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NEW
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY
T
BY EDITORS OF THE
CASSELL'S
Standard Reference Books, Dictionaries, &c.
CONTAINING
MEMOIRS OF THE MOST EMINENT MEN AND WOMEN
OF ALL
AGES AND COUNTRIES
PHILADELPHIA:
DAVID McKAY, PUBLISHER,
604-8 SOUTH WASHINGTON SQUARE,
'
v*»
r
L
Copyright, 1893. by CASSELL PUBLISHING COMPANY.
Copyright, 1899, by DAVID McKAY.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
It is a trite thing to say of a book that it " meets a long felt
want"; but when that is so absolutely the case as with Cassell's
" New Biographical Dictionary," it is almost impossible to abstain
from using the phrase. Biographical dictionaries are no new
thing ; there are many and excellent ones in existence ; but they
are all more or less bulky and consequently expensive. The aim
of the publishers in making this book has been to make it first a
thoroughly reliable book of reference ; then to make it concise,
convenient to refer to, and inexpensive. That they have fulfilled
this aim there can be no doubt. In the words of one eminently
fitted to judge, this Dictionary is "a thoroughly reliable work of
reference, giving particulars of the world's celebrities, whether
living or dead, from the earliest times up to the present date. It
also gives the noms de plume of popular writers, with their real
names. So carefully has it been edited that so recent an event
as the death of Lord Tennyson is noted." While the details are
necessarily brief, all the important facts are there. To the
student and the man of letters, or to the busy man of affairs, this
will be found a most valuable book of reference, and one that once
used will never be dispensed with.
BIOGEAPHICAL DICTIONARY
Aagard, Christian (b. 1616, d. 1664), Danish
writer of Latin poetry ; his compositions
will be found collected in Kostgaard's
JDeliciae Quorundum Poetarum Danorum.
Aali or All, Mustapha Ben Achmed (d.
1597), Turkish historian, whose principal
work was a universal history.
A'ali or All, Pacha, Mehemet Emin
(b. 1815, d. 1871), a distinguished statesman j
of the Ottoman empire, was employed
diplomatically at the courts or Austria and
England, and finally, returning to Con-
stantinople, was five times appointed grand
vizier.
Aaron, son of Amram and Jochebed, of
the tribe of Levi, and the elder brother of j
Moses and Miriam. He appeared with I
Moses before Pharaoh, and was the first I
high priest of Israel, his sons being also
consecrated to the priesthood. He shared
the sin of Moses at Meribah, as well as its
punishment, his death taking place shortly
afterwards on Mount Hor.
Aaron, Saint, the reputed founder, in the
sixth century, of the first monastery in
Brittany.
Aarsens, Francis van (b. 1572, d, 1641),
Dutch politician and diplomatist of dis-
tinction, was ambassador at several courts,
notably France ; the execution of Barneveldt
was mainly due to his influence.
Aarshot, Philippe (d. 1595), second Duke
of Croi, a Flemish noble, commander of
the forces sent against the Duke of Cleves.
In the Spanish war of the Low Countries he
first espoused the cause of Philip II., and
was made president of the council ; after-
wards siding with the States, he became
governor of Flanders, and in the rising of
Ghent was seized by the mob and imprisoned.
On his release he took refuge in Venice.
Aartsen or Aertsen, Pieter (b. 1519, d.
1566), historical painter, son of a stocking
weaver of Amsterdam.
Abad I., Aboul Cacem Mohammed (d.
1042), the founder of the dynasty of Abad-
r.ydes, and first Moorish king of beville.
Abad n. (6. 1012, d. 1069), a prince ol
great ability and ambition, succeeded to the
above and added largely to his dominions.'
He was fond of literature and poetry, but
was voluptuous, cruel, and superstitious.
Abad III., Abou Cacem Mohammed al
Mohammed Billah (6. 1039, d. 1095), son of
the above, completed the conquest of the
kingdom of Malaga, but was finally defeated
by Yousuf-ben Taschfyn, and carried cap-
tive to Africa, where he died.
Abaka Khan (<l. 1222), a Persian emperor,
eighth of the Jhengis dynasty, married the
daughter of Michael Palaeologus, and is
supposed to have been a convert to Chris-
tianity.
Abamonti, Giuseppe (6. 1759, d. 1818),
Neapolitan statesman, who took an active
part in the revolutionary movement. In
1799 he was arrested and condemned to
death, but was pardoned, and he retired to
Milan, returning to Naples in 1805.
Abancourt, Charles Xavier Joseph Fran-
queville (b. 1758, d. 1792), appointed minis-
ter of war in 1792 by Louis XVI., was
afterwards denounced as an aristocrat by
Thuriot, and put to death as a sop to the
popular party.
Abano, Pietro (b. 1246, d. 1320), a na
tive of Padua, celebrated for his skill in
alchemy and medicine.
Abascal, Jos6 Fernando (b. 1763, d.
1821), Viceroy of Peru during several years
of the South American war of independ-
ence.
Abati or Abbati, Niccolo (b. 1512, d.
1572), Italian painter, a native of Modena,
principally known for the frescoes which he
painted at Fontainebleau, of which, how-
ever, the greater part have been destroyed.
Abauzit, Firmin (b. 1679, d. 1767), theo-
1 logian, mathematician, antiquarian, and
historian. A native of, TJzes in Languedoc,
he was of Arabian descent, and travelled
through Germany, Holland, and England,
and was honoured with the friendship of
! Voltaire, Rousseau, and Newton,
Abb
(2)
Abel
Abbas I., Shah (7>. \^'~t <?. ' -.-ended
thmne of Persia in 1 .>•">, ami alter
- was ai'le, with the
I Sir Anthony and Sir Robert
Shiiley from : ad, to overthrow tho
Turks, regaining all his lust provinces.
Abbas, Mirxa , 1795, rf. ISM), Prince
Hoy a1, of !'• raia, an enlightened reformer of
his" country. He sent several youths to
England to b.> educated, and established the
first printing press iii Persia at Tabrit/.
Abbas, Pacha (b. 1813, d. 1854), eldest
sou of Mehemet AH, succeeded his imcle,
Ibrahim Pacha, in the viceroyalty of
Egypt, 1834.
Abbassah (d. 1634), appointed Pacha of
Erzerum hy the Aga of the Janissaries,
twice revolted against Murad IV., by whom
he was filially pat to death.
Abbey, Edwin Austin (b. 1852), a well-
known American ai\ist in black and white,
educated at the Pensylvanian Academy. .
His water-colour drawings also have at- :
tracted attention, both in America and in I
England.
Abbey, Henry (b. 1842), American author,
was educated at Kingston Academy and the
Hudson River Institute.
Abbot, Ezra, LL.D., D.D. (b. 1819, d. '
. - vi), American critic, very precocious as a
child, graduated at Bowdoin College, and
settled at Cambridge, gaining considerable
reputation as a biblical critic. He contri-
buted to periodicals, and also wrote several
critical works, and in support of Unitarian- i
ism ; the best known is that on The Author-
ity uf the Fourth Gospel.
Abbot, George (b. 1562, d. 1633), Arch-
bishop of Canterbury, the son of a cloth- J
worker of Guildford". He early became a
popular preacher and author, and his efforts
to establish episcopacy in Scotland and a
pamphlet he wrote upon the conviction of
(ieorge Sprot, brought him into favour with
James I. He was first appointed Bishop of
London, and then Archbishop of Cauterbury.
Later, his action with respect to the mar-
riage of the Earl of Essex, his Calvinistic
views, the growing influence of Laud, and
his accidental shooting of a keeper, brought
him into disfavour, and though he attended
James's death-bed, and crowned Charles I.,
he was soon placed under confinement. The
almshouses he founded at Guildford still
remain.
Abbot, Henry Larcom (b. 1831), Ameri-
can engineer, graduated at West Point,
and entered the topographical engineers.
During the Civil war he rose to be lieutenant-
colonel, and after the close of the war
was actively engaged on various matters,
notably the invention and development of
the I'.S. sstem of marine mii,'> t .r coast
and river
Abbot, Joel (b. 1793, d. 1855) American
naval ollicer ; during the second American
war with England his bravery and self-
devotion were conspicuous. The latter part
of his life was spent in China, where, as
flag-officer, he discharged delicate diplo-
matic duties to the entire satisfaction of hia
Government.
Abbot, Lemuel (b. 1762, d. 1803), an
English portrait painter of naval heroes.
Abbot, Samuel (d. 1839), American lawyer,
invented the method of obtaining starch
from the potato ; ho was burnt to death in
his factory.
Abbott, Benjamin Vaughan (b. Boston,
1830), has produced several works conjointly
with his brother and partner, Austin, and
also many separately. He was appointed
to revise the statutes of the United States,
and compiled important "digests" of de-
cisions, etc.
Abbot, Charles Conrad (b. 1843), Ameri-
can naturalist, educated at Trenton, and
Pennsylvania, graduated in medicine in
1863. ~ His investigations concerning pre-
historic man are valuable and interesting.
Abbt, Thomas (b. 1738, d. 1766), a learned
German educated at Ulm and Halle. In-
tended for the church, his inclinations led
him to philosophy, mathematics, and modern
languages; he was professor of philosophy _at
Fraukfort-on-the-Oder and of mathematics
at Riuteln. He died at Bucksberg.
Abdallah (d. 1818), the fourth and last
Scherif of the Wahabites, succeeded his
father in 1814, but was taken prisoner by
Mehemet Ali and beheaded by the Sultan.
Abdallatif (b. 1162, d. 1231), Arabian
physician and philosopher, and author of
several books, notably on Egypt.
Abdal Wahab (b. 1692, d. 1787), an Ara-
bian religious reformer, and founder of the
sect of Wahabites.
Abd-el-Kader, Sidi-el-Hadjo-Ouled Mah-
iddin (b. near Mascara, 1807, d. 1883), dis-
tinguished Algerian commander, led the
native tribes against the French when the
latter had taken possession of Algeria. For
fourteen years he kept them at bay, and
secured to himself the virtual sovereignty of
Oran. Finally he surrendered to General
Lamoriciere, and was restored to freedom by
Napoleon III. upon undertaking not to take
up arms against the French. In I860 he
defended the Christians against the Druses
in the massacre at Damascus.
Abd-er-raaman L (b. 731, d. 787),
Abel
(3)
founder of the royal race of the Ommeyades,
Emirs of Cordova, lauding in Granada
755, and reported introducer of the palm-
tree, pomegranate, apricot, and peach into
Spain.
Abd-er-rahman II. (b. 788, d. 852), the
fourth Emir of Cordova of the Ommeyade
line, and called " Ab Mutrif," or u The vic-
torious, ' ' from his successes over the native
Spanish kings.
Abd-er-rahman III. (b. 891, d. 961),
"Prince of the Faithful," was eighth Emir
of the race, and first to assume the title of
Caliph. He reigned for forty-nine years in
prosperity and splendour, having defeated
his enemies, and built the magnificent
palace and city of Azzahrah.
Abd-er-rhaman (b. 1778, d. 1859), Em-
peror of Morocco and Fez. He was involved
in troubles with several of the European
powers, especially France, which took
Algiers and attacked Tangiers, while his
attempts to annex Oran were rendered futile
by the opposition of Abd-el-Kader.
Abdul-aziz Khan (b. 1830, d. 1876),
Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, succeeded
his brother, Abdul Medjid, in 1861. Brought
tip under a French tutor, he imbibed many
European ideas, introduced improvements
in agriculture, reformed the courts of jus-
tice, and personally discarded polygamy.
In 1862 he conquered the Montenegrins,
and visited England in 1867. An iusurrec-
in Herzegovina was settled by European
intervention (1876), but the extravagance
and despotism of the Sultan rendered him so
unpopular as to provoke his deposition,
which was quickly followed by his suicide
or murder.
Abdul Hamid (b. 1725, d. 1789) suc-
ceeded to the Ottoman throne hi 1773. In
1774 he concluded peace with Russia by the
Treaty of Kainardji, but three years later ,
war again broke out, the battle of Kinburu
was lost, and finally Russia took all the
provinces north of the Danube.
Abdul Hamid II. (5. 1842), reigning Sultan ,
of Turkey, succeeded his brother, Murad V. [
(deposed on account of alleged insanity), in
August, 1876. Abdul Hamid s rule, ushered
in by the famous Bulgarian atrocities, has
been marked by disturbances in every por-
tion of his dominions. His government is
autocratic, even insignificant departmental
measures requiring his approval. His
ministers are frequently deposed at a mo-
ment's notice. Of a morbidly nervous
disposition, he is extremely sensitive to j
hostile reflections on Turkish matters in the j
press, over which his officials have to exer- |
cise a very severe censorship. He has
brought the Turkish army to a great state
of perfection with the aid of numerous
B2
German officers. He is held in great awe
by his subjects, but in his intercourse with
foreign envoys and visitors his manners are
gracious and engaging.
Abdullah ben Zobair (b. 622, d. 692),
sovereign of Mecca, was one of the most
eminent personages in the early times of
Islamism.
Abdul Medjid Khan (b. 1823, d. 1861),
Sultan of Turkey, succeeded his father 1839.
The empire was then in a most critical state,
but the treaty of 1840 between England,
Russia, Austria, and Prussia, followed by
the taking of Acre and the bombardment of
Beyrout, saved Turkey from Ibrahim.
Early in his reign the young Sultan issued
the great "Tanzimat," or Magna Charta of
Turkey ; he re -organised the army and the
penal code, formed a postal system, and
erected telegraphs. Troubles with Servia,
Albania, Syria, Bosnia, and Montenegro,
culminated in war with Russia in 1854, but
the intervention of England, France, and
Sardinia resulted in the taking of Sebasto-
pol, 1854, and the Treaty of Paris, 1856.
Abel, the second son of Adam, slain by his
brother Cain.
Abel (d. 1252), King of Denmark, 1241 ;
was slain in battle with his Frisian subjects.
Abel, Clarke (b. 1780, d. 1826), doctor of
medicine and naturalist, accompanied Lord
Amherst to China in 1816, and gave the
name Abel i a to a species of plant brought
back with him.
Abel, Johann Joseph (b. 1768, d. 1818),
Austrian painter. He studied in Vienna
and Rome.
Abel, Karl Friedrich (*. 1725, d. 1787),
a native of Anhalt, musician and composer.
He gave in England a series of concerts in
conj unction with Bach.
Abel, Niels Henrik (b. 1802, d.^ 1829),
mathematician, born at Findoe, in Norway.
He especially investigated the theory of
elliptic functions.
Abelard or Abailard, Pierre (b. 1079, d.
1142), studied philosophy under Cham-
peaux, and divinity under Anselm, to such
effect that in each case he excelled his
master, and his reputation spread through
Europe. While teacher of a school of
rhetoric at Paris he conceived a violent
passion for the eautiful and accomplished
Heloise, and th, story of their love is well
known. Helois> took the veil and Abelard
became a monk the Abbey of St. Denis,
where his lecture' attracted crowds, but his
writings were Jiounced as heretical.
Condemned in his bseuce by the Council
of Spissons, he withdrew to the banks of the
Ardisson. Persecution followed him here
Abe
Abr
and elsewhere, aud he died at the Priory of
St. Marceiius, Chalons. His remains aud
those of Hcloise iiow rest in Pere-la- Chaise.
Abelin, Johaiin Philipp (d. circa 1646), a
prolific German author.
Abanezra or Hezra (b. 1119, d. 1174), a
celebrated rabbi and expositor of the Bible ;
born at Toledo.
Abercrombie, John, M.D. (b. 1781, d.
1844), a native of Aberdeen and distin-
guished member of the medical profession
in Edinburgh, esteemed both for his pro-
fessional skill and his philosophical attain-
ments. His best known work is his In-
quiries concerning the Intellectual Powers.
Abercromby, Sir Ralph (b. 1734, d. 1801),
a distinguished British general, a native of
Clackmannaushire. After studying law at
Edinburgh and Leipsic he entered the array,
and in 1793 accompanied the Duke of York
into Holland as lieutenant-general. His
abilities won for him high commendation,
and his cai'eerin the West Indies, whither he
went in 1795 as commander-in-chief , was a
brilliant success. He afterward served in
Ireland, in Holland against Helder, and was
sent to Egypt against the French. Land-
ing at Aboukir, he won the sanguinary and
obstinate battle of Alexandria, but received
a mortal wound.
Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, 4th
Earl of (b. 1784, d. 1860), statesman, an
accomplished scholar and man of taste, edu-
cated at Harrow and Cambridge. He was
early chosen a.representativepeer of Scotland
and rewarded for important political services
by being made a British peer, with the title
of Lord Gordon. Under Tory administration
he occupied successively the office of Foreign
Secretary and of Secretary to the Colonies,
and while in the latter post established
the entente cordiale between England and
France. In 1852, as head of the Peel Party,
he became Prime Minister. The Eastern
question came into prominence, Lord Pal-
merstoii retired from the Ministry, and Lord
Aberdeen allowed the country to "drift"
into the Crimean war. The war was mis-
managed, and he resigned upon what was
practically a vote of want of confidence, and
spent the remainder of his life in retirement.
Abernethy, John (*. 1680, d. 1740), an
Irish dissenting minister, educated in Scot-
land. He agitated for the repeal of the
Test Act.
Abernethy, John (*. 1765, d. 1831),
grandson of the preceding, and professedly
an Irishman : he studied medicine at St. Bar-
tholomew's Hospital, London, and rapidly
rose to be one of the first surgeons of the
day. and a lecturer of great power. He
was Professor of Anatomy and Surgery to
the Royal College of Surgeons, and hi.s pro-
fessional writings are still standard works.
Abigail, a sister of David.
Abigail, the wife of Nabal, and after-
warus of David.
Abildgaard, Peter Christian (b. 1740, d.
, lioteii Ddiush physician and natu-
ralist, aud cue 01 the founders of the Veter-
inary College of Copenhagen.
Abimelecli, the uanie of various kings of
Pluiistiu,.
Abinger, James Scarlett, Lord (b. 1769,
d. 1844), eminent English barrister, pos-
sessed of marvellous influence over both
judge and jury. In 1816 he entered Par-
liament as a Whig, but afterwards joined
the amalgamation of parties under Canning,
and held the office of Attorney General till
his retirement on the accession of William.
IV. Under Peel's ministry in 1834 he was
appointed Chief Baron of the Exchequer,
and the following year made Baron Abinger.
Abington, Frances (b. 1731, d. 1815), popu-
lar English actress ; the first Lady Teazle.
Abisbal, Enrique O'Donnell, Count of
(b. 1770, d. 1834), Spanish general of Irish
descent, who commanded the army in
Catalonia, and defeated the French at
Abisbal, from which he took his title. He
afterwards made himself master of Madrid,
but on the restoration of Ferdinand retired
to France, where he died.
Ablancourt, Nicholas Perrot d' (b. 1606,
d. 1GG4), translator of repute, and member
of the Academy ; he found patrons in both
England and France.
Abner, the son of Ner, and consequently
cousin to Saul, whose army he commanded.
About, Edmond Francois Valentin (b.
1S2S, d. 1S85), unsuccessful as a dramatist,
he obtained a great reputation as a novelist
and essayist. Les Mariages de Province
and La Question Homaine are his most
remarkable works. He acted as corre-
spondent for Le Soir in the Franco -Prussian
war. A work entitled Alsace, which he
wrote after the peace when living in the
newly-annexed provinces, and in which he
attacked the Prussians, was the cause of his
being temporarily imprisoned.
Aboville, Francois Maret (b. 1730, d.
1819), French general of artillery who served
under Marshal Saxe. and under Napoleon
became a senator, and member of the
Legion of Honour, while Louis XVIII.
made him a peer.
Abradates, King of Susa, at first fought
Abr
(5)
Adi
against Cyrus with the Assyrians, but after-
wards, joining Cyrus, fell in battle with the
Eg}~ptians.
Abraham, the son of Terah, aud pro-
genitor oi' the Jews.
Afcrantes, Don Jose Maria, Marquis of
(b. n&l, d. 1827), Portuguese nobleman,
detained by Napoleon as a hostage. He
afterwards assisted Miguel in the revolution
of 1823, but for his compli city in the murder
of the Marquis of Soule he was banished,
and went tirst to Italy, then to London,
where he died.
Absalom, the third son of David, by
Maachah, daughter of Talmai, King of
Geshur.
Abt, Franz (b. 1819, d. 1885), German
composer, educated originally for the
Church, but devoted himself to music.
Became kapellmeister at Zurich, and after-
wards at Brunswick, but, though he wrote
many light pieces for the pianoforte, is best
known by his numerous and graceful songs.
Abu-bekr (b. 571, d. 634). This name
(Father of the Virgin) was assumed by
Abd-ul-Kabah on the marriage of Mahomet
with his daughter. He proved a faithful
ally to his son-in-law, whom lie survived.
Abu>l-Fazl (d. 1600), the wise and en-
lightened minister of Akbar, celebrated for
his learning aud justice. He was attacked
by rebels and slain.
Abu-1-Feda, Ismail, surnamed "TheVic-
torious" (b. 1273, d. 1331), King or Governor
of Hammah in Syria, and a man of great
bravery and learning. He left many works,
the chief being An Abridgment of the His-
tory of Mankind.
Abu-1-Kasim or Albncasis, the most
famous Arabic writer on surgery, born at
Cordova in the eleventh century. His great
work is At Tassrif, or Book of the Theory
and Practice of Medicine.
Abu-Said, ninth of the Persian kings of
the dynasty of Hulaku. He succeeded his
father in 1317, and won the surname of
Bahadur (the Valiant) by his prowess in
battle when only 17.
Abu-Teman (b. 805, d. 845), celebrated
Arabian poet, bora at Damascus. He com-
piled a biography of the best poets, aud a
selection from their writings.
Abu-Yakub Yusuf (b. 1139, d. 1184),
third Sultan of Africa and Spain, of the
dynasty of Almohades. Defeated and slain
by the Spaniards at Santarem.
Abu-Yakub Yusuf (b. 1160, d. 1189), son
of the preceding, routed the Christians at
Alarcos, and conquered a large portion of
Spain.
Acarie, Madame Barbe (b. Paris 1565,
d. 1618), religious enthusiast, who, aided
by Cardinal de Berulle, set herself to reform
the monasteries in France.
Acciajuoli, Niccolo (b. 1310, d. 1366),
Florentine statesman, prominently engaged
in the political affairs of Naples duiiug the
reign of Joanna and Luis, to whom he ren-
dered many important services, both civil
and military. He was a patron of literary
men and the friend of Petrarch and Strada,
and spent his great wealth in works of
charity and utility.
Accius or Attius, Lucius, the greatest of
the early tragic poets of Home, born about
B.C. 170. His style is based on that of
JEschylus.
^ Friedrich (b. 1769, d. 1838),
German chemist, who, in conjunction with
Ackermaun, applied himself to the subject
of gas lighting ; to their exertions was due
the adoption of gas lights in London. He
also wrote several treatises on chemical
subjects, notably Chemical Reagents and
Culinary Chemistry.
Aceyedo, Christobal, a highly esteemed
historical painter of Murcia in the 16th
century, a pupil of Carducci.
Acevedo, Felix Alvarez (d. 1820), a pro-
minent personage in the Spanish revolution
of 1820. He routed the Royalists at Minho,
but was shot by them while addressing the
militia at Zaderneto.
Achaeus, of Eretria (b. B.C. 484), a tragio
poet, who contended unsuccessfully with
Euripides.
Achard, Franz Karl (*. 1753, d. 1821),
a chemist of Berlin, who made numerous
and valuable contributions to science, and
especially directed his attention to the
method of extracting sugar from beetroot.
Acfcarius, Eric (b. 1757, d. 1819), Swe-
dish botanist and physician, and pupil of
LinuEeus. He devoted himself chieny to
the study of lichens and has left many
valuable works, of which the principal is
Lichenographia Universalis. The genus
Acharia was named in his honour.
Achates, a companion of JEneas in his
journeyings after the fall of Troy. In the
JEneid he is always designated "fidus"=
trusty.
Achates, Leonardus, a German printer,
who introduced the art of printing into
Italy towards the end of the 15th cen-
tury, and published at Padxia, Venice and
Viceuza.
Acli
(6)
Ada
Achen, Hans van (b. 1">-V>, </. lt'-l), a
painter who .-tudied at Venie«- un.'i.T the
celc' ::;*••: r>l Kems. :ni(l aft erwards
v dted Home, Munich and I'i-.i_ru«-. sixteen
Ol his works are in the Gallei y at Vienna.
Achenbach, Atuln' {'<. l>l-v, German
painter of repute, ;i member v adein.
i-f Berlin, Am^rdam, ami Ant'.vorp. His
} j-turea aro ehi> th >i mari-
piee. s. ;m,l his earii r '.vorks are after the •
Dusseldorf school. The best collection of his ,
works is at Munich.
Achenwell, Gottfri .1 (''<. 1719, d. 1772),
German p"!;ti'al ;:iist, wlio may be
the founder "i the science of
statisties. He held a professorship at the
University of Gottingen from 174S, and also
1'cturedon internatioiiaJ law.
Achilles, the son of !'• . US, king of the
My; i. iid , ud the hero of the //tali. His
history, much of which is fabulous and
traditionary, is gathered from ancient
]"it-ins, in which he ribed as a -partisan
of the Greeks before Troy, perf. irniing pro-
digies of valour, and finally killing Hector
and being slain himself by Paris and buried
on the shores of the Hellespont.
Ackermann, Conrad Ernst (b. 1710,
d. 1771), celebrated German comedian,
who may be cou-idered the founder of the
modern stage of Germany.
Ackennann, Rudolph (b. 1761), at first
a coachbuilder, then a seller and publisher
of prints in London ; it was he who, in
conjunction with Accum, introduced gas-
lighting, and to him is also due the credit of
introducing lithography into England.
Acoluth, Andreas (b. 16-">4, d. 1704), one
of the greatest linguists of his age. conver-
sant with both Eastern and European
languages. He was appointed preacher at
Breslau. and Professor of Hebrew at the
Elizabethan Gymnasium. His works are
still of great value to students of Oriental
literature.
Aconzio, James (b. 1492, d. 1566), philo-
sopher and theologian, whose work on
method, entitled ]>•; J/< h>,c e>t, de
redd investigandarum t -nlrnd'irnmi;
tiannn ration*, is r as antici-
pating portions of Bacon's philosophy. He
was pensioned by Queen Elizabeth.
Acoris, King of Egypt, and ally of Eva-
go ras against Artaxerxes, B.C. 385.
Acosta, Joaquim (b. 1799, d. 1852), one of
the most distinguished historians and geo-
graphers of South America. He early
entered the army, in which he attained !
eventually to the rank of colonel. He ex-
plored the valleys of the Socorro and
Alagdalena, and, besides his valuable his- ,
tory of the discovery and colonisation of
Now • i •:• i at] ' ited important
ii papers to
tin G • ;j,};i. al 8 "i i1 D
Acquaviva, a n N'aples,
distiugui.-hed for tiieir loTI
Acropolita, ( u-orgius (b. Constantinople.
rj'jo, ./. I'J^'J), an historian oi p-pute, and
" lo^othcta." or controller oi the reveuue,
to Aiirha-'l I'alaJologUS.
Acropolita, Coustantius, son of the pre-
ceding. an historian and <% lo^otlieia " to
Acton, Sir John Francis Edward (b.
17' . \\, enter. -d 4'*c TM-.-ITI i: r
and took i art in the expedition against
Algiers. Being jippoinfi-d to re. ii^anihe tlie
^." ; , "iitan navy in 177'.', he ' d to
render himself exceedingly ]»>\\ • a that
state, and held successively tir- otlices of
Minister of Finance and Prime Minister.
The intervention of France in IT'J'.i caused
his removal from power, and he iinaily took
refuge with the Court in Sicily, where he
died.
Acuna, Antonio d' (b. 1409, d. 1526),
Bishop of Zamora. He headed the insur-
rection of Castile against Charles V., with
a following of over 5,000 men, but was de-
feated by the Coude de Haro, and finally
captured, imprisoned and killed.
Acuna, Don Pedro Bravo d', Spanish
Governor of the Philippine Islands under
Philip II. He distinguished himself at
Cadiz on the occasion of Drake's attack.
and succeeded in re-conquering the Moluccas
from the Dutch in 1605.
Adair, Rt. Hon. Sir Robert. G.C.B. (*.
1763, d. 18-35), was educated at Westminster
and Gottingen, and entered Parliament in
1802. He was soon employed diplomatically
at Vienna and Constantinople, and acquired
a high reputation. It was to him that the
peace of the Dardanelles was mainly due,
and later his diplomacy probably prevented
the outbreak of war between Holland and
Belgium. He retired from political Life in
Adam, the first of the human race.
Adam, Adolphe Charles \b. 1803, d. 1856),
French dramatic composer ; of his numer-
ous works the best is Le Puatdlu/i de L""<j-
jumeau. In 1847 he opened in Paris a
third theatre for comic opera, but. being
compelled to close it during the revolu-
tionary disturbances, found lamseif ruined,
and compelled to earn money by giving
lessons and writing musical reviews.
Adam, Alexander, LL.D. (b. 1741, d.
1809), rector of the High School of Edin-
burgh from. 1768. A man of great learning,
Ada
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Add
he left several works, amongst them being
Homfiti Antiquities, Classical SiographUs^
and the first Latin Grammar that was writ-
ten in English.
Adam, de La Halle, a French poet of the
13th century, attached to the Court of
Naples, and sumarued Le Bossu (the hunch-
back). One of his poems, Le jeu du Beryer
et de la Beryere, affords perhaps the earliest
example of the modern drama.
Adam, Lambert (b. 1700, d. 1759), sculptor,
studied at Rome, and executed several
works for Louis XV. for the decoration of
St. Cloud and Versailles.
Adam, Robert (b. 1728, d. 1792), archi-
tect, and the most celebrated of the four
brothers Adam, who erected the buildings
known as Adelphi, between the Strand
and the Thames, besides many others in.
London and elsewhere. Robert especially
did much to influence and improve the
street architecture of Loudon.
Adamnan, or Adoninan (d. 704), Abbot
of loua, author of a description of Palestine
and a life of St. Coluinba.
Adams, Charles Francis (b. 1807, d. 1886),
son of J. Q. Adams, spent his childhood in
Europe, and returning to America grad-
uated at Harvard Coiiege, 1825. He was
educated for the law, but adopting politics,
eventually joined the coalition now known
as the Republican party, and was appointed
minister to England, 1801 -8. He was arbi-
trator for America for the settlement of
claims uiider the Treaty of "Washington,
1871, and continued to take an active
interest in political life. He wrote bio-
graphies of his father and grandfather.
Adams, John (b. 1735, d. 1826), second
President of the United States, graduated
at Harvard, and was called to the bar in
1761. He was one of the delegates at the
Congress at Philadelphia 1774, and through-
out encouraged the movement for inde-
pendence, in which, as chairman of the
board of war, he took an active part. He
was commissioner to the Court of France
1788, and was sent on an embassy to
England 1779. He was elected Vice -Presi-
dent of the Union in 1789, and succeeded
Washington as President in 1797, but in
1801 failed to gain re-election, and then
retired from public affairs.
Adams, John Couch (b. 1816, d. 1892),
sou of an agricultural labourer, early
showed a capacity for mathematics, and
graduated at Cambridge in 1838, being
Senior Wrangler. He devoted himself espe-
cially to astronomy, and from protracted
study of the perturbations of Uranus pre-
dicted the existence and the precise position
01 the disturbing body, almost at the same
time at which M. Le Verrier arrived inde-
pendently at the same conclusion. Their
predictions were verified by the telescope,
and the planet Neptune thus discovered.
In IMS Adams was appointed to the
Lowndesian chair of astronomy in Cam-
bridge.
Adams, John Quincy (b. 1767, d. 1848),
son of President John Adams, and sixth
President of the United States, studied
at Leyden and Harvard, and was called
to the bar in 1791. He entered the diplo-
matic service, and was successively Ameri-
can minister in Holland, England, and
Prussia, and as a senator (1803-1808) he
supported Jefferson's Embargo Act. From
1806-1809 he occupied the chair of rhe-
toric at Harvard College. After holding
various offices, in 1825 he was elected
President of the United States, and being
returned to Congress in 1830, became a
vigorous supporter of the Abolitionists.
He was author of Letters on Silesia, Lecture*
on Rhetoric, and a poem Dermot Mac-
Mbrroffh.
Adams, Samuel (b. 1722, d. 1803), edu-
cated at Boston and Harvard, entered his
father's brewery, and began public life as
a tax-collector. By his firmness in 1770 he
obtained the withdrawal of the British
troops from Boston, and it was he who
instigated and led " the Boston Tea
Party." He was a member of Congress,
1794, and ardently supported the Declara-
tion of Independence. In 1794 he was
appointed Governor of Massachusetts, and
died at Boston.
Adanson, Michel (b. _ 1727, d.f 1806),
naturalist ; a pupil of Jussieu and Reaumur :
he travelled in Africa, making a map of the
Senegal and Gambia, and studying the
languages. His great work families des
Plantes was published in 1763.
Adaschoff, Alexay Theodorovich (d. 1561),
the favourite minister of Ivan IV. of Russia,
whose life he saved from the populace
during the conflagration of Moscow, 1547.
He used his power wisely and well, revising
the laws and encouraging commerce, but
was imprisoned by his enemies on a charge
of sorcery, in Livonia, where he died.
Addington. [See Sidmouth, Lord.]
Addison, Joseph (b. 1672, d. 1719), passed
from Charterhouse school to Queen's Col-
lege, Oxford, and graduated at Magdalen
College in 1693. He spent four years
travelling on the Continent, returning m
1703, and in 17<)4 The Campaign, a poem
celebrating the victory of Blenheim, brought
him into favour. In 1708 he was sent to
Ireland as secretary to the Lord Lieutenant.
He contributed largely to the Tutler and
Spectator from their commencement, and
Ade
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Ado
wrote 274 numbers for tin- latter. In 1713
he br.i^ht his tragedy of CatO hef. .ro the
public, and ;it Drury Lane it proved ;iu
nnj': .ted success. In 1716 ho mar-
ried tin- Ouuitess Dowuger of Warwick.
the foil'iwing y;:r wa.> appointed Secre-
tory of State. Ho died at Holland House.
Adelaide (6. 931, d. 999), widow of
Lotliaii-e II. of Italy, v - 1 by
II., bi.t • i a.i>d married
by ( >r)io I.. !'.">!. I>nr:!!',' the ir.inorit •• :
her son and grand- ->:\ i >tho II. and III.'
she acted as regent, showing both Zealand
ability.
Adelaide (d. 1091), "The Marehione "
daughter of Manfredi, Count of Turin, and
wife ( f Oddo, Marquis of Italy, a/1 ted as
regent during the minority of her
displaying considerable energy and ability.
Adelard, of Bath, eminent English phi-
f the Twelfth century, called
"the Father of natural philosophy in Eng-
land." He travel ;( d in Europe and A
and was the first lo translate Euclid's fifteen
books from the Arabic ; he also left several
treatises on physics.
Adeler, Cort Siverstoin (b. 1622. d. 1675),
naval commander, of Danish birth, who
served with distinction in the navies of
Holland and of Venice, - . himself
especially in the war 1 D the latter
country and Turkey. Returning to Den-
mark, he was given e.-ntrol of the navy, and
appointed to command in the war with
Sweden, but failing health compelled lum
to resign.
Adeler, Max, the pseudonym of Charles
Heber Clark, the American humorist, author
of Out of the Hurly Lurlij (1674), and other
works.
Adil Shah, Yusuf (b. 1443, d. 1510),
after the death of Mahommed II., in whose
service he had attained considerable distinc-
tion, withdrew to Bejapoor, and in 1489
assumed the title of royalty, and succeeded
in establishing his empire in the Deccan.
He was successful in an attack upon the
Portuguese at Goa, but died shortly after.
Adimari, Ludovico (b. 1644, d. 1708),
Professor of the Tuscan language at Flor-
ence, and one of the best satirical poets of
Italy.
Adler, the Eev. Dr. Hermann (b. 1839),
appointed principal of the Jews' college in
London 1863, and minister of the Bays-
water synagogue 1864, and succeeded "his
father as Chief Rabbi.
Adler, the Rev. Dr. Nathan Marcus
(b. 1803, d. 1890), studied in Germany,
and in 1845 was appointed Chief Rabbi
jf the United Congregatious of the Brit-
ish Empire. Besides commentaries and
ions, he wrote a brief exposition of
Paith.
Adlerbeth, (iudmuud Goran (b. K51,
d. Is 1s; , n Swedish poet and translator, and
lent oi tli.- Sw. di.-h A<M.!< my ;
he also filled political posts, and in
assisted in drawing up the fundamental
laws of the new constitution,
Adlerfeld, Gnstaf (b. 1671, d. 17<-
t"ri.in, travelled with the Court of '
XII. His Journal <>f the fl'ars has b
pi. i in French and German. He was
kiJl' anon ball at Pultowa,
Adlzreitor, Johann (b. 1596, d. 1662),
lawyer, who, under Maximilian I. of
. varia, rose rapidly to the position of
Privy Chancellor, ii'/ wrote a history of
Bavaria from tie st times to 1652.
Adolphus, Duke of Guelders (b. 1438,
d. 1177). wrested the dukedom from his
father, Arnold, in 1465. The interference
i of Charles the Bold ultimately resulted in
his father's release and his own imprison-
ment. Released in 1477, he again headed
the insurgents, but was killed the same year.
Adolpnus I., Count of Holstein (d. 1131),
was eM rusted by the Emperor Lothair
with <he government of Holstein in 1106,
and contrived to subdue his enemies, pro-
ate Christianity, and establish a dynasty
which lasted 350 years.
Adolphus IL, Count of Holstein (d. 1164),
succeeded the preceding in 1131. His reign
was troubled, and he was slain at the siege
of Demmin.
Adolphus III., Count of Holsteiu, and son
of the preceding, assisted Henry the Liou
at the battle of Haltefeld, by whom he was
afterwards drivf n from his throne, but was
j restored by Barbarossa of Denmark. In
1 1200 he was taken prisoner by Cauut VI.
! of Denmark, and on his release retired to
Schauenberg, where he soon afterwards
died.
Adolphus IV., Count of Holstein (d. 1252),
sou of the preceding ; in 1227 defeated
"\Yaldeinar at the battle of Boruhbved ; but
in 123& retired into a Franciscan monastery.
Adolphus VIII., Duke of Schleswig (d.
14.V.'), was educated at the court of the Em-
peror Sigismund. After a long warwith Den-
mark lor the possession of Schleswig, he
received it in 1440, as a fief of that country.
On the death of King Christopher he was
offered the crown of Denmark, which, how-
ever, he refused.
_Adolphus, Frederick II. (b. 1710, d.
1771), succeeded to the Swedish throne in
1731, but was destitute of the necessarw
i power of mind for such a position.
Ado
(9)
JEpi
Adolphus, John, Duke of Saxe "Weis-
senfels (b. 1685, d. 1746), a valiant soldier
whose courage and skill attracted the notice
of Marlborough ; in 1734 he took Dantzic,
and was made field-marshal of the Saxon
army. He succeeded his brothers to the
dukedom, and took part in the Quadruple
Alliance of 1745.
Adolphus, John (6. 1768, d. IS 15),
historian and criminal lawyer. He clef ended
the Cato Street conspirators in 1820 ; and.
besides other works, wrote a History of
England, from the accession of Georiie III.
to 1783.
Adolphus Of Nassau, Emperor of Ger-
many, was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in
1202. For his cruelty and oppression he
was deposed in 1298, and killed in battle
with his rival Albert of Austria, who had
been elected by the Diet of Mainz.
Adonijah, the fourth son of David, by j
Haggith. His three elder brothers being I
dead, Adonijah made an attempt on his
father's throne, which was entirely frus-
trated by David's immediate abdication in \
favour of his younger son, Solomon.
Adorno, a wealthy family of Genoa,
several members of which were Doges of \
the republic in the 14th, loth, and 16th
centuries. The Adorno and Fregoso fami- j
lies were rivals, and their contentions
continually disturbed the republic till both j
were expelled.
Adrets, Francois de Beaumont, Baron
des (b. 1513, d. 1587), a Huguenot leader,
though a Koman Catholic, a brave and skil-
ful, but cruel soldier. Under Charles IX.
he changed sides.
Adrian I. (d. 795), pope, a Roman by
birth, was raised to the papal chair in 772.
Sought and received the protection of
Charlemagne against Desideriu, King of
the Longobards. The firm establishment of
the temporal power of Borne may be at- !
tributed to him.
Adrian IL (d. 872), pope, 867, an able '
prince who well maintained the papal
authority over European monarchs. During
his time the separation of the Greek and \
Roman churches commenced.
Adrian III. (d. 885), pope, 884, a Roman
named Agapetus, the first to change his
name on assuming the tiara.
Adrian IV. (d. 1159), pope, 1154, Nicholas
Breakspere, the only Englishman who has
occupied the papal chair. He was the son of
a servitor to a monastery, and entered a
French monastery as clerk, and rose to be
abbot, cardinal, and legate, and was finally
elected pope.
Adrian V., pope, 1276, a noble Genoese,
who had been legate in England. He
occupied the papal chair one month only.
Adrian VI. (b. 1459, d. 1523), cardinal and
pope, 1521, a native of Utrecht, of mean
parentage, rose to be Bishop of Tortosa,
and regent during the minority of Charles
V. of Spain.
Adriano (d. 1630), Spanish painter, and
lay-brother of the Carmelite convent at
Cordova.
Adye, General Sir John Miller, G.C.B.
(b. 1819), entered the army in 1836, and
distinguished himself in the Crimean war,
the Indian mutiny, and the Sitana expedi-
tion. In 1882 he was chief of the staff
to Sir Garnet Wolseley, and took part in
the actions of Mahsameh and Tel-el-Kebir.
From 1883 to 1886 he was Governor of
Gibraltar.
.ffiacides, King of Epirus (d. B.C. 313),
father of Pyrrhus, and lineal descendant of
Achilles. He allied himself with Olympian
against Cassauder, but was defeated and
slain.
JEgidius, Colonna (d. 1316), a monk of
the order of St. Augustine, and a distin-
guished disciple of Thomas Aquinas. He
taught philosophy in Paris, and was pre-
centor to the sons of Philip III. ; Bishop of
Bourges, 1294.
, Claudius, Italian writer of the
third century, and Greek scholar. He
wrote a work on the peculiarities of animals,
and a Miscellaneous History.
Aelst, Evert van (b. Delft. 1602, d. 1658),
an eminent painter of still life.
Aelst, Willem van (b. Delft, 1620, d.
1679), nephew and pupil of the preceding,
whom he surpassed.
Emilia, one of the most ancient pa-
trician families of Rome, to which several
of the consuls belonged, notably : — Lucius
Mamercus, thrice consul ; Lucius Paulus,
killed at the battle of Cannae ; Lucius
Paulus, his son, twice consul, and victor
over the Macedonians at Pydna.
.Sneas, a hero of the Trojan war, and
founder of the Latin race. From the Ho-
meric poems aud the ^Etieid we learn that,
on the capture of Troy, JEneas escaped, and
arriving in Italy built the city of Lavinium,
which he named in honour of his wife La-
vinia, daughter of King Latiuus. On the
death of his father-in-law JEneas succeeded
to thb kingdom, but four years later was
slain in battle with the Rutuli.
-ffipinus, Franz Maria Ulrich (b. 1724,
d. lbl>2), a German mathematician and
JEpi
(10)
Aga
scientist, who discovered the electrical pro-
perties of heated tourmaline, and published
several works on electricity.
/Spinus, Johann (b. 1499, d. 1553), one of
the early reformers, and a friend of Luther.
In 1534 he came to England to advise
Henry VIII. respecting the reformation of
the English church.
£!rius, a native of Pontus, in the fourth
century ; first a follower of Arius, he later
established a sect known as JEriaus.
./Eschines (b. B.C. 389, d. B.C. 314), cele-
brated Athenian orator. Failing in an
attack OH Demosthenes, was twice sent on
an embassy to Philip of Macedonia, and re-
tired to .Rhodes, where he founded a school.
/Escliylus (b. B.C. 525, d. B.C. 456),
Athenian tragic poet : distinguished also
for his valour at the battles of Marathon,
Salamis, and Platea. First gained the
prize for tragedy in 484 B.C. He retired
lor some years to Sicily, but returning to
Athens, received the prize for tragedy for
his famous trilogy, Uresteia. He event- \
nally returned to Sicily, where he died. \
Of the seventy tragedies said to have been :
written by him, only seven remain, includ-
ing Prometheus, Agamemnon, etc.
^Esopus (b. B.C. 619, d. B.C. 564), said
to have been a Phrygian slave, com-
poser of the well-known fables. Having \
obtained his freedom, he was well received ]
by Croesus, King of Lydia, but when visit-
ing Delphi gave offence by his sarcasm, and
was put to death.
JEtius (d. 454), Roman general, who
was four times consul, defeated the Bur-
gundiaus and Franks, and drove Attila \
beyond the s;hiue, but having excited the
jealousy of Valeutinian, was put to death.
Affleck, Sir Edmund (d. 1787), rear-
admiral, went with Sir George Rodney to i
the relief of Gibraltar, and afterwards, in
the West Indies, rendered such signal
services that he was rewarded with a
baronetcy in 1782.
Affre, Denis Auguste (b. 1793, d. 1848), !
Archbishop of Paris, a man of benevolence
and learning, who did much to improve |
education in his country. While endea- j
vouiiug to mediate in the disturbances of j
1S18, the insurgents by mistake opened fire, |
and he was killed.
Affry, Louis Auguste Augustiu d' (b. 1713,
d. 1798), served in the French army,
rising to the rank of field-marshal. He
protected Louis XVI. on the 5th and 6th
October. 1739, but afterwards supported
the revolutionary party.
Affry, Count Louis Augustin Philippe d'
(6. 174), d. 1810), commander of the army
on the Upper Rhine during the revolution,
was appointed chiei magistrate of Switzer-
land, alter Bonaparte had proclaimed him-
self protector of the Helvetic confederacy.
Afzelius, Adam (b. 175U, d. 1836), Swe-
dish botanist, a pupil of Linnaeus, and
proft'.-s<»r of botany at Upsala. He travelled
much, published valuable papers, and was a
member of the Royal Society of England.
Aga, Mohammed Khan (b. 1734, d.
1797), founder of the present dynasty of
Shahs of Persia, and belonging to the tribe
of the Kadjars. He conquered Ispahan,
Shiraz, and the south of Persia, and crossed
the Araxes and invaded Khorassau, but was
murdered by two condemned slaves.
Agamemnon, King of Mycenae, was
entrusted with the command of the allied
forces of Greece in the Trojan war. He
sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia at Aulis to
appease the wrath of Diana. On his return
to Mycenae he was killed by his wife, Clytem-
nestra.
Agapetus I. (d. 536) succeeded John II.
as pope in 535. He was the first Roman
Pontiff who exercised authority over the
Eastern Church, and was a diligent opponent
of Arianism.
Agapetus II. (d. 956), pope, succeeded
Martin III. in 946 ; was aided by Otho in
953 against Bereuger.
Agardh, Karl Adolph (b. 1785, d. 1859),
Swedish scientist and politician, distin-
guished in many branches of learning, was
particularly eminent as a botanist, being
especially devoted to the study of Algae
and marine plants. He left writings on
many subjects, his great work b-Mug Sys-
tema Algarum, 1834.
Agassiz, Alexander (b. 1835), son ol
Louis Agassiz, graduated at Harvard in
1855, and afterwards assisted his father in
the study of marine zoology. A fortunate
enterprise in copper mining relieved him
from all fear of pecuniary embarrassment,
and he devoted himself to the promo-
tion of his favourite study, both by personal
research and munificent endowment.
Ag-assiz, Louis Johanu Rudolph (b. 1807,
d. 1878), eminent naturalist, was the son
of a Swiss Protestant clergyman. He
studied medicine and graduated at Munich,
but devoted himself principally to ichthyo-
logy, and was employed to classify and
arrange the collection brought from Brazil
by Martius and Spix. In 1846 he went to
America, where he was well received, and
accepted the chair of zoology and geology at
the University of Cambridge (Harvard
College). In 1865 he visited Brazil, and
on his return placed the large collection he
Aga
Agn
had made in the museum of Cambridge.
He wrote numerous veiy valuable works,
and was to the last a disbeliever in the
Darwinian theory of evolution.
Agathocles (b. B.C. 361, d. B.C. 289),
tyrant of Syracuse, a soldier of fortune,
who became wealthy by his marriage with
the widow of his patron, Demas. Being
banished on account of his intrigues, he
raised an army and became sovereign of
Syracuse B.C. 317. He gained many vic-
tories over the Carthaginians. Is supposed
to have died of poison.
Agathon (b. circa B.C. 448, d. circa B.C.
401), Greek tragic poet, contemporary and
friend of Plato, Aristophanes, and Euripides.
Only fragments of his works remain.
Agazzari, Agostino (b. 1578, d. 1640),
Italian musician and composer, maestro of
the cathedral of Sienna.
Ageladas, Greek sculptor, who flou-
rished in the fifth century B.C.. and was
master of Myron, Rheidias, and Polycletus.
Agelet, Joseph Le Paute d' (b. 1751,
d. 1786), French astronomer, who took part
in the South Sea expedition of 1773, and
(1 7s5) accompanied LaPerouse on the voyage
of exploration in which they both perished.
Agelli, Antonio (b. 1532, d. 1608), author
and scholar, Bishop of Acerno, was chosen
by Pius V. to assist in revising the Septu-
agint, and also assisted in the revision of
the Vulgate.
Agesander, sculptor of Rhodes in the
time of Vespasian, was one of the three
artists who executed the group of Laocoon
and his Sons, now in the Vatican.
Agesilaus II. (b. B.C. 445, d. B.C. 361),
King of Sparta, son of Archidamus, suc-
ceeded to the throne B.C. 398. After
successes against the Persians, he defeated
the combined forces of Athens, Argos,
Corinth, and Thebes at Coroneia in B.C.
394. He next invaded Argos and Corinth,
and in 277 B.C. attacked Thebes. He died
on his way home from a campaign in Egypt.
Agesipolis L (d. B.C. 380), King of
Sparta, sou of Pausanias, commanded ex-
peditions against Argos, B.C. 390, and Man-
tineia, B.C. 385, and was chosen chief of the
Lacedemonian forces against Macedonia,
but died during the war.
Agiluphus, Duke of Turin, who, by his
marriage with Theudalinda, the widow of
King Autaris. became king of Lombardy
in 590. He extended his dominion over the
greater part of Italy.
Agis I., King of Sparta, succeeded his
father Eurysthenes, and reduced his con-
quored subjects to a state of vassalage, and
the inhabitants of Helos to that condition oi
slavery which gave rise to the name of helot.
Agis IL (d. B.C. 399) ascended the throne
B.C. 427. He invaded Argolis B.C. 418, and
later defeated the allied armies of Argives,
Athenians and Mantineians at Mantineia.
In B.C. 413 he invaded Attica, and waged
war successfully against the Eleans, B.C. 401.
Agis III., King of Sparta, succeeded to
the throne in 388 B.C., resisted the en-
croachn. ents of Alexander the Great, but
was defeated by Autipater, and slain after
a brave and prolonged resistance, B.C. 331.
Agis IV. (d. B.C. 235), King of Sparta B.C.
144, a brave and prudent man who did all in
his power to avert the decline of the State.
His exertions, however, aroused consider-
able opposition; after varying success his
rival, Leouidas, gained the upper hand,
and he was seized while taking sanctuary
in the temple of Pallas, and was executed.
Agneaux, Robert and Antoine, two
brothers, natives of Normandy, who pro-
duced in 1582 the first French translation
of Virgil and afterwards of Horace.
Agnes (d. 1077), daughter of William,
Duke of Aquitaiue, wife of Henry III. of
Germany, was appointed regent during the
minority of her sou Henry, but finding
herself unequal to the difficult position,
retired to a monastery, where she died.
Agnes, Saint (d. 303), a Roman maiden
martyred during the Diocletian persecution.
Agnes of Austria (b. 1280, d. 1364),
daughter of Albert I. , and wife of Andrew
III. of Hungary : her cruel revenge for the
murder of her husband caused her to b&
universally hated ; she died in a monasteiy.
Agnes Sprel or Soreau (b. 1409, d. 1450),
the favourite mistress of Charles VII. of
France, distinguished for her beauty and
wit, and her influence with the king,
which she used to such good purpose as to
gain for herself the good- will and affection
of the people. Her death is attributed to
poison.
Agnesi, Maria Gaetana (b. 1718, d. 1799),
a woman of great learning, both in lan-
guages and mathematics, was appointed
profess</r of mathematics at the university
of Bologna, and her text-book on this sub-
ject has been translated into French and
English. Towards the end of her life she
entered a monastic order.
Agnolo, Baccio (b. 1460, d. 1543), emi-
nent Florentine sculptor and architect, re-
commended by Michael Angelo to Clement
VII., to restore the statues in the Belvedera
Museum at Rome,
Ago
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Aha
Agoracritus, sculptor of Paros, aud the
favourite pupil of Phidias.
Agostini, Paolo (b. 1593, d. 1GGO), emi-
nent musician aud maestro of the chapel of
St. Peter's at Borne.
Agostino, Yeneziano or Augustiuus de
Musis, Veuetiau engraver of tue 16th cen-
tury, engraved many of Raphael's designs.
Agresti, Livio (d. 1580), a Roman his-
torical painter, worked in the Vatican.
under Gregory XIII.
Agricola, Cnseus Julius (b. 37, d. 94),
Roman commander in Britain under Sueto-
nius Paulinus, became Governor of Britain,
77, and, pushing his cou quests northward,
built the chain of forts from the Clyde to
the Firth of Forth.
Agricola, Georg (b. 1494, d. 1555), whose
real name was Laudmanu, German metal-
lurgist, travelled in Italy and Germany, and
finally settled at Chemnitz.
Agricola, Job ami, surnamed Islabius (b.
1492, d. 1506), at first the friend and advo-
cate of Luther, but afterwards opposed him,
and became the founder of the sect of Anti-
nomians.
Agricola, Johann Friedrich (b. 1720, d.
1774), German composer and musician, a
pupil of Bach, wrote several operas.
Agricola, Rudolph (*. 1443, d. 1485), phil-
ologist and scholar of the loth century, tra-
velled in Italy 1476, and afterwards in Ger-
many, dwelling at Worms and Heidelberg.
Agrippa, Heinrich Cornelius (b. 1486, d.
1535), scientist and theologian, was secre-
tary to the Emperor Maximilian, studied
at Paris 1506, and taught theology at
Dole, in Burgundy: after many wander-
ings he settled at Antwerp. His treatises,
De Vanitate Scientiarum and De Occulta
Philosophic brought him into discredit ;
he was several times imprisoned, and after
some years of poverty died at Grenoble.
Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius (b. B.C. 63, d.
B.C. 12), three times consul, and twice
governor of Syria, took a prominent part
m the wars which followed the death of
Julius Caesar ; defeated Sestus Pompeius
at sea, B.C. 38, and greatly contributed to
the victory of Octavius at Actium.
Agrippa, Menenius Lanatus (d. circa B.C.
493), Roman consul about B.C. 502, con-
quered the Sabiues, and, by the fable of
the belly and its members, appeased the
Plebs when they had seceded to the Aven-
tme Hill.
Agrippa I, Herod (b. B.C. 10, d. A.D. 44),
eon of Aristobulus and Berenice, and grand-
son of Herod the Great, was tetrarch of
Abilene, and afterwards, under the Emperor
Claudius, king of Judea and Samaria. He
persecuted the Christians, killing James, the
brother of John, and imprisoning Peter.
He died at Caesarea.
Agrippa II., Herod (b. 27, d. 94), son aud
successor of the preceding, and last of the
Je \vish inonarchs of the family of Herod the
Great. He took the part of the Romans
against his countrymen on several occasions,
and it was before him that St. Paul was
brought in 59.
Agrippina (d. 63), daughter of M. V.
Agrippa, married Germanicus, after whose
death she was banished by Tiberius A.D. 30.
Agrippina (d. 59), daughter of above,
the nioriier of !\ero, a cruel, licentious
woman, poisoned her uncle and third
husband Claudius to secure the elevation of
her son, who caused her to be put to death
a few years later.
Aguesseau, Henri Francois d' (b. 1668,
d. 1751), orator and advocate, took part
in the contest between the Pope and the
Gallican Church, 1699; was made Procure ur-
General in 1700, and defended the Gallican
Church against the Ultramontane party.
After the death of Louis XIV. was ap-
pointed Chancellor in 1717, but was twice
deprived of the seals, retiring from Paris
1722, but was finally restored in 1727. He
was a great scholar and jurist.
Aguilar, Grace (b. 1816, d. 1847), Jewess
of Spanish extraction, authoress of The Days
of llntce, as well as of many moral tales and
religious tracts.
Ahab, son of Omri, and seventh king of
the separate kingdom of Israel, married
Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, King of Sidoru
His reign is marked by the attempted ex-
termination of the followers of Jehovah,
the death of Naboth, and his own death in
battle with the Syrians.
Ahasuerus, the name or title of one
Median and two Persian kings, mentioned
in the books of Daniel, Ezra, and Esther,
and supposed to be identical with Cyaxares,
Cambyses, and Xerxes respectively.
Ahaz, eleventh king of Judah, and son
of Jotharn, became tributary to Tiglath-
Pileser, King of Assyria, whom he had sum-
moned to assist him in repelling the kings
of Israel and Damascus. He adopted the
necromantic practices of the Syrians, and
died after a reign of sixteen years.
Ahaziah, called also Azariah, fifth king
of Judah, was the sou of Jehoram and
Athaliah the daughter of Ahab. He was an
idolater ; being mortally wounded by Jehu^
died at Megiddo after a reign of one year.
Ahe
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Ain
Ahenobarbi or ^Enobarbi (Brazenbeards),
a distinguished family of the Gens Doinitia
of liome, members of wliich filled the
highest offices in the State from B.C. 496 till
the first century A.D.
Alili Shirazi, a Persian poet and native
of Shiraz, lived in the fifteenth century ;
bis chief work is the Kasida*.
Ahlwardt, Christian Wilhelm (b. 1760,
d. 183U), linguist, rector of the gymnasiums
of Oldenburg and Graf swald, and writer of
several translations irom the classical
authors.
Ahmed or Ahmud (Shah), a cruel and
warlike prince of the Bahinuny dynasty in
the Deccan. He was bitterly hated by his
Hindoo neighbours, who compassed bis
death in 1435.
Ahmed or Achmet L (b. 1590, d. 1617)
succeeded his father as Sultan of Turkey in
1603. While fond of art, he was weak and
voluptuous, and embroiled his country in
civil commotions and foreign wars.
Ahmed or Achmet II. (b. 1643, d. 1695),
C"' tan of Turkey, succeeded his brother in
16l>l. He was defeated by Germany at
the sanguinary battle of Salankeuian.
Ahmed or Achmet III. (b. 1673, d.
1739) ascended the throne in 1703 on the
abdication of his brother, and found himself
involved in internal troubles and foreign
wars. Against Russia and Venice the Otto-
man arms were successful, but Ahmed was
defeated by Austria, and afterwards by
Persia, and a rebellion of the Janissaries
compelled him to abdicate in 1730.
Ahmed IV. [See Abdul Hamid.]
Ahmed Ibn Ahmed (b. 1577, d. 1632),
known also as Ahmed al Mak-kari, a
learned native of Telemsan, who lectured at
Damascus. His great work is The History
of the Mahometan Empire in Spain.
Ahmed Ibn Tulun (b. 835, d. 884), one of
the generals of the Caliph Al Mamun, and
founder of the Egyptian dynasty of the
TuJunitess
Ahmed Ehan Abdali (£._ 1723, d. 1773),
founder of the Durani dynasty in
Afghanistan. He avenged the death of his
master, Nadir Shah, was crowned at
Kandahar in 1747, and in a series of brilliant
victories overran the Punjaub, and routed
the army of the Mahrattas.
Aibek, Azak Ed-din, founder of the
Egyptian dynasty of Mameluke Baharites.
Originally a slave, his valour attracted the
notice of the widowed Sultaness, who mar-
ried him. He was acknowledged Sultan
in 1254, but was soon afterwards assassi-
nated by his wife.
Aide, Hamilton, a well-known author
Besides novels he has written several popu-
lar drawing-room songs, plays and "other
works.
Aiguan, Etienne (b. 1773, d. 1824), a
zealous but moderate revolutionist, and a
member of the French Academy, distin-
guished as a poet and dramatic author. Ha
has produced many works of a miscel-
laneous nature, including several tragedies,
and a translation into verse of the I Hud.
Aiguiilon, Arinand, Due d' (d. 1800),
joined the Duke of Orleans against the
lioyalists, but was eventually compelled to
fly, first to London, and then to Hamburg,
where he died.
Aikin, John, M.D. (b. 1747, d. 1822), mis-
cellaneous writer, was educated under his
father at Warrington. He devoted himself
chiefly to literature, and among his works,
some of which were written in conjunction
with his sister, afterwards Mrs. Barbauld,
is his General Biography.
Aikin, Lucy (b. 1781, d. 1864), daughter
of the preceding, by whom she was educated.
Besides historical works, she wrote several
poetical pieces.
Aikins, Hon. James Cox (b. 1823),
Lieutenant- Governor of the province of
Manitoba, entered the Canadian House of
Assembly, in 1<>54, as representative for
county Peel. After holding various political
1 posts he was appointed Lieutenant- Governor
in 18i>2.
Ailly, Pierre, learned theologian of the
14th century, who, as cardinal, had great
influence in ecclesiastical aft'airs, and joined
in the condemnation of Huss.
Aimard, Gustav (*. 1818, d. 1683),
French novelist. After leading a life of
adventure in America for many years, he
travelled in Europe, and finally settled in
Paris. Several of his works have been
translated into English, the most popular
being Les Trappeurs de V 'Arkansas.
Ainmiiller, Max Emmanuel (b. 1807,
d. 1870), German painter on glass, who exe-
cuted the new windows in Ratisbon Cathe-
dral, as well as several at Spires, Cologne,
and in St. Paul's, London.
Ainsworth, William Francis (b. 1807),
natural historian and author. Entering the
medical profession while quite young, he
devoted himself to natural history. He
travelled first in Europe, but in 1835 he
accompanied Chesney's Euphrates expedi-
tion, and later on was sent into Asia Minor.
Ain
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Ala
Besides general literature, he has published
a variety of works giving accounts of his
travels.
Ainsworth, "William Harrison (6. 1805, d.
1882), English novelist. Originally in-
tended for the bar, he decided in 1824 to
devote himself to literature. His first con-
siderable work, Sir John C/iiverton, won
Sir Walter Scott's admiration ; it was
quickly followed by many others, including
The lower of London, Old St. Paul's, and
Jack Sheppard.
Aird, Thomas (b. 1802, d. 1876), Scotch
poet and journalist, graduated at Edin-
burgh. Besides writing separate works he
contributed to Blackwood's Magazine, and
was for a time editor of the Edinburgh
Weekly Journal, and the Dumfries Herald.
Airey, George Biddell (*. 1801, d. 1892),
English astronomer, a native of Alnwick,
educated at Cambridge, where he held
various professorships, including that of
astronomy. In 1835 he was appointed
Astronomer Royal
Airey, Richard, General and Baron
(b. 1803, d. 1881), was educated at Sand-
hurst, and entered the army in 1821. After
serving in the Ionian Islands and British
North America, he went through the Crimean
war, and in 1865 was made Governor of
Gibraltar. He retired from service in 1876
with the title of Lord Airey, but in 1879 was
president of the Airey commission of inquiry
into the new short service system.
Aitchison, George, B.A., and A.R.A.
(b. 1825), architect, was educated at Mer-
chant Taylors' school, and after entering
the Royal Academy in 1847, spent two
years abroad. He gained medals at the
Exhibitions of Philadelphia, Sydney, and
Melbourne, and has lectured at the Royal
Academy since 1882. The practical results
of his work are to be seen in many large
warehouses, the London and St. Katherine
Docks, and in the decoration of many houses
of the aristocracy.
Aivazovski, Gabriel (Pere Gabriel) (b.
1812), learned Armenian scholar, belonging
to the convent of St. Lazaro, near Venice.
He is author of many valuable works, and
was one of the founders of the Armenian
College of Grenelle near Paris.
Ajax, son of Oileus, King of the
Locrians, and one of the heroes who be-
sieged Troy, but on his return perished by
shipwreck.
Ajax, son of Telamon, King of Salamis,
a brave and handsome man of great stature,
who fought single-handed withHector in tha
Trojan war.
Akber (Jabul-ud-dinMohammed) (b. 15-12,
d. 1605), the son of Humayun, was a wise
and just monarch. It was he who first col-
lected the various tribes of India into a single
empire, with himself at its head. He en-
couraged literature and commerce, and for-
bade the burning of Hindoo widows against
their will. Domestic sorrows troubled his
declining years, and he died 1605.
Akenside, Mark (b. 1721, d. 1770),
British physician, and son of a Newcastle
butcher ; he is now remembered only as a
poet. His chief work is Pleasures of the
Imagination,
Akerblad, John David (b. 1760, d. 1819),
celebrated Oriental scholar, and an author-
ity on Phoenician inscriptions and Coptic
literature. His publications in archaeology
and hieroglyphics are still regarded as ex-
ceedingly valuable.
Akerman, John Young (b. 1806, d. 1873),
antiquary and numismatist. After holding
similar posts he became secretary to the
Society of Antiquaries in 1848. He was
honorary member of many foreign societies,
and started the Numismatic Journal in 1836,
besides numerous other works on his favour-
ite subjects.
Aklibar Khan (d. 1847), son of Dost
Mahomed of Cabul. During the rebellion of
1840 he headed the Afghan troops, and after
considerable success besieged Jellalabad, but
was twice defeated by General Pollock.
Akiba, Ben Joseph (d. 135), learned
Jewish doctor, said to have studied under
Gamaliel. After gathering round him vast
numbers of disciples, he joined the pseudo-
Messiah Bar Cochba, but being defeated by
the Romans, was put to death with the
greatest cruelty.
Akimoo, Ivan (b. 1754, d. 1814), Russian
painter and director of the Academy of
Fine Arts. His works are of considerable
merit.
Alabaster, William (b. 1567, d. 1640),
divine and poet, and prebendary of St.
Paul's. Besides other works he left a
pentaglott dictionary, in Hebrew, Chaldaic,
Syriac, Talmudico- Rabbinic, and Arabic.
Ala ed-Dewlet (d. 1515). Prince of Mer'-
ash in the loth and 16th centuries, who made
himself master of the vast dominions of the
dynasty of Zulkadr. He was slain in battle.
Alarcon y Mendoza, Don Juan (b. 1590,
d. 1639), one of the greatest Spanish dra-
matists, and especially successful in delinea-
tions of character. Le Menteur of Corneilla
Ala
(15)
Alb
is based on one of Alarcon's best plays.
Personally he was unpopular, and his works
were neglected for nearly twenty years.
Alard, Delphin (b. 1815), a pupil of
Habeneck, and one of the most skilful
violinists of the century. In 1848 he was
appointed professor of the violin in the
Conservatoire of Paris.
Alaric I. (d. 410), King of the Visigothe,
had served in the Roman army, but on the
death of Theodosius headed his countrymen
in revolt against Rome. After fruitless at-
tempts on Greece and Italy, he was successful
in 4U2 in reaching Rome, which he thrice
besieged, finally taking and pillaging the
city. He died at Coseuza, and was buried
in the bed of the Basento.
Alaric II. succeeded to the throne in
484, but was slain in battle with the Franks
under Clovis. To him is due the code of
laws known as Breviarium Alaricianum.
Alasco, John (b. 1499, d. 1560), Polish
theologian and scholar, and one of the early
Protestant reformers. He was a friend of
Zwingli, Erasmus, and Melanchthon, and
did much to further the Reformation, especi-
ally in Holland.
Al-ashari (Abu - 1 - hassan) (b. 860,
d. 935), founder of the sect of Asharites ;
his doctrines spread through Syria, Egypt,
and Spain.
Alaux, Jean (b. 1786, d. 1864), French
painter, and pupil of Vincent and Guerini,
He was patronised by Louis Philippe, and
his works are still at Versailles, St. Cloud,
and Fontaiuebleau, the best known being
Pandora and The Fight of the Centaurs and
Let-pit hee.
Alava, Miguel Ricardo d' (b, Vittoria,
1771, d. 1843), Spanish soldier, who in
1807 took the side of France, and became a
member of the Assembly of Bayoime, but
about 1811 changed sides, and obtained
considerable distinction under the Duke of
Wellington. He was afterwards President
of the Cortes, and adopted the cause of
Maria Christina, but finally withdrew to
France, where he died.
Alava y Nerarete, Don Ignacio (d. 181?),
a Spanish naval officer, who served under
Admiral Cordova in the war with England,
and was present at the battle of Trafalgar.
He was afterwards appointed commander-
in-chief at Cadiz, and died there.
Alban, Saint, a Roman soldier martyred
in Britain about 285, and in honour of whom
a monastery was founded at Verulam.
Albani, Annibale (b. 1682), cardinal, and
chief librarian of the Vatican.
Albani, Alessandro, his brother, cardinal,
and patron of learning.
Albani, Emma (b. circa 1847), whose real
name is La Jeuuesse, a native of Canada,
is a brilliant operatic singer. She married
Mr. Ernest Gye.
Albani, Francesco (b. 1578, d. 1660),
historical and portrait painter, who worked
at Rome, Florence, and Bologna. Of his
numerous works, chiefly on sacred subjects,
many are still in the galleries of Rome and
Munich.
Albani, Giuseppe (b. 1750), president of
the Annona, and auditor- general of the
Apostolic Chambers.
Albany, Leopold George Duncan Albert,
Duke of (b. 1853, d. 1884), fourth son of
Queen Victoria. In spite of early delicacy
he was unusually accomplished and culti-
vated. He married in 1882 the Princess
Helene of Waldeck, by whom he had two
children.
Albany, Louisa Maria Caroline, Countess
of (b. 1753, d. 1820), the daughter of Gus-
tavus Adolphus of Stolberg-Godern. She
was married in 1772 to Charles Stuart, the
Young Pretender, but separating from him,
put herself under the protection of Alfieri,
with whom she lived till his death in 1803.
Albatenius, an Arabian astronomer of
the 9th century, whose works were much
read and valued by his successors.
Alber, Erasmus, Superintendent-General
of Neubrandenburg, one of the most learned
men of the age of Luther, and a zealous
supporter of the Reformer's doctrines.
Alberico da Barbiano, celebrated con-
dottiere in the 14th century, who formed a
company of free lances and took service
under Urban VI., Gian Galeazzo Visconte,
and others.
Alberoni, Giulio (b. 1664, d. 1752), car-
dinal, and first minister of Spain. Whilst
secretary to the Duke of Vendome he in-
gratiated himself with Philip V., and
formed schemes for the extension of
Spanish power, but his projects failing, he
was dismissed and exiled, and retired to
Rome, where he died.
Albert (1'Ouvrier), a French button-maker
and journalist, who took part in the insur-
rection of Paris in 1848, started tne Atelier,
and became a member of the Provisional
Government. He was afterwards arrested
and imprisoned.
Albert, Francis Charles Augustus Em-
manuel, Prince Consort of England (b. 1819,
d. 1861), was the second son of Ernest, Duke
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. After his first visit
Alb
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Alb
to England in 1S.V>, Priuce Albert spent
some time at the Uuivcr.-ity of Bonn, aii'l in
European travels, and on his return t>
England in 1839 the arrangements r-r his
marriage with tin* Queen .vn> made. •
ceremony boiiiLT per;. >ini' d at St. Jam >'s
Palace, Feb. lOfll, 1M '. In the very ditlirult
situation in which he wa> IMA- placed I'rinco
Albert's conduct was sometimes mis-on-
strucd, but the news of his death from
typhoid fever on Pec. 14th, l.MJl, was
received with unfeigned sorrow by the
nation at large. He was the chief promoter
of the Great Exhibition of 1851, and being
a man of wide intelligence and benevolent
feeling, took part in most of the public
movements of nis day.
Albert Edward, Prince of Wales (b. 1841),
elde.-t sou of Queen Victoria, studied at
the Universities of Edinburgh, Oxford, and
Cambridge. In !Sh2 hi- married the Princess
Alexandra of Denmark, by whom he has
i>-ue two sons and three daughters. The
anxiety manifested by the nation during
his dangerous illness in 1871 led to the
memorable public thanksgiving early in
the following year, when the Queen and
Prince made a royal progress to St. Paul's
Cathedral. The prince has visited India,
America, and Palestine. He sits as Duke of
Cornwall in the House of Lords, where he
made his maiden speech iu 1884. During
many years of the Queen's reign the burden
of court or public ceremonial has fallen
almost entirely on his shoulders, and the
tact and grace with which he acquits him-
self of his functions have won for him a
very large degree of popularity.
Albert Victor, eldest son of the above (b.
1864, d. 1892), created Duke of Clarence and
Avondale 1890. Was for a time in the
navy, and served on board H.M. S. Jjftc-
cfiatite ; afterwards joined the 10th Hussars,
in which he became captain.
Albert, Duke of Saxony (b. 1443, d. 1500),
ruled for a time jointly with his brother <
Ernst. In 1485 they divided the kingdom, j
and Albert took Meissen, and was the '
founder of the present reigning family of i
Saxony.
Albert, first Duke of Prussia (b. 1490, d.
15 >8), received the territory of Lower |
Prussia as an hereditary fief from the King I
of Poland, iu return for military services he !
had rendered. He adopted and diffused the
doctrines of Luther, and founded the uni-
versity of Konigsberg.
Albert I., Duke of Austria and Emperor
of Germany (b. 1248, d. 1308). Upon the
deposition of Adolphus of Nassau, Albert
was elected emperor, and after slaying
Adolphus at the battle of Gelheim, he
was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. After a
of wars he was killed by his
nephew, John of Swahia.
Albert II. of Austria (b. 1298, d. LS58),
surnamed the \Vi~e. succeeded his father in
the dukei|..m. but declined the imperial
crown. He established peace with the
neighbourin-' powers, but was defeated by
the Swiss at Morgarten.
Albert III. of Austria (*. 1349, d. 1395).
On the death of Albert II. his sons suc-
ceeded jointly to his dominions, and on the
division amongst the survivors in 1379,
Austria fell to Albert. He was an active
and vigilant prince, and a patron of the fine
arts.
Albert IV., Duke of Austria, surnamed
"the Pious" (b. 1379, d. 1414), sou of the
preceding, allowed his cousin Wilhelm to
share his dukedom, and was named suc-
cessor to the thrones of Hungary and
Bohemia, but was poisoned in 1414 by the
Margrave of Moravia.
Albert V., Duke of Austria, and II. of
Germany (b. 1397, d. 1430j, succeeded his
father in the dukedom, and obtained
Moravia by marriage. In 1438 he was
crowned King of Hungary, and elected
Emperor. He was a wise and judicious
prince, but his reign was marred by a cruel
war with the Hussites. He died suddenly
whilst repulsing an invasion of the Turks.
Albert I., Margrave of Brandenburg (b.
1106, d. 1170), the son of Otto, received
Brandenburg in return for Alsatia and
Bavaria, and was driven from his territories
by Henry the Lion, but was restored in 1142.
Albert II., of Brandenburg, succeeded his
brother, Otto II., in 1206. He acquired
Lower Alsatia and part of Pomerauia, and
died 1221.
Albert III., of Brandenburg (b. 1414, d.
1480), a man of such strength and skill that
he acquired the appellations of "Achilles"
and "Ulysses."
Albert IV., of Bavaria (b. 1447, d. 1508),
surnamed ' the Wise." A learned and
prudent- prmc^ he largely increased and
consolidated his dominions, and concluded
a compact by which the duchy should
descend intact to the eldest son.
Albert V., of Bavaria, surnamed "the
Magnanimous" (b. 1528,^.1579), a noble
patron of the fine arts, and a man of great
piety, who largely endowed religious com-
munities.
Albert I., Duke of Brunswick, surnamed
"the Great " (b. 1236, d. 1278), a brave and
warlike prince, who liberated Queen Mar-
garet of Denmark, and was for some time
regent of that country.
Alb
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Albert II., Duke of Brunswick (d. 1318),
son of the preceding, assumed the govern-
ment in 1382. He quarrelled with his
brothers, and was of extravagant habits.
Albert I., Archbishop of Magdeburg, a
monk of Treves, and indefatigable mission-
ary, who endeavoured to establish Chris-
tianity in Russia.
Albert II., Archbishop of Magdeburg in
1205. For his services to Otto of Brunswick
he received a large grant of laud, over
•which he ruled with prudence and ability.
He died in 1233.
Albert V. , Archbishop of Magdeburg (b.
1489, d. 1545). He was also Commissioner
of Indulgences, and thus became involved
in controversy with Luther and the re-
formers, who attacked him vigorously.
Albert II., of Mecklenburg (d. 1412),
and King of Sweden (1363), was in-
volved in disastrous wars, and finally
defeated and imprisoned at Falkopping in
13SS. Being unable to pay the ransom
demanded, he abdicated, and died in a
convent.
Albert V., of Mecklenburg (d. 1547), ruled
jointly with his brother Heinrich. He
actively opposed the Lutheran doctrines,
and took arms on behalf of the Catholics,
while Heinrich fought on the side of the
Protestants.
Albert, Friedrich Rudolph (b. 1817),
Archduke of Austria, son of the Archduke
Charles, took part in the battle of Novara,
1849, and in 1866 defeated the Italians at
Custozza. After Sadowa he was appointed
commauder-in-chief of the Austrian army,
which post he held till 1869.
Albert or Albert!, Heinrich (b. 1604,
d. 1651), a musician and poet, appointed
Kapellmeister at Kuuigsberg in 1626.
He was an excellent lyrical poet, and
introduced into his country many improve-
ments of the Italian school.
Albert!, Benedetto, a Florentine of the
14th century, remarkable for his moder-
ation. At first he joined Salvestro de
Medici, but when the populace proceeded
to extremities, took the part of the higher
classes ; but finding favour with neither
Bide, went abroad and travelled in the Holy
Land.
Albert!, Leon Battista (b. 1404, d.
1472), Italian scholar, mathematician,
architect, painter and sculptor. One of
his best works is the exterior of the
church of San Francesco at Rimini; he
also wrote treatises on architecture and
painting.
Albert!, Salomon (b. 1540, d. 1600), an
eminent physician and anatomist ; he held
the chair of anatomy and philosophy at
Wittenberg.
Albertolli, II Cavaliere Gioconda (b.
1742, d. 1840), an eminent Italian architect
who especially excelled in interiors. The
Palazzo Reale in Naples, and the imperial
villa of Maria Theresa at Monza were
decorated by him.
Albertrandy, Jan Chrzriciel (b. 1731,
d. 1808), Polish antiquary and numismatist
of the 18th century. He was director of
the antiquities of King Stanislaus, and
founder of the society of " Les Amis des
Sciences."
Albertus Magnus (b. 1193, d. 1280), a man
of great sanctity and learning, was ap-
pointed Bishop of Ratisbon, and assisted at
the General Council of Lyons in 1274. He
left numerous works, and amongst his
scholars was the famous Thomas Aquinas.
Albery, James (b. 1832, d. 1889), dramatic
writer, wrote The Tico Hoses (1870), Pink
Dominoes (1877), and other pieces.
Albini, Franz Joseph (*. 1748, d. 1816).
Originally intended for the law, he early
showed great aptitude for politics, and was
employed on affairs of importance by the
Emperor Joseph II. and afterwards by the
Elector of Mayence. He ably represented
the Elector at the Congress of Rastadt
(1797), showed himself a skilful general in
encounters with Augereau (1800), and on
the death of the Emperor Frederick secured
the accession of Dalberg.
Albinus, Bernard (b. 1653, d. 1721), a
German physician and medical writer of
repute. He was physician to the Elector
Frederick William of Brandenburg, and
from 1702 occupied the chair of anatomy
and surgery at the university of Leydeu.
Albinus, Bernard Siegfried (*. 1697, d.
1770), son of the preceding, and reader of
anatomy and surgery at Leydeu. He also
held the chairs of anatomy, surgery, and
therapeutics, and was considered the best
German anatomist of his day.
Albinus, Clodius (d. 197), an able Roman
general, whose victories in Gaul gained
him much renown. On the death of Per-
tinax he was one of four competitors for
the empire, but was defeated and slain
by Severus in a sanguinary battle near
Lyons.
Albitte, Antoine Louis (b. 1760, d. 1812),
a French advocate who took a conspicuous
part in the revolution.
Alboin, King of the Lougobards or Lom-
bards (d. 574). He gained considerable re-
nown in exploits against the Gepidas, whcni
he succeeded in exterminating. After making
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himself master of great part of Italy ho
was murdered at Verona, at his wife's insti-
gation.
Alboni, Maria, Countess de Pepolo (f>.
1823), a celebrated contralto sin." r and
pupil of Rossini. After tinging in various
European cities, she came to London in
1847, and her appearance m Coveut Garden
was a very great success. She married
Count de Pepolo, and after his death
seldom appeared in public.
Albornoz, Gil Alvarez (*. 1300, d. 1367),
Archbishop of Toledo, fought against the
Moors, and took part in the siege of Alge-
ciras. Clement VI. made him a cardinal.
Innocent VII. despatched him to Rome as
cardinal legate, and in 1367 he was legate
at Bologna.
Albrechtsberg-er, Johann Georg (b. 1736,
d. 1809), a famous musical composer, who
numbered amongst his pupils Beethoven,
Eybler and Weigl. His great theoretical
•work Grundliche Anwersung zur Compo-
sition has been translated into English.
Albret, Csesar Phebus d' (h. 1614, d. 1676),
a marshal of France, rendered celebrated
by the wit of Scarron and Saint Evremond
under the name of Miassaus.
Albret, Charles, Sire d', Constable of
France in the 15th century. He com-
manded the French troops against the
English invaders, but in spite of immensely
superior numbers his troops were utterly
routed and himself slain at the battle of
Agincourt, 1415.
Albumazar (6. 776, d. 885), Persian as-
tronomer of great renown, who lived to an
extraordinary old age, and left about fifty
works, chiefly on astrology.
Albuquerque, Alfonse d' (b. 1453, d.
1515), Portuguese viceroy of the East Indies,
in the place of Almeida. Whilst distinguish-
ing himself by his wise and humane conduct,
he succeeded in conquering Goa, Malacca,
and Ceylon, and in relieving Malacca from
an attack by the Persians.
Alcseus, a Greek lyric poet who flourished
about 600 B.C., was a native of Mytilene,
from which he was banished by Pittacus,
but afterwards pardoned. Only fragments
of his works remain.
Alcamenes, a Greek sculptor, the pupil
and rival of Phidias. He nourished about
400 B.C.
Alcantara, San Pedro d' (h. 1499, d. 1562),
a religious ascetic, who founded a monastic
order, and spent his life in penitence and
self-denial. He was canonised by Cle-
ment DL
Alcester, Right Honourable Frederick
Beaut hump Paget Seymour, Baron, G.C.B.
(b. 18J)\ entered the royal navy in 1834, and
was <T.-;:ted full Admiral in 1882. He served
with distinction in the Burmese war of
1.VY2— 3, and in New Zealand, 1860-1, and
in 1877 was madeaK.C.B., and appointed
Conimander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean.
In 1880 he commanded the Allied fleet
posted on the Albanian coast, and in the war
with Egypt (1882) he held supreme com-
mand until the arrival of Sir Garnet
Wolseley. For his services he received the
thanks of Parliament, and was raised to the
peerage as Baron Alcester of Alcester.
Alcibiades (b. 450 B.C., d. 404 B.C.),
Athenian statesman, acquired political
power after the death of Cleon, and took a
large part in the Peloponuesian war. In 415
he was appointed one of the leaders of the
Sicilian expedition, but was detained in
Athens on a charge of sacrilege. He fled
to Sparta, and aided that state against
Athens. He subsequently took refuge with
the Persian Tissapherues. In 407 he re-
turned to Athens, but was again compelled
to fly in the following year. He waa
assassinated in Phrygia while with the
Persian satrap Pharuabazus.
Alcipliron, a Greek Sophist, who flourished
about UOO B.C.
Alcmaeon, a native of Lydia, who lived
I between 671 and 631 B.C., and was originally
a slave. He was the only lyrical poet of
i note that Sparta has produced.
Alcman, or Alcmseon, a native of Crotona,
| who lived in the sixth century B.C., and waa
! a pupil of Pythagoras. He was a distin-
! guished anatomist, wrote on physics, medi-
cine, and anatomy, and is said to have been
the first to dissect the human subject.
Alcock, John (b. 1430, d. 1500), Bishop of
Ely, English ecclesiastic and politician, waa
Master of the Rolls in 1462, and in 1471
went on a mission to Spain. The same
year he was made Bishop of Rochester, and
in 1477 was elevated to the see of Worcester.
In 1485 he was translated to Ely. He
founded Jesus College, Cambridge.
Alcock, Sir Rutherford (b. 1809), served
with distinction on the medical staff of
the British auxiliary forces employed in
Spain 1832—37. In 1844 he was appointed
consul at Foo-Chow, afterwards holding
several other official posts in China and
Japan. In 1876 he was president of the
Royal Geographical Society, and in 1882
presided over the Health department of the
Social Science Congress.
Alcott, Louisa May (b. 1833, a. 1888),
an American authoress. She began early
Ale
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to write, but met with no marked success
till the publication of Little Women
in 1867. She wrote many other books, the
material for her first volume, Hospital
Sketches, being gathered during her expe-
rience as nurse in the military hospital at
Washington, where she went in 1862.
Alcuin, English theologian, especially
noted as the coadjutor of Charlemagne
in his educational reforms. At the
invitation of that emperor he left Eng-
land, and settled in France, where he
founded several schools ; but on being made
Abbot of Tours he abandoned the Court
and devoted himself to theology.
Aldegraff, Heinrich (b. 1502, d. 1562),
painter and engraver, and pupil of Albert
Durer. Many of his paintings are in the
churches and convents of Germany.
Aldiielm, Saint (b. circa 641, d. 709), first
Bishop of Sherborne, and head of the
monastic school at Malmesbtiry. His great
learning attracted many pupils.
Aldinl, Giovanni (b. 1762, d. 1834), an
eminent natural philosopher, and nephew of
Galvani, whose discoveries he followed up.
He was professor of physics at Bologna.
Aldred, or Ealredus (d. 1096), Archbishop
of York in the 1 1 th century. He was esteemed
by Edward the Confessor, and after the
battle of Hastings tendered his allegiance to
William the Conqueror, whom he crowned
at Westminster Abbey.
Aldricli, Henry (b. 1647, d. 1710), was
educated at Westminster, and Christ Church,
Oxford, becoming afterwards dean of his
college. He is said to have designed the
chapel of Trinity College, and he exercised
his musical skill in composing religious
services. His System of Logic, written
in Latin, was used at Oxford for many
years.
Aldrich, Thomas Bailey (b. 1836), Ameri-
can poet and novelist, author of The Bells
(1855), Lyrics and Sonnets (1880), Daisy's
Necklace (1857), The Story of a Bod Boy
(1869), The Stillwater Tragedy (1880), and
other works.
Aldridge, Ira .d. 1867), a negro trage-
dian, known as the "African Roscius."
Born in America, he met with great success
on the English stage, especially in the
character of Othello. He visited various
European countries, and received many
decorations. He died on his way to
St. Petersburg.
Aldringer, Johann (d. 1634), a common
soldier in the imperial army. During
the Thirty Years' war he rose to the
02
position of field-marshal. He was slain
at the engagement of Landschut.
Aldrovaadri, Ulissi (b. 1522, d. 1607), an
Italian naturalist, and author of a valuable
and voluminous treatise on natural history.
Aleandro, Girolamo (b. 1480, d. 1542), a
learned cardinal, and Archbishop of Brindisi,
and a violent opposer of the reformed doc-
trines. He wrote a Greek lexicon and
grammar, and a Latin dictionary. He was
taken prisoner whilst with Francis I. at the
battle of Pavia.
Alegre Yves, Baron d' (d. 1512), a French
soldier who served in the Italian wars under
Charles VIII. and Louis XII., and was
made governor of Milan in 1499. He was
slain at the siege of Ravenna.
Alegre Yves, Marquis d' (6. 1653, d. 1735),
a brave and skilful soldier who fought under
Marshal Luxemburg at Fleurus, and dis-
tinguished himself (1690) by his brave,
though unsuccessful defence of Bonn. He
was taken prisoner by the English, but
subsequently liberated, and made marshal of
France in 1724.
Aleko Pasha, Prince Vogorides (b. 1830),
was appointed governor of Eastern Rou-
melia in 1879. He firmly opposed the
attempts of Russia to gain a footing in that
country, and succeeded in obtaining her
withdrawal, but was recalled in 1835.
Aleksseev, Feodor (b. 1755, d. 1821), a
Russian painter who studied at St. Peters-
burg and Venice, and attained considerable
eminence in architectural painting.
Aleman, Louis (b. 1399, d. 1459), cardinal,
and Archbishop of Aries. He was a president
of the Council of BasJe, and supported the
claim of Felix V. to the papal throne.
Aleman, Mateo (d. 1610), a Spanish writer
of the 16th century. His most celebrated
work is Guzman de Alfarache.
Alembert, Jean le Rond d' (b. Paris, 1717,
d. 1783), a celebrated scientist and mathe-
matician. He early showed great precocity,
and in spite of delicate health and the dis-
couragement of his Jansenist teachers,
acquired an insatiable love for study, and
especially for mathematics. He tried, but
in vain, to devote himself to the study of
medicine, as being more lucrative. His
tastes lay in other directions, and a clever
treatise on the integral calculus procured his
admission to the Academy of Science. Soon ,:
after, when only 26 years of age, he enunci-
ated the great principle of the conservation
of energy, which underlies every problem of
applied mathematics, and upon the recogni-
tion of which that science made great
advances. D'Alembert soon found himself
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celebrated, and iii correspondence with all
the distinguished men of his time. He was
pensioned by Frederick II. and Louis XV.,
but disappointment in a protracted love
affair gave him a severe shock, and he died
after long and severe suffering.
Alencon, Francois, Duke of (b. 1554, d.
1584), took arms against his brother,
Henry III., on behalf of the Huguenots, till
in 1576, having signed the Catholic League,
he took command of the army sent against
his former partisans. He sued, but in vain,
for the hand of Elizabeth of England. In
1582 he was acknowledged Duke of Brabant
and Count of Flanders, but on his death
without issue in 1584 his territories lapsed
to the Crown.
Alessi, Galeazzo (b. 1512, d. 1572), an
Italian architect, who built many splendid
Kilaces at Genoa. The church of Santa
aria di Cariguao may be considered his
masterpiece.
Alexander, Michael Solomon (b. 1 799, d.
1S45), an eminent rabbi of Jewish ex-
traction, but converted to Christianity in
1826, and consecrated first Bishop of the
United Church of England and Ireland in
Jerusalem in 1841.
Alexander, Stephen, LL.D. (b. 1806, d.
1883), an American astronomer who filled the
chairs of astronomy and mathematics at
Princeton till his retirement in 1878. He
has written a considerable number of papers
on scientific subjects, some of which have
been translated.
Alexander Aphrodiensis, a Carian, one of
the most celebrated commentators on Aris-
totle. Besides other works, he wrote an
inquiry into the opinions of Aristotle on
fate and free-will, entitled, A Treatise on
Fate. He died in the third century.
Alexander Balas, a man of low origin,
who ascended the throne of the Greek king-
dom of Syria 150 B.C. He was defeated in
a battle with his son-in-law, and subse-
quently treacherously murdered.
Alexander of Cappadocia, Bishop of
Cappadocia in the third century. He suffered
persecution under the Emperor Septimus
Severus, and being translated to the see of
Jerusalem, was again thrown into prison,
where he died.
Alexander of Hales (d. 1245), English
theologian, lectured at Paris, and after-
wards joined the Minorite order of Fran-
ciscans. His most celebrated work is
Summa Universa Theologies.
Alexander Jagellon, (*. 1461, d. 1506),
King of Poland and Duke of Lithuania,
succeeded his father ia 1501. His short
reign was marked by a Russian war, and
bv tin1 incursions of the Turks, who ravaged
Lithuania, but were totally defeated at
Kieck in 1506.
Alexander Jannseus, succeeded his brother
Aristobulus in 105 B.C. He extended his
dominions along the coasts of Palestine,
and crushed a rebellion of the Pharisees with
great cruelty.
Alexander Karageorgewitz (b. 1801),
son of Kara or Czerni Georges. He was
elected Prince of Servia in 1843, and for
some years devoted himself to the internal
improvement of his country ; but his foreign
policy provoked much discontent, and in
1857 the prince was forced to fly to Austria
and his throne was declared vacant. Later
he was accused of complicity in the assas-
sination of Prince Michel of Servia, and
being tried at Pesth, was sentenced to eight
years' imprisonment.
Alexander Nevskoi, Saint (b. 1219,
d. 1263), Prince of Novogorod. A brave
soldier, his surname of "Nevsky" was
given him after a signal victory over the
Swedes on the banks of the Neva. He sub-
mitted to Batu Khan, the Tartar chief, who
confirmed him in his dominions, and also
bestowed upon him the sovereignty of
Southern Russia.
Alexander the Paphlagonian, a noted
impostor of the second century. He was
initiated into the art of magic by his friend
Apollonius Tyanaeus, and claiming the gift
of prophecy, obtained great influence over
the people.
Alexander Severus (6. 205, d. 235),
Emperor of Rome, defeated the Persians in
232, but was murdered in Gaul by Maximin.
Alexander I., Prince of Bulgaria (b. 1857),
son of Alexander of Battenberg, was elected
Hereditary Prince, in compliance with the
terms of the Treaty of Berlin, by the Assem-
bly of Notables, gathered at Tirnova, in 1879.
He was at first received with enthusiasm,
which, however, soon cooled, and in 1881 he
felt obliged to demand the suspension of the
Assembly. Other complications arose. In
1885 Alexander was invited to add Eastern
Roumelia to his original territories, and at
the same time Servia declared war. The
Servian troops were repulsed, and an arm-
istice concluded. An attempt made by the
partisans of Russia to kidnap the prince
resulted ultimately in his triumphant return
to Sophia, but was shortly followed by his
abdication in 1886.
Alexander I., of Macedon, succeeded to the
throne B.C. 500. The Persians invaded hia
kingdom, and compelled him to join them in
the invasion of Greece.
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Alexander II., of Macedon (d. 367 B.C.),
succeeded to the throue B.C. 369. He waged
a successful war with Thessaly, but was
murdered by his brother Ptolemy.
Alexander III., of Macedon, suruamed
"The Great" (b. B.C. 356, d. B.C. 323), son
of Philip. He was educated partly by Aris-
totle, arid early gave proofs of skill and
courage. A revolt of Thebes at the com-
mencement of his reign was promptly
quelled with great severity ; then crossing
the Hellespont, he marched against the
Persians, whom he repeatedly defeated,
conquering Phoenicia and Egypt. After the
final defeat of Darius at Gaugamela, and
the capture of Babylon, Susa, and Perse-
polis, Alexander commenced the conquest
of India, but after crossing the Indus arid
penetrating as far as the Gauges, he was com-
pelled to return to Babylon, but paused at
Susa to celebrate his marriage with the
daughter of Darius. He died at Babylon
after a reign of about 13 years ; his
body was embalmed and taken to Alex-
andria, which city had been founded by him
and named in his honour.
Alexander I., Paulovich (b. 1777, d.
1825), Emperor of Kussia and King of
Poland. He succeeded to the throne in
1801, and showed himself a brave and
judicious monarch. He entered into a treaty
with England, Austria and Sweden to resist
the encroachments of France, but was de-
feated at the battles of Austerlitz, Eylau, and
Friedland, and compelled to make peace
with Napoleon at Tilsit. In 1S12 war again
broke out, and on the conclusion of peace in
1814- Alexander visited England and Poland.
He was succeeded on the throne by his
brother Nicholas.
Alexander II., Nicholavich, Emperor of
Kussia (b. 1818, d. ISbl), succeeded his father
as Czar in 1855. He married in 1 841 Maria,
daughter of the Grand Duke Louis II.
of Hesse Darmstadt. He terminated the
Crimean war soon after his accession by
the Treaty of Paris. Though trained by his
father to a military life, he devoted himself
to the internal affairs of his country,
improved the popular education, and eman-
cipated the Russian serfs. He waged war
successfully on Turkey in 1877-8. He was
assassinated in the streets of St. Petersburg.
Alexander III. (b. 1845), was the second
son of the preceding, whom he succeeded
to the imperial throne. He married in 1866
the Princess Dagmar of Denmark. His
reign has not been signalised by any re-
forms, and is chiefly notable for the ad-
vances made by Russia in Central Asia.
Alexander I., of Scotland (<?. 1124), ascended
the throne in 1107. He married the daughter
of Henry I. of England, and in spite of
ecclesiastical disputes respecting the inde-
pendence of the Scottish Church, contrived
to keep on good terms with his father-iu-law.
Alexander II., of Scotland (6. 1198, d.
124 9) i succeeded his father William the Lion
in 12] 4. He supported the English barons
in their revolt against King John, though
afterwards consenting to do homage to
his successor Henry III. He died whilst
attempting to quell a revolt in the Western
Highlands.
Alexander III., of Scotland (b. 1241, d.
1286), son of the preceding. While still a
child he married Margaret, daughter of
Henry III. of England, and afterwards did
homage to Edward I. During his reign the
great battle of Largs (1263) was fought be-
tween the Scottish and Norwegian troops,
and resulted in the withdrawal of the
invaders.
Alexander I. (Pope), Bishop of Rome
during the reign of Trajan. He is said to
have suffered martyrdom in 117.
Alexander II. (Pope), Auselmo Badagio
(d. 1073), born at Milan in the eleventh
century ; he studied at Bee in Normandy,
and took part in the controversies at Milan,
and on the death of Nicholas II. in 1061
was elected Pope. A rival pope, Honorius
II., supported by the emperor, was de-
feated, and his claim condemned by the
Council of Mantua.
Alexander III. (Pope), Rolando Ranuc-
cio (d. 1181), a member of the Bandiuelli
family in Sienna ; he held the chair of
theology at Bologna, and being elected by
a majority in 1150 was acknowledged as
Pope by Sicily, England and France. The
Emperor Frederick I. supported his rival,
and a lengthy war ensued, but after be-
sieging Alexandria in vain for seven
mouths, and being defeated at Legnano in
1176, the emperor agreed to recognise
Alexander.
Alexander IV. (Pope) (d. 1261), Rinaldo of
Anagni, Cardinal -Bishop of Ostia, waa
electedPope in 1254. Hecontinued the war
with the Two Sicilies which his predecessor
Innocent IV. had initiated, established In-
quisitors in France at the request of St.
Louis, and endeavoured to unite the Greek
and Latin churches.
Alexander V. (Pope), Peter Filargo
(d. 1410), a Franciscan monk and learned
divine who ascended the Papal throne at
the age of 70, and died at Bologna ten
months later.
Alexander VI. (Pope), Rodrigo Lenzoli
(Borgia) (b. 1431, d. 1503), a man of dissolute
life who was made cardinal and archbishop
by his uncle, Pope Calixtus III., and on the
death of Innocent VIII. secured his own
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election. He resorted to all sorts of un-
justifiable means of raising m-in-y. ami
thus arou<ed the opposition nf Savonarola,
who, however, was excommunicated ami
put to death.
^Alexander VII. (P.>pe). Fabio C\\i<4 (b.
1599, d. lM'>7), '-ut'i •• edrd to ili.' p-.ji -.Mm in
1G55. He exerted himself n .lily during Ihe
ravages of the plague in Home, aud did
much to improve that city.
Alexander VIII. (Pope), Pietro Otto-
boni (/'. 1( h>. 7. 1691), Bishop of Br< .
aiid afterwards of Frascati ; he b.-eame
Pope in 1'iSM, anil succee«lt'd in ref»nning
many abuse- ami re-establishing friendly
relations with France. He placed in the
Vatican the fine collections of books and
manuscripts left him by the Queen of
Sweden.
Alexandre, Jacques (b. Orleans, 1653, rf.
1734), a learned Benedictine, who wrote
several treatises on horology, and in 1G98
constructed a clock which showed both the
true and the mean time, and was the first
of the kind exhibited.
Alexandri Basil! (b. 1821), a Roumanian
author, who wrote both in prose and poetry,
and undertook the management of two
theatres at Jassy. He pleaded the cause of
his country through the French press, and
set the example of emancipating serfs.
Alexis, a comic poet, born in Magiia
Grecia about B.C. 391. His plays, which
were highly valued by Athenseus, are said
to have numbered 24-j, but only fragments
are extant.
Alexis, Mikhaylovich, surnamed " the
Wise" (6. 1G29, V. 1676), Czar of Russia,
succeeded to the throne in 164"). After
the revolt of 10 IS, consequent upon the
favouritism which he exhibited, Alexis
devoted himself to the interests of his
country, revising the laws, promoting com-
merce, and making improvements in both
the army and the Church. He also waged
war with Poland, and by the peace of
Andrusov added to his dominions the Polish
territories on the left bank of the Dnieper.
Alexis, Perrovich (b. 1690, d. 1718),
son of Peter the Great. His sad life and
miserable death are a dark stain on his
father's fame. Never on good terms, the
breach between father and son widened
with time, and at last, in spite of solemn
assurances that he would not be harmed,
Peter caused his son to be seized, im-
prisoned, and tried, and but too probably
poisoned in the prison where he died.
Alexis I., Alexius Comnenus, Emperor
of Constantinople (6. 1048, d. 1118), sou of
John Comneuus ; he served successively
r Pii.-as and Nioephorns III., but
his popularity reused the jealousy of the
1-tit'T, and Alexis \vas compelled to fly.
'I'll.' tro '[•>, hi'wver. proclaimed him f-m-
])••)•, .r, and < 'u!i-tantiii"ple was taken and
li.'im deposed in 1081. Alexis suc-
•d in protecting his country against
the Turks and the Normans, aud died after
a busy and intriguing reign.
Alexis II., Comuenus (6. 1167, d. 1183),
Emperor of Constantinople, ascended the
throne 1180. His reign was only nominal,
liie real power being wielded first
by his mother, and later by Andronicus
Comueuus, who usurped his throne and
caused him to be put to death.
Alexis III., Angelus (d. 1210), deposed
his brother Isaac, and assuming the name of
Comneuus was proclaimed Emperor of Con-
stantinople in 1195. On the arrival at
Constantinople of his nephew, Alexis fled,
and died in a monastery.
Alexis IV., Angelus (d. 1204), sou of
Isaac, succeeded his uncle in 1203, but
after reigning a few months only was mur-
dered by Alexis Ducas Murzuphlus.
Alexis V., Murzuphlus, murderer and
successor of the preceding, became Emperor
in 1204, but was attacked by crusaders, and
afterwards, for his conduct towards Alexis
IV., condemned to be thrown from the
Column of Theodosius at Constantinople.
Alfarabius (d. 950), a celebrated Arabian
philosopher, who wrote on numerous sub-
jects. After studying at Bagdad, he settled
at Damascus.
Alfaro y Gomez, dou Juan d' (b. 1640,
d. 1GSO), a Spanish painter of historical
pictures, and a pupil of Velasquez.
Alfez, Isaac (b. 1013, d. 1103), a
learned Jewish rabbi, who established a col-
lege and synagogue at Lugeua, and is noted
as the author of The Lesser Talmud.
Alfieri, Vittoria (6. 1749, d. 1803), one of
the greatest modern dramatists and poets
of Italy. Of good birth and indepeudeut
means, he travelled extensively in Europe
and produced his first tragedy, Cleopatra, in
1775. This was folio wed by numerous others,
; and meantime Alfi^eri had been captivated by
the charms of the* Countess of Albany, the
wife of the Young Pretender, with whom
he lived until his death. Towards the end
of his life he wrote comedies with extra-
ordinary rapidity, but his health broke
down and he died, having done much to
reform and elevate the Italian drama.
Alfonso I., of Aragon and Navarre, as-
cended the throne in 1104. A warlike
prince, who successfully waged war with
the Moors of Saragossa, slaying their king
Alf
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Alf
and capturing Saragossa. He, however,
failed in an attack upon Valencia and
Granada, being defeated by the Almora-
vides.
Alfonso II., of Aragon (6. 1152, d. 1196),
ascended the throne whilst still a child,
but proved a valiant soldier, defeating the
Moors of Valencia and Murcia, and assisting
in the taking of Cuenca.
Alfonso III., of Aragon (6. 1265, d.
1291), succeeded to the throne on the death
of his father, Pedro III., in 1285. He was,
however, compelled to transfer much of the
royal power to the Cortes.
Alfonso IV., of Aragon (b. 1299, d.
1366), ascended the throne on his brother's
abdication in 1327. His reign was chiefly
occupied by a war with Genoa.
Alfonso V., of Aragon. [See Alfonso I.,
of Naples.]
Alfonso I., of Asturias and Leon (b. 693,
d. 756), a wise and brave king, who, elected
in 739, succeeded in expelling the Moors
from Galicia, Leon and Castile. He also
established towns, built churches, and gener-
ally improved the internal condition of his
country.
Alfonso II., of Asturias and Leon (d. 842),
left a monastery for the throne in 791.
He carried on a successful war with the
Moors, and made Oviedo his capital.
Alfonso III., of Asturias and Leon
(d. 912), surnamed "the Great," suc-
ceeded his father on the throne of Oviedo
in 866. His reign was disturbed by wars
with the Moors, and by the revolts of his
Bubjects, and after many victories Alfonso
abdicated in 910, and died at Zamora.
Alfonso IV., of Leon (d. 932), surnamed
" The Monk," after an unsatisfactory reign
of sixteen years, resigned the throne to his
brother Ramiro, and entered a monastery.
A few mouths later he attempted to regain
his kingdom, but was defeated, and com-
pelled to re-enter the monastery, where he
died.
Alfonso V., of Leon (b. 994, d. 1028).
He ascended the throne on his father's
death in 999, and ruled well and wisely, at j
first under the regency of Melendo Gon- j
zalez, and then alone. He was slain by an j
arrow at the siege of Viseo.
Alfonso VL (b. 1030, d. 1109), of
Leon and I. of Castile, ascended the
tin-one of Leon and Asturias on his
father's death, while Castile and Galicia
fell to his brothers, Sancho and Garcia.
A war with Sancho resulted in Alfonso's
defeat and compulsory abdication, but j
on the death of Saiicho he succeeded to •
both kingdoms. He afterwards carried
on a vigorous war with the Moors, and in
spite of disastrous defeat at Zalaca, added
largely to his dominious. He died at
Toledo, leaving the throne to his daughter
Urraca.
Alfonso VII., of Leon. [See Alfonso I., of
Aragon, who claimed the throne of Leon
in right of his wife Urraca.]
Alfonso VIII., of Leon, and II. of Castile
(b. 1105, d. 1157), an able and excellent
monarch who, on the death of his mother,
Urraca, came into possession of the two
countries in 1126. He weakened the power
of the Moors, and caused himself to be
crowned Emperor of Spain.
Alfonso IX., of Leon (d. 1230), succeeded to
the throne in 1188. A war with Alphonse
of Castile was ended by the marriage of
Alfonso of Leon to his cousin Bereugaria
of Castile, but the Pope refused to sanction
a marriage of cousins, and laid the kingdom
under an interdict. The separation at
length took place, and the Pope reconciled
the two kings.
Alfonso X., of Leon and Castile (6. 1226,
d. 1284), succeeded to the throne in 1252 ;
aspired to be emperor of Germany, and in
1257 divided the election with Richard of
Cornwall. In 1272 he again unsuccessfully
attempted to gain the imperial crown. He
was driven from the throne by his son
Sancho. He was the most learned ruler of
his time.
Alfonso L, of Castile. [See Alfonso VI.,
of Leon.]
Alfonso IL, of Castile. [See Alfonso VIII.,
of Leon.]
Alfonso III., of Castile (b. 1155, d. 1214),
attacked the invading Moors, but was
defeated with great loss at the battle of
Alarcos in 1195 ; some years later he joined
the kings of Leon and Navarre against
their common foe, and distinguished himself
in the brilliant victory of Tolosa, 1212.
Alfonso X., of Castile. [See Alfonso X.,
of Leon.]
Alfonso XI., of Castpe (6. 1310, d. 1350),
displayed great administrative and martial
ability, quelling the internal disturbances of
his country, and, in conjunction with the
King of Portugal, gaining a brilliant victory
over the Moors at Tarifa.
Alfonso XII. (b. 1857, d. 1885), King of
Spain, was proclaimed king in 1875. His
reign was troubled by the continuance of
the Carlist war, as well as frequent dis-
turbances in the army and elsewhere, and
attempts were twice made on the king's life.
He married twice, his second wife being
Alf
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Alf
Maria Christina, daughter of the late Arch-
duke Charles Ferdinand, of Au.str.
Alfonso XIII., King of Spain (/,. 1SSC),
son of the preceding. As diivct heir to the
throne in the male line his l>irt!i gave great
satisfaction, and Quo»>u Christina was ap-
pointed regent during his minority.
Alfonso I., of Naples and Sicily, and V. of
Aragon (h. l:JS5, <l. 14">s). succeeded his
father as King of Aragon in 1!' . lh- ruled
also over Sicily and Sardinia, and taking part
with Joanna of Naples, compelled Louis to
raise the siege of that city, but afterwards
quarrelled with the queen, ami was forced
to leave Naples. On the death of Joanna
he seized the throne, and was proclaimed
king in 1442.
Alfonso II., of Naples (I. 1448, d. 1495),
succeeded to the throne in 1494, but caused
himself to be so hated for his cruelty and
licentiousness as to be left without followers,
and in a panic he abdicated, and took refuge
in a monastery, where he died.
Alfonso I., of Portugal, Dom Alfonso
Enrique (b. 1110, d. 11 So); he succeeded his
father as Count of Portugal, and defeating
the Moors at Castro-Verde and Camp d'
Ourique, was proclaimed king, and crowned
in 1143. He established his seat of govern-
ment at Lisbon, from which he had driven
the Moors, but was afterwards defeated and
taken prisoner by his son-in-law, Ferdi-
nand II., of Leon.
Alfonso II., of Portugal (6. 1185, d. 1223),
was successful in wars with the Moors,
but his extortions drew upon him the wrath
of the Pope, who laid his kingdom under
an interdict, and terrified Alfonso into res-
titution.
Alfonso III., of Portugal (b. 1210, d.
1279), son of the preceding, deposed his
elder brother, Sancho, and seized the throne
in 1 248. He was victorious over the Moors
and improved the condition of his people,
though, like his father, he quarrelled with
the Church, and was worsted in a struggle
with the Pope.
^Alfonso IV., of Portugal (6. 1290, d.
1357), was involved in wars, first with his
brother-in-law, Ferdinand IV. of Castile,
and later against the Moors, but his reign
was on the whole prosperous. The cruel
murder of his daughter-in-law. luez, re-
sulted in the rebellion and hostility of his
son.
Alfonso V., of Portugal (1. 1432, d. 14S1),
on the death of his uncle Pedro, who had
acted as regent, took the government into
his own hands. He waged war with the
Moors, and invaded Africa, but a war with
Spain proved unsuccessful, and Alfonso died
at Cintra, whilst in the act of retiring to a
convent.
Alfonso VI., of Portugal (6. 1643, d. 1683),
a weak and wick. d prince ; the government
was at first administered wisely by his
mother, but in 1(J(>2 she retired to a convent,
and Alfonso's conduct was then such as to
provoke a revolt, and he was deposed in
. while his brother Pedro assumed the
regency.
Alfonso (I.) d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, Mo-
deua and Ileggio (b. 1476, d. 1534); he was
successful in a war against the Venetians,
but was afterwards defeated by the troops
of the Pope, and temporarily lost Modeua
and Reggio.
Alfonso (II.) d'Este (d. 1597) succeeded
his father in 1599. He imprisoned the poet
Tasso in consequence of the latter 'a passion
for his sister.
% Alfonso (III.) d'Este (d. 1644) succeeded his
father in 1028, but shortly abdicated in
favour of his son Francesco, and retired
to a Capuchin convent, where he died.
Alfonso (IV.) d'Este (b. 1634, d. 1662)
succeeded his father in 1658. He reigned
only four years, but added Correggio to his
dominions.
Alford, The Very Rev. Henry, D.D.
(/». 1810, d. 1871), educated at Charmouth
and Ilminster, graduated at Cambridge,
and took holy orders in 1832 ; after some
years spent in the country he came to
London as minister of Quebec chapel
(1853), and in 1857 was made Dean of
Canterbury. He left several works, of
which the chief is his edition of the
Greek Testament; he also promoted and
assisted in the revision of the Authorised
Version.
Alfragan, a celebrated Arabian astro-
nomer, who flourished in the ninth century
at the court of Al Mam urn, and was the
author of Elements of Astronomy.
Alfred, a Saxon prince (d. 1036), son of
Ethelred II. and Emma, who was induced
to contest the English throne with his
brother Harold Harefoot, but was seized
and cruelly put to death at Ely.
Alfred the Great (b. Wantage, Berks,
849), the youngest sou of Ethel wulf, king of
the West Saxons, succeeded on the death
of his brother Ethelred to a throne threat-
ened by invasion from without and dissension
within. His first care was to drive off the
Danes, whom he is said to have encountered
in fifty-six battles by land and sea. The
great victory of Edington (878) led to the
peace of Wedmore, and Alfred was thus for
a time free to devote himself to the peaceful
reforms for which his name is renowned.
Alf
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All
Prominent amongst these are the establish-
ment of social order, the encouragement of
learning, and the founding of a national
tleet. Alfred died in 901, esteemed as a
religious and industrious man, and a wise
and learned king.
Alfric Abbas, or the "Abbot." A volu-
minous Saxon writer, who was Abbot of St.
Alban's in 969.
Algardi, Allessandro (d. 1654), a sculptor
of Bologna of the seventeenth century. His
most famous works are his Attila and St.
Leo, and his monument of Leo XI. in St.
Peter's, and his group of the Beheading of
St. Paul at Bologua. He died in 1654-.
Algarotti, Francesco, Count (d. 1764),
son of an Italian merchant ; he was
well versed in literature, and studied
at Bologua, and afterwards travelled
in Europe. Amongst his friends we
find many celebrated names, including
Voltaire and Pitt, and also Frederick the
Great, who made him. a count, and on his
death erected a monument at Pisa to his
memory.
Algazalli, Abou Ib Hamed (b. 1058, d.
1111), a distinguished Persian philosopher,
and director of the college of Bagdad. He
left numerous works, many of which are in
the Bibliotheque Imperiale at Paris.
Al-ghalib Billah (b. 1195, d. 1273), Mo-
hammed Ibn Yusui, founder of the dynasty
of the Naserites of Granada.
Al-hakem Ibn Atta, a celebrated impostor
of Khorassan in the eighth century, and the
subject of Moore's poem, The Veiled
Prophet of KJtorassan. He claimed to be
the Deity, wore a golden mask, and attracted
a considerable foil owing ; but being besieged
by the Imperial army, poisoned those with
him, burnt their bodies, and himself jumped
into a corrosive fluid which consumed him,
leaving no trace.
Al-hakem Biamrillah (6. 985, d. 1046),
sixth Caliph of Egypt of theFatimist dynasty.
He assumed the government while still a
child, and after a reign marked by several
acts of oppression, was murdered at the
instigation of his sister.
Al-hakem I. (b. 770, d. 822), third Sultan
of Cordova. His conduct was such as to
induce repeated revolts, which he suppressed
with horrible cruelty, driving some 30,000
families into exile.
Al-hakem II. (b. 913, d. 976), ninth Sultan
of Cordova. A man of learning and virtue,
his reign may be regarded as the Golden Age
of Arabian literature. He also erected many
public buildings, and made extensive addi-
tions to the great Mosque.
Al-hazen ((7. 1038), an Arabian mathema-
tician, who first discovered the eii'ect oi
refraction in astronomy.
All (b. 1084, d. 1142), second Sultan of
Africa and Spain. In war he was generally
successful, and won the battle of Uclea
1109.
All, surnamed Abu '1-Hassan (d. 1351), was
Sultan of Africa in the 14th century. He in-
vaded Spain, but was totally vanquished
there, and, returning home, was defeated
and put to death by a rebellious son.
All, surnamed Abu '1-Hassan, twentieth
Sultan of Granada of the dynasty of the
Naserites, succeeded to the throne in 1466,
and carried on a vigorous war with the
Christians. The loss of Alhama rilled his
subjects with consternation, and internal
dissensions breaking out, Ali, shortly before
his death, abdicated in favour of his brother.
Ali Abdul Shah I., King of Beejapoor
(d. 1 580), succeeded to the throne in 1557. He
restored the Shea in place of theSoonee creed,
and at first allied himself with Ram Raja of
Bejauugger, whom he afterwards attacked,
and with the assistance of three other kings
totally defeated at Talikote. Ali also
attacked the Portuguese, but was repulsed
with loss.
Ali Abdul Shah II. (6. 1637, d. 1672), King
of Beejapoor, succeeded to the throne in
1656. His reign was one of trouble and
warfare; his capital was besieged by Au-
rungzebe, and his general, Afzul Khan,
treacherously murdered.
Ali Bey, Pacha of Egypt (6. 1728,
d. 1772). A native of Circassia, he
was sold into Egypt as a child, but was
adopted by Ibrahim, lieutenant of the
Janissaries, and soon rose to be a member
of the council. He avenged the assassina-
tion of Ibrahim with his own hand, and
though forced to flee for a time, was recalled
aad placed at the head of the government.
He died of wounds received whilst crushing
a rebellion.
Ali Hekim Zade (b. 1688, d. 1758), a
Turkish minister-in-chief of the army du-
ring the war with Persia in 1732. Three
times vizier, he was deposed and exiled, but
afterwards was appointed Pasha of Egypt,
and on his dismissal retired to Constanti-
nople, where he died.
Ali Ibn Abi Talib (b. 602, d. 661),
a cousin and faithful adherent of Mo-
hammed, whose daughter he married.
He became caliph in 656, and succeeded in
repulsing the repeated attacks of his ene-
mies. He was a great monarch, and a good
and learned man.
Ali Ibn Eamnmd (d. 1017), founder of the
AH
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All
dynasty of Ha mimi elites. He wrested the
cro\vu of Cordova from Su'. ymun in 1016,
but made himself unpopular, aud was
assassinated.
Ali Mustapha (6. 1542, d. 1509), an his-
torian and poet, aud member of the corps
of the Janissaries. Selim appointed him
Pasha of D Jidda.
All Pacha, vizier of Jannina (b. 1744, d.
1822), the sou of an Albanian chief, on being
deprived of his territories h<- phuvd himself
at the head of a baud of robbers, which he
increased to the number of 2,UOO. aud carried
on a constant and cruel warfare for .">0 years.
He was killed by the Turks, and his head
sent to Constantinople.
Alibert, Jean Louis, Baron (b. 1776, d.
1837), physician to Louis XVIII. and
Charles X. of France. He was eminent for
his general learning, as well as his profes-
sional ability.
Alibrandi, riirolamo (b. Messina 1470, d.
1524), a Sicilian painter, called the "Ra-
phael of Messina." He was a pupil of
Leonardi da Vinci ; his masterpiece is in the
church of Candelora in Messina.
Alice Maud Mary, Princess of Great
Britain and Ireland, and Grand Duchess of
Hesse Darmstadt (b. 1843, d. 1878), was the
third child of Queen Victoria and the Prince
Consort. In 1862 she married the Grand
Duke of Hesse, and died of diphtheria in
1878. Her private letters to the Queen
have been published and widely circulated in
England.
Alison, Rev. Archibald (6. 1757, d. 1839),
an accomplished scholar and divine, and
author of Essays on the Nature and Prin-
ciples of Taste.
Alison, Sir Archibald (b. 1826), son of the
preceding. He was educated at the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, and called to the
Scottish bar, becoming deputy advocate in
1822. But he is best known as an historian,
his great work being The History of Europe
from the French Revolution to the Restoration
of the Bourbons, in recognition of which he
was made a baronet in 1852.
Alison, William Pulteney (b. 1790, d. 1859),
brother of the historian. He was a physician
and physiologist, did much to bring about
the improved poor law of Scotland, and was
author of several text-books on physiology
and medicine.
Alkari, Charles Valentin (6. 1813), an
accomplished pianist and composer, who
took the first prize at the Conservatoire when
only seven-and-a-half years old.
Alkemadi, Kornelis van (b. 1654, d. 1737),
a Dutch antiquarian and historian, who
m.ide valuable contributions to
sciences.
Allam, Andrew (b. 1055, d. 1685), a learned
Englishman, who left many works, and
i in the composition of the Athena
Oxo n tenses.
AUamand, Jean Nicholas Sebastian (6.
1713, d. ITS'), professor of philosophy in
the universities of Franeker and Leyden,
and the iirst to explain the properties of the
Ley den jar.
Allan, David (b. 1744, d. 1796), Scottish
painter, studied in Glasgow and Italy, and
settling in Edinburgh was appointed mas-
ter of the Trustees' Academy. He has
been called the " Scottish Hogarth."
Allan, Sir William, R.A. (b. Edinburgh,
1782, d. 1830). He studied painting in
Edinburgh and London, and then went to
Russia and obtained practice as a portrait
painter. In 1838 he was chosen president'
of the Royal Academy of Scotland, and in
1846 Her Majesty's principal limner for
Scotland. His best pictures are historical.
Alla-00-deen I, Emperor of Delhi (d.
1316), the first Mohammedan invader of
the Deccan. He attacked Ram Deo,
and obtained the cession of Ellichpoor ;
then returning to Delhi, he put his uncle, the
emperor, to death, and ascended the throne.
His death is attributed to poison.
AUa-oo-deen II. (d. 1457), tenth king of the
Bahmuny dynasty in the Deccan, succeeded
to the throne in 1435. He was a wise and
humane monarch, and effected many im-
provements in his kingdom.
Allatius, Leo (d. 1669), a Greek physician,
professor in the Greek college at Rome,
and librarian of the Vatican.
Allegri, Gregorio (b. 1580, d. 1652), a
great musician, composer of the celebrated
Miserere ; he held a post in the Pontifical
chapel of Urban VIII.
Allen, Ethan (b. 1737, d. 1789), American
revolutionary general, captured Ticonderoga
in 1775, but was taken prisoner at Montreal
and released in 1778.
Allen, Harrison (6. 1841). Entering
the medical profession, he served with
the army of the Potomac, and after-
wards in the Washington hospital. Since
1865 he has filled chairs of anatomy and
zoology at Pennsylvania and Philadelphia,
and has published Outlines of Comparative
Anatomy and Zoology, and other works.
Allen, Joel Asaph (6. Springfield, Mass.,
1838), naturalist. He was a pupil and
assistant of Agassiz, whom he accompanied
to Brazil in 1865. He has been connected
All
(27)
Aim
with other exploring parties, and various
museums and scientific societies, and has
written many papers on zoological subjects.
Allen, John (b, 1771, d. 1843), Scottish
author, travelled with Lord Holland in
1801, and was long a resident at Holland
House, London. He wrote largely for the
Edinburgh Review, and was author of
several historical works.
Allen, Oscar Dama (b. 1836), an American
chemist. He studied, and afterwards taught
in the Sheffield scientific school, and in 1873
was appointed to the chair of analytical
chemistry and metallurgy. Most of his in-
vestigations, which have been principally
directed to the rare metals, ca3«ium and
rubidium, have appeared in the American
Journal of Science,
Allen, Ralph (b. 1694, d. 1764), philan-
thropist, lived chiefly at Bath. He was a
friend of Pope, Pitt, and Fielding, and is
the original of the latter's " Squire All-
worthy."
Allen, Thomas (£. 1542, d. 1632), English
mathematician, antiquarian, and astrologer,
studied at Oxford, and spent his life in
studious retirement.
Allen, William (b. 1532, d. 1594), cardinal,
an opposer of Protestantism and a supporter
of Philip II. in his claim to the English
throne. Founded the English college at
Douay.
Allen, William (b. Mass., 1784, d. 1868),
an American writer, for some years president
of Bowdoin College, and author of an
American biographical dictionary, and other
works.
Allen, William (b. 1770, d. 1843). chemical
lecturer at Guy's Hospital, and president of
the Pharmaceutical Society. He was a
member of the Society of Friends, and origi-
nator of many philanthropic schemes.
AUestre or AUestry, Richard (b. 1619,
d, 1680), a Royalist and divine who took part
in the Civil wars of the 17th century, and
after several reverses was made Regius Pro-
fessor of Divinity at Oxford in 1663. He
left many works.
Alleyn, Edward (b. 1566, d. 1626), a
celebrated actor, and founder of Duhvich
College. His charity was re-constituted by
Act of Parliament in 1858, and the new
buildings opened in 1870.
AUier, Achille (6. 1807, d. 1836), a
French engraver, and author of ISAncien
Bourbonnais and liArt en Province.
AUingham, Mrs. Helen (b. 1848), the
eldest child of the late A. H. Paterson, M.D.
On her father's death she came to Loudou
and studied painting in the schools of the
Academy. Her sketches in black and white
first attracted notice; she afterwards
addressed herself to watercolour painting,
and has taken several portraits of Thomas
Carlyle.
Alllngnam, William (b. 1828, d. 1889), a
native of Ballyshaniion in the north-west of
Ireland, and author of many songs and
ballads. While editor of Fraser's he con-
tributed to it several prose articles.
Allioni, Carlo (b. 1725, d. 1804), an
Italian doctor of medicine and professor of
botany in the university of Turin ; his
great work Flora Pedemontana, was pub-
lished in 1785.
Allman, George James (b. 1812), an Irish
zoologist, graduated at Trinity College,
Dublin ; has filled the chair of natural
history at the Edinburgh University, and
been president of several scientific associa-
tions. His writings are chiefly on zoophytes
and kindred species, and include a History
of the Fresh- Water Polyzoa, and Hydroida
of the " Challenger " Expedition.
Allman, George Johnston (b. 1824), a
distinguished mathematician, and professor
of mathematics at Queen's College, Galway.
He has published papers on Greek
Geometry and on Some Properties of
Paraboloids.
Allman, William (b. 1776, d. 1846), an Irish
botanist and mathematician, he graduated
at Trinity College, Dublin, and was pro-
fessor of botany at the Dublin University
from 1809 to 1844. He was the first pro-
fessor to introduce the natural method of
classification, and is also author of a plan for
the Arrangement of Plants.
Allori, Alessandro, called Bronzino (b.
1535, d. 1607), a Florentine painter of
history and portraits. A Last Judgment
by him, after Michael Angelo Buonarroti, is
still at Rome.
Allori, Cristofano, called Bronzino (d.
1621). sou of the preceding, distinguished
as a painter of portraits and landscapes.
Allston, Washington (b. 1779, d. 1843),
an American painter ; he studied in London,
Paris, and Rome, and was the author of
Hints to Young Painters on the Study of
Landscape Painting.
Almada, Alvaro vas d', lived in the
15th century, and was created Count of
Avranches by Charles VI. of France. He
was devotedly attached to Dom Pedro,
Regent of Portugal, and on his death in the
battle of Alfarrobeira, rushed madly into
the fight and was slain.
Almagro, Diego d' (b. 1475, d. 1538), a
Al-M
(28)
Alp
Spanish soldier, the companion of Francesco
Pizarro iu the conquer oi' iVru. In spito
of considerable forbearance on Aim;.
side, quarrels between himself and the
i' Z irro brothers wen- frequent, and in
l")oS they bad rrcnui-r to anus, and oil
the plain of l.i^ Salinas Alina^ro was
defeated arid captured, aud afterwards put
to death.
Al-Mahadi, Abu Mohammed Obeydullah
(b. S~'-\, (/. (J.']4), launder of tlie dynasty of
the Fatimites in Kgypt and Al'riea. lie was
proclaimed Sultaxi in 'Jos, and founded the
city of Mehidia.
Alma-Tadema, Laurence. R.A. (h. 1836),
born in Friesland, painter, studied at
the Royal Academy of Antwerp, and was
afterwards pupil and assistant of Barou
Henry Leys. He settled in England,
wK'.-re his pictures found a ready wel-
come. He was elected A. R.A. in 1876 and
R.A. in 1879. Among his numerous works
are Phidias and the Elgin Marbles (ISoS), A
.ni Emperor (1871), The Sculpture Gal-
itni (1875), Sappho (1881), and The Roses of
Hi'ltogabalus (1688).
Almeida, Francesco d' (d. 1510), the first
Portuguese viceroy of India. He captured j
several towns on the east coast of Africa, and :
after a victory at Calicut fixed his seat of !
government at Cochin. Before resigning |
the command to Albuquerque, who was j
appointed to succeed him, he contrived to
defeat and disperse the fleets of Calicut and
Egypt
Almeida, Lorenzo d', called "the Macca-
beus of Portugal," was the son of the pre-
ceding, in whose victories he took part.
He was slain in an engagement with the
Egyptian fleet in 1508.
Almeida, Mauoel (b. 1580, d. 1646), a
learned Portuguese Jesuit, who worked as
missionary in India and Abyssinia.
Almeras, Louis, Baron (b. 1768, d. 182S),
a French general who served with gallantry
in the wars of Napoleon, but was taken
prisoner during the retreat from Russia.
Almodavar, Duke of (d. 1794), a Spanish
diplomatist and author of the eighteenth
century. He was ambassador at the courts
of Russia, Portugal, and England, and
made a translation of Raynal's History of
the East and West Indies.
Almon, John (b. 1738, d. 1805), a political
writer and publisher, contributed many
articles to the Gazetteer, and was prosecuted
and convicted for selling a reprint of
the Letters of Junius.
Almonde. Philip van (b. 1646, d. 1711), a
Dutch admiral, who served under De
Ruyter in the war agaiust England. He
af forwards came to England with William
of ( Grange, ml was prominent in the battles
of La lloguu and Vigo.
Almonte, Juan Nepomucenno (b. 1804, d.
1869 . a Mexican general who served under
Santa Anna in (lie campaign of Texas aud in
the war with America. In 1862 he was elected
president in the place of Juarez, but was
unable to form a government. He was
afterwards one of the triumvirate intrusted
with tlie management of Mexican affairs;
he was favourably treated by Maximilian,
but on the execution of the emperor fled to
Europe, where he died.
Almqvist, Karl Jonas Ludwig (b. 1793,
d. 1866), a Swedish writer, author of The
Book of the Thorn liose. Guilty of forgery
and murder, he was forced to fly, and took
refuge in America, where he became secre-
tary to President Lincoln, but afterwards
returned to Europe, where he died.
Al-mutassan BiUah (b. 1211, d. 1258),
Caliph of the Abbasides, a weak and ostenta-
tious king; he was betrayed by his vizier,
Ibn Alkami, imprisoned, and put to death.
Al-muten Abbi (d. 965), an Arabian poet
of great celebrity and highly esteemed by the
Sultan of Syria and Egypt. Some of his
poems have been translated.
A. L. 0. E., the nom de plume of Miss
Charlotte Tucker, a very prolific writer of
moral and religious story-books for children.
Aloisi, Baldassare (b. 1578, d. 1638), an
eminent portrait and historical painter,
sometimes called the " Italian Vandyke ;"
he was a pupil of the Carracci.
Alompra (b. 1710, d. 1760), founder of the
present dynasty of Burtnah. Upon the
conquest of Burrnah by the King of Pegu,
Alompra, then a petty chieftain, raised the
standard of rebellion, and after many
battles secured the independence of his
country. He died while preparing to quell
an insurrection of the Peguans.
Alopa. Lorenzo or Laureutius, a learned
Venetian, who became celebrated as a printer
at Florence, his classical works being
especially beautiful and correct.
Alp-arslan, " the strong lion " (b. 1030,
d. 1072), Sultan of the Seijuk Turks; he
succeeded to the throne in 1063, and soon
commenced a series of brilliant conquests in
Asia Minor, Syria, and the province of
Gurgistan. An encounter with the Greek
emperor resulted in a defeat, which, how-
ever, was compensated by a signal victory
in 1071.
Alpedrinha, Cardinal (Jorge da Costa)
(b. 1406, d. 150S), a distinguished theo-
logian, whose influence over Alfonso V«
Alp
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Alv
was very great. He was made Archbishop
of Lisbon, and afterwards cardinal.
Alphen, Hieronymus van (b. 1746, d. 1803),
a German Protestant divine, who filled the
chair of theology in the university of
Utrecht from 1715 till his death ; he left
many works on theological subjects.
Alphonsus, Abulensis or Tostatus (b.
1400, d. 1445), theologian, who distinguished
himself by his eloquence at the Council of
Basle in 1440.
Alphonsus, Sancta Maria (Alphonse)
(b. 1396, d. 1456), Spanish historian, canon
of the cathedral of Segovia, and after-
wards Bishop of Burgos.
Alpini, Prospero (6. 1553, d. 1616),
an Italian physician and botanist ; he tra-
velled in Europe and other countries, and
founded the botanical garden of Padua.
Alpteghin, founder of the Ghaznevide
dynasty. A freed slave, he entered the
anny and was made governor of Kho-
rassan, but refusing to recognise Mansur
as emperor, headed a revolt, and seized
Ghuznee, where he established himself.
Alquier, Charles Jean Marie (5. 1752,
d. 1826), a French diplomatist and revolu-
tionist ; he was sent as ambassador to
various countries by the Directory and
Napoleon, but on the restoration of the
Bourbons was banished till 1818.
Alsop, Richard (6. 1761, d. 1815), a
learned prebendary of Winchester cathedral,
who took part with Boyle in the controversy
with Bentley.
Alstromer, Jonas (b. 1685, d. 1761), a
Swede, remarkable for his perseverance and
energy. The child of poor parents, he made
his way to London, where he acquired a
considerable fortune. This he devoted to
the good of his country, and succeeded in
introducing many new industries, and es-
tablishing factories for cotton-printing and
stocking-weaving. He also founded the
Swedish academy.
Altdorfer, Albrecht (6. 1488, d. 1538),
a Bavarian painter and engraver on wood
and metal. His painting of the Battle of
Arbela is in the gallery of Munich.
Althen, Ehan (b. 1711, d. 1744), a Per-
sian of great energy and perseverance,
who, in spite of many difficulties, succeeded
in introducing the cultivation of madder into
Avignon. His services, however, were un-
recognised, and he died in poverty. In 18-21
a monument was erected to his memory.
Alunno, Niccolo (b. 1508, d. 1582), _ an
Italian artist, who painted the altar-piece
in the church of St. Nicholas at Foligni.
Alva, Ferdinand Alvarez de Toledo, Duke
of (b. 1508, d. 1582), Spanish governor of
the Netherlands under Philip II. of Spain,
and notorious for the merciless manner in
which he exercised his dictatorial power.
Under his rule more than 18,000 persons
were sent to the scaffold, and a revolt, headed
by the Prince of Orange, broke out, which,
after nearly forty years of war, resulted in
the independence of the provinces. Alva
was recalled in 1573, but he was soon given
the command of Portugal, which he quickly
conquered. Though his pride and cruelty
were excessive, he was undoubtedly the
greatest general of his age.
Alvarado, Alonzo (d. 1554), one of the
Spanish conquerors of Mexico and Peru under
Pizarro ; he was defeated and made prisoner
by Almagro. He afterwards joined De Cas-
tro (1542), and was lieutenant-general of
the army which suppressed the rebellion of
Gonzalo'Pizarro in 1548.
Alvarado, Pedro d' (d. 1541), one of the
Spanish conquerors of Mexico ; he took part
in the expedition and victories of Cortez, and
was entrusted with the command of the city
of Mexico, and afterwards made governor of
Guatemala and Honduras. He explored
California, and was killed soon after his
return in an expedition against Xalisco.
Alvarez, Affonso, a popular dramatic
writer of Portugal, supposed to have lived
in the 15th or 16th century. He was author
of many " autos " or religious plays.
Alvarez, Francisco, a Portuguese tra-
veller, who went on an embassy to
Abyssinia, and was the first to give to
Europe an account of the customs of that
country. He died in the 16th century.
Alvarez, Jose (b. 1768, d. 1827), a
Spanish sculptor who worked at Paris,
though many of his best works are at Madrid.
He showed himself a true patriot, and was
imprisoned for refusing to take the oath of
allegiance to Joseph Bonaparte as King of
Spain.
Alvarez, Juan, leader of the Mexican
revolution of 1855 ; he was proclaimed
president by the assembly at Cuernavaca,
but resigned within a few weeks in
favour of his minister Comonf ort, and taking
200,000 dollars, and such arms and ammuni-
tion as he could seize, returned with his
Indians to South Mexico.
Alvarez, Manoel (b. 1727, d. 1797), a
Spanish sculptor, suraamed "the Greek'
from the purity of his style. He was director
of the academy of San" Fernando, and was
chosen to model the equestrian statue of
Philip V.
Alv
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Ama
do Oriente, Fernao (6. 15 to,
d. 1595), a Portuguese poet, whose style
very closely resembles that of Camoens, to
whom his principal wok. A I.nxituni
Tran*formada, is son i* .ttrilmte<l.
Alvensleben, Philipp Karl, Count of
(6. 1745, </. 1802), a Prussian diplomatist
under Frederick the Great, was employed
as ambassador at various European courts,
and being appointed in 1790 minister of
foreign all'uirs, left an account of the war
fcrom the peace of Muuster to the peace of
Hubertsburg.
Alviano, Bartolomeo (b. 1455, d. 1515),
a Venetian general, celebrated for his exploits
against the Emperor Maximilian, especially
at the siege of Padua, and in the battles of
Lamotte and Marignano.
Alvinczy, Joseph (d. 1810), an Austrian
general, who served in several wars, and
was distinguished for his bravery. He
was marie generalissimo at the coronation
of the Empress Maria Louisa in 1808.
Al-walid I. (d. 715), succeeded his father
as caliph in 705. He built many splendid
mosques, and during his reign Sardinia and
Minorca were added to his dominions, and
Spain was conquered.
Al-walid II. succeeded as caliph in 743.
His dissolute conduct produced a revolt,
headed by Yezid, son of the preceding, and
Al-walid was defeated and beheaded.
Al-wathik BUlali (b. 821, d. 847), Caliph
of Bagdad, succeeded in 842. He was a
patron of learning and science, and a good
sovereign, though somewhat of a gourmand.
Al-wathik Billah, Sultan of Morocco in
12C7. He engaged in war with Abu Yusef,
by whose assistance he had secured the
throne, which, however, resulted in the
defeat and death of the Sultan.
Billah, Sultan of Murcia,
succeeded his father in 1237. He success-
fully Contested the rival claim of Abu Bekr
Aziz, but was defeated and driven from his
dominions by Jayme I. of Aragon in 1270.
'Aly Fehmy Pasha, one of Arabi Pasha's
supporters in the Egyptian insurrection in
1880 After Tel-el-Kebir he was sentenced
to banishment, but was subsequently par-
doned.
Aiaadeo, Giovanni Antonio, born in Pavia
in the loth century ; was one of the best
sculptors of his time, and has left some fine
bas-reliefs in the Certosa di Pavia, and at
Bergamo.
Amadeus, Prince (b. 1845), Duke of Aosta,
second son of Victor Emmanuel, King of
Italy, was chosen king of Spain in 1870,
abdicated in 1873, and retired to Italy. In
IRSShe married Princess Le'titia, daughter
of Prince Napoleon.
Amadeus I., Count of Savoy, the sou of
Humbert " of the white hands," and a
eiulaut of Berengarius II., became the
ancestor nf the house of Savoy.
Amadeus II., Count of Savoy (d. 1080),
nephew of the preceding, and son of
< >ii in and Adelaide. On the death of her
husband in 1000 Adelaide acted as regent
f .1- her sous Peter and Amadeus, and on
the death of Peter in 1078, Amadeus and
his mother ruled jointly.
Amadeus III., Count of Savoy (d. 1148),
grandson of the preceding ; repelled an
attack by Guy, Count of Venice, and
afterwards joined Louis VII. of France in
the crusade of 1147.
Amadeus IV., Count of Savoy (b. 1179,
d. 1253), son of the preceding, succeeded
his father in 1233. He aided the Emperor
Frederick II. in his wars with Lombardy.
Amadeus V., Count of Savoy (6. 1249,
d. 1323), surnamed "the Great," suc-
ceeded as Count of Savoy in 1285,
but later he was induced to divide the
duchy with his nephew Philip, who was the
lawful heir.
Amadeus VI., Count of Savoy, the
"Green Count" (b. 1334, d. 1383),
succeeded his father in 1343. He extended
his dominions, defeating the French at
Arbrette, and compelling the submission
of James, Prince of Achaia; and in 1360
made a successful expedition to the East.
Amadeus VII., Count of Savoy (b.
1360, d. 1391), the "Red Count,"
succeeded his father in 1383. He was
successful in war with the English and
Flemish, and during his rule added Nice to
his dominions.
Amadeus VIII. (6. 1383, d. 1451), "the
Pacific," Count and first Duke of Savoy,
extended his dominions, and received the
title of "Duke" from the Emperor Sigis-
mund, but in 1434 resigned the sovereignty
and retired to the priory of Ripaille. On
the deposition of Eugonius in 1439 Ama-
deus was elected Pope, and took the name
of Felix V., till he again retired in 1449.
Amadeus IX., Duke of Savoy (b. 1435, d.
1472), succeeded his father Louis in 1465.
His delicate health compelled the formation
of a regency, composed of his wife Yolande
and his brothers.
Amalaric (b. 502, d. 531) was elected king
of the Visigoths on the death of his father,
Alaric II. He married Clotildis, daughter
of Clovis I., but so persecuted her on ac-
i count of her faith that she appealed to hei
Ama
(31)
Ama
brother, ChilJebert, King of the Franks,
who came to her rescue, and defeated and
slew Amalaric.
Amalaswinth, " The Maid of the Amali "
(d. 534), daughter of Theodoric, King of the
East Goths, was a beautiful and learned
woman. She acted as regent during the
minority of her son Athahic, but on his
death associated with herself in the re-
gency her husband's nephew, Theodat. He,
however, soon f onned designs on the throne,
and caused the queen to be put to death.
Amalek was the son of Eliphaz, and
grandson of Esau, and one of the chieftains
of Edom.
Amalie (b. 1739, d. 1807), the widowed
Duchess of Saxe-Weimar, is remembered as
the patroness of literature, and her court
was the rendezvous of Goethe, Schiller and
others. She resigned the government to her
son in 1775.
Amalie, Anna (b. 1723, d. 1787), Princess
of Prussia, and sister of Frederick the Great.
She was distinguished for her musical talent
both as performer and composer.
Amalie, Elizabeth (b. 1602, d. 1651),
Landgravine of Hesse- Cassel. was en-
dowed with courage, beauty and wisdom.
On the death of her husband in 1637 she
assumed the regency, and took an active
part in the Thirty Years' war, obtaining a
peace favourable to the Protestants, as well
as an increase of territory. In 1648 she re-
signed the government to her son, and spent
the rest of her life ia retirement.
Amalric, Arnaud (d. 1225), was leader of
the crusade against the Albigenses in the 13th
century, and was rewarded for his services
with the Archbishopric of Narbonue. His
violence and cruelty were particularly pro-
minent at the taking of Beziers, and brought
him a severe reproof from the Pope. He
quarrelled with his former ally Simon de
Moutfort respecting his claims to the duchy
j>f Narbonne.
Amalteo, Giambattista (b. 1525, d. 1573),
secretary to Pius VII., and one of the best
poets of his day. His compositions in Latin
and Italian are of high merit.
Amalteo, Pomponia (b. 1505), painted in
oil and fresco. His best work, the Judg-
ment of Solomon, is in the church of San
Francisco at Udine.
Amar, Andre (b. 1750, d. Paris 1816), a
French advocate, who was deputy for Isere
in the National Convention in 1792, and
voted for the execution of Louis XVI. He
exercised his authority in the department of
Aiu with great zeal and cruelty, but during
the reign of Napoleon lived in obscurity.
Amara Sinha, a famous Hindoo poet,
flourished in the 1st century B.C. ; of his
numerous works only one, the Amara-
Jtosha, a Sanscrit vocabulary, is extant.
Amaral, Andreas do (d. 1521), a Portu-
guese Knight of St. John of Jerusalem, and
Grand Prior of Castile. During the siege
of Rhodes he was convicted of carrying on a
secret correspondence with the Sultan, and
was put to death.
Amaral, Antonio Castano do (6. 1747, d.
1819), a learned Portuguese historian and
author of the valuable Memoirs on the
Forms of Government and Customs of tJie
Nations that inhabited Portugal.
Amar-Durivier, Jean Augustin (b. 1765, d.
Paris 1837), devoted himself to the cause of
education in Lyons, and contributed largely
to the educational works of his day. lu
1809 he was appointed conservator of the
Mazarin library in Paris.
Amari, Michele (b. 1806), was born and
educated at Palermo, and took a keen in-
terest in the politics of his country during
the first half of the century. Being forced,
for political reasons, to leave his country, he
spent some years in Paris, where he studied
Arabic, and in 1859 was appointed professor
of Arabic in the imperial institute at Flor-
ence. In 1862 he was minister of education.
His fame, however, rests mainly upon his
work as an author; the History of the
Sicilian Vespers (1842) has been translated
into English, French, and German, while
his greatest work, the Stona dei Mussul-
mani di Sic-ilia, was not completed till 1872.
Amaseo, Romolo (b. 1489, d. 1552), scholar
and orator, filled the chairs of Literaa
Humaniores in Padua, Bologna and Rome,
and left a considerable number of works.
Amasis, King of Egypt in the sixth cen-
tury B.C. He deposed Apries, and is said to
have been the first conqueror of Cyrus. He
erected the monolith temple at Sais, en-
couraged commerce, and enjoyed a pros-
perous reign.
Amat, Feliz (b. 1750, d. 1824), a man of
precocious development of mind and body.
He was professor, and afterwards director,
of the ecclesiastical seminary at Barcelona.
In 1803 he was made Abbot of San Ilde-
fouso and Archbishop of Palmyra, and
though he had actively resisted the French
in 1790, his conduct towards them in 1808
rendered him unpopular, and he retired to a
Franciscan convent, where he died. He left
many works, amongst them being an eccle-
| siastical history and a Spanish -Catalan die-
tiouary.
Amatl, a Cremonese family, several mem-
bers of which (notably Niccolo) in the 16th
Ania
(32)
Anie
and 17th centuries were famed as violiu-
makers.
Amato, Giovanni Antonio d', surnamed
H Vecchio (b. 1475, d. lo/if)), a distin-
guished Italian painter, \rho worked both
ill oil arid fresco, but confined himself to
sacred subjects. His best work, The
Jtispute on the Sacrament, is in the cathe-
dral at Naples.
Amato, Giovanni Antonio d' (6. 1535, d.
1598), nephew and pupil of the preceding.
His pictures are in the style of Titian and
are distinguished by their tine colouring.
Amaury, Amalricus. a native of Chartres,
whose doctrines brought upon him the con-
demnation of Innocent III. His dogmas were
collected in a book called Physion, which
is now lost.
Amaury, Aimery, or Amalric 1. (b. 1135,
d. 1173), King of Jerusalem; succeeded his
brother Baldwin III. in 1162. His rei<ru is
a continual record of wars, in which Amaury
met with varying fortune, and his last years
were spent in protecting his country against
the incursions of Saladin.
Amaury II., or Aimery de Lusignan (d.
1205), succeeded to the throne of Cyprus on
the death of his brother Guy in 1194, and
obtained that of Jerusalem in right of his
wife, the daughter of Amaury I. He cap-
tured Beyrout from the Saracens, but was
compelled to make a truce with the Turks.
Amaziah, son of Joash and eighth king of
Judah. He was victorious over the Edom-
ites, but was defeated and made prisoner by
Joash, King of Israel.
Amberger, Christoph (b. 1490, d. 1569),
a pupil of the elder Holbein ; he painted in
oil aud fresco, and many of his works are
at Munich and Augsberg
Ambiorix, King of the Eburones. He
headed a revolt of the Belgians against
Julius Caesar and was at first successful. In
later attacks upon Quintus Cicero and
Labienus he was repulsed, but gave such
trouble to the Romans that Caesar himself
led an army into his territories and
ravaged them, but he escaped across the
Rhine.
Amboise, Charles d' (6. 1473, d. 1511),
marshal of France), took part in the Italian
wars and eu joyed the confidence of Louis
Amboise, George d' (5. 1460, d. 1510), a
French cardinal aud minister of state. He
was successively Bishop of Moutauban,
Archbishop of Xarboime, and of Rouen, and
after acquiring considerable popularity as
prime minister under Louis XII. was made
cardinal and appointed legate in France,
where he effected great reforms among the
religious orders.
Ambra, Francesco d' (<l. 1558), a Flor-
entine port, wrote three excellent comedies,
In >ides other works
Ambrogio or Ambrosip, Teseo (b. 1469,
d. 1">10), a celebrated Italian orientalist who
was appointed }>y Leo X. professor of Syriao
and Chaldee at Bologna.
Ambrosius, Aureliauus (d. 497), a Erftfsh
prince, who succeeded in deposing Vortigera
and being himself proclaimed king in 465.
He afterwards fought with the Saxons
under Heugist, whom he finally overcame
and put to death in 4S.>.
Ambrosius or Ambrose, Saint, Bishop of
Milan (b. 333 or 334, d. 397), was remarkable
for his calm bravery and impartial adminis-
tration of justice. The sou of a Praetorian
prefect and himself Governor of Liguria, he
was called in 374, whilst still uubaptised, to
the bishopric of Milan, and distinguished
himself by his opposition to Ariauism and
Paganism, as well as to the crimes of the
Emperor. He was also the first great re-
former of church music, and left numerous
religious works.
Ambrosius, Andre Sertis Kamenski (6.
1708, d. 1771), was a Russian, who assumed
the name Ambrosius when he became a
monk, and in 1761 was appointed Arch-
bishop of Moscow. He was distinguished
for his piety, learning, and active benevo-
lence, but in the time of the plague in Mos-
cow was seized by the infuriated populace
and cruelly put to death.
Ambrozy, Wenzel Bernard (b. 1723, d.
1806), a Bohemian painter of the Venetian
school, who Avas patronised by Maria Theresa
and the Emperor Joseph II.
Ambuehl, Johann Ludwig (b. 1750, d.
1800), a Swiss poet, historian, and novelist.
Ameilhon, Hubert Pascal (6. 1730, d.
1811), French historian and philologist.
Ameipsias, a Greek comic poet, the con-
temporary of Aristophanes, in competition
with whom he twice gained the prize. Only
fragments of his works remain.
Amelie, Marie (6. 1782, d. 1866), Queen of
the French, married Louis Philippe in 1809,
was daughter of Ferdinand, first king of
the Two Sicilies.
Amelius, Martin (b. 1526, d. 1590), a dis-
tinguished chancellor of Baden and an
energetic advocate of the reformed religion.
Amelotde la Houssaye, Abraham Nicholas
(b. 1634, d. 1706). a French writer, who was
secretary to the embassy at Venice and
wrote a history of the government of that
Amo
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ATM Tit
place, which gave such offence that its
author was imprisoned in the Bastille.
Amelotte, Denys (b. 1606, d. 1678),
Superior of the Oratory at Paris, translated
the New Testament.
Ameiunglii, Girolamo, an Italian poet of
the sixteenth century, called II Gobbo
di Pisa, inventor of the burlesque style
of poetry. His principal poem, La Gigantea,
was published in 1547.
Amenophis L, King of Egypt in 1778 B.C.,
was a warlike prince who reigned twenty-
one years.
AmenopMs H, Bang of Egypt, ascended
the throne in 1687 B.C. After many years of
war he succeeded in expelling the " Shepherd
Kings."
Amenopllis IIL, grandson of the pre-
ceding, a celebrated Egyptian king, at
first shared his throne with a brother, on
whose death he reigned alone, and erected
the temple-palace of Luxor and other colossal
works. A statue of this king stands in the
British Museum.
AmenopMs IV. succeeded Sesostris on the
Egyptian throne in 1322 B.C.
Amerbacn, Boniface (6. 1495, d. 1562),
the youngest son of Johann, and a frieud of
Erasmus ; he was professor of civil law in
the university of Basle, and was a good
Latin and Hebrew scholar,
Axnerbacti, Johann (d. 1515), a learned
and wealthy printer of Basle, and the first
to use Roman in the place of Gothic^ and
Italian type. He published excellent edi-
tions of the works of St. Augustine and St.
Ambrose, and was preparing to print those
of St. Jerome at the time of his death.
Amerigo Vespucci (b. Florence, 1451, d.
Seville, 1512), was an Italian navigator who
visited Brazil in 1503. He had previously
made several voyages of exploration, and
claimed priority over Cabot and Columbus
in reaching the mainland, named in his
honour America, but the best authorities
consider this claim to be unfounded.
Amerpack, Veit or Veitus (6. 1506, d.
1557), a learned professor of philosophy at
Ingoldstadt, left many works of value.
Ames, Fisher (b. 1758, d. 1808), American
lawyer and politician who sat in the Massa-
chusetts Convention, and was afterwards a
member of Congress, and famed for his
eloquence. He retired from public life with
Washington, and devoting himself to literary
pursuits, was elected president of Harvard
College in 1804.
Ames, Joseph (b. 1689, d. 1759), an iron-
monger of London, evinced a great love for
antiquities, and wrote an historical account
of printing in England from 1471 to 1600.
He was elected fellow of the Society of An-
tiquaries and member of the Royal
Society.
Amherst, Jeffrey, Lord (b. 1717, d.
1797), British general, served on the Con-
tinent and in America, where he succeeded
Abercrombie ascommander-in-chief. Here
he was remarkably successful, and after
many victories, Montreal surrendered and
Newfoundland was recovered from the
French. He was raised to the peerage in
1776, and was appointed field-marshal in
1796.
Amici, Giambattista (b. 1784, d. 1863),
professor of mathematics at Modena and
director of the observatory at Florence,
made several important discoveries in botany
and zoology.
Amico, Vito Maria (6. 1693, d. 1762), a
Benedictine monk, who was prior of his con-
vent and historiographer of Sicily ; he wrote
several works on the histories of his country
and monastic order.
Amiconi or Amigoni, Jacopo (b. 1675, d.
1752), Italian painter who travelled in
Europe, and visited England in 1729.
Amiot or Amyot, Joseph (b. 1718. d.
Pekin, 1794), a Jesuit missionary who went
in 1750 to China, and after studying the
language and literature, wrote an important
history of that country.
Amletli, Amlod, or Hamlet, a prince of
Jutland, the original of Shakespere's tragedy
of Hamlet. His history, which is largely
| fictitious, represents him as slaying his
uncle and the courtiers, and after travelling
in England and Scotland, returning to Jut-
land, where he was killed by Vigleth.
Amman, Jost (6. 1539, d. 1591), an ex-
tremely prolific and popular designer; he
also painted well in oils.
Ammannati, Bartolomeo (6. 1511, d.
1589), an Italian sculptor, architect, and
engineer, a pupil of Bandinelli and of
Sansovino. He worked in Rome, Flor-
ence, Naples and elsewhere, and planned
the Ponte della Trinita, which bridges the
Arno at Florence.
Ammianus, Marcellinus, an historian of
the fourth century, who served in Gaul,
Persia, Mesopotamia, and in the Persian
wars under Julian. His history, which has
been praised for its accuracy and impar-
tiality, is a continuation of that of Tacitus
to the time of Ammianus.
Ammirato, Scipione (6. 1531, d. 1601), a
Neapolitan historian and genealogist ; he was
called the modern Livy, and wrote an erudite
history of Florence, as well as several
biographies.
Amm
(34)
Amy
Ammonlo, Andrea (f>. 1177, <!. 1617 .
scholar aii'i y f T 1
to 1 !• ;.i v Y 1 1 1., and was a
friend of KrasnuH ami Sir Thoma-s M
Am.monius, a sur ;• >u of Al'-vindria f
floun^h'-U in the third ceutury U.C., tho in-
vent, r of lithotrity.
Ammonius, tho pon of Hennias, was a
ceK'hr.iii-d tea. in r <>f philosophy at Alex-
andria in the sixth century. !!•• was a Ni ••>-
Platunist, but wrote several commentarirs
ou Aristotle, wliuiu he greatly admired.
Amo, Anton "\Vilhclm ('). 170',), a native
of Guim-a, was adopted by the Duke of
Brunswick and t>dueat«-d at the universities
of Halle and Witteulr T,U', where he distin-
guished himself by his talents and learning.
He rose to be councillor of state in Berlin,
but oil tho death of his adopted father he
is said to have returned to the Gold Coast.
Amontons, Guillaume (6. 1063, d. 1705),
a Frenchman learned in natural philo-
sophy, whoso inventions did much for the
promotion of science. He constructed a
new thermometer, hygroscope, and other in-
struments, and is by some said to have in-
vented the telegraph.
Amorettl, Carlo (I. 1741, d. 1816), Italian
naturalist and geographer, wrote at Milan
an interesting collection of literary memoirs.
His best-known work ia A Journey j rum
Milan to the Thrtx Lakes.
Amorosi, Antonio, an Italian painter of
the eighteenth century, who especially ex-
celled in humorous pictures of low life.
Amory, Thomas (6. 1691, d. 178S), English
humurous writer, author of The Life and
Opinions of John Btutcle, Esq.
Amos, oue of the minor prophets, was
a native of Tekoa, a village about eleven
miles south of Jerusalem.
Amour, Guillaume de Saint (d. 1272),
canon of Beauvais, and professor of philo-
sophy in the university of Paris, took a
prominent part in the dispute between the
professors and the Dominicans, and was
the chief associate of Robert Sorbonne in
founding the establishment of the Sorbonne.
Ampere, Andre Marie (b. 1775, d. 1836),
a distinguished electrician, who may be
considered the father of electro-magnetics.
He first attracted attention by a treatise on
the Theory of Probability, published in 1 ,M »2,
and obtained a post as teacher, and ulti-
mately as professor, at the polytechnic
school in Paris. In 1820 Orsted's discovery
of the effect of voltaic currents upon mag-
netic needles was brought to his notice,
and Ampere verified and completed this, and
showed also the mutual effect of currents
up"M r.ieh other, from which ho
ne\v the..ry «>t" inagneli.Mii.
Academy OI Seienees recognised his services,
and ia name to cue of tho rlectro-
taip&re'i l;Lst- gn-at work
!h<- el. i •iiir.-itMii i .f tho sciences, but
this he did not live to lini -h.
Ampere, Jean Jacques Antoine (b. 1SOO,
d. l.v i , Min of the preceding, an historian
and hterarv critic of repute, became pn>-
>r of French literary history at the
Col It-go do France.
Amphilochus, Saint (d. 399), Bishop of
Icouium, and tho contemporary and 1'riend
of llasil and Gregory Nazianzen. He took
part in the Council of Constantinople, and
was a xealous opponent of the Aria us.
AmpthUl, Right Hon. Odo William Leo-
pold liussell, Baron (b. 1829, d. ISM), third
sou of Major-General Lord George William
Russell. He was educated chiefly on the
Continent, and acquired great proficiency in
modern languages, and entering the diplo-
matic service, was employed in several
countries as attache to the English embassy
and otherwise. In 1857 he was appointed
ambassador to Berlin, and with Lords
Beaconsfield and Salisbury represented
England at the Congress of Berlin, 1878.
He was created Baron Ampthill of Ampthill
in 1S81.
Amm Ibn Othinan, a learned Persian of
the b'th century, who compiled the Arabic
grammar and syntax known as The Book.
Amru-Ibnu-1-Ass (b. 600, d. 663), an
opponent, but afterwards a supporter and
general of Mohammed, on whose death he
fought in Palestine and Egypt, capturing
Jerusalem and Alexandria, and destroying
the library at the latter place.
Amru-1-Kays, a celebrated Persian poet,
who wrote one of the Moallakat or poems
suspended in the temple at Mecca,
Amsdorf, Nicholas von (b. 1483, d. 156-5),
a disciple and supporter of Luther, whom he
assisted in the translation of the Bible. He
was appointed Bishop of Naumberg in 1524.
Amulius, King of Alba (d. B.C. 714), de-
throned his brother Numitor, and forced the
latter's daughter, Rhea Silvia, to become a
vestal virgin ; she became, however, mother
of Romulus and Remus, who slew the
usurper.
Amussat, Jean Zulema (6. 1796, d. 1856),
a French surgeon, eminent for his researches
and writings, especially those on the vas-
cular system.
Amynander, a king of Athamania, who
lived in the 2nd and 3rd centuries B.C., acted
as mediator between Philip of Hacedou
Amy
(35)
Ana
and the JEtolians, and also took part in the
wars between Rome and Macedon.
Amyntas I., King of Macedonia, came to
the throne B.C. 510 ; he became tributary
for his dominions to the Persians.
Amyntas II., King of Macedonia (d. B.C.
370) B.C. 394. He was defeated by the Illy-
rians, but with the help of Thessaly and
Sparta recovered his throne.
Amyntas HI., King of Macedonia, was
only an infant on his father's death, and his
uncle Philip assumed first the regency, and
then the throne. He was put to death for
conspiring against his cousin Alexander the
Great.
Amyot, Jacques (6. 1513, d. 1593), pro-
fessor of Greek and Latin at the College
of France, afterwards preceptor to the sons
of Henry II. Charles IX. appointed him
Bishop of Auxerre and Grand Almoner of
France. His greatest work was a translation
of the Lives of Plutarch.
Amyrant (Amyraldus), Moise, (6. 1596, d.
1664), a Protestant theologian and professor
of the university of Saumur, who excited a
violent controversy by a defence of Calvin's
doctrine of predestination.
Anacaona (d. 1503), Queen of Xaragua in
Hayti. Her husband, the chief of Maguana,
being captured and carried off by Colum-
bns, she went to her brother the King of
Xaragua, who associated her with him in the
government. She treated the Spaniards
kindly and honourably, but was treacher-
ously seized and put to death by Ovando,
the Spanish governor.
Anacletus II., a cardinal of wealth and
learning ; he was elected by a minority as
Pope, and maintained his position against
Innocent II., till his death in 1138.
Anacreon (6. circa 560), a Greek lyric poet
who lived at Samos under the patronage
of the tyrant Polycrates, and afterwards at
Athens. His poems were admirably trans-
lated by Moore.
Ananias, High Priest of the Jews, was
appointed in A.D. 48, but was deposed before
Felix left the province. He was a violent
and lawless man and was assassinated by
the sicarii at the beginning of the last Jewish
war.
Ananias, an early professor of Christianity
who with his wife attempted to deceive the
apostles, but was punished with instant
death.
Ananias, a Christian of Damascus who by
Divine direction sought out Saul in his
blinduess and comforted and healed him.
He is said to have been afterwards Bishop of
Damascus, and to have suffered martyrdom.
D 2
Ananus, the Elder, or Annas, High Priest
under the governorship of Cyrenius, be-
fore whom our Lord was first brought by
the Jews. He is frequently mentioned by
Josephus.
Ananus, the Younger (d. 67), son of the
preceding. He was made High Priest by
Agrippa, but after three months, during
which he had put James the Less to death,
he was deposed. He courageously opposed
the Zealots, who had seized the temple and
succeeded in gaming the outer court, bul
was attacked and slain by the Idumeans.
Anarawd or Anarod (d. 913), a Welsh
prince who in 867 succeeded his father
Roderick to the throne of North Wales. He
received the Britons who were driven from
Cumberland, granted them land and assisted
them in defeating the Saxons at the battle
of Dial Rodri, near Conway.
Anarcharsis, a celebrated Scythian philo-
sopher, who lived in the 16th century B.C.,
and whose remarks, as recorded by Lucian
and other writers, show him to have been a
shrewd and just thinker. He spent some
time in Athens, where he became intimate
with Solon , and afterwards visited Croesus,
King of Lydia ; but on his return home was
put to death by his brother the king.
Anasco, Juan de, a Spanish adventurer,
who under Heruando de Soto assisted in the
conquest of Florida.
Anastatia, Saint, a pious and charitable
Christian lady who suffered martyrdom in
the Diocletian persecution in 303.
Anastatius, anti-Pope, Cardinal of St.
Marcellus, was set up by the Emperor*
Lothaire and Louis in opposition to Benedict
III. in 855.
Anastatius Sinaita (d. 593), Patriarch of
Antioch, was expelled from his see by Justin
II. in 570, but was afterwards restored.
Anastatius Sinaita (d. 608), the Younger,
Patriarch of Antioch and successor of the
preceding. He was zealous in his efforts to
convert the Jews, who however revolted,
and put him to death with great cruelty.
Anastatius I. (&. 430, d. 518), Emperor of
Constantinople, called Dicorus on account
of the different colours of his eyes. Of
humble origin, he entered the life-guards
of the Emperor Zeiio, on whoso death in
491 he was raised to the throne. A war
with Persia and an invasion of the Huns
were among the troubles of his reign, while
in 514 Vitaliauus besieged Constantinople
and defeated Anastatius by land and sea.
Anastatius II. (d. 719), Emperor of
Constantinople. On the deposition of the
Ana
(36)
Auc
Emperor K./i minister '
• L to the I i the
l At.
iu '1 ; . . \v .
:ui')j)le, uinl A . . . .:.•(! and
retired to a ci.nvi-ut in 71<>. In ;in .ill. mt>f
to r«L';i:i tho tnr»n«' In' w.us brtni|rd an-l
boh
Anastatius I. (./. 401). Pope, a oonl
;. .iy i.i Ch i", A and
Jerome; he ; led the i 'hurdies of
od AntiOCh, AOli OppO* 'pinions
of i '
Anastatius II. ('/. 4L'^\ 1' • ; - elected
in 1 : v unly • : > create
harm >:.y between the Eastern and Western
Chi.
Anastatius IIL (d. 913), Pope, a man of
mild disposition and moderate views.
Anastatius IV. (d. 1154), Pope, a man
of Y : and charity, who succeeded
Eugenius III. in 1153.
Anatolius of Alexandria, Saint, Bishop of
Laouieua m the 3rd century, aud oue of the
most learned meu of his tune. He was the
first Christian who taught the philosophy of
Aristotle, and is said to have suffered mar-
tyrdom.
Anaxagoras (b. B.C. 500, d. B.C. 428), a
celebrated Greek philosopher who taught at
Athens, and numbered amongst his pupils
many distinguished men, including Euripides
and Pericles, and probably Thucytiides and
Socrates. :Being banished on a charge of
atheism, he retired to Lampsacus, where he
remained undisturbed till his death. He
explained his views in a treatise on Na-
ture.
Anaxandxides, a Greek comic poet of the
4th century B.C., bom at Khodes; was
accused of Libelling the government, and
starved to death at Athens.
Anaxarchus of Abdera (d. B.C. 323), a
Greek philosopher of the school of Leucippus
and Democritus, and B. friend of Alexander
the Great. He was cruelly put to death by
the tyrant of Cyprus.
Anaximander (b. 6K) B.C., d. 547 B.C.) was
the friend and disciple of Thales of Miletus,
and was a distinguished astrouomer. He
first noticed the obliquity of the ecliptic,
taught that the moon shines by reflected
light, and that the earth is globular.
Anaximenes (6. 528 B.C.), the pupil and
successor of the preceding, regarded air as
the primal principle of all things, and Pliny
attributes to him the invention of the sun-
dial.
Anaximenes of Lampsacus, a Greek
•i and pin. • tl ii of
;i:i'l 01 8 pi i
:l, aii-1 \vrol. • a 1, ;
•
Anaya y Maldonado, Diego (I,. 1 :'.'•(), ./.
. : il.tm.iii'-a, repiv-'i.ti-il
i b the COB • ( lonstanoe in 111 i,
ana was ai'ti TU .-iris anil. a-;.- i>ior to I''r.:iri.t
for ,l«!m II. Hr l'oun<i>'il ami en i<>\y,.,i the
coll- Salamanca, the first of t:.
colleges of Spain.
Ancelot, Jacques Arsene Francois Poly-
carp- (6. 17(Jl,(/. 1854), a French dramatist,
. iy a clerk in the marine dep irti.i
who from 1819 to ISJ'J wrote several ti
dies. Was in receipt of a pension from
Loui8 XI II., which in LS.jO he lost and was
prohibited from writing tragedies, but
with the assistance of his wife produced
a number of comedies and operettas. In
1841 he was elected member of the French
Academy.
Ancelot, Marguerite Virginie Chardon (b.
1702, d. Is7<3), wife of the preceding, wuom
she considerably assisted in his work, being
herself a writer of novels and comedies.
Anchieta, Jose de (b. 1533, d. 1507), a
Portuguese missionary, "the Apostle of
Brazil," where he worked indefatigably
amongst the Indians. He was also author
of a treatise on The Natural Productions of
JBraztl.
AnciUon, Charles (b. 1659, d. 1715), eldest
eon of David Ancillou. He was judge
of the French refugees at Berlin, aud
historiographer to the King of Prussia.
He left several biographical and historical
works.
AnciUon, David (b. 1617, d. 1602), a French
Protestant divine, and native of Metz, from
whence he fled to Berlin upon the revocation
of the Edict of Nantes.
Ancillon, Johann Peter Frederick (6.
1766, d. 1837), German preacher and author,
and member of the Academy of Scieuces in
Berlin, was an advocate of constitutional
freedom. In 1831 was placed at the head
of foreign affairs.
Ancina, Giovanni Giovenale (b. 1545, d.
1604), was professor of medicine in the uni-
versity of Turin, but determined in 1572 to
devote himself to theology, and in 1602 was
appointed Bishop of Saluzzo.
Anckwitz, Nicholas (6. 1750, d. 1794),
Polish diplomatist, a talented but vicious
man, was accused by the populace of
accepting bribes from Prussia, and put to
death.
Ancus Martius (d. B.C. 616), fourth king
And
(37)
And
of Rome, and grandson of Numa Pompilius.
He did much in the interests of religion and
laws, built the town of Ostia, defeated the
Latins in a sanguinary battle, and had a
prosperous reign of twenty-four years.
Andelo, or Andelau, Herman Peter von,
a German jurist of the loth century, who
studied at Padua, and was the first to com-
pile a system of German law.
Andersen, Hans Christian (b. 180-5, d.
1875). The son of poor parents, was born
at Odensee in Funen ; he early showed a
strong inclination for the stage, and at
fourteen went to Copenhagen, where he
obtained an engagement at the theatre
royal. His voice soon broke down, but
through the kindness of Conference Coun-
cillor Collin he was admitted to the
grammar school at Slagelse. His first
prose work, a book of travels, was published
in 1828, and was followed by others, as well
as novels and poems. He is best known for
his fairy tales, which are full of charm.
Anderson, Adam (b. 1692, d. 1765), the
historian of commerce. His great work,
published in 1764, gives accounts of the
commercial progress and social and indus-
trial development of all civilised countries
from the earliest times to 1762.
Anderson, Sir Edmund (b. 1530, d. 1605),
an English lawyer, Chief Justice in the Court
of Common Pleas in 1582, and a patient and
impartial judge in civil cases, though bis
adhesion to the Established Church led him
into too great severity towards sectarians.
Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett, M.D. (6.
1837). A well-known lady physician,
studied medicine at the Middlesex, St.
Andrew's (Edinburgh), and London hos-
pitals, and in 1865 received the diploma of
L.S. A., and was appointed medical attendant
to St. Mary's dispensary. In 1870 she was
made visiting physician to the East London
hospital for children, and obtained the
degree of M.D. at the university of Paris.
The following year she was married to Mr.
J. G. S. Anderson, but continued to practise
in London, and was appointed senior physi-
cian to the new hospital for women, and
dean of the London school of medicine for
women.
Anderson, Sir George "William, K.C.B.
(b. 1791, d. 1857), son of a London merchant,
entered the Indian Civil Service, a.nd was
employed by Eiphinstone in drawing up
The Bombay Code of 1827. In 1841 he
became Governor of Bombay, but after
holding similar posts in Mauritius and
Ceylon, resigned in 1855 ; he was knighted
in 1849.
Anderson, James (b. 1662, d. 1728), a
Scottish genealogist and antiquary, who
was educated for the law, but devoted
himself entirely to antiquities. In spite of
great poverty, Anderson contrived to finish
his collection of the ancient charters and
great seals of Scotland, but it was not pub-
lished till some years after his death.
Anderson, Johann (6. 1674, d. 1743), a
German diplomatist and naturalist who was
employed in matters relating to commerce
and navigation.
Anderson, John (6. 1726, d. 1796), pro-
fessor of Oriental languages and afterwards
of natural philosophy in the University of
Glasgow, and founder of the Anderson
University in that city.
Anderson, John (d. 1820), a Scottish mer-
chant of humble birth who settled in Ireland,
where he acquired a large fortune, much of
which he expended upon the town and
neighbourhood of Fermoy. He declined a
baronetcy, which however was conferred
upon his son,
Anderson, Martin Brewer (6. 1815), an
American educator, who graduated at
Waterville college, where he was subse-
quently professor of rhetoric. In 1853 he
became president of the university of
Rochester; he obtained repute as a powerful
public speaker, and used his eloquence with
effect during the Civil war.
Anderson, Mary (b. 1859), born at Sacra-
mento, California, well known as an actress
of great beauty and considerable dramatic
taste, at sixteen years of age made her
debut at Louisville as Juliet. She met with
great success both in the United States and
in London.
Anderson, Nils Johann (6. 1821, d. 1880),
a Swedish botanist, who left numerous tech-
nical works.
Anderson, Robert, M.D. (b. 1750, rf. 1830),
a Scottish surgeon who devoted him?elf to
literature, and published a Complete Edition
of the Poets of Greit Britain from the time
of Chaucer, with biographical and critical
notes.
Anderson, Robert (6. 1770, d. 1833), a
ballad writer of humble birth, whose later
productions were in the Cumberland dialect.
His most popular ballad was Betty^ Brown
(1801), his earliest Lucy Gray, of which the
name and metre were borrowed by Words-
worth.
Anderson, Robert (b. 1806, d. 1871), an
American general, who served tinder Lincoln
in the Black Hawk war, and distinguished
himself in the Mexican war (1846-7) in the
battle of El Molino del Rey. On the out-
break of the Civil war he was appointed to
the defence of Charleston harbour, and
held Fort Sumter for two days against the
And
(38)
And
Confederates ; failing health prevented his
taking further part iii the war.
Anderson, Robert Burn (6. 1833,rf. 1860),
a British I'llicer, who di-tinguished himself
during the Indian Mutiny. He afterward
served in China, hut being scut with other
officers to negotiate with the Chinese com-
missioners, was treacherously seized, carried
to Pekin, and so cruelly tortured that death
ensued in a few days.
Anderson, William (6. 1757, d. 1837), a
painter of marine subjects.
Anderton, Henry, a painter of portraits
and landscapes in the 17th century; his
painting of Mrs. Stuart, afterwards Duchess
of Richmond, was well known.
Anderton, James, author of several con-
troversial treatises, flourished in the early
half of the 17th century, and wrote under
the pseudonym of "John Brereley."
Andocides (6. 467 B.C., d. 397 B.C.),
Athenian orator, one of the ten whose
works were contained in the Alexandrine
Canon. He was four times driven from
Athens, and finally died in exile.
Andrada, Antonio (6. 1580, d. 1633), a
Portuguese Jesuit who went as missionary
to India, and penetrated to Thibet, where
he was well received and built a church.
Died at Goa.
Andrada, Jacinto Freire d' (b. 1597, d.
1657), a Portuguese author of high repute;
he was offered, but declined, the bishopric
of Yiseu. His greatest work is the Life of
Dam Jodo de Castro.
Andrada E. Silva, Jose Bonifacio d' (6.
1765, d. 1838), a Brazilian statesman, who
travelled and studied in Europe, and became
professor of metallurgy and geognosy at
Coimbra, and general intendant of the Por-
tuguese mines. Returning to Brazil in
1819, he took an active part in politics, and
was for a time minister of the interior to
Dom Pedro I., and afterwards guardian and
tutor to his successor, Dom Pedro II., till
1833, when he was displaced, and he retired
to Paqueta, where he died.
Andral, Gabriel (6. 1797, d. 1853), a dis-
tinguished French physician and author,
who in 1839 was elected to the chair of
pathology and therapeutics in the Academy
of Medicine at Paris.
Andrassy, Julius, Count (6. 1823, d. 1890),
an eminent Hungarian, who in 1847 entered
the Hungarian Diet as member for his
native town of Zemplin. In politics a
Liberal, he supported the policy of Kossuth
as well by his eloquence, which was con-
siderable, as by his activity in organisation,
and in the field. Upon the collapse of the
Hungarian insurrection he was sentenced
to dr.tth, hut escaping to I'r.iK-e, pa— ed
seven year> (184 -l.Vii;) in that country,
and in Kn^hnd. Appointed premier of the
first sep i! i1 Hungarian cabinet, by as.
ni wise and lilieral measures he transformed
Hungary frum a turbulent and revolu-
tionary province to the most trustworthy
portion of the empire. Through his
inlluence Austria and Hungary refused
to take part with France in the Franco-
German war, from which two important
results followed : Bosnia and Herzegovina
were annexed to the empire, and Germany
found herself compelled to effect an Austrian
alliance. Andrassy took a leading part in
the Berlin Conference (1878), but in the
following year resigned office suddenly and
unexpectedly, and retired into private life,
from which he was never recalled to power.
Andre, Christian Karl (b. 1763, d. 1831),
a German educational writer, who worked
at Schnepfenthal and Briinn, and left nu-
merous and valuable works.
Andre, Johann (6. 1741, d. 1799), an
eminent musical composer and publisher,
was director of the opera at Berlin, and
kapellmeister to the Prince of Prussia and
the Margrave of Brandenburg.
Andre, Johann Anton (b. 1775, d. 1842),
son of the preceding, also a composer and
publisher of music.
Andre", John (b. 1751, d. 1780), a British
soldier who served in the war with America,
and rose to the rank of major. He con-
ducted the negotiations with Benedict Ar-
nold for the betrayal of West Point, but being
discovered in disguise, was arrested and put
to death as a spy. His remains Lie in West-
minster Abbey, where a cenotaph was erected
to his memory.
Andre, Yves-Marie (6. 1675, d. 1764), a
French philosopher and man of letters, who
was suspected by his brother Jesuits of Car-
tesian tendencies, and narrowly escaped a
prosecution. His works, which have been
republished, include a treatise of great merit,
Sur le Beau.
Andrea Pisano (6. 1270, d. 1345), an
Italian architect and sculptor, who pro-
duced many fine works in Florence, his
greatest being the bronze figures in relief
for the baptistery of £t. John's.
Andrea del Sarto, or Vannucci, an Italian
painter of humble birth ; he was a pupil of
Peter da Cosimo. He worked at Florence
and in France, where Francis I. loaded him
with honours.
Andrese, Abraham (d. 1607), was conse-
crated Archbishop of Upsala in 1594, after
which he crowned Sigismund, He was a
And
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And
reformer, and under the regency of Duke
Charles was thrown into prison, where he
died.
Andrese, Jacob (b. 1528, d. 1590), a
Lutheran divine who took a prominent part
in the religious controversies of Germany.
He was a prolific writer, and drew up the
formula Concordice, or summary of faith for
the Lutheran Church.
Andrese, Johannes, or Giovanni (6. 1272,
d. 1348), filled the chair of canon law at
Bolcgna, and enjoyed the highest reputa-
tion as a teacher and author.
Adreani, Andrew (b. 1540, d. 1623), an
Italian painter and engraver, whose prints
are numerous and valuable.
Andreas, Archbishop of Crayna in Carin-
thia (d. 1484), who made zealous but un-
successful attempts to reform the Church
in the loth century. For his boldness in
rebuking Pope Sixtus IV. and the cardinals
he was imprisoned, but on his release re-
newed his exertions, was excommunicated,
and imprisoned.
Andreini, Francesco, an actor and writer
of comedies in the 16th century, and head
of the company known as " De' Gelosi."
Andreini, Giovanni Battista (6. 1568, d.
1652), son of the preceding, dramatic author
and performer; Milton's Paradise Lost is
said to have been suggested by his drama of
ISAdamo.
Andreini, Isabella (b. Padua, 1562, d. 1604),
a distinguished poetess and actress, remark-
able alike for her beauty and blameless life.
Andrelini (d. 1518), Publio Fausto, an
Italian poet, was professor of classical
literature in Paris, and patronised by
Charles VIII.
Andreossy, Antoine Francois, Comte d'
(6. 1761, d. 1828), a French officer of en-
gineers, and a learned and honourable man.
He served in the wars under Napoleon, and
was afterwards employed diplomatically,
and was one of the commissioners appointed
to negotiate an armistice after the battle of
Waterloo, and took office under Louis
XVIIL
Addreozzi, Gaetano (&. 1763, d. 1826), a
popular Italian composer, who wrote many
operas and several oratorios.
Andres, Juan (6. 1740, d. 1817), a learned
Spanish Jesuit, who devoted himself to
literature and literary history.
Andres de Uztarroz, Juan Francisco (6.
1606, d. 1653), a learned Spanish historian,
was appointed chronicler of Aragoii in
1647, and left many valuable works.
Andrew, Saint, one of the twelve apostles,
who before his call was a disciple of John
the Baptist. He was the means of bringing
his brother, Simon Peter, to Christ, and is
said to have preached the Gospel in various
countries, and to have been at last crucified
at Patras in Achaia.
Andrew, Yurevich (b. 1110, d. 1174), a
brave and ambitious Kussiau prince, who
distinguished himself in wars against Kiev,
and steadily extended the boundaries of his
kingdom.
Andrew I. (d. 1061), King of Hungary,
ruled at first in conjunction with his brother
Leventa, whom he survived, but in 106G
was defeated and dethroned by another
brother, Bela.
Andrew II. (b. 1175, d. 1235), King of
Hungary, succeeded to the throne on the
death of his infant ward and nephew
Ladislaus in 1205. At the command of the
Pope he undertook a costly crusade to the
Holy Laud, but effected nothing. In 1222
he published the famous "Golden Bull,"
the charter of Hungarian freedom.
Andrew III. (d. 1301), grandson of the
preceding, ascended the throne in 1290,
and defeated the rival claimants supported
by Germany and the Pope, but died whilst
preparing to resist another attack.
Andrewes, Lancelot, Bishop of Winches-
ter (b. 1555, d. 1626), an eminently learned
and pious man, and one of the greatest
preachers of his day. He assisted in the
translation of the Bible, and besides sermons
and lectures left a popular Manual of
Private Devotions.
Andrews, James Pettit (b. 1737, d. 1797%
an historical and miscellaneous writer,
author of The History of Great Britain and
Anecdotes Ancient and Modern.
Andrews, Stephen Pearl (b. 1812, d.
1886), an American lawyer and linguist,
who introduced phonography into America,
and devoted many years of his life to an
attempt to evolve a "scientific" and
"universal language," which he termed
Alwato.
Andrieu, Bertrand (&. 1761, rf. 1822}, an
eminent French medallist, who did much to
elevate his art, and was made Chevalier of
the Order of St. Michael.
Andrieux, Francois Guillaunie Jean Stan-
islas (&. 1759, d. 1S33), an eminent French
writer, was secretary to the French Aca-
demy, and professor of literature in the
College of France. He left numerous
works.
Andronlcus Comnenus (6. 1110, d. 1185),
Emperor of Constantinople, after quarrels
And
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Ang
and reconciliations with Manuel Comnenus,
ascended the throne in 1183, putting to
death Alexis II. ; was killed during an
insurrection roused by his cruelty.
Andronicus of Rhodes, a peripatetic phi-
losopher of the 1st century B.C.
Andronicus, Johannes Callistus, a scholar
of Thessalouica who taught at Bologna and
Rome, and finally in Paris, where he became
professor of Greek. He followed the phi-
losophy of Aristotle.
Andronicus, Marcus Livius, a native of
Tarentum, who wrote Latin dramas in the
3rd century B.C. ; he translated the Odys-
sey and wrote several popular poems.
Andronicus L (d. 1235), Emperor of Tre-
bizond, succeeded to the throne in 1222.
He was defeated and made tributary by
Ala-ed-din.
Andronicus II. (d. 1267), Emperor of
Trebizond, succeeded to the throne in 1263.
Andronicus III. (d. 1332), Emperor of
Trebizond, succeeded his father, Alexis II.,
in 1330, and during his short reign put two
uncles to death.
Andronicus IL (Palaeologns) (b. 1260, d.
1332), called "the Elder," Emperor of
Constantinople ; ruled jointly with his
father Michael for ten years, but in 1283
assumed the entire power. His reign was
disturbed by the dissensions of the Greek
and Latin Churches, the inroads of the
Turks and the revolt of the Emperor's
grandson, who seized the crown in 1328,
when he took refuge in a monastery, where
he died.
Andronicus HI. (Palaeologus) (b. 1295, d.
1341), called " the Younger," the grandson
of the preceding, whom he deposed, was a
brave and popular prince, though his early
history is marred with crime ; he was de-
feated in a war with Servia and Turkey.
Andros, Sir Edmund (b. 1637, d. 1713),
an English officer who served in the
\rars with the Dutch, and afterwards went
as governor to various provinces of North
America. He was recalled in 1698 from
Virginia, but was afterwards appointed
Lieutenant- Governor of Guernsey.
Androuet-Ducerceau, Jacques, a French
architect of the 16th century, who studied in
Italy, and was employed by Henry III. and
Henry IV. to erect several of the public
buildings of Paris. The Pont Neuf and the
gallery of the Louvre were begun by
him.
Andry, Charles Louis Francois (6. 1741,
d. 1829), a distinguished and benevolent
French physician, who held an appointment
at the Foundling hospital of Paris, and was
consulting physician to Napoleon.
Andry, Nicolas, or De Boisregard (6. 1658,
d. 1742), a physician of reputation, one of
the editors of the Journal <i'-x Scavants,
and dean of the faculty of medicine in the
Royal College at Paris.
Aneau, Barthelemy, a native of Bourges,
principal of the College of the Trinity at
Lyons, in the 16th century, but was sus-
pected of favouring the reformers, and was
i and put to death by the mob. He
ra i slated Sir Thomas More's Utopia.
Anel, Dominique (b. 1679, d. 1730), a
celebrated surgeon, who performed success-
fully several new and difficult operations, and
finally settled in Paris, where he had a large
practice as an oculist.
Aneurin, a Welsh poet of the 6th century,
known as the author of Gododin. Another
poem, Verses on the Months, is also attri-
buted to him.
Anfossi, Pasquale (6. 1729 or 1736, d.
1795), an Italian opera writer and pupil of
Piccini, travelled in Europe, and was ap-
pointed maestro di capella ^to St. Giovanni
Laterano. His most popular opera was
L' Incognita Perseguitata (1773), his great
Olimpiade meeting with but a poor re-
ception.
Ange, Joseph de Saint (b. 1636, d. 1697),
a French Carmelite friar, who spent many
years in missionary labours in the East, and
finally returning to France was made prior
of the convent of Perpignan.
Angela of Brescia or Merici (6. 1511, d.
1540), a Franciscan nun, foundress of the
order of Ursulines at Brescia.
Angeli, Filippo d' (b. 1600, d. 1640),
called Napoletan, a painter of battles and
landscapes, who resided at Rome and
Florence under the patronage of Cosimo
AA«
Angelio, or Belli Angeli, Pietro (b. 1517,
d. 1596), a renowned Italian scholar, known
as Petrus Borgaeus, who in 1549 was ap-
pointed professor at Pisa. Being pensioned
by Heniy III. of France he was enabled
to devote the end of his life to literature,
and left many works ui prose and
poetry.
Angeloni, Luigi (6. 1758, d. 1842), an
Italian republican and political writer,
one of the tribunes under the Roman re-
public in 1798. He afterwards went to
Paris, but was expelled, and took refuge in
London, where he died.
Angely, Ludwig (b. circa. 1775, d. 1835),
a popular German dramatic writer, and
Ang
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Ani
iirector of the Konigstadter theatre at
Berlin.
Angerstein, John Julius (6. 1735, d.
1822), a Russian merchant whose fine
collection of pictures was purchased by the
English Government, and formed the
nucleus of the National Gallery.
Angniera, Pietro Martire (b. 1455, d.
1526), historian and diplomatist, resided
chiefly in Spain.
Angilbert or Engilbert, Saint (d. 814),
Ahhot of Centule, near Abbeville, the pupil
of Alcuin, and the friend and confidential
adviser of the Emperor Charlemagne, whose
daughter Bertha he is said to have married.
Anglada, Joseph (b. 1775, d. 1833), pro-
fessor of chemistry at the university of
Montpellier, and remembered for his inves-
tigations respecting "glairine," and the
analysis of medical springs ; he also left a
valuable work on Toxicology.
Angouleme, Charles de Valois, Due d'
(6. 1573, d. 1650), natural son of Charles
IX., was grand prior of the order of the
Knights of Malta in 1539, but afterwards
left the order, and distinguished himself,
as Count of Auvergne, at the battles
of Ivry and Fontaine-Fran^oise. Being
concerned in several plots, he was sen-
tenced to perpetual imprisonment in the
Basti la, but on the death of Henry IV.
was released, and again served in the army,
and commanded at the siege of Rochelle.
Angouleme, Louis Antoine de Bourbon,
Due d' (6. 1775, d. 1844), dauphin of France
and son of Charles X. He married his eousin,
the daughter of Louis XVI., in 1799. At
the restoration he was made Grand Admiral
of France, and opposed the Bonapartists
with promptness and vigour. He showed
great coolness and gallantry in Spain in
1823, whither he led an army against the
Constitutionalists. On the death of his
father in exile he resigned all right to the
succession in favour of his nephew, the Duke
of Bordeaux.
Angouleme, Marie Therese Charlotte,
Duchesse d' (b. 1778, d. 1851), daughter of
Louis XVL and Marie Antoinette, and
wife of the preceding ; she shared the im-
prisonment of her parents, and kept a diary,
from which the details of that time are
known. After some months of solitary con-
finement she was released in exchange for
the commissioners of the convention, mar-
ried her cousin, and accompanied Louis
XVIIL on his public entry into Paris in
1814.
Angstrom, Anders Jonas (6. 1814, d.
1874), a Swedish astronomer, and professor
of physics at Upsala, who made important
discoveries by means of the spectroscope.
He showed that the fixed lines of the spec-
tra depend only upon the nature of the
luminous substance, and was the first to
notice, though he did not explain, the
"Frauenhofer lines " of the solar spec-
trum.
Anguier, Francois (6. 1604, d. 1669),
a celebrated French sculptor, who visited
England and Rome, where he attained a
high reputation : Louis XII. appointed him
keeper of the Cabinet of Antiquities.
Anguier, Michel (6. 1612, d. 1686), brother
of the i .receding, also noted as a sculptor,
was rector of the Academy of Arts in Paris.
Anguisciola, Sofonisba (6. 1535, d. 1620),
a native of Cremona, and a portrait painter
of much renown ; she painted Philip II. of
Spain and many of his court, and on her
marriage she received a munificent dowry
and an increased pension.
Anhalt-Bernburg, Tiristian I., Duke of
(6. 1568, d, 1630), toi £ a leading part in the
contests which led to the Thirty Years'
war, and as commander-in- chief of Fre-
derick V. of Bohemia, fought successfully
against the imperial forces till defeated at
Prague in 1620.
Anhalt-Bernburg, Christian II., Duke of
(6. 1599, d. 1656), son of the preceding,
with whom he took part in the battle of
Prague, and was made prisoner, but par-
doned by the emperor. He succeeded his
father in 1630.
Annalt-Dessau, Leopold (b. 1676, d.
1747), a Prussian field-marshal, who dis-
tinguished himself in the war of the Spanish
succession. He also obtained victories in
behalf of Frederick II. over the Austrians
and Saxons, and concluded the war by the
peace of Dresden.
Antialt-Dessau, Leopold Frederick p-ranz
d' (6. 1740, d. 1817), served under Frederick
IL in the Seven Years' war, and did much
to reform the laws and promote agriculture
in his principality.
ArOialt Zerbst-Dessau, George IV. (&.
1507, d. 1553), took holy orders, and became
one of the eminent divines and reformers
of his day.
Anilseus and Asinseus, two Babylonian
Jews, who in the 1st century A.D. headed a
baud of freebooters, and were persuaded by
Artabanus, King of Parthia, to enter his
service. Asingeus met his death by poison
at the hands of his brother's wife, while
Anilaeus with many of his followers was
slain by Mithridates, whom they had pre-
viously attacked and imprisoned.
Animaccia, Giovanni (b. 1500, d. 1571).
a celebrated Italian composer, maestro da
Ani
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Ann
capello of the Vatican, may be considered
the founder of the oratorio.
Anisson, an ancient family of Lyons,
reuowurd as typographers, the most dis-
tinguished member being Etieune Alexandre
Jacques, known as Auissou-Duperou (1748-
1794), iuveutorof the "presse a un coup ; " he
was put to death during the republic.
Ankarlnrona, Theodor (b. 1687, d. 1750),
distinguished Swedish naval officer audmau
of science.
Ankerstrom, Johann Jakob (6. 1761,
d. 1792), a Swedish noble, remembered as
the assassin of Gustavus III. of Sweden ; he
was detected, tortured and beheaded.
Anna Comnena (b. 1083, d. 1148), daugh-
ter of the Emperor Alexis Comneuus I.,
conspired on her father's death to place
her husband, Nicephorus Bryeuuius, on the
throne. She failed in this, however, and
devoting herself to literature, wrote a his-
tory of her father's reign, entitled the
Alexias.
Anna Ivanovna, Empress of Russia (6.
1693-4, d. 1740), daughter of Ivan Alexo-
witch, succeeded to the throne on the death
of Peter II. in 1730, but allowed the govern-
ment to be really in the hands of her
favourite, Bireu, who ruled cruelly and
tyrannically.
Anna Petrovna (b. 170S, d. 1728), the
eldest and favourite daughter of Peter the
Great, and mother of Peter III. The order
of St. Anne was instituted in her honour.
Anna Of Austria, Queen of France (6.
1601, d. 1666), was the eldest daughter of
Philip III. of Spain, and was married in
1615 to Louis XIII. of France. On the
death of Louis in 1643, Anna acted as
regent, with Cardinal Mazarin as her chief
minister ; she provoked the famous wars
of the "Fronde," in which she was ulti-
mately victorious. In 1661 she resigned
the government to her sou, and passed the
rest of her life in retirement.
An-nasir Lidinillali Mohammed (d.
1215), fourth Sultan of Africa and Spain, of
the dynasty Almohades, succeeded to the
threne in 1199. He was continually en-
gaged in war, and finally being defeated at
Las Navas by the united forces of Castile,
Navarre 'and Aragoii, fled to Africa, where
he died.
An-nasir, Abdul Abbas Ahmed (b. 1156,
d. 1225), Caliph of the Abbasides, began to
reign in 1180 ; he was a pious, learned, and
just prince.
Anne, Queen of Great Britain (6. 1664, d.
1714), was the second daughter of James II.
by his first wife, Anne Hyde. She married
Prince George of Denmark, and succeeded
to the throne on the death of her brother-
in-law, William 111., in 1702. Her reign is
distinguished abn.iul by the brilliant ex-
ploits of the British army in the Low
Countries under Marl borough, and in Spain
under Lord Peterborough ; the victories of
Blenheim, Oudenard, and Malplaquet being
won in the war of the Spanish succession ;
while at home, though political contentions
ran high, the legislative union of England
and Scotland was effected, and many emi-
nent names adorn the list of contemporary
writers, notably Addisou, Pope, and Steele.
The queen, who was weak and yielding,
was controlled at first by the imperious
Duchess of Marlborough, and afterwards
by Abigail Hill (Mrs. Masham).
Anne of Beaujeu (b. 1461, d. 1522), eldest
daughter of Louis XI., acted as regent
during the minority of Charles VIII., and
displayed great energy and decision of
character.
Anne of Bohemia (ft. 1367, </. 1394), "the
good Queen Anne," was wife of Richard II.
of England, and a protector of Wiclif and
his followers.
Anne of Bretagne (6. 1476, d. 1514),
daughter and heiress of Francis II. of
Bretagne ; though married by procuration
to Maximilian, King of the Romans, she
married Charles VIII. (1491), and Louis XII.
of France (1499). She displayed consider-
able justice and ability in the management
of her own dominions.
Anne of Cleves (b. 1516, d. 1557), daughter
of John III., Duke of Cleves, and iourth
wife of Henry VIII. of England, from whom
she was shortly divorced, but lived con-
tentedly in England, where she died.
Anne of Denmark (b. 1574, d. 1619),
daughter of Frederick II. of Denmark,
and wife of James VI. of Scotland and I.
of England.
Anne of Warwick (6. 1454, d. 1485), the
widow of Edward of Lancaster, son of
Henry VI., was first married to Edward of
Lancaster, son of Henry VI., and then
against her will to Richard III. , with whom
she was crowned with great ceremony in
1483. Her death is attributed to poison.
Annese, Genuaro, a Neapolitan gun-
smith, who succeeded Masaniello as leader
of the populace in the insurrection of 1648.
He at first joined the Duke of Guise, and
afterwards betrayed him to the Spaniards,
and was himself soon after seized and
beheaded.
Annesley, Arthur (6. 1614, d. 1686), Earl
of Anglesey, took part in the Civil wars of
Charles I., and went as commissioner for
Ann
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Ans
the Parliamentary party to Ireland. He
afterwards supported Monk in his efforts
for the Restoration, and filled high offices
under Charles II., by whom he was created
Baron Annesley. He had some literary
ability and wrote a History of the Wars
in Ireland.
Anno or Hanno, Saint, Archbishop of
Cologne in the llth century ; he had great
influence over the Emperor Henry III., in
whose name he for some time administered
the government.
An-nuwayri (6. 1283, d. 1332), a learned
Arab writer, who left many works, amongst
them being a valuable historical cyclo-
paedia.
Anquetil, Abraham Hyacinthe (b. 1731,
d. 1805), a French orientalist, who for
purposes of study went to India as a private
soldier, and took part in the capture of
Pondicherry. On his return to France he
was appointed oriental interpreter in the
king's library. His principal work was a
translation of the Zend-Avesta, published in
1771.
Ansaldo, Andrea (6. 1584, d. 1638), an
eminent Genoese painter; his principal
works are in the churches and palaces of
Genoa.
Ansaloni, Giordano (d. 1634), a Sicilian
missionary of the order of preachers, who
went to Japan, and adopting the dress and
language of the people, passed for two
years for a Japanese priest, but was at
length discovered and put to death.
Anscarius, Saint (6. 801, d. 864), a Bene-
dictine monk who did much to promulgate
Christianity in Deunun-k and Sweden, and
has been called "the Apostle of the North."
He was afterwards made Bishop of Ham-
burg.
Anselm, Saint (b. 1034, d. 1109), Arch-
bishop of Canterbury during the reigns of
William Rufus and Henry I., to which post
he was summoned from his position as
Abbot of Bee in Normandy. He was a man
of great piety and intellectual power, and
firmly resisted the efforts of the king to
despoil the Church of her dignity or
revenues. He died at Canterbury and was
canonised in the reign of Henry VII.
Anselme of Laon (d. 1117), an eminent
teacher of theology in the llth century, and
said to have studied under Anseim at Bee,
taught for some time in Paris, and then
returning to his native town of Laon, made
the school of theology there the most re-
nowned in Europe.
Anselmi, Michael -Angelo (6. 1491, d. 1554),
an Italian painter in the style of Correggio,
several of whose pictures are in the churches
of Parma.
Anselmo, Saint (6. 1036, d. 1086), Bishop
of Lucca, supported Gregory VII. against
the antipope, Guibert, and left a collection
of canons in thirteen books.
Ansiaux, Jean Joseph Eleonor Antoine
(6. 1764, d. 1840), one _of the best
portrait and historical painters of the
modern French school ; he studied at Ant-
werp, and in Paris under David. In 1801
his Sappho and Leda attracted attention,
and he afterwards painted an Assumption
and other fine historical works, as well as
portraits of many prominent men.
Anslo, Reinier (6. 1626, d. 1669), a Dutch
poet of reputation ; he was patronised by
Christina of Sweden and Innocent X., and
spent the end of his life in Rome, where he
became a Roman Catholic. Among his early
productions were a Martyrdom of 67. Stephen
and a poem on the massacre of St. Bar-
tholomew's Day.
Anson, George, Lord (6. 1697, d. 1762), an
eminent naval commander, whose popular
Voyage Round the World has undergone
several translations. He entered the navy
in 1711, seeing much active service, and
in 1739 was appointed to the command of a
squadron despatched to the Philippine Is-
lands. The ships were badly equipped, and
of three vessels which reached Juan. Fer-
nandez two were destroyed as unsea-
worthy. With his one remaining ship,
The Centurion, he eventually reached
Manilla, succeeded in capturing the great
Spanish galleon Acnpulco, and returned to
England with £500,000 in prize-money.
Here he was eagerly welcomed, at once
appointed rear-admiral, and henceforth had
a large share in the direction of naval af-
fairs. In 1746 he was appointed to the
command of the Channel fleet, and the
following year defeated the French off
Cape Finisterre, for which service he was
raised to the peerage. He possessed con-
siderable administrative ability, and was
made admiral of the fleet in 1761.
