to  induce  or  aggravate  the 
disease  as  the  distant  regions  to  Avliich  patients 
are  sent  for  recoveiy.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  fully 
establislied  by  experience,  that  undrained  lands 
arc  more  liable  to  suffer  from  drought  than  those 
thorouglily  drained.  The  former  in  a  dry  time 
become  baked  and  compact,  and  do  not  readily 
absorb  moisture  from  the  atmosphere;  but  a 
well  pulverized  and  open  soil  receives  into  its 
pores  and  absorbs  like  a  sponge  the  deAV  and 
aqueous  vapor  in  the  air.  The  moisture  finds 
its  Avay  to  the  loAver  portions  of  the  soil,  and  is 
there  taken  up  by  the  rootlets,  Avhich  penetrate 
deep  into  the  loosened  materials.  Deep  or  sub- 
soil ploughing  is  tlius  seen  to  be  most  advan- 
tageously em[)loyed  in  connection  with  under- 
draining.    The  same  cause  Avhich  prevents  the 


602 


DRAINAGE 


penetration  of  the  water  also  keeps  near  the 
surface  the  fertilizing  substances  apidied  as 
manure ;  and  thoric  exposed  to  tlie  heat  of  tho 
sun  are  in  great  part  dissipated,  their  richest 
aminoniacal  jiortions  going  otf  in  exlialations  to 
he  precipitated  by  the  rains  upon  other  lands. 
Undrained  soils  in  cold  climates  snfter  from  an- 
other cause.  They  are  liable  to  freeze  when 
saturated  with  moisture;  and  as  they  thaw,  or, 
in  popular  language,  as  the  frost  conies  out  of 
the  ground,  they  are  so  heaved  and  broken  up, 
that  the  roots  of  the  grasses  and  winter  grains 
:ire  thrown  out,  and  the  plants  are  destroyed ; 
this  is  what  is  called  winter-killed.  By  drain- 
ing and  subsoiling,  a  way  is  oj)ened  for  the 
moisture  to  sink  beyond  the  reach  of  frost, 
and  the  soil  is  left  too  dry  to  be  disturbed  by 
the  tliaws  of  spring. — From  these  remarks  may 
be  inferred  tlie  inutility  of  mere  surface  drain- 
ing. Open  trenches  may  convey  away  the  sur- 
face water,  but  do  not  reach  the  cold  stagnating 
repositories  beneath  the  soil,  wliich  check  that 
free  circulation  of  fluids  which  is  as  essential  to 
the  health  of  vegetable  bodies  as  that  of  tlie  air 
to  animals.  Sucli  ditclies  should  be  used  only 
as  brooks  in  the  lowest  grounds  to  convey  away 
the  water  discharged  into  them  by  the  under- 
ground drains  coming  down  the  slopes.  Deep 
ditches  partiall}'  filled  with  small  stones  or  with 
brush,  or  laid  at  bottom  with  flat  stones,  are 
found  by  long  experience  to  be  not  so  well 
adapted  to  accornpHsh  tlie  object  sought  for  as 
drains  laid  witli  tiles.  These  are  sliort  pipes 
moulded  and  baked  of  brick  clay.  Some  are  of 
cylindrical  shape ;  and  in  otiiers,  called  the 
horse-shoe  tile,  the  section  is  an  incomplete 
circle,  and  when  laid  tlie  tiles  are  placed  upon 
the  2  edges,  either  directly  upon  the  ground, 
or  separated  from  it  by  the  intervention  of  flat 
pieces  of  the  same  material,  placed  so  as  to 
break  joints  Avith  the  tiles.  In  anotlier  form 
which  is  very  generally  used,  called  the  sole  tile, 
the  flat  bottom  piece,  instead  of  being  separate, 
is  a  part  of  the  tile  itself,  and  is  the  foot  upon 
Avhich  it  stands.  This  and  the  pipe  tile  are 
considered  far  superior  to  the  horso-slioe.  Tiles 
are  made  of  various  sizes  from  2  to  8  inches 
diameter,  moulded  by  machines  in  lengths  of 
about  a  foot,  and  baked  as  thoroughly  as  com- 
mon hard-burned  bricks.  They  are  carefully 
set  in  the  ground  end  to  end ;  but  the  cylindri- 
cal pipes  are  often  furnished  Avith  a  collar 
which  slips  over  and  hcjlds  2  adjoining  ends. 
The  bottom  of  the  trench  is  dug  with  excavat- 
ing tools,  made  for  the  purpose,  just  wide 
enough  to  admit  the  tiles.  The  water  filtering 
tlirough  the  soil  passes  into  the  pipes  by  the 
numerous  joints,  entering  chiefly  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  the  multiplication  of  these  joints  is 
the  chief  object  of  the  short  lengths.  Tiles 
should  always  be  imbedded  in  compact  soil,  and 
at  a  depth  somewhat  dependent  upon  the  con- 
tour of  the  ground  as  well  as  other  circum- 
stances. A  suflicient  slope  must  be  secured  for 
the  water  to  flow  readily  through  tlie  drains. 
There  should  be  no  interruptions  to  the  descent, 


causing  depressions  in  which  sediment  might  ao- 
cumulatc  to  obstruct  the  drainage.  The  least 
fall  admitted  by  most  authorities  in  tlie  usual 
sized  drains  is  not  less  than  1  in  GOO  or  YOO; 
but  so  gentle  a  slope  is  rarely  advisable  ;  indeed, 
not  less  tlian  1  in  200.  The  depth  generally 
agreed  upon  as  the  best  is  at  least  4  feet.  The 
tiles  are  at  this  depth  rarely  reached  by  a  hard 
frost,  and  are  not  disturbed  by  the  pressure  of 
the  subsoil  plough,  which  penetrates  a  few  inch- 
es over  2  feet  below  the  surface.  This  depth 
is  also  lower  than  tlie  roots  of  most  of  the  crops 
are  likely  to  extend;  but  the  tiles  cannot  be 
placed  beyond  the  possibility  of  injury  from  the 
roots  of  willows,  poplars,  and  other  trees  which 
strike  down  in  an  open  soil  to  uncertain  depths. 
Their  distance  apart  should  depend  upon  the 
nature  of  the  soil.  In  compact  clays  they  have 
been  set  within  15  feet  of  each  other ;  but  this 
is  unnecessarily  close.  If  the  subsoil  be  clayey, 
it  is  not  well  to  exceed  30  feet;  for  if  the 
drains  once  laid  arc  found  to  be  inefiectual,  as 
they  have  in  many  instances  proved,  the  only 
expedient  is  to  make  an  additional  one  between 
each  2  of  the  original  set.  If  the  subsoil  is  very 
porous,  the  tiles  may  be  placed  40  feet  apart ; 
but  if  trials  at  a  greater  distance  than  this  are 
ever  found  effectual,  it  is  believed  their  success 
should  be  referred  to  the  principle  of  Elkington, 
the  dvains  tapping  a  porous  stratum  containing 
water  which  was  kept  from  flowing  by  an  im- 
pervious overlying  stratum.  The  effect  of  drains 
is  not  always  perceived  immediately  after  heavy 
rains.  Some  time  is  required  for  a  dry  soil  to 
become  saturated,  and  the  moisture  is  then 
gradually  given  off  below.  The  plants  thus 
have  sufficient  opportunity  to  obtain  the  bene- 
fit of  the  water  which  passes  through,  and  no 
danger  is  incurred  of  overdrainage,  especially  as 
the  lands  are  left  in  better  condition,  as  al- 
ready stated,  for  absorbing  atmospheric  vapor. 
In  stiff  clayey  soils  the  operation,  though  it 
would  at  first  appear  impracticable,  is  greatly 
facilitated  by  the  j)roperty  of  the  clays  to  shrink 
and  open  in  cracks  in  passing  from  a  wet  to  a 
dry  state.  This  process  commences  near  the 
drains,  and  the  cracks  extend  back,  serving  as 
they  open  as  minor  channels  for  leading  the  water 
down  to  the  tile  beds.  They  have  been  traced 
stretching  across  through  the  clay  with  innu- 
merable ramifications  nearly  from  one  drain  to 
the  next ;  and  though  they  close  again  when  very 
wet,  they  still  let  water  pass  along  tlieir  lines. — 
The  most  extensive  agricultural  drainage  opera- 
tions in  the  United  States  are  on  the  fixrm  of  Mr. 
John  Johnston,  near  Geneva,  N.  Y.  By  steadily 
pursuing  the  practice  for  about  20  years,  he  has 
accomplished  the  laying  of  210,000  tiles,  or  over 
47  m.  An  instance  of  their  beneficial  effect 
was  observed  a  few  years  since,  when  by  the 
destructive  action  of  the  midge  the  crop  of 
wlieat  upon  6  adjoining  ftirms  was  reduced  to 
7  bushels  per  acre,  while  he  obtained  29  bushels. 
The  system  of  drainage  adopted  in  the  central 
park  of  New  York  city,  under  the  direction  of 
George  E.  Waring,  Esg.,  is  very  complete,  and 


DRAINAGE 


603 


exhibits  somo  peculiar  foatnrcs.  The  soil  is 
cliietly  a  clay  loam,  and  in  this  tho  drains  are 
dug  mostly  Irom  4  to  5  feet  deep,  at  distances 
apart  of  40  foot,  and  directed  down  the  line  of 
steepest  descent.  Tlio  depths  of  the  excavations 
are  regulated  by  grade  stakes  set  at  tho  inter- 
sections of  the  drains,  and  at  various  points  on 
their  lines,  the  levels  of  which  are  taken,  as  in 
railroad  excavations,  and  from  those  points  the 
Avhole  i)lan  is  proi)arod.  In  this  no  fall  is  ad- 
mitted less  than  1  in  200,  and  no  diminishing 
elope  toward  tlie  outlet  if  this  can  be  avoided. 
The  small  drains  discharge  into  tho  tops  of  tho 
main  drains.  "Wliere  a  diminishing  slope  toward 
the  discharge  cannot  be  avoided,  a  "  silt  basin" 
or  catch-pool,  formed  of  brick  or  of  a  largo 
tile  set  on  end,  is  placed  on  the  line  of  the 
drain  to  retain  the  sediment.  A  silt  basin  of 
about  3  cubic  feet  capacity  receives  the  drain  of 
every  20  acres.  It  is  built  up  to  tho  surface, 
and  furnished  with  an  iron  cover,  secured  by 
lock.  This  aftords  an  opportunity  of  examining 
at  anj'  time  the  condition  of  the  drainage,  and 
of  removing  tho  sediment  which  is  deposited. 
By  reference  to  the  plans  of  the  -work  kept  in 
the  othce,  changes  and  additions  may  at  any  time 
be  introduced  in  accordance  with  tho  general 
system. — Tho  expense  of  underground  drainage 
seriously  checks  the  extension  of  the  practice. 
The  2-incli  sole  tile,  or  2^-inch  horse-shoe  tile, 
costs  $12  per  1,000  feet  length,  and  the  prices 
rapidly  increase  up  to  $80  "for  1,000  feet  of  G- 
inch  sole  tile,  and  SCO  for  the  same  length  of 
6^-inch  horse-shoe  tile.  The  least  expense  per 
acre  in  nearly  all  arable  soils  for  proper  drains 
properly  constructed  may  be  estimated  at  from 
$35  to  $50. — In  Europe  the  largest  draining  oper- 
ations have  been  those  designed  for  reclaiming 
immense  tracts  of  submerged  or  boggy  lands, 
some  of  whicli  Avero  altogether  below  the  level 
of  natural  drainage.  As  early  as  1436  attention 
■was  directed  to  the  possibility  of  reclaiming  the 
fens  bordering  the  river  Ouse  and  its  tributary 
brooks.  These  covered  an  area  of  some  400,000 
acres  of  land,  which  in  ancient  times  appears  to 
Lave  been  in  a  condition  for  cultivation.  Tho 
tract  is  partly  in  Cambridgeshire  and  Huntiiig- 
donshire,  extending  into  the  adjoining  counties, 
by  the  high  ridges  of  which  it  is  bounded.  It 
receives  the  waters- of  9  counties,  and  presents 
but  very  limited  natural  channels  for  conveying 
these  into  the  sea  on  the  N.  E.  Tho  attempts 
to  embank  and  deepen  these  in  the  15th  cen- 
tury were  unsuccessful,  and  the  undertaking 
was  abandoned  till  1G34,  when  it  was  renewed 
by  the  earl  of  Bedford.  In  3  years  ho  ex- 
pended £100,000  in  embankments  for  keep- 
ing out  tho  waters  of  tlie  rivers,  and  removing 
those  within  by  pumping  macliinery  and  dis- 
charging them  over  the  dikes.  This  attempt 
also  failed;  but  in  1649  his  son  recommenced 
operations,  and  finally  succeeded  after  the  ex- 
penditure of  £300,000  more.  From  that  time 
tho  lands  reclaimed — now  known  as  the  Bedford 
Level — have  been  kept  free  from  water  by 
paeans  of  efficient  machinery,  worked  by  wind- 


mills. The  great  difficulty  appears  to  have  been 
in  securing  main  channels  of  sutlicient  capacity 
to  discharge  the  waters  in  time  of  freshets;  and 
through  want  of  these  tho  banks  were  often 
overflowed,  and  the  former  works  washed  away. 
Among  the  numerous  drainage  channels  cut 
through  these  lands  arc  2  nearly  parallel,  of 
more  than  20  m.  in  length,  and  both  navigable, 
serving  to  cut  off  a  long  circuitous  route  of  tho 
river  Ouse.  By  other  direct  channels  made  dur- 
ing the  present  century  above  tho  outlet  of  the 
same  river,  and  also  of  tho  neighboring  river 
None,  many  thousand  acres  more  of  land  liavo 
been  reclaimed.  The  steam  engine  has  been 
advantageously  substituted  in  many  instances 
for  the  windmills  ;  and  it  has  been  found  ])rac- 
ticable  to  estimate  closely  the  power  and  ex- 
pense required  to  keep  an  area  of  given  ex- 
tent thoi'cughly  drained,  the  drainage  from 
neighboring  high  lands  being  cut  otf  by  catch 
drains,  and  the  height  to  which  the  water  must 
be  raised  being  known.  The  annual  fall  of  rain 
averaging  26  inches,  there  would  be,  with  a 
very  moderate  allowance  for  evaporation,  2 
inches  per  month  of  water  to  be  raised,  or  1^ 
cubic  feet  of  Avater  as  a  maximum  on  every 
square  yard  of  surface.  Tlae  amount  upon  an 
acre,  or  7,200  cubic  feet,  may  be  raised  to  the 
height  of  10  feet  and  discliarged  in  about  2 
hours  and  10  minutes  by  the  power  of  one 
horse.  A  steam  engine  of  10  horse  power  could 
then  each  month  raise  to  the  same  height  and 
discharge  the  water  from  1,000  acres  in  232 
hours.  Similar  calculations  may  be  made  for  the 
drainage  of  submerged  lands  in  tho  United  States, 
proper  allowance  beingmade  for  the  difterence  in 
the  annual  fall  of  rain  in  the  district  from  that 
which  occurs  in  England. — The  drainage  of  the 
Haarlem  lake  in  Holland,  undertaken  in  1839, 
was  a  gigantic  operation  of  this  class.  From  an 
area  of  70  sq.  m.  of  average  depth  of  water  of 
12|  feet,  situated  below  the  level  of  any  sluices 
that  could  be  constructed,  it  was  required  to 
raise  the  water  an  average  height  of  16  feet, 
and  to  an  estimated  possible  amount  of  35,000,- 
000  tons  in  a  single  month.  An  enormous 
steam  engine  was  constructed  in  Loudon  for 
working  11  pumps  of  ^3  inches  diameter  each, 
and  10  feet  stroke,  the  maximum  capacity  of 
all  which  was  to  raise  112  tons  of  water  10  feet 
at  each  stroke.  These  were  sot  around  tlie  cir- 
cular tower  which  contained  tlie  engine,  and 
from  the  upper  portion  of  which  the  balance 
beams  radiated — one  for  each  pump.  They 
raised  in  actual  work  66  tons  per  stroke,  dis- 
charging the  Avator  in  a  large  canal  38  miles  in 
length,  and  from  115  to  130  feet  in  width,  which 
liad  previously  been  constructed  around  tho  area. 
Two  other  similar  engines  were  applied  to  the 
same  work,  and  tlie  pumping  Avas  continued 
from  May,  1848,  to  July  1,  1852.  Then  the  area 
was  thoroughly  drained,  and  the  lands  were 
ready  to  be  divided  out  for  sale.  The  entire 
expenses  from  the  commencement  of  opera- 
tions  in  1839  to  the  close  of  1855  Avere  esti- 
mated at  £748,445,  which  would  be  more  than 


604 


DRAKE 


paid  by  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  the  lands, 
the  greater  part  of  which  had  tlicii  been  dis- 
posed of.  The  swamp  lands  and  salt  water 
marshes  of  the  United  States  present  vast  and 
almost  untouched  fields  for  this  system  of  ope- 
rations. The  accumulations  of  vegetable  mat- 
ters they  contain  give  fertility  to  the  soil,  when 
the  stagnating  waters  are  removed ;  and  the 
success  that  has  attended  small  operations  un- 
dertaken to  bring  them  into  cultivation,  gives 
encouragement  to  expect  great  results  from 
operations  undertaken  upon  a  larger  scale. — The 
subject  of  drainage  may  be  further  studied  inthe 
number  of  Weale's  "  Rudimentary  Series,"  by 
G.  D.  Dempsy,  "  On  the  Drainage  of  Districts 
and  Lands."  It  is  also  treated  in  an  article  in 
the  U.  S.  patent  office  "  Agricultural  Report" 
for  1856  ;  and  by  H.  Cohnan  in  his  reports  of  Eu- 
ropean agriculture.  Tiie  very  complete  treatise 
of  James  Donald  has  been  recently  republished 
in  New  York ;  and  "William  McCamraon,  civil 
engineer  of  the  "  Albany  tile  works,"  has  pre- 
sented in  an  advertising  pamphlet  a  summary 
of  the  principles  and  advantages  of  drainage, 
with  exact  descriptions  of  the  tools  and  methods 
employed  and  estimates  of  cost. 

DRAKE,  Daniel,  an  American  physician, 
born  in  Plainfield,  N.  J.,  Oct.  20,  1785,  died 
in  Cincinnati,  O.,  Nov.  5,  1852.  His  father,  a 
farmer  in  indigent  circumstances,  emigrated 
from  New  Jersey  to  Mason  co.,  Ky.,  in  1788, 
where  Daniel's  childhood  and  youth,  up  to  his 
IGtli  year,  were  passed  on  a  small  farm,  amid  the 
labors  and  privations  of  a  frontier  life.  In  Dec. 
1800,  with  only  such  education  as  he  had  re- 
ceived in  the  course  of  some  6  months'  desul- 
tory attendance  at  different  times  upon  country 
schools,  taught  by  wandering  and  ignorant 
schoolmasters,  he  was  placed  uncler  the  care  of 
Dr.  William  Goforth,  of  Cincinnati,  as  a  student 
of  medicine,  and  in  1804  he  commenced  the 
practice  of  that  profession.  In  1810  he  was 
graduated  at  the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
in  1817  he  was  invited  to  a  professorship  in  the 
Transylvania  medical  school  at  Lexington,  Ky., 
in  which  he  lectured  one  session.  In  Dec.  1818, 
on  his  personal  application,  the  legislature  of 
Ohio  granted  a  chartei^for  the  medical  college 
of  Ohio,  at  Cincinnati,  and  also  established  there 
the  commercial  hospital.  In  the  autumn  of  1820 
the  former  institution  was  opened  for  students, 
and  for  2  sessions  Dr.  Drake  was  connected  with 
it.  In  1823  he  again  accepted  a  chair  in  the 
Transylvania  school ;  and  thenceforth,  till  the 
close  of  his  career,  was  with  brief  intermissions 
connected  with  medical  schools,  holding  profes- 
sorships in  that  institution,  and  in  the  Jefferson 
medical  college,  Philadelphia,  in  the  Cincinnati 
medical  college,  in  the  university  of  Louisville, 
and  finally,  again,  in  the  medical  college  of 
Oliio,  with  which  he  was  connected  at  the  time 
of  his  death.  As  a  professor  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  medicine  he  held  an  eminent  position, 
and  as  a  practitioner  his  reputation  was  coex- 
tensive with  the  Mississippi  valley.  His  Avritings 
were  voluminous,  but  principally  of  a  character 


not  calculated  or  intended  for  permanent  use. 
His  first  book,  the  "Picture  of  Cincinnati" 
(1815),  attained  in  its  day  a  wide  reputation, 
and  drew  from  Tiionias  Jefferson  a  highly  com- 
plimentary letter.  His  last  work,  upon  which 
his  fame  as  an  author  must  principally  rest,  was 
"  A  Systematic  Treatise,  historical,  etiological, 
and  practical,  on  the  Principal  Diseases  of  the 
Interior  Valley  of  North  America,  as  they  ap- 
pear in  the  Caucasian,  African,  Indian,  and 
Es(piimaux  Varieties  of  its  Population,"  vol.  i. 
of  which  was  published  in  1850,  and  vol.  ii., 
posthumously  edited,  in  1854.  A  memoir  of 
his  life  and  services,  by  Edward  D.  Mansfield, 
LL.D.,  was  published  in  Cincinnati  in  1855. 

DRAKE,  Siii  Fkanois,  an  English  navigator, 
born  near  Tavistock,  in  Devonshire,  according  to 
some  authorities  in  1539,  and  to  others  in  15-45  or 
1546,  dicdDec.  27, 1595.  His  father,  a  poor  yeo- 
man, and  a  recent  convert  to  the  Protestant  faith, 
obtained  from  Queen  Elizabeth  an  appointment 
as  naval  chaplain.  He  had  12  sons,  of  whom 
Francis,  the  eldest,  received  a  scanty  education 
through  the  liberality  of  his  kinsman  John, 
afterward  Admiral  Sir  John  Hawkins,  and  as 
soon  as  he  was  old  enough  to  serve  as  a  cabin 
boy,  was  apprenticed  to  the  master  of  a  bark. 
By  his  industry  and  frank  and  decided  charac- 
ter he  so  gained  the  affections  of  his  master, 
that  the  latter  at  his  death  bequeathed  his  ves- 
sel to  his  young  apprentice.  Being  thus  at  the 
age  of  18  years  a  good  sailor  and  the  proprietor 
of  a  sliip,  lie  quickly  completed  his  education 
by  learning  how  to  command,  and  made  a  com- 
mercial voyage  to  the  bay  of  Biscay  and  after- 
ward to  the  coast  of  Guinea.  Inspired  by  the 
adventures  and  successes  which  the  new  world 
tlien  offered,  he  sold  his  vessel  and  invested  the 
proceeds  with  all  his  s.T,vings  in  the  expedition 
of  Oapt.  Hawkins  to  Mexico  in  1567,  receiving 
the  command  of  the  Judith.  The  fleet  was  at- 
tacked by  the  Spaniards,  and  only  2  of  the  G 
ships  escaped.  Drake,  barely  succeeding  in  sav- 
ing his  own  vessel,  returned  to  England,  with  a 
loss  of  his  entire  property,  and  fruitlessly  peti- 
tioned tlie  court  of  Spain  to  restore  what  its 
subjects  had  taken  from  him.  Then  with  an 
oath  he  declared  that  he  would  obtain  by  forca 
the  rights  whicli  he  could  not  get  otherwise, 
and  began  to  sail  with  the  avowed  object  of 
pillaging  the  Spaniards.  In  1570  he  obtained 
a  commission  from  Queen  Elizabeth.  In  1572 
he  armed  2  ships  at  Plymouth,  with  which, 
joined  by  a  third  at  Port  Pheasant,  on  the  coast 
of  South  America,  he  mado^  a  descent  upon 
New  Granada,  captured  and  plundered  vari- 
ous Spanish  settlements,  and  made  at  the  ex- 
pense of  his  enemies  a  fortune  vastly  larger 
than  they  had  taken  from  him.  He  returned 
to  England  in  1573,  and  was  welcomed  as  a 
liero.  While  at  Darien  he  had  seen  from  a 
mountain  top  the  waves  of  the  Pacific,  and  had 
there  conceived  the  purpose  of  an  expedition 
into  those  waters,  yet  unexplored  by  English 
vessels,  which  he  now  prepared  to  execute.  His 
eloquence  was  sufficent  to  gain  the  patronage 


DKAKE 


605 


of  Elizabeth,  to  whom  he  exposed  tho  feeble- 
ness of  Spain  in  lier  colonics  and  promised 
treasures  and  conquests.  lie  set  sail  from  Ply- 
mouth, Dec.  13,  1577,  with  5  vessels  and  1G4 
gentlemen  and  sailurs,  to  follow  tlie  route  wliich 
liad  been  traced  by  Magellan.  While  in  Port 
San  Julian  on  the  coast  of  Patagonia,  ho  put  to 
death  Captain  Douglitie,  a  good  sailor  and  bravo 
officer,  and  a  gentleman  of  birtli  and  education, 
who  was  charged  with  having  conspired  against 
the  life  of  the  admiral.  Directing  his  course  to 
the  N.,  Drake  pillaged  the  Spanish  settlements 
of  Pern  and  Chili,  captured  a  royal  galleon 
richly  laden  with  plate,  and  took  possession  of 
Califurnia  in  the  name  of  tlic  queen  of  England, 
and  then,  burdened  with  gold,  sated  with  ven- 
geance, and  fearing  to  meet  tho  Spaniards  in 
superior  force  if  he  returned  upon  his  steps,  he 
sought  to  find  by  the  N.  E.  a  passage  back  to 
the  Atlantic.  Being  repelled  by  the  severe  cold, 
he  changed  his  purpose,  and  determined  to 
make  the  circuit  of  the  globe.  He  traversed  the 
Pacific  ocean,  the  archii:)elago  of  the  Spice  isl- 
ands, the  Indian  ocean,  doubled  the  cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  arrived  at  Plymouth,  Sept  2G, 
1579.  Elizabeth  received  him  with  favor,  and 
4  months  afterward  knighted  him,  and  partook 
of  a  banquet  on  board  of  his  ship.  The  rupture 
which  followed  between  Elizabeth  and  Philip 
TI.  gave  Drake  a  new  opportunity  to  gratify  his 
animosity  against  Spain,  and  within  one  year 
he  captured  and  plundered  Carthagena  and 
several  other  towns,  burned  the  forts  of  San 
Antonio  and  Saint  Augustine,  and  visited  and 
brought  away  with  him  the  remains  of  the 
colony  which  Raleigh  had  planted  in  Virginia. 
In  1587  he  was  placed  in  command  of  a  fleet 
of  about  30  sail  designed  to  attack  the  Span- 
ish ports.  He  destroyed  100  ships  in  the  har- 
bor of  Cadiz,  an  exploit  which  he  spoke  of  as 
singeing  the  king  of  Spain's  beard,  and  soon 
after  captured  an  immense  carrack,  from  papers 
in  whicli  the  English  first  learned  the  value  of 
the  East  India  traffic,  and  the  mode  of  carrying 
it  on.  In  1588,  as  vice-admiral,  he  commanded 
one  squadron  of  the  fleet  by  which,  witli  the  assis- 
tance of  the  elements,  the  "  invincible  armada  " 
was  annihilated.  In  1589  he  ravaged  the  coasts 
of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  leaving  fearful  traces 
of  his  passage,  and  in  1592  and  1593  was  a  mem- 
ber of  parliament  for  Plymouth.  In  1594,  a  re- 
port having  reached  England  that  Spain  was  pre- 
paring against  that  country  a  fleet  more  numerous 
and  powerful  than  the  armada,  he  again  entered 
the  service  against  his  old  enemy.  Convinced 
that  tho  West  Indies  was  the  point  where  Spain 
could  be  best  attacked,  ho  sailed  for  America  in 
1595  with  26  vessels,  in  company  with  Admiral 
Hawkins.  A  divided  command  produced  its 
usual  bad  results,  and  their  first  attempts  were 
uuharmonious  and  fruitless.  At  Porto  Eico 
Admiral  Hawkins  died,  either  of  a  wound  or  of 
chagrin,  and  Drake  then  in  the  region  where  his 
first  anger  against  Spain  had  been  kindled  gained 
new  triumphs.  He  burned  Santa  Marta,  Ranche- 
ria,  Nombre  de  Dios,  and  Rio  Ilacha  ;  but  a 


fatal  malady  broke  out  among  his  sailors,  and 
as  ho  heard  of  tho  defeat  of  a  division  of  his 
forces  which  he  had  sent  to  operate  by  land,  he 
himself  fell  sick,  and  died  from  the  combined 
effects  of  fever  and  of  mental  agitation  on  ac- 
count of  the  reverses  of  the  expedition.  His 
body  received  a  sailor's  funeral  in  sight  of  Puer- 
to Bello,  and  was  buried  in  the  sea.  Admiral 
Drake  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  naval 
greatness  of  England;  and  though  in  his  spirit 
and  conduct  there  was  something  of  the  bucca- 
neer, he  was  yet  one  of  the  most  daring  and 
efficient  of  naval  commanders. 

DRAKE,  Joseph  Rodmax,  an  American  poet, 
born  in  New  York,  Aug.  7,  1795,  died  Sept.  21, 
1820.  He  lost  his  father  in  early  life,  and  with 
3  sisters  struggled  against  adversity.  He  studied 
medicine,  and  his  marriage  in  1816,  shortly  after 
taking  his  degree,  placed  him  in  affluence.  He 
travelled  in  Europe,  and  after  his  return  in  1819 
contributed  under  the  signature  of  "Croaker" 
many  pleasant  and  effective  verses  to  the  col- 
umns of  the  "Xew  York  Evening  Post."  His 
friend  Fitz-Greene  Ilalleck  joined  him  in  this 
series,  signing  his  own  pieces  at  first  "  Croaker 
jr.,"  but  soon  they  both  adopted  tlie  signatm-e 
of  "  Croaker  and  co."  The  novelist  Cooper  was 
also  one  of  the  intimate  associates  of  Drake,  and 
a  conversation  between  them  as  to  the  poetical 
uses  of  American  rivers,  in  the  absence  of  his- 
torical associations  such  as  belong  to  the  streams 
of  tlie  old  world,  was  the  occasion  of  Drake's 
longest  and  most  imaginative  poem,  the  '"Cul- 
prit Fay."  It  was  his  aim  to  conjure  up  in  this 
fanciful  production  all  the  associations  of  nat- 
ural life  and  beauty  which  gather  around  a  syl- 
van scene,  and  to  show  how  the  earth,  tlie  air, 
the  sea,  the  field,  the  wave,  the  moonlight,  are 
in  themselves  vital  with  poetical  images  and 
meaning.  Though  Drake  had  written  verses 
from  his  boyhood,  yet  the  poems  which  gave 
him  his  wide  reputation  as  a  writer  of  genius 
and  taste  were  all  the  productions  of  a  single 
season.  His  health  failing,  he  passed  the  win- 
ter of  1819  in  Xew  Orleans,  hoping  to  be  bene- 
fited by  the  milder  climate.  But  the  progress 
of  the  consumption  which  had  smitten  him  could 
not  be  arrested,  and  he  lived  but  a  short  time 
after  his  return  to  New  York  in  the  spring.  His 
death  called  forth  a  beautiful  poetical  tribute 
from  his  friend  Halleck. 

DRAKE,  Nathan,  an  English  physician  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  York  in  1766,  died 
in  Hadleigh,  June  7, 1836.  He  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  practised  his 
profession  in  Hadleigh  from- 1792  till  his  death, 
during  which  time  he  was  a  frequent  contrib- 
utor to  literary  and  medical  periodicals.  His 
works  are  numerous  ;  they  include  "  Shake- 
speare and  his  Times"  (2  vols.  4to.,  London, 
1817).  and  various  criticisms  and  illustrations  of 
the  writings  of  the  age  of  Queen  Anne. 

DRAKE,  Samvel  Gaedxer,  an  American 
author,  born  at  Pittsfield,  N.  H.,  Oct.  11,  1798. 
He  was  educated  at  the  common  schools  of  the 
neighborhood,  and  between  the  ages  of  20  and 


606 


DRAKENBERG 


DRAMA 


27  was  a  district  school  teacher.  Subsequently 
he  removed  to  Boston,  and  in  1828  estabHshed 
an  antiquarian  boolv  store,  one  of  the  first  of  its 
chiss  in  tlie  United  States.  In  1825  his  literary 
and  antiquarian  labors  commenced  with  tlie  re- 
pubHcation  Avith  notes  of  Ciiurch's  "Entertain- 
ing History  of  King  Philip's  War,"  of  wliich 
several  editions  have  since  appeared.  In  1833  he 
reprinted  5  old  tracts,  which,  with  the  preceding 
work,  comprise,  in  his  opinion,  all  that  can  be 
recovered  in  relation  to  King  Philip's  war.     In 

1832  appeared  his  "Indian  Biography,"  and  in 

1833  the  "  Book  of  the  Indians,  or  History  and 
Biography  of  the  Indians  of  North  America,"  a 
work  of  high  authority  for  facts,  and  of  which 
the  11th  edition,  much  enlarged,  appeared  in 
1851.  His  remaining  publications  on  Indian 
history  are  "  Old  Indian  Chronicles"  (Boston, 
1836),  "Indian  Captivities"  (Boston  1839),  and 
"Tragedies  of  the  Wilderness"  (Boston,  1841). 
Since  1847  he  has  edited  the  "New  England 
Historical  and  Genealogical  Register,"  Avhich, 
under  the  direction  of  a  historical  and  genealo- 
gical society  in  Boston  of  which  he  is  president, 
has  contained  many  valuable  contributions  to 
local  and  family  history.  His  latest  work  is  an 
elaborate  history  of  Boston  in  1  vol.  royal  8vo. 

DRAKENBERG,  CnnisTiAN  Jacobsen,  a 
Norwegian,  remarkable  for  his  long  life,  born  in 
Blomsholm,  Nov.  18,  162G,  died  in  Aarhuus, 
Oct.  9,  1772,  at  the  age  of  145  years  and  more 
than  10  months.  The  son  of  A  sea  captain,  he 
himself  led  a  seafaring  life  till  1717,  when  ho 
abandoned  it  on  account  of  the  dimness  of  his 
eyesight,  though  his  strength  and  vigor  were 
undiminished.  In  1732  he  was  residing  in  Co- 
penhagen, and  his  advanced  age  having  been 
disputed  by  persons  who  judged  from  his  looks 
that  he  was  younger,  he  indignantly  set  off  to 
procure  his  baptismal  certificate,  and  having  for 
that  purpose  performed  a  long  journey  through 
Sweden  chiefly  on  foot,  reappeared  with  his 
documentary  proof  at  Copenhagen.  He  was 
married  in  1737,  and  in  1759  still  continued  to 
exercise  much  in  walking,  and  retained  extra- 
ordinary strength.  He  died  after  a  gentle  sick- 
ness of  13  days.  He  was  of  medium  stature, 
passionate,  but  rather  temperate,  with  a  good 
appearance  and  address. 

DRAMA  (Gr.  dpa^ia,  from  Bpaco,  to  make),  a 
story  represented  by  action.  The  principle  of 
imitation  is  inherent  in  human  nature;  painting, 
sculpture,  and  the  drama  must  be  coeval  with 
society,  and  have  been  practised  in  some  forni 
by  almost  every  nation.  Among  the  South  sea 
islanders  a  rude  kind  of  drama  was  discovered. 
In  China  the  drama  dates  its  origin  to  remote 
ages.  The  war  dance  of  the  Indian  and  the  Af- 
rican, intermingled  with  pantomimic  descrip- 
tions of  the  preparations  for  battle,  the  stealthy 
advance  upon  the  foe,  the  combat,  and  the  death 
of  the  enemy,  greeted  with  applause  from  the  ex- 
cited spectators,  is  essentially  a  dramatic  exhibi- 
tion, although  wordless.  But  tliat  form  of  the 
drama  accepted  and  followed  in  Europe,  divided 
chiefly  into  tragedy  and  comedy,  Avas  the  crea- 


tion of  the  Greeks  about  700  B.  0.  The  reli- ' 
gious  festivals  of  Bacchus  were  believed  to  have 
been  introduced  into  Greece  by  Melampus.  In 
the  Bacchic  ritual  an  ode  in  honor  of  the  god 
was  recited ;  and  to  produce  the  best  ode,  the 
one  which  should  be  selected  by  the  priests  to  be 
inserted  into  their  ceremony,  became  a  favorite 
contest  among  the  poets  of  the  time.  A  goat 
was  either  the  principal  sacrifice  at  the  altar,  or 
the  prize  awarded  to  the  successful  competitor ; 
thus  from  the  tAVO  words  rpayos  and  wSj;,  the 
ode  for  the  goat,  came  the  Greek  Avord  rpaycoSia, 
tragedy.  In  like  manner,  at  the  rustic  festivals 
or  harvest  homes  of  the  Greeks,  semi-religious 
ceremonies,  composed  of  odes  and  dances  ia 
honor  of  Bacchus,  Avere  enacted.  These  odes, 
being  of  a  more  genial  and  comic  character, 
consistent  Avith  the  occasion  of  an  agricultural 
triumph,  Avero  called  Kw/ncoSia,  comedy,  from 
Kcopt],  village,  and  wbr],  song,  the  song  of  the  vil- 
lage. Some  writers  are  of  opinion  that  the 
Avord  comedy  originally  signified  drama,  and 
had  not  the  distinctive  sense  in  Avhich  we  apply 
it,  but  included  tragedies  and  theatrical  repre- 
sentations of  every  kind. — The  earliest  knoAvn 
form  of  drama  is  the  dithyrambus,  a  hymn  iu 
honor  of  Bacchus,  sung  by  a  chorus  of  A'oices, 
accompanied  by  music,  expressive  gesture,  and 
dances.  In  5G2  B.  C,  Susarion,  a  native  of 
Megara,  appeared  at  Athens,  where  he,  as  a 
single  speaker,  recited  an  ode.  In  536  B.  C, 
Thespis,  a  native  of  Icaria,  recited  an  ode  Avith 
responses  made  to  him  by  a  dithyrambic  chorus; 
in  this  we  faintly  perceive  the  first  germ  of  dia- 
logue. Such  Avere  the  rude  elements  found  by 
yEschylus  in  499  B.  C,  and  out  of  them  he  alone 
and  unaided  created  and  perfected  the  drama 
as  Ave  noAV  behold  it.  Nothing  essential  has 
since  been  added  to  its  structure;  he  seems  to 
have  forestalled  future  ages  of  invention,  and 
to  have  left  nothing  undone.  He  removed  the 
chorus  into  the  background,  and  used  them 
only  as  an  auxiliary.  He  brought  a  second 
actor  upon  the  scene,  and  introduced  dialogue  ; 
thus  the  drama  became  an  action  instead  of 
a  narrative.  He  invented  scenery,  costume, 
and  machinery,  of  a  grandeur  unknoAvn  to  our 
stage.  Banisliing  the  lewd  and  Bacchanalian 
character  from  the  dithyrambic  hymn,  he  sup- 
plied its  place  Avith  pure  tragedy,  simple  and 
grand  in  its  form,  noble  and  dignified  in  its  ob- 
ject. From  his  works  were  gathered  those 
rules  called  the  unities,  referred  to  by  Aristotle; 
indeed,  he  may  be  truly  said  to  have  found 
the  drama  chaos,  and  left  it  a  Avorld.  These 
changes  Avere  Avrought  Avithin  the  space  of  '60 
years,  and  so  rapidly  Avere  they  accomplished, 
that  they  were  at  the  time  regarded  as  the  Avork 
of  inspiration.  The  expansion  he  gave  to  the 
drama  caused  the  Athenians  to  build  the  great 
theatre  of  Bacchus,  the  Lenaion,  the  former 
theatre  having  broken  doAvn  under  the  pressure 
of  the  peo[)lo  gathered  into  it  to  Avitness  a  repre- 
sentation in  Avhich  yEschylus  and  Pratinas  were 
rivals.  Thirty  years  later,  Sophocles  introduced 
a  third  actor,  and  thus  diffused  the  dialogue  and 


DRAMA 


607 


fertilized  the  action.  As  a  dramatic  poet  he  sur- 
passed Jiiscliylus  by  a  noble  grace  and  a  sweet 
majesty,  which  wore  wantiiigto  thcTitaiiic  futher 
of  the  dr.inia.  Fifteen  years  afterward  Euri[)ide3 
enabled  (!  recce  to  behold  as  contemporaries  the 
three  greatest  purely  tragic  poets  the  world  has 
produced.  In  reviewing  their  works  we  must  re- 
member that  yEscliylus  was  the  creator  of  that 
fanciful  world  which  Sophocles  and  Euriitides  so 
wonderfully  cultivated.  Tlie  dramas  of  ^'Eschy- 
lus  are  dark,  gloomy,  and  terrible  ;  thunder  and 
lightning  are  their  atmosphere,  and  demigods 
their  dramatis  persona; ;  his  human  beings  are 
gigantic  in  moral  stature,  and  removed  above 
our  sympathies.  Sophocles,  more  human  but 
not  less  divine,  drew  human  nature  as  it  ought 
to  be.  Euripides,  descending  still  further,  de- 
picted men  and  women  as  they  were. — The  ori- 
gin of  the  drama  is  popularly  but  erroneously 
ascribed  to  Thospis.  This  improvisatore  did 
no  more  than  improve  upon  the  dithyrambus ; 
he  first  organized  a  regular  chorus,  and  invent- 
ed dances  of  peculiar  energy  and  grace  ;  but  liis 
performances  were  a  kind  of  ballet  farce.  Of 
tragedy  he  had  no  idea. — The  tragedy  of  the 
Greeks  was  a  fable  or  a  series  of  events  begotten 
of  each  other  in  a  natural  sequence.  It  began 
with  a  sinii)le  position,  so  selected  that  the 
auditor  required  no  explanation  to  understand 
the  present  condition  of  matters  or  persons  ;  it 
was  a  simple  beginning.  The  development  of 
the  characters  was  required  to  be  simultaneous 
with  the  action,  the  one  being  involved  in  tlie 
other.  The  action  should  not  stray  from  the 
one  place  beyond  such  a  limit  as  the  time  em- 
ployed in  the  performance  might  naturally  per- 
mit ;  nor  should  a  lapse  of  time  take  place  during 
the  piece  beyond  the  limit  of  one  day.  These 
unities  of  action,  place,  and  time,  however,  so 
strenuously  insisted  upon  by  the  French  drama- 
tists, were  not  strictly  observed  by  the  Greeks, 
nor  were  they  considered  essential,  for  ^schylus 
himself  did  not  always  observe  tbera.  Aristo- 
tle refers  indistinctly  to  the  unity  of  action;  he 
says  in  reference  to  the  unity  of  time  :  "  Tragedy 
endeavors  as  much  as  possible  to  restrict  itself 
to  a  single  revolution  of  the  sun."  Of  the  unity 
of  place  he  saj's  nothing.  The  Greek  tragedy 
was  composed  in  trilogies,  or  3  distinct  plays, 
continuations  of  each  other  ;  such,  for  example, 
was  the  trilogy  of  xEschylus,  formed  of  the 
Agamemnon^  the  Choephoroi^  and  the  "Furies." 
In  the  1st,  Agamemnon,  returning  from  the 
siege  of  Troy,  is  murdered  by  his  wife  Cly- 
teranestra;  in  tbe  2d,  Orestes,  Agamemnon's 
son,  aven<^es  his  father  by  the  slaughter  of  his 
mother;  in  the  3d,  Orestes  is  pursued  by  the 
Furies  for  this  unnatural  deed  ;  the  gods  cannot 
agree  upon  his  case  until  Minerva  decides  in  his 
favor,  and  releases  him  from  the  torture  of  the 
avenging  divinities.  These  3  subjects  conjoin- 
ed formed  a  complete  action,  divided  into  a 
thesis,  an  antitliesis,  and  a  synthesis. — The  early 
history  of  comedy  is  more  obscure  than  that  of 
tragedy.  Tlie  earliest  comic  poet  of  whom  we 
have  remains  is  Aristophanes,  who  tlomushed  a 


century  after  iEschylas.  lie  was  the  last  of 
what  was  called  the  old  school.  Comedy  was  di- 
vided into  3  forms,  the  old,  the  middle,  and  the 
new.  In  tlie  first  or  old  comedy,  the  characters 
were  real  living  personages,  who,  under  their  real 
names,  were  freely  satirized.  This  license  was 
soon  so  abused  that  a  law  was  passed  forbidding 
the  names  of  real  personages  to  be  used  in  com- 
edy. This  impediment  produced  the  second 
or  middle  comedy,  where  the  proliibition  avjis 
evaded  by  giving  fictitious  names  to  real  charac- 
ters, and  distinguishing  the  individual  intended 
to  be  satirized  by  a  mask  or  by  some  unmis- 
takable inference.  The  middle  c(;medy  lasted 
about  50  years,  when  it  was  superseded  by  the 
3d  or  new  comedy.;  in  tliis  form  the  characters 
and  the  subject  were  fictitious,  and  as  the  old 
satirized  and  ridiculed  statesmen,  orators,  and 
generals  under  their  real  names,  so  the  new 
was  aimed  at  abstract  vice,  and  not  at  the  indi- 
vidual offender.  As  tragedy  descended  from 
the  contemplation  of  divine  matters  to  depict 
and  sympathize  with  human  woes,  it  gradually 
lost  its  grandeur  and  depreciated.  So,  also,  as 
comedy  divested  itself  of  its  direct  influence 
upon  men  and  things,  and  from  a  statesman  be- 
came a  pliilosopher,  it  lost  its  pith  and  power. — 
The  list  of  ditliyrambic  poets  preceding  yEschy- 
lus  from  700  to  525  B.  0.  includes  Archilochus, 
Simonides,  Lasus,  Arion,  Stesichorus,  Solon, 
Susarion,  Ilipponax,  Theognis,  Thespis  (birth 
of  yEschylus).  Afterward  came  Chccrilus,  Phry- 
nichus,  Epicharmus,  JEschylus  (invents  the  dra- 
ma, and  first  exhibits  499  B.  C),  Chionides, 
Sophocles  (first  victory  468  B.  C),  Euripides 
(first  exhibits  455  B.  C),  Cratinus,  Aristar- 
chus,  Ion,  Crates,  Acha3us,  Melanippides,  Phere- 
crates,  Phryniclms  the  comic  poet,  Lysippus, 
Eupolis,  Aristophanes  (427  B.  C),  Agathon, 
Xenocles,  Ameipsias,  Sannyrion,  Astydamas, 
Antiphanes,  Theopompus,  Eubulus,  Alexis,  Ile- 
raclides,  Menander  (first  exhibits  321  B.  C), 
after  whom  the  Greek  drama  died  obscurely. — 
The  Romans  derived  their  drama  from  the 
Greeks.  Terence,  Plautus,  and  Seneca  are  the 
only  Latin  dramatists  worthy  of  mention,  and 
these  are  but  translators  and  imitators  of  the 
Greek.  The  only  element  introduced  by  the 
Romans  into  the  drama  was  farce,  an  invention 
of  the  Tuscans ;  buffoonery  became  more  popular 
than  wit.  In  truth  the  Roman  people  took  lit- 
tle pleasure  in  pure  intellectual  amusement,  and 
what  the  poet  was  to  the  Greek  the  gladiator 
was  to  the  Roman.  The  coarser  Roman  pre- 
ferred to  watch  the  agonies  of  the  body  suffered, 
in  the  circus,  rather  than  sympathize  with  the 
woes  of  the  soul  simulated  in  the  theatre. — Thus 
ended  the  first  or  classic  age  of  the  drama.  The 
second,  or  romantic  age,  gave  its  first  indication 
of  existence  in  the  12th  century,  when  dramatic 
performances  called  entremets  were  introduced, 
as  the  word  implies,  between  the  services  at 
royal  banquets  and  carousals.  These  entremets 
soon  became  pageants,  masks,  and  mummeries, 
and  lasted  as  distinct  dramatic  entertainments 
up  to  the  period  of  Shakespeare.  Simultaneously 


608 


DRAMA 


a  dramatic  composition  called  a  Mystery,  usually 
founded  on  passages  of  Scripture,  was  introduced 
and  became  a  popular  exhibition  on  saints'  days. 
Subjects  from  the  Bible,  rudely  treated  in  the 
form  of  a  dialogue  between  the  holy  person- 
ages, were  represented  on  a  stage  erected  in  the 
churcli  or  church  yard,  the  priests  and  acolytes 
being  the  actors.  These  performances  were 
carried  to  an  abuse,  and  they  became  so  blas- 
phemous a  scandal  that  they  were  suppressed. 
The  next  form  of  drama  Avas  the  Morality, 
bearing  a  relation  to  the  mystery  similar  to  that 
between  the  new  and  old  comedy  of  the  Greeks. 
The  morality  was  aimed  at  abstract  vice,  its  ac- 
tion was  a  fable,  its  characters  typical. — In  the 
loth  and  16th  centuries  Histories  began  to  be 
written — long,  rambling  pieces  of  action  with- 
out form  or  object,  but  introducing  rudely  the 
design  of  that  romantic  drama  destined  to  so 
Avondrous  a  perfection  under  the  minds  of  Shake- 
speare and  liis  colleagues.  As  the  classic  drama 
was  derived  from  the  dithyramb,  a  pure  poetic 
germ,  subsequently  developed  into  action,  tho 
romantic  drama  was  derived  from  the  pageant, 
mask,  or  mummery,  a  pantomimic  germ,  subse- 
quently developed  into  poetry.  In  the  first  the 
action  is  subservient  to  tlie  passion  ;  in  the  sec- 
ond the  passion  is  subservient  to  the  action. 
Thus  we  find  Shakespeare  borrows  his  plots 
from  Boccaccio,  and  makes  his  passions  fit  un- 
der these  forms,  where  his  characters  rather  en- 
cumber than  assist  the  intrigue.  In  the  Eliza- 
bethan age  the  romantic  drama  sprang  at  once 
into  existence  ;  and  as  in  the  single  life  of  ^s- 
chylus  the  classical  or  Greek  drama  passed 
from  infancy  to  maturity,  so  Shakespeare  and 
bis  colleagues  raised  the  romantic  or  Gothic 
drama  from  rudeness  to  the  highest  perfection 
it  has  ever  achieved.  In  the  romantic  drama 
the  unities  of  time,  place,  and  action  are  not  ob- 
served. The  poet  is  allowed  unbridled  license  ; 
prose  and  poetry  may  be  mingled  without  rule 
or  reason,  beyond  the  aptitude  of  each  to  the 
moment  and  the  character.  In  the  Greek  mind 
the  sense  of  form  was  very  acute  ;  "we  see  it  in 
their  architecture,  sculpture,  and  poetry  ;  we 
have  it  in  their  social  and  political  institutions. 
The  Greek  taste  demanded  grace  of  outline,  pro- 
portion of  parts  to  the  whole,  and  was  so  ex- 
tremely sensitive  to  tliis  element  in  art,  that 
Ave  find  it  in  all  things  Greek  which  remain 
to  us.  The  Gothic  mind  is  eminently  defect- 
ive in  this  sense.  The  only  ideas  of  form  Ave 
have  are  derived  from  study  of  the  ancient 
7nodels,  and  are  not  inherent  in  us.  Reckless  of 
form,  therefore,  Shakespeare  depicted  charac- 
ters and  developed  passions,  flung  them  into 
groups,  hurried  them  through  the  action,  over  the 
possible  and  the  impossible,  and  landed  them  on 
a  catastrophe  not  prepared  by  design,  but  Avhich 
suited  his  convenience.  His  Avorks  present  a 
glorious  intellectual  anarchy  in  Avhich  he  has  had 
no  follower,  for  the  reason  that  no  mind  of  less 
power  than  his  own  could  contend  Avith  the 
confusion  lie  so  marvellously  controls.  The 
romantic  dramatists  greatly  excelled  their  clas- 


sic rivals  in  the  rich  coloring  of  their  charac- 
ters ;  they  drew  men  more  like  imperfect  hu- 
man beings  and  less  like  inspired  statuary  ;  and 
if  less  noble  in  contour,  they  Avcre  more  truly 
flesh  and  blood.  The  Shakespearean  characters 
are  constructed  piecemeal  out  of  the  small  im- 
perfections and  humors  that  make  up  human 
nature  ;  the  Greek  heroes  are  made  of  one  piece, 
one  passion.  The  English  dramatists  of  this  age 
gave  originality  at  least  to  the  form  of  the  ro- 
mantic drama,  and,  Avhatever  its  faults,  it  Avaa 
new.  The  French  and  Italian  poets  clung  to 
the  Greek  models ;  Corneille  and  Racine  Avcre 
but  faint  and  poor  imitators  of  Euripides ;  Alfi- 
eri  affected  the  same  ancient  simplicity.  As 
students  of  the  Greek,  their  individual  merit  is 
great ;  but  having  had  no  share  in  the  progress 
of  the  drama,  they  have  no  prominent  place  ia 
its  history.  The  Italians  and  Spaniards  at  this 
period  contrived  a  species  of  performance,  part 
pantomime,  part  farce,  part  comedy  of  intrigue. 
It  Avas  derived  from  those  Italian  narrators  of 
Avhom  Boccaccio  is  the  best  type,  and  represent- 
ed dramatically  those  short  and  pithy  tales  in 
Avhich  Margaret  of  Navarre  was  Avont  to  take 
such  delight.  Lope  de  Vega  was  the  first  to  inau- 
gurate this  comedy  of  intrigue ;  it  Avas  quickly 
imitated  and  greatly  improved  by  the  French, 
Avho  by  admitting  more  Italian  elements  gave  it 
variety  and  scope.  Hardy,  Rotrou,  and  Corneille, 
Scarron  and  Quinault,  prepared  the  public  tasto 
for  Moliere,  Avho  truly  founded  and  made  the 
second  or  middle  age  of  comedy,  as  Shakespeare 
and  his  colleagues  made  the  first  or  old.  Com- 
edy at  this  time  mainly  occupied  the  stage.  In 
England  the  four  great  masters,  Wycherly,  Con- 
greve,  Vanbrugh,  and  Farquhar,  brought  forth 
the  prose  drama.  If  inferior  to  ^loliere,  they 
Avere  less  tainted  with  that  leaning  toward  Greek 
classicality  Avhich  has  always  retarded  the  true 
progress  of  the  drama  in  France.  The  most  ori- 
ginal of  Moliere's  Avorks  is  the  Bourgeois  gen- 
tiUiomme,  because  in  its  form  and  treatment  he 
has  exhibited  more  freedom  from  scholastic  tram- 
mel. In  tlie  beginning  of  the  18th  century  tho 
sentimental  drama,  a  mixture  of  comedy  and 
tragedy,  a  Aveak  solution,  obtained  great  popu- 
larity, but  cannot  be  considered  a  forward  move- 
ment in  the  art.  In  Germany  this  drama  ob- 
tained great  popularity  under  Ivotzebue,  and  at 
the  same  time  a  Avild,  mythic,  philosophical  dra- 
matic form  of  poem  was  created  by  Goethe  and 
Schiller,  These  poets  have  rather  embellished 
dramatic  literature  than  added  to  the  develop- 
ment or  progress  of  the  drama  as  an  art.  Les- 
sing,  Avho  preceded  them,  may  be  said  to  have 
founded  the  German  drama,  but  he  attempted 
no  reform. — ^The  next  and  last  great  step  Avhich 
the  drama  has  made,  and  one  that  has  become 
prominent  in  the  present  age,  is  the  invention  of 
opera,  or  a  drama  in  Avhich  music  takes  the  place 
of  poetry,  and  the  dramatic  action  is  subser- 
vient to  a  ncAv  musical  dcA'elopment.  It  is  a 
mistake  to  presume  that  an  opera  is  a  musical 
drama.  The  musical  form  of  an  opera  and  its 
dramatic  treatment  are  essentially  different  from 


DRAMA 


DRAPER 


609 


the  form  and  treatment  of  a  drama  based  on  tlie 
same  fable.  There  is  also  in  the  form  of  the 
music,  apart  from  the  libretto,  a  plan  and 
proportion  to  which  the  drama  must  be  subser- 
vient.— Among  the  various  minor  forms  of  the 
modern  drama  arc  melodrama,  farce,  vaudeville, 
and  pantomime.  Melodrama  owes  its  invention 
to  the  laws  which  resti-icted  the  performance 
of  tragedies  and  comedies  to  certain  privileged 
theatres.  Booths  were  erected  in  which  were 
performed  serious  pantomimes,  or  dramas  with- 
out words,  accompanied  throughout  with  ex- 
pressive music.  By  degrees  the  actors  ven- 
tured a  few  extempore  phrases  or  jests.  This 
license  was  gradually  extended,  until  dialogue 
was  regularly  introduced,  and  the  music  was 
only  used  to  accompany  the  movement  of  the 
actors.  ISIelodrama  is  now  understood  to  be  a 
drama  wherein  the  passion  and  dcveloi)mcnt  of 
character  are  subservient  to  the  action  and  plot; 
■whereas  tragedy  is  a  drama  where  the  action 
and  plot  are  subservient  to  the  passion  and  de- 
velopment of  character,  farce  is  a  humorous 
piece  of  buftbonery,  in  which  probability  may 
be  outraged  both  in  the  incidents  and  character, 
and  stands  in  relation  to  comedy  as  melodrama 
does  to  tragedy.  Vaudeville  is  an  invention 
of  the  French  stage.  Schlegel  states  that 
"  vaudeville  is  only  a  variation  of  comic  opera ;" 
bnt  it  is  essentially  a  different  thing,  and  was 
in  no  manner  derived  from  it,  nor  has  it  ever 
been  connected  with  it.  It  has  its  name  from 
vaude  Virc,  which  was  originally  a  satirical  song 
containing  a  kecn,witty  thought,  and  applicable 
to  some  poi)ular  person  or  event.  It  was  a  lyric 
epigram  invented  in  that  part  of  N^ormandy 
called  A^ire,  and  carried  thence  to  Paris,  where 
these  musical  satires  became  the  vogue.  Pres- 
ently the  writers  of  small  comedies  threw  their 
keenest  epigrams  into  verse,  by  which  they  gave 
them  more  point  and  drew  to  them  more  at- 
tention ;  these  verses  might  be  sung  to  any  air 
that  would  happily  suit  them,  and  were  called 
vaudevilles.  The  comic  pieces  through  wiiich 
they  were  scattered  eventually  received  the 
name.  When  the  work  is  but  slightly  speckled 
with  these  musical  epigrams,'  it  is  distinguished 
as  a  comedie  vaudeville,  or  a  drame  vaudeville. 
Pantomime  is  a  drama  without  language,  com- 
posed of  gesture  accompanied  with  music.  It 
is  probably  the  most  ancient  form  of  drama,  and 
has  changed  less  in  its  essential  form  than  any 
other.  The  most  perfect  and  most  elegant  kind 
of  pantomime  is  the  ballet,  where  graceful 
dances  are  interspersed  amid  the  pantomimic 
action. — No  work  of  the  mind  possesses  such 
charms  for  the  author  as  the  drama ;  the  com- 
bination of  poetry,  music,  oratory,  sculpture, 
and  painting,  represents  an  army  of  musea 
which  almost  every  literary  aspirant  desires  to 
command  ;  but  few  are  found  adequate  to  the 
task.  The  first  difficulty  consists  in  the  selection 
of  a  subject  fit  for  dramatic  treatment.  Many 
fables  re;id  well,  that  lose  the  appearance  of  life 
when  deprived  of  the  peculiar  charms  of  narra- 
tive, and  given  in  dialogue.     In  the  dramatist's 

VOL.  VI. 39 


language,  "  they  will  not  act."  Having  secured 
a  fit  theme,  it  should  be  examined  to  see  if  it  be 
agreeable.  Tlius  in  tragic  subjects  horror  should 
be  distinguished  from  terror.  Horror  has  in  it 
something  repulsive  ;  it  has  tlie  ingredients  of 
disgust  to  distinguish  it  from  terror,  which  pos- 
sesses a  charm  most  attractive,  having  the  in- 
gredient of  pity  mingled  in  its  sentiment.  Pro- 
A'ided  with  an  ai)propriate  subject,  the  dramatist 
must  ])roceed  to  select  a  good  beginning.  If  in 
his  first  act  he  has  to  employ  his  characters  in 
long  explanations  of  that  part  of  his  story  which 
precedes  the  rising  of  the  curtain,  then  has  he 
made  a  beginning  in  the  middle,  as  it  were,  and 
his  drama  is  taking  ])lace  off  the  stage,  instead 
of  \\\)o\\  it ;  for  the  mind  of  the  auditor  is 
fixed  upon  a  scene  descril)ed,  and  the  action  of 
the  play  ceases  to  give  place  to  narrative ;  if 
he  can  find  no  means  of  avoiding  these  explana- 
tions, then  he  must  consider  that  his  subject  is 
not  susceptible  of  a  good  dramatic  form.  Having 
begun  well,  the  action  must  never  pause,  and  it 
must  be  continuous,  for  in  this  continuity  is  the 
secret  of  interest ;  it  betrays  an  object  which,  • 
though  kept  out  of  sight,  is  palpably  ahead.  As 
the  plot  proceeds,  it  should  embrace  nothing 
but  what  is  essential  to  its  support ;  whatever 
may  be  the  beauty  of  an  episode,  it  is  a  distrac- 
tion, and  has  always  more  charms  for  the  author 
than  the  auditor.  Shakesiteare  triumphed  over 
this  fault  so  often  that  he  has  done  great  damage 
to  the  English  dramatist  by  his  example.  At  a 
certain  proportionate  distance  from  the  end  of 
the  work  comes  the  climax  or  catastrophe,  to- 
Avard  which  achievement  all  the  action  conspires. 
This  event  generally  occupies  the  latter  half  of 
the  4th  act  in  a  5  act  play.  The  5th  is  used  to 
bring  the  fable  in  all  its  parts  to  a  simple  and 
clear  conclusion,  leaving  a  sense  of  complete- 
ness in  the  mind,  where  nothing  remains  to  be 
desired  or  told. — A  further  account  of  the  dra- 
matic literature  of  each  nation  will  be  found 
under  the  titles  of  the  respective  countries.  Sec 
also  ^scHTLUS,  Alfieri,  Oaldeeon  de  la 
Barca,  Corneille,  Goethe,  Goldoni,  Lessixg. 
Lope  de  Vega,  Moliere,  Racixe,  Scuiller,  and 
Shakespeare. 

DRAMMEN",  a  commercial  town  of  Norway, 
situated  on  the  southern  coast,  in  the  province 
of  Aggershuus,  20  m.  S.  "W.  from  Christiania ; 
pop.  in  1855,  9,916.  It  lies  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  Drammen,  and  is  composed  of  3  small 
villages,  separated  from  each  other  by  natural 
limits.  The  commerce  of  which  Drammen  is 
the  centre  gives  it  the  third  rank  among  the 
cities  of  Norway,  but  in  respect  to  its  timber 
trade  it  stands  first.  It  manufactures  tobacco, 
earthenware,  sail  cloth,  rope,  carriages,  leather, 
&c. ;  and  beside  timber,  which  is  exported  chief- 
ly to  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Holland,  has  a 
commerce  in  iron  ware  and  agricultural  produce. 
About  40,000  tons  of  shipping  are  annually  em- 
ployed in  its  port.  It  suffered  considerably  in 
1850  and  1857  from  conflagrations. 

DRAPER,  John  "William,  an  American 
chemist  and  physiologist,  born  near  Liverpool, 


610 


DRAPER 


DRAUGHTS 


England,  May  5,  1811.  He  received  his  early 
education  at  the  "Wesleyan  Methodist  school  at 
Woodlioiiso  Grove,  an  institution  for  the  sons 
of  clergymen  of  that  denomination,  of  which  his 
father  was  one.  Having  here  acquired  the  ru- 
diments of  knowledge,  his  inaturer  education 
was  intrusted  to  private  instructors  ;  and  while 
thus  employed,  he  devoted  much  attention  to 
chemistry  and  natural  philosophy,  a  partiality 
for  which  he  imbibed  from  his  fatlier,  who 
made  these  pursuits  a  relaxation  from  his  cleri- 
cal duties.  The  higher  mathemtitics  were  also 
a  part  of  his  early  training,  and  his  Avritings 
denote  their  successful  cultivation.  lie  subse- 
quently went  to  the  university  of  London,  where 
he  had  the  opportunity  of  prosecnting  his  chem- 
ical studies  under  the  late  Dr.  Turner.  Some 
of  Dr.  Draper's  ancestors  had  been  attracted  to 
America  before  the  revolution,  and  a  greater 
part  of  his  family  connections  followed  at  later 
periods,  and  in  1833  he  came  over  to  join  them. 
He  then  continued  his  chemical  and  medical 
studies  at  the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  where 
he  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  183G,  and  with 
the  rare  distinction  that  his  thesis  was  an- 
nounced at  commencement  as  having  been  se- 
lected for  publication  by  the  medical  faculty. 
A  few  weeks  after,  he  received  the  appointment 
of  professor  of  chemistry,  natural  philosophy, 
and  physiology  in  Hampden-Sidney  college, 
Virginia,  in  which  institution  he  remained  until 
1839.  During  his  residence  there  his  time  was 
occupied  in  original  chemical  and  physiological 
investigations,  many  of  the  latter  appearing  in 
the  "  American  Journal  of  Medical  Sciences." 
From  Hampden-Sidney  college  Dr.  Draper  was 
called  to  the  chair  of  chemistry  and  natural 
history  in  the  academic  department  of  the  uni- 
versity of  the  city  of  New  York,  where,  beside 
instruction  in  those  branches,  he  has  delivered 
lectures  to  the  advanced  undergraduates  upon 
physiology.  In  1841  he  was  appointed  profes- 
sor of  cliemistry  in  the  university  medical  col- 
lege, which  forms  the  medical  department  of 
the  city  university,  having  cooperated  with  5 
others  (Drs.  Valentine  Mott,  Granville  S.  Pat- 
tison,  John  W.  Revere,  Gunning  S.  Bedford,  and 
Martyn  Paine,  who  were  simultaneously  elected 
professors)  in  establishing  that  very  flourishing 
school  of  medicine;  and  in  1850  physiology  was 
added  to  the  chair  of  chemistry.  These  rela- 
tions to  the  academic  and  medical  departments 
of  the  university  have  been  continued  without 
interruption  to  the  present  time  ;  and  it  is  also 
worthy  of  remark,  as  illustrating  his  industry, 
that  he  has  acted  throughout  as  the  medical 
faculty's  secretary,  and  since  1850  as  their  pre- 
siding officer.  As  an  instructor.  Dr.  Draper 
stands  in  the  very  first  rank,  and  to  his  rich 
variety  of  attainments  unites  all  the  important 
elements  of  a  public  speaker.  Although  his 
researches  have  been  mostly  experimental,  in- 
volving therefore  great  labor  and  cost,  he  has 
written  voluminously  and  with  high  reputation. 
Beside  contributions  to  various  other  scientific 
journals,  he  furnished  to  tho  "Edinburgh  Philo- 


sophical Journal"  between  the  years  1837  and 
1857  about  40  treatises,  principally  on  topics 
previously  little  understood.  Ho  is  the  author 
of  many  literary  works,  reviews,  &c.,  but  for 
the  most  part  published  anonyraonsly ;  of  a 
"  Treatise  on  the  Forces  which  produce  the 
Organization  of  Plants"  (4to.,  New  York,  1844) ; 
of  a  popular  "  Text  Book  on  Chemistry"  (12mo., 
New  York,  1846),  and  another  on  "Natural 
Philosphy"  (8vo.,  New  York,  1847),  which 
consist  of  excerpts  from  his  courses  of  lectures. 
His  last  and  most  elaborate  work  is  a  treatise  on 
"Human  Physiology,  Statical  and  D^mamical; 
or  the  Conditions  and  Course  of  the  Life  of  Man  " 
(8vo.,  New  York,  1856,  and  a  new  edition,  1858). 

DRAPER,  SiE  William,  an  English  officer, 
born  in  Bristol  in  1721,  died  in  Bath,  Jan.  8, 
1787.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Cam- 
bridge, entered  the  army,  won  distinction  in 
the  East  Indies,  obtained  a  colonelcy  in  1760,  • 
acted  as  brigadier  at  the  capture  of  Belle  Isle 
in  1761,  and  led  the  land  forces  at  the  taking 
of  Manila  in  1703.  The  Spaniards  ransomed 
the  latter  place  by  the  promise  of  £1,000,000, 
which  was  never  paid,  and  Sir  "William  corre- 
sponded long  but  unprofitably  on  the  subject 
"with  his  own  and  the  Spanish  governments.  For 
his  services,  however,  he  was  made  knight  of  the 
bath.  When  the  first  of  the  "Junius"  letters 
appeared  in  Jan.  1769,  he  came  forward  under 
his  own  name  in  defence  of  his  friend  the  mar- 
quis of  Granby.  Junius  replied  with  marvellous 
skill  and  sharpness ;  two  more  letters  passed 
on  each  side,  and  Sir  William  then  retired  from 
a  contest  which  had  endangered  his  good  name, 
damaged  the  cause  of  his  friend,  and  heightened 
his  opponent's  reputation.  Six  months  after- 
ward, when  he  saw  these  letters  republished,  he 
appeared  twice  again  in  printto  complain  of  their 
injustice,  and  was  again  worsted  by  his  anony- 
mous antagonist.  During  the  same  year  he  visit- 
ed America,  where  he  was  married  to  Miss  De 
Lancey  of  New  York.  In  1770  he  was  appoint- 
ed lieutenant-governor  of  Minorca,  and  on  the 
surrender  of  tliat  island  brought  29  charges 
against  the  governor,  Murray,  lor  all  but  2  of 
which  he  Avas  obliged  to  offer  an  apology. 

DRAUGHTS,  a  game  played  by  2  persons, 
on  a  checkered  board  like  the  chess-board, 
with  12  or  20  pieces  on  each  side,  which  cap- 
ture each  other  by  angular  movements  governed 
by  certain  rules,  untu  the  game  ends  by  one 
player  losing  all  his  pieces,  or  by  both  players 
getting  their  pieces  into  positions  from  which 
they  cannot  be  taken.  In  America  the  game  is 
commonly  called  checkers.  In  France  it  is  known 
as  lejcu  dedames^  in  Italy  as  dnma,  in  Germany 
as  Damen  ;  all  which  terms  are  commonly  sup- 
posed to  have  their  origin  in  some  fancied  adap- 
tation of  the  game  as  a  pastime  for  women. 
But  as  it  has  been  played  in  Egypt  for  more 
than  4,000  years,  and  made  its  appearance  in 
Europe  only  3  or  4  centuries  ago  when  there 
was  much  intercourse  between  southern  Europe 
and  Alexanda-ia  and  other  Egyptian  ports,  be- 
fore the  passage  to  India  round  the  cape  of  Good 


DRAUGHTS 


DRAVE 


611 


Hope  replaced  that  through  the  isthmus  of  Suez, 
it  is  probable  that  the  Egyptian-Arabic  name 
of  the  game,  dameli^  is  the  source  of  its  appel- 
lations in  French,  Italian,  and  German.  In 
Polish,  the  game  has,  beside  that  of  dama,  a 
foreign  designation,  arcahy  or  xcarcaby^  sup- 
posed to  be  of  oriental  origin.  In  Spanish,  the 
word  ajedrez,  applied  to  botli  chess  and  draughts, 
is  also  of  eastern  derivation,  and  ai)pears  to  be 
nearly  equivalent  to  the  American  term  check- 
ers.— The  origin  of  the  game  is  uncertain.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  preceded  chess,  and  is  certainly 
of  very  high  antiquity,  for  in  Egypt,  as  appears 
from  the  monumental  paintings,  it  was  a  com- 
mon amusement  in  the  reigns  of  the  Osirtasens, 
2000  B.  C.  It  was  played  as  now  with  pieces, 
all  of  which  on  the  same  board  were  alike  in 
size  and  form,  though  on  difterent  boards  they 
varied  in  shape,  some  being  small,  others  large 
and  rounded  at  the  top  or  carved  into  human 
heads.  The  kind  used  by  Xing  Rhamses,  1311 
B.  C.,  who  is  represented  on  the  walls  of  his 
palace  at  Thebes  playing  at  draughts  with  the 
ladies  of  his  household,  resembled  small  nine- 
pins, and  seem  to  have  been  about  1^  inches 
high,  standing  on  a  circular  base  of  half  an  inch 
in  diameter.  Some  have  been  found  of  ivory,  If 
incheshigh  and  l^in  diameter,  with  asmall  knob 
at  the  top.  The  opposite  sets  of  pieces  were  dis- 
tinguished sometimes  by  their  color  and  some- 
times by  their  form,  one  set  being  black,  the  other 
white  or  red,  or  one  set  having  round,  the  otiier 
flat  tops.  It  is  uncertai.i  how  the  Egyptians  play- 
ed the  game,  though  from  the  position  of  some  of 
the  pieces  in  the  paintings  it  would  seem  that  they 
did  not  take  backward,  as  is  done  in  the  Polish 
game  of  draughts.  The  modern  Egyptians,  who 
use  pieces  similar  to  those  used  by  their  prede- 
cessors, play  the  game  as  it  is  generally  played 
in  Europe  and  America.  By  the  Greeks  the  in- 
vention of  draughts,  as  well  as  of  dice  and  many 
other  things,  was  poetically  ascribed  to  Pala- 
medes,  one  of  the  heroes  of  the  expedition  against 
Troy,  1193  B.  0.  Plato,  however,  attributes  the 
invention  to  the  Egyptian  Theuth.  Homer,  in  the 
1st  book  of  the  Odyssey,  describing  Minerva's 
arrival  at  the  palace  of  Ulysses  in  Ithaca,  says: 
"  There  she  found  the  hauglity  suitors ;  some 
of  them  were  anmsing  themselves  before  the 
gates  with  draughts,  sitting  upon  the  hides  of 
oxen  which  they  themselves  had  slain."  There 
is  reason  to  believe,  however,  that  the  game 
mentioned  by  tlie  Greek  writers  was  a  species  of 
backgammon. — In  playing  draughts,  the  board 
is  placed  with  an  upper  white  corner  on  the 
right  hand.  Each  player  places  his  pieces  on 
the  3  lines  of  squares  nearest  to  him.  In  Eng- 
land the  white  squares  are  played  upon;  in 
Scotland  and  America  the  black  squares  are  gen- 
erally selected.  The  game  is  begun  by  each 
player  moving  alternately  one  of  his  men  along 
the  diagonal  on  which  they  are  first  placed,  one 
square  at  a  time  to  the  right  or  the  left.  When  2 
hostile  pieces  encounter  each  other,  the  one  that 
has  the  move  may  take  the  otlier,  if  there  be  a 
vacant  square  of  the  color  played  upon  behind  it, 


by  leaping  over  the  other  into  that  square.  The 
piece  leaped  over  is  removed  from  the  board. 
If  several  pieces  on  forward  diagonals  should  be 
exposed  by  having  alternate  open  squares  be- 
hind them,  they  may  all  be  taken  at  once,  and 
the  taking  piece  placed  on  the  square  beliind 
the  last  piece  captured.  "When  a  piece  has 
reached  one  of  the  4  squares  of  the  extreme  op- 
posite row,  it  becomes  a  king,  and  is  crowned  by 
placing  one  of  the  caiitured  pieces  upon  it. 
Kings  can  move  backward  as  well  as  forward, 
though  only  one  square  at  a  time.  The  princi- 
pal laws  of  the  game  are  these :  if  a  piece  is 
touched,  it  must  be  moved,  if  a  move  be  possi- 
ble ;  the  player  who  has  the  move  must  take  a 
piece  which  is  exposed  to  capture ;  if  he  neg- 
lects to  take  it,  his  adversary  may  remove  from 
the  board  the  piece  with  which  the  capture 
should  have  been  made ;  but  a  player  has  no 
right  to  decline  to  take  under  any  circumstances. 
Tiie  first  move  of  each  game  is  to  be  taken  by 
the  players  in  turn ;  if  lots  are  drawn  for  the 
move,  he  who  gains  tlie  choice  may  move  first 
or  require  his  adversary  to  move.  In  Polish 
draughts,  a  variety  of  the  game  played  not 
only  in  Poland,  but  in  other  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe,  and  sometimes  in  England  and 
America,  the  {)ie<;e3  are  moved  forward  as  in  the 
English  form  of  the  game,  but  in  taking  they 
move  like  the  kings  of  the  English  game,  either 
backward  or  forward.  The  kings  in  the  Polish 
game  have  the  privilege  of  passing  over  several 
squares  at  one  time,  and  even  over  the  whole 
length  of  the  diagonal  when  no  pieces  obstruct 
the  move.  Polish  draughts  is  sometimes  played 
with  40  pieces  on  a  board  divided  into  100 
squares. — M.  Mallet,  a  celebrated  professor  of 
mathematics,  published  a  treatise  on  draughts 
at  Paris  in  1GG8.  Another  teacher  of  mathe- 
matics, William  Paine,  published  at  London  in 
175G  an  "Introduction  to  the  Game  of  Draughts." 
The  best  work  on  the  subject  is  the  "  Guide  to 
the  Game  of  Draughts,"  by  Joshua  Sturges 
(London,  1800),  of  which  an  improved  edition 
appeared  in  1835,  the  whole  of  which,  with  ad- 
ditions, is  comprised  in  the  "  Handbook  of 
Games"  which  forms  one  of  the  volumes  of 
"Bohn's  Scientific  Library"  (London,  1850). 

DRAVE  (Ger.  Brau ;  Hung.  JDrdva ;  anc. 
Dravus),  one  of  the  principal  tributaries  of  the 
Danube,  rises  from  2  sources  situated  in  the  E. 
portion  of  the  Tyrol.  In  its  upper  part  it  is  a 
small  and  extremely  rapid  river,  with  craggy  and 
overhanging  banks,  but  it  becomes  navigable  at 
Villach,  and  flows  with  a  slow  current  through 
a  low  and  marshy  country,  through  S.  Styria, 
where  it  washes  the  walls  of  Marburg  and  Frie- 
dau,  then  along  the  S.  border  of  Hungar\',  which 
it  separates  from  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  till  it  en- 
ters the  Danube  14  m.  E.  from  Eszek,  as  a  large 
and  powerful  stream,  after  a  course  of  360  m. 
Its  navigation  above  A'olkermarkt  is  obstruct- 
ed by  various  falls  and  cataracts.  The  most 
important  of  its  numerous  affluents  is  the  Mur, 
the  largest  river  in  Styria.  Lienz  in  Tyrol,  Vil- 
lach, Pettau,  "Warasdin,  and  Eszek,  are  amoug 


612 


DRAWING 


the  cliief  towns  situated  on  its  banks.  One  of 
the  most  interesting  uses  of  the  Dnive  is  that 
to  Avhich  the  Hungarian  peasants  put  it,  wlio 
descend  it  on  rafts  of  emptv  barrels  after  having 
disposed  of  their  wine  iu  the  mountains  of 
Carinthia. 

DRAWING,  the  representation  or  dehnca- 
tiou  of  objects,  either  as  they  appear  to  the  eye, 
or  as  projected  on  assumed  phines,  or  as  desig- 
nated by  conventional  signs  having  a  certain 
similarity  to  the  appearance  of  the  objects  them- 
selves. The  painter,  Avith  free  hand,  draws  or 
sketches  objects  in  their  visible  and  natural 
forms ;  the  mechanical  or  architectural  draughts- 
man projects,  according  to  certain  established 
rules  and  principles,  objects  existing  or  design- 
ed ;  while  from  the  notes  of  the  surveyor  the 
topograi>hical  draughtsman  plots  the  surface  of 
a  field  or  locality,  with  its  natural  and  artificial 
objects  represented  somewhat  as  they  would 
appear  projected  on  a  transparent  plane  above 
them,  but  with  certain  conventionalities  to  ex- 
press more  definitely  certain  features.  Archi- 
tectural and  mechanical  drawing  is  in  general 
the  delineation  of  objects  by  geometric  or  or- 
thographic projection.  Since  the  surfaces  of  all 
bodies  may  be  considered  to  be  composed  of 
points,  the  first  step  is  to  represent  the  position  of 
a  point  in  space,  by  referring  it  to  planes  whose 
position  is  established.  In  general  these  planes 
are  assumed  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and 
the  points  projected  upon  them  to  make  up  the 
drawings  of  the  plan,  end  and  side  elevation. 
Let  a  brick  be  held  flatwise  in  the  corner  of  a 
rectangular  box,  with  its  sides  parallel'  to  the 
various  sides  of  the  box ;  if  now  from  the 
several  corners  of  tlie  brick  perpendiculars  be 
let  fall  u]ion  the  adjacent  sides,  the  points  thus 
found  will  be  the  orthographic  projections  of 
the  corners;  and  if  these  points  be  connected 
by  con-esponding  lines,  there  will  be  outlines  of 
the  brick  under  3  views  or  projections:  npou 
the  bottom  of  the  box  a  rectangle  8  bj^  4  inches, 
being  the  plan  of  the  brick ;  upon  one  side  a 
rectangle  8  by  2^  inches,  the  side  elevation ; 
on  the  other  side  a  rectangle  4  by  2^  inches,  the 
end  elevation.  If  the  brick  be  inclined  to  either 
or  all  of  the  sides  of  the  box,  the  projected  out- 
lines will  be  varied  ;  but  the  same  rule  for  de- 
termining the  position  of  points  obtains,  viz. :  by 
letting  fall  perpendiculars  on  the  planes  to 
Avhich  they  are  referred.  The  orthographic  pro- 
jection of  any  object  in  outline  is  the  shadow  it 
would  cast  on  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  if  held  between  it  and  the 
sun.  Simple  objects  in  general  may  be  de- 
fined by  2  views,  a  plan  and  elevation;  but 
often,  to  illustrate  the  construction  of  the  inte- 
rior, sections  are  necessary,  that  is,  the  ap- 
pearances that  might  be  presented  were  tlie 
objects  cut  by  planes ;  all  portions  that  would 
be  thus  absolutely  cut,  are  designated  by  filling 
tip  the  outline  with  a  quantity  of  inclined  par- 
allel straight  lines,  at  equal  intervals  from  each 
other  ;  sliould  there  be  distinct  parts  in  section, 
in  contact  with  each  other,  to  prevent  confusion 


the  diflfcrent  sections  are  expressed  by  lines  in- 
clined in  opposite  directions.  In  most  archi- 
tectural and  mechanical  constructions  it  would 
be  obviously  impossible  tliat  they  could  be 
drawn  full  size.  Scales  are  therefore  made  use 
of  in  which  fractional  parts  represent  wholes. 
The  scale  in  most  common  use  in  architectural 
drawings  is  that  of  ^  of  an  inch  to  the  foot,  or 
4'^  of  the  lineal  dimensions;  in  mechanical  draw- 
ings, J  or  ^  full  size,  that  is,  as  usually  under- 
stood, :J^  or  -J^  of  the  lineal  dimensions.  Beside 
these  scales,  the  divisions  of  one  inch  or  foot 
are  very  numerous,  according  to  the  purposes 
for  which  the  drawing  is  designed.  Working 
drawings  of  machines,  or  those  intended  to  be 
used  in  construction,  are  generally  laid  off  to  as 
large  a  scale  as  possible ;  they  are  mostly  out- 
line drawings,  consisting  of  lines  to  indicate  the 
form  of  the  object  represented.  The  roundness, 
fulness,  or  obliquity  of  the  individual  surfaces  is 
not  indicated  by  the  lines,  although  it  may  be 
generally  inferred  from  the  relation  of  the  dif- 
ferent views  of  the  same  part.  The  direct  sig- 
nificance of  an  outline  drawing  is  often  consid- 
erably increased  by  strengthening  those  lines 
which  indicate  the  contours  of  surfaces  resting 
in  the  shadow.  That  all  parts  may  be  shade- 
lined  according  to  one  tmiform  rule,  the  light 
is  supposed  to  fall  upon  the  object  obliquely  at 
an  angle  of  45°,  that  the  horizontal  and  vertical 
lines  may  be  relieved  equally.  In  general  the 
light  is  supposed  to  fall,  as  it  Avere,  from  the 
upper  left  hand  corner  of  the  paper  diagonally, 
and  the  same  rule  is  followed  in  the  more  fin- 
ished drawings  where  both  shade  and  shadow 
are  introduced.  As  a  means  of  avoiding  the 
indefiniteness  presented  by  mere  outline,  re- 
course is  had  frequently  to  the  mere  shading  of 
the  parts  of  a  machine  or  edifice,  usually  done 
with  color  and  a  brush.  In  architectural  draw- 
ings, a  complete  picture  is  often  attempted  with 
all  the  appliancesof  shade  and  shadow,  intended 
to  show  the  artistic  effect  of  the  construction. 
Color  is  introduced  not  unfrequently  in  both 
mechanical  and  architectural  drawings,  to  show 
the  material  of  which  the  construction  is  com- 
posed ;  in  these  cases  it  is  tisual  to  imitate  some- 
what the  natural  color  of  the  substances — wood 
with  burnt  sienna,  brick  with  Indian  red, 
wrought  iron  with  Prussian  or  indigo  blue,  cast 
iron  with  a  dark  blue  tint,  shading  off  to  a  green. 
— Beside  orthographic  projection,  architects,  for 
the  representation  both  of  exterior  and  interior  of 
edifices,  frequently  make  use  of  perspective,  and 
meclianical  draughtsmen,  for  the  better  under- 
standing of  the  parts  of  a  machine  than  by  sepa- 
rate plans  and  elevations,  unite  them  by  the  rules 
of  isometrical  drawing.  The  science  of  perspec- 
tive is  the  representation  by  geometrical  rules, 
on  a  plane  surface,  of  objects  as  tliey  appear  to 
the  eye  from  an  assumed  point  of  view.  All  the 
points  of  the  surface  of  a  body  are  visible  by 
means  of  luminous  rays  proceeding  from  these 
points  to  the  eye,  forming  a  cone  of  rays.  The 
intersection  of  these  ray*  by  an  intervening 
transparent  plane  is  the  perspective  projection 


DRAWING- 


613 


of  these  point?,  the  rules  for  the  projection  of 
which  mechanically  are  simple  and  well  estab- 
lished. Tlie  supposed  transparent  jjlane  is  called 
the  plane  of  projection  or  plane  of  the  picture. 
The  horizon  of  the  picture  is  the  horizontal  lino 
resulting  from  the  intersection  of  the  plane  of 
the  picture  by  a  horizontal  plane  passing  through 
the  eye.  Point  of  view  or  point  of  sight  is  the 
point  where  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  i)laced. 
Vanishing  points  are  points  in  a  picture  to  which 
all  lines  converge  that  are  in  the  object  i)arallel 
to  each  other.  An  object  is  said  to  be  in  paral- 
lel j)erspective  w4ien  one  of  its  sides  is  i)arallel 
to  tlio  plane  of  the  picture — in  angular  per- 
spective when  none  of  its  sides  are  so.  Isomet- 
rical  drawing  implies  that  the  measures  of  tlie 
representations  of  the  lines  forming  the  sides 
of  each  face  are  equal.  The  principle  of  iso- 
metrical  projection  consists  in  selecting  for  the 
plane  of  the  projection  one  equally  inclined  to 
3  principal  axes  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
so  that  all  straight  lines  coincident  or  parallel 
to  these  axes  are  drawn  in  projection  to  the 
same  scale.  To  draw  a  cube  in  isometrlcal  pro- 
jection, with  a  radius  equal  to  one  side  of  the 
cube,  describe  a  circle,  inscribe  a  regular  hexa- 
gon, and  connect  alternate  angles  by  lines  to  the 
centre  ;  the  hexagon  will  be  divided  into  i  qua- 
drilaterals, each  of  which  will  repi'csent  a  face 
of  the  cube;  all  the  lines  will  be  equal,  and 
equal  to  the  side  of  the  cube.  On  these  lines 
can  be  set  otf  distances  as  in  orthographic  pro- 
jection, but  only  upon  these  lines,  or  those 
parallel  thereto.  Curved  or  inclined  lines  are 
therefore  to  be  established  by  reference  to  these 
lines,  and  not  by  direct  measure  of  the  lines  them- 
selves. Isometrical  drawing  is  especially  valu- 
able to  the  mechanical  draughtsman,  embrac- 
ing as  it  does  the  applicability  of  a  scale  with 
pictorial  representation.  In  drawings  for  the 
patent  office  it  is  of  very  general  application. — 
Topographical  drawing  is  the  delineation  of  the 
surface  of  a  locality,  with  the  natural  and  arti- 
ficial objects,  as  houses,  roads,  rivers,  hills,  &c., 
upon  it,  in  their  relative  dimensions  and  posi- 
tions; giving  as  it  were  in  miniature  a  copy 
of  the  field,  farm,  district,  &c.,  as  it  would  be 
seen  by  the  eye  moving  over  it.  Many  of  the 
objects  thus  to  be  represented  can  be  defined  by 
regular  and  mathematical  lines,  but  many  other 
objects,  from  their  irregularity  of  outline  and 
their  insignificance  in  extent,  would  be  very 
difficult  to  distinguish.  Certain  signs  have  there- 
fore been  adopted  into  general  use  among 
draughtsmen,  some  of  which  resemble  in  some 
degree  the  objects  for  which  they  stand,  while 
others  are  purely  conventional.  Sand  is  repre- 
sented by  fine  dots,  gravel  by  coarser  dots ;  mea- 
dow or  grass  line  is  represented  by  tufts  of  little 
perpendicular  lines;  trees,  although  not  conso- 
nant with  the  other  parts  of.tlie  plan,  are  repre- 
sented often  in  elevation,  at  other  times  by  clumps 
'  of  foliage  in  plan,  sometimes  distinctive  in  their 
foliage  ;  dwellings  and  edifices  usually  in  plan, 
made  distinctive  by  some  small  prefix,  as  a  pair 
of  scales  for  a  court  house,  a  sign  post  for  a  tav- 


ern, a  horse  shoo  for  a  smithy,  a  church  with  a 
cross  or  steeple,  &c.  The  localities  of  mines  are 
represented  by  the  signs  of  the  planets  which 
were  anciently  associated  with  various  metals, 
and  a  black  circle  or  dot  for  coal.  Hills  are 
represented  by  2  methods,  the  vertical  and  the 
horizontal.  In  the  first  the  strokes  of  the  pen 
follow  the  course  the  water  would  take  in  run- 
ning down  the  slopes,  the  strokes  being  made 
heavier  the  steeper  the  inclination  ;  and  systems 
have  been  projjosed  and  used  by  which  the  in- 
clination is  defined  by  the  comparative  thick- 
ness of  the  line  and  the  intervening  spaces.  la 
the  system  proposed  for  the  U.  S.  coast  sur- 
vey, slopes  of  7o"  are  represented  by  a  propor- 
tion of  black  to  white  of  9  to  2,  and  so  down, 
by  9  grades  to  a  slope  of  2i°,  in  which  the  pro- 
portion is  1  black  to  10  white.  By  the  horizon- 
tal method,  or  by  contours,  hills  are  represented 
by  horizontal  lines  traced  round  them,  such  as 
would  bo  shown  on  the  ground  by  water  rising 
by  equal  vertical  stages.  The  choice  of  a  scale 
for  a  plot  depends  in  a  great  measure  on  the 
purpose  for  which  the  plan  is  intended.  Plans 
of  house  lots  are  usually  named  as  being  so 
many  feet  to  the  inch,  plots  of  surveys  so  many 
chains  to  the  inch,  maps  or  surveys  of  states 
so  many  miles  to  the  inch,  and  maps  of  rail- 
way surveys  as  so  many  feet  to  the  inch,  or  so 
many  inches  to  the  mile.  In  the  U.  S.  coast 
survey  all  the  scales  are  expressed  fractionally 
and  decimally.  The  scales  of  small  harbor  charts 
vary  from  1 :  5,000  to  1 :  60,000 ;  that  of  charts 
of  bays  and  sounds  is  usually  1  to  80,000,  of  gen- 
eral coast  charts  1  to  400,000.  In  the  U.  S. 
engineer  service  the  following  scales  are  pre- 
scribed :  general  plans  of  building,  1  :  120  ; 
maps  of  ground  with  horizontal  curves,  1  :  600 ; 
topograhical  maps  comprising  1^  miles  square, 
1  m.  to  2  ft.,  or  1  :  2,640;  3  miles' square,  1  :  5,- 
280  ;  between  4  and  8  miles,  1 :  10,560  ;  9  miles 
square,  1:  15,840;  not  exceeding  24  miles  square, 
1 :  31,680  ;  50  miles  square,  1 :  63,360  ;  100  miles 
square,  1  :  126,720;  surveys  of  roads  and  canals, 
1  :  600.  In  the  plotting  of  sections,  as  of  rail- 
way cuttings,  a  horizontal  or  base  line  is  drawn, 
on  which  are  laid  otf  the  stations  or  distances 
at  which  levels  have  been  taken  ;  at  these  points 
perpendiculars  or  ordinates  are  erected,  and  upon 
them  are  marked  the  heights  of  ground  above 
base,  and  the  marks  are  joined  by  straight 
lines.  To  express  rock  in  a  cut,  it  is  generally 
represented  by  parallel  inclined  lines ;  rivers  by 
horizontal  lines,  or  better  colored  in  blue ;  the 
depth  of  sounding  in  a  mud  bottom  by  a  mass 
of  dots.  Since  it  would  be  in  general  impossi- 
ble to  express  the  variations  of  the  surface  of 
the  ground  in  the  same  scale  as  that  adopted  for 
the  plan,  it  is  usual  to  make  the  vertical  scalo 
larger  than  that  of  the  horizontal  lines  in  the  pro- 
portion of  10  or  20  to  1. — Topographical  features 
are  represented  as  efiectively  by  the  brush  and 
water  colors  as  by  the  pen.  Colors  are  used 
conventionally.  Thus  in  the  practice  of  the 
French  militarj"-  engineers,  woods  are  repre- 
sented by  yellow,  gamboge  with  a  very  little 


614 


DRAYTON 


indigo;  grass  land  green,  gamboge  and  indigo  ; 
cultivated  land  brown,  lake,  gamboge,  and  a 
little  India  ink  or  burnt  sienna ;  adjoining  fields 
are  slightly  varied  in  tint ;  gardens,  by  patches 
of  green  and  brown ;  uncultivated  land,  marbled 
green  and  light  brown ;  brash,  brambles,  &c., 
marbled  green  and  yellow;  vineyards,  purple; 
sands,  a  light  brown ;  lakes  and  rivers,  a  light 
blue ;  seas,  a  dark  blue,  with  a  little  yellow 
added  ;  roads,  brown ;  hills,  greenish  brown.  In 
addition  to  the  conventional  colors,  a  sort  of 
imitation  of  the  conventional  signs  already  ex- 
plained is  introduced  with  the  brush,  and  shad- 
ows are  almost  invariably  introduced.  Topo- 
graphical drawings  receive  the  light,  the  same 
as  architectural  and  mechanical  drawings,  from 
the  upper  left  hand  corner.  Hills  are  shaded, 
not  as  they  Avould  appear  in  nature,  but  on  the 
conventional  system  of  making  the  slopes  darker 
in  proportion  to  their  steepness,  the  summit  of 
the  highest  ranges  being  left  white.  Topo- 
graphical drawings  embrace  but  a  small  portion 
of  surface,  and  are  therefore  plotted  directly 
from  measures  ;  but  in  geographical  maps,  em- 
bracing at  times  a  great  extent  of  country,  va- 
rious projections  are  made  use  of  to  express  as 
nearly  as  possible  a  spherical  surface  upon  a 
plane.  These  species  of  projection  are  gener- 
ally included  under  the  head  of  mapping,  and 
belong  to  tlie  province  of  geography. 

DRAYTO]Sr,  Michael,  an  English  poet,  born 
in  Ilartshill,  or  Ilarshull,  in  the  parish  of  Ather- 
Bton,  "Warwickshire,  in  15G3,  died  in  1631.  His 
life  is  involved  in  obscurity.  It  is  said  that 
lie  was  the  son  of  a  butclier,  -was  a  page  to  a 
person  of  rank,  was  maintained  for  some  time 
at  Oxford  by  Sir  Henry  Goodere,  held  a  commis- 
sion in  tlie  army,  and  witnessed  the  defeat  of 
the  Spanish  armada;  but  none  of  these  state- 
ments are  well  supported.  In  1626  he  was  poet 
laureate.  He  found  patrons  in  Sir  "Walter  Aston 
and  the  earl  of  Dorset,  but  he  never  became 
wealthy  or  powerful,  though  respected  for  his 
virtues  and  talent.  It  is  not  easy  to  discover  the 
order  of  his  various  poems,  some  of  which  were 
published  without  date.  The  best  known  is  his 
"Poly-olbion,"  a  descriptive  poem  on  England, 
her  legends,  antiquities,  and  productions,  the 
first  18  books  of  which  were  p.ublished  in  1613, 
and  the  whole  30  in  1622.  Among  his  other 
works  are  "  Harmony  of  the  Church,  contain- 
ing the  spiritual  Songs  and  holy  Hymns  of 
godly  Men,  Patriarchs,  and  Prophets"  (4to., 
1591,  only  one  copy  of  which  edition  is  known 
to  exist  ;  and  8vo.,  London,  18-13,  edited  by 
Dyce) ;  "  Idea,  the  Shepherd's  Garland,  and  Ro- 
land's Sacrifice  to  the  Nine  Muses"  (4to.,  1593), 
the  second  of  which  was  reissued  under  the 
title  of  '■  Pastorals  ;"  "  Mortimeriados"  (4to., 
1596),  reprinted  under  the  title  of  the  "  Barons' 
"Wars;"  "England's  Heroical  Epistles"  (8vo., 
1598) ;  the  "  Legend  of  Great  Cromwell"  (4to., 
160Y);  "Battle  of  Agincourt"  (folio,  1627); 
"Muses'  Elysium"  (4to.,  1630);  numerous  le- 
gends, sonnets,  &c.,  mostly  printed  in  collections; 
and  "  Nymphidia,  the  Court  of  Fairy,"  edited 


by  Sir  E.  Brydges  (Kent,  1814).  The  last  is 
one  of  his  most  admirable  productions.  His 
historical  poems  are  dignified,  full  of  fine  de- 
scri[)tions,  and  rich  in  true  poetic  spirit,  and  liis 
"Poly-olbion  "  is  moreover  so  accurate  as  to  be 
quoted  as  authority  by  antiquaries.  Notes  to 
the  first  portion  of  it  were  written  by  Selden. 
He  was  buried  in  "Westminster  abbey,  where  a 
monument  was  erected  to  his  memory.  An  edi- 
tion of  his  works,  with  a  historical  essay  on  his 
life  and  writings,  Avas  published  in  1752-'3  (4 
vols.  8vo.,  London). 

DRAYTON,  William,  LL.D.,  an  Americsn 
judge,  born  in  the  province  of  South  Carolina 
in  1733,  died  in  June,  1790.  He  was  educated 
for  the  bar  in  the  Middle  Temple,  London,  Avhere 
he  studied  4  years.  He  returned  to  America  in 
1754,  and  was  appointed  chief  justice  in  the 
province  of  East  Florida  in  1768.  During  the 
war  of  the  revolution  he  was  suspended  from 
his  office  and  reinstated  in  it,  and  went  with  his 
family  for  a  time  to  England.  After  the  peace 
lie  became  successively  judge  of  the  admiralty 
court  of  South  Carolina,  associate  justice  of  the 
state,  and  a  judge  under  the  federal  government. 

DRAYTON,  "William,  an  American  poli- 
tician, a  native  of  South  Carolina,  died  in  Phila- 
delphia, May  24,  1846.  Though  a  federalist  in 
1812,  he  held  a  commission  in  the  army  after 
the  declaration  of  war.  He  was  a  representative 
in  congress  from  South  Carolina  from  1825  to 
1833,  and  in  1830  was  a  leader  of  the  union 
party  in  opposition  to  that  of  nullification.  He 
resided  in  Philadelphia  many  years  prior  to  his 
death,  and  in  1839  succeeded  Nicholas  Biddle 
as  president  of  the  U.  S.  bank,  the  affairs  of 
which  he  found  it  impossible  to  retrieve. 

DRAYTON,  "William  Henry,  an  American 
statesman  of  the  period  of  the  revolution,  born 
at  Drayton  hall,  on  Ashley  river,  S.  C,  in  Sept. 
1742,  died  in  Philadelpbia"in  Sept.  1779.  He  be- 
longed to  an  influential  family  of  South  Carolina, 
and  was  educated  in  England  at  "Westminster 
school,  and  at  Baliol  college,  Oxford.  Return- 
ing to  America  in  1764,  he  became  an  active 
writer  on  political  affairs.  In  1769  he  published 
letters  on  the  side  of  the  government,  which 
brought  him  into  controversy  with  Christo- 
pher Gadsden  and  other  patriotic  leaders.  In 
1771,  after  revisiting  England,  he  was  appointed 
privy  councillor  for  the  province  of  South  Caro- 
lina; but  as  the  revolutionary  crisis  approached 
he  espoused  the  popular  cause,  and  protested 
against  the  proceedings  of  his  colleagues.  la 
1774  he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  province, 
and  when  the  continental  congress  was  about  to 
sit  he  published  a  pamphlet  under  the  signature 
of  "  A  Freeman,"  which  substantially  marked 
out  the  line  of  conduct  pursued  by  the  congress. 
Suspended  from  his  offices  under  the  crown,  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  popular  committee 
of  safety,  and  Avas  prominent  in  advising  the 
seizure  of  the  provincial  arsenals  and  British 
mails.  In  1775  he  was  president  of  the  pro- 
vincial congress,  and  in  1776  was  elected  chief 
justice  of  South  Carolina.     He  soon  after  de- 


DREAM 


015 


livcred  an  energetic  charge  to  the  grand  jury  on 
the  question  of  indepeiulence,  wliich  was  i)ul>- 
lislied  tbrougliout  tlic  colouius  and  liad  great 
influence,  llo  liad  produced  several  otlier  po- 
litical charges  and  paiiij)hlets,  when  in  1778  ho 
was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  continental  con- 
gress, of  whicli  he  was  a  prominent  member  till 
his  death.  He  left  a  minute  narrative  of  tlie 
preliminary  and  current  events  of  the  revolu- 
tion, whieli  was  prepared  for  the  ])ress  and  i)ub- 
lished  by  his  son,  (Jov.  John  Drayton  (2  vols. 
8vo.,  Charleston,  1821). 

DllEAM,  the  series  of  thoughts  which,  occu- 
py tlie  mind  during  sleep.  The  whole  animal 
kingdom  is  characterized  in  its  sensuous  rela- 
tions with  the  external  world  by  two  distinct, 
and,  so  far  as  the  organs  involving  these  rela- 
tions are  concerned,  opposite  conditions,  the  one 
of  wakefulness,  and  the  other  of  sleep.  Within 
certain  limits  this  alternation  of  action  and  re- 
pose presents  itself  as  a  general  law  of  animal 
organization,  more  or  less  varied,  according  to 
the  simpleness  or  complexity  of  the  functions 
involved ;  and  hence  it  is  found  that  the  quantity 
and  regularity  of  sleep  bear  a  close  relation  to 
the  degree  of  development  of  animal  life.  To 
those  vertebrata  in  which  the  muscular  and 
nervous  tissues  exist  in  their  most  complete  con- 
ditions, sleep  is  much  more  important  than  to 
those  types  of  organic  existence  which,  while  en- 
dowed with  some  of  the  functions  of  animal  or- 
ganization, are  for  the  most  part  devoted  to  the 
simple  process  of  assimilation.  Indeed,  a  point 
is  at  last  reached  where  no  evidence  of  the  phe- 
nomenon of  sleep  is  presented.  In  man,  in 
whom  the  voluntary  and  involuntary  functions 
exist  in  their  most  complete  development,  and 
in  Avhom  their  operations  are  complicated  by  the 
addition  of  those  of  the  intellect,  the  periods  of 
Avaking  and  repose  are  most  fully  marked,  and 
their  presence  most  important  to  the  welfare  of 
tlie  individual.  In  sleep,  the  organs  of  sense, 
the  power  of  voluntary  motion,  and  the  active 
powers  of  the  mind  suspend  in  a  great  degree 
their  operation,  in  order  to  collect  by  rest  new 
strength.  The  approach  of  sleep  is  announced 
by  diminished  activity  of  mind  and  loss  of  the 
power  of  attention.  The  senses  become  blunted 
to  external  impressions,  and  we  feel  an  imcon- 
querable  desire  for  stillness  and  repose.  Our 
ideas  grow  confused,  our  sensations  obscure, 
our  sight  fails,  hearing  grows  dull  and  uncer- 
tain, the  eyelids  close,  the  joints  relax,  and  the 
body  instinctively  assumes  an  easy  position. 
The  vital  activity,  however,  is  in  full  vigor ;  the 
functions  of  the  heart  and  the  lungs,  breathing 
and  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  continue,  but 
are  more  calm  and  equable  than  during  the 
waking  season  ;  the  nutrition  of  tlie  system,  the 
secretion  and  absorption  of  the  juices,  are  also 
carried  on  undisturbedly  and  perfectly.  Hence 
sleep  is  not  really  a  state  of  total  inactivity,  and 
only  bears  a  very  partial  resemblance  to  death. 
A  person  awaking  from  profound  sleep  finds 
himself  refreshed,  and  his  bodily  and  intellect- 
aal  functions  restored  to  their  usual  vigor.    If 


the  sleep,  however,  he  partial  and  disturbed, 
these  results  do  not  follow,  but  the  waking 
state  is  accoin[)anied  by  a  sense  of  lassitude 
and  fatigue.  It  is  in  this  latter  condition  that 
dreams  take  jdace,  and  hence  Dugald  Stewart 
has  properly  defined  dreaming  to  be  that  con- 
dition of  sleep  in  which  we  have  nearly  or 
quite  lost  all  volition  over  the  bodily  organs, 
but  in  which  those  mental  powers  necessary 
for  volition  retain  a  partial  degree  of  activity. 
M.  Perquin  observed  in  the  hospital  of  Mont- 
pellier  in  1821  a  case  which  throws  consid- 
erable light  upon  the  actual  condition  of  tho 
brain  in  profound  sleep,  and  in  that  in  which 
dreams  occur.  A  female  aged  2G  had  lost  a 
])ortion  of  her  scalp,  skull  bone,  and  dura  ma- 
ter, under  an  attack  of  malignant  disease,  by 
means  of  which  a  portion  of  the  brain  was  ex- 
posed in  such  a  manner  as  admitted  of  inspec- 
tion. When  this  patient  was  in  a  dreamless 
state,  or  in  profound  sleep,  her  brain  was  mo- 
tionless, and  lay  within  the  cranium.  When 
the  sleep  Avas  imperfect,  and  the  mind  was  agi- 
tated by  dreams,  her  brain  moved  and  protrud- 
ed from  the  cranium,  forming  a  cerebral  her- 
nia. This  protriVsion  Avas  still  greater  whenever 
the  dreams,  as  reported  by  herself,  Avere  most 
actii'e,  and  Avhen  she  Avas  perfectly  aAvake,  es- 
pecially if  engaged  in  active  or  sprightly  con- 
versation, it  attained  its  fullest  development ; 
nor  did  this  protrusion  occur  in  jerks,  alternat- 
ing Avitli  recessions,  as  if  caused  by  arterial 
blood,  but  remained  permanent  Avhile  the  con- 
versation continued.  It  is  clearly  shoAvn  by  this 
case,  so  far  as  the  appearance  of  the  brain  is  con- 
cerned, that  during  profound  sleep  the  active 
state  of  the  mental  faculty  ceases,  but  that,  in  that 
condition  in  which  dreams  occur,  some  of  the 
mental  poAvers  are  sufficiently  active  to  excite  a 
motion  in  the  cerebral  organs,  less  in  degree  than 
in  a  state  of  full  Avakefulness,  but  more  than  in 
a  condition  of  profound  sleep.  Though  the 
poAver  of  volition  does  not  seem  to  be  altogether 
absent  in  sleep,  the  will  appears  to  lose  its  in- 
fluence oA'er  those  faculties  of  the  mind  and 
members  of  the  body  Avhich  during  our  waking 
hours  are  subject  to  its  authority.  Hence  it 
may  be  inferred  that  all  our  mental  operations 
Avhich  are  independent  of  the  Avill  continue  dur- 
ing sleep.  The  Senses  ma)'  be  considered  as  the 
media  by  means  of  Avhich  the  spirit  Avithin  is 
brought  in  contact  Avith  tlie  external  world,  and 
comes  to  have  a  knoAvledge  of  actual  existence,. 
Although  the  predisposing  causes  of  dreams  may 
be  diverse,  yet  they  are  generally  referable  to 
some  peculiar  condition  of  the  body,  and  are 
often  called  into  action  through  the  agency  of 
the  external  senses.  Dr.  Gregory  relates  that,, 
having  occasion  to  apply  a  bottle  of  hot  Avater  tO' 
his  feet  upon  retiring  for  the  night,  he  dreamed 
that  he  Avas  making  a  journey  to  Mount  Etna, 
and  found  the  heat  insufferable.  Dr.  Eeid,  hav- 
ing had  a  blister  applied  to  his  head,  dreamed 
that  he  Avas  scalped  by  a  party  of  Indians..  M. 
Giron  de  Buzereingues  made  a  series  of  experi- 
ments to  test  hoAV  far  he  could  determine,  hbt 


616 


DEEAM 


dreams  at  -vrill  hj  operating  npon  the  mind 
through  tlie  medium  of  tlie  senses.     With  this 
view  he  left  his  knees  uncovered   on   falling 
asleep,  and  dreamed  that  he  was  travelling  at 
night  in  a  diligence  with  a  vivid  impression  of 
cold  knees  produced  hy  the  rigor  of  the  weather. 
Waller  relates  the  case  of  a  gentleman  who  was 
ever  after  a  victim  to  terror  on  account  of  a 
dream,  which  he  could  never  look  upon  except 
as  a  real  occurrence.     He  was  lying  in  hed,  and 
as  ho  imagined  quite  awake,  when  lie  felt  tlie 
distinct  impression  of  a  hand  placed  upon  his 
shoulder,  which  produced  such  a  state  of  alarm 
that  he  durst  not  move  in  bed.     The  shoulder 
which  had  experienced  the  imi)ression  had  been 
uncovered,  and  the  cold  to  which  it  was  exposed 
produced  the  sensation.     Persons  in  whom  one 
of  the  senses  is  defective  frequently  have  their 
dreams  modified  by  this  circumstance.     Darwin 
relates  the  case  of  a  deaf  gentleman  who  in  his 
dreams  always  appeared  to  converse  by  means 
of  the  fingers  or  in  writing.     lie  never  had  the 
impression  of  hearing  speech,  and  for  the  same 
reason  one  who  has  beea  blind  from  his  birth 
never  dreams  of  visible  objects.  Sensations  pro- 
duced by  the  condition  of  the  di^stive  apparatus 
have  a  very  marked  influence  on  the  phenom- 
ena   of  dreams.     When  the    functions  of  the 
digestive    organs   are  properly  performed,  the 
dreams,  if  affected  at  ail  from  this  cause,  are 
pleasant  in  tlieir  character ;  if  however  there  ex- 
ists any  disturbance  in  tins  part  of  the  system, 
the  dreams  are  apt  to  assume  a  painful  charac- 
ter,  usually  proportioned  in   intensity  to   the 
amount  of  disturbance  of  the  alimentary  canal. 
To  this  class  of  sensations  may  be  referred  those 
dreams  produced  by  the  use  of  opium  and  in- 
toxicating drinks,  which  in  part  at  least  act  by 
the  impression  made  upon  the  digestive  organs. 
Dreams  induced  by  this  latter  cause  are  remark- 
able for  the  extravagance  of  the  phantasmago- 
ria they  exhibit,  frequently  presenting  shapes  of 
the  most  fugitive  and  fanciful  character.     The 
dreamer  often  seems  endowed  with  such  elasti- 
city that  it  appears  as  if  he  could  easily  mount 
to  and  float  upon  the  clouds  above  him.     Do 
Quincey,  in  the  "  Confessions  of  an  Opium  Eat- 
er," has  portrayed  in  the  most  vivid  manner 
the  effect  of  that  narcotic  in  the  production 
of  dreams.     "  Under  the  connt;cting  feeling  of 
tropical  heat  and  vertical  sunlights  I  brought 
together  all  creatures,  birds,  beasts,  reptiles,  all 
trees  and  plants,  usages  and  appearances,  that 
are  found  in  all  tropical  regions,  and  assembled 
them  together  in  China  and  Ilindostan.     From 
kindred  feelings  I  soon  brought  Egypt  and  all 
her  gods  under  the  same  law.     I  was  stared  at, 
hooted  at,  grinned  at,  chattered  at  by  monkeys, 
by  parroquets,  by  cockatoos.     I  ran  into  pago- 
'das,  and  was  fixed  for  centuries  at  the  summit 
•  or  in. the  secret  rooms.     I  was  the  idol,  I  was 
'the;  priest.     I  was  worshipped,  I  was  sacrificed. 
I  U-edfrom  the  wrath  of  Brahma  through  all  the 
*    forests  of  Asia.     Vishnu  hated  me,  Seevalay  in 
t  waitforme.  I  came  suddenly  upon  Isis  and  Osiris. 
:l;l)iad  done  a  deed,  they  said,  at  which  the  ibis 


and  the  crocodile  trembled.  I  was  buried  for 
l.OoO  years  in  stone  coffins  with  mummies  and 
siihinxes,  in  narrow  chambers  at  the  heart  of 
eternal  jjyramids.  I  was  kissed  with  cancerous 
kisses  by  crocodiles,  and  lay  confounded  Avith  un- 
utterable slimy  things  among  reeds  and  Nilotic 
mud."  In  these  hallucinations  it  will  be  observed 
how  completely  all  ordinary  ideas  of  time  and 
space  are  annihilated.  Indeed,  De  Quincey,  in 
noticing  this  curious  psychological  phenomenon, 
says:  "The  sense  of  space,  and  in  the  end  the 
sense  of  time,  Avere  both  powerfully  affected. 
Buildings,  landscapes,  &c.,  were  exhibited  in  pro- 
portions so  vast  as  the  bodily  eye  is  not  fitted  to 
receive.  Space  swelled  and  was  amplified  to  aa 
extent  of  unutterable  infinity.  This,  however, 
did  not  disturb  me  so  much  as  the  expansion  of 
time.  I  sometimes  seemed  to  have  lived  for 
YO  or  100  years  in  a  single  night."  Kor  does 
it  require  the  aid  of  a  narcotic  as  powerful  as 
opium,  or  indeed  any  thing  beyond  what  ordi- 
narily occurs  in  a  state  of  dreaming,  to  create 
ideas  of  time  and  space  apparently  as  incongru- 
ous as  those  narrated  by  the  opium  eater.  The 
sleeper  who  is  suddenly  awakened  by  a  loud 
rap  does  not  begin  and  terminate  his  dream 
with  this  simple  occurrence,  but  experiences  a 
long  train  of  events  requiring  hours  and  even 
days  for  their  fulfilment,  and  which  are  all  evi- 
dently occasioned  by  the  sound  which  awakens 
him,  and  concentrated  within  the  brief  space 
of  time  it  occupies.  A  person  who  was  sud- 
denly aroused  from  sleep  by  a  few  drops  of 
water  sprinkled  in  his  face,  dreamed  of  the 
events  of  an  entire  life  in  Avhich  happiness  and 
sorrow  were  mingled,  and  which  finally  termi- 
nated with  an  altercation  upon  the  borders  of  an 
extensive  lake,  into  which  his  exasperated  com- 
panion, after  a  considerable  struggle,  succeeded 
in  plunging  him.  It  is  evident  that  the  associa- 
tion of  ideas  in  this  case  which  produced  the 
lake,  the  altercation,  and  the  sudden  plunge, 
was  occasioned  by  the  water  sprinkled  upon  the 
face,  and  the  presumption  is  probable  that  the 
whole  machinery  of  an  entire  life  was  due  to 
the  same  cause.  Dr.  Abercrombie  relates  a 
similar  case  of  a  gentleman  who  dreamed  that 
he  had  enlisted  as  a  soldier,  joined  his  regiment, 
deserted,  was  apprehended,  carried  back,  tried, 
condemned  to  be  shot,  and  was  at  last  led  out 
to  execution.  After  the  usual  preparations  a 
gun  Avas  fired,  and  he  awoke  with  the  report  to 
discover  that  the  cause  of  his  disturbance  was 
a  noise  in  the  adjacent  room.  Dreams  are  often 
produced  by  the  waking  associations  which 
precede  them  ;  thus  the  Avriter  had  occasion 
to  send  a  letter  to  a  relative  in  a  neighboring 
city,  and  upon  retiring  to  rest  dreamed  that 
he  was  walking  in  the  principal  thoroughfare 
of  the  city  where  his  correspondent  resided, 
and  accidentally  meeting  him,  held  a  long  con- 
versation, upon  subjects,  however,  in  no  way 
connected  with  the  one  which  gave  rise  to  tho 
correspondence.  So,  too,  dreams  may  be  char-  • 
acteristic  of  the  peculiar  idiosyncrasies  of  the 
dreamers:    a  miser  will  dream  cf  his  gold,  a 


DREAM 


617 


pbilosoplicr  of  science,  a  merchant  of  his  ven- 
tures, the  musician  of  melody,  and  tlie  lover  of 
his  mistress.  Tartinia,  a  distinguished  violin 
player,  is  said  to  have  composed  his  "Devil's 
Sonata"  under  the  inspiration  of  a  dream,  in 
which  the  devil  appeared  to  him  and  invited 
him  to  a  trial  of  skill  upon  his  own  instrument, 
which  he  accepted,  and  awoke  with  the  nmsic 
of  tho  sonata  so  vividly  impressed  upon  his 
mind  that  he  had  no  difficulty  in  committing 
it  to  paper.  In  like  manner  Coleridge  com- 
posed his  poem  "Kuhla  Khan  "  in  a  dream,  of 
which  the  following  is  his  account:  '"In  tho 
summer  of  1797  tlie  author,  then  in  ill  health, 
liad  retired  to  a  lonely  farm  house  between 
Porlock  and  Linton,  on  the  Exmoor  confines  of 
Somerset  and  Devonshire.  In  consequence  of 
a  sliglit  indisposition  an  anodyne  had  been  pre- 
scribed, from  tlie  effects  of  which  he  fell  asleep 
in  his  chair  at  the  moment  he  was  reading  the 
following  sentence,  or  words  of  the  same  sub- 
stance, in  Purchas's 'Pilgrimage' :  'Here  the 
Khan  Kubla  commanded  a  palace  to  be  built 
and  a  stately  garden  thereunto,  and  thus  10 
miles  of  fertile  ground  were  enclosed  within  a 
wall.'"  Coleridge  continued  for  about  3  hours 
apparently  in  a  profound  sleep,  during  wliich  ho 
had  tbe  most  vivid  impression  tliat  he  had  com- 
posed between  200  and  300  lines.  On  awaking 
he  had  so  distinct  a  remembrance  of  the  whole 
that  he  seized  his  pen  and  wrote  down  the  lines 
which  are  still  preserved.  Unfortunately,  at 
this  moment  he  was  called  out  of  the  room  to 
attend  to  some  business  which  occupied  more 
than  an  hour.  Upon  his  return  he  found  to  his 
surprise  and  chagrin  that,  although  some  vague 
idea  of  the  vision  was  still  present,  yet,  with 
the  exception  of  some  8  or  10  scattered  and 
fragmentary  lines  and  images,  the  whole  had 
been  obliterated  from  his  memory.  Instances 
like  the  above  occasionally  occur  Avhere  tlie 
mind  in  a  state  of  waking  is  aided  by  the  pro- 
cesses carried  on  during  sleep,  but  these  are  rare. 
As  a  general  rule  dreams  are  wanting  in  coher- 
ence and  unsubstantial  in  reasoning.  Nothing 
is  more  common  than  for  the  mind  in  dreams 
to  blend  together  objects  and  events  which 
could  not  have  an  associated  existence  in  reality. 
The  faces  of  friends  long  since  dead  and  events 
long  since  past  rise  before  the.  mind  with  all  tba 
vividness  of  real  existence,  and  fail  to  excite 
surprise  by  their  incongruity  because  the  mind 
views  them  without  the  association  of  ideas 
■which  in  a  waking  state  would  place  them  at 
such  a  distance  i'vom  the  present  that  no  cog- 
nizance could  be  taken  of  them  except  as  very 
remote  events.  It  is  the  absence  of  these  asso- 
ciated ideas,  which  in  a  state  of  wakefulness  fix 
the  Umits  as  to  time  and  space  of  each  fact  of 
■which  the  mind  has  a  knowledge,  that  prevents 
any  surprise  at  the  occurrence  of  unusual  events 
in  dreams,  and  constitutes  one  of  their  most  re- 
markable features.  The  popular  belief  that  in 
dreams  an  insight  is  frequently  given  of  coming 
events  is  shared  by  many  well-informed  persons, 
and  is  supposed  to  be  corroborated  by  many  re- 


markable cases  ;  from  among  them  the  follow- 
ing is  selected.  Mr.  D.,  residing  in  Edinburgh, 
informed  his  aunt  one  evening  of  his  intention 
to  join  a  sailing  party  the  next  morning  upon 
the  firth  of  Forth.  The  lady  retired  to  rest  and 
dreamed  repeatedly  of  .seeing  a  boat  sink  and 
those  on  board  drowning.  "Wlicn  wakened  sho 
went  to  the  bedside  of  her  nephew,  and  with 
great  difliculty  obtained  his  promise  to  remain  at 
home.  In  the  afternoon  a  violent  storm  arose, 
the  boat  was  u[)set,  and  all  that  -were  in  it  went 
to  the  bottom.- — The  earliest  mention  of  dreams 
is  in  the  Scriptures  and  in  the  i)oems  of  Homer, 
in  both  of  which  a  supernatural  origin  is  gen- 
erally ascribed  to  them.  By  the  ancients,  in- 
deed, dreams  were  almost  universally  regarded 
as  coming  from  the  otlier  w(n-ld,  and  from  both 
good  and  evil  sources.  A  great  number  of  in- 
stances are  on  record  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
classics  of  remarkable  dreams,  Avhicli  show  how 
widely  the  faith  in  the  spiritual  nature  of  dream- 
ing was  disseminated.  The  night  before  the 
assassination  of  Julius  C;esar,  his  wife  Calphur- 
nia  dreamed  tliat  her  husband  fell  bleeding 
across  her  knees.  On  the  night  that  Attila 
died,  the  emperor  Marcian  at  Constantinoijlo 
dreamed  that  he  saw  the  bow  of  the  Ilunnish 
conqueror  broken  asunder.  Cicero  relates  a 
story  of  two  Arcadians,  who,  travelling  together, 
arrived  at  Megara  and  went  to  separate  lodg- 
ings, one  of  them  to  an  inn,  the  other  to  a 
private  house.  In  the  course  of  the  night  the 
latter  dreamed  that  his  friend  appeared  to  him 
and  begged  for  help  because  the  innkeeper  was 
preparing  to  murder  him.  Tiie  dreamer  awoke, 
but  not  considering  the  matter  worthy  of  atten- 
tion, went  to  sleep  again.  A  second  time  his 
friend  appeared,  telling  him  that  assistance 
would  be  too  late,  for  the  murder  had  already 
been  committed.  The  murdered  person  also 
stated  that  his  body  had  been  put  into  a  cart 
and  covered  with  manure,  and  that  an  attempt 
would  be  made  to  take  it  out  of  the  city  the 
next  morning.  The  dreamer  awoke,  went  to 
the  magistrates,  had  the  cart  searched,  when 
the  body  was  found  and  the  murderer  brought 
to  justice.  Dreams  were  even  allowed  to  in- 
fluence legislation.  During  the  Marsian  war 
(90  B.  C.)  the  Kornan  senate  ordered  the  tem- 
ple of  Juno  Sospita  to  be  rebuilt  in  consequence 
of  a  dream  of  Cecelia  Metella,  the  wife  of  the 
consul  Appius  Claudius  Pulcher.  Some  of  tho 
fathers  of  tlie  Christian  church  attached  con- 
siderable importance  to  dreams.  Tertulliau 
thought  they  came  from  God  as  one  species  of 
prophecy,  though  many  dreams  may  be  attrib- 
uted to  the  agency  of  demons.  lie  believed 
that  future  honors  and  dignities,  medical  reme- 
dies, thefts,  and  treasures  had  been  occasion- 
ally revealed  by  dreams.  St.  Augustine  relates 
a  dream  by  which  Gennadius,  a  Carthaginian 
physician,  was  convinced  of  the  immortality  of 
tho  soul,  by  the  apparition  to  him  in  his  sleep 
of  a  young  man,  who  reasoned  with  him  on 
the  subject,  and  argued  that  as  he  could  see 
when  his  bodily  eyes  wei'e  closed  in  sleep,  so 


618 


DREBBEL 


DREDGING 


lie  would  find  that  Avhcn  his  hodily  senses  were 
extinct  iu  death  he  would  see  and  hear  and 
feel  with  the  senses  of  his  spirit. 

DREBBEL,  Corxelis  van,  a  Dutch  philoso- 
pher and  inventor,  born  in  Alkniaar  in  North 
Holland  in  1572,  died  in  London  in  1634.  His 
inventive  faculty  raised  him  from  a  peasant  boy 
to  the  favor  of  tlie  emperors  Rudolph  IL  and  Fer- 
dinand IL,  and  of  James  L  of  England.  lie  lived 
in  London  from  the  year  1620,  devoted  entirely 
to  scientific  labors.  Numerous  marvels  are  re- 
lated of  him,  but  it  is  only  certain  that  he  pos- 
sessed extraordinary  knowledge  of  the  jjrinciples 
of  optics  and  mechanics.  lie  invented  several 
philosophical  instruments,  among  which,  it  is 
said,  were  the  compound  microscope  and  a  ther- 
mometer consisting  of  a  glass  tube  containing 
water  connected  with  a  bulb  containing  air.  His 
contemporai'ies  say  that  he  displayed  to  King 
James  a  glass  globe  in  which  by  means  of  the 
4  elements  lie  had  produced  perpetual  motion, 
and  that  by  means  of  machinery  he  imitated 
rain,  thunder,  lightning,  and  cold,  and  w\as  able 
quickly  to  exhaust  a  river  or  lake.  He  discov- 
ered a  bright  scarlet  dye  for  woollens  and  silks, 
which  was  introduced  into  France  by  the  found- 
ers of  the  Gobelin  manufactures;  and  the  inven- 
tion of  the  telescope  has  been  ascribed  to  him, 
hut  On  «o  good  grounds.  Drebbel  left  2  treatises 
which  appeared  first  in  Dutch  (Leyden,  1608); 
afterward  in  Latin,  under  the  title  Tractatus 
duo:  Be  Natura  Elcmentorum ;  Be  Qiiinta 
Essentia  (Hamburg,  1621)  ;  and  again  iii  French 
(Paris,  1673). 

DREDGING,  the  process  of  deepening  har- 
bors and  channels  by  excavating  the  sediment 
that  collects  in  them  ;  the  term  is  also  applied 
to  the  scooping  up  of  oysters,  or  any  thing  else, 
from  the  bottom.  The  foi'ce  of  running  water 
has  sometimes  been  ajiplied  to  wash  out  the  sed- 
iment by  which  channels  become  choked  ;  and 
to  render  this  more  efficient,  the  drainage  waters 
and  even  the  ebb  tide  have,  in  places  adapted 
for  this  operation,  been  held  back  by  floodgates, 
and  the  waters  at  last  let  out  have  rushed  with 
great  violence  through  the  channels,  sweeping 
forward  the  materials  that  obstructed  them.  This 
is  the  principle  of  flashing  or  flushing  applied  to 
sewers,  &c.,  and  is  without  question  the  most 
efficient  mode  of  dredging  in  the  few  situations 
favorably  formed  for  its  application.  In  the 
artificial  improvements  introduced  into  some  of 
the  harbors  in  England,  scouring  basins  have 
been  constructed  especially  for  this  purpose,  as 
for  instance  at  Ramsgate,  Dover,  &c.  To  loosen 
the  sediments,  so  that  they  might  be  more  easily 
swept  out  by  the  tide  or  by  sluices,  the  Dutch 
long  since  contrived  a  floating  frame  to  which 
bars  were  attached,  that  Avent  down  to  tho  bot- 
tom and  stirred  up  tho  mud,  as  the  machine 
moved  along  with  the  current.  These  are  per- 
haps the  oldest  dredging  machines.  Variously 
formed  scoops  have  been  iu  use  in  ditferent 
places,  which  as  tliey  are  drawn  over  the  bottom 
rake  up  the  sediment  as  with  a  hoe,  and  gather 
it  in  the  hollow  part  of  the  scoop  or  in  a  bag  of 


leather  attached  to  the  instrument,  from  which 
it  is  discharged  when  the  whole  is  hoisted  to 
the  surface  by  the  rope  attached  to  the  scoop. 
The  apparatus  is  made  more  efficient  by  being 
constructed  of  large  size  and  worked  by  a  steam 
engine.  A  hull  is  then  provided  for  the  ma- 
chinery, and  a  scow  is  employed  alongside  to 
receive  the  mud  as  it  is  raised  and  dumped. 
Instead  of  the  single  large  scoop,  a  line  of  buck- 
ets has  been  substituted,  working  around  pulleys 
at  the  ends  of  a  long  frame,  which  lies  over  the 
side  of  the  hull,  and  one  end  of  which  can  be 
lowered  down  to  the  bottom  or  hoisted  up 
when  not  in  use.  The  buckets,  as  they  pass 
down  empty,  suspended  on  the  chain,  scoop 
into  the  bottom  and  become  filled,  and,  coming 
up  on  the  upper  side  of  the  frame,  discharge 
themselves  as  they  turn  over  its  higher  ex- 
tremity. The  mud  falls  into  troughs,  which 
convey  it  into  the  scow  alongside.  As  the  chan- 
nel is  deepened,  the  lower  end  of  the  frame  is 
let  down  accordingly ;  or  if  any  obstruction 
impedes  the  motion  of  the  buckets,  this  end  of 
the  frame  is  lifted  by  the  pulley,  till  the  chain 
moves  on  again.  The  machine  has  been  made 
with  a  frame  on  each  side  of  the  hull,  and 
both  kept  in  operation  together. — In  another 
dredging  machine  the  excavator  is  a  wheel  about 
24  feet  in  diameter,  very  strongly  braced  with 
many  arms,  and  set  in  a  well  hole  about  3  feet 
wide  and  26  feet  long  across  the  forward  part 
of  the  hull.  It  works  in  boxes  which  can  be 
raised  or  lowered  by  chains  and  wiqdlass  as  tho 
depth  of  water  requires.  Upon  its  periphery  are 
the  scooping  buckets,  which  are  provided  with 
a  hinged  bottom  secured  by  a  latch.  As  each 
bucket  in  the  revolution  of  the  wheel  approaches 
the  top,  it  lifts  the  upper  end  of  a  small  discharge 
trough,  which  fiiUing  back  causes  the  bottom  of 
the  bucket  to  be  unlatched  and  its  contents  to 
drop  out.  These  are  received  by  the  small 
trough,  and  immediately  pass  through  it  into 
the  larger  one  that  conveys  them  to  the  scow. 
The  hull  is  drawn  forwai-d  by  the  steam  engine 
at  the  precise  rate  required  by  the  progress  of  the 
excavation.  It  is  stated  that  1,200  cubic  yards 
of  gravel  bottom  have  been  dug  in  a  day  with 
a  24-foot  wheel  provided  with  4  buckets. — 
Dredging  for  oysters,  &c.,  is  performed  with  an 
iron  rake  or  scoop  at  the  end  of  a  long  pole,  and 
furnished  also  with  a  rope  by  which  it  is  drawn 
forward.  One  man  pushes  the  dredge  down 
by  the  pole,  and  another  draws  it  along  the 
bottom  and  raises  it  into  the  boat  Avith  what  it 
has  gathered.  For  deep  water  the  handle  is 
dispensed  witli,  and  the  dredge  is  made  like  a 
basket  of  iron  rods,  so  shaped  as  to  fill  itself 
when  dragged  upon  the  bottom.  Naturalists 
make  use  of  dredges  of  much  better  construction 
for  collecting  specimens  of  shellfish,  &c.,  from 
tlie  bottom  of  the  sea.  A  figure  of  a  small  one 
is  given  by  Woodward  in  his  "  Manual  of  the 
Mollusca,"  which  is  highly  recommended  for 
general  use.  It  is  a  sort  of  box  of  2  strips  of 
boiler  plate  iron  2  feet  long  and  each  2  inches 
wide,  fastened  at  their  ends  to  2  iron  rods  of 


DRELINCOURT 


DRESDEN 


619 


about  I  inch  (Tiaineter  and  8  inches  long.  Each 
end  of  the  rods  is  bent  over  at  an  angle  of  145°, 
and  drawn  out  to  a  point.  Tlie  sides  phiced  upon 
these  consequently  Hare  outward,  their  lower 
edges  coming  within  4  inches  of  each  otlier. 
These  edges  are  pierced  with  holes  by  which 
the  bag  is  attached  in  whicli  the  materials  are 
gathered  up.  The  part  of  this  bag  in  contact 
witli  the  dredge  is  u  network  of  cud  line  ;  the 
remainder  is  of  raw  hide.  The  net  is  to  al- 
low the  escape  of  the  water.  The  handles  are 
forked  iron  rods,  the  double  ends  securely 
hooked  round  tlio  rods  that  form  tlie  ends  of 
the  machine,  and  the  single  ends  provided  with 
rings,  meeting  in  the  centre  of  the  box  as 
they  are  folded  down  when  not  in  use.  The 
rings  are  for  attacliing  the  towing  line  to  the 
dredge.  With  machines  of  similar  construc- 
tion, but  much  larger  than  the  one  described, 
the  bottom  of  the  sea  has  been  extensively  ex- 
plored by  English  naturalists  off  the  coasts  of 
Great  liritain  and  Norway.  In  dredging  on 
coral  ground,  Mr.  Cuming,  according  to  Wood- 
ward, employed  a  3-inch  hawser,  and  had  a 
patent  buoy  attached  to  the  dredge  by  a  IJ-inch 
rope.  Whenever  the  hawser  parts,  the  buoy 
and  smaller  rope  secure  the  recovery  of  the 
dredge.  In  water  of  50  to  300  fathoms  the 
dredging  can  be  done  only  in  moderate  weather. 
As  the  vessel  lies  to,  the  dredge  is  thrown  over 
to  windward  and  is  dragged  along  as  she  drifts 
off,  spare  line  being  given  out  as  necessary.  It 
is  hauled  up  by  block  and  tackle,  or  if  it  get 
foul,  the  rope  is  passed  into  the  boat,  which  is 
run  out  over  the  dredge  and  trips  it.  The  con- 
tents of  the  dredge  are  washed  and  sifted  with 
2  copper  wire  sieves,  one  "  ^  inch,"  the  other 
very  fine.  The  sediments  of  the  fine  sieve  are 
kept  for  examination  for  minute  shells.  Prof. 
Edward  Forbes  prepared  a  form  of  "  dredging 
papers,"  which  are  employed  for  recording  the 
names  and  number  of  species  obtained,  the 
depth,  locality,  nature  of  the  bottom  (ground), 
and  whether  the  specimens  are  living  or  dead. 
The  latter  are  often  found  in  deeper  waters  than 
the  living  individuals.  The  following  directions 
are  given  for  treating  the  shellfish  obtained  by 
dredging.  They  should  be  at  once  boiled,  and 
the  animal  removed  unless  wanted  for  examina- 
tion. The  bivalves  gape,  and  require  to  be  tied 
with  cotton;  the  opercula  of  the  univalves 
should  be  secured  in  their  apertures  with  wool. 
The  small  univalves  may  be  put  up  in  spirit  or 
glycerine  to  save  time.  In  warm  climates  flies 
and  ants  assist  in  removing  the  animal  matter 
from  the  spiral  shells.  Chloride  of  lime  may 
be  employed  to  deodorize  them.  Full  instruc- 
tions for  collecting  and  preserving  shells  may 
be  found  in  the  Journal  de  conchijUologiG  for 
1850,  p.  215,  and  1851,  pp.  182,  226. 

DRELINCOURT,  CnARLES,  a  French  Prot- 
estant divine,  born  in  Sedan,  July  10,  1595, 
died  in  Paris,  Nov.  3,  1669.  He  pursued  his 
studies  in  his  native  town  and  in  Saumur, 
preached  for  2  years  near  Langres,  and  in  1620 
became  pastor  at  Charenton,  near  Paris.     He 


soon  distinguished  himself  as  a  preacher,  be- 
ing one  of  the  first  of  the  reformed  ministry 
who  treated  their  texts  in  a  practical  light,  in- 
stead of  discussing  them  in  the  doctrinal  and 
absti-act  way  jn-oper  to  a  theological  seminary. 
Some  of  his  writings,  especially  his  book  of 
"  Consolations  against  the  Fear  of  Death,"  which 
has  been  translated  into  Englisli  and  German, 
are  still  in  use  as  books  of  devotion.  It  wais  to 
promote  the  sale  of  the  English  translation  of 
this  work  that  Do  Foe  wrote  his  celebrated  fic- 
titious account  of  the  apparition  of  Mrs.  Veal, 
who  came  from  the  other  world  on  purpose  to 
recommend  the  perusal  of  "  Drelincourt  on 
Death." 

DRENTIIE,  the  poorest  and  least  populous 
province  of  the  Netherlands,  bounded  E.  by 
Hanover,  N.  by  Groningen,  W.  by  Friesland, 
and  S.  by  Overyssel ;  area,  1,029  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1858,  94,080.  A  considerable  part  of  the 
province  is  occupied  with  marshes,  heaths,  and 
sand  banks,  but  it  yields  in  sufficient  quantities 
buckwheat  and  potatoes,  upon  which  the  inhab- 
itants subsist  almost  exclusively.  The  chief 
wealth  of  Drenthe  consists  in  its  horses,  cattle, 
sheep,  and  poultry,  all  of  which  are  esteemed 
of  superior  quality.  It  has  manufactories  of 
woollen  fabrics,  and  its  trade  is  facilitated  by  a 
canal  from  Assen  to  the  Zuyder  Zee.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Vecht,  Hunse,  and  Aa.  The 
chief  places  are  Assen,  the  capital  (pop.  about 
2,500),  Meppel  (pop.  6,500),  and  Coevorden 
(pop.  2.500). 

DRESDEN,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Sax- 
ony and  of  a  circle  of  its  own  name,  situated  ou 
both  banks  of  the  Elbe,  in  a  fertile  valley,  noted 
as  the  richest  wine  district  of  Saxony,  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  a  picturesque  country  celebrated 
under  the  name  of  the  Saxon  Switzerland ;  lat. 
51°  6'  N.,  long.  13°  44'  E. ;  116  m.  by  railway 
S.  E.  from  Berlin,  and  72  m.  E.  from  Leipsic; 
pop.  of  the  circle  in  1855,  535,531,  of  whom 
525,202  were  Lutherans;  of  the  city,  including 
the  garrison,  108,732.  Steamboats  bere  navi- 
gate the  Elbe,  and  5  railways  connect  the  city 
with  Berlin,  Leipsic,  Breslau,  Prague,  and  Tha- 
randt — the  last  to  be  continued  to  Freiberg. 
Dresden  seems  to  have  been  originally  a  vil- 
lage of  Wendish  fishermen,  and  nearly  500 
Wends  still  form  a  part  of  the  population.  As 
early  as  1216  it  was  mentioned  as  a  city,  and 
in  1539,  when  Henry  the  Pious  introduced  the 
reformed  religion,  it  had  already  passed  through 
many  vicissitudes,  of  which  the  great  fire  of 
1491  was  the  most  disastrous.  After  the  fire  a 
new  town  arose,  which  was  fortified  by  George 
the  Bearded  in  1520-'28,  and  by  Maurice  the 
Elector  in  1545,  and  embellished  by  all  suc- 
ceeding sovereigns,  especially  by  Augustus  II. 
and  HI.,  kings  of  Poland  and  electors  of  Sax- 
ony, who  formed  the  famous  picture  gallery 
which  is  now  one  of  the  greatest  attractions 
of  the  city.  In  the  17tli  and  18th  centuries, 
especially  during  the  7  years'  war,  the  city  was 
afliicted  by  pestilence,  famine,  and  the  worst 
calamities  of  warfare ;  and  it  had  to  undergo  a 


620 


DRESDEN" 


still  more  severe  trial  at  the  beginning  of  tlio 
present  century  as  the  head-quarters  alternately 
of  iSTapoleon  and  of  the  Russian  and  Prussian 
army.  The  memorable  battle  of  Dresden,  in 
■which  Kapoleon  finally  acliieved  a  brilliant  but 
bloody  victory  over  the  allies,  took  place  Aug. 
2rt-27,  1813,  under  the  walls  of  the  town. 
In  1830  we  find  the  city  convulsed  by  a  local 
revolution,  the  people  insisting  upon  municipal 
reform,  which  was  granted  by  the  charter  of 
Sept.  4,  1831.  The  revolution  of  1849  also 
proved  disastrous  to  Dresden.  The  opera  house 
and  a  part  of  the  Zwinger  were  then  burned,  and 
other  damage  wasinflicted  upon  the  town.  From 
all  this,  however,  Dresden  has  since  fully  recov- 
ered. The  whole  aspect  of  the  city  boars  the  im- 
press of  an  ancient  and  thorougli  civilization.  It 
is  surrounded  by  promenades,  pleasure  grounds, 
&c.,  and  consists  of  3  portions :  the  Altstadt,  or 
old  town,  witlx  its  3  suburbs;  the  Friedrichs- 
stadt,  separated  from  the  former  bj'  the  Weisser- 
itz  brook ;  and  the  Neustadt,  or  new  town,  on 
the  right  or  N.  bank  of  the  Elbe,  connected 
with  the  other  divisions  by  2  fine  bridges,  one 
of  which,  420  feet  long,  Avitii  16  arches,  received 
from  Jean  Paul  Richter  the  name  of  "  Dresden's 
triumphal  arch;"  the  other,  the  "bridge  of 
Mary,"  completed  in  1852,  is  crossed  by  the  rail- 
way to  Prague.  There  are  about  20  churches, 
some  of  great  beauty,  as  for  instance,  the  Frau- 
en-Kirche  and  Sophien-Kirche  for  Protestants, 
and  a  church  t\)r  Roman  Catholics  built  after  a 
design  of  Gaetano  Chiaveri,  Avith  a  famous  or- 
gan, 50  statues  of  saints  by  Mattielli,  a  great 
altarpiece  by  Rafael  Mengs,  and  other  works 
of  art.  The  Jews  worship  in  a  magnificent 
synagogue,  and  religious  service  in  the  Wendish 
language  is  held  in  the  Kreuz-Kirche  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Wendish  residents  of  the  city. 
The  educational  institutions  of  Dresden  attract 
many  students  from  foreign  lands.  In  addition 
to  tlie  military  academies,  polytechnic  institute, 
and  medical  institutions,  there  are  14  public 
schools,  with  a  staff  of  about  200  teachers,  in- 
cluding a  gymnasium,  2  ])rimary  schools,  4 
district  schools,  4  local  scliools,  4  free  schools 
for  the  poor,  beside  the  seminaries  connected 
with  religious  denominations,  of  which  the  Prot- 
estants have  over  70.  A  reformatory  institute 
for  children,  or  ragged  school,  was  founded 
in  1828,  whilo  at  the  same  time  a  missionary 
enterprise  to  prevent  crime  among  children 
was  set  on  fout  by  the  Pestalozzi  association 
{Pest'alozzistift).  Foremost  in  beneficent  in- 
fluences among  the  many  charitable  institutions 
of  Dresden  are  the  Frauenverem^  or  associa- 
tion of  ladies ;  the  Verein  fur  Rath  and  That 
(a  society  for  dispensing  advice  and  assistance) ; 
the  Verchi  filr\'i  Lehen  (a  society  for  supplying 
means  of  subsistence),  which  was  founded  in 
1848;  and  the  Suppenhaiis  (soup  house),  estab- 
lished in  1851.  Commercial  and  industrial  ac 
tivity  is  not  great  in  Dresden,  Leipsic  and  the 
manufacturing  districts  almost  monopolizing 
the  trade  of  the  country.  The  capital,  how- 
over,  presents  a  fair  array  of  establishments  in 


various  branches  of  industry,  its  chief  manufac- 
tures being  glass,  porcelain,  earthenware,  mir- 
rors, mathematical  and  musical  instruments, 
jewelry,  gloves,  silks,  laces,  gold  and  silvor 
tliread,  painters'  colors,  white  lead,  soap,  mac- 
curoni,  leather,  carpets,  cotton  goods,  and  straw 
hats.  It  has  also  distilleries,  breweries,  a  sugar 
refinery,  a  bell  founder}',  and  a  bomb  and  cannon 
foundery.  The  growing  trade  in  cereals  called 
for  the  establisliment  of  a  corn  excliange  in 
1850.  The  fine  chinaware  which  takes  its  name 
from  Dresden  is  not  made  here,  but  in  the 
neighboring  town  of  Meissen.  Tlicre  are  3  asso- 
ciations for  the  promotion  of  trade  and  indus- 
try, 5  for  various  branches  of  science,  and  many 
other  educational  and  humanitarian  associations. 
-  About  26  newspapers  and  nifigazines  are  pub- 
lished there.  Beside  tlie  many  musical  associa- 
tions which  have  contributed  powerfully  in  pro- 
moting the  art  and  love  of  music  in  Germany,  the 
city  possesses  a  musical  school  in  the  Catholic  or 
royal  cliurch,  in  which  high  mass  is  celebrated 
every  Sunday,  accompanied  b}'  an  orchestra  from 
the  opera,  led  by  the  first  masters  of  the  art. 
Italian  opera  was  predominant  at  Dresden  until 
1817,  when  the  compositions  of  Weber  and  the 
performances  of  Madame  Schroder-Devrient  in- 
augurated a  new  and  prosperous  era  for  the 
German  opera.  The  Di'esden  theatre  is  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  of  Germany.  The  city  has 
27  public  squares  and  a  great  number  of  splen- 
did monuments.  The  railway  depots  are,  as 
usual  in  Germany,  buildings  of  great  magnifi- 
cence. Dresden  has  many  superb  palaces,  esps- 
cially  the  Briihl  palace,  formerly  belonging  to 
the  minister  of  that  name,  afterward  used  as  a 
residence  by  Napoleon,  and  since  1857  as  that 
of  the  dowager  queen  Marie.  Its  chief  beauty 
lies  in  the  pleasure  ground  on  its  rear,  which  is 
called  Brlihl's  terrace,  and  is  the  most  fashion- 
able and  attractive  public  park  of  Dresden, 
Another  favorite  resort  is  the  park  adjoining 
the  Japanese  palace,  so  called  from  some  orien- 
tal figures  which  adorn  it,  and  occasionally  call- 
ed Angusteum,  in  commemoration  of  Augustus 
II.,  who  originally  laid  it  out.  The  academy  of 
fine  arts  has  been  in  operation  since  1764,  and 
consists  of  3  difierent  sections  and  a  school  for 
architects,  which  was  added  to  it  in  1819.  The 
Japanese  palace  contains  the  museum  of  anti- 
quities, occupying  10  saloons,  a  cabinet  of  coins, 
a  porcelain  cabinet  cuntaining  more  than  60,000 
pieces  of  china,  and  the  public  librarv,  consisting 
of  about  300,000  volumes,  2,800  MSS.,  20,000 
geographical  maps,  182,000  pamphlets,  &c.  Be- 
side this  and  many  private  librai'ies,  there  is  a 
library  of  20,000  volumes  in  the  palace  of  the 
princes,  where  there  is  also  a  cabinet  of  engrav- 
ings, of  porcelains,  and  of  pictures.  The  Zwing- 
er, a  group  of  buildings  surrounding  an  enclosure 
jilanted  with  orange  trees  and  ei-ected  by  Au- 
gustus II.  as  a  vestibule  to  a  new  palace,  con- 
tain the  historical  museum,  formerly  called  the 
armory,  celebrated  for  its  splendid  array  of 
armor,  and  the  cabinet  of  natural  history.  In 
the  same  building  is  a  coUectiou  of  mathemati- 


BPvEUX 


DROGIIEDA 


621 


cfil  and  scientific  in!;tmmcnt=5.  In  the  chapel  of 
the  royal  palace  are  paintiiifrHiby  Keinbrandt,  N". 
Poussin,  A.  Carracci,  and  licni,  while  tlie  throne 
room  is  embellished  ■with  large  fresco  paintings 
by  Bendemann,  Opening  npon  the  yard  of  the 
royal  j)alace  is  the  celebrated  green  vault  {Das 
griiiie  Geicdlhe),  containing  an  iinnicnse  col- 
lection of  precious  stone-J,  pearls,  and  works  of 
art  in  gold,  silver,  aniljcr,  and  ivory,  which  are 
arranged  in  8  apartments,  each  exceeding  the 
previous  one  in  the  richness  of  its  contents. 
Their  value  is  said  to  be  over  $5,000,000.  The 
picture  gallery,  however,  is  the  gem  of  the  city. 
The  present  handsome  red  sandstone  building, 
begun  in  1846  and  opened  in  1855,  forms  one 
side  of  the  Zwinger,  and  contains  over  1,500 
paintings,  among  which  are  Raphael's  "^fadonna 
di  San  Sisto,"  Correggio's  "Night,"  Andrea  del 
Sarto's  "Sacrifice  of  Abraham,"  Leonardo  da 
Vinci's  "Francesco  Sforza,"  5  paintings  of  Ti- 
tian, 14  of  Rubens,  21  of  Vandyke,  and  many 
celebrated  works  of  Italian,  Flemish,  Dutch, 
French,  and  German  masters  of  the  ancient 
and  modern  scliools.  The  best  German  work 
of  art  is  Ilans  Holbein's  "  Virgin,"  and  the  best 
French  are  Claude  Lorraine's  landscapes.  In 
the  same  building  is  tlie  collection  of  plaster 
casts  made  by  Ratael  Mengs  of  statues  of  anti- 
quity, and  of  the  Elgin  marbles  in  the  British 
museum.  Forming  a  supplement  to  the  pic- 
ture gdlery  is  the  collection  of  engravings,  con- 
taining works  of  art  of  the  highest  value.  It 
comprises  about  300,000  plates,  and  is  consid- 
ered the  finest  collection  of  copperplates  in 
Europe.  In  the  2d  story  of  the  Briihl  palace 
are  6  pieces  of  tapestry  executed  after  designs 
by  Raphael,  and  a  collection  of  50  landscapes 
by  Canaletto.  Dresden  is  chiefly  indebted  to 
its  art  treasures  for  the  high  reputation  which 
it  enjoys  at  home  and  abroad,  and  for  the  name 
of  the  "  Florence  of  Germany"  which  was  con- 
ferred upon  it  by  Herder.  (See  Lindau,  Ge- 
achichte  der  Staclt  Dresden^  1857.) 

DREL^X  (anc.  Lurocasis,  or  Diirocasses),  a 
town  of  France,  department  of  Eure-et-Loir,  on 
the  Blaise  near  its  junction  with  the  Eure,  20  m. 
N.  K  W.  from  Chartres;  pop.  in  1856,  6,187.  It 
Las  grain  markets  and  tanneries,  but  little  other 
trading  or  manufacturing  industry.  The  beauti- 
ful chapel  built  to  serve  as  the  mausoleum  of  the 
Orleans  family  occupies  the  site  of  the  church  of 
St.  Stephen,  erected  in  1142,  and  demolished  in 
1793.  Dreux  was  captured  and  burned  by  the 
English  in  1188,  and  again  taken  by  them  in  1424. 
In  1562  the  Catholic  array  of  Charles  IX.  and  the 
Protestants  under  the  prince  of  Conde  fought  in 
its  neighborhood  a  very  bloody  battle,  in  which 
Conde  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner.  Henry 
IV.  of  France  took  it  in  1593  after  an  obstinate 
siege,  since  which  it  has  been  of  less  political 
importance. 

DREW,  a  S.  E.  co.  of  Ark.,  drained  by  Bar- 
tholomew bayou  ;  area,  about  900  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1854,  4,337,  of  whom  1,541  were  slaves.  It 
has  a  nearly  level  surface,  and  a  fertile  soil.  A 
great  part  of  the  land  is  covered  by  forests  of 


cypress,  ash,  &c.  The  staple  productions  are 
cotton,  grain,  sweet  jjotatoes,  and  grass,  and  in 
1854  the  county  yielded  3,731  bales  of  cotton, 
137,970  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  and  12,470  of 
oats.     Capital,  Monticello. 

DREW,  Sami-ei.,  a  Methodist  divine,  born  in 
the  parish  of  St.  Austell,  Cornwall,  England, 
March  3,  1765,  died  March  29,  1833.  At  the 
age  of  10  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker, 
and  while  engaged  in  learning  his  trade  he 
learned  to  read.  One  of  the  first  books  that 
attracted  his  attention  was  Locke's  "  Essay." 
Next  he  read  Franklin's  '^  Way  to  Wealth."  In 
1787  he  commenced  business  on  his  own  account, 
and  made  an  attempt  to  study  astronomy,  but 
was  not  able  to  advance  in  that  science  in  conse- 
quence of  his  ignorance  of  mathematics.  His  at- 
tention was  next  directed  to  the  study  of  natural 
history,  but  not  being  able  to  obtain  the  requisite 
books  he  abandoned  it,  and  resolved  to  devote 
his  attention  to  mental  philosophy.  His  first  pub- 
lication was  an  answer  to  Paine's  "  Age  of  Rea- 
son" (1798),  which  at  once  brought  him  into 
notice.  His  next  work  was  an  "Essay  on  the  Im- 
materiality and  Immortality  of  the  Soul"  (Svo., 
1802),  which  had  passed  through  8  editions  in 
1848,  and  has  been  translated  into  French.  Then 
followed  a  work  on  the  "Identity  and  General 
Resurrection  of  the  Human  Body"  (8vo.,  1809), 
and  another  on  the  "  Being  and  Perfections 
of  God"  (2  vols.  8vo.).  In  his  24th  jear  he 
became  a  local  preacher  among  the  Wesleyan 
Methodists.  He  was  a  man,  in  the  language  of 
Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  "  of  primitive  simplicity  of 
manners,  amiableness  of  disposition,  ])iety  to- 
Avard  God  and  benevolence  to  men,  seldom  to  be 
equalled  ;  and  for  reach  of  thought,  keenness  of 
discrimination,  purity  of  language,  and  manly 
eloquence,  not  to  be  surpassed  in  any  of  the 
common  walks  of  life."  His  last  literary  pro- 
duction was  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Coke,"  written  in 
1817. 

DROGHEDA,  a  town  and  port  of  Ireland,  in 
the  province  of  Leinster,  counties  of  Meath  and 
Louth,  on  the  river  Boyne,  4  m.  from  its  mouth, 
and  32  ra.  N.  from  Dublin,  by  rail ;  pop.  in  1851, 
16,845.  It  was  for  a  long  time  strongly  forti- 
fied, and  from  an  early  period  till  about  the 
close  of  the  I7th  century  was  always  regard- 
ed as  a  post  of  great  importance  by  the  Eng- 
lish. It  was  for  three  centuries  the  principal 
rendezvous  of  the  numerous  troops  marched  by 
government  against  the  refractory  and  rebel- 
lious chieftains  of  Ulster  and  Leinster.  'It  was 
gallantly  defended  in  the  civil  wars  of  1641 
against  a  large  besieging  force  under  Sir  Phelim 
O'Neill.  It  was  stormed  by  Cromwell  in  1649, 
and  on  account  of  the  carnage  then  inflicted  the 
name  of  the  great  protector  is  still  abhorred  by 
the  inhabitants.  In  1690  the  town  held  out 
against  the  troops  of  King  AVilliam  III.  until 
after  the  victory  achieved  by  them  at  the  fa- 
mous battle  of  the  Boyne,  fought  2  miles  from 
its  walls,  and  which  is  commemorated  by  an 
obelisk  150  feet  high  raised  upon  the  very  spot 
where  the  aged  Schomberg  fell.    Few  of  the 


622 


DROITWICH 


DROPSY 


ancient  fortifications  of  the  town  remain.  The 
only  perfect  specimen  is  the  St.  Lawrence  gate, 
consisting  of  2  lofty  round  towers  with  tlie  low 
gateway  between.  The  Magdalen's  steeple,  a 
square  structure  of  elegant  proportions,  is  all 
that  remains  of  a  Dominican  convent  fmrnded  in 
1224.  Among  many  other  ruins  of  old  religious 
institutions  are  those  of  a  Carmelite  convent, 
and  of  a  hospital  of  the  knights  of  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem.  The  town  is  now  the  seat  of  ex- 
tensive cotton  and  linen  Tnanufactories,  tan- 
neries, and  breweries,  and  has  considerable 
trade  in  corn  and  cattle.  Its  harbor  has  been 
much  improved  witliin  a  few  years,  and  ves- 
sels of  250  tons  can  discharge  at  the  quay. 
Steamers  ply  constantly  between  Droghedaand 
Liverpool,  and  a  railway  connects  the  town  with 
Dublin.  The  registered  shipping  of  the  port  in 
1856  was  54  vessels  of  0,018  tons  ;  the  entrances 
■were  804  vessels,  tonnage  107,123 ;  clearances 
634,  tonnage  110,331. 

DROITWICH  (anc.  Salinai),  a  parliamentary 
and  municipal  borough  of  Worcestersliire,  Eng- 
land, lo2,V  m.  by  rail  N,  "W.  of  London,  pleas- 
antly situated  in  the  vale  of  tlie  Salwarpe ;  pop. 
of  the  parliamentary  borough  in  1851,  7,096. 
It  is  celebrated  for  its  salt  works,  which  have 
been  in  operation  for  1,000  years,  and  yield  50,- 
000  or  60,000  tons  of  salt  a  year.  The  product 
of  these  works  is  shipped  mostly  to  Gloucester 
by  a  canal  upward  of  6  m.  in  length,  connecting 
■with  the  river  Severn.  The  brine  contains 
33  per  cent,  of  salt,  and  is  obtained  from  wells 
sunk  ■within  the  town.  Batlis  are  established 
here  for  gouty  and  rheumatic  invalids.  It  re- 
turns one  member  to  the  house  of  commons, 

DROME,  a  department  in  the  S.  E.  of  France, 
formed  of  parts  of  Daupliine  and  Provence,  tra- 
versed by  a  navigable  river  of  the  same  name, 
by  tlje  Isere,  and  by  other  affluents  of  the 
Rhone,  and  situated  on  the  left  shore  of  the 
latter  river ;  area,  2,519  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1856, 
324,760,  comprising  more  Protestants  than  any 
other  French  department.  Toward  the  E.  are 
many  picturesque  and  high  mountains,  the  most 
celebrated  of  which  hyqWiq  Montague  inaccessible 
and  the  Montaiguille.  The  department  i)roduces 
famous  wines,  especially  I'ed  Hermitage,  which  is 
made  near  the  little  town  of  Tain  on  the  Rhone, 
and  is  also  celebrated  for  its  melons  and  truffles. 
Orange,  olive,  and  chestnut  trees  abound  here, 
and  above  all  the  mulberry  tree,  and  the  pro- 
duction of  silk  is  consequently  the  principal  in- 
dustry of  the  department.  With  tlie  exception 
of  the  fertile  and  beautiful  valley  of  the  Rhone, 
the  soil  is  not  favorable  to  agriculture,  but  min- 
eral wealth,  including  iron,  copper,  and  lead,  is 
not  Inconsiderable;  the  mountains  and  forests 
abound  with  game,  and  apart  from  the  impor- 
tant trade  in  wine,  fruits,  and  silks,  there  are 
various  manufactories  of  porcelain,  bricks,  beet 
root  sugar,  &c.  This  department  comprises  4 
arrondissements,  25  cantons,  and  302  communes, 
and  forms  part  of  the  3d  military  division  es- 
tablished in  1858,  of  which  Lyons  is  the  head- 
quarters.   Capital,  Valence. 


DROlNfEDARY.     See  Camel, 

DRONTHEIM,  or  Tkondhjem  (Lat.  Mdro- 
sia),  an  E.  province  of  Norway ;  area,  about 
18,000  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1855,  227,343.  It  com- 
prises the  districts  of  N.  and  S.  I)rontheim  and 
])art  of  Romsdal.  N.  Drontheim  lies  between 
Nordland,  the  Drontheim  fiord,  the  moun- 
tains which  divide  it  from  Sweden,  and  the 
Atlantic;  area,  8,832  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855, 
73,571.  It  is  watered  by  the  river  Namsen. 
Chief  town,  Levanger.  S.  Drontheim  occupies 
the  S.  shore  of  Drontheim  fiord,  and  is  bounded 
S.  by  the  bishopric  of  Aggershuus  or  Chris- 
tiania,  and  ^Y.  by  Romsdal;  area,  7,210  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  in  1855,  90,304.  Its  largest  rivers  are  the 
Nid-El  V,  Guul-Elv,  and  Oerkel-Elv,  and  the  chief 
town  and  capital  of  the  whole  province  is  Dront- 
heim. Romsdal,  part  of  which  is  included  in 
the  province  of  Bergen,  occupies  the  S.  W.  part 
of  the  territory.  The  whole  of  Drontheim  prop- 
er is  mountainous,  and  much  of  it  is  well  wooded. 
The  coasts  are  indented  by  numerous  bays,  the 
most  important  of  which  is  the  Drontheim  fiord, 
running  00  m.  inland  in  an  E.  and  N.  E.  direc- 
tion, but  describing  with  its  windings  a  curve 
of  90  m.,  and  the  surface  is  dotted  over  with 
lakes.  The  inhabitants  are  engaged  chiefly  in 
the  fisheries,  cattle  raising,  iron  mining,  and  to 
some  extent  in  agriculture,  but  little  grain  is 
raised.  Fruit,  hops,  flax,  and  hemp  are  the 
principal  crops. — Dkontheim,  the  capital  of  the 
province,  and  the  third  of  the  cities  of  Norway 
in  importance  and  population,  is  situated  in  lat, 
63°  25'  K,  and  long.  10°  23'  E.,  on  a  small  gulf 
near  the  outlet  of  the  river  Nid,  by  which  river 
and  the  sea  it  is  almost  entirely  surrounded ; 
pop.  in  1855,  16,012.  The  most  interesting 
edifice  is  the  cathedral  of  St,  Oluf,  founded  in 
the  11th  century;  and  though  dilapidated,  the 
little  of  it  that  remains  and  forms  part  of  the 
present  cathedral  is  sufficient  to  show  that  it 
was  originally  a  magnificent  Gothic  structure. 
The  harbor  of  Drontheim  is  not  deep,  and  is 
frequented  only  by  small  vessels.  Its  trade 
consists  chiefly  in  exports  of  masts  for  ves- 
sels, of  copper  and  iron,  goat  skins,  and  dried 
and  salted  fish.  It  has  a  public  library,  a  col- 
lection of  medals,  a  museum,  and  a  Norwegian 
society  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  founded  in 
1760.  The  refined  society  and  beautiful  avo- 
men  of  this  city  are  much  celebrated.  Upon 
a  rock  in  the  midst  of  the  harbor  is  the  for- 
tress of  Munkholm,  at  first  an  ancient  abbey, 
then  a  state  prison,  and  now  the  chief  forti- 
fication of  the  city  on  the  sea  side.  On  the 
land  side  Drontheim  is  commanded  by  a  succes- 
sion of  picturesque  heights.  It  was  founded  in 
997,  and  for  a  long  time  was  the  residence  of  the 
kings  of  Norway,  who  in  the  12th  century  were 
consecrated  and  crowned  in  its  cathedral.  As 
it  was  formerly  built  only  of  wood,  it  has  suf- 
fered from  repeated  conflagrations,  and  been 
several  times  almost  entirely  reduced  to  ashes. 
The  last  conflagration  took  place  in  1857. 

DROPSY,  a  collection  of  serous  fluid  occur- 
ring in  one  or  more  of  the  closed  cavities  of  the 


DROSOMETER 


DROUET  D'ERLON 


623 


body  or  in  the  cellular  tissue,  independent  of 
inflammation.  Intlanimations  of  serous  mem- 
branes, pleurisy,  pericarditis,  peritonitis,  &c., 
are  often  attended  with  copicnis  etiusion ;  but  the 
effusion  here  depends  immediately  iipon  the  in- 
flammation, and  consists  of  tlie  rupior  sanguinis, 
not  of  seruin  alone.  Dropsy  is  a  symptom  and 
not  a  disease,  and  is  caused  either  by  pressure  ex- 
erted upon  some  part  or  the  whole  of  the  venous 
system,  or  by  an  altered  state  of  the  blood.  In 
the  vast  majority  of  cases  dropsy  depends  upon 
disease  of  the  liver,  the  heart,  or  the  kidneys. 
From  the  peculiarity  of  the  hepatic  circulation 
(see  Livek),  when  cirrhosis  of  the  liver  exists, 
the  venous  system  of  all  the  abdominal  viscera 
becomes  congested,  and  that  congestion  finally 
relieves  itself  by  an  effusion  of  serum  into  the 
sac  of  the  peritoneum.  In  this  way  the  swell- 
ing in  ascites,  dependent  upon  cirrhosis,  begins  in 
the  abdomen,  and  the  legs  only  become  swollen 
secondarily.  A  scirrhus  or  other  tumor  by  which 
the  vena  portaj  is  compressed  produces  dropsy 
exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  cirrhosis.  When 
there  is  disease  of  the  heart,  that  organ  has 
more  or  less  difficulty  in  emptying  itself  of  the 
blood  wliich  is  thrown  into  it ;  the  difficulty 
commonly  commences  at  the  left  side  of  the 
heart,  and  congestion  of  the  lungs  is  a  conse- 
quence ;  finally  the  right  side  becomes  affected, 
there  is  congestion  of  the  general  venous  sys- 
tem, and  swelling  takes  place  in  the  more  de- 
pendent parts  of  the  body ;  the  great  cavities, 
the  abdomen  and  the  chest,  are  afterward  involv- 
ed, and  the  dropsy  becomes  general.  In  Bright's 
disease  the  cause  of  the  dropsy  is  probably  to 
be  sought  in  the  deteriorated  character  of  the 
blood  (see  Albumixueia)  ;  in  many  cases  disease 
of  the  heart  is  added  to  the  affection  of  the 
kidneys,  and  increases  the  tendency  to  dropsy. 
Chlorosis,  severe  hemorrhages,  any  cachexia  by 
■which  the  character  of  the  blood  is  greatly  al- 
tered, are  apt  to  be  attended  with  more  or  less 
serous  eff'usion  into  the  cellular  tissue.  The 
treatment  of  dropsies  is  spoken  of  under  the 
diseases  of  which  they  form  a  symptom. 

DROSOMETER  (Gr.  Spoo-oj,  dew,  and  ^e- 
rpou,  measure),  any  instrument  for  measuring 
the  quantity  of  dew  that  falls  upon  a  definite 
area  during  the  night.  Dr.  Wells,  in  his  experi- 
ments upon  dew,  employed  dry  wool  for  this  pur- 
pose, its  increase  of  weight  giving  the  quantity. 
AVeidler  made  use  of  the  bent  lever  balance,  the 
pan  being  a  plate  of  glass  upon  "which  the  moist- 
ure condonsod,  and  by  ^ts  weight  raised  propor- 
tionally the  counterpoise.  The  rain  gauge  may 
easily  be  made  to  serve  the  same  purpose,  the 
moisture  being  collected  in  the  tube. 

DROSTE,  AxxETTE  Elisabeth,  Baroness  Huls- 
hoff,  a  German  lyrical  poetess,  born  Jan.  12,  1798, 
near  Miinster,  died  May  24, 1848,  in  a  villa  near 
the  lake  of  Constance.  Iler  whole  life  was  conse- 
\  crated  to  religion,  stud}",  and  poetry.  The  fee- 
bleness of  licr  health  prevented  her  from  mix- 
ing much  with  society,  and,  Avith  the  exception 
of  a  short  stay  at  Bonn  and  Cologne  in  1825,  she 
passed  most  of  her  time  in  retirement  in  the 


country.  Tier  poems  were  published  at  Stutt- 
gart in  1844.  She  left  man}'  compositions,  of 
which  Das  (jeintliche  Jahr  nchst  einem  Anhang 
rcligiijser  Gcdichte  appeared  in  1852.  Medwia 
has  translated  some  of  her  poetry  into  English. 

DROUET,  Jean  Bai-tiste,  a  member  of  the 
French  convention,  and  the  captor  of  Louis 
XVI.,  born  in  Sainte-Menehould,  department  of 
Marne,  Jan.  8,  17<)3,  died  in  Macon,  April  11, 
1824.  After  having  served  for  7  years  as  a  com- 
mon soldier,  ho  returned  to  his  native  town, 
where  he  assisted  his  father,  who  was  at  the 
head  of  the  post  office.  In  the  evening  of  June 
21,  1791,  the  members  of  the  royal  fan)ily,  on 
their  flight  to  the  frontier,  stopped  at  the  town 
fiH'  the  purpose  of  changing  horses,  when  Jean 
Baptiste  identified  the  lady  who  travelled  under 
the  name  of  Baroness  de  Korfi'"  as  Marie  Antoi- 
nette, and  the  gentleman  who  accompanied  her 
as  Louis  XVI.,  and  caused  them  to  be  arrested. 
For  this  the  national  assembly  voted  him  a  re- 
Avard  of  $G,000,  which  he  is  believed  to  have  re- 
fused, and  in  Sept.  1792,  he  was  chosen  member 
of  the  convention  by  his  native  department. 
Ilere  he  became  one  of  the  most  violent  of  the 
terrorists.  He  voted  for  the  immediate  death 
of  the  king,  and  on  July  20, 1793,  he  proposed  a 
wholesale  butchery  of  the  English  residents  of 
France.  On  Sept.  5  following  he  called  upon  the 
convention  to  organize  a  revolutionary  army. 
In  the  same  month  he  was  sent  by  the  convention 
on  a  mission  to  the  northern  army,  where  he 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  who  consigned 
him  to  the  fortress  of  Spielberg  in  Moravia. 
This  addedto  his  popularity,  and  after  having 
recovered  his  liberty  in  Dec.  1795,  he  was  on  his 
return  to  Paris  received  with  every  demonstra- 
tion of  enthusiasm,  and  not  only  declared  eli- 
gible as  a  member  of  the  council  of  500,  but 
appointed  secretary  of  that  body.  He  joined 
Babeuf 's  conspiracy,  and  was  imprisoned,  but 
made  his  escape.  After  the  advent  of  Napoleon 
he  dropped  his  republican  convictions,  became 
a  sub-prefect,  and  fought  in  1814  against  the  al- 
lies. During  the  Hundred  Days  he  represented 
his  department  in  the  chamber  of  deputies,  but 
under  the  restoration  he  was  expelled  from 
France.  He  succeeded,  however,  in  passing  the 
remainder  of  his  life  at  Macon  under  the  ficti- 
tious name  of  Merger.  He  was  only  identified 
after  his  death. 

DROUET  D'ERLOX,  Jean  Baptiste,  count, 
a  French  general,  born  in  Rheims,  July  29, 1765, 
died  in  Paris,  Jan.  25,  1844.  A  private  soldier 
in  1792,  he  had  risen  in  1803  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general,  and  fought  bravely  at  the 
siege  of  Dantzic,  at  Jena,  and  at  Friesland  in 
1807,  on  which  occasion  he  was  severely  wound- 
ed. Xapoleon  conferred  on  liim  the  title  of 
count  of  Erlon  and  a  pension  of  $5,000.  Subse- 
quently he  took  a  part  in  the  conflicts  in  the  Ty- 
rol and  in  Spain,  ,and  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1815,  but  Xapoleon  found  fault  with  him  at 
Waterloo.  After  the  fall  of  the  empire  he  lived 
in  Germany  until  1825,  when  he  was  permitted 
to  return  to  France.    He  was  reinstated  in  his 


624 


DROUYN"  DE  LHUYS 


DROYSEN 


position  as  peer  in  1831,  and  officiated  as  gov- 
ernor-conerul  of  Ali^eria  in  1834  and  1835. 

DIlOllYN  DE  LIIUYS,  Edouaed,  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  in  Paris,  Nov.  19,  1805.  He 
made  liis  debut  under  Louis  Philippe  as  secretary 
of  legation  at  Madrid  ;  became  charge  d'affaires 
in  Holland ;  in  1836  returned  to  Madrid ;  in  1840 
lie  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  commercial 
bureau  in  the  French  ministry  of  foreign  affairs ; 
in  1842  he  was  elected  member  of  the  chamber 
of  deputies,  in  which  capacity  he  voted,  in  1845, 
against  the  government  on  the  Pritchard  indem- 
nity question.  This  hostile  vote  led  to  his  im- 
mediate dismissal  from  office,  lie  then  became 
one  of  the  most  active  opponents  of  Guizot  and 
the  government  of  Louis  Philippe,  and  was  a 
prominent  orator  at  the  memorable  reform  ban- 
quets. After  the  revolution  of  1848  he  was  elect- 
ed to  the  constituent  assembly,  and  subsequent- 
ly officiated  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  as 
ambassador  in  England.  After  the  coiqi  (Tetat  of 
Dec.  2  he  adhered  to  Louis  Napoleon,  and  under 
the  empire  was  once  more  made  minister  of  for- 
eign affairs.  He  took  the  task  of  asking  the  Euro- 
pean governments  to  recognize  the  new  emperor. 
Afterward  he  took  also  a  conspicuous  part  in 
the  negotiations  relating  to  the  Crimean  war. 
He  attended  on  behalf  of  France  tlie  peace  con- 
ference at  Vienna,  where  he  evinced  a  readiness 
to  side  with  the  Austrian  view  of  the  question, 
which  led  to  the  appointment.  May  7,  1855,  of 
Count  "Walewski  as  his  successor.  Since  then 
he  has  taken  no  prominent  part  in  public  affairs. 