Anson, George (b. 1797, d. 1857), an
English general, commander-in-chief of the
Indian army at the time of the mutiny. He
collected a force at Umballah for the re-
lief of Delhi, but died while on the march.
Anspach, Elizabeth Berkeley, Margravine
of (b. 1750, d. 1828), was married first to
Lord Craven (1767), and secondly to the
Margrave of Anspach in 1791. In 1821 she
gave shelter to Queen Caroline of England;
she left some amusing memoirs.
Ansted, David Thomas (6. 1814, d. 1880),
a geologist of some repute, whose writings
did much to popularise geology.
Ans
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Ant
Anster, John, LL.D. (*. circa 1806, d.
1867), au Irish poet who contributed largely
to periodical literature, and made an excel-
lent translation of Goethe's Faust. He
held the chair of civil law in the Univer-
sity of Dublin.
Anstey, Christopher (b. 1724, d. 180-5),
author of the New Bath Guide, a very
popular poem.
Antagoias, a Greek poet of the 3rd
century B.C. He was author of a poem
called Thebais and other works, all of
which are lost except a few epigrams.
Antalcidas, a Spartan politician, who
effected the peace between Greece and Ar-
taxerxes II. (B.C. 387) which is known by
his name.
Antar, or Antarah rbn Sheddad, Arabian
poet and warrior, who acquired great dis-
tinction in the forty years' wars against
the Beni Dhobyan, while his great work,
a poem, was highly esteemed by Mahomet,
and has been translated into Latin, German,
and English,
Antenor, a wise Trojan chief who re-
ceived the ambassadors Meuelaus and
Ulysses, and is charged with having betrayed
Troy to the Greeks, especially as his own
house was untouched by the enemy. He
is said to have afterwards founded some
towns on the west coast of the Adriatic.
Anthemius, Emperor of the "West in the
5th century, a distinguished general, quar-
relled with his son-in-law, Ricimer, who
led an army against Rome, and defeated
and slew Anthemius.
Aathemius, a native of Lydia, and an
eminent architect and sculptor. He was em-
ployed by Justinian, and designed the famous
church of Saint Sophia at Constantinople.
Antheric, King of the Lombards (d. 590),
surnamed Flavius, was engaged in wars
during his reign of six years, and defeated
an invasion of the Franks under Childebert
in 588, but died during a second, having
done much to consolidate his dominions.
Anthon, Charles, LL.D. (6. 1797, d.
1867), American classical scholar, was called
to the bar in 1819, but forsook law for clas-
sics, which he taught in New York. He
was a voluminous writer, and author of A.
Classical Dictionary and numerous other
text-books, as well as of an edition of
Horace.
Antigonus, King of Jud?ea (d. B.C. 37),
sou of Aristobulus II., was driven from his
throne by Antipater, and regained Jeru-
salem only to be besieged by Herod, when
he was compelled to surrender, and was
put to death.
Antigonus (Cyclops or "one-eyed ") (d.
B.C. 301), a distinguished general of Alex-
ander the Great, on whose death he became
Governor of Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia,
and after defeating and slaying Eumenes,
and waging other successful wars, assumed
the title of king. His ambitious schemes
united his rivals, and he was slain in battle
at Ipsus.
Antigonus Dosion (d. B.C. 220), King of
Macedonia, and grandson of Demetrius
Poliorcetes, was appointed regent during
the minority of Philip, son of Demetrius
II., but assumed the government, married
the queen-dowager Chrysses, and treated
Philip as his sou and heir. He co-operated
with the Acheau league against Sparta, of
which the victory of Sellasia made him
master ; and he also repelled an invasion of
the Illyriaus.
Antigonus Gonatas, King of Macedonia
(d. B.C. 239), and son. of Demetrius Polior-
cetes, ascended the throne B.C. 277, six
years after his father's death. He was
twice driven from his throne, first by
Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, and then by
Alexander, son of Pyrrhus.
Antillon, Isidoro d' (b. 1760, d. 1820), a
learned Spaniard, who defended Saragossa
against the French, but was afterwards
forced to fly before them. His liberal
opinions drew upon him the displeasure of
Ferdinand VII., and he was arrested, but
died before his trial. He left several works,
the most valuable being a geography of
Spain and Portugal.
Antimachus, an epic poet of Claros, in
Greece, author of Thebais and the
Lyde.
Antimaco, Marc Anthony (b. 1473,
d. 1552), a learned Italian, who taught
Greek at Ferrara and Paris, and left some
Latin poems and translations from the
Greek.
Antinous, a favourite page of the Emperor
Hadrian, was drowned in the Nile.
Antiocnus I., King of Commagene, in
Syria. In B.C. 64 Pompey concluded a
peace with this state, and increased its
territories.
Antiochus IV., of Commagene, surnan/ed
Epiphanes, was sometimes king, sometimes
governor, according as Commagene was
created a province or a kingdom. He aided
Nero against the Parthiaus, md Titus
against the Jews, but was deposed in 72.
Antiochus I., of Syria (Soter) (d. B.C.
261), was constantly engaged in wars, and
finally killed in battle with the Gauls. The
story of bis passion for his stepmother, whom
Ant
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Ant
his father gave him to save his lif e, is well
known.
Antiochus II., of Syria (d. B.C. 246),
brother of the preceding, whom he suc-
ceeded. He engaged in a war with
Ptolemy Philadelphus, which was ter-
minated by the marriage of Antiochus and
Berenice. He died of poison.
Antiochus Hieraz (b. 260 B.C., d. 227 B.C.),
second sou of the preceding, and King of
Cilicia. He is sometimes called Antip-
chus IH., though he never succeeded in
driving his brother Seleucus Callinicus from
the throne.
Antiochus HI., King of Syria (d. B.C. 187),
surnamed the Great, succeeded his brother
in 223 B.C. He was continually engaged
in war, and though at first defeated by the
Egyptians at Raphia, he was afterwards
victorious, and gained the provinces of
Coele-Syria and Palestine. He was worsted
in his wars with the Eomans; and was
killed by the citizens of Elymius while pil-
laging the temple of Jupiter.
Antiochus IV., Epiphanes, King of Syria,
son of the preceding, succeeded his brother
B.C. 175. A. cruel and vicious prince, he
carried on a war with Egypt, and his con-
duct to the Jews provoked the Maccabaean
revolt.
Antiochus V.,of Syria, surnamed Eupator
(b. 172 B.C., d. 162 B.C.), son of the preced-
ing, whom he succeeded when only eight
years old, but was slain two years after his
accession, and his throne seized by Deme-
trius.
Antiochus VI., of Syria, was the son of
Alexander Balas, who had fled with him to
Arabia. In 144 B.C. Antiochus was brought
back, and set up bjr the Syrians and Jews
as a rival to Demetrius Xicator. He reigned
only two years, being assassinated in 142 B.C.
Antiochus VIL, of Syria (b. 164 B.C., d.
129 B.C.), was surnamed Sidetes. Whilst
his brother Demetrius Nicator was a pri-
soner in Parthia, Antiochus married his
wife and seized his throne, but after several
victories over the Parthians, was beaten and
slain by Demetrius.
Antiochus VIII. (6. 141 B.C., d. 96 B.C.),
surnamed Grypus, was the sou of Demetrius
Nicator and Cleopatra. He married the
daughter of his ally, Ptolemy Physcon, and
was successful in his Syrian wars. His
half-brother, Cyzicenus, laid claim to his
throne, and after reigning jointly with him
for five years, Antiochus was assassinated.
Antiochus IX., surnamed Cyzicenus, was
defeated by his rival Seleucus in B.C. 95, and
slew himself rather than fall into the hands
of his enemy.
Antiochus X. (b. Ill B.C., d. 75 B.C.), sur«
named Eusebes, sou of the preceding, de-
feated and slew Seleucus, whose brothers
then became his rivals, till Tigranes, King
of Armenia, assumed the crown in 83
B.C.
Antiochus XL (Epiphanes), (b. 118 B.C.,
d. 93 B.C.), a son of Antiochus Grypus,
during the reign of the preceding gained
possession of a part of Syria, and assumed
the title of king. He was defeated by
Antiochus X., and drowned in the Orontes.
Antiochus XII. (Dionysius) (b. 112 B.C., d.
85 B.C.), youngest son of Antiochus Grypus.
He reigned in Damascus, and was slain in
battle with Aretas, King of the Arabians.
Antiochus XIII. (Asiaticus), son of Antio-
chus Eusebes, assumed the government upon
the withdrawal of the Armenian troops B.C.
69, but his kingdom was reduced to a pro-
vince B.C. 65, and he died in 49 B.C.
Antipater (6. B.C. 390, d. 319 B.C.), the
Macedonian, the friend and minister of
Philip and Alexander the Great, during the
absence of the latter was appointed regent
of Macedonia and Greece, and in that
capacity defeated the Greeks. On the
death of Alexander Antipater received the
government of Macedonia.
Antipater (d. B.C. 4), eldest son of Herod
the Great. His lif e is a series of conspiracies
and crimes; he compassed the death of his
half brothers, but being detected in a plot
against his father's life, was tried before
the Roman governor of Syria, and con-
demned to death.
Antipater of Idumea (d. B.C. 43), father
of Herod the Great, took part in the dis-
putes between Hyrcanus II. and Aris-
tobulus II. He assisted in placing Hyr-
canus on the throne of Judaea B.C. 63, and
contrived to get the power in his own hands.
He was afterwards appointed Procurator of
all Judsea.
Antiphanes, an Athenian poet of the
4th century B.C., and a prolific writer of
middle comedy.
Antiphilus, a native of Egypt of the
4th century B.C., and one of the greatest
painters of the age, visited Greece, and
painted portraits of Philip of Macedon and
Alexander the Great, and on his return to
Egypt painted Ptolemy, the son of Lagos.
Antiphon (b. B.C. 479, d. B.C. 411), the
Rhamnusian, an Athenian orator, who
taught at Athens, and is said to have num-
bered Thucydides among his pupils. He
opposed the tyranny of the Four Hundred,
and was put to death upon the restoration
of the popular government.
Ant
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Ant
Antiquus, Johannes (b. 1702,^. 1750), a
Dutch painter of portraits and historical
pieces. He studied at Amsterdam, arid
after travelling iu Italy, filially settled at
Breda.
Antisthenes, a Greek philosopher, a pupil
of Socrates, and founder of the Cynic school.
He was opposed to speculative inquiries, and
taught that virtue was the one thing needful.
Antoine de Bourbon, XiiiLT <>f Xavarre
(b. 1518, (I l-")'i-), succeeded 'his father to
the duchy of Veudome, and acquired Xa-
varre in right of his wife, Jeanne d' Albret.
Though at first inclined to favour the Tie-
fonners, political considerations induced
him to banish the Lutheran preachers, and
as Lieutenant-General of France to oppose
the progress of the Reformation. In 1562,
while commanding the royal army, he was
fatally wounded at the siege of Rouen.
Antommarchi, Francesco (d. 1838), a
Corsican surgeon, assistant of the celebrated
anatomist Paolo Mascagui at Florence, was
for some time physician to Napoleou at St.
Helena, and after the ex-emperor's death,
published a cast of his head, which occa-
sioned much dispute as to its genuineness.
Anton, Karl Gottlieb von (b. 1751, d. 1818),
an erudite German historian, and one of the
best critics of Ins time.
Anton, Ulrich, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-
Meiningen (b. 1(387, d. 1763), ancestor of
the house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, a brave
soldier and accomplished scholar, served
with distinction in the imperial army, and
did much to encourage literature and art.
Anton I., Clemens Theodor, King of
Saxouy (b. 1755, d. 1836), succeeded to the
throne iu 1827, was of a retired and un-
ambitious disposition, and being childless
associated his nephew, Friedrich Augustus,
with him in the government Large reforms
were carried out during his reign.
Antonelli, Giacomo (b, 1806, d. 1876), a
man of humble birth, who attracted the
notice of Gregory XVI., and after holding
various posts, was made a cardinal in 1847
by Pius IX. , over whom he had great in-
fluence. It was by his advice that the
flight to Gaeta was undertaken, and on the
return of the Pope to Rome he was named
secretary of state for foreign affairs, and
spent the remainder of his life steadily
opposing Italian unity and the abandon-
ment of Rome by the Pope.
Antoni, Alessaudro Vittorio Papacino d'
(b. 1714, d. 1786), an artillery officer of great
skill and learning ; in 1755 he was appointed
director of the royal school of artillery,
Turin, and in experimenting with gun-
powder made important discoveries.
Antonia, the Younger (b. B.C. 36, d. A.D.
37), daughter of Mark Antony by his wife
Octavia, sister of Augustus, Avas the wife of
Drusus, mother of Claudius, and grand-
mother of Caligula.
Antoniano, Silvio, Cardinal (b. 1540, d
If in:;;, a precocious genius, who at seven
teen was professor of classical literature at
Ferrara, and afterwards lectured at Rome.
Antonilez, Jose (b. 1636, d. 1676), a
Spanish painter of landscapes, portraits,
and historical pieces.
Antonilez de Sarabia, Francesco (d. 1700).
nephew and pupil of the preceding, fol-
lowed the style of Murillo, and acquired
considerable reputation as an historical and
landscape painter.
Antonina (b. 499, d. 565), wife of Belisa-
rius, her second husband, over whom she
possessed great influence, and after whose
death she founded a convent, where she died.
Antoninus, Saint (6. 1389, d. 1459), Arch-
bishop of Florence, belonged to the order of
the Dominicans , he left several works.
Antoninus Pius, Titus (b. 86, d. 161),
Emperor of Rome, succeeded his friend
Hadrian in 138, and enjoyed a prosperous
and uneventful reign of twenty- three years.
Antonio, Dom (6. 1531, d. 1595), an
illegitimate son of Dom Luis of Portugal,
who asserted his legitimacy and consequent
right to the throne in the room of his uncle
Dom Henrique, on whose death he was pro-
claimed king at Lisbon. He was defeated
by his rival, the Duke of Alva, at Alcantara
in 1580, and help from France and England
proving equally unsuccessful, Antonio re-
tired to Paris.
^ Antonio, Nicholas (6. 1617, d. 1684),
Spanish bibliographer, lived for many years
at Rome, and afterwards held office at
Madrid.
Antonio of Padua, Saint (b. 1195, d.
Padua, 1231), a Franciscan monk, and a
disciple of St. Francis of Assisi ; numerous
miracles are attributed to him, and he is the
patron saint of Padua.
Antonio Veneziano (b. 1310, d. 1384),
Venetian painter in fresco who takes the
foremost place amongst his contemporaries,
and left several works at Venice, Florence,
and Pisa.
Antonius, Caius, suruamed Hybrida (d.
cvrca 45 B.C.), was the son of Antonius the
orator, and colleague of Cicero in the
consulship. He took part with Sulla in
the war against Mithridates, but oppressed
and plundered the people, and some time
afterward was banished by the senate.
Ant
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Apo
Antonius, Marcus, the triumvir (b. 83 B.C.,
d. 30 B.C.), after serving as a soldier in
Svria, joined Julius Caesar in Gaul, became
his warm partisan, and being elected consul
with him in B.C. 44, offered him the kingly
title, which however he declined. After the
murder of Csesar, Antony was opposed and
defeated by Octavius (Augustus), but the
rivals came to terms, and with Lepidus
formed the second triumvirate. Under
their government Brutus aud Cassius were
defeated and slain at Philippi, and Antony
was mainly responsible for the death of
Cicero. The civil war ended in his defeat
at Actium, and the triumph of Octavius.
Whilst in Egypt Antony met and was
charmed by Cleopatra, and for her sake lie
shamefully divorced his second wife, the
sister of Octavius, and he died in Egypt by
his own hand.
Antonius, Marcus, the orator (6. 143 B.C.,
d. 87 B.C.), one of the greatest orators of
Home; he served as quaestor and praetor,
and for his services in Cilicia was awarded a
triumph. He was beheaded by Marius.
Antonius or Antony, Saint, an Egyptian
Christian, and the reputed founder of mou-
asticism, lived for many years in seclusion,
and his biographer Athauasius records the
popular story of his temptation and actual
conflict with the devil. His fame drew
crowds to hear him preach aiid reached the
Emperor Constantine ; he died at the ad-
vanced age of 105, leaving directions for a
secret burial.
Antonius Nebrissensis (b. 1444, d. 1522),
an eminent Spanish writer, studied in Italy,
was appointed professor at the university
of Alcara de Hen ares.
Antraignes, Emmanuel Louis Henri de
Launy, Count d' (b. 1755, d. 1812), a French
political adventurer, who was exiled as a
Royalist, and becoming possessed of some
information respecting the treaty of Tilsit,
entered into a correspondence with Canning,
but was betrayed and murdered by his ser-
vant.
Anund or Amund (d. 760), King of
Sweden, called Braut-Anund from the num-
ber of public roads he constructed. He
made other peaceful improvements, and
was a brave and valiant prince.
Anund or Amund, King of Sweden, as-
cended the throne about 830, and as a viking
invaded the neighbouring states and is said
to have defeated Ethehvulf of England.
He was slain in battle with his brother
Sivard.
Anville, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d' (b,
1697, d. 1782), a geographer of great emi-
nence ; he w-as encouraged in his studies by
the Abbe* de Longuerue, and appointed to
superintend the geographical studies of the
Dukes of Chartres and Orleans.
Anwari, a Persian poet of the 12th century,
and author of Tears of Ifliorassan, one of
the most beautiful poems in the Persian lan-
guage.
Aoust, Jean Marie, Marquis d' (6. 1740, d.
1812), a republican noble who voted for the
death of Louis XVI., and under the Con-
sulate was appointed mayor of Quincy.
Apelles.the greatest of the ancient painters,
flourished in the 4th century B.C. He was a
friend of Alexander the Great, who forbade
any other to take his portrait. The pictures
of Alexander and Antigones by Apelles were
very celebrated, but his masterpiece was the
fen us Anadyomene, which was taken to
Rome by Augustus.
Apjonn, James, M.D. (6. 1795), an
eminent chemist, professor in the Royal
College of Surgeons in Ireland, and after-
wards at Trinity College, Dublin.
Apocaucus, Alexis, commauder-in-chief
of the Byzantine armies in the 14th cen-
tury. He was the rival of his benefactor
John Cantacuzeiius in the struggle for the
empire, and though at first successful, was
eventually defeated and assassinated in
1347.
Apollinaris, Bishop of Laodicea (d. 392),
a learned man, and zealous opponent of the
Ariaus, is remembered in counection with
the heresy that bears his name.
Apollodorus of Athens, a famous gram-
marian and author of a standard work on
heathen mythology.
Apollodorus of Carystus, a distinguished
comic poet of the school of middle Attio
comedy, in the 4th century B.C., and author
of forty-seven comedies, of which only frag-
ments of a few remain.
Apollodorus of Damascus, a great archi-
tect of the 2nd century, worked at Rome
for the Emperor Trajan, aud built the
forum and column which bear that monarch's
name, but his greatest work was a huge bridge
over the Danube at its confluence with the
Alt. He was banished and put to death by
Hadrian.
Apollonius Dyscolus (the Morose), a native
of Alexandria and a great grammarian of
the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus, whose
most valuable work is On the Construction of
an Oration.
Apollonius Pergseus, "the great geo-
meter," was a native of Perga in Pam-
phyiia, and flourished in the 2nd century
B.C. He was author of a treatise on conic
sections which is still extant.
ADO
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Aqn
Apollonius Rhodius, a Greek epic poet of
the 3rd century B.C., author of the Argo-
ifiHtiC't, was iu his later years keeper of
the library at Alexandria.
Apollonius Tyanaeus, a Pythagorean phi-
losopher of the 1st Century who profi ;
miraculous powers, and attracted numerous
disciples.
Apoll03 or Apollonius, a Jew of Alex-
andria, who was converted to Christianity
about 51, and acquired great reputation as
a teacher. He is twice alluded to in St.
Paul's Epistles.
Apostool, Samuel (b. 1638), a Dutch Men-
nouite divine of Amsterdam, who entered
into a controversy with Galeuus, which
gave rise to the rival sects of Apostoolians
and Galenians.
Appending Francesco Maria (b. 1768, d.
1837), historian, a native of Piedmont, de-
voted himself to teaching, and settled in
Dalmatia. He published a history of the
Republic, and several educational works in
Slavonic.
Apperley, Charles James (b. 1777, d.
1843) , English authority on horses, who con-
tributed to the Sporting Magazine and other
papers, and wrote under the pseudonym of
"Nimrod."
Appsrt, Benjamin Nicholas Marie (b. Paris
17'J~), a philanthropic educationalist, who
did much for the education of soldiers and
the poor.
Appiani, Andrea (6. 1754, d. 1817), a
Milanese painter, pupil of Cavalier Guidei,
whose style almost rivals that of Correggio.
He excelled in oil and fresco, and several of
his compositions are in the churches and
palaces of Milan. Died in poverty.
Appiani, Andrea (6. 1812), grandson of
the preceding, maintained the artistic repu-
tation of his family, and gained several
medals both at Rome and Milan.
Appiano, Gherardo (d. 1405), Captain-
General of Pisa in 1398. He sold the re-
public the following year to the Visconti,
and retired to Piombino, where he died.
Appiano, Vanni d', born in the 14th cen-
tury, of humble parents, went to Pisa and
attached himself to the family of Giam-
bacorti, and was beheaded by Charles IV. of
Germany. His descendants were princes of
Piombiuo and Elba.
Appianus, a native of Alexandria, lived
in the 2nd century, and was the author of a
history of Rome in the Greek language.
Appius Claudius. [See Claudius.]
Applegarth, Augustus (d. 1871), inventor
of the Htcam press, and other hnpr>!
improvements in the art of printin_- : ii"
irncd 1 1 ii ink
: Used by the Jl,;ik of En:_ri:ni<l. as \vi-ll
as methods for priming pilk and cotton
simultaneously in tovural colours.
Apraxin, Feodor, or Theodor (?>. lf.71, d.
17'J^j, a Russian noble, the favourite of
Peter the Great, to whom he was of <_•
service in naval affairs. He was L
prudent, and victorious in battle, and at-
tained to the highest honours, though twice
convicted of misappropriation of the public
funds.
Apraxin, Stepan (6. 1702, d. 1758;, com-
mander of the Russian army against Fre-
derick the Great, whose troops he defeated
in 1757, but purposely failing to follow up
his advantage was tried and put to death.
Apres de Mannevillette, Jean Baptists
Nicolas Denis d' (b. 1707, d. 1780). distin-
guished French hydrographer, served in
various parts of the world, and published
the results of his observations in the X?p-
tune Orientate, and other valuable works.
Apries, King of Egypt in the Gth century
B.C., and eighth king of the Saite dynasty.
The Pharaoh -hophra of Scripture.
Apsyrtus, a distinguished veterinary sur-
geon of the 4th century. He was a native
of Bithynia, and served under Constantino
the Great in his Danubian campaign.
Aptnorp, East, D.D. (6. 1733, d. 1816),
a learned theologian, who was educated in
England, where he held several livings ; he
engaged with Gibbon in a controversy
respecting Christianity.
Apuleus, or Appuleius, Lucius, a phi-
losopher and Platonist of the 2nd century,
whose most celebrated work is the Meta-
morphoses, or the Golden Ass, which
includes the beautiful story of Psyche, and
seems to be intended as a satire on the
crimes and follies of the age. He was born
in Xumidia, studied at Carthage and Athens,
and finally at Rome.
Aquila, a native of Sinope, of the reign of
Hadrian, who was converted to Christianity
and afterwards to Judaism. He studied
Hebrew, of which he made himself master,
and translated the Old Testament into
Greek.
Aquila, a Christian Jew of Pontus, who
took refuge in Corinth when Claudius ex-
pelled the Jews from Rome, and meeting
there with St. Paul, worked with h-im at
their common trade of tent-making. "With
his wife Priscilla, Aquila was instrumental
^converting Apollos to Christianity, and U
said to have suffered martyrdom,
Aqn
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Ara
Aquila, Caspar (6. 1488, d. 1560), the
Latinised name of Adler, a Reformer, and
friend of Luther, whom he assisted in his
translation of the Old Testament. His
opinions exposed him to much persecu-
tion, but he spent the end of his life in
peace.
Aquila, Serafino dell' fb. I486, d. 1500),
an Italian poet, of the school of Dante and
Petrarch; he was patronised by Ferdinand
of Naples, and was the friend of Cardinal
Ascanio Sforza.
Aquin, Louis Claude d' (b. 1698, d. 1772),
a precocious musical genius, who at eight
years old had learned all that his master
could teach him. Handel went to Paris to
hear him.
Aquinas, Thomas, Saint (6. circa 1227, d.
1274), a celebrated scholastic divine, called
the "angelic doctor," a member of the order
of Dominicans, studied at Cologne under
Albertus Magnus, whom he afterwards ac-
companied to Paris. At the age of twenty-
four he lectured in that city on philosophy
and theology, endeavouring to show the
accord of religion and reason, and acquiring
the highest reputation. He died in 1274,
while on his way to the Council of Lyons,
and was canonised in 1323 by John XXII.
Of his works, which occupy seventeen
volumes folio, the principal is his Summa
Theologies.
AraToy, Ahmed Pasha, " Araby the Egyp-
tian" (b. 1839), is the son of a village
sheykh, and claims to be descended from
Mahommed. After studying at the military
school at Cairo, he served under Said Pasha
in Abyssinia and the Soudan, being the
first native Egyptian to attain the rank of
lieutenant-colonel. With two others he led
the first military demonstration of 1881, and
became the acknowledged spokesman of the
National party ; and as head of the second
military demonstration he secured his three
demands, the fall of Riaz, an increase of the
army, and a liberal constitution. He was
shortly afterwards appointed minister of
war, and as commander-in-chief under the
provisional government of Cairo he con-
ducted the defence of Egypt from July to
September. He was, however, defeated by
Sir Garnet Wolseley at Tei-el-Kebir (1882),
and surrendered himself to the British,
who persuaded him to accept perpetual
exile, and he left Egypt for Ceylon in 1883.
Arago, Dominique Francois (b. 1786, d.
1853), a celebrated French astronomer and
politician, who accompanied Biot to the
Eastern Pyrenees in 1806, and on his return
journey met with a series of dangerous ad-
ventures. In 1809 he was elected member
of the Academy of Sciences, and distin-
guished himself by his researches in the
undulatory theory of light, galvanism, mag-
netism, astronomy, etc. As a politician he
took a prominent part in the July revolu-
tion of 1330, and in 1848 he was appointed
minister of war and marine. Alter the
coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon he refused
to take the oath of allegiance, though still
retaining the personal friendship of the
emperor.
Arago, Etienne (b. 1802), brother of the
preceding, a dramatist and politician, was
editor of the Figaro, and director of the
theatre du Vaudeville, and in 1848, as head
of the post-office, introduced the cheap
postal system. His opposition to Napoleon
drove him into exile, but he returned, and
was for a short time mayor of Paris (1870),
and in 1878 was appointed archivist to the
Ecole des Beaux Arts.
Aragona, Tullia d', an accomplished and
learned poetess of the 16th century, a native
of Ferrara, who, besides some elegant son-
nets, wrote several poems and a romance.
Arakeheev, Alexay Audrewich (b. 1769,
d. 1833), a Russian count, who rose from
the ranks to the position of major-general,
and to whom Alexander entrusted the ad-
ministration of military affairs. He suc-
ceeded in effecting great reforms in the
army, and showed both zeal and cruelty in
his scheme for the development of military
colonies.
Aram, Eugene (6. 1704, d. 1759), notorious
for his learning and his tragical end, was
the son of a Yorkshire gardener, and became
proficient in ancient languages, studying
also literature and mathematics. For many
years he was a schoolmaster in London and
elsewhere, but in 1759 he was arrested for
the murder of Daniel Clark, a shoemaker of
Knaresborough, about thirteen years pre-
viously, and in spite of an able defence,
was condemned and executed.
Aranda, Pedro de Bolea, Count of (6.
1718, d. 1799), prime minister of Spain under
Charles LTL, showed firmness and vigour in
effecting reforms and improvements. He
was finally displaced by Godoy, and retired
to Aragou, where he died.
Arantius, Giulio Cesare Aranzio (b. 1530,
d. 158t)), professor of anatomy and medicine
in the University of Bologna, was known
for his investigations respecting the human
foetus, on which he published a valuable
work.
Arany, Janos (b. 1819, d. 1882), Hun-
garian poet of humble birth. He was the
author of a popular satire on the Lost
Constitution, and of a trilogy called
Toldi; and became a professor of liter-
ature, and member of the Hungarian
Academy.
Ara
(50)
Arc
Aratus of Sicyon (b. 271 B.C., d. 213),
one of the authors of the Achaean con-
federation, drove Nicholas, tyrant of Sicy«»n,
from ine city, but was li.nibe.i defeated by
Cleorueues 111. of Sparta. He is said to
have been poisoned by order of i'hilip II. of
Macedonia.
Aratus of Soli, a Greek poet and as-
tronomer of the 3rd century, author of
two poems on astronomical subjects entitled
Phenomena and
Araujo d' Azevedo, Antonio, Count of
Barca (b. 1754, d. 1^17), a learned Potuguese
diplomatist, who became head of the admin-
istration in 1806, but mismanaged ariairs,
and upon the invasion of the French fled
with the royal family to Brazil, where he
did much to promote art and commerce.
Arbaces, a Median general, who in the
9th century B.C. joined Belesis, a Chaldean
priest, in a revolt against Sardanapalus, and
on the defeat arid suicide of that monarch
assumed the sovereignty, and reigned with
justice and moderation for twenty-eight
years. He is generally considered the
founder of the Median kingdom.
Arbasia, Cesare (d. 1601), an Italian
painter in fresco and oils, worked at Malaga
and Cordova.
Arbetio, a Roman general of low birth,
who rose to be consul and magister
equitum. He defeated the Alemanui, and
in his old age led an army against Pro-
copius, the usurper of the throne of Valens.
Arborio, Mercuriano, Count di Gattinara
(b. 146J, d. 1530), an eminent statesman and
diplomatist, was employed by the Emperor
Maximilian, and afterwards by Charles V.,
who reposed unlimited confidence in him,
and raised him to the post of chancellor of
the empire. Towards the Reformers Ar-
borio advised conciliation; he was made a
cardinal in 1529.
Arborio di Gattinara, Luigi (b. 1781, d.
1820), an accomplished man and elegant
scholar; he early entered the Church, and
is known as the Abbe" di Breme, and a con-
tributor to the Milan journal II Concili-
atore.
Abrissel, Robert (b. 1047, d. 1117), vicar-
general of the diocese of Rennes ; his at-
tempts to reform the morals of both clergy
and laity were so badly received that he re-
tired into seclusion, but his well-known piety
and eloquence induced Urban II. to com-
mission him to preach before the world. In
1101 he founded the celebrated Abbey and
Order of Fontevrault.
Arbuthnot, Alexander (6. 1538, d. 1583),
a Scottish divine and poet ; he was originally
educated for the law, and took an active
part in the religious controversies of hia
time.
Arbuthnot, Sir Alexander (b. 17L>6), a gal-
lant naval ofiicur, who served at 'lra;'algar
ami elsewhere, and accompanied the British
Legion to Spain.
Arbuthnot, General Sir Hugh, K.C.B.
(6. 17^1), a distinguished soldier, who was
present at the siege of Copenhagen, aud
served in the Peninsula under Moore and
Wellington. For his services at Busaco he
received a gold nieual.
^Arbuthnot, John (b. 1673, d. 1735), a
Scottish physician and miscellaneous writer ;
appointed in 17U9 physician to Queen Anne,
was a contemporary and friend of Pope
and Swiit, and author of a witty political
pamphlet, The History of John Jlull) and
other works.
Arbuthnot, Mariot (6. 1711, d. 1794), a
British aamiral who served with distinction
under Hawke in the war with the French.
The taking of Charleston and capture of
several French vessels, earned him the
thanks of Parliament ; he was made full
admiral in 17^3.
Arcadius (6. 3S3, d. 408), Emperor of the
East, and eider son of Theodosius I., a weak
prince, was ruled by his successive favour-
ites, Ruiinus and Eutropius, and after their
deaths gave himself up to the influence of
his wife Eudoxia, who is notorious as a
persecutor of St. Chrysostom.
Arcesilaus (b. 316 B.C., d. 241 B.C.), a
Greek philosopher, who founded the second
or middle academy, and taught in Athens.
He maintained the delusiveness of the
senses and the impossibility of attaining
to truth.
Arcesilaus, a sculptor of Rome during the
last days of the republic ; he was patronised
by Lucullus, and his works were eagerly
sought after, but none have survived.
Arcesilaus I. (d. 583), King of Gyrene, of
the dynasty of the Battyadae, succeeded to
the throne B.C. 599, and reigned peacefully
for sixteen years.
Arcesilaus II., King of Gyrene, surnamed
Chalepus, succeeded to the throne about
560 B.C. He failed to quell a revolt of the
Libyans, and was put to death by Learchua
about 550 B.C.
Arcesilaus III., King of Gyrene (d. 614
B.C.), a cruel monarch, whose submission to
Cambyses provoked an insurrection. The
king took refuge in Barca, where he was
slain.
Arcesilaus IV., King of Gyrene (d. 431
B.C.), hist of the dynasty of Battyadae, and
Arc
(51)
Arc
a contemporary of Pindar. His severity
resulted in his assassination.
Arch, Joseph (6. 1826), leader of the
English agricultural labourers' movement
in 1872, and president of their union. In
1885 he was returned to Parliament as
member for the north-west division of
Norfolk, but was not re-elected the follow-
ing year.
Archadelt, Jacques, a Flemish musician
of the 16th century, whose madrigals were
the most popular of his time.
Archagathus, a Greek physician and sur-
geon, who practised at Home in the 3rd
century B.C., and was the first to introduce
there the systematic practice of medicine.
Archdale, George (6. 1848), a Scottish
chemist, who went to the United States in
1881, and made important investigations
respecting the manufacture of starch.
Archdale, -John, was appointed English
governor of North Carolina in 1695. He
introduced the culture of rice, and during
the two years he held office did much to
improve the condition of the colonists. He
left an historical and descriptive account of
Carolina.
Archdall, Meryyn (6. 1723, d. 1791), a
learned Irish divine and antiquary, author
of a history of the abbeys, priories, etc.,
of Ireland, entitled Monasticum Hiber-
nicum.
Archelaus (d. A.D. 7), son of Herod the
Great, succeeded to the government of
Judtea, Idumea, and Samaria, and was re-
cognised as ethnarch of those countries by
the Eoman emperor, B.C. 3. Numerous
complaints of his tyrannical rule induced
Augustus to deprive him of his office, and
banish him to France, where he died. He
rebuilt Jericho, and founded the town of
Archelais.
Archelaus (d. 399), King of Macedonia,
was an illegitimate son of Perdiccas II.,
to whose throne he succeeded in 413 B.C.
He then married Cleopatra, his father's
widow, having previously murdered the
legitimate sou of Perdiccas, as well as his
uncle and cousin. He ruled successfully,
and was killed while hunting, whether by
accident or design is unknown.
Archelaus, a Cappadocian, the distin-
guished general of Mithridates VI., flou-
rished in the 1st century B. C. After defeating
Nicoiaedes III. at Amnias, B.C. 88, he sailed
to Greece, captured Delos and other towns,
and induced Achaia, Lacedemon, and Bceo-
tia to form an alliance with Mithridates
against Rome. Sulla besieged him in the
Piraeus, and compelled him to withdraw his
forces. Returning to the contest with a
still larger army, Archelaus was again de-
feated and forced to retire, when, acting
upon instructions received from Mithri-
dates, he concluded peace with Sulla, but
upon terms unsatisfactory to the king, and
he finally deserted to the Romans, after
which little is known of him.
Archelaus I., son of the preceding, and
high priest of the goddess Enyo at Comana
in Pontus, who in right of his wife Berenice,
Queen of Egypt, assumed the sovereignty of
that country also. He was defeated and
slain by Aulus Gabinius, pro-consul of
Syria, about B.C. 56.
Arciielaus II., son of the preceding, and
high priest of Comana, was defeated by
Cicero in a war with Cappadocia, and in
B.C. 47 was deposed by Julius Csesar.
Archelaus, King of Cappadocia (d. A.D.
17), son of the preceding, supported Antony
against Octavius, and on the accession of
Tiberius was induced to come to Rome,
where he was detained till his death.
Archelaus of Miletus first introduced
physical philosophy into Athens. He was
the pupil of Anaxagoras, and is said to have
been the preceptor of Socrates.
Archenholz, Johann Wilhelm (6. 1741, d.
1812), a German soldier, traveller, and
voluminous writer, was author of a History
of the Seven Years' JFar, and of the popular
England und Italien.
Archer, John Wykeham (6. 1808, d. 1864),
an English engraver and painter, who
adopted the pseudonym of "'Mr. Zigzag the
Elder."
Archer, Sir Symon (6. 1581, d. cirea
1688), an English antiquary who assisted
Dugdaleinhis Antiquities of Warwickshire,
and was knighted by James I.
Archer, Thomas, English architect, de-
signed, amongst other works, the churches
of St. Philip at Birmingham and St. John
at Westminster, and died in 1743.
Archiac, Etieune Jules Adolphe, Desmier
de St. Simon, Viscount d' (6. 1802), an
eminent French geologist, author of a
History of Geology from 1834 to 1851.
Archibald, Hon. Sir Adams George (6.
1814), Canadian jurist, was for sctaie years
member of the executive council of Nova
Scotia, and several times employed as
delegate. He held many political posts,
and was one of the directors of the Cana-
dian Pacific Railway (1873). He was also
governor of Manitoba, and afterwards of
Nova Scotia, and was knighted in 1885.
Archidamus I., King of Sparta, ascended
Arc
•52)
Arci
the throne about B.C. 030, and enjoyed a
peaceful and uneventful reign.
Archidamus II., King of Sparta (d. B.C.
427), as<_va<li-d th.- thr-n.- u.o. 169, t<>»k on
important part in the IN 1 i">;inr.siaii war,
and three times in \\id- -«i A;;ic:i.
Archidainua III., King of Sparta (d. B.C.
338). a warlike prince, who took part in
many wais, and defeated the Thebans
under Kpaminuudas. He was elain in
battle with the Lucanians.
Archidamus IV., King of Sparta, and
grandson of the preceding, was defeated
near Mautinea by Demetrius Poliorcetes,
B.C. 296.
Archidamus V., King of Sparta, succeeded
bis brother Agis IV. 13. c. 240, but was soon
after assassinated.
ArcMgenes, a Greek physician of the 1st
century A.D. He came to Rome during the
reign o*f Domitian, and enjoyed a consider-
able reputation.
Arcailocus of Faros, a lyric poet of the
7th century B.C., and one of the earliest
writers of elegiac poetry. He was killed in
war with the people of Xaxos.
Archimedes (b. B.C. 287, d. B.C. 212), was
educated under Conon at Alexandria,
and early devoted himself to the mathe-
matical investigations for which he is
famed. He was the friend, and perhaps the
relative, of Hieron II., King of Syracuse, in.
whose service he constantly exercised his
ingenuity. He was amongst those slain in
the general massacre which followed the
taking of Syracuse, having been, says the
story, too intent on some geometrical prob-
lem "to give that explanation of his identity
which would have secured his safety. His
tomb, marked as he had directed by a cy-
linder with inscribed sphere, was discovered
by Cicero (75 B.C.). Of his numerous works,
nine of the most important are extant, in-
cluding treatises on hydrostatics, the mea-
sure of the circle and the quadrature of the
parabola, and show their author to have
been undoubtedly the greatest mathema-
tician of antiquity.
Archytas, an accomplished and learned
Pythagorean philosopher, and a skilled
military commander who is said never to
have lost a battle. He wrote many
treatises, and according to Horace was
drowned off the coast of Apulia.
Arciszewski, Kxzysztof (d. 1656), a Polish
general, who joined the French army, and
took part in the siege of Rochelle, in 1628.
He afterwards went to Brazil in the service of
the Dutch West India Company, and was
distinguished for his bravery and j udgment.
II. • finally r-turn.jd t<> P.i!a:id, where he wo»
a]ip'>n,t,-d in i-ler of tin; onlu.uif.e.
Arckenholtz, Johanu (6. 1C9.">, d. 1777), a
Swedish Fmlamlt.T, whose Consideration*
on Inmcf .t/ni it- li<I.!tu,nx to titc/d/'n led
to his dismissal from his post in the chaii-
I.-.TV at Storkh.ihn. He was ultimately
appointed royal historiographer at Stock-
holm
Arco, Giambattista Gherardo d' (b. Arco,
173'.', d. 1791), one of the greatest political
economists of his time; he left numerous
and valuable works, and was governor of
the Duchy of Mantua.
Arcon, Jean Claude Eleanore Lemichaud
d' (b. 1733, d. 1800), a distinguished F'vnch
military engineer, who conceived th/, idea
of employing floating batteries for the
attack on Gibraltar in 1 782. He also served
in the Republican army which invaded
Holland, and captured Breda and other
places.
Arcos, Rodrigo Ponz de Leon, Duke of, a
Spanish nobleman who so mismanaged the
government of Xaples under Philip IV.
as to provoke two rebellions, which were
with difficulty suppressed, and he was re-
called in disgrace.
Arctinus of Miletus, an epic poet at
Greece, who lived in the Sth century B.C.,
and wrote a conlinuation of the Iliad, and
the Destruction of the Ilion.
Ardemans, Teodoro (b. Madrid, 1664, d.
1726), a painter and architect of considerable
merit, many of whose architectural works
are to be found in Madrid.
Arden, Richard Pepper, Lord Alvanley,
(6. 1745, d. 1S04), an eminent English
lawyer, and an able judge : in 1801 he
succeeded Lord El don as chief justice of the
Court of Common Pleas, with the title of
Baron Alvanley.
Ardern, John, a London surgeon of the
14th century, said to have been the first to
introduce a rational practice. He was a
skilful operator, and made many improve-
ments in surgery.
Arditi, Luigi (6. 1822), Italian com-
poser, studied at Milan. After visiting
America he came to England, and was
conductor of the splendid orchestra of Her
Majesty's theatre (1857 — 1878). His waltzes
are extremely popular.
Ardshir Babegan, a descendant of Darius,
and one of the wisest and most valiant of the
Persian kings. He defeated and slew his
predecessor, Ardavan, seized his throne, and
after thirty years of victorious warfare
established his sway from the Euphrates
to the Oxus. In the internal administratioa
Ard
(53)
Arf
of his kingdom he proved vigilant and just ;
he died or abdicated about 260.
Arduin or Ardorn, Marquis of Ivrea (d.
1015), was elected King of Italy in 1002,
and for thirteen years maintained his claim
in opposition to Henry II. of Germany and
others. Worn out at length by repeated
reverses, and the desertion of his friends,
he retired to the monastery of St. Benigno,
where he died.
Aremberg, Johann von Ligne (d. 1568),
served in the Spanish army during the war
of Independence in the Netherlands. He
was defeated at the battle of Groningen,
where, after exhibiting the greatest personal
valour, he fell covered with wounds.
Aremberg1, Leopold Philip Karl Joseph
von Ligne, Duke of (6. 1690, d. 1754), dis-
tinguished himself under Prince Eugene at
the battle of Belgrade. After the peace of
Utrecht he devoted himself for a time to
literature, but afterwards commanded the
forces of Maria Theresa, in Flanders, in the
war of the Austrian succession.
Arena, Bartolonieo (6. 1760, d. 1829), a
Corsican advocate, a violent republican, and
the enemy of PaoU. He was one of the Five
Hundred in 1798, and being charged with
an attempt to stab Bonaparte, retired to
Leghorn, where he died.
Arena, Giuseppe (d. 1801), brother of the
preceding, served in the French army, and
distinguished himself at the siege of Toulon.
He was arrested on a charge of conspiring
against the life of the First Consul, and
beheaded.
Arends, Jan (&. 1738, d. 1805), a Dutch
painter, pupil of Ponse, painted marine
and other subjects.
Arents, Albert (6. 1840), an eminent
metallurgist ; he was educated in Germany,
but in 1882 was elected member of the
American Institute of Mining Engineers.
He is the inventor of the siphon tap for
lead furnaces, the Eureka lead furnace, and
the well-known roasting furnace which bears
his name.
Aresehong, Johan Erhard (6. 1811, d.
18S7), an eminent Swedish botanist, for some
time professor of botany at Upsala. He is
especially devoted to the study of the
marine algse, and is author of Symbols
Algaruan Scandinavia, and other works.
Areskin, Kobert (d. 1718), Scottish physi-
cian, went to Russia, and under the patron-
age of Peter the Great did much for the
advancement of medicine in that country.
Areson, Jon (6. 1484, d. 1550), a violent
opponent of the reformed religion, was
after much opposition, consecrated bishop
of Holum. He led an armed expedition
into the diocese of Skalholt, and captured
and ill-treated its Protestant bishop, Einars-
son, and continued his depredations till he
himself was made prisoner, and beheaded.
He introduced the printing press into Ice-
land, and was the best Icelandic poet of his
time.
Aretssus of Cappadocia, an eminent
physician of the 1st or 2nd century of the
Christian era, whose one extant work is
very valuable, and has gone through various
editions.
Aretas II., King of Arabia Petrasa in the
1st century B.C., was victorious in an ex-
pedition against Judsea, but was defeated
by the Romans under the legate Scaurus.
Aretas III., King of Arabia Petra?.a and
father-in-law of Herod Antipas, against
whom he waged a successful war.
Aretino, Leonardo (Bruni) (b. 1369, d.
1444) a scholar and author, whose reputa-
tion was such that in 1405 he was appointed
secretary of correspondence to Innocent
VII., and remained for many years in his
service and that of the three succeeding
popes. The end of his life was spent in
Florence, of which city he was appointed
chancellor.
Aretiao, Pietro (Bacci) (6. 1492, d.
1556), an adventurer who in his time ac-
quired an undeserved reputation as a writer
and politician. He was a self-educated but
audacious man, and contrived to ingratiate
himself with several princes and noblemen,
finally settling at Venice, where he devoted
himself to the acquisition of wealth.
Aretius, Benedict (&. 1505, d. 1574), a
Swiss theologian and botanist ; he embraced
the opinions of Calvin, and devoted hia
leisure to botany, on wliich he wrote many
works. He was the first to describe the
plant Aretia Helvetica, which was named in
his honour.
Aresso, Guittone d' (d. 1294), an Italian
noble, known as Fra Guittone, who may be
regarded as one of the founders of Italian
poetry and perfecter of the sonnet.
Arezzo, Tommasi (b. 1756, d. 1832), a
distinguished Italian ecclesiastic, who was
employed by Paul I. on an important
mission to Russia ; he was also employed
by Napoleon, who imprisoned him for re-
vealing his plans ; he was made a cardinal
in ISlo, and vice-chancellor of the Church
in 1830.
Arfe, Henrique de, with his son Antonio,
was a celebrated worker in silver in the
16th century. He settled in Spain, and
wrought silver tabernacles for the cathedrals
of Leon, Cordova and Toledo.
Arf
(64)
Arg
iJ, Juan de (k. 1535. d. 1 •>.'")', grandson
of the preceding, surpassed his father and
.dfuiher ui the beau;y and ele_,ranrr . .1
his work. The beautiful silver t.-ii)cnia< •!• >
in the cathedrals of Avila and Seville are hid
work.
Ariian, Autonio de, a Spanish artist in
the sixteenth century, who especially ex-
celled in fresco.
Argall, Sir Samuel (6. 1572, d. 1(
ish deputy governor of Virginia
(1617 — 1619), whose tyranny and rapacity
resulted in his recall two years after his
appointment. He afterwards took part in
an expedition against the Algeriues, and
was knighted in lt>23.
Argand, Aime" (6. 1755, d. 1S03), a chemist
of Geneva, inventor of the Argaud lamp,
which he brought out in England in 17v2.
The patent was also claimed by a French-
man, Ambroise Lauge, and finally taken
out in France in their joint names, the
priority of invention being conceded to
Argaud. The French Revolution, how-
ever, deprived him of all profit from his
patent.
Argolander, Friedrich "Wilhelm Auguste
(b. 1799, d. 1375), German astronomer of
repute, published in 1313 an atlas of those
stars which are visible to the naked eye
(Uranometria Nova). He also continued
Bessel's work, fixing the position of some
22,000 stars in the zone 45° to 80°.
Argellati, Filippo (6. 1685, d. Milan,
1755), a learned and eminent printer and
author, whose name was especially asso-
ciated with the printing of Muratori's
Rerum Italic-arum Scrip tores.
Argens, Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis
de (b. 1704, d. 1771), a witty French writer,
who attracted the attention of Frederick II.
of Prussia, and spent some years at Berlin,
but having incurred that monarch's dis-
pleasure, and forfeited his pension, he re-
turned to Provence, where he died. Among
his best known writings are the Lettres
Juives, and the Lettres Calalistiques.
Argensola, Bartolome Leonardo y (6.
1564, d. 1631), a Spanish poet and man of
letters, whose R<mas obtained for him
the title of "The Phcenix of Castilian
poetry . ' '
Argensola, Lupercio Leonardo y (6. 1563,
d. Iol3), brother of the preceding; he was
patronised by Philip III. His tragedies are
highly spoken of by Cervantes, and he also
wrote lyrical and historical works.
Argentelle, Louis Marc Antoine (b. 1777,
d. 18-iS), a celebrated French modeller, who
made a valuable collection of wax models of
the India flora. His secret unfortunately
perished .Vilh hilll.
Argenterio, Giovanni (b. 1513, d. 1572),
" The Great Physician," practised at Lyons
and Antwerp, acquiring so great a reputa-
tion that he was invited to Italy, and tilled
the chair >i medicine at Xaples, Pisa, Home,
and Turin.
Argentre, Bertraud d' (b. 1519, d. lo. 0), a
ied jurist and historian of B.;l:auy,
author of a History of linttany, and other
works.
Argote de Molina, Gonzalo (b. 1549, d.
15'JU;, a Spanish historian, and author o'
some valuable works on the geography of
the East. In early life he served in the
army, but afterwards devoted himself to
literature, and died in poverty.
Arguelles, Augustin (6. 1775, d. 1844), a
distinguished Spanish statesman whose
speeches and writings against the French
obtained for him the title of "Divino."
In 1814 he was amongst the proscribed,
and condemned to the galleys, but some
six years later was made Minister of the
Interior. His royalist principles induced
him to retire to London, till the amnesty of
1832, after which he became a member of
Cortes, and tutor to the young queen and
her sister.
Argyll, Archibald Campbell (6. 1598, d.
1661), eighth Earl of; a popular Highland
leader, who took part in the Civil wars of
the 17th century. At first he sided with the
Covenanters, whose forces he commanded
for a short time, but on the execution of
Charles I. he broke with the English
parliament, and did all in his power to pro-
mote the Restoration. In spite of this
he was committed to the Tower by Charles
II. on a charge of high treason, and exe-
cuted.
Argyll, Archibald (d. 1685), ninth Earl of,
son of the preceding, and a staunch royalist.
He refused, however, to give complete
compliance with the requirements of the Test
Acts, and at the instigation of the Duke of
York was tried for high treason, and sen-
tenced to death in 1681, but succeeded in
escaping to Holland. Returning to Scotland
at the head of a considerable force, he was
taken prisoner, and executed on his former
sentence.
Argyll, John, second Duke of (6. 1678, d.
1743), a distinguished statesman and soldier,
who served with distinction under Marl-
borough in the Low Countries. As a poli-
tician he assisted in effecting the union
between England and Scotland, and also
promoted the accession of George I. He was
afterwards appointed commander-in-chief
Arg
(55)
Ari
in Scotland, and defeated the Earl of Mar
at Sheriff muir in 1715.
Argyll, George Douglas Campbell, eighth
Duke of (b. 1823), author and politician, was
born at Ardenlaple Castle, Dumbartonshire.
As Marquis of Lome he took a strong
interest ia the question of ecclesiastical pa-
tronage then agitated in the Scottish Church,
and which occasioned the secession of the
Free Kirk, being a supporter of Dr.
Chalmers and the evangelical party. He
became duke in 1847, and in 1851 chancellor
of the University of St. Andrew's. In the
following year he was appointed Lord Privy
Seal in the Cabinet of Lord Aberdeen, in
1856 Postmaster-General, and again in 1859
Lord Privy Seal in the Administration of
Lord Pahnerston. From 1868 to 1874 he
was a member of Mr. Gladstone's Govern-
ment as Secretary of State for India, and
for the third time accepted the office of Lord
Privy Seal in 1880, but resigned on certain
clauses of the Irish Land Bill which he
considered destructive of ownership. Be-
sides much he has written of the land ques-
tion, a subject with which he is intimately
acquainted, his principal works are a history
of the Scottish Church, and, in religious and
scientific inquiry, the Reign of Law (1866),
and the Unity of Nature (1844).
Ari, orAra(6. 1068, d. 1148), surnarned
" the Learned," an Icelandic historian, and
pupil of Hall Thorarinsson, whose history
and chronology are very valuable.
Ariadne, Empress of the East in the
fifth and sixth centuries, was the daughter
of Leo I., and on his death, and that
of her infant son, vigorously maintained
the claims of her husband, Zeno, to the
throne, who died in 491, and she then
married his successor, Anastatiua I., over
Whom she had great influence.
Arialdus (d. 1066), a deacon of Milan in the
llth century, who, in company with Landul-
fus, determinedly opposed the marriage and
simony of the clergy. Though excommu-
nicated, their sentence was annulled on
appeal, but a violent agitation at Milan
induced the archbishop to lay that city under
an interdict, when the terrified people turned
against Arialdus, who was arrested, and
murdered.
Ariamnes I., King or Satrap of Cappa-
docia, was the father of Ariarathes I., and
reigned fifty years.
Ariamnes II., King of Cappadocia, suc-
ceeded his father, Ariarathes II., and asso-
ciated in the government his son, Aria-
rathes III.
Ariarathes I., King of Cappadocia (b. B.C.
404, d. B.C. 322), succeeded his father, Ari-
amnes L ; he was unmolested by Alexander
the Great, though afterwards attacked and
defeated by Perdiccas, who caused him to
be crucified.
Ariarathes II., King of Cappadocia,
nephew of the preceding, upon whose death
he ried to Ardoates, King of Armenia, who
supplied him with the means of expelling
the Macedonians and regaining his kingdom.
Ariarathes III., King of Cappadocia (d.
B.C. 220j, sou of Ariamnes II. ; he married
Stratonice, daughter of Antiochus IT. of
Syria.
Ariarathes IV., King of Cappadocia (d.
B.C. 163), son of the preceding, aided
Antiochus III. against the Romans, but
afterwards formed an alliance with them.
Ariarathes V., King of Cappadocia (d. B.C.
130), called at first Mithridates, and sur-
named Philopater, was driven from hia
throne by Holoferues and fled to Rome,
but was afterwards restored in conjunction
with his rival, but soon regained entire
possession.
Ariarathes VI., King of Cappadocia (d.
B.C. 96), son of the preceding, whom he suc-
ceeded, was assassinated at the instigation
of his father-in-law, Mithridates.
Ariarathes VII., King of Cappadocia, son
of the preceding, was placed on the throne
by Mithridates, as a means of securing it
for himself. He, however, resisted, and
raised an army, but was assassinated by
Mithridates.
Ariarathes VTIL, King of Cappadocia,
son of Ariarathes VI., was attacked by
Mithridates and driven from the throne.
Ariarathes XL, King of Cappadocia (d.
B.C. 36), son of Aiiobarzanes II., succeeded
to the throne B.C. 42, but was deposed and
put to death by Antony.
Arias Montanus Bsnedictus, Benito Arias
Montano (b. 1527, d. 1598), a learned biblical
scholar, who in 1568 superintended the
printing of the great polyglot Bible.
Aribert, Duke of Aquitaine (d. 630), and
son of Clotaire IL of France, obtained pos-
session of Aquitaine on his father's death,
and held it till his death.
Aribert L, King of the Longobards (d.
661), elected in 653, devoted himself to the
conversion of his Arian subjects to the or-
thodox faith.
Aribert II., King of the Longobards, suc-
ceeded to the throne in 701 , and the following
year was attacked by Linitpert, whom he
defeated and put to death. In 712, however,
he was defeated by Ansprand, and drowned
in the Ticino.
Ari
(66)
Ari
Arigisius I., Duke of Beneveiitum, a\v ir-
like aiid able piiiice, who ruled from 5Ul
to 641.
Arigisius II., Puke of Beneveiitum, a man
of learning and ability, assumed the title
of priiice in 771, but two years afterwards
submitted to i.'harlema:.::
Ariobarzanes I., King of Cappadocia,
suruamed Philoronio'us, was elected in B.C.
93, and after being four times driven from
his throne, and as often restored by the
Romans, abdicated in favour of his son,
B.C. 63.
Ariobarzanes II., King of Cappadocia,
son of the preceding, died by violence before
B.C. 51.
Ariobarzanes III., King of Cappadocia
(<f. B.C. 12), son of the preceding, was favour-
ably treated by Ciesar, who increased his
dominions, though he had previously assisted
Pompey. He was put to death by Cassius.
Ariobarzanes L, King or Satrap of Pontus,
who may be confounded by Xenophon with
another of the same name, was betrayed by
his son, Mithridates I., to the King of
Persia.
Ariobarzanes II., King of Pontus, and
eon of Mithridates I., in 362 B.C. revolted
from Artaxerxes II. of Persia, and estab-
lished his independence.
Ariobarzanes III., King of Pontus (d.
B.C. 2-iO), succeeded his father, Mithridates
III., B.C. 236. With assistance from the
Gauls he defeated an invasion of the
Egyptians.
Ariosti, Attilio (6. Bologna, 1660, d. 1740),
a musical composer, the friend and rival of
Handel. He was for some years in the
service of the Electress of Brandenburg, and
twice visited England, on one occasion being
employed with Handel at the Koyal Aca-
demy of Music. Of the fifteen operas he
composed, the most popular was his Corio-
lanus.
Aripsto.Lodovico (S.Eeggio, 1474, d. 1533),
one of the foremost poets of Italy, and author
of the great epic poem Orlando Furioso,
which was written in his intervals of leisure
whilst employed by Cardinal Ippolyto of
Este in various political negotiations. The
Or I md'j celebrates the achievements of the
Paladins of Charlemagne in the wars be-
tween the Christians and Moors ; besides
this work he produced two comedies and
some sonnets and other small pieces.
Ariovistus [Ehrenvisr], a chief of the
Suevi in the first century B.C., who gained
many victories over the Sequani and jJEdui,
till forced by Julius Caesar across the
Rhine.
Arista, Maria.no (6. 1802, d. 1855), a Mexi-
can general who distinguished liim.M-lf in
the Mexican wars of Independence. In
the war with the United States he com-
manded at Palo Alto and Ilesaca de la
Talma, and in 1850 was elected President
of Mexico, but resigned his office in 1853,
and was banished shortly afterwards.
Aristag-oras of Miletus, governor of Mi-
letus during the absence of Histiasus. An
expedition against Xuxos having failed, he
instigated a revolt against Persia, and
with the aid of the Athenians attacked
Sardis, which he captured and burnt, but
was shortly afterwards killed, at the siege
of Arnphipolis.
Aristarchus the Grammarian, a native
of Samothrace, and a renowned grammarian
and critic of the 2nd and 3rd centuries B.C.,
was tutor to the son of Ptolemy IV., but
his great work was a critical examination of
the Greek classics, the present form of the
Odyssey and Iliad being attributed to him.
Aristides, a Greek orator of the 2nd
century B.C., was a native of Bithynia, but
settled in Smyrna, where he taught oratory.
Aristides, surnamed The Just, the son ot
Lysimachus, of a noble Athenian family, was
one of the ten Athenian generals at Mara-
thon, and the next year was chief Arehon.
Though banished through the influence and
jealousy of Themistocles, was recalled three
years later, upon the invasion of Greece
by the Persians, and was present at the
battles of Salamis(B.c. 480) and Plataea (B.C.
479), the victory of his countrymen being
largely due to him. It was principally ow-
ing to his high reputation for integrity that
the Confederate States with two exceptions
appealed to the Athenians to lead them.
He died about 468 B.C., in such poverty
that he was buried at the public expense.
Aristides of Taebes, a Greek painter of
the 4th century B.C., whose pictures fetched
immense prices.
Aristion, a native of Athens, and teacher
of philosophy in the 1st century B.C. He
headed a revolt of the Athenians against
Home, and being appointed general, used his.
power for purposes of tyranny and plunder.
On the arrival of Sulla, B.C. 87, Aristion
was besieged at Athens and put to death.
Aristippus, a Greek philosopher, native
of Cyrene, and pupil of Socrates. He dif-
fered materially from his great master,
and founded the school of the Cyrenaics,
teaching by precept and example that
pleasure is the only end of action.
Aristobulns L, surnamed Philhellene.
high priest of the Jews, B.C. 107 ; assumed
the title of king, and defeated Antiochua
Ari
(67)
Arl
Cyzicenus at the siege of Samaria. He
also caused the death of his mother, and
afterwards of his brother Antigonus, who
had been associated with him in the
government.
Aristobiilus II. (d. B.C. 49), high priest
and king of the Jews, son of Alexander
Jannaeus, usurped his brother's throne, but
was attacked by Pompey, who took Jeru-
salem, and carried him to Rome. After
various attempts to regain the throne, he
died of poison.
Aristobulus of Cassandrea, a Greek his-
torian of the 4th century B. c. ; one of the
generals of Alexander the Great.
Aristocles, born at Messene, a peripatetic
philosopher of the 2nd century, and author
of several philosophical works.
Aristodemus, a contemporary of Tar-
quinius Superbus, tyrant of Cuma in Cam-
pania, and a brave and victorious general.
He proclaimed a democratic government,
but assumed absolute power and ruled with
great severity.
Aristogeiton, an Athenian patriot, famed
in Greek song as one of the assassins of the
tyrannical Hipparchus ; he was captured
and put to death, but a statue was erected
to his memory by the Athenians.
Aristopnanes (6. circa B.C. 448), the cele-
brated Greek comic poet, the contemporary
of Socrates, Demosthenes, and Euripides,
and a prolific and brilliant writer of satirical
plays. For purity and elegance of style he is
unsurpassed, and his works present a vivid
picture of Athenian lif e and manners, ridi-
culing the evils of the time, and many of
the leading men, especially Socrates in The
Clouds, and Cleon, the popular favourite,
in The Knights. Of his fifty-four plays
only eleven remain. Nothing is known of
his personal lif e.
Aristophanes of Byzantium, a great gram-
marian and critic of the third century B.C.,
and author of the Greek system of punc-
tuation and accentuation ; he was superin-
tendent of the library at Alexandria.
Aristotile, Bastiano da San Gallo (6.
1481, d. 1551), an Italian painter and archi-
tect ; he was a pupil of Perugino and
Michael Angelo, and was remarkable for
his skill in perspective.
Aristotle (6. B.C. 384, d. B.C. 322), born at
Stagira, in Macedonia, one of the greatest
intellects that the world has known, and
founder of the peripatetic school of phi-
losophy, possibly so called from its great
master's habit of walking up and down
while lecturing. A pupil of Plato, who
called him the "mind" of his school,
Aristotle became exceedingly proficient in
physics, metaphysics, rhetoric, politics,
ethics, and natural history, while of logic
he justly claims to be the founder. His
fame reached Philip of Macedon, who
appointed him tutor to his son, Alexandei
the Great, and when no longer required in
that capacity, Aristotle returned to Athens
and established a school in the Lyceum.
An accusation of impiety, and perhaps poli-
tical sympathy with Macedonia, induced
him to retire to Chalcis, where he died in the
sixty-third year of his age. The philosophy
of Aristotle has exercised an immense influ-
ence over the world, and till the advent of
the revival of learning and the Reformation,
its power in Europe was supreme.
Aristoxemus, a native of Tarentum in
the 4th century B.C., and the earliest Greek
writer on music whose works are extant.
As a peripatetic philosopher he had a great
reputation.
Arius (d. 336), theologian and heresiarch,
was a presbyter of Alexandria in the 4th cen-
tury, whose teaching denied the divinity of
Christ. This doctrine was pronounced here-
tical, and Arius and his followers excom-
municated, and at the great Council of
Niczea (325), at which the Emperor Con-
stantine was present, and Athanasius, after-
wards bishop of Alexandria, took a leading
part ; these decisions were confirmed, and
the Nicene Creed drawn up for the future
guidance of the Church. Arius several
times applied for readmission to the Church,
which was about to be granted when lu»
died suddenly.
Arkharov, Nikolai Petroyich (6. 1742, d.
1814), a general in the Russian army, who,
under the Emperor Paul, was governor-
general of St. Petersburg.
Arkwright, Sir Richard (6. 1732, d,
1792), a Lancashire barber, renowned ae
the inventor of the spinning- frame. Of
humble birth, he exhibited considerable
mechanical skill, joined with the greatest
industry. In 1767 he attempted to solve
the problem of perpetual motion, and soon
after, with the help of a clockmaker named
Kay, his spinning inventions began to take
shape. He then entered into partnership
with a firm of stocking-manufacturers, and
his invention was patented in 1769, and
though many difficulties arose, from infringe-
ments of the patent, the hostility of the
work-people, and disputes to his claim as
the inventor of his machines, Arkwright was
enabled to rise from poverty, and was
chosen to present a congratulatory address
to George III. in 1786, on which occasion he
was knighted.
Arlaud, Jacques Antoine (&. 1688, d.
1746), a Swiss miniature and portrait
painter, who was patronised by the Duke of
Arl
(68)
Ann.
Orleans. In 1721 he vi-ited England, where
he was warmly received, and employed to
paint the portrait of Caroline, Princess of
Wales. His masterpiece was a I.~
copied by him in Paris, \\iih which he
refused to part, and hnaliy destroy. -d by
cutting it t • pieces. Some fra^riiie.its are
still preserved in the public library at
Geneva.
Arlincourt, Charles Victor Prevpt,Yicomte
d' (b. 178'J, d. 1856), poet, attracted the at- ]
teution of Napoleon by a poem entitled Unc
Matinee de Cit-ir , which secured for
him several appointments. On the restora-
tion he dovot-d himself to literature, and
published many poems and romances, of
which Le Svlitnire was the most popular.
Arlotto, Mainardi (b. 1395, d. 1483),
"Arljtto ilPiovano," or, ''the Curate," a
witty Italian priest of humble birth, who
travelled largely in Europe ; his bon-mots
have been collected under the title of
Facet'ue Pcacevole.
Armagnac, Bernard, Count d', a man of
noble family, and of almost absolute
power over his own territories in Gascony.
Bold and ambitious, he largely increased
his possessions, and after the murder
of the Duke of Orleans in 1407, took a
prominent part in the party rivalries of the
country, and having gained possession of
Paris, caused himself to be appointed con-
stable of France. His cruelty and violence,
however, made him hated by the people,
who betrayed the city to the Duke of Bur-
gundy, 1417, and Armagnac was imprisoned
and afterwards massacred by the mob.
Armagnac, George d' (b. 1501, d. 1585),
Cardinal d' Armagnac ; an able and learned
man, who was employed diplomatically
by Francis I. and Charles IX., and was
ultimately made archbishop of Avignon.
Armagnac, Jean I., Count of, a distin-
guished French soldier of the 14th century ;
he served against the English, and also
under the Black Prince in Spain.
Armand, Pierre Damian (b. 1778, d. 1855),
an Italian soldier, who distinguished himself
in the wars of the French Republic, serving
under Massena in 1799 ; he was afterwards
engaged in the Italian struggles for liberty,
and 011 his return to France was appointed
librarian to St. Cloud.
Armansperg1, Joseph Ludwig (6. 1787, d.
1853), a Bavarian statesman, who as min-
ister of finance (1826 — 1831) succeeded in
establishing the financial credit of his coun-
try. Upon the accession of Ludwig' s second
son, Otho, to the throne of Greece, Ar-
mansperg accompanied him as President of
the Regency (1833), but was dismissed in
1837, and retired to Bavaria, where he died.
Armati, Salvino (d. 1317), a native of
Floreiic", said to have invented spectacles
in the loth century.
Armellini, Carlo (b. area 1780, d. 1863),
an Italian patriot, who with Mazziui and
S.iilL ioniied the Triumvirate in Rome,
1849. Upon the rest' >rati»n of the Pope's
authority he was driven into exile.
Armfelt, Carl (b. 1666, d. 1736), a skilful
and determined Swedish general, who op-
posed the Russian invasions under Peter the
Great.
Arrnfelt, Gustave Mauritz (6. 1757, d.
1814), a distinguished Swedish general and
politician, who experienced several reverses
of fortune, and was twice compelled on
account of his intrigues to take refuge in
Russia, where he died.
Arminius or Hermann (b. B.C. 16, d. A.D.
20), ''the deliverer of Germany," son of a
chief of the Cherusci, was sent to Rome as
a hostage, and entered the Roman army,
where he attained high rank. He, however,
revolted from Rome, and becoming one of the
most powerful leaders of the German tribes,
defeated and slew Varus, and for some time
baffled Germanicus, but was twice defeated
by the Romans. He was assassinated by one
of his own countrymen.
Arminius, Jacobus, Jakob Harmensen
(b. 1560, d. 16U9), founder of the sect
of Arminians. He studied at Geneva
under Beza, but his adoption of the philo-
sophical views of Peter Rarnus brought him
into disrepute, and he retired to Bale, and
was ordained minister at Amsterdam (1588).
He was chosen to defend Beza's doctrine of
predestination, but the study of the subject
resulted in his own conversion. In spite
of fierce opposition to his doctrine, in 1603
he was professor of theology, and in 1606
rector magnificus at Leyden.
Armitag'e, Edward (b. 1817), an historical
and mural painter, and a pupil of Paul
Delaroche, whom he assisted in the famous
Hemicycle. His first exhibit was Pro-
metheus Sound (1842). and he has since
won many prizes, and has been a con-
stant exhibitor in the Royal Academy and
elsewhere. He executed two frescoes, The
Thames with its Tributaries, and the
Death of Marmion, in the upper wait-
ing hall of the Palace of Westminster, as
well as mural paintings elsewhere. R.A.
1872.
Armstead, Henry Hugh (6. 1828), de-
signer, modeller, and chaser in gold,
silver, and jewellery, but best known
as a sculptor. Besides the marble work ^f
the south and east sides of the podium of
the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park, and
the four large bronze figures of Chemistry,
Ann
(59)
Astronomy, Medicine, and Rhetoric, he has
designed and executed many statues and
decorative work of various kinds. B.A.
1879.
Armstrong1, Sir Alexander (b. 1822),
K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., honorary phy-
sician to the Queen and Prince of Wales.
He was knighted in 1871, and has written
on subjects connected with the polar regions,
where he spent five consecutive years, having
been surgeon of H.M.S. Investigator, during
the discovery of the north-west passage by
Sir Robert McClure in 1853-54.
Armstrong, John (6. 1784, d. 1829), an
eminent physician and lecturer on medicine ;
his works on brain fever and puerperal fever
are especially valuable.
Armstrong1, Johnnie, famous Scottish
freebooter, celebrated in minstrelsy, was
put to death by James V.
Armstrong, William (Kinmount Willie),
a famous border freebooter of the 16th
century, was captured by the English dur-
ing a truce, but was rescued by the Scots
under Lord Buccleuch, in the daring exploit
known as the " Raid of Carlisle."
Armstrong", William George, Baron (b.
1810), inventor of the well-known breech-
loading gun adopted by the British Govern-
ment, was educated for the law, and entered
a firm of solicitors, which he left in 1846, and
established the Elswick Engineering Works
on the Tyne. In 1859 he was knighted, and
appointed chief engineer of ordnance, but
in 1863 he resigned that post, and retired
to Elswick, where he has since devoted
himself to the manufacture of ordnance.
Created a peer 1887.
Arnaldo of Brescia, a monk of
the 12th century, was banished by In-
nocent II. for his bold attempts to reform
sne lives of the clergy, and took refuge
with Abelard and then at Zurich. On the
death of the Pope he went to Rome, and
encouraged a revolt against the temporal
rule of the Church (1H3-1154), but was
made prisoner and then cruelly put to
death.
Arnaldus, Villanovanus (Arnauld) (6. 1240,
d. 1313), a celebrated physician and chemist,
who, in spite of his reputed heresy, was
summoned to the deathbed of Pope Clement
V., but died on his way.
Arnason, Jon (6. Hof, Iceland, 1819), an
eminent historian and author of many tales
and Icelandic legends.
Arnaud, Francois (b. 1721, d. 1734), a
French writer and critic, and a great
authority on music, wjis one of the con-
ductors of the Journal Etranger and Gazette
Litter air e.
Arnaud, Frangois Thomas Marie de Bacu-
lard d' (b. Paris, 1718, d. 1805), a man of pre-
cocious intellect, and of considerable celebrity
as a miscellaneous writer. He was impri-
soned during the Reign of Terror, but after-
wards released.
Arnaud, Henri (b. 1641, d. 1721), pastor
and leader of the Vaudois Protestants,
whom after incredible hardships he suc-
ceeded in bringing back to their native Pied-
montese valleys, just at the time when Victor
Amadeus II., having broken with France,
was glad not only to cease his persecutions,
but even to engage their services. But
though he led a detachment against the
French, on the renewal of peace the Vaudois
were again driven from their homes and
forced to take shelter with the Duke of
Wurtemburg, where he spent the rest
of his days in the compilation of his Jlts-
tory of the Glorious Return.
Arnauld, Aiigelique (b. 1624, d. 1684),
Abbess of Port Royal, and niece of the cele-
brated Mere Augelique, was a woman
of great piety, learning, and fortitude, and
nobly sustained the courage of her nuns un-
der the persecutions to which they were
subjected.
Arnauld, Antoine (6. 1612, d. 1694), sur-
named " le Grand," a doctor of theology,
and member of the Sorbonne, and a power-
ful advocate of the Jaiisenists. During
twelve years of comparative seclusion he
alone, or with Nicole, Pascal, or Lancelot,
composed those works on logic, metaphysics,
and theology, which made Port Royal famous,
and when "' the Peace of the Church " was
obtained he attacked the Calvinists, against
whom he and Xicole directed their great
work, Perpetuite de la Foi. In 1679 he was
forced to flee, and took refuge at Brussels,
where he died.
Arnauld, Jacqueline Marie (Mere Angel-
ique) (b. 1591,^. 1661). sister of the preceding;
she was made abbess of Port Royal in her
eleventh year, and was distinguished as weD
for her kindness and benevolence as for her
piety, and the strict discipline she main-
tained.
Arnauld, Jeanne Catherine Agnes (La Mere
Agnes) (6. 1593, d. 1671), sister of the pre-
ceding ; at five years old she was made abbess
of St. Cyr, which post she resigned and joined
her sister at Port Royal, where she was
several times elected abbess.
Arnault, Vincent Antoine (6. 1766, d.
1834), a French dramatic writer, author of
the tragedies of Marins and Lucre f-e and
other works. He escaped from France
during the revolution, was afterwards em-
ployed by Bonaparte, and in 1883 became
secretary to the Academie Fran^aise.
Arn
(60)
Amd or Arndt. Johonn (It. 1555, d. 1621),
German theoi. .-ian and distinguished re-
forun.-r, was aiuin-r of an admirable trea-
tise On 'I'm*' Christianity, and was finally
appointed superintendent-general of the
Lutheran Church at Zelle.
Arne, Cecilia (d. 1776), wife of the follow-
ing, whom she married in 1740. Shewasone
of the best vocalists of her day, and as Miss
Young appeared at Drury Lane in 1730.
Arne, Thomas Augustine (b. London,
1710, d. 1778), a distinguished musical
composer, who relinquished the study
of law for that of music. His genius first
showed itself in the music of Comus,
1788, and among other popular productions
of this writer is the well-known Rule
Britannia from The Masque of Alfred, Ar-
taxerxes, and Love in a Village.
Arngrim, Jonasen, an Icelandic historian
of the 16th and 17th centuries ; a pupil of
Tycho Brahe.
Arngrimsson, Eystein (d. 1361), an Ice-
landic poet, author of a poem in honour of
the Virgin Mary, The Lily, said to be
the finest in the language.
Arnheim or Arnim, George, Baron von
(b. 1581, d. 1641), a distinguished general and
politician, who took part in the Thirty Years'
war, serving successively under Gustavus
Adolphus, Wallenstein, and the Elector of
Saxony. After gaining the decisive victory
of Liegnitz (1634) he retired to his estates,
but was seized and imprisoned by the King
of Sweden ; he escaped, however, but died
soon after.
Arnim, Anna Elizabeth von (Bettina)
(b. 1785, d. 1859), the friend of Goethe, a
clever but eccentric German poetess and
writer, who published in 1837 her corre-
spondence with Goethe, Correspondence with
a Child.
Arnim, Harry Karl Edouard, Count von
(b. 1824, d. 1881), a Prussian diplomatist,
ambassador at Rome 1864, whose support of
Dr. Dollinger, and resolute opposition to the
doctrine of Infallibility whilst at Home, in-
duced the government to bestow upon him
the title of count. He was afterwards sent
as ambassador of the German Empire to
Paris, but on his recall various charges in
connection with his discharge of the duties
of that office were brought against him, and
so aggravate d by a violent attack upon the
government made by an anonymous writer,
presumably the count himself, that he
was tried on a charge of high treason and
insolent libel, and sentenced in absence to
five years' penal servitude. He was at the
time living in Lausanne, and prudently re-
mained in exile till his death, all attempts
at reconciliation proving futile.
Arnim, Ludwig Joachim von (b. 1781, d.
1831), an eminent German poet and miscel-
laneous writer, who in conjunction with
Clemens Brentano produced the famous
collection of songs entitled I)es Knaben
Wundcrhorn.
Arnold, Arthur (b. 1833), politician, author,
and social reformer, first became prominent
during the cotton famine. He was the first
editor of the Echo, which under his manage-
ment had a wide circulation ; he has also
written several articles and books, and was
elected member for Salford in 1880.
Arnold, Benedict (b. 1740, d. 1801),
American general, a brave but unprincipled
man. At fifteen he enlisted in the English
army, but soon deserted, and adopted a
mercantile life. In the Anglo-American
war Arnold took an extremely active part,
his skill and gallantry being especially
exhibited in the siege of Quebec and the
victories of Rldgefield and Benis. Mean-
while a party hostile to him had been
growing up ; his due promotion was de-
ferred, several serious charges were brought
against him, the fortunes of the Americans
grew worse and worse, and he became
affected with the prevalent spirit of de-
sertion. Accordingly he entered into
negotiation with the British commander,
and treacherously asked and obtained the
command of West Point, with the intention
of surrendering it to the enemy ; the capture
of Andre betrayed his duplicity, and the
traitor fled in disgrace to the English army
at New York. Here he was appointed
brigadier-general, and after serving against
his countrymen, retired to London.
Arnold, Christoph (b. 1646, <rf. 1695), a
German farmer who devoted his leisure to
astronomy, and made some remarkably exact
calculations ; he discovered the comet of
1683.
Arnold, Sir Edwin, K.C.I.E., (*. 1832),
journalist and poet, educated at King's
College, London, and Oxford, where
he won the Newdigate prize in 1852.
He was for several years principal
of the Government Sanscrit college at
Poonah, Bombay Presidency, but resigned
his post in 1861, when he first became con-
nected with the I)a'dy Telegraph, for which
he has continued to write ever since,
being appointed editor. His Light of Asia
*(187y) achieved extraordinary popularity,
and obtained him a high place amongst the
poets of the day.
Arnold, Duke of Gueldres (b. 1410, d.
1473), was engaged in continual warfare
with Duke Adolphus of Berg, and his suc-
cessor Gerhard V., who inflicted a crushing
defeat on him upon St. Hubert's Day, 1444»
Ke afterwards had much trouble with his
Am
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Aro
rebellious son, Adolphus, and finally sold hi*
-duchy to Charles the Bold in 1472.
Arnold, Johann Gottfried (b. Hohenlohe,
1773, d. 1801), musician and composer, es-
pecially skilled on the violoncello.
Arnold, John (b. 1744, d. 1799), an English
chronoinetrician, inventor of the detached
escapement, the compensation balance, and
the cylindrical balance-spring.
Arnold, Matthew (b. 1822, d. 1888), eldest
son of Dr. Arnold of Kugby, was educated
at Winchester, Rugby, and Baliiol College,
Oxford, and was a distinguished critic, poet,
scholar, and theologian. He was elected
Fellow of Oriel College 1845, and in 1851,
after having been for some time private
secretary to Lord Lansdowne, he was ap-
pointed Lay Inspector of Schools under the
Committee of Council on Education, in
which capacity he twice visited the Con-
tinent for the purpose of collecting informa-
tion, and which appointment he resigned in
1886. His poetic activity was manifested in
early life ; for ten years (1857-1867) he held
the chair of poetry at Oxford, and amongst
his productions may be noted his Newdigate
prize poem Cromwell (1843), The Strayed
Reveller, and a volume of New Poems pub-
lished in 1869. As a critic he holds a very
high place. His liter works were chiefly
theological, being attempts to grapple with
the supernatural aspects of Christianity
from a rationalistic standpoint. St. Paul
and Prote«ta>i?i*in (1871), Literature and
Dogma (1373), and God and the Bible (1375)
are among his writings.
Arnold, Samuel (b. 1740, d. 1802), a
prolific musical composer, who, after hold-
ing various appointments, in 1793 became
organist of Westmin- T Abbey. Both his
operas and his oratories were well received,
and he produced numerous glees, songs, and
other minor pieces.
Arnold (Strutthan von Winckelried) , an
heroic native of Unterwalden, who sacri-
ficed his life for his country at the battle
of Sempa.-h. 13o6, by throwing himself on
the Austrian spears and thus breaking the
ranks of the enemy.
Arnold, Thomas, D.D. (b. 1795, d. 1842),
was educated at Winchester, and Corpus
Christ! College, Oxford. In 1815 he became
Fellow of Oriel, obtaining in that year the
Chancellor's prize for the Latin and Li 1817
for the English essay. After taking holy
orders, he passed nine years at Laleham,
near Staines, in literary occupations, and in
preparing young men for the universities.
Appointed head master of Rugby school in
1828, he raised that institution beyond all
precedent, both by the remarkable success
of his pupils and by the introduction of new
branches of study into the Rugby course.
He was of the Broad Church school of
thought, and a vigorous opposer of the then
new Tractarian movement. In 1841 he was
appointed professor of modern history at
Oxford. The best known of Dr. Arnold's
works are his edition of Thucydides, his
History of Rome (unfinished), and his ser«
mons delivered in the chapel of Rugby
school.
Arnolfo di Lapo (b. 1232, d. 1300),
architect and sculptor, a pupil of Nicolo
Pisano, erected many fine works in Florence,
especially the Santa Croce church and the
duomo.
Arnot, Hugo (Pollock) (b. 1749, d. 1786), a
Scottish advocate, author of a History of
Edinburgh, 1779 ; he made also a valuable
collection of the celebrated criminal trials
of Scotland.
Araott,Neil,Dr. (*. 1788, d. 1874), Scottish
surgeon, inventor of the stove which bears
his name, and author of the Elements of
Physics and other kindred works.
Arnoul or Arnulf (b. 1040, d. 1124), Bene-
dictine monk of Beauvais, came to England
with Lanfranc in 1072, and was afterwards
made bishop of Rochester, 1114.
Arnould, Ambroise Marie (6. 1750, d.
1812), French writer on political economy,
opposed the National Convention of the
Five Hundred. In 1798 was a member of
the Council of Ancients and afterwards sup-
ported Bonaparte, who made him chan-
cellor of state.
Arnould, Jean Francois Mussot (b. 1743,
d. 1795), French actor, brought out numer-
ous dramatic pieces, and a greatly improved
combination of ballet and pantomime.
Arnould, Madelaine Sophie (b. Paris, 1740,
d. 1803), singer and actress, made her debut
in 1757. Her salons were celebrated.
Arrnilf or Arnoul (d. 899), Duke of Carin-
thia, Xing (887) and finally Emperor of
Germany, was the natural son of Carloman,
King of Bavaria. He displayed the highest
military abilities, overran Lombardy, and
afterward sacked Rome (896).
Aromatari, Giuseppe (b. 1536, d. 1660),
Italian physician and naturalist.
Aroudj (b. 1473, d. 1518), the first Turk-
ish sovereign of Algiers, for some years a
private, afterward entered the service of
the Bey of Tunis, and was invited to the
assistance of the Algerines. Entering the
town, Aroudj caused the governor to be
killed and himself proclaimed king, but
was soon afterwards slain in an encounter
with the Spaniards.
Arp
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Ars
Arpad (6. 869, d. 907), son and successor
of the Magyar chief, Salmutz or Almus,
who invaded Hungary. Arpad extended
his conquests, and was recognised as king
of Hungary, and thus became founder of
the dynasty of the Arpades.
Arpino, Giuseppe Cesare, Cavaliere de (b.
1560, d. 1640), studied under Roncalli and
Muziano, and became the first painter at
Rome, and was patronised by Henry IV. of
France and Clement VIII. Among his pic-
tures are The Ascension at San Giovanni in
Laterano, The Rape of the Sabines, and The
Combat of the Horatii.
Ar-radhi Billali (6. 909, d. 940), twentieth
caliph of the Abbasides, succeeded in 934,
but the administration was usurped by
Bahkam, under the title of Chief of the
Amirs.
Ar-rashid, Abu Mohammed Abd-1-Wahed
H. (d. 1242), an African sultan of the
dynasty of the Almohades in the 13th cen-
tury, attacked and defeated Yahya Anuasir,
and took Morocco ; for his cruelty he was
driven from his throne, while Yahya was
proclaimed sultan, but shortly afterward
the latter was defeated and slain, and Ar-
rashid regaining his throne, en joyed a peace-
ful reign,
Arrhenuis, Clas (b. 1627, d. 1695), Swedish
historian and professor of logic and meta-
physics at the university of Upsala,
Arrhidseus (d. B.C. 317), natural son of
Philip of Macedon, on the death of Alex-
ander the Great was proclaimed King of
Macedon. Roxana claimed the throne ior
her son Alexander IV. ; Arrhidseus and his
wife Eurydice were made prisoners, and put
to death by Olympias.
Arriaga, Juan Chrisostome (b. 1808, d.
1825), Spanish composer and violinist; his
career was terminated by a premature
death.
Arrianus, Flavius, Governor of Cappa-
docia in the reign of Hadrian, but remem-
bered chiefly for his numerous works of
history, philosophy, and travels.
Arribas, Pablo Antonio (b. 1771, d. 1828),
Spanish lawyer, procurator-general of the
Alcades del Corte under Charles IV., took
office under Joseph Bonaparte, but on the
accession of Ferdinand VII. retired to
France, where he died.
Arrighi de Casanova, Giovanni, Duke of
Padua (b. 1778, d. 1853), a general of
Napoleon, served in Egypt and Italy, and
almost all Napoleon's wars, and was made
Governor of Corsica. After the final abdi-
cation of Napoleon he was banished from
France, but allowed to return in 1820.
Arrigoni, Carolo (d. circa 1743), Floren-
tine musician and composer, and one of the
most skilful lutists of his age.
Arrowsmith, John (b. 1790, d. 1873), geo-
grapher and chartologist, was one of the
founders of the Royal Geographical Society,
whose gold medal he received in 1863.
Arsaces I., founder of the Parthian Em-
pire and the dynasty of the Arsacidse.
Varying accounts are given of his invasion
of Parthia, and he is said to have founded
the city of Dora.
Arsaces H (Tiridates) , brother of the
preceding, twice defeated Seleucus Calli-
nicus, and extended his authority over the
whole of Hyrcania.
Arsaces III. (Artabanus I.), son and suc-
cessor (B.C. 217) of the preceding, invaded
Media, but was repulsed, and peace con-
cluded B.C. 210.
Arsaces IV. (Priapatius), son of the pre-
ceding, reigned, according to Justin, for
fifteen years early in the 2nd century B.C.
Arsaces V. (Phraates I.), son of the pre-
ceding, conquered the Mardi, and left iis
throne to his brother.
Arsaces VI. (Mithridates I.), a brave
and able prince, who extended his domi-
nions from the Caucasus to the Euphrates.
Arsaces VII. (Phraates II.), son of the
preceding, was victorious over Antiochus
VII., but was himself defeated and slain by
some Scythian rebels.
Arsaces VIII. (Artabanus EL), son of
Arsaces IV. and nephew of the preceding,
whom he succeeded, was mortally wounded
whilst repelling a Scythian invasion.
Arsaces IX. (Mithridates II.), surnamed
"the Great," son of the preceding, first
established political relations with Rome.
Arsaces X., supposed to have been a
son of Arsaces V., and the same as
Mnascires.
Arsaces XI. (Sanatroeces), after many
years of exile, was restored to his throne by
the Scythians when eighty years old (circa
B.C. 77).
Arsaces XII. (Phraates III.) (d. B.C. 60),
son of the preceding, whom he succeeded
B.C. 70. He refused to take part in Arme-
nian wars against Rome, and after ten years
was murdered by his sons, Mithridates and
Orodes.
Arsaces XIII. (Mithridates III.) suc-
ceeded his father, but was expelled and put
to death by his brother Orodes.
Arsaces XIV. (Orodes I.) (d. B.C. 37),
Ars
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Ars
brother of the preceding, defeated the
Romans under Crassus, and sent a large
army across the Euphrates and overran
Syria. He was murdered by his son
Phraates, whom he had associated with
himself in the government.
Arsaces XV. (Phraates IT.) (d. A.D. 4),
son of the preceding, began his reign by
murdering his father, his thirty brothers,
and his own grown-up son. He was success-
ful in repulsing Antony and in crushing a
rebellion, but was at last poisoned by his
wife Thermusa and her son.
Arsaces XVL (Phraataces) emulated the
crimes of his father, and with his mother
was put to death by the people, though
Josephus says he was only expelled.
Arsaces XVII. (Orodes II.) was elected
by the people as successor to the preceding,
but met a violent death a few months after
his accession.
Arsaces XVIIL (Yonones) (d. A.D. 19), a
son of Phraates IV., who had spent some
time in Rome as a hostage, and there con-
tracted Roman habits and customs, which
made him hated by the people. These
offered the throne to Artabanus, while
Yonones was elected to the vacant throne
of Armenia (A.D. 16), but was soon after
removed and slain by order of Germanicus.
Arsaces XIX. (Artabanus III.) succeeded
to the throne A.D. 16, and on the death of
Germanicus seized also the government of
Armenia for his son ; he was twice expelled
from the throne and as often restored.
Arsaces XX. (Gotarzes), son of the pre-
ceding, put to death his brother Artabanus
and his family, and other cruelties provoked
a revolt in favour of Bardanes, and Gotarzes
was forced to retire to Hyrcania. On the
death of Bardanes he again contested the
throne, this time with Meherdates, whom he
defeated.
Arsaces XXL (Bardanes) (d. A.D. 47),
brother of the preceding. Hi a cruelty pro-
voked his assassination.
Arsaces XXII. (Yonones II.), Satrap of
Media and successor to the preceding.
Arsaces XXIII. (Yologeses I.) (d. A.D. 90),
placed his brothers, Pacorus and Tiridates,
on the thrones of Media and Armenia, and
defeated Paetus, the Roman general, but
was afterward on terms of friendship with
Vespasian and Titus.
Arsaces XXIV. (Pacorus), son and suc-
cessor of the preceding, ruled for about
twenty years.
Arsaces XXV. (Chosroes) (d. circa B.C.
122), brother of the preceding, invaded
Armenia, but was defeated by the Emperor
Trajan and driven from his throne, which,
however, he regained on the death of that
monarch.
Arsaces XXVL (Yologeses EL) (d. B.C.
189), son of the preceding, whom he suc-
ceeded, in 161 made war with Rome, but
having been defeated by Cassius a peace
was arranged which lasted till his death.
Arsaces XXVIL (Yologeses III.), suc-
ceeded his father A.D. 189, and engaged in
wars with Rome.
Arsaces XXVIII. (Artabanus IY.) was in-
volved in a war with Rome, and afterward
with Persia, and was captured and put to
death by Artaxerxes.
Arsaces I., King of Armenia, son of Ar-
saces XIX., by whom he was placed on the
throne A.D. 35, but was soon alter murdered
through the instrumentality of Mithridates.
Arsaces II. was placed on the throne by
his brother, Arsaces XXVIII., in A.D. 222,
and reigned nearly forty years.
Arsaces III. (d. A.D. 370), the son and
successor of Tiridates III. , was defeated in
a war with Sapor, King of Persia, who im-
prisoned him. He was slain by a faithful
servant at his own request.
Arsaces IV. (d. A.D. 389) lost much of
his territory to Theodosius the Great, and
Sapor III. , but retained the western part.
Arsenius, Greek scholar and philologist
of the 17th century, attempted church
reforms in Russia, which caused his banish-
ment in 1649 as a heretic, but was after-
ward recalled.
Arsenius, Patriarch of Constantinople,
born in early part of 13th century (d. 1273),
in 1259 was appointed by the emperor,
Theodore Lascaris II., joint guardian with
George Muzalon of his son, John Lascaris.
On the death of Muzalon Arsenius was in-
duced to admit Michael Paieeologus to co-
guardianship, and that crafty man soon
assumed the purple, and put out the eyes
of the young prince. Arsenius then ex-
communicated him, when Michael retaliated
by deposing the prelate and banishing him
to the island of Marmora.
Arsenius, Saint (6. Rome, 354, d. 449), a
pious ascetic, who spent forty years in se-
clusion and abstinence in the desert of
See this, in Libya, and at Troy in Egypt
where he died.
Arsenne, Louis Charles (b. Paris, 1790, d.
1855), a French religious painter, author of
a manual on painting and sculpture. Hi a
best known pictures are the Holy Women at
the Tomb of Christ, and J0stu in the Garden.
Ars
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Art
AT"1, an (Abu-1-Modhatfer Zeiii-ed-diu)
(d. Hi"-), Sultan of Persia and nephew aii ,1
successor of Soliman.
Arslan Shah, fifth sultan of the Seljuk
dynasty of Xmnun, an able prince, enjoyed
a long and prosperous reign.
Artabanus, a Hyrcanian, a captain of the
body-guard of Xerxes, endeavoured to
secure the throne for himself, and slew
Xerxes and Darius, but was himself slain
while attempting the life of Artaxei-xes.
Artabazus, a Persian general, Satrap of
Western Asia, who served with distinction
under Artaxerxes II., but obstinately re-
volted from Artaxerxes III. However, after
having been twice defeated and pardoned,
he became a loyal partisan of the throne,
and was rewarded by Alexander with the
satrapy of Bactri i.
Artapnernes, Satrap of Sardis, son of
Hystaspes and brother of Durius, several
times assisted the Athenians, and in the
government of the troublesome province of
Ionia showed himself both wise and
prudent.
Artasires, King of Armenia ; his cruel and
vicious government provoked a revolt, and
he was deposed A.D. 428.
Artaud (Artaldus) (d. 961), a Benedictine
monk of the 10th century, who was made
Archbishop of Remis. He was compelled
to abdicate by Heribert, Count of Verman-
dois, but afterwards restored.
Artavasdes (Ardawazt) (d. B.C. 31), suc-
ceeded his father, Tigranes, to the throne of
Greater Armenia B.C. 36. He deserted his
ally, Antony, when invading Parthia, who
retaliated by enticing him into his camp,
and cariyin^ him to Alexandria, where he
was put to death.
Artavasdes (Curopalates), Emperor of
Constantinople, son-in-law of Constantino
V., headed the revolt of the orthodox
Christians, and was proclaimed emperor at
Constantinople. He was. however, besieged
by Constantino, who took the city and put
Artavasdes to death.
Artavasdes, King of Media (d. B.C. 21),
was continually at war with Armenia, and
was afterward m;.ue prisoner by Artaxias,
but recovered his liberty.
Artavasdes II., King of Armenia, was
placed on the throne by Augustus B.C. 6,
but expelled by his own people.
Artavasdes III., King of Armenia, joined
Sapor I. in his war with the Komans
A.D. 260.
Artazerxes L (d. B.C. 425), surnamed
Makrokeir, King of Persia B.C. 4i>-3, quelled
an Egyptian revolt iu 16(3, but was defeated
by the Athenians 449.
Artaxerxes H. (6. 455, d. 362 B.C.) (Mne-
mon) , King of Persia, succeeded his father,
Darius II., B.C. 405. At the battle of
Cunaxa he crushed a revolt of his brother
Cyrus, assisted by ten thousand Greeks. He
also engaged in wars with the Greeks, with
Cyprus, aud with Egypt, while his last days
were disturbed by the misconduct of his
son Darius.
Artaxerxes HI., or Ochus (d. B.C. 339),
son and successor of the preceding, to secure
his position put the rest of his family to
death, and after a troubled reign was
poisoned by his eunuch Bagoas.
Artaxias L, or Artaxes, a general of
Antiochus the Great, on whose defeat (B.C.
I'.'G; he set up an independent kingdom in
Armenia, and built its capital, Artaxias.
He was conquered by Antiochus IV. (B.C.
165) and died shortly afterwards.
Artasias II., King of Armenia (d. B.C. 20),
was driven from his throne by Aiitonv, but
with the aid of the Parthiaus regained it,
and afterwards defeated the Medes.
Artaxias III., King of Armenia (d. area
A.D. 3-3), was placed on the throne by Ger-
manicus (A.D. 18).
Arteaga y Alfaro, Matias (d. 1704),
Spanish painter and engraver, pupil of
Valdez, founder of the Academy of Seville.
Arbedi, Peter (b. 1705, d. 1735), Swedish
naturalist, a fellow student of Liunsjus.
His works were edited and published by
Linuoeus.
Artemidorus, Daldianus. a learned Ephe-
sian of the 2nd century, author of a celebrated
book on dreams entitled Oneirocritica.
Artemidorus of Ephesus, a geographer
of the is: century B.C., of whose work
Periplm only fragments are extant.
Artemisia, Queen of Halicornassus in
Caria, was one of the allies of Xerxes at the
battle of Salamis B.C. 480, where she fought
with courage and dexterity.
Artemisia, Queen of Halicarnassus, wife
and successor of Mausolus, to whose mem-
ory she erected a splendid monument, which
has given to similar erections the name of
"mausoleum."
Artemius (d. 362), a Roman commander
in Egypt under Coustantine and Julian,
who is named both as a < hristia.n irmrtyr
and a tyrant. He was put to death by
Julian.
Artenion, a heresiarch of the 3rd century
Art
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Ary
who denied the divinity of Christ ; his fol-
lowers were called Artemonites.
Arteveld, Jacob van (d. 1345), popular
Flemish leader in the 14th century, assisted
Edward III. in his French wars, and for
nine years was practically ruler of Flanders.
He determined to convert his country into
a kingdom, and offered the crown to the
Prince of Wales, which led to a tumult in
which he was slain.
Arteyeld, Philip van (d. 1382), son of the
preceding, headed a revolt of the people of
Ghent against Count Louis II. of Flanders,
and though victorious at Bruges was de-
feated and slain at the decisive victory of
Roosebeck.
Arthur, the real or fabulous King of Bri-
tain and favourite hero of romance, probably
flourished at the beginning of the 6th century
and ruled over the south-western portion of
the island. He is said to have gained twelve
great victories over the Anglian invaders;
but success abroad was accompanied by
treachery at home, where his nephew
Mpdred seduced Queen Guinevere and
raised the standard of rebellion. At Cam-
Ian was fought that battle round which ro-
mance has so thickly gathered, and in which
Arthur was slain.
Arthur, Chester Allan (6. 1830, d. 1886),
twenty-first president of the United States,
took a leading part in the Civil war, and
from 1871-1878 was collector of the port of
New York city. When Garfield was
elected president he was vice-president,
and on the former's assassination succeeded
to the presidency.
Arthur, Timothy Shay (6. 1809, d. 1885),
an American writer who first became known
in the literary world as the editor of the
Athenian. He wrote many tales, chiefly
in support of temperance or some other
moral trait; of his two hundred volumes
more than half have been republished in
England.
Arthur I., Duke of Brittany (6. 1187, d.
1203) , son of Geoffrey, the third son of Henry
II. of England, and on the death of Richard
I. next heir to the English crown, which
however was seized by Henry's fifth son
John, who imprisoned and put him to
death.
Arthur II., Duke of Brittany (6. 1262, d.
1312), son of John II. and Beatrice of
England.
Arthur III., Duke of Brittany (&. 1393, d.
1456), constable of France and one of the
ablest captains of his age, was made prisoner
at Agincourt, and carried to London. In
1456 he succeeded his nephew Pierre to the
Duchy of Brittany.
Artiga, Don Francisco d', a Spanish
painter of the 17th century, was a native
of Huesca.
Artigas, Fernando Jose (6. 1760, d. 1826),
first a smuggler in Monte Video, afterward
a prominent figure in the revolution, in
which he was for a time paramount, but
in 1820 his fortune turned and he fled
to Paraguay, where he remained till bis
death.
Artois, Jacques Jan van (6. 1613, d. 1665),
a Belgian landscape painter of great merit.
Artpt, Joseph (6. 1815, d. 1845), Belgian
violinist, who at seven years old astonished
Europe by his proficiency; he also visited
America.
Arundel, Richard, Lord, a partisan of the
Stuarts in the Civil war, took part in many
battles, and shared with his father the
governorship of Pendennis Castle ; after the
Restoration he was raised to the peerage.
Arundel, Thomas, first Lord Arundel of
Wardour, distinguished himself in the war
with Hungary and was made a count of the
Holy Roman Empire by Rudolf II. ; he was
raised to the peerage in 1605.
Arundel, Thomas. Archbishop of Canter-
bury (6. 1353, d. 1413), second son of Robert
Fitzalan, Earl of Arundel; in 1388 was
translated from Ely to York, and in 1396
to Canterbury ; in 1397 he was charged
with high treason and banished by Richard
II., but adopted the cause of Henry IV., and
thus on the accession of that monarch
secured his own restoration. He was a
determined opponent of the Lollards, and
was mainly instrumental in procuring the
statute I)e heretico comburendo.
Arvidsson, Truls (6. 1680, d. 1705), copper-
plate engraver of Sweden, who was con-
versant with many European and Oriental
languages. He proposed to publish what he
considered the original music of the Psalms
of David, but died after completing the first
seven.
Arvieux, Laurent d' (6. 1635, d. 1702),
French Oriental traveller and linguist,
whose researches threw much light on the
customs and literature of the East.
Aryabhatta or Arjabahr, Hindoo mathe-
matician of the 1st- century, the earliest
writer among his countrymen on algebra
and on astronomy, in which subject his ideas
were far in advance of his age.
Arysdaghes or Aristakes, Saint (d. 389),
Patriarch of Armenia in the 3rd century,
and son of St. Gregory. After many years
spent in ascetic seclusion he was called to
the government of the Church. He was
Arz
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Ash
murdered by a chief whom he had ad-
monished.
Arzaehel, Abraham, astronomer, a native
of Toledo, lived in the llth century, and
attained great renown.
Asa, son of Abijah, and third King of
Judah, restored the worship of Jehovah,
and with it the prosperity of his country.
He defeated the invader Zerah, with great
loss, and compelled Baasha, King of Israel,
to withdraw from Ramah.
Asadi of TUB, chief poet of Mahmud of
Ghizni in the 10th century, and author of
Gushtasp Nama, and other poems.
Asam, Cosmos Damian (d. 1739), a distin-
guished fresco-painter, a native of Bavaria,
studied at Borne.
Asam, Egid, brother of the preceding,
eminent as a sculptor and worker in stucco,
wrought in conjunction with Cosmos ;
many of their works are at Munich.
Asan L, "King of Bulgaria, a powerful
chieftain of the 12th ceutory, who with
Ms brother Peter secured the independence
of their country ; he was poisoned after a
reign of nine years.
Asan II. (rf. 1241), son of the preceding, was
engaged for seven years in a struggle with
the usurper Yorylas, was at length suc-
cessful, and also conquered a great part of
Macedonia and Thrace.
Asan IIL, last King of Bulgaria of the
Asanian dynasty, after a reign of two
years was dethroned by Tesher, and fled to
Constantinople, where he died.
Asbury, Francis (b. 1745, d. 1816), the
"Pioneer Bishop," an English Methodist
preacher who undertook an evangelistic
mission to America in 1771 by the wish of
John Wesley. In 1784 he was ordained
Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church
of America. Thenceforth his life was
devoted with untiring energy to the organ-
isation and extension of that church.
Ascanius, the son of ^Eneas, the founder
of Alba Longa, and reputed ancestor of the
Julian family in Koine.
Ascham, Robert (6. 1515, d. 1568), who
was educated at Cambridge, was among the
first to introduce the study of Greek, and
was also eminent as a Latin writer. He
directed the studies of Prince Edward and
of Princess Elizabeth, and became Latin
secretary to King Edward. Although a
Protestant, he held the same office to Queen
Mary. He wrote upon archery, his favourite
pastime, upoa the affairs of Germany, and
a treatise on education of remarkable vigour
and accuracy.
Aschback, Joseph (I. Nassau 1S01, d.
1882;, German historian, held the chairs of
history at Frankfort and at Bonn, and was
author of histories of the West Goths, the
i-lmperor Sigismund, and the Iberian Penin-
sula under the dominion of the Almoravides,
and the Almohades.
Asclepiades, Bithynus, an eminent Greek
physician of the 1st century B.C., lived in
Ilo'me, where he enjoyed an extraordinary
reputation. Fragments of his works stiD
exist.
Asclepiodorus, one of the great painters
of Greece, was a native of Athens, and a
contemporary of Apelles.
Asdrubal. [See Hasdrubal.]
Asellio, Gasparo (b. 1581, d. 1626), a
noted physician of Cremona, and professor
of anatomy at Pavia.
Asellio, Publius Sempronius, a military
tribune, who served under Scipio Africanus
at the siege of Nutnantia, B.C. 133, and wrote
a history of the war.
Asfandiyar, or Asfundiyar, a Persian
hero of the 5th century B. c. , whose history
is largely mythical. The son of Daiius
Hystaspes, he is said to have introduced the
religion of Zoroaster, and by his prowess to
have kept in check the hostile Tartar king
Arjasp. Jealous of his influence, Darius
imprisoned him, but the inroads of Arjasp
compelled his release, and Asfandiyar then
commenced a series of brilliant victories,
only terminated by his death in battle.
Asfeld, Claude Francois Bidal, Marquis d'
(6. 16i>7, d. 1743), a distinguished French
soldier, defended Namur against William
III. of England, and served in Spain, Italy,
and Germany, but after the peace of Vienna,
1735, retired to Strasburg, of which city he
was appointed governor.
AsgiU, John (6. circa 1658, d. 1738), a
barrister and religious writer whose eccentric
views made considerable stir, and caused
him to be expelled from the House of Com-
mons. He died in the Fleet prison.
Ash, John, M.D. (6. 1723, d. 1798), an
eminent physician who practised in Bir-
mingham and London. He was the founder
of the "Eumelian" (" weU-ashed ") Club,
of which his friends Johnson and Reynolds
were members.
Ashary (d. 940), a celebrated Mussulman,
founder of the sect of the Asharites, who
affirm the actions of the Almighty to be
circumscribed by immutable laws. He died
at Bagdad.
Ashburnnam, John (6. 1604, d. 1671), aa
adherent of the Stuarts in the Civil war&
Ash
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Asp
He was a member of the Long Parliament,
and in 1647 only escaped arrest by neeing to
France, where he joined the queen. He
was afterwards suspected of infidelity in
connection with the surrender of the king to
Colonel Hammond, and his principles were
the cause of his being twice imprisoned. On
the Restoration he was appointed groom of
the bed-chamber to Charles II.
Ashburton, Alexander Baring, Baron (b.
1774, d. 1848), son of Sir F. Baring, suc-
ceeded to the headship of the great
financial firm in 1810, was president of the
Board of Trade in Peel's ministry in 1834,
and in 1842 negotiated the Ashburton treaty
with the United States.
Ashbury, Joseph (6. 1638, d. 1720), a
celebrated actor, was originally in the
army, and began his stage career as an
amateur, but encouraged by his success,
engaged a company, and opened the theatre
in Smock Alley, Dublin, which he conducted
with success till his death.
Ashe, Andrew (6. 1758, d. 1838), a cele-
brated flute -player and an excellent per-
former on the violin. He studied in Hol-
land, and performed both in Dublin and
London.
Ashe, St. George (6. 1658, d. 1717), vice-
chancellor of Trinity College, Dublin, and
tutor to Dean Swift, in whose Tripos he
is represented by *' Sainty Ashe." During
the disturbances of the reign of James II.
he escaped abroad, but returned to Ireland
after the Act of Settlement, and was
appointed to the bishoprics of Cloyne,
Clogher, and Derry.
AsMk (6.1518, d. 1571), a Turkish poet,
patronised by Soliman II. and Selim II. ;
he wrote more than four hundred biogra-
phies of other poets of his own race.
Ashmole, Elias (6. 1617, d. 1692), astrolo-
ger and antiquary, held the appointment of
Windsor Herald, and published the History
of the Order of the Garter. He left many
works, and presented to the University of
Oxford his valuable collection of coins,
specimens, and manuscripts.
Ashmun, Jehudi (b. 1794, d. 1828), Ameri-
can philanthropist, founder of the colony of
Liberia.
Asnraf, the second Afghan King of
Persia, succeeded to the throne in 1725, but
was defeated and slain by Nadir Shah.
Ashworth, Caleb, D.D. (b. 1722, d. 1775),
a dissenting minister of great learning and
piety, and master of the Academy at
Daventry. He was author of a Hebrew
grammar, and a treatise on trigonometry.
Asioli, Bonifazio (b. 1769, d. 1832),
p2
musical composer, worked at Correggio,
Venice, and Milan, where he was maestro
di capella.
Asjadi, Persian poet of the llth century,
famed for the brightness and purity of his
verses.
Askew or Ascue, Anne (b. 1529, d. 1546),
daughter of Sir William Askew, was a con-
vert to the reformed faith during the per-
secutions of Bishop Boiiner, who caused her
to be burnt at Smithfield.
Asoka, Behar, or Magudhain, a cele-
brated Buddhist King of India, ascended
the throne B.C. 264, being then of the
Brahminical faith, but he was shortly
afterwards converted to Buddhism, of which
he became a most zealous propagator,
sending missionaries to China, Burmah,
Ceylon, and even, it is affirmed, to Europe
and Egypt. His kingdom extended from
the Cabul river to Bengal, and from
Nepal on the north to the Deccan on the
south. From the celebrated edicts, graven
upon rocks and sandstone pillars in various
parts of the country, it is clear that this, the
first Indian monarch of whom we have
satisfactory records, was both wise and
benevolent.
Aspasia, an Ionian woman of remarkable
talents and beauty, resided at Athens,
where all foreign women were ex-
cluded from the protection of the marriage
laws, and hence she occupied the posi-
tion of a courtesan. Her house was the
constant resort of the best and most dis-
tinguished men of Greece, including So-
crates, Alcibiades, and Anaxagoras, whilst
with Pericles she formed a close and lasting
intimacy, and it was through his eloquence
she obtained her acquittal from the charges
of impiety and immorality brought against
her. After the death of Pericles, 429 B.C.,
Aspasia attached herself to Lysicles, whom
she raised from obscurity to prominence.
Aspasia, a native of Phocasa, was highly
esteemed by Cyrus, but after the battle of
Cunaxa fell into the hands of Artaxerxes IL ,
who appointed her priestess of Anaitis in
Ecbatana, where she died.
Aspegren, Gustav Casten (6. 1791, d.
1823), a Swedish naturalist of humble birth,
and a well-known contributor to the fauna
of Sweden.
Asper, Hans (6. 1499, d. 1571), a Swiss
portrait and animal painter of great excel-
lence, being esteemed but little inferior to
his master Holbein.
Aspertini, Amico (b. 1417, d 1552), Italian
painter, known as ' ' Amico of the Two
Brushes," from his dexterity in painting
with both hands together.
Asp
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Ast
AspinwaU, William (I. 1743, d. 1823), an
eminent Am-'ru-au physician, one of the first
to introduce vaccination in the place of in-
oculation, lie served as army surgeon
during the revolutionary war.
Asquini, Fabio, Count (b. 1726, d.
ISIS), au Italian agriculturist, and author
of several tivitisos, intr >ducrd the mul-
berry, silk-.v M-:a. and potato into the pro-
vince of Friuli, and also drew attention to
the advantages of turf as fuel.
Assad-ed-doulah (d. 1020), a valiant Arab
chief, the conqueror of Aleppo and Balbec.
Assaki, George (b. 17^8), a Roumanian
poet and statesman, who, as " Alviro,"
was elected member of the Academy
of Rome in 1811. He also took part
in politics, and held office as chief
minister of public instruction in 1856. He
was author of a volume of poems, and a
History of Russia.
Assami Ibn Malek, a brave and able
Moorish governor of Spain, who pushed his
conquests across the Pyrenees, and was
killed at the siege of Toulouse in 721.
Assarotti, Ottavio Giovanni (b. 1753,
d. 1829), an Italian philanthropist, who de-
voted himself to the education of children,
and opened the first school in Italy for
deaf mutes.
Asselyn, Jan (6. 1610, d. 1660), Flemish
painter, many of whose pictures are in
the Louvre, was a pupil of Vander-
velde, and especially skilled in painting
animals.
Assemani, Giuseppe Simone (6. 1687,
d. 1768), a learned Syrian Maronite, was
archbishop of Tyre, and librarian of the
Vatican. He was author of a valuable
account of the Syrian writers, and other
voluminous works.
Assemani, Giuseppe Luigi, or Aloysio
(6. 1710, d. 1782), nephew of the pre-
ceding, learned in oriental languages ; his
great work was the Codex Lituryicus, which
was left unfinished at his death.
Asseola (6. 1800, d. 1838), an Indian chief
of the Seminoles, who successfully resisted
an attempt of the United States to remove
his tribe to the west of the Mississippi,
in 1835, till treacherously captured by
General Jesup, while protected by a flag of
truce.
Asser (b. Babylon, 333, d. 437), a cele-
brated Jewish rabbi, author of the Talmud
of Babylon.
Asser, John (d. 910), a learned monk of St.
David's, Wales, bishop of Sherborne, was
the author of a History of King Alfred.
Assheton, William (b. 1041, d. 1711), ft
li-ann-d English divine, remembered for his
efforts to establish a plan for the mainte-
nance of the widows of the clergy.
Asshod I., suruamed Medz, or the " Great
King of Armenia," established the kingdom
after the overthrow of the Arsacidic.
Asshod IL (d. 928), surnamed Erp-athi,
King of Armenia, grandson of the pre<-> Lag,
ascended the throne in 914, but was for many
years engaged in struggles with the Arabs.
Asshod III. (d. 977), King of Armenia,
surnamed Oghormaz, succeeded his uncle,
the preceding, in 952. He was of a peace-
ful nature, but gained honour as an ally of
Greece against the Mohammedans.
Asshod 17. (d. 1039), King of Armenia,
usurped his brother John's kingdom, but
was afterwards compelled to become the
vassal of the Emperor Basil II.
Assolant, Jean Baptiste Alfred (b. 1827,
d. 1886), French romance, social and politi-
cal writer.
Assoucy, Charles Coypeau (b. 1604, d.
1679), a name rendered uneuviably no-
torious by a distich of Boileau. He was for
some time in the service of the royal family,
whom he amused with his music and buf-
foonery, but while he called himself the
" Emperor of Burlesque," the world knowa
him only as the " Ape of Scarron."
AssoydelRio,Ignacio Jordan de, a Spanish
jurist of the 18th century, author of a
valuable work on the Institutes of the
Civil Law of Spain, and other treatises on
law and botany.
Ast, George Anton Frederick (b. 1778,
d. 1841), distinguished German scholar,
professor of classical literature at Landshut
in 1815, and at Munich in 182o.
Asta, Andrea delT (b. 1673, d. 1721), a
Neapolitan painter of historical subjects ;
his pictures of The Nativity and The Wise
Men's Offerings are in the church of
St. Augustine, at Naples.
Astbury, John (6. 1678, d. 1743), an En-
glishman, who made great exertions for
the improvement of pottery. ~By feigning
weakness of intellect for two years he at-
tained menial employment in the potteries
of the German brothers Elers, and dis-
covered their secret methods.
Astell, Mary (b. 1668, d. 1731), a well-
read English authoress, who attained con-
siderable celebrity, due in great part to her
strenuous advocacy of High Church princi-
ples. Besides several essays, she published
a book entitled The Christian Religion at
professed by a Daughter of England.
Ast
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Ath
Astley, Sir Jacob, first Lord Astley of
Reading, a brave Royalist soldier, took part
in the engagement at Edgehill (1642), and
at the fatal battle of Naseby was in com-
mand of the one successful wing of the
army.
Astley, Philip (b. 1742, d. 1814), a re-
nowned equestrian, who served with dis-
tinction in the Seven Years' war, and
opened in 1763 his celebrated amphitheatre,
which was twice burnt down ; he left some
excellent manuals on horsemanship.
Astor, .John Jacob (b. 1763, d. 1848), born at
Wallendorf , an American merchant prince of
German descent, who traded in New York,
and realised an immense fortune. He left
large bequests in charity and to the famous
Astor Library, founded by him in New
York.
Astorga, Antonio Pedro Alvarez Osorio,
Marquis of, an eminent Spanish statesman,
who as viceroy of Naples (1672- 1675) did
much to check the disorder of the country.
After the revolt of Messina he was recalled
to Madrid, but received an appointment
at court.
Astros, Paul Therese David (b. 1772, d.
1851), a French prelate, who firmly sup-
ported the Church, and after the restoration
was made an archbishop and cardinal.
Astruc, Jean (6. 1684, d. 1766), an emi-
nent French physician and Biblical critic,
author of a celebrated treatise, De Morbis
Venereis, and other works. He settled in
Paris, and was appointed physician to the
king.
Astyages, last king of the Medes, and
son of Cyaxares. He reigned from 594 B.C.
to 559 B.C.
Asula, or Asola, Giovanni Matteo, a
native of Verona, and a popular musical
composer of the 16th century.
Atafcuallpa (d. 1533), the last of the Incas
of Peru, succeeded his father, Huayna Capac,
in 1525, on the throne of Quito, whilst his
half-brother, Huascar, although the right-
ful heir, obtained only the kingdom of
Peru. The two brothers engaged in a
struggle for supremacy, in which Huascar
was defeated. The Spaniards under Pizarro,
taking advantage of these internal dissen-
sions, invaded Peru, and by an act of
deliberate perfidy obtained possession of
the person of Atahuallpa, and attempted to
compel him to acknowledge the king of
Spain as master, and to embrace the Chris-
tian religion. His refusal was made a pre-
text for a massacre, and the imprisonment
of their king, whom the Spaniards induced
to raise an enormous treasure in the hopes
of regaining his throne. After a mock
trial, however, he was condemned and
strangled at the stake.
Ataide, or Atayde, Dom Louis de (b. 1520,
d. 1580), a Portuguese nobleman, who waa
knighted for his gallantry against the Turks.
He also distinguished himself as ambassador
to Charles V. and as viceroy of India.
Ataiilf, or Adaiilf (d. 415), king of the
Visigoths, succeeded his brother-in-law,
Alaric, in 410. He conquered Aquitania,
and accomplished his purpose of marrying
Placida, daughter of Theodosius, but died
a year after by the hand of an assassin.
Atnalian, wife of Jehoram, King of
Judah. was an unscrupulous and ambitious
woman, who, on the death of her son,
Ahaziah, secured the throne to herself by
the murder of all the royal princes except
Joash ; but after reigning six years she was
deposed and put to death.
Atha Melic (b. 1226, d. 1283), a Persian
statesman, governor of Bagdad, is re-
membered chiefly as author of a great
History of the Conquest of the World.
Atlianasius, Saint (6. 296, d. 373), the
great bishop of Alexandria, first came into
S commence at the Council of Nice 325.
n the death of Alexander in the following
year, Athauasius succeeded to the see of
Alexandria, but of the forty- six remaining
years of his life, twenty were spent in
banishment. In spite of repeated refuta-
tions of the iniquitous charges brought
against him, his enemies were perpetually
conspiring for his overthrow, and he was five
times driven from his bishopric. His leisure
was devoted to the valuable writings which
have helped to make his name famous,
especially the Apology, addressed to the
Emperor Constantine.
Athelstan, or JEthelstan (b. 896, d. 940),
King of the West Saxons and Mercians,
the son and successor of Edward the Elder,
proved a vigorous and able monarch,
whose authority was recognised by the other
kings of Britain, while the great victory of
Brunanburh in 937 practically established
the supremacy of the West Saxon throne,
Athenseus, a learned Egyptian of the 3rd
century, author of the JJeipnosophigts, in
which, under the fiction of describing a
banquet, he discusses the chief personages,
arts and sciences of the age, and quotes
some seven hundred writers and fifteen
hundred works.
Athenais, or Eudoxia (d. 460 A.D.^,
daughter of Leontius. an Athenian physi-
cist, left in penury, went to Constantinople
to appeal to Theodosius II., whom she
married. Being divorced, she returned to
Jerusalem, where she died. She translat ?d
Ath
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Att
the first eight of the Old Testament books
into Greek.
Atlienas, Pierre Louis (6. 1752, ,1. 1829),
French chemist, devoted himself to the
improvement of the agriculture and the
commerce of his country. He introduced
the method of obtaining soda from sea-salt,
and established the manufacture of sul-
phuric acid from sulphur and potassium
nitrate.
Athenion (d. B.C. 101), a Cilician leader
in the second Servile war of Sicily, ill the
2nd century B.C.
Athenodoms Cananites, a Stoic philo-
sopher, and a pupil of Posidonius. was
the friend and adviser of Octavianus, who
finally conferred on him the government of
Tarsus.
Atherstone, Edwin (6. 1778, d. 1872),
novelist and poet, was author of the Last
Days of Htrcu^nuum (1821), Israel in
Effypt (1861), and other poems, as well as
two romances, The Sea- Kings in England,
and The Handwriting on the Wall.
AtMas, Joseph (d. 1700), a Jewish printer
of Amsterdam, who published the Bible in
Hebrew, English, Spanish, and German.
Atkins, John, an English naval surgeon
of the 18th century. Besides works on
surgery, he left an account of his travels to
Brazil and the West Indies.
Atkins, Robert (6. 1626, d. 1685), an
English divine and eminent preacher, was
chaplain to Oliver Cromwell, but withdrew
from the Church on the passing of the Act
of Uniformity.
Atkinson, James (6. 1780, d. 1852), an
English surgeon in the Indian army, who de-
voted his leisure to the acquisition of Eastern
languages, and in 1818 was appointed pro-
fessor of Persian at Fort William. He
translated several Persian works, and left
valuable records of the campaign of 1839-40.
Atkinson, Thomas Witlam (6. 1799, d.
1861), an English author and artist,
travelled in Siberia and China, and pub-
lished richly illustrated narratives of his
adventures.
Atkyns, Sir Robert (6. 1621, d. 1709), an
English judge of the Court of Common
Pleas; he was made chief baron of the
Exchequer in 1689.
Atondo y Antillon, Isidore, a Spanish
admiral who sailed to California in 1683,
and founded a colony in the Bay of St.
Bruno.
Atreus, legendary King of Mycenae, suc-
ceeded his father Pelops, was father of
Agamemnon and Menelaus, and was slain
by yEgisthus, sou of Thyestes, whom he
had put to death.
Atrocianus, Johannes, a German poet,
philologist, and botanist of the loth ceu
tury.
Atsiz (d. 1156), founder of the Khwarizra
monarchy, and originally cupbearer to the
Sultan Sandjar, by whom he was appointed
governor. He, however, obstinately re-
volted, attempted the life of the Sultan, and
in 1138 established his own independence.
Attala, Saint, a disciple of St. Colum-
banus, whom he succeeded as abbot of the
monastery of Bobbio in Italy. He died in
the 7th century.
Attalus, son of Andromenes, one ol
the generals of Alexander the Great,
whom he accompanied in the expedition to
India. On the death of the king, Attalus
at first joined the revolt against Ferdiccas,
but later became his ally. He maintained a
warlike career to his death, about B. c. 300.
Attalus, Flavius Priscus, an Ionian, who
was created Emperor of the West by Alaric
in 409, but in a few months he was deposed,
and died in banishment at Lipari.
Attalus I., King of Pergamus (d. 197
B.C.), assisted the .SStolians, and afterwards
the Romans in their wars with Philip of
Macedou. He was a patron of literature
and formed a library at Pergamus.
Attalus II. (d. 138 B.C.), King of Per-
gamus, suruamed Philadelphia, son and
successor of the preceding, was driven from
his throne by Prusias of Bithynia, but
recovered it with some help from the
Romans.
Attalus m. (d. B.C. 133), surnamed
Philometer, King of Pergamus, nephew and
successor of the preceding. His first act of
royalty was to put to death his nearest
relatives and friends, and from his other
acts he appears to have been insane. He
bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans.
Attar, or Knojah Attar (d. 1513), a native
of Bengal, who as vizier to the young Shah
of Ormuz was virtual ruler of the kingdom.
He was compelled by Albuquerque in 15' '7 to
acknowledge the supremacy of Portugal.
Attar ferid Ud-din (6. 1120, d. 1221), a
Persian poet, who devoted his Life to works
of piety and the composition of moral and
mystical poems, was slain in extreme old
age by the Moguls who invaded Khorasan.
Atterbury, Francis (b. 16G2, d. 1732), a
celebrated English prelate ; he was educated
at Westminster and Christ Church, Ox-
ford, and distinguished as a scholar and
Att
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Anb
controversialist. In 1691 he came to Lon-
don as chaplain to William and Mary,
and Queen Anne ; he was promoted to the
bishopric of Rochester and deanery of West-
minster. On the death of the queen he
became compromised by his advocacy of
the cause of the Pretender, refusing to sign
the loyal declaration of the bishops
(1715). In 1722 he was committed to the
Tower on a charge of secretly corre-
sponding with the Pretender, and the fol-
lowing year was deprived of his dignities
and outlawed, when he retired to Paris, but
still continued his intrigues. He died abroad,
and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Atthalin, Louis Marie Jean Baptiste,
Baron (b. 1784, d. 1856), a French general,
who served under Napoleon, and in 1830
went as ambassador to Berlin.
Atticus (d. 425), a celebrated patriarch of
Constantinople.
Atticus, Titus Pomponius (b. B.C. 109, d.
B.C. 32), an eminent. Roman, of patrician
birth, great wealth, and high intellectual
ability, and remembered as the friend of
Cicero, who wrote to him the celebrated
series of letters. He spent many years in
Athens, but returned to Rome before his
death.
Attila (Etzel) (*. 406, d. 453), the
celebrated King of the Huns, and one
of the most famous conquerors of the
5th century, whose terrible victories won
him the surname of "the Scourge of
God." After ravaging the East, and
laying Theodosius the Younger under
tribute, he entered Gaul at the head of
500,000 men, but was defeated with loss by
Aetius and Theodoric at the battle of
Meri. Thence, passing into Italy, he de-
stroyed Aquileia, and was only deterred
from advancing on Rome by the entreaties
and persuasions of St. Leo.
Attiret, Jean Denis (b. 1702, d. 1768), a
French Jesuit and painter, who was sent as
missionary to China, and stood high in the
favour of the Emperor Kien Long.
Attwood, George (6. 1745, d. 1807), an
eminent English mathematician, Fellow
and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge,
and inventor of the widely-known machine
which illustrates the uniform force of gravity
at the earth's surface.
Attwood, Thomas (6. 1767, d. 1838),
organist and composer, studied in Italy
under Mozart, and was afterwards organist
at St. Paul's Cathedral and the Chapels
Royal.
Auber, Daniel Franqois Esprit (b, 1782, d.
1871), French composer, was intended for a
business career, and it was not until he met
with Scribe, in 1823, that his long course of
successful composition commenced. La Mu-
ette de Portici, or Masaniello, as it is called in
England, was brought out in 1828. He pro-
duced many other works which enjoy a
European reputation, his last being Le
Rfrve d1 Amour (1870), composed shortly
before his death.
Auberlen, Samuel Gottlob (6. 1758), com-
poser, was musical director and organist to
the cathedral of Ulm, to which post he
attained in his sixtieth year, after many
years of privation and hardship.
Aubert, Jacques (d. 1586), a French
physician of Lausanne in the 16th century,
and author of numerous professional
treatises.
Au'nert, Jean Ernest (b. 1824), a
engraver and lithographer, and pupil
of Delaroche and Achille Martinet, has
produced many works, and gained medals
for engraving, lithography, and painting.
Aubert, Jean Louis (6. 1731, d. 1814),
known as " the Abbe Aubert," professor of
French literature at the Royal College of
Paris, and one of the most celebrated fabu-
lists of France. He was aiithor of the popu-
lar Fables Nouvelles (1756), and also of
some poems, of which the best is Pai/che.
Aubert, Saint (Aulbertus), a missionary
bishop of Cambrai arid Arras in the 7tb
century. He was greatly assisted by his
patron Dagobert.
Aubert du Bayet, Jean Baptiste Annibal
(b. 1759 d. 17&7), an American soldier, who,
| after serving in the war of Independence,
i came to France as a violent revolutionist,
i and commanded the army of the Moselle.
He was also minister of war 1796, and am-
bassador to the Porte.
Aubespine, Charles del'. Marquis of Cha-
teauueuf (b. 1580, d. 1653), French statesman,
was employed on several occasions as am-
! bassador by Henry IV. , and became Garde
des Sceaux in 1630.
Aulaeterre, David Bouchard, Vicomte d'
(d. 1593), governor of Perigord under
Henry III. and Henry IV., was killed at
the siege of L'Isle.
Aubignac, Franqois Hedelin, Abbe <T (6.
1714, d. 1788), a learned and voluminous
writer, was tutor to the Due de Fronsac,
nephew of Richelieu, who obtained for him
the abbacy of Aubignac.
Aubign£, Jean Henri Merle d' (b. 1794, d.
1872), Swiss theologian and writer, studied
at Leipsic and Berlin, and became professor
of church history at Geneva in 1830. He
was author of The History of the Reformation
of the Sixteenth Century, and other works.
Aub
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Aud
Aubign6, Theodore Agrippa d' (6. 1"
10), :i man of extra* u'dinary talents :iinl
learning, and a brave and dashing soldier,
aided with the Huguenots in the religious
.f France, and a ft IT the capitulation
of Roehelle entered the service of If. :;ry of
Navarr-'. He spent the end of his life in
Switzerland, where he ron'inurd a,i urtive
sup] :' the Trot. 'Slant cause, and left
inanv works, ineludingan I'liii'tr^il 7/i.v/wry.
Aublot, Jean Baptiste Christophe Fu -'••
(6. ITlio, d. 177>\ a French botanist, whose
collections of plants are in the British Mu-
seum, established a botanic garden in the
Isle of France, and wrote The History of
the Plants of French (Jniana.
Aubrey, John (b. 162o, d. 16970,, English
antiquarian and miscellaneous writer, one
of the first members of the Iv.yal Society,
wrote the Perambulation of Surrey, and
other curious works, and contributed to
Anthony Wood's Athence Oxonienaes.
Aubriet, Claude (6. 1651, d. 1743), a
French miniature and natural history
painter, made the drawings for Tourue-
fort's Elements of Botany, and succeeded
Joubert as royal painter in the Jardin des
Plantes in Paris.
Aubriot, Hughes (d. 1382), Provost of
Paris under Charles V., designed the famous
prison of the Bastille, in which, in 1331, he
was confined on a charge of heresy, but
was released by a popular insurrection of
the "Maillotins."
Aubusson, Pierre d' (6. 1423, d. 1481), one
of the most famous of the Grand Masters
of Rhodes, and especially renowned for his
exploits against the Turks, who attacked
Rhodes, but were repulsed with great loss.
Aucher-Eloy, Peter Remi (6. 1793, d. 1838),
a French botanist and traveller, who spent
some time in Spain, and made a valuable
collection of the plants of that country.
He afterwards travelled in Russia, Turkey,
and Persia.
Aucamuty, Sir Samuel (6. 1756, d. 1822),
son of a New York clergyman, entered
the English army, and during the American
revolution served under Sir William Howe.
He also saw active service in India, and in
South America, whither he sailed in 1806,
with the reinforcements despatched to
Buenos Ayres. He afterwards held the ap-
pointment of commander-in- chief in Madras
and in Ireland.
Auckland, George Eden, Earl of (b. 1784,
d. 1849), was governor- general of India
during the disastrous Afghan war (1839-42),
was recalled on the change of ministry
in 1841, and in 1846 was appointed first lord
of the Admiralty.
Auckland, William Ivl.-u, Baron (//. 1744,
,/. [814 , in 17^. n :ed England at
the Fri'iich court, and afterward in Spain,
and was postmaster -general from 1798-
Audseus, founder of the sect of the Au-
: tin- 1th century, a native of M >•••>-
pot;ii:ii:i, was distinguished for his holy life
and his /--al in opposing the corrupt and
licentious lives of the clergy.
Aude, le Chevalier Jean (6. 1755, d. 1841),
a dramatic author of repute, some time
private secretary to Buffon.
Audebert, Jean Baptiste (b. 1759, d. 1800),
a distinguished French miniature and
natural history painter.
Audinret, Hercule (b. 1603, d. 1659), an
eloquent French ecclesiastic and author,
general of the congregation of the Brothers
of the Christian Doctrine.
Audiffret Pasquier.Edme Armand Gaston,
Due d' (b. 1823), a French politician, who,
as president of the right centre, was one of
the chief agents in effecting the downfall of
M. Thicrs. He was a supporter of Marshal
MacMahon, president of the senate 1876-9,
and in 1878 was elected member of the
French Academy.
Audin, J. M. V. (b. 1793, d. 1851), a
French historian and biographer, of the
period of the Reformation.
Audley, Thomas, Baron Audley of Wai-
den (b. 1488. d. 1554), Lord Chancellor of
England, and a Knight of the Garter ;
an unscrupulous and dexterous tool of
Henry VIII.
Audoin, or Alduin, King of the Lombards
in the 6th century, assisted Justinian in a
war with the Gepidae.
Audoin, Jean Victor (6. 1797, d. 1841), a
distinguished French entomologist, author
of the Histoire des Insectes Nuisibfes d la
Vigne.
Audoin, Pierre (6. 1768, d. 1822), French
engraver to Louis XVIII., executed over
100 works.
Audovere (d. 580), the first wife of
Chilperic I., King of France, who repu-
diated her and put her to death.
Audran, Girard (b. 1640, d. 1703), the
most celebrated of the family of artists of
that name, and one of the greatest historical
engravers, was a pupil of Le Brun at
Paris, and afterwards studied at Rome.
Audrein, Yves Marie, a French theologiari
and revolutionist, who voted for the king'a
death, but in 1800 was waylaid and mur-
dered by Chouans as a regicide.
And
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Ang
Auduaon, John James (6. 1780, d. 1851), a
celebrated American naturalist of French
descent, a pupil of the great painter
David ; from his childhood he was devoted
to natural history, out it was not until 1830
that the first of the four volumes of his
great work, The Birds of America, appeared.
This magnificent collection of plates, which
was sold for 1,000 dollars a copy, was quickly
followed by explanatory letterpress under
the title of American Ornithological Bio-
graphy. Audubon also projected a simi-
lar work on the Quadrupeds of America,
but much of this work was done by his
sons, John and Yictor.
Aue, Hartmann von der (b. 1170, d. 1235),
a celebrated German Minnesinger, who
accompanied Frederick Barbarossa on his
crusade in 1189. His great work Ivain, ou
le Chevalier Du Lion, is taken from the
time of King Arthur.
Auenbrugger, Yon Auenbrug Leopold (b.
1722. d. 1809), physician to the imperial
hospital of Vienna, and celebrated as the
inventor of the method of percussion in
investigating diseases of the chest, on which
he published a treatise in 1761.
Auerbach, Berthold (6. 1812, d. 18S2),
German novelist, was a native of the Black
Forest ; his reputation was established by
the publication in 1843 of his Vilkige
Tales from the Black Forest, and this was
followed by a number of other popular
novels. Among his earlier works were a
translation of Spinoza's writings, and an
essay on modern Jewish literature. He
died at Cannes shortly after the publication
of Bngitta.
Auersperg, Adolph Wilhelm, Prince (b.
1821, d. 1885), Austrian statesman, in 1871
was Austrian prime minister, resigning in
1879.
Auersperg, Anton Alexander, Count (b.
1806, d. 1876), Austrian poet and politician,
author of several ballads and romances in
verse, and an advocate of progress and
representation.
Aufrecht, Theodor (6. 1822), a native of
Leschnitz in Silesia, an eminent Sanscrit
scholar, who held the chairs of Sanscrit at
Edinburgh (1862-75) and Bonn, and is
author of many valuable works on that lan-
guage and literature.
Aufresne, Jean Rival (b. 1720, d. 1806), an
eminent actor, who performed in France
and Prussia, and spent the end of his life in
Russia under the patronage of Catherine II.
Augereau, Pierre Francois Charles, Due
de Castiglione and Marshal of France (b.
1757, d. 1816), a soldier of obscure birth who
joined the republican army of France, served
in Italy under Napoleon, and was appointed
to the command of the army of Holland and
the Lower Rhine. In 180-i he was made
marshal and duke, was present at the battles
of Linden, Jena, and Eylau, and after an
unsuccessful campaign in Spain took part
in the battle of Leipsic. In 1814 he was
compelled to evacuate Lyons, and a coolness
arose between him and Napoleon, and on
the abdication of the Emperor Augereau
gave his adhesion to the Bourbons.
Augier, Guillaume Victor Emile (6. 1820,
d. 18b9), a French dramatic author, wrote
several excellent comedies, including Ga-
brielle (1849) and Les Fourchambault (1878),
and was elected to the Academy in 1858.
Augrtsta, Jan (b. 1500, d. 1575), father of
the modern sect of Moravians, and a friend
of Luther and Melancthon, was chosen
bishop of the churches of Bohemia, and on
the banishment of his sect by Ferdinand I.,
was captured and cruelly tortured, but was
released on the death of that monarch, 1564.
Augnstenburg, Christian August, Duke
of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg (b. 1798,
d. 1869), succeeded to the dukedom in 1814,
and during the war of 1848- l^ol was a
leader in the rebellion against the Danish
crown, to which in 1852 he sold his property
in the duchies. He abdicated in favour of
his son.
Augustenburg1, Frederick Karl, Duke of
Schleswig-Holsttdn-Souderburg (b. 1829, d.
1880), in 1863 claimed the right to the
duchies which his father had renounced,
and was supported by Prussia and Austria ;
but the Prussian crown lawyers decided
that after the treaty of 1852 the Augusten-
burg family had no claim to a right of
succession to the duchies.
August!, Christian Johann Wilhelm (6.
1771, d. 1841), a German theologian and
author, professor of Oriental literature, and
afterwards of theology, at the University of
Jena, and later (1811) at Breslau, of which
university he became rector. He went in
1819 to Bonn, and finally to Coblentz.
Augnsti, Friedrich Albert (6. 1686, d.
1792) (Joshua Ben-Abraham Herschel), a
German Jew, well versed in the Scriptures,
was converted to Christianity in 1722, and
remained steadfast in spite of persecutions.
Augiistin, Jean Baptiste Jacques (6.
175!'. c/. 1832), miniature painter to Louis
XVIII. , for his truth to nature was highly
esteemed, and effected a revolution in his
art.
Augustine, Saint Aurelius Augustinus (6.
354, d. 430), the most distinguished of the
Latin fathers of the Christian Church, was
born at Tagaste in Nuinidia. While a
Ang
(74)
student at Carthage he fell into habits of dis-
sipation, to the great distress of his widowed
in ither Monica. \\!. ise prayerful anxiety for
her son is ouo of the most touching record*
of Christian biography. Ait.T an interval
in whicli liis mind .sought relief iu philo-
sophy, and later in the peculiar doctrines of
the Nfanicheeans, lie left Africa for Italy, 383.
At Milan h>> obtained the professorship of
rhetoric, but resign-'d it on his conversion
to Christianity, receiving baptism together
with his son at the hands of Bishop Am-
brose, 3S7. Returning to Africa he sold his
patrimony to beuelit the poor, and after some
years of religious seclusion became Bishop
of Hippo, 3'.U. His life thenceforth is an
unceasing record of labour and controversy
with the schismatics of his time. In 1'J!)
the incursions and ravages of the Vandals
under Genseric reached the gates of Hippo,
ami Augustine died in the third month of
the siege, worn out with hardships endured
in the cause of his people. His two greatest
works are the Confessions, an account of his
own religious struggles, and The City of God.
Augustine or Austin, Saint (d. circa 607),
first Archbishop of Canterbury, was sent
from Rome by Pope Gregory L, in 596, to
convert the English to Christianity. He
was well received by Ethelbert, King of
Kent, and established himself at Canter-
bury, where he founded a monastery on the
site of the present cathedral, and vigorously
pushed his missionary labours.
Augustus, Caius Julius Cassar Octavianus
(b. B.C. 63, d. A,D. 14), the first Roman em-
peror, was the son of Octavius by Alia, a
daughter of Julia, the sister of C. Julius
Caesar. At the age of nineteen, upon re-
ceiving the news of his great- uncle's mur-
der, he set out for Italy, and joining the
republican party defeated Antony, and
returning to Rome compelled the Senate to
elect him consul. Subsequently an arrange-
ment was effected between Augustus, An-
tony, and Lepidus to divide the Roman
world between them. The battle of
Philippi left Augustus and Antony with
no opponent but Pompey, and a rupture
which again broke out between them was
healed by the marriage of Antony with
Octayia, sister to Augustus, when a new
division of the provinces was made, the
west falling to Augustus and the east to
Antony, while Lepidus obtained Africa.
Pompey and Lepidus fell next before the
power of Augustus, and Antony, who had
repudiated his wife to marry Cleopatra, was
completely defeated in a fight near Actium,
B.C. 31. Upon the death of Antony, Augus-
tus became undisputed master of the world
at the age of twenty-three, and remained
such till his death.
Augustus, Duke of Saxony (6. 1614, d.
1680), was elected aivhbishop of Magdeburg
in 1(>'2^, and the following year was driven
from his see by the l.inperor Ferdinand II.,
but regained his dominions in Kl.'i-i, and in
VTU acknowledged sovereign Prince of
Magdeburg. On the death of his lather, in
1656, lie succeeded to barge possessions in
Thuringia.
Augustus, Frederick, Duke of Sussex (b.
177^, '/. 1843), sixth sou of George III.,
married Lady Augusta Murray in 1793, was
a liberal in politics and addicted to liter-
ature.
Augustus, Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich,
Prince of Prussia (6. 1790, d. 1843), nephew
of Frederick II., distinguished himself as
an officer in the Prussian army, especially
during the campaigns of 1813-1815.
Augustus, Wilhelm, Prince of Prussia (b.
1722, d. 1758), distinguished himself greatly
in the first Silesian war, and in the Seven
Years' war, especially at the battle of
Lowositz 1756, but withdrew from the army
after the defeat at Kollin.
Augustus I., Elector of Saxony (b. 1526,
d. 1086), succeeded his brother Moritz in
15-j3, and proved severe and intolerant,
though possessed of considerable legislative
ability. He defeated and imprisoned his
rival, John Frederick, largely extended his
dominions, and drew up the code of laws
known by his name, and though a zealous
supporter of Lutheranism, persecuted the
followers of Melancthon.
Augustus II., Frederick, Elector of
Saxony (Augustus I. of Poland) (b. 1670,
d. 1733), a prince remarkable for personal
strength and beauty, and for the luxury
and corruption of his court, succeeded his
brother John George IV. in 1694, and three
years later, with the aid of Austria and
much bribery, procured his own election to
the throne of Poland. He then joined him-
self with Russia and Denmark against
Sweden, but was defeated at Clissow and
again at Pultusk, and driven from his
throne in 1706. On the downfall of Charles
XII. Augustus was recalled to Poland,
which he filled with Saxon troops, till a,
revolt of the Poles under LedekusM com-
pelled the withdrawal of these in 1716.
Augustus III., Frederick, Elector of
Saxony (Augustus II. of Poland) (b. 1696,
d. 1763), sou of the preceding, whom he
succeeded in 1733, being supported by the
Russians against'his rival Stanislaus ; his
reign proved disastrous for Poland. He
was embroiled with Frederick II. of Prussia,
from whom he had to purchase peace.
Augustus I., Frederick (b. 1750, d. 1827),
first king of Saxony, joined the leagufl
(75)
Aur
formed by Frederick the Great in 1778.
After Jena he followed Napoleon, and lost
portion of his kingdom by the battle of
Leipsic.
Augustus II., Frederick (b. 1797, d. 1854),
nephew oi the preceding, and an able soldier,
succeeded in 1836, and in 1848 made con-
siderable concessions to popular demands.
Aulaf or Anlaf (d. circa 925), a Danish
invader of the British Islands in the 10th
century ; aided by the Scots and Welsh he
attacked Athelstan of England, but was re-
pulsed, and forced to retire to Ireland.
After the death of Athelstan, Aulaf several
times invaded England with varying suc-
cess.
Aulon, Jean, mattre d'hotel to Jeanne
d'Arc, whom he served faithfully, distin-
guishing himself at the siege of Orleans,
and afterward sharing the "Maid's" im-
prisonment.
Auius Gellius, Roman critic and gram-
marian, born in the reign of Trajan, author
of the Attic Nights.
Aumale, Charles, Duke d' (d. 1631),
one of the supporters of the league, was
governor of Paris in 1588, which he held,
but lost the battles of Senlis, Argues, and
Ivry. He died in exile at Brussels.
Aumale, Henri Eugene Philippe Louis
d'Orleaus, Due d' (b. 1822), fourth son of
Louis Philippe, and heir of the house of
Coude, entered the French army at seven-
teen, and was appointed governor of Algeria
in 1847. On hearing of the revolution of
the following year he withdrew to England,
but in 1871 returned to France as a member
of the National Assembly, and won great
popularity. Declining to present himself
for re-election in 1876, he devoted himself
to military duties till deprived of his com-
mand and finally expelled from France in
1886. The duke has written several im-
£>rtant political pamphlets, as well as a
intory of the Princes of tlie House of Conde.
Aumont, Jacques, Due d' (d. 1799), com-
mandant of the battalion of the National
Guard placed over Louis XVI. in 1791.
Though suspected of assisting in the king's
escape, he was afterwards appointed to the
command of Lille.
Aungerville, Richard. [See Bury, Rich-
ard de.]
Annoy, Marie Catherine, Countess d' (b.
1650, d. 1705), a popular French novelist,
and authoress of several volumes of fairy
tales.
Aurelianus, Claudius or Lucius Domitius,
Emperor of Rome (b. 212, d. 275), the son
of a peasant, entered the Roman army, his
exploits in which attracted the notice of the
Emperors Valerian and Claudius, and on the
death of the latter in 270 he was proclaimed
emperor. His short reign was a series of
brilliant victories : the Goths and Vandals
were subdued, the Alemanni, who threatened
Rome itself, were exterminated, Palmyra
was sacked, and in the splendid triumph of
Aureliau were led captive Tetricus, the ex-
Emperor of Gaul, Britain and Spain, and
Zenobia, the renowned Queen of the East.
A formidable rebellion at home was crushed
with terrible sternness, and the emperor's
severity made him feared even by his friends,
who, as they deemed in pure self-defence,
conspired against him and put him to death.
Aurelius, Antoninus Marcus (&. 121 A.D.,
d. 180), Emperor of Rome, was the adopted
son of Antoninus Pius, to whose throne be
succeeded in 161, and took as associate
Lucius Verus. Most of his reign was dis-
turbed by wars with the Germans. Aureliua
was distinguished for his love of truth and
his adhesion to the Stoic school of philo-
sophy, and his Meditations still exist, and
give a trustworthy record of his private
opinions.
Aurelius, Victor Sextus, a Roman his-
torian of the 4th century, and the reputed
author of Origo Gentis Romance, and other
works.
Aureiles de Paladine, Louis Jean Bap-
tiste d' (b. 1804, d. 1877), French general,
served in Africa, Rome, at the Crimea.
Commanded the army of the Loire in the
Franco- German war with some success at
Orleans, but was compelled to retire. In
1S71 was elected to the National Assembly,
and took part in the peace negotiations with
Germany. Was chosen life senator in 1875.
Aureolua, Caius, a Dacian of humble
birth, became one of the most able generals
of Valerian, and during the reign of Gal-
lieuus the army of the Upper Danube re-
volted, and proclaimed Aureolus emperor,
and though defeated and wounded, he suc-
ceeded in compassing the death of Gullienus.
This, however, only resulted in the appear-
ance of a still more formidable opponent in
Claudius, who defeated and finally put him
to death.
Auria, Vincenzo (6. 1625, d. 1710), an
Italian antiquary and poet ; author of his-
tories of the Eminent Men of Sicily (17«.'4),
the Viceroys of Sicily (1697), and other
works.
Auriac, Bernard d', a troubadour of the
13th century, author of a Hymn to th*
Virgin, and other poems, to be found in
M. Raynouard's collection.
Aurifaber, Johann (6. 1519, d. 1575), a
Anr
(76)
Anv
Lutheran divine, and friend and privutf
secretary of Luth<>r.
Auriferi, I;«-niardino (1. 17:;'.i. ,/ . '
Francise.m monk of Pal -r:i: >. v.
him-' :he simiy uiy, and \s
the HOI'UA Panormitanut.
Aurivillius, M.-nus (b. If,;:*, d. 17-HO.
..«-!i iiivii,--. wi. . :n]i-uiied
1 \ll. "ii li. iitioiis.
Aurogallus, M.i;th:i.-us ^t>. UNO, d. U>-
an accomplished (i«Tinan lin:r'ii.~t, who
ted Luther in his translati >n of the
Bible, aud wrote a history of Bohemia.
_Aurungzebe, ^r Aurangrzeb (b. 1618, d.
: unou-* M ror of Hin-
dostan. son , ,f Shah .Jdiau, early professed
great piety, but his ainl>ition led him to
secure for himrolf his father's throne. by
ring f;i':n y dis- •ri.-i.Mi-j, and murder-
ing th";$j of h>-> rela:ivesw'. 1 in his
way. He r>x!"-id"d his dominions by con-
que-t* in Thib"t, Gtolconda, and the' ?\Fah-
ratta terrr He died at Annn:i:b;id,
render d miserable by remorse and mistrust
of all about
Ausonius, Decimus Magnus (b. 309, d.
394), a Latin poet, professor of gram-
mar and rhetoric, and tutor to the two
sons of Valentinian I., and subsequently
prefect of Ixitium, Libya, and Gaul, and
proconsul of Asia.
Austen, Sir Francis William (6. 1774, d.
1865), a distinguished naval officer, in 1799
commanded the Petrel, afterwards served
under Nelson in the West Indies, and in
1809 brought to a successful termination a
dispute with the Chinese. He was created
admiral in 1848, and a K.C.B. in 1860.
Austen, Jane (b. 1775, d. 1817), novelist,
born at Steveuton, Hants, of which parish
her father was rector. Her principal pro-
ductions are Pride and Prejudice (composed
1796, published 1813), Sense and Sensibility,
(1811), and Emma (1816). They are dis-
tinguished for originality, naturalness and
fidelity of delineation, qualities in which
the literature of her time was most defi-
cient. Ker family moved successively to
Bath and Chawton, and she died at Win-
chester ajud was buried in the cathedral.
Austin, Alfred (b. 1835), critic, journalist,
and satirical poet, was educated for the
bar, but resigned that profession for litera-
ture. Asa strong Conservative, is one of the
editors of the National Jteview, and has
acted a* correspondent to the Standard.
Austin, Coe Finch (6. 1831, d. 1880), an
Ajneritan botanist, a recognised authority
on mouses, on which he has left a valuable
entitled J/vm Appalac^ani (1870).
Austin, TT'.rulio Thomas, a British naval
r, \vli<> t"ol; part in the Arctic expe-
dit. : tin- nineteenth century. He
ii. iiteu;int of tin; J-'urii on ' 'iqitaia
I'.IITV'- in Ih'Ji, and in l^'x) «>om-
; the party in search of Sir John
Franklin.
Austin, John (6. 1790, d. 1859), eminent
;>h jurist, served lirst in the army ;ni'l
•ailed to the bar in lolS. From 1S_'S
to 1^:..') professor of jurisprudence at Uni-
ver>ity College, and his chief work is The
Province of Jurisprudence determined.
Austin, Mrs. Sarah Taylor (b. 1793, d.
} - 7), an English writer, and translator
from the Ge.mm and French; her version
of Eanke's ILi&tory of the Popes is tspecially
excellent.
Austin, Stephen T. (d. 1836), was the
founder of the State of Texas. He drove
the Mexicans out of Texas, and obtained its
independence.
Austin, William (b. 1778, d. 1841), an-
American writer, author of betters from
London ; Peter ltuggy the Missing Man, and
other works.
Austin, William, M.D. (6. 1753, rf.1793), an
eminent physician and chemist, who made
several important contributions to medical
science, and published the Analysis of Gases
in the Philosophical Transactions.
Autenrieth, Johann Friedrich Ferdinand
von (1772-1835), a German physician, who
graduated at Stuttgard, and after travelling
in Europe and America settled at Tubingen,
where he filled the chair of anatomy, phy-
siology, and surgery.
Autichamp, Charles de Beaumont, Count
d' (6. 1770, d. 1852), a French royalist and
a leader of the Vendeans in 1793. He also
took part under La Eochejaquelein in the
disastrous insurrection of 1815, and after
the restoration was raised to the peerage.
Auton, or Anton, Jehan d' (b. 1466, d.
1 "27), a French Benedictine monk; his
verses secured him the favour of Anne of
Brittany, and he was appointed historio-
grapher to Louis XII., whose life he
wrote.
Autophradates, a Persian general under
Artaxerxes III. and Darius II. : under the
former he took prisoner Artabazus, satrap of
Lydia, and as commander of the fleet of the
latter compelled the submission of Mitylene
and Tenedos.
Autreau, Jacques (6. 1656, d. 1745), a
French painter and dramatist.
Auvergne, Antoine d' (6. 1713, d. 1797),
musical director of the opera of Paris in
Anv
77)
Ave
1770, and composer of several successful
operas.
Auvergne, Bernard II., Count d' (d. 886),
a distinguished French soldier of the 9th
century, guardian and supporter of Louis
Auvergne, Edward d', an English historian
of the 17th century, accompanied William
III. to the Netherlands, and \vrote an ac-
count of his campaigns.
Auvergne, Gui II., Count d' (d. 1224), a
turbulent French noble, who took the part
of Richard I. of England, and was engaged
in continual struggles with his brother
Robert and with Philip Augustus of France.
Auvergne, Guillaume d' (d. 1249), a
learned bishop of Paris and professor of
theology in the Sorbonne.
Auvergne, Martial d' (b. Paris, 1440, d.
1508), a lawyer, wit, and poet of consider-
able celebrity, author of Les Arrets
d"1 Amour.
Auvergne, Theophile Malocorret, De la
Tourd' (b. 1743, d. 1800), a brave soldier
and accomplished scholar of singular modesty
and benevolence, served under the Due de
Crillon in the campaign of Minorca, and
afterwards joined the revolutionary army,
and became captain of the " Imperial
Column." After bestowing his pension in
charity, he went as substitute for a young
conscript, but was killed at the battle of
Oberhausen. Auvergne was an excellent
linguist, and left a Glossaire Polyylotte of
forty-five languages.
Auvigny, Jean du Castre d' (ft. 1712, d.
1743), a French author, who worked with
Desfontaines and Hazier ; he was killed at
the battle of Dettingen.
Auvray, Felix (b. 1800, d. 1833), a French
historical painter, was a pupil of Baron
Gros.
Auwera, Johan Georg Wolfgang von (d.
1756), a court sculptor at Wurzburg, ex-
celled in colossal figures.
Auxentius (b. 310, d. 374), a supporter
of Arianism, and zealous opponent of
Athanasius. He succeeded Dionysius as
bishop of Milan, and though condemned for
heresy retained the see till his death.
Auzanet, Barthelemi (b. 1.591, d. 1673), an
eminent French lawyer, who was employed
in connection with a scheme for establishing
a uniform system of jurisprudence through-
out the kingdom.
Auzou, Louis Napoleon (6. 1806), a French
ecclesiastic and reformer, founder of the
"French Catholic Church." He renounced
his opinions in 1839, and retired to a re-
ligious house.
Auzout, Adrien, a native of Rouen, flour-
ished in the 17th century, was a skilful tele-
scope-maker, and invented the movable wire
micrometer.
Auzoux, Theodore Louis (6. circa 1797.
d. 1880), a French physician and anatomist,
who greatly facilitated the study at anatomy
by his exact and delicate models of the
human body.
Avalos, Alfonse d', Marquis del Yasto (d.
1546), a Spanish soldier of the 16th century,
who served under Charles V., aud contri-
buted much to the victory of Pavia. He
had also estates in Italy, and after fighting
against the French and Turks was ap-
pointed governor of Milan in 1537, in which
capacity he was defeated by the French at
Ceresole in 1544.
Avalos, Ferdinando d', Marquis of Pes-
cara (b. 1490, d. 1525), cousin of the pre-
ceding, was the virtual commander of the
Spanish forces at the battle of Pavia, at
which he received wounds from the effects
of which he ultimately died.
Avalos, Ruy Lopez d', Count of Ribadeo,
was Great Constable of Castile in the reign
of Juan II., but in 1420 joined Enrique,
Infante of Aragoii, against that monarch,
and was forced to flee to Valencia.
Avanzi, Jacopo di Paolo d' (Jacopo da
Bologna), an Italian painter of the 14th
century ; most of his works, which were
highly esteemed, are now lost.
Avanzini, Guiseppe (6. 1753, d. 1827), an
eminent Italian mathematician.
Avaray, Antoine Louis, Due d' (6. 1759,
d. 1811), a faithful servant and friend
of Louis XVIII., planned and successfully
carried out the escape of that prince.
Avaus, Claude de Mesmes, Count d' (6.
1595, d. 1650), a French diplomatist em-
ployed by cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin ;
through his negotiations the peace of West-
phalia was concluded in 1648.
Aved, Jacques Andre Joseph (b. 1702, d.
1766), one of the best portrait painters of
his time, was portrait painter to Louis XV.
Aveiro, Jose de Mascarenhas, Duke of
(b. 1708, d. 1759), an unscrupulous and
ambitious Portuguese, who became the
favourite of Joam V. Disappointed at
losing his influence on the accession of Jose
I., he formed a conspiracy against the life
of the new king, but was discovered and put
to death.
Aveis L, Sultan of Persia (d. 1347), wa*
Ave
(78)
Avi
an able and just prince; he considerably
increa>ed h
Aveis II., Sultan i>f IVrsia (<l. circii l-ll<i\
and s.in of the p- .:, on whoso <!•
he murdeved an elder in other and >ei/ed tlio
throne. H: d linn many i-ne-
i •. who. \vitli ' .-tanct- of Tamer-
lan<-, drove liiiu from tin- country; he fled
to F,J }>'. when- he died.
Avellar, Francisco Gomez (I. 1739, d.
\ , bishop of Alu'arve, an a!>l>- and learned
divine, who in .-ddition t<- I held
\ ; ost of amor and captain-general
tve, and discharged his multifarious
duti s with prudence aud vigour.
AveUino, Ouofrio (6. 1074, d. 1741),
1 : rtrait painter ox note; his principal
wmk was the frescoes on the ceiling of
the church of St. Francesco di Paolo in
ie.
AveUoni, Francesco (6. 1756, d. 1S37), a
proiiiic Italian dramatist who wrote many
successful plays. both in prose and verse.
Avernpace or Aven Pace, a corruption of
Ibn IS, i jeii. a Spanish Mahometan, renowned
for hi- learning in medicine, poetry, mathe-
maties, and music.
Aventinus, Johannes Thurmayer (b. 1476,
d. 1-VM), " the father of Bavarian historio-
graphy."1 was tutor to the sons of Albert
the Wise, and left an erudite history of his
country.
Avenzoar, a corruption of Ibn Zohr, a
distinguish. -d Moorish family of Seville. Of
its members two especially are renowned,
Abu Merwan Abdul-Malek, an eminent
physician who flourished in the 12th cen-
tury, and who left the Teisir and other
valuable medical works : and Abu Bekr, his
son, who excelled in medicine, theology, and
poetry.
Averdy, Clement Charles Francis de 1'
(b. 17-0, d. 1793), comptroller- geueral of
the French finances in 1759, and author of
some wise reforms in that department.
He was accused of monopoly during the
Reign of Terror, and guillotined.
Averrnoes (b. circa 1120, d. 1198 or
1206) (Ibu-Roshd), the great Arabian pliilo-
Bopher, of good birth, and a pupil of
Avenpace and Avenzoar. He devoted his
life to the study of Aristotle. He was ban-
ished for awhile from Cordova, and his
views were condemned by the University
of Paris in 1240.
Aversa, Tommaso (d. 1663), a Sicilian
poet and dramatist of the 17th century,
whose first work, Pyramo e Thisbe, at-
tracted considerable attention, entered the
Church, and devoted himself to literature.
Avesne, Francois (/Y. l(;c>'_>), a French
writer, and disciple of Simon Morin. His
oiitM.ok. n opini in - co Me. Tiling the rights of
the people iK.-pie.-i-ed the queeii-regent, and
he wa> imprisoned till 165'J.
Avezac, Pierre Valentin d', de Castera (6.
171'.'. >. 17*1), a West Indian of French ex-
traetion, who amassed a considerable fortune
;i Doniingo, and successfully attempted
the fertiii.-ation of the Plain of the Fond, at
a cost of £30,000.
Avezac-Macaya, Marie Armand Pascal d'
(1. 17i".', <L 1875), a French geographer and
ethnologist. \Va,s secretary of the Geo-
grup.deal Society and head of the Depart-
ment of Marine. Besides other works he
has published an account of his African ex-
plorations.
Avianus, Flavius, a Latin poet and fabulist,
whose fables are often printed with those of
JEsop. He probably Lived prior to the reign
of Theodosius.
Aviau duBois de Sanzay (b. 1736, d. 1826),
Archbishop of Bordeaux, who devoted him-
self to deeds of benevolence and piety, and
firmly maintained the rights of the Church
against Napoleon.
Avicebron (Solomon Ibn Gebirol), a
Spanish Jew of the llth century, and author
of the Fans Vitce referred to by Aibertus
Magnus and Thomas Aquinas.
Avicenna (Ibn Sina), (6. 980, d. 1037), the
celebrated Arab ph}rsician, a native of Bok-
hara, was author of the world-famed JBook
of the Canon of Medicine.
Avldius Cassius, a Roman general tinder
Antoninus Pius and Aurelius, and after-
wards governor of Syria. He aspired to
the imperial throne, and was proclaimed
by the army, but was assassinated before
any action took place.
Avienus, Rufus Festus, Roman versifier
and geographer, and twice proconsul under
Theodosius.
Avila, Alonso, a Spanish hidalgo, who ac-
companied Cortes to Mexico, and took part
in the great battle of Ceutla (1519). Re-
turning to Spain in 1525, he was captured
by a French privateer.
Avila, Don Saucho de (b. 1523, d. 1583),
a Spanish soldier, who served in various
countries, and ably seconded the Duke of
Alva in the Netherlands. He accomplished
the arrest of Count Egmont in 1567, and
marred his otherwise splendid victory at
Mook by the horrible butchery which fol-
lowed. He afterwards headed the mutiny
of the army, and was present at the battl«
of Alcantara.
Avi
(79)
Aym
Avila y Zuniga, Luis d' (b. 1500), a Span-
ish historian, and a favourite of Charles V. ,
•who employed him as ambassador to the
popes Paul IV. and Pius IV.
Aviler, Augustin Charles d' (6. 1653, d.
1700), a French architect.
Avison, Charles (6. 1710, d. 1770), an
English musical composer, was a pupil of
Geminiani, and in 1752 published an Essay
on Musical Expression.
Avitus, Alcimus Ecdicius (d. 525), bishop
of Vienne, known as Saint Avitus, was an
able and vigorous opponent of Axianism,
and an author of some note.
Avitus, Marcus Msecilius, Emperor of the
West (d. 457) in the 5th century, was de-
scended from an honourable family of
Auverge, distinguished as a soldier and
diplomatist, and on the death of Maximus
was raised to the throne. In 456 he was
deposed by the Senate.
Avogadro di Quaregna, Amadeo (6. 1776,
d. 1856), an Italian physicist, remembered
in connection with the important chemical
hypothesis enunciated by him in 1811, and
stiU known by his name.
Avrigny, Charles Joseph Lceillard (6. 1760,
d. 1823), a French dramatist, historian, and
poet.
Avrigny, Hyacinthe Robillard d' (b. 1675,
d. 1719), a French Jesuit and historian,
author of an ecclesiastical and a general
history of Europe from 1600 to 1716.
Avril, Jean Jacques (b. Paris, 1744, d.
1832), an eminent French engraver, and
member of the French academy of painting.
Avril, Jean Jacques, the Younger (b. 1771,
d. 1831), son and pupil of the preceding,
also was an engraver of repute.
Awadi of Maragha, a Persian poet of the
13th century, and author of the celebrated
Jam-i-Jam, in which he expounded the
doctrines of the Suffices.
Awdeley, Awdly, or Audley, John, an
English poet of the 15th century, known as
" the blind Awdeley" ; after a youth wasted
in excesses he entered a convent, and ap-
plied himself to the reformation of church
discipline.
Axayacatl (d. 1477), seventh king of
Mexico, of the Aztec race, and second son
of Montezuma I.
Axel, or Absaion (b. Iceland, 1128, d.
1201), Archbishop of Lund, and Primate of
Denmark, known for his valiant defence of
the rights of Denmark against Germany,
and also as a naval commander.
Axen, Petrus (6. 1635, d. 1707), a native
of Holstein, eminent as a jurist, historian,
and philologist.
Axular, Pierre, a Gascon of the 17th cen-
tury, and author of Guerko Guero, the
most remarkable work in the Basque lan-
guage.
Ayala, Pedro Lopez d' (6. 1332, d. 1407), ,
a Spanish statesman, soldier, and poet, and
author of a history of Castile.
Ayala, Sebastiano (b. 1744, d. 1817), a
learned Sicilian Jesuit, known both as an
author, scientist, and politician.
Ayeshah (6. 610, d. 677), the "Mother
of the Faithful," was the favourite wife of
Mohammed, who married her in her ninth
year. Her influence after the prophet's
death was immense. She caused the assass-
ination of Caliph Othman, but was defeated
by AM at the battle of Basrah.
Aylmer, John (6. 1521, rf. 1594), one of
the most distinguished divines of the Re-
formed Church, and bishop of London in
the reign of Elizabeth. Originally tutor to
Lady Jane Grey, on the accession of Mary
he was deprived of his preferment, and
driven into exile, but on her death was re-
ceived into the royal favour.
Aylmer, Matthew, Lord (b. 1643, d. 1720),
a British admiral, who distinguished him-
self in the service of Charles II., and after
the battle of La Hogue was made rear-
admiral of the Red, and was raised to the
Irish peerage in 1718.
Ayloffe, Sir Joseph (6. 1708, d. 1781), an
eminent English antiquary of the 18th cen-
tury, and one of the keepers of the state
papers. He was author of the Calendars of
Ancient Charters and other works.
Aymar or Aimar-Vernai, Jacques (6.
1662), a French peasant who claimed to dis-
cover criminals, lost property, etc., by means
of a divining rod, and created much excite-
ment till discovered in 1693 to be an im-
postor.
Aymard, Antoine. Baron (6. 1773, d. 1861),
a French general who served in Italy, Ger-
many, and Spain, and was raised to the
peerage by Napoleon. He commanded at
Lyons in 1834, and suppressed the insur-
rection of that city with terrible severity.
Ayme, Jean Jacques (Job Ayme) (b. 1752,
d. 1818), an active but moderate revolu-
tionist, experienced several vicissitudes of
fortune, but in 1804 was appointed director
of the department of Bourg en Bresse.
Aymon or Haimon, Prince of the Ardennes
in the time of Charlemagne, whose four song
are renowned in chivalrous legend.
Ayo
(80)
Azi
Ayolas, Juan d'. a Spanish explorer of La
Plata ami Paraguay in the llith century,
who pushed as far as Can d-1 aria, in Para-
guay, but was treacherously slaiii.
Ayrault, Pierre (b. loot), d. K.i>l\ a French
advocate, and president of Ang'-rs during
til.- \var nt' tin' League ; besides several pro-
fessional treatise, he wrote one on parental
rights, addre.^ed to his son Rene, who, to
his father's intense grief, became a Jesuit.
Ayrer, Jacob ('/. 1TA5), an early German
dramatist of considerable talent.
Ayrton, Edmund (6. 1734, d. 1808), an
English musician, the friend and pupil of
Dr. Nares, whom he succeeded as ' ' master
of the children of Ids majesty's chapels."
Ayscough, Samuel (b. 1745, d. 1804), as-
sistant librarian at the British Museum, and
a diligent bibliographer and compiler of
catalogues.
Ayscue, Ayscough, or Askew, Sir George,
a British admiral of the 1 7th century, sided
with the Parliament during the Civil war,
and did good service in their behalf, but
on the Restoration transferred his allegiance
to the Stuarts, and was made prisoner by
the Dutch in 1666.
Ayton or Aytoun, Sir Robert (b. 1570, d.
1638), a Scottish poet and courtier, who
attracted the notice of James I. by a poem
on his accession to the English throne.
Aytoun, William Edmonstoone (b. 1813,
d. 1865), a Scottish poet and professor of
literature at the University of Edinburgh.
Amongst his works are the Lays of the
Scottish Cacaliers (1848), an edition of the
Scottish Ballads (1858), and Bon Gaul-
tier's Book of Ballads, which he brought
out in conjunction with his friend, Sir
Theodore Martin. He was also a most
brilliant contributor to Blackwood's Maga-
zine.
Ayub Khan (b. circa 1849), Ameer of
Afghanistan, on the abdication of his
brother Yakub Khan (1880) advanced upon
Candahar, and totally defeated General
Burrows at Mai wand, but on the arrival of
General Roberts by a forced march from
Cabul his own forces were routed and
himself compelled to flee. The following
year another brilliant victory preceded a
second defeat near Candahar, and Ayub
withdrew to Persia, where, on the Russian
advance on Penj-deh (1885), he was re-
tained as prisoner of state at the request of
the English minister, escaped in 1887, and
was recaptured.
Ayynb-ibn-liabib, distinguished Mahome-
tan general of the eighth century, who
served with success in Africa and Spain,
and became governor of the latter country
till dep')>rd by Omar II. in 715.
Ayyub-ibn-Shadhi (d. 1173), a Moslem
chief, father »i .^.i..i'lin (Salahuddiii), and
founder of tho dynasty of the Ayyubites.
Azais, Pierr.' Hyaciiithe (b. 1766, d. 1X15»_
a distinguished French moralist, who during
the revolution was compelled to flee to the
Pyrenees, where he devoted himself to study,
and wrote his great work, Lt<> (J'>rnpcnmt-
ii"/<* dun* les Dentinees Huinaines. In 1806
he went to Paris, where his lectures were
very popular. He spent the end of his life
in retirement, on a pension procured through
the interest of Madame de Stael and others.
Azambusa, Diego d', a Portuguese travel-
ler, who was entrusted in 1481 by King Joam
II. with the establishment of a coiuiiy on
the coast of Guinea.
Azanza, Don Miguel Jose d' (b. 1746, d.
1826), a Spanish politician, who filled several
important posts both in Spain and Mexico,
and, though loyal to Fernando VII., ac-
cepted office under Joseph Bonaparte.
Azara, Don Felix d' (6. 1746, d. 1811), a
Spanish naturalist and traveller, author of
a Natural History of Paraguay and other
works.
Azara, Don Josef Nicolas d' (b. 1731, d.
1804), a Spanish diplomatist and author.
Azari, Shaikh (b. 1388, d. 1460), a Persian
poet, known as the " king of the poets."
Azariah de Rossi, an Italian Jew of the
16th century, and one of the most learned
rabbis of his time. His great work lleo?
Enajim, (The Light of the Eyes} deals
with historical events.
Azeglio, Cesare Taparelli, Marchese d' (6.
Turin, 1763, d. 1830), the friend and adviser
of Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia,
entered the army, and served in the war with
France in 1792; he received in 1814 an
appointment in the court at Turin. He
edited a Conservative journal, L^ Amico
d"1 Italia.
Azeglio, Massimo Taparelli, Marchese d'
(b. 1793, d. 1866), an Italian novelist and
patriot, and painter of historical pictures.
In 1848 he joined the patriot army, was
seriously wounded at Vicenza. and was ap-
pointed President of the Council by Victor
Emmanuel (1849-1852).
Azevedo, Ignazio de (6. 1527, d. 1570), a
Portuguese Jesuit, who went as missionary
to Brazil, but on his second journey there
was captured by a vessel of the Queen of
Navane's, and put to death.
Aslal, Kara - Chelebizade (Abdul Azu
Azo
(81)
Eafc
Effendi) (6. 1591, d. 1657), Turkish historian
and poet, conspired against Ibraham I., and
was patronised by Mohammed IV.
Azo, Portius (d. 1200), a distinguished
professor of jurisprudence at Bologna.
Azpr, Juan (6. 1533, d. 1603), a Spanish
Jesuit and professor of theology at Alcala
and Home. One of his works, The Inst^tu-
ciones Morales, attracted considerable notice
from its questionable morality, but was
authorised by Clement VIII.
Azpilcueta, Martin (6. 1493, d. 1586), a
native of Navarre, renowned reviver of the
study of canon law.
Azuni, Domenicp Alberto (6. 1749, d.
1827), an Italian jurist and antiquary, in
1807 was judge at Genoa, and later judge
and director of the university library at
Cagliari.
Azurara or Zurara (Gomez Eannes), a
Portuguese historian of the 10th century,
who was appointed keeper of the Portuguese
archives.
Azz-ed-din, Kilij-Arslan (d. 1192), fifth
sultau of the Seljukian dynasty, succeeded
his father on the Turkish throne in 1156, and
proved a wise and energetic ruler.
Azzo L, Alberto, Marquis of Este (d.
1029), a turbulent prince, who was deposed
and imprisoned in 1014 for supporting the
attempt of Ardpnius on the throne of Italy.
On the accession of Conrad II. he made
strenuous efforts to secure the independence
of Italy.
Azzo II., Marquis d'Este (d. 1097), son of
the preceding, one of the greatest princes
of his house.
Azzoni-Avogari, Rambaldo degli (6. 1719,
d. 1790), an Italian antiquary, founded a
public library in his native town of Treviso.
s
Baader, Francis Xavier (6. 1765, d. 1841),
German theologian.
Baan, Jacob, son of Joannes van Baan
(*. 1673, d. 1700), also a good artist.
Baan, Joannes van ((/. 1633, d. 1702), a
Dutch painter of note, was invited to
England by Charles II., whose portrait he
Eainted. He refused a commission from
ouis XTV. from patriotic motives. His
life was twice attempted by jealous
rivals.
Baasha, the son of Ahijah, held a high
command in the army of Israel, and after
murdering Nadab, the king, seized upon
the throne, reigning for 24 years. To
secure his title he murdered every member
of the house of Jeroboam.
Baba, All (d. 1718), was elected Dey
of Algiers in 1710, after the revolution in
which Ibrahim Dey was killed. At great
sacrifice of life Baba liberated Algiers from
the dominion of Turkey, and its indepen-
dence was maintained until the French in-
vasion in 1830.
Babbage, Charles (b. 1792, d. 1871),
English mathematician, a prolific author,
graduated at Cambridge, and was afterwards
Lucasian prof essor there for 11 years. He
conducted^ much valuable research, his chief
efforts being devoted to the construction of
& calculating machine, in which, however,
he was not wholly successful. In 1832 he
stood for Finsbury, but was defeated.
Baber, Zuheir-Ed-Din Mohammed (b.
1483, d. 1530), conqueror of India, and
founder of the great Mogul dynasty. Sixth
in descent from Tamerlane, he succeeded
his father in the government of Ferghana
in his twelfth year. His early life was one
of strange vicissitude ; his frequent expe-
ditions against Samarcand being followed by
insurrections at home which drove him into
exile. Flying at last to Cabul, he was pro-
claimed ruler there, and after 20 years of
troubled government he marched into India,
and gained a splendid victory over Ibra-
him Lodi. A subsequent victory over the
federated Rajput princes placed all India
practically in his hands. He left a memoir
of his life.
Babeuf, Francois Noel (b. 1764, d. 1797),
a violent French revolutionist, known as
"Caius Gracchus," from the pseudonym
used by him in his writings in the Tributt du
Peuple. He organised the " Societe du Pan-
theon," which, by promoting armed in-
surrection, was to proclaim the constitution
of 1793. The conspiracy having been be-
trayed, he was guillotined.
Babl, Jean Francois (*. 1759, d. 1796),
French revolutionary officer, who com-
mitted the most violent excesses at Toulouse
during the Reign of Terror. He waa
Bab
Bac
executed for participating in Babeuf ' s con-
spiracy.
Babinet, Jacques (b. 1794, d. 1872),
French physicist and astronomer, after
occupying professorial chairs at Fontenoy
and Poitiers, became professor of phy-
sics at the college of St. Louis, Paris, a
position which he held for 49 years. He
made many inventions in machinery, and
was a very popular lecturer. His Cartes
Hbmoloaraphtgues, drawn on a new system
of projection, and his predictions of the
failure of the Atlantic Cable, excited much
attention.
Babington, Anthony (d. 1586), an English
Roman Catholic gentleman, of good family,
known to history by the plots which he
formed to liberate Mary Queen of Scots
and to assassinate Elizabeth. These were
discovered by Walsingham's spies, and
Babington, escaping for a time, was finally
executed at Tyburn.
Babington, William (b. 1756, d. 1833),
mineralogist, chemist, and geologist, prac-
tised as a physician in London, and was
largely instrumental in founding the Huu-
tenan Society and the Geological Society
of London.
Babini, Matteo (b. 1754, d. 1816), an
Italian singer, who obtained a great reputa-
tion all over Europe, being received with
distinction at many courts.
Babois, Marguerite Tictoire (b. 1760, d.
1839), a French poetess of some note, and
niece of the poet Ducis.
Babrius, a Greek poet, who lived about
the 2nd or 3rd century, known for his
rhythmical versions of ^Esop's Fables.
Babylas, Saint, a Bishop of Antioch, who
suffered martyrdom in the Decian perse-
cution of 251. He refused the Roman
emperor Philip entrance to the church
after he had ordered the death of Gallus.
His remains were first laid outside Rome,
and af terwards, by the order of the Emperor
Julian, conveyed to Antioch.
BaccMni, Benedetto (b. 1651, d. 1721), a
learned Benedictine monk, and a preacher
celebrated throughout Italy. He was a
great Greek and Hebrew scholar, a good
linguist, and a musician. In 1685 he be-
came counsellor of the Inquisition at Parma;
in 1688 theologian to the Duke of Parma ;
and subsequently librarian and historian to
the Duke of Modena. He filled the chair
of sacred literature in the university of
Bologna, and was the author of numerous
works.
Bacchylides, a celebrated Greek lyrical
poet, who lived in the 5th century B.C. He
wrote in the Doric dialect, and was the
great rival of Pindar. His poems have
nearly all been lost.
Baccip della Porta (b. 1469, d. 1517), a
Florentine painter of great repute, better
known as Fra Bartolommeo. From study-
ing the works of Leonardo da Vinci in his
house near the Porta San Pietro he obtained
the sobriquet, ' ' della Porta. ' ' He there exe-
cuted the frescoes of the La*t Judgment,
which were afterwards finished by his friend
Al)>"rtinelli. Coming under the influence
of Savonarola, he was so affected by the
cruel death of the great preacher that he
entered the convent of Prato in 1500 as a
Dominican monk. For four years he aban-
doned painting, and when he resumed, in
obedience to the superiors of his Order, he
devoted himself entirely to religious sub-
jects. His fame spread rapidly, and drew
to him young Raphael, the two painters
exercising a great influence over each other.
Baccio visited Rome, and returning to the
convent, produced Ins chef d'oeuvre, St.
Mark. His artistic power was increasing
when he died at the early age of 48. His
St. Peter and his &t. Paul were finished by
Raphael.
Bach, Alexander, Baron (b. 1813),
Austrian statesman, a member of the
Vienna bar, figured in the revolutionary
movement of 1848, and became minister of
justice in the first liberal cabinet, in which
position he occupied himself with judicial
reforms. By supporting the veto of the
Crown he lost his popularity, and was
driven to flight by insurrection. Later he
occupied other ministerial posts, and from
1859 to 1865 he was plenipotentiary to the
Vatican.
Bach, Johann Christian (*. 1735, d.
1782), eleventh and youngest son of Sebas-
tian; when 19 years of age went to
Milan, where he was appointed organist in
the cathedral. In 1762 he came to London,
made a considerable reputation as a com-
poser and player, and was appointed organist
and composer to the queen. Intemperate
habits finally undermined his constitution,
and he died in London.
Bach, Johann Christoph (b. 1732, d.
1795), ninth son of Sebastian; like his
brother, abandoned law for music, and
obtained the post of kapellmeister to the
Duke of Schaumberg-Lippe.
Bach, Johann Sebastian (b. 1685, d.
1750), the greatest of a large family of dis-
tinguished musicians. When he was ten
years of age his father died, and he went to
live at Ordruff with his brother, who placed
great obstacles in the way of his musical
studies. On the death of this brother young
Bach earned a livelihood at Luneberg by
Bao
(83)
ringing. He devoted himself entirely to
music, and when 18 years old appeared
at Weimar as a violinist. Next year he
obtained a post as organist at Anistadt,
where his powers of execution began to
attract attention, and in 1708 he returned to
"Weimar as an organist. Here he first be-
came known as a composer, and his fame
spread so rapidly that he was appointed
kapellmeister and director of Court con-
certs by the Prince of Anhalt-Cothen.
Soon afterwards he was induced to chal-
lenge Marchand, a French organist of great
repute, to a public contest of skill on the
organ. Marchand disappeared quietly be-
fore the appointed day, but Bach's per-
formance gained for him the highest place
as a musician. In 1723 he went to
Leipzig as director of the school of music
of St. Thomas's, a post which he occupied
to the end. The Duke of Weissenfels and
Augustus III., Elector of Saxony and King
of Poland, both appointed Bach honorary
kapellmeister to their Courts, and in 1747
he was invited by Frederick the Great to
Potsdam, where he performed with great
eclat. Returning to Leipzig, he devoted
himself to composition, but too close work
brought on cataract of the eyes. Two un-
successful operations were performed, and
his health rapidly declined.
Bach, Karl Philipp Emanuel (b. 1714,
d. 1788), second son of the above, aban-
doned law for the study of music, in which
he succeeded so well that he was called to
Berlin, where Frederick, the Prince Eoyal,
made him kapellmeister. After residing in
Berlin for 29 years, he succeeded, in 1767,
Telemann at Hamburg.
Bach, Victor (b. 1770, d. 1799), a French
revolutionist and physician, and a mem-
ber of the Convention. Failing to realise
his political aspirations, he committed
suicide.
Bach, Wilhelm Friedemann (b. 1717,
d. 1784), eldest son of Sebastian; aban-
doned the law for music, and in 1747
became organist in the church of Notre
Dame at Halle, a post which he held for
20 years. After an unsettled life, he went
to Berlin, where he died in penury, brought
on by intemperance and indolence.
Bachaumont, Francois le Coigneux de
(b. 1624, d. 1702), French wit and satirist,
famous for his inveterate hostility to Car-
dinal Mazarin. A notorious bon vivant, he
was converted in later life to serious and
religious habits.
Bachaumont, Louis (d. 1771), a French
writer known to the world as the author
of Les Memoires Secrets pour servir de
VHistoire de la Republtque des Lettres, a
record of scandal and gossip connected with
02
Paris celebrities of the day. The work waft
continued by others.
Bache, Alexander Dallas (b. 1806, d. 1867),
distinguished American scientist, and a
great-grandson of Benjamin Franklin,
graduated at West Point, and became a
lieutenant of engineers. From 1827 to 1836,
he was mathematical professor at Pennsyl-
vania University, and then, being appointed
president of the projected Girard College,
he went to Europe to examine and report
upon the educational systems of various
countries. In 1843 he was appointed super-
intendent of the U.S. coast survey, and
his work in this capacity earned for him a
great reputation. He occupied several dis-
tinguished positions under government, and
did much to encourage scientific research.
On his death he left $42,000 to the National
Academy of Science.
Bache, Franklin (b. 1792, d. 1864), cousin
of above, served as a surgeon in the U.S.
army until 1814. He filled the chairs of
chemistry in the Franklin Institute of
Pennsylvania, and the Jefferson Medical
College of Philadelphia, and in 1853 was
chosen president of the American Philoso-
phical Society.
Bachelier, Jean Jaques (*. 1724, d. 1805),
French painter, who, having obtained
wealth by his art, endowed a free school of
design, which was opened in 1766, and
proved very successful. He introduced the
celebrated Sevres china designs, and was
director of the manufactory for over 40 years.
Bachelot de la Pylalr, Auguste Jean
Marie (b. 1786, d. 1856), French naturalist
and conchologist, travelled through Asia
and America in the pursuit of his favourite
studies, and returned with a splendid collec-
tion of plants and shells, which he presented
to the Paris natural history museum.
Bachelu, Gilbert Desire* Joseph (b. 1777,
d. 1849), a French soldier, and officer of the
Legion of Honour, served with distinc-
tion in many of the Napoleonic campaigns,
rising to the rank of lieutenant-general in
1813. He joined Napoleon on his escape
from Elba, and fought at Quatre Bras and
Waterloo. After the second restoration he
was banished, but in 1817 he was recalled,
and later in life became a deputy.
Bachman, John (b. 1790, d. 1874),
American clergyman, author, and man of
science, in 1815 became pastor of the German
Lutheran church at Charlestown, a post
which he filled till his death. He colla-
borated with Audubon in the production
of The Birds of America, and was chiefly
responsible for The Quadrupeds of Atnerica.
Bachmann, Jaques Joseph Antoine Leger,
Baron de (b. 1733, d. 1792), a Swiss of high
Eao
(84>
B-ic
lineage, who eiiten -d tin- Fn i and
i n . of th«
guar .:> in 1'arK 11 :idrd the king
with ' antry B
ary n. b u but oeing taken priioner,
he wa> g>. d.
Baclccio (b. . 17 more pro-
perly, (i: "Vanni La't
paii. u in ( tan< a, \\
ttili . ' •
tin- . intliirntial ]>• TSMUS. 1.
vc him a rej
0 D MS f. ir 1'rinee F.nilili,
he v Vll. to
uiui- . ; tiie (.'hii
,1. On this work, which oreupird fa've
n, the : M! the printer mainl_
, it l.y no mi \iLis exhausted,
his genius and industry.
Baciocchl, Maria Anna F'
1820), e . • r of I the Great,
secretly in . Felix r : 'dii,
a captain i>i iniantry of g" id birth. While
he served with th-- army, securing rapid
promotion, she roiled in Paris, where her
solo/is were celebrated for tii-ir ',.1 iiiiauce.
When Xapoleoii became Emperor, he created
for her the principality 01 Piomhino and
Luoca ; and in her Grand Duchess
of Tuscany. Ou the fall of the Empire she
and her husband left Italy, and she died at
Trieste.
Back, Sir George (b. 1706, d. 1878), an
English Arctic explorer, entered the royal
navy in lSi'8; was talcen prisoner in
French war, and did not recover his
freedom for five years. In 1818 he volun-
teered to a<:vo:i!pany Franklin in the Trent,
and in the following year he took part in
Franklin's land expedition from Hudson's
Bay to the Coppermine river. He rendered
distinguished services, in the face of the
greatest hardships, and in 1S25 he again
accompanied Franklin on an Arctic expedi-
tion, and again with distinction to himself.
In 1833 he took command of an expedition
to relieve Sir John Boss, and, although
unsuccessful, he made several valuable dis-
coveries. On his return, in 1S)5, he was
made post -captain, and in 1836 he set out
on yet another Arctic expedition, returning
in the following year. In 1837 he was
knighted, and in 1^59 he was made a rear-
admiral. He left a legacy for the advance-
ment of Arctic exploration.
Backhusen (or Backhuysen), Ludolph (b.
1631, d. 1709), a famous Eutch marine
painter. Among many celebrated visitors to
his studio were Prince Frederick of Prussia
and Peter the Great.
Bacon. Anne (4. 1528, d. 1600), the daugh-
ter of Sir Anthony Cooke, an eminent
scholar, the wife of Sir Nicholas Bacon, and
the i of Fraii'-i.s lia...-,. Her corre-
sp >nui ni e with In r sou p \s much
Intel
Eicon, \ nv (b. !.">.'.>, d. 1601), elder
; Bacon; wmt to Fiance,
g .I.- a I'ial agdit for J
,, and his wit and learning pann d for
hna the intimacy of meii of inlluence aiid
On hia recall he became secretary to
tin- J .^ssex, and entered the House of
Commons.
Bacon, Delia (b. 1811, d. 1859), known as
a supporter of the theory of the Baconian
authorship of Shakespeare's plays.
Bacon, Francis (b. 15iil, d. 1626), Baron
Vrriilam, and Viscount St. Albans, was
the eighth child of Sir Nicholas Bacon, the
Lord Keeper, his mother, Anne Cooke, being
Sir Nicholas's second wife. At 13 he was
sent to Cambridge, but though he read
widely he did not take a degree ; and
i after three years' residence at the Uni-
versity he went to Paris in the suite of
Sir Amyas Paulet, Elizabeth's ambassa-
dor. His experiences in Paris formed the
basis of his treatise, afterwards published,
Of the &i<nt! oj Luroj'f. His father dying,
he returned to England in 158U, aud applied
to Lord Burleigh. his uncle on his mother's
side, for public employment. Burleigh,
however, for iiis sou's sake, was jealous of
Bacon, and the disappointed young man
turned to the study of law. He next sought
and obtained the favour of the Larl
of Essex, who unsuccessfully endeavoured
to obtain the post of attorney-general for
him, and who befriended him in many ways.
In 1590 he became counsel extraordinary to
the queen, and having entered Parliament
he took a prominent part in its debates, and
greatly offended the queen by opposing the
Court on the question of subsidies. When
Essex was tried for treason in 1600,
Bacon took an active part in the prose-
cution of his friend and patron. On the
accession of James I. his promotion
became more rapid. He was knighted
in 1603, and secured the hand of a rich
alderman's daughter; he became Solicitor
General in 16o7, Registrar of the Court of
Star Chamber in 1608, and Attorney General
in 1613. Three boroughs now simultaneously
returned him to Parliament, and although
custom forbade an attorney-general to sit in
the House, a special exception was made in
his behalf. He strongly supported the king's
schemes for the union of England and Scot-
land, and, indeed, showed great subserviency
both to the Crown and Buckingham, his
. conduct ia several notorious cases not re-
dounding to his credit. In 1617 he became
Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, and in 1619,
Lord Chancellor, with the title of Baron
Verulam, being created Viscount St. Albana
Bac
(85)
in the following year. In 1621 Parliament
instituted an inquiry into the state of the
Bench, with the result that Bacon was im-
peached for taking bribes. He confessed,
with qualifications, to 23 acts of corruption
charged against him, and was sentenced to
a hoavy fine, imprisonment during the king's
pleasure, and deprivation of all rights to
hold office or sit in Parliament. The fine
was remitted, the imprisonment lasted but
two days, he was summoned to the next
Parliament, though he did not appear, he
was allowed to return to Court, and his
titles were not taken from him. He retired
from public life, drawing a pension of £1,200,
and, still visited by men of leading, he de-
voted himself to literature and science. He
died, from the effects of a chill, in 1626, at
the Earl of Arundel's house at Highgate.
Controversy has never ceased to rage on
Bacon's conduct in public life, and he has
not lacked many able apologists. Among his
many great works mention must be made
of the Essays (1597), Advancement of Learn-
ing (1605), Novum Orgamim (1620), History
of the Reign of Henry VII. (1622), and De
Augment** Scientiarum (1623).
Bacon, John (d. 1346), an English monk
(generally known as Baconthorp) of great
erudition, became principal of the Car-
melites, and was the leader of the followers
of Averrhoes.
Bacon, John, E.A. (b. 1740, d. 1799), an
English sculptor, gained a prize from the
Society of Arts when only 18, and secured
nine other first prizes afterwards. A student
at the Royal Academy, he took the first gold
medal for sculpture in 1769, and in 1770 he
obtained publicity and the patronage of the
king by his statue of Mars.
Bacon, Sir Nicolas (b. 1510, d. 1579), Lord
Keeper of the Great Seal to Elizabeth, studied
at Cambridge, where he began his friend-
ship with Lord Burleigh, and after visiting
France, took up the profession of the law.
He obtained the favour of Henry VIII. , and
was appointed Attorney of the Court of
Wards, a post which he held until the ac-
cession of Mary. Elizabeth made him a
member of the Privy Council, and Lord
Keeper of the Great Seal in 1558, and
showed many other marks of her favour and
confidence. He offended the queen by his
attitude on the question of the succession,
but by Burleigh's influence was soon re-
stored to favour, and in 1568 presided over
the Commission for investigating the charge
against Mary Queen of Scots of murdering
her husband. In 1577 Elizabeth visited him
at his residence it Hertfordshire.
Bacon, Phanuel (b. 1700, d. 1783), an
English clergyman and dramatist, who ob-
some celebrity in his day.
Bacon, Roger (b. 1214, d. 1292), an
English monk and scientific investigator,
studied at Oxford and Paris, where he
graduated in theology, and in 1240 entered
the order of Franciscans, settling at Oxford.
A man of wide erudition, he devoted himself
to physical science, in which he made many
remarkable discoveries. He created enmity
by his demands for reform among the
clergy, and was accused of sorcery, with
the result that he was forbidden to teach
in the university and was practically out-
lawed. The Papal Legate in England
became interested in Bacon, and on his
elevation to the Papal chair as Clement
IV., sent for his works, notwithstanding
the prohibition against them which the
superiors of the Franciscan Order had is-
sued. Bacon sent the Opus Majus, the
Oput Minus, and the Opus Tertium, and
some scientific instruments; but Clement
soon after died, and again Bacon was ac-
cused of sorcery, this time at Paris before
Jerome d'Esculo, General of the Franciscan
Order. He went to Paris to answer the
charge : but his works were condemned, and
he was imprisoned for 10 years. Vv'hen
liberated, through the intercession of in-
fluential English nobles, his health was
shattered, and he died in England in the
following year. His works are very numer-
ous, displaying both the greatest erudition
and sasracity and strange credulity and
superstition.
Bacsanyi, John (b. 1763, d. 1845), Hun-
garian patriot and poet, helped to found
the first literary review in Hungary, but
the venture was suppressed and he was
j imprisoned for conspiracy. During Napo-
leon's occupation of Vienna he had to fly
i from France for his advocacy of the national
i cause.
Badajos, Juan de, a Spanish architect,
born in the latter part of the 12th century,
who, among other works, helped in the pre-
paration of plans for Salamanca cathedral.
Badalocchio, Sisto (b. 1581, d. 1647), an
Italian painter and engraver of merit.
Badby, John (d. 1410), an English martyr
and artisan, was burned at the stake as a
Lollard.
Badcock, Samuel (b. 1747, d. 1788), a man
of letters, at first a dissenting minister,
joined the Church of England in 1787.
He gained a great reputation by a brilliant
criticism of a work by Dr. Priestly, and he
also joined in the "Rowley " controversy.
He was the author of Memoirs of the
Wesley Family.
Baden, Frederick "William Louis, Grand
Duke of (b. 1826), in 1852 became re-
gent, his elder brother being insane, and ia
Bad
(86)
Bag
1856 he succeeded to the Duchy, and mar-
ried a daughter of William I. of Prussia.
He took part in the Franco- German war.
In 1855 he banished the Jesuits.
Baden, Jacob (/>. 1735, d. 1804), a Danish
philologist, illlrd several high educational
posts, wrote much, aud founded the Danish
Critical Journal.
Badcns, Frans (6. 1571, d. If.OH), Dutch
painter, celebrated for hie portraits and
historical pieces.
Badger, George Percy (b. 1815, d. 1888), a
clergynia'i and orientalist, took orders in
18-12, aud was sent to the East : was ap-
pointed government chaplain at Bombay
and Aden, aud acted as interpreter to
diplomatic missions in Arabia, Persia, East
Africa and Egypt. He wrote rn;in;.- works
on the East. He was made a D.C.L. by the
Archbishop of Canterbury.
^ Badia y Lablich (b. 1766, d. 1818), a
Spanish traveller, who, under the name of
Ali Bey, aud as a true believer, travelled
all through the Mohammedan East with-
out ever arousing suspicions of his actual
identity. He even went to Mecca as a
pilgrim, and was received with honour at
Constantinople. Returning to Spain, he
took service under the French invader, and
in 1814 went to Paris, where he published
the account of his travels. Proceeding
again to the East under another name, he
died at Aleppo of dysentery or poison.
Badie, Louis Augustin de la (b. 1696, d.
1765), a French soldier who fought with
distinction in the War of Succession. He
served last in Germany in 1761, and waa
then created field marshal.
Badius, Conrad, son of Jodocus Badius,
and also a printer. Religious persecution
drove him from Paris to Geneva.
Badius, Jodocus (b. 1462, d, 1535), one
of the first of French printers, learnt the
process of printing in Italy, and set up in
Lyons in 1491 as a printer and teacher of
Greek and Latin. Later he went to Paris,
where he printed many of the classics.
Baeck, Abraham (b. 1713, d. 1795), a
Swedish physician and naturalist, tra-
velled in Germany, England and France,
acquired considerable reputation, and finally
was appointed Royal physician. He wrote
many valuable treatises on natural history.
Baehr, Johann Christian Felix (b, 1789,
d. 1872), a German philologist, occupied
several high educational posts, edited many
Greek classics, and wrote much on historical
and philological questions.
Baer, Karl Ernst von (b. 1792, d.
1876), a Russian scientist, took a medical
degree, and practised in Vienna, but soon
ludoned medicine for natural s<'ien-'o.
He held professorial chairs at Konips-
berg, and devoted himself to the study
of embryology, on which he became a
great authority. In 1834 he was appointed
librarian of the St. Petersburg academy
of science, and in 1851 he undertook an
investigation of Russian fisheries on behalf
of the government. He has made many
valuable contributions to scientific litera-
ture.
Baert, Alexander Balthasar Francois de
Paule, Baron de (b. 1750, d. 1825), a French
geographer who spent many years in Eng-
land, Russia and Spain, was a member of
the legislative assembly, and fled to the
United States during the Reign of Terror.
He wrote several books on geography and
history.
Baffin, William (b. 1584, d. 1622),
an English Arctic explorer, accompanied
Captain James Hall on his fourth Arctic
voyage in 1612; in 1614 he joined an ex-
pedition to Spitsbergen, and in 1615 he set
out iu the Discovery to find the north-west
passage, the attempt being renewed the next
year. Though unsuccessful, Bafiin pene-
trated farther north than any navigator
before him, and published charts and jour-
nals of the voyages. He was killed at the
siege of Onnuz.
Eaffo, a Venetian lady of the 15th cen-
tury, who, taken prisoner by pirates, came
under the notice of Sultan Amurath III.,
and became his favourite wife, bearing him
Mohammed III. She exercised a great
influence over both her husband and her
son, and earned for herself the surname
Safe, or "the Pure."
Bag-ard, Csesar (b. 1639, d. 1709), a French
sculptor, known as " le grand Csesar." A
large part of his work is to be found in the
churches of Nancy, his native town.
^ Bage, Robert (b. 1728, d. 1801), an Eng-
lish novelist ; originally a paper maker, his
want of success induced him to turn to
fiction, in which he exhibited such talent
that Sir Walter Scott wrote his biography.
Bagehot, Walter (b. 1826, d. 1877),
economist and writer ; educated at London,
took a distinguished London degree, and
having been called to the bar, undertook the
management of his father's bank at Lang-
port. While thus engaged he contributed
brilliant essays to periodicals, and wrote
several works on politics and economics, of
! which the chief are Lombard Street and The
i English Constitution. For the last seven-
: teen years of his life he edited the Economist.
Bagetti, Giuseppe Pietro (b. 1764, d*
Bag
(87)
Bali
1831), a landscape painter, who, in 1807,
was commissioned at Paris to execute a
series of water-colour drawings of Trench
victories.
Bag-ford, John (b. 1650, d. 1716), a shoe-
maker of slender education, who devoted
himself to collecting literary curiosities, old
prints, etc. , in which he became a connois-
seur. His large collection was bought by
Lord Oxford, and is now in the British
Museum.
Bagge, Jakob (b. 1499), a Swedish ad-
miral, after serving on land under Gus-
tavus Vasa, entered the navy, and in
1555 commanded an expedition against the
Russians with entire success. He defeated
the Danes at Barnholine, but was taken
prisoner in 1564, and died in confinement.
Bagger, Johann (b. 1646, d. 1693), a
Danish scholar and divine, after being pro-
fessor of Oriental languages at the Lund
university, was created Bishop of Zea-
land when only 29 years old. He revised
the rites of the Lutheran Church, and wrote
much in Danish and Latin.
Baggessen, Zeus (b. 1764, d. 1826), a
Danish man of letters whose lyric verse
gained him a reputation in Copenhagen,
which he left in 1788 for Germany, after-
wards travelling much in Switzerland and
France. While abroad he wrote in the
German language with great success.
Baggowoth (d. 1812), a Russian general
who held high command in the army during
the war with France, under the Empire.
He distinguished himself in several battles,
and was killed in action.
Baglioni, Giovanni (b. 1594, d. 1664),
an Italian painter of note, was decorated
by Paul V., and wrote the Lives of the
Roman Painters, Sculptors, and Architects,
from 1572 to 1642.
Baglioni, Giovanni Paolo (d. 1520), an
Italian condottiere, who served under Caesar
Borgia, and afterwards with the^Venetians,
being taken prisoner by the Spaniards at the
battle of Vicenza. He met his death through
the treachery of Leo X.
Baglivi, Giorgio (*. 1669, d. 170T), an
eminent Italian physician, who initiated a
great advance in medical science by aban-
doning the old idea that the seat of disease
was invariably to be found in the fluids of
the system.
Bagnacavallo, Bartolomeo (b. 1484, d.
1542), a Bolognese painter, who studied
under Raphael, and assisted that master in
painting the Loggie at the Vatican.
Bag'oas, one of the eunuchs of Herod
the Great, who was put to death for com-
plicity in the conspiracy of the Pharisees.
Bagot, Lewis (b. 1740, d. 1802), an
English divine and theological writer, was
successively Dean of Christchurch and
Bishop of Bristol, Norwich, and St. Asaph.
Bagration, Peter, Prince (b. 1765, d.
1812), a Russian general of great distinc-
tion, who entered the army as a common
sergeant in 1782. He held high command
under Suwarrow in Poland, Italy, and
Switzerland, and fought with distinction in
the campaign of 1805, against the French.
After occupying Finland in 1808, he con-
ducted a successful campaign against the
Turks. He died from a wound received at
Borodino.
Bagshaw, Edward (d. 1662), an English
lawyer, political writer, and member of the
Long Parliament. At first an active op-
ponent of Charles, he afterwards went over
to the king, and suffered imprisonment for
his defection.
Bahadur Khan Farookhy, the last of the
Farookhy dynasty, succeeded his father, in
1596, in the government of Khaudiish. In
1599 he was besieged by the Emperor
Akbar in the fortress of Aseergurh, and
being taken prisoner, Khandlish was ab-
sorbed in the Mogul empire.
Bahadur Khan Geelany (d. 1494), a
viceroy of the Bahmuny dominions in the
Deccan, endeavoured to throw off his
allegiance to Mahmood Shah Bahmuny II.,
and was killed in battle while fighting
against that ruler.
Bahadur Nizam Shah (b. 1593), King
of Ahmednugger, in the Deccan, and last
of his line, was an infant when he
came to the throne, and when the state
was absorbed into the Mogul empire,
five years later, by the Emperor Akbar,
Bahadur was taken prisoner, and lost to
history.
BaHadur Shah (b. 1505, d. 1537), King
of Guzerat, succeeded Muzuffu Khan in
1526, and was at once met by a revolt of
Madool Moolk, the grand vizier, whom he
defeated and executed. For some year she
was continually and successfully at war
with neighbouring potentates, and repulsed
a formidable Portuguese expedition sent to
capture the island of Diu. Being defeated
in a war against the Emperor of Delhi, he
was driven from his kingdom, which, how-
ever, he shortly recovered. In 1536 the
Portuguese sent a second expedition against
Diu, and Bahadur, while visiting the Portu-
guese admiral on board ship, was treacher-
ously killed.
Bahadur Shah (b. 1641, d. 1712), Emperoe
Eah
(88)
Bai
of J>lhi; on the death of the Emperor
Aurungzeeb, Bahadur and his two brolhers
all strive for the succession. The latter
were defeated and killed, but their ad-
herents were treated wiih great leniency.
After dnving hack the Sikh invasion of
1712, Bahadur died at Lahore.
Bahlole Khan, a Mahometan general of
the sixteenth century, who commanded the
armies first of the King of AhmcdnngpT,
and afterwards of the iving of i^ j;,p -or.
When Auruiigzecb conquered the latter
kingdom, he was one of the regents.
Bahrain, a Persian general who, in the
reign of Horinus IV., defeated 4oO,<KJO
Turks, who had crossed the Oxus under the
Great Khan, with only 1_.0< 0 men. Pro-
voked by the ingratitude of Hormus, Bah-
ram revolted, put out the king's eyes, and
drove his sou to exile. He was, in turn,
driven to flight by the Romans, and soon
after poisoned.
Bahram I., King of Persia (d. 277) : fourth
of the dynasty of Sassau : and son and suc-
cessor of Hormus A.D. 274.
Bahrain II. (d. 294), son of preceding,
but unlike his fa: her, a bad and hated ruler,
was at war with Rome, under the Emperor
Carus, whose death alone prevented the loss
of his dominions.
Bahrain V. (d. 442) succeeded to the
Persian throne in 421 : repulsed an invasion
of the Turks, and extracted favourable
terms of peace from Rome, with whom he
had been at war.
Bairdt, Karl Friedrich (*. 1741, d. 1792),
a (jerman professor and free-thinker, held
several professorial chairs, but he had to
abandon them on account of his extreme
opinions and irregular life. His works being
condemned in Germany, he went to Prussia,
where he suffered a year's imprisonment.
Baiardi, Ottavio Antoine (b. 1690, d.
176o), an Italian priest, who, by command
of Charles III. of Naples, undertook in
1714 the record of the Herculaneum dis-
coveries.
Baiadur, Abulghazi (b. 1605, d. 1663), a
Tartar Khan, and the compiler of a genea-
logical history of the Tartars.
Baier, Johann Jakob (*. 1677, d. 1735), a
German physician and naturalist, was
professor of surgery and physiology at
Aitdorf, and president of the imperial
academy of natural history.
Baif, Jean Antoine (b. 1532, d. 1589),
French scholar and musician, and founder
cf the academy of poetry and music.
BaiMe, William Balfour (b. 1825, d.
, doctor and explorer; after serving in
the navy, he was appointed surgeon and
naturalist to the Ni;.n-r expedition <>f 1854.
The command devolved upon him, by
it, and he led the expedition 250 miles
higher than had ever before been reached.
In 1857 he led another expedition, when
he was wrecked, and deserted up-river ;
whereupon he founded and governed a
native settlement.
Bail, Charles Joseph (b. 1777, d. 1827), a
French writer and soldier ; in 1807 he was
commissioned by Napoleon with the organ-
isation of Westphalia as a model state on
revolutionary principles, and afterwards he
became inspector of reviews. He edited
the Correspondence of Bernadotte with
A'apofeon, and wrote' on historical and
political subjects.
Bailey, Jacob Whitman (b. 1811, d. 1857),
an American scientist, became in 1838
professor of chemistry, mineralogy, and
geology at West Point.
Bailey, Nathan (d. 1742), an English
lexicographer, whose dictionary was the
standard work before Johnson's.
Bailey, Philip James (b. 1816), an English
poet, whose fame rests mainly on one work,
Festw*, a poem which attracted the greatest
attention and the highest praise.
Bailey, Samuel (b. 1787, d. 1870), an
English philosopher, whose chief works are
The Formation and Publication of Opinions,
The Pursuit of Truth and the Progress of
Knowledge, and The Theory of Reasoning.
Baillarger, Jules Gabriel Francois (b.
1806), an eminent French physician; in
1842 he gained the Academy of Medicine
prize for the best essay on mental disease, and
helped to institute the Medico- Physical
Annals of the Jfervous System.
Baillet, Adrien (b. 1649, d. 1706), a French
writer of great erudition, and author
of Les Jugements des Savam. He took
orders, and afterwards became librarian to
M. Lamoignon.
Baillie, Grisell, Lady (b. 1665, d. 1746),
the daughter of Sir Patrick Hume, who
was concerned in the Rye House Plot,
bravely tended her father while he was in
hiding, and behaved with the greatest de-
votion while the family was in exile in
Holland. After the revolution her father
was created Earl of Marchmont, and she
married George Baillie, a fellow exile and
Scot. She died in Scotland.
Baillie, Joanna (b. 1762, d. 1851), a
dramatic writer, greatly esteemed in her
own day, born in Scotland, came to London
as a young woman, and having written
Bai
(89)
Bai
poems anonymously, she published in 1798
the first series of Plays of the Passions,
aud the second in 1802. One of these
plays John Kemble produced at Drury
Lane. Other dramas followed, of which
The Family Legend was the most popu-
lar, and was produced with success in
Edinburgh and London. Besides her many
tragedies and comedies, Miss Baillie wrote
numerous songs, and a series of Metrical
Legends. Her works were highly praised
by Sir Walter Scott, with whose friendship
ahe was honoured.
Baillie, John (b. 1772, d. 1833), a dis-
tinguished servant of the East India Com-
pany, and professor of Persian, Arabic, and
Mahometan law at Fort William. After
filling various posts of honour, he returned
to England in 1815, entered Parliament,
and became a director of the Company.
Baillie, Matthew (6. 1761, d. 1823), an
eminent physician, brother of Joanna Bail-
lie, and nephew of the great Dr. Hunter,
with whom he lived and whose heir he
became. He was appointed physician to
George III., but refused a baronetcy. He
was physician to St. George's Hospital and
president of the Royal College of Physicians.
Baillie, Robert (b. 1602, d. 1662), a
Scottish divine, and principal of Glasgow
University, took orders as an Episco-
palian but joined the Presbyterians when
Charles attempted to force Laud's prayer-
book on the Scottish Church. He was one
of the Commissioners sent to negotiate with
Charles in 1640. In 1642 he was one of the
representatives of the General Assembly of
Scotland at the Conference with the West-
minster Assembly of divines ; and when
Charles II. was in Holland he was sent to
negotiate with him on behalf of the Scottish
people.
Baillie, Robert (d. 1683), a Scottish gentle-
man who suffered much persecution for
holding the Presbyterian faith, and who
•was finally summarily executed for alleged
participation in the Rye House Plot.
Baillon, Emmanuel (d. 1802), French
ornithologist, botanist, and writer.
Baillon, Ernest Henri (b. 1827), a French
physician and naturalist, in 1864 became
professor of medical natural history to the
Faculty of Paris, and later, professor of
hygiene to the central school of art and
manufactures.
Baillot, Pierre Marie Franpois de Sales
(6. 1771, d. 1842), a French violinist, a
favourite pupil of Viotti, in 1795 became
professor of the violin at the Conservatoire
at Paris, and later visited Russia, Belgium,
Holland, and England.
Baillou, Guillaume de (b. 1538, d. 1616),
a French physician, distinguished alike for
his valuable contributions to medical science,
and for his high character. He was elected
Dean of the Faculty iu 1580, and in 1601 was
appointed by Henry IV. tirst physician to
the Dauphin.
Bailly, Francis (b. 1774, d. 1844), an emi-
nent astronomer, at first a stockbroker, pub-
lished some valuable and authoritative works
on commercial questions. His spare time
was devoted to astronomy, and in 1811 he
read before the Royal Society a paper on
Solar Eclipse which gained for him a high
reputation. In 1813 he published his Epitome
of Universal History, and in 1814 he under-
took for the Stock Exchange the preparation
of evidence on the Berenger frauds. In 1820,
by his exertions, the Royal Astronomical
Society was founded, and of this he ulti-
mately became president. In 1825 he gave
up business and devoted himself entirely to
astronomy, publishing many valuable works.
He was made an honorary D.C.L. of Oxford
and LL.D. of Dublin.
Bailly, Jean Sylvain (b. 1736, d. 1793), a
French scientist, early devoted himself to
the study of astronomy, and between 1763
and 1771 gained a reputation by the publi-
cation of several able memoirs. His History
of Astronomy (1779) procured for him the
almost unique honour of membership of the
Academie Franchise and the Academie des
Inscriptions, as well as the Academie des
Sciences. When the revolution broke out he
became president of the National Assembly,
and in 1791 mayor of Paris. In this position
he drew on himself the disfavour of the
mob, and having left Paris he was brought
back and guillotined.
Bailly de Juilly, Edme Louis Barthelemy
(b. 1760, d. 1819), French revolutionist
and secretary of the National Convention.
He opposed the execution of the king.
Bailly de Monthion, Fran9ois-Gedeon,
Count (b. 1776, d. 1846), a French
general who served through the campaigns
of the first republic and of Napoleon. In
18'-;5 he was made inspector-general of
infantry, and in 1837 he was raised to the
peerage.
Baily, Edward Hodges (b. 1788, d. 1867),
an English sculptor and R.A. His great
work, Eve at the Fountain, was produced
when he was only twenty -five.
Bain, Alexander (b. 1818), a prolific
writer on moral and mental philosophy,
logic, and psychology, after occupying
chairs at the universities of Glasgow,
London, and Aberdeen, was elected rector
of the latter university. He has written
and edited many standard text-books, his
Bai
(90-)
Baj
chief works being The Senxes and the In-
ttliect, and The Lniotions and the Will.
Bainbridge, Christopher (d. 1514), on
English churchman, created Archbishop of
York in 1508 by Henry VII., was made
Cardinal in 1511, and died in Rome while on
a mission from Henry VIII.
Bainbridge, John (b. 1582, d. 1643),
English astronomer and physician ; his
observations of the comet of 1618 obtained
for him the newly founded chair of astro-
nomy at Oxford.
Bainbridge, William (b. 1774, d. 1833),
an American naval officer, who, during the
war with Tripoli in 1SU3, was taken prisoner,
and who captured the British frigate Java
in 1812.
Baines, Edward (b. 1774, d. 1848),
journalist arid politician, from the position
of printer on the Leeds Mercury he became
the proprietor of the paper, through which
he exerted a wide influence. A Liberal and
a dissenter, he was returned for Leeds in
1834, and retired in 1841.
Baines, Sir Edward (b. 1809, d. 1890),
second son of the preceding, was associated
•with the Leeds Mercuru, and member
for Leeds from 1S59 to '1874. He inter-
ested himself greatly in popular education
and the temperance cause : was president
and founder of the Yorkshire Union of
Mechanics Institutes, and wrote several
books on industrial subjects.
Bainl, Giuseppe (b. 1776, d. 1844), an
Italian priest, musician, and critic ; his chief
work is the Historical and Critical Memoir
of the Life and Works of Palesirina.
Bairakdar, Mustapha, Pacha (b. 1755, d.
1808), a Turkish private soldier, who was
created Pacha of Eustchuk after the
Russian war of 1806 : and when Selim III.
was deposed in 1808 by the revolted Janis-
saries he marched on Constantinople, de-
feated the rebels, and placed Selim' s brother
on the throne. He was made grand- vizier ;
but in a subsequent revolt of the Janissaries
he blew up his palace in despair.
Baird, Sir David (b. 1757, d. 1829), a
brave and able officer, served with much
distinction in India, and received the
thanks of Parliament for his conduct at the
siege of Seringapatam, where he led the
storming party. In 1801 he commanded
the Indian forces invading Egypt, and
accomplished a splendid march across the
desert. Next year he served in the Mah-
ratta war, and in 1806 he commanded the
expedition to Cape Colony, defeating the
Dutch and taking Cape Town. He fought
in the Danish war, and afterwards joined
Sir John Moore in Spain. He lost an arm
at Corunna, and on returning to England
again received the thanks of Parliament
together with a baronetcy.
Baird. Spencer Fullerton (b. 1823, d. 1887),
an American naturalist, in 1850 became
assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tute at Washington, and secretary in 1878,
as well as director of the National Museum.
He wrote some valuable works on natural
history, and in 1871 was appointed Com-
missioner of Fish and Fisheries to examine
into the failure of the U.S. fisheries.
Baird, William (b. 1803, d. 1872), a zoo-
logist and physician, after practising in
London was appointed to the Natural His-
tory department of the British Museum,
and published The Natural History of tht
British Entomostraca, and a Cyclopcedia of
the Natural Sciences.
Baireuth, Frederica Sophia Wilhelmina,
Margravine of (b. 1709, d. 1758), sister of
Frederick the Great, and an unusually gifted
woman. She married the Prince of Baireuth
in 1731.
Baius, Michel (b. 1513, d. 1589), a Dutch
divine, and follower of Augustine, whose
bold declarations on the questions of free-
will and divine grace drew upon him con-
demnatory bulls, first from Pius V. and
afterwards from Gregory XIII. On both
occasions he retracted his objectionable
opinions.
Bajardo, Giovanni Battista (b. 1620, d.
1657), an Italian painter of religious and
historical subjects, whose great promise
was disappointed by an early death.
Bajazet I. (b. 1347, d. 1403), Emperor ol
the Turks, son of Murad I., whom he
succeeded in 1389, began his reign with
a series of conquests, crossing the Danube
and finaDy defeating Sigismund of Hungary
and his army of 100,000 men. Ill health
alone prevented him crossing the Alps, and
he next turned to the conquest of Constanti-
nople. Bought off for the moment, he waa
diverted from the ultimate accomplishment
of his design by war with Tamburlaine the
Great, by whom, in 1402, he was totally de-
feated and taken prisoner, dying shortly
afterwards.
Bajazet II. (b. 1447, d. 1512), Sultan of the
Turks, son of Mahomet II., whom he
succeeded in 1481, extended his dominions
to the Danube and the Dnieper ; was
defeated in Syria by Caid Bey ; but was
successful in a war against the Venetians.
He was forced to abdicate in 1512 by his
son Selim, and died soon afterwards.
Baj ee Rao, Bullal (d. 1740), second
Peshwa of the Mahratta State, made
Baj
(91)
Sal
war against the decaying Mogul empire,
and led a victorious army to the gates of
Delhi, securing the cession of several pro-
vinces. He died soon after he had failed in
an attempt to conquer the Deccan.
Bajee Rao, Phasalkur (d. 1660), a Mah-
ratta, distinguished for having, together
with YessjeeKunk and Tannajee Maloosray,
joined Sivajee in his revolt against the
Mogul empire under Aurungzebe. He was
killed in battle.
Bajee Rao, Eughonath IX. (b. 1775, d.
1853), last Peshwa of the Mahrattas,
succeeded to the title in 1796. His reign
was full of intrigue and revolt, and finafly
he was driven from Poona by the chiefs
Holkar and Sindia. Having made a treaty
with the governor of Bombay, he was re-
stored by British arms ; and then entered
upon treacherous schemes for throwing off
his dependence on the English. He was
defeated in 1817, and having surrendered,
was allowed a pension for the rest of his life.
Bajza, Anthon (b. 1804, d. 1858),
Hungarian man of letters, wrote several
works aud some poems, and in 1848 was
placed by Kossuth in the editorial chair of
the Kossuth Hirlapja.
Bakacs, Thomas (d. 1521), a Hungarian
ecclesiastic of humble birth, who succeeded
in becoming first, Archbishop of Gian, and
afterwards cardinal. He owed his advance-
ment to the favour of King Mathias and his
successor, Vladislas.
Baker, David (6. 1575, d. 1641), a native
of Abergavenny, who joined the order of
Benedictines, and collected much infor-
mation connected with church history.
Baker, George (d. 1851), an English
antiquary and author of the History and
Antiquities of Northamptonshire.
Baker, Sir George (b. 1722, d. 1809), phy-
sician to Queen Charlotte and to George
111. , and President of the College of Physi-
cians, 1797. He was a friend of Dr.
Johnson, and an esteemed author.
Baker, Henry (b. 1698, d. 1774), man
of science and of letters, interested him-
self in the education of deaf-mutes, and
wrote both poems and scientific treatises.
Baker, Sir Henry Lorraine (b. 1787,
d. 1859), a distinguished naval officer,
behaved with great gallantry at the bom-
bardment of Flushing (1809), in the Danish
war (1811), and in the American war (1814).
Baker, John (b. 1660, d. 1716), a naval
officer who distinguished himself chiefly at
the Capture of Vigo (1702) and of Gibraltar
(1704).
Baker, Sir John (d. 1558), Speaker of the
House of Commons, Chancellor of the
Exchequer to Henry VIII., and one of the
trustees for Edward VI.
Baker, John Gilbert (b. 1854), an emi-
nent botanist and writer, curator of the
Herbarium at Kew.
Baker, Sir Eichard (b. 1568, d. 1644),
grandson of preceding, knighted by James
I., was imprisoned in the Fleet for debt,
and never regained his liberty. While in
prison he wrote Chronicles of the Kings of
England, and other works.
Baker, Sir Samuel White (b. 1821), an
African explorer, whose first important ven-
ture occurred in 1861, when, accompanied
by his wife, he started to meet Speke and
Grant. During this perilous journey the
Albert Nyanza was discovered, and he was
knighted on his return. In 1869 he was en-
trusted by the Khedive with the command
of an expedition to suppress the slave trade
in the Nile basin. He is the author of
various books of travel.
Baker, Thomas (b. 1625, d. 1690), an
English clergyman and mathematician;
author of The Geometrical Key.
Baker, Thomas (b. 1656, d. 1740), an
archaeologist and clergyman, who lost his
living and a fellowship in the religious
persecution of the reign of James II. He
wrote much, his Reflections on Learning
obtaining great popularity.
Baker, Valentine, Colonel and Pasha
(b. 1831, d. 1887), a brilliant cavalry officer,
a brother of Sir Samuel, served in the
Kaffir and Crimean wars, but in 1875,
having been compelled to leave the British
army, he took service with the Sultan of
Turkey and distinguished himself in the
Eusso -Turkish war. In 1882 he took com-
mand of the Egyptian gendarmerie, and
fought at both battles of El-Teb against
the Mahdists.
Balaam, a prophet, the son of Beor,
dwelling at Pethpr, was sent for by Balak,
King of the Moabites, to curse the Israelites,
on their journey to the promised land. Con-
senting, he was met on his way by the angel
of the Lord, who made his ass speak words
of rebuke; and thrice Balaam's attempts to
curse were converted into blessings. He
was killed in a battle between the Midianitea
and Israelites.
Balard, Antoine Jerome (b. 1802, d.
1876), French chemist, the discoverer of
bromine, was professor of chemistry in the
College of France.
Balard, Marie Franqoise Jacquette Alby
(b. 1776, d. 1822), a minor French poetess,
popular in her day.
Bal
(92)
Bal
Balasac, Francois de Brauoud, Baron de
(d. 15;'-), a Huguenot, who fought in
the Prince of Condi, and who was sen-
tenced to death after the treaty of peace of
i . He escaped, however. and served
afterwards with Heury oi Navarre.
Balbi, Adrian (b. 1782, d. 18-lS), a Vene-
tian ethnologist aud geographer, whose
chief work is Ms J^t/iHului/i>
Balbi, Gaspard, a Venetian traveller of
the lt>th century, who sailed round the
Indian penin-ni:i. reaching the kingdom of
i i. He wr<>Te an account of his travels.
Balbinus, Aloysins Bolcolas (b. 1611, d.
!'>>;•<. a Bohemian Jesuit, who wrote many
authoritative works on, the history and
archaeology of his country.
Balbinus, Decimus Celius, a Roman
consul, who was created co- emperor with
Marcus Clodius Maximus in A.D. 238.
Four months later both were murdered by
the revolted soldiery.
Balbo, Caesare (*. 1789. d. 1853). an
Italian litterateur and politician, who served
under Napoleon till his fail, when he re-
turned to Piedmont. His History oj Ital'y
is the chief of many works.
Balboa, Vasco Xunezde (b. 1475, d. 1517),
the discoverer of the Pacific, went from
Spain to St. Domingo with Hodrigo de Bas-
tidas, and thence, to escape his creditors, to
Ian with Enciso in 1510. Deposing En-
eiso, he ruled the colony for some years with
great ability, and then, instigated by na-
tive stories of the wealth of Peru, he crossed
the Isthmus of Panama in 1513, discovering
the Pacific Ocean. Returning to Darien in
1514, he was superseded by Pedrariaz
Davila, who displayed the greatest enmity
to him, and although the great explorer
married his daughter, Pedrariaz executed
him three years later on an old charge.
Balbuena, Barnardo de (*. 1568, d. 1627),
a Spanish poet, who lived many years in
Jamaica as a priest, and afterwards in
Mexico as Bishop of Puerto Rico.
Balbus, Cornelius, a Spaniard, living in
the first century B.C. He was made civis
Romanus by Pompey, afterwards joined
Caesar, and finally, by the favour of Octa-
vius/ was appointed to the highest offices.
Balchen, Sir John (b. 1669, d. 1744), a
British admiral, was taken prisoner in an
encounter with the French fleet in 1707,
served ^in the Spanish war, and in 1744,
while in command of a fleet against the
French, his ship foundered on the Caskets
off Alderney.
Baldasseronl, Pompeo (d. 1807), an
Italian jurist, who wrote several authorita-
, tive works on law, iilied several judicial
offices, and attained the rank of count.
Balde, Jakob (h. 1603, d. IMS), a German
Jesuit, a popular preacher and an accom-
plished writer of Latin verses.
Ealderic (d. 1130), a French monk, noted
as a poet and historian. As Abbot of
Bourgueil and Bishop of Dol, he endea-
voured to reform monastic lif e.
Baldl, Bernardino (b. 1553, d. 1617), an
Italian monk of great erudition, at the
age of twenty-six was widely versed in
literature and the sciences, and before he
died had perfect command of twelve lan-
guages. He was a voluminous writer.
Baldi, Lazaro (b. 1623, d. 1703), an
Italian, painter and distinguished colourist.
He painted the gallery of Monte Cavallo.
Baldinger, Ernst Gottfried (b. 1738, d.
Ib04), a German physician, and the author
of eighty-four works, served as physician
in the Prussian army through the Seven
Years' war, and later occupied professorial
chairs, finally undertaking the organisation
of the university of Marburg.
Baldinl, Giovanni Antonio, H Conte
(b. 1654, d. 1725), an Italian nobleman and
diplomatist of erudition, travelled through
western Europe, and was elected F.R.S. in
England.
Baldock, Ralph de (d. 1313), an English
priest of humble birth, who became Bishop
of London and Chancellor to Edward L
He was renowned for his learning.
Balducci, Francesco (d. 1642), an Italian
anacreontic poet, who, in the course of
a changeful life, was both soldier and
priest.
Baldwin, Thomas (d. 1191), an English
monk who was made Archbishop of Canter-
bury in 1184. He crowned Eichard L,
preached the Crusade through Wales, and
accompanied Richard to the Holy Land.
Baldwin, "William, a scholar, printer,
and poet of the sixteenth century, who is
associated with the writing and publication
of The Mirrourfor Magistrates.
Baldwin I., Bras de Fer, Count of Flan-
ders (b. 837, d. 879); he fought against
Charles the Bald in his war with Lothaire,
but becoming reconciled to him, married
his daughter, and was made first Count of
Flanders.
Baldwin IV. (d. 1067). He extended the
Flemish dominions, gave his daughter Ma-
tilda in marriage to William the Conqueror,
and accompanied him in his invasion of
England.
Bal
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Bal
Baldwin I. (b. 1171, d. 1205), Emperor
of Constantinople and hereditary Count
of Flanders, joined in the fourth Crusade,
and when Constantinople was taken he was
proclaimed king. The Greeks, aided by
John, King of the Bulgarians, overthrew
him at Adrianople, and he died in
prison.
Baldwin II., nephew of the preceding,
succeeded his brother in 1228. Under him
Constantinople was twice besieged, and
-finally taken by Michael Palaeologus, and
Baldwin fled to Italy (12(51).
Baldwin I. (b. 1058, d. 1118), protector of
the Holy Sepulchre, and King of Jerusalem
in 1100, was driven from his throne in
1102 by the Saracens, but regained it and
added to his dominions,
Baldwin IL (d. 1131), cousin and suc-
cessor of the preceding, was taken prisoner
by the Saracens (11^4), but regained his
liberty after two years, and succeeded in
conquering a large part of Syria. Abdi-
cated in 1131.
Baldwin IIL (b. 1130, d. 1162), son of
Foulgues of Anjou, succeeded the preceding
in 1143, and died at Tripoli.
Baldwin IV. (b. 1160, d. 1185), surnamed
" the Leper. " After varying fortunes in the
struggle against the Saracens, he was com-
pelled, by advancing disease, to delegate the
control of his dominions to Guy deLusignan,
and the subsequent victories of his enemies
drove him to seek aid from the Western
powers.
Baldwin V. (d. 1185), nephew and suc-
cessor of the preceding, after a short reign
of seven months dii :.•!, as is supposed, by
poison, administered by his mother, who
wished to obtain the throne for her husband,
Guy de Lusignan.
Bale, John (b. 1495, d. 1563), Bishop of
Ossory, a writer, and an active convert to
the Reformation. In the reigns of Henry
VIII. and Mary he fled to the Continent,
but he occupied positions in the Church
under Edward VI. and Elizabeth. He
wrote 19 miracle-plays and a book of Bri-
tish biography.
Balechon, Jean Jacques Nicolas (b. 1715,
d. 1765), a French engraver of note, who
engraved the portrait of Augustus, King of
Poland, for the Dresden Gallery.
Balen, Hcndrik van (b. 1560, d. 1632), a
Dutch historical painter, who excelled in
depicting the nude.
Balfe, Michael William (b. 1808, d. 1870),
musical composer, as a boy showed great
musical talent, and at the age of 16, coming
to London, he was engaged in the Drury
Lane orchestra. While there he attracted
the attention of an Italian nobleman, Count
Mazzara, who took him to Italy to study
music. After singing at Paris in the Italian
Opera under Rossini, Balfe returned to
Italy and produced in 1830 several operas.
In 1835 he came to England as a vocalist
and composer of opera, and after five years
of successful composition he produced two
operas in Paris. In 1844 his most popular
work, Tlie Bohemian Girl, appeared at
Drury Lane, to be followed by several other
operas before the fertility of Balfe' s genius
was checked by a fatal attack of bronchitis.
Balfour, Arthur James (b. 1848),
statesman, educated at Eton and Cam-
bridge, was elected for Hertford in 1874,
and as private secretary to. Lord Salis-
bury accompanied him to Berlin in 1878.
In 1880 he was prominent as one of
the four members of Lord R. Churchill's
"Fourth Party," and in 1885 became presi-
dent of the Local Government Board in
Lord Salisbury's administration. In the
general election of 18S5 he was returned
for East Manchester, which constituency he
still represents, and in 1S86 succeeded Sir
Michael Hicks-Beach as Chief Secretary for
Ireland. He is the author of A Defence of
Philosophic Doubt.
Balfour, Francis Maitland (b. 1851, d.
1882), brother of the preceding and an
eminent embryologist, educated at Harrow
and Cambridge, after studying at the Zoo-
logical station at Naples soon gained a
reputation for the originality of his research.
He was elected a fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge, and an F.R.S. in 1878. In 1880
he was made an LL.D. of Glasgow, and in
1881 a special chair of animal morphology
was created for him at Cambridge. He had
written several important works on com-
parative embryology when he lost his life
while engaged in Alpine climbing.
Balfour, James (b. 1703, d. 1795), a
Scottish j urist and professor, wrote in refu-
tation of Hume's doctrines.
Balfour, Sir James (d. 1583), a Scottish
jurist and churchman, who took an active
part in the political intrigues of Queen
Mary's reign. He was made President of
Sessions by Mary, whom he betrayed, and
was concerned in the murder of Daruley.
Balfour, John Hutton (b. 1808, d. 1884),
physician and botanist, was professor of
botany at Glasgow and afterward at Edin-
burgh University, and was queen's botanist
for Scotland. For thirty years he was dean
of the medical faculty of Edinburgh Uni-
versity. He left many works.
Eal
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Ba!g~uy, John (b. 1686, d. 1748), an
English cloi-yi .;iii aud controv.T-
took part ia i orianc ;d
was the uuthi-r r fc/ </ V
FvuniLitf : Mural Lf witness, and ^//»
•y t/w 7.< ".
Balgry. Th..in;is (//. 1716, :/. 17'.''>\ son of
the pix. L'ili:i;_r, Archdeacon of Winchest< .
and author oi !><r>ne litrnevuicncf Asserted
an I 1't)iiiic'it>.-! t'r »i the ILfjlcctwns of
Ancient and J/< <:', rn Skeptics.
Baliol, John (b. circa 1259, d. 131-Vi, King
of So itl-ind. OnthedeathofQueenMargaret,
Baliol and Robert Bruce, the chief sits
to the succession, invited Edward I. TO decide
between them, and Edward favoured Laliol,
who swore fealty to him on taking the
crown in 12',. .'2. During the French war of
1295 Baliol renounced his fealty to Edward,
who thereupon invaded Scotland and com-
pelled him to submission. After being a
prisoner in London for three years, he was
allowed to go to Normandy, \\here he died.
Baliol, Edward (d. 1363), son of the pre-
ceding, on the death of Robert Bruce
invaded Scotland in 1332, and after defeat-
ing the Regent Mar he was crowned at
Scone. Shortly afterward he swore fealty to
Edward III. and made over to him Berwick,
for which act he was driven from Scotland
by the revolted nobles. Twice he was re-
instated by an invading English army, and
twice again he was compelled to fly. At
last he sold his claim to the throne to
Edward III. for a pension and a sum down.
Ball, Sir Alexander John (b. 1757, d. 1809),
a British admiral, who served under Nelson
in 1798, fought at the battle of the Nile, and
in 1800 commanded the expedition for the
recovery of Malta, of which island he was
made governor.
Ball. John (b. 1818, d. 1889), a well-known
naturalist and Alpine climber. He was the
author of The Alpine Guide, and other
works of scientific interest, including the
account of his visit to the Atlas Mountains.
In 1857 he was M.P. for Carlow, and Under-
secretary of State for the Colonies.
Ball, John Thomas (b. 1815), an Irish
lawyer, was returned for Dublin Uni-
versity in 1868, and after becoming suc-
cessively Solicitor and Attorney-General
for Ireland, occupied the office of Lord
Chancellor of Ireland from 1875 to 1880.
Ball, Robert (b. 1802, d. 1857). an Irish
scientist, secretary of the Royal Zoological
and president of the Royal Geological
Societies for Ireland, and afterwards direc-
tor of Dublin University museum.
Ball, Sir Robert Stawell (b. 1840), the
Astronomer Royal of Ireland, to which post
he was appointed in 1JS74. His popular
works on . a ix- much esteemed.
Ballajee Bay* P.ao (</. 17('<1). third
of rh>' M ttas. suri.-et uing his
l';ilh a!, 17-1(1. ill :i..llli(.-d
to administrative reform, and on
,;th of the Ivajah t>hao obtained
supreme power. In 1759 he defeated Nizam
Ali, acquiring several provinces, and after -
is inarched into the Punjab. Here his
: • ncountered an Afghan army, and
ait'-r some fighting they sustained a terrible
defeat, Ballajee dying soon after of grief.
Ballajee Jenardiiun (d. 1800), better
known as Nana Furnavees, a famous
Maliratta statesman. On the death of
Peshwa Mahdoo Rao, Naua became guar-
dian of his infant son. In 1782, after a war
with the English, he was obliged to consent
to the treaty of Salbye. The turbulence of
Mahratta chiefs, and the aggression of Tippoo,
Sultan of Mysore, compelled him to con-
clude an alliance with the British and the
Nizam of Hyderabad. When Tippoo had
been subdued the Nizam refused his tribute
to the Mahrattas, by whom he was decisively
defeated. After nearly thirty years of rule,
the young Peshwa having died, Naua was
imprisoned by Bajee Rao Raghonath, though
restored in later years.
Ballajee Wishwanatb. (d. 1721), the
first Peshwa of the Mahrattas, was an able
administrator, and effected many valuable
reforms of internal government.
Ballanche, Pierre Simon (b. 1776, d. 1847),
a French writer of note on social questions,
both in prose and verse.
Baliantina, William (b. 1812, d. 1887), a
distinguished barrister. In 1S5G he was
made serjeant-at-law ; he was counsel
for the Claimant in the Tichborne case,
and for the Gae*kwar of Baroda in 1875.
He wrote several popular volumes of his
experiences.
BaUantyne, James (b. 1772, d. 1833), the
printer of Sir Walter Scott's works, was
involved in the bankruptcy of Constable
and Co. He survived Scott for only a few
months.
BaUantyne, James Robert (d. 1864), a
distinguished Orientalist, and principal of
the Benares College. He translated works of
Hindoo philosophy into English, published
Sanscrit versions of English scientific works,
and compiled grammars of several oriental
languages. In 1861 he was appointed
librarian to the India Office.
BaUantyne, Thomas (b. 1806, d. 1871), a
well-known journalist, who, after much
experience in the North, came to London,
and founded the Statesman and other papers.
Bal
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Bal
He \vaa intimate with Carlyle and Lord
Palmerston.
Ballesteros, Francisco (*. 1770, d. 1832),
a Spanish general, who held high command
against the French invaders. In 1815
Ferdinand appointed him minister of war,
but he was soon dismissed ; and in 1820 he
was commissioned with the refraining of
the constitution. On the French invasion of
1823 he commanded the Spanish army, but
capitulated at once, for which act he was
banished for lif e.
guard of the Turkish Sultan Ahmed HI.,
! who rose to the grand -viziersliip. When
in 1711 Peter the Great was intending an
invasion of Turkey, Baltadji crossed the
; Danube and the Pruth and surrounded the
I Eussian encampment. He was bribed to
\ consent to a treaty, and for this he was
| banished by the Sultan.
Baltard, Louis Pierre (b. 1765, d. 1846),
a French landscape painter, architect and
engraver, designed the Lyons Palais de
Justice.
Ballia, Claude (b. 1615, d. 1678), a famous ; Balt-ard, Victor (b. 1805, d. 1874), an
worker in precious metals, who was j architect and engraver. He was appointed
patronised by Cardinal Richelieu and | government architect, and conducted the
Louis XIV. | restorations of St. Severin and St. Eustache.
Balloba, Tattya (d. 1800), the principal
Brahmin minister of the Mahratta chief
Doulat Rao Sciiidia, and the great rival of
Ballajee Jenardhun, by whom he was im-
prisoned. He endeavoured to establish a
peshwa in the interest of Scindia, who
rewarded his efforts with imprisonment.
Ballou, Hosea (b. 1771, d.
1852),
an
American preacher, and founder of the
"Universalists." He attained considerable
celebrity in the United States.
Balmez, James Lucian (b. 1810, d. 1848),
a Spanish writer of repute. He exerted a
great influence as a journalist in Madrid for
many years, endeavouring to strengthen the
Church and the throne. He wrote Pro-
testantism and Catholicism as compared in
their Effects on the Civilisation of Europe.
Balnaves, Henry (b. 1520, d. 1579), a
Scottish jurist and an earnest advocate of
the Reformation. He was imprisoned for
his Protestantism, and after the murder of
Cardinal Beaton in 1546, Balnaves and other
reformers were imprisoned at Rouen, where
he wrote The Confession of Faith. He re-
turned to Scotland in 1554, and after the
adoption of the Reformation he held several
high positions.
Balogh, Janos (b. 1800), a Hungarian
patriot, who as a member of the Diet
staunchly supported the national cause.
He took part in the revolution, and after
its failure ned to Turkey.
Balsamo, Joseph. [See Cagliostro.]
Balsamo, Theodoras (d. 1204), a prolific
and authoritative writer on canon law, who
was a native of Constantinople, and who
was made Patriarch of Antioch.
Ealsham, Hugh de (d. 1286), a Benedic-
tine monk, afterwards Bishop of Ely, who
founded Peter House College, at Cam-
bridge.
Baltadji Mehemet Pacha (d. 1712), a
Balten, Pieter(6. 1540, d. 1611), a Belgian
landscape painter of great repute, and
member of the academy of Antwerp.
Baltimore, George Calvert, Lord (b.
circa 15SO, d. 1032), was knighted by
James I., was made a secretary of state,
entered Parliament, and, although a Roman.
Catholic, was created a peer of Ireland.
After vainly endeavouring to found settle-
ments in Newfoundland and Virginia, he
succeeded in establishing the colony of
Maryland.
Baltimore, Cecil Calvert, Lord (d. 1676),
son of the preceding, continued the colon-
ising work of his father, and founded
Baltimore.
Baltzar, Thomas (b. 1630, d. 1663), a
famous German violinist, who came to
England in 1656 and was made director of
the private concerts of Charles I.
Balue, Jean (b. 1421, d. 1491), a French
ecclesiastic. He early obtained the favour
of Louis XL, and by systematic treachery
and intrigue was made Cardinal in 1467.
He even betrayed the king's secrets to
Charles the Bold, but he was detected in
this and shut up in an iron cage. He was
released through the influence of Pope
Sixtus IT., who took him into favour and
made him legate to France.
(b. 1630, d. 1718), a
In 1667 he became
Baluze, Etienne
French historian,
librarian to Colbert, and was appointed by
Louis XIV. to a chair in the royal college.
In 1710 he offended the Court by his
History of the House of Auvergne, for which
he was banished till 1813.
Balzac, Honore' de (b. 1799, d. 1850),
French novelist, was intended for the
law, but left the legal profession for
literature, and under various assumed
names produced rapidly. In 1826 he en-
tered into partnership with a printer, but
their publications were not successful ; and
Bal
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Balzac, depending solely upon his pen for a
livelihood, euuurt-d the greatest privations.
He obtained no public recognition till the
appearance of his Physiology du Mannye,
but afterwards he continued to write with
increasing success. In IMS he married a
Russian lady, and after visiting Russia re-
turned to Paris in broken health, and shortly
afterward died. His collected works are
included in forty-five volumes.
Balzac, Jean Louisguez (b. 1594, d. 1654),
a French litterateur of note, who endea-
voured to introduce reforms of style into
the French language. He was patronised
ami pensioned by Richelieu, but provoked
much hostility against himself, and so retired
into private life.
Banifield, Joseph, an Irishman who
fought on the Royalist side in the Civil
war. He succeeded in effecting the escape
of the Duke of York to Holland in 1648.
Baniford, Samuel (b. 1788, d. 1872), a
Manchester poet and politician of the ad-
vanced school. By trade a silk weaver, he
frequently sirffered imprisonment, and was
nearly killed at the Peterloo "massacre."
Late in life he became connected with the
London press.
Bampfylde, Francis, a nonconformist
minister of the 17th century, who detied the
Act of Uniformity, being several times im-
prisoned, and finally dying in Newgate.
Bampton. Rev. John (b. 1689, d. 1751), a
Canon of Salisbury cathedral, who left his
estates for the endowment of divinity
lectures at Oxford.
Bancal des Issarts, Jean Henri (b. 1750,
d. Lv2'j , a French revolutionist, of noted
moderation, and a member of the National
Convention. In 1795 he became secretary of
the Council of the Five Hundred.
Bancroft, Edward (d. 1821), an American
ph\>iciau and writer, who came to England,
and published several works, fictional and
scientific. He was a friend of Franklin, for
whom he wrote considerably.
Bancroft, George (b. 1SOO, d. 1891), an
American historian. As a young man he
travelled and studied much in Europe.
After declining to sit in Congress, he pub-
lished in 1831 his first volume of the His-
tory of the United States. In 1845 he became
secretary of the navy; from 1846-49 he
was American minister at the Court of St.
James's ; and in 1867 he was appointed
minister to Prussia. The last volume of his
history, which is a standard work, appeared
in 1882.
Bancroft, Marie Erne (b. 1846). Marie
Wilton was already a well known and
popular actress when she became the wife
of Mr. S. B. Bancroft. For thirteen years
they leased the old Prince of Wales's theatre,
where they were highly successful in the
production of T. W. Robertson's plays. In
later years they were chirtly seen at the
Huymarket theatre. Mia. Bancroft and
her husband retired from management in
1885, but the latter reappeared in I.YS:- ;.t the
Lyceum in Ti'ie Lead Heart. They have
published an interesting book of reminis-
cences.
Bancroft, Richard (b. 1544, d. 1610), a
distinguished Archbishop of Canterbury. By
the favour of Sir Christopher Hatton, Lord
Burleigh, and Archbishop Whitgift he was
ordained Bishop of London in 1597, and
became a favourite with Elizabeth. James L
created him primate in succession to Whit-
gift.
Bandarra, Gonzalo Annez (d. 1556), a
Portuguese fanatic, and writer of patriotic
songs. From his trade he was known as the
Holy Cobbler. His popularity became so
great that the Inquisition imprisoned him
as a false prophet.
Bandel, Joseph Ernst von (b. 1800, d. 1876),
a German sculptor of high repute. His
Sleeping Mars, Charity, and 2'husuelda, are
among his finest works.
Bandello, Matteo (b. circa 1480, d. circa
1561), Italian novelist. At first a
Dominican monk, he settled in Milan and
wrote most of his stories there. He was
later appointed Bishop of Agen, where he
rewrote much of his work that had been
destroyed by fire at Milan.
Bandenelli, Bartolomeo (b. 1487, d. 1559},
a sculptor of Florence, of the greatest
repute. His genius displayed itself when
he was only nine years old, and he studied
under the best masters. He was also a
clever painter.
Bandiera, Attilio (b. 1810, d. 1844), and
Emilio (b. 1815, d. 1844), Italian patriots.
The two brothers were originally in the
Austrian navy, but left it to aid the cause of
Italian independence. They were in con-
stant correspondence with Mazzini, who has
told the story of their lives. They were taken
prisoners in an abortive rising in Calabria,
and shot.
Bandtke, George Samuel (b. 1768, d.
1835), a Polish man of letters and professor
at the university of Cracow. He wrote on
bibliographical and historical subjects, and
compiled a Polish- German dictionary.
Baner, Johann Gustavson (b. 1595, d.
1641), Swedish general, served with
Gustavus Adolphus in Poland and
Germany, and earned the title of "the
Ban
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Bar
Lion of Sweden." He gained several bril-
liant victories over the Imperial army, but
died at Halberstadt of fatigue.
Banim, John (b. 1798, d. 1842), novelist,
was born in Kilkenny. Most of his
work was written in collaboration with his
brother Michel, the Tales of the O'Hara
Family being their best known production.
Poverty and domestic misfortune greatly
embittered his life; aud when broken
health compelled him to leave England,
public subscriptions were raised for him, and
finally a Civil List pension was granted.
His last work was Father O'Connell.
Banks, Isabella Varley (b. 1821), a popu-
lar novelist, and wife of George Linnaeus
Banks. Her most successful novel is The
Manchester Man, and she is also the author
of several volumes of verse.
Bankes, John, a seventeenth century
dramatist, of contemporary celebrity.
Bankes, Sir John (b. 1589, d. 1644),
an eminent lawyer, entered Parliament
1628, was appointed Attorney- General and
knighted 1634, and made Chief Justice of
Common Pleas 1641. He led the prose-
cution of Hampden, and presided at the
trial of Lord Straff ord. Duriug the Civil
war he warmly espoused the Royalist
cause, for which he was impeached and his
property confiscated.
Banks, Sir Joseph (ft. 1743, d. 1820), a
distinguished naturalist. After making a
botanical exploration of Newfoundland and
Labrador, in 1768 he joined Cook's expedi-
tion as naturalist, together with Solander,
aud visited South America, Australia, and
New Guinea. After his return he went
with Solander to Iceland. In 1777 he was
elected President of the Royal Society, and
in 1781 he was created a baronet.
Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss (b. 1816), an
American politician, and a general of the
Federal army. A prominent figure in the
Massachusetts legislature, he was later
returned to Congress, of which he became
Speaker. During the Civil war he held
command on the Potomac.
Banks, Thomas (b. 1735, d. 1805), a noted
sculptor. A Royal Academy studentship
enabled him to study for seven years in
Home ; and he afterwards went to Russia
on the Empress Catherine's invitation. His
great work was the Mourning Achilles.
Bannaker, Benjamin (6. 1734, d. 1807),
an American negro slave, who, under most
difficult circumstances, acquired a know-
ledge of astronomy profound enough to
enable him to publish intricate calculations.
Bannister, John (b. 1760, d. 1836), an
actor of considerable celebrity, and a pupil
/» ,—t • i * * f f
of Garrick.
Baour-Lorraian, Pierre Marie Francois
Louis (b. 1770, d. 1857), a French poet,
whose first reputation was gained as a
satirist. Later he translated with great
success the poems of Ossiau, and Tasso's
Jerusalem Delivered. His last work was
a translation of the book of Job.
Baptiste, Nicolas (ft. 1761, d. 1835), a
French actor who on the stage of the
Theatre Frati^ais won great popularity
both in tragedy and comedy.
Baragnay D'HiUiers, Achille, Comte de
(b. 1795, d. 1878), French general. He
was present at Borodino and served in
the Waterloo campaign ; in 1841 he fought
in Algiers; in 1848 he commanded the
French army in the Papal States ; and in
1854, commanding the French corps in the
Baltic, he captured Bomarsund, for which
he was created Marshal of France. He pre-
sided over the Commission which inquired
into the conduct of Bazaine.
Baragnay D'Hilliers, Louis (b. 1764,
d. 1812), one of Napoleon's generals,
father of the preceding. He distinguished
himself in Spain and Italy, but in the re-
treat from Moscow his advanced guard was
overpowered, and his command was sus-
pended in consequence. He died soon after.
Baraillon, Jean Francois (b. 1743, d.
1816), a French physician and revolu-
tionist, who belonged to the moderate
section of the National Convention. He
afterwards was secretary of the Council of
Five Hundred and president of the Legis-
lature.
Barante, Amable Guillaume Prosper
(b. 1782, d. 1866), French statesman, his-
torian, and litterateur. After service on
diplomatic missions he held high office
under the restored monarchy, and was
created a peer of France in 1819. He re-
entered public life as an ambassador on
the accession of Louis Philippe, retiring
finally on his sovereign's deposition.
Baratier, Jean Philippe (b. 1721, d.
1740), an extremely precocious German, who
spoke French, German, Latin, Greek, and
Hebrew, when seven years old ; wrote on
ecclesiastical history at ten; and after
studying mathematics, astronomy, and the
law, became a member of the Academy of
Berlin at fourteen. He died from over-
study.
Baratynski Jewg-enij, Abraham (d. 1844),
Russian poet of considerable celebrity, and
author of the Eda.
Barbanegre, Joseph (b. 1772, rf. 1830), a
Ear
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distinguished French general who served
through the Napoleonic campaign! in cen-
tral Europe. After the restoration he
was made Inspector- General.
Barbara, St., Christian martyr of the 3rd
century ; was beheaded by her father.
Barbaro, Francesco (b. 1398, d. 145-1), a
distinguished Venetian who served the re-
public as a statesman and soldier, and was
celebrated as a scholar and orator.
Barbaro, Ermolao (b. 1454, d. 1495),
grandson of the preceding, and a distin-
guished scholar. As professor of philosophy
at Padua he won celebrity. Accepting
an office of dignity from the Pope, he was
banished from Venice.
Barbarossa. [See Frederick I.]
Barbarossa, Urusch and Khaireddin.
The name given to two brothers of liou-
melian extraction, whose naval exploits
against the Christian powers in the Mediter-
ranean were famous in the early sixteenth
century. After gaining possession of Algiers,
Urusch was slain in battle against the
Spaniards, but his brother, enr.vring the
service of the Turkish sultan, defeated the
Spaniards, and afterwards the (Genoese fleet,
ravaged the coasts of Italy, took Tunis,
and in 1538 decisively defeated the com-
bined fleets of the Pope, Venice, and Spain.
His triumphs were only terminated by his
death, in 1546.
Barbaroux, Charles Joseph Ma^-ia (b.
1767, d. 1704), French revolutionist of
Marseilles. He was a deputy in the Con-
vention, and a prominent Girondist. For
opposing the extremists he was guillotined
as a royalist.
Barbauld, Anna Laetitia _(*. 1743, d. 1825),
a popular writer ; the wife of the Rev.
Rochemount Barbauld, who died in an
asylum. She published a volume of poems
in 1773, which attracted much attention,
following it at intervals with various
writings. Finally she settled in London,
and wrote, in conjunction with her brother,
Evenings at Home.
Barbazan, Arnauld Gnilhem, a French
noble of the fifteenth century. He was one
of six knights who fought with six English
knights in 1404, and he afterwards rendered
good service against the Burgundians and
English.
Barbe-Marbois, Francois, Marquis de (b.
1745, d. 1837), a French statesman and
historical writer. He filled several diplo-
matic posts tinder the Crown, but- the
revolutionary tribunal deported him to
Guiana. He was recalled in 1800, and held
several State appointments.
Barbes, Armand (b. 1810). a violent
French revolutionist. After being twice
imprisoned for conspiring against the
monarchy he joined Blanqui's futile in-
surrection of 1839, and was sentenced to
imprisonment for life. After the revolution
of 1848 he again became a leading figure in
politics ; but as he conspired against the
republican government he was again im-
prisoned, only regaining bis liberty in 1854.
Barbie du Bocage, Jean Denis (b. 1760, d.
1825), an eminent French geographer, and
the pupil of D'Anville whose biography he
wrote. In 1809 a special university chair
was created for him.
Barbier, Henri Auguste (*. 1805, d. 1882),
a very successful French satirical poet.
His chief work is lambes, a powerful
poem dealing with the social corruption o*
London and Paris. He also translated
Shakespeare's Julius Ccesar in verse.
Barbieri du Cento, Paolo Antonio (b.
1596, d. 1640), an Italian painter who
excelled in depicting animals, flowers and
fruit.
Barbosa Maciia^o, Diogo (b. 1682, d.
1770), a learned Portuguese monk and
chronicler. He wrote the Bibliotheca
Luxitana, Historica Critica and Chrono-
logica, a work of vast scope and great
authority.
Barbou-Descourieres, Gabriel (b. 1761, d.
1816), French general who commanded the
French armies with much success in the
campaigns at the beginning of the century.
Barbour, John (d. 1395), an early Scottish
poet and chronicler. He wrote The Book
of the Gesta of King Robert Bruce, receiv-
ing a pension from David II. and Robert II.
Barcham, John (6. 1572, d. 1642),
historian, antiquary and clergyman. He
wrote the life of Henry II. and The
Display of Heraldry.
Barclay, Alexander (b. circa 1476, d. 1552),
an English ecclesiastic, scholar, and writer.
He wrote The Castell of Labour and The
Ship of Fools.
Barclay, John (b. 1582, d. 1621), an
English author, though born in France.
He was introduced to James I., to whom
he indited a poem. The Loves of Polyarchus
and Argenis is the work by which he is best
known. He died in Rome.
Barclay, John (b. 1734, d. 1798), a Scottish
divine, and founder of the sect known as
the Bereans or Barclayites. A work on the
Psalms caused his dismissal from the
Scottish Presbyterian body, and he then
settled in Newcastle.
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Barclay, Robert (b. 1648, d. 1690),
the Scottish champion of the Quakers'
creed. He was converted to the Society of
Friends with his father in 1G66, and
preached his new faith through England,
Holland, and Germany. In 1670 he pub-
lished his famous rejoinder to the Rev.
William Mitchell, entitled, Truth chared
of Calumnies, and followed it up with
other controversial pamphlets. His great
work, Theologicce vere Christiana Apo-
logia, appeared in 1678. James II. showed
frim much favour.
Barclay de Tolly, Michel, Prince (b. 1755,
d. 1818), a great Russian general, of an old
Scottish stock, settled in Livonia. He
entered the army at an early age, and
served against the Turks, Swedes and
Poles. In 1809 he crossed the frozen Gulf
of Bothnia with an army, so securing the
discomfiture of the Swedish forces, and he
directed the operations of the Russian army
during the French invasion. Although the
Czar appreciated his genius, he was super-
seded because of his foreign extraction, and
during the rest of his life, which was full of
active service, he was constantly passed by
and neglected.
Bar-Cochebas, the name taken by a
Jew called Lemion, who during the per-
secution of the Jews under Trajan declared
himself to be the Messiah. He obtained a
large following, captured Jerusalem, and
was proclaimed king. Julius Severus over-
threw him A.D. 135.
Bardesanes. a Gnostic philosopher of the
second century and a native of Edessa. He
founded a sect professing his peculiar views,
which he disseminated by means of hymns.
Bardez, Willem, Dutch Calvinist of Am-
sterdam, who in io~8 took a leading part
in the expulsion of the Catholic magistrates
from the city council.
Bardin, Jean (b. 1732, d. 1809), French
historical painter, of humble birth, who
achieved a considerable name, and became
director of the Orleans school of fine arts.
Bardin, Etienne Alexandre, Baron (b. 1774,
d. 1840), son of the preceding. He served
with distinction in the campaigns of Napo-
leon, and wrote several military treatises
whi':h were much valued.
Bardon, Michel Francois D'Andre (b. 1700,
d. 1783), a French painter and engraver,
who wrote several works on painting and
sculpture, and became director of Marseilles
academy.
Barebones; Praise- God, a London leather
dealer, and an active member of the Parlia-
ment which Cromwell summoned after the
dissolution of the Long Parliament.
H2
B o-antin, Charles Louis Franqois de Paule
(If. 17 38, d. 1819), an honoured councillor of
Louis XVI., and his keeper of the seals.
He was denounced by Mirabeau as an
enemy of the people, and left France, re-
turning only at the restoration.
Barsnts (or Barentzoon). Willem (.-f.1597),
the pilot to the three Dutch expeditions of
1594, 1595, and 1596, in search of a northern
route to China. He died on his way home
from the last expedition, having reached
lat. 80° N.
Barentsen, Diederik (b. 1534, d. 1592), a
Dutch painter, and a favourite pupil of
Titian, whose manner he imitated very suc-
cessfully.
Barer e de Vieuzac, Bertrand (b. 1775, d.
1841), a French revolutionary and writer.
He was elected president of the National
Convention, and, adopting extreme views,
he became one of the Committee of Public
Safety. He was banished in 1795, and again
in 1816.
Baretti, Giuseppe (b. 1716, d. 1789), an
Italian author of repute, and the compiler
of an Anglo-Italian dictionary. He came
to England in 1751, and became the close
friend of Dr. Johnson.
Barford, Paul Frederick (b. 1811), a
Danish historian and politician of the " Scan-
dinavian party. ' ' He is the author of several
valuable works.
Barges, Jean Joseph Leandre (b. 1810),
a French orientalist of distinction. He
held several important university chairs,
and took holy orders.
Barham, Richard Harris (b. 1788, d. 1845),
the author of the famous Ingoldsby Le-
yends, which first appeared in Bentky'i
Magazine. He was rector of St. Augustine's
and St. Faith's in London.
Baring1, Alexander. [See Ashburton.]
Baring-, Sir Evelyn (b. 1841), soldier and
diplomatist. After leaving the army, he
became secretary to his cousin, Lord North-
brook, when Viceroy of India. From
1877 to 1879 he was Commissioner of the
Egyptian Public Debt, and was the repre-
sentative of England under the "Dual
Control" in 1879. He then was appointed
financial member of the Indian Council,
returning co Egypt in 1883.
Baring-, Sir Francis (b. 1740, d. 1810), the
founder of the great Baring firm of mer-
chant bankers. A Hanoverian by descent,
he became Chairman of the East India
Companj", and an M.P. He was given a
baronetcy in 1793.
Baring, Sir Francis Thornhill, Lord
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Northbrook (b. 1796, d. 1866), a statesman,
and grandson of the preceding. He entered
Parliament in 1826, neld office under Lord
Melbourne, was Chancellor of the Exche-
quer from 1839 to 18-11, and First Lord of
the Admiralty from 1849 to 1852. He was
maae a peer in 1866.
Baring1, Thomas (b. 1800, d. 1873), brother
of the preceding, merchant and politician.
He entered Parliament in 1835. He was
twice offered the office of chancellor of the
exchequer by Lord Derby.
Baring1 Gould, Sabiue (b. 1834), an En-
glish clergyman and a popular author.
Besides the Lives of the ISniHts, he has
written largely on theological and antiqua-
rian subjects, and latterly has achieved
great success as a novelist.
Barker, Edmund Henry (b. 1788, d. 1839),
an English philologist and lexicographer.
His edition of Stephens' Thesaurus Linyua
Greece is of great value.
Barker, Mary Ann, Lady, a popular
authoress, a native of Jamaica. She has been
twice married, and has spent much time in
the Colonies, her experiences of which have
supplied the matter for most of her works.
Barker, Robert (b. 1739, d. 1806), an Irish
artist, and the originator of panoramas, for
the production of which he forsook por-
traiture.
Barker, Sir Robert (d. 1789), a general
who commanded the Bengal forces of the
East India Company. He is best known for
the treaty he concluded in 1772, between the
Soubadar of Oude and the Rohillas, and
against the Mahrattas.
Barkly, Sir Henry (b. 1815), distin-
guished colonial governor. He entered
Parliament in 1845. In 1849 he was ap-
?ointed Governor of British Guiana ; in
853 of Jamaica ; in 1856 of Victoria ; in
1863 of Mauritius ; and in 1870 of the Cape.
Barkok (b. 1338, d. 1398), a Circassian
slave in Egypt, and the founder of a dynasty.
He was chief mameluke on the death of
Sultan Ali, in 1382, and he secured the
succession for himself.
Barlses, (Gaspard van Baerle) (b. 1584, d.
1648), a Flemish poet, theologian, and phy-
sician. He took holy orders, and filled a
chair in the Leyden university ; but being
interdicted for heresy, he studied medicine,
and obtained a great reputation at the
Amsterdam university. He wrote much in
Latin.
Barlow, Sir George Hilard (b. 1762, d.
1846), an Indian governor of distinction.
He entered the Company's service in 1778,
and was made provisional Governor-general
under Lord Wellesley in 1802, continuing in
the post until he succeeded Lord Cornwall!*
as governor. Displaced by Fox, he accepted
the governorship of Madras.
Barlow, Joel (b. 1775, d. 1812), an Ameri-
can poet. He served in the war of Inde-
pendence both as combatant and chaplain,
writing patriotic songs aud hymns. In 17&7
h ' produced his chief work, The V\x»>n of
( 'nliniibus, and next year he went to
Europe. In 1812 he was appointed minister
at Paris, and while going to meet Napoleon,
then in Russia, he was overtaken with a
fatal illness.
Barlow, Peter (b. 1776, d. 1862), a mathe-
matician of high repute. He filled for some
time the chair of mathematics at Woolwich
Academy, wrote several valuable works on
mathematics, and discovered the means of
correcting eccentricities of the compass. He
was also a good mechanician.
Barlow, Thomas Oldham, R.A. (*. 1824,
d. 18S9), an engraver. He studied in Man-
chester, where he soon obtained a reputa-
tion, and coming to London he engraved
many of Sir J. Millais's pictures.
Barlow, William, an Augustine monk, and
a leading spirit in the Reformation. He was
appointed to several bishoprics by Henry
VIII., but was imprisoned by Mary, and,
escaping, only returned to England on her
death.
Barlow, William (d. 1625), mathematician,
son of the preceding. After having been
a sailor, he took orders, and wrote on
scientific subjects, being the inventor of the
box-compass, and the first Englishman to
treat of the magnet.
Barnabas, a Levite of Cyprus, and an
early Christian convert ; he introduced
Paul to the Church in Jerusalem, and after-
wards undertook several missions with him.
The two quarrelled, and Barnabas went to
Cyprus, the remainder of his career being
unknown.
Barnard, Lady Anne (6. 1750, d. 1825), a
Scottish poetess, and daughter of the Earl
of Balcarres. Her chief claim to fame rests
on the poem Auld Robin Gray.
Barnard, Henry (b. 1811), an American
public man who interested himself in the
public school system and obtained its com-
plete reorganisation.
Barnard, Sir John (b. 1685, d. 1764),^ a
London merchant, who represented the City
in Parliament for forty years, and who
filled the office of Lord- Mayor. To his
action at a critical time in 1745 was due
the safety of the Bank of England.
Barnard, John James (b. 1826, d. 1851),
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naval officer, acted with great gallantry
011 the West Coast of Africa ; in 1848 he
joined Clarke's expedition in search of
Franklin , and he was lieutenant of the
Enterprise on the second expedition, in
which he was killed.
Barnave, Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie
(b. 1761, d. 1793), a distinguished figure of
the French revolution. Sent to the States
General by the province of Dauphine, he
soon acquired a great influence, and became
president of the Constituent Assembly.
Barnave was entrusted with the task of con-
ducting the royal family to Paris after their
flight, and his interview with the king so
modified his opinions that his influence was
lost. After suffering imprisonment he died
by the guillotine.
Barnes, Barnaby, one of the Elizabethan
minor poets, and son of Dr. Barnes, Bishop
of Durham, was a prolific writer of lyrical
verse.
Barnes, Joshua (b. 1654, d. 1712), a great
Greek scholar and an English clergyman.
He was professor of Greek at Cambridge,
edited classics, and wrote considerably.
Barnes, Robert, one of the early promoters
of the Reformation. He was thrown into pri-
son by Wolsey, but subsequently secured the
favour of Henry VIII. He fell into disgrace
for attacking Gardiner, and was burnt at
the stake in 1540.
Barnes, Thomas (b. 1786, d. 1841), editor
of The Times and successor to Dr. Stoddart
in that post. He was at first a reporter ; his
conduct of the paper was very successful.
Barnes, William (b. 1820, d. 1836),
English clergyman of Dorsetshire, a dia-
lect poet. He was also an orientalist, and
an authoritative writer on philological and
antiquarian subjects.
Baxnett, John (b. 1802, d. 1890), a musical
composer of German extraction. He showed
early talent, and composed many songs,
and afterwards operettas and vaudevilles.
His opera, The Mountain Sylph, was pro-
duced at the Lyceum in 1834, and was
followed by Fair Rosamond and Farinelli.
Baruett, John Francis (b. 1838), nephew
of the preceding, and also a musical com-
poser. Of his many pieces may be men-
tioned the Ancient Mariner, a cantata, the
Raising of Lazarus, an oratorio, and the
Good Shepherd.
Barnett, Samuel (b. 1844), an English
clergyman and philanthropist. His great
work has been done in Whitechapel, since
his appointment to St. Jude's in 1873. He
established Toyubee Hall, which is the
centre of a great organisation for the social
and moral improvement of the East-
End population.
Barneveldt, Johann van Olden (b. 1547.
d. 1619), a great Dutch statesman. He played
a leading part in the effort of the Nether-
lands to throw off Spanish dominion, and he
became Grand Pensioner of the States of
Holland. He was sent to England to offer
the Dutch crown to Elizabeth, and again
to conclude an alliance with James I. against
Spain. He used his influence to obtain the
appointment of Maurice of Nassau as Stadt-
holder in 1587 ; but Maurice afterwards
became jealous of his patron, and tried to
excite distrust and religious enmity against
him. Barneveldt twice sought to resign his
office, but he was not allowed to do so. At
last, by raising a corps of militia to sup-
press riots, he gave Maurice an excuse for
arraigning him for high treason, and he
was executed.
Barney, Joshua (*. 1759, d. 1818), a bril-
liant American naval officer who served in
the war of Independence and captured the
General Monk, and in 1812 bore a distin-
guished part in the battle of Bladensburg.
Barnfield, Richard (b. 1547), an Eliza-
bethan poet, and a friend of Shakespeare.
He wrote The Affectionate Shepherd.
Barmmi, Phineas Taylor (b. 1810, d.
1891), an American, showman and proprietor
of " the greatest show 011 earth." He was
engaged in several professions, made and
lost several fortunes, and his show was
twice destroyed by fire. He brought out
Tom Thumb, and introduced Jenny Lind
to the American public. He twice visited
Europe, the last time in 1889.
Baroccio, Fiori Frederico (b. 1528, d. 1612),
an Italian portrait and historical painter,
who earned a great name arid who was em-
ployed in the decoration of the palace of
Belvedere.
Baroccio, Francisco, a Venetian scholar of
the Kith century, well versed in the classics
and mathematics. He was imprisoned by
the Inquisition for magic.
Baroche, Pierre Jules (b. 1802, d. 1870), a
distinguished French advocate and states-
nian. He entered the Chamber of Deputies
in 1846 as a member of the opposition, and
after the revolution he held high judicial
offices, and finally the portfolio for foreign
affairs. After the coup d'etat he was made
president of the council of state.
Baroda, the GaeTcwars of. They held
dominion over a branch of the Mahratta
confederacy. In 1800 Auand Rao (d. 1819)
§ laced his state in dependence on the
ritish ; in 1870 Malhar Rao succeeded to
the rule, his misgoverument provoking a
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commission of inquiry, aiid leading to his
deposition in 1875. His successor was Syaji
Rao, who still reigns, and with great advan-
tage to the state.
Baron, Michel (b. 1653, d. 1729), a famous
French actor, and son of professional
parents. His instruction was largely re-
ceived at the hands of Moliere, whose
interest he secured.
Baroni, Caesare (b. 1538, d. 1607), a priest
and ecclesiastical historian of Naples. Cle-
ment VIII. took him into favour, and made
him a cardinal and librarian to the Vatican.
His Amiides Ecdcsiaatici, dealing with
church history of 12 centuries, was com-
pleted in 30 years.
Barral, Andre Horace Fra^ois, Vicomte
de (b. 1743, d. 1829), a soldier and general
in the army of the Alps. He was also an
author.
Barral, Louis Mathias, Comte de (b. 1746,
d. 1814), brother of the preceding, and
Archbishop of Tours. In 1788 he was
forced to fly the country for refusing to
take the oath of submission. Napoleon, as
First Consul, employed him in reconciling
the clergy to the new order, and promoted
him to the see of Tours for his services.
Barral, Jean Augustin (b. 1819), a French
chemist, whose chief work was the ex-
traction of nicotine from the tobacco leaf,
and the demonstration of its poisonous
properties.
Barral, Joseph Marie (b. 1742, d. 1828), a
distinguished jurist of Grenoble, who was
placed at the head of the municipality on
the outbreak of the revolution. He was
imprisoned during the Reign of Terror, but
was released and restored to office later.
Barras, Paul Francois Jean Nicolas,
Comte de (b. 1755, d. 1829), a noble French
revolutionist of the extreme party. He and
Robespierre became estranged, and to anti-
cipate Robespierre's enmity he distinguished
himself by having the great Triumvir ar-
rested. He was elected president of the
Convention, and afterwards a member of
the Directory. He retired on the subversion
of the Directory, and was in late years
constantly changing allegiance from one
party to another.
Barreiros, Gaspar (d. 1574), a Portuguese
geographer, who entered a Franciscan
monastery to pursue his studies. He left
several valuable works.
Barret, George (b. 1732, d. 1784), an
Irish painter, who, with poor opportunities,
attained a considerable reputation. He
assisted largely in founding the Royal
Academy, and was master painter to Chel-
sea Hospital.
Barreto, Francisco de (d. 1574), a Por-
tuguese governor of the Indies, who com-
manded an expedition to the west coast of
Africa, and penetrated far into the interior.
Barrett, John (b. 1746, d. 1821), Vice-
Provost of Trinity College, Dublin. A man
of very diverse learning, and an able philo-
logist and orientalist. He wrote An Inquiry
into the Origin and Sign of the Zodiac.
Barri, Gerald (b. 1146, d. 1223), a Welsh
ecclesiastic of noble birth, generally known
as " G i raldus Cambr ensis. " He left n umer-
ous works, the chief of which is his Typo-
gr aphia Jlibernia, written when the author
was in Ireland with Prince John. He was
Archdeacon of St. David's, and having been
twice denied the see, he retired into private
life, refusing an offer of the bishopric when
a third vacancy occurred.
Barriere, Jean de la (b. 1544, d. 1'500), a
French abbot and founder of the order of
Feuillants, which was recognised by Sixtus
V. in 1586.
Barrington, John Shute, Viscount (b.
1678, d. 1734), a successful politician, and
son of a London merchant. He was em-
ployed in reconciling the Scottish Pres-
byterians to the Union witL England, and
entered Parliament as member for Berwick
when George I. came to the throne. Ha
was created a peer of Ireland in 1720, but
for his connection with the Hamburg lottery
he was expelled from Parliament, devoting
the remainder of his lif e to theology and
literature.
Barrington, Samuel (b. 1729, d. 1800),
fifth son of preceding, and a distinguished
admiral. He fought with great success and
gallantry in the war with France, his last
important action being with Lord Howe at
Gibraltar.
Barrington, William Wildman (b. 1717,
d. 1793), eldest son and successor of John
Shute. He was a member of Parliament,
Secretary at War (1755), and Chancellor of
the Exchequer (1781).
Barros, Joas de (b. 1496, d. 1570), a
Portuguese historian. He was brought up
in the royal household : held an appoint-
ment in Africa ; and returning to Portugal,
wrote his Asia Portugeza.
Barrot, Camille Hyacinthe Odillon (b.
1791, d. 1873), a French advocate and poli-
tician of note. He was at first a royalist,
but after the second restoration he became
a prominent figure in the party of opposi-
tion. He joined in the revolution of 1830,
and became prefect of the Seine, after
which he again entered into opposition, thia
time against Guizot. Returned for the
department of Eure, he was recognised ad
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leader of the Left, and was largely instru-
mental in bringing about the fall of Louis
Philippe. He held office under Louis
Napoleon as President of the Republic, but
protested against the coup dj etat, and retired
from public lif e.
Barrot, Victoria Ferdinand (b. 1806, d.
1883), a French politician and brother of
the preceding. He was returned by Algeria
to the constitutional Assembly of 1848, and
held several ministerial posts under Louis
Napoleon.
Barrow, Isaac (b. 1630, d. 1677), scholar
and divine, and the preceptor of Isaac
Newton. He earned a great reputation at
Cambridge, and afterwards chiefly studied
natural science, divinity and the classics.
After some foreign travel he entered the
church, and in 1660 obtained the professor-
ship of Greek at Cambridge and that of
geometry at Gresham College. The latter
appointment he resigned to Newton, and
was appointed by Charles II. to the Master-
ship of Trinity College, afterwards being
chosen Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge Uni-
versity. He died a little later, with the
reputation of being one of the best wits and
profoundest scholars of his day.
Barrow, Sir John (b. 1764, d. 1848), a
traveller and man of science. As private
secretary to Sir George Staunton, he ac-
companied Lord Macartney's expedition to
China, and in 1797 he went with Lord
Macartney to the Cape. He then became
a secretary to the Admiralty, and was
created baronet in 1825. He wrote many
books of travel.
Barrowe, Henry (d. 1593), a religious
enthusiast of the 16th century. In 1586 he
was imprisoned for the heterodoxy of his
views ; and his writings while he was in
prison, vindicating his faith, gave such
offence that he was executed.
BarnOl, Augustin de (b. 1741, d. 1820),
a French Jesuit, who wrote against the
revolution and the neglect of religion. He
was twice banished from France, but was
finally taken into favour by Napoleon.
Barry, Sir Charles (b. 1795, d. 1860), an
eminent architect. He designed the Travel-
lers' and Reform clubs and the College
of Surgeons, but the great work of his life
was the construction of the Houses of Par-
liament, and for this work he was knighted.
He was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Barry, Sir David (b. 1780, d. 1845), an
Irish physician. He served in the Penin-
sular war as army surgeon ; made _ some
valuable researches into the circulation of
the blood ; and was sent by Government to
Gibraltar and Russia to investigate epi-
demics of yellow fever and cholera.
^ Barry, Elizabeth (b. 1658, d. 1713), a
famous tragedy actress. She established
her great reputation by a representation
of Monimia in Otway's Orphan, and was,
before her death, the creator of 112 parts.
She was a great favourite at Court, and it
was in her behalf that "benefits" were
invented by James II.
Barry, Edward Middleton (b. 1830, d.
1880), an architect and son of Sir Charles
Barry, whom he succeeded as architect of
the Houses of Parliament. He also de-
signed the National Gallery building.
Barry, James (b. 1741, d. 1806), an Irish
artist of considerable genius. His Landing
of St. fatnck, painted iu his 20th year,
secured the interest of Burke, by whose aid
Barry visited Italy. In 1776 he finished
the famous Death of TToIfe, which was
not appreciated, though Barry's reputation
was great. For seven years, from 1774,
Barry devoted himself to the unremunera-
tive task of decorating the great hall of the
Society of Arts with seven great pictures.
He died in poverty.
Barry, John (b. 1745, d. 1803), an Ameri-
can naval officer, who distinguished himself
greatly in the war of Independence. In
1794 he was made first commodore of the
U.S. navy.
Barry, Marie Jeanne Gomard de Vau-
bernier, Comtesse du (b. 1746, d. 1793), the
mistress of Louis XV. She exercised the
greatest influence over the king ; was
banished by his successor; and guillotined
by the revolutionary tribunal.
Barry, Martin (b. 1802, d. 1855), a physi-
cian and scientist, whose researches in
embryology are of European celebrity.
Barry, Spranger (b. 1719, d. 1777), a cele-
brated actor of Irish extraction. He was
the great rival of Garrick, with whom he
competed in the representation of Romeo.
Barry, Mrs. Sprauger (b. 1733, d. 1801), a
gifted actress, who made a London reputa-
tion in the character of Desdemona. She
later appeared in the name of her third hus-
band, Crawford.
Bart, Jean (b. 1651, d. 1702), a gallant
French naval officer, whose daring exploits
against the Dutch and English earned for
him a great reputation, and the especial
favour of Louis XIV.
Bartas, Guillaume de Salluste, Sieur du
(b. 1544, d. 1590), a poet soldier of Gascony,
whose La Premiere Semaine was highly es-
teemed. He was mortally wounded at the
battle of Ivry.
Earth, Heinrich (b. 1821, d. 1865), a
Bar
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Bar
German African explorer. From 1845 to
1854 he was constantly occupied with
expeditious into Africa, first into the north,
arid afterward along the course of the Nile.
The records of his travels are of great value.
Barthelemy, Auguste Marseille (b. 1796,
d, 1867), a very popular French writer of
politico- satirical verse. He bitterly attacked
the monarchical government of the restora-
tion, and twice suffered imprisonment for
his writings hefore the revolution of 1830.
Afterwards he was as scathing in his satire
of Guizot, but having lost his pension, he
suddenly began to write in direct contradic-
tion of his earlier effusions.
Barthelemy, Francois, Marquis de (b.
1747, d. 1830), a French diplomatist, em-
ployed on various missions prior to the
revolution. He was for a time member of
the Directory, but he was imprisoned later.
He was a pronounced adherent of Napoleon,
but he secured honour and distinctions under
the restored king.
Barthelemy, Jean Jacques (b. 1716, d.
1795). a French antiquary. He succeeded
Gros deBoze as keeper of the king's cabinet
of medals, and held the appointment until
the revolution. His great work is The
Travels of Anacharsis, over which he spent
thirty years.
Barthelemy Saint-Eilaire, Jules (b.
1805), a French scholar and politician. He
was classical professor at the University of
France, translated Aristotle, and wrote on
Oriental literature and religious. He was
active in the revolutions of 1830 and 1848,
was elected life senator in 1875, and was
foreign minister in Ferry's cabinet of 1880.
Barthes, Paul Joseph (b. 1734, d. 1806),
a French physiologist and physician. He
was physician to the king, his valuable
medical researches and writings gaining for
him a great reputation.
Earth oldy, Jacob Solomon (b. 1779, d.
1825), a Prussian diplomatist arid litterateur.
He fought against the French under Napo-
leon, and later in life was employed on
several important missions.
Bartholoraseus Anglicus, a learned monk
of the Franciscan order, named Glauvil,
who lived in the 14th century, and is
known as the author of De Propnetatibus
Rerwn,
Bartholomseus a Martyribus (b. 1514, d.
1590), a distinguished Dominican, Arch-
bishop of Braga. He bore an honourable part
in the Council of Trent, and obtained the
removal of certain indignities upon his
order.
Bartholomew, St., one of the Apostles
and the son of TholomaeusorTobnai. It ifl
supposed from internal evidence that he
is identical with the person referred to in
some of the gospels as Nathaniel. He is
spoken of by tradition as carrying the
gospel into India.
Bartleman, Hippolyte (b. 1741, d. 1808), a
French violinist and composer of opera. He
came to London in 1766, where he did all
his best work, and achieved a considerable
reputation.
Bartelman, James (b. 1769, d. 1821), a
celebrated bass singer, noted for his render-
ing of classical music.
Bartlett, William Henry (b. 1809, d. 1854),
a clever artist and illustrator of books. He
reproduced the scenery of Switzerland,
Scotland, Turkey, and the Holy Land, and
other countries in pen and pencil drawings
with the greatest success. He also visited
America.
BartoH, Daniel e (b. 1608, d. 1685), an
Italian Jesuit, known for his Storia della
Sod eta de Gesu, an exhaustive history of
the Jesuit order.
Bartoli, Pietro Santo (b. 1635, d. 1700),
Italian painter and engraver, especially
noted for his excellent engravings of the
great works of Greek and Roman art.
Bartolinl, Lorenzo (b. 1778, d. 1850), a
Florentine sculptor of the highest repute.
He studied first in Paris, where he soon made
a name, and received commissions from
Napoleon. At the fall of the empire he
returned to Italy, and produced his most
famous pieces of work — Charity and Her-
cules and Lycas.
Bartolommeo, Fra. [See Baccio.]
Barfolommeo Maestro, Venetian sculptor
and architect of the 14th century.
Bartolozzi, Francesco (b. 1725, d. 1813),
a Florentine artist and engraver, who was
so successful in the latter capacity that he
abandoned painting. In 1764 he came to
London and was made a member of the
Royal Academy.
Barton, Sir Andrew, Scottish sea-captain,
who caused much destruction among the
English traders in .the middle of the 16th
century. His ships were at last cap-
tured, and he was slain, by Sir Thomas
Howard in 1571.
Barton, Benjamin Smith (b. 1776, d.
1815), an American physician and botanist.
He studied in Great Britain and Germany
with distinction, and afterwards held high
university dignities in America.
Barton, Bernard (b. 1784, d. 1849), *
Bar
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Bas
native of London, known as the "Quaker
poet." He was a bank- clerk for forty
years. His writings were very numerous.
Barton, Elizabeth, a religious fanatic,
known as the " Holy Maid of Kent,"
lived in the reign of Henry VIII. Influ-
enced by an unscrupulous priest, she claimed
prophetic inspiration, and gained the credu-
lity of many. The Star Chamber forced her
and her accomplices to confession, and they
were executed in 1534.
Bartram, John (b. 1701, d. 1777), an
American botanist, who established the
first American botanical garden. He was
appointed royal botanist by George III.
Bartsch, Adam von (b. 1757, d. 1820), a
distinguished designer and engraver of
Vienna, of official rank. His works are of
high merit.
Baruch, the friend and secretary of the
prophet Jeremiah. He it was who read
before the assembled Jewish chiefs the pro-
phecies of Jeremiah which King Jehoiakim
destroyed, and who delivered to Babylon
Jeremiah's denunciation of that city.
Barwell, John, a distinguished servant of
the East India Company. He was a mem-
ber of the new council appointed in 1773,
with Warren Hastings as Governor-general.
He served for five years, consistently sup-
porting Hastings in all dissensions, and re-
tired in 1780.
Barze, Antoine Louis (b. 1795, d. 1875),
a French sculptor. He was first a worker
in metals, and an engraver, and only exhi-
bited statuary for the first time when
thirty-four years old. His work in bronze
is highly esteemed.
Basaiti, Marco, an Italian painter of the
early part of the 16th century. His best
work is in Venice.
Baschi, Matteo. The founder of the order
of the Capuchins, lived in the loth cen-
tury.
Basedow, Johann Bernhard (b. 1723, d.
1790), a German educationalist, of eccentric
temper, who, after occupying chairs at
several universities, was inspired by Sous-
Beau's Emile to establish a system of pic-
torial education. His writings on the sub-
ject were very popular, but his model
school failed.
Basevi, George (b. 1794, d. 1845), an
English architect of great talent, who was
much employed in London, and who de-
signed the Cambridge Fitzwilliam museum.
Basevi, James Palladio (d. 1871), an
engineer engaged in the trigonometrical
survey of India. For seven years he gave
his attention to pendulum observations for
determining the variations of the force of
gravity.
Basil, Saint (b. 329, d. 379), surnamed
14 the Great." One of the Greek Fathers
of the Church. He was bom in Caesarea,
and after studying in Athens, became aa
advocate. He abandoned this calling for
ascetic seclusion, and finally instituted a
monastery near Ibora in Pontus. In 370 he
succeeded Eusebius as Bishop of Caesarea,
and in this office carried on a long struggle
against Arianisrn, championed though it
was by the Emperor Valeiis. The goodness
and devotion of his life gave him great in-
fluence, and his monastic rules were gener-
ally adopted. His writings were widely
circulated, and have always been highly
esteemed.
Basil or Basilius, a Bulgarian monk of
the twelfth century, who founded the sect
of "Bogomiles." In 1118 he was tried for
heresy by a council at Constantinople, and
burnt at the stake.
Basil I. (b. 813, d. 886), surnamed the
"Macedonian," Byzantine emperor; though
reputed to be of royal descent, his
father was a small farmer near Adria-
nople, from whence Basil was carried away
by the Bulgarians. He ultimately went to
Constantinople, and by his powers as an
athlete gained the favour of the Emperor
Michael III. In 867 he murdered Michael,
and seized the imperial power, wielding
it with great effect. He re- organised the
army and reformed the process of justice,
and his death was generally lamented.
BasU II. (b. 958, d. 1025), great grand-
son of the preceding. He assmned the
government in 976, on the death of the
regnut, John Zimisces, and succeeded in
defeating in Asia two insurgent generals.
He also conquered the Bulgarians.
Basiliscus (d. 477), a Greek emperor.
He was brother-in-law to the Emperor Leo,
at whose death he seized upon the throne,
He was, however, soon ousted, and he
perished in prison.
Basin, Thomas (b. 1402, d. 1491), French
prelate and historian. In 1447 he was made
Bishop of Lisieux, and his defence of Joan
of Arc against the sentence of the Pope
gained him the favour of Charles VII.
Incurring the enmity of the Dauphin, he
fled from France. He wrote the histories
of Charles VII. and Louis XI.
Basire, Claude (b. 1764, d. 1791), a French
revolutionist. As a member arid secretary
of the Convention he was remarkable for
his extreme views. He discovered the re-
actionary " Comite" Autrichien," but was
later guillotined for treachery.
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Basire, Isaac (b. 1607, d. 1676), chaplain-
in-ordinary to Charles L After the sur-
render of Oxford to the Parliament he
went on a mission to the East, and preached
with much success. In 1661 Charles IL re-
stored him to his former position.
Baskerville, John (b. 1706, d. 1775), a
writing master of Birmingham, who effected
great improvements in typography.
Bassal, Jean (b. 1752, d. 1802), a French
priest and revolutionist. He was elected
secretary of the Convention ; was president
of the Jacobins ; accompanied Championnet
to Italy, and was imprisoned with him.
Bassano, Giacomo da Ponte, H Vecchio
(b. 1510, d. 1592), an Italian painter, a
native of Bassano, from which he took his
name. He is best known for his landscape
and animal painting.
Bassano, Francesco (b. 1548, d. 1591), son
of the preceding, and also a painter of note.
He committed suicide from a morbid fear of
the Inquisition.
Bassano, Hugues Bernard Maret, Duke
of (b. 1763, d. 1839), a French statesman
and writer. He was closely associated with
Napoleon from the first, was employed on
several missions by him and held high
offices. In 1811 he was ennobled and made
minister of foreign affairs. After Waterloo
he was banished, but in 1830 he was re-
habilitated.
Bassantin, James (b. 1504, d. 1568), a
Scottish mathematician and astronomer,
and professor at the University of Paris.
Basse, William, a minor poet of the
reign of James L, who wrote an epitaph on
Shakespeare.
Basseville, Nicolas Jean Hugou de
(d. 1793), a French politician and writer.
He made the acquaintance of Mirabeau in
Berlin, where he attained some literary dis-
tinction. After editing papers in Paris, he
was sent by the National Assembly to
Naples and Borne, where he was murdered
by the mob.
Bassi, Laura Maria (b. 1711, d. 1778), a
learned lady of Bologna, who took the
degree of doctor of philosophy at the age
of 21, and was professor of philosophy at
Bologna.
Bassi, TJgo (b. 1804, d. 1849), an Italian
priest and nationalist. In 1848 he joined
the Roman volunteers ; and he was attached
to the Garibaldi Legion during the siege of
Rome, acting as chaplain, medical assistant,
and combatant. Later, he was taken by the
Austrians, and after the crown of his head
and the palms of his hands had been flayed,
he was executed.
Bassompierre, Francois, Baron d« (b. 1579,
d. 1646), a French noble, and an important
figure in the court of Henry IV. He
distinguished himself as a soldier, was
made colonel of the Swiss Guards and a
Marshal of France, and was employed on
important embassies. Through the disfavour
of Richelieu he was imprisoned in the Bas-
tille for ten years, where he wrote his
Memoirs.
Bastard, D'Estang, Dominic
Marie, Cointe de (b. 1783, d. 1844), a dis-
tinguished French jurist, who was made a
peer of France and president of the cour
de cassation.
Bastard, Thomas (d. 1618), an English
clergyman and a notable wit. His sallies
made him many enemies, and he died in a
debtor's prison.
Basti, Pierre (b. 1768, d. 1814), a French
admiral, who rose to that rank from the
position of a common sailor. He served
with distinction in the war of 1808 against
Spain, and was ennobled by Napoleon.
Bastian, Henry Charlton (b. 1837), an
eminent physician and biologist, professor of
pathological anatomy at University College.
He has written much on the origin of the
lower organisms.
Bastiat, Frederick (b. 1801, d. 1850), a
French political economist noted for his early
advocacy of free trade. He was a member of
the Legislative Assembly of 1848.
Bastide, Jules (b. 1800, d. 1879), a French
politician and writer. He was actively
engaged in the revolution of 18oO, and was
condemned to death for sharing in the
Grenoble insurrection of 1832, but escaped to
London. After editing several papers, he
became minister of foreign affairs in 1848.
Bastien-Lepage, Jules (*. 1848, d. 1885),
a French painter of high repute as an
impressionist. His fame was secured by his
Joan of Arc Brooding in the Garden.
Baston, Robert, a Yorkshire monk, and
poet-laureate to Edward I., by whom he
was taken to Scotland in 1304 to celebrate
his triumphs. Taken prisoner by the Scots,
he was compelled to buy his freedom by
singing the deeds of Robert Bruce.
Bastwick, John (*. 1593, d. 1650), an
English physician and theological contro-
versialist. For his denunciation of the
extreme pretensions of the episcopacy he was
heavily fined and imprisoned, and had his ears
cut off. He was liberated and indemnified
after the Civil war.
Batbie, Anselme Polycarpe (b. 1828), a
French politician and writer on legal and
economical subjects. In 1870 he abandoned
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Bat
his work &£ professor of jurisprudence for
political life, au (1 was returned to theNational
Assembly of 1870 as a monarchist. He was
an active opponent of Thiers, and in 1873
held a portfolio in the Due de Broglie's ad-
ministration.
Bate, Charles Spence (b. 1819), an English
zoologist, and an eminent authority on the
crustacean order and other of the lower
forms of animal life. He is also in active
practice as a dentist, and in 1885 was Presi-
dent of the Odontological Association of
England.
Bateman, Kate Josephine (b. 1842),
American actress, who appeared on the
London stage when only eight years old,
and afterwards in 1863 gained a high
reputation by her acting in King Lear.
Bates, Henry Vfalter (b. 1825), a dis-
tinguished entomologist. He started with
Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace, in 1848, on a
naturalistic expedition to the Amazon
valley, and remained there eleven years,
returning with observations and collections
of exceptionally high value. The record of
his visit proved very popular. He is now
the secretary of the Royal Geographical
Society.
Bates, Joah (b. 1740, d. 1799), a gifted
musician, director of the " concerts of
ancient music," and organiser of the great
Handel festival of 1784. He held several
offices in the Civil Service.
Bates, William (b. 1625, d. 1709), a cele-
brated Nonconformist divine. He was
appointed chaplain to Charles II., but refus-
ing to subscribe to the Act of Uniformity, in
1662, he lost his appointments and hopes of
preferment. He was a popular preacher.
Bathe or Bathonia, Henry de (d. 1261),
an English judge of the reign of Henry III.
In 1251 he was arraigned before Parliament
for bribery and treason, but although the
king endeavoured to procure his undoing, his
friends were too numerous and powerful, and
he was restored to office.
Bathilde, Saint (d. 680), a beautiful and
virtuous Anglo-Saxon lady, who was
carried into slavery, and coming under the
notice of Clovis II., became his wife. She
acted as regent during the minority of her
eon, Clotaire III.
Bathory, Stephen (d. 1586), King of
Poland. As the ruler of Transylvania he
succeeded Henry of Anjou to the throne of
Poland in 1575. The beneficence of his rule
and the success of his arms against Russia and
Austria have made him famous.
Bathurst, Allen, Earl (b. 1684, d. 1775),
politician, entered Parliament as a supporter
of Harley, and in 1711 was, with others,
created a peer to overwhelm the Whig
majority. He was true to his leaders when
Walpole came into office, and in 1757 was
treasurer to George III., then Prince of
Wales.
Batirarst, Henry, Earl (b. 1714, d. 1794),
son of the preceding. He represented
Cirencester till 1754, when he was raised to
the bench, and in 1771 was created Lord
Chancellor, resigning the office in 1778.
Bathyani, Casimir, Count (b. 1807,
d. 1854), a Hungarian noble, who played a
prominent part in the Hungarian revolution
of 1848. He held command in the National
forces, and when Kossu,th was appointed
governor of independent Hungary, Bathyani
accepted the portfolio of foreign affairs.
In 1849 Gorgei's assumption of the dictator-
ship induced Bathyani to surrender his
army to the Russians, and together with
Kossuth he escaped to Turkey.
Bathyani, Louis (b. 1809, d. 1849), a
Hungarian statesman and patriot. After
much travel he entered political life and
became a zealous supporter of Kossuth. In
1847 he accepted office under the Archduke
Stephen, endeavouring to maintain the
political union with Austria, for which
purpose he visited Vienna. After the out-
break of the revolution he was taken
prisoner and shot.
Batinskcov, Constantino Nicholaird
(b. 1787, d. 1816), Russian poet of high
estimation, and imperial librarian at St.
Petersburg.
Batman, Stephen (b. 1537, d. 1587), an
English divine and poet, who filled the
office of librarian to Archbishop Parker.
Bato. The name borne by two insurrec-
tionary chiefs in the reign of the Emperor
Augustus. Their joint forces were at length
defeated by Gennanicus (A.D. 8), but one of
them having killed the other, the survivor
again revolted, surrendering however on the
promise of pardon.
Batoni, Pompeo (b. 1708, d. 1787), a
notable Italian painter of the Florentine
school, whose work, founded on a study of
the old masters, did much to revive their
prestige.
Battishill, Jonathan (b. 1731, d. 1801),
English musical composer, best known for
his sacred pieces, although in earlier years
he produced opera music.
Batu Khan, a great Mogul chief, ruler
(1223) of the Kapzac provinces on the
Vistula. He joined the expedition of Octal,
his uncle, against China, and commanded a
large division of the army which invaded
Bat
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Europe, ravaging Poland, Silesia, Moldavia,
Hungary aud Dalmatia.
Batula, Ibn, Moorish traveller of the
14th century. After visiting Africa and
South-eastern Europe, he crossed the- Hin-
doo Khoosh iMiumtaius and reached ])''lhi
in 1341. He was taken into high favour by
the emperor, and later sent an emlo-sy to
China. Returning to Taugiers in 131S, ho
set out to explore Africa, and reach* d
Timbuctoo. He left a record of his travels.
Batz, Jean, Barou de (A. 17GO, d. 1883),
French general, distinguished himself as
a financier in the States General ; but in
1794 he was proscribed for attempting to
rescue Louis XVI. and his queen. He
was made a marshal on the restoration.
Baude, Henri (b. 1430, d. 1495), French
poet, greatly esteemed by his contempo-
raries, and a rival of Villon. A poem
satirising the court brought imprisonment
on him.
Baudissin, Wolf Heinrich Friederich
Karl, Count of (b. 1789), a Danish littera-
teur. He entered the diplomatic service,
but left it for literature, aud settling in
Dresden he became intimate with Tieck
and Schlegel. Together they translated all
Shakespeare's plays, and Baudissin also
wrote a book on Ben Jonson and his school.
Baudrand, Marie Etienne Francois Henri
(b. 1774, d. 1848), one of Napoleon's generals,
promoted from the ranks. After the 1830
revolution he was made a peer.
Baudry, Paul Jacques Aime (b. 1828, d.
188G), French painter, who won the Grand
Prix de Home in 1850, and exhibited with
much success in the Salon. He spent ten
years in decorating the boxes and galleries
of the Grand Opera.
Bauer, Bruno (b. 1809, d. 1882), a German
biblical critic, whose writings procured his
explusion from the chair of theology at Bonn,
in 1842.
Baulot or Beaulieu, Jacques (b. 1651,
d. 1720), a poor Frenchman, who under the
name of Frere Jacques acquired a great
reputation as a lithotomist. Only late in
life did he receive any instruction in
anatomy, and then he operated at the Hotel
Dieu of Paris, while a medal was struck at
Amsterdam as a recognition of his services
in that city.
Baume, Antoine (b. 1728, d. 1804), a dis-
tinguished French chemist. He established
the first European manufactory of sal-
ammoniac, and invented an areometer. He
left numerous works.
Baumgarten, Alexander Gottlieb (b. 1714,
d. 17'>-), Herman philosopher, known aa
the originator of the a'Sthetic philosophy.
Baumgartner, Andreas (/>. 17'."], d. 1S65),
in Bcienti i, and jT.>iesscrof phy-
:it Vienna university. Subsequently he
became minister of public works and com-
merce. From I>s2'i to 1837 he conducted
the Journal of I'lcj .su> and Mathematics.
Eaune, Euutfue (h. 1799, d. 1880), an active
French politician. He joined the Carbonari
in 1830, and fought in the revolution of 1848.
Later he was a leading member cf the
"Mountain" party, and for his opposition
to Louis Napoleon was banished,
Bavaria, Kings of. 1. MAXIMILIAN
JOSKPH I. (b. 17Ju, d. 1825), succeeded to
the Electorate in 1799, and in LSU-i sided
with Napoleon, who created him king, and
granted him an accession of territory. In
1813, his new title having been acknowledged
by treaty, he joined the allies. 2. Louis I.
(b. 1786, d. 1868) succeeded the pnecedin^.
He was a man of refined tastes, and his
reign began auspiciously : but he incurred
the odium of his subjects by his submission
to unworthy influences, and abdicated in
1848. 3. MAXIMILIAN II. (*. 1811, d. 1864)
succeeded the preceding. He ruled with a
strong hand, and held aloof from federation
with Germany. 4. Louis II. (b. 1845,
d. 1886) succeeded the preceding, a weak
ruler. He allowed Bavaria to fight with
Austria against Prussia in 1866, but joined
the German States against France in 1870.
He it was who offered King William the
title of German Emperor. He was deposed
in 1886, as being of unsound mind, and soon
after committed suicide.
Bava-ax, Francois Nicolas (b. 1774, d. 1848),
a French jurist, and professor of law in the
school of Paris. In 1819 he was prosecuted
for anti-royalist tendencies, but was ac-
quitted. In 1830 he joined the revolution,
and was made prefect of police, but at once
entered into opposition of the Government.
Baxter, Andrew (b. 1686, d. 1750), a Scot-
tish metaphysician, known as the author of
An Enquiry into the Nature of the Hitman
Soul.
Baxter, Richard (b. 1615, d. 1691), a cele-
brated divine and preacher. He was or-
dained in 1638, and in 1640 obtained a living
at Kidderminster, where he soon obtained a
reputation for his oratorj'. During the Civil
war he was with the army of the Parliament
preaching to the soldiers, though he refused
to support Cromwell in his assumption of the
Protectorship. On the Restoration he was
appointed one of the royal chaplains, and
offered the see of Hereford, which he de-
clined. In 1662 he refused to subscribe to
the Act of Uniformity, and suffered much
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persecution in consequence, being sent to
prison in 1685 by Judge Jeffreys. Of his
many writings, the Call to the Unconverted,
and The Saint's Everlasting Rest, obtained a
remarkable popularity.
Baxter, William Edward (b. 1825, d. 1890),
a distinguished public man. In 1855 he
entered Parliament as member for Montrose,
in succession to Hume. He twice held
office under Mr. Gladstone, and was a Privy
Councillor. The impressions of his extensive
( travels are published.
Bayard, Pierre du Terrail (b. 1475, d. 1524),
a French knight of noble birth, who lives in
history as the highest and best type of the
age of chivalry. Entering the service of
Charles VIII. , he distinguished himself by
his prowess in tournaments, and in 1495, at
the battle of Formova, his daring was
conspicuous. In 1503, in the war against
the Spaniards in the kingdom of Naples,
he single-handed stopped a force of 2uO from
crossing the bridge over the Garigliano ;
and he fought with equal gallantry in all
the wars of Louis XII. and Francis I., the
lattersovereigninsistiug upon being knighted
by Bayard alone. In 1524 Bayard was sent
to Italy to assist Boimivet in the war against
Charles V., and while conducting a retreat
which Bonnivet's rashness had necessitated
he was mortally wounded. His death was
as noble as his life, and the Spaniards, with
all honours, rendered up to the French the
body of the "chevalier sans peur et sans re-
proche."
Bayan, Pierre (b. 1725, d. 1798), a distin-
guished French chemist, and the conductor
of much original and valuable research.
Many of his most valuable memoirs were
destroyed in the Reign of Terror.
Bayer, Gottlieb Siegfried (b. 1694, d.
1731), a profound German philologist, and
student of oriental languages, including
Chinese. In 1726 he visited Russia, where
he died.
Bayer, Johann (b. 1572, d. 1625), grand-
father of the preceding, and a laborious
astronomical investigator. He first instituted
the use of Greek letters to distinguish the
members of a constellation in the place of
the Arabic names.
Bayer, Karl Emmerich Robert (b. 1835), a
popular Austrian novelist who served for
some time in the army, and whose works
are mostly founded on his military experi-
ence.
Bayeu y Subias, Francesco (b. 1734, d.
1795), a notable Spanish artist, who was
appointed royal painter by Charles V.
Bayle, Pierre (b. 1647, d. 1706), a pro-
minent French man of letters. He became
professor of philosophy in the Protestant
academy of Sedan, and in that position
wrote a defence of the Duke of Luxembourg
against a charge of sorcery, and also pub-
lished several controversial essays. The
Sedan academy being suppressed, Bayle
accepted the chair of history and philosophy
at Rotterdam, and his critique on Maine-
bourg's History of Calvinism, written at
this time, created a great sensation. In
1684 he founded the periodical, Les Noti-
velles de la Republique des Lettres, and soon
afterwards he lost his professorship through
the intrigues of enemies. His great work,
Dictionnaire Historique et Critique, was pro-
duced in 1697.
Bayley, Sir Edward Olive (4. 1821, d. 1884),
a distinguished Indian Civil servant. In
1849 he was Under Secretary, and in 1861
Secretary for Foreign Affairs in the Indian
Government. In 1862 he was transferred
to the Home Office, where he remained ten
years. He wrote on archaeological subjects.
Bayley, Sir John (b. 1763, d. 1841), an
able judge of the King's Bench from 1808
to 1830, and the author of a standard work
on bills of exchange.
Bayly, Thomas Haynes (b. 1797, d. 1839),
a writer of considerable talent. He wrote a
great many slight dramatic pieces, one or
two novels, and some volumes of songs and
ballads, among which were The Mistletoe
Hough, and She wore a Wreath of Roses.
Bayly, "William (d. 1810), an eminent
astronomer, of humble parentage. In 1769
he was commissioned by the Royal Society
to observe the transit of Venus, and in 1772
he went round the world with Captain
Cook.
Bayne, Peter (b. 1830), writer, has contri-
buted largely to many newspapers and maga-
zines ; has written of the Puritan period ;
and has published several volumes of critical
essays, and is author of a Life of Luther.
Baynes, Thomas Spencer (b. 1823, d. 1887),
a journalist and professor of logic and men-
tal philosophy. He was editor of the
Encyclopcedia Brittanica.
Bayruth, Sophie Wilhelmina, Margravine
of (b. 1709, d. 1758), sister of Frederick the
Great, and writer of interesting memoirs of
the court of Prussia.
Baz Bahadur (d. 1572), the last king of
Mai wah aud successor of Bahadur Shah,
reigned seventeen years. He fled from
Maiidoo on the invasion of the Emperor
Akbar, wandering from state to_ state.
Tradition has woven many romantic tales
around the story of his life.
Bazaine, Francois Achille (b.
. 1888),
Baz
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Bea
a French general. He saw active service in
Algeria aiul Spain, and commanded a di-
vision in the Crimean war, the Kiuburn
expedition, and the Italian war. In 1862
he held chief command in Mexico, and was
created Marshal of France on his return.
He commanded the army of the Rhine at the
outbreak of the Franco-German war, and
was shut up in Metz. After a three mouths'
siege he surrendered with 170,000 men.
For this he was tried by a military tribunal
in 1871, and sentenced to degradation and
imprisonment for life. He escaped by
violating his parole, and settled in Madrid,
where he died.
Bazalgette, Sir Joseph William (b. 1819,
d. 1890), a distinguished engineer. As the
official of the Metropolitan Board of Works
he devised an original scheme for the drain-
age of London, and designed the Victoria,
Albert and Chelsea embankments.
Basancourt, Caesar, Baron de (b. 1810, d.
1865), a French litterateur. He was sent by
the French Government to the Crimea to
record the incidents of the war ; and he vras
also the author of romances and other
histories.
Bazhsnov, Vasili Ivanovich (b. 1737, d.
1799), a Russian architect of note, employed
by Catherine in the reconstruction of the
Kremlin at Moscow. The work proved so
costly that when a portion of the designs
was completed Catherine had the structure
demolished.
Bazley, Sir Thomas (b. 1797, d. 188D),
a large Manchester cotton-spinner, and
member for that city from 1858 to 1880.
He took part in Bright and Cobden's Free
Trade agitation.
Beach, Sir Michael Edward Hicks- (6.
1837), a prominent politician, who has
sat in Parliament as a Conservative since
1864. He was first Irish Secretary in the
Government of 1874, and later Secretary for
the Colonies. In 1885 he became Chancellor
of the Exchequer in Lord Salisbury's Govern-
ment, and leader of the House of Commons,
and in 1886 was Irish Secretary, when a
disease of the eyes compelled him to retire
from public life. In 1888 he again entered
the Salisbury Cabinet as President of the
Board of Trade.
Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, first Earl
of (6. 1805, d. 1881), statesman and novelist,
the son of Isaac D'Israeli. He first
attracted attention by the publication of
his novel Vivian Grey, in 1827. After
four years' travel in Eastern Europe he
appeared as a parliamentary candidate at
High Wycombe, in 1832, but was unsuc-
cessful ; in 1837, however, he was returned
for Maidstone. A certain extravagance
of dress and manner provoked an unfavour-
able reception in the House, but he soon
became a prominent political figure, while
his novels Coning shy and Sibyl secured
him a very high literary reputation. When
Sir Robert Peel declared for Free Trade,
Disraeli at once stepped to the front of
the Tory party, though until the death of
Lord George Bentinck, in 1848, he was not
nominally leader. He was Chancellor of the
Exchequer in Lord Derby's brief adminis-
tration before the coalition government of
1S">:2, and again in 1858, when he introduced
his Reform Bill, which wrecked the Govern-
ment. In 18G6 he returned to power again,
and carried a new Refcr.a Bill, but was
defeated at the general election, and re-
mained in opposition until 1874. Then
he became Prime Minister, and in 1877
was created Earl of Beaconsfield. The
chief activity of his last government was
displayed in foreign politics, and his part
in the treaty of Berlin won him great
popularity. In the elections of 1880. how-
ever, his party was crushingly defeated, and
he only survived the disaster a year.
Beale, Mary (b. 1632, d. 1697), a portrait
painter of some note, and a less admirable
writer of poetry.
Beaton. David (6. 1494, d. 1546), a famous
Scottish ecclesiastic, and Cardinal Archbishop
of St. Andrew's, in which office he succeeded
his uncle. By this uncle's influence he was
appointed to several high offices in the State,
and in 1530 was sent on a mission to France,
where he resided for some years, being in
high favour with the French king. In 1538
he was created cardinal, and in 1539 Primate
of Scotland, when he entered upon a fierce
persecution of heretics. His attempt to
seize the regency was frustrated by Arran,
by whom he was imprisoned, but his great
influence compelled Arran to rehabilitate
him. His determined enmity against Eng-
land greatly enraged Henry VIII. He was
murdered at St. Andrew's in 1546.
Beaton, James (d. 1539), uncle of the
preceding, and Archbishop of St. Andrew's,
to which office he was elevated in 1523. He
was Lord High Treasurer to James VI.. and
Chancellor in the regency of the Duke of
Albany. The accession of Angus to supreme
power brought imprisonment on Beaton, and
afterwards he spent some years in hiding.
He was restored on the accession of James.
Beaton, James (6. 1523, d. 1603), grand
nephew of the preceding, and Archbishop of
Glasgow. He negotiated the marriage
between Mary and the French dauphin,
and was afterwards ambassador at Paris for
Mary and James VI.
Beatrice Portinari (6. 1266. d. 1290), a
lady of Florence, known to the world as the
Bea
(ill)
Bea
Beatrice of Dante's poems. She married
Simeone de Bardi.
Seattle, James (b. 1735, d. 1803), philoso-
pher and poet. At first a schoolmaster, he
was appointed, in 1760, professor of logic
and moral philosophy in the Marischal col-
lege, Aberdeen. He occupied the post for
forty years, and his lectures were highly
popular. In 1770 he published his Nature
and Immutability of Truth, which excited
the greatest attention, and won him a
pension of £200. Coming to London, he
became acquainted with Dr. Johnson, Gold-
smith aiid other men of the day, aiid
published his poem, The Jlinstrel. The
Evidences of the Christian Religion ap-
peared in 1786, but when his celebrity was
at its zenith his health failed under a series
of domestic afflictions, and he died of palsy.
Beauchamp, Alfonse (b. 1767, d. 1832), a
French historical writer, at one time a
soldier in the Sardinian army. His His-
tory of La Vendee was suppressed by the
Directory because of certain inconvenient
revelations.
Beauchamp, Joseph (6. 1752, d. 1801), a
distinguished French astronomer who spent
much time in the East. Napoleon sent him
on a secret mission to Constantinople in
1799, when he was nearly executed as a spy.
Beauclerk, Topham (6. 1739, d. 1780), one
of the famous Johnson circle, and grandson
of the first Duke of St. Albans. Although
addicted to fashionable vices, he had wit
and culture, and was held in considerable
regard by Dr. Johnson.
Beaufort, Sir Francis (&. 1774, d. 1857), a
naval officer, who distinguished himself by
several brilliant actions in the French and
Spanish wars. He was made head of the
Hydrographic Department of the Admiralty
in 1829, his work there being of great
value.
Beaufort, Franqois de Vend6me, Due de
(b. 1616, d. 1669), grandson of Henry IV.
He fought for Anne of Austria against the
Duke of Orleans, and afterwards joined the
Fronde. Under Louis XIV. he was placed
in command of the navy, and served against
the English and Turks.
Beaufort, Henry (d. 1447), cardinal and
statesman, and son of John of Gaunt. He
was Lord Chancellor to Henry IT. ; in 1404
he became Bishop of Winchester, in 1417
he took part in the Council of Constance,
and in 1427 he was made cardinal.
Beaufort, Margaret (6. 1441, d. 1509),
Countess of Richmond and Derby, and a
woman of much learning. She founded
Christ's College, Cambridge, and endowed
several chairs.
Beaufort d'Hautpoul, Charles Marie
Napoleon (b. 1804), a French general of
distinction, who served in Syria and Egypt,
but most notably in Algeria.
Beaufort d'Hautpoul, Edouard (6. 1782,
d. 1831), a French military engineer who
served through Napoleon's campaigns and
was made a peer, minister of war, and
chief engineer of Paris by Louis XVIII.
Beaufort de Thcriguy, Jean Baptiste (b.
17(31, d. 1825), a French general who rose
from the ranks. He was placed at the head
of the troops of Paris, against Robespierre,
and was later imprisoned as a conspirator
against the First Consul.
Beauharnais, Alexander, Vicomte de (6.
1700, d. 1794), a French general who served
in America, and was afterwards a member
of the French States General aiid president
of the National Assembly. He was be-
headed for alleged treason in connection
with the siege of Mayence.
Beaufcarnais, Eugene (6. 1781, d. 1824),
on« of the most brilliant of Napoleon's
generals, and son of the preceding. The
marriage of Napoleon with his mother
secured for him a place on Napoleon's staff
in Italy and Egypt, and his gallantry in
several battles brought rapid promotion,
and finally he was appointed Viceroy of
Italy and Prince of Venice. In 1809 Italy
was invaded by the Austrians, but they
were defeated by Eugene, who carried the
war successfully across the frontier. He
held a high command in the Russian cam-
paign, and his masterly conduct of the
retreat, at the most critical period, won
Napoleon's open admiration. A second
invasion of Italy by the Austrians Eugene
resisted with varying success, when Napo-
leon's abdication ended the war, and the
Viceroy retired to Munich, where he died.
Beaulieu, Augustin (b. 1589, d. 1637), a
French navigator, who left records of his
voyages of the highest value.
Beaulieu, Jean Pierre, Baron de (6. 1725,
d. 1820), a Belgian, who served in the
Austrian artillery during the Seven Years'
war, and commanded the Netherland
troops against the French with success.
In 1796, as general in chief in Italy, he
was defeated by Napoleon.
Beaulieu, Sebastien de Pontault, Sire de
(d. 1674), a distinguished French military
engineer of the reign of Louis XIV., and
author of Les Glorieuses Conqudtes de Louis
le Grand.
Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron de
(b. 1732, d. 1799), a man of many-sided
genius, was the son of a watchmaker.
After writing verse successfully he adopted
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his father's trade, invented an improve-
ment in the works of watches, and became
horoioger to Louis XV. His musical ac-
complishments procured him a place in the
royal concerts, and he became rich by the
fortunes of two widows whom he married,
and by successful financial speculation.
Becoming involved in litigation, he gained
cou>iderable reputation as an advocate in
conducting his own case before the courts.
He made another fortune by supplying
arms and provisions to the Americans
during the war of Independence, and
then turned to dramatic writing, producing
several highly successful pieces. In 1793
he was accused of treason to the State, and
fled to England. Returning to France, he
was for some time imprisoned, and finally
died in poverty.
Beaume, Joseph (b. 1798), a French his-
torical painter, whose principal work con-
sists of a series of pictures illustrating the
great battles of Napoleon.
Beaumelle, Laurent Angliviel de la (6.
1726, d. 1773), a French litterateur, best
known for his hostility to Voltaire. His
criticisms of Voltaire drove him from Berlin
to Paris, where he was thrown into the
Bastille, to the confinement of which he
returned in 1756, after publishing his
Memoirs of Madame Maintenon. After a
long exile, he secured a pension.
Beaumont, Basil (b. 1669, d. 1703), an
English admiral, who first distinguished
himself at the blockade of Dunquerque,
and whose last service was a second
blockade of the same port.
Beaumont, Francis (b. 1584, d. 1616), an
English dramatist. Designed for the law,
he left it for the pursuit of literature, and
in collaboration with Fletcher produced a
number of plays which rank high in the
literature of the Elizabethan period,
Beaumont, William (b. 1796, d. 1853), a
surgeon in the United States army. A
remarkable casualty on the battle-field
enabled him to make observations of the
process of digestion which were of the
highest value.
Beaumont de la Bonniere, Gustave
Augusts (b. 1802, d. 1866), French politician
and writer. In 1831 he was sent to the
United States to report on the prison system
there, and his memoir on the subject was
highly esteemed. He took an active part in
politics, was sent on several embassies, and
was imprisoned after the coup d'etat.
Beaumont de la Bonniere, Marc Antoine,
Comte de (b. 1760, d. 1830), French soldier,
was condemned to deafch at Lyons for
opposing the revolutionary excesses, but
was rescued by his regiment, and after-
wards served in Napoleon's campaigns,
and was ennobled by Louis XVIII.
Beaumont-Vassy, Edward Ferdinand de
la Boimiere, Vicomte de (b. 1816, d. 1875),
French writer and politician. After publish-
ing several successful novels, he was sent ou
a mission to Sweden, after which he pro-
duced works on Swedish history. He held
office under Napoleon III., but fell into dis-
grace, and spent the rest of his life in
writing novels and historical memoirs.
Beaunoir, Alexandre Louis Bertrand (b.
1746, d. 1823), French dramatist. His
distaste for the law procured his disin-
heritance, and he entered the Church, but
he had to resign his orders after the pro-
duction of his first drama. He obtained
office on the Bourbon restoration.
Beaureg'ard, Jean Nicolas (b. 1731, d.
18U-i), a French Jesuit, celebrated as a
preacher, and known to posterity for the
delivery of a remarkable prediction, in a
sermon before the court, of the atheistic
excesses of the revolution.
Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toussaint (6.
1818), a general of the Confederate army.
He took up the cause of the Southern States,
on their secession, and captured Fort
Sumpter. He defeated Butler at Bull's
Run, and afterwards commanded the army
of the Mississippi. His obstinate defence of
Charleston is one of the remarkable episodes
of the Civil war.
Beaurepaire-Rohan, Henrique de (b.
1818), a Brazilian explorer, whose daring
explorations of the primeval regions of
Southern Brazil and Paraguay enabled him
to publish several works of great scientific
value.
Beausobre, Isaac (b. 1659, d. 1730), a
French Calviuist who, driven from France,
was received with honour in Holland and
Berlin. He wrote a Defence of Calvinism
against Lutherism, and a History of Mani-
cheism.
Beautemps-Beaupre, Charles Francois,
(b. 1766, d. 1854), practically the first of
French hydrographers. When only nineteen
he was commissioned by the government to
complete the marine survey of the Baltic.
In 1798 he made a complete survey of the
coast of France.
Beauvais, Bertrand Poirier de (6. 1775, d.
1827), prominent French royalist, who held
command in the Vende'an army. He died
in England.
Beauvau, Charles Juste de (6. 1730, d.
1793), a chivalrous French soldier, who was
regarded as a second Bayard, In 1763, aa
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ouuini<uidant of Languedoc, he released, in
doilauce of the Court, fourteen women who
were imprisoned for Protestantism. He was
made Marshal of France in- 1783.
Beauvau, Ken£ Francois de (b. 1664, d.
1739), French prelate remembered for his
unselfish devotion to the people, and for the
high place which he held in their affections.
He was Bishop of Bayonne and then of
Tournay, and later Archbishop of Toulouse,
and finally of Narborme.
Beauvois, Ambrose Palisot de (b. 1752, d.
1820), French naturalist, who visited the
west coast of Africa, San Domingo, and the
United States, and as a result of his patient
observation left several valuable works, to-
gether with a remarkable collection of speci-
mens.
Beauzee, Nicolas (b. 1717, d. 1789), a
French philologist, and a contributor to the
great Encyclopedia. Frederick the Great
in vain endeavoured to attract him to his
court.
Beaver, Philip (6. 1766, d. 1813), an Eng-
lish naval officer who served in the Ameri-
can war, and in later life under Abercrombie
in the French war. He is best known, how-
ever, for his devoted but unsuccessful at-
tempt to establish a colony of free negroes
on the west coast of Africa.
Beccadelli, Lodovico (6. 1501, d. 1572), an
Italian prelate and biographer. He was
employed on several important missions by
the Pope, and came into intimate con-
nection with* Cardinals Bembo, Pole, and
Contarini, whose biographies he wrote.
Beccaftuni, Domenico (surnamed Mecher-
ino) (6. 1484, d. 1549). Italian painter of
peasant birth, his untutored genius for paint-
ing asserted itself at an early age. His best
work is to be found at Siena.
Beccari Agostino (b. 1510, d, 1590), a
celebrated Italian poet, whose special genius
was not incompatible with a profound know-
ledge of law and philosophy.
Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana (b. 1738,
d. 1794), Italian reformer, a native of
Milan. He early became intimate with
Pietro Verri, the economist, whose influence
over him was great. Turning his attention
to the savage penal code of that time, he
published, when only twenty- six, a book
on Crimes and Punishments, in which he
advocated a more humane and just treat-
ment of social offenders. The vigour of his
style and the originality of his views gained
him a European celebrity. He was received
with honour in Paris, and was offered state
appointments by the Empress Catherine. He
filled for some years the chair of economy
at Milan.
Becerra, Gaspard (b. 1520, d. 1570), a
celebrated master of Spanish art, who ex-
celled as painter, sculptor, and architect.
He was employed by Philip II.
Becher, Alfred J. (6. 1804, d. 1848), a
German musician and critic, born in Man-
chester. After leading an unsettled lif e in
Germany he obtained a professorship of
music in London, and in 1845 achieved
some reputation in Vienna as a critic and
composer. In 1848 he joined the revolution-
ary movement, started a journal, and was
soon after shot as a rebel
Becher, Lady Elizabeth (b. 1792, d. 1872),
a tragic actress who in the early part of
the century was very popular hi London.
She married Sir W. Becher, M.P.
Escher, Johann Joachim (6. 1635, d. 1682),
an inventive and erudite German, entirely
self-educated. He held the chair of medicine
at Mayence, and superintended the chemical
laboratory at Munich ; and in Vienna he was
made a councillor of the chamber of com-
merce, in recognition of services to com-
mercial enterprise. He afterwards visited
Holland and England.
Bechstein, Johann Matthias (b. 1757, d.
1822), a very distinguished German natur-
alist. He published a Popular Natural His-
tory of Germany, and established a forest
school at Waltershausen.
Beck, Karl (b. 1817, d. 1879), Hungarian
poet, best known for his patriotic songs,
which had a great vogue.
Beck, Matthias Friedrich (b. 1649, d. 1701),
a German pastor at Augsburg, and one of
the first orientalists of his time. He de-
clined to leave his ministrations for the
university chairs which were offered him.
Becker, Charles Ferdinand (b. 1804, d.
1877), a German musician of Leipzig. He
excelled as an organist, composed much, and
wrote several interesting works on music.
Becker, Ferdinand (b. 1740, d. 1810), a
Westphalian pastor, who devoted his lif e to
the education of the young. His books on
education were condemned as heretical, and
in consequence for a time he suffered im-
prisonment.
Becker, Jakob (b. 1810, d. 1872), a German
painter, native of Worms, whose fame chiefly
rests on his representation of scenes from
contemporary German life.
Becker, Johann Philip (6. 1809), German
revolutionist. He edited a paper in Bavaria,
which several times brought imprisonment
upon him, and finally compelled his flight
to Switzerland. There his writings at-
tracted attention, and he became a leader of
Bee
(11*)
Bed
the German colony. In 1818, when the
revolution broke out in Germany, he led a
band of his followers into Hadm, and in
isii.) took part in the Carlsruhe rising.
Finally he settled to trade in Geneva, where
he made a fortune.
Becker, Karl Friedrich (*. 1777, d. 1806),
German historian, whoso works are much
used for educational purposes. His chief
work is I) e ITeltgeschichte fur Kinder und
Ktndcriehrer.
Becker, Nicolaus (*. 1816, d. 1845), a
German poet, whose fame rests on the
authorship of a single poem, Die Wacht
am Rhein, now sung as a national song.
Becker, Wilhelm Adolf (b. 1796, d. 1846),
a German scholar, and profound student of
the antiquities and classics of Greece and
Rome. His works are authoritative on the
manners and life of the classical age.
Beckerath, Hermann de (6. 1801, d. 1870),
German politician, who for some time was
a prominent figure in the Prussian Diets
as a Liberal. In 1848 he was minister of
finance, and he was always a strong oppo-
nent of Austrian dominance.
Becket, Gilbert a (6. 1810, d. 1856),
humorist and journalist, whose writings
were popular in his day. He was magis-
trate at South wark.
Becket, St. Thomas a (6. 1119, d. 1170).
The son of a London merchant, he obtained
the patronage of Theobald, Archbishop of
Canterbury, who made him archdeacon, and
employed him in missions at Rome. Henry
II. took him into his favour, made him his
chancellor and gave him lands, by which
Becket was enabled to maintain great
pomp. In 1162 he succeeded Theobald
as Archbishop of Canterbury, and im-
mediately changed his habit of life. He
turned ascetic, and instead of deferring to
the king's pleasure, he opposed him, strongly
on the question of the privileges of the
clergy. In 1164 the Constitutions of Claren-
don were passed, which Becket only agreed
to reluctantly, and renounced on the Pope's
disapproval of them. In the same year a
council at Nottingham proclaimed the for-
feiture of his goods and the confiscation of
the revenues of his see ; and the archbishop
fled to France. In 1170 he returned, and
promptly excommunicated the Archbishop
of York and other prelates who had usurped
his functions during his expatriation. The
king was incensed at this action, and four
of his retinue, in the hope of gaining Henry's
favour, set off for Canterbury and murdered
the Archbishop.
Beckett, Sir Edmund.
Lord.]
[See Grimthorpe,
Beckett, Isaac (6. 1653, d. 1719), on* of
the earliest and the best of English engravers
in mezzo- tinto.
Beckford, William (b. 1760, d. 1844), an
English millionaire and distinguished author.
When only twenty he published a clever
satire, Biographical Memoirs of Extraor-
liiiuirif I 'd inters. After some foreign travel
he entered Parliament, and published his
great work, The Romance of Vathek, in
the French language, a book which excited
the widest admiration. The chief episodes of
the remainder of his life were the erection,
at enormous cost, of two vast mansions in
England and a " fairy palace " in Portugal.
Beckington, Thomas de (d. 1465),
Bishop of Bath and Wells and secretary of
state to Henry VI. In 1442 he was sent to
negotiate a marriage between the king and
the Count d'Armaguac's daughter. Hia
record of the event has been published.
Beckmann, Johann (6. 1739, d. 1811), a
Hanoverian naturalist and economist, and
the writer of several valuable treatises.
Beckwith, Sir George (b. 1753, d. 1823),
a distinguished soldier and West Indian
governor. He served in the American war,
and in the French war captured Martinique
and Guadeloupe.
Beckx, Peter John (6. 1795, d. 1887), general
of the order of Jesuits. A Belgian by birth, he
was appointed procurator of Austria in 1847,
and in 1853 was chosen general of the order
at Rome. «His influence and policy were
very effective in extending the order.
Beclard, Pierre .Augustin (b. 1785, d.
1825), a distinguished French physician
and anatomist, and author of Les Elements
d' Anatomic Generate.
Becon, Thomas (b. 1610, d. 1570), an
English clergyman and adherent of the
Reformation, deprived of his living by
Mary. He was a prolific author in con-
troversial theology.
Becquerel, Antoine Caesar (6. 1788, d.
1878), a French scientist, served through
the Peninsular war in the Engineers, and
afterwards devoted himself to the experi-
mental study of electricity, magnetism and
heat, his researches being of great value.
Becquerel, Alexandre Edmond (b. 1820),
son of the preceding, and his collaborator
in many of his experiments.
Beda or Bede (b. 672, d. 735), an English
monk, and celebrated chronicler, generally
known as the "Venerable Bede." He
spent the greater part of his life at the
monastery of Jarrow, where he devoted
himself to study in every branch of learning.
There he wrote his Ecclesiastical History
Bed
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of the English Nation, a work of the
highest value, translated from the Latin
to Saxon by King Alfred. His last great
work was a translation of St. John's Gospel
into the vernacular.
Eeddoe, John (b. 1826), an eminent phy-
sician and anthropologist, and the author of
several valuable scientific memoirs. He
served on the medical staff during the
Crimean war.
Reddoes, Thomas (6. 1760, d. 1808),
eminent physician and scientist. He
was an accomplished scholar and liuguist,
and was elected president of the Royal
Medical and Natural History Society before
he tooK. his M.D. His greatest experiment
was the establishment of the Pneumatic
Institution at Ciif ton, which was not, how-
ever, a success.
Beddoes, Thomas Lovell (6. 1803, d. 1840),
son of the preceding, and nephew of Maria
Edgeworth. He was learned in medicine
and physiology, but is remembered prin-
cipally for his poems, the chief of which is
The Mride's Tragedy.
Eede, Cuthbert (6. 1827, d. 1890), the
pseudonym of the Rev. Edward Bradley, a
novelist and humorous writer, whose cele-
brity depends upon his book The Adventures
*/' Verdant Green at Oxford, which achieved
great popularity.
Bedeau, Marie Alphonse (6. 1804, d. 1865),
French general, was at the siege of
Antwerp in 1832, and subsequently served
with much distinction in Algeria. He was
commandant of Paris under the Provisional
Government of 1848, was a member of the
legislature for some years, and was banished
after the coup d'etat.
BedeU, William (6. 1570, d. 1642), a
distinguished bishop of the Irish Protestant
Church. In 1627 he was elected provost of
Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1(329 was
appointed Bishop of Kilrnore and of
Ardagh. His devoted life made him
extremely popular with the people of ever}'
creed. He translated the Old Testament
into Irish, aad caused the Common Prayer
to be read in Irish at the cathedral services
on Sunday. In the outbreak of 1641 he
harboured many Protestants, until he was
imprisoned by the rebels. He died shortly
after his liberation.
Bedford, John Plantagenet, Duke of (b.
1389, d. 1435), brother of Henry V., and
regent of the English dominions in France.
It was by his commands that Joan of Arc
was burnt at the stake.
Bedloe, William (d. 1680), a disreputable
adventurer, who concocted a story about a
Popish plot in Charles II. 's time, in corro-
boration of the figment of Titus Oates.
I 2
BedmaT, Alfonso de Cueva, Marquis de
(b. 1572, d. 1655), a Spanish ambassador at
Venice, who participated in the unsuccess-
ful intrigues ol Itilb for the destruction of
Venice. In 1622 he was made a cardinal.
Beecher, Henry Ward (b. 1813, d. 1S87),
popular American preacher, was attached to (
the Plymouth Congregational church at
Brooklyn, where his preaching attracted
enormous congregations. In 1886 he visited
England.
Beeclier-Stowe, Harriet Elizabeth (b.
1812), an American authoress, daughter of
the Rev. Lyman Beecher, an eminent
Presbyterian minister. She had written
fiction for some years before she achieved
her great popularity by the production of
Uncle Tom's Cabin, in 1850, when the
slavery question was most intense. Mrs.
Beecher-Stowe has written many other
books, and rather imperilled her popularity
by one in which she endeavoured to establish
a horrible charge against Lord Byron.
Beecney, Sir Frederick William (b. 1796,
d. 1856.1, naval officer and explorer,
accompanied Franklin on his first Arctic
voyage, and in 1819 went with Sir Edward
Parry's expedition. In 1821 he undertook
the survey of the north coast of Africa, and
in 1825 he commanded an Arctic expedition
in the Blossom, and made some interesting
discoveries.
Beek, David (b. 1621, d. 1656), a Dutch
portrait painter, appointed by Charles I. as
instructor to the royal children. He was
commissioned by Queen Christina of Sweden
to paint the portraits of the sovereigns and
celebrities of Europe.
Beer, George Joseph (b. 1763, d. 1821), a
very distinguished surgeon of Vienna, and
an authority on the subject of ophthalmia.
He invented many surgical instruments.
Beer, Joseph (b. 1744, d. 1811), a
Bohemian soldier, renowned for his pro-
ficiency on the clarionet. He served as a
trumpeter during the Seven Years' war, and
then went to Paris, where his playing on the
clarioTiet excited great attention.
Beer, Wilhelm (b. 1797, d. 1850), a Berlin
banker, who devoted himself to astronomy,
and made some valuable observations of
Mars and the moon.
Beerbul, or Bisbul, Rajah (d. 15S6), a
Hindoo statesman and the close friend of the
Mogul Emperor Akber, over whom he -
exercised a great influence. He is re- !
membered for the wisdom of his counsels and ;
the wittiuess of his discourse. He was killed
in a rash expedition against the Afghans.
Beesly, Edward Spencer (b. 1831), a well
Bee
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known profe.-sor of history, and a louder of
the Engli>h Pi'i-itivibt Society. In 1686 he
unsuccessfully cont- sted a London con-
stituency as a Radical and Home. Ruier.
Beethoven, Ludwig van (b. 177U, <L
18-7), German oimi'.'ser, was desermled
from a musical family, and received his
first lessons from his father. ilis pre-
cocity attracted the notice of the h lector
of Cologne, who secured good tuition for
him, and finally sent him to Vunna, to
study under Haydn and Albrecht-!>ei ^ r.
His remarkable powers of impn>vi.--a1,ioii,
and his comp"Mii< us, which now began to
be published, gained him a great reputation,
and made, for him many influential friends.
A pension was granted to him, in order to
retain him at Vienna, but the troubled times
which succeeded reduced its value almost to
nothing. When in his twenty-seventh year
Beethoven was afflicted with the first symp-
toms of that deafness which oii'.y increased
with years, and which did so much to sour
his disposition. He was further distressed
by family dissensions, and the ungrateful
behaviour of a nephew over whom he had
assumed guardianship. He continued to
compose, in spite of his loss of hearing,
right up to his last illness, and the imposing
funeral which was accorded him showed the
appreciation in which his great genius was
held by his contemporaries.
Begas, Karl (b. 1794, d. 1855), a Prussian
portrait and historical painter of note. He
was painter in ordinary to the King of
Prussia, from whom he also received a
pension.
Begh, or Le Begrie, Lambert (d. 1177), a
Belgian priest of Liege, and a supposed
founder of the order of the Beguines. He
was remarkable for his severity against
clerical looseness of Life.
Beham, or Behaim (b. 1436, d. 1506), a
celebrated (J erman geographer. Originally
a merchant, his skill in mapping attracted
notice at Lisbon, whither he had gone, and
he was appointed geographer to Diego Cam's
expedition to Africa in 1484, the results of
which he included in his charts.
Benn, Aphra (b. 1642, d. 1689), novelist,
dramatist, and poetess. Her early life was
spent in Surinam, where she was friendly
with the native prince, Oroonoko, whose
lif e she published on returning to England,
and thereby obtained considerable celebrity.
She married a rich old merchant named
Behn, who soon died, and left her free to
devote herself to authorship and political
intrigue, her great beauty assisting her in
the latter direction. She managed while in
Antwerp to obtain information of the in-
tended descent of the Dutch on the Thames,
but her warning was unheeded. She passed
In r life in the corrupt court of the restored
Stuarts, and m»st<>i her writing is irredeem-
ably st.iini.l with the wantonness of her
en\ ironmeut.
Behnes, William (b. 1794, d. 18G4), a
m>; .ii^li.-h .-vulptor, of Hanoverian
extract on. Extravagant habits consumed
the fortune made by his ait, and he died in
want.
Benring, or Bering, Veit (b. 1680, d. 1741),
a Danish navigator, whose name has been
given to the straits which he discovered,-
between Kamschatka and Alaska. He ob-
tained service with Peter the Great, and
commanded the expedition sent to discover
whether Asia and America were connected
i<t the north. In 17 -11 he made a second
expedition to the same; region, when he was
wi' eked and died.
Beiram Bin Musagood Giiiznevi (d. 1 152),
the sou of Mus-jgood, Sultan of Ghuzni,
whom he succeed ;cl in 1117. He was a
great patron of Mohammedan literature,
and held a brilliant court of Persian poets
and writers. He was driven from his king-
dom by Prince Alia-oo-deen, of Ghoor.
Beiram Khan, Toorkoman (d. 1561), gene-
ral-in -chief, of Hoomayon, Emperor of
Delhi, for whom he conducted victorious
campaigns against the Afghans and the
King of Delhi. He became the guardian of
Hoomayon.'s successor, Akber, but his am-
bition becoming too great he was sent by
Akber on a pilgrimage to Mecca, and was
murdered on the way.
Beke, Charles Tilstone (b. 1800, d. 1874),
an English traveller and scholar. In 1834
he published his Origines Biblictt, which
brought him into celebrity by the attacks of
the orthodox world. He was appointed
British Consul in Saxony in 1836, and he
spent the years from 1840 to 1843 in explo-
rations in Abyssinia. He also visited the
Nile, and in 1865 was sent to Abyssinia
again to negotiate the release of captives
from King Theodore. His last journey was
a visit to Syria to establish the site of
Mount Sinai.
Bekker, Balthasar (6. 1634, d. 1698), a
Dutch pastor, known to fame for his supe-
riority to the superstitions of his time. He
wrote He-Marches into Comets, to overcome
the panic caused by the 1680 comet,
and The World Bewitched, to expose
the folly of popular beliefs in witchcraft
and the like. The latter work was widely
read, but brought on its author all but
excommunication.
Bekker, Elizabeth (b. 1733, d. 1804), a
very gifted authoress, and collaborateur of
Aaghje Deken. She is best known as Madame
Wolff, her name after marriage.
Bek
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Bekker, Emanuel (6. 1785, d. 1871), a !
German philologist and editor of classics. |
Ha was professor of Greek literature at
Berlin, and travelled extensively in Europe,
studying the MSS. in the great collections.
Bela L (d. 1063), King of Hungary,
brother of Andrew I. of Hungary, and
husband of Casimir, sister to the King of
Poland. He was promised the succession
by Andrew for assisting to repel a German
invasion, but the promise being revoked, he
invaded Hungary, and deposed Andrew in
1060.
Bela II. (d. 1141), surnamed the Blind,
his eyes having been put out by Coloman,
whom he succeeded in 1131.
Bela ILL (d. 1196) succeeded Stephen
III. 1174. He recovered Dahnatia from the
Venetians, and did much to organise the
government of his country.
Bela IV. (d. 1270) succeeded to the
throne 1235, and in 1241 was driven from
his kingdom by the Mongol invasion under
Batu Khan. On his return he successfully
resisted the aggression of Frederick of Aus-
tria, but invading Austria in turn, he was
himself defeated.
Belair, Alexandre Pierre Julienne de (b.
1747, d. 1819), French general and military
engineer. In 1792 he was charged with the
defence of Paris, but his plans of fortifica-
tion were not executed. He was the author
of treatises on fortification.
Belcher, Sir Edward (6. 1800, d. 1877),
explorer and hydrographer. His first expe-
dition was in the Blossom, under Beecher,
to the Behring Straits. From 1830 to 1852
he was employed constantly in surveying
and charting different parts of the world's
coasts and oceans, and then he was placed
in command of a Franklin search squadron.
He spent two winters in the arctic zone,
and made several discoveries. He left
important records of his voyages.
Belderfousch, Charles Leopold, Count de
(b. 1749, d. 1826), Belgian statesman, who
represented the Elector of Cologne in Paris
at the outbreak of the revolution. After
the union of France and Belgium he became
deputy and senator.
Belgians, Kings of the. A line created in
1830, the first of which was Leopold L, Duke
of Saxe-Coburg (b. 1790, d. 1865). Leopold
was appointed by the European powers after
the separation of Holland and Belgium, and
the reluctance of Holland to acquiesce in
this arrangement compelled the siege of
Antwerp by the French and English. Leo-
pold's reign was marked by internal reform
and commercial expansion. He sanctioned
the first continental railroad. Leopold II.
(6. 1835), son of preceding, whom he suc-
ceeded in 1865. During the reign the faction
fights between Catholics and Liberals have
been very fierce. King Leopold was mainly
instrumental in the establishment of the
Congo Free State.
Belgiojoso, Christina Trivulzio, Princess
of (b. 1808, d. 1871), an accomplished Italian
lady, and a pronounced patriot. During the
Austrian occupation she resided in Paris,
where her salon became famous. On the
Italian insurrection of 1843 she equipped at
her own expense a force of 200 men, for
which act she was banished. She then
retired to Asia Minor.
Belidor, Bernard Forest de (6. 1693, d.
1761), a French military engineer. After
serving in the army he obtained a professor-
ship in the school of artillery at La Fere,
where his lectures established for him. a
wide reputation. He lost his office through
the jealousy of officials, and afterwards
served under Segur and the Prince of
Conti.
BeliJig, Richard (6. 1613, d. 1677), an
Irish Roman Catholic and insurrectionist.
He was secretary of the Council of Kil-
kenny, and visited Italy to enlist the sym-
pathy of the Pope in the Irish cause. He
| afterwards joined the Duke of Ormond,
and on the defeat of the Royalists he went
to France.
Belisarius (b. 505, d. 565), a great general
of the Byzantine empire. He served in
Justinian's private guard, and when Justin-
ian became emperor he was appointed to a
high command in the army. His conduct of
the campaign against the Persians brought
him into high honour. He married Anto-
nina, a woman of vicious character, who
greatly embittered his life, and in 532 he
suppressed an insurrection in Constanti-
nople, when the emperor was preparing to
fly. He next conducted a victorious war
against the dreaded Vandals of Africa, from
which he was recalled, bringing immense
booty, and in 536 he destroyed the power of
the Goths in Italy. Again recalled, he was
soon after sent against the Persians, but his
success thoroughly roused the jealousy of
the emperor, and he was exposed to much
humiliation. In 544 he was sent on a second
expedition to Italy against the Goths, but
his plans were frustrated by the refusal of
supplies; and in 559 he repulsed the Bul-
garians from the walls of Constantinople.
The emperor, who had constantly treated
Belisarius with jealous distrust and ingrati-
tude, now caused fresh indignities to be
heaped on the great commander, who was
imprisoned and deprived of his posses-
sions. Of his latter end nothing is certainly
known.
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Belknap, Jeremy (b. 1774, d. 1798), an
American minister and writer. He wrote
the History of New Hampshire, and much
other minor work, theological and his-
torical.
Bell, Andrew (b. 1752, d. 1832), a Scottish
educationalist and founder of the Madras
or monitorial system of teaching. It was in
his work at the Madras military asylum,
where he was an Episcopalian clergyman,
that he formed the ideas of his system. In
England a rrwdAl school was founded by
Jn-ieph Lancaster and Bell, but the former
being a disseuter, a breach between the re-
formers took place, resulting in the establish-
ment of the British schools and the National
schools. Bell's labours were recognised be-
fore his death, and he left a large fortune
for educational endowments.
Bell, Sir Charles (6. 1774, d. 1842),
surgeon and anatomist. A high reputa-
tion gained in Edinburgh was confirmed
in London, where the publication of
two interesting and valuable books made
Bell's name known. In 1812 he was ap-
pointed surgeon to the Middlesex Hospital,
and in 1821 he read a paper before the Royal
Society embodying the result of years of re-
search— The Nervous System of the Human
Body. This obtained a European reputa-
tion and secured the investigator a knighthood
and other honours. In 1836 he returned to
Edinburgh as a professor of surgery.
Bell, George Joseph (6. 1770, d. 1843),
brother of the preceding, and an eminent
lawyer of Scotland. He was the author of
Commentaries on the Laws of Scotland.
Bell, Henry (6. 1767, d. 1830), the first
British subject to apply steam as a motive
power for ships. He was bom in Scotland,
and laboured as a working engineer. In
1812 he constructed the first British steam-
ship— a vessel of about 25 tons, with an
engine of three-horse power, which was used
for traffic on the Clyde. The people of Glas-
gow raised a subscription for him, and he
received a pension of £100.
Bell, Isaac Lowthian (6. 1816), a con-
siderable ironmaster, and founder of the
Clarence iron works on the Tees. He has
written on the metallurgy of iron, and on
the chemical phenomena of the blast furnace.
From 1875 to 1880 he was M.P. for Hartle-
pool.
Bell, John (b. 1811), a prominent sculptor.
Among his more widely known works are the
Wellington monument at the Guildhall, the
Guards' Memorial in Waterloo Place, and
the Crimean Memorial at Woolwich.
Bell, John (b. 1782, d. 1865), a Newcastle
antiquary. He was an industrious writer ;
his Notes on the Roman Remains in Nor-
th nmberlund is his most important work.
His Rhymes of the Northern Bards also
attracted considerable notice.
Bell, John (6. 1763, d. 1820), a distinguished
Scottish surgeon and anatomist. He opened
a school of anatomy in Edinburgh, and
thereby excited much professional criticism,
which was aggravated by his attacks on
Monro and Benjamin Bell. In conjunction
with his brother Charles he produced his
valuable Anatomy of the Human Body.
Bell, John (6. 1691, d. 1780), a Scottish
physician and traveller. In 1715 he was
appointed physician to the Russian embassy
to Persia, and in 1719 he joined a mission to
China, travelling to Pekm through Siberia
and Tartary. In the suite of Peter the Great
he visited the Caucasus, and later was sent
on a mission to Constantinople, where he
resided for some years.
Bell, Robert (b. 1800, d. 1867), an Irish
writer. After some j ournalistic and dramatic
work in Dublin he came to London and
became editor of the Atlas. A History of
Russia and Lives of the English Poets
were among his works.
Bell, Thomas (b. 1792, d. 1880), a dis-
tinguished naturalist. He practised with
much success as a surgeon-dentist, devoting
his leisure to the study of zoology, and writ-
j-Lig several valuable memoirs. He was also
one of the secretaries of the Royal Society,
and president of the Linnaean Society. The
latter part of his lif e he spent in retirement
at Selborne.
Bell, William (b. 1731, d. 1816), anEnglish
clergyman, remarkable alike for his learning
and his munificence. He endowed eight
scholarships at Cambridge for the sons of
poor clergy, and his writings were highly
thought of.
Bella, Giano Delia (d. 1294), a noble
Florentine, who espoused the cause of the
people. He organised a citizen protective
force, and succeeded in obtaining the exclu-
sion of the nobles from Florentine affairs.
Further reforms procured his exile.
Bella, Stephano Delia (b. 1610, d. 1664),
a celebrated engraver of Florence, whose
industry is credited with no less than 1,400
works. In 1642 he went to Pai^ and
executed commissions for Richelieu.
Bellamont, Richard Coote, Earl of (d.
1700), an Irish statesman, ennobled by
William of Orange for services to his cause.
His chief celebrity is associated with his able
governorship of New York, undertaken in
1695.
Bellamy, Jakob (6. 1757, d. 1786), a very
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popular Dutch poet, who began life as a
baker's apprentice. He first attracted at-
tention by his poems on the jubilee of
Holland's liberation.
Bellange, Joseph Louis Hyppolite (b. 1800,
d 186(3), French painter of battle pieces.
fris paintings commemorate the great wars
of the republic and of Napoleon.
Bellanger, Franpois Joseph (6. 1744, d.
1818), a French architect of note, who was
employed by Napoleon and appointed archi-
tect to the Count D'Artois on the restora-
tion, for his constant efforts in the royalist
cause.
BeUarmino, Roberto (6. 1542, d. 1621),
a powerful Jesuit preacher. He was
made cardinal in 1598, and later Archbishop
of Capua, and librarian to the Vatican. He
published many learned works, and won
considerable repute by his polemical writings
in favour of absolute papal supremacy,
which he artfully associated with the rights
of the people against their rulers. His con-
tentions were strongly opposed by Catholics
as well as Protestants in France, Italy, and
especially in England, where he absolved the
people from their allegiance to James I. It
was Bellannino who in 1616 gave Galileo
a certificate from the Holy Office as to the
falsity of his reputed recantation.
Bellart, Nicolas Fran?ois (6.1761, d. 1826),
a very distinguished French advocate who
defended many of the royalist victims of the
revolution. He was afterwards appointed
public orator to the general council of the
Seine, and greatly lauded Napoleon, whom
he however denounced after his fall. He
was ennobled and given office on the restora-
tion, and distinguished himself as public
prosecutor.
Bellay, Guillaume du, Sieur de Langey
(6. 1491, d. 1543), soldier, diplomatist and
scholar, and eminent in each capacity. He
wrote a history of his time.
Bellay, Jean du (b. 1492, d. 1560), a
French cardinal, and brother of the pre-
ceding. He was sent by Francis I. on
missions to England and Rome, and in 1536
he was appointed lieutenant-general, in the
absence of the king on the Proven9al cam-
paign against Charles V.
Bellay, Joachim (6. 1524, d. 1560), nephew
of the preceding, a poet known as the
" French Ovid." He obtained celebrity for
his verse in the court of Francis I., and
later in that of Henry II. He wrote odes,
elegies and hymns, but principally sonnets
m pi aiss of his mistress.
Belle, Jean Fra^ois Joseph de (6. 1767,
d. 1802), a French general and brother-
in-law of Hoche, with whom he served,
afterwards serving on the Rhine and in Italy.
He died at San Domingo, whither he was
sent to suppress Toussaint L'Ouverture's
insurrection.
Belleau, Remi (b 1528, d. 1577), one of
the seven French poets who were styled
"the Pleiades." He translated Anacreon,
but his poems are not of great value.
Bellecourt, Jean Claude Gille (6. 1725, d.
1778), a French actor. The son of a distin-
guished portrait painter, named Colson, he
studied for the same profession, and showed
much ability. But becoming " stage-
struck," he devoted himself to acting and
ultimately reached the Come'die Frau^aise.
Bellecourt, Rose Petronelle (6. 1730, d.
1799), wife of the preceding, and a famous
actress. She first appeared on the Paris stage
at the age of thirteen.
Bellegarde, Antoine due Bois de (b. 1740,
d. 1825), a French revolutionary, who sat
in the Legislative Assembly as an extremist.
He was secretary of the Convention and
of " Le Conseildes Auciens." He fled from
France at the restoration.
Bellegarde, Henri, Count de (b. 1755, d,
1831), a Savoyard, and field-marshal in the
Austrian army. In 1805 he was president
of the Aulic Council of war, and after being
governor of Galicia he was made governor-
general of the Italian provinces.
Bellegarde, Roger de Saint Lary de (d,
1579), a marshal of France. For promoting
an alliance between the Duke of Savoy and
the French king' he was made a marshal by
Henry III. Falling into disgrace, he in-
duced the Duke to declare war against
France, with the result that Catherine de
Medici brought about his death by poison.
Bellegarcle, Roger de Saint Lary de,
Duke of Tonnes (b. 1563, d. 1646), French
soldier, who served in the wars of Henry III. ,
Heury VI., and Louis XIII. He was the
favoured lover of Gabrielle d'Estrees, who
became Henry IV. 's mistress, when Belle-
garde was promptly banished.
Belle-Isle, Charles Louis Auguste
Fouquet, Due de (b. 1684, d. 1761), a French
marshal. Commanding the French troops
in the Austrian campaign of 1740, he
suffered a disastrous defeat, and, being taken,
was sent to England as a prisoner. He re-
turned to France at the end of a year, and
repelled the Austrian invasion of Provence
in 1744. In 174S he was ennobled, and next
year became minister of war.
Bellenden, or Ballentyne, John (d. 1560),
a Scottish poet, of considerable repute, who
wrote in the time of James V. He also trans-
lated historical works into the vernacular.
Bel
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BeDeteste, B. (b. 1778, d. 1808), a French
Orient;;.. 1st, who was wounded iu the
Egyptian, expedition, which he accompanied
as a member of the Science aud Art Com-
mission. His Forty Vi-ttr^is. a translation
from the Turkish.
Belleval, Pierre Riche de (A. 1558, d. 1023),
a French physician and botanist, who in-
augurated the botanical schools of France.
He occupied the first ch:iir of botany,
created in 1596 by Henry IV.
Belliard, Augustiu Daniel (6. 1769, d.
1832), a French general of the revolution.
He had almost won a general's rank when
he was degraded on suspicion. Enlisting
again as a private, he rose to his former
rank under Hoche. He fought with dis-
tinction in Italy, Egypt, Germany, Russia,
and Spain. He was imprisoned at the re-
storation, but after the revolution of 1830
was sent as ambassador to Belgium.
Bellievret, Pompone de (b. 1529, d. 1607),
a French diplomatist, employed on embassies
by Charles IV. aud Henry III., and made
chancellor by Henry IV. He was sent to
England to demand the release of Mary
Queen of Scots.
Bellini, Giovanni (6. 1422, d. 1512),
Venetian painter, son of Jacopo Bellini,
himself a painter of note, and the teacher
of Titian, who finished several of his
•works. He began by portrait painting ;
and he afterwards executed some great
historical pieces for the 'Hall of the Great
Council of Venice, which were destroyed by
fire in 1-577.
Bellini, Gentile (d. 1501), brother of the
preceding, and also a great painter. He
visited Constantinople, and was received
with great favour by the Sultan.
Bellini, Vincenzo (b. 1802, d. 1835), an
Italian musical composer, and a disciple of
Rossini. The son of a Sicilian organist, he
proceeded to the royal music school of
Naples, where he produced his first opera.
He attracted attention with II Pirata,
brought out at Milan and played succes-
sively in all the European capitals : and in
1831 the production of his greatest opera,
La Somnambula, established his high reputa-
tion. This was followed by the tragic opera
Norma, and in 1835 by / Puritani, the com-
poser's last work. He was buried in Pero
la Chaise at Paris.
Bellmann, Karl Michael (6. 1740, d. 1795),
a Swedish lyrical poet of considerable popu-
larity. The nature of his verse is indicated
by the name given to him — the Swedish
Anacreon.
Belloc, Jean Louis (b. 1730, d. 1807), an
eminent French surgeon, and professor of
medical jurisprudence at Paris. Among
several valuable works, he wrote Le Court de
Midecine, L&jale, Judiciaire, Theoretique et
Pratique.
Bellori, Giovanni Pietro (b. IGln. d. 1696),
a distinguished antiquarian and an excellent
painter, who also claims remembrance for
his biographies of eminent men.
Bellot, Joseph Rene (6. 1826, d. 1853), a'
gallant French naval officer, who tefore he
was twenty years old was received into the
Legion of Honour. In 1851 he sailed, under
Mr. Kennedy, in the Princes/Libert, with the
Franklin expedition, and in 1852 he joined
another Arctic expedition under Captain
Inglefield, and in this he lost his life. A
monument was erected to him at Greenwich
by public subscription.
Bellovesus, a Gallic chief who, according
to Livy, emigrated from Gaul during the
reign of Tarquinius Priscus, and, settling in
the plains of Lombardy, founded Milan.
Belloy, Jean Baptiste (b. 1709, d. 1808), a
French prelate. As Bishop of Glandeves he
took part in the convocation of 1755. At
the outbreak of the revolution he retired to
Chambly, and was the first bishop to resign
his title in 1801, for the sake of the Con-
cordat. He was some time cardinal and
Archbishop of Paris.
Belloy, Pierre Laurent Buyrette de (b.
1727, d. 1775). a French dramatist. He for-
sook the law for trie stage, and in 1758 he
produced his tragedy Titus, which failed dis-
mally. In 1765 he produced The Siege of
Calais, which succeeded as notably as the
first piece failed, and which was the pre-
cursor of several other dramas. The bad
reception accorded to his Peter the Cruel is
said to have caused his death.
Belmeis or Beaumes, Richard de (d.
1127), Bishop of London, remembered for
his efforts in the restoration of St. Paul's
after its destruction by fire in 1086.
Belmontet, Louis (b. 1799, d. 1879), a
French poet, best known for his political odes.
He was consistently the devoted admirer of
Napoleon and the Bonapartes, and wrote
against every government which was not
Bonapartist. In 1817 he was banished from
Toulouse ; later he was an editor of the
Paris Tribune, and when Louis Napoleon
assumed sovereign power he was taken into
favour.
Belon, Pierre (6. 1517, d. 1564), a French
physician and an eminent naturalist. By
means of influential patronage he was
enabled to make extensive travels in Eastern
Europe and Egypt, his observations and
records being of the greatest value. He was
murdered by robbers.
Eel
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Balowselsky, Alexander, Prince (6. 1757,
d. 1809), a Russian man of letters and a
patron of the fine arts. He was for some
time Catherine's ambassador at Turin.
Eelsaam, Thomas (b. 1750, d. 1829), an
eminent Unitarian minister, whose writings
on religious subjects were much esteemed in
his day. He preached at the Essex Street
chapel in London.
Belshazzar, the last king of Babylon and
grandson of Nebuchadnezzar. He it was
whose feast was interrupted by the writing
on the wall, as narrated in the 5th chapter
of Daniel.
Belsunce de Castel Moron, Henri Fran-
9ois Xavier (6. 1671, d. 1755), archbishop of
Marseilles, and a provincial grand vicar of
the Jesuits. He is remembered for his
noble conduct during the plague of 1720,
and for his persecution of the Jansenists.
Belzoni, Giovanni Battista (6. 1778, d.
1823), an Italian explorer, who rendered the
most signal services to archeology. After
travelling in Prance and Holland, he came
to Great Britain. He was of singularly
powerful build, and married an English wife
of equally remarkable physique, and the two
for some time maintained themselves by itin-
erant exhibitions of feats of strength. After
visiting Spain, he went to Egypt; he was
employed there by Mr. Consul Salt in the
Nile Valley excavations, and removed from
Thebes the granite bust of the " Young
Memnon." Then he excavated from the
Band the Temple of Ipsamboul, and found the
tomb of Seti I. at Thebes. He made valu-
able researches in the Valley of the Tombs
of the Kings, and crowned his labours by
discovering the entrance to the Second
Pyramid. He received a very cordial re-
ception in England and Italy after this, aud
in 1822 he set out again to penetrate Africa
from the Guinea coast. On the way he
contracted a serious illness, which shortly
carried him off.
Bern, Joseph (6. 1795, d. 1850), a brave
and skilful Polish general. He served as
general of artillery in the Polish revolution
of 1830, and afterwards travelled in Europe.
He joined Kossuth in 1848 in the revolt
against Austria, and won several battles for
the national cause. Later he entered the
service of the Turkish sultan, adopting the
Mohammedan religion.
Eembo, Pietro (b. 1470, d. 1547), an emi-
nent Italian cardinal, and a profound scholar.
His early life he spent studying in one
city and another, and he attained such a
reputation for culture that when in 1512
he went to Rome he was appointed one of
the pontifical secretaries, and in 1539 he
was created cardinal. He wrote prose
and verse, both in Italian and Latin, and
his compositions are most remarkable for
their purity of style.
Benalcasor, Sebastian de (d. 1550), one
of the Spanish pioneers in South American
conquest. He left Spain in the expedi-
tion to Darien of 1514, and soon attracted
the attention of Pizarro. He defeated the
Indians, and took possession of Quito, of
which he was made governor, and from
which he undertook adventurous expeditions
of conquest. He joined Blasco Nunez in his
revolt against Pizarro, but after their defeat
he was restored to his office.
Benbow, John (6. 1650, d. 1702), a gallant
British admiral, promoted from the mer-
chant service. After some active service
against the French in Europe he was sent
to the West Indies, and encountering a
superior French fleet he engaged it for five
days. The cowardly desertion of some of
his captains on this occasion threw the brunt
of the fighting on Benbow' s ship, and the
admiral lost a leg, dying of the wound
shortly afterwards.
Benda, Franz (6. 1709, d. 1788), a Bohe-
mian violinist of great ability. He took
violin lessons from Koniesk, and his talent
was so great that he became recognised as
the first violinist of his time, and was taken
into the service of Frederick the Great.
Benda, Georg (6. 1722, d. 1795), cousin of
the preceding, and also a notable violinist.
He was kapellmeister to the Duke of Saxe-
Gotha, and produced several successful
operas. He spent some time in Italy.
Bendeinann, Edward (6. 1811, d. 1889),
a German painter of repute. He became
known by his religious pieces, and in 1860
was appointed director of the Diisseldorf
Academy of Arts.
Bender, Blaise Colomban, Baron de (6.
1713, d. 1798), an Austrian field marshal,
who rose to that rank and to nobility from
the artisan class. He was in high favour
with Maria Theresa, and served in the
Seven Years' war.
Benedek, Ludwig von (6. 1804, d. 1881),
an Austrian general who served with dis-
tinction against the revolutionists in Hun-
gary and the Nationalists of Italy. He was
placed in command of the Austrian army
against the Prussians in 1866, and was totally
defeated at Sadowa, largely owing to his
own ineptitude.
Benedetti, Giovanni (d. 1590), a Venetian
mathematician of considerable genius, whose
work has endured better than his personal
fame.
Benedetti, Vincent (6. 1816), a Corsican
Ben
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Ben
by birth, and a prominent figure in French
diplomacy. He \vus ambassador at Berlin
before the war of 1870, and he it was who
drew up the secret treaty published in tho
Times, by which Prussia and France were
to co-operate in the annexation of Belgium.
Benedict, the name of fourteen popes, from
574 to 1758. Benedict I. died (578) during the
siege of Home by the Longobards ; Bene-
dict II. (</. 085) "was cauou.sed; Benedict
III. (d. 8-58) was for a short time displaced
by a pretender, who secured the support of
the emperor, Louis II. ; Benedict IV. (d.
903) ruled but three years ; Benedict V. (d.
965) was elected to the pontificate by the
Romans, while Leo VIII. was nominated
by the Emperor Otho I. He resigned, and
retired to Germany at the solicitation of the
emperor ; Benedict VI. (d. 974) was deposed
by a faction, and murdered by Cardinal
Boniface, who usurped the Holy Office ;
Benedict VII. (d. 983) — it was under this pope
that Otho II. undertook his famous expedi-
tion against the Saracens in southern Italy;
Benedict VIII. (d. 1024) was expelled by a
faction, but restored by Henry II. of Ger-
many. He promoted the crusade of Pisa
and Genoa against the Saracens ; Benedict
IX. (pope 1033) was elected by bribery, and
was expelled for his bad life by the Romans.
Restored by his friends, he sold his office,
and was finally deposed by the Emperor
Henry III. ; Benedict X. was elected by a
faction, and deposed (1059) by a council
held at Siena; Benedict XI. (d. 1304)—
after his death the papal see was transferred
to Avignon; Benedict XII. (d. 1342) ruled
at Avignon, and to him was made the pro-
posal by the Emperor Androuicus for the
union of the Greek and Latin churches;
Benedict XIII. (b. 1649, d. 1730) was best
known for his liberality and piety. His
authority was defied by the King of Portugal
because the Lisbon nuncio was refused a
cardinal's hat, and Parma and Piacenza
were snatched by Austria from the papal
see ; Benedict XIV. (b. 1675, d. 1753), the
last pope of the name, is distinguished for
the sagacious concessions which he made in
regard to the privileges and power of the
papacy. He endeavoured to reform the dis-
cipline of the clergy, and to put in order
the finances of the see.
Benedict, Sir Julius (b. 1804, d. 1885),
musical composer. He was born at Stutt-
gart, and studied under Weber, and in
1825 took the directorship of the San Carlo
theatre at Naples, where he produced his
first opera. In 1835 he came to London, and
produced in 1838 his first English opera, The
Gipsy's Warning ; and later, as orchestral
director at Drury Lane, he brought out his
two best works, The Brides of Venice and
The Crusader, He accompanied Jenny
Lind in her American tour, and in 1862
produced The Lily of Killarney. He was
lighted in 1871.
Benedict, Saint (d. 542 or 547), the founder
of the famous Benedictine order. For man)
years of his cnrly life he lived in a cave near
Subiaco, holding no communication with
the world. Through the shepherds he
became known in the district, and several
miracles were attributed to him. Around
his cave, whither people of all degrees
flocked, twelve monasteries were built, in
which his rules of life were observed ; but
the hostility of a neighbouring priest drove
Benedict to Monte Casino, where, after
demolishing the temple and grove of Apollo,
he built a monastery. From this the order
spread all over Europe, being distinguished
for the severity of discipline imposed.
Benedict died after fourteen years of work
in his new abode. His sister, Scholastica,
also founded many convents.
Benedict of Aniane (b. 750, d. 821), a
priest known as a reformer of monastic dis-
cipline. He retirtd from the service of
Charlemagne to build a monastery on the
bank of the Aniane.
Benediktof, Vladimir (b. 1810, d. 1873),
a Russian lyrical poet of the highest repute.
Beneke, Friedrich Edouard (b. 1798, d.
1854), an eminent German philosopher.
His teaching was on the same fines as that
of the Scottish metaphysicians, and big
lectures in Berlin were forbidden by
Government. In 1827 the interdiction waa
removed, and in 1832 he succeeded Hegel aa
professor of philosophy at the Berlin
University. An excessively laborious life
was closed by suicide.
Benelli, Antonio Peregrino (6. 1771, d.
1830), an Italian tenor of note, and a musical
composer and critic of ability. In 1 798 he
appeared in the Italian opera at London.
Benezet. Ai.thony (b. 1713, d. 1784), a
Frenchman, v.*h •> was brought to England as
a child and who subsequently went to
America, where he devoted his life to bett^r-
ing the condition of the negroes. His
writings first aroused attention to the slave
trade question.
m Benfey, Theodore (6. 1809, d. 1881), a dis-
tinguished German Orientalist, and pro-
fessor of Sanscrit at Gottingen. He left
several important works on philological
subjects.
Bengel, Johann Albrecht (b. 1687, d. 1752),
a German pastor of the Lutheran church
known for his piety and learning. The
principal of several theological works was
his Gnomon Novi TestamentL
Benignus, St., an Irish priest, and a
Ben
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Ben
disciple of St. Patrick, by whom he was
baptised in 433, and whom he succeeded as
Bishop of Armagh in 465.
Benincasa, Count Bartolomeo (6. 1745, d,
1825), an Italian writer and diplomatist.
At Venice his literary abilities secured the
favour of the Countess de Rosenberg. When
Napoleon annexed Italy he was sent on a
mission to Dalmatia, where he founded a
journal.
Beniowski, Maurice Augustus de (6.
1741, d. 1786), a Hungarian soldier, who,
while serving in Poland against Russia, was
taken prisoner and exiled to Khamtschatka.
He escaped to France, whence he was setit
to found a colony at Madagascar. He was
elected king by the natives, and returned to
Europe to open up commercial relations with
his subjects. After serving in the French
army he returned to Madagascar, and was
next year killed in an engagement with
troops from the Isle of France.
Benivicui, Girolamo (b. 1453, d. 1542), a
ereatly esteemed poet of Florence, and the
mend of Savonarola.
Benjamin, Judah Philip (6. 1811, d. 1884,),
an American politician, who later became a
distinguished member of the English bar.
He was born in the West Indies, and prac-
tised as a barrister at New Orleans. He sat
in the Senate, and became Attorney-General
and Secretary of State to the Confederate
Government under Jefferson Davis. When
the cause of the South was lost, he fled to
England, and was, by influence, at once
called to the English bar, obtaining a large
practice and becoming a Q.C.
Benjamin, Park (6. 1809, d. 1864), an
American poet and journalist. He was
connected with many of the New York
papers and periodicals, and some of his
numerous poems have much merit.
Benjamin of Tudela, a celebrated Jewish
Babbi, who lived in Spain during the latter
part of the 12th century. He visited all the
synagogues in Europe, and travelled much
in Asia. The record of his journeyings is
published in most European languages.
Bennet, Henry. Earl of Arlington (b. 1618,
d. 1685), an English statesman, and member
of the famous " Cabal." He fought on the
Royalist side in the Civil war, and was
secretary to James II. while in exile. On
the Restoration he was made principal
Secretary of State and Lord Chamberlain.
Bennet, James Henry (b. 1816), an emi-
nent physician and a specialist in gynaec-
ology He first practised in Paris, but in
184o he settled in London where he obtained
a first-rate position. He has published
several important medical works.
Bennet, Sir John (d. 1627), grandfather of
the first Lord Arlington. He was a promi-
nent member of the House of Commons in
Elizabeth's reign, and held a judicial office
under James I., but was removed for mal-
practices.
Bennett, Edward Turner (b. 1797, d.
1836), an eminent zoologist and first secre-
tary of the Entomological Society. He
wrote several valuable memoirs.
Bennett, James Gordon (6. 1800, d. 1872),
an American journalist and native of Scot-
land. Having emigrated to America, he
founded in 1835 the New York Herald, which
he conducted for 40 years.
Bennett, Sir James Risdon (b. 1809), an
eminent physician, elected in 1876 President
of the Royal College of Physicians. He is
an F.R.S., and has written several medical
works.
Bennett, John Hughes (b. 1812, d. 1875),
a Scottish physician and physiologist. He
took his degree at Edinburgh, and afterward
studied in France and Germany. A treatise
on the curative properties of cod-liver oil
won distinction for him, and after a time he
obtained the chair of physiology at Edin-
burgh, where his lectures were highly es-
teemed. He was a bitter and prolific con-
troversialist, and wrote, besides, some medi-
cal works.
Bennett, Sir William Sterndale (b. 1816,
d. 1875), a distinguished musical composer.
He studied at the Royal Academy of Music,
where his first pieces were produced, and
soon secured him a reputation. Going to
Leipzig, he enjoyed the friendship and
advice of Mendelssohn and Schumann. He
continued to compose with increasing repu-
tation, particularly in Germany, and several
of his pieces were produced under Mendels-
sohn's direction. In 1856 he was appointed
professor of music at Cambridge, and con-
ductor of the Philharmonic Society. In
1867 his most celebrated work, The \Voman
of Samaria, appeared, and he was knighted
in 1871.
Benningsen, Levin Augustus Theophilus,
Count de (b. 1745, d. 1826), a native of
Brunswick, who held the highest commands
in the Russian army. He was made Major-
General by Catherine, and took the lead
among the conspirators by whom Paul I.
was assassinated. Under Alexander he was
constantly employed against the French,
and won several victories. In 1812 he
commanded the Russian centre at Moscow ;
he defeated Murat at Winkowo, fought at
Leipzig, and for his victory at Zweinaun-
dorf was made a count on the field of battle,
and soon after commander-in-chief of the
Russian army. He died in Hanover.
Ben
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Ben
Bennigsen, Rudolph von (b. 1824), a
Gennuii politician. He entered the Hau-
overian parlia:ji''nt, where he advocated the
unity of the German States under Tru-sia.
To accomplish this object he founded the
National Yerein, which before its dissolution
had 30,000 members. In 1873 he became
presiti nt of the Prussian Chamber of
Deputies.
Benoist, Pierre Vincent (6. 1758, d. 1834),
a French politician and writer. His work
as a journalist at the time of the revolu-
tion brought him into prominence, and he
was given a post in the ministry of the
interior. He held several high posts under
Louis XVIII., and was elected a deputy.
Benoist de Sainte Maur, a troubadour
who lived in the reign of Henry II., for
•whom he wrote a Metrical History of the
Dukes of Norniiutilii. Another poem, Le
Roman de Troye, still exists.
Benso, Giulio (6. 1601, d. 1668), a Genoese
historical painter of considerable repute,
whose works for the most paxt remain still
in his native city.
Benson, Edward White (b. 1829), arch-
bishop of Canterbury; he succeeded Dr.
Tait. Sometime assistant master at Rugby,
in 1858 he was appointed head master of
Wellington college, and in 1872 chancellor
of Lincoln cathedral. In 1876, on the
creation of the bishopric of Truro, he ac-
cepted the see, from which he passed to
the Primacy in 1882.
Benson, William (b. 1682. d. 1754), a man
of letters only remembered as one of the
persons satirised in Pope's Dunciad. He
was appointed surveyor- general in suc-
cession to Sir C. Wren, but found himself
unequal to the duties.
Bentham, George (6. 1779, d. 1884), a
distinguished botanist. At first he studied
law, but from 1828 he devoted himself
entirely to botany, and in 1854 he presented
to the Royal Gardens at Kew his valuable
collection and books. He was given a room
at Kew, and for nearly twenty years he
worked there almost daily, classifying and
recording his observations, and together
with Sir Joseph Hooker he wrote Genera
Plant artim. In spite of the great vakie and
scope of his work, he died almost unknown
to the general public.
Bentnam, Jeremy (6. 1748, d. 1832), a
writer on ethics and jurisprudence. He
was called to the bar in 1772, but never
practised. The works of Helvetius directed
his thoughts to the utilitarian principle of
"the greatest happiness of the greatest
number." and in 1776 he produced anony-
mously his Fragment on Government, which
excited much criticism and which was
variously attributed to several of the greatest
lawyers of the day. In 1780 appeared An
Introduction to the Principles of Morals and
Legislation; and in 1791 the Panopticon, or
The Inspection Jln:t»\ was published, in
which Beutham set forth new principles
of prison construction. The Principle.^ of
International Law was written in 1786,
though not published for half a century
later. In 1792 the honour of French citizen-
ship was conferred on Beutham, and in 1797
his attention having been turned to the
Poor Law, he wrote his Pauper Manage-
ment Improved, many of the proposals con-
tained therein being realised by the Act of
1834. After dealing with the reform of the
Scottish judicial system, he brought out in
1818 his Civil and Criminal Codes, and
his remarkable Chrestomathia. The Consti-
tutional Code, Bentham's great work, was
published in 1827, together with The Ra-
tionale of Judicial Evidence. After his death
his body was dissected in accordance with
the terms of his will.
Bentham, Sir Samuel (6. 1757, d. 1831),
brother of the preceding. A brigadier- gen-
eral and inspector- general of naval works-
He effected great improvements in the dock-
yards.
Bentham, Thomas (6. 1513, d. 1579), an
English ecclesiastic, who suffered persecution
for advocating the Reformation in Mary's
reign. Elizabeth made him Bi?hop of Lich-
field, and at her request he translated the
Psalms and the books of Ezekiel and
Daniel.
Bentinck, Lord George (b. 1802, d. 1848),
a statesman, nephew of Canning, and younger
son of the Duke of Portland. He entered
Parliament in 1826 as a Whig, but seceded
with the Earl of Derby (then Lord Stanley),
in 1835. On the repeal of the Corn Laws
he assumed the leadership of the Tory pro-
tectionist party, and displayed an ability
in the post which was not altogether expected.
He was a great hunter and patron of the turf,
and used to ride to hounds between the de-
bates in the House of Commons.
Bentinck, William (6. 1649, d. 1709), first
Earl of Portland. Of Dutch birth, he was
attached to the Prince of Orange, with
whom he formed the closest friendship;
and when William became King of England
Bentinck was created a peer. He served^ in
Holland and Ireland, and went on a mission
to France, concluding the first partition
treaty. For his share in the second treaty
he was impeached, though his unswerving
fidelity and integrity were always con-
spicuous.
Bentinck, Lord William Henry Cavendish
(6. 1 774, d. 1839), Governor- General of India,
Ben
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Ber
After seeing active service in the army, he
was made in 1803 Governor of Madras, but
was recalled in 1808. He then sat in Parlia-
ment till 1827, when he was made Govemor-
General of India. He immediately set on
foot sweeping financial reforms ; he opened
the Civil service to natives, promoted the
spread of education, and extended trade. On
his return to England in 1837 he entered
Parliament as member for Glasgow.
Bentivoglio, Guido (6. 1579, d. 1644), an
Italian cardinal. He early won the favour of
Pope Clement VIII., and in 1607 went as
nuncio to Flanders, and in 1616 to Paris.
He was made cardinal in 1621 and Louis
XTTT. gave him the title of Protector of
France in Borne. His succession to the
papal chair was only prevented by an un-
timely death. He wrote a history of the
Flemish war, and left many interesting and
valuable memoirs.
Bentley, Richard (b. 1662. d. 1742),
scholar and critical waiter. He first at-
tracted attention by a Latin epistle to Dr.
Mill, and in 1692 was appointed Boyle Lec-
turer. His lectures were highly esteemed,
and in 1694 he was appointed royal librarian.
He was now involved in a bitter literary con-
troversy, from which he emerged with flying
colours, and in 1700 he was appointed Master
of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Arch-
deacon of Ely. As Master of Trinity he pro-
voked much enmity, and was involved in a
continuous legal struggle with the fellows for
many years. He pu biished many valuable
editions of the classics, and in 1717 was
appointed Regius Professor of Divinity, when
he again became involved in litigation.
Editions of the Greek Testament and of
Homer were both undertaken, but never
completed.
Benton, Thomas Hurt (6. 1782, d. 1858),
an American statesman. For thirty years
he was a leading member of the Missouri
Senate, and later he entered the House of
Representatives. His History of the Work-
in*/ of the American Government for Thirty
Years, which was published in 1853, proved
immensely popular.
Benzel-Sternau, Christian Ernst, Count
(b. 1767, d. 1849), a German politician, who
held several administrative posts, and who
also achieved a considerable reputation as a
humorous writer.
Beranger, Pierre Jean de (b. 1780, d. 1857),
the great French song writer, was of
bourgeois origin, and served some time as a
printer's devil. He then took up his father's
business, and when that failed, devoted him-
self to the composition of verse in a garret.
He received assistance from Lucieu Bona-
v»arte, and later obtained a post in the new
Imperial University. His songs having taken
a political turn, the publication of Le Jtot
d' 1 vetot, made his name a household word
in France. In 1 8 1 5 the first collection of his
songs was published, but the second volume,
full of pungent satire on the monarchy and
government, brought on its author fine and
imprisonment. In 1828 he was again fined
and imprisoned,but the fine was met by public
subscription, and after the revolution of
1830 he was offered a pension, which, how-
ever, he refused. After the 1848 revolution
he appeared for a short time in public life,
and then retired to the country. His claim
to be a national poet was fully established
by the great popular demonstration which his
funeral provoked.
Berad, Auguste Simon Louis (6. 1783, d.
1859), a French politician, who held office
during the Hundred Days and again in 1817.
As a deputy he supported the Duke of
Orleans against Charles X., but retired soon
after the accession of the latter. He did
much for the development of industry and
commerce.
Berard, Auguste (6. 1802, d. 1846), a
; highly distinguished French surgeon, and
| founder of the Paris Chirurgical Society.
He was professor of chemical surgery in
Paris, and left several valuable works.
Berard, Pierre Honore (6. 1797, d. 1858),
son of the above, and also a distinguished
surgeon. He was inspector-general of the
schools and faculties of medicine.
Berardier, Denis (b. 1729, d. 1794), a
French abbe, who sat in the Constituent
Assembly as representative of the clergy.
At one time he was principal of the college
of Quimper, and Desmoulins and Robes-
pierre were his pupils.
Beraud, Laurent (6. 1703, d. 1777), a
French Jesuit, and a distinguished mathe-
matician and astronomer. He was for some
time director of the Lyons observatory.
Berchet, Giovanni (6. 1790, d. 1851), one
of the best of the Italian patriotic poets who
wrote during Italy's struggle for indepen-
dence. In 1821 he fled to France and thence
to England.
Berchoux, Joseph (b. 1765, d. 1839), a
| French satirical poet, who served in the
j Republican army to avoid prosecution as a
Royalist. He became in 1814 one of the
editors of La Quotidienne.
Berchtold, Leopold, Count von (b. 1738,
d. 1809), an Austrian philanthropist, who
travelled much in Europe endeavouring to
alleviate distress. After the battle of
Wagram he converted his chateau into a
hospital for the wounded, and died from an
attack of typhus fever then contracted.
Bereed, Kasim (b. 1504), founder of the
Ber
Bet
dynast}- of Beeder in the Deccan. HP was
sold as a Georgian slave to Mahomed siiah
Bahmuny II., iu whose service he n»c t<> i
grand vi/iorship ; liu;illy he jirociainn-d
himself king of a part of B.ihmu!i\ duiui-
nious.
Bereed, Amrer (d. 1540), sou of the pre-
ceding, whom he succeeded both as king and
ni:i!i.-icr. He was constantly iutriguiiig
wit!, his neighbours for the purpose of re-
covering the lost Bahmunv dominions, aud
he plunged into war with the king of
Beejapoor, by whom he was defeated and
captured.
Berends, Karl Augustus Wilhelm (6. 1753,
d. 1826), a distinguished German physician
for whom a special chair at Berlin univer-
sity was endowed. His Lessons on Practical
Medicine is a work of the highest value.
Berengario, Jacopo (d. 1550), an Italian
anatomist of note, known as "II Carpi,"
vrho conducted much valuable research.
Berenger, orBerengarius (b. 1000, d. 1088),
a French churchman known for his repudia-
tion of the doctrine of the real presence. He
was repeatedly summoned to Borne, and his
teachings were several times condemned in
Council. He was twice compelled to recant,
but finally adhered to his original doctrines.
Berenger, Alphonse Marie Marcellin
Thomas (b. 1785, d. 1866), a French
politician and jurist. He retired from the
legislature on the restoration, but returned
in 1828, and under Louis Philippe held an
influential position in the Chamber. After
the revolution of 1848 he was made president
of the High National Court of Justice and
one of the presidents of the Court of Cassa-
tion. His work on the French criminal law
was of great authority.
Berenice, the daughter of Agrippa I.
She was first the wife of Herod, her uncle,
and afterwards of King Polemon. Later
she became the mistress of Yespasian and
Titus.
Beresford, Sir John (b. 1769, d. 1844), a
distinguished admiral. He served through-
out the French war, and rendered brilliant
services in the American war of 1812. For
more than 20 years he was a member of the
House of Commons.
Beresford, Lord John George (b. 1773, d.
1862), son of the first Marquis of Waterford,
Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of
Ireland. He was a munificent patron of
literature and science, and founded the
observatory at Armagh.
Beresford, "William Carr, Viscount (6. 1770,
d. 1854), a natural son of the first Marquis
of Waterford. He entered the army in
! 7S'>, served in Egypt, Ireland, at the Cape,
;n.d commanded the successful expedition!
against Buenos Ayres (ISOtJ) and Madeira
.->07). lie was then placed in command
oi the Portuguese troops during the Penin-
sular war, and won the battle of Albuera,
He was made Viscount in 1822.
Beresford, Lord William Charles Dela-
poer (b. 1M46), son of the fourth marquis of
Waterford. He entered the navy at thirteen J
accompanied the Prince of Wales to India
as naval aide-de-camp, and has received two
medals for saving life at sea. At the bom-
bardment of Alexandria in 1882 he com-
manded the C<jit"'i»-, and rendered brilliant
services. In 1885 he took part in Lord
Wolseley's expedition for the relief of Gor-
don. He was member for Waterford from
1874 to 1880, and for East Marylebone from
1884 to 1889, when he resumed active ser-
vice. From 1886 to 1887 he was a Lord of
the Admiralty.
Beresovsky, Maximus Soznovich (b. 1745,
d. 1778), a Russian musician and composer.
He was sent to study in Italy by Catherine
II. , and devoted himself to the composition
of religious pieces on his return.
Bergasse, Nicolas (6. 1750, d. 1832),
French lawyer and politician. He was for
some time an active member of the Estates
General, and after the restoration returned
to public life. He entered into a correspon-
dence with the Emperor Alexander of
Russia, and some of his works had a con-
siderable vogue.
Berge, Ernest Gottlieb (b. 1649), a German
litterateur, known as the translator of
Paradise Lost.
Berger, Ludwig (b. 1777, d. 1839), a
German composer and pianist. He spent
many years in St. Petersburg, and after-
wards went to Stockholm and London. He
was the instructor of Mendelssohn.
Bergerac, Savinieu Cyrano de (b. 1620, d.
1655), French writer of drama and ro-
mance. A notoriously wild career in the
army was closed by a wound at the siege of
Arras (1641). From two of his romances
Swift is said to have received his inspiration
for Gulliver'1 s Travels.
Bergeret, Charles (b. 1771, d. 1857),
French admiral, who saw much active
service, and who was captured in the
Virginie by Sir Edward Bellew.
Bergnaus, Heinrich (6. 1797, d. 1884),
Prussian geographer. After serving in the
army, he was appointed geographical en-
gineer to the war department at Berlin.
He published a large number of very fine
maps, and several scientific books.
Berghem, Nicolas (6. 1624, d. 1683), one
Ber
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Ber
of the best of the Flemish painters. He
excelled in landscape and cattle subjects.
Bergier, Nicolas Sylvestre (b. 1718, d.
1790), a French ecclesiastic, distinguished
as a philologist and classical antiquarian.
He also earned a considerable reputation as
a writer in refutation of infidel doctrines.
Bergmann,Torbern Olof (b. 1735, d. 1784),
Swedish savant, distinguished as chemist,
botanist, mineralogist, physicist, and mathe-
matician. He was professor of physics and
chemistry at Upsala university, and left
many valuable papers.
Berington, Joseph (6. 1743, d. 1820), an
English Roman Catholic priest and writer.
He strongly advocated reforms in his Church,
and also Catholic emancipation in England.
His Literary History of the Middle Ages is
an authoritative work.
Beriot, Charles Auguste de (b. 1802, d.
1870), a celebrated violinist, and composer
of violin music. He appeared first at Paris,
and the publication of his Airs Varies
gave him a very wide popularity, which ex-
tended to this country when he visited it in
1826. He married the famous singer, Mali-
bran Garcia, and on the death of his wife
retired for some years.
Berkeley, George (b. 1684, d. 1753), an
English divine, famous for the keenness of
bis intellect and the greatness of his nature.
He was born in Ireland, and educated at
Trinity College, Dublin. In 1709 he pub-
lished his Theory of Vision, and in 1710
his Principles of Human Knowledge, prov-
ing the non-existence of matter, a view
which he afterwards elaborated. Coming
to England he made the acquaintance of the
great literary men of the day, and in 1724
was made Dean of Derry. In 1725 he pub-
lished A Scheme for Converting the Savage
Americans to Christianity. This scheme
involved the erection of a college at the
Bermudas, and the Government granted a
charter, and promised a grant in aid.
Berkeley set out for the Bermudas, but the
money not being forthcoming, the scheme
had to be abandoned. In 1733 he was made
Bishop of Cloyne, when he retired to
Oxford. His last publication was a treatise
on The Virtues of Tar Water.
Berkeley, Sir George Cranfield (6. 1753,
d. 1818), a distinguished naval officer. He
•erved in 1778 with Keppel, and at the relief
of Gibraltar in 1781. At the battle of
Ushant he played a very gallant part, and
was thanked by Lord Howe and Parliament.
He sat in Parliament after further service
for thirty years.
Berkeley, James, Earl of (6. 1680, d. 1736),
a gallant naval officer. He served with
distinction against the French under Sir
Clpudesley Shovel, and, later, under Byiig.
His brilliant services were rewarded by hia
being made First Lord of the Admiralty,
and a K.G.
Berkeley, John, Lord Berkeley of Stratton
(d. 1696), a British admiral who com-
manded in the unsuccessful attack on Brest
of 1694, and who afterwards served with
Sir Cloudesley Shovel.
Berkeley, Miles Joseph (6. 1803, d. 1889),
an English clergyman and naturalist, and
the author of several works on natural
history, including Outlines of JSritish Fung-
ology.
Berkeley, Sir William (b. 1639, d. 1666), a
British admiral, third son of Lord Fitz-
harding. When only twenty-six he was
made rear-admiral of the fieet, under the
Duke of York, which defeated the Dutch.
In 1666 he was in the forefront of the great
engagement with Van Tromp, and was there
killed.
Berkh, Vasili Nicolaevich (6. 1781, d.
1834), Russian man of letters, who, after
serving in the navy, devoted himself to
historical and narrative writing, and left
several important works.
Berkhey, Jan Lefrancq van (b. 1720, d.
1812), a Dutch professor, distinguished as a
man of science, a historian, a Knguist, and
a poet. He wrote the History, Geographical,
Physical, Natural, and Civil, of Holland.
Berland, Pierre (b. 1375, d. 1457), a pious
and famous archbishop of Bordeaux. He
founded the university there, and did
much by his munificence to beautify the
city.
Berliehingen, Goetz von (d. 1562), a
German freebooter, known as "the Iron-
hand," whose memory is perpetuated in
Goethe's drama.
Berlier, Theophile (&. 1761, d. 1840), a
French lawyer who played a not unim-
portant part in the great revolution. He
was a member of the Committee of Public
Safety, and under the Empire was made a
councillor of state and a count. He was
banished on the restoration.
Berlinghieri, Vacca (b. 1772, d. 1826), an
Italian surgeon of great eminence. He
studied in Paris and England, and after
acquiring a reputation in France as an
operator and lecturer, he returned to Pisa,
his native town, and filled a chair at the
university. He wrote some valuable works.
Berlioz, Hector (b. 1803, d. 1869),
French musical composer. Rejecting the
profession of medicine, he entered the
Paris Conservatoire, where his genius was
Ber
(128)
but little recognised. He was repeatedly
unsuccessful iii examination, but latterly
took prizes for composition. While still a
student he produced Les Francs Juges,
and La Symphom* fantastiyue. After
studying in Rome, he earned a living in
Paris as musical critic to the Journal des
Debats. He introduced his compositions to
the public in a series of concerts, but they
were little appreciated, though Paganini was
so affected by the Symphonic fanteutique
that he sent Berlioz a draf t for 20,000 francs.
A marriage with a Miss Smithson, an Eng-
lish actress, caused Berlioz much unhappi-
ness, and greatly straitened his resources.
A tour in Germany and Russia secured his
reputation, his compositions being enthu-
siastically received; and in 1852 he came to
London, where he met with the greatest
success. Berlioz wrote his own Memoirs.
Bennudez, J6ao (d. 1575), a Portuguese
physician who went to Abyssinia in 1520,
and was appointed patriarch by the king.
On revisiting Europe the title was con-
firmed by the Pope ; and he went back to
Abyssinia for fifteen years. He left an
account of his thirty years' residence in the
country.
Bernaldez, Andres (b. 1513), Spanish
historian, known as the "Cure de los
Palacios." He was the friend of Columbus,
and author of the Historia de los Reyes
Catolicos, a work of great value.
Bernard, King of Italy (d. 818), the
grandson of Charlemagne and son of Pepin,
whom he succeeded in 812. When Louis le
Debonnaire succeeded Charlemagne, Ber-
nard rebelled, but was defeated, and had his
eyes put out.
Bernard, Andrew, a French Augustinian
friar who was poet laureate to Henry YII.
and Henry VIII. of England, and who
wrote a record of the reign of the former
monarch.
Bernard, Claude (6. 1813, d. 1878), a
French physiologist of distinction. He held
several of the highest professional appoint-
ments in Paris, aud wrote several medical
treatises of great value. The principal are
Recherclt.es sur les Utayes du Pancreas and
De la Physiologic Generate.
Bernard, Edward (b. 163S, d. 1697), a
professor of astronomy at Oxford, distin-
guished also as a linguist and as a litterateur.
His works were numerous.
Bernard, Pierre Joseph (b. 1710, d. 1775),
a French poet, known as "Le Gentil Ber-
nard." He served in the Italian wars, and
afterwards became attached to the Marshal
de Coigny.
Bernard, Pons Joseph (6. 1748, d. 1816),
a French mathematician of eminence and
director of the Marseilles observatory. He
left on record the results of much valuable
observation.
Bernard, St. (ft. 101)1, d. 1153), of noble
Burguudian birth, was educated at Paria
university. He entered the Cistercian
monastery at Citeaux, and there acquired a
high reputation as a preacher. At the head
of a band of monks he was sent to found a
new monastery, which he established at
Clairvaux, and from which his lame and
innuence spread far and wide. Kings,
popes, and nobles, all appealed to him for
advice on the weightiest matters, and
accepted his decisions. He procured the
condemnation of several heterodox writers
including Abelard and Arnold of Brescia.
His great work was the preaching of a
new crusade in France and Germany. He
excited the greatest enthusiasm, and
prophesied the triumph of the expedition.
But it failed notably, and Bernard died
soon afterwards. He was cauouised in 1174,
and bears the title of "The Last of the
Fathers."
Bernard, Simon (6. 1779, d. 1839;, a
French general, aide-de-camp to Napoleon,
and head of the, topographical department.
On the restoration he entered the United
States service, and undertook important
engineering works. He returned to France
in 1S30, and was made aide-de-camp to the
king, and in 1836 minister of war.
Bernard, Sir Thomas (6. 1750, d. 1818),
scholar and philanthropist. He devoted his
fortune to work among the poor and to the
advancement of learning. He was largely
instrumental in founding the Foundling
Hospital, and the Royal and British Insti-
tutions.
Bernard de Meuthon, Saint (b. 923, d.
1008), a noble Savoj'ard, and Archdeacon of
Aosta. He was the founder of the hospices
of the Great and the Little St. Bernard.
Eernardez, Diego (6. 1540, d. 1596), one
of the best of Portuguese poets, called the
"prince of pastoral poetry." He accom-
panied an expedition to Africa, and was
made prisoner at the battle of Al-ca^ar-
Kebir.
Bernard!, John (b. 1657, d. 1736), an
Englishman of Italian extraction, who de-
voted himself to the service of James II.
He was imprisoned for supposed complicity
in the plots against William, and he died
in prison.
Bernardin, St. (6. 1380, d. 1444), a
Franciscan monk of Siena, aud a famous
preacher. His unselfish devotion during the
plague of 1400 gave him great influence, and
he became vicar- general of his order.
Ber
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Ber
Bernasconi, Andrea (b. 1712, d. 1784),
musical composer of French descent, though
bom in Italy. His operas, Aiessandro Stcero
and Sallustia^ made him known through
Italy aud Germany, and he was appointed
kapellmeister at Munich.
Berneck, Karl Gustav von (6. 1803,
d. 1871), a Prussian novelist, aud author of
several works on military science. He served
in the Prussian cavalry, aud then became
professor of In'story at Fraukfort-on-Oder.
He was later appointed to military chairs
in Berlin.
Bernar, Frederick Wilhelm (6. 1780, d.
1827j, German musiciau, appeared in public
as an organist at nine years of age, and was an
accomplished pianist. He orgauisud at Berlin
a musical school, after the model of Zellar's.
Berners, John Bourchier, Lord (6. 1470,
d. 1002;, Chancellor of the Exchequer to
Henry VIII., and a writer of much industry
and talent. His chief work was the trans-
lation of Froissart's Chronicles.
Berners, Juliana (6. 1388, d. 1485),
Prioress of Sopewell Nunnery, near St.
Albans. She was celebrated for her b?auty
and learning, and wrote many works on
fishing, hunting, natural history, and
heraldry.
Bernnard, Christoph (6. 1612, d. 1692),
a German musician, was sent by the
Elector of Saxony to study at Rome, and
he gained a great reputation by his com-
positions. For ten years he was musical
director at Hamburg, and was then ap-
pointed kapellmeister at Dresden.
Bernhard, Duke of Saxe- Weimar (b. 1604,
d. 1639), a famous general. He fought
against Tilly in the Thirty Years' war,
and was highly esteemed by Gustavus
Adolphus, with whom he served. In 1633
he was made Duke of Franconia, but lost
the duchy in consequence of the reverses
inflicted on him by Wallenstein.
Bernnardt, Sarah (6. 1844), French
actress, is the daughter of a French lawyer
and a Dutch Jewess ; she entered the Paris
Conservatoire, where her histrionic genius
soon displayed itself. Her first appear-
ance at the Theatre Franchise in Racine's
Iphigenie was a failure, and she re-
tired from the stage; but she again ap-
peared in 1868, and in the following year
established her reputation by her rendering
of the Queen of Spain in Ruy Bias. She
served as a hospital nurse during the siege
of Paris, but after the war she returned to
the stage, earning ever-increasing fame.
Her first visit to England was in 1879, and
in 1881 she visited the States. Madame
Benihardt is also an accomplished sculptor
and painter.
Bend, Francesco (6. 1490, d. 1536), an
Italian poet. He was first in the household
of Cardinal Bibbiena, and then secretary to
Gilberti, Bishop of Verona. His satiric
verses and extravaganzas at this time were
highly appreciated, and have an enduring
reputation. Weary of the court life, he
retired to Florence soon after the sack of
Rome in 1527, and his premature death is
coinmonly supposed to have been the result
of poison.
Bender, Etienne Alexandre (b. 1764, d.
1806), known to his contemporaries aa
" L'Abbe Bernier." After the revolution he
refused to take the oath to the civil con-
stitution, and joined the Vendean army,
but when the cause was hopeless he took
a leading part in pacifying the district. As
one of the plenipotentiaries who negotiated
the concordat he was made Archbishop of
Orleans.
Bernier, Francois (6. 1625, d. 1688),
French traveller and writer, having taken
a medical degree, set out to travel in the
East, and ultimately reached Delhi, where
he became physician to the Emperor Shah
Jehan. During his twelve years' stay he
made the most of his exceptional oppor-
tunities for observing the life and customs
of the country, and his accounts written
home possess the highest interest. When
he returned to France he devoted himself to
writing philosophical works which have no
enduring value.
Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo (6. 1598, d.
1680), one of the most eminent of Italian
sculptors. His genius asserted itself very
early ; Gregory XV. made him a knight,
and Cardinal Barberini, as Urban VIII.,
bestowed the highest honour and favour
upon him. His works in Rome were mani-
fold, and his fame spread through Europe,
Charles I., Richelieu and Louis XIV. having
their busts executed by him. When sixty-
eight years old he was invited to Paris by
Louis XIV. to superintend the design of the
Louvre, and until his death in his eighty,
second year he continued the pursuit of hia
art at Rome.
Bemis, Francois Joachim de Pierres de (b.
1715, d. 1794), cardinal, statesman, and
writer, first obtained recognition in Paris
by his erotic verses, and was taken into
favour by Mme. de Pompadour. The success-
ful conduct of a mission to Venice procured
for him in 1756 the office of minister of
foreign affairs, and in 17-38 he was made a
cardinal. He lost the royal favour during
the Seven Years' war, and retired until
1769, when he was sent on a mission to
Home. The revolution deprived him of all
his honours and influence, and he died in
Rome.
Ber
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Esr
Bernouilli, Jacques (6. 1(554, d. 17< >•">), dis-
tinguish--d mathematician of Basle, was
destined for the Church, but though ordained.
turned to the study of science and attracted
attention by an ''ss'iy on the m< .t i- >u • >i «•« mu-ts.
Later he bet-am-- professor of mathi-ma:
at Basle, and initiated several important
methods in science.
Bernouilli, Jean (b. 1667, d. 1748), brother
if the preceding, mathematician and physi-
cist. For many years he corresponded with
Leibnitz on scientific questions, and pub-
lished several treatises on physical and phy-
siological subjects which attracted much
attention. In 1705 he succeeded his brother
at Basle university.
Bernouilli, Daniel (6. 1700, d. 1782),
second son of the preceding, physician and
mathematician. In 1725 Peter the Great ap-
pointed him, together with his elder brother
Nicolas, who was also a physician and mathe-
matician, to the chair of mathematics at St.
Petersburg. He remained in Russia till
1733, and composed there his treatise on Hy-
drodynamics. Returning to Basle he occupied
chairs in the university, and carried on much
original work, ten of his memoirs written
for the French Academy of Sciences being
crowned. Jean, his son, and Jean and Nico-
las, his grandsons, were also distinguished
mathematicians.
Bernstorff, Albrecht, Count (b. 1809, d.
1873), Prussian diplomatist, was elected in
1851 to the first Prussian Chamber, and in
1854 was sent on a special mission to London.
From 1861 to 1862 he was Prussian foreign
minister, after which he again became am-
bassador to London, a position which he
retained to the last.
Bernstorff, Andreas Peder, Count von (6.
1735, d. 1797), Danish statesman, became
minister of state in 1769, and took an
important part in foreign affairs, besides
promoting many internal reforms, such as a
new financial system and the abolition of
serfdom in Schleswig-Holstein.
Bernstorff, Christian, Count von (b. 1769,
d. 1S3J), son of the preceding, whom he
succeeded as foreign minister, was later
ambassador at Paris, and represented Den-
mark at the Vienna congress of 1815. In
1818 he went to Prussia and became foreign
minister there.
Bernstorff, Johann Hartrig Ernst (b. 1712,
d. 1772), Danish statesman, was foreign
minister during the Seven Years' war, and
was ennobled by Charles VII. He did much
to promote commerce and industry, and
spent large sums on philanthropic objects.
Berquin, Louis de (b. 1489, d. 1529), a
French martyr for the reformed faith. He
was a friend of Erasmus, and was twice
imprisoned for heretical doctrines. Finally
i burnt and he died at the stake.
Berreclo, Bernardo Pereira de (d. 1748),
IV.riugiiust' iii>M.nan, who served in the
annv, and afterwards went to America.
His chief work is Annaes Ut&tuncos de
Maranh&o.
Berriman, William (I. 1688, d. 175(0,
English clergyman, an eminent Orientalist, •.
ana the author of many theological works.
He is remembered for his able contributions
to the Trinitarian controversy.
Berroyer, Claude (b. 1665, d. 1735),
b.mifte.r of Paris, and the author of several
authoritative legal works.
Bermeette, Alouso (6. 1480, d. 1545).
Spanish painter and a pupil of Michael
Angelo. He was court painter to Charles V.,
and was also an able sculptor and architect.
Berry, Caroline Ferdiiiande Louise,
Duchesse de (b. 1798, d. 1870), daughter of
Ferdinand I., King of Sicily, and in 1816
married to the Due de Berry. The Legiti-
mists supported the claims of her son to the
throne, and a rising took place in Brittany
in his favour. She was taken prisoner, and
then it was discovered she had been privately
mai-ried before she became Duchesse de
Berry, and her son was removed from her
charge,
Berry, Charles, Due de (b. 1446, d. 1472),
second son of Charles VII., who intended
him to succeed to the throne. On Charles'
death in 1461, however, Louis XI. succeeded
and created his brother Due de Berry.
Berry took up arms against the king, was
defeated and made Duke of Gruyenne, whither
he was banished, and where he died.
Berry, Charles Ferdinand d'Artois, Ducde
(b. 1778, d. 1820), son of Charles X. He
served in the army under the Prince de
Conde". He was assassinated by an Orleanist
partisan in Paris.
Berry, Jean de France, Due de (b. 1340,
d. 1416), third son of Jean le Bon, with whom
he was taken prisoner at Poictiers, and sent
to England as a hostage. He was appointed
a co-guardian of Charles VI., but was later
dismissed from the governorship of Lan-
guedoc on account of his horrible cruelties.