DROWNING.  The  specific  gravity  of  the 
human  body  is  very  little  greater  tflian  that  of 
water,  for  though  the  muscles  and  the  bones  are 
heavier  (the  one  being  1.085,  the  other  2.01),  the 
fat  (0.92)  is  specifically  lighter,  and  the  air  with- 
in the  thorax  tends  to  restore  the  equilibrium. 
Owing  to  this,  a  very  slight  exertion  enables  a 
person  to  keep  himself  at  the  surface  of  the 
water ;  but  any  part  of  the  person,  an  arm,  &c., 
raised  out  of  the  fluid,  acts  like  a  weight  imposed 
upon  the  rest  of  the  body,  and  thus  inexperi- 
enced persons  are  drowned  by  their  own  strug- 
gles. Death  takes  place  by  asphyxia ;  the  blood 
in  the  lungs  being  unchanged  by  the  action  of 
air,  the  circulation  through  these  organs  is  ob- 
structed, and  the  blood  becomes  charged  with 
carbon ;  insensibility  is  rapidly  induced,  and 
death  takes  place,  frequently  preceded  by  con- 
vulsive movements.  The  period  during  which 
the  submersion  may  continue  without  death 
taking  place  varies  in  different  persons.  Dr. 
Lefcvre  of  Rocliefort  states  that  there  was  none 
among  the  Navarino  sponge  divers  who  could 
remain  under  water  for  2  consecutive  minutes ; 
while  according  to  Mr.  Marshall,  the  best  pearl 
divers  of  Ceylon  rarely  were  submerged  more 
than  50  seconds.  But,  according  to  some  au- 
thorities, the  divers  of  Ceylon  have  been  known 
to  remain  G  minutes  under  water ;  and  Fran- 
chere,  in  his  "  Narrative  of  a  Voyage  to  the  N. 
W.  Coast  of  America,"  states  that  lie  saw  two 
Sandwich  islanders  dive  in  14  f^athoms  of  wa- 
ter, and  that  by  his  watch  and  those  of  his 


companions  the  time  they  remained  under  water 
was  4  minutes.  In  some  instances  bodies  sub- 
merged but  a  minute,  in  despite  of  all  attempts 
at  restoration,  have  been  found  completely  life- 
less, while  there  are  many  cases  on  record  in 
which  recovery  has  taken  place  after  a  submer- 
sion of  5  minutes.  In  the  "London  Medical 
Gazette,"  vol.  xxxi.,  a  case  is  given  of  recovery 
after  14  minutes'  submersion  ;  the  time  here  was 
calculated,  but  the  circumstances  render  the  cal- 
culation exceedingly  probable.  Cases  of recovery 
are  related  after  submersion  for  ^  or  f  of  an  hour, 
but  they  are  not  sufficiently  well  authenticated. 
The  explanation  of  recovery  after  prolonged  sub- 
mersion has  been  sought  in  the  occurrence  of 
iiiinting  at  the  moment  of  the  fall,  and  it  is  cer- 
tain that  during  syncope  the  demand  for  air  is 
very  much  diminished. — When  the  body  is  recov- 
ered a  few  hours  after  drowning,  the  skin  is  cold 
and  pale,  presenting  sometimes  patches  of  livid 
discoloration  ;  the  expression  is  placid,  the  eyes 
half  open,  the  pupils  dilated,  the  tongue  swollen 
and  pressed  forward,  and  the  lips  and  nostrils 
covered  by  a  mucous  froth ;  the  fingers  are 
sometimes  found  torn  and  abraded,  and  the  hand 
grasping  gravel  or  other  substances  which  have 
been  seized  in  a  convulsive  struggle  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  water.  Internally  the  body  presents 
few  appearances  which  are  characteristic  of  the 
mode  of  death  ;  of  these  the  presence  of  a  mu- 
cous froth  sometimes  stained  with  blood,  and 
perhaps  of  a  little  water  in  the  trachea,  and  of 
water  in  the  stomach,  appear  to  be  most  note- 
worthy. The  water  contained  in  the  stomach 
appears  to  be  swallowed  previous  to  death  ; 
after  death  the  apposition  of  the  sides  of  the 
oesophagus  prevents  tlie  entrance  of  water  into 
the  stomach.  When  the  body  of  a  person  is  re- 
covered after  a  short  immersion  in  the  water, 
means  for  resuscitation  should  immediately  bo 
had  recourse  to,  and  these  should  be  persever- 
ingly  continued  until  recovery  takes  place,  or 
the  case  is  abandoned  as  hopeless.  In  a  case 
related  by  Mr.  Bloomfield  1^  hours  elapsed  be- 
fore tliere  was  any  appearance  of  returning  ani- 
mation ;  and  in  one  by  Dr.  Douglas  ("Medical 
Gazette,"  vol.  xxxi.,  p.  449),  success  was  met 
with  only  after  8|  hours.  The  plan  proposed  by 
the  late  Dr.  Marshall  Hall  in  1855  is  based  on 
physiological  principles,  and  has  been  found  em- 
inently successful  in  practice.  For  an  account 
of  it  see  Asphyxia. 

DROYSEN,  JonANN  Gustav,  a  German  his- 
torian, born  in  Treptow,  Pomcrania,  July  G, 
1808.  He  was  educated  at  Stettin  and  at  Ber- 
lin, and  between  1829  and  1840  discharged  the 
duties  of  teacher  at  the  Gray  cloisters  in  the 
latter  city,  and  of  private  tutor  and  professor  at 
the  university.  In  1840  he  went  to  Kiel  as  pro- 
fessor of  history,  and  during  a  residence  of  10 
years  was  an  active  partisan  of  the  duchies  in 
the  controversy  between  Ilolstein  and  Denmark. 
He  was  the  author  of  the  "  Kiel  address"  of 
1844,  and  in  1846  took  part  in  the  preparation 
of  the  protest  signed  by  9  professors  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Kiel.     He  also  drew  up  a  plan  for  the 


DROZ 


DRUEY 


625 


government  of  Denmark  and  Sclileswig-ITolstcin, 
which  the  outbreak  of  liostilitios  iu  the  latter 
in  1848  prevented  from  beinfr  tested.  Upon 
the  establishment  of  the  provisional  government 
in  Kiel  ho  was  sent  as  a  i)lenipotentiary  to  tlio 
diet  at  Frankfort,  where  he  proved  himself  an 
able  advocate  of  the  rights  of  the  duchies.  Sub- 
sequently he  acted  as  a  member  of  the  Frank- 
fort parliament.  In  1851  he  was  called  to  Jena  as 
professor  of  history,  where  ho  has  since  resided. 
Among  his  earlier  works  are  translations  of 
.^schylus  and  Aristoj)hanes,  a  history  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  and  a  history  of  Hellenism. 
Subsequently  he  turned  his  attention  to  modern 
history,  and  has  published  "  Lectures  on  the 
War  of  Liberation"  (Kiel,  1846) ;  "  Life  of  Field 
Marshal  Count  York  of  AVartcnburg"  (Bei'lin, 
1851);  "History  of  Prussian  Politics"  (Berlin, 
1855),  his  most  important  work. 

DliOZ,  Franqois  Xaviek  Joseph,  a  French 
author,  born  in  Besangon,  Oct.  31,  1773,  died 
Nov.  4,  1850.  Li  1803  he  removed  to  Paris, 
where  he  became  acquainted  with  the  promi- 
nent philosophers  of  the  day.  After  having  pre- 
viously published  a  variety  of  smaller  works, 
which  failed  to  attract  attention,  he  succeeded 
in  1806  in  making  an  impression  upon  the  pub- 
lic mind  by  his  Essai  siir  Vart  d'etre  heureux 
("  Essay  on  Happiness"),  which  passed  through 
numerous  editions,  and  was  translated  by  the 
Rev.  T.  Flint  into  English.  In  1812  his  Eloge  de 
Montaigne  made  its  appearance,  followed  in 
1815  by  his  Essai  siw  le  beau  dans  les  arts,  and 
in  1823  by  his  work  De  la  philosophie  morale, 
ou  des  differents  systemes  sur  la  science  de  la  vie, 
which  was  crowned  with  the  Monthyon  prize, 
and  paved  the  way  to  his  admission  to  the  French 
academy.  Ou  occasion  of  his  contest  for  elec- 
tion to  this  learned  body,  Lamartine  was  his 
competitor.  In  1825  he  wrote  a  book  on  the 
application  of  morals  to  philosophy  and  politics. 
He  is  also  the  author  of  an  essay  on  political 
econoriiy,  and  of  a  work  on  Christianity,  which 
derives  additional  interest  from  the  personal 
religious  experiences  added  to  the  book  under 
the  title  of  Aveux  dhm  pMlosophe  Chretien,  in 
which  the  author  abandons  his  early  theology 
and  returns  to  the  doctrines  of  the  church  of 
Rome.  His  most  important  literary  achieve- 
ment, however,  is  his  Histoire  du  regne  de  Louis 
XVI.  (3  vols ,  Paris,  1838-42),  with  an  intro- 
duction on  the  history  of  France  from  the  time 
of  Louis  XIV. 

DROZ,  Henri  Lens  Jacquet,  a  Swiss  me- 
chanician, born  Oct.  13,  1752,  died  in  Naples, 
Nov.  18,  1791.  In  1774  he  removed  to  Paris, 
and  became  celebrated  by  his  works,  especially 
by  his  automaton  representing  a  young  lady 
playing  ou  the  harpsichord,  following  the  music 
witli  her  eyes  and  the  movements  of  her  hands, 
and,  when  done  playing,  rising  and  bowing  to 
the  audience.  The  most  famous  specimen  of 
his  inventive  genius  in  this  respect  was  a  pair 
of  artificial  hands,  which  he  devised  for  young 
La  Reyniere,  who  had  lost  his  hands  during  a 
hunting  expedition. — Pierre  jAcqrET,  father 
VOL.  VI. — 40 


of  the  preceding,  born  in  La  Chaux-de-Fona, 
July  28, 1721,  died  in  Biel,  in  the  canton  of  Bern, 
Nov.  28,  1790.  In  the  divinity  school  of  Basel 
he  prepared  himself  for  the  churcli,  but  on  his 
return  home  his  attention  became  directed  to 
the  manufacture  of  watches  and  clocks,  for 
which  his  native  town  is  celebrated.  While 
watching  one  of  his  sisters  wlio  was  engaged  in 
this  employment,  his  own  ambition  was  kindled, 
and  he  eventually  succeeded  in  perfecting  the 
diiferent  parts  of  clock  work,  and  in  supplying 
common  timepieces  with  a  musical  machinery 
resembling  the  chime  of  bells  and  tlie  sounds  of 
the  flute.  He  made  many  experiments  for  the 
purpose  of  effecting  perpetual  motion,  and  his 
most  ingenious  contrivance  was  a  pendulum 
composed  of  2  metals  of  unequal  dilata]>ility  to 
counteract  the  effects  of  heat  and  cold.  This 
was  purchased  by  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  who  be- 
stowed a  pension  upon  the  artist.  His  most  cel- 
ebrated production  Avas  a  writing  automaton, 
which,  by  means  of  machinery  witliin  the  figure, 
moved  its  fingers  and  hands,  and  formed  letters. 
At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  engaged  upon 
the  fabrication  of  a  new  astronomical  clock. 

DRUEY,  CoARLEs,  a  Swiss  statesman,  born 
in  Feroug,  in  the  canton  of  Vaud,  in  1799,  died 
March  21,  1855.  Having  studied  law,  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  an  active  member  of  the 
liberal  party  in  his  native  canton,  advocating 
several  reforms  in  its  church  and  school  system^ 
and  after  a  triumph  of  his  party  in  1839  he  be- 
came member  of  the  state  council.  In  1841  he 
was  elected  first  delegate  from  Vaud  to  tho 
Swiss  diet.  Disagreeing  with  the  majority  of 
the  great  council  upon  a  question  relative  to  the 
monasteries  of  Aargau,  he  soon  after  retired 
from  the  administration,  and  became  the  leader 
of  the  opposition.  A  widely  ramified  political 
society,  the  association  x>a-triotique,  extended 
his  influence  and  popularity.  When  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Jesuits  from  tlie  territory  of  the 
confederation  was  proposed  by  the  canton  of 
Aargau,  he  first  declared  against  the  measure, 
but  finally  for  it,  as  agreeing  with  the  opinion 
of  the  majority  of  the  Swiss  people.  The  great 
council  of  Vaud,  however,  gave  unsatisfactory 
instructions  to  its  delegation  in  the  diet,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  administration  and  con- 
stitution of  the  canton  were  overthrown  by 
a  popular  movement  in  1845.  A  provisional 
government  was  established,  and  a  constituent 
council  convoked.  Of  the  former  Druey  be- 
came president,  and  afterward  oflRciated  in  the 
same  capacity  in  the  state  councU.  He  was 
active  in  promoting  the  adoption  of  the  new 
democratic  constitution,  and  subsequently,  as 
first  delegate  to  the  diet,  Avas  zealous  in  advo- 
cating the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  and  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Soiuler'bimd  or  separate  union, 
formed  by  the  Catholic  minority  of  the  cantons 
to  defend  their  sovereign  rights.  He  also  pro- 
moted the  energetic  execution  of  those  measures, 
and  the  foundation  of  the  new  federal  consti- 
tution of  1848.  Under  this  he  was  repeatedly 
elected  a  member  of  the  federal  council,  and  in 


626 


DRUIDS 


1850  he  presided  orer  that  body  as  chief  magis- 
trate of  the  republic, 

DRUIDS,  a  name  given  to  the  order  of 
priests  which  in  ancient  times  existed  among 
certain  brandies  of  the  Celtic  race.  As  a  term 
it  has  been  variously  deduced  from  the  Saxon 
dry^  a  magician;  from  the  German  druthin^  a 
master,  or  lord ;  from  the  Greek  fipu?,  and  the 
Celtic  derxi,  an  oak ;  from  the  Hebrew  dcrussim, 
or  drussim,  contemplators ;  from  the  Irish  drui 
or  draui,  a  s?icred  person,  and  from  numerous 
other  etymons ;  but  the  most  probable  deriva- 
tion of  it  seems 'to  be  that  given  by  the  abbe 
Pierre  de  Chiniac,  a  French  writer  on  the  nature 
and  dogmas  of  the  GalUc  religion,  who  refers  it 
to  the  old  Celtic  compound  derowjd,  from  De, 
God,  and  rouyd,  speaking,  a  participle  of  the 
verb  rduyddim^  to  speak.  It  would  therefore 
seem  to  mean  those  who  speak  for  or  of  God,  i.  e. 
either  the  prophets  or  the  theologians.  Nor  is 
the  origin  of  druidism  as  an  institution  any  more 
clear  than  the  etymology  of  the  name.  As  the 
druids  did  not  allow  their  tenets  and  history 
to  be  committed  to  writing,  and  as  the  ancient 
Greek  and  Roman  authors  who  describe  them 
do  so  in  the  vaguest  language,  our  knowledge 
of  their  peculiarities  is  necessarily  limited. 
Pictet,  in  his  work  DucuUe  dcs  Cahires  chez  les 
anciens  Irlandais  (Geneva,  1824),  traces  very  de- 
cided affinities  between  druidism  and  the  wor- 
6hip  of  the  Oabiri  in  Samothrace.  Pelloutier, 
in  his  nistoire  des  Celtes,  on  the  other  hand, 
argues  that  the  druidical  and  Persian  religions 
were  identical.  Maurice,  in  a  dissertation  on 
the  origin  of  the  druids  ("Indian  Antiquities," 
vol.  vi.,  part  1),  argues  that  they  were  the  im- 
mediate offshoots  and  descendants  of  a  tribe  of 
Brahmins.  Henri  Martin,  again,  in  his  Histoire 
de  France,  discovers  the  Hindoo  Sivaism  in  their 
reputed  doctrines;  while  the  Rev.  W.L.  Bowles, 
in  the  Hermes  Britannica,  derives  them  from 
the  Egyptians ;  and  Jean  Reynaud,  in  a  learned 
sketch  in  the  Encyclojjedie  nouvelle,  is  inclined  to 
refer  them  to  the  Zoroastrian  Magi.  It  seems  to 
be  generally  conceded  that  they  were  of  eastern 
origin,  because  of  the  many  and  striking  analo- 
gies between  what  we  are  told  of  their  belief 
and  practices,  and  what  we  know  to  be  charac- 
teristic of  the  oriental  nations.  At  the  time 
when  this  mysterious  order  became  known  more 
clearly  to  history,  /.  e.  in  the  first  century 
before  and  after  Christ,  the  druids  inhabited 
chiefly  Gaul  and  the  islands  of  Britain.  In 
Gaul  their  principal  seats  were  in  the  west  and 
centre,  or  in  the  modern  Brittany,  and  along 
the  Loire,  while  beyond  the  channel  they  were 
found  in  "Wales  and  Ireland,  and  afterward  in 
the  island  of  Mona  or  Anglesea.  According  to 
some  writers  Brittany  was  their  cradle;  but  the 
"Welsh  traditions  relate  that  they  entered  Gaul 
from  the  remote  east  at  the  same  time  with 
that  branch  of  the  Celtic  race  which  is  denom- 
inated the  Kymric  or  Cymraeg.  At  least  it  is 
evident  that  they  did  not  prevail  among  the 
Belgic  branches  of  the  people  of  Gaul  at  the 
north,  nor  yet  among  the  Aquitauiau  or  Basc^ue 


branches  at  the  south.  Their  capital  in  Gaul 
was  in  the  territory  of  a  tribe  called  the  Carnutes, 
corresponding  pretty  nearly  to  the  province  of 
Orleanais.  Julius  Cajsar  is  the  ancient  writer 
who  has  given  the  clearest  account  of  the 
druids,  and  Mr.  Godfrey  Iliggins,  in  his  "Celtic 
Druids,"  the  modern  who  has  the  most  elabo- 
rately investigated  their  faith  ;  but  the  Welsh 
triads  are  regarded  by  many  as  the  most  autlien- 
tic  sources  of  information  in  regard  to  them. 
Their  characteristics,  in  the  view  of  Mr.  Higgins, 
consisted  in  the  adoration  of  one  Supreme  Be- 
ing, in  the  belief  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul 
and  a  future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments, 
taking  the  foi'm  of  a  species  of  metempsychosis, 
in  the  use  of  circular  temples  open  at  the  top,  in 
the  worship  of  fire  as  the  emblem  of  the  sun,  in 
the  celebration  of  the  great  Tauric  festival  (when 
the  sun  entered  Taurus),  and  in  the  knowledge 
of  an  alphabet  of  17  letters,  though  their  instruc- 
tions were  always  oral.  If  they  acknowledged 
but  one  supreme  God,  they  admitted  other  in- 
ferior deities,  such  as  Hesus,  Tarann,  Belen,  &c., 
to  whom  they  paid  a  qualified  worship.  In 
their  sacrifices  to  these  their  rites  were  sangui- 
nary, and  the  bodies  of  human  victims  often 
smoked  on  the  same  altars  with  the  carcasses  of 
beasts.  Their  objects,  however,  were  apparent- 
ly moral,  for  they  professed  "  to  reform  morals, 
to  secure  peace,  and  to  encourage  goodness;"  yet 
with  these  high  aims  they  connected  pernicious 
superstitions  and  pretences  to  a  magical  knowl- 
edge. They  assumed,  says  Ca3sar,  to  discourse 
of  the  hidden  nature  of  things,  of  the  extent  of 
the  universe  and  of  the  earth,  of  the  forms  and 
movements  of  the  stars,  of  the  virtues  of  plants, 
and  of  the  essence,  power,  and  mode  of  action  of 
the  gods.  On  all  these  subjects  their  instructions 
were  conveyed  orally,  and  by  means  of  verses, 
which  required  in  the  learner  of  them  a  novi- 
tiate of  20  years  before  they  could  be  well  com- 
mitted to  memory.  The  triads  of  the  "Welsh 
bards  are  supposed  to  be  specimens  of  this  spe- 
cies of  verse.  IIow  well  or  ill  founded  their 
pretensions  were  it  is  now  impossible  to  decide. 
Some  knowledge  of  the  movements  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies,  beyond  what  simply  pertained  to  the 
regulation  of  their  religious  festivals,  they  un- 
questionably possessed,  inasmuch  as  they  com- 
posed the  year  by  lunations,  which  supposes  an 
acquaintance  also  with  the  solar  year.  Various 
relics  found  in  Ireland  among  the  druidical  re- 
mains, thought  to  be  astronomical  instruments 
designed  to  show  the  phases  of  the  moon,  are 
described  by  Sir  William  Betham  in  the  "  Trans- 
actions of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy."  At  the 
same  time  there  was  not  a  little  of  astrology, 
divination,  and  magic  mixed  up  with  their  purer 
science.  In  their  doctrine  of  medicine  particu- 
larly, there  was  far  more  of  superstition  than  of 
knowledge.  To  a  great  many  plants  they  at- 
tributed a  mystic  sacred  character ;  and  most 
of  all  to  the  mistletoe,  whose  sanitary  virtues, 
both  physical  and  moral,  were  such,  that  they 
esteemed  it  an  antidote  to  all  poisons,  and  a  cure 
for  all  diseases.    It  was  gathered  at  certain  sea- 


DRUIDS 


627 


sons,  with  the  most  formal  and  pompous  cere- 
monies. As  soon  as  it  was  discovered,  twining 
the  no  less  sacred  oak,  the  dniids  collected  iu 
crowds  about  the  tree,  a  ban(Hictand  asacrifico 
were  prepared,  a  priest  in  white  vestments  cut 
the  twig  with  a  golden  sickle,  two  otfier  white- 
robed  priests  caught  it  iu  a  white  cloak,  two 
milk-white  heifers  were  instantly  olfcred  up, 
and  the  rest  of  the  day  was  Pj)ent  in  rejoicing. 
Perhaps  they  saw  in  the  perpetual  verdure  of 
this  plant  an  emblem  of  eternal  life,  or  in  its 
appearance  during  the  winter,  when  all  the  rest 
of  nature  was  sterile  and  dead,  the  independent 
life  of  Deity.  Under  similar  mystic  faith,  doubt- 
less, they  plucked  the  samolii.%  or  marsh  wort, 
with  the  left  hand,  fasting,  and  without  looking 
at  it ;  and  the  helago^  or  hedge  hyssop,  after 
ablutions,  or  ofterings  of  bread  and  wine,  bare- 
footed, and  without  a  knife.  Tlie  vervain  like- 
wise demanded  distinct  ceremonials.  All  these 
plants  were  regarded  as  powerful  prophylactics 
and  remedies,  not  only  in  respect  to  physical  dis- 
eases, but  to  the  dark  workings  of  evil.  They 
were  carried  about  as  charms,  as  well  as  amber 
beads,  which  the  druids  mauufiictured  for  war- 
riors in  battle,  and  which  are  still  found  in  their 
tombs.  A  still  more  potent  talisman  was  the  ser- 
pent's egg,  which,  according  to  Pliny,  oozed  out 
of  the  mouths  of  serpents,  when  knotted  toge- 
ther, and  which  they  supported  in  the  air  by 
their  liissings.  That  was  the  moment  to  seize  it ; 
and  he  who  attempted  to  do  so  must  suddenly 
dart  from  his  hiding  place,  catch  it  in  a  napkin, 
and  mounting  a  horse  gallop  olT  at  full  speed,  to 
escape  the  pursuing  serpents,  until  he  had  put  a 
river  between  him  and  them.  Among  the  druids, 
as  among  the  Romans,  auguries  of  the  future 
were  made  from  the  flight  of  birds,  and  from  an 
inspection  of  the  entrails  of  sacrificed  animals. 
Tlieir  profounder  ceremonies,  those  which  they 
celebrated  in  the  dei)ths  of  the  oak  forests  or 
of  secluded  caves,  are  known  to  us  only  through 
the  vaguest  traditions,  and  in  the  stupendous 
but  dilapidated  stone  monuments  which  strew 
the  surface  of  France  and  Britain. — The  druids 
were  organized  into  a  regular  hierarchy,  con- 
sisting of  a  triad,  like  almost  every  thing  else 
among  them,  viz. :  the  bards,  the  vates  or  pro- 
phets, and  the  proper  priests.  The  bards  were 
poets  not  only  of  a  religious  but  of  a  mar- 
tial and  satirical  class.  (See  Bauds.)  The  vates 
were  the  diviners  or  revealers  of  the  future, 
who  were  charged  with  the  conduct  of  sacrifices 
and  other  external  ceremonies,  and  who,  min 
gling  in  almost  every  event  and  relation  of  com- 
mon life,  stood  as  mediators  or  interpreters 
between  the  people  and  the  more  mysterious 
hierophants.  These  were  the  druids  proper,  or 
the  priests,  who  dwelt  in  the  depths  of  the  oak 
forests,  preserving  the  more  interior  and  mystic 
doctrines  of  the  faith,  and  consulting  more  di- 
rectly the  secret  will  of  the  divinity.  They 
were  also  the  teachers  of  the  youth,  who  re- 
sorted to  them  in  great  numbers;  and  they 
retained  to  themselves  also  that  highest  means 
of  power,  the  judicial  function,  Avhich  they  ex- 


ercised in  cases  of  controversy  and  litigation. 
There  was  no  appeal  from  their  decision ;  all 
men,  whether  iu  a  public  or  private  capacity, 
liad  to  submit  to  it,  for  the  recalcitrant  was  con- 
demned to  excomnmuication,  which  cut  him  off 
from  all  sympathy  and  rendered  him  an  outcast 
and  an  outlaw.  Over  the  connnunity  or  college 
of  druids  an  arch-druid  presided,  whose  author- 
ity was  supreme  and  irrevocable,  although  his 
office  was  an  elective  one.  The  election  was 
made  by  the  suffrages  of  the  wliole  body,  but 
sometimes,  in  the  rivalry  of  factions,  led  to  se- 
rious conflicts  of  arras.  At  a  fixed  period  every 
year  they  assembled  at  a  consecrated  spot  in  the 
territory  of  tlio  Carnutcs,  which  passed  for  the 
centre  of  Gaul,  whither  all  resorted  who  had 
disputes  to  settle  or  decrees  to  solicit.  It  will 
be  needless  to  add,  that  under  such  an  organiza- 
tion the  entire  pviesthood  were  exempted  from 
all  taxation  or  imposts,  and  from  every  burden, 
of  war  or  peace. — Affiliated  to  these  3  orders, 
without  sharing  their  prerogatives,  were  proph- 
etesses, or  sorceresses,  apparently  divided  into 
3  orders  also,  according  to  their  degrees  of  sanc- 
tity. Their  rules  were  whimsical  and  contra- 
dictory, but  their  influence  over  the  fears  of  the 
people  was  powerful.  One  branch  of  them 
could  declare  the  secrets  of  futurity  only  to 
those  wlio  had  polluted  them  ;  another  was  de- 
voted to  perpetual  virginity ;  a  third  to  long 
periods  of  celibacy,  or  they  were  allowed  to  visit 
their  husbands  but  once  a  year ;  while  others 
again  had  to  assist  at  nocturnal  rites,  with  their 
naked  bodies  painted  black,  their  hair  dishev- 
elled, and  abandoning  themselves  to  transports 
of  fury.  Endowed  with  an  imputed  supernat- 
ural power,  the  Gallic  mariner  often  went  to 
consult  them  amid  the  reefs  of  the  Armorican 
coast.  "  At  night,"  says  a  historian,  "  when  the 
tempests  raged,  as  he  skirted  the  savage  prom- 
ontory, he  fancied  tliat  he  heard  strange  cries 
and  chants  and  wild  melodies  mingling  with 
the  wails  of  the  wind  and  the  eternal  moan  of 
the  waves.  On  the  summit  of  the  misty  crags 
he  saw  red  phantoms  gliding,  with  streaming 
hair  and  burning  torclies  whose  flashes  were 
like  lightning."  These  were  tlie  druidesses, 
weaving  their  mystic  charms,  healing  maladies, 
conjuring  up  all  living  forms,  raising  or  appeas- 
ing the  elements,  or  extorting  the  secrets  of-fate. 
Their  favorite  resort  was  the  island  of  Sena, 
where  the  9  Senes  dwelt,  and  the  nameless  islet 
opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Loire,  where  once 
every  year,  between  sunrise  and  sunset,  they 
pulled  down  and  rebuilt  the  roof  of  their  temple; 
but  if  any  one  by  chance  let  fall  a  particle  of  the 
sacred  materials,  slie  was  torn  to  pieces,  amid 
frantic  dances,  in  which  the  Greeks  saw  the  rites 
of  their  own  Bacchantes,  or  the  orgies  of  Samo- 
thrace.  Being  priests,  philosophers,  physicians, 
teachers,  soothsayers,  and  judges,  in  whom  were 
concentrated  all  knowledge  and  all  power,  who 
held  relations  with  the  elements  and  were  the 
confidants  of  the  gods,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  how 
the  druids  should  attain  to  an  almost  absolute 
rule.   That  this  rule  was  in  many  respects  bene- 


628 


DRUM 


DRUMMOKD 


ficial,  that  they  possessed  and  tanght  a  hijrher 
civilization  than  that  which  had  before  prevailed, 
and  tliat  for  a  time  they  presented  the  only  bond 
of  nnity  wliieh  was  possible  in  the  barbarons 
and  warring  life  of  the  Gauls,  may  bo  admitted ; 
but  it  was  also  in  the  nature  of  their  office,  and 
among  the  inevitable  results  of  the  power  they 
assumed,  that  it  should  degenerate  into  tyran- 
ny. They  sooner  or  later,  therefore,  aroused 
the  jealousy  of  another  order  in  society,  which 
Ca?sar  designates  as  that  of  the  equitrs  or  war- 
riors, or  men  of  martial  prowess,  who  had  taken 
the  lead  in  the  political  conduct  and  constitu- 
tion of  the  tribes.  It  is  supposed  that  these 
gradually  overthrew  the  power  of  the  druids 
in  Gaul.  Be  that  as  it  may,  it  is  known  that 
when  that  country  was  subdued  by  the  Romans, 
the  druidical  religion  gradually  retired  before 
the  classic  heathenism,  and  step  by  step  with- 
drew, at  first  into  Armorica,  and  then  into  Great 
Britain,  where  in  the  time  of  Nero  it  was  as- 
saulted and  mostly  suppressed.  It  lingered  as 
a  public  worship  longest  in  the  island  of  An- 
glesea,  whence  it  was  finally  driven  out  by  the 
Roman  troops  amid  a  great  deal  of  slaughter. 
Yet  as  a  private  superstition  it  continued  to 
hold  sway  for  many  years  thereafter  over  the 
minds  of  the  Celtic  tribes  and  their  descendants. 
The  only  modern  remains  of  druidism  are  those 
immense  structures  of  stone,  those  menhirs^ 
cromlechs,  dolmen,  and  avenues,  wliich,  as  we 
contemplate  them  in  the  immense  ruins  at  Stone- 
henge,  Avebury,  and  Oarnac,  still  fill  us  with 
astonishment  and  awe.  In  fact,  the  soil  of 
western  and  central  France,  as  well  as  that  of 
parts  of  Great  Britain,  is  strewn  with  these 
gigantic  memorials,  whose  original  uses  we  can- 
not explain,  but  which  the  imagination  inevit- 
ably connects  with  the  dark  and  bloody  rites  of 
the  druidical  worship. 

DRUM  (Dan.  trom,  Ger.  trommel),  in  music, 
a  martial  instrument  of  percussion,  consisting  of 
a  hollow  cylinder  of  thin  wood  or  brass,  covered 
at  each  end  with  vellum  or  parchment,  the  ten- 
sion of  which  is ,  regulated  by  small  cords  or 
braces  on  the  outer  side  of  the  instrument  acted 
upon  by  sliding  knots  of  leather.  The  common 
drum  is  suspended  at  the  side  of  the  drummer, 
whence  it  is  called  the  side  drum,  and  is  beaten 
upon  at  one  end  by  sticks.  An  instrument 
similar  in  shape,  but  on  a  much  larger  scale, 
called  the  base  drum,  is  beaten  at  both  ends 
with  drumsticks  liaving  leather  pads  on  the 
knobs.  Both  kinds  are  highly  effective  in  mili- 
tary bands,  and  seldom  fail  to  excite  soldiers 
under  the  fatigue  of  march  or  in  battle.  An- 
other species  of  drum,  called  the  kettle  drum, 
consists  of  a  thin  copper  basin,  nearly  hemi- 
spherical, the  parchment  covering  of  which  is 
held  by  an  iron  rim,  and  tightened  or  relaxed 
by  screws.  Kettle  drums  are  always  in  pairs, 
one  instrument  being  tuned  to  the  key  note, 
and  the  other  to  the  fifth  of  the  key.  They  arc 
generally  supported  on  iron  tripods.  Instru- 
ments of  percussion  of  the  drum  species  have 
been  familiar  in  the  East  from  remote  ages,  and 


among  savage  races  in  all  parts  of  the  world  aro 
used  in  the  celebration  of  religious  rites  as  well 
as  for  the  performance  of  music.  They  were 
common  among  the  Egyptians,  chiefly  for  mili- 
tary musvp,  as  early  as  1600  B.C.,  some  be- 
ing long  cylinders,  similar  to  the  tomtoms  of 
India,  which  were  beaten  with  tlie  hand,  while 
others  were  of  a  barrel  shape  and  were  beaten 
with  sticks.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
the  drum,  called  the  tympanum,  had  the  form 
of  the  modern  kettle  drum  or  of  the  tambo- 
rine,  and  was  beaten  with  a  stick  or  with  the 
hand.  The  drum  was  probably  introduced  into 
Europe  by  the  Saracens  and  Moors,  by  whom  it 
was  called  the  altamhor,  whence  the  Spanish 
tcimlor  and  the  French  tamhour ;  and  in  the 
first  half  of  the  14th  century  it  was  generally 
adopted  as  an  instrument  of  military  music. 

DRUMMOND,  IIenry,  a  member  of  the  Eng- 
lish parliament,  noted  for  his  wit  and  independ- 
ence, born  Dec.5, 1786.  He  is  the  son  of  one  of  the 
foremost  bankers  of  England,  is  a  member  of 
the  royal  academy  of  fine  arts  at  Florence,  and 
founder  of  a  professorship  of  political  economy 
at  Oxford.  He  founded  a  church  for  the  Irving- 
ites,  and  has  written  much  in  favor  of  that  de- 
nomination. He  has  also  written  extensively  on 
various  other  theological,  and  on  financial  and 
political  subjects,  and  published  in  1859  a  pam- 
phlet against  Mr.  Bright's  reform  movement. 

DRUMMOND,  William,  a  Scottish  poet,  bom 
at  Ilawthornden,  co.  of  Edinburgh,  Dec.  13, 
1585,  died  Dec.  4,  1649.  He  spent  about  12 
years  on  the  continent  of  Europe  engaged  in 
study  and  travel,  but  passed  most  of  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  on  his  family  estate  at 
Ilawthornden,  devoting  himself  'to  literature. 
He  wrote  a  history  of  the  five  Jameses,  com- 
prising the  history  of  Scotland  from  1423  to 
1542  ;  but  the  work  is  of  little  value,  and  he  is 
now  chiefly  remembered  for  his  poetry  and 
for  his  "  Notes  of  Ben  Jonson's  Conversations 
with  "William  Drummond  of  Ilawthornden,  Jan. 
1619."  As  a  poet  he  occupies  an  honorable 
position,  and  his  versification  sometimes  bears  a 
striking  resemblance  to  that  of  some  of  Milton's 
poems.  His  sonnets,  which  form  a  considerable 
part  of  his  works,  are  especially  elegant. 

DRUMMOND,  Sie  William,  a  British  schol- 
ar, author,  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Scotland 
about  1760,  died  in  Rome,  March  29, 1828.  He 
first  made  his  appearance  as  an  author  in  1794 
("A  Review  of  the  Government  of  Sparta  and 
Athens,"  royal  8vo.,  London),  was  in  the  fol-, 
lowing  year  elected  to  parliament,  sat  also  in  the 
parliaments  of  1796  and  1801,  and  was  during 
the  course  of  his  life  British  ambassador  at  sev- 
eral foreign  courts.  In  1801,  being  then  ambas- 
sador to  Constantinople,  he  was  made  a  knight 
of  the  crescent,  an  order  instituted  by  Sultan 
Selim  III.  after  the  battle  of  the  Nile.  This 
gave  him  his  title.  He  published  a  number  of 
works,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  are: 
"Academical  Questions"  (4to.,  1805),  contain- 
ing an  attack  on  all  kinds  of  dogmatism,  em- 
bracing an  exhibition  of  insoluble  problems,  and 


DRUMMOND  LIGHT 


DRUNKENNESS 


629 


tending  to  show  tlie  weakness  of  the  human 
intellect ;  and  "  Origlncs,  or  Remarks  on  tlie 
Origin  of  several  Empires,  States,  and  Cities" 
(4  vols.  8vo.,  London,  182-i-'29),  his  most  con- 
siderable production.  A  work  written  by  him, 
printed  for  private  distribution  merely,  and  en- 
titled "The  (Edipus  Judaicus"  (ISll),  brought 
upon  its  author  much  censure  and  criticism,  in 
consequence  of  his  attempting  in  it  to  explain 
away  some  of  the  narratives  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament as  astronomical  allegories.  Drunnnond 
was  an  elegant  scholar,  and  made  an  excellent 
translation  of  the  satires  of  Persius. 

DRUMiMOND  LIGHT.  When  quicklhno  is 
subjected  to  intense  heat,  such  as  is  produced 
by  the  oxy-hydrogen  blowi)ipo,  the  liglit  emit- 
ted is  exceedingly  powerful  and  dazzling  ;  the 
lime  itself  is  slowly  volatilized,  and  the  surface 
around  is  covered  Avith  its  sublimate.  It  was 
proposed  by  Capt.  Drummond  of  the  British 
royal  engineers  to  employ  this  in  the  trigo- 
nometrical survey  of  Great  Britain,  whence  it 
has  been  called  the  Drummond  light.  It  has 
also  been  applied  to  the  gas  microscope,  in  which 
it  gives  the  prismatic  colors  almost  as  bright  as 
in  the  solar  spectrum.  A  ball  of  lime  only  f  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  as  stated  in  the  "Philoso- 
phical Transactions  "  for  182G,  emitted  a  light 
equal  in  quantity  to  about  13  Argand  lamps,  or 
120  wax  candles ;  while  in  intensity  or  intrinsic 
brightness,  it  could  not  be  less  than  2G0  times 
that  of  an  Argand  lamp.  Tried  at  Purfleet  in  a 
temporary  lighthouse,  it  was  found  to  cast  dis- 
tinct shadows  upon  a  dark  surface  at  Blackwall, 
10  m.  distant ;  and  as  the  reflector  was  turned  so 
that  the  light  did  not  strike  upon  the  spectator, 
an  immense  luminous  cone  was  seen  to  sweep 
around  with  it,  illuminating  the  horizon  to  a 
great  distance.  The  wonderful  intensity  of  this 
light  would  seem  to  render  it  by  far  the  most 
suitable  for  lighthouses ;  but  difficulties  are  en- 
countered in  its  use  which  will  probably  con- 
tinue to  prevent  this  application  of  it.  The 
deficiency  of  divergence  in  the  rays  emitted  un- 
fits it  for  a  fixed  light ;  and  even  if  it  could  be 
applied  to  revolving  lights,  the  difficulties  at- 
tending the  regular  supply  of  the  gases  required 
render  its  constant  maintenance  (so  essential 
for  lighthouses)  too  precarious.  M.  Fresnel 
found  that  the  light  obtained  by  placing  it  in  the 
focus  of  a  great  annular  lens  was  exceedingly 
intense ;  but  the  divergence  did  not  exceed  30', 
60  that  in  any  revolving  light  of  ordinary  con- 
struction, the  duration  of  the  flashes  would  be 
too  short  to  answer  the  purposes  required. 
_  DRUNKENNESS.  When  fermented  or  dis- 
tilled liquors  containing  alcohol  are  taken  in 
moderate  doses,  their  first  eftect  is  to  stimulate 
the  heart  and  nervous  system ;  the  flushed 
cheek  and  quickened  pulse  show  their  influence 
on  the  one,  while  a  rapid  flow  of  ideas,  a  tenden- 
cy to  gayety,  and  a  desire  for  muscular  activity, 
arise  from  tlieir  action  on  the  other.  After  these 
effects  follow  a  sleep,  somewhat  prolonged,  and 
a  general  derangement  of  the  system,  slighter 
or  graver  according  to  the  idiosyncrasy  of  the 


patient.  When  larger  quantities  are  taken,  the 
phenomena  of  intoxication  are  produced ;  the 
nervous  centres  are  more  deeply  implicated,  and 
the  eftects  upon  the  mind  vary  from  the  wildest 
excitement  to  the  silliest  drivel.  The  functions 
of  the  scnsorium  are  deranged  or  perverted, 
thought  is  confused,  vision  and  hearing  are  dis- 
turbed, articulation  is  thick  and  indistinct,  and 
the  voluntary  nuisclcs  are  no  longer  under  tho 
control  of  the  will.  Under  such  circumstances 
a  sort  of  tetanic  contraction  of  the  muscles  is 
often  present,  which  curves  the  drunkard's  body 
in  a  determinate  direction,  generally  to  one  side. 
Sometimes  all  these  phenomena  are  present ; 
sometimes  one  or  more  of  them  are  absent. 
One  person  can  talk  distinctly,  and  his  reasoning 
powers  are  but  slightly  aflTected,  but  he  reels  as 
soon  as  he  attempts  to  wnlk ;  another  has  the 
power  of  locomotion,  but  is  betrayed  by  his 
thick  speech  and  foolish  look.  From  this  con- 
dition, after  prolonged  sleep,  one  awakes  with 
the  digestive  organs  completely  deranged,  the 
strength  prostrated,  and  the  head  aching.  If 
the  quantity  taken  be  still  greater,  after  tem- 
porary excitement,  the  patient  passes  into  a 
state  of  coma.  The  countenance  is  generally 
l)ale,  though  sometimes  flushed,  the  eyes  suf- 
fused, the  pupils  dilated  and  insensible  to  light, 
the  breathing  slow  and  stertorous ;  the  pulse,  at 
first  accelerated,  becomes  feeble,  slow,  and  in 
bad  cases  extinct  at  the  wrist ;  convulsions  and 
strabismus  sometimes  occur.  Such  cases  are 
always  alarming,  a  fixed  pupil  and  irregular 
breathing  particularly  so  ;  when  the  latter  symp- 
tom is  marked,  death  is  apt  to  follow.  Death 
takes  place  from  asphyxia,  the  venous  system 
becoming  gorged,  the  countenance  pale  or  pur- 
ple and  swollen,  and  the  surface  cold.  When  a 
large  quantity  of  spirits  is  swallowed  rapidly,  the 
patient  sometimes  falls  almost  immediately  into 
a  comatose  condition,  soon  followed  by  death. 
From  the  above  account  it  would  appear  that 
spirituous  liquors  first  affect  the  cerebrum,  as 
shown  hy  the  gay  excitement  and  other  mani- 
festations of  disordered  intellect ;  next  the  sen- 
sory ganglia,  as  shown  by  the  disturbance  of 
sight,  hearing,  and  voluntary  motion ;  and  final- 
ly the  medulla  oblongata  and  spinal  marrow, 
causing  at  first  imperfect  and  finally  suspended 
respiration.  When  death  is  produced  by  the 
immediate  effect  of  alcohol  or  distilled  spirits, 
on  2)ost  mortem  examination,  the  whole  venous 
system,  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  the  veins  of 
the  liver  and  lungs,  and  the  sinuses  of  the  brain, 
are  found  gorged  with  blood ;  the  left  side  of  tha 
heart  and  the  arteries  are  emjity.  Rarely,  the 
stomach  i^resents  signs  of  inflammation  as  from 
the  action  of  an  irritant  poison;  more  com- 
monly, unless  the  subject  was  an  habitual 
di'unkard,  its  mucous  membrane  is  unaltered. 
The  brain  is  said  to  be  firmer  and  whiter  than 
ordinary,  as  if  it  had  been  for  a  short  time  im- 
mersed in  alcohol.  When  a  quantity  of  spirit 
so  great  as  to  threaten  life  has  been  swallowed, 
the  use  of  the  stomach  pump,  the  administration 
of  small  doses  of  ammonia,  and  perhaps  J^arshall 


630 


DRUSES 


Hall's  "  ready  method"  (see  Asphyxia)  in  cases 
of  asphyxia,  are  to  be  resorted  to. 

DRUSES,  the  popular  name  of  a  race  and 
a  religious  sect  of  Syria,  chiefly  in  the  southern 
ranges  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Libanus.  Their 
name  is  derived  from  Darazi  or  Dursi,  ■who, 
according  to  the  Arabic  historian  Makrisi,  ap- 
peared A.  D.  1019,  as  a  missionary  of  the  Ea- 
ten ian  sect,  an  ofl:shoot  from  the  Moslem  stock, 
in  Cairo.  The  Druses  regard  him  as  a  heretical 
pupil  of  Ilamsa,  the  Messiah  of  their  system, 
and  look  upon  the  title  which  has  been  fastened 
upon  them  as  a  stigma,  the  only  name  which  they 
acknowledge  being  that  of  Unitarians.  The  pro- 
per era  of  the  Di-uses  begins  A.  D.  1020,  when 
Hamsa,  a  wandering  fanatic,  persuaded  Hakem, 
the  Fatimite  caliph  of  Egypt,  to  declare  himself 
a  manifestation  of  God.  The  caliph  was  assassi- 
nated the  next  year,  and  Ilamsa,  retiring  into  Sy- 
ria, continued  to  propagate  the  new  faith  among 
the  mountain  tribes.  He  and  one  of  his  followers, 
Moktana  Boha-eddin,  committed  their  doctrines 
to  writing,  and  enjoined  the  strictest  secrecy  as 
to  their  nature.  No  member  of  another  sect  and 
no  uninitiated  Druse  was  to  be  permitted  to  see 
the  sacred  writings,  and  no  revelation  is  to  be 
made  until  the  second  advent  of  the  lord  Hakem 
and  Hamsa  his  minister.  A  few  copies  of  the 
sacred  writings  have,  however,  found  their  way 
to  the  libraries  of  Europe.  The  imperial  library 
at  Paris  contains  5  volumes  of  them,  the  Vatican 
contains  one,  the  imperial  library  at  Vienna  one, 
the  library  of  the  Leyden  university  2,  and  the 
Bodleian  library  at  Oxford  4.  There  are  also  sev- 
eral less  important  MSS.  in  the  hands  of  private 
individuals ;  some  are  owned  by  the  American 
missionaries  in  Syria.  The  first  3  volumes  in 
the  Paris  library  were  brought  from  Syria  in 
1700  by  the  physician  Nasr- Allah,  and  presented 
to  the  French  king.  The  4th  volume  Avas  pro- 
cured from  the  private  library  of  M.  Piques, 
who  died  in  Paris  in  1699.  These  volumes  con- 
tain the  exposition  of  the  doctrines  of  the  sect  by 
Hamsa  and  Boha-eddin.  They  were  translated 
into  French  by  Petis  de  la  Croix,  in  1701.  Their 
form  is  a  small  quarto.  The  1st  volume  con- 
tains 14  pieces ;  the  2d,  26  ;  the  3d,  15  ;  the 
4th,  13  ;  the  5th,  which  is  a  fragment,  contains 
2  pieces.  The  Vienna,  Vatican,  and  Leyden 
MSS.,  with  2  of  the  Bodleian,  are  duplicates  of 
l)art3  of  the  Paris  MSS.  Two  of  the  Bodleian 
MSS.  are  supplementary,  and  contain  matter  not 
found  in  the  writings  of  Hamsa.  From  a  care- 
ful study  of  these  sources,  Sylvestre  de  Sacy 
(Bxpose  de  la  religion  dcs  Druzes^  2  vols.,  Paris, 
1828)  has  been  enabled  to  systematize  the 
Druse  theology.  It  is  principally  drawn  from 
the  Batenian  and  Ismaelite  heresies,  which  arose 
within  the  Shiite  division  of  Islam,  in  the  3d 
century  of  the  Hegira,  and  were  brought  to 
Egypt  by  the  invasion  of  the  Fatimite  caliphs. 
•Traces  of  Gnosticism  and  of  the  Magian  system 
of  Persia  are  also  found  in  the  Druse  writings. 
The  characteristic  dogma  of  the  sect  is  the  unity 
of  God's  being.  His  attributes  are  created  and 
subordinate  beings.     Ho  is  incomprehensible, 


supreme,  invisible,  pure,  the  essence  of  true  life. 
He  can  be  known  to  his  accepted  children  only 
through  human  manifestations.  These  have  been 
numerous.  The  10  Druse  forms  under  which 
God  has  appeared  are  Ali,  in  India;  Albar,  in 
Persia ;  Alya,  in  Yemen ;  Moill  and  Kaim,  in 
eastern  Africa ;  Moess  and  Hadi,  in  Asia ;  Al- 
bou  Zacharia,  Mansour,  and  finall}'  Hakem,  in 
Egypt.  The  names  are  sometimes  varied,  but 
all  the  authorities  hold  that  Hakem  was  the  10th 
and  last  earthly  manifestation  of  God,  and  that 
no  other  is  to  be  expected.  He  left  the  care  of 
the  faitliful  to  5  principal  ministers,  who  are  to 
direct  them  till  the  return  of  their  divine  lord. 
Of  these  the  chief  is  Ilamsa.  His  spiritual  title 
is,  the  "  Universal  Intelligence."  This  Intelli- 
gence, the  first  boi'n  of  Deity,  was  incarnated  in 
the  person  of  Ilamsa,  at  the  same  time  that  Deity 
himself  was  incarnated  in  the  person  of  Hakem. 
To  him  was  committed  the  task  of  creation.  He 
is  what  Christ  is  in  the  Arian  theory.  From 
liim  comes  all  wisdom,  all  truth.  He  is  the  me- 
dium by  which  the  Lord  communicates  with  the 
lower  ministers,  and  through  them  with  the  hu- 
man family.  He  dispenses  power,  and  adjusts 
duties  in  the  world;  and  he,  in  the  last  day, 
shall  be  the  judge  and  the  avenger.  Hamsa,  in 
this  system,  combines  the  functions  of  Jesus  and 
Mohammed.  The  epithet  which  Boha-eddin  ap- 
plies to  him  is  that  of  Messiah.  Next  to  Hamsa 
is  Ismail,  the  "  Universal  Soul."  His  origin  was 
the  rebellion  of  the  "  Rival,"  which  made  it  ne- 
cessary that  the  Intelligence  should  have  in  the 
world  a  supporter.  His  office  is  to  inspire  and 
sanctify  souls,  and  prepare  them  to  receive  the 
heavenly  doctrines.  Next  to  Ismail  is  Moham- 
med, the  "Word,"  born  of  the  union  of  Intelli- 
gence with  Soul.  He  has  charge  of  Unitarian 
missions,  and  is  enjoined  to  watch  strictly  the 
conduct  and  necessities  of  the  brethren.  He  is 
the  spiritual  cadi,  the  chief  bishop  of  the  sect. 
The  functions  of  the  4th  minister,  Selama,  the 
"  Preceding,"  seem  to  have  been  much  the  same 
with  those  of  the  5th  minister,  Moktana  Boha- 
eddin,  the  "  Following ;"  for  Selama  is  called  the 
"right  wing,"  Boha-eddin  the  "left  wing."  Both 
these  ministers  were  called  3  years  after  Hakem's 
disappearance.  They  were  probably  intrusted 
with  the  charge  of  all  knowledge  and  teaching 
except  that  of  the  Unitarian  religion,  which  must 
come  from  the  higher  ministers.  Boha-eddin 
had  the  special  duty  of  organizing  th& Unitarian 
sect.  He  knew  the  retreat  of  Hamsa,  consulted 
with  him,  and  from  time  to  time  produceci  Ham- 
sa's  commands  and  directions.  Below  these  5 
superior  ministers  are  3  styled  the  "  Apphca- 
tion,"  the  "  Opening,"  and  the  "  Phantom." 
These  ministers  have  each  his  earthly  figure. 
They  are  the  3  feet  of  the  candlestick  which 
holds  the  candle  of  5  elements.  Beneath  these 
there  are  3  still  lower  classes,  called  Dars,  Mad- 
hooms,  and  Mocassers,  who  form  the  connecting 
link  between  the  earthly  society  and  the  heaven- 
ly orders,  and  hold  their  dignity  only  by  virtue 
of  their  character  and  abilities.  All  of  them  are 
preachers,  and  have  commission  to  destroy  false 


DRUSES 


631 


doctrine  and  to  communicato  tlio  truth.  Tho 
•whole  number  of  working  ministers,  expressed 
by  the  cabahstic  word  S(U\  is  104.— The  Druses 
hold  that  tho  most  preciinis  of  substances  were 
used  for  the  composition  of  man's  body,  and  tliat 
the  world  at  the  beginning  hud  its  i»erfcct  form. 
Men  were  made  male  and  female,  largo  and 
small,  young  and  old,  in  myriads,  in  a  fixed 
number,  and  no  more  souls  have  since  been 
created.  The  race  may  change  its  figure  and 
visible  manifestations,  but  not  its  numbers.  On 
the  fall  of  man  and  the  origin  of  evil,  the  Druse 
teaching  is  neither  very  clear  nor  very  consist- 
ent. The  minister  of  sin,  the  Rival,  is  as  subtle 
and  insinuating  as  the  Hebrew  Satan,  but  his 
work  is  not  so  well  defined.  This  Kival  stands 
between  the  lutolligence  and  the  Soul,  and  his 
work  of  temptation  is  hindered  by  the  counter 
work  of  both  these  celestial  powers.  The  Druse 
reproduction  of  the  story  of  paradise  makes 
Enoch  and  Seth  to  be  the  rebellious  pair  whose 
sin  entailed  woe  upon  the  race.  The  actual 
evils  of  sin  are  manifold — separation  from  God, 
confusion  of  knowledge,  religious  divisions,  wars, 
jealousies,  falsehoods.  Sin  broke  tho  unity  of 
the  race,  which  the  Druse  religion  aims  to  re- 
store. The  mediator  is  Ilamsa.  Ilis  mediation 
is  not,  however,  vicarious,  and  the  change  which 
he  works  is  not  in  the  mind  of  God,  but  in  the 
condition  and  spirit  of  men.  He  baflles  Satan 
and  remits  sin,  but  does  not  strictly  make  an 
atonement.  The  Druse  doctrine  of  free  will  and 
divine  decrees  is  Pelagian.  The  length  of  every 
man's  life,  but  not  his.  individual  acts,  is  fore- 
ordained. Transmigration  of  souls,  which  the 
Druses  maintain,  offers  a  convenient  method  of 
reconciling  the  theory  of  a  fixed  cosmogony 
with  a  righteous  retribution.  In  passing  from 
body  to  body,  good  men  become  continually 
better,  bad  men  continually  worse,  though  it 
is  possible  for  them  to  change  and  become 
better.  Ismail  Temeami,  the  Soul,  was  for- 
merly John  the  Baptist,  and  still  earlier  Elijah, 
while  the  soul  of  Hamsa  was  once  in  the  body 
of  Jesus.  The  Druse  transmigration,  however, 
is  much  more  limited  than  the  Indian  or  the 
Pythagorean ;  it  denies  that  the  souls  of  men 
are  imprisoned  in  the  bodies  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals even  for  the  sake  of  punishment.  The 
souls  of  men,  until  the  resurrection,  keep  the 
embodied  form,  except  a  few  whose  superior 
excellence  permits  them  to  exist  as  pure  spirit. 
This  resurrection  will  consummate  the  great 
spiritual  plan.  On  that  day  the  bodies  of 
the  faithful  will  be  absorbed  into  God's  own 
being,  and  transformed  into  spirit ;  all  else  will 
be  destroyed.  The  saved  will  be  few  in  com- 
parison with  the  lost,  but  their  condition  will 
not  be  affected  by  any  earthly  memories.  Until 
this  day  of  resurrection  a  register  of  the  acts 
of  the  Unitarians,  good  and  bad,  is  kept  by 
the  Lord  in  a  "  safe  place,"  where  it  will  not 
"  spoil  nor  decay."  Punishment,  in  the  mean 
time,  consists  in  making  the  soul  go  downward 
to  a  lower  society  ;  reward,  in  elevating  it 
to  an   ever  higher  sphere.     The  Druses  not 


only  I'cvercncc  the  holy  names  of  Hebrew  and 
Christian  prophets,  but  they  have  a  large  cal- 
endar of  their  own  canonized  men.  The  life 
of  ?nan  is  divided  into  soul,  body,  and  intelli- 
gence. Intelligence  communicates  to  the  soul 
the  enlivening  and  divine  spark.  The  work  of 
the  soul  is  to  seek  wisdom,  and  the  substance 
of  wisdom  is  to  know  God.  Moral  teaching  is 
summed  up  in  7  commandments.  Tlie  first  is 
"  truth  in  words,"  meaning  in  practice  only 
truth  to  the  religion  and  to  tlie  initiated  ;  it  is 
lawful  to  act  and  to  speak  falsehood  to  men  of 
another  creed,  and  in  defence  of  the  Unitarian 
faith.  The  2d  is  "mutual  help,  watchfulness, 
and  protection."  The  8d  is  to  renounce  all 
other  religions.  The  4th  is  to  be  separate  from 
infidels  of  every  kind,  not  externally,  but  only 
in  heart.  The  5th,  6th,  and  7th  arc  semi-theo- 
logical ;  the  believer  must  "  recognize  God's 
eternal  unity,"  must  be  "satisfied  with  God's 
acts,"  and  "must  be  i-esigned  to  God's  will." 
Under  these  7  commandments  numerous  minor 
moral  precepts  are  given,  and  special  crimes  are 
prohibited.  Chastity,  honesty,  meekness,  and 
mercy  are  Druse  virtues;  murder,  theft,  covet- 
ousness,  cruelty,  are  sins.  It  is  the  deliberate 
opinion  ofintelligent  Avriters,  who  have  known 
and  lived  with  them,  that  the  average  morality 
of  the  Druses  is  as  high  as  that  of  any  other 
eastern  religious  sect. — Of  the  character  of  the 
Druse  worship  there  is  but  little  precise  infor- 
mation in  their  writings.  That  they  have  no 
prayer  or  preaching  to  which  unbelievers  can 
listen,  has  given  rise  to  the  report  that  they  are 
without  a  religion.  They  observe  no  sabbath, 
they  have  no  priestly  class,  their  ceremonies 
are  of  initiation  rather  than  ritual,  and,  except 
in  their  holoxces  and  oclrils^  there  is  nothing  to 
connect  them  with  religious  symbols.  The  Tiolo- 
wes^  or  places  of  meeting,  have  little  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  common  houses,  except  a 
somewhat  larger  room  and  more  careful  clean- 
ing. They  are  bare  of  furniture,  and  show  no 
sacred  emblems.  Every  Thursday  evening  the 
brethren  meet,  opening  their  assembly  freely  to 
strangers,  but  allowing  none  to  learn  any  more 
than  they  can  see.  The  revenue  of  these  holo- 
wes  (for,  like  the  convents  of  Europe,  they  have 
landed  property)  is  dispensed  in  charity.  The 
ocMU  (whose  name  is  derived  from  the  Arabic 
«I-Z,  intelligence)  are  the  wise  men  of  the  Druse 
sect,  who  have  taken  all  the  degrees,  and  have 
charge  of  the  highest  religious  interests  of  the 
community.  They  are  chosen  after  long  pro- 
bation, in  which  severe  self-denials,  including 
abstinence  from  tobacco,  are  required.  A  year 
must  pass  before  the  first  degree  can  be  taken ; 
and  after  initiation  the  strict  rules  of  discipline 
continue  to  bind  them.  Any  class  and  either  sex 
may  furnish  candidates,  and  any  one,  however 
holy,  is  liable  to  fall  from  grace.  The  ockals 
have  among  the  people  only  that  position  which 
the  leaders  have  in  the  meetings  of  the  society 
of  Friends.  They  are  not  salaried,  and  work 
with  their  hands  like  the  rest,  but  are  univer- 
sally respected-    They  take  the  lead  in  the 


G32 


DRUSES 


meetings,  rend  the  Koran  or  tliG  Christian  Scrip- 
tures if  infidels  of  these  sects  are  present,  and 
their  own  religious  hooks  after  infidels  have 
gone.  Some  of  them  are  ascetics,  but  asceti- 
cism is  by  no  means  required.  Some  of  them 
will  fight  in  time  of  war,  though  they  are  hy 
profession  bound  to  peace.  They  are  the  arbi- 
ters of  disputes,  and  the  saints  of  the  people 
when  they  have  passed  from  the  earth.  The 
proportion  of  ockals  or  initiated  religionists  to 
the  whole  number  of  the  Druses  is  about  one  to 
four. — The  form  of  government  among  the  Druses 
is  half  feudal,  half  patriarchal.  The  sheiks,  who 
are  the  strongest,  most  graceful,  and  most  in- 
telligent men  of  the  various  tribes,  preserving 
very  carefully  the  purity  of  blood,  owning  by 
hereditary  tenure  the  best  lands  and  the  abso- 
lute service  of  their  tenantry,  rule  by  unwritten 
law,  and  are  sustained  by  the  traditional  loyalty 
of  their  vassals.  They  are  leaders  in  war  and 
in  sports,  and  direct  almost  despotically  the 
economy  and  policy  of  the  tribes.  Some  of 
them  live  in  comparative  state,  but  more  often 
their  fare  and  their  habits  are  those  of  the  com- 
mon people,  and  they  labor  with  the  rest.  Their 
commodious  houses  are  rarely  without  guests. 
The  sheiks  of  different  tribes  are  often  at  strife 
together ;  but  when  the  race  is  called  to  con- 
tend with  other  races  they  are  united  as  one 
man,  and  obey  implicitly  the  orders  of  their 
sovereign  emir,  witii  whom  the  general  direc- 
tion of  the  tribes  hy  tacit  consent  resides.  It 
is  a  league  of  mountain  barons  supporting  a 
king  elected  without  suffrage  and  governing 
without  statute.  The  Druse  country  is  chiefly 
a  mountain  region,  and  difficult  to  cultivate. 
Except  in  the  level  tract  of  Ctele-Syria,  where 
a  few  of  them  dwell,  the  rains  of  winter  are 
apt  to  destroy  the  labor  of  spring  and  summer. 
The  patches  of  soil,  too  small  and  rough  for  the 
plough,  must  be  turned  up  and  watered  by 
hand.  Industry  has  overcome  this  natural  dis- 
advantage ;  and  in  no  part  of  Syria  does  the  face 
of  the  mountain  show  higher  culture.  The  fig, 
olive,  mulberry,  and*  apricot,  vineyards  trained 
to  grow  in  crevices  of  the  rock,  with  small 
groves  of  evergreen,  surround  and  embosom 
the  villages  which  cling  to  the  slopes,  or  fill  the 
narrow  valleys.  Usually  the  village  is  placed 
near  the  entrance  of  a  pass,  so  that  in  case  of 
attack  it  can  be  more  easily  defended.  From 
the  level  of  the  pathway  the  houses  rise  in  ter- 
races, till  in  some  instances  they  reach  the  top 
of  the  mountain.  The  habits  of  the  people 
are  simple  and  primitive.  Most  of  them  till 
the  soil ;  a  few  are  artisans ;  the  spinning  and 
"weaving  are  done  by  women  in  their  houses,  and 
i-he  children  of  both  sexes  are  kept  at  school. 
Every  boy  learns  at  an  early  ago  how  to  use  the 
lance,  the  dagger,  the  sword,  and  the  gun.  The 
method  of  fighting  is  not  in  masses  so  much  as 
by  ambush  and  in  small  bands.  Having  no  ar- 
tillery, they  are  compelled  to  this  style  of  war, 
■and  in  it  they  have  no  superiors.  If  the  war 
be  one  of  defence,  the  soldiers  ask  for  no  pay ; 
:and  when  they  go  on  expeditions  of  forage  or 


plunder  at  the  call  of  some  other  tribe,  they  are 
content  with  meagre  bounty.  Their  code  of 
martial  honor  is  very  precise ;  deceit  between 
comrades  is  lasting  shame,  and  cowardice  is 
never  forgotten.  Success  is  a  criterion  of  worth, 
and  the  chief  who  has  bfeen  Avorsted  in  con- 
flict is  in  danger  of  losing  his  place  of  honor. 
So  frequent  are  the  calls  to  warfare  that  the 
Druses  would  sutler  if  their  habits  were  im- 
provident like  those  of  the  surrounding  Arabs; 
but  the  reserved  fund,  laid  by  in  time  of  peace, 
and  bequeathed  from  father  to  son,  secures 
them  against  absolute  w^nnt.  Few  are  rich, 
hut  scarcely  any  are  destitute.  The  relation 
of  the  sexes  is  far  more  honorable  than  among 
the  Turks  or  Arabs.  There  is  but  one  wife  in 
the  house,  and  her  rights  are  admitted  and 
protected ;  she  can  own  personal  property,  re- 
tain the  half  of  her  dowry  money  after  divorce, 
and  is  not  compelled  to  marry  against  her  in- 
clination. An  ockal  regards  his  wife  as  in 
every  particular  his  equal.  The  marriage  cus- 
toms of  the  people  resemble  those  of  the  Arabs, 
with  somewhat  less  of  ceremony.  There  is  no 
religious  rite,  but  plenty  of  bridal  presents.  A 
birth,  though  an  occasion  of  rejoicing  if  it  be 
of  a  son,  is  attended  by  no  special  celebration. 
But  the  greatest  parade  is  made  at  the  burial 
of  a  sheik.  All  the  neighboring  sheiks  Tvith 
their  retainers  attend.  All  day  long  the  cere- 
monies last,  Avith  bowlings,  frantic  gestures,  and 
doleful  chants,  followed  by  a  solemn  and  im- 
pressive procession.  At  the  tomb,  sentences 
are  repeated  from  the  Koran,  and  the  sheiks  sit 
silent  around  while  the  will  of  the  deceased  is 
read.  The  burial  of  an  ockal  is  marked  hy 
even  more  fervor  of  grief,  especially  if  the 
sanctity  of  the  man  has  been  accompanied  by 
narrow  fortune.  His  dress  is  parted  into  frag- 
ments, which  become  sacred  relics,  and  the 
tomb  itself  becomes  a  place  of  pilgrimage. — The 
number  of  Druses  in  the  whole  of  Syria,  from 
the  plain  east  of  Damascus  to  the  w-estern  coast, 
is  reckoned  to  be  about  70,000.  Some  of  these 
dwell  in  scattered  families  in  the  larger  towns, 
and  in  the  villages  of  the  Maronites.  In  the 
towns  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hermon,  they  make, 
a  considerable*  part  of  the  population  and  have 
great  influence.  The  Druses  of  the  AntiTLiba- 
nus  are  a  more  warlike  and  restless  class  than 
their  brethren  beyond  the  Litany.  But  the 
proper  home  of  the  Druse  people  is  in  the  Leb- 
anon mountains,  from  the  latitude  of  Bey- 
root  to  that  of  Tyre.  The  principal  towns  are 
Deir  el  Kamer,  once  the  capital ;  Shwyfat,  near 
Beyroot,  where  the  emir  Emeen,  the  present 
governor  of  the  Druses,  resides;  Heittat  and 
Allaye ;  Abeigli,  where  the  American  Protest- 
ants have  a  flourishing  mission ;  Bakleen,  Muc- 
tara,  Bavook,  and  Ainshalti,  where  there  is 
also  a  missionary  station. — The  history  of  the 
Druses  is  so  interwoven  with  that  of  the  sur- 
rounding tribes  of  the  Maronites,  and  of  Moslem 
and  Cliristian  strifes  in  Syria,  that  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  treat  it  separately.  For  800  years,  the 
emirs  of  the  mountain,  at  the  head  of  whom 


DEUSES 


DRY  EOT 


633 


■was  tlio  family  of  Tnooh,  wero  in  perpetual  con- 
flict, now  with  the  Frunlcs  as  allies  of  the  I)a- 
mascus  sultan,  and  now  with  the  sultan  himself 
for  their  own  independence.  Early  in  the  14th 
century  they  were  the  victims  of  Mohammedan 
persecution.  The  beginning  of  the  17th  century 
was  marked  by  bloody  battles  between  the  troops 
of  the  pasha  at  Damascus  and  the  mountain 
tribes,  and  by  still  more  bloody  civil  wars  among 
the  latter.  In  1G14  the  emir  Fakaradeen,  the 
most  famous  and  powerful  of  the  Druse  chieftains, 
resigned  his  authority  to  his  son  Ali,  and  visited 
Italy  with  a  large  retinue.  lie  Avas  received  with 
distinction  at  tlie  courts  of  Naples  and  Tuscany, 
and  made  a  highly  favorable  impression  by  his 
ability  and  the  dignity  of  his  manners.  A  palace 
at  Pisa  was  appropriated  to  his  use,  and  he  re- 
sided there  5  years,  at  the  expiration  of  which 
he  returned  to  Syria  and  was  reinstated  in  his 
authority  over  his  tribe.  lie  extended  his  juris- 
diction by  conquest  and  policy  until  he  became 
the  virtual  ruler  of  nearly  the  whole  of  Syria. 
He  was  finally  subdued  by  the  armies  of  the 
sultan,  Yiiade  prisoner  and  sent  to  Constanti- 
nople, where  he  was  put  to  death,  April  13, 1635. 
The  districts  of  the  mountain  were  finally  par- 
celled to  the  various  sheiks,  as  tributaries  of 
the  pasha.  About  1771  these  tribes  made  com- 
mon cause  against  the  Arab  Metualis,  whose 
rebellion  against  the  Turks  threatened  to  dis- 
lodge all  the  tributaries  of  the  Ottoman  power. 
Invaded  by  the  Russians,  the  Egyptians,  and 
more  than  all  by  the  formidable  Daher,  pasha 
of  Acre,  they  were  driven  from  their  homes, 
plundered  and  dispersed.  Under  the  bloody 
pasha  Jezzar,  though  the  Druses  suftered,  yet 
on  the  whole  their  relative  power  was  in- 
creased. The  emir  Bechir  Shehaab,  though 
a  Christian  by  profession,  belongs  to  the  his- 
tory of  the  Druses  more  than  to  that  of  the 
Christians  in  the  Lebanon.  His  capital  was 
in  the  heart  of  their  mountains,  and  his  policy 
was  influenced  by  their  dictation.  Their  most 
powerful  sheik,  Bechir  Jumblatt,  was  his  ally, 
adviser,  and  almost  his  rival.  The  alliance  be- 
tween these  2  powerful  chiefs  was  broken  about 
the  close  of  1824,  when  the  extortions  of  the 
emir  drove  the  Druses  into  revolt,  and  sent 
Jumblatt  into  voluntary  exile.  The  sheiks  of 
the  various  tribes  rallied  to  avenge  his  cause, 
but  were  eventually  defeated.  "Within  the  last 
80  years  the  Druses  have  been  repeatedly  called 
to  take  up  arms.  They  bore  a  part  in  the  strife 
which  resulted  in  the  restoration  of  Syria  to 
the  Turkish  sultan;  in  1842  they  were  again  in 
insurrection  against  the  Turks ;  and  more  re- 
cently they  have  waged  a  harassing  warfare 
against  their  rivals  the  Maronites.  They  live 
in  continual  readiness  for  battle ;  and  their  mar- 
tial propensities  are  a  source  of  constant  ap- 
prehension to  the  other  inhabitants  of  the 
mountain.  In  spite  of  their  adoption  of  the 
religious  customs  of  the  Moslems,  of  their  readi- 
ness to  educate  their  children  in  Christian 
schools,  of  their  use  of  the  Arabic  language, 
which  they  speak  and  write  as  purely  as  any 


tribe  in  Syria,  and  of  their  free  intercourse  with 
strangers,  tlie  Dj-uscs  remain,  even  more  than 
the  Jews,  a  peculiar  ^icople.  They  arc  rarely 
converted ;  they  marry  within  their  own  race; 
they  adhere  tenaciously  to  their  traditions;  and 
they  balfle  all  efibrts  to  discover  tlicir  cherished 
secrets.  They  are  stigmatized  as  infidels,  rob- 
bers, and  savages;  yet  they  seek  for  knowl- 
edge, observe  honor,  and  practise  domestic  and 
social  virtues,  in  a  way  that  compels  the  praiso 
of  intelligent  Christian  observers.  In  their  re- 
ligion there  is  no  sign  of  idolatry ;  they  are  less 
fanatical  than  the  sects  around  tliem,  and  they 
covet  no  proselytes.  The  bad  name  of  that 
caliph  whom  they  claim  as  their  founder  and 
worship  as  their  god  is  fairly  compensated  by 
the  pure  lives  of  many  whom  they  honor  as 
saints,  and  by  the  heroism  of  their  feudal  lead- 
ers.— The  fullest  account  of  the  Druses  in  the 
English  language  is  contained  in  Col.  Church- 
ill's "Mount  Lebanon"  (3  vols.  8vo.,  London, 
1853). 

DRUSUS,  Claudius  Neeo,  commonly  called 
Drusus  Senior,  to  distinguish  him  from  his 
nephew,  Claudius,  the  son  of  Tiberius,  born  38, 
died  9  B.  C.  His  mother  Livia  Drusilla  was 
divorced  from  her  husband  Claudius  Tiberius 
Nero,  and  married  to  the  emperor  Augustus  3 
months  before  the  birth  of  the  subject  of  this 
notice;  and  the  lattei",  on  the  death  of  his  father 
not  long  afterward,  was  committed  to  the  guard- 
ianship of  his  stepfather.  His  noble  bearing 
and  the  libei'ality  of  his  political  sentiments 
won  him  early  popularity,  which  was  increased 
by  the  exploits  of  his  maturer  years.  His  career 
was  short  and  brilliant.  His  first  military  com- 
mand was  against  the  Ehsetians,  who  were  ac- 
cused of  having  plundered  subjects  and  allies 
of  Eome,  aud  whom  he  defeated  as  they  were 
about  to  make  a  descent  upon  the  plains  of  It- 
aly, lie  afterward  joined  his  brother  Tibe- 
rius, and  in  conjunction  with  him  thoroughly 
subdued  this  formidable  tribe.  In  13  B.  C.  he 
was  appointed  governor  of  Gaul,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  defeated  the  Sicambrians,  and  after- 
ward the  Frisians.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  mostly 
taken  up  with  his  campaigns  against  other  Ger- 
man tribes,  in  the  course  of  which  he  ravaged 
a  great  portion  of  their  territory  and  penetrated 
as  far  as  the  Elbe.  It  was  on  his  last  expedi- 
tion that  he  reached  this  river,  and  on  his  re- 
turn he  met  his  death,  according  to  the  common- 
ly received  account,  from  an  injury  received  by 
the  falling  of  his  horse.  Drusus  was  the  first 
Eoman  general  who  penetrated  to  the  German 
ocean.  He  dug  a  canal  coimecting  the  Ehine 
with  the  Yssel,  and  probably  widened  the  out- 
let of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  so  as  to  give  a  navigable 
passage  from  the  Rhine  to  the  ocean. 

DRY  EOT,  a  disease  in  timber  to  which  pub- 
lic attention  has  been  particularly  directed  only 
within  the  last  100  years.  It  commences  with- 
in the  body  of  the  stick,  however  well  this  may 
be  protected  by  paint  or  varnish,  and,  without 
any  indication  of  its  existence  upon  the  outside, 
it  goes  on  converting  the  fibre  of  the  wood  into 


634 


DRY  ROT 


drj'  dust,  and  spreading  from  tlio  internal  parts 
outward.  Comnioa  rot  commences  on  the  out- 
side by  the  agency  of  atmospheric  causes  of 
change,  and  gradually  works  inward.  Dry  rot 
is  most  likely  to  affect  timber  in  warm,  close, 
and  moist  situations,  where  the  wood  becomes 
coated  with  a  fine  mould  of  a  brownish  white 
or  dirty  yellow  color,  winch  as  it  spreads  rami- 
fies into  the  forms  of  alga3  or  sea  weeds,  and 
becomes  in  the  process  of  time  by  the  filling  in 
of  its  interstices  dense  and  tough,  like  leather. 
This  fungous  growth  has  been  seen  to  fill  a  hole 
bored  into  a  sound  oak  timber  of  one  of  the 
old  ships  of  the  British  navy,  so  that  within  24 
hours  it  had  become  so  compact  that  it  could 
be  drawn  out  with  a  stick.  It  sometimes  in- 
creases so  rapidly  that  heavy  sticks  of  oak  tim- 
ber are  destroyed  in  a  few  months.  In  some 
of  the  mines  of  France,  as  stated  in  the  Annates 
des  mines  (vol.  vii.,  1835),  the  timbers  used  for 
props  seldom  last  longer  than  15  months,  and 
some  are  rendered  unfit  for  use  even  in  as  many 
days.  Locust  substituted  for  the  oak  was  found 
to  be  much  more  durable.  There  is  thus  a  great 
difference  in  the  liability  of  different  kinds  of 
wood  to  be  attacked  by  this  disease.  Cedar,  lo- 
cust, teak,  and  live  oak  resist  its  attacks  better 
than  most  other  woods  used  in  ship-building,  and 
wood  of  close  texture,  as  box,  ebony,  cypress, 
and  mahogany,  is  rarely  attacked  by  it.  Pliny, 
who  seems  to  have  been  acquainted  Avith  this 
cause  of  the  decay  of  timber,  observed  that  the 
more  odoriferous  a  piece  of  timber  is,  the  more 
durable.  He  also  knew  that  the  part  of  the 
timber  most  subject  to  rot  was  the  sap  wood, 
outside  of  the  heart,  and  recommended  the  cut- 
ting of  this  away  in  squaring  the  stick.  But 
kinds  of  wood,  not  the  least  liable  to  suffer 
from  dry  rot,  have  in  favorable  situations  stood 
unharmed  for  several  hundred  years,  apparently 
harder  and  more  solid  than  when  first  hewn. 
Such  situations  are  where  the  air  can  circulate 
freely  around  the  timber,  and  it  is  protected 
from  moisture ;  or  where  the  air  is  entirely  ex- 
cluded, as  iu  tight  structures  of  masonry,  or 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  water,  or  Avhere 
the  wood  is  buried  among  antiseptic  matters,  as 
in  a  peat  bog.  Heart  wood,  being  of  close  tex- 
ture, without  cells  or  sap,  is  not  so  readily  at- 
tacked as  is  the  sap  wood.  To  some  condition 
of  the  sap  it  is  evident  the  decay  is  to  be  at- 
tributed ;  and  it  is  now  commonly  understood 
to  be  owing  to  a  vegetable  growth  which  takes 
place  within  the  pores  of  the  wood,  the  sap 
having  probably  carried  up  the  minute  seeds  of 
the  fungus  during  the  growth  of  the  plant. 
This  fungus  is  known  to  botanists  by  the  name 
merulius  lachrymans.  The  vegetation  at  first 
is  scarcely  perceptible;  it  appears  in  delicate 
white  filaments,  which  spread  toward  the  sur- 
face, interlacing  with  one  another,  and  present- 
ing the  leather-like  appearance  as  these  fill  up. 
The  fibre  of  the  wood  is  now  attacked  and  cor- 
roded, and  in  a  short  time  the  ligneous  mass  be- 
comes a  loose  cellular  tissue,  readily  falling  into 
powder.    Frequently  the  surface  remains  sound, 


while  the  whole  central  part  is  thus  decomposed ; 
but  occasionally  this  process  commences  at  the 
surfoce.  (M.  Aubuisson,  Annalea  des  mines,  vol. 
vii.,  1835.)  In  the  living  tree  this  growth  is 
not  readily  produced,  but  it  seems  to  be  nourish- 
ed by  the  putrefactive  fermentation  of  the  juices 
of  the  plant,  the  commencement  of  which  is 
dependent  upon  the  presence  of  some  acid.  By 
arresting  this  fermentation  the  decay  may  be 
prevented,  and  various  methods  are  successfully 
applied  to  effect  this  purpose.  Tlie  dissipation 
of  the  fluids  by  evaporation  produced  by  thor- 
ough seasoning,  and  then  securing  the  wood 
from  the  entrance  of  moisture  through  its  pores, 
is  a  common  but  imperfect  method  of  protect- 
ing timber.  If  the  seasoning  is  conducted  under 
water  the  result  is  more  completely  attained, 
the  juices  appearing  to  be  dissolved  and  entirely 
removed.  Burying  the  wood  for  a  time  in  the 
ground  answers  the  same  purpose.  A  third 
method  consists  in  filling  the  pores  of  the  wood 
with  some  substance  which  resists  putrefaction, 
and  is  destructive  to  vegetable  and  animal  life. 
None  has  been  found  to  answer  the  purpose 
more  effectually  than  corrosive  sublimate.  Its 
use  was  recommended  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy, 
and  it  was  successfully  applied  by  the  late  Mr. 
Kyan  in  the  process  called  kyanizing,  which 
consists  in  steeping  the  timber  in  a  solution 
of  this  salt,  "Wood  kept  for  a  few  hours  in  a 
boiling  solution  of  copperas  and  then  thoroughly 
dried  is  rendered  exceedingly  hard  and  durable. 
The  sulphates  of  zinc  and  of  copper  also  pro- 
duce the  same  effect,  and  the  chloride  of  zinc 
is  highly  recommended.  A  mmiber  of  other 
salts  may  be  substituted  for  these,  avoiding  those 
which  are  liable  to  deliquesce  or  attract  moist- 
ure from  the  air,  as  this  serves  to  keep  the  wood 
damp,  and  causes  iron  bolts  and  fastenings  to 
corrode.  Common  salt  is  much  used  in  ships, 
both  of  the  mercantile  and  naval  service.  It 
has  the  objection  of  deliquescing,  particular- 
ly if  it  contain  much  of  the  bitter  salts,  as  the 
chloride  of  magnesium,  and  consequently  the 
vessels  are  always  damp,  and  liable  for  this 
reason  to  be  unhealthy.  The  salt  is  packed  be- 
tween the  timbers  when  the  vessels  are  built, 
and  is  inserted  into  boles  made  in  them  for  the 
purpose.  It  is  always  considered  an  important 
object  for  a  new  ship  to  get  a  cargo  of  salt  on 
account  of  its  pei'manent  benefit  to  her  timbers. 
Solutions  of  salts  of  pyroligneous  acid  have  also 
been  successfully  used,  the  air  being  first  ex- 
hausted from  the  wood  by  powerful  air  pumps, 
and  the  solution  being  then  forced  into  the 
pores.  Most  of  these  processes  are  objection- 
able on  account  of  the  expense  and  trouble  at- 
tending them ;  and  as  the  second  method  above 
named  has  long  been  found  sufiicient,  it  con- 
tinues to  be  commonly  preferred.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  an  ancient  practice  in  England  to 
steep  the  oak  planks  for  threshing  floors  and 
those  intended  for  the  wainscoting  of  houses 
in  running  water.  Recently  it  has  been  found 
that  timber  immersed  for  some  time  in  salt 
water  is  made  more  durable ;  and  even  when 


DRYADS 


DRYDEIT 


635 


the  dry  rot  has  made  confjidorahlo  progress,  tho 
wood  is  ])reservcd  from  further  decay.  Atten- 
tion has  been  forcibly  called  to  this  fact  by  tho 
results  of  tho  sinking  of  dillercnt  ships  belong- 
ing to  the  British  navy,  the  timbers  of  ■which 
were  affected  by  the  rot.  On  being  raised  to 
the  surface  after  an  immersion  of  several  months, 
the  fungus  had  disappeared,  and  the  wood  after- 
ward continued  free  from  decay.  It  is  probable 
that  the  durability  of  the  ])lanks  used  in  the 
bends  of  vessels  is  owing  to  tho  steaming  pro- 
cess to  which  they  have  been  subjected,  the 
juices  which  tend  to  produce  fermentation  being 
thus  dissolved  out  as  eftbctually  as  by  steeping 
in  water  or  burying  in  the  earth.  Seasoning  in 
dry  air,  though  it  may  cause  the  destructive 
juices  to  be  hardened,  and  thus  rendered  harm- 
less so  long  as  they  continue  in  this  condition, 
is  proved  to  be  imperfect  when  the  wood  is  ex- 
posed in  damp  situations.  The  moisture  pene- 
trating the  pores  redissolves  these  juices,  and 
the  fungus  soon  makes  its  appearance.  Wood 
that  has  lasted  perfectly  well  for  650  years  has, 
by  an  exposure  in  unfavorable  situations,  been 
attacked  in  a  few  weeks  by  the  dry  rot. 

DRYADS  (Gr.  8pvs,  an  oak,  or  large  wild- 
growing  tree),  a  class  of  nymphs  in  ancient 
Greek  and  Roman  mythology.  According  to 
Bomo  they  were  the  same  as  the  hamadryads, 
and,  being  attached  to  particular  trees,  their  life 
was  limited  by  that  of  the  tree  in  which  they 
lived.  Another  account  is  that  the  dryads  wei*e 
the  patrons  of  forests  and  trees  in  general,  and 
were  thus  distinguished  from  the  hamadryads, 
who  inhabited  each  a  particular  tree. 

DRYANDER,  Jonas,  a  Swedish  naturalist, 
born  in  1748,  died  in  London  in  Oct.  1810.  He 
was  educated  at  the  university  of  Gottenburg, 
and  took  his  degree  of  doctor  in  philosophy  at 
Lund  in  1776,  on  which  occasion  he  published  a 
dissertation  in  opposition  to  the  theory  of  those 
naturalists  who  asserted  that  fungi  might  be 
the  production  of  animals.  He  subsequently 
became  the  friend  and  pupil  of  Linnreus;  and 
visiting  England  as  the  tutor  of  a  young  noble- 
man, he  was  introduced  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks, 
Tinder  whose  roof  he  resided  after  1782,  in  the 
capacity  of  librarian.  He  was  also  librarian  of 
the  royal  and  Linna;an  societies,  of  the  latter  of 
which  he  was  one  of  the  founders,  and  at  the 
time  of  his  death  vice-president.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral papers  on  botanical  subjects,  and  superin- 
tended the  publication  of  the  Hortus  Kewcnsis 
and  Roxburgh's  "Plants  of  the  Coast  of  Coro- 
mandel."  He  was  one  of  the  most  accomplished 
of  modern  bibliographers,  and  his  Gatalogus 
Billiothecm  Historico-N'aturalis  JosepTii  Banks^ 
Baroneti  (.5  vols.,  London,  1798),  is  a  model  of 
admirable  arrangement,  and  the  most  compre- 
hensive catalogue  of  the  kind  ever  published. 

DRYDEN",  JoHx,  an  English  poet,  born  in 
the  parish  of  Aldwinckle  All  Saints,  Northamp- 
tonshire, Aug.  9,  1631,  died  May  1,  1700.  He 
belonged  to  a  respectable  Puritan  family.  His 
father  was  a  magistrate  under  Cromwell.  John, 
the  eldest  of  14:  children,  received  a  good  edu- 


cation at  Tichmarsh  and  .it  "Westminster  school. 
At  the  latter  ho  showed  his  poetical  gifts  in 
a  translation  of  the  3d  satire  of  Persius  and 
an  elegy  on  the  accomi)lished  young  Lord  Hast- 
ings, lie  was  graduated  at  Trinity  college, 
Cambridge,  in  16.51-,  went  home  on  the  death 
of  his  father  in  the  same  year,  and  soon  after 
returned  to  the  university,  where  ho  remained 
until  16.57.  Ilis  relative.  Sir  Gilbert  Pickering, 
a  member  of  Cromwell's  council,  induced  him 
to  come  to  London,  and  gave  him  a  petty  clerk- 
ship. He  celebrated  the  death  of  the  ])rotector 
in  his  "  Heroic  Stanzas ;"  but  his  connection  with 
the  Puritan  party  was  the  result  of  circumstances 
rather  than  sympathy.  Tho  restoration  called 
forth  his  Astraa  Rediixm  1660,  and  the  corona- 
tion of  Charles  II.  another  poem  of  panegyric 
soon  after.  At  this  period  of  his  life  he  seems 
to  have  eked  out  the  pittance  which  he  received 
from  his  paternal  estate  by  writing  prefaces  and 
other  occasional  pieces  for  the  booksellers.  Tho 
patronage  of  Sir  Robert  Howard  bettered  his 
■fortunes,  and  he  soon  became  known  as  a 
ready  versifier  and  a  stanch  royalist.  About 
the  same  time  he  began  to  write  for  tho  stage. 
His  first  play,  the  "  Wild  Gallant,"  produced  in 
1662,  was  not  successful.  It  was  followed  by 
the  "  Rival  Ladies  "  and  the  "  Indian  Empe- 
ror ;"  but  scarcely  had  he  gained  the  public  ear 
when  the  plague  and  the  great  fire  of  London 
put  a  stop  for  a  time  to  all  theatrical  representa- 
tions, and  drove  him  to  a  less  profitable  em- 
ployment. He  busied  himself  in  composing  his 
"  Essay  of  Dramatic  Poesy,"  in  which  he  de- 
fends the  use  of  rhyme  in  tragedy.  In  1663 
he  was  married  to  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  tho 
earl  of  Berkshire,  and  sister  of  Sir  Robert  How- 
ard, a  lady  who  added  little  to  his  fortune,  and 
still  less  to  his  happiness.  It  was  from  the  earl's 
seat  in  Wiltshire  that  he  dated  his  Annus  Alira- 
bilis — the  year  of  wonders  (1666),  in  which  he 
celebrates  the  great  fire,  the  duke  of  York's 
victory  over  the  Dutch,  and  other  prominent 
events.  His  devotion  to  the  court,  no  less  than 
the  merit  of  his  verse,  obtained  for  him  in  1670 
the  post  of  poet  laureate,  vacant  since  the  death 
of  Davenant  in  1668,  with  that  of  historiographer 
royal,  the  united  salaries  of  winch  amounted  to 
£200.  On  the  revival  of  the  drama  he  became 
an  active  and  successful  writer  for  the  stage,  and 
was  soon  engaged  to  furnish  for  the  king's  thea- 
tre 3  plays  a  year,  for  which  he  received  IJ 
shares  of  the  profits  of  the  company.  Though 
he  did  not  fulfil  this  agreement,  having  pro- 
duced only  18  plays  in  16  years,  the  actors  seem 
to  have  valued  his  services  too  highly  not  to  take 
them  on  his  own  terms.  But  if  he  pleased  the 
public,  his  exaggerated  style  did  not  escape  the 
ridicule  of  the  wits  of  the  court.  Villiers,  duke 
of  Buckingham,  brought  out  in  1671  a  comedy 
called  the  "Rehearsal,"  in  which  the  poet  lau- 
reate was  satirized  under  the  name  of  Bayes. 
Its  brilliant  wit  won  it  an  enthusiastic  reception, 
and  how  deeply  Dryden  felt  the  blow  may  be 
judged  from  the  revenge  which  he  took  10 
years  afterward.    Meanwhile  he  had  to  sufter 


636 


DRYDEN" 


in  another  way.  An  *'  Essay  on  Satire,"  writ- 
ten by  Lord  Mulgrave,  and  attributed  to  Dry- 
den,  who  seems  indeed  to  have  revised  it,  gained 
him  the  enmity  of  the  earl  of  Rochester ;  and  on 
Dec.  16,  1079,  as  he  was  returning  at  night  from 
Will's  coffee  house  to  his  home,  ho  was  set  upon 
and  cudgelled  by  3  hired  ruffians.  In  1G81  ap- 
peared his  "Absalom  and  Achitophel,"  a  sat- 
ire on  the  plot  for  securing  the  succession  of 
Charles's  natural  son  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  in 
which,  under  the  names  of  DjA-id,  Absalom,  and 
Achitophel,  he  represented  the  king,  Monmouth, 
and  Shaftesbury ;  while  in  Zimri,  who 

in  the  course  of  one  ro  vol  vine;  moon 


Was  chemist,  fiddler,  statesman,  and  buffoon, 

he  drew  his  old  enemy,  tlie  author  of  tlie  "Re- 
hearsal," and  fully  repaid  the  smart  he  had  felt 
under  his  satire.  The  success  of  the  poem  was 
unbounded  ;  Dr.  Johnson's  father,  an  old  book- 
seller, said  he  knew  of  no  publication  except 
Sacheverell's  "  Trial "  which  had  ever  reached 
so  large  a  sale.  A  medal  struck  by  the  friends 
of  Shaftesbury  to  commemorate  the  refusal  of 
the  grand  jury  to  indict  him  for  high  treason, 
furnished  the  title  and  subject  of  a  fresh 
political  satire.  "The  Medal"  soon  appeared, 
and  was  answered  by  a  score  of  rhymesters, 
one  of  whom,  Elkanah  Settle,  by  his  "Medal 
Reversed,"  is  said  to  have  fairly  divided  with 
Dryden  the  praises  of  the  town.  "MacFleck- 
noe,"  published  about  1682,  was  a  biting  sat- 
ire on  the  poet  Shadwell,  and  fell  below  Dry- 
den's  political  writings  in  interest  only  because 
the  subject  was  inferior.  In  1682  were  pro- 
duced also  the  Religio  Laid,  a  defence  of  the 
church  of  England,  and  the  2d  part  of  "Absa- 
lom and  Achitophel."  Of  this,  however,  the 
greater  portion  was  written  by  Nahum  Tate ; 
Dryden  contributed  only  200  lines,  but  in  these 
his  rivals  Shadwell  and  Settle  were  handed 
down  to  the  ridicule  of  posterity  under  the 
names  of  Og  and  Doeg.  A  few  classical  trans- 
lations, some  miscellaneous  poems,  and  2  pieces 
for  the  stage,  were  his  only  compositions  during 
the  next  3  years,  until  he  was  called  upon  as 
poet  laureate  to  mourn  the  death  of  Charles  II., 
and  celebrate  the  accession  of  James.  Under 
the  new  monarch  the  religious  doubts  which 
seem  to  have  troubled  him  several  years  before 
were  solved  by  his  submission  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  creed.  The  sincerity  of  his  conver- 
sion, at  a  time  when  the  change  suited  so  well 
his  worldly  prospects,  has  been  and  must  doubt- 
less remain  a  moot  point.  He  was  sharply  at- 
tacked by  his  contemporaries,  and  among  the 
earliest  of  his  pieces  in  defence  of  his  faith  ap- 
peared, in  1687,  the  "  Hind  and  Panther,"  an 
allegory  absurd  in  design,  but  forcible  in  exe- 
cution, wherein  the  points  of  difference  between 
the  two  religions  are  discussed  in  musical  verse. 
The  revolution  of  1688  robbed  him  of  his  place, 
and  reduced  him  once  more  to  the  necessity  of 
writing  for  bread.  From  1690  to  1694  he  com- 
posed 4  plays,  and  during  the  next  3  years  was 
busy  with  liis  translation  of  Virgil,  for  which 
he  is  said  to  have  received  £1,300.    In  1698  he 


began  his  adaptations  of  Chancer,  contracting 
'with  a  bookseller  to  furnish  10,000  lines  for 
£300.  This  bargain  produced  his  "Fables," 
consisting  of  many  of  the  choice  stories  of  Ho- 
mer, Ovid,  Boccaccio,  and  Chaucer,  translated 
or  modernized  in  flowing  verse.  The  noble 
ode  for  St.  Cecilia's  day,  often  called  "Alex- 
ander's Feast,"  formed  part  of  this  collection. 
It  was  the  last  of  Di-yden's  great  works,  though 
he  published  some  minor  pieces  afterward.  He 
died  of  mortification  of  the  leg,  and  was  buried 
next  to  Chaucer  in  "Westminster  abbey,  where 
Sheffield,  duke  of  Buckingham,  erected  a  monu- 
ment over  his  remains  in  1720.  His  wife  and 
3  sons  survived  him. — Dryden  was  reserved  ia 
his  habits,  but  kind  and  benevolent.  At  Will's 
coffee  house,  the  great  resort  of  the  wits  of 
London,  he  was  the  oracle  by  common  consent, 
and  though  his  part  in  conversation  was  seldom 
brilliant,  a  pinch  from  Dryden's  snuff  box,  says 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  "  was  equal  to  taking  a  degree 
in  the  academy  of  wit."  lie  was  domestic  in 
his  tastes,  an  affectionate  father,  aud,  notwith- 
standing the  bitter  temper  of  his  Avife,  a  faith- 
ful husband.  The  licentious  spirit  of  the  time, 
which  his  dramas,  so  far  from  repressing,  did 
every  thing  to  encourage,  found  no  reflex  in  his 
private  conduct.  His  rhyming  tragedies  have 
little  beside  their  diction  and  versification  to 
recommend  them;  his  comedies,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  "  Spanish  Friar,"  are  beneath  his 
fame ;  and  though  he  wrote  27  plays,  only  one  or 
two  are  now  spoken  of.  Many  of  his  dedica- 
tions are  disfigured  by  the  most  abject  flattery, 
and  his  early  poems  are  marked  by  the  false  taste, 
Gallicisms,  and  unnatural  conceits  which  char- 
acterized the  period  of  the  restoration.  It  was 
only  with  the  production  of  his  first  political 
satire  that  he  developed  his  fuU  powers  and 
marked  out  a  new  path  in  which  he  had  no  ri- 
val. His  bold  sketches  of  character,  wanting 
often  in  polish,  but  alive  with  individuality, 
have  never  been  surpassed.  From  the  death  of 
Milton  to  his  own  death  he  was  confessedly  the 
first  of  the  English  poets ;  but  we  have  too  often 
cause  for  sorrow  that  the  harmony  of  his  verse, 
the  happiness  of  his  illustrations,  and  the  bril- 
liancy of  his  wit  should  be  defiled  by  the  coarse- 
ness of  party  rancor  and  the  taint  of  a  corrupt 
fjincy.  As  a  translator,  Dryden's  merits  have 
been  rau|}h  discussed.  He  gave  us  the  first  good 
English  version  of  the  JEneid,  but  he  could  not 
reproduce  the  tenderness  and  quiet  majesty  of 
the  Roman  poet.  In  prose,  he  has  left  many 
specimens  of  strong,  genuine  English,  mostly  in 
the  form  of  prefaces  and  dedications.  Among  the 
principal  editions  of  his  works  are  his  dramas 
(6  vols.  12mo.,  London,  1718);  miscellaneous 
works  (4  vols.  8vo.,  London,  1760);  prose  works, 
edited  by  Malone  (4  vols.  8vo.,  London,  1800); 
poems,  edited  by  Warton  (4  vols.  8vo.,  London, 
1811),  ])y  Sanford  (Philadelphia,  1819),  and  by 
Mitford  (5  vols.  12mo.,  London,  1832;  Boston, 
1854) ;  and  a  complete  edition  of  all  his  writ- 
ings, with  notes  and  a  memoir  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott  (18  vols.  8yo.,  Edinburgh,  1818).    The 


DRYING  OILS 


DUBLIN 


637 


"Fables,"  ornamented  with  engravings  after 
the  designs  of  Lady  Diana  Beauclcrc,  Avere  pub- 
lished in  folio  (London,  1797).  The  life  of  Dry- 
den  has  also  been  written  by  Dr.  Johnson,  and 
forms  the  .most  eloquent  and  discriminating 
of  all  the  "  Lives  of  the  Toets."  A  brilliant 
essay  on  his  life  and  writings,  by  Macaulay, 
will  be  found  in  No.  xciii.  of  the  "  Edinburgh 
Eeview." 

DRYING  OILS.  A  number  of  vegetable 
oils,  as  linseed,  nut,  pt^^p}'  seed,  and  some  oth- 
ers, exhibit  a  strong  tendency  to  absorb  0x3'- 
gen  from  the  air,  and,  when  exposed  in  tbin 
layers,  to  dry  into  a  resinous  kind  of  varnish. 
The  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  oxide  of 
lead  greatly  accelerates  the  process.  These  oils 
are  consequently  well  suited  for  mixing  with 
coloring  matters  to  form  paint  for  wood  work. 
They  impart  no  color  of  their  own,  and  serve 
to  bind  and  secure  the  color  to  the  wood,  which 
they  also  aid  to  protect  by  their  resinous  coat. 
The  so-called  greasy  oils  have  no  such  tendency 
to  dry  by  exposure,  but  on  tlio  contrary  become 
rancid. 

DUANE,  "William,  an  American  politician, 
and  editor  of  the  "  Aurora"  newspaper,  boito 
near  Lake  Champlain,  N.  Y.,  in  1760,  died  Nov. 
24,  1835.  At  the  age  of  11  he  was  taken  by  his 
mother,  then  a  widow  and  a  Roman  Catholic, 
to  her  native  country,  Ireland,  and  liberally  ed- 
licated;  but  his  marriage  at  the  age  of  19  with 
a  Presbyterian  lady  so  offended  his  mother  that 
she  immediately  dismissed  him  from  home,  and 
no  reconciliation  was  ever  effected.  lie  learned 
the  art  of  printing,  and  in  1784  went  to  seek  his 
fortune  in  India.  He  rapidly  amassed  property, 
and  became  editor  of  an  Indian  journal,  entitled 
the  "  World."  Having  taken  sides  against  the 
local  government  in  a  dispute  with  some  of  its 
troops,  he  was  seized  and  sent  to  England,  and 
his  large  fortune  was  confiscated,  llaving  in 
vain  petitioned  parliament  and  the  East  India 
company  for  redress,  ho  began  to  devote  himself 
to  the  periodical  press  of  England,  and  became 
editor  of  the  "  General  Advertiser,"  siding  in 
politics  with  the  party  of  Ilorne  Tooke  and 
others.  In  1795  he  returned  to  America,  and 
became  editor  of  the  "Aurora,"  published  at 
Philadelphia,  which  was  made  by  his  able  man- 
agement the  most  influential  organ  of  the  demo- 
cratic party ;  so  much  so,  that  Jefferson  attrib- 
uted to  its  vigorous  support  his  own  election  to 
the  presidency.  The  change  of  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment from  Philadelphia  to  "Washington  caused 
the  "  Aurora"  to  decline  in  political  importance. 
Duane  retired  from  its  editorship  in  1822,  and 
tlieu  travelled  through  the  republics  of  South 
America,  with  whose  struggles  for  independence 
he  had  long  sympathized.  On  his  return  he  pub- 
lished an  account  of  these  travels,  and  was  ap- 
pointed prothonotary  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Pennsylvania  for  the  eastern  district,  an  office 
which  he  retained  until  his  death.  Mr.  Duane 
served  as  an  officer  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  pub- 
lished two  works  on  military  tactics,  a  "  Mili- 
tary Dictionary"   (^Philadelphia,   1810),  and  a 


"Uandbook  for  Riflemen"  (1813),  -which  wero 
for  some  time  standard  authorities. 

DUBAN,  Felix  Louis  Jacques,  a  French 
architect,  born  in  Paris,  Oct.  14,  1798.  He 
studied  under  Debret,  and  having  gained  the 
first  prize  for  architecture  at  the  scliool  of  the 
fine  arts,  was  enabled  to  spend  several  years  la 
Italy.  Ilis  first  work  of  importance  was  the 
completion  of  the  palais  dcs  beaux  arts,  in  the 
execution  of  which  ho  is  charged  with  having 
sacrificed  harmony  of  proportion  and  strength 
to  a  fondness  for  ornamentation.  In  1845  he 
was  employed  in  the  restoration  of  the  ancient 
chateau  of  Blois,  and  in  1848  received  from 
government  the  appointment  of  architect  of  the 
Louvre,  with  the  general  direction  of  the  res- 
toration of  a  part  of  the  building.  The  farado 
on  the  river  side,  and  the  Apollo  gallery,  have 
been  restored  from  his  plans, 

DUBLIN,  a  maritime  county  of  Ireland,  prov- 
ince of  Leinster,  bounded  N.  and  N.  "W.  by 
Meath  co.,  S.  AY.  by  Kildare,  S.  by  "Wicklow,  E. 
by  the  Irish  sea ;  greatest  length  from  N.  to  S. 
82  m.,  greatest  breadth  18  m. ;  area,  exclusive 
of  Dublin  city,  348  sq.  m.,  or  222,709  acres, 
of  which  190,063  are  arable;  pop.  in  1851,  ex- 
clusive of  the  capital,  146,631.  It  has  a  coast 
line,  including  windings,  of  70  m.,  comprising ' 
the  natural  harbors  of  Dublin  bay,  Killiney, 
Malahide,  Rogerstown,  and  Lough  Shinney, 
witli  harbors  constructed  by  art  at  Kingstown, 
Howth,  and  Balbriggan.  The  rivers  are  the 
Liffey,  Tolka,  Dodder,  and  Bray.  The  general 
character  of  the  surface  is  level,  but  on  the  S. 
boundary  rises  a  range  of  hills,  culminating  iu 
the  peak  of  Kippure  at  a  height  of  2,473  feet, 
and  separating  the  county  from  Wicklow.  Near 
these  extend  the  Dublin  mountains,  the  central 
group  of  which  is  1,000  or  1,200  feet  high; 
toward  the  N.  are  picturesque  valleys  and  cul- 
tivated heights,  and  on  the  coast  are  many  bold 
promontories.  The  geological  formation  is  most- 
ly mountain  limestone,  bounded  S.  by  a  ridge 
of  excellent  granite.  The  soil  is  shallow,  and 
in  general  not  well  adapted  to  agriculture,  bnfc 
careful  drainage  and  manuring  have  rendered 
much  of  it  productive.  The  principal  crops  are 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  potatoes,  and  turnips; 
the  total  extent  of  land  under  crops  in  1855  was 
108,746  acres.  Grazing  and  the  fisheries  form 
important  branches  of  industry.  Lead  and  cop- 
per are  mined  to  a  small  extent  at  Ballycorus. 
The  manufactures  are  limited  to  stockings,  cot- 
ton, and  a  few  other  fabrics.  The  channels  of 
communication  are  the  Grand  and  Royal  canaU 
from  Dublin  to  the  Shannon,  and  4  railways  ra- 
diating from  the  capital,  viz. :  the  Dublin  and 
Drogheda,  the  Great  Southern  and  Western,  the 
Midland  Great  Western,  and  the  Dublin  and 
Kingstown.  The  county  returns  two  members 
to  parliament. 

DUBLIN,  the  capital  of  the  above  county 
and  of  Ireland,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
boroush  and  seaport,  at  the  head  of  Dublin  bay, 
on  both  sides  of  the  Liftev,  lat.  53°  20'  38"  N., 
long.  6'  17'  29"  W.,  292  m'.  W.  N.  W.  from  Lon- 


638 


DUBLIN 


don,  and  63  m.  "W,  from  Holyhead ;  pop.  in  1841, 
232,V26 ;  in  1851, 258,361 ;  at  the  same  rate  of  in- 
crease it  would  reach  in  1859  about  280,000  souls. 
The  Liftey  is  navigable  to  the  aentre  of  the  city, 
■which  is  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  portions. 
Its  entrance  is  obstructed  by  a  sand  bar,  on' 
which  at  low  ebbs  there  is  not  more  than  9 
feet  water,  although  in  spring  tides  it  has  24 
feet.  At  the  moutlx  of  this  river  in  Dublin  bay 
lies  the  harbor,  formed  4)y  2  piers  or  break- 
waters, one  projecting  E.  into  the  bay  S.  of  the 
river,  the  other  running  out  from  the  shore  be- 
yond Clontarf,  N.  E.  of  the  city,  aud  nearly 
meeting  the  former  at  an  angle  of  45°.  The 
area  thus  enclosed  at  high  water  spring  tides  is 
3,030  acres,  and  by  systematic  dredging  the 
channel  has  been  so  deepened  as  to  admit  ves- 
sels of  1,400  tons.  The  wharves  and  docks  con- 
nected with  the  custom  house  are  capable  of 
accommodating  40,000  tons  of  shipping,  and  100 
vessels  can  discharge  at  other  quays  on  the  S. 
There  is  a  lighthouse  at  the  end  of  the  S.  break- 
water, aud  in  other  parts  of  the  bay  there  "are 
two  other  lights.  A  harbor  of  refuge  has  been 
constructed  at  Kingstown.  The  registered  ship- 
ping of  the  port  in  1856  was  501  vessels,  ton- 
nage 41,700;  the  entrances  were  6,928  vessels, 
'tonnage  913,062;  clearances  3,881  vessels,  ton- 
nage 635,651.  The  trade  of  Dublin  is  chiefly 
with  .the  midland  districts,  which  it  supplies 
with  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  tobacco,  timber,  deals, 
wines,  and  other  foreign  products,  and  with  the 
English  markets,  to  which  it  exports  cattle  and 
agricultural  produce.  With  the  United  States 
its  commerce  is  small,  and  confined  mostly  to 
timber.  It  has  but  few  manufactures,  and  those 
of  trifling  value.  Iron  casting,  cabinet  making, 
and  manufactures  of  the  minor  articles  of  jewelry 
and  apparel,  are  thriving,  but  not  to  such  ex- 
tent as  to  afi:brd  employment  to  even  a  fraction 
of  the  population.  Formerly  40,000  hands  were 
engaged  in  silk  weaving,  but  of  late,  years  this 
manufacture  has  dwindled  away  till  it  has  now 
but  200  looms.  The  beautiful  specimens  of 
Irish  poplins  which  were  exhibited  at  the  fair 
of  1853,  gave  rise  to  a  demand  for  those  fabrics, 
which  has  since  increased.  The  well-known 
Dublin  porter  is  an  important  item  in  the  trade 
of  the  city,  and  the  exports  of  it  during  the 
year  ending  May  4,  1855,  were  87,905  hogs- 
heads, nearly  ^  being  from  the  estabhshment  of 
Guinness  and  co. — The  modern  part  of  Dubhn  is 
regularly  built,  without  much  architectural  dis- 
play, but  with  an  appearance  of  substantiality  and 
comfort.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lower  part  is 
occupied  by  filthy  streets  of  wretched  tenements, 
inhabited  by  a  population  as  squalid  as  their 
dwellings.  In  hardly  any  other  city  are  wealth 
and  poverty  m  such  close  and  marked  contrast. 
The  general  aspect,  however,  to  the  stranger  wto 
follows  the  main  thoroughfares,  is  very  favor- 
able. Generally  speaking,  the  S.  W.  quarter  is 
occupied  by  the  poor,  the  K  W.  by  the  middle 
classes,  the  S.  E.  and  N.  E.  being  the  residence 
of  the  wealthy.  The  thickly  populated  part  of 
the  city  has  an  extent  of  about  If  m.  in  each 


direction,  but  with  the  remainder  it  covers  a 
space  of  2  ^  by  2  m.  It  is  well  supplied  with  water, 
paved,  and  lighted  with  gas.  Nine  bridges,  of 
which  two  are  of  iron,  span  the  river,  and  an 
avenue  called  the  Circular  road,  9  m.  long,  en- 
compasses the  city.  The  public  buildings  are 
noted  for  their  elegance.  The  bank  of  Ireland, 
in_  College  green,  was  formerly  used  as  the 
Irish  parliament  house.  It  is  an  extensive 
building,  nearly  semicircular  in  shape,  with  a 
fine  Ionic  colonnade.  JThe  apartment  of  the 
house  of  commons  is  now  used  as  a  teller's  oflSce, 
but  the  chamber  of  lords  remains  as  when  last 
used.  Immediately  opposite  the  bank  is  Trinity 
college,  an  imposing  structure  of  the  Corinthiaa 
order.  It  was  founded  under  authority  of  Pope 
John  XXII.,  closed  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII., 
aud  reopened  by  Elizabeth,  who  incorporated 
it  in  1592  as  the  college  of  the  holy  and  undi- 
A'ided  Trinity.  It  contains  a  small  museum,  and 
an  extensive  library,  rich  in  ancient  MSS. 
Trinity  has  a  large  faculty  of  professors,  and 
at  least  2,000  students.  Two  Eoman  Catholics 
were  for  the  first  time  admitted  to  scholarships 
in  1856.  The  queen's  university,  incorporated 
by  Queen  Yictoria  in  1850,  with  power  to  con- 
fer degrees  on  students  of  the  queen's  colleges 
of  Belfast,  Cork,  and  Galway,  holds  the  meet- 
ings of  its  senate  at  Dublin  castle.  The  Eo- 
man Catholic  university  in  Stephen's  green  was 
founded  in  1854.  Among  the  other  literary  and 
scientific  institutions  are  the  colleges  of  physi- 
cians and  of  surgeons,  apothecaries'  hall,  and  me- 
dical societies ;  the  royal  Dublin  society,  having 
museums  of  natural  history  aud  of  agriculture, 
a  botanic  garden,  a  gallery  of  statues,  a  library 
numbering  in  1857  over  30,000  volumes,  a  school 
of  art  attended  by  484  students  in  1857,  and  free 
lectures,  attended  by  22,036  persons  in  the  same 
year ;  the  royal  Hibernian  society  of  art,  with 
an  annual  exhibition  of  paintings;  the  royal 
Irish  academy  of  science,  literature,  and  anti- 
quities ;  the  archfBological  society,  society  of 
engineers,  mechanics'  institute,  statistical,  geo- 
logical, and  zoological  societies,  with  numerous 
other  associations  and  reading  societies,  upward 
of  200  charity  schools,  and  several  libraries. 
An  agricultural  college,  lately  founded  at  Leop- 
ardstown,  near  Dublin,  has  a  farm  of  200 
acres.  The  lectures  in  the  recently  established 
museum  of  Irish  industry,  with  a  government 
school  of  science  applied  to  mining  and  the  arts, 
were  attended  in  1857  by  6,416  persons,  and  the 
total  number  of  visitors  was  28,425.  An  act  of 
parliament  was  passed,  Aug.  10, 1854,  to  provide 
for  the  establishment  of  a  "  national  gallery  of 
paintings,  sculpture,  and  the  fine  arts,"  for  the 
care  of  a  public  library,  and  the  erection  of  a  public 
museum ;  and  the  first  stone  of  the  new"  building 
was  laid  in  Dublin,  Jan.  29,  1859.  It  will  form  a 
northern  wing  to  the  premises  of  the  royal  Dub- 
lin society,  its  gallery  end  facing  Merrion  square, 
and  the  corresponding  southern  wing  will  be  de- 
voted to  the  new  museum.  Although  entitled  the 
national  gallery,  it  is  also  intended  as  a  testimonial 
in  commemoration  of  Mr.  William  Dargan's  ox- 


DUBLIN 


DUBOI 


639 


ertions  in  behalf  of  the  great  Dublin  industrial 
exliibitiou  of  ly53.  The  probable  cost  of  con- 
struction will  be  about  £12,000.  There  were  28 
newspapers  and  periodicals  published  in  Dub- 
lin in  1S58.  The  castle,  the  residence  of  the 
viceroy,  stands  on  an  elevation,  but  is  not  an 
imposing  edifice.  The  Four  Courts  are  a  pile  of 
building  of  Corinthian  architecture,  with  a  front- 
age on  the  Liffey  of  500  feet,  and  occupied  by  the 
courtsof  queen's  bench,  chancery,  excliequcr,  and 
common  pleas.  The  custom  liouse  is  altogether 
too  extensive  for  the  trade  of  the  port ;  it  is  of  the 
Doric  order,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  cupola  125 
feet  in  height.  Other  noticeable  structures  are 
the  general  post  office,  with  an  Ionic  front,  of 
considerable  elegance ;  the  city  hall  and  ex- 
change ;  commercial  buildings,  in  which  is  the 
chamber  of  commerce;  the  queen's  inns,  linen 
hall,  the  weavers'  hall,  corn  exchange,  concilia- 
tion hall,  the  theatre,  several  barracks  for  con- 
stabulary and  troops;  Stephen's  hospital  for  300 
patients  ;  the  Meath,  city  of  Dublin,  Sir  Richard 
Dun's,  and  Richmond  surgical  hospitals,  and 
royal  hospital,  designed  by  Sir  Christopher 
"W'ren,  for  disabled  soldiers;  St.  Patrick's  hos- 
pital, erected  from  a  legacy  left  by  Dean  Swift ; 
lunatic  asylums,  infirmaries,  foundling  hospital, 
and  a  largo  number  of  benevolent  institutions, 
Xilmaiuham,  the  county  gaol,  stands  W.  of  the 
suburbs.  Within  the  city  are  the  Newgate,  city 
and  four  courts,  and  marshalsea  priscms,  the 
bridewell,  or  house  of  correction,  Smithfield 
penitentiary,  penitentiary  for  females,  and  house 
of  industry.  Dublin  is  the  seat  of  a  Protestant 
and  a  Roman  Catholic  archbishopric,  and  has  2 
cathedrals  of  the  established  church,  those  of 
St.  Patrick  and  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  also  called 
Christ's  church,  both  of  which  are  very  ancient, 
and  a  modern  Catholic  cathedral.  There  are 
altogether  about  75  cliurches,  of  which  the  estab- 
lished religion  holds  over  40,  and  the  Catholics 
9  or  10,  beside  14  convents,  and  a  house  of  the 
Jesuits.  The  cemeteries  are :  Goldenbridge  for 
Roman  Catholics;  Prospect,  20  acres;  Mount 
Jerome,  27  acres;  Glasnevin,  where  O'Connell 
is  buried.  The  "  liberator's  "  friend  has  a  tomb 
near  him,  with  the  epitaph  "Ilonest  Tom  Steele." 
Currau  is  also  buried  here.  Among  the  chief 
streets  and  public  places  of  Dublin  may  be 
named  Grafton  street,  passing  into  College  green, 
in  Avhich  is  an  equestrian  statue  of  George  III., 
and  connecting  by  Carlisle  bridge  with  Sack- 
ville  street,  where  there  is  a  column  to  the 
memory  of  Nelson ;  Dame  street,  containing 
many  of  the  finest  stores ;  St.  Stephen's  green,  a 
square  one  mile  in  circumference,  tastefully 
planted,  and  having  a  statue  of  George  II. ;  Col- 
lego  park,  Fitzwilliam,  Rutland,  and  Mountjoy 
squares.  The  celebrated  Phcenix  park  comprises 
an  area  of  1,752  acres,  and  is  the  great  resort  of 
the  people  on  gala  days.  A  granite  obelisk  has 
been  erected  to  Wellington  on  the  left  of  the 
entrance.  The  Royal  and  Grand  canals  flank 
the  city  N.  and  S.,  and  4  railways  open  com- 
munication with  Galway,  Cork,  Belfast,  &c. 
Steam  packets  ply  regularly  to  Holyhead,  Liver- 


pool, London,  Bristol,  Cork,  Glasgow,  &c.  The 
environs  of  Dublin  are  remarkably  beautiful. 
The  bay,  esteemed  one  of  the  finest  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  is  7  m.  Avide  at  its  entrance,  between 
Ilowth  head  and  Kingstown,  and  extends  inland 
about  the  same  distance,  with  a  somewhat  in- 
creased width.  The  civic  government  is  vested 
in  a  lord  mayor,  15  aldermen,  and  45  council- 
lors. The  city  sends  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment, and  Trinity  college  likewise  two. — Dublin 
claims  a  high  anti([uity.  Curious  Celtic  remains 
were  found  in  185(j  within  the  town  walls  of 
ancient  Dublin.  It  is  the  Eblaaa  of  Ptolemy; 
Irish  Dubh-linn  (black  pool) ;  Danish  Dyjiin, 
and  Dyvclin.  In  the  early  part  of  the  9th  cen- 
tury it  was  taken  by  the  Danes.  The  records 
of  the  next  3  centuries  are  little  else  than  a  suc- 
cession of  bloody  battles.  In  1169  it  was  taken 
by  the  English  under  Strongbow,  who  died  and 
is  buried  there.  In  1205  the  castle  was  built ;  in 
1190,  1282,  1283,  1301,  and' 1304,  the  city  was 
burned ;  in  1405  the  citizens  made  a  descent  on 
Wales  for  Henry  IV.  During  the  first  half  of 
the  16th  century  it  was  troubled  by  the  Kildare 
family,  one  of  whom.  Lord  Tliomas  Fitzgerald, 
among  other  exploits,  murdered  the  archbishop. 
During  Richard  Cromwell's  feeble  protectorate 
the  city  was  seized  by  the  cavaliers,  recovered 
by  the  parliamentarians,  and  again  captured  by 
the  partisans  of  tlie  king.  In  1798  a  conspiracy 
to  seize  the  city  and  castle  was  frustrated  by  the 
arrest  of  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald  and  others. 
In  1803  occurred  Emmet's  insurrection.  Swift 
and  Burke  w-ere  natives  of  Dublin. 

DUBNER,  Feiedeich,  a  German  philologian 
and  critic,  born  in  HOrselgau,  Gotha,  Dec.  21, 
1802.  In  1826  he  was  appointed  professor  in 
the  gymnasium  at  Gotha,  and  during  the  5  yeara 
that  he  held  this  position  published  philological 
articles  in  the  periodicals,  and  especially  made 
himself  known  by  an  edition  of  Justin.  His  prin- 
cipal studios,  however,  were  upon  the  ancient 
comic  authors,  and  he  resigned  his  professorship 
in  order  to  proceed  to  Italy  to  collate  the  origi- 
nal manuscripts.  At  this  time  he  was  invited 
by  Didot  to  Paris  to  assist  in  preparing  a  new 
edition  of  Stephens's  T7ies(nirus,  a  call  which  the 
valuable  manuscripts  contained  in  the  Parisian 
libraries  induced  him  to  accept.  He  became  em- 
ployed upon  the  Bibliotheca  Grata  which  Didot 
had  undertaken,  and  his  erudition  gave  to  that 
splendid  collection  its  completeness  and  scien- 
tific value.  He  alone  contributed  the  critical 
editions  of  the  Moralia  of  Plutarch,  of  Arrian, 
Maximus  Tyrius,  and  Himerius,  and  the  scholia 
to  Aristophanes  and  Theocritus.  He  also  took 
part  in  preparing  the  Parisian  editions  of  St. 
Augustine  and  St.  Chrysostom.  Since  1842  he 
has  published  numerous  school  editions  of  the 
classics,  and  has  been  a  frequent  contributor  to 
the  Hecue  de  philologie  issued  at  Paris. 

DUBOI,  a  town  of  Ilindostan,  in  the  province 
of  Guzerat,  district  of  Chumpaneer,  40  ra.  N. 
E.  of  Baroach;  lat.  22'  8'  N.,  long.  73°  25'  E. 
It  is  surrounded  by  fortifications  nearly  3  miles 
in  circuit,  and  occupies  the  site  of  an  ancient 


640 


DUBOIS 


DUBOS 


Hindoo  city,  tho  ruins  of  ■which  are  still  visible, 
and  exhibit  vast  quantities  of  hewn  stone,  while 
the  whole  district,  being  of  alluvial  formation, 
furnishes  scarcely  a  pebble. 

DUBOIS,  a  S.  W.  co.  of  Ind.,  bounded  K  by 
the  E.  fork  of  White  river,  and  intersected  by 
Patoka  creek ;  area,  420  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850, 
0,321.  It  has  a  slightly  diversified  surface,  and 
is  covered  with  thick  forests.  The  quality  of 
the  soil  is  good,  and  the  staples  are  Indian  corn 
and  live  stock.  The  productions  in  1850  were 
287,905  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  38,590  of  oats, 
15,213  of  wheat,  1,241  tons  of  hay,  and  12,209 
lbs.  of  wool.  There  were  5  grist  mills,  6  saw 
mills,  2  tanneries,  8  churches,  and  273  pupils 
attending  public  schools.  Stone  coal  is  abun- 
dant.    Organized  in  1818.     Capital,  Jasper. 

DUBOIS,  AxToiNE,  a  French  surgeon,  bom 
in  Gramat,  department  of  Lot,  June  18,  1756, 
died  in  Paris,  March  30,  1837.  While  attending 
lectures  on  philosophy  at  the  Mazarin  college  in 
Paris,  he  supported  himself  by  giving  lessons  in 
writing,  and  afterward  studied  medicine  under 
Desault,  became  the  assistant  of  that  eminent 
physician,  and  gradually  rose  to  the  head  of  his 
profession  in  France.  He  acted  over  30  years 
as  professor  of  clinical  surgery  and  obstetrics ; 
but  with  the  exception  of  several  remarkable 
articles  which  he  contributed  to  the  JDic- 
tionnaire  des  sciences  medicales,  he  never  re- 
duced his  system  to  writing.  The  maison  de 
sante,  which  was  founded  by  the  government 
and  of  which  he  was  nominated  surgeon  in 
chief  in  1810,  is  known  to  this  day  as  the  Du- 
bois hospital,  in  remembrance  of  his  eminent 
services.  He  was  a  great  favorite  of  Napoleon, 
whom  he  had  accompanied  to  Egypt,  and  on  the 
occasion  of  the  birth  of  the  duke  of  Reichstadt 
he  attended  Marie  Louise. 

DUBOIS,  GriLLAUME,  a  French  cardinal  and 
minister  under  the  regency  of  the  duke  of  Or- 
leans, born  in  Brives-la-Gaillarde,  department 
of  Correze,  Sept.  6,  1650,  died  in  Versailles, 
Aug.  10,  1723.  He  was  the  son  of  an  apothe- 
cary, went  at  an  early  age  to  Paris,  and  studied 
there  in  one  of  the  colleges,  where  he  was  em- 
ployed as  a  valet  by  the  principal.  Subsequent- 
ly he  became  a  private  teacher,  and  eventually 
tutor  to  the  duke  of  Chartres.  By  flattering 
the  passions  of  his  young  pupil,  who  afterward 
became  regent  of  France,  under  the  title  of  duke 
of  Orleans,  he  paved  the  way  for  his  own  eleva- 
tion. Dubois  persuaded  him  to  marry  Mile,  de 
Blois,  a  natural  but  legitimized  daughter  of 
Louis  XIV.,  and  was  rewarded  with  a  rich  ab- 
bey in  Picardy,  and  sent  on  a  diplomatic  mis- 
sion to  England.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he 
acted  as  private  secretary  of  the  duke  of  Orleans; 
and  afterward,  when  on  the  death  of  Louis  XIV. 
the  duke  was  invested  with  the  regency  of 
France,  Dubois  became  a  member  of  the  coun- 
cil, and  exerted  a  prominent  influence  upon  for- 
eign affairs.  He  concluded  in  1717,  in  concert 
with  Lord  Stanhope,  the  famous  triple  alliance  of 
France,  England,  and  Holland  against  Spain. 
After  becoming  minister  of  foreign  aflfairs,  he 


succeeded  in  baffling  the  conspiracy  of  the 
Spanish  ambassador  Cellamare,  which  was  in- 
stigated by  the  Spanish  i)rime  minister  Alberoni, 
the  object  of  which  was  to  make  Philip  V.  of 
Spain  regent  of  France  in  place  of  the  duke  of 
Orleans.  A  war  with  Spain  ensued,  which  result- 
ed in  the  removal  of  Alberoni  and  the  adhesion 
of  Philip  to  the  English,  French,  and  Dutch 
treaty,  which  henceforth  was  called  the  quad- 
ruple alliance.  Elated  with  his  triumph,  the  am- 
bition of  Dubois  knew  no  bounds,  and  it  was 
fully  gratified  by  his  being  appointed  archbish- 
op of  Cambray,  and  eventually  cardinal,  prime 
minister,  and  member  of  the  French  academy. 
His  administration  of  affairs  was  marked  by  a 
certain  degree  of  vigor,  and  he  was  unquestion- 
ably a  person  of  great  ability ;  but  his  life  on 
the  whole  presents  a  hideous  array  of  selfishness 
and  vices,  and  his  nomination  to  high  office  in 
church  and  state  belongs  to  the  incidents  which 
were  characteristic  of  the  dark  history  of 
France  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  When 
the  operations  of  the  Scotch  financier  Law 
brought  the  country  upon  the  verge  of  universal 
bankruptcy,  and  while  the  regent  was  spending 
his  time  in  pleasure  and  debauchery,  Dubois 
availed  himself  of  the  disasters  of  France  and 
the  weaknesses  of  his  master  to  amass  an  im- 
mense private  fortune,  his  revenue  amounting 
to  8,000,000  francs,  beside  the  benefits  accru- 
ing from  the  7  abbeys  of  which  he  was  the  in- 
cumbent, independent  of  the  see  of  Cambray. 
A  record  of  his  private  life  appeared  in  1789, 
and  his  memoirs  in  1817.  Those  published  in 
1829  are  not  authentic. 

DUBOIS,  Jean  Antoine,  a  French  abbe  and 
missionary,  distinguished  for  his  services  in  In- 
dia, born  in  Saint-Remeze,  department  of  Ar- 
deche,  in  1765,  died  in  Paris,  Feb.  7,  1848.  He 
spent  32  years  in  the  East  Indies,  and  on  his  re- 
turn published  "Letters  on  the  State  of  Chris- 
tianity in  India"  (London,  1823),  which  produced 
much  controversy  in  England  from  the  fact  of 
his  having  frankly  expressed  therein  his  disbelief 
in  the  possibility  of  the  conversion  of  the  Hin- 
doos. He  wrote  several  remarkable  works  relat- 
ing to  the  religion  and  the  traditions  of  India, 
and  many  contributions  to  the  Bulletin  des  sci- 
ences, and  to  the  journals  of  the  Asiatic  socie- 
ties of  London  and  Paris,  of  which  he  was  a 
member.  His  most  celebrated  work,  entitled 
"  Description  of  the  Character,  Manners,  and 
Customs  of  the  People  of  India,  and  of  their 
Institutions,  religious  and  civil,"  was  purchased 
for  £800  by  the  East  India  company,  published 
at  its  expense  in  London  in  1816,  and  after- 
ward published  in  French  under  the  title  erf 
Mceurs,  institu-tions,  et  ceremonies  despeuples  de 
VInde  (Paris,  1825). 

DUBOS,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French  critic  and 
historian,  born  in  Beauvais  in  Dec.  1670,  died 
in  Paris,  March  23,  1742.  The  best  known  of 
his  numerous  works  is  his  Eistoire  critique  de 
VetnMissement  de  la  monarchie  Fran^nise  dans 
Ics  Gaules  (3  vols.  4to.,  Paris,  1734).  The  theory 
which  he  maintains  in  this  work,  that  the  occu- 


DUBS 


DUBUQUE 


641 


pation  of  Gaul  by  the  Franks  was  a  settlement 
and  not  a  conijuest,  lias  been  warmly  contested 
by  Montesquieu  and  others.  Of  his  Eejlexions 
critiques  sur  la  poesie  et  la  j^cinture  (2  vols. 
12mo.,  Paris,  171'J ;  0th  ed.,  1755),  an  English 
translation  was  published  in  London  in  1748. 

DUBS,  Jakob,  a  Swiss  statesman,  born  at 
Aifoltern,  in  the  canton  of  Zuricii,  in  1822,  has 
gained  distinction  by  his  advocacy  of  reform  in 
the  administration  of  justice  and  in  education, 
and  written  several  valuable  treatises  on  both 
subjects ;  has  occupied  various  high  functions  in 
the  government  of  his  native  canton ;  officiated 
in  1857  as  president  of  the  federal  court,  and 
from  July  7,  1856,  to  the  same  date  in  1857,  as 
president  of  the  federal  council  of  states. 

DUBUFE.  I.  Claude  ^Iaeie,  a  French 
painter,  born  in  Paris  about  1790.  He  studied 
with  David,  and  for  many  years  attempted  his- 
torical paintings  on  a  grand  scale,  which  met 
with  little  favor.  In  1827  he  exhibited  2  pic- 
tures of  a  sentimental  character  entitled  Les  sou- 
venirs and  Les  regrets,  which,  in  spite  of  much 
hostile  criticism,  became  very  popular  through 
the  medium  of  engravings.  After  executing 
several  works  of  a  similar  character,  he  turned 
his  attention  to  portraits,  in  which  he  has  been 
successful.  lie  painted  the  likenesses  of  many 
distinguished  persons,  including  Louis  Philippe 
and  his  daughter,  the  queen  of  the  Belgians.  A 
number  of  years  ago  two  large  pictures  by  Du- 
hufe,  representing  the  temptation  and  expulsion 
of  Adam  and  Eve  from  paradise,  were  extensively 
exhibited  in  the  United  States.  II.  Edouaed, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris  about  1818, 
studied  under  his  father  and  Paul  Delaroche,  and 
for  some  years  followed  the  sentimental  style  of 
his  father's  Souvenirs  and  Regrets  with  success. 
Afterward  ho  painted  scriptural  subjects,  but  of 
late  years,  following  the  example  of  his  father, 
he  has  confined  himself  almost  exclusively  to 
portrait  painting.  Among  his  most  successful 
recent  works  are  portraits  of  the  empress  Eu- 
genie, Rosa  Bonheur,  and  of  the  members  of  the 
congress  of  Paris. 

DUBUISSO:^,  Paul  Uleioh,  a  French  au- 
thor, born  in  Laval  in  1746,  guillotined  March 
23,  1794.  He  went  when  young  to  Paris,  and 
wrote  for  the  stage  with  small  success.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  jealous  of  authors,  and  was  ac- 
customed to  fill  his  prefaces  with  abuse  of  the 
contemporary  writers  who  surpassed  him,  the 
actors  who  refused  to  flatter  him,  the  journal- 
ists who  jested  at  him,  and  the  public  who  neg- 
lected him.  Finally,  he  Avent  to  America,  and 
subsequently  to  Belgium,  whence  he  returned 
to  France  a  few  years  before  the  outbreak  of 
1789.  lie  embraced  the  cause  of  the  revolu- 
tion with  enthusiasm,  became  associated  with 
the  Jacobin  club,  and  having  taken  part  in  the 
schemes  of  llebert,  Ronsin,  and  Anacharsis 
Clootz,  he  shared  the  fiite  of  those  revolution- 
ists. He  published  a  number  of  tragedies  and 
comedies,  a  volume  of  "Critical  and  Political 
Letters  upon  the  Colonies  of  France,"  and  a 
"  History  of  the  American  Eevolution." 
VOL.   VI. il 


DUBUQUE,  an  E.  co.  of  Iowa,  bordering  on 
Illinois  and  AVisconsin,  bounded  N.  E.  by  the 
Mississippi  river,  watered  by  Fall  river  and  the 
Little  Maquoketa;  area,  GOO  sq.  m.;  pop.  in 
1856,  25,871.  It  has  a  hilly  surface,  clothed 
with  extensive  tracts  of  timber.  The  soil  is 
adapted  to  Indian  corn  and  wheat,  which  form, 
together  with  grass  and  dairy  produce,  the  chief 
staples.  In  1S-J56  the  productions  were  12,779 
tons  of  hay,  233,931  bushels  of  wheat,  236,108 
of  oats,  564,236  of  Indian  corn,  124.457  of  pota- 
toes, and  178,574  lbs.  of  butter'.  Dubuque 
county  is  one  of  the  richest  mineral  regions 
of  Iowa,  and  yields  annually  vast  (piantities  of 
lead.  Limestone  underlies  most  of  the  surface. 
The  county  was  named  in  honor  of  Julien  Du- 
buque, by  whom  the  lead  mines  were  first  work- 
ed.    Capital,  Dubuque. 

DUBUQUE,  the  largest  city  of  Iowa  and  seat 
of  jiastice  of  Dubuque  co.,  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Mississippi,  directly  opposite  the 
boundary  line  of  Wisconsin  and  Illinois,  and 
450  miles  K  of  St.  Louis;  pop.  in  1850,  3,108; 
in  1854,  6,634;  in  1856,  15,000;  in  1859,  esti- 
mated at  17,000.  It  is  the  oldest  town  in  the 
state,  having  been  first  settled  by  white  men  in 
1788,  when  Julien  Dubuque,  a  French  Canadian, 
under  a  grant  from  the  Spanish  government, 
commenced  operations  in  the  lead  mines  on  the 
present  site  of  the  city.  Its  permanent  settlement 
commenced  in  June,  1833,  when  the  U.  S.  govern- 
ment took  possession  of  the  land,  which  the  In- 
dians by  treaty  had  vacated  the  year  before.  Be- 
fore the  end  of  the  first  year  of  its  settlement  it 
had  a  population  of  about  500.  A  town  govern- 
ment was  organized  in  1837,  and  a  city  charter 
was  adopted  in  1841.  In  1838  its  "  corporation 
tax  "  was  $524  ;  in  1858,  upward  of  $100,000. 
The  assessed  value  of  the  real  and  personal  prop- 
erty is  $8,000,000.  The  business  part  of  the 
city  is  situated  on  a  plateau  of  land  about  f  of  a 
mile  wide,  narrowing  to  a  point  a  mile  below 
the  centre  of  the  city.  This  plateau  has  a 
gradual  accent  to  the  base  of  the  bluffs,  which 
are  steep  and  rise  to  the  height  of  more  than 
200  feet.  Ravines  here  and  there  lead  np 
through  them  into  the  open  and  undulating 
country.  lieautiful  houses  of  unusual  size  and 
finish  stand  iipon  their  summits,  in  the  midst 
of  a  young  growth  of  shrubbery.  In  front  of 
the  city  are  sloughs,  which  are  being  filled  by 
the  enterprise  of  3  wealthy  improvement  com- 
panies, and  thus  the  extent  of  the  business 
quarter  will  shortly  be  nearly  doubled.  The 
land  is  mostly  of  a  gravelly  nature,  is  therefore 
generally  dry,  and  hence  the  city  is  remarkably 
healthy.  Dubuque  has  the  largest  and  best 
constructed  school  houses  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  its  public  schools  are  modelled  on  the 
graded  system.  It  has  also  Alexander  college, 
a  female  college,  and  several  private  schools, 
Protestant  and  Catholic.  It  has  1  Baptist 
church,  1  Christian,  1  Congregational,  3  Roman 
Catholic,  1  Lutheran,  3  Methodist  (including  1 
German),  2  Presbyterian,  and  1  Universalist. 
It  has  a  branch  of  the  state  bank  and  several 


642 


DU  CANGE 


DUOAS 


banks  of  deposit.  A  U.  S.  building  designed 
for  a  custom  house,  post  office,  &c.,  is  in  process 
of  erection ;  the  material  employed  is  a  beau- 
tiful stone  from  quarries  near  Nauvoo,  111.  The 
city  has  been  lighted  with  gas  since  the  sum- 
mer of  1855.  The  Illinois  central  railroad  ter- 
minates at  Galena,  opposite  Dubuque ;  the  Mil- 
waukee aud  Mississippi  railroad  is  gradually  ap- 
proaching Dubuque ;  the  Dubuque  and  Pacific 
railroad  is  in  progress  westward,  being  already 
open  to  Nottingham,  39  m.  distant;  the  Du- 
buque western  is  open  to  Anamosain  Jones  co., 
40  m.  S.  W. ;  the  Dubuque  and  Bellevue  is  in 
course  of  construction  southward  along  the  right 
bank  of  the  Mississippi ;  and  the  Dubuque,  St. 
Paul,  and  St.  Peters,  and  Dubuque  and  Turkey 
Valley  roads,  are  projected.  Commercially,  the 
situation  of  the  city  is  advantageous.  Lying  on 
the  Mississippi,  the  great  natural  outlet  of  all 
the  states  on  its  western  side,  aud  being  the 
radiating  point  of  several  railroads,  it  must 
speedily  become  the  great  shipping  port  north 
of  St.  Louis.  The  agricultural  and  mineral 
products  of  the  northern  half  of  low^a,  the  lum- 
ber from  Wisconsin,  and  almost  every  other  ar- 
ticle of  traffic  in  ^vestern  commercial  towns,  is 
here  seeking  a  market  or  the  facilities  for  trans- 
shipment. The  value  of  merchandise  exported 
in  1854  was  $1,573,408,  and  of  that  imported 
$4,933,208;  the  value  of  exports  in  1855  was 
$3,689,206,  aud  of  imports,  $11,266,845.  In 
1856  the  imports  of  dry  goods  amounted  to 
$3,595,200,  and  the  sales  and  exports  to  $3,749,- 
547  ;  the  imports  of  groceries  to  $3,423,000,  and 
the  sales  and  exports  to  $3,936,450.  The  next 
in  importance  of  the  articles  of  commerce  were 
hardware  and  iron  (sales  and  exports,  $1,109,- 
475),  clothing  ($332,720),  boots  and  shoes 
($298,071),  and  drugs  and  chemicals  ($247,118) ; 
amount  of  lumber  imported,  89,440,880  feet ; 
number  of  shingles,  8,984,000.  The  Dubuque 
and  Dunleith  ferry  company  has  2  steam  ferry 
boats,  one  of  which  plies  constantly.  The  Du- 
buque and  Minnesota  packet  company  has  a  line 
of  15  steamboats  engaged  in  the  upper  Missis- 
sippi trade ;  two  of  them  leave  Dubuque  daily 
for  St.  Paul.  The  city  has  3  daily  newspapers, 
2  tri-weekly,  1  semi-weekly,  5  weekly,  and  1 
monthly.  Measures  are  in  progress  for  the  con- 
struction of  water  works.  Establishments  for 
the  manufacture  of  shot,  white  lead,  threshing 
machines,  reapers,  steam  engines,  mill  machin- 
ery, &c.,  are  in  operation.  The  lead  mines  of 
Dubuque  have  yielded  fortunes  to  hundreds  of 
men,  and  yet  the  task  of  working  them  is  but 
just  begun.  Several  very  rich  "leads"  were 
struck  in  the  summer  of  1858.  Mining  com- 
panies have  recently  been  formed,  and  with  or- 
ganized capital  and  suitable  machinery  the  work 
of  mining  Avill  be  carried  on  more  extensively 
and  to  much  better  advantage.  Zinc  is  also 
abundant  in  the  city  limits,  and  will  one  day  bo 
rendered  a  source  of  wealth. 

DU  CANGE,  CnAKLEs  du  Fresxe,  a  French 
historian  and  philologist,  born  in  Amiens,  Dec. 
18,  IGIO,  died  in  Paris,  Oct.  23,  1088.    He  was 


educated  in  the  Jesuits'  college  in  his  nativo 
city,  and  at  the  age  of  13  spoke  and  wrote 
Greek  and  Latin  freely.  In  1631  he  was  ad- 
mitted as  an  advocate  before  the  parliament. 
From  that  time,  however,  he  gave  himself  up  to 
literature,  and  in  1678  produced  his  first  and 
one  of  his  most  useful  works,  the  Glossarium  ad 
Scrqjtores  Medice  et  Infimce  Latinitatis  (3  vols, 
fol.,  Paris),  a  new  edition  of  which,  in  7  vols. 
4to.,  appeared  in  Paris  in  1844.  As  a  compan- 
ion to  this,  he  published  a  glossary  of  the  im- 
pure Greek  of  the  middle  ages  (2  vols,  fol., 
Paris,  1688).  Both  are  works  of  the  high- 
est value  to  the  student  of  mediaival  history, 
and  the  former  was  augmented  by  the  Benedic- 
tines, who  added  to  it  at  different  times  7  vol- 
umes. Du  Cange  also  produced  a  Traite  his- 
torique  du  chef  de  Saint  Jean  Baptiste  (4to., 
1665);  an  annotated  edition  of  De  Joinville's 
Histoire  de  Saint  Louis  IX.  (fol.,  1668);  and  a 
nistoria  Byzantina  illnstrata  (Paris,  1680). 
His  published  works,  however,  comprised  but  a 
small  part  of  his  labors.  Ilis  MSS.,  the  volu- 
minousness  of  which  is  almost  incredible,  have 
been  collected  and  catalogued  m  the  university 
of  Paris,  and  measures  have  been  taken  for  their 
publication  in  Paris.  A  monument  to  this  pro- 
found scholar  was  erected  in  Amiens  in  1850. — 
See  Essai  sur  la  vie  et  les  ouvrages  de  Du  Cange, 
by  Leon  Feugere  (Paris,  1852). 

DUOAEEL,  Andrew  Coltee,  an  English  an- 
tiquary, born  in  Normandy  in  1713,  died  in 
London,  May  24,  1785.  Ho  was  educated  at 
Eton,  and  at  St.  John's  college,  Oxford,  and 
made  a  journey  to  Normandy  in  1752,  which 
supplied  materials  for  a  Avork  entitled  "  Anglo- 
Norman  Antiquities"  (first  published  in  4to.  in 
1754 ;  enlarged  and  republished  in  fob,  London, 
1767).  lie  thus  opened  the  way  for  other  learn- 
ed antiquaries  of  his  country,  who  during  the 
past  century  have  frequently  visited  and  de- 
scribed the  religious  monuments  of  a  province 
where  so  many  traces  of  connections  between 
Norman  and  English  families  exist.  His  work 
Avas  received  Avith  great  favor,  and  though  sub- 
sequent researches  have  proved  the  inaccuracy 
of  some  of  its  statements,  yet  it  is  still  valued 
for  the  materials  Avhicli  it  contains.  It  has  de- 
scriptions aud  representations  of  some  monu- 
ments since  destroyed.  In  1762  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  royal  society,  and  the  next  year 
he  Avas  appointed,  with  Sir  Joseph  Ayloffe,  to  put 
in  order  the  state  papers  at  "Whitehall.  It  was 
his  custom  annually  to  travel  incognito  with  one 
of  his  friends  during  the  month  of  August,  tak- 
ing Avith  him  Camden's  "  Britannia  "  and  a  set 
of  maps,  and  thus  to  examine  minutely  all  places 
of  interest.  Among  his  other  publications  were 
a  "  Series  of  more  than  200  of  the  Anglo-Gallic 
Coins  of  the  Ancient  Kings  of  England,  illus- 
trated in  12  Letters"  (4to.,  London,  1757);  the 
"History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Archiepiscopal 
Palace  at  Lambetli ;"  and  numerous  papers  in 
the  '•  Pliilosophical  Transactions." 

DUCAS,  Michael,  a  Byzantine  historian  of 
the  15th  century.   He  was  a  descendant  from  an 


DUOAT 


DUCHI: 


G43- 


imperial  fuinily,  and  liiinself  licld  ahigli  position 
at  tiic  court  of  Coiistaiitiiie  Pulicoloffus,  tlio  last 
emperor  of  Constant  iuoplo.  After  the  conquest 
of  tliatcity  by  Mohammed  II.  he  took  refuge  with 
the  prince  of  Lesbos,  Dcjrino  Gateluzzi,  and  was 
appointed  by  him  and  his  successors  to  various 
diplomatic  missions.  lie  accompanied  his  master 
to  Constantinople,  when  he  went  to  do  homage 
to  the  sultan,  and  his  prudence  and  skill  succeed- 
ed in  saving  the  independence  of  Lesbos.  Under 
Nicholas  Gateluzzi,  however,  the  wrath  of  Mo- 
hammed was  called  down  npon  the  island,  and 
it  was  united  in  1-1-62  to  the  Ottoman  emi)ire. 
Though  Ducas  survived  this  event,  nothing  more 
is  known  of  his  life.  It  is  probable  that  he  re- 
tired to  Italy,  and  wrote  in  his  old  age  the  his- 
tory which  has  come  down  to  us.  Tiiis  work, 
divided  into  45  chapters,  begins  with  an  out- 
line of  universal  chronology,  and  does  not  be- 
come detailed  and  truly  instructive  till  the  reign 
of  John  Palaiologus  I.,  and  it  terminates  abruptly 
in  the  middle  of  a  sentence,  at  the  capture  of 
Lesbos  in  1462.  It  is  the  most  difficult  of  all 
the  Byzantine  histories,  written  in  a  barbarous 
style,  but  is  judicious  and  impartial. 

DUCAT,  a  gold  coin,  Avhiclx  has  been  long  in 
circulation  in  a  large  part  of  Europe.  The  lirst 
ducats  are  said  to  have  been  struck  in  the  12tli 
century  in  Sicily  by  lioger  II.,  and  to  have  re- 
ceived their  name  from  the  device  which  was 
inscribed  upon  them:  Sit  tihi,  Chrlste,  datus, 
quern  iu  regis^  iste  ducatm.  A  little  later  ducats 
of  various  kinds  became  current  in  Italy,  and 
especially  in  Venice ;  and  they  spread  thence 
througli  Switzerland,  the  Germanic  states,  Rus- 
sia, Sweden,  Denmark,  Holland,  and  Spain.  In 
Spain,  however,  at  present,  the  ducat  is  only  a 
money  of  exchange.  In  Germany  the  ducats, 
being  made  in  1559  a  legal  coin  of  the  empire, 
soon  displaced  the  gold  florins,  and  were  gener- 
ally struck  with  the  likeness  of  the  sovereign 
princes  upon  them.  The  ducats  of  Austria  and 
Holland  are  the  only  ones  which  have  acquired 
a  veiy  extensive  circulation.  Those  of  Holland 
are  the  most  widely  spread,  bearing  an  emblem 
of  a  knight  armed  cap-a-pie.  This  emblem  was 
for  a  short  time  exchanged  for  the  likeness  of 
King  Louis  of  Holland.  The  value  of  the  ducat 
varies  somewhat  in  different  countries,  but  it  is 
generally  little  more  than  that  of  2^  American 
dollars.  There  are  also  silver  ducats  in  France 
and  Spain,  having  half  this  value.    (See  Coixs.) 

DUOHATEL,  Chaeles  Marie  TA>rxEGUT, 
count,  a  French  economist  and  politician,  born 
in  Paris,  Feb.  ID,  1803.  Prior  to  1830  he  took  an 
active  part  in  editing  the  Qlohe,  one  of  the  lead- 
ing organs  of  the  liberalists.  In  1827  he  publish- 
ed a  work  on  pauperism,  which  competed  unsuc- 
cessfully for  the  academic  prize,  and  in  which 
he  showed  himself  a  disciple  of  the  principles  of 
Malthus,  and  proposed  as  a  remedy  for  the  suffer- 
ings of  the  poorer  classes  the  formula  of  "  labor, 
economy,  and  prudent  marriages."  He  began  his 
parliamentary  career  in  1832,  was  named  secre- 
tary-general of  the  finances  in  1833,  and  in  1835 
was  appointed  to  the  ministry  of  commerce.   He 


resigned  with  his  colleagues  in  Feb.  183G,  but 
became  a  member  of  a  new  cabinet  G  months 
later  as  minister  of  tiie  finances  The  new  doctri- 
naire ministry,  however,  was  soon  overthrown, 
being  followed  by  the  administration  of  Mole,  and 
Duchiltel  now  became  one  of  the  most  energetic 
leaders  of  the  opposition.  At  the  accession  of 
the  cabinet  of  Soult  and  Guizot  in  1840  ho 
came  again  into  i>ower  as  minister  of  the  in- 
terior, and  retained  this  position  with  but  a 
short  interruption  till  tlie  revolution  of  1848, 
since  which  he  has  lived  in  retirement.  The 
measures  supported  by  him  both  as  deputy  and 
minister  were  generally  of  a  financial  character, 
but  he  also  took  a  prominent  part  in  tlie  estab- 
lishment of  railways  and  telegraphs  in  France. 

DU  CIIATELET,  Gabkielle  Emiue  (Le 
ToNXELiEK  DE  Bketeuil),  marcliioness,  noted 
for  her  intimacy  with  Voltaire,  and  for  her  lit- 
erary attainments,  born  in  Paris,  Dec.  17, 1706, 
died  in  Luneville,  Aug.  10,  1749.  She  was  mar- 
ried at  an  early  age  to  the  marquis  du  Chtite- 
let-Lomont,  and  afterward  divided  her  time 
between  science  and  dissipation,  in  both  of 
which  she  became  a  proficient.  Not  even  a 
love  affair  with  the  fascinating  duke  de  Riche- 
lieu could  withdraw  her  from  her  studies.  In 
1733  she  became  the  mistress  of  Voltaire,  and 
the  next  year  removed  with  him  to  Monjeu 
near  Autun,  and  afterward  to  the  chateau  of 
Cirey,  where  the  marquis  extended  to  her  para- 
mour the  indulgence  he  had  always  shown  to 
herself.  Here  they  passed  several  years  in  un- 
restrained freedom,  both  actively  engaged  in 
literary  pursuits,  especially  in  the  study  of  the 
English  philosophers,  Newton  and  Locke.  The 
marchioness  composed  her  Dissertation  sur  la 
nature  et  la  i)ro2>agation  du,  feu ;  Institutions 
de  physique^  a  synopsis  of  Leibnitz's  philosophy, 
and  various  other  essays;  while  Voltaire  wrote 
Le  siecle  de  Louis  XIV.,  Merope.,  Alzire,  and 
Mahomet.  During  a  visit  to  the  court  of  Stan- 
islas, the  ex-king  of  Poland,  at  Luneville,  the 
faithless  lady  fell  in  love  with  the  marquis  de 
Saint  Lambert,  a  captain  in  the  guard,  by  whom 
she  had  a  daughter,  and  a  few  days  after  giving 
birth  to  this  child  she  died  at  the  palace  of 
Luneville.  Several  of  her  works  were  published 
posthumously,  including  Principes  vuithema- 
tiques  de  la  jihilosophie  naturelle  (translation  of 
Newton's  Princi2}ia,  with  a  commentary,  1756) ; 
Doutes  sur  les  religions  retclees.^  adresses  a  Vol- 
taire (8vo.,  Paris,  1792)  ;  Lettres  incdites  cL  M. 
le  comtc  d^Arge?ital  (12mo.,  Paris,  1806). 

DUCIlfi,  Jacob,  an  American  clergyman, 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1739,  died  there  in  Jan. 
1798.  He  was  graduated  at  the  college  of  Phil- 
adelphia, afterward  the  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  1757,  and  completed  his  education  at 
Cambridge,  England.  In  1759,  having  received 
a  license  from  the  bishop  of  London,  he  was  or- 
dained an  assistant  minister  of  Christ  church  in 
Philadelphia,  of  which  in  1775  he  became  rector. 
He  was  a  man  of  brilliant  talents  and  impressive 
eloquence,  and  at  the  meeting  of  the  second  con- 
gress in  1775,  just  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war 


644 


DUCHESNE 


DUCK 


of  the  revolution,  he  was  invited  to  open  the 
congress  with  prayers.  By  sermons  delivered 
before  congress,  and  before  the  patriots  of  the 
army,  he  established  his  character  not  only  for 
eloquence  but  fol*patriotism  ;  and  being  in  1776 
chosen  chaplain  to  congress,  he  resigned  his 
salary  for  the  relief  of  tlie  fiimilies  of  those  pa- 
triots who  had  fallen  in  battle.  Yet  he  lost  con- 
fidence in  the  cause  of  independence,  and  in  1777 
addressed  a  letter  to  "Washington  in  which  he  pic- 
tured the  hopelessness  of  resistance,  and  urged 
him  to  cease  his  desperate  and  ruinous  eftbrts. 
"Washington  transmitted  the  letter  to  congress, 
and,  Duche  having  fled  to  England,  his  estate 
was  confiscated  as  that  of  a  traitor.  lie  returned 
to  America  in  1790,  but  never  regained  influ- 
ence or  position.  He  published  while  in  Lon- 
don 2  volumes  of  sermons,  written  in  an  easy 
and  elegant  style,  which  passed  through  several 
editions.  His  wife  was  a  sister  of  Francis  Hop- 
kinson,  and  his  daughter  married  John  Henry, 
whose  political  manoeuvres  in  1812  caused  some 
excitement.  The  literary  character  of  Duche 
has  been  variously  estimated.  Wharton  and 
Graydon  term  him  weak  and  vain ;  Sabine  at- 
tributes to  him  brilliant  talents,  impressive 
oratory,  and  fine  poetic  taste  ;  while  all  unite  in 
denouncing  him,  in  the  language  of  John  Adams 
in.  1777,  as  "  an  apostate  and  traitor." 

DUCHESNE,  Andee,  a  French  historian, 
whose  labors  gained' him  the  title  of  the  father 
of  French  historj^,  born  in  Isle  Bouchard,  Tou- 
raine,  in  1584,  died  in  1640.  He  was  geographer 
and  historiographer  to  the  king,  and  died  by 
being  crushed  under  a  cart,  while  on  his  way 
from  Paris  to  his  country  seat.  Beside  his  pub- 
lished works  he  left  more  than  100  volumes  in 
MS.  Among  the  most  important  of  the  former 
are  Historim  Normannorun  Scriptores  Antiqui 
(fob,  Paris,  1619);  Histories  Francorum  Scrip- 
tores  (fob,  Paris,  1633-5) ;  and  some  genealogi- 
cal histories. — His  son,  FnANgois,  born  in  1616, 
died  in  1640,  was  also  historiographer  to  the 
king,  and  wrote  a  history  of  the  popes  (2  vols, 
fob,  Paris,  1653). 

DUCHESNE  DE  GISOES,  Jean  Baptists 
Joseph,  a  French  painter,  born  in  Gisors,  de- 
partment of  Eure,  Dec.  8, 1770,  died  there,  March 
25, 1856.  He  removed  to  Paris  at  an  early  age, 
and  made  himself  prominent  in  1812  by  a 
remarkable  portrait  of  Napoleon.  After  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he  became  court 
painter.  His  miniature  of  the  duchess  de  Berry 
is  considered  a  unique  specimen  of  the  art.  He 
was  much  employed  by  the  royal  families  of 
England  and  Belgium,  and  between  1840  and 
1848  was  engaged  in  executing  a  commission 
from  the  French  government  to  continue  the 
series  of  paintings  on  enamel  in  the  Louvre 
commenced  by  Petitot.  He  also  executed  a 
series  in  enamel  for  Queen  Victoria  after  the 
miniatures  of  Sir  "William  Boss.  Some  of  the 
latter,  painted  in  his  82d  year,  are  of  the  high- 
est excellence. 

DUCIS,  Jean  FnANgois,  a  French  poet,  born 
in  Versailles,  Aug.  22,  1738,  died  there,  March 


81, 1816.  He  made  his  first  appearance  in  the 
literary  world  as  the  author  of  the  unsuccessful 
tragedy  of  Amelise.  He  afterward  adapted  sev- 
eral of  the  plays  of  Shakespeare  to  the  French 
stage,  and  in  this  had  considerable  success.  Of 
his  original  dramatic  works  the  best  is  his  Alti- 
far,  o\i  lafamille  Arabe.  In  the  latter  part  of 
liis  life  he  wrote  some  shorter  poems  which  are 
graceful  and  sweet.  He  was  an  adlierent  of  the 
Bourbons,  and  refused  the  place  of  senator,  with 
50,000  francs  a  year,  offered  him  by  Napoleon, 
though  he  was  at  the  time  in  great  poverty.  His 
works  were  published  at  Paris  in  1819  in  3  vols. 
DUCK,  a  name  applied  to  birds  of  the  family 
anatidm,  of  the  order  anseres  or  natatores.  The 
familiar  external  characters  are  a  large  flattened 
bill,  covered  with  a  soft  epidermis  rather  than 
horn,  and  with  its  sides  armed  with  lamellae  or 
small  teeth-like  processes ;  the  tongue  is  fleshy, 
with  dentated  margins ;  the  wings  are  moderate; 
the  feet  at  or  near  the  centre  of  equilibrium  ; 
the  anterior  toes  joined  by  a  web ;  the  neck  is 
long.  The  number  of  vertebrae  is  large,  espe- 
cially in  the  neck ;  the  sternum  and  pelvis  are 
large  and  wide,  the  former  with  a  well  devel- 
oped keel,  and  posteriorly  with  2  openings  or 
deep  indentations ;  the  fibula  is  not  entirely  an- 
chylosed  to  the  tibia.  Tlie  gizzard  is  fleshy  and 
large ;  the  intestines  are  about  5  times  as  long 
as  the  bird,  and  the  ca3cal  appendages  often  ^ 
as  long  as  the  body ;  the  trachea  and  inferior 
larynx  generally  bulbous.  The  ducks  are  divid- 
ed into  3  subfamilies,  anatincB  or  river  ducks, 
fuligulince  or  sea  ducks,  and  erismaturince  or 
spiny-tailed  ducks.  I.  The  anatinm  have  the 
bill  equal  in  width  and  height,  depressed  at  the 
tip,  which  has  a  hard  nail,  and  the  inner  por- 
tion of  the  lateral  margins  laraellated ;  the  tarsi 
are  compressed,  and  generally  as  long  as  the 
inner  toe ;  the  hind  toe  is  bordered  with  a  slight 
membrane  from  base  to  tip.  These  ducks  prefer 
fresh  water,  feeding  along  the  edges  of  streams 
rather  than  diving,  eating  small  mollusks  and 
soft  aquatic  plants  ;  some  feed  on  the  land,  and 
roost  and  build  their  nests  in  trees ;  they  are 
powerful  fliers,  and  have  a  wide  geographical 
range.  In  the  genus  dafila  (Leach)  is  the 
pin-tail  duck  (Z>.  acuta^  Linn.),  having  the  bill 
lead-colored  with  a  black  spot  at  the  tip,  a  long 
slender  neck,  the  wing  speculum  of  a  purj^le  or 
coppery  red  with  deep  green  reflections  and 
black  border,  the  feathers  with  broad  white  tips, 
and  a  long  and  pointed  light  gray  tail,  dark 
brown  in  the  middle ;  in  the  adult  male  the 
head,  cheeks,  throat,  upper  part  of  front  neck, 
and  sides  are  dark  brown  ;  a  small  part  of  hind 
neck  dark  green,  almost  black  ;  the  upper  parts 
in  gen'eral  undulated  with  narrow  bars  of  brown- 
ish black  and  yellowish  white ;  wings  grayish ; 
upper  tail  coverts  cream-colored ;  an  oblique 
white  band  on  the  side  of  the  neck ;  lower  pai'ts 
white,  undulated  like  the  back  or  the  sides,  and 
lower  tail  coverts  black,  white-edged  at  the  side. 
The  female  and  young  are  variegated  with 
brown  and  brownish  white;  the  speculum  is 
dusky  green,  and  the  long  tail  feathers  are 


DUCK 


645 


■wantinfj ;  they  arc  sometimes  called  gray  ducks. 
The  male  is  about  29  inches  long  to  end  of  tail, 
extent  of  wings  36  inches,  weight  about  2  lbs. ; 
the  females  are  smaller.  It  is  most  commonly 
seen  on  the  inland  ponds  of  the  west  and  south 
of  the  United  States  from  early  autumn  to  spring, 
in  company  with  teals,  widgeons,  and  mallards; 
the  breeding  place  is  in  the  far  north,  in  passing 
to  and  from  which  the  birds  are  seen  on  the 
coast.  They  are  very  graceful  on  the  water, 
rarely  dive,  and  are  less  shy  than  most  others 
of  the  family  ;  a  favo^-ito  article  of  food  is  thq 
beech  nut;  they  will  also  eat  tadpoles,  leeches, 
insects,  and  even  dead  animal  matter ;  the  flesh 
is  much  esteemed  for  fooJ.  Several  species 
are  found  in  South  America,  Europe,  Africa, 
and  Asia,  migrating  to  temperate  regions  from 
the  north.  The  typical  genus  anas  (Linn.)  in- 
cludes the  mallard  or  common  wild  duck,  the 
origin  of  the  domesticated  si)ecies.  The  mallard 
(A.  bosehas,  Linn.)  has  a  bright  purple  speculum 
with  green  reflections  and  black  border,  the 
secondaries  broadly  tipped  with  white,  and  the 
secondary  coverts  with  white  ends  and  black 
border ;  the  head  and  neck  deep  green,  a  white 
ring  around  the  middle  of  the  neck  ;  the  breast 
reddish  brown ;  fore  part  of  back  light  brown, 
the  rest  darker,  and  rump  black  with  green  reflec- 
tions; upper  surface  of  wiugs  grayish  brown  ; 
sides  and  lower  parts  pale  gray  with  dusky  bars ; 
the  length  is  about  24  inches,  extent  of  wings 
36,  and  weight  2^  to  3  lbs.  ;  the  females  are 
smaller,  of  a  brownish  color,  Avith  a  less  brilliant 
speculum  and  the  head  and  neck  with  dusky 
straaks.  This  species  is  smaller  but  more  beau- 
tiful than  the  domestic  races  which  have  sprung 
from  it ;  the  wild  bird  may  be  known  from  the 
tame  by  its  soft  and  pliable  feet,  which  in  the 
latter  become  hard  and  wider  from  walking  over 
gravel  and  roads.  The  mallard  is  found  abun- 
dantly from  New  York  southward  and  west- 
ward, being  replaced  to  the  northward,  accord- 
ing to  Audubon,  by  the  velvet  duck  (oidcmia  fus- 
ca,  Linn.) ;  it  is  rarely  seen  on  salt  water,  except 
when  migrating.  The  flight  is  strong  and  rapid, 
easily  commenced  from  land  or  water ;  when 
alarmed  it  utters  many  loud  quacks  ;  it  is 
truly  omnivorous,  devouring  any  thing  eatable, 
even  carrion  and  small  animals  that  come  in 
its  way ;  beside  man,  its  principal  enemies 
are  hawks  and  owls,  the  raccoon,  lynx,  and 
the  snapping  turtle.  The  flesh  of  the  young 
birds  is  much  esteemed  ;  the  large  hybrids 
produced  from  the  mallard  and  Muscovy  duck 
are  excellent  for  the  table ;  this  species  also 
breeds  with  the  black  duck  and  the  gadwall, 
the  latter  hybrid  being  very  handsome,  retain- 
ing the  yellow  feet  and  barred  plumage  of  the 
one  and  the  green  head  of  the  other  parent. 
The  black  or  dusky  duck  (^4.  oUcura,  Gmel.)  is 
60  called  from  its  general  dusky  plumage ;  the 
speculum  is  green,  with  puri)lo  reflections  and 
black  border,  and  the  secondaries  are  tipped 
with  white.  In  shape  and  habits  it  resembles 
the  mallard,  and  no  doubt  could  be  easily  do- 
tnesticated ;  the  flesh  of  the  young  birds  is  ex- 


cellent, and  the  feathers  are  soft  and  clastic 
The  shoveller  duck  Upatula  clyjicata^  Linn.), 
or  spoon-bill  as  it  is  called  by  sportsmen,  hcos  the 
bill  twice  as  broad  at  the  end  as  at  the  base, 
much  rounded,  with  the  sides  at  the  base  so 
closely  pectinated  as  to  resemble  the  teeth  of  a 
fine  comb  ;  the  head  and  neck  are  glossy  green, 
upper  part  of  breast  white,  rest  of  lower  parts 
chestnut,  except  the  lower  tail  coverts,  and  a 
black  band  across  the  vent;  sides  yellowish  with 
dark  pencillings ;  secondaries  greenish,  the  in- 
ner with  terminal  white  spots ;  primaries  dark 
brown,  with  white  shafts ;  lesser  wing  coverts 
light  blue ;  speculum  golden  green ;  rump  green- 
ish black,  Avhite  at  the  sides ;  tail  dark  brown, 
with  pointed  feathers  broadly  edged  with  Avhite; 
length  about  21  inches,  extent  of  wings  32, 
weight  1^  to  If  lbs.  It  associates  with  teals, 
mallards,  and  gadwalls,  and  is  omnivorous ;  its 
flesh  is  much  prized,  and  Audubon  says  that  no 
sportsman  who  is  a  judge  will  pass  a  shoveller 
to  shoot  a  canvas-back ;  it  is  comparatively  a 
rare  duck,  and  is  most  common  in  the  southern, 
and  western  states.  The  Australian  genus  tn<i- 
lacorhynchus  (Swains.)  is  nearly  allied  to  the 
shoveller.  The  Muscovy  duck  (cairina  mo8- 
chata,  Linn.),  more  properly  called  musk  duck, 
is  distinguished  by  the  rounded  red  tubercle  or 
carbuncle  on  the  top  of  the  bill  at  the  base ;  the 
color  is  glossy  black,  with  the  wing  coverts 
white ;  by  its  lobed  hind  toe  it  connects  the  river 
ducks  with  the  next  subfamily.  It  is  of  large 
size,  being  about  33  inches  long  ;  it  has  an  odor 
of  musk,  proceeding  from  the  coccygeal  glands, 
which  is  communicated  to  the  flesh ;  in  its  pure 
state  it  is  diflScult  to  raise,  but  it  breeds  well 
with  the  mallard,  and  in  this  domesticated  state 
its  plumage  is  more  white,  and  the  musky  odor 
is  absent.  It  is  supposed  to  have  originally 
come  from  South  America,  whence  it  has  spread 
over  the  world.  To  the  river  ducks  belong  the 
genera  tadorna  (Leach),  the  European  sheldrake, 
this  name  in  America  being  appHed  to  a  mer- 
ganser ;  aix  (Boie),  the  wood  or  summer  duck ; 
mareca  (Steph.),  the  widgeon ;  querquedula 
(Steph.),  the  green-winged  teal ;  pterocyanea  (Pr. 
Bonap.),  the  blue-winged  teal ;  and  chaulclasmus 
(Gray),  the  gadwall;  these  will  be  described  un- 
der their  respective  common  names.  II.  The  sea 
ducks,  or  fuligtilhrn,  have  the  bill  higher  than 
broad,  depressed  at  the  tip,  which  is  armed  with 
a  broad  strong  nail ;  the  wings  are  moderate 
and  pointed,  the  tail  generally  short  and  wedge- 
shaped,  the  tarsi  compressed  and  much  shorter 
than  the  middle  toe ;  the  toes  long  and  united 
by  a  full  web,  the  outer  as  long  as  the  middle ; 
the  hind  toe  short,  with  a  deep  membranous 
web.  These  ducks  are  generally  marine,  feed- 
ing on  moflusks  and  small  fish,  which  gives  to 
their  flesh  a  strong  flavor ;  most  are  excellent 
fliers.  The  genus  fuligula  (Steph.)  includes  the 
scaup  duck  and  the  ring  neck.  The  scaup 
duck  (F.  marila,  Linn.)  has  the  head,  neck,  fore 
part  of  back,  and  breast  black,  glossed  with 
purple  aud  green,  and  the  last  two  tinged  with 
brown;   the  rest  of  the  upper  parts  and  ab- 


646 


DUCK 


domen  brownish  black ;  the  middle  back,  scap- 
ulars, secondaries,  front  of  abdomen,  and  sides 
grayish  white,  with  undulating  fine  black  lines; 
middle  of  breast  white  ;  wings  light  brown- 
ish gray ;  speculum  on  the  brownish  black  sec- 
ondaries white  ;  the  length  is  about  17  inches, 
extent  of  wings  29,   and  weight  1^  lbs. ;   the 
females    are  more    brown   and    white.      This 
duck,  which  is  called  broad-bill  and  blue-bill,  is 
found  along  the  Atlantic  coast  and  also  on  the 
western  rivers ;   it  arrives  from  the  north  in 
October  in  large  flocks,  which  at  first  may  be 
easily  decoyed ;  when  wounded,  it  is  very  difli- 
cult  to  obtain  on  account  of  its  diving,  and  from 
its  fishy  taste  is  hardly  worth  shooting;  itsflight 
is  rapid  and  high.     The  ring-necked  duck  (F. 
riifitorques^  Pr.  Bonap.)  has  a  tufted  head,  which 
with  the  upper  neck  is  greenish  black,  with 
purple  reflections ;  on  the  neck  is  a  brownish 
red  ring,  widest  in  front;  a  triangular  white 
spot  at  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible  ;  upper 
parts  generally  brownish  black,  lower  parts  gray- 
ish white  ;  outer  secondaries  with  slate-colored 
webs,  tipped  with  white ;  tail  brownish  gray ; 
the  length  is  about  18  inches,  and  the  extent 
of  wings  28.     The  female  has  a  white  band 
on  the  forehead,  upper  parts  brownish,  below 
white.     It  is  met  with  on  the  coast  and  in  the 
interior ;  it  swims,  dives,  and  flies  well ;  its  flesh 
is  said  to  be  excellent,  not  having  the  flshy  fla- 
vor of  the  scaup  duck.     Other  species  of  the 
genus  are  found  in  the  northern  parts  of  Eu- 
rope and  Asia,  and  one  in  New  Zealand ;  the 
European  tufted  duck  is  the  F.  cristata  (Linn.). 
The  genus  nyroca  (Flem.),  including  the  canvas- 
back  (see  Oanvas-Baok),  which  by  some  au- 
thors is  put  in  the  preceding  genus,  is  repre- 
sented here  also  by  the  red-head  {N.  ferina, 
Linn.) ;  this  species  has  a  bluish  bill,  black  to- 
ward the  end  ;  in  general  appearance  it  resem- 
bles the  canvas-back,  except  that  the  head  and 
upper  neck  all  round  are  dark  chestnut,  and  the 
back  is  grayish  brown,  barred  with  fine  white 
lines ;  the  length  is  20  inches,  extent  of  wings  33, 
and  weight  2^  lbs. ;  in  the  female  the  head  and 
neck  are  brown  like  the  back.  The  red-head,  like 
the  canvas-back,  is  very  common  in  the  Chesa- 
peake, but  is  rare  north  of  New  York ;  its  flesh 
is  as  good  as  that  of  the  canvas-back,  and  it  is 
often  sold  for  it  to  the  inexperienced ;  it  arrives 
about  November,  leaving  for  the  north  to  breed 
in  early  spring.     The  genus  clangula  (Flem.) 
contains  several  well   known  species,  among 
them  the  golden-eyed  duck  (C.  Americana,  Pr. 
Bonap.)  ;  this  bird  has  a  black  bill,  with  a  white 
spot  between  the  base  and  eye;  head  with  a  crest 
of  feathers  more  than  an  inch  long ;  iris  bright 
yellow ;  head  and  upper  neck  rich  green  with 
purple  reflections ;  rest  of  neck  and  plumage 
generally  white  ;  back  and  wings  blackish,  with 
a  patch  of  white  on  the  latter  formed  by  the 
secondaries  and  tips  of  the  coverts ;  sides  of  rump 
grayish  ;  the  length  is  20  inches,  extent  of  wings 
31,  and  weight  about  2^  lbs. ;  the  female  is  dull 
brown  above,  white  below,  with  dusky  wings. 
This  species  arrives  with  the  other  sea  ducks  in 


the  autumn  from  their  breeding  places  in  the 
north  ;  it  is  found  from  high  arctic  latitudes  to 
Florida,  both  on  the  coast  and  in  the  interior ; 
its  food  consists  of  mollusks,  crustaceans,  and 
small  fish,  which  it  procures  by  diving.     Its 
flight  is  strong  and  very  rapid,  and  accompa- 
nied by  a  sound  Avhich  has  caused  this  bird  to 
be  called  whistler ;  the  flesh  has  a  fishy  taste, 
which  is  relished  by  some ;  though  shy  and  dif- 
ficult to  approach,  it  will  generally  alight  at  the 
decoys  of  the  gunner  on  the  coast.     The  buffel- 
headed  duck  {G.  albeola,  Linn.),  or  spirit  duck, 
is  a  miniature   representative  of  the  golden- 
eye  ;  the  bill  is  blue ;  the  head  crested ;  a  patch 
behind  the  eye,  going  over  the  head,  and  band 
on  the  Avings,  white;    rest  of  head  and  hind 
neck  glossy  green,  with  purple  reflections ;  fore 
neck,  breast,  and  sides  pure  white;  abdomen 
dusky  white ;   tail  and  upper  coverts  grayish 
brown ;  back  and  wings  black,  the  latter  with  a 
white  patch  ;  the  length  lij^  inches,  extent  of 
wings  23,  weight  1  lb. ;  the  female  is  sooty 
brown  above,  breast  and  abdomen  soiled  white, 
fore  neck  ash-colored,  with  a  white  band  on  the 
sides  of  the  head.    This  duck  receives  its  com- 
mon name  from  the  disproportionate  size  of 
the  head  compared  with  the  body ;   from  its 
diving  habits  it  is  also  called  dipper;  the  flight 
is  very  rapid,  and  its  distribution  extensive ;  its 
flesh  is  fishy.     The  harlequin  duck  (C.  histri- 
onica,  Linn.)  is  a  beautiful  and  singularly  marked 
species,  and  much  prized  as  a  cabinet  specimen ; 
the  bill  is  yellowish  olive;  a  broad  black  streak 
passes  over  the  top  of  the  head,  margined  with 
reddish  brown;  fi'ont  of  the  eye  and  a  spot  be- 
hind it  white ;  a  slightly  curved  white  line  on  the 
neck ;  sides  of  head  and  neck  purplish  blue  ;  a 
complete  ring  of  white  below  the  middle  of  the 
neck ;  a  band  of  white  in  front  of  the  wing,  pass- 
ing on  the  breast,  edged  with  black  ;  fore  back 
light  blue,  becoming  black  behind;   scapulars 
white,  and  secondaries  tipped  with  the  same, 
forming  a  bar  on  the  wings  ;  fore  breast  light 
blue,  abdomen  brownish ;   quills  dark  brown, 
tail  grayish  black ;  under  the  tail  at  base  a  white 
spot;  the  length  is  17  inches,  extent  of  wings 
26^,  and  weight  1^  lbs. ;  the  female  is  grayish 
brown.     It  is  rare  on  the  coast  south  of  Massa- 
chusetts, but  common  to  the  north,  especially 
in  the  British  provinces  ;  it  is  shy,  an  excellent 
flier  and  diver,  diflicultto  obtain,  and  not  much 
prized  as  food.     The  long-tailed  duck  {heralda 
glacialis,  Linn.),  called  also   "  old  wife"   and 
"old  squaw,"  has  the  bill  black  at  the  base,  or- 
ange yellow  at  the  end,  with  a  bluish  gray  nail ; 
iris  carmine ;  a  grayish  white  patch  from  the 
bill  to  behind  the  ear;  upper  part  of  head  and 
nape  black,  narrower  in  front ;  neck  all  round 
and  fore  breast  chocolate-brown ;   back    and 
wing  coverts  brownish  black;    scapulars  mar- 
gined with  light  brown.    This  is  the  male  sum- 
mer plumage ;  in  winter,  the  head,  neck,  fore 
back,   and   scapulars  are  white;    upper  parts 
brownish  black,  as  are  the  4  middle  tail  feathers ; 
lower  parts  and  the  outer  tail  feathers  white. 
The  2  median  tail  feathers  extend  several  inches 


DUCK 


647 


beyond  tlie  others;  Icngtli  to  end  of  tail  featli- 
ers  23  inches,  and  extent  of  wings  80.  The 
feathers  are  dense  and  blended,  enabling  tho 
bird  to  resist  tho  extreme  cold  of  the  arctic  re- 
gions ;  in  the  winter  it  is  found  in  all  tho  At- 
lantic districts ;  it  is  timid,  a  swift  flier  and 
ready  diver;  tho  flesh  is  tough  and  fishy.  The 
pied  duck  (camptolaimus  Lahrudora,  Gmel.) 
has  tho  wing  coverts  and  secondaries  white, 
forming  a  largo  patch  on  the  wings;  the  cheeks 
are  furnislied  witli  bristly  feathers;  the  bill  is 
orange  at  tlie  base,  black  at  the  entl,  with  tho 
sides  of  tho  upper  mandible  very  thin,  and  the 
under  deeply  serrated ;  a  black  band  on  the  top 
of  tho  head ;  rest  of  head  and  upper  neck  white ; 
in  the  middle  of  neck  a  broad  black  ring,  tho 
same  color  passing  down  the  back ;  lower  neck 
white;  upper  breast  and  sides  black;  lower 
plumage  brownish  black,  as  are  tlie  primaries 
and  tlieir  coverts;  the  length  is  20  inches,  ex- 
tent of  wings  30,  and  weight  nearly  2  lbs. ;  the 
female  is  bluish  gray  above,  ash-gray  below, 
with  secondaries  and  sides  of  head  white.  This 
species,  called  the  skunk  and  sand-shoal  duck, 
does  not  seem  to  go  further  south  than  Ches- 
apeake bay;  it  is  essentially  a  marine  bird, 
rarely  entering  rivers;  it  procures  by  diving 
over  sand  bars  shellfish  and  snuiU  fry ;  its  flesh 
is  not  considered  a  delicacy.  The  genus  soma- 
teria  (Leach)  contains  the  eider  and  the  king 
duck,  which  will  be  described  under  the  former 
title.  The  genus  oidcmia  (Flem.)  includes  those 
sea  ducks  which  are  erroneously  called  coots 
in  iSTew  England.  Tho  velvet  duck  {0.  fusca, 
Linn.)  has  the  plumage  generally  black,  with  a 
spot  under  the  eye  and  a  large  patch  on  the  wings, 
formed  by  the  secondaries,  white ;  hence  the  name 
white-winged  coot;  the  base  and  sides  of  the 
bill  black,  the  sides  bright  red,  and  the  nail  orange 
or  flesh-colored ;  iris  bright  yellow  ;  the  length 
is  22  inches,  extent  of  wings  39,  and  weight 
about  3^  lbs. ;  the  female  is  sooty  brown,  the 
lower  parts  lighter.  These  biz'ds  are  seen  in 
large  flocks  in  the  autumn  along  the  Atlantic 
coast,  when  they  are  shot  in  great  numbers 
from  boats  stationed  near  tho  shore ;  on  account 
of  the  density  of  the  plumage  tliey  require  a 
heavy  charge  to  kill  them  ;  though  breeding  in 
lakes  and  rivers,  they  are  rarely  seen  during 
migration  away  from  the  sea.  The  flesh  is 
dark,  with  a  fishy  flavor,  but  is  relished  by 
some  pei'sons.  The  surf  duck  (0.  perspicillata, 
Linn.)  has  a  bill  of  a  reddish  orange  color,  paler 
on  the  sides,  with  a  black  patch  at  the  side  of 
the  base  of  the  upper  mandible ;  the  plumage 
is  black,  except  a  white  patch  on  the  crown  and 
hind  neck ;  the  eyes  white ;  legs  and  feet  red- 
dish orange  ;  the  length  is  20  inches,  extent  of 
Avings  33,  and  the  weight  2^  lbs;  the  female 
has  a  brownish  tinge  to  the  black  plumage. 
This  is  also  called  coot,  and  associates  with  the 
preceding  species,  which  it  resembles  in  its  hab- 
its ;  it  is  frequently  called  black  duck;  it  is 
shy,  and  ditlicult  to  shoot  except  on  the  wing ; 
the  flesh  is  tough  and  fishy.  The  American 
scoter,  or  butter-bill  coot,  has  a  bill  of  a  deep 


orange  color  at  the  base  and  black  at  the  end ; 
the  general  c-olor  of  the  plumage  is  black,  bluish 
ou  the  hind  neck,  the  scapulars  tinged  with 
green;  tail  graduated;  the  length  is  19  inches, 
and  the  extent  of  wings  about  32.  This  associ- 
ates with  the  other  species  of  the  genus.  The 
0.  nigra  (Linn.)  is  a  European  bird.  It  13 
])robable  that  the  American  scoters,  like  other 
birds  breeding  in  tho  far  north,  are  occasionally 
seen  in  Europe.  III.  The  spiny-tailed  ducks, 
erismatwince,  have  the  bill  elevated  at  the  base 
and  depressed  at  the  tip,  with  a  nail ;  the  wings 
are  short  and  concave,  with  the  ends  of  the 
quills  incurved  ;  the  tail  is  lengthened,  of  nar- 
row, rigid  feathers,  slightly  protected  with  cov- 
erts above  and  below ;  the  tarsi  are  shorter  than 
the  middle  toe,  comjiresscd ;  tho  toes  long, 
united  by  a  full  web,  the  hind  toe  long  with  a 
broad  web.  These  ducks  are  short  fliers  from  the 
smallness  of  their  wings,  and  their  geograpliical 
distribution  is  not  extensive.  In  the  genus 
iizka'a  (Leach),  peculiar  to  Australia,  there 
hangs  from  the  lower  mandible  a  large  com- 
pressed wattle  ;  the  wings  are  very  short,  and 
furnished  with  2  blunt  tubercles  at  the  shoulder. 
The  best  known  species  is  B.  lobata  (Shaw). 
The  ruddy  duck  {erimnatura  ruhida,  Wils.)  has 
a  grayish  blue  bill,  the  iris  hazel,  and  the  eye 
situated  very  high  up  ;  upper  part  of  the  head 
black,  terminating  in  a  point  behind  ;  sides  of 
the  head  white  ;  chin  with  a  yellowish  brown 
tinge ;  upper  parts  and  sides  reddish  brown ; 
lowei'  parts  white,  with  dusky  bars;  the  tail 
black,  short,  and  rounded ;  wings  blackish 
brown  ;  the  length  is  15  inches,  extent  of  wings 
22,  and  weight  If  lbs.  The  plumage  varies 
much  at  difterent  ages.  It  is  common  in 
Chesapeake  bay,  where  it  is  called  salt-water 
teal ;  it  is  found  all  along  the  coast  and  on  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers.  It  is  an  excellent 
diver,  but  is  by  no  means  shy;  when  young  and 
fat  the  flesh  is  tender  and  of  good  flavor.  The 
saw-bill  ducks  will  be  described  under  Meegan- 
6EE,  to  which  subfamily  they  belong. — The 
domestic  duck  is  derived  principally  from  the 
mallard,  mixed  in  some  cases  with  the  musk 
duck  aud  the  gadwall,  and  perhaps  the  black 
duck.  The  variety  considered  the  best  here  is 
the  Aylesbury  duck,  from  the  town  of  that  name 
in  Buckinghamshire,  England  ;  many  thousand 
pounds  sterling  worth  of  ducks  are  sent  annu- 
ally to  London  from  this  place,  and  almost  all 
the  broods  are  hatched  under  hens,  as  being 
more  certain  sitters ;  the  most  prized  are  pure 
white,  with  pale  bill  and  legs.  The  advantages 
of  this  breed  are  their  great  size,  easy  manage- 
ment, and  productiveness;  tbey  are  early  lay- 
ers and  good  hatchers,  and  easily  raised  ;  beside, 
they  are  ornamental,  with  fine,  wliite,  downy 
feathers,  pure  skin,  and  white,  delicate,  and 
savory  llesh;  from  their  size  they  are  the  most 
profitable ;  at  the  age  of  8  months  a  pair  should 
weigh  from  10  to  12  lbs.  The  large  Rouen  duck, 
originally  from  France,  very  prolific  in  eggs,  is 
about  30  inches  long;  the  back  is  sooty  black; 
it  is  generally  believed  to  be  a  half  domesticated 


C48 


DUCKWORTH 


DUCTILITT 


epecies  escaped  from  man's  restraint,  and  after- 
ward again  subjected  to  liim  ;  it  breeds  readily 
with  the  common  variety.  Other  varieties  are 
the  Flemish  crested,  black  and  white  Poland, 
and  Silesian  ducks ;  the  musk  duck  is  a  distinct 
species.  The  Chinese  are  famous  for  rearin.ic 
immense  numbers  of  ducks,  which  are  hatched 
by  artificial  heat  applied  to  the  eggs  placed  in 
boxes  of  sand  ;  tliey  are  fed  with  boiled  craw- 
fishes and  crabs  cut  in  small  pieces  and  mixed 
with  boiled  rice ;  they  are  kept  in  boats,  300 
or  400  in  each,  going  out  to  feed  in  the 
morning  and  returning  when  wanted  at  the 
voice  of  their  master.  "When  it  is  considered 
that  many  thousand  boats,  each  the  residence 
of  a  family,  crowd  the  river  near  Canton  and 
other  Chinese  cities,  an  idea  of  tlie  immense 
number  of  the  ducks  may  be  formed.  In  many 
parts  of  India  a  large  and  profitable  trade  is 
carried  on  in  these  birds.  Tame  ducks  are  in 
general  easily  reared,  as,  being  omnivorous,  they 
pick  up  a  great  part  of  their  own  living  for  a 
large  part  of  the  year.  As  the  duck  is  generally 
a  careless  mother,  a  hen  is  almost  always  mado 
to  hatch  out  the  ducklings,  and  most  persons 
are  familiar  with  the  anxiety  of  the  foster 
mother  w^hen  her  young  brood  takes  to  water 
for  the  first  time.  As  a  general  thing  the  rear- 
ing of  ducks  is  considered  less  profitable  than 
that  of  other  poultry. 