He was afterwards appointed governor of
Paris, but he intrigued against the king,
and was besieged in Bourges. After his
capitulation he went into retirement.
Berry, Marie Louise Elizabeth, Duckesse
d'Orleans (b. 1695, d. 1719), daughter of
Philip of Orleans and wife of the Due de
Berry, grandson of Louis XIV. Her ambi-
tion and viciousness were the only qualities
which distinguished her career.
Ber
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Ber
Berry, Sir Edward (b. 1776, d. 1831), Eng-
lish admiral, fought under Howe at Ushant,
distinguished himself at St. Vincent, com-
manded the Van/juard at the Nile, and the
at Trafalgar.
Berry, Sir John (6. 1635, d. 1691), British
admirai, after serving in the merchant ser-
vice, entered the navy as a boatswain,
and soon rose to the rank of commodore in
the West Indies, where he gained a victory
with only nine ships over a French and
Dutch Meet of twenty-two ships. In 1672
he distinguished himself under the Duke of
York against the Dutch, and was second in
command in Lord Dartmouth's expedition
against Tangiers.
Berry, Mary (6. 1762, d. 1852), a literary
woman, of some celebrity. Together with her
father and sister, she was appointed literary
executor of Horace Walpole, whom she
defended from Macaulay's criticisms. She
also wrote France and England.
Berryer, Pierre Autoine (6. 1790, d. 1868),
French barrister and a politician, was one of
the defenders of Ney, and also defended De-
belle and Cambronne. He was an adherent of
the Bourbons in the early years, and entered
the legislature in 1830, declining the office
offered to him. He was tried, but acquitted,
for participation in the rising in favour of
the Duchesse de Berry's son. He was
actively engaged in politics till 1848, but
after the cuup d'etat he turned his attention
wholly to the law, being regarded as the
first advocate in France.
Bert, Paul (6. 1833, d. 1886), French
statesman and physiologist, qualified both
jtoS an avocat and a doctor, and for some
years held professional appointments at Bor-
deaux and Paris. In 187-1 he was returned
to the Chamber of Deputies and distin-
guished himself by his labours in connection
with public education. He was minister of
public instruction and worship under Gam-
betta, and in 1886 was appointed governor of
Tonquin, but died very shortly after.
Berthaut, Jean Auguste (6. 1817, d. 1881),
French general, who commanded the Garde
Mobile of the Seine during the Franco-
German war, and served with distinction
during the siege of Paris. In 1876 he was
minister of war, and in 1877 repressed the
discontent with the republic which was dis-
played among the troops.
Bertliier, Louis Alexandre, Prince of
Wagram (6. 1753, d. 1815), French general
who served under Lafayette in the United
States, and was chief of the staff in the 1796
Italian campaign. He won the confidence
of Napoleon, and was appointed minister of
war, and later marshal of the empire, while
the daughter of the King of Bavaria was
given him in marriage. He served in the
Austrian and Russian campaigns as chief of
the staif , and on the banishment of Napo-
leon joined Louis XVIII. During the
Hundred Days he retired to Bamberg,
where he was one morning found dead in
the streets under suspicious circumstances.
BartMer, Napoleon Louis Joseph Alex-
ancire Charles, Prince of Wagram (6.
1810), son of the preceding, an assiduous
agriculturist, entered public life at the
revolution of 1830 on the popular side, and
later became the devoted adherent of Louis
Napoleon.
Berthod, Anselm (6. 1733, d. 1788), French
Benedictine monk and historical writer, was
sent through Europe by Bertin to collect
MSS. bearing on French history, and he
undertook the continuation of Aeta Sanc-
torum.
Bertliold (d. 1272), German evangelist,
who travelled through Austria and Hungary
preaching the Gospel, and who was widely
celebrated for his eloquence.
Berthollet, Claude Louis (6. 1748, d. 1822),
French chemist ; some essays and his discus-
sions with Lavoisier brought him into notice,
and after the revolution he devised a process
for the production of saltpetre which was
of great value to the republic. He received
some official appointments, and was sent to
Egypt with the scientific expedition. On
returning, he devoted himself to chemical re-
search, and made several valuable discoveries,
leaving numerous works of importance.
Bertaoud, Ferdinand (b. 1725, d. 1807),
Swiss horologer of note, who came to Paris
and there invented the first marine chrono-
meter for taking the longitude at sea.
He was horologer mechanicien to the navy,
and left some works.
Berthoud, Samuel Henri (b. 1804), French
novelist, founded the Cfdzdie de Catsibrai,
and was afterwards connected with several
Paris periodicals, in which many of his
works appeared.
Bertie, Robert, Earl of Lindsay (6. 1582,
d. 1612), the son of Peregrine, Lord Wil-
loughby d'Eresby, was a distinguished
soldier, and was made an admiral and earl
in 1626. He fought as a Koyalist in the
Civil war and was killed at Edge Hill.
Bertin, Edouard Francois (b. 1797, d.
1871), French litterateur and landscape pain-
ter, and inspector of fine arts under Louia
Philippe. His father founded the Journal
des Jjebats, to the management of which he
succeeded in 1854.
Bertin de Veaux, Louis Francois (6. 1771,
d. 1842), father of the preceding and A
Ber
(132)
Bes
principal writer on the Journal des Debits,
which he founded. He was at one time a
judge, vice-president of the Tribunal of Com-
merce, and secretary- general to the ministry
of police. Later he entered the Chamber of
Deputies ; in Io30 he was sent on missions
to Holland and England, and in 1832 he was
made a peer.
Bertin, Jean Francois (6. 1766, d. 1841),
brother of the preceding. An active jour-
nalist and a writer for the Dcbats. He was
transported to Elba for political reasons, but
escaped.
Bertin, Nicolas (6. 1667, d. 1736), a French
painter of note. He was admitted to the
Academy in 1703, for his Hercules and
Prometheus, and was invited to settle in
Rome, Mayence, and Munich.
Bertini, Henri Jer6me (6. 1798, d. 1876), a
French pianist, who appeared in public with,
success when only twelve years old. He
settled in France, after visiting Great Britain
and Holland.
Bertola, de'Giorgi Aurelia (6. 1753, d.
1798), Italian poet, entered a monastery
in early life, but ran away to Hungary,
where he served in the Austrian army.
He returned to Italy after some years, and
his literary reputation enabled him to obtain
release from his religious vows. After occu-
pying chairs in the universities of Siena,
Naples, and Pa via, he went to Germany and
Switzerland, and became the friend of
Gesner, whose poems he translated.
Berton, Henri Montan (6. 1766, c£. 1844),
French composer, produced his first opera,
Promesses de Mariage, at the age of twenty,
and subsequently produced more than forty
others. In 1806 he was appointed director of
the Italian Opera, and he held posts in the
Conservatoire and Academy of Music.
Bertoni, Ferdinando Giuseppe (6. 1727,
d. 1801), Italian composer and maestro di
eapella of San Marco at Venice. He pro-
duced many operas, some oratorios, and
other churcli music. He t^.vice visited Lon-
don, and on the first occasion produced with
great success his opera Orpheo.
Bertram, Bonaventure Corneille (6. 1531,
d. 1594), French Orientalist, who held the
chair of Hebrew at Lausanne, and who was
the first Protestant to translate the Bible
from the Hebrew.
Bertrand, Henri Gratian, Count (6. 1773,
d. 1844), French general and the personal
friend of Napoleon. He served in the great
campaigns with distinction and accompanied
Napoleon in exile, to Elba and St. Helena.
He was restored to rank by Louis XVIII.,
and in 1830 entered the Chamber of
Deputies.
Bertrand, Joseph Louis Francois (6. 1822),
a French mathematician of eminence, \vho
wrote several valuable works, and held
chairs in the College of France and the
Lycee Napole'on.
Bertrand de Moleville, Antoine Franqois,
Marquis de (b. 1744, d. 1818), minister of
marine to Louis XVI. of France. Impeach-
ment by the Constituent Assembly caused
him to fiy to England, where he resided for
many years, writing, among other works, a
History of England.
Berulle, Pierre de (6. 1574, d. 1629), a
French cardinal, founded the Order of the
Carmelites in France, and was employed on
several important missions by Louis XUL
Berwick, James Fitzjames (6. 1670, d.
1734), natural son of James II., served
with the French against the Turks in Hun-
gary, and after the landing of William of
Orange, was James's commander-in-chief in
Ireland. He then joined the French array,
and commanded in the Low Countries and in
Spain.
Berzelius, Johann Jakob (6. 1779, d. 1848),
Swedish chemist, was professor for many
years at Stockholm university, and acquired
a great reputation by his memoirs and his
invaluable work in chemical analysis and
mineralogy.
Besant, Walter (6.1838), English novelist;
his first work, Studies in Early French
Poetry, was published in 1888, and in 1871
he began to write fiction in collaboration
with James Rice. Ready-j^Ioncy Mortiboy
and The Golden Butterfly gained for the
authors a wide reputation. Since the death
of Pace in 1882, Besaut has written alone, his
best-known work being All Sorts and Condi-
tions of J/im, which prompted the establish-
ment of the People's Palace in Mile
End.
BescM, Constantino Giuseppe (d. 1742),
Italian Jesuit, who went to India as a
missionary, and acquired the various native
languages, for which he compiled grammars
and dictionaries, besides writing works for
the benefit of his converts.
Bessaraba, Constantino II. (d. 1714),
Vaivode of Wallachia. His life was
passed in treacherous intrigue with different
powers, Russia, Turkey, and Austria, and
he was finally put to death at Constanti-
nople.
Bessaraba, Michel II. (d. 1601), Vaivode
of Wallachia. In alliance with Sigismund
of Transylvania and Rodolph I. of Germany
he drove the Turks from Wallachia, and on
the death of Sigismund annexed Transyl-
vania. He was, however, soon driven out,
and shortly after poisoned at Vienna.
Bes
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Ben
Bessaraba, Mirce I. (d. 1418), Vaivode
of Wallachia, in 1393 was compelled to be-
come a tributary to Sultan Bajazet I., but
joined the Christian alliance in 1396, which
was defeated at Nicopolis. He repelled the
Turkish invasion, however, and retained
the independence of Wallachia for eighteen
years.
Bessaraba, Rodolph, "The Black" (d.
1265), founder of the principality of Wal-
lachia. He built the towns of Argissa and
Tergovisti.
Bessarion, John (6. 1395, d. 1472), monk
of the Order of St. Basil, in the Pelopon-
nesus. John Palaeologus made him bishop
of Nicea and sent hnn to the Councils of
Ferrara and Florence, summoned to bring
about the union of the Greek and Latin
churches. He favoured Koine, for which
he received a cardinal's hat, but he had to
leave Constantinople. His house at Rome
was a great centre of learning ; he was sent
on many papal missions.
Bessborough, John William Ponsonby,
fourth Earl of (6. 1731, d. 1847), entered
Parliament as Lord Duncannon, in 1805, in
the Whig interest. He was made Home
Secretary in 1834, and Lord Privy Seal in
1835. In 1846 he became Lord-Lieutenant
of Ireland under Lord John Russell, and
during his viceroyalty the great famine oc-
curred. His son (d. 1880) presided over the
Irish Land Commission which bears his
name.
Besssl, Friedrich Wilhelm (6. ^1784, d.
1846), German astronomer, entered a mer-
chant's office, and while there devoted his
leisure to the study of astronomy, and suc-
ceeded in obtaining an appointment in the
Lilienthal observatory. In 1810 an obser-
vatory was constructed at Konigsberg under
Bessel's direction, and here he spent the rest
of his lif e in research and observations which
have made his name famous.
Bessemer, Sir Henry (6. 1813), a distin-
guished inventor. He early displayed his
mechanical genius in several useful in-
ventions, and the great discovery with which
his name is associated — the Bessemer steel
process — was brought before the world in
1856.
Bessieres, Jean Baptiste (b. 1768, d. 1813),
French general, and Duke of Istria, who
rose from the rank of common soldier. He
gained the special regard of Bona-
parte, and served with distinction in many
of his campaigns. He was mainly instru-
mental in gaining the victory at Marengo ;
succeeded Bernadotte in the command of
the army of the north ; and was killed the
day before Liitzen.
Best. William Thomas (&. 1826), organist,
for many years held that position at St.
George's Hall, Liverpool, and at the London
Albert Hall. He introduced into England
the use of the separate pedal board oa
Bach's system.
Bestujeff-Rumin, Alexis Petrovich (6.
1692, d. 1766), Russian statesman, was
first a page to George I. of England, and
in 1741 became chancellor to the Empress
Elizabeth. His diplomatic machinations
against Prussia at length brought about his
banishment, but he was restored in 1762 by
Catherine II.
EetMea-Gabor (6. 1580, d. 1629), Prince
of Transylvania and King of Hungary, rose
to the former rank with the aid of the Turks
in a period of disturbance, and taking the
lead of the Hungarian Protestants against
the Emperor Ferdinand II. , was proclaimed
King of Hungary in 1618. During the
Thirty Years' war he was compelled to
resign the title.
Betterton, Thomas (6. 1635, d. 1710),
English actor, the son of a cook of Charles
I. All contemporary critics speak of him
with the highest praise, and he was always
popular during his career of fifty years or
more on the stage. His wife, a Miss Saunder-
son, was the great Lady Macbeth of her
day.
Bettina, the assumed name of Anna
Elizabeth von Arnini (6. 1785, d. 1859), a
writer of the Romantic school, best known
for her friendship with Goethe. She visited
him in Weimar in 1807, and this led to a
prolific correspondence extending over four
years, which she published as ±iriefwechsel
mit einem Kinde. She was the friend of
many other illustrious men of the dayj
and in 1811 married Ludwig Joachim von
Aruim, a distinguished poet and novelist.
After her husband's death sLe lived in
Berlin, where her house became tha centre
of Liberal movements, and where s'.ie wrote
a number of social and political essays.
Bettinelli, Savcrio (6. 1718, d. 1808),
Italian Jesuit, and a writer and poet of
distinction, was professor of literature at
Brescia, and afterwards at Parma. His
greatest works were a history of the period
between the 10th and 14th centuries, a
poem, II Parnaso Veneto, and Lettere di
Tirtjilio.
Be-ole, Charles Ernest (b. 1826, d. 1874), a
French archaeologist. An important series
of excavations on the Acropolis secured for
him the chair of archgeology in the Biblio-
theque Imperiale, in which position he
directed other excavations at Carthage. In
1871 he was elected to the National Assembly,
and in 1873 was made minister of the inte-
rior. His position soon became so difficult
Ben
(134)
Bho
that he resigned, and shortly after com-
mitted suicide.
Beurnonville, Pierre Kiel de (6. 1752, d.
1821), French general, in 1793 was sent to
arrest Duinouriez, but was delivered by him
to the Austrians, and remained a prisoner
for two years. Under the empire he was
ambassador at Berlin aud Madrid, and on
the restoration was ennobled, and made a
marshal of France.
Beust, Friedrich Ferdinand, Count von
(6. 1809, d. 1886), German statesman and
diplomatist, in 1849 became minister of
foreign aft'airs to the King of Saxony, and
later, prime minister. His policy at home
was severely anti-democratic, and in foreign
matters he strongly resisted the dominance
of Prussia and Austria. After Sadowa he
had to resign, but was at once appointed
foreign minister to the Austrian Emperor.
In this position he carried many Liberal re-
forms, and entirely reorganised the affairs
of the empire. In 1871 he was sent as am-
bassador to London, and later to Paris.
Beveridge, "William (6. 1638, d. 1708),
English bishop and distinguished Oriental-
ist. In his twentieth year he wrote a treatise.
on the Hebrew, Chaldaic, Syriac, Arabic,
and Samaritan languages. In 1 704 he was
created Bishop of St. Asaph, and continued
his literary labours to the end.
Severn, August "Wilhelm, Duke of Bruns-
wick-Luneberg (6. 1715, d. 1782), Prussian
general, who served with distinction during
the Seven Years' war, and in 1762 defeated
the Austrians at Reichenbach.
BevernincX Jerome van (6. 1614, d. 1690),
Dutch statesman, known as "the Pacifi-
cator," on account of his successful negotia-
tion of many treaties. He was also an
eminent botanist.
m Bewick, Thomas (6. 1753, d. 1828), Eng-
lish engraver, entered into partnership with
a Newcastle wood engraver, Ralph Leilby,
with whom he published his History of
Quadrupeds, which proved an immense suc-
cess. After some more fine work, he pro-
duced The History of British £irds, and
later, ^Esop's Fables, the two best examples
of his art.
Beyle, Marie Henri (6. 1783, d. 1842),
French writer, who only devoted himself to
literature after he had tried four or five
other professions. He wrote, besides much
excellent biography, two romances, and a
History of Painting in Italy.
Beza, Theodore (b. 1519, d. 1605), Calvinist
divine, was born in Burgundy, and entering
the church secured rich benefices in Paris,
where, for some time, he led a wild life. In
1548 he went to Geneva, where he made a
public confession of the reformed faith, and
obtained a Greek professorship at Lausanne.
Besides much polemical writiugat this time,
he translated the Psalms into French verse,
and the New Testament into Latin. In
1559 he went to Geneva, and became Calvin 'a
right-hand man. He remained in France
with Conde aud Coliguy during the civil
war. After Calvin's death he became the
foremost figure among the Calvinists of the
Continent.
Bhdslay, Rhagojee I. (d. 1753), Mahratta
general, who was granted the province of
Berar from the Peshwah Bajee Rao II. The
greater part of his lif e was occupied in war.
Bhoslay, Janoojee (d. 1773), succeeded
the preceding as Rajah of Berar in 1753.
He concluded an alliance with Nizam Ali for
the purpose of obtaining the chief power in
the Mahratta state ; but Nizam Ali joined
the Peshwah at the critical hour, and
Janoojee had to agree to most disastrous
terms of peace.
Bhoslay, Raghoojee (d. 1816), Rajah of
Berar and commaiLder of the Mahratta
armies. He asserted his independence of
the Mahratta. Peshwah, aud in 1803 entered
into alliance with, Doulat Rao Sindia
against the English. Their large and splen-
didly appointed army was utterly defeated
at Assaye by Wellesley, and later actions
compelled Raghoojee to effect a peace by
the relinquishment of the greater part of
his dominions.
Bhoslay, Moodajee (d. 1840), generally
known as Appa Sahib, Rajah of Berar,
succeeded to the throne by the murder of
the Rajah Pursajee, and joined the Mah-
ratta confederacy against the English. He
was defeated and deposed, but was rein-
stated after a time, only again to stir up
revolt against the British. He escaped
from the imprisonment which he brought
upon himself, and afterwards led a wan-
dering life in Central India.
Bhoslay, Sivajee, Rajah of Mahrattas (ft.
1627, d. 1680). His father was high in the
service of the Beejapoor sovereign. In-
stigated by his mother, he, with tkree other
men. Yessjee Kunk, Yannajee Maloosray,
and Bajee Phasalkur, raised a force in the
hills, and conducted such successful raids
that the Emperor Shah Jehan took him into
his service. He greatly enlarged his do-
minions during the struggle between the
Mogul empire and the Beejapoor states,
taking part now with one side, now with the
other ; and finally by stratagem he destroyed
a powerful army sent against him from
Beejapoor. After some years of successful
predatory warfare, he was proclaimed
Maharajah of the Mahrattas with widely
extended dominions.
Bho
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Bil
'Show, Purishram Rao Putwurdhem,
Mahratta general. In 1790 he commanded
the Mahratta forces acting with the British
against Tippoo Sultan, and his victorious
campaign in northern Mysore helped to
bring the Sultan to a speedy submission.
In 1795 he utterly defeated the Nizam, and
in the following year performed the re-
markable feat of marching a large body of
cavalry 200 miles in forty- eight hours. In
a campaign against the liajah of Kolapoor
he was taken prisoner and cut to pieces.
Biancnl, Francesco, (6. 1752, d. 1810),
Italian composer of note; in 1775 he pro-
duced at Paris his first opera, La Reduction
de Paris, with much success, and in 1784
received an appointment at Milan cathedral,
where he remained for nine years producing
operas and oratorios. In 1793 he settled
in London and married Miss Jackson, a
popular vocalist.
Bianchi, Vincent Friedrich, Baron de,
Duke of Casalanza (b. 1768, d. 1855),
Austrian general, served against the Turks
and through the French wars, in which he
distinguished himself. In 1 8 1 5 he assisted in
the defeat of Murat at Tollentino, and at
the convention of Casalanza secured the
throne of Naples for Ferdinand IV. In
1817 he commanded the Austrian forces in
Bavaria.
Bianconi, Carlo (6. 1788, d. 1875), the
originator of the Bianconi cars in Ireland.
His parents sent him as a boy to be appren-
ticed in London; but Bianconi went to
Dublin, where he acquired the nucleus of
his fortune as an itinerant fruit- seller.
After some years he initiated his plan for
very cheap car conveyance between the
rural districts and the principal market
towns, and with such success that his
system was rapidly adopted all over Ireland.
Bianconi, Giovanni Lodovico (6. 1717,
d. 1781), Italian physician and man of
letters, in 1750 became chief physician to
the Elector of Saxony, whom he followed
into exile. In 1764 he was appointed re-
sident minister at the Papal court, where
he devoted himself to the literary pursuits
which established his reputation through
Europe.
Bicnat, Marie Franqois Xavier (6. 1771,
d. 1802), physiologist and anatomist, was
adopted by Dessault, whose M orks he edited,
and after his death devoted himself to
research in anatomy and surgery with such
incessant industry as to undermine his con-
stitution. He left numerous works of the
highest value.
Bickerstaff, Isaac (b. 1735, d. 1787), an
Irish dramatist, the author of several suc-
cessful comedies and operas.
Bickersteth, Edward Henry (b. 1825),
Bishop of Exeter; in 1866 he published
his religious poem Yesterday, To- day, and
For £ver, which had a wide vogue, and in
1870 The Hymnal Companion to the Book of
Common Prayer. Several other works of a
similar character have since appeared. He
was ordained to the see of Exeter in 1885.
Bidder, George Parkes (6. 1800, d. 1878),
engineer. ID youth his grasp of figures
earned him the title of the " Calculating
Boy." Afterwards he assisted George
Stephenson ; was one of the engineers of
the Blackwall Eailway, and a promoter of
the Telegraph Company.
Biddle, James (b. 1783. d. 1848), officer of
the U.S. navy, during the war with Tripoli,
1800, was taken prisoner. He served with
great distinction in the war with England,
capturing two English men-of-war.
Biddle, John (6. 1615, d. 1662), religious
controversialist, known as "the father of
the English Unitarians," was sent to prison
for heresy, and his book was ordered by
the House of Commons to be burnt. In
1648, for the publication of his Confession of
faith, he was condemned to death, but the
sentence was commuted ; and he was
released in 1651, only to be again im-
prisoned by order of the House of Commons.
Cromwell subsequently banished him to the
Scilly Isles, but in 1662 he returned to
London, and was again sent to prison,
where he died.
Biehl, Charlotte Dorothea (b. 1731, d.
1788), Danish woman of letters, known ar a
translator, a writer of tales and poetry, apd
the author of some successful comedies.
Biez, Oudard du (d. 1553), French general,
made a marshal of France by Francis 1.,
and appointed to succeed to the Chevalier
Bayard's command. He failed to drive the
English from Boulogne, and after the death
of Francis I. was imprisoned by the Guises.
Bignon, Louia Pierre Edouard (b. 1771, rf.
1841), French diplomatist and statesman,
was employed on many important missions
under the empire. For four years he
directed the administration at Warsaw, and
he was an under-secretary for foreign
affairs during the Hundred Days. After
the 1830 revolution he became foreign
minister, and was created a peer, and
Napoleon charged him with the compilation,
of a diplomatic history of France from 1799
to 1815, a task which "he completed in four-
teen volumes.
Bilderdyck, Willem (b. 1756, d. 1831),
Dutch poet, a lawyer by profession, emi-
grated first to Germany aud then to London,
where he lived by teaching. He returned
to Holland in 1806, and was taken
Bil
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Bir
favour by Louis Napoleon, then King of
the Netherlands, lie afterwards settled in
Ley dei i. The greatest of his numerous
poems is his Destruction of the First World.
Bilfirger, Georg Bernhard (6. 1693, d.
1750), German savant, in 1724 went to
Russia at the request of Peter the Great,
to occupy a professorial chair, where he
wmte his Essay on the Cax-ye of the Wcnjlit
of Jifdit's, to which the Paris Academy of
Sciences awarded the first prize. lie was
afterwards curator of the university of
Tubingen, and left several works.
Billaud- Varenne, Jacques Nicolas (b. 1 7-56,
d. iNlii), French revolutionary of the most
extreme type, was prominent from the first
in the revolutionary councils for the fero-
city of his designs ; later he denounced
Robespierre. In 1795 he was banished to
Cayenne, and never returned to France,
though pardoned.
Bille, Steen Andersen (b. 1751, d. 1833),
Danish admiral, conducted in 1796 the suc-
cessful blockade of Tripoli ; fought in the
battle of Copenhagen ; and was appointed
commissioner for the transfer of the Nor-
wegian fortresses from Denmark to Sweden.
Bille", Steen Andersen (b. 1797), Danish
admiral, son of the preceding, served
•with distinction in the French navy, and
in 1845 commanded a Danish scientific
expedition, which sailed round the world.
He commanded the Danish navy in the
war against Germany, and in 1852 became
minister of marine.
Bineau, Jean Martial (b. 1805, d. 1855),
French engineer and politician, inspector-
general of the corps of engineers and mines,
entered the legislature hi 1841, and busied
himself with extending internal communica-
tion. From 1849 to 1851 he was minister
of public works, and in 1852 became minister
of finance.
Binet, Jacques Philippe Marie (b. 1786,
d. 1856), French mathematician, was for
some time professor of astronomy in the
College of France, and left behind him
many papers of great value.
Bingham, Joseph (6. 1688, d. 1723), Eng-
lish clergyman, remembered as the author of
Origines Mcclesiasticee, a work of the greatest
erudition. He was compelled to resign an
Oxford fellowship for his part in the Trini-
tarian controversy.
Bini, Carlo (6. 1806, d. 1842), Italian pat-
riot and writer, whose life was devoted to
the national cause, most of his wri tings
being directed to further it. He was the
intimate friend of Mazzini, by whom his
works were edited.
Biondi, Giovanni Francesco (6. 1572, d.
1644), Italian writer, came to England from
Venice at the invitation of Sir Henry \Vot-
tou, and was taken into high favour by
James I., who employed him. on several
f • >reign missions. He wrote a history of the
Wars of the Hoses.
Biondi, Luigi (6. 1776, d. 1839), Italian
man of letters, was an industrious writer of
i'lvse and verse of a high quality. He was
president of the Archaeological Academy
at Home, and supervisor, for the King of
Sardinia, of the, study of fine arts in Rome.
Biot, Jean Baptiste (b. 1774, d. 1802),
French man of science, was professor of
mathematics at the College of Beauvais, and
later professor of physics at the College of
France. In 1803 he was elected a member of
the Academy of Sciences, and soon after be-
came intimate with Arago and Gay-Lussac,
with one or other of whom many of his later
researches were conducted. He was em-
ployed in Spain in measuring the arc of the
meridian, and in 1817 visited Great Britain
with the object of further prosecuting his
sidereal measurements. A life of industrious
research in many branches of science, and
especially in optics and in the polarisation
of light, obtained, for him fellowship in
nearly all the great scientific bodies of
Europe, including the London Royal Society
and the French Academy, and Academy of
Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres. In 1814
Napoleon I. bestowed on him the Legion of
Honour, and in 18-10 he received the Rum-
ford medal of the Royal Society.
Birch, Charles Bell (6. 1835), English
sculptor and Royal Academician, received
his training at the Berlin Academy, in 1864
won the £600 prize given by the Art Union
of London : in 1879 he was elected an asso-
ciate of the Royal Academy, and in 1881 a
member. Among his best-known works
are Marguerite with the Jewel Casket, The
Wounded Trumpeter, Lady Crodiva, and the
statue of Lord Beaconsfield at Liverpool.
Birch, Samuel (b. 1813, d. 1885), eminent
antiquarian and Egyptologist, in 1836 he
entered the Department of Antiquities at
the British Museum, and in 1861 was ap-
pointed keeper of Oriental Antiquities, a
post which he held till his death. He left
numerous works of archaeological interest,
and was a great authority on hieroglyphics
and Biblical archasology.
Birch, Thomas (b. 1705, d. 1766), English
clergyman and man of letters, of Quaker
parentage, was ordained in the Church of
England in 1730, devoting much of his after
life to literary work and antiquarian re-
search. He was secretary of the Royal
Society and a trustee of the British Museum,
and he wrote The History of the Royal
Society of London.
Ehr
(137)
Bis
Bird, Edward (6. 1772, d. 1819), English
painter, rose to the dignity of Royal Aca-
demician from the position of a Birmingham.
designer. Ilis tirst notable picture was
Good Neil's) and his Chevy Chase aud Death
of Eli were purchased by the Marquis of
Stafford. Later he was appointed painter
to the Princess Charlotte.
Birdwood, Sir George Christopher Moles-
worth (6. 1832), distinguished Civil servant
and authority on Indian questions, took his
medical degree at Edinburgh and entered
the Indian Medical Service in 1854. He
B«:T&d in the Persian war, and in 1857
accepted a chair at the Grant medical col-
lege and the curatorship of the Bombay
museum. In 18(57 he was sent as special
commissioner from Bombay to the Paris
Exhibition, and in 1868 he returned to Eng-
land, entering the India Office. For some
time he edited the Bombay Saturday Heview,
and he has published a Catalogue of the
Economic Products of Bombay, among other
botanical works.
^ Birger de Bielbo (b. 1210, d, 1266),
Swedish noble, married the sister of King
Eric, and was the father of King Waidemar,
during whose minority he acted as regent.
He subdued Finland, founded Stockholm,
and built the cathedral of Upsal.
< Birkbeck, George (b. 1776, d. 1841), the
founder of mechanics' institutes, was born
in Yorkshire, and took his degree as a doc-
tor. In 1799 he was appointed professor of
.natural philosophy at the Glasgow Ander-
eonian Institution. His lectures to working
men in Glasgow proved so successful, that
on coming to London he determined to found
a mechanics' institute. After much trouble
and labour he succeeded in establishing the
now famous Birkbeck Institute, of which he
was the director until his death.
Birks, Thomas Eawson (b, 1810, d. 1883),
theological and philosophical writer, and a
Church of England clergyman. His views
were Evangelical, and for twenty years he
acted as secretary to the Evangelical Alli-
ance. In 1872 he was appointed Knights-
bridge professor of moral theology, casuis-
tical divinity and moral philosophy at Cam-
bridge, and he left many works, such as
Modern Rationalism, The Difficulties of Be-
hef, First Principles of Modern Science, and
Utilitarianism.
Bimey, James G. (b. 1792, d. 1857),
American an ti- slavery advocate, so early as
1S34 agitated public opinion on the slavery
question, liberating his own slaves, and
founding a newspaper in the abolition in-
terest In 1836 he became secretary to the
Anti-Slavery Society, and in 1840 was
nominated for the office of president by the
Republican party.
Biron, Armand de Gontaut, Baron de
(b. 1524, d. 1592), French general, served
in the Catholic army during the wars be-
tween the Huguenots and Catholics, and
in 1569 was appointed grand-master of
artillery. In 1577 he was created a marshal
of France, and reduced Guienne and Lau-
guedoc to submission. In 1580 he under-
took, with the Due D'Epernon, the cam-
paign in Flanders, and in 1586 he was
wounded at the siege of Marans. He went
over to Henry of Navarre immediately after
the assassination of Henry III., bis Protes-
tant sympathies having been long suspected.
He distinguished himself at Arques and
Ivry, and was killed at the siege of Eper-
nay.
Biron, Armand Louis de Gontaut, Due de
(b. 1747, d. 1794), son of Charles, Due de
Gontaut, and better known as Due de Lau-
zun, which title was conferred on him in his
twenty-first year. In 1768 he served with
distinction in the conquest of Corsica; in
1779 he drove the English from Senegal,
and later played a prominent part in
America under Rochanibeau. His interest
at Court having been lost, he joined the
revolution when it broke out, sat in the
States General, and was employed on im-
portant missions. He successively com-
manded the armies of the North, the Rhine,
and the Alps, and from, the latter command
he was suddenly transferred to La Vendee.
Here he fell into disfavour with the central
authorities, and after some months' impri-
sonment was guillotined.
Biron, Charles de Gontaut, Due de (6.
1562, d. 1602), the son of Armand de Gon-
taut, under whom he served in the wars of
Henry IV., was a great favourite of the
king, who made him admiral of France in
1592, marshal in 1594, and duke in 159S.
He entered, however, into a treaty with
Spain and Savoy for Henry's overthrow,
and, the design having been betrayed, he
was beheaded.
Bisaccioni, Maiolino (b. 1582, d. 1663),
Italian soldier, diplomatist, and writer.
After taking a degree as doctor of laws, he
distinguished himself in the Venetian service
before he was seventeen, and later in the
Poutiticial army in Hungary. In 1640 he
had to leave the latter service on account of
a duel with his general, and for a similar
reason he withdrew from the Prince of
Correggio's forces, which he next joined.
In the army of Moldavia he rose to high
rank, and took part, with six others, in the
defence of the bridge of Vienna against a
large force of the enemy. Pope Gregory
XV. employed him later as ambassador to
several courts. He left numerous works in
several fields of literature.
Bischof, Karl Gustav (6. 1792, d. 1870),
Bis
(138)
a German geologist and chemist of high
reputation, was known for much valu-
able research in physical science, and for Ids
Treatise on Chemical and I'tii/vintl Geoloi/if.
He occupied for some years a chair at the
Bonn university.
Bischoff, Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm von
(6. 1807), German anatomist and physio-
logist, born in Hanover, graduated at Bonn
in 1832, where later he became professor of
pathological anatomy and physiology. In
1844 he became connected with Giesseu uni-
versity, where he founded a physiological
institution and an anatomical museum. In
1850, at a famous trial, he demonstrated the
in V-nssibility of spontaneous combustion;
aid in 1855 became professor of anatomy
at Munich. He has left many records of
his valuable researches in embryology.
Bisette, Cyril Charles Auguste (h. 1795,
d. 1853), a mulatto, born in the island of
Martinique, for some years championed
the cause of his fellows before the French
Government. He established successively
the Revue des Colonies and the Revue Aboli-
tioniste, and in 1849 was elected to the
Legislative Assembly. He retired after the
coup d'etat.
Bisnop, Sir Henry Rowley (6. 1786, d.
1855), English composer, early devoted
himself to the composition of dramatic
music; and in 1809 produced his Circas-
sian Bride, which was a great success. In
1810 he became connected with Covent
Garden theatre, and produced many operas
during this time, including The Lady of the
Lake, Guy Mannering, and The Slave. In
1825 Bishop broke his connection with
Covent Garden to go to Drury Lane, and he
was succeeded at the former theatre by
Weber. It was in rivalry with Weber's
Oberon that Bishop produced the unsuccess-
ful Aladdin. In 1840 his last dramatic
piece, The Fortunate Isles, was produced at
Covent Garden in honour of the Queen's
wedding ; in 1842 he was knighted ; and in
1848 he became professor of music at Oxford.
An extravagant habit of lif e kept Bishop at
his most prosperous times in pecuniary diffi-
culties, and more than one subscription was
raised for his benefit. The ballads and glees
which he wrote are the compositions on
which his popularity rests, and which have
made his name famous.
Bismarck, Otto Edward Leopold, Prince
von (6. 1815), German statesman, and first
chancellor of the German empire, is the
son of Karl Wilhelm von Bismarck, a
landed proprietor of Ppmerania, on whose
Schouhausen estate Bismarck was born.
After a school- life spent in Berlin, he
went to Gottiugen university, where
he was chiefly remarkable for the bois-
terousness of his spirits and the number
of duels in which he took part. In 1835 lie
entered the public service ; but in 1839 he
took over the management of the paterual
estates, and for nine years lived the life of a
country gentleman. In 1847 he married
Johanna von Puttkamer, after having over-
come, with much difficulty, the objections of
her parents to the person known as "mad
Bismarck." In the same year Bismarck
was elected to the Prussian Landtag, and
the Berlin revolution of 1848 gave him an
opportunity of showing his ability as a
staunch supporter of the prerogatives of the
Crown. His views were bitterly hostile to
Austria, and he declared his hope of a
United Germany under Prussian leadership.
, In 1851 he became leader of the Conserva-
; tives, and was appointed Prussian minister
plenipotentiary to the Frankfort Diet.
While occupying this position he was sent
on several diplomatic missions, and in 1859
was appointed ambassador at St. Peters-
burg. From thence he was transferred to
Paris, and in 1862 was appointed chief
minister to the Prussian king. He was at
first in great public disfavour owing to his
uncompromising hostility to the constitu-
tional majority of the Landtag. In 1863
the Danish war broke out, and Schles-
wig-H^lstein was secured for Germany.
In 1866 an attempt on his life was
made. Austria's predominance was finally
destroyed by the war which broke out in
1866, and in the same year one of the
ambitions of Bismarck's life was an accom-
plished fact— the establishment of a North
German Confederation with Prussia at its
head. In 1867 Bismarck, now the most
popular man in Germany, became chan-
cellor of the Confederated German States,
a post which he held uninterruptedly ti'l
1890. When the inevitable war with
France came in 1870, Bismarck secured the
neutrality of all other European powers,
and alienated sympathy from France. He
attended King William throughout the war
to the occupation of Paris, and in 1871 read
the proclamation of King William on his
being acclaimed German emperor. He
settled the terms of peace with France ;
and was then created a prince and first
chancellor of the German empire. From
that time Prince Bismarck's influence was
the dominating factor in European diplo-
macy until his retirement in 1890. In 1870
he came into diplomatic collision with the
Pope, and having caused the expulsion of
the Jesuits, all communication with the
Papal See was suspended until 1880, when
the dispute was adjusted. During this
period Bismarck's life was attempted for
the second time. His policy at home was
one of consolidation for the empire and
throne, and of stern repression for all
Socialistic tendencies. In 1884 he initiated
a colonial policy for Germany, by wholesale
Bis
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Bla
acquisitions in Africa and the Pacific. Bis-
marck's supremacy in Germany and Europe
remained unquestioned till the death of the
old Emperor. He was known to be anti-
pathetic to the Emperor Frederick, but the
untimely death of that sovereign, followed
by the accession of the young Emperor
William, seemed to give Bismarck a new
lease of power. However, differences of
policy between him and his new master
were speedily developed, and culminated
in the beginning of 1890 by his retirement.
In 1891 he again entered public life as a
member of the Reichstag. His son, Count
Herbert Bismarck, was for some years at
the head of the German Foreign Office. He
resigned when Prince Bismarck retired from
the chancellorship.
Bissen, Wilhelm (6. 1798, d. 1868),
Danish sculptor of note, who studied for
some years under Thorwaldsen. In 1850
he became president of the Copenhagen
Academy of Fine Arts.
Bi:do, Jacques Alexandra (b. 1808, d.
1865), French naturalist and politician,
by profession was a physician, but took
a deep* interest in agriculture and horti-
culture. After the revolution of> 1848 he
was sent on a mission to Turin ; was elected
to the Constituent Assembly; and for a
short time was minister of agriculture and
commerce in Louis Napoleon's first cabinet.
On the coup d'etat he- endured a brief im-
prisonment.
Bjerken, Peder von (b. 1765, d. 1818),
Swedish surgeon and oculist, served as sur-
geon in the Finnish army during the war
with Russia, and received a medal for his
distinguished services at that time. He
was appointed surgeon -in-chief in 1814,
and highly decorated.
Bjoernstjerna, Magnus (b. 1779, d. 1847),
Swedish general and diplomatist, served
in the Finnish war ; in 1809 was sent on a
mission to France, and in 1812 arranged
for the sale of Guadeloupe. He fought in
the Danish war, and assisted at the negotia-
tions which brought about peace with the
transference of Norway to Sweden. In
1826 he was appointed minister in London.
He left several works on political and fiscal
matters.
Bjb'rnson, Bjb'rnstjerne (b. 1832), the
national poet of Norway. In early life an
historical drama of his, called Valoorg, was
accepted by the Royal theatre, but its
author withdrew the piece. In 1856 the
international students' reunion at TJpsala
stimulated him again to an effort to produce
a national poetry, free from foreign in-
fluences. He began with Synnb've Solbakken,
a story of peasant lif e, which was followed
by Arne and many other pieces. In 1858 he
became director of the theatre at Bergen,
and produced quickly two dramas, Mellem
Slagene and Halte Hulda, both treating of
national subjects. Marie Stuart and Sigurd
Slenbe are both well-known plays, and he
has written, besides his dramas, a series of
Foii Plays, an epic, and much beautiful
lyric poetry. He receives a government
pension, but lives abroad.
Black, Adam (b. 1784, d. 1874), the well-
known publisher of Edinburgh, made a
name by the publication of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica. He also took over the Edinburgh
Review when the Constables failed, and
purchased the copyright of the Waverley
novels. He took a prominent part in muni-
cipal affairs, and was elected lord provost
of Edinburgh, while in 1856, on the retire-
ment of Macaulay, he was returned to Par-
liament in the Liberal interest. He retained
his seat in the House for nearly ten years.
Black, Joseph (b. 1728, d. 1799), distin-
guished chemist, a favourite pupil of Dr.
Cullen, first turned his attention to the
study of lime, and in 1754 he published a
treatise, Experiments on Magnesia, Quick-
lime, and other Alkaline Substance*,
wliich gained him a high reputation. In
1756 he was appointed chemistry-lecturer at
Glasgow, and in 1763 he announced his
discovery of latent heat. In 1766 he became
professor of chemistry at Edinburgh, in
which post he remained till his death. He
published several scientific treatises.
Black, William (b. 1841), English novelist,
spent some years in the study of art, but
regarding himself as a failure in the artis-
tic profession, he turned to literature. Hig
first novel, Lore or Marriage, was pub-
lished in 1867, being followed in 1868 by In
Silk Attire, and in 1871 by A Daughter of
Heth, which was a pronounced success.
The Strange Adventures of a Phaeton and A
Princess of Thule were published soon after,
and his reputation as one of the best novel-
ists of the day was established. For four
years he acted as assistant-editor of the
Daily News, but has long abandoned
journalism.
Blackburne, Francis (b. 1782. d. 1867),
eminent Irish lawyer and judge, took a
gold medal at Trinity College, Dublin, and
the medals for history and oratory given by
the Irish Historical Society. Called to the
bar in 1805, he was from 1823 to 1825 a
judge under the Insurrection Act. In 1830
he was made Attorney -general for Ireland ;
in 1842 he was appointed Master of the
Rolls; and in 1846, Chief Justice of the
Queen's Bench. Under Lord Derby he was
twice Lord Chancellor of Ireland, and in
1856 he became first Lord Justice of Appeal.
Bla
( 140)
Blackie, John Stuart (b. 1809), Scotch
proi'e.;sf>r un<l man. of letters, was called to
the Scottish bar m 183-1, and published iu the
same year a metrical translation of Goethe's
fruixt. From 1811 to 18-32 he was professor
of humanity at Aberdeen ; and from then
till 1882 professor of Greek at Edinburgh.
He has published many classical works,
including a metrical translation of JEschy-
lus's Songs and Let/ends of Ancient (sraece,
Hosier and the Iliad, with a transla-
tion in verse of the latter, besides several
important critical essays on points of Greek
antiquity and literature. In philosophy
Professor Blackie's works have also been
numerous, and exceedingly popular.
Blaclrmore, Sir Richard (b. 1650, d.
1729), English physician, and poet, took his
medical degree in Padua, and soon obtained
a reputation in London. In 1397 he became
one of William III. 's physicians, and re-
ceived a knighthood. He was a most pro-
lific writer of verse, the epic being his
favourite subject. Prince Arthur, King
Arthur, Alfred, and Creation all came from
his pen, besides several works on medical
science.
Blackmore, Richard Doddridge (6. 1825),
one of the first of modern novelists, in
1852 was called to the bar, and practised
for a short time. In 1860 he published for
the first time, the work being a poem en-
titled Tke Fate of Franklin. This was
followed by translations of the first two of
the Georgics, and in 1864 by his first novel,
Clara Vauyhan. His great work, Lorna
Doont, appeared in 1869, and has been
succeeded by several others of less popularity.
Blackstone, Sir William (ft. 1723, d.
1780), English lawyer, was the son of a
City merchant, and at Oxford was a dis-
tinguished classical scholar, even publishing
some verse. In 1746 he was called to the
bar, but made so little progress that he
thought of retiring. Some lectures on law
gained him a reputation, however, and hi
1758 he became the first Vinerian professor
of common law at Oxford. Declining the
chief justiceship of Common Pleas in
Ireland, he entered Parliament in 1761, in
1763 was appointed Solicitor- general to the
Queen, and in 1765 published the first volume
of his famous Commentaries on the Laws of
England. In 1770 he was made a Justice of
the King's Bench, and later a Justice of
Common Pleas, a post which he held till his
death. He co-operated with Howard in the
reform of prison discipline and the establish-
ment of penitentiaries.
ElackwQod, Sir Henry (b. 1770, d. 183 i),
an Irish *iaval officer, entering the navy in
1781- behaved with great gallantly against
French, and later as captain of the
Euri/alus he served under Nelson at the
battle of Trafalgar. In 18U7 he con>
iiianded the Ajax, in the expedition to Con-
stantinople, and though the slap was burnt,
B lark wood saved his crew under th«
greatest difficulties. He was created rear-
admiral and baronet.
Blackwool, John (b. 1818, d. 1879), a
member of the well-known Edinburgh firm
of publishers, succeeded his brother Alex-
ander in the conduct of Blackwood's Maga-
zine, which he continued to direct for thirty-
three years. He it was who first discovered
George Eliot as a writer, and the Scenes
from Clerical L/fe were first published in the
pages of his magazine.
Blackwood, William (b. 1776, d. 1834),
the founder of the Edinburgh firm of pub-
lishers bearing his name, began life as a
bookseller, and his antiquarian knowledge
enabled him to publish a valuable catalogue
of Scottish historical and antiquarian books.
In 1816 he turned to publishing, and started
the magazine which made his name a
familiar word in Great Britain.
Blagden, Sir Charles (b. 1748, d. 1820),
English physician and chemist of high
repute, for a long time acted as secretary
to the Royal Society, to the Transactions of
which he contributed numerous memoirs
of value.
Elaine, James Gillespie (b. 1830), Ameri-
can politician, after being professor of
mathematics, and editor of newspapers,
was elected to Congress by the Republican
party in Maine, and remained a repre-
sentative till 1S76, when he became a
senator, having been for five years Speaker
of the Lower House. In 1876 he was an
unsuccessful candidate for the presidency,
and again in 1880 ; but hi 1881 he became
secretary of state to President Garfield.
In 183-i he was nominated by the Republi-
can caucus for the presidency, but the
Democrats carried the election owing to the
split which Mr. Elaine's candidature caused.
In the election of 18SS Mr. Blaine refused
to be nominated ; but on Mr. Harrison's
election he again became secretary of state,
and his term of office was noted for the
diplomatic troubles with England and
Italy.
Blainville, Henri Marie Ducrotay de
(b. 1777, d. 1850), French naturalist of dis-
tinction, first studied art with the design
of becoming a painter, but was attracted to
natural history by hearing Cuvier lecture at
the College of France. He took a m-dical
degree in 1808, and for many years devoted
himself with Oppel to the study of reptiles.
He then began to work under Cnvier, and
obtained the chair of anatomy and zoology
in the Faculty of Sciences. In 1832 he
Bla
(HI)
Bla
succeeded Cuvier in the chair of compara-
tive anatomy.
Blair, Hugh (b. 1718, d. 1300), Scottish
minister, renowned in his own day as a
preacher. When his fame as a pulpit
orator was at its height, he began to lecture
on rhetoric and belles lettres, and with such
remarkable success that a chair was created
for him at Edinburgh university. George
III. granted him a pension of £'200.
Blake, Joachim (b. circa 1768, d. 1827),
Spanish general, who played a very pro-
minent part in the Peninsular war, served
with distinction in the war against France
of 1793, and in 1808 hs was made marechal
de camp. When the king abdicated, the
Junta gave Blake command of the levies
which were being raised. He was forced
into an engagement by their enthusiasm, and
so lost the battle of Medina del Rio Seco.
Again he was defeated at Espiuosa, but his
reputation with his countrymen remained
unimpaired, and he was appointed coin-
mander-in- chief in Aragon, Valencia, and
Catalonia. He was defeated in Catalonia
by Suchet, but fought a long and obstinate
campaign; and together with Beresford
won the "battle of Albuera. Marching to
Valencia, he was defeated and forced to
capitulate, and for some years remained
a prisoner in France.
Blake, Robert (b. 1598, d. 1657), British
admiral, took part in the Civil war on the
Parliamentary side, and proved a good
soldier ; but he had had no naval experi-
ence when in 1649 he was chosen by the
Parliament to command the fleet of the
Commonwealth against the Royal fleet
under Prince Rupert. However, he drove
the enemy into Ivinsale harbour, and then,
when they put to sea, followed them to
the Portuguese coast, where he destroyed
all the vessels but two. In May of 1642
he engaged the Dutch fleet under Van
Tromp, and dispersed it, and soon after he
blockaded the Dutch admiral in the Texel,
besides taking twelve ships and nearly the
whole Dutch fishing fleet. A few months
later Van Tromp, with a greatly superior
force, drove Blake into the Thames ; but
next year Blake met his old enemy again,
and after a three days' fight completely
defeated him. Again, in the same year, he
gained a victory over the Dutch off the
Foreland. In 1654 he was sent to the
Mediterranean, to demand reparation for
insults to the Commonwealth, and satisfac-
tion was eagerly accorded him on all hands,
thuugh he had to bombard Tunis. In 1656
he blockaded the Spanish fleet in Cadiz,
and next year he accomplished one of the
most brilliant naval exploits on record.
While the Spanish Plate fleet was lying
at anchor in the Bay of Santa Cruz under
the protection of powerful batteries, he sailed
straight into the bay and destroyed the
fleet, in spite of the heavy fire from the
forts. On his way home to England he
died of scurvy, and las body was laid in
Westminster Abbey. After the Restoration
it was transferred to St. Margaret's church.
Blake, William (6. 1757, d. 1828), pc«t,
Eiinter, and engraver, was the son of a
ondon tradesman, and began life as an
engraver's apprentice. His genius dis-
played itself early in poems, and in those
visions which were with him throughout
his lif e, and from which he drew his inspira-
tion. In 1782 he married a servant girl,
who proved to be a most devoted and sym-
pathetic wife and helpmeet to the
eccentric genius. At this time Blake not
only wrote poems and executed designs,
but he printed the books, and coloured
the designs with no other help than that
of his wife. In this manner the Songs of
Innocence were given to the world. The
Book of The/, The Marriage of Heaven and
Hell, and the Proverbs of Hell followed,
all illustrated with Blake's own designs.
The Gates of Paradise, Songs of Experience,
The Song of Los, and other poems were
produced, while the indefatigable Blake
was executing orders for engravings, and in
1799 he exhibited The Last Supper at the
Royal Academy. Blake then went to live
for four years at Felpham in Sussex, and
after his return produced his poems Jeru-
salem and Milton. He was engaged upon
designs for illustrating Dante's Divine
Comedy when he died. In 1891 the MS. of
an unpublished poem by Blake was found.
Blakeney, William, Lord (b. 1670, d.
1761), distinguished soldier, of Irish descent,
served at Carthagena and Boca-Chica, and
as governor-general of Minorca in 1756
he held Fort St. Philip for twenty days
against the French under Marshal Riche-
lieu. For this action he was raised to the
peerage.
Blakey, Robert (6. 1795, d. 1878), philo-
sophical writer, and an authority on
angling. His whole life was spent in the
study of philosophy, logic and metaphy-
sics claiming his special attention. He
wrote a History of Moral Sciejice, the
History of the Philosophy of the Mind, and
a History of Political Literature, besides
several books on angling. In 1835 he
accepted the chair of logic and metaphysics
at Belfast.
Blanc, Jean Joseph Louis (6. 1811, d.
1882), better known as Louis Blanc, a
French revolutionist, supported himself at
first by teaching, but in 1834 he began
to write for the National newspaper, and
the £evue Republicaine. Later he edited
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the Bons Gens, and founded the Itevue du
Progres, Poiiti/jue, Social et Litteraire, in
which his articles on the conditions of
labour attracted much attention. In 1841
he published his Hittuire tic l>ijc Ans, which
was a vehement attack upon the Bourbon
rule, and which created a great impression.
After the 1848 revolution he entered the
provisional government, and became presi-
dent of a government commission for
labourers. His influence at this time was
knmeuse, and a procession of 200,000
workmen waited on him one day to offer
him the dictatorship. The establishment,
failure, and abandonment of the national
workshops, with which Blanc was con-
nected, lost him his popularity, and after
the Communist insurrection he had to fly
France. He lived in England for more
than twent}' years, writing his histories of
the great devolution, and the 1848 Revo-
lution, and a series of letters on England to
the French press. He returned to Paris in
1870, of which city he was elected a deputy.
Blanchard, Francois (b. 1738, d. 1809),
French aeronaut, in 85 crossed the
Channel from Calais to Jjover in a balloon
of his own construction provided with
wings and rudder, and received in recog-
nition of the exploit a handsome present
and pension from Louis XVI. He made
the first parachute descent in London, and
soon after was imprisoned in the Tyrol for
a political offence. He died of apoplexy
while making his sixty- sixth balloon ascent
at the Hague.
Blancnet, Alexandre Louis Paul (b. 1819,
d. 1867), French physician, devoted the
greater part of his life to the study of the
blind, the deaf, and the dumb, and was
appointed by the French government in
1846 surgeon -in -chief to the institution
for deaf mutes. He wrote several works
on his special study, and ou his system
for the education of deaf mutes.
Blandin, Philippe Francois (b. 1798, d.
1849), French surgeon and anatomist, was
surgeon at the Hotel Dieu, and left many
professional works of great value, a Traite
d' Anatomic Topographique among others.
Blandrata, Giorgio (b. 1-520, d. 1590),
Italian physician, better known, however,
as the founder of Unitarianisin in Poland
and Transylvania. His heresies compelled
him to fly to Geneva, but, incurring the
enmity of Calvin, he fled again to Poland.
Later he became attached as physician to the
court of the Prince of Transylvania, and
while there he invited the younger Socinus
to come and expound his views. In 1590
he was murdered by his nephew.
Blane, Sir Gilbert (6. 1749, d. 1834),
medical man of Scottish birth, served as
Burgeon in the royal navy for many years,
rendering very valuable services, aud pub-
lishing his work On the Diseases of Seamen.
He was pensioned, appointed physician at
St. Thomas's Hospital, physician extra-
ordinary to George IV., aud commissioner
for sick and wouioied seamen. His advice
was sought for by several foreign govern-
ments as well as by the British govern-
ment, and he was a member of many home
and foreign learned societies.
Blanglni, Giuseppe Marco Maria Felice
(b. 1781, d. 1841), Italian composer and
musician, in 1799 went to Paris, where he
created no little stir by his concerts, at
which he sang his own compositions. Later
he obtained the appointment of kapell-
meister to the King of Bavaria, and after-
wards to the King of Westphalia. In 1814
he returned to Paris, where he was granted
an official post, and made professor of
singing in the Royal School of Music.
Blanqui, Louis Auguste (6. 1805, d. 1881),
French revolutionary, student of law and
medicine in Paris, became connected with
the secret societies, and was wounded in
the outbreak of 1827. He was imprisoned
in 1835, and again in 1837, for complicity
with conspiracies, and after the futile rising
of 1839 he was condemned to imprisonment
for life. The 1848 revolution set him free
again, and he joined the Socialist faction, in
which he soon became a leader. He headed
the mob which burst into the Legislative
Chamber to demand the restoration of
Polaud, and soon after was sentenced to ten
years' imprisonment for his communistic
leanings. Released in 1859, he was again
imprisoned for conspiracy in 1861. When
the Prussian war broke out he founded a
communistic paper entitled La Patrie en
Danger, and took part in the conspiracy
against the government of defence. In
1871 he was elected a member for the Com-
mune, though under sentence of death. He
was arrested, and early in 1872 tried and
condemned to imprisonment for life. In
1879 he was returned as a deputy for
Bordeaux, but the election was annulled,
though Blanqui was soon after liberated.
He continued his socialist propaganda until
his sudden death from apoplexy.
Blanqui, Jerome Adolphe (b. 1798, d.
1854), a French economist. He succeeded
Say at the Conservatoire of Arts and Trades
in Paris in 1833. He wrote a History of
Political Economy in Europe from the
Ancients to the Present Time, and A Sum-
mary of the History of Commerce and
Industry.
Blavatsky, Helene P. (*. 1831, d. 1891),
founder of the Theosophical Society, be-
longed to a noble Mecklenburg family
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settled in Russia, and at the age of seven-
teen married General Nicole Blavatsky,
from whom she separated in a few months.
After travelling over Europe and the East,
she went to Canada in 1851, and from thence
to New Orleans and Mexico. Later she
made two several attempts to penetrate
Thibot from India, and then settled for a
time in Russia. She met with a serious
accident in the Caucasus, and while recover-
ing from it she first turned her attention to
spiritualism. Afterwards, while in India,
she was initiated into the arcana of
Buddhisui, and in 1875 she founded the
Theosophical Society in the United States.
In 1877 she published her principal book,
Isis Unveiled. A very large part of her life
was spent in India, and she was able to
speak nearly forty European and Asiatic
languages and dialects.
Blaze-Castil, Francois Henri Joseph (6.
1784, d. 1857), French musician, critic and
writer, practised at the bar for some time,
but then devoted himself to the study
of music, publishing in 1820 his critical
review, I)e t' Opera en France. He wrote
also a Dictionnaire de Mmique Moderns,
besides the score and libretto of three operas.
B16, Nicholas du (b. 1652, d. 1730), French
general, and Marquis of Uxilles, in lo"2
served in Holland, and afterwards in
Germany, where he distinguished himself
by his obstinate defence of Mayence against
the Due de Lorraine. In 1703 he was made
a marshal of France, and acted as minister
plenipotentiary at Gertruydenberg and
Utrecht.
Bleek, Wilhelm (d. 1875), German philo-
logist, who specially devoted himself to the
study of the South African languages. In
1854 he accompanied an English expedi-
tion to Jehadda and the Niger, and next
year went with Bishop Colenso to Natal.
After eighteen months he went to Cape
Town, and in 1861 was appointed keeper
to the Grey Library, continuing his philo-
logical investigations among the lower grade
tribes. He wrote, among other works, The
Languages of Western and Southern Africa,
Hottentot Fables and Tales, and A Compara-
tive Grammar oj' South African Languages.
Blenker, Ludwig (b. 1815, d. 1863), a
German revolutionary, who played a lead-
ing part in the insurrections of 1848. He
was chosen colonel of the National Guard
at Worms, and led the insurgents in the
revolution at Baden. He took Worms, and
engaged the Prussians at Bobenheim and
Baden ; and later he commanded the in-
surgent forces on the Neckar. He ultimately
escaped to Switzerland, and afterwards to
America.
Blessington, Margaret, Countess of (&.
1789, d. 1849), novelist, and for many
years a leader in literary society. When
quite a girl she was married to a Captain
Farmer, but the union, which was a most
unhappy one, was dissolved in 1817 by her
husband's death. Next year she married
the Earl of Blessington, and her salons in
London were thronged with all the most
distinguished people of the day. In 1822
she went abroad with her husband, and did
not return to England till after his death in
1 829. Then she resumed her famous reunions
at Gore House, where she resided with
Count D'Orsay, her daughter's husband.
She wrote a good deal at this time, notably
her Journal of Conversations with Lord
Byron, of whom she was an intimate
friend. In 1849 pecuniary embarrassments
compelled her to leave London for Paris,
where she died quite suddenly.
Blicher, Steen Steensen (b. 1782, d. 1848),
Danish poet and writer of romances. He
was a native of Jutland, and spent most of
his lif e there in the discharge of his duties
as a clergyman. He translated The Vicar
of Wakejieid and published two volumes of
poetry, besides writing his Romances of
Jutland, which attained great popularity.
Bligh, William (b. 1753, d. 1817), British
naval o nicer, remembered as commander of
H.M.S. Bounty, on which occurred tha
memorable mutiny. The ship was sent out
for the purpose of carrying bread-fruit plants
from Otaheite to the West Indies. When
the vessel was three days out from Otaheite
the crew mutinied., and turned Bligh, with
eighteen men, adrift in the long-boat. After
three months' severe privations the casta-
ways reached the island of Timor, and from
thence England. Biigh published a Narra-
tive of the Mutiny on board H.M.S. Bounty,
which attracted much notice. He was
subsequently appointed governor of New
South Wales, but after two years he was
sent back to England on account of his
tyrannical government.
Blind, Karl (6. 1826), German revolu-
tionist, began his agitation when still a
student, and hi 1847 was imprisoned for a
short time. He took part in the rising of
1848, and then fled to Alsace, from whence
the French Government sent him to Switzer-
land. He joined Struve in the second Black
Forest insurrection, and was condemned to a
long term of imprisonment, but was liberated
by the people. Being banished from France,
and a fugitive from Germany, he went to
Belgium, and afterwards to England, where
he has written industriously in support of
his political ideas. It was Blind's son-in-
law who attempted Bismarck's life in 1866.
Blind, Mathilde, an English writer of
verse, and step -daughter of the preceding.
Eli
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She has published an edition of Shelley, and
a translation of Strauss's Old FaUh and the
New, besides a Life of George Eiiut, and a
volume 01 poeins entitled 'Ike Prophecy of
St. Uran.
Blittersdorf, Friedrich Sandolin Karl,
Baron von (b. 1792, d. LSiil), German
statesman of Baden, in 1818 he was charge
d'affaires at St. Petersburg, and in 1821 was
returned to the Frankfort National Assem-
bly as deputy for Baden. He succeeded
Baron Tenkheim as foreign minister, but
his reactionary policy caused his speedy re-
tirement from the office, and after the 1848
revolution he retired irom political lif e.
Blizard, Sir William (6. 1748, d. 1835),
surgeon. As surgeon of the London
Hospital he established, with Dr. Maclaurin,
the first regular medical school in connection
with London hospitals. He was twice pre-
sident of the Royal College of Surgeons.
Blomfield, Charles James (6. 1786, d.
1857), Bishop of London and an accom-
plished Greek scholar. In 1819 he was
appointed Rector of St. Botolph's, Bishops-
gate ; in 1824, Bishop of Chester; and in
1828, Bishop of London. He was very
actively concerned in the colonial extension
of the Church, and in the erection of new
churches. He published editions of several
of the plays of yEschylus, an edition of
Callimachus, and, in collaboration, Post-
humous Tracts of Porson.
Blomfield, Arthur William (b. 1829),
architect, fourth son of the preceding.
Among the many examples of his workman-
ship may be mentioned St. Peter's church,
Eaton Square, the chapel at H;iiieybury
college, and St. Saviour's, Oxford Street.
Blondel, Fra^ois (b. 1617, d. 1686), French
diplomatist, mathematician, and architect.
He was employed on several important
missions, and was made a councillor of state
and professor of mathematics at the Royal
College. Among his architectural works in
Paris was the triumphal arch at the Porte
St. Denis.
Blood, Thomas (b. 1628, d. 1680), Irish
adventurer, served in the Royalist army
and in the Parliamentary army as well.
He formed a plot for the assassination of
the Duke of Orinond : and in the guise of
a clergyman he endeavoured to steal the
crown jewels from the Tower.
Bloomfield, Robert (5. 1766, d. 1823),
English poet, at the age of eleven worked
on a farm for a short time, and then came
to London. An omnivorous reader, he soon
appeared in print, contributing several poems
to the London Magazine, and a few years
later he produced his chief piece, The
Fanner's ho//. Publishers refused the poem,
which \vus printed by private means, and
which immediately commanded a large sale.
He also published Itural Tales, Ballads t and
Souyx, and other poems. His latter days
were spent in great destitution.
Blount, Sir Henry (b. 1602, d. 1682),
English traveller and writer, spent a great
deal of time in the East and in various
quarters of the Continent, writing an
account of his experiences, which gained
great popularity.
Blount, Sir Thomas Pope (b. 1649, d.
1697), English politician and writer and
eon of the preceding, was returned to Par-
liament for St. Albans and Herefordshire,
and made a baronet by Charles II. His
writings treated of natural history and
poetry, his chief work being Centura Ceie-
briorum Author um.
Blow, John (b. 1648, d. 1708), English
musical composer, while one of the child-
ren of His Majesty's chapel showed his
genius in the composition of several anthems,
and later in life his compositions, both
secular and sacred, were very numerous.
He succeeded Purcell as organist of West-
minster Abbey and composer to the king.
Blucher, Gerhard Leberecht von (b. 1742,
d. 1819), Prussian Field Marshal and Prince
of Wahlstadt, first entered the Swedish,
but soon passed to the Prussian army, in
which he served during the Seven Years*
war. He went through the Polish cam-
paign of 1772, and gained rapid promotion
during the struggle with the French in-
vaders begun in 1792. He was placed in
command of the army in Silesia, and while
carefully refusing battle with Napoleon he
defeated Marshal Macdonald at Katzbach.
Soon after he defeated Bertrand, and con-
tributed largely to the victory of Leipzig.
At Auerstadt he behaved with great gallan-
try at the head of the Prussian cavalry ;
but soon afterwards had to yield to supericr
forces, and was sent a prisoner to Hamburg.
In the campaign of 1814 Bilicher held high
command, and though defeated by Napoleon,
he beat Marshal Marmont, and entered Paris
with the Allies. Afterwards he visited Lon-
don with the allied sovereigns, and was
received with great cordiality. In the
Waterloo campaign he commanded the
Prussian army in Belgium, and was severely
defeated by Napoleon at Ligny. However,
by out-manoeuvring Grouchy he was able
to arrive at Waterloo in time to decide the
victory for the Allies and pursue the routed
French army. He then retired from active
service and died four years later.
Bluhme, Christian Albrecht (6. 1794, d.
1866), Danish statesman ; educated for the
legal profession, was appointed a judge
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in 18±2, aud in 1843 director-general of cus-
toms aiid commerce, In 1851 he became
home minister ; in 1852 president of the
Council, aud iu 1853 foreign minister. He
excited much enmity by advising the neu-
trality of Denmark during the Crimean
war and was impeached. In 1864 he became
prime minister.
Blumenoacn, Johann Friedrich (b. 1752,
d. 1840), German ethnologist, t-»ok a
doctor's degree at Gottingen iu 1775 ; in
1776 was appointed keeper of the cabinet
of natural history, aud in 1778 professor
of medicine. While continuing his re-
searches and academic labours he obtained
a world-wide reputation by his Handbook
of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology.
His remarkably fine collection of human
skulls was bought by the government, and
is now at Gottirgen university. He first
proposed the ethnological division of the
human race into five types. He left many
valuable records, and among his pupils
were Huf eland and the two Humboldts.
Blumenthal, Jacob (b. 1829), pianist and
composer; after spending some time in
Hamburg, Vienna and Paris he came to
London in 1848, and was appointed pianist
to the Queeit. He has composed a great
deal for the pianoforte, but his best and
most popular compositions are his songs,
among which are The Message, The Requital,
and My Queen.
Blumenthal, Leonard von (6. 1810), dis-
tinguished Prussian general, was sent in
1850 on two special missions to England.
In the Danish war he rendered brilliant
service as chief of the general staff, a post
which he again filled in the Austrian war
and the Franco -German war.
Boadicea (d. A.D. 62), one of the queens
of early British history. Having been
treated with great indignity by the Romans,
she raised an army, but was completely de-
feated by Suetonius. She then, poisoned
herself.
Bobadilla, Francisco, Spanish knight, was
sent as a commissioner in 1500 to inves-
tigate the State of Hispauiola, founded by
Columbus. Having dismissed Columbus,
and sent him to Spain in fetters, he was re-
called, and died on the homeward voyage.
Boccaccino, Boccaccio (6. 1460, d. 1518),
Italian painter, a native of Cremona, who
takes a very high rank among the painters
of his day. His son, Camillo^ (6. 1511, d.
1546), was also a painter.
Boccaccio, Giovanni (b. 1313, d. 1375),
one of the greatest names in Italian litera-
ture. Residing in Naples as a young man,
he acquired the friendship of Petrarch, a
friendship which has become historical. In
1353 he published his Decameron ; and later
he iiiied the chair instituted for the explana-
tion of Dante's Divine Comedy at Florence.
He wrote a commentary on the first seven-
teen cantos of the Inferno, and a life of its
author, besides many prose stories, and
much verse in Italian and Latin.
Boccage, Manoel Maria Barbosa de (6.
1771, d. 1800), Portuguese poet who lived
many years in Goa, and achieved a very
high reputation by his verse. He was im-
prisoned for a short time by the Inquisi-
tion.
Boccanera, Giulio, naval commander in
the Spanish service, though born at Genoa.
In 1340 he went to help King Alfonso XL
of Castile against the Moors, when his con-
duct of the naval operations was most suc-
cessful. In 1371, in the reign of Henry II.
of Castile, he defeated the Portuguese, and
in 1372 the English, under Lord Pembroke,
at La Rochelle.
Boccanera, Simone (d. 1363), brother of
the preceding. As a popular champion
against the nobles, he was elected Doge of
Genoa in 1339, but he was forced to abdi-
cate in 1344. After residing in exile at
Pisa, he returned in 1356, and having helped
the Duke of Milan to crush the insurgent
nobles, he supplanted the duke's authority,
and was again elected Doge.
Boccherini, Luigi (b. 1740, d. 1806),
musician of Italian descent ; in 1771 his
compositions and performances on the vio-
loncello gained him a high reputation iu
Paris ; and afterwards he received a post in
the Spanish court. Being dismissed from
this, the remainder of his life was spent in
poverty.
Bochsa, Robert Nicholas Charles (b. 1789,
d. 1856), French musical composer and
harpist, developed his genius very early, and
on going to Paris in 1806, obtained a speedy
recognition of his gifts. In 1817 he came to
London, and met with equal success, though
he became bankrupt through extravagance.
For some years he was director of the aca-
demy of music, and later of the king's
theatre. He died in Australia.
Bock, Jerome (b. 1498, d. 1555), German
savant, and one of the first of scientific
botanists. He was a doctor of medicine
and a Protestant clergyman.
Bockh, August (b. 1785, d. 1867), German
archaeologist and philologist: in 1811 was
appointed to a chair in Berlin univer-
sity, where his lectures were held in the
highest estimation. Among his numerous
works were The Political Economy of the
Athenians and Meteorological Investigation*
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concerning the Weights, Coins, and Measures
of Antiquity.
BockJin, Arnold (6. 1827), Swiss painter,
after some years spent in Paris, Germany,
and Italy, was appointed in 1858 one of the
directors of the Weimar school of art. In
1861 he returned to Borne, and after that
resided in Basel, Munich, and finally Flo-
rence. In spite of his undoubted genius,
the unconventionally and grimness of his
works have greatly militated against his
prosperity.
Boczkai, Stephen (d. 1696), Hungarian
patriot, who in 1604 secured the indepen-
dence of the Transylvanian Protestants by a
revolt against Austria, assisted by Turkish
arms. He was crowned King of Upper
Hungary, but later became feudatory to the
Austrian throne.
Bode, Johann Elert (b. 1747, d. 1826),
German astronomer of eminence, who was
for some years director of the Berlin Obser-
vatory. His life was spent in astronomical
pursuits, and besides the record of his im-
portant observations he left several works.
Bode, Johann Joachim Christoph (b.
1730, d. 1793), German musician and man
of letters ; of the humblest origin, by dint
of his own industry he became a musi-
cian and a composer, and then turned his
attention to poetry Having mastered
several European languages he adapted
dramas from foreign literatures for the Ger-
man stage. He published translations of
many European classics
Bodenstedt, Frederick Martin (b. 1819),
German poet and writer; in 1840 he went
to Russia, when he published German trans-
lations of the works of several Russian
poets ; and later, spending some time in
Asia Minor and Greece, he wro^e A Thou-
sand and One T>ays in the East, which
proved highly popular. In 1851 he pub-
lished Songs of Mirza Schaffy, a series of
Oriental poems purporting to be transla-
tions. He has also written some epics,
lyric poetry, novels and translations of
Shakespeare. He was appointed professor
of Sclav languages and literature at Munich.
Bodichon, Barbara (fc. 1827), well-known
water-colour painter, and an active promo-
ter of women's education, was largely instru-
mental in obtaining the Married Women's
Property Act. She founded a school in
London for the education of artisans'
daughters: and she helped to establish
Girton College. The daughter of Mr. Ben-
jamin Smith, M.P., she married Dr. Bodi-
chon, with whom she went to Algeria.
Bodley, Sir Thomas (b. 1544, d. 1612),
founder of the Bodleian Library at Oxford,
lectured at the University for some time,
and then becoming attached to the court
of Queen Elisabeth, was employed on
several important diplomatic missions. Dis-
appointed at tailing to obtain the office of
secretary of state, he forsook politics. He
was knighted by James I., and laid the first
stone of the Bodleian Library in 1610.
Boece, or Boyce, Hector (6. 1470, d. 1536),
Scottish historian, and a man of great
learning. After being professor of philoso-
phy at Paris, he became principal of the
Aberdeen college. He wrote a history of
Scotland in Latin.
Boehm. Sir Joseph Edgar (b. 1834, d.
1891), an English sculptor of German origin,
came to England to settle in 1862. In 1878
he was elected an associate, and in 1882 a
member of the Royal Academy ; while in
1881 he was appointed sculptor in ordinary
to the Queen. His works are very numer-
ous, and include Lord John Russell in West-
minster Hall, Thomas Carlyle on the Thames
Embankment, Lord Lawrence in Waterloo
Place, and The Duke of Wellington at Hyde
Park corner.
Boerliaave, Hermann (b. 1668, d. 1738),
German physician, and one of the first
! authorities of his time on botany and
| chemistry. In 1709 he was appointed to
! the chair of medicine and botany at Leyden
! university, where his lectures made him
i famous; and in 1714 he was made rector of
; the university, and soon afterwards professor
j of chemistry. He was a great linguist and
mathematician, and the author of numerous
works, including Institutions Medicce. In
172J he retired.
BoetMus, Anicius Manlius Torquatus
Severinus (6. A.D. 455, d. 524), Latin writer
and philosopher, in 487 was Consul of
Rome under the rule of Odoacer, King of
the Heruli ; and he held the same office in
510 and 522 under Theodoric, King of the
Goths. His public labours went side by
side with his work in literature, and he
translated several of the Greek philosophers,
besides writing treatises of his own. At last
he lost the favour of Theodoric, and was
imprisoned; during which time he wrote
his De Consolatione Philosophce.
Boettcher, Adolf (6. 1815, d. 1870),
i Gemian poet of considerable repute, trans -
i lated the works of English poets, among
others of Shakespeare, Milton, Pope, and
Goldsmith.
Boettcher, Johann Friedrich (b. 1681, d.
1719), German chemist, whose labours, led
to the founding of the famous Dresden china
factory, spent the greater part of his life in
searching for the philosopher's stone; but
the Elector Frederick Augustus of Dresden
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made him apply his knowledge of chemistry
to the conversion of the Meissen clay into
porcelain.
Bogardus, James (b. 1800, d. 1875),
American inventor of great fecundity, who
worked for some time as a watchmaker and
engraver in New York. Among his inven-
tions were the king-flyer for cotton spin-
ning (1823) ; the eccentric mill (1829) ; the
dry gas-meter (1832) ; a dynamo-meter,
and a pyrometer (1848). In 1847 he built
the first structure of cast iron in the United
States.
Bogdanovitch, Hyppolytus Feodorovitch
(b. 1743, d. 1803), Eussian lyrical poet, after
going to Dresden as secretary to the em-
bassy, he published his Dushenka, which
attracted much attention. He wrote
dramatic pieces as well as poetry.
Boha Ed-Din, Abul-Hassan Yusef (6.
1145, d. 1232), Arabian historian and jurist,
the Sultan Saladin made him Cadi of Jeru-
salem, and he wrote the life of his patron,
as well as a history of the Crusades. He
founded a college at Aleppo.
Boiiemond, Mark (d. 1111), a famous
Crusader of Norman descent, and son of
Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia. After
serving under his father in Illyria and
Greece, he was ousted from his inheritance
by his brother. Joining the Crusaders with
Tancred, he captured Antioch, after a siege
of seven months. He established himself in
the town as prince, and his descendants re-
tained the position for ninety years.
Boieldieu, Francois Adrien (b. 1775, d.
1834), French musical composer, born at
Rouen, where some of his earlier composi-
tions were produced, went to Paris about
1796, and produced his opera Le Dot de Su-
zette, which was a great success. In 1800 he
wrote the Caliph of Bagdad, which gave him
a European reputation. After producing Ma
Tante Aurore, he went to Russia, and was
received with much favour by the Czar ; and
returning to Paris in 1811, after an absence
of eight years, he regained his prestige in
France by his Jean de Paris. This was fol-
lowed by several other operas, and in 1825
by La Dame Blanche, his greatest effort,
which was received with the greatest en-
thusiasm. He only produced one more
opera, Les Deux Nuits, a failure. In the
revolution of 1830 he lost his pension, but
recovered it later by the efforts of M. Thiers.
Boigne, Benoit, Count de (b. 1741, d.
1830), French soldier of fortune, entered
the French army in 1768, and at the end of
two years entered the service of Catherine
II. of Russia, fighting against the Turks.
Then he went to India, and received a
commission in a native regiment, and
K2
finally took service with the Mahadajee
Sindia. In this position he raised and dis-
ciplined to a high state of efficiency a force
of 30,000 men with 200 pieces of artillery,
and at the same time administered the pro-
vinces devoted to the army's maintenance.
In 1796 he retired to France with a large
fortune. The army which he had f onned
was broken up in 1802 at the battle of
Assaye, though De Boigne had always ad-
vised friendship with the English.
BoHeau-Despreaux, Nicolas (b. 1636, d.
1711), a French poet of high rank, after
studying law and theology, gave his mind to
literature, and in 1660 produced a satirical
poem which at once attracted notice. This
was followed by other satires, by his Twelve
Epistles, and in 1074 by his Art of Poetry
and Lutrin. These works secured him the
society of the best literary people of the
day, and earned a pension from the Crown.
He was appointed joint historiographer
with Racine.
Boileau, Gilles (6. 1631, d. 1669), brother
of the preceding, and a poet of considerable
merit. The two brothers were very jealous
of each other, and inspired many of each
other's satiric verses.
Boisrobert, Franqois le Metel de (6. 1592,
d. 1662), French litterateur and wit,
going to Rome, won the favour of Pope
Urban VIII., who gave him clerical pre-
ferment ; and he was a familiar associate
of Cardinal Richelieu. He wrote dramas,
poems, and stories, and is believed to have
been instrumental in founding the French
Academy.
Boissonade, Jean Francois (6. 1774),
French writer, scholar, ana Hellenist, was
professor of Greek at the Academy of Paris
and College of France, and refused many
lucrative posts for the sake of pursuing his
learned researches. He left some valuable
contributions to philological science.
Boissy, D'Anglas (b. 1756, d. _ 1826),
French statesman, was an actor in the
earlier scenes of the great revolution,
sitting in the States General and the Con-
vention, of which he later became secretary.
He was instrumental in the overthrow of
Robespierre, and behaved with great
courage when the mob attacked the
chamber. Later he was suspected of
Royalist sympathies, and had to fly to
England, but in 1802 he was elected presi-
dent of the Tribunate. He was ennobled
by Louis XVIII. ; gave his adhesion to
Napoleon during the Hundred Days ; and
acknowledged Louis on his restoration.
Boissy, Louis de (6. 1694, d. 1758),
French poet and dramatist, commanded
considerable contemporary popnVrity, but
Boi
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Bern
is now little read. His principal produc-
tion was L'Homme du Jour.
Boiste, Pierre Claude Victor (6. 1765, d.
1824), French man of letters, who is
i sni era be red as the author of La Diction-
nairc (Jita\rtelle de la Lanyiw Fra>i$ai*e.
Bojer, Wenceslas (b. 1800. d. 18.56), dis-
tinguished Austrian naturalist and botanist,
visited Mauritius, Madagascar, and Africa,
seudiug home valuable collections of botani-
cal and biological specimens.
Bojardo, Matteo Maria, Count of Scan-
diauo (6. 1434, d. 1494), Italian scholar
and poet, is remembered as the author of
Orlando Innamorato, a poetical romance,
which was almost the first really literary
vrork of its kind. He was a finished Greek
and Latin scholar, and wrote verse in Latin,
besides translating the History of Herodotus.
He held public posts under the Duke of
Ferrara, and was Governor of Reggio at
his death.
Boker, George Henry (ft. 1824), American
poet; his first published poem was The
Lesson of Life (1847). and this was followed
by two tragedies, which were produced
on the stage. For ten years he was
secretary of the Union League, Phila-
delphia, and his Poems of the War proved
very popular. In 1869 he went as U. S.
Minister to Constantinople. He published
in 1882 an elegy, The Book of the Dead.
Boknari, Abu-Abdallah Mohammed (b.
810, d. STOi, Arabian doctor of Moslem law,
wrote several works, and spent sixteen years
in the composition of his Al-djami Alsahy,
which is regarded with great reverence.
Boleyn, Anne (b. 1507, d. 1536), Queen of
England, and daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn
of Kent, accompanied Mary Tudor to
France, but returned to England after the
battle of Pavia. and was appointed by
Henry VIIL a maid of honour to Queen
Catherine. The king having fallen in love
with her, prevented her marriage with Lord
Percy, and in 1532 created her Marchioness
of Pembroke, taking her with him on his
visit to Francis I. The proceedings for the
divorce of Queen Catherine having been
delayed, Henry married Anne Boleyn pri-
vately in 1533, in which year she bore
Queen Elizabeth. By 1536 the king's
passion had cooled, and Anne Boleyn was
charged with criminal misconduct. Anne
was found guilty by a court of twenty-
seven peers, and beheaded barely three
weeks after her arraignment.
Boling-broke, Henry St. John, Viscount
(6 1678, d. 1751), philosopher and states-
man, after a brilliant career at Oxford,
entered Parliament in 1701 as a Tory, and
soon became a prominent figure in the
party. In 1704 he was appointed secretary
at war, and in 1710 he became foreign
secretary, and received the title of Vis-
count Bolingbroke. He was a strong
adherent of the iStuart dynasty, and when
tiie Hanoverian line was established,
Bolingbroke was dismissed from office.
He fled to France ; an impeachment
immediately followed, and he was found
guilty of high treason. He then became
secretary of state to the Pretender, but was
dismissed in 1715. As the efforts of his
friends to secure his pardon from George I.
were unsuccessful, he lived quietly at
Orleans, writing and gardening. In 1720 he
married a niece of Madame de Maintenon,
through whom he aid at last procure his
pardon. He returned to England in 1723,
but was not allowed to sit in the House of
Lords, for which he attacked Walpole with
great fierceness. In 1735 he returned to
France, and remained there for seven years,
writing his Letters on the Study and Use of
History, and his Idea of a Patriot King.
His Reflections upon Exile was written
during his earlier residence in France.
Bolivar, Simon (b. 1783, d. 1830), the
founder and first president of the Republic
of Columbia, known as " The Liberator of
South America. ' ' Born in Venezuela, he was
educated in Madrid, and travelled in
Europe and the United States. When the
revolt against the Spanish yoke broke out
in Venezuela, he joined it, but had to fly.
In 1813 he returned, and gathering a force
together, defeated General Monteverde
at Caracas. The tide then turned, and
Bolivar fled to Jamaica, but he shortly
returned, and after varying fortune in
1819 won the battle of Bojaca, resulting
in the inauguration of the Republic of
Venezuela in the same year, to which was
afterwards united New Granada. In 1822
Bolivar went to help the Peruvians in their
struggle for liberty, and was given the
chief command. After a long campaign he
won the great battle of Ayacucho. Uppei
Peru was constituted a separate republic
with the title of Bolivia. As President of
Columbia he had to endure much factious
hostility ; but though he tendered his
resignation more than once it was never
accepted, the supreme power being con-
firmed in him in 1828.
Bologna, Giovanni da (b. 1524, d. 1608),
Italian sculptor, spent the greater part
of his life in Florence, in which most of
his works find place. Tie Rape of the
Katrines, and Mercury are his best known
productions. He was an architect also, and
designed most of the internal decorations of
the Florence San Marco.
Bonibelli, Raffaelle, mathematician cf
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Bon
Bologna, who lived iu the 16th century.
He wrote a work on algebra, and was the
first to attempt the extraction of the cube-
root, and the solution of " the irreducible
case " in cubic equations.
Bon, Louis Andre" (b. 1758, d. 1799),
French soldier, after having served in
America, commanded a battalion of the
national volunteers with much success ; and
in 1795 displayed admirable generalship in
Italy. In 179S, as general of division, he went
to Egypt with Napoleon, and was killed in
the unsuccessful assault on St. Jean d'Acre.
Bonald, Louis Gabriel Ambroise, Yicomte
de (b. 1754, d. 1840), French writer and
theorist, at the outbreak of the revolution
he went to Heidelberg, where he wrote his
Th curie du, Pouvoir Politique et lieiigieux.
The book was considered so reactionary that
the Directory proscribed it. In 1802 he
published his Legislation Primitif. When
Napoleon was ^proclaimed Emperor he re-
turned to Paris and received a government
appointment, 'and as a deputy under the
restored Bourbons he was so pronouncedly
Conservative as to receive a title. After the
1830 revolution he was degraded, and retired
from public Me.
Bonald, Louis Jacques Maurice de (b.
1787, d. 1870), fourth sou of the preceding,
Cardinal Archbishop of Lyons, was a man
of great eloquence and devotion to the
Church, and his preferment was rapid.
Ordained in 1811, he became in 1817 Grand
Vicar and Archdeacon of Chartres ; in 1823,
Bishop of Puy; in 1839. Archbishop of
Lyons; and in 1841, Cardinal. He was a
supporter of the revolution of 1848.
Bonamy, Charles Auguste (b. 1764, d.
1830), French general, eiitered the army
as a volunteer, and after seeing much
service, gained considerable distinction as
chief of the staff to Kleber in 1795. A
charge of treason, though disproved, kept
him in retirement for two years, when he
went to Italy, becoming general of brigade.
He narrowly escaped disgrace in 1799, and
in 1800 he was retired by Napoleon. He
served, however, in the Russian campaign,
and behaved with the greatest gallantry.
He was promoted and decorated under the
restored monarchy, and served in the cam-
paign of 1815.
Bonapartes, The. The family to which
the Emperor Napoleon I. belonged came
from Corsica. The father, Carlo Maria
Bonaparte (b. 1746, d. 1785), was a lawyer
and a,n adherent of Paoli, the insurgent.
The mother, Letizia Ramolini (b. 1750, d.
1836), was celebrated for her beauty ; and
with the title, " Madame Mere," h>ed in
Paris during the rule of Napoleon : —
(1) Joseph (6. 1768, d. 1844), the eldest
son, practised as an advocate, and married
a merchant's daughter at Marseilles. He
was commissary- general to the army in
Italy under Napoleon, and in 1797 was
sent as ambassador to the Pope. An able
diplomatist, he negotiated the treaties of
peace at LuneVille (1801), and at Amiens
(1802). When his brother was proclaimed
Emperor, he was placed upon the throne of
Naples, but being a merely nominal ruler,
his good judgment and better instincts had
no play. In 1808 he was transferred to the
throne of Spain, where his position was still
more unfortunate. He was twice compelled
to fly from Madrid, and finally abandoned the
throne after the battle of Vittoria. He was
lieutenant-general of the empire during the
1814 campaigns and the Hundred Daj-s; and
after Waterloo he lived for some years in the
United States as the Comte de Survilliers.
He died in Florence, and left his highly
interesting Memoirs and Correspondence.
(2) Napoleon, the second son. [See Na-
poleon I.]
(3) Lucien (b. 1775, d. 1840), in 1795 became
commissary to the army of the North. In
1798 he was elected to the Council of the
Five ^ Hundred, and played an important
part in the revolution which destroyed the
Directory and made Napoleon First Consul.
After becoming minister of the interior, he
went as ambassador to Madrid ; but his
marriage with Mme. Joubuthon brought
about an estrangement between him and the
Emperor, and in 1804 he retired to his
estates in Italy, as Prince of Canino, where
he cultivated his tastes for literature and the
fine arts. After the peace of Tilsit he was
offered the crown of Italy, but he refused
it ; and in 1810 set out for the United States.
Captured by a British cruiser, he was kept a
prisoner in England till 1814. After Water-
loo he induced Napoleon to abdicate in favour
of his son ; and he himself retired to Italy.
He wrote an epic, Charlemagne.
(4) Marie Anne Elisa (b. 1777, d. 1820),
married Felix Pascal Bacipcchi, and was
created Princess of Piombino and Lucca,
and Grand Duchess of Tuscany. She retired
from France in 1815, and died at Trieste.
(5) Louis (b. 1778, d. 1846), the father of
Napoleon III. He served in the Italian and
Egyptian campaigns; and in 1802 he wag
compelled to marry Hortense Beauharnais,
from whom he was afterwards separated.
Under the empire he was created a prince
and constable of France, and after occupy-
ing Holland he was proclaimed king of the
country. He became extremely popular
with the people, but offended the Emperor,
and in 1810 he abdicated, the country being
absorbed in France. He spent most of his
life after Napoleoi, fe banishment in Italy,
and wrote several books, of wiuch the Docu-
ments Historiques is the most important.
(6) Marie Pauline. [See Borghese.]
Bon
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Bon
(7) Caroline Marie Annonciade (b. 1782, d.
1839), married Marshal Murat in 1800.
(8} Jerome (b. 1784, d. 1860). He was
given a command in the navy, and while on
the American station married a Miss Pater-
son, a marriage which he was forced to re-
nounce by the Emperor. In 180(3 he was
made king of Westphalia, and married a
daughter of the King of Wurtemberg, who
became the mother of Prince Napoleon. In
1812 he proved so incapable a general during
the Russian campaign that he was removed
from command ; but he commanded a divi-
sion at Waterloo. After Napoleon's abdica-
tion he lived in exile, until 1847, when
Napoleon III. made him a marshal of
France and President of the Senate.
Of the second generation : —
(1) Napoleon, son of Louis. [See Napoleon
(2) Napoleon, Joseph (b. 1822, d. 1891),
commonly known as Prince Napoleon, and
son of Je'rome Bonaparte. His early life was
spent in travel, but after the 1848 revolution
he was elected to the Assembly. In 1849 he
held for a year the post of ambassador at
Madrid ; and in 1854 he commanded a divi-
sion of the army in the Crimea. He threw
up his command suddenly, and in 1858 be-
came president of the ministry for Algiers.
In 1859 he held a command in Italy, and
married the Princess Clotilde, a daughter of
Victor Emmanuel. In 1861 he created a
sensation in the Senate by a fine oration in
support of democratic principles, provoking
a challenge from the Due d'Aumale. His
loudly-expressed approval of the Polish re-
volution brought him into disgrace with the
Emperor more than ouce, and compelled his
resignation of the presidency of the Com-
missioners for the Universal Exhibition.
After the fall of Napoleon III., and the
death of Prince Louis Napoleon, he was re-
cognised as head of the Napoleon family.
In 1883 he was imprisoned for a prouuncia-
mento, and in 1886 he was banished from
France, and died in exile.
(3) Charles Lucieii Jules, Prince de Canino
(b. 1803, d. 1857), the son of Lucien Bona-
parte, a distinguished naturalist, in 1822
married his cousin, Zenaide, the daughter
of Jerome Bonaparte, and soon after went
to America, where he devoted himself to
the study of science, and published his
valuable American Ornithology \ In 1828 he
returned to Italy; in 1833 he published
his Italian Fauna, and in 1847 he succeeded
to the title of prince. He was for a short
time active in Italian politics, but finally
settled at Paris. His son, Lucien (6. 1828),
is a cardinal.
(4) Louis Lucien (b. 1813, d. 1891), the
second son of Lucien Bonaparte. He passed
his youth in scientific and linguistic study. In
1848 he was elected to the Constituent Assem-
bly as deputy for Corsica, but the election was
annulled. In 1852 he was made a senator,
and iu 1860 grand officer of the Legion ol
Honour. He has written a great deal, much
of his work being translations.
(3) Pierre Napoleon, Prince (b. 1815, d.
1881), third son of Lucieii. After getting
into disfavour in Italy and America, he
went to Paris in 1848, and sat in the
Assembly. In 1849 he served in Algeria,
and finally settled in England.
Of the third generation : —
Prince Louis, better known as the Prince
Imperial (b. 1856, d. 1879), the only child of
Napoleon III. and the Empress Eugenie.
He accompanied his father at the opening
of the Franco- German war, but after Sedan
he came to England. He entered the
Woolwich Military Academy, and in 1879
went with the expedition to Zululand. He
was killed in this war, a small body of
soldiers with whom he had gone out having
been surprised by the Zulus. A monument
was erected to his memory at Chislehurst.
Bonati, Theodore Massimo (b. 1724, d.
1820), Italian physician, mathematician, and
physicist, filled a chair at Ferrara university,
executed many public works in Italy, and
wrote much on hydraulics and physics.
Bonaventura, Giovanni de Fidenza, Saint
(6. 1221, d. 1274), an Italian ecclesiastic.
He belonged to the Franciscan Order, and
was professor of theology at Paris, being
known for his erudition as "Doctor Sera-
phicus." In 1256 he was made general of
the Franciscan Order, and his influence iu
the Church was so great that in 1272 the
cardinals agreed to elect to the Papal Chair
whomsoever he should nominate.
Bonchamp, Artus de (b. 1759, d. 1793), the
greatest of the generals of the Vendean
army, served in America, and then re-
tired from the army ; but when La Vendee
rose against the republic he, as a territorial
noble, was chosen one of the leaders. He
displayed great courage and military ability
in this position, and was regarded with the
greatest confidence and affection by his
troops. He was mortally wounded at the
passage of the Loire.
Bond, Edward Augustus (6. 1815), prin-
cipal librarian of the British Museum, in
1838 entered the Department of Manu-
scripts in the British Museum; in 1854 he
was appointed assistant-keeper, and in 1866,
keeper, a post which he held for twelve
years. He helped to found the Palaeogra-
phical Society, and edited for it facsimiles
of Ancient Manuscripts. He also edited
Giles Fletcher's Russia for the Hakluyt
Society; Speeches in the Tr'vl of JParren
Hastings for the Government ; and the
Chronica Monasterii de Melsd for the Rolls
Series. In 1878 he was appointed principal
Bon
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Boo
librarian of the British Museum, and made
his tenure of office memorable by the institu-
tion of many admirable reforms.
Bond, William Cranch (6. 1789, d. 1S59),
American astronomer, was origiiially a
watchmaker, but gave his attention to as-
tronomy after seeing the eclipse of 1806.
He discovered the comet of 1811 ; and in
1838 he was appointed by the government
astronomer to Captain W l.<es's expedition
to the South Seas. In 1640 he was ap-
pointed director of Harvard Observatory.
He has recorded important observations of
Saturn ; he discovered the satellite of Nep-
tune, and was the first to apply photo-
graphy to astronomical observations.
Bone, Henry (b. 1755, d. 1834), English
painter on enamel First a china painter in
Plymouth, he came to London in 1778, and
supported himself by enamel painting for
jewellers. In 1780 he exhibited at the Royal
Academy, and at once achieved a reputa-
tion. He was made an Academician, and
painter to the king.
Bonheur, Rosa (fc.,1822), French animal
painter, first exhibited in the Salon in 1840,
and next year her Sheep and Goat* attracted
much attention. In 1855 she exhibited her
Horse fair in England, and established her
reputation in this country. The picture is
now in the National Gallery. During the
siege and occupation of Paris in 1871, her
house was respected by special order of the
Crown Prince of Prussia.
Boniface, Saint (I. 680, d. 755). an Eng-
lish monk, known as the "Apostle of
Germany." abandoned certain and distin-
guished preferment to go in 716 as a mis-
sionary to Germany. Having obtained
authority from Pope Gregory II.. he lived
among the barbarous tribes for many years,
and finally met a martyr's death near
Utrecht.
Boniface VIIL, Pope (6. 1228, d. 1303),
succeeded to the papal chair in 1294, having
induced Celestine V. to resign ; and he at
once came into collision with Philip the
Fair, Bang of France, on the question of
the taxation of the clergy. It was deter-
mined to try Boniface at a council at
Lyons, when he issued his famous bull
Unam Sanctum, and excommunicated Philip.
The bull was publicly burnt in Paris, and an
emissary w^as sent to bring Boniface before
the council. He was seized and treated
with great indignity, and died shortly after.
Bonner, Edmund (6. 1500, d. 1569),
Bishop of London, was first noticed by
Wolsey, and Cromwell afterwards em-
ployed him on missions, preferring him to
the see of Hereford in 1538, and to that of
London in 1540. In Edward VI. 's reign he
was imprisoned and deprived of his office ;
but he was restored by Mary, to whose re-
ligious persecution he readily lent himself.
He refused to take Elizabeth's oath o>f
supremacy, and was again degraded and
imprisoned, dying in the Marshalsea.
Bonnet, Charles (6. 1720, d. 1793), Swisa
naturalist, whose observations and dis-
coveries in entomology and botany were
of great value, and who left works which
are he-J. in high estimation. He was a
member of the Royal Society of London.
Bonnivard, Francois (6. 1496, d. 1570), a
Frenchman who is known to fame for his
efforts on behalf of the liberties of Geneva.
He headed the resistance to Charles III.,
Duke of Savoy, but in 1519 was betrayed
and imprisoned for two years. Then he
again resumed his leadership till, in 1530, he
again was taken prisoner, and remained in
the Castle of Chillon for six years, when he
was liberated by the Bernese, to be suitably
honoured by the citizens of Geneva.
Bonnivet, Guillaume Gouffriere de (6.
1488, d. 1525), French general, won the
favour of Francis I. at the siege of Genoa
and the battle of Spurs, and was employed
on embassies to England and Spain. It
was during the retreat of his forces from
Milan that Bayard was killed. Bonnivet
was slain at the battle of Pa via.
Bonomi, Joseph (6. 1796, d. 1878),
distinguished hieroglyphic draughtsman,
studied art at the Royal Academy, where
he showed great ability in drawing and
sculpture. In 1824 he went to Egypt and
Nubia with Hay, Lane, and Wilkinson, and
rendered great services by his reproduction
of the hieroglyphs. In 1S33 he went with
Arundell to Sinai and the Holy Land, and
in 1842 he acted as draughtsman to the
Prussian expedition to Egypt. In 1861 he
was appointed curator of Sir John Soane's
Museum in Lincoln's Tnn Fields.
Bonpland, Aime (6. 1773, d. 1858), French
botanist, who served at one time as a
naval surgeon, became the friend of
Alexander von Humboldt in Paris, and
accompanied him on the great expedition
to America. He afterwards produced two
valuable botanical works, besides colla-
borating with Humboldt. In 1816 h« went
to Buenos Ayres, and became professor of
natural history there. In 1821, in at-
tempting an inland expedition, he was im-
prisoned" by the Director of Paraguay, and
did not recover his liberty for many years.
He finally settled in Santa Anna.
Boole, George (6. 1815, d. 1864), mathe-
matician, earned his living as a school-
master while following up his mathematical
studies, and in 1839 published his first
paper, on Analytical Formations, in the
Cambridge Mathematical Journal. This
Boo
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Bcr
and the others that followed secured him
a reputation ; and in 1844 he received the
Royal Society's gold medal for a paper on
A General Method in Analysis. In 1847
he published his Mathematical Analysis
of Logic, and in 1848 his Calculus of Logic.
In 1849 he was appointed professor at
Queeu'.s College, Cork; and in 1859 he re-
ceived the Krith Gold Medal of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, and was elected a
fellow of the London Royal Society. He
continued t& publish, valuable memoirs until
his sudden death.
Booth, Barton (b. 1681, d. 1733), Eng-
lish tragedian of note, who deserted the
Church "to follow his inclination for the
stage. He first appeared in Dublin, and
confirmed later in London the high reputa-
tion he there achieved. His great part was
Cato in Addison's tragedy of that name.
Booth, Edwin (b. 1833), American actor,
and the son of Junius Brutus Booth. He
first made a name in 1851 in his imperson-
ation of Richard III., and it is by his re-
presentation of Shakespeare's great charac-
ters that he is best known. Li 1S81 he
was in England, and played at the Lyceum
with Irving in Othello, the parts of Othello
and logo being alternated between them.
He retired from the stage in 1891.
Booth, Sir Felix (6. 1775, d. 1850), an
English merchant, who, from his own re-
sources, equipped and maintained Sir John
Ross's second expedition for the discovery
of the North- West Passage.
Booth, John Wilkes (b. 1839, d. 1865),
third son of Junius Brutus Booth, was the
assassin of President Lincoln. He was an
actor by profession until the Civil war broke
out, when he sided with the South. He
was shot by his pursuers, after committing
the murder of the president.
Booth, Junius Brutus (6. 1796, d. 1852),
tragedian, of English birth, but an Ameri-
can by adoption, appeared with great suc-
cess at Covent Garden in 1814 as Richard
III., and created a great sensation; but a
theatrical riot, provoked by the rival ad-
mirers of himself and Edmund Kean, caused
his withdrawal from the stage for a time.
In 1821 he went to America, where he held
the first place as tragedian. He revisited
England in 1825 and 1836.
Booth, William (6. 1829), "General " and
organiser of the Salvation Army, was born
at Nottingham, and became a minister in
the Primitive Methodist Connexion. In
1861 he withdrew from that body, and in
1865 started in the East End of London
"The Christian Mission." which in 1878
developed into the Salvation Army, now
possessing stations all over Great Britain,
America, India, and the Continent. Many
of the chief posts in the army are occupied by
the members of the Booth family, of whom
Mr. Bramwell Booth is the chief. Mrs. Booth,
to whom much of the credit for the success
of the Salvation Army is supposed to be due.
died in the autumn of 18yO. "General"
Booth's book, In Darkest England (1890),
attracted much attention and provoked *
fierce controversy.
Bopp, Franz (6. 1791, d. 1867), philologist
and Sanscrit scholar, was born at Mainz,
and educated in Germany. Having de-
voted himself to the study of Sanscrit,
he published his first work, On the System
of Conjugation in Sanscrit, compared with
that of the Greek, Latin, Persian, and
German Languages, which is regarded as
the foundation of scientific philology. In
1821 he became professor of Sanscrit and
comparative grammar at Berlin. He pub-
lished many other works, his greatest being
a Comparative Grammar of Sanscrit, Zend,
Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Sclav, Gothic,
and German (1833-1852).
Bordone, Paris (b. circa 1500, d. 1570),
Italian painter of eminence, a pupil of
Titian, excelled as a portrait painter.
Borghese, Marie Pauline Bonaparte. Prin-
cess de (b. 1780, d. 1825), second sister of
Napoleon I. In 1801 she married General
Leclerc, with whom she went to St. Domin-
go, and displayed great devotion during his
fatal attack of yeLow fever. In 1803 she
married Prince Camillo Borghese, from
whom she separated, living in Italy with the
title of Duchess of Guastalla. She accom-
panied Napoleon to Elba, and endeavoured
to go with him to St. Helena.
Borghesi, Bartolomeo (b. 1781, d. I860),
Italian antiquary, in 1818 published his
Nuovi Fiammento dei Fasti Capitolini, an
exhaustive work on ancient Rome, which
achieved for its author a European repu-
tation. The study of Roman archaeology
occupied the greater part of his life, though
his participation in the Italian revolution
of 1821 caused him to retire to San Marino.
Borgia, Csesare (b. 1476, d. 1507), Italian
master of statecraft of great but evil fame,
was the fourth son of Pope Alexander VI.,
by Rosa Vanozza, and was created a cardinal,
though he divested himself of the office in
later years to suit his purposes. He compassed
the death of his brother Giovanni, who was
Duke of Candia, in order to gain complete
ascendency in the papal government; and
in 1498, having been sent as nuncio to
Louis XII. of France, he was created Duke
of Valentinois and married the daughter of
Jean d'Albret, King of Navarre. After
accompanying Louis XII. 's Italian cam-
paign, he conceived the idea of a kingdom
in Central Italy, and by force, treachery,
Bor
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Bos
and murder he had nearly succeeded in ob-
taining ascendency throughout the Roman
States, when the death of his father de-
prived him of his great source of power.
He was sent in 1504 a prisoner to Spain by
Pope Julius II., but escaped, and joined the
King of Navarre's army against Castile. In
this campaign he was lolled.
Borgia, Lucrezia (6. 1480, d. 1523), sister of
the preceding, and like him the possessor of an
infamous reputation. Her father compelled
her twice to marriage and divorce before she
became the wife of the Duke of Bisceglia.
After her third husband had been murdered
by Csesare Borgia, she married Alfonso of
Este, and passed her life in the court of
Ferrara, cultivating literature and art.
Boris, Godonov (d. 1605), a Russian noble,
brother-in-law to the Czar Feodor Ivano-
vitch, on whose death he contrived to usurp
the throne. His rigorous rule provoked a
rebellion, and Boris poisoned himself.
Born, Bertrand de (b. circa 1145, d. circa
1209), a troubadour, many of whose songs
still exist. Dante gives him a place in the
Inferno.
Born, Ignaz von (b. 1742, d. 1791), Aus-
trian mineralogist. In 1770 he became
director of the mint and mining depart-
ment at Prague ; and in 1776 Maria Theresa
commissioned him with the arrangement of
the Vienna natural history museum, where
he laboured till his death.
Borne, Ludwig (b. 1786, d. 1837), Ger-
man political writer and critic, of Jewish
descent, and bearing the name Lot Baruch.
He became a professed convert to Christian-
ity. In 1818 his theatrical criticisms in
the Frankfort press attracted much notice ;
and in 1830 he went to Paris, at the out-
break of the revolution, writing his famous
Briefe aus Paris, which gave him the posi-
tion of leader in the German party of
revolution. He continued to write in ad-
vocacy of his political aspirations, his most
brilliant work being the Menzel der Fran-
zosenfresser.
Borromeo, San Carlo (b. 1538, d. 1584). an
Italian ecclesiastic, remembered for his piety
and devotion, cardinal and Archbishop of
Milan. He took part in the Council of
Trent, and helped to found the Vatican
Academy. His efforts for the reform and
better instruction of the priesthood pro-
voked an attempt on his life by the Umiliati ;
but he suppressed the order, and transf erred
their wealth to the hospitals, to which he
had sacrificed all his own property. During
the pestilence he devoted himself unflinch-
ingly to the care of the sufferers, and died
shortly after from over-exhaustion.
Borrow, George Henry (b. 1803, d. 1881),
student of Gipsy life and language, aban-
doned the law for literature, and among
other early works he edited the ^ciraate
Calendar. In 1833 he was sent by the Bible
Society to St. Petersburg, and later to
Spain, -where he spent much time among
the Gipsy tribes. In 1840 he published The
Zincal'i, dealing with the Gipsy language
and life in Spain ; and in 1843 he published
The Bible in Spain, which proved very
popular. In 1851 and 1857 appeared his
greatest works, Lavengro and The ftomany
itye, and in 1874 his Romano Lavo Lit., a
vocabulary of the English Gipsy language.
Borsieri de Kanifeld, Giovanni Battista,
(b. 1725, d. 1785), a celebrated Italian phy-
sician, who founded the school of clinical
medicine at Pavia university. He left
many valuable works on medical subjects.
Bom, Brian (6. 926, d. 1014), a famous
Irish long. On succeeding to the throne of
Munster he drove the Danes from Limerick
by a series of brilliant victories, and after
another long struggle succeeded in being
proclaimed king of Ireland. His govern-
ment was as wise as his arms were
victorious. He was killed at the battle of
Clontarf , in which the Danes were defeated.
Bory de Saint-Vincent, Jean Baptiste
Georges Marie (6. 1780, d. 1846), French
naturalist and soldier, in 1800 accom-
panied Eaudin's expedition to Aust a! isia
as naturalist, and published on his ,e:uru
Essais sur les lies Fortunees et V Antique
Atlantide, and his Voyage en Afrique
Then he entered the army, and saw much
active service, till his banishment after
Napoleon's downfall. He edited the Nain
Jaune in Brussels, and contributed largely
to Les Annales Generates des Sciences Physi-
ques. In 1828 he returned to France, and
commanded a scientific expedition to the
Morea ; in 1830 he was appointed chief of
the Historical bureau, and major-general
{ of engineers.
Boscawen, The Hon. Edward (b. 1711, d.
1761), British admiral, third son of Lord
i Falmouth. After rendering brilliant service
against the Spanish and French, he was given
I command in 1748 of the forces sent to India.
; In 1758 he commanded the naval force that
i co-operated with General Wolfe in America,
and in the following year he defeated a
French fleet in the Mediterranean.
Boscovitch, Rugiero Giuseppe (o. 1711,
d. 1787), Italian Jesuit, and a distinguished
1 mathematician. He was professor of
mathematics at Rome, Pavia, and Milan,
until the suppression of the Jesuits, when
'. he went to Paris and was appointed director
i of optics to the navy. He was a member
1 of the Royal Society, and wrote among
other works, Tkeoria Philosophies Naturalit.
Bos
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Bon
Bosquet, Pierre Francois Joseph (b. 1810,
d. 1801), French general, in 1835 distin-
guished himself in Algeria, and obtained
very rapid promotion. He went to the
Crimea as general of division, and for the
part he played at Inkennan he was thanked
by Parliament, and made a G.C.B. In 1856
he was created a senator and marshal of
France. He died from the effects of a
wound received in a duel.
Bossuet, Jacques Benigne (b. 1627,
d. 1704), French divine, renowned for his
eloquence and his controversial writings.
After entering the priesthood at an early
age, he became attached to the cathedral at
Metz, and gained much credit by an able
refutation of the Protestant catechism of
Paul Ferri. His fame as a puipit orator
soon procured him the honour of preaching
before the king (Louis XIV.), and in 1669
he was ordained Bishop of Condom. He
resigned the see on being appointed tutor to
the Dauphin, for whose benefit he wrote
his great work, Discours sur F Histoire Uni-
verselle. In 1671 he published Expositions
of the Doctrines of the Catholic Church on
Matters of Controversy, which had a
European publicity. In 1681, the Dauphin's
education having been completed, Bossuet
accepted the bishopric of Meux, and in 1688
he published his History of the Variations
of the Protestant Churches. At this time he
was much engaged in efforts to promote the
union of all Christian churches. At the
general assembly of the Gallican clergy in
1682 Bossuet took up a strong attitude in
favour of the independence of the Gallican
Church, and against papal interference in
temporal affairs ; and he procured the
formal adoption of these views by the
Assembly. His last controversy was with
Fenelon, Archbishop of Caaibray, whom he
attacked violently for defending the
Quietists of Port Koyal. He passed the rest
of his lif e in his diocese, bearing the repu-
tation of the greatest orator of his day.
Bossut, Charles (b. 1730, d. 1814), French
Jesuit, and a famous mathematician, de-
voted himself especially to the study of
hydrostatics and hydrodynamics, and
achieved several highly valuable results. He
was appointed professor of hydrodynamics
at Paris, but lost his position during the
revolution. Under the Empire he became
examiner at the Ecole Polytechnique. His
works are very numerous.
Boswell, James (b. 1740, d. 1795), the
friend and biographer of Dr. Johnson, was
the son of a judge of the Scottish Court of
Session, styled Lord Auchinleck. He was
admitted to the Scottish bar in 1766, after he
had spent some time in continental travel,
during which he made the acquaintance of
' Paoli, the Corsican patriot. In 1768 he
published his Account of Corsica, and
Memoir a of Pascal Paoli. In 1773, having
previously made Dr. Johnson's acquaint-
ance, he was admitted to the Literary Club,
and became the companion of the great
doctor, whom he accompanied on his tour
in the Hebrides. Having finally settled in
London with his wife, he was called to the
English bar in 1785, and attempted unsuc-
cessfully to enter Parliament. His Life of
Sainucl Johnson was published in 1791.
Bosworth, Joseph (b. 1790, d. 1876), En-
glish clergyman and philologist. From 1829
to 1841 he was English chaplain in Amster-
dam and Rotterdam, where he gained a high
reputation as an authority on early English
and the Low German dialects. In 1857 he
was appointed professor of Anglo-Saxon at
Oxford. He published an Anglo-Saxon
Grammar and Dictionary.
Bothwell, James Hepburn, Earl of (6.
circa 1530, d. 1577), in 1567 murdered
Darnley and carried off Queen Mary to
Dunbar Castle, where he married her on
May 15th. He then became a fugitive, but
was captured and imprisoned in Draxholin
Castle, where he died.
Botta, Carlo Giuseppe Guglielmo (b.
1766, d. 1837), Italian historian, studied
medicine, and was imprisoned in 1792 as a
revolutionary. He took an active part in
the government of Piedmont, set up by
Napoleon, but before the Emperor's over-
throw he devoted himself entirely to litera-
ture. He wrote The History of Italy
between 1789 and 1814, and a History of
the American War of Independence.
Botta, Paolo Emilio (b. 1802, d. 1870),
archasologist, son of the preceding. When
acting as French Consul at Mosul, in As-
syria, he discovered the ruins of Nineveh,
Bottesini, Giovanni (6. 1823, d. 1889),
Italian player of the double-bass, and com-
poser.
Botticelli, Alessandro (b. 1447, d. 1515),
Italian painter, in response to the invitation
of Pope Sixtus FV. went to Home and exe-
cuted some fine paintings for the chapel of
the Vatican. On returning to Florence he
became a devoted follower of Savonarola.
Botzaris, Markos (b. 1790. d. 1823),
Greek patriot, was engaged in the abortive
insurrection of 1806, then joined the French
Albanian corps, retiring to the Ionian
Islands in 1815. In 1820 he raised a force
of SuKotes, and carried on hostilities with
the Turks for two years, when he was
beleaguered in Missolonghi. He was killed
in the desperate sortie which routed the
Turkish besiegers.
Bouchardon, Edmonde (b. 1698, d. 1762),
French sculptor, after acquiring a high
Boa
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Eou
reputation in Paris and Rome, was com-
missioned to execute the tomb of Clement
XI. in 1733, and iu 1746 he was appointed
director of the French Academy.
Boucher, Francois (b. 1703, d. 1770),
French painter of landscapes and figures.
Boucnotte, Jean Baptiste Noel (b. 1754,
d. 1840), French revolutionist, was minister
of war in 1793, in succession to Beurnonville.
Boucicault, Dion (b. 1822, d. 1890),
actor and playwright. His first work for
the stage, London Assurance, was produced
with success in 1841 ; and for some time
after that he devoted himself to adaptations
from the French, such as Louis XI. and The
Corsican Brothers. In 1855 he went to
America, and in 1860 produced his Colleen
Bawn, followed by Arrah-na-Pogue, the
Shaughraun, and many others.
Bouflers, Louis Francois, Due de (b.
1644, d. 1711), French general and marshal
of France, after seeing much service in
Holland and the Rhine provinces, defended
Namur in 1695 against William III. with
great obstinacy. In 1708 he defended Lille
against Prince Eugene, and held the town
in spite of repeated orders to surrender.
For this service he was created Due. He
afterwards served in Flanders under Villars.
Bouflers, Stanislas, Marquis de (b. 1737,
d. 1815), French nobleman distinguished in
many capacities. As prior of the Knights
of Malta he was known as "1'Abbe" and
"le Chevalier"; and when the revolution
came, he played a prominent part as member
of the Tiers Etat.
Bougainville, Louis Antoine de (b. 1729,
d. 1811), French navigator, sailed round
the world in 1766, and later assisted the
American revolutionists.
Boughton, George Henry (b. 1833), artist,
a member of the National Academy of New
York, and an associate of the Royal Aca-
demy since 1879. Among his paintings are
The Return of the Mayflower, Evangeline,
and Milton visited by Andrew Marveli.
Bouguer, Pierre (b. 1698, d. 1758),
French mathematician, distinguished for his
scientific work in connection with naviga-
tion. In 1736 he was sent to Peru with a
scientific expedition.
Bouguereau, Adolphe Guillaume (b. 1825),
French painter. In 1855 his Triomphe du
Martyre was bought by the State, and pre-
viously he divided the honours of the Grand
Prix du Rome with Baudry. Two of his
later pictures which are well known are The
Youth of Bacchus and the Adoration of the
Magi and the Shepherds.
Bouhier, Jean (b. 1673, d. 1746), French
man of letters of great versatility and wide
' information, was president of the Parlia-
, ment of Dijon, aud was elected to the
I Academy, though not resident in Paris.
Bouille, Fran?ois Claude Amour, Marquis
de (b. 1739, d. 1800), French general,
when he was only seventeen years old hia
gallantry won the battle of Gramberg. He
served in America during the War of Inde-
pendence, and was appointed commander of
Metz under the Constituent Assembly. He
endeavoured to effect the flight of the king,
and failing, tried to induce Catherine of
Russia and the Swedes to invade France.
Bouillon, Frederic Maurice de la Tour
d'Auvergne (b. 1605, d. 1652), elder brother
of Turenne, after serving in Holland under
the Prince of Orange, joined the Comte de
Soissons against Richelieu, and defeated the
French at La Marfee. Then he entered the
French service, and commanded in Italy;
and after the death of Louis XIII. he com-
manded the Pontifical troops. He joined
in the war of the Fronde, and part of his
property was confiscated.
Boulanger, George Ernest Jean Marie
(b. 1837, d. 1891), French general and poli-
tician, was made colonel during the siege
of Paris, general of brigade in 1880, and
minister of war in 1886. He achieved great
popularity, and was elected in 1889 by the
Nord, Somme, Charente Inferieure, and a
division of Paris. A threat of prosecution
drove him into exile, and he committed
suicide at Brussels.
Boulogne, Etienne Antoine de (b. 1747,
d. 1825), French prelate, was three times
sentenced to deportation during the Reign
| of Terror ; but in 1808 he was ordained
Bishop of Troyes. Napoleon imprisoned
him in Vincennes for a short time ; he de-
livered the funeral oration over Louis XVI.,
and in 1817 he was appointed Bishop of
Vienne and made a peer of France.
Boulton, Matthew (b. 1728, d. 1809), the
partner of James Watt in the Soho Works,
provided the money for Watt's experiments
with the steam engine.
Bourbaki, Charles Denis Sauter (b. 1816),
French general, served in the Crimea, and
was aide-de-camp to the Emperor at the
beginning of the Franco-Prussian war. He
shared in the defence of Metz, and was
given command of the wing for the relief
of Belf ort, his failure driving him to attempt
suicide. As commander of the Lyons dis-
trict he suppressed the Communist rising
of 1871.
Bourbon, Charles, Due de (b. 1490, d.
1527), commonly known as "The Con-
stable," after serving in Italy, was created
Constable of France, when only twenty-six
Bon
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Bow
years of age, by Frauds I. lie wafl loft in
•11111:11. <1 nf a small force in the AI
att'-r 1'iancis' successful campaign a._--iin-t
i e Kmpe,ror, and sn .1 in i
his own. i. c died to France he fell into
dj.-f..v ur owing to lip- jealousy of the kin^.
and i/ into negotiations with Qharlef \'.
to operate against the French. Refusing
the concessions off en d by 1'rancis, lie lied to
Italy, and defeated tho French at Biagrano.
Ai: . Hi of France did not su< hut
he contributed to the victory of Pa-
win- u Francis was taken prisoner. In \~r2~
he marched an army of ' Germans
across the Alps and attack d K<i;ue, but was
filiot just as his troops had gained the day.
Bourbon, Louis, Due de (b. 1279, d. 1341),
the first duke of the family, saved the
French army at Courtray, and distinguished
himself in the English wars.
Bourdon, Sebastian (b. 1616, d. 1671),
Frt-uch painter ; his reputation was estab-
lished by his Crucifixion of Sf. Peter, in
Notre Dame, which he produced when
only twenty- seven years old. Later he was
appointed first painter to Queen Christina
of Sweden.
Bourgelat, Claude (b. 1712, d. 1799),
Frenchman celebrated as the founder of
veterinary schools in France, opened his
first school in Lyons in 1772.
Bourgeois, Sir Franois (b. 1756, d. 1811),
Englishman of Swiss descent, remembered
for his bequest of paintings and money
to the Dulwich gallery. A painter himself.
he was appointed to the court of the .King
of Poland.
Bourget, Paul (b. 1852), French novelist,
author of Un Crime d1 Amour, Memonges,
and other works.
Bourgoyne, Louis, Due de (b. 16S2, d.
1712", dauphin of France, grandson of
Louis XIV., and father of Louis X.V.. was
remarkable for his goodness and gentleness,
and showed himself an able general.
Bourmont, Louis Auguste Victor de,
Comte de Ghaisues (b. 1773, a. 1846),
French general and a marshal of France,
entered the army at fifteen, and served in
the Vendee and elsewhere. He was im-
prisoned by Napoleon, but afterwards fought
under him with distinction in several cam-
paigns. He was appointed general of divi-
sion in 1815, but diverted on the first day.
The Bourbons conferred many honours on
him, and he successfully commanded the
Algerian expedition of 1830. He was dis-
missed from command on the revolution,
and endeavoured unsuccessfully to raise the
Vendee.
Bourne, Hugh (b. 1772, d. 1852), English
dissenting minister, who in 1810 seceded
from the W'-vl'-van ind 'd the
Primitive M< 'ho.; i >n. In 1M4
he \\.iit to America, where he was very
successful as a piva< her.
Bournon, .Tar.juc* Louis, Com to de (b.
IT'il, <i. 1S25), French miie i, *;mi-
'•d to .ad during tiic revolu-
tion, and becani- a member of the Iloyal
and Geological societies.
Bournouf, Eugene (b. 1801, d. 1S52),
distinguished Orientalist and professor of
Sanscrit at the College of France. lie trans-
lated much Sanscrit literature.
Bourrienne, LouisAntoineFaralet(6. 1769,
d. 1834), secretary to Napoleon, whose
memoirs he wrote.
Bouvart, Alexis (b. 1767, d. 1843), French
astronomer and mathematician of great in-
dustry, first observed the perturbations of
the planet Uranus, which led to the dis-
covery of the planet Neptune in 1846.
Bouvet, Joachim (b. 1662, d. 1732), one of
the earliest French missionaries dispatched
by Louis XIV. to China, remained in that
country from 1687 to 1(597, and then brought
with him forty-nine volumes of Chinese
literature. He returned to China in 1699,
and remained there till liis death.
Bowdicn, Thomas Edward (b. 1700, d.
1821), English traveller, after joining the
African Company he was sent on a mission
to the King of Ashantee. His record oi the
journey attracted much attention. In 1822
he returned to Africa, and died in Gambia
of fever.
Bowditch, Nathaniel (b. 1773, d. 1838),
American mathematician, entirely self-
taught, spent five years at sea as a young
man, and published his Practical Naviga-
tor. Then he became actuary to an in-
surance company in Boston, and, devoting
his leisure to scientific pursuits, produced
several valuable works, especially an un-
completed translation of La Place's Jle-
canique Celeste.
Bovdler, Thomas (b. 1754, d. 1825), editor
of expurgated editions of Shakespeare and
Gibbon.
Bowea, Sir George Ferguson (b. 1821),
colonial governor, in 1847 he was appointed
president of the university of Corfu, and
in 1854 government secretary of the Ionian
Islands. In 1859 he was named governor of
Queensland ; in 1867. governor of New
Zealand ; in 1873, governor of Victoria ; and
later of Mauritius and Hong- Kong.
Bowerbank, James Scott (b. 1797, d
1877), naturalist and microscopist, early
devoted himself to science, and was among
the founders of the Zoological, Palseonto-
graphical, Microscopical, and Ray societies,
Bow
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Sra
In 1841 he turned his attention to Spongiadce,
forming a splendid collection, now in the
British Museum, and publishing in 1864 his
Monograph of the British Spongiadce.
Bowles, William Lisle (b. 1762, d. 1850),
English clergyman and poet, in 1789 j
published Fourteen Sonnets, which attracted !
much attention, and which was followed by j
other poetical writings. In 1805 he became
vicar of Bremhill, Wilts. He provoked a
long and bitter controversy by his dicta on
poetry, published with his edition of Pope.
Bowman, Sir William (b. 1816, d. 1892),
oculist, in 1842 gained the Royal Medal in
physiology, and from 1845 to 1856 he was pro-
fessor of physiology and morbid anatomy at
King's College. In 1877 he became consulting
surgeon of the Royal Ophthalmic Hospital.
He has written several medical works, in- j
eluding Lectures on the Parts concerned in \
the Operations of the Eye, Observations on j
the Artificial Pupil, and in conjunction with i
Dr. Todd, The Physiological Anatomy and
Physiology of Man.
Bowring, Sir John (b. 1792, d. 1872),
linguist aud an active participator in public
affairs. For some years he edited the Edin-
burgh Review, and published songs and
ballads in translation of many European
tongues, besides treatises on Remunerative
Prison Labour and African Slavery. He
was member of Parliament for Clyde from
1835 to 1837, and for Bolton from 1841 to
1849. In the last mentioned year he was
appointed British Consul at Canton, and
later plenipotentiary to China, and governor
of Hong Kong. In 1855 he negotiated a
commercial treaty with the King of Siam.
Bowyer, Sir George (b. 1811, d. 1883),
barrister and public man, wrote The Cardinal
Archbishop of We*i». ..-/ster and the New j
Hierarchy, in defence of the Pope's distri- |
bution of England into Catholic sees. He i
was M.P. for Dundalk from 1852 to 1868, and
for county Wezford from 1874 to 1880.
Eoxall, Sir William (b. 1800, d. 1879),
English painter, and director of the National
Gallery from 1865 to 1874. He was elected
a Royal Academician in 1863.
Boyce, William (6. 1710, d. 1779), English
composer of church music, etc., popularly
known by his song Hearts of Oak.
Boydell, John (b. 1719, d. 1804), eminent
English engraver, is known not only for
his own engravings, such as his Views in
England and Walex, but for the series of
engravings, which he issued through many
years, of the best pictures done by the best
engravers.
Boyer, Alexis (b. 1757, d. 1833), French
surgeon, picked up his first knowledge j
of surgery in a barber's shop, but by
attendance at the schools of anatomy
he received an appointment at La Ckante,
and later became second surgeon at the
H6tel Dieu. Napoleon created him premier
surgeon and baron of the empire, and he
was consulting surgeon to Louis XVIII.
and his two successors.
Boyer, Jean Pierre (b. 1776, d.
president of the republic of Hayti, a
mulatto by birth, took part in the revolu-
tion of 1793, succeeded Petion as president,
and in 1822 took possession of St. Domingo.
His tyranny alienated the support of the
people, and his conduct of affairs with
France resulted in the destruction of Port-
au-Prince by a French fleet. Finally he was
compelled to fly the island.
Boyle, Charles, Lord Orrery and Baron
Boyle (6. 1676, d. 1753't. His publication of
an edition of The Letters (f Phalaris pro-
yoked a famous controversy with Bentley,
in which many of the scholars of the day
were engaged. He served under the Duke
of Ormonde in Flanders, and was committed
to the Tower under George I. for a Jacobite
conspiracy.
Boyle, Richard (b. 1566, d. 1643), Earl of
Cork, an Englishman by birth, went to live
in Ireland in 1588. After the rebellion he
was made clerk of the council of Munster ;
and years of active service to the Crown
were rewarded by a peerage. Later he
became Lord High Treasurer of Ireland, and
during the 1641 rebellion displayed the
greatest activity in its suppression.
Boyle, Robert (b. 1626, d. 1691), youngest
son of the preceding, a distinguished man
of science, was an early member of the
Royal Society, and besides conducting
chemical and physical research, studied
Oriental languages in order to be better able
to expound the Scriptures. He instituted
the "Boyle Lectures" on Christian evi-
dences ; and promulgated the gaseous law
known as "Boyle's law."
Boyle, Roger, Lord Broghill (b. 1621, d.
1679), son of the first Earl of Cork, gained
the complete confidence of Cromwell by his
behaviour against the Irish rebels, and was
made a privy councillor and president of the
council in Scotland. For his services in
Ireland, Charles II., on the Restorati in,
made him Earl of Orrery, lord president of
Munster, and a lord justice of Ireland.
Brabourne, Edward Knatchbull-Hugea-
sen, Lord (b. 1829), politician. .<at for Sand-
wich from 1857 to 188U, when Mr. Gladstone
raised him to the peerage. As a commoner
he was a Liberal, but in the House of Lor
he has generally voted with the Tori. s. He
is the author of several highly popular fairy
tales.
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Brackenbury, Henry (b. 1837), BritMi
geueral, fought in the Indian Mutiny, and
in 1870 was sent to the Franco-German war
by the British National Society for Aid to
the Sick and Wounded. He served with
Wolseley in Ashautee, and afterwards in
Natal; and commanded a division, under
General Earle, in the Nile Expedition of
1884-5. He has written A Narrative of tJie
AshanUe War and The Nik Column.
Braddock, Edward (b. 1695, d. 1755),
British general, served in the Peninsula and
Germany, and in 1754 was appointed to the
command of the forces in Virginia. In 1755
he led an expedition against Fort Du Quesne,
where his troops fell into an ambush and
were routed, and himself killed.
Braddon, Mary Elizabeth (b. 1837),
popular novelist, "after contributing to the
provincial press, succeeded in getting a
comedy, Loves of Arcadia, accepted at the
Strand theatre. In 1861 she produced a
volume of poems, Garibaldi, and then turn-
ing to fiction, published rapidly Lady
Liale, Lady Audley's Secret, Aurora Floyd,
and Henry Dun bar. These books established
her as one of the most popular novelists of
the day, and later works, which she has
published in large number, have not dimin-
ished her reputation.
Bradford, John (d. 1555), English
martyr, was converted by Latimer to the
reformed faith, and became chaplain to
Edward VI. His eloquent advocacy of the
Protestant faith brought on him an im-
prisonment of eighteen months under Mary,
and death at the stake at Smithfield.
Bradford, William (b. 1588, d. 1657), one
of the Pilgrim Fathers. In 1621 he suc-
ceeded Carver as governor of New Plymouth.
He wrote a History of the Plymouth Planta-
tion.
BradlaugH, Charles (b. 1833, d. 1891),
politician, after working in several humble
capacities, enlisted in the army. In 1853
he entered a solicitor's office; and then he
achieved a great influence with working
men as a Radical, and an antagonist of
the Christian religion. His lectures in the
Hall of Science, London, on social, political,
and religious questions, were very popular ;
and in 1860 he started the National Re-
former, against which a futile government
prosecution was instituted. In 1870 he
secured a judicial decision in favour of
affirmation in courts of law, but the ex-
penses of the trial made him bankrupt. In
1872 he published his Impeachment of the
House of Brunswick, and the question of
perpetual pensions always formed one of
his favourite subjects. In 1880 he was re-
turned for Northampton to Parliament, but
refusing to take the oath, he was not
allowed to take Ms seat until after the
general election of 1885, although he was
repeatedly returned by the constituency.
Afterwards he earned a high reputation in
the House of Commons, and though a
thorough Radical, opposed the advocates
of socialism. In 1889 he visited India, his
interest in Indian affairs having always
been pronounced.
Bradley, James (b. 1692, d. 1762), Eng-
lish astronomer, took orders, but in 17'^1,
being appointed Sylvian professor of as-
tronomy at Oxford, he devoted himself
entirely to science. He discovered the aber-
ration of light and established the formula
for the law of refraction, and in 1742 was
appointed astronomer- royal.
Bradshaw, John (b. 1602, d. 1659),
English lawyer and a prominent Parlia-
mentarian during the Civil war, presided
over the commission which tried Charles I.,
and was appointed lord president of the
council.
Brady, Henry Bowman (b. 1835), Eng-
lish zoologist, who for many years was a
pharmaceutical chemist at Newcastle-on-
Tyne. Hi a special work has been in con-
nection with the minute forms of inverte-
brate life, and he has written A Monograph
of Carboniferous and Permian f'orannnifera,
and The Foraminifera of the Challenger
Expedition.
Bragg, Braxton (b. 1817, d. 1876), Ameri-
can general, served in the Mexican war, and
at the outbreak of the Civil war was given
a command in the Confederate army. He
achieved a series of victories in the Mis-
sissippi campaign, but was at last defeated
by Grant.
Brahe, Tycho (i. 1546, d. 1601), Swedish
astronomer, in his observatory at Huen he
made the observations on which he founded
his planetary system. He died at Prague.
Brahms, Johannes (b. 1833), German
musical composer. Schumann early ex-
pressed the highest opinion of Brahms'
genius, but for many years he was not
appreciated in Germany. In 1861 he went
to Vienna, where he acquired a high re-
putation, and held several important musical
posts. In 1868 he composed the Deutsches
Requiem, which, after the Franco-German
war, was performed all over Germany, and
since then his compositions have been very
highly valued.
Bramah, Joseph (b. 1748, d, 1814),
English locksmith and machinist, the son of
a Yorkshire farmer. Coming to London,
he invented his famous lock, which for
sixty -seven years resisted all attempts to
pick it. In 1795 he invented the hydraulic
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press ; 1797, his beer pump ; and in 1806,
at the invitation of the governor of the
Bank of England, he invented a machine
for printing the numbers and date-lines on
bank notes.
Brain Ti all, John (b. 1594, d. 1663), bishop
of the English Church. In 1634 he was
consecrated Bishop of Derry, and his in-
sistence on the rights of the Church
caused him to be summoned before the Star
Chamber in 1637. Later he was imprisoned
in Ireland by the Parliament, but was re-
leased by the king. After the restoration
he was created Archbishop of Armagh.
Brand, Sir John Henry (b. 1823, d. 1888),
president of the Orange Free State, to
which position he was elected in 1863. His
tenure of office proved beneficial for the
republic. During the Transvaal war Pre-
sident Brand preserved the strict neutrality
of his state, and acted as mediator at the con-
ference of 1881, when peace was concluded.
Brande, William Thomas (b. 1788, d.
1866), chemist, in 1813 became professor of
chemistry at the Eoyal Institution, and in
1818 he was awarded the Copley medal of
the Royal Society.
Brantome, Pierre de Bourdeilles, Seigneur
de (b. circa 1540, d. 1614), historian, left
valuable Memoirs.
Brasidas (d. 422 B.C.), Spartan general,
relieved Megara in 424, and defended Am-
phipolis, where he was killed.
Brassey, Thomas (b. 1805, d. 1870), rail-
way engineer. He constructed several of
the important railways in Great Britain,
the French Western Railway, and others in
Spain.
Brassey, Thomas, Baron (b. 1836), a pro-
minent politician. For many years he
represented Hastings in Parliament, and
has occupied positions in the Admiralty
in Mr. Gladstone's governments. He was
raised to the House of Lords in 1886.
Bravo, Nicolas (b. 1790, d. circa 1854),
Mexican general, was prominent during the
revolution, and was at the head of the
provisional government which succeeded on
Iturbide's downfall: in 1827 he was ban-
ished by Gnerrie'o; and in 1829 he again
headed the administration. In 1833 he was
defeated by Vittoria, and retired to the
United States.
Bravo -Murillo, Don Juan (A. 1803, d.
1873), Spanish politician, after La Granja's
revolution became a leader of the Con-
servative Opposition. He fled to France in
1840 during Espartero's dictatorship, but
returned in 1847 and became head of the
government. His reactionary policy com-
pelled his resignation in 1852.
Bray, Anna Eliza (b. circa 1790, d. 1883),
novelist and writer, in 1826 published her
first historical novel, De Foix, which waa
followed by others of the same class.
She also wrote a Life of Handel, and some
historical sketches. She was twice married •
in 1818 to Thomas Stothard, and in 1825 to'
the Rev. E. A. Bray.
Brazil, Emperors of —
(1) Pedro L, de Alcantara (b. 1798, d.
1834), eldest son of John VI. of Portugal,
was taken to Brazil by his father on the
French invasion of Portugal in 1807. In
1821 he was left as Regent, and in 1822 was
proclaimed emperor of an independent
Brazil. His reign was marked with revolu-
tion and discontent, and he was compelled
to abdicate in 1831 in favour of his son.
(2) Pedro II., de Alcantara (b. 1825),
successor of the preceding ; in 1861 Brazil
became involved in a quarrel with England,
which lasted for several years; and in 1865
Brazil joined the alliance against Paraguay.
In 1872 the emperor secured the passage of
an Act providing for the emancipation of
slaves, which disaffected many loyal sup-
porters, and in 1889 a revolution broke out
which expelled him from the throne, and
set up a republican government.
Breckenridge, John Cabell (b. 1821, d.
1875), American politician, in 1851 entered
Congress, and in 1856 was elected vice-presi-
dent under Buchanan. In 1860 he was a
candidate for the presidency in the Southern
interest, but was defeated by Lincoln ; and
having denounced Lincoln's address as a
declaration of war, he was expelled from the
House of Representatives. He was given a
command in the Confederate army.
Bremer, Frederika (b. 1801, d. 1865),
Swedish novelist, many of whose works
have been translated into English, and
widely circulated in Great Britain and
America. Her Sketches of Every Day Life
and The H Family first brought her
into notice : and besides her numerous
stories, she has written accounts of travel
in Europe and America.
Brennus, the celebrated chief of the Gauls
who captured Rome about B.C. 390, and
compelled a ransom of 1,000 pounds of gold,
throwing his sword into the scale with the
words " }'& victis."
Brentano, Clemens (b. 1778, d. 1842),
German poet of the romantic school, and the
brother of "Bettina" (q.v.), eloped with
the wife of Professor Mereau, and settling
in Heidelberg, became associated with Von
Arnim in a remarkable collection of German
folk-songs and ballads. He continued to
produce romances and poems rapidly, till
he was seized with religious mania about
1812.
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Breteuil, Louis Auguste, Baroii de (6.
1733, d. 1807), French statesman, was
employed by Louis XV. on many important
diplomatic missions, and in 17^3 Louis XVI.
appointed him governor of Paris and
minister of state. After the 1789 insur-
rectum he succeeded Neckar as head of
the government, but he withdrew from
France after the fall of the Bastille.
Brett, John (b. 1830), English landscape
and sea-piece painter of great merit, was
elected an associate of the Royal Academy
in 1882. His Jirit.(in»i(i>& h'eabn (1880) was
bought by the Chantry Bequest.
Brett, Sir Piercy (*. 1710, d. 1781), Bri-
tish admiral, served with Anson in his
voyage to the South Seas, and in 17-15, as
commander of the Lion, fought a desperate
action of nine hours vrith a French liue-of-
battle ship conveying the Pretender to
Scotland. He was knighted in 1753.
Breugliels, The, a family of Dutch pain-
ters—
(1) Pieter the elder, known as " The
Droll " (b. 1510 or 1530, d. 1569).
(2) Pieter the vounger, known as " The
Infernal" (b. 1559, d. 1637).
(3) Jan, son of Pieter the elder, and
known as "Velvet " (b. 1569, d. 1625).
Brewer, John Sherren (b. 1810, d. 1879),
English clergyman and historian ; in 1858
appeared the first volume of his edition of
the Monuinenta Fran^iscana, followed by
other reprints of mediaeval classics ; from
1862 till his death he was engaged on his
great work, the Calendar of Letters and
Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign
of Henry VIII., which is of the greatest
historical value.
Brewster, Sir David (b. 1781, d. 1868),
physicist, in 1808 became the editor of the
Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, and attracted
much attention by his investigations into
the phenomena of light. He invented
the kaleidoscope, invented or improved
many optical instruments, and introduced
polygonal lenses for lighthouses. In
1819 he was presented with the Rumford
gold and silver medals by the Royal Society
for his discoveries with regard to the polari-
sation of light, and in 1849 he was elected
one of the eight foreign associates of the
Institute of France. Besides numerous
scientific works, he wrote a Life of New ton t
Martyrs of Science, and More Worlds than
One, books which possess a high literary
merit.
Briconnet, Guillaume (d. 1514), French
statesman and ecclesiastic, induced Louis
XI. to undertake the conquest of Italy, and
vras appointed by that monarch Archbishop
of Rheims and prime minister. In 1491 he
was made cardinal: was excommunicated
by Julius I., but was restored by Leo X.,
who made him archbishop of Narboune.
Bridgeman, Sir Orlando (b. 1 606, /. 1674),
English judge, rapidly attained distinction
at the bar, and was returned to the Long
Parliament in 1640, when he supported the
Royalist party. He sided with the king
during the Civil war, and after the Kcst^ra-
tion was made Chief Baron of the Exchequer
and a baronet, and shortly after, Chief .Jus-
tice of Common Pleas. He presided at the
trial of the regicides, and succeeded Claren-
don as Lord Keeper of the Seals.
Bridgewater, Francis Egerton, D>:ke of
(b. 1736, d. 1803), youngest son of the first
duke, is especially remembered for his
enterprise in the construction of canals,
notably the Bridgewater Canal, in com-
pleting which his resources were greatly
strained. However, he died the possessor of
great wealth.
Bridgewater, Rev. Francis Henry Eger-
ton, 8th Earl of (b. 1758, d. 1829), son of
Lord Egertou, Bishop of Durham. From
him originated the celebrated Bridgewater
Treatises. He left £8,000 for the writing
and publishing of 1,000 copies of a work on
the power, wisdom, and goodness of God.
Bridport, Alexander Arthur Hood, Vis-
count (b. 1728, d. 1814), British admiral and
brother of Lord Hood, after fighting several
gallant actions, and serving under Keppel
and Howe, was knighted in 1788, and took
part in the famous action of the 1st June,
1794. In 1795 he defeated the French fleet
off Lorient, and in 1796 was created a peer
of Great Britain.
Brienne, Gauthier (d. 1356), Duke of
Athens and Constable of France, having
lost his duchy, went, in 1336, to Florence
as administrator for the King of Naples.
In 1339 he fought with Philip de Valois
against the English; and in 1341 defeated
the Pisans, and became ruler of Florence.
Having been expelled from the city, he re-
turned to France, and was killed at
Poictiers.
Brig-lit, John (b. 1811, d. 1889), orator and
statesman. He was bom near Rochdale of
a Quaker family, his father being engaged
in the cotton- spinning trade. When sixteen
years old John Bright entered his father's
business, and began to take an interest in
public affairs. He first met and became
associated with Cobden in connection with
the national education question, after return-
ing from a visit to Eastern Europe ; and in
1839 his name was prominent among the
j committee of the National Anti-Corn Law
League, which sprang up at that time, and
• his devotion to the cause was intensified by
I the grief occasioned by the death of hia
Bri
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Bri
wife in 1841, after a married life of only two
years. In 1843 he was returned by Durham
to Parliament, and was indefatigable in his
efforts for the repeal of the corn laws.
The movement set on foot by Lord Shaf tes-
bury for the limitation of factory labour to
ten hours a day was strongly opposed by
Bright, who thereby incurred much un-
popularity. His eloquence was next turned
to Irish and Indian questions ; and in regard
to Ireland he advocated reform of the land
laws and disestablishment of the Irish
Church. In 1849 he married a second time.
The parliamentary session of 1855 was
rendered memorable as the occasion of some
of Bright's finest orations, delivered in
denunciation of the Crimean war. Illness
compelled him to go abroad in 1857, when
Palmerston was defeated on the Chinese
question. In the general election which
followed Bright was defeated at Manchester,
for which constituency he had sat since
1847. In 1857 he was elected for Birming-
ham, and remained that borough's member
till his death. After helping to defeat Lord
Palmerston in 1858, he supported strongly
Lord Derby's measure for the abolition of
the East India Company ; and on the out-
break of the American Civil war he again
excited great unpopularity by his uncom-
promising advocacy of the cause of the
North. After Mr. Gladstone's defeat in
1865 on the Reform Bill, Bright conducted
SL campaign in favour of reform, and ob-
tained from Mr. Disraeli's government a
measure embodying many of his principles.
Again he turned to the questions of Irish
disestablishment and land reform, and was
president of the Board of Trade in Mr.
Gladstone's government which passed the
1870 Land Act and the Irish Church Dis-
establishment Act. For two years he retired
from public life, but joined Mr. Gladstone's
Ministry in 1873, and from then until his
return to office with the Liberals in 1880
took a prominent part in the agitation for
the disestablishment of the English Church.
In 1886 he opposed Mr. Gladstone's Home
Rule policy, and became the great strength
of the Unionist party, his influence going a
very long way towards winning the general
election of 1886.
Bright, Richard (b. 1789, d. 1858),
English doctor, physician of Guy's Hospital,
was the first to describe the affection of the
kidneys known as "Bright's Disease" — a
disease to which he himself succumbed.
Brindley, James (b. 1716, d. 1772),
English engineer, after serving as a farm
labourer, became a wheelwright, and also
attained a reputation as a practical engineer,
inventing an engine for the draining of coal-
mines. He effected many improvements
in mill machinery, and superintended the
construction of the Duke of Bridgewater's
canals. His last work was the construction
of the Grand Trunk Canal connecting the
Mersey and the Trent.
Brinkley, John (b. 1763, d. 1836),
English astronomer and Regius professor of
astronomy at Trinity College, Dublin, in
1814 discovered the parallax of the fixed
stars, and in 1826 he was ordained bishop of
Cloyne.
Brinvilliers, Marie Marguerite, Marquise
de (b. 1630, d. 1676), French criminal,
poisoned her father, brothers, and sister, for
which crimes she was tortured and executed.
Brisbane, Sir Charles (b. 1769, d. 1829),
British admiral, fought in many of the
memorable naval engagements with the
French and Dutch at the close of the last
century, and in 1805 distinguished himself
by a brilliant action against the Spanish
at Havannah. In 1807 he sailed into the
harbour of Cura^oa, and captured the
island. In 1808 he was made governor of
St. Vincent.
Brisbane, Sir Thomas Macdougall (b.
1773, d. 1860), soldier and astronomer,
served with the army in Flanders, the
Peninsula, the West Indies, and North
America, and in 1821 was appointed governor
of New South Wales. His administration
was able and beneficial in a high degree.
He founded a large observatory in Australia,
and received the Copley medal of the Royal
Society for his work in cataloguing 7,385
stars. On returning to Great Britain he
devoted himself to astronomy, and succeeded
Sir Walter Scott as president of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh.
Brisson, Henri (6. 1835), French states-
man ; in 1864 his articles in the Temps, in
opposition to the second empire, gave him
considerable reputation. After the fall of
the empire he became deputy-mayor of
Paris, but soon resigned the office. In 1871
he entered the Chamber of Deputies, and in
1879 became its president. In 1885 he
formed an administration in succession to
that of M. Ferry, and was succeeded in 1886
by M. de Freycinet.
Brisson, Mathurin Jacques (b. 1723, d.
1806), French physician and naturalist,
was professor of physics at the College
of Navarre, and instructor to the royal
children. He wrote several scientific works,
and was employed by government on several
occasions.
Brissot-de-Warville, Jean Pierre (b. 1754,
d. 1793), French politician and political
writer, studied law in the same office as
Robespierre, and gained some reputation
by his Theory of Criminal Laws. He was
committed to the Bastille for some time, and
afterwards fled to England and America.
Bri
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J3ro
In 1789 he returned to France, and edited
the Patrlote Franyiis, and he entered the
National Assembly as representative for
Paris. Falling under the suspicion of the
extremists, he was guillotined in 1793.
BristOW, Henry William (b. 1817), dis-
tinguished geologist, in 1842 became con-
nected with the Geological Survey of
England, of which he was director for many
years. He is a member of the Royal and
Geological Societies, and has written, among
other works, Geology of the Isle of Wight,
A Glossary of Mineralogy and British Sedi-
mentary and Fossiliferous Strata, the last in
conjunction with Mr. Etheridge.
Brock, Thomas (b. 1847), R.A., sculptor,
finished the O'Connell monument in Dublin,
begun by Foley, and has executed statues of
Richard Baxter, Robert Raikes, Sir Rowland
Hill, and the bust of Longfellow in West-
minster Abbey. His equestrian group, A
Moment of Peril, was purchased by the
Royal Academy, to which he was elected an
associate in 1883.
Brockhaus, Friederich Arnold (b. 1772, d.
1823), a German bookseller, founder of the
greatest publishing firm in Germany. He
settled in Leipzig, where the business was
carried on by his sons Heinrich and
Friederich.
Brockhaus, Hermann (b. 1806, d. 1877),
son of the preceding, a distinguished Orien-
talist, was professor of Indian literature
at Leipzig, and translated several of the
Sanscrit classics.
Brodhead, John Romeyn (b. 1814, d.
1873), American historian, in 1835 went
to the Hague as charge d'affaires, when he
•was commissioned by the Government to col-
lect materials for a history of New York. In
1845 the first volume of the work appeared ;
and in 1846 Mr. Brodhead was appointed
secretary of the Legation in London.
Brodie, Sir Benjamin Collins (b. 1783, d.
1862), surgeon, for many years was surgeon
to St. George's Hospital, where his lectures
were highly valued. In 1819 he became
anatomical professor to the Royal College
of Surgeons; and in 1S23 became surgeon-
in-ordinary to the king. Among his
numerous works were Physiological Papers
and Physiological Inquiries.
Broglie, AchilleLeonce Victor Charles, Due
de (b. 1785, d. 1870), after the overthrow of
Napoleon in 1815 joined Guizot's party as
a member of the Chamber of Peers, aud in
1832 he became Louis Philippe's foreign
secretary, and retained the post for two
years. In 1836 he was for a short time
prime minister, and after the 1848 revolution
was a strong opponent of Louis Napoleon.
Broglie, Albert, Due de (b. 1821), son
of the preceding, after writing several
brilliant historical and theological works,
became in 1371 ambassador to London;
but, resigning in the following year, he
became leader of the royalist party in the
Chamber. His efforts were devoted ta
restoring the monarchy in France, and in
1873 he succeeded in placing Marshal
McMahon in the president's chair instead of
Thiers, while he himself became president
of the council and foreign minister. He
then set to work to displace republican
officials throughout France, and carried the
prolongation of the marshal's presidency
for seven years. In 1876, however, his plans
were upset by the defection of the Legiti-
mists, and he had to resign. In 1877 he
again became head of an administration, but
was defeated in the same year, and was
subjected soon after to a vote of censure
from the Chamber. In 1885 he was rejected
at the general election.
Broglie, Victor Maurice, Comte de (b.
1639, d. 1727), distinguished marshal of
France, who served in most of the cam-
paigns of his day.
Broglie, Fra^ois Marie, Due de (b. 1671,
d. 1745), son of the preceding, entered the
army at a very early age, and from 1689 to
1713 saw constant service in Germany,
Flanders, or Italy. In 1733 he commanded
in Italy, and in 1741 commanded the army
in Bohemia, where he was shut up in
Prague. As he found it impossible to
defend Bavaria, he withdrew his army, for
which he was exiled to his estates.
Broglie, Victor Francois, Due de (b. 1718,
d. 1804), son of the preceding, served in
Italy and in Germany before he wa?
twenty, and in 1745 succeeded to the title.
Having fought throughout the Seven Years'
war, in 1759 he achieved a brilliant victory
against Prince Ferdinand, for which he was
created prince of the empire. As com-
mander-in-chief in Germany he defeated
the Prussians at Corbach, and in 1761 again
defeated Prince Ferdinand at Fillinghausen.
In 1762 he was recalled and exiled, but
restored in 1764. In 1789 he was com-
pelled to fly from France, and joined in
1792 the Duke of Brunswick's invasion of
Champagne. He died in Germany.
Broglie, Charles Francois, Comte de (b.
1719, d. 1781), brother of the preceding, for
some years was ambassador at Warsaw,
and then served under his brother in
Germany. Later he was appointed director
of the secret ministry ; and was then exiled
for a time. He was again exiled before the
death of Louis XV.
Broglie, Claude Victor, Prince de (b. 1757,
d. 17y4), son of the preceding, joined the
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popular movement ; was elected to the States |
General, and was for a time president of the i
National Assembly. Appointed commander
of the army of the Rhine, he was recalled in
1792 for refusing to acquiesce in the king's
deposition, and was shortly after executed.
Broke, Sir Philip Dives Vere (b. 1776, d.
1841), British admiral, memorable as the hero
of the naval duel between
the Shannon during the war with America.
Bronte, Charlotte (b. 1816, d. 1855), Eng-
lish authoress, the eldest of the three Broute
sisters. After some experience as a gover-
ness she became engaged with her sisters in
the writing of novels, and in 1846 published
with them a small volume of poems under the
names of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. In
1847 shfc published the well-known story
Jane Eyre. Its success was instantaneous
and complete. Although adversely and
severely criticised, it was and is admitted
to be one of the most remarkable of English
novels. Her second story, Shirley, was
published in 1849, and her third and last,
Villette, in 1853. Another story, The
Professor, which had been refused by the
publishers before Jane Eyre had made its
authoress famous, was published after her
death. In June. 1854, she married the Rev.
Mr. Nicholls, who had been for a time her
father's curate. But soon after her
marriage consumption, which had carried
off her sisters and brothers, settled on
her, and she died in her fortieth year.
Bronte, Emily (b. 1818, d. 1848). At the
same time that Charlotte was engaged in
writing The Professor, and the younger
sister Agnes^ Grey, Emily wrote Wuthering
Heights, which was accepted and published.
Bronte, Anne (b. 1819, d. 1849), whose
story of Agnes Grey was succeeded by The
Tenant of Wildfdl Hall; but neither of
these stories is in any way remarkable.
She died in less than six months after
Emily.
Brooke, Gustavus Yaughan (b. 1818, d.
1866), tragedian, when only fifteen ap-
peared in Dublin as "William Tell, and
in 1848 made a great success in London
as Othello. In 1850 he went to New
York, where he was enthusiastically re-
ceived, and in 1854 to Australia. In 1866
he set out on a second visit to Australia in
the London, in the wreck of which vereel he
perished.
Brooke, Henry (b. 1706, d. 1783), an
Irish man of letters, coming to London,
married in his twentieth year his cousin,
who was not quite fifteen. He did not
succeed at the bar ; and so turned to litera-
ture, producing a philosophical poem, Uni-
versal Beauty, in 1735. He was taken up by
L2
the literary celebrities of the day, and his
next work, Gustavus Vana, a tragedy, proved
a great success, having been interdicted
from representation on the stage. He
retired to Ireland, and continued to write
prolincally. His best-known work is The
J?ool of Quality.
Brooke, Sir James (b. 1803, d. 1868),
known as the Rajah of Sarawak, at the
age of twenty-two entered the service of
the East India Company, and took pai-t
in the first Burmese war. In 1838 he
went to Borneo in the yacht Royalist,
and aided the Sultan to reduce the Dyak
tribes of Sarawak, a service for which he
was made Rajah in 1841. In 1847 he was
made governor of Labuan, purchased by
England from Borneo. He was deprived of
his governorship, however, on a charge of
undue severity, though acquitted by the
royal commission at Singapore.
Brooke, Rev. Stopford Augustus (b.
1832), preacher, was educated at Trinity
College, Dublin, and took his M.A. in
1868. He held the ministry of St. James's
chapel from 1866 to Ib75, and after-
wards that of Bedford chapel, Blooms-
bury, and in 1872 he was appointed chap-
lain-in-ordinary to the Queen. In 1880 he
seceded from the Church of England. He
is the author of several theological works.
Brooks, Charles William Shirley (b. 1815,
d. 1874), journalist, was appointed editor of
Punch in 1870, and he wrote Aspen Court,
The Cfordian Knot, and other works.
Brougham and Vaux, Henry Peter,
Lord (b. 1778, d. 1868), statesman and
lawyer, was educated at the High School
and University of Edinburgh, and in 1800
became a member of the Scottish bar,
becoming conspicuous as the centre of the
group of young Whigs then in Edin-
burgh. He was one of the founders of the
Edinburgh Review, the first number of
which appeared in October, 1802, and for
many years he continued to be one of its
largest contributors. Later he was called
to the English bar, and in 1809 was re-
turned to Parliament for the small Cornish
borough of Camelford. He became at once
a leading orator of the Whigs and the
special opponent of Canning himself, against
whom he fought a famous election contest
at Liverpool. The greatest achievement in
his early parliamentary career was carrying
through the bill which, by making the slave
trade felony, made effectual Fox's Act for
its abolition. As a lawyer, his successful
defence of Leigh Hunt for republishing an
article on flogging in the army brought him
into the first rank of political advocates. He
was largely influential in giving prominence
to schemes of popular education, in 1823
co-operated with Mr. Birkbeck in founding
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mechanics' institutes, and was one of the
most prominent amongst those who es-
tablished the unsectarian London Uni-
versity. From 1820 his political importance
continued to increase. He made political
capital out of the wrongs of Queen Caroline,
and obtained great popularity out of his
cooiduct of her case. He advocated every
motion for parliamentary reforms, and in
1822 brought forward an attack on the
influence of the Crown. His famous speech
in 1828 oil the defects of the common law
courts and the law of real property brought
him into prominence as a law reformer ;
and in 1830 the fall of the Wellington
ministry was precipitated by his announce-
ment that he would introduce a Reform
Bill. In Grey's Whig ministry he became
Lord Chancellor and a peer. This was the
culminating point of his career. As Lord
Chancellor, his overbearing manners, cou-
pled with his ignorance of equity law, made
him extremely unpopular, and in the cabinet
his inordinate vanity and reckless incon-
sistency made it impossible for his colleagues
to work with him. The Whig ministry was
thrown out in 1834, and on its return after
Peel's failure no place was found for the
late minister. For many years, however, he
found useful scope for his energies as a law
reformer, and in literature. He was the
author of a History of the House of Lancaster,
and Sketches of the Statesmen of the Time of
George III.
Broug-hton, William Robert (b. 1763, d.
1822), English navigator, took part in Van-
couver's expedition of 1790, and in 1793
undertook a voyage of discovery in the Pro-
vidence. Having passed Japan, he was
shipwrecked; but having refitted in Can-
ton, set out again. He published A. Voyage
of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean.
Brouwer, Adria (b. 1608, d. 1640), Dutch
painter of scenes of low life.
Brown, Ford Madox (b. 1821), painter,
by many has been regarded as the leading
light of the pre- Raphaeli te school, though
he was not the first to adopt its methods.
Among his best- known works are Chaucer
Reciting his Poetry at the Court of
Edward the Third, which now decorates
the gallery at Sydney, and Christ Washing
Peter's Feet. Later in life he spent many
years in Manchester, decorating the Town
Hall of that city with a series of brilliant
designs illustrative of its history. He
married the sister of D. G. Rossetti.
Brown, John (b. 1810, d. 18821 doctor and
author, wrote Rab and his Friends, Pet
Marjorie, and other works.
Brown, John (b. 1800, d. 1859), American
abolitionist, in 1359 conceived the idea of
effecting the abolition of slavery by a
general negro rising ; but though he
seized the arsenal of Harper's Ferry (Oct.
10th) the negroes refused to stir, and he was
taken and hanged.
Brown, Robert (*. 1773, d. 185S), Scottish
surgeon aud botanist, was appointed
naturalist to the Investigator in the
Australian expedition of 1801. In 1810 he
published the results of the voyage in
Prodromus Florae Nova HoUandice. As
librarian to the Linnaean Society he wrote
many works of value, and ultimately became
president of the society.
Brown, Robert (b. 1549, d. 1630), a Puri-
tan, known as the founder of the Browuists,
in 1561, while at Cambridge, was cited
before Archbishop Parker for heterodoxy,
and before he died he was imprisoned thirty-
two times. In 1580 he accepted a ministry
at Norwich, and later went to Holland. In
1585 he returned to England, and suffered
excommunication.
Brown, Sir Samuel (b. 1776, d. 1852),
English naval officer, is remembered for his
skill as a mechanical engineer, and made
several useful inventions in bridges, piers,
and chain cables. The Brighton Pier and
the Tweed Bridge are due to him.
Brown, Thomas (b. 1778, d. 1820), a cele-
brated Scottish metaphysician, studying in
Edinburgh, published at the age of twenty,
and took a medical degree in 1803. The
first work which attracted much attention
was his Examination of Hume's Principles
respecting Causation. In 1810 he became
joint professor of moral philosophy with
Dugald Stewart, and his lectures were
highly valued. He wrote several volumes
of verse, which were well received.
Browne, Charles Farrer. [See Ward,
Artemus.]
Browne, Edward Harold (b. 1811),
theologian, educated at Eton, and Em-
manuel, Cambridge, became a fellow and
tutor of his college, and in 1857 Norresian
professor. He was made Bishop of Ely in
1864, and when Bishop Wilberforce died was
translated to the see of Winchester, and
appointed prelate to the Order of the Garter.
Dr. Browne has published a large number
of works, chiefly on theological subjects.
Bro\roe, Hablot Knight (b. 1815, d. 1882),
distinguished artist and caricaturist, known
to fame as " Phte." Apprenticed to a me*
chanical engraver, he first attained success
by his illustrations of Pickwick (1837), and
from that time continued with increasing
popularity. He illustrated, besides several
of Dickens' works, nearly all Lever's novels,
and some of Fieldrrfj -vvi Smollett. In 1867
he was afflicted **, ''*» A serious illness, in
Bro
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which he lost much of his capability for
further work, and he was for some time in
great pecuniary distress. Having failed to
obtain a government pension, he received an
annuity from the Royal Academy.
Browne, Sir Samuel James, K.C.B.,
K. C.S.I, (b. 1824), first saw service in the
Punjaub campaign of 1848-9, and went
through the Indian Mutiny, being twice
severely wounded, and losing an arm at the
battle of Seerporah. He was mentioned in
despatches, and received the Victoria Cross
and the C.B. He held a command in the
Afghan war of 1878-9, and opened the
campaign by the capture of All Musjid in
the Khyber Pass.
Browne, Sir Thomas (b. 1605, d. 1682),
English physician, eminent as a philosophical
writer, took a degree at Oxford, and after
extensive travel on the Continent, pro-
duced, in 1635, his famous Religio Medici,
which at once acquired a European reputa-
tion. He settled in Norwich, where he pro-
duced many other works, the most important
being Pseudodoxia Epidemica. In 1671 he
was knighted by Charles II.
Brown - Sequard, Edward (b. 1818),
American physician and physiologist, was
appointed successively professor of pathology
at Harvard, professor to the Faculty of
Medicine at Paris, and succeeded Claude
Bernard in the chair of experimental
medicine at the College of France. He has
published two important series of lectures
on the Paralysis of the Lower Extremities
and on Functional Agitations.
Browning1, Elizabeth Barrett (b. 1806, d.
1861), English poetess; her first volume of
verses was published in her nineteenth year,
and in her twenty-fourth appeared Pro-
metheus Unbound (to be styled afterwards "A
Sin of My Youth ' ') , and Miscellaneous Poems.
Two years later another volume appeared,
which included IsobePs Child, The Romance
of Margaret, and the sonnet Consolation.
About this time delicate health and the j
loss, by drowning, of her brother, brought
her very near to death, and it was some
years before anything more appeared from
her pen. In 1845 she met the poet Brown-
ing, and the tale of their courtship she her- '
self has told in Sonnets from the Portuguese !
(1850). Browning and she were married in |
1846, and with him she settled in Florence. l
Here a son was born to them, and here in !
the glow of a new and happy life, and with ;
new interests encompassing her, she wrote '
her Casa Guidi (18.51), a poem that might '
have been written by an Italian patriot, and
Aurora Leigh (1856). Her Poems before ;
C&#gress appeared in 1860, but these, with
the exception of Last Poems, which were
published after her death by her husband,
were her last works.
Browning, Robert (b. 1812, d. 1889),
poet : his first poem, Pauline, was pub-
lished when he was twenty- one, but it
was not until two years later that the
dramatic poem, Paracelsus, appeared— of
4,000 lines, and in five parts. Shortly after-
wards he wrote for Macready (who produced
it at Covent Garden) his first tragedy,
Strafford, and published it in the same year.
His next poem, Bordello, was then ' ' nearly
ready," but it was not produced until 1840.
From 1841 to 1846 Browning brought
out his Bells and Pomegranates, in eight
parts. These contained three plays, of
which Pippa Passes is, perhaps, the best
known; four tragedies, including A Blot
on the 'Scutcheon, and thirty fresh
dramatic lyrics, three of which, The Pied
Piper of Hamelin, How they brought
the Good News from Ghent to Aix, and
the Lost Leader, are among the most
popular of his works. After marrying the
poetess, Elizabeth Barrett, he settled in
Florence, and remained there for fifteen
years, until his wife's death in 1861. During
this time he produced Paracelsus and Men
and Women. In 1864 he opened the third
period of his work with Dramatis Persona,
and four years later his most important
work, The Ring and the Book. Since then,
from time to time, he produced fresh
poems, plays, and translations, the most
notable among them being Fijine at the Fair,
the English version of the Alce»tis, the
Agamemnon and Jocoseria. He was elected
an honorary fellow of Balliol, Oxford, and
the degree of M.A. was conferred on him
by that university, as was that of D.C.L.
by Cambridge. He died after a short illness
in Florence, and was buried in Poets'
Corner, Westminster Abbey.
Bruce, David (b. 1323, ». 1370), king of
Scotland, and son and successor of Robert
Bruce. The invasion of Scotland by Edward
III. forced him to fly to France ; but he re-
turned during the war between France and
England. He invaded England, but was
defeated and taken prisoner. He was
ransomed for £100,000.
Bruce, Edward (d. 1318), brother of
Robert Bruce, fought with great bravery
in the war against the English, and in 1315,
being offered the crown of Ireland, he went
to that country, maintaining his position
with great success. He was killed in a
battle against the English.
Bruce, Sir Frederick, W.A.W. (b. 1814, d.
1867), younger son of the seventh Lord
Elgin, entered the diplomatic service, and
was appointed envoy extraordinary to the
Emperor of China in 1858. Subsequently
he established the mission in Pekiu, and in
1865 succeeded Lord Lyons as ambassador
to the United States.
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Bruce, James (b. 1730, d. 1794),
traveller, in 1763 went out as British
consul to Algiers, and in 1765 set out to
search for the source of the Nile. In
1770 he had penetrated to Abyssinia, and
traced the Abawi to its source, that being
then believed to be the main source of the
Nile. He returned to London in 1774, and
in 1790 published his Tracels.
Bruce, Robert (*. 1274, d. 1329), Earl of
Carrick and King of Scotland ; his grand-
father was, with Baliol, a claimant for the
Scottish throne, and when Edward I. decided
in favour of Baliol, the family withdrew to
England. Having entered into a conspi-
racy for the overthrow of the English
suzerainty in Scotland and having been
betrayed, Bruce fled to Scotland and was
crowned in 1306. He was defeated by
the Earl of Pembroke, and hunted up
and down the country, but in 1307 he
succeeded in defeating Pembroke, when
Edward marched against him, but died
on the way to Scotland. Edward II.
left the prosecution of the war to the
Earl of Pembroke, against whom Bruce
struggled for three years, ultimately estab-
lishing himself as King of Scotland. In
1314 Edward II. marched against him in
person, but was totally routed at Bannock -
burn. In 1323 a peace was arranged, which
Bruce only survived a short time.
Brucker, Johaun Jakob (b. 1696, d. 1770),
German Protestant divine and philoso-
pher; in 1723 produced his Historia Phi-
losophica de Ideis, and in 1741 his Historia
Critica Philosophise, both works being of
the greatest erudition and value.
Brueys, Francois Paul, Comte de (b. 1753,
d. 1798), French admiral, commanded the
French fleet at the capture of Malta in 1798,
and at the battle of the Nile, when his fleet
was destroyed by Nelson and he himself was
1 •!! T
killed.
Brag-sell, Heinrich Carl, Pasha (b. 1827),
German Egyptologist, was made curator
of the Egyptian museum at Berlin, and
became professor of oriental languages
at Gottingen university. He resided many
years in Egypt, and among several important
works on that country, his History of
Egypt under the Pharaohs is one of the best
on the subject.
Bruix, Eustache de (b. 1759, d. 1805),
French admiral, served in the American
war of 1793, and took part in the
expedition against Ireland. He escaped
with his fleet from Brest harbour when it
was blockaded by the British, and relieved
Massena, who was besieged in Genoa. He ,
was given the command of the fleet as- j
Bembled at Boulogne for the invasion of !
England.
Brullow, Charles Paulo vitch (b. 1800, d.
1852), Russian artist, and president of the
St. Petersburg Academy.
Brummell, George Bryan (b. 1778, d. 1840),
"B.au," the noted dandy and friend of
George IV.
Brune, Guillaume Marie Anne (b. 1763, d.
1815), French general and a marshal of
France, joined the Republican cause,
and in 1798 was appointed commander of
the forces in Switzerland. Subsequently
he was transferred to Holland, which he
compelled the Duke of York to evacuate.
He defeated the Austrians in Italy, but
soon after offended the emperor, who did
not again employ him till the Hundred
Days' campaign, when he was given com-
mand of the army of the Var. He was
murdered by a Royalist mob at Avignon.
Brunei, Sir Marc Isambard (b. 1769, d.
1849), engineer, was the son of a Norman
farmer. Leaving France, he found occupation
as an engineer in the United States. Com-
ing to England in 1799, he induced the
Admiralty to accept his designs for making
ships' blocks by machinery. Minor inven-
tions due to him were machines for winding
cotton and nail-making. But his greatest
engineering work was the Thames Tunnel,
which, be^un in 1824, was completed in
1843 with the assistance of his son.
Brunei, Isambard Kingdom, F.R.S.,
D.C.L. (b. 1806. d. 1859), engineer, son of
the above, besides greatly assisting: his
father, was the constructor of the Monk-
wearmouth Docks, and the Clifton Sus-
pension Bridge was built from his de-
siems. He was the engineer of the Great
Western Railway, and the "broad gauge"
was due to his efforts. He designed the
Grcnt Britain, the first large iron ship, and
the first large ship to use the screw propeller;
his last great work was the ill-fated Great
Eastern.
Brunelleschi, Filippo (b. 1377, d. 1446),
Florentine architect, a very able gold-
smith and sculptor, was outstripped by
Ghiberti in the competition for the gates
of the Baptistery. Then he turned wholly
to architecture, and was commissioned to
build the cupola of Santa Maria del Fiore,
a work that was all but completed when he
died.
Brunne, Robert of, a monk, who lived in
the reigns of Edward II. and III,, and was
author of the Handlynge Synne.
Bnino, Giordano (b. circa 1550, d. 1600),
Italian philosopher, spent many years in
France, Germany, and England, disputing on
philosophical theories, when he returned to
Italy. He was seized by the Inquisition,
and refusing to recant, per ished at the stake.
Bra
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Brun-EoUet, Antoino (b. 1810, d. 1858), a
Savoyard traveller, as a merchant pene-
trated far into the Soudan, and ascended
the Nile as far as Abyssinia. He stayed
some time at Khartoum, from which he
made expeditions into the neighbouring
country. In 1855 i.e published Le Nil Blanc
et ie tioudane. He died in Khartoum.
Brunswick, Dukes of—
(1) Frederick William of Brunswick-
Wolfenbiittel (*. 1771, d. 1815) was the
fourth son of Charles, who died in 1806, and
commanded the allies in their first attack
against France. He served under Bliicher
in the Jena campaign in 1805, and took a
prominent and honourable part in the dis-
astrous Wagram campaign. He was com-
pelled finally to fly to England. He
returned to his dominion of Brunswick on
the occasion of the general uprising against
Napoleon in 1813, and commanding the
Brunswick troops at Quatre Bras on June
16th, 1815, he, " foremost fighting, fell."
(2) Charles (b. 1801, d. 1873), the eldest
sou of Frederick William. A few years
after his accession to the throne of Bruns-
wick, his subjects, weary of his extrava-
gances, rose against him and he fled, the
next year to be deposed by the German
Diet.
(3) William (b. 1803, d. 1884), the
younger son, was elected to the throne from
which Charles had been deposed. He died
unmarried.
Brjnswick-Lunebourg-Bevern, Augustus
William (b. 1715, d. 1781), one of Frederick
the Great's generals, served in the first
Silesian war, and during the Seven Years'
war won the battle of Eeichenberg. He
was constantly employed by Frederick in
important commands till he was defeated
in 1757 and taken prisoner. On his release
he was sent to Stettin, but was recalled to
active service later.
Brunswick-Lunebourg', Charles William
Ferdinand, Sovereign Duke of (6. 1735, d.
1806), nephew of the preceding, greatly
distinguished himself in the Seven Years'
war, and in 1787 commanded the Prussian
expedition into Holland, and was in 1792
appointed to the command of the allied
forces in the invasion of France. This
campaign was abortive, and in 1794 he re-
signed. In 1806 he was defeated by Napo-
leon, and died of wounds received at Auer-
stadt. He was the father of Queen Caroline
of England.
Brunswick - Wolfenbiittel, Ferdinand,
Duke of (b. 1721, d. 1792), known as Prince
Ferdinand, served in the Prussian army
during the first Silesian war, and the Seven
Years' war : aad in 1 758 was appointed com-
mander of £he English forces in Germany.
In 1759 he won the battle of Minden.
Brutus, Decimus Junius Albums (d. 43
B.C.), one of the assassins of Julius Caesar.
After the murder of the consul, he was
besieged in Mutina by Mark Antony, but
drove off the enemy. Crossing into Mace-
donia he was betrayed into the hands of
Antony and put to death.
Brutus, Lucius Junius, a Roman consul.
Tarquinius Superbus. having put the f«iher
and brother of Brutus to death, Brutus
feigned madness, until the rape of Lucretia,
when he excited the populace to insurrec-
tion, and drove Tarquimus from the city.
He and Collatinus were appointed consuls
together, and in this capacity Brutus
ordered the execution of his own sons for
complicity in a conspiracy. He was killed
by Tarquinius' son.
Brutus, Marcus Junius (b, 85 B.C., d.
42 B.C.), the nephew of Cato of Utica,
sided with Pompey against Caesar, and after
the battle of Pharsalia retired to literary
pursuits. Caesar made him governor of
Cisalpine Gaul, but he joined the con-
spirators who murdered the consul. After
the assassination he collected troops in
Macedonia, and assuming the title of
Imperator, ravaged Rhodes and Lydia. In
42 B.C. he and Cassius were defeated by
Octavius Caesar and Mark Antony, when
Brutus committed suicide.
Bryant, William Cullen (b. 1794, d.
1878), American poet and historian, when
only nineteen published his poem Thana-
topsis, which attracted much attention ; and
in 1825 he became editor of several peri-
odicals in New York. Having twice visited
Europe, he wrote his Letters of a Traveller
in Europe and America; for more than
thirty years he acted as editor of the New
York Evening Post, and wrote much poetry,
as well as many other prose works.
Bryce, Professor James, M.P. (b. 1838),
after a distinguished career at Oxford,
was in 1870 appointed regius professor of
civil law. He was returned M.P. for
Tower Hamlets in 1880, for Aberdeen in
1885, and in 1886 became under- secretary
for Foreign Affairs in Mr. Gladstone's
government, and Chancellor of the Duchy
of Lancaster in 1892.
Brydges, Sir Samuel Egerton (b. 1762, d.
1837), English writer and antiquary, in
1790 induced his brother to claim the
succession to the title of Duke of Chandos.
The claim was disallowed by the House of
Lords, and Brydges impeached this decision
in numerous publications. From 1812 to
1818 he was M.P. for Maidstoue ; and in
1824 he was created a baronet. He left
many works in verse, fiction, politics, and
archaeology.
Buc
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Buch, Leopold von (b. 1774, d. 1853),
German geographer and geologist, by
Humboldt was regarded as the greatest
geologist of his time. He travelled, study-
ing, through Styria, Auvergne, Italy, the
coast of Scotland, Norway, Lapland, and
Germany, and was the author of many
valuable works embodying his researches.
Buchanan, George (b. 1506, d. 1582), Scot-
tish poet and historian, after an unsettled
life, spent partly in France, where he was
converted to Protestantism, became pro-
fessor of Latin at Bordeaux, and in 1547 at
Coimbra. After a time he was imprisoned
by the Inquisition, and one of the penalties
imposed upon him was to translate the
Psalms into Latin verse, a task which he
performed with great success. After acting
as tutor to the Comte de Brissac's son, he
became in 1562 classical tutor to Mary
Queen of Scots, and on her marriage wrote
an Epithalamium. After Mary's marriage
with Bothwell, Buchanan joined Murray's
party, and was made a lord of the privy
council and privy seal. In 1570 he was
appointed tutor to James VI. of Scotland.
He wrote in his last years A History of
Scotland, and a treatise De Jure Hegni
apud Scotos, which in 1683 was burned at
Oxford.
Buchanan, James (b. 1791, d. 1868),
fifteenth president of the United States,
elected to the state legislature in 1814, in
1820 became a member of Congress, and
in 1833 was elected a senator. He was
minister at the court of St. James's from
1853 to 1856, and in the latter year, as the
democratic and pro-slavery candidate, was
elected president. After his retirement in
1860 he took no further part in public life.
Buchanan, Robert (b. 1841), playwright
and novelist. His first book, Undertones,
was published in 1860. Since then he has
produced The Shadow of the Sword, The
New Abelard, and God and the Man
among novels, and several plays and adapta-
tions. He has also contributed largely to
periodical literature.
Biichner, Friedrich Carl Christian Ludwig
(b. 1S24), materialistic philosopher, his
book on Force and Matter (Kraft und Staff,
1855), an exposition of extreme material-
istic views, created great interest through-
out Europe. He is the author of many
philosophical works, some of them popular
expositions of the ultimate theories of
Darwin, Haeckel, and Huxley.
Buckingham, George Villiers, Duke of
(b. 1592, d. 1628), the celebrated courtier,
was taken into favour by James I., who
rapidly promoted him to the highest
dignities and titles. la 1623 he accompanied
Prince Charles to Spain, when he 'Trent to
woo the Infanta ; and his behaviour caused
the breaking" off of the match and a war
with Spain. He was the chief adviser of
Charles I. in his disputes with Parliament,
which would have impeached the favourite
had it not been dissolved. In 1627 he com-
manded an unsuccessful expedition to the
Isle of Rhe; and in 1628 he was stabbed at
Portsmouth while organising a second ex-
pedition.
Buckingham, George, Duke of (b. 1627,
d. 1689), son of the preceding, fought on
the Royalist side during the Civil war, but
after the battle of Worcester he fled to the
Continent. In 1657 he returned and
married Lord Fairfax's daughter, and
under Charles II. was given several
appointments. He was one of the famous
" Cabal" ministry, and with them was dis-
missed in 1674.
Buckingham, James Silk (b. 1786, d.
1855), traveller and politician, after an
adventurous life went to India, and es-
tablished a newspaper in Calcutta, which
was suppressed by the East India Company.
Returning to England he lectured against
the company's monopoly, and his losses
were made good by public subscriptions.
He established the Athenaum and wrote
many books of travel, and from 1832 to
1837 sat for Sheffield in Parliament.
Buckland, Frank Trevelyan (b. 1826, d.
1880), surgeon, was a naturalist at heart,
and his appointment in 1866 as in-
spector of fisheries gave him every
opportunity for gratifying his intense love
of animals and their habits. In his
official capacity he visited nearly every part
of the coast and all the salmon rivers. He
strove vigorously to acclimatise foreign
animals suitable for food or sport in this
country, and his house was a museum of
natural history, mostly living. The results
of his researches are to be found scattered
about ^in innumerable short papers in the
magazines and newspapers, in his Curiosities
of Natural History, and in the memories of
many warm friends and admirers.
Buckland, William, F.R.S. (b. 1784, d.
1856), the founder of English geology,
was a fellow of Corpus Christi, Oxon, and
a canon of Christ Church. In 1819 he
occupied the newly formed readership of
geology in Oxford, and in this position
conducted researches on the palaeontology
of the Reading beds, and the formation "of
the coal and the glacial period strata. He
accumulated the collection known as the
"Buckland Museum," Oxford, and was
the author of the Bridgewater treatise on
Geology and Mineralogy with reference to
Natural Theology, which was afterwards
revised by his son.
Buckle, George Earle (b. 1854), was a
Bac
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Bui
scholar of Winchester College and New
College, Oxon. He obtained a double first in
classics and history, and was elected a
fellow of All Souls'. Adopting journalism
as a profession, he became first attached to
the Manchester Guardian, and afterwards
wrote for the Times. On the death of Pro-
fessor Chenery in 1884 he became the editor
of the Times, having for some time occupied
the post of assistant editor.
Buckle, Henry Thomas (*. 1821, d. 1862),
historian. In 1857 the first volume of his
History of Civilisation in Europe appeared,
and was very well received. The second
volume, published in 1861, found too an ap-
preciative public, but in 13* >2 his health
gave way, and he died leaving his work un-
completed.
Buckstone, John Baldwin (b. 1802, d.
1879), actor and playwright, was the author
of many plays of the well-kuowii Adelphi
type, The Green Bushes and The Flowers of
the Forest among them. He was the author
too of many farces and " genre " pieces, of
which class Good for Nothing and The Rough
Diamond are excellent specimens.
Buffet, Louis Joseph (b. 1818), French
statesman, returned for his department of
the Vosges in 1848, became minister of com-
merce under Louis Napoleon. Having
retired from public life for some years, he
became in 1870 minister of finance, and
in 1873 president of the Assembly.
Buffon, Jean Louis Leclerc, Comte de
(b. 1707, d. 1788), French naturalist,
after a tour in Italy and England
became known for his scientific investiga-
tions, and was admitted to the Academy
of Sciences. In 1739 he was appointed
intendant of the Jardin du Roi at Paris,
and in 1749 published the first volume of his
monumental work, L'Histoire Naturelle,
which secured to him a place in the front
rank of men of science. In 1753 he was
admitted to the Academy, and in 1776 he
was created a count. Buffon only completed
the mineralogical and a portion of tae zoo-
logical section of his Histoire Naturelle ;
but the work was accompanied by several
supplements, including his Epochs of Nature.
Bugeaud de la Piconnerie, Thomas
Eobert, DucD'Isly (b. 1784, d. 1849), French
general, rose rapidly during the Napoleonic
campaigns, and after Waterloo won a brilliant
victory at L'Hopital, on the Isere, over
a greatly superior force of Austrians. After
the 1830 revolution he entered the Chamber
of Deputies, and in 1836 went to Algeria in
command of the French forces. In 1841 he
was appointed governor- general of Algeria,
and for his successful campaigns against
Morocco was created marshal of France and
Due D'Isly. He died of cholera.
Bugennagen, Johann (b. 1485, d. 1558),
German scholar and reformer, a convert of
Luther, whom he aided in his translation
of the Bible. In 1537 he organised the
church in Denmark.
Bugge, Thomas (b. 1740, d. 1815), Danish
astronomer, was professor of astronomy
at Copenhagen, and perpetual secretary
of the Society of Sciences in Denmark!
He left much valuable writing.
Bulgaria, Alexander I., Prince of. [See
Alexander.]
Bull, John (b. 1563, d. 1628), English
musical composer of some celebrity, in 1591
was appointed organist of the Chapel
Royal ; in 1595, professor of music at
Gresham College, and later organist to
James L In 1617 he went to Holland,
where he remained till his death. He is
supposed to be the composer of the National
Anthem.
Bull, Ole Bornemann (b. 1810, d. 1880),
Norwegian violinist, and follower of
Paganini.
Buller, Sir Redvers (b. 1839), soldier,
first saw service in the China war of
1860. In 1870 he took part in the Red
River expedition, and in 1874 in the
Ashantee war. In 1879 he was sent on
special service to the Cape, held command
of the Frontier Light Horse in the Kaffir
war of 1878-9, and served with great gal-
lantry in the Zulu war. He was present at
Tel-el-Kebir, at El Teb and Tamai, and
accompanied the Nile expedition of 1884.
In 1890 he succeeded Lord Wolseley as
ad j utant - general.
Billow, Friedrich Wilhelm von (b. 1775, d.
1816), Prussian general, obtained field-
marshal's rank in 1813, and by the victory at
Lukan saved Berlin from the French. His
victories at Grossbeeren and Dennewitz over
Oudinot and Ney respectively twice again
saved the Prussian capital at critical mo-
ments. He was present at Leipzig, and in
command of the right wing of the allies he
occupied the Low Countries. In 1814 he
marched into France, and he was in com-
mand during the Waterloo campaign.
Billow, Hans Guido von (b. 1830). pianist,
conductor and composer, best known for his
adherence to Wagiier and Wagncnan theo-
ries. Of his own productions Xirwana is
the most distinguished, but he is more re-
markable for his transcriptions of Wagner's
scores.
BuTwer, Sir Henry Ernest Gascoigne (b.
1836), after filling several less important
positions in 1871, was in 1875 appointed
lieut.- governor of Natal. He protested
against the annexation of the Transvaal,
Bui
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Buo
and against the necessity of coercing the
Zulu king (Cetewayo). His appointment
ended in 1880, before the outbreak of war
with the Boers, but in 1882 he was re-
appointed governor of Natal. In 1885 he
was appointed lord high commissioner of
Cyprus.
Bulwer, Lytton. [See Lytton.]
Bulwer, Sir William Henry Lytton Earle
(l>. INI >!,</. KS 72), diplomatist, brother of Lord
Lytton, in 1843 was sent as ambassador
to Madrid, and remained till 1848, when
he was ordered to leave by Narvaez.
He next went to "Washington, where
he conuluded the Bulwer-Clayton Treaty.
Fr >m 18.32 to 1855 he was envoy extra-
ordinary to Tuscany ; and from 1857
to 1865 ambassador to the Porte. He sat
in Parliament for many years, and just
before bis death he was raised to the
peerage under the title of Baron "Calling
and Bulwer.
Bunsen, Christian Charles Josias, Baron
von (b. 1791, d. 1860), philosopher and
diplomatist, educated at Gottingen, be-
came attached to the German diplomatic
service in Home. Here, in addition to his
scholarly researches, he devoted himself to
the difficult task of keeping peace between
the Roman Catholics and Protestants of his
own country. In 1838 he came to England,
where he was some years later appointed
ambassador. In 1854 he resigned his post
and retired practically into private life at
Heidelberg. He was the author of several
important philosophical works.
Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm (b. 1811),
German chemist, in 1852 accepted the
post of professor at Heidelberg, where
he constructed his great laboratory, and
founded a school of chemistry. He
has conducted innumerable important
scientific researches, and has invented
many special forms of apparatus. His
most important publications are a Treatise
on Gas Analysis and Spectroscope Analy-
sis, but the mere list of hi a papers
forms a large catalogue. He has received
every distinguished scientific honour, and is
one of the eight foreign associates of the
French Academy.
Bunting, Edward (b. 1773, d. 1843), an
Irish musician and organist, on the oc-
casion of the meeting of the Irish bards in
1792 was commissioned to write down
their melodies, and he afterwards went
up and down the country collecting
the airs of old harpists and minstrels. In
1840 he published the work in the compila-
tion of which so much of his life had been
spent, The Ancient Music of Ireland.
Bunyan, John (b. 1628, d. 1688), author
of The I'll// rim's 7Vr,///v.w, was a tinker by
trade, belonging to a Bedfordshire family.
In 165(3 he Kigali to pr-;i.'h in Bedford us a
Baptist, his sermons hciiig extremely popu-
lar. In 1660 he was committed to .Bedford
gaol for his religious teaching, and he re-
mained there for twelve years. During this
period he wrote his Grace Abounding and
T'i« Holy City. In 1672 he was released, and
resumed his preaching before great crowds.
Idiring a second imprisonment, in 1675, he
wn/te The I'dgrini's Progress. He built a
meeting house in Bedford, and annually
visited the Baptist congregation in London,
where he died. The Holy War was written
in 1682.
Buonarroti, Filippo (b. 1761, d. 1837), an
Italian patriot, at the outbreak of the
French revolution went to Paris, and
took an active part in affairs, opposing the
usurpation of Napoleon. After suffering
some imprisonment, he became in 1830 head
of the " Veri Italiani " party in Paris.
Burbage, Richard (b. circa 1557, d. 1619),
the foremost actor of the Elizabethan stage,
and the original performer of Richard ILL,
Hamlet, and Othello, etc.
Burckhardt, John Ludwig (b. 1784, d.
1817), one of the early Eastern travellers, was
Swiss by birth, German by education, and
English by adoption. He travelled as the
envoy of an English association for pro-
moting African discovery. The East having
attracted him, he became Egyptian by habit
and language, travelling as an Eastern
merchant. He was the first European to
visit Mecca. His valuable Arabic Proverbs,
reprinted in 1875, are well known.
Burdett, Sir Francis (b. 1770, d. 1844),
politician, was famous for his advanced
views, which in 1810, on the occasion of a
letter to his constituents commenting on the
right of Parliament to commit for libel,
resulted in the issue of a warrant by the
Speaker for his arrest. In 1819 he was, for
a like outspoken expression of opinion, fined
and imprisoned.
Burdett - Coutts, Angelina Georgina,
Baroness (b. 1814), the daughter of Sir
Francis Burdett, succeeded in 1837 to the
great wealth of her grandfather, Mr. Thomas
Coutts. The Shoe-black Brigade, the Nova
Scotia Gardens, model lodging houses, and
Columbia Market are of her foundation. The
poor and the distressed at home and abroad
have had a constant benefactress in her ; the
East- End weavers, the Irish fishermen of
Cape Clear, the Turkish peasantry after the
Russo-Turkish war, are among those who
have received her help. In 1871 the Queen
made Miss Coutts a peeress, and in 1881 the
baroness married Mr. William Ashmead-
Bartlett.
Bur
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Bur
Buren, Van. [See Van Buren,]
Burger, Gottfried August (b. 1747, d.
1794), German lyric poet; Lenore and The
Wild Huntsman are well-known ballads of
his.
Surges, William, A.R.A. (b. 1827, d. 1881),
architect, and a master of the Gothic style.
The rebuilding of Cork cathedral and the
speech-room at Harrow were after his
designs.
Burgess, John Bagnold (b. 1830), artist,
was elected an associate in 1877, and is best
known as a painter of Southern and Eastern
subjects.
Burgess, Thomas (b. 1756, d. 1837),
English prelate, was preferred from the
prebendary at Durham to the bishopric of
St. David's, where he founded and liberally
endowed the college of Lampeter. In 1805 he
was translated to the bishopric of Salisbury.
Burghleigh, William Cecil, Lord. [See
Cecil.]
Burgoyne, John (b. 1730, d. 1792), an
English general and dramatic writer, in
17(31 entered Parliament, and in 1772 moved
a vote of censure on Lord Clive. In 1775
he was sent to command an expedition from
Canada against the Americans, and was
compelled to surrender at Saratoga. On re
turning to England the king refused to see
him, whereupon he threw up all his appoint-
ments and joined the opposition. He was
given further commands al terwards, but re-
tired from active service in 1784.
Burke, Edmund (b. 1728, d. 1797), states-
man and orator, an Irishman by birth,
graduated at Trinity College, Dublin. Com-
ing to London, he attracted attention by
his essays on the SubJii,n> and Beautiful, and
devoted himself to literature, founding in
1759 The Annual Register. In 1761 he be-
came private secretary to Hamilton, the new
chief secretary for Ireland ; and served Lord
Rockingham in the same capacity when that
nobleman became prime minister. He was
returned to Parliament for Wendover, and
his speeches on American affairs created a
great sensation in the House of Commons.
His position in political life was raised still
higher by the pamphlets which he wrote on
current questions. Returned for Malton,
he produced in 1780 his great plan of eco-
nomical reform ; and in 1782 he became
paymaster under Lord Rockingham's go-
vernment. He again took office in the
Duke of Portland's coalition ministry, when
he made his famous speech on the India
bill. In the impeachment of Warren Has-
tings Burke played a leading part, his
opening speech extending over four days.
The outbreak of the French revolution
was the occasion of one of his finest efforts
of oratory. Burke' 8 attitude in this matter \
severed his friendship with Fox, and he
seceded from the Whig party. In 1794 he
retired from parliamentary life, though he
continued to produce his pamphlets on
political affairs.
Burke, Sir John Bernard (6. 1815), Irish
Herald, Ulster king-of-arms in 18.53 ; author
of several valuable works on genealogical
subjects.
Burka, Robert O'Hara (b. 1812, d. 1861),
explorer, perished with Wills in an expedition
across Australia.
Burke, William (d. 1828), a notorious
criminal, who, with Hare, murdered many
persons in order to provide "subjects" for
the Edinburgh surgeons.
Bunnali, The Kings of—
(1) Mentaragyi (d. 1819). His reign is
remarkable for the first dispute with the
British, amicably settled by General Erskine.
(2) Phagyi Dau (dethroned 1837) was
involved in war with Britain in 1824, who
conquered Aracan, which was ceded as the
price of peace.
(3) Kpunboug-men (d. 1846), usurped the
throne in 1837. He was violently anti-
English.
(4) Pagan-men (dethroned 1853), his
son, imitated his father's policy, and pre-
cipitated the second Burmese war in 1852.
It resulted in the annexation of Pegu, and
a revolution ended the king's reign.
(5) Mendou-men (d. 1878). At first dis-
posed to be hostile towards the Indian govern-
ment, the king in 1862 consented to a treaty
(renewed 1867). British travellers, by these
conventions, were allowed to pass through
Burmah.
(6) Theebaw (b. 1859, deposed 1885)
signalised his accession to the throne by
massacring eighty-six of his relations.
Affairs shortly became unbearable at
Maudalay, and in 1880 a war seemed im-
minent. In 1882 he made a fruitless
attempt to negotiate a treaty, but the nego-
tiations broke off. In spite of a continued
weakening of his position, owing to internal
rebellions, he massacred some two hundred
of his subjects in 1884, and in 1885 began to
direct aggressive operations against British
commerce. An expedition was sent against
him in 1889, and he was deposed and
deported to India.
Burnaby, Frederick Gustavus (*. 1842, d.
1885), British officer, and an enterprising
and daring traveller, was best known
from his ride to Khiva on horseback. He
was attached to the expedition to the
Eastern Soudan, and fought and was
wounded at El Teb. He was killed at Abu
Klea, the first battle of the Nile expedition,
Burnand, Francis Cowley (b. 1837),
journalist, barrister by profession, became
Bur
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Bur
A writer of farce and humorous literature
by choice. In 1880 he succeeded Mr. Tom
Taylor as editor of Punch. Happy Thoughts
are among his happiest efforts ; and the
farces, Ixion, Black-eyed Susan, and the
plays, Betsy, The Colonel, and Artful Cards,
among the most successful of his dramatic
works.
Burne- Jones, Edward, (6. 1833), painter,
early fell under the influence of the pre-
Bapnaelite Brotherhood, and his paintings
are marked by the medievalism and realism
of that school. He was elected an associate
of the Royal Academy in 1885.
Burnes, Sir Alexander (*. 1805, d. 1841),
an explorer of Central Asia, entered the
service of the East India Company at
sixteen, and became known as an explorer
of the north-west frontier. In 1836 he
undertook a mission to Cabul, and remained
at his post till assassinated.
Burnet, Gilbert (b. 1643, d. 1715),
bishop of the English Church, in 1669
became professor of divinity at Glas-
gow, and having declined a Scottish
bishopric, came to London, publishing in
1679 the first volume of his History of the
Reformation in England. Charles II. offered
him the see of Chichester, but he refused,
and was soon after dismissed from his offices.
Under James II. he went to the Continent,
and became a chief adviser of William of
Orange. He returned to England with
"William, and was ordained bishop of Salis-
bury.
Burnet, John, F.R.S.
painter and engraver,
capacity he is chiefly
of the engravings of
are by him. His most
was (jreenwich Hospital
a companion to WilMe's
(b. 1784, d. 1868),
It is in the latter
known, and most
Wilkie's pictures
successful painting
and Naval Heroes,
Chelsea Pensioners.
Burnett, Frances Hodgson (b. 1849),
American authoress, became first known as
a contributor to the American magazines,
and most of her sketches and stories,
including That Lass of Lowrie's, and one
fine novel, Through One Administration,
have fceen republished from them. Among
othei works are the Little Lord Fauntle-
jY>y, A Fair Barbarian, and the drama,
Esmtralda.
Burney, Frances. [See D' Arblay.]
Burnouf, Eugene (b. 1801, d. 1852), an
eminent Orientalist, was an authority on
the Zend language, and translated several
important Buddhist manuscripts.
Burns, Robert (b. 1759, d. 1796), Scottish
poet, was the son of an Ayrshire farmer,
and with his brothers worked on the
farm. Hi* first volume of poems was
published in 1786, and attracted much
attention, Burns being invited to Edinburgh
and made much of by literary society. At
this tune he was on the point of emigrating
to Jamaica. In 1788 he married Jean
Armour, and in 17SJ became an excise
officer, as well as a farmer in Dumfriesshire.
In 1791, farming not being profitable, he re-
moved to Dumfries, where he continued his
post in the excise, and wrote poems for the
Edinburgh publishers. The irrsgularities
which had marked his earlier life returned
in his later days, and accelerated his death.
Burnside, Ambrose Everett (b. 1824, d.
1881), general in the U.S. army, early
distinguished himself in border warfare,
and in the Civil war was present at the
battles of Bull Run, South Mountain, and
Antietam. He was defeated by the Con-
federates at Petersburg, but held command
of the 9th army corps, under Grant, until
Lee's surrender.
Burr, Aaron (b. 1756, d. 1836), a vice-
president of the United States, distin-
guished himself in the war of independence.
In 1807 he was arrested on a charge of con-
spiracy. It was supposed that he aimed to
separate the Western States from the Union
and annex them to Mexico, but he was ac-
quitted. Coming to Europe, he was ordered
to leave England for endeavouring to pro-
mote a filibustering expedition _ against
Mexico. He returned to America in 1812,
and spent the rest of his lif e in retirement.
Burritt, Elihu (b. 1811, d. 1879), an
eminent American peace advocate. A black-
smith by trade, he devoted himself to the
study of languages, acquiring a mastery of
twenty-three. In 1845 he visited England,
and established his "Leagues of Universal
Brotherhood," and he was mainly instru-
mental in summoning several peace con-
gresses. He was appointed U.S. consul at
Birmingham, and wrote many works.
Burrows, Sir George (*. 1800, d. 1887), a
distinguished physician, was educated at
Caius College. Cambridge, of which college
he became fellow and mathematical tutor.
He was five times president of the Royal
College of Physicians, and in 1873 became
one of the physicians-in-ordinary to the
Queen. He is the author of several medical
works.
Burton, John Hill (b. 1809, d. 1881),
historian, from 1833 a contributor to the
Westminster and Edinburgh Reviews^ and
Blackwood's Magazine, 'his first inde-
pendent work was the Life and Correspon-
dence of David Hume. The main work of his
life was The History of Scotland from the
Invasion of Agricola to the Revolution of
1688. In 1878 he was appointed historio-
grapher royal for Scotland^
Bur
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Bur. on, Sir Eichard Francis (b. 1821, d.
1890), traveller, linguist, and author, in
1842 entered the East India Company's
service, and in ludia explored the Neilgherry
Hills, and acquired an extensive knowledge
of the Eastern languages. He visited, dis-
guised as a dervish, Medina and Mecca. In
1858, with Speke, he discovered Lake Tan-
ganyika, and later explored the highlands
of Brazil He visited besides Utah, Palestine,
Fernando Po, and the Gold Coast, wherever
he went extending our geographical know-
ledge and increasing his store or information.
He has written several books of travel, and
a most scholarly translation of the Arabian
Nights.
Burton, Robert (b. 1576, d. 1640),
English clergyman and writer, celebrated as
the author ol The Anotomy of Melancholy.
His life was one of retirement, spent at las
vicarage in Leicestershire or at Oxford.
His book appeared in lb'21.
Busby, Richard (b. 1<>06, d. 1695), head-
master of Westminster School, 1640.
Bussy, Charles Joseph Patissier, Marquis de
(b. 1718, d. 1785), French officer, celebrated
for his connection with India ; his influence
"became paramount in the Deccan by his
services to the Nizam Salabout Jung, whom j
he had placed on the throne. The Nizam I
attempted once to dismiss him, but was com- j
pelled to seek a reconciliation; and Bussy ;
would have been able to assert French pre-
dominance over a great part of India had he
not been recalled to Poncli cherry. In 1760
he was taken prisoner by the English, but
in 1783 he returned to India, and com-
manded the French forces there till his death.
Bute, John Stuart, third Earl of (b. 1713,
d. 1792), was entrusted with the education
of George III., on whose accession he
became a secretary of state. In 1762 he
formed a ministry, which proved highly un-
popular, and only lasted a short time.
Butler, Elizabeth, Lady (b. 1843), an
artist, as Miss Thompson became known for
her series of brilliant paintings of military
subjects. Her first picture at the Royal
Academy was Missing (1873), and it was
followed by the Roll Call (1874), Quatre
JSras, JSalaclava, and others. She married
Colonel Sir W. F. Butler in 1877.
Butler, Joseph (b. 1692, d. 1752),
English divine, and celebrated as the author
of The Analogy of Religion, Natural and
Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of
Nature. After ordination he became
preacher to the Rolls, and in 1725 was
preferred to the benefice of Stanhope, where
for some years he lived in close retirement,
engaged in the preparation of his great
work. In 1733 he became chaplain to
the Lord Chancellor, and a prebend in
Rochester, and in 1738 was ordained
bishop of Bristol. In 1750 he was trans-
ferred to the see of Durham, where he ex-
cited some accusations of Popish tendencies.
Butler, Samuel (b. 1612, d. 1680), English
satirist, in his seventeenth year became
attached to the household of the Earl
of Kent, when he frequently attended
meetings at the house of a Sir Samuel Luke,
a strict Puritan and Parliamentarian. The
experiences of this time furnished him with
the material for bis famous work, Hudibras,
the first part of which appeared in 1663, and
achieved the widest popularity. Two other
parts of the work appeared at intervals, but
of Butler's life during that time little is
known.
Butt, Isaac, Q.C., M.P. (b. 1812, d.
1879), the leader of the Irish Home Rule
party from 1872 until he was superseded
by Parnell. He first entered Parliament
in 1852 as a politician of emphatically
Conservative opinions. He retired from
Parliament for six years, but at the
end of that time reappeared (representing
Limerick) as the head of the knot of Pro-
testants who in 1872 started the Home Rule
movement. Beyond a speech of polished
oratory at the beginning of each session in
exposition of his party's demands he proved
a supine leader. A more determined sec-
tion, however, headed by Parnell, ousted
him from his leadership, and his career,
honourable as it undoubtedly was, ended in
something very like failure.
Button, Sir Thomas, an English navigator
of the time of James I., in 1812 was
sent by the merchants of London on an ex-
pedition to the Arctic regions, and he was
the first to cross the entire extent of
Hudson's Bay, and to sight the Nelson
river.
Buxhowden, Frederick William, Count of
(6. 1750, d. 1811), Russian general, greatly
distinguished himself in the Swedish and
Polish wars, and was made governor of
Poland. He had to fly to Q-ermany, having
lost the Emperor Paul's favour, but he was
restored to his honours by Alexander. He
held important commands during the French
wars, and later conquered F1.L 'nd.
Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell (*. 1786, d.
1845), became known in 1816 as the
champion of the Spitalfields poor, and
shortly afterwards was associated in an
inquiry into the state of prisons, which
ultimately led to all the great improvements
in gaol management. He was the successor
of Wilberforce in his efforts to secure the
emancipation of the slaves of the West
Indies. He entered Parliament in 1818,
and was created a baronet in 1840.
Byn
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Cab
Byng, Sir George, Viscount Torrington
(b. 1663, d. 1733), a British admii-al, alter
much distinguished service commanded
the fleet Avhich captured Gibraltar, aud took?
part in the battle off Malaga. In 1718 he
was appointed to the command of the
Mediterranean fleet, and totally defeated
the Spaniards, forcing them to quit Sicily.
On his return he was made a peer, and in
1727 appointed first lord of the Admiralty.
Byng, John (6. 1704, d. 1757), British
admiral and son of the preceding, in 1747
was appointed to the command of the
Mediterranean fleet, and in 1756 was
sent out with a small fleet to relieve
Minorca, which was threatened by a power-
ful French fleet. "When he arrived the
French had landed in force, and it was
decided to retire in face of the great
superiority of the enemy. However, an
indecisive action was fought ; and for this
Byng was court-martialled on his return
and shot on his own quarter-deck.
Byron, George Noel Gordon, Lord (b.
1788, d. 1824), poet, his early years were
spent in Scotland, and in 1798 he succeeded
his grand-uncle the " wicked Lord Byron."
He was educated at Harrow and Cambridge,
leaving the university in 1808. In 1807 he
published Hours of Idleness, and in 1809 he
left England to travel in Eastern Europe.
In 1812 the first two cantos of Chtlde
JIarold were published, at once establishing
Byron's reputation. Between this and 1815
several other poems were published, and
Byron took a fitful interest in politics. In
1815 he married Miss Milbaiike. The
union proved most unfortunate, and in 1816
they were separated, and Byron again left
England. He settled in Switzerland, where
he wrote several of his poems, including
Manfred and several cantos of Don Juan.
In 1819 he made the acquaintance of the
Countess Guiccioli, with whom he lived in
Italy for more than three years, his poetical
productions during that period being
numerous. In 1823 he sailed from Genoa
in an English ship freighted with ams and
ammunition to help the Greeks. He
reached Missolonghi next year, and ob-
tained considerable influence among the
patriots. But he was seized with fever and
died in April of that year.
Byron, Henry James (b. 1835, d. 1884),
actor and playwright, his earliest dramatic
effort was a burlesque of Fra Diavalo, and
was the first of a number of such pieces.
After a time he turned his attention to
comedy, and produced Not Such a Fool as
He Looks, and the most successful of modern
comedies, Our Boys. Several of his pieces
were written specially for Mr. Toole, and
include A Fool and His Money and The
Upper Crust.
Byron, John (b. 1723, d. 1786), British
admiral, and grandfather of the poet. He
sailed as a midshipman in the Wager in
Anson's expedition round the world in
1740. The Wager was lost, and the officers
and crew endured great sufferings in South
America, and the surviving remnant did not
reach home for five years. Byron published
an account of these adventures. In 1764
he was sent on a voyage of discovery to the
South Seas ; in 1769 he was appointed
governor of Newfoundland, and in 1778
fought an indecisive action with a French
fleet off Grenada. He was known as " Foul
Weather Jack," owing to his ill-luck La
encountering heavy gales.
Caamano, Jose* M. Placido (J. 1838),
president of Ecuador, banished in 1882 for
conspiring against the dictator -general, or-
ganised a revolutionary expedition in Lima,
and returned to Ecuador in 1883 ; assisted
in the storming of Guayaquil, was elected
president of the Republic in 1884, and in
that capacity did much to improve the in-
ternal condition of the country.
Cabakdji (d. 1808), Turkish commander,
in 1807 led his troops to Constantinople,
deposed the Sultan Selim, and proclaimed
Mustapha in his stead.
Cabanel, Alexandre (b. 1825, d. 1889),
French painter, began to exhibit in 1844 ;
in 1868 was appointed professor of paint-
ing in the Schx>l of Art, and taught with
success. His earlier works are chiefly on
scriptural subjects ; later he painted por-
traits and scenes from mythology.
Cabanls, Pierre Jean George (b. 1757, d.
1808), physician, man of letters, and philo-
sophical writer, friend of Mirabeau, whose
political aims he shared. His chief work ia
Des Rapports du Physique et du Moral de
VHomme.
Cabarrus, Franqois, Comte de (J. 1752, d.
1810), went to Spain in early life, and there
became minister of finance.
Cabasole, Philippe de (b. 1305, d. 1371),
French cardinal, friend of Petrarch, and
papal superintendent of Italy while the
popes resided at Avignon.
Cab
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Cad
Cabel or Kabel, Adrian van der (6. 1631,
d. 1695), Dutch painter, excelled in land-
scapes, sea-pieces, and cattle. His style
somewhat resembles that of Salvator Rosa.
Cabet, Etienne (b. 1788, d. 1S56), founder
of the "Icarians," Communists so-called
from his Utopian Voyage en Icarie, pub-
lished in 1842. In 1848 they made an at-
tempt to realise their ideal in the city of
Nauvoo in Texas, formerly inhabited by
Mormons, Cabet being appointed ruler ; the
settlement did not survive his death.
Cabeza de Vacca, Alvar Nunez, Spanish
traveller, was appointed governor of La
Plata in 1539, and left an account of
Paraguay.
Cabezalerp, Juan Martin de (b. 1633, d.
1673), Spanish historical painter of high
reputation. His chief works are in Madrid,
where he painted for the churches and
convents.
Cable, George "W. (b. 1844), American
author, has written Old Creole Days (1879),
Dr. Sevier (1883), and other novels, giving j
a graphic picture of creole and negro Life.
Cabot, John (b. 1420, d. circa 1498), ori-
ginally a Venetian pilot, settled in Bristol
about 1472, obtained letters patent from
Henry VII. to discover unknown lauds,
sailed with his sons in 1497, and sighted the
coast of Newfoundland or Labrador and
Florida.
Cabot, Sebastian (b. 1473 or 77, d. 1557),
son of the preceding, accompanied his father
in 1497 ; was in the service of Spain from
1512 to 1548, except for a visit to England in
1516-19 ; led an expedition to Brazil in 1526,
and visited the river La Plata, remaining
four years, but failed to effect the conquest
of the country. After his return to Eng-
land he founded the Company of Mer-
chant Adventurers to trade with Russia.
Cabral, Pedro Alvarez (b. circa 1460, d.
circa 1526), Portuguese navigator, in 1500
established a factory at Calicut, and on his
way thither discovered Brazil.
Cabrera, Bernard de (d. 1364), Spanish
statesman, minister of Pedro IV. of Ara-
gon, conquered Majorca, and defeated the
Genoese fleet, but losing favour w.ith the
king, was beheaded.
Cabrera, Don Ramon (6. 1810, d. 1877),
Count de Morella and Duke de la Vit-
toria, entered the Church, but when civil
war broke out, on the death of Ferdinand
yil., in 1833, joined Don Carlos, and dis-
tinguished himself by his cruelty to the
adherents of Christina. Completely defeated
by General Espartero in 1840, and severely
wounded at Pasteral in 1849, he left Spain,
and passed the remainder of his life in
foreign countries.
Cabriilo, Juan Rodriguez (d. 154*.),
Portuguese navigator, discovered Santa
Cruz, Santa Rosa, and other islands.
Caccia, Guglielmo (b. 1568, d. 1625),
Italian fresco-painter, named Moncalvo,
from his place of residence. His masterpiece
is the Deposition from the Cross at Novara.
Other of his works are in Milan and Pa via.
Caccini, Giulio (b. circa 15CO, d. circa
1610), Italian musician, composed several
melodramatic works.
Cada-Mosto, Alvise (Luigi) (b. 1432),
Venetian navigator in the service of the King
of Portugal, explored the west coast of
Africa, discovered the Cape Verde Islands,
and left an account of his voyages.
Cade, Jack (d. 1450), an Irishman who
assumed the name of Mortimer and headed
a rebellion against Lancastrian inisgovern-
ment, probably in favour of the Duke of
York. He defeated the royal forces at
Sevenoaks, marched into London, and
executed Lord Say ; but his followers were
soon dispersed, and he himself slain.
CadeU, Francis (b. 1822, d. 1879), Austra-
lian explorer, in 1850 sailed many hundred
miles along the Murray. In consequence of
his observations the " Murray Steam Xavi-
tation Company " was formed, which has
one much to develop the resources of
Australia.
Cadoc, Saint (d. circa 570), founder of
the Welsh monastery at Llancarvan,
Cadogan, Hon. Henry (b. 1780, d. 1813),
English officer, distinguished himself in the
Peninsular war, and was mortally wounded
at Vittoria.
Cadogan, William, Earl of (b. 1675, d.
1726), English officer, served under Marl-
borough at Blenheim, Ramillies, and else-
where. He was made commander-in-chief
and raised to the peerage by George L, who
employed him as a diplomatist.
Cadoudal, George (b. 1771, d. 1804), a
famous chief of the Chouans, who with the
Vendeans upheld the cause of the royalists.
In 1800 he retired to London, but returning
to excite the royalists, he was accused of
planning Napoleon's death, and executed.
Cadovius or Miiller, John (b. 1650, d.
1725), learned native of Friesland, authoi
of the valuable Memorials Lingwx Frisicet
Antiques.
Cadroe, Scottish saint of the 10th cen-
tury, studied at Armagh, and journeyed
Cad
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CCES
through England to Gaul, where he became
abbot of Wassor on the Meuse, and St.
Felix, near Metz.
Cadvan, Welsh saint of the 6th century,
founder and first abbot of a monastery on
Bardsey island. Also founded the churches
of Llaugadvan, in Montgomeryshire, and
Towyn, in Merionethshire. In the latter a
pillar called "St. Cadvan's Stone," with a
Welsh inscription, still remains.
Cadwaladyr, called Vendigaid, or "The
Blessed " (d. 664 ?), a king of the Britons, of
whom little is known. He succeeded his
father, Cadwallawii.
Cadwallader, John (b. Philadelphia circa
1743, d. 1786), American officer, prominent
during the revolutionary war as a leader
of militia and volunteers.
Cadwallon, a prince of North Wales in
the 7th century, was constantly at war
with the Saxons.
Caecilius Statius (d. B.C. 168), a native of
Milan, wrote comedies, of which frag-
ments alone remain.
Csedmon, (d. circa 680), Anglo-Saxon
poet, born in Northumbria, originally a
cow-herd, was inspired in a dream to sing
the story of the creation ; entered the
monastery of Whitby under the Abbess
Hilda, and was taught the story of the Old
and New Testaments, which he paraphrased
in verse. Much of the poetry attributed to
him is now known to be older.
Cs3salpinus, Andrea (b. 1519, d. 1603),
Italian physician, naturalist, and adherent
of Aristotle, whose system he expounded in
his Qtksstiones Peripatetics. He is best
known by his work De Plantis.
Casar, Aquilinus Julius (b. Gratz, Styria,
1720, d. 1792), a learned antiquarian.
Caesar, Caius Julius (b. B.C. 100, ^.B.O. 44),
belonged to an old patrician family, but was
connected with the popular party through
his aunt Julia, who married Marius, and
his wife Cornelia, daughter of the Marian
leader L. Cinna. Proscribed by Sulla in
81 for refusing to put her away, he was
spared through the intercession of "the Vestal
Virgins, but dreading his power, he withdrew
into Asia, where he served under M. Minu-
cius Thermus, earning a civic crown at the
siege of Mitylene. On the death of Sulla
(B.C. 78) he returned to Rome, and prac-
tised as an orator, winning much applause
by his prosecution of Cn. Dolabella for ex-
tortion in his province of Macedonia. To
perfect himself in oratory he repaired to
Rhodes, but on his way there was captured
by pirates. After gaming his liberty by
paying a ransom of fifty talents, he fitted
out a squadron at Miletus, subdued the
pirate fleet, and caused the greater number
of his captives to be crucified at Pergamus.
He now studied for a tune under Apollouius
at Rhodes, and, crossing over to Asia in 74,
collected a body of men on his own respon-
sibility and defeated the general of King
Mithridates. Elected poutitf during his
absence, he returned to Rome, and became
successively quaestor (68), curule aedile (67),
and praetor (62). In 61, as prop rse tor
in Spain, he subdued the Lusitauians,
and on his return was elected consul, and
formed the coalition with Pompey and
Crassus known as the first triumvirate
(60) ; his union with Pompey was further
strengthened by the marriage of the latter
to his daughter Julia. During his consul-
ship an agrarian law and a measure of relief
to the Equites increased his popularity, and
a bill was passed by the people granting
him the two Gauls and Illyricum for five
years (58 — 53) . An interview with Pompey
and Crassus at Luca, in 56, resulted in the
extension of his government over another
five (to the end of 49). During the yeara
58 — 52 he defeated the Helvetii, and drove
Ariovistus over the Rhine (58) ; subdued
the Nervii (57) ; conquered the Gauls of the
North- West, thus completing the subjuga-
tion of the country (56) ; routed two Ger-
man tribes (55) ; twice visited Britain (55,
54), and gained some successes, though no
permanent settlement was made, and quelled
three Gallic insurrections (54, 53, 52) ; the
year 51 was occupied in the pacification of
Gaul. Meanwhile Pompey, whom the
death of Crassus in 54 had left his sole rival,
had attached himself to the senatorial party,
and, with them, had intrigued against him
in his absence. War between the two was
now imminent. Ctesar led his army to
Ravenna ; the senate declared him an
enemy to the state unless he disbanded hia
army by a certain day, and the consuls were
invested with dictatorial power. Caesar
crossed the Rubicon (Jan. 16, 49), marched
victoriously to Rome, and then pursued
Pompey, who had fled to Brundisium and
succeeded in escaping to Greece. After
crossing to Spain and there defeating Pom-
pey's lieutenants, Caesar paid a short visit
to Rome, where the office of dictator had
been conferred upon him in his absence. In
January, 48, Caesar, now appointed consul,
crossed over into Greece, where Pompey
had collected a formidable ai-my, and,
though repulsed at first before Dyrrachium,
defeated Pompey in the decisive battle of
Pharsalia (August, 48), and pursued him
into Egypt, where he was treacherously
assassinated by Ptolemy's generals. Fas-
cinated by Cleopatra, Ptolemy's eister,
Caesar arranged a division of the kingdom
between her and her brother, and then
Caes
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Cai
proceeded to Pontus, where he defeated
Pharnaces, son of Mithridates, in a battle
near Zela. A two months' visit to Rome,
where he had a second time been appointed
dictator, was followed by a brief campaign
against Scipio and Cato in Africa, resulting
iii the complete overthrow of the Pompeian
army at Thapsus (April, 46) ; Cato com-
mitted suicide at Utica. Caesar now felt
himself master of the Roman world, and,
instead of imitating the proscriptions of
Marius and Sulla, determined by a liberal
and magnanimous policy to establish his
government on a firm basis. He celebrated
four triumphs, all for victories over foreign
foes ; made sumptuary enactments : cor-
rected the calendar ; and was meditating
further reforms, when he heard of the re-
volt of the sons of Pompey in Spain. They
were defeated at Munda (March, 45).
Caesar returned in September, and was
nominated consul for ten years, and dictator
and praef ectus morum for life. M. Aiitonius
shared the consulship in 44, and M. Lepidus
was made master of the horse. It is prob-
able, from the schemes he is known to have
planned, that Caesar would have proved a
beneficent ruler if his life had not been
abruptly closed. Whatever may have been
bis motive in inducing Antonius to offer him
the diadem at the feast of Lupercalia, it
aroused the indignation of C. Cassius Lon-
ginus, who, in conjunction with M. Junius
Brutus and others, assassinated him at the
foot of Pompey's statue on the Ides of March
(March 15), in the year 44. Of Caesar's
literary works, the Commentaries, containing
accounts of the Gallic and civil wars, alone
remain.
Casarius (b. 470, d. 542), prelate, who,
as bishop of Aries, presided at several
councils, and did much to restore the dis-
cipline of the Church.
Caffa, Melchior (b. 1631, d. 1687), Italian
sculptor, pupil of Bernini; many of his works
are to be seen in the churches of Rome.
Caffarelli, Fra^ois Marie Auguste(£. 1766,
d. 1849), entered the republican army as a
private dragoon, commanded a division at
Austerlitz, and in 1831 was made a peer of
France.
Caffarelli du Taiga, Louis Marie Joseph
Maximilien (b. 1756, d. 1799), French
officer of engineers, brother of the preced-
ing, served in the campaign under Jourdan
in 1795, and commanded the engineers in
the expedition to Egypt. He was mortally
wounded while conducting the investment
of St. Jean d'Acre.
Caffaro (b. 1080, d. 1166), Italian chroni-
cler, whose history of Genoa throws much
light on the part taken by the Italian re-
publics in the Crusades.
Cafferty, James H. (b. 1819, d. 1869),
American painter of portraits and still life,
became an academician in 1853.
Cagliari, Benedetto (b. 1538, d. 1598),
painter of the Venetian school, brother of
Paolo Veronese, also famed for his skill in
architecture.
Cagliari, Carletto (b. 1570, d. 1596), son
and pupil of Paolo, gave promise of great
excellence, but died at an early age.
Cagliari, Paolo. [See Veronese, Paolo.]
Cagliostro, Alessandro (b. 1743, d. 1795),
adventurer, endowed with a remarkable
aptitude for enforcing belief. After im-
proving his skill in charlatanism by a
journey in the East, he assumed the title
of Count, and married a Neapolitan, Lo-
renza Feliciani, with whom he travelled
over a great part of Europe, pretending to
have discovered the philosopher's stone, the
water of beauty, etc. He was a protege of
Cardinal de Rohan, and was concerned in
the affair of the diamond necklace. Im-
prudently returning to Rome in 1789, he
was detected, seized, and imprisoned for
life.
Cagniard de la Tour, Charles, Baron (b.
1777, d. 1859), French physicist, made nu-
merous and valuable researches in mechanics,
chemistry, and physics.
Cagnola, Luigi, Marquis of (b. 1762, d.
1833), Italian architect, who, besides other
works, designed the Arch of Peace at Milan
commemorating the marriage of Eugene
Beauharnais, said to be the finest modern
specimen of its kind.
Cagnoli, Antonio (b. 1743, d. 1816),
distinguished astronomer and professor of
mathematics at Modena, left several works
on trigonometry and other mathematical
subjects.
Caiien, Samuel (b. 1796, d. 1862), of
Jewish descent, became director of a Jewish
school at Paris, and there completed a
translation of the Bible.
Caher B'illah, Abu Mansoor Mohammed
(d. 9oO), nineteenth caliph of the Abassides,
succeeded his brother in 922, but after two
years was displaced and blinded, and spent
the rest of his life in great want.
Caiet, Pierre Victor Palma (b. 1525, d.
1610), French divine and author of historical
and controversial works. For many years
a Calviuistic minister, he became in old
age a convert to Roman Catholicism, and
was in consequence charged with immorality
and the practice of magic.
Caigniez, Louis Charles (b. 1762, d. 1842),
French dramatic author. Among his best
Cai
(178)
Caj
works are Le Jugement de Salomon and La
Pie J'oleuse.
Cailhava de TEstendoux, Jean Francois
(b. 1731, d. 1813), French writer of comedies,
whose best piece was L'Eyolsme. He was
an admirer and imitator of Moliere.
Caillard, Antoine Bernard (b. 1737, d.
1807), French diplomatist and man of
letters, author of Mbnoires sur la Revolution
de Hollande.
CaiUe", Rene (b. 1799, d. 1838), French
traveller, starting from Sierra Leone in
April, 1827, disguised in Arab costume,
made his way through unexplored regions to
Timbuctoo, and thence to Fez, which he
reached in August, 1828, thus obtaining the
prize of 10,000 francs offered to the first
traveller who should visit Timbuctoo.
Caillet, Guillaume, French peasant,
headed the rising of La Jacquerie in the
south of France in 1358, and was captured
by Charles of Navarre and executed.
Cailliaud, Fre'de'ric (*. 1787, d. 1869),
French explorer of Upper Egypt, in 1815
traced the course of the Upper Nile into
Nubia, and discovered the ancient emerald
mines of Mount Zabareh. From 1820 to
18-23 he explored the site of Meroe and the
temple of Ammon, and has written on the
life and manners of the ancient and modern
inhabitants.
Caillot, Joseph (b. 1732, d. 1816), French
comic actor; he retired from the stage in
1772.
Cain, the eldest son of Adam and Eve,
and the murderer of his brother AbeL
Caird, The Rev. John (b. 1820), principal
of Glasgow University, an eloquent preacher
of the Scotch Established Church, has pub-
lished sermons and An Introduction to tfie
Philosophy of Religion (1880), which shows
the influence of Hegel.
Cairnes, John Elliott (b. 1824, d.
1875), professor of political economy at
Queen's College, Galway, and afterwards
at University College, London, wrote The
Logical Method of Political Economy, and
other treatises marked by severe precision
of argument.
Cairns, Hugh MacCalmont, Earl (b. 1819,
d. 1885), Lord High Chancellor of Great
Britain, graduated at Trinity College, Dub-
lin, and was called to the English bar in
1844. Elected member of Parliament for
Belfast, he soon became known as a ready
and eloquent debater, was Solicitor-General
in Lord Derby's administration of 1858, and
in 1866 Attorney- General. The following
year he was raised to the peerage as Baron
: Cairns of Garmoyle, and in Mr. Disraeli'i
administration (1868) became Lord Chan-
i cellor. He opposed the disestablishment of
the Irish Church with much ability. Ap-
i pointed leadei of the opposition in the
House of Lords, he originated the scheme
j for the fusion of law and equity, after-
. wards carried into effect by Lord Sel-
borne ; and to him are also due the Con-
veyancing Bill (1881) and the Settled Estates
Bill (1882). He was again Lord Chancellor
1874-80. In 1878 he was created Vis-
count Garmoyle, and Earl Cairns in the
peerage of the United Kingdom.
Cairo, Cavaliere Francesco (b. 1598,
d. 1674), Italian painter, studied at
Milan, Rome and Venice, and thus had
three styles at his command. His picture
of Saint Theresa at Venice, and that of the
Virgin in the chapel of the Chartreuse at
Pa via, are much admired.
Cairoli, Benedetto (b. 1826, d. 1889), Italian
statesman, served as a volunteer in the
revolution of 1848, and also against the
Austrians (1859-1866), was appointed pre-
mier in 1878, and was subsequently minister
of the interior. In 1878 he saved the king
from assassination. Since his final retire-
ment in 1881 Cairoli has been one of the
leaders of the " Historic " Left.
Cait-Bey (d. 1495), seventeenth sultan of
the Circassian dynasty of Mamelukes in
Egypt and Syria, originally a slave, came
to the throne in 1457, and after a struggle of
six years secured his dominions against the
Ottomans.
Cains, Caesar (b. B.C. 20, d. A.D. 4),
Roman general, son of Marcus Agrippa
and Julia, daughter of Augustus, served in
Germany under Tiberius, and afterwards
fought with success against the Arabians,
Armenians, and Parthians, but died when
only twenty-three.
Cains, John (b. 1510, d. 1573), studied at
Gonville Hall, Cambridge, and became
president of the College of Physicians ; was
! also royal physician, and bequeathed his
I fortune to build a new college to Gonville
| Hall, which then became Gonville and
Caius College.
Cains, Saint (d. 296) , native of Dalmatia,
and nephew of Diocletian, became pope in
283.
Cains, Thomas (d. 1572), master of Uni-
versity College, Oxford, translated Euripides,
Aristotle, Erasmus, etc., and also wrote on
the antiquities of the college.
Cajetan, Cardinal, Thomas de Vio (b.
1469, rf. 1534), Italian ecclesiastic, became
general of the Dominican order 1508, and
papal legate in Germany 1518, when Luther
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was summoned before him at Augsburg to
retract his opinion on indulgences.
Calamia, Greek sculptor of the 5th cen-
tury B.C., left a Bacchus, a Fenus, and
many other works.
Calamy, Edmund (b. 1600, d. 1666),
clergyman of the Church of England, in
consequence of the Book of Sports became
a bitter Nonconformist, and was one of the
Presbyterian representatives at the Savoy
Conference. He was steadily opposed to
the death of Charles I.
Calancna, Frey Antonio de la, Peruvian
writer of the early half of the 17th century,
and prior of a convent in Truxillo, wrote
on the antiquities of his country.
Calandra, Giovanni Battista (b. 1568, d.
164-1), worker in mosaic, employed by
Urban VIIL to replace with mosaics some
paintings in St. Peter's which were injured
by damp.
Calandrelli, Ludovico (b. 1817, d. 1859),
Italian officer of artillery, took a brilliant
part in the defence of Rome against the
French, and on the fall of that city retired
to Berlin.
Calandrucci, Giacinto (*. 1646, d. 1707),
painter of note, pupil of Carlo Maratti at
Rome, executed some valuable works for
the churches and convents of Palermo.
Galas, Jean (b. 1698, d. 1762), Pro-
testant citizen of Toulouse, cruelly put to
death on a charge of strangling his son to
prevent his becoming a Roman Catholic ;
his innocence was afterwards established.
Calcagnini, Celio (b. Ferrara^ 1479, d.
1541), learned man who combined with
military and diplomatic business the study
of literature and science, and forestalled
Galileo in discovering the earth's motion.
Calcar, Johann Stephan von (b. 1499, d.
1546), pupil of Titian, to whom many of
his paintings have been attributed. He
also imitated Raphael with considerable
success.
Calceolari, Francois, an Italian botanist
and apothecary 01 Verona in the 16th
century, left a treatise on the flora of Mount
Baldo, entitled Her Baldi Montis. The
calceolaria was named in his honour.
CalcM, Tristan (b. 1462, d. 1516), called
the " Livy of Milan," wrote a history of
Milan to 1323, entitled Historia Patrice.
Caldara, Antonio (*. 1678, d. 1763),
musical composer and author of operas,
went to Rome and td Vienna, where he
taught the emperor Charles VI.
Caldas, Francisco Jose de (b. circa 1770,
d. 1316), American scientist, measured
M 2
the heights of Chimborazo and Tungu-
eragua, and was director of the observatory
at Bogota. He espoused the cause of in-
dependence, and was executed by Morillo.
Caldecott, Randolph (b. 1846, d. 1886),
artist unrivalled in the representation of
humour in animals, and scenes of old- ,
fashioned country lif e, best known from '
his illustrated books for children. In 1882
he became a member of the Institute of
Painters in Water Colours, and occasionally
exhibited in the Royal Academy.
Calder, Sir Robert (b. 1745, d. 1818),
English admiral, served with distinction in
the battle off Cape St. Vincent. In 1805 he
encountered the French and Spanish fleet
with a greatly inferior force, and though
he took two of the enemy's ships, was
reprimanded for not continuing the combat.
Calderon, Don Serafin Estevan (b.
1801, d. 1867), Spanish poet, and pro-
fessor of poetry and rhetoric at Granada,
wrote Poesias del Solitario, Christianas y
Moriscos, and other works.
Calderon, Philip Hermogenes, R.A. (b.
Poitiers, 1833), historical and subject
painter, has exhibited By Babylon's Waters
(1853), Whither (1868), Home they brought
her Warrior Dead (1877), St. Elizabeth of
Hungary (1891), and many other pictures,
in the Royal Academy.
Calderon de la Barca.Don Pedro (b. 1600,
d. 1681), Spanish dramatist, educated at the
Jesuit college at Madrid, and the university
of Salamanca. His mind early assumed a
religious cast, first shown in the drama La,
Devotion de la Cruz, written at the age of
eighteen. While serving against the Mila-
nese in the Low Countries he wrote the
Siege of Breda, and on the death of Lope
de Vega, in 1635, became the leading poet
in Spain. In 1651 he took holy orders, and
thenceforward wrote little else than sacred
dramas, or " autos." His position as
court chaplain enabled him to give full rein
to his imagination, and he left altogether
170 dramas, secular and sacred, besides
many smaller poems, sonnets, etc. _ His
works, which received a rare appreciation
during their author's life, still enjoy a
world-wide reputation, and have been
translated into the various languages of
Europe.
Calderwood, Rev. Henry (b. 1830), pro-
fessor of moral philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, and author of works
on ethics, psychology, and metaphysics.
Caldwell, George Chapman (b. 1834),
American chemist, and authority on
chemistry as applied to agriculture, has
written on chemical analysis and kindred
topics.
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Calendario, Filippo, Italian architect of
the early part of the loth century, exe-
cuted the work of the porticoes around the
Piazzo Sail Marco at Venice.
Calepino, Ambrogio (b. 1435, d. 1511),
Italian monk and philologist, author of one
of the earliest Latin dictionaries (1502),
which formed the groundwork of later
collections.
Callioun, John Caldwell (b. 1782, d.
1850), American lawyer and statesman,
effected great reforms as secretary of
war in 1817, and in 1825 became vice-
president of the United States. He
advocated slavery and the dissolution of the
Union.
Calidasa, Hindoo poet of the 1st or 2nd
century B.C. His most celebrated tragedy
Sakuntald, or The Fatal Ring, has been
translated into Euglish by Professor Monier
Williams (1855) and others.
Caligula, Caius Caesar Augustus Ger-
manicus (b. 12, d. 41), Emperor of Borne,
son of Germanicus and Agrippina, suc-
ceeded his patron Tiberius in 37, and
for a few months set himself to reform
the state and society. Soon, however,
he underwent a complete change ; he
claimed divine honours ; his madness,
cruelty, and extravagance were indescrib-
able, and he was murdered by the
Praetorian guards.
Calkoen, Johann Frederik van Beek (b.
1772, d. 1811), Dutch astronomer, studied
at Amsterdam, was appointed professor of
astronomy and mathematics at Leyden, and
regulated the weights and measures in com-
mon use.
Call, Sir John (*. 1732, d. 1801), chief
military engineer at Fort St. David, and
afterwards at Madras ; also distinguished
himself in the campaign against Hyder
All.
Callanan, James Joseph (b. Cork, 1795,
d. Lisbon, 1829), Irish poet, leaving
Trinity College, enlisted, and after his
release gained a scanty livelihood by teach-
ing. He wandered through Ireland collect-
ing its legends, and afterwards went as
private tu£or to Portugal. Besides writing
lyrics, of which Gouyane Barra is the most
famous, he translated some Portuguese
poetry.
Callcotjb, Sir Augustus Wall, R.A. (b.
1779, d. 1S44), at first a chorister, aban-
doned music, and became a painter of
landscapes and sea-pieces ; some of his
pictures are now in the South Kensington
Museum.
Callcott. John Wall (b. 1766, d. 1821),
brother of the preceding, organist and
musical composer, famous for his glees,
catches, and canons; helped to form the
Glee Club. Died insane.
Callcott, Maria, Lady (b. 1785, d. 1842),
daughter of Rear-Admiral George Dundas,
and wife of Sir A. W. Callcott, travelled in
India, South America, and Italy ; wrote
Three Months in the Environs of Rome, a
History of Spain, etc.
Callicrates, Greek architect of the 5th
century B.C., who, with Ictinus, was
employed by Pericles to construct the
Parthenon of Athens.
Callicrates (d. 149 B.C.), native of Leon-
tium in Achaia, appointed general of the
Achaean league, always subordinated the
interests of his country to those of Rome.
Callicratidas (d. 406 B.C.), Spartan
general, superseded Lysander in the com-
mand of the fleet at Ephesus ; was success-
ful at Delphinium, Troas, and Methymna,
but was drowned the same year in an
engagement with the Athenians.
Callieres, Francois de (b. 1645, d. 1717),
French diplomatist and writer, acted aa
plenipotentiary at the congress of Ryswick.
Callimaclius (d. circa 240 B.C.), Greek
grammarian and poet, born at Gyrene, tutor
of Apollonius Rhodius, against whom he
wrote the Ibis, imitated by Ovid. Of his
works only a few hymns and epigrams
remain.
Callippus (d. 351 B.C.), native of Athens,
and disciple of Plato ; went to Syracuse
and became a friend of Dion, but conspired
against him, and assumed the government.
He was soon afterwards defeated and
assassinated by the friends of Dion.
Callippus (b. circa 330 B.C.), Greek as-
tronomer, introduced into the calendar
the " Callippic cycle," in which a day was
to be subtracted every seventy-six years,
commencing in 330 B.C.
Callisthenes, Olynthus (b. circa 365 B.C.,
d, 328 B.C.), great-nephew of Aristotle,
accompanied Alexander the Great to Asia
as historian of the expedition, but was
accused of conspiring against him, and
executed. His works have perished.
Callistus I. (d. 224), pope, born in
slavery, constructed the cemetery on the
Appian way.
Callistus IL (d. 1124), elected pope
during the controversy respecting investi-
ture. The E.nperor Henry V. had set up
the anti-pope Burdin, but Callistus reduced
Rome, made Burdin prisoner, and con-
cluded a concordat with the emperor, who
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relinquished his right to spiritual investiture
by ring arid crozier.
Callistus III.—
(1) An anti-pope, elected 1168, through
the influence of Frederick Barbarossa.
(2) Callistus ni. (d. 1458), pope, of
Spanish birth, noted for his zeal against the
Turks.
Calloigne, Jean Robert (*. 1775, d. 1830),
Flemish sculptor, originally a potter.
CaUot, Jacques (b. 1592, d. 1635), French
engraver, studied at Rome and Florence,
where he was patronised by Cosmo II. ;
afterwards settled at Nancy. Among his
best engravings are those of the capture of
Breda, and the sieges of Rochelle and the
Isle of Rhe\
Calomarde, Don Francisco Tadeo, Duke
(b. 1775, d. Toulouse, 1842), Spanish states-
man, attempted to restore absolutism in
Spain. He induced Ferdinand III. to change
the succession while on his death-bed, and
was forced to flee to France.
Calverley, Charles Stuart (b. 1833, d.
1884), won a high reputation as a scholar
at Oxford and Cambridge, and wrote
Verses and Translations (1862), Fly Leaves
(1872), and a Verse- Translation of Theo-
critus (1869). His parodies are facile and
humorous.
Cal vert, Cecil (d. 1676), second Lord
Baltimore, planted the colony of Maryland,
but does not seem to have visited it himself .
The colonists were mostly Roman Catholics,
but all Christians were tolerated.
Calvert, George Henry (b. 1803), Ameri-
can author, descendant of the Baltimore
family, studied at Harvard and Got-
tingen, edited the Baltimore American,
and wrote Count Julian (a tragedy), Scenes
and Thoughts in Europe, etc.
Calvert, Sir Harry, General (*. circa 1763,
d. ^1826), entered the army 1778, became
adjutant -general 1799 ; served in America
under Clinton, Howe, and Cornwallis, and in
Holland under the Duke of York ; founded
military colleges and the military asylum
at Chelsea, and received a baronetcy in
1818.
Calvert, Leonard (d. 1647), brother of
Cecil, second Lord Baltimore, and sent out
by him as first governor of Maryland in
1633.
Calvi, Lazzaro (*. 1501, d. 1606),
Italian artist, pupil of Pierino del Vaga,
worked in conjunction with his brother
Pantaleo, their most famous painting being
The Continence of Scipio. He poisoned
Giacomo Bargone, and through jealousy
of Cambiaso led a seafaring life for twenty
years.
Calvin, John (b. 1509, d. 1564), born at
Noyon, educated at the colleges of La
Marche and Moutaigu, Paris, held some
livings, but preferring the legal profession
did not proceed to priest's orders. While
studying law at Bourges he learnt Greek,
and on reading the New Testament became
a Protestant. He removed to Paris, and
wrote a commentary on Seneca's De
dementia, but forced by persecution to
leave France, took refuge in Basle. In
1536 appeared his Institutions of the Chris-
tian Religion. In conjunction with Farel
he attempted to establish a kind of theo-
cracy at Geneva, but they were expelled by
the council in 1538, and retired to Zurich.
Passing on to Strasburg, Calvin became
pastor to the French refugees, married, and
published his Romans. In 1541 Calvin waa
invited back to Geneva. The theocratic
government was resumed, and here he
laboured till his death. Calvin did more
than any other man towards formulating
the doctrines of the Reformed Church. The
opinions on predestination and election
called " Calvinistic " are rather those of hia
disciples than his own.
Calvisius, Sethus (*. 1556, d. 1617),
German chronologist and musician, director
of the school of music, Leipsic, left
numerous works, including Opus Chrono-
logicum.
Calvo, Jean Sauveur de (b. 1625, d.
1690), joined the French army, and
distinguished himself in Flanders, and
afterwards against the Duke of Lorraine,
and in the war between France and Spain.
Cam, Diego, Portuguese navigator of
the loth century, explored the African
coast, and discovered the Congo.
Cambaceres, The Abbe" (*. 1722, d. 1802),
French divine, who fearlessly denounced
the irreligion of his time.
Cambaceres, Jean Jacques Re'gis de,
Duke of Parma (b. 1753, d. 1824), French
jurist and statesman ; minister of justice
under the Directory, and also during the
Hundred Days ; second consul with Na-
poleon.
Cambert, Robert (b. circa 1628, d. 1677),
French musician, and the first to compose
an opera ; went to England in 1673, and
became master of the band of Charles L
Cambiaso, or Canglaglo, Luca (b. 1527,
d. 1585), Italian painter, who, on the
invitation of Philip II., went to Spain,
and executed several paintings in fresco and
oil for the Escurial. Among his Genoese
works are the Martyrdom of St. George,
and the Rape of the Sabinea.
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Cambini, Giuseppe (b. 1746, d. circa
1830), musical composer, after travelling
in Italy and Germany went to Paris in
1770, and there composed many oratorios,
concertos, etc. Died in the hospital of
Bicetre, a victim to want and intemper-
ance.
Cambray-Digny, Guglielmo, Conte di
(b. 1823), Italian statesman, minister of
finance in 1867. The unpopularity of his
measures resulted in the fall of the govern-
ment two years later.
Cambridge, H.E.H. Adolphus JFrederick,
Duke of (b. 1774, d. 1850), seventh and
youngest son of George III., served under
the Duke of York in Flanders, and was
Viceroy of Hanover from 1813 to 1837.
Cambridg-e, H.E.H. George William
Frederick, Duke of (b. 1819), son of the
preceding, succeeded his father in 1850,
distinguished himself in the Crimea, and
was nominated commander-in-chief of the
British army in 1856.
Cambridge, Eev. Octavius Pickard (b.
1835), naturalist, has contributed papers
to the Zoologist and Entomologist, and written
works on the Arachnida, concerning which he
is considered the highest living authority.
Cambronne, Pierre Jacques Etienne,
Baron de (b. 1770, d. 1842), French gen-
eral, served under Massena in Switzerland,
took part in the battle of Zurich, distin-
guished himself in the campaign of 1812-13,
accompanied Napoleon to Elba, and com-
manded a division at "Waterloo.
Cambyses (d. 521 B.C.), King of Persia,
succeeded his father Cyrus in 529, con-
quered Egypt and took King Psammetichus
captive ; died from the effect of a wound
accidentally inflicted by himself.
Camden, Charles Pratt, Earl of (b. 1713,
d. 1794), English judge, called to the bar
in 1738, became Attorney- General under
Pitt, was appointed Chief Justice of the
Common Pleas in 1762, and in that capacity
declared general warrants illegal, granting
Wilkes £1,000 damages, a course which ren-
dered him extremely popular. In 1765 he
was created Lord Camden, and was Lord
Chancellor from 1766 to 1770. He disap-
proved of the taxation of the American
colonies, and was always opposed to Lord
North's administration. In 1782 he was
made president of the Council, and in 1786
received the title of earl.
Camden, John Jeffreys Pratt, Marquis of
(b. 1759, d. 1840), statesman, son of the first
Earl of Camden, entered Parliament in
1780, and became a follower of his father
and Pitt ; was for more than sixty years one
of the tellers of the Exchequer, and held
office as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland (1795-8)
and Secretary for the Colonies (1804-5).
Camden, William (b. 1551, d. 1623), be-
came a master in Westminster school in
1575, was ten years writing Britannia, or a
Chorographical description of England, Scot-
land, and Ireland (15S6), which established
his fame ; became head-master of Westmin-
ster in 1593, and in 1597 published his Greek
grammar, which rapidly passed through
forty editions.
Camelli, or Kamel, George Joseph,
Jesuit and botanist of the 17th century,
while occupied as a missionary in the
Philippine Islands made some valuable ob-
servations, published in Bay's Universal
History of Plants.
Camerarius, Joachim (b. 1500, d. 1574),
scholar, successively rector of the universi-
ties of Tubingen and Leipsic. He was a
friend of Melaucthon, and highly esteemed
by the Emperor Maximilian.
Camerarius, Joachim (b. 1534, d. 1598),
physician and botanist, head of an academy
of medicine founded at Nuremberg in 1592.
Cameron, John (b. 1579, d. 1625),
Scottish scholar and divine, went to France,
and returning in 1620, was appointed pro-
fessor of divinity in the university of Glas-
gow.
Cameron, John (b. circa 1579, d. 1625),
Scottish divine, principal of the university of
Glasgow in 1620, which office he resigned
on account
obedience."
of his views on " passive
Cameron, John Alexander (b. 1851, d.
1885), war correspondent; was in Natal in
1880 ; witnessed the bombardment of Alex-
andria, and perished with General Stewart's
column on the Nile.
Cameron, Eichard (d. 1680), Scottish Pres-
byterian, and opponent of Charles II. ; was
executed for treason-rebellion at Edin-
burgh.
Camicia, Chimenti, Florentine architect
of the 15th century, long employed at the
Hungarian court.
Camillo, Francisco (b. 1610, d. 1671),
Spanish painter, whose works are to be
found in Madrid, Toledo, and other towns.
His picture of Our Lady in the church of St.
John at Madrid is especially admired.
Camillus, Marcus Furius (d. 365 B.C.),
Eoman general ; was made dictator in
396, captured Veii and Falerii; went into
voluntary exile, but was recalled by the
Senate on the capture of Borne by the
Gauls, whom he defeated He was five
times dictator.
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Camoens, or Camdes, Luis de (b. circa
1524, d. 1579), Portuguese poet, born
at Lisbon, educated at the university of
Coimbra, remained at the court of John
III. till driven from it owing to his pas-
sion for a lady of rank, perhaps Catarina
d'Atayde. In 1550 he joined an expedition
to Africa, and there lost his right eye whilst
boarding a Moorish vessel. He returned in
1552, but finding himself neglected sailed to
Goa, whence, after many adventures, he
was banished by the governor, Francisco
Barretp, in 1556. He remained for three
years in exile at Macao, engaged on the
Lusiad ; on the appointment of a new
governor he attempted to return to Goa,
but was shipwrecked on the coast near
Cochin, and lost everything but his poem,
with which he swam to land. After under-
going an imprisonment for debt, Camoens
returned to Portugal in 1569, and published
the Lusiad (a beautiful but somewhat
mythical description of Vasco de Gama's
expedition to India) in 1572. He fell into
great poverty, and is said to have died in an
almshouse.
Campan, Jeanne Louise Henrietta (b.
1752, d. 1822), lady of the bedchamber to
Marie Antoinette, after the Eeign of Terror
kept a school at St. Germain : was made by
Napoleon superintendent of the imperial
school at Ecouen ; wrote Memoires sur la
Vie Privee de Marie Antoinette.
Campanella, Tommaso (b. 1568, d. 1639),
Italian metaphysician and political philoso-
pher, attempted to substitute an inductive
method for the purely deductive reasoning
of the schoolmen. His theory that all
nations would at last become united, and
evil be extinguished, may be regarded as the
germ of modern socialism. Persecuted on
account of his political and religious views,
he left Italy for Paris, where he enjoyed
the patronage of Richelieu.
Campbell, Andrew (b. 1821), American
engineer, invented the brush - drawer's
vise in 1837, constructed the largest
American omnibus in 1846, and the longest
single- span wooden bridge over Cedar
river, Iowa, in 1850 ; since 1851 has made
great improvements in the construction of
printing presses.
Campbell, Sir Colin. [See Clyde, Lord.]
Campbell, Sir George (b. 1824, d. 1892), en-
tered the Indian Civil Service in 1842 ; was
called to the bar in 1854. Again proceeding
to India, he held various offices, and in 1871
became lieutenant-governor of Bengal. He
returned to England in 1874, and was elected
M.P. for Kirkcaldy in the Liberal interest
in 1875, and again in 1880 and 1885.
Campbell, George (b. 1719, d. 1796),
Scottish divine, principal of the Marischal
College, Aberdeen, in 1759, was author of
the Philosophy of .Rhetoric (1776).
Campbell, John, Baron (b. 1779, d. 1861),
English judge, son of a Scottish Presby-
terian minister, came to London as a pri-
vate tutor in 1798, entered Lincoln's Inn
in 1800, and was called to the bar in 1806.
In 1821 he married the daughter of Sir
James Scarlett (afterwards Lord Abinger) ,
and continued to rise steadily in his profes-
sion. He entered the House of Commons
(1830), was attorney -general in 1834, and
in 1841 was raised to the peerage and made
Lord Chancellor of Ireland. In 1850 he
became chief justice of the Queen's Bench,
and nine years later Lord Chancellor of
England. To the statute-book he added
the Libel Act, allowing a person to plead
justification, and the Act for the suppres-
sion of obscene publications, whilst to
literature he contributed the Lives of the
Lord Chancellors (1845), and the Lives of
the Chief Justices (1849).
Campbell, Thomas (*. 1777, d. 1844),
poet, educated at Glasgow University,
was for some time a private tutor, went
to Edinburgh in his twentieth year,
and in 1799 published The Pleasures
of Hope, which at once established his
reputation as a poet. He visited Gei-many
in 1800, and there wrote The Battle of
Hohenlinden and other popular ballads. In
1803 he married and settled at Sydenhain,
where he remained twenty years, after
which he lived in Middle Scotland Yard.
He edited magazines, and wrote other
poems, of which Gertrude of Wyoming
(1809) is the best known.
Campe, Joachim Heinrich (b. 1746, d.
1818), German educationalist and author;
his Robinson the Younger (1779), a pedagogic
imitation of Robinson Crusoe, has had a wida
circulation throughout Europe.
Campeggio, Lorenzo, Cardinal (b. 1474,
d. 1539), was sent to England in 1519, as
legate to Germany (1524) to check the
progress of the Reformation, and again to
England in 1529, when, with Wolsey, he
presided over the court appointed to decide
on Henry VIII. 's claim to be divorced from
Catherine of Aragon.
Campen, Jacob van (d. 1638), Dutch archi-
tect, studied in Italy, and designed several
public buildings, including the town-hall at
Amsterdam.
Camper, Pierre (*. 1722, d. 1789),
Dutch anatomist, filled the chairs of medi-
cine and surgery at Franeker, Amster-
dam, and Groningen successively, _ made
important discoveries in natural history,
and left many valuable works.
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Carnphausen, Ludoli (b. 1803), Prussian
politician, president of the council and
plenipotentiary to the conference at Frank-
fort in 1848, remained leader of the
moderate liberals till driven into private
life by the tide of reaction in 1850.
Camphuysen, Dirk Theodore Raphael (b.
1580, d. 162u), Dutch painter and theolo-
gian, famous for his pen-and-ink sketches.
Campi, Bernardino (b. 1522, d. 1584), a
painter of the same family, pupil of Giulio
Campi, excelled in drawing the nude figure.
His works are to be found at Cremona,
Mantua, and Milan.
Cainpi, Galeazzo (b. 1475, d. 1536), head
of a family of painters, of whom his son
Giulio (b. 1500, d. 1572) is the best known.
Campion, Edmund (b. 1540, d. 1581),
English Jesuit, at first a zealous defender of
the Church of England, became a Roman
Catholic, studied at Douay, and was sent to
England by Gregory XIII. He was appre-
hended on a charge of high treason, and
hung at Tyburn.
Campo-Basso, Nicola, Count di, Italian
condottiere of the loth century, aided the
Duke of Anjou against the Aragonese
dynasty iu Naples, but went over to
Charles the Bold of Burgundy, in whose
murder he is supposed to have had a
share.
Campomanes, Pedro Rodriguez, Count de
(b. 1723, d. 1802). Spanish politician and
author, president of the Cortes in 1788,
became director of the Royal Academy of
History, and wrote an essay on the Knights
Templars, and dissertations on law and
political economy.
Campos, Arsenio Martinez (b. 1834),
Spanish general, in 1874 proclaimed Alfonso
XII. King of Spain, extinguished the
Carlist rebellion (1876) and "the Cuban
insurrection (1877), and was afterwards
minister of war.
Campra, Andre (b. 1666, d. 1744), French
musician of high repute, became master of
the chapel royal, and wrote several operas.
Camus, Armand Gaston (b. 1740, d. 1804),
French advocate, deputy to the States
General and National Convention, and
keeper of the archives ; in 1790 was presi-
dent of the Council of Five Hundred.
Camus, Charles Etienne Louis (b. 1699, d.
1768), a French mathematician and as-
tronomer.
Camus, Francois Joseph de (b. 1672, d.
1732), French mechanician, wrote Traite
£e$ Forces Mouvantes (1722), invented auto-
mata, and introduced many improvements
in the making of capstans, guns, coaches,
etc., and in the tempering of metals.
Canale, Nicolas, Venetian admiral, by
the burning of Eno in 1469 provoked the
enmity of Mahomet II., who laid waste
Scyros and took Negropont. In 1470
Canale was condemned for misconduct
during the war and exiled.
Canaletto, Antonio (b. 1697, d. 1768),
Italian artist, son of Bernardo Canale, under
whom he studied at Venice, went to Rome
aud painted landscapes, but returned to
Venice in later life, and is best known by
his views of its palaces, churches, and
canals, among which that of the Great
Canal is the most famous.
Canani, Giovanni Battista (b. 1515, d.
1579), anatomist, physician to Julius III.,
wrote I)i$sectio Picturata Musculorum Cor-
poris Humani, etc.
Cancrin, Georg, Count of (b. 1774, d.
184.5), Russian statesman of German origin,
went to St. Petersburg in 1 796, was general
superintendent of the army in 1812, and
minister of finance from 1823 to 1844. He
restored the national credit by ruthless
exactions from the peasantry, was the most
trusted minister of Alexander I. and
Nicholas, and may be regarded as the em-
bodiment of the Russian system. He wrote
several works on political economy.
Candace, Queen of Ethiopia (a country
lying in the south of Egypt and including
the modern Abyssinia) in the time of
Augustus.
Candiano, an ancient house of Venice, to
which several doges of the early republic
belonged.
Candiano I., Pietro (d. 887), doge in 886,
was slain in a war with the pirates of the
Adriatic.
Candiano II., Pietro (d. 939), son of the
preceding, doge in 932. During his rule
commenced the struggle between Venice
and Ravenna for the possession of the rich
fishery of Comacchio.
Candiano III., Pietro, son of the preced-
ing, doge in 942, was chiefly engaged in
vainly endeavouring to repress the ambi-
tious designs of his son Pietro.
Candiano IV., Pietro (d. 976), son of the
preceding, doge in 959, sought to render the
office hereditary in his family by allying
himself with Otto I. of Germany and the
Marquis of Tuscany, but was massacred by
the Venetians.
Candiano V., Vitale, brother of the pre-
ceding, doge in 977, after ruling peaceably
for about fourteen months gave up hi*
Can
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Can
dignity to the tribune Memo, and retired to
a convent.
Candlish, Bobert Smith, D.D. (b. 1807,
d. 1873), leader of the Free Church of
Scotland, succeeded Dr. Cunningham as
principal of New College, Edinburgh
(1862).
Candolle, Augustin Pyramus de (b. 1778,
d. 1841), botanist, pupil of Desfontaines,
was commissioned in 1806 by the govern-
ment to observe the state of agriculture
throughout the French empire, and occu-
pied successively the chairs of botany at
Montpellier, and of natural history at
Geneva. He completed a revised edition of
Lamarck's Flora of France in 1815, and
wrote among other works an Elementary
Theory of Botany, in which he developed
his new classification of plants, and an In-
trod-iction to the Natural System of the
Vegetable Kingdom, containing a classifica-
tion of all plants by orders, genera, and
species.
Canga-Argnelles, Don Jose (b. 1770, d.
1843), Spanish statesman, distinguished
himself in the revolution, and after being
exiled in 1814 became minister of finance
in 1820.
Canina, Luigi (b. 1793, d. 1856), Italian
architect, learned in Roman archaeology,
was superintendent-general of the excava-
tions carried on in Rome and its neigh-
bourhood, and filled the chair of architec-
ture at Turin.
Canning, Charles John, Viscount (b.
1812, d, Itid2), youngest son of the preced-
ing, entered the House of Lords in 1836,
was under -secretary for Foreign Affairs
(1841-46), Postmaster-General (1852-55),
and Governor- General of India (1855-62).
Canning, George (b. 1770, d. 1827),
born in London, son of a barrister of good
family, entered Parliament in 1793 as a
supporter of Pitt; was made under-secre-
tary of State in 1796, and started The An*i-
Jacobin ; supported a motion for abolishing
the slave-trade in 1798, and was strongly in
favour of the union with Ireland. He left
office with Pitt in 1801, and returned in
1804, becoming Foreign Secretary under the
Duke of Portland in 1807, an office which
he again held from 1822 to 1827, when he
became Premier. Canning always favoured
Catholic emancipation, but was opposed to
parliamentary reform. He showed most
ability in the conduct of foreign affairs, and
especially in his determined resistance to
Spain during the years 1826 and 1827.
Canning, Stratford. [See Stratford de
Kedcliffe.]
Cano, Alonzo (b. 1601, d. 1665), Spanish
painter, sculptor, and architect. He studied
painting at Seville under Pacheco and Cas-
tillo ; in consequence of a duel fled to
Madrid and became painter to Philip IV. j
was charged with the nrurder of his wife in
1644, but acquitted ; in 1652 became minor
canon in the cathedral of Granada. He
executed many works for Granada cathe-
dral and the churches of Madrid.
Cano, Juan Sebastian del (d. 1526),
native of Biscay, sailed with Magellan in
1519, and returned after three years, having
circumnavigated the world.
Canonica, Luigi Delia (b. 1742, d,
1834), Italian architect, built the Carcano
theatre, and the amphitheatre Leila Porta
Vercellina at Milan.
Canova, Antonio (b. 1757, d. 1822), born
at Possaguo, near Treviso, the greatest
follower of the classic style in modern sculp-
ture, began life as a stonemason ; he studied
at Venice under Toretti, and afterwards
at Rome ; was much befriended by Napo-
leon, and received commissions from other
potentates. Among his best-known works
are Hercules and Lycas at Rome, Theseus
and the Minotaur at Vienna, the Psyche in
the Louvre, and the mausoleums for the
Popes Clement XIII., Clement XIV., and
Pius VI. He died at Venice.
Canovas del Castillo, Antonio (b. 1830),
Spanish statesman, president of the mini-
stry formed on the return of Alfonso XIL
(1874), an office which he held intermittently
till 1835.
Canrobert, Francois Certain (b. 1809),
marshal of France, served for many years
in Algeria ; attached himself to Louis
Napoleon in 1850. During the Crimean war
was appointed successor to Saint Arnaud,
shortly after the battle of Alma, but in 1855
resigned that command to General Pelissier,
and returned to France. He also took
part in the Italian war of 1859, and the
Franco -German war; and after the capitu-
lation of Metz was for some time a prisoner
in Germany.
Cantacuzene, John V. (b. circa, 1292),
Emperor of the East, was in 1328 prime
minister of Andronicus the Younger, who
left him governor of the empire and guar-
dian of his son. He was crowued by the
army in 1341, and after six years recognised
as joint ruler with John Palteplogus, the
rightful heir. Forced to resign in 1354, he
withdrew to a monastery, and there wrote a
history of the empire from 1320 to 1360.
Cantacuzene, Serban H. (b. circa 1640, d.
1688), a pretended descendant of the em-
peror, made an unsuccessful attempt on the
empire, and is said to have died of poison.
Can
Cap
Cantarini, Simone (b. 1612, d. 1648),
Italian painter and engraver, pupil of Guido,
whose style he imitated.
Cantemir, Autiochus (b. 1709, d. 1744),
fourth son of Demetrius Cautemir, was an
eminent statesman and writer, and for some
time ambassador at London and Paris.
Cantemir, Constantino (d. IBQS'), born in
Moldavia, and descended from a Tartar who
fled thither in 1540, served in Poland under
Ladislaus and Casimir ; afterwards held a
post in the Turkish army, and was made
commander of the Moldavian forces.
Canter, Wilhelm (b. 1542, d. 1575), author
of Nov& Lectiones, a critical examination of
the text of the classics.
Canterbury, Charles Manners Sutton,
Viscount (b. 1780, d. 1845), Speaker of
the House of Commons (1817-1835), a
post which he held with distinction and
success.
Canterzani, Sebastiano (b. 1734, d. 1819),
professor of mathematics at Bologna, and
afterwards president of the Institute.
Canton, John (b. 1718, d. 1772), English
electrician, inventor of the "pith-ball"
electroscope, and other scientific apparatus.
Cantu, Cesare (b. 1805, d. 1881), Italian
historian, a liberal and yet an Ultramon-
tane, has written a Universal History,
Margherita Pusterla (a novel), and some
educational works.
Canute I., son of Thyra Danebod, founded
the kingdom of Denmark in the 10th cen-
tury, and was one of the earliest Danish
invaders of England.
Canute II., surnamed The Great (d.
1036), succeeded his father Sweyii as king of
Denmark in 1014, and invaded England,
which Sweyu had almost entirely con-
quered, but was opposed by Edmund Iron-
sides, with whom he divided the kingdom,
till the death of that prince in 1016 left
Canute sole ruler. He did much to protect
the lives a-nd liberties of his subjects, and at
his death was in undisputed possession of
England, Denmark and Norway.
Canute III., surnamed Hardicanute (d.
1042), son of the preceding, whom he suc-
ceeded as king of Denmark. He became
king of England on the death of his brother,
Harold Haref oot.
Canute IV., "The Pious" (d. 1026), King
of Denmark, succeeded his brother Harold
in 1080, but was slain at Funen six years
later during an insurrection.
Canute V. (d. 1157), King of Denmark,
attempted to gain the throne on the death
! of Eric, but was assassinated after a struggle
j of ten years.
Canute VI. (b. 1162, d. 1202), King of
Denmark, son of Waldemar the Great,
whom he succeeded in 1182, subdued Pome-
rania, introduced Christianity into Livonia
and Esthouia, and encouraged the progress
of civilisation and letters.
Canuti, Domenico Maria (b. 1620, d. 1684),
i Italian artist, pupil of Guido, left many
I works, including A Descent from the Cross
\ by Moonlight, in the church of the Olivet-
ans at Bologna, known as the Notte del
Canuti.
Canz, Israel Gottlieb (b. 1690, d. 1753),
| German philosopher and Protestant theo-
logian, was successively professor of poetry,
logic, and moral theology at Tubingen.
Capece, Conrad, Marino, and Jacopo (d.
1268), members of an ancient and illustrious
Neapolitan family, beheaded as Ghibellines
by Charles of Anjou.
Capecelatro, Giuseppe (b. 1744, d. 1836),
a reformer of ecclesiastical abuses, who,
although an archbishop, opposed papal
theocracy.
Capefigue, Jean Baptiste Honore" Ray-
mond (b. 1802, d. 1872), French historian
and journalist, has written an account of
Europe during the first empire, and other
works.
Capel, Arthur (b. 1600, d. 1649), sat in
the Long Parliament, was made a peer in
1641, and defended Colchester against Fair-
fax and Ireton, but was made prisoner and
beheaded.
Capel, Arthur (b. 1635, d. 1683), son of the
preceding, Earl of Essex, Lord-Lieutenant
I of Ireland in 1672, was implicated in the
! Rye-House plot, and committed suicide in
j the Tower.
Capel, Right Rev. Monsignor Thomas
I John (b. 183'3), rector of the Roman Catholic
university in Kensington from 187-i to 1878,
has written an answer to Mr. Gladstone's
attack on the Vatican Decrees (1874), and
other works.
Capell, Edward (b. 1713, d. 1781), an
editor and critic of Shakespeare.
Capella, Martianus Mineus Felix, Roman
poet and philosopher, lived in the end of
the 4th or the beginning of the 5th century,
Capellen, Godard Gerard, Baron van
(b. 1778, d. 1848). Dutch statesman, was
governor- general of the Dutch colonies in
the East Indies from 1819 to 1825.
Capellen, Theodor Friedrich (b. 1762, rf.
1824), Dutch admiral, commanded the fleet
Cap
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Car
in the Mediterranean, and distinguished
himself in the attack on Algiers made by
Lord Exmouth in 1816.
Capet, Hugh. {See Hugh.]
Capistrano, San Giovanni de (b. 1385),
Franciscan friar, bitterly opposed the Hus-
sites, and by his preaching animated the
defenders of Belgrade against the Turks.
Capito, Caius Ateius (b. circa 37 B.C., d.
22 A.D.) , Roman jurist, who defended the old
form of laws against the attacks of Labeo.
Capitolinus, Julius, a Roman writer
about the end of the 3rd century, con-
tributed the biographies of nine emperors
(119 to 284 A.D.) to the Historia Augusta.
Capitolinus, T. Quinctus Barbatus,
Roman patrician, six times consul ; vic-
torious over the Volsci and JSqui ; refused
the dictatorship in 439 B.C.
Capiton, or Kcepstein, Wolfgang Fabricius
(b. 1478, d. loi'2), German theologian of the
reformed faith ; endeavoured to reconcile
the Lutherans and Calviuists, and took part
in the conferences of Zurich, Augsburg,
etc.
Capmany y de Montpalan, Antonio de
(b. 1742, d. 1813), Spanish historian and
philologist, wrote A. History of Barcelona,
etc.
Capo d'Istria, or Capodistria,s, Comte
de (b. 1776, d. 1831), president of Greece,
was in 1803 appointed secretary of state to
the Ionian republic, but when the islands
fell again under the dominion of France,
went to St. Petersburg, and entered the
Russian diplomatic service. He was present
at the treaty of Paris (in 1814), but in 1820
withdrew to Geneva, where he lived in re-
tirement till his election (1827) to the presi-
dency of Greece. His administration was
at first popular, but his Eussian sympathies
aroused suspicion, a rebellion broke out in
1831, and Capo d'Istria was assassinated,
Cappellini, Alfredo Luigi (b. circa 1836,
d. 1866), Italian naval officer, com-
manded the Palestro at the battle of Lissa.
The ship took fire, and Cappellini and his
crew perished with her, preferring death to
falling into the hands of the enemy.
Cappellus, or Cappel, Louis (b. 1585, d.
1658), French Protestant divine, educated
at Oxford, became professor of Oriental
languages at the university of Saumur. He
wrote several works, including Arcanum
Punctuntionis Revelatum on the Hebrew
vowel points.
Capponi, Neri di Gino, military com-
missary of the republic of Florence during
the league between that city and Venice
against the Duke of Milan (1440), wrote a
chronicle of contemporary events.
Capponi, Piero di Gino (d. circa 1496),
defended the liberty of Florence against the
ambitious Medici, and is noted for his
answer to Charles VIII., when, on his
journey through Tuscany to Naples (1493),
he sought to compel the allegiance of
Florence.
Capranica, Domenico, Cardinal (b. 1400,
d. 1458), a supporter of the Roman
court, mediated successfully between the
Pope and Alfonso of Aragon, and wrote
De Contemptu Mundi and other works.
Caprivi de Caprera de Montecuculli,
Georg Leo von (b. 1831), the eldest son of
Julius Edward von Caprivi, who held a legal
post under the Prussian government, entered
the Prussian army in 1848, distinguished
himself in the campaigns of 1864 and 1866,
commanded a division at Metz in 1883, and
in 1884 was transferred to the naval service,
being appointed head of the admiralty.
Soon after the beginning of the present
reign Caprivi reorganised the navy, and
shortly afterwards became commander of
the 10th army corps. On the retirement
of Bismarck he was appointed Chancellor.
Cara Yazid, Abdul Halim (d. 1602),
headed a rebellion against Mahomet III.,
was forced to capitulate, but was afterwards
assisted by the governor of Bagdad and
completely vanquished the Turkish army.
He was ultimately conquered and fled to the
mountains on the border of the Black Sea.
Cara Yousouf (d. 1420), chief of the
"Black Sheep," dwelt at the foot of the
Armenian mountains, and harassed the
pilgrims to Mecca.
Caracalla, the surname of Marcus Aureliua
Antoninus Bassianus (b. 188, d. 217), Em-
peror of Rome. He succeeded his father,
Severus, in 211, and disgraced his reign by
wholesale and cold-blooded murders.
Caraccioli, Francesco (b. 1770, d. 179P),
Neapolitan admiral, in 1793 commanded
the Neapolitan fleet before Toulon, en-
tered the service of the Parthenopean
republic, and on the capture of Naples by
Ruffo (1799) was executed, in violation of
the terms of capitulation.
Caradog, or Caractacus, King of the Silu-
rians, a British tribe, after resisting the
Romans for nine years, was overcome, and
took refuge with Cartismandua, Queen of
the Brigantes, by whom he was betrayed to
the Romans in 51. He was released by
Claudius.
Caradog of Llancawan (d. circa 1147),
Welsh ecclesiastic and chronicler, wrote in
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Latin a history of the Welsh kings ; a
Welsh translation still remains.
Carafa, Michele (b. 1785, d. 1872), Nea-
politan musical composer, enjoyed great
popularity during his lifetime, and wrote
Le Solitaire, La Vwlette, Masaniello, and
other operas.
Caraman, Pierre Paul Kiquet de Bon-
repos, Comte de (b. 1646, d. 1730), French
general, served in Flanders in 1702, and
distinguished himself at the defeat of the
French at Gette.
Caramuel de Lobliowitz, Juan (b.
1606, d. 1682), Spanish theologian, pro-
fessor of theology at Alcala, renowned for
his eloquence and for his valour at the siege
of Prague in 1648.
Caramuru, or Diego Alvarez, a Portu-
guese seaman of the 16th century, who was
wrecked off the coast of Bahia, in South
America, and overawing the natives by the
use of firearms, was made king of the
country. His companions were put to
death.
Carausius, Marcus Aurelius Valerius (b.
circa 250, d. 293), a native of Flanders, put
in command of a fleet by Maximian, sailed
to Britain and proclaimed himself emperor.
He was acknowledged by Diocletian, and
reigned till murdered by Allectus, who
succeeded him.
Caravaggio, Michael Angelo Amerigi da
(b. 1569, d. 1609), a self-taught Italian
artist, for some years painted portraits
remarkable for their fidelity, and. after
studying the works of Giorgione. lurmed
the style of chiaro-oscuro, imitated by
many subsequent painters. Among his best-
known works are the Entombment of Christ
and the Death of the Virgin. He died in
poverty and obscurity.
Caravaggio, Polidoro da (b. 1495, d.
1543), Italian painter of humble birth, his
genius was noticed by Raphael, who em-
ployed him to paint the friezes for his works
at the Vatican. Among his best works is the
Christ led to Calvary at Messina.
Carbajal, Luis de (b. 1534, d. 1591),
Spanish painter, employed by Philip II.
in the Escurial, where he depicted the his-
tory of the Virgin.
Cardano, Girolamo (b. 1501, d. 1575),
born at Pavia, natural philosopher and
mathematician, to some extent the fore-
runner of Galileo in scientific observation.
"Visited England under Edward VI., and
afterwards taught mathematics at Milan
and Bologna. Was renowned as a physician.
Cardi, Ludovico (b. 1559, d. 1613),
Italian painter, was called the " Florentine
Correggio," on account of his close imitation
of that artist, especially observable in his
Martyrdom of St. Stephen. His master-
piece, St. Peter healing the Cripple, has been
destroyed by damp.
Cardigan, James Thomas Brudenell, Earl
of, K.C.B. (b. 1797, d. 1S68), led the Light
Brigade in their charge at Balaclava (18.34).
Carducci, Bartolomeo (b. 1560, d. 1610),
Italian artist, pupil and friend of Frederigo
Zucchero, whom he assisted in painting the
great cupola of the cathedral at Florence.
Accompanying Zucchero to Madrid, he
worked with him in the Escurial, and,
in conjunction with Perugino, Tibaldi
and Pellegrini, painted the ceiling of the
library ; the figures of Aristotle, Euclid,
Archimedes, and Cicero are the work of
Carducci. His masterpiece is a Descent from
the Cross, in the church of St. Philip el Real
at Madrid.
Carducci, Vincenzo (b. 1568, d. 1638),
brother and pupil of the preceding, whom
he followed to Spain. He painted the
history of Achilles on the walls of the
gallery in the palace of the Prado, and was
painter to Philip III. and Philip IV.
Cardwell, Edward (b. 1787, d. 1861),
ecclesiastical historian, completed part of a
synodical history based upon Wilkins's Con-
cilia Magnte Britannicce.
CardweU, Edward, Viscount (b. 1813,
d. lbS6), vras President of the Board of
Trade ( 1852-5), and Secretary for War
(1868-74), in which capacity he effected the
abolition of purchase.
Carew, Bampfyicle Moore (o. ibs3, d. circa
1765), king of the gypsies.
Carew, Sir George, Earl Totnes (b. 1557,
d. 1629). was Lord President of Munster in
1599, and reduced the Earl of Desmond.
Care-w, Thomas (b. 1589, d. 1639), a writer
of lyrics in the courtly style of the 17th
century.
Carey, Henry (b. 1696, d. 1743), musical
composer and author of songs, of which
Sally in our Alley is the best known.
Carey, Henry Charles (b. 1793, d. 1879),
an American political economist, wrote The
Past, the Present, and the Future (1848),
Principles of Social Science (1859), and other
works.
Carey, Matthew (b. 1760, d. 1839), Irish
political writer, started the Freeman1 s Jour-
nal, the violence of which occasioned his
imprisonment. He fled to America, where
he became a publisher, and amassed a
large fortune. Among his works was
Car
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the Yindicice Hibernicce (1818). He died
at Philadelphia.
Carey, William (b. 1761, d. 1834), Orien-
talist and missionary, founded the Baptist
mission at Serampore (1799), and was
appointed professor of Sanscrit, Bengalee,
and Mahratta at Fort William (1801).
Carissimi, Giacomo (b. 1582 or 1604, d.
1671), musical composer, was one of the first to
compose the cantata, and brought the recita-
tive to perfection. Jephtha is considered his
best composition.
Carlen, Emilie (b. 1807, d. 1883), Swedish
novelist ; has in her books depicted various
phases of Swedish society.
Carletcm, Sir Guy (b. 1724, d. 1808),
English general, governor of Quebec, which
town he defended successfully during the
American war, and also defeated Arnold in
1776. In 1781 he was appointed com-
tnander-in- chief in America, and afterwards
raised to the peerage as Lord Dorchester.
Carleton, William (b. 1798, d. 1869),
Irish novelist and graphic delineator of Irish
character, wrote Traits and Stories of the
Irish Peasantry i The Black Prophet, etc.
Carli, or Carli Rubbi, Giovanni Rinaldo,
Count de (b. 1720, d. 1795), Italian
scholar and author, eminent as a mathema-
tician and archaeologist, was in 1771 ap-
pointed president of the council of finance,
at Milan. His chief work is Delle Anti-
ehita Italiche.
Carlile, Richard (b. 1790, d. 1843),
editor of political pamphlets, whose pub-
lication continually embroiled him with the
government.
Carlingford, Chiche.«ter-Fortescue, Lord
(b. 1823), son of Colonel Chichester-
Fprtescue, in 1847 entered Parliament as
Liberal member for Louth, and retained his
Beat till 1874. He was successively Chief
Secretary for Ireland, President of the
Board of Trade, Lord Privy Seal (1881), and
Lord President of the Council (1883), but
resigned office with his party in 1885. He
became Baron Carlingf ord in 1874, and was
mainly instrumental in carrying the Irish
Land Bill through the House of Lords.
Carloni, Giovanni (b. 1590, d, 1630),
Italian fresco-painter, pupil of Passignani
at Florence.
Carloni, Giovanni Battista (b. 1594, d.
1680), brother of the preceding, whom he
assisted in painting in the cathedral of the
Guastato at Genoa.
Carlos, Don (b. Valladolid, 1545, d. 1568),
eldest son of Philip II. of Spain and Mary
of Portugal, was constantly at variance
with his father, who finally placed hin\ in
confinement, where he died.
Carlos, Don Luis Maria Fernando de
Bourbon, Count of Montemolin (b. 1818, d.
1861), eldest son of Carlos, Count of
Molina, and first cousin to Isabella II., on
his father's abdication (1845) claimed the
title of Carlos VI. of Spain. In 1848
Cabrera and others carried on a desultory"
war in his favour in the north of Spain.
Carlos, Don Maria de los Dolores, Juan
Isidore Josef Francesco (b. 1848), Duke
of Madrid, son of Don Juan, brother
of Carlos, Count of Molina, began active
attempts on the Spanish crown in 1869.
In 1872 his brother, Don Alfonso, roused
the inhabitants of northern Spain. Don
Carlos himself arrived in 1873, and a
desultory warfare ensued, marked on
the Carlist side by continual breaches
of military honour. The proclamation
of Alfonso XII. (1874), and the reduc-
tion of the fortresses of Bilbao, Estella and
Tolosa (1876) proved fatal to his cause.
Don Carlos left the country, and after visit-
ing England and America took up his resi-
dence on the Continent.
Carlos, Don Maria Isidor of Bourbon (b.
1788, d. 1855), Count of Molina, called by
his adherents Carlos V. of Spain, was the
second son of Carlos IV. , and brother and
for many years heir-apparent to Ferdinand
VII. Ferdinand died in 1833, leaving an
infant daughter, and though the repeal of
the Salic law had made her the direct heir,
Carlos insisted upon his own right to the
throne. For six years the war between
the Carlists and Christinos (supporters of
the Queen Regent Christina) ravaged the
north of Spain, but in 1839 Don Carlos was
driven into France, and in 1845 abdicated
in favour of his son. He afterwards with-
drew to Austria, where he remained till his
death.
Carlyle, Rev. Joseph Dacre (b. 1759, d.
1804), appointed professor of Arabic at
Cambridge in 1794, travelled extensively,
and wrote Specimens of Arabic Poetry, etc.
Carlyle, Thomas (b. 1795, d. 1881),
Scottish historian and essayist, was the son
of a small farmer of Ecclefechan, Dum-
friesshire, and was educated at the parish
school of Annan, and the University
of Edinburgh. Instead of entering iue
Church, as his parents had intended, he
became a schoolmaster, but his literary
ambition led him back to Edinburgh. In
1823 he wrote the Life of Schiller, and going
to London in 1824 as tutor to Charles Buller,
translated Goethe's Wilhelm Mcister for
the London Magazine. In 1826 he married
Jane Baillie Welsh, and in 1828 went with
her to Craigenputtock, a Dumfriesshire
Car
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farmhouse, and during six years' retirement
there composed Sartor Resartus, containing
his philosophy of life, which appeared first
in Fraser's Magazine. In 1834 Carlyle left
Scotland for Chelsea, which was henceforth
his home. Among his other works the chief
are The French Revolution (1837), Heroes
and Hero Worship (1841), Past and Present
(1843), Latter- Day Pamphlets (1850), the
Life of John Sterling (1851), and the History
of Frederick the Great, concluded in 1864.
Cannagnola, Francesco (*. 1390, d. 1432),
originally a swineherd, entered the service
of Philip Visconti, Duke of Milan, became
his commander-in-chief, and won much
territory for him from the Venetians, to
whom he afterwards transferred his ser-
vices, but incurred their suspicion and was
beheaded.
Carmichael, James (b. 1776, d. 1853),
practical engineer, invented the Tan-blowing
machine, and made improvements in the
steam engine.
Carmichael, Richard (b. 1779, d. 1849),
Irish surgeon, one of the founders of the
" Carmichael " school of medicine in Dublin.
Carmona, Don Salvador (b. 1730, d. 1807),
Spanish engraver, pupil of Charles Dupins ;
enjoyed a high reputation.
Carmontelle (b. 1717, d. 1806), French
dramatic writer, author of Proverbes Dra-
tnatiques, and other works.
Carnarvon, Henry H. M. Herbert, fourth
Earl of (b. 1831, d. 1890), Colonial Secre-
tary under Lord Derby (1866-7), and Dis-
raeli (1874-8) ; in 1885 became Lord-Lieu-
tenant of Ireland, but was compelled by
ill-health to resign in 1886.
Carneades (b. ci*ea 213 B.C., d. 129 B.C.),
Greek philosopher, founder of the New
Academy, and op^t-nent of the Stoics.
Being sent to Rome 'on a diplomatic mission,
bis eloquence provoked the anger of Cato,
who persuaded the senate to expel him from
the city.
Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite (b.
1753, d. 1823), French statesman and mathe-
matician, sat in the Legislative Assembly,
and as a member of the Committee of Public
Safety directed the wars of the republic
with great ability. Proscribed in 1795, he
was recalled in 1799 by Napoleon, who
made him minister of war.
Carnot, Marie Francois Sadi (b. 1837),
President of the French republic, 1887.
Caro, Annibale (b. 1507, d. 1566), Italian
writer, made translations from the Greek
and Latin, and left letters.
Carolan, Turlough O' (J>. 1670, d. 1738),
famous Irish bard and musical composer.
At an early age he lost his sight, but became
extremely skilful on the harp, and wan-
dered through the country as an itinerant
musician.
Caroline Amelia Augusta (b. 1768, d.
1821), second daughter of Charles William,
Duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel, was mar-
ried in 1795 to the Prince of Wales, after-
wards George IV. The marriage was un-
happy, and a separation took place soon
after the birth of the Princess Charlotte. A
" delicate investigation" into her conduct
was undertaken by the Privy Council in
1806, and though the charges against her
were refuted, she withdrew to the Continent
in 1814. In 1820 she returned, claiming
her rights as Queen Consort, whereupon a
Bill to dissolve her marriage was laid before
the House of Lords, but withdrawn after
the third reading owing to the state of
public feeling, always strongly in favour of
the queen. At the coronation of George
IV. (1821) she was refused admittance to
Westminster Hall.
Caroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark
(b. 1751, d. 1775), daughter of Frederick,
Prince of Wales, and wife of Christian VII.
of Denmark, was of an amiable disposition,
but excited the dislike of her husband's
grandmother and stepmother, who preju-
diced the king against her. In 1773 her
marriage was declared void, and she was
imprisoned in the castle of Zell till her
death.
Caroline Willielmina Dorothea (b. 1682,
d. 1737), daughter of John Frederick, Mar-
quis of Brandenburg, was married in 1705
to George, Electoral Prince of Hanover, and
on his accession in 1727 became Queen of
England.
Carolostadt, Andreas Bodenstein (b. 1483,
d. 1541), reformer, and at first the friend
and ally of Luther. He soon developed
ultra-Protestant views, which he afterwards
retracted publicly.
Caron, or Carron, Frans (d. 1674), was
director of the Dutch commerce with .Japan,
and afterwards director- general of French
commerce in India.
Carove, Friedrich W. (b. 1789, d. 1852),
German lawyer, pupil of Hegel, wrote
many works on theological and philoso-
phical subjects.
Carpenter, Francis Bicknell (b. 1830),
American portrait -painter, has had among
his sitters President Lincoln, J. R. Lowell,
and other distinguished men. He painted
the large ^ historical picture of President
Lincoln signing the proclamation of the
emancipation of slaves, which now hangs in
the House of Representatives in Washington.
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Carpenter, George W. (b. 1802, d. 1860),
American scientist, and recognised autho-
rity on geology ; has left numerous papers
on scientific subjects.
Carpenter, Dr. Lant (b. 1780, d. 1840),
Unitarian divine, became minister of the
Unitarian Church at Exeter in 1805, whence
he removed to Bristol in 1817.
Carpenter, Mary (b. 1807, d. 1877),
daughter of the preceding, a zealous philan-
thropist, took an active interest in destitute
children, juvenile criminals, and the women
of India.
Carpenter, Margaret (b. 1793, d. 1872),
portrait-painter, daughter of Captain Alex-
ander Geddes. Among her portraits are
those of Archbishop Sumner and Dr.
Whewell ; others are in the National Por-
trait Gallery.
Carpenter, Philip Pearsall (b. 1819,
d. 1877), son of Dr. Lant Carpenter, was
for many years a Presbyterian minister, and
also interested himself in philanthropic
schemes, but from 1855 onwards his life was
almost entirely devoted to the study of con-
chology. There is a full report on his shells
in the British Association Reports for 1856,
and further details may be found in the
Smithsonian Reports for 1860.
Carpenter, William Benjamin (b. 1813,
d. 1885), physiologist, son of Dr. Lant
Carpenter, wrote Principles of General and
Comparative Physiology, etc., and in 1861
received the medal of the Boyal Society.
Carpenter, The Bight Kev. William Boyd
(b. 1842), Bishop of Bipon (1884), and author
of several works.
Carpentier, Pierre (b. 1697, d. 1767),
French antiquary, wrote Glossarium ad
Scriptores Medice et Infimce Latinitatis, etc.
Carpi, Girolamo da (6. 1501, d. 1556),
Italian painter, and admirer of Correggio,
whose style he successfully imitated.
Carpi, Ugo da (b. 1486, d. 1530), artist,
who discovered the method of wood- en-
graving called chiaro-oscuro, and in this
manner copied many of Baphael's cartoo.. ;.
Carpioni, Giulio (b. 1611, d. 1674),
Venetian painter, whose works are extremely
rare and valuable.
Carpmael, Charles (b. 1846), meteorologist,
in 1870 was a member of the British
"Eclipse" expedition to Spain. Two years
later he went to Canada, and became at-
tached to the observatory at Toronto.
Carpocrates of Alexandria, founder of
the Gnostic sect of the Carpocratians in the
time of Hadrian,
Carr, Sir Bobert (d. 1667), one of
the four commissioners appointed to regu-
late the affairs of New England in 1664.
They encountered much resistance, but
succeeded in capturing New Amsterdam
from the Dutch, and renamed it New
York. He died at Bristol.
Carracci, Agostino (b. circa 1558, d. 1601),
Italian artist, born at Bologna, painted some
of the frescoes in the Farnesiau gallery at
Borne; The Communion of St. Jerome in
the Bolognese gallery is considered his
masterpiece.
Carracci, Annibale (b. 1560, d. 1609),
brother of Agostino, was for eight years
employed by Cardinal Farnese in painting
his palace.
Carracci, Ludovico (b. 1555, d. 1619),
studied the works of the Lombard and
Venetian schools, especially those of Cor-
reggio. His picture, Susannah and the
Elders, is in the National Gallery.
Carrara, an Italian family, lords of
Padua in the 14th century.
Carrenno de Miranda, Don Juan (b. 1614,
d. 1 685) , a Spanish artist, painter to Philip IV.,
who employed him to decorate his palace.
Carriera, Bosalba (b. circa 1672, d. 1757),
Italian painter of portraits, especially
miniatures, practised crayon-painting with
much success, went to Paris in 1721, and
afterwards to Vienna. In 1746 she became
blind.
Carroll, Lewis, the pseudonym of the
Bev. Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (b. circa
1833), humorist, and author of Alice in
Wonderland (1865), Through the Looking-
glass (1872), The Hunting of the Snark
(1876), Rhyme andReason (1883), A Tangled
Tale (1886), Sylvie and £runo (1889), and
other works.
Carruthers, Bobert (b. 1799, d. 1878),
Scottish miscellaneous writer, best known as
editor and biographer of Pope.
Carstairs, William (b. 1649, d. 1715),
Scottish divine and politician, was accused of
participating in the Bye House plot, and
withdrew to Holland, but returned with
William III., and exercised great influence
at his court.
Carstens, Asmus Jac®b (b. 1764, d. 1798),
Danish painter, of humble birth, produced
several large pictures in imitation of
Baphael.
Carte, Thomas (b. 1686, d. 1754), an
English clergyman, chaplain to Bishop
Atterbury, wrote The Life of James, Duke of
Ormond, and a History of England, to which
Hume was much indebted.
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Carter, Elizabeth (*. 1716, d. 1806),
learned English lady, very proficient in
Oreek, and also a good Latin and Hebrew
scholar.
Carteret, John, Earl of Granville (b. 1690,
d. 1763), warm supporter of the Hano-
verian succession, was Lord Lieutenant of
Ireland (1724-30), and became Prime
Minister after the fall of Walpole, but was
obliged to resign, owing to his Hanoverian !
tendencies.
Cartier, Jacques (b. 1494), French navi-
gator, discovered the estuary of the St.
Lawrence, and sailed up the river as far as |
the site of Montreal.
CartwTigat, Edmund (*. 1743, d. 1823), '
the inventor of the power-loom. I
Cartwrig-ht, Thomas (b. 1535, d. 1603), !
professor of divinity at Cambridge, became ;
head of the Puritans, but was forced to take
refuge in Holland.
Carus, Karl Gustay (b. 1789, d. 1869), '
physician and physiologist, professor of ,
medicine at Leipsic. His works were i
numerous and valuable.
Cams, Marcus Aurelius (d. 283),
Roman emperor, elected by the army in
282, repelled the Sarmatians, and carried on
a successful war against the Persians.
Carvalho da Costa, Antonio (b. 1650, d.
1715), Portuguese ecclesiastic, author of a
topographical description of his country,
entitled Chorographia Portugueza.
Carver, John (d. 1621), sailed in the
Mayflower from Leyden ; became fipst
governor of Plymouth colony, and acted
with discretion, establishing friendly rela-
tions with the Indians.
Cary, Alice (b. 1820, d. 1871), American !
writer of prose and verse, after encountering i
various difficulties, came with her sister to
New York, where her ability soon attracted j
attention.
Gary, Phoebe (b. 1824, d. 1871), sister of
the preceding, wrote Poems and Parodies,
Poems of Faith, Hope, and Love, and other
verses marked by a bright and cheerful
tone.
Gary, Annie Louise (b. 1842), singer, of
American birth, travelled much in Europe,
and in 1870 returned to America, where she
became very popular. After her marriage
(1882) she withdrew from public life.
Gary, the Rev. Henry Francis (b.
1772, d. 1844), poet and translator, in
1805 published a verse translation of the
Inferno. His translation of the Divina i
Commedia was completed in 1812. He also
wrote lives of the later English poets, and
was an intimate friend of Coleridge and
Charles Lamb. He was from 1826 to LS38
assistant librarian at the British Museum.
Casa, Giovanni della (b. 1503, d. 1556),
Italian ecclesiastic, devoted himself wholly
to the classics, aud became a great Italian
and Latin scholar.
Casanova, Giovanni Jacopo (b. 1725, d.
1803), Venetian adventurer, who moved in
high life, and wrote Memoirs of his ex-
perience at various European towns.
Casati, Gaetano (b. 1838), Italian ex-
plorer, served in the army till 1879, when
he resigned and set out for Khartoum.
After visiting Gessi Pasha, he proceeded to
Rumbeck (Oct. 1880). No more was heard
of him till Dec. 1881, when a letter arrived
saying that he had been made prisoner by a
chief named Azauga and had just escaped.
At Lado he met Emin Pasha and Junker,
the Russian explorer, and here the three
found themselves shut in by the forces of
the Mahdi. He afterwards went as resident
to the territory of King Kabba Rega of
Unyoro, who condemned him to death, but
he escaped to Albert Nyanza, and there
received succour from Emin (March 1888).
Casati, with his companions, reached
Zanzibar in 1889, and he proceeded thence
to Italy.
Casaubon, Isaac (6. 1559, d. 1614), Greek
scholar, j)rof essor at Geneva and Montpellier
successively, became royal librarian at
Paris, and afterwards went to London,
where he was well received by James I.
Casiliar, John (b. 1811), American
painter and engraver, and member of the
Academy.
Casimir L (b. 1022, d. 1058), King of
Poland, ascended the throne in 1041, and
did much to promote the civilisation of his
people.
Casimir II. (b. 1117, d. 1194), King of
Poland, protected the peasants against the
nobles, and was surnamed " the Just."
Casimir IIL (b. 1309, d. 1370), King of
Poland, surnamed " the Great," succeeded
Vladislas in 1333. He limited the authority
of the Palatines by establishing a court of
appeal at Cracow.
Casimir IV. (d. 1492), King of Poland,
succeeded to the throne in 1447.
Casimir V. (b. 1609, d. 1672), King of
Poland, son of Sigismund HI., was pre-
viously a cardinal.
Casimir-Perier, Auguste Casimir Victor
Laurent (b. 1811, d. 1876), French states-
man, elected to the Legislative Assembly in
Cas
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1849, to the Chamber in 1871, and the same
year became minister of the interior. Elected
life senator in 1875.
Cass, Lewis (b. 1782, d. 1866), American
statesman and general, appointed governor
of Michigan in 1813. He showed great
prudence in his management of Indian
affairs, and in 1831 became secretary of
war in the administration of President
Jackson. Whilst representative of the
United States in France, he protested
vigorously and effectually against the terms
of the quintuple treaty, and returning to
America was elected to the senate in 1845.
In 1857 he became secretary of state, but
about five years later withdrew from public
life.
Cassagnac, Paul Adolphe Marie Prosper
de G-ranier de (b. 1843), French journalist
and politician, became editor of the Pays in
1866, which paper has been several times
prosecuted, and in 1877 Cassagnac was im-
prisoned. He has been an untiring enemy
of the republic.
Casaander, King of Macedonia (b. circa
354 B.C., d. 297 B.C.), son of Antipater,
appointed Chiliarch under Polysperchon on
his father's death, with the assistance of
Ptolemy and Antigonus defeated both
Polysperchon and Olympias, mother of
Alexander. He afterwards assumed the
title of king and by the victory of Ipsus,
(301) established himself firmly on the
throne.
Cassander, George (6. 1515, d. 1568),
Roman Catholic, who endeavoured to effect
a reconciliation between his own church and
the Protestants.
Cassard, Jacques (b. 1672, d. 1740),
French naval officer, served with distinction
against the English, but was neglected by
his countrymen, and died in confinement at
Ham.
Cassell, John (b. 1817, d. 1865), temper-
ance reformer and publisher, founder of
the house of Cassell and Co. , was of humble
birth, first interested himself in temper-
ance whilst working as a carpenter at
Manchester. After holding an appoint-
ment as travelling temperance lecturer, he
became a tea and coffee merchant in
London. He always retained his interest
in the temperance cause, in behalf of which
he printed several tracts, and started a
paper called the Teetotal Times, thus laying
the foundation of the house at Ludgate
Hill. He was a friend of Lord Brougham,
and agitated for the repeal of the paper
duty.
Casserio, Julius (b. 1545, d. 1616),
Italian anatomist, professor of anatomy
at Padua, made many important dis-
coveries, and wrote Tabula Anatomic^
etc.
Cassian. John (b. 351, d. 448), leader
of the Semi-Pelagians, wrote a book on
the Incarnation against the Nestorian
heresy.
Cassie, James (b. 1819, d. 1879), Scottish
painter, excelled in landscapes and sea-
pieces.
Cassin, John (b. 1813, d. 1869), American
ornithologist, who has described and
classified many birds not noticed by
Audubon and Wilson.
Cassini, Jean Dominique (b. 1625, d.
1712), appointed professor of astronomy
at Bologna in 1650, went to France at the
invitation of Colbert in 1672, and was in-
stalled at the royal observatory. He
discovered four new satellites of Saturn,
and left valuable tables on the motions of
those of Jupiter.
Cassini de Thury, Cesar Franpois (b.
1714, d. 1784), French mathematician,
member of the Academic des Sciences, and
famous for his trigonometrical survey of
France, to which he devoted his life.
Cassiodorus, Magnus Aurelius (b, circa
468, d. 562), was made governor of Sicily
by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths,
and became sole consul in 514. Dismissed
by Iviiig Yitiges from his offices, he
retired to the monastery of Viviers in
Calabria, where he lived many years in
seclusion.
Cassias, Avidius (d. 175), general of
Marcus Aurelius, against whom he rebelled,
but was shortly afterwards assassinated by
two of his own officers.
Cassius, Longinus Caius (d. 42 B.C.), fol-
lowed Crassus as quaestor against the Par-
thians, and saved the remnant of his army.
He took a principal part in Csesar's mur-
der, and commanded the left wing at the
battle of Philippi, after which he committed
suicide.
Cassivelaunus or Cassibelan, a British
prince, vigorously but unsuccessfully op-
posed Csesar's invasion (54 B.C.).
Castagno, Andrea del, painter of the 15th
century, son of a Tuscan peasant, studied
and painted at Florence, his masterpieces
being the Flagellation in Santa Croce,
and the paintings in Santa Maria Nuova.
He excelled in design and composition.
On his deathbed he confessed that he had
murdered his rival, Domenico Veneziano.
Castanos, Don Francis Xavier de, Duke
of Baylen (b. 1753, d. 1852), a Spanish
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general, served against the French, distin-
guishing himself at the battle of Vittoria.
Castel, Rene" Louis Richard (b. 1758, d.
1832), French poet and naturalist.
Castelar, Emilio (b. 1832), Spanish
statesman and writer, condemned to death
owing to his attacks on the government
in 1868. He fled to France, but shortly
returned, and espoused the cause of the
Federal republic ; was appointed dictator
on the resignation of Amadeus (1873), but
resigned a few months later. He is an
eloquent speaker, and has written many
works.
Castell, Edmund (b. 1606, d. 1685), pro-
fessor of Arabic at Cambridge, and author
of the Lexicon Heptaglotton, or dictionary of
seven languages.
Castelli, Benedetto (b. 1577, d. 1644),
Italian mathematician and disciple of
Galileo, devoted himself chiefly to hydrau-
lics, on which he left a treatise.
Castelli, Giovanni Battista (b. 1500,
d. cir<'d 1570), called "II Bergamasco,"
architect, sculptor, and painter, exe-
cuted many frescoes in the churches of
Genoa, his masterpiece being Christ re-
ceiving the Elect, on the ceiling of the church
of Portoria. He was invited by Charles V.
to Madrid, and assisted in decorating the
palace of the Prado.
Castelli, Valerio (b. 1625, d. 1659),
Italian painter, whose frescoes in the cupola
of the church of the Annunziata in Genoa
are much admired.
Castslvetro, Lodovico (b. 1505, d. 1571),
a learned Italian, who devoted his life to
the study of his own language.
Casti, Giambattista (b. 1721, d. 1803),
Italian wit, popular amidst literary and
courtly circles in various European capitals,
especially at Vienna, author of Gli Animali
Parlanti, a political satire on monarchs and
diplomacy.
Castiglione, Baldassare {b. 1478, d. 1529),
born at Mantua, accomplished knight and
scholar, who spent much time in the various
courts of Europe.
Castilfco, Antonio Feliciano de (b. 1800, d.
1875), Portuguese poet, author of His-
torical Pictures of Portugal and other works.
Castillo, Ramon (b. 1797, d-. 1867), a
Peruvian general, in 1844 overthrew the
dictator Vivanco, was president from 1845 to
1851, overcame his successor Echenique,
and was again supreme ruler in 1855. He
now abolished slavery, and in 1860 intro-
duced universal suffrage, and forbade all
religions but the Roman Catholic.
Castillo, Bernard-Diaz del (b. 1519, d.
1560), Spanish soldier, accompanied Cortes to
Mexico, and wrote a history of the conquest.
Castillo y Saavedra, Antonio del (b. 1603,
d. 1667), Spanish painter, whose best works
are in the cathedral of Cordova.
Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount,
second Marquis of Londonderry (b. 1769,
d. 1822), statesman, entered political life
as Chief Secretary of the Lord -Lieutenant
of Ireland (1796), and has been charged '
with cruelty in suppressing the rebellion
of 1798, but without due cause. He
was Secretary for War in 1805, and from
1807 to 1809, and fought a duel with
Canning, which led to his retirement. In
1812 he became leader of the House of
I Commons and Foreign Secretary, and was
accused by his enemies of conspiring against
liberty in both capacities. His unpopu-
larity and ill- success so preyed upon his
mind as to unhinge his reason, and he died
by his own hand.
Castren, Matthias Alexander (b. 1813, d.
1852), professor of Scandinavian languages
in the university of Helsingfors, also eminent
as a "Finnish scholar.
Castro, Inez de (d. 1355), married Dom
Pedro of Portugal in 1354, but was put to
death by his father, Alfonso IV.
Castro, Joao de (b. 1500, d. 1548), Por-
tuguese general, viceroy of the Indies (1547).
Castruccio, Castracani (b. 1284, d. 1328),
chief of the Ghibelline party in Tus-
cany, became supreme in Lucca through
his military exploits and political talents.
He made war against the Florentines, de-
feating them in 1328.
Catalani, Angelica (b. 1779, d. 1849),
Italian singer, made her debut at Milan in
1 1801; spent seven years in England, and
was enthusiastically received in the principal
cities of Europe. She retired to Florence in
1830.
Catesby, Mark (b. 1680, d. 1749),
naturalist, travelled in America, and wrote
and illustrated The Natural History of
Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands.
Cathcart, Hon. Sir George (b. 1790,
d. 1854), general, third son of the first Earl
of Cathcart, served in the campaigns of
1813 and 1814, was present as aide-de-camp
to the Duke of Wellington at Quatre-Bras
and Waterloo, became governor at the
Cape in 1852, and commanded the fourth
division in the Crimean war, but was mor-
tally wounded at Inkermann.
Cathcart, William Shaw, first Ea,rl of
(b. 1755, d. 1843), English general, served
Cat
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Cat
in the American war of Independence
(1779), commanded the expedition to the
Baltic in 1807, and, after the capitulation of
Copenhagen and the surrender of the Danish
fleet, was raised to the peerage, and became
an earl in 1814. He was for many years
ambassador at St. Petersburg.
Cathelineau, Jacques (b. 1759, d. 1793),
commander-in-chief of the Vendeans, took
the field on behalf of the king in 1793, but
was mortally wounded in an attack upon
Nantes.
Catherine Howard (6. circa 1522, d. 1542),
fifth wife of Henry VIII. of England, was
accused of immorality by Archbishop Cran-
mer, found guilty by a commission, and
beheaded on Tower Hill, seventeen months
after her marriage.
Catherine Parr (b. 1512, d. 1548),
daughter of Sir T. Parr, was married first to
Edward Borough, secondly to Lord Latinier,
and in 1543 became the sixth and last wife
of Henry VIII. She was learned in theology
and a zealous Protestant, and, according to
Foxe, on one occasion only escaped death as
a heretic by timely submission to the king.
She survived Henry, and in 1547 married
Lord Seymour of Sudeley, who was accused
of hastening her death (in child-birth) by
poisoning.
Catherine of Aragon, Queen of Eng-
land (b. 1483, d. 1536), daughter of Fer-
dinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile,
married first Arthur, Prince of Wales,
and subsequently his brother, afterwards
Henry VILE. She was beautiful and vir-
tuous, yet the king in 1527 sought a
divorce on the ground that the marriage
was uncanonical. After much temporising
on the part of the Pope, the marriage was
in 1533 pronounced invalid by Cranmer,
Archbishop of Canterbury, and his sentence
was ratified by Act of Parliament. Catherine
spent the rest of her life in Kimbolton castle.
Catherine of Braganza (b. 1638, d.
1705), Queen of England, was daughter
of John IV. of Portugal, and in 1662 was
married to Charles II. of England, bringing
Tangiers and Bombay as part of her dowry.
She returned to Portugal in 1693, acted
as regent for her brother Pedro, and dis-
played much wisdom and prudence.
Catherine de Medicis (b. 1519, d. 1589),
great granddaughter of Lorenzo the Mag-
nificent, niece of Pope Clement VII., and
queen to Henri II. of France, acted as
regent during the minority of her second
son, Charles IX. ; her policy was to play off
the parties of the Guises and the Conde"s
against one another. She instigated the
massacre of St. Bartholomew.
Catherine I., Empress of Bussia (b. circa
1685, d. 1727), was the outcast infant of a
Livonian peasant-girl, and became nurse in
the family of the Protestant minister of
Marienburg. In 1701 she married a Swedish
dragoon, who soon afterwards went with
his regiment to Riga, and never returned.
After the capture of Marienburg by the
Russians, Catherine became the mistress
first of General Bauer, with whom she lived
at Moscow, secondly, of Prince Menschikoff ,
and finally, of Peter the Great, who married
her privately near "Warsaw in 1711, and
publicly the next year at St. Petersburg.
She then embraced the Greek religion, and
took the name of Catherine. On the death
of Peter, in 1725, she was proclaimed
Czarina. Her death was the result of
intemperance.
Catherine II., Empress of Russia (b. 1729,
d. 1796), the Princess Sophia Augusta,
daughter of the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst,
on her marriage in 1745 with Peter, nephew
and heir of the Empress Elizabeth, assumed
the name of Catherine Alexiovna. Her
refinement and love of study contrasted
with her husband's vulgarity and intern -
Eerance ; neglected by him, she ingratiated
erself with some of the nobles ; her
intrigues were discovered by Peter, and, on
ascending the throne in 1762, he threatened
to repudiate her, whereupon she imprisoned
him and had him strangled. The subsequent
murder of Ivan, the next heir, left Catherine
in undisputed possession of the throne. As
Empress she seized the Crimea, and took
part in the dismemberment of Poland. She
promoted the welfare of Russia by en-
couraging literature and commerce, but her
reign was sullied by disgraceful amours.
Catilina, Lucius Sergius (d. 62 B.C.), a
Roman patrician, and in early life a partisan
of Sulla, after failing to obtain the consulship
in 63, organised a conspiracy, which was de-
nounced by Cicero in the senate. He fled
to his partisans in Etruria, where he was
defeated and slain near Pistoria.
Catinat de la Fauconnerie, Nicolas de
(b. 1637, d. 1712), French soldier, became
marshal of France in 1693.
Cato, Dionysius, author of Disticha de
Moribws ad Filium, a collection of distichs in
hexameter verse, formerly used in schools.
Cato, Marcus Porcius, called Cato Major
(b. B.C. 234, d. B.C. 149), after holding
the offices of military tribune in Sicily,
queestor in Africa, under Scipio (-04),
and praetor in Sardinia (198), became
consul in 195. He showed great ability as
proconsul of Spain, distinguished himself
against Antiochus in Greece, and in 184 B.C.
was elected censor with L. Valerius
Flaccus. This office he discharged with a
strictness and integrity which made him
Cat
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Cav
many enemies. He was one of the chief
instigators of the third Punic war.
Cato, Marcus Porcius, surnamed Uticensis
(b. B.C. 95, d. B.C. 46), great-grandson of Cato
Major, was early marked by his sternness
and force of character, and adopted Stoic
principles. He supported Cicero against the
Catilinarians, and sided with Pompey
against Caesar. After the battle of Phar-salia
he retired to Utica ; here he received tidings
of the defeat of his party at Thapsus. and,
after a night spent in" studying Plato's
Ph(sdo, died by his own hand.
Cats, Jacob (b. 1577, d. 1660), Dutch
poet, author of Trouwring, etc.
Cattaneo, Carlo (b. 1803), Italian writer,
founder of a scientific journal called
Politecnico. His papers embrace a wide
range of subjects. He took a prominent
part in the insurrection of Milan in 1848.
Cattennole, George (b. 1800, d. 1868),
English water-colour artist and historical
painter.
Catullus, Caius Valerius (b. circa 87 B.C.,
d. circa 47 B.C.), Roman poet, went with
Memmius to BithjTiia as preetor, in the
vain hope of repairing the fortune he had
impaired in the pursuit of pleasure. Among
his poems the elegy on his brother is the
most famous. He wrote many lyrics.
Cauchy, Augustin Louis (b. 1789, d. 1857),
French mathematician, whose essay, Sur
la Theorie des Ot'des, gave rise to the undu-
latory theory of light ; he also gave much
attention to the integral calculus.
Caus, Cauls, or Caux, Salomon de (d. circa
1635), French architect and engineer,
wrote Les liaisons des Forces Mouvantes,
Institution Harmonique, etc.
Caussin de Perceval, Jean Jacques An-
toine (b. 1759,6?. 1835), French Orientalist,
became professor of Arabic at the College of
France (1783), and keeper of oriental
manuscripts in the royal library (1787).
Cavagna, Giovanni Paolo (b. 1560, d.
1627), artist who excelled in painting old
men and children. His masterpiece is a
Crucifixion, in the church of Sta. Lucia
at Venice. His style resembles that of
Paolo Veronese.
Cavagnari, Major Sir Pierre Louis
Napoleon, K..C.B. (b. 1841, d. 1879), of
French descent, but educated in England,
in 1858 joined the 1st Bengal Fusiliers,
served in the Indian mutiny, held several
civil appointments in India, and in 1879
was sent with a small escort on an embassy to
Cabul, where he was attacked, and, after a
brave resistance, massacred with all his
companions.
Cavaignac, Louis Eugene (b. 1802, d. 1857),
French general and politician, appointed go-
vernor-general of Algeria by the provisional
government of 1848, returned to Paris,
became dictator, and drove the insurgents
from the barricades (1851).
Cavalcanti, Guido (d. 1300), born at
Florence, Italian writer of lyrical and Icve
poems ; was a leader of the Bianchi party
in Florence, and an intimate friend of
Dante.
Cavalcaselle, Giovanni Battista {b. circa
1820), art student and critic, well known
in England by his works on the history of
Flemish and Italian painting. He took part
in the Italian revolution (1848-9) as a
follower of Garibaldi.
Cavaliere, Emilio del (b. circa 1550, d,
1601), Italian nobleman, one of the first
to introduce the form of music since de-
veloped into the opera and the oratorio.
Cavalieri, Bonaventura (b. 1598, d.
1647), Italian mathematician, pupil of
Galileo, and author of a Geometry <yf
Cavalli, Francesco (b. 1610, d. 1676),
musician and composer of operas ; was
maestro di capella at the cathedral of
St. Mark, in Venice.
Cavalli, Giovanni, General (b. circa
1816), distinguished military and scientific
man, inventor of the gun called by his
name.
Cavallini, Pietro (*. 1279, d. 1364),
Italian painter, pupil of Giotto, whom he
assisted in the mosaic over the grand en-
trance of the church of St. Peter. Most of
his works are at Rome. His masterpiece i*
a Crucifixion at Assisi.
Cavanilles, Antonio Josef (b. 1745, d.
1804), Spanish ecclesiastic and botanist,
who left many valuable works.
Cave, Edward (b. 1691, d. 1754), printer
and publisher, founder of the Gentleman's
Magazine, and friend of Dr. Johnson, who
wrote his biography.
Cavedone, Giacomo (b. 1577, d. 1660),
Italian painter, pupil of the Carracci, went
to Venice to study Titian, and his manner
is a happy compound of the two styles.
Some of his works are in the churches of
Bologna.
Cavendish, Lord Frederick Charles (b.
1836, d. 1882), second son of the Duke of
Devonshire: succeeded Mr. W. E. Forster
as Chief Secretary for Ireland, but a few
days later was murdered in Phosnix Park,
Dublin, by a band of assassins calling them-
selves "the Invincibles."
Cav
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Cec
Cavendish, Heiiry (*. 1731, d. 1810),
natural philosopher, was son of Lord
Charles Cavendish, and nephew of the
third Duke of Devonshire. Independently
of Watts he discovered the composition of
water (1781), at the same time showing how
it may be synthetically formed ; determined
the composition of nitric acid ; but gained
most renown through his determination of
the specific gravity and therefore the weight
of the earth.
Cavendish or Candish, Thomas (b. 1564,
d. 1593), English navigator, passed through
the Straits of Magellan, ravaged the coast-
line of Chili and Peru, taking immense
booty, and returned to England by way
of the Pacific and the Cape of Good
Hope, after circumnavigating the world in
little more than two years.
Cavour, Count Camillo Benso di (b. 1810,
d. 1861), Italian statesman, born at Turin,
and descended from an ancient Piedmontese
family, began life as an officer in the Sardinian
army, but soon resigned his commission, and
sought by travel in England, France, and else-
where, and the study of political and social in-
stitutions, as well as of finance and agricul-
ture, to gain a mass of experience which he
might turn to the advantage of his country. In
1846 he started the Risorgimento, a paper of
moderate and constitutional views ; in 1818,
when Charles Albert granted a constitution,
took his seat in the chamber as representa-
tive of one of the Turin constituencies, was
minister of agriculture and commerce from
1850 to 1852, and prime minister from 1852
onwards. He contrived that Sardinia should
co-operate in the Crimean war, and brought
the grievances of Italy before the Congress
of Paris (1856). With the help of Louis
Napoleon a successful war was carried on
against Austria, and, notwithstanding the
disappointing peace of Villafranca (1859),
Cavour was able, by securing the annexa-
tion of Tuscany and Emilia, and by effecting
a junction with the forces of Garibaldi, to
accomplish the aim of his life, and see Italy
a united kingdom under the rule of Victor
Emmanuel.
Cawton, Thomas (b. 1605, d. 1659), Eng-
lish divine, and celebrated linguist.
Cazton, William (b. circa 1420, d. 1491),
the earliest English printer, acquired a
knowledge of the art whilst in the Low
Countries, and set up a printing press at
Westminster, probably in 1474.
Cay ley, Arthur (I. 1821). mathematician,
was in 1863 appointed first Sadlerian pro-
fessor of pure mathematicfc at Cambridge,
and in 1883, as president of the British
Association, delivered an address on the
possibilities and present limitations of mathe-
matics, which attracted much attention.
Caylus, Anne Claude Philippe, Comte de
(b. 1692, d. 1765), French archaeologist,
wrote A Collection of Egyptian, Etruscan,
Greek, Roman, and Gallic Antiquities, etc.
Cayx, Eemi Jean Baptiste Charles (b. 1795,
d. 1858), French historian, inspector of the
Academy of Paris in 1837; wrote on the
history of his own country, and that of the
Roman empire.
Cazales, Jacques Antoine Marie de (b.
1758, d. 1805), French orator and poli-
tician ; was a member of the first National
Assembly, but left France on the fall of the
constitutional monarchy.
Cazan Khan (d. 1304), able and enlightened
king of Persia of the Mogul dynasty.
Cazes, Pierre Jacques (b. 1676, d.
1754), French artist, was director (1744)
and afterwards (1746) chancellor of the
Academy.
Gazette, Jacques (b. 1720, d. 1792),
French writer of romances and tales,
chiefly remembered as having correctly
prophesied the deaths of several persons in
the coming revolution. He himself suffered
by the guillotine.
Cazouyny or Cazwyny, Zacharie Ben
Mohammed Ben Mahmoud (b. circa 1210,
d. 1283), celebrated Arabian naturalist,
author of a work on geography, and another
on celestial and terrestrial phenomena.
Cecco d'Ascoli, the name given to Fran-
cesco Stabili (b. 1257, d. 1327), scientific poet,
author of the Acerba, a sort of encyclopaedia
in verse ; he was condemned to the stake by
the Inquisition.
Cecil, Richard (b. 1748, d. 1810), Eng-
lish evangelical divine.
Cecil, Robert. [See Salisbury.]
Cecil, William, Lord Burleigh (b. 1520,
d. 1598), minister of State, son of Richard
Cecil, of Burleigh, in Northamptonshire,
rose steadily during the reign of Edward
VI. , opposed Lady Jane Grey, found favour
with Mary, and became Elizabeth's chief
Secretary of State. In this capacity he did
more than any other man to promote that
f eeling of national unity which is the dis-
tinctive mark of the Elizabethan period.
Recognising that the patriotism of the
country centred in the queen, he continually
besought her to marry, and thus secure for
England a succession of Protestant rulers.
It was under his management that a settled
form was given to the English Church,
and, though personally disposed to favour
the Puritans, his political sagacity led him
to adopt in all matters a prudent and middle
course. Both his religious and political
Cec
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views led him to urge on the execution of
Mary, Quren of Scots.
Cecilia, Saint, the patron paint of music,
a Roman virgin, is sup." 1 to have suf-
f civil martyrdom about the b. jiuuiag of the
3rd century.
Cedd, Saint (d. 6G4), brother of St. Chad,
and bishop of the East Saxous.
Celakowsky, Frantisek Ladislaw (b. 1799,
d. IN •">.!), philologist and author, professor
of the Bohemian language at the University
of Prague.
Celaste, Marie (b. 1815, d. 1SS-2), French
actress and ballet dancer, very popular in
England and America. She withdrew from
the stage in 187 >.
Celesti, Cavaliere Andrea (b. 1637, d. 1706),
Venetian painter of landscapes and historical
and sacred pieces, some of whose works may
still be seen in the churches of Venice.
Celestine L (d. 432), pope in 422, con-
tributed to the supremacy of the pontifical
Bee by exerting his authority in the East
with reference to the Nestorian controversy.
Celestine IL (d. 1144), pope in 1143,
quarrelled with Roger, the Norman king of
the Two Sicilies.
Celestine HI. (d. 1198), pope in 1191,
aided Henry VI. of Germany in establish-
ing his power in Sicily.
Celestine IV., pope in 1241, reigned only
seventeen days.
Celestine V., Pietro Horoiie (*. 1215, d.
1296), pope in 1294, was previously an
anchorite, near Sulmona. His inexperience
and simplicity made him a mere tool in the
hands of Charles II. of Anjou. He was
persuaded to resign his office, and spent the
rest of his days in confinement.
CeUarius, Christoph (b. 1638, d. 1707),
German teacher and writer of works on
Latin and Hebrew.
Cellini, Benvenuto (b. 1500, d. 1571), born
at Florence, sculptor and goldsmith, led an
adventurous life. He worked for Francis I.
of France, and at Florence for Cosmo de
Medici. According to his autobiography,
an Italian classic, he killed the Constable de
Bourbon at the siege of Rome.
^ Celsius, Andreas (b. 1701, d. 1744),
Swedish astronomer, introduced the " centi-
grade scale " for thermometers.
Celsus, Aulus (or Aurelius) Cornelius,
philosopher, supposed to have lived at Rome
in the 1st century, wrote De Mediclna.
Csltes, Protucius Conrad (b. 1459, d.
'S), German poet, whose real name was
Mei.sx;l. He wa> professor of rhetoric at
the university of Vienna, and librarian to
Maximilian I.
Cenci, Beatrice (d. 1599), Roman l;uly,
who with her stepmother Lucretia, and ln'.-r
brother Giacomo, compassed the death of
her cruel and incestuous father, Count
Francesco Cenci. The three murderers
were seized and executed at Rome. There
is a doubtful portrait of Beatrice by Guido
in the Colouna Palace at Rome, and her
story is the subject of a drama by Shelley.
Censorinus, Appiua Claudius (d. 209),
was saluted emperor in 269, and assassinated
seven days afterwards.
Centlivre, Susannah (b. circa 1667, d.
172o). English dramatist, wrote The Won-
der, The Busybody, etc. In 1706 she was
married to Joseph Centlivre, chief cook to
Queen Anne.
Ceo, Violante do (b. 1601, d. 1693),
Portuguese poetess, early entered the order
of the Dominicans.
Ceolfrid or Ceolnrth (b. 642, d. 716),
Saxon, founder of the Abbey of Wear-
mouth ; amongst his pupils was the Vener-
able Bede.
Cepnisodotus, Athenian sculptor of the
4th century B.C., executed a group in
marble for the temple of Jupiter Soter at
Megalopolis.
Cepnisodotus the Younger, a son of
the great Praxiteles, lived about 300 B.C.
Amongst his works was a statue in wood
of Lj^curgus.
Ceraccni, Giuseppi (*. circa 1760, d. 1802),
Corsican sculptor, who with three others
was executed in 1801 for attempting to as-
sassinate Napoleon.
Cerdic (d. 534), Saxon chieftain, founder
of the kingdom of Wessex.
Cerinthus, heresiarch of the 1st century,
said to have been educated at Alexandria.
Some have supposed that the Gospel of
St. John was written in refutation of his
doctrines.
Cerquozzi, Michelangelo (b. 1602, d. 1660),
Roman artist, called Michelangelo delle
Battaglie from the excellence of his battle
pieces. One of his pieces, representing a
mob cheering Masaniello, is in the Palazzo
Spada at Rome.
Cervantes de Saavedra, Miguel de (b.
1547, d. 161b'), Spanish author, born
at Alcala de Henares, belonged to an
ancient Galician family, and was educated
at the university of balamanca, where he
Cer
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Cha
«pent his time chiefly in writing verses.
After following Cardinal Aquaviva as
chamberlain into Italy, he enlisted under
Marc Antonio Colouua, and distinguished
himself at the battle of Lepauto (1571),
where he lost his left hand ; in 1575 was
captured by a corsair, and spent five years
in slavery at Algiers. In 1538 he settled at
Seville, and for the next ten years devoted
his time mainly to writing dramas. In lb'05
the first part of Don Quixote appeared, and
the second followed ten years later. Among
the other works of Cervantes are Novelets
Exemplar es, Viaye al Parnaso, and Galatea.
Cervolle, Arnaud de (b. circa 1300, d.
1366), surnamed 1'Archipretre, chief of one
of the ''companies" which devastated
France in the 14th century.
Cesalpino or Csesalpinus, Andrea (b.
1519, d. 1603), eminent Italian botanist,
was one of the first to attempt a scien-
tific method in the study of botany and
mineralogy.
Cesare, Giuseppe. [See Arpino.]
Cesari, Antonio (b. 1760, d. 1828), ecclesi-
astic, sought to restore Italian to its early
purity through the study of writers of the
14th century.
Cesarotti, Melchiore (b. 1730, d. 1808),
Italian poet, and professor of Greek and
Hebrew at Padua, wrote an Essay on the
Philosophy of Language, translated Homer,
JEschylus, Demosthenes, etc., and was very
successful in rendering Ossiau in Italian
blank verse.
Cesi, Bartolommeo (b. 1550, d. 1629),
Italian artist, friend and rival of the
Caracci. Among his works are The
Descent of the Holy Ghost, in the Certosa,
and the frescoes, illustrating the life of
.3£neas, in the Palazzo Favi.
Cesi, Carlo (b. 1626, d. 1686), histori-
cal painter and engraver; one of his best
works is Tke Judgment of Solomon, in Sta.
Maria Maggiore.
Cesi or Csssius, Frederico, Prince of
(b, 1585, d. 1636), patron of science, was the
founder of the Academy '• de' Lincei" in
Rome.
Cesnola, Count Luigi Palma di (b. 1832),
Italian explorer, born at Turin, whilst
American consul at Larnan in Cyprus in
1865 begnn a series of excavations, which
he continued for about ten years. The
statuettes, vases, and coins he discovered
are now in the Museum of Art at New
York. He published an account of his
labours in 1878.
Cespedes, Pablo de (b. 1538, d. 1608),
Spanish painter, sculptor, scholar, and
writer, visited Rome, where he painted
some frescoes in the church of the Trinity.
His chief works are at Cordova.
Cesti, Marc Antonio (b. circa 1620, d.
1681), Italian musician, maestro di capella
at Florence in 1646.
Cetewayo, King of Zululand (b. 1821, d.
1884), became regent for his father Panda
in 1856, and succeeded him iu 1873. His
policy towards Natal was at first concilia-
tory, but harassed by aggressions of the Boers,
for whose conduct Britain became respon-
sible on annexing the Transvaal, he became
tyrannical and suspicious, and the British
declared war in 1879. The war ended in the
burning of Cetewayo's kraal at Ulundi ;
he fled, but was captured and sent as a
prisoner to Cape Town, his country being
divided among thirteen petty chieftains. In
1882 the British Government determined
to restore Cetewayo, and after visiting
England he returned to Zululand, January,
Ibbo. Internal troubles and wars broke
out ; Cetewayo failed to drive out Usibepu,
and after surrendering to the British re-
sident, he died suddenly in 1884.
Chabanon, Michael Paul Gui de (b.
1730, d, 1792), French poet and musician
of note, born at St. Domingo ; left several
dramas and poems.
Chabert, Joseph Bernard, Marquis de (b.
1724, d. 1805), French admiral and man of
science, went on several voyages to correct
the naval charts then in use ; served in the
American war : during the French revo-
lution retired to England ; returned in 1802,
and was well received by Bonaparte.
Chabot, Francois (b. 1759, d. 1794),
French Capuchin friar, who was guillotined
as an accomplice of Danton.
Chabrol de Crouzol, Andre Jean, Count
(b. 1771, d. 1836), French statesman, who
as minister of marine (1824) and of finance
(1829) rendered great public services.
Chabrol de Volvic, Gilbert Joseph Gas-
pard, Count (b. 1773, d. 1843), brother of
the preceding, accompanied the Egyptian
expedition in a scientific capacity. He was
appointed prefect of the Seine in 1812, and
retained the office after the restoration.
Chad or Ceadda, Saint (d. 672) , Bishop of
York, and afterwards of Lichfield.
Chahyn Gherai, last Khan of the Crimea,
was in 1783 compelled by the Russians to
abdicate.
Chaillu, Paul Belloni du (b. 1835), African
explorer, author of Explorations and Ad-
ventures in Equatorial Africa (1861), and
The Land of the Midnight Sun (1881).
Ciia
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Cha
Cnakaor Charka (d. 1829), King of the
Zulus, assassinated by his brothers.
Chalcondylas, Deinetrius (I. circa 1424, d.
151 0), Greek grammarian, who taught at
Florence and Milan.
Chalcondylas, Laonicos (d. circa 1464),
Byzantine historian, wrote in Greek a His-
tory of the Turks from 1293 to 14G2.
Challemel-Lacour, Paul Amand (b. 1827),
French politician and writer, was asso-
ciated with Gambetta in establishing the
Revut Potttiiiue ^ISi'S), and the Republiqw
Franc,aise (1871V His proceedings as pre-
fect of the Rhdne in 1870 gave rise to
much unfavourable comment. He was
foreign secretary in 1883.
Chalmers, Alexander (b. 1 759, d. 1834), mis-
cellaneous writer, edited the Morning Herald,
and wrote a General Biographical Dictionary.
Chalmers, Thomas (b. 1780, d. 1847),
Scottish divine, educated at St. Andrews,
where he taught mathematics after his
ordination. In 1815 he became a minister
at Glasgow, and at once attracted attention
by his eloquence. He was subsequently
professor of moral philosophy at St.
Andrews (1823) and of theology at Edin-
burgh (1828). On the disruption of the
Church of Scotland (1313) he joined the
Free Church party, and became moderator
of its assembly and principal of its college.
His writings embrace a wide range of sub-
jects, including natural science and political
economy.
Chaloner, Sir Thomas, the elder (b. 1521,
d. 1565), diplomatist and author, was sent
by Elizabeth as ambassador to the Emperor
Ferdinand and to Philip II., and resided in
Spain from 1561 to 1564. He wrote a
treatise Of the Right Ordering of the English
Republic.
Chaloner, Sir Thomas, the younger (b.
1561, d. 1615), son of the preceding, was
much esteemed by James I., and became
tutor to his son Henry.
Chalybseus, Heinrich Moritz (b. 1796,
d. 1862). professor of philosophy at Kiel
(1839-52), wrote a History of Speculative
PJ> ilosophy from Kant to Hegel, a System of
Speculative Ethics, etc.
Cham, the pseudonym of Amede'e de
Noe (b. 1819, d. 1879), caricaturist and
humorist, connected with the Charivari for
about thirty years. Douze Annees Comiques
(1880) and Les Folies Parisiennes (1883) are
collections of his contributions to comic
journals.
Chamberlain, Rt. Hon. Joseph (b. 1836),
politician, was educated at University
College school, and entered his father's busi-
•i manufacturer <>f wo . nl-.-'Tews at
Birmingham. ][«-a< ;;uired local celebrity as
an cx]:-'iu'iit of h':i<li,'al views, tinged \vith
ivpul>'i>-a:iism, was mayor of Birmingham in
l.s7-"> and the two following years, in 1S76
was returned as member for that town, and
in KS80 obtained a seat in Mr. Glad M.UU'B
Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade.
To him are owing the Bankruptcy Bill
(IM^.'J), the Married Women's Property Bill,
and the Patent Law Amendment Bill. In
1883 he advocated manhood suffrage, equal
electoral districts, and paid members ; and
from 1885 onwards his proposals showed
the influence of fetate Socialism, especially
in regard to the laud. His views were
fully developed in The Radical Programme^
published by the Liberal Federation in 1885.
In 1886 he became president of the Local
Government Board, but resigned owing to
his disapproval of the Home Rule Bill. Since
then he has been one of the supporters of
the Unionist party, but has not otherwise
taken a conspicuous part in political life.
In 1887 he was one of the commissioners
appointed to settle the fisheries disputes
between the United States and Canada.
Chambers, Ephraim (b. circa 1680, d.
1740), wrote a well-known encyclopaedia,
the first edition of which appeared in 1728.
Chambers, Robert (b. 1802, d. 1871), bro-
ther of William, in 1832 joined him in
establishing a publishing house ; besides his
contributions on social, philosophical, and
humorous subjects to Chambers's Journal,
wrote on geology and Scottish history and
romance, and was the author of Vestiges of
the Natural History of Creation. Among his
best works are his Life of Burns and the
Book of Day*.
Chambers, William (b. 1800, d. 1883),
Scottish publisher and author, with his
brother Robert established Chambers *s Jour-
nal in 1832. Henceforward they took
an active part in the popularisation of
knowledge, William was also interested in
schemes of sanitary improvement, and in
1865 was elected lord provost of Edinburgh.
Chambers, Sir William (b. Stockholm
1726, d. 1796), architect, of Scottish parent
age, designed the gardens at Kew, and built
Somerset House and other mansions.
Chambord, Henri Charles Dieudonne,
Comte de (b. 1820, d. 1883), the last of the
elder branch of the Bourbons, was the son
of the Due de Berry. Charles X. resigned
in his favour, but he was compelled to live
abroad.
Chamier, Daniel (b. circa 1570, d. 1621),
French divine, professor of theology at
Montauban, and a vigorous defender of
Cka
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Protestantism, was slain during the siege
of Montauban by Louis XIII.
Chamillard, Michel de (b. 1651, d. 1721),
French statesman, whose maladministration
of the finances (1699-1708) nearly ruined his
country.
Chamilly, Noel Bouton, Comte de (b.
1636, d. 1715), French marshal, who gal-
lantly defended Grave against the Prince of
Orange.
Chamisso, Adalbert von (b. 1781, d.
1838), German poet and botanist, of French
descent, entered the Prussian army in 1798,
but, caring more for Literature, and becom-
ing connected with the young romantic
school, left it in 1807. In 1815 he joined a
Russian exploring expedition to Behring's
Straits, and returning in 1817 became cus-
todian of the botanical gardens in Berlin.
He wrote Peter Schlemihl (a novel), and
many ballads and lyrics.
Chamousset, Claude Humbert Piarzon de
(b. 1717, d. 1773), French philanthropist,
introduced many reforms into the hospitals
of Paris.
Champagne or Champ s.igne, Philippe de
(3.1602, d. 1674), Belgian artist, employed
with Poussin in the Luxembourg.
Championnet, Jean Etienne (b. 1762, d.
1800), French general, took part in the
revolution, and was employed against the
Girondists ; captured Naples in 1799, and
commanded the army of the Alps, but re-
signed on the coup d'e'tat of Napoleon.
Champlain, Samuel de (b. 1570, d.
1635), the first French governor of Canada ;
founded Quebec in 1608, and gave his name
to Lake Champlain.
Champollion, Jean Francois (b. 1790,
d. 1832), French Orientalist, in 1822 an-
nounced to the Academy of Inscriptions his
discovery of the key to the hieroglyphics.
In 1828 he was sent to Egypt by the govern-
ment, and published the result of his re-
searches on his return.
Chancellor, Richard (d. 1556), navigator,
joiued Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition
in 1553, made his way to the Whire Sea,
visited Moscow, and was well received by
Ivan IV. On his return in 1554 formed
the Muscovy Company.
Chandler, Edward, D.D. (b. 1671, d.
1750), Bishop of Lichfield, wrote a -Defence
of Christianity, praised by Leland.
Chandler, Richard, D.D. (b. 1738, d.
1810), scholar and writer, travelled in
Greece and Asia Minor, and wrote Ionian
Antiquities, etc.
Chandler, Samuel, D.D. (b. 1693, d.
1766), Presbyterian divine, wrote many
works defending Christian rationalism, and
attacking Deism.
Chan -:. os, Sir John (d. 1370), English
captain, served in France under Edward
III., and was lieutenant-general of the
English forces in Guienne. He was slam
near Poitiers.
Changurnier, Nicolas Theodule (b. 1793,
d. 1877), French general, governor of
Algiers in 1848, crushed the Parisian
outbreak in 1849, but was arrested and
exiled by Louis Napoleon.
Charming, William Ellery (b. 1780, d.
1842), American preacher and writer, was
educated at Harvard College, and in 18u3
became pastor of a congregation in Boston,
where he remained till his death. From
1835 onward he took a leading part in the
anti-slavery movement, and suggested
many schemes for the improvement of
the poor. His sermons are eloquent and
show breadth of view. He also wrote on
literary subjects.
Ciiantrey, Sir Francis Legatt, R. A. (b. 1781 ,
d. 1841), son of a carpenter, became eminent
as a sculptor of busts, notably one of Scott.
Some of his larger works are also famous,
especially the group of The Sleeping Children
in Lichfield cathedral.
Chanzy, Autoine Eugene (b. 1823, d. 1883),
French soldier, was appointed general of
division by the government of the National
Defence during the Franco-German war,
and in January, 1871, fought a six days'
battle with Prince Frederick Charles, while
retreating from Le Mans ; was afterwards
governor of Algeria and ambassador to St.
Petersburg.
Chapman, George (b. 1557, d. 1634),
English dramatist, educated at Oxford, wrote
many plays, but is best known by his trans-
lation of Homer. He also translated Hesiod,
Ovid, etc.
Chapone, Hester (b. 1727, d. 1801), daugh-
ter of Thomas Mulso, married a barrister
named Chapone. She wrote Letters on the
Improvement of the Mind (1773).
Chappe, Claude (b. 1763, d. 1806), French
mechanician, inventor of a system of
telegraphy used in France for some years.
Chappe d'Auteroche, Jean (b. 1722, d,
1769), French astronomer, commissioned
by the Academy of Sciences to observe
from Tobolsk a transit of Venus (1761). On
his return to France he published the
Voyage en Siberie.
ChappeU, William (b. 1582, d. 1649),
Bishop of Cork (1638), wrote Methodut
Conciunandi and other works.
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Chaptal, Jean Antoiue Claude, Comte de
Chanteioup (f>. 17<3u, d. 1832), French chemist
and statt siaau ; Xupoleon made him mini-
ster of the interior, a post which he re-
signed in 1804, after doing much to improve
French trade. In 1815 he was made director
of commerce and manufactures by Louis
XVIII., and became a peer of France. He
left several works en chemistry.
Chardin, Jean (b. 1643, d. 1713), French
traveller, went to the East Indies in search
of diamonds, and resided six years at
Ispahan. He left an account of his travels.
Chares (b. circa 400 B.C., d. circa 330 B.C.),
Athenian general, was entrusted with the
conduct of the Social war, and rendered some
service in the Olynthian. He was one of the
commanders at Chseronea.
CHarette de la Contrie, Francois Athanase
(b, 1763, d. 1796), Vende'an general, in 1793
headed the peasant insurgents of his neigh-
bourhood, and obtained several successes in
conjunction with Cathelineau, but was
finally defeated, captured, and executed.
Charlemagne (Charles the Great) (b. 742,
d. 814), King of the Franks and Emperor of
the West, on the death of his father. Pepin,
in 768, obtained the sovereignty of Neustria,
Austrasia, and part of Germany, and on that
of his brother, Carloman, in 771, became
sole monarch of a territory embracing
France and about half of Germany. He
immediately attacked the Saxons, whom he
subdued after a war of thirty years. A
descent into Italy in 774, undertaken at the
request of Pope Adrian, resulted in the
capture of Pavia, and defeat of Desiderius,
king of the Longobardi. He assumed the
crown of Lombardy himself, and was recog-
nised by the pope as patrician of Eome and
suzerain of Italy. In 7 78 he marched against
the Saracens in Spain, and drove them
beyond the Ebro, but on his return home his
rear guard was defeated at Roncesvalles, and
his follower, Roland, slain. On Christmas
day, 800, he was crowned Emperor of the
West in Rome, by Leo III. , and assumed
the titles of Csesar and Augustus. He was
acknowledged by Nicephorus, Emperor of
the East, and the boundaries of the two
empires were determined. Charlemagne de-
voted himself to the advancement of learn-
ing and religion, and published the Capitu-
laries, a collection of ecclesiastical and civil
regulations.
Charles I., King of England (b. 1600, d.
1649), second son of James I., succeeded his
father in 1 625, and was almost immediately
involved in disputes with the Parliament,
first about his favourite Buckingham, and
then respecting the redress of grievances.
After reluctantly granting the Petition
of Right (1628), he ruled for eleven years
without a parliament, under the influence
of the Earl of Strafford and Archbishop
Laud. During this period he resorted to
various unconstitutional methods of tilling
his exchequer, the exaction of ship-money
being the most famous, and caused a re-
bellion in Scotland by attempting to force
episcopacy upon the people. In 1640 the
Long Parliament met, Strafford was im-
peached and executed, and Laud imprisoned.
After his failure to arrest the five members,
Charles raised his standard at Nottingham,
and the Civil war began. The parlia-
mentary victories at Marston Moor (1644),
Naseby (1645), and elsewhere induced
Charles to surrender himself to the Scots,
by whom he was delivered to the English
Parliament. After some months of confine-
ment in various places he was tried and con-
demned by a self-created tribunal in West-
minster Hall, and executed at Whitehall,
Jan. 30th.
Charles II., King of England (b. 1630, d.
1685), son of the preceding, after Naseby
joined the queen at Paris ; in 1650 landed in
Scotland, took the covenant, and was
crowned at Scone, Jan. 1, 1651, but his defeat
at Worcester (Sept. 3rd) necessitated his
return to the Continent. He there led a
wandering life till recalled by the Parliament
in May, 1660. On his restoration every-
thing in Church and State was restored to its
former footing. Wars with the Dutch broke
out, and after the Triple Alliance between
England, Holland, and Sweden had been
formed in 1668, it was found that Charles, at
the instigation of the ministry called the
''Cabal," had secretly become the pensioner
of the French king. This he had done in
the hope of rendering himself absolute, and
from 1681 he ruled in an arbitrary man-
ner without a parliament, in consequence of
which there were many plots to overthrow
the government.
Charles Edward Louis Philip Casimir
Stuart (b. 1720, d. 1788), the "Young
Pretender," was grandson of James II. of
England, and son of James, the " Old Pre-
tender." In 1745 he made an attempt to
gain the throne in his father's name, landed
in Inverness- shire, and, after a victory at
Prestonpans, marched into England as far
as Derby, but was forced to retrace his steps ;
was again victorious at Falkirk (Feb., 1746),
but defeated at Culloden in April, and after
months of privation and disguise, escaped to
France. Compelled to leave that country by
the terms of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle
(1748), he spent the rest of his life chiefly in
Italy, where for many years he was known
as Count d'Albany, He died at Rome.
Charles L, of France, " the Bald " (b. 823,
d. 877), son of Louis le Debonnaire, on the
death of his father joined his step -brother,
Cha
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Cha
Louis, against their eldest brother, Lothaire,
who was conquered at Fonteuai. An
arrangement was then made by which
Charles became king of France in 843. In
875 Charles became Emperor of the West,
and was on his way to the pope when news
arrived that his nephew, Carloman, was
advancing against him. The tidings are
supposed to have hastened his death, which
has also been attributed to poison.
Charles II., of France, "le Gros." [See
Charles III., of Germany.]
Charles III, of France, " the Simple " (b.
879, d. 929), son of Louis the Stammerer,
was a posthumous child. The throne was
successively occupied by Charles the Fat
and Eudes, Count of Paris, but on the death
of the latter (898) Charles became king.
Unable to resist the Normans, he gave his
daughter, Gisele, in marriage to Roflo, their
leader, whom he created Duke of Normandy.
In 922 Charles was deposed and imprisoned
by Robert, brother of Eudes, but finally
permitted to reside in the castle of Peronne
till his death.
Charles IV., of France, "the Fair" (b.
1294, d. 1328), Count of La Marche and
King of Navarre, succeeded his brother,
Philip the Tall, on the throne of France
in 1322. A war with Edward II. of England
was terminated in 1326.
Charles V., of France, "the Wise" (b. 1337,
d. 1380), son of John, acted as regent during
the eight years of his father's captivity, and
succeeded him in 1364. The disorder in Eng-
land which followed the death of Edward
III., and his own crafty method of warfare
enabled him to regain most of the territory
lost by his predecessors. He founded the Bib-
liotheque Royale in Purls, and the Bastille.
Charles VI., of France, "the Silly"
(b. 1368, d. 1422), son of the preceding,
succeeded his father in 1330, and was
led by his uncle, the Duke of Burgundy,
against Philip van Artevelde, leader of the
Flemish insurgents, whom he defeated at
Rosbecque in 1382. In 1388 he took the
government into his own hands, but shortly
afterwards lost his reason. His reign was
most disastrous. Agincourt was lost in 1415,
and by the treaty of Troyes in 1420 Heury V.
became virtually King of France.
Charles VII., of France, "the Victorious"
(b. 1403, d. 1461), son of the preceding,
assumed the title of king on the death of his
father (1422), but ^emained inactive,
owing to his indolence, till aroused by
Joan of Arc. The relief of Orleans (1429)
was followed by the coronation of Charles
at Rheims. Paris submitted to him in 1436,
and he pursued his career of victory till in
1456 nothing but Calais was left to the
English. Such was his dread of being poi-
soned by his son Louis, that he submitted to a
fast of seven days, which resulted in his death.
Charles VIIL, of France, " the Affable "
(b. 1470, d. 14y8), son of Louis XI., suc-
ceeded to the throne in 1483 under the
guardianship of his sister, Anne of Beaujeu.
A war with Germany, and her allies Bag-
land and Spain, was concluded by the treaty
of Senlis (1493). In 1495 Charles marched
on Naples, to which he laid claim, and seized
the town, but hearing that his retreat was
being cut off, was obliged to return. He
met and defeated his foes at Fornovo, but
lost Naples, and never reconquered it.
Charles IX., of France (b. 1550, d. 1574),
succeeded his brother, Francis II. in 1560.
The government was conducted by his
mother, Catherine de Medici. The king-
dom was desolated by a religious war ;
a peace made in 1570 was followed in 1572
by the massacre of St. Bartholomew, to
which the king assented, but is said to have
afterwards felt remorse.
Charles X., or more properly Charles of
Bourbon- Vendome (b. 1517, d. 1590), fifth
son of Charles de Bourbon, entered the
Church, and was a cardinal and Archbishop
of Rouen, when, on the assassination of
Henri III,, Mayenne declared him king in
opposition to the claims of his nephew,
Henri IV. Charles, however, was in prison
at the time, and languished there till his
death a few months later.
Charles X, of France (b. 1757, d. 1836),
Comte d'Artois, youngest son of the
Dauphin, and grandson of Louis XV., left
France on the destruction of the Bastille
(1789), but on the abdication of Napoleon
(1814) was appointed regent for his brother,
Louis XVIII. On the death of Louis in
1824 he ascended the throne, but after
the disturbances of July, 1830, abdicated in
favour of the Duke of Bordeaux.
Charles Martel (b. circa 689, d. 741), King
of the Franks. Defeated the Saracens at
Tours (732).
Charles the Bold (b. 1433, d. 1477), Duke
of Bui-gundy and Count of Charolais, suc-
ceeded in 1467. He was for most of his reign
at enmity with Louis XL of France, on one
occasion taking him prisoner and releasing
him only on his own terms He was unsuc-
cessful in his expedition against the Swiss,
and was slain whilst endeavouring to regain
the town of Nancy.
Charles de Blois (b. 1320, d. 1364), or de
Chatillon, on the death of John III. of
Bretagne, claimed the dukedom in right of
his wife, Jeanne de Penthievre, daughter of
Gui de Bretagne, but was opposed by John
de Montfort, half-brother of the late king,
Cka
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who was supported by the English. Charles
was defeated and slain at Auray.
Charles L, " le Bon "(d. circa 1084, d. 1127),
Count of Flanders, son of Canute IV. of
Denmark, succeeded Baldwin VII. of Flan-
ders in 1119. He was offered the crowns of
Jerusalem and Germany, both of which he
refused.
Charles of Artois (b. 1393, d. 1472), Count
of Eu, was allied to the Orleans faction in j
the reign of Charles VL He was made ;
prisoner at Agincourt, and confined for j
twenty- three years in the Tower of London, j
Charles of Valois (b. 1270, d. 1325), third
BOU of Philip le Hardi, received Maine and
Anjou in right of his wife Marguerite. He
took a prominent part in the war with
Edward IL of England.
Charles L, of Germany. [See Charle-
magne.]
Charles II., of Germany. [See Charles I.,
of France.]
Charles III., of Germany (b. 832, d. 888),
younger son of Louis the Germanic,
elected emperor 881, accepted the throne
of France 884. Instead of making an
attempt to consolidate his dominions, he
signed an infamous treaty with the Nor-
mans, and was deposed in 887.
Charles IV., of Germany (b. 1316, d. 1378),
son of John, King of Bohemia, was elected
emperor in 1347, and annexed Brandenburg
and Silesia to Bohemia. He held his court
at Prague, and in 1353 issued the "golden
bull," since regarded as the basis of the
Germanic constitution.
Charles V., of Germany (b. 1500, d. 1558),
son of the Archduke Philip of Austria, and
Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon,
inherited the Netherlands on the death of
bis father in 1506: became sovereign of
Castile and Aragon, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia,
and Spanish America, on the death of Fer-
dinand in 1516 ; and in 1519 was electee em-
peror in succession to his paternal grand-
father, Maximilian. In 1521 Luther ap-
peared before him at the Diet of Worms.
He was constantly at variance with
Francis I. of France, whom he took prisoner
at Pavia in 1525. The Pope sided with
Francis after his liberation, whereupon
Charles attacked and took Rome. A tem-
porary peace was effected by the treaty of
Cambray in 1529. Charles made a suc-
cessfid expedition against Tunis in 1535, but
failed in an attack on Algiers in 1541. He
strove unsuccessfully against the Protestant
princes of Germany, being forced in 1552
to conclude the treaty of Passau, confirmed
at Augsburg in 1555. In the same year
he resigned the crown of Spain and the
Netherlands to his sou Philip, and in 1556
that of Germany to his brother Ferdinand.
He spent the rest of his life in a monastery
in Estremadura.
Charles VL, of Germany (b. 1685, d. 1740),
second son of Leopold I., engaged, with the
assistance of England, Holland, and Por-
tugal, in a struggle with Philip V. for the
throne of Spain, but by the treaty of Rastadt
(1714) renounced his claim. On the death
of his brother Joseph in 1711, he succeeded
to the dominions of the house of Austria,
and was elected emperor. He engaged in
wars with the Turks, to whom he ceded
Servia and Wallachia at the peace of Bel-
grade (1739).
Charles VII., of Germany (b. 1697, d.
1745), eldest son of Maximilian, Elector of
Bavaria, claimed the imperial throne, as a
descendant of Ferdinand I., on the death of
Charles VI., in opposition to his daughter,
Maria Theresa. Through the assistance
given him by France and Prussia he waa
crowned at Frankfort in 1742 ; but Frederic
of Prussia was won over by Maria Theresa,
and the French defeated at Dettingen by
George II. of England (1743). Thus the
struggle was decided in favour of Maria
Theresa.
Charles Louis, Archduke of Austria (b.
1771, d. 1847), son of Leopold II., Emperor
of Germany, conducted the campaigns
against the French republic and the Em-
peror Napoleon, being appointed in 1796
commander-m-ohief of the Austrian armies.
He was successful against Jourdan iu 1 797
and 1799, and in 1800 opposed Massena
with skill in Switzerland, but was forced
through ill -health to give up his post. He
afterwards became minister of war, and de-
feated Massena at Caldiero in 1S05. In
1809 he again checked the French a.t Aspern
and Essling, but Napoleon crossed the
Danube and defeated him at Wagram.
Charles L, of Spain. [See Charles V., of
Germany.]
Charles II. , of Spain (b. 1661, d. 1700), son
of Philip IV., succeeded to the throne in
1665, under the regency of his mother. Don
John of Austria gained the control of the
government, and protected the interests of
the country : alter his death, Charles was
prevented by his weakness of body and mind
from maintaining his position. Portugal
secured her independence, and Louis XIV.
endeavoured to annex the Low Countries,
and to secure a Tiourbon successor to the
throne of Spain, but VTO.S prevented by the
interposition of England, Germany, and
Holland. The wars which followed lasted
till the peace of Ryswick (1697).
Charles III., of Spain (b. 1716, d, 1788),.
Cha
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younger son of Philip V., received from his
father the crown of the Two Sicilies, and on
the death of his brother, Ferdinand VI., in
1759, became king of Spain. The Bourbon
league involved him in a war with England,
during which he lost Manilla and other
colonies. He joined with France in aiding
the American colonies ; at the close of the
war Florida and Minorca were ceded to
Spain.
Charles IV., of Spain (b. 1784, d. 1819),
son of the preceding, whom he suc-
ceeded in 1788, was a capricious and in-
capable ruler. In 1795 he allied himself
with France, but bis fleet was destroyed by
Nelson at Trafalgar. He. fled before the
advance of Murat, and was forced to ab-
dicate in favour of Napoleon (1808).
Charles VII., of Sweden (the six preceding
of the name being fabulous) was assassinated
in 1168.
Charles VIII. (d. 1470), first regent, and
from 1448 King of Sweden, drove the de-
posed king Eric from the isle of Gothland,
and in 1449 was elected king of Norway,
but was obliged to yield the throne to his
rival, Christian, King of Denmark.
Charles IX., of Sweden (b. 1550, d. 1611),
created a regular standing army, and was
occupied in constant wars with Denmark,
Poland, and Russia.
Charles X., of Sweden (b. 1622, d. 1660),
was cousin to Queen Christina, who abdi-
cated in his favour in 16t4. He carried
on successful wars against Poland and
Denmark.
Charles XL, of Sweden (b. 1655, d. 1697),
succeeded his father in 1660.
Charles XII., of Sweden (b. 1682, d.
1718), son of the preceding, whom he suc-
ceeded in 1697. In 1700, Denmark, Poland,
and Russia allied themselves against him, but
he defeated the Danish fleet, routed the
Russians at Narva with a much smaller
army, and then proceeded against Augustus,
King of Poland, who was defeated and
deposed, Charles compelling the Polish Diet
to choose Stanislaus Leczinsky in his place
(1704). In 1708 he undertook a campaign
into Russia, but the inclemency of the
climate and the scarcity of provisions
greatly reduced his forces, and brought
about "his overthrow by Peter the Great at
Pultowa. He took refuge with the Sultan
of Turkey, who allowed him to reside at
Bender, but afterwards removed him to
Adrianople. He returned to Sweden in
1714, and in 1718 invaded Norway, but was
killed by a cannon-ball at the siege of
Friedrichshall.
Charles XIII., of Sweden (b. 1748, d. 1818),
was proclaimed Idn^ in 1S09, upon the pro-
scription of his nephew, Gustavus IV., for
whom he had acted as regent since 1792.
In this reign (1814) Norway was annexed
to Sweden.
Charles XIV., of Sweden (b. 1764, d. 1844),
Jean Baptiste Jules Beruadotte, son of a
lawyer of Pau, entered the French army as
a private soldier, and had become general of
division by 1794 ; fought under Jour dan in
1796, and by his skill in the Italian campaign
won the favour of Bonaparte, who, however,
suspecting his designs, gave him the post of
minister at Vienna. He was minister of
war in 1799, and in 1804, on the creation of
the empire, became marshal of France.
After breaking the Russian centre at
Austerlitz, he received the title of Prince of
Ponte-Corvo (1806). In 1810 he was
elected Crown Prince of Sweden, adopted
the name of Karl Johann, and as regent
had no small share in the overthrow of
Napoleon. He effected the annexation of
Norway to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel
(1814). In 1 8 1 8 he succeeded Charles XIIL
Charles I., of Navarre. \See Charles IV.,
of France.]
Charles II., " the Bad," King of Navarre,
Count d'Evreux (b. 1332, d. 1387), crowned
at Pampeluna (1350), joined the English
against the Dauphin (afterwards Charles V.),
and also fought against Castile.
Charles III., "the Noble," King of
Navarre (b. 1361, d. 1425), son and successor
of the preceding ; by a treaty with
Charles VI. of France obtained the duchy
of Nemours.
Charles IV., of Navarre, Prince of Viane,
Count of Barcelona (b. 1421. d. 1461), son of
John II., inherited the kingdom in right of
his mother, daughter of Charles III. On
her death, his father, John, retained the
throne, and married Joanna of Castile.
He attempted to assert his right, but was
defeated and made prisoner ; was released,
but aiter his father's death fell into the
power of Joanna, and died in prison at
Barcelona.
diaries of Anjou, King of Naples and
Sicily (b. circa 1225, d. 1285), youngest
son of Louis VIII. of France, received
the crown of the Two Sicilies from
Pope Urban. He defeated and slew
the usurper Manfred. The cruelty of
his rule provoked the massacre of French-
men called the Sicilian Vespers. Don Pedro
of Aragon obtained Sicily, and his admiral
burned Charles's fleet. His preparations to
recover it were broken off by his death.
Charles II., of Naples (b. 1248, d. 1309),
son of the preceding, was crowned king of
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Naples, Apulia, aud Jerusalem in 1289, and
acquired the crown of Hungary in right of
his wife.
Charles III., "the Little," King of
Naples and Hungary (b. 1345, d. 1387),
sou of the Count of Craviua, was at first
adopted by Joan I. of Naples, but being
rejected in favour of Louis of Anjou,
seized the kingdom, and put Joan to death.
In 1385 he accepted the throne of Hungary,
in place of the regent, Elizabeth, who
caused his assassination.
Charles Emmanuel III., King of Sardinia
(b. 1701, d. 1773), ascended the throne ou the
abdication of his father, Victor Amadeus ;
at first joined France and Spain against
Austria, but afterwards sided with Hungary
against his former allies. Hf, increased the
prosperity of his kingdom, and published
the code of laws known as Corpus Caro-
linwn.
Charles -Felix, Giuseppe Mario, King of
Sardinia (b. 1798, d. 1831). fourth sou of
Victor Amadeus III., succeeded his brother,
Victor Emmanuel, in 1821.
Charles Albert, King of Sardinia (b.
1798, d. 1849), son of Charles Emmanuel,
Prince of Savoy -Carignano, as regent for
Victor Emmanuel I., in 1821, introduced
reforms which were declared null by his
successor, Charles Felix. He succeeded
to the throne in 1831. In 1848 he gave his
subjects a Liberal constitution, and joined
the insurgents in Lombard}' and Venetia
against Austria. At first he was successful,
but was beaten at Custozza, forced to yield
Milan, and finally overthrown at Novara;
in 1849 he abdicated in favour of his son,
Victor Emmanuel, hoping thus to obtain
less onerous conditions of peace.
Charles, Elizabeth Rundle, Mrs. (b. circa
1826), wrote the Chronicles of the Schonberg-
Cotta Family, and other tales.
Charles, Jacques Alexandre Cesar (b. 1746,
d. 1823), French physicist, used hydrogen
gas instead of heated air in his balloon
experiment of 1783.
Charlotte Caroline Augusta, Princess of
Saxe-Coburg (b. 1796, d. 1817), daughter
of George IV. and wife of Prince Leopold,
afterwards King of the Belgians. Her
premature death caused general grief.
Charnock, Job (d. 1693), one of the early
servants of the East India Company, second
governor of the Bengal presidency, founded
Calcutta in 1690.
Charnock, Stephen (b. 1628, d. 1680),
Nonconformist minister, was chaplain to
Henry Cromwell in Dublin, where his
preaching drew large crowds. He was
afterwards attached to a congregation in
London. His most celebrated treatise is his
Disc-uume on the Existence and Attributes of
God.
Cnarpentier, Fraz^ois Philippe (b. 1734,
d. 1817), French mechanician, was ap-
prenticed to an engraver, and invented a
method of taking coloured copies of pictures.
Charron, Pierre (b. 1541, d. 1603),
French ecclesiastic and philosopher, a friend
of Montaigne, who died in his arms. His
chief work is his Traite de la Sagesse.
Chartier, Alain (b. 1390, d. 1458),
the greatest French writer of the 15th
century, sought by his compositions in
prose and verse to arouse a patriotic spirit,
as for example in Quadrilogue Invectij, and
Le Lay des Quatre Dames, directed against
the English.
Chartres, Robert Philippe d' Orleans, Due
de (b. 1840), younger brother of the Comte
de Paris, was educated in Germany ; went to
America and served as a volunteer for the
Northerners (1860-1863), and in 1870 served
under General Chauzy, being known as
44 Robert le Fort."
Chase, Pliny Earle (b. 1820), American
scientist, whose discoveries and verifications
of physical laws are numerous and impor-
tant.
Chase, Salmon Portland (b. 1808, d.
1873), American politician, early dis-
tinguished himself by his opposition to
slavery. As secretary of the treasury
under President Lincoln (1861) he succeeded
in raising money for the war, having re-
course, among other expedients, to the
invention of il greenbacks." From 1864 to
his death he was chief justice of the
United States.
Chasles, Michel (b. 1793, d. 1880),
French mathematician, regarded as founder
of the new, or higher geometry.
Chass6, David Henrik, Baron (b. 1765,
d. 1849), Dutch general, defended Antwerp
against the French in 1830 and 1832.
Chassepot, Antoine Alphonse (b. 1833, d.
1886), inventor of the gun known by his name,
was the son of a gunsmith, became principal
of the government works of St. Thomas
at Paris in 1864, and was afterwards
superintendent of the factory of arms at
Chatellerault.
Chastelain, Georges, called " 1'Aventu-
reux" (b. 1403, d. 1475), soldiei and writer,
quitted the army in 1443, and entered the
service of Philippe le Bon, Duke of Bur-
gundy.
Chastelard, Pierre de Boscosel de (4,
Cha
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Che
1540, d. 15G3), French poet, was enamoured
of Mary, Queen of Scots, and, being twice
found in her chamber without permission,
was tried and executed.
Chateaubriand, Francois Auguste, Yi-
comte de (b. 1768, d. 1848), was intended for
the navy, studied for the Church, and
finally entered the army. He wae in Paris
during the early part of the revolution, but
in 1791 sailed to America, where he
wandered among the Indians. Returning
the following year, he joined the first
emigration and took refuge in London,
remaining there till 1800. In 1806 and 1807
he travelled along the shores of the Mediter-
ranean. He was devoted to the Bourbon
dynasty, under which he was ambassador
to Berlin (1820), to London (1822), and to
Rome (1828), and in 1824 was foreign
minister. He refused to take the oath to
Louis Philippe, and was imprisoned in 1832.
His chief works were At a la (1801), Rene
(1802), Le Genie du Christianisme (1803),
and memoirs.
Cnatel, Franqois du (b. 1626, d. circa
1680), Flemish painter, the favourite pupil
of David Teniers.
Chatham, William Pitt, Earl of (b. 1708,
d. 1778), English statesman, son of Robert
Pitt ; became member of parliament in 1735,
attaching himself to the so-called patriotic
party under the Prince of Wales ; he
attacked Walpole and Carteret successively,
and after the retirement of the latter in
1744, supported the ministries of Pelham
and Newcastle, and was made paymaster of
the forces, a post which he lost owing to his
anti-Hanoverian speeches. As Secretary of
State in 1756, and again in 1757, under
Newcastle, he carried on the war against
France with great vigour and success, but
on the accession of George III. had to give
glace to his favourite, the Earl of Bute,
itt's health was now shattered, but he was
carried down to the House to speak against
the peace of Paris in 1762, and after-
wards supported the repeal of the Stamp
Act, an Act which led to the revolt of the
American colonies. In 1766 he was created
Earl of Chatham, and from his place in the
House of Lords continued to urge a policy
of conciliation towards America, It was
while thus engaged that he sank down in
the fit of apoplexy from which he never
recovered.
Chatterton, Thomas (b. 1752, d. 1770),
son of a schoolmaster at Bristol, early
displayed a taste for antiquities and poetry,
which he indulged by fabricating the literary
forgeries, of which the Poems of Rowley are
the most celebrated ; these he pretended to
have discovered in some chests in the muni-
ment room of St. Mary Redcliffe at Bristol.
He was apprenticed to an attorney, but dis-
missed, and coming to London, sought to
gain a livelihood by writing for the news-
papers and magazines, but found himself
reduced to a state of starvation, and died
by his own hand.
Chaucer, Geoffrey (b. circa 1340, d. 1400),
poet, son of a London vintner, became in
1357 a page in the household of Prince
Lionel, and served in the French war, being
taken prisoner in 1359. He married
Philippa, sister of Katherine, mistress and
afterwards wife of John of Gaunt, wfth
whom he thereby established a connection
which lasted till the latter's death. In 1372
he was sent on a commercial mission to
Italy, and it is probable from allusions in
the Clerk"1 's Tale that he there met Petrarch.
After his return he held a number of public
posts, which secured him a competence till
his death ; he was also occasionally sent
abroad on the royal service. He wrote the
Assembly of Fowls, Troilus and Cressida, the
House of lame, the Legend of Good Women,
and numerous other poems, but his great
work is the Canterbury Tales, and especially
the prologue thereto, with its vivid picture
of contemporary English life.
Chaudet, Antoine Denis (b. 1763, d. 1810),
eminent French sculptor, who executed
groups for the Pantheon.
Chauncey, Charles (b. 1592, d. 1672),
Nonconformist divine and distinguished
Orientalist.
Chauveau-Lagarde, Claude Francois (b.
1756, d. 1841), French lawyer, eminent as
the advocate of Marie Antoinette, Madame
Elisabeth, G eneral Miranda, Charlotte Cor-
day, Brissot, and others.
Cheke, Sir John (b. 1514, d. 1557),
educated at St. John's College, Cambridge,
was professor of Greek in that uni-
versity from 1540 to lool, and tutor to
Prince Edward and probably to the Prin-
cess Elizabeth. He supported Lady Jane
Grey and was imprisoned by Mary in
the Tower, but afterwards allowed to
settle in Strasburg. He fell into the
hands of Philip II. of Spain, who sent him
to London, where he was forced to recant
his opinions, and soon afterwards died of
remorse.
Chelmsford, Frederick Thesiger, Baron
(b. 1794, d. 1878), called to the bar in
1S18, became attorney-general (1845), and
was twice lord chancellor (1858 and 1866).
Chenery, Thomas (b. 1826, d. 1884),
oriental scholar and editor of the Times;
after being called to the bar, was corre-
spondent to the Times at Constantinople
till the close of the Crimean war, and while
Che
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CM
there acquired his proficiency in oriental
languages. He -was professor of Arabic ut
Oxford from 1868 to 1877, and assisted in
the revision of the Old Testament At the
same time he continued his connection with
the 2'tincs, becoming editor in 1>77.
Chenier, Andre-Marie de (A. 1762, d. 1794),
French poet, spent his early youth in Lau-
guedoc ; was educated at the College of
Xavarre; travelled in Europe in 1784-6;
opposed the extreme revolutionists, and
was guillotined. He wrote Le Mendiant,
L'Aveugle, IS Invention, etc.
Chenier, Marie Joseph Blai-e de (b. 1764,
d. 1811), French poet, brother of the pre-
ceding. His lyrical pieces were very popular
during the revolution.
Cherubini, Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobio
Salvatore (b. 1760, d. 1842), Italian composer,
after visiting London in 1 785, settled in Paris,
and there wrote many operas, Let Deux
Journees (1800) being the most famous.
Chesney, Francis Kawdon (b. 1789, d.
1872), an officer of the Eoyal Artillery, in
1829 surveyed the isthmus of Suez, and
pronounced the canal a feasible enterprise;
afterwards journeyed four times to the
East, hoping to open up a route to
India by way of Syria and the Euphrates.
He wrote a Narrative of the Euphrates
Expedition (1868), etc.
Chesney, George Tomkyns, General (b.
1830), famous as the author of the Battle of
Dorking (1871), a realistic account of a
supposed German invasion of England.
Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope,
Earl of (b. 1694, d. 1773), gained some pro-
ficiency in classics, mathematics, and philo-
sophy at Cambridge, and on his return from
the European tour in 1715 became recognised
as the beau- ideal of a gentleman. He suc-
ceeded to the title in 1726, and attached
himself to the Prince of Wales, whom he
undertook to polish. In 1728 he went as
ambassador to the Hague, and on his return
opposed Walpole, but failed to obtain office
on his fall. In 1745 he went to Ireland as
Viceroy, and in 1746 was made Secretary of
State, but ill-health soon necessitated his
retirement. He is now best remembered by
his Letters to his son.
Chevreul, Michel Eugene (b. 1786, d.
1889), French chemist, paid much attention
to colour, and published many scientific
works.
Cheyne, George (b. 1671, d. 1743),
physician of considerable reputation, both
as a practitioner and writer.
Cheyne, James (d. 1602), Scottish mathe-
matician and. philosopher, remained in
France during the Reformation, and became
prufessor of philosophy at Douay.
Cheyne, John (b. 1777, rf. 1836), phy-
sician, directed his attention chiefly to
diseases of children, acute diseases, and epi-
demics, and left some medical works.
Che'zy, Antoine Leonard de (b. 1773, d.
1832), Orientalist, left numerous works of
great value and interest.
Chezy.Wilhelmvon (b. 1806, d. 1865), Ger-
man novelist, son of the preceding, wrote
Wandti, Wielopohka (a romance), Camoent
(a tragedy) , etc.
CMabrera, Gabriello (b. 1552, d. 1637),
Italian poet, abandoned the habitual imita-
tion of Petrarch and sought to write lyrics
in the Pindaric style.
Cbichester, Sir Arthur (b. 1563, d. 1625),
soldier and statesman, was sent by Eliza-
beth to Ireland, where the success of his
measures as lord-deputy, particularly the
plantation of Ulster, caused him to be
created Baron Chichester of Belfast. In
1615 he became Lord High Treasurer.
Child, Lydia Maria (*. 1802, d. 1880),
American authoress, whose an ti- slavery
writings contributed largely to the forma-
tion of public opinion on that subject.
Childebert I., King of the Franks (b. circa
495, d. 558) , third son of Clovis I. , at whose
death he received the central division of
the Frankish monarchy.
Childebert II., King of the Franks (b.
circa 570, d. 596), son of Sigebertand Brune-
haut, and king of Austrasia, afterwards in-
herited Burgundy from his uncle Guutram.
Cnildebert III., " the Just " (b. circa 683,
d. 711), succeeded Clovis III. in 695.
Cnilderic I. (b. circa 436, d. 481), suc-
ceeded his father Merowig in 458.
Childeric II. (*. 649, d. 673), son of Clovis
II., became sovereign of all the Frank
dominions in 670. He was assassinated.
Childeric III., "the Idiot" (d. 755), the
last of the Merovingian kings, ascended the
throne in 742, and was deposed by Pepin
in 752.
Childers, Rt. Hon. Hugh Culling Eardley
(fc. 1827), educated at Cambridge, emigrated
to Victoria in 1850, where he became Com-
missioner of Trade and Customs : returned as
agent-general for Victoria in 1857 ; entered
Parliament in 1859 : held office as First Lord
of the Admiralty (1868-71), Secretary foi
War (1880-82), and Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer (1882-85). In 1885 he was defeated
on the budget resolutions.
Chi
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Chr
ChillingTTOrth, William (b. 1602, d. 1644),
theologian, educated at Oxford, was per-
suaded by the Jesuit Fisher to abjure
Protestantism and join the College at-
Douay. Induced by Laud to come back in
1631, he gradually returned to his former
faith, publishing the Religion of Protestants
in 1637. He joined the Royal army, was
taken prisoner by the Parliamentarians,
and died in captivity at Chichester.
Chin Kilich Khan, " Nizam-ool-Moolk "
(b. 1644, d. 1748), an officer of the Mogul
empire, rose to eminence under Aurung--
zebe, was appointed soubadar of the Deccan
in 1713, and under the title of Nizam-ool-
Moolk founded in 1720 the independent
state now held by his descendant called the
Nizam.
Chirac, Pierre (b. 1650, d. 1732), French
physician, appointed professor of medicine
at Montpellier in 1687, accompanied the
Duke of Orleans in his Italian and Spanish
campaigns, and became physician to Louis
XV.
Chlapowsld, Desiderius (b. 1788, d. 1879),
Polish general, served under Napoleon, and
took part in the revolution of 1830, gaining
several victories. When the Polish army
retreated, he was allowed by the king of
Prussia to settle on his estates in that
country.
CnlopicM, Joseph (b. 1772, d. 1854), Polish
general, fought under Kosciusko, served
in the French army during the Penin-
sular war, and followed Napoleon in his
Russian campaign. When the revolution
of 1830 broke out he was proclaimed dicta-
tor, but counselling submission to Russia,
was deposed in 1831, and soon afterwards
retired to Cracow.
Cnmelnitzky, Nicholas Ivanovitsch (b.
1789, d. 1846), Russian comic poet, was
governor of Smolensk, and afterwards of
Archangel, devoted the latter part of his life
to literature, and translated Le Tartufe and
L'Ecole des Femmes into Russian.
ChodowiecM, Daniel Nicholas (b. 1726, d.
1801), painter and engraver, who settled at
Berlin in 1743.
Choiseul, ^tienne Francois, Due de (b.
1719, d. 1785), French politician, gained an
ascendency over Louis XV. through the
friendship of Mdme. de Pompadour, and
held high posts in the government, but fell
from power on her death, and was banished
to his estates in 1770.
Chopin, Frederic Fra^ois (b. Warsaw,
1810, d. Paris, 1849), studied the piano under
-Zwyny, and composition under Eisner ; he
took refuge in Paris in 1831, and there won
renown as a writer of concertos, songs,
nocturnes, and mazurkas.
Choron, Alexandre Etienne (b. 1771,
d. 1834), French musician, founder ->f the
Institution Royale de Musique Clas^tque et
Religieuse.
Christian I. (b. circa 1425, d. 1481), King
of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, Count
of Oldenburg, ascended the throne of Den-
mark in 1449, and that of Sweden in 1458,
and in 1459 was elected Duke of Schleswig
and Count of Holstein. His claim to Sweden
was disputed by Carl Knutson, and after-
wards by Carl's nephew, Steen Stur*», who
defeated him at Brim kebj erg, and drove
him from the country.
Christian II. (b. 1481, d. 1559), King of
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, grandson
of Christian I., ascended the throne in 1513,
attacked Sweden, and was crowned at
Stockholm in 1520, did much to ameliorate
the condition of the people, but was
dethroned by the nobles and clergy in 1522.
After nine years of exile he returned to
Norway, but was made prisoner, and died
in the castle of Kallundborg.
Christian III., King of Denmark and
Norway (b. 1502, d. 1559), on becoming king
in 1536 made Lutheranism the State
religion, and had the Bible translated into
Danish. He acquired Courland and CEseL
Ciulstian IV., King of Denmark and
Norway (b. 1577, d. 1648), crowned in 1596,
reigned peaceably for 15 years, founded the
towns of Christiania and Christiansund, fitted
out a magnificent fleet, and established the
academy of Sorb'e. Taking part in the Thirty
Years' war, he was defeated by Tilly in
1626; he also suffered some losses at the
hands of the Swedes.
Christian V., King of Denmark and Nor-
way (b. 1646, d. 1699) , was the first hereditary
king, the monarchy having always been
elective.
Christian VI. , King of Denmark and Nor-
way (b. 1699, d. 1746), ascended the throne in
1730, and enjoyed a peaceful and prosperous
reign.
Christian VII., King of Denmark and
Norway (b. 1749, d. 1808), crowned in
1766, married Caroline Matilda, sister of
George III. of England, but was divorced
from her in 1773. He afterwards became
imbecile, and the government fell into the
hands of the queen -do wager.
Christian VIII., King of Denmark (*. 1786,
d. 1848), was elected king of Norway in
1814. but forced to cede it to Sweden aft or a
few months. In 1839 he succeeded his cousin,
Frederic VI., on the throne of Denmark.
Chr
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Christie, William Henry Mahoney,
F.R.S. (b. 1845), astronomer, educated at
Cambridge, was in 1870 appointed chief
assistant at the Royal Observatory, Green-
wich. In 1881 he succeeded Sir G. B. Airy
as astronomer royal.
Christina, Queen of Sweden (b. 1626,
d. 1689), succeeded her father, Gustavus
Adolphus, in Ui32. After her coronation
in 1650 she fell under the influence of
favourites, and ceased to interest herself
in state affairs. She resigned the crown to
her cousin, Charles Gustavus, in 1654, was
baptised by the Pope, and lived for some
time at Paris. On the death of Charles
Gustavus, in 1660, she vainly endeavoured to
regain the throne. She died at Rome.
Christina, Maria, Regent of Spain (b. 1806,
d. 1878), daughter of Francis I., King of
the Two Sicilies, on the death of her hus-
band, Ferdinand VII., in 1833, became
regent for her infant daughter, Isabella.
For six years she was unable to suppress
the Carlist rebellion, and was driven from
Spain by a revolution headed by Espartero
(1840). She returned in 1843, but was
forced to leave the country permanently
in 1854.
Christina, Maria Henrietta, Queen-Regent
of Spain (b. 1858), married in 1879 Alfonso
XI., of Spain. On his dea:h in 1885 she
was appointed regent.
Christophe, Henri (b. 1767, d. 1820),
negro King of Hayti, fought with courage
in the war of 1790, became ruler over the
northern part of Hayti in 1806, and was
crowned as Henri I. in 1811, but became
unpopular through his cruelty, and com-
mitted suicide.
Christopoulous, Athanasius (b. 1772,
d. 1847), Greek poet and grammarian.
Chrysippus (b. circa 280 B.C., d.20S B.C.),
a stoic philosopher of Cilicia, disciple of
Cleanthes.
Chrysostom, St. John, one of the Greek
fathers (b. circa 344, d. 407), gave himself,
from an early age, to a life of prayer and
asceticism, and in 397 was made Bishop
of Constantinople by the Emperor Ar-
cadius. He was renowned for his elo-
quence and almsgiving, and his zeal as a
reformer made him many enemies, amongst
them the Empress Eudoxia. He was
summoned before a synod at Chalcedon,
deposed, and banished, but an insurrec-
tion of the people led to his immediate
recall. He was soon afterwards deposed
again, and conveyed to the Taurus moun-
tains, whence he was ordered to proceed
to Pityus, on the Euxine, but died on the
journey at Comana.
Chrzanowski, Adalbert (b. 1789, d. 1861),
Polish general, served in the French army,
and afterwards distinguished himself in the
Russian campaign of 1829 against the
Turks. He took part in the revolution of
1830, became governor of Warsaw, and was
allowed by the Russians to retire to Paris.
In 1840 he was entrusted by Charles
Albert of Sardinia with the reorganisation
of his army, but after Novara returned to
Paris, where he died.
Chubb, Thomas (b. 1679, d. 1746), deist,
assistant to a tallow-chandler, wrote The
Supremacy of the Father Asserted, On
future Judgment, etc.
Church, Frederick Edwin (b. 1826),
American landscape painter ; he excelled
in representing the mountain scenery of
America.
Church, Sir Richard (b. circa 1785, d. 1873),
English general, joined the Greek patriots
(1827), and was appointed commander-in-
chief of the land forces under King Otho.
He became councillor of state and after-
wards senator.
Church, Very Rev. Richard William (b.
1815, d. 1890), became fellow of Onel
College, Oxford, in 1836; and in 1871 was
appointed Dean of St. Paul's. His chief
works were Essays and Reviews (1854), St.
Anselm (1870), The Beginning of the Middle
Ages (1874), Spenser (1878), and £ucon
(1884).
Churchill, Charles (b. 1731, d. 1764),
poet, was ordained, and in 1758 succeeded
his father in his London cure, but con-
ducted himself as a man of fashion aiid a
rake ; was the friend of Wilkes, whom he
assisted in the North Briton, wrote the
Rosciad, The Prophecy of Famine, Nighty
and other satirical poems.
Churchill, John. {See MAELBOEOUOH.]
Churchill, Lord Randolph Spencer ( b. 1 849),
second son of the 6th Duke of Marlborough,
entered Parliament in 1874, and in 1880
became leader of the knot of Conservatives
known as the "Fourth Party," who gave
a general support to Sir S. Northcote, but
advocated a more vigorous policy, and fre-
quently attacked their own side. During
the next session Lord Randolph formulated
the political creed known as Tory Demo-
cracy. On the formation of Lord Salisbury's
ministry in 1885, he became Chief Secretary
for India, and in 1886 accepted the
Chancellorship of the Exchequer and
leadership of the House of Commons ; but
resigned the position at the close of the
year, owing to what he considered the
excessive expenditure of the government.
In 1891 he visited South Africa.
Cia
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Cir
Claldinl, Enrico (b. 1811), Italian general,
joined in the revolution of 1831, took
refuge in Spain, where he served under
Queeii Isabella, returned in 1848 and fought
under Charles Albert in 1848 and 1849 ; was
again prominent in the campaign of 1859-
66, defeating the papal army at Castel-
fidardo in 18(JO ; was appointed commander -
in- chief of the army of Central Italy in
1867, and in 1870 accompanied the Due
d'Aosta to Spain. He was subsequently
Italian ambassador in Paris, but resigned in
1882.
Gibber, Colley (b. 1671, d. 1757), actor
and dramatist, wrote The Careless Husband
(1704), The Nonjuror (1717), etc., and in
1730 became poet laureate. In 1740 ap-
peared his Apology for his Life.
Gibber, Susannah Maria (b. 1714, d. 1766),
singer and actress, was educated by her
father-in-law, Colley Gibber, for tragedy,
and met with great success.
Cibrario,Luigi (b. 1802, d. 1870), a student
of mediaeval antiquity, author of Econ-
omy of the Middle Ages, and other works.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (b. 106 B.C., d. 43
B.C.), born at Arpinum, Roman orator and
statesman, studied rhetoric under Milo and
others ; commenced pleading at the age of
twenty- six, and offending Sulla by his suc-
cessful defence of Roscius Amerinus, retired
to Athens, where he studied under
Antiochus ; went as qusestor to Sicily in 76,
and on his return impeached Verres, a
former governor ; was aedile in 69, praetor
in 66, and in 64 was elected consul in oppo-
sition to Catiline. His vigour in putting
down the conspiracy of the latter gained for
him the title of "father of his country."
The measures passed by his enemy, the tri-
bune Clodius, obliged him to withdraw to
Greece. After about sixteen months he was
recalled by the senate, and in 52 went as
governor to Cilicia. He sided with the
senate and afterwards with Pompey against
Caesar, but submitted to the latter after
Pharsalia, and retiring to his Tusculan
villa, wrote his De Natiira Deorttm, and
other philosophical works. His defence
of Caesar's murderers and the "philippic"
orations directed against Marcus Antonius
led to his proscription on the formation of
the second triumvirate. He was murdered
by Antonius' emissaries.
Cicognara, Leopoldo (b. 1767, d. 1834),
wrote a valuable History of Italian Sculpture.
Cid Campeador, Ruy, or Rodrigo Bias de
Bivar, hero of Spanish fiction, aided Sancho
of Castile against his brother Alfonso, King
of Aragon, but on the death of Sancho
acknowledged Alfonso as king of Castile.
He lost the favour of Alfonso, and
02
retired from his court, but obtained some
aid from him in capturing the city of
Valencia from the Moors (1094), which he
ruled till his death.
Cignani, Carlo (b. 1628, d. 1719), Italian
artist, founder of the Clementine school at
Bologna, excelled in the painting of
women and children, and in the finish of
his detail. His masterpiece is the fresco in '-
the cupola of La Madonna del JFuoco in Forli.
Cignaroli, Giambettino (b. 1706, d. 1770),
Italian painter in oils, studied in Venice,
and belonged to that school.
Cimabue, Giovanni (b. 1240, d. 1300),
Italian artist, founder of the Florentine
school, shook himself free from the tradi-
tions of Byzantine art, and by following
nature and the impulses of his own genius
prepared the way for the future greatness
of Italy in the fine arts. The exhibition of
his table of The Virgin for the Rucellai
chapel in Santa Maria Novella was the
occasion of a public festival. Except the
Madonna, little of his work remains.
Cimarosa, Domenico (b. 1749, d. 1801),
(probably) Italian musical composer, visited
St. Petersburg in 1789 ; became director of
the court opera at Vienna in 1792, and was
imprisoned for his share in the Neapolitan
revolution of 1799.
Cimon (b. 510 B.C., d. 449 B.C.), son of
Miltiades, Athenian general, distinguished
himself at the battle of Salamis, and gained
many other victories over the Persians, in
466 defeating their fleet and army in one
day at the mouth of the Eurymedon. In
461 he was ostracised through the influence
of Pericles, but recalled in 457, and died
whilst besieging Citium in Cyprus.
Cincinnatus, Lucius Quintius (b. circa
520 B.C., d. circa 435 B.C.), after being twice
consul, was summoned from the plough to
take office as dictator ; subj ugated the JEqui,
and returned to his farm ; was again
dictator for a short time in his old age.
Cinna, Lucius Cornelius (d. 84 B.C.), four
times consul (86-83), was expelled from
Rome in 86, but, returning with an army,
attached himself to Marius ; was assassinated
whilst preparing to march against Sulla.
Cinthio, Giovanni Battista Giraldi (d.
1573), Italian novelist, wrote Hecatomitnit
or Cento Novelli.
Cipriani, Giovanni Battista (b. 1727, d.
1785), Italian painter, studied in Rome,
came to London, and was one of the
founders of the Royal Academy.
Circignano (b. 1560, d. 1620), Nicolo (called
Pomarancio, from has birthplace), Italian
Cit
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painter. His masterpiece is the Martyrdom
of St. Stephen, at Rome.
Cittadini, Pier Francesco (b. 1616, d.
1681), a pupil of Guido. Several of his
paintings are in the churches of Milan.
Clairaut, Alexis Claude (b. 1713, d. 1765),
French mathematician, wrote on the Figure
of the Earth, etc.
Clapperton, Hugh (b. 1788, rf. 1827),
African explorer, in 1822 started on an
expedition to the Lower Xiger and reached
Saccatoo, obtaining information about Lake
Tchad. In 1826 went again to Saccatoo,
but died at Chungary from an attack of
dysentery.
Clare, John (b. 1793, d. 1864), poet, son
of a labourer, wrote Poems Descriptive of
Rural Life and Scenery (1820), etc.
Clare, John Fitzgibbon, Earl of (*. 1749,
d. 1802), lord chancellor of Ireland in 1789,
was mainly instrumental in bringing about
the Act of Union (1801).
Clarence, Duke of. [See Albert Victor.]
Clarence, George, Duke of (d. 1478),
brother of Edward IV., Lord -Lieutenant of
Ireland in 1462, was secretly executed.
Clarendon, Edward Hyde, Earl of (b.
1608, d. 1674), as a member of the
Long Parliament opposed the arbitrary
government of Charles I., but afterwards
attached himself to his cause : went to Jersey
in 1646, and there commenced his History
of the Rebellion ; followed Prince Charles in
his wandeiings, and returning with him in
1660, became Lord Chancellor. In 1661
he was made a peer. In 1667 he withdrew
to the Continent to avoid impeachment, and
died at Rouen.
Clarendon, George William Villiers (b.
1800, d. 1870), politician and diplomatist,
supported Queen Isabella as minister at
Madrid in 1833 ; was president of the Board
of Trade in 1846. Lor J-Lieutenant of Ireland
from 1847 to 1852, and Foreign Secretary
from 1853 to 1858, in 1865-66, and under
Mr. Gladstone in 1868.
Claretie, Arsene Arnaud (Jules) (b. 1840),
French journalist and writer, has contri-
buted to the leading French journals,
written Madeleine Benin (1868), and other
novels, an Histoire de la Revolution de 2870-
71, and several dramas.
Clark, Sir Andrew, Bart., M.D. (b. 1826),
educated at Aberdeen and Edinburgh, com-
menced practice in London in 1854, and has
made his speciality the diseases of the
digestive and respiratory organs. He has
written several medical works.
Clark, Sir James, Bart. (b. 1788, d. 1870),
a Scottish physician who practised for some
years in Rome, aud returning to England
was appointed physician to the Queen.
Clark, William Tierney (b. 17S3, d. 1852),
i nglish engineer, constructed the suspension
bridge over the Danube between Pesth and
Buda.
Clarke, Adam (*. 1762, d. 1832), was
brought up as a Methodist, and became
an itinerant preacher in 1782, wrote the
Commentary on tte Bible (1820-26), a Biblio-
graphical Dictionary (1802), etc.
Clarke, Edward Daniel (b. 1769, d. 1822),
wro^e an account of his travels through
Europe, Asia Minor, and Egypt.
Clarke, Henry Jacques Guillaume, Due de
Feltre (b. 1765, d. 1818), entered the French
service in 1782, served in the Republican
army, and afterwards attached himself to
Bonaparte, who made him minister of war
in lo</7. He was again minister of war
in 1815 under Louis XVIII.
Clarke, Hyde (b. 1815), an English philo-
logist, engineer, aud diplomatist, has es-
pecially studied the languages of the New
World, and their relation to those of the Old,
Clarke, Jeremiah (d. 1707), a musician,
was organist of St. Paul's Cathedral and
the Chapel Royal.
Clarke, John (b. 1770, d. 1836), musical
composer, was in 1820 appointed organist at
Hereford cathedral.
Clarke, Mrs. Mary Cowden (b. 1809),
wrote a Complete Concordance to Shakespeare
(1845), besides novels and other works, and
in conjunction with her husband edited and
annotated CasselPs Illustrated Shakespeare.
Clarke, Samuel (*. 1675, d. 1729), divine,
was Boyle lecturer in 1704 and 1705, and
chose as his subjects, The Being and Attri-
butes of God, and The Evidences of Natural
and Revealed Religion ; in the latter he bases
morality on the fitness of things.
Clarkson, Thomas (b. 1760, d. 1846), phil-
anthropist, associated himself with Sharp,
Dillwyn, and others : formed his first com-
mittee for the abolition of slavery, consist-
ing chiefly of members of the Society of
Friends, in 1787, and went about to English
ports collecting evidense.
Clauberg, Jean (b. 1622, d. 1665), philo-
sopher of the school of Descartes.
Claude, Jean (b. 1619, d. 1687), French
Protestant divine and political writer, was
banished in 1685, and received with kindness
by the Prince of Orange.
Claude Lorraine, or Claude Gele"e (b.
1600, d. 1682) landscape painter, a chUd
Cla
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of poor parents, apprenticed to a pastry-
cook, went to Rome, where he was
servant and pupil to the painter Tassi,
uuder whom he became proficient in the
art. He painted for Pope Urban VIII. and
other princes, and left upwards of 400 land-
scapes.
Ciaudianus, Claudius, Latin poet, of
Greek parentage ; wrote chiefly panegyrics
and satires.
Claudius, Appius Caecus, Roman states-
man, censor in 312 B.C., and consul in 296.
Claudius, Appius Crassus, consul and
decemvir 451 B.C.
Claudius, Marcus Aurelius Flavius Gothi-
cus (b. 214, d. 270), Emperor of Borne,
succeeded Gallienus in 268, defeated the
Alemanni and the Goths, and instituted
reforms.
Claudius, Matthias (b. 1743, d. 1815), a
German poet, author of the Rhein-wein-lied.
Claudius, Tiberius Drusus Nero Germani-
cus, Emperor of Rome (b. 10 B.C., d. A.D.
54), son of Drusus, the brother of Tiberius,
and of Antonia, niece of Augustus, suc-
ceeded Caligula in A.D. 40 ; became tyran-
nical through the influence of his wife,
Messalina ; afterwards married his niece,
Agrippina, who poisoned him. Britain be-
came a Roman province in his reign.
Clausen, Henri Nicolas (b. 1793, d. 1877),
Danish theologian and politician, became
frofessor of theology at Copenhagen in
821, and in 1825 published the Constitution
of the Catholic and Protestant Churches. As
councillor of state and minister of worship,
he had a large share in drawing up the
Constitution of 1849.
Clavigero, Francisco Saverio (b. circa
1720, d. circa 1793), Mexican Jesuit of
Spanish descent, worked as a missionary
among the Indians, and wrote a well-known
History of Mexico.
Clay, Henry (b. 1777, d. 1852), American
orator and statesman, was educated for the
law, and in 1811 entered the House of Re-
presentatives, of which he was seven times
elected Speaker ; supported the war with
Great Britain on the right of search in 1812,
and acted as plenipotentiary in the negotia-
tions preceding the treaty of Ghent (1814) ;
was author of the Missouri compromise,
restricting slavery to the southern states
(1821), and of the Omnibus Bill, which
postponed the Civil war for ten years.
Cleanthes, Greek Stoic philosopher, dis-
ciple and successor of Zeno, lived about
300 B.C. ; of his writings only the Hymn to
Jupiter remains.
Cleef, or Cleeve, John van (b. 1646, d.
1716), Flemish painter, excelled in drapery
and the heads of women and children. His
pictures and altar-pieces may be seen in the
churches of Ghent.
Clemenceau, Eugene (b. 1841), French
politician, elected to the National Assembly
as an extreme Republican in 1876, sided
with Gambetta in resisting the designs of
the Monarchists ; afterwards diverged from
him, and became leader of the Radicals, as
opposed to the Opportunists.
Clement I. (Clemens Romanus) (d. 100),
third Bishop of Rome, said to have been
converted from heathenism by St. Peter,
succeeded Linus in 67, and is supposed to
have written the so-called epistles to the
Corinthians in the Alexandrian MS.
Clement II. (d. 1047), previously Bishop
of Bamberg, was elected pope in 1046,
through the influence of Henry III. of Ger-
many.
Clement III. (d. 1191), previously Bishop
of Palestina, became pope in 1187, and
urged the sovereigns of Europe to under-
take a crusade.
Clement IV. (d. 1268), previously Arch-
bishop of Narbonne ; assisted Charles of
Anjou in the conquest of the kingdom of
Naples.
Clement V. (b. 1264, d. 1314), Bertrand
de Goth, Archbishop of Bordeaux, elected
pope in 1305 through the influence of Philip
the Fair, made the papacy subservient to
French policy, and transferred the pontifical
chair to Avignon.
Clement VI. (b. 1292, d. 1352), Peter
Roger, Archbishop of Rome, elected pope in
1342, excommunicated Louis of Bavaria,
and deposed him in favour of Charles of
Bohemia. He maintained a luxurious court.
Clement VII. (d. 1534), Giulio de' Medici,
became pope in 1523 ; sought to make his
family supreme in Florence; sided alter-
nately with Francis I. and Charles V. , till
the ransacking of Rome by the Constable of
Bourbon (1827) compelled him to make
terms with the latter. The pope ceased to
exercise authority in England on the passing
of the Act of Supremacy (1534).
Clement VIII. (b. 1536, d. 1605)%Ippolito
Aldobrandini, became pope in 1592, and
assisted the League in France against Henri
IV., who submitted to Rome in 1593.
Clement IX. (b. 1600, d. 1669), Giulio
Rospigliosi, aided the Venetians against the
Turks.
Clement X. (b. 1590, d. 1676), Emilio
Altieri, became pope in 1670.
Cle
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Clement XI. (*. 1649, d. 1720), Gian Fran-
cesco Alhani, became pope in 1700; roused
the Christian powers against the Turks,
who were defeated at Peterwaradin ; sup-
ported the cause of the Pretender, and
issued the bull " Unigenitus " against the
Jansenists.
Clement XII. (b. 1652, d. 1740), Lorenzo
Corsim, became pope in 1730.
Clement XIII. (b. 1693, d.^ 1769), Carlo
Rezzonico, became pope in 1758. His sup-
port of the Jesuits led to their expulsion
from Portugal, Spain, France, and Naples.
Clement XTV. (b. 1705, d. 1774), Lorenzo
Gaugaurl!i, pope in 17t>0, supported the
party called Regalisti, and suppressed the
order of Jesuits in 1773.
Clement, Jacques (b. 1567, d. 1589), a
French Dominican; assassinated Henri III.
at St. Cloud.
Clement, Joseph (b. 1779, d. 1844), me-
chanician, pupil of Bramah ; invented several
kinds of lathes and screw tools, including
the headless tap.
Clement of Alexandria, Titus Flavius
Clemens, presbyter of the church of Alex-
andria, a famous Christian teacher of the
2nd and 3rd centuries.
Clementi, Muzio (b. 1752, d. 1832),
Italian composer and pianist ; came to
London in 1 766, and after visiting most of
the European capitals, settled there in 1810.
He published a collection of studies for the
piano, called Gradus ad Parnassum.
ClenneU, Luke (b. 1781, d. 1840),
English artist, was apprenticed to Bewick,
the wood-engraver, but showed more
talent for painting, and coming to London
in 1804, painted the Decisive Charge of
the British Life Guards at Waterloo. He
died in a lunatic asylum.
Cleomedes, a Greek astronomer of un-
known date.
Cleomenes L, King of Sparta (d. circa
490 B.C.), son of Anaxandrides, ascended the
throne circa 519 B.C.
Cleomenes III., King of Sparta (d. 220
B.C.), son of Leonidas II., was long suc-
cessful against the Achaeans, but at last was
defeated, and forced to flee to Egypt, where
he committed suicide.
Cleon (d. 422 B.C.), Athenian demagogue,
son of Cleaeuetus, a tanner, became promi-
nent after the death of Pericles, and won
popularity by bis successful expedition
against the Spartan encampment on Sphac-
teria ; was slain whilst leading an expedition
against Amphipolis.
Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt (b. 69 B.C.,
d. 3D B.C.), celebrated tor her beauty,
was the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes,
by whose will she was left joint sovereign
with her brother Ptolemy (B.C. 51). Ex-
pelled by the latter, she sought the assist-
ance of Julius Caesar, who restored her to
the throne in conjunction with a vouuger
brother. She afterwards followed Cresar
to Rome, and in 41 captivated M. Autouius,
who rejected Octavia for her sake. A quar-
rel with Octavius ensued ; the fleet of
Antonius and Cleopatra was defeated at
Actiuin, and they fled together to Egypt,
where they both committed suicide.
Clery, or O'Cleary, Michael (b. circa
1575, d. circa 1645), Irish historian, lay
brother of the Franciscan order, wrote A.
Catalogue of the Kings of Ireland, the Book
of Conquests, and The Annals of Ireland.
Cleveland, Grover (b. 1837), President of
the United States, was called to the bar at
Buffalo, and in 1882 elected Governor of
New York state ; obtained the presidency
in 1884, being the first Democratic president
since the war. In 1888 he was defeated by
the Republican candidate, General Harri-
son.
Clifford, William Kingdon, F.R.S. (b.
1845, d. 1879), mathematician and physi-
cist, was educated at Cambridge ; appointed
professor of applied mathematics at Univer-
sity College, London, in 1871 ; wrote Seeing
and Thinking, Lectures and Essays, and
scientific works.
Clinton, De Witt (b, 1769, d. 1828),
American statesman, was mayor of New
York almost continuously from 1803 to
1815. Owing to his exertions the Erie
Canal was constructed in 1825.
Clinton, George (b. 1739, d. 1812),
American general, served under Arnherst;
was governor of New York for eighteen
years, and twice vice-president.
Clinton, Sir Henry, G.C.B (b. 1771, d.
1829), English officer, entered the army in
1787, served with the Duke of York in the
Netherlands, with Lord Lake at Agra, and
with Sir John Moore in Spain ; distinguished
himself at Salamanca, and commanded a
division at Waterloo.
Clinton, Henry Fynes (b. 1781, d. 1852),
classical scholar and chronologist, author of
the Fasti Hellenici and Fasti Eomani.
Clissold, Rev. Augustus (b. 1797, d. 1882),
Swedenborgian, translated Swedenborg's
works, and wrote many treatises in support
of his doctrines.
Clisson, Olivier de (d. 1407), French
soldier, Constable of France in 1380.
Cli
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Clive, Eobert, Lord (b. Styche, Shropshire,
1725, d. 1774), obtained in 1743 a writership
in the service of the East India Company at
Madras, assisted in resisting the French
attacks, and in 1746 resigned his civil post
to enter the army ; distinguished himself as
a subaltern in the attack upon Devicotta,
and successfully defended Arcot in 1751.
He visited England in 1753, and returned
as lieutenant-governor of Fort St. David ;
but in 1 756 was dispatched to Bengal against
Suraj-oo-Doula, retook Calcutta, and on
the outbreak of war with France captured
the French settlement of Chandeniagore ;
gained a brilliant victory over Suraj-oo-
Doula at Plassey (1757), penetrated to his
capital and installed Meer Jaffier in his
stead. Clive came to England in 1763 ; but
resumed his government in 1765, to check
the corruption prevalent in the East India
Company, and introduce order into what,
through his efforts, had become a British
colony. He returned to England in 1767,
where the attacks on his administration
drove him out of his mind, and he com-
mitted suicide.
Clodius, Publius (d. 52 B.C.), Roman
patrician of the Claudian family, conceived
a hatred for Cicero, and, to effect his banish-
ment, gave up his patrician rank in 58, and
as tribune procured the passing of a law
against anyone who took the life of a citizen
uncondemned. He perished in a street en-
counter with Milo.
Clootz, Johann Baptiste, Baron (b. 1755,
d. 1794), travelled through Europe under
the name of Anacharsis, and was a promi-
nent figure in the French revolution, and
was guillotined.
Clotaire I. (b. 497, d. 561), youngest son
of Clovis and Clotilde, became King of
Soissons in 511, and in 558 united all the
Frankish dominions under his rule.
Clotaire II. (b. 584, d. 628), son of Childeric
I., succeeded as an infant to the throne of
Neustria, under the guardianship of his
mother, Fredegonde; and, after the de-
thronement and death of Brunehaut, Queen
of Austrasia, in 613, became ruler over all the
Frank dominions.
Clotaire III., son of Clovis II., com-
menced to reign over Neustria and Bur-
gundy in b55, under the care of Ebroin,
mayor of the place.
Clotaire IV., nominal King of Austrasia
under Charles Martel from 717 to 720.
Clotilda, Saint (b. circa 475, d. 543),
daughter of Chilperic, king of Burgundy,
and wife of Clovis I. ; converted her hus-
band to Christianity, and after his death
retired to a monastery.
Clough, Arthur Hugh (b. 1819, d. 1861),
poet and essayist, born at Liverpool, edu-
cated at Rugby and Oxford, where he
became fellow and tutor of Oriel College,
published Atnbarvalia, a Long Vacation
Pastoral (1848), and Dipsychus (1850).
He travelled much on the Continent,
was head of University Hall, London, from
1849 to 1852, and an examiner under the
Education department from 1853 to his
death.
Clovio, Giulio Georgio (b. 1498, d.
1578), miniature painter, went to Italy
and lived in the household of Cardinal
Farnese, for whom he executed a beautifully
illuminated missal.
Clovis I. (b. 465, d. 511), succeeded his
father Chilperic I. as king of the Franks in
481 ; defeated the Romans at Soissons ; sub-
dued the Alemanni, and other tribes; but
was defeated by Theodoric, king of the
Goths, in 509. In 496 he was converted to
Christianity.
Clovis II., second son of Dagobert,
whom he succeeded on the throne of
Neustria and Burgundy (638).
Clovis III. (b. 681, d. 695), succeeded his
father Thierry III., and ruled over Neustria
and Burgundy under the direction of Pepin
le Gros.
Cluvier, Philip (b. 1580, d. 1623), geo-
grapher, wrote Germania Antigua, Italia
Antigua, etc.
Clyde, Lord, Sir Colin Campbell (b. 1792,
d. 1863), of Highland descent, educated at
Glasgow ; served in Spain under Sir John
Moore and Wellington, was wounded in the
assault of San Sebastian and the passage of
the Bidassoa ; served with distinction in the
American war (1814-15), in Demerara
(1823), China (1832), and in the Sikh war
(1848), receiving the thanks of Parlia-
ment and the East India Company. He
distinguished himself in the Crimean war,
especially at the Alma ; and on the outbreak
of the Indian Mutiny was hurriedly sent out
as commander-in-chief, relieved Havelock
at Lucknow and Windham at Cawnpore,
utterly defeated the enemy, and by his sub-
sequent manoeuvres re-established the
British power in India. For these services
he was raised to the peerage and made a
field-marshal.
Cobbe, Frances Power (b. 1822), a well-
known contributor to periodical literature,
and a zealous supporter of the " Women's
Rights movement."
Cobbett, William (b. 1762, d. 1835),
farmer and political critic, born at Farnham,
Surrey, worked in the king's garden at
Kew; enlisted in 1784, and served in
Cob
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America from 1785 to 1791, devoting his
leisure to the improvement of his education.
After obtaining his discharge returned to
America in 1792, opened a bookseller's shop
in Philadelphia, and conducted a journal
under the name of "Peter Porcupine."
Returning to England in 1801 he started
The Weekly Political lit</istcr* iu which he
at first supported Pitt, but about 1804 his
views suddenly changed, and he became a
champion of popular rights. He spent
much time on his farms in Hampshire and
Surrey, and after 1832 sat in the House of
Commons as member for Oldham.
Cobbold, Thomas Spencer (*. 1828, d.
18811), man of science, has made a special
study of helminthology, and is considered
the first authority on the subject of
entozoa.
Cobden, Richard (b. 1804, d. 1865), states-
man, son of a Sussex fanner, educated at
an obscure school in Yorkshire ; was after-
wards a commercial traveller, and in 1831
•joined in establishing a cotton-printing
business near Manchester. He visited the
United States in 1835, and in 1836-37
travelled in Turkey and the Levant. The
pamphlet England, Ireland, and America
appeared in 1835, and Russia in 1836. In
1838 he joined Mr. Bright and others in
establishing the Anti-Corn Law League, and
earnestly advocated a policy of Free Trade,
at first in lectures delivered throughout the
country, and afterwards in Parliament,
which he entered as member for Stockport
in 1841. The pressure of the Irish famine
convinced Peel of the soundness of his
views, and the corn laws were repealed in
1846. Cobden represented the "West Riding
of Yorkshire from 1846 to 1857, in which
year he lost his seat, owing to his opposition
to Lord Palmerston's Chinese policy. In
1859, whilst absent in America, he was
elected member for Rochdale, and early in
the following year was appointed pleni-
potentiary for arranging the treaty of com-
merce with France.
Cochlaeus, Johan (b. 1749, d. 1552), Ger-
man theologian, bitterly opposed Luther and
the other leaders of the Reformation.
Cochrane, Sir Alexander Forrester Inglis,
G.C.B. (b. 1758, d. 1832), admiral, dis-
tinguished himself in the war with France
in 1799, and in 1806 earned the thanks of
Parliament by bis victory over the French
fleet.
Cockburn, Sir Alexander James Edmund,
Bart., G.C.B. (b. 1802, d. 1880), dis-
tinguished English judge, was called to the
bar in 1829, entered Parliament as a Liberal
in 1847, in 1850 supported Lord Palmer-
ston's policy in the matter of Don Pacifico ;
became Soli ator- General the same year,
Attorney- General in 1851, Chief Justice of
the Common Pleas in 1856, and Lord Chief
Justice in 1859. At the Geneva arbitration
of 1871, under the Washington treaty, in
the Alabama case, he acted as representative
of England.