DUCKWORTH,  Sir  Johjj  Thomas,  an  Eng- 
lish admiral,  born  in  Leatherhead,  Surrey,  Feb. 
28, 1748,  died  in  Plymouth,  April  31, 1817.  He 
entered  the  navy  in  1759,  was  mado  a  lieuten- 
ant in  1770,  a  post-captain  in  1780,  and  in  the 
action  of  June  1, 1794,  in  which  the  French  fleet 
was  defeated  by  the  English  squadron  under 
Lord  Howe,  commanded  a  74-gun  ship.  In 
1798  he  contributed  to  the  conquest  of  the  isl- 
and of  Minorca,  and  in  1799  was  made  rear  ad- 
miral. Having  afterward  become  vice-admiral, 
he  defeated  a  French  fleet  in  the  bay  of  St.  Do- 
mingo in  1806,  for  which  he  received  the  thanks 
of  both  houses  of  parliament,,  an  annuity  of  £1,- 
000  a  year,  and  other  rewards.  He  sat  for  a  time 
in  parliament,  was  governor  and  commander-in- 
chief  of  Newfoundland  from  1810  to  1815,  and 
on  his  recall  to  England  was  appointed  governor 
of  Plymouth.     He  was  made  a  baronet  in  1813. 

DUCLOS,  Charles  Pineatj,  a  French  author, 
born  in  Dinan,  Brittany,  Feb.  12,  1704,  died  in 
Paris,  March  26,  1772.  He  studied  in  Paris,  at 
first  with  a  view  to  the  law,  but  liis  tastes  and 
association  with  the  prominent  wits  of  the  day 
inclined  him  to  the  pursuit  of  letters.  The  first 
work  which  gained  him  reputation  was  his  His- 
toire  de  la  'baronne  de  Lnz  (1741),  the  success 
of  which  was  equalled  or  surpassed  by  that  of 
the  Confessions  ducomte  (Ze  *  *  *,  published  the 
next  year.  His  Eistoire  de  Louis  XL  was  not 
60  well  received  by  the  public,  and  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  government  in  1745,  though  in 
1750  he  became  historiographer  of  France.  A 
collection  of  moral  essays,  entitled  Considera- 
tions sur  les  viaurs  de  ce  siecle,  is  the  chief  basis 
of  his  reputation.    He  contributed  largely  to  the 


Memoires  of  the  academy  of  inscriptions  and 
belles-lettres,  of  which  lie  became  a  member  in 
1739,  and  to  the  4th  edition  of  the  dictionary  of 
the  French  academy,  to  which  he  was  admitted 
in  1747.  His  writings  are  disfigured  by  the 
characteristic  indecency  of  his  age,  to  which  his 
dissolute  life  naturally  disposed  him.  They  have 
been  collected  and  several  times  republished 
(10  vols.  8vo.,  Paris,  1806  ;  3  vols.  Bvo.,  1821). 

DUCORNET,  Louis  Cesap.  Joseph,  a  French 
artist,  born  in  LUle,  Jan.  10,  1806,  died  April 
27,  1856.  He  was  born  without  arms,  but  by 
patience  and  courage  was  enabled  in  childhood 
to  obviate  in  a  great  measure  the  eflTccts  of  this 
misfortune  by  making  his  feet  perform  all  the 
ordinary  ofiices  of  hands.  His  father  hoped  to 
turn  this  pedal  dexterity  to  some  advantage  by 
educating  him  to  become  an  engraver  of  music 
or  a  writing  master.  Young  Ducornet,  how- 
ever, had  conceived  a  taste  for  painting,  and  so 
much  astonished  Watteau,  professor  at  the 
school  of  design  in  Lille,  by  the  drawings  which 
he  executed  with  his  feet,  that  at  the  age  of  13 
he  was  received  into  the  school  as  a  pupil. 
Three  years  later  he  obtained  the  first  prize  for 
a  drawing  of  the  human  figure  from  nature,  on 
which  occasion  his  native  city  settled  upon  him 
a  pension  of  300  francs,  which  was  subsequently 
increased  by  the  government  to  1,500.  Enabled 
by  this  means  to  pursue  his  studies  in  Paris,  he 
produced  in  1828  his  "Parting  of  Hector  and 
Andromache,"  Avhich  he  presented  to  the  city 
of  Lille.  After  the  revolution  of  1830  his  pen- 
sion was  withheld.  During  the  remainder  of  his 
career  he  painted  numerous  pictures  of  history 
and  genre,  and  portraits,  which  have  obtained 
considerable  popularity,  less  on  account  of  their 
merits,  perhaps,  which  are  considerable,  than  of 
the  extraordinary  circumstances  under  which 
they  were  executed.  One  of  his  latest  works, 
"  Edith  finding  the  Body  of  Harold  "  (exhib- 
ited in  1855),  was  painted  for  Napoleon  III. 
Ducornet  was  not  only  destitute  of  arms,  but 
there  were  certain  malformations  in  his  lower 
limbs  which  seemed  to  present  insurmountable 
obstacles  to  the  acquisition  of  proficiency  in  his 
art.  He  nevertheless  used  his  brushes  with  re- 
markable dexterity,  passing  them  from  one  foot 
to  the  other  with  rapidity,  and  making  the  most 
delicate  strokes  with  perfect  ease  and  accuracy. 
He  had  but  4  toes  on  each  foot,  but  the  wide 
space  thereby  left  between  the  great  toe  and 
the  next  one,  by  enabling  him  to  grasp  his 
brushes  and  maul  stick  firmly,  rather  facili- 
tated the  operation  of  painting.x  He  was  of  a 
vivacious  temperament,  and  in  an  animated 
conversation  was  in  the  habit  of  gesticulating 
with  his  legs  as  an  ordinary  person  would  with 
his  arms.  "llis  father  was  his  inseparable  com- 
panion, frequently  carrying  him  on  his  shoul- 
ders that  his  feet  might  not  become  incapaci- 
tated for  painting. 

DUCTILITY  (Lat.  ductilis,  from  duco,  to 
draw),  the  property  of  bodies  in  virtue  of  which 
they  may  be  drawn  out  in  length  without  frac- 
ture.    Malleability  is  a  similar  property,  and 


DUDDON 


DUDEVANT 


649 


both  are  sometimes  found  in  the  highest  degree 
in  the  same  subsUince  ;  thus,  gold  may  be  drawn 
out  into  the  finest  wire  or  beaten  into  the  thin- 
nest leaf.  Iron  from  its  fibrous  texture  admits 
of  being  drawn  into  delicate  wire  of  great 
strength,  but  it  appears  deficient  in  tlie  laminated 
structure  by  which  it  may  be  hannnered  into 
fine  leaves.  The  arrangement  of  bodies  accord- 
ing to  their  ductility  is  nearly  the  same  as  that 
according  to  their  malleability.  Gold  is  tlie 
most  ductile  of  all  substances ;  others  succeed 
it  thus:  silver,  platiuura,  iron,  copper,  zinc,  tin, 
lead,  nickel,  palladium,  cadmium.  Though  this 
property  is  possessed  in  the  highest  degree  by 
most  of  the  metals,  it  is  also  shared  by  other 
bodies,  as  by  glass  when  softened  by  a  red  heat. 
In  this  condition,  by  merely  inserting  a  hooked 
wire  into  the  soft  mass,  a  thread  is  drawn  out 
of  more  uniform  size  than  could  be  obtained  by 
this  simple  method  from  the  most  ductile  metal. 
Attaching  the  thread  to  the  circumference  of  a 
revolving  cylinder,  the  glass  is  coiled  around 
it  in  a  fibre  nearly  as  fine  and  flexible  as  that 
of  the  silkworm.  The  highly  elastic  gums 
possess  a  certain  degree  of  ductility,  and  wax 
acquires  the  same  property  when  it  is  softened 
by  heat.  Other  bodies  become  ductile  when 
mixed  with  some  fluid  to  make  a  paste,  as  clay 
or  flour  with  Avater,  whiting  mixed  with  oil  to 
make  putty,  &c.  As  seen  in  glass  and  wax,  a 
change  of  temperature  aff'ects  the  ductility  of 
some  bodies.  Some  are  rendered  more  ductile 
by  increasing  their  tempei-ature  nearly  to  the 
fusing  point;  gold,  silver,  lead,  &c.,  are  not 
thus  aflEected ;  brass  and  the  variety  of  bar  iron 
know  as  red-short  are  less  ductile  when  heated 
than  at  the  ordinary  temperature.  It  is  on  the 
property  of  ductility  that  the  preparation  of 
metallic  wires  depends.  These  are  drawn 
through  successive  holes  in  a  steel  plate,  each 
bole  of  less  diameter  than  the  preceding ;  and 
for  very  fine  wires  a  coating  of  another  metal 
serves  to  protect  the  inner  wire,  which  is  after- 
ward isolated  by  dissolving  the  outer  metal  in 
some  solvent  which  does  not  afiect  the  other. 
Platinum  thus  protected  by  silver  was  drawn 
out  by  Dr.  AVoUaston  in  wire  only  ^o^g-o  of  an 
inch  in  thickness. 

DUDDOX,  a  river  of  England,  celebrated  by 
"Wordsworth  in  a  series  of  sonnets.  It  rises  near 
the  stones  which  mark  the  junction  of  the  coun- 
ties of  Cumberland,  Lancashire,  and  Westmore- 
land, flows  20  m,  in  a  S.  direction,  and  dis- 
charges its  waters  into  the  Irish  channel  by  a 
broad  estuary,  forming  at  low  tide  an  immense 
surface  of  sand  flats  nearly  dry. 

DU  DEFFAND,  Madame.     See  Deffantj. 

DUDEVANT,  Amantine  Lucile  Aueore 
Ddpin',  a  French  novelist,  celebrated  under  the 
assumed  name  of  George  Sand,  born  in  Paris, 
July  5,  180-t.  Her  father,  Maurice  Dupin, 
died  when  she  "was  scarcely  4  years  old,  leav- 
ing her  to  the  care  of  her  grandmother,  the 
countess  de  Horn,  who  was  the  illegitimate 
daughter  of  Marshal  Saxe,  the  natural  son  of 
Augustas  II.,  kmg  of  Poland,  and  of  the  cele- 


brated counte.  s  Aurora  de  Konigsmark.  6ho 
received  her  first  education  at  the  family  country 
seat  of  Xohant,  near  LaChatre,  where  slio  led  a 
somewhat  eccentric  life.  She  subseciuently  spent 
nearly  2  years  at  an  aristocratic  boarding  school 
in  Paris  known  as  le  couveut  des  Anglaises, 
Avhere  she  became  a  devout  Catholic,  and  at  one 
time  entertained  a  design  of  taking  the  veil.  In 
1820  she  returned  to  Nohant,  and  on  the  death 
of  her  grandmother  a  few  months  later,  lived 
with  some  friends  in  the  vicinity  of  Melun. 
Hero  she  became  acquainted  with  a  young  man 
of  26,  CasinnrDudevant,  to  whom  she  was  mar- 
ried in  Sept.  1822.  The  young  couple  took  up 
their  abode  at  Xohant,  but  after  a  few  months 
of  comparative  bliss  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
their  tempers,  habits,  and  tastes  could  not  har- 
monize. Disagreement  increased  yearly  through 
trifiing  causes,  and  the  estrangement  was  em- 
bittered by  pecuniary  embarrassments.  Finally 
in  1831  Mme.  Dudevant,  desirous  of  trying  her 
fortune  as  a  writer,  obtained  jjerraission  of  her 
husband  to  pass  3  months  out  of  every  6  in  Paris. 
She  consequently  repaired  to  the  metropolis, 
and  through  her  countryman  Jules  Sandeau, 
whom  she  had  previously  known  at  La  Chatre, 
■was  introduced  to  Henri  Delatouche,  then  ed- 
itor of  the  Figaro.  She  contributed  a  few  arti- 
cles to  that  paper,  but  not  possessing  the  ex- 
temporaneous facility  requisite  for  a  journalist, 
she  found  herself  entirely  dependent  upon  the 
meagre  allowance  of  1,500  francs  paid  by  her 
husband.  In  order  to  reduce  her  expenses,  and 
to  visit  unnoticed  the  public  galleries,  libraries, 
and  theatres,  she  assumed  the  dress  of  a  male 
student.  Meamvhile  she  Avrote  a  novel  in  con- 
junction with  her  friend  Jules  Sandeau,  who 
succeeded  in  finding  a  publisher.  This  first  per- 
formance, entitled  Hose  et  Blanche.,  and  bearing 
the  name  of  Jules  Sand,  was  received  favorably 
enough  to  encourage  the  publisher  to  take  an- 
other novel  from  the  same  hands.  Sandeau  had 
nothing  ready,  but  his  associate  had  just  com- 
pleted during  a  stay  at  ISTohant  a  book  which 
appeared  in  May,  1832.  This  was  Indiana^  which 
had  a  brilliant  success.  Jules  Sandeau,  modestly 
declining  any  share  in  a  work  which  was,  in  part 
at  least,  ascribed  to  him,  resumed  his  full  name ; 
and  by  Delatouche's  advice  the  lady  kept  the 
shortened  appellation  of  Sand,  with  the  prefix 
George.  About  the  same  time  it  was  rumored 
that  the  successful  author  was  a  woman,  and 
this  added  to  the  interest  created  by  Indiana. 
This  was  soon  followed  by  Valentine^  a  scarcely 
less  striking  and  more  perfect  production,  which 
was  also  eagerly  received.  "  George  Sand '"  be- 
came then  a  favorite  novel  writer  for  the  Retue 
des  deux  mondes.  In  1833  she  produced  Lelia, 
the  boldestif  not  the  greatest  of  her  eftorts.which 
caused  a  profound  sensation  by  the  principles  of 
infidelity  and  social  disorder  whicli  it  seemed  to 
advocate.  From  this  time  the  author  was  look* 
ed  on  with  dread  and  suspicion  by  many  of 
her  former  admirers.  To  recruit  her  health, 
she  now  started  for  Italy  in  company  with  Al- 
fred de  Musset,  the  poet ;  but  they  separated  in 


650 


DUDLEY 


Venice,  he  returning  to  France  after  a  severe 
illness,  and  she  remaining  to  write  her  Jacques, 
Andre,  and  Lcs  lettres  d'un  voyageur.  On  her 
return  to  France  in  the  beginning  of  1835,  she 
met  Michel  de  Bourges,  the  eloquent  lawyer, 
who  drew  her  into  politics,  Lamennais,  with 
whom  she  debated  the  highest  questions  of  reli- 
gion, and  Pierre  Leroux,  who  was  her  initiator 
into  the  doctrines  of  socialism.  Their  influence 
was  perceptible  in  several  of  her  subsequent 
works,- such  as  Simon,  Spiridion,  and  Connuelo. 
The  difficulties  with  her  husband  had  so  in- 
creased that  a  separation  was  desirable  for  both  ; 
and  through  the  management  of  Michel,  who 
had  become  her  counsel,  she  obtained  a  decree 
by  which  she  was  separated  from  her  husband, 
and  restored  to  the  management  of  her  own  for- 
tune and  the  guardianship  of  her  children.  Her 
life  now  became  co!ii])aralively  settled ;  she 
made  Nohant  a  resort  for  her  friends,  and  attend- 
ed to  her  children's  education,  without  neglect- 
ing her  literary  labors.  In  1838,  for  the  benefit 
of  her  son's  health,  she  spent  a  winter  in  Ma- 
jorca, Avhere  she  was  accompanied  by  the  pia- 
nist Chopin.  In  1845  she  turnedher  pen  to  new 
and  more  congenial  subjects,  and  began  to  write 
pastoral  novels  unparalleled  for  charm,  simpli- 
city, and  artlessness  ,•  among  these  are  Frangois 
le  Champi  (first  produced  as  a  play  in  1849),  La 
petite  Fudette,  and  La  mare  au  diahle.  The  revo- 
lution of  Feb.  1848,  brought  her  again  into  the 
political  arena,  and  she  issaid  to  have  upheld  with 
her  pen  many  of  the  measures  of  Ledru-Rollin, 
then  a  member  of  the  provisional  government ; 
but  a  few  months  afterward  she  returned  to  her 
favorite  country  seat  and  her  wonted  occupa- 
tion. In  1854  she  published  in  the  Presse  news- 
paper an  interesting  autobiography,  entitled 
Histoire  de  ma  vie,  which  does  not  go  beyond 
the  year  1845.  La  fiUenle  deserves  a  special 
notice  among  her  recent  productions ;  the  latest 
of  which  are  La  Daniela,  Vhomme  de  neige,  and 
Elleet  lui,  in  the  Revue  des  deux  mondes.  She 
has  also  written  several  plays,  of  which  Francois 
le  C^awijsj  has  been  the  most  successful ;  her  last 
effort  in  this  line  was  an  adaptation  of  Shake- 
speare's "  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  per- 
formed in  Paris  in  1857.  Many  of  George 
Sand's  works  have  been  translated  and  published 
in  the  United  States,  Consuelo  and  Teverino 
among  the  number.  Among  the  distinguished 
names  in  modern  French  literature,  for  beauty 
and  vigor  of  style  she  is  without  a  peer. 

DUDLEY,  a  town,  parish,  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  Worcestershire,  England,  but  locally 
comprised  in  the  co.  of  Stafford,  which  entirely 
surroimds  it;  pop.  in  1851,37,962.  The  town 
stands  on  a  hill  about  8  m.  from  Birmingham, 
and  contains  4  churches  and  a  number  of  chapels 
of  various  denominations.  The  charitable  foun- 
dations, such  as  free  schools,  infirmaries,  and 
industrial  schools,  are  numerous.  In  addition 
to  these  there  are  a  grammar  school  founded 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  many  literary  and 
Ecientific  societies,  and  a  museum  of  natural  cu- 
riosities. The  neighborhood  furnishes  almost  in- 


exhaustible supplies  of  iron,  which  is  here  manu- 
factured and  transported  by  canal  to  all  parts 
of  the  kingdom.  Coal  is  obtained  in  like  abun- 
dance. At  a  place  called  Queen's  Cross  there 
is  a  coal  mine  in  a  state  of  ignition,  the  smoke 
and  gas  from  which  issue  from  the  crevices  in 
the  rocks.  Such  phenomena  are  by  no  means 
micommon  in  Dudley ;  subterranean  fires  of 
this  description  have  broken  out  here  at  times 
for  upward  of  a  century.  The  limestone  quar- 
ries of  the  neighborhood  are  remarkable.  The 
stone  is  usually  excavated  from  the  solid  rock, 
leaving  vast  caverns,  the  roofs  of  which  are 
supported  1)y  limestone  jjillars.  One  of  these 
caverns  is  2  m.  long,  and  traversed  by  a  canal 
by  which  the  quarried  material  is  conveyed 
away.  In  the  8th  century  Dudo  or  Dodo,  a 
mythical  Saxon  prince,  is  said  to  have  built  on 
an  eminence  near  here  a  strong  castle,  the  ruins 
of  which  still  remain.  It  is  of  oblong  shape, 
and  has  a  tower  at  each  end.  In  1644  it  was 
garrisoned  by  a  body  of  royalists  under  Col. 
Beaumont,  and  held  out  for  3  weeks  against  the 
parliamentary  forces.  Dudley  sends  one  mem- 
ber to  the  house  of  commons. 

DUDLEY,  the  name  of  an  English  historical 
family,  descended  from  John  de  Somerie,  who 
acquired  the  castle  and  lordship  of  Dudley  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  II.  The  barony  passed  by 
marriage  from  the  house  of  Somerie  to  that  of 
Sutton  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  John  Sut- 
ton (Lord  Dudley,  died  in  1487)  was  distin- 
guished as  a  soldier  in  the  wars  of  the  roses,  and 
left  2  sons,  Edward  and  John.  A  grandson  of 
the  latter  was  Edmund  Dudley,  the  extortion- 
ary minister  of  Henry  VIL,  who  was  executed 
for  high  treason  under  Henry  VIII.  (Aug.  18, 
1510).  His  son  John  Dudley  (1502-1553)  was 
created  Viscount  L'Isle  by  Henry  VIII.  (1542), 
earl  of  "Warwick  by  Edward  VI.  (1547),  and 
after  effecting  the  ruin  of  the  duke  of  Somerset 
was  made  duke  of  Northumberland  (1551).  He 
persuaded  the  young  king  Edward  to  set  aside 
his  sisters  Mary  and  Elizabeth  from  the  succes- 
sion, and  bequeath  the  crown  to  Lady  Jane  Grey, 
who  belonged  to  a  branch  of  the  royal  famUy, 
and  had  married  Loi-d  Guilford  Dudley,  a  son 
of  Northumberland,  The  attempt  proved  a 
failure,  and  Northumberland  perished  with  his 
son  and  daughter-in-law  on  the  scafibld.  His 
son  Ambrose  (1530-1589),  usually  called  the 
good  earl  of  Warwick,  to  which  dignity  he  was 
restored  by  Elizabeth  (1561),  served  in  youth 
in  the  Netherlands,  and  was  afterward  a  distin- 
guished ornament  of  the  English  court.  He 
died  childless. — Kobeet,  younger  brother  of  the 
preceding,  earl  of  Leicester,  the  favorite  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  born  about  1531,  died  in  Corn- 
bury,  Oxfordshire,  Sept.  4, 1588.  He  came  early 
into  the  service  of  Edward  VI.,  by  whom  he 
was  knighted.  In  1550  he  married  Amy,  the 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Sir  John  Robsart,  the 
nuptials  being  solemnized  in  presence  of  the 
young  king.  In  the  first  year  of  Mary  he 
was  imprisoned  and  condemned  with  his  father 
for  the  attempt  to  transfer  the  succession  to 


DUDLEY 


651 


Lady  Jano  Grey,  but  tho  sentence  of  death 
was  soon  remitted,  and  he  was  afterward  re- 
B^bred  in  blood.  On  tlio  accession  of  Eliza- 
beth ho  met  with  rapid  i)refcrmeiit,  his  eleifaiit 
and  courtly  address  winning  for  him  the  chief 
place  iu  the  personal  esteem  of  the  queen.  lie 
was  made  master  of  the  horse,  knight  of  the 
garter,  and  privy  councillor,  and  was  enabled  to 
maintain  the  splendor  of  his  station  by  grants  of 
manors  and  castles.  The  queen  was  delighted 
with  his  society,  and  their  intimacy  was  the  oc- 
casion of  scandal,  and  of  a  belief  that  he  was 
encouraged  to  aspire  to  the  hand  of  his  sover- 
eign. In  1560  liis  countess  died,  not  without 
suspicion  of  violence,  in  the  lonely  mansion  of 
Cumnor,  in  Berkshire,  where  she  was  living 
in  retirement;  and  when,  soon  after,  the  Eng- 
lish queen  proposed  the  marriage  of  Dudley 
with  Mary  of  Scotland,  the  latter  declined  the 
offer,  on  the  ground  that  Dudley  was  the  cho- 
sen spouse  of  Elizabeth,  who  wished  oidy  to 
exalt  his  dignity  by  giving  him  an  opportunity 
to  reject  the  hand  of  some  other  princess.  In 
1564  he  was  created  baron  of  Denbigh  and  earl 
of  Leicester,  and  was  elected  chancellor  of  the 
university  of  Oxford,  as  he  had  formerly  been 
high  steward  of  that  of  Cambridge,  and  his  favor 
at  court  caused  other  important  offices  through- 
out the  kingdom  to  be  conferred  upon  him.  lie 
soon  after  engaged  in  an  intrigue  with  Lady 
Douglas  Howard,  widow  of  Lord  Sheffield,  who 
bore  him  a  son,  and  claimed  to  have  been  pri- 
vately married  to  him.  In  1575  he  was  at  the 
height  of  his  power,  and  had  the  honor  of  en 
tertaining  the  queen  for  17  days  at  his  castle  of 
Kenilworth,  in  Warwickshire,  on  the  decoration 
of  which  he  is  said  by  Dugdale  to  have  expended 
£60,000,  and  the  pageants  and  festivities  on  the 
occasion  were  hardly  surpassed  in  magnificence 
even  in  that  splendid  reign.  At  what  time  he 
abandoned  Lady  Sheffield  for  the  countess  of  Es- 
sex is  uncertain,  but  in  1570  he  secretly  married 
the  latter,  immediately  after  she  had  become  a 
widow.  This  marriage  was  at  length  revealed 
to  Elizabeth,  who  was  so  enraged  that  she  Avas 
with  difficulty  dissuaded  from  comtnitting  him  to 
the  tower,  and  she  never  forgave  the  woman  who 
had  gained  liis  love.  Even  the  young  earl  of 
Essex,  in  the  height  of  his  influence,  pleaded  for 
his  mother  iu  vain.  A  virulent  and  skilfully 
written  book  against  him,  entitled  "Leicester's 
Commonwealth,"  was  published  in  1584,  and 
was  many  times  reprinted  under  different  titles. 
The  queen  at  length  pronounced  the  anonymous 
author  of  it  an  "  incarnate  devil,"  and  commanded 
her  council  to  contradict  it  on  her  own  personal 
knowledge  and  authority.  In  1585  he  com- 
manded the  English  forces  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  received  from  the  United  Provinces  the  of- 
fice of  captain-general,  and  the  whole  control  of 
their  army  and  finances.  This  triumph  of  his 
ambition  offended  Elizabeth,  and  his  ill  success 
in  the  field  against  Alexander  Farnese  disap- 
pointed the  Hollanders.  In  1586  he  was  called 
back  to  England  to  give  his  advice  in  the  case  of 
the  queen  of  the  Scots,  and  recommended  that 


she  should  bo  secretly  despatched  by  poison; 
and  in  1587  he  returned  to  Holland,  where  his 
administration  was  so  unjiopular  that  he  was 
soon  recalled.  In  1588,  Avhen  the  Spanish  ar- 
mada menaced  the  kingdom,  lie  received  an 
almost  un[)rcecdcntcd  share  of  the  royal  au- 
thority, being  nominated  to  the  new  office  of 
lord  lieutenant  of  England  and  Ireland ;  and  ho 
commanded  the  forces  at  Tilbury  for  tlio  defence 
of  the  caj)ital,  which  were  reviewed  by  the 
queen.  He  set  out  thence  for  his  castle  of  Ken- 
ilworth, but  was  attacked  with  a  violent  malady, 
and  died  on  the  way.  Notwithstanding  his  disso- 
lute life,  he  aft'ected  in  his  letters  a  religious  style, 
frequented  sermons,  observed  fasts,  and  gavo 
lands  for  charitable  endoAAnnents.  He  erected 
the  hospital  at  Warwick,  and  gave  its  master- 
ship to  a  Puritan  divine.  The  first  marriage  of 
Leicester  is  the  theme  of  Sir  "Walter  Scott's  nov- 
el of  "  Kenilworth." — Sir  Robekt,  son  of  the 
preceding  by  Lady  Sheffield,  born  in  Sheen,  Sur- 
rey, in  1573,  died  near  Florence  in  1039.  Ho 
fitted  out  a  maritime  expedition  at  his  own  ex- 
pense, with  which  he  sailed  to  America  in  1594, 
and  captured  some  Spanish  vessels.  In  1596 
he  distinguished  himself  at  the  taking  of  Cadiz. 
On  his  return  to  England  he  attempted  to  es- 
tablish his  legitimacy  and  secure  his  paternal 
estates,  but  was  defeated  in  his  efforts  by  his 
father's  widow,  the  countess  of  Essex.  He  soon 
after,  though  a  married  rnan,  seduced  the  daugh- 
ter of  Sir  Robert  Southwell,  fled  with  her  to 
Florence,  and,  assuming  the  title  of  earl  of 
"Warwick,  was  made  chamberlain  to  the  grand 
duchess  of  Tuscany,  and  duke  of  the  holy  Ro- 
man empire.  He  now  added  to  liis  former  title 
that  of  duke  of  Northumberland.  !Meanwhilo 
his  estates  in  England  were  confiscated,  and  he 
was  outlawed,  but  at  the  Tusca,n  court  his  honors 
increased.  By  draining  a  vast  morass  between 
Pisa  and  the  sea  he  made  Leghorn  a  large 
and  beautiful  town.  He  improved  its  harbor, 
caused  the  duke  to  declare  it  a  free  port,  drew 
many  English  merchants  to  settle  there,  and 
having  received  for  his  services  a  liberal  pen- 
sion, built  a  noble  palace  in  the  capital,  and 
beautified  his  country  seat  of  Carbello,  3  miles 
from  Florence.  He  patronized  literature,  and 
was  himself  the  author  of  several  works,  the 
best  known  of  which  is  his  Del  arcano  del  mare, 
a  remarkable  collection  of  tracts  on  commerce 
and  navigation  (Florence,  1030,  1G46  ;  there  is 
a  copy  in  the  British  museum  dated  16G1). — 
The  castle  of  Dudley  belonged  to  the  family  of 
Sutton  till  in  1697  it  passed  by  marriage  to  that 
of  Ward.  John  Ward  (died  in  1774)  was  cre- 
ated (1768)  viscount  of  Dudley  and  Ward,  and 
this  viscounty  continued  till  it  became  extinct 
at  the  death  of  John  William  Ward  (1781-1833), 
who  entered  the  house  of  commons  in  1802,  and 
became  secretary  of  state  under  Canning,  April 
8,  1827.     He  was  a  friend  of  Lord  Byron. 

DUDLEY,  the  name  of  several  royal  officers  oi 
Massachusetts. — Thomas,  governor  of  the  prov- 
ince, born  in  Northampton,  England,  in  1576, 
died  m  Roxbury,  Mass.,  July  31, 1652.    In  1630 


652 


DUDLEY 


DUEL 


he  came  to  Massachusetts  with  the  commission 
of  deputy  governor,  and  he  was  afterward  cho- 
sen governor  in  the  years  1634,  1G40,  1045, 
and  IGoO.  He  was  a  man  of  integrity  and 
piety,  though  intolerant,  like  most  of  his  gener- 
ation.— Joseph,  governor  of  the  province,  son  of 
the  preceding,  born  Sept.  23, 1G47,  died  in  Kox- 
bur_v,  April  2, 1720.  lie  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard college  in  16G5,  served  in  the  Indian  war 
in  1G75,  was  sent  to  England  as  agent  for  the 
province  in  1682,  appointed  president  of  New 
England  in  1686,  superseded  by  Andros  a  few 
months  later,  and  made  chief  justice.  He  went 
to  England  again  in  1689,  was  chief  justice  of 
New  York  from  1690  to  1G93,  tlien  8  years  lieu- 
tenant-governor of  the  isle  of  Wight,  and  final- 
ly governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1702  to  1715. 
He  was  a  man  of  high  moral  character,  and  a 
scholar. — Paul,  son  of  the  preceding,  and  chief 
justice  of  the  province,  born  Sept.  3, 1675,  died 
in  Roxbury,  Jan.  21, 1751.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1690,  and  afterward  studied 
law  in  London.  He  returned  to  Massachusetts  in 
1702,  with  tlie  commission  of  attorney-general. 
In  1718  he  was  appointed  judge,  and  on  the  death 
of  Lynde  in  1745,  became  chief  justice.  By  his 
will  he  bequeathed  £100  to  Harvard  college, 
the  interest  of  which  was  to  be  applied  to  the 
support  of  an  annual  lecture.  This  lecture  is 
called  from  its  founder  the  Dudleian  lecture,  and, 
accordhig  to  the  direction  of  the  founder,  is  de- 
livered on  one  of  4  subjects  which  are  treated 
of  in  succession.  The  1st  of  these  is  natural  re- 
ligion ;  tlie  2d,  the  Christian  religion ;  the  8d, 
the  errors  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  ;  and 
the  4th,  to  explain,  maintain,  and  prove  tlie  va- 
lidity of  the  ordination  of  ministers  according  to 
the  ancient  custom  in  New  England.  He  was  a 
fellow  of  the  royal  society,  and  beside  12  trea- 
tises chiefly  on  natural  history,  in  the  "  Trans- 
actions "  of  that  association,  published  a  work 
against  the  church  of  Rome. 

DUDLEY,  Bexjamix  Wixslow,  an  American 
surgeon,  born  in  Spottsylvania  co.,  Va.,  in  1785. 
He  received  his  education  at  Transylvania  uni- 
versity, Lexington,  Ky.,  and  attended  lectures 
at  the  medical  school  of  the  university  of 
Pennsylvania  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  took 
his  medical  degree  in  180G.  In  1810  he  went 
to  Europe  for  the  further  study  of  his  profes- 
sion, where  he  remained  as  the  pupil  of  Sir 
Astley  Cooper,  the  elder  Cline,  and  Abernethy, 
in  London,  and  Larrey,  Dubois,  and  Boyer,  in 
Paris,  till  1814.  On  his  return  he  established 
himself  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  in  July,  1814,  and  on 
the  day  of  commencing  practice,  performed  two 
diflacult  operations,  that  for  strangulated  her- 
nia, and  trephining  in  a  case  of  fractured  skull. 
Tlie  operation  for  stone  in  the  bladder,  always 
a  formidable  one,  though  of  comparative  fre- 
quency, has  won  him  a  high  degree  of  repu- 
tation. He  has  operated  for  this  disease  207* 
times  and  only  lost  5  patients,  and  has  had  occa- 
sion to  repeat  the  operation  in  but  one  instance. 
Recently  he  has  applied  a  ligature  to  the  carotid 
artery  for  aneurism  within  the  skuU  with  suc- 


cess, where  trephining  had  been  tried  before  by 
another  surgeon  for  supposed  water  on  the  brain. 
For  the  last  5  years  Dr.  Dudley  has  Avithdrawn 
from  active  practice.  He  resides  at  Lexington, 
Ky.,  and  has  published  several  medical  essays. 

DUDLEY,  Charles  Edward,  an  American 
senator,  born  at  Johnson  Hall,  Staffordshire, 
England,  May  23, 1780,  died  in  Jan.  1841.  After 
the  death  of  his  father  he  came  with  his  mother 
to  Newport,  R.  I.,  in  1784.  On  reaching  man- 
hood he  entered  into  trade  in  that  town,  and 
made  at  least  one  voyage  to  the  East  Indies  as 
supercargo  of  a  ship.  He  subsequently  removed 
to  New  York,  where  in  July,  1809,  he  was  mar- 
ried to  Blandina,  daughter  of  Rutgers  Bleecker, 
one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  Dutch  families 
of  that  city.  Two  years  later  he  removed  to 
Albany.  He  was  elected  state  senator  for  3  suc- 
cessive terms  in  1820-25,  mayor  of  the  city 
in  1821  and  1828,  and  in  1829  U.  S.  senator  to 
serve  out  the  unexpired  term  of  4  years  of 
Martin  Van  Buren,  who  had  resigned  to  assume 
the  duties  of  governor  of  the  state  of  New 
York.  Mr.  Dudley  was  particularly  fond  of  as- 
tronomical science,  and  had  long  cherished  the 
hope  that  it  would  receive  greater  attention  in 
this  country.  His  wishes  received  their  accom- 
plishment in  1856,  in  the  erection  and  endow- 
ment of  the  Dudley  observatory  at  Albany,  to 
which  his  widow  has  contributed  the  munificent 
sum  of  $70,000.  This  institution  is  supplied 
with  the  best  instruments  for  astronomical  pur- 
poses to  be  obtained  in  the  United  States  or 
Europe,  and  with  all  the  appliances  necessary 
for  rendering  it  a  complete  observatory. 

DUDLEY,  Sir  Henry  Bate,  an  English 
clergyman  and  author,  born  in  Fenny  Compton, 
Warwickshire,  Aug.  25, 1745,  died  Feb.  1, 1824. 
Not  finding  the  emoluments  of  his  curacy  sufii- 
cient  for  his  convivial  tastes,  he  turned  his  at- 
tention to  literature,  established  several  news- 
papers, among  others  the  "  Morning  Post"  and 
"Morning  Herald,"  and  also  wrote  some  dra- 
matic works.  His  original  name  was  Henry 
Bate,  but  in  accordance  with  the  will  of  a  rela- 
tive who  left  him  some  property,  he  assumed 
in  1784  that  of  Dudley.  He  was  made  a  baro- 
net in  1812,  and  subsequently  obtained  a  pre- 
bendal  stall  in  the  cathedral  of  Ely. 

DUEL,  a  premeditated  combat  between  two 
persons,  with  deadly  weapons,  for  the  purpose 
of  deciding  some  special  difference  or  quarrel. 
It  is  of  very  ancient  origin,  considered  in  a  com- 
prehensive sense,  though  what  is  now  under- 
stood specifically  by  the  term  dates  from  the 
first  half  of  the  16th  century.  The  accounts 
of  single  combats  that  oecurred  in  antiquity 
are  numerous,  and  are  to  be  found  in  both  sa- 
cred and  profane  history,  and  in  poetry.  The 
celebi'ated  single  combat  of  T.  Manlius  Tor- 
quatus  with  a  gigantic  Gaul  in  the  war  of  361 
B.  C,  and  other  instances,  prove  that  the  duel 
was  not  unknown  to  the  Romans,  though  the 
story  that  Antony  challenged  Octavius  to  single 
combat  may  be  an  invention.  The  Greeks,  too, 
were  no  strangers  to  it,  and  many  a  single  com- 


DUEL 


C53 


brtt  of  mortals  find  pods  is  immortalized  in  tho 
Iliad ;  and  tlie  tight  between  David  and  Goliath 
has  often  been  mentioned  to  show  tiiut  the  Jews 
and  otlier  Asiatics  were  acquainted  with  the 
practice.  The  Arabs  of  Mohammed's  time  knew 
it,  and  it  may  bo  asserted  that  it  lias  been  recog- 
nized in  almost  every  coimmiuity.  The  barba- 
rians who  overran  the  Iloman  empire  gave  to 
duelling  its  modern  character,  which  is  believed 
to  have  had  its  origin  in  the  wager  of  battle,  or 
judicial  combat,  the  object  of  wliich  was  to  vindi- 
cate the  innocent.  To  rude  races,  by  wliom  cour- 
age was  held  in  the  highest  honor,  the  belief  was 
natural  that  success  in  combat  was  the  test  of 
truth.  The  trial  by  combat  was  legalized  as 
early  as  A.  D.  501 ;  the  practice  extended,  and 
was  maintained  for  centuries  after  the  modes  of 
thought  in  which  it  originated  had  disappeared. . 
It  was  recognized  as  legal  in  England  as  lato 
as  1818  by  the  highest  law  court,  and  was  abol- 
ished by  i)arliament  in  1819  ;  but  in  France  its 
judicial  character  w^as  never  formally  admitted 
after  1547.  It  belonged  to  the  list  of  ordeals, 
and  the  solemnities  that  attended  its  observance 
were  calculated  to  impose  upon  men's  minds, 
and  to  give  it  the  force  that  proceeds  from  per- 
manence. Jurists  and  churchmen  upheld  it, 
and  monarclis  were  its  patrons  and  regulators. 
This  class  of  duels  became  so  common  that  va- 
rious attempts  were  made  to  lessen  their  num- 
ber. By  the  truce  of  God,  1041,  they  could 
not  be  fought  from  Wednesday  to  Monday,  the 
days  intervening  being  sacred  to  Christ's  pas- 
sion. In  1107  an  edict  forbade  duels  upon 
claims  that  did  not  exceed  2^d.,  a  circumstance 
tliat  shows  their  absurdity,  for  even  allowing 
largely  for  the  change  in  the  value  of  money, 
the  sum  mentioned  was  less  than  a  dollar.  Tlio 
occurrence  of  the  crusades  and  tlie  study  of  the 
civil  law  had  some  eifect  in  abating  personal 
combats. — France  was  the  country  in  which  the 
duel  was  most  common,  and  in  the  reign  of 
the  chivalric  Francis  I.  it  assumed  the  character 
"which  it  has  ever  since  maintained.  That  king 
laid  down  the  principle  "  that  tlie  lie  was  never 
to  be  put  up  with  without  satisfaction,  but  by  a 
base-born  fellow ;"  and  lies  were  divided  into 
32  categories,  each  having  its  own  particular 
mode  of  satisfaction.  But  it  "was  the  king's 
conduct  that  had  the  most  influence  on  the 
minds  of  fighting  men.  The  personal  quarrel 
between  him  and  the  emperor  Charles  V.  was 
one  of  the  scandals  of  that  age,  and  grew  out 
of  the  determination  of  the  former  to  break 
the  promises  which,  as  a  prisoner,  after  the 
battle  of  Pavia,  he  had  made  to  the  latter,  in 
order  to  obtain  his  freedom.  The  emperor 
accused  the  king  of  violating  his  pledge,  and 
proposed  to  make  his  accusation  good  with  his 
sword.  Francis  returned  the  lie  in  coarse  terms, 
and  offered  to  meet  his  rival  in  arms  at  any 
place  he  might  name.  Charles  named  the  banks 
of  the  Bidassoa,  the  very  spot  "where  he  had 
restored  Francis  to  liberty.  By  quibbling,  the 
king  prevented  the  meeting  he  had  appeared  to 
desire.    The  vioknce  of  the  disputants  excited 


much  attention,  and  from  their  liigTi  rank  a 
most  pernicious  example  was  set  to  the  hot  spir- 
its of  tliO  time.  It  became  the  custom  to  decide 
disputes  with  the  sword,  and  from  that  period 
dates  tlie  modern  duel  "  as  far  as  it  relates  to 
mortal  combat  upon  a  mere  jioint  of  honor."  It 
was  reported  that  Francis  had  offered  to  fight 
an  eminent  German  who  had  offended  him,  but 
who  had  declined  the  proffered  meeting.  Duel- 
ling became  the  rage  in  France,  and  has  so  con- 
tinued until  now.  The  lapse  of  3  centuries 
appears  not  to  have  changed  the  character  of 
French  duelling,  and  the  combats  in  wliich  somo 
of  Henry  III.'s  mignons  distinguished  themselves 
■were  in  no  respect  worse  than  that  in  which  a 
Paris  editor  was  stabbed  by  an  army  officer  in 
1858.  The  party  dissensions  and  civil  wars  of 
France  that  raged  during  the  last  30  years  of  the 
rule  of  the  house  of  Valois,  and  in  the  early  part 
of  the  reign  of  the  first  Bourbon  king,  naturally 
tended  to  make  duelling  more  common  and 
more  savage  than  it  could  have  been  under  other 
circumstances.  It  was  the  age,  too,  of  assassina- 
tion, which  shows  that  duelling  does  not  neces- 
sarily imply  the  existence  of  tlie  sentiment  of 
honor.  Henry  IV.  has  been  praised  for  the  ef- 
forts which  he  made  to  prevent  duelling,  but  his 
practice  was  in  flagrant  opposition  to  his  edicts, 
and  few  sovereigns  have  done  more  to  make 
single  combats  fashionable.  It  is  asserted  that 
in  his  reign  4,000  persons  fell  in  such  combats, 
and  that  he  granted  14,000  pardons  for  duel- 
ling ;  yet  among  his  edicts  was  one  that  made 
duelling  a  crime  against  royalty,  punishable  with 
death.  He  further  required  that  persons  who  had 
quarrelled  should,  submit  their  grievances  to  the 
governor  of  their  province,  to  be  laid  before  the 
marshals  of  France  and  the  constable,  thus  seek- 
ing to  carry  out  the  idea  which  had  originated 
with  Charles  IX.,  to  establish  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  court  of  honor.  Louis  XIII.  treated 
duellists  as  his  father  had,  though  justice  was 
done  in  the  case  of  the  infamous  Bouteville, 
one  of  the  Moutmorencys,  and  the  worst  duel- 
list of  his  day,  who,  by  the  influence  of  Riche- 
lieu, was  brought  to  the  scaffold.  Louis  XIV. 
set  his  face  against  duelling,  and  the  autocratic 
position  to  which  he  attained  enabled  him  to 
lessen  its  frequency,  though  it  had  been  in- 
creased by  the  "wars  of  the  Fronde,  in  the  early 
part  of  his  reign.  Edict  after  edict  was  issued 
by  him  against  it,  and  courts  of  honor  were 
instituted  for  its  prevention.  The  regency  re- 
vived duelling,  which  Louis  XV.  sought  to  stop, 
but  with  little  effect.  John  Law  was  a  noted 
duellist,  and  the  duke  de  Richelieu  was  another, 
while  St.  Evremont  and  St.  Foix  carried  duel- 
ling to  such  perfection  that  they  well  nigh  made 
it  a  farce.  The  reign  that  ushered  in  the  revo- 
lution had  its  share  of  duels,  a  party  to  one  of 
■U"hich  was  the  count  d'Artois,  afterward  Charles 
XL,  his  antagonist  being  the  duke  de  Bourbon- 
Conde,  while  two  of  the  most  famous  swords- 
men were  the  chevalier  d'Eon  and  the  chevalier 
de  St.  Georges.  The  duke  de  Lau'zun,  who 
served  in  the  forces  that  were  sent  to  aid  the 


654 


DUEL 


United  States,  was  a  noted  duellist.    It  is  a  cu- 
rious circumstance  that  in  the  last  duel  of  any 
moment  fought  under  tlie   old  monarchy,  the 
I)rincipal  party  was  a  man  "who  has  ex[)Osed  ad- 
mirably the  absurdity  of  duelling,  and  who  was 
imprisoned  for  fighting  by  tlie  court  of  honor, 
which  was  presided  over  by  Richelieu,  then  more 
than  90  years  old.     The  first  tendency  of  the 
revolution  was  to  suppress  duelling,  both  on 
partisan  and  patriotic  grounds.     It  was  looked 
upon  as  aristocratic,  and  the  life  of  every  man 
was  said  to  belong  to  his  country.     "When  the 
reaction  commenced  duelling  was  revived,  and 
all  the  more  readily  and  universally  because  of 
the  ascendency  of  the  military.     Napoleon  was 
averse  to  duelling,  but  had  to  tolerate  it,  even 
while   expressing  his   contempt   for  duellists. 
The   story  that  Sir  Sidney  Smith   challenged 
him  at  Acre,  and  that  ho  answered  he  would 
fight  a  Marlborough,  is  an  invention ;  but  when 
Gustavus  IV.  of  Sweden  sent  him  a  message,  his 
answer  was  that  he  would  order  a  fencing  mas- 
ter to  attend  him  as  a  plenipotentiar}".     The 
most  celebrated  duels  in  France  since  the  revo- 
lution were  between  Gen.  Gourgaud  and  Count 
Segur,  Col.  Pepe  and  Lamartine,  Bugcaud  and 
Dulong,  Arniand  Carrel  and  £mile  de  Girardin 
(in  which  the  former  lost  his  life),  Thiers  and 
13ixio,  Prondhon  the  socialist  and  Felix  Pyat. 
Since  1837  duellists  and  their  seconds  are  liable 
to  the  criminal  law  in  France  for  any  homicide 
or  manslaughter  resulting  from  the  duel,  but  in 
the  conduct  of  the  trial  much  discretionary  pow- 
er is  left  to  the  prosecuting  magistrate.     There 
have  been  female  duels  in  France ;  a  celebrated 
one  was  fought  under  the  regency  between  Ma- 
dame de  Nesle  and  the  countess  de  Polignac,  for 
the  possession  of  the  duke  de  Richelieu.    Tliere 
was  another  female  duel  as  late  as  1827,  and  in 
1828  one  between  a  young  girl  and  a  soldier 
who  had  betrayed  her,  and  between  a  French 
and  a  German  woman,  who  were  both  in  love 
with  a  painter. — Italy  has  not  been  much  behind 
France  in  duelling,  and  it  was  the  land  of  punc- 
tilio in  those  days  when  the  duel  was  establishing 
itself  in  the  latter  country.  The  Italians  excelled 
in  the  use  of  the  lighter  descriptions  of  weap- 
ons, and  among  the  multitudes  of  them  who 
swarmed  over  the  world,  adventurers  of  all  kinds, 
not  a  few  were  teachers  of  the  use  of  arms. 
Public  opinion  favored  duelling,  but  it  could 
not  prevent  assassination,  which  was   as  fre- 
quent as  if  the  other  art  of  killing  had  been  un- 
known.    The  Italians  are  accused  of  conduct- 
ing their  duels  treacherously,  but  the  practices 
charged  on  them  might  easily  be  paralleled  by 
facts  taken  from  the  history  of  French  duellists. 
— Single  combats  were  of  ordinary  occurrence 
in  Spain  during  the  long  contest  between  the 
Christians  arid  Mussulmans,  and  duelling  was 
sometimes  encouraged  by  laws  which  at  other 
times  were  directed  against  it.     In  1519  Charles 
V.  issued  an  edict  for  its  suppression ;  though, 
as  we  have  seen,  it  was  his  conduct  in  his  dis- 
putewith  the  French  king  that  gave  to  the  prac- 
tice its  power  in  modern  times.     Of  late  years 


individual  combats  have  been  rare  in  Spain,  an^ 
it  was  probably  his  Irish  blood  that  caused  the 
Carlist  O'Donneli  to   challenge   the  Christino 
Lopez — a  challenge  that  was  accepted,  but  led 
to  no  fight.     Duelling  is  even  less  common  in 
Portugal  than  it  is  in  Spain. — Duels  were  fa- 
vored by  the  northern  races,  and  in  Denmark 
women  were  not  allowed  champions  as  in  other 
countries,  but  compelled  to  do  their  own  fight- 
ing, though  certain  advantages  were  permitted 
them,  which  enabled  them  to  assert  their  supe- 
riority.    In  Norway  this  species  of  combat  was 
held  in  high  honor,  but  in  Sweden  it  was  nomi- 
nally forbidden  under  severe  penalties.     Gus- 
tavus Adolphus  was  especially  opposed  to  duel- 
ling, and  on  one  occasion  prepared  a  gallows  for 
that  party  who  should  survive  a  particular  com- 
bat ;  yet  he  offered  the  "  satisfaction  of  a  gentle- 
man" to  an  officer  whom  he  had  struck. — In  Ger- 
many duelling  is  much  less  in  vogue  than  in 
France,  excepting  among  students  in  the  uni- 
versities.    In  Austria  and  Hanover  the  ancient 
laws  on  the  subject,  inflicting  long  and  rigorous 
imprisonment  upon  those  who  kill  or  maim  their 
antagonists,  are  still  in  force,  and  in  the  latter 
country  the  sentence  of  death  may  still  be  pro- 
nounced whenever  homicide  results  from  a  pre- 
determination of  fighting  for  life  or  death,     A 
law  was  passed  in  Saxony,  Aug.  13,  1855,  pun- 
ishing such  extreme  cases  of  premeditated  hom- 
icide with  imprisonment,  varying  from  4  to  20 
years ;  but  in  all  other  cases  it  is  limited  to  a 
short  time,  not  only  in  Saxony,  but  throughout 
Germany.     Tribunals  of  honor  for  military  men 
have  existed  in  Prussia  since  July  20,  1843,  for 
the  purpose  of  reconciling  the  contending  parties 
when  it  can  be  done  without  prejudice  to  the  mil- 
itary code  of  honor.     If  reconciliation  is  iftipos- 
sible,  the  duel  takes  place ;  if  no  injury  is  done, 
the    imprisonment  never  exceeds   6   months; 
and  even  if  it  prove  fatal,  never  more  than  4 
years.     The  duel  which  created  the  greatest  sen- 
sation in  Berlin  within  the  last  few  years  was 
fought  in  1856  between  Ilinckeldey,  the  president 
of  police,  and  Rochow,  a  nobleman  and  an  army 
officer,  in  which  the  former  lost  his  life. — Rus- 
sia has  known  little  of  the  duel,  the  fantastical 
point  of  honor  being  there  mostly  incompre- 
hensible.  Russians  when  abroad,  however,  have 
shown  a  readiness  to  fight  in  single  combat  quite 
equal  to  their  steadiness  in  the  battle  field.  The 
Poles  have  proved  themselves  stanch  duellists, 
and  the  judicial  combat  was  frequent  in  old  Po- 
land.   The  Netherlands  have  closely  imitated 
France,  both  in   duelling  and  in  abortive  at- 
tempts to  suppress  it.     A  new  law  on  duelling 
was  passed  in  Belgium  in  1841. — It  has  been 
asserted  that  single  combats  were  introduced 
into  England  by  the  Normans,   They  are  said  to 
have  instituted  the  wager  of  battle,  from  which 
duelling  proceeded,  and  which  it  is  believed 
was  unknown  to  the  Saxons,     Yet  Lappenberg 
states  that   "  William   the   Conqueror  speaks 
of  the  judicial   combat  as   a  known  English 
custom."     It  was  a  favorite  mode  of  procedure, 
and  Avas  not  formally  abolished  until  the  last 


DUEL 


655 


year  of  the  reign  of  George  III, ;  and  as  late  as 
1774  it  was  defended  by  some  of  the  greatest 
men  of  England,     In  the  cliivah-ous  times  there 
were  numerous  personal  combats  inEngland,  but 
they  hardly  come  under  the  head  of  duelling ; 
and  duels  may  properly  be  said  to  have  com- 
menced in  that  kingdom  about  the  same  time 
that  they  did  in  France,  so  wide-spread  was  the 
effect  of  the  evil  example  of  Francis  I.  and  Charles 
V.    In  the  reign  of  James  I.  there  were  many 
duels  between  British  subjects,  one  of  the  most 
noted  of  which  was  that  fought  between  Lord 
Bruce  and  Sackville,  afterward  earl  of  Dorset, 
in  which  the  former  was  killed.     The  cavaliers 
were  a  class  of  men  with  whom  the  point  of 
honor  was  likely  to  be  in  as  high  favor  as  it  was 
with  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury,  whose  fantastic 
notions  had  been  increased  by  his  residence  in 
France,  and  whose  sensibility  on  the  subject  of 
ladies'  "topknots"  is  among  the  ludicrous  mor- 
al features  of  the  duello.     Scott  has,  in  "Wood- 
stock" and  in  "  Peveril  of  the  Peak,"  exhibited 
their  ideas  on  the  subject.     One  of  the  sermons 
delivered   by  Chillingworth  before  Charles  I. 
contains  a  warm  expostulation  against  duelling. 
Cromwell  was  a  foe  to  duelling.     After  the  res- 
toration it  became  still  more  common,  from 
the  spread  of  French  ideas.     Some  of  the  Eng- 
lish duels  of  that  time  were  of  a  character  in 
perfect  keeping  with  its  loose  morality.     The 
duke  of  Buckingham  killed  Lord  Shrewsbury ; 
Lady  Shrewsbury,  on  whose  account  the  duel 
was  fought,  attending  the  duke  as  a  page,  and 
then  passing  the  night  with  her  lover.      In 
Anne's  reign,  the  duel  between   the  duke  of 
Hamilton  and  Lord  Mohun,  in  which  both  fell, 
caused  much  feeling,  from  its  political  character, 
and  the  atrocities  that  marked  it.     Duels  be- 
came more  numerous  as  society  became  more 
orderly,  and  many  of  the  most  distinguished 
Englishmen  took  part  in  them.     William  Pul- 
teney,   leader  of  the  opposition,    fought  Lord 
Hervey.     Wilkes  was  engaged  in  2  duels.    The 
Byron  and  Chaworth  duel  happened  in  1765. 
Throughout  the  reign  of  George  III.  duels  were 
frequent ;  among  those  who  fought  in  England 
were  Charles  James  Fox,  Sheridan,  Pitt,  Can- 
ning, Castlereagh,  the  duke  of  York,  the  duke 
of  Richmond,  Sir  F.  Burdett,  and  Lord  Camel- 
ford  ;    the  last  named,  a  member  of  the  Pitt 
family,  w\as  the  great  duellist  of  the  time,  and 
fell  in  a  duel  in  1804.     In  the  present  reign,  as 
well  as  in  those  of  George  IV.  and  William  IV., 
there  have  been  some  noted  duels ;  the  strangest 
of  which  was  that  between  the  duke  of  Wel- 
lington and  Lord  Winchelsea,  in  1829,  the  duke 
challenging  tlie  earl  because  of  the  latter's  hot 
reflections  on  his  conduct  at  the  time  he  deter- 
mined upon  emancipating  the'  Roman  Catholics. 
The  duke  fired  at  his  antagonist,  who  fired  in  the 
air,  and  then  apologized.     Perhaps  no  duel  of 
"our  time  had  less  excuse,  because  the  challeng- 
er's chai'acter  for  courage  was  so  completely 
established.     Mr.  Roebuck,  after  admitting  that 
there  are  circumstances  under  which  duelling 
is  necessary — an    admission    that  shows   the 


strength  of  the  custom — says :  "  In  the  duke  of 
Wellington's  case,  no  such  imputation   could 
have  been  hazarded,  and  his  forbearance  under 
insult  Avould  have  been  esteemed  by  his  country 
as  a  magnanimous  disregard  of  vexatious  annoy- 
ance, and  would   have  been  appreciated  as  a 
proof  b*th  tliat  his  temper  was  under  the  serene 
control  of  reason,  and  that  he  disdained  to  avail 
himself  of  this  wretched  means  of  exhaling  his 
passion,  or  satisfying  his  revenge.     The  nation 
felt  humiliated  when  they  learned  that  their 
great  hero  had  submitted  to  the  folly  of  a  duel." 
Wellington  miglit  have  pleaded  the  example  of 
Marlborough,  who   souglit  a  duel  with  Lord 
Paulett,  in  1712,  which  the  latter  took  care  to 
prevent.    In  1835  Mr.  B.  Disraeli  challenged  Mr. 
Morgan  O'Connell.  Among  the  most  conspicuous 
duels  in  England  of  late  years  was  that  fought  be- 
tween the  earl  of  Cardigan  and  Capt.  Tuckctt  in 
1840. — Ireland  is  that  part  of  the  British  empire 
in  which  duelling  has  always  been  most  in  vogue. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  there  was 
scarcely  an  Irishman  of  note  who  had  not  been 
"  out,"  and   many  of  them  had  fought  often. 
Grattan,  Curran,  Lord  Clare,  Flood,  IJurrowes, 
Barrington,  Tolei\  and  many  others,  men  of  high 
positions,  were  among  the  Irish  duellists  of  those 
times.  In  1815  Daniel  O'Connell  fought  with  and 
killed  Mr.  D'Esterre,  a  member  of  the  Dublin 
corporation,  which  the  former  had  stigmatized  as 
a  "  beggarly"  body ;  and  the  death  of  his  antag- 
onist is  said  to  have  caused  Mr.  O'Connell  great 
grief.     He  afterward  became  involved  in  a  dis- 
pute with  Mr.  (subsequently  Sir  Robert)  Peel, 
that  would  have  led  to  a  duel  if  he  had  not  been 
arrested.     Mr.  Peel  wished  to  fight  the  gentle- 
man who  was  to  have  been  Mr.  O'Connell's  sec- 
ond.— In  Scotland  duels  have  not  been  so  com- 
mon as  in  Ireland,  yet  the  Scotch  have  always 
evinced  something  more  than  readiness  to  go  to 
"  the  field  of  honor."  In  1822  Mr.  James  Stuart, 
well  known  by  his  work  on  the  United  States, 
killed  Sir  Alexander  Bosvvell,  son  of  Johnson's 
biographer,  in  a  duel,  which  grew  out  of  gross 
newspaper  attacks  on  the  former.     Mr.  Stuart 
was  tried  and  acquitted.     Mr.  Francis  Jeffrey, 
who  was  of  counsel  for  the  defence,  went  al- 
most the  entire  length  of  ui)holding  duelling, 
and  boldly  assumed  that  the  man  who  slew  an- 
other under  the  circumstances  that  caused  Mr. 
Stuart  to  slay  Boswell  was  not  guilty  of  mur- 
der in  any  sense.     The  court,  while  it  charged 
that  killing  in  a  duel  was  murder,  declared  that 
there  was  no  evidence  of  malice  on  the  part  of 
Mr.  Stuart,  and   praised  his  conduct   on  the 
ground  ;  and  when  the  acquittal  was  given,  the 
court  congratulated  him  on  the  result.     These 
incidents,  and  the  stress  which  the  court  laid  on 
the  licentiousness  of  the  press,  through  which 
Mr.  Stuart  had  been  assailed  without  provocation, 
show  how  strongly  even  the  opinion  of  enlight- 
ened men  has  been  pronounced  in  favor  of  duel- 
ling.    It  is  a  singular  fact  that  Boswell,  when  a 
member  of  parliament,  took  the  principal  part 
in  getting  two  old  Scotch  statutes  repealed  that 
were  directed  against  duelling,  one  of  which 


656 


DUEL 


made  the  mere  fighting  of  fi  duel,  though  it 
sliouklhave  no  evil  result,  punisliable  with  death. 
— Duelling  has  been  known  in  the  United  States 
from  the  very  beginning  of  their  settlement, 
the  first  duel  taking  place  in  1G21,  at  Plymouth, 
between  two  serving  men.  Mr.  Sabine  thinks 
it  possible  that  in  the  ludicrous  punislimcnt  in- 
flictedonthese  chivalrous  combatants  we  can  find 
the  cause  of  tlie  difference  in  opinion  on  duelling 
that  exists  between  the  North  and  the  South. 
They  were  sentenced  to  be  tied  neck  and  heels 
together  for  24  hours,  but  a  portion  of  the  pun- 
ishment was  remitted.  Castle  island,  in  Boston 
harbor,  is  said  to  have  been  a  duelling  ground 
for  Englishmen.  In  1728,  a  young  man  named 
"Woodbridge  was  killed  in  a  duel  on  Boston  com- 
mon, by  another  young  man  named  Phillips. 
They  fought  without  seconds,  in  the  night  time, 
and  with  swords.  Aided  by  some  of  his  friends, 
Phillips  got  on  board  a  man  of  war  and  escaped 
to  France,  where  he  died  a  year  afterward.  A 
great  sensation  was  caused,  and  a  new  and  se- 
vere law  against  duelling  was  enacted.  There 
were  few  duels  in  the  revolution,  the  most  noted 
being  those  between  Gen.  C.  Lee  and  Col.  John 
Laurens,  in  which  the  former  was  wounded,  and 
between  Gens.  Cadwallader  and  Conway,  in 
1T78,  in  which  the  latter  received  a  shot  in  the 
head  from  which  he  recovered.  Button  Gwin- 
nett, one  of  the  signers  of  the  declaration  of  in- 
dependence, from  Georgia,  was  killed  in  a  duel 
with  Gen.  Mcintosh,  in  May,  1777.  In  1785 
Capt.  Gunn  challenged  Gen.  Greene  twice,  both 
being  citizens  of  Georgia,  and  threatened  a  per- 
sonal assaultwhen  the  latter  refused  to  meet  him. 
Greene  wrote  to  Washington,  acknowledging 
that  if  he  thought  his  honor  or  reputation  would 
suffer  from  his  refusal  he  would  accept  the  chal- 
lenge. He  was  especially  concerned  as  to  the 
effect  of  his  conduct  on  the  minds  of  military 
men,  and  admitted  his  regard  for  the  opin- 
ion of  the  world.  Washington  approved  of 
his  course  in  the  most  decisive  terms,  not  on 
moral  grounds,  but  because  a  commanding  offi- 
cer is  not  amenable  to  private  calls  for  the  dis- 
charge of  his  public  duty.  Gen.  Hamilton  was 
killed  in  a  duel  with  Col.  Burr  in  1804,  the  latter 
being  vice-president,  and  the  former  the  great- 
est leader  of  the  opposition.  This  duel  is  al- 
ways allowed  the  first  place  in  the  history  of 
American  private  combats.  That  which  stands 
next  is  the  duel  between  Capts.  Barron  and 
Decatur,  the  latter  being  killed,  and  Barron  se- 
verely wounded.  Henry  Clay  and  John  Ean- 
dolph  fought  in  1826,  and  Col.  Benton,  in  closing 
his  account  of  the  fight,  says :  "  Certainly  duel- 
ling is  bad,  and  has  been  put  down,  but  not 
quite  so  bad  as  its  substitute — revolvers,  bowio 
knives,  blackguarding,  and  street  assassinations 
under  the  pretext  of  self-defence."  Gen.  Jack- 
son killed  M.  Dickinson  in  a  duel,  and  was  en- 
gaged in  other  "  affairs."  Col.  Benton  killed  a 
Mr.  Lucas,  and  had  other  duels.  In  1841  Mr. 
Clay  was  on  the  eve  of  fighting  with  Col.  King, 
then  a  senator  from  Alabama,  and  elected  vice- 
president  in  1852.     Mr.  Cilley  of  Maine  fought 


with  Mr.  Graves  of  Kentucky  in  1838,  near 
Washington,  and  the  former  was  killed.     This 
duel  caused  nearly  as  much  excitement  as  that 
between  Hamilton  and  Burr.  Both  parties  were 
members  of  congress.     Duels  have  been  numer- 
ous in  California  since  that  country  became  a 
part  of  the  United  States,  and  some  of  them 
have  been  of  a  very  severe  character.   Formerly 
they  were  very  common  in  the  U.  S.  navy,  and 
valuable  lives  were  lost.     It  is  related  of  Eich- 
ard  Somers,  who  perished  in  the  Intrepid,  and 
who  is  said  to  have  been  a  mild  man,  that  he 
fought  three  duels  in  one  day.     Capt.  Bolton 
(then  Finch)  shot  Lieut.  White,  on  an  island  in 
Boston  harbor,  in  1819;  but  White  forced  the 
duel  on  him,  and  fell.     In  1830  President  Jack- 
son caused  the  names  of  4  officers  to  be  struck 
from  the  navy  roll  because  they  had  been  en- 
gaged in  a  duel.     These  encounters  have  not 
been  so  common  in  the  navy  of  late  years  as 
formerly.      The  aiTny  has  furnished  duellists, 
some  of  them  of  the  highest  rank  in  the  service. 
In  the  northern  states,  the  force  of  opinion  is 
strong  against  duelling;  yet,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  century,  duelling  was  there  common,  and 
several  duels  were  fought  in  New  England, 
while  the  "  code  of  honor"  was  in  full  force  in 
New  York  and  New  Jersey.     Five  shots  w^ere 
exchanged  between  De  Witt  Clinton  and  John 
Swartwout,  in  1802;   and  a  challenge  passed 
between  Mr.  Chnton  and  Gen.  Dayton  of  New 
Jersey,  in  1803. — Duels  have  been  not  unfrequent 
in  the  different  parts  of  British  America,  and  in 
Canada  and  the  other  provinces  the  state  of  opin- 
ion resembles  rather  that  which  prevails  in  our 
southern  states  than  the  opinion  of  neighboring 
New  England. — By  the  common  law,  when  one 
of  the  parties  to  a  duel  is  killed,  the  survivor 
and  the  seconds  are  guilty  of  murder ;  and  the 
participation  in  a  duel  where  there  is  no  fatal  re- 
sult, either  as  principal  or  second,  is  regarded 
as  a  misdemeanor.     Many  of  the  states  of  the 
American  Union  have,  however,  modified  this 
rule  by  legislative  enactment,  and  while  in  some 
of  them  the  killing  of  a  man  is  punishable  with 
death,  in  others  a  term  of  imprisonment  with 
forfeiture  of  political  rights  is  substituted.    Some 
states  require  certain  officers  of  state  to  make 
oath  either  that  they  have  not  within  a  certain 
time  been,  or  will  not  be,  concerned  in  a  duel ; 
and  in  nearly  all,  the  duellist  and  his  abettors 
are  disqualified  from  holding  office  or  exercising 
the  elective  franchise  for  life,  or  for  a  term  of 
years,  according  to  the  issue  of  the  duel.    In  the 
American  naval  and  military  service,  an  officer 
implicated  in  a  duel  with  a  brother  officer,  either 
as  principal  or  second,  is  liable  to  be  cashiered, 
upon  conviction  by  a  court  martial;  and  an 
equally  stringent  provision  exists  in  the  articles 
of  war  regulating  the  British  military  service. 
All  the  legislation  that  has  been  directed  against 
it  in  the  United  States — and  it  is  much — has 
been  fruitless ;  and  the  labors  of  individuals  of 
the  highest  character  have  been  equally  barren, 
in  more  than  half  the  Union. — See  J.  G.  Millin- 
gen,  "  The  History  of  Duelling"  (2  vols.  London, 


DUER 


DUFAIIRE 


657 


1841);  Lorenzo  Sabine,  "XotC3  on  Duels  and 
Duelling,  witli  a  preliminary  Uistorical  Essay" 
(12mo.,  Boston,  1855). 

DUER,  John,  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  7,  1782,  died  on  Staten 
island,  Aug.  8,  1858.  lie  was  the  son  of  Col. 
William  Duer  of  the  revolutionary  army,  and 
on  his  motlier's  side  a  grandson  of  Gen.  AVilliam 
Alexander,  tlio  claimant  of  the  Scottish  earl- 
dom of  Stirling.  In  his  IGth  year  lie  enter- 
ed the  U.  S.  army,  but  after  two  years  left 
the  service  to  ])ursue  the  study  of  the  law 
and  of  general  literature.  He  commenced  the 
practice  of  his  profession  in  Orange  co.,  N.  Y., 
wlience  about  1820  he  removed  to  the  city  of 
New  York,  where  he  resided  until  his  death. 
In  1825  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  commis 
sioners  to  revise  tlic  statute  law  of  the  state, 
and  afforded  valuable  assistance  in  the  prepara 
lion  of  the  first  half  of  tlie  work,  his  professional 
labors  preventing  him  from  giving  more  than 
occasional  advice  to  his  colleagues  on  the  re- 
mainder. In  1849,  after  an  honorable  career  at 
the  bar,  he  was  elected  a  justice  of  the  superior 
court  of  New  York  city,  a  position  which  he 
filled  until  his  decease.  After  the  death  of 
Chief  Justice  Oakley  in  May,  1857,  he  became 
the  presiding  justice  of  the  court.  He  was  a 
delegate  to  the  convention  which  amended  the 
state  constitution  in  1821,  but  seldom  took  an 
active  part  in  public  affairs.  In  1845  he  pub- 
lished a  "Lecture  on  the  Law  of  Representations 
in  Marine  Insurance,"  and  in  1845-'6  a  treatise 
on  the  *'  Law  and  Practice  of  Marine  Insurance" 
(2  vols.  8vo.),  which  has  become  a  standard  au- 
thority in  the  United  States.  In  1848  he  deliv- 
ered a  discourse  on  tlie  life,  character,  and 
public  services  of  Cliancellor  Kent,  which  was 
published,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  en- 
gaged in  editing  "Duer's  Reports  "  of  the  deci- 
sions of  tlie  superior  court.  The  6tli  volume, 
which  he  did  not  live  to  complete,  was  revised 
by  him  while  confined  to  his  bed  by  a  severe 
fracture  of  the  thigh.  Justice  Duer  was  held  in 
great  esteem  for  his  eminent  judicial  abilities,  as 
well  as  for  the  dignity  and  impartiality  with 
which  he  discharged  the  duties  of  his  office. — 
William  Alexander,  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, a  distinguished  jurist,  born  in  Rhinebeck, 
Datchess  co.,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  8,  1780,  died  in  New 
York,  May  31, 1858.  After  serving  for  a  short 
time  ill  1708  as  a  midsliipman  in  the  navy,  he 
commenced  the  study  of  law,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1802,  and  having  practised  for  a 
few  years  in  New  York,  removed  to  New  Or- 
leans to  form  a  professional  partnership  with 
Edward  Livingston.  Compelled  by  his  health 
to  return  to  tiie  north,  he  opened  an  office  in  his 
native  village,  and  between  1814  and  1820  was 
a  member  uf  the  state  assembly,  taking  a  prom- 
inent part  in  the  debates  on  the  establishment 
of  canals  and  other  important  questions.  In 
1822  he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  in  the  3d  circuit,  an  office  which  he  held 
Until  the  close  of  1829,  when  he  was  elected 
president  of  Columbia  college.  He  discharged 
TOL.  vi. — 42 


liis  academical  duties  with  great  benefit  to  the 
institution  until  1842,  when  he  retired  on  account 
of  ill  health,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  Mor- 
ristown,  N.  J.  He  is  the  author  of  a  treatise  on 
tlie  "  Constitutional  Jurisprudence  of  the  United 
States,"  of  which  an  eidarged  edition  appeared 
in  Boston  in  185G;  of  a  memoir  of  his  mater- 
nal grandfather.  Gen.  William  Alexander;  and 
of  various  occasional  addresses  before  historical 
and  literary  societies.  In  the  early  part  of  his 
life  he  was  a  frequent  contributor  of  literary 
articles  to  the  periodical  jn-ess  of  New  York. 

DUFAU,  PiEHKE  AiiMAxn,  a  French  publi- 
cist, and  director  of  tlie  imperial  institution  for 
the  blind  at  Paris,  born  in  Bordeaux,  Feb.  15, 
1795.  His  first  important  literary  undertaking 
was  a  continuation  of  Velly,  Villaret's,  and 
Garnier's  general  history  of  France.  In  1824 
he  published  a  collection  of  the  fundamental 
laws  of  the  nations  of  Europe  and  America, 
with  notes  upon  the  history  of  liberty  and  of 
political  institutions  in  modern  times.  About  the 
same  date  appeared  his  work  on  the  "  Partition 
of  European  Turkey  between  Russia,  Austria, 
England,  and  the  Greeks,  with  the  Mediation 
of  France."  From  1830  to  1840  he  was  one 
of  the  most  active  writers  of  the  moderate  lib- 
eral party.  lie  assisted  in  editing  the  Temps 
and  the  Constltutionnel,  and  was  for  a  time 
chief  editor  of  the  latter  journal.  He  was  a 
teacher  in  the  roval  institution  for  the  blind 
from  1815  to  1840",  and  its  director  from  1840 
until  within  a  recent  period,  when  he  retired 
with  the  title  of  honorary  director.  He  took 
part  also  in  founding  and  supporting  other  chari- 
table institutions,  and  fulfilled  several  public 
functions  until  obliged  to  devote  himself  exclu- 
ively  to  the  interests  of  the  establishment  con- 
fided to  him.  He  continued,  however,  to  write 
treatises  upon  political  sciences,  and  for  the  ame- 
lioration of  the  condition  of  the  blind,  and  was 
at  the  same  time  a  contributor  to  some  of  the 
leading  French  cyclopedias.  Many  of  his  later 
works  were  crowned  by  the  academy  of  sciences, 
and  one  of  his  earlier  essays  on  the  abolition  of 
slavery  in  the  French  colonies  (1830)  by  the  so- 
ciety of  Christian  mo^alit3^  He  has  also  pub- 
lished, under  the  name  of  Armand,  several  light 
theatricid  pieces.  His  latest  works  are :  Statis- 
tiqite  comparee  lies  aveur/Ies  et  des  sourds-muets 
(4to.,  1854),  and De  la  reforme  dit  moid  deplete, 
a  memoir  presented  to  tlie  academy  of  moral 
science  in  1855. 

DUFAURE,  Jules  Armand  Stanislas,  a 
French  statesman  and  lawyer,  born  Dec.  4, 
1798,  was  councillor  of  state  in  1836,  minister 
of  public  works  in  1839,  a  member  of  the  cham- 
ber of  deputies  from  1834  to  1848,  and  a  cham- 
pion of  constitutional  liberty  until  1844,  when 
he  became  the  leader  of  a  new  moderate  party 
midway  between  the  opponents  and  supporters 
of  the  government.  Although  opposed  to  the 
agitation  which  caused  the  downfall  of  Louis 
Philippe,  he  adhered  to  the  new  republic  in 
1848,  was  elected  to  the  constituent  and  le- 
gislative assemblies,  and  ofliciated  as  minister 


658 


DUFAY 


DUFF 


of  the  interior  from  June  2  to  Oct.  31,  1849. 
He  was  arrested  on  Dec.  2,  1851,  but  released 
on  tlie  following  day.  lie  lias  since  devoted 
himself  exclusively  to  the  practice  of  the  law, 
and  holds  a  distinguished  position  at  the  bar  of 
Paris.  In  1858  he  was  one  of  the  council  for 
the  defence  in  the  trial  of  Montalembert. 

DU  FAY,  CnAKLES  FEANgois  de  Cisterxat, 
a  French  savant,  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  14,  1G98, 
died  July  16,  1739.  In  1733  he  was  elected  to 
the  academy  of  sciences,  and  he  was  tlie  only 
member  of  that  body  who  has  ever  read  papers 
in  each  of  its  6  different  departments  that  Avero 
deemed  worthy  of  publication.  He  made  new 
researches  concerning  phosphorus,  the  barome- 
ter, the  refracting  power  of  crystals,  the  mag- 
net, and  electricity.  He  introduced  the  theory 
of  two  kinds  of  electricity,  tlie  vitreous  and  the 
resinous.  Among  the  chief  services  which  he 
rendered  to  science  were  those  which  he  per- 
formed as  d!^-ector  of  the  jardin  des  plantes. 
Du  Fay  spent  10  years  in  rearranging  and  im- 
proving it,  and  made  it  the  first  establishment 
of  the  kind  in  Europe.  At  his  request  Buffon, 
who  was  as  yet  only  known  by  his  papers  read 
to  the  academy,  was  appointed  to  succeed  him 
in  its  superintendence. 

DUFF,  Alexander,  D.D.,  LL.D^,  a  Scottish 
missionary,  born  in  the  parish  of  Ivirkmichael, 
in  the  co.  of  Perth,  Scotland,  in  1806.  At  a 
very  early  age  his  mind  was  directed  to  the 
ministry  in  the  established  church  of  Scot- 
land; and  with  the  view  of  preparing  him- 
self for  its  duties,  he  entered  the  university  of 
St.  Andrew's  at  the  age  of  15,  and  was  grad- 
uated in  due  course.  "NVhile  a  student  he  be- 
came intimate  with  Dr.  Chalmers,  who  exer- 
cised a  profound  influence  on  his  character  and 
the  direction  of  his  career.  He  studied  theolo- 
gy in  St.  Mary's  college  in  the  same  university, 
and  in  the  summer  of  1829  was  duly  licensed  to 
preach.  During  the  later  years  of  his  academ- 
ical studies  he  was  the  associate  and  bosom 
friend  of  a  little  circle,  all  of  whose  members 
became  well  known  in  the  missionary  field, 
among  whom  Avere  the  late  John  Adams  and  the 
late  John  Urquhart.  These  young  men,  while 
studying  for  the  ministry,  spent  much  of  their 
leisure  time  in  visiting  the  poor,  distributing 
tracts,  holding  prayer  meetings,  and  organizing 
and  superintending  Sabbatli  schools  in  destitute 
parts  of  the  surrounding  country.  By  none  of 
the  churches  in  Scotland  had  any  efibrt  yet 
been  made  to  spread  the  gospel  among  the 
heathen.  A  more  earnest  spirit  had  indeed 
been  gaining  ground  in  the  established  church, 
•  and  under  the  auspices  of  Dr.  Inglis,  aided 
by  Chalmers  and  Thomson,  and  others  of  the 
evangelical  party,  a  mission  to  India  was  re- 
solved upon.  Mr.  Duff  Avas  selected  as  their 
first  missionary,  and  having  been  ordained  to 
the  office  of  the  ministry,  he  set  sail  toward  the 
close  of  1829.  During  his  voyage  to  India  he 
Avas  twice  shipAvrecked,  first  on  a  reef  while 
rounding  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  again  on 
the  coast  of  Ceylon,  and  narroAvly  escaped  a 


third  shipwreck  when  near  the  mouths  of  the 
Ganges.     By  the  first  of  these  mishaps  he  and 
his  Avife  lost  every  thing  that  belonged  to  them. 
His  plans  of  operation,  his  valuable  library,  and 
the  fruits  of  his  careful  and  laborious  study,  Avere 
all  lost.     His  pocket  Bible,  Avhich  was  picked 
up  by  a  sailor  among  the  rocks  a  day  or  two 
after  the  Avreck,  Avas  alone  saved.     Arrived  in 
India,  a  stranger  among  strangers,  he  Avas  yet 
receiA'ed  andAvelcomed  by  many  of  his  country- 
men ;  but  these,  for  the  most  part,  Avere  disin- 
clined to  further  the  special  object  of  the  Chris- 
tian adventurer.     They  did  not  oppose  him,  but 
neither  had  they  the  heart  to  succor  him.     The 
Avell-known  Piammohun   Boy,  hoAvever,  Avho 
from  his  position  and  character  could  exercise 
considerable  influence  over  the  natives,  entered 
Avarmly  into  the  vicAvs  of  Duff,  and  Avith  his  as- 
sistance a  school  Avas  commenced  under  a  ban- 
ian tree.     Five  young  men  assembled  to  receive 
instruction  from  the  Scottish  missionary.     The 
shade  of  the  banian  tree  Avas  soon  too  narroAV 
to  protect  the  scholars  from  the  fervor  of  the 
Indian  sun,  and  it  became  indispensable  to  pro- 
vide suitable  accommodations  for  the  protection 
and  advancement  alike  of  teachers  and  taught. 
From  the  very  outset  it  was  the  purpose  of  Mr. 
Duff  to  lead  his  pupils  through  the  entire  range 
of  British  literature  and  science,  and  with  all 
this  the  Avork  of  the  missionary  was  never  for  a 
day  lost  sight  of.     The  readings  in  classical  lit- 
erature and  the  scientific  and  philosophical  lec- 
tures were  all  conducted  Avith  a  definite  end  in 
vicAV — the  enfranchisement  of  tlie  native  mind, 
and  the  diffusion  of  the  truth  in  philosophy  and 
science,  accompanied  with  the  daily  reading  and 
critical  and  experimental  exposition  of  the  Scrip- 
tures.    Mr.  Duffy's  labors  very  soon  began  to  tell, 
and  the  Avorth  of  the  man,  from  the  beginning, 
Avas  apparent  both  to  the  native  population  and 
their  British  rulers.    His  honesty,  perseverance, 
and  zeal,  in  connection  Avith  his  varied  gifts  and 
talents,  soon  gave  a  commanding  influence  to 
him  and  the  Scottish  college  Avhich  he  had  es- 
tablished.    In  1843  a  crisis  occurred  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  institution.     It  grew  out  of  the  dis- 
ruption in  the  church  of  Scotland.     On  May  18, 
1843,  nearly  500  ministers  of  that  church  sur- 
rendered their  livings  into  the  hands  of  the  state, 
rather  than  submit  inthe  exercise  of  their  oflacial 
duties  to  the  interpretation  of  the  law  relating 
to  induction  to  benefices  as  given  by  the  supreme 
j  udicatory,  and  confirmed  by  parliament.     This 
they  did  on  the  ground  that  that  interpretation 
was  contrary  to  the  law  of  Christ  as  laid  down 
in  the  Scriptures.     The  aggregate  value  of  the 
livings  vacated  was  $10,000,000.     "When  intel- 
ligencfe  of  this  disruption  reached  Calcutta,  Dr. 
Duft',  and  the  brethren  who  had  at  intervals 
come  to  his  help,  had  to  consider  the  question 
whether  they  could  retaintheir  connection  with 
the  Scottish  church,  now,  by  the  interpnetation 
given  to  the  law  regarding  benefices,  thoroughly 
Erastianized,  or  Avhether  they  ought  to  throw  in 
their  lot  Avitli  the  seceding  party,  organized  under 
the  name  of  the  Free  Protesting  church  of  Scot- 


DUFFY 


DUFEfiNOY 


659 


land.  Tlicre  was  much  to  induco  tlicm  to  ro- 
ni£iin  as  they  had  been — the  labors  of  12  years, 
tlie  complete  organization  of  tlieir  edifices  and 
plans,  past  success,  the  prestige  of  connection 
with  a  wealthy  and  endowed  clinrch,  the  syin- 
patliies  of  the  government,  and  then,  on  the 
other  hand,  their  ignorance  as  to  the  extent 
and  ability  of  the  Free  church  to  aid  them  in 
tlic  erection  of  new  buildings,  and  in  the  car- 
rying out  of  their  well  tried  system.  However, 
guided  by  a  clear  conviction  of  duty,  Dr.  Duti'and 
his  brethren  at  once  and  unanimously  declared 
their  adherence  to  the  Free  church,  and  vacated 
their  honored  and  beloved  institution,  with  all  its 
valuable  library  and  apparatus;  and  we  believe 
they  have  had  no  cause  to  regret  the  step.  On 
the  death  of  Dr.  Thomas  Chalmers  in  1846,  the 
office  of  principal  and  professor  of  theology  in 
the  Free  church  college  in  Scotland  was  ottered 
to  him,  but  Avas  refused.  He  returned  to  Eu- 
rope in  1851  to  recruit  his  broken  health  ,•  but 
instead  of  finding  there  the  necessary  repose,  he 
entered  on  the  revival  of  the  missionary  spirit 
among  the  British  people,  and  for  that  purpose 
visited  tbc  churches  even  in  the  remotest  Brit- 
ish isles.  In  1854  he  made  a  voyage  to  America, 
and  during  the  monblis  of  February,  March, 
April,  and  May,  he  visited  the  principal  cities  in 
the  northern  and  Avesteru  states,  and  passed 
through  Canada.  While  he  was  in  New  York 
the  various  evangelical  churches  met  by  repre- 
sentation, and  gave  him  a  fraternal  welcome, 
and  the  university  of  New  York  conferred  on 
him  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  In  1855  he 
returned  to  India,  where  he  still  remains,  de- 
voted with  untiring  industiy  to  his  missionary 
labors. 

DUFFY,  Chaeles  Gatajt,  an  Irish  journalist 
and  politician,  born  in  Ulster  in  1810.  He  em- 
braced the  profession  of  journalism  at  an  early 
age,  and  for  several  years  edited  an  influential 
newspaper  at  Belfast.  At  the  same  time  he 
pursued  the  study  of  the  law,  and  was  subse- 
quently called  to  the  bar,  but  he  has  never 
practised.  In  1841  he  went  to  Dublin,  Avhere 
in  1842  he  established  the  "Nation,"  a  publi- 
cation strongly  in  the  interest  of  O'Connell  and 
the  advocates  of  repeal  of  the  union;  and  in 
1844  he  was  compromised  in  the  proceedings 
instituted  against  O'ConrLcU  and  the  prominent 
repealers.  In  1847  he  joined  the  party  of 
young  Ireland,  and  in  the  succeeding  year  was 
tried  witli  Smitli  O'Brien,  Thomas  Francis 
Meagher,  and  otliers,  for  sedition,  but  was  ac- 
quitted. He  then  resumed  the  direction  of  the 
''Nation,''  in  Avhich  he  advocated  various  social 
reforms  for  Ireland,  and  between  1852  and  185G 
represented  New  Ross  in  parliament,  lie  has 
since  emigrated  to  Australia,  wliere  he  has  been 
a  member  of  the  colonial  legislature,  and  also 
of  the  ministry.  He  is  the  author  of  ''Ballad 
Poetry  of  Ireland,"  and  other  publications. 

DUFOUR,  GuiLLAUME  Henri,  a  Swiss  gen- 
eral, born  in  Constance  in  1787.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  Geneva,  and  after  the  annexation  of  that 
city  to  France  in  1807,  studied  at  the  polytech- 


nic school  in  Paris.  Having  entered  the  French 
army,  he  obtained  a  commission  in  1809,  served 
in  the  last  campaigns  of  Napoleon,  and  distin- 
guished himself  during  the  Hundred  Days. 
Wlien  Geneva  was  restored  to  Switzerland,  ho 
became  a  citizen  of  the  republic ;  was  continued 
in  the  rank  of  captain,  which  ho  had  received 
under  the  empire,  and  in  1827  Avas  promoted  to 
that  of  colonel.  In  1831  he  Avas  made  chief 
of  the  statF  of  a  corps  destined  to  defend  the 
neutrality  of  the  republic.  Intrusted  Avith  the 
management  of  the  military  school  at  Thun, 
Avith  the  survey  of  Switzerland,  and,  as  quar- 
termaster-general, Avith  the  reorganization  of 
the  federal  army,  he  performed  his  duties  Avith 
zeal  and  ability.  When  the  organization  of  the 
Sonderbund,  and  the  apprehended  inter\'ention 
of  foreign  powers,  seemed  to  threaten  the  exist- 
ence of  the  confederation  in  1847,  Dufour,  at 
the  age  of  CO,  was  chosen  by  the  diet  command- 
er-in-chief of  the  federal  forces,  and  not  only 
rapidly  suppressed  the  civil  Avar,  but  also  raised 
the  reputation  of  his  country  in  the  eyes  of  Eu- 
rope. His  moderation  on  that  occasion  equalled 
his  military  ability.  Being  a  conservative  in  pol- 
itics, the  events  of  1848  lost  him  some  part  of 
his  popularity ;  but  he  has  since  rendered  im- 
portant services  to  his  country  as  a  negotiator 
Avith  foreign  poAvers,  especiallj^  in  the  question 
of  the  relations  of  Ticino  and  Neufchatel  Avith 
Austria  and  Prussia.  Shortly  before  the  termi- 
nation of  the  Neufchatel  affair,  he  was  again  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief  of  the  federal  army 
in  consequence  of  the  Avarlike  preparations  of 
Prussia.  He  is  the  author  of  several  Avorks  in 
French,  the  most  important  of  which  are :  De 
la  fortification  2'>ermanente  (1824;  2d  edition, 
1850);  Geometrie  perspective,  &ic.  {1S^*J)\  Me- 
moires  sur  V art iller ie des  ancients  et  surcelle  du 
moyendge  (1840) ;  Manuel  de  tactique  (1842). 

DUFRENOY,  Pieere  Aemand,  a  French  geol- 
ogist and  mineralogist,  born  in  Sevran,  Seine- 
et-Oise,  in  1792,  died  in  Paris,  March  20,  1857. 
His  mother  (born  in  1765,  died  in  1825)  was  a 
poetess  of  some  distinction.  He  entered  the  poly- 
technic school  in  1811,  and  the  school  of  mines 
in  1813.  His  first  essay  appeared  in  1819,  and 
Avas  followed  by  a  great  variety  of  papers  on 
mineralogy  and  geology,  wliich  gained  for  him 
a  high  reputation  in  the  scientific  Avorld.  His 
explorations  in  southern  France  and  in  the 
Pyrenees  led  him  to  develop  the  theory  of  meta- 
morpliism,  according  to  Avhich  the  production 
of  many  of  the  neAver  rocks  is  explained  by  the 
action  of  heat  upon  those  of  older  date.  He  ex- 
plored the  vicinity  of  Naples,  and  in  his  work  on 
the  subject  {Den  terrains  volcaniqucs  des  environs 
de  Naples)  he  maintains  that  Ilerculaneum  and 
Pompeii  were  destroyed  by  a  landslide  from  Ve- 
suvius, and  not  by  lava  ejected  from  the  crater. 
In  concert  Avith  Elie  de  Beaumont  he  explored 
betAveen  1823  and  183G  various  parts  of  France, 
England,  and  northern  Spain,  and  the  remark- 
able geological  map  of  France  which  appeared 
in  1841  was  the  result  of  their  labors.  He  Avas 
intrusted  with  a  mission  to  England  for  the 


660 


DU  FRESNE 


DUGDALE 


purpose  of  investigating  the  effect  of  the  sub- 
stitution of  the  liot  for  tiie  cold  blast  in  furnaces 
emploj'ed  for  melting  iron.  He  also  investi- 
gnted  the  methods  of  various  metallurgical  oper- 
ations in  Great  Britain,  and  published  in  con- 
junction with  £lie  de  Beaumont,  Coste,  and 
Pordonnet,  an  elaborate  and  valuable  report 
entitled  Voyage  metallurgique  en  Angleterre 
(2d  ed.  183V-'39,  2  vols.  8vo.).  He  was  one  of 
the  most  active  members  of  the  academy  of 
miners,  director  of  the  eeole  des  mines,  and  pro- 
fessor of  mineralogy  and  geology.  lie  intro- 
duced a  new  classification  of  minerals  based 
upon  crystallography,  and  promoted  in  various 
other  ways  the  study  of  mineralogy  and  mete- 
orology. The  4th  and  last  volume  of  the  2d 
and  enlarged  edition  of  his  Traite  de  mineralo- 
gie  appeared  in  Paris  in  1859,  with  an  addi- 
tional volume  of  illustrations. 

DU  FRESNE,  Charles.     See  Du  Cange. 

DU  FRESNO  Y,  Charles  Alpiioxse,  a  French 
painter  and  poet,  born  in  Paris  in  IGll,  died  at 
Villiers-le-Bel,  near  Paris,  in  1665.  His  pictures 
are  correct,  but  not  otherwise  remarkable,  and 
he  is  now  chiefly  remembered  as  the  author  of 
a  Latin  poem  entitled  De  Arte  G)rq)?iica,  the 
"Art  of  Painting,"  which  has  been  3  times 
translated  into  English,  viz. :  into  prose  by  Dry- 
den  (-Ito.  London,  1695),  by  Wills  (4to.  1754)  ; 
and  into  verse  by  William  Mason,  with  notes  by 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  (4to.,  York,  1783). 

DUFRESNY,  Charles  Riviere,  a  French 
dramatist,  born  in  Paris  in  1648,  died  there,  Oct, 
C,  1724.  He  was  descended  from  Henry  IV.  by 
one  of  tlie  mistresses  of  that  monarch,  known 
as  la  idle  jardiniere.  In  consequence  of  his 
descent  and  his  talents,  he  enjoyed  the  favor  of 
Louis  XIV.,  but  his  improvident  habits  were 
constantly  involving  him  in  embarrassments. 
He  wrote  some  excellent  comedies,  had  great 
skill  as  a  landscape  gardener,  and  was  known  as 
a  pleasant  companion  and  a  wit.  It  is  related  of 
him  that  he  married  his  washerwoman  in  order 
to  avoid  paying  her  bill.  Among  his  comedies 
which  obtained  the  most  success,  may  be  men- 
tioned L'espritde  contradiction,  La  coquette  de 
Tillage,  and  Lefaux  sincere.  His  Poesies  diverses 
are  also  praised.  A  selection  of  his  works  was 
published  at  Paris  in  2  vols,  in  1805. 

DUGANNE,  AuGUSTixE  Joseph  Hicket,  an 
American  poet  and  novelist,  born  in  Boston  in 
1823.  He  has  been  a  frequent  contributor  to 
the  periodical  press,  having  Avritten  between  20 
and  30  novelettes  and  romances,  and  a  great 
number  of  miscellaneous  papers  under  various 
signatures.  His  poetical  Avorks  consist  of  the 
"Iron  Harp,"  "Parnassus  in  Pillory,"  a  satire, 
the  "  Mission  of  Intellect,"  a  poem  delivered  in 
New  York  in  1852,  the  "Gospel  of  Labor,"  de- 
livered before  the  N.  Y.  mercantile  library  as- 
sociation in  1853,  and  a  number  of  short  pieces 
originally  appearing  in  newspapers  and  maga- 
zines, which  were  published  in  a  large  illustrated 
edition,  in  Philadelphia,  in  1856.  He  is  also  the 
author  of  the  "  Lydian  Queen,"  a  tragedy  per- 
formed at  the  Walnut  street  theatre,  Philadel- 


phia, in  1848.  Among  his  writings  are  a  "  Com- 
preliensive  Summary  of  General  Philosophy," 
published  at  Philadelphia  in  1845,  and  a  "Class 
Book  of  Governments  and  Civil  Society,"  print- 
ed in  1859  in  New  York.  One  of  his  latest  pro- 
ductions is  the  "  Tenant  House,"  a  work  pre- 
pared from  information  acquired  while  he  was 
a  member  of  the  legislature  of  New  York. 

DUGDALE,  SiE  William,  an  English  anti- 
quary, born  in  Shustoke,  Warwickshire,  Sept. 
12, 1605,  died  Feb.  10, 1686.  He  was  educated 
partly  in  the  free  school  of  Coventry,  partly  by 
his  father,  was  made  pursuivant  at  arms  extra- 
ordinary under  the  name  of  Blanche  Lyon  in 
1638,  rose  by  degrees  in  the  herald's  college  until 
he  became  garter  principal  king  at  arms  in  1677, 
and  was  knighted.  In  1641  exact  drafts  of  all 
the  monuments  in  Westminster  abbey  and  in 
many  of  the  churches  of  England,  with  copies 
of  their  inscriptions,  were  made  under  his  super- 
intendence and  deposited  in  Sir  Christopher 
Hatton's  library.  With  Roger  Dodsworth  be 
projected  the  publication  of  the  charters  and 
descriptions  of  all  the  monasteries  of  the  king- 
dom ;  and  after  having  attended  King  Charles  at 
Edgehill  and  followed  him  to  Oxford,  he  im- 
proved a  long  stay  in  that  town  by  collecting 
from  the  Bodleian  and  other  libraries  there  ma- 
terials for  this  great  work.  From  the  tower 
records,  the  Cottonian  library,  and  the  papers  o^ 
Andre  Du  Ohesne  which  he  examined  in  Paris, 
he  gathered  still  more  information;  and  in  1655 
the  first  volume  of  the  work  appeared  in  Latin 
at  London,  under  the  title  of  Monasticon  Angli- 
canum  ;  the  2d  and  3d  vols,  were  issued  in  1661 
and  1673  ;  a  new  and  enlarged  edition,  in  6  vols, 
crown  folio,  was  published  in  1817-30,  with 
plates,  the  cost  of  drawing  and  engraving  which 
amounted  to  $30,000.  This  edition  was  reprint- 
ed at  London  in  8  vols,  fob  in  1846.  Several 
abridgments  of  the  original  work  have  been 
made  in  English.  Among  Dugdale's  other  con- 
tributions to  history  are  the  "Antiquities  of  War- 
wickshire" (fob,  1656),  one  of  the  best  works  of 
the  kind  ever  published,  and  the  author's  chef 
d^(£uvre;  "History  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral" 
(fob,  1658) ;  "  History  of  Imbanking  and  Drayn- 
ing  of  divers  Fenns  and  Marshes"  (fob,  1662), 
undertaken  at  the  instance  of  several  gentlemen 
who  were  interested. in  the  draining  of  Bedford 
Level ;  "  Origines  Juridiciales,  or  Historical 
Memoirs  of  the  English  Laws,  Courts  of  Justice, 
Forms  of  Trial,  Punishment  in  Cases  Criminal, 
Law  Writers,"  &c.  (1666);  the  "Baronage  of 
England,  or  an  Historical  Account  of  the  Lives 
and  most  memorable  Actions  of  our  English  No- 
bility" (3  vols,  fob,  1675-'6) ;  "  A  Short  View 
of  the  late  Troubles  in  England"  (Oxford,!  681) ; 
"  Ancient  Usage  in  bearing  of  such  Ensigns  of 
Honor  as  are  commonly  called  Arms"  (Oxford, 
1682) ;  "A  Perfect  Copy  of  all  Summons  of  the 
Nobility  to  the  Great  Councils  and  Parliaments 
of  this  Realme,  from  the  XLIX.  of  Henry  the 
Hid.  until  these  present  Times"  (London,  1685). 
Dugdale  also  completed  the  2d  volume  of  Sir 
Henry  Spelman's  Concilia.    His  works  are  ad- 


DUGONG 


661 


mirablo  for  their  accuracy,  and  his  industry 
was  ahnost  incredible.  His  "J^ife,  Diary,  and 
Corrcspundeuce,"  witli  an  index  to  Ins  MS.  col- 
lections, many  of  which  are  preserved  in  the 
Asliniolean  nuiseum  at  Oxford,  was  published 
at  Loudon  in  1827  by  William  llamper,  F.S.A. 
— llis  son,  Sir  John  Dugdale,  was  Norroy  king- 
at-arnis,  and  published  a  catalogue  of  the  Eng- 
lish nobility. 

DUGOXG,  a  herbivorous  cetacean,  of  the  ge- 
nus dugungus  (Lace[)ede),  or  halicore  (Illiger), 
the  only  genus  of  its  family,  and  the  only  un- 
disputed species  of  the  genus;  the  Malay  name 
is  diiyong,  and  the  scientific  halicore  Indlcus 
(Desm.)  or  //.  dugung  (F.  Cuvier).  The  general 
6hai)e  is  fish-like ;  the  head  is  proportionately 
small,  and  separated  from  the  body  by  a  slight 
cervical  depression;  there  is  no  dorsal  fin,  and 
the  horizontal  tail  is  crescent-shaped ;  there  are 
no  posterior  limbs,  but  the  anterior  are  like  ce- 
tacean paddles  without  any  trace  of  nails  or  di- 
vision into  fingers.  The  upper  lip  is  very  large, 
thick,  obliquely  truncated,  forming  a  blunt  snout 
such  as  would  be  made  by  cutting  oft'  an  ele- 
phant's trunk  near  the  mouth  ;  the  anterior  por- 
tion is  covered  with  soft  papilho  with  a  few 
stifl:'  bristles ;  the  lips  have  a  corneous  edging 
which  assists  it  in  tearing  sea-weeds  from  the 
bottom.  In  the  old  animal  the  incisors  are  2 
above  and  none  below,  large,  but  nearly  covered 
by  the  tumid  and  movable  lip;  in  the  young, 
the  2  upi)er  permanent  incisors  are  preceded 
by  2  deciduous  ones,  and  there  are  G  or  8  lower 
incisors  which  fall  and  are  not  succeeded  by  any 
permanent  ones.  The  molars  in  the  adult  are 
f;|,  simple  and  elliptical,  in  the  young  |;f, 
far  back  on  the  horizontal  portion  of  the  jaw ; 
the  grinding  surface  presents  an  outer  rim  of 
enamel,  with  the  central  ivory  portion  slightly 
depressed ;  they  have  no  proper  roots,  and  grow 
as  long  as  they  can  be  of  use  to  the  animal.  The 
skin  is  thick  and  smooth,  with  a  few  scattered 
bristles;  the  color  is  bluish  above  and  white 
beneath ;  the  manimaj  are  2,  and  pectoral ;  the 
fins  are  used  not  only  for  swimming,  but  for 
crawling  along  the  bottom.  The  cranial  bones 
are  dense  and  large,  with  loose  connections 
where  any  sutures  exist.  The  intermaxillaries 
are  very  large,  extending  back  as  far  as  the  mid- 
dle of  the  temporal  foss;e,  and  bent  down  at  a 
right  angle  over  the  symphysis  of  the  lower  jaw, 
terminating  nearly  on  a  level  with  its  lower  mar- 
gin ;  this  is  necessary  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  incisors,  one  of  which  is  in  each  intermax- 
illary ;  for  this  reason  also  the  nostrils  are  dis- 
placed upward,  ditfeVent  from  the  allied  manati, 
so  that  their  opening  is  turned  up  as  in  the  typ- 
ical cetacea ;  indeed  this  animal  comes  nearer 
than  its  congener  to  the  whales  in  its  forked 
tail,  absence  of  nails,  and  superior  opening  of 
the  nostrils.  The  whole  skull  (and  especially 
the  frontal  bones)  is  comparatively  short ;  tlie 
parietal  crests  are  widely  separated ;  there  is  no 
bony  tentorium,  ho  sella  turcica,  very  few  and 
small  openings  in  the  cribriform  plate  of  the 
cthmuid  bone,  and  the  optic  foramina  are  con- 


verted into  a  long  and  narrow  canal.  Tlie  lower 
jaw  corresponds  to  tlie  angle  of  the  intermax- 
illaries, and  is  bent  downward  at  the  symphy- 
sis ;  on  its  anterior  surface  are  3  or  4  rougli  and 
shallow  alveoli,  sometimes  containing  rudimen- 
tary incisors,  according  to  Sir  Everard  Home. 
The  cervical  vertebrto  are  7,  separate ;  the  dorsals 
18,  with  spinous  processes  bent  back  and  elon- 
gated from  the  first  to  the  last,  and  of  the  same 
length  as  the  transverse ;  the  lumbar  3,  with  long 
spinous  and  transverse  prcjcesses ;  one  sacral,  to 
which  rudimentary  pelvic  bones  are  suspended ; 
caudals  about  24,  with  chevron  bones  for  the 
anterior  f,  and  becoming  fiattened  posteriorly. 
The  ribs  are  18,  less  thick  and  dense  than  those 
of  the  manati,  the  1st  3  attached  by  cartilages 
to  the  sternum ;  the  shoulder  blade  is  large,  with 
the  anterior  angle  rounded,  the  posterior  ex- 
tended backward  with  a  concave  margin ;  tho 
spine  is  prominent,  and  the  acromion  and  cora- 
coid  processes  are  pointed ;  the  humerus  is  short, 
tliick,  with  a  prominent  deltoid  ridge ;  the  ra- 
dius and  ulna  are  very  short,  rounded,  anchy- 
losed  together  at  each  end ;  the  carpal  bones 
are  4,  in  2  rows ;  the  thumb  is  rudimentary,  its 
metacarpal  bone  small  and  pointed ;  the  other 
metacarpals  are  flattened,  with  3-jointed  pha- 
langes. The  tongue  is  thick,  the  anterior  upper 
surface  with  cuticular  spines,  and  on  each  side 
at  the  base  a  horny,  retroverted,  pointed  process. 
The  stomach  is  divided  into  2  portions,  the  car- 
diac large  and  globular,  the  pyloric  narrower; 
at  the  constriction  between  the  2  are  2  tubular 
cfecal  prolongations  as  in  some  pachyderms,  and 
at  the  cardiac  end  is  a  rounded  glandular  mass  as  in 
some  rodents ;  the  intestines  are  14  times  as  long 
as  the  body,  and  the  caacum  is  simple  and  heart- 
shaped.  The  liver  is  transversely  oblong,  with 
1  large  and  3  small  lobes ;  the  gall  bladder  is 
present,  elongated,  receiving  bile  directly  from 
the  hepatic  ducts ;  the  spleen  is  very  small  and 
rounded.  The  heart  has  its  ventricles  deeply 
cleft,  not  however  aifecting  the  circulation;  the 
capacity  of  the  pulmonary  artery  is  very  great, 
to  accommodate  the  delay  of  the  blood  in  the 
lungs  during  submersion.  '  The  lungs  are  very 
long,  flattened,  i  as  long  as  the  body ;  the  super- 
ficial air  cells  are  large,  the  dorsal  extent  is 
great,  the  trachea  divides  high  up,  and  the  bron- 
chi are  long,  as  in  marine  turtles ;  the  cartilages 
of  the  bronchial  tubes  are  continued  spirally  into 
each  other.  The  sense  of  smell  must  be  dull ; 
the  eye  is  very  small  and  convex,  with  a  nicti- 
tating membrane  beside  the  lids;  the  external 
orifice  of  the  ear  is  hardly  perceptible ;  the  nasal 
openings  are  2  parabolic  slits,  whose  semi-lunar 
edge  performs  the  oflice  of  a  valve  which  can  be 
opened  and  shut  at  pleasure ;  the  interior  of  the 
cheeks,  according  to  F.  Cuvier,  is  entirely  cov- 
ered with  sti'oiig  hairs.  The  usual  length  of  the 
dugong  is  from  8  to  10  feet,  though  it  has  been 
seen  as  long  as  20  feet ;  it  is  found  in  the  seas  of 
the  East  Indies,  especially  in  the  Malayan  archi- 
pelago, never  on  land,  rarely  if  ever  in  fresh 
water,  but  generally  in  troops  in  shallows  of  the 
sea  where  the  depth  is  not  more  than  3 'fathoms. 


662 


DUGUAY-TROFIN' 


DUISBURG 


Its  food  consipts  of  fuci  andalgf©,  and  it  browses 
on  the  marine  vegetation  as  a  cow  does  on  land. 
It  yields  little  or  no  oil,  but  is  hunted  by  the 
Malays  for  its  flesh,  which  resembles  young  beef, 
is  tender  and  palatable,  and  is  considered  a  royal 
dish.  It  is  generally  speared,  and  at  night,  es- 
pecially during  the  northern  monsoon,  at  the 
mouths  of  rivers,  when  the  sea  is  calm.  The 
aft'ection  of  the  mother  for  her  young  is  very  re- 
markable. There  are  doubtless  several  species 
in  the  Indian  seas,  as  it  is  hardly  probable  that 
only  one  species  would  be  found  from  the  Pliilip- 
pine  islands  to  the  coast  of  New  Holland  ;  in  the 
Ked  sea  is  a  species  called  H.  tdhcrnacularum  by 
Ruppell,  from  his  belief  that  the  Hebrews  cov- 
ered with  its  skin  their  tabernacle  and  sacred 
ark ;  this  is  generally  considered  a  mere  variety. 
In  tlie  article  Manatee  will  be  given  reasons  for 
considering  the  herbivorous  cetaceans  as  belong- 
ing rather  to  the  pachyderms  than  to  cetaceans, 
the  manati  coming  nearer  to  the  former,  and  the 
dugong  probably  nearer  to  the  latter.  (See  also 
DiNOTiiERiuM.)  An  allied  fossil  genus,  halithe- 
riinn  (Kaup),  is  found  in  the  tertiary  calcareous 
deposits  of  Europe. 

DUGUAY-TROUIN,  Rene,  a  French  ad- 
miral, born  in  St.  Malo,  June  10,  1673,  died  in 
Paris,  Sept.  27,  1736.  He  was  at  first  intended 
for  the  church,  but  his  family  yielded  to  his  in- 
clinations, and  allowed  him  to  follow  the  sea  as 
his  profession.  He  distinguished  himself  as 
commander  of  a  privateer  in  the  war  against 
England  and  Holland,  and  attracted  the  attention 
of  Louis  XIV.,  who  presented  him  with  a  sword, 
and  afterward,  in  1697,  admitted  him  to  the 
royal  navy,  giving  him  the  command  of  a  ves- 
sel, lie  continued  his  career,  and,  in  the  letters 
of  nobility  granted  him  for  his  conduct  in  the 
Spanish  Avar,  it  was  stated  that  he  bad  captured 
more  than  300  merchant  ships  and  20  ships  of 
war.  The  exploit,  however,  which  won  liim 
the  most  renown,  was  the  capture  of  Rio  Ja- 
neiro in  1711,  which  brought  an  immense  sum 
of  money  to  the  French  government. 

DUGUET,  Jacques  Joseph,  a  French  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Month rison,  Dec.  9,  1649,  died  in 
Paris,  Oct.  25,  1733.  He  officiated  for  many 
years  as  professor  of  divinity  at  the  oratoire. 
His  zeal  for  the  cause  of  the  Port  Royalists,  al- 
though tempered  by  moderation,  which  formed 
one  of  the  chief  traits  of  his  character,  in- 
volved him  in  the  religious  controversies  of  his 
times.  His  writings,  which  comprise  nearly  20 
works  chiefly  on  theological  and  ethical  •sub- 
jects, are,  without  being  very  vigorous,  con- 
ceived in  the  gentle  and  Christian  tone  which 
distinguished  him  in  his  life. 

DU  HALDE,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French  geog- 
rapher, born  in  Paris,  Feb.  1,  1674,  died  Aug. 
18,  1743.  In  1708  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Bociety  of  Jesus,  and  was  afterward  appointed 
to  the  task  of  editing  the  letters  of  missionaries 
sent  out  by  that  society  to  various  parts  of  the 
world,  and  especially  to  China.  The  result  of 
these  hxbQrs  is  the  well-known  Lettres  edifiantes 
et  curieuses  ecrites  des  missions  etraiigeres,  ed- 


ited by  Dn  Halde  from  the  9th  to  the  26tb 

volume  inclusive  ;  and  his  Description  geogra- 
liliique^  liistoriquc,  chronologiquc^  politique,  et 
physique  de  V empire  de  la  Chine  et  de  la  Tar- 
tarie  Chinoise  (4  vols,  fol.,  Paris,  1735);  two 
works  of  considerable  interest  and  importance, 
and  which  contributed  not  a  little  to  advance 
the  science  of  geography.  An  English  transla- 
tion of  the  latter  appeared  in  London  in  1736  . 
(4  vols.  8vo.),  in  1742  (2  vols,  fob),  and  again 
in  1744  (4  vols.  8vo.).  The  Lettres  edijiantes  et 
curieuses  have  not  been  translated  into  English, 
but  a  selection  from  the  earlier  volumes  appear- 
ed in  London  in  1743,  in  2  vols.  8vo.,  under 
the  title  of  "  Jesuits'  Letters." 

DUHAMEL  DU  MONCEAU,  Henei  Louis,  a 
French  botanist  and  writer  on  agriculture,  born 
in  Paris  in  1700,  died  there,  Aug.  23,  1782.  He 
was  educated  at  the  college  of  Ilarcourt,  where 
he  first  displayed  a  taste  for  the  natural  sciences. 
Having  been  appointed  naval  inspector,  he  di- 
rected his  attention  to  the  culture  and  preser- 
vation of  wood  suitable  for  nautical  purposes, 
whence  he  was  led  to  investigate  the  proper- 
ties of  the  different  species  of  plants  and  trees 
adapted  to  the  climate  of  France,  of  which  he 
drew  up  a  catalogue  arranged  in  the  alphabetical 
order  of  their  Latin  generic  names.  His  most 
important  works  are :  De  la  physique  des  arbres 
(2  vols.  4to.,  Paris,  1758);  Des  semis  et  planta- 
tions des  arbres  et  de  la  culture  (4to.,  1760)  ; 
Elements  de  V agriculture  (2  vols.  12mo.,  1762). 

DUIDA,  a  lofty  mountain  near  the  southern 
extremity  of  Venezuela.  On  the  S.  and  "W. 
it  presents  a  perpendicular  front,  bare  and  stony 
to  the  summit.  The  other  sides  are  less  steep, 
and  covered  with  magnificent  forests.  The 
summit,  8,500  feet  above  the  sea,  has  never 
been  reached  by  man.  At  the  beginning  and 
end  of  the  rainy  season  small  shifting  flames  are 
seen  to  play  about  the  highest  peaks,  and  have 
sometimes  induced  the  supposition  that  the 
mountain  is  a  volcano.  At  its  foot  is  the  soli- 
tary mission  of  Esmeraldo. 

DUILIUS,  Caius  Nepos,  consul  of  Rome,  260 
B.  C,  noted  for  his  naval  victory  over  the  Car- 
thaginians, the  first  success  ever  obtained  by  the 
Romans  on  the  sea.  The  battle  was  fought  oflF 
Mylffl  in  Sicily,  and  the  triumph  of  Duilius  is  at- 
tributed to  his  invention  of  grappling  irons,  bj 
means  of  which  he  attached  his  ships  firmly  to 
those  of  the  enemy,  and  enabled  his  men  to  fight 
hand  to  hand.  On  his  return  to  Rome  he  was 
honored  with  a  magnificent  triumph,  and  a  col- 
umn was  raised  to  commemorate  the  event. 

DUISBURG,  a  Prussian  town,  capital  of  a 
circle  of  the  same  name,  in  the  province  of  the 
Rhine,  18  m.  W.  N.  W.  from  Diisseldorf,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Agger  with  the  Ruhr,  on  the 
railway  from  Cologne  to  Minden ;  pop.  of  the 
circle,  110,000 ;  of  the  town,  12,t)00.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  dilapidated  walls,  has  a  library,  a 
botanic  garden,  and  important  manufactories  of 
woollen  and  cotton,  velvet,  leather,  tobacco,  and 
porcelain.  It  has  also  in  its  vicinity  extensive 
sugar  refineries  and  iron  forges. 


DUJARDIN 


DUKE 


663 


DUJARDIN,  Felix,  aFrencli  naturalist,  born 
in  Tours,  April  5,  1801.  Tiic  son  of  a  wutcli- 
mal<er,  he  was  obliged  to  Icaru  with  little  as- 
eistauce  the  sciences  which  be  lias  since  been 
employed  in  teaching.  From  1827  to  1834  he 
delivered  public  lectures  in  Tours  upon  geom- 
etry and  chemistry  as  applied  to  the  arts. 
During  the  same  period  he  publislied  several 
geological  works,  in  one  of  wliich  he  first  made 
known  the  curious  fact  tliat  Artesian  wells  bring 
to  the  surface  seeds  and  remains  of  insects, 
whicli  have  been  taken  from  long  distances  and 
transported  through  subterranean  passages.  In 
1833  and  1834  he  i)ublished  descriptions  of  the 
flora  of  the  region  of  the  Loire,  and  of  the 
geology  and  fossils  of  Touraine.  lie  then  de- 
voted himself  to  zoological  researches,  and  pub- 
lished observations  upon  the  rliizopodoi,  for 
whicli  ho  proposed  a  new  classification.  In 
1839  he  added  extended  annotations  to  the  3d 
volume  of  De  Lamarck's  "  History  of  Inverte- 
brate Animals,"  and  among  his  later  publica- 
tions have  been  his  researches  npon  the  brain 
of  insects,  and  upon  the  instinct  of  bees. 

DUJAliDIN,  Kauet,,  a  Dutch  painter,  born  in 
Amsterdani  in  1G40,  died  in  Venice,  Nov.  20, 
1C78.  He  was  the  best  pupil  of  Berghem ; 
studied  in  Italy,  where  his  pictures  were  very 
popular  ;  went  to  Lyons,  got  into  debt,  and  mar- 
ried his  landlady,  whom  he  soon  deserted,  and 
returned  to  Amsterdam.  He  again  went  to 
Italy  to  escape  from  his  wife.  On  his  death, 
tlie  Venetian  senate  paid  him  unusual  honors. 
In  spite  of  his  dissipation  he  left  a  great  num- 
ber of  paintings,  principally  of  pastoral  scenes 
and  animals,  llis  pictures  are  now  scarce  and 
dear. 

DUKE  (Lat.  dux;  Byz.  Gr.  SouKar,  a  leader), 
a  title  belonging  originally  to  the-  commanders 
of  armies.  In  the  later  periods  of  the  Roman 
empire  it  designated  the  military  governor  of  a 
district,  and  until  the  time  of  Theodosius  the 
rank  of  dukes  was  esteemed  inferior  to  that  of 
counts.  Subsequently  their  dignity  greatly  in- 
creased, several  provinces  often  became  subject 
to  a  single  duke,  and  the  title  was  not  disdained 
by  conquerors  such  as  Alaric  and  Attila.  The 
northern  barbarians  who  invaded  the  vast  ter- 
ritories of  declining  Rome  adopted,  if  they  had 
not  before  borrowed,  the  titles  of  duke  and 
count;  but  among  these  martial  tribes,  the 
dukes,  as  military  chieftains,  acquired  a  decided 
preeminence  over  the  counts,  who  both  in  the 
Byzantine  and  western  empires  had  been  em- 
ployed chiefly  in  civil  ofiices.  Under  the  suc- 
cessors of  Charlemagne,  the  governors  of  prov- 
inces generally  assumed  the  title  of  duke,  and 
achieved  an  almost  absolute  independence.  The 
kings  of  France,  however,  succeeded  in  reunit- 
ing to  the  crown  the  dukedoms  which  had  been 
severed  from  it ;  and  the  ducal  sovereignty  be- 
ing extinguished,  the  name  has  remained  in 
France  only  as  a  title  of  dignity  hereditary  in 
certain  families.  Prior  to  the  revolution  dukes 
were  created  by  letters  patent  of  the  king,  and 
were  of  3  kinds,  of  which  those  designated  as 


dukes  and  peers  held  the  first  rank,  and  had  a  seat 
in  iiarliament,  and  certain  honors  and  preroga- 
tives at  court.  The  dignity  of  the  second  class 
or  hereditary  dukes  was  transmissible  to  their 
male  children,  but  that  of  the  dukes  by  brevet 
ceased  with  themselves.  The  ducal  and  all  other 
titles  of  nobility,  abolished  at  the  commencement 
of  the  revolution,  were  established  again  in  1806. 
The  rank  of  duke  in  the  royal  family  of  Franc© 
was  superior  to  that  of  prince,  inferior  sometimes 
to  that  of  count,  and  always  to  tliat  of  dauphin. 
In  other  great  families  also  the  title  was  higher 
than  that  of  prince.  In  Germany,  where  tho 
idea  of  sovereignty  is  inseparable  from  the  ducal 
dignity,  this  title  comes  immediately  after  that 
of  royalty.  Under  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  dukes 
began  to  usurp  those  sovereign  rights  which  they 
have  since  exercised,  and  C  dukedoms  were  then 
established.  Several  of  tlie  primitive  dukes 
have  exchanged  their  title  for  that  of  grand  duke. 
The  princes  of  the  house  of  Austria  bear  the 
title  of  archduke.  In  England,  it  was  not  till 
the  reign  of  Edward  III.  in  the  14th  century 
that  dukedoms  were  established  giving  their 
proprietors  the  first  rank  in  the  British  peerage, 
a  rank  which  has  since  belonged  to  tlio  title. 
The  first  person  created  an  English  duke  was 
Edward  the  Black  Prince,  who  was  made  duke 
of  Cornwall  in  1337,  and  that  title  is  still  borne 
by  the  prince  of  Wales.  The  duke  of  Norfolk, 
whose  title  is  the  most  ancient  of  all  those 
now  in  existence,  except  the  above,  is  descend- 
ed from  Margaret,  the  daughter  of  a  younger 
son  of  Edward  I.,  who  was  created  duchess  of 
Norfolk  in  1358.  The  dignity  became  extinct 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  in  1572,  but  was  re- 
vived in  1G23  in  the  person  of  Ludovic  Stuart, 
created  duke  of  Richmond.  Since  the  accession 
of  George  II.  the  title  has  been  frugally  be- 
stowed. From  that  period  to  17G6  no  person, 
except  of  the  royal  family,  was  raised  to  a 
dukedom,  but  in  the  latter  year  the  representa- 
tive of  the  ancient  house  of  Percy  was  made 
duke  of  Northumberland  ;  47  years  later  the 
duke  of  "Wellington  received  this  title  from  the 
king,  as  the  highest  honor  which  could  be  ren- 
dered for  his  great  services.  There  are  now 
in  the  English  peerage  21  dukes  exclusive  of 
those  of  the  royal  family.  Ireland  has  but  one 
duke,  the  duke  of  Leinster;  of  the  7  Scottish 
dukes,  2  are  also  English  dukes.  The  title  of 
duke,  or  properly  prince,  was  originally  borne  bj 
the  czars  of  Russia,  and  tliat  of  grand  duke  or 
grant!  prince  still  distinguishes  the  princes  of 
that  house.  The  kings  of  Poland  were  grand 
dukes  or  grand  princes  of  Lithuania,  and  the 
kings  of  Prussia  were  the  dukes  of  Silesia.. 
Italy  has  several  sovereign  dukes,  as  the  grand 
duke  of  Tuscany,  and  the  dukes  of  Modena  and 
Parma.  Tlie  title  exists  also  in  the  papal  states,, 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  the  Netherlands,  and'  in 
Portugal  and  Spain.  In  some  of  the  countries 
of  Europe  it  retains  the  attributes  of  sovereign^ 
power  which  it  received  in  the  middle  ages; 
in  others,  as  in  England,  it  continues  to  desig- 
nate the  highest  rank  of  nobility  ;,  in  others,, aa, 


G64 


DUKES 


DULWICH 


in  France,  it  is  but  a  tradition  of  an  ancient  po- 
litical order. 

DUKES,  a  CO.  of  Mass.,  consipting  of  a  num- 
ber of  islands  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  with  an 
aggregate  area  of  118  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1855, 
4,401.  Martha's  Vineyard,  the  largest  of  these 
islands,  lies  about  5  ni.  S.  of  Barnstable  co., 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  Vineyard  sound. 
A  great  part  of  the  surface  is  occupied  by  for- 
ests, but  there  are  large  cultivated  tracts  yield- 
ing good  crops  of  potatoes,  hay,  and  grain.  In 
1855  the  productions  were  16,023  bushels  of  In- 
dian corn,  11,586  of  potatoes,  3,024  of  oats,  1,810 
tons  of  hay,  and  28,882  lbs.  of  butter.  In  1858 
the  county  contained  12  churches  and  1  news- 
paper office.  It  was  organized  in  1695.  Capi- 
tal, Edgartown. 

DULAURE,  Jacques  Antotxe,  a  French  au- 
thor and  statesman,  born  in  Clermont-Ferrand 
in  1755,  died  in  Paris,  Aug.  9, 1835.  He  studied 
architecture  and  engineering,  but  the  work  on 
which  he  Avas  employed  in  the  latter  capaci- 
ty being  suspended  in  consequence  of  the  war 
with  England  in  behalf  of  American  independ- 
ence, he  turned  his  attention  to  literature,  and 
on  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution  joined 
the  republican  party.  In  1792  he  was  elected 
member  of  the  convention,  in  which  he  voted 
for  the  execution  of  the  king,  but  afterward 
became  connected  with  the  Girondists.  Com- 
pelled to  fly  from  France  during  the  reign  of 
terror,  he  supported  himself  in  Switzerland  by 
his  labor  as  an  engraver.  He  afterward  return- 
ed, and  was  elected  to  the  council  of  500,  but 
retired  from  public  life  after  the  revolution  of 
the  18th  Brumaire,  1799.  As  a  historian  he  has 
not  the  reputation  of  impartiality. 

DULCE,  Gulf  of  (sometimes  called  lake  of 
Isabal),  a  large  body  of  fresh  water,  extending 
into  the  state  of  Guatemala  from  the  bay  of 
Amatique,  30  m.  long  by  about  12  broad.  It 
seems  to  be  a  widening  out,  over  a  considerable 
valley,  of  the  waters  of  the  Rio  Polochic.  Be- 
tween the  gulf  and  the  sea  is  a  small  lake,  15 
m.  long  by  3  broad,  called  La  Golfete.  The 
waters  from  both  reach  the  ocean  through  a 
narrow  and  picturesque  stream  or  strait,  called 
La  Angostura  or  Rio  Dulce.  This  is  shut  in  by 
a  rampart  of  rock,  rising  perpendicularly  to  a 
height  of  from  300  to  400  feet  above  the  water. 
This  river  has  a  bar  at  its  mouth,  with  but  6 
feet  of  water,  which  deprives  the  gulf  of  most 
of  the  advantages  that  would  otherwise  attach 
to  it,  as  the  most  convenient  avenue  foi;  the 
commerce  of  Guatemala.  Notwithstanding  this 
deficiency,  a  considerable  part  of  the  trade  of 
the  state  is  carried  on  through  the  little,  un- 
healthy town  of  Isabal,  situated  on  the  gulf,  by 
means  of  vessels  sailing  from  Balize.  The  trade 
of  Isabal  amounts  to  about  $800,000  annually. 

DULCIMER,  an  ancient  musical  instrument, 
resembling,  if  not  identical  with,  the  psaltery 
or  neheJ  of  the  Jews.  The  modern  dulcimer 
consists  of  a  small  box,  in  shape  a  triangle  or  a 
trapezium,  containing  a  number  of  wire  strings 
•tretched  over  a  bridge  at  each  end,  and  which 


are  .set  in  vibration  by  little  iron  rods  or  wooden 
sticks  in  tlie  liands  of  the  performer.  It  is  now 
principally  used  by  street  musicians. 

DULONG,  PiEKEE  Louis,  a  French  natural 
philosopher,  born  in  Rouen,  Feb.  12, 1785,  died 
in  Paris,  July  19,  1838,  At  the  age  of  16  he 
Avas  received  into  the  polytechnic  school,  on 
his  departure  from  which  he  studied  medicine, 
Avliich  he  practised  for  some  time,  and  then  de- 
voted himself,  at  the  suggestion  of  Berthollet,  to 
physical  science.  After  numerous  analyses  and 
researches  upon  chlorine  and  ammonia,  he  was 
led  in  1812  to  the  discovery  of  the  chloride  of 
nitrogen.  lie  was  tAvice  injured  by  the  explo- 
sions of  this  ncAV  compound,  and  lost  an  eye  and 
finger.  In  1816  he  discoA^ered  hypo-phospho- 
rous acid,  and  introduced  into  the  nomenclature 
the  prefix  hypo,  to  denote  a  less  degree  of  oxida- 
tion. In  1820  he  labored  with  Berzelius  in  the 
laboratory  of  Berthollet,  and  began  to  investigate 
the  origin  of  animal  heat.  In  opposition  to  La- 
voisier and  Laplace,  who  thought  that  animal 
heat  was  produced  by  the  transformation  of 
oxygen  into  carbonic  acid,  he  found  that  in  the 
carnivora  the  heat  due  to  this  cause  was  not 
more  than  i  of  the  whole,  and  was  even  a  smaller 
proportion  in  the  herbivora,  thus  proving  that 
the  body  must  have  another  source  of  calefac- 
tion.  In  1825  he  was  associated  Avith  Prony, 
Arago,  Ampere,  and  Girard,  as  a  commission  to 
provide  precautions  against  the  explosion  of 
steam  boilers ;  and  for  4  years  he  labored  al- 
most alone  with  Arago  in  determining  the  elastic 
force  of  steam  at  different  temperatures,  Du- 
long  was  a  member  of  the  academy  of  sciences, 
in  which  in  1832  he  succeeded  Cuvier  as  per- 
petual secretary  for  the  department  of  physical 
sciences.  His  numerous  Avorks  treat  particu- 
larly of  the  gases,  and  of  the  nature  and  laws 
of  heat. 

DULWICn,  a  village  of  England,  in  Surrey, 

5  m.  S,  of  London;  pop.  in  1851,  1,904,  It  is 
chiefly  remarkable  for  its  college,  foimded  and 
endowed  in  1619,  by  Edward  Alleyn,  a  distin- 
guished actor.  The  college  originally  consisted 
of  a  master,  warden,  4  felloAvs,  6  poor  brethren, 

6  poor  sisters,  12  scholars,  and  30  out  members. 
Its  income  from  endowment  in  1626  Avas  £800, 
but  through  the  rise  in  the  value  of  the  estates  for 
building  sites,  this  gradually  increased  to  £12,000 
or  £14,000,  all  paid  tb  the  master  and  trustees. 
By  act  of  parliament,  passed  Aug.  28,  1857,  a 
thorough  reform  was  effected.  The  old  officers 
were  superseded,  and  a  board  of  19  unpaid  mem- 
bers created  to  conduct  the  government  of  the 
college  from  Dec.  31,  1857,  This  board  is  in 
part  elected  by  the  parishes  for  whose  benefit 
the  institution  was  founded,  and  in  part  appoint- 
ed by  the  court  of  chancery.  One  fourth  of 
the  revenue  is  applied  to  the  support  of  aged 
men  and  Avomen,  not  to  exceed  at  first  24  in 
number.  The  educational  department,  consists 
of  an  u]iper  and  a  loAver  school,  to  the  former 
of  which  all  boj's  between  the  ages  of  8  and  15 
are  admitted  on  payment  of  a  fee  varying  from 
£6  to  £8j  whose  parents  or  next  friends  reside 


DUMANOIR 


DUMAS 


665 


in  any  of  tlie  parishes  to  wliich  the  benefits  of 
the  establi.shiuent  are  liiuiteJ,  while  boys  from 
other  parishes  may  l)e  received  with  a  fee  of 
from  £B  to  £10.  To  the  lower  school  all  boys 
from  the  parishes  already  alluded  to  are  admis- 
sible as  day  scholars  on  payment  of  os.  a  quarter 
each  when  under  14,  and  10.*.  a  quarter  each  if 
over  14.  No  boy  can  remain  in  tiie  upper  school 
after  attaining  the  age  of  18,  nor  in  tlie  lower 
school  after  16.  The  number  of  foundation 
scliolars  is  not  to  exceed  24,  and  all  boys, 
whether  of  tlie  upper  or  lower  school,  may  be- 
come annual  candidates  for  this  privilege,  which 
entitles  its  possessors  to  be  clotlied,  supported, 
and  educated  at  the  expense  of  the  institution. 
There  is  a  valuable  picture  gallery,  chieliy  of 
Italian  and  Flemish  paintings,  attached  to  the 
college. 

DUMAXOIR,  Philippe  Feax^ois  Pixel,  a 
French  vaudevilliste,  born  in  Guadeloupe,  July 
25,  1808.  He  received  his  education  in  Paris, 
and  his  first  play,  produced  at  the  Varietes  the- 
atre. La  scmaine  des  amours,  was  received  with 
favor.  Ills  most  popular  pieces  are  Don  Cesar 
de  Bazan  and  Lcs  premieres  armcs  de  Eichelieu. 
D'Ennery  was  his  collaborator  in  the  former, 
and  Bayard  in  the  latter.  From  1838, to  1841 
he  was  manager  of  the  Varietes.  His  Ecole  des 
a(/neaux  obtained  for  him  a  gold  medal  from  the 
minister  of  state  in  1855. 

DUMAS,  Alexaxdre  Datt  (De  la  Paille- 
tekie),  a  French  general,  born  in  Jeremie,  Ilayti, 
March  25, 1702,  diedin  Villers-Cotterets,  France, 
Feb.  26,  1806.  He  was  the  son  of  a  wealthy 
planter,  the  marquis  de  la  Pailleterie,  by  an  Af- 
rican negro  girl,  was  sent  to  France  to  be  edu- 
cated, and  at  the  age  of  14  enlisted,  under  his 
mother's  name  of  Dumas,  as  a  private  in  a  caval- 
ry regiment.  He  made  himself  known  by  his 
vivacious  temper,  handsome  figure,  and  prodi- 
gious strength,  being  able,  it  is  said,  to  strangle  a 
horse  between  his  knees ;  but  this  did  not  much 
improve  his  condition,  as  at  the  end  of  16  years 
he  was  merely  a  non-commissioned  oiBcer.  But 
while  serving  under  Dumouriez,  he  performed 
several  daring  acts  which  pointed  him  out  for 
promotion.  He  rapidly  passed  through  every 
rank  until,  in  Sept.  1793,  he  was  appointed  gen- 
eral of  division.  In  1796  and  1797  he  served 
in  Italy  under  Bonaparte,  and  was  especially 
employed  in  the  Tyrol,  where,  at  the  battle  of 
Brixeu,  he  alone  defended  a  bridge  against  the 
enemy,  giving  the  French  time  to  come  to  the 
rescue,  in  consequence  of  which  Bonaparte 
presented  him  to  the  directory  as  "  the  Hora- 
tius  Codes  of  the  Tyrol."  He  served  with  no 
less  distinction  in  Egypt ;  but  upon  some  disa- 
greement with  Berthier,  he  departed  for  France. 
The  ship  on  board  of  which  he  had  embarked 
being  obliged  to  put  "into  Taranto,  he  was 
arrested  by  the  Neapolitan  government  and  de- 
tained for  2  years.  After  his  release  the  first 
consul  declined  to  give  him  an  appointment  on 
account  of  his  republican  opinions.  He  retired 
to  the  small  town  where  he  had  married,  and 
there  after  3  years'  suflerings  died  of  consump- 


tion, in  a  stato  bordering  on  destitution. — Al- 
EXAXDKE  Davy,  a  Frencli  dramatist  and  novel- 
ist, son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Villers-Cotte- 
rets, .July  24, 1803.  After  his  father's  death,  ho 
was  left  to  the  care  of  his  mother,  who  left  him 
entirely  to  his  own  guidance;  she  sent  him 
indeed  to  school,  but  the  boy  was  very  irregular 
in  his  attendance,  learned  very  little  French 
and  less  Latin,  but  became  a  good  horseman, 
billiard  player,  fencer,  and  shot.  At  the  ago 
of  15  he  was  placed  as  copying  clerk  with  a  no- 
tary; at  18  he  began  to  write  for  the  stage, 
though  none  of  the  plays  produced  at  this  pe- 
riod were  accepted ;  and  at  20  the  pressure  of 
family  difficulties  sent  him  to  Paris,  where  he 
applied  to  his  father's  friends  to  obtain  employ- 
ment for  liim.  After  several  disa]jpointrnent3 
he  was  befriended  by  Gen.  Foy,  who  iirocured 
for  him  a  small  office  in  the  household  of  Louis 
Philippe,  then  duke  of  Orleans.  His  salary  of 
1,200  francs  a  year  was  a  fortune  to  the  young 
man  ;  he  summoned  his  mother  to  Paris  ;  but 
his  active  mind  already  aimed  at  higher  pursuits. 
He  devoted  his  leisure  hours  to  completing  his 
imperfect  education,  wrote  some  light  poems, 
and  as  early  as  1825  produced  at  the  Arahiga  a 
play  called  La  chatsse  et  Vamoitr,  the  composi- 
tion of  which  he  shared  with  MM.  Rousseau 
and  De  Leuven.  His  first  pieces  were  mostly 
vaudevilles,  brought  out  anonymously ;  tragedy 
also  engaged  his  attention  for  a  while,  but  he 
soon  abandoned  it.  His  genius  was  awakened 
by  the  performances  of  an  English  company, 
which  in  1827  presented  some  of  Shakespeare's 
plays  in  Paris ;  in  common  with  several  of  his 
contemporaries,  he  felt  that  the  French  stage 
needed  reform,  and  he  resolved  to  be  one  of  the 
apostles  of  the  new  di'amatic  creed.  He  brought 
out  in  1828  a  historical  play,  Henri  III.  et  sett 
cour,  constructed  with  utter  disregard  of  the  or- 
dinary rules.  It  created  a  lively  sensation,  and 
though  vigorously  assailed  by  the  critics  wa3 
enthusiastically  applauded  by  the  public ;  the 
young  author  realized  from  it  no  less  than  30,000 
francs  in  a  few  months.  Christine,  or  StocMolm, 
Fontainehleau,  et  Rome,  another  historical  dra- 
ma in  verse,  was  also  well  received ;  and  new 
pieces  from  his  fertile  pen  appeared  in  rapid 
succession,  which,  while  elicitingsevere  criticism, 
drew  crowded  houses.  Antony  was  received 
Avith  signal  favor  in  1831;  if  not  the  best,  it  is 
the  most  characteristic  production  of  its  author. 
Richard  d'' Arlington  and  Teresa  came  next.  Le 
mari  de  la  teuve  ai)peared  in  April,  1832;  and 
the  Tour  de  Xesle,  first  represented  in  the  fol- 
lowing month,  had  the  unparalleled  run  of  over 
200  successive  nights ;  tlie  germ  of  this  piece 
had  been  furnished  by  Frederic  Gaillardet,  but 
its  details,  historical  character,  powerful  interest, 
and  irresistible  pathos  belonged  to  Dumas.  An- 
gele  came  out  in  1833,  Catherine  Howard  in 
1834,  and  Kean  in  1S36;  the  latter  was  written 
expressly  for  Frederic  Lemaitre.  Don  Juan  de 
Maraila,  a  fantastic  drama,  followed ;  then  a 
Roman  tragedy,  Caligula,  the  prologue  of 
which  is  in  itself  a  poem;  and  finally  Jllle.  de 


666 


DUMAS 


Belle-Isle,  -wliich  is  in  some  respects  perhaps  the 
best  of  his  dramatic  productions.  Dumas  was 
now  unquestionably  the  first  among  the  French 
dramatists.  He  had  meanwhile  entered  the 
field  as  a  novelist,  beginning  with  Isabelle  de 
Baviere,  a  romantic  picture  of  France  in  the 
15th  century.  His  intention  was  to  give,  under 
the  title  of  CJironiques  de  France,  a  series  of 
novels,  in  which  he  intended,  somewhat  in  imi- 
tation of  Walter  Scott,  to  treat  the  must  in- 
teresting incidents  of  French  history ;  and  this 
project  he  has  pursued  with  some  perseverance. 
These,  and  his  Impressions  de  voyage,  narrating 
his  travels  through  Switzerland  and  Italy,  were 
eagerly  read,  and  the  public  found  that  the  stir- 
ring dramatist  yfna,  a  still  more  enticing  story- 
teller. Les  trois  mousquetah'es  and  Le  comte  de 
Monte  Chrlsto,  both  of  wliich  appeared  in  1844, 
even  excelled  his  theatrical  works,  and  gave  a 
new  character  to  his  reputation.  The  success  of 
these  and  similar  books  was  only  equalled  by  the 
wonderful  rapidity  with  which  they  were  pro- 
duced. Such  was  the  confidence  of  Dumas  in 
the  fertility  of  his  imagination,  that  in  1846  he 
made  a  contract  to  furnish  2  newspapers  with  an 
amount  of  manuscript  equal  to  60  volumes  a  year ; 
and  this  exclusive  of  his  plays  and  other  occa- 
sional productions.  Such  abnormal  fecundity 
raised  the  question  whether  he  was  really  the 
author  of  the  books  bearing  his  name.  A  lawsuit 
in  which  he  was  involved  in  1847  with  the  di- 
rectors of  the  Presse  and  Constitutionnel  brought 
to  light  tlie  fact  that  he  had  engaged  to  furnish 
those  journals  with  more  volumes  than  a  rapid 
Avriter  could  even  copy ;  but  though  it  is  cer- 
tain that  he  makes  liberal  use  of  the  talents  of 
assistants,  he  claims  suflicient  share  in  the  plan 
and  execution  of  every  work  to  make  it  truly  his 
own.  A  judicial  decision  finally  supported  this 
claim.  He  is  remarkable  for  indefatigable  indus- 
try and  singular  focility  of  composition,  his  daily 
work  averaging  32  pages  of  an  ordinary  French 
octavo  volume.  Among  his  novels  we  may  men- 
tion Les  memoires  d^un  medecin,  or  rather  Joseph 
Balsamo,  Le  collier  de  la  reine,  AngePitou,a.x\^ 
La  comtcsse  de  Charny,  a  sort  of  romantic  re- 
view of  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century. 
Novel  writing  has  not  withdrawn  Dumas  from 
the  drama;  beside  adapting  for  the  stage  some 
of  his  most  successful  romances,  he  has  occasion- 
ally Avritten  original  pieces,  such  as  Uii  mariage 
sous  Louis  XV.,  Les  demoiselles  de  St.  Cyr^ 
Le  comte  Hermann,  La  jeunesse  de  Louis  XIV., 
La  conscience.  He  has  found  time  also  to  pub- 
lish historical  books :  Louis  XIV.  et  son  siecle, 
Ledramede  93,  Le  regent  et  Louis  XV.,  Florence 
et  les  Mklicis.  In  1852  he  began  the  publication 
of  his  Memoires,  a  curious  autobiography,  which 
also  presents  interesting  sketches  of  literary  life 
during  the  restoration ;  and  though  in  itself  a 
inonument  of  egotism,  it  is  full  of  such  un- 
feigned admiration  for  his  eminent  contempo- 
raries, such  candor,  generosity,  and  genuine 
Immor,  that  no  impartial  reader  can  help  sym- 

Eathizing  with  its  author.     In  March,  1856,  it 
ad  extended  to  27  volumes.    Though  a  repub- 


lican in  politics,  Damas  was  on  terras  of  friend- 
ship witli  the  royal  family  of  Orleans,  used  his 
influence  to  elicit  from  them  acts  of  benevo- 
lence, not  improfitable  to  their  popularity,  and 
when  they  were  exiled  from  France,  he  was 
bold  enough  to  praise  the  young  princes  in  sev- 
eral public  meetings.  He  now  tried  to  acquire 
political  importance  through  the  publication  of 
a  daily  newspaper,  La  Liberie,  and  afterward  a 
monthly  I'eview,  Le  Mois  ;  but  failing  in  this  at- 
tempt, he  published  for  2  or  3  years  the  brilliant 
Mousqueiaire,  which  he  revived  in  1857  under 
the  title  o£  Monte  Christo,  and  in  which  he  con- 
tinues to  publish  his  romances,  translations, 
Memoires,  &c.  Previous  to  1848  his  pen  pro- 
cured him  an  income  of  nearly  60,000f.  a  year, 
and  he  had  undertaken,  near  St.  Germain,  the 
building  of  a  small  but  fantastic  and  costly 
country  seat,  which  became  celebrated  under 
the  name  of  chateau  de  Monte  Christo.  The 
revolution  cutting  short  his  means,  the  chateau, 
upon  which  he  had  already  expended  450,000f., 
was  oflfered  at  auction  in  1854,  and  sold  for  less 
than  a  tenth  of  its  original  cost.  Dumas  was 
married  in  1842  to  Mile.  Ida  Ferrier,  an  actress 
of  the  Porte  St.  Martin.  In  1853  he  went  for 
a  time  to  Belgium;  in  1858  he  travelled  in 
Russia,  the  Caucasus,  Greece,  and  Turkey,  and 
returned  to  Paris  in  the  spring  of  1859.  Among 
his  works  published  in  1858  are  Le  capitaine 
Richard  (3  vols.  8vo.),  V Horoscope  (3  vols.), 
Les  louves  de  Macheeoul  (10  vols.),  and  Hhon- 
neur  est  satis/ait,  a  prose  comedy  in  one  act, 
played  at  the  theatre  du  Gymnase  ;  and  a  sketch 
of  his  recent  travels,  Be  Paris  d  Astrahan., 
appeared  in  1859.  Notwithstanding  his  bold 
plagiarisms,  and  the  faults  incident  to  his  writ- 
ing so  much  and  so  fast,  his  books  enjoy  a 
popularity,  even  in  other  languages,  such  as  few 
othei's  can  boast,  and  it  is  probable  that  literary 
labor  never  before  brought  a  man  so  large  a 
fortune.  In  skilfulness  of  arrangement,  vi- 
vacity ancj  sustained  interest  of  narrative,  and 
inventive  fiiculty,  no  living  French  author  ri- 
vals him«;  but  most  ^f  his  writings  pander  to 
a  morbid  love  of  the  extravagant,  eccentric, 
melodramatic,  and  frivolous,  and  tend  rather 
to  amuse  and  dazzle  the  fancy  than  to  pro- 
duce any  abiding  influence  upon  the  mind  of 
the  reader.  Dumas,  though  the  son  of  a  white 
woman,  presents  all  the  characteristics  of  the 
mulatto,  except  color,  even  more  strongly  than 
his  father.  The  English  translations  of  his  prin- 
cipal novels  have  attained  an  immense  circula- 
tion in  the  United  States.  The  most  popular  are 
the  "Count  of  Monte  Christo,"  the  "Three 
Guardsmen,"  "Twenty  Years  After,"  the  "  Vi- 
comte  de  Bragelone,"  "  Margaret  of  Anjou,"  and 
the  "Memoirs of  a  Physician"  and  its  continua- 
tions.— Alexandre,  a  French  novelist  and  dra- 
matist, son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Paris,  July 
28,  1824.  At  16  he  published  a  volume  of  light 
poems  under  the  title  of  Peches  de  jeunesse, 
which  have  been  forgotten  and  forgiven  ;  then 
he  took  to  novel  writing,  and  produced  Quatre 
/emmes  etunperroquei,  Le  roman  d''un6  femme. 


DUMAS 


DUMBARTONSHIRE 


667 


Le  docteur  servant^  Quatre  homines  fortu.  La 
vie  a  vingt  ans,  wliicli  presented  indications  of 
neither  cxtraordiniiry  talent  nor  originality. 
But  suddenly  in  1851  he  published  the  Uanie 
aux  camelias^  whicli  sliowed  him  under  a  new 
aspect,  and  made  a  prodigious  sensation.  This 
•was  nothing  else  than  the  history,  slightly 
amended  and  embellished,  of  a  woman  of  the 
town,  Marie  Duplessis,  with  whom  he  had  been 
on  intimate  terms,  and  who  had  lately  died  of 
consumi)tion ;  but  it  was  narrated  with  such 
simplicity  and  pathos  that  it  had,  as  the  French 
say,  a  "  success  of  tears."  Two  other  novels, 
Dinne  dc  Lys  and  La  dame  aux  perlcs^  liaving 
however  followed  without  attracting  particular 
attention,  ho  tried  his  hand  at  the  stage.  An 
unparalleled  popularity  attached  to  the  Dame 
aux  camelian  under  its  new  garb  ;  it  drew 
crowded  and  enthusiastic  houses  at  Paris  and 
all  over  France,  was  translated,  performed,  and 
admired  everywhere,  and  was  set  to  music  by 
Verdi  in  his  Traviata.  In  the  United  States 
several  versions,  "  Vice  and  Virtue,"  "Oamille," 
"  The  Fate  of  a  Coquette,"  were  presented  at 
once  on  the  stage.  Diane  de  Lys  underwent 
the  same  process  of  transformation,  but  not  with 
the  same  success ;  and  then,  instead  of  continu- 
ing this  adaptation  of  novels  to  the  stage,  Du- 
mas wrote  original  pieces.  Le  demi-monde^  per- 
formed in  1855,  gave  new  evidence  of  acuteness 
of  observation,  dramatic  power,  and  cutting  wit. 
The  same  merits  are  perceptible  in  Lc  fils  natu- 
rel  and  La  question  d''argent,  which  appeared 
in  1856  and  1857,  the  former  a  mere  drama 
of  the  imagination,  the  latter  a  satire  on  the 
Avorship  of  money.  Dumas ^7??s.  as  he  is  gener- 
ally called,  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  his 
tather ;  instead  of  imprudently  lavishing  his  wit 
and  money,  he  uses  both  with  a  sparing  hand. 

DUMAS,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French  chemist 
•  and  politician,  born  in  Alais  in  July,  1800.  Un- 
der the  patronage  of  De  Candolle,  at  Geneva,  he 
early  acquired  considerable  proficiency  ^s  a  bot- 
anist and  a  chemist.  In  1821  he  repaired  to 
Paris,  married  there  the  daughter  of  Alexandre 
Brongniart,  and  henceforth  gave  his  undivided 
attention  to  chemistry.  He  was  a  professor  in 
the  polytechnic  school,  in  the  faculty  of  science, 
and  in  the  school  of  medicine,  a  member  of  the 
academy  of  science  and  that  of  medicine,  and 
president  of  the  society  for  the  encouragement 
of  national  industry;  he  was  frequently  con- 
sulted by  the  government  of  Louis  Philippe,  and 
presented  several  reports  on  important  (juestions. 
After  the  revolution  of  1848  he  was  elected  to 
the  legislative  assembly,  and  was  called  by  Presi- 
dent Bonaparte,  Oct.  31,  1849,  to  the  ministry 
of  agriculture  and  commerce,  which  he  held  un- 
til Jan.  9,  1851.  After  the  co^lp  d''etat  of  Dec. 
2,  1851,  he  was  appointed  a  senator  and  vice- 
president  of  the  municipal  commission  of  Paris. 
His  scientific  memoirs,  and  his  Traite  de  chimie 
appliquee  aux  arts  (8  vols.  8vo.),  including  his 
organic  chemistry,  are  highly  valued. 

DUMAS,  Matthieu,  count,  a  French  soldier 
and  historian,  born  in  Montpellier,  Nov.  23, 


1753,  died  in  Paris,  Oct.  16,  1837.  In  1780  he 
sailed  from  Brest  as  aide-de-camp  to  Rocham- 
bcau,  the  commander  of  the  French  troops  sent 
to  assist  the  Americans  in  their  struggle  for  in- 
dependence, and  participated  in  nearly  all  the 
subsequent  important'aotionsof  the  war,  includ- 
ing the  victory  of  Yorktown.  On  the  conclusion 
of  peace  in  1783,  he  visited  Ilayti;  then  retnrn- 
ing  to  Euro[)e,  he  was  for  two  years  emjjloyed 
in  the  exploration  of  the  sea-coasts  and  islands 
of  Turkey.  At  the  beginning  of  the  revolution 
he  sided  with  Lafayette  and  the  constitutional 
party;  when  Louis  XVI.  was  arrested  at  Va- 
rcnnes  he  commanded  the  troops  who  accompa- 
nied him  to  Paris.  As  a  member  of  the  legis- 
lative assembly,  he  evinced  wisdom,  firmness 
of  opinion,  and  considerable  oratorical  i)Ower. 
During  the  reign  of  terror  ho  was  arraigned  and 
sentenced  to  death,  but  succeeded  in  escaping 
to  Switzerland.  After  the  9th  Thermidor  he 
returned  to  France,  and  was  afterward  elected 
to  the  council  of  500.  Being  proscribed  as  a 
monarchist  on  the  18th  Fructidor,  he  fled  to 
Germany,  where  he  commenced  writing  his 
annals  of  military  events.  Returning  to  his 
country  under  the  consulate,  he  was  intrusted 
with  several  important  missions.  In  1806  he 
followed  Joseph  Bonaparte  to  Naples,  was  ap- 
pointed by  him  minister  of  war,  and  organized 
the  Neapolitan  army.  On  the  removal  of 
Joseph  to  Spain  he  reentered  the  French  army, 
and  actively  participated  in  the  campaigns  of 
1808  in  Spain  and  1809  in  Germany.  Ho 
was  superintendent  of  the  administrative  ser- 
vice of  the  Russian  expedition  in  1812,  escaped 
the  dangers  of  the  disastrous  retreat,  was  made 
prisoner  in  Germany  in  1813,  was  liberated  on 
the  peace  of  1814,  and  served  the  Bourbons 
during  the  first  restoration.  On  the  return  of 
Napoleon  from  Elba  he  refused  at  first  to  join 
him  ;  but  yielding  to  the  entreaties  of  Joseph 
Bonaparte,  he  consented  to  superintend  the  or- 
ganization of  the  national  guards  of  the  empire. 
For  this  he  was  placed  on  the  retired  list  when 
Louis  XVIII.  resumed  tlie  crown.  He  now 
completed  his  Precis  des  ecencments  militaireSy 
an  excellent  work,  giving  a  copious  and  lucid 
account  of  military  operations  from  1798  to 
1807  (19  vols.,  Paris,  1816-^26).  The  almost 
total  loss  of  his  sight  disabled  him  from  con- 
tinuing his  work,  but  did  not  prevent  him  from 
translating  a  portion  of  Napier's  "History  of 
the  Peninsular  War,"  as  a  sort  of  supplement 
to  it.  He  was  elected  to  the  chamber  of  depu- 
ties in  1828,  actively  participated  in  all  the  par- 
liamentary proceedings,  evinced  decision  and 
energy  during  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  was 
instrumental  in  the  elevation  of  Louis  Philippe 
to  the  throne.  Beside  the  works  above  men- 
tioned, he  left  some  interesting  personal  me- 
moirs, since  published  by  his  son  under  tho  title 
of  Souvenirs. 

DUMBARTONSHIRE,  an  E.  co.  of  Scotland, 
anciently  called  Lennox,  consisting  of  2  detached 
portions,  the  larger  lying  between  Lochs  Lomond 
and  Long  and  the  frith  of  Clyde,  the  smaller 


668 


DUMDUM 


DUMONT 


between  the  counties  of  Lanark  and  Stirling ; 
area,  297  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1851,  45,103.  The 
surface  is  mostly  mountainous,  and  the  soil,  ex- 
cept in  the  lowlands,  is  poor.  The  best  land, 
however,  is  highly  cultivated,  producing  pota- 
toes, grain,  beans,  and  turnips.  Large  tracts  are 
devoted  to  pasturage,  and  there  are  several  nur- 
series for  raising  timber.  The  principal  min- 
erals are  coal,  iron,  limestone,  and  freestone. — 
DuMBAKTox,  or  DuxBAHToN,  ou  tlic  Lcvcn,  com- 
manded by  an  ancient  fortress,  a  stronghold  for 
at  least  1,000  years,  and  one  of  the  4  stipulated 
to  be  kept  in  repair  by  the  articles  of  the  union 
between  England  and  Scotland,  is  the  capital ; 
pop.  in  1851,  4,590. 

DUMDUM,  a  town  and  military  station  in  the 
district  of  the  Twenty-four  Purgannahs,  presi- 
dency of  Bengal,  British  India,  10  m.  S.  E.  of 
Barrackpoor  and  8  m.  N.  E.  of  Calcutta.  It 
was  formerly  the  liead-quarters  of  the  Bengal 
artillery,  and  the  seat  of  a  training  school  for 
young  officers  and  recruits  from  England.  It 
contains  handsome  establishments  for  the  offi- 
cers, a  large  church,  a  free  school,  a  depot  of 
musketry,  and  an  excellent  cannon  foundery  con- 
taining a  boring  room  in  which  12  guns  can  be 
bored  at  once,  and  said  to  be  better  arranged 
than  that  at  Woolwich.  Tliough  not  actually 
the  scene  of  revolt  in  1857,  Dumdum  was  one  of 
the  first  places  at  which  the  sepoys  exhibited 
symptoms  of  dissatisfiiction.  About  the  end  of 
Jan.  1857,  it  became  known  that  the  native  sol- 
diers connected  with  the  musketry  school  of 
practice  here  objected  to  the  new  cartridges 
furnished  them  fur  use  with  the  Enfield  rifle,  on 
the  ground  that  they  were  greased  with  cow's 
and  hog's  fat,  to  touch  wliich  with  the  lips 
would  be  sacrilege  for  a  Hindoo  and  pollution 
for  a  Mohammedan.  The  objectionable  missiles 
were  at  once  withdrawn  and  the  troops  were 
appeased,  but  tlie  grievance  was  taken  up  at 
other  stations  and  became  one  of  the  causes  or 
pretexts  of  the  sepoy  mutiny. 

DUMERIL,  Andke  Marie  Constant,  a 
French  physician  and  naturalist,  born  in  Amiens, 
Jan.  1,  1774.  From  1801  to  1818  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  and  of  physiology  of  the 
medical  faculty  of  Paris.  In  1825,  on  the  death 
of  Lacepede,  whose  adjunct  professor  he  had 
been  for  22  years,  he  assumed  his  functions  as 
the  professor  of  herpetology  and  ichthyology  at 
the  museum  of  natural  history.  During  a  pe- 
riod of  4  years  he  also  lectured  on  natural  his- 
tory in  the  ecole  centrale  of  the  Pantheon  in 
the  place  of  Cuvier.  His  works  on  natural  his- 
tory and  analytical  zoology  are  distinguished 
both  for  accuracy  of  details  and  for  philosophical 
treatment.  In  his  most  celebrated  production, 
L'erpetolugie  generale  (Paris,  1834-'54,  9  vols, 
with  illustrations),  which  contains  the  first  at- 
tempt at  a  systematic  description  of  all  known 
reptiles,  he  had  Bibron  as  collaborator.  One  of 
his  best  essays  on  the  classification  of  fishes  ap- 
peared in  1855  at  Paris. 

DUMFRIESSHIRE,  a  frontier  CO.  of  Scotland, 
ou  the  Solway  frith;  area,  1,129  sq.  m. ;  pop. 


in  1851,  78,123.  A  large  portion  of  its  surface 
is  mountainous,  especially  in  the  N.  and  N.  E. 
parts,  where  there  are  summits  over  3,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  There  are  many  lochs,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  are  Castle  loch  of  Lochmaben,  and 
Loch  Skene,  1,300  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea, whose  waters  in  making  their  way  to  the  val- 
ley below  form  the  beautiful  cascade  called  the 
Gray  Mare's  Tail.  Three  rivers,  the  Nith,  the  An- 
nan, and  the  Esk,  give  their  names  to  the  3  pop- 
ular divisions  of  the  county,  Nithsdale,  Annan- 
dale,  and  Eskdale,  and  beside  these  there  are  a 
few  smaller  streams.  Limestone  is  found  in  con- 
siderable quantities,  and  there  are  also  mines 
of  coal  and  lead,  and  some  manufactures ;  but 
agriculture,  and  especially  the  rearing  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  pigs,  are  the  principal  occupations  of 
the  inhabitants.  The  county  was  included  by 
the  Romans  in  the  province  of  Valentia. — 
DuMFEiES,  the  capital  of  the  county,  is  situated 
on  the  Nith,  9  m.  from  its  mouth.  It  has  a 
large  trade  in  cattle  and  pork,  and  manufactures 
of  hats,  stockings,  clogs,  and  common  shoes.  It 
was  here  that  Bruce  in  1306  assembled  the  Scot- 
tish nobles  to  deliberate  on  his  project  of  gain- 
ing the  throne  of  Scotland  ;  here,"  in  the  chapel 
of  the  gray  friars'  convent,  John  Comyn  was 
killed  by  Bruce,  Feb.  10  of  that  year;  and  here 
was  the  residence  of  the  poet  Burns  during  the 
last  years  of  his  life. 

DUMMER,  Jekemiah,  an  American  scholar, 
born  in  Boston  about  1680,  died  in  Plastow, 
England,  May  19, 1739.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1699,  where  he  was  noted  for 
the  vigor  and  brilliancy  of  his  genius.  With  the 
purpose  of  preparing  for  the  clerical  profession, 
he  went  abroad,  and  studied  in  the  university  of 
Utrecht.  On  his  return  to  America  he  abandon- 
ed his  chosen  vocation,  and  soon  after  went  to 
England,  where,  as  agent  of  Massachusetts,  he 
rendered  important  services  to  his  countrymen. 
He  was  an  admirer  of  LordBolingbroke,  in  whose 
daring  and  reckless  genius  he  found  much  that 
was  congenial  to  his  own  character,  and  in  in- 
timacy with  whom  he  adopted  something  of  his 
moral  and  religious  license.  He  published  the- 
ological and  philosophical  disquisitions  in  Latin 
while  at  Utrecht,  and  his  defence  of  the  New 
England  charters,  written  in  England,  is  admi- 
rable both  in  style  and  matter.  The  traditions 
and  records  concerning  Mr.  Dummer  alike  testify 
to  his  remarkable  powers,  and  his  easy  command 
of  them  in  speaking,  writing,  and  in  intercourse 
with  men. 

DUMMODAH,  or  Dammoodah,  a  river  of 
Bengal,  rising  in  the  British  district  of  Ram- 
gurh,  flowing  S.  E.,  and  then  S.,  and  joining  the 
Iloogly  on  its  right  bank,  after  a  course  of  350 
m.  Its  valley  is  to  be  traversed  by  a  railway 
from  Calcutta,  and  is  known  to  abound  in  coal 
and  iron. 

DUMONT,  Pierre  Etienne  Louis,  a  Swiss 
scholar,  the  editor  in  French  of  the  writings  of 
Jeremy  Bentham,  born  in  Geneva,  July  18, 1759, 
died  in  Milan,  Sept.  29,  1829.  His  father,  Avho 
had  experienced  great  revei'ses  of  fortune,  left 


DUMONT 


669 


him  in  early  infancy  an  orphan  along  with  3 
sisters,  to  tho  care  of  a  mother  Avho  had  no  re- 
Bources  bnt  her  talent  and  vh'tues.     lie  was  des- 
tined for  tlie  pulpit,  and  was  ordained  a  minister 
of  the  Protestant  church  of  Geneva  in  1781.   lie 
distinguished  himself  as  a  preacher,  at  the  same 
time  taking  a  warm  interest  on  the  lil)eral  side 
in  tho  political  controversies  of  his  native  city. 
In  consequence  of  the  triumi)h  of  the  aristocratic 
faction  in  tho  spring  of  1782,  by  means  of  tho 
armed  mediation  of  France,  >Savoy,  and  the  aris- 
tocratic Swiss  cantons,  he  Vvcnt  in  1783  into  a 
sort  of  voluntary  exile,  betaking  himself  to  St 
Petersburg,  where  his  falher  had  formerly  been 
court  jeweller.     He  was  appointed  pastor  of  tho 
French  Reformed  church  in  that  city ;  his  mother 
followed  him  tliither,  and  his  sisters  were  honor- 
abl3Mnarried  there.    Here  also  his  eloquence  at- 
tracted much  attention ;  but,  after  a  residence  of 
18  months,  he  was  induced  in  1784  to  go  to  Lon- 
don to  act  in  the  capacity  of  reader  to  Col.  Barre, 
who  had  become  blind,  and  needed  a  companion. 
Barre  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Lord  Shelburne, 
created  marquis  of  Lansdowne,  into  whose  fam- 
ily Dumont  soon  passed  to  assist  in  the  educa- 
tion of  the  2d  son  of  the  marquis.     Here  he 
became  acquainted  with  Bomilly  and  with  Bent 
ham,  with  the  writings  and  ideas  of  the  latter 
of  whom  he  was  so  mnch  impressed  as  to  con- 
ceive the  scheme  of  bringing  them  out   in  a 
French  version.     In  1788  he  took  a  journey  to 
Paris  in  company  with  Eomilly,  and  through 
liimwas  introduced  to  Miraboau,  who  had  made 
Komilly's  acquaintance  during  a  visit  to  Lon- 
don in  1784.     At  the  request  of  the  Genevan 
exiles  in  London,  Dumont  in  1789  made  a  sec- 
ond journey   to  Paris    in   company  with   M. 
Duroverai,  ex-attorney  of  the  republic  of  Ge- 
neva.    Their  object  was  to  attain  through  the 
return  of  Necker  to  office,  and  the  events  then 
passing  in  France,  support  for  the  revolution 
already  commenced  at  Geneva,  and  an  unre- 
stricted restoration  of  Genevese  liberty,  by  can- 
celling a  treaty  between  France  and  Switzer- 
land, which  prevented  Geneva  from  enacting 
new  laws  without  the  consent  of  the  parties  to 
that  treaty.     His  acquaintance  with  ^Mirabeau 
was  renewed,    and  he  as   well  as  Duroverai 
immediately  entered  into  very  close  relations 
with  that  remarkable  person,  assisting  him  in 
the  pre])aration  of  his  speeches,  writing^for  him 
his  published  letters  addressed  to  his  constitu- 
ents, advising  with  him  as  to  his  course,  and 
becoming  joint  editor  with  hitn  of  a  journal 
called  the  Courricr  Je  Provence.     The  pecuni- 
ary ill  success  of  this  publication,  the   abate- 
ment of  Dumont's  sanguine  hoj)e3  of  political 
regeneration,  the  character  of  Mirabeau  him- 
self, and  the  attacks  levelled  at  Duroverai  and 
Dumont  in  journals  and  pamphlets,  as  being  his 
tools,  determined  Dumont  to  leave  Paris.     His 
friends  in  London  strongly  urged  his  return  on 
the  ground  of  the  antipathy  then  springing  np  in 
England  against  the  French  revolutionary  party 
• — a  consideration  of  the  more  importance  to  Du- 
mont, since  he  held  by  the  appointment  of  Barre 


a  sinecure  under-clcrkship  worth  about  £400  a 
year,    lie  quitted  Paris  in  March,  1791,  shortly 
before  Miral^eau's  death,  for  Geneva,  but  return- 
ed again  in  May,  proceeding  afterward  to  London 
in  company  with  Thomas  Paine,  whom  lie  had 
met  in  Paris,  but  whose  acquaintance  ho  did  not 
keep  np.    In  March,  1792,  he  again  returned  to 
Paris  in  company  with  Duroverai  and  Talley- 
rand, tho  latter  of  whom   had  lately  visited 
England.     Talleyrand  wished  to  use  tho  intlu- 
ence  of  Duroverai  and  Dumont  in  softening  tho 
feelings  of  tlie  Girondists  toward  England,  and 
induced  them  to  return  witli   him   to   Paris. 
"When  Talleyrand  was  soon  after  appointed  ono 
of  a  formal  embassy  to  England,  Dumont  Avent 
Avith  him.     The  embassy  was  very  coc/dy  re- 
ceived, and  Talleyrand  returned  soon  after  to 
Paris.    Dumont  refused  to  accompany  him  ;  but 
in  November  of  the  same  year,  tho  French  gov- 
ernment having  then  passed  into  tho  hands  of 
tho  Girondists,  he  visited  Paris,  on  behalf  and  at 
the  request  of  the  magistrates  of  Geneva,  that 
city  being  threatened  with  an  attack  from  tho 
French.     Having  comi)leted  this  business,  Du- 
mont paid  a  short  visit  to  Geneva,  and  thenco 
returned   to   London.     His  "Recollections  of 
Mirabeau,"  written  some  10  years  after,  but 
which   only  appeared  as  a  posthumous  work, 
contains  a  very  interesting  account  of  his  obser- 
vations and  experiences  in  Paris.     Still  enjoy- 
ing, after  his  return  to  England,  the  liosi)italitie3 
of  Bowood,  the  seat  of  the  Lansdowne  family, 
and  of  Holland  house,  he  now  devoted  himself 
to  the  labor  of  drawing  from  the  manuscripts 
and   printed  works  of  Bentham  a  lucid  and 
popular  view  of  that  philosopher's  system  of 
jurisprudence;  a  woi-k,  however,  in  which  Bent- 
ham,  then  much  engrossed  with  his  panopti- 
con  project,  declined   to   take   any  part.     In 
1802,    during  the  peace   of  Amiens.   Dumont 
visited  Paris,  and  published  there  the  first  in- 
stalment of  his  labors,   Traites  de  legislation 
cicile  et  penaJe  (3  vols.  8vo.).     This  work  at' 
tracted  great  attention  throughout  Europe ;  and 
in  180G,  while  Lord  Henry  Petty,  Dumont's  for- 
mer pupil,  was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  his 
sinecure  clerkship  was  superseded  by  a  pension 
of  £500,  one  ground  of  which  was  the  service 
he  had  rendered  by  this  publication.     In  1811 
he  published  at  London  another  instalment  of 
his  labors  in  2  vols.,  Theorie  des  peines  et  des 
recomj^enses,  of  which  2  editions  subsequently 
appeared  at  Paris.     In   1810  he  published  at 
Geneva  Tactique  des  assemblees  Ugidatives  ;  in 
1823  at  Paris,  in  2  vols.,  Preuvesjudiciahs;  and 
in  1828,  Organisation  jmliciale.,  et  codification. 
All  these  treatises  reap[)eared  in  a  single  collec- 
tion edited  by  Dumont,  and  published  at  Brus- 
sels in  1828,  shortly  before  his  death.     How- 
ever small  Dumont's  share  in  the  substance  of 
these  works,  they  owed  almost  entirely  to  the 
dress  in  which  he  clothed  them  the  attention 
which  they  attracted,  and  the  impression  which 
they  made  ;  and  it  was  to  his  labors  that  Bent- 
ham  was  indebted  for  his  wide-spread  reputa- 
tion in  Europe,  into  tho  principal  languages  of 


670 


DUMONT  D'URVILLE 


DUMOUEIEZ 


"which,  induding  the  Russian,  the  Traitesde  legis- 
lation ■were  translated.  When  Geneva  recovered 
her  liberties  in  1814,  Duniont  hastened  to  return 
thither.  He  carried  with  him  a  small  fortune, 
married,  and  spent  there  most  of  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  Upon  his  first  arrival  he  drew  down 
upon  himself  a  bitter  storm  by  some  criticisms 
which  he  made  upon  the  form  of  government 
adopted  by  the  republic,  and  which  seemed  to 
liim  too  aristocratically  narrow.  lie  was  chosen, 
however,  a  member  of  the  sovereign  representa- 
tive council,  and  did  what  he  could  to  liberalize 
and  improve  the  institutions  of  his  native  city. 
Being  placed  on  a  committee  to  prepare  rules 
of  proceeding,  he  drew  up  a  set  based  on  Bent- 
ham's  legislative  tactics,  the  adoption  of  which 
was  agreed  to.  In  1817  he  laid  before  the  ma- 
gistrates a  draft  of  a  penal  code,  borrowed  prin- 
cipally from  Bentham's  manuscripts,  and  accom- 
panied according  to  Bentham's  system  with  a 
running  commentary  of  reasons.  This  plim  w^as 
referred  to  a  commission,  of  which  Dumont  was 
a  member,  before  whom,  and  a  sub-committeo 
of  the  same,  it  underwent  during  4  years  innu- 
merable discussions.  Dumont  then  published  it 
as  originally  offered.  The  lawyers  made  a  vio- 
lent opposition  to  it.  The  commentary  of  reasons 
proved  a  great  stumbling  block.  It  was  again 
referred  to  new  committees,  before  which  it  was 
still  lingering  at  the  time  of  Dumont's  death. 
He  was  more  successful  in  obtaining  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  penitentiary  on  Bentham's  panop- 
ticon plan.  In  his  latter  years  he  occasionally  vis- 
ited England,  whence  he  still  continued  to  draw 
his  pension,  and  where  he  had  many  friends. 
Bentham,  for  some  reason  which  does  not  appear, 
perhaps  from  the  mere  caprice  of  old  age,  finally 
became  estranged  from  him,  spoke  of  him  with 
some  asperity,  and  the  last  time  he  called  at 
Queen's  square  place,  refused  to  see  him.  This 
coolness  much  affected  Dumont,  who  retained 
bis  reverence  for  Bentham  to  the  last. 

DUMONT  D'URVILLE,  Jules  Sebastien 
Cesar,  a  French  admiral  and  navigator,  born 
in  Conde-sur-Noireau,  May  23,  1790,  died  May 
8,  1842.  In  1816  he  visited  the  Grecian  archi- 
pelago and  the  shore.s  of  the  Black  sea,  collected 
a  number  of  new  plants,  of  which  he  afterward 
published  descriptions,  and  investigated  the 
ruins  of  several  ancient  cities.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  at  his  suggestion  that  the  French 
ambassador  at  Constantinople  purchased  the 
statue  of  Venus  of  Milo,  which  a  peasant  had 
lately  found  in  his  field.  In  1822  he  accompa- 
nied Duperrey  in  his  voyage  round  the  world, 
and  returned  in  1825,  bringing  a  rich  collection 
of  insects,  and  a  herbarium  containing  3,000 
specimens,  about  400  of  which  were  new.  Soon 
after,  being  appointed  to  the  command  of  a 
frigate,  he  was  sent  upon  a  new  expedition  to 
explore  the  Australian  archipelago  and  the  isl- 
ands of  New  Zealand  and  New  Guinea.  He 
discovered  several  islands  which  Cook  had  not 
perceived,  established  the  locality  of  the  Loyalty 
isles,  and  brought  home  over  4,000  sketches  of 
Bcenery  and  natural  history,  10,000  specimens 


of  various  kinds  of  animals,  and  more  than  6,00G 
species  of  plants.  He  Avas  living  in  retirement, 
engaged  in  writing  the  account  of  his  voyages, 
wlicn  the  revolution  of  July  broke  out,  and  he 
was  cliosen  to  conduct  the  unfortunate  Charles 
X.  to  England.  In  1837  lie  undertook,  with  the 
sloops  of  war  Astrolabe  and  Zelee,  his  third  and 
last  voyage,  with  the  design  of  exploring  the 
antarctic  regions,  and  before  his  return  circum- 
navigated the  globe  through  the  southern  seas. 
He  brouglit  back  vast  collections  illustrative  of 
botany,  zoology,  and  mineralog3\  He  landed 
at  Toulon  after  an  absence  of  38  months,  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  rear  admiral,  and  went 
to  Paris  to  superintend  the  publication  of  the 
account  of  this  voyage  at  the  expense  of  the 
government.  Only  the  2d  volume  was  publish- 
ed, when  the  author  was  killed,  with  his  wife 
and  son,  in  the  great  railway  disaster  on  the  lino 
of  Paris  and  Versailles.  The  whole  work  was 
completed  under  the  supervision  of  M.  Vincen- 
don-Dumoulin,  in  24  vols.  8vo.,  w'ith  6  folio  vols, 
of  illustrations  (Paris,  1841-54).  The  depart- 
ments of  zoology,  botany,  anthropology,  geolo- 
gy, &c.,  were  treated  by  special  writers  attached 
to  the  expedition. 

DUMOURIEZ,  Charles  FEANgois,  a  French 
general,  born  in  Cambray,  Jan.  25,  1739,  died 
in  Buckinghamshire,  England,  March  14,  1823. 
He  served  with  great  distinction  and  was  fre- 
quently wounded  during  the  7  years'  war,  but  his 
only  reward  was  a  pension  of  600  livres  a  year 
and  the  cross  of  St.  Louis.  Impatient  of  an  inac- 
tive life,  he  engaged  in  the  war  and  intrigues 
which  brought  on  the  annexation  of  Corsica  to 
France,  and  would  possibly  have  prevented  the 
partition  of  Poland,  if  his  protector  Choiseul  had 
not  been  dismissed  from  power.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Louis  XVI.  he  was  put  in  command  at 
Cherbourg,  where  important  improvements  were 
accomplished  under  his  direction.  In  1788  he  was 
appointed  brigadier-general.  During  the  first 
years  of  the  revolution,  he  managed  to  maintain 
friendly  intercourse  with  the  court  while  gaining 
popularity  with  the  revolutionists.  A  member 
of  the  club  of  Jacobins,  and  on  very  good  terms 
with  the  Girondists,  he  assumed  in  March,  1792, 
the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs  in  the  cabinet  form- 
ed by  the  latter.  His  counsels  displeased  the 
king;  he  also  disagreed  with  his  colleagues,  who 
w^ere  (^smissed,  and  he  himself  resigned.  Assum- 
ing, Aug.  20, 1792,  command  of  the  French  army 
on  the  N.  E.  frontier,  then  invaded  by  the  Prus- 
sians under  the  duke  of  Brunswick-,  he  succeeded 
by  a  series  of  brilliant  operations  in  stopping  the 
advance  of  the  enemy,  who  Avei'e  defeated,  Sept. 
21,  at  Valmy,  and  forced  to  retreat.  He  now 
crossed  the  frontier,  routed  the  Austrians  at 
Jemmapes,  Nov.  6,  took  possession  of  Brussels, 
and  within  one  month  completed  the  conquest 
of  Belgium.  In  the  beginning  of  Jan.  1793,  he 
repaired  to  Paris,  entered  into  secret  negotia- 
tions for  the  rescue  of  the  king,  which  soon 
transpired,  and  he  was  denounced  but  not  de- 
prived of  his  commission.  He  now  planned  the 
conquest  of  Holland ;  but  having  been  defeated 


duna 


DUNCAN 


671 


at  Neuwindcn,  ^^farch  18,  1793,  by  the  duke  of 
Ooburg,  ho  plotted,  in  concert  with  the  enemy, 
the  overthrow  of  the  repubHc.  The  convention 
then  summoned  him  to  appear  at  their  bar,  and 
on  his  refusal  the  minister  of  war,  Beurnouville, 
and  4  commissaries  were  sent  to  arrest  him  in  the 
midst  of  his  own  army.  Dumouriez  had  them 
seized  by  some  of  liis  hussars  and  deUvered  to 
the  Austrians;  but  lie  had  mistaken  the  senti- 
ments of  Iiis  own  troops,  and  no  alternative  was 
left  him  but  to  desert  his  army  and  country. 
This  ho  did  in  company  with  the  young  duke 
of  Ciiartres,  the  future  king  Louis  riiilippc,  the 
indignant  soldiers  firing  at  them  while  they 
escaped.  lie  was  coldly  received  by  the  Aus- 
trians, who  looked  for  a  powerful  army  and  not 
a  lonely  fugitive.  After  wandering  through 
Belgium,  Switzerland,  Germany,  Denmark,  and 
Russia,  he  finally  repaired  to  England,  where, 
in  consideration  of  somo  secret  services,  he  re- 
ceived a  pension  of  £1,200.  lie  then  published 
his  Memoires  and  a  series  of  pamphlets  on  the 
affairs  of  France.  He  is  reported  to  have  had 
a  large  share  in  devising  the  plans  of  mili- 
tary operations  against  the  French  armies ;  and 
"Wellington  studied  with  advantage  his  annota- 
tions to  the  translation  of  Ilagner's  "  Campaigns 
of  Schomberg  in  Portugal,"  in  which  he  pointed 
out  the  best  means  of  opposing  the  French  in 
the  peninsula.  He  is  positively  charged  by 
Montgaillard  with  having  in  1814  given  direc- 
tions to  the  allied  armies  for  the  invasion  of 
France.  However  this  may  be,  he  did  not  succeed 
in  conciliating  the  favor  of  the  Bourbons,  and 
vainly  solicited  from  Louis  XVIIL  a  marshal's 
baton,  lie  never  returned  to  France. — See  La 
vie  et  les  memoires  dii  general  Dumouriez,  by 
himself  (3  vols.  8vo.,  Hamburg,  1795). 

DUNA,  or  SouTixERX  Dwina,  an  important 
river  of  Russia.  It  rises  near  the  source  of  the 
Volga  in  the  government  of  Tver,  flows  about 
500  m.  with  a  very  circuitous  course,  but  Avith 
a  general  "W.  direction,  separating  the  govern- 
ments of  Vitebsk  and  Livonia  on  the  right  from 
Wilna  and  Coui-land  on  the  left,  and  discharges 
into  the  guLf  of  Riga  near  the  town  of  the  same 
name.  Its  waters  abound  in  fish,  and  the  river 
is  deep  enough  to  be  navigable  for  the  greater 
part  of  its  length,  but  is  obstructed  by  rocks  and 
shoals.  It  is  connected  by  canals  with  the  Vol- 
ga, the  Beresina,  the  Niemen,  and  Lake  Ilmen. 

DUNBAR,  a  small  seaport  town  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of  Hadding- 
ton, at  the  mouth  of  the  firth  of  Forth,  28  m. 
E.  from  Edinburgh;  pop.  in  1851,  3,038.  It 
has  manufactories  of  soap,  iron,  steam  engines, 
sail  cloth,  and  cordage,  and  some  trade.  Vessels 
of  300  tons  can  enter  the  harbor,  but  the  navi- 
gation is  somewhat  dangerous.  Dunbar  is  a 
place  of  great  antiquity,  and  its  castle,  now  in 
ruins,  was  formerly  a  famous  stronghold.  It  has 
■  been  the  sceire  of  many  interesting  events  in 
history.  In  129G  the  Scots  were  defeated  here 
wdth  great  slaughter  by  the  English  army  of 
Edward  I.  In  1337,  Black  Agnes,  countess  of 
Dunbar,  defended  the  castle  for  nearly  5  months 


against  the  carl  of  Salisbury.  Another  import- 
ant battle  was  fought  near  this  town  in  1650 
between  Cromwell  with  11,000  men  and  Gen. 
Lesley  at  the  liead  of  a  Scottish  army  twice  as 
large,  in  which  the  latter  was  decisively  defeated. 

DUNBAR,  William,  an  early  Scotch  poet, 
l)ronounced  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  "  unrivalled  by 
any  that  Scotland  has  ever  produced,"  born  in 
Salton  about  14(10,  died  about  1520.  He  received 
the  degree  of  master  of  arts  from  the  univer- 
sity of  St.  Andrew's  in  1479,  and  then  becom- 
ing a  friar  of  the  Franciscan  order  he  travelled 
over  England  and  France,  occasionally  preach- 
ing and  receiving  alms,  and  deriving  a  preca- 
rious sustenance,  as  lie  himself  admitted,  by 
deceit  and  flattery.  Weary  of  this  errant  life, 
he  returned  to  Scotland,  was  received  at  the 
court  of  James  IV.,  and  delighted  his  royal 
master  with  his  poetical  compositions,  and  j)rob- 
ably  also  with  the  charms  of  his  conversation, 
in  which  he  revealed  both  his  native  wit  and 
his  knowledge  of  mankind.  His  poems  show  a 
mastery  of  almost  every  kind  of  verse.  Somo 
of  them  were  printed  in  1508 ;  many  remained 
for  2  centuries  in  manuscript,  but  their  fame 
has  steadily  increased  since  their  publication  at 
Edinburgh  and  Perth  in  1770  and  1778.  The 
"  Thistle  and  Rose  "  was  a  nuptial  song  to  cele- 
brate the  marriage  of  King  James  IV.  with  the 
princess  Margaret  of  England.  The  "  Dance  " 
is  a  strangely  imaginative  poem,  in  wliicli  Ma- 
houn  (a  name  of  Satan,  derived  from  Moham- 
med) asks  his  principal  ministers  to  entertain 
him  with  a  mummery,  or  sort  of  ballet  spectacle ; 
whereupon  the  7  deadly  sins  present  themselves 
and  deliver  verses,  some  of  which  are  hardly  sur- 
passed in  strength  and  sublimity,  and  which  arc 
severe  criticisms  upon  the  vices  of  the  time. 
The  short  poem  of  the  "  Merle  and  Nightingale" 
is  a  striking  picture  of  the  contest  between 
earthly  and  spriritual  aftcctions,  the  merle  re- 
commending a  lusty  life  in  love's  service,  and 
the  nightingale  declaring  that  all  love  is  lost  but 
upon  God  alone.  All  the  poems  of  Dunbar 
abound  in  allegory.  A  complete  edition  of  them 
Avas  published  in  Edinburgh  in  1824  by  Mr. 
David  Laing,  with  an  excellent  life  of  the  poet. 

DUNCAN,  Adam,  lord  viscount  of  Camper- 
down,  an  English  admiral,  born  in  Dundee, 
July  1, 1731,  died  near  Edinburgh,  Aug.  4, 1804. 
He  entered  the  British  naval  service  at  an  early 
age,  and  was  promoted  to  a  post-captaincy  in 
1761.  He  distinguished  himself  under  Keppel 
in  the  successful  attack  upon  Havana,  and  after 
the  war  with  France  recommenced  he  was  in 
1780  placed  in  command  of  a  ship  under  Rod- 
ney, whose  orders  were  to  force  a  passage  to 
Gibraltar  through  whatever  impediments  and 
relieve  that  fortress,  tlien  attacked  by  the  Span- 
iards both  by  land  and  sea.  OtF  Cape  St.  Vincent 
Rodney  met  a  Spanish  squadron  under  com- 
mand of  Langara,  which  had  been  sent  to  inter- 
cept him,  and  in  the  engagement  which  ensued 
Duncan  signalized  his  valor  by  being  the  first  to 
bring  his  ship  into  action,  and  the  flag  of  one  of 
the  heaviest  of  the  enemy's  ships  was  struck  to 


672 


DUNCAiT 


DUOT)AS 


him.  In  1787  he  obtained  the  rank  of  rear 
admiral,  and  in  1795  became  admiral  of  the  blue, 
and  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Brit- 
ish forces  in  the  North  sea.  The  service  which 
Lis  position  required  of  him  was  to  guard  the 
coast  of  Holland  and  capture  any  merchant 
vessels  which  might  venture  to  sea,  and  in  this 
employment  within  2  years  he  had  annihilated 
tlie  Dutch,  or,  as  it  was  then  termed,  the  Bata- 
vian  commerce.  In  1797  he  succeeded  in  block- 
ading a  large  fleet  under  Vice-Admiral  De  "Winter 
in  the  Texel,  when  a  serious  mutiny  broke  out 
in  his  own  squadron.  Insubordination  had  be- 
come general  throughout  the  British  navy,  and 
the  ships  which  abandoned  the  fleet  of  Duncan 
joined  at  the  iSTore  other  mutinous  ships  from 
Plymouth  and  Sheeruess.  The  English  govern- 
ment trembled  for  its  navy ;  the  rebels  refused 
all  terms  of  accommodation,  and  Duncan  had  but 
2  ships  faithful  to  him.  Yet  when  he  advanced 
against  the  mutineers  with  even  this  force,  the 
dissensions  which  had  taken  place  among  them 
caused  several  of  their  ships  to  drop  the  red  flag 
and  return  to  their  duty,  and  the  sedition  was 
quickly  ended.  Duncan  then  resumed  the  block- 
ade of  the  Texel,  but  was  at  length  obliged  to 
put  into  Yarmouth  roads  for  repairs  and  provi- 
sions. There  intelligence  was  brought  to  him 
that  De  Winter,  the  Batavian  commander,  had 
availed  himself  of  his  absence  to  put  to  sea. 
The  English  admiral  immediately  weighed  an- 
chor and  set  sail,  and  with  a  favorable  wind  and 
by  a  masterly  manoeuvre  succeeded  in  placing 
himself  between  the  Dutch  and  their  place  of 
retreat  in  the  Texel,  and  thus  in  forcing  them 
to  an  engagement.  The  two  fleets  met  between 
Camperdown  and  Egmout,  within  5  m.  of  the 
coast.  De  Winter  was  drawing  fast  toward 
the  land,  with  the  design,  if  attacked,  to  bring 
both  fleets  ashore,  and  thus  to  make  it  a  vic- 
tory to  himself,  it  being  upon  his  own  coast. 
Duncan,  however,  began  the  action  precipitately, 
without  waiting  to  form  a  line,  and  the  purpose 
of  the  Batavian  vice-admiral  was  frustrated.  De 
"Winter  maintained  tlie  contest  for  some  time 
with  his  own  flag  ship  after  the  rest  of  his  fleet 
had  either  been  captured  or  had  quitted  the  ac- 
tion, and  struck  Ids  colors  only  when  his  ship  was 
entirely  di^^masted,  riddled,  and  disabled.  The 
loss  of  the  English  in  this  hard-fought  battle  was 
1,030  killed  and  wounded,  Avhile  that  of  the 
Dutch  was  considerably  greater.  The  English 
took  9  sail  of  the  line  and  2  frigates.  The  vic- 
tory created  the  utmost  enthusiasm  in  England, 
■where  it  was  hailed  as  a  presage  of  the  downfall 
of  the  maritime  power  of  Holland,  long  the 
most  formidable  rival  of  England  on  the  seas. 
Duncan  was  created  lord  viscount  of  Camper- 
down,  with  a  pension  of  £2,000;  parliament 
addressed  to  him  its  thanks,  and  London  voted 
him  a  sword  of  honor.  lie  remained  in  active 
service  against  tlie  Batavian  republic  till  1800, 
after  wliich  time  he  retired  to  Scotland. 

DUNCAN,  Joseph,  an  American  general  and 
politician,  born  in  Kentucky  about  1790,  died 
in  Jacksonville,  111.,  Jan.  15,  1844.    In  the  war 


of  1812  he  took  part  in  the  brilliant  defence  of 
Fort  Stephenson,  under  Col.  Croghan,  and  after 
the  close  of  the  war  he  removed  to  Illinois.  la 
1824  he  was  elected  to  the  senate  of  that  state, 
after  which  he  was  successively  representative 
in  congress  and  governor  of  Illinois.  "While  in 
the  state  legislature  he  originated  the  law  estab- 
lishing common  schools. 

DUNCAN,  Thomas,  a  Scottish  artist,  born  in 
Perthshire,  May  24,  1807,  died  in  Edinburgh, 
May  25, 1845.  His  paintings  gained  for  him  the 
appointment  of  professor  of  coloring  and  draw- 
ing in  the  academy  of  Edinburgh,  and  an  elec- 
tion as  associate  of  the  royal  academy.  His  pic- 
ture of  Charles  Edward  asleep  after  the  battle 
of  Culloden,  protected  by  Flora  Macdonald,  has 
been  frequently  engraved.  Among  the  finest 
of  his  other  pieces  are  "  Charles  Edward  and 
the  Highlanders  entering  Edinburgh,  after  the 
Battle  of  Prestonpans,"  and  the  "Martyrdom  of 
John  Brown  of  Priesthill." 

DUNDALK,  a  seaport  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
CO.  of  Louth,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Castletown 
river,  45  m.  N.  of  Dublin;  pop.  in  1851,  9,995. 
It  has  a  good  harbor  on  Dnndalk  bay,  contains 
a  number  of  schools  and  literary  and  benevolent 
institutions,  and  communicates  by  railway  with 
Drogheda  and  Dublin.  The  manufactures  com- 
prise flax  spinning,  machinery,  and  agricultural 
implements,  ropes,  soap,  leather,  pins,  and  starch ; 
and  there  are  also  flour  mills,  breweries,  and  dis- 
tilleries. Its  trade  is  important  and  increasing, 
especially  in  agricultural  products,  which  are 
largely  exported. 

DUNDAS,  an  E.  co.  of  Canada  West,  border- 
ing on  the  St.  Lawrence;  area,  377  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
in  1852,  13,811.     Capital,  Cornwall. 

DUNDAS,  Henby,  Viscount  MelviUe,  a  Brit- 
ish statesman,  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1741,  died 
there.  May  27,  1811.  He  was  of  the  ancient 
and  distinguished  family  of  the  Dnndases  of 
Arniston,  received  his  education  at  the  high 
school  and  university  of  Edinburgh,  was  ad- 
mitted a  member  of  the  faculty  of  advocates 
in  1768,  displayed  at  once  a  love  of  gayety 
and  dissipation  and  a  persevering  application 
to  professional  duties,  and  especially  availed 
himself  o^  every  opportunity  for  cultivating  his 
oratorical' powers,  speaking  frequently  as  a  lay 
member  in  the  annual  sittings  of  the  kirk  of 
Scotland,  Avhere  he  first  gave  signs  of  that 
manly  eloquence  and  address  which  afterward 
made  him  the  able  coadjutor  of  Pitt  in  man- 
aging the  house  of  commons.  His  celebrity 
as  an  advocate  gained  him  the  appointment  of 
solicitor-general  in  1773 ;  he  was  returned  to  the 
house  of  commons  for  the  county  of  Edinburgh 
in  1774,  and  was  made  lord  advocate  of  Scot- 
land in  1775.  He  was  subsequently  chosen 
member  of  parliament  for  the  city  of  Edinburgh, 
which  he  continued  to  represent  till  his  advance- 
ment to  the  peerage.  The  unpopularity  and 
disasters  of  the  American  war,  and  the  invec- 
tives of  an  opposition  probably  the  most  talent- 
ed ever  encountered  by  a  British  ministry,  soon 
made  the  fall  of  Lord  North's  administration 


DUNDAS 


673 


certain ;  and  tbough  Dundas  had  been  a  sup- 
porter of  that  nobleman,  Ids  famiharity  "witli 
affairs  made  hiui  a  valuablo  accession  to  tlie 
administrations  of  Ilockiughani  and  Shclburno, 
which  quickly  succeeded,  in  the  2d  of  which  ho 
]ield  the  office  of  treasurer  of  the  navy.  This 
ministry  was  obliged  to  give  way  before  the 
combined  opposition  of  Fox  and  Lord  Xorth, 
Avho,  after  haviug  for  7  years  nnitually  ridiculed 
and  denounced  each  other  as  rei)ublican  and 
absolutist,  came  togetlier  in  1783  to  form  tho 
celebrated  coalition  ministry,  the  opposition  to 
which  was  headed  by  Pitt  and  Dundas.  The 
latter  had  been  appointed  chairman  of  a  secret 
committee  of  tho  house  of  commons  to  inquire 
into  the  condition  of  British  India  and  the  causes 
of  the  war  in  the  Carnatic,  and  lie  now  made  an 
elaborate  report,  extending  to  several  folio  vol- 
mncs,  in  which  he  exhibited  a  complete  mastery 
of  the  subject,  and  which  ho  followed  up  by  a 
bill  for  the  better  regulation  of  Indian  affairs. 
Tlie  ministry,  however,  promisiug  to  bring  in  a 
bill  upon  the  same  subject,  Dundas  did  not  press 
his  own  proposals,  and  soon  the  ministerial 
pledge  was  redeemed  by  the  introduction  of  Mr. 
Fox's  famous  East  India  bill.  In  spite  of  the 
uncompromising  opposition  of  Pitt  and  Dundas, 
the  passage  of  this  bill  was  prevented  only  by 
the  firmness  of  the  king,  which  necessitated  the 
resignation  of  the  ministry.  Pitt  was  now  call- 
ed to  the  helm  of  affairs  with  a  majority  in  par- 
liament against  him.  He  was  powerfully  aided 
by  Dundas,  who  again  held  the  office  of  treas- 
urer of  the  navy,  and  in  Pitt's  absence  led  the 
ministerial  party  in  tho  house  of  commons, 
and  whose  dexterity  as  a  debater  and  minute 
acquaintance  with  Indian  matters  were  of  es- 
pecial value  in  carrying  Pitt's  India  bill  suc- 
cessfully through  parliament  against  a  very  se- 
rious opposition.  Dundas  became  president  of 
the  board  of  control  under  this  bill,  and  in  1791 
entered  the  cabinet  as  secretary  of  state  for  the 
home  department.  He  exchanged  this  post  for 
that  of  secretary  of  war  in  1794,  when  he  intro- 
duced a  bill  for  restoring  the  estates  in  Scotland 
forfeited  on  account  of  the  rebellion  of  1745 ; 
and  though  the  assigned  reason  for  this  measure 
was  the  valor  of  the  Scotch  in  the  recent  wars, 
it  was  also  most  expedient  as  a  means  of  recon- 
ciling the  population  beyond  the  Tweed  to  the 
reigning  family.  The  investigations  of  Dundas 
into  eastern  affairs  originated  those  discussions 
which  terminated  in  the  impeachment  of  War- 
ren Hastings;  but  though  his  information  on 
the  subject  was  perhaps  unsurpassed  by  that  of 
any  of  his  contemporaries,  he  neither  favored 
the  accusers  nor  vigorously  attempted  to  vin- 
dicate Mr.  Hastings  from  their  invectives.  He 
was  the  principal  supporter  of  Pitt  during  the 
wars  with  France  which  followed  the  revolu- 
tion, until  he  resigned  his  offices  upon  the  re- 
tirement of  that  statesman  in  1801,  and  on  that 
occasion  he  laid  before  parliament  a  favorable 
statement  of  the  condition  of  the  East  India 
company's  affairs.  In  1802  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  by  the  titles  of  Viscount  MelvUle 

TOL.   VI. — 43 


and  Baron  Duneira,  and  on  Mr.  Pitt's  return  to 
power  in  1804,  became  first  lord  of  the  admi- 
ralty. He  quickly  retired  from  this  office,  hav- 
ing incurred  a  charge  of  violating  while  treas- 
urer of  the  navy  one  of  the  statutes  which  ho 
himself  had  proposed,  by  which  tho  treasurer 
Avas  forbidden,  contrary  to  previous  custom,  to 
receive  any  perquisites  or  make  any  private  or 
individual  use  of  the  public  money.  The  arti- 
cles of  impeachment  were  prepared  by  the  most 
celebrated  leaders  of  tho  opposition,  and  the 
trial,  opened  in  the  house  of  lords,  April  29, 
180G,  was  conducted  with  imposing  pomp.  It 
resulted  in  the  acquittal  of  Lord  Melville  by  tri- 
umphant majorities,  yet  not,  however,  until  af- 
ter the  death  of  Pitt.  From  this  time  Lord 
Melville  took  part  only  occasionally  in  the  de- 
bates of  the  house  of  lords,  and  spent  the  most 
of  his  time  in  Scotland.  As  a  statesman  he  was 
distinguished  for  his  great  capacity  for  business 
and  his  mastery  of  the  subjectson  which  he  spoke. 
Though  his  manner  was  ungraceful  and  his  accent 
betrayed  his  northern  birth,  yet  his  clear  and 
forcible  statements  always  commanded  the  atten- 
tion of  the  house.  He  loved  society  and  convi- 
vial entertainments,  and  remembered  no  party 
distinctions  on  festive  occasions.  The  city  of 
Edinburgh  contains  2  public  monuments  to  his 
memory,  a  fine  marble  statue  by  Chantrey,  in  the 
parliament  house,  and  a  monument  surmounted 
by  a  statue  in  St.  Andrew's  square. — Robert 
SArxDEES,  Viscount  Melvdle,  a  British  states- 
man, only  son  of  the  preceding,  born  March  14, 
1771,  died  June  10,  1851.  Having  previously 
held  several  high  offices,  he  was  in  1812  ap- 
pointed first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  which  sta- 
tion he  filled  until  1827.  It  was  during  his 
administration  that  the  arctic  voyages  were  un- 
dertaken, and  the  navigators  bestowed  his  name 
upon  some  of  their  discoveries.  He  was  after- 
ward again  in  the  ministry  from  1828  to  1830, 
when,  his  party  having  been  driven  from  pow- 
er, he  retired  from  political  life.  Beside  his 
other  honors,  he  was  lord  privy  seal  for  Scot- 
land from  1811,  and  chancellor  of  the  university 
of  St.  Andrew's  from  1814,  until  his  death. 

DUNDAS,  Sir  James  Whitlet  Deaxs,  vice- 
admiral  in  the  British  navy,  born  Dec.  4,  1785. 
He  is  the  son  of  Dr.  James  Deans  of  Calcutta, 
and  assumed  the  names  of  Whitley  and  Dundas 
in  1808.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1799,  and  par- 
ticipated with  considerable  activity  in  the  naval 
operations  of  the  next  few  years,  receiving  his 
captain's  commission  in  1807.  He  has  been  a 
member  of  parliament  and  a  lord  of  the  admi- 
ralty. At  the  commencement  of  the  war  with 
Russia  he  was  in  command  of  the  British  fleet 
in  the  Black  sea,  and  cooperated  with  the  land 
forces  in  the  first  operations  against  Sebastopol. 
His  neglect  to  bombard  tho  city  of  Odessa,  and 
in  general  the  slowness  and  cautiousness  of  his 
movements,  were  the  subject  of  severe  criticism 
in  the  English  journals ;  and  upon  the  expiration 
of  his  term  of  service,  in  Dec.  1854,  he  was  suc- 
ceeded in  command  of  the  fleet  by  Rear-admiral 
Lyons. 


674 


DUNDAS 


DUNES 


DUNDAS,  Richard  Saunders,  rear  admiral 
in  the  Britisli  navy,  born  April  11,  1802.  He 
is  tbe  2d  sou  of  Henry  Dundas,  3d  viscount  Mel- 
ville ;  entered  the  naval  service  in  1817  as  a  mid- 
shipman, and  in  7  years  obtained  his  commission 
as  post-captain.  He  took  part  in  the  expedition 
against  China  in  1840,  and  in  command  of  the 
Melville,  72,  rendered  important  services  at 
Boca  Tigris  and  other  places.  From  1852  to 
1855  he  was  a  lord  of  the  admiralty,  and  upon 
the  return  of  Sir  Charles  Napier  from  the  Baltic 
during  the  war  with  Russia,  was  appointed,  in 
Feb.  1855,  to  succeed  him  in  the  command  of 
the  British  fleet  stationed  there.  In  conjunc- 
tion with  Admiral  Perraud  of  the  French  block- 
ading fleet  he  bombarded  Sweaborg,  Aug.  9, 
1855.  He  Avas  again  made  a  lord  of  the  admi- 
ralty on  the  accession  of  Lord  Derby's  govern- 
ment in  Feb.  1858. 

DUNDEE,  a  royal  and  parliamentary  borough 
and  seaport  town  of  Forfarshire,  Scotland,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  estuary  of  the  Tav,  42  m. 
N.  N.  E.  of  Edinburgh  ;  pop.  in  1851,"'78,931 ; 
in  1855,  estimated  at  90,000.  It  occupies  the 
declivity  of  a  hill,  whose  summit  is  500  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  rather  irregu- 
larly built.  The  modern  streets  are  spacious 
and  handsome.  The  principal  public  edifices 
are  the  churches,  which  are  very  numerous,  the 
old  Gothic  tower,  156  feet  high,  the  town  hall, 
custom  house,  exchange,  infirmary,  lunatic  asy- 
lum, industrial  school,  orphan  institution,  acad- 
emy, and  savings  bank.  In  the  centre  of  the 
town  is  a  large  square  called  the  market  place, 
from  which  the  principal  streets  diverge.  A  tri- 
umphal arch  in  the  Norman  style  of  architecture 
has  been  erected  to  commemorate  Queen  Victo- 
ria's landing  here  in  Sept.  1844.  Some  of  the 
docks  are  very  large  and  magnificent.  King  Wil- 
liam's dock  has  an  area  of  6|-  acres,  Earl  Grey's 
of  5|-  acres,  and  the  Victoria  dock  of  14^  acres. 
There  are  also  several  fine  quays,  capable  of  ac- 
commodating 70  vessels  with  ample  berthage, 
and  a  crane  near  the  Grey  dock  which  can  raise  a 
weight  of  30  tons.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
linen,  which  gives  employment  to  over  20,000 
hands,  carpets,  gloves,  and  leather.  Ship-build- 
ing, as  well  of  iron  as  of  wood,  is  also  extensively 
carried  on.  The  commerce  of  Dundee  is  very 
considerable.  In  1856  there  entered  its  port 
2,323  vessels  of  247,725  tons  burden,  and  cleared 
thence  895  vessels  of  124,701  tons  burden.  The 
registered  shipping  of  the  port  was  291  vessels 
of  54,705  tons.  It  is  governed  by  a  provost,  4 
baillies,  and  16  councillors,  and  returns  one 
member  to  parliament.  During  the  reign  of  the 
Scottish  kings  Dundee  was  one  of  their  places 
of  residence.  At  the  period  of  the  reformation 
it  was  called  "  the  second  Geneva"  for  its  zeal 
in  behalf  of  Protestantism,  In  1645  it  was 
besieged,  taken,  and  plundered  by  Montrose.  In 
1651  it  was  stormed  by  Gen.  Monk,  and  a  6th 
part  of  its  inhabitants  massacred. 

DUNDONALD,  Thomas  Cochrane,  earl  of, 
more  commonly  known  as  Lord  Cochrane,  an 
English  rear  admira^  born  Dec,  14,  1775.     He 


is  the  eldest  son  of  Archibald,  9th  earl  of  Dun- 
donald,  who  died  July  1,  1831,  and  who  was 
distinguished  as  a  chemist.  At  17  years  of 
age  he  entered  the  naval  service,  and  during  the 
war  with  France  signalized  himself  in  many 
actions.  Some  of  his  exploits  in  capturing  ves- 
sels against  great  odds  are  among  the  most  bril- 
liant achievements  in  the  history  of  the  British 
navy.  In  1801  he  was  made  a  post-captain,  for 
the  capture  of  a  Spanish  frigate  of  far  superior 
force  to  his  own.  In  1809  he  successfully  led  a 
fleet  of  fire  ships  among  the  French  fleet  at 
anchor  in  the  Basque  roads,  for  which  he  was 
made  a  knight  of  the  bath.  In  1807  he  was 
returned  to  parliament  by  the  electors  of  West- 
minster, and  soon  incurred  the  animosity  of  the 
government  by  his  radical  opinions  on  questions 
of  reform.  In  Feb.  1814,  a  rumor  prevailed 
that  Napoleon  had  abdicated,  and  Lord  Coch- 
rane took  advantage  of  the  rise  in  the  funds 
which  ensued  to  sell  out.  He  was  charged  with 
originating  a  false  rumor,  and  upon  trial  was 
convicted  of  fraud  and  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine 
of  £1,000,  to  stand  in  the  pillory,  and  be  im- 
prisoned for  a  year.  The  pillory  punishment 
was  subsequently  remitted.  He  was  at  the  same 
time  expelled  from  parliament,  and  degraded 
from  the  order  of  the  bath.  His  constituents, 
believing  in  his  innocence,  which  has  since  been 
fully  established,  immediately  returned  him  to 
parliament  again,  and  his  fine  was  paid  by  pub- 
lic subscription.  Finding  it  impossible  to  ob- 
tain employment  at  home,  he  attached  himself 
successively  to  the  Cbilian  and  Brazilian  navies 
and  to  th6  Greeks,  in  each  of  which  services  he 
earned  fresh  laurels.  In  1830,  on  the  accession 
of  William  IV.  and  a  whig  government,  he  re- 
turned to  England,  and  was  reinstated  in  all  his 
former  honors.  In  1851  he  became  admiral  of 
the  white,  and  in  1854  rear  admiral  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  Lord  Dundonald  is  a  man  of  con- 
siderable scientific  attainments,  and  the  author 
of  "Observations  on  Rural  Aflfairs"  (1847),  and 
of  "  Notes  on  the  Condition  of  the  British  West 
India  Islands"  (1851).  His  "  Narrative  of  Ser- 
vices.in  the  Liberation  of  Chili,  Peru,  and  Bra- 
zil" appeared  in  London  (2  vols.,  1858), 

DUNDRUM  BAY,  a  bay  of  the  Irish  sea,  on 
the  coast  of  the  co.  of  Down.  Its  entrance,  which 
lies  between  St.  John's  point  on  the  N.  E.  and 
the  Mourne  mountains  on  the  S.  W.,  is  about  10 
m.  Avide.  The  whole  bay  is  subject  to  heavy 
swells  during  S.  and  S,  K  winds.  Near  its  N, 
side  are  2  rocks  called  the  Cow  and  Calf,  con- 
nected with  the  mainland  by  a  reef.  The  steamer 
Great  Britain  was  run  ashore  here  in  1846. 

DUNES,  an  ancient  Saxon  word,  still  used 
in  England  to  designate  hills  of  sand  along 
the  coast  which  are  blown  together  by  the 
winds.  Such  accumulations  are  met  with  upon 
the  sandy  portions  of  the  coast  of  the  United 
States,  and  also  in  the  interior  along  the  shores 
of  the  great  lakes.  The  fine  sand  thrown  up 
by  the  waves  is  blown  when  dry  by  the  wind 
into  the  interior,  covering  the  surface  so  as  to 
prevent  all  vegetation.     In  the  department  of 


DUKFEKMLINE 


BUNKERS 


675 


Landcs  in  France,  the  fresli  quantity  of  sand 
thus  raised  ever}'  year  and  drifted  inland  is 
estimated  to  cover  an  area  of  3,000,000  square 
feet,  encroacliing  a  distance  of  T2  feet  each  year. 
At  this  rate,  in  1500  years  it  would  reach  Bor- 
deaux. Whole  villages  have  already  been  buried 
in  this  way.  Of  one  in  Brittany  only  a  part  of 
a  church  steeple  is  to  be  seen  above  the  sand. 
The  prevalence  of  strong  easterly  winds  may 
produce  similar  effects  upon  the  American  coast ; 
indeed,  precautions  are  already  taken  at  Prov- 
incetown  on  Cajjc  Cud  to  arrest  the  progress  of 
the  sands  from  the  eastward,  which  threaten  to 
fill  the  harbor  and  cover  the  town.  The  most  ef- 
ficient method  of  doing  this  is  by  planting  beach 
grass (ar undo  arenari(r,Lhm.),  which  thrives  in 
the  sand,  and  binds  it  together  by  its  roots, 
while  at  the  same  time  it  i)resents  a  barrier  to 
that  swept  along  by  the  wind.  The  height  of 
the  dunes  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan is  much  greater  than  of  those  upon  the  coast. 
At  Provincetown  they  hardly  exceed  GO  or  70 
feet  in  height,  Avhile  the  former  are  often  several 
hundred  feet  high.  Successful  attempts  to  check 
the  moving  of  tlic  sands  have  been  made  on  the 
coast  of  Gascony  by  sowing  in  the  finest  and 
most  shiftiug  of  them  the  seeds  of  the  broom 
(jjenista  scoparia)  mixed  with  those  of  the  sea 
pine  (2nmis  maritima).  The  spaces  sown  are 
covered  with  branches  of  trees  until  the  broom 
takes  root.  This  first  springs  up,  and  the  young 
pines  flourish  under  its  shelter.  The  pines  after 
some  years  are  made  profitable  by  their  yield  of 
tar,  beside  forming  a  barrier  against  the  further 
encroachment  of  the  sands. 

DUNFERMIJXE,  a  market  town  of  Eifeshire, 
Scotland,  16  m.  N.  W.  from  Edinburgh,  con- 
nected by  railway  with  the  latter  city,  with 
Glasgow,  and  the  other  large  towns  of  Scot- 
land; pop.  in  1851,  8,577.  The  houses  on  its 
principal  streets  are  generally  well  built,  many 
of  them  having  fine  gardens  attached  to  them ; 
and  as  seen  from  a  distance,  the  irregular  out- 
line of  the  town,  its  numerous  steeples  and 
prominent  buildings,  and  its  elevated  site,  give 
to  it  a  striking  appearance.  The  first  factory 
was  established  in  Dunfermline  in  1718,  and  it 
has  since  become  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
of  the  northern  manufacturing  towns.  The 
value  of  it>i  annual  manufactures  of  table  linen 
and  cotton  goods  is  estimated  at  £37-i,000.  It 
Las  nearly  4,000  looms  in  constant  operation.  Its 
finest  modern  edifice  is  the  abbey  church,  so 
called  because  it  is  built  upon  the  site  of  the 
ancient  church  of  the  abbey,  long  the  place  of 
sepulture  of  the  Scottish  kings,  and  which  was 
destroyed  at  the  reformation.  It  contains  be- 
neath its  pulpit  the  remains  of  Robert  Bruce, 
which  wei'e  discovered  encased  in  lead  in  di*g- 
ging  for  its  foundation.  Charles  I.  of  England 
"was  born  there. 

DUXGLISOX,  RoBLET,  LL.D.,  an  American 
physician  and  medical  writer,  professor  of  the  in- 
stitutes of  medicine  and  medical  jurisprudence 
in  Jefl:erson  medical  college,  Philadelphia,  born 
in  Keswick,  Cumberland,  England,  in  1 798.    He 


commenced  the  practice  of  medicine  in  London, 
but  a  few  years  later  he  came  to  the  United 
States,  and  in  1824  was  elected  professor  of 
medicine  in  the  university  of  Virginia,  which 
position  he  held  until  1833,  During  his  resi- 
dence at  the  university  he  enjoyed  the  friend- 
ship of  President  ifadison,  to  whom  he  dedi- 
cated his  "Human  Physiology,"  "in  testimony 
of  unfeigned  respect  for  his  talents  and  philan- 
throjjy,  and  of  gratitude  for  numerous  evidences 
of  friendship."  For  3  years  he  filled  the  chair 
of  materia  medica  and  therapeutics  in  the  uni- 
versity of  [NLaryland,  when  he  was  in  183G  elected 
to  the  professorship  in  the  Jefferson  medical 
college  which  he  has  ever  since  filled.  Dr. 
Dunglison  is  the  autlior  of  nearly  20  volumes, 
generally  treating  of  sul)jects  connected  with 
medical  science,  nearly  all  of  which  have  been 
well  received  by  the  profession,  and  some  of 
which  have  met  with  a  very  extended  sale. 
Among  these  last  may  be  mentioned  his  •'  Prin- 
ciples of  Human  Physiology"  (2  vols.  Svo.,  Phil- 
adelphia, 1832);  "Xew  Dictionary  of  Medical 
Science  and  Literature"  (2  vols.  8vo.,  Boston, 
1833) ;  "  General  Tlierapeutics  and  Materia  Med- 
dica"  (8vo.,  Philadelphia,  1836)  ;  *"  New  Reme- 
dies" (8vo.,  1839) ;  and  "Human  Health"  (rcw 
edition,  8vo.,  1844) ;  the  sale  of  which  has  been 
large  almost  beyond  precedent  for  works  of  this 
class.  They  have  been  introduced  as  text  books 
in  various  colleges. 

DUXKERS,  or  Tfxkees,  a  religious  denom- 
ination founded  in  1708,  in  Schwartzenau,  Ger- 
many, by  Alexander  Mack  and  7  others,  who, 
without  having  any  knowledge  of  the  existence 
of  other  Baptists,  were  led  by  reading  the  Bible 
to  the  rejection  of  pa;dobaptism.  The  name 
Dunker  or  Tunker  (from  the  German  tiirtl-eii,  to 
dip)  was  originally  given  them  as  a  nickname 
to  distinguish  them  from  the  Mennonites.  They 
are  also  called  Tumblers  from  their  mode  of 
baptism,  which  is  by  putting  the  person  while 
kneeling  head  first  under  water,  so  that  the  mo- 
tion resembles  the  act  of  tumbling.  They  are 
also  called  German  Baptists,  while  they  them- 
selves take  the  name  of  Brethren,  in  accordance 
with  Matt,  xxiii.  8 :  "  All  ye  are  brethren." 
In  Germany  they  established  two  societies  in 
addition  to  the  original  congregation,  but  these 
societies  were  soon  driven  by  persecution  to 
Crefeld  and  Holland,  while  the  congregation  re- 
moved voluntarily' to  Friesland.  Between  1719 
and  1729  they  all  emigrated  to  America,  to 
Avhich  the  denomination  has  since  been  confined. 
They  have  dispersed  themselves  through  almost 
every  state  of  the  Union,  and  are  most  numer- 
ous in  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  A^irginia,  Ohio, 
andlndiana.  Theynow  (1859)have52  churches, 
and  their  number  is  estimated  at  about  8,000. 
Their  church  government  is  nearly  the  same  as 
that  of  other  "Baptists,  except  that  every  bro- 
ther is  allowed  to  stand  up  in  the  congregation 
and  exhort.  "When  by  this  means  they  find  a  man 
apt  to  teach,  they  choose  him  to  be  their  min- 
ister, and  ordain  him  by  the  laying  on  of  hands, 
attended  with  fasting  and  prayer  and  giving  the 


676 


BUNKERS 


DUNKIRK 


right  hand  of  fellowship.  They  also  have  dea- 
cons, arid  aged  women  for  deaconesses.  From 
among  the  teachers  who  have  been  tried,  they 
choose  bishops.  An  elder  among  them  is,  in 
general,  the  first  or  oldest  chosen  teacher  in  a 
congregation  which  has  no  bishop.  Their  an- 
nnal  meeting,  which  is  held  about  Whitsuntide, 
is  attended  by  the  bishops,  teachers,  and  other 
representatives  chosen  by  the  congi-egations. 
The  important  cases  brought  before  these  meet- 
ings are,  in  general,  decided  by  a  committee  of 
5  of  the  oldest  bishops.  They  use  great  plain- 
ness of  dress  and  language,  like  the  society  of 
Friends  ;  and,  Hke  them,  they  neither  take  oaths 
nor  fight.  They  will  not  go  to  law,  and  until 
lately  the  taking  of  interest  on  money  was  not 
allowed  among  them.  They  celebrate  the  Lord's 
supper,  with  its  accompanying  usages  of  love 
feasts,  the  washing  of  feet,  the  kiss  of  charity, 
and  the  right  hand  of  fellowship.  They  anoint 
the  sick  Avith  oil  for  recovery,  and  use  trine 
immersion,  with  laying  on  of  hands  and  prayer, 
even  while  the  person  baptized  is  in  the  water. 
They  believe  in  general  redemption,  though  it  is 
with  them  not  an  article  of  faith ;  but  they  deny 
that  they  are  Universalists. — From  the  Dunkers, 
as  a  sect,  must  be  distinguished  tlie  Seventh 
Day  Dunkers,  also  called  the  German  Seventh 
Day  Baptists.  They  were  established  by  Conrad 
Beissel,  a  native  of  Germany,  who  had  been 
educated  for  the  ministry  at  Halle.  "When  a 
member  of  the  Dunk)?r  society  at  Miihlbach 
(Mill  Creek),  in  Lancaster  co..  Pa.,  he  pubhshed 
(1725)  a  tract,  to  prove  that  the  seventh  day, 
and  not  the  first  day,  was  established  by  Je- 
hovah for  ever  as  the  sabbath.  This  created 
some  disturbance  in  the  society  at  Mill  Creek, 
upon  which  he  retired  from  the  settlement  and 
went  secretly  to  a  hermitage  on  the  banks  of  the 
Oocalico.  Having  been  discovered,  and  joined 
by  many  of  the  society  at  Mill  Creek,  who 
settled  around  him  in  isolated  cottages,  the  first 
community  of  Seventh  Day  Dunkers  was  estab- 
lished in  1728.  In  1733  a  monastic  society  was 
established,  constituting,  with  the  buildings  sub- 
sequently erected  by  the  community,  the  irregu- 
lar enclosed  village  of  Ephrata.  The  habit  of 
the  capuchins  or  white  friars  was  adopted  by 
both  the  brethren  and  sisters.  Monastic  names 
were  given  to  all  who  entered  the  cloister.  In 
1740  there  were  86  single  brethren  in  the  clois- 
ter and  35  sisters,  and  at  one  time  the  society, 
including  the  members  living  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, numbered  nearly  300.  The  property 
which  belonged  to  the  society  by  donation,  and 
the  labor  of  the  single  brethren  and  sisters,  were 
common  stock ;  but  none  were  obliged  to  throw 
in  their  own  property  or  give  up  any  of  their 
possessions.  They  considered  celibacy  a  virtue, 
but  never  required  it,  nor  did  they  take  any 
vows  in  reference  to  it.  "When  two  wished  to 
be  joined  in  wedlock,  they  were  aided  by  the 
society.  In  the  earlier  days  the  idea  of  a  uni- 
versal restoration  existed  among  them ;  but  it 
has  never  been  taught  as  an  article  of  faith,  and 
Is  always  approached  with  great  caution.   They 


attracted  the  attention  of  the  Penn  family, 
one  of  whom  had  a  tract  of  5,000  acres  of  land 
near  Ephrata  conveyed  to  them,  which  they 
however  refused  to  accept.  About  1740,  some 
40  years  before  the  present  general  system  of 
Sunday  school  instruction  was  introduced  Ijy 
Robert  Raikes,  Ludwig  Hcecker  (Brother  Obed) 
established  a  Sunday  school  which  was  main- 
tained for  upward  of  30  years.  After  1777 
the  society  at  Ephrata  began  to  decline,  and  of 
the  peculiar  features  of  the  early  Seventh  Day 
Dunkers  few  traces  are  now  to  be  found  there. 
A  branch  of  the  society  was  established  in  1758 
at  the  Bermudian  creek,  in  York  co.,  Penn.,  of 
which  likewise  but  littleisleft.  Another  branch, 
established  in  1703  at  Bedford,  still  flourishes. 
Their  principal  settlement  is  now  at  Snowhill, 
on  the  Antietam  creek,  in  Franklin  co.,  Penn. 

DUNKIRK  (Fr.  DunTcerqnc)^  the  most  north- 
ern town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Nord, 
on  the  strait  of  Dover,  connected  by  railway 
with  Paris  and  Brussels ;  lat.  51°  2'  N.,  long. 
2°  22'  E. ;  pop.  in  1856,  26,531.  It  is  a  flour- 
ishing place,  with  an  active  commerce  and  man- 
ufactories of  soap,  beet  root  sugar,  leather,  and 
starch,  beside  iron  works  and  yards  for  ship- 
building. Its  fisheries  are  also  important,  es- 
pecially those  of  cod  and  herring,  and  the  town 
contains  many  public  buUdings,  including  the 
town  hall  built  in  1642,  the  church  of  St.  Eloi, 
a  high  bell  tower,  hospitals,  prisons,  &c.  The 
port  is  shallow,  but  the  roadstead  is  good,  and 
the  progress  of  the  commerce  of  the  town  since 
it  was  made  a  free  port  in  1826  has  been  rapid. 
Its  origin  is  stated  to  have  been  a  chapel  founded 
by  St.  Eloi  in  the  7th  century,  around  which  a 
number  of  fishing  huts  were  erected,  which 
gradually  grew  into  a  town  of  some  importance. 
Charles  V.  defended  it  with  a  castle,  which  has 
since  been  demolished.  It  was  afterward  taken 
by  the  English,  who  lost  it  again  in  1558  ;  and 
in  1559  it  was  acquired  from  the  French  by  the 
Spaniards,  whom  the  duke  of  Enghien  (after- 
ward the  renowned  Conde)  drove  out  in  1646. 
It  passed  again  into  the  hands  of  Spain  soon 
afterward,  and  was  once  moi-e  taken  by  the 
French  in  1 658,  who  gave  it  up  to  Cromwell  in 
accordance  with  a  previous  treaty.  Charles  II. 
sold  it  to  France  in  1662 ;  Louis  XIV.  strength- 
ened its  defences ;  the  English  made  an  ineflect- 
nal  attempt  to  bombard  it  in  1 695 ;  after  the 
peace  of  Utrecht  its  fortifications  were  disman- 
tled and  its  port  was  filled  up,  and  these  having 
been  restored  were  again  demolished  at  the 
peace  of  Aix  la  Chapelle,  and  again  repaired  in 
1783.  Ten  years  later  it  withstood  a  siege  by 
the  duke  of  York.  Entrances  in  1855,  1,239 
vessels,  tonnage  124,815 ;  clearances,  1,320  ves- 
sels, tonnage  117,998. 

DUNKIRK,  a  post  village  of  Pomfret  town- 
ship, Chautauque  co.,  N.  Y. ;  pop.  in  1855, 4,754. 
It  is  a  place  of  considerable  importance,  remark- 
able for  its  beautiful  situation,  its  commercial 
advantages,  and  its  rapid  growth.  It  stands  on 
rising  ground  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  and 
has  an  excellent  harbor,  protected  by  a  break- 


DUNKUN 


DUNNING 


677 


water.  It  is  a  port  of  refngo  for  the  lake  vessela 
duriug  bad  weather,  and  possesses  the  advan- 
tage of  l)eing  free  from  ice  earlier  in  the  spring 
than  Buffalo,  At  the  western  extremity  of  the 
bay  of  Dunkirk  is  a  lightliouse,  and  at  the  main 
channel  a  beacon  liglit  has  Leon  placed.  Dun- 
kirk has  easy  communication  with  both  cast 
and  west,  and  its  central  position  makes  it  a 
depot  for  the  trade  of  a  great  extent  of  country. 
Hence,  though  incorporated  only  in  1837,  it  is 
already  a  flourishing  commercial  town,  with 
every  prospect  of  becoming  in  the  course  of  a 
few  years  one  of  the  principal  ports  on  Lake 
Erie.  Dunkirk  is  the  "W,  terminus  of  one  di- 
vision of  the  New  York  and  Erie  railroad,  and 
communicates  with  Cleveland,  Toledo,  Chicago, 
&c.,  by  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  southern 
railroad  lines. 

DUNKLIN,  a  S.  E.  co.  of  Mo.,  bordering  on 
Ark.,  bounded  AV.  by  the  St.  Francis  river,  in- 
tersected by  Castor  river,  and  having  Lake 
Pemiscot  on  its  E.  border ;  area,  about  700  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1856,  2,G1G,  of  whom  56  were  slaves. 
The  surface  is  occupied  in  great  part  by  prairies 
and  extensive  swamps,  but  the  soil  is  generally 
fertile  where  not  overflowed.  Efforts  have 
been  made  to  reclaim  the  sunken  lands,  and  in 
1850  an  appropriation  for  that  purpose  was 
made  by  the  state  legislature.  In  1811  and  1812 
this  and  tlie  surrounding  counties  suffered  se- 
ver^ from  earthquakes.  Grain  and  live  stock 
are  the  principal  articles  of  export,  and  the  pro- 
ductions in  1850  amounted  to  77,360  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  and  2,776  of  oats.  There  was  1 
church,  1  newspaper  office,  and  80  pupils  at- 
tending public  schools.  The  county  was  named 
in  honor  of  Daniel  Dunklin,  former  governor  of 
Missouri,     Capital,  Kenuet. 

DUNLAP,  William,  an  American,  painter 
and  author,  born  in  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  Feb. 
19,  1766,  died  Sept.  28,  1839.  In  his  17th  year 
he  began  to  paint  portraits,  and  in  the  summer 
of  1783  executed  one  of  Washington.  The  next 
spring  he  went  to  London,  and  for  several  years 
was  a  pupil  of  Benjamin  West.  On  his  return 
to  America  he  attempted  to  paint  portraits,  but 
with  such  indifferent  success  that  after  2  years 
he  embarked  in  business  with  his  father  in  New 
York.  In  1805  he  rented  the  New  York  thea- 
tre, and  in  a  short  time  became  bankrupt. 
Thenceforth  his  life  was  alternately  devoted  to 
painting,  to  literary  enterprises,  to  the  career 
of  a  theatrical  manager,  and  to  other  miscella- 
neous pursuits.  At  the  age  of  51  only,  after 
repeated  failures,  he  became  permanently  a 
painter,  though,  in  spite  of  considerable  merit, 
he  was  never  very  successful  pecuniarily.  lie 
executed  a  series  of  pictures  on  subjects  pre- 
viously selected  by  West  and  somewhat  after 
his  style,  which  were  exliibited  in  various  parts 
of  the  United  States.  He  was  also  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  New  York  academy  of  design. 
His  "History  of  the  American  Theatre,"  pub- 
lished in  1832,  and  ."  Arts  of  Design  in  the 
United  States,"'  are  standard  works  of  much  in- 
terest.    He  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  plays, 


of  a  biography  of  Charles  Brockden  Brown,  and 
of  a  ''  History  of  the  New  Netherlands"  (2  vols. 
Svo.,  1840). 

DUNMOW  BACON.  At  Dunmow,  in  Essex, 
England,  any  married  couple  who  for  a  year 
and  a  day  have  neither  quarrelled  nor  offended 
each  other  in  any  way,  nor  repented  in  thought 
either  sleeping  or  waking  of  their  marriage, 
"but  conliiuied  true  and  just  in  desire  as  when 
they  joined  hands  in  the  holy  quire,"  may  by 
appearing  and  taking  oath  to  the  same  have  de- 
livered to  them  as  of  riglit,  according  to  ancient 
custom,  a  gammon  of  bacon.  The  claimants  for 
the  bacon  take  a  metrical  oath  and  receive  a 
metrical  charge  kneeling  in  the  church  yard 
upon  2  hard-pointed  stones,  after  which  they 
are  received  in  a  chair  upon  men's  shoulders, 
and  carried  round  the  site  of  the  priory,  and 
from  the  church  to  the  house,  with  drums,  min- 
strels, and  various  music,  and  the  gammon  of 
bacon  borne  upon  a  high  pole  before  them,  at- 
tended by  the  steward,  gentlemen,  and  officers 
of  the  manor  carrying  wands,  and  by  a  jur}-  of 
bachelors  and  maidens,  being  6  of  each  sex, 
walking  two  and  two,  and  by  a  great  multitude 
of  other  people.  In  1751  the  bacon  was  claimed 
for  the  6th  time  only  since  the  origin  of  the 
custom  in  the  12th  century,  and  the  ceremony 
on  this  occasion  was  the  subject  of  a  drawing 
by  David  Ogborne.  After  an  interval  of  over 
100  years  the  custom  was  revived  in  1855 
through  the  instrumentality  of  the  novelist 
Harrison  Ainsworth,  two  couples  receiving  the 
bacon,  in  the  presence  of  about  7,000  people. 
The  ceremony  took  place  again  in  1857,  and  in 
1859  three  couples  appeared  to  claim  this  reward 
of  virtue.  The  Dunmow  flitch  is  referred  to  in 
Langlande's  "Vision  of  Piers  Ploughman," 
and  Chaucer's  "  Wife  of  Bath's  Prologue." 

DUNNING,  Jonx,  Lord  Ashburton,  an  Eng- 
lish lawver,  born  in  Ashburton,  Devonshire, 
Oct.  18, '1731,  died  in  Exmouth,  Aug.  18,  1783. 
His  father  was  an  attorney  at  Ashburton,  and 
he  entei-ed  his  father's  office  as  a  clerk  when 
only  about  13  years  old.  At  the  age  of  19  he 
went  to  London,  where  he  studied  law  for  some 
years,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1756. 
For  a  long  time  after  this  young  Dunning  ol>- 
tained  but  verj*  little  practice ;  but,  having  been 
employed  in  1762  to  draw  up  the  defence  of 
the  English  merchants  against  the  Dutcli  East 
India  company,  he  gained  much  reputation, 
which  was  soon  afterward  increased  by  the  able 
manner  in  which  he  conducted  the  case  of  Wilkes, 
and  he  ultimately  became  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent lawyers  of  his  time.  In  1768  he  was  elected 
to  parliament,  where  he  sat  in  the  house  of  com- 
mons until  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  shortly 
before  his  death.  In  1770  he  resigned  his  office 
of  solicitor-general  in  consequence  of  the  retire- 
ment of  his  patron,  Lord  Shelburne.  He  was 
a  strong  opponent  of  the  administration  during 
most  of  the  American  war ;  but  his  reputation 
as  a  politician  is  tarnished  by  his  course  in  ac- 
cepting a  pension  of  £4,000  a  year  after  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage,  although  he  had  pre- 


678 


DUNNOTTAR 


DUNSTAN 


viously  objected  to  the  needless  and  burdensome 
amount  of  tlie  pension  list.  In  person  he  had 
Tuany  disadvantages,  being  short  and  thick-set, 
with  a  turned-up  nose  and  sallow  face.  lie  had 
also  a  hectic  cough,  which  often  interrupted  his 
speech,  and  his  action  and  bearing  were  unpre- 
possessing and  awkward.  Yet  in  spite  of  these 
defects,  his  eloquence,  lively,  fresh,  and  impetu- 
ous, carried  all  before  it.  lie  received  many 
honors  during  his  life,  was  chosen  recorder  of 
Bristol  in  17(36,  solicitor-general  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lan- 
caster in  1782. 

DUNXOTTAPv,  a  parish  in  the  co.  of  Kin- 
cardine, on  the  shore  of  the  North  sea,  Scotland, 
noted  for  its  castle,  now  half  in  ruins,  which 
stands  on  the  summit  of  a  ^jcrpendicular  cliff, 
projecting  into  the  se.a.  Sir  William  Wallace  cap- 
tured it  in  1296,  at  which  period  it  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  strongest  places  in  the  kingdom ; 
and  in  view  of  its  capability  of  sustaining  a  pro- 
tracted siege,  the  privy  council  selected  it  during 
the  wars  of  the  commonwealth  as  the  deposi- 
tory of  the  regalia  of  Scotland.  It  was  defended 
long  and  faithfully,  after  every  other  fortress  in 
Britain  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  "the  pro- 
tector, but  was  finally  forced  to  surrender.  The 
Scottish  crown,  however,  had  meanwhile  been 
privately  conveyed  avray  and  concealed  in  the 
church  of  Kineff.  In  1685  Dunnottar  castle  be- 
came the  prison  of  many  of  the  Covenanters. 
After  the  rebel-lion  of  1715  it  was  dismantled. 

DUiSTOIS,  Jean,  comte  de,  a  French  soldier, 
born  about  1402,  died  Nov.  24,  1468.  The  nat- 
ural son  of  Louis,  duke  of  Orleans,  the  brother 
of  Charles  VI.,  he  early  gained  warlike  distinction 
under  the  appellation  of  the  bastard  of  Orleans. 
In  1427,  in  conjuuction  with  the  celebrated  La- 
hire,  he  raised  the  siege  of  Montargis,  then  beset 
by  the  English.  In  1429  he  threw  himself  into 
Orleans,  which  was  hard  pressed  by  a  powerful 
army  under  the  earl  of  Salisbury ;  by  his  energy 
and  daring  he  upheld  the  spirit  of  the  troops 
and  citizens  until  they  were  relieved  by  Joan 
of  Arc.  Dunois  then  became  a  faithful  follower 
of  the  heroine,  sharing  in  all  her  exploits,  and 
particularly  in  her  victory  at  Patay,  wl^re  the 
English  were  signally  routed.  The  death  of 
Joan  seems  to  have  inspired  him  with  a  still 
more  fervent  desire  of  serving  his  country 
against  the  invaders.  In  1432  he  recovered 
the  city  of  Chartres  by  a  bold  and  well  devised 
stratagem ;  and  in  1436  he  was  one  of  the  gen- 
erals who  marched  into  Paris,  to  help  the  citi- 
zens in  driving  out  the  English.  Several  meas- 
ures adopted  by  the  government  of  Charles 
YII.  being  obnoxious  to  the  nobles,  Dunois  in 
1440  took  part  in  the  rebellion  headed  by  the 
dauphin,  and  known  as  La  Praguerie ;  but  he 
soon  became  reconciled  with  the  king,  and  in 
1449,  when  the  war  was  resumed  in  earnest 
against  the  English,  ho  received  the  title  of 
Jieutenant-general  of  the  king,  and  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  principal  force  destined  for 
the  invasion  of  Normandy.  In  less  than  one 
year,  chiefly  by  his  activity,  skill,  and  prudence, 


all  the  cities,  towns,  and  fortresses  of  Normandy 
were  recovered.  In  1451  Ije  led  his  victorious 
army  into  Guieitne,  stormed  the  town  of  Blaye 
on  the  Gironde,  and  within  3  montlis  completed 
the  conquest  of  that  province,  Bordeaux  includ- 
ed, Avhich  for  300  years  had  been  in  the  hands 
of  the  English  kings.  Nothing  was  now  left 
them  on  the  continent  except  the  city  of  Calais 
and  its  vicinity.  As  a  reward  for  his  services, 
Dnnois  was  appointed  grand  chamberlain  to  the 
king.  After  the  accession  of  Louis  XL,  ho 
was  deprived  of  some  of  his  offices,  and  joined 
in  1464  the  rebellious  league  of  the  great  lords, 
which  assumed  the  name  of  "league  of  the 
public  weal,"  and  on  the  conclusion  of  the  peace 
at  Conflans,  received  his  former  offices  and  dig- 
nities, and  various  other  honors. 

DUNS  SCOTUS,  Joira,  a  scholastic  theologian 
of  the  13th  century,  born  probably  in  Dunse,  Ber- 
wickshire, Scotland,  in  1274,  died  in  Cologne  in 
1308.  He  was  graduated  at  Oxford,  entered  the 
order  of  St.  Francis,  and  taught  theology  and  phi- 
losophy first  at  Oxford,  where  the  number  of 
those  who  attended  his  discourses  is  said  to  have 
reached  30,000,  and  then,  his  fame  having 
spread  all  over  Europe,  at  Paris.  The  acumen 
and  subtletj'  of  his  reasoning  obtained  for  him 
the  cognomen  of  doctor  siibtilis.  The  contro- 
versies between  Duns  and  the  celebrated  Thomas 
Aquinas  upon  the  relation  of  human  percep- 
tion to  real  objects,  and  upon  various  religious 
doctrines,  were  continued  for  a  long  time  by 
their  respective  disciples,  who  were  called  Sco- 
tists  and  Thomists.  Translated  into  modern  lan- 
guage, the  reasoning  of  Duns  goes  to  show  that 
tlie  knowledge  derived  from  human  conceptions 
and  experience  is  real  and  trustworthy,  inas- 
much as  the  fundamental  ideas  upon  which  hu- 
man knowledge  rests  are  identical  with  the 
absolute  substance  (universale)  of  existing  ob- 
jects. Eeality  is  the  limitation  of  the  absolute 
substance  by  individuation,  or,  in  the  quaint  ter- 
minology of  Duns,  the  ha'cceitas,  which  might 
be  rendered  as  the  this-and-that-ity.  Every 
existing  being  consists  of  substance  and  pri- 
vation or  limitation,  while  God  is  the  unlim- 
ited absolute  substance.  The  possibilities  of 
limitations  or  individuations  of  substance  are 
infinite,  and  hence  follows  the  existence  of  ac- 
cidental chances  or  occurrences;  tliat  is,  the 
free  will  of  individual  man  and  his  correspond- 
ing responsibility  to  God.  The  supernatural 
knowledge  which  cannot  be  derived  from  real 
experience  is  afforded  by  the  Bible,  but  it  is  the 
province  of  philosophy  to  show  the  conformity 
of  the  teachings  of  the  Bible  with  those  of  rea- 
son. The  works  of  Duns  were  published  com- 
plete in  12  vols,  folio  (Lyons,  1639),  by  "Wadding. 

DUNSTAN,  Saixt,  abbot  of  Glastonbury, 
born  near  Glastonbury,  Somersetshire,  England, 
in  925,  died  May  19,  988.  Under  the  patronage 
of  his  uncle,  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  he 
passed  some  years  at  the  court  of  Athelstan, 
but  the  jealousy  of  courtiers  robbed  him  of  the 
king's  favor;  he  retired  to  Winchester,  and 
yielding  to  his  uncle's  request  devoted  himself 


DUNSTER 


DUPERREY 


679 


to  a  monastic  life.  IIo  built  a  cell  against  tho 
walls  of  (ilastonbuiy  church,  and  there  passed 
his  time  in  prayer,  fasting,  and  numual  labor, 
transcribing  manuscripts,  painting,  and  fashion- 
ing utensils  of  metal  for  the  use  of  tho  alUir. 
In  942  Dunstan  became  abbot  of  the  then  ruined 
monastery  of  Glastonbury,  and  received  from 
King  Edmund  authority  to  restore  it  at  tho 
royal  charge.  The  reverence  in  which  tho  peo- 
ple held  him  was  shared  by  tho  monarch,  and  in 
the  succeeding  reign  of  Edredhis  power  became 
almost  absolute  in  tlio  national  councils.  lie 
improved  his  influence  to  restore  the  strictness 
of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  brought  the  Benedic- 
tines into  England,  but  on  tho  death  of  Edred 
and  tho  accession  of  Edwy  was  banished  from 
the  kingdom.  His  share  in  tho  story  of  Edwy 
and  Elgiva  has  brought  him  into  odium  with  all 
believers  in  that  much  discussed  romance,  tho 
facts  of  which  arc  yet  unsettled.  Edgar  recalled 
the  exiled  abbot,  doubled  his  honors,  made  him 
bishop  of  the  united  sees  of  AVorcester  and 
London,  and  in  951)  advanced  him  to  tho  pri- 
macy as  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  prel- 
ate ruled  both  the  monarch  and  the  kingdom. 
IIo  meted  out  justice  with  a  stern  hand,  built  up 
the  power  of  tlie  church,  placed  Benedictines  in 
the  livings  of  the  disorderly  secular  clergy,  and 
forced  the  king  to  do  a  7  years'  jjenance  for  a 
sin  of  licentiousness.  On  Edgar's  death  his 
influence  raised  Edward  to  the  throne,  to  the 
exclusion  of  a  younger  son,  Ethelred;  but  on  the 
accession  of  the  latter  in  978  his  power  was 
broken,  his  threats  were  no  longer  regarded, 
and  full  of  mortification  he  retired  to  Canter- 
bury, and  there  died.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
talents,  energy,  and  strength  of  purpose,  and  de- 
voted all  his  powers  to  the  advancement  of  tho 
papal  supremacy.  Of  the  writings  attributed  to 
him,  only  the  "  Concord  of  Monastic  Rules"  is 
known  to  be  authentic. 

DUNSTER,  Henry,  tho  first  president  of 
Harvard  college,  inaugurated  as  such,  Aug.  27, 
164:0,  died  Fob.  27,  1659.  He  was  president  until 
1654,  when,  having  become  a  supporter  of  tho 
principles  of  tho  modern  Baptists,  he  was  per- 
suaded to  resign  his  office.  lie  was  respected 
as  a  modest  and  pious  man,  and  esteemed  an 
excellent  oriental  scholar. 

DUNTOX,  John,  an  English  bookseller  and 
author,  born  in  Graffham,IIuntingdonshire,  May 
4,  1659,  died  in  1733.  His  fatlier,  who  was  a 
clergyman,  designed  him  for  the  church,  but  tho 
boy's  tastes  not  fitting  him  for  that  ])rofession, 
he  was  aj)prenticed  to  a  bookseller  in  Loudon. 
He  was  afteward  engaged  in  business  for  him- 
self, came  to  New  England  in  March,  1686,  with 
a  cargo  of  books,  where  he  remained  about  8 
months,  and  after  his  return  embarked  again  in 
business,  with  little  success.  "With  some  assist- 
ance he  conducted  a  weekly  publication  called 
the  "  Athenian  Mercury,"  resolving  all  the  most 
nice  and  curious  questions  proposed  by  the  in- 
quiring, of  which  20  volumes  appeared.  A  se- 
lection was  made  from  this  in  4  volumes,  called 
the    "Athenian  Oracle."    He  wrote  volumi- 


nously on  religion,  ethics,  and  politics,  filling 
his  works  with  information  which  is  no  less  en- 
tertaining for  being  subservient  to  tlie  authors 
vanity.  He  gives  us,  in  his  "  Life  and  Errors 
of  John  Dunton"  (London,  1705  and  1818),  tho 
"lives  and  characters  of  more  than  1,000  con- 
temporary divines  and  other  persons  of  literary 
eminence,"  and  relates  many  curious  facts  in 
relation  to  tho  bookselling  business,  describing 
the  ministers,  booksellers,  and  other  citizens  of 
Boston  and  Salem. 

DUODECIMAL,  proceeding  by  twelves,  a 
term  properly  a])piied  to  an  arithmetical  scalo 
nsing  1 1  digits^jnd  a  cipher,  such  as  has  been  zeal- 
ously advocated  in  our  own  day  as  an  improve- 
ment upon  ordinary  decimal  arithmetic.  Thus 
if  wo  use  8  for  ten,  and  q  for  eleven,  the  number 
275  may  be  written  Igg.  But  the  term  duo- 
decimal is  also  given  to  the  system  of  compound 
numbers,  sometimes  used  by  artificers  in  calcu- 
lating surfaces  and  solidities  from  measures 
taken  in  feet  and  inches.  Duodecimals  in  tho 
second  sense  are  considered  by  most  mathema- 
ticians as  worthless,  and  in  tho  first  sense  as 
not  having  sufficient  superiority  over  decimals 
to  counterbalance  the  immense  inconvenience 
of  making  a  change. 

DU  PAGE,  a  N.  E.  co.  of  111.,  dramed  by  the 
E.  and  W.  branches  of  Du  Page  river ;  area, 
340  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855,  12,807.  It  ha,9  a 
level  surface,  occupied  in  great  part  by  prairies. 
The  soil  is  exceedingly  fertile,  and  produces  In- 
dian corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  pasturage.  In  1850 
it  yielded  259,283  bushels  of  wheat,  198,363  of 
Indian  corn,  230,450  of  oats,  and  23,617  tons 
of  hay.  The  county  contained  17  churches 
and  2  newspaper  offices,  and  there  were  850 
pupils  attending  public  schools.  The  Illinois 
and  Michigan  canal,  which  passes  along  the  S. 
E.  border,  and  the  Chicago  and  Galena  and  one 
or  two  shorter  railroads,  are  its  chief  internal 
improvements.     Capital,  Napierville. 

DUPATY,  CnAELEs  Maeguekite  Jeax  Bap- 
TiSTE  Mercier,  a  French  jurist,  born  in  La 
Rochelle,  May  9,  1746,  died  in  Paris,  Sept.  17, 
1788.  He  advocated  the  privilege  of  the  French 
parliament  against  the  encroachments  of  the 
crown,  and  was  imprisoned  in  consequence. 
He  produced  a  work  on  criminal  law  reform, 
Ei'Jlexions  historiques  sitr  le  droit  eriminel,  fol- 
lowed by  Leitres  sur  la  2irocedure  crlminelle 
de  France,  and  kindred  publications,  containing 
views  subsequently  embodied  in  tho  Code  A-^a- 
2)oleo7i. 

DUPERREY,  Louis  Isidore,  a  French  naval 
officer,  born  in  Paris,  Oct.  22,  1786.  He  enter- 
ed the  navy  in  1802,  and  served  actively  during 
the  wars  of  that  period.  His  first  important 
scientific  labor  was  in  1811,  when  he  made  a 
hydrographic  survey  of  the  coast  of  Tuscany. 
In  1817  he  embarked  in  Freycinetz's  voyage  of 
discovery,  and  to  him  were  due  the  hydrographic 
operations  and  charts  of  that  expedition.  In  1822 
he  was  placed  in  command  of  a  new  expedition 
for  scientific  observation  in  Oceanica  and  along 
the  shores  of  South  America.     But  his  most 


080 


DU  PETIT-THOUAKS 


DUPLEIX 


important  researches  have  been  concerning  ter- 
restrial magnetism.  lie  determined  upon  charts 
the  X'hice  of  the  magnetic  poles,  and  fixed  the 
southern  magnetic  pole  at  the  point  where  the 
observations  made  on  the  last  expedition  of 
Dumont  d'Urville  had  demonstrated  it  to  be. 

DU  PETIT-THOUARS,  Abel  Aubert,  a 
French  vice-admiral,  born  Aug,  3,  1793.  lie 
entered  the  navy  at  an  early  age,  and  the  ability 
Avhich  he  displayed  on  various  occasions  led  to 
his  rapid  promotion.  From  1837  to  1839  he 
was  engaged  in  circumnavigating  the  globe. 
The  description  which  he  gave  of  Tahiti  on  his 
return  to  France  called  attention  to  that  island, 
and  eventually  led  to  the  protectorate  of  France 
over  it.  The  English  missionary  Pritchard,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  ascendency  of  France,  in- 
stigated the  natives  to  attack  Du  Petit-Thouars. 
Pritchard  was  finally  driven  from  the  island, 
which  led  the  English  government  to  insist  upon 
the  recall  of  the  French  admiral.  Guizot  not 
only  yielded  to  this  demand,  but  caused  the 
chambers  to  vote  an  indemnity  to  Pritchard. 
Much  public  synipatliy  was  expressed  toward 
Du  Petit-Thouars,  who  declined  the  ovations 
intended  for  him.  In  1846  he  became  vice- 
admiral,  and  in  1849  member  of  the  board  of 
admiralty.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  elected  to 
the  legislative  assembly  by  the  department  of 
Maine-et-Loire.  His  principal  work  is  his  Voy- 
age autour  du  mojide,  in  10  vols.,  with  180  illus- 
trations (Paris,  1840.) 

DUPIlSr,  Andre  Marie  Jean  Jacques,  a 
French  lawyer  and  politician,  born  in  Varzy, 
department  of  the  Nievre,  Feb.  1, 1783.  He  was 
early  distinguished  as  a  learned  lawyer  and  an 
able  speaker.  A  member  of  the  chamber  of  dep- 
uties in  1815,  he  opposed  in  secret  session  the 
motion  to  proclaim  the  son  of  Napoleon  I.  em- 
peror after  his  father's  second  abdication.  The 
same  year,  in  conjunction  with  Berryer,  he  was 
appointed  counsel  for  Marshal  Ney,  and  gain- 
ing great  popularity  by  his  defence  of  his  illus- 
trious client,  was  chosen  to  defend  many  polit- 
ical offenders.  His  pleadings  were  extensively 
reported  in  the  opposition  papers,  and  eagerly 
sought  for  by  the  public.  Among  the  most  fa- 
mous were  his  speeches  in  behalf  of  Beranger 
the  poet,  in  1821,  and  of  the  Journal  des  dchats 
newspaper,  on  the  eve  of  the  revolution  of 
1830.  After  that  event  it  was  in  great  part 
through  Dupin's  exertions  in  the  chamber  of 
deputies  that  the  duke  of  Orleans,  whose  legal 
adviser  he  had  been  since  1817,  secured  the 
crown.  The  office  of  attorney-general  in  the 
court  of  cassation  was  his  reward,  and  he  be- 
came a  member  of  Louis  Philippe's  first  cab- 
inet. In  1882  he  was  elected  to  the  presidency 
of  the  chamber  of  deputies,  which  office  he  held 
for  8  years.  On  the  revolution  of  1848  he  made 
at  first  some  effort  in  behalf  of  the  Orleans  fam- 
ily ;  but  perceiving  the  turn  events  were  taking, 
he  desisted,  and  as  a  proof  of  his  devotion  to 
the  new  system,  he  moved  the  court  of  cassation 
to  declare  that  henceforth  justice  would  be  ad- 
ministered in  the  name  of  the  people.    In  the 


constituent  assembly  he  was  a  member  of  the 
committee  on  the  constitution,  but  left  the  fram- 
ing of  that  instrument  to  Cormenin  and  Mar- 
rast.  The  legislative  assembly  elected  him  pres- 
ident. He  made  some  show  of  opposition  to  the 
government  of  Louis  Napoleon,  but  was  taken 
unawares  by  the  coup  d^etat  of  Dec.  2.  He  de- 
clined all  participation  or  responsibility  in  the 
parliamentary  resistance,  and  retained  his  office 
of  attorney- general.  Tliis,  however,  he  resign- 
ed on  the  publication  of  the  imperial  decrees  of 
1852,  confiscating  the  Orleans  property  ;  in  1857 
he  was  reinstated.  The  eldest  of  3  brothers,  he 
is  generally  known  as  Dupin  the  elder.  His 
writings  on  legal  subjects  are  very  numerous. — 
Charles,  brother  of  the  preceding,  a  French 
geometer  and  statistician,  born  in  Varzy,  Oct. 
6,  1784.  He  entered  the  navy  as  an  engineer, 
and  was  actively  employed  in  France  and  the 
Ionian  islands.  In  1812  a  series  of  scientific 
papers  attracted  the  attention  of  the  academy 
of  sciences.  During  1814  and  1815  he  evinced 
liberal  opinions,  but  finally  adhered  to  the  Bour- 
bons. In  1816  he  visited  Gi'eat  Britain,  to 
exaniiue  the  financial,  commercial,  industrial, 
naval,  and  military  resources  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  results  of  his  travels,  which  he 
continued  for  more  than  4  years,  appeared  in  his 
Voyages  dans  la  Grande  Bretagne  (Paris,  1820 
-'24),  and  in  Ins,  Force  commerciale  de  la  Grande 
Bretagne  (1826).  He  caused  gratuitous  lectures 
on  the  application  of  science  to  industry,  for  the 
benefit  of  workmen  and  artisans,  to  be  estab- 
lished in  the  conservatoire  des  arts  et  metiers  at 
Paris,  and  received  the  appointment  of  profess- 
or of  geometry  in  that  institution.  His  services 
were  rewarded  with  a  barony.  In  1825  and 
1826  he  instituted  a  private  inquiry  into  the  in- 
tellectual and  productive  resources  of  France, 
the  results  of  which  he  embodied  in  his  Situa- 
tion progressive  de  la  France  dejniis  1814.  In 
1828  he  was  elected  to  the  chamber  of  deputies. 
He  adhered  to  the  government  of  Louis  Phi- 
lippe, and  was  promoted  to  a  peerage  in  1838 ;  but 
he  nevertheless  continued  his  regular  course  of 
public  lectures.  After  the  revolution  of  Feb. 
1848,  he  was  elected  to  the  constituent  and  le- 
gislative assemblies,  voted  and  acted  with  the 
majority,  and  on  the  overthrow  of  the  republic 
became  a  supporter  of  the  present  imperial  gov- 
ernment, under  which  he  is  a  senator. 

DUPLEIX,  Joseph,  a  French  soldier  and 
statesman,  born  about  1700,  died  in  1763.  At 
the  age  of  20  he  was  sent  as  an  agent  to  Pon- 
dicherry,  and  in  1730  was  appointed  to  direct 
the  declining  settlement  of  Chandernagore. 
Within  10  years  he  had  acquired  an  immense 
fortune,  and  had  changed  the  insignificant  town, 
which  Chandernagore  had  become  before  his 
arrival,  into  one  of  the  finest  and  most  flour- 
ishing cities  of  India.  In  1742  he  was  made 
governor-general,  and  being  thus  placed  at  the 
head  of  French  cffinrs  in  India  he  gave  scope 
to  his  ambition,  established  conmiercial  rela- 
tions with  every  district  of  Ilindostan,  with 
the  Red  sea,  the  Persian  gulf,  and  even  with 


y 


DUPLEIX 

Thibet,  and  received  Indian  princes  or  their 
ambassadors  with  splendid  pomp.  lie  had  al- 
ready begun  to  disturb  tlio  English  East  India 
company  when  war  broke  out  between  Eng- 
land and  France.  At  the  commencement  of 
hostilities  Labourdonnaio,  governor  of  the  Isle 
of  France,  appeared  in  the  Indian  seas  at  tlie 
head  of  a  squadron  armed  at  his  own  expense 
and  took  possession  of  Madras.  His  instruc- 
tions, however,  forbade  him  to  keep  any  con- 
quest, and  he  therefore  acce[)ted  a  capitulation 
which  secured  the  payment  to  him  of  a  lieavy 
ransom.  But  Duplcix,  to  wlioin  Madras  would 
be  of  immense  value,  determined  to  possess 
himself  of  it  at  whatever  cost,  and  therefore 
broke  the  terms  of  the  capitulation,  seized  the 
town,  imprisoned  Labourdonnaie,  and  sent  him 
to  France  under  accusation  of  treason.  The 
English,  alarmed  at  the  energy  and  nnscrupu- 
lousness  of  the  French  governor,  attacked  Pondi- 
cherry  by  land  and  sea.  The  energy  of  Dujileix 
increased  with  every  difficulty,  and,  serving  at 
once  as  captain  and  engineer,  he  forced  the  Eng- 
lish commander  Boscawen  to  raise  the  siege  40 
days  after  he  had  opened  the  trenches.  The 
fame  of  this  victory  spread  through  all  India, 
and  gave  the  native  princes  a  high  idea  of  the 
valor  of  the  French.  The  war  was  soon  ter- 
minated by  the  treaty  of  Aix  la  Chapelle,  and 
India  being  then  almost  in  a  state  of  anarchy, 
Dupleix  sought  to  make  territorial  acquisitions 
by  interfering  in  the  politics  of  other  states. 
Upon  the  death  of  tlio  Nizam-ul-mulk,  who 
liad  made  himself  independent  in  the  Deccan, 
Dupleix  resolved  to  put  upon  the  vacant  throne 
Mirzapha  Jung,  who  was  willing  to  receive 
the  crown  froni  the  hands  of  the  renowned 
defender  of  Pondicherry,  and  to  grant  in  re- 
turn large  territorial  and  pecuniary  possessions. 
At  the  same  time  and  with  the  same  motive 
he  supported  Chunda  Sahib  as  nabob  of  the 
Carnatic.  lie  was  successful  in  both  schemes, 
defeating  all  opposition,  and  gained  a  triumph 
as  yet  unprecedented  in  India.  The  English 
now  set  up  a  rival  candidate  for  the  throne 
of  the  Deccan,  and  increased  their  forces  under 
Lawrence  and  Clive.  Dupleix,  who  was  ex- 
tending his  views  even  to  Delhi,  imparted  to 
the  court  of  Versailles  a  plan  of  operations 
which  was  to  open  the  way  to  this  capital  of 
the  Mogul  empire.  But  the  French  company, 
though  delighted  with  his  former  exploits,  were 
alarmed  at  his  new  projects,  and  tlie  reeufoi-ce- 
ments  of  men  aud  vessels  which  he  asked  were 
refused ;  at  the  same  time  an  order  was  given 
him  not  to  push  further  his  acquisition  of  ter- 
ritory. Thus  unsupported,  the  English  and  na- 
tive forces  gathered  about  him,  yet  he  maintain- 
ed the  war  at  his  own  expense  and  that  of  his 
friends.  He  was  still  formidable  to  his  enemies, 
though  he  had  suffered  severe  disasters,  when 
the  French  government,  urged  by  English  in- 
fluence, and  mistaking  its  own  interests  in  India 
aud  the  genius  of  Dupleix,  recalled  him  from 
his  command.  lie  arrived  in  France  in  1755, 
and  after  having  so  long  exercised  the  authority 


DUPONCEAU 


681 


and  lived  with  the  splendor  of  an  eastern  sover- 
eign, died  of  chagrin  at  having  solicited  in  vain 
the  payment  of  the  debts  due  him  from  the 
company  wliich  he  had  loaded  with  riches. 

DUPLIN,  a  S.  E.  co.  of  North  Carolina, 
watered  by  the  north  branch  of  Cape  Fear 
river;  area,  G70  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  13,514,  of 
wh(jm  6,007  were  slaves.  It  has  a  level  surface, 
with  several  forests  of  pitch  pine.  The  general 
character  of  the  soil  is  sandy,  but  there  are  fer- 
tile tracts  in  the  valleys  of  the  streams.  Tho 
staple  productions  arc  cotton,  grain,  potatoes, 
lumber,  tar,  and  turpentine.  Sweet  potatoes 
are  more  extensively  cultivated  here  than  in 
any  other  part  of  the  state.  In  1850  the  county 
yielded  4G1  bales  of  cotton,  372,530  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  and  253,097  of  sweet  potatoes.  It 
contained  12  saw  mills,  40  tar  and  turpentine 
manufactories,  and  19  churches.  The  Wilming- 
ton and  Weldon  railroad  intersects  it.  Formed 
in  1749.     Capital,  Kenausville. 

DUPONCEAU,  Peter  Stephen-,  an  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  scholar,  born  in  St.  Martin, 
Isle  of  Ee,  France,  June  3,  1700,  died  in  Phila- 
delphia, April  1,  1844.  His  father,  who  held  a 
military  position,  had  early  determined  that  he 
should  follow  the  same  profession  ;  but  owing 
to  an  imperfection  in  his  sight  it  was  found 
necessary  to  abandon  these  plans,  and  his  mother 
was  then  anxious  that  he  should  be  educated 
for  the  priesthood.  To  this  his  father  would 
not  consent ;  and  on  its  being  decided  that 
he  should  receive  a  collegiate  education  before 
his  profession  was  definitely  settled  upon,  he 
was  in  the  autumn  of  1773  sent  to  a  college 
of  Benedictine  monks  at  St.  Jean  d'Angely. 
In  this  institution  he  continued  for  18  mouths, 
when  returning  home  he  found  that  his  father 
had  just  died.  His  mother  and  other  members 
of  his  family  now  prevailed  upon  him  to  study 
for  the  church.  Through  the  offices  of  the 
bishop  of  Pochelle,  who  Avas  a  friend  of  his 
father's  family,  he  was  sent  to  the  college  of 
Bressuire  in  Poitou ;  but  the  treatment  he  re- 
ceived there  induced  him  to  sever  his  connec- 
tion with  the  college,  and  on  Christmas  day, 
1775,  he  set  off  for  Paris,  where  he  designed  to 
rely  upon  his  own  exertions  for  a  livelihood. 
Here  he  arrived  early  in  January,  to  use  his  own 
words,  "at  the  age  of  15,  with  a  light  heart 
and  a  still  hghter  purse,"  but  "  full  of  hope." 
He  was  kindly  received  by  many  of  the  former 
friends  of  his  father,  and  he  continued  to  en- 
large his  circle  of  acquaintance,  among  whom 
were  the  baron  de  Montmorency,  the  count  de 
Genlis,  and  M.  Bcaumarchais.  He  principally 
engaged  in  the  translation  of  English  books  for 
republication,  being  a  good  English  scholar, 
and  enthusiastically  fond  of  the  language  and 
its  literature,  which  latter  he  esteemed  much 
above  the  French.  For  a  time  he  was  secretary 
to  Court  de  Gebelin,  and  afterward  to  Baron 
Steuben,  with  whom  he  came  to  the  United 
States.  They  reached  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Dec. 
1,  1777.  So  well  did  Duponceau  speak  the 
language,  that  hardly  had  he  arrived  in  the 


682 


DUPONCEAU 


DUPONT  DE  L'ETANG 


country,  as  he  Limself  has  infonned  us,  "when 
he  felt  at  liorae ;"  and  letters  are  still  preserved 
written  by  liim  at  this  time,  which  show  a  re- 
markable fluency  and  command  of  English.  In 
Jan.  1778,  Steuben,  having  previously  commu- 
nicated by  letter  with  Gen.  "VYasliington,  set 
ofT  with  his  secretary  for  York,  Penn.,  where 
congress  was  then  in  session.  To  this  body  he 
offered  his  services,  and  asked  commissions  for 
Duponceau  and  Depontiere,  a  Frenchman  of 
Lis  suite,  and  on  Feb.  18,  1778,  the  former  be- 
came captain  by  brevet  in  the  American  ser- 
vice. On  the  following  day  Steuben,  accom- 
panied by  his  suite,  set  out  for  the  camp  at 
Valley  Forge,  where  they  were  received  with 
great  cordiality  by  the  commander-in-chief. 
On  May  5  following  Steuben  was  appointed 
inspector-general  of  tlie  army,  with  the  rank 
of  major-general  ;  and  in  all  his  movements 
Le  was  accompanied  by  Capt.  Duponceau,  up 
to  the  close  of  the  campaign  of  1779,  when  the 
army  went  into  winter  quarters  in  Philadelphia. 
Here  Duponceau  was  threatened  with  a  pulmo- 
nary disease,  which  for  some  time  prevented 
him  from  performing  active  duty.  Toward  the 
close  of  1780  he  accompanied  Steuben  to  the 
south,  but  renewed  ill  health  forced  him  to  re- 
turn to  Philadelphia  early  the  next  summer, 
taking  with  him  a  letter  from  the  baron  to  the 
president  of  congress,  recommending  him  in 
the  highest  terms.  On  July  25,  1781,  he  took 
the  proper  oaths  and  became  a  citizen  of  Penn- 
sylvania. Eobert  E.  Livingston,  who  had  re- 
cently been  appointed  secretary  of  foreign  affairs 
by  congress,  gave  liim  a  j)lace  in  his  ofhce  in 
Oct.  1781,  which  he  held  until  June  4,  1783. 
The  war  having  closed,  he  now  commenced  the 
study  of  the  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  Philadelphia  in  1785.  In  1788  he  was  mar- 
ried. At  an  early  day  he  acquired  an  extensive 
practice  as  well  in  the  courts  of  Pennsylvania 
as  in  those  of  the  United  States,  including  the 
supreme  court,  where  he  was  engaged  in  many 
important  suits.  His  professional  life  was  a 
successful  one,  and  as  the  pecuniary  result  of 
his  labors  he  left  a  handsome  fortune  at  his 
death.  So  high  an  opinion  did  President  Jeffer- 
son entertain  of  his  legal  abilities  that  he  ten- 
dered to  him  the  office  of  chief  justice  of  Louis- 
iana, which,  however,  he  declined.  In  addition 
to  the  absorbing  duties  of  his  profession,  he 
devoted  throughout  his  life  no  inconsiderable 
attention  to  philology.  As  chairman  of  the 
committee  of  history,  moral  science,  and  general 
literature  of  the  American  philosophical  society, 
in  1819  he  made  a  report  to  that  institution  on 
the  "  Structure  of  the  Indian  Languages,"  which 
was  printed,  and  at  once  gave  him  a  high  posi- 
tion in  this  department  of  knowledge.  In  May, 
1835,  he  received  from  the  French  institute,  for 
a  "  Memoir  on  the  Indian  Languages  of  North 
America,"  the  linguistic  prize,  founded  by  the 
count  de  Volney.  In  1838  he  published  "A 
Dissertation  on  the  Nature  and  Character  of 
the  Chinese  System  of  Writing,"  in  which,  in 
opposition  to  generally  advanced  opinions,  he 


held  that  the  written  language  was  lexigraphic, 
representing  sounds  and  not  ideas.  For  several 
years  he  was  much  interested  in  an  effort  to  in- 
troduce into  the  United  States  tlie  production 
and  manufacture  of  silk.  He  published  several 
essays,  letters,  and  reviews  on  the  subject,  ex- 
pended several  tliousand  dollars  as  well  as  much 
valuable  time  in  the  cause,  but  without  success. 
His  other  writings  are  of  a  miscellaneous  char- 
acter, comprising  an  extensive  range  of  subjects ; 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  oi-iginal  treat- 
ises on  points  of  law;  translations  from  the  Latin, 
German,  and  French  on  similar  subjects;  vari- 
ous treatises  on  philology ;  numerous  contribu- 
tions to  American  history,  including  a  transla- 
tion of  "A  Description  of  New  Sweden,"  by 
Thomas  Campanius  Holm,  He  was  a  member 
of  more  than  40  literary  and  scientific  institu- 
tions of  Europe  and  America,  including  the 
American  philosophical  society,  the  historical 
society  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Philadelphia 
Athenaeum,  of  which  3  institutions  he  was  the 
presiding  ofBcer  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

DUPONT,  A.  Pierre,  a  French  song  writer, 
born  in  Lyons,  April  23,  1821.  His  father  v/as 
a  mechanic,  who  apprenticed  him  to  a  silk  weav- 
er, but  he  soon  left  weaving  and  obtained  a 
clerkship  in  a  banking  house.  His  first  book, 
Les  deux  cmges,  interested  in  his  behalf  M. 
Pierre  Lebrun,  a  member  of  the  French  acad- 
emy, who  in  1841  saved  him  from  the  con- 
scription by  opening  a  subscription  which  en- 
abled him  to  procure  a  substitute.  Zes  deux 
cinges  afterward  won  a  prize  at  the  academy, 
but  it  was  scarcely  noticed,  and  the  young  poet 
was  still  unknown  when  he  published  a  collec- 
tion of  rural  poems  entitled  Lespayscms,  mostly 
songs,  the  music  of  which  he  also  composed. 
Among  these,  Les  lavfs  attained  an  immenso 
popularity,  and  Pierre  Dupont  was  proclaimed 
the  true  successor  of  Beranger.  On  the  revolu- 
tion of  1848  the  poet  leaned  to  the  new  socialist 
doctrines,  and  wrote  several  songs  Avhich  were 
somewhat  imbued  with  them.  His  poems  have 
been  collected  and  published  under  the  titles  of 
Cahier  de  chansons,  La  muse  jjopulaire,  and 
Chants  et  chansons, x>oesie  et  musique  (Paris, 
1850-'o4). 

DUPONT  DE  L'ETANG,  Pierre,  count,  a 
French  general,  born  in  Chabannais,  department 
of  Charente,  July  14,  1765,  died  Feb.  16,  1838. 
Appointed  brigadier-general  in  1793  and  general 
of  division  in  1797,  he  joined  Bonaparte  on  the 
18th  Brumaire,  contributed  to  the  victory  of 
Marengo,  and  subsequently  at  the  head  of  14,000 
troops,  defeated  43,000  Austrians  on  tlie  banks 
of  the  Mincio.  He  won  new  laurels  in  1805  and 
1806  during  the  campaigns  in  Austria  and  Prus- 
sia. With  but  5  battalions  he  routed  22,000  of 
the  enemy  at  the  bridge  of  IJalle,  and  afterward 
by  a  bold  movement  against  the  Eussian  imperial 
guai'd  decided  the  victory  of  Friedland.  Sent  to 
Spain  in  command  of  the  army  Avhich  was  to 
conquer  Andalusia,  he  was  successful  at  first,  but 
permitted  himself  to  be  surrounded  in  the  Sierra 
Morena  by  a  Spanish  army,  and  consented  to  sur- 


DUPOXT  (DE  L'EURE) 


DUPREZ 


G83 


fender  with  his  wliole  force — an  event  known 
as  the  capitulation  of  Baylen,  and  stigmatized 
as  shameful  by  Napoleon.  lie  was  arrested  on 
his  return  to  France,  and  ijy  an  imperial  decree 
of  1812  was  degraded  from  his  rank,  sentenced 
to  imprisonnyint,  and  sent  to  tiie  fortof  Joux  in 
the  Jura,  The  fall  of  the  emi>ire  restored  him 
to  liberty,  and  his  supposed  hatred  of  the  em- 
peror led  to  his  appointment  as  minister  of  war, 
and  the  cancelling  of  all  the  proceedings  against 
him ;  but  he  was  soon  dismissed  from  that  office. 
After  the  2d  restoration  he  was  appointed  mem- 
ber of  the  privy  council.  Ilis  native  depart- 
ment elected  him  several  times  to  tlic  chamber 
of  deputies.  A  man  of  literary  taste,  he  wrote 
several  poems  and  a  translation  in  verso  of  the 
odes  of  Horace ;  he  also  published  i)ami)hlets  on 
the  recruiting  system  and  the  campaign  of  Aus- 
tria, and  critical  observations  upon  Montgaillard's 
HUtoire  de  France. 

DUPONT  (DE  L'EURE),  Jacqttes  Ciiakles,  a 
French  politician,  born  in  Neubourg,  department 
of  Eure,  Feb.  27,  1707,  died  in  Paris,  March  3, 
18j5.  First  an  attorney  at  the  parliament  of 
Normandy,  he  became  a  magistrate,  and  was 
finally  promoted  in  1811  to  the  presidency  of 
the  high  court  at  Rouen,  which  post  he  held 
until  1818.  He  commenced  his  political  career 
in  1798  in  the  council  of  500,  was  a  member  of 
the  legislative  corps  in  1813,  and  deputy  to  the 
chamber  in  181-1.  His  motions  and  speeches 
during  tliis  period  pointed  him  out  as  an  un- 
flinching adherent  of  liberal  institutions.  He 
was  constantly  reelected  by  his  department  from 
1817  to  1848,  and  during  this  long  political 
career  won  the  esteem  of  both  friends  and  oppo- 
nents. On  the  revolution  of  1830,  he  was  pre- 
vailed upon  by  Lafitte  to  take  the  ministry  of 
justice;  but  his  independence  and  rigidness  of 
principle  could  hardly  please  Louis  Philippe, 
and  he  left  the  office  at  the  end  of  4  months  to 
resume  his  seat  among  the  opposition  in  the 
chamber  of  deputies.  In  Feb.  1848,  he  was 
unanimously  elected  president  of  the  provisional 
government,  but  old  age  intei-fered  with  his  ac- 
tivity. He  was  elected,  however,  to  the  constit- 
uent assembly,  and  in  1849  retired  to  private  life. 

DUPONT  DE  NEMOURS,  Pieeke  Samuel, 
a  French  economist,  horn  in  Paris,  Dec.  14, 
1739,  died  in  Delaware,  Aug.  6,  1817.  An  ad- 
herent of  Quesnay,  he  became  the  expounder 
of  his  doctrine.  He  was  the  assistant  of  Tur- 
got  during  his  short  tenure  of  the  ministry  of 
finance,  l774-'6.  Under  the  ministry  of  Ver- 
gennes  he  was  employed  in  framing  the  treaty 
of  1783,  in  which  the  independence  of  the 
United  States  was  formally  recognized  hy  Eng- 
land. In  the  constituent  assembly  in  1789  he 
advocated  liberal  principles,  but  opposed  the 
harsh  measures  of  the  rerolutionists ;  after  the 
fall  of  the  Girondists  he  was  imprisoned,  but 
■was  saved  by  the  revolution  of  the  9th  Thermi- 
dor.  In  the  council  of  500  he  was  suspected  of 
favoring  the  royalists.  In  1795  he  repaired  to 
the  United  States,  and  returning  to  France  in 
1802,  became  a  contributor  to  several  periodicals, 


and  published  pamphlets,  amonsr  whicli  was  an 
essay  Sur  Veducation  natioiiale  dduif  les  Etati 
Unin  d'Amerique  (Paris,  18i2j.  On  the  first 
overthrow  of  the  empire  he  was  appointed  sec- 
retary to  tlie  provisional  government.  On  the 
return  of  Napoleon  he  left  France  in  disgust,  re- 
paired to  the  state  of  Delaware,  Avhere  his  sons 
had  establisbed  a  manufactory  of  gunpowder, 
and  passed  his  latter  years  there. 

DUPPA,  BiiiAN",  an  English  bishop,  horn  ia 
Lewisham,  Kent,  in  1588,  died  in  liiclimond  ia 
1G02.  He  was  educated  at  "Westminster  school, 
and  at  Christchnrch,  Oxford,  and  after  taking 
orders  travelled  in  France  and  Spain.  He  was 
successively  dean  of  Christchnrch,  chancellor  of 
the  diocese  of  Salisbury,  chaplain  of  King  Charles 
I.,  tutor  to  Charles,  prince  of  Wales,  and  his  bro- 
tlier  James,  duke  of  York,  bishop  of  Chichester, 
and  in  1641  bishop  of  Salisbury.  He  accompa- 
nied Charles  I.  during  the  contlicts  of  the  civil 
war,  and  was  highly  esteemed  by  that  monarch. 
He  lived  in  retirement  during  tlic  protectorate, 
but  was  promoted  by  Charles  II.  to  the  bishopric 
of  Winchester,  and  made  lord  high  almoner.  A 
short  time  before  his  death  he  received  a  visit 
from  Charles  II.,  and  gave  his  blessing  to  that 
king  with  great  solemnity.  He  published  sev- 
eral works  of  practical  piety,  of  which  the 
"Soid's  Soliloquies,"  a  sermon  preached  before 
Charles  I.,  is  the  most  important. 

DUPRAT,  Pascal,  a  French  publicist,  born 
in  1812,  was  professor  of  history  at  Algiers  from 
1839  to  1844,  and  wrote  an  Essai  historiqne  mr 
les  races  anciennes  ct  modernes  de  VAfrique  scp- 
tentrionale  (Paris,  1845).  Cooperating  with  La- 
mennais  and  other  reformers,  he  was  sent  to  the 
national  assembly  in  1848,  and  on  June  24  he 
moved  the  resolution  which  conferred  the  execu- 
tive power  upon  Gen.  Cavaignac.  After  the 
coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  1851,  he  was  arrested,  and 
banished  from  France  in  1853.  He  has  since  re- 
sided in  Brussels,  and  more  recently  in  Lausanne. 

DUPREZ,  Gilbert  Louis,  a  tenor  singer, 
born  in  Paris,  Dec.  6,  1800,  He  was  educated 
at  the  conservatoire^  and  made  his  debut  at  the 
Odeon  in  Dec.  1825.  His  success  not  fulfilling 
his  expectations,  he  went  to  Italy  in  1828,  and 
for  9  years  sang  in  the  principal  cities  with  con- 
stantly increasing  reputation.  In  1837  he  was 
able  to  return  to  Paris  and  dictate  his  own  terms 
to  the  director  of  the  grand  opera,  where  he 
made  his  first  appearance  as  Arnold,  in  the 
opera  of  "  William  Tell,"  April  17.  His  prede- 
cessor, Nourrit,  a  celebrated  tenor  singer,  was 
so  affected  by  the  applause  which  greeted  this 
representation,  that  he  eventually  committed 
suicide.  Thenceforth,  until  his  retirement  from 
the  stage,  Dec.  14, 1849,  the  career  of  Dui)rez  was 
a  series  of  triumphs.  No  tenor  singer  has  ever 
been  held  in  higher  estimation  by  French  audi- 
ences, among  whom  his  manner  of  sounding  the 
Vt  de poitrine  in  "William  Tell"  produced  an 
extraordinary  eftect.  Duprez  is  an  accomplish- 
ed musician,  and  has  published  a  work  entitled 
the  Art  du  chant.  Several  tenor  roles  have  been 
written  for  him.   A  new  opera  for  which  he  fur- 


684 


DUPUIS 


DUQUESNE 


Dished  the  music  and  his  brother  !fidouard  the 
libretto  was  accepted  by  the  manager  of  the  Ly- 
ons opera  in  1859. — His  daughter  Cakoline 
(born  in  Florence  in  1832,  and  married  in  185G 
to  M.  Van  den  Ilcuvel)  made  her  debut  in  1850 
in  the  Sonnamlula  at  the  Itahan  opera,  and  has 
held  vince  1852  a  leading  position  at  the  opera 
coiidque  in  Paris. 

DUPUIS,  CiiAULEs  PEAxgois,  a  French  schol- 
ar and  philosopher,  born  at  Trie-le-Clu'iteau, 
Normandy,  Oct.  16, 1742,  died  near  Dijon,  Sept. 
20,  1809.  The  son  of  a  country  schoolmaster, 
he  was  first  instructed  in  mathematics  and  land 
surveying;  and  afterward,  through  the  i)rotec- 
tion  of  the  duke  de  la  Rochefoucauld,  was  en- 
abled to  complete  a  course  of  collegiate  studies 
at  Paris.  He  was  made  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
the  Lisieux  college  when  only  22  years  of  age, 
and  delivered  in  1780,  in  the  name  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Paris,  a  funeral  oration  in  honor  of 
the  empress  Maria  Theresa.  In  1787  he  was 
promoted  to  the  chair  of  Latin  eloquence  in  the 
college  of  France.  Meanwhile  he  attended  the 
scientific  lectures  of  the  great  astronomer  La- 
lande,  with  whom  he  became  intimately  ac- 
quainted ;  and  these  studies,  combined  with  his 
thorough  knowledge  of  ancient  mythology,  led 
him  to  undertake  to  trace  the  origin  of  all  reli- 
gions to  astronomy.  Ancient  divinities,  he  as- 
serted, were  but  constellations;  the  names  of 
m3'thological  gods  were  those  of  the  stars  ;  and 
the  strange  adventures  asci'ibed  to  the  former 
merely  an  allegorical  account  of  the  various 
motions  of  the  latter,  and  their  relations  to  each 
other.  The  tlieory  was  first  presented  by  him 
in  several  papers  which  appeared  in  the  Journal 
des  savants  ;  was  more  fully  expounded  in  a  4to. 
volume  printed  in  1781,  under  the  title  of  Me- 
moire  sur  Vorigine  des  constellations  et  sur  Vex- 
fUcationde  lafaljlepar  Vastronomie ;  and  then, 
after  14  years  of  unremitting  labor,  was  unfolded 
in  all  its  mysteries  and  particulars  in  the  bulky 
work,  Vorigine  de  tous  Ics  cnltes,  ou  la  religion 
universelle  (3  vols.  4to.,  Paris,  1795).  This 
performance  did  not  command  the  popularity 
which  its  author  had  anticipated ;  he  therefore, 
in  1796,  published  an  abridgment,  which  was 
more  acceptable,  and  has  been  frequently  re- 
printed. Amid  his  literary  pursuits,  Dupuis 
had  been  somewhat  unwillingly  drawn  into 
politics.  A  deputy  to  the  convention,  he  acted 
with  the  moderate  party ;  he  was  a  member  of 
the  council  of  500,  and  a  candidate  for  the  di- 
rectorship. On  the  establishment  of  the  empire 
he  returned  to  private  life,  and  in  180G  published 
liis  Dissertation  sur  le  zodiaque  de  Tentyra  ou 
Denderah.,  which  forms  the  complement  of  his 
great  work. 

DUPUYTREN",  GuiLLArME,  a  French  sur- 
geon, born  at  Pierre-Buffiere,  Oct.  6,  1777,  died 
in  Paris,  Feb.  8,  1835.  lie  attracted  attention 
in  his  boyhood  by  his  beauty,  intelligence,  and 
haughty  character,  and  at  the  age  of  12  was 
placed  by  a  military  officer,  who  was  fascinated 
by  his  peculiarities,  in  the  college  of  La  Marche 
at  Paris,    lie  there  engaged  in  literary  studies, 


but  was  rebellious  to  discipline,  abandoned  Latin 
for  the  sciences,  and  became  enthusiastic  only 
after  undertaking  the  study  of  medicine.  Re- 
peating the  words  of  Cjcsar,  that  it  is  better  to 
be  first  in  a  village  than  second  at  Rome,  he 
resolved  to  be  unsurpassed  in  the  art  of  surgery. 
At  the  age  of  18  he  was  appointed  assistant  dis- 
sector in  the  ccole  de  sante  ;  and  in  1801,  after  a 
brilliant  examination,  he  became  chief  of  the 
faculty  of  medicine.  The  indisputable  superi- 
ority of  Bichat  at  this  time  was  a  spur  to  his 
ambition,  and  he  displayed  an  unprecedented 
skill  and  activity  in  dissections.  lie  became 
successively  surgeon  of  the  second  class  in  the 
Ilutel  Dieu ;  inspector-general  of  the  university; 
professor  of  medical  practice;  and  in  1815  sur- 
geon-in-chief of  the  Hotel  Dieu.  Having  now 
absolute  power  in  the  oldest  and  wealthiest  hos- 
pital of  France,  he  regularly  passed  5  hours  in 
the  morning  in  performing  operations  in  the 
presence  of  over  400  students,  "With  a  severe 
exterior,  and  a  grave  and  mysterious  manner,  he 
kept  his  audience  in  perfect  stillness.  "With 
scalpel  in  hand  and  the  patient  before  him,  he 
delivered  lectures  which  were  unequalled  in 
Paris  for  clearness  of  exposition,  elegance  of 
expression,  or  novelty  of  ideas.  He  was  never 
gentle,  and  never  smiled  except  when  he  sought 
to  draw  from  a  patient  the  symptoms  of  his 
malady;  lie  seemed  to  possess  only  practised 
senses  and  a  severe  logic ;  and  the  masterly  un- 
concern with  which  he  framed  his  discourses  in 
the  midst  of  suffering  and  death,  gained  for  him 
a  peculiar  reputation.  Upon  the  assassination 
of  the  duke  de  Berry,  in  1820,  Dupuytren  was 
called  to  the  Tuileries  for  consultation,  and  3 
years  later  he  was  made  first  surgeon  to  the 
king.  But  though  the  transition  from  the  Hotel 
Dieu  to  the  court  increased  his  renown,  yet  his 
proud,  silent,  and  capricious  character  became 
the  object  of  innumerable  epigrams  and  calum- 
nies. His  health  failed  in  1833,  and  he  repaired 
to  Italy,  but  could  not  be  restrained  from  re- 
newing his  studies  and  observations  in  Rome. 
He  died  after  much  suffering,  which  excited 
rather  his  curiosity  than  complaints  or  disquie- 
tude, and  left  a  part  of  his  large  fortune  for  the 
foundation  of  a  chair  of  pathological  anatomy 
in  the  faculty  of  medicine  in  Paris,  and  of  a 
museum  which  now  bears  his  name.  His  prin- 
cipal w^orks  have  been  collected  in  an  edition 
entitled  Legons  orales.  lie  simplified  many  sur- 
gical operations,  and  made  some  valuable  inno- 
vations in  the  art. 

DUQUESISrE,  Abraham,  a  French  naval 
officer,  born  in  Dieppe  in  1610,  died  in  1688. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  seaman,  was  educated  in 
his  native  town,  early  entered  the  naval  service, 
and  gained  distinction  in  several  encounters 
with  the  Spaniards,  especially  in  1637  off  the 
Lerins  isles,  in  1641  off  Tarragona,  and  in  1643 
off  Cape  Gata.  On  the  suspension  of  hostilities 
he  offered  his  services  to  Sweden,  then  at  war 
with  Denmark,  received  the  rank  of  vice-admiral, 
and  completely  defeated  the  Danish  fleet  under 
the  command  of  King  Christian  IV.    He  then 


DUEAM 


DUEAND 


685 


fitted  out  a  sqxiadron  at  las  own  expense,  with 
which  he  prevented  tlie  Spaniards  from  entering 
Bordeaux,  then  the  strongliold  of  tlio  rebellious 
princes.  Tliis  act  of  patriotism  and  daring  was 
rewarded  by  his  promotion  to  the  rank  of  com- 
modore, while  ho  i-eceived  as  an  indemnity  for 
his  outlay  the  island  and  the  chateau  of  Indret, 
near  Nantes.  He  continued  his  successful  oper- 
ations against  the  Sj)aniards  until  the  peace  of 
1659  ;  then  he  served  against  the  pirates  on  the 
coast  of  Africa.  lie  was  made  a  naval  lienten- 
ant-goueral  in  1GG7,  and  in  tlio  war  against  Hol- 
land was  twice  engaged  against  l>o  Ruyter  in 
1676  in  the  Mediterranean,  first  oft'  Stromboli, 
and  afterward  in  sight  of  Mt.  Etna.  In  both  en- 
gagements the  Dutch  were  defeated,  and  in  the 
latter  they  lost  their  commander.  A  few  weeks 
later  Duquesne  destroyed  the  remains  of  their 
fleet,  and  thus  for  a  while  secured  the  suprema- 
cy of  France  upon  the  sea.  Louis  XIV.  bestow- 
ed upon  him  the  estate  of  Du  Bouchet  with  tho 
title  of  marquis.  He  was  afterward  ordered  to 
clear  the  Mediterranean  of  the  Barbary  pirates ; 
defeated  the  Tripolitans  off  the  island  of  Scio  in 
1681 ;  attempted  in  1682  the  bombardment  of 
Algiers,  which  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  on 
account  of  stormy  weather;  resumed  it  tho 
next  year,  and  forced  the  dey  to  sue  for  peace. 
The  first  condition  imposed  by  Duquesne  was 
tho  liberation  of  a  considerable  number  of 
Christian  slaves,  and  the  last  the  sending  of  an 
embassy  to  Versailles  to  implore  pardon  from 
Louis  XIV.  In  1684  Duquesne  led  a  successful 
expedition  against  Genoa,  and  soon  after  retired 
to  his  native  city. 

DURAM,  or  DtirIo,  Jozk  de  Santa  rtiTA, 
a  Brazilian  poet,  born  near  Mariana  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Minas  Geracs  in  1737,  died  in  Lisbon  in 
1783.  He  qualified  himself  for  the  service  of 
the  church  by  his  studies  at  Rio  Janeiro  and  at 
Coimbra  in  Portugal,  was  graduated  doctor  of 
divinity  at  the  university  of  the  latter  city,  and 
joined  the  religious  order  of  St.  Augustine.  In 
tho  course  of  his  travels  in  Spain  and  Italy  he 
became  acquainted  with  Alfieri  and  other  emi- 
nent men  of  letters,  and  subsequently  during 
his  residence  at  Coimbra  composed  a  poem 
founded  upon  the  story  of  the  Galician  adven- 
turer Diogo  Alvarez  Correa,  surnamed  Caramu- 
ru,  tlie  legendary  hero  of  Bahia.  This  poem 
■was  published  at  Lisbon  in  1781,  under  the  title 
of  Caramuru^  pocma  epico  do  descohrimento  da 
Bahia,  and  a  French  version  appeared  at  Paris 
in  1829.  On  its  first  appearance  the  poem  was 
not  highly  estimated,  but  since  then  it  has  risen 
to  the  rank  of  a  national  epic  in  Brazil. 

DURAN,  Agustin,  a  Spanish  scholar,  oorn 
in  Madrid  about  1793.  He  received  a  imiver- 
sity  education  with  a  view  of  embracing  tho 
profession  of  the  law,  but  a  handsome  fortune 
which  fell  to  his  lot  permitted  him  to  devote 
himself  to  letters.  He  paid  much  attention  to 
the  study  of  foreign,  especially  to  French  lit- 
erature, and  in  1828  published  anonymously  a 
pamphlet  on  the  influence  which  modern  criti- 
cism has  exercised  on  the  decline  of  the  ancient 


Spanish  drama.  Ho  has  edited  a  very  import- 
ant collection  of  Moorish,  miscellaneous,  and 
historical  ballads,  and  ballads  of  chivalry  (Mad- 
rid, 1828-'32  ;  re])ublished  in  Paris  in  1838,  and 
in  Barcelona  in  1840;  a  new  edition,  forming 
part  of  the  extensive  Bihlioteca  de  autores  Es- 
pafloles,  Madrid,  1849-51).  He  has  also  written 
a  history  of  tho  Spanish  drama  from  its  origin 
to  the  middle  of  tho  18th  century,  which  is  not 
yet  published. 

DURAND,  AsnER  Brown,  an  American 
painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Jefl:erson,  N.  J., 
Aug.  21,  1796.  His  paternal  ancestors  wero 
French  Protestants,  who  emigrated  to  America 
after  tho  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
From  early  childhood  he  manifested  a  taste  for 
drawing,  and  was  fond  of  studying  and  copying 
trees,  foliage,  and  other  attractive  objects  of 
nature.  His  art  education,  however,  properly 
commenced  in  the  shop  of  his  father,  a  skilful 
watchmaker,  where  he  learned  to  cut  ciphers 
on  spoons  and  other  household  implements, 
and,  chiefly  by  his  own  eflTorts,  acquired  some 
knowledge  of  the  elementary  j)rocesse3  of  en- 
graving. His  first  attempts  at  the  production 
of  prints  were  made  with  plates  hammered  out 
of  copper  coins,  and  with  tools  of  his  own  con- 
struction, his  models  being  the  cards  inserted  in 
the  cases  of  watches.  A  French  gentleman, 
struck  with  the  talent  which  some  of  these 
evinced,  employed  him  to  copy  a  portrait  paint- 
ed on  the  lid  of  a  snuff  box,  and  the  success  with 
which  this  commission  was  executed  encouraged 
him  to  make  engraving  his  profession.  In  1812 
he  was  apprenticed  to  Peter  Maverick,  one 
of  the  most  prominent  engravers  of  the  time, 
with  whom,  after  the  expiration  of  his  term 
in  1817,  be  entered  into  partnership.  For  a 
long  time  his  employment  consisted  in  copying 
prints  from  English  books,  and  working  on 
plates  for  bank  notes.  His  engraving  of  Trum- 
bull's "  Declaration  of  Independence,"  the  first 
work  which  he  attempted  on  a  large  scale,  and 
which  cost  him  3  years'  labor,  brought  him  into 
general  notice,  and  thenceforth  for  many  years 
his  graver  was  in  constant  demand  for  portraits 
of  various  dimensions,  and  figure  pieces.  Of  the 
former,  the  "  National  Portrait  Gallery"  affords 
the  best  example,  while  his  "  Musidora"  and 
"  Ariadne,"  the  latter  engraved  from  Vander- 
lyn's  picture,  are  among  the  most  creditable 
specimens  of  the  art  produced  in  this  country, 
lie  had  always,  however,  entertained  the  idea 
of  ultimately  becoming  a  painter,  and  in  1835, 
having  for  tlie  previous  10  years  been  a  regular 
contributor  of  portraits,  small  figure  pieces,  or^ 
landscapes  in  oil,  to  the  exhibitions  of  the 
national  academy  of  design,  he  finally  aban- 
doned engraving  as  a  profession.  For  several 
years  afterward  he  painted  principally  portraits 
and  landscapes,  and  occasionally  figure  pieces,  a 
class  of  subjects  to  which  he  would  willingly 
have  devoted  himself  had  the  opportunities  for 
studying  from  life  or  from  models  been  suffi- 
ciently abundant.  As  landscape  painting,  how- 
ever, accorded  with  his  early  tastes,  and  was 


686 


DURANGO 


DUEBIN" 


mt  liable  to  this  objection,  he  soon  began  to 
give  his  exclusive  attention  to  it,  and  for  many- 
years  has  been  an  industrious  contributor  to  this 
department  of  his  art.  From  the  outset  he  has 
been  a  close  student  of  nature,  giving  great  at- 
tention to  the  forms  of  trees,  the  different  species 
of  whicli  he  carefully  distinguishes  in  his  pic- 
tures, and  elaborating  the  objects  of  a  landscape 
Avith  scrupulous  exactness.  His  pictures,  em- 
bracing some  of  the  finest  mountain  and  valley 
scenery  in  the  country,  are  eminently  pleasing 
and  true  in  color  and  tone,  and  frequently  have 
an  idyllic  beauty  characteristic  of  the  artist's 
turn  of  mind.  Those  representing  woodland 
scenes  are  conceived  with  much  poetic  feeling, 
and  present  fine  studies  of  trees  and  foliage. 
His  collected  works,  many  of  which  are  of 
large  dimensions,  and  some  of  which  have  been 
engraved,  would  convey  an  unusually  correct 
idea  of  American  scenery  under  many  different 
aspects.  Of  his  figure  pieces,  which  arc  the 
rarest  of  his  works,  the  principal  are  "Harvey 
Birch  and  Washington ;"  "  An  Old  Man's  Rem- 
iniscences;"  "The  Wrath  of  Peter  Stuyve- 
sant;"  "God's  Judgment  on  Gog;"  "The  Dance 
on  the  Battery;"  "The  Capture  of  Major 
Andre,"  &c.  Among  his  earlier  landscapes  may 
be  enumerated :  "  The  Morning  and  Evening 
of  Life,"  a  pair ;  "  Lake  Scene — Sunset ;"  "  The 
Rainbow ;"  "  Wood  Scene,"  &c.  During  the 
last  few  vears  he  has  produced  "  Primeval  For- 
est" (1853);  "In  the  Woods"  (1854);  "The 
Symbol,"  from  Goldsmith's  "  Deserted  Village" 
(185G);  "Franconia  Mountains"  (1858);  and 
"  Reminiscences  of  Oatskill  Cloves"  (1859).  In 
1854  he  painted  a  portrait  of  William  C.  Bryant, 
the  engraving  from  which,  published  in  1858, 
received  its  finishing  touches  from  his  hand. 
Mr.  Durand  is  one  of  the  few  remaining  origi- 
nal members  of  the  national  academy  of  design, 
and  upon  the  resignation  of  Prof.  Morse  was 
chosen  the  president,  a  position  which  he  still 
holds.  lie  has  resided  in  New  York  during  the 
greater  part  of  his  life. — His  son,  John  Dtjkand, 
has  for  several  years  conducted  the  "  Crayon," 
a  monthly  publication  specially  devoted  to  the 
interests  of  the  fine  arts. 

DURANGO.  an  inland  state  or  department 
of  Mexico,  280  m.  long  from  N.  to  S.,  and  150 
m.  broad;  area,  48,489  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1851, 
162,218.  It  was  formerly  sometimes  called  New 
Biscay.  The  surface  is  rocky  and  mountain- 
ous, being  traversed  by  the  Sierra  Madre,  which 
unites  the  plateau  of  Anahuac  with  the  Rocky 
mountains.  There  are  a  few  small  streams,  the 
principal  of  which  is  the  Rio  de  las  Nases,  but 
no  large  rivers.  In  the  valleys  of  these  streams 
are  some  fertile  and  well  cultivated  tracts,  pro- 
ducing good  crops  of  rice,  maize,  and  corn,  but 
the  general  character  of  the  soil  is  barren  and 
incapable  of  much  improvement.  There  are 
some  pasture  lands,  however,  and  considerable 
numbers  of  cattle  are  reared.  The  mountains 
furnish  gold,  silver,  and  iron,  which  are  exten- 
sively and  profitably  mined.  This  department 
is  subject  to  frequent  inroads  of  the  Comanches 


and  other  Indian  tribes,  who  overrun  the  coun- 
try at  certain  seasons,  pillage  the  settlements, 
drive  off"  the  cattle,  and  massacre  all  who  come 
in  their  way. — Duraxgo,  or  Victohia,  the  cap- 
ital of  the  state,  is  situated  on  an  elevated  plain 
at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  7,295  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea;  pop.  in  1853,  about  8,000. 
It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  contains  several  good 
buildings,  and  enjoys  an  extensive  trade  in  cattle 
and  leather.  It  is  in  the  vicinity  of  iron  mines, 
and  has  a  mint.  The  general  appearance  of  the 
town  is  picturesque,  but  it  is  excessively  dirty, 
infested  by  scorpions,  and  has,  of  late  years, 
rapidly  declined  in  population^  It  was  founded 
in  1551.^ 

DURAZZO  (anc.  Extidamnus  or  DyrracTiium ; 
Turkish,  Dratch ;  Alb.  Duiriessi),  a  maritime 
town  of  European  Turkey,  in  the  province  of 
Albania,  on  the  E.  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  50  m. 
S.  W.  of  Scutari ;  pop.  about  7,000.  It  is  strong- 
ly fortified,  has  a  safe  and  commodious  harbor, 
and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  corn,  to- 
bacco, and  British  manufactured  goods,  which 
are  imported  from  Trieste.  It  occupies  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Epidamnus,  which  was  founded 
by  a  colony  of  Corcyreans  and  Corinthians  in 
the  7th  century  B.  C.  The  feuds  of  its  nobles 
and  people  were  one  of  the  immediate  causes 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  In  the  Roman  times 
it  became  one  of  the  chief  points  of  communi- 
cation between  Italy  and  the  East.  During  the 
civil  war  of  Pompey  and  Cffisar  it  was  occu- 
pied by  the  former,  who  obtained  in  its  vicinity 
a  victory  over  the  forces  of  his  antagonist.  In 
the  11th  century  it  was  captured  by  the  Nor- 
mans, and  subsequently  by  the  Yenetians,  from 
whom  it  was  taken  by  the  Tui-ks  about  the  end 
of  the  15th  century. 

DURBIN,  Jonx  Price,  D.D.,  an  j^merican 
clergyman,  born  in  Bourbon  co.,  Ky.,  in  1800. 
After  receiving  the  elements  of  education  in  a 
district  school,  he  entered  the  ministry  of  tho 
Methodist  Episcopal  church  in  1819,  was  sent  to 
Limestone  circuit,  Ky.,  and  the  next  year  was 
received  into  the  Ohio  conference  and  stationed 
on  Greenville  circuit,  Ohio.  He  availed  him- 
self of  every  opportunity  for  study,  and  with 
his  grammar  and  commentary,  by  the  light  of 
pine  knots  in  the  log  cabins  of  the  wilderness, 
he  spent  his  evenings  in  mastering  their  con- 
tents. He  was  soon  after  stationed  in  Hamilton, 
O.,  12  miles  from  Oxford,  the  seat  of  the  Miami 
university.  He  entered  this  institution,  pursu- 
ing his  studies  from  Monday  until  Saturday, 
when  he  would  attend  to  his  duties  as  pastor,, 
and  then  return  to  his  studies  in  college.  While 
stationed  subsequently  in  Cincinnati  he  was 
admitted  to  the  Cincinnati  college,  where  he  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  A.B.  in  1825,  and  subse- 
quently that  of  A.M.  Soon  after  this  he  was 
elected  professor  of  languages  in  Augusta  col- 
lege, Ky.  In  1829  he  was  nominated  as  chap- 
lain to  the  senate  of  the  United  States,  and  only 
failed  of  election  by  the  casting  vote  of  Mr. 
Calhoun,  which  that  distinguished  statesman 
afterward  regretted.     His  friends,  without  his 


DUEEAU  DE  LA  MALLE 


dDeer 


G87 


knowledge,  again  secured  his  nomination  in 
1831,  and  lio  was  elected  by  a  largo  majority. 
Ilis  sermon  in  the  cai)itol  on  tlie  centennial  an- 
niversary of  Washington's  birth  was  one  of  his 
most  successful  efforts.  In  1S:!2  he  was  elected 
professor  of  natural  science  in  the  Wesleyan 
university,  and  in  18:53  was  ai)[)()inted  by  tlio 
general  conference  editor  of  the  "  Christian  Ad- 
vocate and  Journal,"  New  York.  The  follow- 
ing year  he  was  elected  president  of  Dickinson 
college,  Penn.,  where  he  continued  until  1842. 
He  then  made  a  journey  through  portions  of  the 
old  world,  and  returning  the  next  year,  published 
"  Observations  in  Europe,  principally  in  France 
and  Great  Britain"  (2  vols.  12mo.,  New  York, 
1844),  and  "Observations  in  Egypt,  Palestine, 
Syria,  and  Asia  Jilinor"  (2  vols.  12mo.,  New  York, 
1845),  which  liad  a  large  sale.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  general  conference  of  1844,  and  took  an 
important  part  in  the  debate  which  i-esulted  in 
the  division  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church. 
In  1845  he  resigned  the  presidency  of  the  col- 
lege, and  was  stationed  in  Philadel[)hia  as  pre- 
siding elder.  In  1850  he  was  elected  corre- 
sponding secretary  of  the  missionary  society  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  church,  which  post  he 
occupies  at  the  present  time. 

pUREAU  DE  LA  MALLE,  Adolphe  Jules 
Cesar  Auguste,  a  French  author,  born  March 
2,  1777,  died  May  18,  1857.  Under  the  auspices 
of  his  father,  Jean  Baptiste  Joseph  PiEne,  the 
translator  of  Tacitus  and  Sallust  (born  1742,  died 
1807),  he  received  an  excellent  education.  He 
first  wrote  poetry  and  afterward  on  arclucology, 
geography,  political  economy,  and  climatology. 
His  most  important  work.  Economic  politique 
des  Romaim,  appeared  at  Paris  in  1840. 

DURER,  Albreoht,  a  German  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  in  Nuremberg,  May  20,  1471,  died 
there,  April  6, 1528.  His  father,  a  skilful  gold- 
smith, wished  him  to  follow  the  same  profession; 
but  yielding  to  his  son's  inclination  to  become  an 
artist,  he  placed  him,  when  15  years  of  age,  with 
Michael  Wohlgemuth,  the  leading  painter  of  Nu- 
remberg. With  him  Albrecht  remained  4  years, 
after  which  he  travelled  through  Germany  and 
the  Low  Countries,  employing  several  years  in 
the  study  not  merely  of  his  own  art  but  of 
many  of  the  most  important  collateral  branches. 
In  1494  he  established  himself  permanently  in 
Nuremberg,  and  shortly  after,  at  the  solicitation 
of  his  father,  married  the  daughter  of  Hans  Fritz, 
an  artisan  of  that  place.  The  union  was  not  a 
happy  one,  as  the  shrewish  temper  of  his  wife 
sorely  taxed  the  equanimity  of  the  painter,  and 
it  is  even  said  shortened  his  life.  During  his 
apprenticeship  to  Wolilgemuth,  and  his  absence 
from  Nuremberg,  he  had  painted  and  engi-aved 
on  wood,  although  nothing  is  known  with  cer- 
tainty of  his  youthful  works.  The  earliest  well 
authenticated  picture  by  him  bears  the  date  of 
1498,  and  is  a  portrait  of  himself.  Another 
similar  portrait,  dated  1500,  and  now  in  the 
Pinakothek  at  Munich,  gives  a  vivid  impression 
of  the  artist.  It  represents  a  man  in  the  prime 
of  life,  in  whose  noble  features  and  earnest  eye 


are  scon  the  evidences  of  a  reflective  mind.  He 
stands  in  a  dignified  attitude,  aud  his  hair  falls 
in  beautiful  ])rofusion  over  his  shoulders.  In 
his  last  portrait,  a  woodcut  of  the  year  1527, 
the  face  is  nuirked  by  lines  of  care,  and  the  head 
is  shorn  of  the  flowing  locks  in  which  the  artist 
was  wont  to  take  a  complacent  pride.  In  1498 
appeared  his  first  great  series  of  woodcuts,  illus- 
trating the  Revelation  of  St.  John ;  a  work  of 
singular  power,  in  which  tlie  artist's  imagination, 
however,  is  controlled  by  the  fantastic  element 
which  then  pervaded  German  art.  Throughout 
the  series  the  wonderful  and  monstrous  meet  in 
living  bodily  forms.  In  1506,  by  the  aid  of  his 
friend  Wilibald  Pirklieimer,  Diirer  made  a 
journey  to  northern  Italy,  and  remained  a  con- 
siderable time  at  Venice,  Bologna,  and  other 
places,  for  the  purpose  of  improving  himself  in 
liis  art ;  but  so  firmly  was  he  grounded  in  his 
peculiar  style,  that  the  graceful  productions  of 
the  Italian  schools  had  no  influence  upon  him. 
From  the  time  of  his  return  to  Nuremberg,  in 
1507,  ensued  a  period  of  singular  artistic  activity, 
and  among  the  great  works  which  he  then  pro- 
duced may  be  enumerated  the  paintings  of  the 
"Martyrdom  of  the  10,000  Saints,"  at  Vienna; 
the  "  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,"  burned  at 
Munich;  the  "Adoration  of  the  Trinity,"  at 
Vienna ;  "  Christ  taken  from  the  Cross,"  at  Nu- 
remberg; and  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  at 
Florence;  the  woodcut  series  of  the  "Gi-eater" 
and  "  Lesser  Passion,"  the  "  Life  of  the  Virgin," 
the  "  Triumphal  Arch  of  the  Emperor  Maximil- 
ian," &c. ;  the  copperplate  engravings  of  "The 
Kniglit,  Death,  aud  the  Devil,"  "Melancholy," 
"  St.  Jerome ;"  aud  portraits  of  his  friends  Pirk- 
heimer,  Melanchthon,  and'  Erasmus.  The  priut 
of  "TheEragU,  Death,  and  the  Devil"  suggest- 
ed to  FoLTqn6  liis  tale  of  "  Sintram  and  his  Com- 
panions." It  is  supposed  by  Bartsch  and  others 
that  the  woodcuts  which  pass  under  Dilrer's 
name  were  cut  by  engravers  from  liis  drawings 
on  the  wood.  His  career  was  prosperous,  and  he 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  many  of  the  most  learn- 
ed men  of  the  day,  to  Avhom  his  cultivation  of  / 
letters  no  less  than  his  artistic  genius  commend- 
ed him.  The  people  of  Nuremberg  delighted  to 
honor  their  great  painter,  who  was  for  many 
years  one  of  the  chief  burghers  of  his  native  town. 
The  emperors  Maximilian  I.  and  Charles  V.  suc- 
cessively appointed  him  court  painter,  and  the 
chief  cities  of  Germany  were  emulous  for  the 
possession  of  his  works.  In  1520  Diirer  made  a 
second  journey  to  the  Netherlands,  and  showed 
that  he  was  not  too  old  to  labor,  and  be  instructed 
in  his  art.  Melanchthon  tells  us  that  Diirer  con- 
fessed to  him  that  his  previous  works  fell  short 
of  his  present  conception  of  the  beauty  of  nature, 
and  that  he  regretted  bitterly  that  he  had  painted 
so  many  pictures  void  of  that  simplicity  which  is 
the  greatest  charm  of  art.  Under  the  influence 
of  this  visit  his  subsequent  works  exhil)it  a  soberer 
feeling,  and  a  refinement  of  that  exuberant  fency 
in  which  he  formerly  delighted.  In  152G  were 
produced  his  2  pictures  containing  figures  of  the 
size  of  life  of  the  apostles  John,  and  Peter,  Mark 


688 


DUEER 


DUEESS 


and  Paul,  wliicli  were  among  his  last,  as  they  aro 
generally  csieemed  his  grandest  works,  and  which 
he  presented  to  the  council  of  his  native  citj. 
Diirer  had  at  this  time  cmhraced  the  doctrines 
of  the  reformation,  and  these  paintings,  the  fruit 
of  earnest  reflection  and  of  deep  religious  con- 
viction, are  supposed  to  have  conveyed  the  art- 
ist's exhortation  to  his  countrymen  to  stand  firm 
in  the  new  faith.  Indignity  and  suhlimity  of  com- 
position, and  in  richness  of  color,  they  are  mas- 
terpieces of  art. — As  an  engraver  and  a  painter 
Diirer  was  one  of  the  most  reraarkahle  men  of  an 
age  prolific  of  great  artists.  In  grandeur  of  con- 
ception and  invention  he  was  in  fact  hefore  the 
age.  His  rich  and  inexhaustihle  spirit  grasped 
at  many  things.  In  painting,  he  raised  German 
art  to  an  excellence  which  passed  away  with 
him ;  he  found  engraving  in  its  infixncy,  and 
carried  it  to  a  perfection  never  since  surpassed ; 
he  cultivated  architecture  and  sculpture,  and  as 
a  theorist  Avrote  valuahle  treatises  on  geometry 
and  fortification,  with  a  purity  of  style  evinc- 
ing a  profound  knowledge  of  the  German  lan- 
guage. He  was  the  first  German  artist  who 
taught  the  rules  of  perspective,  and  insisted  on 
the  study  of  anatomy.  His  works  exhibit  a 
deep  sense  of  the  sublime  and  solemn,  as  also  of 
simple  grace  and  tenderness,  and  a  feeling  for  art 
such  as  could  only  have  inspired  a  great  master. 
Above  all,  his  imagination  seemed  boundless. 
But  the  tendency  to  the  fantastic,  a  striking  at- 
tribute of  old  German  art,  obstructed  the  pure 
development  of  his  power  as  an  ai'tist.  This 
tendency,  which  has  been  ascribed  to  the  pecu- 
liar physical  aspects  of  northern  nature,  and  of 
which  we  have  illustrations  in  the  Avild  legends 
and  the  grotesque  ornamentation  of  the  archi- 
tecture of  me(lia3val  Germany,  seems  to  have 
culminated  in  that  age  ;  and  with  his  countiy- 
men  Diirer  felt  its  influence,  and  reflected  it 
in  his  works.  Independence  of  thought  in 
matters  of  religious  belief  necessarily  suggest- 
ed a  greater  freedom  of  imagination,  and  he 
rejected  the  classic  ideal  which  Eaphael  and 
his  contemporaries  had  so  successfully  real- 
ized, to  wander  in  the  realms  of  fancy.  Henco 
his  strange  attitudes,  his  fanciful  draperies,  his 
over-elaborate  costumes  and  accessories,  and  the 
Gothic  element,  so  to  speak,  which  seems  to 
pervade  all  his  works.  His  wonderful  crea- 
tions, nevertheless,  surprised  apd  delighted  the 
Italians,  and  Vasari  confesses  that  he  would 
have  been  an  extraordinary  artist  had  he  en- 
joyed an  Italian  instead  of  a  German  educa- 
tion. Eaphael  had  the  highest  admiration  of 
his  genius,  and  sent  him  a  drawing  executed  by 
his  own  hand.  In  so  great  estimation  were  his 
])rints  hold,  that  the  engraver  Marc  Antonio 
Eaimondi  was  induced  to  execute  at  Venice  a 
set  of  the  "Passion"  and  the  "Life  of  the  Virgin," 
with  fiicsimiles  of  Diirer's  monogram  attached, 
which  were  sold  as  originals.  The  artist  was 
obliged  to  visit  A^enice  to  obtain  redress.  The 
memory  of  Diirer  is  held  in  great  veneration  by 
the  people  of  Nuremberg,  who  preserve  the 
house  in  which  he  lived  with  religious  care. 


On  the  sooth  anniversary  of  his  birth  the  corner 
stone  of  a  monument  to  his  memory  Avas  laid  in 
Nuremberg ;  and  in  May,  1840,  the  work  was  i 
completed  by  the  addition  of  a  bronze  statue  of 
the  artist  by  Ranch. 

DUEESS  (law  Lat.  dttrities,  Er.  duresse). 
Constraint,  either  by  actual  violence  or  the 
threat  of  some  injury,  is  in  law  an  excuse  for 
many  acts  which  would  otherwise  be  criminal ; 
so  it  is  also  a  ground  for  avoiding  conveyances, 
contracts,  and  other  civil  acts  which  have  been 
compelled  by  such  violence  or  threat.  A  dis- 
tinction is  however  made  as  to  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  duress,  in  the  two  classes  of  cases 
above  referred  to.  When  set  up  as  an  excuse 
for  a  criminal  act,  it  is  subject  to  several  qualifi- 
cations. 1.  It  cannot  in  general  be  admitted  in 
justification  of  a  capital  offence,  but  only  for 
lesser  crimes,  called  misdemeanors.  This  limi- 
tation applies  only  when  innocent  parties  are 
involved,  for  a  man  has  the  right  to  kill  an  as- 
sailant who  puts  him  in  peril  of  life  or  of  griev- 
ous bodily  injury.  2.  The  apprehension  of 
danger  must  be  such  as  might  be  reasonably 
entertained  by  a  person  of  ordinary  courage ; 
talis  quicndere  possit  in  mrum  constantem,  non 
timidum  et  meticulosum.  3.  The  injury  which 
is  threatened  must  he  such  as  to  endanger  loss 
of  life  or  limb.  Eear  of  assault  and  battery 
merely  would  not  justify,  according  to  the  old 
cases,  even  a  misdemeanor.  4.  Command  by  a 
father  or  master  is  not  a  justification  to  a  child 
or  servant  for  the  commission  of  a  crime,  yet 
the  wife  was  by  the  common  law  held  to  be  in 
the  power  of  the  husband  so  far  that  what  was 
done  by  her  in  his  presence  was  deemed  to  be 
done  under  duress,  and  was  a  justification  even 
for  Capital  oifences,  except  treason  and  murder. 
This  was  upon  the  legal  presumption  that  if  the 
husband  was  present,  the  wife  acted  by  his  co- 
ercion ;  still  greater  would  be  her  claim  to  ex- 
emption if  actual  coercion  could  be  proved. 
There  was,  however,  a  singular  inconsistency  in 
not  allowing  the  same  excuse  on  the  ground  of 
coercion,  actual  or  presumed,  in  respect  to  mere 
misdemeanors.  It  has  been  plausibly  suggested 
that  the  reason  of  this  anomaly  was  that  the 
Avife  was  not  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  clergy, 
while  the  husband  was  so  entitled ;  and  as  he 
could  therefore  escape  from  punishment  for  cer- 
tain offences,  but  the  wife  was  subject  to  the 
penalty,  the  law  humanely  interposed  and  re- 
lieved her  from  all  legal  liability  in  cases  where 
husband  and  wife  were  jointly  chargeable,  but 
in  which  a  claim  to  benefit  of  clergy  was  allow- 
ed, and  this  privilege  did  not  apply  to  misde- 
meanors, nor  to  murder  or  treason.  5.  Duress 
of  imprisonment,  by  which  is  meant  illegal  ar- 
rest or  deprivation  of  liberty,  is  i-eferred  to  in 
the  English  cases  only  as  a  ground  of  avoiding 
contracts ;  but  upon  the  principle  asserted  by  the 
common  law  that  a  man's  liberty  is  as  sacred  as 
the  security  of  life,  any  interference  therewith, 
unless  by  process  of  law,  should  be  held  a  jus- 
tification for  any  degree  of  force  necessary  to 
resist  an  unlawful  restraint  of  liberty ;  and  by 


DUEFEE 


DURmVM 


689 


analogy  to  other  cases  of  duress,  actual  impris- 
onmeut,  or  menace  of  imprisouraent,  should  also 
be  an  excuse  to  some  extent,  oven  if  not  a  full 
justification,  for  otienccs  wliich  would  be  ex- 
cused by  fear  of  bodily  injury.  On  tlie  otlier 
hand,  it  may  be  said  that  wrongful  imprison- 
ment is  not  a  permanent  injury,  like  bodily  muti- 
lation, and  can  be  compensated  in  damages.  Re- 
sistance to  an  unlawful  attempt  to  deprive  a  man 
of  liberty  would,  however,  it  may  be  presumed, 
be  justified,  even  to  the  extent  of  taking  the  life 
of  the  wrong  doer,  if  that  were  necessary  •  but 
neither  actual  nor  threatened  imprisonment  will 
justify  the  commission  of  a  criminal  offence  af- 
fecting any  other  person. — Duress  in  relation  to 
contracts  or  other  civil  acts,  is  not  limited  to 
bodily  injury  or  loss  of  personal  liberty,  but  may 
be  founded  upon  apprehension  of  damage  in 
respect  to  property.  The  apprehended  injury 
must,  however,  be  something  extraordinary,  and 
which  does  not  admit  of  exact  pecuniary  in- 
demnity ;  but  great  allowance  will  be  made  for 
the  effect  of  any  threatened  loss  in  the  disturb- 
ance of  a  man's  judgment  and  self-possession, 
and  probably  in  our  courts  a  contract  would 
be  held  void  which  had  been  procured  by  the 
menace  of  any  considerable  damage  when  made 
suddenly,  and  time  not  allowed  for  reflection. 
Bacon  mentions  the  perturbation  of  mind  as 
a  reason  why  coercion,  or  what  he  calls  neces- 
sity, "carrieth  a  privilege''  as  respects  crime 
(Bacon's  "Maxims,"  regula  5);  and  the  rea- 
son ought  to  have  equal  force  in  avoidance  of 
a  contract.  The  rule  as  stated  by  Blackstone 
is  much  narrower,  and  excludes  not  only  dam- 
age to  property,  but  even  personal  injury,  ex- 
cept what  involves  danger  to  Hfe  or  limb.  A 
fear  of  battery,  therefore,  or  of  having  one's 
house  burned,  or  goods  talcen  away,  he  says, 
is  no  duress,  because  in  these  cases  there  can  be 
pecuniary  compensation.  But  he  does  not  seem 
to  have  sufficiently  observed  the  distinction  be- 
tween duress  as  an  excuse  for  a  criminal  ofi:ence 
and  duress  as  a  ground  of  avoiding  a  contract. 
Bacon  with  more  discrimination  states  the  rule 
in  the  latter  case  that  restraint  of  a  man's  per- 
son, or  threat  of  a  batter^-,  or  of  burning  his 
house,  is  a  duress  which  will  avoid  a  bond  given 
under  such  restraint  or  menace.  In  the  courts 
of  the  United  States  the  rule  has  been  extended 
to  pecuniary  loss  affecting  personal  property. 
This  at  least  has  been  decided  in  the  states  of 
South  Carolina  and  New  York.  (See  1  Bray's 
Eep.  4ro  ;  2  id.  211 ;  5  Hill,  K  Y.,  154-.) 

DURFEE,  Job,  an  American  author  and  ju- 
rist, born  in  Tiverton,  R.  I.,  Sept.  20,  1790,  died 
there,  July  26,  1847.  He  was  graduated  at 
Brown  university  in  1813,  afterward  studied 
law,  was  elected  to  the  state  legislature  in  1814, 
and  in  1820  was  chosen  representative  in  con- 
gress, where  he  served  during  2  terms.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  state  legislature  again  in  1826, 
and  in  1833  was  appointed  associate  justice  of 
the  supreme  court  of  Rhode  Island.  In  1835 
he  became  chief  justice,  an  office  which  he  held 
until  his  death.  In  1832  he  published  a  poem 
VOL.  YI. —  44 


in  9  cantos,  entitled  "T7hatcheer,"  being  an  ac- 
count of  the  departure  of  Roger  Williams  from 
Salem,  his  adventures  in  tlie  wilderness,  and  the 
settlement  of  Rhode  Island.  lie  also  wrote  a 
j)hilosophical  treatise  called  "Panidea,"  to  prove 
the  pervading  influence  and  presence  of  God 
throughout  nature.  His  works  were  collected 
and  published  with  a  memoir  by  his  son  (8vo., 
Providence,  1849). 

D'URFEY,  Tjiomas,  a  humorous  English  poet, 
died  at  an  advanced  age,  Feb.  26,  1723.  He  was 
of  a  French  Protestant  family  which  had  fled 
from  LaRochellein  1628,  when  it  Avas  besieged 
by  Louis  XIII.,  and  had  settled  in  Exeter,  where 
the  poet  was  born.  Abandoning  the  profession 
of  law  for  the  more  congenial  pursuits  of  litera- 
ture, he  wrote  ballads,  sonnets,  irregular  odes, 
and  more  than  30  pieces  for  the  theatre.  His 
dramatic  pieces  were  very  successful ;  but  as  tliey 
are  written  in  the  licentious  style  prevalent  after 
the  restoration,  they  are  not  now  represented 
upon  the  stage.  His  works  show  the  character 
of  the  author,  who  was  sufficiently  amusing  to 
count  among  his  patrons  King  Charles  II.,  Queen 
Anne,  and  even  the  stern  and  sombre  "William 
III.  Steele  and  Addison  in  the  "  Guardian"  be- 
friended him,  and  solicited  the  attendance  of 
their  readers  to  a  play  for  his  benefit.  His  best 
known  work,  beside  his  i>lays,  was  a  collection 
of  songs  and  ballads,  partly  by  himself,  entitled 
"  Wit  and  Mirth,  or  Pills  to  purge  Melancholy  " 
(6  vols.  12mo.,  London,  17l9-'20). 

DURHAM,  a  maritime  co.  in  the  N.  of  Eng- 
land; area,  973  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1851,  390,997. 
The  general  aspect  of  the  county  is  mountain- 
ous, particularly  in  the  western  part,  where 
it  is  tra\  ersed  by  branches  of  that  range  of 
hills  to  which  the  name  of  the  English  Apen- 
nines has  been  applied.  From  these  several 
ridges  shoot  off  in  different  directions,  and 
some  of  them,  projecting  as  far  as  the  sea,  ter- 
minate in  tall  clifts  and  headlands.  Numer- 
ous rivers  rising  among  the  mountains  in  the 
west  flow  through  the  valleys  and  empty  into 
the  ocean.  Among  tliese  are  the  Tyne,  the 
Tees,  and  the  Wear,  aU  of  which  are  navigable 
for  a  considerable  part  of  their  course,  and  have 
important  towns  and  tolerable  harbors  at  their 
mouths.  The  valley  of  the  Tees,  particularly 
near  its  estuary,  has  a  great  deal  of  rich  alluvial 
soil,  under  carefid  cultivation,  or  devoted  to  pas- 
turage. It  is  here  that  the  Durham  cattle,  so 
famous  for  their  many  excellent  qualities,  are 
most  extensively  reared.  The  Teesdale  sheep, 
noted  for  their  unusual  size  and  tender  flesh, 
are  scarcely  less  celebrated  than  the  Durham 
cattle,  and  are  more  highly  prized  than  any 
other  English  breed.  In  the  bleak  table-lands 
of  the  western  part,  where  cultivation  is  not  at- 
tempted, are  found  rich  veins  of  lead,  and  east 
of  this  region  occurs  the  most  extensive  coal 
field  of  Great  Britain,  known  as  the  Newcastle 
coal  region.  In  addition  to  these  important 
productions,  iron,  firestone,  and  millstones  are 
found  in  large  quantities.  Limestone,  some  of 
it  of  a  peculiar  excellence,  underlies  an  exten- 


690 


DURHAM 


sive  portion  of  the  connty.  The  value  of  all 
these  products  is  vastly  increased  by  the  facilities 
of  transportation  from  the  mining?  district  to  the 
seaboard.  Beside  the  navigable  rivers,  there  are 
many  railways  traversing  the  county  and  con- 
necting the  great  coal  region  with  the  coast, 
with  Scotland,  and  with  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant towns  of  England.  The  principal  man- 
ufactures are  iron  work,  pottery,  glass,  coal 
tar,  salt,  linen,  and  woollen.  Durham  is  defi- 
cient in  timber,  and  with  the  exception  of  the 
groves  attached  to  country  seats  of  the  nobility, 
and  some  portions  of  the  vale  of  Derwent,  there 
is  little  "woodland  of  any  value.  Durham,  Ches- 
ter, and  Lancaster  were  formerly  counties  pala- 
tine, so  called  because  the  bishop  of  Durham, 
the  earl  of  Chester,  and  the  duke  of  Lancaster 
had  royal  rights  in  their  respective  territories 
as  fully  as  the  king  in  his  palace.  The  juris- 
diction of  the  bishop  of  Durham  was  transferred 
to  the  crown  in  the  reign  of  William  IV.  The 
county  consists  politically  of  2  divisions,  each  of 
"which  sends  2  members  to  the  house  of  com- 
mons.— Durham  (anc.  Dunelmia,  Dunchmtin, 
Dunhohnum,  Dim/wlme),  the  capital  of  the  coun- 
ty, is  an  ancient  episcopal  city  and  pai-liamentary 
borough,  built  on  7  small  hills,  and  nearly  en- 
compassed by  the  river  Wear,  which  is  here 
crossed  by  several  bridges ;  pop.  in  1851, 13,188. 
Its  external  appearance  is  at  once  attractive  and 
imposing.  The  river  banks  are  skirted  by  plan- 
tations, hanging  gardens,  and  beautiful  public 
walks,  beyond  which  the  houses  rise  one  above 
another,  until  they  are  crowned  by  the  grand 
cathedral  and  an  ancient  Norman  castle,  which 
occupy  the  summit  of  a  rocky  eminence.  The 
city  consists  of  several  divisions,  of  which  the 
one  situated  between  the  cathedral  and  the  river 
has  many  elegant  residences.  The  old  town, 
which  lies  N.  of  the  castle,  contains  most  of  the 
shops,  and  a  market  place  with  a  fountain. 
There  are  suburbs  on  each  side  of  the  river, 
some  of  which  are  occupied  chiefly  by  the  poorer 
classes.  Among  the  public  buildings  and  insti- 
tutions are  a  town  hall,  built  in  the  Tudor  baro- 
nial style,  a  great  number  of  schools,  an  infirm- 
ary, hospitals,  reading  rooms,  libraries,  assembly 
rooms,  a  theatre,  6  parish  churches,  various 
chapels,  and  a  university.  A  college  was  founded 
here  as  early  as  1290  by  the  prior  and  convent 
of  Durham,  which  was  afterward  enlarged,  and 
under  Henry  VIII.  was  transferred  with  all  its 
endowments  to  the  dean  and  chapter.  Under 
Cromwell  the  funds  were  employed  by  a  new 
corporation,  but  on  the  restoration  they  revert- 
ed to  the  former  trustees.  The  present  univer- 
sity owes  its  foundation  mainly  to  Dr,  Charles 
Thorp,  archdeacon  of  Durham.  It  Avas  opened 
to  students  in  1833,  and  incorporated  in  183V. 
Bishop  Hatfield's  hall  was  instituted  in  1846  for 
divinity  students.  The  most  interesting  edifice 
iu  Durham  is  tlie  cathedral,  founded  in  1093 
by  King  Malcolm  and  Bishop  Carilepho.  Its 
length,  including  the  western  porch,  is  507  feet, 
its  greatest  breadth  200  feet,  and  it  has  a  cen- 
tral tower  214  feet  high,  beside  2  low  towers. 


once  surmounted  by  spires.  Tlie  predominant 
style  of  architecture  is  the  early  Norman,  but  in 
the  various  additions  made  to  the  church  from 
time  to  time,  we  have  specimens  of  the  different 
styles  which  had  prevailed  in  England  up  to  the 
close  of  the  14th  century.  The  Galilee  chapel 
at  its  W.  end,  built  by  Bishop  Pudsey  between 
1153  and  1195,  contains  the  remains  of  the 
venerable  Bede ;  those  of  St.  Cuthbert,  the 
patron  of  the  church,  rest  in  the  chapel  of 
the  nine  altars.  The  old  church  of  St.  Nicho- 
las was  partly  repaired  and  partly  rebuilt  in 
1858,  and  is  now  considered  one  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  modern  church  architecture  in  the 
N.  of  England.  There  is  a  school  house  at- 
tached to  it.  Immediately  opposite  the  cathe- 
dral stands  the  castle,  founded  by  William  the 
Conqueror  for  the  twofold  purpose  of  maintain- 
ing the  royal  authority  in  the  adjoining  districts 
and  protecting  the  country  from  the  inroads  of 
the  Scots.  Many  additions  have  been  made 
to  it,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  part  of 
the  original  keep,  except  the  foundation,  now 
remains.  For  many  years  it  was  the  residence 
of  the  bishop  of  the  palatinate,  but  of  late  it  has 
been  given  up  to  the  uses  of  the  university.  The 
see  of  Durham  was  long  the  richest  in  England, 
and  for  the  3  years  ending  with  1831,  the  average 
annual  net  revenue  of  the  bishop  was  £19,066 ; 
but  in  1836  his  income  was  fixed  at  £8,000,  the 
surplus  revenue  being  applied  to  the  augmenta- 
tion of  the  incomes  of  poorer  bishops.  Prior 
to  the  opening  of  the  collieries,  and  the  construc- 
tion of  the  numerous  railways  which  now  inter- 
sect the  county,  Durham  made  little  progress, 
but  the  activity  awakened  by  these  great  works 
has  given  a  powerful  impetus  to  its  trade  and 
population.  It  has  manufactories  of  carpeting 
and  mustard.  In  the  vicinity  are  Neville's 
Cross,  erected  by  Lord  Neville  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  defeat  of  David  II.  of  Scotland,  in 
1346,  and  the  site  of  an  old  Roman  fortress, 
called  the  Maiden  castle.  The  town  sends  2 
members  to  the  house  of  commons. 

DURHAM,  Joim  George  Lambton,  earl  of, 
an  English  statesman,  born  in  Durham,  April 
12,  1792,  died  in  the  isle  of  Wight,  July  28, 
1840.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  served  a  short 
time  in  a  regiment  of  hussars,  married  at  the 
age  of  20,  and  had  hardly  attained  his  majority 
when  he  was  returned  to  parliament  for  his  na- 
tive.county.  His  first  speech,  delivered  in  1814, 
was  an  unsuccessful  appeal  in  behalf  of  the  peo- 
ple of  Norway  struggling  under  Prince  Christian 
of  Denmark  for  their  national  independence,  in 
opposition  to  the  stipulations  of  the  allies  at  Kiel. 
The  next  year  he  introduced  a  motion  in  behalf 
of  Genoa,  to  which  the  reestablishment  of  its  an- 
cient constitution  had  been  promised  by  Lord 
Bentinck  in  the  name  of  England,  but  which  was 
by  the  stipulations  of  the  congress  of  Vienna  an- 
nexed to  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia.  When  the  Cas- 
tlereagh  ministry  in  1816  proposed  to  add  more 
rigorous  conditions  to  the  alien  act,  he  opposed 
the  measure  with  great  energy.  During  the  char- 
tist excitement  of  1819,  he  vindicated  the  rights 


DURHAM 


Dt^RRENSTEIN" 


691 


of  tho  people,  not  only  in  parllaracnt,  but  in  nu- 
merous public  meetings,  lie  was  one  of  the  de- 
fenders of  Queen  Caroline  in  1821,  and  seconded 
Lord  Tavistock's  motion  of  censure  on  the  min- 
istry for  their  proceedings  against  her.  Tlie 
same  year  he  promulgated  a  scheme  of  parlia- 
mentary reform,  and  tliougli  his  bill  was  rejected 
by  a  manoeuvre  before  discussion,  yet  10  years 
later  ho  saw  his  ideas  revived  in  the  celebrated 
reform  act,  in  tlio  passage  of  which  ho  then  as- 
sisted as  a  member  of  the  cabinet.  In  1826  the 
feebleness  of  his  health  obliged  him  to  relax  his 
labors,  and  he  passed  a  year  in  ]sra[)les,  and  on 
his  return  to  England  was  raised  by  Lord  Go- 
derich  to  the  peerage,  under  the  title  of  Baron 
Durham.  Upon  the  formation  of  the  ministry 
of  his  father-in-law,  Lord  Grey,  in  1830,he  was 
called  into  the  cabinet  as  lord  privy  seal.  This 
administration  was  formed  upon  the  basis  of 
making  parliamentary  reform  a  cabinet  ques- 
tion, and  the  preparation  of  the  plan  of  reform 
was  intrusted  to  Lord  Durham,  Lord  John  Rus- 
sell, Sir  James  Graham,  and  Lord  Duncannon. 
To  Lord  Durham  fell  the  task  of  defending  the 
bill  in  the  house  of  lords,  a  difficult  labor,  since 
he  had  to  contend  not  only  against  the  open  oppo- 
sition of  the  tories,  but  against  the  secret  repug- 
nance of  many  of  his  colleagues  and  political  asso- 
ciates. His  health  suffered  a  heavy  shock  at  this 
time  by  the  death  of  his  eldest  son,  and  though 
he  afterward  spoke  a  few  times  upon  the  2d  and 
8d  bills,  he  retired  from  tlie  administration  in 
1833,  and  was  raised  to  an  earldom.  He  was 
sent  the  same  year  upon  a  special  mission  to 
Russia;  but  he  was  unsuccessful  in  his  main 
object,  which  was  to  induce  the  Russian  govern- 
ment to  mitigate  its  severity  toward  the  Poles, 
who  had  lately  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  recover  their  independence.  Returning  to 
England,  his  liberal  views  brought  him  into 
collision  with  the  existing  government.  His 
separation  from  his  former  colleagues  was 
clearly  manifested  in  remarks  which  he  made 
at  a  public  dinner  given  to  Lord  Grey  at  Edin- 
burgh, which  caused  him  to  be  generally  re- 
garded as  the  leader  of  the  movement  party. 
The  insurrection  in  Canada  in  1837  and  the  fol- 
lowing years  opened  a  new  field  to  his  activity, 
and  in  1838  he  was  sent  thither  as  governor  with 
extraordinary  powers,  the  ministry  hoping  that 
his  liberality  of  sentiment  and  large  political 
experience  would  secure  the  confidence  of  the 
people.  Yet  his  administration  there  was  brief. 
Trying  at  once  to  conciliate  and  to  punish, 
he  gained  only  the  ill  will  of  the  Canadians ; 
and  surpassing  his  powers  by  transporting  the 
leaders  of  the  rebellion  for  an  indefinite  time  to 
Bermuda,  a  disapproval  of  his  conduct  was 
voted  by  parliament.  Lord  Durham  complained 
that  he  was  not  vigorously  supported  by  the 
ministry,  resigned  his  oflice,  and  suddenly  re- 
turned to  England.  He  prepared  an  elaborate 
report  on  Canadian  affairs,  setting  forth  liberal 
principles  of  colonial  government,  and  proposing 
the  union  of  the  two  provinces,  which  has  had 
much  influence  on  British  colonial  administra- 


tion. His  policy  and  plans  were  adopted  by  his 
successor,  and  vindicated  by  himself  in  tho 
house  of  lords.  His  pcjlitical  views  giving  him 
an  almost  solitary  position,  and  being  unable  by 
reason  of  feeble  health,  under  which  he  had  long 
suffered,  to  sustain  alone  a  struggle  in  parlia- 
ment, he  afterward  took  but  little  part  in  public 
affairs. 