Cockburn, Sir George (b. 1772, d. 1853),
admiral, served with distinction in the
French war, and was present at St. Vin-
cent; in 1812 sailed to America and co-
operated with General Ross against the
attack upon Washington. He conveyed
Napoleon to St. Helena.
Cockburn, Henry Dundas, Lord (b. 1779,
d. 1854), Scottish judge, a diligent legal
reformer, wrote the Life of Lord Jeffrey,
Memorials of his Time, etc.
Cockerell, Charles Robert, R.A. (b. 1788,
d. 1863), architect and antiquarian, devoted
himself to classical architecture, during his
travels (1810-17) discovered the JEgiuetan
marbles now at Munich, and the Phigalian
marbles in the British Museum. He designed
many public buildings, including the Tay-
lorian Museum at Oxford (1840), and wrote
several treatises on architecture, the chief
being on the Temples of Jupiter Panhelknius
in jEgina, and of Apollo JEpicurius near
Phigaleia (I860). *
Cockerill, William (b. 1757, d. 1832), in-
ventor, went to Russia on the invitation of
the Empress Catherine, was imprisoned
by her successor, Paul ; fled to Sweden, and
thence proceeded to Holland, where he
established the great iron foundry for which
his name is famous.
Coddington, William (b. 1601, d. 1678),
one of the founders and first governor of
Rhode Island, New England.
Codrington, Sir Edward (b. 1770, d. 1851),
admiral, was engaged in the victory off
Ushantin 1794, commanded a vessel at Tra-
falgar, shared in the Walcheren expedition,
and in 1826 was sent to restrain Ibrahim
Pacha from attacking the Greeks. Ibrahim
resisted, and was defeated by Codrington at
Navarino.
Codrington, Sir William John (b. 1804,
d. 1884) ^ son of the preceding, distinguished
himself in the Crimean war ; he conducted
the grand attack on the Redan.
Coello, Claudio (b. 1621, rf. 1693), Spanish
painter, pupil of the younger Rizi ; his
greatest work is the altar-piece of the Santa
Forma at the EscuriaL
Coeln, Wilhelm von, a famous German
painter of the 14th century.
Coffinlial, Jean Baptiste (b. 1754, d. 1794),
French revolutionist, took part in the
attack on the Tuileries, and was afterwards
Coh
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Col
vice-president of the revolutionary tribunal.
He was executed.
Conn, Ferdinand Julius (b, 1828), German
botanist, author of several works on botany,
and an important treatise on bacteria.
Cohnneim, Julius Friedrich (b. 1839),
German pathologist, has made original
researches and experiments in connection
with the blood, inflammatory processes,
etc
Coimbra, Don Pedro, Duke of, surnamed
Alfarrobeira (b. 13:)2, d. 1449), son of
John I. of Portugal, commanded the fleet
in the first expedition against Ceuta ; in
1439 became regent for his nephew, Al-
phouso V. ; was deposed by the Duke of
Braganza in 1446, and died whilst fighting
against him.
Goiter, Volcher (b. 1534), Dutch physician,
author of valuable anatomical works; was
physician to the French army.
Coke, Sir Edward (b. 1552, d. 1634), judge
and law writer, educated at Norwich gram-
mar school and Cambridge, was called to
the bar in 1578 ; early acquired a high
reputation, and became Solicitor- General in
1592, and Attorney- General in 1594. He
showed much harshness in his prosecution
of Essex, Raleigh, and others : but his
loyalty gained him the chief justiceship of
the Common Pleas in 1606. In this position
and that of Chief Justice of the King's
Bench (1613) he opposed James I.'s claim
to exercise prerogatives and was tempo-
rarily deprived in 1616. Entering Par-
liament in 1621, he there resisted the king's
encroachments ; was imprisoned in the
Tower in 1622, and in 1(528 took the chief
part in drawing up the Petition of Right.
The remainder of his life was spent in com-
piling his Commentaries upon Littleton.
Coke, Thomas (b. 1747, d. 1814), English
clergyman, adopted the opinions of John
"Wesley, and went as missionary to North
America and the West Indies.
Colbert, Jean Baptiste (b. 1619, d.
1683), French statesman, attracted the
attention of Cardinal Mazarin, and became
comptroller-general and afterwards prime
minister of Louis XIV. He pursued a
Liberal policy, tolerating the Protestants and
encouraging commercial and manufacturing
enterprise, especially the Lyonnese silk
trade and the manufacture of French lace.
To him France owes her navy. By his skill
as a financier he averted national bank-
ruptcy, but his economy and aversion to
loans becoming distasteful to the king, he
was disgraced and soon afterwards died.
Colby, Major-General Thomas (b. 1784,
d. 1852), rendered beneficial services in
connection with the ordnance survey, of
which he became director in 1820.
Golden, Cadwallader (b. 1688, d. 1776),
Scottish physician, settled in New York, of
which he became lieutenant-governor in
1761. He wrote a History of the Five
Indian Nations, etc. , and contributed to the
Acta Upsaliensa of Linnaeus.
Cole, Sir Henry, K.C.B. (*. 1808, d. 1882),
became assistant keeper of the records, and
was mainly instrumental in establishing the
Record Office : was also founder of the South
Kensington Museum, of which he became
director in 1860. He worked on the com-
mittee of the Exhibition of 1852, and was
commissioner of the Paris ExhiMtion of
1855, and secretary of the Royal Commission
at that of 1867.
Cole, Vicat (b. 1833), English landscape
painter, elected R.A. in 1880.
Cole, William (b. 1714, d. 1782), English
clergyman and antiquary, left a large col-
lection of MSS. to the British Museum.
Colebrooke, Henry Thomas (b. 1765,
d. 1837), English Orientalist, became a chief
justice and member of the Supreme Council
at Bengal ; wrote a Sanscrit grammar, a
Sanscrit lexicon, etc., and contributed to
Asiatic Researches.
Colenso, John William (b. 1814, d.
1883), Bishop of Natal, master at Harrow
(1838-42), and rector of Forncett St.
Mary, Norfolk (1846-53), was in 1853
appointed to the new bishopric of Natal.
In 1862 appeared the first portion of The
Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically
Examined, a work which excited the
keenest controversy, and was condemned as
heretical by both Houses of Convocation in
1864. Attempts to depose the bishop and
to withhold his salary were, after a long
contest, declared illegal by the Master of
the Rolls ; nevertheless, a rival bishop was
established at Maritzburg in 1839. Bishop
Colenso was also the author of an Arithmetic
(1840), an Algebra (1841), and other works.
Colepeper, John, Lord (d. 1660), as member
of the Long Parliament, supported the king,
who made him Chancellor of the Exchequer
(1642) and Master of the Rolls (1643).
After 1646 he shared the fortunes of Prince
Charles ; he died soon after the Restoration.
Coleridge, Rev. Derwent (b. 1800, d.
1883), son of the poet, was principal of St.
Mark's College, Chelsea, from 1841 to
1864; wrote The Scriptural Character of the
English Church, etc.
Coleridge, Hartley (b. 1796, d. 1849),
son of the poet, passed his early years
in the Lake District, whence he went to
Col
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Col
Oxford, and became fellow of Oriel, but loft
within a yc;ir. He then lived a wandering
life, writing much poetry, chiefly in the
form of sonnets and lyrics, and contributing
tx> Blaekioood1 a Magazine. The Worthies of
Yorkshire appeared in 1.S32.
Coleridg-e, Henry Nelson (b. 1800, d.
1843), nephew and son-in-law of the poet,
was chief editor of his Table Talk and Liter-
ary Remains, and wrote an Introduction to
the Study of the Greek Classic Poets, etc.
Coleridge, John Duke, Baron (b. 1821),
eldest sou of Sir J. T. Coleridge, was called
to the bar in 1846, entered Parliament as a
Liberal in 1865, was Solicitor- General in
1868, and becoming Attorney- General in
1871, undertook the Crown prosecution of
the Tichborne claimant. In 1873 he was
appointed Chief Justice of the Common Pleas
and raised to the peerage, and in 1880 suc-
ceeded Sir A. Cockburn as Lord Chief Justice
of England.
Coleridge, Sir John Taylor (b. 1790, d.
1876), nephew of the poet, was judge of the
King's Bench, and a friend of Keble and
Dr. Arnold, His Memoir of Keble appeared
in 1869.
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor (b. 1772, rf. 1834),
poet, critic and philosopher, born at Ottery
St. Mary, son of the Rev. John Coleridge,
passed from Christ's Hospital to Cambridge,
but left it suddenly and mysteriously to
enlist in a dragoon regiment, from which his
family procured his discharge. He was at
this time an ardent republican. Visiting
South ey at Bristol in 1794, he there met
Robert Lovell, a Quaker. The three "pan-
tisocrats" married three sisters, and formed
the scheme of founding a communistic
society on the banks of the Susquehannah.
In 1796 he started a short-lived periodical,
the Watchman, and made a tour of the
country to canvass for subscribers. After
living for a time at Clevedon, he settled at
Nether Stowey, where he wrote The Ancient
Manner, and the first part of Christabel.
The former appeared in Lyrical Ballads,
published in conjunction with Wordsworth
in 1798. After a visit to Germany he re-
moved to Keswick in 1800, but in 1804 was
obliged by ill-health to accept the post of
secretary to Sir Alexander Ball, governor
of Malta, where he remained a year. Re-
turning to Cumberland, he started a peri-
odical, the Friend, and, on its failure, came
to London, and wrote for the Courier and
Morning Post. In 1816 his practice of in-
dulging in opium compelled him to put him-
self under the care of Mr. Gillman, of High-
gate, with whom he spent the rest of his
life. Among his prose works the Biographia
Literaria (1817), Aids to Reflection (1825) , and
Lectures on Shakespeare are the best known.
Coleridge, Sara (b. 1803, d. 1852), only
daughter of the preceding, and wife of
Henry Nelson Coleridge, whom she assisted
in his literary labours, besides publishing
in Ib37 an original work entitled Pluin-
tasmion.
Colet, Cowper Phipps (b. 1819, d. 1870),
a sailor and inventor, whose early plan for
the construction of shot-proof rafts was
developed in 1862 into the turret^system.
Colet, Dr. John (b. 1466, d. 1519), divine,
educated at Magdalen College, Oxford,
travelled abroad, and became acquainted
with Erasmus and other scholars. He was
made Dean of St. Paul's in 1505, and
founded St. Paul's school in 1512.
Coligny, Gaspard de (b. 1517, d. 1572),
Huguenot leader, of noble birth, fought
under Francis I. and Henri II., and became
Admiral of France in 1552. Having adopted
the Proteatant faith, Coligny was defeated
at Dreux (1562), St. Denys, Jamac and
Moncontour, but in 1570 a peace was con-
cluded, and he came to Court, where he was
received with favour. In 1572, however,
he was wounded in a street in Paris, and
perished in the massacre of St. Bartholo-
mew two days afterwards.
Colle", Charles (b. 1709, d. 1783), French
dramatist and song -writer, secretary to the
Duke of Orleans, and one of the founders of
the Caveau.
Collenuccio, Pandolfo (d. 1504), writer
and politician, after filling several diplo-
matic posts, returned to Pesaro, where he
was executed by Giovanni Sforza. His
chief work is a History of the Kingdom of
Naples.
Colletet, Guillaume (b. 1598, d. 1659),
French poet, wrote for the theatre, and
left Cyminde (a drama) , Des Espoirs Amou-
reux, etc.
Colletta, Pietro (*.- 1775, d. 1833), began
life as a military engineer, was exiled by
the Bourbons after the revolution of 1820,
but afterwards allowed to settle at Florence,
where he wrote his History of Naples from
1734 to 1825.
CoUey, Sir George Pomeroy (b. 1835, d.
1881), soldier, served in the Kaffir war of
1858, in China (1860), and in Ashantee,
and in 1880 succeeded Lord Wolseley as
Governor of Natal and High Commissioner
of South-East Africa. He was slain at the
battle of Majuba Hill.
Collier, Arthur (b. 1680, d. 1732),
English divine and metaphysician, inde-
pendently of Berkeley formed the same
views as to the non-existence of a material
world, set forth in his Clavis Universalis.
Col
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Col
Collier, Jeremy (*. 1650, d. 1726). non-
{"uror, was imprisoned, and afterwards out-
awed, but coutiuued to live hi London. He
wrote many works, including an Ecclesi-
astical History of Britain, but is remem-
bered chiefly for his attacks on the immo-
rality and profaneness of the stage.
Collier, John Payne (b. 1789, d. 1883),
man of letters, noted as a student of Eliza-
bethan literature, and especially of Shake-
speare, wrote The Poetical Decameron, a
History of Dramatic Poetry, New Facts
Regarding the Life of Shakespeare, etc., and
edited Dodsley's Old Plays.
Collingwood, Cuthbert, Lord (b. 1750,
d. 1810), admiral, entered the navy in
1761, and served in the American war in
1774 and 1775 ; proceeded to the West
Indies in 1776, where he formed a lasting
friendship with Nelson ; took part in Lord
Howe's victory (1794) ; commanded a vessel
at St. Vincent ; was second in command at
Trafalgar, and on Nelson's death became
Commander-in-chief.
Collins, John (b. 1676, d. 1729). deist, wrote
a Discourse on Freethinking , Grounds and
Reasons of the Christian Religion, and other
works, which excited much controversy.
Collins, William (b. 1721, d. 1759), poet,
eon of a hatter, educated at Winchester and
Oxford, spent his after life in London in
poor circumstances, and at last became almost
insane. He wrote a number of odes and some
pastoral poems entitled Oriental Eclogues.
Collins, William (b. 1788, d. 1847), artist,
pupil of George Morland, studied at the
Academy under Etty, and excelled in land-
scapes, especially coast scenes.
Collins, William Wilkie (b. 1824, d. 1889),
novelist, wrote The Woman in White (1859),
The Moonstone (1868), and other novels.
Collinson, Peter (b. 1694, d. 1768), bo-
tanist and antiquary, one of the founders of
the Society of Antiquaries.
Collinson, Admiral Sir Richard (b. 1811,
d. 1883), surveyor and Arctic explorer, com-
manded the Enterprise, sent out in 1850 to
search for Franklin, and returned in 1854,
after exploring some five thousand miles of
coast, and proving the existence of a pas-
sage from Behring Straits to King William's
Land.
Collot d'Herbois, Jean Marie (b. 1750, d.
1796), French revolutionist, obtained a seat
in the Convention, and attached himself to
Robespierre ; displayed great cruelty, espe-
cially in punishing the revolt at Lyons in
1793; was president of the Convention at
the time of the fall of Robespierre; was
transported to Guiana in 1795.
Colman, George (b. 1732, d. 1794), dra-
matist, became manager of the Haymarket
theatre, and wrote PMy Honey combe, The
Jealous Wife, etc.
Colman, George, the Younger (b. 1762,
d. 1836), dramatist, son of the preceding,
whom he succeeded at the Haymarket,
wrote The Iron Chest, The Heir-at-Law,
John Bull, etc.
Colonna, an ancient and noble family of
Rome, for many centuries leaders of the
Ghibelline party in Southern Italy. The
most celebrated member of the house was
Marcantonio Colonna, Duke of Cagliano
(d. 1584), who distinguished himself in
naval warfare against the Turks, especially
at the battle of Lepanto,
Colonna, ^Egidius. [See ^Egidius.]
Colonna, Francesco (b. circa 1449, d. 1527),
born at Venice, Dominican, author of the
Poliphili Hypnerotomachia (1499), a rare
book, illustrated with numerous woodcuts
by Giovanni Bellini.
Colonna, Vittoria, Marchesa di Pescara
(b. 1490, d. 1547), Italian poetess, daughter
of Fabrizio, Duke of PaUano, and wife of
Ferdinand, Marquis of Pescara, on the
death of her husband in 1525 devoted her-
self to works of charity and intellectual
pursuits. She was the friend of Con-
tarini, Ariosto, and especially of Michael
Angelo.
Colquhoun, Archibald Ross (b. circa 1848),
the explorer of Chryse or Indo-China,
started from Canton in 1881, and made his
way along the Chu-Kiang to the country of
the Shaus, and thence north- west to Bhamo.
In 1883 he published Across Chryse.
Colt, Samuel (b. 1814, d. 1862), inventor
of the revolver bearing his name.
Colton, Charles Caleb (b. 1780, d. 1832),
wrote a remarkable collection of aphorisms
called Lacon; or, Many Things in Few
Words.
Coluinban (b. 543, d. 615), Irish saint
and missionary, after visiting England
went to Gaul about 585, and founded the
monastery at Luxeuil near BesanQon.
Banished twenty years later, he founded
the Abbey of Bobio near Naples.
Columbkille, or Columba (b. 621, d. 597),
Irish saint of princely birth, for sixteen
years journeyed through Ireland, preaching
and building churches and religious houses ;
in 563 crossed with twelve attendants to the
west of Scotland, and was assigned the
island of lona by his kinsman, King Conal ;
here he built a monastery and church.
Columbus, Christopher (b. circa 1436, d»
Col
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Com
1506), born at Genoa, the discoverer of
America, was educated at Pa via. and after
mam- yrurs of seafaring life, settled at Lis- ',
bon "in 1470 as a maker and seller of maps.
Becoming convinced of the existence of laud
beyond the Atlantic, he vainly sought assist-
ance from Portugal and England, but
finally set sail from Palos with three ships '
under the auspices of Ferdinand of Aragpn, '
and after two months of despair and mutiny
on the part of the sailors, on October 12th, :
1492, sighted Guanahani, or San Salvador,
one of the Bahama islands. Sailing on, he
discovered several of the West Indian
islands, including Hispaniola (St. Domingo), ;
where he planted a colony. On his return ,
he was received with honour at the courts
of Portugal and Spain. He made several
other voyages of discovery, but through |
the calumnies of his enemies was deprived
of the government of Hispaniola and sent
back to Spain in chains. He died in poverty (
at Valladolid.
Columbus, Diego (b. circa 1474, d. 1526),
eldest son of the preceding, was appointed
second admiral of the West Indies in 1509,
but being accused of misgoverument
returned to Spain in 1515, where he
remained till his death.
Columbus, Fernando (b. 1488, d. 1539),
brother of the preceding, sailed to America
with his father in 1492, and seems to have
twice revisited it. He left . a Life of his
father.
Columella, Lucius JuniuE Moderatus, a
native of Cadiz in the 1st century, wrote a
work De Re Rustica.
Colvin, Sir Auckland (b. 1838) , son of J. R.
Colvin, was the English representative in
Egypt under the scheme of Anglo-French
control, and the guiding counsellor of the
Khedive throughout the Arabi insurrec-
tion. From 1883 to 1885 he was his financial
adviser.
Colvin, John R. (b. 1807, d. 1857),
Lieutenant -Govern or of the North- West
Provinces of India during the Mutiny.
Colvin, Sidney (b. 1845), was elected
Slade professor at Cambridge in 1873.*' 'and
was appointed keeper of the prints/at the
British Museum.
Combe, Andrew (b. 1797, d. 1847), physi-
cian, wrote several works on physiology.
Combe, George (b, 1788, d. 1858), phreno-
logist, brother of the preceding, wrote The
Constitution of Man considered in Relation to
External Objects (1828), etc.
Combermere, Stapleton Cotton, Viscount
(b. 1773, d. 1865), soldier, served under the
Duke of York in Flanders and in India
against Tippoo Sahib ; in 1808 went to
Spain in command of a brigade of cavalry
and distinguished himself at Salamanca and
Orthes : was raised to the peerage in 1814,
and in 1S26, as commander-iu -chief in
India, concluded the Burmese war by the
capture of Bhurtpore.
Comenius, Johann Amos (Komenski),
(b. 1592, d. 1671), Protestant divine and
waiter on education, compelled by per-
secution to leave Fulnek, of which he
was pastor, fled to Lesna in Poland
(1621), where he taught Latin and pub-
lished his Janua Linguarum Reserata. He
spent many years in Sweden and other
countries, remodelling schools and com-
pleting a scheme of education, and finally
settled at Amsterdam.
Comines, Philippe de (b. 1445, d. 1509),
French historian of Flemish descent, at
first a follower of Charles the Bold of
Burgundy, transferred his services to Louis
XI. of France, who made him Lord of
Argenton. His Memoires are the most valu-
able history of the time.
Connnodus, Lucius Aurelius (b. 161, d.
192), Emperor of Home, succeeded his
father Marcus Aurelius in 180, and aban-
doned himself to every form of cruelty and
vice. He was poisoned and strangled,
probably by the order of his mistress,
Marcia.
Common, Andrew Ainslie (b. 1841),
astronomer, celebrated for his construction
of telescopes and photographs of celestial
phenomena.
Cornonfort, Ignacio (b. 1810, d. 1863),
i Mexican general, elected president in 1857,
was driven into exile in 1858, and murdered
by brigands shortly after his return in 1863.
Compton, Henry (b. 1632, d. 1713),
Bishop of Oxford, and afterwards of
London ; was entrusted with the education
of the princesses Mary and Anne.
Comte, Auguste (*. 1798, d. 1857), born at
MontpelHer, French philosopher, founder of
the system of Positive Philosophy, was edu-
cated at the Lycee of MontpelUer and the
Ecole Polytechnique, Paris, where he made
great progress in mathematics, but after
two years was expelled for insubordination ;
made the acquaintance of St. Simon in
1818, and for six years remained his friend
and disciple. In 1826 he conceived in
outline his famous synthetic system, and in
consequence of the mental strain involved
became temporarily insane. The first
volume of the Philosophic Positive appeared
in 1830, the sixth and last in 1842; while
engaged on it he was also professor of
mathematics at Seville, and teacher and
examiner at the Ecole Polytechnique. He
Com
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Con
lost the latter post in 1844, and spent his
later days in great poverty. The Positive
Polity occupied him from 16^6 to 1854.
Comyns, Sir John (b. 1667, d. 1740),
created Chief Baron of the Exchequer in
1738, wrote a well-known Digest of the
Laws of England.
Concha, Don Manuel de la (b. 1794,
d. 1874), Spanish general and supporter of
Isabella, served throughout the first Carlist
war, and in that of 1874 commanded the
army of the North, but was slain in battle
near Vittoria.
Concini, Concino, Marechal d'Ancre
(d. 1617), Florentine, accompanied Mary
de Medici, queen of Henry IV. , to France
in 1600 ; rose to power through his wife's
influence over her during the minority of
Louis XIII., by whose order he was
assassinated.
Conde, Jose Antonio (b. 1765, d. 1820),
learned Spaniard, wrote a History of the
Dominion of the Arabs in Spain.
Conde\ Louis de Bourbon, Prince of (b.
1530, d. 1569), joined the Huguenots after
the death of Henri II., and, together with
Coligny, became their leader during the
reign of Charles IX. He was wounded at
Dreux (1562), lost the battle of St Denys
(1567), and was killed at Jarnac.
Conde, Louis de Bourbon, Prince of
(b. 1621, d. 1686), known prior to his father's
death in 1646 as the Due d'Enghien.
Routed the Spaniards at Rocroi, 1643 ;
distinguished himself at Fribourg, at the
capture of Philipsburg and other places, at
Nordlingen and in Catalonia ; in 1648
attacked the Archduke Leopold in the Low
Countries, took Ypi .*, and defeated the
Imperial army at Lens ; returning to Paris,
suppressed the revolt provoked by Cardinal
Mazarin, and secured his return and that of
the royal family. To gratify the jealousy of
Mazarin, he was in 1650 imprisoned in the
castle of Vincennes ; released after a year's
confinement, he put himself at the head of
a revolt, but was forced to retire to Flan-
ders. He now served in the armies of
Spain, sometimes leading them against his
own country, to which he was restored by
the peace of 1659. In 1668 he aided in the
conquest of Franche-Comte, in 1674 defeated
the Prince of Orange at Senef, and in 1675
succeeded Turenne as commander-in- chief
of the French forces.
Condillac, Etienne Bonnot de (b. 1715,
d. 1780), French philosopher, of the school
of Berkeley and Locke, wrote Essai sur
fOrigine des Connaissances Httmaines (1746),
TraitS des Systtmes (1749), Traiti des Sen-
uttions (1754), etc.
Condorcet, Marie Jean Antoine Xicola-a
de Caritat, Marquis de (b. 1743, d. 1794),
French mathematician, philosopher, and
; political writer, educated at the Jesuit Col-
lege in Rheinos and the college of Navarre
j in Paris, won high distinction as a mathe-
matician, and in 1774 published his first
polemical work, the Lett res d'un Theolomen.
He was a member of the Legislative
Assembly, and was elected to the Con-
vention; he held aloof from the struggle
between the Girondists and the Mountain,
but, becoming identified with the former,
was proscribed by the Convention; was
sheltered by Madame Vernet in an attic,
where he wrote his chief work, the Esquisse
des ProgrZs de P Esprit Jfumain, but, ven-
turing outside Paris, was seized in a cottage,
and took poison to escape the guillotine.
Confucius, or Con-foo-tse (b. 551 B.C.,
d. 479 B.C.), Chinese philosopher, said to
have been descended from the imperial
family of the Shan dynasty of the king-
dom of Loo, after eight years spent in
travelling through what is now the em-
pire of China, preaching virtue and social
order, returned to Loo, became prime
minister twelve years later, and effected
moral and physical improvements, freeing
the poor from oppression, and employing
the revenues to advance commerce. Banished
through the intrigues of neighbouring
princes, he retired to a remote valley, and
devoted his last days to the completion and
revision of his works. These, which consist
of the four Books and the Five Canonical
Books, deal mainly with morality and social
order.
Congxeve, Richard (b. 1818), Positivist
thinker, besides his edition of Aristotle's
Politics (1855) and his pamphlets on Gib-
raltar and India (1857), has written Eliza"
beth of England (1862), Human Catholicism
(1876), etc.
Congreve, William (b. 1670, d. 1729),
dramatist, educated at Kilkenny and Trinity
College, Dublin, entered the Middle Temple,
where he devoted his time to literature,
and mixed in the gay society of the town.
His chief plays were Love for Love (1695),
The Mourning Bride (1697), and The Way
of the World (1700). In 1714 he obtained
the post of Secretary for Jamaica.
Congreve, Sir William (b. 1772, d. 1828),
inventor of the rocket which bears his
name.
Conington, John (b. 1825, d. 1869), clas-
sical scholar, educated at Rugby and Oxford,
where he became first Corpus Professor of
Latin in 1854. His chief work is his edition
of Virgil, published between 1861 to 1868.
Conkling, Roscoe (b. 1828, d. 1888),
Con
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Con
American politician, one of the most pro-
minent members of the Republican party.
Connaught, H.R.H. Arthur William
Patrick Albert, Duke of (b. 1850), third son
of Queen Victoria, received his niiiitary
education at Woolwich, and was made
major-general in 1880; he accompanied the
Egyptian expedition of 1882. In 1874 he
was created Duke of Counaught, and in
1879 married Margaret Louise, daughter of
Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia.
Conolly, John (b. 1794, d. 1866), phy-
sician, chief director to the Hanwell asylum,
and author of several works on lunacy.
Conon (d. circa 388 B.C.), Athenian
general and admiral, superseded Alcibiades
in his command against the Spartans, was
defeated by Callicratidas at Mitylene (406)
and Lysauder at JEgospotamus (405) ; re-
tired to Cyprus ; in 394, at the head of a
Persian fleet supplied by Artaxerxes, de-
feated the Spartans at Cnidus.
Conrad L, Emperor of Germany, elected
emperor in 911, took Thuringia from the
Duke of Saxony, and Alsatia from Charles
the Simple of France.
Conrad II., Emperor of Germany (d. 1039),
Duke of Franconia, was elected king of the
Germans in 1024, and crowned emperor by
the Pope in 1027. He succeeded his uncle as
King of Burgundy in 1033.
Conrad III., Emperor of Germany (b. 1093,
d. 1152), son of Frederick, Duke of Suabia,
was elected emperor 1138. During his con-
test with Welf , Duke of Saxony, the party
names of " Guelph" and "Ghibelline" first
arose. He undertook a fruitless and dis-
astrous crusade (1146-49).
Conrad IV., Emperor of Germany (b. 1228,
d. 1254), Duke of Suabia, elected king of the
Romans in 1237, assumed the title of emperor
on the death of his father, Frederick II. , in
1250. The Pope contesting his claim, he
invaded Italy and took Naples, but died
suddenly.
Conrad V., or Conradin (b. 1252, d. 1268),
son of the preceding, was an infant at his
father's death, and fell into the power of his
uncle, Manfred. Charles of Anjou, with the
aid of the Pope, wrested the crown of Naples
from Manfred, and afterwards defeated Con-
radin (1268) and beheaded him at Naples.
Conrart, Valentin (b. 1603, d. 1675), the
first secretary of the French Academy,
which originated from a meeting of literary
friends at his house.
Coming, Hermann (b. 1606, d, 1681),
scholar and statesman, appointed professor
of philosophy at Helmstadtin 1632, left many
works on philosophy, law, and medicine.
Conscience, Hendrik (b. 1812, d. 1883),
Flemish poet and novelist^ appointed
assistant professor at Ghent in 1845, and
in IS'JS keeper of the Muse'e Wiertz in
Brussels ; wrote The Year of Miracles
(1«:>7), The Lion of Flanders (1838), etc.
Constable, John (b. 1776, d. 1837), land-
scape painter, son of a Suffolk miller, at first
followed his father's trade, but attracted the
notice of Sir George Beaumont, and in 1799
became a student at the Royal Academy.
His best-known picture is the Valley Far/n
in the National Gallery.
Constans I., Flavius Julius (b. 320, d. 350),
on the death of his father, Constantino the
Great, in 337, obtained Italy, Africa, and
Western Illyricum, and on that of his elder
brother, Constautine, became ruler over the
whole western empire. He was slain in
Spain by the followers of Magnentius.
Constans II. , Flavius Heraclius (b. 630,
d. 6G8), eldest son of Coustantine ILL,
succeeded to the empire of the East in 641.
Constant, Benjamin (b. 1767, d. 1830),
French politician and orator, tribune under
the Directory, was banished by the First
Consul in 1801, and retired to Germany.
Returning in 1814, he at first attacked
Napoleon, but accepted a post under him
during the Hundred Days. After the second
restoration he joined the Liberal opposition.
Constant, Benjamin (b. 1845), French
painter ; amongst his works are The Harem,
Samson and JJeiilah, and Mahomet II.
Constantine L, Caius Flavius Valerius
Aurelius, the Great (b. 274, d. 337), son of
Constantius, was in Britain at the time of
his father's death, and was proclaimed
emperor by the army there. After defeat-
ing Maxentius near Rome in 312 was
acknowledged by the Senate as emperor of
the West, Licinius obtaining the empire of
the East. A war broke out between the
two princes, Licinius was slain in 324, and
Constantine became emperor of the East
also. In 330 he removed the seat of
government to Byzantium, which he
re-named Constantinople. His conversion
to Christianity is said to have been due to a
vision he beheld whilst marching against
Maxentius. He made laws both for the
East and West in favour of Christianity,
and in 325 assembled the first general
council of Nicaea.
Constantine II. (b. 316, d. 340J, son of
the preceding, succeeded to Gaul, Spain,
and Britain, but was slain whilst waging
war against his brother Constans.
Constantine III. (d. 411), a Reman soldier
in Britain, elected emperor in 407, con-
quered Gaul and Spain ; was besieged in
Con
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Coo
Aries by the general of Honorius, and put
to death.
Constantino III. (b. 612, d. 641), son of
the emperor Heraclius, died after reigning a
few days.
Constantino IV. (b. 648, d. 685), sur-
named "the Bearded," succeeded hie
father, Constans II., in 668. He convened
a council at Constantinople (680) which
condemned the Monothelite doctrine.
Constantino V. (b. 718, d. 775), sur-
named ' ' Kopronymos, ' ' succeeded his father,
Leo III., in 741, and fought valiantly
against the Saracens. He was cruel and
dissolute.
Constantino VL (b. 771, d. circa 800),
succeeded his father, Leo IV., in 780, but
was in 797 deprived of the empire by his
mother Irene, who put out his eyes and
reigned in his stead.
Constantino VII. , surnamed ' ' Porphyro-
genitus" (b. 905, d. 959), son of Leo VI., a
slothful and self-indulgent prince, said to
have been poisoned by his son Eomanus.
Constantino VIII. , son of Romanus
Lecapenos, shared the imperial power
during the nominal reign of his grandfather,
Constantino VII., but was deported to an
island in the Propontis.
Constantino IX. (b. 961, d. 1028), son of
Romanus, and grandson of Constantine VII.,
succeeded to the throne with his brother,
Basil II., in 976.
Constantine X. (b. circa 1000, d. 1054),
a dissolute prince, ascended the throne in
1042, as third husband of Zoe, daughter of
Constantine IX.
Constantine XL, Ducas (b. 1007, d. 1067),
became emperor in 1059. During his reign
the Uxians, a Scythian tribe, overran the
empire.
Constantino XII., Ducas, youngest son of
Constantine XI., shared the empire with
his brothers Michael and Andronicus from
1067 to 1078, when he became a monk.
Constantino XIII., Palaeologus (b. 1394,
d. 1453), succeeded his brother John VII. in
1448, and perished at the capture of Con-
stantinople by Mahomet II.
Constantine, Romanoff (b. 1827, d. 1892),
Grand Duke of Russia, second son of the
Czar Nicholas, as a leader of the Muscovite
or National party did much to promote the
Crimean war ; became president of the
Grand Council of the empire in 1865, but
was dismissed from his dignities hi 1881 on
suspicion of intriguing with the revolu-
tionary party.
Constantine, Paulovich (b. 1779, d. 1831),
second son of the Emperor Paul I., was
commander-in-chief in Poland, which he
governed with much cruelty. On the
death of his elder brother, Alexander, in
1825, he renounced his claim to the throne
in favour of his younger brother Nicholas.
Constantius, Chlorus (d. York, 306), son
of Eutropius, won the title of Caesar by his
victories in Britain and Germany, was asso-
ciated with Galerius on the abdication of
Diocletian in 304.
Constantius II., Flavius Julius (b. 317,
d. 361), second son of Constantine the Great,
succeeded to the eastern portion of the
empire ; after defeating Magnentius at
Mursa, became sole emperor in 358 ; he
died whilst marching against Julian, son of
Constantius, whom he had created Caesar.
Contarini, Gaspare, Cardinal (b. 1483,
d. 1542), member of a rich Venetian
family, went as ambassador to Charles V.
and Clement VII., and was made cardinal
by Paul III. He belonged to the moderate
party and endeavoured to effect a recon-
ciliation with the Protestants ; his views on
the necessity of reform are expressed in his
Relation to Paul III.
Conway, Moncure Daniel (b. 1832), man
of letters, at first a Methodist minister, fell
under the influence of Emerson, and after
studying a,t Harvard, opened a lecture-hall
at Cincinnati in 1860. He afterwards came
to England, and became intimate with
Carlyle. Besides memoirs of Carlyle and
Emerson, he has written Idols and Ideals,
Republican Superstitions, etc.
Conybeare, Rev. "William Daniel (b. 1787,
d. 1857), Dean of Llandaff, an eminent
geologist, wrote Outlines of the Geology of
England and Wales, and a valuable paper
(1821) on the structure of the Plesiosaurus.
Conybeare, Rev. William John (b. 1815,
d. 1857), divine, principal of the Collegiate
Institution, Liverpool, collaborator with the
Rev. J. S. Howson, Dean of Chester, in The
Life and Epistles of St. Paul.
Cook, Eliza (6. 1818, d. 1889), minor
English poetess.
Cook, James, Captain (b. 1728, </.
1779), navigator, son of an agricultural
labourer, was apprenticed to a shop-
keeper near Whitby, but obtained employ-
ment in the coal- carrying trade, visited
the Baltic, and volunteered into the royal
navy in 1755 ; was present, as master
of a sloop, at the capture of Quebec ; in
1767 became lieutenant, and in 1768 sailed
to the South Pacific in the Endeavour, on a
voyage of scientific observation. After re-
discovering New Zealand and exploring
Coo
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Coq
Eart of New Holland, which he called New
outh Wales, he returned in 1771, and was
made commander. In his second voyage
(1772-1775), with the Resolution and Adven-
ture, he discovered New Caledonia and
Sandwich Land, and sailed round the globe.
In 1776 he rounded the Cape of Good Hope
with the Resolution and Discovery, dis-
covered the Sandwich Islands, and pene-
trated as far north as Icy Cape. He was
murdered by the natives of Hawaii.
Cooke, Benjamin (b. 1734, d. 1793),
musical composer, author of many popular
glees.
Cooke, George Frederick (b. 1756, d.
1811), actor, educated at Berwick, first
appeared in London at the Haymarket in
1778, but attracted no attention till his
appearance at Covent Garden as Richard
III. in 1800. He died in America.
Cooke, Mordecai Cubitt (b. 1825), English
botanist, author of treatises on fungi and
fresh- water algae, etc.
Cooke, Sir William Fothergill (b. 1806,
d. 1879), electrician, began to study the
electric telegraph in 1836, and in conjunc-
tion with Professor Wheatstone and J. L.
Ricardo founded the first telegraph company
in 1838.
Cooper, Abraham, R.A. (b. 1787, d. 1868),
battle and animal painter, of humble birth,
exhibited The Battle of Marston Moor, etc.
Cooper, Anthony Ashley. [See Shaftes-
bury.]
Cooper, Sir Astley Paston (b. 1768, d.
1841), surgeon to George IV., had a
large practice in London. His medical
works include an important treatise on
hernia.
Cooper, James Fenimore (b. 1789, d.
1851), American novelist; after six years'
service in the United States navy, retired
in 1811 ; wrote The Spy (1821), The Pilot
(1823), The Last of the Mohicans (1826), and
other novels.
Cooper, Samuel (b. 1600, d. 1672),
English painter of miniatures ; painted
Cromwell several times, also Milton, Hamp-
den, Ireland, Charles II., Catherine of
Braganza, and many other celebrities of
the period.
Cooper, Thomas (b. 1805, d. 1892), was
a shoemaker, a schoolmaster, and a jour-
nalist, in 1840 settled in Leicester and
became leader of the Chartists there.
Arrested while lecturing in the potteries in
1841, he passed two years in Stafford gaol,
where he wrote an epic poem, The Purgatory
of Suitides. He wrote other works, and
in later life was known in London as a
political and historical lecturer.
Cooper, Thomas Sidney, R.A. (b. 1803),
born at Canterbury, a self-taught animal
painter, has exhibited largely in the Royal
Academy.
Coote, Sir Charles (d. 1642), military com-
mander in Ireland, sent to oppose the rebels
in 1641. His most brilliant exploit was the
masterly relief of Birr. He was slain
while routing the Irish who had surprised
Trim.
Coote, Sir Eyre (b. 1726, d. 1783J, general,
served in the rebellion of 1745 ; dis-
tinguished himself in India at Chander-
nagore, Plassey, and Pondicherry, and
routed Hyder Ali at Porto Novo in 1781.
He died at Madras.
Cope, Charles West, R.A. (b. 1811, d.
1890), painter. His subjects were usually
either historical, as in the eight frescoes in
the Peers' Corridor at Westminster, or drawn
from scenes described by English poets.
Cope, Edward Drinker (b. 1840), Ameri-
can naturalist aiid comparative anatomist,
made a valuable collection of extinct verte-
brates, many of which were before unknown,
and wrote a Report upon the Extinct
Vertebrata obtained in New Mexico in 1874,
etc.
Copeland, Ralph (b. 1837), Anglo-
German astronomer, after being volun-
teer assistant in Gottingen observatory
(1867-9), accompanied the second Ger-
man Arctic expedition (1869-70), observed
two transits of Venus (1874-82), detected
iron in the spectrum of the comet of 1882,
and made other astronomical discoveries.
Copernicus, Nicolas (b. 1473, d. 1543), born
at Thorn, Prussia, founder of the modern
system of astronomy, studied at Cracow and
Bologna, and became professor of mathe-
matics at Rome. Obtaining a canonry in the
chapter of Frauenberg, he there wrote his
work in Latin On the Revolution of the
Celestial Orbs, which he deferred publishing
until a little before his death, aware of the
opposition it would arouse.
Copley, John Singleton (6. 1737, d. 1815),
born at Boston, U.S., painter, after visiting
Romeinl774, settled in England in 1775. He
painted numerous historical pictures, in-
cluding the famous Death of Chatham.
Coquelin, Benolt Constant (b. 1841),
French actor, first appeared at the Theatre
Fran^ais in 1860, and is a favourite in
London and in the United States.
Coques, Gonzales (b. 1618, d. 1684),
Dutch painter, followed Vandyck, and
Cor
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Cor
painted for Charles I. of England and other '
princes.
Coram, Thomas (6. circa 1668, d. 1751),
English philanthropist, originator of the
Foundling Hospital.
Corbould, Edward Henry (b. 1815), his- .
torical painter, usually chooses his themes ;
from mediaeval history and literature ; has '
illustrated Percy's Heliques, the Canterbury
Tales (1878), etc.
Corday D'Armans, Marie Charlotte (b.
1768, d. 1793), born at St. Saturnin, Nor-
mandy, of a noble Norman family, sym-
pathised with the ideas of the French re-
volution, but was horrified at its excesses ;
visited Paris in July, 1793, with the purpose,
it is said, of assassinating Marat, or Robes-
pierre ; obtaining an interview with the for-
mer while in his bath, she stabbed him with
a knife ; was immediately apprehended and
executed four days afterwards.
Corelli, Archangelo (b. 1653, d. 1713),
Italian violinist and composer, settled in
Rome, and had many distinguished pupils.
Corinna, a Greek poetess of the 5th
century B.C., born at Tanagra in Boeotia,
was a rival of Pindar ; only fragments of
her works remain.
Coriolanus, Caius Marcius, aemi-mythical
Roman hero, in a war against the Volscians
captured their capital, Corioli (493 B.C.),
whence his name ; owing to his contempt
for the plebeians, was banished from Rome ;
joined the Volsci, whom he led against Rome,
out was induced by his wife and mother to
refrain from attacking it. His after-history
is unknown.
Connenin, Louis Marie de la Haie, Vi-
comte de (b. 1778, d. 1806), French political
writer, under the name of "Timon" at-
tacked Louis Philippe's government ; wrote
Le Livre des Orateurs, etc.
Corneille, Pierre (*. 1606, d. 1684), French
dramatist, born at Rouen, was educated for
the law, but the success of his first comedy,
Melite, induced him to devote himself to
literature. It was followed by other come-
dies, but from 1636 he preferred tragedy,
producing Medee (1636), Le Cid (which
established his fame), Horace, Cinna, Poly-
eucte, La Mart de Pompee, etc. Le Menteur
(1642) was another successful comedy.
Corneille, Thomas (b. 1625, d. 1709), bro-
ther of the preceding, wrote Ariane and
other plays.
Cornelia (b. circa 189 B.C., d. circa 110
B.C.), daughter of P. Scipip Africanus the
elder, married T. Sempronius Gracchus in
169, and was mother of Tiberius Gracchus
and Caius Gracchus.
Cornelius, Peter von (b, 1783, d. 1867),
German painter, born at Diisseldorf, pub-
lished his designs for Faust at Frankfort
(1806), lived at Rome from 1811 to 1819, and
there illustrated the Nibeiungenlied, Dante,
andTasso; in 1819 was made director of the
Diisseldorf academy, and went to Munich,
where is his painting of the Last Judgment
in the church of St. Louis.
Cornell, Ezra (b. 1807, d. 1874), born at
New York, improved the magnetic tele-
graph, and founded the Cornell university
at Ithaca, New York (1868).
Cornwall, Barry, the pseudonym of Bryan
Waller Procter (b. 1787, d. 1874), poet
and dramatist, best known as a writer
of songs and short lyrics ; he wrote also
Mirandola (1821), A Sicilian Story, a
Memoir of Charles Lamb (1866), etc.
Cornwallis, Charles, Marquis (b. 1738, d.
1805), entered the army in 1756 ; while in
command of the British forces in South
Carolina won the battles of Camden (1780)
and Guildford (1781). As Governor- General
of India, reduced Tippoo Sahib (1791), and
as Viceroy of Ireland brought the rebellion
there to a close ; was also employed to nego-
tiate the peace of Amiens (1803), and shortly
before his death again appointed Governor-
General of India.
Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille (b. 1796, d.
1875), French painter, born at Paris, pupil
of Michallon and Bertin, and founder of the
impressionist school, began to exhibit in
1827, but did not produce his masterpieces,
JJante and Virgil, and Macbeth meeting the
Witches, till 1859.
Corradi, Domenico (b. 1449, d. 1493).
[See Ghirlandajo.j
Correa de la Serra, Jose Francisco de
(b. 1750, d. 1823), one of the founders and
first secretary of the Academy of Sciences
at Lisbon.
Correggio, Antonio Allegri da (b. 1494,
d. 1534), Italian painter of humble birth,
born at Correggio, near Parma, entirely
self-educated, passed his Life in obscurity,
Annibale Caracci and Titian being the first
to recognise his genius. In the Duomo
of Parma is his fresco of The Assumption.
Among his most famous oil-paintings are
The Night at Dresden, and the Holy Family '
in London.
Corsini, Eduardo (b. 1702, d. 1765), a
learned Italian writer, professor of logic,
and afterwards of metaphysics and moral
philosophy, at Pisa, wrote Institutions Phi-
losophicce, etc.
Cort, Cornells (b. 1536, d. 1578), a
Cor
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Con
Dutch engraver, lived in Italy, and en-
graved many of Titian's pictures.
Cort, Henry (b. 1740, d. 1800), iron-
master and first manufacturer of bar-iron,
at first a navy agent, started a forge and
iron mill near Fareham in 1775, and pa-
tented the process called "puddling" in
1784. He was ruined through the defalca-
tions of his partner.
Cortes, Hernando (b. 1485, d. 1547),
conqueror of Mexico, sailed to the New
World in 1504 ; aided Velasquez in the con-
quest of Cuba in 1511 ; sent in command of
an expedition to Yucatan in 1518, reduced
the Indians there, and sailed on to San
Juan d'Ulloa, where he founded the town
of Vera Cruz, and, on a mutiny breaking
out, burnt his ships to prevent his men
from returning. After reducing the Indian
republic of Tlascala, marched to the city of
Mexico, and compelled the Emperor Monte-
zuma to acknowledge himself a vassal of
Spain. He next took Narvaez prisoner, who
had been sent to supersede him by Velas-
quez ; during his absence the Spaniards were
attacked and Montezuma slain. Cortes with
difficulty quelled the disturbance, taking
the city, defeating the new emperor, and
becoming captain -general of New Spain
(1521). He was recalled in 1526, but well
received by Charles V. ; he subsequently
discovered California, but suffered much
neglect in Spain during his later years.
Corti, Luigi, Count (b. 1826, d. 1888), after
holding diplomatic posts at various Euro-
pean courts, represented Italy at the Con-
gress of Berlin in 1878, and in 1885 suc-
ceeded Count Nigra as Italian ambassador
in London.
Cosel, Countess of (b, 1679, d. 1759),
a favourite of Augustus II. of Poland, was
exiled in 1716.
Costa, Lorenzo (b. circa 1450, d. 1530),
Italian painter, pupil of Fra Filippo Lippi ;
his best works are at Ferrara.
Costa, Sir Michael (b. 1810, d. 1884), born
at Naples, musical composer and conductor,
of Spanish descent. After various appoint-
ments as conductor, became leader of the
Handel festival hi 1859. He wrote Don
Carlos, Malek Adhel, and other operas,
besides two oratorios, Naaman and Eii.
Coster, Laurens Janszoon (b. 1370, d.
1440), a native of Haarlem, said by the
Dutch to have been the inventor of printing.
Cosway, Richard (b. 1740, d. 1821), artist,
celebrated for his miniatures ; also painted
in oils.
Cotes, Roger (b. 1682, d. 1716), a mathe-
matician of great promise, first Plumian
professor of astronomy at Cambridge, edited
Newton's Principia, and left valuable
mathematical papers, afterwards published
with the title Harmonia Mensurarum.
Cotman, John Sell (b. 1782, d. 1842),
artist, and well-known etcher of architec-
tural subjects.
Cotta, Bernhard von (*. 1808, d. 1879),
German geologist, became professor of
geology at Freiberg in 1841.
Cotta, Johann Friedrich, Baron Cotten-
dorf (b. 1764, d. 1832), head of a publishing
business at Tubingen, and afterwards at
Stuttgart; was the friend and publisher of
Schiller, Goethe, Richter, etc.
Cottenham, Charles Christopher Pepys,
Earl of (b. 1781, d. 1851), entered Parlia-
ment as a Whig in 1831, became Solicitor-
General and Master of the Rolls in 1834,
was Lord Chancellor from 1836 to 1841 and
1846 to 1850.
Cottin, Sophie Ristaud (b. 1773, d. 1807),
French novelist, wrote Elisabeth, ou let
Exiles de Siberie, and other novels.
Cottle, Joseph (b. 1770, d. 1853), book-
seller and author, lived at Bristol, published
the Lyrical Ballads (1798) for Wordsworth
and Coleridge, etc.
Cotton, Charles (b. 1630, d. 1687), English
poet and translator, wrote Virgil Travestied,
a translation of Montaigne's Essays, etc.
Cotton, Sir Robert Bruce (b. 1571, d. 1631),
antiquary, was created a baronet by James
I. ; his valuable library of MSS. and records
was placed in the British Museum in 1753.
Coulomb, Charles Augustin de (b. 1736, d.
1806), French physicist, appointed inspector-
general of public instruction in 1802.
Courbet, Gustave (b. 1819, d. 1877), a
French painter of peasant parentage, worked
and lived in his native village; but after
the revolution of 1870 became director of
fine arts, and threw in his lot with the Com-
mune.
Courbet, Jean (b. 1827, d. 1885), French
naval officer and man of science, commanded
the naval division at Tonquin in the war
with Annam (1883), and distinguished him-
self in that with China.
Courier, Paul Louis (b. 1773, d. 1825),
French pamphleteer, originally an officer in
the army (1792-1809). His views were
liberal. He was murdered by his servants.
Court de Gefoelin, Antoine (b. 1725, d.
1784), French scholar, wrote Le Mond*
Primitif analyse et compare avec Le Monde
Moderns, etc.
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Cra
Cousin, Victor (b. 1792, d. 1867), French
philosopher and man of letters, educateji at
the Lycee Charlemagne, entered the Ecole
Normale in 1811 ; turned his attention to
metaphysiae, and in 1815 became professor
of the history of philosophy at the Sorbonne.
His liberal opinions subjected him to much
persecution at the hands of the Bourbons.
In 1840 he was made a peer of France, and
appointed minister of public instruction.
After the fall of the Thiers ministry he
lived mostly in retirement, but retained his
influence over public opinion. His last
years were devoted to French history in the
17th century. Besides his eleven volumes
on that subject, he translated the whole of
Plato (1825-40), and wrote a General History
of Philosophy (1828), an Examination of the
Philosophy of Locke (1829), a treatise Du
Vrai, du Beau, et du Bien (1854), etc.
Cousins, Samuel, E.A. (b. 1801, d. 1881),
mezzotint engraver of works by Lawrence,
Landseer, Millais, etc.
Coustou, a French family of sculptors.
Nicolas (b. 1658, d. 1733) left a Descent
from the Cross. The groups at the entrance
to the great avenue of the Champs Elyse'es
'were the work of his brother Guillaume
(1678-1746).
Coverdale, Miles (b. 1488, d. 1568), in
1535 produced his translation of the Bible
into English ; also assisted in the Great Bible
(1539), and edited Cranmer's Bible (1540) ;
"became Bishop of Exeter in 1551, was im-
prisoned by Mary for two years ; after his
release lived at Geneva, and returned to
England under Elizabeth.
Cowen, Frederick Hymen (b. 1852), Eng-
lish composer of oratorios, cantatas, and
songs.
Cowley, Abraham (b. 1618, d. 1667), poet,
son of a London grocer, educated at West-
minster and Cambridge, removed to Oxford
in 1643 ; on its surrender followed the queen
to Paris ; was employed on secret missions
by the king ; after the Restoration was neg-
lected by Charles II. , and retired to Barn-
elms, and afterwards to Chertsey. His best
known works are the collection of poems
called The Mistress (1647), and his Essays.
Cowley, Henry R. C. Wellesley, Earl (b.
1804, d. 1884), diplomatist, was ambassador
at Paris from 1853 to 1867. In 1860 he was
appointed joint plenipotentiary with Cobden
to negotiate the French treaty of commerce.
Cowper, Thomas de Gray, Earl, K.G.
(b. 1834), was Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland
under Mr. Gladstone from 1880 to 1882.
Cowper, William (b. 1731, d. 1800), poet,
son of Kev. John Cowper, rector of Berkhamp-
Btead, educated at Westminster, was called
P2
to the bar in 1754, and lived in the Temple
till 1763, devoting his energies to literature,
and associating with wits and scholars. He
was subject to fits of religious depression,
and after an attempt at suicide in 1763, was
removed to a private madhouse, where he
remained for more than a year. He next
found a happy home with the Unwin family
at Huntingdon ; and in 1767 removed with
Mrs. Unwin to Olney, where he made the
acquaintance of John Newton. He was
still subject to fits of melancholy, especially
after the death of his friends. His chief
work was The Task (1785).
Cowper, William (*. 1666, d. 1709), sur-
geon, made discoveries in anatomy, and
wrote The Anatomy of Humane Bodies.
Cowper, William, Earl, sat in Parliament
as a Whig 1695-1700, was Lord Keeper
1705-7, and Lord Chancellor 1714-18.
Cox, David (b. 1783, d. 1859), landscape
painter ; came to London in 1804, and
worked as a painter in water-colours. TTiq
love of Welsh scenery attracted him to Here-
ford, where he lived from 1814 to 1827. In
1841 he removed from London to Birming-
ham, and there spent the rest of his lif e.
Cox, Richard (b. 1500, d. 1581), was
master of Eton, and a favourite with
Cranmer and Edward VI. ; left England
during Mary's reign ; was appointed Bishop
of Ely by Elizabeth. He was one of the
translators of the Bishops' Bible.
Coxe, Rev. William (b. 1747, d. 1828),
wrote a History of the House of Austria,
Memoirs of the Bourbon Kings of Spain,
Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough, etc.
Coxwell, Henry Tracey (b. 1819), balloon-
ist, editor of the Balloon and the Aerostatie
Magazine, has made many daring ascents.
Coyne, Joseph Sterling (b. 1805, d. 1868),
dramatic author and critic, wrote How to
settle Accounts with your Laundress (1847),
and other farces, and was one of the projec-
tors and original proprietors of Punch.
Crabbe, George (b. 1754, d. 1832), poet,
born at Aldeburgh, Suffolk, after failing as
a surgeon at Aldeburgh, came to London in
1780, and was introduced by Burke to
Dodsley, who published The Library (1781),
followed by The Village in 1783. Having
taken orders, he was successively curate at
Aldeburgh, chaplain to the Duke of
Rutland, curate at Stathern, rector of
Muston (1789), and of Trowbridge (1814).
His other works were The Newspaper (1785),
The Parish Register (1807), The Borough
(1810), and Tales of the Hall (1819).
Craig, Sir James Henry (6. 1748, d.
1812), general, distinguished himself in the
Cra
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Cre
American war: took part in the capture
of the Cape of Good Hope (1795), aud be-
came its first governor.
Craik, Dinah Maria (b. 1826, d. 1887),
daughter of Mr. Muloch, a clergyman ;
besides poems and essays, wrote many
novels, of which John Halifax, (jcntld/i'in
(185(3), is the best known.
Craik, George Lillie (b. 1798, d. 1866), man
of letters, wrote The Pursuit of Knowledge
undi-r I)ijHculttCfi (1831), and other works;
and in 1819 was appointed professor of Eng-
lish Literature at Queen's College, Belfast.
Cramer, Johann Baptiste (b. 1771, d. 1858),
came to England in early childhood. He
composed concertos, fantasias, sonatas, etc.
Cranach, Lucas (b. 1472, d. 1553), painter
and engraver, excelled in portraits, those of
Luther and Melanchthon being especially
valuable.
Cranbrook, Gathorne Gathorne-Hardy,
Viscount (b. 1814), was called to the bar in
1840 ; entered Parliament as a Conservative
in 1856 ; was Home Secretary (1867-8) ;
fained a reputation as a debater; in 1874
ecame Secretary of State for War ; in 1878
succeeded Lord Salisbury as Indian Secre-
tary, and in 1885-86 was appointed Lord
President of the Council.
Crane, "Walter (b. 1845), allegorical and
decorative painter, was a constant contri-
butor to the Grosvenor Gallery.
Cranmer, Thomas (b. 1489, d. 1556),
Archbishop of Canterbury, obtained the
favour of Henry VIII. by furthering his
divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and was
appointed primate in 1533. He favoured
the Reformed doctrines during the reign of
Henry VIII., and in that of Edward VI.
Protestantism was thoroughly established,
and the Book of Common Prayer compiled
(1549) under his guidance. He was com-
mitted to the Tower on the accession of
Mary, condemned at Oxford for heresy in
1554, and after two years' imprisonment
burnt there, openly rejecting the recantation
of Protestantism which he had been induced
to sign.
Cranwortli, Robert Monsey Rolfe, Lord
(b. 1790, d. 1868), lawyer, was Lord Chan-
cellor in Lord Aberdeen's ministry from
1852 to 1858, and again from 1865 to 1867.
He was raised to the peerage in 1850.
Crashaw, Richard (b. circa 1613, d. 1649),
religi )us poet, expelled by the Parliamentary
army in 1644, went to France, where he
became a Roman Catholic, and to Italy, and
died a canon in the church of Our Lady
of Loretto at Rome. He wrote Steps to the
Temple, etc.
Crassus, Lucius Licinius (b. 140 B.C.,
d. 91 B.C.), a Roman orator, censor in 92
B.C.
Crassus, Marcus Licinus (d. 53 B.C.), the
triumvir, defeated the insurgent gladiators
under Spartacus (B.C. 72), and in 71 was
elected consul with Pompey. In 53 he
undertook an expedition against the Par-
thians, and was slain near Carrhae.
Crawford, Francis Marion (b. 1854), Ame-
rican novelist, has written Mr. Isaacs (1S82),
Dr. Claudius (IMS), A Roman Singei (1884),
Zoroaster (1885), and numerous other novels.
Crawford and Balcarres, Alexander
William Crawford Lindsay, Earl of (b. 1812,
d. 1880), wrote Progression by Antagonism
(1846), Sketches of Christian Art (1847),
The Lives of the Lindsays, etc. His library
at Haigh Hall, near Wigan, was unrivalled
among private collections.
Crawsnay, Richard (b. 1741, d. 1799), iron-
master, son of a farmer near Leeds,
1 popularly known as the "Iron King,"
i began Life in an ironmonger's warehouse in
i London; afterwards leased ironworks at
Merthyr Tydvil, where, by adopting the
• inventions of Henry Cort, he enormously
extended his sphere of operations, and
opened out the great iron district of South
Wales.
Crayer, Gaspard de (b. 1582, d. 1669),
Flemish artist, whose works are to be seen
in the chief cities of Flanders.
Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd (b. 1812,
d. 1878), appointed professor of history at
University College, London, in 1840,
chief justice of Ceylon from 1860 to 1869,
wrote The Rise and Progress of the British
Constitution, The Fifteen Decisive Battk*
of the World, The Jiistory of the Ottoman
Turks, etc.
Crebillon, Prosper Jolyot de (6. 1674, d.
1762), French dramatist, wrote Idomenec,
Xerxes, Catilina, and other tragedies.
Credi, Lorenzo di (b. Florence, 1454, «?. circa
1535), Italian painter, admirer and imitator of
Leonardo da Vinci, worked chiefly at
Florence. His best work is the Madonna
with Saints in the chapel of Cestello.
Creech, Thomas (b. 1659, d, 1701), trans-
lator of Lucretius, Horace, and Theocritus.
Cre'mieux, Isaac Adolphe (b. 1796,
d. 1880), French lawyer and legislator, of
Jewish parentage, was minister of justice
in the provisional government of 1848, and
in the government of national defence
(1870) ; in 1875 was elected senator for life
of the National Assembly. He was one
of the authors of the Code des Codes.
Cre
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Cro
Crescimbeni, Giovanni Maria (b. 1663,
d. 1723), Italian poet, founder of the
academy of Arcadia for improving taste
and reviving learning, wrote a history of
Italian poetry, etc.
Creswell, Sir Creswell (b. 1794, d. 1863),
lawyer, became justice of the King's Bench
in 1842, and created the Divorce Court, over
which he was appointed to preside (1858).
Creswick, Thomas, R.A. (b. 1811, d. 1869),
landscape painter, depicted quiet English
scenes, and excelled in the representation of
foliage.
Crichton, James (b. 1560, d. circa 1585),
called "the Admirable," a Scotsman of
good family, visited Paris, Rome, Venice,
and Padua, everywhere exciting admiration
by his extraordinary memory and powers of
argument and composition. He is said to
have been murdered by the son of the Duke
of Mantua, to whom he was tutor.
Crispi, Francesco (b. 1819), Italian states-
man, joined in the conspiracies which led
to the overthrow of the kingdom of the
Two Sicilies (1848) ; planned the second
Sicilian revolt of 1859-60; fought under
Garibaldi ; became a minister of state ;
represented Palermo in the first Italian
Parliament, in which he was leader of the
constitutional opposition. In 1877 he was
appointed minister of the interior, in 1887
president of the council and premier, and
resigned in 1891.
Croesus, last king of Lydia, came to the
throne in 560 B.C., and conquered the Greek
cities in Asia Minor, but was deprived of
his throne by Cyrus, King of Persia, in
546B.C.
Croft, William (b. 1677, d. 1727), musical
composer, organist of the Chapel Royal, and
afterwards of "Westminster Abbey. Hi's
Mttsica Sacra appeared in 1724.
Crofts, Ernest, A.R.A. (b. 1847), pain-
ter, studied in Berlin and under E. Hun-
ten at Dusseldorf ; has exhibited the
Morning of the Battle of Waterloo (1876),
Oliver Cromwell at Marston Moor (1877),
and other battle-pieces.
Croke, Sir George (/>. 1560, d. 1642), law
reporter, became justice of the Common
Pleas in 1625 ; transferred to the King's
Bench in 1628, he withstood the king's
attempt to control the action of his judges,
and gave judgment for Hampden against
the king, though at the cost of his own
impeachment.
Croke, Sir John (b. 1553, d. 1620), brother
of the preceding, became a bencher in 1591,
was Speaker of the House of Commons in
1601, and was made a justice of the King's
Bench in 1607.
Croke, Rev. Thomas W. (b. 1824), Roman
Catholic Archbishop of Cashel, was pre-
viously Bishop of Auckland; his name ia
connected with the Land League and Irish
Nationalist movement.
Croker, John Wilson (b. 1780, d. 1857),
politician and essayist, entered Parlia-
ment in 1807 ; held office as secretary to
the Admiralty from 1809 to 1830; was a
staunch Tory, and never re- entered Par-
liament after the passing of the Reform
Bill. Contributed to the Quarterly .Review
from 1810 to 1853, and edited Boswell's
Life of Johnson, Lord Hervey's Memoirs, the
Suffolk Papers, etc.
Croker, Thomas Crofton (b. 1798, d. 1854),
antiquary, devoted himself to collecting the
legends and songs of the Irish peasantry,
and published Fairy Legends and Traditions
of the South of Ireland (1825), My Village
(1832), etc.
Crome, John (b. 1768, d. 1821), landscape
painter, formed his style chiefly on the
Dutch, especially Hobbema. He gained a
livelihood by teaching drawing.
Crompton, Samuel (b. 1753, d. 1827),
inventor of the spinning mule (1770).
Cromwell, Henry (b. 1628, d. 1674),
youngest son of the Protector, distinguished
himself in the Irish campaign, became Lord
Deputy of Ireland in 1(354, and governed
well, but was recalled by Parliament in 1659.
Cronrwell, Oliver (b. 1599, d. 1658), the
Protector, son of Robert Cromwell, born
at Huntingdon and educated at the free
school and at Cambridge, where he did
not graduate; represented Huntingdon in
the Parliament of 1628 ; always an advocate
of puritanical views, first became seriously
religious himself about 1638 ; was member
for Cambridge in the Short and Long Par-
liaments, and soon made himself prominent
by his zeal in the cause of liberty ; on the
outbreak of the Civil war raised a troop of
horse for the Parliament ; distinguished
himself in the battles which followed, and
was specially exempted from the Self-
denying Ordinance (1645) ; joined the Inde-
pendent party in opposition to the Presby-
terians, and by the ejection of members
known as " Pride's Purge " secured the
condemnation and execution of Charles L
(1649). After reducing Ireland to sub-
mission, he attacked the Scottish Royalists,
defeating them at Dunbar (1650) and
Worcester (1651). He dissolved the Long
Parliament in 1653, and, after an un-
successful attempt at constitutional govern-
ment, assumed the title of Protector, and
ruled as a military despot, enforcing order
at home, and winning th\e respect oi foreign
countries.
Cro
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Cru
Cromwell, Richard (b. 1626, d. 1712),
third son of the Protector, held several im-
portaut offices during his father's protec-
torate, and ou his death in 1658 succeeded
to his title : showed himself unfit for public
affairs, and abdicated by the advice of his
uncle Desborough (1659). After residing in
France and Switzerland, he returned to
England in 1680, and spent the rest of his
days at Cheshunt in Hertfordshire.
Cromwell, Thomas, Earl of Essex (b. circa
14S5, d. 1540), after spending some time on
the Continent in a mercantile capacity,
entered Cardinal Wolsey's service in 1524,
and by his defence of his master in Parlia-
ment after his fall, attracted the notice of
Henry Till. ; became his trusted minister,
strengthened the royal authority, and as the
king's vicegerent in ecclesiastical matters
suppressed the monasteries and furthered
the Reformed doctrines. In 1539 he was
made Earl of Essex, but his unsuccessful
attempt to unite Henry in an alliance with
the Protestant princes of Germany resulted
in his condemnation by bill of attainder and
execution on Tower Hill.
Cronaca, Simone (b. 1454, d. 1509), archi-
tect, whose masterpiece is the great hall
in the Palazzo della Signoria. He also
devised and executed the ornamentation of
the Strozzi palace, and other buildings
in Florence. He was a friend and suppor-
ter of Savonarola.
Crookes, William, F.R.S. (b. 1832), man
of science, was in 1854 appointed to super-
intend the meteorological department of the
Radcliff e Observatory, Oxford ; accompanied
the scientific expedition to Oran in 1871,
and has made valuable scientific discoveries,
including those of the metal thallium and
its atomic weight, and of the sodium amal-
gamation process of separating gold and
silver from their ores. To his experiments on
repulsion resulting from radiation the radio-
meter is due.
Cropper, James (b. 1773, d. 1841), a Liver-
pool merchant, who exerted himself in the
cause of anti-slavery.
Cross, Mary Ann. [See Eliot, George.]
Cross, Richard Assheton, Viscount, G.C.B.
(b. 1823), was called to the bar in 1849 ; re-
presented Preston in Parliament from 1857
to 1862, and was afterwards member for
south-west Lancashire ; was appointed
Home Secretary by Mr. Disraeli in 1874,
carried an Artisans' Dwellings Bill (1875)
and other measures through the House,
and in 1884 sat on the Com mission of
Inquiry into the Housing of the Poor. In
1886 he was raised to the peerage, and
appointed Secretary of State for India.
Crosse, Andrew (b. 1784, d. 1855), electri-
cian, made several important discoveries.
Crotch, William (b.!775,d. 1847), composer,
sou of a Norwich carpenter, performed in
public in London when he was five years
old, and composed an oratorio ; performed
at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, when he was
fifteen. Removing to Oxford, he became
organist of Christ Church (1790) and St.
John's College, and professor of music in
the University (1797). In 1822 he was ap-
pointed principal of the Royal Academy of
Music. He composed Palestine, The Cap-
tivity of Judah, and other oratorios.
Crowe, Mrs. Catherine (b. 1800, d.
1876), novelist, wrote The Night Side of
Nature, a collection of supernatural stories
(1848), also Lily Dawson (1847), and other
novels.
Crowe, Eyre, A.R.A. (b. 1824), historical
painter, pupil of Delaroche, has exhibited
French Savants in Egypt (1875), Sanctuary
(1877), Marat (1879), etc.
Crowther, Samuel Adjai (b. 1812, d. 1891),
Bishop of the Niger Territory, a native of
Africa, was sold as a slave in 1819, but
rescued by a British ship and landed at
Sierra Leone (1822) : was baptized (1825),
placed in charge of the mission school at
Regent's Town, and, after passing through
the missionary college at Islington, ordained
by the Bishop of London. In 1864 he was
consecrated first Bishop of Niger Territory.
He accompanied the Niger expeditions of
1841 and 1854.
Cruden, Alexander (b. 1701, d. 1770),
published in 1737 a Complete Concordance of
the Holy Scriptures.
Craikshank, George (b. 1792, d. 1878),
artist and caricaturist, son of Isaac Cruik-
shank, engraver and caricaturist, after
painting scenes for a theatre, began to
design political caricatures, which appeared
in the windows of William Hone, the
publisher, and attracted much attention.
He illustrated a large number of works,
including Grimm'1 s Fairy Tales (1823), The
Ingoldsby Legends, Oliver Twist, etc., and
designed tt& Bottle (1847) and other plates
in furtherance of the temperance cause.
Cruikshank, William Cumberland (b.
1745, d. 1800), anatomist, assistant and
successor of Dr. Hunter, wrote a treatise
on The Anatomy of the Absorbent Vessels in
the Human Body.
Cram, Walter (b. 1793, d. 1867), a Scottish
chemist and analyst, author of a treatise on
indigo.
Crusentolpe, Magnus Jacob (b. 1795,
d. 1865), Swedish politician and writer,
Cso
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Gun
caused great excitement in Sweden by his
Political Views, Paintings from the History
of the Day, Positions and Relations, and
other vigorous pamphlets.
Csoma de Korbs, Alexander (b. 1784,
d. 1842), philologist and traveller, educated
at Gottingen, travelled in the East, re-
mained four years in Thibet studying its
language and literature, and became libra-
rian to the Asiatic Society at Calcutta. He
wrote a Thibetan grammar, etc.
Cubbon, Sir Mark (b. 1784, d. 1861), Com-
missioner of Mysore from 1834 to 1861, did
much to promote the prosperity and welfare
of the province.
Cubitt, Sir W. (b. 1785, d. 1861), civil
engineer, effected improvements in the
navigation and drainage of the country, and
invented the treadmill. He was knighted
for his services in connection with the build-
ing of the International Exhibition of 1851.
Cudworth, Ealph (b. 1617, d. 1688),
divine, one of the school of philosophers
known as the " Cambridge Platonists,"
became Master of Clare Hall (1644) and
Christ's College (1654), Cambridge, and
regius professor of Hebrew (1645). He
wrote The True Intellectual System of the
Universe (1678), and a Treatise on Eternal
and Immutable Morality.
Cujas, Jacques (b. 1522, d. 1590), French
jurist, studied at the university of Toulouse,
and became professor of law at Cahors,
Bourges, and Valence successively. He left
many works.
Cullen, Paul, Cardinal, D.D. (b. 1803, d.
1878), Roman Catholic Archbishop of
Dublin, consecrated Archbishop of Armagh
and Primate of Ireland in 1850, and trans-
ferred to Dublin in 1852, was distinguished
as a theologian and a defender of the
Church's rights and dignities. He estab-
lished the diocesan college of Clonliffe and
the Roman Catholic university.
^ Cullen, William (b. 1712, d. 1790), physi-
cian, professor of chemistry at Glasgow,
and afterwards at Edinburgh, wrote a
Treatise on Materia Medica, etc.
Culpeper, Nicolas (b. 1616, d. 1654), a
writer an astrology and medicine.
Cumberland, Richard (b. 1632, d. 1718),
Bishop of Peterborough, wrote in opposition
to Hobbes a treatise J)e Legibus Naturae.
Cumberland, Richard (b. 1732, d. 1811),
dramatist, author of The West Indian, The
Brothers, etc.
Cumberland, William Augustus, Duke of
(b. 1721, d. 1765), second son of George II.,
was distinguished for his courage, but was
defeated at Fontenoy, Lawfield, and Hasten-
beck. He behaved with great cruelty at the
battle of Culloden, where he defeated the
Young Pretender (1746).
Curning, Hugh (b. 1791, d. 1865), natu-
ralist, devoted himself to the study of
conchology, and made a large collection of
shells and plants from the west coast of
America, the islands of the Pacific, and the
Philippine Islands.
Gumming, John, D.D. (b. 1810, d. 1881),
minister of the Scotch church, Covent Gar-
den (1832), was a well-known exponent of
prophecy, and wrote The Great Tribulation,
etc.
Gumming1, Roualeyn Gordon (b. 1820,
d. 1866), the African lion-hunter, after
serving in the Indian army joined the Cape
Rifles in 1843, and for five years lived in the
bush. His experiences there are recorded in
five Years of a Hunter's Life (1850), and
The Lion-Hunter of South Africa (1856).
Cummins, Maria Susanna (b. 1827, d.
1866), American novelist, wrote The Lamp-
lighter (1854), Haunted Hearts (1841), and
other novels.
Cunard, Sir Samuel (b. 1787, d. 1865),
born at Halifax, Nova Scotia, founder of
the Cunard line of Atlantic steamers, which
in 1840 was started in accordance with a
Government contract.
Cunningham, Allan (b. 1791, d. 1839),
botanist, collected specimens from South
America, Australia, and New Zealand for
the gardens at Kew.
Cunningham, Allan (b. 1784, d. 1842),
Scottish man of letters, of peasant paren-
tage, after serving an apprenticeship to a
stonemason, and palming off some literary
forgeries on Cromek, published in Nithsdale
and Galloway Song, came to London in
1810, and in 1814 was engaged by Chantrey
as clerk and overseer in his studio. Be-
sides ballads and lyrics, he wrote Lines of
the English Painters, etc.
Cunning-ham, Rev. John (b. 1819), di-
vine, studied under Sir W. Hamilton,
Dr. Chalmers, and others ; in 1845 was
ordained minister of the parish of Crieff ;
has written The Church History of Scotland,
etc., and contributed articles to the Edin-
burgh Review, and other periodicals. In
1886 he was appointed moderator of the
General Assembly.
Cunningham, Peter (b. 1816, ,d. 1869), man
of letters, was chief clerk in the Audit
Office; wrote a Handbook of London (1849),
Life of Inigo Jones (1848), Memoir of Tur*
ner (1852), etc.
Cur
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Cza
Cureton, William, F.R.S. (b. 1808, d.
1864), diviue aud Orientalist, sub-librarian
of the Bodleian library, and afterwards
assistant-keeper of manuscripts in the Bri-
tish Museum; published the Syriac versions
of The Epistles of Ignatius, which excited a
warm controversy in England and Germany.
Curll, Edmund (b. 1675, d. 1747), book-
seller and publisher, - famous through his
connection with Pope, who ridiculed him in
the Dunciad.
Cuxran, John Philpot (b. 1750, d. 1817).
Irish politician, of humble birth, educated
at Trinity College, Dublin, was in 1775
called to the Irish bar, where he won a
high reputation as an orator ; opposed the
Union in the Irish parliament; in 1808
was made Master of the Rolls in Ireland.
Curtius, Ernst (b. 1814), Greek scholar
and historian : studied at Bonn, Got-
tingen, and Berlin, and was professor at
Gottingen (1856) and Berlin. He first
visited Greece in 1837; in 1864 he began
his excavations at Olympia, resulting in the
discovery of the Hermes and Dionysius
by Praxiteles (1877). Among his works are
The Acropolis of Athens (1844), Attic
Studies (1862), The Discovery of Olympia
(1882), and his History of Greece.
Curtius, George (b. 1820, d. 1885), philolo-
gist, brother of the preceding, studied at
Bonn and Berlin; became professor of
classical philology at Prague in 1849 ; has
written Comparative Grammar in its Rela-
tion to Classical Philology (1845), etc.
Curwen, John (b. 1816, d. 1880), writer
on music and advocate of the Tonic Sol-fa
system.
Cusa, Nicolas de (b. 1401, d. 1464), divine,
employed by Eugenius IY. in his efforts to
unite the Greek and Latin churches, was
afterwards made Cardinal and Bishop of
Brixen.
Gushing, Caleb (*. 1800, d. 1879), Ameri-
can lawyer and diplomatist, in 1843 nego-
tiated the first treaty of the United States
with China ; was attorney- general from
1853 to 185", and one of three jurists
entrusted with the revision of the laws of
Congress (1866) ; in 1872 he was one of the
counsel for the settlement of the Alabama
claims.
Cuthbert, St. (d. 687), originally a
shepherd boy, became a monk at Melrose,
and was prior of that monastery, and after-
wards (664-76) of that of Lindisf arne. After
living for some time as a hermit on Fame
Island, he was consecrated bishop of Lindis-
farne in 684, but returned to the island in 686.
Cuvier, Georges, Baron (b. 1769, d. 1832),
French naturalist, born at Montbeliard,
patronised by Charles, Duke of Wurtcmbeig,
who sent him to the academy of Stuttgart
(1784) ; from 1788 to 1794 studied zoology
while holding a tutorship near Caen, and
conceived the idea of a new classification of
animals based on a comparison of fossils
with living species. By the advice of the
Abbe* Tenier he went to Paris, where he
held various professorships, and wrote
Metnoires sur une Nouvelle Division dca
Mammiferes (conjointly with Saint- Hilaire),
Tableau EUmentaire de V Histoire Naturelle
des Animaux (1798), etc. He wae much
employed by Napoleon, especially in pro-
moting education ; Louis XVIII. made
grand-master of the faculties of Protes-
tant theology. Just before his death he
became minister of the interior.
Cuyp, Albert (b. 1605, d. 1691), son of
Jacob, also a well-known painter.
Cuyp, Jacoo Gerritee (b. 1575, d. 1649),
Dutch portrait and genre painter.
Cyprian, St. (b. cirea 200, d. 258), saint
and theologian, was baptized in 246, and in
248 became Bishop of Carthage and Primate
of Africa. He hid himself during the Decian
persecution, but was beheaded in that under
Valerian. He held many councils, and de-
cided against the validity of baptism ad-
ministered by heretics.
Cyril, St. (d. 444), patriarch of Alexandria
(412), was a violent and headstrong man,
whose rule was marked by the persecution
of the Novatians, the expulsion of the Jews,
the murder of Hypatia. and the condemna-
tion of Nestorius, in consequence of which he
was imprisoned by the Emperor Theodosius.
Cyrus the Great (b. circa 590 B.C., d.
529 B.C.), founder of the Persian empire,
was the son of Cambyses and Mandane,
daughter of Astyages, king of Media. His
early history is probably mythical ; in B.C.
559 he excited the Persians against the
Medes, defeated Astyages, and usurped his
throne. He subsequently conquered Lydia
and Babylon, and marched against the
Massegatse, governed by Qupen~ Tomyris,
by whom he was defeated and slain.
Cyrus the Young-er (b. 424 B.C., d. 401),
son of Darius, and governor of the western
provinces of Asia Minor : after unsuccessfully
plotting against his elder brother Artaxerxes,
raised a large army, including about 12.000
Greek soldiers, with which he marched
against him, but was defeated and slain at
Cunaxa. Xenophon then conducted the
retreat of the 10,000 surviving Greeks.
Czacki, Tadeusz (b. 1765, d. 1813), a Pole,
minister of King Stanislas Poniatowski,
wrote on history, law, and politics, and
made educational reforms.
Cza
(233)
Bag
CzarniecM, Stephen (b. 1599, d. 1665), a
Polish soldier, distinguished himself against
the Cossacks (1648-51), defended Cracow
against the Swedes (1655), commanded the
army sent to assist the King of Denmark
against Sweden, and drove the Lithuanians
from Russia in 1630 and 1661.
CzartorysM, Adam Casimir (b. 1734, d.
1823), a Pole who, as president of the
Diet of Warsaw, was mainly instrumental
in procuring the election of King Stanislaus
Augustus; he was named marshal of the
Diet of 1812, but the following year with-
drew into private lif e.
CzartorysM, Adam George (b. 1770, d.
1861), son of the preceding ; joined the
force of Kosciusko against the Russians in
1792 ; was sent as hostage to Russia in 1795,
and won the favour of Duke Alexander,
who, on his accession, made him minister of
foreign affairs. Taking the popular side
in the revolution of 1830, he was appointed
president of the provisional government,
and placed at the head of the national
government (1831). In 1832 he fled to
Paris.
Czerny, Karl (b. 1791, d. 1857), Austrian
pianist and composer, taught music at
Vienna, numbering Liszt and Dohlex
among kU pupils.
D.
Dabelow, Christopher Christian (J. 1768,
d. 1830), German j urisconsult, professor of
civil law at the university of Dierpt. His
treatises on law are valuable.
Daca, John (b. 1566, d. 1650), German
painter, a protege of Rudolph II.
Dacier, Andre (b. 1651, d. 1722), Trench
classical writer of eminence, was made per-
petual secretary of the French Academy in
1713, and had the care of the cabinet of the
Louvre entrusted to him. He translated
many of the classics into French.
Dacier, Anne (Lefevre) (*. 1654, d. 1720),
wife of the foregoing, was distinguished for
her love of classical literature, in which she
obtained great proficiency at an early age.
Da Costa, Isaac (b. 1798, d. 1860), Dutch
poet of Jewish nationality, studied at
Leyden, and after he had received the
degree of doctor of philosophy, he embraced
Christianity. He is considered to hold a
foremost place among the poets of Holland.
Dade, William (b. 1740, d. 1790), York-
shire antiquary, whose father and grand-
father were clergymen, was himself in
holy orders. He published many works on
antiquarian subjects, principally connected
with the county of York.
Daendels, Hermann Wilhelm (b. 1762, d.
1818), Dutch general ; having taken part
in revolutionary disturbances in Holland
in 1787, was compelled to seek refuge in
France, where for important military ser-
vices he was made general of brigade. In
1799 he commanded one of the two divisions
of the army of the Batavian republic, and in
1806 he took service under Louis Bonaparte,
king of Holland. From 1808 till 1811 was
Governor- General of the Dutch East Indian
possessions. After the overthrow of Bona-
parte the new King of Holland entrusted
him with the organisation of the Dutch
colonies on the coast of Africa, where he
died.
Daiiorne, James (d. 1880), for thirty- five
years a voluminous art-writer.
D'Agar, Jacques (6. 1640, d. 1716), painter,
of French nationality, spent the greater part
of his life in Copenhagen, where he died.
He was for some years in London, and re-
ceived much aristocratic patronage in the
reign of Queen Anne.
D'Agincourt, Jean Baptiste Louis George
Sereux (b. 1730, d. 1814), French antiquary
and art historian.
Dagobert I., son of Clothaire II. (b. 602,
d. 638) , succeeded him in 628 in the Prankish
monarchy. He sustained war against the
Saxons from England, the Vascones of the
Pyrenees, the Sclavonians, and the Bretons.
He obliged the prince of Brittany to give
him satisfaction for incursions, and he
granted refuge to the Bulgarians, who were
flying before the Huns ; but soon after,
fearing that these guests might become too
powerful for him, he gave orders to have
them all massacred, when in one night ten
thousand families were put to the sword.
Dagobert n., son of Siegbert II. and
grandson of Dagobert I., was shut up in a
convent after his father's death in 656 by the
ntaire of the palace, who gave the crown to
his own eon. Dagobert was sent to Scot-
land, and the report of his death was
spread. He married Matilda, a Scottish
Dag
(234)
Dal
princess, and was eventually acknowledged
king of Australia, lii GT'J he was assassi-
nated by the Griinwald faction.
Dagobert III. (b. 699, d. 715) succeeded
his father, Childebert III., in 711 aa king of
France.
Dagoumer, Guilla-ime (d. 1745), rector
of the university of Paris, and author of
philosophical works.
Dagnerre, Louis Jacques Maude (b. 1789,
d. 18<31), the inventor of photography by the
daguerreotype process, by which the por-
trait was fixed on a plate of copper thinly
coated with silver by the successive action
of the vapours of iodine, bromine and mer-
cury, in which invention he was associated
with M. Niepce Daguerre. He was also
celebrated as a dioramic painter, was named
by the French Government as an officer of
the Legion of Honour, and granted a pen-
sion of six thousand francs.
Dagnesseau. [See Aguesseau.]
Dahl, Johann Christian Claude (b. 1788,
d. 1857), Norwegian landscape painter, and
professor of painting at Dresden.
Dahl, Michael (b. 1656, d. 1743), Swedish
portrait painter, who settled in London, and
obtained the patronage of royalty and many
members of the aristocracy.
Dahlberg", Eric, Count de (b. 1625, d.
1703), general in the German army, called
the Vauban of Sweden for his skill in forti-
fication.
Dahlgren, John Adolph (b. 1809, d. 1870),
American naval officer, whose father was
Swedish consul at Philadelphia. The son
worked his way up by extraordinary
zeal and energy till he became chief
of ordnance, and he received the world's
recognition as a man of science and
inventive genius. He was the author of
many works on the practice of gunnery.
Ee was the inventor of the Dahlgren gun,
biunze howitzers for boats, and light iron
field carriages to make them available on
land.
Dahlgren, Karl Fredrik (b. 1794, d. 1844),
Swedish poet and humorist, from 1815
acted as preacher at Stockholm. His works
fill five volumes (1847-52), and consist of
novels, humorous tales, poems, and dramas.
Dahlmann, Friedrich Christoph (b. 1785,
d. 1860), German historian and politician.
Though of Swedisn nationality, he directed
the whole influence of his lif e towards Ger-
many. After spending some years in poli-
tical pursuits in Schleswig-Holstein, which
brought him. much trouble, he lived in
Gottingen and Bonn, taking a large share
in the political affairs of the time.
Dahomey, Kings of-
(1) di-./o (</. lN"'S , succeeded Gaze, his
brother, who abdicated in IMS. He was
warlike, but not unfavourable to Euro-
peans. Was visited by Commander Forbes
in 1S49, and again in iSol. He left behind
him some renown for bravery, tl.migh he
was defeated by the people of the- indepen-
dent settlement of Abeokuta.
(2) GELELE (b. 1820), succeeded his father
in 18.38. At the <- grand customs" in
honour of his father he massacred about
five hundred men. In 1862 he is said to
have crucified Doherty, a Scripture reader.
He, too, was defeated by the Abeokutans.
In 1876 he severely treated some European
traders, which caused a rupture with Eng-
land, but in 1877 he made concessions.
Daille, Pierre (b. 1649, d. 1715), a French
Protestant divine, who emigrated to
America. He wrote several important
works, which were translated into Latin
and English.
Daintree, Richard (b. 1831, d. 1878),
geologist, who spent his whole life in the
exploration of various parts of Australia, of
which he published complete and valuable
results.
Dakins, William (d. 1607), one of the
divines employed in the authorised transla-
tion of the Bible.
Dalberg", Carl Theodore Anton Maria von
(b. 1744, d. 1817), Elector and Archbishop of
Mayence, Prince-primate of the Confedera-
tion of the Rhine, grand-duke of Frank-
fort, and Archbishop of Ratisbon. He was
distinguished for great industry and an in-
corruptible love of justice. He was the
author of several works on various subjects,
and finally, in 1813, resigned all his offices,
with the exception of his ecclesiastical
dignity, and retired into private life.
D'Albert, Eugfene (b. 1861), son of Charles
D' Albert (b. 1815), educated at the National
Training School, South Kensington, widely
known as a pianist and composer.
D'Albret, Jeanne, Queen of Xavarre (b.
1528, d. 1572), who became a Protestant,
and died suddenly before the massacre of
St. Bartholomew, and is supposed to have
been poisoned.
Dalby, Isaac (b. 1744, d. 1824), a self-
taught mathematician, employed on the
trigonometrical survey of England, and in
1799 professor of mathematics at the Royal
Military College, High "VVycombe.
Dale, David (*. 1739, d. 1806), Scottish
merchant and philanthropist.
Dale, Thomas (b. 1797, d. 1870), poet and
divine, was Dean of Rochester, held the
Dal
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Dal
chair of English language and literature in
the University of London, and afterwards
at King's College. He was for several
years vicar of St. Bride's, Fleet Street, and
afterwards of St. Pancras. He published
some volumes of poetry, a translation of
Sophocles' sermons, and an edition of the
works of Cowper.
Dalecnamp, Jacques (b. 1513, d. 1588),
French physician and writer on botany.
D'Alembert, Jean le Bond. [See Alem-
bert.]
Dalhousie, George Ramsay, Earl of (b.
1770, d. 1838), served in Egypt and Spain,
and was created a peer of the United King-
dom in 1815, became captain -general of
British North America till 1828, and then
served in India as commander -in -chief .
Dalhousie, James Andrew Brown-Ram-
say, third son of the above, and first Mar-
quis (b. 1812, d. 1860), vice-president of the
Board of Trade 1843, president 1845, Gover-
nor-General of India 1848. He success-
fully conducted the Sikh war, which was
terminated by the battle of Gujerat, and
the annexation of the Punjab (1849). He
directed the second Burmese war (1852) and
added Pegu to British India. He also
annexed Nagpore (1853), Berar and Sattara,
and pudh (18.36). He threw open the Civil
Service to Hindoos, instituted great public
works, introduced railways and telegraphs,
opened out canals and roads, created a
legislative council and the lieutenant-
goyernorshrp of Bengal. Ill -health and
grief caused by his wife's death (1853)
induced him to return to England in 1856.
He was the last governor -general under the
Company.
Dalin, Olaf von (*. 1708, d. 1763), his-
torian and poet, is reckoned the father
of Swedish poetry. He died chancellor to
the court of Sweden. Author of The
Liberty of Sweden and Brunhilda.
Dallamano, Giuseppe (b. 1679, d. 175S),
Italian painter.
Dallas, Alexander James (b. 1759, d.
1817), American lawyer and statesman,
was the son of a Scottish physician
who emigrated to Jamaica about 1750.
He served the United States in various
ways, his principal office being Secre-
tary of the Treasury, in which he was
of great service. He was considered by his
abilities to have extricated the United States
Government from very serious difficulty
and debt, caused by the war with the Bri-
tish Government. He published various
works, and left unfinished a History of
Pennsylvania.
Dallas, Sir George, Bart. (*. 1758, d.
1833), in the civil service of the East
India Company ; was a voluminous political
writer, and was much distinguished by his
able defence of Warren Hastings.
Dallas, George Mifflin (b. 1792, d. 1864),
president of the United States 1844, and
American statesman and diplomatist, born
at Philadelphia, was elected to the Senate
in 1831. In 1846, as President of the
Senate, he gave a casting Tote against a
measure opposed to Free Trade. He was
minister at St. Petersburg 1837-1841, to the
court of St. James's 1856-1861, and retired
from public lif e on the election of President
Lincoln.
Dallas, Eobert Charles, brother of Alexan-
der James (b. 1754, d. 1824), author of Recol-
lections of Lord Byron and other works,
and a friend and counsellor of Lord Byron,
whose uncle, Captain Byron, married his
sister.
Dallaway, James (b. 1763, d. 1834),
divine, chaplain to the British Embassy at
Constantinople, and subsequently held two
vicarages in England, and the post of
secretary to the Earl Marshal. He is
chiefly known as an author.
Dalling and Bulwer. [See Bulwer.]
Dallinger, William Henry, LL.D.,
F.E.S. (b. 1841), English biologist, en-
tered the Wesleyan ministry in 1861. He
worked out, by microscopical research, the
Life histories of the minute forms of life.
His earliest work was rewarded by a grant
of £100 from the Royal Society for further
research.
Dallison, Sir William (d. 1558-9), English
lawyer, Lord Chief Justice of the Queen's
Bench under Queen Mary and Queen Eliza-
beth.
Dalmatius, Saint, archimandrite of the
monastery of Constantinople, took part in
the Council of Ephesus in 430.
Dalrymple. [See Stair.]
Dalrymple, Alexander (b. 1737, d. 1808),
hydrographer to the East India Com-
pany in 1779, and to the Admiralty in
1795, was author of works on geography and
hydrography, and was a fellow of the Royal
Society.
Dalrymple, Sir David. [See Hailes.]
Dalrymple, Sir Hew Whiteford (b. 1750,
d. 1830), served under the Duke of York in
1793. Commanded in Guernsey in 1806,
and took the command in Portugal in 1808.
His convention with Junot was much
censured.
Dalrymple, Sir John (b. 1726, d. 1810), a
Dal
( 236 )
Dan
baron of exchequer in Scotland in 1776. He
was author of several works, the chief of
which was the Memoirs of Great Britain
and Ireland.
Dalrymple, John, F.K.S. (b. 1803, d. 1852),
oculist, now chiefly known as the author of
a valuable Essay on the Anatomy of the
Human Eye.
Dalton, John, D.D. (*. 1709, d. 1763),
many years rector of St. Mary-at-Hill,
London, in his earlier years was tutor
to Lord Beauchamp, with whom he
travelled till his lordship died in Italy. He
adapted Comus for the stage, and wrote
songs in it, and it was performed for
the benefit of Milton's granddaughter. He
was also author of some poems and a volume
of sermons.
Dalton, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. (b. 1766,
d. 1844), natural philosopher, one of the
founders of modern chemistry, early in
life settled in Manchester. Hia scientific
discoveries, notably his Atomic Theory,
brought him the gold medal of the Royal
Society. A Life of Dalton, by Loiisdale,
appeared in 1874. He was a member of the
Society of Friends.
Daly, Augustin (b. 1838), American
dramatist and editor, has written many
successful plays, and for several seasons
managed the Grand Opera in New York.
His company of comedians has more than
once travelled with frim to England, Ger-
many, and France.
Dalzell, Andrew (b. 1742, d. 1806), clas-
sical scholar, one of the founders of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, and one of its
secretaries. His works are voluminous.
Damasus L (d. 384), the son of a pres-
byter, was elected Bishop of Rome after the
death of Liberius in 366. Great disorders
S'evailed during the greater part of his rule.
e held several councils for the purpose of
condemning heretics ; and St. Jerome is
said to have acted as his secretary.
Damasus H, Poppo, Bishop of Brixen,
was elected pope in the year 1048, in the
room of Benedict IX., who had been
deposed by the council of Sutri for his mis-
conduct. He died at Palestrina, only
twenty-three days after bis election, Leo Ty,
succeeding.
D'Amboise. \See Amboise.J
Darner, the Hon. Anne Seymour (b. 1748,
d. 1828), sculptress, daughter of Field-
Marshal Conway. She was married to the
Hon. John Darner, who left her a widow
without children. Amongst the best-known
of her works is a bust of Lord Nelson
in the Guildhall, London, a statue of
George III. in the Register Office at Edin-
burgh, and a bust of Sir Joseph Banks in
the British Museum,
Damin, Christian Tobias (b. 1699, d. 1778),
scholar and theologian, rector of the aca-
demy of Berlin, and compiler of a lexicon to
Homer and Pindar. He was displaced in
1764 on a charge of Socinianism, founded
on his translation of the New Testament.
Damini, Pietro (b. 1592, d. 1630), Italian
painter.
Damon, a distinguished physician of
Athens, celebrated also as a Sophist. Late
in life he was banished from Athens for his
political opinions.
Dampier, William (b. 1652, d. 1715),
English navigator and hydrographer ; in
1679 he joined a party of buccaneers, who
crossed the Isthmus of Daiien, captured
several Spanish vessels, and molested the
settlements. In 1684 he made a voyage to
the East Indies, from which he returned to
England in 1691, and published A Voyage
Round the World. In the service of the
government he conducted in 1669 an expe-
dition to the South Seas, exploring the
western coast of Australia, and other parts
of the southern hemisphere. He returned
home in 1701, and the rest of his life was
passed in obscurity.
Dana, Francis, LL.D. (b. 1743, d. 1811),
American statesman and jurist. He was
the father of the poet.
Dana, James Dwight, LL.D. (6. 1813),
American naturalist and geologist, pub-
lished many valuable works, extending
from 1837 to 1872.
Dana, Richard Henry (b. 1787, d. 1879),
American poet and novelist, author of The
Buccaneer and other works.
Dana, Richard Henry (5. 1815, d. 1882),
American lawyer and author, son of the
preceding, entered Harvard College in
1832, but suspended his studies in 1834
from weakness of the eyes, and then,
performed as a common sailor a voy-
age to California, of which he wrote an
interesting and rtopular narrative, entitled
Two Years Before the Mast (1840). He
graduated at Harvard in 1837, studied law
under Judge Story, and was admitted to the
bar. He published works on seamanship
and international law. He was one of the
founders of the Free Soil party in 1848, and
an orator of the Republican party.
Danby, Francis, A.R.A. (b. 1793, rf.
1861), landscape painter, produced many
works of high character. His Opening of
the Seventh Seal, exhibited in 1828 at the
British Institution, brought him a prize oJ?
Dzin
(237)
Dan
the
£200. In 1829 a difference with
Academy and other reasons led to his leaving
England for eleven years, during which he
painted little. On his return he took up his
residence at Exmouth, where he died,
leaving three sous, all landscape painters.
Dauby, Henry Danvers, first Earl of (b.
1573, d. 1643-4), served in the Low Countries
Tinder Maurice Prince of Orange, and after-
wards in France, where he was knighted by
Henry IV., and next in Ireland as
lieutenant-general. He was made a peer by
James I., and appointed Lord President
of Munster and Governor of Guernsey.
Charles I. made him Earl of Danby and
Knight of the Garter. He gave land to
the University of Oxford for a botanical
garden, and at Malmesbury to establish an
almshouse and free schooL
Danby, John (d. 1798), English composer
of glees which attained great popularity.
Danby, Thomas Osborne, Earl of. [See
Leeds.]
Dance, Charles (b. 1794, d. 1863), a writer
of burlesques and farces.
Dance, George (b. 1700, d. 1768), archi-
tect, designer of the Mansion "House (1739)
and many other public buildings.
Dance, George, R.A. (b. 1741, d. 1825),
eon of the preceding, rebuilt Newgate
f 1770-83), and was one of the original Royal
Academicians.
Dancer, Daniel (b. 1716, d. 1794), miser,
of whom many extraordinary stories are
related. He bequeathed the whole of
his property to Lady Tempest, who had
relieved him under apparent necessity.
Danchet, Antoine (b. 1671, d. 1748),
French poet.
Danckerts, a family of Dutch artists.
Cornelius (b. 1561) was a celebrated engraver
at Antwerp. His son, Danckert Danckerts
(b. 1600), excelled his father. John Danc-
kerts, a member of the family, came to
England and designed plates for Juvenal,
which were engraved by Hollar. Henry
Danckerts, his brother, came to England as
engraver and landscape painter, and was
employed by King Charles II. Justus
Dauckerts was a designer and engraver, at
Amsterdam ; and Cornelius Danckerts was
an esteemed architect. His son, Peter, was
a painter.
Dancourt, Florent Carton (b. 1661,
d. 1726), brought up to the bar, which he
abandoned for the stage, for which he was
a prolific writer.
Dandini, Caesar (b. 1595, d. 1658), a Floren-
tine painter. Vincent Dandini (b. 1607), his
brother, was hold in great estimation as an
historical painter. Pietro Dandini (b. 1*546.
d. 1712), a nephew, was also a painter.
Dandini, Jerome (b. 1554, d. 1634), an
Italian Jesuit of note in the time of
Clement VIII.
Dandolo, Andrea (b. 1310, d. 1354), Doge
of Venice, lost his life in a war between
the Venetians and the Genoese. He was
a friend of Petrarch, and wrote the
Chronicles of Venice.
Dandolo, Enrico (b. 1108, d. 1205), was
elected Doge of Venice at the age of eighty-
four. He undertook with the Crusaders the
siege of Constantinople in 1203, at which,
notwithstanding age and infirmity, he
greatly distinguished himself.
Daneau, Lambert (b. 1530, d. 1596), a
French Protestant divine, who fled in 1572
to Geneva, where he was appointed to the
chair of theology. He filled a similar post
at Ley den, and in 1593 was called as minister
to Castres.
Danes, Pierre (b. 1497, d. 1577), French
scholar and divine, professor of Greek at the
Royal College, represented France at the
council of Trent in 1545.
Danet, Pierre (b. 1640, d. 1709), a rector
of Paiis, presented in 1674 to the abbacy of
St. Nicholas, in Verdun. He is known
principally by his Latin and French Dic-
tionary, and a French dictionary of Greek
and Roman antiquities, and was one of the
persons selected to prepare the Delphin
editions of the classics.
Dangeau, Louis de Courcillon de (b. 1643,
d. 1723), French ecclesiastic and man of
letters, son of the Marquis de Dangeau. His
works were numerous on the subjects of
history, grammar, and geography, and he
also wrote Dialogues on the Immortality of
the Soul.
Dangeau, Philippe de Courcillon, Mar-
quis de (b. 1638, d. 1720), brother of the
preceding, was a favourite at the court of
Louis XIV. for his many accomplishments,
and his taste for literature procured him a
seat in the French Academy and in that of
the sciences. He left a voluminous diary,
the Journal de Dangeau.
Danican, Francois Andre" (b. 1727, d. 1795, ,
better known as Philidor, musician, com-
poser, and noted chess-player.
Daniel, Arnaud (d. circa 1189), Pro-
venial poet and troubadour. His poems
were imitated by Petrarch, and Dante
speaks favourably of him*
Daniel, Edward, D.D. (d. 1657), the first
scholar sent out from Douay. For six years
Dan
(238)
Dan
was president of the English College at
Lisbon. Author of Meditations and a folio
volume- of controversies.
Daniel, Gabriel (b. 1649, d. 1728),
French historian and Jesuit. Louis XIV.
appointed him historiographer of the
kingdom, with a pension of 2,000 francs.
Daniel, Pierre (b. 1530, d. 1603),
French antiquary and advocate, in 1562,
when the abbey of St. Benoit-sur-Loire was
pillaged, he saved valuable MSS., some of
which he published, and he prepared an
edition of Petronius, but it was not brought
out in his lifetime.
Daniel, Robert Mackenzie (b. 1814,
d. 1847), litterateur, wrote The Scottish
Heiress, The Gravedujger, The Young Widow,
The Young Baronet, and The GardinaVs
Daughter.
Daniel, Samnel (b. 1562, d. 1619),
English poet and historian. Hi a fame
stands higher as an historian of the Civil
Wars of the Roses than as a poet.
Daniel, William Barker (b. 1787, d. 1833),
author and divine, who died within the
rules of the Bang's Bench, where he had
been confined for twenty years. He was
author of Rural Sports (four volumes) , and
Plain Thoughts of Former Years upon the
Lord's Prayer, with Deference addressed to
Christians at the Present Period.
Daniell, John Frederick, D.C.L., F.R.S.
(b. 1790, d. 1845), natural philosopher,
his greatest work, Meteorological Essays,
appeared in 1823 ; he also published
an Introduction to Chemical Philosophy,
and supplied a number of contributions
to scientific journals. He was appointed in
1821 professor of chemistry in King's Col-
lege, London, and devoted himself chiefly
to the study of voltaic electricity.
Daniell, Samuel (d. 1811), English scenic
artist.
Daniell, Thomas (b. 1750, d. 1840),
English artist. His works were published
in six folio volumes.
Daniell, William, R.A. (b. 1769, d.
1857), English artist, nephew of above.
Many of his works were in the six volumes
published by his uncle. He published a
number of other works between 1814 and
1825.
Danilo I., Pietrovitch Niegosch (b. 1826,
d. 1860), Prince of Montenegro, succeeded
his uncle in 1851. He effected various
reforms, but was checked by a war
with Turkey. He was assassinated at
Cattaro, leaving his throne to his nephew
Nicholas.
Dannecker, Johann Heinrich (6. 1758, d.
1841), one of the most eminent of modern
sculptors, was the son of an ostler at
Stuttgart. In 1775 he gained the friend-
ship of Schiller, whose bust in the Weimar
museum is his best- remembered work. In
1785 he visited Rome, and hi 17CJO was ap-
fointed professor of sculpture at Stuttgart.
n 1816 he produced his celebrated Ariadne
on tJie Panther.
Dante Alig-hieri (b. 1265, d. 1321), Italian
poet, was born at Florence. Of his early
days little is known, till, as related in his
Vita Nuova, he first met " the lady of his
heart, Beatrice." According to Boccaccio,
she was the daughter of Folco Portiuari,
and married Simone de Bardi, and to her
Dante was passionately but platonically
attached. She died in 1290, and shortly
afterwards Dante married Gemma Donati,
a daughter of one of the "Guelph"
families. In 1289 he fought at Campaldino,
and was present at the surrender of Caprona.
After filling various minor offices, in 1300
he became one of the six priors of Florence.
In 1301 he went as ambassador to Pope
Boniface VIII., and never returned to his
native town. Charles of Valois aided the
Neri or Black Guelphs against their op-
ponents, the Whites, of whom Dante was a
supporter, and in 1302 he was banished.
He made many unsuccessful attempts to
return, and spent the remaining years of his
lif e wandering from town to town, finally
settling in Ravenna, where he died. His
most celebrated work is the Divina Commedia,
and others are the Vita Nuova, the Convito,
and the Canzoniere.
Danton, George Jacques (b. 1759, d. 1794),
French revolutionist, was educated for the
bar, and became a follower of Mirabeau.
With Marat and Camille Desmoulins he
founded the cordeliers' club. In 1791 he
headed the meeting at the Champ de Mars
advocating the dethronement of Louis, and
after the king's fall became minister of jus-
tice. With Marat and Robespierre, he was
at the head of the Jacobinical party in the
National Convention. In 1793 he set up
the " extraordinary criminal tribunal," and
as president of the "Committee of Public
Safety" tried to crush the Girondists. He
lost ground through his opposition to the
guillotine, quarrelled with Robespierre, and
was brought before the revolutionary tri-
bunal and sentenced to death.
Dantz, Johann Andreas (b. 1654, d. 1727),
Orientalist, and a divine of the Lutheran
church, author of a Hebrew grammar, a
Chaldee grammar, and several works on
biblical subjects.
Dantzi, Franz (b. 1763, d. 1826), com-
poser and performer on the violoncello. He
Dan
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Dar
produced several operas, including the Mid-
night Hour and Iphigenia. He also pro-
duced a great quantity of instrumental
music, and some compositions for the service
of the Church.
Danvers, Henry. {See Danby.]
D'Anville. [See Anville.]
Daoud Pacha (d. 1623), a celebrated grand-
vizier, brother-in-law of Mustaphal., whom
he replaced on the throne of Constantinople
in 1622, deposing and killing Othman II.,
the usurper. He himself was executed a
twelvemonth later.
D'Arblay, Francesca Burney (b. 1752,
d. 1840), English novelist, was the third
child of Dr. Charles Burney. From the age
of eighteen to twenty- six she worked at
.Evelina, which appeared anonymously in
1778, and won her fame, and the admiration
and friendship of Dr. Johnson. Cecilia
(1782) was not so successful ; but her works
gained her a position at the court in 1786,
and in her Diary she gives a graphic de-
scription of its decorous dulness. In 1793
she married General D'Arblay, a French
refugee. Her later works are Camille (1796),
The Wanderer (1814), and the Memoirs of
her father.
Darboy, Georges (b. 1813, d. 1871),
French ecclesiastic, Bishop of Nancy 1859,
Archbishop of Paris 1863, was an opposer of
the doctrine of Papal infallibility. He was
shot by the Commune.
D'Arc, Jeanne. [See Joan of Arc.]
Darcet, Jean (*. 1727, d. 1801), French
chemist and physician, befriended by Mon-
tesquieu. He contributed greatly to the
progress of chemical science.
Darcet, John Peter Joseph (b. 1787),
French chemist, born in Paris. His father
(the above) held the office of director-general
of the porcelain manufactory at Sevres, and
bis grandfather was the celebrated Rouelle,
the restorer of chemistry in France. In his
twenty-fourth year he was made assayer
of the mint ; and introduced, among other
discoveries, a new process for the prepara-
tion of powder on a large scale. His ex-
periments led to the establishment of the
manufacture of artificial natron. He ex-
tracted alkali from chestnuts, and he in-
troduced a process for bleaching linen.
One discovery of great importance obtained
him the prize of 3,000 fraiics which had
been provided for the discovery of the means
of protection against the fine dust of quick-
silver, which had been so unhealthy to the
gilders.
Darcy, Patrick (b. 1603, d. 1668), an active
member of the parliament assembled in
Dublin in 1640.
D'Arcy, Patrick, Count (b. 1726, d. 1779);
Irish engineer and author, an adherent of
the House of Stuart. At seventeen he
gave a solution of the curve of equal pres-
sure. In 1746 he was taken political prisoner
in Ireland, and after that served in the Seven
Years' war. He published an Essay on
Artillery, a Memoir on the Duration of the
Sensation of Sight, and a Memoir on Hy-
draulic Machines.
Dargan, Edward S., lawyer and jurist of
Alabama, U.S., was first a schoolmaster,
then studied law. In 1844 was elected
mayor of Mobile, and from 1845 to 1847
was representative in Congress. He is re-
membered as the first proposer of the line
of adjustment finally adopted in the set-
tlement of the Oregon question with the
British Government. He was on his return
from Congress elected judge of the supreme
court of Alabama.
Dargan, William (b. 1799, d. 1867), Irish
capitalist and railway contractor, was
first engaged under Telford in constructing
the Holyhead road, after which he returned
to Ireland, and embarked in several minor
undertakings, and formed the foundation
of a princely fortune. He was contractor
of the Dublin and Kingstown Railway,
the first in Ireland, after which there
was scarcely a public work in that
country with which he was not connected.
He was a large holder of railway stock, a
steamboat proprietor, a flax-grower, and a
farmer.
D'Argenville, Antoine Joseph Degallier
(b. 1680, d. 1765), French author and
member of several learned societies through-
out Europe. In 1747 appeared a Treatise
on Gardening, and in 1755 the Lives of
Famous Painters. He was employed on the
Encyclopedic and other works.
Darius (b. 548, d. 485 B.C.), son of
Hystaspes, dethroned Smerdis the usurper,
and became king of Persia in 521. He
captured Babylon after a siege of twenty
months, conquered Thrace, and defeated
the Scythians. He sent two armies to
Greece to avenge the destruction of Sardis
by the Athenians, the first of which was
repulsed by the Thracians, and the second
by the Athenians at Marathon in 490. He
died while organising a third expedition.
Darius II. (d. 405 B.C.) reigned nineteen
years ; surnamed Nothus, being the illegiti-
mate son of Artaxerxes I., married Pary-
satis, by whom he had two sons, Artaxerxes
Mnemon and Cyrus the Younger.
Darius III. (d. 330 B.C.), last king of
the Persians, began his reign in 336. He
was defeated at Granicus (334), Issus (333),
and Arbela (331) by Alexander the Great,
Bar
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Das
and was killed by Bessus, satrap of Bactri-
ana.
Darling, Grace (b. 1815, d. 1842), the
heroine, was the daughter of the lighthouse j
keeper on the Fern Islands, near Bain-
borough Castle. In September, 1838, the
Forfarshire went on the rocks, and with
her father she succeeded in rescuing nine of
the crew.
D'Arnaud. [See Arnaud.]
Darnley, Henry Steward, Lord (b. 1546),
d. 1507), married Mary, Queen of Scots,
July 19th, 1565 ; instigated the murder of
Rizzio, and was found dead in the garden
of his house, Kirk-of-Field, after it was
blown up, probably being killed with the
consent of the queen.
Darquier de Pellepoix, Augustin (b. 1718,
d. 1802), an eminent French astronomer,
and a member of the Institute.
Darrell, William (d. 1721), an English
Jesuit, and president of the College at
Liege. He wrote several works of a con-
troversial character.
D'Arrest, Heinrich Ludwig (b. 1822, d.
1875), German astronomer, discovered
comets in 1844, 1845, 1851, and 1857, and
was appointed to the chair of astronomy at
Copenhagen. He is best known as the dis-
coverer of the planet Freia on October 21st,
1862.
Dartmouth, George Legge, Lord (b. 1648,
d. 1691), distinguished English naval com-
mander, at one time governor of Ports-
mouth. In 1682 he was raised to the
peerage. He was Constable of the Tower,
and commanded the fleet at the time of the
Prince of Orange's invasion. At the Revo-
lution he was committed to the Tower,
where he died.
Dam, Pierre Antoine, Count (b. 1767, d.
1829), peer of France, and one of the
ablest French statesmen of the school
of the revolution and Napoleon. His
reputation as a poet was established by his
translation of Horace. Under the emperor
he was intendant-general in Prussia and
Austria, and in 181b was created a peer by
Louis XVIII. He wrote a valuable Life of
Sully, and the History of Venice (1819-
1821).
Darwin, Charles Robert, F.R.S. (b. 1809,
d. 1882), English biologist, was the son of
Robert Waring Darwin, a medical prac-
titioner at Shrewsbury, where the future
naturalist was born. He was educated at
Edinburgh and at Christ's College, Cam-
bridge. ^ In 1831 he joined the surveying
expedition which was despatched in the
£ 'eagle and Adventure, and visited South
America, Australia, the Cape of Good Hope,
and many of the Pacific and Atlantic
islands. Returning after a voyage of five
years, he married (1839) his cousin, Miss
Wedgwood, and in 1842 settled down to a
quiet life of study at his country-house at
Down, in Kent. In 1839 he published his
Journal of Researches during a )'uyaye
Round the World, and in 1842 his Structure
and Distribution of Coral Reefs. In 1859
appeared The Origin of Species, a work that
created an immense sensation, and put
before the world what is generally kuowu as
the " Darwinian Theory." His other works
include The Fertilisation of Orchids (1862),
Descent of Man (1871), Expression in Man
and Animals (1872), and Earth-worms and
Vegetable Mould (1881.) The Life and
Letters of Charles Darwin were published by
his son in 1887.
Darwin, George Howard, F.R.S. (b.
1846), geologist and astronomer, son of
the above, was educated at Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge, and became a fellow of
the Royal Society in 1879. In 1883 he was
appointed Plumian professor of astronomy
and experimental philosophy at Cambridge.
Darwin, Francis (b. 1848), younger brother
of the above, author of The Life and Letters
of Charles Darwin, was appointed in 1888
reader in botany to the University of Cam-
bridge, and fellow of Christ's College.
_ Darwin, Erasmus (b. 1731, d. 1812), phy-
sician and poet, was educated at Cambridge,
took his doctor's degree at Edinburgh, and
practised as a physician at Lichfield. He
settled in Derby in 1781, and later removed to
Breadsail Priory, where he died suddenly.
In 1789 he published his Botanic Garden,
including The Loves of the Plants ; in 1794-6
Zoonomia, or the Laws of Organic Life, and
Phytologia in 1799.
^Dasent, Sir George Webbe (b. 1820),
Norse and Icelandic scholar, was born in
the West Indies, and educated at Oxford.
After being called to the bar, he published
in 1842 The Prose, or Younger Edda ; in
1855 The Norsemen in Iceland ; and in 1873
Tales from the Field ; was for some years
assistant editor of The Times. He also
wrote Annals of an Eventful Life (1871) ;
Three to One (1872) ; and Haifa, Life (1874).
He was knighted in 1876.
Daslikowa, or Daschkof, Ekatarina Rom-
anovna (b. 1744, d. 1810), Russian princess,
lady of honour to Catherine II. She took
part in the revolution of 1762, by which
Peter III. was deposed and Catherine
placed on the throne. After the death of
her husband she travelled through Europe.
On her return to Russia in 1782 she was
appointed president of the Academy of the
Dat
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Arts and Sciences of St. Petersburg. She
was, however, deprived of her offices by the
Emperor Paul in 1796, and spent the
remainder of her days in retirement.
Dati, Agostino (b. 1420, d. 1478), Italian
scholar, who occupied the chair of rhe-
toric at Urbino. On his return to his
native town (Sienna) he was employed in
several public negotiations, and was agent
for his state to Pope Pius II. He died of
the plague at Sienna. His works were col-
lected and printed by his son in 1503.
Dati, Carlo (b. 1619, d. 1675), pro-
fessor of belles-lettres in his native city,
Florence. He is best known by his work,
The Lives of Ancient Painters.
Daubenton, or D'Aubenton, Louis Jean
Marie (b. 1716, d. 1799), distinguished French
naturalist and physician, was the friend of
Buffon, and companion in his work, the
anatomical part of which was undertaken
by him. He was a member of the Academy
of Sciences, and enriched its publications
by a number of anatomical discoveries
and researches concerning the species
of animals and their varieties. He con-
tributed to the Encyclopedic. On the last
day of the year 1799 he attended the
Senate for the first time, and fell sense-
less into the arms of his friends in a fit of
apoplexy.
Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle (b. 1795,
d. 1867), chemist and botanist, published A
Description of Active and Extinct Volcanoes-
(1826), an Introduction to the Atomic Theory
(1831), Lectures on Climate (1862), etc. He
was appointed professor of chemistry at
Oxford (1822), and of botany (1834).
D'Aubign6. [See Aubigne".]
Daubigny, Charles Franc*is (b. 1817, d.
1878), French landscape painter and book
•illustrator. Painted Spring-Titne (1861),
Windmills at Dordrecht (1872), Rising Moon
(1877), etc.
D'Aubusson. [See Aubusson.]
Daubuz, Charles (b. 1670, d. 1740), son of
a French Protestant who came to England
on the revocation of the edict of Nantes.
He was educated at Cambridge, became
vicar of Brotherton, and wrote a valuable
commentary on the Book of Revelation.
Daudet, Alphonse (b. 1840), French
novelist, wrote poems, essays, plays, and
contributed to newspapers for some years
before he discovered his true powers as a
novelist. He is author of Jbromont jeune
et Eider cdne (1874), Jack (1876), Le Nabob
(1878), Nwna Roumestan, L'Ei'angeliste
(1883), Sappho (1884), Tartarin sur les Alpes
(1886), L'lmmortel (1888). Several of his
novels, notably Sappho, have been dra-
matised.
Daudet, Ernest (b. 1837), brother of the
above, novelist and man of letters, is a
prominent political writer on the monar-
chical side. Among his writings are Therese
and Jean le Gueuz, and various political
works.
D'Aulnoy, Marie Catherine Jumelle de
Berneville, Countess (b. circa 1650, d. 1705),
authoress of Contes des Fees, a series of
charming fairy tales, and some tedious
novels.
D'Aumale. [See Aumale.]
Daumer, George Friedrich (b. 1800, d.
1875), German philosopher and poet, born
and educated at Niiremburg, published
Indication of a System of Speculative Phil-
osophy (1831) and numerous other philo-
sophical works. Of his poems, Hajiz (1846),
and Songs of Mary (1841-59) may be men-
tioned.
Daumier, Henri (b. 1808, d. 1879), French
caricaturist ; liis most remarkable series
were the Idyiles Parlementaires and Les
Representants representes.
Daun, Leopold Joseph Marie, Count von
(b. 1705, d. 1766), Austrian field- marshal,
who fought with success against Frederick
the Great.
Daunou, Pierre Claude Francois (b. 1761,
d. 1840), French politician and man of
letters, was president of the Convention,
member of the Committee of Public Safety,
and first president of the Council of Five
Hundred. He withdrew from public life
in 1802, and became guardian of the Pan-
the"on Library. After the restoration he
became a member of the Chamber, aud pro-
fessor of history in the College de France.
Davauzati, Bernardo (b. 1529, d. 1606),
Florentine writer, principally known for his
translation of Tacitus.
Davenant, Charles (*. 1656, d. 1714),
eldest son of Sir William Davenant, at the
age of nineteen distinguished himself by the
acting of the only tragedy he wrote, Circe.
After this he studied the civil law, and
served in Parliament. He was appointed
by James II. inspector of plays, then held
the office of commissioner of excise, aud
lastly of inspector- general of exports and im-
ports, which office he held until his death.
His works on political and financial subjects
were collected and published by Sir Charles
Whitworth in 1771.
Davenant, John, D.D. (b. 1576, d. 1641),
English prelate, whose learning recom-
mended him to James I., who sent him to
Dav
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Dav
the synod of Dort, and he was in 1621
raised to the see of Salisbury. He pub-
lished a number of works, principally in
Latin, and was a strong Calvinist.
Davenant, Sir William (b. 1606, d. 1688),
English dramatic poet, and theatrical mana-
ger in the reigns of Charles I. and II., was
the son of a tavern-keeper in Oxford. He
was a short time at Lincoln College, but his
disposition led him to try his fortunes at
court, where he first appeared as page to
the Duchess of Richmond. His first tragedy,
AlbomnC) was a distinguished success. In
1637 he succeeded Ben Jonson as poet
laureate. Political troubles caused his flight
to France on two occasions, and once
Milton interposed to save his life. He
was buried in Westminster Abbey. Amongst
his works were Gondibert and The Siege of
Rhodes.
Davenport, Christopher (b. 1598, d. 1680),
educated at Oxford, became a friar of the
Order of St. Francis, and constituted him-
self a Roman Catholic missionary in
England. He wrote many books in defence
of the Roman Catholic cause, and was
chaplain to the queen of Charles I. During
the Civil war he was a fugitive, but
after the Restoration he was appointed
chaplain to Catharine of Portugal, consort
of Charles IL
Davenport, John (b. 1597, d. 1670), brother
of the foregoing, a zealous Puritan. After
being minister at St. Stephen's, Cole-
man Street, he went to Amsterdam. At the
Rebellion he returned, but soon after sailed
for America, where he became minister of
Newhaven, and died at Boston.
David, the second king of Israel, was the
son of Jesse, a man of Bethlehem. For his
valour in slaying Goliath, Saul took him to
court, or, according to Samuel, he was ad-
vanced for his skill in. music. The king's
jealousy rendered his life insecure, and he fled
to Philistia. In the cave of Adullam he col-
lected a band of followers, with whose aid
he attacked his country's enemies in the
west and south. When Ishbosheth died
he was elected king. His reign was re-
markable for warlike vigour, and was dis-
turbed by the rebellion of his sons, Ab-
salom and Adonijah. It is generally ad-
mitted that he is the author of some of the
Psalms,
David, Felicien Cesar (*. 1810, d. 1876),
French composer, was educated at the Paris
Conservatoire under Cherubini. He sailed to
the East in 1832, suffered imprisonment in
Constantinople, wandered in Egypt, and re-
turning to Paris in 1835 published his J ft- to-
dies Orientales. In 1844 his symphonic ode
the Desert met with great success, and was
quickly followed by kindred works. He
succeeded Berlioz as librarian of the Paris
Conservatoire.
David, or Dewi, Saint, the patron saint of
Wales (d. 601), Bishop of Moni Judeorum,
or Menevia, called now St. David's. He
was at the Welsh Synods at Brefi, and at
" Lucus Victorias."
David, Jacques Louis (b. 1748, d. 1825),
French painter, studied at Rome, and, on his
return to Paris, met with great success.
After the outbreak of the revolution he was
commissioned by the Assembly to paint The
Oath in the Racquet Court. In the Conven-
tion he was deputy for Paris in 1792, and
acted as one of the king's judges. As a
follower of Robespierre he was imprisoned,
*but released in 1795, when he devoted him-
self to his art. Napoleon appointed him his
chief painter, and employed him in the
decoration of the Hall at Versailles. At the
restoration he retired to Brussels.
David, Pierre Jean (b. 1789, d. 1856X
French sculptor.
David I., King of Scotland (d. 1153),
married Maud, the niece of William the
Conqueror, succeeded in 1124. After the
death of Henry I. he asserted the claims
of his wife to the English throne against
Stephen, but was routed at the battle of
Northallerton in 1138.
David II. (b. 1324, d. 1371), King of
Scotland, son of Robert Bruce, whom
he succeeded at five years old. During
the invasion of his country by Baliol
in 1332 he was conveyed to France,
but returned after the defeat of his
enemies in 1341. He was in 1346 made
prisoner by Queen Phih'ppa at Neville's
Cross, and was taken to the Tower, from
which, after an imprisonment of ten years,
he was released on payment of a heavy
ransom.
Davidson, Andrew Bruce, D.D., LL.D.
(b. 1831), was educated at the Marischal
college, Aberdeen, and at the Free Church
college, Edinburgh, where, in 1863, he was
appointed to the chair of Hebrew and Old
Testament Exegesis. He was throughout a
member of the Old Testament Revision
Committee.
Davidson, John (d. 1836), an energetic
traveller, son of a London tailor, educated
as a chemist and druggist, but his fondness
for travel induced him in 1826 to give up
business for travel. He was robbed and
murdered in Africa.
Davidson, Lucretia Maria (b. 1808, d.
1825), American poetess, was born of poor
parents, and appears to have been self-
educated. Her writings were published us
Dav
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Dav
New York in 1829, with a biographical
sketch by F. L. B. Morse.
Davidson, Samuel, D.D., LL.D. (b. 1807),
biblical critic, was educated in Ireland at
the Royal College of Belfast. He entered
the Presbyterian ministry, and was called in
1835 to the chair of biblical criticism in his
own college. In 1842 he became professor
of biblical literature and oriental lan-
guages in the Congregational college at
Manchester. He was a member of the Old
Testament Revision Committee.
Davies, Hugh (b. 1739, d. 1821), botanist,
born in Anglesey and educated at Cam-
bridge. He successively held the livings of
Beaumaris and Aber, in Carnarvonshire.
Davies, John (d. 1618), schoolmaster and
poet.
Davies, Sir John (b. 1570, d. 1626),
English poet, lawyer, and political writer.
Born in "Wiltshire, he was educated at
Queen's College, Oxford, and entered the
Middle Temple ; was for misconduct ex-
pelled from the society, and then returned
to Oxford, and there wrote, in 1599, No see
Teipsum. In 1601 he was restored to his
chambers in the Temple, and entered Parlia-
ment the same year. In 1603 he was sent to
Ireland as solicitor-general, and soon after
as attorney- general and one of the justices
of assize. He was finally appointed Chief
Justice for England, but died before he
assumed office.
Davies, Rowland, D.D. (b. 1649, d. 1721),
born in Ireland, for a time was settled in
England, where he held a lectureship at
Great Yarmouth. At the close of the Civil
war he returned to Ireland, when he
became Dean of Cork. His writings were
principally against the Roman Church.
The Camden Society in 1857 reprinted his
journal.
Davies, Samuel (b. 1723, d. 1761), Presby-
terian divine, of "Welsh descent, born at
Summit Ridge, Newcastle, Delaware,United
States. He was one of the founders of the
College of New Jersey, and succeeded Jona-
than Edwards as president of it in 1759.
DavUa, Arrigo-Caterino (b. 1576, d. 1631),
Italian historian, who distinguished himself
in the French, and subsequently in the
Venetian army. He was stabbed whilst on
his way to Crema, of which place he had
been appointed governor.
Davis, Jefferson (b. 1808, d. 1889),
American statesman and soldier, graduated
at West Point in 1826, and served in the
army for seven years. In 1845 he was
elected to Congress, and was appointed
colonel of the first regiment of Mississippi
Tolunteers. In 1853 he was secretary of
Q2
war, and from 1858-61 was again member
of the Senate. On February 9th, 1861, he
was unanimously elected " President of the
Confederate States of America." War
followed, and commenced with a Con-
federate victory at Bull Run, but the South
soon sustained serious reverses, then finances
failed, and Grant's defeat of Lee concluded
the war. Davis was captured at Irwins-
ville, and conveyed to Fort Munroe, where
he was imprisoned for two years. He was
prosecuted in 1867 for treason, was dis-
charged, and his name included in the
general amnesty.
Davis, John (b. 1560, d. 1605), English
navigator, who in 1585 was sent in com-
mand of an expedition to discover a north-
west passage to the East Indies, in which
voyage he discovered the strait which was
named after him, and on similar voyages in
1586, 1587. He subsequently sailed with
Cavendish to the South Seas, and made
several voyages to the East Indies. He was
killed by pirates in the Straits of Malacca.
Davis, John Chandler Bancroft (*. 1822),
American lawyer, born at Worcester, Massa-
chusetts, and educated at Harvard College.
In 1849 he was appointed secretary of lega-
tion at London. He was agent of the United
States government at Geneva during the
meeting of the tribunal of arbitration be-
tween the United States and Great Britain
(1871-2), and in 1873 became assistant-
secretary of state.
Davis, John Lee (b. 1825), American
naval commander, who distinguished himself
in the Civil war. In command of the iron-
clad, Montawk, he participated in all the
battles of the summer and fall of 1863, in
Charleston Harbour with Forts Sumter,
Gregg, and Moultrie. In command of the
Sassacus he took part in several fights, and
was recommended for promotion by Admiral
Porter, and since the war was constantly
employed.
Davis, Thomas Osborne (b. 1814, d. 1845),
Irish poet and patriot, born at Mallow,
graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, and
after spending three years in London and
on the Continent, was called to the bar in
Dublin in 1838. Though a Protestant, he
joined the Repeal Association, and with
John Dillon jointly edited the Dublin Mow-
ing Register, and in 1 S42 founded the Nation,
but fever brought to a close a promising
career.
Davison, Jeremiah (d. 1745), portrait
painter, and friend and disciple of Sir Peter
Lely.
Davison, William (d. 1608), a statesman
under Queen Elizabeth, to whom he was
secretary. He incurred the anger of the
Dav
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Bed
queen for despatching the warrant for the
execution of Mary Queen of Scots with-
out orders, and was heavily fined and im-
prisoned. He is commonly believed to have
been innocent, and to have been sacrificed
to the policy of the queen and her min-
isters.
Davitt, Michael (b. 1846), was born in the
village of Straid, County Mayo. In 1866
he joined the Irish revolutionary movement
initiated by James Stephens, and in 1870
was arrested in London, tried, and convicted
of "treason -felony," and sentenced to
fifteen years' penal servitude, from which he
was released in seven years on a ticket-of-
leave. Ke commenced an an ti- landlord
agitation in Ireland, and in 1879 founded
the Irish Land League. In 1881 he was
imprisoned in Portland for breaking his
ticket-of-leave, and since then has devoted
himself to propagating his views on the
land question in Ireland.
Davout, Louis Nicolas (b. 1770, d. 1823),
French general, rose in the revolutionary
wars to the rank of general, and went with
Napoleon to Egypt, where he greatly
distinguished himself. In 1800 he became
general of division, and in 1804 marshal of
the empire. He fought with success at
Austerlitz (1805), and for the victory of
Auerstadt (1808) was created duke. At
Wagram he was in command of the right
wing, and in 1811 was made Prince of
Eckmuhl. He fought bravely in the Russian
campaign (1812), and after the retreat from
Moscow was appointed governor-general of
the Hanse towns, taking up his residence at
Hamburg. At Napoleon's return from
Elba he became war minister, and com-
manded the French army after Waterloo.
He was created a peer of France in 1819.
Davy, Sir Humphry (b. 1778, d. 1829),
English chemist, was a native of Penzance.
Two papers on nitrous oxide obtained him
the post of assistant-lecturer on chemistry to
the Royal Institution, London, and in a few
weeks he was raised to the chief lectureship.
In 1803 he became a fellow, and in 1807
secretary of the Royal Society. His
Bakerian lecture in 1806 gained him the
3, 000 franc prize of the French Institute.
In 1815 he invented the miner's safety
lamp. He was knighted in 1812, made a
baronet and elected president of the Royal
Society in 1820. Failing health compelled
him to leave England, and he died at
Geneva from paralysis.
Davy, John (b. 1763, d. 1824), musician,
whose ballads, including the Bay of Biscay,
were exceedingly popular.
Dawe, George, R.A. (b. 1781, d. 1829), a
prolific portrait painter, born in London,
many years first painter to the Emperor of
Russia, and author of the Life of George
Morland.
Dawes, Sir William (b. 1671, d. 1724), a
learned prelate, Bishop of Chester and Arch-
bishop of York.
Dawkins, William Boyd (b. 1838),
geologist, born at Battington vicarage, near
Welshpool, and educated at Rossall school
and at Oxford. In 1862 he was appointed
to the geological survey, became curator of
Manchester Museum in 1869, and professor
of geology at Owens College in 1874. He
was employed by the Channel Tunnel Com-
mittee in 1862, and the next year on a
tunnel under the Humber. He is the author
of numerous works on early man.
Dawood, Khan (d. 1714), soldier in the
service of Bahadur Shah, Emperor of Delhi.
In 1708 Zulficar Khan appointed him his
delegate as imperial viceroy in the Deccnu
and Carnatic. In 1713 he was transferred
to Guzerat, and was killed in battle the
following year.
Dawson, George (b. 1821, d. 1876), popular
preacher and lecturer ; became pastor of a
Baptist church at Rickma,ns worth, and in
1844 of the Mount Zion Chapel, but the
breadth of his views caused him to leave this
charge, and the "Church of the Saviour"
at Birmingham was built for him in 1847, in
which he preached till his death.
Dawson, John (b. 1734, d. 1820), contro-
versial mathematician, opposed Newton's
system of analysis, Dr. Stewart on the sun's
distance, Dr. Wildbore on the discharge of
fluids in motion, and Dr. Priestley on philo-
sophical necessity.
Day, Francis (b. circa 1830), writer of
ichthyological works, including The Fishes
of Great Britain and Ireland.
Day, George (b. 1501, d. 1556), an English
prelate, Bishop of Chichester in 1543, de-
prived in 1551, for his opposition to the new
doctrines, and afterwards restored after the
death of Edward VI.
Day, John, dramatist, author of The Blind
Beggar of Bednal Green, The Parliament of
Bees, etc. He is mentioned by Henslowe.
Day, Daye, or Dale, John (b. 1522, d.
1584), English printer, native of Dunwich,
materially served the cause of the Reforma-
tion by his various publications, and parti-
cularly by Foxe's Acts and Monuments of the
Martyrs.
Day, Thomas (b. 1748, d. 1789), philan-
thropist and author, wrote several works in
verse, but his best known book is The History
of Sandford and Merton.
Deals, Ferencz (b. 1803, d. 1876),
Dea
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Bee
Hungarian politician and advocate, was
champion of the peasants against the nobles,
obtained for them important rights in 1840.
After the revolution of 1848 became minister
of justice in the cabinet of Count Batthyany.
On Kossutivs accession to power he re-
signed, and in 1849 withdrew from public
affairs to his estate, and refused to return
till 1861, when the constitution was granted.
He again became leader of the moderate
party. He drew up an address to the
emperor Francis Joseph, demanding certain
concessions, which the emperor refused ; but
on the humiliation of Austria, in 1866, his
efforts were attended with success, and what
amounted to Home Bule was granted to
Hungary.
Deas, Charles (b. 1818), American painter,
whose best known pictures are Indian and
prairie scSnes, many of which have been
engraved.
Deasy, Eichard (b. 1812, d. 1883), member
of the Irish bar, Q.C. in 1849, and Solicitor-
General for Ireland in 1859. He was
appointed Attorney- General in 1860, and the
following year Baron of the Exchequer in
Ireland. He represented Cork from 1855 to
1861.
De Bary, Heinrich Anton (b. 1831, d.
1888), German botanist, was appointed in
1855 professor of botany to Freiburg. In
1867 he went to Halle, and in 1872 to Stras-
burg. He published Comparative Anatomy
of Phanerogams and Ferns, Morphology of
Plants, and Lectures on Bacteria.
Deborah, the " Mother of Israel," Hebrew
prophetess, judged Israel under a palm-tree
on Mount Ephraim. She defeated the
Canaanites tinder Sisera, whose discomfiture
she celebrated in the Song of Deborah.
Debrett, John (d. 1822), London book-
seller and the original publisher of the
Peerage which bears his name.
De Bry, Theodor (b. 1528, d. 1598), Bel-
gian goldsmith and engraver, published a
collection of Voyages to the East and West
Indies.
Decaisne, Joseph (b. 1807), Belgian painter
and botanist, was appointed in 1848 professor
of agriculture in the College of France, and
in 1851 professor in the Jardin des Plantes.
Decamps, Alexandre Gabriel (b. 1803, d.
I860), French historical and landscape
painter, visited the Levant about 1827, and
painted chiefly oriental scenes with striking
light effects.
De Candolle. [See Candolle.]
Decatur, Stephen (b. 1779, d. 1820),
American naval commander. After serving
on the Spanish Main and the Mediterranean,
in 1804, destroyed the Philadelphia, which
had been captured by the Turks and waa
lying in Tripoli harbour. During the war
with England in 1812 he commanded the
United States, capturing the British frigate
Macedonian, but in 1814 was compelled to
surrender in the President. In 1815 he was
successful in making reprisals on Algiers.
He was killed in a duel with Commodore
Barron.
Decazes, E"lie, Due (b. 1780, i. I860),
minister of the restoration, was born in the
Gironde, and, having come to Paris, was
employed for a time in the service of Louis
Napoleon, King of Holland, became private
secretary to Napoleon's mother, and presi-
dent of the law courts in 1811. In 1814 he
acquiesced in the Bourbon restoration, but
was compelled to retire till the second
restoration, when he was appointed prefect
of police. As such he is supposed to be
responsible for the arrest of Marshal Ney.
He became minister of the interior in 1818,
and in the f ollowing year president of the
council. In consequence of the assassina-
tion of the Due de Berri (in which he was
wrongfully suspected of complicity) he
became unpopular, and was sent to London
as ambassador, where he was kept for a
year. He tried to check the downward
progress of Charles X. , and was with some
difficulty induced to continue his services to
the state under Louis Philippe, but soon
after declined to take further part in public
affairs.
Decebalus (d. 105), king of the Dacians,
fought against the Romans in the reigns of
Domitian and Nero, but was overthrown by
Trajan.
Dechales, Claude Francois Milliet (b.
1611, d. 1678), French mathematician, pro-
fessor at Clermont and Turin.
Decio, Philippe (£.1453, d. 1535), an Italian
jurist and legal writer.
Decius (b. circa 200, d. 251), Roman
emperor. Being sent by the emperor,
Philippus, to quell a sedition in Mcesia, he
turned his arms against the emperor, de-
feated him at Verona, and assumed the
purple in 249. He was killed in battle with
the Goths near Abricum. He was a relent-
less persecutor of the Christians.
Decort, Frans (b. 1834, d. 1878), Flemish
lyrical poet, in 1862 published a Flemish
translation of Burns's songs.
Dee, Dr. John (b. 1527, d. 1608), English
divine, astrologer, alchemist, and mathema-
tician, was a favourite of Queen Elizabeth.
He was educated at Cambridge, where he
became a fellow of Trinity, and travelled
Def
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Del
and lectured over the Continent. In 1581
he joined another quack, Edward Kelly, and
visited Poland. He returned to England in
1583, and died in absolute poverty.
Deffand, Marie de Vichy Chararond,
Marquise du (b. 1697, d. 1780), a French
lady, who became the centre of a literary
circle composed of the most distinguished
characters of the age. She corresponded
with Horace Walpole, Voltaire, D'Alem-
bert, Montesquieu, and others.
Defoe, Daniel (b. 1661, d. 1731), author,
was the son of James Foe, a butcher in St.
Giles', Cripplegate. He was educated for
the dissenting ministry, but soon took to
politics, and appeared as a pamphleteer in
his nineteenth year. In 1685 he joined
Monmouth's rebellion, and narrowly escaped
the gallows. He next became a wool-
trader, and several times visited Spain, and
afterwards took to tile-making with scant
success. In the meantime his literary
activity had been unceasing, and he was
fined, pilloried, and imprisoned in 1703 for
his famous pamphlet, The Shortest Way with
Dissenters. While in Newgate he started
his Review. In 1704 Harley obtained his
release. In 1706, to promote the Union, he
published an Essay at Removing the Prejudices
against a Union with Scotland, and in 1709
the History of the Union. In 1715 was
published the first volume of Robinson Crusoe,
which was completed the year after by the
sequel. This was followed by Memoirs of a
Cavalier and. Captain Singleton (1720), Moll
Flanders and the History of the Plague
(1722), and numerous other works. He
died in Ropemaker's Alley. Moorfields, and
was buried in Bunhill Fields.
Defregger, Franz (b. 1835), German
painter, studied under Piloty, and became a
professor at the Munich Academy. He
chiefly paints Tyrolean subjects.
De Grey, the Right Hon. Thomas Philip,
Earl (b. 1781. d. 1859), Baron Lucas of Crud-
well, Wiltshire, and Baron Grantham of
Grantham, Lincolnshire, First Lord of the
Admiralty in 1834-5, and in 1841 was
appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and
being very popular, his retirement in 1844
was mucn regretted. At his death the
earldom of De Grey and the barony of
Grantham descended to his nephew, the
Earl of Ripon, son of his half-brother.
De Grey, William, Lord W^alsingham (b.
1719, d. 1781), English judge, educated at
Cambridge, and called to the bar in 1742.
Became Solicitor- General in 1763, and
Attorney- General in 1766. In 1771 he was
made Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, but
retired in 1780, and was created a peer. He
represented Tamworth and Cambridge in
Parliament.
Dejazet, Marie Virginie (b. 1797, d. 1875),
French actress, appeared chiefly at the Palais
Royal.
Dejoux, Claude (b- 1731, d. 1816), French
sculptor.
De la Beche, Sir Henry Thomas (6. 1796,
d. 1855), geologist, born in London, and
educated at the grammar school of Ottery
St. Mary and the Royal Military College.
At eighteen he entered the army, but soon
withdrew in order to give full scope to his
studies, and three years afterwards he
became a fellow of the Geological Society,
of which he was afterwards secretary and
president in 1847. While in Switzerland he
published a paper on the temperature and
depth of the Lake of Geneva. He subse-
quently visited Jamaica, and wrote on the
geology of the island- He als» published a
Manual of Geology (1831), Researches in
Theoretical Geology (1834), and a Geological
Observer (1853). He undertook a geological
map of England, and the Government, under
his superintendence, undertook the geolo-
gical survey. He founded the Geological
Museum and the School of Mines. In 1848
he was knighted, and in 1853 was elected
member of the Academy of Sciences.
De la Borde, Henry Francois, Count (b.
1764, d. 1830), French general, son of a
baker at Dijon. At the commencement of
the revolution he enlisted, and in 1793 he
had become general of brigade, and after
distinguishing himself in different parts of
the Continent, was ennobled in 1808. On
the return of Napoleon from Elba he at once
declared for him.
Delacroix, Ferdinand Victor Eugene (*.
1799, d. 1863), French painter, the most
prominent member of the Romantic school.
He studied in the school of Guerin, and in
1822 he produced his first work, Dante and
Virgil, and followed it in 1824 with The
Massacre at Chios. In 1830, after the revo-
lution, appeared his Liberty Guiding the
People on the Barricades. His other works in-
clude Sardanapalus (1827), Algerian Women
(1834), Medea (1838), and Hamlet (1839).
Delambre, Jean Baptiste Joseph (b. 1749,
d. 1822), French astronomer, born at Amiens,
studied under Lalande. His Tables of the
Orbit of Uranus were crowned by the
Academy in 1790. In 1807 he was appointed
professor of astronomy in the College of
France. In 1814 he published a Treatise on
Theoretical and Practical Astronomy and a
History of the Three Periods of Astronomy
(1817-1821).
Delamer, George Booth, Lord (d. 1684),
an adherent of Charles I., who raised forces,
' and fought for him against Cromwell, when
he was defeated and sent to the Tower till
Del
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Bern
the Restoration, when he received a parlia-
mentary grant, and was created Baron
Delamer.
Delane, John Thaddeus (b. 1817, d. 1879),
editor of The Times, was educated at
Oxford, and joined the staff of The Times in
1839, and in 1841 became editor, which post
he retained for thirty-six years.
Delanne, Thomas (d. 1785), nonconform-
ist divine. TTis book called A Plea for Non-
conformity gave so much offence to the High
Church party that he was tried and sen-
tenced to pay a heavy fine, and died in
prison.
Delany, Patrick, D.D. (6. 1686, d. 1768),
Irish divine and wit, was a friend of Dean
Swift, by whose influence he was succes-
sively made Chancellor of Christ Church,
prebend in the cathedral of St. Patrick, and
(1744) Dean of Down. He published Reve-
lation Examined with Candour, and other
works.
De la Rive, Auguste (b. 1801, d. 1873),
Swiss natural philosopher, published several
valuable works on electricity.
Delaroche, Hippplyte, or Paul (6. 1797, d.
1856), French artist, educated by Baron
Gros and Gericault. His first picture, Joash,
was exhibited in 1822, and this was followed
by, amongst others, The Death of Queen
Elizabeth (1827), Cromwell Opening Charles
i:s Coffin (1831), The Young Martyr (1846),
Bonaparte Crossing the Alps (1851).
De la Kue, Warren (6. 1815, d. 1889),
man of science, educated at Paris, devoted
himself to the study of electricity and
astronomical photography, and was especially
known for his photographs of the sun during
the total eclipse of 1860. He was President
of the Royal Astronomical Society, and was
secretary of the Institution.
Delavigne, Jean Franqois Casimir (b. 1793,
d. 1843), French dramatist, satirist, and
lyrist, at one time one of the most popular
writers in France, but now his works have
not a very high repute. A ballad, La
Toilette de Constance, is perhaps his best
work, and his plays Louis XL , Les Vepres
Siciliennes, and L'Ecole des Yieillards were
well known.
Delbriick, Martin Friedrich Rudolf von
(b. 1817), Prussian statesman, was private
tutor to the Emperor Frederick and to the
present German Emperor. He was presi-
dent of the Imperial Council of the German
empire till 1876, when he resigned.
Delhi, the Emperors of, styled Grand
Moguls. Shall Alum (d. 1806) ascended
the throne in 1771, and became a British
pensioner in 1803. Behandur Shah (d.
1862), his son, succeeded him, aided the
mutineers, and was condemned to perpetual
banishment.
DeliUe, L'Abbe Jacques (b. 1738, d. 1813),
French didactic poet, author of Les Jar dins,
Pity, Imagination, and several translations.
Delisle, Claude (6. 1644, d. 1720), French
historian.
Delisle, Guillaume (b. 1675, d. 1726),
son of the preceding, French geographer.
Delisle, Joseph Nicolas (6. 1688, d.
1768), youngest brother of the preceding,
astronomer, and friend of Newton and
Halley, was twenty-one years astronomer
royal at St. Petersburg, and was afterwards
professor of mathematics in the Royal
College in Paris.
Delisle, Louis (d. 1741), brother of the
preceding, astronomer, geographer and
traveller.
Delitzsch, Franz (b. 1813, d. 1890),
German theologian and Hebraist of pro-
found learning, author of several exegetical
and historical works of great value.
Delitsch, Friedrich (6. 1850), son of the
above, has made a name as an Assyriologist,
the first of his works on the subject being
published when he was only twenty-four
years of age.
Delius, Nikolaus (b. 1813, d. 1888),
German Shakespearean scholar and critic.
De Lolme, Jean Louis (b. circa 1745, d.
1807), political writer, born in Geneva, spent
most of his years in England, where he
published many works.
Delonne, Marion (6. circa 1612), famous
Frenchwoman, noted for her beauty and
wit, and her amours. She died probably in
1650, though strange traditions transfer the
date to 1706, or even 1741.
Delorme, Philibert (b. 1518, d. 1577),
French architect, designer of the palace of
the Tuileries.
Demades, (d. 318 B.C.), Athenian orator,
opponent of Demosthenes, was put to death
by Antipater for his treachery.
Demarnbray, Stephen Charles (6. 1710, d.
1782), English writer on electricity.
Dembinski, Henri (b. 1791, d. 1864),
Polish general, fought under Napolepu
against Russia and at Leipsic. Dis-
tinguished himself in the Polish revolution
of 1830, and in 1833 joined Mehemet Ali.
He supported Kossuth in the Hungarian
rebellion, but was defeated at Kapolna
(1849), fled to Turkey, and finally retired to
Paris in 1850.
Dem
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Den
Demetrius, cynic philosopher at the
beginning of the Christian era, died in
banishment.
Demetrius (d. ISO B.C.), son of Philip,
last king of Macedon, was sent as a hostage
to Rome.
Demetrius, surnamed Poliorcetes, King of
Macedon (d. 286 B.C.), was defeated near
Gaza by Ptolemy in 318. He delivered
Athens from Demetrius Phalereus, but the
successors of Alexander defeated him at
I , sus (301). In 290 he seized the throne of
Macedonia, but was expelled (287), and died
in captivity.
Demetrius Phalereus (b. 345 B.C., d. 284
B.C.), Greek orator, was a native of Athens.
Banished from that state, he fled to Egypt,
where he died. He wrote a considerable
number of works, none of which are extant.
Demetrius I., surnamed Soter (b. 187
B.C., cL 150 B.C.), King of Syria.
Demetrius II., surnamed Nicanor (b. 165
B.C., d. 127 B.C.), King of Syria, son of the
above.
Demetz, Frederic Auguste (b. 1796, d.
1873), French philanthropist, founder of an
institution at Mettray, near Tours, for the
reformation of juvenile offenders.
Demidoff, Anatol (b. circa 1810, d. 1858),
Count of San Donato, Eussian traveller and
writer.
Democritus (b. B.C. 460), Greek philo-
sopher, was called the "laughing philo-
sopher."
Demoivre, Abraham (6. 1667, d. 1754),
born at Vitri, in Champagne; was driven
from France by the revocation of the edict
of Nantes, and settled in England. He was
a fellow of the Eoyal Society, and member
of the Academies of Science of Berlin and
Paris ; is best known for his Doctrine of
Chances.
De Morgan, Augustus (b. 1806, d. 1871),
mathematician and logician, born in India,
and educated at Cambridge. He became
the first professor of mathematics at Uni-
versity College, London.
Demosthenes (b. circa 385 B.C., d. 322
B.C.), Greek orator, resolved to study
rhetoric, though his lungs were weak, his
pronunciation bad, and his gesture awkward.
He persevered till he surpassed all other
orators, and is noted for his Philippics and
Olynthiacs, fl.imp.fl against Philip of Ma-
cedon. On the advance of Antipater he
fled, and poisoned himself in preference to
falling into his enemies' hands.
Dempster, Thomas (b. 1579, d. 1625),
Eomau Catholic writer, born in Scotland,
and studied at Cambridge. He taught
successfully at Paris, Toulouse, Nismes, and
Pisa. He was the author of several his
torical works.
D'Enghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bour-
bon, Due (/>. 1772, d. 1804), French prince,
born at Chautilly, son of the Duke of
Bourbon, and the last representative of the
family of Cond^. He fought against the
republic till the army was disbanded in
1801. He then retired to Ettenheim in
Germany, but was there arrested by order
of Napoleon, on the charge of conspiracy,
and taken to the castle of Vincennes, where
he was shot.
Dennam, Sir John (b. 1615, d. 1668),
English poet, whose father was chief baron
of the Irish exchequer, and afterwards a
judge in England. His chief works were a
tragedy, The Sophy (1641), and Cooper**
Hill (1643).
Denina, Giacomo Maria Carlo (b. 1731, d.
1813), Italian historian, for many years pro-
fessor of rhetoric at Turin, and later librarian
to Napoleon I.
Denlson, George Anthony (b. 1805), arch-
deacon, a well-known leader of the High
Church party, was in 1845 appointed vicar
of East Brent, Somersetshire. He has more
than once been charged with heresy, is a
stern opponent of secular education, and
advocates an advanced ritual in the services
of the Church, the use of the confessional,
and the revival of Church authority.
Denman, Thomas, baron (b. 1779, d.
1854), politician and judge, son of Dr.
Thomas Denman, a London physician,
was elected to Parliament in 1818 for the
pocket borough of Wareham, and in 1820
was elected for Nottingham, which place he
represented as long as he sat in the House.
He always voted with Lord Brougham and
the Whig party. In 1832 he succeeded Lord
Tenterden as Lord Chief Justice of the
King's Bench, and was afterwards raised to
the peerage.
D'Ennery, Adolphe Philippe (b. 1811),
French dramatist, author of numerous
successful pieces.
Dennis, John (b. 1657, d. 1734), English
poet and critic, after a tour through the
Continent, took his place among the wits and
men of fashion in London. He squandered
a considerable fortune, and then the Duke
of Marlborough obtained him a situation at
the Custom House, but this he mortgaged.
He was one of the best-abused men in
English literature, and was assailed by both
Swift and Pope. He died in poverty, aggra-
vated by blindness.
Den
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Der
Dentatus, Marcus Annius Curius (b. circa
320 B.C.), Roman general, vanquished the
Samnites, Sabines, and gained a great
victory over Pyrrhus, near Tarentum, 274
B.C. He was three times consul.
D'Eon de Beaumont, Charles Genevieve
Timothee (b. 1728, d. 1810), known as "The
Chevalier d'Eon," French adventurer, was
sent on a diplomatic mission to London in
1762, but was recalled by Louis XVI., who
compelled him to wear female costume,
which he had before used as a means of dis-
guise. A doubt existed as to his sex, which
was only dispelled after his death, in
destitution.
Depping, George Bernard (b. 1784, d.
1853), French historical and miscellaneous
writer.
Depretis, Augustino (b. 1811, d. 1888),
Italian statesman, took an active part against
Austria, and in 1862 became minister of
public works, and in 1 866 of marine and of
finance. In 1878 he was called to office as
leader of a coalition ministry, retired after
six months, but again returned to office in
1881, when he carried out various electoral
reforms. After brief resignations in 1884
and 1885 he died in harness.
De Quincey, Thomas (b. 1785, d. 1859),
English essayist, was born at Manchester.
His father, Thomas Quincey (not De
Quincey) , was a merchant, and left his family
well provided for. De Quincey was first
educated at Salf ord and at Bath, and after-
wards at Winckworth and the Manchester
grammar school, from which he ran away, and
subsequently went through the adventures
and privations which he described in the
Confessions of an English Opium Eater. In
1803 he went up to Worcester College,
Oxford, which he left without a degree, and
soon after became acquainted with Coleridge
and Wordsworth, took a cottage at Gras-
mere, and became one of the famous Lake
scholars. Here he remained for many years,
occasionally visiting London and Edinburgh.
In 1830 he removed with his wife and eight
children to the latter place, and lived there
till his wife's death in 1837. He had
acquired the habit of taking opium by using
it to cure an attack of neuralgia, and so
greatly did it grow upon him that he was
known to take as many as 12,000 drops,
equal to ten wineglasses, in a day. He
was engaged in preparing fourteen volumes
of his works for the press within a few days
of his death. Besides the Opium Eater, the
following works may be mentioned : Murder
Considered as one. of the Fine Arts (1827),
Suspiria de Pro fund-is (1845), The English
Mail Coach, and A Vision of Sudden Death
(1849).
Derby, Eliza, Countess of. [See Farren.]
Derby, James Stanley, seventh Earl of (6
1596, d. 1651). He fought on the Royalist
side in the Civil war, and being taken
prisoner at the battle of Worcester was
beheaded at Bolton. His countess, Charlotte
de la Tremouille, is famous for her heroic
defence of Lathom House (1644), and of the
Isle of Man (1651).
Derby, Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley,
fourteenth earl of (b. 1799, d. 1869), English
statesman, was educated at Eton and Christ
Church, Oxford, and was elected member
for Stockbridge in 1820. In 1830 he was
appointed Chief Secretary to the Lord-
Lieutenant of Ireland under Earl Grey, in
1833 Secretary of State for the Colonies, but
the following year left the Whig party, and
for some years remained an independent
member. He again became Colonial Secre-
tary in 1841, and in 1844 was called up to the
Lords in his father's barony of Stanley. In
1845 he resigned on account of Sir Robert
Peel's determination to repeal the Corn
Laws, and henceforward ledTthe Tory party.
In 1852 he was Premier for a short period,
and again in 1858. He returned to office in
1866, and carried the Reform Bill of 1867,
and resigned the following year. He was
one of the greatest parliamentary debaters.
Derby, Edward Henry Smith Stanley,
earl of (b. 1826), son of the above, educated
at Rugby and Trinity College, Cambridge,
entered Parliament in 1848 as member for
King's Lynn. In 1852 he was Under-
secretary for Foreign Affairs, and in 1855
Secretary for India, when he arranged the
transfer of the Indian Government from the
Company to the Crown. In 1866 he was
Foreign Secretary, and succeeded his father
in the earldom in 1869. In 1874 he resigned
his post as Foreign Secretary, and seceded to
the Liberal party in 1880, being appointed
Secretary to the Colonies in 1882. In 1886
he left Mr. Gladstone, differing from him on
the Home Rule question.
Derham, William (b. 1657, d. 1735),
English clergyman, educated at Trinity
College, Oxford, was vicar of Warbridge,
Berkshire, and afterwards rector of Up-
minster, Essex, and canon of Windsor. He
is best known by his Physico- Theology.
Deling, Edward (d. 1576), English puritan
divine and writer. His works appeared in a
collective form in 1595, 1597, and 1614.
Dering, Sir Edward (b. 1598, d. 1644),
politician, who embraced the Royal cause in
the Civil war, raising a regiment at his own
expense.
Derrnody, Thomas (b. 1775, d. 1802), Irish
§pet, who tired numerous benefactors by his
issipated life, and died in poverty and
wretchedness near Sydenham.
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Des
De"roulede, Paul (b. 1848), French poet
and dramatist, was put to the law, but chose
the army in preference. His Ch an ts du Soldat
were extremely popular. He espoused the
Boulangist cause, and was chairman of the
" League of Patriots."
De Ruyter, Michel Adriaanzoon (b. 1607,
d. 167G), Dutch admiral, made several
voyages to the West Indies and Brazil, and
in 1641 was made rear- admiral. In 1652 he
defeated the English off Plymouth, but a few
months later was worsted off the Flemish
coast. In 1667 he took Sheerness and sailed
up the Thames, and fought successfully in
Solibay. He was mortally wounded in an
action with the French off Messina.
Dervish, Pasha (b. 1813), Turkish general
and diplomatist, was educated in London
and Paris. On his return to Turkey he was
nominated engineer-in- chief of the mines of
Keban and Argana, in Asia Minor, and
afterwards professor of chemistry and
physics in the military school of Constanti-
nople, and then general of brigade. He
was afterwards Ottoman commissioner for
settling the frontier-line between Turkey
and Persia. In 1856 he was delegated to
attend the great council of war which had
been summoned to assemble in Paris. In
1862 he was engaged in military operations
in Montenegro, and in concert with Husein
Pasha compelled Prince Nicholas and his
father, Miako, to sign the peace of Scutari
In the Russian war he was engaged in the
defence of Batoum; in 1880 he was employed
in reducing Albania, and in 1882 was sent on
a mission to Egypt.
Derwentwater, James Radclyffe, Earl of
(b. 1688, d. 1716), took an active part in the
rebellion of 1715, but was compelled to
surrender at Preston. He was beheaded on
Tower Hill.
Beryck or Derick, Peter Cornelius (6.
1568, d. 1630), a landscape and portrait
painter of Delft.
Desaguliers, Jean The"ophile (b. 1683, d.
1744), natural philosopher, was born in
France, but his parents brought him to
England when he was two years of age, and
he ultimately settled for some time at West-
minster. After some years he obtained a
living, first in Norfolk, then in Essex, and
was chaplain to the Prince of Wales. He
was a member of the Royal Society, and
contributed many valuable papers and
lectures.
Desaix de Veygoux, Louis Charles
Antoine (b. 1768, d. 1800), one of Bonaparte's
favourite generals, killed by a musket-ball
at the battle of Marengo.
Desaugiers, Marc (b. 1772, d. 1827), one
of the best song writers of France.
Desbarres, Joseph Frederick Wallet (b.
1722, d. 1824), military engineer, who
rendered great services in North America.
Born in England, in 1756 he sailed as a
lieutenant in the 60th Foot to America,
where he commanded a corps of field ar-
tillery. In 1757 he won over the Indians,
who had taken Fort Schenectady, and was
aide-de-camp to Wolfe at Quebec. He con-
trolled the operations during the conquest of
Canada, and was made quarter-master-
general in the expedition that captured
Newfoundland in 1762. He also surveyed
Nova Scotia, and made charts of the North
American coasts for Lord Howe. He
was appointed lieutenant - governor of
Cape Breton and of Prince Edward
Island.
Descartes, Rene (b. 1596, d. 1650), French
philosopher and mathematician, was edu-
cated at the college of La Fleche, which he
left in 1612, dissatisfied with its methods and
dogmas. He entered the Dutch army in
1616, and that of the Duke of Bavaria in
1619, but renounced the military profession
in 1621, and then travelled, and settled in
Holland in 1629, in order to devote himself
to the study of mathematics, astronomy,
metaphysics, etc. He made important dis-
coveries in algebra and geometry, and was
the first who introduced exponents, or applied
the notation of indices to algebraic powers,
and gave a new and ingenious solution of
equations of the fourth degree. In 1641 he
published Meditationes de Prima Philosophiay
which gave a wonderful impulse to philoso-
phical inquiry. In 1644 he brought forth
his Principia Philosophies, in which he pro-
pounds his theory of the world. The French
court granted him a pension of 3,000 livres
in 1647. He went to Stockholm in 1649,
where he died.
Deschamps, Emile (b. 1791, d. 1871),
French poet and dramatist, produced in
1818 two successful comedies — Selmonrs et
Florian and Le Tour de Far cur. In 1828 he
published a volume of poems called French
and Foreign Studies, and he contributed prose
tales to the journals.
Deschamps, Eustache (b. 1328, d. 1415),
French poet, led an eventful life as soldier,
magistrate, and courtier. He composed
numerous ballades, rondeaux, virelais, and a
long poem, the Miroir de Manage.
Deschanel, Martin (b. 1819), French author
and editor of the Journal dts Debats.
Deseze, Raymond (b. 1750, d. 1828), coun-
cillor of the parliament of Bordeaux, and
one of the counsel who defended Louis XVI.
He was imprisoned, but escaped the scaffold,
but could not be induced to serve under the
Directory. On the return of the Bourbons
he held several distinguished offices, and was
.
Des
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Die
made a peer of France, and president of the
Court of Appeal.
Desfontaines, Rene Louiche (b. 1752, d.
1833), French naturalist, made a successful
expedition to Barbary in 1783, and in 1786
was chosen professor of botany at the Jardin
des Plantes, Paris. His principal work was
Flora Atlantic.
Deshoulieres, Antoinette du Ligier de la
Garde (£. circa 1634, d. 1694), French poetess,
the wife of the Seigneur Deshoulieres, and a
very prominent figure in the literary circles
of Paris during the reign of Louis XIV.
She wrote much, both in poetry and prose,
and was known among her contemporaries
as the " Tenth Muse."
Desmoulins, Camille (b. 1760, d. 1794),
French revolutionist and writer, was a prime
mover in the 1789 revolution, his writings
exercising a great influence, notably La
Lanterns aux Parisiens, and Les Revolutions
de France et de Brabant. He became secretary
to Danton, and was elected by Paris to the
National Convention; but afterwards his
moderation led to his execution with
Danton.
Desnoyers, Auguste Gaspard Louis
Boucher, Baron (b. 1779, d. 1857), French
engraver and designer, whose talent dis-
played itself at an early age, and who was
taken up by Darcis. Among his many en-
gravings of the old masters, those after
Raphael are best known.
Dessalines, Jean Jacques (b. 1760, d.
1806), negro emperor of Hayti. Taken to
Hayti as a slave, he joined Toussaint
1'Ouverture's cause, and after his leader's
transportation drove the French from the
island, and procured the proclamation of
himself as emperor. His cruelties brought
about his assassination two years later.
Deutsch, Emanuel Oscar Menahem (5.
1829, d. 1873), German Talmudist, of
Hebrew descent. In 1855 he came from
Germany to England to occupy a post in the
British Museum, and he held the position
till his death. In 1867 he published in the
Quarterly Review an article on the Talmud,
which at once gave him the highest reputa-
tion, and which was followed by other
writings of great erudition. He died in
Egypt, whither he repaired in 1872 to
recruit his broken health.
De Vere, Aubrey Thomas (b. 1814), poet
and political writer of Irish nationality, first
published, in 1842, The Waldemes. In 1872
he produced the Legends of ISt. Patrick ; in
1879, Legends of the Saxon Saints, and in
1882, The Foray of Queen Meade, and other
legends of Ireland's Heroic Age, eta
Devonshire, Duke of, Spencer Comptou
Cavendish (b. 18-33), eighth duke, statesman,
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge ;
was attached to Lord Granville's mission to
Russia in 1856, and returned for North Lan-
cashire as a Liberal 1857. In 1859 he moved
and carried a vote of no confidence against
Lord Derby, and in 1863 entered upon
office as Lord of the Admiralty and under-
secretary for War. In 1866 he was for a
short time Secretary for War in Lord Rus-
sell's administration. Having lost his former
seat in 1868, he was elected for the Radnor
Burghs, was Postmaster- General under Mr.
Gladstone till 1871, then Chief Secretary for
Ireland till 1874. During the succeeding
period he led the Opposition in the House
of Commons, and after 1880 was invited to
form an administration. He declined, but
took office as Secretary for India, and was
from 1882 Secretary for War. He had re-
gained his Lancashire seat, and was re-
elected for it in 1885 and 1886. In 1886
he broke with Mr. Gladstone on Home Rule.
In 1891 he was chairman of the Royal Com-
mission on Labour Questions. He succeeded
to the title in 1892.
Diaz, Bartholomew (d. 1500), Portuguese
navigator, in 1486 commanded an expedition
to Africa, and, being driven southward by a
gale, he doubled the Cape of Good Hope.
Dibdin, Charles (b. 1745,
song writer and dramatist,
London stage, but failed as
his musical sketches were
His ballads of the sea, such
and Blow High, Blow Low,
great popularity.
^.1814), nautical
appeared on the
an actor, though
a great success,
as Toin Bowling,
at once achieved
Dickens, Charles (b. 1812, d. 1870), novelist,
was born at Landport, Portsmouth, where his
father held a small appointment in the Navy
Pay- Office ; but when this position was lost
the family came to London and Dickens'
youth was spent in constant penury and
want. For some time he was employed in a
blacking factory, but at twelve years of age
he was again sent to school, and after three
years' tuition he entered an attorney's office.
Then he became a shorthand writer, and at
nineteen obtained the position of parlia-
mentary reporter. During the years 1831 to
1836 he represented various papers — latterly
the Morning Chronicle — and in 1836 his
Sketches by Boz were published in a collected
form. A publishing firm wishing to pro-
duce an illustrated periodical, Dickena
undertook the letterpress, and produced the
PicJtwick Papers. At the same time he was
writing Oliver Twist. In 1842 he visited
America, and wrote on his return the
American Notes. In 1843 he began to pub-
lish Martin Chuzzleivit, which at first fell
rather flat, and, in order to economise,
Dickens went to live at Genoa. When the
Did
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Dig
Daily News was started Dickens was ap-
pointed editor, but he retired very soon, and
busied himself in further novel-writing —
Domley and Son, David Copper/bid^ Bleak
House, and Little Itorrit, all being produced
between 1846 and 1855. In 1850 he started
the periodical Household Words, afterwards
changed to A II the Year Hound. In 1858 he
separated from his wife. In this year he
first appeared as a public reader of his own
works, and from 1866 to 1870 he was almost
continuously employed in this task, his
success being unexampled. In 1867 he made
a lecturing tour in America, where he was
received with great enthusiasm, despite his
unpalatable American Notes. The strain
proved too great for his constitution, and
he died suddenly at his house at Gadshill,
leaving his last novel, Edwin Drood, incom-
plete.
Diderot, Denis (£.1713, d. 1784), French
writer. As a young man his great love of
study disinclined him from any profession,
andhe supported himself by teachingf or some
years, his father having stopped his allow-
ance. In his penury he secretly married a
sempstress ; but after a time he sent his
wife and child to live with his father, and
himself remained in Paris carrying on a
liaison. He now began to write indus-
triously, and in 1746 published his Pensees
Philosophiques, while he suffered imprison-
ment for his Lettre sur Us Aveugks. To-
gether with D'Alembert the Encyclopedic des
Sciences des Arts des Metiers was begun, and
was carried on by Diderot alone, who dis-
played the most untiring industry in its
compilation. His thriftlessness, and the
readiness with which he lent his services to
those who asked for them, obliged him in
his old age to sell his books. They were
bought by the Empress Catherine, who ap-
pointed Diderot custodian, and who treated
him so handsomely that after his visit to
Russia he returned to France a rich man.
He only survived his good fortune twelve
days.
Diebitsch-Sabalkanski, Hans Karl Fried-
rich Anton (b. 1785, d. 1831), Count von
Diebitsch and Wardin, Russian general,
born in Silesia, passed from the Prussian
service to that of Russia. He was wounded
at Austerlitz, and greatly distinguished
himself in the campaign of 1812, and later
at the battles of Dresden and Leipzig. He
was commander -in -chief during the Turkish
war of 1828, his famous passage of the
Balkans procuring for him the name Sabal-
kanskL He served in Poland in 1830.
Diemen, Antoin van (b. 1593, d. 1645),
Dutch Governor of Batavia, which post he
held under the Dutch East India Company.
Besides doing much for the island, he fitted
out several expeditions of exploration,
discovering Tasmania, or Van Diemen'i
Land.
Dieterici, Karl Friederich Wilhelm (6.
1790, d. 1859), German economist, in 1831
became a privy councillor ; and in 1834 was
appointed professor of political economy in
Berlin university; while in 1844 he suc-
ceeded to the directorship of the national
bureau of statistics. He was the author of
several economical and statistical works ol
authority.
Diez, Christian Friedrich (b. 1794, d. 1876),
German philologist, for many years pro-
fessor at the Bonn university. The
Romance languages formed the subject of
his most devoted study, and in this con-
nection he wrote many most valuable and
authoritative works, such as Grammar of
the Romance Language, Etymological Dic-
tionary of the Romance Languages, and Tht
Life and Works of the Troubadours.
Digby, Sir Kenelm (b. 1603, d. 1665),
son of Sir Everard Digby, who was executed
for participation in the Gunpowder Plot,
was knighted by James I., and held court
appointments under Charles I. In 1628 he
fitted out a squadron at his own cost, and
defeated the combined fleets of Venice and
Algiers. During the Civil war he was im-
prisoned by Parliament for some time, and
then retired to France, returning in 1661.
He was the author of several philosophical
works.
Digby, Lord George (b. 1612, d. 1676), son
of the preceding, as a member of the House
of Commons was concerned in the impeach-
ment of Straff or d, but ref using to sign the
bill of attainder was expelled from Parlia-
ment He took a prominent part in the war
on the Royalist side, and at its close with-
drew to France and afterwards to the
Netherlands. At the Restoration he again
took part in public affairs, offering great
opposition to Lord Clarendon.
Digby, John, Earl of Bristol (b. 1580, d.
1653), knighted by James I. in 1605, and
subsequently created first Baron Digby, and
then Earl of Bristol, was sent on a mission
to Spain to arrange the marriage of Prince
Charles with the Infanta. Returning, he
was banished from Court and forbidden to
sit in the House of Lords. His property
was confiscated by the Long Parliament,
and he died in exile.
Digges, Sir Dudley (b. 1583, d. 1639),
English politician, knighted by James I.,
and served in the parliamentary commission
which formulated the charges against
Bacon. In 1626 he took an active part in
the impeachment of Buckingham, and was
committed to the Tower by the king. ID
1636 he was appointed Master of the Rolls,
Dil
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D'ls
Dilke, Ashton Wentworth (b. 1850, d.
1882), politician, was educated at Trinity
Hall, Cambridge. In 1880 he was returned
for Newcastle in the Radical interest, retiring
shortly before his death. He was an authority
on Russian affairs, and was the proprietor
of the Weekly Despatch.
Dilke, Sir Charles Wentworth, Bart.
(b. Is43), brother of the above. After
being educated at Trinity Hall, Cam-
bridge, and taking his degree at the head
of the law tripos, he was called to the
bar at the age of twenty-three. Two
years later he was returned by a large
majority as member of Parliament for
Chelsea in the Radical interest. He worked
with Mr. Forster in amending the Education
Bill, and was strongly in favour of giving
women a vote at municipal elections.
Being re-elected for Chelsea in 1874, Sir
Charles went for his second tour round the
world, and distinguished himself as a writer,
also publishing some of his grandfather's
papers under the title Papers of a Critic.
In 1878 he carried in the House of Commons
the measure extending the hours for polling
at the London elections, which is still called
"Dilke's Act." In 1879 he opposed the
Government in its management of affairs in
South Africa. In 1880, on the return to
office of a Liberal Government under Mr.
Gladstone, he entered the Ministry as Under-
secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. Two
years later Sir Charles succeeded to the pre-
sidency of the Local Government Board, and
was made a member of the cabinet. In 1885
he took a leading part in conducting the Re-
distribution Bill through the Lower House,
and afterwards endeavoured strongly to
obtain a reform of local government. In
1886, having lost his seat, he retired into
private life, shortly before this having
married Emilia, wki.j.v of the Rev. Mark
Pattison. In 1892 he reappeared in politics
as member of Parliament for the Forest of
Dean division.
Dillmann, Christian Friedrich August (b.
182o), theologian and professor of Oriental
languages, was bom at Illingen in Wurtem-
berg, and afterwards became professor of
exegesis at Tubingen university, where he
had studied. Later he took high positions
at Kiel, Giessen, and Berlin, devoting much
of his time to the study of the JEthiopic
languages and publishing numerous works
on this subject.
Dillon, John, M.P. (b. 1851), was educated
at the Catholic university of Dublin. He
assisted Parnell and Michael Davitt in
founding the Land League in America, and
in 1880 was elected member of Parliament
for county Tipperary (a position his father,
John Blake Dillon, had previously held).
In May, 1881, he was arrested, but in a few
months was liberated on the ground of ill-
health, and for a time withdrew from the
political arena, not sympathising with
Parnell' s attitude towards the Land Act.
Af terwards, being associated with the " No-
Rent" manifesto of the Land League, he
was committed to Kilmainham prison, with
Messrs. Parnell, Sexton, and O'Kelly, where
he remained till May, 1882. In 1885 he
again took his seat in Parliament as member
for East Mayo, and in 1886, in consequence
of his supporting the "Plan of Campaign, 'r
was indicted for conspiracy, and bound over
to keep the peace. Under Lord Salisbury's
administration of 1886 he took one of the
most prominent parts in opposition to the
Government as a leader of the Irish party,
and was twice convicted under the Irish
Crimes Act. After enduring an imprison-
ment of three months, he went to Australia
to collect funds for the Irish party. Re-
turning, he was again, with O'Brien, con-
victed under the Crimes Act, but escaped
from Ireland in a yacht, and went to
America to collect funds. During his ab-
sence Parnell' s leadership was repudiated by
the larger section of the Irish party, and
Dillon came to France to endeavour to heal
the breach. The negotiations having proved
fruitless, he returned to England, and was
at once arrested and imprisoned under the
sentence passed upon him before his tour in
America.
Diocletianus, Caius Valerius Jovius (b.
245, d. 313), succeeded/in 284 Xumerian as
Roman emperor, having raised himself to
that position from the rank of common
soldier. His reign was distinguished by his
victories over the barbarians and his deter-
mined persecution of the Christians. In 304
he abdicated, and retired to Salone.
Diogenes (b. 412 B.C., d. 323 B.C.), cynic
philosopher. The greater part of his Life
was spent in Athens. In his old age he was
captured by pirates, by whom he was sold
to a wealthy Corinthian, whose firm friend
he became.
Disraeli, Benjamin. [See Beaconsfield.]
D'Israeli, Isaac, D.C.L. (b. 1766, d. 1848),
the only son of a Venetian merchant, for
many years resident in England, was an
earnest student of history aud criticism, in
which he attained considerable distinction.
After publishing many valuable books, he
produced, in 1816, his Commentaries on the
Life and Reign of Charles I., for which the
University of Oxford conferred on him the
degree of D.C.L. A comprehensive history
of literature, which it was intended by
D'Israeli to extend to six volumes, had to be
abandoned, owing to its author being
stricken with blindness. He was a con-
tributor to the Quarterly Review, and hia
Dix
(254)
Dol
Review of Spencers Anecdotes, in 1820, led ]
to the famous Pope controversy. Other
works of his are Curiosities of Literature,
Calamities of Authors, and Quarrels of
Authors.
Dix, John Adams (b. 1798, d. 1879),
American general and politician, entering
the army at an early age, soon rose to
distinction under General Benin. In 1828
he left the army for the law, but on the out-
break of the Civil war was appointed major-
general of the New York militia. In 1863
he was transferred to New York, of which
he had command at the time of the riots.
At the close of the war he was appointed
minister in Paris, and in 1872 was elected by
the Kepublican party as governor of the
state of New York, but in 1874, when he
and his party were defeated by Mr. Tilden,
General Dix retired from public lif e.
Dixon, Denham (b. 1785, d. 1828), soldier
and explorer, served in Spain against the
French and fought at Waterloo. In 1821
he joined Oudney and Clapperton in their
African expedition, when they penetrated to
the interior from Tripoli, Dixon returning in
1825. In 1826 he was appointed superin-
tendent of the colony of Sierra Leone, where
he died.
Dixon, "William Hepworth (b. 1821, d.
1879), man of letters, began his career at
Cheltenham, where he acted as editor to a
local newspaper. At twenty-five years of
age he went to London, where he entered as
student of the Inner Temple, and associated
himself with the Daily Neivs. For this
paper he wrote articles on the Literature of
the Lower Orders and on London Prisons,
which were published in book form in
1850. From 1853-66 Mr. Dixon edited The
Athenceum, and during this time made a
systematic study of the State archives, and
produced, in 1860, The Personal History of
Lord Bacon, in 1865, The Holy Land, and in
1866, New America. In 1868 he travelled
through Russia, and two years later brought
out his Free Russia, after which, to the time
of his death, he wrote no less than twenty-
five volumes of history, travel, and fiction.
In 1872 an action for libel was brought by
Mr. Dixon against the Pall Mall Gazette
for some severe criticisms on New America,
Spiritual Wives, and Free Russia, and after a
long trial he was awarded one farthing
damages.
Dobell, Sydney (b. 1824, d. 1874), poet and
man of letters, known also by the name
"Sydney Yendys." In 1850 he brought out
his first poem, The Roman, a drama, which
was favourably received, but his next work,
Balder (1854), was severely attacked. In
1855 he published, jointly with Mr.
Alexander Smith, his Sonnets of the War,
and the year following England in Time of
H 'a /•. In politics he was always the friend
of liberty, and he was probably the first to
introduce the system of co-operation into
his business, which was that of a wine
merchant.
Dobson, Henry Austin (b. 1840), poet and
man of letters. In 1850 he obtained a clerk-
ship in the Board of Trade, and his first
verses were published in 1873. Since that
time he has published numerous volumes of
verse, such as Proverbs in Porcelain, Old
World Idylls, and At the Sign of the Lyre.
He is also the author of several able
biographies.
Dobson, "William Charles Thomas (b. 1817),
artist. In 1843 he was appointed head-master
of the Government school of design at
Birmingham, and in 1845 left the post to
travel on the Continent. In 1872 he was
elected Royal Academician, and in 1875 he
was elected a member of the Society of
Painters in Water Colours. His oil paint-
ings proved very popular, and his Alms-
deeds of Dorcas was painted by command of
the Queen.
Doderidge, John (b. 1555, d. 1628),
English lawyer, who was at the same time
an authority on art, theology, and antiquity.
He passed from the office of solicitor-general
to the Prince of Wales to a judgeship, and
was one of those judges who were cited
before the House of Lords for refusing to
admit Hampden to bail.
Doherty, John (b. 1783, d. 1850), Irish
judge. In 1826 he was returned to Parlia-
ment for Kilkenny as a Tory, where his
reputation as a debater was so quickly
established that in 1827 he became Solicitor-
General. He is remembered especially for
his parliamentary encounters with 0 ' Conn ell.
In 1830 he was made Chief Justice of Com-
mon Pleas in Ireland.
Dolirn, Anton (b. 1842), German zoologist,
established a zoological station at Naples in
1874, his own private contributions to this
great undertaking being supplemented by
those of the German and Italian govern-
ments. He has been a prolific contributor
to the scientific journals, and has made some
very valuable biological collections.
Dolet, Etienne (b. 1509, d. 1546), French
printer, scholar, and poet, was the writer of
many valuable books, the most famous being
Commentariorum Linguae Latince, which ob-
tained for him from Francis I. the privilege
of printing, during ten years, all the books
written, translated, or annotated by himself.
In 1543 the Parliament of Paris judged a
phrase in his translation of the Axiochus to
be heretical, and ordered him to be cruelly
tortured and strangled.
D61
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Don
Dollinger, Johann Josef Ignaz (b. 1799, d.
1890), theologian, became a priest in 1882,
and shortly after was appointed professor of
ecclesiastical history at Munich, when he
published The Reformation : its Development
and Results. In 1845 he sat in the Bavarian
parliament as representative of the Munich
university, and in 1851 was a delegate to
the parliament at Frankfort, where he ad-
vocated the separation of church and state.
In 1861 he delivered a course of lectures
against the temporal supremacy of the
Pope, and in the (Ecumenical Council of
1869-70 he took up a very strong attitude
against the Vatican decrees. He became
the leader of the " Old Catholic " party,
and was excommunicated by the Archbishop
of Munich. In 1871 he was elected rector
of his university, and 1873 became president
of the Royal Academy of Science. At the
conference of the Old Catholics, held at
Bonn, in 1874, over which he presided, he
still further receded from the orthodox
church, and, in fact, his sect established an
episcopacy of its own.
Dolcmieu, Deodat Guy Silvain Tancrkde
Gratetde(&. 1750, d. 1801), French geologist.
Entering the Order of Malta at an early age,
he was imprisoned for a fatal duel with a
knight of the order, and during his confine-
ment he studied physical science. Pursuing
his studies after his release, he published
several treatises on geology, which obtained
for him election to the Academie des Sciences.
In 1777 he made a pedestrian tour in the south
of Europe, in the interest of geological obser-
vation, and in 1798 he joined the scientific
expedition to Egypt. Returning, he was
imprisoned for nearly two years by the
Knights of Malta, into whose power he fell.
DombrowsM, Jan Henryk (b. 1755, d.
1818), Polish general. In 1770 he entered
the service of the Elector of Saxony, but in
1792, on the outbreak of the Polish insurrec-
tion, he returned to Warsaw, and took part
in the struggle against Russia and Prussia.
His services were so brilliant that, at the
conclusion of the war, he was offered com-
mands in the armies of both Russia and
Prussia. In 1796 he went to France, and
formed and commanded a Polish legion in
the Republican army, which greatly dis-
tinguished itself in the Italian campaign.
In 1806 he was commissioned by Napoleon
to raise his countrymen in arms, and made a
triumphal entry into Warsaw. He served with
much distinction in the Russian campaign
of 1812, and commanded the Polish division
in the Prussian campaign of 1813. In 1815
he was appointed general and Polish senator
by the Emperor Alexander of Russia. He
published the History of the Polish Legions in
Italy.
Domett, Alfred (b. 1811, d. 1887), poet
and statesman of New Zealand, was born
and educated in England, and afterwards
travelled in America and on the Continent.
He settled in New Zealand in 1841, and in
1851 became secretary of state for New
Zealand, while, in 1862, he was called upon
to form a government. In 1865 he became
registrar-general of land, and in 1871 he
returned to England. His verses are
numerous.
Dominic, St., Dominigp de Guzman (b.
1170, d. 1221), Spanish priest who founded
the order which is named after him. He is
reputed to have been the initiator of the
Inquisition, and, at any rate, he filled the
office of inquisitor. His order were allowed
to settle in London in the district known as
Blackfriars.
Domitian, Titus Flavius Sabinus Domi-
tianus Augustus (b. A.D. 52, d. 96), Roman
Emperor. He was the youngest son of the
Emperor Vespasian, and succeeded his
brother, Titus, in 81. He undertook several
expeditions against the barbarians; but his
rule was so cruel and corrupt that it was
ended by his assassination.
Donaldson, James (b. 1831), philologist, a
native of Aberdeen. In 1852 he was
appointed Greek tutor in the University of
Edinburgh, and in 1881 professor of Latin
at Aberdeen University. In 1886 he sue-
ceeded Principal Shairp as principal of St.
Andrew's University. He has published
many valuable works on Greek literature
and on historical and theological subjects.
Donatello, or Donato di Betto Bardi
(b. 1386, d. 1466), Italian sculptor, a native
of Florence, received his first instruction
from Lorenzo Bicci, and his first great works
were St. Peter and St. Mark, and the church
of St. Michael at Florence. His other
works were numerous, including an
equestrian statue in bronze of Erasmus
Gatemelata at Padua.
Donati, Corso (d. 1308), Florentine
nobleman, and the leader of the Neri
party, was such a disturbing influence in
the republic that his banishment was
decreed. Proceeding to Rome, he induced
Boniface VIII. to send Charles of Valois to
Florence as pontifical vicar, and he
employed this papal interference for the
purpose of proscribing his enemies. In this
proscription his relative Dante was included.
Finally he was again compelled to fly from
Florence, and was assassinated soon after.
Donati, Giambattista (b. 1826, d. 1873),
Italian astronomer, became famous by his
astronomical observations while at the
Florence observatory. In 1860 he published
his work on the spectra of stars, which first
drew attention to that branch of astronomy,
Don
(256)
Dcsr
and two years previously he discovered a
new comet, called " Douati's comet." In
1864 he succeeded to the directorship of the
observatory, aud spent much time in the
establishment of a new observatory. He
died of cholera.
Donati, Vitaliano (b. 1713, d. 1763),
Italian naturalist, was a professor at Turin
university, and made many scientific
collections in the course of his naturalist
tours through the length of the Italian
peninsula. Later he went to Egypt and the
East, but was shipwrecked and drowned on
the return voyage.
Donizetti, Gaetano (*. 1798, d. 1848),
Italian musician and composer ; entered the
academy of Naples, but for many years his
talent was obscured from recognition by the
popularity of Rossini. In 1S30 he produced
his opera Anna Bolena, which had a very
great success in France and England as well
as in Italy. His best known work, Lucia di
. Latnmermoor. was first produced at Mila.n
in 1835. Lucrezia Borgia, which was
founded on Victor Hugo's Lucrece Borgia,
was for some tune excluded from France,
but in 1842 it was produced in London with
great success. Among his other works were
L'Elisir d'Amore, a comic opera; Don
Pasquale in 1843 ; La Figlia del Reggimento ;
and La Favorita.
Donne, John (b. 1573, d. 1631), poet and
divine, born of Catholic parents, joined the
Protestant faith while reading for the bar,
and about this time he published his first
poems. In 1594 he went to Italy and Spain,
and on his return he became secretary to
Lord Ellesmere, Lord Keeper of the Great
Seal. While in this position he privately
married Lord Ellesmere's niece, and, on the
marriage being discovered, he was imprisoned
by Sir George More, his wife's father.
After his liberation he lived with his wife in
London and Paris, and when he returned to
England was induced by James I. to take
orders, subsequently being presented with
the deanery of St. Paul's. His poetical
works are numerous, and of a very varied
character. He began by writing erotic poetry,
and in later life devoted himself to meta-
physical compositions. It was to his work,
The Pseudo Martyr, a composition directed
against the Catholics, that he largely owed
the favour of James I.
Donoso, Cortes Juan Francisco, Maria de
la Salad, Marquis de Valdegamas (b. 1809,
d. 1853), Spanish writer and diplomatist.
Joining, in 1832, the popular party on the
question of the royal succession, he wrote
and sent to the king a treatise, which pro-
cured for him a post in the ministry. For a
short time after the death of Ferdinand "VTI.
he was secretary to the council of ministers,
and he retired to France with the queen-
mother during the dictatorship of Lspar-
tero. In 1843 he returned to Spain and sub-
sequently became minister-plenipotentiary
at Berlin. His principal work was Essays
on Catholicism, Liberalism, and Socialism.
Doo, George Thomas (b. 1800, d. 1886),
historical engraver. In 1824 he produced
his engraving, The Duke of York, after Sir
Thomas Lawrence, and for this he was
appointed engraver to his Royal Highness.
Having spent some time studying in Paris,
he helped to form an Academy of Sculpture
in the Savoy, and then occupied himself
with lecturing on the history and develop-
ment of art. In 1836 he was appointed
historical engraver to William IV., and in
1842 to Queen Victoria. In 1856 he was
elected Royal Academician, and later was
chosen as one of the four representatives of
the Royal Academy at the Congres Artistique
held at Antwerp. Among his principal
works are Raffaelle's Infant Christ, Cor-
regio's Ecce Homo, and Wilkie's Knox
Preaching before the Lords of the Covenant.
Doran, John (b. 1807, d. 1878), journalist
and man of letters, was first known as a
contributor to the Literary Chronicle, and in
1835 produced his History of Reading '. Until
1846 he edited a London weekly newspaper,
and succeeded Mr. Thorns as editor of Notes
and Queries. From time to time, also, he
edited the Athen&um. Besides his contribu-
tions to periodical literature, he published an
annotated edition of Xenophon's Anabasis,
a Life of Dr. Young, Saints and Sinners,
Knights and their Days, and other works.
Dore", Paul Gustave (b. 1832, d. 1883),
French painter and book illustrator, was
born at Strasbourg and educated at a
Parisian lycee. He became known by his
illustrations of Rabelais and Don Quixote,
and for some years was a constant con-
tributor to the Journal pour Eire. At the
time of the Crimean war he produced his
Alma and Inkermann ; in 1861 he published
the first of his famous illustrations to Dante's
Divine Comedy ; and next his illustrations
to the Bible, Paradise Lost, The Ancient
Mariner, and The Idylls of the King. These
works secured for him a greater reputation
in England than was accorded to him in his
native country. He afterwards devoted
himself to the production of large pictures
on religious subjects, such as The Dream of
Pilate'' s Wife, The Entry into Jerusalem, and
Ecce Homo.
Dqria, Andrea (b. 1468, d. 1560), Genoese
patriot, entered the Genoese navy when
quite young, and rendered distinguished
services. In 1527 he fought with the French
under Francis I. against the emperor,
Charles V., but, becoming disgusted with th«
Dor
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Don
treatment of Genoa by the French, he joined
the emperor. As admiral of the imperial
fleet he raised the siege of Naples, and drove
the French from Genoa, becoming a magis-
trate of the republic. In the naval war
with the Turks he achieved several triumphs
on behalf of the Emperor Charles. In his
latter days a conspiracy was formed against
him, but, owing to the death of the leading
conspirator, it failed, and Doria retained his
power and popularity until his death.
Dorigny, a family of French artists.
MICHAEL (b. 1617, d. 1665), was a professor
at the Paris Academy. Loins, son of the
above (b. 1654, d. 1742). SIB NICHOLAS,
brother of the above (b. 1658, d. 1746), was
the engraver of the Raphael cartoons at
Hampton Court, and was knighted by
George I.
Dorregaray, Don Antonio, Marquis of
Eraul (b. 1820, d. 1882), Carlist leader,
passed, in 1839, from the service of Don
Carlos, which he entered in 1836, to the
royal army, distinguishing himself in the
Morocco campaign. In 1872 he gave his
allegiance to the younger Don Carlos, and in
the following year won the battle of Estella.
In 1874 he assumed chief command of the
Carlist forces, and in 1876 fled to England
•with his leader. He died in Madrid.
D'Orsay, Alfred, Comte (b. 1798, d. 1852),
the noted beau and dilettante, was bom in
Paris, and entered the army. In 1827 he
married Lady Harriet Gardiner, a daughter
of Lord Blessington, but was soon separated
from his wife. On the death of his father-
in-law he succeeded to property in Ireland,
which enabled him to live in London as one
of the leaders of the fashionable life. Meet-
ing Prince Louis Napoleon, he followed him
to Paris, and exerted his influence on the
side of moderation, when that prince became
head of the state.
Dost Mahommed (b. 1806, d. 1863), Ameer
of Cabul, succeeded Shah Soojah, who was
driven from the country, and who took
refuge in India. In 1834 he defeated Shah
Soojah in an attempt to recover his
dominions, and then endeavoured to wrest
Peshawar from the Sikhs. Failing in this,
he entered into intrigues with Russians and
Persians, which provoked the Afghan cam-
paign of 1839. He was defeated, and com-
pelled to fly, and after a long struggle he
surrendered to the British general. Till 1842
he was detained in India, and on his restora-
tion he joined the Sikhs in the second Sikh
war. In 1856 he entered into alliance with
the British, by whom an army was sent to
aid him against the Persians, who had seized
Herat.
Dostoieffsky, Feodor (b. 1821, d. 1881),
Russian novelist, entered the army in 1843,
but soon gained favour by his novel, Poor
Folk. In 1849 he was transported to Si-
beria, where he was detained till 1854, when
he served as a common soldier till 1858. In
1861 he married and settled in St. Peters-
burg. Amongst his other works may be
named Buried Alive (1858) and Crime and
its Punishment (1866).
Douglas, Sir Archibald (d. 1368), brother
of Lord James Douglas, an adherent of
King David II., defeated Baliol at Annan
in 1362, and in 1368 he was chosen regent
of Scotland. In the same year, however,
he was defeated at Halidon Hill, where he
was mortally wounded.
Douglas, Sir Charles (d. 1789), naval
officer, served for some time in the
Dutch navy. He afterwards distinguished
himself in the British service, fought in the
American war, and commanded^Rodney's
vessel on " the 12th of June."
Douglas, Sir Howard (b. 1776, d. 1861),
distinguished general, and son of the pre-
ceding. He served in the Peninsular war,
in 1823 was governor of New Brunswick,
and in 1835 Commissioner of the Ionian
Islands. In 1842 he was returned to Parlia-
ment for Liverpool. He left several military
works.
Douglas, James, Lord {d. 1331), sur-
named "The Good," and son of Sir Wil-
liam Douglas, the friend of Wallace, was
active in the cause of Bruce, and com-
4manded a division at Bannockburn. When
Bruce went to Ireland he was left as re-
gent, and in 1319 made a victorious raid
into England. In 1327 he again defeated
the English, and penetrated as far as Dur-
ham. He was one of the commissioners
who concluded the Treaty of Northampton,
and on Bruce's death set out to convey the
Jatriot's heart to the Holy Sepulchre at
erusalem. He was killed in Spain on his
way.
Douglas, Stephen Arnold (b. 1813, d.
1861), American politician, was born in
Vermont, where he practised as a lawyer,
and where he became a leader of the Demo-
cratic party. In 1841 he became a judge of
the Supreme Court of Illinois, and 1843 a
member of Congress. From 1847 to 1S59 he
sat in the United States senate for Illinois,
supporting Clay's " Compromise Measures,"
and enunciating his "Popular Sovereignty"
doctrine on the slavery question. In 1858
he defeated Abraham Lincoln in the contest
for the representation of Illinois in the
senate, but he strongly supported the
Government after the outbreak of the Civil
war.
Douglas, Sir William (d. 1353), the
Knight of Liddesdale. Taken prisoner by
Bon
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Doy
the English in 1332, he was strictly confined
by Edward III. On his release he drove
the English from Teviotdule. and was made
governor of Roxburgh Castle by David II.
He was taken prisoner at Neville's Cross,
and was assassinated in 1353 by his godson,
Lord William Douglas.
Douglas, William, first Earl of (d. 1384),
the son of Sir Arclubald Douglas. In 1346
he returned to Scotland from France, and
succeeded in driving out the English in-
vaders from Teviotdale. In 1353 he mur-
dered his godfather, Sir William Douglas,
the Knight of Liddesdale. He fought at
Poictiers, and was created earl next year.
Douglas, James, second Earl of (d. 1388),
BOB. of the preceding, married Margaret,
daughter of Robert II. He displayed great
soldierly qualities in his English raids, and
in 13S8 "he reached York. On his return he
met and defeated the Percies at Otterburn,
but he himself was killed.
Douglas, Archibald, fourth Earl of (d.
1424), headed the Scottish army which, in
1402, invaded England, and was defeated at
Homildon Hill. Taken prisoner by Percy,
he joined that nobleman against Henry IV.,
and was taken prisoner again at the battle
of Shrewsbury. In 1421 he went to France,
•where he was created Duke of Touraine.
He was killed at the battle of Verneuil.
Doug-las, William, eighth Earl of (d.
1452), son of James the Gross, appointed
lieutenant-governor by King James II.,
he defeated the English, and assumed a
quasi-independence, making pacts with
foreign powers, and alliances with other
great Scottish nobles. Deprived of his
office by the king, he levied war upon the
king's friends, and put Sir John Herpies to
death. At an interview with the king at
Stirling he was assassinated.
Douglas, James, ninth Earl of (d. 1488),
brother of the preceding, nailed a defiance
of the king to the walls of the Parliament
House, and then openly declared war. De-
serted by the Angus family, he was defeated
at Arkenholme, in 1455, and was compelled
to fly to England. In 1484 he was taken
prisoner in a border foray, and confined in
a monastery for the rest of his life, with
him ending the peerage.
Douglass, Frederick (b. 1817), American
orator, was born a mulatto slave in
Maryland, but he escaped as a young man,
and in 1841 began to deliver lectures against
slavery, which attracted much attention.
In 1846 he made a very successful lecturing
tour in England, and, returning to America,
he became a newspaper editor. From 1877
to 1881 he was United States marshal for
the district of Columbia.
Dousa, James, or Jan Vander Does, Lord
of Moordwyck (b. 1545, d. 1604), Dutch
statesman, and man of letters, was a
in i uber of the deputation sent by the re-
volted Netherlands to Queen Elizabeth in
1572, and in 1574 he was governor of Ley-
den during the siege by the Spaniards. Em-
ployed on several diplomatic missions, he
was made keeper of the Dutch archives iii
1585, and wrote the annals of the country
in prose and verse. In 1591 he was ap-
pointed to the sovereign council.
Dove, Heinrich Wilhelm (b. 1803, d. 1879),
German savant, having attained the dignity
of a professorship at Berlin University and
admission to the Royal Academy of Sciences,
he published, in 1855, a Treatise on thi
Metrical Standards of Different Nations. Hf
secured an international reputation by hia
researches into the laws of cyclone storms,
while other investigations led to numerous
optical discoveries. He was largely respon-
sible for the organisation of the storm signal
department in Germany.
Dover, George James Welbore Agar Ellis,
Baron (b. 1797, d. 1833),historian,enteredPar-
liament at the age of twenty-one, and in 1826
published a volume on the Iron Mask, de-
monstrating the prisoner to have been Count
Matthioli. In 1828 he published Historical
Enquiries Respecting the Character of Edward
Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, and in 1829 Th*
Ellis Correspondence. Among his other works
were Life of Frederick, King of Prussia;
Letters of Horace Walpole to Sir Horace
Mann; and Lives of the Most Eminent
Sovereigns of Modern Europe.
Dow, Gerard (b. 1613, d. 1675), Dutch
painter, a pupil of Rembrandt. His works
stand very liigh in the class of genre
paintings — the minuteness of detail being a
peculiar feature. Among his works are The
Dropsical Woman, The Village Grocer, The
Mountebank, and The Dentist.
Dowland, John (i. 1562, d. 1626), musi-
cian, very celebrated in his own day, and a
contemporary and friend of Shakespeare.
He took a musical degree at Oxford in 1588,
and in 1597 produced his first work, A Collec-
tion of Songs. He was an accomplished
vocalist and" player of the lute, and at one
time held the post of lute-player to the king
of Denmark.
Doyle, John (*. 1789, d. 1868), caricaturist,
born of Irish parents, he came to London in
1822. Not succeeding as an ailist, he took
to producing lithograph likenesses of public
men of the day, and, as these proved popular,
he turned to caricature, adopting the sig-
nature " H.B.," and for many years his
productions were eagerly looked for.
Doyle, Richard (*. 1826, d. 1883), artist,
Doz
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Dre
§on of the preceding, was one of the
original artists of fu/tch, but in 1850 he
severed his connection, and devoted himself
to book-illustration. Besides his Fairy Tal-es
and Continental Tour, he produced his Comic
History of England and his Bird's Eye Views
of Society, the latter appearing in Cornhill.
Dozy, Reinhart (b. 1820, d. 1884), Dutch
Orientalist and professor of history at the
Leyden university. In 1861 he produced
his Histoire des llmxulmans d'Espagne, and
this was followed by his Researches in the
Political and, Literary History of Spain
During the Middle Ages. Besides his in-
valuable Supplement aux Dictionnaires
Arabes, he published several works of value
on Mohammedanism and the Moors.
Draco, a lawgiver of Athens about 620 B.C.
Dra^ut (d. 1565), Turkish corsair, born of
Christian parents. He entered the Turkish
service, and obtained the command of a
squadron. Captured by the Genoese, he was
imprisoned for four years, when he was
ransomed, and, resuming his command, he
raided the coasts of Italy, and captured
several places from the Spaniards. He died
from a wound received at the siege of Malta
"by the sultan, Solyman IL
Drake, Sir Francis (b. 1545, d. 1596),
English naval commander, early entered
upon a seafaring life, and in 1566 sailed with
his kinsman, Sir John Hawkins, to the
Spanish Main. This voyage was followed
by several others, undertaken merely in the
hope of plunder, and in 1572, with two
vessels, he attacked Nombre de Dios and
Vera Cruz. After serving in Ireland, he set
out again for the Spanish Main (1577) in
command of five vessels, this time with the
sanction of Elizabeth. He passed through
the Straits of Magellan, and plundered the
Spanish settlements on the west coast of
South America ; then, f earing to return by
the same route, he sailed across the Pacific
to the East Indies, and, doubling the Cape of
Good Hope, reached Plymouth with a
remnant of his fleet, in 1580. The queen
knighted Drake for this exploit, and dined
with him on board his vessel. In 1585 he
again sailed with a fleet to the Spanish West
Indies, and captured St. Jago, St. Domingo,
and Carthagena. In 1587, while the Ar-
mada was being collected, he sailed to Cadiz,
where he destroyed an enormous quantity of
shipping, and he served as vice-admiral of
the English fleet against the Armada, In
1595 he sailed with Hawkins to the West
Indies again, but the expedition was baffled
at several points, and Drake died off Porto
Bello.