DiJ'RINGRFELD,  Ida  vox,  a  German  author- 
ess, born  in  Lower  Silesia,  Nov.  12,  1815,  mar- 
ried in  1845  Baron  Reinsberg,  visited  Italy  and 
Switzerland,  and  wrote  interesting  sketches  of 
her  travels  {Reiseslcizzen,  vol.  i.,  Switzerland, 
1850 ;  vol.  ii.,  Italy,  185T ;  vol.  iii.,  Carinthia, 
1857 ;  vols.  iv.  and  v.,  Dalmatia,  1857),  and  a 
series  of  sketches  of  high  life,  or  Slizzen  aus 
der  tornehmen  Welt  (0  vols.,  1842-45).  Tho 
most  recent  of  her  numerous  works  are  Esther 
(Breslau,  1851),  and  Clotilde  (Berlin,  1855). 
She  has  also  written  i)oetry  and  songs,  and  trans- 
lated Bohen)ian  national  songs  into  German 
(Bohmisclte  Hosen,  Breslau,  1851).  Several  of 
her  original  songs  were  set  to  music,  and  her 
Lieder  aus  Toscana  ai)pcared  in  Dresden  in  1855. 

DUROC,  Gekard  CnKisTOPHE  Michel,  duke 
of  Friuli,  a  French  general,  born  in  Pont-a-Mous- 
son,  near  Nancy,  Oct.  25, 1772,  killed  nearMark- 
ersdorf,  in  the  vicinity  of  Gorlitz,  Prussia,  May 
23,  1813.  After  having  served  in  the  first  wars 
of  the  revolution  as  adjutant  of  Gen.  L'Espinasse, 
he  joined  the  army  of  Italy  in  179G,  became 
brigadier-general  in  1797,  took  part  in  the  Egyp- 
tian campaign,  and  after  Napoleon's  return  to 
France  and  the  18th  Brumaire,  in  which  he  was 
a  chief  actor,  he  was  made  lieutenant-general 
and  governor  of  the  Tuileries.  Subsequently  he 
was  employed  on  dij)lomatic  missions  in  Stock- 
holm, Copenhagen,  St.  Petersburg,  Berlin,  and 
Dresden ;  took  part  in  1805  in  the  battle  of 
Austerlitz  as  successor  of  Gen.  Oudinot,  who 
had  been  wounded  ;  and  accompanied  Napoleon 
in  his  campaigns  in  180G  and  1807.  In  1809 
he  was  with  the  emperor  in  Austria,  and  nego- 
tiated the  truce  of  Znaym.  In  1812  he  was  in 
the  Russian  campaign,  always  enthusiastically 
devoted  to  the  cause  of  Napoleon,  of  whom  he 
was  a  great  favorite.  After  the  battle  of  Baut- 
zen, while  escorting  the  emperor  to  an  adjoin- 
ing elevation  for  tho  purpose  of  inspecting  the 
battle  ground,  he  was  killed  by  a  cannon  shot. 
The  farm  house  in  which  he  died  the  same 
evening  was  purchased  by  Napoleon,  wlio  caused 
a  moniunent  to  be  erected  there  to  Duroc's 
memory.  His  remains  were  interred  in  1845 
in  the  church  of  the  Invalides  in  Paris. 

DURRENSTEIN,  a  town  of  Lower  Austria, 
on  the  Danube,  41  m.  W.  by  N.  from  Vienna, 
belonging  to  the  princely  house  of  Starhemberg; 
pop.  500.  It  is  famous  for  its  ruins  of  the  old 
castle  in  which  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  while 
returning  from  his  crusade  in  Palestine  in  1193, 
was  kept  a  prisoner  during  15  months  by  Duke 
Leopold  of  Austria.  The  castle  is  seen  on  a 
naked  and  lofty  rock  back  of  the  village,  ou 
the  border  of  the  dark  heights  of  the  Wunder- 
berg.    Here  on  Nov.  11,  ISOo,  the  French  un- 


692 


DiiSSELTHAL 


DUTENS 


der  Mortier  defeated  the  Austrians  and  Eussians 
oinder  Kutusoff. 

DUSSELTmVL,  formerly  a  convent  of  Trap- 
pists  between  Dilsseldorf  and  Elberfeld;  at  pres- 
ent an  educational  institution,  established  in 
1821  by  a  Prussian  nobleman  for  the  benefit  of 
helpless  children,  and  of  converted  Jews  who 
"wish  to  become  mechanics  or  farmers. 

DUSSELDORF,  a  district  of  Ehenish  Prussia, 
bounded  N.  and  W.  by  Holland,  and  traversed 
by  the  Rhine;  area,  2,096  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1855, 
1,017,500.  The  14  circles  of  the  district  include 
the  circle  of  Dlxsseldorf  (pop.  in  1855,  85,500), 
and  the  most  celebrated  manufacturing  towns  of 
the  country,  as  Elberfeld,  Crefeld,  Soliugen,  Len- 
nep,  &c.  The  industrial  interests  absorb  the  best 
energies  of  the  inhabitants,  and  agricultural 
pursuits  are  comparatively  neglected.  On  the 
left  shore  of  the  Rhine,  however,  the  richness 
of  the  soil  is  great,  and  the  trade  in  cereals  and 
cattle  is  not  inconsiderable,  although  a  more 
steady  attention  to  the  resources  of  husbandry 
might  enhance  its  importance.  The  district 
abounds  in  mineral  wealth,  especially  in  coal 
and  iron. — Dusseldoef,  the  capital  of  the  dis- 
trict and  circle  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Dilssel  with  the  Rhine,  22 
m.  by  railway  N.  from  Cologne;  pop.  in  1855, 
45,000.  As  a  great  focus  of  railway  and  steam- 
boat communication,  a  fair  proportion  of  the 
transit  trade  of  the  Rhine  is  carried  on  by  the 
merchants  of  Diisseldorf  The  manufacturing 
interest  is  not  as  fully  represented  as  in  Elberfeld 
and  other  neighboring  towns,  but  there  are 
many  carriage,  tapestry,  cotton,  tobacco,  and 
mustard  manufactories,  tanneries,  and  dyeing 
establishments.  In  1288  Diisseldorf  became  a 
municipality.  In  modern  times  it  has  been  suc- 
cessively under  the  dominion  of  Brandenburg 
and  Neuburg,  under  French  and  Bavarian  rule, 
and  was  for  some  time  the  capital  of  the  duchy 
of  Berg,  until  in  1815  it  passed  with  the  whole 
duchy  under  the  sway  of  Prussia.  It  is  divided 
into  4  sections,  the  Altstadt,  the  Karlstadt,  the 
Friedrichsstadt,  and  the  Neustadt.  The  last  was 
laid  out  by  Johann  Wilhelm,  the  elector  palatine, 
whose  statue  adorns  the  market  square  and  the 
palace  yard.  The  Karlstadt  is  the  most  modern 
part  of  the  town,  and  deriyes  its  name  from  Karl 
Theodor,  its  founder,  the  same  public-spirited 
prince  who  established  in  1Y67  the  academy  of 
painting.  The  town  possesses  many  delightful 
parks  or  gardens,  and  the  Hofgarten  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  Prussia.  New  and  beautiful  streets  have 
been  laid  out  within  the  last  15  years  in  the 
southern  and  eastern  portions  of  the  town.  The 
prominent  public  buildings  are  the  governor's 
palace,  the  town  hall,  the  cabinet  of  antiquities 
and  that  of  scientific  instruments,  the  tribunals, 
the  observatory,  which  occupies  the  former  col- 
legiate buildings  of  the  Jesuits,  the  St.  Andreas 
church,  which  also  belonged  to  the  Jesuits  in 
former  times,  and  the  church  of  St.  Lambert. 
Both  churches  contain  monuments  of  the  ancient 
sovereign  princes  of  Diisseldorf.  There  are  nu- 
merous chai'itable  and  literary  associations,  a 


gymnasium,  a  primary  school,  a  polytechnic  in- 
stitute, an  academy  of  commerce,  and  a  good 
theatre.  The  celebrated  picture  gallery,  which 
was  established  here  in  1690,  and  which  con- 
tained supei-b  specimens  of  the  best  Flemish  and 
Dutch  masters,  was  transferred  to  Munich  in 
1805.  The  collection  of  14,000  original  draw- 
ings and  24,000  engravings  and  casts,  however, 
which  formed  part  of  the  same  gallery,  still  re- 
mains in  Diisseldorf,  and  received  in  1841  an 
addition  of  300  water-color  drawings  after  Italian 
masters.  Art  has  flourished  here  more  than  in 
any  other  German  town,  especially  since  1822, 
when  Frederic  "William  III.  renovated  the  build- 
ing of  the  academy,  and  when  at  the  same  time 
Cornelius,  Schadow,  and  other  artists  of  genius 
arose  to  give  a  powerful  impulse  to  art  generally, 
by  laying  the  foundation  of  the  Diisseldorf  school 
of  painters.  The  art  union  for  Rhenish  Prussia 
and  Westphalia  was  founded  here  in  1828.  The 
engravers'  establishment  of  the  royal  academy 
of  Schulgen-Bettendorf  was  removed  from  Bonn 
to  Diisseldorf  in  1837.  Beside  the  academy  of 
painting,  there  is  a  school  for  painters  and  one 
for  architects.  The  average  annual  attendance 
of  art  students  at  the  various  institutions  is 
about  400.  There  are  2  political  and  several  lit- 
erary and  humorous  papers  and  magazines  pub- 
lished in  Diisseldorf.  Among  the  many  eminent 
persons  born  in  the  town  were  Heine  the  poet, 
and  Cornelius  the  painter. 

DUTCH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 
See  Netherlaxos. 

DUTCHESS,  a  S.  E.  co.  of  N.  Y.,  bounded 
"W.  by  the  Hudson  river,  and  E.  by  Connecticut; 
area,  816  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1855,  60,635.  The  sur- 
face is  uneven  and  in  many  parts  hilly.  Fishkill 
river  and  "Wappinger's  creek  supply  it  with  good 
water  power,  which  is  employed  in  a  number 
of  mills.  Much  of  the  soil  is  best  adapted  to 
grazing,  but  the  cultivated  portions  are  carefully 
improved  and  very  fertile,  yielding  large  crops 
of  grain  and  potatoes.  The  productions  in  1855 
were  558,308  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  626,847  of 
oats,  34,720  of  wheat,  205,498  of  potatoes,  83,878 
tons  of  hay,  and  1,681,595  lbs.  of  butter.  There 
were  39  grist  mills,  12  sawmills,  6  cotton  and  6 
woollen  factories,  9  furnaces,  132  churche«,  10 
newspaper  ofiices,  and  206  school  houses.  Lime- 
stone, slate,  marble,  iron,  and  lead  are  the  most 
important  minerals.  The  county  has  great  fa- 
cilities for  communication  with  New  York,  Al- 
bany, and  other  parts  of  the  Union,  by  means  of 
the  Hudson  river,  navigable  along  its  western 
border,  and  the  Hudson  river  and  Harlem  rail- 
roads, which  intersect  it.  Capital,  Poughkeepsie. 

DUTENS,  Joseph  Michel,  a  French  political 
economist,  born  in  Tours,  Oct.  15,  1765,  died 
Aug.  6, 1848.  He  was  educated  as  a  civil  engi- 
neer, and  in  1800  published  a  topographical  de- 
scription of  the  arrondissement  of  Louviers 
(Eure).  He  first  became  known  as  an  economist 
by  his  Anah/xe  raisoiinee  des  principcs  fonda- 
mentavx  de  Veconomie  j>olitiqtie  (8vo.,  Paris, 
1804).  In  1818,  being  appointed  by  the  French 
government  to  examine  the  system  of  interior 


DUTROOHET 


DUVERGIER  DE  HAURANNE    G93 


navigation  in  England,  Lq  enlarged  the  object 
of  bis  iiiisslou  to  a  careful  exaniinatioa  of  all  the 
great  public  works  of  that  country,  and  pub- 
lished his  learned  researches  during  the  next 
year.  His  most  important  work  was  published 
in  1835  with  the  title  ud'/iilosophie  de  Vecouomie 
politique^  oa  nouccUe  exposition  des principes  dc 
cette  science  (2  vols.  8vo.),  which  opened  a  lively 
discussion  between  him  and  the  disciples  of 
Adam  Smith,  lie  i)ublished  another  work  in 
defence  of  his  later  principles  of  economy,  in 
which,  in  accordance  with  the  school  of  Quesnay 
and  Turgot,  ho  maintains  that  commercial  and 
manufiicturiiig  industry  does  not  give  a  net  pro- 
duct, and  that  this  advantage  can  bo  predicated 
only  of  agricultural  labor. 

DUTROOHET,  Rexk  Joachim  Henri,  a 
French  physiologist,  born  in  Noon,  Xov.  14, 
1770,  died  Feb.  4,  1847.  His  family  was  rich 
and  noble;  but  their  property  having  been  con- 
fiscated during  the  revolution,  ho  studied  medi- 
cine in  Paris,  and  served  in  the  army  as  physician 
in  the  Spanish  campaigns  of  1808  and  1809. 
He  published  researches  upon  the  formation  of 
the  egg  in  birds  and  fowls,  upon  the  gradual 
unfolding  of  the  allantois  in  the  incubated  egg, 
upon  the  increase  of  the  young  as  the  albumen 
diminishes,  upon  the  structure  and  growth  of 
feathers,  upon  the  envelopes  of  the  fcetus  of 
mammalia  and  of  the  human  foetus,  and  upon 
the  growth  of  vegetables  and  insects.  His  most 
important  works  were  collected  in  1837  under 
the  title  of  Memoires  pour  sertir  d  Vhistoire 
anatornique  et  jyhysiologique  des  vegetaux  et  des 
aaimuux ;  and  in  1842  he  published  Recherches 
physiques  &ur  la  force  epiploique. 

DUUMVIRS,  among  the  ancient  Romans,  two 
officers  appointed  temporarily  and  for  a  partic- 
ular purpose.  They  were  therefore  of  various 
sorts,  and  were  specially  named  from  the  nature 
of  their  functions.  The  duumviri  juri  dicundo 
were  the  highest  magistrates  of  colonies  and 
towns,  where  they  had  the  rank  of  consuls  at 
Rome.  The  duumviri  navaJes  bad  charge  of 
the  construction  and  equipping,  and  sometimes 
of  the  command  of  fleets.  The  duumviri  quin- 
quennales  were  the  censors  of  municipal  towns. 
The  duumviri  sacrorum  had  originally  the 
charge  of  the  Sibylline  books.  The  duumviri 
ludorum  in  the  Byzantine  empire  were  function- 
aries elected  to  the  burdensome  office  of  exhib- 
iting games  at  their  own  expense  to  the  people 
for  one  year. 

DUVAL,  a  N.  E.  co.  of  Fla.,  bordering  on  the 
Atlantic,  and  bounded  by  St.  John's  river  on 
the  E.  and  Nassau  river  on  the  N. ;  area,  430  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  4,539,  of  whom  2,106  were 
slaves.  The  surface  is  generally  level,  and  tlij 
soil  adapted  to  sugar,  cotton,  Indian  corn,  and 
sweet  potatoes.  In  1850  it  produced  391  hhds. 
of  sugar,  216  bales  of  cotton,  51,788  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  and  27,674  of  sweet  potatoes. 
There  were  5  saw  mills  in  the  county,  8  church- 
es, and  64  pupils  attending  public  schools.  Cap- 
ital, Jacksonville. 

DUVAL,  Valentin  Jamebay,  a  French  schol- 


ar, born  at  Arthonnaj',  in  Champagne,  in  1095, 
died  in  Vienna,  Sept.  13,  1775.  After  the  death 
of  bis  father,  who  was  a  poor  peasant  of  the 
name  of  Jameray,  young  Valentin  was  charita- 
bly taken  up  by  a  priest,  who  stored  his  mind 
with  piety  and  learning.  Subsequently  be  was 
enqdoyed  as  cowherd  by  4  ignorant  hermits 
near  Luneville,  but  took  every  opportunity  to 
increase  his  knowledge.  Ho  purchased  books 
from  the  proceeds  of  the  game  which  he  found 
in  the  adjoining  woods,  and  his  library  received 
an  unexpected  addition  from  a  present  of  $30 
given  to  him  by  an  Englishman  for  having  found 
and  restored  to  him  a  golden  seal  which  he  had 
lost.  He  had  accumulated  about  200  books, 
when  one  of  the  hermits,  exasperated  at  his 
neglecting  the  cows  for  his  reading,  threatened 
to  burn  his  library.  The  young  man,  enraged, 
drove  the  hermit  from  his  cell,  barred  the  door, 
and  would  not  capitulate  untd  his  employers 
agreed  to  allow  bira  two  hours  a  day  for  study; 
in  consideration  of  which  he  bound  himself  to 
serve  them  10  years  longer,  Avith  no  other  wages 
than  his  board  and  clothing.  One  day  whilo 
keeping  his  cows,  and  surrounded  as  usual  with 
books  and  maps,  be  was  found  by  Leopold  of 
Lorraine,  who  placed  him  under  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  Jesuits  of  Pont-a-Moussou.  Here 
be  made  rapid  progress,  and  Duke  Leopold 
took  him  to  Paris  in  1718.  Subsequently  be 
appointed  him  librarian  and  professor  of  his- 
tory at  the  noblemen's  academy  of  Luneville. 
Among  his  pupils  Avas  "William  Pitt,  afterward 
earl  of  Chatham.  The  income  he  now  received 
soon  enabled  him  to  build  a  homestead  upon  the 
spot  of  his  early  solitary  haunts.  "When  Lorraine 
w^as  ceded  to  France  be  accompanied  Duke 
Francis,  in  bis  old  capacity  of  librarian,  to  Flor- 
ence. Here  be  resided  for  nearly  10  years,  until 
Francis  became  emperor  of  Germany,  and  called 
him  to  preside  over  the  collection  of  coins  and 
medals  at  Vienna ;  this  post  be  held  until  his 
death.  His  complete  works,  chiefly  on  numis- 
matics, were  published  in  1786,  at  St.  Peters- 
burg and  Basel,  by  Koch. 

DUVAUCEL,  Alfked,  a  French  naturalist, 
born  in  Paris  in  1792,  died  in  Madras,  India,  in 
Aug.  1824.  Ho  entered  the  military  service  at 
an  early  age,  and  gained  some  distinction  at  the 
siege  of  Antwerp  in '1814.  After  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Bourbons,  under  the  influence  of 
Cuviei*,  who  had  married  bis  mother,  he  turned 
his  attention  to  the  study  of  natural  history.  In 
1818  he  was  sent  on  a  scientific  expedition  to  In- 
dia, where,  with  his  colleague  Diard,  be  form- 
ed at  Chandernagore  a  museum  of  natural 
history.  They  prosecuted  their  researches  for 
several  years  with  success,  and  at  different  times 
sent  to  Paris  4  large  collections  of  animals. 

DUVERGIER  DE  HAURANXE,  Jean,  a 
French  theologian,  born  in  Bayonne  in  1581, 
died  Oct.  11,  1643.  He  was  educated  in  theol- 
ogy at  Louvain,  where  Jansenius  was  at  the 
same  time  a  student,  and  these  two  young  eccle- 
siastics formed  an  intimate  friendship.  "While 
Jansenius  was  working  upon  bis  AuguMtinus^ 


694 


DUVERNOY 


DWARF 


Buverglcr  was  appointed  to  the  abbey  of  St. 
Cyran.  Preserving  an  ascetic  exterior,  a  regu- 
lar life,  and  an  inflexible  character,  he  introduced 
into  his  monastery  the  rules  of  St.  Benedict  in 
all  their  severity.  His  rigor  and  zeal  becoming 
known,  he  was  invited  to  Paris,  wliere  he  made 
numerous  disciples  in  all  classes  of  society,  and 
obtained  great  reputation  and  influence  as  the 
confessor  of  noble  women  who  were  inclined  to 
the  severity  of  asceticism.  He  refused  several 
bishoprics.  His  Jansenist  principles  brought 
upon  liim  the  enmity  of  the  Jesuits,  and  in  1 638, 
complaints  having  been  borne  to  Richelieu,  he 
was  by  order  of  that  minister  imprisoned  at 
Vincennes.  He  lived  but  a  short  time  after  his 
release  upon  the  death  of  Richelieu.  His  most 
celebrated  writings  are  those  which  he  directed 
against  the  Jesuit  Garasse.  Pascal,  Arnauld,  and 
Nicole  were  his  disciples. — Pkospek,  a  French 
politician  and  author,  born  in  Rouen,  Aug.  3, 
1798.  In  1831  he  was  chosen  to  the  chamber 
of  deputies  from  Sancerre,  and  at  first  gave  his 
support  to  the  government  of  Louis  Philippe. 
Subsequently,  however,  he  became  one  of  the 
prominent  champions  of  reform.  After  the  rev- 
olution of  1848  he  represented  the  department 
of  Cher  in  the  constituent  assembly,  and  in  Nov. 
1850,  became  a  member  of  the  legislative  as- 
sembly. After  the  couj)  (Petal  of  Dec.  2,  1851, 
he  was  imprisoned  in  the  fortress  of  Vincennes, 
and  afterward  banished  from  the  country  until 
Aug.  1852,  when  he  received  permission  to  re- 
turn. Many  of  his  writings,  which  originally 
appeared  in  the  Rerue  des  deux  mondes,  have 
been  published ;  and  the  3d  volume  of  his  Mis- 
toire  du  gouvenement  parlementaire  en  France 
appeared  at  Paris  in  1859. 

DUVERNOY,  Georges  Loris,  a  French  nat- 
uralist, born  in  Montbd'liard,  Aug.  6,  ITT'T,  died 
in  Paris,  March  1,  1855.  He  pursued  his  studies 
at  Stuttgart,  Strasbourg,  and  Paris,  and  in  1802 
was  invited  by  Cuvier,  to  whom  he  was  related, 
to  assist  in  editing  his  treatise  on  comparative 
anatomy.  "With  the  aid  of  the  notes  and  coun- 
sels of  his  master,  he  prepared  the  last  3  volumes 
of  this  work,  embracing  the  organs  of  digestion, 
respiration,  circulation,  generation,  and  the  se- 
cretions. He  returned  to  Montbeliard,  where 
for  20  years  he  practised  medicine,  publishing 
only  a  few  writings  on  fossils.  In  1827  he  was 
elected  professor  of  the  faculty  of  sciences  at 
Strasbourg,  where,  during  10  years,  he  publish- 
ed a  variety  of  papers  on  anatomical  subjects ; 
and  after  the  death  of  Cuvier  he  was  engaged 
in'arranging  his  papers  for  publication.  In  1837 
he  was  elected  professor  of  natural  history  in  the 
college  of  France.  He  has  published  numerous 
works,  which  have  furnished  important  materials 
to  anatomists  and  zoologists. 

DTJYCKINCK,  Evert  AroTisTrs,  an  Ameri- 
can author,  a  son  of  Evert  Dnyckinck,  for  many 
vears  a  leading  bookseller  and  publisher  of  New 
York,  born  in  that  city -in  1816.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Columbia  College  in  1835.  In^Dec. 
1840,  he  commenced  with  Mr.  Cornelius  Mathews 
%  monthly  periodical    entitled    "Arcturus-   a 


Magazine  of  Books  and  Opinion,"  which  wa? 
continued  until  May,  1842.  He  was  also  a  con- 
tributor to  the  early  numbers  of  the  "New 
York  Review."  In  1847  he  commenced  the 
"  Literary  World,"  a  weekly  critical  journal ;  he 
withdrew  from  the  editorsliip  with  the  publica- 
tion of  the  12th  number,  but  resumed  the  post 
on  the  appearance  of  the  88th,  in  connection 
with  his  brother  George  L.  Duyckinck.  The 
jjeriodical  remained  under  their  joint  manage- 
ment until  its  discontinuance  at  the  close  of  the 
year  1853.  In  1856  the  two  brothers  completed 
the  "  Cycloptedia  of  American  Literature"  (2 
large  vols.  8vo.),  a  work  of  great  research  and 
value.  In  the  same  year  Mr.  Dnyckinck  pub- 
lished the  "  Wit  and  Wisdom  of  Sydney  Smith," 
a  selection  from  the  works  of  that  author,  with 
an  original  memoir.  He  has  also  contributed 
largely  to  several  periodicals. — George  Long, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  New  York 
in  1823,  was  graduated  at  the  university  of  that 
city  in  1843.  In  addition  to  his  share  in  the 
"Literary  World"  and  "Cyclopfedia  of  Ameri- 
can Literature,"  he  is  the  author  of  "  George 
Herbert  of  Bemerton,"  published  in  1858,  and 
a  life  of  Bishop  Thomas  Ken  (1859).        * 

DWARACA,  or  Jigat,  a  town  of  Guzerat, 
Hindostan,  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  pen- 
insula of  Cattywar.  It  is  fabled  to  have  been 
the  residence  of  Krishna,  and  is  the  seat  of  a 
celebrated  temple  of  that  divinity,  with  a  spire 
140  feet  in  heiglit,  consisting  of  a  series  of  py- 
ramids. It  is  annually  resorted  to  by  15,000  pil- 
grims. It  contains  about  2,500  houses,  and  has 
an  important  trade  in  chalk. 

DWARF  (Sax.  dwerg^  diceorg),  an  animal  or 
a  plant  that  does  not  attain  the  ordinary  size  of 
its  species.  A  degree  of  dwarfishness  may  be 
the  general  result  of  natural  causes,  as  of  exces- 
sive cold,  since  both  plants  and  animals  diminish 
in  stature  toward  the  poles  ;  or  may  be  pro- 
duced by  artificial  meajis,  as  lack  of  nourish- 
ment, compression,  or  mutilation.  The  growth 
of  young  animals  may  be  arrested  by  excit- 
ing aliments  and  alcoholic  drinks  and  lotions. 
Plants  may  be  forced  by  heat  to  a  precocious 
inflorescence  and  fructification,  which  prevents 
them  from  ever  attaining  their  perfect  stature. 
The  Chinese  have  the  art  of  dwarfing  trees 
by  diverting  the  growth  from  the  foliage  to 
the  flowers  and  fruit.  The  ancients  are  said 
even  to  have  produced  artificial  dwarfs  of  the 
human  race,  who  were  highly  esteemed  by 
the  Roman  matrons  for  servants.  A  race  of 
dwarfs,  perhaps  the  pigmies  of  the  ancients,  has 
been  said  to  exist  in  the  interior  of  Africa. 
(See  DoKos.)  Dwarfs  are  the  exceptions  and 
freaks  of  nature,  and  when  symmetrical  are  rare 
and  remarkable  phenomena.  One  of  the  most 
noted  of  those  whose  history  is  certain  was  the 
Polish  gentleman,  Count  Borowlaski  or  Borus- 
lawski  (1739-1837),  whose  reputation  was  Eu- 
ropean. At  1  year  of  age,  he  was  14  inches  in 
height ;  at  6,  17  in. ;  at  10,  21  in. ;  at  15,  25  in. ; 
at  20,  28  in. ;  at  25,  35  in.,  which  was  nearly  his 
greatest  height.     He  early  displayed  wit  and 


DWAEF 


C95 


grace,  and  was  taken  into  the  family  of  tlie 
countess  Iluniiecka,  with  whom  lie  frequented 
the  Prussian  court,  lie  excelled  in  dancing 
and  in  playing  on  the  guitar,  and  so  delighted 
the  Parisian  ladies  during  tlie  year  of  his  resi- 
dence in  that  capital  that  he  was  once  invited 
to  an  entertainment  in  his  honor,  at  which 
the  plate,  knives,  forks,  and  spoons  were  all 
of  diineusions  proportioned  to  his  size.  At 
the  age  c)f  40  he  married,  became  a  father,  and, 
after  giving  concerts  in  the  principal  cities  of 
Germany,  visited  England,  where  he  was  intro- 
duced to  the  royal  family,  and  paid  a  visit  to  a 
giant  8  feet  4  inches  high.  In  London  he  wrote 
his  memoirs  (8vo.,  1788),  the  undertaking  being 
patronized  by  the  prince  of  Wales  and  many  of 
the  nobility,  and  he  afterward  lived  in  elegant 
retirement  in  Durham.  lie  possessed  superior 
intelligence,  and  was  said  to  exhibit  most  pain- 
ful emotions  when  he  perceived  himself  regarded 
only  as  a  puppet  and  a  toy.  In  contrast  witli  him 
was  the  favorite  dwarf  of  the  ex-king  Stanislas 
of  Poland,  commonly  called  13ebe  (1741-64).  lie 
was  a  native  of  Lorraine,  and  at  5  years  of  age 
was 22 inches  high;  at  15, 2'J  inches;  and  at  his 
death,  33  inches.  Ilis  diminutive  figure  was  well 
formed  and  justly  proportioned,  till  after  the 
age  of  puberty  his  spine  curved,  and  he  became 
decrepit.  He  was  never  either  mentally  or 
physically  active.  lie  was  once  visited  by  the 
count  Borowlaski,  and  having  noticed  the  su- 
periority of  the  latter  in  manners  and  intelli- 
gence, watched  for  an  opportunity  and  attempt- 
ed to  throw  his  visitor  into  the  fire.  There  was 
a  struggle  between  the  rivals,  which  was  ter- 
minated by  the  interference  of  the  household. 
The  Dutch  dwarf,  Wybrand  Lolkes,  born  in 
1730,  possessed  mechanical  tastes  and  skill,  had 
success  as  a  watchmaker,  and  when  60  years  of 
age  was  27  inches  high,  and  weighed  56  lbs.  Mme. 
Teresia,  called  the  Corsican  fairy,  from  the 
place  of  her  birth  (1743),  was  remarkable  for 
physical  symmetry  and  beauty,  and  mental  viva- 
city. She  spoke  several  languages,  was  charm- 
ing in  conversation,  and  when  exhibited  in  Lon- 
don in  1773  was  34  inches  high,  and  weighed 
26  lbs.  Jetfery  Hudson  (1619-82)  was  the  fa- 
vorite dwarf  of  Charles  I.  of  England.  lie  was 
a  native  of  Oakham,  and  about  the  age  of  7  years, 
when  18  inches  high,  was  taken  into  the  service 
of  the  duke  of  Buckingham.  From  the  age  of  7 
to  30  he  grew  no  taller,  but  afterward  shot  np 
to  3  feet  9  inches.  lie  was  served  up  in  a  pie 
at  a  royal  entertainment,  from  which  he  sud- 
denly sprang  forth  in  full  armor.  Sir  William 
Davenant  wrote  a  poem  called  "  JefFreidos"  on 
a  battle  between  him  and  a  turkey  cock,  when 
a  woman  rescued  him  from  his  furious  antago- 
nist. The  courtiers  teased  him  about  the  story 
till  he  challenged  a  young  gentleman,  Mr.  Crofts, 
Avho  had  afironted  him.  That  gentleman  ap- 
peared at  the  rendezvous  armed  only  with 
a  squirt,  which  so  enraged  the  dwarf  that  a 
real  duel  ensued.  The  weapons  were  pistols, 
and  both  parties  were  on  horseback  to  put  them 
more  on  a  level.     At  the  first  fire  Jefferj  shot 


his  antagonist  dead.  He  was  afterward  taken 
prisoner  by  a  Turkish  rover,  and  was  for  a  timo 
a  slave  in  Barbary.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
civil  war  he  was  made  captain  in  the  royal  army, 
but  he  closed  his  life  in  prison,  into  which  he 
had  been  cast  shortly  before  his  death  on  suspi- 
cion of  being  ]n-ivy  to  the  popish  plot.  Charles 
I.  of  England  honored  with  his  presence  the 
marriage  of  two  dwarfs,  liichard  Gibson  and 
Anne  Sliepherd,  each  of  whom  measured  3  feet 
10  inches.  Waller  wrote  a  poem  on  the  occa- 
sion, and  Sir  Peter  Lely  painted  the  couple  at 
full  length.  Gibson  rose  to  celebrity  as  a  paint- 
er. In  1710  Peter,  czar  of  Russia,  celebrated  a 
marriage  of  dwarfs  with  great  parade.  All  the 
dwarf  men  and  women  within  200  miles  Avere 
ordered  to  repair  to  the  capital.  He  supplied 
carriages  for  them,  and  so  managed  that  one 
horse  should  be  seen  galloping  into  the  city  with 
12  or  more  of  them.  The  whole  company  of 
dwarfs  amounted  to  70,  and  all  the  furniture 
and  other  preparations  for  them  were  on  a  min- 
iature scale.  Gen.  Torn  Thumb  (Cliarles  S. 
Stratton),  the  celebrated  American  dwarf,  was 
born  in. Bridgeport,  Conn.,  in  1837,  and  at  the 
age  of  5  years  was  not  2  feet  in  heiglit  and 
weighed  less  than  16  pounds ;  and  he  had  grown 
but  very  little  for  3  or  4  years.  He  had  fine 
talents,  and  was  remarkable  for  agility  and 
symmetry,  while  his  lively  sense  of  the  ludicrous 
gave  him  excellent  success  in  performances  suit- 
ed to  his  character.  In  1842  he  w^as  exhibited 
in  Xew  York  by  P.  T.  Barnum,  his  age  being 
announced  as  11  years.  He  visited  England  in 
1844,  was  several  times  exhibited  to  the  queen 
and  court  at  Buckingham  palace,  gave  levees, 
and  was  invited  to  parties  of  the  nobility.  In 
Paris  he  gained  applause  as  an  actor.  He  re- 
turned to  the  United  States  in  1847,  and  was 
publicly  exhibited  in  the  principal  cities  of  the 
L^nited  States  and  in  Havana.  During  the  mid- 
dle ages  dwarfs  shared  with  fools  the  favor 
of  courts  and  of  the  nobility,  and  a  salary 
for  the  king's  dwarf  was  not  abolished  in 
France  tdl  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  In  char- 
acter they  have  usually  manifested  the  faults  of 
spoiled  children,  being  petulant,  choleric,  en- 
vious, jealous,  and  inconstant.  It  was  asserted 
by  Lavater  that  no  person  above  or  below  the 
ordinary  standard  of  mankind  had  ever  attained 
eminence  for  extraordinary  talent. — In  Scandi- 
navian mythology  dwarfs  (Dvergar)  are  inhab- 
itants of  the  interior  of  the  earth,  and  especially 
of  large  isolated  rocks.  They  were  imagined  to 
be  dark  in  aspect  like  the  caverns  in  which 
they  dwelt,  and  were  often  styled  "  dark  elves." 
A  dwarf  was  set  by  the  gods  at  the  corner  of' 
each  of  the  4  quarters  of  the  earth  to  bear  up  the- 
sky ;  and  they  were  named  East,  West,  North, 
and  South.  All  the  dwarfs  were  esteemed  great 
artists  in  working  metals,  and  weapons  of  mar- 
vellous properties  were  said  to  be  produced  from 
their  subterranean  workshops.  Like  the  Jotuns, 
they  could  not  endure  the  sunlight,  and  if  its 
rays  touched  them  they  were  turned  into  stone. 
If  a  man  met  a  dwarf  away  from  his  rock,  and 


696 


DWIGHT 


could  tlirow  stcol  between  him  and  it,  it  was  be- 
lieved that  thereby  his  habitation  was  closed  up, 
and  that  any  thing  in  his  power  could  be  ex- 
torted from  him.  In  the  old  Norse,  echo  is 
called  the  "dwarf  language,"  probably  because 
it  was  thought  to  be  produced  by  tlie  dwarfs 
■within  mountains  imitating  the  sounds  which 
they  heard  without. 

DWIGHT,  Edmund,  an  American  merchant, 
born  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  Nov.  28,  1780,  died 
in  Boston,  April  1,  18-i9.     He  was  the  3d  son  of 
Jonathan  Dwight  (born  in  Halifax,  N.  S.,  June, 
1T43),  who  removed  to  Springfield  in  his  early 
youth,  and  from  humble  beginnings  became  one 
of  the  most  successful  mercluints  in  New  Eng- 
land.    He  was  graduated  at  Yale  college  in 
1799,  and  entered  the  office  of  Fisher  Ames  at 
Dedliam,  as  a  student  of  law.     After  completing 
his  studies,  he  made  the  tour  of  Europe,  and 
returned  to  Massachusetts  in  1804,  and  opened 
a  law  oflice  in  Boston.     But  in  1807  he  ac- 
cepted an  offer  from  his  elder  brother,  James 
Scutt  Dwight,  to  become  a  partner  in  an  ex- 
tensive mercantile  business  in  Springfield,  and 
for  many  years  he  continued  that  connection. 
In  April,  1809,  he  married  a  daughter  of  Samuel 
Eliot  of  Boston,  and  in  1815  removed  with  his 
family  to  that  city,  where  he  established  the  mer- 
cantile house  of  William  II.  and  J.  W.  Dwight. 
Mr.  William  H.  Dwight  was  lost  by  shipwreck  on 
the  coast  of  Ireland,  in  1822,  and  when  Mr.  J. 
W.  Dwight  retired  from  business  the  house  was 
continued  until  1853,  under  the  name  of  James 
K.  Mills  and  co.     It  maybe  said  that,  with  per- 
haps one  or  two  exceptions,  this  house  has  laid 
the  foundation  of  more  successful  manufactur- 
ing enterprises  than  any  other  in  New  England. 
In  1822  the  manufacturing  village  of  Chicopee 
Falls  was  commenced  by  it,  and  in  the  course 
of  7  years  4  large  cotton  mills  were  put  in  mo- 
tion, beside  manufactories  of  other  fabrics.     In 
1831  measures  were  taken  to  develop  the  water 
power  at  Cabotville  (since  Chicopee),  and  in  a 
few  years  7  large  cotton  mills  were  erected  and 
set  in  successful  operation  there,  beside  manu- 
factories of  machinery,  tools,  hardware,  brass 
cannons,  bells,  &c.  In  1847  measures  were  taken 
to  form  an  immense  water  power  on  the  Connec- 
ticut river  in  the  northerly  part  of  West  Spring- 
field,  opposite    South   Iladley,   and  a  village 
was  laid  out  called  Ilolyoke.     Notwithstand- 
ing many  discouraging  circumstances,  this  has 
acquired  a  very  respectable  standing  among  the 
manufacturing  towns  in  New  England.      An- 
other enterprise  of  a  more  public  character,  in 
which  Mr.  Dwight  took  an  early  and  active 
part,  was  the  construction  of  the  Western  rail- 
road from  Worcester  to  Albany,  of  which  he 
was  a  director  for  many  years,  and  one  year 
president.     But  the  great  feature  of  his  life  was 
his  eminent  services  to  the  cause  of  popular  ed- 
ucation.    Mr.  Dwight  was  the  first  to  propose 
the  establishment  of  normal  schools  in  Massa- 
•chusetts,  but  the  extent  of  his  liberality  in  the 
^contributions  of  pecuniary  means  for  that  object 
was  not  allowed  to  be  publicly  known  until  his 


decease.  In  1838  he  pledged  $10,000  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  a  system  of  normal 
sciiools,  provided  the  state  would  appropriate  a 
like  sum  for  the  purpose.  The  proposition  was 
promptly  accepted  by  the  legislature.  It  ap- 
peared after  his  death  that  Mr.  Dwight  had  re- 
lieved several  deserving  young  men  who  were 
struggling  to  meet  the  expenses  of  an  education, 
without  allowing  the  receivers  of  his  bounty  to 
know  the  hand  that  had  helped  them.  During 
most  of  his  business  life  he  represented  the 
towns  in  which  he  resided  in  the  legislature. 
He  was  a  member  from  Boston  for  several  years. 
DWIGHT,  Theodore,  an  American  author 
and  journalist,  born  in  Northampton,  Mass.,  in 
1765,  died  in  New  York,  June  11,  1846.  He 
was  a  brother  of  Timothy  Dwight,  and  a  grand- 
son, on  the  mother's  side,  of  Jonathan  Edwards, 
and  studied  law  with  his  uncle.  Judge  Pierpont 
Edwards,  of  Hartford,  Conn.  He  became  an 
eminent  member  of  his  profession,  and  a  leading 
speaker  and  writer  of  the  federal  party.  As  a 
senator  in  the  Connecticut  legislature,  and  sub- 
sequently a  representative  in  congress  from  that 
state  in  1806-7,  he  showed  an  aptitude  for  the 
discussion  of  public  affairs  which  induced  the 
prominent  federalists  of  Oonnectici;t  to  secure 
his  services  as  editor  of  the  "Hartford  Mirror," 
the  leading  organ  of  the  party  in  the  state.  Dur- 
ing the  session  of  the  Hartford  convention  in 
1814  ho  acted  as  its  secretary,  and  in  1833  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  the  Hartford  Convention," 
written  from  a  strong  federal  point  of  view. 
Between  1815  and  1817 he  edited  the  "Albany 
Daily  Advertiser,"  and  in  the  latter  year  re- 
moved to  New  York,  where  he  established  the 
"  New  York  Daily  Advertiser,"  of  which  he  re- 
mained the  editor  until  1836,  when  he  retired 
from  professional  life  to  reside  in  Hartford. 
Three  years  before  his  death  he  returned  to 
New  York.  Mr.  Dwight  was  the  author  of 
some  occasional  orations  and  of  several  educa- 
tional works. 

DWIGHT,  Timothy,  an  American  divine, 
president  of  Yale  college,  born  in  Northampton, 
Mass.,  May  14,  1752,  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn., 
Jan.  11,  1817.  From  his  earliest  years,  under 
the  training  of  his  mother,  he  gave  indications 
of  a  thirst  for  knowledge,  and  great  facility  of 
learning.  He  is  said  to  have  been  able  at  the 
age  of  4  to  read  the  Bible  correctly  and  fluently. 
When  G  years  old  he  was  sent  to  the  grammar 
school,  and  in  1765  he  entered  Yale  college, 
where,  for  the  first  2  years,  he  scarcely  fulfilled 
the  promise  of  his  eai'lier  days  ;  but  from  that 
time  to  the  end  of  his  college  course,  he  made 
rapid  progress  in  his  regular  studies  and  in  other 
branches,  especially  in  poetry  and  music.  He 
was  graduated  in  1769,  and  soon  took  charge  of 
a  grammar  scliool  in  New  Haven,  where  he  re- 
mained for  2  years.  In  1771  he  was  chosen  tutor 
in  Yale  college,  and  continued  in  that  office  for 
6  years.  So  intense  and  uniutermitted  were  his 
studies  at  this  time  that  his  health  was  for  a  sea- 
son seriously  impaired,  and  his  eyes  so  weakened 
that  they  never  regained  their  strength.     For  a 


DWIGHT 


697 


time  ho  seems  to  have  contemplated  the  study  of 
law,  in  which  he  afterward  temporarily  engaged, 
though  las  ultimate  determination  was  for  the- 
ology. When,  on  account  of  the  revolutionary 
troubles,  the  students  of  tlie  college  were  dis- 
persed, in  1777,  he  went  witli  his  class  to  Weth- 
ersfield,  where  he  remained  till  autumn,  and  in 
tlie  mean  time  was  licensed  to  j)reuch  by  an  as- 
sociation in  Ilanipslnrc  co.,  Mass.  Soon  after 
tills  ho  was  appointed  chaplain  to  a  brigade  of 
the  division  umler  Gen.  I*utnam,  and  joined  the 
army  at  "West  Point,  remaining  with  tliem  over 
a  year,  and  discharging  the  duties  of  his  oflice 
with  scrupulous  fidelity.  Not  only  did  he  labor 
for  the  spiritual  interests  of  the  soldiery,  but, 
by  delivering  patriotic  discourses  and  com- 
posing patriotic  songs,  gave  new  vigor  to  the 
spirit  of  liberty.  By  the  death  of  his  father 
in  1778  the  support  of  his  mother  with  her 
13  children  devolved  on  him,  the  oldest  of 
her  sons;  and  resigning  his  chaplaincy,  he  re- 
moved with  his  own  family  to  ISTorthampton. 
Here  his  labors  for  a  series  of  years  would  seem 
almost  incredible.  He  worked  with  his  own 
hands  upon  the  farm  during  the  week,  supplied 
some  neighboring  church  on  the  Saljbath,  es- 
tablished and  sustained  a  school  for  both  sexes, 
which  acquired  high  celebrity,  represented  the 
town  in  county  conventions,  and  for  2  years  in 
the  state  legislature,  and  would  have  been  chosen 
to  the  continental  congress,  but  that  he  declined 
the  intended  honor,  in  order  to  devote  him- 
self to  the  work  of  the  ministry.  In  1783  he 
was  ordained  as  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
church  in  Greenfield,  Conn. ;  but  as  his  salary 
was  entirely  insufficient  for  his  support,  he  es- 
tablished an  academy,  which  soon  became  ex- 
tensively known,  and  to  which  he  devoted  (i 
hours  of  each  day.  In  1787  he  received  the  de- 
gree of  D.D.  from  the  college  of  New  Jersey, 
and  in  1810  that  of  LL.D.  from  Harvard  college. 
On  the  death  of  Dr.  Stiles  h5  was  chosen  his 
successor  in  the  presidency  of  Yale  college, 
was  inaugurated  to  that  othce  in  Sept.  1795,  and 
continued  in  it  to  the  end  of  his  life,  not  merely, 
however,  discharging  its  appropriate  duties,  but 
connecting  with  it  a  vast  amount  of  labor  that 
belonged  to  other  departments.  He  was,  in 
reality,  professor  of  belles-lettres,  oratory,  and 
theology,  teaching  a  class  prepo^'Ing  for  the 
ministry,  and  preaching  in  the  college  chapel 
twice  every  Sunday  ;  in  the  discharge  of  which 
latter  duty  he  prepared  and  delivered  his  well- 
known  "  System  of  Theology,"  with  which  his 
reputation  as  a  writer  and  preacher  is  chiefly 
identified.  In  1816  his  health  began  to  give 
way  under  his  labors,  and  though  he  attended 
to  his  classes  and  heard  recitations  almost  to 
the  last,  he  gradually  declined  till  the  hour  of 
his  death.  Dr.  Dwight  was  a  man  of  com- 
manding presence,  of  dignified  but  affable  man- 
ners, of  striking  conversational  powers,  of  su- 
perior intellectual  faculties,  untiring  in  his 
industry  and  research,  of  great  system  and  won- 
derful memory  ;  as  a  teacher,  remarkable  for  his 
skill  and  success ;  as  a  writer  always  interesting 


and  sensible ;  and  as  a  preacher,  sound,  strong, 
impressive,  and  at  times  highly  eloquent.  So 
entirely  were  his  mental  resources  under  his 
command,  tliat  ho  often  dictated  to  2  or  even  3 
amanuenses  at  the  same  time,  on  as  many  dis- 
tinct subjects  ;  and  so  great  was  his  influence 
over  young  men,  and  his  success  in  training 
large  numl^ers  of  them  for  eminence  and  useful- 
ness, tbat  a  distinguished  civilian  has  said  of 
him  ;  '•  I  have  often  expressed  the  opinion,  which 
length  of  time  has  continually  strengthened, 
that  no  man  except  the  'father  of  his  country' 
has  conferred  greater  benefits  on  our  nation 
than  President  Dwight."  The  literary  labors 
of  Dr.  Dwight  were  very  great,  and  his  publi- 
cations numerous,  consisting  of  dissertations, 
poems,  and  occasional  sermons,  issued  during 
his  life,  and  since  his  dcatli ;  his  "  Theology  Ex- 
plained and  Defended,"  with  a  memoir  (5  vols., 
1818);  "Travels  in  New  England  and  New 
York  "  (4  vols.,  1822)  ;  "  Sermons  on  Miscella- 
neous Subjects"  (2  vols.,  1828). — Serexo  Ed- 
wards, an  American  clergyman,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  in  Greenfield,  Conn.,  May  18, 1780, 
died  in  Phlladelpliia,  Nov.  30,  1850.  When 
between  9  and  10  years  of  age,  ho  was  re- 
moved to  New  Haven,  his  fiither  having  then 
become  president  of  Yale  college.  Entering 
that  institution  in  1799,  he  was  graduated  in 
1803 ;  was  tutor  in  Yale  college  from  180G  to 
1810,  during  which  time  he  studied  law  in  New 
Haven,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  the  lat- 
ter year.  In  1815,  however,  he  experienced,  as 
he  believed,  a  radical  change  of  character,  and 
in  October  of  the  year  following  was  licensed 
as  a  preacher  of  the  gospel  by  the  west  associa- 
tion of  New  Haven  co.  Soon  afterward  he  was 
chosen  chaplain  of  the  U.  S.  senate  for  the  ses- 
sion of  1816-'17,  and  in  September  of  the  lat- 
ter year  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Park  street 
church,  Boston.  Here  he  labored  with  great  zeal 
and  success  for  about  10  years,  visiting  Europe, 
in  1824— '25.  to  recruit  his  prostrated  health ;  but 
not  fully  gaining  this  end,  he  resigned  his  charge 
in  1826.  Eeturning  to  New  Haven,  he  now 
occupied  himself  in  writing  the  life  and  edit- 
ing the  works  of  the  elder  President  Edwards, 
which  were  published  in  1829.  In  1828,  ia 
connection  with  his  brother  Henry,  he  com- 
menced in  New  Haven  a  large  school  for  boys, 
on  the  plan  of  the  German  gymnasiums,  which 
Avas  continued  for  3  years.  In  March,  1833,  he 
was  chosen  president  of  Hamilton  college,  N.  Y., 
in  September  of  the  same  year  received  the  de- 
gree of  D.D.  from  Yale  college,  and  in  Sept. 
1835,  on  account  of  pecuniary  and  other  dis- 
couragements, resigned  his  presidency.  In  1838 
he  was  occupied  for  some  mouths  in  an  agency 
for  the  Pennsylvania  colonization  society,  and 
in  the  same  year  removed  to  New  York,  where 
he  lived  for  the  remainder  of  his  days.  Here  a 
distressing  mahidy,  from  which  he  had  long 
suftered,  gained  complete  mastery  over  him, 
disabling  him  for  active  service,  and  leading  him 
to  court  retirement,  so  that  little  was  known  of 
him  by  the  public,  till,  visiting  Philadelphia  in 


698 


DWINA 


DYEING 


1850,  for  medical  aid,  he  was  seized  with  the 
ilhiess  that  terminated  his  life.  He  published  at 
A'arions  times  several  sermons  and  addresses, 
the  "Life  of  Brainerd  "  (1822),  a  volume  on  the 
"Atonement"  (1S2G),  the  "Life  of  Edwards" 
(1830),  and  the  "  Hebrew  Wife"  (1836).  A  vol- 
ume of  his  "  Select  Discourses  "  Avas  published 
in  1851,  togetlier  Avith  an  interesting  memoir 
bj  his  brother,  the  Eev,  Dr.  W.  T.  Dwight. 

DWINA,  or  DviXA,  Noutiiern,  a  river  of 
Piussia  in  Europe,  formed  in  tlie  government 
of  Vologda  by  the  junction  of  the  Sookhona 
and  Vitchegda,  flows  N.  N.  W.  into  the  gov- 
ernment of  Archangel,  where  it  receives  sev- 
eral tributaries,  and  after  a  course  of  more  than 
400  miles  falls  through  several  mouths,  form- 
ing a  number  of  islands,  into  tlie  White  sea, 
about  40  miles  below  the  city  of  Archangel. 
It  is  navigable  for  its  whole  length,  and  is  the 
largest  stream  in  northern  Europe,  traversing 
as  it  does  a  marshy  country,  and  increased  by 
numerous  afflaents.  It  forms  a  part  of  a  system 
of  canals  completed  in  1807,  by  which  a  water 
commuiucation  is  established  between  the  "White, 
Baltic,  Black,  and  Caspian  seas.  (For  SouTHERfT 
DwiNA,  see  Duxa.) 

DYAKS.     See  Borneo. 

DYCE,  Alexander,  a  Scottish  author,  born 
in  Edinburgh,  June  30,  1797.  He  completed 
his  education  at  Exeter  college,  Oxford,  subse- 
quently took  orders,  and  in  1827  settled  in  Lon- 
don, where  he  has  since  lived.  He  has  edited, 
with  notes  and  biographies,  editions  of  the 
works  of  Peele,  Greene,  "Webster,  Middleton, 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  Marlow,  and  Shirley. 
In  185G  he  edited  "  Eecollections  of  the  Table 
Talk  of  Samuel  Rogers  ;"  and  in  1858  he  com- 
pleted an  edition  of  Shakespeare  in  6  vols.,  the 
text  of  which  has  been  highly  commended.  He 
has  also  contributed  biographies  for  Pickering's 
"  Aldiue  Poets."  Among  his  miscellaneous  pub- 
lications are  :  "  Select  Translations  from  Quintus 
Smyrnffius ;"  editions  of  Collins's  and  Skelton's 
poems  ;  "  Specimens  of  British  Poetesses ;" 
Kemp's  "  Nine  Days'  "Wonder,"  and  some  old 
plays.  To  Shakespearean  literature  he  has  con- 
tributed "  Remarks  on  Collier's  and  Knight's 
Editions  of  Shakespeare,"  and  "  A  fe <v  Notes  on 
Shakespeare" — a  review  of  the  recent  emenda- 
tions proposed  by  Mr.  Collier. — "William,  a  Brit- 
ish artist,  born  in  Scotland  at  the  beginning  of 
this  century.  He  studied  painting  at  the  acad- 
emy of  Edinburgh,  but  attracted  little  notice  until 
the  production  of  his  fresco  studies  in  the  exhibi- 
.tion  at  "Westminster  hall  in  1844.  The  admirable 
manner  in  which  these  were  executed  procured 
liim  commissions  to  make  designs  for  the  new 
houses  of  parliament.  His  "  Baptism  of  Ethel- 
bert,"  on  one  of  the  mural  compartments  of  the 
new  house  of  lords,  is  regarded  as  one  of  liis  best 
works.  He  was  made  a  royal  academician  in 
1848.  Among  his  pictures  exhibited  in  London 
in  1851  was  "  Lear  in  the  Storm,"  and  in  Paris 
in  1855,  "Meeting  of  Jacob  and  Rachel,"  and 
"King  Joash  shooting  the  Arrow  of  Deliv- 
erance." 


DYEING.  Among  the  earliest  records  of  the 
human  race  we  find  frequent  intimations  of  aa 
appreciation  of  the  brilliant  hues  such  as  are 
displayed  by  nature  in  the  plumage  of  birds, 
in  flowers,  crystals,  and  shells,  and  in  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  sky;  and  the  instinct  imjJanted 
in  man  of  imitating  the  works  of  his  Creator  is 
seen  in  the  desire  to  appropriate  these  rich 
colors  to  the  adornment  of  his  own  apparel. 
The  gift  of  the  coat  of  many  colors  was  early 
regarded  as  the  liighest  mark  of  aftcction.  To 
the  fine  linen  (which  was  jn-obably  the  same 
as  our  cotton)  were  transferred  the  brilliant 
blue,  scarlet,  and  purple  hues  extracted  from 
vegetable  or  animal  substances,  the  last  named 
color  reserved  exclusively  for  the  vestments 
of  kings  and  high  priests.  The  skins  of  the 
ram  and  the  badger  made  use  of  for  the  taber- 
nacle were  dyed  red,  and  in  the  time  of  Moses 
the  art  of  coloring  woollen  purple  Avas  already 
known.  The  Tyrians  early  attained  a  high 
perfection  ^jn  the  art,  and  their  king  sent  to 
Solomon  a  man  skilful  to  work  "  in  purple  and 
blue,  and  in  fine  linen  and  in  crimson."  Along 
the  coast  of  Phoenicia  they  found  the  two  kinds 
of  shellfish  called  by  Pliny  the  luccinum  and 
purpiira,  and  from  each  animal  they  extracted 
a  single  drop  of  the  precious  juice  which  caused 
their  name  to  be  ever  associated  Avith  the  rich 
piurple  dye.  In  such  estimation  was  this  held 
in  the  time  of  the  Roman  emperors,  that  a  pound 
weight  of  the  cloth  which  had  been  twice  dip- 
ped in  it  Avas  sold,  as  Pliny  states,  for  a  sum 
worth  about  $150.  But  its  use  being  restrict- 
ed to  the  emperors,  the  art  of  preparing  it  was 
at  last  lost.  It  was  revived  in  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries  in  England  and  France,  but  bet- 
ter colors  and  cheaper  processes  were  then  in 
use.  The  discoverers  and  early  <conquerors  of 
the  countries  of  North  and  South  America  Avere 
astonished  by  the  skill  exhibited  by  the  ancient 
Peruvians  and  Mexicans  in  the  application  of 
the  numerous  beautiful  dyes  they  extracted 
from  the  woods  of  their  forests.  According  to 
Pliny,  the  methods  of  dyeing  black,  blue,  yelloAV, 
and  green  Avere  brought  into  Greece  on  the  re- 
turn of  the  expedition  of  Alexander  the  Great 
from  India,  Avhere  it  appears  that  the  art  of 
coloring  cotton  cloths  Avith  rich  and  permanent 
dyes  had  long  been  known  and  practised.  The 
Venetians  and  Genoese  in  the  height  of  their 
prosperity,  in  the  time  of  the  crusades,  trans- 
ferred the  art  to  Italy;  and  Florence  in  the 
early  part  of  the  14th  century,  it  is  said,  con- 
tained not  less  than  200  dyeing  establishments. 
The  important  dye  stuif  archil  Avas  discovered 
about  the  year  1300  by  a  merchant  of  Florence. 
In  1429  a  Avork  upon  dyeing  was  published  in 
Venice,  of  which  subsequent  editions  Avere  issued 
as  late  as  the  year  1548,  containing  full  details  of 
the  processes  employed.  From  this  work  it 
Avould  appear  that  the  use  of  indigo  Avas  un- 
known in  Europe  up  to  1548,  though  in  India 
it  was  probably  an  important  article  in  dyeing 
at  the  remotest  periods.  It  was  afterward  in- 
troduced from  America  together  with  cochineal, 


DYEING 


699 


logwood,  annotto,  quercitron,  Brazil  wood,  &c. 
But  its  use  in  England  and  Saxony,  as  of  log- 
wood also,  met  with  the  most  determined  oppo- 
sition. The  cultivators  of  the  woad  then  in 
use  for  dyeing  blue  caused  decrees  to  be  issued 
against  indigo  as  a  most  dangerous  product. 
By  the  German  diet  in  1577  it  was  declared  to 
be  "a  pernicious,  deceitful,  eating,  and  corrosive 
dye;"  and  the  name  was  given  it  of  food  for  the 
devil.  An  act  of  parliament  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth  forbade  its  use,  and  authorized  the 
destruction  of  it  and  of  logwood  wlicrever 
found,  and  this  continued  in  force  for  nearly  a 
century.  About  the  year  1 630  it  was  discovered 
that  the  crimson  color  obtained  from  cochineal 
might  be  converted  into  a  brilliant  scarlet  by  the 
application  of  a  salt  of  tin.  The  introduction 
of  this  metal  as  an  occasional  substitute  for 
alum  as  a  mordant  is  attributed  to  a  dyer  named 
Cornelius  Drebbel.  The  use  of  pure  mordants 
marks  the  great  improvement  of  the  art  in 
modern  times,  as  also  the  introduction  of  a 
great  variety  of  new  dyes  obtained  from  min- 
eral substances.  The  Flemings  during  the  l7th 
century  carried  the  skill  to  which  they  had  at- 
tained in  this  art  into  Germany,  France,  and 
England.  The  French  about  the  same  time 
directed  particular  attention  to  it,  and  men  of 
eminence  in  chemical  science,  asDu  Fay,  Ilellot, 
Macquer,  and  Berthollet,  were  appointed  by 
the  government  to  investigate  and  perfect  the 
processes.  The  method  practised  in  the  East 
of  giving  to  cotton  the  beautiful  and  permanent 
Turkey  red  dye  was  made  known  in  their  pub- 
lications, and  the  art  was  about  the  same  time 
intx'oduced  into  France  b}'  some  Greek  dyers. 
The  business  was  afterward  permanently  estab- 
lished at  Glasgow  by  a  Frenchman  named  Pa- 
piUon.  The  branch  of  dyeing  called  calico  print- 
ing, by  which  diflerent  colors  are  produced  on 
the  same  piece  of  cloth  by  dipping  it  into  a  dye 
of  one  color,  was  known  at  a  very  early  period, 
and  the  process  is  lucidly  described  in  a  few 
words  by  Pliny,  as  it  was  practised  in  Egypt  in 
the  first  century.  (See  Calico.) — The  object 
to  be  attained  by  dyeing  is  the  fixing  of  ceilaiu 
colors  permanently  and  so  as  to  present  a  uni- 
form shade  in  the  fibres  of  textile  materials 
and  other  substances.  The  subjects  operated 
upon  are  various  in  their  characters,  some  be- 
ing of  animal  origin,  as  silks  and  woollens, 
and  others  being  composed  of  vegetable  mat- 
ters alone,  as  cottons,  linens,  &c.  These  two 
classes  diifer  in  the  facility  with  which  they 
imbibe  the  coloring  matters,  the  animal  tissue 
taking  much  more  brilliant  shades  than  the 
vegetable.  The  colors  may  be  applied  to  each 
of  these  in  the  raw  fibre,  in  the  spun  yarn, 
or  in  the  woven  fabric.  Hence  it  is  apparent 
that  there  must  be  much  diversity  in  the  pro- 
cesses. But  when  it  is  further  considered  that 
the  coloring  matters  are  themselves  of  the 
most  diverse  composition,  drawn  from  the  vege- 
table, animal,  and  mineral  kingdoms,  and  that 
different  substances  are  brought  together  to 
produce  by  their  reactions  eflfects  dependent  on 


the  intricate  changes  which  tako  place  among 
the  elements  of  organic  bodies,  the  art  is  readily 
understood  to  be  exceedingly  complicated  in  its 
nature,  and  to  some  extent  so  empirical  in  its 
processes,  that  its  exposition  must  involve  a 
vast  amount  of  details.  In  an  article  like  tho 
present  only  a  general  idea  of  the  principles  of 
the  art  and  of  the  materials  employed  can  be 
given. — The  colors  obtained  from  vegetable 
matters  are  most  numerous;  they  are  extracted 
generally  by  watery  infusion,  though  some  re- 
quire for  their  solution  ether,  alcohol,  or  tho 
fixed  oils.  The  most  common  colors  are  yellow, 
brown,  and  red ;  the  only  blue  vegetable  dyes 
are  litmus  and  indigo ;  nut  galls,  sumach,  and 
the  cashew  nut  afford  a  black  dye ;  and  by  the 
mixing  of  these,  or  their  treatment  with  other 
substances,  numerous  shades  or  even  different 
colors  are  obtained.  The  animal  kingdom  af- 
fords the  beautiful  scarlet  and  crimson  dyes, 
Avhich  are  extracted  from  the  bodies  of  the  cochi- 
neal and  kermes  insects.  Hoofs  and  horns  and 
other  refuse  animal  matters  yield  the  cyanogen 
which  enters  into  the  composition  of  Prussian 
blue.  From  the  mineral  kingdom  is  derived  a 
great  variety  of  brilliant  colors,  produced  from 
the  salts  of  the  different  metals.  The  same 
metal  in  its  various  combinations  gives  many 
colors,  as  is  seen  in  the  crystals  of  its  natural 
salts.  Thus  iron  in  the  form  of  a  sulphate 
furnishes  the  ancient  nankin  or  iron  bufi",  as  a 
nitrate  it  affords  various  shades  of  blue,  and 
in  other  combinations  it  is  made  to  yield  a  black, 
slate  color,  &c.  The  chrome  and  lead  salts  are 
particularly  interesting  for  the  variety  and  bril- 
liancy of  their  colors.  The  former  are  reraark-j 
able  for  their  permanency  also,  and  the  extent 
of  their  possible  applications  is  by  no  means 
yet  fully  appreciated.  The  mordants  also,  which 
are  used  to  prepare  the  fibre  for  the  reception 
and  fixing  of  the  dye,  come  almost  wholly  from 
the  mineral  kingdom.  They  are  soluble  com- 
binations of  alumina,  of  protoxide  of  lead,  of 
oxide  of  iron,  or  of  oxide  of  tin  or  of  copper, 
with  some  acid,  commonly  acetic  acid.  Mate- 
rials to  be  dyed  seldom  have  such  an  affinity  for 
the  coloring  matters  that  they  will  receive  these 
without  previous  preparation.  Some  few  colors, 
however,  which  are  technically  called  substan- 
tive, are  applied  directly  to  the  stuffs,  and  be- 
come fixed  without  the  intervention  of  any  other 
matter.  But  mordants  are  commonly  required. 
They  have  the  property  of  fixing  themselves  to 
the  fibre,  and  of  uniting  chemically  with  the  dye 
afterward  applied,  thus  binding  them  fast  toge- 
ther. The  name  is  given  them  from  the  old 
opinion  that  their  action  was  mechanical,  and 
that  they  bit  into  (Lat.  mordeo)  and  opened 
the  pores  of  the  fibre  for  the  reception  of  the 
coloring  matters.  Some  of  them  serve,  at  the 
same  time  that  they  fix  the  color,  to  modify  its 
sliade,  and  give  to  it  its  highest  tone.  For  these 
the  name  alterants  has  been  proposed  by  Ber- 
thollet, to  distinguish  them  from  the  simple  mor- 
dants. Oxide  of  iron  often  has  this  effect  of 
changing  the  ordinary  colors  of  a  dye.     Thua  a 


700 


DTEIITG 


decoction  of  madder  applied  to  unmordanted 
cotton  gives  a  fugitive  and  dirty  red  color.  If 
the  cotton  bo  first  passed  tbroiigh  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  acetate  of  alumina,  and  then  dried  at  a 
Ligli  temperature,  afterward  washed,  next  treat- 
ed with  a  hot  decoction  of  madder,  and  again 
washed,  it  will  be  found  to  have  received  a  fine 
red,  wliich  is  fixed,  so  as  to  resist  the  action  of 
air,  light,  and  water.  But  if,  instead  of  alumi- 
na, oxide  of  iron  is  employed  as  the  mordant, 
a  purple  color  will  be  obtained.  So  in  dyeing 
with  cochineal,  the  aluminous  mordant  produces 
a  crimson  color ;  but  if  oxide  of  iron  is  used  in- 
stead, the  result  is  black.  By  mixing  mordants 
diffferent  shades  and  colors  are  produced,  and 
varying  the  strength  of  the  solutions,  and  other 
similar  expedients,  afford  opportunities  for  the 
exercise  of  much  ingenuity  in  obtaining  a  va- 
riety of  effects.  A  tliorough  familiarity  with 
the  chemical  action  of  the  salts  employed  upon 
each  other  is  essential  to  skilfully  conduct  these 
complicated  processes,  and  obtain  most  directly 
and  with  tlie  greatest  economy  the  etfects  de- 
sired. It  is  often  the  case  that  the  color  is  pro- 
duced in  the  cloth  in  the  form  of  a  precipitate 
by  the  interchange  of  the  elements  of  2  diifer- 
ent  chemical  compounds  taking  place  in  the 
fibre  of  the  stuff,  on  this  being  dipped  first  into 
the  solution  of  one,  and  then  into  that  of  the 
other.  The  new  color  obtained  by  this  chemical 
reaction  is  at  the  same  time  fixed  in  the  fibre, 
as  though  one  of  the  substances  acted  as  a  mor- 
dant ;  this  may  be  the  case  Avhen  neither  solu- 
tion would  aflbrd  any  color  whatever  to  the 
material  to  be  dyed.  Thus  an  aqueous  solution 
of  nitrate  or  acetate  of  lead  or  of  bichromate  of 
potash  imparts  no  color  to  clotli ;  if  applied  to 
it,  either  may  be  washed  out ;  but  one  being  ap- 
plied to  the  same  stufl:'  after  it  has  received  the 
other,  an  insoluble  precipitate  of  chrome  yellow 
(chromate  of  lead)  is  obtained,  which  attaches 
itself  to  the  stuff  as  a  fast  dye.  The  oxygen  of 
the  air  is  also  made  to  act  upon  colors  subject 
to  its  influence,  bringing  them  out  as  the  mate- 
rial exposed  to  it  is  converted  into  an  oxide. 
Solutions  of  salts  which  evolve  oxygen  are  used 
to  produce  the  same  eflect.  Acids,  too,  are 
added  to  alkaline  solutions  to  neutralize  them 
and  cause  the  dye  they  hold  in  solution  to  be 
liberated  as  they  precipitate  among  the  fibres 
of  the  cloth.  In  the  process  called  mandarining 
an  acid  is  made  to  act  directly  upon  the  fibre  of 
the  cloth,  which  in  this  case  must  be  of  animal 
substance,  a3  silk  or  woollen.  An  orange  dye 
is  thus  produced  by  the  action  of  dilute  nitric 
acid. — An  interesting  account  is  given  by  Tom- 
linson,  in  the  "  Useful  Arts  and  Manufactures 
of  Great  Britain,"  of  the  operations  conducted  in 
one  of  the  great  English  cotton  dye  houses,  near 
Bolton.  In  an  immense  apartment,  the  base- 
ment story  of  a  large  cotton  mill,  is  collected 
the  great  variety  of  apparatus  employed :  cis- 
terns of  stone  for  bleacliing  and  washing;  dash- 
wheels,  &c.,  also  for  washing;  "dye  becks"  and 
"  soap  becks,"  or  vessels  containing  the  dye- 
stuffs  and  the  soap  and  water ;  mangles  for  roll- 


ing cloth,  others  with  brushes  for  laying  the 
fibre,  scpieezing  rollers,  and  drying  machines. 
Boilers  are  seen  in  operation  heated  by  steam 
conveyed  through  them  in  pipes ;  water  flows 
in  every  direction,  the  waste  running  out  in 
streams  of  all  colors,  and  the  fresh  conveyed 
about  by  numerous  pipes.  The  water  must  be 
of  the  purest  quality,  uncontaminated  by  any 
foreign  substances,  Avhose  presence  would  in- 
juriously aftect  the  delicate  chemical  processes. 
The  dyestufls  are  ground  and  mixed  in  another 
room,  where  they  are  also  stored.  The  infusions 
are  made  in  tubs  or  vats,  some  in  cold  water, 
and  some  by  boiling.  The  dyestuflfs  are  intro- 
duced in  tile  form  of  a  coarse  powder,  or  they 
may  be  enclosed  in  bags  through  which  the  color 
is  imparted  to  the  liquid.  The  cotton  cloth  is 
first  prepared  by  thorough  cleansing  in  order 
to  remove  all  extraneous  matters  that  may  bo 
attached  to  the  fibre ;  acid  waters  are  sometimes 
used  for  this  purpose,  dissolving  out  the  cal- 
careous earth  and  oxide  of  iron  which  are  fre- 
quently present.  The  mordant  is  then  applied 
by  soaking  the  cloth  in  solutions  of  alum,  each 
pound  of  cotton  requiring  4  oz.  of  alum ;  or  if 
a  black  color  is  to  be  produced,  the  mordant  is 
a  preparation  of  nut  galls  boiled  for  2  hours  in 
water.  The  preparatory  operations  are  expedited 
by  passing  the  cloth  in  lengths  of  100  yards  or 
more  over  and  under  different  rollers,  one  of 
which  is  set  under  the  liquid  in  the  vat.*  The 
fluid  is  thus  kept  uniformly  mixed,  and  the 
cloth  is  equally  saturated  with  it.  As  it  comes 
out  of  the  vat  it  is  made  th  pass  between  2  roll- 
ers, which  press  out  the  superfluous  moisture, 
and  it  is  then  ready  for  another  dipping.  After 
the  dyeing  has  been  completed,  the  cloth  must  be 
submitted  to  the  finishing  processes.  The  loose 
portions  of  the  coloring  matters  are  removed 
by  washing,  and  the  colors  are  brightened  and 
rendered  more  permanent  by  passing  the  cloth 
through  solutions  of  cow  dung  in  water,  or  of 
the  artificial  preparations  of  phosphates  used  as 
a  substitute  and  called  by  this  name,  or  a  solu- 
tion of  bran  is  used  to  eflect  a  similar  purpose. 
These  are  processes  adopted  in  calico  printing 
particularly,  as  is  that  of  fixing  the  colors  by 
steaming  the  cloth.  Chloride  of  lime  in  solit- 
tion  is  also  employed  to  remove  the  excess  of 
coloring  matters.  By  next  passing  the  cloth 
through  squeezing  rollers  the  water  is  pressed 
out,  and  in  the  drying  machine  it  is  ih  a  few 
minutes  rendered  nearly  dry,  the  centrifugal 
force  produced  by  the  rapid  revolution  of  a 
cylinder  expelling  the  moisture,  which  escapes 
through  apertures  made  for  the  purpose.  The 
starching  and  subsequent  drying  by  steam  follow, 
and  the  cloth  is  ready  for  the  final  process  of  cal- 
endering.— In  1850  a  patent  was  granted  in  Eng- 
land to  Mr.  Jean  Adolphe  Carton  for  improve- 
ments in  dyeing,  which  consist  in  the  preparation 
of  4  mordants  to  be  used  instead  of  the  cream  of 
tartar,  and  cream  of  tartar  and  alum,  now  com- 
monly employed,  whereby  colors  will  be  produc- 
ed at  a  cheaper  rate  and  of  superior  brilliancy 
and  variety.    The  first  mordant  is  prepai'ed  by 


DYEING 


DYEPw 


701 


dissolving  18  parts  by  weiglitof  common  salt 
and  9  parts  of  tartaric  acid  in  67  parts  of  boiling 
water,  and  then  adding  18  parts  of  tbo  acetic 
acid  of  commerce.  One  pound  of  this  mordant 
is  equivalent  for  dyeing  pur])oses  to  about  one 
pound  of  cream  of  tartar,  and  it  is  used  in 
the  same  manner.  It  is  suitable  for  crimson 
and  all  reddish  dyes.  Tlio  second  mordant 
is  produced  by  triturating  and  mixing  one  part 
of  ahnn  with  2  parts  of  the  residuum  (sulphate 
of  soda)  of  that  mode  of  manufacturing  nitric 
acid  in  which  nitrate  of  soda  is  employed.  Two 
and  a  quarter  pounds  of  this  mordant  arc  equiv- 
alent to  half  that  quantity  of  cream  of  tartar, 
and  it  is  to  be  used  in  the  same  way.  It  is 
Buitable  for  all  olive  and  brown  dyes.  The  3d 
mordant  is  prepared  by  triturating  and  mixing 
together  5  parts  of  common  salt  and  one  part 
of  the  residuum  of  the  manufacture  of  sul- 
phuric acid  where  nitrate  of  potash  is  employ- 
ed. This  mordant  is  to  be  used  in  the  same 
proportion  to  cream  of  tartar  as  the  2d,  and  it  is 
applicable  to  black  and  dark  colors  only.  The 
4th  mordant  is  formed  by  dissolving  G  parts 
of  alumina,  3  parts  of  nitric  acid,  and  1  part  of 
caustic  ley  of  24*^  Beaume  in  20  quarts  of  boiling 
water.  It  may  be  used  in  dyers'  baths  for  green 
dyes  of  all  shades  and  fancy  dyes,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  pint  for  every  20  lbs.  weight  of 
the  fabrics  to  be  dyed. — Many  experiments  in 
dyeing  made  by  M.  Kuhlmanu  were  published  in 
France  at  the  beginning  of  1859.  This  gen- 
tleman having  remarked  that  when  eggs  were 
dyed  some  of  them  took  colors  better  than 
others,  and  that  this  fixation  of  the  color  took 
place  without  any  mordant,  was  led  to  suppose 
that,  in  these  cases,  the  fixation  was  not  due  to 
the  calcareous  salt  of  which  the  egg  shell  is 
formed,  but  to  the  azotized  coating  upon  its  sur- 
face. This  supposition  was  subsequently  veri- 
fied by  experiment.  As  the  coating  of  the  egg 
shell  is  analogous  to  albumen,  this  latter  sub- 
stance, coagulated  by  heat,  was  tried  separately 
in  baths  of  Brazil  wood,  &c.,  and  its  absorbing 
power  thus  shown.  M.  Kuhlmann  then  tried 
the  use  of  this  substance  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
creasing the  absorbing  power  of  different  tissues, 
and  obtained  very  favorable  results  with  cot- 
ton, less  distinct  with  silk,  scarcely  perceptible 
with  wool ;  these  trials  were  made  with  Brazil 
wood,  madder,  and  Campeachy  wood.  After 
albumen  he  tried  with  the  same  success  milk 
and  caseum,  which  may  be  coagulated  on  the 
surface  of  the  tissues  by  means  of  an  acid.  Milk 
especially,  alone  or  in  connection  with  mordants, 
gave  the  cotton  very  full  colors.  He  experi- 
mented also  upon  gelatine  coagulated  by  tan- 
nin, and  obtained  results,  although  feeble,  with- 
out mordants.  He  also  found  that  albumen  may 
serve  as  a  medium  for  precipitating  upon  stufts 
metallic  oxides,  with  which  it  forms  insoluble 
compounds ;  in  dyeing,  stuffs  impregnated  with 
these  compounds  absorb  colors  with  more  ease 
than  if  they  had  been  prepared  with  albumen, 
or  with  the  same  metallic  salts  alone.  Analo- 
gous results  were  obtained  with  tannin-gelatine. 


— See  Bancroft's  "Experimental  Researches  con- 
cerning the  Philosopliy  of  Permanent  Colors" 
(179C).  A  very  complete  treatise  upon  dyeing 
is  contained  in  the  new  work  of  "  Chemistry 
applied  to  the  Arts  and  Manufactures,"  by  Dr. 
Muspratt.  The  principal  French  works  ort  dye- 
ing are  :  A.  Yinyard,  Vart  du  teinturier  (1820); 
J.  B.  Vitalis,  Cours  Hementaire  de  teinture 
(1823) ;  M.  Chovreuil,  Cours  de  cMmie  ajypJi- 
quee  d  la  teinture  (1831) ;  BerthoUet,  Les  ele- 
ments de  Vart  de  l(c  teinture  (1840);  and  still 
more  recently,  Manuel  du  teinturier,  by  'Si. 
Vergniaud  (in  the  handbooks  on  industry  pub- 
lished by  liozet).  Among  the  German  works 
lately  published  on  the  subject  are  :  Schrader, 
Die  Filrherei  ira  Kleinen  (2d  edit.  Leipsic,  1857) ; 
Leuchs,  Verheaserungen  in  der  FarhenfahriTca- 
tion  (Nuremberg,  1857)  ;  andKurrer,  Das  Neu- 
este  der  Druch-  und  Fdrhekunst  (Berlin,  1858). 

DYER,  a  AV.  co.  of  Teun.,  separated  from  Mo. 
by  the  Mississippi  river,  and  drained  by  Obion 
and  Forked  Deer  rivers ;  area  estimated  at  400 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  6,3G1,  of  whom  1,468  were 
slaves.  Tlie  soil  is  rich,  and  the  surface  level 
and  partly  occupied  by  excellent  timber  tracts. 
Yellow  poplar  timber  forms  one  of  the  principal 
articles  of  export.  The  other  staples  are  Indian 
corn  and  tobacco.  In  1850  the  county  produced 
413,020  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  22.882  of  oats, 
548,815  lbs.  of  tobacco,  and  59,660  of  butter. 
There  were  12  churches  and  700  pupils  attend- 
ing public  schools.     Capital,  Dyersburg. 

"dyer,  George,  an  English  author,  born  in  a 
suburb  of  London,  March  15, 1755,  died  in  Lon- 
don, March  2, 1841.  lie  was  educated  at  Christ's 
hospital,  where  he  was  an  associate  of  Charles 
Lamb,  and  at  Emmanuel  college,  Cambridge, 
where  he  received  the  degree  of  bachelor  in  1778. 
He  was  successively  a  teacher,  tutor,  and  Bap- 
tist minister,  residing  most  of  the  time  eitlier 
at  Cambridge  or  Oxford,  till  in  1792  he  removed 
to  London,  where  he  was  engaged  as  parliament- 
ary reporter,  teacher,  and  writer.  In  1830  his 
eyesight  failed,  and  he  at  length  became  totally 
blind.  He  was  a  poet  and  frequent  contributor  to 
reviews,  but  is  better  known  as  a  scholar  and 
antiquary.  He  was  joint  editor  of  Valpy's  com- 
bination'of  the  Delphin,  Bipont,  and  Variorum 
editions  of  the  Latin  classics,  in  141  volumes,  for 
which  he  furnished  all  the  original  matter  ex- 
cept the  preface.  He  published  a  "  History  of 
the  University  and  Colleges  of  Cambridge"  (Lon- 
don, 1814),  which  is  an  excellent  sketch  rather 
than  a  complete  history.  He  also  pubhshed  a 
volume  of  poems  (1812),  alife  of  the  Rev.  Robert 
Robinson,  a  work  on  the  "  Privileges  of  the  Uni- 
versitv  of  Cambridge"  (1824),  and  another  enti- 
tled "Academic  Unity"  (1827).  Talfourd  refers 
to  his  "  simplicity  of  nature,  not  only  unspotted 
by  the  world,  but  almost  abstracted  from  it," 
and  speaks  of  him  as  "  breathing  out  at  the  age 
of  85  the  most  blameless  of  lives,  which  began 
in  a  struggle  to  end  in  a  learned  dream." 

DYER,  John,  an  English  poet,  born  at  Aber- 
glasney,  Caerraarthenshire,  in  1700,  died  July 
24,  1758.    He  was  educated  at  "Westminster, 


702 


DYER 


DYNAMOMETEPw 


and  recalled  to  Lis  native  place  to  follow  the 
profession  of  his  father  as  solicitor.  His  taste, 
however,  led  him  to  poetry  and  the  fine  arts, 
and  after  a  short  study  of  painting  he  rambled 
over  England  as  an  itinerant  artist.  In  1727  he 
pubKshed  his  "Grongar  Ilill,"  which  he  had 
written  daring  his  excursions — a  poern  marked 
by  warmth  of  sentiment  and  an  elegant  simpli- 
city of  description.  lie  travelled  in  Italy  'to 
pursue  his  studies  as  a  painter,  but  the  best  re- 
sult of  his  observations  was  his  poem  entitled 
the  "  Ruins  of  Rome,"  which  was  published  in 
1740.  On  his  return  from  Italy,  having  little 
prospect  of  success  as  an  artist,  he  entered  holy 
orders,  and  married  a  lady  named  Ensor,  who, 
he  says,  was  a  descendant  from  Shakespeare. 
In  1758  appeared  his  longer  poem  of  "  The 
Fleece,"  in  which  he  attempted  to  treat  the 
subject  of  wool  in  a  poetical  manner,  and  which 
is  at  least  one  of  the  most  successful  of  the 
many  imitations  of  Virgil's  "  Georgics."  All 
the  poems  of  Dyer  abound  in  happy  and  careful 
pictures  of  nature,  and  inappropriate  and  gentle 
moral  sentiments.  His  eulogy  is  pronounced  by 
Johnson  when  he  says  that  he  who  has  read 
"  Grongar  Hill "  once  will  return  to  read  it  a 
second  time. 

DYER,  Mary,  a  disciple  of  Anne  Hutchinson, 
and  a  victim  to  the  persecution  which  befell  the 
Quakers  in  the  early  history  of  Massachusetts, 
was  hanged  on  Boston  common,  June  1,  1660. 
The  government  of  Massachusetts  by  a  statute 
excluded  Quakers  from  the  bounds  of  that  col- 
ony, and  sentenced  to  death  any  one  of  that 
sect  who  should  be  guilty  of  a  second  visit  to 
the  peculiar  land  of  the  Puritans.  The  statute 
was  little  regarded,  or  rather  was  construed  as 
an  invitation  instead  of  a  menace,  by  the  en- 
thusiastic and  devoted  believers  against  whom 
it  was  directed.  Mary  Dyer  had  departed  from 
their  jurisdiction  upon  the  enactment  of  the  law, 
but  soon  after  returned  on  purpose  to  offer  up 
her  life.  She  was  arrested  and  sent  to  prison 
full  of  joy,  wrote  from  the  gaol  a  remonstrance 
in  which  she  pronounced  her  persecutors  dis- 
obedient and  deceived,  was  reprieved  after  being 
led  forth  to  execution  and  after  the  rope  had 
been  put  around  her  neck,  and  was  against  her 
"will  conveyed  out  of  the  colony.  She  speedily 
returned,  and  suffered  as  a  willing  martyr. 

DYMOND,  JoNATnAN,  an  English  writer  on 
ethics,  born  in  Exeter  in  1796,  died  May  6,  1828. 
The  son  of  a  linen  draper,  and  himself  engaged 
in  the  business,  he  composed  his  books  amid 
the  pressure  of  other  occupations  and  without 
the  resources  of  a  learned  education.  He  wrote 
principally  in  the  early  hours  of  morning,  and 
published  in  1823  an  "  Inquiry  into  the  Accord- 
ance of  War  with  the  Principles  of  Christianity," 
a  work  which  attracted  much  attention.  His 
fame  chiefly  rests  on  his  "  Essays  on  the  Princi- 
ples of  Morality,"  which  proves  him  to  have 
possessed  a  discriminating  mind,  and  simple  and 
clear  views  of  Christian  ethics. 

DYNAMICS  (Gr.  Svuaixis,  force),  that  depart- 
ment of  mechanics  which  treats  abstractly  of 


bodies  in  motion,  as  distinguished  from  statics, 
wliich  considers  bodies  at  rest.  (See  Mechanics.) 
DYNAMOMETER  (Gr.  Swafxis,  force,  and 
fifTpov,  a  measure),  an  instrument  originally  de- 
signed to  ascertain  the  strength  of  men  and  ani- 
mals, of  the  limbs  of  the  body,  the  lingers,  &c. 
Its  application  was  afterward  extended  to  the 
determination  of  the  power  exerted  by  machines, 
or  of  any  portions  of  them,  and  the  instrument 
has  hence  come  into  use  as  a  meter  of  the  power 
of  engines.  The  principle  of  the  earlier  con- 
trivances was  to  weigh  the  force  exerted  by  the 
amount  of  compression  or  of  deflection  produced 
upon  an  elliptical  steel  spring ;  this  in  the  former 
case  being  drawn  together  by  the  application  of 
the  power  and  of  the  resistance  at  the  two  op- 
posite ends,  and  in  the  latter  separated  by  the 
force  and  resistance  being  applied  upon  the  op- 
posite sides  of  the  spring,  on  the  line  of  the 
minor  axis  of  the  ellipse;  an  index  upon  a 
graduated  arc  attached  to  the  spring  showed  the 
amount  of  deflection.  Another  contrivance  was 
a  spiral  spring  enclosed  in  a  tube,  the  force  being 
exerted  to  draw  this  together,  precisely  the  same 
thing  as  the  ordinary  spring  balance.  By  such 
means  the  greatest  power  exerted  by  one  im- 
pulse was  indicated ;  but  as  in  most  instances 
the  power  is  not  constant  for  any  determinate 
time,  the  index  must  fluctuate  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  mean  effort  it  should  represent  cannot 
be  ascertained.  If  known,  its  amount  multiplied 
by  the  time  of  continuance  of  the  operation 
would  give  as  a  result  the  value  of  the  whole 
power  exerted.  Instruments  have  been  devised 
by  MM.  Poncelet,  Morin,  and  others,  which 
should  register  upon  papers,  made  to  pass  by  a 
clock-work  movement  under  the  index,  curved 
lines  from  which  the  whole  power  could  be  di- 
rectly calculated  from  the  areas  enclosed — the 
ordinates  of  the  curves  representing  the  power 
exerted,  and  the  abscissas  the  length  of  time,  or 
in  some  instances  of  the  space  run  over.  The 
apparatus  might  be  fixed  to  a  carriage,  the  length 
of  the  index  paper  in  this  instance  bearing  a 
certain  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  road 
gone  over.  A  great  number  of  different  forms 
of  this  instrument  have  been  devised  by  eminent 
engineers  of  France,  England,  and  the  United 
States.  One  by  Watt,  improved  by  Macknaught, 
gives  the  force  exerted  by  the  piston  of  a  steam 
engine  against  a  spiral  spring,  a  style  attached 
to  the  piston  inscribing  a  line  representing  its 
position  during  the  unrolling  of  the  paper  which 
moves  at  an  even  rate  against  it.  The  principle 
of  this  is  the  same  as  that  of  anemometers,  which 
are  dynamometers  limited  in  their  application  to 
measuring  the  force  of  the  wind.  In  the  Dic- 
tionnaire  dcs  arts  et  mamifactures  the  subject 
is  fully  treated  in  the  article  Dynamometre^  by 
M.  Laboulaye.  The  descriptions  of  the  various 
forms  of  the  apparatus  are  made  intelligible  by 
many  illustrations.  In  Appleton's  "Dictionary 
of  Mechanics,"  also,  many  forms  of  the  apparatus 
are  figured  and  described;  and  the  following 
simple  contrivance,  applicable  in  some  instances, 
is  proposed.    A  cylinder  of  some  material  hea- 


DYSAKT 


DYSPEPSIA 


703 


vier  than  water  is  suspended  in  this  fluid  by  a 
rope  passing  over  a  pulley.  As  power  is  a[)pliod 
to  this  vopo  to  draw  the  cylinder  out  of  tlie 
water,  the  increasing'  weight  of  this,  as  more  is 
raised  into  the  air,  will  at  last  cause  the  resist- 
ance to  equal  the  force  ai)|)lied,  the  cylinder 
being  sufficiently  large  and  long.  By  means  of 
a  scale  properly  arranged,  the  amount  of  the 
power  applied  may  be  accurately  measured. 

DYSART,  or  Desai'.t,  a  parliamentary  bor- 
ough and  seaport  town  of  Scotland,  in  the 
county  of  Fife,  12  m.  N.  N.  E.  from  Edinburgh, 
on  the  N.  side  of  the  firth  of  Forth ;  pop.  in 
1851,  8,739.  The  town  is  very  old,  and  in  former 
times  was  a  place  of  much  importance.  Its 
trade  was  then  considerable,  but  it  now  exports 
little  beside  coal,  and  has  no  manufactures  of 
note  except  checks  and  ticks. 

DYSENTERY,  a  disease  characterized  by 
frequent  straining  efforts  at  stool,  attended  by 
small  and  painful  mucous  and  bloody  discharges. 
Dysentery  is  more  common  in  hot  climates  than 
in  temperate  ones ;  in  summer  and  autumn  than 
in  winter  and  spring.  It  is  subject  to  epidemic 
influences,  being  in  some  seasons  frequent  and 
fatal  over  an  extensive  region,  and  then  almost 
disappearing  for  years.  It  is  more  common  and 
severe  in  malarious  districts.  It  sometimes 
breaks  out  and  is  excessively  fotal  in  public 
institutions  where  the  inmates  have  been  sub- 
ject to  the  combined  influence  of  a  vitiated 
atmosphere  and  au  improper  and  innutritions 
diet ;  and  under  the  influence  of  fatigue,  expo- 
sure, and  improper  diet,  it  has  often  proved 
very  destructive  to  armies.  It  is  conunonly 
attributed  to  the  use  of  irritating  and  indiges- 
tible food,  and  to  cold,  particularly  after  the 
body  has  been  debilitated  by  a  prolonged  ex- 
posure to  heat.  Tlie  milder  cases  of  dysentery 
are  attended  by  little  or  no  fever;  but  when  the 
disease  is  severe  fever  is  always  present,  and  may 
precede  though  it  more  commonly  follows  the 
local  manifestations.  There  is  often  a  good  deal 
of  pain  and  soreness  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
abdomen  or  extending  along  the  track  of  the 
colon,  frequent  calls  to  stool,  attended  with 
painful  and  often  violent  straining ;  the  stools 
consist  chiefly  of  mucus  more  or  less  tinged 
with  blood,  and  sometimes  mixed  with  mem- 
branous shreds,  or  they  may  consist  of  blood 
almost  pure,  or  they  resemble  the  washings  of 
flesh ;  their  odor  is  not  feculent,  but  fixint  and 
peculiar,  and  sometimes  horribly  fetid;  occa- 
sionally the  neck  of  the  bladder  sympathizes 
■with  the  neighboring  bowel,  and  there  is  diffi- 
culty in  passing  urine.  While  mild  cases  of 
dysentery  are  attended  with  no  danger,  when 
severe  the  disease  is  always  serious  and  often 
fatal;  or  ifc  may  become  chronic,  and  slowly 
■waste  the  powers  of  the  constitution.  When 
death  occurs,  2^ost  mortem  examination  reveals 
'the  existence  of  extensive  ulceration  in  the 
large  intestines.  The  ulcers  are  often  large, 
irregular  in  shape,  laying  bare  the  muscular  and 
sometimes  the  peritoneal  coat;  between  them 
the  mucous  membrane  is  thickened,  often  lined 


with  false  membrane,  sometimes  appearing  as 
if  struck  with  gangrene.  When  the  pain  and 
tenderness  are  very  considerable,  the  treatment 
may  be  commenced  l)y  the  application  of  leeches 
over  the  track  of  the  inflamed  bowel ;  if  any 
constipation  has  previously  existed,  a  dose  of 
castor  oil,  to  which  a  few  drops  of  laudanum 
have  been  added,  may  be  given ;  opiates  and 
astringents  may  be  afterward  administered. 
From  the  fact  that  the  rectum  is  the  partof  tho 
intestinal  canal  most  affected,  opiates  in  tho 
form  of  suppositories  or  enemata  are  found  par- 
ticularly useful.  Calomel  has  been  liighly  re- 
commended in  the  treatment  of  the  dysentery 
of  tropical  climates,  but  in  temperate  regions  it 
is  rarely  necessary  to  resort  to  it.  During  tho 
treatment  the  patient  should  be  confined  to  his 
bed,  and  the  diet  sliould  be  of  the  mildest  and 
most  unirritating  character.  Wlicn  dysentery 
passes  into  the  chronic  state,  the  tenesmus  sub- 
sides, the  stools  become  more  copious  and  loose, 
and  are  found  to  contain  pus;  the  complaint  is 
apt  to  be  tedious  and  intractable,  and  when  re- 
covery does  take  place  the  digestive  organs  re- 
main for  a  long  time  feeble  and  irritable.  A 
strictly  regulated  diet  with  the  use  of  opium, 
combined  with  a  small  dose  of  sulphate  of  copper 
or  nitrate  of  silver,  are  the  means  commonly  had 
recourse  to  in  its  treatment. 

DYSPEPSIA,  IxDiGESTiox.  Under  this  head 
are  commonly  grouped  all  those  functional  dis- 
orders of  the  stomach  which  are  independent 
of  organic  disease,  and  are  not  symptomatic  of 
disease  of  other  parts  of  the  economy.  Its 
characteristic  symptoms,  as  given  by  Cullen, 
"  are  want  of  appetite,  nausea,  vomiting,  flat- 
ulence, eructations,  and  pain ;  more  or  fewer 
of  these  symptoms  concurring,  together  some- 
times with  constipation."'  Many  circumstances 
must  concur  to  render  digestion  easy  and  per- 
fect. The  mind  should  be  free  from  any  har- 
assing care  or  anxiety ;  otherwise  not  only  the 
appetite  is  impaired,  but  the  food  which  is  taken 
is  digested  with  difficulty.  The  food  should  bo 
thoroughly  masticated  and  insalivated  to  pre- 
pare it  for  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice.  Those 
who  bolt  their  food  half  chewed,  who  have  sali- 
vary fistula,  or  who  waste  their  saliva  by  con- 
stant spitting,  finally  suffer  from  dyspepsia.  The 
quantity  of  food  taken  must  be  suited  to  the 
Avants  of  the  system,  and  to  the  capabilities  of 
the  stomach.  After  recovery  from  wasting  dis- 
eases, a  larger  quantity  of  food  is  required  and 
will  be  digested  than  at- ordinary  times.  It 
must  be  suited  to  the  digestive  capacity  of  the 
ston:ach;  if  the  quantity  be  too  large  or  the 
quality  too  rich,  a  sense  of  fulness  and  weight 
in  the  region  of  the  stomach,  nausea,  heartburn, 
and  eructation  of  acid  and  gaseous  matters  fol- 
low ;  with  these  symptoms  the  tongue  becomes 
furred,  there  is  some  feverishness,  and  there  is 
more  or  less  headache  ;  if  vomiting  occurs,  and 
the  ejccta  contain  bile,  the  sufterer  in  ordinary 
phrase  is  said  to  have  had  a  bilious  attack.  The 
food  must  be  taken  at  proper  intervals,  and 
these  intervals  are  not  always  the  same  for  all 


704 


E 


persons ;  before  a  second  meal  13  taken,  the 
previous  meal  should  be  completely  digested, 
and  the  stomach  should  have  a  period  of  repose. 
The  food  must  not  only  be  of  a  character  which 
permits  its  easy  digestion  by  the  stomach  and 
small  intestines,  but  it  must  afford  a  residuum 
bull-cy  and  stimulating  enough  to  maintain  a 
regular  action  of  the  bowels.  "When  constipa- 
tion is  induced  by  neglect,  indolent  habits,  or 
too  concentrated  a  diet,  the  stomach  is  apt  to 
sutfer,  and  dyspeptic  symptoms  follow.  To  all 
these  causes  of  dyspepsia  must  be  added  tlie 
abuse  of  fermented  and  distilled  liquors.  When 
dyspepsia  has  been  induced  by  any  one  of  the 
above-mentioned  causes,  its  cure  is  to  be  sought 
in  the  removal  of  the  cause  by  which  it  was 
brought  on ;  but  this  alone  will  often  be  found 
tedious  or  inefficient.  In  one  class  of  cases  a 
certain  degree  of  inflammation  of  the  gastric 
mucous  membrane  seems  to  be  produced.  The 
presence  of  food  excites  pain,  which  continues 
so  long  as  the  food  remains  in  the  stomach ; 
carminatives  or  stimulants,  so  far  from  afford- 
ing relief,  aggravate  the  distress.  In  such  cases 
the  diet  must  be  of  the  blandest  and  most  un- 


stiraulating  kind,  and  the  amount  of  food  rigid- 
ly limited.  Restricting  the  patient  to  milk, 
diluted  with  an  equal  part  of  lime  water,  is 
sometimes  attended  by  great  benefit,  and  fari- 
naceous articles  are  preferable  to  meat.  In 
another  and  the  larger  class  of  cases,  there  is 
neither  inflammation  nor  irritation  present,  but 
the  powers  of  the  stomach  seem  enfeebled ;  here 
stimulants  relieve  the  distress,  and  cause  at  least 
a  temporary  improvement.  In  such  cases  a 
meat  diet  agrees  better  than  an  exclusively  fari- 
naceous one,  and  the  patient  is  benefited  by  the 
use  of  the  bitter  tonics,  Colombo,  gentian,  quas- 
sia, &c.  Certain  remedies  are  adapted  to  the 
relief  of  particular  symptoms ;  acidity  is  re- 
lieved by  the  use  of  alkalies  and  the  alkaline 
earths ;  pain,  by  bismuth  and  hydrocyanic  acid ; 
flatulence,  by  carminatives;  and  constipation, 
when  it  cannot  be  obviated  by  diet  and  atten- 
tion, may  call  forth  the  use  of  some  of  the  pur- 
gative mineral  waters,  or  of  small  doses  of  aloes 
in  combination  with  nux  vomica.  It  is  in  these 
cases  that  travel,  combining  as  it  does  relaxa- 
tion with  mental  excitement  and  exercise,  is  par- 
ticularly serviceable. 


E 


Ethe  5th  letter  and  2d  vowel  of  the  Latin 
^  alphabet,  and  of  those  derived  from  it.  It 
is  both  sliort  and  long,  and  in  the  Greek  alphabet 
has  2  corresponding  forms,  Eyj/iKov  (slender  E), 
the  oth  letter,  and  Hra  OoQg  E),  the  7th  letter 
(but  counting  8  if  the  stigma  be  included).  The 
short  and  long  O,  OfiiKpov  and  i2/xf ya,  are  analo- 
gous to  them.  Simonides  is  said  to  liave  formed 
the  H  (rjTo)  by  doubling  the  E  (e\//iXoi/),  thus 
Ea,  the  epsilon  having  before  been  both  short 
and  long.  The  H,  however,  was  made  by  the)- 
Latins  an  aspirate,  and  was  employed  to  repre- 
sent the  rough  breathing,  and  the  aspirate  sound 
in  9,  tl>,  and  X,  as  Homerm^  Thales^  Fhilon, 
Charon.  The  prototypes  of  tlie  aspirated  Greek 
letters  in  question  are  the  Ph(iinician  and  He- 
brew lie  and  Ghet.  Indicating  the  most  fleeting 
sound  of  the  human  voice,  a  mere  breathing  in 
many  cases,  the  letter  E  is  the  basis  of  the 
vowel  system,  and  the  most  protean  of  all  the 
vowels,  as  regards  its  shades  of  sound,  its  conver- 
tibility, the  modes  in  which  it  is  indicated  in 
•writing,  and  the  uses  that  are  made  of  it  in 
various  graphic  systems.  But  few  of  its  pecu- 
liarities can  here  be  pointed  out.  In  English  it 
Las  5  sounds,  called  long,  short,  open,  obtuse, 
and  obscure,  respectively  as  in  mete,  met,  there, 
her,  and  brier.  The  long  English  sound  corre- 
sponds to  the  French  and  German  I,  Avhile  the 
French  nasal  E  in  cm  and  en  sounds  like  the 
English  a  msioan;  and  the  sound  of  the  French 
sharp  E  is  represented  in  English  by  a,  ai,  ay, 
or  ey,  as  in  made,  maid,  say,  and  they.  In 
Hebrew,  it  has  2  sounds ;  the  open  is  noted  by 
Tsere  (break),  or  2  horizontal  dots  under  the  con- 


sonant ;  the  close  by  Segol  (grape),  or  8  dots,  and 
2  Sheva  (emptiness),  or  2  vertical  dots,  the  one 
movable  (half  mute),  the  other  quiescent  (mute). 
The  long  E  is  written  AI  in  Mceso-Gothic,  In 
Greek  the  long  and  short  E  (e  and  rj)  are  both 
either  open  or  close,  but  the  latter  is  pronounced 
as  I  in  Neo-Hellenic,  Coptic,  and  Slavonic.  In 
German  it  has  3  sounds,  very  short  in  hatte, 
hoffen,  like  the  English  short  E  in  Engel,  rennen, 
and  like  the  English  long  A  in  geheii,  2iredigen  ; 
in  Magyar  3,  as  in  cmleriseg,  humanity ;  in  Italian 
and  Spanish  §,  the  open  and  close ;  in  French  6, 
viz. :  open  \n  fete,  il  cede,  half  open  in  nous  /e- 
tons,  sharp  in  ete,parlez,  nasal  in  bien,  half  mute 
in  je,  le,  Breton,  and  almost  mute  in  8imple,sucre, 
and  is  quite  mute  in  la  rue,  favouerai.  Both 
in  English  and  French  itinfluencespreceding  syl- 
lables by  lengthening  and  changing  their  vowels ; 
thus  compare  onade,  mete,  pine,  note,  and  tule, 
with  mad,  met,  2nn,  not,  and  tuh;  and  ilplane^ 
il  mene,  fine,  and  v.ne,  with  le  plan,  ilment,  fin, 
and  un.  In  German  it  produces  tlie  metaphony 
of  A,  O,  H,  into  X,  O,  U,  as  in  Manner,  men, 
Togel,  birds,  Bute,  hats.  It  also  lengthens 
vowels  immediately  preceding,  as  in  Germ.  See, 
sea,  dieser,  this,  Eng.  true,  and  Fr.  la  vie.  It 
is  very  often  elided,  absorbing  and  absorbed; 
the  elision  is  in  many  languages  recorded  by  the 
sign  of  apostrophe ;  thus :  Johi's  house,  wisFd, 
Vhoinme,  and  Verle.  It  is  often  a  euphonic 
means  for  facilitating  the  utterance  of  words, 
as  in  establish,  etahlir,  estahleceP,  Spice,  espiritu, 
esprit,  escrihir,  ecrire,  estado,  etat.  estrclla,etoiIe, 
Estevan,  and  Etienne.  It  is  prefixed  for  other 
reasons    in    fKuvos,   ecquis,    and    many  other 


E 


EAGLE 


705 


wor^s.  In  Slavic  languages  it  often  coalesces 
■with  I,  forming  a  sort  of  consonant ;  thus,  jest 
(pronouuci'd  yent)^  Lat.  est;  7iie,  Lat.  7ie,  non. 
E  frequently  occurs  instead  of  I  in  ancient  Ko- 
man  memorials,  as,  for  instance,  on  the  columna 
Tostrata  of  Dnilius,  on  the  tomb  of  the  Scipios, 
and  in  the  works  of  writers;  thus,  sele^  quase^ 
maeesfcr,  fuet^  for  slbi,  quusi^  mcKjistcr^fait.  lu 
the  Slavonic  it  occupies,  as  jc«i,  the  Cth  place  of 
the  Bukvitsa  as  well  as  of  the  Cyrillic  scheme, 
and  has  two  softening  forms  as  finals  {-cr.  -eri) 
toward  the  close  of  the  alphabet. — We  give  a 
promiscuous  list  of  the  substitutions  or  meta- 
jjlionies  of  E,  long  and  short,  in  different  lan- 
guages, resulting  from  glossic,  dialectic,  grani- 
matic,  eu[)honic,  and  other  exigencies :  rpen-w, 
rpanov,  rponos  ;  Xfyoj,  Xoyoj ;  j/eoy,  7iointS-  TrXrjyr], 
pliUja ;  TTUTTjp,  EuTrarcop  ;  St/ceXof,  Siculus ;  ve^oy, 
nubes ;  Kepas,  coriiu ;  ago^  egi;  frango^  freyl; 
facio,feci^  e(/lcio,  Jiiigo,  fungor;  2>'t)'S,  expers  ; 
bomts,  bene;  vellc^  volo,  i:is,  vult;  custii-s,  inces- 
tus;  tos^vcster ;  sero,  satus,  Eng.  sown,  son;  terto, 
vortex,  adversus,  Eng.  toward;  vermis,  wo^rm ; 
audio,  obcdio  ;  arista.  Germ.  Aehre,  Eng.  car  (of 
corn);  /alio,  fefelli;  lialo,  anhelo ;  tego,  toga; 
2)ercello,  perculi ;  vas,  Eng.  vessel,  Fr.  vaisseau; 
pes,  Eng.  foot,  feet,  fotter,  Fr.  pied;  Anglia, 
England,  \ii\\.  Ingliiltcrra  ;  Cornelia,  Ital.  Cor- 
niglia  ;  urbs  vctus,  Ital.  Orcieto;  decern,  Ital. 
dieci ;  sequitur.  Span,  sigue ;  mceum,  Span. 
conmigo  ;  deiis.  Span,  dios  ;  nego.  Span,  niego ; 
brecis,  I'rov,  brieu  ;  2^Gtra,'Wa,\.  peatre  ;  sensus, 
Portng.  siso  ;  cera,  ecclesia,  racemus,  ego,  neptis, 
Fr.  (respectively)  cire,  eglise,  raisin,  je,  niece; 
bene,  inel,  Fr.  bicn,  miel ;  mcnsis,  me,  Fr.  mois, 
moi ;  Eng.  apple,  Iceland,  ejjli ;  aper.  Germ, 
Ebcr,  Eng.  boar;  Eng.  man,  men,  to  mean, 
mind;  sell,  sale,  sold;  enquire,  inquire;  fod, 
fot,  feed,  food;  shed,  shut^ ;  set,  sit,  sat,  seat, 
site,  sod;  Fr.  venir,  viens,  vint ;  Germ,  werden, 
ward,  icdre,  wird,  wurde,  wiirde,  geworden. — 
The  figure  of  E  is  supposed  by  the  abbe  Mous- 
sard  to  be  the  base  of  the  nose,  /n,  its  sound 
being  symbolic  of  breathing,  and  hence  of  life. 
It  has  this  or  a  similar  shape  in  Phcenician,  He- 
brew, Samaritan,  the  ancient  Italic  alphabets, 
Idalian  (Cyprian),  and  iu  their  derivative  sys- 
tems. Court  de  Gebelin  derives  its  form  from 
the  outline  of  the  human  face,  which  is  a  sym- 
bol, according  to  him,  of  the  idea  of  existence. 
Dammartin  pretends  to  have  found  its  prototype 
for  all  graphic  systems,  including  even  the  Chi- 
nese, in  the  southern  triangle,  and  the  bow  of 
the  constellation  of  the  archer.  It  is  represent- 
ed by  the  Stungen  les  (Slung  or  pointed  I)  of  the 
runic  wi'iting;  its  hieroglyphs  are  palm  leaves 
or  long  feathers ;  the  hieratic  figure  of  it  is  a 
sort  of  tetragonal  convolute,  and  the  demotic 
is  sickle-like. — Barrois  asserts  that  E  signifies 
one,  since  it  is  the  initial  of  the  Greek  hs.  As 
an  abbreviation,  E.  stands  for  Ennius,  eques 
Romanus,  egregius,  emeritus,  ergo,  editio,  east, 
electricity,  and  excellence.  The  letters  d.  e.  r. 
stand  for  de  ed-  re;  q.  e.  d.  for  quod  erat  de- 
monstrandum; e.  g.  and  e.  c.  for  exemjjli  gratia 
and  exempli  causa.  In  syllogisms,  A  =  asserit, 
VOL,   YI. — 45 


E  =  negat.  On  French  coins  it  designates 
Tours;  on  those  of  Austria,  Carlsburg  in  Tran- 
sylvania; on  those  of  Prussia,  Konigsberg.  In 
Greek,  E  has  the  value  of  5,  and  with  a  mark 
below  it,  of  5,000.  According  to  Earonius,  it 
represented  the  number  2o0  in  tlie  period  of 
the  decline  of  classic  literature. — In  music,  it 
denotes  the  3d  great  interval  in  modern  musical 
nomenclature,  or  the  5th  string  in  the  chro- 
matic scale,  and  is  called  mi  in  vocal  music. 

EACIIARI),  Joux,  an  English  divine,  born  in 
Sullblk  in  1G36,  died  July  7,  1G'j7.  He  studied 
and  took  his  degree  at  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  became  known  by  his  satires  against 
the  clergymen  of  his  time,  making  the  sermons 
of  his  own  father  sometimes  serve  to  give  point 
to  his  ridicule.  After  becoming  a  clergyman 
himself,  he  wrote  upon  the  "  Grounds  and  Occa- 
sions of  the  Contemj)t  of  the  Clergy  and  Reli- 
gion," which  he  attributed'  to  the  insufficient 
salaries  of  clergymen,  and  the  consequent  neces- 
sity fiu"  them  to  eke  out  a  living  by  unbecoming 
means.  The  work  passed  rajjidly  through  G 
editions,  and  drew  down  upon  its  author  abun- 
dant criticisms.  lie  published  2  dialogues  upon 
Mr.  Ilobbes's  "State  of  Nature,"  in  which  he 
attacked  the  ideas  of  that  philosopher  in  a 
humorous  and  vigorous  way.  An  edition  of  his 
works,  with  a  life,  was  published  in  1714,  and 
it  is  remarked  by  Warton  that  his  writings  must 
have  been  diligently  studied  by  Swift. 

EADMER,  or  Edmek,  an  English  monk,  the 
friend  and  biographer  of  Saint  Ansclm,  died  in 
1124.  lie  was  chosen  in  1120  bishop  of  St.  An- 
drew's, in  Scotland,  but  the  Scottish  king  refus- 
ing to  allow  his  consecration  by  the  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  and  thus  to  admit  the  primacy  of 
that  see,  he  either  declined  the  bishopric  or  ab- 
dicated it  after  a  short  possession,  and  died  as 
a  monk  of  Canterbury.  Beside  his  life  of  Saint 
Anselm,  contained  in  most  of  the  editions  of 
Anselm's  works,  he  wrote  the  lives  of  Wilfred, 
Dunstan,  and  other  English  saints,  a  treatise  on 
the  "Excellence  of  the  Holy  Virgin,"  and  on  the 
" Four  Virtues  which  were  in  Mary;"  but  his 
most  valuable  work  is  the  "History  of  Lis  own 
Times,"  an  account  of  the  principal  events  that 
happened  in  England  and  in  the  English  church 
from  1066  to  1122  (best  edition  by  Selden,  1623). 

EAGLE,  a  bird  of  prey,  of  the  order  accipi- 
tres,  iiiimXy  falconida^,  and  subfamily  aquilincB. 
The  eagles  have  a  strong  bill,  elevated  at  the 
culmen,  straight  at  the  base,  and  much  ai'ched 
to  the  tip,  which  is  hooked  and  sharp ;  the  sidea 
are  compressed,  and  the  lateral  margins  festoon- 
ed ;  the  nostrils  are  in  the  cere,  large  ;  the  wings 
are  long  and  acute,  the  3d,  4th,  and  5th  quills 
usually  the  longest ;  the  tail  is  long,  amjjle,  most- 
ly rounded  at  tlie  end  ;  the  tarsi  are  long,  either 
clothed  v.'ith  feathers  to  the  base  of  the  toes  as 
in  the  golden  eagle,  or  naked  and  covered  with 
scales  as  in  the  bald  eagle  ;  the  toes  are  long, 
strong,  ai-med  with  large,  curved,  and  sharp  claws. 
In  the  type  genus  aquila  (Mrehr.)  belongs  the 
golden  eagle  of  Europe  and  America  (^4.  cJiry- 
saetos ,  Linn.).    The  length  of  this  magaifi.cent 


706 


EAGLE 


bird  is  about  3  feet  2  inches,  the  extent  of  wings 
7  feet,  the  bill  along  tlie  back  2|  inches,  the  tar- 
sus 4^  inches,  and  the  middle  toe  and  claw  the 
same ;  the  bill  is  very  robust,  angular  above ; 
the  head  is  moderate,  the  neck  short,  and  the 
body  full ;  the  tarsi  are  feathered  to  the  toes, 
and  the  feet  are  very  stout ;  the  middle  toe  has 
a  membrane  at  the  base  connecting  it  with  the 
others.  The  above  dimensions  are  those  of  an 
adult  female,  the  male  being  considerably  small- 
er, in  conformity  with  the  rule  that  in  birds  of 
prey  the  females  arc  larger  tlian  the  males.  Tlie 
plumage  is  compact,  imbricated,  and  glossy ;  the 
feathers  of  the  neck  and  head  are  nari-ow  and 
pointed,  and  may  be  erected  like  a  short  crest; 
the  tail  consists  of  12  broad  feathers.  In  the 
adult  the  bill  is  black  at  the  tip,  bluish  gray  at 
the  base,  the  cere  and  margins  yellow ;  iris 
chestflut ;  toes  bright  yellow,  claws  black ;  gen- 
eral color  of  the  plumage  dark  brown,  glossed 
with  purple ;  the  hind  head  and  neck  light 
brownish  yellow,  the  feathers  with  dark  shafts; 
the  wing  coverts  light  brown  ;  primaries  brown- 
ish black  ;  tail  rounded,  dark  brown,  lighter  at 
the  base,  irregularly  marked  with  whitish ;  lower 
tail  coverts,  feathers  of  legs  and  tarsi,  yellowish 
brown.  The  immatui-e  bird  is  of  a  deep  brown 
color,  with  the  tail  white  at  the  base  for  J  of 
its  length,  and  dark  at  the  end  ;  this  is  the  ring- 
tailed  eagle  of  Wilson  and  others ;  the  adult, 
from  its  majestic  appearance,  is  called  in  Eu- 
rope the  royal  eagle ;  the  American  species  is 
considered  distinct  by  some,  and  is  called  A. 
Canadensis  (Linn.).  The  golden  eagle  is  rarely 
seen  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States, 
though  specimens  have  been  obtained  in  all  the 
northern  states ;  a  few  years  since  a  young  bird 
was  shot  in  Lexington,  Mass. ;  the  species  is 
most  common  in  the  north-west,  on  the  upper 
Mississippi,  and  in  the  mountainous  regions  of 
the  country;  it  is  also  found  in  the  cold  and 
mountainous  districts  of  northern  Europe  and 
Asia.  The  flight  is  powerful,  though  less  rapid 
than  that  of  the  bald  eagle,  being  continued  for 
hours  in  majestic  circles  at  a  great  elevation, 
and  without  apparent  exertion  ;  its  prey  is  not 
seized  on  the  wing,  but  is  pounced  upon  on  the 
ground  from  a  great  height  with  rarely  failing 
precision.  Its  food  consists  of  young  fawns, 
raccoons,  hares,  wild  turkeys,  and  birds  and  ani- 
mals of  similar  size,  and,  when  hai'd  pressed  by 
hunger,  of  carrion ;  capable  of  going  several 
days  without  food,  it  gorges  itself  when  oppor- 
tunity oiFers.  Its  strength  is  great,  and  its 
weight  about  12  lbs.;  it  is  able  to  withstand 
extreme  cold,  and  pursues  its  prey  in  the  most 
violent  storms.  The  voice  is  harsh  and  scream- 
ing, and  very  loud  at  the  breeding  season.  The 
plumage  does  not  attain  its  full  beauty  until  the 
4th  year;  the  American  Indians  are  fond  of 
using  the  tail  feathers  as  ornaments  for  their 
persons,  pipes,  and  weapons.  The  nest  is  of 
large  size,  consisting  of  a  rude  collection  of 
sticks,  and  placed  on  some  inaccessible  cliff;  the 
eggs  are  generally  2,  of  a  dull  white  color,  with 
brownish  shades,  3^  inches  long  and  2}  in  diam- 


eter at  the  widest  part ;  they  are  laid  in  Febru- 
ary or  March ;  the  young,  when  able  to  provide 
for  themselves,  are  driven  from  the  eyry  by 
their  parents.  This  bird  is  long-lived,  individ- 
uals, it  is  said,  having  been  kept  in  captivity 
for  more  than  a  century.  Though  the  eagle  holds 
among  the  feathered  race  a  position  equivalent 
to  that  of  the  lion  among  beasts,  being  king  of 
birds  as  the  latter  is  the  monarch  of  mammals, 
he  belongs  to  the  section  of  the  ignoble  birds  of 
prey,  which  cannot  be  employed  in  the  noble 
sport  of  falconry ;  in  proportion  to  their  size,  the 
eagles  are  less  courageous,  and  less  powerful  in 
beak,  wings,  and  talons,  than  the  falcons.  The 
noble  nature  of  the  eagle,  like  that  of  the  lion,  is 
mostly  a  creation  of  the  imagination,  founded  on 
external  characters  which  have  no  corresponding 
internal  qualities ;  he  follows  the  instinct  of  his 
carnivorous  nature,  without  regard  to  surround- 
ing weaker  animals,  attacking  where  he  is  sure 
of  victory,  gorging  himself  like  a  glutton,  pa- 
tiently bearing  forced  abstinence  from  food,  and 
at  last  soiling  his  royal  beak  with  the  foulness 
of  carrion ;  the  king-bird  and  the  shrike  are  far 
his  superiors  in  bravery,  and  all  the  qualities 
which  have  been  specially  assumed  for  him  can 
be  found  in  greater  perfection  in  many  common 
birds,  beside  many  of  the  softer  traits  of  char- 
acter which  find  no  place  in  his  royal  constitu- 
tion ;  like  most  other  kings,  he  has  his  supe- 
riors in  many  of  the  lowest  of  his  subjects.  The 
eagle  is  monogamous,  and  the  mated  pair  are 
generally  not  far  from  each  other ;  the  same 
nest  is  used  for  many  successive  years.  The 
scent  of  the  eagle  is  feeble,  but  his  sight  is  ex- 
ceedingly keen  ;  able  to  gaze  at  the  sun  at  noon- 
day, and  rising  toward  it  until  beyond  human 
sight,  he  can  detect  in  the  plains  below  his  liv- 
ing prey.  Like  the  condor,  the  eagle  has  been 
accused  of  carrying  off  little  children  to  its  nest, 
but  such  instances  in  both  birds  must  be  very 
rare,  though  doubtless  they  may  have  occurred. 
Another  species  of  this  genus  is  the  spotted  or 
rough-footed  eagle  (A.  navia,  Gmel.),  smaller 
than  the  golden,  of  a  brownish  color,  with  black 
white-tipped  tail,  and  wings  yellow  spotted  ;  it 
is  found  in  the  mountains  of  central  and  south- 
ern Europe  and  northern  Africa,  and  preys  upon 
the  smaller  animals. — In  the  genus  Jialia'etus 
(Sav.)  belong  the  fishing  or  sea  eagles,  the  best 
known  and  largest  of  which  is  the  bald  or  white- 
headed  eagle  {II.  leucocephalus,  Linn.};  the  bill 
is  2f  inches  long,  very  robust,  convex  above ; 
the  head  is  large,  and  flat  above ;  neck  short 
and  thick;  body  large,  wings  long,  and  tail 
rounded ;  the  tarsus  only  3  inches  long,  bare  for 
its  lower  two-thirds  and  covered  with  large 
scales ;  the  feet  are  short  and  robust,  and  the 
toes  are  free,  rough,  and  tuberculous  beneath, 
with  very  sharp  curved  claws.  The  plumage 
is  compact  and  imbricated ;  the  feathers  of  the 
head,  neck,  and  breast  are  narrow  and  pointed, 
and  of  the  other  parts  broad  and  rounded ;  there 
is  a  bare  space  between  the  bill  and  eye  with  a 
few  bristly  feathers ;  the  eyebrows  are  bare  and 
very  prominent.    In  the  adult  the  bill,  cere,  iris, 


EAGLE 


707 


and  feet  are  yellow,  the  first  3  being  often  almost 
white;  tlie  general  color  of  the  plumage  is  choc- 
olate-brown, the  foatliers  \\\t\i  jjuk-r  margins; 
the  head,  greater  part  of  nock,  tail  and  its  cov- 
erts, white;  the  quills  are  brownish  black,  with 
lighter  shafts.  The  length  is  about  3  feet,  and 
the  extent  of  wings  7  feet;  the  female  is  some- 
what larger.  In  the  young  bird  the  bill  is  black 
above,  bluish  gray  at  tlie  end  of  the  lower  man- 
dible ;  the  feathers,  which  are  white  in  the  ad- 
ult, are  dark  brown  like  the  rest  of  the  ])lumagc, 
margined  with  lighler ;  the  heail  and  tail  become 
white  between  the  Sd  and  10th  year,  according 
to  circumstances  of  locality  and  captivity.  It  is 
very  generally  distril)uted  over  Xorth  America, 
on  tha  sea-coast  and  in  the  interior;  it  has  been 
found  breeding  from  the  fur  countries  to  Florida. 
Its  usual  food  is  fish,  which  it  procures  easily, 
and  for  seizing  and  retaining  wliich  its  sharp 
curved  claws  and  rough  feet  are  admirably 
adaptijd;  but  it  eats  the  tlesh  of  animals  when 
it  can  get  it,  and  often  seizes  small  quadrupeds 
and  birds  of  inferior  Higlit ;  it  has  been  accused 
of  attacking  children,  and  when  pressed  by  hun- 
ger will  feed  on  decaying  carcasses.  Strong, 
powerful  in  flight,  free  and  independent  in  its 
liabits,  and  noble  in  aspect,  the  bald  eagle  has 
been  adopted  as  the  emblem  of  the  United 
States,  Audubon,  in  his  "  Ornithological  Biog- 
raphy" (vol.  i.  p.  161),  gives  a  graphic  descrip- 
tion of  the  capture  of  a  wild  swan  by  the  bald 
eagle;  water  fowl  of  smaller  size  are  also  taken 
by  these  birds  hunting  in  company,  and  alter- 
nately pouncing  upon  the  prey  as  it  emerges 
from  the  water ;  young  pigs,  lambs,  fawns,  and 
poultry  are  greedily  devoured ;  and  the  disgust- 
ing food  of  the  vultures  and  carrion  crows  is 
often  shared  with  this  eagle.  This  representa- 
tive of  American  prowess,  though  occasionally 
catching  fish  for  himself,  forces  tlie  fish  hawk  to 
obtain  his  favorite  food  for  him  in  the  follow- 
ing manner :  when  the  fish  hawk  follows  the 
shoals  of  fish  in  the  rivers  in  spring,  the  eagle 
sits  watching  from  the  top  of  a  tall  tree  ;  as  soon 
as  the  former  rises  with  a  fish,  and  bends  his 
course  for  the  shore  to  devour  it,  the  latter 
mounts  above  him,  and  by  most  unmistakable 
signs  forces  him  to  give  up  his  prey  to  save  his 
own  life ;  the  eagle  closes  his  wings,  drops  down 
with  great  quickness,  and  seizes  the  fish  before 
it  reaches  the  water ;  and  this  marauding  and 
mean  career  the  eagle  pursues  till  the  migrations 
of  the  fish  cease,  and  the  fish  hawks  depart. 
The  flight  of  this  bird  is  very  majestic,  accom- 
plished by  easy  flappings ;  it  sails  along  with 
extended  wings,  and,  according  to  Audubon, 
can  ascend  until  it  disappears  from  view,  with- 
out any  apparent  motion  of  the  wings  or  tail ; 
and  from  the  greatest  heights  it  descends  with 
a  rapidity  which  cannot  be  followed  by  the  eye. 
All  authors  are  agreed  as  to  the  cowardice  of  the 
eagle  when  it  is  suddenly  surprised  or  meets 
with  unexpected  resistance;  a  game  cock  put 
into  a  cage  with  a  fidl-grown  male  at  once 
attacked  the  eagle  and  beat  him  in  the  most 
approved  manner,  and  even  the  common  cock 


has  fairly  put  this  cowardly  bird  to  flight. 
The  females  are  somewhat  larger,  braver,  and 
fiercer  than  the  males.  When  wounded,  or  irri- 
tated in  captivity,  it  defends  itself  with  beak 
and  claws,  striking  with  the  latter,  and  beat- 
ing furiously  with  its  wings.  Like  the  golden 
eagles,  these  birds  live  to  a  great  age.  They 
are  generally  seen  in  pairs,  and  the  union  ap- 
pears to  last  for  life,  the  two  hunting  and  feed- 
ing together,  and  driving  off"  other  birds  of  the 
same  species.  Along  the  southern  Mississippi, 
incubation  commences  in  January  ;  the  nest  is 
placed  on  the  top  of  a  tall  tree,  and  not  on  cliffs 
like  the  golden  eagle's ;  it  is  a  rude  structure, 
made  of  sticks,  turf,  weeds,  and  moss,  measur- 
ing 5  or  6  feet  in  diameter,  used  year  after  year, 
and  added  to  annually.  The  eggs  are  usually 
2,  of  a  dull  white  color.  The  attachment  of  the 
old  birds  to  their  young  is  great.  The  weight 
of  the  adult  male  is  from  G  to  8  lbs.,  that  of  the 
female  from  8  to  12.  The  flesh  of  the  young 
is  said  to  be  palatable,  having  the  taste  of  veal. 
Audubon  laments  that  this  bird  should  have 
been  selected  as  the  emblem  of  the  United 
States,  and  quotes  the  following  from  one  of 
Benjamin  Franklin's  letters:  "For  my  part,  I 
wish  the  bald  eagle  had  not  been  chosen  as  the 
representative  of  our  country.  He  is  a  bird  of 
bad  moral  character ;  he  does  not  get  his  living 
honestly."  After  alluding  to  his  tyranny  over  the 
fish  hawk,  Franklin  continues  :  "  With  all  this 
injustice,  he  is  never  in  good  tfase,  but  like  those 
among  men  who  live  by  sharping  and  robbing, he 
is  generally  poor.  Beside,  he  is  a  rank  coward; 
the  little  king-bird,  not  bigger  than  a  sparrow, 
attacks  him  boldly,  and  drives  him  out  of  the 
district.  He  is,  therefore,  by  no  means  a  proper 
emblem  for  the  brave  and  honest  Cincinnati  of 
America,  wlio  have  driven  all  the  king-birds 
from  our  country,  tliough  exactly  fit  fur  that 
order  of  knights  which  the  French  call  checa- 
liers  d'industric.^''  The  writer,  having  had  under 
his  care  for  several  months  a  large  pair  of  these 
eagles,  has  had  ample  oi>portunity  to  observe  their 
habits;  the  female  not  only  attacks  and  abuses 
the  male,  but  stretches  her  wings  to  the  utmost 
extent,  attempting  to  cover  with  them  every 
piece  of  food  placed  in  the  cage.  The  name  of 
bald  eagle  is  really  a  misnomer,  as  the  head  is  as 
thickly  feathered  as  in  any  species ;  the  proper 
name  is  white-headed  eagle. — The  bird  of  Wash- 
ington (IT.WasJiingto)tii,  Aud.)  was  first  de- 
scribed by  Audubon  ("Ornithological  Biogra- 
phy," vol.  i.  p.  58j,  and  seems  not  to  have  been 
seen  by  any  other  ornithologist ;  he  first  saw  it 
on  the  upper  Mississippi  in  Feb.  181-i;  a  few 
years  after  he  met  with  a  pair  near  the  Ohio  river 
in  Kentucky,  which  had  built  their  nest  on  a 
range  of  high  cliffs  ;  2  years  after  the  discovery 
of  the  nest  ho  killed  a  male  which  was  the  sub- 
ject of  his  description  ;  after  this  he  saw  two 
other  pairs  near  the  Ohio  river.  His  reason  for 
giving  the  name  to  the  bird  is  thus  stated  by 
himself:  "Washington  was  brave,  so  is  the 
eagle ;  like  it,  too,  he  was  the  terror  of  his  foes; 
and  his  fame,  extending  from  pole  to  pole,  resem- 


708 


EAGLE 


bles  the  majestic  soarings  of  the  mightiest  of 
the  feathered  tribe.  If  America  has  reason  to 
be  proud  of  her  Washington,  so  has  she  to  he 
proud  of  her  great  eagle."  The  flight  of  this 
is  said  to  he  ditfereut  from  that  of  the  white- 
headed  eagle,  the  former  encircling  a  greater 
space,  sailing  nearer  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
darting  upon  its  prey  in  a  spiral  manner.  The 
bill  was  bluish  black,  with  pale  edges;  the  iris 
chestnut-brown  ;  upper  part  of  the  head,  hind 
neck,  back,  scapulars,  rumjj,  tail  coverts,  and 
posterior  tibial  feathers,  blackish  brown,  with  a 
coppery  gloss ;  the  throat,  fore  neck,  breast, 
and  abdomen  light  brownish  yellow,  each  feath- 
er blackish  brown  in  the  centre ;  wing  coverts 
light  grayish  brown,  those  next  the  body  ap- 
proaching the  color  of  the  back;  primaries  and 
tail  dark  brown  ;  anterior  tibial  feathers  grayish 
brown.  The  length  is  given  at  3  feet  7  inches, 
extent  of  wings  10  feet  2  inches,  bill  3 J  inches, 
tarsus  4^  inches,  and  the  weight  14J^  lbs. ;  this 
"was  a  male,  and  of  course  the  female  would 
have  been  considerably  larger.  Though  this 
bird  is  generally  admitted  as  a  species  on  the 
authority  of  Audubon,  many  ornithologists  do 
not  regard  it  as  such.  Tlie  characters  of  the 
bill  and  color  of  the  plumage  are  very  like  those 
of  the  young  white-headed  eagle ;  the  increase 
in  length  is  only  3  or  4  inches,  while  the  in- 
crease in  extent  of  wings  is  about  3  feet,  which 
proportions  throw  some  doubt  on  the  accuracy 
of  the  measurements,  as  such  a  relative  extent 
of  wings  belongs  rather  to  the  vultures  than  the 
eagles.  It  is  very  strange,  too,  that  no  other 
ornithologist  should  have  been  able  to  see  or 
procure  this  bird,  and  that  no  specimen  should 
exist  in  any  cabinet.  It  does  not  appear  that 
Audubon  came  very  near  the  eagles  which  he 
calls  "  birds  of  "Washington,"  except  in  the  in- 
stance in  wliich  he  shot  one,  which  from  his 
drawing  and  description  might  very  well  be  a 
young  white-headed  eagle ;  in  the  other  cases 
they  were  flying  over  him,  except  when  he 
watched  them  from  a  nest  at  a  distance  of  100 
yards,  which  certainly  is  not  near  enough  to 
form  a  sufiiciently  accurate  idea  even  of  so  large 
a  bird  as  an  eagle.  The  fact  of  the  nest  being 
on  a  cliff  is  in  fovor  of  their  having  been  golden 
eagles,  as  the  white-headed  species  builds  in  lofty 
trees.  There  seems,  therefore,  suihcient  ground 
for  doubting  the  validity  of  this  species,  which 
ouglit  not  to  bo  acknowledged  until  further 
proof  is  given  of  its  non-identity  with  the  gold- 
en, the  white-headed,  or  perhaps  the  white- 
tailed  sea  eagle  of  Europe ;  it  seems  to  have 
some  of  the  characters  of  all  these,  united  to 
the  wings  of  a  vulture,  which  would  place  it,  if 
a  reality,  in  a  genus  distinct  from  aquila  or 
Italia'ctus. — The  white-tailed  or  cinereous  sea 
eagle  of  Europe  {E.  alhicilla,  Linn.),  the  young 
of  which  Audubon  thinks  bears  the  greatest  re- 
semblance to  his  bird  of  "Washington,  has  at  this 
age  a  blackish  bill ;  head  and  hind  neck  dark 
brown,  with  white  markings,  disappearing  with 
age  ;  fore  neck  and  breast  brown,  with  brown- 
ish white  marks ;  general  color  of  the  plumage 


light  brown,  with  a  dark  streak  on  the  middle 
of  each  feather.  In  the  old  bird  the  bill  be- 
comes yellow,  the  general  plumage  grayish 
brown,  palest  on  the  head  and  neck, 'and  the 
tail  white  ;  the  length  is  3  feet,  and  the  extent 
of  wings  6  feet  9  inches.  This  species,  called 
also  osprey,  ossifrage,  and  pygargus,  is  distrib- 
uted over  the  northern  portions  of  the  old 
world;  it  feeds  principally  on  fish,  like  our 
white-headed  eagle,  forcing  the  fish  hawk  to 
provide  for  him  on  the  principle  that  "  might 
makes  right."  It  prefers  cold  climates,  and 
the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  though  it  visits  the 
interior  rivers  and  lakes ;  when  imable  to  ob- 
tain fish,  it  feeds  upon  sea  birds,  young  seals, 
and  any  small  animals  which  it  can  surprise. 
Its  flight  is  neither  so  elevated  nor  so  rapid 
as  that  of  the  previously  described  species. 
The  nest  is  placed  on  cliffs  near  the  sea,  and 
the  eggs  are  2,  of  a  dirty  white  color ;  incu- 
bation takes  place  in  April. — The  northern  sea 
eagle  (M.  2yclagicits,  Pallas)  is  the  largest  of  the 
tiiraily,  and  inhabits  the  Eussian  American  isl- 
ands and  northeastern  Asia.  The  total  length 
of  the  female  is  3|  feet ;  the  wings  are  shorter 
than  usual,  and  the  tail  is  wedge-shaped.  In 
the  adult  the  bill  and  the  legs  are  yellow ;  the 
general  plumage  brownish  black,  with  a  large 
frontal  space,  greater  wing  coverts,  abdomen, 
and  tail,  white.  In  the  young  the  tail  is  white, 
with  brownish  black  marks,  the  quills  black, 
the  secondaries  and  tertiaries  white  at  their 
bases  ;  other  parts  dull  brownish  black.  It  is 
a  fishing  eagle,  though  it  occasionally  captures 
birds  and  quadrupeds.  According  to  Pallas, 
it  breeds  in  northeastern  Asia. — There  are  sev- 
eral genera  of  smaller  eagles,  as  the  crested 
eagles  (sjnzaetvSjYieiW.).  The  black-tufted  eagle 
(S.  o)'nntns,  Daud.)  is  as  large  as  a  raven,  black, 
with  a  long  tuft  hanging  from  the  occiput,  and 
the  edge  of  the  wings  and  bands  under  the 
tail  whitish  ;  the  crest  is  mixed  with  white ;  the 
thighs  and  tarsal  feathers  banded  with  black 
and  white;  tarsus  feathered  to  the  toes  ;  it  in- 
habits South  America.  Other  species  of  the 
genus  are  found  in  Africa  and  the  Indian  archi- 
pelago, where  they  live  in  jungles  and  woods, 
pouncing  on  pheasants,  hares,  and  similar  ani- 
mals passing  underneath ;  they  also  seize  prey 
on  the  wing.  The  reptile  eagles  (morphnus, 
Cuv.)  are  peculiar  to  South  America ;  they  live 
in  the  forests,  feeding  on  reptiles,  small  animals, 
and  birds.  A  well-known  species  is  the  M.  iiru- 
hitinga  (Gmel.)  ;  this  is  black,  without  a  crest, 
rump  and  lower  part  of  the  tail  white ;  the  long 
tarsi  are  bare  of  feathers.  The  harpy  eagles 
(genus  tJirametns,  Gray,  or  Jiarpyia,  Vieill.)  are 
peculiar  to  South  America ;  they  will  be  de- 
scribed in  the  article  ITakpt.  The  genus  ^a?i- 
dion  (Sav.)  will  be  described  under  Fisn  Hawk, 
the  common  name  of  the  best  known  species. 
The  caracara,  or  Brazilian  eagle,  does  not  be- 
long to  the  aquilinw^  but  to  the  polytorince,  a 
subfamily  coming  nearest  to  tlie  vultures ;  this 
bird  (j)ohj7jorus  tharus,  Molina)  is  of  various 
shades  of  brown,  with  streaks  and  mottliugs  of 


EAGLE 


EAR 


709 


brownish  black  ;  wings  barred  witb  white,  and 
the  tail  coverts  dull  wiiite  barred  with  dusky  ; 
tail  graj-ish  white,  with  IG  narrow  bars  and  a 
terminal  band  of  blackish  brown  ;  the  length  is 
about  2  feet,  and  the  extent  of  wings  4  feet,  the 
bill  2  J  inches.  It  is  found  from  Florida  to  13ra- 
zil,  and  it  feeds  with  the  turkey  buzzards  and 
carrion  crows  on  carcasses ;  it  has  the  habits 
of  the  vultures,  with  the  additional  power  of 
carrying  prey  in  its  talons ;  beside  carrion,  it 
devours  small  reptiles  and  birds;  it  walks  like 
the  turkey  buzzard.  Its  llight  is  rapid  and  grace- 
ful.— The  eagle,  in  mythology,  is  the  sacred  bird 
of  the  Hindoo  Vishnu  and  of  the  Greek  Zeus. 
In  the  Roman  ceremony  of  apotheosis  an  eagle 
ascended  from  the  burning  catafalco,  and  was 
believed  to  bear  the  soul  of  the  deceased  to 
Olympus.  In  the  Scandinavian  mythology,  it 
is  the  bird  of  wisdom,  and  sits  in  the  boughs  of 
the  tree  yggdrmill. — The  Etruscans  were  the 
first  who  adopted  the  eagle  as  the  symbol  of  royal 
power,  and  bore  its  image  as  a  standard  at  the 
Lead  of  their  armies.  From  the  time  of  Marius 
it  was  the  principal  emblem  of  the  Roman  re- 
public, and  the  only  standard  of  the  legions.  It 
was  I'epresented  with  outspread  wings,  and  was 
usually  of  silver  till  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  wlio 
made  it  of  gold.  The  double-headed  eagle  was 
in  use  among  the  Byzantine  emperors,  to  indi- 
cate, it  is  said,  their  claim  to  the  empire  both 
of  the  East  and  the  "West ;  was  adopted  in  the 
14th  century  by  the  German  emperors,  and 
afterward  appeared  on  the  arms  of  Russia.  The 
arms  of  Prussia  were  distinguished  by  the  black 
eagle,  and  those  of  Poland  by  the  white.  The 
eagle  is  the  emblematic  device  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  is  the  badge  of  the  order  of  the 
Cincinnati,  and  is  figured  on  coins.  Napoleon 
adopted  it  for  the  emblem  of  imperial  France ;  it 
was  not,  however,  represented  in  heraldic  style, 
but  in  its  natural  form,  with  the  thunderbolts  of 
Jupiter.  It  was  disused  under  the  Bourbons,  but 
was  restored  by  a  decree  of  Louis  Napoleon 
(Jan.  1,  1852).  The  order  of  the  white  eagle 
was  created  in  Poland  by  Ladislas  the  Short,  in 
1325,  was  renewed  in  1706,  and  since  1831  has 
been  united  with  the  imperial  orders  of  Russia. 
The  order  of  the  black  eagle  was  founded  in 
1701  by  Frederic  I.,  the  first  king  of  Prussia, 
and  is  conferred  upon  princes  of  the  royal  fam- 
ily, members  of  foreign  sovereign  houses,  and  a 
few  officers  of  state,  to  whom  it  gives  personal 
nobility.  The  order  of  the  red  eagle,  the  second 
Prussian  order  in  dignity,  was  founded  in  1712 
by  the  margrave  George  William  of  Baireutb, 
and  was  transferred  with  that  principality  to 
Prussia  in  1792.  , 

EAGLE,  a  gold  coin  ol  the  United  States, 
of  the  value  of  $10,  first  coined  in  1795,  as 
provided  by  the  act  of  congress  of  April  2,  1792, 
of  the  fineness  of  22  carats  (916|-  thousandths), 
and  weighing  270  grains,  thus  containing  247^ 
grains  of  pure  gold.  The  silver  dollar  contained 
at  the  same  time  371^  grains  pure  silver,  the 
ratio  of  valuation  of  silver  to  jiold  being  as  15  to 
1.  An  ounce  of  pure  gold  being  worth  more  than 


15  of  silver  in  Europe,  our  gold  coins  continued 
to  be  exported  until  the  act  of  June  28,  1834, 
substituted  the  ratio  of  16  to  1  by  reducing  tlio 
fineness  of  the  eagle  to  899 fj  thousandths,  and 
its  weiglit  to  258  grains,  being  232  gi-ains  puro 
gold.  By  the  act  of  Jan.  18,  1837,  the  fineness 
of  tlie  eagle,  as  of  all  the  otlier  coins,  was  raised 
to  900  thousandths,  its  weight  remaining  as  be- 
fore 258  grains,  of  which  2Z^^^  were  pure  gold; 
and  at  these  rates  it  continues  to  be  coined. — 
There  are  also  a  half  eagle,  first  coined  in  1795, 
a  quarter  eagle,  first  coined  in  1796,  and  a 
double  eagle,  first  coined  in  1849. 

EAR,  the  organ  of  hearing.  Anatomists 
divide  it  into  the  external,  the  middle,  and  the 
internal  car.  The  first  consists  of  the  visible 
external  organ,  a  cartilaginous  and  fleshy  struc- 
ture, of  the  form  best  adapted  to  collect  the  at- 
mospheric vibrations,  and  the  meatus  or  tubular 
opening  leading  to  the  tympanum.  The  tym- 
paiiutn  is  a  firm  fibrous  membrane  stretched 
across  this  opening,  whoso  office,  as  its  name 
implies,  is  to  communicate  vibrations  like  the 
head  of  a  drum.  The  middle  ear  is  a  cavity 
about  the  form  and  size  of  a  kidney  bean; 
from  its  lower  point  a  tubular  opening  descends 
to  the  posterior  part  of  the  mouth,  and  termi- 
nates in  a  trumi)et-like  expansion  ;  this  is  usually 
called  the  Eustachian  tube,  and  sometimes  mea- 
tus auditor ius  internus.  Across  the  middle  ear  is 
stretched  a  chain  of  4  minute  bones,  connected 
with  each  other  by  cartilage  and  tendon.  These 
are  the  malleus  or  mallet,  the  incus  or  anvil,  the 
orbicularis  or  round  bone,  and  the  stapes  or  stir- 
rup, each  named  from  some  fancied  resemblance. 
The  office  of  this  chain,  which  is  attached  to 
the  tympanum  at  one  end,  and  to  the  mem- 
brane covering  the  foramen  ovale  at  the  other, 
is  to  transmit  the  vibrations  of  the  air ;  to  aid 
in  this,  they  are  controlled  by  2  minute  muscles, 
which  render  the  2  tympani  tense.  The  whole 
of  the  middle  ear,  with  these  minute  bones,  is 
covered  wnth  mucous  membrane,  and  when  ir- 
ritated, as  by  a  cold,  it  secretes  mucus  very 
freely,  and  thus  often  induces  temporary  and 
partial  deafness.  The  internal  ear,  also  called 
the  labyrinth,  to  which  the  external  and  middle 
ear  are  but  the  ante-rooms,  consists  of  the  ves- 
tibule, the  3  semicircular  canals,  and  the  coch- 
lea. The  vestibule  is  an  irregular  cavity  shut 
out  from  the  middle  ear  by  the  membrane  cov- 
ering the  foramen  ovale,  and  communicating 
with  the  semicircular  canals  by  5  openings,  2  of 
these  canals  being  joined  at  one  end.  The  coch- 
lea^ as  its  name  implies,  is  a  bony  structure  re- 
sembling in  form  a  snail  shell ;  internally  it  is 
divided  by  a  lamina,  bony,  ligamentous,  and 
muscular,  into  2  cavities  called  the  scala  testi- 
luliimd  the  sea ?a  tymjMni^  which  communicate 
at  the  top  of  the  cochlea,  in  a  curved  channel 
called  the  modiolus.  This  modiolus  has  numer- 
ous orifices,  through  w^hich  pass  the  filaments 
of  the  auditory  nerve.  The  whole  internal  ear 
is  lined  with  a  delicate  serous  membrane,  which 
secretes  a  fluid  called  perilymph.  Within  the 
vestibule  and  the  semicircular  canals,  Ave  find  the 


710 


EAR 


membranous  labyrintli ;  in  the  vestibule  it  con- 
sists of  2  inembnmous  sacs,  one  called  the  utrv- 
cuius,  and  the  other  the  sacculus,  communicat- 
ing with  each  other  and  extending  in  slender 
tubes  through  the  semicircular  canals,  of  which 
they  only  occupy  about  one-tliird  ;  in  the  vesti- 
bule and  modiolus,  these  sacs  receive  the  ner- 
vous filaments,  and  are  thus  connected  with  the 
serous  membrane  lining  the  labyrinth,  but  every- 
where else  they  are  free,  and  separated  from  it 
by  the  perilymph,  while  their  internal  surfaces 
secrete  a  similar  fluid  called  endolyinph.  In 
the  vestibular  portion  is  found  a  crystalline 
powder,  proved  by  chemical  experiment  to  be 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  denominated  otolithes ; 
the  oflSce  of  this  is  supposed  to  be  to  commu- 
nicate the  vibrations  to.  the  nervous  surfaces. 
The  filaments  of  the  auditory  nerve  terminate 
by  loops,  or  minute  points,  in  the  sacculus,  the 
ntriculus,  the  amjmllce  (the  little  membranous 
tubes  which  pass  through  the  semicircular  ca- 
nals), and  the  lamina  which  divides  the  cochlea. 
In  the  process  of  hearing,  the  vibrations  of  the 
atmosphere,  caused,  we  will  say,  by  touching 
one  of  the  keys  of  a  piano,  pass  toward  the  ear, 
where  they  are  collected  and  concentrated  by 
its  peculiar  form  and  structure ;  thus  concen- 
trated, they  pass  along  the  canal  to  the  tym- 
panum, where  they  produce  a  vibration ;  this 
vibration  is  communicated  by  the  little  chain  of 
bones  we  have  described  to  the  membrane  cov- 
ering the  foramen  ovale,  by  which  it  is  passed 
to  the  fluid  contents  of  the  vestibule  and  to  the 
sacs,  and  by  the  agitation  of  the  otolithes  it  is 
transmitted  to  the  nervous  surface,  which  is  ex- 
panded over  the  whole  labyrinth,  and  produces 
the  sensation  of  sound.  The  internal  and  mid- 
dle ear  are  situated  wholly  within  the  temporal 
bone,  which  is  here  much  thicker  and  harder 
than  elsewhere,  in  order  to  protect  the  delicate 
and  complicated  structure  from  injury. — Under 
the  head  of  Deaf  and  Dumb  we  have  spoken  in 
general  terms  of  the  causes  which  induce  deaf- 
ness ;  but  Ave  may  say  here  that  while  congenital 
deafness  is  usually  the  result  of  deficiency  or 
malformation  of  some  portion  of  the  organ,  thus 
preventing  the  transmission  of  the  vibration  or 
sound  wave,  accidental  deafness  usually  arises 
from  perforation  of  the  tympanum  by  ulcera- 
tion or  otherwise ;  mucous  secretion,  the  result 
of  inflammation,  clogging  or  thickening  the 
membranes  of  the  middle  ear,  or  ulceration  at- 
tacking the  little  bones  and  causing  their  dis- 
charge ;  inflammation  of  the  serous  membrane 
of  the  labyrinth,  or  paral3-sis  of  the  auditory 
nerve.  As  may  be  supposed,  the  cure  of  com- 
plete deafness  is  exceedingly  rare,  and  most  of 
the  cases  reported  will  be  found  on  examination 
either  not  to  have  been  cured,  or  not  to  have 
been  of  persons  entirely  deaf. — The  sense  of 
hearing,  like  most  of  the  senses,  is  capable  of 
a  much  higher  cultivation  than  is  generally 
given  to  it.  The  blind,  to  whom  touch  and 
hearing  make  np  in  part  for  the  loss  of  vision, 
acquire  remarkable  powers  of  hearing.  They 
will  hear  a  footstep  or  the  opening  of  a  door,  at 


fi  distance  at  which  ordinary  persons  cannot 
distinguish  a  sound.  The  Indian,  too,  possesses 
extraordinary  powers  in  this  resiiect ;  applying 
his  ear  to  the  earth,  he  will  discover  the  ap- 
proach of  an  enemy,  and  obtain  some  idea  of 
his  numbers,  long  before  the  eye  can  detect  his 
coming.  In  almost  all  brain  affections,  there 
is  more  or  less  morbid  sensitiveness  of  hear- 
ing ;  and  in  that  condition  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem brought  on  by  long  continued  and  intense 
excitement,  and  which  often  terminates  in  in- 
sanity, the  same  phenomenon  is  observed. — The 
form  of  the-  external  ear  varies  materially  in 
different  races  of  men,  and  still  more  in  the  an- 
imal tribes.  In  the  Caucasian  race  it  is  of  mod- 
erate size,  Avell  formed,  and  neither  very  prom- 
inent nor  pressed  closely  to  the  head.  In  the 
Malay  and  Mongolian  it  is  large,  ill  proportion- 
ed, the  lobe  naturally  long,  and  the  whole  ear 
standing  out  prominently ;  in  the  Indian  race 
the  conformation  is  similar  to  the  Mongolian, 
though  less  prominent ;  in  the  negro  the  ear  is 
flat,  broad,  and  adheres  so  closely  to  the  head  as 
to  give  the  idea  of  having  been  fastened  there 
by  a  bandage.  Of  the  inferior  animals,  the 
mammalia  only  have  an  external  ear ;  in  birds 
it  is  merely  a  small  orifice  ;  in  fishes,  when  it 
exists,  it  is  covered  by  the  skin,  as  it  is  also  in 
reptiles.  The  variety  in  its  form  in  mammals 
extends  even  to  different  varieties  of  the  same 
animal.  The  drooping  ear  of  the  King  Charles 
and  other  spaniels  contrasts  forcibly  with  the 
erect  prominent  ear  of  the  foxhound  and  the 
Esquimaux  dog;  and  both  differ  greatly  from 
the  short  open  ear  of  the  bull-dog.  The  horse 
has  a  sensitive  and  well  formed  ear,  though 
of  small  size ;  while  the  ass,  with  no  better 
powers  of  hearing,  is  supplied  with  long  aural 
appendages  which  seem  most  adapted  for  fans. 
The  elephant  has  a  small  ear  as  compared  with 
his  great  size,  though  the  flap  of  skin  which 
protects  it  is  of  considerable  dimensions.  The 
carnivora  generally  have  small  but  very  quick 
ears,  and  they  usually  possess  erectile  power 
which  enables  them  to  throw  them  into  shapes 
in  which  they  will  most  readily  catch  the  sound 
wave.  The  mole,  though  his  ear  is  hardly  dis- 
cernible in  the  fine  fur  which  covers  it,  is  yet 
vei'y  quick  of  hearing.  Of  all  the  mammals,  the 
bat  tribe  possess  the  largest  ears  in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  their  bodies,  the  phyUosto7ius  and 
the  megademis  in  particular  being  provided  with 
these  appendages  so  large  as  to  form  nearly  \  of 
the  superficial  extent  of  their  bodies.  Among 
savage  and  half-civilized  tribes  the  idea  prevails 
that  the  lengthening  of  the  lobe  of  the  ear  by 
heavy  ornaments,  and  the  enlargement  of  the 
perforations  madfe  for  attaching  them,  both  add 
greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  wearer.  In  the 
Burmese  statues  of  Gaudama,  he  is  represented 
in  a  sitting  posture,  and  the  lobes  of  his  ears 
extend  to  the  level  of  his  lap.  Among  the  Af- 
rican tribes  the  perforation  in  the  ear  is  enlarged 
so  that  a  stick  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter  may 
be  thrust  through  it,  and  some  of  them  use  the 
ear  instead  of  a  pocket  to  carry  small  articles. 


\ 


EAR  RINGS 


EAR  TRUMPET 


711 


EAR  RINGS,  a  kind  of  ornament  common 
both  among  savage  and  civilized  peoples.  They 
are  alluded  to  iu  the  earliest  literature  of  both 
Asia  and  Europe,  and  are  found  represented 
upon  remnants  of  sculpture  older  than  any  liter- 
ature. They  have  been  discovered  amid  the 
ruins  of  Thebes,  in  the  tombs  of  Egyptian 
kings,  and  have  been  dug  from  llerculaneum, 
Pompeii,  and  Nineveh.  Abraham,  the  father  of 
the  Hebrews,  sent  them  as  a  ])resent  to  his  son's 
wife  ;  Alexander,  when  he  marched  to  the  East, 
met  with  them  in  Babylon,  and  on  the  banks 
of  the  Indus  ;  Cortes  found  them  in  use  among 
the  wealthy  Mexicans ;  among  the  Greeks  ami 
Romans  they  were  equally  worn  by  noble  ladies 
and  serving  maids;  and  in  the  later  Christian 
civilization  they  have  enjoyed  a  nearly  univer- 
sal prevalence.  They  are  termed  rings  in  the 
Hebrew  and  other  ancient  as  well  as  the  English 
and  other  modern  languages,  and  their  original 
form  was  doubtless  a  simple  circlet.  Among 
the  oriental  nations,  the  Hebrews  excepted,  they 
were  worn  by  both  sexes,  and  though  at  first 
of  gold  or  silver,  were  subsequently  made  with 
agate,  chalcedony,  onyx,  coral,  and  pearls.  They 
were  sometimes  single  hoops  of  gold  from  l{r  to 
3  inches  in  diameter,  but  were  more  frequently 
jewelled  drops  or  pendants  of  various  styles, 
Lung  from  a  small  ring  inserted  in  the  ear. 
Even  at  the  present  day  the  finest  ear  rings  in 
tlie  world  are  in  the  harems  of  the  East,  and 
European  princesses  iu  devising  this  ornament 
Lave  been  unable  to  excel  tlie  taste  of  Persian 
maidens  and  of  the  slaves  of  the  sultan.  The 
use  of  ear  rings  among  the  Greeks  and  Piomans 
was  confined  chiefly  to  women.  The  favorite 
style  was  a  pendant,  framed  of  gold  and  set 
with  precious  stones.  Pearls  were  valued  for 
being  exactly  spherical  and  for  their  delicate 
whiteness ;  and  2  or  3  of  them  were  generally 
joined  together  to  elongate  a  single  drop,  and 
2  or  3  such  drops  were  often  susjiended  from 
a  single  ring.  In  the  Iliad,  Juno,  adorning  her- 
self in  her  richest  and  most  captivating  attire, 
puts  on  ear  rings  made  with  3  drops  resembling 
mulberries ;  and  in  the  Odyssey  the  splendid 
present  which  Eurydamus  sends  to  Penelope  is 
a  set  of  ear  rings  of  a  similar  style.  The  Venus 
de'  Medici  has  the  ears  pierced,  and  probably 
there  were  once  ear  rings  iu  them.  At  Rome  the 
precious  stones  came  especiiilly  into  use  for  this 
ornament,  and  in  the  progress  of  luxury  under 
the  emperors  the  Roman  matrons,  according  to 
Seneca,  often  carried  suspended  from  their  ears 
the  worth  of  2  or  3  rich  patrimonies.  The  pen- 
dants were  sometimes  made  to  resemble  a  series 
of  nuts,  or  were  adorned  with  figures  of  centaurs 
or  horses,  or  marine  animals,  and  were  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  vibrate  against  each  other  upon 
every  motion  of  the  head,  and  thus  to  produce  a 
constant  gentle  tinkling.  Instead  of  a  ring,  a 
Look  was  often  used  to  attach  the  ornament  to 
the  ear,  and  the  women  of  Italy  still  continue 
this  practice,  passing  the  hook  through  the  lobe 
of  the  ear  without  any  other  fastening.  One 
of  the  most  famous  of  modern  ear  rings  was 


the  property  of  a  Polish  lady,  and  consisted  of 
a  scries  of  diamonds,  arranged  so  as  to  represent 
an  acacia  blossom,  the  setting  being  made  to 
resemble  a  leaf  of  the  same  tree.  The  lotus 
blossom  and  the  Bengal  rose  were  sometimes 
copied  in  Egyi)tian  and  Indian  ear  rings,  and  the 
Chinese  women  wear  ear  rings  resembling  the 
fantastic  flora  of  their  country.  Roman  ladies 
of  the  highest  rank  sometimes  wore  this  orna- 
ment in  the  shape  of  an  asp,  whose  body  was  of 
gold  set  with  precious  stones;  and  among  tho 
women  of  South  America  it  is  often  made  to 
resemble  a  humming  bird.  Both  among  tho 
ancients  and  moderns  ear  rings  have  sometimes 
borne  miniature  likenesses  of  friends.  In  recent 
times  they  have  very  generally  been  supposed 
to  be  beneficial  to  the  health,  and  especially  to 
be  a  protection  against  weakness  of  the  eyes, 
and  in  this  belief  tliey  are  still  frequently  worn 
by  men  in  France  and  Italy,  and  sometimes  also 
in  the  United  States,  and  are  common  among 
boys  in  Germany. 

EAR  TRUMPET.  Under  this  title  may  be 
included  all  those  contrivances  intended  to  aid 
the  hearing  of  persons  partially  deaf.  We  have 
no  means  of  ascertaining  at  what  period  or  by 
whom  ear  trumpets  were  invented.  The  prac- 
tice of  putting  the  hand  to  the  ear  in  a  trumpet 
shape  probaljly  first  suggested  it,  and  from  occa- 
sional allusions  to  the  use  of  the  trumpet  in  old 
writers  it  would  seem  to  have  been  of  very 
early  origin.  The  earliest  form  of  which  we 
have  any  knowledge  was  a  rude  imitation  on 
aji  exaggerated  scale  of  the  form  of  the  external 
ear ;  but  as  this  was  found  inconvenient  from 
the  difficulty  of  retaining  it  in  place,  a  form 
more  nearly  resembling  a  speaking  trumpet  waa 
substituted.  As  this  again  was  found  incon- 
venient from  the  space  it  occupied  and  tlie  diflii- 
culty  of  supporting  it  in  position,  a  curved  form 
was  substituted,  descending  from  the  ear  close 
to  the  side  of  the  face  and  presenting  tho  trum^ 
pet-shaped  mouth  upward.  Another  modifica- 
tion was  a  flat  tube  passing  over  the  head  and 
applied  to  each  ear,  while  in  front  and  imme- 
diately over  the  forehead  was  an  opening  to 
receive  the  sound.  Another  inventor,  having 
observed  that  in  listening  intently  people  opened 
their  mouths,  contrived  a  sort  of  plectrum  or 
vibrating  body  to  be  held  between  the  teeth, 
and  thus  to  convey  sounds  by  the  Eustachian 
tube.  After  the  introduction  of  caoutcliouc  and 
gutta  percha  into  the  arts,  a  long  tube  of  one 
or  other  of  these  materials,  with  a  bell-shaped 
trumpet  at  the  end,  took  the  place  of  the  metal- 
lic trumpet,  and  for  many  purposes  is  very  con- 
venient. In  England  in  some  of  the  churches 
pews  are  constructed  with  tubes  to  conduct  tLe 
sound,  opening  in  convenient  positions  for  the 
ear  of  the  listener.  Among  the  more  recent 
inventions  for  facilitating  hearing  are  the  auricle, 
a  small  tube  of  silver  with  a  semiglobular  ex- 
pansion, intended  to  be  inserted  into  the  meatus 
of  the  car ;  and  the  tympanum,  a  small  thin  disk 
of  rubber.  Laving  a  silver  Avire  passing  through 
it  to  transmit  the  sound  wave.     In  a  few  cases 


712 


EARL 


EAELE 


the  latter  has  been  of  considerable  service.  In 
cases  of  total  deafness,  no  such  means  are  of 
any  advantage. 

EARL,  the  most  ancient  title  of  nobility  used 
in  Great  Britain.  Under  the  early  Saxon  kings 
the  powerful  nobles  to  whose  charge  shires  or 
territories  had  been  committed  "were  called  eal- 
dormen,  literally  elder  men  (whence  the  mod- 
ern alderman),  a  terra  equivalent  to  the  Latin 
senior  or  senator^  and  given  in  Latin  documents 
as  ^;nncfj9S,  dux,  or  comes.  The  Danes  subse- 
quently applied  the  term  corle,  -which  signified 
originally  a  man  of  noble  birth,  as  opposed  to 
the  ceorl  or  churl,  to  the  same  men  -who  had 
borne  the  title  of  ealdormen.  The  Saxon  earl 
derived  his  title  solely  from  his  office,  •which 
was  originally  in  the  gift  of  the  crown,  and  in 
recompense  for  his  services  received  a  part  of 
the  revenues  of  his  province  to  his  own  use. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  Saxon  dynasty  these 
provincial  governors  not  only  greatly  enlarged 
their  authority,  but  claimed  the  dignity  as  he- 
reditary ;  and  in  the  time  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor the  whole  kingdom  was  divided  between 
5  powerful  earls,  including  Godwin  and  his  sons 
Harold  and  Tosti,  of  whom  Harold  subsequent- 
ly usurped  the  throne.  After  the  Norman  con- 
quest the  territorial  possessions  of  the  Saxon 
nobility  were  declared  forfeited,  and  with  many 
newly  created  fiefs  were  distributed  among  the 
chief  followers  of  William  the  Conqueror,  who 
thereupon  assumed  the  name  of  counts,  from  the 
Latin  comes.  But  this  title  was  very  soon  re- 
placed by  the  old  one  of  earl,  while  the  terri- 
tory from  which  the  new  dignitary  received  his 
name  or  over  which  he  exercised  jurisdiction 
was  thenceforth  called  a  county,  instead  of  a 
shire  as  previously  under  the  Saxons,  and  the 
consort  of  the  earl  became  a  countess.  Accord- 
ing to  Cruise,  there  were  3  sorts  of  earldoms 
under  the  early  Norman  kings:  the  first  and 
highest,  where  the  dignity  was  annexed  to  the 
possession  of  a  whole  county,  with  ihajiirare- 
galm,  in  which  case  the  county  became  a  county 
palatine,  and  the  person  created  earl  of  it  exer- 
cised all  the  authority  of  a  sovereign  ;  the  next, 
where  the  earl  was  entitled  to  the  third  part 
of  the  revenues  of  the  county  court ;  and  the 
third,  where  a  tract  of  land  was  erected  into  a 
county  and  granted  with  civil  and  criminal 
jurisdiction  to  be  held  per  servitium  tinius  comi- 
tattts.  This  statement,  however,  is  open  to  con- 
troversy, and  Sir  Harris  Nicolas  is  of  opinion 
that  the  Norman  earls,  excepting  in  the  coun- 
ties palatine,  possessed  no  jurisdiction  over  the 
counties  from  which  they  were  denominated, 
the  dignity  being  of  a  nature  altogether  personal. 
At  present  the  title  conveys  no  local  jurisdic- 
tion or  revenue,  and  is  no  longer  confined  to  the 
names  of  counties,  but  may  be  derived  from 
those  of  towns  or  villages,  or  of  families.  It 
remained  the  highest  hereditary  dignity  in  Eng- 
land until  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  when  the 
■first  dukedom  was  created,  and  is  now  the  3d 
-order  of  the  British  nobility,  being  next  below 
■that  of  marquis,  and  above  that  of  viscount. 


After  the  barons  the  earls  are  also  the  most 
numerous  of  any  order,  numbering  (in  1859) 
234,  of  whom  47  have  Scottish  and  68  Irish 
titles.  They  are  styled  by  the  sovereign  "  right 
trusty  and  well  beloved  cousin,"  an  appellation 
attributed  to  Henry  IV.,  who  had  his  own  rea- 
sons forflattering  the  powerful  earls,  with  nearly 
all  of  whom  he  is  said  to  have  been  allied  by  birth 
or  marriage,  by  frequent  allusions  to  the  relation- 
ship. They  are  now  created  by  letters  patent, 
in  place  of  the  old  practice  by  Avhich  the  sover- 
eign girded  on  the  sword  of  the  new  earl  and 
invested  him  with  mantle  and  coronet. 

EARL  MARSHAL,  an  officer  of  state  in  Eng- 
land, who  directs  important  ceremonies,  takes 
cognizance  of  matters  relating  to  honor,  arms, 
and  pedigree,  and  proclaims  the  declaration  of 
war  or  of  peace.  The  ofiice  was  established  in 
the  reign  of  Richard  II.,  who  conferred  it  upon 
Thomas  Mowbray,  earl  of  Nottingham,  and  is 
now  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Howard,  the 
head  of  which,  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  is  the  pres- 
ent earl  marshal  of  England. 

EARLE,  Pliny,  an  American  inventor,  born  in 
Leicester,  Mass.,  Dec.  17, 1762,  died  tliere,  Nov. 
19,  1832.  In  178-5  he  became  connected  with 
Mr.  Edmund  Snow  in  the  manufacture  of  ma- 
chine and  hand  cards  for  carding  cotton  and 
wool ;  and  in  1790,  when  Mr.  Samuel  Slater,  the 
originator  of  cotton  factories  in  this  country, 
was  establishing  his  first  factory  at  Pawtucket, 
he  applied  to  Mr.  Earle  to  furnish  him  with 
Avhat  are  technically  termed  twilled  cards,  all 
the  cards  then  manufactured  in  this  country 
being  plain.  Mr.  Earle  at  first  made  these  by 
hand,  but  soon  invented  the  machine  still  in 
use  for  their  manufacture,  by  which  the  labor  of 
a  man  for  15  hours  could  be  performed  in  as  many 
minutes.  Aside  from  his  inventive  genius,  Mr. 
Earle  deserves  a  record  for  his  extensive  attain- 
ments in  science  and  literature. — Plint,  an 
American  physician,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Leicester,  Mass.,  Dec.  31,  1809.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Friends'  yearly  meeting  boarding 
school  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  where  he  was  subse- 
quently employed  as  a  teacher.  He  received  his 
diploma  of  M.D.  in  1837,  after  which  he  spent  3 
months  in  London  and  a  year  in  Paris,  and  some 
10  months  more  in  travel,  returning  to  Philadel- 
phia in  1839.  In  1840  he  was  appointed  resident 
physician  of  the  insane  hospital  at  Frankford, 
Penn.,  under  the  care  of  the  Friends,  where  he 
remained  a  little  more  than  2  years.  In  1844 
he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  asylum  for  the 
insane  at  Bloomingdale,  N.  Y.,  where  he  re- 
mained till  April,  1849,  when  he  visited  the  in- 
sane hospitals  of  England,  Belgium,  Germany, 
Austria,  Poland,  and  a  part  of  those  of  France. 
In  1847  he  declined  an  appoinment  of  visiting 
physician  to  the  New  York  city  lunatic  asylum, 
but  accepted  it  when  again  ofiered  in  1853. 
He  has  been  a  somewhat  voluminous  writer, 
principally  in  the  medical  and  scientific  jour- 
nals and  the  "  Journal  of  Insanity."  In  1841 
he  published  a  small  volume  of  poems  enti- 
tled "Marathon  and  other  Poems;"  but  fear- 


EAELY 


EARTH 


713 


ing  that  they  might  endanger  his  professional 
standing,  he  withdrew  the  edition  from  tho 
market  very  soon  after  its  puljlication.  The 
same  year  appeared  his  "  Visit  to  13  Asylums 
for  the  Insane  in  Europe."  la  1848  he  pub- 
lished the  "  History,  Description,  and  Statistics 
of  the  Bloomingdale  Asylum."  After  his  re- 
turn from  his  second  European  tour,  lie  publish- 
ed in  the  "  American  Journal  of  Insanity  "  a 
Beries  of  articles  on  institutions  for  the  insane 
in  Germany  and  Austria,  which  were  subse- 
quently collected  in  a  volume.  Another  series 
of  articles  on  "  Bloodletting  in  Mental  Dis- 
orders "  was  also  published  in  book  form  in 
1854.  Ilis  other  contributions  to  the  medical 
and  psychological  journals  are  very  numerous. 
— Thomas,  a  writer  on  law,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Leicester,  Mass.,  April  21, 
1791,  died  in  Philadelphia,  July  14,  1849.  His 
early  education  was  obtained  at  the  academy 
of  his  native  town.  In  1817  he  removed  to 
Philadelphia,  and  engaged  in  mercantile  ])ur- 
suits  for  a  few  years,  and  then  having  studied 
law  commenced  tho  practice  of  the  profession 
in  that  city,  where  he  was  distinguished  not 
only  for  legal  ability,  but  for  the  large  amount 
of  time  he  bestowed  without  fee  or  reward  in 
defending  the  cause  of  the  poor,  often  refusing 
cases  offering  .large  pecuniary  emolument  in 
order  to  attend  to  those  who  were  unable  to 
pay.  He  edited  in  succession  the  "  Colum- 
bian Observer,"  "  Standard,"  "  Pennsylvanian," 
and  "  Mechanics'  Free  Press  and  Reform  Advo- 
cate;" and  he  took  an  active  part  in  calling  a 
convention  to  revise  the  constitution  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1837,  was  a  prominent  member  of  it, 
and  is  believed  to  have  made  the  original  draft 
of  the  new  constitution.  At  this  time  he  was  so 
popular  that  any  office  in  the  gift  of  the  people 
was  at  his  command,  but  he  lost  the  support  of 
the  party  with  which  he  was  connected  (the 
democratic)  by  advocating  the'  extension  of  the 
right  of  suffrage  to  negroes.  In  1840  he  was  the 
candidate  of  the  liberty  party  for  the  vice-pres- 
idency. After  that  period  he  mingled  little  in 
political  affairs,  and  devoted  himself  almost  en- 
tirely to  literary  pursuits.  His  first  published 
work  was  an  "Essay  on  Penal  Law,"  written 
while  he  was  a  member  of  the  law  academy  of 
Philadelphia,  and  published  by  the  library  com- 
pany. This  was  followed  by  an  "  Essay  on  the 
Rights  of  States  to  alter  and  annul  their  Char- 
ters," a  work  which  elicited  the  approbation 
of  Thomas  Jefferson ;  a  "  Treatise  on  Railroads 
and  Internal  Communications,"  published  in 
1830 ;  a  spelling  book  for  schools,  which  was 
highly  approved  by  eminent  teachers  in  Phila- 
delphia and  vicinity  ;  a  "  Life  of  Benjamin 
Lund}^,"  an  eminent  philanthropist.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  had  nearly  completed  a 
liistory  of  the  French  revolution  and  a  transla- 
tion of  Sismondi's  "  Italian  Republics." 

EARLY,  a  S.  W.  co  of  Ga.,  bordering  on  Ala., 
bounded  "W.  by  the  Chattahoochee  river,  and 
N.  by  Colamoka  creek  ;  area,  864  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
In   1852,   8,641,  of  whom  4,211  were  slaves. 


The  surface  is  a  fertile  plain,  watered  by  Spring 
creek  and  several  of  its  branches,  and  oc- 
cui)ied  by  corn  and  cotton  plantations,  inter- 
spersed with  forests  of  oak  and  yellow  pine. 
Scarcely  a  rock  is  to  bo  seen  in  the  county. 
The  Chattahoochee  is  navigable  along  the  bor- 
der of  tlie  county  by  steamboats,  and  the  small- 
er streams  furnish  good  water  power.  On  the 
bank  of  Colamoka  creek  is  one  of  those  remark- 
able ancient  mounds  which  have  been  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  is  75  feet 
high,  with  a  level  surface  on  the  top  240  by  90 
feet  in  extent.  The  productions  of  the  county 
in  1850  amounted  to  4,354  bales  of  cotton,  223,- 
037  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  and  76,377  of  sweet 
potatoes.  There  were  10  churches,  1  newspa- 
per office,  and  144  pupils  attending  academics 
and  schools.  Value  of  real  estate  in  1856, 
$994,031.  Named  in  honor  of  Peter  Early,  gov- 
ernor of  Georgia  in  1813.     Capital,  Blakely. 

EARLY,  Jorix,  a  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal church  south,  born  in  Virginia  in  1785.  At 
an  early  age  lie  joined  the  Virginia  conference, 
and  became  an  itinerant  minister.  He  filled  suc- 
cessively the  offices  of  secretary  of  conference, 
presiding  elder,  and  delegate  of  the  general  con- 
ference. At  the  general  conference  of  1846  he 
was  elected  general  book  agent,  in  which  office 
he  continued  until  elected  bishop  in  1854.  As 
a  traveller,  revivalist,  and  systematic  preacher, 
it  is  said  of  liim  that  he  has  few  equals  in  the 
ministry  of  the  southern  Methodist  church. 

EARTH,  the  planet  upon  which  we  live.  (For 
its  motions  and  its  relations  to  the  heavenly  bod- 
ies, see  Astronomy.)  The  ancients,  familiar  with 
only  a  small  portion  of  its  surface,  entertained 
the  crudest  notions  of  its  form  and  extent.  In 
the  time  of  Homer  it  was  regarded  as  a  flat  cir- 
cle, everywhere  surrounded  by  a  dark  and  mys- 
terious ocean.  The  nations  which  dwelt  upon 
its  borders  were  called  Cimmerians  and  describ- 
ed as  living  in  perpetual  darkness.  In  every 
direction  the  most  distant  lands  heard  of  were 
placed  on  the  margin  of  this  ocean,  so  that  as 
geographical  knowledge  increased  its  shores  in 
like  manner  receded.  The  strait  at  the  piUars 
of  Hercules,  leading  into  the  ocean,  was  for 
many  centuries  the  boundary  of  the  earth  to- 
ward the  west.  The  Black  sea  appears  for  sf 
time  to  have  been  the  boundary  in  the  other  di- 
rection, and  Colchis  on  the  margin  of  the  East- 
ern sea.  Ethiopia  reached  the  sea  to  the  south, 
and  the  Riphasan  mountains  stretched  to  tlie 
northern  vei'ge  of  the  earth.  The  ancient  He- 
brews found  the  same  boundary  to  the  west; 
but  in  other  directions  they  vaguely  spoke  of 
the  "  ends  of  the  earth."  Availing  themselves 
of  the  commercial  enterprise  of  the  Phoenicians, 
they  had  in  the  time  of  Solomon  prosecuted  their 
trading  voyages  through  the  straits  of  Babel- 
mandeb  into  the  Indian  ocean,  bringing  home 
from  expeditions  of  3  years'  duration  the  pro- 
ducts of  tropical  regions  ;  while  their  ships  sent 
westward  toward  the  Atlantic  returned  laden 
with  the  tin,  silver,  lead,  and  other  metallic 
products  of  Spain  and  Great  Britain.    The  ex- 


714 


EAETH 


peditions  of  Alexander  into  Asia  opened  new 
countries  in  the  east,  and  largely  extended  the 
geography  of  the  Greeks.  The  Eoraans  hy  their 
conquests  added  discoveries  in  the  other  direc- 
tion; hut  these,  while  they  removed  further  off, 
still  served  to  fix  the  encircling  ocean,  the  mare 
tencbrosum,  as  the  impassable  barrier  and  limit 
to  the  land.  At  a  very  early  period  the  astron- 
omers among  the  Egyptians,  Chaldeans,  and 
Greeks  perceived  that  the  heavenly  bodies, 
while  occupying  the  same  positions,  stood  in  dif- 
ferent relations  to  difterent  points  upon  the  sur- 
faceof  the  earth.  In  the  school  of  Thales,  Anaxi- 
mander,  Anaximcnes,  and  Pythagoras,  the  sun 
dial  was  emi)loyed  to  mark  the  progress  of  the 
sun  in  its  meridional  range,  and  to  determine  the 
latitude  of  places,  and  the  division  of  the  year  into 
8C5  days.  The  length  of  the  longest  and  shortest 
days  at  numerous  places  was  determined  by  the 
Egyptians  with  this  instrument,  and  they  first 
added  SJ  days  to  the  older  division  of  the  year 
into  300  days,  Thales  (born  at  Miletus,  G40  B. 
C.)  perceived  the  error  of  giving  to  the  earth  a 
plane  surface,  and  ascribed  to  it  a  spherical  fig- 
ure and  a  position  at  the  centre  of  the  universe. 
Anaximander  believed  it  was  cylindrical ;  and 
in  the  Pythagorean  cosmography  the  extraordi- 
nary advance  was  made  of  placing  the  sun  in 
the  centre  of  the  system  with  the  earth  moving 
about  it.  But  this  step  was  soon  lost,  and  the 
knowledge  of  the  extent  and  form  of  the  earth 
made  but  slow  progress  as  the  limited  observa- 
tions of  travellers  were  gradually  accumulated. 
A  latitude  observation  is  recorded  of  Meton  and 
Euctemon  at  Athens,  432  B.  C.  As  commercial 
intercourse  was  extended  among  the  nations  and 
navigation  became  an  important  art,  the  spher- 
ical figure  of  the  earth  must  have  become  appar- 
ent by  the  same  phenomena  which  are  now  com- 
monly appealed  to  in  proof  of  it,  viz. :  the  sinking 
of  distant  objects  seen  upon  a  level  plain,  as  the 
sea  below  the  horizon ;  the  greater  or  less  ele- 
vation of  the  circumpolar  stars,  as  the  observer 
is  further  toward  the  north  or  the  south  ;  the 
different  angles  under  which  the  sun  is  seen  at 
noon  of  the  same  day  at  different  points  on  the 
same  meridian ;  and  other  appearances  of  the 
same  character.  This  form  being  recognized,  it 
Tvas  natural  to  seek  the  measure  of  its  circum- 
ference, and  it  is  extremely  probable  that  at- 
tempts of  this  kind  were  made  before  any  of 
those  of  which  we  have  account.  Some  of  the 
measures  of  the  most  remote  antiquity  appear 
to  have  relation  to  the  terrestrial  circumference ; 
and,  as  stated  by  Laplace,  they  seem  "to  indicate 
not  only  that  this  length  was  very  exactly 
known  at  a  very  ancient  period,  but  that  it  has 
also  served  as  the  base  of  a  complete  system  of 
measures,  the  vestiges  of  which  have  been  found 
in  Asia  and  Egypt."  Aristotle  states  that  be- 
fore his  time  the  circumference  had  been  deter- 
mined by  mathematicians  at  400,000  stadia. 
Eratosthenes,  who  lived  the  next  century  after 
Aristotle,  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to 
clearly  perceive  the  true  method  of  applying 
ustronomical  observations  to  the  measurement 


of  a  degree  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
from  this  to  calculate  the  whole  circumference. 
At  Syene,  in  upper  Egypt,  was  a  well,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  the  full  disk  of  the  sun  was 
seen  at  noon  of  tlie  day  of  the  summer  solstice; 
at  the  same  time  from  Alexandria,  then  taken 
to  be  on  the  same  meridian,  its  angular  distance 
from  the  zenith  was  7°  12'.  This  was  the 
measure  of  the  celestial  arc  between  the  two 
zeniths,  and  bore  the  same  relation  to  the  whole 
circumference  as  the  distance  between  the  two 
points  on  the  surface  bore  to  the  circumference 
of  the  earth.  Presuming  this  distance  to  be 
5,000  stadia,  and  Y°  12'  being  jL  of  a  circle,  the 
total  circumference  was  then  250,000  stadia. 
The  world  known  by  the  reports  of  travellers 
extended  only  about  38,000  stadia  in  a  N.  and  S. 
direction ;  and  from  the  pillars  of  Hercules  to 
the  city  of  Thinaa  upon  the  eastern  ocean,  along 
his  base  line  drawn  E.  and  W.  across  the  Medi- 
terranean, Eratosthenes  reckoned  a  greatly  ex- 
aggerated distance  of  70,000  stadia,  and  yet  less 
than  5  of  the  whole  circumference.  He  indulges 
only  conjectures  whether  the  remainder  was  oc- 
cupied entirely  by  the  ocean  he  called  the  At- 
lantic, or  consisted  in  part  of  strange  continents 
and  islands.  Posidonius  next  attempted  a  simi- 
lar measurement  by  observations  of  the  altitude 
of  the  star  Canopus,  when  seen  on  the  meridian 
at  Khodes,  and  again  at  Alexandria.  Finding  a 
difference  of  altitude  of  7°  30',  and  assuming 
the  meridional  distance  of  the  two  points  to  be 
5,000  stadia,  he  made  the  whole  circumference 
240,000  stadia.  Of  the  real  value  of  the  stadium 
employed  Ave  are  entirely  ignorant;  and  it  is 
certain  that  it  was  not,  as  employed  at  that  time, 
a  fixed  determinate  measure.  The  great  astron- 
omer Hipparchus  of  Rhodes,  born  at  Nice,  in 
Bithynia,  140  B.  C,  first  determined  the  longi- 
tudes of  places  upon  the  earth  by  the  eclipses 
of  the  moon,  and  produced  maps  upon  which 
localities  were  designated  by  their  latitudes  and 
longitudes.  Thus  a  means  was  furnished  of 
determining  the  relative  positions  of  places 
without  the  necessity  of  measurements  upon  the 
surface  between  them ;  and  afterward,  when 
suitable  instruments  should  be  contrived,  of 
finding  directly  any  spot  beyond  the  sea,  and 
returning  to  the  starting  point.  Adopting  these 
principles,  Ptolemy,  the  astronomer  and  geog- 
rapher, prepared  the  most  complete  map  of  the 
world  so  far  as  it  was  known,  designating  places 
by  their  latitudes  and  longitudes,  and  causing 
the  meridians  to  approach  each  other  toward 
the  pole.  For  want  of  accurate  measurement 
of  the  length  of  a  degree,  his  map,  however,  was 
very  imperfect.  Still  it  continued  for  many 
centuries  to  be  the  great  authority  in  geography ; 
and  it  was  not  until  1685,  when  the  difference 
of  longitude  between  Marseilles  and  Aleppo  was 
found  to  be  only  30°  in  place  of  45°,  as  repre- 
sented upon  the  map,  it  became  apparent  that 
more  perfect  observations  for  longitudes  must 
be  adopted  than  those  of  the  ancients.  The 
uncertainty  of  the  results  obtained  by  observing 
eclipses  of  the  moon  was  soon  perceived,  and  at 


EARTH 


715 


last  tho  suggestion  of  Galileo  was  adopted  of 
observing  the  eclipses  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter. 
In  the  9th  century  an  attempt  was  made  by  di- 
rection of  tho  calipli  Al  Mauiun,  who  reigned 
at  Bagdad  from  81:5  to  833,  to  determine  tho 
lengtli  of  a  degree  of  latitude.  His  mathema- 
ticians assembled  on  tho  plain  of  Shinar,  and, 
taking  the  altitude  of  the  polar  star,  separated 
in  two  parties,  travelling  iu  opi)o.sitc  directions 
till  they  found  a  ditTerencc  of  altitude  of  ono 
degree.  They  made  the  distance  upon  the  sur- 
face the  same  as  that  given  by  Ptolemy,  ])rob- 
ably  adopting  liis  conclusion,  which  they  were 
set  to  verifj'.  From  this  time  to  the  middle  of 
the  IGth  century  no  further  attention  Avas  given 
to  ascertaining  the  dimensions  and  true  figure 
of  the  earth  by  astronomical  observations ;  but 
vast  accessions  of  geographical  knowledge  were 
made  by  the  enterprise  of  the  navigators  of  this 
period.  They  at  last  solved  the  mystery  of  the 
mare  tenehrosurn.  The  next  attempt  to  deter- 
mine the  circumference  was  made  by  Fernel,  a 
Fi'ouch  physician,  who  died  in  1558.  In  the  want 
of  exact  surveys,  by  Avhich  the  true  distance  be- 
tween places  might  be  known,  he  measured  the 
space  between  Paris  and  Amiens  by  the  number 
of  revolutions  of  his  carriage  wheel,  and  mak- 
ing his  observations  for  latitude  he  made  the 
length  of  a  degree  57,070  French  toises ;  a  re- 
markably close  approximation  to  the  actual 
length.  Willebrord  Snell,  a  mathematical  teacher 
of  Holland,  made  in  1C17  a  similar  attempt 
between  Alkmaar  and  Bergen-op-Zoom  ;  and 
he  was  the  first  to  apply  a  system  of  triangu- 
lation  to  expedite  his  geodetic  measurements. 
His  instrument  for  observing  angles  was  a  quad- 
rant of  5^  feet  radius.  As  afterward  corrected 
by  Muschenbroek,  the  length  was  57,033  toises. 
In  1 635  Norwood  in  England  repeated  the  ex- 
periment, measuring  along  the  road  the  distance 
between  London  and  York,  making  the  degree 
367,176  feet,  or  57,800  toises.  Toward  the  close 
of  the  same  century  Picard  first  applied  the  tele- 
scope attached  to  a  quadrant,  and  furnished  with 
cross  wires,  to  observe  the  angles  for  his  tri- 
angulation,  and  twice  measured  between  Amiens 
and  Malvoisine  with  wooden  perches  a  base  of 
5,663  toises,  or  nearly  7  ra.  in  length,  employ- 
ing also  at  tlie  other  extremity  a  base  of  verifi- 
cation of  3,902  toises.  The  celestial  arc  of 
1**  22'  55"  was  measured  by  a  sector  of  10  feet 
radius.  He  made  the  degree  57,060  toises,  a 
result  very  nearly  accurate,  attained  by  a  for- 
tunate compensation  of  errors  in  his  method 
and  in  his  standard  of  measure.  In  1718  the 
second  Cassini  published  a  work  upon  the  mag- 
nitude and  figure  of  tho  earth,  with  an  account 
of  measurements  further  north  and  south  on 
Picard's  line  made  by  La  Hire  and  himself. 
About  the  time  of  Picard's  observations  the 
question  began  to  be  agitated,  whether  the  form 
of  the  earth  was  really  that  of  a  true  sphere. 
The  tendency  of  the  centrifugal  force  of  bodies 
revolving  upon  their  axis,  established  by  Huy- 
ghens  and  Xewton,  must  evidently  be  to  throw 
their  movable  particles  from  the  poles  toward 


the  equator  and  there  accnmulato  them  in  a 
belt,  increasing  the  equatorial  diameter.  New- 
ton calculated  that  to  maintain  tho  hydrostatic 
equilibrium  the  proportion  of  the  polar  to  tho 
equatorial  diameter  must  be  as  230  to  231. 
Kicher,  who  was  sent  by  the  academy  of 
sciences  of  Paris  to  Cayenne  in  1072,  observed 
that  tliG  i)en(lulum  which  vibrated  seconds  in 
Paris  lost  about  2.j!  mimites  daily  at  Cayenne. 
This  fact,  as  Newton  explained  in  his  Princi- 
pia^  must  bo  a  consequence  of  the  reduction 
of  tlie  force  of  gravity,  either  by  cfiect  of  tho 
centrifugal  force  or  of  increased  distance  from 
tho  centre.  Tlie  deductions  of  Newton  and 
Iluyghons  that  the  earth  was  a  sjjheroid  like  that 
already  observed  of  Jupiter,  flattened  at  tlio 
poles,  conflicting  with  the  opposite  conclusions 
of  the  first  Cassini,  induced  tho  a(;ademy  of 
sciences  to  cause  exact  measurements  of  meri- 
dional arcs  to  be  made  both  near  the  equator 
and  the  polar  circle.  Tho  celebrated  coimnis- 
sion  of  their  members  left  Paris  in  1735,  Bou- 
guer,  La  Condamine,  and  Godin  to  join  in  Peru 
the  officers  appointed  by  Sj)ain,  Antonio  d'Ul- 
loa  and  Jorge  Juan ;  and  Maupertuis  with  4 
others  to  proceed  to  the  gulf  of  Bothnia,  where 
they  wore  joined  by  the  Swedish  astronomer 
Celsius.  Ten  years  were  spent  by  the  party  in 
Peru  in  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  over  3'^ 
in  length,  extending  from  lat.  2'  3"  N.  to  3°  4' 
32"  S.  In  2  measurements  of  tho  original 
base  the  difference  was  hardly  2^  inches;  and 
a  second  base  of  5,259  toises  diftered  when 
measured  less  than  a  loise  from  its  length  as 
calculated  from  the  triangles.  The  length  of 
the  degree  at  the  equator,  reduced  to  the  level 
of  the  sea,  was  calculated  by  Bouguer  at  56,753 
toises,  or  362,912  feet;  by  La  Condamine,  at 
56,749  toises  ;  and  by  UUoa,  at  56,768  toises. 
The  northern  party  found  a  place  for  their 
operations  between  Tornea  in  Lapland  and  the 
mountain  of  Kittis,  57'  29.6"  further  north,  in 
lat.  66°  48'  22".  The  difterence  of  latitude 
being  determined,  they  measured  a  base  line 
upon  the  frozen  rivers,  2  measurements  giving 
a  difference  of  only  about  4  inches.  The  arc 
being  then  determined,  it  was  found  to  give  57,- 
422  toises  to  the  degree.  "With  this  result  they 
returned  to  France,  being  absent  only  16  months. 
Tho  greater  length  of  the  degrees  as  they  ap- 
proach the  poles  was  thus  established,  and 
consequently  the  greater  equatorial  than  polar 
diameter  of  the  earth.  Multiplied  measurements 
in  different  parts  of  the  earth  now  became  im- 
portant to  determine  its  true  figure.  They  have 
been  made  in  various  countries,  and  confirm 
the  general  conclusions  of  Huyghens  and  New- 
ton. La  Caille's  measurement  at  the  capo  of 
Good  Hope  in  1751,  the  only  one  in  the  south- 
ern hemisphere,  presented  anomalies,  or  showed 
great  irregularity  in  the  figure  of  the  earth, 
which  were  not  explained  till,  nearly  a  century 
afterward,  the  arc  was  remeasured  with  great 
care  under  the  auspices  of  tlie  British  govern- 
ment, and  it  was  shown  that  the  discrepancy  was 
owing  principally  to  the  deviation  of  the  plumb 


716 


EARTH 


line  of  La  Caille  by  attraction  of  the  mass  of  the 
mountain  near  by.  In  North  America  the  first 
measurement  of  this  character  was  by  Mason 
and  Dixon  in  lTG4-'5,  on  the  peninsula  between 
Delaware  and  Chesapeake  bays.  The  arc  was 
measured  throughout  with  wooden  rods,  and 
the  degree  in  mean  lat.  39°  12'  was  found  to  bo 
8G3,Y71  feet,  or  68.896  English  miles.  It  has 
never  been  supposed  that  this  was  a  very  ex- 
act measurement,  but  its  accuracy  has  not  been 
disproved.  In  1784  measurements  were  com- 
menced larger  than  any  ever  before  undertaken 
for  the  pur])ose  of  accurately  determining  the 
difference  of  longitude  between  the  observato- 
ries at  Paris  and  Greenwich.  Instruments  of 
great  size  and  improved  construction  were  pre- 
pared expressly  for  this  work,  and  the  base  line 
of  27,404  feet  upon  Ilounslow  heath  was  meas- 
ured once  with  wooden  rods  of  20  feet  lengtli, 
and  once  with  glass  rods  of  the  same  lengtli  in 
frames.  The  junction  of  the  triangles  on  the 
two  sides  was  completed  in  1788  ;  but  the  oper- 
ations on  the  English  side  were  regarded  only  as 
a  portion  of  the  full  survey  of  the  island  to  be 
afterward  carried  out.  Still  more  extensive  sur- 
veys were  commenced  in  France  in  1791,  with 
the  object  of  obtaining  the  exact  length  of  the 
quadrant  of  the  meridian,  in  order  to  make  use 
of  a  definite  part  of  this  natural  and  permanent 
quantity  as  a  standard  for  all  linear  measures. 
The  pendulum  vibrating  seconds  in  some  de- 
termined latitude  had  been  proposed  as  a  means 
of  furnisliing  an  unchangeable  measure,  but  it 
was  given  up  because  of  its  dependence  upon 
the  element  of  time,  the  measure  of  which  is 
arbitrary,  and  its  sexagesimal  divisions  are  in- 
admissible as  the  foundation  of  a  system  of 
decimal  measures.  Local  causes  also,  as  the 
geological  structure  of  the  locality,  affect  the 
rate  of  its  vibrations.  The  length  of  the  quad- 
rant of  the  meridian,  not  being  liable  to  these 
objections,  was  adopted  instead,  and  a  new  meas- 
urement was  carried  out  on  the  meridian  of 
Paris  under  the  distinguished  astronomers  De- 
lambre  and  Mechain,  and  the  work  was  not  in- 
terrupted by  tlie  political  disorganizations  of 
the  years  1792,  1793,  and  1794.  The  line  was 
extended  across  France  from  Dunkirk  to  Barce- 
lona, making  an  arc  of  about  9°,  and  every 
precaution  was  taken  to  insure  the  most  per- 
fect accuracy  in  the  measurements.  The  base 
line  near  Paris  was  more  than  7  m.  in  length 
(6,075.9  toises),  and  another  of  verification  of 
6,006.25  toises  near  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  arc  differed  by  measurement  less  than  a  foot 
in  length  from  its  extent  calculated  from  the 
triangles  extending  from  the  first  base  more 
than  436  m.  distant.  Though  this  arc  thus 
determined  was  sufficient  for  the  purpose  re- 
quired, the  French  astronomers  in  1805,  after 
an  interval  of  3  years,  began  to  carry  the  meas- 
urement still  further  south,  Biot  and  Arago 
directing  the  work  after  the  death  of  Mechain. 
The  island  of  Ivica  in  the  Mediterranean  was 
connected  with  the  system  by  a  triangle,  one 
eide  of  which  exceeded  100  m.  in  length; 'and 


by  means  of  another  the  line  was  made  to  reach 
Formentara,  distant  12°  22'  13.39"  frum  Dun- 
kirk, its  northern  extremity.  The  result  of  this 
extension  affected  the  quadrantal  arc  before 
obtained  so  little,  that  the  standard  unit,  the 
metre.,  equal  to  the  To.Wo.rirs-  of  the  quadrant, 
Avould  differ  scarcely  25o!o  oir  of  the  value  before 
given  it.  A  singular  anomaly  Avas  noticed  upon 
some  portions  of  this  arc,  and  the  same  was  ob- 
served in  the  English  surveys,  that  where  these 
portions  were  considered  separately,  the  length 
of  the  degrees  appears  to  increase  toward  the 
equator.  This  is  supposed  to  be  owing  to  some 
disturbing  cause,  as,  possibly,  inequalities  in  the 
density  of  the  strata  which  affected  the  instru- 
ments in  use  upon  them.  The  effect  is  to  produce 
a  slight  uncertainty  in  the  exactness  of  the  re- 
sult obtained,  and  in  the  calculated  proportion 
of  the  polar  to  the  equatorial  axis  of  the  earth. 
The  length  of  the  quarter  of  the  meridian  was 
found  to  be  5,130,740  toises.  Of  the  other 
measurements  which  have  been  made  of  an  arc 
of  the  meridian,  the  most  important  are  those 
conducted  in  Hindostan  by  Col.  Everest,  in  con- 
tinuation of  the  work  commenced  by  Col.  Lamb- 
ton  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century ; 
and  those  by  Struve  and  Tenner  in  Russia  (the 
latter  commenced  in  1817  and  completed  in 
1853),  A  small  arc  of  1°  35'  Avas  measured 
near  Madras  by  Col.  Lambton ;  and  another  was 
commenced  from  Punnte  in  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  peninsula,  in  lat.  8°  9'  32.51", 
and  extended  to  Damargida,  lat.  18°  3'  15". 
After  Lambton's  death  in  1823,  Col.  Everest 
carried  the  work  on  further  north  for  some  time. 
In  1832,  after  an  interruption,  it  was  resumed 
and  continued  till  1840,  when  it  reached  Kali- 
ana,  lat.  29°  80'  48",  thus  including  21°  21' 
(1,477  m.).  Every  precaution  was  taken,  and 
the  most  perfect  instruments  were  provided,  to 
insure  the  utmost  accuracy  ;  and  notwithstand- 
ing the  natural  obstacles  of  the  climate,  the 
heat,  rains,  and  tliick  atmosphere,  the  malaria 
of  the  plains,  and  tlie  impenetrability  of  the 
jungles,  the  results  obtained  from  the  bases  of 
verification  indicate  as  great  exactness  as  hag 
been  attained  in  the  best  European  measure- 
ments. The  whole  extent  of  the  Russo-Scandi- 
navian  arc  is  from  Ismail  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Danube,  in  lat.  45°  20',  to  Fugeloe  in  Fin- 
mark,  lat.  70°  40'.  The  portion  extending  N". 
from  Tornea  (4°  49')  was  measured  by  the 
Swedish  and  Norwegian  engineers.  The  ground 
throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  line  is  re- 
markably favorable  for  the  execution  of  this 
Avork,  on  account  of  its  freedom  from  great  ir- 
regularities of  surface ;  but  in  the  southern  Jiart 
forests  spreading  over  a  level  country  have 
rendered  it  necessary  to  raise  many  temporary 
elevated  stations ;  and  in  the  north  the  ex- 
traordinary refractions  of  that  region  have  add- 
ed to  the  difficulties  of  the  work.  This  arc, 
and  that  of  Hindostan,  give  the  measure  of  a 
large  portion  of  the  quadrant  of  the  meridian, 
leaving  only  the  degrees  between  29°  30'  and 
45°  20'  unmeasured  from  lat.  8°  9'  to  70°  40'. 


EAETE 


717 


Tlio  French  arc,  extending  from  lat.  38"'  40' 
to  51°,  fills  lip  .1  portion  of  this  gap,  and  they 
all  together  atford  abundant  data  for  an  exact 
comj)utation  of  the  curvature  of  the  meridian ; 
and  tliis  is  rendered  the  more  certain  from  the 
standards  of  length  used  in  India  and  Rus- 
sia having  been  directly  compared.  Other  arcs 
liave  been  meastn-ed  by  Bessel  and  Bayer  in 
Prussia ;  Schumacher  in  Denmark ;  Gauss  in 
Hanover ;  beside  a  few  others  of  less  import. 
The  longest  arc  measured  in  the  progress  of  the 
U.  8.  coast  survey  is  one  of  3^°,  extending  from 
Nantucket  to  Mount  Blue  in  ^faine.  Great 
confidence  is  felt  in  the  accuracy  of  this  meas- 
urement, from  the  extreme  care  with  which  the 
triangulation  is  conducted.  The  work  is  not 
yet  quite  completed.  An  arc  of  ])arallel  will 
also  be  measured  along  the  Mexican  gulf. — From 
the  various  measurements  that  have  been  al- 
ready made,  difterent  values  have  been  calcu- 
lated for  the  ellipticity  of  the  earth,  or  the  pro- 
portions between  the  polar  and  equatorial  diam- 
eters. Prof.  Airy,  before  the  completion  of 
tlie  recent  surveys,  found  the  ellipticity  -^l^.,  and 
Bessel  afterward  made  it  -^g-^.  The  French  and 
Indian  arcs  give  a  smaller  ellipticity,  as  ^f^,  but 
the  Prussian,  it  is  thought,  will  be  about  ^~g.  The 
following  statement  presents  the  average  of  sev- 
eral of  the  measurements  :  Equatorial  diameter, 
41,843,330  feet,  or  7,924.873  miles  ;  polar  di- 
ameter, 41,704,788  feet,  or  7,898.634  miles; 
difference  of  diameters,  or  polar  compression, 
138,542  feet,  or  26.239  miles;  ratio  of  diam- 
eters, 302.026  :  301,026  ;  ellipticity,  gn-j-ln^^  ; 
length .  of  degree  at  equator,  362,732  ieet; 
length  of  degree  at  lat.  45°,  364,543.5  feet. 
Profs.  Airy  and  Bessel,  calculating  from  different 
sets  of  measurements,  obtained  the  following 
results : 


Equatorial  diameter. 

Polar  diameter 

Polar  compression . . . 
Eatio  of  diameters . . . 


Airj',  mile 


T,92.5.64S 
7,S99.1T0 
26.478 
299..33  to  298.33 


Besael. 


7,925.604 
7,899.114 
26.471 
299.1.510  298.10 


The  ellipticity  of  the  earth  is  always  expressed 
by  a  larger  fraction  than  the  above  when  com- 
puted from  observations  upon  the  vibrations  of 
the  pendulum  in  difterent  latitudes.  It  is  vari- 
ously given  from  ■^jV-:^  to  -j^Vt-  These  observa- 
tions have  been  made  at  so  large  a  mimber  of 
places,  that  the  effects  of  local  causes  of  irregu- 
larity would  be  expected  to  disappear ;  yet 
there  is  an  unexplained  discrepancy  with  the 
results  of  the  geodetic  method.  This  is  per- 
haps owing  in  part  to  the  variable  resistance 
opposed  by  air  of  different  den.sities,  the  effect 
of  which  can  be  obviated  by  conducting  the  ex- 
periments in  a  vacuum.  The  ellipticity  has  also 
been  calculated  from  some  irregularities  in  the 
motions  of  the  moon,  caused  by  the  equatorial 
protuberance ;  and  it  may  well  be  remarked  as 
an  extraordinary  fact  that  from  this  source  a 
strong  confirmation  should  be  afforded  of  the 
correctness  of  the  results  obtained  from  the 
measures  of  the  meridional  arcs.     The  ellipti- 


city thus  obtained  is  generally  ^^^  or  j'y,  differ- 
ent values  being  allowed  for  the  rate  of  increase 
in  the  density  of  the  earth  from  the  surface  to- 
ward the  centre.  Degrees  of  longitude  might  bo 
measured  instead  of  latitude  for  determining  tho 
figure  of  the  earth  ;  but  the  difficulty  would  bo 
in  the  precise  estimation  of  differences  of  longi- 
tude in  the  celestial  arc.  The  close  approach  of 
the  earth  in  its  general  form  to  the  figure  of  hy- 
drostatic cquihbrium  forcibly  suggests  the  prob- 
ability of  the  particles  which  compose  its  mass 
liaving  been  in  condition  to  move  freely  toge- 
ther under  tho  infiuence  of  the  centrifugal  forco 
and  their  mutual  attractions.  The  conditions 
that  now  obtain  uj)on  the  outer  portion  of  tho 
earth  in  the  mobility  and  transporting  power  of 
its  waters,  whicli  cover  f  of  its  surface,  may  be 
regarded  as  sufficient  to  give,  in  long  periods  of 
time,  the  observed  external  form  ;  but  the  indi- 
cations afforded  by  the  pendulum  of  regidarly 
increasing  gravity  from  the  equator  toward  tho 
poles,  |and  lience  of  symmetrical  arrangement 
of  the  layers  tliroughout,  imply  the  existence 
of  similar  conditions  during  the  entire  period  of 
the  construction  of  the  earth. — The  form  and 
dimensions  of  the  earth  being  obtained,  calcula- 
tions respecting  its  density  or  weight  may  bo 
made  by  several  distinct  methods.  The  one  first 
applied  was  originally  suggested  by  Bougner — a 
comparison  of  the  attractive  poAver  of  a  moun- 
tain of  known  dimensions  and  density  with  that 
of  the  earth  of  known  dimensions,  whence  its 
density  might  be  computed.  Newton  had  al- 
ready estimated  that  a  hemispherical  mountain 
3  m.  high  and  with  a  base  of  6  m.  diameter 
would  cause  a  plummet  to  be  deflected  1'  18" 
from  the  vertical.  In  making  the  trial  tho 
plummet  is  attached  to  a  delicate  astronomical 
instrument,  with  which  observations  are  made 
to  determine  the  meridian  altitudes  of  stars  near 
the  mountain,  and  on  the  same  parallel  at  a  dis- 
tance accurately  determined  and  sufficiently  far 
off"  to  be  beyond  its  influence.  The  difference 
in  tlie  2  altitudes  shows  the  power  of  attraction. 
Observations  are  sometimes  made  from  stations 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  mountain,  and  the  re- 
sult is  then  obtained  by  a  different  plan  from 
the  above.  Bouguer,  in  1738,  observed  the  in- 
fluence of  Chimborazo  in  deflecting  the  plummet, 
and  unsuccessfully  endeavored  to  compute  its 
amount  from  observations  made  at  2  stations  on 
the  S.  side  only.  In  1772  Dr.  Maskelyn*  pro- 
posed to  the  royal  society  to  try  the  experiment 
upon  some  mountain  in  Great  Britain ;  and  tho 
society  thereupon  appointed  a  "committee  of 
attraction,"  including  in  it,  with  Maskelyne, 
Cavendish,  Franklin,  and  Ilorsley.  Mr.  Charles 
Mason  was  intrusted  with  the  selection  of  a 
proper  hill,  and  finally  Schehallien  in  Perthshire, 
Scotland,  was  fixed  upon.  The  primary  meas- 
urements were  made  by  Mason  in  1774,  to  de- 
termine the  distance  apart  of  the  stations  to  be 
used,  one  on  the  N.  and  the  other  on  the  S.  side 
of  the  liill,  under  similar  slopes.  By  triangu- 
lating. Dr.  Maskelyne  found  this  distance  to  be 
4,364.4  feet,  corresponding  in  that  latitude  to  a 


718 


EARTH 


EARTH  WORM 


meridional  arc  of  42.94".  But  by  337  observa- 
tions the  difference  of  latitude  appeared  to  be 
54.6",  giving  11.6"  as  the  double  attraction.  By 
complicated  calculations,  devised  by  Cavendish 
and  carried  out  by  Dr.  llutton,  the  density  of  the 
earth  was  computed  to  be  to  that  of  the  hill  as 
17,804  :  9,933.  Dr.  Playfair,  after  carefully  ex- 
amining the  geological  structure  of  the  hill, 
made  the  probable  mean  specific  gravity  of  the 
earth  to  be  between  4.56  and  4.87.  By  a  sim- 
ilar experiment  made  by  Col.  James,  superin- 
tendent of  the  ordnance  survey,  at  Arthur's 
Seat,  the  mean  density  of  the  earth  has  been 
found  to  be  5.316. — A  second  method  of  esti- 
mating the  density  of  the  earth  is  by  an  ex- 
periment exceedingly  delicate  and  beautiful,  in 
which  the  attractive  power  of  small  spheres 
of  known  weight  is  weighed  and  compared 
with  that  of  the  earth.  The  principle  of  this 
method  has  also  been  recognized  by  Newton, 
in  his  observation  that  the  attraction  at  the 
surface  of  any  sphere  is  directly  as  its  radius, 
but  incomparably  less  than  its  tendency  to- 
ward the  earth,  or  in  other  words,  its  weight. 
The  experiment  was  devised  by  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Michell,  who  also  prepared  the  apparatus  with 
which  it  was  first  conducted  by  Cavendish  ("Phi- 
losophical Transactions,"  1798).  Two  balls  of 
lead  of  about  2  inches  diameter  were  fixed 
one  at  each  end  of  a  slender  wooden  rod  6  feet 
long,  which  was  suspended  by  a  fine  wire  40 
inches  long  attached  to  the  centre  of  the  rod. 
At  each  extremity  of  a  support  of  the  length  of 
the  rod  was  placed  a  leaden  sphere  of  174  lbs. 
weight;  and  the  support  was  adjusted  upon  a 
centre  exactly  beneath  the  centre  of  the  rod 
suspended  above  it,  so  that  the  great  balls  could 
be  swung  around  and  present  their  opposite 
sides  in  turn  to  opposite  sides  of  the  smaller 
balls.  When  brought  near  to  the  latter  as  they 
swung  at  rest,  protected  by  a  glass  case  from 
currents  of  air,  they  turned  toward  the  large 
balls,  slightly  twisting  the  wire  till  its  torsion 
equalled  the  attractive  force.  This  observation 
being  made  through  a  telescope  at  a  little  dis- 
tance off  to  avoid  disturbing  influences,  the  large 
balls  were  then  moved  round,  and  a  similar 
measure  of  the  movement  was  made  on  the 
other  side.  Cavendish  after  a  long  series  of 
trials  found  the  attractive  force  equal  to  ^^-„-^  of 
a  grain  weight,  the  centres  of  the  balls  being 
8.85  inches  apart,  and  he  computed  from  this 
the  density  of  the  earth  to  be  5.48  times  that 
of  water.  The  experiment  has  been  repeated 
by  Reich  of  Freiberg  and  Baily  of  London,  the 
latter  making  more  than  2,000  observations. 
Reich  made  the  density  5.44,  and  by  a  still 
later  trial  ("  Philosophical  Magazine,"  March, 
1853),  5.58.  Baily  found  it  5.66.  It  is  remark- 
able that  Newton  should  have  stated  in  his 
Principia  (\\\.  prop.  10)  that  the  quantity  of 
matter  in  the  earth  is  probably  5  or  6  times 
what  it  would  be  if  all  were  water.  Another 
method  of  determining  the  density  is  by  com- 
parison of  the  different  rates  of  vibration  of 
the  same  pendulum  at  different  distances  from 


the  centre;  either  at  the  summit  and  base  of  a 
mountain,  or  on  the  surface  and  at  a  considerable 
depth  below  it.  The  Italian  astronomers  Plana 
and  Carlini,  from  their  experiments  on  Mont 
Cenis,  in  Savoy,  obtained  the  figures  4.950  as 
the  result.  Professor  Airy  made  a  similar  ex- 
periment at  the  Uarton  coal  j)it,  near  South 
Shields,  in  1854.  lie  found  that  a  ])endnlum 
vibrating  seconds  at  the  surface  gained  2 J  sec- 
onds p^er  day  at  the  depth  of  1,200  feet;  and 
he  hence  computed  the  density  of  the  earth  to 
be  6.565.  Sir  John  Ilerschel  ("  Outlines  of 
Astronomy,"  5th  ed.,  p.  559)  thus  presents  the 
final  result  of  the  whole  inquiry :  "  Tlie  densities 
concluded  being  arranged  in  the  order  of  mag- 
nitude : 

Scliehfillion  experiment,  by  Maskelyne,  calculated  by 

Playfair D  =  4.713 

Carlini,  from  pendulum  on  Mont  Cenis  (corrected  by 

Giulio) 4.950 

Col.  James,  from  attraction  of  Arthur's  Seat 5.816 

Eeich,  repetition  of  Cavendish  e.xperiment 5.48S 

Cavendish,  result  5.48,  corrected  by  Mr.  Baily's  recom- 

putation  5.443 

Baily's  repetition  of  Cavendish  experiment 5.GC0 

Airy,  from  pendulum  in  Ilarton  coal  pit 6.565 

General  mean 5.441 

Mean  of  greatest  and  least 5.639 

calculating  on  5^  as  a  result  sufficiently  ap- 
proximative and  convenient  for  memory ;  taking 
the  mean  diameter  of  the  earth,  considered  as 
a  sphere,  at  7,912.41  m.,  and  the  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot  of  water  at  62.3211  lbs. ;  we  find  for 
its  solid  content  in  cubic  miles,  259,373  millions, 
and  for  its  weight  in  tons  of  2,240  lbs.  avoird. 
each,  5,842  trillions  (=5842  x  10  ^  3)."  All  these 
experiments  give  a  less  density  to  the  earth  than 
would  appear  to  be  required  by  the  somewhat 
compressible  nature  of  its  materials,  and  to  ex- 
plain this  the  theory  of  the  existence  of  a  high  de- 
gree of  temperature  in  the  interior  is  appealed  to 
by  some  as  presenting  a  sufficient  counteracting 
influence.  The  probabilities  of  the  existence  of 
such  conditions  have  been  considered  in  the 
article  Central  Heat. — The  various  divisions 
of  the  earth's  surface  are  described  in  the  article 
GEOGRArnY ;  its  structure  is  treated  in  Geology. 
See  also  Physical  Geography.  The  subject 
may  be  further  studied  in  the  following  works : 
Steffens,  Beitrdge  zur  innern  Naturgescliichte 
dcr  Erde  (Berlin,  1801)  ;  Ritter,  Die  Enlhunde 
im  Verhdltnisse  zur  Natur  iind  Gcschichte  des 
MeimJien  (Berlin,  17  vols.,  1832-'52;  not  yet 
complete),  and  other  writings  of  the  same  au- 
thor; Steinhuser,  Nexte  Bereclinung  dcr  Dimen- 
sionen  des  FrdspMroids  (Vienna,  1858) ;  Bur- 
meister,  Geschichte  der  Schopfung  (Leipsic,  6th 
ed.  1856)  ;  Sandberger,  Der  Erdkvrper  (Han- 
over, 1856) ;  Berghans,  Was  man  von  der.  Erde 
weiss  (Berlin,  1857,  parts  19-23);  Newton's 
Principia;  Laplace,  "  Sy.stem  of  the  World," 
Ilarte's  translation ;  Humboldt,  "  Cosmos"  (5 
vols.,  1844-'58);  Guyot,  "Earth  and  Man" 
(revised  edition,  Boston,  1858);  Sir  John  F. 
W.  Herschel,  "  Outlines  of  Astronomy"  (5th 
ed.,  1858). 

EARTH  WORM  (Itimbricus  terrestris,  Linn.), 
an  articulate  animal  belonging  to  the  abranchi- 


EAIiTU  WORM 


719 


ate  division  of  the  class  of  annelids,  (See  Anne- 
lida, for  tiic  clini-actcrs  of  the  class.)  This  well- 
known  worm  lias  along,  cylindrical,  contractile 
body,  divided  into  many  apparent  rings  (some- 
times 150)  by  transverse  wrinklings;  tlie  inter- 
nal surface  of  the  nmscular  envelope  sends  off 
annular  septa,  dividing  the  cavity  of  the  body 
into  as  many  chambers  as  there  are  segments, 
the  partitions  having  openings  wliich  allow  the 
passage  of  the  contents  of  the  general  cavity  from 
one  chamber  to  tlie  otiiers.  Each  segment  ispro- 
A'ided  with  w^c  or  bristles,  beginning  at  the  14th 
ringfrom  the  ]icad,4oneac]i  side,  united  in  pairs, 
fornuiig  8  longitudinal  rows,  of  wliicli  4  are  lat- 
eral and  4  inferior;  tliey  are  short  and  rough, and 
are  used  as  fulcra  during  creeping  or  climijing  in 
the  ground.  Tiie  sense  of  toucli  is  very  acute, 
as  is  shown  by  the  quickness  with  which  they 
retire  into  the  ground  when  touched,  or  at  tlie 
jar  produced  by  an  approaching  footstep  ;  tlie 
sense  is  believed  to  be  most  acute  toward  the 
head,  especially  in  the  1st  segment.  The  eyes 
are  wanting.  The  mouth  is  near  the  anterior 
extremity  of  the  body,  without  teeth,  Avith  2 
somewhat  prominent  lips;  the  pharynx  is  simple, 
short,  and  muscular,  the  ossophagus  narrow,  tlie 
stomach  very  muscular,  and  the  intestine  short, 
straight,  constricted  by  the  muscular  septa,  and 
opening  at  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  body. 
The  blood  is  red,  and  the  circulation  is  complete 
and  closed ;  the  several  pairs  of  simple  trans- 
verse canals,  situated  above  the  stomach,  whose 
pulsations  may  be  distinctly  seen,  may  be  con- 
sidered the  heart.  The  dorsal  vessel  lies  upon 
the  intestinal  canal  enveloped  in  tlie  hepatic  tis- 
sue. The  blood,  though  red,  is  quite  different 
from  that  of  tlie  vertebrates ;  according  to  Sie- 
bold,  it  contains  colorless,  splierical,  unequal-siz- 
ed granular  globules;  these,  Quatrefages  says,  are 
not  part  of  the  blood,  but  belong  to  the  fluid  of 
the  general  cavity;  the  latter  maintains  that  the 
coloring  matter  is  in  simple  solution.  There  is  no 
apparent  external  organ  of  respiration,  and  the 
jjeculiar  canals  in  the  abdominal  cavity  are  re- 
garded by  some  as  internal  branchla)  or  aqulfer- 
UU-!  vessels.  The  structure  of  tliese  organs  is  little 
understood;  but  in  all  genera  of  the  division  there 
are  at  the  commencement  of  the  intestine  very 
tortuous  canals,  opening  generally  on  the  ven- 
tral surface ;  these  canals  are  lined  with  cilite, 
which  have  an  undulatory  movement  always  in 
one  direction  ;  they  never  contain  air,  according 
to  Slebold,  but  circulate  an  aqueous  respiratory 
fluid  by  means  of  the  ciliro ;  even  the  terrestrial 
earth  worms  can  live  only  in  damp  earth,  from 
which  they  obtain  the  necessary  aqueous  fluid. 
In  the  lumhricus  these  canals  are  surrounded  by 
a  distinct  vascular  net-work ;  they  appear  to 
ead  in  loops,  and  their  external  orifices  have  not 
been  satisfactorily  ascertained.  The  most  prob- 
able opinion  is  that  the  respiration  is  carried 
on  principally  by  the  general  integument,  and 
partly  by  the  vascular  system  on  the  walls  of  the 
intestine ;  tlie  ciliated  canals  described  by  Siebold 
are  believed  by  Quatrefages  to  be  organs  for  the 
secretion  of  the  mucus  which  invests  the  body ; 


but  Dr.  Williams  (in  his  "ITeport  on  the  British 
Annelida"  to  the  Uritish  association,  in  1851) 
considers  them  as  utero-ovaria.  Tlie  lumhrici  re- 
produce by  sexual  organs;  their  eggs  are  splier- 
ical and  present  nothing  remarkable  ;  both  sexes 
are  united  in  the  same  individual.  During  tho 
breeding  season,  from  0  to  9  of  the  segments 
(from  tho  2Gth  to  tlio  .37th,  as  generally  de- 
scribed) are  develo[)ed  into  a  kind  of  collar, 
nearly  surrounding  the  body,  by  whicli  these 
animals  seize  each  other  during  coition ;  its  com- 
ponent glandular  follicles  secrete  a  whitish  viscid 
fluid,  probably  used  for  the  formation  of  their 
cocoons  or  egg-cases.  According  to  Dufour, 
these  cocoons  have  a  long  narrow  neck,  each,  in 
the  large  species,  containing  fmm  1  to  G  eggs; 
tho  statement  of  Montegre  that  the  young  are 
born  alive  seems  to  be  confirmed  by  the  observa- 
tions of  Dr.  Williams  {op.  cit.),  who  says  that 
they  escape  from  the  egg  before  leaving  the 
body  of  the  parent ;  these  conflicting  opinions 
have  been  reconciled  by  some  authors  by  calling 
these  animals  ovo-viviparous,  producing  their 
young  sometimes  completely  formed,  and  at 
others  surrounded  by  their  egg-like  envelope; 
it  is  probable  that,  like  the  leech,  most  lumhrici 
lay  oviferous  capsules,  fringed  at  the  ends,  in 
which  the  young  are  developed  without  under- 
going metamorpliusis.  It  seems  certain  from 
the  experiments  of  Dufour  (AnnaJcs  dcs  sciences 
naturelles,  t.  v.  p.  17,  and  t.  xiv.  p.  21G,  1st  series) 
that  the  earth  worm  reproduces  by  means  of 
eggs;  he  describes  them  as  an  inch  in  length, 
of  a  corneo-membranous  consistence,  deposited 
in  the  earth  at  a  depth  of  from  6  inches  to  6 
feet,  in  localities  Avhere  the  soil  is  neither  inun- 
dated nor  too  dry,  isolated,  and  each  egg  con- 
taining 1  or  2  young.  In  this  case  the  eggs  cannot 
properly  be  called  cocoons,  as  the  young  undergo 
no  metamorphosis  in  them ;  this  would  be  the 
mode  of  reproduction  usually  noticed  in  the  class; 
in  the  branchiate  annelids  it  is  stated  by  good  ob- 
servers that  some  are  born  alive  and  mature,  and 
others  of  the  same  species  are  developed  from 
eggs  deposited  in  a  gelatinous  covering;  .so  that 
there  is  no  anomaly  in  the  mode  of  reproduction 
described  by  Dr.  Williams,  and  there  would  seem 
no  necessity  for  maintaining  that  the  viviparous 
mode  of  reproduction  rested  on  mistaken  obser- 
vations, or  that  the  excluded  worms  in  these 
cases  are  entozoa,  which,  it  is  well  known,  are 
very  common  in  the  earth  worm.  Still,  the 
subject  is  much  in  need  of  a  thorough  revision. 
Earth  worms  live  in  moist  earth,  in  wliich  they 
make  galleries  in  all  directions,  swallowing  the 
earth  as  they  proceed ;  their  food  is  principally 
soft  and  decaying  vegetables,  as  may  be  proved 
by  any  one  who  chooses  to  watcli  a  garden  walk 
by  the  light  of  a  lantern  on  a  damp  evening, 
when  they  may  be  seen  creeping  out  of  their 
holes,  elongating  tlieir  first  tactile  segment,  feel- 
ing in  all  directions  for  food,  and,  seizing  any  suit- 
able substance  with  their  jjrojected  proboscis, 
retiring  backward  into  the  ground ;  their  con- 
stant presence  wherever  there  is  decaying  vege- 
table matter  proves  that  their  food  is  principally 


720 


EARTH  WORM 


EARTHQUAKE 


derived  from  such  substances;  they  also,  as 
Montcgre  observed,  will  feed  upon  animal  mat- 
ters; it  seems  more  reasonable  to  believe,  with 
J)e  Blainville,  that  they  swallow  earth  for  the 
purpose  of  making  progress  in  their  galleries, 
than  that  they  do  this  to  extract liumus  or  any 
other  nutritious  substance  from  it.  They  seek 
each  other  chiefly  at  night  and  in  the  latter  part 
of  spring,  though  some  species  have  been  noticed 
together  at  all  times  of  the  day,  and  during  all 
the  warm  months ;  it  is  well  known  that  they 
are  most  abundant  on  the  surface  of  the  ground 
during  and  after  nocturnal  rains.  It  has  long 
been  believed  that  this  animal  possesses  a 
remarkable  power  of  reproducing  parts  lost  by 
accident  or  design,  even  to  the  extent  of  form- 
ing perfect  individuals  from  separated  portions ; 
the  experiments  of  Duges  prove  that  very  im- 
portant parts  may  be  reproduced,  and  it  may 
easily  be  believed  that  in  a  worm  divided  into 
two,  tlie  anterior  portion  might  produce  an 
anus  by  the  simple  contraction  of  the  wound ; 
but  that  the  posterior  portion  should  be  able  to 
reproduce  cerebral  ganglia,  mouth,  stomach, 
cardiac  and  sexual  organs,  cannot  be  admitted ; 
the  anterior  may  survive  a  long  time,  but  the 
posterior  division  gradually  dries  up  and  dies. 
Dr.  Williams,  after  attending  to  the  experi- 
ments of  Bonnet,  Spallanzani,  and  others,  to 
whieh  Prof.  Owen  gives  assent,  says:  "On  the 
autliority  of  hundreds  of  observations,  labo- 
riously repeated  at  every  season  of  the  year, 
the  author  of  this  report  can  declare  with  de- 
liberate iirmness,  that  there  is  not  one  word 
of  truth  in  the  above  statement."  In  1853 
Mr.  I^ewport  exhibited  before  the  Linnasan  so- 
ciety of  London  3  specimens  of  earth  worms, 
one  of  which  was  living,  in  which  more  than 
i  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  had  been 
restored,  smaller  in  diameter  and  with  shorter 
segments  than  the  anterior  portion ;  and  he  says 
that  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  specimens  with 
parts  similarly  restored.  Though  generally  a 
despised  creature,  and  occasionally  niarring  the 
beauty  of  the  garden  walks  by  little  hillocks  of 
earth,  they  not  only  do  not  injure  vegetation, 
but  are  really  useful  in  permitting  air  and  water 
to  penetrate  the  ground  througli  the  channels 
which  they  pierce  in  every  direction,  manuring 
the  fields,  and  throwing  up  fine  dirt  around  the 
roots  of  grass ;  a  field  in  Avhich  no  worms  exist 
can  be  safely  put  down  as  of  litLle  value  to  the 
agriculturist;  they  are  most  active  in  spring, 
when  most  needed,  and  retire  during  winter 
deep  into  the  ground;  according  to  Mr.  Darwin, 
they  perform  under  ground  that  Avlneh  the 
plough  and  the  spade  do  on  the  surface,  and 
have  covered  a  field  manured  with  marl,  in  the 
course  of  80  years,  with  a  bed  of  earth  13 
inches  thick.  Worms  also  furnish  food  for 
birds,  moles,  frogs,  and  other  small  animals,  and 
arc  used  as  bait  for  many  kinds  of  fish.  The 
rapid  ascent  and  descent  of  worms  in  the  ground 
are  easily  understood  from  the  action  of  their 
numerous  setas ;  tliey  have  often  been  seen  high 
up  on  perpendicular  sm*faces,  and  in  situations 


which  they  could  not  have  reached  without 
climbing  perpendicularly.  In  their  movements 
they  display  great  muscular  force,  each  seta 
being  moved  by  its  appropriate  system  of  mus- 
cles ;  Dr.  Williams  says  that  these  seta3,  with 
tlieir  fine  hair-likeappendages, will  actually  pene- 
trate a  deal  board,  and  that  the  path  of  a  worm 
on  such  a  pohshed  surface  will  show  under  the 
microscope  4  series  of  minute  perforations.  This 
would  hardly  explain  their  ascending  perpendic- 
ular surfaces,  especially  when  of  glass  or  similar 
impenetrable  material ;  in  such  cases,  which  are 
incontestable,  they  must  retain  their  hold  by 
means  of  the  tenacious  mucus  Avith  which  their 
skin  is  covered.  There  is  no  question  that 
many  species  have  been  confounded  under  Z. 
terrestris  (Linn.).  The  largest  European  species 
is  called  L.  gigas,  and  is  18  inches  long,  and  as 
large  as  the  little  finger;  other  common  and 
smaller  species  are  Z.  anatoniicus  and  L.  tra- 
2jezoides.  Whether  all  the  American  species 
are  distinct  or  not  has  not  been  suflSciently 
demonstrated ;  there  are  certainly  some  species 
described  peculiar  to  this  country,  but  proba- 
bly the  L.  terrestris  is  common  to  both  hemi- 
spheres. The  history  and  habits  of  this  com- 
monest of  animals,  trodden  tinder  foot  by  every- 
body, show  how  creatures  apparently  the  best 
known  may  give  rise  to  the  most  contradictory 
opinions  among  naturalists,  and  how  a  com- 
plete study  of  the  most  insignificant  worm  may 
illustrate  some  of  the  highest  problems  of  ani- 
mal xjhysiology. — Those  who  wish  to  pursue  this 
subject  into  its  details  are  referred  to  the  writ- 
ings of  Dufour,  Duges,  Milne-Edwards,  Blanch- 
ard,  and  especially  Quatrefages  in  the  Annales 
dcs  sciences  iiaturelles  since  1828 ;  to  the  article 
"  Annelids,"  in  the  "  Cycloptedia  of  Anatomy 
and  Physiology ;"  to  the  report  of  Dr.  Williams, 
above  quoted  ;  and  to  Siebold's  "  Comparative 
Anatomy,"  with  its  ample  references  to  the 
best  works. 

EARTHENWARE.     See  Potteey. 

EARTHQUAKE.  In  every  part  of  the  world 
the  surface  is  subject  to  be  shaken  at  times 
by  movements  taking  place  in  the  interior  and 
transmitted  somewhat  like  a  wave  to  distant 
regions.  No  country  escapes  these  visitations, 
but  in  volcanic  districts  they  occur  more  fre- 
quently than  elsewhere ;  and  commencing  in 
these,  they  have  been  known  to  pass  beneath 
sea  and  land,  from  one  hemisphere  to  another, 
till  full  \  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  globe  has 
been  more  or  less  disturbed  by  the  movement. 
Such  was  the  great  earthquake  of  the  year  1755, 
known  as  that  of  Lisbon,  which  will  be  described 
below.  Some  countries  are  so  subject  to  these 
disturbances  that  the  habitations  of  the  peo- 
ple are  built  low,  with  broad  bases  and  sub- 
stantial walls,  with  particular  reference  to  their 
stability  against  the  shocks.  Tliis  is  the  case 
throughout  Central  America,  and  in  Chili,  Peru, 
&c.  Taking  into  account  the  whole  surface  of 
the  earth,  there  is  probably  not  a  da}  that  passes 
without  the  occurrence  somewhere  of  a  sensible 
disturbance  of  this  kind,  and  hardly  a  month 


EARTHQUAKE 


r2i 


■without  one  or  more  ■vvortLy  of  note.  The  same 
countries  have  continued  to  be  frequently  visited 
by  eartliquakes  from  remote  j)eriuds.  Calabria, 
the  southern  extremity  of  Italy,  has  been  re- 
peatedly devastated  since  its  early  settlement 
by  the  Greek  colonists,  and,  together  with  the 
neighboring  island  of  Sicily,  has  been  the  scene 
of  some  of  the  most  terrible  earthquakes  on 
record.  From  Feb.  1YS3,  to  tlie  end  of  the  year 
1786,  a  period  of  nearly  4  years,  this  country 
was  almost  constantly  disturbed.  JSTo  fewer  than 
949  shocks  were  experienced  in  the  first  of  these 
years,  of  which  501  were  shocks  of  the  first  de- 
gree of  force.  Lyell  observes  that  these  convul- 
eions  were  not  remarkable  above  many  others 
for  their  duration,  violence,  or  extent,  but  great 
importance  is  given  to  them  from  the  minute- 
ness of  the  observations  of  men  competent  to 
collect  and  describe  with  accuracy  the  physical 
facts  which  throw  light  on  geological  questions. 
The  details  that  have  been  recorded  of  the 
earthquakes  in  the  countries  bord,eriug  on  the 
Mediterranean  would  make  this  region  appear 
more  subject  to  them  than  any  other  part  of  the 
globe  ;  but  had  any  other  volcanic  region  been 
settled  during  the  same  periods  by  a  population 
of  the  same  degree  of  civilization,  it  is  probable 
that  the  records  of  the  two  would  not  have  ma- 
terially differed  in  this  respect.  Among  the  ear- 
liest accounts  of  earthquakes  of  particular  inter- 
est is  that  Avhich  resulted  in  the  destruction  of 
llerculaneum  and  Pompeii  in  the  year  G3,  which 
was  16  years  previous  to  the  time  when  those 
cities  were  buried  in  the  ashes  from  Vesuvius. 
The  ancient  city  of  Antioch  in  Syria  was  almost 
destroyed  in  the  year  115,  at  the  time  of  the 
visit  of  the  emperor  Trajan,  who  was  himself 
hurt.  In  458  it  Avas  again  visited  by  an  earth- 
quake, and  in  526  occurred  the  most  disastrous 
one  of  which  any  record  has  been  pi-eserved. 
Gibbon  states  that  250,000  persons  are  said  to 
have  perished  at  this  time,  a  conflux  of  stran- 
gers to  the  festival  of  the  Ascension  swelling 
the  multitudes  belonging  to  the  city.  "  His- 
tory," he  remarks,  "  will  distinguish  the  pe- 
riods in  which  these  calamitous  events  have 
been  rare  or  frequent,  and  will  observe  that 
this  fever  of  the  earth  raged  with  imcommon 
violence  during  the  reign  of  Justinian.  Each 
year  is  marked  by  the  repetition  of  earthquakes 
of  such  duration  that  Constantinople  has  been 
shaken  above  40  days ;  of  such  extent  that  the 
shock  has  been  communicated  to  the  whole 
surface  of  the  globe,  or  at  least  of  the  Roman 
empire." — The  approach  of  earthquakes  is  her- 
alded by  several  premonitory  symptoms  of  an 
unmistakable  character.  The  air  appears  to  be 
afiected  in  some  respect,  perhaps  in  its  electric 
condition,  and  the  brute  animals  show  a  sensi- 
tiveness to  this  by  uttering  cries  of  distress  and 
running  wildly  about.  Men  sometimes  are  af- 
fected with  dizziness,  and  a  sensation  like  sea- 
sickness. The  atmosphere  is  often  hazy  for 
months,  and  the  sun  seen  through  it  appears  red 
and  fiery.  The  weather  suddenly  changes  from 
fierce  gusts  of  wind  to  dead  calms,  and  raias 
VOL.  ^^. — 46 


pour  down  in  torrents  at  times,  or  in  places  in 
which  they  are  usually  of  rare  occurrence.  Im- 
mediately before  the  shocks  occur,  the  air  is 
generally  very  still,  while  the  surface  of  the 
ocean  or  lakes  is  unusually  disturbed.  A  sound 
then  breaks  upon  the  stillness  like  distant  thun- 
der, or  like  a  carriage  rumbling  afar  off  upon  a 
rough  pavement ;  or  it  may  break  at  once  with 
an  awful  explosion,  as  when  the  peal  and  the 
flash  come  together  from  every  part  of  the 
cloud  in  whicli  one  is  enveloped ;  at  the  same 
time  the  ground  is  shaken  and  lifted  upward,  or 
thrown  forward,  as  by  the  passage  of  an  irre- 
sistible wave  beneath  it.  The  shocks  may  bo 
repeated  several  times  in  quick  succession,  or 
recur  after  long  intervals  ;  the  movements  may 
be  so  great  as  to  rend  the  surface  into  chasms, 
and  these  may  open  and  shut  again,  or  remain  in 
fissures  of  the  width  of  a  few  feet  or  yards,  and 
extending  to  unknown  depths;  smoke  and  flames 
are  occasionally  sent  forth  from  them  during  the 
continuance  of  the  earthquake,  even  if  the  re- 
gion be  not  volcanic.  Torrents  of  water  are 
ejected  from  these  chasms,  and  springs  of  water 
are  often  forced  by  the  convulsion  into  new  out- 
lets and  directions.  Objects  upon  the  surface,  as 
dwellings,  trees,  and  animals,  are  engulfed  in 
the  chasms ;  and  by  subsidence  of  the  surface, 
large  trees,  mountains  even,  and  whole  cities  are 
swallowed  up.  Occurring  as  they  most  frequently 
do  along  the  seaboard,  the  water  is  observed  com- 
monly to  retire  to  some  distance,  leaving  the  har- 
bors dry,  and  then  to  retui-n  in  a  great  wave  of 
many  feet  in  height,  which  sweeps  every  thing 
before  it.  This  may  occur  by  the  progress  of 
the  great  wave,  the  recession  being  occasioned 
in  the  same  way  as  the  similar  movement  upon 
a  small  scale  noticed  along  the  shore  as  a  steam- 
boat approaches  it,  the  water  first  receding,  and 
then  returning  in  a  great  wave  ;  or  it  may  be 
owing  to  a  tract  being  uplifted  in  the  sea  at 
some  distance,  toward  which  the  waters  would 
first  be  drawn  from  every  direction,  and  imme- 
diately after  be  propelled  back  with  redoubled 
force. — Of  all  the  calamities  to  which  man  is 
exposed,  there  are  none  of  so  fearful  a  character 
as  earthquakes ;  none  involve  such  terrible  and 
devastating  destruction  to  life  and  property. 
There  are  none  of  the  approach  of  which  he 
is  less  forewarned,  and  none  against  which  he 
can  take  fewer  precautions.  The  very  myste- 
riousness  of  the  danger  oppresses  him  with  ter- 
ror. He  is  ignorant  in  what  form  it  is  most 
imminent,  or  in  what  direction  to  seek  a  way 
of  escape.  Of  modem  earthquakes,  that  of 
Lisbon,  in  1755,  and  that  of  New  Madrid,  Mo., 
in  1811,  present  some  of  the  most  interesting 
details.  That  of  Chili,  in  1822,  is  interesting 
for  the  permanent  elevation  of  the  country  be- 
tween the  Andes  and  the  coast  which  attended 
it.  The  area  thus  raised  has  been  estimated  to 
equal  fully  100,000  square  miles,  and  the  height 
of  the  elevation  to  vary  from  2  to  7  feet.  Lines 
of  sea  beaches  at  higher  levels  and  further  in- 
land indicate  the  previous  lifting  up  of  the  same 
region  at  different  times  along  the  same  lines. 


722 


EARTHQUAKE 


A  depression  of  the  land  was  occasioned  in  the 
island  of  Jamaica  in  1G92,  Avlien  Port  Koyal,  the 
capital,  was  carried  down,  with  the  greater  part 
of  the  buildings  in  the  city,  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  water.  A  thousand  acres  or  more  thus 
sank  in  less  than  one  minute,  the  sea  rolling  in 
and  driving  the  vessels  in  the  harbor  over  the 
tops  of  the  houses.  A  similar  catastrophe  oc- 
curred on  a  much  more  gigantic  scale  in  the 
island  of  Java  in  1Y72,  when  Papandayang,  then 
one  of  the  loftiest  of  the  volcanoes  of  this  region, 
was  in  action  ;  an  area  suddenly  sank  down, 
including  the  mountain  of  15  m.  long  and  6 
m.  broad,  carrying  with  it  40  villages,  and  de- 
stroying 2,957  of  the  inhabitants.  The  great 
earthquake  of  Lisbon  commenced  on  Kov.  1, 
1755.  The  rumbling  sound  below  the  sur- 
face was  immediately  followed  by  the  shock, 
■which  threw  down  the  principal  portion  of  the 
city.  In  the  short  space  of  6  minutes  it  is  be- 
lieved that  60,000  persons  perished.  The  sea 
retired,  leaving  the  bar  dry,  and  returned  in 
a  great  wave  50  feet  or  more  in  height.  The 
mountains  around  were  shaken  with  great  vio- 
lence, and  were  even  rent  and  thrown  in  frag- 
ments into  the  valleys  below.  Multitudes  of 
people  sought  safety  from  the  falling  buildings 
by  crowding  upon  the  marble  quay,  which  bad 
just  been  constructed  at  great  expense.  It  sud- 
denly sank  with  them  like  a  ship  foundering  at 
sea;  but  when  the  waters  closed  over  the  place  no 
fragments  of  the  wreck,  none  of  the  boats  and 
vessels  near  by  that  were  drawn  into  the  whirl- 
pool, and  not  one  of  the  thousands  of  bodies  car- 
ried down,  reappeared  upon  the  surface.  Over 
the  spot  the  water  stood  600  feet  deep ;  and  be- 
neath this,  locked  in  the  fissured  rocks,  in  chasms 
of  unknown  depth,  lie  the  relics  of  what  was 
the  life  and  wealth  of  this  portion  of  the  earth's 
surface  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century. 
These  rocks  are  the  clayey  and  other  compara- 
tively soft  strata  of  the  tertiary  formation. 
"When  in  some  future  epoch  they  are  raised 
again  to  the  surface  by  a  convulsion  of  the  same 
nature  with  that  which  engulfed  them,  the 
vestiges  they  contain  may  reappear,  converted 
in  part  or  wholly  into  stone,  like  fossils  en- 
tombed when  the  strata  were  deposited.  The 
portion  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  that  was 
shaken  by  this  earthquake  was  estimated  by 
Humboldt  as  equal  to  4  times  the  extent  of  Eu- 
rope. The  shock  was  felt  in  the  Alps  and  on 
tlie  coast  of  Sweden.  In  Germany  the  thermal 
springs  of  Toplitz  disappeared  for  a  time,  and 
again  burst  forth,  deluging  the  region  around 
with  ochre-stained  Avaters.  The  waters  of  the 
lakes  in  Scotland,  as  Loch  Lomond  especially, 
rose  suddenly  more  than  2  feet,  and  then  sub- 
sided below  their  usual  level.  On  the  shores 
of  Barbados,  Martinique,  and  Antigua,  the 
tide  suddenly  rose  20  feet,  and  the  sea  was 
of  inky  blackness.  Even  the  distant  waters 
of  Lake  Ontario  were  strangely  agitated,  and 
tlie  shock  was  sensibly  felt  along  the  coast  of 
^Massachusetts.  In  Deane's  "  History  of  Scit- 
uate"  it  is  stated  that  the  earth  was  seen  to 


wave  like  the  swellings  of  the  sea,  and  occa- 
sionally break  into  fissures.  This  lasted  for  15 
minutes,  during  which  chimneys  were  shaken 
down  and  houses  disjointed.  The  sea  roared 
with  the  unusual  commotion,  and  with  the 
rumbling  of  the  earth  the  noise  was  more  ap- 
palling than  that  of  the  loudest  thunder.  "Water 
spouts  burst  forth,  and  springs  ojjcned,  which 
continue  to  flow  to  this  day.  As  tlie  move- 
ment passed  beneath  the  ocean,  it  was  felt  by 
several  sliips,  the  impression  being  like  that 
produced  by  striking  upon  rocks.  Tlie  motion 
is  described  as  undulatory,  and  proceeding  at 
the  rate  of  about  20  m.  a  minute. — The  earth- 
quake of  New  Madrid,  below  St.  Louis,  on  the 
Mississippi,  in  1811,  is  the  most  important  that 
has  occurred  in  this  country  of  whicli  we  have 
any  record.  Humboldt  remarks  that  it  pre- 
sents one  of  the  few  examples  of  the  incessant 
quaking  of  the  ground  for  several  successive 
months,  far  from  any  volcano.  Over  an  extent 
of  country  300  ra,  in  length,  from  the  rnouth  of 
the  Ohio  to  that  of  the  St.  Francis,  the  ground 
rose  and  sank  in  great  undulations,  and  lakes 
"were  formed,  and  were  again  drained.  The  sur- 
face burst  open  in  fissures,  from  which  mud  and 
water  were  thrown  as  high  as  the  tops  of  the 
trees.  The  direction  of  these  fissures  was  gen- 
erally from  the  N.  E.  toward  the  S.  W.,  and  the 
inhabitants,  noticing  this,  felled  the  tallest  trees 
at  right  angles  to  this  line,  and  stationing  them- 
selves upon  them,  thus  escaped  being  engulfed. 
Flint,  the  geographer,  observed  hundreds  of 
these  chasms  7  years  after  this  catastrophe; 
and  Lyell,  who  visited  the  same  region  in 
1846,  noticed  many,  which  then  appeared  like 
artificial  trenches,  which  might  be  traced  for 
more  than  half  a  mile.  They  were  generally 
parallel,  and  varied,  according  to  his  measure- 
ments, from  10°  to  45°  "W.  of  N.  The  country 
is  still  called  the  "  sunk  country,"  and  its  ex- 
tent, along  the  "White  "Water  and  its  tributa- 
ries, is  70  to  80  m.  N.  and  S.,  and  30  m.  E.  and 
"W.  During  the  continuance  of  these  convul- 
sions the  inhabitants  distinguished  2  classes  of 
earthquakes,  those  in  which  the  movement  was 
vertical,  and  those  in  which  it  was  horizontal ; 
the  latter  were  regarded  as  far  more  desolating 
than  the  former.  They  continued  until  the  de- 
struction of  the  city  of  Caracas,  which  took 
place  March  26, 1812.  One  evening,  about  this 
time,  is  described  by  the  inhabitants  of  New 
Madrid  as  brilliant  and  cloudless,  during  which 
the  western  sky  was  a  continued  glare  of  vivid 
flashes  of  lightning,  and  peals  of  thunder  were 
incessantly  heard,  proceeding  apparently,  as  did 
the  flashes,  from  below  the  horizon.  In  the 
destruction  of  Caracas,  the  whole  city,  with  its 
splendid  churches,  was  in  an  instant  a  heap  of 
ruins,  under  which  about  12,000  of  its  inhabit- 
ants were  buried. — Fissures  are  occasionally  met 
with  in  diflferent  parts  of  the  country  which  ex- 
tend through  the  solid  rock  to  a  great  depth, 
and  which  were  without  doubt  produced  by 
earthquakes  of  some  unknown  period.  A  re- 
markable chasm  of  this  nature  may  be  followed 


EAKTHQUAKE 


723 


from  the  western  base  of  the  Shawangunk 
mountain  at  Ellonville,  in  Ulster  co.,  N.  Y.,  for 
about  a  mile  to  the  summit.  At  the  foot  one 
may  easily  step  across  the  fissure,  but  higher  up 
it  becomes  wider  till  the  hard  vertical  walls  of 
sandstone  are  se[jarated  by  a  gorge  several  feet 
wide  and  of  great  depth.  At  the  top  the  strata 
which  sloped  nearly  with  the  mountain  have 
curved  over  and  assumed  a  horizontal  position. 
An  area  of  a  hundred  acres  or  more  is  here  rent 
in  every  direction  ;  the  continuity  of  the  surface 
is  interrupted  by  sudden  steps  of  rock,  present- 
ing abrupt  walls,  wliile  the  gorge  traced  up  the 
mountain  has  spread  out  into  a  frightful  abyss, 
more  than  a  hundred  feet  wide.  Among  the  loose 
rocks  which  lie  upon  the  bottom,  trees  are  seen 
growing,  the  tops  of  which  hardly  reach  halfway 
to  the  edge  of  the  precipice. — Earthquakes  of  es- 
pecial interest,  from  their  late  occurrence  and 
destructive  effects,  are  those  of  1857  and  1858 
of  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  of  Mexico.  The 
former  commenced  Dec.  16, 1857,  and  continued 
at  intervals  through  the  early  part  of  January. 
In  the  city  of  Naples  repeated  shocks  Avere  felt, 
alarming  the  inhabitants,  who  often  rushed  from 
their  houses  into  the  streets,  many  fleeing  from 
the  city  altogether.  But  as  in  former  catastro- 
phes of  this  nature,  which  laid  waste  the  sur- 
rounding country,  the  city  itself,  though  more 
or  less  injured,  was  singularly  protected.  This 
is  supposed  to  be  owing  to  the  proximity  of 
Vesuvius,  which  contitmed  in  eruption,  dis- 
charging clouds  of  smoke,  accompauied  with 
terrific  explosions.  Resina  at  different  times 
was  in  a  continual  state  of  vibration  for  hours 
together,  the  shocks  appearing  to  procceed  from 
the  mountain.  But  the  chief  scene  of  destruc- 
tion was  in  the  provinces,  particularly  those  of 
Principato  Superiore  and  Basilicata.  Potenza, 
the  capital  of  the  latter,  was  left  without  a  sin- 
gle house  inhabitable.  Tito,  Marsico  Nuovo, 
Laurenzana,  Porienza,  Polio,  and  other  places, 
were  reduced  to  heaps  of  ruins.  The  loss  of 
lives  was  estimated  by  thousands ;  according  to 
some  statements  made  at  the  time,  from  22,000 
to  40,000.  The  late  earthquake  in  Mexico  oc- 
curred June  19,  1853,  It  extended  throughout 
the  valley  of  Mexico,  demolishing  many  houses 
in  the  city,  and  also  the  aqueduct  which  supplies 
the  city  with  water,  and  destroying  property  to 
the  value  of  several  millions  of  dollars.  It  was 
felt  with  more  or  less  destructive  effects  in  Gua- 
dalajara, Jalapa,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Toluca,  &c.  In 
the  city  of  Morelis,  the  shock  was  the  greatest 
ever  experienced  there,  lasting  1^  minutes ;  and 
in  Patzacuaro,  15  leagues  further  west,  it  was 
still  more  severe,  levelling  4  churches,  and  many 
private  houses.  The  city  of  Quito  in  Ecuador 
was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  an  earthquake, 
March  22,  1859,  and  many  thousand  lives  are 
said  to  have  been  lost.  Several  small  towns 
north  of  the  capital  were  destroyed  at  the 
same  time, — The  cause  which  produces  the 
earthquake  shock,  and  the  manner  in  which  it 
is  communicated  over  vast  distances  in  short 
time,  have  been  variously  explained.    Slight 


impulses  sometimes  produce  perceptible  move- 
ments in  what  appears  to  be  solid  and  fixed. 
Thus  at  Greenwich  observatory  the  shutting 
of  the  outer  gate  has  so  jarred  the  transit 
telescope  as  to  tlirow  the  star  to  which  it 
pointed  out  of  the  field  of  view.  The  eftect  of 
the  jarring  of  dams  by  the  fall  of  water  is  also 
felt  miles  off.  Various  agents  are  well  known 
to  be  at  work  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  pro- 
ducing clieniical  clianges,  which  are  often  at- 
tended with  violent  movements.  By  sucli  forces 
immense  columns  of  lava  are  lifted  up  in  the 
craters  of  volcanoes,  and  stones  of  vast  size  are 
ejected.  One  mass  of  rock  thrown  from  Coto- 
paxi,  a  distance  of  8  or  9  m.,  Avas  estimated  to 
contain  about  100  cubic  yards  of  matter,  conse- 
quently weighing  over  200  tons.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  many  of  the  gases  which  are  evolved 
from  volcanoes  may,  under  the  immense  pressure 
to  which  they  are  subjected  in  the  interior,  exist 
in  a  liquid  or  solid  form,  and  that  by  a  consider- 
able increase  of  heat  these  are  made  to  assume 
the  gaseous  form,  and  in  doing  this  display  an 
elastic  power  wliich  no  superincumbent  mass  can 
resist.  It  has  been  found  that  when  powder  is 
exploded  in  rocks  a  shock  is  communicated  to 
distances  varying  with  the  quantity  fired  and 
the  quality  of  the  rock  as  to  elasticity ;  and  the 
rate  of  progress  of  this  impulse  has  been  ob- 
served to  be  from  about  1,000  to  1,700  feet  per 
second.  Many  instances  have  been  recorded  of 
the  velocity  of  the  earthquake  shock,  ascertained 
by  noting  the  time  at  which  chronometers  at  dif- 
ferent localities  have  been  stopped  by  it,  and  this 
has  been  found  to  vary  from  1,000  to  5,000  feet 
per  second.  The  movement  in  both  these  cases  is 
no  doubt  of  analogous  character,  though  accom- 
panied in  the  earthquake  by  a  vastly  increased 
display  of  force.  Mr.  R.  Mallet,  who  has  re- 
counted these  and  other  observations  in  his  valu- 
able essay  on  the  dynamics  of  earthquakes,  defines 
their  efficient  cause  to  be  ''a  wave  of  elastic  com- 
pression, produced  either  by  the  sudden  flexure 
and  constraint  of  the  elastic  materials  forming  a 
portion  of  the  earth's  crust,  or  by  the  sudden  re- 
lief of  this  constraint  b}'  withdrawal  of  the  force, 
or  by  their  giving  way  and  becoming  fractured." 
When,  as  frequently  is  the  case,  the  shock 
originates  beneath  the  ocean,  its  effect  is  trans- 
mitted first  in  the  wave  of  sound,  which,  rush- 
ing forward  through  the  rocky  crust  of  the 
earth  at  the  rate  of  8,000  to  10,000  feet  per  sec- 
cond,  gives  notice  by  its  rumbling  of  the  vibrat- 
ing motion  that  is  following  behind.  The  great 
sea  wave  generated  by  the  same  movement, 
advances  still  more  slowly  than  the  vibration 
transmitted  through  the  rocky  strata,  but  at  last 
pours  in  upon  the  land,  its  eftects  modified  by 
the  contour  of  the  coasts  and  the  depth  of  the 
waters  through  which  it  has  passed.  Lastly 
may  come  the  atmospheric  agitation  and  the 
sound  of  the  outbreak,  transmitted  through 
the  air.  The  vibrating  movement  imparted 
to  the  solid  strata  is  the  chief  agency  in  the 
diasastrous  effects  of  earthquakes.  Its  rate  of 
progress  must  vary  with  the  varying  elasticity 


724 


EARWIG 


EAST 


of  the  rocks,  and  a  greatly  increased  shock 
must  consequently  bo  experienced  in  tlie  passage 
of  the  wave  fi'om  soft  alluvial  strata  into  the 
Lard  crystalline  rocks,  or  vice  'cersa.  It  was  on 
this  line  of  junction  of  the  2  formations  that 
the  most  disastrous  effects  were  experienced  in 
the  great  earthquake  in  Calabria  in  1783.  It  is 
by  such  an  elastic  wave,  moving  forward  and 
suddenly  back  again,  that  Mr.  Mallet  explains 
the  curious  effects  which  have  been  observed  in 
the  twisting  movement  given  to  the  blocks 
which  form  portions  of  columns,  as  if  the  upper 
Btoues  had  been  partially  turned  around  on  the 
lower.  Such  effects  were  noticed  by  Darwin 
in  the  cathedral  at  Concepcion,  and  others  of 
the  same  nature  are  described  as  having  occur- 
red to  2  obelisks  in  a  convent  in  Calabria.  The 
effect  has  also  been  referred  to  a  vorticose  or 
whirling  motion,  and  by  others  to  a  rotary 
movement  caused  by  the  crossing  of  2  waves 
of  horizontal  vibration.  The  Profs.  Rogers 
"  attribute  the  movement  to  an  actual  pulsation 
engendered  in  the  molten  matter  itself  by  a  lin- 
ear disruption  under  enormous  tension,  giving 
vent  explosively  to  elastic  vapors,  escaping 
cither  to  the  surface  or  iuto  cavernous  spaces 
beneadi."  By  others  the  movement  had  previ- 
ously been  ascribed  to.  elastic  vapors,  passing 
between  the  strata  or  between  the  crust  and  the 
fluid  lava  beneath  it. — For  further  details  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  work  of  Robert  Mallet, 
C.E.,  and  John  W.  Mallet,  professor  of  chem- 
istry in  the  university  of  Alabama,  published  in 
an  octavo  volume  in  1858.  It  contains  the 
able  papers  published  from  1852  to  1858  in  the 
"  Transactions"  of  the  British  association  for  the 
advancement  of  science ;  that  of  1858  reviewing 
the  facts  and  theories  of  earthquakes,  and  illus- 
trated by  several  fine  maps.  Mr.  Mallet  has 
also  collected  some  interesting  data  respecting 
the  disti'ibution  of  earthquakes,  having  compiled 
a  catalogue  embracing  nearly  6,000.  In  Guinea 
and  southern  Africa  no  earthquakes  are  record- 
ed. The  same  may  probably  be  said  of  Green- 
laud.  One  spot  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  near  the 
equator  and  about  midway  between  Guinea  and 
Brazil,  appears  to  be  peculiarly  subject  to  them. 
Vessels  passing  over  this  tract  almost  always 
experience  shocks,  and  the  soundings  are  found 
to  be  subject  to  sudden  and  extreme  variations, 
a  depth  of  400  fathoms  being  often  directly  suc- 
ceeded by  one  beyond  the  reach  of  tbe  sound- 
ing line.  It  is  naturally  inferred  that  this  may 
be  a  submarine  volcanic  region. 

EARTHS,  in  chemistry,  a  class  of  certain 
compounds  of  metallic  bases  and  oxygen,  which 
before  the  decomposition  of  some  of  them  by 
Sir  Humphry  Davy  were  regarded  as  elementary 
bodies.  The  earths  proper  are  alumina,  glucina, 
zirconia,  thoria,  didymia,  lantana,  ceria,  yttria, 
terbia,  erbia.  Silica,  formerly  regarded  as  an 
earth,  is  a  combination  of  silicon  with  oxygen, 
and  possesses  the  properties  of  an  acid.  The 
following  possess  alkaline  properties,  and  are 
classed  as  alkaline  earths :  baryta,  strontia, 
lime,  magnesia,  lithia.    Excepting  alumina,  the 


pure  earths  are  rarely  seen ;  they  are  insoluble 
in  water,  and  when  taken  up  by  acid  solvents 
are  precipitated  white  by  ammonia  or  soda. 

EARWIG,  an  orthopterous  insect,  of  the 
family  cnrsoria  or  runners,  which  also  includes 
the  cockroach ;  it  belongs  to  the  ^qwws  forjicula 
(Linn.).  All  the  6  feet  are  formed  for  running; 
the  wings  are  4,  the  upper  pair  very  short,  cori- 
aceous like  the  elytra  of  coleoptcra,  without 
veins,  enclosing  the  under  wings,  which  are 
folded  both  longitudinally  and  transversely ;  the 
mouth  is  formed  for  mastication ;  the  body  is 
long  and  somewhat  flattened,  and  armed  at  the 
hinder  end  with  a  pair  of  curved  blades  shutting 
like  scissors  or  nippers ;  there  are  3  joints  to  the 
tarsus  ;  the  antennte  are  filiform.  These  insects 
undergo  a  partial  metamorphosis.  They  seem  to 
form  tbe  connecting  link  between  coleoptera  and 
ortho2)te7-a,  resembling  the  former  in  their  elytra, 
and  the  latter  in  the  shape  of  the  wings  and 
mouth,  and  the  metamorphosis;  for  these  reasons 
most  English  entomologists  adopt  for  them  the 
order  dermaptera  of  Mr  Kirby  and  Dr.  Leach, 
considering  them  coleoptera  with  the  metamor- 
phosis and  caudal  appendages  of  orthoptera. 
They  are  common  in  moist  earth,  under  stones, 
in  decayed  wood,  and  in  similar  damp  and  dark 
places ;  they  are  considered  in  Europe  injurious 
to  peacues,  pears,  apples,  to  greenhouse  plants, 
and  to  pinks,  dahlias,  and  other  favorites  of  the 
flower  garden.  The  full-grown  insect,  including 
its  caudal  forceps,  is  not  quite  an  inch  long,  and 
its  width  is  ^  of  an  inch  ;  the  color  is  light  brown. 
Being  nocturnal  insects,  they  creep  in  the  day- 
time into  any  crevice  or  hole  which  can  conceal 
them,  and  this  has  given  rise  to  the  popular 
belief  that  they  enter  the  human  ear ;  they 
might  attempt  this,  but  the  waxy  bitter  secre- 
tion of  the  ear  would  probably  prevent  their 
entrance ;  there  are  no  well  authenticated  in- 
stances of  their  doing  this,  and  no  harm  could 
result  if  they  did,  as  the  drum  of  the  ear  would 
arrest  them,  and  a  drop  or  two  of  oil  would  soon 
destroy  them  by  stopping  up  their  respiratory 
trachefe.  The  common  way  of  catching  them  in 
England  is  by  hanging  up  any  convenient  vessel 
or  tube  for  them  to  crawl  into  in  the  morning, 
from  which  they  are  shaken  and  killed.  In  the 
larvas  there  are  no  wings  nor  elytra,  but  the  skin 
is  changed  several  times  ;  the  nymph  differs  little 
from  the  perfect  insect ;  in  both  these  conditions 
they  are  voracious,  even  devouring  each  other. 
In  this  country  there  are  several  species,  rather 
uncommon,  and  never  injurious  to  vegetation. — 
The  many-footed  creeping  animal  erroneously 
called  earwig  in  America  (genus  iuliis),  is  not 
an  insect,  but  a  myriapodous  crustacean,  equally 
innocent  of  entering  the  human  ear. 

E  ASDALE,  or  Eisdale,  an  island  of  the  He- 
brides group,  about  1^  m.  long,  and  of  nearly 
the  same  width,  and  noted  for  its  slate  quarries, 
which  have  been  worked  150  years.  The  island 
consists  entirely  of  slate  stone,  and  has  been  so 
much  cut  away  that  a  large  paft  of  it  is  now 
even  with  or  below  the  level  of  the  sea. 

EAST  {Anglo-Saxon^  Fast;  the  corresponding 


EAST  FELICIANA 


EAST  INDIA  COMPANIES 


725 


word  in  many  other  languages  having  a  similar 
etymological  sigiiiticaacc;,  the  quarter  in  which 
the  heavenly  hodied  rise.  Due  east  is  the  direc- 
tion toward  the  east,  precisely  at  right  angles  to 
a  horizontal  meridian  line  ;  the  reverse  direction 
is  duo  west.  An  object  is  said  to  hear  due  east 
when  it  is  seen  exactly  in  this  direction ;  but  it 
is  said  to  be  due  east  when  it  is  on  the  same 
parallel  of  latitude  as  tl)e  observer,  i.  c,  when 
it  may  be  connected  with  the  observer  by  a  line 
every  point  of  which  runs  due  east  and  west. 
An  object  that  is  due  east  will  in  N.  latitudes 
hear  N,  of  E.,  unless  it  bo  very  near  the  ob- 
server, or  ho  be  very  near  the  equator,  for  in 
other  cases  the  parallel  of  latitude  curves  to  the 
north,  keeping  at  the  same  distance  from  the 
N.  pole.  A  column  of  smoke,  for  example,  over 
New  York  city,  could  it  be  seen  at  Nauvoo, 
would  bear  5|'  N.  of  E.,  and  smoke  rising  from 
Nauvoo  would  bear  from  New  York  op  N.  of 
W.  The  bearing  is  the  direction  in  which  a 
great  circle  from  the  observer  through  the  ob- 
ject stai'ts  from  the  observer;  while  the  course 
or  actual  direction  is  the  direction  of  a  line  to 
the  object  cutting  every  meridian  at  the  same 
angle.  Madagascar  is  in  a  S.  E.  direction  from 
New  York,  but  bears  due  east.  "  Bearing"  is 
sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  course  or  actual 
direction  instead  of  in  the  sense  here  given. 
East  is  a  different  direction  for  every  spot  on 
the  earth's  surface;  at  the  poles  there  is  no  east 
or  west;  nor  among  the  stars,  except  by  refer- 
ence to  the  nearest  part  of  the  earth's  surface. 

EAST  FELICIANA,  a  N.  E.  parish  of  Loui- 
siana, bordering  on  the  Mississippi  and  Amite 
rivers ;  area,  about  480  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855, 
14,101,  of  whom  10,266  were  slaves.  It  has  a 
moderately  uneven  surface,  and  the  soil  is  well 
■watered,  fertile,  and  easily  tilled.  There  are 
forests  of  pine,  oak,  and  bay,  and  extensive 
plantations  of  sugar  and  cotton.  In  1855  the 
productions  were  16,970  bales  of  cotton,  2,464 
hogsheads  of  sugar,  448,475  bushels  of  Indian 
corn,  and  3,857  barrels  of  molasses.  Value  of 
i-eal  estate,  $2,079,735.  The  parish  contains  a 
lunatic  asylum  and  a  college.    Capital,  Clinton. 

EAST  INDIA  COMPANIES.  The  estab- 
lishment of  direct  trade  with  the  Indies  was 
the  aim  of  all  the  most  enterprising  cities  and 
governments  of  early  Europe.  The  Italian  re- 
publics were  long  foremost  in  the  trade,  but 
they  never  entirely  overcame  the  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  secure  overland  passage ;  and  when 
the  Turks  were  established  in  Europe  and  Afri- 
ca by  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  and  Egypt, 
India  became  almost  a  closed  land  to  the  mer- 
chants of  western  Europe.  Thus  arose  the  ne- 
cessity for  a  new  channel  of  communication, 
less  liable  to  interruption.  Prince  John  of  Por- 
tugal was  foremost  among  the  rulers  who  en- 
couraged the  then  growing  spirit  of  maritime 
exploration.  A  new  way  to  the  Indies  was  the 
dream  of  the  day,  under  which  Columbus  discov- 
ered America,  while  Vasco  da  Gama  first  round- 
ed the  cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1497  and  reached 
the  Malabar  coast  in  1498.    While  the  Spaniards 


colonized  the  new  world,  the  Portuguese  estab- 
lished themselves  in  India,  and  fur  nearly  a  cen- 
tury, with  the  help  of  the  papal  bidls  in  their 
favor,  monopolized  the  trade,  supplying  all  Eu- 
rope with  spices,  silks,  and  Indian  produce,  and 
raising  their  country  to  the  pinnacle  of  its 
wealth  and  power.  When  in  1580  Philip  II. 
united  Portugal  to  Spain,  and  presently  began  his 
war  upon  England,  ho  closed  the  ports  of  his 
empire  against  British  vessels.  This  was  the  first 
blow  at  tlie  supremacy  of  Portuguese  coramerco 
in  the  East.  The  British  were  forced  to  get  their 
supplies  of  Indian  produce  from  the  Dutch,  who 
immediately  I'aised  the  price  of  pepper  by  200  per 
cent.  The  revolt  of  the  Netherlands,  and  con- 
sequent exclusion  of  Dutch  vessels  also  from  Ijs- 
hon,  till  then  the  great  European  depot  for  In- 
dian wares,  at  once  compelled  the  Dutch  to  seek 
a  direct  passage  to  India.  The  English  were  not 
slow  to  follow  their  example,  and  thus  during  the 
last  10  years  of  the  16th  century  was  laid  tho 
foundation  in  Holland  and  England  for  the  gi*eat 
commercial  corporations  known  to  history  as 
East  India  companies.  After  tlio  union  of  Spain 
and  Portugal,  the  Portuguese  East  India  com- 
merce, founded  in  1498  and  conducted  on  gov- 
ernment account,  was  managed  with  laxity  ;  aU 
kinds  of  corruption  grew  up  among  officers  and 
servants,  and  it  Avas  presently  found  that  the 
trade  was  a  losing  business  for  the  government. 
Hereupon  the  exclusive  privilege  of  commerce 
with  India  was  in  1587  granted  to  a  company 
of  Portuguese  merchants,  in  consideration  of 
the  annual  payment  of  a  stated  sum.  Attempt- 
ing to  enforce  its  riglits  in  India,  the  agents  of 
this  company  found  themselves  in  collision  with 
the  Portuguese  government  there,  which  was 
engaged  in  smuggling ;  they  found  the  Portu- 
guese hated  by  the  natives,  and  their  designs 
thwarted  wherever  possible  by  the  Arabs.  On 
the  breaking  out  of  the  war  between  England, 
Holland,  and  Spain,  which  struck  a  disastrous 
blow  at  the  India  trade,  the  Portuguese  company 
hecame  unable  to  pay  its  annual  tribute ;  and 
thenceforth  it  gradually  declined,  until  in  1 640  tho 
company  was  finally  abolished.  Since  that  timo 
the  unimportant  commerce  of  Portugal  witli  In- 
dia has  been  carried  on  by  the  crown ;  though  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  was  made  in  1731  to  estab- 
lish another  company. — The  Dutch,  driven  from 
the  southern  passage,  monopolized  by  the  Por- 
tuguese, made  three  unsuccessful  attempts  at  tho 
opening  of  a  way  by  the  ocean  which  bounds 
Europe  on  the  north.  A  north-east  passage  was 
never  discovered,  and  the  wars  turned  south- 
ward the  attention  of  the  Dutch.  A  "  Company 
for  Remote  Parts"  was  formed  at  Amsterdam,  and 
on  April  2, 1595,  8  years  after  the  establishment 
of  the  new  Portuguese  company,  4  small  vessels, 
equipped  with  a  capital  of  70,000  guilders,  sailed 
from  the  Texel  under  the  command  of  Cornelius 
Houtmann,  bound  around  the  cape  of  Good 
Hope.  Houtmann  had  been  a  prisoner,  wiiether 
among  the  Turks  or  the  Portuguese  is  uncer- 
tain, and  was  acquainted  with  the  Portuguese 
East  India  trade.   Several  other  companies,  start- 


726 


EAST  INDIA  COMPAOTES 


ed  ia  others  of  the  United  Provinces,  finally 
joined  that  of  Amsterdam,  and  in  March,  1602, 
they  received  a  charter  from  the  states-general 
conferring  on  them  the  exclusive  privilege  of 
trade  to  ttie  East  Indies  for  21  years^with  the 
necessary  civil  and  military  powers.  They 
began  Avith  a  capital  of  6,500,000  guilders;  6 
towns  were  interested  ;  65  directors,  chosen  in 
stated  numbers  from  each,  equipped  the  vessels  ; 
15  others  had  the  general  direction  of  affairs. 
They  were  so  successful  that  in  20  years  they 
divided  among  tTie  stockholders  the  large  sum 
of  30,000,000  guilders,  more  than  4  times  the 
amount  of  the  capital,  beside  owning  vast 
amounts  of  property  in  colonies,  fortifications, 
and  vessels.  The  charter  was  extended  to  1 644 ; 
Batavia  was  founded;  the  commerce  with  Japan, 
which  returned  silver  and  copper  for  commodi- 
ties, was  extended;  in  1641  Malacca,  capital  of 
the  then  neglected  Portuguese  East  India  pos- 
sessions, fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  by 
the  treachery  of  the  governor ;  and  from  84  to 
41  freighted  vessels  were  sent  out  annually,  of 
■which  from  25  to  34  returned  loaded.  Yet  so 
rapidly  did  the  English  and  French  commerce 
increase  during  these  years,  that  in  1644  the 
Dutch  East  India  company  could  scarce  com- 
mand the  1,600,000  guilders  required  as  a  sub- 
sidy to  the  government,  on  again  renewing  its 
charter  for  21  years.  The  peace  of  Westphalia, 
which  secured  the  independence  of  the  republic 
of  the  United  Provinces,  once  more  gave  the 
company  life.  Between  1650  and  1C70  they 
colonized  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  at  an  expense 
of  20,000,000  guilders.  In  1658  they  succeeded 
in  wresting  Ceylon  from  the  Portuguese;  and 
the  island  of  Formosa,  which  they  then  held, 
received  a  valuable  colony  of  30,000  expatriated 
Chinese,  who  brought  industry  and  wealth  with 
them.  In  1661  they  lost  Formosa — Koxiuga,  a 
Chinese  adventurer,  expelling  them  from  it.  In 
1663  they  took  possession  of  the  most  valuable 
Portuguese  settlements  on  the  Malabar  coast. 
In  1666,  after  a  prolonged  struggle,  tlijey  gained 
Macassar,  and  with  it  the  monopoly  of  the  spice 
trade.  In  1665  the  charter  was  with  much  op- 
position renewed  till  1700,  on  condition  of  the 
payment  of  a  large  sum.  At  this  time  the  civil 
and  military  expenses  of  the  company,  exclu- 
sive of  those  of  the  Macassar  war,  amounted  to 
3,500,000  guilders.  Their  report  showed  a  pro- 
digious extension  of  commerce  and  of  territory. 
They  held  the  principal  seats  of  commerce  in  Cey- 
lon, Sumatra,  -Java,  Borneo,  and  in  fact  through- 
out the  Indian  archipelago.  They  command- 
ed the  trade  with  Pegu,  Siara,  Tonquin,  Japan, 
the  Banda  and  Molucca  isles,  Amboyna,  &c. 
Batavia  was  then  in  all  its  glory,  and  the  straits 
of  Sunda  on  which  it  is  situated  had  become, 
instead  of  those  of  Malacca,  the  channel  to  the 
further  Indies.  The  charter  was  renewed  in 
1701,  in  1741,  and  in  1776,  the  last  time  for  30 
years,  and  on  condition  of  paying  down  2,000,- 
000  guilders,  with  360,000  annually.  Turning 
their  hands  against  every  one  in  the  East,  and 
eeeking  by  oppression  of  natives,  exclusion  of 


Europeans,  and  the  forced  production  of  some 
spices  with  prohibition  of  the  cultivation  of 
others,  to  rule  the  markets  of  the  world  and 
to  extend  and  consolidate  their  dominion  and 
wealth,  the  company  was  yet  so  exhausted  by 
war  with  England  and  political  expenses,  that  in 
1781  the  states-general  were  obliged  to  assist  it 
with  a  loan.  In  the  first  French  revolution  it  lost 
nearly  all  its  possessions.  The  establishment  of 
the  Batavian  i-epublic,  Sept.  15,  1795,  terminated 
its  existence,  and  the  affairs  of  the  company 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  governmen  t.  xV  new 
company  was  established  in  1824,  called  the  Han- 
del Maatschapij  ov  tvadmg  iX)is,oc\dLi\ou.  This  com- 
pany is  the  agent  for  the  sale  of  the  government 
produce  in  Europe,  the  carrier  of  this  produce, 
and  farms  some  branches  of  tlie  public  revenue 
of  Java  and  the  other  Dutch  East  India  colonies. 
In  1851  this  company  sent  to  Europe  about  $20,- 
000,000  worth  of  produce,  while  the  amount  sent 
from  the  same  colonies  by  private  merchants 
was  only  about  $10,000,000.  The  Dutch  are 
still  noted  throughout  the  East  for  their  narrow 
policy,  and  their  extreme  severity  toward  the 
natives  whom  they  have  reduced  to  their  yoke. — 
A  French  East  India  company,  founded  in  1740, 
was  broken  up  in  1770.  A  Danish  East  India 
company  was  founded  in  1618,  dissolved  in  1634, 
reconstituted  in  1670,  and  again  dissolved  in 
1729.  A  new  company,  formed  in  1732  under 
the  name  of  the  Danish  Asiatic  company,  was 
prosperous  during  the  18th  century,  but  has 
since  declined,  especially  since  1845,  when  Den- 
mark ceded  Tranquebar  and  Serampore  to  Great 
Britain.  A  Swedish  Indiacompany,  established 
in  Gottenburg  toward  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century,  and  renewed  in  1806,  is  still  in  exist- 
ence; its  operations,  however,  are  inconsiderable. 
— The  English  endeavored  to  open  commercial 
intercourse  with  India  as  early  as  1553,  during 
the  reign  of  Edward  A^I. ;  but  their  expeditions 
sent  out  overland  failed  of  reaching  their  des- 
tination, from  want  of  geographical  knowledge. 
The  next  attempts  were  made  by  sea,  the  belief 
being  that  a  north-west  passage  about  the  upper 
part  of  the  newly  discovered  American  conti- 
nent was  practicable,  and  that  this  would  give 
to  England  a  channel  to  the  Indies,  over  which 
the  pope  (who,  in  his  capacity  of  chief  of  Chris- 
tendom, had  granted  to  the  Portuguese  the  ex- 
clusive right  to  pass  round  the  cape  of  Good 
Hope,  a  right  which  was  long  respected)  would 
have  no  control,  and  which  would  enable  them 
to  compete  successfully  with  the  Portuguese. 
John  Cabot,  looking  for  India  in  1497,  had  dis- 
covered Newfoundland.  In  1553  his  son  Sebas- 
tian took  charge  of  3  vessels,  to  discover  a  north- 
east passage  to  India.  This  was  sent  out  by  a 
company  chartered  by  Edward  VI.  with  a  cap- 
ital of  £6,000.  In  1581  the  English  Turkish 
company  endeavored,  but  without  success,  to 
pass  overland  to  India.  Meantime  the  desire  for 
Indian  wealth,  the  arbitrary  closing  of  tho 
Portuguese  markets  against  British  and  Dutch, 
and  the  impossibility  of  going  to  India  by  the 
north,  all  conspired  to  make  the  British  mer- 


EAST  INDIA  COMPANIES 


727 


chants  lose  respect  for  the  pope's  bull  and  its 
prescribed  boundaries,  aud  to  set  out  for  India 
by  tlie  forbidden  route.  On  Sept.  22,  1509,  a 
company  of  London  niercliauts  was  formed, 
representing  a  capital  of  £30,133,  -which  re- 
ceived a  charter  from  Queen  Elizabeth,  Dec.  31, 
1600,  under  the  title  of  the  "  Governor  and 
Company  of  Merchants  of  London  trading  with 
the  East  Indies."  The  charter  was  for  15  years, 
and  granted  the  exclusive  right  of  trading  to  all 
countries  from  the  cape  of  Good  Hope  cast- 
ward  to  the  straits  of  Magellan,  excepting  those 
which  were  possessed  by  friendly  European 
powers.  The  first  Englishman  who  sailed  to 
India  by  way  of  the  cape  of  Good  Hope  was 
a  Capt.  Stephens,  in  1582.  Sir  Francis  Drake 
and  Thomas  Cavendisli  followed  by  way  of  Cape 
Il9rn.  The  latter  sailed  from  England  in  July, 
1586,  in  a  small  squadron  fitted  at  his  own  ex- 
pense, explored  all  the  Indian  ocean  as  far  as 
the  Philippines,  and  returned  with  a  valuable 
stock  of  information  in  Sept.  1588.  Two  large 
Portuguese  carracks  laden  witli  all  the  riches  of 
the  ludies  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Englisli 
about  1593,  and,  beside  rousing  the  cupidity  and 
enterprise  of  their  captors,  were  found  to  pos- 
sess documents  and  charts  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance to  the  merchants  shortly  to  adventure 
a  trading  expedition  into  unknown  parts.  These 
circumstances  facilitated  the  formation  of  the 
company,  of  which  Thomas  Sraythe,  Esq.,  was 
the  first  governor,  assisted  by  24  directors 
named  in  the  cliarter.  The  charter  empowered 
them  to  elect  a  governor  and  directors  and  other 
ofiice-bearers ;  to  make  by-laws  for  their  gov- 
ernment; to  inflict  punishments,  corporal  or 
pecuniary,  on  those  in  their  emi)loy,  provided 
such  punishments  be  within  the  laws  of  Great 
Britain ;  to  export  all  goods  duty  free  for  4  years, 
and  to  export  foreign  coins  as  bullion  to  the 
amount  of  £30,000  a  year,  £6,000  of  the  same 
being  previously  recoined  at  the  mint ;  Avith  the 
proviso,  however,  that  they  must  import  within 
6  months  from  the  conclusion  of  every  voyage 
after  the  first  an  amount  of  specie  equal  to  that 
before  exported.  It  was  also  provided  that 
should  the  company  not  be  found  to  the  pub- 
lic advantage,  its  charter  might  be  cancelled 
after  2  years'  notice  given.  There  does  not 
seem,  after  all,  to  have  been  very  great  zeal  in 
fitting  out  vessels.  Many  of  the  stockholders 
did  not  pay  up,  and  until  1613  but  a  small  part 
of  them  united  at  all  in  the  speculation,  and 
these  each  on  his  own  account,  only  using  the 
ships  of  the  company,  and  conforming  to  cer- 
tain other  regulations.  The  first  expedition  to 
India  sailed  under  command  of  Capt.  Lancaster, 
Feb.  15,  1601,  from  Torbay.  It  consisted  of  5 
ehips,  varying  in  size  from  130  to  600  tons,  hav- 
ing a  cargo  of  bullion,  iron,  tin,  brqadcloths, 
cutlery,  glass,  &c.  The  entire  venture,  ships 
and  all,  was  valued  at  £69,091.  It  arrived  at 
Acheen,  Sumatra.  .June  5,  1602.  Lancaster  made 
treaties  with  the  kings  of  Acheen  and  Bantam, 
and  returned  to  the  Downs,  Sept.  11,  1603,  with 
a  cargo  of  pepper  and  other  produce,  and  a 


prize — a  riclily  laden  Portugnese  carrack  of  980 
tons  burden,  taken  with  tlie  aid  of  a  Dutch  ves- 
sel. For  several  years  the  expeditions  were  not 
increased  in  size  or  value,  but  were  generally 
fortunate  in  their  results.  The  profits  for  the 
first  8  years  were  stated  at  171  per  cent. ;  but 
when  it  is  roniumbered  that  a  voyage  lasted  from 
2^  to  4  years,  that  long  credits  were  given  for 
goods  sold,  and  that  consequently  it  was  often 
G  to  8  years  from  the  beginning  of  a  voyage  ero 
its  accounts  were  settled,  the  profits  were  not  so 
enormous  as  they  locjk;  and  taking  into  consid- 
eration the  real  and  the  fancied  risks,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  the  business  of  the  company  did 
not  more  rapidly  enhirge.  The  profits  of  the  trade 
with  the  islands  were  never  very  satisfactory, 
however.  In  1607  Capt.  Hawkins  was  sent  out 
to  endeavor  to  establish  commercial  intercourse 
with  the  dominions  of  the  Great  Mogul.  His 
mission  proved  of  no  avail,  the  Portuguese  in^ 
triguing  successfully  against  him.  In  1612  Capt. 
Beal  obtained  from  the  court  at  Delhi  several 
considerable  privileges,  among  which  was  that 
of  establisliing  a  factory  at  Surat,  which  city 
became  at  once  the  chief  British  station  in  In- 
dia, until  the  organization  of  Bombay.  Fac- 
tories were  depots  for  goods,  fortified,  in  order 
to  protect  the  lives  aud  property  of  resident 
representatives  of  the  company.  They  invari- 
ably proved  the  entering  wedges  for  territorial 
aggrandizement  on  the  part  of  the  Europeans. 
In  1613  the  capital  of  the  company  was  united; 
the  largest  stockholders  took  the  management 
of  aftairs,  and  these  were  so  prosperous  that  in 
the  course  of  4  years  the  sliares  of  the  company 
rose  to  the  value  of  203  per  cent.,  while  its  fac- 
tories were  extended  to  Java,  Sumati-a,  Bor- 
neo, the  Banda  islands,  Celebes,  Malacca,  Siam, 
the  Coromandel  and  Malabar  coasts,  but  chiefly 
to  the  dominions  of  the  Great  Mogul,  whose 
favor  the  company  had  secured,  after  divers 
fruitless  attempts.  From  the  beginning  of  the 
company's  trade  to  July,  1620,  they  had  sent 
79  ships  to  India,  of  which  34  had  come  safely 
home  riclily  laden,  4  had  been  worn  out  in  In- 
dia, and  20  had  been  lost — 2  by  careening,  6  by 
sea  perils,  and  12  captured  by  the  Dutch.  At 
that  time  (1620)  the  capital  of  the  company  in 
ships,  goods  in  India,  &c.,  amounted  to  £400,- 
000 ;  they  had  exported  from  England  to  India 
the  value  of  £840,376  ;  had  imported  what  cost 
£356,288  in  India,  which  brought  no  less  than 
£1,914,000  in  England;  and  finally  quarrels 
with  the  Dutch,  their  most  energetic  rivals,  had 
occasioned  losses  to  the  amount  of  £84,088.  In 
1616  a  new  stock  subscription  had  been  opened, 
aud  £1,629,040  was  raised.  But  in  1627  com- 
plaints were  made  of  abuses  and  bad  manage- 
ment in  the  company ;  during  the  reign  of  the 
Stuarts  there  was  much  murmuring  against  the 
monopoly,  and  Charles  I.  in  1635  gave  to  Sir 
"William  Courten  and  several  private  individuals- 
the  right  to  trade  to  India.  In  1645  permission, 
was  given  by  the  natives  to  the  company  to 
build  Fort  St.  George  at  Madras.  In  1655 
Cromwell  attempted,  but  vainly  to  make  the- 


EAST  INDIA  COMPANIES 


East  India  trade  free.  In  1657  he  renewed  the 
company's  charter,  ^vhich  was  confirmed  by 
Charles  II.  in  IGGl,  who  at  the  same  time  con- 
ferred on  them  the  further  powers  to  mako 
peace  or  war  with  any  power  not  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion ;  to  establish  fortifications,  garri- 
sons, and  colonies ;  to  export  ammunition  and 
stores  to  their  settlements  duty  free  ;  to  exer- 
cise civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  in  their  set- 
tlements according  to  English  law  ;  and  to  seize 
and  send  to  England  all  Englishmen  found  trad- 
ing on  their  private  account.  The  years  1GC7- 
'68  witnessed  the  beginning  of  the  tea  trade — a 
branch  of  commerce  which  in  a  very  few  years 
proved  to  be  of  vast  importance  to  the  company. 
In  16G9  the  island  of  Bombay  was  granted  to 
the  company  by  Charles  II.,  who  had  received 
it  as  part  of  the  marriage  portion  of  the  princess 
Catharine  of  Portugal ;  but  its  possession  was 
not  secured  without  along  struggle  between  the 
English  and  the  Portuguese  residents.  In  1670 
a  factory  was  established  on  the  banks  of  the 
Hoogly,  which  formed  the  foundation  of  Cal- 
cutta ;  and  other  factories  were  shortly  started 
in  Bengal.  In  1677  the  company  received  a 
renewal  of  its  charter,  with  indemnity  for  past 
misuses,  and  permission  to  establish  a  mint  at 
Bombay.  In  1681,  by  a  report  of  the  governor, 
the  company  liad  35  ships,  of  from  100  to  700 
tons,  trading  between  India  and  England,  or 
coastwise  in  India  ;  and  the  exports  from  Eng- 
land of  lead,  tin,  cloth,  stuffs,  &c.,  amounted 
to  from  £00,000  to  £70,000  a  year.  The  trade 
was  astonishingly  small ;  the  affairs  of  the  com- 
pany were  not  prosperous,  and  in  1688  doubts 
■were  thrown  npon  the  validity  of  its  charter 
by  the  numerous  interlopers  and  free  traders 
to  India.  I'n  1693,  after  a  heavy  struggle,  it 
received  a  renewal  of  its  charter.  In  1694  a 
vote  of  the  house  of  commons  threw  open  the 
trade  to  all  England.  In  1698  a  new  company 
received  a  charter  (conferring  much  the  same 
privileges  as  those  of  the  old  one),  for  the  con- 
sideration of  a  loan  of  £2,000,000  to  the  state. 
The  two  companies  could  not  live  independently, 
and  in  1702  they  Avere  united,  under  the  title  of 
*'The  United  Company  of  Merchants  trading  to 
the  East  Indies."  They  advanced  a  further  sum 
to  the  state,  making  in  all  a  loan  of  £3,200,000, 
at  3  per  cent.,  in  consideration  of  which  their 
charter  was  extended  until  tlie  expiration  of  a 
notice  of  3  years,  which  could  not  be  given 
sooner  than  March,  1726,  nor  until  the  money 
borrowed  by  government  should  be  repaid.  The 
act  ratifying  this  was  passed  in  1708.  By  it  the 
local  affairs  of  the  company  were  intrusted  to 
the  3  councils  of  Madras,  Bombay,  and  Calcutta, 
■while  the  general  direction  was  retained  in  Eng- 
land. Meanwhile,  in  1698  the  company  had 
■acquired  a  grant  of  Calcutta  and  two  adjoining 
■villages,  with  right  of  jurisdiction  over  the  in- 
habitants, and  leave  to  erect  fortifications,  which 
iras  immediately  done.  In  1701  an  act  prohib- 
ited tlie  importation  into  England  of  manufac- 
tured Indian  goods.  In  1715  an  embassy  to  the 
.emperor  Feroksere  obtained  from  him  various 


highly  important  concessions  for  the  company, 
among  which  were  liberty  for  them  to  purchase 
the  lordship  of  37  towns  contiguous  to  Calcutta, 
to  sue  and  have  given  up  to  them  all  persons  in 
Bengal  indebted  to  them,  and  leave  to  pa.*-s 
goods  for  exportation  duty  free  through   the 
province.     In  1732  the  renewal  of  the  charter 
was  obtained  with  much  difficulty.     In  1744 
the  company  bought  its  extension  to  1780  by  a 
loan  of  £1,000,000  at  3  per  cent.— The  political 
power  of  the  British  in  India  began  in  1748. 
The  acquisitions  of  the  company  were  inaugu- 
rated in  1749  by  its  exjiulsion  and  ultimate  pro- 
tection of  the  rajah  of  Tanjorc,  he  making  some 
concessions  of  territory  on  each  occasion  of  tha 
British  exercise  of  protection.     In  1757  they  de- 
posed Surajah  Dowlah,  nabob  of  Bengal,  gaining 
thereby  several  large  and  rich  provinces.  -  In 
1761  the  defeat  of  the  French  left  the  English 
free  to  pursue  their  schemes  of  aggrandizement 
in  India.     In  1792  Tippoo  Sahib  was  compelled 
by  Cornwallis  to  give  up  half  his  dominions,  and 
£3,500,000  in  bullion.     In  1799  Seringapatam 
was  taken,  Tippoo  slain,  and  some  more  terri- 
tory annexed.     Subsequently,  by  war  with  the 
Pindarees,  with  Burmah,  Nepaul,  the  Afghans, 
•&C.,  and  by  judicious  protection,  interference, 
and   annexation,   the    company  mastered   the 
whole   of  Hindostan,    with  small   exceptions. 
The  sudden  increase  of  territory  and  power  in 
India  threw  every  thing  into  confusion.     Cor- 
ruption reigned  everywhere.    The  revenues  fell 
short  of  expenses,  and  in  1772  the  company, 
notwithstanding  its  immense  possessions   and 
privileges,  was  obliged  to  raise  a  loan  of  £6,000- 
000  from  the  bank  of  England,  and  of  £1,400,- 
000  from*  government,  for  current  expenses.     In 
1773  reform  was  called  for,  but  only  incom- 
pletely effected.     In  1781  the  privileges  of  the 
company  were  extended  to  1791,  with  3  years' 
notice ;  the  dividend  on  its  stock  was  fixed  at 
8  per  cent. ;  £400,000  was  to  be  paid  as  an  an- 
nual subsidy  to  the  government,  and  f  of  the 
surplus  revenue  after  paying  the  subsidy  was  to 
go  to  the  government,  |  to  the  company's  iise. 
Yet  in  1780  the  East  India  trade  formed  only 
jV  part  of  the  entire  foreign  trade  of  the  em- 
pire.    In  1783  the  company  was  again  so  in- 
volved, on  account  of  wars,  &c.,  as  to  be  unable 
to  pay  the  subsidy.     In  the  same  year,  on  the 
proposition  of  Mr.  Pitt,  a  board  of  control  was 
appointed.     It  consisted  of  such  members  of  the 
British  privy  council  as  the  sovereign  of  Eng- 
land chose  to  appoint,  the  2  principal  secreta- 
ries of  state  and  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
being  3  of  tlie  members.      The  president  was 
usually  a  cabinet  minister.     The  salaries  of  the 
president,    paid    commissioner,    and   secretary 
were  paid  by  the  company.     In  1793  the  char- 
ter was  prolonged  to  1814.     From  that  date  the 
charter  was  again  prolonged  20  years,  but  the 
trade  to  India  was  substantially  thrown  open, 
though  the  monopoly   of  the   trade  to  China 
was  "continued,   and   did  not  cease  till  1834. 
Parliament  in  1833  granted  a  new  charter,  by 
which :  1,  the  company  ceased  to  be  a  trading 


EAST  INDIA  COMPANIES 


729 


association ;  2,  it  was  continuccl  in  the  govern- 
ment of  India  for  20  years,  tliat  is,  until  April, 
1854,  subject,  however,  to  the  authority  of  the 
board  of  control ;  3,  India  was  thrown  opeu  to 
the  independent  enterprise  of  British  subjects ; 

4,  all  the  property,  real  and  personal,  in  pos- 
session of  the  company  on  April  22,  1834,  was 
vested  in  the  crown,  and  was  to  be  held  and 
managed  by  the  comi)any,  in  trust  for  the  crown ; 
the  stockholders  were  assured  by  government 
an  annual  dividend  of  lOJ^  percent,  on  the  stock; 

5,  of  the  treasure  of  the  coin])any,  valued  in 

1834  at  £21,103,000,  £2,000,000  was  formed 
into  a  sinking  fund,  with  the  jiroceeds  of  which, 
in  or  after  1874,  to  buy  out  the  stockholders  at 
200  per  cent,  valuation ;  £8,423,000  was  con- 
sumed in  the  payment  of  the  company's  debts, 
and  the  balance  was  appropriated  to  various  im- 
provements in  India;  6,  the  stock  might  be  bought 
in  by  parliament  at  the  rate  of  £200  for  £100,  any 
time  after  1874,  with  the  further  condition  that 
if  at  any  time  after  1854  the  company  were 
deprived  by  parliament  of  the  government  of 
India,  stockholders  may  demand  of  parliament 
to  purchase  their  stock,  after  3  years'  notice 
given.  When,  in  1854,  the  last  charter  of  the 
company  expired,  it  was  determined  by  agt  of 
parliament  to  renew  it,  but  not  for  any  given 
time.— The  capital  stock,  originally  £2,000,000, 
had  been  increased  at  various  times,  till  in  1793 
it  amounted  to  the  sum  of  £0,000,000.  At  this 
it  remained  by  law.     This  stock  was  owned  in 

1835  by  3,579  persons.  As  it  was  marketable, 
of  course  tlie  number  of  stockholders  continually 
changed.  The  ownership  of  stock  to  the  amount 
of  £1,000  (worth  in  1835  £2,540)  gave  the  priv- 
ilege of  one  vote  at  the  stockholders'  meet- 
ings. The  owner  of  £3,000  had  two  votes,  of 
£6,000  three,  of  £10,000  and  over,  four.  Women 
as  well  as  men,  and  foreigners  as  well  as  Britons, 
if  owning  the  requisite  amount  of  stock,  and 
present  in  London  in  person  or  by  prosy,  had 
the  privilege  of  debating  and  voting.  Stock 
must,  however,  have  been  held  12  months  be- 
fore the  owner  was  entitled  to  a  vote.  In  1852 
there  were  2,583  voters,  of  whom  372  were  wo- 
men, 20  were  peers  of  the  realm,  10  members 
of  parliament,  50  ex-directors,  86  clergymen,  19 
physicians,  222  army  officers,  and  28  naval 
officers.  Before  1836  the  majority  of  the  stock- 
holders were  merchants  and  bankers.  The 
changes  in  the  constitution,  which  extinguished 
the  company  as  a  trading  association,  caused  a 
material  lessening  of  the  number  of  merchant 
stockholders.  The  stockholders  met  quarterly, 
in  March,  June,  September,  and  December. 
Those  owning  £500  and  upward  of  stock  were 
permitted  to  be  present.  In  1835,  53  members 
bad  4  votes,  54  had  3,  347  had  2,  1,454  had  1 ; 
221,  owning  £500  each,  were  present  without 
voting,  and  396,  owning  smaller  amounts,  had 
no  sJiare  whatever  in  tlie  government.  Special 
meetings  could  be  called  at  any  time  at  the  in- 
stance of  9  holders  of  £1,000  each.  Should  the 
court  of  directors  refuse  to  call  a  meeting  after 
10  days,  the  9  stockholders  took  the  matter  in 


their  own  hands,  and  posted  the  call  upon  the 
])illars  of  the  royal  exchange.  Voting  was  viva 
voce;  the  ojjen  ballot  might,  however,  be  called 
for  by  any  9  of  the  voting  stockholders.  The 
attendance  was  generally  small,  and  in  many 
important  cases  the  directors,  who  were  always 
present,  had  matters  all  their  own  waj'.  Thus 
in  1854,  a  ^Ir.  Levin  brought  before  the  stock- 
holders' meeting  the  case  of  a  judge  in  the  Soodra 
court  of  Bombay,  who  had  been  dismissed  by 
the  court  of  directors.  The  question  on  rein- 
stating the  judge  came  up ;  19  stockholders  and 
1  director  were  in  favor  of  reinstatement,  but  9 
stockholders  and  15  directors  Avere  against  it, 
and  the  appeal  fell  to  the  ground.  Thus  the 
court  of  directors  actually  decided  upon  an  ap- 
peal from  themselves.  A  similar  case  occurred 
in  1856,  when  tlie  same  Mr.  Levin  opposed,  in 
general  meeting,  the  directors'  donation  of 
£5,000  to  the  marquis  of  Dalhousie.  The  court 
of  directors  was  originally  composed  of  24  stock- 
holders, qualified  by  the  ownership  of  at  least 
£2,000  of  stock.  Sliould  a  director  sell  out  his 
stock,  he  ceased  to  hold  office.  Six  were  elected 
each  year  to  serve  for  4  years.  After  12  months 
out  of  office  members  were  eligible  to  reelection. 
Directors  must  be  British  subjects.  The  act 
of  1853  changed  the  number  and  component 
parts  of  the  court.  It  has  since  consisted  of  18 
members,  of  whom,  by  the  act,  12  are  elected 
by  the  stockholders,  and  6  are  cliosen  by  the 
crown  from  men  who  have  served  a  certain 
time  in  India.  A  third  of  each  part  go  out  of 
office  each  year,  but  may  be  immediately  re- 
appointed. In  1834  the  court  consisted  of  10 
former  civil  officers  of  the  company,  4  army  and 
4  navy  officers,  3  India  merchants,  and  9  bankers. 
Since  then  the  number  of  London  bankers  has 
decreased,  while  the  number  of  company  men 
has  increased.  At  that  time  (1835)  2  of  tho 
directors  had  held  office  30  years,  2  between 
20  and  30  years,  11  between  10  and  20,  and 
15  under  10  years.  The  directors  choose  an- 
nually from  among  themselves  a  chairman 
and  deputy  chairman,  to  serve  one  year  each. 
The  court  meets  once  a  week,  and  oftener  if 
business  requires.  Nine  members  form  a  quo- 
rum. Absentees  are  fined  10*.,  and  the  fines  are 
divided  once  a  year  among  the  directors,  so  that 
even  the  absentees  receive  back  a  portion  of 
their  fines.  Voting  is  by  secret  ballot.  Tho 
deputy  chairman  is  generally  chosen  cliairman 
upon  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office.  la 
case  of  a  tie  vote  upon  any  question,  the  treas- 
urer of  the  court  decides  the  same  by  drawing 
lots.  The  directors  had  the  initiative  among 
the  stockholders  upon  all  questions  of  Indian 
government.  For  purposes  of  expediting  busi- 
ness the  members  were  annually  divided  into  3 
committees:  one  on  finance,  and  interior  and 
marine  interests  connected  therewith  ;  the  sec- 
ond on  politics  and  war;  and  tlie  third  on  the 
judicial  and  legislative  interests.  The  chair- 
man and  deputy  chairman  were  members  of  all 
these  committees.  The  committees  were  formed 
according  to  seniority  in  the  court ;  but  aftei 


730        EAST  INDIA  COMPANIES 


EAST  RIVER 


the  first  meeting  exchanges  were  permitted  for 
good  cause.  The  most  important  part  of  tlie 
court  of  directors,  liovvever,  was  the  secret 
committee.  To  this,  composed  of  the  chair- 
man, deputy  cliairman,  and  the  senior  director, 
were  referred  all  communications  of  a  confiden- 
tial and  delicate  nature  between  the  board  of 
control  (the  chief  power)  and  tlie  court.  The 
despatches  of  the  board  as  to  political  matters 
were  transmitted  through  the  hands  of  the  se- 
cret committee,  and  might  be  sent  on  by  them 
without  being  submitted  to  the  court.  The  mem- 
bers of  tliis  committee  were  sworn  to  secrecy, 
and  liad  no  secretary.  The  directors  had  a 
salary  of  £500,  and  the  chairman  £1,000.  The 
chief  privilege  of  directorship,  however,  was 
that  of  making  appointments;  the  directors 
filled  all  vacancies,  not  only  in  the  English 
branch  of  the  company's  service,  but  also  in  all 
the  subordinate  functions  in  India.  They  were 
thus  enabled  to  provide  for  friends  and  relatives. 
The  board  of  control,  the  governing  power  in 
the  company,  consisted  at  first  of  6  members, 
but  afterward  the  sovereign  had  the  privilege 
of  appointing  what  appeared  to  be  a  suitable 
number,  of  whom  the  lord  president  of  the  coun- 
cil, the  lord  privy  seal,  the  first  lord  of  the  treas- 
ury, the  two  principal  secretaries  of  state,  and 
the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  must  form  part. 
The  president  of  the  board  received  a  salary 
of  £3,500;  two  secretaries,  who  must  be  mem- 
bers of  parliament,  received  £1,500  each.  There 
■were  a  number  of  assistant  secretaries,  writers, 
&c.  The  expenses  of  the  board  were  limited 
to  £20,000  per  annum,  paid  by  the  East  India 
company.  The  powers  of  the  board  gradually 
grew,  until  long  before  its  abolition  in  1858 
it  had  become  a  court  from  whose  decisions 
there  was  no  appeal. — The  total  expense  of 
the  company's  military  force  in  the  East  Indies 
in  1856  was  £10,229,584.  The  estimated  re- 
ceipts of  the  home  treasury  for  the  year  ending 
April  30,  1858,  amounted  to  £11,049,387  (in- 
cluding the  balance  from  the  old  account),  and 
the  disbursements  to  £8,930,330,  leaving  an  es- 
timated balance  in  favor  (Mi  April  30,  1858,  of 
£2,719,057.  The  debts  of  the  Indian  govern- 
ment in  England  on  May  1,  1857,  amounted  to 
£9,377,401,  and  the  credits  to  £5,488,407,  leav- 
ing a  surplus  of  debts  of  £3,888,934.  The  estab- 
lishment of  the  company  in  England  entailed  a 
yearly  charge  of  £133,022  for  525  employees,  and 
the  amount  of  new  or  increased  salaries  created 
or  granted  between  May  1,  1850,  and  May  1, 
1857,  was  £6,407. — The  recent  disturbeil  state 
of  the  British  possessions  in  the  East  in  1857-'8 
called  public  attention  more  forcibly  than  at  any 
previous  period  to  the  management  of  Indian  af- 
foirsby  the  company;  and  after  much  discussion 
on  the  subject  in  parliament  and  in  tlie  press,  an 
act  "for  the  better  government  of  India"  was 
passed,  Aug.  2, 1858,  by  which  "  all  tlie  territo- 
ries heretofore  under  the  government  of  the 
East  India  company  are  vested  in  the  British 
queen,  and  all  its  powers  are  to  be  exercised  in 
her  name,  one  of  the  principal  secretaries  of 


state  to  have  all  the  powers  hitherto  exercised 
by  the  company  or  by  the  board  of  control. 
The  military  and  naval  forces  of  the  East  India 
company  are  to  be  deemed  the  forces  of  the 
queen,  and  all  persons  holding  any  oflice,  em- 
ployment, or  commission  in  India  are  transfer- 
red to  the  service  of  the  crown.  All  functions 
and  powers  of  the  courts  of  directors  and  pro- 
prietors are  to  cease,  together  with  the  salaries 
paid,  and  the  board  of  control  is  likewise  abol- 
ished." This  act,  however,  although  depriving 
the  East  India  company  of  all  its  power  and 
importance,  does  not  abolish  it,  and  provides  for 
the  manner  in  which  the  directors  shall  hereafter 
be  appointed ;  but  its  functions  are  now  almost 
exclusively  confined  to  the  administration  of  the 
stock  and  the  distribution  of  the  fixed  interest 
or  dividends  upon  the  old  share  capital  of  the 
proprietary  body  of  the  company. 

EAST  INDIES,  a  vague  geographical  term 
applied  to  southern  Asia  east  of  the  Indus,  and 
to  the  adjacent  islands.  The  name  India  is  un- 
known to  the  people  of  the  countries  so  desig- 
nated, and  was  derived  by  the  languages  of 
modern  Europe  from  the  Greeks,  who  probably 
borrowed  it  from  the  Persians ;  and  it  is  doubt- 
less a  modification  of  the  Sanscrit  Sinclhu,  the 
appellation  of  the  Indus  and  of  the  people  on  its 
banks.  It  was  unknown  to  the  earlier  Greeks, 
and  is  mentioned  neither  by  Homer,  Pindar, 
nor  the  great  dramatists.  The  later  Greeks 
used  it  to  signify  an  indefinite  extent  of  country 
lying  beyond  the  Indus,  of  which  they  had  a 
verj  imperfect  knowledge.  The  modern  Eu- 
ropeans applied  it  in  much  the  same  way  until 
after  the  discovery  of  America.  Columbus 
supposed  that  he  had  reached  India  by  sailing 
westward,  and  the  lands  discovered  by  him  and 
the  other  Spanish  navigators  in  the  western 
hemisphere  were  for  a  time  collectively  known 
as  India.  Tiie  king  of  Spain  assumed  the  title 
of  king  of  the  Indies,  and  the  council  for  the 
colonies  was  styled  the  supreme  council  of  the 
Indies.  When  the  mistake  was  discovered,  the 
distinctive  term  West  Indies  was  applied  to 
America,  and  that  of  East  Indies  to  Asiatic  In- 
dia. In  process  of  time  the  term  West  Indies 
became  restricted  to  the  islands  lying  between 
North  and  South  America,  and  the  term  India 
to  the  two  peninsulas  of  Hindostan  and  Further 
India,  or  India  beyond  the  Ganges.  The  latter 
country  is  also  called  Chin-India  or  Indo-China, 
and  in  its  most  restricted  sense  the  term  India 
now  includes  only  Hindostan.  The  term  East 
Indies,  as  vaguely  and  popularly  used,  comprises 
Hindostan,  Burmah,  Siam,Laos,  Anam,  Malacca, 
Ceylon,  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  Celebes,  theSuu- 
da  and  Banda  island.s,  the  Moluccas,  the  Philip- 
pines, and  the  rest  of  that  vast  archipelago,  and  is 
sometimes  extended  even  to  China  and  Japan. 

EAST  RIVER,  a  strait  about  18  miles  long, 
and  between  New  Tork  and  Brooklyn  about 
f  of  a  mile  wide,  connecting  New  York  bay 
with  Long  Island  sound.  It  leaves  the  sound 
at  a  point  called  Throg's  neck,  where  there  is  a 
lighthouse  with  a  fixed  light,  and  where  the 


EASTBURN" 


EASTER 


731 


strong  fortress  of  Fort  Scliuylcr  defends  tlie  E. 
approach  to  New  York  ;  and  it  enters  tlio  bay 
to  the  S.  E.  of  Manhattan  islantl,  between  the 
metropoHs  and  Brot)klyn.  It  also  conmuinicates 
■with  tlie  Hudson  by  a  narrow  cliannel  called 
the  Harlem  river,  which  forms  the  N.  boundary 
of  Manhattan  island.  It  has  a  rapid  current 
caused  by  the  tide  from  the  Atlantic,  which, 
gathering  force  as  it  flows  W.  into  the  nar- 
rowest part  of  the  sound,  readies  its  greatest 
height  in  the  East  river,  arrives  at  New  York 
f  of  an  honr  earlier  than  that  which  rises  in  the 
bay,  and  drives  npward  along  the  E.  shore  of 
the  Hudson  many  miles  in  advance  of  the  tide 
on  the  W.  shore.  The  East  river  is  navigable  by 
vessels  of  the  largest  siz.e,  and  is  crossed  by  nu- 
merous steam  ferries.  It  contains  several  islands, 
and  has  a  pass  called  Ilellgate,  7  m.  from  Now 
York  bay,  the  navigation  of  which  is  attended 
with  considerable  danger.  Some  of  the  most  se- 
rious obstructions  have  recently  been  removed 
by  a  new  method  of  blasting,  which  consists  of 
simply  exploding  the  powder  on  the  rock  by 
means  of  an  electric  spark,  the  superincumbent 
mass  of  water  acting  with  a  resisting  force  pow- 
erful enough  to  break  the  rock  without  the  ne- 
cessity of  boring. 

EASTBURN",  James  Wallis,  an  American 
author,  born  in  England  in  1797,  died  on  the 
passage  from  New  York  to  Santa  Cruz,  Dec.  2, 
1819.  He  was  graduated  at  Columbia  college, 
New  York,  and  subsequently  studied  theol- 
ogy under  Bishop  Griswold  at  Bristol,  R.  I., 
with  a  view  of  taking  orders  in  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  church.  While  thus  employed,  with 
occasional  assistance  from  Robert  C.  Sands,  a 
former  college  associate,  he  undertook  a  new 
metrical  version  of  the  Psalms,  which  he  did  not 
live  to  complete.  At  the  suggestion  of  East- 
burn  the  two  friends  commenced,  in  Nov.  1817, 
and  finished  before  the  succeeding  summer, 
"Yamoyden,"  a  romantic  poem  founded  on  the 
history  of  King  Philip,  the  sachem  of  the  Pe- 
quots.  With  many  marks  of  youth  and  inexpe 
rience,  it  has  merits  of  a  high  order,  and  for  a 
joint  production  of  juvenile  authors  may  be 
considered  a  remarkable  performance.  He  also 
wrote  several  fugitive  poems,  some  of  which 
are  very  gracefully  versified.  In  1818  Mr.  East 
burn  was  ordained,  and  left  New  York  to  take 
charge  of  a  parish  in  Accomac,  Va.  Failing 
health  interfered  with  the  discharge  of  liis  du- 
ties, and  he  sailed  from  New  York  for  Santa 
Cruz  to  try  the  effects  of  a  change  of  climate,, 
but  died  a  few  davs  after  embarking. 

EASTBURN,  Maxtox,  D.D.,  an  American 
clergyman,  brother  of  the  preceding,  bishop  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  in  Massachu- 
setts, born  in  England,  Feb.  9, 1801.  His  parents 
came  to  the  United  States  when  he  was  a  boy, 
and  settling  in  New  York,  he  was  educated  in  that 
city,  and  was  graduated  at  Columbia  college  in 
1817.  After  suitable  preparation,  he  was  ordaiu- 
ed  in  May,  1822,  was  assistant  minister  of  Christ 
church.  New  York,  for  a  few  years,  became 
rector  of  the  church  of  the  Ascension  in  1827, 


and  gatlicred  under  his  ministry  a  large  and  in- 
fluential congregation.  He  was  consecrated  as- 
sistant bishop  of  Ma«9achusetts  in  Trinity  church, 
Boston,  Dec.  2'J,  1842,  and  on  Bishop  Griswold's 
death,  Feb.  15,  1843,  became  bishop  of  theVlio- 
cese.  Dr.  Eastburn  was  appointed  lecturer  on 
poetry  in  Columbia  college,  but  declined  the 
appointment;  in  1825  he  delivered  4  lectures 
on  Hebrew,  Latin,  Italian,  and  English  jioetry 
before  the  New  York  Athenaeum  ;  in  1829  ho 
contributed  a  portion  of  a  volume  of  "  Essays  and 
Dissertations  on  Biblical  Literature ;"  in  18G3 
published  Ids  "  Lectures  on  the  Epistles  to  tho 
Philippians,"  a  volume  which  met  with  consid- 
erable favor;  and  in  1837  he  delivered  the  ora- 
tion at  the  semi-centennial  anniversary  of  tho 
incorporation  of  Columbia  college.  He  has 
edited  Thornton's  "  Family  Prayers." 

EASTER,  the  festival  of  the  resurrection  of 
our  Lord,  or  the  Christian  passovcr.  The  Eng- 
lish name  Easter  and  the  German  Ostern  havo 
been  supposed  by  some  writers  to  be  derived 
from  the  name  of  the  feast  of  the  Teutonic  god- 
dess Ostcra  (the  goddess  of  spring),  which  was 
celebrated  by  the  ancient  Saxons  in  the  spring, 
and  for  which  the  early  missionaries  substituted 
the  Christian  festival.  According  to  Adelung, 
both  the  English  and  the  German  words  are 
derived  from  the  old  Saxon  word  oster^  osten, 
which  signifies  rising,  because  nature  arises 
anew  in  tho  spring.  According  to  tlie  Mosaic 
law,  the  passover  among  the  Jews  was  cele- 
brated on  the  14th  day  of  the  month  Abib, 
afterward  called  Nisan,  that  is,  within  a  day 
or  two  before  or  after  the  vernal  equinox. 
The  early  Christians  differed  in  regard  to  the 
time  of  celebrating  Easter.  The  churches  in 
the  West,  taught,  as  they  declared,  by  St.  Phil- 
ip and  St.  Paul,  observed  the  nearest  Sunday 
to  the  full  moon  of  Nisan,  without  taking  ac- 
count of  the  day  on  which  the  passover  was 
celebrated.  The  Asiatic  churches,  on  the  other 
hand,  in  accordance  as  they  said  with  the  tra- 
dition derived  from  St.  John,  followed  the  Jew- 
ish calendar,  and  adopting  the  14th  of  Nisan 
as  ifne  day  of  the  crucifixion,  celebrated  the 
festival  of  Easter  on  the  3d  day  following,  what- 
ever day  of  the  week  that  might  be.  From 
this  circumstance  they  were  called  Quartode- 
cimans.  The  dispute  on  this  point  in  process 
of  time  became  serious,  and  neither  side  was 
able  to  convince  or  convert  the  other.  The 
venerable  Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna,  went  to 
Rome,  A.  D.  158,  and  had  a  conference  with 
Anicetus  on  this  subject.  Forty  years  later, 
Victor,  bishop  of  Rome,  was  appealed  to,  and 
was  very  peremptory  in  requiring  the  Asiatic 
bishops  to  conform  to  the  rule  of  the  western 
church.  This  they  refused  to  do,  and  Polycrates 
of  Ephesus,  in  behalf  of  his  brother  bishops, 
sent  Victor  word  that  they  had  resolved  to 
maintain  the  custom  which  they  had  received 
from  their  fathers.  Victor  then  went  so  far  as 
to  break  off  communion  with  the  eastern 
churches,  for  which  he  Avas  rebuked  by  St. 
Irenteus  of  Lyons.     Aft-er  this  tlie  contending 


732 


EASTER 


EASTMAK 


parties  agreed  to  maintain  tlieir  respective  cus- 
toms and  practices  on  tliis  sulyect,  witliout  cen- 
suring one  anotlier.  Saving  occasional  disputes, 
matters  continued  in  this  state  until  the  time 
of  Constantine,  who  had  the  subject  brought 
before  the  council  of  Nice  (A.  D.  325).  The 
question  was  fully  discussed,  and  finally  settled 
for  the  whole  church  by  adopting  the  rule 
which  makes  Easter  day  to  be  always  tlie  first 
Sunday  after  the  full  moon  which  happens 
upon  or  next  after  March  21 ;  and  if  the  full 
nioon  happen  on  a  Sunday,  Easter  day  is  the 
Sunday  after.  By  this  arrangement  Easter  may 
come  as  early  as  March  22,  or  as  late  as  April 
25. — This  sacred  festival  has  been  termed  the 
queen  of  festivals ;  it  has  been  observed  from 
tlie  very  beginning,  and  it  is  celebrated  in  every 
part  of  the  Christian  world  with  great  solem- 
nity and  devotion.  The  primitive  Christians 
very  early  on  the  morning  of  Easter  saluted 
each  other  with  the  words :  "  Christ  is  risen ;" 
to  which  the  response  was  made:  "Christ  is 
risen  indeed,  and  hath  appeared  to  Simon."  The 
Greek  church  still  retains  this  custom.  In 
nearly  all  Christian  countries  the  recurrence  of 
Easter  has  been  celebrated  with  various  ceremo- 
nies, popular  sports,  and  superstitions.  Among 
the  best  known  is  the  English  custom  of  mak- 
ing presents  of  coloi-ed  eggs,  called  pasche  or 
paste  eggs,  which  were  often  elaborately  orna- 
mented; and  in  a  royal  roll  of  the  time  of 
Edward  I.,  preserved  in  the  tower,  appears  an 
entry  of  18d.  for  400  eggs  to  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  Colored  eggs  were  used  by  children 
at  Easter  in  a  sort  of  game  which  consists  in 
testing  the  strength  of  the  egg  shells,  and  this 
practice  is  retained  in  many  places  in  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States.  In  some  parts 
of  Ireland  the  legend  is  current  that  the  sun 
dances  in  the  sky  on  Easter  Sunday  morning. 
Tliis  was  once  a  prevailing  superstition  in 
England  also,  which  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  the 
author  of  "  Inquiry  into  Vulgar  Errors,"  thought 
it  not  superfluous  to  declare  unfounded.  The 
game  of  ball  was  a  favorite  Easter  sport,  in 
which  municipal  corporations  formerly  engaged 
with  due  parade  and  dignity  ;  and  at  Bury 
St.  Edmund's  within  a  few  years  the  game  was 
kept  up  with  great  spirit  by  12  old  women. 
In  tlie  northern  counties  of  England  on  Easter 
Sunday  the  men  parade  the  streets  and  claim 
the  privilege  of  lifting  every  woman  3  times 
from  the  ground,  receiving  in  payment  a  kiss  or 
a  silver  sixpence.  The  same  is  done  by  the 
women  to  the  men  on  the  next  day.  In  a  part 
of  Oxfordshire,  after  evening  service  on  Easter 
Sunday,  men  and  women  used,  as  late  as  1822, 
to  throw  great  quantities  of  apples  into  the 
churchyard,  and  those  who  had  been  married 
during  the  year  threw  3  times  as  many  as  the 
rest;  after  which  all  went  to  the  minister's 
house  and  feasted  on  bread,  cheese,  and  ale.  A 
less  innocent  custom  once  prevailed  in  France  of 
stoning  Jews  at  this  season;  and  Dulaure  in  his 
"History  of  Paris"  tells  us  that  Aimcric,  vis- 
count de  Rochechouard,  having  visited  Toulouse 


at  Easter,  the  chapter  of  St.  Etienne  appointed 
his  chaplain  Ungues  to  beat  a  Jew  in  his  honor, 
an  oflice  which  was  performed  so  zealously  that 
the  victim  expired  on  the  spot.  In  England  it 
was  common  for  the  boys  to  run  about  tho 
streets  on  Easter  morning  crying : 

Christ  is  risen,  Christ  18  risen ; 
All  the  Jews  must  go  to  prison. 

To  mark  their  abhorrence  of  Jews,  the  Eng- 
lish used  also  to  make  a  point  of  eating  bacon 
on  this  festival,  but  with  it  they  had  tansy  pud- 
ding, a  relic  of  the  bitter  herbs  of  the  passover. 
EASTERN  EMPIRE.  See  Byzantine  Em- 
pike. 

EASTLAKE,  Sir  Charles  Lock,  an  English 
painter,  born  in  Plymouth  in  1793,  studied  im- 
der  Fuseli  at  the  royal  academy,  London,  of 
which  institution  he  was  made  president  in  1850, 
after  having  given  evidences  of  proficiency  in 
his  art  by  a  great  variety  of  pictures,  of  which 
his  " Christ  weeping  over  Jerusalem,"  his  "Es- 
cape of  Francesco  di  Carrara,"  and  his  "  Pilgrims 
arriving  in  sight  of  Rome,"  are  the  best.  He 
visited  France,  Italy,  and  Greece,  and  then  set- 
tling for  some  time  in  Rome,  found  many  op- 
portunities for  painting  pictures  illustrative  of 
Italian  life.  Among  his  early  paintings  is  an  in- 
teresting portrait  of  Napoleon  I.,  as  he  appeared 
on  board  the  Bellerophon,  and  the  most  famous 
of  his  poetical  pictures  is  an  illustration  of  a  pas- 
sage in  Byron's  "Dream."  In  1850  he  was 
knighted,  and  in  1855  appointed  director  of  the 
national  gallery,  with  a  salary  of  £1,000.  He 
has  translated  Goethe's  Farbenlelire  into  Eng- 
lish, and  written  much  on  art.  He  married  Miss 
Elizabeth  Rigby,  author  of  "Letters  from  the 
Shores  of  the  Baltic"  (1841),  "Livonian  Tales" 
(1846),  and  other  writings. 

EASTMAN,  Charles  Gamage,  an  American 
poet  and  journalist,  born  in  Fryeburg,  Me.,  June 
1,  1816,  removed  at  an  early  age  with  his  pa- 
rents to  Barnard,  Vt.,  in  1829  commenced  his 
preparatory  studies  at  the  academy  in  Royal- 
ton,  Vt.,  continued  them  at  Windsor,  and  fin- 
ished them  at  Burlington,  in  1837.  He  was 
principal  editor  of  the  Burlington  "  Sentinel " 
in  1835-6;  commenced  the  "Lamoille  River 
Express"  newspaper  at  Johnson,  Vt.,  in  the 
spring  of  1838;  established  the  "Spirit  of  the 
Age"  at  "Woodstock,  Vt.,  in  1840;  and  pur- 
chased the  "Vermont  Patriot"  and  removed  to 
Montpelier  in  1846.  He  was  postmaster  at 
Woodstock  and  Montpelier  for  several  years, 
senator  for  Washington  county  in  1851-'2,  dis- 
trict delegate  to  the  democratic  national  conven- 
tion in  1852,  candidate  for  elector  and  delegate 
at  large  to  the  national  convention  in  1856, 
and  candidate  for  congress  in  1858.  He  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  poems  in  1848,  which  was 
Avell  received  by  tho  public.  He  has  been  until 
of  late  years  a  liberal  contributor  of  poetry  to 
reviews  and  magazines,  and  his  poems  pro- 
nounced at  Dartmouth,  university  of  A^ermont, 
and  other  colleges,  have  gained  a  high  reputation. 
He  resides  at  Montpelier,  and  continues  to  be 
editor  and  proprietor  of  the  "  Vermont  Patriot." 


EASTMAN 


EASTPOPwT 


733 


EASTMAN",  Mart  TTexbeeso^t,  an  American 
authoress,  born  in  Warrcnton,  Fauquier  co., 
Va.,  about  1817.  Slio  was  married  in  1835  to 
Capt.  Soth  Eastman,  of  tlio  U.  S.  army,  witli 
whom  she  resided  for  many  years  at  Fort  Snel- 
ling,  Min.,  and  at  other  frontier  stations.  Sho 
Las  pubhslied  "Dacotali,  or  Life  and  Legends  of 
the  Sioux"  (New  York,  1849);  "Romanco  of 
Indian  Life"  (Pliiladelphia,  1852);  "American 
Aboriginal  PortfoUo"  (1853) ;  and  "  Cliicora  and 
other  Regions  of  the  Conquered"  (1854).  In 
1852  Mrs.  Eastman  published  "Aunt  Phillis's 
Cabin,"  Intended  as  a  reply  to  ^Mrs.  Stowe's 
"Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  and  which  reached  a  sale 
of  18,000  coi)ies  in  a  few  weeks.  Sho  is  also 
the  author  of  "  Tales  of  Fashionable  Life,"  and 
of  many  tales  and  sketches  for  "  Arthur's  Ilomo 
Magazine,"  and  other  periodicals. 

EASTON,  a  borough  and  the  capital  of 
Northampton  co.,  Peun.,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Delaware  river,  between  the  mouths  of  Le- 
high river  and  Bushkiln  creek,  56  m.  N.  from 
Philadelphia;  pop.  in  1859,  about  10,000,  ex- 
clusive of  the  adjoining  borough  of  South  Eas- 
ton  and  village  of  Glendon,  on  the  opposite  bank 
of  the  Lehigh,  containing  not  less  than  8,000 
inhabitants.  Excepting  the  eastern  part  of  the 
town,  the  site  is  hilly,  but  the  plot  is  nevertheless 
very  regular,  and  the  streets  are  wide  and  at 
right  angles.  The  town  has  a  public  square,  is 
lighted  with  gas,  and  supplied  with  water  from 
a  spring  at  a  distance  of  one  mile,  and  from  the 
river.  The  height  of  reservoirs  on  the  surround- 
ing hills  is  so  great  that  in  a  large  portion  of  the 
town  fires  are  extinguished  without  tlie  aid  of 
engines.  The  Delaware  is  spanned  by  2  bridges, 
one  of  them  a  liandsomo  raih'oad  bridge  of 
wood  about  to  be  replaced  by  iron,  and  the  other 
a  fine  wooden  bridge  570  feet  long,  erected  at  a 
cost  of  $80,000.  Bushkiln  is  spanned  by  3  long 
and  substantial  stone  bridges  and  one  of  wood, 
and  the  Lehigh  by  2  fine  wooden  bridges.  Be- 
side an  extensive  high  school,  an  academy,  and 
2  other  schools,  situated  on  a  tract  of  land  set 
apart  perpetually  for  educational  purposes.  Fas- 
ten contains  several  other  academies,  &c.,  and  a 
public  library  of  4,000  vols.  It  is  also  the  seat 
of  Lafayette  college  founded  in  18:j2  with  its 
normal  school,  having  in  1858  C  professors, 
100  students,  and  a  library  of  4,500  vols.  There 
are  2  banks  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $500,- 
000  ;  5  weekly  and  2  daily  newspaper  ofiices ;  11 
churclies  (1  Baptist,  1  Dutch  Reformed,  1  Epis- 
copal, 1  German  Reformed,  2  Lutheran,  1  Meth- 
odist, 2  Presbyterian,  1  Roman  Catholic,  1  Uni- 
versalist),  aud  2  Jewish  synagogues.  A  hand- 
some cemetery  of  40  acres  was  commenced  in 
1849  on  picturesque  and  broken  ground  over- 
hanging tlie  Bushkiln  creek,  in  which  is  erected 
a  monument  over  the  remains  of  George  Tay- 
lor, one  of  the  signers  of  tlie  declaration  of  in- 
dependence, who  lived  and  died  in  Easton. 
There  is  also  a  farmers'  and  mechanics'  insti- 
tute, incorporated  in  1856,  whose  buildings  and 
grounds,  erected  and  prepared  at  considerable 
expense,  cover  30  acres,  where  fairs  are  annually 


held.  Being  Iho  outlet  of  a  rich  agricultural 
country,  Easton  has  always  manufactured,  and 
formerly  exjiorted,  a  large  amount  of  agricultural 
products,  whicli  at  this  time  are  more  generally 
absorbed  by  home  consumption.  Aslatea'sl851, 
however,  it  exported  over  110,000  barrels  of  flour, 
50,000  barrels  of  corn  meal,  and  14,000  barrels 
of  whiskey.  In  1850  there  were  in  the  town,  and 
within  a  iow  miles  circuit,  18  grist  mills,  6  saw 
mills,  1  planing  mill,  3  oil  mills,  3  tanneries,  5 
founderies,  2  large  blast  furnaces,  1  wire  factory, 
7  distilleries,  2  cotton  factories,  and  2  rifle  fac- 
tories. The  surrounding  country  contains  in- 
exhaustible deposits  of  the  best  iron  ore,  which 
is  largely  raaiuifactured  here ;  and  witliin  12 
miles  are  found  large  deposits  of  the  best  zinc 
ore,  which  is  manufactured  near  the  mines.  In 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  Easton  are  3  largo 
blast  furnaces,  which  manufacture  about  30,000 
tons  of  pig  iron  annually.  Easton  is  at  the  ter- 
minus of  the  celebrated  Lehigh  valley,  wliich  is 
the  route  through  which  the  Lehigh  canal  and 
Lehigh  valley  railroad  penetrate  the  great  an- 
thracite coal  formation.  The  avenues  from 
Easton  to  market  arc  the  Delaware  river,  Dela- 
ware canal^  Belvidere  Delaware  railroad,  and 
Lehigh  valley  and  north  Pennsylvania  railroads 
to  Philadelphia,  and  the  Morris  canal  and  cen- 
tral railroad  of  New  Jersey  to  New  York.  By 
the  "Warren  railroad  aud  the  Delaware  aud 
Lackawanna  railroad  it  lias  unbroken  commu- 
nication with  the  railroads  of  New  Y^ork  and 
with  the  lakes.  The  borough  was  laid  out  in 
1738  and  incorporated  in  17S9.  The  Six  Nations 
and  7  other  Indian  tribes  met  here  in  council  in 
1753  with  the  governors  of  Pennsylvania  and 
New  Jersey  and  Sir  "William  Johnston.  Gen. 
"Washington  made  it  in  the  revolution  a  place 
of  deposit  for  numbers  of  British  prisoners ;  and 
in  1779  Gen.  Sullivan  mado  it  the  rendezvous 
of  a  body  of  troops  previous  to  his  campaign 
against  the  Indians. 

EASTPORT,  a  township  of  "Washington  co., 
Me.,  situated  upon  the  boundary  line  between 
that  state  and  the  province  of  New  Brunswick; 
pop.  in  1858,  4,650.  Its  area  is  little  more  than 
3  sq.  m.,  comprising  Moose  island  and  several 
smaller  islands  in  Passamaquoddy  bay.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1798.  The  village  is  compactly 
built  on  the  S.  E.  shore  of  Moose  island,  and 
communicates  with  the  mainland  by  a  covered 
bridge  1,200  feet  long  to  Perrv,  and  by  ferries 
to  Lubec  and  other  places.  It  has  a  spacious 
harbor,  in  which  the  tides  rise  over  25  feet,  and 
which  is  never  blocked  up  by  ice.  In  the  sea- 
son of  navigation  steamers  run  daily  up  the 
river  St.  Croix  to  St.  Andrew's  and  Calais,  and 
semi-weekly  to  Boston,  Portland,  and  St.  John, 
N.  B.  It  contains  7  churches,  6  large  school 
houses,  a  bank,  a  railway  for  repairing  vessels, 
gas  works,  a  weekly  newspaper  ofiice,  and  a 
public  hbrary.  The  trade  with  the  neighboring 
British  provinces  is  large,  ship-building  is  an 
important  branch  of  industry,  and  lumber  is 
exported  in  considerable  quantities.  It  is  also 
the  centre  of  an  extensive  fishing  business ;  at 


734 


EATON 


times  200  or  300  boats  may  be  seen  employed 
in  fishing  within  sight  of  the  town,  and  large 
quantities  of  herrings  are  taken  in  weirs  about 
the  shores  of  the  hay.  Easton  is  the  port  of 
entry  for  the  extensive  collection  district  of 
Passamaquoddy.  A  fine  brick  and  stone  cus- 
tom house  was  built  by  the  federal  government 
in  1850  at  an  expense  of  $36,500.  The  ship- 
ping of  the  district  amounted,  on  June  30, 
1858,  to  17,490  tons  registered,  and  7,736  tons 
enrolled  and  licensed.  On  July  11,  1814,  the 
place  was  captured  by  a  British  force  under  the 
command  of  Lieut.  Col.  Pilkington  and  Capt. 
Sir  Thomas  Hardy.  It  was  claimed  as  in- 
cluded in  the  original  limits  of  the  province  of 
New  Brunswick,  and  the  British  commissioners 
at  Ghent  refused  to  agree  to  the  surrender  of 
the  islands  in  Passamaquoddy  bay.  The  matter 
was  referred  to  another  commission,  and  on 
June  30,  1818,  the  place  was  surrendered  to  the 
United  States.  During  the  4  years  of  military 
occupation  it  was  governed  by  martial  law. 
Fort  Sullivan,  which  stands  on  a  hill  in  the 
midst  of  the  village,  is  now  without  a  garrison. 
EATON",  a  central  co.  of  Mich.,  intersected 
by  Grand  river  ;  area,  576  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850, 
7,058.  The  surface  is  undulating;  the  northern 
and  middle  parts  are  occupied  by  dense  forests, 
and  in  the  south  are  plains  over  which  are  scat- 
tered oak  trees.  The  soil  is  generally  a  deep 
calcareous  and  sandy  loam,  suitable  for  grain, 
potatoes,  maple  sugar,  and  \  asturage.  The  pro- 
ductions in  1850  were  50,860  bushels  of  wheat, 
73,212  of  Indian  corn,  44,290  of  oats,  7,207  tons 
of  hay,  23,769  lbs.  of  wool,  and  210,167  of  ma- 
ple sugar.  There  were  2  churches,  1  newspaper 
office,  and  2,192  pupils  attending  public  schools. 
Capital,  Charlotte. 

EATON,  a  post  village  of  Washington  town- 
ship, and  capital  of  Preble  co.,  Ohio;  pop.  in 
1853,  about  1,600.  It  is  situated  on  a  fine  mill 
stream  called  Seven  Mile  creek,  in  the  centre  of 
a  rich  agricultural  country,  46  m.  from  Cincin- 
nati, with  wdiich  city  it  has  communication  by 
means  of  the  Eaton  and  Hamilton  railroad. 
About  one  mile  W.  from  Eaton  is  the  site  of 
Fort  St.  Clair,  which  was  built  during  the  win- 
ter of  1791-2.  General  Harrison,  then  an  en- 
sign, commanded  the  guard  during  its  erectioQ. 
The  village  was  laid  out  in  1806. 

EATON,  Horace,  governor  of  Vermont, 
born  in  Barnard,  Windsor  co.,  A-^t.,  June  22, 
1804,  died  in  Middlebury,  Vt.,  July  4,  1855.  He 
was  graduated  at  Middlebury  college  in  1825, 
received  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1828,  and  prac- 
tised medicine  at  Euosburg,  Vt.,  from  1828  to 
1848,  when  he  accepted  the  professorship  of 
chemistry  and  natural  history  in  Middlebury 
college,  performing  its  duties  until  the  autumn 
of  1854,  when  he  resigned  by  reason  of  ill  health. 
He  was  repeatedly  a  member  of  the  state  legis- 
lature, was  lieutenant-governor  of  Vermont  in 
1843,  and  twice  reelected,  and  was  governor  of 
Vermont  from  1846  to  1848.  From  1845  to 
1850  he  was  state  superintendent  of  common 
Bchools.     He  was  a  member  of  the  constitu- 


tional convention  in  1843.  He  published  several 
literary  and  political  addresses,  and  educational 
reports. 

EATON,  William,  an  American  soldier,  born 
in  Woodstock,  Conn.,  Feb.  23,  1704,   died  in 
Brimfiekl,  Mass.,  June  1,  1811.    At  16  years  of 
age  he  eloped  from  home,  and  enlisted  in  the 
American  revolutionary  army,  from  wliich  he 
was  discharged  in  1783.     In  1790  he  was  grad- 
uated at  Dartmouth   college,    and  two  years 
later  received  a  captain's  commission  in  the 
U.   S.   army.     After  remaining  several  years 
in  the  service,  he  Avas  appointed,  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1797,  American   consul   at  Tunis,  but 
did  not  depart  for  that  place  until  Dec.  1798. 
He  arrived  at  the  scene  of  his  new  duties  in 
March,  1799,  and  for  several  years  was  engaged 
in  a  series  of  negotiations  and  altercations  with 
the  bey,  having  reference  to  tlie  annual  pay- 
ment of  tribute  money.     In  this  difiicult  posi- 
tion he  acted  with  a  boldness  and  tact  which 
secured  to  the  commerce   of  his  country  an 
immunity  from  the  attacks  of  Tunisian  cruisers. 
Upon  the  commencement  of  hostilities  between 
the  United  States  and  Tripoli  in  1801,  Eaton 
conceived  the  idea  of  inducing  Hamet  Caramelli, 
the  rightful  bey  of  Tripoli,  who  had  been  de- 
posed by  his  brother,  to  organize  a  land  force 
for  the  purpose  of  cooperating  with  the  Amer- 
ican fleet  in  its  attack  upon  the  city.    Finding 
the  American  naval  officers  averse  to  this  pro- 
ject, he  resigned  his  consulship,  and  in  1803  re- 
turned to  the  United  States.     He  was  unable  to 
procure  there  the  means  to  prosecute  his  scheme 
successfully,  but  received  the  appointment  of 
navy  agent  of  the  United  States  for  the  Barbary 
states.     Although  very  slight  powers  were  at- 
tached to  this  office,  he  accompanied  the  Amer- 
ican fleet  to  the  Mediterranean  in  the  summer 
of  1804.     Learning  that  Hamet  Caramelfi,  after 
a  series  of  reverses  in  an  attempt  to  recover  hi8 
throne,  had  taken  refuge  in  Egypt,  he  sought 
him  out,  and  in  the  early  part  of  1805  assisted 
him  in  assembling  a  force  of  about  500  men, 
four-fifths  of  whom  were  Arabs,  the  remainder 
being  Christian  adventurers,  principally  Greeks, 
with  9  Americans.    Having  secured  the  coop- 
eration of  the  American  fleet,  the  little  army, 
under  the  command  of  Eaton,  took  np  its  march 
across  the  Libyan  desert  for  Derne,  the  capital 
of  the  richest  province  of  Tripoli,  a  distance 
of  about  600  miles.     On  several  occasions  the 
mutinous  disposition  of  the  Arab  sheiks,  and 
the  irresolution  of  Hamet,  imperilled  the  safe- 
ty of   the  handful  of  Christians  belonging  to 
the  expedition ;    but  the  energy  and  courage 
of  Eaton   triumphed  over  all  obstacles,   and 
the  forces  were  brought  in  safety  to  Bomba, 
on  the   coast,  where  the  American  ships  Ar- 
gus and  Hornet  were  in   waiting.     On   April 
25  Eaton  encamped  before  Derne,  and  on  the 
27th,  with  the  assistance  of  the  ships  of  war, 
attacked  and  carried  the  city  after  a  furious  as- 
sault, in  which  he  was  wounded.     A  few  days 
later  an  army  of  several  thousand  Tripolitans, 
despatched  by  the  reigning  bey,  approached 


EAU  DE  COLOGNE 


EBAL  AND  GERIZIM 


735 


the  town,  and  for  several  weeks  occasional 
sharp  skirmishes  took  place  between  the  op- 
posing forces,  Eaton's  army  having  meanwhile 
been  considerably  augmented.  On  June  11  a 
general  engagement  was  fought,  in  which  sev- 
eral tliousand  men  took  part,  and  the  enemy 
were  totally  routed,  and  driven  back  to  tlio 
mountains.  At  this  moment,  when  Eaton  was 
preparing  by  a  rapid  inarch  to  fall  upon  Tri- 
poli, reinstate  Ilamet  on  the  throne,  and  release 
the  American  captives  detained  there  without 
ransom,  intelligence  arrived  tliat  a  peace  had 
been  concluded  by  Col.  Tobias  Lear,  tlio  Amer- 
ican consul-general  at  Algiers,  one  of  the 
conditions  of  which  was  that  $G0,000  should 
be  paid  the  bey  for  the  ransom  of  the  Amer- 
icans. Eaton  soon  after  returned  to  tlie  United 
States,  where  he  received  many  marks  of  popu- 
lar favor.  The  president  spoke  of  him  in  flat- 
tering terms  in  liis  annual  message,  and  the 
legislature  of  Massachusetts  voted  him  a  tract 
of  10,000  acres  of  land,  in  acknowledgment  of 
his  services.  The  remainder  of  his  hfe  was 
passed  in  Brimfield,  Mass.,  which  town  he  at 
one  time  represented  in  the  state  legislature. 
According  to  his  testimony  given  on  the  trial 
of  Aaron  Burr,  he  was  solicited  by  the  latter  to 
embark  in  his  project  of  establishing  a  southern 
empire,  but  declined.  Habits  of  inebriety  grew 
upon  him  in  his  latter  years,  and  hastened  his 
death.  Eaton  was  a  well  informed  man,  and 
from  his  official  and  private  correspondence  ap- 
pears to  have  possessed  a  strong,  nervous  style, 
and  graphic  powers  of  description.  A  memoir 
of  him  was  published  in  Brookfield,  Mass.,  in 
1813;  and  another  by  Prof.  C.  0.  Felton,  com- 
piled from  his  original  papers,  is  contained  iu 
Sparks's  "  American  Biographv." 

EAU  DE  COLOGNE,  alcohol  perfumed  with 
essential  oils,  named  from  the  city  of  Cologne,  in 
which  its  manufacture  is  extensively  prosecuted, 
and  from  which  several  million  bottles  are  an- 
nually exported.  The  inventor  and  most  famous 
maker  was  Jean  Marie  Farina;  but  his  name  is 
now  adopted  by  several  of  the  manufiicturers  of 
Cologne,  and  in  other  countries  it  is  attached  to 
very  ditferent  preparations,  resembling  the  gen- 
uine only  in  the  bottles  and  labels,  which  are 
perfect  copies  of  the  original.  Numerous  re- 
cipes are  given  for  this  preparation,  some  of 
which  are  stated  to  have  come  from  Farina 
himself.  Most  of  them  are  very  complicated 
from  the  great  number  of  ingredients.  Purity 
of  the  volatile  oils,  and  also  of  the  alcohol,  and 
freedom  especially  of  the  latter  from  fusel  oil, 
are  essential  to  the  perfection  of  the  perfume.  It 
is  also  important  that  no  one  of  the  volatile  oils 
shoidd  so  predominate  that  its  odor  may  be  per- 
ceived above  t!ie  rest.  Distillation  after  mixing 
is  recommended  in  some  cases,  and  in  others 
condemned,  as  the  volatile  oils  do  not  distil 
'  over  so  readily  as  the  spirit,  and  therefore  a 
portion  of  their  strength  is  lost  by  the  process. 
When  not  distilled,  the  mixtures  should  stand 
for  some  weeks  or  months,  that  the  oils  may  be 
thoroughly  dissolved  in  the  alcohol.    The"  fol- 


lowing is  given  as  the  process  of  Farina  in  the 
iJictionnaire  des  arts  et  manvfacturcs :  balm 
and  mint  of  Notre  Dame,  each  350  grammes; 
petals  of  roses  and  violets,  each  120  gram.; 
lavender  flowers,  GO  gram.;  absinthium  (worm- 
wood), 30  gram. ;  sage  and  thyme,  each  30 
gram. ;  orange  flowers,  nutmegs,  mace,  cloves, 
and  cinnamon,  each  15  gram.;  camphor  and 
angelica  root,  each  8  gram.  These  ingredients 
are  digested  in  GGO  lbs.  avoirdupois  of  rectified 
alcohol  for  24  hours,  adding  2  lemons  and  2 
oranges  cut  into  slices.  The  mixture  is  then 
distilled  by  heat  of  tlie  sand  bath  until  440  lbs. 
have  passed  over.  To  this  product  arc  then 
added  essences  of  lemon,  of  cedrat,  of  balm, 
and  of  lavender,  each  45  gram. ;  essences  of 
neroli  and  of  rosemary,  each  15  gram. ;  essence 
of  jasmine,  30  gram. ;  essence  of  bergamot,  350 
gram.  The  whole  are  thoroughly  nuxed  and 
then  filtered.  It  is  also  prepared  without  distil- 
lation, but  the  odor  is  never  so  fine.  Lebcaud 
and  Fontenelle  {N'ou-ccau  rtumuel  complet  du 
distillateur  et  du  Uquorinte,  Paris,  1843)  recom- 
mend the  following :  dried  rosemary,  thyme, 
sweet  marjoram,  wormwood,  balm,  and  hyssop, 
1  oz.  each ;  cloves,  cinnamon,  angelica  root,  juni- 
per berries,  anise,  cummin,  fennel,  and  caraway 
seeds,  fresh  orange  peel,  and  oil  of  bergamot, 

1  oz.  each;  cardamoms,  lavender  flowers,  and 
bruised  nutmegs,  each  2oz. ;  the  whole  to  be  di- 
gested in  10  quarts  of  alcohol  several  days,  and 
then  distilled  to  dryness  by  water  bath.  Or,  to 
the  same  quantity  of  alcohol  may  be  added  1 
quart  each  of  tincture  of  balm  and  rosemary ; 

2  oz.  each  of  oil  of  bergamot,  rosemary,  citron, 
and  cedrat,  and  1  dram  of  oil  of  orange  flowers. 
This  may  be  improved  by  the  further  addition 
of  2  oz.  each  of  essence  of  roses  and  of  jasmine, 
and  1  dram  of  oil  of  cloves.  Distillation  is  not 
essential  in  this  case.  Dr.  Brande  gives  the 
following  method  of  preparing  a  good  imita- 
tion :  alcohol,  1  pint ;  orange  flower  water,  1 
pint ;  oils  of  bergamot,  orange  peel,  and  rose- 
mary, each  1  drachm ;  and  bruised  cardamoms, 
1  drachm.  From  this  mixture  1  pint  is  to  bo 
distilled  by  water  bath. 

EAU  DE  LUCE  {^aqua  Ittcicc),  a  kind  of 
liquid  soap  made  by  mixing  a  little  oil  of  amber 
and  mastic  or  balm  of  Gilead  with  ammonia.  It 
is  merely  scented  ammonia.  It  is  esteemed  a 
remedy  for  the  bites  of  poisonous  animals.  The 
compound  tincture  of  ammonia  is  substituted  for 
it,  made  by  dissolving  2  drachms  of  mastic  in 
9  fluid  drachms  of  rectified  spirit ;  pouring  offj 
and  adding  a  pint  of  strong  ammonia,  and  14 
minims  of  oil  of  lavender. 