Drake,Friedrich(5. 1805, d. 1882), German
aculptor, was a pupil of Rauch, and executed
some large allegorical subjects for King
Friedrich Wilhelm IV. His reputation
chiefly rests on his busts and statues, such
as those of Mb'ser, Rauch, Humboldt, Bis-
marck, and Ranke.
Draper, Henry (b. 1837, d. 1882), Ameri-
can scientist, took an M.D. at New York,
and in 1859 became professor of physiology
at the university; from 1873 to 1882 he
taught analytical chemistry, and in the
latter year succeeded his father as professor
of systematic chemistry. He made valu-
able researches into the spectra of the stars,
and greatly developed the use of photo-
graphy in his astronomical observations.
In 1874 he superintended the photographic
department of the Transit of Venus Com-
mission. He spent large sums from his
private fortune on the pursuit of scientific
research, and had secured a wide reputation
when he met an untimely death a few
months after his father.
t Draper, John William (b. 1811, d. 1882),
father of the preceding, chemist and physi-
ologist, was born in Liverpool, and studied
at the London University, going to America
in 1833. After a distinguished academic
career he became professor of chemistry
and natural history at the university of
New York, and later professor of chemis-
try and physiology at the University
Medical College. He wrote several valu-
able memoirs on the chemical action of
light, besides such philosophical and his-
torical works as History of the Intellectual
Development of Europe, The Conflict between
Religion and Science, and The History of the
American Civil War.
Drayton, Michael (b. 1563, d. 1631), poet;
but Little is known of his life. The latter
part of his life, however, was spent in the
residence of the Earl of Dorset, to whom he
was indebted for patronage. His chief works
are The Polyolbion and Nymphidia. He was
buried in Westminster Abbey.
Drew, Andrew (£. 1792, d. 1878), British
naval officer. Entering the navy at the age
of fourteen, he saw constant service through
the Napoleonic wars. In 1824, with 160
men, he held Cape Coast Castle against
50,000 Ashantees, and in 1838 he even sur-
passed this exploit. During the rebellion in
Upper Canada he cut out the rebel steamer,
Caroline, which was carrying across arms and
men from the States to the rebels encamped
at Navy Island on the Niagara river. He
captured the vessel by crossing the stream
wirh a few men in open boats, and for this
action he received the thanks of the Cana-
dian legislature. In 1842 he discovered a
very dangerous shoal in the West Indies.
Drew, Samuel (b. 1765, d. 1833), Metho
dist preacher. Settled in St. Austell as a
Dri
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Dub
shoemaker, he was excited by the preaching
of Dr. Aduin Clarke to join the Methodist
Connexion, and soou he became a preacher
of great popularity, Though quite unedu-
cated, he set himself to study, reading
science and metaphysics. In 1/U9 he pub-
lished an answer to Paine's Aye of Reason,
and in 1802 an Essay on the Immateriality
and Immortality of the Soul. He also wrote
a History of Cornwall.
Driz, Francois Xavier Joseph (b. 1773, d.
1850) , French writer, served for three years
in the army of the Rhine, and then in 1779
produced his first effort in literature, L'Essai
sur I' Art Oratoire. This was followed by
the romance Lina, and several philosophical
essays; and in 1823 his De la Philosophic
Morale gained him the Monthyon prize, and
admission into the Academie Franchise in
1824. Hi a great work was Histoire du
Regne de Louis KYI.
Drouais, Jean Germain (b. 1763, d. 1788),
French painter, was a pupil of David,
whom he accompanied to Italy, where he
died of fever. His first work to attract
attention was the Woman of Canaan at the
feet of Jesus.
Drouet, Jean Baptiste (b. 1765, d. 1844),
French general. In 1782 he entered the
army as a private soldier, and in 1799 he
was appointed general of brigade. Hi's
constant and distinguished services gained
for him the title of Count of Erlon in 1807,
with an annuity. In 1834 he was appointed
governor -general of the French possessions
in the north of Africa, and in 1843 marqhq-1
of France.
Drouot, Antoine, Count (b. 1774, d. 1847),
French general of artillery, surnamed by
Napoleon, "The Sage of the Great Army."
He fought at Hohenlinden, Wagram, Boro-
dino, and Liitzen with much distinction,
and at Bautzen in 1813 he commanded the
Imperial Guard. Appointed aide-de-camp
to Napoleon and general of division, he
followed the emperor to Elba, and accom-
panied him on his return to France, fight-
ing at Waterloo. Created a peer of France
in that year, he lived in retirement after the
restoration.
Drouyn de Lhuys, Edouard (b. 1805, d.
1881), French statesman and diplomatist,
began his public career at the age of twenty-
six, when he became attached to the French
embassy at Madrid, and later was promoted
to charge d'affaires at the Hague, at the
time when Belgium was separated from
Holland. After holding important positions
in the French Chamber, he was dismissed
from office by M. Guizot for his opposition
to the government, and became a member
of the Reforme party. In 1848 he became
minister of foreign affairs under Prince
Louis Napoleon, and again, on the coup d'etat
of 1851, was appointed to that position, and
for the third time in I8(j3, during the Dauo-
German war, he held the same important
office. In 1871, at the fall of the empire, he
fled to Jersey, but later returned to Lia
native country.
^ Drummond, William, (b. 1585, d. 1645),
Scottish poet and man of letters, known aa
"Drummond of Hawthornden," from the
place of his residence. In 1613 he published
his first poem Tears on the Death of Mueliadet,
which was followed by a volume of poema
in l'J16. After some years of foreign travel
he wrote a History of the Five Jameses, and
in 1632 he married. He was visited in bis
home by many of the literary men of his
time, including Ben Jonson, who walked
from London to see him. Among other
works he wrote Notes of Ben Jonson's Con-
versations, and he also wrote in the Royalist
interest on the political events of the day.
Drusus, Marcus Livius, Roman orator;
tribune of the people, 122 B.O.
Drusus, Nero Claudius (b. 38 B.C., d. 9),
brother of Tiberius, was surnamed Ger-
manicus for his successes against the Ger-
mans. He married Antonia, daughter of
Mark Antony.
Dryden, John (b. 1631, d. 1700), the poet
of the Restoration, came to London in 1657,
and produced an elegy on the death of
Cromwell. The Restoration he hailed with
bis Astrcea Redux, and from this time
he rapidly rose in reputation and position,
marrying the sister of Sir Robert Howard.
After some attempts at dramatic composi-
tion he wrote his Essay on Dramatic Poetry,
which was followed by several successful
tragedies. In 1667 he wrote the Annus Mira-
bilis, and in 1668 he was appointed poet
laureate. In 1681 he wrote his greatest poem,
Absalom and Achitophel, a political satire,
directed against SJhaftesbury and Bucking-
ham, which was followed by the Medal, a
further attack on Shaf tesbury, and Religio
Laid, a defence of the Church of England
against Dissent. After the accession of
James II. Dryden joined the Church of
Rome, and in 1687 published The Hind and
the Panther, a religious allegory. The Re-
volution deprived Dryden of all his posts,
and he reverted to dramatic writing. He
translated Virgil and other classics into
English verse.
Dubarry, Marie Jeanne, Comtesse (b.
1746, d. 1793), mistress of Louis XV., was
executed during the reign of terror.
Dubois, Gufllaume (b. 1651, d. 1723),
French statesman and prelate, having acted
as tutor to the Duke of Chartres, he was
appointed Abbot of St. Just, and employed
DnC
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Dud
on diplomatic missions, being one of the
signatories to the Triple Alliance. Later he
became councillor of state, and foreign
minister, and in 1772 prime minister. In
1720 he was appointed Archbishop of Cam-
bray, and next year was made a cardinal.
Du Cane, Sir Edmund Frederick, K.C.B.
(b. 1830), helped to carry out the convict
establishment in Western Australia as
planned by Lord Grey, and subsequently
held the positions of director and inspector
of prisons, chairman of directors of convict
prisons, and in 1877 was appointed chair-
man of the prison commissioners. He wrote
an introduction to Guy's Results of Censuses
of the Population of Convict Prisons, and
An Account of the Manner in which Sen-
tences of Penal Servitude art carried out in
England.
Duchinski, Henri Francois (b. 1816),
Polish author, travelled through most of
the countries of Europe collecting facts in
aid of his theory that the Russians were
descended from the Slavs, and had no con-
nection with the Muscovites. His published
books were The Oriental Question, Panslavism,
and The Principles of the History of Poland
and other Slav Races, besides several
pamphlets. His wife, Severine, is also a
writer of no mean rank.
Duels, Jean FranQois (b. 1733, d. 1816),
French dramatist and poet, after success-
fully adapting many of Shakespeare's plays
for the Parisian stage, produced in 1778,
(Edipe chez Admete, imitated partly from
Sophocles and partly from Euripides, which
secured for him the chair in the Academy,
then vacant by the death of Voltaire. In
1796 he produced Abufar, his first
original play, which was followed by
Phedor et Waldemar, Le Banquet de
FAmitie, a poem in four cantos, and several
other smaller works.
Duckworth, Sir John Thomas (6. 1743, d.
1817), admiral, entering the navy at eleven
years of age, advanced from one dignity
to another until in 1799 he was appointed
rear-admiral. In 1802 he was made chief
commander of Jamaica, and three years
later was given the second command in
the Mediterranean. In 1806 he defeated
the French fleet at St. Domingo, for which
he received from Parliament an annuity of
£1,000, and was presented with a sword by
the Corporation of London. Later he
effected the passage of the Dardanelles, was
made governor of Newfoundland, received
the title of baronet, and in 1815 was ap-
pointed chief commander of Plymouth,
after holding which office for two years he
died.
Duclerc, Charles Theodore Eugene (6.
1812, d. 1888), French politician, financier
and writer, in the earlier part of his lifa
was a regular contributor to Le Bon Sens,
the Revue du Progres, and Le National, and
also one of the editors of the Dictionnaire
Politique. In 1848 he was appointed deputy-
mayor of Paris, and afterwards assistant-
secretary to the minister of finance. In
1871 he was elected to represent Basses-
Pyrenees in the National Assembly, and
in 1882 formed a cabinet. One year
later, however, the ministry was defeated,
owing to a manifesto issued by Prince
Napoleon, and Duclerc was forced to
resign.
Dudevant, Amantine Lucile Anrore
Dupin (b. 1804, d. 1876), French authoress,
better known as " George Sand," was edu-
cated in a convent, and in 1822 married
M. Dudevant, from whom she separated in
1831, and settled in Paris to earn her living
by literature. In 1832 she published In-
diana, a romance which at once secured her
reputation, and which was rapidly followed
by many others, among them Valentine^
Andre, and Simon. Besides her work in
fiction she contributed to the periodical
literature many essays and articles on
philosophical and political subjects, her
sympathies being of the most advanced type.
Among these was the remarkable Sept Cordes
de la Lyre. Her assured position in literature
now enabled her to get a divorce from her
husband, and she passed her time at Berri
or Paris, educating her children. Having
quarrelled with the editors of the Revue des
JJeux Mondes, she started on her own account
the Revue Independente, to which she con-
tributed several romances, including Con-
suelo. After the revolution she took an
active part in politics for a short time, and
then turned to dramatic composition. She
also wrote Histoire de ma Vie.
Dudley, Sir Andrew, brother of the Duke
of Northumberland. In 1553 he was sent
on a mission to the Emperor Charles V., to
mediate between the Spanish and French,
and he was also commissioned by Northum-
berland to invite the French king to send an
army in support of Lady Jane Grey. For
this he was condemned to death, but re-
prieved.
Dudley, Sir Edmund (d. 1510), English
lawyer, remembered for the extortions prac-
tised under his advice by Henry VII. In
1492 he accompanied the king to France,
and on his return associated himself with
Empson in the work of raising revenue for
the crown. In 1504 he was appointed
Speaker of the House of Commons and later
a Baron of the Exchequer. On the succes-
sion of Henry VIII. Dudley and Empson
were tried for high treason and executed
to satisfy the popular indignation against
them.
Dnd
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Duf
Dudley, Sir Henry, cousin of the Duke of
Northumberland. In 1556 he formed a con-
spiracy to overthrow the Catholic supremacy
in England, and to set the Princess Elizabeth
on the throne. The plot was discovered, and
Dudley escaped from the country.
Dudley, John (b. 1502, d. 1553), son of
Sir Edmund, patronised by Wolsey and
Cromwell, was created Viscount Lisle in
1542, and as admiral of the fleet inflicted a
severe defeat on the French. As Earl
Warwick, he succeeded Somerset in power,
and acquired the title and estates of the
Duke of Northumberland. On the death of
Edward YI. he had his daughter-in-law,
Lady Jane Grey, proclaimed queen, but the
cause of Mary triumphing he was executed.
Dudley, Lord Guilford (d. 1554), son of
the preceding, and the husband of Lady
Jane Grey, was condemned, together with
bis father and wife, for the attempt to place
Lady Jane Grey on the throne, but his
execution did not take place till 1554, after
the abortive rising of Sir Thomas Wyatt.
Dufaure, Jules Armand Stanislas (b. 1798,
d. 1881), French orator and statesman, held
a high position in M. GuLzot's ministry, but,
joining the opposition, became chief of the
Third party. After the revolution of 1848
was elected member for the Charente-
Inferieure, and was the leader of the
Moderate Democrats. Being again elected
by his old constituents in 1871 he became
minister of justice under M. Thiers, and
held the same office again under M. Buffet's
administration. After filling other important
positions he retired from the political
arena on the fall of Marshal MacMahon in
1879.
Duff, the Rev. Alexander (b. 1806, d.
1878), one of the first missionaries to India,
sailed for Calcutta in 1830, and worked with
remarkable success for twenty years, when
he returned to Scotland, and in 1851 was
elected moderator of the General Assembly.
At the time when the great disruption from
the Scottish Church took place he sup-
ported Dr. Chalmers. On leaving India,
because of ill- health, he was appointed
professor of theology in the Free Church,
Edinburgh. Among his published works
are Female Education in India, India and
its Evangelisation, and Indian Rebellion:
its Causes and Results.
Duff, The Right Hon. Mountstuart Elphin-
atone Grant (b. 1829). governor of Madras,
was called to the bar in 1854. In 1857
became Liberal member for the district of
Elgin Burghs, and in 1868 was appointed to
the office "of Under-Secretary of State for
India, under Mr. Gladstone's administration,
and later Under-Secretary of State for
the Colonies. Mr. Grant Duff was elected
Lord Rector of Aberdeen University in 1867,
and again in 1870, and in 1881 was appointed
governor of Madras. Among his published
works are Studies in European Politics and
The Political Survey of Europe.
Dufferin and Ava, The Right Hon.
Frederick Temple Blackwood, Marquis of,
and fourth Earl of Dufferin (b. 1826), at
the opening of his political career visited
Ireland, during the potato famine, and
wrote most interesting accounts of his
experiences there. In 1855 he joined Lord
John Russell's mission to Vienna, and
in 1859 visited Iceland, and published his
Letters from High Latitudes. In 1860 he
was appointed British Commissioner in
Syria, and for the ability with which he in-
vestigated the question of the massacre of
the Christians was rewarded with a K.C.B.
In 1872 he was appointed Governor-General
of Canada, which position he held till 1878,
when he was succeeded by the Marquis of
Lome. In 1879 Lord Dufferin was appointed
Ambassador to St. Petersburg, and three
years later was sent to Constantinople to
arrange with the Porte for the joint occupa-
tion of Egypt, in which he displayed great
ability. In 1882 he went to Cairo to settle
the affairs of the country after Arabi
Pasha's rebellion, and in 1884 he succeeded
Lord Ripon as Governor- General of India.
During his administration Burmah was an-
nexed to England, and vigorous measures
were taken to strengthen the frontier against
Russian advance. In 1890 Lord Dufferin
returned to England, and was created
Marquis of Dufferin and Ava, and was
appointed ambassador in Rome, and in 1891
ambassador in Paris.
Duffy, Sir Charles Gavan (b. 1816), states-
man, began his public career as sub-editor
of the Dublin Morning Register, and was
subsequently a journalist in Belfast, and
later, in conjunction with Mr. John Dillon,
was the originator of The Nation. In 1844,
with O'Connell and five others, he was con-
victed of sedition, but on appeal to the
House of Lords the conviction was set aside.
In 1852 he was elected member for New
Cross, but the disruption of the Independent
Irish party induced him to resign his seat in
1856, when he proceeded to Melbourne,
where for some time he practised at the bar.
After some time he again took to politics, re-
entered parliament in Victoria, and ulti-
mately was made prime minister (1871).
Two years later he was knighted, and in
1877 was elected speaker of the Legislative
Assembly. His published works are Young
Ireland and Four Years of Irish History.
Dufre'noy, Adelaide Gillette (b. 1765, d.
1825), French poetess and actress. Her first
poem, entitled Boutade d un Ami, appeared
in 1787, and in 1815 her Derniers Moments d*
Dug
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Dum
Bayard, to which production the Academy
prize was awarded.
Dugdale, Sir William (*. 1605, d. 1686),
antiquary, settling in Warwickshire, de-
voted himself to antiquarian research, the
result of which was his Monasticon Anglican
man. In 1641 he made copies of all the
principal monuments in the churches and
cathedrals of the country. He accompanied
the king throughout the Civil war, and after
the Eestoration was appointed Garter king-
at-arms. He also wrote Antiquities of
Warwickshire, History of St. Paul's Cathe-
dral, Origines Judiciaks, the Baronage of
^England, and A Short View of the Late
Troubles tn England.
Dugommier, Jean Francis Coquille (6.
1736, d. 1794), French general, a native
of Guadaloupe, commanded the national
guards of Martinique at the outbreak of the
revolution. In 1792 he went to Paris as
deputy for Martinique, and in 1793 served as
general of brigade in the army in Italy. He
drove the English out of Toulon, and as
chief of the army of Eastern Pyrenees in
1794, he was killed at the battle of Sierra
Negra.
Duguay-Trouin, Rene (b. 1673, d. 1736),
French admiral, abandoning the clerical
profession, joined a corsair in 1689, and
BO distinguished himself that he was ap-
pointed captain of a French frigate in 1697.
In 1707 he defeated an English fleet, and in
1711 captured Bio Janeiro from the Portu-
guese.
Dume'ril, Andre Marie Constant (b. 1774,
d. 1860), French physician and naturalist.
In 1805 he was sent by Napoleon to Spain
to watch the progress of the yellow fever,
and in 1825 succeeded Lacepede as pro-
fessor of ichthyology. Among other scien-
tific works he left a History of Reptiles.
Dumas, Alexandra (b. 1802, d. 1871),
French novelist and dramatist ; son of
General Dumas, came to Paris in 1823 and
produced the tragedy Christine d Fontaine-
oleau, which was refused by the Theatre
Francois. In 1829 his drama Henri III.
secured a remarkable success, and was fol-
lowed by a series of other plays dealing
with the life of the 16th century, chief
among which is La Reine Margot. Having
travelled in Spain and Africa, he endea-
voured to enter political life, but was un-
successful, and in 1853 he retired to Bel-
gium, owing to the pecuniary embarrass-
ments caused by his habits of living. His
literary industry was untiring, and, besides
sixty plays, he produced numerous ro-
mances, chief among which are The Three
Musketeers and its continuations, and
Monte Christo. Altogether his works
number some three thousand, an amount of
writing which he was only able to produce
by the employment of literary " ghosts."
In 1860 he went to Italy to follow Garibaldi.
He died in comparative poverty.
Dumas, Alexandra (b. 1824), son of the
preceding, and, like him, a novelist and
dramatist, accompanied his father in a
voyage to the Mediterranean in 1846, and
in 1848 produced the work which made his
reputation — La Dame aux Camelias, a novel
which drew the encomium of his own father.
Since then his work has been chiefly dra-
matic, and includes such plays as the Demi-
Monde (1855), La Princesse Georges (1872),
Monsieur Alp home (1873), o.nd.Denise (1885).
In 1874 he was admitted as a member to
the French Academy.
Dumas, Jean Baptiste Andre* (b. 1800,
d. 1884), eminent French chemist, was
employed as an apothecary in Geneva,
where he attracted attention by a discovery
in connection with the treatment of goitre.
He was encouraged by Prevost and Hum-
boldt to prosecute his scientific researches,
and went to Paris, in 1826 marrying the
daughter of Brongniart. His house became
the centre of the scientific coteries. He was
largely instrumental in founding L'Ecole
Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, and he
became professor of chemistry in 1832 at
the Sorbonne, in 1835 at the Ecole Poly-
technique, and in 1839 at the Ecole de
Medecine. After the 1848 revolution ha
entered the Legislative Assembly, and
shortly afterwards became minister of
agriculture and commerce. After the
Second Empire had been declared, he be-
came vice-president of the council of edu-
cation, and president of the municipal
Council of Paris, and from 1868 to 1870 he
was master of the mint. In 1868 also he
was appointed secretary of the Academy of
Sciences, and in 1875 he succeeded to
Guizot's place in the French Academy.
He left many scientific memoirs, recording
the results of tiie investigations which occu-
pied so large a part of his life, and which
were so important for chemical science.
Du Maurier, George Louis Palmella
Busson (b. 1834), artist and draughtsman,
born in Paris, but educated in London,
Belgium, and the Netherlands. For many
years a valuable contributor to Punch, at
the same time illustrating many other books
and magazines. His mode of satirising the
extravagances of the so-called "^Esthetic"
school and other society foibles, have pro-
cured for him a high reputation. In 1891
he published a Hovel, Peter Ibbetson.
Dumichen, Johannes (b. 1833), Egypt-
ologist ; after studying under the famous
Lepsius, he twice visited Egypt, exploring
the Nile valley. Subsequently he acted as
Bum
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Bun
guide to the Crown Prince of Prussia
during his tour in Egypt at the time of the
opening of the Suez Canal. He was after-
wards ^ made professor of Egyptology at
Strasburg. His chief works are The FUet
of an Egyptian Queen, several books on
Egyptian inscriptions, and his History of
Egypt.
Dumont, Pierre fiitienne Louis (b. 1759,
d. 182;1), Swiss author, at the age of twenty-
two was ordained minister of a Protestant
church at Geneva, but, owing to the defeat
of the Liberal party in the Swiss state, he
went into voluntary exile at St. Petersburg,
whare he gained a great reputation as a
preacher. Accepting an offer to become
tutor to the sons of the Marquis of Lans-
downe he came to London, and there formed
a strong friendship with Jeremy Bentham
and Sir Samuel Rornilly, and in 1788 visited
Paris, where he was patronised by Mirabeau.
His Souvenirs stir Miraleau appeared in 18o2,
edited by J. L. Duval. Dumont also
edited Bentham's Traites de Legislation
(1802), Theorie dts Peines et des Recompenses
(1811), Tactiqvt des Assemblies Legislatives
(1815), and Preuves Judiciaires (1823). In
1814, when Geneva was restored to inde-
pendence, Dumont returned there, and
became leader of the supreme council.
Dumont-d'Urvllle, Jules Sebastien Cesar
(b. 1790, d, 1842), French navigator and
botanist, being raised by his ability to the
position of captain, he commanded the
corvette Astrolabe which was sent in 1826
to obtain tidings of La Perouse, and found
evidence for the belief that he had been
wrecked on Jenikoro, one of the Solomon
Islands. This expedition lasted three years,
and an account of it was afterwards
published under the title of Voyage de
Decouvertes autour du Jtfonde. In 1837
he went on a voyage of Antarctic dis-
covery, and on his way home discovered
Adelie Land. Later he was appointed rear-
admiral, and received the gold medal of the
Societe de Geographic. From 1841 to 1854
he was engaged in the publication of his
Voyage au Pole 3ud et dans V Oceane.
Dumouiiez, Charles Francois (b. 1739, d.
1823), French general, entering the army
at the age of eighteen, he attained the rank
of captain in 1763. Later he became in-
volved in political troubles, and, at the
instance of the Due de Choiseul was
obliged to fly from France, but on a recon-
ciliation being effected he returned, and was
appointed, quarter-master general of the
troops. He was afterwards engaged in
•everal diplomatic missions, and at the
failure of the Stockholm intrigue was
arrested and imprisoned for six months in
the Bastille. On the first symptoms of the
great revolution he was made minister
for foreign affairs, then minister of war,
and later was appointed to the com-
mand of the army in the north a,s lieutenant-
general. He gained the victory of Valniy
in 1792, but was defeated at Neerwiuden in
179-';, after which he became an exile, and
finally took up residence in England.
Dunbar, William (b. circa 1460, d. circa
1520), Scottish poet, wrote The Thissil and
the MOW, a number of allegories and other
pieces.
Duncan, Adam, Viscount (b. 1731, d.
1804), English admiral, served in the Belle-
isle and Havannah expeditions, and under
Rodney in 17-SO. In 1797, while command-
ing the North Sea fleet, he inflicted a heavy
defeat on the Dutch off Camperdown, for
which service he was raised to the peer-
age.
Duncan, Jonathan, East Indian adminis-
trator. As residentof Benares he endeavoured,
with much success, to abolish the practice of
female infanticide among the Rajpoots, and
in 1800 was appointed governor of Bombay.
Duncker, Maximilian "Wolfgang (b. 1811,
d. 1886), German historian and statesman,
in 1839 became professor of history at
Halle, and soon after 1848 entered the
National Assembly of Frankfurt, and be-
came a minister. In 1859 he was appointed
professor of history at Tubingen, and in
1875 he retired. Among his works are
Origines Germanica, Papers concerning the
National Assembly of Germany, and a His-
tory of Antiquity.
Dundas, Sir David (b. 1735, d. 1820),
soldier, served in Germany and the West
Indies, and afterwards became adjutant-
general in Ireland. In 1713 he distin-
guished himself at the defence of Toulon,
and he served under the Duke of York in
Holland, and afterwards fought in the
Dutch campaign of 1799. In 1809 he became
commander-in- chief of the army.
Dundas, Sir James Whitley Deans (b.
1785, d. 1862), British admiral. Entering
the navy in 1799, he accompanied Aber-
cromby's Egyptian expedition, and from
then to 1815 'served in many engagements
with the French with great distinction.
From 1852 to 1854 he commanded the Medi-
terranean and Black Sea fleet. He was the
first representative of Greenwich after the
passing of the 1832 Reform Act.
Dundonald, Thomas Barnes Cochrane,
tenth Earl of (b. 1775, d. 1860), sailor, as
commander of the Speedy rendered brilliant
service against the French in 1801, until he
was taken prisoner. In 1805 he again dis-
tinguished himself with the Pallas. Enter-
ing Parliament for Westminster, he attacked
Dun
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Dnp
the naval administration so bitterly as to ex-
cite the enmity of the authorities, and when
(1809) his attempt to destroy the French
fleet off Brest failed, he was deprived of his
command. For exposing the abuses of the
prize system at Malta he was imprisoned,
but escaped, and in 1814 he was cashiered
and again imprisoned on a charge of having
fraudulently circulated the news of the fall
of Napoleon in order to make money on the
Stock Exchange. Re-elected by his con-
stituents, he again broke loose from gaol,
but was recommitted. On his release he
went to South America, and rendered bril-
liant services to the Chilians against Spain,
and to the Brazilians against Portugal.
Eeturning to England for a short time, he
next took command of the Greek fleet ; but
after the accession of William IV. he was
restored to his honours and position in Eng-
land.
DunMa, Edward (b. 1821), English as-
tronomer. In 1838 he was appointed com-
puter to the Royal Observatory; in 1847
superintendent of the Altazinuth Observa-
tions; and in 1870 superintendent of the
Astronomical Observations. From 1871 to
1877 he was secretary to the Royal Astro-
nomical Society, and from 1884 to 1886 he
was president.
Dunning, John, Baron Ashburton (b.
1731, d. 1783), lawyer. Called to the bar in
17o6, he attracted attention in 1762 with his
defence of the East India Company against
the complaints of the Dutch. He defended
"Wilkes, and in 1767 became Solicitor-
general. In 1768 he entered Parliament,
and in 1781 was raised to the peerage.
Dunois, Jean, Count of Orleans and
Longueville (b. 1402, d. 1468), the natural son
of Louis, Duke of Orleans, and known as the
" Bastard of Orleans. " In the wars with the
English, which ended in their expulsion from
France, he took a distinguished part, winning
several battles. He was appointed lieutenant-
general to the king, and grand chamberlain.
For a time he was out of favour with Louis
XL, but afterwards he presided over the
council appointed for the reform of the state.
Duns Scotus (b. 1265, d. 1308), divine and
writer. Residing in Paris, he occupied there
the post of head of the theological schools,
and was known as the "Subtle Doctor."
He was the first to promulgate the doctrine
of the Immaculate Conception. At one time
a follower of Thomas Aquinas, he later
founded a school of his own in antagonism
to the system of Aquinas.
Dunstan, St. (b. circa 925, d. 988). When
still young he was appointed Abbot of
Glastonbury by King Edmund, and in 946,
on the succession of Edred, he became chief
Adviser to the king. His administration
resulted in the cohesion of Wessex and the
conquest of Northumbria from the Danes.
When Edwy came to the throne, however,
Dunstan's policy was reversed, and he waa
banished. He lived in a Benedictine monas-
tery in Flanders till recalled by King Edgar,
who had been proclaimed by the revolted
Northumbrians and Mercians, and by whom
he was appointed Bishop of London. When
Edgar succeeded on Edwy's death to the
throne of Wessex, Dunstan became Arch-
bishop of Canterbury, and under his influ-
ence the monastic system developed very
rapidly, while the stability of the state was
ensured. His power continued until Ethel-
red the Unready came to the throne, when
Dunstan retired to Glastonbury, occupying
himself until his death with literature,
music, and the finer handicrafts. His
greatness is made evident by the mass of
fable and myth which has been woven
into the story of his life.
Dupanloup, Felix Antoine Philibert (b.
1802, d. 1878), French prelate, after having
been instructor to the Orleanist princes, he
became in 1835 curate of St. Roche, where
his preaching attracted attention, and in
1837 became vicar- general to Mgr. de
Quelen. In 1849 he was appointed Bishop
of Orleans, and in 1854 he was elected to
the Academy. Along with his friend
Montalembert he headed the Liberal Catholic
party, but his views not proving acceptable
at Rome he submitted. In 1871 he was
returned to the Assembly, acting consistently
with the monarchical party.
Dupin, Andre Marie Jacques (b. 1783,
d. 18b5), French advocate, called generally
"Dupin the Elder." In 1815 he waa
charged with the codification of the lawa
of the empire, and in the same year entered
the Chamber of Deputies. He was one of
the counsel for Marshal Ney ; he was the
rapporteur of the famous address of the
121 deputies in 1830, and he helped to bring
on the 1830 revolution. He was a member
of Louis Philippe's first cabinet, and from
1832 to 1848 was president of the Chamber
eight times. In the latter year he presented
to the deputies the infant Comte de Paris,
and from 1830 to 1851 he was procureur-
g^neral of the Court of Cassation, a post
which he resumed in 1857. He left several
legal and political works.
Dupin, Francois Pierre Charles, Baron
(b. 1784, d. 1873), French geometer and
statistician, and brother of the preceding. In
1803 he entered the navy as an engineer,
and in 1813 he founded the Maritime Museum
at Toulon. After Napoleon's abdication he
published Les Lois Fondamentales de la
France, followed by another political piece.
In 1816 he visited the naval establishments
of Great Britain, and in 1818 he was elected
Dup
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Dvo
ft member of the Institute. In 1828 he
entered the Chamber of Deputies ; in 1834
he was minister of marine for three days, and
in 1837 he was created a peer of France.
After the coup d'etat he was made a senator.
Dupleix, Joseph, Marquis (b. 1697, d.
1763), in. 1720 went to India as member of
the Pondicherry council ; in 1731 became
administrator of Chanderuagar, which he
raised to a position of great importance, and
in 1742 he was appointed governor -general
of the French possessions in India. In this
position he disagreed with Labourdonnais,
who was sent to operate against the English.
An army of 10,000 men, sent by the viceroy
of the Carnatic to demand reparation for
attacks on the British, was defeated by
Dupleix with a small French force, and
he then entered into an alliance with
the nawab against the British. His defence
of Poudi cherry in 1748 was stubborn and
successful. He next opened campaigns to
set Chunda Sahib, and afterwards bis son,
on the throne in the Carnatic, but the French
forces were ultimately defeated. Having
been created Marquis, he was recalled in
1753.
Dupont, Pierre (b. 1821, d. 1871), French
poet, going to Paris he obtained the
fublication of some verse in 1839, and in
844 produced a volume of poetry, The Two
Angels. He obtained, and abandoned from
distaste, a post in the Institute, and in 1847
made his reputation secure with a song which
caught the popular taste. In 1851 he was
condemned to exile for seven years on account
of the Socialistic character of his verse, but
the sentence was afterwards cancelled.
Dupont de 1'Etang, Pierre, Count (b. 1765,
d. 1838), French general, served in Holland
and at Marengo, and was afterwards made
governor of Piedmont. He rendered brilliant
services as general in Italy, Prussia, and
Spain, but in 1S08 he was disgraced by
Napoleon for his share in the capitulation of
Baylen. Louis XVIII. made him minister
of war and a peer of France.
Duquesne, Abraham (b. 1610, d. 1688),
French admiral, after commanding with
great success against the Spaniards, joined
the Swedish navy, of which he was appointed
vice-admiral for a victory over the Danes.
He returned to the French service, and was
again so successful against Spain that he
was made lieutenant-general of the naval
forces. In 1676 he won a great victory over
the Dutch under De Ruyter.
Durand, Sir Henry (b. 1812, d. 1871),
Indian governor, entering the Indian army
in 1828, served in the Afghan war with
distinction, and rendered exceptional ser-
vices in the Punjab campaign of 1848-9.
He also fought in the Mutiny, and later acted
as agent to the Governor- General in Central
India. In 1870 he was appointed Lieutenant-
Governor of the Punjab, where he was very
popular.
purer, Albrecht (b. 1471, d. 1528), German
painter. His father was a Nuremberg gold-
smith, and he was brought up to his father's
craft. He early evinced a great talent for
art, and at fifteen executed a piece of work in
chased silver representing the " seven falls"
of Christ. In 1486 he was apprenticed to
Wohlgemuth, the artist, and from 1490 to
1494 he travelled in Germany and Italy. On
his return he married a woman, whose dis-
position afterwards made his life miserable,
and having by his drawing of Orpheus be-
come a master painter, he returned to Venice.
From thence he went to Bologna, where he
made the acquaintance of Raphael, and his
reputation rose so rapidly that he became
court painter to the Emperor Maximilian
and after to Charles V. In 1520 he visited
the Netherlands with his wife, where they
were received with the greatest honour and
distinction. It was here that the first
symptoms appeared of the consumption which
finally carried him off. He was a most
industrious as well as rapid worker, and his
own list of works contains 1,254 pieces. He
also wrote works on perspective and
measurement, on fortification, and on
human proportion.
Durham, John George Lambton, first Earl
of (b. 1792, d. 1840), in 1813 was returned to
Parliament for Durham county as an ad-
vanced reformer. He was created Baron
Durham in 1827, and became privy seal in
Lord Grey's ministry, in which post he
helped to draft the Reform Bill. In 1832 he
failed in a special mission to Russia, and in
1833 he resigned. Created Earl of Durham,
he was ambassador at St. Petersburg in 1837,
and in 1838 he was appointed Governor-
General of Canada, the French revolt having
j ust been put do vm. He acted in a very high-
handed manner, and the Government at
home, having been forced to accept a reso-
lution condemning his conduct, he abandoned
his post without waiting to be recalled.
Duroc, Michel Gerard Christophe, Duke
of Firuli (b. 1772, d. 1813), served in Na-
poleon's early campaigns, and in 1805 was
made grand marshal of the palace.
Buruy, Victor (b. 1811), French historian,
author of a History of France (1852), His-
tory of Greece (1862), etc.
Dvorak, Antonin (b. circa 1840), com-
poser, a native of Prague, son of an inn-
keeper, studied music in Prague, and
maintained himself for some time by teach-
ing, his numerous compositions attracting
little attention. He has composed an onera
and a number of songs and dances, with
Dwi
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Eas
strong Bohemian characteristics, some sym-
phonies, a cantata, a Stabat Mater, Lud-
milla, etc. His cantata, The Spectre's Bride,
was composed for the Birmingham festival
of 1885.
Dwignt, Timothy (b. 1752, d. 1817),
American divine, served as army chaplain
in the Confederate army, and, after working
on a farm, was ordained a minister. In
1795 he became president of Yale College.
He wrote The Conquest of Canaan, an epic
poem, Theology Explained and Defended, etc.
Dyce, William (b. 1806, d. 1864), painter,
educated at Aberdeen, studied art at the
Royal Academy and at Borne. From 1830-38
he lived in Edinburgh, devoting himself to
portrait-painting. In 1835 he exhibited his
Descent of Venus at the Royal Academy, and
in 1837 he published a pamphlet on the
management of schools of design, just es-
tablished by Government. This procured for
bom the office of secretary to that branch of
the Board of Trade which had charge of the
new schools. For the Government he also
made a report on the Continental systems of
art instruction, and in 1842 he became in-
spector of provincial schools. His picture,
Joash Shooting the Arrow of Deliverance,
procured for him, in 1844. election as
A.R.A. ; R.A. 1848.
Dyck, Sir Anthony Van (b. 1599, d. 1641),
painter, was born in Antwerp. In 1615 he
became a pupil of Rubens, and in 1821 he
went to Italy for five years. In 1626 he
returned to Antwerp, and in 1630 came
to England, but, receiving no encourage-
ment, returned to his native country. In
1632, however, he was invited to England by
Charles I., and received a knighthood and a
pension. His work was in great demand,
and he lived in the best style, having
married Marie Ruthven, the granddaughter
of Lord Gowrie. Although he died within
twenty years of leaving Rubens' studio, he
left behind Him nearly a thousand works.
Eadmer (d. circa 1124), a monk of Canter- <
bury, friend and spiritual director of Anselm,
whose life he wrote, as well as those of
Dunstan, Oswald, and others. His chief work
is Historia Novorum, a chronicle of events
from 1066 to 1122.
Eads, James Buchanan (b. 1820, d. 1887),
American engineer, r< instructed the steel
bridge over the Mississippi at St. Louis
(completed 1874) ; partly carried out a plan of
deepening the Mississippi by means of jetties,
and was engaged at his death in planning a
ship- canal over the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
EaMn, Samuel (b. circa 1742, d. 1784V
American Presbyterian minister, who zeal-
onsly upheld American independence.
EaMns, Thomas (b. 1844), American artist,
born at Philadelphia, studied in Paris, and,
on his return to Philadelphia, became
demonstrator of anatomy and afterwards
professor of painting and director of the
Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts.
Eames, Jane Anthony (b. 1816), American
author ; travelled in Europe and the East,
and wrote A Budget of Letters (1847),
etc.
Earle, Rev. John (b. 1824), elected pro-
fessor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford for a term
of five years in 1849, and permanently in
1876; has written The Philosophy of the
English Tongue (1871), A Book for the
Beginner in Anglo-Saxon (1877), English
Prose: its Elements, History, and Usage
(1890), and other works.
Earle, Pliny (b. 1809), born at Leicester,
Massachusetts, as physician at various asy-
lums has introduced a more reasonable
method of treating the insane. He has
written The Curability of Insanity, etc.
Earle, William (b. 1833, d. 1885), major-
general, served in the Crimea; in the
Egyptian war of 1882 commanded the base
and line of communication, and was present
at Tel-el-Kebir ; afterwards commanded the
garrison of Alexandria, and accompanied the
expedition to relieve Gordon, but was slain
in an attack on the enemy near Dulka
island.
Early, Jubal A. (b. 1816), American
general and lawyer, served in the Mexican
war, and on the Confederate side in the
American civil war, holding Fredericksburg
in 1863, and commanding a division at Get-
tysburg. He has published Memoirs of the
Last Year of the War (1867).
Eastlake, Sir Charles Locke (b. 1793,
d. 1865), painter and art critic, born at Ply-
mouth ; studied at the Royal Academy, and
afterwards in Paris a»d Rome ; exhibited in
Eas
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Ech
the Academy, of which he became a member
in 1829 and president in I860. Christ Bless-
ing Little Children (1839) and Christ Weeping
OverJerusalem (1841) are considered his best
pictures. He has written Materials for the
History of Oil Painting (1847), and Contri-
butions to the Literature of the Pine Arts.
Eastman, John Robie (b. 1836), American
astronomer, has accompanied various astro-
nomical expeditions, and in 1883 was ap-
pointed secretary of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science.
Eastwick, Edward Backhouse (b. 1814, d.
1883), Orientalist ; entered the Indian army ;
held political posts in Scinde ; was professor
of Hindustani at Haileybury ; went to Persia
in 1860 as secretary of legation ; became
private secretary to Lord Salisbury, and was
member of Parliament for Penrhyn and
Falmouth (1868-74). He has translated
Sadi's Gulistan (1852) and much Persian
literature, and written The Journal of a
I)iploinate in Persia (1864), etc.
Eaton, Amos (b. 1776, d. 1842), American
scientist, first principal of the Rensselaer
Institute at Troy, New York (1828), wrote
many scientific works.
Ebba, St., orJBbbe (d. circa 679), daughter
of JEthelfrith, Kingof Northumbria, founded
the monastery of Ebchester, in Durham, and
became Abbess of Coldingham, in Berwick-
shire, which was destroyed by fire shortly
after her death.
Ebbo, a successful missionary to the Danes
in the 9th century; was Archbishop of
Rheims, and librarian to Louis le Debon-
naire.
Ebed- Jesus Ear-Bricha (d. 1 3 1 8) , Nestorian
Bishop of Arabia, and afterwards Metro-
politan of Soba. Wrote in Syriac a Col-
lection of the Canons of the Chief Councils,
and other works in prose and poetry.
Ebernard, August Gottlob (b. 1779, d.
1845), German scholar and writer of fiction,
author of Hannchen und die Kuchlein and
JJer erste Mensch und die Erde.
Eberhard, Conrad (b. 1768, d. 1859),
German painter and sculptor, worked with
his brother Franz (d. 1836). They were pat-
ronised by the Elector Clement of Treves.
Ebernard, Johann August (b. 1739, d. 1809),
German philosopher and theologian, pro-
fessor of philosophy at Halle, wrote an
Apology for Socrates in opposition to the
Calvinists, a General History of Philosophy,
etc.
Ebers, Georg (b. 1837), Egyptologist and
novelist, born at Berlin, appointed professor
at Leipzig in 1870 ; while visiting Egypt
discovered the hieratic medical papyrus
known as Papyrus Ebers, which he published
in 1875 ; wrote Egypt and the Hooks of Mosest
and other works on Egypt. His later booka
are historical novels, those representing
Egyptian antiquity being the most valuable.
Among them are Varda (1877), and Serapit
(1885).
Eberus (b. 1511, d. 1569), a learned German
reformer, friend of Melanchthon, whose
views he supported against the Lutherans.
Ebion, the supposed founder of the sect of
the Ebionites in the latter part of the 1st
century. It is probable that no such per-
son existed, and that the name was derived
from a Hebrew word meaning "poor."
Eble", Jean Baptiste, Count (b. 1758, d.
1812), French general, served in the army of
the North, distinguishing himself at Hond-
schoote and Dunkirk; commanded the ar-
tillery of the army in Flanders, and of the
army of the Rhine and Moselle; also served in
Portugal, and in the Russian campaign, the
hardships of which caused his death.
Ebrard, Johann Heinrich August (b.
1818), professor of theology at Zurich (1844),
and afterwards at Erlangen (1847), wrote
Christian Dogmatics, etc.
Ebroin or Eberwein (d. 681), mayor of the
palace under Clotaire III. of Neustria ; sup-
ported the authority of the crown against
the nobles. On the death of Clotaire (670)
a period of anarchy ensued, till Ebro'in in 674
established Theodoric III. on the throne of
Neustria and Burgundy, under whom he
ruled with great tyranny till he was assassi-
nated.
Ebulo, Pietro d', author of a chronicle in
verse of the events in Sicily under Tancred
and the Emperor Henry VI. ; lived towards
the close of the 12th century.
licliard, Jacques (b. 1644, d. 1724), a
Dominican, born at Rouen, wrote the lives of
the authors who were members of that order.-
Echard, Laurence (b. circa 1670, d. 1730),
an English clergyman and historian, wrote
a History of England (1707-20), an Eccle-
siastical History to the time of Constantine,
etc.
Echion, Greek artist of the 4th century
B.C. ; painted the Bride of Semiramis, of
which the Noces Aldobrandmes on the walls
of the Vatican is supposed to be a copy.
EcMus, Eck, or EcMus, Johann, of Ingol-
stadt (b. 1486, d. 1543), German theologian;
professor in the university of Ingolstadt ;
argued against the reformed doctrines in dis-
putes with Luther (1518), and Carolstadt
(1519), and at the Diets of Augsburg (1530)
Eck
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32 di
and Ratisbon (1541). He wrote a Manual
of Controversies.
Eckermann, Johann Peter (b. 1792, d.lSol),
a German writer, secretary to Goethe, pub-
lished a collection of Conversations with
Goethe (1836-48).
Eckersberg, Christoph "Wilhelm, Danish
artist ; visited France and Italy in 1805, and
painted Moses Crossing the Red Sea and the
J)eath of Basdur.
Eckhard, a German mystic of the 14th
century, entered the Dominican order, and
became Vicar-general of Bohemia, and after-
wards provincial prior of Germany, but was
deprived owing to his Pantheistic views, and
in 1327 condemned by an inquisition, held at
the instance of the Archbishop of Cologne.
He appealed to the Pope, who issued a bull
of condemnation against him (1329). Eck-
hard died before its publication.
Eckhart, Johann Georg von (b. 1674, d.
1730), German historian, succeeded Leibnitz
as librarian to the court of Hanover, and
wrote on German antiquities and mediaeval
history.
Eckhel, Joseph Hilarius (b. 1737, d. 1798),
German numismatist, born in Upper Austria,
was professor of antiquities at Vienna ; wrote
a treatise in French on the engraved gems
in the imperial cabinet.
Eckstein, Ferdinand, Baron von (b. 1790,
d. 1861), French writer, born at Altona,
descended from Danish Jews ; was appointed
inspector-general to the ministry of police by
Louis XVIII, and afterwards historiographer
to the department of foreign affairs. He
was connected with several papers, and wrote
Des Jesuites, De V Europe, etc.
Eddy, Hiram Clarence (b. 1851), a dis-
tinguished musician and composer, who in
1871 visited Berlin, and after a tour through
Austria, Switzerland, and England, returned
to America and settled at Chicago.
Edebali, a Mahometan of the 14th century,
the father-in-law of Othman, the founder of
the Turkish empire.
Edelinck, Gerard (b. 1640, d. 1707), en-
graver, born at Antwerp, pupil of Corneille
Galle ; was patronised by Louis XIV. His
best works are Alexander and the Family of
Darius, and the portraits of Descartes, La-
fontaine, and Dryden.
Edelmann, Johann Friederich (b. 1749, d.
1794), French pianist and composer, took
part in the Revolution, and died by the
guillotine.
Edgar or Eadgar, King of England (b.
944, d. 975), son of Edmund I., became ruler
of England north of the Thames after the
insurrection of 957, and sole sovereign on the
death of his brother, Edwy, in 959. He
adopted a conciliatory policy towards his
Danish subjects, and ruled firmly and peace-
fully, under the guidance of Archbishop
Dunstan.
Edgar Atheling- or Eadgar the ^Etheling
(b. area 1055, d. after 1120), son of Edward
the Exile, son of Edmund Iroaside ; was,
after the battle of Hastings, proclaimed
king by the archbishops and citizens
of London, but, through the desertion of
Earls Edwin and Morkere, forced to yield to
William at Berkhampstead. Though well
treated by him, he fled to Scotland in 1068,
and in 1069 joined in two unsuccessful ex-
peditions against William, the latter in con-
i unction with the Danes. Henceforward he
led an adventurous life— defeating Donald-
bane of Scotland in 1097, and securing the
throne for his nephew Edgar, and joining in
the Crusade of 1099. He supported Robert
of Normandy against Henry I., and was
captured at Tenchebrai, but released.
Edgeworth, Maria (b. 1767, d. 1849),
novelist, born in Berkshire, daughter of
Richard Lovell Edgeworth, with whom
she went to Ireland in 1782. Besides
several stories for children, with a moral
purpose, she wrote Castle Rackrent (1800),
Belinda (1801), and other novels, illustrating
Irish life and character.
Edgeworth, Richard Lovell (b. 1744, d.
1817), mechanical inventor, in some degree
anticipated McAdam in his Essay on the
Construction of Roads and Bridges. In
conjunction with his daughter he wrote an
Essay on Practical Education.
Edinburgh, H.R.H. Prince Alfred Ernest
Albert, Duke of (6. 1844), second son of Queen
Victoria, was educated for the navy, and in
1885-6 commanded the Mediterranean squad-
ron. He declined the throne of Greece in
1862. In 1874 he married the Grand Duchess
Marie, only daughter of the Czar Alexander
X.L*
Edison, Thomas Alva (b. 1847), American
inventor, born at Milan, in Ohio, from the age
of twelve, when he was engaged as a newsboy,
showed an aptitude for invention, which was
early directed towards telegraphy. His
principal inventions are the quadruplex
telegraph, the automatic telegraph (which
can transmit a thousand words a minute),
the motograph relay, the carbon telephone,
the " Edison system " of electric lighting by
incandescence, and the phonograph and
photometer.
Edith, or Eadgyth (d. 1075), daughter of
Earl Godwin, and queen of Edward the
Confessor, to whom she was married in 1045.
When her father was banished she waa
Edi
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Edw
removed to a monastery, but brought back
to court in 1052. She is described by coii-
temponiry writers as pious, beautiful, and
learned.
Edith, St., sister of King Edgar, and
Abbess of Polesworth in Warwickshire.
Edith, St. (b. circa 962, d. 984), daughter
of King E'lgar, entered the convent of
Wilton, in Wiltshire, of which she is said to
have become abbess. Her festival was kept
with great solemnity in every part of
England.
Edmund, or Eadmund, St., King of East
Anglia (b. 841, d. 870), began to reign in
85o. In 866 East Anglia was invaded by
the Danes under Hingwar, who sent a mes-
senger to Edmund, bidding him renounce
Christianity and become his vassal. On his
refusal he was tied to a tree, and his body
pierced with arrows. His remains were
afterwards interred in the church of Bury,
hence called St. Edmund's Bury, or Bury
St. Edmunds.
Edmund I., the Elder (b. circa 922, d. 946),
King of England, succeeded his brother,
Athelstan, in 940. The men of the north
having chosen other kings, Olaf and Ragnar,
Edmund concluded a treaty with them in
943, but expelled them in 944. He also re-
duced Mercia, including the Five Boroughs,
and in 945 formed an alliance with Malcolm
of Scotland. He was assassinated by an
outlaw, named Liofa.
Edmund II., Ironside (b. 989, d. 1017),
son and successor of Ethelred the Un-
ready, fought against the Danes during
his father's lifetime, and on his accession
shared the kingdom with Canute, who had
defeated him owing to the treachery of
Edric Streona. He was assassinated, pro-
bably through Edric's instigation.
Edmund Rich (d. 1240), a native of
Abingdon, was elected Archbishop of Canter-
bury (1232) on the nomination of Gregory
IX. ; resisted the pope's exactions and inter-
ference with the liberties of the church, but
failed in his efforts. He withdrew to Soissy,
where he died.
Edred (d. 955) , King of England, youngest
son of Edward the Elder, succeeded his
brother, Edmund, in 946.
Edric, called Streona, "the Gainer," (d.
1017), of obscure birth, gained the favour
of Ethelred the Unready, and became ealdor-
man of Mercia in 1007. In 1015 he took part
in a treacherous assassination of the Danes
at Oxford; on the death of Ethelred (1016)
joined Canute in opposition to Edmund
Ironside ; afterwards allied himself with
Edmund, and by his flight at Assandun,
probably pre-arranged, occasioned his defeat
by Canute in that battle. The kingdom was
then divided at his suggestion. He is believed
to have had a hand in the death of Edmund.
Edrisi, Abu Abdallah Ben Edris (b.
1099, d. 1164), Arabian geographer, born
at Ceuta, a descendant of AH, son-in-
law of Mahomet, settled at the court
of Roger, King of Sicily, and wrote in
Arabic a geographical treatise explaining the
large silver globe he made for the king.
Edward " the Elder," King of the Anglo-
Saxons (b. 870, d. 924), son and successor
(901) of Alfred the Great, was opposed by
his cousin, Ethelwald, who was aided by the
Danes, but slain in battle (906). With the
assistance of his sister, Ethelfleda, lady of
the Mercians, widow of Earl Ethelred, he
defeated the Danes of Northumbria, and
secured his borders by a group of strong fort-
resses ; afterwards extended his sway over
Northumbria, Wales, and Strathclyde, being
the first to assume the title of King of Eng-
land.
Edward "the Martyr" (b. circa 963, d. 979),
succeeded his father, Edgar, in 975. He
was supported by Dunstan, but opposed by
his stepmother, Elfrida, who had him
assassinated at Corfe Castle.
Edward "the Confessor" (6. circa 1004,
d. 1066), son of Ethelred the Unready and
Emma, daughter of Richard the Fearless,-
Duke of Normandy, was brought up at the
Norman court, and after his accession, on the
death of Harthacnut, in 1042, showed a pre-
ference for Norman customs and ideas. Out-
rages were committed with impunity by hia
Norman favourites, while the English earls,
Leofric of Mercia, and Godwine of Wessex,
were engaged in private quarrels. At last,
in 1052, Godwine, who had been outlawed,
rose in rebellion, installed Stigand Arch-
bishop of Canterbury, in place of Robert of
Jumieges, who had fled with the other
Normans, and during the rest of the reign
all real power was in the hands of the House
of Godwine. Edward codified the customary
law of the Anglo-Saxons, which thus became
known as the " laws of King Edward."
Edward I., King of England (6. 1239. <L
1307), succeeded his father, Henry III., in
1272. Imbued with high notions of feudal
sovereignty, he sought to establish his
supremacy throughout the island of Britain.
His expeditions against Llewellyn - ap -
Gruffydd, Prince of Wales (1282), and his
brother, David (1283), resulted in the reduc-
tion of the principality, the government of
which he settled by the statute of Wales
(1284). The struggle between John Baliol
and Robert Bruce for the throne of Scotland
gave him a pretext for interfering in that
country (1290). After vainly endeavouring
to ma.inta.iTi Baliol as Hia vassal, he set to
Edw
(271)
Edw
work to conquer Scotland for himself, send-
ing the Earl of Warreune thither as viceroy,
but was forced to contend with a succession
of claimants, and died near Carlisle,
whilst marching against William Wallace.
A man of strictly legal, but somewhat
narrow mind, he secured order and good
government by the Statutes of Winchester
and Westminster and other enactments, and
carried on Simon de Montfort's work of
moulding the English Parliament (1295),
though, at the same time, somewhat inclined
to strain the royal prerogative. His personal
character was extremely high.
Edward II., King of England (b. 1284, d.
1327), born at Carnarvon, succeeded his
father, Edward I., in 1307. He was of a lux-
urious and pleasure -seeking disposition, and
by his rnisgovernment and fondness for his
favourite, the Gascon Piers Gaveston,
provoked a rising of the baronage, under his
cousin, Thomas, Earl of Lancaster. In the
Parliamentof 1310 the royal power wasplaced
in the hands of twenty-one "lords ordainers,"
who banished Gavestou (1311). Returning
in 1312, he was captured and executed by
the Earl of Warwick on Blacklow Hill.
Edward afterwards chose the Despensers,
father and son, as favourites, and the quarrel
with the barons continued till the latter were
defeated at Boroughbriclge (1322), and Lan-
caster beheaded. In 1325 Queen Isabella
went to France to settle a dispute with
Charles IV., and returned the following year
with the exiled Roger Mortimer, Earl of
March, now head of the baronial party.
They were soon joined by a large force.
Edward was captured in Wales, deposed by
Parliament, and imprisoned in Berkeley
Castle, where he was murdered. The
internal dissensions of the reign enabled the
Scots to maintain their independence.
Edward's lords would not follow him to
battle, and he was defeated by Bruce at
Bannockburn (1314).
Edward HI. (6. 1312, d. 1377) became
king on the deposition of his father, Edward
II., in 1327. The government was carried
on by Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer.
After seizing them at Nottingham Castle
(1330), and executing Mortimer, Edward
prosecuted the Scottish war with vigour,
winning the victory of Hah' don Hill, and re-
instating Baliol, who was soon afterwards
again expelled. In 1327 the Hundred Years'
war began, Edward claiming the French
throne through his mother, daughter of
Philip the Fair, in opposition to the reigning
monarch, Philip VI., of Valois. After fruitless
campaigns from the side of Flanders in 1339
and 1340, Edward, in 1346, landed in Nor-
mandy, and marched along the Seine towards
Paris, but, finding it covered by Philip's
army, turned northwards, defeated Philip at
Crecy (August 2l3th) , and, after a year's siege,
reduced Calais. Meanwhile David Bruce
had been taken prisoner in the battle of
Neville's Cross (1346). The French war
continued intermittently till 1360, when by
the treaty of Bretiguy Edward renounced
his claim to the throne, but received
Aquitaine in full sovereignty. In 1369 war
recommenced, and Charles V. soon won
back most of his lost provinces. Edward /
encouraged the wool trade, and in the latter
part of his reign there was some constitu-
tional progress, the Conunons claiming new
functions and powers of control.
Edward IV. (b. 1442, d. 1483), son of
Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, after
winning the victory of Mortimer's Cross,
marched to London, and was crowned king
(1461). He then followed the Lancastrian
army northwards, and defeated them at
Towton. The last efforts of Henry's sup-
porters were crushed in 1464, and Edward
ruled peacefully for six years. His marriage
with Elizabeth Wydeville offended the
Nevilles, who joined the Lancastrian party,
and Edward was forced to fly to Holland.
Within six months he returned, landed in
Yorkshire, marched southwards, gathering
forces on his way, and defeated Warwick at
Barnet (1471). Three weeks afterwards
Queen Margaret was defeated at Tewkes-
bury. Edward was secure from further
attacks, and, as most of the barons had been
killed in the Civil war, while the Church had
lost its influence, and the power of the
Commons had been checked in mid-growth,
he ruled as an absolute monarch. He
promoted commerce and patronised learning,
and his reign was one of material prosperity.
Edward V. (b. 1470, d. 1483) became king
on the death of his father, but reigned only
a few weeks, being smothered in the Tower
by order of his uncle, Richard, Duke of
Gloucester, afterwards Richard III.
Edward VI. (b. 1537, d. 1553), son of
Henry VIII. and Jane Seymour, succeeded
his father in 1547. He was a learned youth ;
but weak in body, and probably in character.
The government was at first in the hands
of his uncle, Edward Seymour, Duke of
Somerset, who incurred the dislike of the
nobles, and was in 1549 supplanted by John
Dudley, Earl of Warwick, afterwards Duke
of Northumberland. During his reign a
somewhat Calvinistic form of Protestantism
was rigorously established throughout the
kingdom.
Edward (b. 1330, d, 1376), Prince of
Wales, called the "Black Prince," son of
Edward ILL, fought under his father at
Crecy ; led a marauding expedition into
France in 1355, and another in 1356, when
he won the battle of Poitiers, taking King
Edw
(272)
Ege
John prisoner. Iii 1366 he undertook to
reinstate Pedro the Cruel, of Castile, on his
throne, and accomplished this object by the
victory of Navarrete.
Edward, Thomas (b. 1S14, d. 1880), Scot? Mi
naturalist, of humble parentage, throughout
life a struggling shoemaker ; spent much time
iu collecting specimens ; discovered several
iii'w species, and wrote Selections from the
l\iuna of J!'!.'<ff.<//ire, appended to his
biography by Smiles (1876). In 1876 he
received a pension from the Queen.
Edwardes, Sir Herbert Benjamin (b. 1819,
d. 1868), obtained a cadetship in the East
India Company (1840) ; served in the Sikh
war (1845) ; became assistant to Sir Henry
Lawrence at Lahore (1847) ; defeated the
Sikh a at Kineyree, and took part in
the siege of Mooltan (1849) ; as com-
missioner of the Peshawar frontier during
the Mutiny secured the neutrality of the
Ameer of Afghanistan, and sent a force to
assist in capturing Delhi. He was com-
missioner of Umbada from 1862 to 1865.
Edwards, Amelia Blandford (b. 1831,
d. 1S'.'2), novelist; besides contributing to
magazines and writing for the daily and
weekly papers, has written My Brother's
Wife (1855), Barbara's History (1864), Lord
Brackenbury (1880), and other novels; also
some books of travel — Untrodden Paths ana
Unfrequented Valleys (1873), A Thousar.t
Miles up the Nile (1877), etc.
Edwards, Bryan (b. 1743, d. 1800), spent
some years in Jamaica, and, returning to
England, wrote a History of the British
Colonies in the West Indies.
Edwards, George (b. 1694, d. 1773),
naturalist ; wrote a History of Birds, Glean-
ings of Natural History, etc.
Edwards, GuUlaume Fre'deric (b. 1777, d.
1842), physiologist and ethnologist, born in
Jamaica, was educated at Bruges; spent
most of his life in Paris ; wrote Physio-
logical Characters of Human Races (1839), etc.
Edwards, Jonathan (b. 1703, d. 1758),
American theologian, born at East Windsor,
Connecticut, educated at Yale College,
was Presbyterian minister at Northampton,
Connecticut, from 1727 to 1750, but ex-
pelled by his congregation for attempting
to exercise severe church discipline. He
then became a missionary among the
Indians of Massachusetts, where he wrote
his Calvinistic treatise on the Freedom of the
Will and other works. He died soon after
accepting the post of principal of New
Jersey College.
Edwards, Richard (b. circa 1523, d. 1566),
an early English dramatist ; author of Damon
ond Pythias. Some of his poems are
contained in the Paradise of Dainty Devices
(157o).
Edwin, King of Xorthumbria (b. 5S<>. //.
633), sou of ^Ella, King of Deira, by the
conquest of Bernicia founded the kingdom
of Jsorthumbria, and in 623 became bret-
walda, Kent alone not recognisii-g his title.
He was converted to Christianity (627), and
slain in battle with Penda of Mercia.
Edwy the Fair (b. circa 939, d. 959), King of
the Anglo-Saxons, son of Edmund, succeeded
his uncle, Edred, in 955. In 957 the
Mercians and Northumbrians revolted from
him, and declared his younger brother,
Edgar, king.
Eeckhout, Antoni van den (b. 1650, d.
1695), artist, born at Bruges, studied in Italy
with his brother-in-law, Deyster, and
worked in conjunction with him, painting
flowers and fruits. He was assassinated.
Eeckliout, Gerbrandt van den (b. 1621, d.
1674), Flemish artist ; pupil of Rembrandt ;
excelled in portraits. Among his best works
is Christ among the Doctors, at Munich.
Effen, Just van (b. 1684, d. 1735), Dutch
journalist, published at the Hague Le
Misanthrope (1711) in imitation of the
Spectator.
Egbert, or Ecgberht (d. 766), brother
of Eadberht, King of Northumberland, be-
came Archbishop of York in 732, and founded
a library in that town.
^ Egbert (d. 839), King of the Anglo-
Saxons, belonged to the House of Cerdic,
and, after living in exile at the court of
Charlemagne, became, in 802, King of Wes-
sex, to which he annexed Mercia (825) and
Northumbria (827). In 828 he overran
"Wales, and in 835 defeated the Danes in
Devonshire.
Egede, Hans (b. 1686, d. 1758), Danish
missionary among the pagan Greenlanders ;
established a commercial colony, and was
very successful till thwarted by Christian
VI. ; handed on his work to bis son, Paul,
by whose descendants it was continued till
the present century.
Egerton, Francis, first Earl of Ellesmere
(b. 1800, d. 1857), was Chief Secretary for Ire-
land (1828-30) and Secretary for War (1830).
He translated Faust, wrote poems, and con-
tributed to the Quarterly Review.
Egerton, Thomas, Baron of Ellesmere,
Viscount Brackley (b. 1540, d. 1617), born at
Dpddlestone Hall, in Cheshire, was called
within the bar by Queen Elizabeth, became
Solicitor- General (1581), Attorney- General
(1592), Master of the Rolls (1594), and
Keeper of the Privy Seal (1596), and was
Egg
(373)
Eic
Lord Chancellor under James I. Among
his chief reforms was the introduction of a
more merciful spirit into the penal code.
Egg, Augustus Leopold, R.A. (b. 1816, d.
1863), artist, born in London ; excelled in
depicting historical incidents, and also illus-
trated scenes from Shakespeare. Among his
best works are Sir Piercie Shafton, The Life
and Death of Buckingham, and the Dinner
Scene from the Taming of the Shrew (1860).
Eggestein, Henri, a printer of the loth
century, said to have been the associate of
John Mentel at Strasburg. His first work
there is dated 1471.
Egglesfield, Robert de (d. 1349), member
of an old Cumberland family and confessor
to Philippa, queen of Edward III. ; founded
Queen's College, Oxford, for the benefit of
natives of Cumberland and Westmoreland.
Egidius (date uncertain), the Latin name
for St. Giles, one of the black-letter saints
of the English calendar, an Athenian by
birth. He fled to France, and became
abbot of a monastery founded by Wamba
or Childeric. Being lame, he was the
patron of cripples ; he is also the patron
saint of Edinburgh.
Egilsson, Svenbjorn (b. 1791, d. 1852),
Icelandic linguist and antiquarian ; origin-
ated the Northern Antiquarian Society in
1825, and wrote Lexicon Poeticum Linguce
Septentrionaiis, and Scripta Historica Is-
c \ndorum.
Eginhard (b. circa 771, d. 844), German
historian, born in Franconia, was a pupil of
Alcuiii, and introduced by him to Charle-
magne, who made him his secretary. On
his death he entered the service of Louis le
Debonnaire, and educated his son, Lothaire.
He was afterwards Abbot of Seligenstadt.
Besides Vita et Gesta Caroli Magni, he wrote
Annales Begum Francorum (741-829), and
other works.
Eginton, Francis (b. 1737, d. 1805), an
English painter on glass, executed a Resur-
rection, for Lichfifild cathedral, and other
works.
Eglsio, Matteo (b. 1674, d. 1745), a learned
antiquarian, born at Naples, left several
works on archaeological and literary subjects.
Egloffstein, Carl August von (b. 1771, d.
1834), German general, joined the contingent
furnished to the French army on the Rhine
by Charles Augustus of Saxe- Weimar;
distinguished himself at Jena, and after-
wards in Spain under Augereau, and in
Napoleon's Russian campaign.
Egmont, Lamoral, Count, Prince de
Gavre (b. 1522, d. 1568), Flemish noble;
8
accompanied Charles V. on his expedition
to Africa (1544), and distinguished himself
against the French in the battles of St.
Queutin and Gravelines. During the re-
gency of the Duchess of Parma he sought
to mediate between her and the people of
the Netherlands. Becoming obnoxious to
Philip II. owing to his connection with the
Prince of Orange, he was seized and executed
at Brussels by the Duke of Alva.
Egnazio, the name assumed by Giovanni
Battista Cipelli (b. 1478, d. 1553), a
pupil of Politian, who taught classics in
Venice, and, as a professor, contributed to
the revival of learning in his day.
Ehingen, Georg von (b. circa 1435), Ger-
man traveller and adventurer, after journey-
ing through Palestine, visited the courts of
France, Sicily, Navarre, Portugal, England
and Scotland, and distinguished himself
against the Saracens, England, and Scot-
land. He left an account of his travels.
Efcrenberg, Christian Gottfried (b. 1795,
d. 1876), a German naturalist, born at
Delitzsch, famous for his investigations
concerning fungi and their laws of re-
production. In 1820 - 25 he made a
scientific expedition in Egypt, Syria, and
Abyssinia, returning with large collec-
tions; and in 1829 accompanied Alexander
von Humboldt in his explorations in Central
Asia. His chief works are Infusoria as Pei'-
fect Organisms (1838), and Micro-geology, or
the Life that Creates Earth and Hocks
(1854).
Ehrenmalm, Arvid, in 1741 explored the
province of Absele-Lappmark in Nordland,
and left an account of his travels.
Enret, Georg Dionysius (b. 1710, d. 1770),
a German botanist and painter of plants,
visited England, and was patronised by Sir
Hans Sloane.
Eichendorff, Joseph von (b. 1788, d. 1857),
German poet, a member of the later ro-
mantic school. His lyrics are popular ; he
also wrote A Good-f or- Nothing's Life (1826),
and other tales and dramas.
Eichhorn, Johann Gottfried (b. 1752, d.
1827), German Orientalist and theologian,
professor of Oriental languages at Jena
(1775) and Gb'ttingen (1778) ; wrote Intro-
ductions to the Old and New Testaments,
to the Apocrypha and The Hebrew Pro-
phets ; conducted a Eepertonum for Bibli-
cal and Oriental Literature, and edited
Abul-feda's Arabic Geography of Africa.
Eichthal, Gustavo (b. 1804). French econo-
mist, born at Nancy, educated at the school
of St. Simon, became a St. Simouian and
follower of Eufautin. Migrating to Greece,
he was appointed a member of the bureau
Eis
(274)
of political economy, and helped to estab-
lish the Sociottf d'Ethnologie. In 1848 he
joined in starting Le Credit. His exegetical
work, Les Evangiles, was published in 1803.
Eisenlohr, August (b. 1832), German
Egyptologist, in 1869 led an expedition to
Greece, Egypt, arid Syria, and studied the
Harris papyrus at Alexandria, a translation
of which he published in 1872-3 ; has written
papers on Egyptian archaeology, and in 1872
was appointed professor extraordinary in the
university of Heidelberg.
Elcho, Lord. [See Wemyss.]
Elci, Angelo Maria, Count of (b. 1754, d.
1824), a native of Florence, formed a valu-
able collection of rare books, now in the
Biblioteca Laurenziana in that town.
Eldon, John Scott, Earl of (b. 1751, d.
1838), son of a Newcastle coalfitter ;
after a successful career at Oxford, entered
the Middle Temple (1773), and was called
to the bar (1776) ; entered Parliament as a
supporter of Pitt (1783) ; became Solicitor-
General (1787), and as Attorney -General
(1793) piosecuted Thelwall, Home Tooke,
and other revolutionary agitators. He be-
came Chief Justice of the Common Pleas in
1799, and was Lord Chancellor from 1801 to
1806 and 1807 to 1827. In politics he was
an unbending Tory, opposing all improve-
ments in the law or constitution.
Eleanora d'Anjou, Queen of Sicily (d.
1343), daughter of Charles II. of Anjou;
in 1302 married Frederick II. of Aragon,
King of Sicily, after whose death she with-
drew to a convent.
Eleanora d'Arborea (d. 1404), daughter
of Mariano IV., Lord of Arborea in Sar-
dinia, inherited a great part of the island
from her father, and ruled prudently, re-
sisting the Aragonese, and issuing a code of
laws.
Eleanore Tellez, Queen of Portugal (b. 1350,
d. 1405), was married to Joao Lourenqo da
Cunha,whom she left to become the wife of
Ferdinand I. of Portugal. She was left regent
by her husband at his death in 1383, but dis-
gusted the people by her liaison with Andeiro,
a Castilian lord. An insurrection breaking
out, Andeiro was assassinated, and Ferdi-
nand's natural brother, Joao, declared king.
Eleanore was afterwards placed in a monas-
tery at Tordesillas.
Eleanor of Aragon, Queen of Portugal,
daughter of Ferdinand I. of Aragon, in 1428
married Edward, afterwards king of Por-
tugal, and, after his death in 1458, was
regent for her son, Alphonso V.
Eleanor of Aragon, Queen of Navarre
(d. 1479), second daughter of Juan II. of
Aragon and Blanche of Navarre; in 1436
married Gaston IV., Count of Foix, and be-
came queen in 1479.
Eleanore of Austria (b. 1498, d. 1558),
sister of Charles V.; was married first to
Mauoel, Bang of Portugal (1519-21), and
afterwards to Francis I. (1530-47).
Eleanore of Castile, Queen of England,
daughter of Ferdinand III. of Castile ; mar-
ried Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I.,
in 1254. She accompanied her husband on
the Crusade.
Eleanor of Castile, Queen of Navarre (d.
1416), daughter of Henry II. of Castile;
in 1375 married Charles III. of Navarre.
She abandoned her husband, but was
forced to return to him by her nephew,
Henry III. of Castile.
Eleanore of Guienne (b. 1122, d. 1204),
daughter of William IX., Duke of Guienne;
in 1137 married Louis VII. of France, by
whom she was divorced in 1152. She then
became the wife of Henry Plantagenet,
Count of Anjou and Duke of Normandy,
afterwards Henry II. of England ; aided
her sons in their rebellion against their
father, and was imprisoned from 1173 to
1184. She was regent for Richard I. during
his absence in the Holy Land.
Eleanore of Provence, Queen of England
(d. 1291), daughter of Raimond Berenger
IV.; in 1236 married Henry III. of England,
and on his death, in 1272, took the veil.
Eleazar, son of Onias, high priest in the
3rd century B.C., said by Josephus to have
sent to Alexandria the seventy-two Jews
who compiled the Septuagint.
Eleazar (d. 167 B.C.), a scribe, mentioned
in the Book of Maccabees as having suffered
death by torture rather than eat polluted
meat when commanded by Antiochus Epi-
phanes.
Eleazar (d. 163 B.C.), one of the Macca-
bean brothers, sons of Matathias, led the
Jews in their wars with the kings of Syria.
He was crushed by an elephant whilst fight-
ing against Antiochus Eupator.
Eleazar, son of Ananias, leader of one of
the factions which divided Jerusalem during
its siege by the Romans A.B. 70.
Eleazar of Massada, a Jewish fanatic, de-
scended from Judas the Galilean, at the
head of the Sicarii defended the fortress of
Massada, on the Dead Sea, against the
Romans. When resistance proved vain,
he and his followers killed themselves.
Eleutherius (d. 192) , a native of Nicopolia ;
was Bishop of Rome.
Elgin, Thomas Bruce, seventh Earl of (b.
Elg
(275)
Eli
1766, d. 1841), and eleventh Earl of Kin-
cardine ; entered the army, but was mainly
engaged in diplomacy. Whilst ambassador
in Constantinople (1799-1802) he planned
the removal of the "Elgin Marbles " from
Athens to England. In 1816 they were
bought by the nation for £35,000, and placed
in the British Museum.
Elgin, James Bruce, eighth Earl of, and
twelfth Earl of Kincardine (b. 1811, d. 1863),
son of the preceding; was governor of
Jamaica (1842-46), and of Canada (1846-54);
sent as special envoy to China in 1857 ; nego-
tiated the treaty of Tiensin (1858), and that
of Yeddo with the Japanese. In 1860_ he
again went to China, and the treaty of Tien-
sin was ratified, with additional stipulations.
In 1862 he went to India as viceroy.
Eli, a Hebrew judge and high priest.
Elias, Levita (b. 1472, d. 1549), Jewish
rabbi, and writer in modern Hebrew,
professor at Padua in 1504. He fled to Venice
at the sack of Padua in 1509, and thence to
Eome, where he lived till 1527, when he re-
turned to Venice.
Elias, Matthaus (b. 1658, d. 1741), German
artist of humble birth ; studied under Cor-
been, and worked at Paris and Dunkirk;
left the Martyrdom of St. £arbe, at Dim kirk,
and other works.
Elie de Beaumont, Jean Baptiste Armand
Louis Leonce (b. 1798, d. 1874), _ French
geologist ; was sent on a metallurgical ex-
pedition by the Government in 1821 ; became
professor at the School of Mines in 1829, and
chief engineer in 1833. In 1823, with MM.
Brochant de Villiers, and Dufrenoy, he exe-
cuted a geological map of France. He has
written Recherches sur Quelques-unes des
Revolutions de la Surf ace du Globe (1829), etc.
Eligius Novipmensis (St. Eloy), (6. 588, d.
659), French saint; was a skilled goldsmith,
and became minister of Dagobert I., and
afterwards Bishop of Noyon.
Elijah, Hebrew prophet, who denounced
idolatry during the reigns of Ahab and his
son (B.C. 910-896).
Elio, Francisco Xavier (b. 1767, d. 1822),
Spanish general ; appointed governor of Val-
encia and Murcia ; by his severity provoked
a conspiracy, which was suppressed. In 1820
he was arrested, and after two years' im-
prisonment, tried, and executed.
Eliot, George, pseudonym of Mary Ann
Evans, novelist (*. 181 9,^ d. 1880). Her
parents were of humble origin. Educated in
a boarding-school at Nuneaton, she removed
with her father to Foleshill, near Coventry,
in 1841. She now exchanged Evangelicalism
for Scepticism, and in 1846 published her
translation of Strauss' Leben Jesu. After the
82
death of her father (1849) she travelled on
the Continent, and on her return became
joint-editor of the Westminster Review. In
1851 she began her lifelong connection with
George Henry Lewes, and in 1857 published
Scenes of Clerical Life, followed 6y Adam
Bede (1859), The Mill on the Floss (1860), ,
Silas Marner (1861), Romola (1863), Felix
Holt (1866), Middlemarch (1871-2), Daniel
Deronda (1876), and Theophrastus Such
(1879). She travelled with George Lewes in
France and Spain, and published two volumes
of poetry, The Spanish Gipsy (1867) and The
Leg end of J ul> al (1874). Lewes died in 1878,
and shortly before her death she married Mr.
J. W. Cross.
Eliot, Sir John (b. 1592, d. 1632), English
statesman and patriot ; entered Parliament in
1623: opposed the arbitrary government of
Charles I., and in consequence of his freedom
of speech in the Parliament of 1629 was im-
prisoned in the Tower, where he died.
Eliot, John (b. 1604, d. 1690), English
missionary ; worked among the Indians of
North America, establishing settlements with
a regular form of government, founding
schools, and translating the Bible and re-
ligious works into Indian.
Elisaeus, Eghische (d. 480), a learned
Armenian ; became bishop in the province of
Ararat, and held various offices under Prince
Vartan. He wrote a History of the War of
Tartan and of the Armenians, extending from
439 to 463.
Elisha, Hebrew prophet, the successor
and pupil of Elijah ; died about 839.
Elizabeth, Queen of England (b. 1533, d.
1602), daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne
Boleyn, was brought up as a Protestant. -H er
education was entrusted to the most learned
men of the age, and she became an accom-
plished scholar. During the reign of her
sister Mary she was imprisoned for a time in
the Tower. On her accession (1558), Mary's
enactments in favour of Komanism were
abrogated; by the Act of Supremacy the
sovereign again became head of the Church,
and a form of worship was established
which, it was hoped, would conciliate mode-
rate men of all parties. At first the spirit
of discontent dared not show itself amidst
the general satisfaction. But after the
escape of Mary Stuart into England (1568),
her presence in the country was a constant
source of disquiet. She was the heir to the
throne, and as Elizabeth persistently re-
fused to marry, it seemed probable _that she
would be her successor. The disaffected
Papists were further encouraged by the
sentence of excommunication pronounced
against Elizabeth by the Pope, and by the
triumph of their cause abroad ; Jesuits from
Douay traversed the country in disguise,
(276)
•V-l • i
•till
several plots were formed, and it became
necessary to put the penal enactments against
Recusants more stringently in force. The
Protestantism of the country was acutely
aroused, and a strong party in the council
urged the queen to pat herself forward as
the champion of the Reformed faith on the
Continent. But Elizabeth chose rather to
encourage a feeling of independence and
energy at home than to involve England in
foreign complications; the prudence and
patriotism of her policy were fully proved by
the after history of her reign. The growing
feeling of nationality proved stronger than the
lingering attachment to the old faith, especi-
ally after the hopes of the Roman Catholics
had been dashed by the execution of Mary
(L537), and when Philip of Spain sent his
long-projected expedition against England '
(1588) Papists as well as Protestants came
zealously forward in defence of the realm.
During the latter part of the reign, the dis-
turbances created by the Puritans fore-
shadowed the troubles of the opening cen-
tury.
Elizabeth Alexieona, Empress of Russia
(b. 1779, d. 1826), daughter of Charles
Frederick, Margrave of Baden, in 1793 mar-
ried the Grand Duke Alexander, afterwards
emperor, becoming a member of the Greek
Church, and changing her name from that of
Louisa Marie Augusta.
Elizabeth Christina, Queen of Prussia (b.
1715, d. 1797), daughter of Duke Ferdinand
Albert of Brunswick- Wolf enbiittel ; married
Frederick II. in 1732, but lived apart from
him after 1740.
Elizabeth Farnese (b. 1692, d. 1766),
daughter of Odoardo II., Duke of Parma ; in
1714 married Philip V. of Spain, and ex-
ercised much influence over him, obtaining
the throne of Naples for her son, the infant
Charles. After the death of Philip (1746)
she withdrew from the court.
Elizabeth Petrowna, Empress of Russia
(b. 1709, d. 1761), daughter of Peter the
Great; seized the throne in 1741, and ruled
with ability, carrying on war with Sweden
and Prussia.
Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia (b.
1596, d. 1662), daughter of James I. of Eng-
land; in 1613 married Frederick V., Elector-
Palatine, and shared his fortunes. In 1660
she came to England with her nephew,
Charles II.
Elizabeth Wydeville, Queen of England
(b. circa 1437, d. 1492), daughter of Richard
"Wydeville, afterwards Earl Rivers, and
Jacqueline of Luxembourg ; after the death
of her first husband, Sir John Grey, a Lan-
castrian knight, was, in May, 1464, privately
married to Edward TV. Their union was
acknowledged in the autumn.
Elizabeth, or Iza'bel, of Aragon, St. (b.
1-71, d. 1335), daughter of Pedro III. of
Aragon; in 1282 married Denis, King of
Portugal.
Elizabeth, or Isabella, of Austria (b. 1554,
d. 1592), daughter of Maximilian II. of
Austria ; married Charles IX. of France in
1-370 ; was excluded from all part in the
government by her mother-in-law, Catherine
de' Medici, and after the death of the king,
in 1574, withdrew to a monastery in Vienna.
Elizabeth of Bohemia, Princess-Palatine
(b. 1618, d. 1680), daughter of Frederick V.,
Elector-Palatine, and Elizabeth Stuart ; was
devoted to study, and a patron and pupil of
Descartes.
Elizabeth of France, Queen of Spain (b.
1602, d. 1644), daughter of Henri IV. of
France and Marie de' Medici; in 1615 mar-
ried Philip IV. of Spain.
Elizabeth, St., of Hungary (b. 1207, d.
1231), daughter of Andreas II. of Hungary;
in 1221 married Louis, Landgrave of Thur-
ingia. She was celebrated for her piety and
charity, and was canonised by Gregory
IX.
Elizabeth of Valois, Queen of Spain (b.
1545, d. 1568), daughter of Henri II. of
France and Catherine de' Medici, was mar-
ried (1560) to Philip II. of Spain ; her death
has been attributed to poison.
Elizabeth of York, Queen of England (b.
1465, d. 1503), daughter of Edward IV.; was
married in 1486 to Henry VII., thereby
reconciling the rival claims of the houses
of York and Lancaster.
Elizabeth Isabelle of Bavaria, Queen of
France (b. 1371,6?. 1435), daughter of Stephen
II. of Bavaria ; was married in 1385 to
Charles VI. of France, and when that king
lost his reason, shared the control of him
with the Duke of Burgundy. Her liaisons
with the Duke of Orleans and Bois Bourdon
led to her banishment in 1417, but she re-
turned, and made a treaty with Philip of
Burgundy and the English in 1420. She died
in neglect.
Elizabeth Philippine Marie Ee'le'ne de
France, Madame (b. 1764, d. 1794), youngest
sister of Louis XVI. ; celebrated for her
devotion to him and his family. She died on
the scaffold.
Ellenborough, Edward Law, Baron (*.
1750, d. 18 IS), lawyer, son of Edmund Law,
Bishop of Carlisle : was called to the bar
in 1780; defended Warren Hastings (1787-94),
became Attorney- General in 1801, and in
1802 was made Chief Justice of the King's
Bench, and raised to the peerage. In, 1806
he obtained a seat in the Cabinet.
Ell
(277)
Elan
ElleiLborough, Edward Law, Earl of
(b. 1790, d. 1371), eldest son of the
g receding was President of the Board of
ontrol in 1828, 1834, 1841, and ISoS; was
appointed Go vernor- General of India by
Sir Robert Peel (1842) ; pacified Afghanistan,
conquered and annexed Scinde, and success-
fully terminated the first Chinese war, but
was recalled by the Court of Directors in
1844. He was afterwards First Lord of the
Admiralty (1846-7). His despatch to Lord
Canning concerning his policy in Oude gave
rise to much discussion.
Ellery, William (b. 1727, d. 1820),
American politician (Federalist) ; signed the
Declaration of Independence (1776); retired
from Congress in 1785, owing to the loss of
his property ; in 1790 was appointed collector
of customs.
EUicott, Right Rev. Charles John (b. 1819),
Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol ; conse-
crated in 1863, has written Commentaries
on the Epistle to the Galatians (1854-8), and
other theological works.
Elliger, Ottomar, a celebrated painter of
the Flemish school, patronised by Frederick
the Great.
Elliot, George Augustus, Lord Heath-
field (b. 1718, d. 1790), distinguished him-
self as a cavalry officer on the Continent
and in the West Indies, and became com-
mander of the troops in Ireland in 1775.
His brilliant defence of Gibraltar (1780-82)
gained him the title of Lord Heathfield,
Baron Gibraltar.
Elliot, Murray Kynnynmond Gilbert, first
Earl of Minto (b. 1751, d. 1814), statesman;
was called to the bar ; entered Parliament in
1774 ; attached himself to Fox, and supported
the coalition ministry. He became viceroy
of Corsica in 1794 ; was envoy at Vienna from
1799 to 1801; and while Govern or- General of
India (1807-14) conquered the Isle of France
and Java.
EUiotson, John, M.D., F.R.S. (b. 1791, d.
1868), physician ; educated at Cambridge and
Edinburgh ; while physician at St. Thomas's
Hospital became distinguished in thera-
peutics, and introduced clinical teaching
into the Metropolitan hospitals. In 1831 he
was appointed professor of medicine at
University College, but his belief in mes-
merism, dating from 1837, led to his pro-
fessional fall.
Elliott, Ebenezer (b. 1781, d. 1849),
the " Corn-Law Rhymer," a self-educated
ironfounder, of Sheffield; first attracted
notice by the Corn Law Rhymes (1827) ;
also wrote the Village Patriarch and
other poems. In 1838 he helped to organise
the Chartist movement, but abandoned the
cause in 1840, owing to its opposition to the
Anti-Corn-Law League.
Elliott, Henry George, Sir (b. 1817),
second son of the second Earl of Minto;
entered the Foreign Office (1840), was
appointed ambassador to the Porte (1867),
with Lord Salisbury represented Eng-
land at the Conference of Constantinople
(1876-7), and was ambassador at Vienna
(1878-84).
Ellis, George (b. 1745, d. 1815), miscel-
laneous writer ; contributed to the Rolliad
and Probationary Odes, and afterwards to
the Anti-Jacobin, and published Specimens
of our Early Poetry (1790), and Specimens of
Early English Metrical Romances (1802).
Ellis, Henry (b. 1721, d. 1806), English
navigator; made an unsuccessful attempt
(1746) to discover the North- West passage,
and was afterwards governor of Georgia.
Ellis, Sir Henry (b. 1777, d. 1869),
librarian and antiquary ; principal librarian
of the British Museum from 1827 to 1856 ;
wrote an Introduction to Domesday £ook
(1833) ; annotated Original Letters Illus-
trative of English History ; also published
Elgin Marbles of the Classic Ages and The
Townley Gallery of Sculpture (1847).
Ellis, William (b. 1794, d. 1872), a mission-
ary in the islands of Polynesia ; wrote Poly-
nesian Researches, a History of Madagas*
car, etc.
Elliston, Robert William (b. 1774. d,
1831), a popular English comedian.
Ellwood, Thomas (b. 1639, d. 1713), a
Quaker friend of Milton, to whom he is said
to have suggested the idea of writing
Paradise Regained.
Ellys, Anthony (b. 1890, d. 1761), Bishop
of St. David's ; wrote A Plm for the Sacra-
mental Test, and answered Hume's Essay
Concerning Miracles. His Tracts on the
Liberty, Spiritual and Temporal, of Protes-
tants in England, upholding the Church of
England, were published after his death.
Elmacinus, George (*. 1223, d. 1273), an
Egyptian ; war secretaiy under the sultana
of Egypt, wrote a History of the Saracens
from the time of Mohammed to 1118. He is
supposed by some to have been a Christian.
Elinore, Alfred (b. 1815, d. 1881), painter;
born at Clonakilty, County Cork; studied
at the Royal Academy and on the Con-
tinent. Among his works are The Inven-
tion of the Combing Machine, and The
Tuileries, June 20th, 1792.
Elmsley, Peter, (b. 1773, d. 1825),
Greek critic and philologist ; educated at
Westminster and Oxford; after taking
Elp
(278)
Eml
orders, lived for some time in Edinburgh,
where he formed a friendship with Jeffrey,
and contributed articles oil Greek literature
to the Edinburgh Review. In 1823 he
became principal of St. Alban Hall,
Oxford, and Camdeu professor of history.
He is best known by his editions of the
Greek dramatists.
ElpMnstoue, John, thirteenth Baron (b.
1807, d. I860), was governor of Madras
from 1837 to 1842 ; returned to India as
governor of Bombay in 1853, and rendered
great service during the Mutiny.
Elpninstone, the Hon. Mountstuart (b.
1779, d. 1859), a younger son of the eleventh
Earl ; entered the service of the East India
Company ; distinguished himself in the
Mahratta war; was British Resident at
Nagpore (1806-8) ; in 1811 was appointed
British Resident at Poonah, where he ably
resisted the Peshwah, and successfully
organised the province when annexed ;
while lieutenant-governor of Bombay (1820-
1827) he promulgated the Elphinstone
Code. He wrote An Account of the King-
dom of Cabul (1815), a History of India
during the Hindoo and Mahometan periods
(1841), and other works.
Elphinstone, William (b. 1431, d. 1514),
Bishop of Ross, and afterwards of Aberdeen ;
after filling the chairs of civil and canon
law at Paris and Orleans, became Lord High
Chancellor under James III. It was mainly
through his efforts that the University of
Aberdeen was founded.
Ellington, Charles Richard (b. 1787,
d. 1850;, professor of divinity at Trinity
College, Dublin ; wrote a Life of Archbishop
Usher, and other works.
Elsheimer, Adam (b. 1574, d. 1620),
German artist; went to Rome, where he
painted landscape and night pieces.
Elssler, Theresa (b. 1808, d. 1878), and
Fanny (b. 1811, d. 1884), dancers, were
sisters, natives of Vienna. Fanny was the
more celebrated. In 1851 Theresa con-
tracted a morganatic marriage with Prince
Adalbert of Prussia, and was subsequently
ennobled.
Elton, Charles Isaac (b. 1839), one' of the
first English jurists of the historical school.
Besides Tenures of Kent (1867), treatises on
Commons and Waste Lands (1868), and
Copyhclds and Customary Tenures of Land
(1874), and Custom and Tenant Eight (1882),
he has written Origins of English History
(1882), laying stress on the Celtic element in
the early population. He was returned to
Parliament in 1886.
Elvey, George Job, Sir (b. 1816), musical
composer, born at Canterbury ; organist of
St. George's Chapel, Windsor, from 1835 to
1882, has composed a number of anthems
and other church music.
El wart, Antoine Aimable Elie (b. 1808,
d. 1877), musician, composer, and author,
of Polish origin; professor of harmony
at the Conservatoire at Paris, composed
Noe and La Naisance d? Eve (oratorios),
Les Catalans (an opera), and many other
pieces of various kinds. He wrote a Life
of Duprts (1838), and a poem called L'Har-
monie Musicale (1853), etc.
Elzevir, the name of a famous family of
printers, the first of whom, Loins (b. 1540,
d. 1617), established his press at Ley den.
The press at Amsterdam was founded by bis
great-grandson, Louis (b. 1604), and here the
well-known series of classics was issued in
1665. A-FVRAHA-M- (d. 1712) was the last of the
family.
Emerson, Ralph Waldo (b. 1803, d. 1882),
American author; born at Boston, United
States, son of a Protestant minister ; edu-
cated at Harvard ; was a Unitarian minister
from 1826 to 1832. Coming to Europe
in 1833, he visited France, Italy, and
England, where he met Coleridge, Words-
worth, and Carlyle. From 1835 to his
death he remained quietly at his New
England home, engaged in writing and
country pursuits, except for another visit to
England and France in 1847-8. In 1836 he
founded the Transcendental Club, and after
1840 contributed to the Dial, the organ of
the Transcendentalists. Besides his numerous
essays he wrote future (LS&fy, English Traits
(1856), and the Conduct of \ Life (I860), etc.
He was at one time a prominent abolitionist.
Emery, Charles Edward (b. 1838),
American engineer ; has made several inven-
tions in connection with steam-engines, and
written some technical papers.
Emili, Paolo (b. 1460, d. 1529), Italian
historian ; went to Paris in 1499, and was
historiographer to the French court under
Louis XH.; wrote De Gestis Francorum : a
I history of France from the origin of the
monarchy to the time of Charles VIU.
Emiliani, Girolmo (b. 1481, d. 1537) ;
originally a Venetian student ; founded
the Somaschi, a religious order devoted
to the relief of the sick and the education
of the young, so named from Somasco, the
village where the first convent was built.
F.min Pasha (b. 1840), German African ex-
plorer, in 1878 was made ruler of the Equa-
torial province, and held his ground against
the Mahdi. In 1886 Stanley went to his relief.
Emlyn, Thomas (b. 1663, d. 1741), born at
Stamford, in Lincolnshire, became a Non-
conformist minister at Dublin, and was
Emm
(279)
Enf
prosecuted and imprisoned in consequence
of his AHa.n views.
Emma, called JElfgifu, Queen of England
(d. 1052), daughter of Eichard the Fearless,
Duke of Normandy; in 1002 married Ethel-
red the Unready (by whom she had two
sous, Edward " the Confessor" and Alfred),
and in 1017 Cnut or Canute, by whom she
was mother of Harthacuut. Banished by
her stepson, Harold, she returned with
Harthacnut in 1040, and exercised much
influence during his reign.
Emmanuele, Filiberto, Duke of Savoy
(b. 1528, d. 1580), son of Charles IIL,
was commander-in-chief of the imperial
troops in Italy against the French, who,
on his father's death, seized most of his
inheritance ; appointed governor of the
Netherlands by Philip II. in 1556, he
attacked France, winning the battle of St.
Quentin, and by the Treaty of Chateau-
Cambresis (1559) recovered his ancestral
iomains, and married Marguerite, sister of
•\he king of France. He applied himself to
the administrative and military organisation
of his country, and is considered the founder
of the Sardinian monarchy.
Emmanuele da Como, Fra (b. 1625, d.
1700), Italian painter ; executed the frescoes
in the library of the Irish convent on the
Pincian Hill at Home.
Emmett, Kobert (b. 1778, d. 1803), Irish
revolutionist ; son of a Dublin doctor ; ex-
pelled from Dublin "University in 1798 owing
to his anti-English sympathies ; in 1803 led
an unsuccessful attack on Dublin Castle ;
escaped into Wicklow, but was captured and
executed. His fate is the subject of some
verses by Moore.
Emmett, Thomas Addis (b. 1764, d. 1827),
brother of the preceding ; called to the Irish
bar in 1790 ; was a member of the Revolu-
tionary Directory in 1797. After being
examined by secret Parliamentary Com-
mittees, he was imprisoned from 1798 to
1802, and then exiled. He went to America,
and won a reputation at the New York bar.
Emmius, Ubbo (b.1547, d. 1626), Dutch
historian of Calvimstic views. On refusing
to sign the Confession of Augsburg he was
driven from his rectorate at Norden by the
Lutherans, but obtained a professorship at
the college of Liers.
Emo, Angelo (b. 1731, d. 1792), Venetian
statesman and naval officer, born at Malta ;
freed the Mediterranean from the Barbary
pirates between 1762 and 1767, and in 1784 was
appointed commander- general in the war
with Tunis His death was hastened by the
ingratitude of his countrymen.
Empedocles (b. circa 460 B.C., d, 384 B.C.),
Greek philosopher and poet, born at Agri-
gentum ; belonged to the popular party,
aiid took part in the conspiracy to expel
Thrasideus, tyrant of Agrigeutum. He
refused the sovereignty, and devoted
his wealth to the relief of the poor and
to medical and philosophical studies. He
committed suicide by plunging into Mount
Etna. He was a disciple of Pythagoras, and
wrote tragedies, political tracts, and poems
on Jledictne, Nature, and Purifications, frag-
ments of which remain.
Empis, Adolphe Dominique Florent Joseph
Simonis (6. 1795, d. 1868), French dramatic
writer.
Empoli, Jacopo Chimenti (b. 1554, d.
1640), Italian painter; imitated Andrea del
Sarto. One of his best works is the /St. Ivo
in the Uffizi gallery at Florence.
Enaxnbuc, Pierre Vaudrosque Diel d' (d.
1636), French navigator; sailed with du
Eossey to the Antilles in 1626, and gained
the island of St. Christopher, which, with
Eichelieu's assistance, they afterwards
colonised, after defeating and expelling the
English. Shortly before his death he colon-
ised Martinique.
Encalacla, Manuel Blanco (b. 1790, d.
1876), a South American soldier, of
Spanish descent; in 1813 left the Spanish
navy for the Chilian army, of which
he became commander-in-chief in 1825,
after contributing greatly to the victory of
Ayacucho. He was president of the re-
public in 1826 ; in 1847 became governor oi
Valparaiso, and contributed greatly to the
progress of the city.
Encke, Johann Franz (b. 1791, d. 1865),
German astronomer ; served in the war
against France from 1813 to 181 5, when he
became assistant in the observatory of
Seeberg, near Gotha, of which he was ap-
pointed director in 1825. He there dis-
covered the comet which bears his name.
In 1830 he became editor of the Berliner
Astronomische Jahrbuch.
Encontre, Daniel (b. 1762, d. 1818), a
French mathematician ; professor of doctrine
and dean of the faculty of theology at Mon-
tauban.
Endicctt, John (d. 1665), born at
Dorchester, became colonial governor of
Massachusetts. He was a rigid Puritan,
persecuted the Quakers, and treated the
Indians harshly.
Enfantin, Barthelemy Prosper (5. 1796, d.
1864), Socialist reformer, in 1825 became a
disciple of St. Simon, who entrusted him
with the promulgation of his doctrines. He
wrote the Doctrine de St. -Simon (1830) and
Economic politique et Politique, and became
(280)
Epe
pire supreme of the sect. The increasing
extravagance of their views led to their
suppression by the French Government in
1832. Eni'autin henceforward turned his
energy in other directions, and became a
director of the Lyons Railway Company. In
1861 appeared La Vie Jtiternelle, Pasee, Pre-
sente, et Future.
Engelberge, or Engelborde, Empress of
Germany (d. 890); in 806 married Louis II.,
Emperor of Germany, on whose death (875)
she was seized by Charles the Bald, one of
the claimants for the throne, and impris-
oned.
Engelbrechtsen, Cornelius (b. 1468, d.
1533), Dutch painter, born at Leyden; fol-
lowed Van Eyck, and was one of the first to
use oils. His oil-paintings, the Sacrifice of
Abraham and the Descent from the Cross,
are at Paris.
Engelbrekt, or Engelbrechtsen (d. 1436),
a Swedish patriot noble, who, as leader
of the people, forced the senate to sign a
bond securing them their ancient liberties.
In 1435 he was appointed regent by the Diet
at Arboga, but was soon after assassinated.
Engelmann, Godefroy (b. 1788, d. 1839),
one of the inventors of lithography; after
working at Munich, established lithographic
presses at Mulhouse, and afterwards at Paris,
and executed designs after Vernet and other
artists. He also greatly improved the art of
chromo-lithography.
Engerth, Eduard (b. 1818), historical
painter, a native of Pless, in Silesia;
after studying at Vienna and Rome,
travelled in England and the East. He
spent six years in adorning the Alt-
lerchenfeld church at Vienna with fres-
coes. His masterpiece is Prince Eugene
after the Battle of Zeuta (1865).
Englefield, Sir Henry Charles, Eart. (b.
1752, d. 1822), antiquary; wrote Tables of
the Apparent Places of the Comet in 1661,
A Walk TJirough Southampton, etc.
Ennemoser, Joseph (b. 1787, d. 1854),
physician and writer, born in the Tyro-
lese; at first a goatherd; educated at
Innspruck and Vienna ; served against
Napoleon ; became a doctor in 1816,
and was made professor at Bonn in 1819.
His works include a History of Mag-
netism, Historico-Psychological Inquiries into
the Nature and Origin of the Human Soul,
etc.
Ennius, Quint - ; ''.239 B.C., d. 169 B.C.), an
early Latin poet ; born at Rudiae, in Calabria,
served in Sardinia, and against the JEi,o-
lians, and became a favourite of the Scipios,
whose exploits he celebrated in his poems.
His epic poem, The Annals, embodies the
traditions and history of Rome to his own
day. He was one of the first to introduce
the study of Greek literature. His works
are now only known through Cicero's quo-
tations.
Ennodius, Magnus Felix (*. 473, d. 52l\
Bishop of Pavia ; wrote a panegyric on
Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, and other
works.
Enrique z, Gomez Antonio, a Spanish
writer of the 1 7th century ; a Portuguese Jew
by birth.
Entinopus of Candia, an Italian architect
of the first half of the 5th century ; connected
with the foundation of Venice, whither he
fled on the invasion of the Goths in 405.
•
Entrecasteaux, Joseph Antoine Bruni d'
(b. 1739, d. 1793), French admiral and navi-
gator, born at Aix ; headed the search for La
Perouse in 1788, visiting New Holland and
Van Diemen's Land. The expedition was un-
successful, but led to important discoveries
in navigation and geography.
Enzina, or Encina, Juan de (b. 1468,
or 1469, d. 1534), Spanish dramatist and
musician; patronised by the Duke of Alva ;
went to Rome and became master of
Leo X.'s Chapel. He was the first Spanish
writer of the secular drama.
Enzo, or Entius (b. 1224, d. 1272), natural
son of the Emperor Frederick II.: aided
his father against the Pope, contributing
to the victory of the Meloria (1240). In
1249 he was captured by the Guelphs of
Bologna, and remained a prisoner till his
death. He wrote sonnets and canzoni.
Eotvos, Joseph de Vasaros Nameny,
Baron (b. 1813, d. 1871), Hungarian states-
man, political writer and poet ; after travel-
ling in ^ Europe in 1836 and 1837, led the
Opposition in the upper house of the Diet ;
took part in the Diet of Presburg after
the revolution of 1848 ; was minister of
public instruction in the first Hungarian
administration, and again from 1866 to his
death. His works, The Village Notary, a
romance (1845), Hungary in 1514 (1847), and
the The Influence of the Ruling Ideas of the
Nineteenth Century on the State, led to ad-
ministrative and political reforms.
Eparninondas (d. 362 B.C.), Theban gen-
eral; after the expulsion of the Spartans
(379 B.C.) , became the leading man in Thebes,
and by his wise policy and military skill
raised his country to the first place in
Greece. He defeated the Spartans at Leuc-
tra (371), but fell at the battle of Mantinea
in the moment of victory.
Epee, Charles Michel, Abbe" de 1' (b. 1713r
Sph
(281)
Era
d. 1789), French philanthropist; devoted his
fortune to the education of the deaf and
dumb, and invented the manual alphabet.
Ephorus (b. circa 380 B.C., d. circa 330),
Greek historian, bom at Cumae ; was the
pupil of Isocrates at Chios, and wrote a
universal history in thirty books, from the
return of the Heraclides to the siege of
Perinthus in 341, fragments of which
remain.
EptLraein, Syrus (d. 370), a native of
Nisibis in Mesopotamia, and a pupil of St.
James, biskop of that city ; lived as a hermit
in a cave near Edessa, where he wrote com-
mentaries and other works in Syriac and
Greek. During a famine in Edessa he fitted
up a hospital, supported by subscriptions.
• Epicaro, Antonio, born at Corfu, lived in
the "first half of the 16th century. He taught
Greek in Venice, and left a poem in Greek
on the fall of his country under the Turks,
and a series of Epistolce Spectantes ad Con-
cordiam Reipublica Christiana"
Epicharmus (b. 540 B.C., d. 450 B.C.), a
Greek philosopher and poet, bom at Cos, a
disciple of Pythagoras ; is said to have prac-
tised as a physician in Megara, Sicily,
whence he removed to Syracuse, and there
composed the first Dorian comedies, properly
so-called, fragments of which remain.
Epictetus, a Stoic philosopher of the 1st
century A.D., born at Hierapolis in Phrygia ;
was bought as a slave by Epaphroditus, a
favourite of Nero. When emancipated he
lived at Eome, until banished by Domitian,
and then became a teacher at Nicopolis in
Epirus. His lectures were transcribed by
his pupil, Arrian.
Epicurus (b. circa 340 B.C., d. 270 B.C.),
Greek philosopher. It is doubtful whether
his birth occurred before or after his
parents' removal from Gargettus, in Attica,
to Samos. His youth was spent in that
island, whence he removed to Athens,
when about eighteen, and afterwards taught
at Colophon, Mitylene, and Lampsacus. He
returned to Athens about 304, and remained
there till his death. He was founder of the
Epicurean school, who hold that the sum-
mum bonum consists in pleasure — chiefly
mental pleasure.
Epimenides, a semi-fabulous Cretan poet
and soothsayer, who lived about 600 B.C., and
is said to have delivered the Athenians from
a plague.
Louise Florence Pe'tronille,
Madame d' (b. 1725, d. 1783), daughter of
at. officernamed Tardieu d'Esclavelles ; mar-
ried her cousin, d'Epinay, in 1735. She was
strongly attached to Rousseau, for whom she
built the " Hermitage." She left Memoirs et
Correspondance de Madame d'Epinay, etc.
Epiphanius (b. circa 310, d. 403), Arch-
bishop of Constantia or Salamis, in Cyprus ;
a Jew by birth ; a learned but credulous
man, and an active controversialist } opposed
the doctrines of Origeu, and wrote the
Panarium, a treatise against heresies.
Episcopius, Simon (b. 1583, d. 1643),
Dutch divine; friend raid disciple of
Arminius ; was an able disputant, and
took part in the Remonstrant Conference
at the Hague and in the synod of Dort,
where he was the spokesman of the Remon-
strants.
Eponina, or Epponina (d. 78), the de-
voted wife of Julius Sabinus, a chief of the
Ligones, who opposed the Romans in Gaul,
was defeated, and nine years afterwards
captured and condemned to death. After
vainly imploring Vespasian to pardon him,
Eponina shared his punishment.
Epremensil, or Espremesnil, Jean Jacques
Duval (b. 1746, d. 1794) ; born at Pondi-
cherry, came to France in 1750, and
became councillor to the parliament of
Paris, whose rights he defended against
the minister Brienne. He advocated the
convocation of the states -general, and
was a representative of the noblesse of Paris
in the National Assembly. His subsequent
support of the roj'al privileges made him an
object of suspicion, and from his country
estate, whither he had retired after the 10th
of August, he was brought before the revo-
lutionary tribunal, and condemned to the
guillotine.
Erard, Se"bastien (b. 1752, d. 1831), born at
Strasburg, in 1780 established himself in
Paris as a maker of pianos. He improved
the construction of harps and pianos, and
built the grand organ for the chapel of the
Tuileries.
Erasistratus (d. circa 257 B.C.), a celebrated
physician ; a native of Ceos ; the first to dissect
human bodies. Was patronised by Seleucus
Nicator, King of Syria, and afterwards prac-
tised at Alexandria.
Erasmus, Desiderius (£.1467, d. 1536), one of
the greatest scholars of the Renaissance, born
at Rotterdam ; on his parents' death entered
a monastery, which he left to become a teacher
at Paris, and, at the invitation of his pupil,
Lord Mount joy, came to England. He settled
at Oxford, where he became the friend of
More, and studied divinity under Colet, and
Greek under Grocyn and Linacre. In 1506
he visited Italy, staying at Bologna and
Rome, where he was warmly received, but
returned to England, and was made Mar-
garet professor of divinity and professor
of Greek at Cambridge. He returned to
the Continent, and, after a journey to the
Low Countries, settled at Basle, where he
Era
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Eri
published his edition of the New Testament.
Erasmus was in favour of moderate reform
in the Church, as is shown by his Enchiridion
MiU.tis Christhini and Encomium Morice,
but he gave little support to Luther,
although he refused to write against him.
Erastus, Thomas (b. 1524, d. 1583),
German physician and theological writer ;
studied at Basle, and became physician and
counsellor to Frederic III., Elector-Palatine.
The views called Erastian were expressed in a
work on ecclesiastical excommunication, pub-
lished after his death, and answered by Beza.
Eratosthenes (b. 276 B.C., d. circa 196 B.C.),
mathematician, born at Gyrene, was sum-
moned from Athens by Ptolemy Euergetes to
take charge of the Library at Alexandria,
where he remained till his death. He
measured the obliquity of the ecliptic, and
determined the size of the earth, according
to the modern system.
Erckmann-Ciiatrain., the name adopted by
E"MILE ERCKMANN (b. 1822), and ATVF.XANDBE
CHATEAIN (b. 1826, ,d. 1890), French novelists,
authors of L'Ami Fritz (1864), ISHistoire
d-un Consent de 1813 (1864), etc.
Ercilla y Zuniga, Don Alonzo de (b.
1533, d. 1595), Spanish poet; became
chamberlain to the Emperor Rodolph II.
After travelling in Europe, served against
the rebel Araucanians in South America, and
wrote his epic, La Araucana.
Ericsson, John (b. 1803, d. 1889), Swedish
engineer, inventor of the atmospheric engine,
early showed an aptitude for mechanics, but
was at first an officer in the army. Came to
England in 1826, and in 1833 exhibited the
caloric engine, perfected in the Ericsson,
built in 1851. Proceeding to New York in
1839, he constructed the Princeton, in which
the screw was for the first time applied to
steam navigation, and invented ships with
revolving turrets for guns. In 1873 he pub-
lished a work on Moveable Torpedoes.
Erigena. [See Scotus.]
Erik L, " the Good," King of Denmark
(d. 1103), natural son of King Svend, suc-
ceeded his brother, Olaiis, in 1095.
Erik II., "the Fierce" (d. 1137), fought
against Magnus Sigurdsen, king of Norway,
and the Vandal pirates.
Erik IIL, " the Lamb " (d. 1147), favoured
the clergy, and finally retired to a monastery.
Erik IV. (d. 1250), began to reign in 1241 ;
quarrelled with his brothers, one of whom,
Abel, murdered him.
ErikV. (*. 1249, d. 1286), succeeded his
father, Christopher I., in 1259 ; was assassin-
ated by Duke Waldemar of Sonderjylland.
Erik VL (d. 1319), son of the preceding,
began to reign in 1286 ; fought against Nor-
way, and was taken prisoner in 1294.
Erik VII., of Denmark. [See Eric XIII. of
Sweden.]
Erik VIII., "the Victorious," King of
Sweden and Denmark; reigned conjointly
with his brother Olaf from 993, and on his
death became sole king. He added Den-
mark to his dominions.
Erik IX., "the Saint" (d. 1160), King of
Sweden and Denmark ; attacked the Finns,
whom he converted to Christianity. He was
slain by Magnus of Denmark.
Erik X., King of Sweden (d. 1216), son of
Cnut, and grandson of the preceding ; married
the sister of Waldemar II. of Denmark, and
reigned six years.
Erik XL, " the Limping " (d. 1252), King
of Sweden ; a minor at his accession in 1222 ;
was engaged in a struggle with the usurper,
Count Johansson, and afterwards with his
son, Holmgeir, till the death of the latter in
1248.
Erik XII. (d. 1359), son of Magnus, King
of Sweden and Norway ; was in 1350 set up
as joint king with his father, against whom
he fought till his death.
Erik XIII.," the Pomeranian" (b. 1382, d.
1449), elected King of Sweden in 1396 ; was
in 1397 proclaimed ruler over Norway and
Denmark. A rebellion having arisen through
his exactions, he fled to Gothland in 1439,
and died in obscurity.
Erik XIV. (b. 1535, d. 1577), King of
Sweden, son of Gustavus Vasa, whom he
succeeded in 1560 ; fought against Poland
and Denmark ; under the influence of his
minister, Goran Pehrsson, became cruel and
unjust, and was deposed by his brothers,
John and Charles, in 1569 ; was imprisoned,
and died of poison.
Erinna, Greek poetess, lived about 612 B.C.;
wrote The Distaff, etc.
Erizzo, Francesco (b. 1570, d. 1646), ac-
quired military renown in the war of Mantua;
became Doge of Venice in 1631, and displayed
great energy and patriotism, especially in
1645, when the Sultan Ibraham attacked the
island of Candia, and the resistance of the
Venetians saved Europe from the progress
of the Turks.
Erizso, Paolo (d. 1470), a Venetian ;
governor of Negropont, which he defended
with a much smaller force against Mahomet
II. On the. captuiie of the town, Erizzo
and his daughter, Anne, retired into the
castle, were made prisoners, and put to
death.
Eri
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Ers
Erizzo, Sebastiano (b. 1525, d. 1585), scholar
and philosopher, born at Yeuice ; studied at
Padua, and distinguished himself as an orator
and statesman in the Venetian senate. Among
his -works are one on politics, entitled I)ei
Govern* Civili, a treatise on the inventive
power of the ancients, an Essay on Ancient
Medals, and Le Sette Giornate, a book of
novels.
Erlach, Johann Ludwig von (b. 1595,
d. 1650), a native of Berne ; after serving
under the princes of Anhalt and Nassau,
became an officer in the army of Gustavus
Adolphus, whom he left to take command
of the troops raised in defence of the
town of Berne. In 1632 he was made
councillor, by Duke Bernard of Saxe-
Weimar, and given the command of the
Swiss frontier. On his death, he entered the
French service, and distinguished himself
under Conde, especially at the battle of Sens
(1648). His Memoirs throw light on events
in the Thirty Years' war.
Erlach, Rudolf von (d. 1360), liegeman
to the Count of Nydau ; was appointed leader
of the inhabitants of Berne against the
Emperor Louis of Bavaria ; won the battle
of Laupen, 1339 ; was assassinated at
Reichenbach by his son-in-law.
Erie, William, Sir (*. 1793, d. 1880), called
to the bar 1819 ; was successively Judge of
the Common Pleas (1844-46), and of the
Queen's Bench (1846-59). He was made
Chief Justice of the Common Pleas in 1859,
but resigned in 1866. He wrote a treatise
on The Law Relating to Trades Unions.
Ermac, Georg Adolf (b. 1806, d. 1877),
German man of science ; wrote a record of
his Voyage Round the World by Northern
Asia and the Two Oceans.
Ermengarde, Queen of Provence (b. 855),
only daughter of Louis II. of France ; in 877
married Boson, governor of Lombardy, and
afterwards of Provence, who became involved
in war with Louis III. In 882 she was im-
prisoned, but released on the, death of her
husband (888) . She afterwards withdrew to
a convent.
Ernest I., of ZeU, fifth Duke of Brunswick-
Luneberg (b. 1497, d. 1546), born at Ultzen,
second son of Duke Henry I. and Margaret of
Saxony, was a disciple of Luther ; signed the
Confession of Augsburg, and joined the
League of Smalkalden.
Ernest Augustus, sixteenth Duke of Bruns-
wick-Luneberg, and first Elector of Hanover
(b. 1629, d. 1698), was made Bishop of Osna-
briick in 1662. Fought at Consarbruck, took
Maestricht and Charlertjy, and brought about
the treaty of Pinneberg. Succeeding to the
dukedom, he joined the League of Augsburg
against Louis XIV., and was appointed
Elector in 1692.
Ernest Augustus,
Duke of Cumberland
son of George III. ;
army, and rose to the
in 1815 married the
Mecklenburg-Strelitz
crown of Hanover in
King of Hanover and
(b. 1771, d. 1851), fifth
entered the English
rank of field-marshal ;
Princess Frederica of
; succeeded to the
1837.
Ernesti, Johann August (b. 1707, d. 1781),
German philologer. professor at St. Thomas's
School, Leipzig; brought out editions of
several classical authors, and published a
critical commentary on the Epistle to the
Hebrews.
Ernouf, Jean Augustin, Baron (b. 1753, d.
1827), French general, born at Alen9on ;
joined the army of the North in 1793, and
distinguished himself by his defence of
Cassel ; in 1798 commanded the army of the
Danube till the arrival of Massena; was
appointed captain -general of Guadaloupe,
and after the restoration was made baron.
Ernoul, Edmond (t>. 1829), French lawyer
and politician, born in London ; member of
the National Assembly (1871) ; a zealous
supporter of the Comte de Chambord;
proposed the motion which led to M. Thiers'
resignation in 1873. He was minister of
justice from 1873 to 1876.
Erpen, Thomas von (b. 1584, d. 1624),
Dutch Orientalist; studied at Leyden, where
he was appointed professor of Oriental
languages 1613, and of Hebrew 1619. He
wrote Rudimenta Linyuce Arabica, Gram-
matica L'brcea Generalis, etc.
Errard, Charles (b. 1606, d. 1689), French
painter and architect, born at Nantes, was
employed by Louis XTV. to decorate the
Palais Eoyal. He suggested and founded
the Academy at Rome (1666), and was one
of the founders of the French Academy of
Painting (1648). Died at Kome.
Ersch, Johann Samuel (b. 1766, d. 1828),
a German bibliographer, born at Glogau,
Silesia, studied at the University of Halle ;
edited the Neue Hamburgher Zeitung from
1795 ; wrote La France Lltteraire, Handbuch
der I)eutsche Literatur, etc.
Erskine, David, Lord Dun (b. 1670,
d. 1758), Scotch lawyer, was called to the bar
in 1698; member of the last Scottish par-
liament, and strongly opposed the Union.
He was made a judge in 1711, and a Com-
missioner of the Court of Justiciary in 1713.
Erskine, Ebenezer (b. 1680, d. 1754),
Scottish minister ; founder of the Secession
Church; in 1703 became minister of the
Established Church at Portmoak in Kinross,
where he was very popular ; in 1731 removed
Era
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Esc
to West Church, Stirling: in 1740 finally
separated from the Scottish Church, and was
deposed. His adherents built him a new
place of worship.
Erskine, Henry, third Lord Cardross (b.
•Men I Go", d. 1603). vigorously opposed the
Lauderdale administration ; was fined and
imprisoned for four years in Edinburgh
Castle; joined a Scottish colony in South
Carolina, but returned to Europe and settled
at the Hague. He came to England with
William III., who made him a privy coun-
cillor.
Erskine, Hon. Henry (b. 1746, d. 1817),
son of the tenth Earl of Buchan ; an accom-
plished scholar, wit and lawyer ; attained to
the highest eminence in his profession, and
was Lord Advocate of Scotland in 1783 and
from 1806 to 1807. He was a consistent
Whig.
Erskine, John, Baron of Dun (b. 1509, d.
1591), scholar; studied Greek, and became a
Protestant. Knox found a home at his
castle. As one of the five ecclesiastical su-
perintendents nominated in accordance with
The First Book of Discipline, he actively
promoted the Reformation.
Erskine, John (b. 1695, d. 1768), of Carnock,
lawyer; held the chair of Scottish law in the
University of Edinburgh from 1737 to 1765 ;
wrote Principles of the Law of Scotland, and
The Institutes of the Law of Scotland.
Erskine, John, D.D. (b. 1721, d. 1803),
minister of the Scottish Church; published
Sermons and Theological Dissertations.
Erskine, John. [See Mar, Earl of.]
Erskine, Thomas, Lord (b. 1750, d. 1823),
son of the tenth Earl of Buchan ; after serv-
ing in the army and navy, was called to the
bar in 1778, and soon won renown as an
advocate by his defence of Lord Keppel and
of Lord George Gordon. A strong Whig,
he acted for the defence in the political
trials of the time, giving his aid to Home
Tooke, Thelwall, and Tom Paine ; his de-
fence of the latter cost him the post of at-
torney-general to the Prince of Wales. He
was now regarded as the defender of popular
liberties and constitutional rights. From
1790 he sat in Parliament as a supporter of
Fox ; in 1S06 became Chancellor under him,
and was raised to the peerage. Hencefor-
ward he took little part in politics, but vigor-
ously supported Queen Caroline in 1821.
Erskine, Sir Thomas (b. 1788, d. 1864),
son of the preceding ; was called to the bar
from Lincoln's Inn (1813) ; made King's
Counsel (1827) ; was Chief Judge of the New
Court of Bankruptcy from 1831 to 1842, and
a Judge of the Common Pleas from 1839 to
1844, when he retired, owing to ill-health.
Erskine, William (b. 1773, d. 1853), went
to India as secretary to Sir James Mackin-
tosh ; became a magistrate of Bombay, and
wrote a translation from the Turkisu nf the
Autobiography of the £/npi-ror jj<ibcr, Mix-
tory of I ml >.ii under the Emperors Baber and
, etc.
Erslev, Thomas Hansen (b. 1803, d. 1870),
a Danish bibliographical writer ; wrote a
Universal Dictionary of Danish Writers.
Erwin von Steinbach (d. 1318), archi-
tect, bom at Steinbach, near Buhl; de-
signed the new towers and the interior
ornamentation of Strasburg cathedral.
Erxleben, Johann Christian Polycarp (b.
1744, d. 1777), German naturalist; appointed
professor of natural philosophy at Gb'ttingen
in 1775 ; wrote Sy sterna Eegni Animalis.
Erfcalante, Juan Antonio (b. 1639, d.
1670), Spanish painter, born at Cordova,
imitated the Venetian masters. One of his
best pictures is the Life of St. Gerard, painted
for the cloisters of Clericos Minores at
Madrid.
Eschenbach, Wolfram von, a minne-
singer, who was alive at the beginning of the
13th century ; bom near Nuremberg ; took
part in the Civil wars of Germany, and spent
much time at the court of Hermann, land-
grave of Thuringia. at Eisenach. Among
the poems he is known to have written are
Titurel, Parcival, and eight Minnelieder.
Esehenburg, Johann Joachim (b. 1743, d.
1820), German writer; professor of belles
lettres at Brunswick ; translated Shakes-
peare, and wrote Monuments of Ancient
German Poetry, etc.
Escheamayer, Karl Adolf (b. Neuenberg,
Wurtemberg, 1768, d. 1854), a German mys-
tic philosopher ; professor of medicine, and
afterwards of philosophy, at Tubingen.
Escher von der Linth, Hans Konrad (b.
Zurich, 1767, d. 1823), statesman and en-
gineer ; lived throughout his life at Zurich ;
in 1798 founded the Swiss Republican, and
became a member of the Helvetian Direc-
tory. Resigning in 1803, he was engaged till
1810 in the construction of the Linth Canal,
by which he saved the valley from the devas-
tation of periodical floods. After 1814 his
life was devoted to the study of Swiss geo-
logy.
Escnrieht, Daniel Frederik (b. 1798, d.
1863), Danish naturalist; professor and
afterwards (1844) rector of the University of
Copenhagen ; wrote a Description of the
Human Eye, etc.
Eschscholtz, Johann Friedrich (b. 1793, d.
1831), German traveller and naturalist 3
Esc
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Ess
joined the expedition of Kotzebue (1815-18)
as physician, and, in conjunction with Cha-
misso, made important observations and col-
lections. In 1823 he accompanied Kotzebue
on another voyage, of which he published
an account IJL 1830.
Escobedo, Mariano (b. 1828), Mexican
soldier, of humble birth ; at the outbreak of
war with United States was leader of a band
of muleteers, whom he organised and led
against the enemy ; afterwards supported
Juarez ; in 186(3 became general of the army
of the North, and captured the emperor ;
after the revolution of 1876, fled to New
York ; returning to Mexico, was seized, and
tried by court martial, but acquitted.
Escoiquiz, Don Juan (b. 1762, d. 1820),
Spanish statesman ; after holding a pre-
bend in the cathedral of Saragossa,
became tutor to the Prince of Asturias,
afterwards Ferdinand VII. He resisted
Godoy, and, on the abdication of Charles
IV. became councillor of state, and all-
powerful with Ferdinand VII. Although
faithful to Ferdinand in his misfortunes, he
was twice disgraced by him, and finally ban-
ished to Andalusia (1820). He wrote an
epic poem, The Conquest of Mexico, and
translated Paradise Lost.
Escosura, Patrick) de la (b. 1807), Spanish
politician and writer ; after being three times
exiled as a Carlist (1824, 1834, and 1840),
became secretary of state in 1843 ; was
minister of the interior (1854-6), and am-
bassador to the German empire (1S72-4).
Besides his romances, El Conde de Candespina
and Xi Itey ni Roque, he has written poems,
dramas, and a constitutional history of
England.
Espartero, Joaquin "Baldomero, Duke of
Vittoria (b. 1792, d. IbTy), Spanish soldier
of humble birth ; distinguished himself
in South America against Bolivia ; served
against the Carlists during the Civil
war, becoming commander-in-chief of the
army of the North; in 1836 saved Madrid;
drove the enemy across the Ebro in 1837 ;
and brought the war to an end in
1840. On the resignation of Queen Chris-
tina (1841) he was appointed regent, but
driven from the country during an insur-
rection in 1843. After four years' residence
in England he returned, and, in conjunction
with O'Dounell, formed a coalition ministry
in 1854. whicl lasted two years.
Espejo, Antonio, Spanish traveller of the
16th century ; settled in Mexico, and, setting
out in 1582, traversed much of the unknown
country towards the north.
Espinosa, Don Diego d' (b. 1502, d. 1572),
Spanish statesman ; became president of the
council of Castile, inquisitor-general of
Spain, Bishop of Siguenza, and, in 1568,
cardinal. He excited the hatred of all bj
his arrogance ; was at last dismissed by
Philip II., and died in disgrace. By his in-
fluence over the king he contributed to the
death of Don Carlos.
Espinosa, Hyacinth Jerome d' (b. 1600, d.
1680), Spanish artist. Several of his works
are in the museum of Valencia, and others
at Madrid.
Espinosa, Nicholas (b. circa 1520), Spanish
poet, wrote, in continuation of Ariosto's
Orlando Furioso, a poem in thirty- five
cantos, treating of the legends of Spain and
the battle of Honcesvalles.
Espremesnil, J. J. [See E"pr&nensil.]
Espronceda, Jose de (b. 1810, d. 1842),
Spanish poet and politician ; as member of a
secret society, was imprisoned in the convent
of Guadalajara, and there commenced his
epic poem, El Pelago ; took part in the revo-
lution at Paris in 1830 ; returned after the
amnesty of 1833, but was banished to
Cuellar, where he wrote his romance, Don
Sancho Saldana ; took an active part in the
insurrection of Madrid, and in 1841 was
appointed secretary of legation at the Hague.
Espy, James Pollard (*. 1785, d. 1860),
American meteorologist ; advanced a theory
of the proximate cause of great atmospheric
disturbances. Published the Philosophy of
Storms, 1841.
Esquirol, Jean Etienne Dominique (b. 1772,
d. 1840), physician, born at Toulouse, was
the first to introduce a gentle treatment of
madness and idiocy. Succeeded Pinel in
the hospital of Salpetriere (1811), and in
1826 became chief physician of the asylum
at Charenton. He wrote Des Maladies
Mentales, etc.
Esquiros, Henri Alphonse (b. 1814,
d. 1876), French author and politician;
was elected to the Legislative Assembly
in 1850, and banished after the coup d'etat in
1851 ; became a member of the National
Assembly (1871). and voted with the Extreme
Left. Among his works are Les Hirondelles,
a volume of poems (1834), Charlotte Corday,
a romance (1840), and Les Vierges Martyrs,
les Vierges Folks, les Vierges Sages,
Essen, Hans Henrik, Count of (b. 1755,
d. 1824), Swedish general; was appointed
governor of Stockholm in 1796 ; commanded
the army in Pomerania in 1807, and de-
fended Stralsund against the French ; be-
came councillor of state in 1809 ; conducted
a successful campaign against Norway
(1813) ; was afterwards appointed field-
marshal and governor of Norway.
Esses, TTalter Devereux, first Earl of (4.
Ess
( 286 )
Eth
circa 1540, d. 1576), son of Sir Richard
Devereux ; succeeded to the titles of Viscount
Hereford and Lord Ferrers of Chartley ; won
the favour of Elizabeth, and, after sharing
in the suppression of the Northern rebellion,
was made Earl of Essex ; went to Ireland
in 1573 to crush a rebellion in Ulster ; came
back in 1575, but in 1576 returned to Ireland
as field- marshal ; was continually thwarted
by Leicester, and died of anxiety and dis-
appointment.
Essex, Robert Devereux, second Earl of
(b. 1567, d. 1601), son of the preceding; ac-
companied Leicester to the Low Countries
in 1585, and distinguished himself at Zutphen ;
on the death of Leicester became the Queen's
favourite, but offended her by joining in the
expedition to re-instate Don Antonio of
Portugal, and by marrying Sir Philip Sidney's
widow ; led an unsuccessful expedition to
Spain (1597) ; appointed Lord-lieutenant of
Ireland ; met with ill-success, returned with-
out leave, and, when denied access to the
queen, attempted to create an insurrection,
but was taken and executed.
Essex, Robert Devereux, third Earl of
(b. 1591, d. 1646), son of the preceding;
was restored to his titles and dignities in
1604 ; distinguished himself in Ho Hand under
the Prince of Orange ; became vice-admiral
in the English navy ; in the Civil war was
appointed general of the Parliamentary
forces ; was victorious at Edgehill and else-
where. He resigned the post in 1645.
Estaco, Achilles (b. 1524, rf. 1581), Portu-
guese scholar and poet ; was librarian to the
Cardinal Sforza, and secretary to the Council
of Trent. Wrote Sylva Calimachi and other
works in Latin.
Estaing, Charles Hector, Count d' (b, 1729,
d. 1794), French admiral ; after serving in the
army in India, under the Marquis de Bussy,
and being made prisoner at the siege of
Madras, entered the navy, and led an ex-
pedition to Sumatra, capturing several Eng-
lish forts. Placed in command of a squad-
ron sent to aid the United States against
England, he captured the isle of Grenada,
but ultimately met with reverses, and re-
turned to France in disgrace. He was
guillotined during the Revolution.
Estcourt, Richard (b. 1668, d. 1712), an
English actor and mimic ; appeared at Drury
Lane as Dominic in the Spanish Friar, and
wrote the Fair Example and Prunella.
Este, House of, a princely family 0f Italy,
whose origin is traced back to the Longobard
period, though the name of Este was not
assumed till the 10th century.
Esterhazy, a noble and illustrious Hun-
garian family, which traces its descent from
Paul d'Esteras, who was baptised in the 10th
century, and was a descendant of Attila.
Its most important members were : —
PAUL (b. 1635, d. 1713), a general who
helped to defeat the Turks at St. Gothard in
1664, defended Vienna against them in
1633 and Buda in 1686, and was made vice-
gerent of Hungary.
NICHOLAS (b. 1765, d. 1 833) , a generous pat-
ron of the arts, who in 1807 refused the crown
of Hungary.
PAUL ASTTHONT (b. 1786, d. 1866), dip
lomatist, ambassador at Dresden, Rome, and
London; minister of foreign affairs, 1848r
etc.
Estrees, GabrieUe d' (b. 1571, d. 1599),
a favourite of Henri IV. of France ;
was made by him Marquise da Mouceaux and
Duchesse de Beaufort, and hoped to become
queen. She is believed to have been poisoned
by the Grand Duke of Tuscany.
£tampes, Anne de Pisseleu, Duchesse d'
(b. 1508, d. 1576), a favourite of Francis I.
of France, originally maid of honour to the
Duchesse d' Angouleme. She was married,
by the king's desire, to^Jean de Brosse, after-
wards made Due d'Etampes. The latter
years of the king were troubled by jealousies
between Anne and Diana of Poictiers, the
mistress of the dauphin.
Etex, Antoine (b. 1808, d. 1888), French
sculptor, painter, and architect ; executed
the colossal group of Cain and his Family in
1833. His most important monument is that
of the painter Ingres (1868).
Ethelbald, King of Mercia (d. 757), reigned
from 716, and ruled with vigour and justice,
but was defeated by Cuthred, King of
Wessex.
Ethelbald, King of England (d. 860), son
of Ethehvulf, began to reign over Wessex in
855. He was a man of vicious life, and his
marriage with his stepmother, Judith, ex-
cited general disapprobation.
Ethelbert, King of Kent (b. circa 552, d.
616) , son of Eormenric. whom he succeeded in
560, was defeated by Ceawlin, King of Wes-
sex ; became bretwaldain 593 ; and, after the
landing of Augustine, was baptised in 597.
Ethelbert, King of Wessex (d. 866), third
son of Ethelwulf; succeeded his brother
Ethelbald in 860. His reign was troubled
by Danish invasions.
Ethelf rid, or ^thelfrith, King of Northum-
bria (d. 617), succeeded his father, Ethelric,
King of Bernicia in 593, and conquered
Deira, thus forming the kingdom of Nor-
thumbria. He successfully invaded North
Wales, but was defeated by Rsedwald , King
of East Anglia.
Eth
(287)
Eud
Ethelred I., King of England (d. 871),
fourth son of Ethelwulf; succeeded his
brother Ethelbert, in 866 ; was constantly at
war with the Danes, whom, in conjunction
with his brother, Alfred, he several times
defeated.
Ethelred IL, King of England (b. 968,
d, 1016), son of Edgar and Elfrida ; suc-
ceeded to the throne in 978. He was weak,
cruel, and licentious, and the kingdom suf-
fered much from the Danes and from conse-
quent anarchy. In 1013 he was driven from
England by Swend, but returned the follow-
ing year.
Ethelreda, St. (St. Audry), Queen of
Egfrid, King of Xorthumbria ; took refuge
from her husband in the Isle of Ely,
and there founded the conventual church,
afterwards the cathedral of Ely, which
is dedicated to St. Ethelreda and St.
Peter.
Ethelwulf, King of Wessex (d. 858), suc-
ceeded his father, Egbert, in 839 ; fought
successfully against the Danes and Welsh ;
made a pilgrimage to Home ; on his re-
turn was forced to cede the greater part of
his kingdom to his son Ethelbald.
Etherege, Sir George (b. circa 1634,
d. 1688), dramatist; wrote The Comical
Revenge ; or, Love in a Tub (1664), She
Would if She Could (1667), and the Man of
Mode, or Sir Fopling flutter (1676). He
was knighted by James II. , and appointed
envoy to Katisbon.
Etienne, Henri (b. circa 1460, d. 1520),
founder of a family of printers; set up his
press near the University of Paris, whose
arms and motto he adopted.
Etienne, Eobert (b. 1503, d. 1559), son of
the above, was patronised by Francis I., on
whose death he retired to Switzerland, and
became a convert to Calvinism. His chief
editions are a folio Bible, Greek Testament,
Hebrew Bible in eight volumes, and a Latin
and Gallic dictionary, the most ancient of its
kind.
Etienne, Henri (b. 1528, d. 1598), son of
Robert ; spent a large fortune in amassing
Greek manuscripts, and was ruined by the
issue of his Greek dictionary. He also wrote
a Thesaurus of the Greek Language, an edi-
tion of Anacrepn ; a Treatise on the Life of
Queen Catherine de Medici, and several
translations.
Ett, Kaspar (b. 1788, d. 1847), organist and
composer ; born at Eresing, in Bavaria, edu-
cated at Munich, where he was organist of St.
Michael's from 1816 till his death; revived
and imitated the Church music of the 16th,
17th, and 18th centuries ; was also an excel-
lent linguist, and set to music the responses
of the Greek Church, and several Hebrew
psalms for the use of the Jewish syna-
gogue.
Etting-hausen, Constantin, Baron von
(b, 1826), professor of botany in the
University of Gratz. Besides memoirs on
botanical and palseontological subjects, he
has written Physiotypia PtantarumAustna-
carum, etc.
EttmiUler, Ernst Moritz Ludwig (b.
1802, d. 1877), German philologist, pro-
fessor of German at Zurich in 1833.
Ettricus, surnamed "The Estriot," a
Christian philosopher, poet, and geographer
of _ the 4th century, born at Estria. His
chief works are Cosmographia, and Sopho-
graminios, both written in Latin.
Etty, William, E.A. (b. 1787, d. 1849),
artist, born at York, son of a baker
and miller; was for seven years ap-
prenticed to a letterpress printer at
Hull; coming to London was patronised
by Fuseli, and became the pupil of Sir
Thomas Lawrence ; first exhibited in the
Academy in 1811; during a visit to Italy
in 1822 acquired the vivid sense of colour
and harmony which distinguished his later
works. He especially excelled in flesh tints.
Among his best pictures are Judith, The
Judgment of Paris, and Venus Attired by the
Graces.
Eubulides, a philosopher and dramatist of
Miletus. Demosthenes was his pupil.
Euclid of Alexandria, a celebrated geo-
metrician. Little is known of his life. Ac-
cording to Proclus he lived from 328 to 283
B.C., and was one of the Platonic school.
He is said to have written other works
besides the Elements of Geometry.
Euclid of Megara, (d. probably circa 374
B.C.), a Greek philosopher; disciple and
friend of Socrates, after whose death he esta-
blished his school at Megara.
Eudocia, Augusta (b. 394, d. 461), the
learned and beautiful daughter of Leontius,
an Athenian sophist, married the Emperor
Theodpsius II., after which she became a
Christian. She was subsequently disgraced,
and died in retirement at Jerusalem.
Eudoxia, Empress of the East (b. 375, d
404), daughter of Bauto, a Frank, married
the Emperor Arcadius in 395.
Eudoxia, Empress of the West (b. 422),
married Maximilian HI., about 436, and, on
his assassination by Petronius Maximus in
455, was forced to accept the hand of his
murderer. She appealed to Genseric the
Vandal, who captured Rome and delivered
her.
End
( 288 )
Eus
1
Eudoxius.an ecclesiastic of the 4th century,
born at Arabissus, in Armenia Minor ; was
successively Bishop of Germanicia, on the
Euphrates, and of Autioch, and patriarch of
Constantinople. After belonging to various
Arian sects, he finally became a follower of
Aetius of Antioch.
Eugene, Francois, Prince of Savoy (b.
1663, d. 1736), son of Eugene Maurice,
Count of Soissons ; joined the Austrian
service ; distinguished himself against the
Turks in 1683, and was present at the
siege of Belgrade in 1688. After serving
against the French, and defeating Catinat
in Italy, he overthrew the Turks at Zenta.
Again opposed to the French in the War of
Succession, he captured Villeroi at Cremona,
and joined Marlborough in 1704, taking part
in the battle of Blenheim. He then went
to Italy, and was defeated at Cassano
(1705), but soon afterwards gained a vic-
tory, and relieved Turin. In 1708 he joined
Marlborough in Flanders, and was present
at Oudeuarda and Malplaquet. He again
distinguished himself against the Turks at
the battles of Petenvaradin and Belgrade.
Eugenie-Marie de Guzman, ex-Empress of
the French and Countess de Teba (b. 1826),
daughter of the Count of Montijos, an
officer in the Spanish army ; married Napo-
leon III. in 1853.
Eug-enius, Archbishop of Toledo in the
7th century ; wrote a Treatise on the Trinity,
and other works.
Bug-emus (d. 505), Bishop of Carthage;
was banished on account of his orthodoxy
by Huneric, the Vandal King of Africa.
After some time he returned, and was again
banished to Vienne, where he died.
Eugenius I., Pope (^.658), a pious Roman
priest; elected in 654, while his predecessor,
Martin L, was in exile, through the persecu-
tion of the Emperor Constans.
Eugenius IL, Pope (d. 827) ; his election
(824) was opposed by Zizimus, the candidate
of the Roman aristocracy, but he was sup-
ported by Louis le Debonnaire, and his son,
Lotharius.
Eugenius III., Pope (Pietro Bernardo da
Pisa) (d. 1153), a disciple of St. Bernard;
elected in 1 145. Under his reign the Romans
rose against the temporal power of the Pope.
He fled to France, where he remained till
1152, when Frederic Barbarossa promised
him his aid. He died at Tivoli on his way
to Rome.
Eugenius IV., Pope (d. 1447) ; elected in
1431 ; vainly attempted to dissolve the Coun-
cil of Basle "in 1437, and by his opposition to
it caused the great schism of the 15th cen-
tury within the pale of the Roman Church.
Euler, Leonhard (b. 1707, d. 1783),
mathematician, bom at Basle ; was in-
vited by Catherine II. to Russia in 1727, ar t
taught mathematics at St. Petersburg. In
1741 he went to Berlin, but returned to St.
Petersburg in 1766. His writings are nu-
merous and valuable.
Eulogius, Cordubensis, Saint and Martyr
(d. 85U), joined other Spanish Christians in
reviling the Mahometans, under whom they
were living peaceably, and was consequently
beheaded by them.
Eumenes (b. 361, d. 316 B.C.), born at
Cardia, in the Thracian Chersonesus,
was secretary to Alexander of Macedon,
after whose death he was made satrap
of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. He de-
feated Craterus and Neoptolemus, but was
betrayed by his troops, and put to death by
Autigonus.
Eumenes L, King of Pergamos (d. 241
B.C.) ; began to reign in 2bo, and fought
against Antiochus Soter.
Eumenes II., King of Pergamos (d. circa
159 B.C.), succeeded his father, Attalus I.,
in 197, and through his alliance with the
Romans, became very powerful.
Eunapius (b. 347, d. circa 420), Greek
historian, wrote Lives of the Philosophers
and Sophists, and a continuation of
Dexippus' history extending from 270 to
404.
Eunomius (d, 394) , a disciple of the Arian
Aetius ; became Bishop of Cyzicus, but died
in banishment.
Euphranor, painter and sculptor, a native
of Corinth, called " the Isthmian," lived
about 364 B.C. All his works have per-
ished.
Eupompus of Sicyon, Greek painter;
lived about 364 B.C., and founded the Sicy-
onic school.
Euric, or Evaric, King of the Visigoths (o.
circa 420, d. 484) ; in 466 assassinated
his brother, Theodoric. and seized the throne.
After gaining possession of the whole of
Gaul, he sent his troops into Spain, which he
added to his empire.
Euripides (b. 480 B.C. d. 406 B.C.),
Greek tragedian, born at Salamis ; rival and
contemporary of Sophocles, and friend of
Socrates ; studied under Anaxagoras, and
produced his first tragedy in 455. He sought
in Macedonia a refuge from the satire of
Aristophanes. Among his works are the
Alccstis, Hecuba, and Medea.
Eusebius (b. 315, d. 370), Bishop of Ver-
celli, owing to his warm defence of Athana-
sius, was banished by Constantius first to
Ens
(289)
Eve
and afterwards to Egypt. He re-
turned in the reign of Julian.
Euse'oius, Pamphilus (b. circa 267, d. circa
338) , Bishop of Caesarea, in Palestine ; at-
tended the Council of Nice (325), and drew
up the first draft of the creed. His most
important work is the Historia Eccksias-
tica, which reaches to the year 324.
Eustaclii, or Eustacliio, Bartolommeo
(d. 1574), Italian anatomist ; professor of
medicine at Rome in 1562; made many dis-
coveries in anatomy, and left a valuable
series of plates, drawn under his direction by
Titian, and discovered at Urbino in 1712.
He was little appreciated during his life-
time. His writings have been published
under the title of Opuscula Anatomica.
Eustatnius, an ecclesiastic of the 4th
century, sat in the Council of Nice as Bishop
of Beroea, and afterwards became Patriarch
of Antioch. At the Council of Nice he
opposed the Arians, who afterwards induced
Constantine the Great to banish him.
Eutropius, Flavius, Latin historian of the
4th century; was secretary to Constantine
the Great, and afterwards accompanied Julian
the Apostate in his Persian expedition. His
history extends from the foundation of Rome
to the reign of Valens.
Eutyches (b. circa 378), head of a monas-
tery near Constantinople ; in opposing the
Nestorians gave expression to another heresy,
maintaining that the human body of Christ
was only apparent. A council at Ephesus in
449 acquitted him of all error, but he was con-
demned in the fourth (Ecumenical Council
held at Chalcedon in 451.
Evagoras (d. 374 B.C.), tyrant of Salamis,
in Cyprus, gave asylum to Conon, after the
Athenian defeat at JEgospotami. He was
tributary to the Persians.
Evald, Johann (b. 1743, d. 1781), Danish
poet ; ran away from the university of
Copenhagen to join the Prussian army,
which he deserted for the Austrian. He
afterwards returned to the university. On
leaving it he betook himself to literature.
Most of his life was spent in sickness, poverty,
and obscurity. His chief poems are Adam
and Evet The Fisherman, and Balder's
Death.
Evans, Frederick John Owen, Sir (b. 1815,
d. 1885), hydrographer; in 1833 was em-
ployed in surveying the Bahama coast ; after-
wards explored the Coral Sea and Torres
Strait under Captain Blackwood ; surveyed
the shores of New Zealand from 1847 to 1851;
took part in the Baltic campaign, and in
1874 was appointed hydrographer. He was
one of the British delegates at the Inter-
national Conference held at Washington
(1885) to fix a prime meridian and universal
day.
ivans, George de Lacy, Sir, G.C.B. (b.
1787, d. 1870), general, born at Moig, in
Ireland; served under Wellington in the
Peninsula, and in the North American wai
of 1814 ; joined the English army in Flan-
ders, and was present at Quatre Bras and
Waterloo; was Liberal member for West-
minster from 1833 to 1841, and 1846 to 1865 ;
headed the " British Legion " sent to Spain
(1835) to aid the queen -? egent ; com-
manded the second division vf the Easten/
army in the Crimean war, and distin-
guished himself at the Alnra, Sebastopol,
and Inkerman ; received the thanks of
Parliament.
Evans, John, D.C.L., F.K.S. (b. 1823),
antiquary ; formerly a paper manufacturer ;
devoted his leisure to antiquarian pursuits ;
became president of the Numismatic Society,
and editor of the Numismatic Chronicle. He
has been president of the Geological Society,
and of the Society of Antiquaries. Among
his works are Coins of the Ancient Britons
(1864), and The Ancient Stone Implements of
Great Britain (1872).
Evans, Oliver (b. 1755, d. 1819), American
mechanist, born at Philadelphia, invented
the high-pressure steam engine.
Evelyn, John (b. 1620, d. 1706), author,
born at Wotton, in Surrey; passed from
Balliol College, Oxford, to the Middle
Temple in 1640 ; visited Holland in 1641 ;
resided in France and Italy 1643-7 ;
in 1652 settled at Sayes Court, near
Deptford, and, notwithstanding his Royalist
opinions, lived unmolested. In 1700 he re-
moved to Wotton. His chief works ace
Sylva, and his Diary and Correspondence.
Evemerus, or Eufcemerus, Greek philo-
sopher and writer ; lived about 300 B.C. ; was
sent to the Indian Ocean by Cassander, King
of Macedon, and reached the island of
Panchsea, where he discovered monumental
inscriptions, on which he based his Sacred
History, giving a rational explanation of
Greek myths.
Everardi, Nicolaus (b. circa 1462, d.
1532), Dutch jurist, president, in 1509, of the
Great Council of Holland and Zeeland.
Wrote Topica and Consilia sive Responsa
Juris. Died at Mechlin.
Everdingen, Alder van (b. 1621, d. 1675),
Dutch artist, known as the Salvator Rosa of
the North. Two of his works are in the
Louvre. He was also a designer and engraver.
Everest, Sir George (b. 1790, d. 1866), en-
gineer and surveyor ; educated at Woolwich ;
entered the Bengal Artillery, and was en-
gaged in a surveying expedition to Java
Eve
( 290)
Ezz
(1814-16) ; in 1818 became chief -assistant to
Colonel Lambton (founder oj the Great
Trigonometrical Survey of India), whom he
succeeded in 1823. His chief work is the
northern part of the great Meridional Arc of
India, 1H degrees in length. His name is
perpetuated in Mount Everest.
Everett, Alexander Hill (b. 1792, d. 1847),
American politician and man of letters ; born
at Boston, Massachusetts ; held several diplo-
matic posts, the last being at Canton, where
he died; wrote treatises on Europe and
America, and was editor of the North
American lieview from 1830 to 1835.
Everett, Edward (b. 1794, d. 1865), Ameri-
can author and statesman, brother of the
preceding; became professor 01 Greek at
Harvard in 1815 ; travelled in Europe from
1815 to 1818; became editor of the North
American Review, and was a member of Con-
gress from 1824 to 1834, governor of Massa-
chusetts from 1835 to 1839, and from 1840
to 1845 minister-plenipotentiary to England,
in which capacity he succeeded in adj usting
several delicate matters. He became secre-
tary of state in 1852, and was elected to the
Senate in 1853. He wrote The Dirge of
Alaric the Visigoth (a poem), Liven of
Washington and General Stark, and other
works, but was best known as an orator.
Eversley, Charles Shaw Lefevre, Viscount
(b. 1794, d. 1888), called to the bar, 1819;
sntered Parliament in IS 30 ; was elected
Speaker in 1839, and held the office till 1857,
when he was raised to the peerage.
Ewald, Georg Heinrich August von (b.
1803, d. 1875), German Orientalist and
theologian, born at Gottingen ; a pupil
of Eichhorn ; was professor of philosophy
and afterwards (1835) of Oriental languages
at Gottingen. His opposition to the over-
throw of the Hanoverian constitution led to
his dismissal in 1837. After residing at the
University of Tubingen, where he encoun-
tered much opposition, he returned in 1848,
but again lost his prof essorship in 1867 owing
to his refusal to take the oath of allegiance
to the king of Prussia. He was afterwards
a member of the Reichstag. Among his
works are the Ausfuhrliche Grammatik, still
the standard grammar of the Hebrew lan-
guage, a History of the People of Israel,
1843-68, and Commentaries on the fsalms.
Ewald, Johann. [See Evald.]
Ewart, William (b. 1798, d. 1869), a
Liberal politician ; advocated the abolition of
capital punishment ; passed an act (1850)
establishing free public libraries and schools
of design in large towns, and in 1864 one
legalising the use of the metric system.
Ewing, Juliana Horatia (b. 1842, d. 1885),
daughter of the Rev. A. S. Gatty; married
Major A. Ewing in 1867. She contributed
to Aunt Judy's Magazine, and wrote A flat
Iron for a farthing (1873), A Great JLmer*
gency (1877), Jackanapes (1884), and other
tales for children.
Exmouth, Edward Pellew, Viscount (b.
1757, d. 1833), served in the wars with
America and France ; was afterwards ap-
pointed to the command of the East Indian ,
station. In 1814 he bombarded Algiers.
Eybler, Joseph von (b. 1765, d. 1846),
musician ; pupil of Albrechtsberger ; friend
of Haydn and Mozart. Held a post as
kapellmeister at Vienna from 1825 to 1833.
Eyck, Hubert van (b. 1366, d. 1426),
painter of the early Flemish school, born
at Eyck, or Maaseyck. He painted the
greater part of an altar-piece, the Adoration
of the Lamb, for the cathedral of St. Bavon
at Ghent, and shares with his brother Jan
the reputation of the discovery of oil-paint-
ing. With him he founded the Flemish
school of painting. He died at Ghent.
Eyck, Jan van (b. circa 1390, d. 1441).
brother of the preceding, whom he assisted
in his altar-piece, the Adoration of the
Lamb, in the cathedral of St. Bavon, at
Ghent.
Eyre, Edward John (*. 1815), admini-
strator, son of a Yorkshire clergyman ; in
1833 went to Australia, where he was suc-
cessful in sheep -farming, and led an ex-
ploring expedition ; was lieutenant-governor
of New Zealand in 1845, and of St. Vincent
from 1854 to 1860 ; appointed governor of
Jamaica, he crushed the negro rebellion with
much severity. He was suspended, and his
conduct examined by a committee of in-
quiry, which acquitted him.
Eyre, Sir James (b. 1734, d. 1799), lawyer ;
called to the bar in 1755 ; was appointed
recorder of London in 1763, Baron of the
Exchequer in 1772, and Chief Justice of the
Common Pleas in 1793. He presided at the
trials of Hardy, Tooke, and Thelwall.
Eyre, Sir Vincent (b. 1811, d. 1881),
soldier ; entered the Bengal artillery 1828 ; in
the defence of Cabul, during the Afghan
insurrection of 1841, offered himself, his
wife, and ^hild, as hostages to Akhbar
Khan. He relieved Arrah, and also dis-
tinguished himself in the Telief of Lucknow
and the capture of Alumbagh.
Ezz-ed-din ("Honour of Religion"), the
title of an Arabian poet (b. 1181, d. 1261), an
imaun, orpreacher, at Damascus, and then at
Cairo. He wrote an allegorical poem on
birds and flowers.
Fab
(291)
Fab
Faber, Frederick William (b. 1814, d.
1863), divine and poet, nephew of George
Stanley Faber, was educated at Harrow
and at University College, Oxford, where
he obtained a fellowship. In 1843 he
became incumbent of Elton, Hunts ; in
1845 he seceded to the Church of Rome.
In 1849 he founded the Oratory of ths
Brotherhood of St. Philip Neri at Bromp-
ton, and here he remained until his
death. His theological works attracted
great attention, and some of them have
been translated into French, German, and
Dutch. His poems, which include some
popular hymns, have also gone through
many editions.
Faber, George Stanley (b. 1773, d. 1854),
Anglican theologian, became prebendary of
Salisbury cathedral in 1831, and master of
Sherburn Hospital in 1832. His works,
which have to do mostly with the interpre-
tation of prophecy, include Hora Mosaicce,
the Bampton Lectures for 1801, etc.
Fabert, Abraham de (b. 1599, d. 1662),
French general, was in 1654 created mar-
shal of France and governor of Sedan for
his services in capturing Porto Longone
and Piombino.
Fabian. [See Fabyan, Robert.]
Fabianus, Bishop of Rome 238, suffered
death in the Decian persecution, 250. From
him dates the first germ of the cardinalate.
Fabius. [See Fabyan, Robert.]
Fabius, Maximus Gurges Q. [See Pon-
tius, Caius.J
Fabius, Maximus Rullianus Quintus (d.
circa 287 B.C.), Roman general, was aedile
in 331, master of the horse in 325, consul
in 322, and in 315 was appointed dictator.
He attained this dignity twice, and that of
consul five times, and triumphed over the
Samnites, the Gauls, the Etruscans, and
the Umbri.
Fabius, Maximus Quintus (b. about 275
B.C., d. 203 B.C.), Roman general, was great-
grandson of the preceding, and was sur-
named " Cunctatpr " because, having in 217
been appointed dictator for the second time
and entrusted with the defence of Italy
against the victorious Hannibal, he pursued
a course of cautious and patient generalship,
never risking a general engagement with
his opponent, but cutting off his supplies,
and gradually wearying him out, and meet-
ing with signal success. Before his ap-
pointment to the dictatorship he was five
times consul.
T2
Fabius, Quintus Pictor, the earliest Roman
historian, nourished about 220 B.C., and
wrote Annale-8) of which we possess frag-
ments extending from the origin of Rome
to his own days.
Fabre d' Eglantine, Philippe Francois de
Nazaire (b. 1755, d. 1794), French politician
and dramatist, was a member of the Con-
vention, and also of the Committee of
Public Safety. For a time he kept well
abreast of the most extreme of the revo-
lutionary leaders, but at last, lagging beliiud,
was convicted of complicity with "foreign
conspirators," and sentenced to death at
the same time as Danton.
Fabretti, Raffaele (b. 1618, d. 1700),
antiquary and archaeologist, became papal
treasurer under Pope Alexander VII.,
and afterwards keeper of the papal
archives of the Castle of St. Angelo. His
works deal with the aqueducts of Rome,
ancient monuments (especially Trajan's
Column), and inscriptions. His collection
of antiquities is preserved in the ducal
palace of Urbino.
Fabriano, Gentile da (b. circa 1348, d.
circa ^ 1428), painter, so delighted the
Venetian senate with a picture of the en-
gagement between the fleet of Venice and
that of the Emperor Barbarossa, that they
made him a patrician and gave him a pen-
sion. Among the best of his extant works
is his Adoration of the Kings, done for the
church of the Holy Trinity in Florence.
Fabricius, Caius Luscinus, Roman general,
was consul in 282 B.C., and compelled the
Lucanians to raise the siege of Thurii. He
was again consul in 278.
Fabricius, Girolamo. [See Fabrizio.]
Fabricius, Johann Albrecht (b. 1668, £
1736), critic and bibliographer, was pro-
fessor of rhetoric at Hamburg, where he
died. His chief work is the Bibliotheca
Grceca, in 14 vols.
Fabricius, Johann Christian (b. 1745, d.
1808), a distinguished Danish entomologist,
having worked under Linnaeus at LTpsala,
was in 1775 appointed to the chair of natural
history at Kiel. He is the originator of the
system of insect classification which is
determined by the structure of the mouth.
An account of his life appears in the
Transactions of the Entomological Society.
vol. iv. (London, 1845).
Fabrizio d'Acquapendente, Girolamo
(i. 1537, d. 1619), anatomist and surgeon,
born at Acquapendente, near Orvieto,
Pab
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Fai
was professor of surgery in the University
of Padua for about forty years. To his
observations on the valves and the veins,
Harvey, his pupil, admittedly owed the
process of thought which led hini to discover
the circulation of the blood.
Fabrcni, Angelo (*. 1732, d. 1803), bio-
graphical writer, born at Marradi, Tuscany,
is the author of Vitce Italorum Jjoctnna
ExceUentiiun (twenty volumes, 1778-1805),
and also of lives of Cosirno and others of the
Medici family.
Fabrot, Charles Annibal (b. 1581, d. 1569),
jurist, was professor of jurisprudence in
Aix (Provence), his native town. His chief
work is a translation of the laws of the
Eastern Empire, entitled Basilicon.
Fabvier, Charles Nicolas, Baron (b. 1782,
d. 1855), French general, a native of Pont-a-
Mousson, distinguished himself at Moscow in
1812, and was made baron and colonel in
1820. He was imprisoned for being impli-
cated in the political troubles of August.
Arrested again in 1822, he left France,
travelled in England, Spain, and Portugal,
and took an active part in the Greek War
of Independence. Returning to France in
1830, he participated in the revolution. He
was made lieutenant-general in 1839, and
peer of France in 1845. Later he becaine
Commander-in-chief of the Danish army in
Schles wig - Holstein.
Fabyan, Robert (b. circa 1450, d. circa
1512), English chronicler, came of an old
Essex faniiljr, was a member of the Drapers'
Company, and in 1493 was appointed an
alderman and sheriff of London. His annals
extend from the fabulous times of Brutus to
the year 1533.
Facciolati, Jacopo (b. 1682, d. 1769),
lexicographer, born at Torreglia, near
Padua, was professor of theology and logic
at Padua, and also rector of the Univer-
sity. He brought out a new edition of
Calepinus's Lexicon of the Seven Lan-
guages, and largely contributed to For-
cellini's great Latin Lexicon.
Faed, John, R.S.A. (b. 1820), painter, is
elder brother of Thomas Faed (q.v.), and,
like him, was born at Burley Mill, Kirkcud-
brightshire. In 1841 he settled in Edin-
burgh, where he exhibited in 1850 some
pictures of humble life. He came to
London in 1864, and has since then pro-
duced a considerable number of popular
works.
Fa,ed, Thomas, R.A. (b. 1826), painter, son
of a Scottish millwright, studied in Edin-
burgh under his brother John, and became
an Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy
in 1849. In 1S52 he came to London, and
three years later made a deep impression
with his Mitherless £aim, which has been
followed by many other pathetic scenes from
lowly life. In 1859 he was elected A.R.A.,
and in 1864 R.A.
Fagel, Gaspar (b. 1629, d. 1C88), Dutch
statesman, was Grand Pensioner of Holland,
and showed great activity in supporting
William Prince of Orange, both in his
operations against Louis XIV. and in his
English expedition.
Fagginola, Delia Uguecione (b. about
1250, d. 1319), Italian general and states-
man, having distinguished himself against
the Guelphs of Romagna, was entrusted
with the command of the Pisan troops
against the Guelphs of Tuscany, upon
whom he inflicted a crushing defeat at
Montecatini. Fearing that he was intending
to establish a dictatorship, the Pisans drove
him out, and he ended his days in Lom-
bardy, at the court of Can Grande della
Scala.
Fahlcrantz, Christian Erik (b. 1790, d.
6th August, 1866), poet and theologian, was
appointed professor of theology at Upsala
in 1827, and in 1849 Bishop of Westeras,
where he died.
Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel (b. 1686, d.
1736), Prussian experimental philosopher,
after travelling in England, Germany, and
France, settled in Holland. About 1714 it
occurred to him to use quicksilver instead of
spirits of wine in the construction of ther-
mometers. By this substitution the accu-
racy of the instrument was greatly
enhanced. In 1724 he was elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society of London,
and in the Philosophical Transactions of
that year there appeared several papers
from his pen.
Faidherbe, Louis Le"on Ce'sar (b. 1818),
French general and archseologist, was ap-
pointed governor of Senegal in 1854. From
1867 to 1870 he governed a district of the
province of Algiers. Being a Republican,
he was not offered a command on the out-
break of the Franco-German war, but
when Gambetta had come into ascendency
he was appointed commander-in- chief of
the army of the north. He fought several
bloody but indecisive battles, and at last
retired to Lille, and remained there until
the conclusion of the armistice. In 1872
he went to Egypt on an official arch geological
mission.
Fairbairn, Andrew M., D.D. (*. 1839),
theologian, was born in Edinburgh, and
educated at its university. In 1878 he was
elected principal of Airedale Congregational
College, Bradford, since removed to Oxford
as Mansfield College. Among his works ifl
Studies in the Philosophy of Religion and
History (1876).
Pai
(293)
Pal
Fairbairn, Sir William, Bart. (b. 1789,
d. 1874), engineer, was the son of a farm
bailiff of Kelso, Roxburghshire, and worked
first as a mason, then as a carter, after-
wards applying himself to practical me-
chanics. His investigations into canal
navigation in 1830 led incidentally to the
great development of the use of iron in ship-
building ; later he invented the rectangular
self-supporting tubular bridge. He died at
Moor Park, Surrey.
Fairfax, Edward (b. circa 1580, d. 1635),
poetical and miscellaneous writer, was a
son (it is said a natural son) of Sir Thomas
Fairfax, of Denton, Yorkshire. He is
known chiefly by his translation of Tasso's
Jerusalem Delivered (1600), in the metre of
the original, which has been highly praised
by such good judges as Dry den, Collins,
and Waller, but he also wrote a Dl-enirse
of Witchcraft (1621), which has been pub-
lished in the Miscellanies of the Philcbiblou
Society (1858-9). He died at Fewston, near
Otley.
Fairfax, Thomas, Lord (*. 1612, d. 1671),
Parliamentary general, a native of Denton,
Yorkshire, saw service is. Holland in 1629
under his uncle, Lord Vere, as a volunteer,
and married his leader's fourth daughter,
Anne, in 1637, soon after his return to
England. In the Civil war which broke out
in 1642 he sided with Parliament, and in
1645, having won renown at Marston Moor
and Naseby, was appointed to succeed the
Earl of Essex as general of the Parlia-
mentary forces. He held this office until
superseded by Cromwell in June, 1650, in
consequence of his refusal to march against
the Scots when they proclaimed Charles II.
He then settled down on his Yorkshire
estates. After Cromwell's death he took
part in the Restoration movement, gathering
troops to assist Monk, holding York in the
King's name, and crossing over to the
Hague in 1660 as head of the commission to
arrange for Charles II. 's return. After the
Restoration Fairfax again returned into
private life. Among his prose works are
two memoirs on the Civil war.
Fairholt, Frederick William (b. 1814, d.
1866), draughtsman and antiquary, a native
of London, illustrated many of the publi-
cations of Charles Knight, and was from
1845 to 1852 draughtsman to the British
Archaeological Association. His books were
beqiieathed to the Society of Antiquaries,
of which he was a fellow, to the British
Museum, and to the town of Stratford- on -
Avon.
Faithfull, Emily (b. 1835), lecturer and
authoress, born at Headley Rectory, Surrey,
founded, in 1860, a printing establishment
La London where only female compositors
were employed. She continues to take a
leading part in movements affecting the
interests of women. Her first novel,
Change upon Change, appeared in 1868. In
1889 she received a Civil List pension of
£50.
Faithorne, William (b. circa 1616, d. 1691),.
English engraver and painter, served forv
some time in the Civil war on the side of
the king, and was taken prisoner at Basing
House. His works were catalogued by
I Fagan in 1888.
Falcone, Aniello (b. 1600, d. 1665),
Italian battle-painter, born at Naples, was
a pupil of Spaguoletto and teacher of
I Salvator Rosa. Obliged to leave Xaples
j in consequence of his share in Masani-
! ello's insurrection, he settled in France,
but afterwards returned to his native
city.
Falconer, Hugh (b. 1808, d. 1865),
Scottish botanist and palaeontologist, a
native of Forres. X.B., made investigations
during a lengthened residence in India
I which added greatly to our knowledge oi
j the flora of the East. It was on his re-
i commendation that the tea-plant was intro-
duced into that country.
Falconer, The Hon. Ion Keith (b. 1856,
! d. 1887), Scottish Orientalist and missionary,
born in Edinburgh, was a third son of the
Earl of Kintore. In 1885 he published a
; translation of the Fables of Ifidpai, with
an introduction. He also distinguished
himself in athletics, in 1878 defeating the
then fastest cyclist in the world, and rode
from Land's End to John o' Groat's. He
died near Aden.
Falconer, William (b. 1732, d. 1770), poet,
was son of an Edinburgh barber. He
• weat early to sea, and after being ship-
wrecked off Cape Colonna, in Greece,
; entered the royal navy, and in 1769 was
appointed purser on the Aurora frigate,
which sailed from Capetown on the 27th of
December of that year, and a few days
afterwards foundered in the Mozambique
Channel. For his principal poem, The Ship-
wreck (1762), he was able to draw from his
own experience off Cape Colonna. He also
wrote the Demagogue, a satire on Wilkes
i and ChurchilL
Falconet, l£tienne Maurice (b. 1716,
I d. 1791), French sculptor and art writer,
is remembered chiefly for his figure of
j Milo of Crotona, his statue of Peter the
j Great, 'executed during a twelve years' resi-
dence in Russia, and his writings on the fine
arts.
Faliero, Marino (b. circa 1274, d.
i 1355), Venetian general and doge, took
Fal
(294)
Fal
Zara in 1346, defeating an army of 80,000
Hungarians, and afterwards captured Capo
d'Istria. He was elected doge of Venice
in 13o4. In the following year, indignant
at the inadequate punishment meted out
to Michele SU'iio by the patrician tribunal
for an indignity offered to his young wife,
he joined a conspiracy of the plebeians
against the ruling oligarchy. The leading
patririans were to be put to death, and the
democratic government to be restored under
his presidency. The plot, however, was
revealed, and Faliero was arrested and
beheaded. His tragic end has formed the
subject of dramas by Byron, Swinburne,
and others.
Falk, or Falck, John Peter (d. 1774),
Swedish naturalist and traveller, was a
pupil of Linnaeus, and was for some years
engaged in exploring some of the more
remote parts of the Russian empire. After
his death his travels were published in
three vols. He died by bis own hand.
Falk, or Falck, Paul Ludwig Adalbert (b.
1 827) , Prussian statesman, became minister of
justice in 1871, and representative of Prussia
in the Federal Council. In 1872 he was
transferred to the ministry of public wor-
ship and education, and in that capacity
became the agent of Bismark's anti- Vatican
educational policy. His celebrated ' ' May
Laws," enacting that all theological colleges
should be liable to state inspection, that all
Roman priests should have spent a certain
time at a state " gymnasium " and a state
universit}r, and that all Roman bishops
should take the oath of allegiance, were
passed in 1873 ; and at the same time several
religious orders were suppressed. These
and various other anti-clerical measures met
with bitter and protracted opposition, which
ended in 1879 in a change of policy and
Talk's retirement.
Falkenstein, Edouard Vogel von (b.
1797, d. Ib85), Prussian general, com-
manded the army that held Hanover
in check at the outbreak of the Austro-
Prussian war, and defeated the Bavarians.
Falkland, Henry Gary, Viscount (d.
1633), statesman and author, father of
Lucius Gary Falkland (q.v.), and son of Sir
Edward Gary, was appointed controller of
the king's (James I.) household, and raised
to the Scottish peerage of Falkland in 1G20.
In 1622 he became lord-deputy of Ireland,
but resigned in 1629, in consequence of the
opposition of the Catholic party. Among
his works was a Hibtvry of that Unfortunate
Prince, Edward II.
Falkland, Lucius Gary, Viscount (b. 1610,
d. 1643), statesman and general, born at
Burford, Oxfordshire, was educated at
Trinity College, Dublin, and in his 20th
year succeeded to his maternal grand-
father's property. Soon afterwards he
married Letice, daughter of Sir Richard
Morrison. After serving in Holland as a
volunteer on the side of the republic, he
returned to England and to his studies.
In 1639 he accompanied Essex's expedition
against the Scots as a volunteer. In the
following year he was returned to Parlia-
ment for Newport, Isle of Wight, and
represented the same constituency in the
Long Parliament. He early distinguished
himself by his eloquent protests against the
absolutism of Laud and Strafford, and both
spoke and voted in favour of the attainder
of the latter. He also took the popular
side on the question of ship-money, and
spoke in favour of excluding the bishops
from the House of Lords ; but took alarm
at the tone and spirit of Presbyterianism,
and opposed the second Bishops Exclusion
Bill. Early in 1642 he was prevailed upon
to accept the secretaryship of State, and
greatly exerted himself to heal the breach
between the king and the Parliament.
When at last war broke out, he declared
himself on the Royal side. He fought
valiantly at Edgehiil, and at the siege of
Gloucester, but was killed at the battle of
Newbury. Falkland was a man of very
considerable learning. The friend of Chil-
lingworth and Clarendon, and most of the
scholars of his day, he was even more re-
markable for his large charity, and his
high sense of honour. Than his there is
no more chivalrous figure in English history.
Fallmerayer, Jakob Philipp (b. 1790, d.
1861), traveller and historian, a native of
the Bavarian Tyrol, is memorable chiefly
from the vast researches by which he sought
to prove the extinction of the ancient Greek
stock, and the Slav origin of the modern
Hellenes.
Fallopio (Latin Fallopius), Gabriello (b.
1523, d. 1562), Italian anatomist, was pro-
fessor of his science at Pisa, and at Padua
in 1551. He gave special attention to the
anatomy of bones and to the organs of
generation, and the Fallopian tube is
named after him. He has also made a
reputation as a botanist, and was super-
intendent of the botanical garden at
Padua.
Falloux, Fre"de'ric Alfred, Comte de (b.
1811, d. 1886), French politician and man
of letters, was for a short time minister
of public instruction under Louis Napo-
leon (1848-9), and was characterised by
Thiers as "the only statesman on the
Right."
Fallows, Fearon (b. 1789, d. 1831), ma-
thematician and astronomer, a native of
Pal
( 295 )
Far
Cockermouth, Cumberland, was in 1821
appointed astronomer-royal at the Cape of
Good Hope, and drew up a catalogue of the
etars of the southern hemisphere.
Falojuiere, Jean Alexandre Joseph (b.
1831), French painter and sculptor, was a
pupil of Jounroy, and gained the Prix de
Rome. At the Paris Exposition of 1868
he was awarded a medal of the first
class. He is a chevalier of the Legion of
Honour.
Faneuil, Peter (b. 1700, d. 1743), Ameri-
can merchant, born at New Rochelle, and
descended from a Huguenot family, is re-
membered chiefly from his association with
Faneuil Hall in Boston, which he presented
to that city in 1742. In 1761 it was de-
stroyed by fire and rebuilt.
Fanshawe, Anne (b. 1625, d. 1680), is
known principally for her devotion to her
husband, Sir Richard Fanshawe (q.v.),
whom she married in 1644, and of whom
she wrote a memoir, first published in
1829.
Fanshawe, Sir Richard (b. 1608, d.
1666), diplomatist and poet, husband of
the preceding, 'fought on the side of the
king in the Civil war. In 1648 he was
appointed treasurer to the navy under
Prmce Rupert ; and at the battle of Wor-
cester, in 1651, he was taken prisoner.
After the Restoration he became ambassa-
dor to the courts of Portugal and Spain,
but in 1666 was superseded by Lord Sand-
wich. His works consist chiefly of poetical
translations from the Italian and Portuguese.
He died at Madrid.
Faraday, Michael (b. 1791, d. 1867),
chemist and natural philosopher, born at
Newington Butts, was apprenticed to a
bookbinder ; but having sent to Sir Hum-
phry Davy notes he had taken of the latter's
lectures at the Royal Institution, he was
at the age of twenty-one engaged as Sir
Humphry's assistant and amanuensis. Their
relations, however, were never cordial, for
which the blame must be allotted to the
elder man. In 1825 Faraday became di-
rector of the Royal Institution Labora-
tory, and in 1827 succeeded Davy as
Fullerian professor of chemistry. In 1835
he received a Civil List pension, and in
1858 a residence at Hampton Court. Ex-
tensive as were his original researches
in chemistry, in physics, and especially
in electricity, he was quite as famous,
thanks to a peculiarly lucid style, as a
populariser of science. Among his most
interesting practical achievements was
the application of the electric light to
lighthouses. He was a member of the
religious sect known as Sandemanians, and
ose«i to take a leading part in their public
worship. His character was not less admir-
able than Ms talents.
Fare, Anne Louis Henri de la (b. 1752,
d. 1829), French ecclesiastic, became bishop
of Nancy in 1788. In 1789 he was elected
a deputy to the States-General. When the
revolutionary storm burst he fled, and was
agent to the Bourbon princes till the Resto-
ration. Afterwards he was preferred to the
archbishopric of Sens, and in 1823 was ele-
vated to the cardinalate.
Farel, Guillaume (b. 1489, d. 13th Sept.,
1565), reformer, a native of the Dauphine",
studied at the University of Paris; and
being zealous on the side of the Roman
Church, was made professor at the college
of Cardinal Lemoine ; but having adopted
the new doctrines, he soon became known
throughout France and Switzerland, and
also in Germany, as a vehement reformer.
He was often expelled from the towns
which he visited on his proselytising
missions, and in 1561 was for a time im-
prisoned. When nearly seventy years of
age he married a young wife.
Farey, John (b. 1766, d. 1826), geologist
and surveyor.
Faria Manoel, Severim de (b. 1583, d.
1655), Portuguese biographical historian, is
the author, among other works, of Noticias
de Portiiyal.
Faria y Sousa, Manuel de (b. 1590, d.
1649), Portuguese historian and poet, is the
author of more than sixty volumes, com-
prising a lar^e number of sonnets, some
eclogues, works on Portuguese history, com-
mentaries on Camoens, and some treatises on
! the theory of poetry.
Farinato, Paolo (b. 1522, d. 1606), Italian
painter at Yerona, is remembered chiefly for
his Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes,
painted for the church of St. George at
Verona.
Farinelli, professional name of Carlo
Brocchi (£. 1705, d. 1782), vocalist, who was
a pupil of Porpora, and gained the highest
distinction in the chief continental cities, as
well as in London.
Farini, Carlo Luigi (b. 1822, d. 1st Aug.,
1866), Italian statesman, orator, and his-
torian, a native of Russi, became minister
of the interior in Piedmont in 1850, after
several periods of exile, and suggested many
of the energetic measures successfully
carried out by Cavour. In 1859, when the
Duke of Modeua had been forced to seek
refuge in the Austrian ranks, he was
appointed dictator of Modena, which,
together with Parma, was by his influence
annexed to Sardinia. In 1860 he was
Par
Far
minister of commerce in Cavour's last
cabinet, and prime minister from December,
!>!•.! to March, 1873, resigning on account of
ill-health. His // Stato Itomano has been
translated by Mr. Gladstone.
Farmer, Hugh (//. 1714, d. 1787), dissent-
ing divine, born near Shrewsbury, was a
pupil of Dr. Doddridge, and wrote an Essay
on the Dent f the Ntw Testament.
Farmer, Richard (b. 1735, d. 1797),
scholar, a native of Leicester, was elected
to the mastership of Emmanuel College,
Cambridge, in 1775, and in 1778 to the
cliief librarianship of the university. After
holding prebendal stalls at Lichfield and
Canterbury, he in 1788 became a resident
prebendary at St. Paul's. Being iuveter-
ately indolent, he left but one work, Essay
on the Learning of Shakespeare (1767), in
which he proved thai) the dramatist derived
his knowledge of the ancients from trans-
lations.
Farnese, Alessandro (b. 1468, d. 1549),
was founder of the prosperity of the
princely family to which he belonged.
In 1534 he became Pope as Paul III. He
was founder of the duchy of Parma and
Piacenza.
Farnese, Alessandro, Duke of Parma
(b. 1546, d. 1592), the most eminent member
of the Farnese family, was son of the
second duke. He first distinguished himself
at Lepanto in 1571. In 1585, as governor of
the Spanish Netherlands, he captured Ant-
werp for Philip II., and five years later
compelled Henry IV. of France to raise the
siege of Paris. He died of a wound, and
was succeeded in the duchy by a series of
worthless princes.
Farnese, Elizabeth (b. 1692, d. 1766),
daughter of Odoardo Farnese, married
Philip V. of Spain in 1714, and was thus
the occasion of the claim made by the
Spanish dynasty to Parma and Piacenza.
Farquhar, George (b. 1678, d. 1707), dra-
matist, a native of Londonderry, was for
two years an actor, but having accidentally
inflicted a wound on a brother actor who
was performing in Dryden's Indian Emperor,
was so shocked that he at once abandoned
the stage. He then took up dramatic com-
position, and in 1698 his first comedy, Love
and a Bottle, was produced at Drury Lane,
and proved an emphatic success. It was
followed in 1700 by the Constant Coupl*,
and this by a number of others, the last and
best being The Beaux? Stratagem, written
during his last illness.
Farr, William (b. 1807, d. 1883), statis-
tician, a native of Keuley, Salop, was for
many years superintendent tf the statistical
department of the registrar- general's office
in London. Among his works is Vital
Statistics, published as a memorial volume
after his death.
Farragut, David Glasgow (b. 1801, d.'
1870), American admiral, of Spanish origin/
born at Knoxville, Tennessee, commanded
the Western Gulf squadron for the Federal
government in 1861, and after bombarding
Fort Jackson for six days, ran past it
in the night to New Orleans, and com-
pelled the evacuation of that city. In 1864
he was sent to Mobile Bay, the harbour of
the enemy's blockade-runners, ran past the
forts as before, silenced the Tennessee, and
closed the bay to the Confederate ships. In
1863 the government had created for him
the rank of vice-admiral ; in 1866 he
became admiral, and in 1867 commanded the
European squadron, afterwards retiring into
private life. He died at Portsmouth, New
Hampshire.
Farrant, Richard (b. circa 1530, d.
1580), English composer, was organist of
St. George's Chapel, Windsor in 15G4, and
in 1569 was reappointed a gentleman of
the Chapel Royal. His .church music
merits all the praise which its solem-
nity and pathos have received ; but the
beautiful anthem, Lord, for Thy Tender
Mercies' Sake, though generally assigned to
him, is attributed by earlier writers to John
Hilton.
Farrar, Frederic William (b. 7th August,
1831), divine and scholar, born at Bombay,
studied at King William's College, Isle of
Man, King's College, London, the LTni-
versity of London, and also at Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he gained
the Chancellor's medal for English verse,
graduated as fourth classic in 1854, and
was elected to a fellowship. On leaving
Cambridge he became assistant-master at
Marlborough, and afterwards at Harrow,
returning to Marlborough in 1871 as head-
master, and holding that office till in 1876 he
was appointed canon of Westminster and
rector of St. Margaret's. In 1880 he became
archdeacon of Westminster, and in 1890 chap-
lain to the House of Commons. His popular
schoolboy story, Eric, appeared in 1858;
the Origin of Language, the first of a series
of philological works, in 1860 ; the Life of
Christ, the most popular theological work of
its generation, in 1874; the Life of St. Paul
in 1879 ; and the Early Days of Christianity
in 1882. Among his remaining works is one
challenging the doctrine of everlasting
punishment, entitled Eternal Hope. At
the Church Congress in 1890 he advocated a
scheme of celibate brotherhood, which
excited a good deal of controversy.
Farrar, Nicholas. [See Ferrar.l
Par
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Pav
Farre, Arthur, F.E.S. (b. 1811), phy-
sician and scientific author, is physician-
extraordinary to Queen Victoria, and physi-
cian-accoucheur to most of the princesses of
the royal family. He was Harveian orator in
1872, president of the Microscopical Society
in 1851-2, and is now hon. president of the
Obstetrical Society.
Farren, Eliza, Countess of Derby (b. 1759,
d. 1829), actress, was the daughter of a pro-
vincial actor, and made her debut at Liver-
pool, at the age of fourteen. In 1777 she
came to London, and on Mrs. Abington's
retirement was acknowledged to be the first
actress of the day. She married Lord Derby
in 1797.
Fastolf, Sir John (b. circa 1378, d. 1459),
English soldier, a native of Norfolk, won
renown in the French wars, especially at
Agiucourt (1415), and in the " Battle of tho
Herrings " (1429), but was unable to van-
quish Joan of Arc, though there is no
ground for the story that he was stripped of
his garter for cowardice at Patay in 1441,
for soon after his return to Norfolk he re-
ceived a pension of £20 "for notable and
praiseworthy service and good counsel." It
was, no doubt, in consequence of this story
that Shakespeare altered the name of his fat
kniglit from Sir John Oldcastle to Sir John
Falstaff.
Faucher, Le"on (b. 1803, d. 1854), French
publicist and statesman, after editing the
Temps and the Courrier Franqais, in 1843
contributed to the Revue des JJeux Mondes
an able series of articles on the industrial
condition of England, which in, 1845 were
published in two volumes as Etudes sur
VAngleterre. After the revolution of 1848
he represented the Marine Department in
the constituent and legislative assemblies.
He was Louis Napoleon's first minister of
public works, and afterwards minister of
the interior, but resigned and retired from
political life when Napoleon was contem-
plating his plebiscite.
Faucit, Helen (Lady Theodore Martin),
(b, 1816), actress and authoress, is the
daughter of the late Mrs. Eaucit, also an
actress, and received her early stage educa-
tion from Mr. Percival Earren, of the Hay-
market theatre. Her first appearance was
at Richmond in 1833 as Juliet ; in 1836 she
made her debut in London at Covent Garden
as Julia in The Hunchback. In 1837 she
joined the company formed by Macready
for Shakspearean revivals. Sincehermurriage
to Mr. (now Sir Theodore) Martin in 1851,
ehp has only appeared on the stage at rare
intervals. Some of Shakspeare's female
Characters appeared in 1855.
Faugere, Annand Prosper (b. 1810),
French author, born at Bergerac, was for
some time director of the Record Office and
Chancery. In 1853 he was appointed officer
of the Legion of Honour, and in Ibbl
commander.
Faure, Jean Baptiste (b. 15th January,
1830), French baritone singer, made his de-
but at the Opera Comique in Paris in 1861.
For many years he was the acknowledged
head of the French lyric stage. In 1881 he
was nominated a chevalier of the Legion of
Honour.
Fauriel, Charles Claude (b. 1772, d. 1844),
French philologist, was one of the early
advocates of electicism, and a precursor of
the philosophy formulated by Cousin.
Faust, Johann. [See Fust, Johann.]
Faust, Johann, dealer in the black art,
appears to have been born either at Knitt-
lingen in Wiirtemberg, or at Roda, near
Weimar, early in the 16th century, and to
have studied medicine and magic at Cracow.
He may have died as early as 1539, but he
was certainly dead by 1544. He is the hero
of much legendary, dramatic, and poetical
literature, including the tragedies of Mar-
lowe and Goethe, and the famous opera by
Gounod, etc.
Faustina, Anna Galena, generally known
as Faustina, senior, was wife of the
Emperor Antoninus Pius, and died 141
A.D.
Faustina, junior, daughter of the preced-
ing, married the Emperor Marcus Aureliua
Antoninus, and died in 175 A.D. near Mount
Taurus. Like her mother, she led a shame^
lessly profligate life, though neither mother
nor daughter could exhaust the patience of
their husbands.
Favart, Charles Simon (b. 1710, d. 1792),
French dramatist, wrote, among other
operas, Le Coq du Village, Eastien et
Hastienne, Ninette d la Cour, Les Trots Sul-
tanes, and IS Anglais d Bordeaux. In 1745
he married Marie Justine Benoite, nee
Duronceray, whose stage name was Mile.
Chantilly, who was born at Avignon in
1727 and died in 1772, and who assisted her
husband in the work of composition. She ia
the subject of a well-known operetta by
Offenbach.
Favre, G. C. Jules (b. 1809, d. 1880),
French statesman, a native of Lyons,
entered political life about 1830 as a re-
publican. He took a prominent part in
the revolution of 1848, and was presently
secretary to Ledru-Rollin, on whose flight
he became leader of the Mountain. After
Louis Napoleon's coup d'etat he confined
himself to his work as an advocate for
Faw
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Fee
six years, but his defence of Orsini secured
las return for Paris, uud ho became, with
Thiers, the leader of au increasingly
powerful Opposition. His speeches in con-
demnation of the Mexican Expedition pro-
du ed a profound impr'^sion, and ho W;LS
one of the few French statesmen who
opposed the a Berlin policy. After the
overthrow of the Second Empire he became
-president of the provisional govern -
iii« nt of national defence, and as minister
of foreign affairs it fell to his lot to conduct
the negotiations with Bismarck which pre-
ceded the peace. " We will not give up an
inch of our bind, nor a stone of our
fortresses," he had declared at the outset;
but as a diplomatist he was no match for
his opponent, and the surrender of Alsace-
Lorraine was but one of the humiliating
conditions to which he signed. After the
February elections he became Thiers's
Foreign secretary, but in November was
forced to retire. His subsequent appear-
ances in the tribune were not frequent, but
were always attended with excitement. In
1876 the department of the Rhone returned
him to the Senate. Great in opposition, he
was a failure in office.
Fawcett, Henry (b. 1833, d. 1884), econo-
mist and statesman, a native of Salisbury,
studied at King's College School, London,
and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he
graduated B.A. as seventh wrangler in
1856, and was subsequently chosen' a fellow.
In 1858, while partridge -shooting with his
father, he met with an accident which
inflicted .on him total blindness, in spite
of which he resolved to pursue the economic
and political career he had not long before
determined upon. The publication of his
Manual of Political Economy in 1863 was
immediately followed by his election to
the chair of Political Economy at Cam-
bridge. In 1865 he was elected M.P. for
Brighton, which he continued to repre-
sent until 1874, when he was returned for
Hackney, and again in 1880. In this year
he became Mr. Gladstone's postmaster-
general, and held the office four years and a
half, his tenure of it being marked by a
long series of reforms and new institutions.
He was lord rector of Glasgow University
in 1883.
Fawcett, John (b. 1769, d. 1837), actor
and theatrical manager, was the son of
an actor. He first appeared in London
in 1791, at Co vent Garden, as Caleb in He
would be a Soldier. He was several times
connected with the Haymarket, and later
was manager of Covent Garden theatre, an
office which he held until his retirement
from the profession in 1836.
Fawcett, Millicent (b. 1847), a native of
Aldborough, wife o* Professor Henry
Fawcett (q.v.). and .sister of Mrs. Gurrett
Anderson, shared her hu.-baud's pursuits,
and in 1869 published Political Economy for
Jitijt/i/itr*. Mie is a leading advocate of
female franchise.
Fawcett, Sir William (b. 1728, d. 1804),
miiit.uy oilieer. M-rved under General Elliot
in the Seven Years' war, and was aide-
de-camp to the Marquis of Granby. Ulti-
mately he became Knight of the Bath
and governor of Chelsea Hospital. In his
leisure he translated the Reveries of Marshal
Saxe.
Fawkes, Guido (b. 1570, d. 1606), conspi-
rator, was the son of Edward Fawkes, a
notary of York. He had a Protestant
training, but became a Roman Catholic
while yet a youth. Having squandered his
patrimony, he served with the Spaniards
in Flanders from 1596 until 1604, and was
present at the taking of Calais in 1598.
Returning to England, he was selected by
Catesby. Winter, and others as chief agent
in the Gunpowder Plot. He was arrested
on the 5th November, 1605, and put to the
torture, and though boldly avowing the in-
tention of the conspiracy, he steadfastly
refused to name his accomplices in the
plot.
Fay, Andras (b. 1786, d. 1864), Hungarian
author and politician, wrote plays, ro-
mances, and tales, and also a number of
highly successful fables, and was one of
the founders of the Hungarian National
Theatre. From 1825 to 184U he was one of
the most prominent leaders of the Liberal
Opposition.
Faye, Herve Auguste Etienne Albana
(b. 1S14), French astronomer, discovered the
comet which bears his name in 1843, was
appointed director of the Paris Observatory
in "1878, and in 1884 became an officer of the
Legion of Honour.
Fayette. [See Lafayette.]
Fayrer, Sir Joseph (b. 1824), surgeon and
author, born at Plymouth, served as a
doctor in the navy, and then in the army,
was professor of surgery in the Medical
College of Bengal, 1859-1874, and was for
some time president of the Asiatic Society
of Bengal. He accompanied the Prince of
Wales on the latter 's Indian tour as phy-
sician, in 1875-1876, and in the latter year
was knighted.
Fazy, Jean Jacques (b. 1796, d. 1878),
Swiss economist and statesman, was the
founder of the Revue de Geneve, and was for
many years the most influential publicist in
the city of his birth.
Fecnner, Gustav Theodor (b. 1801, d,
1887), German philosopher, became professor
Fee
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of physics at Leipzig in 1834, but five years
afterwards, in consequence of an affection
of the eyes, devoted himself to psycho-
physics.
Fechter, Charles Albert (b. 1823, d. 1879),
tragedian, was of French parentage, though
born in London. He made his first appear-
ance in the metropolis at St. James's Theatre
in 1848. He again visited England in 1860,
and in spite of his pronounced French ac-
cent, astonished the critics by his masterly
impersonation of Hamlet and other cha-
racters.
Feckennam, John de (d. 1585), last
Abbot of Westminster, born at Fecken-
ham, Worcestershire, was sent to the Tower
on the accession of Edward VI. for his
opposition to the Reformation. Released
by Mary, he became her chaplain, and as
such endeavoured to convert Lady Jane
Grey while she was under sentence of
death. Later he became Dean of St. Paul's,
and in 1556 Abbot of Westminster, but on
Mary's death he again found himself fallen
on evil times, and died in imprisonment.
Feith, Rhynvis (b. 1753, d.t 1824), Dutch
poet and miscellaneous writer, born at
Zwolle, wrote several tragedies, a large
number of lyrics, etc. A complete edition
of his works, in eleven volumes, appeared
in 1824.
Felix, Antonius or Claudius, Roman
governor, was a freedman of the Emperor
Claudius I., and brother of his favourite
Pallas. He is known to history chiefly as
procurator of Judaea in the time of St. Paul,
and as the husband of Drusilla, a Jewess
who had left her first husband in order to
marry him. When recalled to Rome in
62 A.D. to answer the charges brought
against him by the Jews, he narrowly
escaped condemnation to death.
Felix, St., was beheaded at Zurich, on the
site of the great cathedral, as a Christian
martyr, early in the 3rd century, and is
commemorated on the llth of September.
He and his sister, Regula, are the patron
saints of Zurich and its cathedrals.
Felix L, Pope (d. 275), succeeded Diony-
sius in 269, condemned the opinions of
Sabellius, and is said to have suffered death
in the Aurelian persecution. But for this
there is no respectable evidence.
Felix II., Pope, was consecrated in 356,
when Liberius was banished for refusing
to condemn Athanasius, but on the resto-
ration of Liberius in the following year
retired from the city. He was long
regarded as the first of the anti-popes, but
in the end was ranked among the saints
and martyrs.
Felix III. (d. 492), succeeded Pope Simpli-
cius in 483. By excommunicating Acacius,
patriarch of Constantinople, he brought
about the first disruption between the
Eastern and Western churches.
Felix IV. (d. 530) was appointed by
Theodoric as successor of Pope John I. in
526, but was always unpopular with both
clergy and people.
FeU, John (b. 1625, d. 1686), divine, born
at Long worth, Berks., was for some time
in arms for Charles I. , and was one of four
clergymen who maintained Anglican services
during the Commonwealth. At the Res-
toration he was rewarded by being made
prebendary of Chichester, canon of Christ
Church, Oxford, and afterwards dean and
royal chaplain. From 1666 to 1669 he was
vice-chancellor of Oxford, and became
bishop of the diocese in 1676. It is to him
that Tom Brown's lines, " I do not like thee,
Doctor Fell, the reason why I cannot tell,"
are addressed.
FeU, Samuel (b. 1594, d. 1649), Anglican
divine, studied at Christ Church, Oxford,
of which he became dean. He was after-
wards vice-chancellor of the university,
but was expelled in 1647 on account oi
his devotion to the Royal cause. He is
said to have died of grief at the execution
of the king.
FeUenberg, Emanuel de (b. 1771, d.
1844), Swiss educational reformer, born at
Berne, acquired the estate of Hofwyl, near
Berne, in 1799, and there carried out a
number of instructive experiments in
education.
FeUowes, Sir Charles (b. 1799, d. I860),
antiquary, a native of Nottingham, dis-
covered the sites of fifteen cities in Asia
Minor. The marbles which he recovered
are kept in the Lycian saloon of the British
Museum.
FeUowes, Robert (*. 1770, d. 1847),
political and religious writer, was a clergy-
man of the Anglican Church until change
of views led to his retirement. He
was on terms of friendship with Queen
Caroline, and at her death, in recognition of
his championship of her cause, she left him
nearly £200,000. He took a leading part in
the scheme for founding a university in
London : and in gratitude to Dr. Elliotson,
to whom he attributed his recoverv from a
dangerous illness, he founded the FeUowes
gold medals for proficiency in clinical
science.
Felton, Corn eU us Con way (b. 1807, d.
1862), American scholar, born at West
Newbury, Mass., studied at Harvard,
Pel
( 300)
Per
where in 1834 he became professor r>f
Greek, aud in 1860 president. He edited
several editions of the Greek classics, and
also delivered a valuable series of lectures on
Greece, Ancient and Modern, published in
1867.
Felton, John. [See Buckingham, Duke of.]
Fenelon, Francois de Sah'guac de la Mothe
(b. 1651, d. 1715), French divine aud author,
born at Perigord, received holy orders at
the Seminary of St. Sulpice, Paris, in
1675. In 1085, after the revocation of
the edict of Nantes, he was sent as a
missionary among the Protestant popu-
lation of Saintouge and Poitou. In 1689
he was appointed by Louis XIV. pre-
ceptor of the king's grandson, the young
Duke of Burgundy, and in 1G94 was
rewarded with the abbey of St. Valery,
succeeding in 1695 to the archbishopric of
Cambrai. His favour with the king came
to an end in 1698 with the appearance of
his book, Les Aventures de Telemaque, the
publication of which was due to the fraud
of a servant to whom he had entrusted the
manuscript. He always maintained that it
was only written for the amusement and
instruction of the Duke of Burgundy, but
the king regarded it as a satire upon his own
court, the book was condemned, and
Fenelon was restrained within his own
diocese. He now gave himself up entirely
to the work of preaching and administration,
and acquired so wide a fame for benevolence
and Liberality, that in the campaign of 1709
the Allies gave instructions that his stores
should be spared. His works deal, not
merely with theology, but with philosophy,
history, and Literature, and are marked by
great beauty of style. He took an active
part in the Quietistic controversy, and was
unfortunate enough to come into collision
with his friend Bossuet. The Papal
decision was, on the whole, against him, and
as soon as it was published, he un-
hesitatingly accepted it, and read the
brief of condemnation from his own pulpit.
Fenn, Sir John (*. 1739, d. 1794), anti-
quary, born at Norwich, selected and edited
the Paston Letters, and established their
authenticity when it was impugned by
Hermann Merivale.
Fenton, Elijah (b. 1683, d. 1730), poetical
and miscellaneous writer, assisted Pope in
translating the Odyssey, wrote a tragedy
entitled Marianne, and lives of Milton and
Waller.
Fenwick, Sir John (b. circa 1645, d. 1697),
politician, entered Parliament in 1688 as
Tory member for Northumberland. Being
committed to the Tower for his share in the
assassination plot in 1696, he made a con-
fession implicating some of the Whig leaders
in the Jacobite movement, and the only
M'itiH-ss ;i^uinst him having been induced to
lr iv the country, he was made the subject
oi a bill of attainder.
Ferdinand L, Emperor of Austria (b. 1793,
d. l!s'7<3j, was the eldest son of Francis I.
by his second wife Maria Theresa of Naples.
Li 1831 he married Maria, daughter of
King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia. He
succeeded his father in March, 1835, having
been crowned king of Hungary in 1830.
He proved too mild a sovereign for the
revolutionary times in which his lot was
cast ; and after twice fleeing from his capi-
tal, resigned in favour of his nephew
Francis Joseph, the present emperor, on
Dec. 2nd, 1848.
Ferdinand I., Emperor of Germany (b.
1503, d. 1564), born at Alcala, Spain, was
son of Philip I. In 1531 he was elected
king of the Romans, and in 1556 succeeded
his brother Charles V. as Emperor of Ger-
many. He was engaged in a long war with
John Zapolya, who was supported by the
Turks, for the possession of Hungary, till in
1538 the country was shared between the
two claimants. The war, however, broke
out again in 1540, when Ferdinand bought
off the Turks by a yearly tribute.
Ferdinand H, Emperor of Germany (b.
1578, d. 1637), was son of the Archduke
Charles of Carinthia and Styria, and grand-
son of Ferdinand I. He succeeded to the
throne of Bohemia in 1617, and to that of
Hungary in 1618, and was elected emperor
of Germany in 1618. A bigoted Catholic,
he made vigorous attempts to suppress Pro-
testantism. His reign was chiefly occupied
by the events of the Thirty Years' war.
When his succession was stayed by the
opposition of Richelieu and the appearance
of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, he not
only consented to the dismissal of Wallen-
stein, one of his two generals, but con-
nived at his murder. His reign is one of
the most calamitous with which the empire
was ever cursed.
Ferdinand III., Emperor of Germany
(b. 1608, d. 1657), born at Griitz, son
of the preceding, whom he succeeded
in 1637, having become king of Bo-
hemia in 1625, and of Hungary in 1627.
Though inclined to peace, he was obliged
to continue the hostilities begun by his
father, and which were not ended till 1648,
when the peace of Westphalia was
arranged.
Ferdinand or Ferrante I., King of Naples
(b. 1423, d. 1494), was son of Alphonso I.
The chief events of his long reign were hia
quarrels with the Roman court, and
insurrections of his barons in 1485.
Per
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Ferdinand IL (d. 1496), King of Naples,
grandson of the preceding, succeeded his
father Alphonso II. in 1495, when the
kingdom fell into the hands of Charles VIII.
and the French. He reconquered it, how-
ever, in the following year, with help from
the Spaniards ; but died soon afterwards in
the prime of youth.
Ferdinand III., King of Naples. [See
Ferdinand V., "the Catholic."]
Ferdinand IV., King of Naples and
Ferdinand I. of the Two Sicilies (b.
1751, d. 1825), was second son of
Don Carlos (son of Philip V.), and
succeeded him in 1759, when Don Carlos
passed from the throne of Naples to that of
Spain. In 1768 he married Maria Caroline
of Austria, daughter of the Empress Maria
Theresa, a princess both clever and ambi-
tious, who, till her death, ruled under her
husband's name. After his victory at
Austerlitz Napoleon declared that the
dynasty of the Bourbons had ceased to
reign at Naples, and sent thither an army
of occupation. Ferdinand and his family
fled to Sicily, and there remained under
British protection until Napoleon's fall.
The king returned in 1815, and thence-
forward ruled by the scourge and the
scaffold.
Ferdinand I., King of the Two Sicilies.
[See Ferdinand IV., King of Naples.]
Ferdinand II., King of the Two Sicilies
(b. 1810, d. 1859), was eldest son of Francis
I. He began his reign with some liberal
measures ; but after his marriage to his
second wife, the Archduchess Maria Theresa,
niece of the Emperor of Austria, he fell
under Austrian influence, and his tyrannical
rule was little more than a series of risings
suppressed by bloodshed. He was nick-
named "Bomba" for having ordered the
bombardment of Palermo and Messina.