EBAL  AND  GERIZIM,  mountains  in  Palestine. 
These  2  mountains  are  within  200  paces  of  each 
other,  and  separated  by  a  deep  valley,  in  which 
stood  the  old  city  of  Shechem,  now  Nabloos. 
They  are  much  alike  in  size  and  form,  being 
semi-circular  in  figure,  from  700  to  800  feet  in 
height,  about  half  a  league  in  length,  and  on 
the  sides  nearest  Shechem  nearly  perpendicu- 
lar. They  were  made  memorable  by  the  sol- 
emn  ratification  of  God's  covenant  with   the 


736 


EBELING 


EBIONITES 


Jews  after  they  had  passed  over  Jordan,  wlien 
6  tribes  were  placed  on  Gerizim  and  6  on  Ebal, 
the  former  to  pronounce  blessings  on  those  "who 
should  faithfully  keci)  the  divine  law,  and  the 
latter  to  pronounce  curses  on  those  who  should 
violate  it ;  whence  they  were  known  as  the 
mount  of  blessing  and  the  mount  of  cursing. 
(Deuteronomy,  sxvii.  and  sxviii.)  Accord- 
ing to  the  injunction  of  Moses,'the  Jews  after 
obtaining  possession  of  Canaan  built  an  altar 
and  celebrated  a  feast  on  Ebal.  This,  the  Sama- 
ritans contended,  should  have  been  done  on 
Gerizim,  and  they  afterward  built  a  temple  on 
the  latter,  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  visible, 
and  regarded  it  as  the  Jews  regarded  their  tem- 
ple at  Jerusalem.  The  remark  of  the  Samaritan 
woman  to  Christ  at  Shechem  (John  iv.  20)  is 
in  allusion  to  this  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
proper  place  of  worship. 

EBELIXG,  CnKisTOPn  Daxiel,  a  German 
scholar,  born  near  Ilildesheira,  Hanover,  in  1741, 
died  in  Hamburg,  June  30,  181 T.  He  was  noted 
for  his  extensive  knowledge  of  oriental  lan- 
guages, of  classic  and  foreign  literature,  and  of 
history  and  geography.  He  published  a  history 
and  geography  of  North  America  (7  vols.,  Ham- 
burg, 1796-1816),  for  which  he  received  a  vote 
of  thanks  from  the  TJ.  S.  congress.  He  paid 
special  attention  to  the  geography  of  the  new 
world,  and  collected  atout  10,000  maps  and 
nearly  4.000  books,  all  relating  to  America. 
This  library  was  purchased  in  1818  by  Mr.  Israel 
Thorndike  of  Boston,  and  presented  by  him  to 
Harvard  college,  where  it  now  is. 

EBENEZER,  the  name  of  the  field  in  which 
the  Israelites  were  defeated  when  the  ark  of 
God  was  taken  (1  Sam.  iv.  1),  and  also  of  a 
memorial  stone  or  monument  set  up  by  Samuel 
to  commemorate  their  victory  over  the  Philis- 
tines at  Mizpeh,  when  God  interposed  for  their 
deliverance  (1  Sam.  vii.  5-12).  The  compound 
word  signifies  the  stone  of  help,  and  was  prob- 
ably not  api^lied  to  the  field  before  the  second 
event.  The  monument  Avas  erected  by  the 
prophet,  saying :  "  Hitherto  hath  the  Lord 
helped  us."  Hence  it  is  often  said :  "  Here  will 
we  set  up  our  Ebenezer,"  i.  e.,  will  establish 
some  memorial  of  the  divine  faithfulness  and 
goodness. 

EBERHARD  IM  BART  (Eberhard  with  the 
Beard),  the  1st  duke  of  Wiirtemberg,  born  Dec. 
11,  1445,  died  Feb.  14,  149G.  His  early  life 
was  signalized  by  great  irregularities ;  his  father, 
Count  Louis  the  Elder,  dying  while  he  wasyoung, 
his  education  was  neglected,  and  before  he  was 
14  he  wrested  the  government  from  his  uncle 
Ulric,  who  had  been  appointed  regent  during 
his  minority.  A  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land, 
however,  and  the  influence  of  his  wife,  the 
princess  Barbara  of  Mantua,  had  a  happy  effect 
upon  liis  character.  He  became  eventually  cel- 
ebrated in  German  history  as  the  founder  of 
the  undivided  sovereignty  and  of  the  representa- 
tive constitution  of  Wurtcmberg.  He  devoted 
himself  to  study,  promoted  science  and  litera- 
ture, and  founded  in  1477  the  university  of 


Tubingen.  Ho  improved  the  laws  and  the  con- 
dition of  the  convents  in  "Wiirtemberg,  and  was 
a  friend  of  peace,  without  however  shrinking 
from  war.  The  emperor  Maximilian  of  Ger- 
many, who  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  duko 
of  Wiirtemberg  (1495),  declared  at  his  grave 
several  years  afterward :  "  Here  lies  a  prince 
who  has  left  no  equal  in  the  German  empire  in 
princely  virtues,  and  whose  advice  I  have  fre- 
quently followed  with  advantage." 

EBERHARD,  Johann  August,  a  German 
philosopher,  born  in  Halberstadt,  Aug.  31, 
1739,  died  Jan.  7,  1809.  At  first  a  teacher,  he 
afterward  became  a  pastor,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  and  principal  of  the  German  rationalists. 
In  a  work  entitled  J^eue  Apologie  des  Solratea 
(3d  ed.,  Berlin,  1788),  he  opposed  with  great 
vigor  and  with  what  was  deemed  dangerous  lat- 
itudinarianism  the  opinion  which  had  been  lately 
advanced  that  the  virtues  of  the  pagans  were  only 
splendid  vices.  A  religious  romance  entitled 
Amyntor  did  not,  as  it  was  designed  to  do,  cause 
the  temerities  of  this  apology  to  be  forgotten. 
In  1778  he  w^as  appointed  professor  of  philoso- 
phy in  the  university  of  Halle,  and  soon  after  a 
member  of  the  academy  of  Berlin.  He  was 
attached  to  the  philosophy  of  Leibnitz  and 
"Wolf,  and  combated  more  zealously  than  suc- 
cessfully the  systems  of  Kant  and  Eichte. 
Though  his  learning  was  as  superficial  as  it  was 
extensive,  and  he  was  rather  a  rhetorician  and 
historian  than  a  philosophic  thinker,  he  was  yet 
a  brilliant  and  elegant  writer.  He  predicted 
that  the  "  Critique  of  Pure  Reason  "  would  be 
in  the  future  only  a  curious  document  for  a  his- 
tory of  the  aberrations  of  the  human  mind,  and 
he  was  one  of  the  few  adversaries  whom  Kant 
honored  with  a  reply.  He  had  affirmed  that 
the  critical  philosophy  was  found  in  other  sys- 
tems, particularly  that  of  Leibnitz,  and  Kant 
vanquished  but  did  not  silence  him  by  proving 
that  he  did  not  understand  Leibnitz.  Eberhard 
maintained  the  simplicity  and  identity  of  the 
thinking  and  feeling  faculty,  the  soul  being,  ac- 
cording to  him,  active  when  it  thinks,  passive 
when  it  feels.  His  Avritings  upon  philosojAical 
and  a3sthetical  subjects  are  numerous. 

EBERHARD,  Koistrad,  a  German  artist,  born 
in  1768,  died  in  Munich,  March  13,  1859.  The 
ex-king  Louis  was  his  patron,  and  sent  him  in 
1806  to  Rome,  where  he  laid  the  foundation  of 
his  reputation.  In  1816  he  became  professor  of 
sculpture  in  the  academy  of  fine  arts  at  Munich. 
He  also  painted  many  pictures  illustrating  the 
conflicts,  progress,  and  triumphs  of  the  Christian 
religion.  Among  his  best  works  are  the  tomb 
of  the  princess  Caroline  in  the  TJieatinerMrcJie, 
and  the  statues  of  St.  George  and  St,  Michael 
before  the  Isar  gate  in  Munich. 

EBIONITES,  a  party  in  the  early  Christian 
church.  The  name  was  first  used  to  designate 
aU  in  the  church  who  held  to  Jewish  opinions 
or  practices.  Its  origin  is  disputed.  Tertullian 
maintained  that  one  Ebion,  a  Samaritan  Jew, 
contemporary  with  the  apostle  John,  Avas  the 
founder  of  the  sect.    But  the  existence  of  any 


EBN 


ECBATANA 


r37 


such  man  is  now  generally  questioned,  and  tlio 
explanation  ■\vliicli  Origen  gives  that  the  word 
conies  from  the  Hebrew  cir-x,  "  poor  people," 
is  accepted  by  most  critics.  Until  the  ith  cen- 
tury the  Ebionites  seem  to  have  been  identical 
in  practice  Avith  the  sect  of  the  Nazarenes,  and 
the  two  sects  are  in  the  writings  of  the  fathers 
frequently  confounded.  Tlie  doctrine  of  the 
Ebiotiites  Avas  a  mixture  of  Judaism  and  Chris- 
tianity. While  they  accepted  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  its  integrity,  they  rejected  the  New 
Testament,  substituting  a  gospel  based  upon  the 
facts  in  the  Gospel  of  Matthew.  This  gospel 
was  known  to  the  primitive  Cliristians  as  the 
"  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews."  The  Ebionites  de- 
nied the  divinity  of  Christ,  retained  the  practice 
of  circumcision  wliile  observing  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  supper,  kept  the  Ttli  day  of  the  week  as 
a  sabbath,  and  conformed  themselves  in  many 
things  to  the  ascetic  discipline  of  tlie  Essenes. 
Their  opiniops  were  afterward  somewhat  modi- 
fied, and  tliey  were  divided  particularly  in  their 
dogma  concerning  the  birth  of  Jesus  and  the 
metliod  of  liis  union  with  God.  As  Epiphanius 
represents  them,  they  believed  tliat  Jesus  was 
the  incarnation  of  an  exalted  superangelic  spirit, 
who  came  to  republish  the  law  wliich  Moses 
had  published  before,  and  which  was  the  law 
of  right  and  truth  given  to  the  original  Adam. 
They  were  opposed  to  the  doctrine  of  priestly 
and  monastic  celibacy.  They  interpreted  liter- 
ally the  Hebrew  prophecies  in  regard  to  the 
Messiah's  kingdom,  and  expected  that  material 
reign  of  Christ  which  Isaiah  describes.  The 
residence  of  the  Ebionites  was  chiefly  in  the 
neigliborhood  of  Jerusalem. 

EBX.     See  Aben*. 

EBOLT,  An*xa  de  Mexdoza,  a  Spanish  prin- 
cess of  the  16th  century,  the  daughter  of  a  vice- 
roy of  Peru.  At  an  early  age  she  was  intro- 
duced at  the  court  of  Philip  II.  by  her  husband 
the  prince  of  Eboli,  a  favorite  of  the  king  and 
preceptor  of  his  son  Don  Carlos.  Though  one 
of  her  eyes  was  defective,  her  beauty  attracted 
general  attention,  and  she  became  noted  for  her 
amorous  as  well  as  political  intrigues.  Fore- 
most among  her  admirers  were  the  king  and  his 
secretary  of  foreign  affairs,  Antonio  Perez.  She 
was  implicated  in  the  assassination  of  Escovedo, 
the  envoy  of  Don  John  of  Austria. 

EBONY  (cUosp!/ros  ebcnum,  "Willdenow),  a 
tree  with  hard,  heavy  wood,  native  of  the  East 
Indies.  The  black  ebony,  the  most  highly 
prized,  grows  spontaneously  in  Ceylon,  Mada- 
gascar, and  Mauritius.  There  are  other  colors, 
however,  such  as  green,  red,  yellow,  and  white 
and  black  striped.  Tliere  is  another  kind  call- 
ed ironwood  from  its  intense  hardness.  The 
heart  wood  of  D.  reticulata^  a  lofty  tree  in 
Mauritius,  is  also  esteemed.  The  ebon}'  of  the 
Coromandel  coast  is  derived  from  D.  melanaxij- 
lon  (Roxburgh).  Ebony  is  likewise  procured 
from  D.  tomentosa  and  D.  EoyJei  of  the  East 
Indies.  The  fruit  of  many  of  the  ebony  trees  is 
considered  edible  by  the  natives,  although  it  is 
generally  astringent.  The  famous  oblivion-pro- 
VOL.  yi. — 47 


dncing  fruit  of  the  lotus  is  supposed  to  be  that 
of  J9.  lotus  of  Africa.  The  persimmon  {D.  Vir- 
giniana,  Linn.)  of  the  middle  and  southern 
United  States  is  a  representative  of  this  genus. 
The  imports  of  manufactured  and  unmanufac- 
tured ebony  into  the  United  States  in  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1858,  were  valued  at  $3,39-1. 

EBKO,  a  riv<;r  of  Spain,  the  Iberus  of  the 
Romans,  which  formerly  gave  the  name  of 
Iberia  to  the  fine  country  which  it  waters. 
It  has  its  source  in  the  mountains  on  the  N". 
border  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Santan- 
der,  and  pursues  a  S.  E.  course,  flowing  at  first 
between  lofty  and  i)ieturesque  heights,  separat- 
ing Biscay  and  Navarro  from  Old  Castile,  in- 
tersecting Aragon  near  its  centre,  and  after  a 
course  of  about  400  m.  emptying  into  tlie  Medi- 
terranean through  a  double  embouchure  at  Cape 
Tortosa,  near  the  S.extremity  of  Catalonia,  inlat. 
40°  42'  N.  At  Mequinenza  it  passes  through  a 
defile  where  once  was  probably  a  barrier  to  its 
Avaters,  restraining  them  as  a  lake  in  the  country 
of  Aragon.  Its  principal  tributaries  are  the 
Aragon,  Gallego,  and  Segre,  on  the  left  or  N. 
side,  and  the  Oca,  Jalon,  and  Guadalupe,  on  the 
right  or  S.  It  abounds  with  shoals  and  rapids, 
but  boats  may  pass  Avith  difticulty  as  high  as 
Tudela,  180  in.  from  its  mouth.  It  presents  so 
many  obstacles  to  navigation  that  a  canal  has 
been  cut  parallel  to  its  bank  for  a  long  distance 
N.  of  Saragossa  and  S.  of  Amposta ;  and  the  bed 
of  the  river  betAveen  these  2  points  is  now  being 
elaborately  improved.  The  principal  traffic  on 
the  river  is  the  transport  of  grain,  and  the  float- 
ing of  tim1)er  from  the  northern  forests. 

EBULLIOSCOPE,  or  EBrLLiriox  Alcohol- 
ometer, a  form  of  thermometer  used  for  deter- 
mining the  boiling  point  of  spirituous  liquors, 
from  which  the  quantity  of  alcohol  present  is 
calculated.  It  is  variously  graduated  as  modi- 
fied by  diflerent  chemists.  That  of  Dr.  Ure  is 
adapted  to  the  scale  of  Sykes's  hydi'ometer.  For 
the  purposes  of  manufacturers  this  instrument 
may  be  useful,  but  not  for  analysis.  The  boil- 
ing point  of  pure  water  and  the  height  of  the 
barometer  shoifld  be  noticed  in  making  the  ob- 
servation. 

EBULLITION.     See    Boilixg    Poixt,    and 

EVAPOEATIOX. 

ECBATANA,  one  of  the  most  renowned  of 
ancient  cities,  the  capital  of  the  Median  emjiire, 
and  the  favorite  summer  residence  of  the  kings 
of  Persia.  Its  foundation,  like  that  of  several 
other  towns  Avhich  were  older  than  historical 
record,  Avas  attributed  to  Semiramis ;  and  Dio- 
dorus  locates  it  near  the  foot  of  Mt.  Orontes, 
the  modern  Elwend.  Herodotus  assigns  to  it  a 
later  origin,  making  Deioces  its  founder,  and  de- 
scribes particularly  its  position  upon  a  conical 
hill,  and  its  enclosure  by  7  concentric  walls, 
each  inner  one  being  higher  than  the  next  outer 
one,  Avliich  were  painted  with  a  series  of  difler- 
ent colors,  the  innermost  wall  being  gilded,  and 
the  next  plated  with  silver.  He  swells  the  ac- 
count beyond  probability  by  saying  that  the 
outer  waU  equalled  in  circumference  that  of  the 


738 


ECCALEOBIOX 


ECCHELLENSIS 


city  of  Athens.  Thero  are  various  discordant 
allusions  to  Ecbatana  in  the  Bible  and  in  several 
of  the  Greek  historians,  but  the  comparison  of 
texts  and  the  observations  of  modern  travellers 
have  rendered  it  probable  that  this  city  was 
founded  and  flourished  subsequently  to  Babylon 
and  Nineveh,  and  that  it  occupied  the  position 
ascribed  to  it  by  Diodorus  and  others  near  the 
site  of  the  modern  city  of  Hamadan.  Its  cita- 
del was  of  enormous  strength,  and  adjoining  it 
■was  the  royal  palace,  rivalling  in  elegance  the 
noblest  edifices  of  the  East.  The  fragrant  cedar 
and  the  cypress  were  the  only  kinds  of  wood 
that  entered  into  its  construction,  and  its  col- 
umns, beams,  and  ceilings  were  covered  with 
golden  and  silver  plates.  Its  splendid  architec- 
ture and  spacious  apartments,  its  fountains  and 
gardens,  and  the  mild  climate  of  the  place,  at- 
tracted to  it,  even  after  the  fall  of  the  Median 
empire,  the  sovereigns  of  Persia,  to  repose  dur- 
ing the  summer  months  from  the  fatigues  of 
war  and  the  cares  of  state.  Darius  fled  from  his 
defeat  at  Arbela  to  Ecbatana,  and  Alexander  the 
Great,  having  become  master  of  the  town,  bore 
away  a  rich  booty.  Under  the  Seleucidse  its  edi- 
fices and  palaces  were  plundered,  and  its  ram- 
parts began  to  crumble  away;  yet  Antiochusthe 
Great  found  wealth  still  remaining  to  be  pillaged. 
Ecbatana  subsequently  fell  to  the  Parthians,  and 
was  the  frequent  residence  of  Parthian  kings ; 
but  its  ruin  was  completed  amid  the  revolutions 
which  preceded  the  establishment  of  the  new 
Persian  empire,  and  of  its  former  magnificence 
there  remain  only  a  few  broken  columns,  cunei- 
form inscriptions,  medals,  and  fragments  of 
sculpture,  dug  from  the  earth  in  the  vicinity  of 
Ilamadan.  Though  most  modern  travellers  and 
scholars  have  supposed  Hamadan  to  occujjy  the 
site  of  ancient  Ecbatana,  Col.  Eawlinson,  in  a 
learned  and  most  elaborate  paper  in  the  "  Geo- 
graphicalJournal"  (x.  65-158),  lias  contended  for 
the  existence  of  two  capitals  of  this  name,  one 
of  which  he  places  at  Ilamadan,  and  the  other  in 
the  hill  country  of  Upper  Media  at  Takhti-Solei- 
man.  He  accounts  for  the  discrepancies  in  the 
ancient  allusions  by  supposing  that  the  two  dis- 
tricts of  Media  were  not  properly  distinguished, 
and  has  illustrated  the  subject  by  a  careful  study 
of  all  the  authorities  and  localities.  The  Chal- 
dean form  of  the  name  in  Ezra  (vi.  2),  Achme- 
tha,  answers  both  to  the  name  found  on  the 
Behistun  inscriptions,  Ilagraatana,  and  the  mod- 
ern Hamadan.  In  the  Greek,  Agbatana,  the  m 
of  the  original  form  is  changed  into  I,  both  let- 

ECCALEOBlbN<Gr.  eKKaX^co,  to  call  out,  and 
Bioi^  life),  an  apparatus  for  hatching  eggs  by 
artificial  heat.  A  uniformly  warm  temperature, 
it  is  found,  is  all  that  is  required  for  successful 
incubation,  and  this  may  as  well  be  supplied 
artificially  as  by  the  hen.  This  fact  was  under- 
stood by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  who  made  use  of 
stoves  for  this  purpose ;  and  the  art  is  still  prac- 
tised by  the  modern  Egyptians.  Public  attention 
was  directed  to  the  subject  by  Eeaumur  in 
France  more  than  100  years  ago ;  and  before  the 


period  of  the  French  revolution  the  operation 
was  successfully  conducted  in  that  country  by  M. 
Bonnenuiin,  an  account  of  whose  apparatus  is 
given  by  Dr.  Ure,  from  his  own  observations, 
under  the  head  of  "  Incubation,  Artificial,"  in 
his  "Dictionary  of  Arts."  In  the  "American 
Journal  of  Science"  (vol.  ix.,  182-1)  is  an  ac- 
count of  a  similar  apparatus  of  Mr.  Barlow, 
near  London,  first  published  in  the  Bulletin 
(V encouragement ;  and  "  Chambers's  Edinburgh 
Journal,"  No.  400,  contains  an  interesting  de- 
scription of  the  same  operation.  The  apparatus 
of  M.  lionnemain  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
application  of  heated  water  conveyed  from  a 
boiler  in  iron  pipes  to  the  warming  of  apart- 
ments. In  tliat  of  Mr.  Barlow  the  ovens  Avere 
Avarmed  by  steam  pipes.  Each  Avas  an  arrange- 
ment of  shelves  one  above  another,  upon  Avhich 
tlie  eggs  were  placed  and  kept  21  days,  when 
the  chicks  came  forth.  By  introducing  every 
day  the  same  number  of  eggs,  the  apparatus 
is  continued  in  regular  operation,  and  with 
greater  certainty  than  Avhen  eggs  are  hatched 
in  tlie  natural  way.  In  order  that  the  eggs  may 
not  become  too  dry,  water  is  evaporated  in  the 
ovens.  "When  the  chickens  emerge  from  the 
shells  they  are  left  a  few  hours  to  become  dry, 
and  are  then  removed  to  another  apartment 
kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  80°,  where  they 
are  left  for  a  day  without  feeding,  the  yolk  of 
the  egg  Avhich  passed  into  the  intestines  24  hours 
previous  to  the  hatching  supplying  the  neces- 
sary nourishment  for  30  hours  after  it.  They  are 
then  fed  with  millet  seed  or  cracked  grain.  Care 
is  required  at  night  that  they  should  be  pro- 
vided with  warm  coops  lined  with  flannel,  in 
which  a  dozen  or  so  may  comfortably  nestle 
together  as  under  the  Aving  of  the  hen.  The 
advantages  of  this  method  of  raising  chickens 
are,  the  large  numbers  that  may  be  produced 
with  comparatively  little  cost  of  attendance ; 
the  supplies  thus  obtained  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year ;  the  reduction  of  the  loss  occasioned  by 
the  frequent  death  of  chickens  left  to  the  ordi- 
nary method  of  raising ;  and  the  saving  eflfected 
by  the  hens  being  kept  constantly  laying  eggs 
instead  of  spending  a  month  or  tAvo  at  a  time 
in  the  hatching  and  rearing  of  their  broods. 
In  some  localities  in  Europe  advantage  has  been 
taken  of  the  heat  afl:brded  by  hot  springs,  and 
eggs  haA'e  thus  been  successfully  hatched  Avith- 
out  other  expense  for  the  required  wannth. 
Numerous  localities  in  the  United  States  afford 
opportunities  for  the  same  process. 

ECCENTPJO,  having  different  centres;  in 
opposition  to  concentric,  which  signifies  that 
the  centres  coincide.  In  machinery,  an  eccen- 
tric is  a  crank  in  which  the  length  of  the  arm 
of  the  crank  is  very  short  in  comparison  Avith 
tlie  diameter  of  the  crank  ;  so  that  it  is  con- 
ceived of  as  a  circle,  rotating  round  a  line  not 
passing  through  its  centre. 

ECCIIELLENSIS,  or  EcnELLENSis,  Abkaham, 
a  learned  Maronite,  professor  of  the  Syriac  and 
Arabic  languages  in  Paris  and  in  Rome,  born  at 
Eckel,  in  Syria,  died  in  Italy  in  1664.     He  went 


ECCLESIA 


ECCIJESIASTICUS 


739 


to  Rome  to  pursne  liis  studies,  and  took  there 
tlic  degree  of  doctor  of  tlieology  and  of  philoso- 
phy. In  1680  lie  was  invited  to  Paris  to  assist  in 
editing  the  polygh>t  Bil^lo  of  Le  Jay,  and  for  his 
services  received  600  crowns  annually.  lie  con- 
tributed to  this  work  the  book  of  Kuth  in  Sy- 
riac  and  Arabic,  and  the  3d  l)ook  of  Maccabees 
in  Arabic.  In  1042  he  returned  to  Rome,  and 
obtained  in  that  city  a  professorship  of  the 
oriental  languages. 

ECCLESIA,  in  ancient  Athens,  a  general 
assembly  of  the  citizens  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
cussing and  deciding  matters  of  i)ublic  interest. 
The  ordinary  assemblies  were  hehl  3  times 
monthly  on  established  days  ;  the  extraordinary 
Avere  specially  convened  on  any  sudden  and 
pressing  emergency.  When  the  occasion  was 
one  of  extreme  importance,  special  messengers 
were  despatched  into  the  country  to  summon 
the  people  to  attend,  and  the  assembly  tlius 
convened  was  termed  a  cataclesia.  These  as- 
semblies were  originally  held  in  tbe  Agora;  but 
during  the  most  Hourisbing  periods  of  Athens, 
in  tbe  times  of  Themistocles,  Pericles,  and  De- 
mosthenes, they  were  usually  held  upon  the  rock 
of  tbe  Pnyx,  where  a  semi-circular  space,  par- 
tially formed  by  excavation  from  the  native 
rock,  and  containing  12,000  square  yards,  could 
accommodate  all  the  Athenian  citizens.  There 
were  neither  seats  nor  awning,  and  the  assem- 
bly met  at  daybreak.  The  hema  on  which  the 
orators  stood  to  address  the  people  was  carved 
from  the  rock,  and  yet  remains.  It  was  often 
called  "  the  stone ;"  and  as  the  destinies  of 
Athens  were  swayed  by  the  orators  who  stood 
upon  it,  it  became  a  figure  of  speech  for  the 
existing  government,  and  the  phrase  "  mas- 
ter of  tlie  stone"  indicated  the  ruling  states- 
man of  the  day.  At  a  later  period  the  assem- 
blies were  often  held  in  the  great  theatre  of 
Dionysus,  and  also  in  the  Pira3us,  and  in  the 
theatre  at  Munychia.  The  right  of  convening 
the  citizens  was  vested  in  theprytane^s,  or  pres- 
idents of  the  council  of  500,  but  in  times  of 
war  or  sudden  emergency  the  generals  also  had 
the  power  to  call  extraordinary  assemblies. 
Notice  was  given  of  the  meeting  by  public  pro- 
clamation, and  any  citizen  refusing  to  obey  the 
call  was  fined.  The  poorer  classes  received  a 
small  pecuniary  fee  for  their  attendance  as  a 
recompense  for  their  time.  Before  the  assembly 
entered  upon  any  business,  a  sacrifice,  usually 
of  a  suckling  pig,  was  offered,  and  incense  was 
burned.  Then  the  herald  proclaimed  silence 
and  otfered  a  prayer  to  the  gods;  after  which, 
under  the  direction  of  the  prytanos  and  the  proii- 
dri,  or  heads  of  tribes,  the  subjects  to  be  discussed 
were  stated,  and  permission  given  to  the  speak- 
ers to  address,  the  people.  No  measure  could 
be  acted  upon  in  the  assembly  which  had  not 
previously  received  the  sanction  of  the  senate, 
but  the  decrees  of  the  senate  might  hero  bo 
approved,  altered,  or  rejected;  and  a  newliill 
might  be  introduced  upon  a  subject  which  had 
already  been  discussed  in  the  senate.  Accord- 
ing to  the  older  regulations,  those  persons  who 


were  above  150  years  of  ago  had  the  privilege  of 
speaking  first;  but  tbis  distinction  was  obsolete 
in  the  days  of  Aristophanes,  and  citizens  of 
every  class  and  age  had  an  equal  right  to  speak. 
No  now  decree,  however,  could  be  publicly  ]»ro- 
posedtill  it  had  been  shown  to  tbe  ])roedri,  that 
they  might  see  whether  it  contained  any  thing 
injurious  to  the  state  or  contrary  to  existing 
laws.  The  peoi)le  voted  either  by  sbow  of  hands 
or  occasionally  by  ballot,  the  latter  method 
being  by  white  and  black  ])ebbles.  Beside  tbe 
legislative  powers  of  the  assembly,  it  could  mako 
inquisition  into  the  conduct  of  magistrates,  and 
in  turbulent  and  excited  times  exercised  a  power 
resemblingtbatof  impeachment,  as  in  the  cases 
of  Demosthenes  and  Phocion.  The  assembly 
was  B(mietimes  suddenly  broken  up  at  the  oc- 
currence of  an  unfavorable  omen,  as  thunder 
and  lightning,  sudden  rain,  or  any  unusual  nat- 
ural phenomenon. 

ECCLESIASTES,  or  the  PEEAcnErt  (Ileb. 
JToheleth,  assembler),  one  of  the  didactic  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  canon,  professing  to  be  the 
words  of  the  preacher,  the  son  of  David,  king 
in  Jerusalem.  It  contains  allusions  to  the  writ- 
er's riches,  palaces,  and  parables,  and  its  sen- 
tentious style  reminds  one  of  tho  author  of  the 
Proverbs.  Yet  its  diction  is  marked  by  Chal- 
daisnis  and  linguistic  usages  which  are  thought 
not  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  Hebrew 
language  till  about  the  period  of  tbe  liaby- 
lonish  captivity.  The  autborship  of  the  Eccle- 
siastes  has  been  attributed  to  Solonjon,  whose 
claims  have  often  been  challenged  and  always 
defended ;  and  if  it  be  not  his,  it  must  remain 
entirely  uncertain,  for  no  writer  of  the  Babylo- 
nian period  is  known  so  nearly  resembling  him 
in  wisdom  and  wealth  of  thought.  The  book 
consists  of  philosophical  reflections  upon  liuman 
life,  and  while  it  affirms:  "  Vanity  of  vanities, 
all  is  vanity,"  it  also  comes  to  the  conclusion 
of  the  whole  matter  in  the  words:  "Fear  God 
and  keep  his  commandments,  for  this  is  the 
whole  duty  of  man."  Some  entertain  the  opin- 
ion that  its  original  form  must  have  been  a 
dialogue  in  which  the  sage  carries  on  a  dis- 
cussion with  a  sceptic  and  a  libertine.  Yet  it  is 
more  commonly  regarded  as  the  monologue  of  a 
Hebrew  moralizing  on  life  and  searching  for  the 
highest  good,  scanning  the  perversities  and  fol- 
lies of  man,  and  at  length,  after  a  review  of  the 
evidence,  declaring  the  verdict  that  obedience 
to  God  is  the  onlv  real  and  sul)stantial  good. 

ECCLESIASTICUS,  one  of  the  apocryphal 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  called  also  the 
"  Wisdom  of  Jesus,  the  Sou  of  Sirach."  The  au- 
thor lived  in  the  2d  or  3d  centnry  B.  C,  and  wrote 
in  Hebrew,  though  no  copy  of  the  Hebrew  ori- 
ginal has  been  preserved;  and  his  work  was 
subsequently  translated  into  Greek  by  his  grand- 
son. The  book  contains:  1,  an  anthology  of 
moral  and  prudential  precepts  for  the  various 
circumstances  of  life;  2,  a  discourse  wliich  tho 
autlior  puts  into  the  mouth  of  wisdom  herself, 
inviting  men  to  virtue ;  and  3,  a  panegyric  in 
which  the  author  celebrates  the  praises  of  God 


740 


ECHELON 


ECHO 


and  eulogizes  the  great  men  of 'his  nation.  In 
the  EoTnan  Catholic  church  it  has  been  held  as 
canonical  since  the  council  of  Cartliage,  whoso 
decision  was  confirmed  by  the  council  of  Trent. 

ECHELON"  (Fi:,  round  of  a  ladder),  in  mil- 
itary language,  the  order  of  arrangement  when 
separate  bodies  are  drawn  up  behind  each  other 
oblifiuely,  each  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  one 
preceding,  so  that  the  Avhole  force  presents  the 
outline  of  a  stairway. 

EOHEVIN  (Lat.  scalini),  a  name  given  in 
France  from  the  time  of  Charlemagne  to  the 
assessors  in  the  provinces.  They  were  royal  of- 
ficers, and  appointed  with  the  design  of  securing 
a  uniform  administration.  At  first  they  com- 
bined the  administration  of  justice  with  that  of 
finance,  but  in  the  12th  century  the  judicial  func- 
tions were  performed  by  other  officers,  and  from 
that  time  the  echevins  were  found  only  in  cities. 
In  Paris  they  were  not  only  assessors,  but  had 
authority  in  matters  of  police  relating  to  com- 
mercial affairs,  till  they  were  suppressed  by  the 
law  of  1789,  which  organized  new  municipalities, 

ECHINADES,  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Ionian 
sea,  off  the  coast  of  Acai-nania,  near  the  entrance 
of  the  gulf  of  Corinth.  They  lay  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Achelous,  and  were  said  to  have  been 
formed  by  the  alluvial  deposits  of  that  river; 
and  Herodotus  says  that  many  of  them  in  his 
time  had  become  reunited  to  the  mainland.  Ac- 
cording to  the  legend,  they  were  nymphs  who 
dwelt  upon  the  mainland  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Achelous,  but  having  forgotten  on  one  occasion 
to  pay  their  offerings  to  the  god  of  that  river, ' 
the  angry  divinity  tore  them  away  from  their 
residence  on  the  land,  carried  them  out  to  sea, 
and  formed  them  into  islands.  They  took  their 
name  from  the  echinus^  or  sea  urchin,  in  con- 
sequence of  their  sharp  and  prickly  outlines. 
The  largest  of  them  was  Dulichium,  now  a  part 
of  the  mainland.  Homer  describes  them  as  in- 
habited, but  later  writers  speak  of  them  as  bar- 
ren and  deserted.  At  the  present  time  they  are 
the  seat  of  5  small  villages,  but  are  of  little 
importance  for  their  extent  or  productions. 

ECIIINODERMS,  EcnixoDEUMATA  (Gr. 
fX^vos^  a  hedgehog,  and  Sep/xa,  skin),  a  class  of 
invertebrate  animals,  so  named  from  the  spines 
with  which  many  of  the  species  are  covered. 
It  includes  a  number  of  families,  both  recent  and 
fossil,  among  which  the  echinidans  or  sea  ur- 
chins, the  stelleridans  or  star-fish,  and  the  cri- 
noideans,  are  the  most  prominent.  The  class  is 
distinguished  among  the  radiata  by  the  animals 
possessing  the  power  of  locomotion,  and  being 
protected  by  a  strong  external  covering.  Though 
ranked  as  the  highest  class  in  Cuvier's  4th  divi- 
sion of  the  animal  kingdom,  the  radiata,  it  has 
been  shown  by  Agassiz  that  they  do  not  conform 
to  the  structure  upon  which  this  great  division 
is  founded,  viz. :  of  organs  disposed  like  rays 
about  a  common  centre,  which  is  the  mouth  or 
axis  of  the  body.  On  the  contrary,  they  have  a 
bilateral  arrangement  of  organs,  or  a  right  and 
left  side,  which  really  belongs  to  the  other  divi- 
sions.    The  order  holothurida  of  this  class  has 


long  been  regarded  as  a  connecting  link  between 
the  radiata  and  articulata.  The  echinoderms 
arc  fomid  in  all  the  fossiliferous  formations, 
abounding  especially  in  the  oolitic  and  creta- 
ceous. It  is  remarkable  how  little  they  have 
changed  in  their  forms,  most  of  the  oldest  fossils 
of  this  class  being  referred  by  Goldfuss  in  Lis 
Petrefacten  to  existing  genera. 

ECHINUS  (Gr.  €;(ti'oy,  hedgehog),  a  genus  of 
the  echinoderms,  the  type  of  the  class,  and  rep- 
resented by  the  sea  urchins  or  sea  eggs  common 
on  our  coast.  They  are  animals  inhabiting 
globular-shaped  cases  with  flat  bases,  formed  of 
calcareous  plates  accurately  fitted  together  in 
rows  of  larger  alternating  with  smaller  plates, 
the  former  covered  upon  the  outside  with  mov- 
able spines  like  coarse  bristles.  In  some  species 
they  are  5  or  6  inches  long,  exceeding  in  length 
the  diameter  of  the  body.  These  spines  fit  by  a 
ball  and  socket  joint  into  little  depressions,  which 
occupy  the  centre  of  tubercles  that  cover  the 
larger  plates,  and  by  the  movement  of  the  outer 
skin  to  which  they  are  all  attached,  they  admit 
of  considerable  motion.  Beside  these  organs  of 
motion,  upon  which  the  weight  of  the  animal 
not  buoyed  up  by  the  water  is  sustained,  hun- 
dreds of  tubular  feet  project  through  smaller  tu- 
bercles upon  the  smaller  plates.  These  being 
transparent  are  seldom  noticed,  but  they  may  be 
thrust  out  beyond  the  spines,  and  having  a  little 
sucker  at  their  ends,  they  serve  to  take  hold  of 
any  object  that  comes  in  contact  with  them ;  and 
thus  the  animal  may  cause  the  shell  to  roll  slow- 
ly, the  spines  aiding  the  motion.  The  tubular 
feet  also  serve  to  seize  their  prey,  one  foot  after 
another  fastening  to  it  and  passing  it  around  to 
the  mouth,  which  is  in  the  centre  of  the  under 
portion  of  the  shell.  This  being  furnished  with 
a  powerful  arrangement  of  teeth,  small  shellfish 
and  crabs  are  easily  masticated.  The  echini  are 
found  of  numerous  species,  fossil  as  well  as  re- 
cent. They  first  appeared  in  the  epoch  of  the 
coal,  and  Lave  since  abounded  in  the  later  for- 
mations. In  the  greensand  formation  of  New 
Jersey  they  are  found  in  large  quantities,  beau- 
tifully preserved  in  the  straw-colored  limestone. 
The  chalk  of  Great  Britain  is  also  a  famous 
repository  of  them. 

ECHO.  Sound  comes  to  the  ear  direct  from 
the  object  producing  it ;  and  is  returned,  as  light 
is  reflected  to  the  eye,  from  surfaces  that  inter- 
cept its  progress.  When  the  interval  of  time 
between  the  direct  and  reflected  sounds  is  suffi- 
cient to  be  appreciated,  a  repetition  of  the  noise 
is  produced,  which  is  called  an  echo.  The  same 
repetition  of  a  flash  of  light  from  distant  sur- 
faces upon  the  earth  would  be  perceived,  were 
the  velocity  of  light  no  greater  than  that  of 
sound.  The  distance  of  the  reflecting  surfaces 
is  thus  an  important  element  in  the  qualities  of 
the  echo.  The  time  occupied  by  the  passage  of 
sound  over  the  space  of  100  feet  may  be  appre- 
ciated, inasmuch  as  10  distinct  impulses  upon  the 
sense  of  hearing  may  be  distinguished  in  a  second, 
during  which  time  the  sound  at  ordinary  ten)per- 
atures  passes  1,125  feet,  or  at  the  freezing  tern- 


ECHO 


741 


peratnre  1,090  feet.  Sonnets  reflected  from  the 
walls  within  ordinary  buildings  arc  confused,  and 
do  not  form  distinct  echoes  from  their  succeeding 
one  another  too  rai)idly  for  the  ear  to  detect  the 
intervals  between  them.  But  if  the  building  be 
very  large,  distinct  echoes  may  be  produced  in 
some  parts  of  it,  and  these  may  bo  repeated  sev- 
eral times  by  the  wave  of  sound  being  reflected 
from  surfaces  at  ditferent  distances,  and  conse- 
quently coining  back  at  distinct  intervals.  A 
wave  also  may  be  reflected  from  one  side  to 
another,  as  a  ball  upon  a  billiard  table,  and  at 
last,  having  traversed  a  space  much  greater  than 
its  extreme  distance  at  any  time,  come  back  to 
the  starting  point.  The  analogy,  however,  is 
not  complete  in  the  case  of  concave  surfaces, 
the  waves  of  sound  in  those  being  concentrated, 
as  the  rays  of  light  are  concentrated  in  the  focus 
of  a  concave  mirror,  and  returned  with  increased 
etfect.  The  number  of  distinct  sounds  that  may 
be  brought  back  depends  upon  the  distance  of 
the  reflecting  surface;  the  further  oflf  this  is,  the 
more  time  there  is  for  a  number  of  successive 
impulses  to  be  sent  forth  before  the  first  of  the 
series  can  return  to  be  confused  with  the  direct 
sound  of  the  last.  If  the  surface  be  500  feet  dis- 
tant, about  one  second  is  occupied  by  the  sound  in 
going  and  returning,  and  in  this  time  9  or  10  dis- 
tinct sounds  may  be  uttered.  Such  an  echo  may 
be  a  repeating  one  also,  giving  the  same  sounds 
several  times  over.  They  may  come  back  in  the 
same  pitch,  or  each  sound  a  note  lower.  An  in- 
stance of  the  latter  is  cited  by  Dr.  Charles  G-. 
Page  in  the  "American  Journal  of  Science" 
(vol.  xxxvi.,  1839).  The  locality  is  upon  his 
father's  grounds  in  Fairfax  co.,  Va.  Three  re- 
flections are  given,  the  second  much  the  most 
distinct,  and  13  syllables  may  be  distinguished. 
Twenty  notes  played  upon  a  flute  are  returned 
with  perfect  clearness.  Some  notes  in  the  scale, 
however,  are  not  returned  in  their  places,  but 
are  supplied  by  notes  which  are  either  thirds, 
fifths,  or  octaves,  and  the  etfects  are  observed  to 
vary  with  the  changes  of  the  atmosphere  or  of 
the  wind.  Another  echo  is  noticed  in  the  same 
article,  which  has  been  observed  between  two 
barns  at  Belvidere,  Alleghany  co.,  N".  Y.  It  re- 
peats a  word  of  3  syllables  distinctly  11  times, 
at  whichever  of  the  two  the  sound  is  made,  be- 
coming fainter  each  time.  A  person  placed 
about  midway  between  the  two  barns  can  dis- 
tinguish a  monosyllable  as  the  sound  traverses 
each  way  past  him  in  quick  succession  to  the 
number  of  22  times.  The  distance  apart  of 
the  two  barns  is  not  given.  Back  of  each  is 
a  rasge  of  hills,  the  valley  being  that  of  the 
Grenesee  river.  At  the  Simonetta  palace  near 
Milan  an  echo  is  spoken  of  in  the  "  Philosoph- 
ical Transactions"  (1766),  which  repeats  the 
sound  of  a  pistol  no  less  than  60  times.  In  this 
instance  the  experimenter  is  probably  nearly 
midway  between  the  two  reflecting  surfaces. 
Tlie  rolling  of  the  thunder  is  in  part  probably 
a  continuation  of  echoes  returned  from  the 
clouds.  The  effect  in  the  heavens  may  pos- 
sibly be  owing  to  the  great  difference  of  dis- 


tance from  the  observer  along  the  lino  of  an 
instantaneous  flash,  the  sound  of  the  more  re- 
mote portions  coming  to  the  ear  after  that  pro- 
duced nearer  by.  The  stunning  crash  sometimes 
heard  may  be  when  one  happens  to  stand  near 
the  focus  of  a  circular  discharge,  as  within  the 
dome  of  a  cathedral.  In  large  buildings  of  this 
class  some  very  cm-ious  eft'ects  are  often  noticed 
resulting  from  the  reflection  of  sounds  from 
their  walls;  a  slight  noise  is  nniltiplicd  into  a 
confused  roar,  or  it  may  be'reflocted  from  some 
surface  and  conveyed  to  a  remote  part  of  the 
building  with  all  its  original  clearness  and  dis- 
tinctness. Though  this  is  not  properly  an  echo 
in  the  usual  sense  of  a  returned  sound,  it  is  a 
reflection  of  sound  sent  to  another  point  by  a 
difterent  route  than  the  direct  one,  and  may 
therefore  be  classed  with  echoes.  Whispering 
galleries  are  of  this  nature.  Two  points  within 
the  building  stand  in  the  relation  to  each  other 
of  tlie  two  foci  of  an  ellipse,  the  ceiling  pre- 
senting the  ellipsoid  reflecting  surface  more  or 
less  i)erfectly;  the  more  perfect  and  extended, 
the  more  distinctly  is  the  sound  produced  at 
one  of  the  foci  concentrated  at  the  other, 
even  when  their  distance  apart  is  so  great  that 
tlie  direct  sound  may  not  reach  half  so  far. 
Were  the  ceiling  in  this  case  a  bright  mirror, 
the  rays  from  alight  at  one  of  the  foci  would  in 
like  manner  l)e  reflected  and  concentrated  at 
the  other,  illuminating  the  surface  of  any  object, 
though  the  faint  glimmer  might  scarcely  be 
perceptible  in  the  dark  intervening  space.  Ex- 
amples of  these  galleries  are  often  met  with  in 
large  structures.  That  of  St.  Paul's,  London,  is 
often  cited.  The  gallery  is  140  yards  in  circum- 
ference, and  is  just  below  the  dome.  The  dis- 
tance across  is  nearly  as  many  feet.  A  whisper 
near  the  wall  on  one  side  is  conveyed  to  a  per- 
son on  the  opposite  side,  as  a  loud  voice  appa- 
rently close  to  his  ear,  yet  it  is  not  heard  in  the 
intermediate  space.  The  shutting  of  a  door 
produces  a  sound  like  a  peal  of  thunder  rolling 
among  the  mountains. — To  avoid  the  confused 
sounds  produced  by  echoCs  in  buildings  designed 
for  public  speaking,  and  at  the  same  time  prop- 
erly distribute  the  sound  of  the  voice  with  all 
its  distinctness,  it  is  recommended  to  give  to  the 
apartment  a  length  equal  to  li  or  1^  times  the 
breadth,  and  a  height  somewhat  greater  than 
the  breadth.  The  ceiling  should  be  higher  in 
the  centre  than  at  the  sides,  and  should  join 
these  by  bevelled  edges.  Its  surfoce  also  should 
be  broken  into  compartments  and  roughened 
by  pendants. 

ECHO,  in  Greek  mythology,  an  oread  npnph, 
daughter  of  the  earth  and  air.  She  dwelt  upon 
the  banks  of  the  Cephissus,  not  far  from  Athens, 
at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Pentelicus,  and  became  so 
desparately  in  love  with  Narcissus,  son  of  the 
river,  that  she  followed  him  through  the  forests, 
in  the  cha^e,  to  the  darkness  of  grottoes,  and  to 
the  borders  of  fountains,  and  ever  repeated  in 
solitary  places  the  name  of  her  beloved.  Nar- 
cissus disdained  her  passion ;  and  she  retreated 
into  the  depth  of  the  woods,  and  concealed  her- 


742 


ECIJA 


ECKMtHL 


self.  There  she  pined  away  in  secret,  and  no 
longer  appeared  among  the  choirs  of  nymphs. 
Only  her  plaintive  voice  was  always  heard  in 
the  distance,  which  occasioned  the  saying  that 
her  bones  Avere  changed  into  rocks,  and  her 
voice  alone  remained. 

EOIJA  (anc.  Astigis)^  a  jjity  of  Andalusia, 
Spain,  on  the  Genii,  42  m.  E.  N.  E.  of  Seville ; 
pop.  23,722.  Its  industry  consists  chiefly  in  the 
manufacture  of  yoollens,  leather,  shoes,  and 
saddlery.  Some  have  supposed  that  Ecija  was 
visited  by  the  apostle  Paul.  It  was  the  rival  of 
Cordova  and  Seville,  and  for  a  long  time  a  bor- 
der town  between  the  Moors  and  Christians,  and 
the  scene  of  many  romantic  adventures.  Many 
inscriptions  and  relics  of  antiquity  still  exist 
here. 

ECK,  or  EoKfus,  Johanx  Matr  to^t,  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  distinguished  by  his  opposition 
to  Luther,  born  in  Eck,  in  Swabia,  Nov.  13, 
1486,  died  in  Ingolstadt  in  1543.  The  son  of  a 
peasant,  he  acquired,  by  a  profound  study  of 
the  Christian  fathers  and  the  scholastic  philoso- 
phers, an  erudition  and  skill  in  disputation 
which  Luther  and  Melanchthon  much  admired. 
He  was  doctor  of  theology,  canon  of  Eichstildt, 
and  vice-chancellor  of  the  university  of  Ingol- 
stadt, when  in  1518  he  appeared  as  an  adver- 
sary of  Luther  by  his  notes  upon  the  theses 
of  that  reformer.  He  subsequently  met  Luther 
and  Carlstadt  in  the  conferences  at  Augsburg 
and  Leipsic,  but  failing  to  convince  them  by 
his  arguments,  he  repaired  to  Rome  to  urge 
more  sevei'e  measures  against  them.  He  re- 
turned to  Germany  with  a  papal  bull  of  con- 
demnation, but  at  Leipsic  the  people  had  so 
warmly  embraced  the  new  doctrines,  that  he 
saved  himself  from  violence  only  by  retreating 
to  a  convent.  He  subsequently  labored  fruit- 
lessly to  reunite  the  divided  church. 

ECKERMANN,  Johann  Peter,  a  German 
literary  man,  born  in  "Winsen,  Hanover,  in  1792, 
died  in  Weimar,  Dec.  3,  1854.  He  is  chiefly 
celebrated  for  his  intercourse  with  Goethe,  to 
whom  he  became  first  known  by  a  volume  of 
poetry  which  he  published  in  1821.  He  assist- 
ed Goethe  in  his  last  edition  of  his  complete 
works,  and  was  named  in  his  will  editor  of  his 
literary  remains,  which  were  accordingly  pub- 
lished in  1832-'8.  In  1839-'40  he  edited  a 
complete  issue  of  Goethe's  works  in  40  volumes; 
but  the  work  which  won  for  him  much  reputa- 
tion was  his  publication  of  his  conversations 
with  Goethe,  or  Gesprdche  mit  Goethe  (3d  and 
last  volume,  Magdeburg,  1848).  Extracts  of 
this  work  were  translated  into  many  foreign  lan- 
guages, including  the  Turkish.  The  first  English 
translation  was  made  by  Margaret  Fuller,  and 
published  at  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1839.  Another 
English  translation  by  Oxenford  appeared  at  Lon- 
don in  1850.  Eckermann  accompanied  Goethe's 
son  to  Italy  in  1830;  and  on  his  return  to  Wei- 
mar he  was  appointed  teacher  of  the  hereditary 
grand  duke.  In  1836  he  became  director  of  the 
library  of  the  grand  duchess  of  AVeimar.  Of 
Eckermann's  original  poetical  productions,  those 


published  at  Stuttgart  in  1823  derive  interest 
from  their  allusions  to  Goethe. 

ECKFORD,  Henkt,  an  American  ship-build- 
er, born  in  Irvine,  Scotland,  March  12,  1775, 
died  in  Constantinople,  Nov.  12,  1832.  At  the 
age  of  16  he  was  sent  to  Canada  and  placed 
under  the  care  of  his  maternal  uncle,  Mr.  John 
Black,  a  naval  constructor  of  Quebec.  In  1796 
he  removed  to  New  York,  where  his  skill  in 
modelling  and  constructing  vessels  soon  gave 
him  ample  employment.  He  was  in  the  habit 
of  obtaining  from  the  commander  of  each  of 
his  ships  an  accurate  account  of  her  properties 
under  all  the  casualties  of  navigation,  and  witb 
the  experience  thus  gained  he  endeavored  to 
impi'ove  step  by  step  upon  each  succeeding 
model.  Many  important  changes  in  the  hull 
and  rigging  of  vessels  date  from  the  commence- 
ment of  his  labors  in  New  York,  and  the 
supremacy  of  that  city  in  naval  architecture 
became  generally  recognized  throughout  the 
United  States.  During  the  war  of  1812  he  en- 
tered into  a  contract  with  the  U.  S.  government 
to  construct  vessels  of  war  on  the  lakes,  and 
soon  had  an  excellent  fleet  afloat  and  equipped, 
notwithstanding  that  it  was  necessary  to  fell 
the  timber  in  the  neighboring  forests,  and  to 
transport  the  rigging,  sails,  and  other  materials 
from  the  seaboard.  Shortly  after  the  war  he 
constructed  the  steamer  Robert  Fulton,  Avhich 
in  1822  made  the  first  successful  voyage  by 
steam  to  New  Orleans  and  Havana.  She  was 
subsequently  altered  into  a  sailing  vessel,  and 
became  the  fastest  sloop  of  war  in  the  Brazilian 
navy.  In  1820  he  accepted  the  appointment  of 
naval  constructor  at  the  navy  yard  in  Brooklyn, 
where  the  line-of-battle  ship  Ohio  was  built 
from  his  designs.  On  the  day  that  she  was 
launched,  however,  he  resigned  his  commission, 
in  consequence  of  disagTeements  with  the  oifi- 
cers  composing  the  bureau  of  construction.  He 
subsequently  constructed  vessels  of  war  for  va- 
rious European  powers,  and  for  some  of  the 
South  American  republics.  Upon  the  accession 
of  Gen.  Jackson  to  the  presidency  he  was  in- 
vited to  furnish  a  plan  for  a  new  organization 
of  the  navy,  and  the  suggestions  which  he  (rf- 
fered,  though  not  adopted,  were  considered 
judicious  and  practical.  About  this  time  he 
projected  a  work  on  naval  architecture  and  the 
establishment  of  a  professorship  on  that  branch 
of  science  in  Columbia  college.  In  1831  he  built 
a  sloop  of  war  for  Sultan  Mahmoud,  and  re- 
ceived from  that  sovereign  an  invitation  to  enter 
his  service  as  naval  constructor.  He  accord- 
ingly took  up  his  residence  in  Constantinople, 
where  he  organized  a  navy  yard,  and  laid  the 
keel  of  a  ship  of  the  line,  which,  however,  he 
did  not  live  to  see  completed. 

ECKlVrtlllL,  a  village  of  Bavaria,  on  the  river 
Great  Laber,  in  the  circle  of  Lower  Bavaria,  13 
m.  from  Ratisbon,  memorable  for  the  great  vic- 
tory gained  here  by  Napoleon  over  the  Austri- 
ans  under  the  archduke  Charles,  April  22, 1809. 
Marshal  Davoust,  having  especially  signalized 
his  valor  during  the  engagement,  was  created 


ECKSTEIN 


ECLIPSE 


743 


{)riiice  of  Eckmillil.  This  battle,  and  tho  partial 
actions  wliich  had  preceded  it,  cost  Austria  25,- 
000  men,  and  obliged  the  arclidukc  Charles  to 
retire  into  Bohemia,  and  to  leave  open  to  Na- 
poleon the  highway  to  Vienna. 

ECKSTEIN,  Feudixaxi),  baron  d',  a  French 
publicist,  born  of  Jewish  parents  in  Denmark 
in  1790,  became  a  convert  to  Lntheranism  in 
1807,  and  afterward  to  Catholicism.  He  studied 
in  Gottingen  and  Heidelberg,  took  a  part  in  tho 
campaigns  of  1812-'l-i,  held  various  offices  un- 
der the  government  of  the  Netherlands  and  of 
the  Bourbons  in  Franco,  who  conferred  on  him 
tho  title  of  baron,  and  retired  from  public  life 
in  1830.  From  1826  to  1829  he  conducted  a 
periodical,  Le  Catholique,  in  which  ho  advocated 
the  religious  views  of  Do  Maistre  and  Do  Bo- 
nald.  lie  has  since  written  for  the  Acenir^  the 
Augsburg  Allgemeine  Zeitung,  and  various  sci- 
entiiic  periodicals,  and  enjoys  a  higli  reputation 
for  his  familiarity  with  the  literature  of  lliu- 
dostan. 

ECLECTICS  (Gr.  «Xfyo),  to  select),  a  class 
of  ancient  pliilosophers  who  professed  to  select 
whatever  was  good  and  true  from  all  tlie  other 
philosophical  sects,  that  they  might  combine  it 
in  a  new  system.  They  held  Plato  in  tlie  high- 
est esteem,  but  did  not  hesitate  to  add  to  his 
doctrines  whatever  they  thought  conformable  to 
reason  ia  the  tenets  of  the  other  schools,  or  to 
reject  from  his  teachings  whatever  they  disap- 
proved. The  eclectic  system  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  with  Potamon  of  Alexandria,  a  Pla- 
tonist ;  it  was  in  a  flourishing  state  at  Alexan- 
dria about  the  beginning  of  our  era;  and  it 
reached  its  perfection  under  Ammonius  Saccas, 
who  blended  Christianity  with  his  views,  and 
founded  the  sect  of  the  Ammonians,  or  New 
Platonists,  in  the  2d  century.  The  moral  doctrine 
of  the  Alexandrian  school  was,  that  the  mind  of 
man,  originally  part  of  the  Divine  Being,  having 
fallen  into  darkness  and  defilement  through  its 
connection  with  the  body,  is  to  be  gradually 
emancipated  from  the  influence  of  matter,  and 
rise  by  contemplation  to  the  knowledge  and  like- 
ness of  .God  ;  and  that  this  result,  which  is  the 
great  end  of  philosophy,  is  to  be  attained  through 
abstinence,  voluntary  mortification,  and  religious 
exercises.  In  the  infancy  of  this  school,  not  a 
few  professors  of  Christianity  wero  led,  by  the 
pretensions  of  the  eclectic  sect,  to  think  that  a 
coalition  might  advantageously  be  formed  be- 
tween its  system  and  that  of  the  gospel ;  and 
this  union  seemed  the  more  desirable  when  sev- 
eral prominent  eclectics  became  converts  to  the 
Christian  faith.  The  only  consequence,  how- 
ever, was  the  corruption  of  the  pure  and  simple 
doctrines  of  the  New  Testament,  by  their  mix- 
ture with  pagan  ideas  and  opinions. — The  term 
Eclecticism  is  also  used  by  Victor  Cousin  to 
represent  his  own  philosophical  system.  (See 
Corsix,  Victor.) 

ECLIPSE  (Gr.  fK\eiy}ns,  failure),  the  inter- 
ception of  light  from  one  heavenly  body  by  the 
intervention  of  another.  An  eclipse  of  the 
moon  is  the  passage  of  the  moon  into  the  sha- 


dow of  the  earth.  It  is  evident  that  this  can 
only  happen  at  full  moon,  and  then  only  when 
the  moon  is  nearly  in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic, 
i.  e.  in  tiie  plane  of  the  earth's  orbit.  These 
eclipses  occur  often,  and  are  beautiful  phenome- 
na ;  but  the  edge  of  the  shadow  of  the  earth  is 
not  defined  with  sufficient  sharpness  to  make 
lunar  eclipses  of  raucli  value  to  the  progress  of 
astronomy.  Solar  eclipses  are  caused  by  tho 
earth's  passing  into  the  shadow  of  tho  moon, 
and  of  course  occur  oidy  at  new  moon,  and  wheo 
the  moon  is  nearly  in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic. 
As  tho  moon  is  much  smaller  than  tho  sun,  its 
shadow  runs  rapidly  to  a  point,  and  nevercovers 
more  than  a  small  portion  of  the  earth ;  hence 
the  i)henomenon  of  a  total  eclipse  is  very  rarely 
seen.  But  as  the  cone  of  the  moon's  sliadow  is 
surrounded  by  a  larger  inverted  cone  of  pen- 
umbra, i.  e.  of  space  in  which  the  mf>on  inter- 
cepts a  part  of  tlie  light,  the  opportunities  of 
seeing  a  partial  eclipse  of  the  sun  are  mnch 
more  frequent.  The  instant  of  entering  the 
penumbra  is  sharply  defined  by  an  apjiarent  in- 
dentation in  the  limb  of  the  sun,  and  that  of 
entering  tho  shadow  by  the  total  disappear- 
ance of  the  sun.  It  sometimes  happens  that  tho 
moon  is  too  far  from  the  earth  to  allow  her 
shadow  to  reach  us,  in  which  case  persons  in 
the  centre  of  the  penumbra  see  a  ring  of  the 
sun  surrounding  the  moon ;  this  is  called  an 
annular  eclipse  (Lat.  a/unilus,  a  ring).  It  is 
evident  that  solar  eclipses  afford  the  means  of 
testing  our  calculations  of  the  moon's  motions, 
and  of  determining  the  longitude  of  places  on 
the  earth.  The  beginning  and  ending  of  the  par- 
tial, of  the  total,  and  of  the  annular  phases,  and 
the  distance  apart  of  the  ends  of  the  indentation 
in  the  sun's  limb,  all  may  be  calculated  and  ob- 
served with  great  accuracy,  and  the  observations 
are  of  great  use  in  correcting  the  assumed  data 
of  the  calculation  of  the  moon's  motions,  and  the 
longitude  of  the  places  of  observation.  Total 
eclipses  also  afford  opportunities  for  many  in- 
teresting observations  on  physical  phenomena, 
and  on  the  emotions  of  the  animal  tribes ;  the 
most  singular  optical  effect  being  the  occa- 
sional issuing  of  rose-colored  flames  from  the 
sun  during  the  total  phase.  Eclipses  of  the  sun 
by  Venus  and  Mercury  are  called  transits ;  they 
occasion  an  inappreciable  diminution  of  light, 
are  rare  occurrences,  and  are  of  much  astronomi- 
cal utility.  Eclipses  of  stars  and  planets  by  the 
moon  are  called  occultations,  and  possess  a  value 
similar  to  that  of  solar  eclipses.  The  eclipses 
in  Jupiter's  system  are  of  4  kinds :  the  satel- 
lites pass  into  the  shadow  of  Jupiter,  or  may 
cast  their  shadow  upon  his  face ;  tliey  may  pass 
between  us  and  their  primary,  or  may  pass  be- 
hind him.  Tlie  last  named  eclipses  were  at  one 
time  the  most  important  means  of  determining 
longitude  at  sea,  as  the  eclipse  gave  the  Green- 
wich time  for  direct  comparison  with  the  time  at 
the  sliip.  Solar  eclipses  and  occultations,  being 
of  great  use  in  determining  longitudes,  are  cal- 
culated beforehand  so  accurately  as  to  prepare 
the  observer  to  be  on  the  watch  at  the  right 


744 


ECLIPTIC 


ECUADOR 


moment,  Tvliich  can  bo  ascertained  by  means 
of  an  instrument  invented  by  Tliomas  Hill  of 
TValtliam,  Mass.,  which  marks  out  on  a  chart  of 
the  sky  the  moon's  apparent  motions  as  seen 
from  any  part  of  the  earth's  surface. 

ECLIPTIC  (from  eclipse,  being  the  region  of 
lunar  and  solar  eclipses),  the  great  circle  in  the 
heavens,  in  the  circumference  of  which  the  sun 
appears  to  move  during  the  annual  revolution 
of  the  earth.  This  great  circle  makes  an  angle 
of  about  23°  28'  with  the  equinoctial  or  celestial 
equator  (the  great  circle  equidistant  from  the 
poles),  which  is  called  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic,  and  is  evidently  equivalent  to  the 
angle  which  the  axis  of  the  earth  makes  with 
a  line  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit. 
The  points  where  the  equator  cuts  the  eclip- 
tic are  called  equinoxes,  because  when  the 
6un  is  there  the  days  and  nights  are  equal  in 
all  parts  of  the  globe.  The  ecliptic  is  divid- 
ed hito  12  equal  parts  called  signs:  Aries  t, 
Taurus  »,  Gemini  n.  Cancer  G,  Leo  i^,  Virgo 
TIE,  Libra  =2=,  Scorpio  fii,,  Sagittarius  $  ,  Capri- 
cornus  V3,  Aquarius  ^%  Pisces  K .  These  signs 
formerly  coincided  with  the  constellations  of 
the  same  names,  which  now  occupy  places  about 
one  sign  to  the  east,  so  that  the  constellation 
Aries  is  in  the  sign  Taurus,  &c.  The  first  point 
of  T  is  the  vernal  equinox,  or  point  at  which 
the  sun  ascends  about  March  20  to  the  north- 
ern side  of  the  equator;  the  autumnal  equi- 
nox is  the  first  point  of  ^2=,  where  the  sun  de- 
scends south  of  the  equator.  The  point  at 
which  the  sun  is  furthest  north,  about  June 
20,  is  the  summer  solstice  or  solstitial  point; 
this  is  the  fii-st  point  of  © ;  while  the  winter 
solstice  is  the  first  point  of  Ad,  reached  by  the 
sun  about  Dec.  20.  The  obliquity  of  the  eclip- 
tic sufl'ers  a  diminution  of  about  48"  in  a  cen- 
tury, but  the  limits  of  this  diminution  are  said 
to  be  fixed.  The  equinoxes  also  move  on  the 
ecliptic  in  the  direction  opposite  to  the  sun's 
apparent  motion,  at  the  rate  of  about  50.22"  a 
year,  which  is  called  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes. The  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  also  suf- 
fers a  monthly  annual  variation,  called  nutation, 
arising  from  the  action  of  the  sun  and  moon 
upon  the  protuberant  regions  of  the  earth's 
equator,  which  makes  the  direction  of  the  earth's 
axis  slightly  oscillatory.  The  effect  of  nutation 
is  to  cause  the  pole  of  the  heavens  to  move  in 
a  minute  oval  about  its  mean  position.  That 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  has  not  materially 
changed  since  the  creation  is  shown  by  the  fact 
in  geography  first  pointed  out  by  Peirce,  that 
the  principal  coast  lines  and  mountain  chains 
either  coincide  with,  or  are  perpendicular  to, 
the  line  separating  light  and  darkness  when 
the  sun  is  at  the  solstices.  The  whole  of  the 
present  faunas  and  floras  of  the  world  are  also 
adapted  in  their  constitution  to  the  present 
obUquity  of  the  ecliptic  and  average  course  of 
the  seasons.  For  it  is  evident  that  a  percep- 
tible cliange  in  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic 
would  produce  a  change  in  the  average  tem- 
peratures of  summer  and  winter,  which  would 


drive  plants  further  north  or  further  south  ac- 
cording to  their  ability  to  endure  sun  and  frost. 

ECLOGUE,  a  pastoral  poem.  The  names 
eclogue  and  idyl,  both  of  Greek  derivation,  are 
given  indifferently  to  short  poems  commemorat- 
ing the  events  of  rural  life.  The  distinction 
which  has  been  made,  that  idyl  belongs  to  pieces 
in  which  the  poet  himself  relates  the  event,  and 
eclogue  to  pieces  in  which  he  conceals  himself 
and  introduces  shepherds  as  actors,  is  not  strict- 
ly observed, 

ECUADOR,  or  EgrADOR,  a  republic  of  South 
America,  lying  between  lat.  1°  35'  N.  and  5*^ 
50'  S.,  and  between  long.  68°  20'  and  81°  12'  "W. 
Its  name  is  derived  fi-om  its  position  under  the 
equator.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  New  Granada  ; 
E.  by  New  Granada,  Brazil,  and  Peru ;  S.  by 
Peru ;  W.  by  the  Pacific.  The  boundary  lines 
between  Ecuador  and  New  Granada,  Brazil,  and 
Peru  have  never  been  definitely  settled,  the 
Ecuadorians  claiming  territory  extending  S.  of 
the  Amazon  or  Marauon,  over  which  Peru  as- 
serts jurisdiction,  and  a  tract  lying  between  the 
Putumayo  river  and  the  Cordillera  of  Caqueta, 
which  is  also  claimed  by  New  Granada.  As  how- 
ever the  territory  thus  disputed  is  as  y^t  only  in- 
habited by  Indian  tribes,  its  present  value  is  com- 
paratively small.  The  area  of  a  country  whose 
boundaries  are  so  unsettled  cannot  be  definitely 
ascertained.  It  is  probaby  not  far  from  250,- 
000  sq.  m. — The  Pacific  coast  has  many  indenta- 
tions, few  of  which,  however,  form  good  har- 
bors. The  principal  gulfs  are  those  of  Guayaquil, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Guayaquil  river,  and  that  of 
Ancon  de  Sardinas,  between  the  rivers  Mira  and 
Santiago.  There  are  also  3  considerable  bays, 
that  of  Caracas,  S.  of  Cape  Pasado ;  that  of 
Mompiche,  S.  of  Cape  San  Francisco ;  and  that  of 
Pailon,  which  is  rather  Avhat  the  Scotch  call  a 
frith  than  a  proper  bay.  The  principal  harbors 
are  Guayaquil  and  Manta.  The  bays  and  gulfs 
are  studded  with  a  considerable  number  of  islets, 
a  few  of  them  inhabited,  and  all  adding  by  their 
rich  tropical  vegetation  to  the  beauty  of  the 
scenery. — Ecuador  is  decidedly  a  mountainous 
country ;  the  Andes  extend  over  the  greatest 
part  of  its  territory,  spreading  out  in  elevated 
plateaus  called  ^Mvamos  by  the  inhabitants,  and 
rising  in  lofty  peaks  from  these  elevated  plains. 
There  are  3  principal  Cordilleras,  or  ranges  of 
mountains,  into  which  the  Andes  are  divided, 
as  they  enter  Ecuador  from  the  north  :  the  east- 
ernmost, which  retains  the  name  of  Andes,  and 
which  as  a  whole  maintains  the  greatest  eleva- 
tion ;  the  western  cordillera,  or  range,  connected 
with  the  first  by  a  broad  plateau,  ha\-ing  an 
elevation  of  from  10,000  to  16,000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  from  either  border  of 
which  shoot  up  the  lofty  peaks  which  stand 
like  sentinels  along  the  elevated  plain ;  and,  stiU 
nearer  to  the  coast,  a  lower  range  extending  in 
lines  parallel  or  nearly  so  to  the  Pacific  shore,  be- 
ginning near  the  New  Granadian  line,  in  a  knot 
or  group  of  mountains  which  unites  the  3  ranges, 
and  losing  itself  in  the  salt  marshes  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Esmeraldas.    The  inhabitants  of 


ECUADOR 


745 


the  mountainous  districts  have  given  the  name 
of  knot  (undo),  or  grouji,  and  also  of  paramo 
(cold,  bleak  desert),  to  these  elevated  plateaus, 
many  of  which,  thongh  maintaining  nearly  the 
same  mean  elevation,  are  any  thing  but  level. 
Of  these  there  are  8  principal  ones,  beside  many 
of  less  note.  They  are,  beginning  at  the  north, 
the  nudoHoi  Iluaca,  Cajas,  TiopuUo,  Poinachaca, 
Assuay,  Porteto,  Acayana,  and  Savanilla.  The 
general  direction  of  tlie  great  mountain  chains 
is  S.  S.  W.,  but  from  eacli  side  of  these  spread 
out  spurs  and  ramifications,  which  render  most 
of  the  territory  of  the  republic  a  la1)yrinth  of 
mountains.  Twenty-two  of  the  mountains  of 
Ecuador  rise  above  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow, 
and  25  more  rise  above  10,000  feet.  Of  these 
a  majority  are  volcanoes,  some  constantly  active, 
others  occasionally  so  ;  some  pouring  out  lava 
and  scorijo,  otliers  vomiting  upon  the  valleys 
below  rivers  of  hot  and  sulphurous  waters,  or 
masses  of  semi-liquid  mud.  The  following  table 
is  given  by  Villaviccncio  of  tlie  names  and  height 
of  those  Avhich  rise  above  the  snow  line,  from 
the  very  latest  measurements,  which,  as  will  be 
seen,  differ  slightly  from  the  generally  received 
figures : 


Eastern  rango.  Fefit. 

Cavanibi 19,813 

Autisana 19,301 

Cotopaxi 19,1()3 

LlaiK'anate 18,639 

Altar 17,626 

Siiicholagua 17,473 

Sangai ,17,2S4 

Sara-urcu 17,276 

Tiinguragua 16,514 

Collanes  (range)...  17,281 
Assuay 15,749 


Weiterp  rnngo.  Feet, 

Chiinborazo 21,871 

Ilinisa 17,649 

CasaUagiia 16,864 

Cotacachi  .•. 16,650 

ricbincha 16,213 

Corazon 16,169 

Atacasho 16,169 

Chiles 15,952 

( 'arahuir.izo 15,916 

Yana-urco 15,913 

Quilimlana 15,913 


— The  rivers  of  Ecuador  are  of  two  classes :  those 
which  discharge  their  waters  into  the  Pacific,  and 
have  a  short  and  precipitous  course  ;  and  those 
which,  rising  in  the  Andes,  descend  their  eastern 
slope,  and  unite  with  the  Amazon  or  some  of  its 
large  branches,  forming  a  part  of  the  great  fluvial 
system  of  the  Amazonian  basin.  Many  of  these 
are  navigable  for  a  considerable  distance  within 
the  republic.  The  principal  rivers  discharging 
into  the  Pacific  are  the  Mira,  the  Onzota  or  Ostio- 
nes,  the  Esmeraldas,  the  Daule,  the  Baba,  the  Ya- 
ron,  the  Salado,  and  the  Tumbez,  which  forms  a 
small  part  of  the  southern  boundary.  Of  these, 
the  Esmeraldas  is' the  most  considerable.  This 
river  rises  in  the  vicinity  of  Cotopaxi,  near  the 
sources  of  the  Napo  and  the  Pastaza,  and,  after 
a  long  but  circuitous  course,  discharges  its  wa- 
ters into  the  Pacific.  The  lower  third  of  the 
river  is  navigable.  The  Mira,  the  Daule,  and 
the  Tumbez  are  all  rivers  of  considerable  im- 

{)ortance.  Tlie  Amazon,  or  Maranon,  forms  a 
arge  part  of  the  S.  boundary,  or  adopting  the 
Ecuadorian  location  of  the  Peruvian  frontier, 
traverses  the  S.  region  of  the,  republic,  from 
which  its  principal  aflluents  are  the  Putumayo, 
the  Loreto,  the  Ambyacu,  the  Napo,  the  Pe- 
quena,  the  Chambira,  the  Pastaza,  the  Morona, 
and  the  Santiago  or  Paute.  The  Putumayo 
forms  the  N.  E.  boundary  of  the  republic,  un- 
less we  include  the  district  of  Mainas  as  be- 
longing to  it.    It  is  one  of  the  most  important 


affluents  of  the  upper  Amazon,  and  is  navigable 
for  the  greater  part  of  its  length.  The  Napo  is 
the  largest  river  wholly  within  the  territory  of 
the  republic.  It  rises  on  the  eastern  slope  of 
Cotopaxi,  and  has  a  length  of  a  little  more  than 
800  m.,  and  a  breadtli  where  it  joins  the 
Amazon  of  3,300  feet.  It  is  navigable  for  steam- 
boats about  550  m.  The  Pequcna,  or  Tigrc, 
is  about  400  m.  in  length,  and  is  navigable  for 
230  m.  The  Pastaza,  like  the  Napo  and  tho 
Esmeraldas,  rises  on  the  .slopes  of  Cotopaxi. 
It  is  about  700  m.  in  length,  and  is  navigablo 
for  350  m.  by  steamboats,  and  80  more  for 
smaller  vessels.  The  Morona  is  a  smaller  river, 
but  is  navigable  for  a  considerable  distance  from 
its  junction  with  the  Amazon.  The  Santiago,  or 
Paute,.  has  its  source  in  the  lake  of  Quinuas,  in 
the  western  branch  of  the  Andes,  in  the  jirov- 
ince  of  Cuenea.  Its  length  is  about  660  m., 
of  which  about  400  is  navigable  for  steamboats 
and  120  more  for  smaller  vessels. — The  cliinato 
of  Ecuador  varies  with  the  elevation  of  tho 
surface.  Altliough  lying  directly  under  tho 
equator,  many  portions  of  it  enjoy  a  mild  and 
delightful  temperature,  a  perpetual  spring  or 
autumn.  The  sea-coast  is  low,  hot,  and  sickly, 
but  as  we  jiroceed  toward  the  interior,  we  find 
the  valleys  lying  between  the  spurs  or  ranges  of 
mountains  possessing  a  warm  but  not  hot  cli- 
mate, and  producing  abundantly  all  the  fruits  of 
tropical  and  many  of  those  of  temperate  regions; 
the  mesetas  ov  paramos^  the  elevated  plains  and 
table-lands  connecting  the  Cordilleras,  are  cool- 
er in  proportion  to  their  elevation,  some  of  them, 
at  the  height  of  9,000  or  10,000  feet,  like  the 
valley  of  Quito,  enjoying  the  most  equable  tem- 
perature perhaps  on  the  globe,  and  producing 
fruits  and  flowers  of  all  climes.  The  mean  tem- 
perature of  these  plains  varies  from  56^  to  62° 
F.  Others,  again,  with  an  elevation  of  12,000 
or  14,000  feet,  are  cold  and  dreary ;  the  sur- 
face, too  barren  and  frigid  for  the  growth  of 
trees,  is  covei-ed  with  a  species  of  heath,  and 
has  a  mean  temperature  of  38°  to  40°  F.  The 
mesas,  or  high  plains  on  the  slopes  of  the  ele- 
vated peaks,  are  intensely  cold,  and  many  of 
them  covered  most  of  the  year  with  snow- 
There  are  but  two  seasons  in  the  Ecuadorian 
climate :  the  winter,  or  rainy  season,  com- 
mences in  December,  and  ends  in  May ;  the 
other,  called  summer,  or  the  windy  season,  be- 
gins in  June  and  terminates  in  November.  Tho 
former  is  a  season  not  of  perpetual  rain,  but  of 
frequent  fertilizing  showers.  The  period  of  the 
winter  solstice  is  usually  one  of  clear  skies  and 
delightful  temperature,  and  is  known  as  tho 
"little  summer."  During  the  summer,  rain  sel- 
dom falls,  but  high  winds  prevail ;  at  the  period 
of  the  autumnal  equinox  there  is  usually  some 
rain,  and  this  is  called  by  tho  inhabitants  the 
"little  winter."  On  the  coast  the  seasons  are 
nearly  reversed  ;  during  the  months  from  June 
to  November  the  sky  is  very  generally  overcast, 
and  a  drizzling  rain  or  mist  very  prevalent,  while 
from  December  to  May  the  skies  are  usually 
clear.     In  the  vast  forests  which  line  the  banks 


746 


ECUADOR 


of  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries,  the  rainy 
season  is  proloDgcd,  owing  probably  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  forests  in  produchig  precipitation 
of  the  clouds  from  the  summits  of  the  Andes, 
which  would  otherwise  pass  over  and  water  the 
more  arid  plains  beyond. — In  the  article  Andes 
the  general  geological  structure  of  that  mighty 
chain  is  fully  discussed ;  we  need  only  say  in  re- 
gard to  the  special  geology  of  Ecuador,  that  the 
volcanoes,  and  indeed  almost  the  entire  mountain 
chains,  are  granite,  a  few  of  them,  however,  giv- 
ing evidence  of  alluvial  or  diluvial  deposits  sub- 
sequent to  their  upheaval.  The  coasts,  unlike 
those  further  south,  are  generally  sloping,  and 
give  evidence  of  being  the  result  of  the  more 
recent  deposit  of  the  detritus  of  the  Andes.  The 
minerals  found  in  the  Andes,  either  in  their  na- 
tive state  or  in  some  of  their  combinations  as 
ores,  are  gold,  silver,  iron,  mercury,  lead,  tin,  zinc, 
copper,  antimony,  manganese,  sulphur,  and  salt. 
All  of  these  are  in  sufficient  quantities  to  be 
profitably  mined.  The  precious  metals  are 
mostly  found  in  the  departments  of  Quito  and 
Assuay,  though  some  gold  is  washed  from  the 
sands  of  the  rivers  in  Guayaquil.  The  province 
of  Oriente  is  said  to  be  particularly  rich  in  gold 
and  silver,  but  it  is  mostly  inhabited  by  Indians, 
vpho  habitually  conceal  from  Europeans  or  other 
foreigners  any  mines  or  placers  of  which  they 
may  be  cognizant.  The  mines  of  Ecuador,  from 
a  variety  of  causes,  have  not  been  profitably 
worked  of  late  years;  but  under  a  more  perma- 
nent and  settled  government,  there  is  reason  to 
hope  that  their  great  wealth  may  be  developed. 
The  republic  does  not  seem  to  be  rich  in  precious 
stones.  Rubies  are  found,  and  very  beautiful  rock 
crystals.  At  the  time  of  its  discovery,  emeralds 
were  very  abundant  among  the  inhabitants,  and 
were  said  to  be  obtained  in  the  river  Esmeral- 
das,  which  was  thus  named  in  consequence;  but 
recent  research  renders  it  somewhat  doubtful 
whether  they  were  ever  found  there  in  very 
great  numbers.  The  other  principal  mineral 
products  of  the  republic  are  marble  of  very  su- 
perior quality,  alabaster,  choice  flints,  and  as- 
phaltum.— The  carnivora  of  Ecuador  are  the 
jaguar,  the  ounce,  the  panther,  the  puma,  the 
tiger  cat,  and  the  wolf.  The  other  wild  quad- 
rupeds are  the  tapir,  several  species  of  wild 
boar,  the  deer,  hare,  rabbit,  squirrel  (several  spe- 
cies), armadillo,  guanaco,  vicuna,  the  ant-eater, 
one  or  two  species  of  antelope,  and  monkeys  in 
infinite  variety,  from  the  great  Brazilian  mon- 
key down  to  the  little  cliichko  which  will  hide 
itself  in  your  hand.  The  horse  and  ox  in  this, 
as  in  other  South  American  states,  roam  the 
plains  in  a  wild  state.  The  cattle  of  the  coun- 
try are  generally  black.  The  domestic  animals 
are  the  horse,  cow,  llama,  ass,  mule,  dog,  cat, 
«&c.  On  the  affluents  of  the  Amazon  appear 
the  sea  cow,  porpoise,  and  dolphin.  The  rep- 
tiles are  the  large  white  lizard,  the  cayman  or 
alligator,  a  great  variety  of  small  lizards,  the 
great  boa  constrictor,  the  rattlesnake,  coral 
snake,  horse  snake,  striped,  tiger-spotted,  and 
other  snakes,  &c. ;   tortoises  large  and  small. 


and,  on  the  Galapagos  islands,  the  great  marino 
turtle,  often  weighing  several  hundred  pounds. 
Ecuador  is  the  paradise  of  birds.  Many  of  them 
are  remarkable  for  the  brilliancy  of  their  plu- 
mage ;  among  these  are  the  cock  of  the  rocks, 
the  peacock  tribe,  the  wild  turkey,  and  above 
all  a  great  variety  of  humming  birds,  whose 
plumage  has  all  the  brilliancy  and  hues  of  a  col- 
lection of  precious  gems.  Others  again  make 
the  woods  vocal  with  their  songs  ;  among  these 
are  many  species  peculiar  to  the  Andes,  such  as 
the  lord  of  the  woods,  the  cacique,  the  corregi- 
dor,  and  a  great  variety  of  thrushes,  song  spar- 
rows, &c.  Others,  like  the  condor,  the  pel- 
ican, gull,  kingfisher,  heron,  &c.,  are  birds  of 
prey.  The  parrot,  paroquet,  and  macaw  tribes 
are  very  abundant,  and  the  forests  are  peopled 
with  doves,  pheasants,  pigeons,  grouse,  &c. ;  and 
the  I'ivers  and  marshes  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year  furnish  abundant  food  to  the  wild  geese, 
ducks,  teal,  widgeons,  snipes,  and  other  wading 
and  swimming  birds.  The  eastern  and  w-estern 
rivers  have  in  their  season  an  abundance  of 
shad,  bream,  skate,  barbel,  bhndfish,  crawfish, 
eels,  lampreys,  &c.  On  the  coast,  lobsters,  crabs, 
shrimps,  oysters,  clams,  and  mussels  are  found 
in  great  quantities.  Insects  are  extremely  nu- 
merous, and  some  of  them  very  annoying ;  the 
mosquito,  ant,  spider,  scorpion,  and  centipede 
are  the  pests  of  the  lowlands.  The  coleoptera 
are  remarkable  for  their  size  and  the  metal- 
lic splendor  of  their  wing  cases.  The  Hercules 
beetle  is  the  most  magnificent  of  his  tribe,  and 
the  giant  cantharides  glitters  in  jewelled  splen- 
dor ;  the  firefly  is  not  solely  indebted  to  his  phos- 
phorescent powers  for  his  beauty  ;  and  many 
other  of  the  insect  tribes  shine  in  green  and 
gold.  The  butterflies,  like  those  of  Brazil,  ex- 
hibit on  their  wings  almost  every  possible  variety 
of  form  and  color.  Among  the  other  insects, 
the  cochinilla,  which  produces  the  cochineal  of 
commerce,  abounds  in  the  valleys.  On  the  coast 
are  found  the  shellfish  which  produces  the  Ty- 
rian  purple,  coral  of  great  beauty,  sponge,  the 
pearl  oyster,  and  snails  of  remarkable  size. — 
The  country  is  capable  of  producing  the  fruits, 
flowers,  and  shrubs  of  every  region,  from  the 
torrid  to  the  frozen  zone.  The  lowlands  along 
the  coast  yield  in  profusion  tropical  fraits  and 
vegetation  ;  as  we  rise  higher,  we  find  the  pro- 
ducts of  more  temperate  climes  ;  at  the  height 
of  9,000  or  10,000  feet  we  enter  a  grain  dis- 
trict, which  continues  for  the  more  hardy  grains 
up  to  the  height  of  nearly  13,000  feet.  Above 
this  the  flora  and  grasses  are  decidedly  Alpine 
in  their  character ;  and  when  we  reach  the  lofty 
plains,  where  only  occasional  patches  are  free 
from  the  eternal  snows,  there  is  nothing  but  a 
few  mosses  and  heaths  to  show  that  vegetable 
life  is  not  wholly  extinct.  Medical  science  finds 
in  these  mountain  slopes  many  of  its  choicest  rem- 
edies. Here  grow  in  abundance  the  cinchona  tree, 
which  yields  the  Peruvian  bark  and  the  quinine 
of  commerce,  sarsaparilla,  ipecacuanha,  balsam 
of  toln,  vanilla,  canella,  copaiba,  gentian,  valerian, 
the  purging  cassia  (cassirt^siwZa),  the  croton  tig- 


ECUADOR 


747 


lium,  which  produces  the  croton  oil  of  commerce, 
solanum  dulcamara,  ratauia,  whoso  root  is  tlio 
rhatauy  of  the  druggists,  inatico,  the  palo  saiito, 
from  which  exudes  the  guaiaoum  of  the  sliops,  the 
sanuis  cassia,  the  licpiidainhar,  which  furiiislies 
tlie  storax  or  liquid  amher  of  the  shops,  the  hit- 
ter cucuinher,  the  poppy,  the  guaco,  a  remedy 
used  with  success  hy  the  Indians  for  the  hite  of 
tiic  rattlesnake,  &c.  These  are  nearly  all  estah- 
lished  articles  in  the  European  and  American 
-materia  medica,  recognized  as  constituents  of 
their  pharmacoposias ;  hut  there  are  very  many 
others,  highly  esteemed  in  the  domestic  and 
medical  i)ractice  of  the  repuhlic,  wliich  are  not 
known  ahroad.  Among  the  nutritive  plants 
are  the  cacao,  which  produces  the  chocolate, 
cocoa,  and  hroma  of  commerce;  coffee,  the 
plantain  or  hauana,  yucca,  maize,  potatoes,  rice, 
sugar  cane,  the  sugar  pear,  sweet  potatoes,  har- 
ley,  wheat,  chick  peas,  heaus,  vetches,  oats,  rye, 
and  other  cereals;  cahhages,  caulitlowcrs,  rad- 
ishes, beets,  artichokes,  capers,  asparagus,  &c. 
Among  the  fruits,  the  most  common  are  the  pine- 
apple, the  peach,  chirimoya,  granadilla,  orange, 
mango,  medlar,  mazuey,  sapota,  locma,  paso, 
custard  apple,  guava,  cucumber,  pai)aw,  water- 
melon, strawberry  myrtle,  mulberry,  plum, 
pumpkin,  anacardium  or  gum  tree,  mountain 
apple,  and  a  host  of  others  whose  fame  is  known 
only  in  their  native  region.  Ecuador  also 
abounds  in  fibrous  plants;  some  12  or  15  are 
well  known,  which  are  adapted  to  the  manu- 
facture of  hats,  cordage,  cloth,  paper,  &c.  There 
are  also  some  20  or  more  woods  and  plants 
which  furnish  dyestuffs.  But  it  is  in  forest 
trees,  suitable  for  ship-building,  for  cabinetwork, 
and  for  ornament,  that  Ecuador,  like  Brazil,  sur- 
passes most  other  countries  of  the  world.  Of 
the  trees  suitable  for  ship  timber,  and  superior 
in  this  respect  to  any  except  the  live  oak  of  Flo- 
rida and  the  teak  of  India,  there  are  nearly  20 
species ;  of  those  which  are  adapted  for  the 
finest  and  most  ornamental  cabinet  work,  near- 
ly as  many  more;  while  of  trees  which  are  ad- 
mired on  account  of  their  beauty  of  form  or 
elegance  of  foliage,  there  are  not  less  than  40 
species.  The  gums  and  gum  resins  which  enter 
so  largely  into  commerce  also  abound  here ; 
several  species  of  the  trees  which  yield  the 
caoutcliouc  of  commerce  are  natives  of  Ecuador, 
as  are  also  the  trees  producing  the  shellac  and 
copal  gums,  eucalyptus,  dragon's  blood,  gam- 
boge, gum  lac,  and  many  others.  With  a  much 
larger  proportion  of  arable  land  than  most 
countries  possess,  a  soil  of  great  fertility,  and  a 
climate  which  admits  the  cultivation  of  almast 
every  thing  which  can  be  grown  anywhere, 
agriculture  is  at  a  very  low  ebb  in  Ecuador. 
This  is  attributable,  probably,  to  several  causes : 
the  unsettled  state  of  the  country,  the  difficulty 
of  transportation,  the  want  of  education  and  in- 
telligence on  the  part  of  the  farmer,  and  the  love 
of  ease,  induced  by  the  mild  and  equable  cli- 
luate,  and  by  the  certainty  that  very  slight  ex- 
ertion will  provide  the  means  of  sustaining  life 
comfortably.     The  implements  of  agricnltm-e 


are  rude  and  imperfect,  and  the  idea  of  rotation 
of  croj)s,  of  fertilization  by  manures,  or  of  uny 
thing  like  intelligent  farniing,  hardly  ever  finds 
its  way  into  the  mind  of  the  Ecuadorian  farmer. 
The  cereals  are  not  raised  in  suthcient  quantity 
to  admit  of  their  export.  Cacao  is  largely  ex- 
portctl,  and  nmch  is  also  consumed  at  home. 
Tobacco  is  an  important  crop,  and  many  of 
the  agricidturists  em])loy  a  part  of  the  term 
of  their  labors  in  collecting  the  roots,  gums, 
leaves,  &c.,  of  the  medicinal  and  useful  plants 
of  the  forest  for  exportation. — Manufactures 
are  confined  mainly  to  the  simplest  and  most 
inartistic  processes.  The  braiding  of  the  som- 
breros or  Guayaquil  hats,  from  the  toquilla, 
mocora,  and  other  straws  and  grasses  of  the 
country,  is  perhaps  the  most  imjtortant  of 
the  nuuiufactures.  The  making  of  hammocks 
from  tlie  fibres  of  the  agave  and  other  filament- 
ous plants,  of  sugar  from  the  cane,  of  coarse 
clothes  of  cotton  and  vicuna  wool,  and  of  the 
ruder  sort  of  ornaments  of  gold  and  silver, 
and  the  preparation  of  some  of  the  fruits  for 
a  foreign  market,  are  almost  the  only  other 
branches  of  manufiicture. — The  commerce  of 
Ecuador  is  of  two  kinds,  viz. :  that  with  Isew 
Granada  and  Peru,  which  is  carried  on  by  land, 
and  mostly  by  arrieros  or  carriers,  who  trans- 
port the  articles  on  their  own  shoulders  and  on 
the  backs  of  mules ;  and  the  foreign  commerce, 
which  is  transacted  mostly  by  the  ships  of  foreign 
nations,  as  the  republic  has  very  little  shipping. 
The  exports  consist  principally  of  silver  and  sil- 
ver ore,  cacao,  sombreros,  generally  known  as 
Panama  or  Guayaquil  hats,  lumber,  tobacco, 
cascarilla,  sarsaparilla,  agave  fibre,  tamarinds, 
caoutchouc,  canes,  coffee,  hammocks,  &c.  In 
1856  the  foreign  exports  by  the  ports  of  Guay- 
aquil and  Manta  were  $2,333,1-41  50,  of  which 
$67,502  12  was  silver  and  silver  ores.  The  ex- 
ports to  New  Granada,  across  the  frontier,  were 
estimated  at  $300,000,  and  to  Peru  $100,000, 
making  the  entire  exports  $2,733,141  50.  The 
same  year  the  imports  were,  through  the  port 
of  Guayaquil,  $2,374,439  38  ;  through  Manta, 
$112,267  39;  from  New  Granada  (estimated) 
$40,000,  and  from  Peru  (estimated)  $100,000 ; 
making  a  total  importation  of  $1^,626,706  77. 
It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  much  relianco 
can  be  placed  on  the  statistics  of  the  border  com- 
merce. The  trade  of  Ecuador  with  the  United 
States  has  always  been  small.  In  1856  she  ex- 
ported to  the  United  States  goods  to  the  amount 
of  $84,804,  and  imported  from  this  country  only 
$2,066.  In  1857  lier  exports  were  $15,803,  and 
imports  $2,630. — The  revenue  of  the  republic 
in  1856  was  $1,372,800,  and  the  expenditure 
$1,358,498.  The  debt  of  the  state  is  divided 
into  3  classes.  The  foreign  debt,  being  21^  per 
cent,  of  the  debt  incurred  by  the  Colombian 
government,  and  at  its  dissolution  divided  j^ro 
rata  among  the  states  which  composed  it, 
amounts  to  $8,828,160,  for  which  bonds  have 
been  issued  by  the  Ecuadorian  government ; 
the  arrears  of  interest  are  consolidated  in  other 
bonds,   amounting  to  about  $4,800,000,    The 


748 


ECUADOR 


Colombian  debt  amountg  to  $2,644,368,  a  part 
of  which  is  consolidated  in  3  i)er  cent,  and  the 
remainder  in  5  per  cent,  bonds.  The  home  debt 
amounts  to  $4,293,314.  The  revenues  of  the 
state  do  not  aflbrd  the  means  of  paying  promptly 
the  interest  on  this  heavy  debt,  and  the  credit 
of  the  republic  abroad  is  not  high ;  nor  have  the 
frequent  revolutions  and  civil  wars  enhanced  it. 
— The  actual  population  of  the  republic  is  uncer- 
tain. Dr.  Villavicencio,  taking  the  census  of 
1826  as  a  basis,  and  assuming  that  the  percent- 
age of  excess  of  births  over  deaths  Avill  be 
about  equal  one  year  with  another,  makes  the 
population,  exclusive  of  the  Indians  of  Oriente, 
1,108,082,  and  estimates  those  Indians  at 
200,000.  Other  recent  writers,  on  the  contrary, 
estimate  the  entire  population  as  under  500,000. 
This  is  probably  an  uuder-estimate,  as  the  first 
is  as  certainly  an  over-estimate.  Lastania,  the 
Chilian  geographer,  in  1851  gave  Y00,000  as  the 
population,  including  the  district  of  Mainas,  but 
excluding  the  Indians  of  Oriente.  Perhaps  the 
estimate  given  in  Colton's  "  Atlas  of  the  World" 
is  as  near  the  truth  as  any.  This  supposes  the 
population,  exclusive  of  the  Indians  of  Oriente, 
to  be  j665,000  ;  and  allowing  for  these  Indians 
135,000,  we  have  a  total  population  of  800,000 
in  the  republic.  The  following  table  gives  the 
distribution  of  this  population,  together  with 
the  chief  towns  and  their  population  : 


Department  of  Quito : 

I'ichincha 

Imbabura 

Leon 

Chimborazo 

Esmeraldas 

Oriente 

Department  of  Assuay : 

Ciienca 

Loja 

Department  of  Guayas: 

Guayaquil 

Manabi 

Total 

Add  for  the  Indians  of 
Oriente 


Pop.  (es- 
timat'd). 


92,458 

TS,29T 

133,195 

118,2&3 

5.513 

11,631 

102,790 
43,296 


Quito 

Ibarra 

Taeunga 

Eiobamba 

Esmeraldas.. . 
Santa  Eosa 


Cnenca. 
Loja  . . . 


65,627  I  Guayaquil 

23,910  ]&rnu':^.'.T;:(--t-n 


Pop. 


80,000 
18,000 
16,000 
16,000 
500 
300 

25,000 
10,000 

22,000 


The  inhabitants  may  be  classified  according  to 
races  as  follows : 

Whites,  descended  from  Europeans 851,672 

Indians,  descended  from  the  dominant  race  at  the 

ti  me  of  the  conquest  (Quichuas) 274,440 

Indians  of  the  Oriente,  estimated 135,000 

Negroes 7,S31 

Mixed  races  (mulattoes,  zamboes,  and  mestizoes) ....    31,057 


Total 800,000 

The  Quicliua  or  Quitu  Indians  are  the  de- 
scendants of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  coun- 
try, and  have  made  considerable  progress  in 
civilization.  They  are  mostly  agriculturists,  and 
many  of  them  possess  a  good  degree  of  skill  in 
the  simpler  mechanic  arts.  Most  of  the  pottery 
and  the  coarser  woollen  and  cotton  goods  used 
in  the  republic  are  manufactured  by  them.  The 
Indians  of  Oriente  are  of  various  tribes,  wild, 
warlike,  and  impatient  of  restraint,  and  have 
bever  yet  given  much  attention  to  agriculture 


or  manufactures. — Roman  Catholicism  is  the  es- 
tablished religion  of  the  republic,  and  the  open 
profession  of  no  other  is  tolerated ;  but  foreigners 
are  not  molested  on  account  of  their  opinions, 
tliough  they  would  not  be  allowed  to  establish 
churches  of  other  faiths,  even  for  their  own 
families.  The  whites,  negroes,  and  mixed  races 
are  generally  particular  in  their  attention  to  the 
externals  of  religion ;  but  the  Indians,  while  usu- 
ally professing  a  nominal  Christianity,  are  really 
heathens  in  their  belief  and  worship.  Fetich- 
ism,  the  belief  in  the  good  and  bad  principles  or 
powers,  and  transmigration  of  souls,  are  matters 
of  universal  faith  and  practice  among  them. 
The  clergy  and  religious  orders,  as  inmost  Roman 
Catholic  countries,  are  numerous.  Quito  is  the 
seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  2  bishops  reside  at 
Cuenca  and  Guayaquil.  Of  the  regular  clergy 
there  are  415,  of  the  secular  524,  and  of  the 
religious  sisterhoods  391. — The  condition  of 
education  is  very  low.  Taking  the  average  of  the 
whole  state,  there  is  1  person  in  school  or  college 
for  every  60  inhabitants.  About  ^\  of  the  whole 
•number,  however,  are  in  the  colleges,  and  in  one 
province,  that  of  Oriente,  there  are  no  schools. 
In  1856,  according  to  the  report  of  the  minister 
of  public  instruction,  there  were  1  university, 
10  colleges  and  seminaries,  and  1  female  college, 
having  altogether  1,299  pupils;  260  primary 
schools  for  boys,  with  9,249  pupils,  and  30  for 
girls,  with  2,783  pupils ;  and  8  special  schools 
of  drawing,  music,  &c.,  with  80  pupils ;  total 
pupils  in  all  schools,  13,411. — The  government 
of  Ecuador  is  republican.  Its  present  consti- 
tution was  adopted  in  1845,  and  modified  by 
the  national  assembly  of  1852,  and  by  the  legis- 
lature of  1853.  The  legislature  consists  of  a 
senate  of  18  members,  6  for  each  department, 
and  a  house  of  representatives  consisting  of 
30  deputies,  10  for  each  department.  The 
executive  power  is  vested  in  the  president  and 
vice-president,  both  of  whom  are  elected  by 
a  plurality  of  votes  in  the  college  of  electors, 
which  consists  of  900  members,  300  from  each 
department.  They  are  elected  for  a  term  of  4 
years,  and  are  not  eligible  to  reelection  until 
they  have  passed  one  term  without  office.  Tlie 
salary  of  the  president  is  $12,000,  and  of  the. 
vice-president  $4,000.  In  case  of  the  death  of 
the  president  and  vice-president  during  their 
term  of  ofiice,  the  executive  power  is  vested  in 
the  last  president  of  the  senate,  or  of  the  house 
of  representatives.  The  power  of  the  president 
is  limited  by  the  constitution,  in  the  following 
particulars :  he  may  not  deprive  any  Ecuadorian 
of  his  liberty,  nor  impose  punishment,  nor  ex- 
pel a  citizen  from  the  territory,  nor  delay  the 
course  of  judicial  proceedings,  nor  constrain  the 
freedom  of  judgment,  impede  the  elections,  dis- 
solve congress  either  directly  or  indirectly,  sus- 
pend its  sessions,  exert  his  executive  power  at  a 
greater  distance  than  30  miles  from  the  capital, 
nor  admit  foreigners  to  high  rank  in  the  army, 
without  the  previous  consent  of  congress.  He 
has  the  power  of  selecting  Ms  cabinet,  which 
consists  of  3  ministers,  viz. :  of  the  interior,  of 


ECUADOR 


749 


foreign  relations,  and  of  finances,  war,  and  ma- 
rine; and  these,  Avith  a  judge  of  tiio  siii)rcnie 
court  or  the  court  of  api)etil.s,  an  ecclesiastic  of 
high  rank,  and  the  vice-president,  constitute  the 
government  council.  Tlie  judiciary  consists  of 
a  supreme  court  witii  5  judges,  elected  by  con- 
gress; 3  sui)erior  courts  with  3  judges  each, 
appointed  by  the  ])rcsideiit;  inferior  courts  for 
civil  suits  in  each  ]n-ovince,  and  alcaldes  or  mu- 
nicipal judges  in  each  canton.  Slavery  is  not 
permitted  in  the  republic,  nor  are  orders  of  no- 
bility or  hereditary  titles  allowed.  Confiscation 
of  property  is  not  peruiitted,  nor  can  any  pen- 
alty be  inflicted  on  the  family  or  friends  of  a 
culprit.  The  inviolability  of  life  is  guaranteed, 
even  to  political  offenders;  and  trial  by  jury 
is  acknowledged  as  the  right  of  every  offender. 
The  chief  towns  are  Quito,  the  capital,  Guaya- 
quil, the  j)riiicipal  seai)ort  (the  ancient  Tuinbez), 
Cuenca,  Riobamba,  Tacunga,  and  Loja. — The 
early  history  of  Ecuador  is  involved  in  some 
obscurity  ;  from  the  Indian  traditions  it  would 
appear  that  several  centuries  before  the  Spanish 
conquest  it  was  a  powerful  kingdom,  embracing 
about  50  provinces,  and  probably  of  greater  ex- 
tent than  at  present.  The  inhabitants  were 
called  Quitus  or  Quichus,  and  the  kingdom  Quito. 
About  the  10th  centuiy  a  foreign  nation,  who 
had  inhabited  the  sea-coast,  ascended  the  river 
Esmeraldas,  and  subdued  the  Quitus.  These 
people  were  called  Cara,  and  their  kings  Carau 
shyri,  or  lords  of  Cara.  For  nearly  500  years 
these  shyri  ruled  the  kingdom  with  great  ability, 
adding  to  their  dominions,  now  by  conquest,  and 
now  by  matrimonial  alliances  with  neighboring 
chiefs.  Their  kingdom  at  length  became  so 
powerful  as  to  excite  the  cupidity  of  the  incas 
of"Peru,  who,  lords  of  the  most  powerful  empire 
of  South  America,  aspired  to  govern  the  whole 
continent.  In  1475  Uuayna  Capac,  surnamed 
the  Great,  having  ascended  the  throne  of  the 
incas,  subdued  the  kingdom  of  Quito,  and, 
making  the  city  of  Quito  his  capital,  governed 
his  vast  empire  from  that  city  for  38  years.  At 
his  death  he  divided  his  possessions  between 
his  two  best  beloved  sons,  Iluascar  and  Atahu- 
allpa.  To  Iluascar  he  gave  the  ancient  empire 
of  the  incas,  and  to  Atahuallpa  the  kingdom 
of  Quito.  As  might  have  been  expected,  this 
arrangement,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years, 
caused  dissatisfaction;  whether  the  fault  lay 
with  Iluascar  or  Atahuallpa  is  now  uncertain, 
but  their  discord  soon  led  to  civil  war,  and  in 
its  vicissitudes  Iluascar  was  defeated  and  impris- 
oned in  his  own  capital  in  1531.  Atahuallpa 
now  ascended  the  imperial  throne,  and  reigned 
with  great  splendor ;  but  his  career  was  short. 
The  Spa'.iiards  had  already  been  led  to  the 
Pacific  coasts  of  South  America  by  their  thirst 
for  gold,  and  Francisco  Pizarro  lauded  at  Tum- 
bez,  now  Guayaquil,  in  1532,  with  the  audacious 
design  of  conquering  a  great  empire  with  a  force 
of  250  men.  Pressing  forward  with  his  little 
band  aci'oss  the  lofty  sierras,  he  at  length 
reached  the  city  of  Caxamalca,  where  Atahu- 
allpa wa»  Bolaciug  himself  after  the  fatigues  of 


a  journey  over  hi3  empire,  and  within  two  days, 
by  an  act  of  the  basest  treachery,  had  made  the 
inca  a  prisoner,  and  slaugiitered  his  body  guard. 
Atahuallpa,  perceiving  the  thirst  for  gold  which 
actuated  the  Spaniards,  olfered  to  fill  the  room 
in  which  he  was  im[)risoned  to  a  certain  lieight 
with  the  precious  metal,  if  he  miglit  thus  pur- 
chase his  freedom.  The  Spaniard  apparently 
assented  to  tiie  proposition,  and  the  gold  was 
nearly  all  collected  when  Pizarro  seized  it,  and, 
after  a  mock  trial,  put  the  inca  to  deatii.  Iluascar 
had  previously  been  assassinated  in  prison,  as 
is  believed,  by  order  of  Atahuallpa,  and  at  the 
death  of  the  latter  his  vast  dominions  fell  an  easy 
prey  to  the  invaders.  Tiiey  were  erected  into  a 
viceroyalty  of  Spain,  and  the  kingdom  of  Quito 
became  a  presidency  of  that  viceroyalty.  For  275 
years,  the  present  territory  of  Ecuador  vegetated 
under  Spanish  misrule,  making  little  ])rogre33 
either  in  morals  or  intelligence,  but  yielding — 
which  was  the  principal  concern  of  tlie  mother 
country — a  rich  harvest  of  the  precious  metals. 
During  a  part  of  this  period  it  was  one  of  the 
richest  and  most  productive  of  the  colonies  of 
the  Spanish  crown;  but  tlie  patience  of  the  In- 
dians, too  long  tried,  at  last  gave  wa}',  and  in 
many  of  the  mining  districts  they  slew  the  pro- 
prietors and  destroyed  all  traces  of  the  mines. 
It  was  not  until  ISO'J  that  the  colonists,  disgusted 
with  the  oppression  of  the  home  government, 
raised  the  cry  of  liberty  at  Quito,  and  in  some 
5  or  G  battles  made  a  desperate  effort  to  attain 
it,  but  were  defeated.  In  1820  the  effort  was 
repeated  at  Guayacjuil,  and  this  time,  under  the 
guidance  of  Bolivar,  with  success.  In  July,  1821, 
Ecuador,  New  Granada,  and  Venezuela  were 
constituted  a  republic  under  the  name  of  Colom- 
bia, and  for  3  years  subsequently  maintained  a 
series  of  conflicts  with  the  Spanish  forces.  The 
battle  of  Ayacucho,  in  December,  1824,  finally 
destroyed  the  Spanish  power  in  these  states.  lu 
1828-'9  Peru  attacked  the  Colombian  states  with 
a  force  of  8,000  men,  but  was  defeated  by  the 
Colombian  force,  which  amounted  to  only  half 
its  number.  In  1831  Ecuador  followed  the  ex- 
ample of  Venezuela,  and  separating  from  the 
Colombian  confederacy,  became  an  independent 
republic.  From  that  period  up  to  1852  the  his- 
tory of  the  republic  was  little  else  than  a  series 
oi j)ronunciamientos  and  attempted  revolutions, 
in  the  instigation  of  which  Gen.  Flores,  an  am- 
bitious man,  at  one  time  president,  attained  a 
preeminence.  Since  1852  he  has  ceased  to  fo- 
ment difficulties  in  the  republic,  and  the  ])eople 
liave  made  considerable  advance  in  population, 
industry,  and  intelligence.  The  i)resident  of 
Ecuador  is  now  (April,  1859)  Gen.  Francisco 
Robles,  who  was  elected  in  185G.  The  French 
decimal  system  in  the  currency,  weights,  and 
measures,  was  adopted,  Dec.  5,  1856,  and  has 
been  in  operation  since  Oct.  15,  1858.  A  treaty 
with  Peru  and  Chili  for  mutual  protection  against 
fillibusters  was  concluded  in  the  early  part  of 
1857,  but  the  good  understanding  between  Peru 
and  Ecuador  has  of  late  been  interrupted. 
Guayaquil    was    blockaded    by  the    Peruvian 


750 


EDDA 


forces,  Jind  the  blockade  was  still  continued, 
March  19, 1859,  when  President  Robles  removed 
the  seat  of  government  from  Quito  to  Guaya- 
quil. In  March,  1859,  an  association  was  or- 
ganized by  German  merchants  in  London  with 
a  view  to  direct  the  emigration  from  Germany 
to  tlie  republic  of  Ecuador.  The  district  of 
Pailon,  about  100  m.  from  Quito,  has  been  se- 
lected for  the  establishment  of  the  first  settle- 
ment.— See  Juan  de  Velasco,  Ilistoire  du  roy- 
aume  de  Quito  (French  edition,  Paris,  1840) ; 
Gaetano  Osculati,  Esplorazione  delle  regioni 
equatoriali  (Milan,  1850) ;  F.  Walpole,  "  Four 
Years  in  the  Pacitic"  (London,  185(i) ;  and  Man- 
uel Villavicencio,  Geofjrafia  de  la  Eepublica  del 
Ecuador  (New  York,  1858). 

EDDA,  the  name  of  two  collections  of  ancient 
poems  of  the  Northmen,  or  early  Scandinavians, 
from  which  is  chiefly  derived  our  knowledge  of 
Scandinavian  mythology.  The  Eddas,  and  in 
some  instances  the  Sagas,  were  composed  origi- 
nally in  Denmark,  in  Sweden,  and  doubtless 
also  in  Norway,  where  the  language  now  known 
as  Icelandic  was  longest  preserved  in  Europe. 
This  was  the  general  language,  and  its  literature 
is  the  common  property  of  the  North.  The  first 
of  the  Eddas  is  called  the  old  or  poetical,  some- 
times the  Siimundic  Edda.  The  word  in  Ice- 
landic means  ancestress,  and  the  old  Edda  is  the 
mother  of  Scandinavian  poetry.  What  has  been 
preserved  of  it  consists  of  39  poems,  written  at 
a  remote  and  unknown  period  by  anonymous 
pagan  authors,  and  collected  by  Siimund  Sigfus- 
son,  an  Icelandic  priest,  who  was  born  in  1056. 
He  was  educated  in  France  and  Germany,  and 
after  a  sojourn  in  Rome,  returned  to  Iceland, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  study  and  the  edu- 
cation of  the  young.  A  copy  of  his  Edda  on 
vellum,  the  best  which  is  preserved,  was  found 
in  Iceland  by  Bishop  Brynjulf  Sveinsson,  in 
1643,  and  published  under  the  title  of  Edda 
Sdmtindar  hinns  Froda  (Copenhagen,  1787- 
1828,  3  vols.),  with  an  excellent  Lexicon  My- 
tJioIo'jicum,  by  the  learned  Finn  Magnussen, 
the  editor  of  the  last  volume ;  there  are  also 
editions  by  Afzelius  in  Swedish  (Christiania, 
1818),  by  Munch  (Christiania,  1847),  by  Schim- 
melmann  in  German  (Stettin,  1777),  by  Studacli 
(Nuremberg,  1829),  and  by  Simrock  (Stuttgart, 
1851 ;  2d  ed.  1855).  The  different  poems  may  be 
classed  according  to  the  nature  of  their  subjects, 
as  mystical,  didactic,  mythological,  and  histori- 
cal, containing  elements  more  ancient  than  the 
Christian  era  in  the  North.  The  most  remark- 
able in  the  1st  classification  is  that  Avhich  bears 
the  title  Vuluspa^  tlie  oracle  of  the  VoJa,  or 
prophetess.  It  is  a  rapid  and  obscure  exposi- 
tion of  the  cosmogony  of  the  Scandinavians, 
from  the  creation  to  the  destruction  of  the  uni- 
verse. The  Grougaidur,  or  magical  song  of 
Groa,  is  a  collection  of  the  terms  of  magic.  The 
Solar-ljod^  or  song  of  the  sun,  was  almost  en- 
tirely added  by  Siimund,  in  imitation  of  pagan 
poetry.  The  influence  of  Christianity,  however, 
is  recognized  in  various  allusions  to  afuture  state, 
and  to  the  existence  and  occupations  of  the  soul 


after  death.  Of  the  2d  class,  we  find  a  poem 
in  dramatic  form,  the  Vafthrudnis-mal.  Odin 
desires  to  contend  in  science  with  the  wisest  of 
the  giants,  Vafthrudnir.  He  assumes  the  form 
and  garb  of  a  wayworn  traveller,  seeks  hospi- 
tality of  the  giant,  and  proposes  tlie  contest,  the 
wager  agreed  upon  being  the  head  of  the  van- 
quished disputant.  The  trial  begins  with  num- 
berless questions  on  the  mysteries  of  the  religion 
of  Odin.  The  giant  soon  perceives  the  won- 
drous strength  of  his  opponent,  as  sitting  side 
by  side  they  discuss  the  marvels  of  sacred  sci- 
ence. "  Tell  me,"  says  Odin,  "  the  future  state 
of  souls ;  tell  me  what  heroes  do  in  Walhalla  ?" 
The  giant  makes  light  of  questions  so  simple. 
He  expounds  as  to  a  child  matters  within  the 
every-day  compass  of  Scandinavian  learning. 
At  length  the  pretended  traveller  makes  his 
final  attack.  "What  words,"  he  asked,  "  whis- 
pered Odin  in  the  ear  of  his  son  Baldur,  when 
Baldur  lay  on  the  funeral  pyre  ?"  The  giant 
grew  pale.  He  knew  that  Odin  alone  could 
know  those  whispered  words.  The  god  stood 
confessed  before  him.  "  My  doom,  my  doom, 
great  Odin,"  he  cried  ;  "  let  the  deed  of  celes- 
tial destiny  be  done.  Let  it  fall  on  him  who 
has  dared  to  talk  of  sacred  science  with  Odin, 
wisest  of  gods!"  The  Grimnis-mal  describes 
the  12  homes  of  the  gods,  the  12  signs  of  the 
zodiac.  In  the  Alvis-mal,  the  dwarf  Alvis,  one 
of  the  genii  charged  with  lighting  the  torch  of 
the  sun,  has  been  betrothed  to  the  daughter 
of  Thor,  and  comes  to  claim  his  bride.  The  god 
entertains  the  spirit  during  the  whole  of  the 
night,  when  at  length  the  unfortunate  Alvis, 
scenting  the  cool  air  of  morning,  is  summoned 
brideless  away  to  the  sun.  The  Uyndlu-ljod 
is  an  obscure  account  of  the  genealogy  of  sortie 
of  the  northern  kings,  descendants  of  gods. 
The  Ilata-ma\  the  sublime  discourse  of  Odin, 
is, a  collection  of  allegorical  poetry  and  maxims 
in  verse,  ending  with  a  chapter  wherein  the  god 
explains  the  mysterious  power  of  the  runes 
against  various  misfortunes.  The  poem  con- 
tains precepts  also  of  commonplace  wisdom,  such 
as:  "Dwell  not  too  long  with  one  host;  he  may 
weary  of  thee;"  "  One  man  may  keep  a  secret, 
not  two  ;"  "  That  which  three  men  know  can- 
not be  a  secret."  Other  precepts  in  the  same 
collection  breathe  less  virtue  than  cunning  and 
artifice.  Among  the  poems  purely  mythologi- 
cal may  be  cited  the  Hymisquida,  or  song  of 
Ilymer,  describing  a  feast  given  by  a  sea  god  to 
his  brother  divinites.  The  Eafna-yaldur-Odins, 
the  song  of  the  raven  of  Odin,  describes  the  gods 
lamenting  the  approach  of  their  last  day.  The 
historic  class  of  poems  in  the  Edda  is  more 
abundant  than  the  others.  Reality,  however, 
as  in  tlie  p«oms  of  Homer,  is  enveloped  in  the 
supernatural.  They  narrate  heroic  days ;  and 
like  the  song  of  the  Nlbelungen,  record  the  ad- 
ventures of  heroes  who  have  been,  more  or  less 
truly,  identified  with  Dietrich,  Sigurd,  Siegfried, 
and  Attila  and  his  Huns,  during  their  first  inroads 
upon  the  provinces  of  Rome. — The  prose  Ed- 
da is  ascribed  to  the  celebrated  Snorro  Stur- 


EDDYSTONE  ROCKS 


EDENTATA 


751 


leson,  who  was  born  in  1178.  It  is  a  collection 
of  the  myths  of  the  gods,  and  of  explanations  of 
the  tyjies  and  metres  of  the  pagan  poetry.  It 
was  gradually  formed  by  the  labors  of  several 
writers,  although  it  usually  bears  the  name  of 
Snorro  Sturleson  alone.  It  was  intended  for 
the  instruction  of  the  young  scalds,  or  poets,  and 
shows  that  the  old  poetry  of  the  Icelanders  came 
to  be  cultivated  as  a  learneu  art.  Tlie  Edda  of 
Snorro,  obviously  of  less  value  than  that  of  Sii- 
inund,  is  principally  worthy  of  attention,  in  so 
far  as  it  completes  and  aids  the  comprehension 
of  the  other.  A  complete  edition  was  published 
in  Stockholm  in  1818,  by  Prof  Rask.  The  work 
had  previously  been  imperfectly  known  in  the 
edition  of  Resenius  (Copenhagen,  1G05),  taken 
from  corrupt  manuscript,  the  text  often  con- 
founded with  the  notes  of  the  scalds.  The  in- 
troduction, or  Formali,  is  a  quaint  compendium 
of  Jewish,  Christian,  (Jreek,  Roman,  and  Ice- 
landic legend,  illusti'ating  the  origin  and  chain 
of  descent  of  the  Scandinavian  race  from  the 
lieroes  of  Troy.  The  Gtjlfn-ginning  follows, 
and  relates  the  visit  of  Gylfe,  a  Swedish  king 
and  magician,  to  Asgard,  in  order  to  observe  at 
its  fountain  head  the  spirit  of  northern  wisdom. 
An  English  translation  of  the  first  part  of  the 
prose  Edda  is  contained  in  "  Mallet's  Northern 
Antiquities"  (Bishop  Percy's  translation,  new 
edition,  London,  18-47).  The  second  part  of 
the  prose  Edda,  called  i??'ff^«/'r«(/a;',  represents 
Bragi,  the  god  of  poetry,  at  a  feast  given  by  (Egir, 
god  of  the  sea,  entertaining  the  celestial  company 
with  a  narration  of  their  own  exploits.  The 
epilogue,  or  Eijtimarli^  written  by  Snorro  Stur- 
leson or  by  a  contemporary,  is  an  attempted  so- 
lution of  the  Edda  fables  by  events  of  the  Tro- 
jan war.  At  the  end  of  the  prose  Edda  we  have 
the  Scalcki,  a  kind  oi  ars  poctica^  or  manual  for 
the  use  of  the  young  students  of  the  art.  We 
have  already  remarked  that  the  German  song 
of  the  Xihelungen  recounts  adventures  and 
heroes  of  the  ■  Scandinavian  poems.  August 
Schlegel  supposed  the  German  poem  to  have 
been  written  about  the  year  1207.  The  Scan- 
dinavian poems  are  known  to  have  been  earlier, 
probably  bv  several  centuries. 

EDDYSTONE  ROCKS,  a  reef  of  dangerous 
rocks  in  the  English  channel,  600  or  700  feet  in 
length,  and  about  9  m.  S.  W.  from  the  Ram- 
head.  They  consist  of  3  principal  ridges,  which 
are  entirely  covered  at  high  water.  A  cele- 
brated lighthouse  on  one  of  these  rocks  was  be- 
gun in  1757  and  finished  in  1759.  It  is  between 
80  and  90  feet  high,  and  furnished  with  16  pow- 
erful Argand  burners,  giving  a  liglit  of  the  first 
magnitude,  visible  in  clear  weather  for  13  ra. 
The  first  lighthouse  on  these  rocks  was  built  in 
1696,  of  stone  and  timber.  It  was  swept  away 
in  1703,  and  another  tower  was  constructed  of 
wood  5  years  afterward.  This  was  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1755,  and  the  present  edifice  was  then 
commenced  by  the  celebrated  engineer,  John 
Smeaton.  The  material  employed  was  Portland 
stime,  encased  in  granite,  partly  quarried  from  the 
rock  itself,  into  which  the  foundations  were  dove- 


tailed. The  violence  of  the  swell  at  'lie  light- 
house renders  communication  with  the  shore 
extremely  difficult,  even  in  serene  weather,  and 
the  sea  frequently  rises  above  the  light,  the  strong 
jdate  glass  of  the  lantern  having  been  more  than 
once  broken  by  the  waves.  Three  light  keep- 
ers are  employed  here,  and  the  house  is  always 
supj)liod  with  provisions  for  3  months,  and  a 
stock  of  500  gallons  of  oil. 

EDEN  (lleb.,  pleasure,  delight),  the  Scrip- 
ture name  of  the  place  where  God  ])]acod  Adam 
and  Eve  before  the  fall  (Gen.  ii.  8,  15,  &c.).  In 
the  Septuagint  it  is  called  Paradise,  that  is,  a 
park  or  pleasure  garden.  It  was  watered  by  a 
river  which  issuing  forth  branched  into  four 
streams,  named  Pison,  Gihon,  lliddekel  (or 
Tigris),  and  Euphrates.  No  locality  can  now 
be  fixed  for  the  garden  of  Eden,  notwithstand- 
ing the  efforts  of  learned  men  devoted  to  this 
topic.  Tlie  geographical  indications,  as  given 
in  the  book  of  Genesis,  are  too  vaguely  express- 
ed to  enable  us  to  determine  with  anj- approach 
to  certainty  where  it  was  situated.  The  most 
probable  opinion  seems  to  be  that  which  assigns 
for  the  garden  of  Eden  a  place  somewhere 
among  the  high  mountainous  regions  of  Arme- 
nia, where  the  rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates  take 
their  rise.  Some  writers,  however,  are  of  opin- 
ion that  the  garden  of  Eden  is  only  a  figurative 
expression,  not  intended  to  indicate  any  actual 
locality  on  earth. 

EDENTATA,  a  small  group  of  mammals, 
elevated  into  an  order  by  Cuvier,  and  associ- 
ated together  rather  by  negative  than  positive 
characters ;  these  are,  a  partial  or  total  absence 
of  teeth,  the  possession  of  very  large  claws  em- 
bracing the  ends  of  the  toes,  and  a  general  slow- 
ness of  motion  arising  from  the  organization  of 
the  limbs.  One  group  consists  of  strictly  vege- 
table feeders,  the  tarcUgrada  of  Illiger,  including 
the  sloths  (Jjraiyjnts,  Linn.)  ;  the  other  group  is 
principally  insectivorous,  including  the  ant-eater 
{inyrraccopTiaga^  Linn.),  the  armadillo  {dmxjpus^ 
Linn.),  the  pangolin  (jmanis,  Linn.),  the  aard- 
vark  (oryctcropus,  Geoff".),  and  the  gigantic  fossil 
megatherium  ;  these  are  described  under  their 
respective  titles.  The  term  edentata,  or  tooth- 
less animals,  is  not  properly  applied  to  any  of 
the  group  except  the  ant-eaters  and  the  pango- 
lins. -The  sloths  are  fitted  for  a  life  among  the 
•branches  of  trees,  which  they  rarely  leave,  un- 
less in  search  of  fresh  food,  and  then  in  the 
slowest  and  most  awkward  manner ;  the  ant- 
eaters  dig  up  their  insect  food  with  their  pow- 
erful claws,  and  entrap  them  on  their  glutinous 
tongues  ;  the  armadillos,  with  their  hard  exter- 
nal covering,  pursue  insects  on  the  ground,  dig 
after  vegetables  and  roots,  and  eat  even  decay- 
ing carcasses.  The  skull  in  the  sloth  is  very 
short  and  round,  in  the  armadillo  longer  and 
pointed,  and  in  the  ant-eater  much  elongated; 
in  tlie  megatherium  there  is  a  return  to  the 
short  and  solid  skull  of  the  sloth,  and  this  ani- 
mal seems  in  many  respects  intermediate  be- 
tween the  tardigrada  and  the  true  edentata. 
The  spine  varies  in  the  length  and  firmness  of  its 


752 


EDENTATA 


EDESSA 


parts,  according  to  the  habits  of  the  animal; 
the  neck  is  long  and  capable  of  great  rotation  in 
the  sloth,  the  2  upper  dorsals  being  so  modified 
that  they  perform  the  functions  of  cervicals, 
with  rudimentary  ribs;  the  dorsal  portion  is  very 
long,  and  contains  more  vertebra)  than  in  any 
other  mammalian  group,  viz. :  IG  in  the  great 
ant-eater,  14  in  the  3-toed  and  23  in  tlie  2-toed 
sloth ;  the  ribs  are  remarkably  bi'oad,  overlap- 
ping each  other  near  the  spine  in  some  of  the 
ant-eaters,  giving  thus  great  solidity  to  the  chest 
and  the  necessary  support  for  the  digging  fore 
limbs;  the  lumbar  vertebra)  are  broad,  with 
strong  spinous,  transverse,  and  articulating  pro- 
cesses ;  the  caudal  vertebra)  are  7  or  8  in  the 
sloths,  40  in  the  great  ant-eater,  45  in  the  long- 
tailed  pangolin,  and  at  least  18  in  the  megathe- 
rium ;  the  V-shaped  bones  on  the  inferior  sur- 
face are  well  developed  in  the  true  edentata,  and 
iu  the  megatherium  ;  the  anterior  bone  of  the 
sternum  is  considerably  developed  in  the  whole 
group,  especially  in  the  act-eaters  and  armadil- 
los. Tlje  pelvis  in  the  sloths  and  the  megathe- 
rium is  wide  and  capacious,  and  the  ilia  very 
bi'oad;  in  the  true  edentates  it  is  elongated, 
with  the  acetabulum  behind  the  middle,  and  the 
ilia  are  very  long.  The  anterior  extremities  in 
the  sloth  are  remarkable  for  tlieir  length,  the 
cylindrical  arm,  the  separation  of  the  convex 
bones  of  the  forearm,  and  the  length  of  the 
wrist,  hand,  and  clav\-s ;  the  posterior  extremi- 
ties have  the  femur  short,  flattened,  and  strong, 
and  the  bones  of  tlie  leg  curved  as  iu  the  fore- 
arm ;  the  fibula  forms  a  curious  articulation 
with  the  astragalus,  allowing  great  freedom  of 
rotation,  and  the  tuberosity  of  the  os  calcis  is 
much  elongated.  In  the  true  edentates,  the 
anterior  limbs  are  formed  for  digging,  and  there- 
fore the  scapular  arch  is  well  developed,  the 
humerus  short  and  robust,  with  strongly  marked 
processes  for  muscular  attachments ;  a  clavicle 
is  present  in  the  ant-eaters  and  armadillos,  but 
absent  in  the  pangolins ;  the  forearm  has  so 
large  an  olecranon  that  the  ulna  is  nearly  or 
quite  twice  the  length  of  the  radius  ;  the  bones 
are  robust,  and  the  hand  is  remarkable  for  the 
unequal  size  of  the  fingers,  the  middle  one  being 
in  most -of  them  much  the  largest ;  the  pecu- 
liarities of  the  posterior  limbs  are  less  remarka- 
ble. There  is  an  animal  of  Chili,  called  Ma- 
myitliorui  truncatus  by  Dr.  Harlan,  which  re- 
sembles the  mole  in  its  form  and  subterranean 
habits,  and  the  strength  and  shortness  of  the 
legs ;  it  comes  near  the  sloths  in  the  form  of 
the  teeth,  and  resembles  the  armadillo  in  the 
general  characters  of  the  skeleton  ;  in  the  ster- 
num and  ribs  it  is  like  the  nionotrcmata ;  it  is 
properly  placed  among  edentata,  and  by  Gray 
in  the  armadillo  family.  Another  reason  for 
separating  the  tardigrades  from  the  edentates  is 
found  in  the  digestive  ai)paratus.  In  tlie  for- 
mer the  teeth  are  simple,  formed  for  bruising 
leaves  and  stems ;  the  stomach  is  complicated, 
divided  into  numerous  compartments  by  inter- 
nal folds,  somewhat  like  the  stomach  of  rumi- 
nants :  the  large  intestine  is  readily  distinguished 


by  its  size  from  the  small,  and  by  their  partial 
separation.  In  the  edentates,  the  teeth  when 
present  are  simple,  more  numerous,  and  formed 
for  crushing  insects ;  the  stomacli  is  far  less 
complicated,  and  the  division  into  small  and 
large  intestine  is  not  well  marked.  The  peculiar 
subdivision  of  the  arteries  of  the  limbs  in  the 
sloths  is  not  required  in  the  active  and  terres- 
trial edentates ;  au?l  the  investing  armor  of  the 
armadillo  and  the  pangolin  would  be  equally 
unnecessary  for  the  arboreal  tardigrades.  The 
edentata  seem  to  establish  the  passage  from  the 
tinguiculata  to  the  vngulata,  as  the  nails  are 
greatly  developed,  and  cover  in  a  great  degree 
the  ends  of  the  fingers.  That  which  especially 
characterizes  them  is  the  general  absence  of 
teeth  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the  jaws,  the 
dental  apparatus  being  in  most  reduced  to  mo- 
lars and  canines. 

EDESSA,  the  modern  Oorfa,  an  ancient  city  of 
northern  Mesopotamia,  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Osroene.  Tradition  ascribes  its  founda- 
tion to  Nimrod,  and  supposes  it  to  be  on  or  near 
the  site  of  the  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  mentioned  iu 
Scripture  (Gen.  xi.  28).  Under  the  Seleucidse  it 
was  called  Callirhoe,  and  under  Antiochus  IV. 
it  took  the  name  of  Antiochia.  In  137  B.  0. 
it  became  the  capital  of  an  independent  king- 
dom. The  name  Abgar  or  Agbar  (the  mighty) 
appears  as  that  of  its  sovereigns,  and  its  manu- 
factories of  arms  were  celebrated.  Edessa  was 
sacked  by  Trajan,  by  reason  of  the  equivocal  con- 
duct of  its  rulers  during  the  wars  of  the  empire 
against  the  Armenians  and  Parthians.  In  216 
it  was  made  a  Roman  mihtary  colony  by  Cara- 
calla,  who  was  murdered  there  in  the  following 
year.  It  played  an  important  part  in  the  early 
Christian  church,  was  the  residence  of  St.  Ephra- 
im,  had  famous  schools  of  theology  and  more 
than  300  monasteries,  and  was  for  many  years 
the  principal  seat  of  oriental  learning.  It  was 
taken  b}'  the  Arabs  shortly  after  the  death  of 
Mohammed,  and  in  the  time  of  the  first  crusade 
became  a  Christian  principality  under  Baldwin 
I.,  brother  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  Baldwin 
ruled  it  from  1097  to  1100,  purchased  Samosata 
and  several  other  places,  and  abandoned  his 
fief  for  the  crown  of  Jerusalem.  Baldwin  II., 
cousin  of  the  preceding,  reigned  from  1100  to 
1118,  was  5  years  captive  to  the  Turks,  and  Avas 
called  in  his  turn  to  the  throne  of  Jerusalem. 
Joscelin  de  Courtenay,  the  successor  of  Baldwin, 
was  surnamed  the  Great  by  reason  of  his  victo- 
ries over  the  Saracens.  Joscelin  II.,  who  reigned 
after  him,  was  defeated  by  the  sultan  Noured- 
din,  who  captured  Edessa  and  exterminated  the 
inhabitants.  It  was  plundered  by  Tamerlane  in 
1393,  and  in  1637  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks, 
who  changed  its  name  to  Orfah  or  Oorfa.  The 
modern  town  is  a  large,  well  built  place,  with  a 
wall  7  m.  in  circuit,  and  40,000  or  50,000  inhab- 
itants. Its  grand  mosque  is  a  structure  of  con- 
siderable arcliitectural  merit,  within  which  are 
held  several  schools  for  the  instruction  of  young 
men  in  religion  and  law.  It  derives  great  com- 
mercial importance  from  its  position  on  the  route 


EDFOO 


EDGECOMBE 


753 


between  Aleppo  and  Koordistan Edessa.  (prob- 
ably tlie  later  name  of  the  ancient  yEgm  ;  the 
modern  Vodena  or  Vodliena),  the  ancient  capi- 
tal of  Macedonia,  was  situated  on  the  Egnatian 
way,  at  the  entrance  of  the  pass  leading  from 
the  mountain  provinces  into  upper  Macedonia, 
and  also  by  another  branch  into  Pclagonia  and 
Lyccstes.  The  town  was  the  cradle  of  the  Ma- 
cedonian dynasty,  and  even  after  the  removal 
of  the  seat  of  govermnent  to  Pella,  in  the  plains 
below,  Edessa  continued  to  remain  the  national 
sanctuary  and  the  burial  place  of  the  Macedo- 
nian kings.  From  its  connnanding  position  it 
continued  to  be  of  importance  under  the  Koman 
and  Byzantine  emi)erors.  Taken  by  Basil  II., 
tlie  conqueror  of  Bulgaria,  it  was  strongly  for- 
tified under  his  reign  (97G-1025),  and  was  called 
Bodina,  Avhence  the  modern  name.  The  mod- 
ern town,  which  has  few  remains  of  antiquity, 
is  situated  in  European  Turkey,  about  40  m. 
from  Salonica,  on  the  Vistritza  river.  The  lo- 
cality is  as  celebrated  for  its  picturesque  scenery 
in  the  present  day  as  it  was  in  ancient  times. 

EDFOO,  the  Atbo  of  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
and  Apollinopolis  Magna  of  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, a  city  of  upper  Egypt,  on  tlie  Nile,  50  m. 
S.  of  Thebes.  It  has  about  2,000  inhabitants, 
and  manufactories  of  earthenware.  Here  are 
remarkable  ruins  of  two  temples  partly  covered 
by  sand,  whose  architecture  is  that  of  the  age 
of  the  Ptolemies,  after  Egyptian  art  had  begun 
to  decline. 

EDGAR,  an  E.  co.  of  111.,  bordering  on  Ind.; 
area,  about  COO  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855,  13,920. 
It  is  drained  by  Embarras  river  and  by  Brulette 
and  Clear  creeks,  two  affluents  of  the  "Wabash. 
The  surface  is  nearly  level,  and  occupied  partly 
by  prairies  and  tracts  of  timber.  The  soil  is 
fertile  and  suitable  for  grain  and  pasturage. 
Pork  and  wool  are  exported  in  considerable 
quantities.  In  1850  the  productions  were  1,- 
250,278  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  49,-i2-i  of  wheat, 
138,830  of  oats,  and  174,828  lbs.  of  butter. 
There  were  19  churches  in  the  county,  1  news- 
paper office,  and  690  pupils  attending  public 
schools.  jSTamed  in  honor  of  Col.  John  Ed- 
gar, one  of  the  earliest  and  most  distinguished 
settlers  of  the  state.     Capital,  Paris. 

EDGAR,  a  king  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  son 
of  King  Edmund  L,  born  about  943,  succeed- 
ed his  brotlier  Edwy  upon  the  throne  in  959, 
died  in  975.  His  reign  was  one  of  the  most 
fortunate  in  the  ancient  history  of  England. 
He  conquered  the  Scotch,  is  said  to  have  re- 
duced a  part  of  Ireland,  deterred  both  the 
foreign  and  domestic  Danes  from  making  any 
hostile  movement,  and  improved  the  internal 
government  of  the  kingdom.  His  vigor  and  fore- 
sight placed  the  country  in  so  good  a  posture 
of  defence,  that  the  most  of  his  reign  is  an  in- 
terval of  peace  amid  the  constant  wars  waged 
by  his  predecessors  and  successors,  and  he  has 
received  from  posterity  the  surname  of  "  the 
Peaceful."  Under  the  guidance  of  St.  Dunstan 
he  favored  and  reformed  the  monasteries,  and 
restored  the  ecclesiastical  discipline,  which  had 

VOL.  YI. — 48 


been  relaxed  during  the  storms  of  Danish  inva- 
sion. Yet  the  manners  of  Edgar  himself  were 
dissolute,  and  for  bearing  off  a  young  lady  edu- 
cated in  the  convent  of  Wilton,  he  was  ordered 
by  St.  Dunstan  to  abstain  from  wearinghis  crown 
for  7  years.  The  well-known  story  transmitted 
by  Malmesbury  on  the  faith  of  an  ancient  ballad, 
of  liis  marriage  with  his  second  wife  Elfrida, 
is  the  subject  of  an  English  tragedy  by  "William 
Mason,  and  of  a  French  opera  by  Guillard. 

EDGAR  ATMELING  (that  is,  Edgar  the  No- 
ble), an  Anglo-Saxon  prince,  in  the  second  half 
of  the  11th  century.  The  grandson  of  Edmund 
Ironside  by  his  exiled  sou  Edward,  lie  was  born 
in  Hungary.  In  1057  he  followed  his  father  to 
England,  after  whose  sudden  death  in  1006  he 
became  himself  the  heir  to  the  crown,  being  the 
nearest  relative  to  Edward  the  Confessor.  Yet 
he  was  both  young  and  feeble,  and  presented  no 
claim,  while  the  two  resolute  leaders  Harold  and 
the  Norman  "William  fought  for  the  kingdom  at 
Hastings.  After  that  battle  he  was  received  at 
court  by  "William  the  Con(iueror,  confirmed  in 
the  earldom  of  Oxford,  which  had  been  granted 
him  by  Harold,  and  treated  with  the  greatest 
kindness.  He  accompanied  the  king  in  his  visit 
to  Normandy,  but  after  liis  return,  persuaded 
by  the  discontented  Northumbrian  lords,  he 
took  refuge  with  his  followers  in  Scotland,  and 
sought  to  lead  a  rebellion  in  Northumberland. 
Failing  in  this  and  in  other  enterprises,  he  re- 
turned to  England  in  1073,  having  previously 
rendered  his  submission  to  the  king  and  re- 
ceived pardon.  He  was  afterward  engaged  in 
a  Scottish  war  to  place  a  relative  upon  the 
throne  of  that  country,  and  is  thought  to  have 
gone  to  the  Holy  Land  in  the  crusading  array  of 
Robert,  duke  of  Normandy.  His  titles  rather 
than  his  abilities  make  him  a  historic  character, 
and  the  best  result  of  his  career  was  the  intro- 
duction of  something  of  tlie  superior  cultivation 
of  the  south  into  Scotland.     (See  Atheling.) 

EDGARTO"WN,  a  post  village,,  township,  and 
seat  of  justice  of  Dukes  co.,  Mass.,  on  the  E. 
side  of  the  island  of  Martha's  Vineyard  ;  pop. 
in  1855,  1,898.  The  harbor  is  well  sheltered, 
4  or  5  fathoms  deep,  having  a  lighthouse  with  a 
fixed  light  50  feet  above  the  sea,  erected  on  a 
pier  1,000  feet  long,  at  the  entrance  to  the  har- 
bor. It  has  3  churches,  1  newspaper  office,  and 
in  1855  contained  1  manulactory  of  salt,  1  of 
oil  and  candles,  1  sail  loft,  and  2  boat-building 
yards.  It  had  12  vessels  with  an  aggregate 
burden  of  3,863  tons,  a  capital  of  $390,000,  and 
360  hands  employed  in  the  Avhale  fishery. 

EDGECOMBE,  a  N.  E.  co.  of  North  Carolina, 
watered  by  Tar  river,  and  by  Fishing,  Sandy, 
and  Contented  creeks;  area,  about  600  sq.  m.; 
pop.  in  1850, 17,189,  of  whom  8,547  were  slaves. 
The  soil  is  fertile  and  sandy.  The  surf^ice  is 
mostly  level,  and  occupied  in  part  by  pine  for- 
ests, from  which  quantities  of  turpentine  are 
obtained.  The  staples  are  Indian  corn  and  cot- 
ton, and  the  productions  in  1850  were  759,373 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  4. 046  J  tons  of  hay,  and 
3,097i  bales  of  cotton.    The  county  was  organ- 


754 


EDGEFIELD 


EDGEWORTH 


ized  in  1783,  and  named  in  honor  of  the  earl  of 
Mount  Edgecombe.     Capital,  Tarboronp;h. 

EDGEFIELD,  a  W.  district  of  South  Carolina, 
separated  from  Georgia  by  tlie  Savaunali  river, 
and  bounded  N.  by  the  Saluda ;  area,  1,540  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  39,262,  of  whom  22,725  were 
slaves.  It  has  a  fertile  soil  and  a  moderately 
hilly  surface,  occupied  by  extensive  plantations 
of  Indian  corn,  oats,  and  cotton,  and  by  large 
grazing  districts.  In  1850  the  productions  were 
25,880  bales  of  cotton,  1,155,489  bushels  of  In- 
dian corn,  62,810  of  wheat,  285,926  of  oats,  and 
166,757  of  sweet  potatoes.  Numbers  of  cattle 
and  swine  are  also  raised.  In  1850  there  were 
52  churches  in  the  district,  2  newspaper  offices, 
and  921  pupils  attending  public  schools.  "Water 
power  is  abundant,  and  there  are  numerous  mills 
and  factories.  The  SaVannah  river  is  navigable 
for  steamboats  to  the  S.  part  of  the  district,  and 
by  small  boats  a  still  greater  distance.  Capital, 
Edgefield  Court  House. 

EDGEHILL,  a  high  ridge  in  the  co.  of  War- 
wick, England,  noted  as  the  scene  of  the  first 
battle  between  Charles  I.  and  the  parliamentary 
forces,  in  1642.  On  the  side  of  the  hill  is  cut 
the  colossal  figure  of  a  horse,  whence  a  valley 
below  has  been  named  the  Vale  of  Red  Horse. 

EDGEWORTH,  Richard  Loveix,  a  British 
inventor  and  author,  born  in  Bath,  England,  in 
1744,  died  in  Edgeworthtown,  Ireland,  June  13, 
1817.  Of  an  ancient  Irish  family,  he  was  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  and  was  after- 
ward sent  to  Oxford.  Before  he  was  20  years  of 
age,  he  ran  off  with  a  young  lady  of  Oxford,  was 
married,  and  entered  upon  a  life  of  gayety  and 
fashion  near  Reading,  in  Berkshire,  where  his 
daughter  Maria,  afterwai'd  distinguished  as  an 
authoress,  was  born.  From  his  boyhood  he  had 
been  accustomed  to  make  mechanical  contriv- 
ances and  philosophical  experiments,  and  now 
in  his  eagerness  for  early  racing  news  he  con- 
structed the  first  telegraph  in  England  over  a 
distance  of  16  miles.  He  made  several  other  in- 
ventions, all  of  which  he  abandoned  before  per- 
fecting them,  and  which  therefore  led  to  no  other 
result  than  gaining  for  him  from  the  society  of 
arts  a  silver  medal  in  1768,  and  a  gold  medal 
the  next  year.  His  favorite  scheme  at  this  time 
was  to  construct  a  locomotive  which  sl^ould 
carry  with  itself  a  short  railway,  upon  which 
it  should  at  the  same  time  always  run.  He 
entered  upon  his  patrimony  in  Ireland  in  1782, 
and  determined  to  devote  himself  particularly 
to  the  improvement  of  his  estate,  and  the 
education  of  his  children.  He  attempted  to 
educate  his  eldest  son  on  the  plan  which  Rous- 
seau had  developed  in  his  Emile.  He  put 
him  into  loose  jacket  and  trousers,  with  naked 
arms  and  legs,  and  ailowed  him  to  run  wild 
and  do  what  he  pleased.  The  young  savage 
gi-ew  up  to  all  the  virtues  except  those  which 
are  needed  in  a  civilized  state.  He  hated  books, 
hated  every  sort  of  government,  hated  to  do 
any  thing  useful,  but  finally  went  to  sea.  Mr. 
Edgeworth  was  an  entlmsiastic  member  of  the 
Irish  volunteers,  one  of  the  earliest  advocates 


of  reform  in  parliament,  and  a  member  of  the 
last  Irish  house  of  commons.  He  was  involved 
in  tlie  troubles  of  the  rebellion  in  1798,  and 
obliged  to  retreat  with  his  family  from  his  house, 
which  however  was  saved  from  pillage  on  ac- 
count of  the  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  per- 
sonally. He  was  4  times  married,  one  of  his 
wives  having  been  Miss  Honora  Sneyd,  the  be- 
trothed of  Major  Andre  ;  his  children  were 
educated  entirely  at  home  under  his  own  care. 
He  wrote  slowly  and  coldly,  thought  with  logi- 
cal precision,  explained  clearly,  but  yet  could 
not  express  with  his  pen  the  passionate  ardor 
with  which  he  undertook  any  subject,  and 
which  he  showed  in  his  conversation.  He  pre- 
ferred therefore  to  write  in  partnership  with 
his  daughter  Maria,  and  in  this  way  an  "  Essay 
on  Practical  Education"  and  an  "  Essay  on  Irish 
Bulls"  were  produced.  He  himself  wrote  sev- 
eral essays  on  railroads,  telegraplis,  carriages, 
and  poetry.  He  took  great  interest  in  the  liter- 
ary pursuits  of  liis  daughter,  who  was  accus- 
tomed to  read  to  him  her  first  rough  plans  and 
receive  suggestions  from  him ;  and  he  also  care- 
fully revised  her  works  and  gave  them  his  sanc- 
tion before  they  were  printed. — Maria,  an  Eng- 
lish novelist,  daughter  of  the  preceding,  born 
in  Berkshire,  Jan.  1,  1767,  died  in  Edgeworth- 
town, Ireland,  May  21, 1849.  Slie  was  15  years 
of  age  when  her  father  succeeded  to  the  family 
estate  in  Ireland,  where  under  his  direction  she 
pursued  her  studies,  formed  habits  of  sharp 
observation,  and  developed  that  cheerfulness 
which  made  her  always  beloved  in  society,  and 
that  hope  and  confidence  which  are  requisite  to 
a  full  exertion  of  the  mental  powers.  Early  indi- 
cating her  taste  for  literary  pursuits,  she  seems 
never  to  have  wished  to  be  married ;  and  as  it 
had  been  the  delight  of  her  father  to  assist  in 
developing  her  talent,  she  in  return  loved  to  re- 
main by  the  family  hearth,  gratifying  his  earnest 
but  less  gifted  mind  by  her  literary  successes, 
and  repaying  in  his  old  age  tliose  attentions 
which  she  had  received  in  youth.  The  series 
of  her  novels  began  with  "  Castle  Rackrent," 
in  1801,  and  continued  without  interruption  till 
1817,  during  which  period  there  appeared  from, 
her  pen  "  BeUnda,"  "  Popular  Tales,"  "Leono- 
ra," "Tales  of  Fashionable  Life,"  "Patronage," 
"  Hai-rington,"  and  "  Ormond."  These  works 
were  remarkable  for  their  humane  sympathies, 
their  moral  tendencies,  and  their  utter  disre- 
gard of  the  materials  out  of  which  it  was  then 
the  fashion  to  construct  romances.  The  public 
was  surprised  by  novels  which  contained  nei- 
ther ruinous  towers,  terrible  subterranean  cells, 
nor  mysterious  veils,  and  in  which  the  char- 
acters were  neither  peers  nor  foundlings.  The 
aim  of  Miss  Edgeworth,  like  that  of  Joanna 
Baillie  in  her  dramas,  was  to  make  each  nov- 
el an  elucidation  of  one  particular  passion  or 
vice.  Thus  in  her  tales  of  fashionable  life, 
Lord  Glenthorn  is  a  striking  embodiment  of 
ennui,  Almeria  is  a  heartless,  wretclied  lady 
of  mere  fashion,  Vivian  illustrates  the  per- 
plexities of  a  feeble  will,  Emilie  de  Coulanges 


EDGEWORTH  DE  FIPwMONT 


EDINBURGH 


755 


shoTvs  tho  passions  and  manners  of  a  fasliion- 
ablo  French  lady,  and  tlio  fine  story  of  tho  "  Ab- 
sentee" exposes  the  folly  and  mortifications  of 
those  Irish  families  of  fortune  who  leave  their 
native  country  seats  to  be  scorned  in  frivolous 
though  brilliant  society  in  Loudon.  On  tho 
death  of  her  father  in  1817  her  career  of  author- 
ship was  for  a  time  interrupted.  She  did  not  re- 
puiuo  her  works  of  fiction  till  she  had  expressed 
her  affection  for  him  by  completing  tho  memoir 
which  ho  had  begun  of  his  own  life,  and  she 
also  completed  and  i>ublished,  under  the  titles 
of  "  Rosamond" and  " Harriot  and  Lucy,"  some 
stories  for  juvenile  readers  which  had  been 
begun  by  him  50  years  before.  Among  the 
most  ardent  admirers  of  her  novels  was  Sir 
"Walter  Scott,  who  avows  that  it  was  her  hu- 
morous, tender,  and  admirable  delineations  of 
Irish  character  which  prompted  him  to  attempt 
similar  portraitures  of  his  own  country.  In 
1823  she  spent  a  fortnight  with  Scott  at  Abbots- 
ford,  by  whom  the  visit  was  subsequently  re- 
turned at  Edgeworthtown.  She  did  not  reappear 
as  a  novelist  till  1834,  when  her  exquisite  story 
of  "  Helen"  was  published;  and  her  career  of 
authorship  terminated  with  the  child's  story  of 
"Orlandino,"  which  appeared  in  1847.  With 
the  exception  of  a  trip  to  the  continent  and  a 
short  residence  at  Clifton,  she  passed  the  latter 
3'ears  of  her  life  at  Edgeworthtown,  unspoiled 
by  literary  fame,  loved  in  the  family  circle  which 
daily  assembled  in  the  library,  and  admired  by 
all  as  a  pattern  of  an  intellectual  and  amiable 
woman.  Her  novels  and  miscellaneous  pieces 
were  first  collected  in  14  vols.  (London,  1825). 
New  editions  appeared  in  London  in  18  vols,  in 
1832,  in  9  vols,  in  1848,  and  again  in  1856  in  10 
vols.  12mo.  They  have  been  often  republished 
in  the  United  States. 

EDGEWORTH  DE  FIRMONT,  Henry  Al- 
len, the  last  confessor  of  King  Louis  XVI.  of 
France,  cousin  of  the  authoress  Maria  Edge- 
worth,  born  in  Edgeworthtown,  Ireland,  in  1745, 
died  in  Mitau,  Russia,  May  22, 1807.  His  father, 
an  Anglican  clergyman  who  became  a  convert 
to  Catholicism  and  went  to  reside  in  France, 
boiTowed  the  name  of  Firmont  from  an  eleva- 
tion on  his  estate.  Henry,  after  having  studied 
under  the  Jesuits  at  Toulouse  and  at  the  Sor- 
bonne  in  Paris,  was  admitted  to  orders,  chosen 
for  confessor  to  Elizabeth,  grand-daughter  of 
Louis  XV.,  and  gained  general  esteem  by  his 
virtues  and  piety.  He  was  selected  by  Louis 
XVI.,  after  that  monarch's  condemnation  to 
death,  to  render  him  the  consolations  of  religion. 
He  braved  the  popular  indignation  by  passing 
with  the  king  his  last  days,  and  ascending  the 
pcaifold  with  him.  Just  before  the  fall  of  the 
fatal  axe,  he  addressed  to  him  the  words :  "  Son 
of  St.  Louis,  ascend  to  heaven."  He  returned  to 
Ireland  in  1796,  and  was  offered  a  pension  which 
he  refused  to  accept.  He  afterward  accompa- 
nied the  count  of  Provence  (Louis  XVIII.)  to 
Russia,  where  his  death  was  occasioned  by  his 
solicitous  attentions  to  the  French  prisoners  of 
war.  He  left  a  volume  of  '*  Memoii-s,"  published 


in  English  by  C.  S.  Edgeworth  (T^ondon,  1815), 
and  in  French  by  Dupont  (Paris,  1815).  His 
letters  have  also  been  collected  and  published. 

EDICT  (Lat.  edico,  to  declare),  in  Roman  law, 
a  general  order  published  by  the  pra)tor  when 
he  entered  ujxm  his  otHce,  containing  the  sys- 
tem of  rules  by  which  ho  pro[)osed  to  admin- 
ister justice  during  the  year  of  liisoflice;  also 
an  annual  proclamation  made  by  the  nsdiles. 
In  actual  practice  it  was  not,  however,  a  new 
ordinance  compiled  every  year  by  either  tho 
praitor  or  a3diles,  but  was  substantially  the 
same  ordinance  rcc-iiacted  with  some  occasion- 
al modifications.  Tiie  pnotorian  edict  was  re- 
vised or  recompiled  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian 
under  tho  name  of  edictum  perpcttcum,  after 
which  it  remained  imaltered.  The  same  term 
was  applied  to  an  ordinance  or  decree  enacted 
by  tho  emperor  without  the  authority  of  the 
senate.  It  has  also  been  used  in  modern  legis- 
lation to  express  a  decree  of  a  monarcliical  gov- 
ernment in  relation  to  some  specific  subject,  as 
the  edict  of  Nantes. 

EDINBURCill  (Celtic,  Dun-edin\thQ  metro- 
polis of  Scotland,  finely  situated  on  a  congeries 
of  hills,  about  2  m.  from  its  port  of  Leitli,  on 
the  S.  side  of  the  firth  of  Forth,  337  m.  in  a 
direct  line  N.  N.  W.  from  London,  but  by  rail- 
way, Tia  Trent  valley,  398^;  lat.  55°  57'  N. ; 
long.  3°  11'  W. ;  pop.  of  the  city  and  suburbs 
in  1851,  160,302.  The  city  is  surrounded  on  3 
sides,  at  greater  or  lesser  distances,  with  a  num- 
ber of  hills,  forming  a  picturesque  background 
to  the  view.  High  above  the  city,  on  the  W., 
towers  the  castle,  on  a  rock  300  feet  high,  while 
to  the  E.  rise  the  heights  of  Calton  Hill,  Artlmr's 
Seat,  822  feet  above  the  sea,  and  Salisbury 
Craigs,  547  feet,  separated  from  each  otlier  by  a 
deep  ravine.  The  appearance  of  tiie  city  and 
surrounding  landscape  is  exceedingly  pictur- 
esque; viewed  from  whatever  point,  whether 
from  the  ramparts  of  the  castle  overlooking  the 
new  town,  from  the  crags  or  Calton  Hill,  or 
from  the  lower  parts  of  the  city  looking  up  at 
the  heights,  the  scene  is  equally  striking.  The 
city  proper  is  2  m.  in  lengtli  by  2  in  breadth,  or 
including  Leith  and  the  suburbs,  2f  by  3^.  From 
its  many  open  spaces,  it  covers  more  ground  in 
proportion  to  its  population  than  most  other 
British  cities.  Its  situation  is  exposed,  bnt  sa- 
lubrious. Snow  seldom  lies  long.  Neither  sum- 
mer heat  nor  winter  cold  is  excessive,  the  mean 
temperature  of  summer  being  57^*  2',  of  winter 
38°  4' ;  annual  tall  of  rain,  24  inches ;  propor- 
tion of  deaths,  1  in  36.45.  Tho  streets  are 
paved  and  lighted,  and  the  city  is  supplied  with 
water  at  the  rate  of  25  gallons  daily  to  each 
inhabitant.  The  merchants  form  an  incorporate 
guild  under  a  charter  from  Charles  II.,  and 
there  are  also  14  incorporated  trades.  Govern- 
ment is  vested  in  31  town  councillors,  a  dean  of 
guild  elected  by  the  guild,  and  a  convener  of 
trades  chosen  by  the  representatives  of  the  in- 
corporated trades.  These  33  officers  select  from 
their  number  a  lord  pi'ovost,  4  baihes,  and  a 
treasurer.     The  city  became  insolvent  in  1833, 


756 


EDINBUKGH 


and  its  property  has  since  been  held  by  trustees. 
The  revenue  of  the  coqioration  in  1854  amount- 
ed to  £24,000.  A  police  force  of  327  men  is 
maintained  at  a  cost  of  £38,746,  payable  from 
an  assessment  of  Is.  2'i.  per  £  rental.  Paupers 
are  supported  by  an  assessment,  exclusive  of 
the  many  munificent  cliarities.  In  1853  tlie 
number  of  permanent  paupers  was  4,599,  cost- 
ing per  bead  £8  10s.  for  adults,  and  £7  10s.  for 
children  at  nurse,  the  amount  of  assessment  being 
£42,062. — Edinburgh  has  but  little  commerce  or 
manufacturing  industry.  There  are  28  brew- 
eries of  strong  ale,  16  carriage  factories,  and  sev- 
eral shawl  weavers.  Glass  blowing  and  lace 
making  are  carried  on  to  a  small  extent.  Edin- 
burgh is,  however,  the  seat  of  an  extensive  book 
trade,  and  second  only  to  London  among  British 
cities  in  printing  and  publishing,  engraving,  and 
all  other  ancillaries  to  literature.  There  are 
nearly  70  printing  offices,  witli  1,200  employees. 
The  number  of  periodicals  and  re\iews  published 
in  1858  was  20,  and  of  daily  and  weekly  newspa- 
pers 26,  8  of  which  have  been  established  since 
1855.  A  considerable  passenger  traffic  arises 
from  the  number  of  railways  which  centre  in 
the  city,  viz.  :  the  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow, 
North  British,  Caledonian,  Grantown,  and  Dal- 
keith, together  with  the  Union  canal,  which  con- 
nects the  firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde.  There  are 
10  joint  stock  banking  companies,  of  which  5 
are  Edinburgh  institutions,  and  5  branches. 
Regular  mai'kets  are  held  thrice  a  week,  with 
cattle  and  horse  fairs  in  the  first  week  of  No- 
vember, and  on  the  first  and  second  Mondays 
of  April. — The  chief  judicial  authority  of  Edin- 
burgh is  the  court  of  session,  which  is  the  su- 
preme civil  court  of  Scotland.  It  consists  of  13 
judges,  constituting  an  inner  and  an  outer 
house;  the  inner  house  comprises  the  "first 
division,"  presided  over  by  the  lord  president 
and  3  senior  puisne  judges,  and  the  "second  di- 
vision,'" under  the  lord  justice  clerk  and  3  senior 
puisne  judges;  the  outer  house  consists  of  the 
remaining  5  puisne  judges  officiating  as  lords  or- 
dinary, each  sitting  singly.  An  appeal  lies  from 
the  decision  of  a  lord  ordinary  to  the  inner 
house,  and  thence  only  to  the  British  house  of 
lords.  A  court  of  exchequer  still  nominally  ex- 
ists, but  its  functions  are  discharged  by  2  judges 
of  the  court  of  session  acting  as  barons  of  the 
exchequer.  The  lord  president  (as  lord  justice 
general),  lord  justice  clerk,  and  5  puisne  judges 
of  the  court  of  session,  also  constitute  the  court 
of  justiciary,  having  supreme  criminal  jurisdic- 
tion, which  sits  as  occasion  requires,  with  peri- 
odical circuit  assizes.  Lawyers  privileged  to 
practise  before  the  supreme  coui'ts  must  belong 
to  the  faculty  of  advocates,  which  consists  of 
400  to  500  barristers,  or  to  that  of  the  writers 
to  the  signet,  comprising  COO  to  700  members. 
An  ancient  court  called  the  convention  of  royal 
burghs  meets  annually  in  Edinburgh,  the  pro- 
vost presiding;  and  a  commissary  court  still 
exists,  although  its  functions  are  almost  merged 
in  the  court  of  session. — ^Edinburgli  is  divided 
into  the  old  and  new  towns,  the  former  jjic- 


turesque  and  dirty,  the  latter  unsurpassed  for 
regularity  and  elegance.  The  old  town  mainly 
occupies  a  ridge  between  the  castle  on  the  "W".  and 
Ilolyrood  house  on  the  E.,  and  includes  on  the  S. 
a  hollow  occupied  by  an  old  street  known  imme- 
diately S.  of  the  castle  as  the  West-port,  and 
further  to  the  E.  as  the  Cowgate.  N.  of  the  old 
town,  and  separating  it  from  the  new,  was 
formerly  a  snuiU  body  of  water  called  the  North 
loch,  which  is  now  drained  and  occupied  by  a 
market  place,  abattoirs,  railway  termini,  &c. 
In  the  old  town  can  be  seen  the  peculiarities 
of  the  domestic  architecture  of  former  times  in 
the  dwelling  houses  of  5  and  6,  and  even  of  11 
stories,  including  attics,  laid  out  in  flats,  or  sepa- 
rate tenements  on  the  successive  floors,  with 
a  stone  staircase  common  to  all.  In  the  new 
town  the  houses  are  almost  universally  3  stories 
in  height,  with  attic  and  sunk  basement,  and  of 
tasteful  architecture.  The  whole  city  is  built 
of,  stone.  The  castle  crowns  the  summit  of  a 
precipitous  rock.  It  is  a  picturesque  object,  but 
far  from  impregnable ;  it  has  quarters  for  2,000 
men.  It  dates  as  a  place  of  defence  from  the  5th 
century,  but  its  present  fortifications  are  modern. 
Its  curiosities  are  the  crown,  sceptre,  sword  of 
state,  and  wand  constituting  the  regalia  of  Scot- 
land ;  Mons  Meg,  a  huge  cannon,  constructed,  it 
is  supposed,  at  Mons,  Elanders,  in  1496,  of  bars 
and  hoops ;  an  armory  capable  of  stacking  30,000 
muskets,  and  a  lately  discovered  chapel  of  the 
10th  century.  A  prominent  feature  of  the  old 
town  is  its  principal  street,  the  High  street,  of 
historic  celebrity,  which  is  one  mile  long,  and 
in  some  parts  90  feet  wide,  and,  under  the  con- 
tinuous names  of  Castle  Hill,  Lawnmarket,  High 
street,  and  Oanongate,  occupies  the  crest  of  the 
ridge  from  the  castle  to  the  valley  in  which  lies 
the  palace  of  Ilolyrood.  On  High  street  is  the 
high  church,  dedicated  to  St.  Giles,  the  patron 
saint  of  the  city,  and  noticeable  for  its  tower 
surmounted  by  an  imperial  crown  in  masonry ; 
after  the  reformation  it  was  divided  by  interior 
walls  into  4  places  of  worship,  in  one  of  which 
John  Knox  officiated ;  his  house  still  stands  in 
the  vicinity.  Behind  St.  Giles  is  parliament 
square,  containing  the  old  parliament  house  of 
Scotland,  now  used  as  a  court  house ;  also  the 
advocates'  and  signet  libraries.  In  the  old  town 
are  also  the  exchange,  the  Tron  kirlc,  and  Victo- 
ria hall,  a  modern  structure  in  which  the  general 
assembly  of  the  Scotch  church  meets.  At  the 
foot  of  the  Canongate  is  Holyrood  house,  former- 
ly a  residence  of  the  kings.  The  edifice  is  of  an- 
cient date,  but  little  if  any  of  the  present  struc- 
ture is  older  than  the  reign  of  James  V.  The 
building  is  quadrangular  in  form,  with  an  open 
court  94  feet  square  in  the  centre,  but  has  nothing 
imposing  in  its  architecture.  Within  the  palace 
is  the  chamber  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  in  Avhich 
her  bed,  though  in  a  decayed  state,  may  still 
be  seen.  Charles  X.  of  France,  after  his  flight 
in  1830,  resided  for  some  time  in  the  palace, 
and  Queen  Victoria,  whose  statue  adorns  it, 
resides  there  on  her  visits  to  Edinburgh.  In 
the  gallery  are  mythical  portraits  of  106  Scot- 


EDINBURGH 


757 


tish  sovereigns.  Adjoinin;*  tlio  palace  arc 
the  ruins  of  an  abbey  fuinuled  in  1128,  and 
the  space  around  tlio  abl>ey  and  ])a]ace  to  tlio 
distance  of  100  yards  toward  the  city,  but  coun- 
tryward  embracin<f  a  circuit  of  5  m.,  inchid- 
ing  Salisbury  Craigs  and  Artliur's  Seat,  is  a 
sanctuary  in  wliieh  debtors  are  i)rivileged  from 
arrest.  The  Cowgate,  once  an  aristocratic  but 
now  a  mean  street,  winds  tortuously  along  the 
base  of  the  hill,  witli  a  fringe  of  squalid  alleys, 
until  it  expands  into  the  Grass  market,  a  spa- 
cious rectangle,  in  ■which  is  the  new  corn  ex- 
change, facing  the  spot  where  the  Covenanter 
martyrs  were  executed  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
I7tli  century.  A  little  S.  stands  Ileriot's  hospi- 
tal, on  the  site  called  High  Riggs.  The  heights 
of  the  old  town  are  connected  with  the  new 
by  the  south  and  north  bridges  on  the  line  of 
Nicholson,  a  spacious  street.  The  south  bridge, 
and  at  another  ])lace  George  IV. 's  bridge,  span 
the  Cowgate  high  above  the  roofs  of  the 
houses,  while  the  north  bridge  throws  its  3 
})rincipal  arches  across  the  hollow  formerly  oc- 
cn[)ied  by  North  Loch.  Nicholson  leads  into 
Prince's  street  at  the  theatre,  a  plain  structure, 
and  opposite  the  register  house,  a  square  fire- 
proof building  for  the  preservation  of  records, 
which  has  in  front  a  bronze  equestrian  statue 
of  Wellington.  To  the  right,  along  Waterloo 
place,  is  Calton  Hill,  344  feet  above  sea  level, 
rising  with  an  abrupt  face  to  the  E.,  but  the 
whole  covered  with  verdure  except  where  it 
is  dotted  with  monuments.  Of  these  the  most 
conspicuous  are  Nelson's,  a  tall  circular  tower ; 
the  national  monument  to  the  memory  of  Scotch- 
men who  fell  in  the  Napoleonic  wars,  which  was 
intended  to  be  a  facsimile  of  the  Parthenon,  but 
for  lack  of  funds  only  12  columns  have  been 
erected ;  a  monument  to  Prof.  Playfair ;  one  to 
Dugald  Stewart,  in  imitation  of  the  choragic 
monument  of  Lj'sicrates  at  Athens ;  and  a  Corin- 
tliian  temple,  with  a  statue  to  Robert  Burns.  On 
the  hill  are  also  the  high  school  and  observatory, 
and  at  the  base  are  the  massive  castellated 
buildings  of  the  gaol  and  bridewell,  which  su- 
perseded the  old  "  heart  of  Mid-Lothian,"  pulled 
down  in  1817.  From  Waterloo  place  Prince's 
street  runs  in  a  direct  line,  forming  a  terrace 
along  the  edge  of  the  gardens  of  North  Loch, 
and  directly  fronting  the  castle.  This  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  finest  promenades  in  Europe. 
On  Prince's  street  stands  the  noble  Gothic  tab- 
ernacle erected  as  a  monument  to  Sir  Walter 
Scott.  A  little  further  are  the  royal  institution, 
on  the  roof  of  which  is  a  statue  of  Queen  Vic- 
toria, and  the  national  gallery,  two  classic  struc- 
tures, the  1st  Grecian  Doric,  the  2d  Ionic.  An 
immense  causeway,  called  the  earthen  mound, 
formed  from  the  debris  of  excavations,  here 
unites  the  old  and  new  towns.  At  the  head  of 
the  mound  is  a  handsome  edifice  in  the  Tudor 
style,  erected  for  the  college  of  tlie  Free  Pres- 
byterian church.T— The  ground  plan  of  the  new 
town  is  a  reguhrr  parallelogram  of  3,900  feet  by 
1,090,  Prince's  street  forming  the  S.  line,  George 
street,  115  feet  in  width,  the  middle  line,  and 


Queen  street  the  N.,  with  cross  streets  every  250 
yards.  George  street  contains  statues  of  (Jeorge 
IV.  and  of  Pilt,  and,  in  St.  Andrew's  square,  a 
fluted  colunm  153  feet  in  height  with  a  statue  to 
Lord  Melville.  Continuous  from  the  new  town 
extends  another  parallelogram,  containing  nu- 
merous fashionable  stroets  and  squares,  as  Great 
King  street,  Moray  and  Druinmond  places,  &c. 
South  of  the  old  town  are  the  "  Meadows,"  a 
level  park  1 J  m.  in  circumference;  also  Brunts- 
field  links,  a  sandy  plain  much  used  as  a  field 
for  the  national  game  of  golf.  Further  are  the 
pleasant  suburbs  of  Newington  and  Morningside, 
the  latter  containing  the  lunatic  asylum.  Dean 
bridge  spans  the  water  of  Leith  at  a  height  of 
109  feet  above  the  river  bed,  and  connects  the 
new  town  with  the  country  to  the  N.  Leith, 
the  port  of  Edinburgh,  lies  about  2  m.  N.  of 
the  city,  and  is  ai)proached  by  a  spacious  street 
called  Leith  walk. — Edinburgh,  including  Leith, 
possessed,  according  to  the  census  of  1851,  123 
places  of  worship,  providing  accommodation  for 
81,873  persons,  equal  to  one  scat  for  every  two  of 
the  population,  and  classified  as  follows :  Bai> 
tist  7,  Catholic  and  Apostolic  church  1,  Episco- 
pal 10,  Established  20,  Free  20,  Friends  1,  Glass- 
ites  1,  Independent  6,  Isolated  8,  Jews  1,  New 
Church  1,  Original  Seceders  1,  Primitive  1,  Re- 
lief Presbyterian  1,  Roman  Catholic  4,  Unita- 
rian 1,  United  Presbyterian  20,  Wesleyan  4. 
The  15  city  churches  of  the  establishment  are 
in  charge  of  the  civic  corporation,  who  appoint 
the  18  ministers  and  pay  them  from  a  tax  of  6 
per  cent,  on  the  city  rental.  This  tax  is  a  source 
of  heartburning  to  citizens  of  other  denomina- 
tions, but  has  been  collected  for  2  centuries. 
At  present  it  amounts  to  about  £10,000  net  per 
annum,  giving  to  each  minister  an  averai:e 
stipend  of  £568.  The  25  ministers  of  the  Free 
(or  opposition)  church  receive  from  voluntary 
sources  an  average  emolument  of  £289  each.  The 
annual  assembly  of  the  churches  of  Scotland, 
Established  and  Free,  meet  annually  in  May. 
Each  has  a  training  school  for  teachers,  and  sem- 
inaries for  dignity  students. — The  university  of 
Edinburgh  was  founded  in  1582,  with  a  charter 
from  James  VI.  The  corporation  of  the  city 
have  the  appointments  to  the  greater  number 
of  the  chairs,  the  crown  having  the  nomination 
to  the  others,  excepting  3.  Tliere  are  32  pro- 
fessorships, divided  into  the  4  faculties  of  theol- 
og}',  law,  medicine,  and  arts,  with  power  to 
confer  the  usual  degrees  of  Scotch  colleges,  viz. : 
D.I).,  LL.D.,  M.D.,  and  A.M.  An  act  passed 
Aug.  2,  1858,  gives  power  to  commissioners 
(appointed  by  the  queen  in  council)  to  revise 
th»  foundations,  or  bursaries,  to  regulate  the 
elections  of  university  ofiicers,  to  prescribe  the 
course  of  study  and  the  amount  of  fees,  to  report 
on  the  expediency  of  founding  a  new  national 
university  of  Scotland,  and  to  make  arrangements 
for  converting  the  present  universities  into  col- 
leges of  the  said  university.  Average  attend- 
ance of  students  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
1,500.  The  winter  session  commences  Nov.  1, 
and  closes  at  the  end  of  April;  the  summer  ses- 


'58 


EDINBURGH 


sion  (mostly  for  medical  studies)  extends  from 
the  1st  Monday  of  May  to  the  end  of  June.  Stu- 
dents are  non-resident,  and  little  supervision  is 
exercised  over  them.  To  qualify  for  a  degree 
in  arts,  attendance  and  examination  are  exacted 
in  the  classes  of  Latin,  Greek,  mathematics, 
moral  and  natural  philosophy,  and  rhetoric. 
Bursaries,  or  foundations,  of  an  aggregate  an- 
nual value  of  £1,172,  are  participated  in  by  80 
students.  A  litigation  on  a  legacy  left  by  the 
late  Gen.  Reid  for  the  promotion  of  musical 
education  was  concluded  in  1855,  and  a  sum 
amounting  to  about  £62,000  placed  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  university.  The  present  principal 
is  the  Rev.  Dr.  Leo ;  secretary,  Alexander 
Smith,  the  poet.  The  college  building  consists 
of  a  single  quadrangle,  having  its  main  front, 
S56  feet,  on  South  Bridge  street.  It  is  of 
Roman  architecture,  heavy  in  design  and  mas- 
sive in  execution.  Within  the  edifice  is  the 
museum,  rich  in  objects  of  natural  history,  to 
which  the  late  Prof.  Edward  Forbes  bequeath- 
ed a  valuable  collection.  The  number  of  visit- 
ors in  1857  was  75,754,  of  whom  about  4,000 
were  students.  Until  recently  the  library, 
which  contains  over  100,000  volumes,  was  en- 
titled to  a  copy  of  every  book  published  in  Brit- 
ain, but  the  privilege  is  now  abrogated  in  con- 
sideration of  an  annual  grant  of  £575,  beside 
which  it  receives  £1  from  every  student  who 
matriculates,  £5  from  every  new  professor,  and 
a  percentage  on  the  graduation  fees  in  medicine 
and  arts.  The  other  libraries  of  Edinburgh  are  : 
the  advocates'  library,  and  that  of  the  writers 
to  the  signet,  beside  5  public  collections.  The 
advocates',  which  was  founded  in  1682  by  Sir 
George  Mackenzie,  contains  about  150,000  vol- 
umes and  2,000  MSS.  The  signet  library  has 
70,000  volumes,  and  both  are  open  to  the  public 
under  most  liberal  regulations.  The  faculties  of 
surgeons  and  physicians  have  each  extensive  li- 
braries, as  has  also  the  royal  society,  incorporated 
in  1783,  for  philosophic  research.  The  institutions 
named  have  also  valuable  museums  of  their  re- 
spective specialities.  The  Free  church  college  has 
6  professors,  with  a  course  of  study  embracing 
divinity,  church  history,  oriental  languages,  exe- 
getical  theology,  apologetics  and  pastoral  the- 
ology, natural  science,  logic,  and  metaphysics ; 
session  from  the  1st  Tuesday  of  November  to  the 
beginning  of  April.  Tlie  high  school  is  another 
celebrated  educational  estabhshment,  dating 
from  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century.  Its 
curriculum  of  study  occupies  6  years,  and  em- 
braces Latin,  Greek,  French,  German,  geogra- 
phy, history,  natural  science,  with  the  ordinary 
branches  of  a  commercial  education.  Average 
number  of  pupils  300  to  400 ;  quarterly  fees  7s.  6d. 
to  £1  5s.  for  each  class.  The  Edinburgh  academy 
ia  an  institution  of  a  similar  nature,  with  a  7 
years'  course  of  study,  at  a  scale  of  fees  calculat- 
ed for  the  wealthier  classes — £7  for  the  1st  year, 
increasing  to  £11  10s.  the  last.  The  following 
schools  existed  in  1854 :  Established  church  20, 
Free  church  22,  United  Presbyterian  10,  Scot- 
tish Episcopal  5,  Roman  Catholic  4,  not  denomi- 


national 31 ;  total  92,  beside  numerous  private 
institutions,  naval  and  military  academy,  2  Dr. 
Bell's  schools,  with  600  pupils,  Lancasterian,  rag. 
ged,  and  industrial  schools.  .The  grants  to  ele- 
mentary schools  (in  the  whole  county)  from 
parliamentary  votes,  from  1833  to  1857  in- 
clusive, amounted  to  £41,580. — An  admirable 
peculiarity  of  the  Edinburgh  educational  system 
is  the  number  of  charitable  foundations,  called 
hospitals,  which  perform  the  double  duty  of 
charity  and  education,  Heriot's  hospital,  the 
chief  of  these,  was  founded  by  the  bequest  of 
George  Heriot,  goldsmith  to  James  VI.,  for  the 
maintenance  and  education  of  sons  of  burgesses 
unable  to  maintain  them.  Thirty  boys  were 
admitted  into  the  hospital  on  its  opening  in 
1659.  At  present  it  bestows  a  thorough  educa- 
tion on  180,  boarding  them  for  7  years,  and 
presenting  them  with  £50  when  apprenticed. 
The  revenues  of  the  hospital  having  outgrown 
its  expenditures,  12  free  schools  have  been  estab- 
lished, which  educate  gratuitously  3,000  pupils. 
Donaldson's  hospital  is  a  more  recent  foundation 
of  a  kindred  nature,  established  by  the  legacy  in 
1830  of  James  Donaldson,  a  printer.  It  already 
contains  300  inmates.  Both  the  above-named 
hospitals  have  extensive  buildings,  Heriot's  S. 
and  Donaldson's  1  m.  W.  of  the  city.  In  addition 
to  these  are  the  following  hospitals,  partly  for 
education  of  youth,  anc^  partly  for  maintenance 
of  poor  citizens :  Trinity,  for  aged  burgesses, 
108  inmates;  merchant  maid^,  100  girls; 
trades  maiden,  48  girls;  George  Watson's,  86 
boys;  orphan,  100  boys  and  girls ;  John  Wat- 
sou's,  120  boys  and  girls ;  Gillespie's,  200  boys 
and  40  aged  persons ;  Cauvin's,  26  boys;  Stew- 
art's, for  boys ;  Chalmers's,  for  sick  and  disabled ; 
Fettes's,  for  young  poor;  the  royal  infirmary, 
with  400  beds ;  also  3  poorhouses. — The  royal 
institution  building  is  the  property  of  the  board 
of  trustees  for  manufactures  in  Scotland.  This 
body  was  organized  in  1727,  with  power  to  ad- 
minister a  grant  of  £2,000  per  annum  contained 
in  the  articles  of  union  between  England  and 
Scotland,  for  the  encouragement  of  manufac- 
tures and  the  fisheries.  In  1809  a  separate 
fishery  board  was  organized,  and  for  many  years 
the  funds  of  the  board  of  manufactures  have 
been  applied  to  the  encouragement  of  art,  chiefly 
through  the  school  of  design.  The  seat  of  this 
school  contains  accommodation  for  the  board 
of  British  herring  fishery;  the  royal  society  of 
Scotland,  the  most  influential  of  the  learned  so- 
cieties, and  which  publishes  its  ti'ansactions ;  the 
society  of  antiquaries;  the  royal  institution,  in- 
corporated for  the  encouragement  of  the  fine 
arts;  and  the  school  of  design,  with  fine  collec- 
tions of  paintings  and  statuary.  The  last  was 
e3tablished  on  a  humble  scale  in  1760  as  a  draw- 
ing academy,  in  which  Wilkie  and  many  of  the 
most  eminent  Scottish  artists  were  educated. 
Having  been  enlarged  into  a  general  school  of 
design  for  manufactures,  architectural  and  gen- 
eral ornament,  as  well  as  the  study  of  the  an- 
tique, it  lias  at  present  about  200  students, 
including  several  school  teachers.  Art  is  further 


EDINBUEGH 


769 


represented  by  the  Scotch  national  gallery  of  art, 
the  royal  Scottish  academy,  and  t])0  royal  associa- 
tion for  the  promotion  of  the  fine  arts  in  Scotland. 
Antiquities  are  represented  by  tlic  society  of 
antiquaries,  and  agriculture  by  the  higliland  and 
agricultural  society  of  Scotland,  which  luis  done 
much  for  the  development  of  the  farming  re- 
sources of  the  country.  Industry  is  further 
encouraged  by  the  establishment  of  an  industrial 
museum  for  Scotland,  comi)rising  a  nuiseum 
proper,  laboratory  lectures  (attended  in  1857 
by  20  pupils,  beside  40  students  of  the  uni- 
versity class  of  technology),  and  a  library  which 
waa  formally  organized  in  1857.  A  site  for  the 
new  museum  has  been  acquired ;  the  cost  of  the 
building  will  be  about  £40,000,  and  a  vote  of 
£10,000  was  proposed  to  parliament  in  1857, 
which,  however,  was  postponed.  Botany  is 
fostered  by  the  botanic  garden,  which  is  the  only 
one  in  Scotland,  and  is  supported  by  govern- 
ment ;  astronomy,  by  the  observatory,  presided 
over  by  the  astronomer  royal  for  Scotland,  who, 
beside  his  ordinary  duties,  lectures  on  practical 
astronomy  at  the  university.  The  observatory 
is  situated  on  Calton  Hill,  and  is  tlae  property  of 
the  government,  which  grants  £100  per  annum 
for  its  support.  Its  lat.  is  55°  57'  23.2"  N. ; 
long.  3^  10'  45"  of  space,  or  Oh.  12m.  43.0s.  of 
time,  "W.  of  Greenwich.  An  act  authorizing 
the  government  to  acquire  the  theatre  royal  and 
adjacent  property  for  the  erection  of  a  new 
general  post  othce  was  passed  in  1858. — Ed- 
inburgh is  of  high  antiquity.  Its  castle  rock 
is  said  to  have  been  a  stronghold  of  tlie  natives 
long  before  their  subjugation  by  the  Komans. 
It  was  known  as  Castelh-Mynyd-Agned.,  or  the 
fortress  of  the  hill  of  Agnes.  Subsequently  it 
was  called  in  the  Gaelic  Magh-dun^  in  the  Brit- 
ish Mai-din,  from  which  in  English  it  came  to 
be  styled  the  Maiden  Castle,  and  by  the  Latin 
writers  of  the  middle  ages  Castruni  PueUarum. 
To  account  for  this  appellation,  a  romantic  story 
was  invented  that  the  British  kings  in  times  of 
war  or  trouble  sent  their  daughters  to  this 
stronghold.  At  the  beginning  of  the  7th  cen- 
tury, when  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  dominant  in 
the  south  of  Scotland,  the  place  began  to  bo 
called  Edwin's  burgh,  from  Edwin  the  king  of 
I^orthumbria,  who  occasionally  made  it  bis  resi- 
dence. The  Celtic  inhabitants  turned  the  Eng- 
lish phrase  into  Dun-edin,  which  is  also  descrip- 
tive of  the  natural  features  of  the  site — the 
words  signifying  "  the  face  of  a  hill."  About 
the  middle  of  the  9th  century  Edinburgh  seems 
to  have  been  a  considerable  village,  and  the  pos- 
session of  its  castle  was  often  contested  in  the 
wars  between  the  Scots  and  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
When  the  Scots  regained  Lothian  in  the  11th 
century,  Edinburgh  castle  began  to  be  frequently 
occupied  as  a  royal  residence.  In  tlie  reign  of 
David  I.  the  town  was  reckoned  one  of  the  4 
chief  places  of  the  kingdom,  and  in  its  imme- 
diate vicinity  this  monarch  founded  the  abbey 
of  Holyrood.  The  canons  of  the  abbey  built  a 
suburb  westward  from  their  church  till  it  met 
th©  town,  and  the  part  of  the  city  thus  created 


still  retains  the  name  of  Canongate.  In  the  12th 
century,  WilHam  the  Lion,  who  made  the  castle 
his  residence,  added  largely  to  the  town  and 
constituted  it  a  royal  burgh.  In  1215  the  first 
l)arliament  of  Alexander  I.  was  lield  there.  In 
June,  1201,  the  castle,  with  nearly  all  tlie  otlier 
fortresses  of  Scotland,  was  surrendered  to  Ed- 
ward I.  of  England.  In  1313  it  was  stormed 
at  midniglit,  Feb.  28,  by  the  Scots  under  Ran- 
dolph, earl  of  Moray,  wlio  destroyed  it.  It  was 
retaken  and  rebuilt  by  the  English  under  Edward 
III.,  who  placed  tliere  a  strong  garrison  and  made 
it  for  a  time  his  residence.  In  1337  it  was  un- 
successfully besieged  by  the  Scots  under  Sir  An- 
drew Moray,  and  in  1301  was  taken  by  stratagem 
by  Sir  William  Douglas.  During  the  reign  of  Da- 
vid II.  it  was  the  seat  of  numerous  parliaments, 
and  though  not  the  unquestioned  metropolis,  was 
held  to  be  the  chief  town  of  Scotland.  In  1384 
it  was  visited  by  Froissart  in  conqiany  with  a 
party  of  French  knights.  Ho  calls  it  the  Paris 
of  Scotland,  and  describes  it  as  consisting  of 
4,000  houses,  so  poor  that  they  could  not  afford 
tlie  knights  due  accommodation.  After  the  mur- 
der of  James  I.  at  Perth  in  1437,  Edinburgh 
became  decisively  the  nationalcapital.  His  son 
James  II..  was  conveyed  thither  for  security 
from  the  murderers  of  his  father,  and  continued 
to  hold  his  court  tliere.  He  was  particularly 
attached  to  the  place,  and  granted  the  city  a 
variety  of  privileges  and  immunities,  favored  by 
which  it  grew  rapidly  in  wealth  and  population. 
James  III.  bestowed  upon  it  a  banner  which  is 
called  the  blue  blanket,  from  its  color,  and  is  still 
preserved  as  a  sort  of  palladium  of  the  city.  In 
1508  Chapman  and  Millar,  under  a  royal  charter, 
introduced  the  printing  press.  In  1513  the  city 
was  desolated  by  a  plague,  and  the  magistrates 
and  many  of  the  burgesses  fell  with  James  IV.  in 
the  fatal  battle  of  Flodden.  During  the  minority 
of  James  V.  Edinburgh  was  the  scene  of  many 
tumults  between  rival  factions.  In  a  fight  be- 
tween the  Hamiltons  and  the  Douglases  200  men 
were  slain  in  the  streets.  This  affair  is  popularly 
known  as  "  clear  the  causeway."  In  1532  the 
college  of  justice  was  established,  and  the  city 
thenceforth  became  the  chief  seat  of  law  for  the 
whole  kingdom.  At  this  time,  too,  the  High 
street  was  first  paved  and  lighted.  In  August, 
1534,  Norman  Gourlay  and  David  Straiton  were 
condemned  and  executed  for  Protestanti-m.  In 
1544  the  earl  of  Hertford  with  an  English  array 
landed  near  Leith  and  set  fire  to  the  city,  but 
could  not  take  the  castle.  To  defend  it  from  the 
English,  it  was  garrisoned  by  French  troops  in 
1348.  In  1556  the  preaching  of  John  Knox  the  re- 
former caused  an  outbreakof  disturbances,  which 
by  the  aid  of  Queen  Elizabeth  of  England  finally 
resulted  in  the  triumiih  of  the  Protestants ;  and 
the  first  assembly  of  the  reformed  kirk  met  in 
the  city  in  1500,  under  the  sanction  of  the  mu- 
nicipal authorities.  In  August,  1561,  the  young 
and  beautiful  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  arrived  from 
France.  In  1565  she  married  Darnley  at  Holy- 
rood,  and  in  Feb.  1567,  her  husband  Avas  blown 
up  with  gunpowder  while  sleeping  in  the  house 


7C0 


EDINBURGH  REVIEW 


of  Kirk  of  Field,  where  the  university  now 
stands.  Mary's  marriage  to  Bothwell  at  Holy- 
rood,  on  the  following  May  15,  raised  such 
disturbances  in  Edinburgh  that  the  queen  and 
her  new  husband  fled  from  the  city,  June  6,  pur- 
sued by  800  horsemen.  In  the  civil  war  that 
ensued  Edinburgh  was  frequently  the  scene  of 
battle  and  suifered  severely.  In  1581  the  erec- 
tion of  the  college  was  begun,  and  the  first  pro- 
fessor appointed  in  1582.  In  1G03  the  city  ceased 
to  be  the  seat  of  royalty  by  the  accession  of 
Jiuues  VI.  to  the  crown  of  England  on  the  de- 
mise of  Elizabeth.  In  1G33  Charles  I.  visited 
the  city  and  erected  the  bishopric  of  Edinbvu-gh, 
a  measure  which  gave  rise  to  great  disturbances. 
In  Oct.  1643,  the  solemn  league  and  covenant 
for  the  extirpation  of  prelacy  was  signed  in  the 
High  church.  The  city  raised  and  supported  a 
regiment  of  1,200  men  to  assist  the  English  par- 
liamentarians against  Charles.  In  1650  the  roy- 
alist Montrose  was  executed  at  the  town  cross, 
and  2  mouths  later  Charles  II.  w^as  proclaimed 
king  at  the  same  place.  Still  2  months  latei', 
and  Cromwell,  having  defeated  the  Scots  at 
Dunbar,  took  possession  of  the  city,  and  subse- 
quently of  the  castle.  From  1663  to  1685,  under 
Charles  II.,  Edinburgh  was  the  scene  of  the 
torture  and  execution  of  a  vast  number  of  Cove- 
nanters, martys  to  their  faith.  In  1736  occurred 
the  famous  Porteous  mob.  In  1745  Edinburgh 
was  occupied  by  the  forces  of  the  young  pre- 
tender, Charles  Edward,  who  held  it  for  5  or  6 
weeks,  but  did  not  succeed  in  reducing  the  castle. 
EDINBURGH  REVIEW,  the  oldest  of  the 
great  British  quarterly  reviews,  the  first  num- 
ber of  Avhich  appeared  in  Edinburgh  in  Oct. 
1802.  It  was  originated  by  several  young  men 
then  resident  in  the  Scottish  capital,  the  most 
prominent  of  whom  were  Sydney  Smith,  Fran- 
cis Jefl:Vey,  Henry  Brougham,  and  Francis  Hor- 
ner. "I  proposed,"  says  Sydney  Smith,  "that 
we  should  set  up  a  review ;  this  was  acceded 
to  with  acclamation.  I  was  appointed  editor, 
and  remained  long  enough  in  Edinburgh  to  edit 
the  first  number."  He  w^as  succeeded  in  the 
editorial  office  by  Jeffrey,  wlio  retained  it  till 
1829.  Tlie  "Edinburgh  Review"  was  success- 
ful from  tlie  commencement ;  it  reached  a  cir- 
culation of  9,000  copies  in  6  years,  and  of  13,- 
000  in  12  years;  and  its  appearance  marks  an 
era  in  journalism.  Such  elaborate  discussions 
of  the  principles  of  politics  and  taste,  written 
with  so  much  brilliancy  and  effect,  and  contain- 
ing such  intrepid  criticisms,  had  not  before  been 
attempted  in  periodical  literature.  The  organ 
•^  of  whigs,  it  appeared  even  more  liberal  from 
the  tone  and  temper  of  its  articles  than  from 
the  measures  and  principles  which  it  advocated, 
for  it  favored  a  free  and  full  discussion,  an  open 
field  and  fair  play  to  argument  and  wit.  It  was 
thus  the  medium  through  which  the  daring 
ideas  in  philosophy  and  political  science,  that 
had  been  elaborated  in  the  18th  century,  were 
made  familiar  to  the  general  public.  Its  high 
literary  character  was  due  not  only  to  the 
talent  and  refinement  of  its  contributors,  but 


also  to  the  fact  that  the  articles  combined  the 
philosophical  treatment  of  subjects  with  the 
critical  examination  of  books.  The  greatest 
oftences  of  the  review,  wliile  under  the  care 
of  JetYrey,  were  in  some  of  the  belles-lettres 
articles,  especially  those  on  the  poems  of  Words- 
worth, Soutliey,  and  Lamb,  which  were  ridi- 
culed severely,  flippantly,  and,  as  subsequently 
admitted  by  Jeftrey,  who  wrote  the  critiques, 
unjustly.  Wordsworth  was  accustomed  to  class 
Robespierre,  Bonaparte,  and  Jeflrey  together, 
as  the  three  most  formidable  enemies  of  the  hu- 
man race  who  had  appeared  within  his  remem- 
brance. The  last  article  of  Sydney  Smith  was 
published  in  1827.  Sir  James  Mackintosh  had 
then  become  an  occasional  contributor,  and 
Lord  Brougham  continued  to  write  many  po- 
litical articles.  A  few  years  before  the  with- 
drawal of  Jeffrey  he  had  secured  the  services 
of  two  contributors  who  maintained  the  char- 
acter of  the  review,  Thomas  Babington  Mac- 
aulay  and  Thomas  Carlyle.  In  1825  Macaulay, 
then  a  student  at  Cambridge,  despatched  to  the 
editor  without  personal  acquaintance  or  intro- 
duction his  paper  on  Milton.  It  was  immedi- 
ately admitted,  and  from  that  time  till  he  went 
to  India  in  1835  almost  every  number  contained 
one  of  his  brilliant  essays,  chiefly  on  the  litera- 
ture of  England.  He  continued  to  furnish 
articles  after  his  return,  among  which  were 
those  on  Clive  and  Hastings,  till  he  began  the 
composition  oChis  history  of  England.  One  of 
his  last  contributions  was  his  invective  against 
Barrere,  "the  Anacreon  of  the  guillotine."  The 
articles  of  Carlyle  began  in  1827,  and  continued 
almost  regularly  for  6  years.  He  now  atoned 
for  some  of  the  early  sins  of  Jeftrey,  who  had 
depreciated  Burns,  satirized  the  German  litera- 
ture, "  cut  up"  Goethe,  and  sneered  at  Richter. 
Carlyle  furnished  a  massive  panegyric  of  Burns, 
and  a  series  of  elucidations  of  the  principal 
German  authors.  Some  of  his  papers  too,  as 
that  on  the  "  Signs  of  the  Times,"  startled 
the  ordinary  contributors  and  supporters  of 
the  review  by  depreciating  modern  progress, 
and  by  regarding  the  triumphs  of  machinery 
as  leading  only  to  the  subjugation  of  mind 
to  matter.  Upon  the  resignation  of  Jeftrey 
the  editorship  devolved  upon  Macvey  Napier, 
known  also  as  an  editor  of  the  "  Encyclo- 
pajdia  Britannica."  He  retained  the  office 
till  near  his  death  in  1847.  During  this  period 
the  whigs  came  into  power,  and  the  review  as 
their  organ  adopted  therefore  atone  rather  de- 
fensive tlian  ottensive.  It  had  at  first  been 
thought  almost  an  incendiary  publication,  but 
a  party  wiiich  deemed  it  not  liberal  enough 
had  established  the  "  Westminster  Review"  in 
rivalry.  Napier  was  succeeded  in  the  editorship 
by  Prof.  Empson,  a  son-in-law  of  Lord  Jeifi-ey, 
who  in  1854  was  succeeded  by  Sir  G.  Corne- 
wall  Lewis,  who  in  the  following  year  resigned 
it  into  the  hands  of  Henry  Reeve.  Under  its 
later  editors  the  review  has  assumed  a  more 
serious  and  scholarly  and  probably  less  eflfec- 
tive  character  than  belonged  to  it  formerly. 


EDINBURGHSHIRE 


EDMONDSON 


761 


Amonpj  the  prominent  oontribntors  since  the  di.-j- 
a])pearanfc  of  tlic  ()rii:i;inal  staff,  liave  boon  Sir 
William  Hamilton  on  topics  of  mental  philoso- 
phy and  education,  J.  R.  M'Culloch  on  ])oliticuI 
economy  and  the  ])rogross  of  inanufa(;ture3, 
Henry  Rogers  and  W.  J.  Conybeare  on  the 
tractarian  and  latitndinarian  movements  in  the 
Anglican  church,  8ir  James  Stejjhen  on  ecclesi- 
astical history  and  biography,  George  Moir,  G. 
H.  Lewes,  and  R.  Monckton  Milnes.  A  sele(^ 
tion  of  the  host  articles  that  had  appeared  in 
the  "Edinburgh  Review"  from  the  commence- 
ment to  IS.'];!  was  made  by  Maurice  Cross  (4  vols., 
London,  1833).  Three  indexes  have  been  pub- 
lished :  to  vols,  i.-xx.  (1813),  vols,  xxi.-l.  (1832), 
and  vols,  l.-lxxx.  (1850). 

EDINI5URGIISIIIRE,  or  Mid-Lothian,  a 
maritime  co,  of  Scotland,  extending  about  36  ra. 
from  E.  to  "W.,  and  about  18  m.  from  N.  to  S. ; 
area,  39T  sq.  m. ;  pop,  in  1851,  250,435.  Its  N. 
boundary  is  formed  by  the  firth  of  Forth,  and  is 
studded  with  important  towns  and  havens.  The 
S.  outline  is  ver^  irregular,  being  deeply  indent- 
ed by  Peeblessliire,  from  which  it  is  partly  sepa- 
rated by  a  continuation  of  the  Moorfoot  range. 
These  hills,  the  highest  of  which  is  nearly  1,900 
feet  above  the  sea,  occupy  an  area  of  nearly  50 
sq.  m.  in  the  S.  E.  part  of  Edinburghshire,  but  are 
not  entirely  unproductive.  Many  fertile  dales 
lie  hidden  among  them,  and  a  great  part  of  their 
acclivities  is  under  profitable  cultivation.  The 
Pentland  hills,  which  extend  from  Peeblesshire 
N.  E.  into  the  centre  of  the  county,  are  bleak  and 
sterile,  but  afford  some  fine  scenery.  The  soil, 
except  in  the  valleys  of  the  Forth  and  N.  and  S. 
Esks,  is  naturally  of  inferior  quality,  and  most 
of  the  land  is  used  for  pasturage,  but  the  farms 
are  skilfully  worked.  The  chief  crops  are  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  beans,  peas,  potatoes,  and  turnips. 
Good  breeds  of  sheep  and  cattle  are  reared,  and 
milk  and  butter  are  sold  at  the  Edinburgh  and 
other  markets.  The  minerals  comprise  coal, 
limestone,  sandstone,  and  porphyry.  The  chief 
streams  are  the  N.  and  S.  Esks,  Gala  water,  and 
water  of  Leith.  The  county  is  not  extensively 
engaged  in  manufactures,  though  there  are  vari- 
ous establislmients  in  the  chief  towns,  bleach- 
cries  and  grist  mills  on  the  water  courses,  and 
some  large  paper  and  gunpowder  mills  on  the 
N.  Esk.  Whiskey  and  the  famous  Edinburgh 
ale  are  the  other  articles  most  extensively  made. 
The  Union  canal  and  several  lines  of  railway 
terminating  at  the  capital  are  the  most  impor- 
tant channels  of  inland  communication.  Prin- 
cipal towns,  Edinburgh,  Leith,  Dalkeith,  Mus- 
selburgh, and  Portobello.  The  county  sends 
one  member  to  the  imperial  parliament. 

EDISTO,  a  river  of  South  Carolina,  formed 
bj'  the  union  of  the  N.  and  S.  Edisto,  the  former 
of  which  rises  in  the  W.  part  of  Lexington  dis- 
trict, and  the  latter  in  Edgefield.  They  unite  a 
few  miles  W.  of  Branchville,  whence  the  course 
of  the  main  stream  is  S.  E.  and  S.  It  enters 
the  Atlantic  by  2  channels,  between  which  lies 
Edisto  island,  about  20  m.  S.  W.  from  Charles- 
ton.    It  is  navigable  100  m,  from  the  sea. 


EDMONDS,  Joux  WoRTn,  an  American  ju- 
rist, more  goneraliy  known  for  his  advocacy  of 
what  is  called  'SSi)iritualism,"  born  March  13, 
1709,  in  Hudson,  X.  Y.  He  was  graduated  at 
Union  college  in  1810,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1819,  and  in  1820  commenced  the  practice 
of  his  profession  in  his  native  city.  In  1831 
he  was  a  member  of  the  lower  branch  of  tho 
legislature  of  New  York,  and-  for  the  4  years 
ensuing  of  the  senate  and  court  of  errors.  Re- 
tiring from  the  legislature  in  1836,  he  spent 
most  of  the  following  two  years  on  special  mis- 
sions from  the  federal  government  among  the 
Indians  on  the  frontiers.  In  1837  he  resumed 
tho  i)ractice  of  the  law  in  the  city  of  New  York. 
In  1843  he  became  one  of  the  inspectors  of  the 
state's  prisons,  and  for  two  years  labored  to  in- 
troduce a  reform  in  prison  discipline,  by  substi- 
tuting for  corporal  coercion  tlie  system  of 
kindness.  The  effort  was  successful,  and  re- 
ceiving the  sanction  of  the  legislature,  inaugu- 
rated a  new  feature  in  the  penitentiary  system 
of  the  state.  In  1845  he  was  appointed  one 
of  the  circuit  judges  of  tho  state  of  New  York. 
In  1847  he  was  elevated  to  the  bench  of  the 
supremo  court,  and  in  1853  became  a  member 
of  the  court  of  ajjpeals.  At  the  close  of  1853 
he  retired  from  the  bench,  and  has  since  been 
engaged  in  the  practice  of  his  profession  in  New 
York,  Early  in  1851  he  began  to  investigate  the 
subject  of  alleged  intercourse  with  the  spirits  of 
the  departed,  and  in  the  summer  of  1853  made 
a  public  avowal  of  his  belief.  Tlie  faith  he 
teaches  denies  the  ordinarily  received  doctrine 
of  the  divinity  of  Christ  and  his  atonement  for 
our  sins,  and  inculcates  the  ideas  tliat  man  can 
and  does  hold  personal  communion  with  tho 
spirits  of  the  deceased,  and  through  it  can  learn 
what  is  the  life  into  which  we  are  ushered  after 
death ;  that  man  is  the  creature  of  progression, 
from  his  birth  through  eternity ;  that  such  pro- 
gress is  the  ultimate  destiny  of  all ;  that  it  must 
in  all  be  alike  in  love,  in  knowledge,  and  in 
purity,  for  it  is  also  tho  destiny  of  each  through 
eternity  to  be  a  ministering  servant  of  the  Most 
High  in  executing  the  laws  of  creation ;  that 
each  may  retard  or  hasten  his  own  progression, 
but  cannot  prevent  it,  and  that  his  immediate 
future  for  good  or  ill  is  of  his  OAvn  fabrication, 
for  he  passes  into  the  next  stage  of  existence 
precisely  what  he  is  in  this  life,  with  all  his  at- 
tributes and  propensities  as  he  has  cultivated 
or  perverted  them  here.  In  elucidation  of 
these  principles,  Judge  Edmonds  lias  published 
several  works,  the  most  elaborate  of  which  is 
entitled  "  Spiritualism"  (2  vols.  8vo.,  New 
York,  1853). 

EDMONDSON,  a  central  co.  of  Ky.,  drained 
by  Green  river  and  Bear  creek ;  area,  225  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  4,088,  of  whom  325  were 
slaves.  The  surface  is  hilly  or  moderately  un- 
even ;  the  soil  is  fertile  and  suitable  for  grass 
and  grain.  In  1850  the  productions  were  193,- 
095  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  4,322  of  wheat, 
34.455  of  oats,  86,980  lbs.  of  tobacco,  7,940  of 
wool,  and  12,891  of  flax.    There  were  5  church- 


762 


EDMUND 


EDUCATION 


cs,  and  210  pnplls  attending  public  schools. 
Antliracito  co.'<l  is  abundant,  and  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  county  is  occupied  by  beds 
of  cavernous  limestone.  The  famous  Mammoth 
cave  is  situated  here.  This  county  was  organ- 
ized in  1825,  and  named  in  honor  of  Capt.  .John 
Edmondson,  -wiio  fell  at  the  battle  of  Raisin 
river.     Capital,  Brownsville. 

EDMUND  I.,  a  king  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  son 
of  King  Edward  the  Elder,  and  successor  of 
Athelstan,  born  about  923,  ascended  the  throne 
in  940,  died  in  940.  The  restless  Northumbri- 
ans immediately  after  his  accession  invaded 
Mcrcia,  but  the  young  king  by  a  rapid  march 
overawed  them  and  forced  them  to  submit, 
and  to  embrace  Christianity.  He  had,  how- 
ever, hardly  left  the  country  when  they  again 
asserted  their  independence.  Edmund  next 
conquered  the  Britons  of  Cumbria  or  Cumber- 
land, and  conferred  that  territory  on  Malcolm, 
king  of  Scotland,  on  condition  that  he  should 
do  homage  for  it,  and  protect  the  north  from 
all  future  incursions  of  the  Danes.  As  Edmund 
was  celebrating  a  festival  in  Gloucestershire,  he 
perceived  Leolf,  a  noted  outlaw  whom  he  had 
sentenced  to  banishment,  enter  the  hall  and 
insolently  seat  himself  at  the  royal  table.  In- 
flamed by  passion,  he  turned  to  seize  therufSan, 
when  the  latter  stabbed  him  fatally  in  the  breast. 

EDMUND  II.,  surnamed  Ironside,  a  king 
of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  son  and  successor  of 
Ethelred  II.,  born  in  989,  ascended  the  throne 
in  1016,  died  in  the  same  year.  Even  before 
his  accession  he  was  recognized  as  the  cham- 
pion of  the  English  cause  against  the  Danes 
under  Canute,  but  his  abilities  and  hardy  valor 
were  unable  ta  prevent  the  subjugation  oT  the 
kingdom.  Canute  was  proclaimed  at  South- 
ampton at  the  same  time  that  Edmund  was 
recognized  by  the  burgesses  of  London,  and  the 
latter  city  was  immediately  besieged  by  the 
Danish  forces.  Edmund,  obliged  to  flee  from 
his  capital,  raised  an  army  in  Wessex,  and  at 
Sceastoan  in  Gloucestershire  gave  battle  to  Ca- 
nute, who  was  assisted  by  many  disafiected 
English  nobles  and  prelates  under  Edric.  The 
battle  raged  for  2  days,  and  fortime  seemed  to 
have  declared  for  Edmund,  when  a  stratagem 
of  Edric  made  the  victory  undecided.  He  again 
met  his  enemies  at  Brentford  and  at  Otford, 
but  by  the  perfidy  of  Edric  sustained  a  decisive 
discomfiture  at  Assington.  This  nobleman,  hav- 
ing insinuated  himself  into  the  favor  of  the  Eng- 
lish monarch,  fled  with  his  division  at  the  very 
onset.  The  resources  of  Edmund  were  not  ex- 
hausted ;  he  was  prepared  to  meet  Canute  with 
a  new  army,  when  both  the  Danish  and  Eng- 
lish troops,  wearied  of  the  strife,  obliged  their 
kings  to  come  to  a  compromise,  and  to  divide 
the  kingdom  between  them  by  treaty.  Mercia 
and  Northumbi'ia  were  the  portion  of  Canute, 
and  the  southern  parts  were  left  to  Edmund, 
who  is  believed  to  have  been  murdered  at  Oxford, 
thus  making  way  for  the  accession  of  Canute. 

EDRED,   a  king  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  son 
cf  Edward  the  Elder,  successor  of  Edmund  I., 


ascended  the  throne  in  946,  died  Nov.  23,  955. 
The  childhood  of  the  2  sons  of  Edmund  render- 
ing them  incompetent  to  succeed  him,  Edred  iu 
an  assembly  of  the  prelates  and  thanes  was 
chosen  king,  and  consecrated,  in  the  style  of  liis 
charters,  to  the  "government  of  the  Anglo-Sax- 
ons, Northumbrian?,  pagans,  and  Britons." 
Though  aftlicted  with  a  lingering  disease,  ho 
marched  into  Northumbria  and  quelled  the  tur- 
bulent Danes.  In  this  reign  St.  Dnnstan  rose 
to  power,  and  important  ecclesiastical  and  mo- 
nastic reforms  were  imdertaken. 

EDRISI,  an  Arabian  geographer,  supposed  to 
be  the  person  mentioned  by  historians  of  his 
nation  under  the  name  of  Abou  Abdallah  Mo- 
hammed ben  Mohammed  ben  Abdallah  ben  Ed- 
ris,  who  was  a  descendant  of  the  Mussulman 
Edriside  princes  who  reigned  at  Fez  before  the 
Fatimites,  born  in  Ceuta  in  1099,  died  in  Sicily 
about  1164.  He  studied  at  Cordova,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  for  his  knowledge  of  cos- 
mography, geography,  philosophy,  medicine, 
and  even  astrology,  and  for  his.  skill  as  a  poet. 
After  visiting  Constantinople,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt, 
Morocco,  Andalusia,  France,  and  England,  he 
repaired  to  Sicily,  whither  he  was  invited  by 
King  Roger  II.,  a  friend  of  learned  men.  He 
made  for  that  prince  a  terrestriaj  globe  of  silver, 
upon  which  he  inscribed  in  Arabic  characters 
all  that  he  knew  of  the  various  countries  of  the 
earth.  To  explain  the  globe,  he  composed  a 
treatise  on  geography.  The  globe  is  lost,  but 
a  complete  manuscript  of  the  geography  was 
discovered  in  the  imperial  library  at  Paris  in 
1829,  of  which  a  French  translation  by  Jau- 
bert  appeared  in  1836.  Several  portions  and 
abridgments  of  the  work  had  however  been 
published  many  years  before.  Edrisi  divides 
the  earth  into  7  climates  or  zones,  each  of  which 
is  again  divided  into  11  regions;  and  in  his 
descriptions  he  adheres  strictly  to  his  scheme 
without  considering  whether  his  divisionsresem- 
ble  those  which  have  been  traced  by  natural  fea- 
tures or  society.  His  work  represents  the  state 
of  geographical  knowledge  among  the  Arabs  in 
the  12th  century,  and  although  it  contains  nearly 
as  many  errors  as  there  are  in  Strabo,  it  was 
yet  the  source  from  which  the  western  geogra- 
phers derived  their  notions  prior  to  the  Portu- 
guese discoveries  in  the  15th  century. 

EDUCATION  (Lat.  educo,  to  draw  out),  the 
development  of  the  faculties  or  germs  of  power 
in  man,  and  the  training  of  them  into  harmoni- 
ous action  in  obedience  to  the  laws  of  reason 
and  morality.  In  a  general  sense,  it  embraces 
the  universal  means  by  which  Providence  is 
guiding  the  human  race  to  its  final  destiny ;  or 
it  includes  the  countless  natural  and  social  cir- 
cumstances under  the  indirect  tuition  of  which 
individuals  pass  from  the  cradle  through  the  ca- 
reer of  life ;  but  it  more  usually  and  specially 
designates  the  instruction  and  care  which  pa- 
rents and  masters  bestow  upon  the  young  to 
direct  their  physical,  intellectual,  assthetic,  and 
moral  development.  Accordirlg  to  Plato,  a  good 
education  consists  in  giving  to  the, body  and  the 


EDUCATIO^f 


763 


soul  all  the  perfection  of  which  they  are  suscep- 
tible; according  to  Itousseau,  in  making  the 
primitive  instincts  and  disjiositions  the  constant 
guides  of  cliaracter  and  action;  and  according 
to  Kant,  there  is  within  every  man  a  divine 
ideal,  the  type  after  Avliich  lie  was  created,  the 
germs  of  a  perfect  person,  and  it  is  the  office  of 
education  to  favor  and  direct  the  growth  of 
these  germs.  Yet  education  not  only  aims  at 
the  development  and  culture  of  the  child  as  an 
individual,  but  is  also  the  means  by  which  every 
rising  generation  is  put  in  possession  of  all  tlie 
attainments  of  preceding  generations,  and  be- 
comes capable  of  increasing  and  improving  this 
inheritance.  It  tiius  secures  the  regular  ])ro- 
gress  of  society,  and  has  for  its  end  to  fashion 
childhood  to  an  ord^r  of  things  and  of  ideas 
which  it  is  designed  to  establisli  or  perpetuate. 
Thus,  according  to  Aristotle,  "  the  most  ellective 
way  of  i)resei'ving  a  state  is  to  bring  up  the  cit- 
izens in  the  spirit  of  the  government;  to  fash- 
ion, and  as  it  were  to  cast  them  in  the  mould 
of  the  constitution."  "  The  task  of  the  instruct- 
or," saysllerbart,  "consists  in  transmitting  and 
interpreting  to  the  new  generation  the. experi- 
ence of  the  race."  Education  therefore  has  ref- 
erence to  the  economy  of  society ;  it  constitutes 
the  apprenticeship  of  those  who  are  afterward 
to  take  a  place  in  the  order  of  a  civilized  com- 
munity ;  and,  as  universal  knowledge  and  skill 
are  impossible,  it  varies  for  the  ditferent  states 
and  classes  of  men,  like  the  difierent  pursuits  of 
life. — In  the  earliest  ages,  the  entire  education 
and  culture  of  the  people  Avere  in  the  hands  of 
priests,  who  were  the  first  founders  of  institu- 
tions, the  first  savants,  statesmen,  judges,  phy- 
sicians, astronomers,  and  architects;  and  science 
lias  been  separated  from  religion,  and  teaching 
has  been  a  distinct  profession,  only  in  the  most 
highly  civilized  communities.  Even  in  these, 
learning  and  schools  have  often  been  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  more  or  less  directly,  under  the  pat- 
ronage and  care  of  religious  bodies,  since  religion 
Las  been  esteemed  by  all  nations  the  highest  in- 
terest of  society. — At  a  very  ancient  era,  though 
less  remote  than  they  themselves  pretend,  the 
Chines©  possessed  a  high  degree  of  culture.  The 
Chinese  sage,  Confucius  (born  551  B.  C),  was 
the  restorer  and  not  the  founder  of  their  civiliza- 
tion, and  expressly  disclaimed  writing  anything 
which  had  not  long  been  recognized  in  the  legis- 
lation and  science  of  his  ancestors.  The  princi- 
ples established  by  him  and  by  Mencius  (nearly  2 
centuries  later)  still  prevail  in  Chinese  pedagogy. 
The  course  of  instruction  begins  in  the  family, 
where  the  boys  are  taught  to  enumerate  objects, 
to  count  to  the  number  of  10,000,  and  to  rever- 
ence their  parents  and  ancestors  by  a  minute 
ceremonial.  'At  the  age  of  5  or  6  years  they 
are  sent  to  school.  On  entering  the  hall,  the 
pupil  m-akes  obeisance  first  to  the  holy  Confucius 
and  then  to  his  master.  A  lesson  learned  in 
grammar,  history,  ethics,  mathematics,  or  as- 
tronomy, according  to  the  i)roficiency  of  the 
Btudent,  is  followed  by  the  morning  i-epast ;  af- 
ter which  the  day  is  spent  in  copying,  learning 


by  heart,  and  reciting  select  passages  of  litera- 
ture. Before  departure  at  night  a  part  of  the 
pupils  relate  some  of  the  events  of  ancient  his- 
tory, which  are  explained  by  the  master;  others 
unite  in  singing  an  ancient  ode,  which  is  some- 
times accompanied  by  a  symbolic  dance.  They 
leave  the  hall  with  the  same  obeisances  with 
Avliich  they  enter  it,  and  on  reaching  home  rev- 
erentially salute  the  dumestic  spirits,  and  their 
ancestors,  ])arents,  and  relatives.  For  the  sons 
of  the  nobles  a  higher  course  of  instruction  is 
provided  in  universities  under  the  surveillance 
of  the  state.  One  of  these  exists  in  most  of  the 
large  cities,  and  the  most  advanced  of  them  is 
the  imperial  college  in  Pckin.  Candidates  for 
admission  into  the  last  are  required  to  pass  a 
strict  examination,  and  the  graduates  from  it  aro 
at  once  appointed  to  public  ofiice.  In  no  other 
country,  with  perhaps  the  exception  of  Prussia, 
is  a  learned  education  the  means  of  official  jiro- 
motion  so  much  as  in  China.  The  education 
of  girls  is  neglected,  but  the  daughters  of  tho 
wealthy  are  generally  taught  to  read,  write, 
sing,  and  sometimes  to  make  verses. — Historians 
usually  account  the  inhabitants  of  India  tho 
most  highly  educated  of  the  ancient  nations  of 
the  East.  Yet  Hindoo  learning  and  science 
have  always  been  almost  exclusively  in  tlie  hands 
of  the  caste  of  Brahmins,  who  only  are  allowed 
to  explain  the  Yedas  or  sacred  books  to  the  two 
castes  next  in  rank.  The  fourth  and  much  tho 
most  numerous  caste  of  Soodras,  or  laborers,  are 
excluded  from  all  privileges  of  education,  and  for- 
bidden even  to  listen  to  the  reading  of  the  sacred 
books.  The  elementary  schools  are  now  held  in 
the  open  air,  and  the  instruction  ordinarily  begins 
with  writing.  The  boys,  sitting  naked  on  tho 
ground,  write  iu  the  sand,  or  on  palm  leaves,  a 
series  of  moral  sentences  from  the  ancient  writ- 
ings. These  are  also  committed  to  menior}-. 
The  Vedas  are  taught  separately  in  the  schook 
of  the  Brahmins,  and  embrace  not  only  the 
higher  doctrines  of  mythology,  but  also  of  ma- 
thematics, astrology,  and  philosophy.  Hindoo 
masters  especially  inculcate  the  rules  of  polite- 
ness, the  art  of  elegant  conversation,  the  coun- 
tenance which  ought  to  be  assumed  according 
to  occasions,  and  innumerable  minute  practices 
of  etiquette  and  duplicity.  The  education  of 
women,  to  whom  the  laws  of  Mauu  ascribe 
a  mingled  character  of  malice  and  deceit,  is 
totally  neglected,  and  it  is  a  disgrace  for  them 
to  know  liow  to  read.  Only  the  courtesans 
learn  to  read,  sing,  and  dance.  Schools  have 
been  established  by  the  British  government,  and 
also  by  the  natives,  in  which  there  are  generally 
two  departments,  in  one  of  which  the  English 
language,  sciences,  and  literature  are  taught,  and 
in  the  other  the  Sanscrit,  Persian,  or  Arabic 
languages  and  literature. — Tho  early  culture  of 
the  Egyptians  was  such,  that  the  Greeks  de- 
rived from  them  their  first  lessons  in  science  and 
philosophy.  In  Egypt,  too,  the  Israelites  ob- 
tained the  knowledge  which  enabled  them  to 
measure  and  "  divide  the  land."  Learning  and 
political  power  were  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  tho 


764 


EDUCATION 


pricpts,  among  ■whom  tho  greater  part  of  the 
lands  ■were  distributed.  Public  education  ex- 
isted only  in  the  castes  of  priests  and  warriors, 
until  it  became  more  general  after  the  rise  of 
the  Persian  and  Greek  dominion.  While  the 
mass  of  the  people  were  trained  to  the  mechan- 
ical arts,  a  few  only  were  instructed  in  the 
mathematical  sciences,  and  in  the  doctrines  of 
morality  and  divinity.  An  esoteric  culture  was 
reserved  to  the  priests  themselves,  whose  prin- 
cipal schools  were  at  Thebes,  Memphis,  and 
Ileliopolis.  The  allusions  of  the  Greeks,  and 
the  inscriptions  on  the  monuments,  prove  an 
early  knowledge  of  geometry,  astronomy,  men- 
suration, and  surveying  in  Egypt,  and  from  the 
time  of  Thales  the  wisest  of  the  Greeks  went 
to  study  in  that  country.  lamblichus  says 
that  Pythagoras  derived  thence  his  information 
upon  different  sciences,  and  that  he  complied 
with  the  minutest  regulations  of  the  priests,  in 
order  to  overcome  their  repugnance  to  impart- 
ing tlieir  theories.  Plato,  it  is  said,  was  a  disci- 
ple of  them,  and  states  that "  when  Solon  inquir- 
ed of  them  about  ancient  matters  he  perceived 
that  neither  he  nor  any  one  of  the  Greeks  had 
any  knowledge  of  very  remote  antiquity."  It 
was  not  unusual  for  female  children  of  the  priest- 
ly families  to  acquire  an  education,  but  the  pop- 
ulace in  general  were  trained  only  to  follow  in 
the  occupation  of  their  parents  and  kinsmen. 
At  a  later  period  a  part  of  Egypt  ca,me  within 
the  circle  of  Greek  civilization,  and  the  schools 
of  Alexandria  and  other  cities  of  the  delta  be- 
came as  renowned  as  those  of  Thebes  and  other 
more  southern  cities  had  formerly  been.  The 
two  Alexandrian  libraries,  one  of  which  was 
destroyed  under  Theodosius  the  Great,  and 
the  other  by  command  of  the  caliph  Omar  I, 
(A.  D.  042),  were  the  most  remarkable  monu- 
ments of  ancient  learning. — The  culture  of  the 
ancient  Persians  was  the  exclusive  care  of  the 
magi,  a  priestly  caste  of  Median  origin,  who  were 
the  savants  of  the  empire,  the  legislators,  judges, 
interpreters  of  dreams,  astrologers,  and  highest 
functionaries  at  court.  They  ruled  the  Per- 
sians for  ages  by  the  force  of  intellect  alone. 
To  them  were  intrusted  the  preservation  and 
establishment  of  the  doctrines  and  laws  of 
Zoroaster.  There  was  no  general  system  of 
national  education,  but  the  instruction  was  sim- 
ple for  the  people,  learned  and  religious  for  the 
magi,  and  military  and  political  for  the  war- 
riors. The  faults  of  children  were  not  regarded 
as  sins  till  the  age  of  8  years,  when  they  were 
first  taught  to  say  their  pi-ayers.  The  intellect- 
ual culture  was  but  trifling  except  to  those  who 
were  to  inherit  the  learning  of  the  magi,  but  the 
moral  education  inculcated  the  civil  virtues  and 
strict  liabits  of  truth  and  justice,  while  in  phys- 
ical training  the  Persians  surpassed  all  other 
eastern  nations.  Their  fundamental  maxim  was 
to  combine  a  meagre  fare  with  violent  gymnas- 
tic exercises.  According  to  Herodotus,  "  their 
sons  were  carefully  instructed  from  their  5th  to 
their  20th  year  in  3  things  alone,  to  ride,  to  draw 
the  bow,  and  to  speak  the  truth."    The  Cyroiicn- 


dia  of  Xenophon  is  a  romantic  picture  of  the  Per- 
sian mode  of  education.  It  presents  the  whole 
jwpulation  divided  into  4  classes  according  to 
age,  and  meeting  at  appointed  times  in  the  4 
divisions  of  the  public  edifices,  which  were  far 
removed  from  the  market  places.  The  hoys  till 
the  age  of  17  years  were  taught  to  know  and  to 
practise  justice,  and  to  -  entertain  right  senti- 
ments toward  the  divinity,  their  country,  their 
parents,  and  their  friends.  They  lodged  at  home, 
took  their  slight  meals  under  the  care  of  their 
masters,  learned  to  handle  the  bow  and  javelin, 
and  were  prompted  to  admire  and  imitate  those 
aged  men  Avho  were  noted  for  exemplary  vir- 
tues. From  the  age  of  17  to  27  years  they 
passed  their  nights  in  the  public  edifice,  that 
the  purity  of  their  morals  might  be  strictly 
guarded,  learned  the  arts  of  war,  were  accus- 
tomed to  rise  early,  to  bear  cold  and  heat,  to 
walk,  to  run,  and  to  follow  the  cliase.  During 
the  25  following  years  they  were  accounted  ripe 
men,  and  obeyed  their  superiors  in  war.  Above 
the  age  of  52  they  were  reckoned  among  old 
men,  renounced  martial  service,  and  administer- 
ed justice  in  public  and  private  aftairs.  Such 
an  education  and  career  was  legally  open  to 
every  citizen,  but  only  the  wealthier  classes 
could  avail  themselves  of  the  public  schools, 
since  it  was  necessary  not  only  to  dispense  with 
the  labor  of  their  children,  but  also  to  pay  their 
expenses. — The  theocratic  constitution  of  the 
Hebrew  nation,  and  the  foundation  of  its  pol- 
itics and  ethics  on  religion,  produced  a  mental 
cultivation  as  manifested  in  its  literature  very 
unlike  that  found  among  any  other  oriental 
people.  The  schools  of  the  propliets  are  the 
only  schools  which  are  mentioned,  but  children 
were  generally  instructed  by  their  parents  in 
the  law  of  Moses  and  the  history  of  the  nation. 
The  obedience  of  children  to  the  commands  of 
their  parents  is  a  frequent  injunction  in  tho 
Scriptures.  Girls  were  taught  to  sing,  to  play 
upon  musical  instruments,  and  to  dance  on  sol- 
emn occasions  ;  and  many  female  poets  and 
learned  women  figure  in  the  history  of  the  an- 
cient Jews.  After  the  exile  the  rabbins  estab- 
lished schools  to  which  children  were  sent  from 
their  5th  or  Gth  year,  and  in  which,  beside  the 
teaching  of  the  Scriptures,  the  commentaries  and 
traditions,  the  Mishna  and  Gemara,  were  taught 
and  committed  to  memory.  The  instruction  was 
oral,  no  student  ever  taking  notes,  and  the  Mish- 
na had  long  been  transmitted  from  master  to 
pupil  before  it  was  committed  to  writing.  Tlie 
most  celebrated  of  the  early  rabbinical  schools 
were  those  of  Jamnia  (}or\^  under  the  direction 
of  Gamaliel,  and  at  which  Saint  Paul  studied), 
Tiberias,  Alexandria,  Babylon,  and  Jerusalem. 
During  the  greater  part  of  the  micMle  ages  Jew- 
ish astronomers,  physicians,  poets,  and  philoso- 
phers were  scattered  through  Spain,  Italy,  and 
France,  and  the  cities  of  northern  Africa  and 
western  Asia.  Their  greatest  schools  flourished 
in  Egypt,  Fez,  Andalusia,  and  Languedoc. — 'Of 
the  methods  of  Greek  education,  a  connected  ac- 
count may  be  formed  from  tho  numerous  ecat- 


EDUCATION 


765 


tered  allusions  in  classical  literature.  At  tlie 
age  of  0  years  boys  passed  from  the  exclusive 
care  of  their  motliers,  who  educated  them  till 
then  along  with  the  girls.  Lullabies,  cradles, 
baubles,  rattles,  dolls,  miniature  go-carts,  and 
images  of  warriors  and  mytliological  scenes,  are 
mentioned  among  the  resources  of  the  nursery. 
The  childreu  were  terrified  into  good  beliavior 
by  stories  of  bugbears  and  bogies,  or  by  castiga- 
tiou,  whicli  was  fur  from  imconnnon,  and  was 
administered  usually  with  tlie  slipper  or  sandal. 
The  nurses  and  attendants  used  to  tell  tales 
for  their  amusemeut,  consisting  chietly  of  the 
legendary  exploits  of  the  gods  and  demigods. 
Plato  and  riutarch  treat  i)arlicularly  of  the 
moral  influence  of  this  story-telling,  and  urged 
that  the  nurses  should  be  I'estricted  in  their  se- 
lection of  subjects.  At  about  their  8th  year  the 
boys  were  intrusted  to  the  care  of  a  pedagogue, 
Avho  accompanied  them  to  school,  carried  their 
books,  and  kept  them  constantly  under  surveil- 
lance. He  was  a  slave,  but  often  intelligent  and 
of  polislied  manners.  The  schools  were  under  the 
supervision,  but  not  the  patronage,  of  the  state, 
and  the  fees  received  from  pupils  constituted 
the  schoolmaster's  income.  Instruction  began 
in  the  early  morning,  and  was  in  3  branches : 
the  letters  (comprehending reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic),  music  (includmg  also  literature  and 
art),  and  gymnastic  exercises.  Plato  recom- 
mended that  arithmetic  be  taught  as  an  amuse- 
ment, and  that  the  abstract  ideas  of  number  be 
presented  in  as  concrete  a  form  as  possible  by 
the  use  of  apples  and  the  like.  Having  learned 
to  read,  the  boy  was  made  familiar  with  the 
works  of  the  poets,  and  required  to  commit  to 
memory  long  select  passages.  The  poems  of 
Homer,  especially,  were  thought  to  contain  by 
precept  and  example  every  thing  calculated  to 
awaken  in  youth  a  national  spirit,  and  to  im- 
press tlie  noblest  virtues.  The  lyre  was  the 
favorite  musical  instrument  at  Athens,  and  in- 
struction in  playing  upon  it  was  a  regular  part 
of  education.  The  flute  was  at  one  time  pop- 
ular, but  its  use  was  abandoned,  according  to 
Aristotle,  because  it  distorted  the  face.  At- 
tendance at  school  was  continued  till  the  IGth 
or  18th  year,  after  whicli  those  who  wished  be- 
came disciples  of  teachers  of  a  higher  order,  the 
philosophers,  rhetoricians,  and  sophists.  From 
that  age  they  began  more  to  frequent  the  gym- 
nasia for  athletic  exercises,  the  benches  of  wiiich 
were  often  occupied  by  sophists  conversing  with 
their  pupils  and  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of  lis- 
teners. For  girls  there  were  neither  educational 
institutions  nor  private  teachers.  Their  whole 
instruction  was  derived  from  their  mothers  and 
nurses,  and  till  marriage  they  were  excluded 
from  the  society  and  conversation  of  tlie  op- 
posite sex.  Hence,  there  Avere  no  scientific  or 
leai-ned  ladies,  with  the  exception  of  the  hetcenv, 
and  of  these  the  Milesian  Aspasia  was  per- 
haps the  only  one  that  was  respected.  Grecian 
education  received  its  first  strong  impressions 
from  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus  and  Solon, 
and  from  the  influence  of  the  school  of  Pytha- 


goras. That  the  child  "was  the  property,  not 
of  liis  parents,  but  of  the  state,  was  the  cen- 
tral idea  of  the  educational  system  established 
by  Lycurgus  in  .Sparta.  All  [lersonal  interests 
must  yield  to  those  of  tiie  nation.  Every  Si>ar- 
tan  ciiild,  with  the  exception  of  tlic  heir  pre- 
sumptive to  the  throne,  was  subjected  to  a 
severe  military  and  public  discipline,  wliich 
consisted  largely  in  gymnastic  training,  to  tlie 
neglect  of  intellectual  culture.  They  were  not 
taught  to  read,  but  to  speak  with  a  precision 
which  is  yet  proverbial.  Truthfulness  aud  mas- 
terly self-command  were  moral  results  which 
Avere  well  combined  with  physical  endurance. 
Females  were  educated  nearly  the  same  as  males, 
and  the  two  sexes  often  strove  togetiier  in  gym- 
nastic contests.  Thus  was  formed  a  hardy  and 
warlike  nation,  destitute  aud  heedless  alike  of 
refined  feelings,  a.>sthetic  tastes,  and  scientific 
knowledge,  it  was  in  obedience  to  the  princi- 
ples of  the  code  of  Solon  that  Athens  became 
thecentreand  mother  of  liberal  culture.  Though 
education,  like  religion,  was  recognized  as  a  part 
of  the  political  constitution,  yet  the  state  left  it 
to  parental  interests  and  affection  to  educate 
the  young,  ordaining  only  certain  general  rules, 
chiefly  in  behalf  of  morality.  Thus  every  citi- 
zen, under  a  severe  penalty,  was  required  to 
teach  his  son  to  read  and  to  swim  ;  he  was  also 
to  tit  him  for  some  occupation,  otlierwise  the 
son  would  not  be  obliged  to  support  him  in  his 
old  age.  Litcllectual  and  ajsthetic  culture  were 
always  prominent  in  Athenian  education,  and 
gymnastic  training  was  encouraged  as  much  in 
the  interest  of  physical  beauty  as  of  physical 
strength.  In  the  time  of  Pericles  the  writers, 
statesmen,  artists,  and  the  populace  united  in 
appreciating  the  fine  arts ;  every  coin  was  stamp- 
ed with  a  beautiful  symbol,  the  poorest  clay  ves- 
sels were  gracefully  outlined,  and  the  finest 
Athenian  specimens  of  architecture  and  sculp- 
ture appealed  to  common  sentiments  of  patriot- 
ism, religion,  and  taste.  Pythagoras  was  the  first 
of  the  Greek  philosophers  who  founded  a  school 
or  sect  that  survived  him  for  centuries.  He  set- 
tled as  a  teacher  in  Magna  Grsecia,  or  southern  It- 
aly, after  having  travelled  and  studied  in  Egypt. 
He  admitted  into  his  society  only  those  whose 
physiognomy  pleased  him,  who  obeyed  their 
parents,  were  devoid  of  vanity,  aud  had  the  art 
of  keeping  silence  and  listening.  The  disciple 
was  first  admitted  only  to  the  exoteric  class, 
where  ho  learned  but  a  part  of  his  master's  dog- 
mas. There  he  remained  at  least  8  years,  dur- 
ing the  last  5  of  which  he  accustomed  himself 
principally  to  silence.  He  was  finaUy  received 
into  the  esoteric  class,  where  he  was  initiated 
into  all  the  sciences,  especially  mathematics, 
upon  which  Pythagoras  set  the  highest  value. 
The  basis  of  his  system  seems  to  Iiave  been  the 
harmony  of  the  universe,  and  our  conceptions 
of  order  and  of  music  ;  and  it  practically  incul- 
cated respect  for  women,  simplicity  in  attire, 
severe  honesty,  devotion  to  ideas  of  beauty  and 
virtue,  and  the  blending  of  all  the  elements  of 
character  so  that  they  should  tend  to  a  single 


766 


EDUOATIOU 


end.  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle  snbseqnently 
developed  the  Greek  theories  in  the  higher  de- 
partments of  education,  their  speculations  on  the 
subject  forming  a  part  of  their  philosophical  and 
political  systems.— The  Hellenic  methods  of  ed- 
ucation were  in  most  respects  copied  by  the 
Romans,  who,  however,  at  first  laid  greater 
stress  on  vigorous  corporeal  exercises  and  the 
nurture  of  the  sentiment  of  patriotism.  The 
ancient  title  of  the  schoolmaster  was  master  of 
the  games  {liuUmagkter),  and  instruction  was 
entirely  independent  of  the  state  till  near  tlio 
time  of  the  emperors.  Numerous  religious  cer- 
emonies preceded,  accompanied,  and  followed 
the  birth  of  a  child,  who  during  the  republic 
was  educated  in  the  ftimily  successively  under 
the  care  of  his  mother,  his  father,  and  a  peda- 
gogue or  learned  slave.  After  his  15th  year, 
the  noljle  young  Eoman  assumed  the  toga  virilis, 
and  from  that  time  for  more  than  a  year  ap- 
plied himself  to  gymnastic  exercises  designed  to 
prepare  him  for  war.  He  was  afterward  ad- 
mitted to  the  society  of  public  men  to  learn  the 
art  of  statesmanship.  After  the  Greek  influ- 
ence became  predominant  in  Roman  culture,  a 
Greek  rather  than  a  Roman  was  preferred 
for  pedagogue,  and  the  institution  of  public 
schools,  to  which  boys  were  sent  at  the  age  of 
Y  years,  made  the  advantages  of  education  more 
general.  Under  the  empire  the  Greek  litera- 
ture was  taught  to  the  sons  of  the  wealthy  as 
carefully  as  the  Latin,  and  tlie  education  was 
completed  by  rhetoricians,  who  in  the  time  of 
Quintilian  often  received  a  salary  from  the  pub- 
lic treasury.  Athens,  where  there  Avas  an  acad- 
emy with  10  professors,  was  much  frequented 
by  the  young  Romans,  and  a  school  of  high  re- 
pute was  founded  in  Constantinople  by  Con- 
stantine  and  reorganized  by  Theodosius  the 
Younger.  Girls  were  often  carefully  educated 
during  the  later  period  of  the  empire  ;  and  from 
about  the  close  of  the  republic  there  appear 
to  have  been  schools  designed  for  them  exclu- 
sively, where  they  were  rarely  visited  by  their 
fathers.  Antoninus  Pius  (A.  D.  138-161)  was 
the  first  Roman  monarch  who  established  a 
school  for  orphans.  The  principal  original 
sources  for  the  history  of  education  among  the 
Romans  are  the  writings  of  Cicero,  Seneca,  Pliny 
the  Younger,  and  especially  the  Institutiones 
Oratorm  of  Quintilian. — At  the  time  when  the 
last  vestiges  of  Roman  supremacy  were  disap- 
pearing in  the  West,  the  genius  of  Mohammed 
raised  an  obscure  people  in  a  cornar  of  Asia  to 
sudden  greatness.  In  the  7th  century  the  Ara- 
bians overran  Syria,  Persia,  Egypt,  and  the 
whole  north-west  of  Africa,  and  in  the  next, 
Spain  also.  Though  they  had  no  native  literature 
but  poetry,  and  no  science  but  a  fanciful  as- 
tronomy inherited  from  shepherds,  and  though 
they  were  at  first  as  destructive  to  western 
learning  as  to  Christianity,  they  yet  soon  discov- 
ered the  value  of  the  Avritings  of  the  Greeks, 
especially  of  those  on  medicine,  mathematics,  and 
natural  philosophy.  Hippocrates  and  Galen, 
Euclid  and  Ptolemy,  Aristotle  and  Theophrastus 


were  translated  into  Arabic,  and  voluminonsly 
commented  on ;  and  in  the  10th  century,  the 
darkest  period  of  Christian  literature,  the  Arabs 
had  flourishing  schools  of  learning  from  Bagdad 
to  Cordova.  Of  their  lY  universities,  that  of 
Cordova  enjoyed  the  highest  reputation,  and 
is  said  to  have  possessed  a  library  of  600,000 
volumes.  Grammar,  the  art  of  versifying,  his- 
tory, geography,  astronomy  and  astrology,  chem- 
istry and  alchemy,  mathematics,  and  medicine 
were  all  studied,  and  in  the  last  two  depart- 
ments the  Arabians  made  important  improve- 
ments on  their  Greek  masters.  An  element- 
ary school  was  attached  to  every  mosque,  in 
which  reading  and  writing  were  taught,  the 
pupils  at  the  same  time  learning  many  poems 
by  heart.  At  first,  the  sons  of  wealthy  Arabs 
on  reaching  their  20th  year  were  accustomed 
to  go  on  a  literary  journey,  visiting  the  most 
eminent  savants  who  gave  public  lectures ;  but 
after  the  foundation  of  universities  by  the  ca- 
liphs in  the  largest  cities,  these  became  the  re- 
sort of  those  who  desired  a  learned  education. 
They  were  chiefly  occupied  with  theology,  ju- 
risprudence, and  speculative  philosopliy ;  and 
for  the  natural  sciences  there  were  special 
schools,  while  medicine  was  taught  in  hospitals. 
The  professors  and  students  dwelt  in  tlie  same 
edifice,  and  usually  there  was  but  one  eminent 
scholar  connected  as  teacher  with  each  univer- 
sity. In  Spain  the  Saracens  had  tlieir  most 
brilliant  career,  covering  the  plains,  the  valleys, 
and  the  hillsides  with  palaces  and  costly  dwell- 
ings in  the  light  and  graceful  style  of  Moorish 
architecture,  making  poetry  and  the  fine  arts 
as  well  as  scholarship  flourish  at  the  Moorish 
courts,  and  giving  rich  endowments  to  schools 
and  universities,  the  advantages  of  which  were 
open  both  to  Christians  and  Moslems,  and  to  the 
female  sex  as  well  as  the  male.  Gerbert,  after- 
ward Pope  Sylvester  II.,  studied  under  the 
Spanish  Arabs,  and  passing  thence  to  France  and 
Germany,  is  said  to  have  revived  in  those  coun- 
tries arithmetic,  music,  and  geometry,  which 
had  become  unknown.  Sharon  Turner  gives 
a  list  of  Spanish- Arabian  women  Avho  were 
noted  for  their  eru<lition  or  their  skill  in  poetry, 
oratory,  philosoj)hy,  jurisprudence,  or  music. — 
Tlie  early  Christians,  unable  to  found  separate 
schools  for  the  education  of  their  children, 
either  instructed  them  at  home  or  sent  them  to 
pagan  schools.  The  names  of  Anthusa,  Nonna, 
and  Monica,  the  mothers  and  teachers  of  Chrys- 
ostom,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  Augustine,  ai'e 
memorials  of  the  care  with  which  Christian 
parents  sought  the  intellectual  and  religious  cul- 
ture of  their  sons.  The  daughters  also  shared 
in  the  domestic  lessons.  Yet  those  who  desired 
a  learned  education  resorted  to  schools  taught 
by  pagans,  the  most  flourishing  of  which  in  the 
2d  century  was  that  of  Alexandria,  where  a 
multitude  of  pagans,  Jews,  and  Christians  prose- 
cuted their  studies  together.  By  the  side  of 
this  ancient  institution  soon  arose  the  Christian 
school  of  the  catechists,  said  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  Pantasnus  ia  181,  in  which  Christian  the- 


EDUCATIOiT 


767 


ology  assumed  a  regular  and  scientific  form.  It 
■was  designed  especially  to  qualify  young  men 
to  become  preachers,  but  its  course  of  study  em- 
braced mathematics,  logic,  rhetoric,  physics, 
metaphysics,  and  ethics,  as  well  as  theology, 
and  it  continued  in  existence  till  near  the  5th 
century.  Its  most  eminent  master  was  Origen, 
who,  being  exiled  in  231  from  Alexandria,  soon 
after  established  a  similar  school  in  Ciesarea,  in 
which  St.  Basil  was  educated.  The  school  of 
Antioch  produced  Ciirysostom  and  Tlieodoro 
of  Mopsuestia ;  and  that  of  Edessa,  called  the 
Athens  of  Syria,  and  which  was  long  the  prin- 
cipal seat  of  oriental  learning,  attracted  students 
from  great  distances,  and  is  memorable  espe- 
cially for  its  part  against  St.  Cyril  in  the  Nes- 
torian  controversy.  In  all  the  Christian  schools 
the  Bible  gradually  became  the  principal  text 
book,  and  the  sciences  were  pursued  only  in 
their  theological  bearings.  In  the  West  there 
were  till  the  5th  century  pagan  schools  in  the 
largest  cities,  as  Carthage,  Rome,  Milan,  Treves, 
Marseilles,  and  Lyons;  and  owing  to  the  fewness 
of  the  Christian  institutions,  it  was  common  for 
distinguislied  doctors  of  the  church  to  assemble 
around  them  the  young  men  who  purposed  enter- 
ing the  priesthood,  and  to  instruct  them  by  their 
conversation  rather  than  by  regular  lessons. 
Early  in  the  5th  century  learning  found  a  ref- 
uge in  the  monastei-ies  which  had  been  intro- 
duced in  tlie  East  for  purposes  of  solitude  and 
contemplation,  but  in  the  West  for  quiet  and 
union  amid  the  disorders  of  society — as  a  centre 
and  asylum  for  persons  who  wished  to  live,  to 
discuss,  and  to  exercise  themselves  together. 
The  abbey  founded  at  Tours  by  St.  Martin,  that 
of  St.  Victor  founded  by  Cassianus  at  Marseilles, 
and  that  of  Lerius  founded  by  St.  Honoratus 
and  St.  Caprais  in  one  of  the  isles  of  Ilyeres, 
were  philosophical  schools  of  Christianity,  in 
which  the  great  questions  of  free  will,  predesti- 
nation, grace,  and  original  sin  were  warmly  agi- 
tated, and  in  the  last  two  of  wliich  the  Pelagian 
opinions  for  half  a  century  found  their  greatest 
nourishment  and  support.  In  the  6th  and  Tth 
centuries  the  schools  were  of  3  classes,  the  paro- 
chial, the  cathedral  or  episcopal,  and  the  clois- 
tral or  conventual.  The  first  were  in  the  house 
and  under  the  care  of  a  priest,  were  designed 
mainly  to  produce  readers  in  the  church,  and 
the  instruction  in  them  rarely  extended  beyond 
the  constant  repetition  of  passages  of  Scripture ; 
the  second  were  of  a  higher  grade,  and  usually 
under  the  direction  of  a  bishop,  were  designed 
for  the  education  of  priests,  though  young  noble- 
men Avere  also  received  as  pupils,  and  the  can- 
ticles and  formulas  in  use  in  religious  worship 
were  the  chief  subjects  of  study  ;  the  third  re- 
ceived children  who  were  devoted  either  to  a 
religious  or  secular  life,  and  taught  them  to 
read,  to  copy  manuscripts,  and  to  understand 
Latin.  The  cloistral  schools  were  very  numer- 
ous and  for  both  sexes,  most  of  those  for  females 
being  under  the  discipline  of  St.  Benedict.  In 
the  convent  of  Aries  nearly  200  nuns  were  oc- 
cupied in  copying  religious  books,  or  sometimes 


the  works  of  tho  ancients.  The  Irish  monas- 
teries at  this  time  surpassed  all  others  in  main- 
tainingthe  traditions  of  learning.  The  course  of 
7  sciences  or  liberal  arts,  divided  into  the  trivi- 
um  (grammar,  dialectics,  and  rhetoric)  and  tho 
quadrivium  (arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy, 
and  music),  was  introduced  in  the  Gth  century, 
and  defined  in  two  jargon  hexameters  : 
Grnmm.  loquilur ;  IMit.  vera  docet ;  Jihet.  verba  colordt; 
Jfus.canit;  Ar.numerat;  Geo.  ponder  at;  Ant.colitasira. 

Yet  learning  was  for  the  most  part  of  a  fantastic 
character  and  jjut  to  frivolous  uses,  and  except- 
ing the  writings  of  BoC-thius,  the  last  utterance 
of  classical  culture,  the  principal  productions 
and  text  books  of  the  time  were  the  arid  com- 
pilations of  Isidorus  of  Seville,  Cajjella,  and  Cas- 
siodorus.  The  7th  century,  says  llallam,  was 
the  nadir  of  the  human  mind  in  Europe,  audits 
movement  in  advance  began  with  Charlernagno 
before  the  close  of  the  next.  This  monarch 
invited  to  his  court  Alcuin  from  the  cloisters 
of  York,  Clement  from  Ireland,  and  Theodulf 
from  Germany,  and  reestablished  the  jialatial 
school,  in  whicli  tho  sons  of  some  of  the  no- 
bility were  educated  with  his  own  children,  and 
which  accompanied  him  wherever  he  went.  It 
was  called  the  palatine  academy,  and  the  mem- 
bers of  it  took  names  borrowed  from  sacred  or 
profane  history  ;  thus  Charlemagne  was  called 
David,  Alcuin  Horace,  Angilbert  Homer,  and 
Gisla  Lucia.  In  this  school,  and  afterward  ia 
those  of  Tours  and  Fulda,  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion embraced  all  the  learning  of  tho  age.  He 
also  founded  schools  in  every  bishopric  and 
monastery,  in  which  reading,  singing,  compu- 
tation, grammar,  and  the  learning  of  psalms  by 
heart  were  the  exercises ;  and  he  instituted  two 
schools  at  Soissons  and  Metz  solely  for  instruc- 
tion in  church  music,  under  tlie  care  of  Italian 
masters.  In  two  capitularies  addressed  by  him 
to  the  religious  preachers  under  his  government, 
and  to  the  abbe  Bangulf,  the  head  of  a  religious 
order,  he  insisted  on  a  higher  education  for  tho 
priesthood,  and  the  multiplication  of  correct 
copies  of  the  Scriptures  and  of  the  Latin  clas- 
sics; and  he  bestowed  fortune  and  honors  on 
those  monasteries  and  monks  that  excelled  in 
the  art  of  producing  correct  and  beautiful  copies. 
The  study  of  Greek  was  ])artially  revived,  and 
it  was  made  a  condition  of  the  endowment  of 
the  school  at  Osnabrilck  that  there  should  al- 
ways be  clerks  there  skilled  in  that  language. 
The  emperor  made  an  unsuccessful  eflTort  for  the 
culture  of  the  German  language,  causing  a  col- 
lection of  the  German  popular  songs  to  be  made; 
yet  his  design  was  not  seconded  by  the  clergy, 
who  esteemed  German  a  barbarous  tongue  and 
relic  of  paganism  which  ought  to  be  extirpated 
rather  than  cultivated.  Less  than  a  century 
after  Charlemagne,  King  Alfred  revived  letters 
and  schools  in  England,  which  had  been  almost 
extinguished  by  the  Danish  invasions,  rich  li- 
braries having  disappeared  in  the  pillage  of 
churches  and  convents.  At  his  accession  Wes- 
sex  could  not  boast  a  single  person  able  to 
translate  a  Latin  book.    He  invited  to"  his  court 


768 


EDUCATION 


the  most  celebrated  scholars,  among  whom  were 
Plegmund,  Werfrith,  Ethelstan,  AVerwulf,  Asser 
of  St.  David's,  Grimbald  of  St.  Omer,  John  Scotus 
Erigena,  and  John  of  Old  Saxony,  wlio  left  the 
monastery  of  Corbie  for  that  of  Ethelingey ;  ho 
made  translations  with  his  own  hand  into  Anglo- 
Saxon  from  Bede,  Boethius,  and  Orosius ;  estab- 
lished schools  in  diflPerent  parts  of  his  kingdom  ; 
and  ordained  that  the  children  of  every  free 
man  whose  circumstances  would  allow  it  should 
acquire  the  arts  of  reading  and  writing,  and 
tliat  those  designed  for  civil  or  ecclesiastical 
offices  should  be  instructed  in  the  Latin  lan- 
guage. Yet  his  efforts  in  behalf  of  learning 
were  as  unfruitful  after  his  death  as  those  of 
Charlemagne  had  been  in  France,  and  were 
succeeded  by  the  mental  torpor  of  the  10th 
century,  in  which,  it  has  been  remarked,  no 
heresies  appeared.  Yet  Germany  at  that  time 
possessed  many  learned  and  virtuous  church- 
men. In  the  school  of  Paderborn  not  only  the 
7  liberal  arts  were  taught,  but  also  Homer  and 
Virgil  were  read,  and  the  arts  of  painting  and 
versifying  practised ;  and  iu  that  of  Fulda,  the 
pupils  of  Ilrabanus  Maurus,  himself  the  most 
accomplished  pupil  of  Alcuin,  gave  instruction 
with  zeal  and  care  to  noble  youth.  But  aa 
learning  was  chiefly  contained  in  a  dead  lan- 
guage in  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  it  hardly 
reached  the  mass  of  the  people ;  the  art  of  writ- 
ing was  so  rare  among  laymen  that  it  was  called 
the  clerical  art ;  paper  was  excessively  dear,  and 
ink  was  so  scarce  even  two  centuries  later  that 
Petrarch  only  after  great  difficulty  succeeded  in 
finding  some  in  Liege. — Tlie  rise  of  the  scholas- 
tic philosophy  and  of  the  troubadour  poetry,  the 
institution  of  universities,  and  the  return  to  a 
profound  study  of  tlie  Greek  and  Latin  classics, 
were  the  literary  steps  during  and  after  the  11th 
century  which  preceded  the  revival  of  learning 
in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries.  Intercourse 
with  the  flourishing  Arabian  academies  of  Spain 
should  also  be  mentioned,  since  many  scholars, 
following  the  example  of  Gerbert,  studied  in 
them,  and  imported  the  sciences  thence  into 
France  and  England.  It  was  through  the  Ara- 
bic mind  that  western  philosophers  first  became 
acquainted  with  the  complete  works  of  Aristo- 
tle, and  learned  to  prefer  his  dialectics  to  those 
of  Augustine ;  and  some  suppose  that  the  lit- 
erary culture  of  Provence  proceeded  from  con- 
tact witli  Arabic  poets  beyond  the  Pyrenees. 
Knighthood  demanded  a  moral  and  physical 
rather  than  intellectual  culture.  The  sons  of 
gentlemen  w'ho  were  trained  to  this  profession 
were  brought  up  in  the  castles  of  great  lords, 
instructed  in  exercises  of  strength  and  activity 
and  in  tlie  management  of  arms,  accustomed  to 
obedience  and  a  courteous  demeanor  to  their 
lord  and  lady,  and  trained  to  enthusiastic  and 
romantic  views  of  valor,  honor,  love,  and  mu- 
nificence. Many  of  the  noblest  knights  could 
neither  read  nor  write.  The  Provengal  litera- 
ture and  society,  founded  on  the  principles  and 
customs  of  chivalry,  were  a  remarkable  exam- 
ple of  culture  without  learning.     It  is  surpris- 


ing how  little  knowledge  the  troubadour  poems 
presuppose ;  there  is  scarcely  an  allusion  to  his- 
tory or  mythology ;  and  no  references  to  for- 
eign manners,  or  reminiscences  of  the  sciences 
which  had  been  taught  in  schools,  are  mingled 
with  the  simple  effusions  of  sentiment.  The 
fantastic  solemnities  styled  courts  of  love  and 
floral  games,  the  serious  discussion  of  ridiculous 
questions  of  metaphysical  gallantry,  the  elabo- 
rately frivolous  directions  concerning  the  man- 
ners of  either  sex,  are  illustrations  of  a  society 
without  intellectual  development,  but  highly 
and  peculiarly  disciplined  in  respect  of  the  sen- 
timents. From  the  12th  and  13th  centuries, 
the  era  of  the  schoolmen,  date  23  universities, 
including  those  of  Paris,  Montpellier,  Oxford, 
Cambridge,  Bologna,  Salerno,  Padua,  Eome, 
Salamanca,  and  Lisbon,  That  of  Bologna  was 
especially  famous  for  its  revival  of  the  civil  law, 
and  drew  lawyers  and  students  in  large  num- 
bers to  Lombardy  from  remote  parts  of  Europe. 
Paris  was  unrivalled  in  the  department  of  the- 
ology, and  Montpellier  in  that  of  medicine. 
Koscellin  and  "William  of  Champeaux  were  the 
first  scholastic  teachers  who  enjoyed  brilliant 
success  ;  and  Abelard,  the  disciple  of  them 
both,  attracted  students  by  thousands  to  his 
lectures  in  Paris,  fascinated  the  intellect  of 
Christendom  by  a  dialectic  method,  and  awak- 
ened mankind  to  a  sympathy  with  intellectual 
excellence.  Though  he  was  involved  in  a 
controversy  with  Saint  Bernard,  and  though 
some  of  his  oi^inions  were  condemned  by  an 
ecclesiastical  council,  and  he  was  therefore 
ordered  to  be  confined  in  a  cloister,  yet  his 
scholars  followed  him  to  his  hermitage  in  the 
wilderness,  and  enlarged  his  little  oratory  to  a 
cosmopolitan  and  studious  monastery  called  the 
Paraclete.  One  of  his  pupils  was  Peter  Lom- 
bard, the  author  of  the  "  Book  of  Sentences," 
which  obtained  the  highest  authority.  The  in- 
genious subtleties  of  scholasticism  were  pro- 
moted by  the  schools  of  the  mendicant  orders, 
and  the  two  greatest  masters  of  the  method, 
the  champions  of  distinct  systems,  were  the 
Dominican  Thomas  Aquinas  and  the  Franciscan 
Duns  Scotus.  The  most  determined  opponents  of 
the  scholastics  were  the  mystics,  the  promoters 
of  piety  rather  than  learning,  the  principal  rep- 
resentatives of  whom  were  St.  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux,  Thomas  u  Kempis,  Tauler,  and  in 
his  later  years  Gerson.  The  university  students, 
notwithstanding  the  enthusiasm  and  attain- 
ments of  some  of  them,  were  often  subjects  of 
satire.  It  was  complained  that  thej^  frequented 
eating  and  dancing  houses,  and  strolled  through 
the  streets  by  night  shouting  and  singing ;  that 
they  went  from  university  to  university,  not  to 
increase  their  knowledge,  but  to  be  able  to  boast 
that  they  had  studied  at  Paris,  Bologna,  or 
Pavia ;  and  that  they  surrounded  themselves 
with  large  libraries  and  paraded  doctors'  caps 
in  order  to  win  admiration  for  learning  which 
they  did  not  possess.  The  minor  schools  were 
said  often  to  be  badly  conducted ;  the  master 
was  not  sufficiently  under  the  surveillance  of 


EDUCATION" 


7G9 


the  bishop,  and  might  bo  one  of  the  numerous 
secular  ecclesiastics,  scholastic^  sclwhtrcs  vagaii- 
tcs,  lacc/iantcs,  or  goUanli,  Avho  traversed  Eu- 
rope as  adventurers,  becoming  curates,  teachers, 
or  sorcerers,  according  to  oc^casion,  foretelling 
eclipses,  selling  calendars  and  false  relics,  and  de- 
fi-auding  tlie  people  in  manifold  Avays.  It  was 
not  unconnnon  for  children  to  imitate  the  older 
students,  passing  from  school  to  school  in  groujis, 
begging,  stealing,  and  singing  before  houses. 
Yet  the  rod  played  a  ])ronHnent  ])art  in  schools, 
and  a  vignette  found  in  most  of  the  medireval 
classical  books  represents  a  master  holding  it  in 
Iiand,  A  festival  of  the  rod  was  one  of  the 
holidays,  when  the  boys  and  girls  went  together 
to  the  nearest  forest  for  abundle  of  birchen  twigs, 
and  returned  singing  a  chant  relative  to  the  use 
which  the  master  woidd  make  of  them.  Dur- 
ing the  period  preceding  the  revival  of  learning 
female  education  decnned.  Only  a  few  schools 
were  maintained  in  the  large  cities  for  the  in- 
struction of  girls  in  I'cading,  and  the  inmates 
of  convents  were  taught  hardly  more  than  to 
repeat  their  prayers  and  to  practise  embroidery 
and  other  needlework.  A  writer  of  the  13th 
century  defines  the  proper  education  of  woman 
as  "  knowing  how  to  pray  to  God,  to  love  man, 
to  knit,  and  to  sew."  From  the  time  when  the 
ill-fated  Heloisc  taught  the  sciences  and  the 
Greek  and  Latin  classics  to  her  nuns,  till  the 
latter  part  of  the  15th  century,  westeun  Europe 
furnishes  no  female  name  renowned  for  learning 
except  that  of  Christina  of  Pisa. — When  the 
Byzantine  empire  approached  its  fall,  the  Greek 
scholars  who  had  there  preserved  some  acquaint- 
ance with  ancient  learning  took  refuge  in  Italy, 
where  the  love  of  letters  had  been  already 
awakened  by  the  genius  of  Dante,  Petrarch,  and 
Boccaccio,  and  where  industrious  scholars  under 
the  patroiiage  of  princes  were  devoting  their 
lives  to  the  recovery  of  manuscripts  and  the 
revival  of  philology.  Among  those  Avho  at 
tliis  period  of  the  renaissance  specially  distin- 
guished themselves  as  teachers,  the  most  emi- 
nent was  A'ictorino  Ilambaldoni  (born  in  13T8), 
who  conducted  schools  successively  at  Padua, 
Venice,  and  Mantua,  attracting  pupils  from 
France,  Germany,  and  Greece,  but  admitting 
only  those  of  distinguished  talents.  lie  wrote 
nothing,  but  his  sagacity  and  success  in  forming 
the  character  of  students  and  in  producing  a 
harmonious  and  complete  development  made 
his  name  famous  for  centuries  as  an  instructor. 
The  right  study  of  the  classics  he  believed  to  be 
amply  sufficient  for  aU  the  purposes  of  educa- 
tion. Among  Italian  writers  on  education  in 
the  loth  century  were  Yergeri,  Poggio  Brac- 
ciolini,  Vegi,  and  adCneas  Sylvius,  afterward 
Pope  Pius  II.  From  Italy  the  more  profound 
study  of  classical  authors  passed  to  the  otlier 
countries  of  Europe,  and  a  contest  was  long 
maintained  between  the  scholastic  and  the  anti- 
scholastic  studies;  between  the  Aristotelians, 
who  included  the  most  learned  ecclesiastics,  and 
the  Platonists,  to  whom  were  attached  most  of 
the  cultivators  of  polite  literature.  Agricola  in 
VOL.  VI. — 49 


Germany,  Valla  in  Italy,  and  abovo  all  Ramus 
in  France,  wrote  against  scholasticism.  It  was 
assailed  by  the  reformers  and  defended  by  the 
Jesuits,  and  is  still  in  honor  in  some  of  the  Span- 
ish universities.  Purbach,  Pegiomontanus,  and 
Kicholas  Casanus  Avere  the  hrst  to  ])rouiote  the 
study  of  the  higher  mathematics.  Nicholas  do 
Clemengis  and  Gregorius  Tifernas  revived  the 
classical  taste  in  France,  Vitelli  and  Coilet  in 
England,  Lebrixain  Spain,  and  Pieucldin  in  Ger- 
many." The  pious  "  Brethren  of  the  Common 
Life,"  whose  first  school  was  founded  by  Gerard 
de  Groot  at  Deventcr  in  1340,  also  exerted  a 
wide  influence.  Their  schools  were  extended 
throughout  the  Netherlands  and  Germany,  were 
distinguished  alike  fur  i)iety  and  solid  acquire- 
ments, and  attracted  students  even  from  Italy. 
From  them  proceeded  Tliomas  a  Kempis,  and 
many  who  were  afterward  celebrated  as  re- 
formers. In  1483  a  severe  and  almost  barbarous 
discipline  was  ordained  in  the  college  of  Mon- 
taigu,  combining  labor,  fasting,  and  pitiless  pun- 
ishments. Yet  among  tlie  students  who  in  a 
few  years  proceeded  from  this  school  were 
Erasmus,  Loyola,  and  Calvin.  Erasmus,  with 
polished  jests  admirable  for  their  esjirit  and 
learning,  seemed  to  revive  the  ancient  Attic  wit, 
and  exerted  a  refreshing  influence  on  letters. 
The  golden  age  of  the  literature  of  Belgium 
was  that  of  Albert  and  Isabella  in  the  first  quar- 
ter of  the  17th  century,  in  which  the  triumph 
of  the  renaissance  was  completed.  The  univer- 
sity of  Louvain  was  the  centre  of  a  wide  intel- 
lectual culture,  and  the  alma  mater  of  many 
celebrities.  Its  European  reputation  increased 
till  in  1570  it  had  8,000  students.— Education 
and  the  doctrines  concerning  it  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  movements  of  the  Protestant 
reformers,  and  also  in  the  reaction  in  favor  of 
the  papacy  under  the  Jesuits.  The  revival  of 
intellectual  culture  among  the  people  was  asso- 
ciated in  the  mind  of  Luther  with  religious 
reform,  and  in  1528  with  the  aid  of  Melanch- 
thon  he  drew  np  the  plan  of  studies  which  was 
followed  in  tlie  Protestant  common  schools  of 
Germany  till  the  close  of  the  century.  The  first 
class  learned  to  read,  to  repeat  from  memory  a 
few  distichs,  to  write,  and  to  sing,  and  began  the 
study  of  Latin.  The  second  class  studied  Latin, 
grammar,  and  music  for  an  hour  daily,  read  and 
interpreted  the  fables  of  jEsop,  the  padologia  of 
Mosellauus,  and  the  colloquies  of  Erasmus,  and 
committed  to  memory  parts  of  Terence  and 
Plautus.  and  some  of  the  psalms  and  other  por- 
tions of  Scripture.  A  Latin  and  a  German 
sentence  were  repeated  to  the  students  on  their 
departure  at  night,  which  they  were  to  know 
by  heart  on  the  following  day.  The  third  class 
advanced  to  the  Latin  poets,  and  to  exercises 
in  dialectics  and  rhetoric,  and  Avere  required  to 
speak  in  Latin,  and  to  Avrite  an  exercise  in  that 
language  weekly.  Luther  also  assailed  the  Aris- 
totelianism  and  scholastic  methods  which  pre- 
A"ailed  in  the  universities,  and  recommended  the 
establishment  of  libraries  in  every  town.  Edu- 
cation Avas  in  like  manner  encouraged  by  ZAvin- 


770 


EDUCATION 


gli  and  Calvin,  the  latter  of  Avhom  caused  the 
erection  of  a  splendid  edifice  for  tlie  c;ynuiasium 
of  Geneva,  to  wliicli  8  distinguished  professors 
of  Hebrew,  Greek,  pliilosophy,  and  theology 
were  invited.  About  this  time  the  gymnasium 
of  Strasbourg  under  Johann  Sturm  became  the 
most  flourishing  of  the  age,  and  in  15T8  it  had 
more  than  1,000  students,  SCO  of  whom  Avere 
of  noble  or  princely  birth.  Its  best  influence 
was  in  improving  the  taste,  for  Sturm  tauglit 
the  classical  Innguages  for  their  own  merits,  and 
not  as  auxiliaries  to  theology.  lie  therefore 
banished  from  the  school  all  writings  in  barba- 
rous Latin,  and  urged  children  from  the  age  of 
7  years  to  speak  with  each  other  and  their  pro- 
fessors in  choice  Ciceronian  plirases.  He  made 
them  commit  to  memory  select  passages  from 
the  classics  as  they  were  translated  to  them,  be- 
fore the  details  of  grammar  had  been  mastered. 
Sturm  was  the  friend  and  correspondent  of  Roger 
Ascham  of  England,  one  of  the  most  learned 
men  of  tlie  age,  and  the  autlior  of  a  treatise  on 
the  "  Schoolmaster."  Tlie  school  of  Trotzen- 
dorf,  at  Goldberg,  was  distinguished  for  the  or- 
ganization of  its  discipline,  the  forms  of  which 
were  borrowed  from  the  old  Roman  republic. 
He  was  tlie  perpetual  dictator,  and  beneath  him 
were  a  censor,  2  consuls,  and  a  senate  of  the  12 
most  advanced  pupils.  Every  grave  question 
was  discussed  before  this  senate,  and  was  de- 
cided by  it.  The  ancient  crowns  were  revived 
for  prizes,  the  best  orator  being  rewarded  in  the 
manner  of  a  victor  at  the  Olympic  games.  Bu- 
genhagen  at  Hamburg,  Spalatin  at  Altenburg, 
Neander  at  Nordhausen,  and  Ileyden  at  Nu- 
remberg, were  also  among  the  most  successful 
Protestant  teachers  of  this  period. — The  Prot- 
estants having  awakened  a  zeal  for  learning, 
the  Jesuits  determined  to  avail  tlieraselves  of  this 
zeal  in  the  interest  of  the  Catiiolic  church,  and  to 
combat  tlie  reformation  with  its  own  weapon. 
They  cultivated  to  the  highest  possible  degree 
all  departments  of  science,  and  employed  the 
authority  of  learning  in  favor  of  the  pontifical 
power.  The  principle  of  their  method  was  to 
train  the  memory,  the  imagination,  and  the  rea- 
soning faculty,  but  to  check  all  discursive  men- 
tal habits.  Latin  and  logic  furnished  most  of 
the  exercises  by  which  the  sentiments  and  tenets 
of  Catholicism  were  installed  into  the  minds  of 
youth.  Of  the  classical  Latin  authors  only 
Cicero  and  Virgil  were  used,  the  other  Latin 
text  books  being  mediaeval  writers.  Greek  was 
taught  only  from  the  works  of  Chrysostom  and 
other  Christian  fathers.  Philosophy  formed  a 
part  of  the  higlier  course,  and  was  taught  from 
Aristotle  as  interpreted  by  Aquinas,  The  polish- 
ed and  pleasing  exterior  of  masters  and  students, 
the  kindness  apparent  in  the  treatment  of  young 
persons,  the  tender  care  bestowed  upon  sick 
pujiils,  the  pompous  occasional  celebrations,  and 
the  tlieatrical  performances  which  were  often 
made  a  school  exercise,  all  contributed  to  the 
extraordinary  success  of  the  Jesuits  as  teachers. 
From  Cologne,  Ingolstadt,  and  Vienna,  they 
Bpread  between  1550  and  1560  throughout  Ger- 


many. Opposed  in  France  by  the  Sorbonne,  the 
university,  and  the  parliaments,  tliey  did  not  es- 
tablish their  first  school  in  Paris  till  10(55,  but  in 
1750  they  had  won  from  the  ancient  Benedictines 
their  pedagogic  laurels,  and  possessed  in  France 
CG9  schools,  which  were  attended  ])y  the  chil- 
dren of  the  princes  and  nobles.  Yet  the  edu- 
cation of  females  was  much  less  cared  for  by 
them  than  by  their  opponents  the  Jansenists. 
Tlie  girls  belonging  to  the  upper  classes  con- 
nected with  the  society  were  educated  religious- 
ly rather  than  learnedly  in  the  numerous  houses 
of  the  sistei-s  of  St.  Ursula,  or  by  the  nuns  of  St. 
Angelica  or  St.  Elizabeth. — Between  the  latter 
part  of  the  17th  and  the  close  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, 4  distinct  theories  and  methods  of  the  pe- 
dagogic art  arose,  which  are  usually  named  the 
pietistic  school,  the  humanistic  school,  the  phi- 
lanthropic school,  and  the  eclectic  school.  Jan- 
senius  in  France,  the  Wesleys  in  England,  and 
especially  Spener  and  Fi'ancke  in  Germany, 
were  the  first  representatives  of  the  pietistic  ten- 
dency. The  writings  of  Fcnelon,  the  author  of 
"Telemachus"  and  of  a  treatise  on  the  education 
of  girls,  which  still  remains  a  standard  work  in 
France,  exerted  perhaps  a  similar  influence. 
Spener  was  the  teacher  of  Francke,  who  estab- 
lished a  school  at  Ilalle  for  children  of  both 
sexes,  and  another  for  teachers,  on  the  principle 
that  religious  and  moral  instruction  should  be 
made  more  prominent  than  intellectual  acquire- 
ments, that  the  end  of  education  should  be  a  liv- 
ing knowledge  of  God  and  of  pure  Christianity. 
It  was  succeeded  by  similar  schools  in  many  other 
cities,  and  one  of  its  early  graduates  was  Count 
Zinzendorf.  In  Greek  tlie  New  Testament  was 
the  only  text  book.  Hebrew  was  one  of  the  stu- 
dies of  tlie  regular  course,  and  a  change  of  heart 
was  declared  essential  to  successful  scholarship. 
Among  the  collaborators  of  Francke  were  Ram- 
bach,  Freyer,  Hoffmann,  Biisching,  and  Stein- 
metz.  The  humanistic  school  maintained  the 
principle  that  the  ancient  languages  and  litera- 
ture, especially  the  Greek  and  Latin  (which  were 
termed  the  humanities),  should  be  the  foundation 
of  education,  and  sliould  be  exclusively  studied 
till  the  pupil  went  to  the  university.  Among  tlie 
more  eminent  humanists  were  Cellarius,  Gesner, 
Ernesti,  Morns,  Reiske,  Hermann,  Schaefer, 
Schneider,  Ileyne,  Wolf,  Voss,  Creuzer,  Bockh, 
and  Jacobs,  many  of  whom  prepared  admi- 
rable editions  of  the  classics  and  works  on  clas- 
sical archiBology ;  and  their  principles  have 
been  most  nearly  followed  in  the  schools  of 
Saxony  and  the  Netherlands,  in  the  seminary 
of  St.  Thomas  in  Leipsic,  and  in  the  gym- 
nasium of  Strasbourg.  New  ideas  upon  edu- 
cation were  developed  by  Comeuius,  Locke,  and 
Jean  Jacques  Rousseau.  Some  of  the  educa- 
tional works  of  Comenius  were  translated  into 
several  languages,  and  his  OrMs  Pictus  long 
remained  a  popular  household  book,  and  the 
model  of  picture  books.  His  aim  was  to  make 
education  more  simple  and  conformable  to  na- 
ture, to  have  more  regard  for  diversities  of  cha- 
racter, to  teach  nothing  which  could  not  be 


EDUCATIOX 


771 


understood  by  the  pnpil,  and  to  render  tlie  jiro- 
cess  of  k'Ui'uiiii;  easy  and  agreeable.  Loeko 
ajjplied  to  education  tlie  jiruieiplos  of  the  Baco- 
nian philosophy  by  which  a  scientific  realism 
was  substituted  for  tlie  old  logical  verbalism, 
and  tilings  rather  than  books  niauo  the  sources 
of  knowledge,  and  urged  tlie  union  of  a  due  re- 
gard to  positive  and  practical  science  with  the 
culture  of  the  intellect  through  the  nicdiuni  of 
language.  The  J'Jmile  of  Rousseau  contains  a 
system  of  education  founded  on  the  ideas  but 
not;  the  cxi)crience  of  its  author,  and  presents 
an  ideal  and  joyous  view  of  domestic  culture 
most  strongly  in  contrast  with  tlie  circumstances 
of  his  own  life.  The  early  education  of  the 
child  is,  according  to  him,  of  tiie  greatest  im- 
portance, and  the  charge  of  it  can  properly  bekmg 
only  to  the  mother  and  the  father.  In  the  long 
procession  of  things  to  be  learned,  nothing  ap- 
pears till  the  student  is  prepared  to  grasj)  it 
without  dilliculty,  and  the  attainments  in  know- 
ledge come  almost  unconsciously  by  a  series  of 
easy  steps.  The  chihl,  too,  should  be  educated 
not  for  a  trade  or  profession,  but  for  the  com- 
mon and  absolute  state  of  man ;  should  not 
therefore  subject  himself  to  any  thraldom  of 
babit,  but  be  independent  of  every  thing  about 
him,  and  master  of  himself.  Shielded  from  tiie 
corruptions  of  society  and  the  trammels  of  con- 
ventionalism, and  left  open  to  the  inliuences  of 
nature  and  of  conscience,  the  character  should 
perfect  itself  intellectually,  socially,  and  morally. 
Parents  were  allured  to  study  a  system  which 
seemed  to  I'emove  all  trouble,  labor,  and  care 
from  the  concerns  of  life.  Education  was  to 
become  an  amusement,  and  man  a  reasonable 
creature,  without  annoyance,  without  perverted 
inclinations,  without  even  a  futile  effort.  To 
realize  the  theories  of  Rousseau  was  tlie  task  of 
Basedow,  and  he  succeeded  in  effecting  great 
changes  in  the  nature  of  education  in  Germany, 
lie  announced  an  immense  institution  to  be 
founded  at  Dessau,  and  to  be  called  the  Philan- 
tJu'ophium,  in  which  the  child  was  to  remain 
till  he  was  a  man  and  a  citizen.  The  Elemcii- 
tnncerl\  in  Avhich  be  exhibited  his  plan,  received 
subscriptions  from  princes,  magistrates,  minis- 
ters of  state,  and  the  most  distinguished  learned 
men  of  Germany  and  Switzerland,  all  entertain- 
ing an  exaggerated  enthusiasm  for  the  new  hu- 
man culture,  in  which  nature  was  to  take  the 
place  of  disciidine.  An  ideal  was  conceived  in 
striking  contrast  with  the  reigning  severity  of 
masters,  primness  of  pupils,  perruques  and 
Bwords  of  little  boys,  and  boop  petticoats  of 
little  girls.  The  Philanthropinum  was  eitah- 
lished  in  lT7-i,  under  the  care  of  Basedow 
and  Wolke,  but  declined  after  a  momentary 
splendor.  It  Avas  continued  with  better  suc- 
cess by  Simon  and  Schweigbauser,  and  sim- 
ilar institutions  were  founded  at  various  places 
in  Germany,  only  one  of  which,  at  Schnepfen- 
thal  in  Gotha,  still  continues.  Under  the  name 
of  eclectics  are  classed  those  who  were  the  dis- 
ciples of  no  exclusive  school,  but  from  truly 
philanthropic  motives  sought  to  instruct  classes 


hitherto  neglected.  Such  was  the  origin  of  tho 
efforts  for  tlie  instruction  of  deaf  inutcs  by 
lleinicke,  Braidwoud,  the  abbe  de  I'Epee,  and 
Sicard ;  the  instruction  of  the  blind  by  Valentin 
llaiiy,  Klein,  and  Lenne ;  the  institution  of 
Sunday  schools  by  Robert  Raikes,  Oberlin, 
and  others ;  the  organization  of  reformatories 
by  Odescalehi  and  Tata  Giovanni  in  Rome,  and 
by  the  philantiiropic  society  in  London;  and 
many  of  tiie  special  schools  of  commerce,  agri- 
culture, mines,  the  arts  of  design,  and  other  de- 
]iartments. — In  Germany  since  the  latter  part 
of  the  last  century  the  principles  of  education 
have  been  actively  discussed,  the  most  prominent 
writers  on  the  subject  being  Sulzer,  Miller, 
Weisse,  Eiders,  Biisch,  Feder,  Resewitz,  Gurlitt, 
Funk,  Roetger,  Ileusinger,  Niemeycr,  Schwartz, 
and  Beneke.  But  the  man  who  for  the  last  hun- 
dred years  has  exerted  the  greatest  influence  on 
education  is  the  Swiss  Pestalozzi.  According 
to  the  principles  developed  by  him  in  various 
writings,  education  nnist  begin  early,  under  the 
disci[)line  of  home  and  the  direction  of  parental 
wisdom  and  power.  It  must  proceed  accord- 
ing to  tiie  laws  of  nature,  slowlj'  and  uninter- 
ruptedly, the  te.'icher  exciting  the  child  to  ac- 
tivity and  rendering  him  but  a  limited  amount 
of  assistance.  Individuality  must  be  held  sa- 
cred, and  carefully  studied  and  encouraged. 
Verl)al  teaching  is  futile  unless  it  be  implanted 
on  previous  mental  experiences  and  verified  by 
the  senses.  A  development  by  merely  mental 
operations,  which  the  Socratic  method  favors, 
is  vain  and  harmful,  for  the  child  can  only  ut- 
ter a  judgment  concerning  an  object  when  he 
has  examined  it  exi)erimentally,  and  learned  pre- 
cisely to  distinguish  its  qualities  and  attributes 
by  words.  Form,  number,  and  language  are 
tlie  elements  of  knowledge,  the  principles  by 
which  the  mind  must  be  developed;  and  a  thor- 
ough acquaintance  with  them  in  the  various 
departments  of  learning  constitutes  an  educa- 
tion. Therefore  mental  arithmetic,  geometry, 
and  the  arts  of  drawing  and  modelling  objects 
of  beauty,  are  as  important  exercises  .as  the 
study  of  languages.  The  school  should  be  a 
place  of  liveliness  and  activity,  and  the  scholar 
should  have  opportunity  to  exercise  and  reveal 
his  power.  The  system  of  Pestalozzi  h.as  been 
adojited  in  the  Prussian  schools  with  slight  mod- 
ifications, and  has  exerted  a  greater  influence 
than  any  other  on  teachers  in  England,  Ameri- 
ca, and  the  north  of  Europe.  His  .system  was 
modified  by  Fellenberg  in  his  institution  at 
Ilofwyl,  by  Jacotot  in  the  university  of  Lou- 
vain,  and  by  Felbiger,  bishop  of  Sagan,  in  the 
schools  which  he  organized.  There  were  com- 
bined at  Hofwyl  an  agricultural  institute,  theo- 
retical and  practical,  a  rural  school  for  the  poor, 
a  superior  school  for  the  sons  of  the  nobility,  an 
intermediate  school  for  tliose  of  the  middle 
classes,  and  a  normal  school  for  the  instruction 
of  the  teachers  of  the  canton.  Tlie  system  of 
Fellenberg  varied  from  th.-it  of  Pestalozzi  only 
by  communicating  more  practical  and  positive 
knowledge.     The  method  of  Jacotot,  which  has 


772 


EDUCATIOIT 


been  generally  adopted  in  Belgium,  gives  greater 
exercise  to  the  faculty  of  nieiiiory;  he  required 
liis  pupils  to  recite  by  heart  all  their  lessons, 
whether  in  the  languages  or  the  sciences.  The 
method  of  Sagan,  so  named  from  tlie  see  of  its 
author,  is  a  combination  of  the  methods  of 
Basedo^y  and  Pestalozzi,  was  ])ropagated  in  Bo- 
liemia  by  command  of  Maria  Tlieresa,  and  was 
in  vogue  throughout  Austria  till  1842.  It  re- 
garded education  only  from  a  utilitarian  point 
of  view,  and  aimed  to  amuse  the  scholar  while 
instructing  him,  and  to  make  tlie  lessons  as 
clear  as  possible,  passing  to  the  unknown  from 
the  known.  It  rapidly  traversed  numerous 
branches  of  study.  Joseph  Lancaster  (died  in 
1839),  a  member  of  the  society  of  Friends  in  Eng- 
land, was  the  founder  of  the  monitorial  system, 
by  which  the  most  intelligent  pupils  in  a  school 
were  required  to  teach  their  fellows  what  they 
bad  learned  in  advance  of  them.  This  plan 
doubtless  developed  the  intellect  of  the  monitor, 
and  was  at  one  time  adopted  in  many  schools  in 
large  towns  in  England  and  America,  but  has 
been  abandoned  from  the  fact  that  the  incom- 
plete and  confused  knowledge  of  the  premature 
teachers  often  made  their  instructions  rather 
akin  to  error  than  to  truth. — Germany,  with  most 
of  the  other  continental  countries,  England,  and 
the  United  States  present  three  ditferent  methods 
of  administering  the  national  elementary  educa- 
tion. The  Prussian  educational  system  is  pure- 
ly governmental,  emanating  solely  from  a  min- 
ister of  instruction  immediately  dependent  on 
the  crown.  The  universities,  the  gynmasia,  and 
the  primary  schools  are  all  under  laws  and  reg- 
ulations which  proceed  respectively  from  the 
crown,  from  the  provincial  government,  and 
from  the  communes.  Every  cliild  in  the  king- 
dom is  obliged  under  pains  and  penalties  to  at- 
tend school  at  least  from  the  age  of  7  to  that  of 
14,  and  the  result  is  that  the  Prussian  people 
are  efficiently  educated  throughout  the  entire 
community,  and  that  the  universities  send  forth 
a  large  body  of  highly  educated  men.  Yet  with 
their  vast  and  powerful  machinery  for  popular 
instruction,  the  Prussians  have  not  taken  a  lead- 
ing part  in  civilization,  and  the  reason  is  stated 
by  Horace  Mann  to  be,  that  when  the  children 
once  leave  school  they  have  few  opportunities 
of  applying  the  knowledge  or  exercising  the  fac- 
ulties wiiicli  liave  been  acquired  and  devel- 
oped there.  The  national  education  of  all  the 
German  states  closely  resembles  that  of  Prussia. 
The  universities,  colleges,  and  primary  schools 
of  France  (the  latter  of  which  were  organized  in 
1833  under  the  administration  of  Guizot,  from 
reports  on  the  German  system  of  popular  edu- 
cation made  by  Cousin),  are  in  like  manner  es- 
tablished and  directed  by  governmental  author- 


ity. Permission  is  however  given  to  any  teacher 
under  certain  conditions  to  open  a  private 
school ;  and  denominational  scliools  may  be  re- 
gistered on  the  government  list  of  educational 
institutions.  But  in  England  no  schools  (except 
those  connected  with  pauper,  naval,  military 
and  penal  establishments)  are  initiated  by  the 
civil  government,  or  to  any  considerable  extent 
managed  by  it.  The  education  of  tlie  people  is 
under  the  care  of  the  established  cliurch  and 
of  the  other  religious  organizations,  and  the  gov- 
ernment comes  to  their  aid  by  bestowing  grants 
on  certain  conditions  when  its  assistance  is  re- 
quired. The  s/stem  is  entirely  difterent  in  the 
United  States,  where,  though  the  state  govern- 
ments take  the  initiative,  they  only  go  so  far  as 
to  ordain  that  schools  of  a  certain  character  must 
exist  among  a  given  pojiulation.  All  the  ques- 
tions concerning  the  buildings,  teachers,  and 
methods  of  instruction  are  determined  by  the 
people  in  their  capacity  of  free  citizens.  The 
government  provides  for  education,  but  makes 
the  people  its  agent  in  accomplishing  the  pro- 
vision. Consequently,  there  is  much  diversity 
in  the  educational  condition  of  difterent  parts  of 
the  country,  the  school  system  being  generally 
most  complete  in  the  most  compactly  settled 
states,  especially  those  of  New  England.  The 
efforts  of  Henry  Barnard,  Horace  Mann,  David 
P.  Page,  Alonzo  Potter,  Barnas  Sears,  and 
others,  during  the  last  20  years,  have  been  in- 
fluential in  introducing  large  and  well-directed 
measures  and  plans  for  the  improvement  of 
public  education  in  America. — Among  the  most 
valuable  treatises  on  the  subject  are :  Schwarz, 
Eniehungslehr'e  (Leipsic,  1829) ;  Cramer,  Ge- 
iscMchtc  der  Erziehung  unci  des  Unterrichts  in 
icdthistormher  Entwicl{elung  (Leipsic,  1832- 
'38) ;  Von  Eaumer,  Geschichte  der  Pcldagogih 
seit  dcm  WiederatifMilhen  classisclier  Shidien 
(Stuttgart,  1843-52)  ;  Fritz,  Esquisse  d'un  sys- 
teme  comjilet  d^  instruct  ion  et  d'' education  (Stras- 
bourg, 1841-43);  Thery,  Histoirede  Veducation 
en  France  (Paris,  1858) ;  educational  reports 
of  the  Canadian  school  system,  and  of  the  su- 
perintendents and  boards  of  education  of  the 
difterent  states  of  the  American  Union  ;  Henry 
Barnard,  ''  National  Education  in  Europe" 
(Hartford,  1854),  ".Journal  of  Education"  (6 
vols.,  Hartford,  1856-59),  also  educational 
tracts,  and  reports  on  the  public  schools  of  Con- 
necticut and  Rhode  Island  ;  and  Horace  Mann, 
"  Annual  Reports  of  the  ifassachusetts  Board 
of  Education"  (Boston,  1837-48),  and  "  Lectures 
on  Education"  (Boston,  1855). — The  educational 
systems  and  statistics  of  different  states  and 
countries  are  given  under  their  respective  titles. 
See  also  College,  Common  Schools,  Noemal 
ScnooLS,  SonooLS,  Univeesity. 


END    OF  VOLUME  SIXTH. 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  VI. 


PAGE 

Congh 5 

Coulomb,  Charles  Aiigusto  de 5 

Council 6 

Council  of  Ten 7 

Council  of  the  Ancients " 

Council  of  Five  Hundred 7 

Council  of  State 7 

Council,  Privy 7 

Council  of  War 7 

Counsellor 7 

Count 7 

Counterpoint,  see  Harmony. 

Counterscarp .' 8 

Countersign 8 

County 8 

Coup 9 

Coupon 9 

Courayer,  Pierre  Franfois  le 9 

Courcellcs,  Thomas  de 9 

Courier  de  Mere,  Paul  Louis 9 

C'ourland 10 

Court 10 

Court,  in  law 11 

Court  de  Gcbelin,  Antoine 15 

Court  Martial 15 

Court  of  Love 15 

Courten,  William  (two) 16 

Courtois  Jacques,  see  Borgognone 

Courtrai 16 

Cousin,  Jean 17 

Cousin,  Victor 17 

Coustou,  Jsicolas 19 

Coustou,  Guillaunic  (two) 19 

Coutelle,  Jean  Marie  Joseph 19 

Couthon,  Georges 19 

Coutts,  Angela  Georgians  Burdett  19 

Couture,  Thomas 19 

Csvenanters,  see  Cameron  ians. 

Coventry 19 

Co venlale.  Miles 20 

Covington  co.  Ala 20 

Covington  co..  Miss 21 

Covington,  Ky 21 

Cow,  sec  Cattle. 

Cowell.  John 21 

Cowes,  West 21 

Cowcs,  East 21 

Coweta  CO 21 

Cowhage 21 

Cowl 21 

Cowley,  Abraham 22 

Cowley,  Henry  it.  C.  W.,  Baron . .  22 

Cowlitz 22 

( "o  wpens 22 

Cowper,  Edward 23 

I'owper,  Wm.,  Lonl  Chancellor...  23 

(■owi)er,  William,  the  poet 24 

Cowry 25 

Co.ic,  David 25 

I'ox,  Francis  Augustus 25 

Cox,  Kiehard 25 

Cox,  Sam  n  el  Hanson 25 

Coxcie,  -M ieliael 26 

t'oxe,  Arthur  Cleveland 2G 


PAGE 

Coxe,  Tench 26 

Coxo,  William 26 

Coypel,  Noel 27 

Coy  pel,  Antoine 27 

Coypel,  Noel  Nicolas 27 

Coypel,  Charles  Antoine 27 

Coysevo.x,  Antoine 27 

Cozzens,  Frederic  Swartwout 27 

Crab 27 

Crab  Apple,  see  Apple. 

Crabb,  George 2S 

Crabbe,  George  (two) 28 

Crabcth,  Dirk 29 

Crabeth,  Wouter 29 

Cracow 29 

Crafts,  Samuel  Chandler 31 

Crafts,  William 81 

Crag. 31 

Craig  CO 81 

Crait,  George  Lillic 31 

Craik,  James,  M.D 82 

Cramer,  John  Anthony 32 

Cramer,  John  Baptist 32 

Cranach,  Lucas 32 

Cranberry 32 

Cranch,  AVilliam m 

Cranch,  Christopher  Pearso 34 

Crane,  a  bird 34 

Crane,  a  machine 35 

Crane,  AVilliam  M 36 

Crank 36 

Cranmer,  Thomas 36 

Crantara ."9 

Grantor  of  Soli 39 

Cranworth,  Kobcrt  Monsey  Eolfe.  39 

Cranz,  David 89 

Crape 89 

Crapelet,  Charles 39 

Crapelet,  Georges  Adrien 39 

Crashaw!  Eichard 39 

Crassu.s,  Lucius  Licinius 40 

Crassus,  Marcus  Licinius 40 

Crater 41 

Craterus 41 

Crates  (four) 41 

Cratinus  (twcO 41 

Cratippus  (two) 41 

Craven  co 42 

Craven,  Charles 42 

Craven,  Elizabeth,  see  Anspach. 

Crawfish 43 

Crawford  co.,  Penn 43 

Crawford  co..  Ark 43 

Crawford  co.,  Ga 4^i 

Crawford  co.,  Ohio 43 

Crawford  co.,  Ind 43 

Crawford  CO.,  Ill 4;? 

Crawford  co..  Mo 43 

Crawford  co.,  Wis 44 

Crawford  co.,  Mich 44 

Crawford  co.,  Iowa 44 

Crawford,  Getrrge  W 44 

Crawford,  Nathaniel  Macon 44 

Crawford,  Quiutin 41 


PAGE 

Crawford,  Thomas 44 

Crawford,  Williaiu  Harris 46 

Crawfords  ville 48 

Cream  of  Tartar 48 

Crebillon,  Prosper  Jolyot  de 49 

Crebilion,  Claude  P.  j;  de 49 

Crecy 49 

Crcdi,  Lorenzo 50 

Credit  Mobilier 50 

Creeks 51 

Creeper 53 

Crefeld 53 

Creichton,  J(dm 53 

Creishton,  John  Ordc 53 

Crell,  Jdhann 53 

Crell,  Christoph 63 

Crell,  S.imuel 53 

Crell,  Nikolaus 53 

Crema 54 

Cremera 54 

Cremieu.x,  Isaac  Adolphe 54 

Cremnitz,  see  Kremnitz. 

Cremona,  a  province 54 

Cremona,  a  city 54 

Cremona,  a  \'ioIin 54 

Crenic  Acid 54 

Creole 55 

Creon  (two) 55 

Creosote 56 

Crescendo 56 

Crescent 56 

Crescentini,  Girolamo 57 

Cresccnzi.  Pietro  de' 57  \ 

Crespel-Dellisse,  Louis  F.  X.  J.  ...     57 

Cress 57 

Cresson,  Elliott 57 

Cressy,  see  Crecy. 

Crest 57 

Creswick.  Thomas 57 

Cretaceous  Group 57 

Crete,  see  Candia. 

Cretins 53 

Creuse 69 

Creutz,  Gustaf  Filip 59 

Creuzer,  Georg  Friedrich 69 

Creuznach 60 

Crewe 60 

Cribbage 60 

Crichton,  James 60 

Cricket,  an  insect. . .' 62 

Cricket,  a  game 63 

Crillon,  Family  of ftt 

Crillon,  Louis  de  Balbes 64 

Crillon,  Louis 65 

Crillon,  Louis  Antoine 65 

Crimea 65 

Criminal  Law 67 

Crinoidea 7-3 

Crispin 74 

Crissa 74 

Critias 74 

Crito 74 

Critolaus 74 

Crittenden  co..  Ark 74 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Crittenden  cf».,  Ky 74 

Crittenden,  John  Jay 74 

Croatia 75 

Croelvett,  David 70 

Crocodile 76 

Crocus SO 

Crcrsus SO 

Croft,  William SO 

Croghan,  George 80 

Croker,  John  Wilson 81 

Croker,  Thomas  Crofton S"2 

Croly,  George,  LL.D 62 

Cromlech 82 

Crompton,  Thomas  Bonsor 82 

Cromwell,  Oliver. 83 

Cromwell,  liichard 91 

Cromwell,  Henry •)2 

Cromwell,  Thomas 92 

Cronstadt,  liussia 94 

(    Cronstadt,  Austria 95 

Crooks,  George  R.,  D.D 95 

Cropsey,  Jasj)er  Frank 95 

Croslaiid,  Mrs.  Newton 90 

Cross 90 

Cross,  Joseph,  D.D 97 

Crossbill 97 

Crossbow,see  Arbalast  and  Archery. 

Crosse,  Andrew 97 

Croswell,  Edwin 93 

Croswell,  Harry,  D.D 99 

Croswell,  William,  D.D 99 

Crotch,  William. 99 

Croton 99 

Croton  Oil 99 

Crotona 99 

Croup 100 

Crousaz,  Jean  Pierre  de 101 

Crow 101 

Crowe,  Catharine 104 

Crown 104 

Crown  Point 105 

Croydon 105 

Croyland 105 

Crucible 105 

Crucifix 106 

Crucifixion 107 

Cruciger,  Kaspar 107 

Cruciger,  Georg 107 

Cruden,  Alexander io7 

Cruger,  John  Harris liij 

Cruger,  Henry 107. 

Cruikshauk,  G  eorge io7 

Cruikshauk,  William 103 

Crusade 103 

Crusades 103 

Crusenstolpe,  Magnus  Jacob 112 

Crusius,  Christian  August 113 

Crustacea 11.3  • 

Cruveilhier,  Jean 11.5 

Cruvelli,  Sophie 115 

Cruz,  Juana  Inez  de  la 1 15 

Cryolite 115 

Crypto-Calvinists 115 

Crystal  Palace 1 15 

Crystalline;  Lens. ; 1]5 

Crystallography 116 

Csunyi,  Laszlo 121 

Csokonai,  Vituz  Mihuly 121 

Csoma  de  Koros,  Sand'or 121 

Glenoids 122 

Ctesi.as ,  122_ 

Ctcsibius 122 

Ctesiphon 122 

Cuba 122 

Cube 129 

Cubebs 129 

Cubieres,  Amedee  Louis  Despans.  129 

Cubit 129 

Cubitt,  Thomas 1,30 

Cubitt,  Sir  William 130 

Cucking  Stool , 130 

Cuckoo 130 

Cucumber 131 

Cucuta,  Valleys  of 132 

Cu<lbear 1.32 

Cuddalore 132 

Cuddapah 132 

-Cudworth,  Kalph 132 

Cuenc.a,  Spain 1,32 

Cuenca,  Ecuador 133 

Cue va,.  Juan  do  la 133 

Cutfee,  Paul 133 


PACB 

Cufic  Inscriptions  and  Coins 133 

Cuirass 134 

Cu jas,  Jacques 184 

Cu'ldees - 135 

Ciillen,  Paul 135 

Cullen,  William 135 

CuUoden  House 130 

CuUoma 130 

Culm 130 

Culm  in  Bohemia,  see  Kulm. 

Culmination 186 

Culna 130 

CuIl>el>por  CI) loO 

Culpe])per,  John 130 

Culi)epper,  Thom:is 130 

Cultivator 130 

Cul  verin 137 

Culvert 137 

Culvert,  George 137 

Cuma- 137 

Cumana 13S 

Cumania,  Great  and  Little 183 

Cumberland  co.,  Me 183 

Cumberland  co.,  N.  J 133 

Cumberland  co.,  Penn 138 

Cumberland  co.,  Va 1.39 

Cumberland  co.,  N.  C 139 

Cumberland  co.,  Kj- 139 

Cumberland  co.,  Ill 139 

Cumberland,  a  river 189 

Cumberland,  Md 1-39 

Cumberland  co..  Nova  Scotia 189 

Cumberland  co..  Ens 139 

Cumberland,  Richard  (two) 140 

Cumberland,  William  Augustus  . .  140 

Cumberland  Mountains. .T 140 

Cumberland  Presbyterians 140 

Cuming,  Hugh 141 

Cummin  Seed 141 

Gumming,  John,  D.D 141 

Gumming,  Roualeyn  Geo.  Gordon.  141 

Cummings,  Joseph,  D.D 142 

Cundinaniarca 142 

Cunego,  Domenico 142 

Cuneiform  Inscriptions 142 

Cunha,  Tristan  da 147 

Cunha  Mattos,  Raymunde  Jose  da  147 

Cunba  Barbosa,  Januario  da 147 

Cunin-Gridaine,  Laurent 147 

Cunningham,  Alexander  (two) 147 

Cunningham,  Allan 148 

Cunningham,  Peter 143 

Cunningham,  John 143 

Cunoeephali 143 

Cupel 143 

Cupica 149 

Cupid 149 

Cupping 149 

C;  ura  foa 149 

Curasson 150 

Curate 151 

Curculio 151 

Cures 152 

Curetes 152 

Curfew 152 

Curiae 152 

Curiatii,  see  lloratii. 

Curio  C.  Scribonius  (two) 152 

Curlew • 152 

Curling 153 

Curran,  John  Philpot 153 

Currant 154 

Currency,  see  Money. 

Current  River 155 

Currents,  see  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Currie,  J.ames 155 

Currituck  co 156 

Curry,  Daniel 150 

Curry  Powder 156 

Currying 156 

Curtis,  Benjamin  Bobbins 157 

Curtis,  George  Ticknor 157 

Curtis,  George  William 157 

Curtiu.s,  Ernst 153 

Curtius,  Georg 153 

Curtius,  Marcus 153 

Curtius,  Rufus  Qulntus 153 

Curulo  Chair 153 

Curve 153 

Curzon,  Paul  Alfred  do 153 

Gush 153 

Gushing,  Caleb 159 


PACE 

Gushing,  Luther  Stearns 160 

Gushing,  Thom.as,  LL.D 160 

Gushing,  William,  LL.D 100 

Cushman,  Charlotte  Saunders 100 

Cushman,  Susan 101 

Cushman,  Robert 161 

Cushman,  Thomas. 161 

Cusk 102 

Cusp 1C2 

Gust,  Sir  Edward 162 

Custine,  Adam  Philipi)e 1G2 

Custine,  Rcnaud  Philippe 162 

Custis,  George  Washington  Parke.  163 

Cutch 163 

Cuteh,  Gulf  of 163 

Cutch  Gundava 163 

Cuthbert,  Saint 16^J 

Cutler,  Manasseh 164 

Cutler,  Jervis 165 

Cutler,  Timothy,  D.D 165 

Cutlery 105 

Cuttack 163 

Gutter 163 

Cuttle  Fish 163 

Cutty  Stool 169 

Cut- Worm 169 

Cuvitr,  Georges  C.  L.  D 169 

Cuvier,  Frederic 174 

Cuxhaven 175 

Cuyaba,  Brazil 176 

Cuyab.a,  a  river 176 

Cuyahoga  co 176 

Cuyahoga,  a  river 176 

Cu.yp,  Albert 176 

Cuzco 176 

Cyanogen 177 

Cyanometer 177 

Cvaxares  I.  and  II.,  see  Media. 

Cybele 177 

Cyelades 173 

Cycle 173 

Cycloid 173 

Cjcloids 178 

Cyclone 173 

Cyclopaedia 1 78 

C^yeloinsm 185 

Cyclops 1S5 

Cydnus 186 

Cydonia 1S6 

C  Virnus 186 

Cylinder 186 

Cyma 136 

Cvmbals 186 

Cymo 136 

Cyna?girus 136 

Cynics 186 

Cynoscephalai 186 

Cynosure 186 

Cynuria 186 

Cypraa 187 

Cypress 137 

Cvjiiian,  Thascius  Csecilius 1S8 

Cyprus 190 

Cvpselus 191 

Cynenea 191 

Cy  renaics 192 

Cyrene 192 

Cyril  of  Alexandria T92 

Cyril  of  Jerusalem. .   193 

Cyrus,  see  Koor. 

Cyrus  the  Elder 194 

Cyrus  the  Younger 195 

Cythera,  see  Cerigo. 

Cyzicus 195 

Czacki,  Tadeusz 195 

Czajowski,  Michal 196 

Czar 196 

Czarniecki,  Stefan 196 

Czartoryski,  Familj-  of 197 

Czartoryski,  Michal  Fryderyk 197 

Czartoryski,  August  Alexander...  197 

Czartoryski,  Adam  Kazimierz 197 

Czartoryski,  Elzbieta 193 

Czartoryski,  Marya  Anna 193 

Czartorvski,  Ad:i"m  Jerzy 193 

Czartoryski,  Witold 198 

Czartorvski,  AVla<lvslaw 193 

Czartoryski,  Izabella 199 

Czartoryski,  Konstanty 199 

Czaslau"(two) 199 

Czecz,  Janos 199 

Czgled 193 


CONTEXTS. 


PAGH 

CzenstoclioTTa 199 

t'zenii^'ov,  sec  Tchcniigov. 

Czcrnowitz  (two) , . . . .  109 

Czorny,  Ot'orgc 199 

Czerny,  Karl 201 

Czuczur,  Gergely 201 


D 

D 201 

D,  in  music 202 

Da  Capo 2o2 

Daa,  Ludwig  Kristunsen 202 

Dacca 202 

Dacca  Jelalpoor,  sco  Furoedpoor. 

Dace 203 

Dacia 204 

Dacier,  Aiiiio 2o4 

Dacier,  M 201 

Dacotaii 204 

Dacotah  co 205 

Dactyl 205 

Dactylology 205 

Dade  co.,  (la.. 206 

Dado  CO.,  l'"la 20G 

Dado  CO.,  Mo.. 206 

Da'daliis 206 

Daendels,  Herman  'Willem 20T 

DalTodil 20T 

Dasrgett,  David,  LL.D 207 

Da-gett,  Naplitali,  D.D 207 

Dagii 20S 

Dauliestan 20S 

Dago 20S 

Dagobcrt  1 20S 

Dagon 203 

Daguevre,  Louis  Jacq  ues  Mando . .  209 

Dahl,  Mikael 209 

Dahl,  V.lailiinir  Ivanoviti'h 2o9 

Dahl,  JolKin  Kristiau  (.'laiiscn 209 

Dahl,  Siegwahl  .Ioli:uiiu-s 2o9 

Dahlbom,  Anders  (iiistaf 209 

Dahlgren,  Carl  Johan 210 

Dahlgren,  John  A 210 

Dahlia 210 

Dahlmann,  Fricdrich  Christoph    .  210 

Dahlonega 210 

Dahomey 210 

Dairy,  see  Butter,  Cattle,  Cheese. 

Dais 212 

Daisy 212 

Dakel,  El 212 

Dalayrac,  Nicolas 212 

Dalberg,  Family  of 212 

Dalberff,  Johann • ,.  212 

Dalberg,  Wolfgang  lleibert 212 

Dalberg,  Emmerich  Josei)h 212 

Dalberg,  Johann  Friedrich  Huso..  212 
Dalberg,  Karl  Tbeodor  Anton  Maria  212 

Dalbv,  Isaac 213 

Dalciio,  Frederic 213 

Dale  co 213 

Dale,  David 213 

Dale,  Kichard 213 

Dale,  Sir  Thomas 214 

Dak-carlia..... 214 

Dal-Elf 214 

Dalgarno,  George 214 

Dalgas,  Carl  Fredrik  Isak 215 

Dalhousie,  Marquis  of 215 

D.alin,  Olof , 215 

Dallas  CO.,  Ala 215 

Dallas  CO.,  Te.x 215 

Dallas  CO.,  Ark 215 

Dallas  CO.,  Mo 215 

Dallas  CO.,  Iowa 215 

Dallas,  Alexander  James 216 

Dallas,  Georu'C  Mifllin 213 

Dallas,  Itobert  Charles 219 

Dalles 219 

Dalmatia 220 

Dalmatica 220 

Dalrymplo,  Family  of 221 

Dalrymple,  James 221 

Dalrvnijile,  John  (two) 221 

Dalrymple,  Sir  David... 221 

Dalrvmple,  Alexander 222 

Dal  Segno 222 

'Dalton^  John 222 

Dam 223 

Dam,  Cofl'cr 223 


PAGE 

Damagram 224 

Damar 224 

Dama>(^rnu8,  Joannes 224 

Damasccnus,  Nicolaus 225 

Damascius. 225 

Damascus 225 

1  )amascus  I51adcs 226 

Dam.ask 229 

Damaskeening 229 

Damaun  (N.  Concan) 229 

Damaun  (i'unjaub) 229 

Dambo(d 229 

Damer,  Anne  Seymour 230 

Damorgn 230 

Damcrow,  lleinrich  P.  A 230 

Damiani,  IMetro 230 

Damiens,  Kobert  Franfois 230 

Damietta 230 

Damiron,  Jean  Philibert 230 

Danijanics,  Janos 231 

Dainm,  Lake  of 231 

Damocles 231 

Damon  and  Pythias 231 

Damoreau,  Laure  Cinthie 231 

Dampe,  JacoT)  Jaeobsen 231 

Dampier,  William 2  ;l 

Dan  (three) , 232 

DanKiver 232 

Dana,  Francis 232 

Dana,  James  D wight,  IX.D 234 

Dana,  James  Freeman 235 

Dana,  liichard 235 

Dana,  likhard  Henry 235 

Dana,  liichard  Henry,  Jr. 236 

Dana,  Samuel  Luther 236 

Danae 237 

Danaides 237 

Danaus , 237 

Danbury 237 

Danbj-,  Francis 237 

Dance,  George 237 

Dance,  Georse,  Jr 237 

Dance  of  Death 233 

Dancing 233 

Dancing  Disease 241 

Dandelion 241 

Dandini,  Fanjily  of 241 

Dandini,  Cesare 241 

Dan<Iini,  Vincenzo 241 

Dandini,  Pietro 241 

Dandini,  Ottaviano 241 

Dandolo,  Enrico 241 

Dandolo,  Giovanni 242 

Dandolo,  Francesco 242 

Dandolo,  Andrea 242 

Dandolo,  Vincenzo 242 

Dane  co 242 

Dane,  Nathan. 242 

Danegelt . .  243 

Danican,  Francois  Andre 243 

Daniel 244 

Daniel,  Peter  Vy vian 245 

Daniel,  Samuel 245 

Danicll,  John  Frederic 245 

Danii-11,  Samuel 245 

Daniel),  Tlioma.'= 246 

Daniell.  AVilli.am 246 

Danilo  1 246 

Danisli  LaTicruage  and  Literature, 

sec  Denmark. 
Dannecker,  Johann  lleinrich  von.  246 

Dannemora 247 

Danner,  Luiso  Christina 247 

Dantan,  Jean  Pierre 247 

Dante 247 

Danton,  Georges  Jacques 253 

Dantzic ". 253 

Danube 2.'.9 

Dan  vers 261 

Danville,  Penu 262 

Danville,  Ky 262 

Daphne,  in  Syria 262 

Daphne,  a  genns  of  plants 262 

Dai>hne[)horia 2<52 

Da  Ponte,  Lorenzo 262 

Dappes 263 

Darabgerd 263 

D'.Vrblay,   Madame,     see  Arbla}-, 
<     Madame  d". 

Darcet,  Jean 263 

Dardanelles. . 263 

Dardanus 264 


PAGE 

Darden.  ^^iles 204 

Dare.  Virginia 261 

Darli.or... 264 

Dargan,  William 204 

Daric 205 

Darion,  Ga 205 

Darien,  Colony  of 265 

Darien,  Gulf  of 260 

Darion,  Isthmu.s  of,  sec  Panama. 

Darius 207 

Darjeeling 26S 

Darko  co 2()3 

Darke,  AVilliam 263 

Darlaston 263 

Darley,  Felix  ().  C 263 

Darky,  George 203 

Darling 269 

Darling,  Grace 269 

Darling  Eange 2C9 

Darlington,  S.  C 269 

Darlington,  Kng 269 

Darlinsrton,  William 269 

Darmr^tadt 270 

Darnel 270 

Darnley,  Henry  Stuart 270 

Darter 270 

Dartford 271 

Dartmoor 272 

Dartmouth 272 

])artmouth  College 2T3 

Daru,  Pierre  A.  N.  15 273 

Darwar 274 

Darwen  Over , 274 

Darwin,  Charles 274 

Darwin,  Era-smus 2T4 

Dash,  N.  Cisterno  de  Courtiras  de 

Saint  Mars 274 

Dashkotl',  Ekatorina  Komanovna. .  274 

Da.sya 275 

Datchet 275 

Date  Palm 275 

Date  Plum 275 

Datisea 275 

Dative 275 

Datura 275 

Daub,  Karl 270 

Daubenton,  Louis  Jean  M.arie 276 

Daubeny,  Charles  Giles  Bridle 277 

D'Aubigne,  see  Auldgne,  Merle  d'. 

Daudin,  Franfois  Marie 277 

Daubs 277 

Daumas,  Melchior  Joseph  Eugene.  277 

Daumer,  Georg  Fricdrich 278 

Daumier,  Henri 273 

Daun,  Leopold  Joseph  Maria  von.  273 
Daunou,  Pierre  Claude  Franfois..  27S 

Dauphin 273 

Dauphin  co 273 

Daui)hine 279 

Davenant,  Sir  William 279 

Davenport 279 

Davenport.  Jtdin 2'iO 

Davezac,  sec  Avczac. 

David 230 

D.avid,  Felicien 231 

David,  Jacques  Louis 2S1 

David,  Pierre  Jean 2S2 

Davidson  co.,  N.  C 233 

Davidson  co.,  Tenn 2S3 

David.-ion  College 2S3 

Davidson,  Lucretia  Maria 233 

Davidson,  Marsarct  Miller 233 

Davidson,  William 288 

Davie  co 2S3 

Davie,  William  Pichardson 233 

Davics,  Clsarles,  LL.D 2S;J 

Davies,  Sir  John 234 

Davies,  Samuel,  I).  D 234 

Daviess  co.,  Ky 234 

Daviess  co.,  Ind 2S5 

Daviess  co.,  Mo 2S5 

Davila,  Enrico  Cattarino 285 

Davis  CO.,  Iowa ...  23.5 

Davis  CO.,  Utah . .  233 

Davis,  Andrew  Jackson 235 

Davis,  Charles  Henry 236 

Davis,  Edwin  Hamilton 237 

Davis,  Honrv 237 

Davis,  Jefferson 237 

Davis,  J(dm 258 

Davis.  John.  LL.D 233 

Davis,  John 23S 


IV 


CONTENTS 


PACK 

Davis,  John  A.  G 2s9 

Davis,  Matthew  L 2>)9 

Davis's  Straits 290 

Davits 290 

Davoust,  Louis  Nicolas 290 

Davy,  Sir  Humphry 290 

Daw,  John 293 

Daw-es,  Paifus 293 

Dawson,  George 293 

Dax 293 

Day 294 

Day,  Jeremiah,  D.D 29-t 

Dav,  John 295 

Day,  Mahlon 295 

Dav,  Stephen 295 

Day,  Thomas , 295 

Days  of  Grace 296 

Dayton,  Ohio 296 

_  Dayton,  Ala 296 

'  Dayton,  Ellas 296 

Dayton,  Jonathan.  LL.D 297 

Dayton,  William  Lewis 297 

Deacon 297 

Deaconess 297 

Dead  Reckoning 298 

Dead  Sea 298 

Deaf  and  Dumb 300 

Deal 310 

Dean 311 

Dean  Forest 311 

Deane,  James,  M.D 811 

Deane,  Silas 312 

Dearborn  co 312 

Dearborn,  Henry 312 

Death 313 

Death  Watch 315 

De  Bay,  see  Bains. 

Debenture 316 

De  Bow,  James  Dnnwoody  Brown- 
son 316 

Debreezin 817 

Debtor  and  Creditor 817 

Decade 820 

Decalojruc 320 

Decamps,  Alexandre  Gabriel '.  820 

De  Candolle,  sec  Candolle. 

Decapolis „ 321 

Decatur  co.,  Ga 321 

Decatur  co.,  Tenn 821 

Decatur  co.,  Ind 321 

Decatur  co.,  Iowa 821 

Decatur,  Ga 321 

Decatur,  Stephen 821 

Decatur,  Stephen,  Jr. 821 

Decazes,  Elie 324 

Decazes,  Louis  Charles  E.  A 825 

Deccan 825 

December 325 

Decemviri 325 

Dechamps,  Adol  phe 826 

De  Charms,  Kicliard 326 

Deciduous 326 

Decigramme,  sec  Gramme. 

Decimal 326 

Decimation 326 

Decius,  Caius  M.  Q.  T 326 

Decius  Mus,  Publius 326 

Decize 327 

Decker,  Jereniias  de 327 

Decker,  Thomas 327 

Declination 327 

Decrescendo 327 

Decretals 327 

Decuriones 827 

Dedccker,  Pierre  Jacques  F 827 

Dedham 328 

Dee  (several  rivers) 828 

Dee,  John 328 

Deed ..'  329 

Deeg..   ;  331 

Deemsters 331 

Deep  River 331 

])eer 331 

Deer  Grass ."  3.S5 

Deffand,  Marie  du .'  8.3.5 

Defiance  co S:i5 

Deflagration 336 

Deflection,  sec  Diffraction. 

Defoe,  Daniel 356 

Defr.-mery,  Charles '.'..'..'.'.  833 

Defter-Dar 3gg 

Deger,  Ernst ...'.....'.  333 


PAGB 

Dc  Gcrando,  see  Gerando. 

Degrand,  Pierre  P.  F 838 

Degree,  in  al^'obra ^. . .  833 

Degree  of  Latitude 338 

Degree  of  Longitude 338 

Deha ven,  Edwin  J 339 

Dehon,  Theodore 339 

Deism 339 

Dejazet,  Marie  Virginie 339 

Dcjean.  Jean  Franfois  Aime 339 

De  Kalb  co.,  Ga 339 

De  Kalb  co.,  Ala 339 

De  Kalb  co.,  Tenu 8;?9 

Dc  Kalb  CO.,  Ind 339 

DeKalb  co..  Ill 339 

De  Kalb  co.,  Mo 840 

Dc  Kalb,  John 340 

Dc  la  Beche,  Sir  Henry  Thomas..  840 

Delacroix,  Ferdinand  \'.  E 840 

Delagoa  Bay 340 

Delalandc,  Pierre  Antoine 341 

Delambre,  Jean  Baptistc  J 341 

DoLancev,  William  Ileathcote. ..  841 

Delane,  William  Augustus  F 842 

Delane,  John  Thaddeus 342 

Delarochc,  Hippolyte 343 

Delavigne,  Germain 843 

Del.avigne,  Jean  Franj ois  C 343 

Delaware 344 

Delaware  co.,  N.  T. . . ; 848 

Delaware  co.,  Penn 848 

Delaware  co.,  Ohio 848 

Delaware  co.,  Ind 348 

Delaware  co.,  Iowa 348 

Delaware  Bay,  see  Delaware. 

Delaware  Court  House .348 

Delaware  River 348 

Delawares 349 

Delessert,  Beniamin 849 

DeLft '. 850 

Delft  Ware 850 

Delhi 350 

Delllle,  Jacques 853 

Deliniers,  Jacques  Antoine  Marie.  353 

Delirium  Tremens 354 

Del  Norte  co 3,04 

Delolme,  Jean  Louis 854 

Delos 354 

Delphi 3.55 

Delphin 356 

Delphinium 856 

Delta 356 

Delta  CO 856 

Deliic,  Jean  Andre 856 

Dfcluc,  Guillaume  Antoine 3.57 

Deluge ,357 

Demades 360 

Demavend,  Jlount 3(50 

Dembinski,  Henryk 360 

Demerara 361 

Demeter,  see  Ceres. 

Demetz,  Frederic  Augriste 861 

Demetrius,  Russian  Princes S61 

Demetrius  Phalerius 8G3 

Demetrius  Polioixetes 863 

Demetrius  Soter 364 

Demidotr,  Family  of 864 

Demidoff,  Nikita 364 

Demidoff,  Akinfl ^ .  364 

Demidoflr,  Paul 3G4 

Demidoff,  Nioolai 864 

Demidoff,  Anatol 304 

Demiurge 365 

Demmiri 365 

Democedes 365 

Democracy 365 

Democritus 366 

Demoivre,  Abraham 3C7 

Demon 867 

De  Morgan,  Augustus 373 

Demos 372 

Demosthenes 373 

Demotic  Alphabet 376 

Demotica 876 

Dempster,  Thomas 377 

Demurrage 377 

Demurrer 378 

Denain 378 

Denarius 373 

Denbigh , 373 

Denbighshire 378 

Dender,  a  river  of  Belgium. ......  378 


_        ,  PACK 

Dender,  a  river  in  Abyssinia 373 

Denderah 878 

Dendcrmonde 379 

Dendrobium 379 

Dengue .',  379 

Deiiham,  Dixon "  8S0 

Denham.  Sir  John 380 

Denina,  Giacomo  Maria  Carlo '.  380 

Denis.  Saint 330 

Denizen gso 

Denman,  Thomas '.'.,[  8S1 

Denmark '  8S1 

Denmark,  Language  and   Litera- 
ture of 385 

Denncr,  Balthasar 3S9 

Deimie,  Joseph 890 

Dennis 390 

Denni.s,  John 390 

Denominator 391 

Denon,  Dominique  Vivant 891 

Density 391 

1  »ent  CO 891 

Dent,  John  H 391 

DentatiLH,  Marcus  Curias 391 

r>cnti.sfry .  391 

Dentition 898 

Denton  co ] '.  399 

Denuelle,  Dominique  Alexandre..  899 

Deodand 899 

D'Eon,  Chevalier,  see  Eon. 

Departure 399 

De  Peyster,  Johannes 899 

De  Peyster,  Abraham 400 

De  Peyster,  Arent  Schuyler 400 

Deposition 400 

Depping,  Georges  Bernard 400 

Deptford 401 

De  Quincey,  Thomas 401 

Dera  Ghazee  Khan 403 

Deravoh,  El 4(i3 

Derbend 403 

Derby 403 

Derby,    Edward    Geoffrey   Smith 

Stanley 403 

Derbyshire 404 

Derbyshire  Spar 405 

Derlilinger,  Georg  von 405 

Derg,  Lough 405 

Derham,  William 405 

Derivation 405 

Dermody,  Thomas 405 

Dervise 406 

Derwent  (threo  rivers) 406 

Derwent,  a  river 406 

Derwontwater,  James  Eadclift'e. ..  406 
Derzhavin,  Gabriel  Romanovitch.  407 
Desaix  de  Ve3'goux,  Louis  C.  A.. .  407 

Desaugiers,  RIarc  Antoine  M 408 

Desault,  Pierre  Joseph 408 

Des  Barres,  Joseph  Frederic  Wal- 
let   408 

Descant 409 

Descartes,  Rene 409 

Descent 412 

Deseret  co 414 

Deserter 414 

Deseze,  Raymond 414 

Desfontaines,  Pierre  Franfois  <>. ..  415 

Desfontaines,  liene  Louiche 415 

Desha  co 415 

Desirade 415 

Deshoulieres,  Antoinette 415 

Desmidiea; 415 

Des  Moines  co 417 

Des  Moines,  a  river 417 

Desmond,  Earls  of 417 

Desmond,  Jeanne  Fitzgerald 418 

Desmoulins,  Benoit  Camille 418 

Desna 419 

Desnoyer.?,  Auguste  Gaspard  L.  B.  419 

De  Soto  CO.,  Miss 419 

De  Snto  parish.  La 419 

De  Soto,  Fernando 419 

Despard,  Edward  Marcus 420 

Des  Plaines 420 

De.^saix,  Joseph  Marie 421 

Dessalines,  Jean  Jacques 421 

Dessau 422 

Dessolles,  Jean  Joseph  P.  A 422 

Desterro 422 

I>estouches,  Philippe  Hericault...  422 
Destutt  de  Tracy,  Antoine  L.  ,C. . .  422 


CONTENTS. 


DctmoW 4-23 

Dotroit 4i!:i 

Detroit  lUver,  sec  Detroit. 

Doucalion 424 

Deuteronomy 424 

Deux  Fonts 4-24 

Dcv      4-.'5 

Deva     425 

J)evanagari,  seo  Sanscrit. 

Dovaprayafe'a 425 

Dcventer...    42.!) 

De  Vere,  Maximilian  Scheie 425 

Devereux,  Holxrt,  1st  Kailof Ksscx  42C 
Devercux,  Kol.ert,  id  Karl  of  Kssex  420 
Devereux,  Itobert,  3(1  Earl  of  Kssex  427 

Devil 427 

Devil  Fish 427 

DeviTs   Advocate,   see   Ailvoeatus 
Diaboli. 

Devil's  Bridgo 429 

Devil's  Wall 42'.) 

Devise 4.>9 

Devizes 421> 

Devonian 429 

Devonport 4^^'^ 

Devonshire 430 

Devrient,  Family  of 431 

Devrient,  Ludwig 431 

Devrient,  Karl  August 431 

Devrient,  Philipp  EiUiard 432 

Devrient,  Gustav  Emil 4;^2 

Devrient.  'Wilhelraine  Schroeder..  4;?2 

Dew....; 432 

Dew,  Thomas  Kodoric 433 

Dewees,  AVilliam  Potts 434 

D'Ewces,  Sir  Symonds 435 

Do  Wette,  Wilhelm  Jilartin  L 4:55 

De  Wette,  Ludwig 4^35 

Dowey,  Chester,  i).l> 435 

Dewey,  Or ville,  D.D 435 

De  Witt  CO.,  Tex 43() 

De  Witt  CO..  IlL 436 

De  AVitt,  Jan 4;i<3 

Dexter,  bamucl 437 

Dextrine 437 

Dey 4-37 

Deyra  Doon 437 

Dezfool  43S 

DTIilliers,  see  Baraguay  d'Hilliers. 

Diabetes 4-33 

Diagnosis 439 

Diagoras  of  Melos 440 

Dial 440 

Diallage 440 

Diamagnctism 440 

Diamantina 441 

Diameter 441 

Diamond 441 

Diamond  District 445 

Diamond  Harbor 446 

Diana 446 

Diana  of  Poitiers 446 

Diapason 440 

Diaper 446 

Diaphoretics 446 

Diaphragm 447 

Diarbekir 447 

]Jiarrhoea 44S 

Dias,  A.  Gonf al vez 44S 

Dias,  Bartholomeo 44S 

Dias,  Henrique 44S 

Diastase 449 

Diathermancy 449 

Diatomaceie 450 

Diaz,  Miguel 451 

Diaz  del  Castillo,  Bernal 451 

Dibdin,  Chixrles 452 

Dibdin,  Thomas 452 

Dibdin,  Thomas  Frognall 452 

Dice 452 

Dice,  in  mythology 4i3 

Dieentr.i ^ 453 

Dick,  Thomas 453 

Dickens,  Charles 453 

Dickinson  co 455 

Dickinson,  Daniel  Stevens 455 

Dickinson,  .John 456 

Dickinson,  Jonathan 457 

Dickinson  College,  see  Carlisle. 

Dickson  CO 457 

Dickson,  Samuel  Henry 4.57 

Diequeinare,  Jacq  les  Franfois. . . .  457 


PACK 

Dictator 457 

Dictionarv 458 

Dietys  of'Crete 400 

Diilerot,  Denis '. 401 

Didius  Salvius  Julianas,  Marcus...  402 

Dido 402 

Didot,  Family  of 402 

Didot,  Franfois 463 

Didot,  Franfois  Ambroise 403 

Didot,  Pierre  Franfois 463 

Didot,  Pierre 46.1 

Didot,  Firmin 40.9 

Didot,  Ambroise  Firmiu 463 

Didot,  Hyacinthe 403 

Diilron,  Adolphe  Napoleon 46-3 

Didymium 463 

Diilvmus 463 

Dieiiitsch,  Hans  Karl  F.  A 403 

DiefTenliach,  Johann  Friedrich 464 

Diel  du  Parquet,  Jacques 464 

Dieppe 405 

Dierevillo 465 

Dies  Irie 405 

Dieskau,  Ludwig  August 465 

Diet 465 

Dieterici,  Karl  Friederich  W 466 

Dietetics 407 

Dietrich,  Christian  Wilhelm  Ernst  469 

Ditterential  Calculus 409 

Dillraction  of  Light 470 

Diffusion  of  Gases 471 

Digamiria 471 

Digby  CO 472 

Digby,  Sir  Kenelm 472 

Digestion 472 

Digges,  Leonard 474 

Digit 474 

Digitalis 475 

Digitigrades 475 

Dii 475 

Dijon 476 

Dike 476 

Dilettante 477 

Diligence 478 

Dilke,  Charles  Wcntworth  (two)..  473 

Dill 473 

Dillenius,  Johann  Jakob 473 

Diluvium 479 

Dime 432 

Dimsdale,  Thomas 432 

Dinagcpoor 432 

Dinapore 4S2 

Dindorf,  AVilhelm 4'-2 

Dingelstedt,  Franz 4S2 

Dinka 4s3 

Dinornis 433 

Dinotherium 434 

Dinwiddle  co 4s5 

Dinwiddle,  Robert 4>5 

Diocese 435 

Diocletian,  Valerius 436 

Diodati,  Donienico 437 

Diodati,  Giovanni 437 

Diodorus 437 

Diogenes 437 

Diogenes  of  Apollonia 483 

Diogenes  Laertius 433 

Diomedes  (two) 439 

Dion  of  Syracuse 439 

Dion  Cassius  Cocceianus 439 

Dion  Chrysostomus 490 

Dionete 490 

Dionysius  of  Alexandria 491 

Dionysius  the  Areopagito 491 

Dionysius  the  Elder 491 

Dionysius  Exiguus 492 

Dionysius  of  Ilalicarnassus 493 

Dionysius  the  Younger 493 

Dionysus,  sec  Bacchus. 

Diophantus  of  Alexandria 493 

Dioptrics,  see  Optics. 

Dioscorides,  Pedacius 493 

Dip 493 

Diphtheria 494 

Di[ilomaey 495 

Diplomatics 497 

Diptera 497 

Diptycha 500 

Directory,  Executive 500 

Dis 501 

Disciples,  Church  of  the 501 

Discord 502 


PACK 

Discount  503 

Di.scur< 5()3 

Disinfectant:; 5o2 

Dislocation 5(v4 

Dismal  Swamp 505 

])i.spensatlon 505 

Disraeli,  Benjamin 505 

Disraeli,  Isaac 507 

Disseisin 508 

Dissenter 508 

Distaff 503 

Distemper 603 

Distich 503 

•Distillation 603 

Distillery 509 

Di.stre.ss 513 

District  of  Columbia 514 

Ditliyrambus 515 

Ditmarsh 515 

Ditton,  Ilumphrej' 515 

Diu 516 

Divan 516 

Diver 516 

Divi 517 

Dividing  Engine 517 

Divination 518 

Diving 519 

Divin-  Bell 520 

Divining  liod 522 

Divisibility 523 

Divorce 523 

Di.v,  Dorothea  L 526 

Dix,  John  Ad.ams 626 

Dixon,  George 527 

Dixon,  James,  D.D 527 

Dixon,  William  Hcpworth 527 

Dixw.ll,  John 528 

DIuL'osz 528 

Dmitrieir,  Ivan  Iv.anovitch 523 

Dnieper 528 

Dniester 529 

Doab 529 

Doane,  George  Washington,  D.D...  529 

Dobbin,  Family  of .'. 529 

Dobbin,  .\rcbibald 629 

Dobbin,  Kobert  A 529 

Dobbin,  George  W 529 

Dobbin,  James  Cochrane .')29 

Dobell,  Sydney 530 

Dobree,  Peter  Paul 5:50 

DCibrentey,  Gabor MO 

Dobrizhotfer,  Martin 530 

Dobrodja 530 

Dobrovsky,  Jozef 530 

Dobson,  Thomas 581 

Dobson,  William ^31 

Doce 5:31 

Docetie 531 

Doehart 531 

Docimasia 531 

Dock 531 

Doctor 636 

Doctors'  Commons 637 

Doctrinaires 537 

Dod,  Albert  Baldwin,  D.D 533 

Dod,  Daniel MS 

Dod,  Charles  Eoger 533 

Dodd,  Palph 5;33 

Dodd,  William 533 

Doddridge  co 5-39 

Doddridge,  Philip 539 

Doddridge,  Philii) 540 

Dodge  CO 640 

Dodington,  George  Bubb 540 

Dodo 541 

Dodona 542 

Dodsley,  Robert 54? 

Dod  we'll,  Edward 543 

Dodwell,  Henry 543 

Dog 543 

Dog  Daj-s 543 

Dog-Fish 54S 

Dog  Grass,  see  Couch  Grass. 

Dog  Star 543 

Dose 549 

Doeger 549 

DoiTgerbank 549 

Dogs,  Isle  of 5.'>0 

Dogwood 550 

Dohna,  Family  of 5.^0 

Dohna,  Karl  i  ricdrich  Emil 5.''<0 

Dokos 55(J 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


PAGB 

Dol f>50 

Dolabella,  Publius  Cornelius 550 

Dolci  Carlo Sol 

Dolci,  Agacse 551 

Dole 551 

Dolet,  Ktiennu 551 

Dolgoruki,  Family  of 551 

Dolgoruki,  Gri^ori 551 

Dolsoruki,  Maria 551 

J)olgoruki,  Yuri 551 

r)ol:;oruki,  Alihail 551 

n)ol'4()niki,  Yakob 551 

I)()l<;()ruki,  Ivan  (two) 651 

Doljroriiki,  Va5ili  (two) 551 

I)olc;oriiki,  Vladimir 552 

DoIfToruki,  Pavel 552 

Dollar 552 

DoUart  Bay 552 

DoUingor,  Ignaz 552 

Dollond,  John 653 

Dollonii,  Peter 553 

Dolomieu,  Doodat  G.  S.  T.  G.  de..  653 

Dolomite 553 

Dolphin 55-t 

Domain 557 

Doinat,  Jean 558 

Dombrowski,  Jan  Henry k 658 

Dombrowski,  Bronislaw 653 

Dome 658 

Domenichino,  Zarapieri 560 

Domesday  Book 560 

Domicile 561 

Dominant 562 

Dominic  de  Guzman 662 

Dominica 564 

Dominical  Letter 564 

Dominican  Kepublic 564 

Dominicans 566 

Dominis,  Marc'  Antonio  de 567 

Domino 667 

Dominos 567 

Dominus 567 

Domitian,  Titus  Flavius  Augustus  56T 

Domremy 568 

Don 668 

Don  (three  rivers) 568 

Don  Juan 568 

Donarium 669 

Donatollo 569 

Donatists 569 

Doncaster 570 

Donegal  5T1 

Donetz 571 

Doncola 571 

Doniphan  co 671 

Donizetti,  Gaetano 671 

Donizetti,  Giuseppe 672 

Donne,  John 672 

Donnybrook 572 

Donoso   Cortes,  Juan  F.  M.  de  la 

Salud 672 

Donovan,  Edward 573 

Dooly  CO 573 

Dooly,  John  Mitchell 573 

Doon 573 

Door 573 

Door  CO 674 

Doostee , 674 

Dorat,  Claude  Joseph 574 

Dorchester 574 

Dorchester,  Mass 574 

Dorchester  dist.  S.  C 575 

Dorchester,  Eng 575 

Dorchester,  N.  B 675 

Dordogne 575 

Dore,  Paul  Gustave 575 

Doria,  Family  of 575 

Doria,  Andrea 675 

Dorians 576 

Doring,  Theodor 576 

Doris 676 

Dorking 577 

Dormouse 577 

Dorn,  Johannes  Albrecht  B 577 

Dorpat 577 

Dorr,  Thomas  Wilson 578 

Dorsetshire 678 

Dorsey,  John  Syng 579 

Dort 579 

Dort,    Synod    of,    see    Ecformod 

Dutch  Church. 
Dortmund .• 530 


PAOB 

Dorns  Gras,  Emilic 530 

Dory 680 

Dositheans 531 

Douay 631 

Doubleday,  Edward 531 

Doubloon 531 

Doubs 632 

Douce,  Francis 632 

Douglity,  Thomas 532 

Douglas  CO.,  Oregon 532 

l>ouirl:is  CO.,  Kans.as 682 

Douglas,  Isle  of  .Man 532 

Douglas,  Scotland 532 

Douglas,  Family  of 632 

Douglas,  David 533 

Douglas,  Gawin 533 

Douglas,  Sir  Howard 533 

Douglas,  John,  D.D 534 

Douglas,  Stephen  Arnold 534 

Douglass,  David  Bates 536 

Dou!;lass,  Frederick 5^7 

Doui-o 537 

DouVille,  Jean  Baptiste 53S 

Don  w,  Gerard 533 

Dove,  a  river 538 

Dove,  Heinrich  Wilhelm 588 

Dover,  N.  H 589 

Dover,  Del 539 

Dover,  Ohio 639 

Dover,  Eng 539 

Dover,  Strait  of 690 

Dover's  Powders 590 

Dovrefleld 590 

Dow,  Lorenzo 590 

Dower 591 

Dowler,  Bcnnet 592 

Dowletabad 693 

Down  CO 594 

Downes,  John 694 

Downing,  Andrew  Jackson 595 

Downs 595 

Dowse,  Thomas 595 

Doxologv 597 

Doyle,  liichard 597 

Drachenfels 697 

Drachma 697 

Draco 597 

Dracut 593 

Draft 598 

Dragoman 598 

Dragon,  a  lizard 693 

Dragon 599 

Dragon-Fly 599 

Dragon's  Blood,  see  Balsams. 

Dragoons COO 

Draguignan 600 

Drainage COO 

Drake,  Daniel 604 

Drake,  Sir  Francis 604 

Drake,  Joseph  Kodman COS 

Drake,  Nathan 605 

Drake,  Samuel  Gardner 605 

Drakenbcrg,  Christian  Jacobsen. . .  606 

Drama 606 

Drammen 609 

Draper,  John  William 609 

Draper,  Sir  William 610 

Draughts 610 

Drave Cll 

Drawing 612 

Drayton,  Michael 614 

Drayton,  William,  LL.D 614 

Drayton,  William C14 

Drayton,  William  Henry 614 

Dream. 615 

Drebbel,  Cornells  Van 618 

Dredging 618 

Drelincourt,  Charles 619 

Drenthe 619 

Dresden 619 

Dreux 621 

Drew  CO 621 

Drew,  S.amuel 621 

Drogheda 621 

Droitwich 622 

Drome 622 

Dromedary,  sec  Camel. 

Dronthoim 622 

Dropsy 622 

Drosometer 623 

Droste,  Annette  Elisabeth •. .  623 

Drouet,  Jean  Baptiste 623 


_  PACE 

Drouot  d'Erlon,  Je.in  Baptiste 023 

Drouy  de  Lhuys,  tdouard 624 

Drowning 624 

Droysen,  Johann  Gustav 624 

Droz,  Franfois  Xavier  Joseph 625 

Droz,  Henri  Louis  Jacquet 625 

Droz,  Pierre  Jacquut 625 

Druey,  Charles 625 

Druids 626 

Drum 62S 

Drummond,  Henry C2S 

Drummond,  William 62S 

Drummond,  Sir  William 628 

Drummond  Light 629 

Drunkenness 629 

Druses 630 

Drusus,  Claudius  Nero 6:^3 

Dry  Hot 033 

Dryads 6-35 

Dryander,  Jonas GSo 

Drvden,  John 635 

Drying  Oils 6:37 

Duane,  William 637 

Duban,  Felix  Louis  Jacques 637 

Dublin  CO 637 

Dublin 637 

Diibner,  Friedrich 639 

Duboi 639 

Dubois  CO 640 

Dubois,  Antoine. .  • 640 

Dubois,  Guillaume C40 

Dubois,  Jean  Antoine 640 

Dubos,  Jean  Baptiste 640 

Dubs,  Jakob 641 

Dubufe,  Claude  Marie 641 

Dubnfe,  £douard 641 

Dubuisson,  Paul  Ulrich 641 

Dubuque  CO 641 

Dubuque 641 

Du  Cange,  Charles  du  Fresne 642 

Ducarel,  Andrew  Coltee 642 

Ducas,  Michael 642 

Ducat 643 

Duchatel,  Charles  Marie  Tanneguy  643 

Du  Chatelet.  Gabriello  Emilie 643 

Du9he,  Jacob &43 

Duchesne,  Andre 644 

Duchesne,  Fraufois 644 

Duchesne  de  Gisors,  Jean  B.  J.  ...  644 

Duels,  Jean  Franj ois 644 

Duck 644 

Duckworth,  Sir  John  Thomas 64S 

Duclos,  Charles  Pineau 61S 

Ducornet,  Louis  Cesar  Joseph 64S 

Ductility 648 

Duddon 649 

Du  Deffand,  Madame,  see  Deffand. 
Dudcvant,  Amantlne  Lucilc  A.  D. .  649 

Dudley 650 

Dudley,  Family  of 650 

Dudley,  Edmund, 650 

Dudley,  John 650 

Dudley,  Ambrose 650 

Dudley,  Robert 650 

Dudlev,  SirKobert 651 

Dudley,  Thomas 651 

Dudley,  Joseph 652 

Dudley,  Paul 652 

Dudley,  Benjamin  Winslow 652 

Dudley,  Charles  Edward 652 

Dudley,  Sir  Henry  Bate 652 

Duel 652 

Dner,  John 657 

Duer,  William  Alexander 657 

Dufau,  Pierre  Amand 657 

Dufaure,  Jules  Armand  Stanislas..  657 
Du  Fay,  Charles  Franfois  do  Cis- 

ternay -  65S 

Duff,  Alexander,  D.D 658 

Dnfiy,  Charles  Gavan 659 

Dufour,  Guillfiume  Henri 659 

Dufrenoy,  Pierre  Armand 659 

Du  Fresne,  Charles,  see  Ducango. 

Du  Fresnoy,  Charles  Alphonse —  660 

Dufresny,  Charles  Eiviere 660 

Duganne,  Augustine  J.  H 600 

Dugdale,  Sir  William 660 

Dugong 661 

Duguay-Trouin,  Bene C62 

Duguet,  Jacques  Joseph 662 

Du  ILalde,  Jean  Baptiste 662 

Duhamel  du  Mouceau,  Henri  Louis  663 


CONTENTS, 


TA.r,n 

Duida GC-i 

Duiliiis,  Cuius  Xepos CtVi 

])ui>l.iir- C02 

Diijanliii,  l'\-lix fi'j^J 

Dujardiii,  K:irel G<;3 

Duke <j<''3 

Duke's  CO 6(>4 

Dulaure,  Jacques  Antoiuc 6tU 

Dulcc,  Gulf  of (j'>4 

Dulcinier fi+t 

Dulon.'.  Pierre  l>ouis 644 

Dulwicli 044 

DuMiaiiDir,  I'liilippc  Franfois  Pinel  CG5 

Dumas,  Alcxamlro  Davy,  Gen 665 

Dumas,  Alexauilre  Davy 005 

Dumas,  Alexandre 0(j5 

Dumas,  Jean  Baptisto 667 

Dumas,  Matthicu 667 

Dumbaitonshire 067 

Dumdum COS 

Duiiuril,  Andro  Marie  Constant..  663 

Dumfiicsshire 66S 

Dumfries 66S 

Dummer,  Jeremiah 603 

Dummodah 003 

Dumout,  Pierre  fitienne  Louis....  66S 
Duiiiout  d'Urville,  Jules  Sebastian 

Cesar C70 

Duniiiuriez,  Charles  Francois 670 

Di'ina 071 

Dunbar 671 

Dunbar,  William 671 

Duncan,  Adam 671 

Duncan,  Joseph 672 

Duncan,  Thomas 672 

Dundalk 672 

Duadas  co 672 

Dun  las,  llenrv 672 

Dundas,  llobert  Saunders   673 

Dundas,  Sir  James  Whitley  Deans  673 

Duudas,  liichard  Saunders 674 

Dundee 674 

Duudonald,  Thomas  Cochrane 674 

Dundruui  Bay 674 

Dunes 674 

Dunfermline 675 

Duntjlison,  Kobley,  LL.D 675 

Dunkers .' 675 

Dunkirk,  France 676 

Dunkirk,  N.  Y 676 

]*unkliu  CO 077 

Dunlap,  William 677 

Dunmow  Bacon 677 

Dunning,  John 677 

Duunottar 673 

Dunois,  Jean 673 

Duns  Scotus,  John 673 

Dunstan,  .Saint 673 

Dunster,  Henry.. 679 

Duntou,  John 679 

Duodecimal 679 

Du  Pa^c  CO 671) 

Dupaty,  Chas.  Marguerite  J.  B.  M.  679 

Duperrev,  Louis  Isidore 679 

Du  Petit-Thouars,  Abel  Aubert...  630 
Dujiin,  Andre  Marie  Jean  Jacques  630 

Dupin,  Charles 6S0 

Dupl.dx,  Joseph 6S0 

Duplin  CO 631 

Duponceau,  Peter  Stephen 6S1 

Dupont,  A.  Pierre 632 

Dupont  de  L'6tang,  Pierre 632 

Dupont    (de     L'Eure),     Jacques 

Charles 633 

Dupont  de  Xemours,  Pierre  Sam- 
uel   633 

Duppa,  Brian 633 

Duprat,  Pascal 633 

Duprez,  Gilbert  Louis 633 

Duprez,  Caroline 034 

Dupuis,  Charles  Francois 634 

Dupuytren,  Guillaume 634 

Duquesne,  Abraham 634 

Duram,  Jozc  de  Santa  Eita 635 

Duran,  Agustin 6S5 


PACK 

Durand,  Ashcr  Brown 6>5 

]>urand,  John 6^6 

Duran','0 030 

Diirazzo 0S6 

Durbin,  John  I'rice,  D.I) 03C 

Dureau  de  laMalle,  Adolphc  Jules 

Cesar  Aufruste 657 

Dureau  de  la  Malle,  Jean  Baptisto 

Jo.seph  Uen6 63T 

Durer,  Albrecht 6ST 


PAG« 

East  River 73o 

Ka.stburn,  James  Wallis 731 

Eastburn,  Manton,  D.D 731 


Dure 


Durfee,  Job 

D'lrfey,  Thomas 

Durham  co 

Durliam,  John  George  Lambton.. 

DiiriTi;.'sfeld,  Ida  von 

Duriic,  Oirard  Christophe  M 

J)iirn-n^tein 

Dusselthal 

Diisseldorf 

Dutcli    Lantruace   and  Literature, 
.see  Netherlands. 

Dutchess  CO 

Dutens,  Joseph  Michel 

Dutrochet,  Eene  Joachim  Henri. . 

Duumvirs 

Duval  CO • 

Duval,  Valentin  Jaraeray 

Duvaucel,  .Vlfred 

Duvergier  do  Hauranne,  Jean 

Duvergier  de  Hauranne,  Prosper.. 

Duvernoy,  Georges  Louis 

Duyckinck,  Evert  Augustus 

Duyckinek,  George  Long 

Dwaraca 

Dwarf 

DwiL'ht,  Edmund 

Dwight,  Theodore 

Dwight,  Timothy 

Dwight.  Sereno  Edwards 

D win.a.  Northern 

Dyaks,  see  Borneo. 

Dyce,  Alexander 

D vcc,  William 

Dycintr 

Dyer  co 

Dver,  George 

Dver,  John. 

Dyer.  Mary 

Dymond,  Jonathan 

Dynamics 

Dvnamomcter 

Dysart 

Dysentery 

Dyspepsia 


6S3 
639 
639 
6^:9 
690 
691 
691 
691 
092 
692 


092 
692 
693 
093 
693 
693 
693 
093 
694 
694 
694 
094 
694 
094 
096 
696 
696 
697 
09  S 

693 
003 
693 
701 
701 
701 
702 
702 
702 
702 
T03 
703 
703 


E 


E 704 

Eachard,  John 705 

Eadmer 705 

Eagle 705 

Eagle,  a  coin 709 

Ear 709 

Ear  Rings 711 

Ear  Trumpet 711 

Earl 712 

Earl  Marshal 712 

Earle.  Plinv 712 

Earle,  Pliny,  M.D 712 

Earle,  Thomas 713 

Early  co 713 

Earfv,  John 713 

Earth 713 

Earth  Worm 713 

Earthenware,  see  Pottery. 

Earthquake 720 

Earths 724 

Earw ig 724 

Easdale 724 

East 724 

East  Feliciana 725 

East  India  Companies 725 

East  Indies 730 


Easter. 

Eastern    Empire,    see    Byzantine 
Empire. 

Eastlake,  Sir  Charles  Lock 

Eastman,  Charles  Gamagc 

Eastman,  Mary  Henderson 

Exston 

East  port 

Eaton  CO 

Eaton,  Ohio 

Eaton,  Horace 

Eaton.  William 

Eau  de  Cologne 

Eau  de  Luce 

Ebal  and  Gerizim 

Ebeling,  Christoph  Daniel 

Ebenozer 

Ebcrhard  im  Bart 

Eberhard,  Johann  August 

Eberhard,  Konrad 

Ebii>nites 

Ebn,  see  Aben. 

Eboli,  Anna  do  Mendoza 

Ebonj' 

Ebro 

Ebullioscope 

Ebullition,  see  Boiling  Point,  and 
Evaporation. 

Ecbat.ana 

Eecaleobion 

Eccentric 

Eechellensis,  Abraham 

Ecclesia 

Ecdesiastcs 

Ecclesiasticus 

Echelon 

Echevin 

Echinades 

Echinoderms 

Echinus 

Echo 

Echo,  in  mythology 

Ecija 

Eck,  Johann  Mayr  von 

Eekermann,  Johann  Peter 

Eckford.  Henry 

Eckmiihl 

Eckstein,  Ferdinand 

Eclectics 

Eclipse 

Ecliptic 

Eclogue 

Ecuador 

Edda 

Edd vstone  Rocks 

Eden 

Edentata 

Ede 


731 


732 
732 
733 
733 
733 
734 
734 
7:U 
7-34 
735 
7.S5 
735 
736 
73G 
736 
736 
736 
736 


Edfoo 

Edgar  co 

Edgar 

Edgar  Alheling 

Edgartown 

Edsecombe  eo 

Edgefield  dist 

Edgehill 

Edgeworth,  Richard  Lovell 

Edge  worth,  Maria 

Edgeworth  de  Firmout,  Henry  Al- 
len  

Edict 

Edinburgh 

E<l!nburi.'h  Review 

Edinburshshirc  

Edisto.." 

Edmonds,  John  Worth 

Edmondsonco 

Edmund  I 

Edmund  II 

Edred 

Edrisi 

Education 


737 
737 
737 
73T 


755 
755 
755 
760 
761 
761 
761 
761 
763 
762 
762 
762 
762 


2^1 


i