Ferdinand I, "the Great," King of
Castile, of Leon and Galicia (d. 1065),
was the second son of Sancho III., King of
Navarre and Castile, and succeeded to the
latter kingdom in 1035. He was one of the
most powerful monarchs of his age, and dis-
puted with Henry III. of Germany for the
imperial crown.
Ferdinand II., King of Galicia and Leon
(d. 1188), was the second son of Alphonso
VTIL, whom he succeeded in 1157.
Ferdinand III, St., King of Castile and
Leon (d. 1252), was son of Alphonso IX. of
Leon. He became King of Castile in 1217,
and of Leon in 1230. Among his achieve-
ments against the Moors was the capture of
Cordova in 1236, and of Seville in 1248.
Ferdinand IV., King of Castile (b. 1285,
d. 1312), son of Sancho IV., took several
important positions from the Moors, includ-
ing Gibraltar.
Ferdinand V., King of Castile ("the
Catholic"), the second of Aragou and Sicily,
and third of Naples (b. 1452, d. 1516),
was son of John II. of Navarre and
Aragon, was born at Sos. By his mamage
in 1469 with Isabella of Castile he united
the two kingdoms, and in 1479 became
king of all Spain, except Navarre and
Granada. He took part in the League of
Cambrai formed against Venice in 1508,
conquered Oran in Africa in 1509, and in
1512 became ruler of Spain from Gib-
raltar to the Pyrenees. His reign is
memorable not only for the expulsion of
the Moors, but also for the establishment
of the Inquisition, and the discoveries of
Columbus.
Ferdinand VI., King of Spain (b. 1713, d.
1759), was the son of Philip V. and Louisa
Maria of Savoy, and succeeded his father
in 1746.
Ferdinand VII., King of Spain (6. 1784,
d. 1833), was the son of Charles IV. of
Spain and Maria Louisa of Parma. It was
under the pretence of f urthering his interests
that Napoleon in December, 1807, invaded
Spain ; whereupon, in March, 1808, the
populace arose and crowned Ferdinand king.
Napoleon enticed him to Bayonne, but only
to force him to abdicate, and to keep him
prisoner at Valen<jay during the war of
Spanish Independence. After the battle of
Vittoria, however, he restored him to the
throne. During the king's reign the
American colonies revolted, and his home
policy, under clerical influence, was so
odious that he was only delivered from the
power of his subjects by French armies. In
1829 he dished the Clericals, who had fixed
upon Don Carlos as his successor, by
privately marrying Maria Christina of
Naples, and in the f ollowing year revoking
the Salic law in favour of his daughter
Isabella, the present ex- queen.
Ferdinand, King of Portugal (b. 1345,
d. 1383), was son of Pedro the Cruel, whom
he succeeded in 1367. The war he waged
against Henry of Castile ended in disaster,
notwithstanding his alliance with the Eng-
lish.
Ferdinand II. , King of Aragon. [See
Ferdinand V., King of Castile.]
Ferdinand III., Grand-Duke of Tuscany
(b. 1769, d. 1824), succeeded his father
Leopold in 1791, when the latter was
raised to the imperial throne of Ger-
many. He refused to join the first coa-
lition against the French republic, but in
1793 was frightened into doing so by the
threats of Russia and England. In 1796,
Fer
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however, he resumed friendly relations with
France, but by the unintermittent intrigues
of the French was forced into an alliance
with Austria in 1799. Ho was driven out
by French troops, and in ISul compelled to
formally renounce his kingdom. On the
Restoration of 1814, however, he returned,
and continued the liberal rule of earlier
days.
Ferdinand, Charles Joseph D'Este (b.
1781, d. 1850), Archduke of Austria, Prince
Royal of Hungary and Bohemia, and Prince
of .Modeiia, was son of Ferdinand Charles
Antoine Joseph, and nephew of the emperors
Joseph and Leopold. He commanded the
third division of the Austrian army in 180-3,
afterwards conducted the war in Bohemia
and Poland, and in 1830 became governor
of Galicia.
Ferdusi. [See Firdausi.]
Ferguson, Adam (b. 1723, d. 1816), Scotch
philosopher, a native of Perthshire, was as
a young man chaplain to the Black Watch,
and took an active part in the battle of
Fontenoy. In 1757 he became keeper of
the Advocates' library in Edinburgh, in
succession to David Hume, in 1759 professor
of natural philosophy at Edinburgh, after-
wards (1704) of moral philosophy, and later
of mathematics. His History of the Pro-
gress and Termination of the Roman Republic
appeared in 1782 ; his Principles of Moral
and Political Science in 1792.
Ferguson, James (b. 1710, d. 1776),
Scottish astronomer, born at Rothiemay,
was entirely self-taught. He displayed
an early genius for mechanics, discovered
for himself the principle of the lever, and
amused himself by mapping out the stars,
forming a terrestrial globe, and construct-
ing little models of machinery. In 1748
he made his appearance as a lecturer on
astronomy and mechanics, and quirkly
acquired great popularity. In 1761 a
pension of £50 was conferred upon him by
George III., and in 1763 he was elected
F.R.S.
Ferguson, Patrick (b. 1744, d. 1780), a
native of Aberdeenshire, was the inventor
of the breech-loading rifle, which was
patented in 1776. He headed a corps of
loyalists in the American War of Indepen-
dence, and was slain while defending King's
Mountain, South Carolina, with 800 men
against 1,300 Americans.
Fergiison, Robert (b. circa 1637, d. 1714),
politician, a native of Aberdeenshire, is
known as "the Plotter." For ten years
he took a prominent part in almost every
conspiracy against Charles II. and James II.,
and after the revolution pursued the same
trade, though on the opposite side. He
died in lamentable poverty.
Ferguson, Sir Samuel (b. 1810, d. 1886),
antiquary and poet, born at Belfast, edu-
cated at Trinity College, Dublin, was ap-
pointed first deputy keeper of the records
in Ireland in 18b'7, and for his eminent
services to Celtic archaeology was knighted
in 1878. His poem, The forging of ike
Anchor^ appeared in 1883.
Fergusson, James (b. 1808, d. 1886),
writer on architecture, spent the first years
of his manhood in business, and then de-
voted himself to the study of architecture,
Eastern as well as Western. His most con-
siderable work is his History of Ancient and
Modern Architecture (1865). In 1871 he
received the gold medal of the Royal In-
stitute of British Architects.
Fergusson, Sir James, Bart. (b. 1832),
statesman, was under- secretary for India
1866-1867, under- secretary at the Home
Office 1867-1868, governor of South Aus-
tralia 1868-1872, of New Zealand 1872-1874,
of Bombay 1880-1885. In 1885 he again
entered Parliament for North-East Man-
chester, in the following year became
Foreign under-secretary, and in 1891 Post-
master-General.
Fergnsson, Robert (b. 1750, d. 1774),
Scottish poet, was educated at Dundee
Grammar School and St. Andrew's Univer-
sity. Having ruined his constitution by
intemperance, he become affected with reli-
gious melancholia, culminating in complete
insanity. Fifteen years after his death,
Burns erected a memorial stone with a
poetical inscription over his grave. Among
his poems are The Farmer* single, upon which
TIi* Cottar's Saturday Night is modelled.
Fergusson, Sir William, Bart. (b. 1808,
d. 1877), surgeon and surgical waiter, after
a distinguished career in Edinburgh, was in
1840 appointed professor of surgery in King's
College, London, and surgeon of King's Col-
lege Hospital. In 1855 he became surgeon-
extraordinary, and in 1867 serjeant-surgeon,
to the Queen, while in 1861 he was elected
president of the Royal College of Surgeons.
His chief contributions to surgery are the
closing of the cleft palate, excision of the
head of the femur in incurable disease of
the hip- joint, excision of the scapula in
disease of the bone, and excision of th«
joint in incurable disease of the hip- joint,
in place of amputation.
Ferislita, Mohammed Kasim (b. 1570, d.
circa 1611), a native of Astrabad, on the
shores of the Caspian, is the author of a
history of the rise of the Mohammedan
power, which has been twice translated into
English.
Per
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Fer
Fermat, Pierre de (b. 1608, d. 1664),
French mathematician and poet, wrote
poems in several languages, and prose works
which were published collectively as Opera
Varia Mathematica.
Fermor, William, Count (b. 1704, d.
1771), Russian general, succeeded General
Apraxin as commander-in-chief of the
Eussian army in the Seven Years' war, and
captured Thorn and Elbing, and besieged
Custrin, from which, after the battle of
Zorndorf, he was obliged to retire. In
October, 17t>0, he invaded Prussia, and
occupied Berlin, but only for a few days.
Fernandez, Juan (d. 1576), Spanish navi-
gator, discovered the island which bears his
name in 1563, and colonised it in 1572.
Fernandez, Ximenes de Navarete Juan
(b. 1526, d. 1579), Spanish painter, was
a pupil of Titian, and became painter to
Philip II. Being deaf and dumb, he was
surnamed El Mudo.
Ferracino, Bartolomeo (b. 1695, d. 1764),
Italian mechanician, invented a number of
ingenious contrivances, and built the bridge
over the Brenta at Padua.
Ferrar, Nicholas (b. 1592, d. 1637),
Anglican divine and mystic, was elected
fellow of Clare Hall, Cambridge, in 1610,
and in 1624 entered Parliament, but in the
following year abandoned public life and
founded the ' ' Nunnery ' ' at Little Gidding,
Huntingdonshire, described in John Ingle-
sant. The community was broken up by
the Puritans in 1647.
Ferrar, Robert (b. 1555), prelate and
martyr, was prior of St. Oswald until the
monastery was dissolved, when he threw
in his lot with the ref ormers and was made
Bishop of St. David's. Early in the Marian
persecution he was sent to the stake at
Caermarthen by Bishop Gardiner as a
heretic.
Ferrara, Andrea, was a broad -sword
maker at Belluno, North Italy, towards the
end of the 16th century. Nothing is known
of him beyond this fact. One tradition re-
presents him to have been by birth a
Spaniard, but he is more generally believed
to have been born in the city after which he
is named.
Ferrari, Gaudenzio (b. 1484, d. 1549),
Italian painter, born at Valduggia, Pied-
mont, belongs to the Lombard school. The
frescoes in the Cappella della Pieta at
Varallo are considered to be his best works.
Ferrari, Paolo (b. 1822, d. 1889), Italian
dramatist, became professor of history at
Modena, his native city, in 1860, and at
Milan subsequently, where a collection ol
his dramatic works in fourteen volumes ap-
peared in 1877-80.
Ferrars, George (b. 1512, d. 1579), lawyer
and poet, born near St. Albaus, is cele-
brated less for his achievements in either of
these capacities than because, when arrested
under the orders of the City magistrates for
debt while in discharge ot his duties as a
member of the Commons, the House, sup-
ported by the House of Lords, demanded his
release, and imprisoned the sheriffs and
others who had taken part in the proceed-
ings against him.
Ferreira, Antonio (b. 1528, d. 1560), a
Portuguese poet, born at Lisbon, is the
author of Ines de Castro, one of the two or
three earliest of extant tragedies in modern
literature.
Ferrers, Lawrence Shirley, Earl (b. 1720, d.
1761), is notorious as the last nobleman who
died a felon's death. He was hanged at
Tyburn, after sentence by his peers for
having in the preceding January slain his
steward in a fit of passion.
Ferrey, Benjamin (b. 1810, d. 1880),archi-
tect, studied under Pugin, and from 1841 to
his death was honorary diocesan architect
of Bath and Wells. In that capacity he
restored the nave, transepts, and lady
chapel of Wells cathedral, and also the
bishop's palace. His last work was the
mansion for the Duke of Connaught at
Bagshot Park.
Ferrier, David (b. 1843), physiologist, born
at Aberdeen, became demonstrator of physi-
ology at King's College, London, in 1871,
professor of forensic medicine there in 1872,
physician to King's College Hospital and to
the National Hospital for the Paralysed
and Epileptic in 1880, F.R.C.P. in 1877, and
F.R.S. in 1876. He was one of the foun-
ders and is one of the editors of Brain.
His great work on the functions of tht
Brain appeared in 1876.
Ferrier, James Frederick (b. 1808, d. 1864),
metaphysician, was appointed professor of
civil history at Edinburgh, his native citj-,
in 1842, and professor of moral philosophy
at St. Andrew's in 1845. His Institutes
of Metaphysics was published in 18-54. He
married a daughter of ' ' Christopher North, ' '
and was a nephew of Susan Edmonston
Ferrier (see below).
Ferrier, Susan Edmonston (b. 1782, d.
1854), Scottish novelist, a native of Edin-
burgh, is authoress of The Inheritance (1824)
and Lestvny (1831), which were attributed
to her friend Sir Walter Scott.
Fer
(304)
Fie
Ferry, Jules Francois Camille (b. 1832),
French statesman, a native of St. Die'jVosges,
entered the Chamber of Deputies in Ibtiy as
one of the members for Paris, aud at ouce
distinguished himself by his brilliant at-
tacks upon the Ollivier ministry. During
the siege of Paris he was a member of the
Government of the National Defence, and
from 1872 until the fall of Thiers was
minister resident at Athens. As leader of
the Republican Left, he did much to bring
to nought the insidious projects of the
Broglie and Rochebouet cabinets. In 1879
lie entered M. Waddingtou's cabinet as
minister of public instruction, and made
an unsuccessful attack upon the Jesuits in
connection with schools. In 1880, having
formed a cabinet of his own, he proceeded
to execute the March decrees against the
Jesuits with great severity. By his acqui-
sition of Tunis he raised a storm of unpopu-
larity, and in November of the same year
had to resign. In 1883 he was recalled to
power, and at once reverted to his previous
colonial policy, making claims upon Tonquin
and Madagascar which involved the Re-
public in two wars, neither of them success-
ful. The reverses suffered by the French
arms in Tonquin in 1885 led to his fall in
April of that year. On the retirement of
M. Grevy he was a candidate for the pre-
sidency, but found himself so unpopular
that he retired. In 1888 he was challenged
by General Boulanger, but no duel fol-
lowed.
Fescn, Giuseppe (b. 1763, d. 1839),
French cardinal and statesman, was half-
brother of Napoleon Bonaparte's mother.
From his nephew he received a series of
ecclesiastical dignities, culminating in 1802
in the archbishopric of Lyons. In the fol-
io wing year he was raised to the cardiualate.
At a conference of clergy in 1810 he op-
posed some of Napoleon's schemes, and so
incurred the emperor's hostility. The rest
of his life was spent in semi-banishment at
Lyons.
Festing, Francis Worgan, Sir (b. 1833, d.
1886), general, was in command of the Bri-
tish forces at Cape Coast Castle on the
outbreak of the Ashantee war in 1873, and
destroyed the town of Elmina. After Sir
Garnet Wolseley's arrival to take command,
he was severely wounded while defending
the fortified camp of Dunquah. From 1876
to 1883 he was assistant adjutant-general
to the marines.
Festus, Porcius, succeeded Felix as Pro-
curator of Judaea in the year 60 A.D. , and in
62 presided at the tribunal before which St.
Paul defended himself. His death occurred
a few years later.
, Festus, Sextus Pompeius, probably of
the second century, Latin grammarian, is
kuown chiefly by his epitome of the J>e
\'trt><>rnnt Significations <d Verrius Flae<
to the surviving half of which we u<<_>.
greatly indebted for our knowledge of Latin
grammar and antiquities.
Fetis, Francis Joseph (b. 1784, d. 1871),
Belgian composer and musical critic and
historian, was appointed professor of coun-
terpoint and fugue at Paris 1821, and director
of the Brussels Conservatory and musical
director to the king in 1833. Among his
literary works the best known is a General
of Music (1869-76).
Feuerbaca, Ludwig Andreas (b. 1804, d.
1872), philosopher, a native of Landshut,
was the fourth son of the following. Having
abandoned theology for philosophy, he in
1832 published his Thoughts on Death and Im-
mortality, in which he limited immortality
to personal influence on the human race. In
1841 appeared The Essence of Christianity,
which was translated into English by George
Eliot, and this was followed, among other
works, by The Essence of Religion. The
tendency of his speculation is to identify
God with nature, and to deny the possi-
bility of purely spiritual existence.
Feuerbach, Paul Johann Anselrn von
(b. 1775, d. 1833), German jurist, born at
Hainichen, was in 1804 appointed to draw
up a criminal code for Bavaria, which
was the basis of penal codes afterwards
adopted by other German states. He was
father of Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach (see
above).
Feuillet, Octave (b. 1822), French novelist
and dramatist, born at St. L6, was elected
to the French Academy in 1862, and
from 1865 to 1870 was librarian of the im-
perial academies. His masterpiece, the
Jioman d'un jeune Homme pauvre, ap-
peared in 1858. His style is finished, his
humour refined, and his pathos usually sin-
cere.
Feral, Paul Henri Corentin (b. 1817, d.
1887), French novelist, published his best
known work, Les Mysteres de Londres, under
the pseudonym of Francis Trollope. It
was an immediate success, was exten-
sively translated, and quickly went through
twenty editions. About 1876 its author
was converted to Roman Catholicism of
the strictest type, and his new convic-
tions have materially affected his subsequent
writings.
Feydeau, Ernest (b. 1821, d. 1872), French
novelist, is the author of several romances,
including Sylvie.
Fichte, Immanuel Hermann vou (f,
Fie
( 305 )
Fie
1797, d. 1879), philosopher, son of the
following, was born at Jena, held professor-
ships at Bonn and Tubingen, and was en-
nobled in 1867. His works deal with
theology, ethics, anthropology, psychology,
and the immortality of the soul.
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb (b. 1762, d.
1814), German philosopher and patriot, a
native of Rammenau, was intended for
the ministry, but his poverty stood in
the way, and he was not greatly drawn
to the profession. In 1790 the reading
of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason re-
vealed to him his vocation. In 1792 he
published his Critique of all Revelation, in
which he expounds on Kantian lines the
relation of religion to morality. In 1793 he
was appointed extraordinary professor of
philosophy at Jena, and here his principal
works, in which he develops Kantianism in
an idealistic direction, appeared. In 1799,
in consequence of a charge of atheism, he
removed to Berlin, and in 1810 became a
professor of the newly-founded University
of Berlin, of which in 1811 he became
rector. After the humiliation of Prussia
by Napoleon in 1806, Fichte contributed
powerfully to the moral regeneration of his
country by his impassioned Address to the
German Nation. The exclusively moral
attitude of his first works gave place in his
later ones to a more religious view of ex-
perience, as the process of the divine lif e en-
compassing our lives, and working itself out
to its own issues.
Pick, August (b. 1833), German philo-
logist, was in 1876 appointed to an extra-
ordinary professorship of comparative phi-
lology at Gdttingen. He has written several
works.
Field, Cyrus West (b. 1819, d. 1892),
American merchant, born at Stockbridge,
Mass., brother of David Dudley Field and
Stephen Johnson Field, was instrumental
in laying the telegraph cable between
England and America.
Field, David Dudley (b. 1805), American
jurist, and brother of Cyrus Field and
Stephen Field, was in 1857 appointed to
draw up a, political, civil, and penal
code, of which parts have been adopted
by several of the States. To him is due
the formation of an association for the
reform of the law of nations, and for the
adoption of arbitration in place of war. In
18S9 the University of Edinburgh conferred
upon him the degree of LL.D.
Field, James Thomas (b. 1817, d. 1881),
American publisher and author, a native
of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, was
for many years a partner of the firm of
Ticknor, Reed, and Field, Boston, and from
1862 to 1870 edited the Atlantic Monthly.
Field, John (b. 1782, d. 1837), Irish com-
poser, born in Dublin, is known as
"Russian" Field. During his long resi-
dence in Moscow he wrote several sonatas,
but is better known to the present gene-
ration by his "nocturnes."
Field, Richard (b. 1561, d. 1616), theo-
logian, was made chaplain-in-ordinary to
Queen Elizabeth in 1598, and became Dean
of Gloucester under her successor, who at
one time intended to send him to Germany
to reconcile the Lutherans and Calvinists
to each other.
Field, Stephen Johnson (b. 1816), Ameri-
can lawyer, and brother of Cyrus Field and
David Dudley Field, was elevated to the
supreme bench of the United States in 1863.
In 1880 he received sixty-five votes as a
candidate for the presidency.
Field, Hon. Sir William Ventiis (b. 1813),
lawyer, born at Fielden, Beds., was ap-
pointed Q.C. in 1864, became leader of the
midland circuit, and in 1875 was nominated
a justice of the Queen's Bench.
Fielding, Anthony Vandyke Copley,
always known as Copley Fielding (b.
1787, d. 1855), one of the leaders of
the English water-colour school, born
near Halifax, studied under John Var-
ley, whose sister-in-law he married in
1806. At the time of his death he had for
fourteen years been president of the Water
Colour Society, to which he had for forty -
five years been a constant contributor. No
one has more faithfully portrayed certain
elements of English scenery, but much of
his work is marred by mannerism, crudenesa
of colour, and confusion of detail.
Fielding, Henry (*. 1707, d. 1754),
novelist, dramatist, and political writer,
was born at Sharpham Park, Glaston-
bury, the son of Lieutenant- General Ed-
mund Fielding, and great-grandson of
William, 3rd earl of Denbigh. He was
educated first at Eton, then at Leyden,
where he went to study civil law. Re-
turning to London, he produced in quick
succession a number of comedies and bur-
lesques. They were marked by a good deal
of wit and humour, but his heart was not
in them, and it was clear that they W'jre
only written to gain a livelihood. In 1785
he married Miss Charlotte Cradock, of
Salisbury, who brought him a fortune of
£1,500, and when to this was added £200 a
year bequeathed to him by his mother, he
found himself in comfortable circumstances.
He now left town and lived the life of a
country gentleman at East Stour in Dorset-
shire, but in a few months dissipated the
greater part of his means and returned tc
London, and to the drama. But in 1742
appeared his great novel, The Adventure* of
Fie
( 306 )
Fil
Joseph Andrews. This was followed by
A Journey ff»n This World to the Next, and
The History of Jonathan Wild. In 1749 he
a^ain astonished the literary world with las
Tom Jones, and this was succeeded in 17ol
by Amelia. Between the appearance ot
Joseph Andrews and Tom Jones he had
written some political pamphlets in the
interests of the government, but the only
reward he received was a Middlesex justice-
ship of the peace. Being obliged by failing
health to seek a warmer climate, he in
1754 sailed to Lisbon, but only survived
his arrival there two months. He ranks
among the very greatest of English novelists,
and has been termed by Byron " the prose
Homer of human nature."
Fielding, Sarah (b. 1714, d. 1768), sis-
ter of Henry Fielding (q.v.), wrote David
Simple, and other novels, and translated
Xenophon' s Memorabilia.
Fiennes, Nathaniel (b. 1608, d. 1669),
politician, was son of William Fiennes (q.v.).
In 1640 he represented Banbury in Parlia-
ment, acting with the Presbyterians,
held a commission as colonel under Essex,
and was appointed governor of Bristol, but
surrendered the city to Prince Rupert, and
was sentenced to death for cowardice. His
life being spared, he joined the Indepen-
dents, and sat in nearly all Cromwell s
parliaments. He was appointed a commis-
sioner of the Great Seal, became one of
Cromwell's lords, and ultimately Speaker of
the Upper House. On the abdication of
Richard Cromwell, whom he had assisted in
proclaiming, he retired from public life.
Fiennes, William (b. 1582, d. 1662), Lord
Say and Sele, Puritan statesman, was raised
to the peerage by Charles I., but joined the
Parliamentarians. For his share in bringing
about the "Restoration he was made Lord
Privy Seal and Chamberlain of the House-
hold.
Fieschi, Giovanni Luigi de, Count (b. circa
1523, d. 1547), Genoese noble, was organiser
of a plot against Andrea Doria, who had
driven out Francis I. and re-established the
republican government. The attempt was
a success, the port being captured and Dona
put to flight ; but it all came to nothing m
consequence of Fieschi' s disappearance,
afterwards appeared that in stepping from
one galley to another in the darkness he had
fallen overboard and been drowned.
Fieschi, Joseph Marie (b. 1790, d. 1836),
revolutionist, born in Corsica, attempted on
the 28th July, 1835, to assassinate King
Louis Philippe. For this he and three
accomplices were executed.
Fiesole, Fra Giovanni da [Fra Angelico]
(b. 1387, d. 1455), painter, born near
Florence, went to Rome to decorate the
chapel of the Vatican. Noted as a painter
of saints and angels.
Figueras, Stanislas (b. 1810, d. 1882),
Spanish republican politician, born at
Barcelona, was exiled for several mouths
for his part in the revolution of 1866,
but after the revolution of 1808, wliirj
drove Isabella from Spain ; he returned
and joined Castelar in opposing the res-
toration of monarchical government. On
the abdication of Amadeus of Savoy in
1S73 he became one of the provisional
government, but was unable to maintain
order, and in April fled the country. On
the accession of Alfonso he retired altogether
from public lif e.
Figuier, Guillaume Louis (b. 1819) , popu-
lar French scientific writer, was appointed
to a professorship in Paris in 1852. The
World before the Deluye, and others of his
works, have been translated into English.
Figuier, Julliette, nee Bouscareau (b.
1829, d. 1879), wife of the preceding, was
the author of a number of novels and
plays.
Filangieri, Gaetano (b. 1752, d. 1788),
Italian political economist and jurist, is re-
membered mainly for his Science of Legis-
lation, which, though never completed,
shows its author to have been both a pro-
found scholar and a vigorous thinker.
Fildes, Luke (b. 1844), figure painter,
a native of Lancashire, studied in the South
Kensington school and at the Royal
Academy, where he first exhibited in 1868.
He became A.R.A. in 1879, and R.A. in
1887.
Filicaia, Yincenzo (b. 1642, d. 1707),
lyric poet, born at Florence, was the
author of a number of patriotic son-
nets, and also of odes celebrating
deliverance of Vienna in 1683 from the
besieging Turks. His works were pub-
lished in a complete edition at Florence
in 1864.
Fillan, St. (d. 777), was son of Fere-
dach, a prince of Minister, and of
Kentio-erna. He became abbot of the
monastery on the Holy Loch, in succession
to St. Mund, but afterwards retired to
Strathfillan and died there. His bronze bell
and the head of his pastoral staff are pre-
served in the Antiquarian Museum of
Edinburgh.
Eillans, James (b. 1808, d. 1852), Scotch
sculptor, born at Wilsontown, Lanark-
shire, is still remembered for his Boy and
Fawn, his Blind leaching the Blind, and his
busts of AlUii Cunningham, Professor
Wilson, etc.
Fil
(307)
Pis
Fillmore, Millard (b. 1800, d. 1874),
American statesman, born at Summer-
hill, New York, was apprenticed to
a wool carder, but became a clerk in
a judge's office, and then found entrance
to the bar. He entered Congress in 1832,
was appointed chairman of the committee
of ways and means in 1S40, and was
author of the tariff of 1842. He became
controller of the state of New York in 1844,
was elected vice-president of the United
States in 1848, and succeeded to the presi-
dency on the death of General Taylor in
1850. By signing the act for the surrender
of fugitive slaves he brought about the
utter defeat of the Whig party in 1853. In
1856 he was nominated for the presidency,
but received only scanty support.
Filmer, Sir Eobert (d. circa 1653), political
writer, a native of East Sutton, Kent, was the
author of a number of treatises in favour of
arbitrary power in kings. One of these,
Patriarcha, or the Natural Power of the
Kings of England Asserted, was refuted by
Locke in his Civil Government.
Finch, Daniel, second Earl of Nottingham
(b. 1647, d. 1 730) , statesman and theological
writer, was eldest son of the first Earl (q. v.).
In 1680 he was appointed First Lord of the
Admiralty, and afterwards became Secretary
of State, holding that office under William
and Mary, and also under Queen Anne,
after whose death he was one of the lords
justices for the administration of affairs,
and later president of the council. Dis-
missed from this post in 1716 for speaking in
favour of the Scottish lords condemned for
their share in the affair of 1715, he gave
himself up to literature, and wrote a
refutation of Whiston's views on the
Trinity.
Finch, Heneage, first Earl of Nottingham
(b. 1621, d. 1682), lawyer and politician,
was son of Sir Heneage Pinch, recorder of
London, was educated at Westminster
school and Christ Church, Oxford, and waa
called to the bar in 1645. He sat as a
Royalist for Canterbury in 1660, was
appointed Solicitor- General with a baronet's
degree on the Restoration, and had the prin-
cipal conduct of the proceedings against the
regicides. In 1670 he was made Attorney-
General, in 1673 Lord Keeper of the Seal,
with the title of Baron Finch of Daventry,
a.nd in 1675 Lord Chancellor and Earl of
Nottingham. Blackstone describes him as
" a person of the greatest abilities, and most
uncorrupted integrity, a thorough master
and zealous defender of the laws and con-
stitution of his country."
Findlater, Andrew (b. 1810, d. 1885),
miscellaneous writer, a native of Aber-
deenshire, was editor of the first edition
U2
of Chambers* Encyclopaedia, and con-
tributed to it many of its most im-
portant articles. He also wrote manuals
on astronomy, language, physical geo-
graphy, and physiography. In 1864 he
received the degree of LL.D. from the
Aberdeen University.
Finelli, Carlo (b. 1780, d. 1854), Italian
sculptor, produced the Triumph of Ccesar,
Raphael, and other examples of the mas-
sively impressive but unfinished style of
sculpture.
Finignerra, Tommaso (d. 1475), Floren-
tine goldsmith and sculptor, is credited with
the invention of copper-plate printing, and
was specially famous for his niello work.
Finlay, George (b. 1799, d. 1875), his-
torian, born at Faversham, accompanied
Byron to Greece in 1823, and thence-
forward lived at Athens, corresponding
for The Times, and studying the history of
Greece under foreign rule. This he dealt
with in several works, which were re-
published in 1880 under the title of History
of Greece, from its Conquest by the Romans to
1864.
Finlay, Robert Bannatyne (b. 1842),
lawyer and politician, was made a Q.C. in
1882. He entered the House of Commons iu
1885 as Liberal member for the Inverness
Burghs,^ and later, declaring himself a
Liberal Unionist, took a prominent part
in the debates on Mr. Gladstone's Irish
Bills.
Firdausi, Abii'l Kasim Mansur (6. 941,
d. 1020), Persian epic poet, is known to
fame chiefly as author 01 the Shah Nameh,
or Hook of Kings.
Firenzuola, Agnolo (b. 1493, d. circa
1545), Florentine dramatist and romance
writer, entered the Church and became
abbot of Prato. He had written a
number of works distinguished by their
elegance of style and impurity of senti-
ment.
Fischart, Johann (b. circa 1545, d.
1614), German satirist, was the author of
a number of works directed chiefly against
the Roman Church, including one based on
Rabelais' Gargantua, thought by Richter to
he superior to the original.
Fischer, Johann Bernhard (b. 1650, d.
1724), German architect, was chief architect
to Joseph I., who made him Baron von
Erlach. Among his works are the palace of
Schonbrunn, and the Church of St. Charles
Borromeo at Vienna.
Fischer, Karl von (b. 1782, d. 1820),
German architect, was professor of ar-
chitecture at Munich from 1809 till nil
Pis
( 308)
Fit
death. His chief work is the Hof
Theater at Munich, which, wheii burnt
down after his death, was rebuilt according
to the original design.
Fischer, Kuno (b. 1824), philosophic
critic, born at Sandewalde, Silesia, was
appointed to lecture on philosophy at
Heidelberg in 1850, but in 1853 was for-
bidden by the government to continue his
course. He was restored to his chair in
1872, and still occupies it. He is a promi-
nent member of the New Hegelian school,
and one of the most lucid interpreters of
Kant.
Fish, Hamilton, LL.D. (b. 1808), Ameri-
can statesman, was lieutenant-governor of
New York 1847-49, and governor 1849-51.
In 1851 he was elected United States sena-
tor, and in 1869 was called by President
Grant to the position of Secretary of State,
which he held until the end of the Presi-
dent's second term.
Fisher, John (b. circa 1459, d. 1535),
divine, born at Beverley, entered Michael
College, Cambridge, in 1483 ; became a
fellow in 1491, and master in 1497. In
1502 he was chosen by Margaret, Countess
of Kichmond (Henry VII. ?s mother) as her
chaplain and confessor ; the next year he
was appointed the first Lady Margaret pro-
fessor of divinity, the office having been
created by his patroness. In 1504 he was
elected chancellor of the university, and
was also raised to the bench as bishop of
Rochester. He was an ardent advocate of
the new learning, and of reformation ; but
contended that the reform should come
from within, and was a strong opponent of
Luther. He bravely opposed the divorce
which Henry VIII. was seeking from
Catherine of Aragon, and so fell under the
royal displeasure, which was intensified by
his opposition to the king's ecclesiastical
supremacy in March, 1534. Having shown
some encouragement to the Holy Maid of
Kent, he was attainted of misprision of
treason, and in April of the same year was
committed to the Tower for refusing the
oath of succession. When in May of the
following year he was made a cardinal, the
king grimly remarked to Cromwell, "Let
the pope send him a hat, but I will so pro-
vide that he shall wear it on his shoulders,
for a head he shall have none to set it on."
The brave old man was tried on the 17th of
the following June for denial of the king's
ecclesiastical supremacy, and was executed
on Tower Hill. His remains now lie in the
chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula in the
Tower.
Fitch, John f*. 1743, d. 1798), inventor,
born at South "Windsor, Connecticut, is
the creator of the steamboat. In 1787
he built a steamer which made its
trial trip on the Delaware at Phil-
adelphia. He endeavoured to get the
French to take up his invention, but
his design was checkmated by the
Revolution ; and he is believed, in his
poverty and disappointment, to have ulti-
mately put an end to his lif e. The principle
which he established was developed by
Robert Fulton (q.v.), who is alleged to have
had access t< his plans and specificationa
while they were in the custody of th«
American Consu at Lorient.
Fitzgerald Edward (b 1809, d. 1883),
translator, a native of Bradfield, Suf-
folk, published six dramas of Calderon
in 1853, and then in consequence of an
unfavourable review withdrew the book.
His subsequent translations were issued
anonymously, including his famous versions
of " Omar Khayyam," the Persian poet,
now a recognised English classic.
Fitzgerald, Lord Edward (b. 1763, d.
1798), Irish politician, was a younger son of
the Duke of Leinster Entering the army,
he served with distinction in America. On
the conclusion of the War of Independence
in 1783, he became a member of the Irish
Parliament; but in 1788 again joined the
army, and saw service in "Nova Scotia. In
1790 he once more entered the Irish House
of Commons. During a stay in Taris,
under the influence of revolutionary ideas,
he renounced his title, and about the same
time, married Pamela (d. 1831), daughter
of Egalite Orleans and Madame de Genlis.
In 1796 he joined the. society of United
Irishmen, and returned to France to make
arrangements for the projected French in-
vasion. When the conspiracy was f dis-
covered, soon after his return, he went into
hiding in Dublin, but was tracked out and
arrested after resistance, in which $ he
received wounds that proved fatal a few
days afterwards. His iff e has been "written
by Moore (1831)
Fitzgerald, John David, Lord (b. 1816),
Irish lawyer, was Lord Palmerston's So-
licitor-General for Ireland in 1865, and in
the following year became Irish Attorney-
General. In I860 he was appointed a
judge of the Queen's Bench in Ireland,
and in 1882 was made a lord of appeal
in ordinary, with the dignity of barou for
life.
Fitzgerald, Percy Hethrington (b. 1834),
Irish miscellaneous writer, is the author
of many works of fiction, etc., and joint
author, with W. G. Wills, of Vander-
clt-.cken, produced by Mr. Irving at the
Lyceum.
Fitzgerald, Lord Thomas, ninth Earl
of Kildare (d. 1536), was vice-deputy of
Pit
(309)
Fla
Ireland in 1534, when, hearing that his
father, who had been sent to the Tower, had
been put to death, and that the same fate
awaited him and his uncles, he raised the
standard of rebellion, seized Dublin, and
laid siege to the castle. After the rising
had been suppressed, he unconditionally
gave himself up, and, with his five uncles,
was hanged.
Fitzgibbon, John, first Earl of Clare
(b. 1749, d. 1802), Irish statesman, became
lord chancellor of Ireland in 1789 as Baron
Fitzgibbon, and in 1795 was elevated to the
peerage under the title of Earl of Clare.
Fitzherbert, Sir Anthony (d. 1538), law-
yer and author, a native of Derbyshire,
became a judge in the Court of Common
Pleas in 1523. Among his works, which are
all on legal subjects, are The Grand
Abridgement, The Office and Authority of
Justices of the Peace, and The Office of
Sheriffs.
Fitzherbert, Maria Anne, nee Smythe
(b. 1756, d. 1837), "the lass of Rich-
mond Hill," was married in 1775 to
Edward Weld, of Lulworth Castle, who
died without offspring, as did her second
husband, Thomas Fitzherbert. Four years
after the latter's decease, namely in
1785, she was privately married to the
Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV.
Through Fox, her royal husband denied
the marriage, which, however, has been
placed beyond question. His attach-
ment to Lady Jersey led to a sepa-
ration ; and a marriage contracted by one
of the royal family without the king's
consent or twelve months' notice to the
Privy Council being invalid, George was
free to enter upon his marriage with Caro-
line of Brunswick. The connection with
Mrs. Fitzherbert was afterwards resumed,
with the consent of the Pope, she being a
Eoman Catholic, but it was again broken off
in 1806, owing to the king's infatuation with
Lady Jersey. Mrs. Fitzherbert always be-
haved with admirable discretion, and was
treated by the royal family with great con-
sideration.
Fitzjames, James. [^Berwick, Dukeof.]
Fitzmaurice, Lord Edmund George Petty
(b. 1846), politician, is second son of the
fourth Marquis of Lansdowne. In 1868
he entered the House of Commons as mem-
ber for Calne, and in 1882 succeeded Sir
Charles Dilke as under-secretary for Foreign
Affairs. In 1885 he was compelled by ill-
health to temporarily retire from public life,
but has since taken part in the Irish contro-
versy as a moderate Home Ruler.
Fitzroy, Robert (*. 1805, d. 1865), ad-
miral and meteorologist, born at Ampton
Hall, near Bury St. Edmunds ; he com-
manded the Eeagle in the Darwin ex-
pedition to South America in 1831, and
in 1843 was appointed governor of New
Zealand, but his sympathy with the natives
made him unpopular in the colony, and he
was recalled in 1845. In 1854, having
become vice-admiral, he was appointed
meteorological statist to the Board of Trade,
and estabSshed the system of storm -signals
which, though at first held up to ridicule,
has proved of the greatest practical value.
Shortly after publishing his Weather Book
his nerves gave way from overwork, and he
committed suicide.
Fitzwilliam, William Wentworth, fourth
Earl (b. 1748, d. 1833), statesman, in-
herited, besides his father's estates, the
fortune and lands of the Marquis of
Rockingham. On the outbreak of the
French revolution, he, with many other
Whigs, transferred his support to Pitt, and
in 1794 was rewarded with the post of Lord-
Lieutenant of Ireland. A warm supporter
of Catholic emancipation, he was received
in Ireland with enthusiasm ; his sudden
recall the next year made the rebellion
inevitable. On Pitt's death, in 1806, he
became Lord President of the Council, but
retired with the Grenville ministry the next
year, and never afterwards took active part
in public lif e.
Flaccus, Caius Valerius, Roman poet of
the time of Vespasian, is known chiefly as
author of the Argonautica, an epic poem
which was translated into English by
Nicholas Whyte in 1565.
Flacius, Matthias (b. 1520, d. 1575),
Lutheran divine, a native of Albona,
Illyria, was a pupil of Luther and
Melanchthon ; the latter he opposed on
the subject of the Leipzig Interim. For
this action he was deprived of his professor-
ship of Hebrew Scriptures at Wittenberg.
In 1557 he became professor of theology at
Jena, but was ejected from his chair in
1561, because of his doctrine that original
sin belongs to the essence of man's nature,
and spent the remaining years of his life
wandering about between Antwerp, Frank-
fort, and Strasburg.
Flahault de la Billarderie, Auguste
Charles, Comte de (b. 1785, d. 1870),
French soldier and diplomatist, was an
aide-de-camp of Napoleon the Great,
and, having gained honour in the Penin-
sular war and the Russian campaign,
was in 1813 ennobled with the title
of count, and raised to the rank of
general of division. Becoming an exile
after Napoleon's fall, he came to Eng-
land, and here married the Baroness
Keith and Nairne. The revolution of 1830
Fla
(310)
restored him to French soil and service, and
from 1842 to 1848 he was ambassador at
Vienna. He held the same post in London
from 1860 to 18'.i2. and became grand chan-
cellor of the Legion of Honour.
Flambard, Ralph or Rannulf (d. 1128),
of Norman birth, justiciar of Eng-
land under William II., was elevated to
the bishopric of Durham in 1099. Though
an able, he was not a scrupulous man, nor
was he regardful of the interests of the
Church, for it was at his instance that the
king extended feudalistic customs to eccle-
siastical property.
Flaminius, Caius(£ circa 217B.O.), Roman
general, was first tribune of the people, then
praetor in Sicily, and in 223 consul. During
his consulship he, in disobedience to the
senate, fought against the Insubres and
conquered them. Again elected consul in
217, he went out to oppose Hannibal, and
was defeated and slain in the battle of
Thrasymenus. While censor, between his
two terms of office as consul, he constructed
the Via Flaminia.
Ram in ins, T. Quintius (d. circa 175 B.C.),
Roman general, was made consul in 198,
and in the following year brought the Mace-
donian war to an end by defeating Philip
at Cynoscephalse. In 196 he issued a pro-
clamation restoring Greece to independence.
After waging a successful war with Nabis,
tyrant of Sparta, he returned to Rome and
had a three days' triumph. In 183 he was
sent as ambassador to Bithynia to demand
the surrender of Hannibal.
Flammarion, Camille (b. 1842), French
astronomer, entered the Paris observatory
in 1858. His most successful work, The
Plurality of Inhabited Worlds, has been
through more than thirty editions. His
Travels in the Air, describing his ballooning
experiences, has, like others of his books,
been translated into English.
Flamsteed, John (b. 1646, d, 1719), as-
tronomer, born near Denny, was ap-
pointed astronomical observator to the
king in 1675, and for his use the Royal
Observatory was built in the following year.
It was he who compiled the first reliable
catalogue of the fixed stars. His most
important workjlTistoriaCcelestisBritanmca,
appeared in three volumes in 1723. Being
in holy orders, he in 1684 was presented to
the living of Burstow, Surrey, where he
continued to pursue his astronomical
investigations.
Flandrin, Jean Hippolyte (b. 1809,
d. 1864), French historian and por-
trait-painter, born at Lyons, studied
at the School of Fine Arts in Paris, and
also snder Ingres. In 1832 he won the
Prix de Rome by his Recognition of ,
and during his five years' residence in Italy
painted his St. Glair llvnimg the Blind, now
in the cathedral of Nantes. Some of liia
best work is to be found in the church of
St. Germain-des-Pres, Paris.
Flaubert, Gustave (b. 1821, d. 1880),
French novelist, born at Rouen, at
first followed in the footsteps of Victor
Hugo, but afterwards became a convert to
realism. His masterpiece, Madame liomry,
was prosecuted in 1856 by the government
as an immoral and anti-religious work, but
without success. Salambo appeared in
1862, and La Tentation de St. Antoine in
1874.
Flavel, John (b. circa 1630, d. 1691),
Nonconformist divine, born at Broms-
grove, was educated at University College,
Oxford, took Presbyterian orders in 1650,
and was ejected by the Act of Uniformity
in 1662. After the Declaration of Indul-
gence he laboured at Dartmouth as a Non-
conformist minister until his death. His
works, which are mostly devotional, were
collected into a complete edition in 1820 (six
volumes).
Flavianus, (d. 449), Archbishop of Con-
stantinople, was appointed such in 447. In
the following year he convened a synod, at
which Eutyches and his monophysite doc-
trines were condemned. But a General
Council was convoked at Ephesus in 449 at
the instigation of *:he friends of Eutyches,
and by this " robber- synod," as it has been
called, Flavian us was deposed and sentenced
to exile. Before the sentence could be
executed he died from the violence of which
he was the victim.
Flaxman, John (b. 1755, d. 1826),
classical sculptor, born at York, was
in his early years employed by the Wedg-
woods, and made many of their most
famous designs. On the completion of his
monument to Lord Mansfield in Westminster,
in 1797, he became A.R.A., in 1800 R.A.,
and professor of sculpture to the Academy in
1810. Among the works from his chisel are
the monuments in St. Paul's to Captain
Montague, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Earl
Howe, and Lord Nelson. The Flaxman
Gallery in University College, London, with
the famous group of Michael Vanquishing
^'f'.n, was founded by his wife's sister and
Miss Denman, his adopted daughter. No
other English sculptor has been so deeply
imbued with the spirit of the antique
world.
FlecMer, Esprit (b. 1632, d. 1710), French
prelate, preacher, and writer, a native of
Avignon, was received at the French
Academy in 1673, after having gained great
renown as a pulpit orator. In 1685 he became
Fie
(311)
Pie
bishop of Lavour, and afterwards of Nimes.
works include lives of Theodosius the
Great and Cardinal Ximenes.
Flecknoe, Richard (d. circa 1678), prose
and dramatic writer, was a well-known
man of letters in London from about 1650
to the time of his death ; but is now remem-
bered only from his connection with
Dry den' s satire MacFkcknoe, directed
against Shadwell.
Fleetwood, Charles (b. circa 1620, d.
1692), Parliamentary general and states-
man, was son of Sir William Fleet-
wood, who held office in Charles I.'s
household. By 1644 he had become com-
mander of a regiment of cavalry ; at
the battle of Worcester he fought as
lieutenant-general. Having married Crom-
well's daughter, Bridget, after the death
of her first husband, Ireton, he was
sent to Ireland as lord- deputy in 1654,
and remained there till 1657. Though
he was one of those who prevailed upon
Richard Cromwell to abdicate, and favoured
Rthe estoration, he was excepted from the
Act of pardon and indemnity.
Fleischer, Heinrich Lebrecht (b. 1801),
first of living Arabic grammarians, a native
of Schandau, Saxony, has been since 1835
Oriental professor at Leipzig.
Fleming, George, LL.D., F.R.G.S. (b.
1833), veterinarian and traveller, born at
Glasgow, entered the army in 1855, and saw
active service in the Crimea, in North China,
and elsewhere. In 1883 he was appointed to
his present post of principal veterinary sur-
geon to the forces. He lias also been for seve-
ral consecutive years president of the Royal
College of Veterinary Surgeons, was first
president of the British National Veterinary
Medical Association, and has received many
honours from learned institutions in various
countries in recognition of his services to
veterinary science. He has also been pre-
sented with testimonials by the veterinary
profession of the United Kingdom, the
colonies, and the United States.
Fleming, John (6. 1785, d. 1857),
naturalist and divine, a native of Bath-
gate, Linlithgowshire, was professor of
natural history at Aberdeen, 1832-43, and
of natural science in New College, Edin-
burgh, 1845-57. His works deal mainly
with zoology and geology.
Fleming, Paul (b. 1609, d. 1640), German
lyrical poet, is the author of many popular
patriotic and love songs.
Fleming or Flemmyng1, Richard (b.
circa 1370, d. 1431), prelate, and foun-
der of Lincoln College, Oxford ; he be-
'.came a prebendary of York in 1420, and
afterwards bishop of Lincoln. For the part
he took in the Council of Constance, which
commissioned him to burn the bones of
Wycliffe, whose adherent he had once been,
he would have been rewarded by the Pope
with the northern archbishopric but for the
opposition of the Royal Council.
Fleming, Sandford (b. 1827), a native of
Kirkcaldy, civil engineer, settled in Canada
in 1845, and surveyed and superintended the
construction of the Intercolonial Railway.
He also surveyed the line of route for the
Pacific Railway. In 1881 he advocated the
adoption of a prime meridian to be common
to all nations, which has since been
approved by the International Congress of
Scientists.
Fletcher, Andrew (Fletcher of Saltpun)
(b. 1655, d. 1716), Scottish publicist,
a direct descendant on his mother's
side of Robert Bruce. Entering the Scot-
tish Parliament in 1681, he opposed the
crown so formidably that he was out-
lawed, and his property confiscated. He
returned to London in 1683, but again fled
to Holland on the discovery of the Rye
House plot. In 1685 he came over with
Monmputh ; but having shot the Mayor of
Lyme in a personal quarrel, was obliged to
abandon the expedition. He then travelled
in Spain and in Hungary, where he fought
as a volunteer against the Turks, and again
settled in Scotland after the revolution of
1688. He was a strong opponent of the
union between the northern and southern
kingdoms, and when it had become an ac-
complished fact, withdrew from public life
and gave himself up to agriculture. The
remark by which he is now best known : "I
knew a very wise man that believed that if
a man were permitted to make all the ballads,
he did not care who should make all the
laws, of a nation," occurs in his A ccount of a
Conversation concerning a Right Regulation
of Government for the Common Good of Man-
kind.
Fletcher, Giles (b. circa 1588, d. 1623),
poet and divine, the younger brother of
Phineas Fletcher (q.v.), was educated at
Trinity College, Cambridge, and for many
years held the living of Aldertou in SuiToiK;.
His sacred poem, Christ's Victory and
Triumph, appeared in 1610, and is remark-
able because of the influence which it can
be traced to have exercised upon Milton.
Fletcher, John (b. 1576, d. 1625), dra-
matist, was the son of Richard Fletcher
(q.v.), and cousin of Giles and Phineas
Fletcher (q.v.). On leaving Cambridge
for London, he came into associatior
with Ben Jonson and Francis Beaumont;
and with the latter of these formed a literary
alliance which led to the production of tLe
Fie
(312)
Tlo
numerous dramas that bear their names.
Before this he had -written The Woman
H'tter, and Thierry and Theodoret. After
the death of Beaumont, he wrote a num-
ber of dramas alone, and others in con-
junction with Massinger and Rowley, and
last of all The TTO Xoble Kinsmen in col-
laboration with Shakespeare. He died of
the plague.
Fletcher, Phineas (b. 1582, d. 1650),
poet and divine, was elder brother of Giles
Fletcher (q.v.). He was educated at Eton
and at King's College, Cambridge, and from
1621 till his death was rector of Hilgay,
Norfolk. In addition to The Purple Island,
or the Isle of 3Tan, published in 1633, he
wrote Sicelides, a drama.
Fletcher, Richard (b. circa 1525, d.
1596), English divine, father of John
Fletcher (q.v.), was bishop of Bristol in
1589, was translated to the see of Worcester
in 1592, and to that of London in 1594. He
was chosen by Elizabeth to attempt the
conversion of Mary Queen of Scots, and
was present at the unfortunate queen's
execution.
Fleury, Andre Hercules de, Cardinal
(b. 1653, d. 1743), French ecclesiastic
and statesman, born at Lodeve, Lan-
guedoc, was at first almoner to Louis XIV. ,
then in 1698 Bishop of Frejus, and in 1715
was appointed tutor to the dauphin,
who in that year, a child of five, succeeded
as Louis XV. He gained complete influence
over the young king's mind, and in 1726
succeeded the Duke of Bourbon as prime
minister and was made cardinal. Though a
liberal patron of learning, his administra-
tion must be held largely accountable for
the disasters of the Revolution.
Fleury, Claude (b. 1640, d. 1723),
French historian, was at first abbot of
Loc-Dieu, and was afterwards prior of
Argenteuil. His chief work is his Histoire
Ecclesiastique, which was published in Paris
between 1691 and 1720, and was the first
attempt to write a systematic history of the
Church and its origin. At the time of his
death Fleury had got down to the year
1414.
Fliedner, Theodor (b. 1800, d. 1864), born
at Epstein, was founder of the Protestant
order of deaconesses.
Flinders, Matthew (b. 1774, d. 1814),
navigator, a native of Donington, Lin-
colnshire, went to Australia in 179-5, and,
exploring the coast south of Port Jackson,
discovered Bass Strait, between the con-
tinent and Tasmania. In 1801 he surveyed
the Australian coast from Cape Leeuwin to
Bass Strait, then northwards to the Gulf of
Carpentaria, then across to Timor, then
back to Cape Leeuwin, and round to Port
Jackson. On his return voyage in 1803 he
was captured by the French and imprisoned
for six years in the Isle of France. His
Voyage to Terra Australia was published in
1814.
Flint, Robert, D.D. (b. 1837), Scotch
theologian, was elected professor of moral
philosophy and political economy at St.
Andrew's in 1864, and in 1876 became pro-
fessor of divinity at Edinburgh. His Anti-
theistic Theories and Theism both appeared
in 1877 ; they were preceded by his
Philosophy of History in France and
Germany.
Flood.Henry (b. 1732, d. 1791), Irish patriot
and orator, was son of Warden Flood, chief
justice of the King's Bench in Ireland, and
was educated at Trinity College, Dublin,
and at Christ Church, Oxford. He entered
the Irish Parliament as member for Kilkenny
in 1759, and in 1761 was elected for Callan.
In 1775 he received from Lord Harcourt the
post of vice -treasurer for Ireland, which he
held until 1781, when his advanced Nation-
alist views led to retirement. Soon after-
wards he was pitted against his great rival
Grattan, upon the right — which Flood
denied — of the English Parliament to bind
that of Ireland. The contest was carried
on with eminent ability, but with great
acrimony, and nearly resulted in a duel.
Finding his political influence declining,
Flood sought entrance to the English House
of Commons, and was returned for Win-
chester in 1783, still, however, retaining hia
seat in the Irish Parliament. Though a
brilliant orator, he found less recognition at
Westminster than at Dublin, but in 1787
his opposition to Pitt was such as to extort
the highest praise from even his opponents.
In his will he bequeathed £5,000 a year to
his Irish alma mater. It should be added
that he killed an electioneering opponent
in a duel, for which he was tried but
acquitted.
Floquet, Charles Thomas (*. 1828), French
statesman, first attained notoriety by shout-
ing "Vive la Pologne, Monsieur! " to the
Czar Alexander on the occasion of the
latter's visit to Napoleon III. In 1871 he
was imprisoned for several months on a
charge of having played into the hands of
the Commune in the previous year as a
member of the Government of Paris. He
entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1876,
for the llth arrondissement of Paris, and
at once set himself with marked ability to
oppose the reactionary designs then in
course of development. In 1885 he suc-
ceeded M. Brisson as president of the
Chamber. In April, 1888. he ^ formed a
ministry, and in the following July,
challenged by General Boulanger, he fought
Flo
(313)
Foi
a duel with that personage, and gave him a
serious wound in the neck. Being defeated
on the question of the revision of the
Senate, he resigned in February, 1889. In
November of the same year he again
became president of the Chamber.
Florence of Worcester (d. 1118), English
chronicler, was a monk in the city after
which he is named. He wrote a Chronicon
which comes down to within two years of
his dteath, and is of special authority be-
tween that time and the year 1030. It has
been edited for the English Historical
Society (two volumes, 1848), and has found
translators in Forester (1817) and Stevenson
(1853).
Flores, Antonio (b. 1833), South Ameri-
can statesman, is son of the following.
After representing the republic of Ecuador
at Washington, Paris, London, and Brus-
sels, he was, in 1888, elected president.
Flores, Juan Jose" (*. 1800, d. 1864),
first president of Ecuador, was elected to
that post in 1830 after having participated
in the War of Independence. He resigned
in 1835, and was re-elected in 1839, and
again in 1843.
Florian, Jean Pierre Claris de (b. 1755,
d. 1794), French fabulist and romancist,
was a disciple and friend of Voltaire.
He wrote a number of comedies, prose
romances, etc., but is seen at his best in his
Fables.
Florio, Franz (b. 1520, d. 1570), Flemish
painter, has been called the Raphael of
Flanders. His Nativity is in the cathedral
of Antwerp, his native city.
Florio, John (b. circa 1553, d. 1625), trans-
lator of Montaigne, was the son of an Italian
Protestant exile, and was born in London. In
1581 John Florio was admitted a member of
Magdalen College, Oxford, and set up as a
teacher of Italian and French. In 1598 he
published an Italian and English dictionary
under the title of A World of Words. His
translation of Montaigne appeared in 1603.
The British Museum library contains two
copies of this work, one bearing Shakes-
peare's autograph, and the other that of
Ben Jonson, and it is clear from the Tempest
that the former had read the work.
Flotow, Friedrich Adolphus von (b.
1812, d. 1883), operatic composer, born
at Eentendorf , Mecklenburg - Schwerin,
leapt into fame with his Naufrage de
la Medttse, produced in Paris in 1839.
Among the numerous operas that followed
it, the only one that became generally popu-
lar was Marta, first performed at Vienna
in 1847. Flotow's music has little but melody
to recommend it.
Flourens, Marie Jean Pierre (b. 1794, d.
1867), French anatomist and physiologist,
was born at Maureilhan, Herault. After pub-
lishing some remarkable works dealing with
the nervous system in its relation to sen-
sation, he was appointed to a professorship
in the museum of the Jardin du Eoi, and in
1855 at the College de France. In 1833 he
became perpetual secretary of the Academy
of Science, and in 1840 was elected a mem-
ber of the Academy in succession to
Michaud. He was a prolific writer, but
found time also for politics, being elected to
the Chamber of Deputies in 1838, and
becoming a peer of France in 1846.
Flower, William Henry, LL.D., F.E.S.
(b. 1831), zoologist, was born at Stratford-
on-Avon. After holding several important
appointments, and gaining a royal medal
from the Eoyal Society, he succeeded Sir
Eichard Owen in 18S4 as superintendent
of the natural history collections in the
British Museum. His contributions to
scientific literature have been mainly
ethnological.
Fludd, Eobert (b. 1574, d. 1637), physician
and mystic, born at Milgate, Kent, was the
author of a system of theosophy which had
enough vogue to evoke criticisms from
Kepler and others.
Fliigel, Gustav Lebrecht (b. 1802, d.
1870), Arabic scholar, was for some years
professor at Meissen. His greatest work
is his edition and Latin translation of
Hajjy Khalfa's Bibliographical Dictionary,
which he executed for the Oriental Text
Committee of London, 1835-58, in seven
vols. quarto.
Foggo, George. [See Foggo, James.]
Foggp, James (b. 1790, d. 1860), painter,
was, with his brother George (b. 1793, d.
1869), educated in the school of the French
Academy. Eeturning to England (he was
born in London), the brothers worked
together in the production of historical
pictures, but, though winning the ad-
miration of some of the greatest artists
of the day, their work was never popular.
Foix, Count de (d. 1064), was the founder
of the celebrated French family of this name,
which took its title from what is now the
department of Ariege, in the south of
France.
Foix, Gaston HE. (b. 1331, d. 1391), sur-
named Phoebus from his personal beauty,
was the most distinguished member of hia
family. In 1345 he was made governor of
Languedoc and Gascony as a reward for his
services against the English, and when
superseded by the Due de Berri (1381) he
maintained his position by force, defeating
Foi
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Foo
the duke at Revel. In the end the cardinal
of Amiens effected a reconciliation, and
Gastou retired to his own court. Before
this he had joined in a crusade against the
heathen Letts of Prussia, and had also
released certain members of the royal
family when besieged by Jacquerie insur-
gents at Meaux. He is the author of a
work on hunting, Miroir de Phebus.
Foix, Gaston IV. (d. 1472), co-operated
with Charles VII. in his wars against
England, and was invested with the seign-
iory of Carcassonne and the countships of
Roussillon and Cerdagne.
Foix, Roger Raymond (d. 1223), accom-
panied King Philip Augustus to Palestine,
and was present at the capture of Acre.
Later he became a follower of the Albi-
genses, for which his estates were confis-
cated by Simon de Montfort.
Folard, Jean Charles (b. 1669, d. 1752),
tactician, born in Avignon, served with dis-
tinction in several of the wars of his age, wrote
works on military and other subjects, and
edited Pohjbius. He was a fellow of the
Royal Society of London.
Foley, John Henry (b. 1818, d. 1874),
sculptor, born in Dublin, entered the schools
of the Royal Academy in 1835. His Youth
at a Stream was exhibited in the national
competition at Westminster Hall, and his
statue of Hampden appeared at the same
place in 1847. In 1848 he became A.R.A.,
and in 1858 R.A. The figure of Prince
Albert for the Albert Memorial in Kensing-
ton Gardens is from his chisel.
Foley, Sir Thomas (b. 1757, d. 1833),
British admiral, commanded the St. George
in 1793, and assisted in the recapture
of the St. Jago, of the Qa Ira, and of the
Censeur. He distinguished himself at the
battles of Cape St. Vincent and the Nile,
and in the bombardment of Copenhagen.
In 1812 he became vice-admiral, and in 1830
commander-in-chief at Portsmouth, where
he died.
Folgore, Italian poet, of whom, although
a number of his sonnets have come down to
us, nothing is known except that he lived at
the end of the 13th century.
Folkes, Martin^. 1690, d. 1754), English
antiquary, born in London, was president
of the Royal Society in 1741, of the Society
of Antiquaries in 1750, and also of the
Paris Academy of Science, and compiled A
Table of English Gold Coins (1736), and A
Table of English Silver Coins (1745).
Follett, Sir William Webb (b. 1798, d.
1845), lawyer, born at Topsham, Devon,
^was called to the bai in 1823, and quickly
'became leader of the western circuit. In 1835
he was elected member of Parliament for
Exeter, and in 1834 became Sir Robert
Peel's Solicitor-General, an office to which
he was reappointed on a later occasion,
becoming Attorney-General in 1844. Had
not his health broken down, he would no
doubt have risen to higher distinction.
Fonblanque, Albany William (b. 1793, d.
1872), journalist and statistician, born in
London, was editor of the Examiner from
1830 until he received the office of statis-
tical secretary to the Board of Trade in 1847.
In 1854 he represented England at the Paris
International Statistical Congress.
Fontaine, Pierre Francois Leonard (b.
1762, d. 1853), French architect, was
appointed architect of the Tuileries in 1801,
and, in conjunction with Percier and Ber-
nier, directed the public works of France for
more than half a century, being employed
in the extension and restoration of the
palaces of the 'Louvre, Saint Cloud, and
Fontainebleau.
Fontaines, Madame de (d. 1730), French
novelist, was a friend of Voltaire, and
wrote, among other works, La Comtesse de
Savoie.
Fontana, Domenico (b. 1543, d. 1607), archi-
tect and engineer, born at Mili, near 'Lake
Como, was for some years papal architect
at Rome, and built the Lateran palace and
the Vatican library. After the death of his
patron, Pope Sixtus V., he went to Naples,
where he was royal architect and engineer
until his death.
Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de (b.
1657, d. 1757), French poet, dramatist,
and miscellaneous writer, born at Rouen,
was a nephew of Corneille, his mother
being that poet's sister. He became a
member of the Academy in 1691, and
in 1697 was appointed secretary to the
Academy of Science. For some time be-
fore the close of his life he was the
oldest member of three academies, and
came to be known as " the Nestor of Litera-
ture." His tragedy of Aspar, produced
early in his career, fell flat, nor was his
poetry a success, but his Dialogues of the
Dead, his Ideas on the Plurality of Worlds,
and other works, which aimed at the popu-
larisation of scientific knowledge, brought
him much fame.
Fontanes, Louis, Marquis de (b. 1757,
d. 1821), French politician, poet, and writer,
translated Pope's Essay on Man in 1783.
In 1804 he was appointed president of the
Corps Legislatif, and gained a high repu-
tation as an orator.
Foote, Sir Edward James (b. circa 1767,
d. 1833), British admiral, was placed by
Foo
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For
Nelson in charge of the blockade of the Bay
of Naples in 1799, and signed a treaty with
the rebels which Nelson thought it necessary
to annul. He became rear-admiral in 1812,
and vice-admiral in 1821.
Foote, Samuel (b. 1720, d. 1777),
comedian, dramatist, actor, and humorist,
born at Truro, studied at Worcester
College, Oxford, where, however, he
failed to take his degree. After spend-
ing his patrimony in the gaieties of
London life, he took to the stage, but
was not successful in either tragedy or
comedy. In 1747, however, in a small
theatre in the Haymarket, he began to
give variety entertainments, consisting of
imitations of the principal actors and other
celebrities of the day, and at once found
himself famous, so exquisite were his powers
of mimicry. He continued to give such
entertainments in London, Edinburgh, and
Dublin, and his professional career was not
brought to an end even when, in 1766, one
of his legs had to be amputated. Among
his comedies are The Mayor of Garratt and
The Liar.
Forbes, Alexander, fourth Lord Forbes of
Pitsligo (b. 1678, d. 1762), soldier and author,
took part in the risings of 1715 and 1745,
and after Culloden fled to France,
returning to his native land, however, in
1749. He wrote Moral and Philosophical
Essays, and has the still greater literary
interest of being the supposed prototype of
Sir Walter Scott's Baron of Bradwardine.
Forbes, Alexander Penrose (b. 1817, d.
1875), Scotch prelate, born at Edinburgh, was
consecrated Bishop of Brechin in 1847, and
in I860 was censured and admonished by
his brothers of the Scottish episcopacy
for a charge in which he advocated the
ideas associated with the name of Dr.
Pusey.
Forbes, Archibald (b. 1838), war cor-
respondent, the son of a Presbyterian
minister, was born in Morayshire, and
was educated at Aberdeen University.
After an adventurous career, part of it
as a private in the Royal Dragoons, he
took to journalism. During the siege of
Paris he corresponded for the Daily News,
and represented the same paper in the Car-
list war, and later in the Russo-Turkish
war, sending home, at great personal risk,
his famous accounts of the crossing of the
Danube, of the battles around Plevna and
in the Shipka Pass. He was also present at
the first battles in the Afghan war, and, after
interviewing Thibaw, king of Burmah,
posted off to Zululand, and was present at
the victory of Ulundi, riding 110 miles in
fifteen hours, in order to be the first to
transmit the news of the battle to England.
He then went on to Pieterrnaritzburg, where
Sir Garnet Wolseley was anxiously expect-
ing news from the front, the 280 miles
being covered in ninety-six hours.
Forbes, Duncan (b. 1685, d. 1747),
Scotch politician, studied at Edinburgh,
Leyden, Utrecht, and Paris, and began
to practise as an advocate in Edin-
burgh in 1709. In 1717 he became So-
licitor-General for Scotland, in 1722 was
elected member of Parliament for Iiiver-
ness-shire, in 1725 was appointed Lord
Advocate, and in 1737 became Lord
President of the Court of Sessions. He
took a leading part in the suppression
of both the rebellions of the century,
and to him the Government were in-
debted for the plan of raising Highland
regiments. His loyalty, however, was ill-
rewarded, and the refusal of the ministry to
reimburse the losses he incurred in opposing
Charles Edward in 1745 is said to have
fretted him into the fever of which he
died. He is to be held in honour for the
many reforms he effected in the Scottish
courts.
Forbes, Edward (b. 1815, d. 1854),
naturalist, born at Douglas, Isle of Man,
published his History of the Starfishes,
his chief work, embodying the result
of researches carried on for many years,
in 1841. In 1842 he became palaeon-
tologist to the Geographical Survey; in
1851 professor of natural history to the
Royal School of Mines, and in 1853 pro-
fessor of natural history at Edinburgh.
Forbes, James David (b. 1809, d. 1869),
physicist, was appointed professor of natural
philosophy at Edinburgh — his mtive city —
when only twenty- four. In 1859 became
principal of the United Colleges of St. An-
drews, and here he spent the remainder
of his days in scientific research, dealing
chiefly with the phenomena of light and
heat. He is well known as an early Alpine
traveller and investigator of the movement
of glaciers.
Forbes, Sir John (b. 1787, d. 1861),
physician, born at Cuttlebrae, Banffshire,
was one of the editors of the Cyclo-
padia of Practical Medicine, and in 1836
founded the British and Foreign Medical
Review, which ultimately lost its influence
in consequence of its advocacy of homoe-
opathy and other doctrines obnoxious to the
profession.
Forbes, Sir William, of Pitsligo (b.
1739, d. 1806), banker and author, born
at Edinburgh, was founder of the bank
which, in 1830, became the Union Bank
of Scotland. He wrote a life of Beattie
the poet in 1805, and also Memoirs of *
Banking Souse (1803).
For
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For
Forbes -Mackenzie, William (b. 1801, d.
1862), Scotch politician, was author of the
Act passed in 1853 regulating public-houses
in Scotland, and still known as the Forbes-
Mackenzie Act.
Forcellini. [See Facciolati.]
Ford, E. Onslow (b. 1852), English
sculptor, was born in London, and studied
at Antwerp and Munich. His statues in-
clude Sir Rowland Hill (1882), Mr. Glad-
stone (1883), and Mr. Irving as Hamtet
(1883).
Ford, John (b. 1586, d. circa 1639),
dramatist, born at Jlsington, Devon,
was a maternal nephew of Chief Justice
Popham. After studying for a time at
Exeter College, Oxford, he, in 1602, en-
tered the Middle Temple, and was called
to the bar, but turned aside to literature.
Hia first productions were poems, and
it was not till 1629 that he appeared be-
fore the public as a dramatist with the
comedy, The Lover's Melancholy. His finest
tragedy, ' Tis Pity She's a Whore, was pub-
lished in 1633, as were also The Broken
Heart and Love's Sacrifice. The Chronicle
History of Per kin Warbeck appeared in 1634,
The Fancies Chaste and Noble and The Lady's
Trial in 1638. He also wrote several other
plays, some of them in co-operation with
Dekker, William Rowley, and Webster. His
works were edited by William Gifford in
1827, and this edition was revised by Alex-
ander Dyce in 1869. In 1840 they found
another editor in Hartley Coleridge.
Ford, Richard (b. 1796, d. 1858), traveller
and scholar, born in London, spent much" of
his time in Spain, collecting books and
works of art, etc. In 1845 he wrote the
Handbook on Spain for Murray's series, and
in 1846 Gatherings from Spain.
Fordun, John de, Scotch chronicler, was
a secular priest and a cancm of the cathedral-
church of Aberdeen. Having, it is said,
travelled on foot through Great Britain and
Ireland for materials, he began to write his
Scotichronicon, extending from the earliest
times down to the death of King David I.
in 1153. His work was continued in 1441
by Walter Bower, who utilised the ma-
terials he had left, and brought down the
chronicle to the year 1437. The most recent
edition of Fordun' s own work is that
edited by Mr. W. F. Skene, and published
1871-72.
Forey, Louis Elie Frede'ric (b. 1804,
d. 1872), French general, born in Paris,
played a prominent part in the coup
d'etat of 1851, and during the Cri-
mean war held for i time command
of the besieging army before Sebastopol.
In the Italian war of 1860 ae defeated
the Austrians at Montebello ; while in
1861, being in command of the Mexican
expedition, he stormed the stronghold of
Puebla, for which he was made marshal of
France.
Forkel, Johann Nicholas (b. 1749, d. 1818),
musical historian and composer, wrote,
among other works, a General History of
Music, in two \ols. quarto.
Formes, Karl J. (b. 1810, d. 1884),
German operatic singer, born at Miihlheim,
made his debut in opera at Cologne in 1842
as Sarastro in the Zauberflote. He frequently
appeared at Covent Garden, and was, per-
haps, the most popular bass singer of his
time.
Formes, Theodor (b. 1826, d. 1874), Ger-
man tenor singer, brother of the preceding,
made his first appearance at Of en in 1846
as Edgardo in Lucia.
Forrest, Alexander (b. 1849), Australian
explorer, born at Bunbury, Western Aus-
tralia, is a younger brother of John
Forrest (q.v.). In conjunction with Hill,
he in 1879 discovered the pastoral region
now known as the Kimberley district, and
ascended the Fitzroy for a distance of some
250 miles.
Forrest, Edwin (b. 1806, d. 1872),
American tragedian, born at Philadelphia,
made his debut in New York in No-
vember, 1820, and in 1834 visited Eng-
land. His favourite roles were those of
Othello, Macbeth, Richard III., and Spar-
tacus.
Forrest, John (b. 1847), explorer, and
brother of Alexander Forrest (q.v.), con-
ducted several expeditions in Western Aus-
tralia, which were described in his Explor-
ations in .Australia, published in London in
1875.
Forrester, Alfred Henry (b. 1804, <f.
1872), miscellaneous writer and etcher,
better known as Alfred Crowquill, was one
of the original contributors to Bentley's
Magazine and Punch.
Fb'rster, Ernst (b. 1800, d. 1885), art
writer and painter, and brother of Fried-
rich Christoph Forster (q.v.), was born at
Miinchengosserstadt, and was a voluminous
writer on art. Among his works is a His-
tory of German Art, published in five
volumes 1851-60.
Forster, Friedrich Christoph (b. 1791,
d. 1868), German poet and historian,
and brother of Ernst Forster (q.v.), was
born near Kamburg, Saxe-Meiningen,
and was, from 1829 until his death, cus-
todian of the Royal Art museum at Berlin.
His historical works are mainly concerned
For
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POP
with the history of Prussia and the War of
Liberation.
Forster, Johann Georg Adam (b. 1754,
d. 1794), traveller and zoologist, was born
near Dantzic, and was the eldest son of
Johann Reinhold Forster (q.v.), whom he
accompanied on his voyage round the world
with Captain Cook. For some time he
was professor of natural history at Cassel
and at Wilna, and in 1788 was appointed
librarian to the Elector of Mayence. His
works were collected into a complete edition
in 1843.
Forster, Johann Keinhold (b. 1729, d.
1798), born at Dirschau, Prussia, ac-
companied Captain Cook as naturalist on
his second expedition in 1772. In 1780
he was appointed professor of natural
history at Halle. His Observations made
during a Voyage Hound the World ap-
peared in 1778.
Forster, John (b. 1812, d. 1876),
biographer and journalist, was the son
of a Newcastle butcher. He came to
London in 1828, and was soon appointed
literary critic of the Examiner. His
Statesmen of the Commonwealth of Eng-
land, collected in 1840, brought him in-
crease of literary reputation. He suc-
ceeded Dickens in 1846 as editor of the
Daily News, but, after a year, transferred
his services to the Examiner, which he
edited from 1847 to 1856. His Life of Sir
John Eliot appeared in 1864 ; his Goldsmith
in 1848 ; and his Walter Savage Landor in
1869. The three volumes of his Life of
Dickens were published between 1871 and
1874. His valuable collection of MSS. and
books was bequeathed to the South Ken-
sington Museum.
Forster, William Ivlward (b. 1818, d.
1886), statesman, was born at Bradpole,
Dorset, and was the son of a minister
of the Society of Friends, and a nephew
of Sir Fowell Buxton. He was educated
at the Friends' school, Tottenham, and
received an appointment in a woollen
manufactory at Bradford. In 1850 he
married Jane, eldest daughter of Dr. Arnold
of Rugby. Elected for Bradford in 1861, he
was under- secretary for the Colonies from
November, 1865, to December, 1868. In
1868 he became vice-president of the Edu-
cation Committee, and a member of the
Cabinet in 1870. Of the great measures
then carried into law, he had charge of
the Education Bill and the Ballot Bill.
He displayed great ability and industry
in piloting them through the committee
stages, but his insistence upon the twenty-
fifth clause of the former measure gave
offence to the Nonconformist supporters of
the ministry. But for this he would prob-
ably have succeeded Mr. Gladstone in the
leadership of the Liberal party in 1875. In
November of that year he was elected Lord
Hector of Aberdeen University. When the
Liberals returned to power in 1880, Mr.
Forster, who was held to be both a strong
and a benevolent man, and who, during the
famine, had visited Ireland as distributor of
a relief fund raised by the Friends, accepted
the most difficult post in the Government —
that of Irish Secretary. His path proved to
be even thornier than he had anticipated.
The Compensation for Disturbance Bill was,
to his great indignation, rejected by the
House of Lords, and while Mr. Forster was
pressing forward the great Land Bill of
1881, the social state of Ireland went from
bad to worse. A drastic Coercion Bill was
carried, the Land League was suppressed,
and Mr. Parnell and many others of the
Nationalist leaders were imprisoned. In
April, 1882, the Government decided upon a
more conciliatory policy, and released the
"suspects," and, as Mr. Forster was not
satisfied with the conditions exacted from
Mr. Parnell, he, together with the Lord-
lieutenant, Earl Cowper, resigned. As an
independent member, he criticised the
general policy of the Government with
great severity, and became very popular
with the Opposition. He strongly con-
demned the Government for the condition
into which Bechuanaland had been allowed
to lapse, and also joined in the censure upon
their Egyptian policy after the death of
General Gordon in January, 1885. At the
general election in that year he was once
more returned for Bradford by a large
majority, although too ill to address the
electors. He died in April of the following
year. Amp-rig the subjects in which he
specially interested himself after leaving
office was that of Imperial Federation.
Forsytn, Alexander John (b. 1769, d. 1843),
chemist, was a Presbyterian minister at Bel-
helvie, near Aberdeen, and there made
chemical experiments, which resulted in the
discovery of the percussion principle. He
was rewarded by the Government with an
annuity of £200, but this was only a year
before his death.
Forsyth, Sir Thomas Douglas (b. 1827,
d. 1886), Anglo-Indian statesman, born
at Liverpool, was created C.B. for his
services in the suppression of the Indian
Mutiny. In 1870 he conducted a diffi-
cult mission to Yarkand, in Eastern
Turkestan, and in 1873 negotiated a com-
mercial treaty with the ruler of that
country. In 1874 he was appointed a mem-
ber of the Legislative Council of India, and
in 1878 was sent as envoy to the King of
Burmah, and succeeded for the time in
averting war.
Forsyth, William, Q.C., LL.B. (*. 1812),
For
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Fos
lawyer and miscellaneous •writer, born at
Greenock, became a Queen's Counsel in
1857, and a bencher of the Inner
Temple. He was standing counsel to the
Secretary of State in Council of India,
and is commissary of the University of
Cambridge. From 1874 to 1880 he repre-
sented the borough of Marylebone in the
House of Commons.
Fortegneni, Niccolo. [See Fortiguerra,
Niccolo.J
Fortescue, Sir John (b. circa 1395, d.
circa 1485), judge and jurist, a native
of Somersetshire, became sergeant-at-
law in 1441, and Chief Justice of the
King's Bench in 1442. He was an ad-
herent of the House of Lancaster, and
during exile in Holland in 1463 wrote De
Laudtbus Legum Anglia for the behoof of
the young Prince Edward, his pupil. After
the battle of Tewkesbury, however, he sub-
mitted to Edward IV.
Fortiguerra, Niccolo (b. 1674, d. 1735),
Italian scholar and poet, lived chiefly at
Rome, where he wrote his satirical epic,
Ricciardetto, of which an edition appeared
at Milan in 1813.
Fortune, Robert (b. 1813, d. 1880),
botanist, a native of Berwickshire, was
in 1842 appointed collector of plants in
northern China by the Botanical Society of
London. In 1848 he was sent to India to
make investigations respecting the tea plant.
Afterwards he resumed his researches in
China.
Fortuny y Carbo, Mariano (b. 1839, d.
1874), Spanish painter, studied at Bar-
celona and in Italy, and found many
subjects for his brush during the Spanish
expedition against the Sultan of Morocco.
The most famous of his works, perhaps, is
The Spanish Marriage.
Fosbrooke, Thomas Dudley (b. 1770, d.
1842), archaeologist, born in London,
though for thirty -six years he had to
content himself with the curacies of Hors-
ley and Walford, and then with the
incumbency of the latter parish, was
an antiquary of great learning, who
wrote valuable works on the antiquities
of Gloucester county and city, as well as on
more general aspects of his favourite study.
Foscari, Francesco (b. circa 1370, d.
1457), Doge of Venice, was elected to
that office it 1423, and waged successful
war with the Turks and the Milanese.
The persecution of his son, Giacopo, who
was thrice tortured in his father's presence,
and then banished at the instance of
the Council of Ten, saddened his last
days, and led him in 1457 to resign his
office. The history of father and son, the
latter of whom died in exile in Canea, has
been handled by Byron in The Two Foscari.
Foscarini, Marco (b. 1698, d. 1763),
Venetian statesman ard historian of Vene-
tian literature, was head of the university of
Padua for some time, and became doge of
Venice in 1762. His collection of MSS. in
preserved in the Imperial library of Vienna.
Foscolo, Ugo (b. 1778, d. 1827), Italian
writer and patriot, born near Zante, an Ionian,
island, translated Sterne's Sentimental Jour-
ney into Italian in 1805. After an adven-
turous career he came to England, and beinfc
already known by his poetical works, as well
as his patriotic deeds, was received with
enthusiasm. Although he made a great
deal of money as a lecturer and writer, his
extravagance reduced him to abject poverty,
and when he died, at Turnham Green, he
did not leave sufficient to pay for his f uneraL
He was buried at Chiswick, but forty-four
years afterwards his remains were dis-
interred and conveyed to the church of
Santa Croce at Florence.
Foster, Birket, R.I. (b. 1825), draughts-
man and water-colour painter, born at
North Shields, has illustrated several chil-
dren's books, and also Longfellow's Evan-
geline, Beattie's Minstrel, Goldsmith's
poems, and other works. He is the most
widely known of English landscape artists
in water-colour.
Foster, George Carey (b. 1835), physicist,
was appointed professor of physics at Uni-
versity College, London, in 1867. He was
president of the Physical Society 1876-8, and
in 1877 president of the Mathematical and
Physical section of the British Association.
Foster, James, D.D. (b. 1697, d. 1753),
Baptist divine, a native of Exeter, was
for many years minister of the Barbican
chapel, London. In 1746 he attended
Lord Kilmarnock on the scaffold. He
defended Revelation against the attacks
of Tindal and others, and is favourably
referred to in Pope's satires.
Foster, John (b. 1770, d. 1843), essayist,
born at Hebden Bridge, near Halifax, was
at first a Baptist minister ; in 1806 he pub-
lished a volume of essays, including the
celebrated one on Decision of Character. He
then became a frequent contributor to the
Eclectic Review. His essay on Popular
Ignorance appeared in 1820.
Foster, Michael, M.A. (hon.) (b. 1836),
physiologist, was in 1867 appointed lecturer
on practical physiology at University Col-
lege, London, and in 1869 professor. In
1870 he became praelector in physiology at
Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1883
Fos
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Fou
was made first professor of physiology at
the University, F.R.S. in 1872, and secre-
tary in 1881. He is the author of a Primer
of Physiology, Elements of Embryology, and
joint author of the Handbook for the Phy-
siological Laboratory.
Foster, Stephen Collings (b. 1826, d. 1864),
American song writer, born at Pittsburg,
New York, was the author of The Old
Folks at Home, Old Dog Tray, Willie, we
have missed You, Come Where my Love lies
Dreaming, among other popular soiigs, and
also composed the airs to which they were
sung.
Foucault, Jean Bernard Leon (b. 1819,
d. 1868), French physicist and mechanician,
a native of Paris, demonstrated the ro-
tation of the earth in 1851 by what
is known as " Foucault' s pendulum." In
1857 he invented a polariser, and in
1859 made a reflector for the great
telescope at Paris. In 1864 he became
a foreign member of the Royal Society of
London.
Foucii6, Joseph, Duke of Otranto (b.
1763, d. 1820), French revolutionist and
politician, after taking part in most of
the excesses of the revolution, became
minister of police in 1800, and was
one of Napoleon's agents 'in the over-
throw of the Directory. Although dis-
missed in 1802, he had made himself and his
spy system indispensable, and he was restored
to office and made also minister of the
interior. In 1809 he was created Duke of
Otranto, but in the following year was
again dismissed, having been detected
intriguing on his own account with the
English court, and during the remainder of
the empire had to content himself with the
empty honour of governor of Rome and
then of Illyria. On the entry of the Allies
into Paris he at once made his peace with
the new government, and as promptly
deserted to Napoleon during the Hundred
Days. The morrow of Waterloo found him
once more minister of police, and he became
one of Louis XVIII. 's ministers, but had to
resign, and was then exiled as one of the
authors of the death of Louis XVI. He was
absolutely without moral feeling, and by
establishing his system of espionage exerted
an influence for evil which by no means
ceased with his death.
Fould. Achille (b. 1800, d. 1867), poli-
tician and financier, of Jewish parentage,
born in Paris, was four times minister
of finance under Louis Napoleon be-
tween 1849 and 1852, and although
he then resigned, he was soon afterwards
brought back as minister of state and
of the imperial household. From 1861 to
1867 he was again minister of finance.
Foulis, Andrew (b. 1712, d. 1775), Scottish
printer, was the younger brother of Robert
Foulis (q.v.).
Foulis, Robert (b. 1707, d. 1776), Scot-
tish printer, was appointed printer to the
Glasgow University in 1743, and in 1753
founded an academy in that city for en-
graving, modelling, etc.
Fouque, Friedrich Heinrich Karl, Baron
de la Motte (b. 1777, d. 1843), German,
author, a native of Brandenburg-on-
Havel, was one of the leading mem-
bers of the romantic school of poets.
In his later days he abandoned himself to
the gloom of Evangelical pietism, from
which his art only fitfully emerged. But
this was not until he had produced in-
numerable stories, dances, lyrics, hymns,
and romances. His trilogy, the Northland's
Hero, appeared in 1808, Undine in 1811, and
the Magic Ring in 1813.
Fouquet, Jehan (b. circa 1415, d. after
1475), French painter, was painter and
illuminator to Louis XL, and is known
chiefly by his illustrations to the Livre
d' Heursj executed for his patron, Estienne
Chevalier.
Fouquet, Nicolas, Viscount of Melun
and Vaux, and Marquis of Belle Isle
(b. 1615, d. 1680), French financier, born
in Paris, was from 1653 till after the
death of Mazarin superintendent of fi-
nance. In 1661 the intrigues of his rival,
Colbert, led to his arrest and condem-
nation to imprisonment for life in the
fortress of Pignerol. He has been er-
roneously identified with the Man with
the Iron Mask.
Fouquier-Tinville, Antoine Quentin (b.
1747, d. 1795), revolutionist, born at He-
rouelles, Aisne, was appointed by Robes-
pierre and Danton public prosecutor to the
revolutionary tribunal in March, 1793, and
became conspicuous by his brutality and
cruelty, which were exceptional for even the
Reign of Terror. When that regime was over-
thrown, he in turn became a victim of the
guillotine.
Fourier, Francois Charles Marie (b.
1772, d. 1837), French socialist, a native
of Besan^ou, was one of the first
writers to observe the benefits resulting
from co-operation, from wholesale over
retail dealing, and from machinery. The
system he advocated is known as phalan-
steriauism. His idea was to divide the
world into communities or phalanxes
of about 1,800 persons — a number suf-
ficient to include the whole range of
human activities, and yet not large
enough to be unwieldy. The phalanx
was to be divided into series, and
Ton
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Tox
subdivided into groups of seven or more
individuals. The dwelling of the phalanx
was to be the phalanstire, to stand in the
centre of a beautiful domain. There was to
be no rigid equality in the division of wealth ;
but Fourier calculated that, things being
thus arranged, a man could do enough work
between eighteen and twenty-eight to enable
him to live in comfort for the rest of his
life. Unsuccessful attempts to realise this
scheme have been made in France and
America.
Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, Baron
de (b. 1768, d. 1830), mathematician, born
at Auxerre, accompanied Bonaparte to
Egypt in 1798, in both a military
and scientific capacity. Whilst on ac-
tive service he was elected secretary
of the Institut d'Egypte, and after his
return was made prefect of Grenoble,
member of the Legion of Honour, and
in 1808 baron. In 1816 he was elected
a member of the French Academy, and
afterwards co- secretary. His observations
on the laws of heat are embodied in his
Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur.
Fourtou, Marie Francois Oscar Bardy de
(b. 1836), French statesman, a native
of Riberac, entered the National As-
sembly as a Bonapartist in 1871, and
was successively minister of public works
and of public worship. In 1874, and again
in 1877, he was minister of the interior, and
in both instances was suspected of being
one of the main agents in the reactionary
intrigues which were carried on under Mac-
Mahon's auspices. In 1878 he fought a
bloodless duel with Gambetta. In 1880 he
was elected a senator for the department of
Dordogne.
Fowke, Francis, R.E. (b. 1823, d.
1865), architect and engineer, designed the
Eaglan barracks at Devonport, the Indus-
trial Museum of Scotland, the South Ken-
sington Museum, and the Dublin Inter-
national Gallery.
Fowler, Henry Hartley, M.P. (b. 1830),
statesman, born at Sunderlaud, was mayor
of Wolverhampton in 1863, and first
chairman of the Wolverhampton school
board. He took an active part in the
formation of the National Liberal Fede-
ration. In 1880 he was returned for
Wolverhampton. In December, 1884, he
was appointed under- secretary for the
Home Department. In Mr. Gladstone's
ministry of 1886 he was financial secretary
to the Treasury, and in June of that year
was created a Privy Councillor, and in
1892 President of the Local Government
Board.
Fowler, Sir John (b. 1817), civil en-
gineer, born at Sheffield, was, at the
early age of twenty • seven, appointed
engineer for the construction of the
Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire
line, and has since carried out many
other works of great magnitude, including
the Metropolitan and District Railways and
the Severn Valley Railway. He waa
knighted in 1885.
Fowler, Rev. Thomas, LL.D. (b. 1832),
logician, a native of Lincolnshire, is the
author of Elements of Deductive Logic,
Elements of Inductive Logic, and many
other works, and has edited Bacon's
Novum Organum, etc. In 1881 he was
elected president of Corpus Christi College,
Oxford.
Fox, Sir Charles (b. 1810, d. 1874),
civil engineer, born at Derby, carried
out many important works of construction,
including the building in Hyde Park
for the great exhibition of 1851, for
which he worked out most of the details,
although the idea itself was suggested
by Paxton. For this he was knighted.
He afterwards took down the building
and re -erected it at Sydenham.
Fox, Sir Charles Douglas (b. 1840), civil
engineer, son of the preceding, was one of
the engineers of the Mersey Tunnel. He
was knighted in 1886.
Fox, Charles James (b. 1749, d. 1806),
statesman, born at Westminster, was
the third son of Henry Fox, Lord
Holland, who early inducted him into
gambling and the other fashionable vices,
which clung to him through life. Edu-
cated at Eton and at Hertford College,
Oxford, he entered Parliament at the
age of nineteen as member for Midhurst,
and, having immediately made his mark
as a debater, became a lord of the Ad-
miralty, an4 was in 1773 nominated Lord
of the Treasury. He soon, however, quar-
relled with Lord North. In 1782 Fox
became Secretary of State under Lord
Rockingham, but on the latter' s death (in
the same year) refused to serve under Lord
Sbelburne. On the collapse of the Shel-
burne administration in 1783, he entered
into a coalition with Lord North. The
ministry thus formed was defeated on Fox's
India Bill owing to the machinations of
George III. in the House of Lords, and it
was twenty-two years before Fox was again
called to office, so deep-seated was the
king's dislike to him. In the interval he
threw himself into an enthusiastic advocacy
of the French revolution. At first he
found himself in company with most of
the Whig party, but, as the revolution
ran into wild excesses, there was a large
defection of Whigs to the Tory party,
and Fox was left with a scanty and
Po:
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Pox
dispirited band of followers. TTia name
was struck off the list of privy councillors,
and in 1797 he retired from parliamentary
life to superintend the education of his
nephew, Lord Holland, and to write the
History of the Reign of James II. When
his great rival, Pitt, formed his last adminis-
tration, he wished Fox to join it, but the
king gave a steady refusal. On Pitt's
death, in 1806, he was at last obliged to
admit him to office, and Fox became Foreign
Secretary in Grenville's ministry of "All
the Talents." But the term of his life had
nearly run out, and he had no time to
realise the high expectations of his followers.
His last motion in Parliament was directed
against the slave trade, and he died (at
Chiswick) within a few months of the
measure founded upon it being passed into
law. He was admittedly the first orator
of his time ; he was also a man of wide
reading, and he showed himself equal to
sacrifices to principle such as few statesmen
have cared to make.
Fox, George (b. 1624, d. 1690), founder
of the Society of Friends, a native of
Drayton, Leicestershire, was the son of
a woollen weaver, and as a boy was
employed in tending sheep. At the age
of nineteen he believed himself to have a
diviue call, and left home and friends
to live a life of privation, wandering about
and meditating upon the Scriptures. The
central idea of his doctrine was that of
the "Inner Light," which doctrine he re-
garded as specially revealed to him from
the Scriptures. He first publicly declared
his views at Manchester in 1648, and the
name "Quaker" was given to his fol-
lowers at Derby, from the fact of his bidding
the magisterial authorities there " to tremble
at the Word of God." Among his outward
peculiarities was a refusal to take oath, or to
remove his hat as a mark of deference to
those in authority. He was several times
arrested and imprisoned, but on one occasion,
when examined by Oliver Cromwell in per- :
son, he was acquitted, the Protector being
satisfied both of his sincerity and of the
harmlessness of his teaching. He travelled
extensively not only in the United King-
dom, _ but also in America, Barbadoes,
Jamaica, Holland, and Germany, accom- [
pamed by Perm and others. The incoherence
of his writings has been exposed by Lojd
Macaulay, who, however, has done him
much less than justice, for he unquestionably
succeeded in penetrating to the essence of
religion, while in dealing with such matters
as the relief and education of the poor he
showed himself to have a vigorous and com-
prehensive mind. His works were collected
into three volumes and published 1694-
1706,
Fox, Henry, first Lord Holland (b. 1705,
d- 1774), statesman, and father of Charles
James Fox (q.v.), was war secretary in
1/46, gave place to the elder Pitt in 1756,
became paymaster of the forces in 1757
and in 1763 was raised to the peerage.
Fox, William Johnson (b. 1786, d. 1864),
orator and miscellaneous writer, a native of
Suffolk, was trained at Homerton College for
the Independent ministry, but afterwards be-
came a Unitarian of the advanced type, and
for many years officiated at South Place
Dhapel, Fiusbury. He was a leader in most
of the political movements of his day and
after Mr. Cobden and Mr. Bright, was the
greatest personal force in the Anti-Corn Law
movement. In brilliance, indeed, his ora-
tions were superior to those of any other
leader in the agitation, and they have been
cited by M. Guizot as the most finished
specimens of oratory which the controversy
produced. In the same cause were written
his Letters of a Norwich Weaver £oy, which
had an immense effect. He was also one of the
first contributors to the Westminster Review,
and was for many years editor of the Monthly
Repository. From 1847 till 1863 he repre-
sented Oldham in Parliament. A memorial
edition of his works, in twelve volumes, was
published 1865-68.
Foxe, John (b. 1517, d. 1537), martyrolo-
gist, a native of Boston, was educated
at Brasenose College, Oxford, and elected
fellow of Magdalen in 1543, a position
which he resigned in 1545 in conse-
quence of accusations of heresy. He then
became tutor in the family of William
Lucy, of Charlecote, Warwickshire, and
afterwards in that of the Earl of Surrey. In
the reign of Edward VI. he was restored to
his fellowship, but when Mary came to the
throne he thought it discreet to leave
England, and resided for some time at
Basle. In 1563, Elizabeth having succeeded
her sister, he was made prebendary of Salis-
bury^ and afterwards vicar of St. Giles's,
Cripplegate, where he was buried. His
Book of Martyrs, the proper title of which
is History of the Acts and Monn/nents of the
Church, was published in England in 1563,
but the first part of it had already appeared
in Latin at Strasburg (in 1554), and had
been reprinted at Basle in 1559. It went
through four editions in its author's life-
time, and was not only formally approved
by the bishops, but was ordered by a canon
of the Anglican convocation in 1571 to Le
placed in the hall of every episcopal palace
in England. No one now doubts that
Foxe was often betrayed into the acceptance
of untrustworthy statements by his strong
sympathy with the martyrs whostj sufferings
he describes, but his work, nc,ne the less,
deserves the great popularity which it has
always retained as an admirable specimen of
Elizabethan '
Foy
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Fra
Foy, Maximilien Stbastien (b. 1775,
d. 1825), French general and orator, born
at Ham, served as an artillery officer in
the earlier revolutionary wars, and rose
to the rank of adjutant-general. In
the Italian campaign (1801) he commanded
a brigade, and in the Austrian campaign
(1805) a division of artillery. In 1N07,
having been sent by Napoleon to assist
Sultan Selim against "the British and Rus-
sians, he forced Admiral Duckworth to re-
tire from the Dardanelles. He also distin-
guished himself in the Peninsular war, of
which he wrote an account, published by his
wife after his death. From 1819 to 1825 he
represented the department of Aisne in the
Chamber of Deputies, and took high rank
among the orators of that assembly.
Fra Angelico. [See Fiesole.]
Fra Bartolornmeo. [See Baccio.]
Fracastoro Girolaino (b. 1483, d. 1553),
physician, poet, and scholar, a native of
Verona, was at first professor of logic at
Padua, then practised medicine, and finally
gave himself up to letters, writing among
other poems Syphittdis, sive de Murbo Gal-
lico, Libri Tres, in which he proved himself
to have a rare mastery of the Latin tongue.
A collected edition of his prose works was
published at Venice in 1555. and of his
poetical works at Padua in 1728.
Fra Diavolo (b. 1760, d. 1806), a noto-
rious Italian brigand, whose real name
was Michele Pezza, was born at Itri, in
the Terra di Laboro, and was at first a
soldier, and then, until expelled from his
order for misbehaviour, a monk. He next
became the leader of a band of brigands in
the mountains of Calabria, and for years
succeeded in avoiding capture. For his ser-
vices against the French in the defence of the
Neapolitan state, he and his followers were
pardoned and reinstated in their civil rights,
while he himself received a colonel's commis-
sion in the army. He was executed for en-
deavouring to excite Calabria against the
French.
Fraehn, Christian Martin (b. 1782, d.
1857), the first of Oriental numismatists,
a native of Rostock, Germany, became
professor at the university of Kasan, Russia,
in 1807. In 1815 he went to St. Petersburg
as director of the Asiatic museum, chief
iibrarian and member of the Imperial
ceiademy, and there died after nearly half a
fouiiuy of valuable work. He was the
orien^r of oriental studies in Russia. In its
creator . branches he may be called the
FragonaLumisiIiatics-
French pauu TeanHonore (b. 1732, d. 1806),
scapes, gamed ^f genre pictures and land-
x prix de Rome in 1752. In
1765 he completed his Callirrhoe", commis-
sioned by Louis XV. for reproduction in
tapestry.
Frances, Xavier. [See Xavier.]
Francesca, Piero della, or Piero Borghese
(b. circa 1410, d. after 1493), Italian
painter, was born at Borgo San Sepolcro,
and was for a time Domenico Veneziano's
assistant at Florence and Loreto. He is
represented in the National Gallery, London,
by a portrait and a Baptism of Christ.
Francesca da Rimini (d. 1285), daughter
of Guido da Polenta, Lord of Ravenna, was
bora after the middle of the thirteenth cen-
tury, and became the wife of GianciottoMala-
testa, Lord of Rimini. Her guilty love for
her brother-in-law, Paolo, for whom she had
formed an attachment before her marriage,
and her husband's revenge upon them both,
form the subject of a passage in the fifth
canto of Dante's Inferno.
Francesco di Paula, or St. Francis of
Paola (b. 1416, d. 1507), a native of Paola,
Calabria, was founder of the order of the
Minims, of which he established many
communities on the Continent. He waa
canonised in 1519.
Francia, Francesco. [See Raibolini.]
Francia, Jose' Gaspar Rodriguez (b. 1757,
d. 1840), Paraguayan statesman, joined the
revolutionists in 1811, was appointed con-
sul by the Junta in 1813, and dictator in
1814. When his first term of three years
had expired, the title was renewed for life,
with an income of 9,000 piastres, of which
he refused to receive more than a third. He
lived in complete isolation, and ruled as a
despot, but his administration, though a
severe, was a just one, and was also marked
by great energy.
Francillon, Robert Edward (b. 1841),
novelist and song writer, a native of
Gloucester, was editor of the Law Maga-
zine in 1867, and in the following year
published his first work of fiction, &race
Owen's Engagement. In addition to several
novels and some popular songs, he is the
author of the libretti of Mr. Cowen's can-
tatas, Trie Rose Maiden and The Corsair.
Francis I., Emperor of Germany (b. 1708,
d. 1765), was son of Leopold, Duke of Lor-
raine, to whose dominions he succeeded in
1729. In 1736 he married Maria Theresa,
daughter of the Emperor Charles VI., and
on the latter' s death, in 1740, contested the
empire with Charles VII., and was elected
in 1745. The reins of government, however,
were really held by Maria Theresa.
Francis II., Emperor of Germany. [Set
Francis I., Emperor of Austria.]
Fra
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Pra
Francis L, Emperor of Austria (b. 1786,
d. 1835), was the eldest son of Leopold II.,
then Grand Duke of Tuscany, but after-
wards Emperor of Germany. On his
father's death, in 1792, he was crowned
king of Hungary, and in the following
month was elected emperor under the title
of Francis II. Compelled by Napoleon to
conclude the peace of Campo Formio with
France in 1797, he renewed the war in con-
cert with England and Russia in 1799, but
was obliged, by the defeats of Marengo
and Hohenlinden, to agree to the treaty of
Luneville in 1801. On August llth, 1804,
he proclaimed himself emperor of Austria
(Francis I.), and in August, 1806, after the
disastrous campaign of 1805, and the
establishment, under Napoleon's protection,
of the Confederation of the Rhine, he issued
a manifesto abandoning the title of German
Emperor and the dignity of the head
of the Holy Roman Empire. A fresh
outbreak of hostilities with France in 1809
was followed by the humiliating peace of
Schonbrunn, and Francis reluctantly gave
Napoleon the hand of his daughter, Maria
Xouisa. In the German " war ol liberation "
(1812-14) Francis took a personal part, and,
after the conclusion of the peace of Paris, all
"his losses were made good to him. His sub-
sequent policy under the influence of Met-
ternich was one of rigid conservatism. He
was four times married.
Francis L, King of France (b. 1494, d.
1547), was the son of Charles of Orleans,
Comte d'Angouleme, and Louisa of Savoy,
and succeeded his uncle and father-in-law,
Louis XII., on January 1st, 1515. He almost
immediately plunged into war, from which
during his reign the realm was scarcely
ever free. Crossing the Alps, with intent
to seize the duchy of Milan, he defeated
the Swiss at Marignano, and forced Pope
Leo X. to come to terms with him. On
the death of Maximilian, in 1519, he con-
tested with Charles V. the succession to the
imperial crown, and vainly endeavoured to
form an alliance with Henry VIII. After
meeting with varied fortune in the field, he
was defeated and captured at Pavia (24th
February, 1525). Having suffered imprison-
ment for more than a year, he was set free
on very humiliating conditions, but at once
disregarded them, and renewed the war,
which, in spite of the peace of Cambrai
(July, 1529), was not definitively concluded
till the signing of the treaty of Crespy
(18th September, 1544), which left matters
pretty much in statu quo. Though not a
sagacious or honourable prince, Francis
showed some sense of chivalry, and was
a liberal patron of letters and art,
and founder of the College de France.
His private life, however, was utterly licen-
tious, and his cruel persecution of the
V2
Vaudois and others is a continual reproach
to his memory.
Francis L, Duke of Bretagne (b. 1414, d.
1450), was the eldest son of John VI. of Bre-
tagne and of Jeanne, daughter of Charles VI.
of France. He joined Charles VII. in driving
the English out of Normandy.
Francis II, Duke of Bretagne (b. 1435, d.
l/k>8), eldest son of Richard, Count of
Etampes, succeeded his uncle Arthur in
1458. In the war with Louis XI. of France
he was obliged to sue for peace.
Francis L, King of Naples (b. 1777, d.
1830), son of Ferdinand IV., in early life
sympathised with Liberal ideas, but later
became an absolutist. During his reign
every branch of the public administration
fell into confusion and disorder.
Francis II, ex-King of Naples (b. 1836),
son of Ferdinand II., succeeded his father
in 1859. When, in the following year,
Garibaldi arrived at the gates of his
capital, he fled to Gaeta, afterwards re-
tiring to Rome, and then setting out on
a course of travel. On November 24th,
1859, he married Marie, daughter of the
king of Saxony. He is an arch-duke of
Austria, and a prince of Hungary and
Bohemia.
Francis IV., Duke of Modena (b. 1779, d.
1846), succeeded to the dukedom in 1815. In
18oO, after giving indication of sympathy
with the national party, he fell back,
through fear, upon the policy of reaction,
and the leaders of the national move-
ment were either put to death or driven
into exile.
Francis V., last Duke of Modena (b.
1819, d. 1875), succeeded to the domain
in 1846, and was expelled in 1859.
Francis Joseph, Charles, Emperor of
Austria and King of Hungary (b. 1830),
is the son of the Emperor Francis I.,
and nephew of the Emperor Ferdinand
I. The revolution of 1848 compelled Fer-
dinand to abdicate, and his brother re-
signing his claims to the throne in favour
of his own son, the latter was at the early
age of eighteen called to rule an empire
shaken by civil war. He took part in the
campaign against the Hungarians, and was
present at the capture of Raab in June, 1849.
Restored to the mastery of his dominions, he
proceeded to undo the work of 1848. The
Hungarian constitution was suspended, the
absolute authority of the Hapsburg mon-
archy in the Austrian dominions proclaimed,
and the imperial ministers were declared re-
sponsible only to the emperor. The abso-
lutist regime was maintained during the
first ten years of his reign, though his own
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sentiments iucliued to a more liberal rule.
It was not till Austria had sustained severe
reverses abroad that the system fell.
The demand of Xapoleou III. that the
question of the Lombardo- Venetian states
should be referred to a European conference
being refused, war was declared. The
Austrians were defeated at the battle of
Solferino on June 24th, 1859, and the
emperor \vas compelled to sign the treaty of
Villafranca, by which all claims to Loni-
bardy were resigned. A partial return to
constitutionalism was then attempted, and
representative diets were restored in the
different states, but the Hungarians did not
cease to demand restoration of their old
national institutions in their integrity. A
dispute between Austria and Prussia as to
Schleswig-Holstein led to war between the
two nations in 1866. Here again the
Austrians were completely defeated, and
were compelled to accept the North German
Confederation under the leadership of
Prussia, and to give up Venice to Italy.
After these disasters the emperor restored
national self -government to Hungary, and in
June, 1877, was declared king of that coun-
try. In later years the emperor's influence
in foreign politics has been chiefly directed
to forming a closer alliance with Germany
and Italy. In 1878 the treaty of Berlin
allowed Austria to occupy Bosnia and the
Herzegovina. In 1887 the emperor took
part in a series of military councils held to
provide for the defence of Galicia against
Russia. By the suicide of the Crown Prince
Rudolph in February, 1889, he was deprived
of all hope of a direct successor, and the
crown will pass, on his death, to his nephew,
Francis Ferdinand, son of his brother,
Charles Louis.
Francis d'Assisi, St. (b. 1182, d. 1226),
founder of the order of Mendicant Friars,
was son of Pietro Bernardone, a rich mer-
chant of Assisi, who brought him up to
trade. At the age of twenty- four, after
an illness, he turned from the gay and
prodigal life of his youth, and devoted him-
self entirely to religion and charity, re-
nouncing self and ease, going about in rags,
performing the most menial offices, and
even waiting upon lepers in hospital. His
example found a few imitators, and in 1210
a brotherhood was formed, which received
the approval of Pope Innocent in., and was
afterwards formally sanctioned by Honorius
III. After a preaching tour the brethren
returned to Assisi in 1212, and definitely
arranged the constitution of the order, its
distinguishing note being the emphasis it
placed upon the vow of poverty. The Men-
dicants, as they came to be known, spread
rapidly throughout Christendom. Francis
himself, with twelve companions, went to
Syria and Egypt in 1229. On his return to
Italy he imposed still stricter rules upon his
order, and gave himself up to a Hie of
solitude on Monte Alvemo, which be-
came the scene of the so-called miracle of
the stigmata — his belief being that, while in
prayer, he both felt and received on his
hands, feet, aud side the wounds of the
Redeemer. He died two years later, leaving
behind him a great reputation for sanctity
and benevolence. He was canonised b>
Pope Gregory IX. in 1228. His works,
published in 1739, consist of both prose and
poetry, and are, for the most part, of an ex-
tremely devotional character.
Francis de Sales (6. 1557, d. 1622), divine
and saint, a native of Sales, Savoy, studied
at the Jesuit College in Paris, and re-
ceived the degree of doctor in law from
Padua, but in 1593 entered the priesthood,
and opposed the doctrines of Protestantism
with remarkable success. In 1602 he w..s
made bishop of Geneva, and steadfastly
refused to leave his diocese to accept a
French bishopric. He also, in 1 6U7, declined
the cardinalate offered him by Leo XI. He
was canonised by Alexander VII. in 166o.
His devotional works have had great popu-
larity ; the best known of them are The
Introduction to a Devout Life and a Treatise
on the Love of God.
Francis, John (*. 1811, d. 1882), pub-
lisher, was from 1831 until his death
publisher of the Athenceum. He took a
prominent part in ail movements for
establishing the economic freedom of the
press.
Francis, Sir Philip (b. 1740, d. 1818),
administrator and political writer, a native
of Dublin, was in 1773 appointed a mem-
ber of the council of Bengal. His two
colleagues having died, he came into
violent conflict wirh Warren Hastings, re-
sulting in a duel (17th August, 1780),
in which Francis was severely injured.
On his recovery he resigned, returning to
England in 1781. In 1784 he entered the
House of Commons as member for Yar-
mouth, Isle of Wight, and soon dis-
played his great ability and extensive know-
ledge of Indian affairs, allying himself with
Fox and Burke. In 1787 he carried his
motion for the impeachment of Hastings,
but was not appointed on the Committee of
Management. He strongly opposed the war
with France, contended for the abolition of
the slave trade, and was an able advocate of
reform. On the death of Lord Cornwallis it
was expected that he would be appointed
Governor-general of India ; instead of this
he was made a Knight of the Bath. Two
years before his death he was publicly
credited with the authorship of fhe~ Letters
ofJunius, but he never sanctioned the identi-
fication, and the question is still in suspense.
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Fraack, Sebastian (b. 1499, d. 1542),
German writer and moral reformer, was a
native of Donauworth.
Francke, August Hermann (b. 1663, d.
1727), divine and philanthropist, was ap-
pointed professor of oriental languages at
Halle in 1692, and of theology in 1698. He
is also known as the founder of a number
of educational institutions. He was a native
of Liibeck, and died at Halle.
Frankland, Edward (b. 1825), chemist,
born at Churchtown, Lancashire, was
elected F.R.S. in 1853, has been presi-
dent of the Chemical Society, and of
the Institute of Chemistry, and in 1868
was appointed a member of the com-
mission for inquiring into the pollution of
rivers. He has also held several professor-
ships of chemistry, including that in the
School of Science at South Kensington.
Franklin, Benjamin (b. 1706, d. 1790),
statesman, philosopher, and publisher, was
the fifteenth of seventeen children of a
soap-boiler of Boston, Mass. Quarrelling
with his brother, he went to Philadelphia
almost penniless. Here, in 1729, he pur-
chased the Pennsylvania Gazette, formed
a club called "The Junto," and began to
acquire political influence. He was chosen
clerk of the provincial assembly in 1736,
and in 1753 became postmaster- general for
British North America. In 1754, when a
rupture with France was expected, he sat as
a delegate in the Congress at Albany, and
in 1756 for a third time held a military
command. In 1757 he was sent to England
as agent for Penns3rlvania, and his reputation
as a practical philosopher having preceded
him, he was received with great respect,
Edinburgh, Oxford, and St. Andrews con-
ferring upon him the degree of doctor of laws.
In 1764 he revisited England as colonial
agent, and was mainly instrumental in secur-
ing the repeal of the Stamp Act. When the
rupture with England took place he was
elected a member of the American Con-
gress, signed the Declaration of Inde-
pendence, and subsequently aided in
framing the constitution of the United
States. In 1776 he was appointed am-
bassador to France, and held the post until
1785. He returned to America to assume
the office of president of Pennsylvania, to
which he was twice re-elected, retiring from
public life in 1788. Among his scientific
discoveries was the identity of lightning
with electricity, which he demonstrated by
his famous kite experiment. He also dis-
covered the course taken by storms over the
North American continent.
Franklin, Si^ John (J. 1786, d. 1847),
celebrated Arctic navigator, was a native
of Spilsby, Lincolnshire. He entered the
navy in 1800 as a midshipman ; took
part in the battles of Copenhagen, Tra-
falgar, and New Orleans, and in 1819 pene-
trated as far north as 80°. He was next
sent to the Arctic Ocean by way of Hudson's
Bay for the purpose of ascertahiing as much
as possible about the coast between the
Coppermine river and eastward along Coro-
nation. Gulf . The expedition occupied three
and a half years, returning in 1822. In 1825
Franklin set out on a second journey, with
the view of co-operating with the naval
expedition of Beechey, who was penetrating
from Behring Strait, and that of Parry,
from Lancaster Sound. After taking part
in the Greek war of independence, and
holding the governorship of Van Diemen's
Land (Tasmania), he was, in 1845, sent
with the Erebus and Terror to ascertain
whether a water-way really existed between
the Atlantic and the Pacific. The vessels
started in May, manned by 134 officers and
men. In July of the same year they were
observed at the entrance to Lancaster Sound,
but this was the last that was ever seen of
them. In 1848 the search for them was
begun, and was continued almost without
intermission for eleven years, upwards of a
million sterling being spent upon the work ;
but it was not until 1859 that the party des-
patched by Lady Franklin in the yacht Fox
ascertained that the vessels had been aban-
doned in the ice off King William Sound in
1847, and that all the officers and crew died
of hunger and cold and toil in trying to reach
the Great Fish river.
Franklin, Jane, Lady (b. 1800, d. 1875),
was second wife of the preceding, whom
she married in 1828. She never rested
from her endeavours to maintain public
interest in her husband's fate until the
return of the Fox put the question be-
yond doubt. She was present at the un-
veiling of the monument to the lost navi-
gators in Waterloo Place ; and on the
marble tablet in Westminster Abbey are
inscribed these words: — "Erected by his
widow, who, after long waiting and sending
of many in search of him, herself departed
to find him in the realms of life."
Franks, Augustus Wollaston, F.R.S. (b.
1826), antiquary, was appointed keeper of
mediaeval antiquities at the British Museum
when the present department was crea.ted.
In 1858 he became director of the Society of
Antiquaries, of which he has for many years
been vice-president. He has presented to
the nation his splendid collection of Chinese
and Japanese porcelain and pottery. A great
authority on many departments of art, he is
specially at home in the arts of the Re-
naissance.
Franz, Robert (b. 1815), German song
composer, a native of Halle, published
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his first songs in 1843. Soon after-
wards he was appointed conductor of the
Sing -Academic at Halle, and lecturer on
music to the students of the university,
but was compelled in 1868 to give up his
appointments.
Fraser, Alexander Campbell, D.C.L.,
LL.D. (b. 1819), philosopher, a native
of Argyllshire, became professor of philo-
sophy at New College, Edinburgh, in
1816, and in 1856 succeeded Sir Wil-
liam Hamilton in the chair of logic at
Edinburgh. From 1850-57 he was editor of
the North British Review. Among other
works written or edited by him is a collected
edition of the writings of Bishop Berkeley.
Fraser, James (b. 1818, d. 1885), Eng-
lish divine, a native of Prestbury, was
educated at Bridgenorth and afterwards
at Shrewsbury, and at Oxford gained
the Ireland scholarship and a first class
in classics. In 1840 he was elected
fellow of Oriel, and in 1847 entered holy
orders, and was appointed to a college
living near Salisbury. In 1860 he was
nominated by Mr. Gladstone to succeed
Dr. Prince Lee, the first bishop of Man-
chester. The appointment was chiefly due
to the energy he had shown in the cause of
education, beginning with his appointment
in 1858-60 as assistant commissioner in the
Duke of Newcastle's commission of inquiry
on popular education. At Manchester he
threw himself enthusiastically into all the
interests, secular as well as sacred, of his
fellow-citizens. Deserting his palace and
park in the country, and making his home
in the city, he came to be known as the lay-
man's bishop, and, from his brotherly co-
operation with the Nonconformists, as the
*' Bishop of all Denominations." After his
death a statue was decreed to him by the
town council.
Fraser, Simon. [See Lovat, Lord.]
Fraser, Sir William, author of histories of
several Scottish houses, became assistant-
keeper of the general register of Sasines
for Scotland in 1852, and deputy keeper
of records in 1880. In 1885 he was made
C.B., and in 1887 a K.C.B.
Frauenstadt, Christian Martin Julius (b.
1813, d. 1879), German philosopher, is
known chiefly for his great edition of
the works of his friend Schopenhauer,
end for his numerous writings on the
subject.
Fraunliofer, Joseph von (b. 1787, d.
1826), Bavarian optician, invented a num-
ber of optical instruments, greatly im-
proved the telescope, and discovered in
the spectrum the dark lines which bear
his name.
Frechette, Louis Honore", LL.D. (6.
18o9), French-Canadian poet and poli>
ticiau, entered the Dominion parliament
in 1874. In 1882 two volumes of his
poems were crowned by the French
Academy.
Fredegond (6. circa 545, d. 597), wife of
Chilperic I., was of obscure birth. Having
attracted the notice of Chilperic while in
attendance on the queen, she induced him
to divorce his wife. By violence she got
rid of the unfortunate queen's successor,
Galswintha, and in 565 was married to the
king. Her career was full of intrigue and
crime, and is remarkable chiefly for her feud
with Brunhilda, wife of Sigbert, king of
Australia, and sister of Chilperic of
Neustria.
Frederick L, of Hohenstaufen, "Bar-
barossa" ("Bed-beard"), Emperor (b.
circa 1123, d. 1190), was grandson of
the Emperor Henry IV., and son of
Frederick, Duke of Saxony, whom he suc-
ceeded in 1147. The prince had been well
educated, and early took part in public
affairs. On the death of Conrad III., in
1152, he was crowned emperor at Aix-la-
Chapelle. Having arranged his affairs in
Germany, he, in 1154, marched into Italy,
captured Milan and other cities, took Rome
by storm, and was crowned there by Adrian
IV. in 1155. On the death of Adrian the
Papal throne was contested by Victor IV.,
the nominee of the empire, and Alex-
ander III., the choice of the people. In the
end, Frederick, after a great defeat at
Legnano (1176), made peace with the con-
federate cities. The Italian complications
came to an end in 1183 with the peace of
Constance. Towards the close of his reign
the emperor joined in a crusade, and led
across the Hellespont 150,000 men, but, after
gaining several victories over the Moslems,
was drowned while crossing the Calycadnus,
in Pisidia.
Frederick IL, of Hohenstaufen, Em-
peror (b. 1194, d. 1250), was grandson
of the preceding, and son of the Em-
peror Henry VI. and Constance of Sicily.
He was declared king of the Romans
in 1196. His father died when he was
in his fourth year, but it was not until
1215 that he secured possession of the
empire, and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle,
having had to contend for his dominions
with Otho of Brunswick and Philip of
Swabia. In 1228, in fulfilment of a promise
made to the Pope, he set forth on a cru-
sading expedition, and obtained possession
of Jerusalem, of which he crowned himself
king on the 18th of March, 1229. He returned
to find Italy in rebellion, due, in part, to the
hostility of Pope Gregory IX. Temporary
reconciliation took place in 1230, but during
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327)
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the rest of his reign he was frequently
harassed by the opposition of Gregory ana
of his successor, Innocent IV., and was
twice excommunicated. The revolt spread
from Sicily to Lombardy, and parts of Ger-
many, and was complicated by the desertion
of his own son, Henry, and of his chancellor,
Peter de Virus. The emperor died suddenly
in the midst of his troubles.
Frederick HI., of Hapsburg, "the
Pacific," Emperor (b. 1415, d. 1493),
was son of Ernest, Duke of Austria, of
the Styrian branch of the House of
Hapsburg. At the age of twenty he was
called to govern Styria, Carniola, and
Carinthia, and in 1440 was chosen king of
the Germans in succession to Albert n y but
it was not till 1452 that he was crowned
emperor by the Pope. By his indolence and
want of resolution he lost considerable por-
tions of his empire, and refused to take
arms against the Turks, even when they
had penetrated so far as Carniola. By the
marriage of his son Maximilian to Mary of
Burgundy, however, the power of his house
was greatly increased.
Frederick 7.. , King of Prussia, and third
elector of Brandenburg of the name
(b. 1667, d. 1713), was second son of
Frederick "William, the great elector, whom
he succeeded in 1688. He sent six thou-
sand, men to aid the Prince of Orange in
his English expedition, and twenty thou-
sand to aid the emperor against the
French. On the 18th of January, 1701, he
was crowned first king of Prussia, having
increased the power of ins house by the pur-
chase of some principalities, and also by his
'services to other princes. After the decease
of his first wife, Elizabeth of Hesse-Cassel,
'he married Sophia Charlotte, sister of the
•elector of Hanover, afterwards George I. of
England, and by her became the father of
Frederick William I. He founded the Uni-
versity of Halle, and also the academy of
sciences and the academy of painting and
sculpture in Berlin.
Frederick II., King of Prussia, "the
Great" (b. 1712, d. 1786), was son of
Frederick William I., and of Sophia
Dorothea of Hanover. By his father's
Well-meant brutality he was driven to
Attempt flight to England, but through the
indiscretion of his confidant, Lieutenant
Hatte, he was arrested, condemned to death
for desertion, and kept in prison for two
y^ars, until released at the solicitation of
foreign princes. He then made a show of
submission to his father, and in 1733 con-
seiited to a marriage with the Princess
El^abeth Christina of Brunswick-Wolfen-
biittel, though never treating her as his
wife. He was fond of literature and study,
fat which his coarse and illiterate father had
nothing but contempt. From his marriage
till his father's death Frederick lived in the
castle of Rheinsberg, gave himself up to
literature and music, and to the society of
learned men whom he gathered around him.
During this period began his correspondence
with Voltaire, which was followed up later
by personal acquaintance. In 1740, the
year of his accession to the throne, Charles
VI. of Germany died, and Frederick took
the opportunity to wrest Silesia from that
prince's daughter. This act proved to be the
beginning of three wars, of which the last,
breaking out in 1756, is known the Seven
Years' war. During this conflict his capital
was taken, and twice he was reduced to
such straits that he meditated suicide, but
the sudden death of his enemy, Elizabeth of
Russia, saved him, her son, Peter III., not
only withdrawing from the league against
him, but sending to his help a force of
24,000 men. After 1763, when the war
came to an end, Frederick set himself with
extraordinary energy to repair its ravages,
and lived long enough to witness a state of
considerable prosperity. Before his death
he organised a confederation of German
princes as a safeguard against Austrian
pretensions.
Frederick IIL, Friedrich Wilhelm Niko-
laus Karl, King of Prussia and German
Emperor (b. 1831, d. 1888), was the
eldest son of the Emperor William. He
was educated partly by Dr. Ernest Cur-
tius, and partly at the University of
Bonn. In January, 1858, he married
Princess Victoria Adelaide, Princess Royal
of England. He went through the Danish
war, and commanded the second army
in the war with Austria, penetrating
through the mountains into Bohemia, and
arriving just in time to support the first
army. In the Franco -German war he
commanded the first army. The assault
at Weissenburg on August 4th was two
days later followed by the memorable
action of Worth, in which the greater part
of MacMahon's army was annihilated. He
also highly distinguished himself by his
passage of the Meuse on the day of Sedan.
During the siege of Paris he was raised to
the rank of field-marshal, and it would
appear from his diary that, in the proceed-
ings which resulted in the formation of the
German Empire, he played a part hardly
inferior to that of Bismarck. When, on the
9th of March, 1888, he ascended the German
throne, he had for some time been affected
with a malignant formation in the throat ;
but, though dangerously ill within a fort-
night of his accession, he rallied sufficiently
to'be able to perform the greater part of his
duties. After terrible suffering, borne with
heroic resignation, the disease proved fatal.
The closing months of his life were greatly
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rexed by a dispute with Prince Bismarck as
to the proposed marriage between his
daughter, the Princess Victoria, and Prince
Alexander of Batteuberg. The emperor
was a man of wide knowledge, of enlightened
views, and of admirable temper, and his
death was a great disappointment to those
who looked to him to liberalise the insti-
tutions of Germany and foster her arts.
Frederick I., Elector-Palatine, "the Vic-
torious" (b. 1425, d. 1476), was second son
of the Elector Louis III. He had to fight
hard to secure his kingdom, but was finally
victorious at Seckendorf in 1462.
Frederick H, Elector - Palatine, "the
Wise" (b. 1483, d. 1556), was fourth son of
the Elector Philip, and succeeded his brother,
Ludwig, in 1544. He commanded the Im-
perial army in 1529, when Vienna was be-
sieged by the Turks and saved by the King
of Poland.
Frederick HI., Elector-Palatine (b. 1515,
d. 1576), succeeded in 1559, adopted the new
religious views under the influence of Mel-
ancthon, and was of great service to the
Reformation.
Frederick IV., Elector Palatine, "the
Upright," succeeded his father, the Elector
Louis, in 1583, under the regency of his uncle,
John Casimir.
Frederick V., Elector-Palatine (6. 1596,
d. 1632), was son of Frederick IV., whom
he succeeded in 1610. In 1613 he mar-
ried the Princess Elizabeth, daughter of
James I. of England. In 1619 he was
elected king of Bohemia, but his army was
destroyed at Prague, and the electorate
conferred by the empire upon the Duke
of Bavaria. The rest of his life was spent
in exile. One of his thirteen children was
the fiery Prince Rupert of Cavalier fame ;
his second son, Charles Louis, eventually
became elector.
Frederick I., Frederick William Charles,
King of Wurtemberg (b. 1754, d. 1816),
succeeded to the kingdom of Wurtemberg
in 1797, was made elector in 1804, and,
having come to terms with Napoleon, ob-
tained the title of king, which he contrived
to retain by joining the allies in good
time.
Frederick L, "the Warlike," Elector and
Duke of Saxony (*. 1369, d. 1428), was son
of Duke Frederick " the Severe," whom he
succeeded in 1423. In the conflict with the
Hussites he met with a disastrous defeat at
Aussig in 1426.
Frederick H, "the Good," Elector and
Duke of Saxony (b. 1412, d. 1464), was son
of the preceding, whom he succeeded in 1428.
He was engaged in continual wars with the
Hussites, and with members of his own
family.
Frederick III., "the Wise," Elector and
Duke of Saxony (b. 1463, d. 1525), suc-
ceeded his father, Ernest, in 1485. A wise
and humane prince, he was the founder of
the University of Wittenberg, and the pro-
tector of Luther.
Frederick HI., "the Handsome," Duke
of Austria (b. 1286, d. 1330), was the son of
the Emperor Albert I., and of Elizabeth of
Carinthia. In 1315 he was elected emperor
of Germany at Cologne in succession to
Henry VII., but at the same time Louis of
Bavaria was also elected at Aix-la-Chapelle ;
and in the war which followed, Frederick
was, in the end, beaten and captured at
Miihldorf in 1322. He was kept in detention
for three years, but was then released, and
the two mouarchs came to an arrangement
by which the empire was shared between
them.
Frederick V., Duke of Austria (6. 1380,
d. 1436), lost most of his dominions
by throwing in his lot with Pope John
XXIH.
Frederick L, Xing of Denmark and Nor-
way (b. 1471, d. 1533), was son of Christian I.
AgaSnst his desire he was called to the throne
by the nation, to whom the tyranny of
Christian II. had become intolerable. He
gave the Danes a constitution and proclaimed
religious Liberty, became a Lutheran, aban-
doned all claim to Sweden, and made peace
with Gustavus Vasa.
Frederick II., King of Denmark and Nor-
way (b. 1534, d. 1588), son of Christian III.,
came to the throne in 1550. He subduer'
Ditmarsh, and waged a seven years' wa:*
with Eric XIV. of Sweden, which was ended
by the treaty of Stettin, Sweden having to
pay all the military expenses. When peace
came, Frederick turned it to good account in
improving his kingdom. He was a patron
of art and science, and gave Tycho Brahe the
island of Huen, where the astronomer
erected his observatory.
Frederick III., of Denmark (6. 1609, d.
1670), was elected king of Denmark and
Norway on the death of his father,
Christian IV. During his reign Denmark
was invaded by Charles X. of Sweden, and,
though the attack was repulsed, the dram
upon the national resources brought about a
revolution, which res\ilted in important
constitutional changes.
Frederick IV., of Denmark (b. 1671, &•
1730), ascended the throne of Norway in
1699, in succession to his father. He entered
into an alliance with Saxony and Russia
against Charles XII. of gweden. bat the
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war resulted in his having to pay a large
indemnity.
Frederick V., of Denmark (b. 1722, d.
1766), succeeded his father, Christian VI.,
in 1746. He was a great patron of art and
letters, and stimulated the industrial enter-
prise of his subjects, but left the state bur-
dened with a considerable debt.
Frederick VL, of Denmark (J. 1768, d.
1839), began to rule in 1784 as regent for his
father, Christian VII., and as king in 1808.
His adhesion to the armed neutrality
arranged by Napoleon led to the bombard-
ment of Copenhagen in 1801, and finally to
the loss of Norway. In 1834 he created a
new constitution.
Frederick VII., of Denmark (b. 1808, d.
1863), only son of Christian VIII., was the
last of the Oldenburg line, and was called to
the throne in 1848. His whole reign was
troubled by the revolt of Schleswig-Holstein,
but it was left to his successor to see the
province torn from the country by Austria
and Prussia.
Frederick, Prince of Wales (6. 1707, d.
1751), eldest son of George II., came into
conflict with his father over his marriage,
and threw in his lot with the Opposition.
On his death the eldest of his nine children
became Prince of Wales, and afterwards
came to the throne as George Hi.
Frederick Augustus L, first King of
Saxony (6. 1750, d. 1827), was son of the
Elector Frederick Christian. He joined
the league formed by Frederick the Great
in 1778, and in 1791 refused the crown
of Poland. He assumed the title of king
of Saxony on making a treaty of peace
with Napoleon, whom he then followed.
After Leipzig, however, he was driven out
of his kingdom, a portion of which was
irrecoverably lost to him.
Frederick Augustus IL, King of Saxony
(b. 1797, d. 1854), nephew of the former,
was a wise and skilful ruler. In 1830,
bis father, Prince Maximilian, abdicating,
he was made co-regent with his uncle,
Anthony. He became sole ruler in 1836,
and in 1848 made considerable concessions
to popular f eeling.
Frederick Augustus III., Elector of
Saxony and King of Poland (b. 1696, d.
1763), succeeded his father as elector of
Saxony in 1733, and the following year was
crowned king of Poland. Of this latter
kingdom he lost a considerable portion,
owing to the encroachment of his neigh-
IKJUTS, Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
Frederick Charles, Prince of Prussia
. 1828, d. 1885), known as the "Red
"" ct * from the colour of his favourite
hussar uniform, was the eldest son of
Prince Charles, brother of the German
emperor William, his mother being a sister
of the Empress Augusta. He served in the
first Schleswig-Holstein war, and having
become a general of cavalry, with command
of the third army corps, he commanded the
right wing of the Prussian army during the
Danish war of 1864. In the Austrian war
of 1866 he commanded the first army, and to
him the crowning victory of Sadowa was
mainly due. In the Franco- German war he
commanded the second army, which he led
to victories at Thionville, Gravelotte, and
St. Privat, and thus blockaded Bazaine in
the entrenchments of Metz. After Bazaine's
surrender with 170,000 men, the Prince
hastened westward to check the armies of
Chanzy and D'Aurelles de Paladine in their
attempts to relieve Paris from the south.
A series of battles lasted almost uninter-
ruptedly from the middle of November till
the middle of January, when the French
army of the west was rendered impotent at
Le Mans. In the previous October he had
been created field-marshal. Pnnce Frederick
was father of the Duchess of Connaught.
Frederick William I., King of Prussia
(b. 1688, d. 1740), succeeded his father,
Frederick I., in 1713, and at once entered
upon a policy of severe economy, and
even parsimony. For learning and all
the refinements of life he had nothing
but contempt; but the effect of his
thoroughly practical policy in developing
the resources of his country was enormous,
and when he died he left an army of 80,000
men, brought to a state of the highest dis-
cipline, and a reserve of 9,000,000 thalers.
By Sophia Dorothea, daughter of George L,
he was father of Frederick " the Great."
Frederick William n., King of Prussia
(b. 1744, d. 1797), son of August Wilhelm,
the second son of Frederick William I.,
succeeded his uncle Frederick the Great
in 1786. He was too much occupied in
unworthy pleasures to be a successful ruler,
and although by the second and third
partitions of Poland, and also by acquir-
ing Anspach and Baireuth, he added to
his territory, he, on the other hand, lost
the trans-Rhenish provinces to the French
republic. He wasted the treasure left by
his uncle, lowered the reputation of Prussia
among foreign nations, and displeased his
subjects by taking from their liberties and
adding to their taxation.
Frederick William HE., King- of Prus-
sia (b. 1770, d. 1840), was the eldest son
of the Prince of Prussia, who afterwards
became king as Frederick William H., bv
his second wife, Louisa of Hesse. Trained,
like all the Hohenzollerns, to the pro-
fession of arms, he went through the
Pre
330)
Fre
campaigns of 1792 and 1793. He married
the Princess Louisa of Mecklenburg- Stre-
litz, and succeeded to the throne on No-
vember 16th, 1797 ; and, though adverse
to any constitutional improvement, at once
entered upon a series of administrative re-
forms. After long delay, he, in 1806, joined
the coalition against Napoleon. Within a
week the Prussians were totally defeated at
Jena and Auerstadt, and the kingdom lay
helpless at the feet of France. The work of
national regeneration was then quietly and
steadily pursued, and when the remains of
the Grande ArmSe were in full retreat through
Germany, the king concluded an alliance
with Russia and Austria, and declared war
against Napoleon. He was present at head-
quarters during the eventful campaign of the
autumn of 1813, and also took part in the
invasion of France in 1814. On peace being
restored, the king showed some tendency to-
wards constitutional reform, but fell under
the influence of reactionary counsellors ; and
after 1818 a period of arbitrary government
began, and Prussia joined the Holy Alliance.
Although his home policy was unpopular
with many of his subjects, the king personally
was greatly esteemed.
Frederick William IV., King of Prussia
(*. 1795, d. 1861), was eldest son of the
preceding. After a careful education, not
only in arms, but also in the sciences
and arts, and having in 1823 married
Elizabeth, daughter of King Maximilian
of Bavaria, he succeeded to the throne in
1840 with a reputation for liberal sympa-
thies, but was filled \vith consternation by the
revolution of 1840, and both at home and
abroad his policy was marked by irresolution.
He was an active supporter of the United
Germany movement, but when in 1849 the
Frankfurt National Assembly offered hirn the
imperial crown, he declined it. During the
last three years of his life he was afflicted
with paralysis and partial insanity, and the
administration was carried on by his brother,
Prince William, afterwards King of Prussia
and German Emperor.
Frederick William, Elector of Branden-
burg, "the Great Elector" (b. 1620, d.
1688), succeeded to the electorate in 1640,
and at once set himself to repair the
ravages of the Thirty Years' war. In 1657
he secured from Poland the independence
of Prussia. In 1672 he formed a league
against Louis XIV. , and although he defeated
the Swedes, whom Louis induced to invade
Brandenburg, he was in the end forced by
the desertion of allies to sign the treaty of
St. Germain (1679). The rest of his reign
was devoted to the development of the re-
sources of his kingdom, and the encourage-
ment of learning.
Frederick William Louis, Grand Duke of
Baden (b. 1826), succeeded his father, the
Grand Duke Leopold, as regent on April
24th, 1852. In September, 1856, he nar-
rowly escaped assassination. He assumed
the title of Grand Duke on the 5th of Sep-
tember, 1856, and married a daughter of
William I. of Prussia on the 20th of the same
month. In the Franco-German war he threw
in his lot with Prussia, having long been an
advocate of German unity.
Freeman, Edward Augustus, D.C.L. (b.
1823, d. 181)2), historian, was born at Har-
bome, Staffordshire, and educated at Trinity
College, Oxford, where he gained a second
class in classics in 1845, and was elected to a
fellowship. He first made his mark as a
student of mediaeval architecture with a
History of Architecture published in 1849.
In 1856 appeared the History and Antiqui-
ties of St. Davids, in which he collaborated
with the Rev. W. B. Jones. In 1863 came
the first volume of a History of federal
Government. His greatest work, the History
of the Norman Conquest, in five large vol-
umes, appeared between 1867 and 1876, and
the Reign of William Ritfus and Accession of
Henry I. in 1882. He has also written the
History and Conquests of the Saracens and
the Ottoman Power in Europe (1877), the
History of the Cathedral- Church of Wells
(1870) and several other works, some of
them in the nature of popular exposition.
In 1884 he succeeded Dr. Stubbs as Regius
professor of modern history at Oxford. In
politics he is an ardent Liberal, and has
rendered great services to the principle of
nationality in south-eastern Europe.
Freiligrath, Ferdinand (b. 1810, d. 1876),
German poet, born at Detmold, twice found
it necessary to retire to England because
of his political views, and while there
translated Burns, Moore, and Longfellow
into German. When he returned to Ger-
many he was received with acclamation,
and during the war of 1870 wrote some
stirring battle songs. As a writer of lyrics
he stands in the front rank.
Frelinghuysen, Frederick (b. 1753, d.
1804), American statesman.
Frelinghuysen, Frederick Theodore (b.
1817, d. 1885), American statesman, nephew
of Frederick Frelinghuysen, was a mem-
ber of the United States Senate from
1866 to 1869, and from 1871 to 1877; and
during 1881 to 1885 was secretary of state
in President Arthur's cabinet.
Frelinghuysen, Theodore (b. 1787, d. 1861),
American statesman, was second son of Fred-
erick Frelinghuysen, and sat in the Senate
from 1821 to 1825. In 1849 he was appointed
chancellor of the University of New York,
and in 1844 was the Whig candidate for the*
vice -presidency of the States.
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Fre
Fremont, John Charles (b. 1813, d.
1890), American general, explorer, and
politician, was bom at Savannah. After
•engaging in several exploring expeditions
for the Government, he fitted out one
at his own expense, with the object
of finding a practicable route over the
mountains to California. This was in
October, 1848 : he reached Sacramento, after
enduring great privations, in the spring of
18 i9, and acquired a large estate containing
valuable gold mines. In 1856 he was one
of the Republican candidates for the presi-
dency of the United States, but was un-
successful. The Civil war having broken
out, he was made a major-general, and
placed in command of the western depart-
ment, but was recalled for issuing a pro-
clamation freeing slaves in his district. He
then received another command, but, being
superseded by General Pope, resigned his
commission. In 1864 he was again nomi-
nated for the presidency, but withdrew his
name. For transactions in connection with
the promotion of a railway he was sentenced
by a French tribunal to fine and imprison-
ment, but as he was no longer in France,
the penalty was not enforced. From 1878
to 1881 he was governor of the territory of
Arizona.
Freppel, Monseigneur Charles E^mile (b.
1827, d. 1891), Bishop of Angers, born at
Obernai, was appointed professor of sacred
eloquence at Paris in 1854, and soon acquired
fame as a teacher, writer, and preacher. At
the general election of 1881 he was returned
as Legitimist deputy for Brest, and was re-
elected in 18S5.
Frere, Sir Henry Bartle (b. 1815, d.
1884), diplomatist and statesman, was
nephew of John Hookham Frere. Hav-
ing distinguished himself in Indian ad-
ministration, he, in IboU, became chief com-
missioner of Scind. After the suppres-
sion of the Mutiny, to which he greatly
contributed by his occupation of the for-
tress of Moultan, he took a leading part
in the reconstruction of Indian finance.
From 18G2 to 1867 he was Governor of Bom-
bay, and entered upon a policy of energetic
reform. On his return to England he be-
came a member of the Indian Council. In
1872, having held the presidency of the
Boyal Geographical Society in the interval,
he negotiated a treaty with the Sultan of
Zanzibar by which the slave traffic in the
interior was abolished. For this he was re-
warded with a seat in the Privy Council. In
1877 he was appointed Governor of the
Cape and High Commissioner for the settle-
ment of native affairs in South Africa.
His attempt to confederate the South African
colonies failed, and his subsequent attack
upon Cetewayo was censured, not only by
the Liberals but also by the Government.
| In 1880 he was recalled, and took no fur-
I ther part in official lif e.
Frere, John Hookham (b. 1769, d. 1841),
; diplomatist and author, uncle to the pre-
ceding, was born in London. He en-
tered Parliament in 1796 as member for
Looe, and in 1799 succeeded Canning as
Foreign under-secretary. In 1800 he
was appointed envoy-extraordinary and
plenipotentiary to Lisbon, and in 1802 was
transferred to Madrid. For persuading
; Six John Moore to advance toward Madrid
with totally inadequate forces, he was
greatly blamed and had to be recalled.
Refusing a peerage and the post of am-
bassador to St. Petersburg, he retired to
Malta, and there occupied himself until his
death with literary labours, among them
being a brilliant translation of the plays
of Aristophanes.
Frere, Pierre Edouard (b. 1819, d. 18S6),
French figure painter, born in Paris, ex-
hibited at the Salon of 1843, and in
1855 became a knight of the Legion of
Honour.
Fre"ron, |lie Catherine (b. 1718, d. 1776),
French critic, born at Quimper, was
, brought up by the Jesuits, and defended
the Church against Voltaire and the Ency-
clopaedists.
Fresnel, Augustin Jean (b. 1789, d. 1827),
French geometer and optician, born at
Broglie, extended to a large class of op-
tical phenomena the undulatory theory of
light enunciated by Hooke. He was also
the first to construct compound lenses as a
substitute for mirrors.
Freund, Wilhelm (b. 1806), German phi-
lologist, born at Kempen, Posen, is chiefly
i known by his Worterlmch der Lateinis-
\ chen Sprache, which is the foundation of our
leading English-Latin dictionaries.
Freycinet, Charles Louis de Saulces de
(b. 1828), French statesman, born at Foix,
was in 1870 chosen by Gambetta as chief of
the military cabinet formed to resist the in-
vading Germans, and with rare devotion set
himself to work to raise armies and organise
the commissariat. In 1876 he was elected
senator by the department of the Seine : in
1877 he became minister of public works ;
and in December, 1879, formed a cabinet of
his own, himself holding the portfolio of
foreign affairs. In the following year he
resigned, and in 1882, when he had a second
time formed a ministry, again becoming
minister for foreign affairs, his tenure of
office was even shorter, for he was defeated
on the Egyptian question in July of the
same year. In April, 1885. he was foreign
minister in the cabinet of M. Brisson, and
at the close of the year formed his third
Pro
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Pro
ministry, which came to an end in 1886. He
was minister of war in the Floquet and
second Tirard caLinets (1SS8 and 1889), and
afterwards became for the fourth time
prime minister, being at the same time war
minister. In 1890 he was elected a member
of the Trench Academy.
Freycinet, Louis Claude de Saulces de
(b. 1779, d. 1842), French navigator, joined
the expedition sent out under Captain
Baudin in 1800 to explore the south and
south- west coasts of Australia: and in 1817
commanded the Uranie in its scientific expe-
dition to South America and the Pacific
islands. The result of the voyage, which
lasted for three years, was published under
his supervision, under the title of Voyage
Autour dit Monde (1825-44).
Freytag, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (b.
1788, d. 1861), German Arabic lexico-
grapher, born at Lunsberg, was professor
of oriental languages at Bonn from 1819
till his death. His chief work is his
Arabic dictionary, Lexicon Arabico-Latinum
(1830-37).
Freytag, Gustav (b. 1816), novelist and
historian, born at Kreuzberg, Prussian
Silesia, has produced, in addition to come-
dies, etc., some novels distinguished by
sincerity, humour, and keen delineation
of character. Debit and Credit appeared
in 1855, and The Lost Manuscript in
1864.
Frideswide, patron saint of Oxford,
flourished in the 8th century. She was
canonised in 1481.
Friedlander, Michael (b. 1833), Hebraist,
has published several commentaries on the
Talmud and other branches of Hebraic
literature.
Friedrich, Johann (b. 1836), Roman
Catholic divine, became professor of the-
ology at Munich in 1865, and took part in
the Vatican council in 1870, but in the fol-
lowing year was excommunicated for having
allied himself with Dr. Dollinger in the Old
Catholic movement.
Fries, Elias Magnus (*. 1794, d. 1878),
celebrated Swedish botanist, born at Smaa-
land, was appointed professor of rural
economy at Upsala in 1836, and in 1851
professor of botany. Amongst Swedish
naturalists he was second only to Linnaeus.
He gave special attention to the order
fungi.
Fries, Jacob Friedrich (b. 1773, d. 1843),
German philosopher, a native of Barby,
Prussian Saxony, was professor at Jena
and Heidelberg. It was his aim to re-
strain philosophy within the strict limits
laid down by Kant.
Frith, John (b. circa 1503, d. 1533), re-
former, a native of Westerham, Kent, was
the author of a number of treatises in
advocacy of Protestantism. He was burnt
at Sinithneld.
Frith, William Powell, R.A. (6. 1819),
a native of Studley, near Ripon, studied
at Sass's academy and in the Royal
A< :;demy schools in 1835. In 1840 he
exhibited Othello and Desdemona at the
British Institution, and Malvolio before the
Countess Olivia at the Royal Academy.
His first important work was Coming of Aye
in the Olden Tanc, which was engraved, aud
became immensely popular. Among the
best known of his works are his Ramsgate
Sands (1854), The Derby Day (1858), Claude
Dwai (I860), The Railway Station (1862),
and King Charles II.'s Last Sunday (1867).
He is the author of some charming volumes
of reminiscences. He was made A. R.A. in
1846, and R.A. in 1852.
Fritigern, Visigoth leader in the 4th cen-
tury, and predecessor of Alaric, gained
several victories over the Romans, cul-
minating in the triumph of Hadrianople in
378, in which the Roman general Valens
and two-thirds of his troops were slain.
These results were largely due to the success
with which he promoted union among the
Gothic tribes.
Frobel, Friedrich "Wilhelm August (b.
1782, d. 1852), German educationist, born
at Ober Weissbach, was the origina-
tor of the Kindergarten system. In
1825 he published a work in exposition
of his theory of the education of children,
and in 1836 established a school at Blan-
kenberg, with a view of putting it into
practice. For the most part his system was
received with ridicule, but since his death,
in spite of the opposition of the Prussian
government, who objected to its supposed
" socialistic tendencies," it has been widely
adopted in Germany, and even more so in
America and England.
Frobel, Julius (b. 1806), political writer,
and nephew of the preceding, born at
Greishem, in the Thuringian Forest, was one
of the democratic leaders in the revolution of
1848. Afterwards he retired to America,
and on his return to Germany was banished.
He has since lived in England.
Frobenius, Johannes (b. 1460, d. 1527),
printer, was a native of Franconia.
Frobisher, Sir Martin (b. circa 1535, d.
1594), mariner, a native of Yorkshire, made
his first voyage in 1576 under the patronage
of Earl Dudley, with the object of dis-
covering a north-west passage to China, and
proceeded as far as Frobisher's Bay. In
1577 and 1578 he conducted two amila?
Pro
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Fro
expeditions. In 1585 he served under Drake
in the attack upon the Spanish settlements
in the West Indies, and in the conflict with
the Spanish Armada commanded the
Triumph, and so distinguished himself as to
gain knighthood. In defending Brest
against the Spaniards he received a wound,
from which he died a few days afterwards
at Plymouth. His Three Voyages was pub-
lished by the Hakluyt Society in 1867.
Froissart, Jean (b. 1337, d. 1410), chronicler
of the wars between France and England,
was the son of a painter of arms. In his
twentieth year he undertook to write the
history of the wars of France, England, and
Spain for Robert, Lord of Beaufort; and
having come to England to tear himself from
a love affair, he presented a portion of the
work to Phttippa, wife of Edward III. He
thus became attached to the English court
till the death of the queen in 1369, and during
the interval he travelled extensively. After-
wards his friend and patron, the Count de
Blois, procured for him a treasurership and
canonry at Chimay. In 1395, when he again
came to England collecting materials for his
history, he was received with great distinction
by Richard II. His Chronicles, written in
French, extend from 1326 to 1400.
Fromentin, Eugene (b. 1820, d. 1876),
French painter of Eastern scenes, a native
of La Rochelle, became a chevalier of the
Legion of Honour in 1859, and an officer
in 1869.
Frontenac, Louis de Buade, Comte de (b.
1620, d. 1698), French administrator, became
governor of the French territory in North
America in 1672, and again in 1689, when he
brought the Iroquois to submission, and
successfully defended Quebec against the
British.
Frontinus, Sextus Julius (d. circa 104),
Roman general and author, became gov-
ernor of Britain in 75 and subdued the
Silures, and was also twice consul. His
works deal with the art of war, and the
water- supply of Rome.
Pronto, Marcus Cornelius (b. circa 100,
d. circa 170), Roman general and rhetorician,
born in Numidia, was tutor of Marcus Aure-
lins and Lucius Verus. In 143 he was
consul.
Frost, Edward William (b. 1810, d.
1877), painter, was born at Wandsworth.
After studying in Sass's academy, he
was in 1829 admitted a student of the
Royal Academy. In the cartoon compe-
tition of 1843 he gained a prize of £100
for his Una Alarmed by the Fauns and
Satyrs. He was made A.R.A. in 1846 and
R.A. in 1871. The field to which he chiefly
devoted himself was mythology.
Frost, Thomas (6. 1821), journalist and
miscellaneous writer, born at Croydon, took
an active part in the Chartist agitation,
and has published, among other works,
Secret Societies of the European Revolution
(1876).
Frotliingham, Octavius Brook (b. 1822),
American theological writer and art critic,
a native of Boston, Mass., was for some
years a Unitarian minister, but in 1881
formally withdrew from church connec-
tion, and has since given himself up en-
tirely to literature. One of his best known
books is his Life of Theodore Parker
(1874).
Froude, James Anthony (b. 1818), his-
torian and miscellaneous writer, was born
at Dartington, Devon, a son of an arch-
deacon of Totnes, and was educated at
Oriel College, Oxford, where he fell under
the influence of the Tractarian leaders.
Intended for an ecclesiastical career, he
was elected fellow of Exeter College, and
received deacon's orders, but a fundamental
change of his views, explained in his Nemesis
of Faith, led him to abandon his fellowship
and devote himself to literature. Hia great
work, The History of England from the Fall
of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish
jirmada, appeared between 1856 and 1869,
and, although it has been greatly criticised
on the score of accuracy, its brilliant literary
qualities have secured for it a wide popu-
larity. Among Mr. Froude's other works
are : Short Studies on Great Subjects, The
English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century
(1872-1874), Oceana (1886), the English in
the West Indies (1888), and a monograph on
Lord Beaconsjiela (1890). In 1889 he made
his appearance as a novelist with The Two
Chief a o£ Dunboy. He is also the biographer
of his friend, Thomas Carlyle, and none of
his works has provoked more controversy
than his Life of Carlyle, Carlyle's Reminis-
cences, and The Letters and Memorials of Jane
Welsh Carlyle. Mr. Froude's is a singularly
brilliant yet simple style. His great rhe-
torical power, vivid imagination, strong per-
ception of character, and keen eye for the
picturesque invest all that he has written
with high artistic merit.
Froude, Richard Hurrell (b. 1803, d. 1836),
theologian, brother to the preceding, was also
a native of Dartington, and was educated at
Ottery, at Eton, and at Oriel College, Ox-
ford, where he became fellow and tutor.
He was a prominent leader in the Tract-
ariau movement, and the author of the cele-
brated Tracts Nos. IX. and LXTTT. His
Remains, published in 1839 by Keble and
Newman, created much commotion on ac-
count of their advanced teaching.
Fronde, William (b. 1810, d. 1879),
Fra
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Fnl
mathematician, military and naval engineer,
was a brother to the preceding. His edu-
cation began at Westminster. At Oriel
College, Oxford, where he \vas a pupil
of John Henry Xewman, he took a first class
in mathematics in 1832. For a few years he
was the assistant of the younger Brunei,
and was engaged in the construction of the
Bristol and Exeter Railway. On his retire-
ment from professional work he gave his
attention to questions of naval engineering,
and, in the long run, most of his conclusions
were adopted by the Admiralty.
Frugoni, Carlo Innocenzo (b. 1692, d.
1685), Italian lyric poet, was a native of
Genoa.
Fmmentius, St. (d. circa 360), Bishop of
Axum, introduced Christianity into Ethiopia
(Abyssinia), and is also said to have trans-
lated the Scriptures into Ethiopian.
Fmndsberg, Georg von (b. 1473, d. 1527),
German general, born in Swabia, fought
in the Italian wars of the Emperors
Maximilian and Charles V., and was largely
instrumental in the victory of Pa via.
Fry, Sir Edward (b. 1827), lawyer and
theological writer, born at Bristol, was
educated at the Bristol college, and at
University College, London. He took silk
in 1869, and in 1877 was appointed a judge
of the High Court of Justice and knighted.
In 1883 he was appointed to a lord justice-
ship of appeal. He has been an examiner
in law to the University of London, as well
as to the Council of Legal Education.
Fry, Elizabeth (b. 1780, d. 1845), phi-
lanthropist, born at Norwich, was the
daughter of John Gurney, a wealthy mer-
chant and banker. In 1813 she began to
visit the prison of Newgate, and was one
of the most active members of the ladies'
association started four years later " for the
improvement of female prisoners in New-
gate.' ' In 1818, accompanied by her brother,
she went the round of the prisons in the
north of England and Scotland, and in 1827
visited those of Ireland. In 1838-39 she
inspected the more important French prisons,
and in 1840-41 travelled through Belgium,
Holland, Prussia, and Denmark on the same
mission. Her persevering efforts brought
about a great improvement in prison disci-
pline, and also in the hospital system and
the treatment of the insane.
Fryxel, Anders (b. 1795, d. 1881), dis-
tinguished Swedish historian, is best known
by his Narratives from Swedish History,
of which an English translation appeared
in 1844.
Fuad Pasha, Mahnrad (b. 1814, d. 1869),
Turkish statesman and author, abandoned
the practice of medicine for a diplomatic
career. After holding some minor appoint-
ments he, in 1848, was named Ottoman com-
missioner to settle the revolutionary disputes
in the principalities of Moldavia and Walla-
chia. In 1S-33, for a short time, he was minis-
ter for foreign affairs; in IbGO he became
grand vizier ; in 1863 war minister ; and a
little later was again foreign minister.
From mistaken views of the credit system
he was instrumental in largely increasing
the Porte's financial difficulties.
Fuchs, Leonard (b. 1501, d. 1566), Bava-
rian botanist and physician, was for thirty-
five years a professor at Tubingen, and
wrote, among other works, a History of
Plants. The genus of plants which includes
the fuchsia is named after him.
Fulgentius, St. (b. circa 468, d. 533),
more formally known as Fabius Clau-
dius Gordianus Fulgentius, a native of
Leptis, North Africa, was appointed Bis-
hop of Ruspe in 508, but was almost
immediately banished because of his op-
position to Arianism, and it was not till
fourteen years had been spent in exile that
he was recalled. A collected edition of his
works, which include the celebrated treatise
De Fide, was published at Mayence in
1515.
Fulli, Count of Anjou and King of Jerusa-
lem, succeeded his brother as ruler of Anjon
in 1109. Soon afterwards he was at war
with Henry I. of England, but in 1119 he
gave his daughter's hand in marriage to
Henry's son William, who perished in re-
turning from Normandy to England. In
1129 he went crusading, and, having married
a daughter of Baldwin II., became king of
Jerusalem in 1131.
Fulk of Marseilles, Bishop of Toulouse
(d. 1231), was in his youth a troubadour, but
turned aside to an ecclesiastical career, and
became bishop of Toulouse. "While holding
this office he sided with Simon de Montfort
against Count Raymond VI., and helped
the former to pillage his diocese. He was
one of the bitterest persecutors of his age,
and his cruel fanaticism was the least of
his faults.
Fuller, Andrew (b. 1754, d. 1815), Bap-
tist preacher and theologian, a native
of Wicken, Cambridgeshire, was the first
secretary of the Baptist Missionary So-
ciety, founded in 1792. In 1784 he pub-
lished The Gospel Worthy of all Accepta-
tion, which had the effect of considerably
modifying the hyper -Calvinism then pre-
valent among his co-religionists. In 1793
appeared a powerful treatise dealing
with the Calvinistic and Socinian systems.
He also wrote The Harmony of Scripture
(1817).
Fnl
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Pyt
Fuller, Margaret. [See Ossoli, Countess
of.]
Fuller, Thomas (b. 1608, d. 1661), divine,
historian, and wit, was a native of North-
amptonshire, and was educated at Queen's
College, Cambridge, where he gradu-
ated in 1628. He was ordained in 1630,
and in the following year was chosen fel-
low of Sidney Sussex College. After hold-
ing several positions in the Church, he,
in 1641, became minister of the Savoy, but
his Royalist sentiments bringing him into
danger, he was obliged to leave London, and
in 1643 joined the king at Oxford. His
moderation, however, gave offence. Ap-
pointed chaplain to the Royal army, he
showed that however moderate his political
action might be, he was deeply in earnest in
the discharge of his duties. In 1647 he re-
turned to London to preach at St. Clement's,
Eastcheap, but before long was suspended.
Soon afterwards, however, he was presented
by the Earl of Carlisle to the curacy of
Waltham Abbey, and succeeded in satisfying
Cromwell's " tryers." In 1658 he was pre-
sented to the rectory of Craiif ord, Middlesex,
and after the Restoration was appointed
chaplain to the king, and made doctor of
divinity. Among his works are The History
of the Holy War (1639), The Holy and Pro-
fane State (1642), Good Thoughts in Bad
Times (1645), A Pisgah-sight in Palestine
(1650), Church History of Britain (1655),
and The Worthies of England, published
posthumously in 1662.
Fullerton, Lady Georgiana (b. 23rd Sep-
tember, 1812, d. 19th January, 1885), reli-
gious novelist, was born at Tisall Hall,
Staffordshire, daughter of the first Earl
Granville, and in 1833 was married to
Alexander Fullerton. Her first story, Ellen
Middleton, appeared in 1844. In 1846 she
seceded to the Roman Church.
Fulton, Robert (b. 1765, d. 24th February,
1815), a native of Little Britain, Pennsyl-
vania, invented a mill for sawing and polish-
ing marble, a machine for spinning flax, a
dredging-machine, etc., but his reputation
chiefly rests upon his being the first to apply
steam to navigation with any degree of
success, though the actual invention of the
steamboat is claimed for John Fitch (q.v.).
In 1814 he constructed the first war steamer
of the United States.
Furniss, Harry (b. 1854), artist and
caricaturist, was born at Wexford, the
son of English parents. As an artist
he is chiefly self-taught, and started
working for publishers at an early date.
He came to London in 1873 and joined the
staff of the Illustrated London News. In
1880 he began to contribute to Punch, and
in 1884 was promoted to the regular staff.
In 1888 he exhibited a series of caricatures
of the pictures of pur leading artists. More
recently he has delivered lectures illustrating
the humours of Parliament.
Furnivall, Frederick James, LL.D. (*.
1825), philologist, entered University College,
London, in 1841, and subsequently graduated
B.A. at Cambridge in 1846. He has devoted
himself to the study of Early and Middle
English literature, and is one of the most
distinguished members of the new school of
English philology. For many years he was
the editor of the Philological Society's new
English Dictionary, now being published by
the Clarendon Press. In 1885 his philo-
logical labours were rewarded with a Civil
List pension of £150.
Fiirst, Julius (b. 1805, d. 1873), Ger-
man Orientalist, of Jewish parentage,
was from 1864 to the time of his death
professor of the Aramaic and Talmudic
languages at Leipzig.
Fuseli, Henry [Johann Heinrich Fuseli]
(b. 1741, d. 1825), historical painter, a native
of Zurich, was obliged to leave his native
town for exposing some shortcomings on
the part of the chief magistrate, and in
1765 came to England, and on the advice of
Sir Joshua Reynolds resolved to devote him-
self to art. For nearly nine years he studied
in Italy. His work always suffered from
his lack of early training in drawing. He
was elected A.R.A. in 1788, full member in
1790, lecturer on painting in 1799, and
keeper of the Royal Academy in 1804. He
was cynic, wit, poet, and enthusiast, and
his published lectures on painting are
still read. He was buried in St. Paul's
Cathedral.
Fust, or Faust, Johann (d. circa 1466),
to whom, in company with Guttenberg and
Schceffer, is attributed the invention of
printing, was a goldsmith of Mayence. He
entered into partnership with Guttenberg in
1450, and they printed, among other works,
the Biblia Sacra Latina.
Fustel de Coulanges (b. 1830, d. 1889),
French antiquary, born in Paris, was the
author of La Cite Antique (1864), which was
crowned by the French Academy, and went
through many editions.
Fyt, Jan (b. 1625, d. 1671), Dutch painter,
born at Antwerp, excelled chiefly in depicting
still life.
Gaa
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Gad
Gaal, Bernaort (d. 1671), Dutch land-
scape-painter of the school of Wouver-
mans.
Gabbiani, Antonio Domenico (b. 1652, d.
17-0), Florentine painter, patronised by the
Grand Duke Cosnno III. ; was killed by a
fall from a scaffold when painting the
cupola of Castello.
Gabelentz, Hans von der (b. 1807, d. 1874),
philologist of Altenberg, who mastered more
than eighty languages ; his chief work was
a book on the Melanesian languages.
Gabinius, Aulus (d. between 50 and
45 B.C.), consul and tribune ; author of the
lex Gabinia, by which Pompey was given
the command of the great expedition against
the pirates. He was afterwards proconsul
of Syria, but was on his return to Borne
accused of treason and malversation, and,
though defended by Cicero, condemned to
exile.
Gaboriau, Emile (6. 1835, d. 1873), French
novelist, son of a notary, served in a
cavalry regiment and as a carrier's clerk
before he began to write. He at first con-
tributed to minor newspapers, for which he
wrote light sketches and some historical
essays. Eventually, however, he became
known as the author of novels having for
their subject crime and detectives. Among
these were I? Affaire Lerouge (1866), Le
Crime d'Orcival (1867), and La Deqrinqola.de
(1876).
Gabriac, Marquis de (b. 1792, d. 1865),
French statesman ; served under Napoleon ;
in 1823 named plenipotentiary in Sweden ;
was subsequently sent to Rio Janeiro, where,
in conjunction with representatives of Eng-
land and Austria, he obtained the separation
of Brazilian and Portuguese governments,
and, in 1828, the adoption in Brazil of French
maritime law. He was tiien sent as am-
bassador to Switzerland : on his return, in
1830, retired into private life till 1841, when
he was made a peer of France. He then
agitated for freedom of education, which
became law in 1850. Three years later he
was named senator by Napoleon III. He was
the author of Les Republiques de V Amerlque
du Sud considerees dans leur Avenir, and of
Dom Pedro /., Notes et Souvenirs Personnels
(1854).
Gabriel, Jacques Ange (d. 1782), French
architect of the last century ; designed the
Ecole Militaire and other buildings. His
grandfather and father were also eminent
members of the same profession.
Gabriel de Chinon (d. 1670), Capuchin
monk and missionary, passed some years in
Persia ; set on foot a mission to Kurdistan,
and died of dysentery at Malabar. Hi*
Relations Nouvelles du Levant was published
after his death.
Gabriel Sionita (b. 1577, d. 1648), learned
Maronite ; was professor of oriental lan-
guages at Rome and Paris. He translated
the Psalms from Syriac into Latin.
GabrieUe, " La Belle." [See Estrees.]
Gabrielli, Cattarina (b. 1730, d. 1796),
Italian singer ; adopted by Prince Gabrielli,
whose cook was her mother. She was a
pupil of Porpora.
Gabrielli, Francesca (b. 1755, d. 1795),
singer ; called " Gabriellina " to distinguish
her from Cattarina.
Gacon, Fra^ois (6. 1667, d. 1725), French
satirical poet, who attacked all the leading
members of the Academy, including Bossuet,
and underwent imprisonment for writing
Puete tans Fard (1696).
Gadbury, John (6. 1627), astrologer and
pupil of Lilly. Predictions in his almanacks
about the Popish plot brought him into
trouble.
Gaddesden, John of (d. circa 1350), ap-
pointed by Edward II. the first court
physician ; wrote Rosa Anglica seu Practica
Meditinae.
Gaddi, Taddeo (b. 1300), the most cele-
brated of a family of Florentine painters,
and a pupil of Giotto. He finished the
campanile of the cathedral at Florence,
which that master had begun. GAI>DO (d.
1312), father of Taddeo, and AJSTGELO (d.
1387), son of the latter, were painters of
some repute.
Gade, Niels Wilhelm (b. 1817, d. 1890),
Danish composer : born at Copenhagen ;
gained the prize of the Copenhagen Musical
Association for his Nachklange von Ossian
in 184 1 ; studied at Leipzig and in Italy ;
succeeded Mendelssohn as director of the
Gewandhaus concerts, and, on his return to
Denmark, became organist and master of
the Chapel Royal. In 1876 he was granted
a life pension of 3,000 crowns. His chief
works are the Erl King's Daughter and
Springtide Phantasy.
^ Gadebusch, Friedrich (b. 1719, d. 1788),
German historian, author of the Annals of
Livonia.
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Gag
Gadsden, Christopher (b. 1724, d. 1803),
American statesman ; correspondent of
Samuel Adams, and one of the framers of
the constitution of South Carolina.
Gaelrwar, Kanhojee, eldest illegitimate
son of Govind Rao, who died in 1800 ;
usurped the state authority, and tried to
obtain English support by territorial con-
cessions. The governor of Bombay sup-
ported the lawful heir, and in 1818 Kanhojee
surrendered. Having made several sub-
sequent attempts to rebel, he was imprisoned
at Madras, where he died.
Gaekwar, Mulhar Rao, cousin of Govind
Rao's son ; supported Kanhojee, and became
involved in hostilities with the English. He
was defeated in 1801 at Kurree and sur-
rendered, and was kept under surveillance
by the Bombay government till his death.
Gaelen, Alexander van (b. 1670, d. 1728),
Dutch artist, most of whose works are battle-
pieces; came to England and painted the
portrait of Queen Anne.
Gaertner, Joseph (b. 1732, d. 1791),
German botanist, native of Wurtemberg ;
visited almost every country in Europe,
and was in England made a fellow of the
Royal Society. His work, De Fructibus et
Seminibus Plantarum, was published between
1789 and 1791.
Gaetano, Giovanni, Italian mariner of
the 16th century, in the employ of
Charles V., who, after returning from the
New World, wrote an account of his ad-
ventures, which was reprinted in Ramusio's
Raccolta delle Navigazioni e dJ Viaggi.
Gaffarel, Jacques (*. 1601, d. 1681),
librarian to Cardinal Richelieu. His
Curiosites Inouyes sur la Sculpture Talisman-
ique des Persans was translated into English.
Gaforio, or Gafpri, Franchino (b. 1451, d.
1522), Italian writer on music; published
Praetica Musica and other works.
Gage, Sir Henry (b. 1597, d. 1645), dis-
tinguished Royalist officer in the great Civil
war ; relieved Basing House in September,
1644, but was killed a few months later in a
skirmish near Abingdon.
Gage, Sir John (b. 1479, d. 1556), states-
man and soldier ; commanded at the battle
of Solway Moss, where James V. was
defeated, but is believed to have quarrelled
with Henry VIII. about Catherine of
Aragon. As a zealous Catholic, he waa in
great favour with Queen Mary, who ap-
pointed him Lord Chamberlain.
Gage, Thomas (d. 1656), traveller ; became
a Dominican monk in Spain, whence he set
out as a missionary for the Philippines. He
w
never, however, arrived there, but settled in
Guatemala, aud engaged in missionary work
among the Indians of Central America. On
his return to England he publicly abj ured
Romanism, and published A. New Survey
of tht West Indies, which was ordered by
Colbert to be translated into French.
Gage, Thomas (b. 1721, d. 1787), soldier,
served under Braddock in 1756. In 1760 he
was governor of Montreal, and three years
later succeeded Lord Amherst as commander
of the British forces in America. As gover-
nor of Massachusetts he was instructed to
put down the revolutionary movement
around Boston, and his seizure of the rebel
stores at Cambridge and other places led to
open hostilities. He was recalled to
England in October, 1775, being considered
incompetent.
Gagern, Friedrich von (b. 1794), son of
Johanu ; served in the Austrian and Nether -
land armies, and was killed while in com-
mand of the troops of the Duke of Baden
in the Baden revolutionary movement led by
Hecker in 1848.
Gagern, Heinrich Wilhelm August von
(b. 1799, d. 1880), his brother; served at
Waterloo ; supported the formation of a
union of German states under Prussia, and
presided at the Frankfort assembly of 1849,
when the imperial crown was offered to
Frederick William IV. Again at Erfurt, in
1850, he advocated the same views. He also
took part in the Schleswig-Holstein campaign
of 1849-50, after which he retired from
public life.
Gagern, Johann Christopher von (b. 1766,
d. 1852), German statesman and writer ; an
opponent of Napoleon, and an active
advocate of German unity. He took part
in the Tyrol rising of 1812, and was present
at the congress of Vienna as representative
of the Netherlands. He wrote several
political works.
Gagnier, Jean (6. 1670, d. 1740), French
Orientalist ; took orders, but wishing to
marry, became a Protestant ; he came
to England, and was made professor of
Hebrew at Oxford, receiving degrees from
that university and from Cambridge. His
chief works are an edition of Ben Gorion's
History of the Jews, and of Abulfeda's Life
of Mohammed in Arabic and Latin.
Gagni or Gagne", Jean de (d. 1549), reader
to Francis I., whose permission he obtained
to have many curious manuscripts pub-
lished ; also wrote a commentary on the
New Testament and some Latin poems.
Gaguin, Robert (b. circa 1425, d. 1502),
French chronicler and diplomatist. His
chief work is Compendium supra Francorum
gestis usque ad annum 2491.
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Gal
Gail, Jean Baptists (b. 1755, d. 1829),
French Hellenist; translated Theocritus and
Anacreou, besides many other classics ;
narrowly escaped proscription during the
Reign of Terror. His wife, from whom he
separated, composed some operas.
Gail, Jean Francois (b. 1795, d. 1845), son
of the preceding ; musician and Greek
scholar, his chief work being Geographi
Minores.
Gaillard, Antoine, pseudonym of the
Sieur de la Porte Xeille, an imitator of
Rabelais, whose (Euvres Alelees were pub-
lished in 1634.
Gaillard, Honore Reynaud de (b. 1641, d.
1727), eloquent court preacher ; directed
the education of Turenne, and "was con-
fessor to Mary of Modena, second wife of
James II.
Gaine, Hugh (d. 1807), journalist; started
the Xew York ^Mercury in 175'2, at first as
a "Whig paper, but afterwards made it
Royalist. At the close of the American war
he became a bookseller, and acquired a large
estate.
Gaines (b. 1777, d. 1849), American
general, took part in the war of 1812;
was severely wounded at Fort Erie
(1814), where he gained the rank of
brevet-major-general, and received the
thanks of Congress ; was also in the battle
of Chrystler's Field. He served in the
Creek war of 1876 and was wounded. He
was tried by court-martial for calling out
the Southern militia without orders on the
outbreak of the Mexican, war, but escaped
censure.
Gainsborough, Thomas (b. 1727, d. 1788),
landscape and portrait painter, son of a
draper, was born at Sudbury. At the age of
thirteen he came to London, determined to
support himself by painting, and took lessons
of Gravelot. He soon made a name for him-
self by his portraits, and at the age of nine- '
teen married, and resided at Ipswich. Here ,
he made the acquaintance of Thicknesse, I
who persuaded him to go to Bath, where
occupation had been found for him. Gains- i
borough now devoted himself to landscape- |
painting, his success in which procured him
admission in 1768 to the Royal Academy.
He made the acquaintance of Sir Joshua
Reynolds and other artists of repute, with
whom, however, his relations were never
very intimate. His best known portraits
are those of the royal family, of Kean, and
of Abel, the musician. Among his land-
scapes are The Shepherd's Boy and The
Woodman in the Storm. He died in London.
Gairdner, James (b. 1828), historian, son
of a surgeon; was born and educated at
Edinburgh. In 1846 he obtained an appoint-
ment in the Record Office, and became in
1S59 assistant-keeper of the Public Records.
He is chiefly known as the e .. . .1- of the
l',<*fon Letters (1872-75), but he has also
edited Historia Regis Henrici Septimi, Let-
ters and Papers Illustrative of the Ragn of
Richard III., and continued Professoi
Brewer's Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.
for the " Rolls " Series, and several works
for the Camden Society. Besides these, he
has done original work in his Life and Reign
of Richard III. (1878), and, in conjunction
with Mr. Spedding, Studies in English His-
tory, and is the writer of Henry VII. in
Twelve English Statesmen (1889).
_ Gaisford, Thomas (b. 1780, d. 1855), clas-
sical scholar ; educated at a private school
at Winchester, and at Christ Church, Ox-
ford, where he was elected student in 1800.
While tutor at the college he published an
edition of the Enchiridion of Hephaestion.
In 1811 he was appointed Regius professor
of Greek, and in 1825 prebendary of
Worcester, and was also rector of Westwell,
in Oxfordshire, from 1815 to 1847. He
also held prebends at St. Paul's, Llandaff,
and Durham, the last of which he exchanged
in 1831 for the deanery of Chiist Church.
He was a learned and laborious editor and
commentator, the chief results of his research
being an edition of the Lexicon of Suidas
and the Etymologicon Magnum. The "Gais-
ford Prize," founded after his death, is
awarded annually at Oxford for Greek
prose and verse.
Gains [Cains] Roman jurist of the 2nd cen-
tury ; author of Libri Institutionem Quat-
tuor, discovered in 1816 at Verona, and first
published at Berlin in 1821 by Goschen ; a
third edition appearing by Lachmann in
1841. It was the model for Justinian's
Institutes.
Galba, Servius Sulpicius (d. after 138s. o.),
Roman praetor ; subdued the Lusitanians, and
then massacred and enslaved them (150 B.O.);
tried but pardoned ; was consul 144 B.C.
Galba, Servius Sulpicius (b. 3, d. 69),
successor of Nero as emperor of Rome, but
was in power little more than seven months
before being murdered by the soldiers of
Otho.
Galbraitn, William (*. 1786, d. 1850), Scot-
tish mathematician and divine ; published
astronomical and barometrical tables be-
tween 1827 and 1834, and many mathe-
matical papers.
> Gale, Benjamin (b. 1715, d. 1790), phy-
sician, born at Killingworth, Connecticut ;
invented an improved drill-plough, and
wrote many political essays. About 1750
he published A Dissertation on Inoculation.
Gal
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Gal
Gale, John (b. 1680, d. 1721), Baptist
minister; studied at Leyden and obtained
degrees of M.A. and Ph.D. ; read under
Limborch at Amsterdam ; wrote an answer
to Wall's History of Infant Baptism. Some
of his works were printed by subscription
after his death.
Gale, Eoger (b. 1672, d. 1744), antiquarian,
member of Parliament, and commissioner
of stamps and excise ; was first vice-
president of the Society of Antiquaries. He
published Anton'mi Itinerarium Britan-
niarum, and the Knowledge of Medals.
Gale, Samuel, brother of the preceding
(6. 1682, d. 1754), edited Lord Clarendon's
History of Winchester Cathedral, and con-
tributed some papers to the Arch&ologia
and the Bibliotheca Topographia Britannica.
Gale, Theophilus (b. 1628, d. 1678), In-
dependent minister; lost his fellowship of
Magdalen College, Oxford at the Restora-
tion ; was then tutor to Lord Wharton's sons,
and afterwards minister in Holbom. His
chief works are The True Idea of Jansenism
and The Court of the Gentiles.
Gale, Thomas, father of Roger and
Samuel (b. 1636, d. 1702), scholar and anti-
quary ; was Regius professor of Greek at
Cambridge for six years, after which he
became master of St. Paul's school, and in
1697 dean of York, He was also fellow and
secretary of the Royal Society, and published
many classical and antiquarian works.
Galen, Christopher van (b. 1600, d. 1678),
Prince-bishop of Munster ; led an army
against the Turks in 1664 ; was called a
" mitred brigand."
Galenus [Galen] (b. 130), physician; born
at Pergamos ; lived some time at Alexandria
and Rome, whither he was recalled bjr Mar-
cus Aurelius when travelling in Asia ; is
supposed to have died at Pergamos. His
chief work is that on The Use of the different
Parts of the Human Bod;/, which, with his
other works, was regarded as authoritative,
and used as a text-book throughout the
Middle Ages.
Galeotti, Marzio (d. 1494), Italian writer;
celebrated for his knowledge of occult
science ; is chiefly known as having collected
the bon mots of Mathias Corvinus, king of
Hungary.
Galeotti, Sebastiano (d. 1746), Tuscan
painter ; born about 1676.
Galerius. [See Maximianus.]
Galeswinthe (d, 568), daughter of Athana-
gilde, king of the Goths; was married to
Chilperic, king of Neustria, who poisoned
her in 568.
Galiani, the Abbe Fernando (b. 1728, d.
1787), savant ; wrote several economical and
political treatises, among which are a Dia-
logue sur ',es Bles and a work on The Duties
of Neutral Princes. He has been called
" Machiavellino."
Galignanl, John Anthony (b. 1796, d^
1873), journalist ; established and edited,
with his brother William, Galignani's
Messenger; also founded the Galignani Hos-
pital at Paris, and joined with William in
defraying the cost of building the hospital at
CorbeiL The latter died in 1882.
Galilei, Galileo (b. 1564, d. 1642), as-
tronomer and natural philosopher ; born at
Pisa; was educated first at Florence, but
afterwards returned to Pisa to study medi-
cine, for which profession his father designed
him. Here, after becoming known as an
opponent of the Aristotelian maxims, he
discovered in 1582 the law of the vibrations
of the pendulum. Soon afterward he began
to study mathematics, and was appointed
professor at Pisa when only twenty-five.
Thence he removed to Padua in 1593, and
during his residence there invented a ther-
mometer and constructed his first telescope,
the invention of which he had heard of at
Venice. He also made astronomical dis-
coveries, and was re-established in 1610 at
Pisa by his patron, Cosimo de' Medici. Here
it was that his opposition to traditional
views, and especially his advocacy of the
Copernican doctrine that the sun was the
centre of the universe, brought him into
conflict with the Inquisition, but proceedings
were dropped on Galileo's promise not to
teach the obnoxious doctrine. On the pub-
lication, however, in 1632, seventeen years
after, of his Dialogue on the same subject,
he was again summoned to Rome, con-
demned to imprisonment for life, and re-
quired to solemnly recant his opinion. He
was confined at first in the house of one of
the Inquisitors, his pupil, but was after-
wards allowed to live in Florence, where he
died, having been blind four years. His
works were published in Florence in the
years 1843-6.
Galilei, Vincenzo (*. 1606, d. 1649), son of
Galileo ; taught by his father ; proposed
the application of pendulums to clocks
about 1640.
Galitzin, Alexander, son of Mikhail (b.
1718, d. 1783), general, and favourite of
Catherine II. ; defeated the Turks at Choc-
zim in 1769.
_ Galitzin, Dmitri (b. 1770, d. 1840), Rus-
sian noble and missionary ; served in the
Austrian army, but in 1792 resolved to
travel in America ; was ordained Roman
Catholic priest in 1795: founded, under the
name of "Father Smith," the Catholk
Gal
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Gal
colony of Loretto, in Pennsylvania, and having, probably, also been engaged in a
settled there for life, making, however,
frequent journeys. His name is given to a
village near Loretto, and a monument was
erected to him there in 1848.
Galitzin, Dmitri (b. 1721, d. 1773), Rus-
sian statesman ; endowed a hospital at
Moscow, which was opened in 1802.
Galitzin, Emanuel (6. 1804, d. 1853),
soldier and author ; was born and educated
at Paris, but in 1825 went to Russia ; joined
the army, and served with distinction in
Turkey, being wounded at Varna in 1828.
After his return in the next year, he retired
from the service, and devoted himself to
literature — his chief works being La Fin-
lande en 184S, the result of a tour through
that country, and Conies Russes, a French
translation, with biographical notices, of
the chief Russian fable- writers. Prince
Galitzin was also an eminent geographer
and corresponding member of the Geogra-
phical Society of London.
Galitzin, Georg Bulyakov (d, 1585),
general ; carried out the vengeance of Ivan
the Terrible against Wenden in 1577.
Galitzin, Mikhail (d. after 1514), general;
was defeated and taken prisoner by the
Poles, but released by the king ; was in
great favour with the Tsar.
Galitzin, Mikhail (b. 1675, d. 1730), general
and statesman under Peter I. ; served
against the Turks, and was wounded at
Azov at the age of twelve ; commanded
against the Swedes in 1700, and was again
wounded, but succeeded, as governor of
Finland, in driving them out of the province,
and in 1720 gained one of the first victories
of the Russian navy over them. He nego-
tiated for Peter the Great the treaty of
Neustadt; was made field -marshal in 1724,
and was named senator by the Tsarina Anne
in 1730, in which year he died at Moscow.
plot with the princess Sophia against the
life of Peter. He died at Moscow, having
been allowed to return from his place of
exile.
Gall, Franz Josef (6. 1758, d. 1828), with
Spurzheim, the first propounder of phren-
ology ; born at Pforzheim, in Baden ;
studied at Baden, Strasburg, and Vienna,
where he took the degree of M.D., and
began to practise. In 1798 he began to
put forth his theories in Wieland's Deutxcher
Mcrcur, and to give lectures on the subject
of phrenology. His success was checked by
an interdiction from the government on the
ground of irreligion, and he left the city
with his pupil, Spurzlieim, and entered
1 on a lecturing tour throughout Germany,
I arriving in 1807 in Paris, where he practised
| as a doctor, but failed to obtain recognition
i as a man of science. A visit to London in
1823 was also unsuccessful, and he returned
to Paris, where he lived until his death. His
Anatomic et Physiologic du Syxteme Nerveux
appeared between 1810 and 1818 ; and his
work Sur les Functions des Cerveaux between
1822 and 1825, both in conjunction with
Spurzheim.
Gall, St. (b. 551, d. 646), Irish abbot;
evangelised the Swiss, and built a monastery
in the Canton which now bears his name.
Galla Placidia. [See Placidia.]
Gallagher, William D. (6. 1808), Ameri-
can journalist and poet; son of a rebel
'• of '98 ; edited the Cincinnati Mirror (1831),
i the Western Literary Journal (1836), and
was co-editor of the Cincinnati Gazette
from 1839 to 1850. In 1841 he published
| Selections from the Poetry of th-e West^
i having previously written Erato. He has
j also written upon agriculture, and especially
! upon the development of the resources of
; the North -West. Another poem, Miami
Woods, was published in 1881.
Galitzin, Vassilii (d. 1619), a supporter of
the pretender Dmitri (Demetrius) ; mur-
dered^ the royal family in 1605 ; afterwards i
conspired against Dmitri, and also against
his successor.
Galitzin, Vassilii (b. 1633, d. 1713), gene-
ral and statesman, surnamed '* the Great " ; j
reorganised the army, and, as minister, i
assisted the Tsar Feodor in reducing the
power of the nobles, and in other reforms ;
was chancellor during the regency under
Princess Sophia, for whom he suppressed
the^ rebellion of the Stretlitz, preparing
their suppression by Peter the Great. He
served that Tsar as statesman and soldier, j
but incurred his jealousy on his return from
a successful expedition against the Tartars .
of the Crimea, and was in 1689 disgraced, i
Galland, Antoine (b. 1646, d. 1715), French
Orientalist ; went to Constantinople in 1670
to study Greek theology, bringing back
some marbles on his return nine years
later. He translated The Thousand and <>ne
Nights into French, and also the Indian
fables of Bidpai and Lokman.
Gallatin, Abraham Albert (6. 1761, d.
1849), American statesman and economist;
born at Geneva : went to America and
fought in the war of Independence ; became
a senator in 1793, and secretary to the
treasury in 1801 ; opposed the war of 1812,
and signed the treaty of Ghent, with which
it ended, in 1814 ; was American minister in
France from 1815 to 1823, and was sent on a
special mission to England in 1826. He was
a member of the Free Trade convention at
Gal
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Gal
Philadelphia in 1831, and was founder of
the Ethnological Society. He opposed the
Mexican war in a popular pamphlet, and
•was in Congress a leading member of the
Democratic party. He was a successful
financier, doing all in his power, by pam-
phlets and administration, to check the in-
crease of the national debt. Reminiscences of
Mr. Gallatin, by J. R. Bartiett, were pub-
lished in 1841.
Gallaudet, Thomas (b. 1787, d. 1851),
American clergyman of Huguenot birth ;
born at Philadelphia ; becoming interested
in the education of the deaf and dumb,
he visited Europe in 1815 ; became on his
return principal of an asylum for the deaf
and dumb, and, on resigning this, chaplain
to a similar institution at Hartford for the
insane. He edited six volumes of the Annals
of the Deaf aiul Dumb.
Galle, Andre (6. 1761, d. 1844), French
medallist, employed by the republic, the
emperor, and the Bank of France.
Galle, Philippe (b. 1537, d. 1612), Flemish
engraver, born at Haarlem, but lived chiefly
at Antwerp, where he was engaged in com-
merce. His sons, Theodore (b. 1560) and
Corneille " le Vieux " (6. 1570) his pupils,
greatly surpassed him in his art, especially
the latter, among whose works are several
portraits after Van Dyck and Rubens. Cor-
neille was also an engraver.
Gallienus, Roman Emperor (d. 268), asso-
ciated with him by his father Valerianus in
253 ; sole emperor, 260 ; was slain by the
praetorians in 268.
Gallissoniere, Rolland Michael Ban-in,
Marquis de la (b. 1693, d. 1756), French ad-
miral, entered the navy in 1710, and served
with distinction; was French governor of
Canada froml747tol749;andinl755defeated,
off Martinique, the English fleet under Byng
Bent to capture it. In 1751 he published a
memoir of the French colonies in America.
Gallo, Marzia duca di (b. 1753, d. 1833),
Neapolitan statesman; in his early years a
diplomatist in the service of the Austrians at
Naples and Vienna, signed the preliminaries
of Leoben and the peace of Campo Formio,
after which he returned to Naples. In 1805
he obtained from Napoleon the evacuation
of Naples by the French, but next year,
when Ferdinand IV. was driven out and
Joseph Bonaparte became king, the Mar-
quis de Gallo became his minister, accom-
panying him also to Spain in 1808. On the
restoration of the Bourbons in 1815 he re-
turned to Naples, re-entered their service
after a short interval, and accompanied Fer-
dinand to the congress at Laybach, where
he opposed Austrian intervention. When
the Austrians again entered Naples the duca
di Gallo retired into private lif e.
Galloche, Louis (b. 1670, d. 1751), French
painter, and instructor of Lemoyne. TTia
pictures deal with historical subjects.
Galloifl, Charles Andre (b. 1789, d. 1851),
French historian and publicist ; wrote His-
toire des Journalistesde la Involution (1845),
and published Biographie des Contemporains
par Napol&on (1824), Histoire de Napoleon
par lui-m$me (1825), and Histoire dela Con-
vention Nationals apres lui-mtme (1835).
Gallois, Jean Antoine (d. 1828), French
politician; president of the Tribunate in
1S02, and secretary from 1804 to 1813 ; was
also employed by Louis XVIII. on his re-
turn,
Gallonio (d. 1605), Italian priest ; wrote a
treatise on the modes of torture practised by
the pagans on the early Christians, and a
lif e of St. Philip Neri and other saints.
Galloway, Joseph (b. 1730, d. 1803),
American loyalist ; advocated, in opposition
to Dickinson, the conversion of the Penn-
sylvanian government into royal form ; pro-
posed a plan of settlement with the mother-
country in the Congress of 1774 ; on the
declaration of independence joined the
Royal army, and in 1778 went to England,
where in the next year he was examined
before the House of Commons on the conduct
of the war, the failure of which he declared
to be due to the in competency of Lord Howe.
In 1788 Galloway was attainted by the
Pennsylvania legislature, and his estates
ordered to be sold. Besides several pam-
phlets, he was author of Historical and
^Political Reflections on the American Re-
bellion, and some curious works on the alle-
gorical meaning of prophecies.
Gallucci, Giovanni, Italian astronomer of
the 16th century ; author of Theatrwn
Mundi et Temporis (1589).
Galluppi, Pasquale (*. 1770, d. 1848),
Italian philosopher of reactionary tendencies ;
professor of logic and metaphysics at Naples ;
author of a criticism of Fichte's views and
of Ekmenti di Filosofia (1832).
Gallus, Cnaeus Cornelius (d. circa 26 B.C.),
Roman poet; made prefect of Egypt by
Augustus in 31 B.C.; recalled and condemned
to exile for misgovernment, he put an end
to his life. His works are lost, but he is
known to posterity from Virgil's dedication
to him of Georgics, book iv.
Gallus, Roman Emperor (d. 453 or 454),
succeeded Decius by election ; made a humili-
ating peace with the barbarians, and was
murdered by his soldiers.
Gaily, Henry (6. 1696, d. 1769), theologian,
chaplain to the king ; author of Considera-
tion* upon Clandestine Marriage^ a translation
Gal
(342)
Gam
of Theophrastus, and Dissertations against
Pronouncing Greek according to Accents.
Gait, Sir Alexander T. (b. 1817), distin-
guished Canadian statesman, son of John Gait,
was born at Chelsea, and educated in England
and Canada, to which latter country he early
emigrated, entering the service of the British
and American Land Company, and being
appointed commissioner in 1844. In 1849
he entered political life, and signed the "An-
nexation " manifesto. After an interval of
retirement, he, in 1853, again appeared in
public lif e, and continued to take part in
affairs till 1872, being especially active in
promoting federation of the North American
colonies and intercolonial railway com-
munication. He was minister of finance
from 1858 to 1862 ; again from 1864 to 1866,
when he resigned on account of his opposition
to the educational policy of ministers, but
again next year for a few months held the
same office, and was privy councillor. He
was delegate to the Colonial Conference at
London of 1875-7, and in the following year
accompanied Sir Charles Tupper on a mission
to London to confer on the Nova Scotia
question. He was a fourth time, in
1879, finance minister ; was a member of
the Fisheries Commission of 1877, and in 1881
Canadian delegate at the International
Monetary Conference at Paris. From 1880
to 1883 he was high commissioner to Great
Britain. His name is also connected with
the Grand Trunk railway as one of its chief
founders ; and he was the author of Canada
from 1849 to 1859. After 1859 he acted with
the Liberal- Conservatives, having previously
been a Liberal.
Gait, John (b. 1779, d. 1839), Scottish
novelist, born at Irvine, Ayrshire ; after
failing in trade, he travelled on the Conti-
nent, and on his return to London devoted
himself to literature. Besides several novels,
he wrote lives of Byron and Benjamin West,
some tragedies, and books on travel.
Galton, Francis, F.R.S. (b. 1822), scientific
writer: educated at "King's College, London,
and Trinity, Cambridge ; obtained the medal
of the Royal Geographical Society for his
Narrative of an Explorer of Tropical South
Africa, in which he described his travels,
and soon after (1855) published his Art of
Travel. He then devoted himself to mete-
orology, embodying the results of his in-
vestigations, in Meteoragraphia (1863). He
has, however, gained his reputation as a
student of heredity, his chief works on the
subject being Hereditary Genius: its Laws
and Consequences, which appeared in 1869 ;
Inquiries into Human Faculty and its De-
velopment (1883), the Record of Family
Faculties (1884), and Natural Inheritance
(1889). He took active part in the pro-
ceedings of the British Association, and
was in 1885 president of the Anthropo-
logical Society.
Galuppi, Baldassare (b. 1703, d. 1785),
Italian musician ; employed by Catherine 1L
of Russia ; composed four Symphonies.
Galvani, Aloisio (b. 1737, d. 1798), dis-
coverer of galvanism ; born at Bologna, at
which university he studied anatomy, and
took his doctor's degree, becoming professor
in 1762. In 1790 he was deprived of his
professorship, being unable, through re-
ligious scruples, to take the oath required of
him by the government of the Cisalpine Re-
public, who, however, shortly before his
death offered to make an exception in his
favour. His Commentary on the Forces of
Electricity in Muscular Action, which de-
scribed his great discovery, was published in
1791.
Gama, Jose" Basilio da (b. 1740, d. 1795),
Brazilian poet, his chief work being Uruguay
(1769).
Gama, Vasco da (d. 1525), Portuguese
navigator, of noble family ; discovered the
route to India by the Cape of Good Hope
in 1497 ; appointed viceroy of India on the
death of Albuquerque in 1524 by John III.
of Portugal. His first voyage is celebrated
in the Lusiad of Camoens, who was with
him.
Gamaches, E"tienne (d. 1756), French
philosopher ; wrote under pseudonym
" Charigny," Systeme du Coeur, and As~
tronomie Physique.
Gamaches, Philippe de (b. 1568, d. 1625),
French theologian, his chief works being a
commentary on the Summa of St. Thomas
Aquinas and Theologia Practica (printed in
1629).
Gamaliel (1st century), Jewish rabbi;
teacher of St. Paul ; advised the release of
the apostles in 33 (Acts v.).
Ganiba, Jacques (b. 1763, d. 1833), French
traveller ; author of Voyage dans la Russia
Meridionale (1820-24).
Gamba, Pietro, Contedi ((b. 1801, d. 1826),
Italian patriot, brother of the Countess
Guiccioli, mistress of Lord Byron, whom he
accompanied to Greece ; was taken by a
Turkish corsair, but released, and rejoined
Byron at Missolonghi ; wrote Narrative of
Lord Byron's Last Journey in Greece, where
he died.
Gambacorta, Francesco (d. .1355), Italian
noble, "conservator of Pisa": offered the
signiory to Emperor Charles FV"., but after-
wards intrigued against him ; was executed
with his two brothers on a charge of con-
spiracy.
Gam
(343)
G-an
Gambacorta, Pietro (d. 1392), nephew of
Francesco, exiled after his death ; recalled in
1369, and made captain- general ; obtained
from Charles IV. recognition of the liberty of
Pisa ; made alliance with Florence ; assassi-
nated by order of his friend, the chancellor
Appiani.
Gambacorta, Giovanni, nephew of Pietro,
last lord of Pisa, after whose death
he was exiled; he was recalled in 1405
to aid in the expulsion of the Florentines,
who held the citadel of Pisa ; but in March,
1406, treacherously opened the gates to a
Florentine army, and went to live at
Florence.
Gambara, Lorenzo (b. 1606, d. 1595), Latin
poet, dependent of Cardinal Farnese ; author
of four books, De Navigatione Christophori
Columbi.
Gambara, Veronica (b. 1485, d. 1550),
Italian poet, whose letters and poems were
printed in 1759 ; was visited by Charles V.
in 1530.
Gambart, Jean Felix (6. 1800, d. 1836),
French astronomer, director of the Marseilles
observatory ; discovered thirteen comets be-
tween 1820 and 1833.
Gambetta, Leon Michel (b. 1838, d. 1882),
French statesman ; son of a grocer of Cahors ;
went as a young man to Paris with the ob-
ject of practising at the bar, but did nothing
remarkable till his thirtieth year. In 1868
he attracted notice by his conduct of the
defence in the proces Delescluze, and in the
next year was elected deputy for both Paris
and Marseilles, when he immediately became
the most influential member of the Oppo-
sition. After the outbreak of the war, in
the midst of the siege of Paris, he went to
Tours in a balloon, and was chiefly instru-
mental in organising the government, and
the conduct of the war. During the years
between the peace and 1879 Gambetta was
chiefly occupied with his idea of the re-
vanche and with the development of Oppor-
tunism. In the latter year it was his in-
fluence which in the main brought about the
abdication of Marshal Macmahon. On the
election of M. Gre*vy, he became president
of the Chamber, and in 1881 prime minister
of France, but only held office a few months,
resigning on January 27, 1882, after which
he took very little part in affairs. He died
on December 31 of the same year from a
wound accidentally inflicted on himself by a
pistol shot.
Gambler, James, Baron (b. 1756, d. 1833),
British admiral, born in the Bahamas, of
which his father was lieutenant-governor ;
early entered navy ; present at repulse of
French from Jersey in 1791, and afterwards
served on American coast ; rear-admiral in
1796, having been with Lord Howe in his
victory of the preceding year. In 1807 he
was given the command of the fleet sent to
Copenhagen, and was created a baron in
recognition of his skilful conduct ; he refused
at the same time a pension. Two years later,
in consequence of a misunderstanding with
Lord Cochrane on the occasion of an attack
on a French fleet in the Aix roads, Lord
Gambier was tried by court-martial, but
acquitted. On the accession of William IV.
he became admiral of the fleet.
Gambold, J. (d. 1771), English philologist :
joined the Moravians and became bishop ;
carried out their principles by working as
corrector of proofs ; was author of several
philological and theological works.
Gamon, Christophe de (b. 1576, d. 1612),
French poet, his chief works being Le Tresor
des Tresors and Les Pescheries, the first cele-
brating his achievements as an alchemist.
Gandolphy, Pierre (d. 1816), Romanist
priest, author of Une Defense de la Foi A.n-
cienne ; censured for a sermon which he
preached on the relations between temporal
and spiritual authority in 1816.
Gandon, James (6. 1741, <Z. 1824), English
architect; the first who received the gold
medal of the Eoyal Academy ; designed the
Custom House, and other buildings in Dub-
lin ; edited part of Vitruvius Britannitrus.
Ganganelli. [See Clement XIV., Pope.]
GanilH, Charles (6. 1758, d. 1826), French
statesman and economist ; one of the Com-
mittee of Seven who sat at the Hotel de Villa
on the day of the taking of the Bastille ; was
imprisoned under the Reign of Terror, but
saved from transportation by the death of
Robespierre ; member of the Tribunate under
the Consulate, but excluded in 1802 ; aa
deputy for Le Cantal at the Restoration, op-
posed several of the government measures ;
wrote sevei'al economical works, among
which were Systeme d'jEconomie Publique
(1809-21) and Theorie d'lSconomie Politique
(1815-22).
Gannal, Jean Nicholas (6. 1791, d. 1852),
French chemist ; employed in the organisa-
tion of military hospitals ; present with the
"Grand Army" in Russia in 1812, and seyeial
times taken prisoner ; employed at the Ecole
Polytechnique ; afterwards worked privately,
and applied his chemical knowledge to im-
provements in the manufacture of candles,
ink, lint, and paper, and published in 1837
Histoire des Embaumements, a work which
involved him in controversy with several
physicians.
Gans, Edward (6. 1798, d. 1839), German
jurist ; appointed lecturer on law at Berlin
in 1820, and maintained philosophical as
Gail
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Gar
opposed to historical views of hissuljeet;
visited France au-1 Knu'iatul iu ls:;,i. ( »u his
return in 183.5 he b« jan a course of Uv
on the ILsdiry of the L />' /•</•" .v J
•which was cut short by the I'm.--; m ir-V'Tii-
meut on account of their ' ten-
dency. Besides several b.>,>k.sou jurispru-
deuce, Gans edited the worka of Hegel, to
whose school he belonged.
Gantheaume, Comte Honor6 (b. 1755, d.
1818), French admiral ; entered the navy at
a very early ago ; served in America under
d'K>tain.LT, in India under Suffren, and was
present at the capture of Grenada. In 1 7(J4
he was wounded when under the command
of Villaret-Joyeuse ; after various other
services, was appointed chief-of-staff to
Brueys, and afterwards to the chief naval
command on the Nile and Egyptian coasts,
in which capacity he took part in the sioge
of Acre, the battle of Gaza, and the attack
on Aboukir, and escorted Bonaparte in his
flight from Egypt. He was appointed head
of the ocean fleet which was to have pro-
tected the invasion of England in 1805.
Subsequently he directed many other naval
operations under Napoleon, and was charged
by Louis XVIII. to bring about the sub-
mission of Marshal Brune, for which service
he was made peer of France, and received
the Cross of St. Louis.
Garampi, Giuseppe (b. 1723, d. 1792),
Italian antiquary, cardinal, and bishop ;
visited German v, Flanders, France, and
England with the view of discovering manu-
scripts : collected an immf nse library, and
prepared materials for a great episcopal
history under the title of Orbis Christ ianns.
The catalogue of his library, with a bio-
graphical notice, was published at Rome in
1796.
Garasse, Franqois (b. 1585, d. 1631),
Jesuit controversialist, author of numerous
works, chiefly in defence of his society or
directed against its opponents, the chief of
•which are Elixir Calvinisticum, Le Rabelais
Refortne, and La Doctrine Curieuse des Beaux
Esprits de ce Temps (1623).
Garat, Dominiqne Joseph (b. 1749, d.
1833), French statesman ; -worked for Panc-
koucke, who introduced him to Rousseau and
the Encyclopaedists. He pronounced the
eloge on Fontenelle, and was made professor
of history at Paris in 1785. He was elected
member of the Constituent Assembly, and
reported its proceedings in the Journal de
Paris. He succeeded Danton as minister of
justice after the massacres of September,
which he defended, and notified officially to
Louis XVI. his condemnation. In May,
1793, he was tranaf erred to the ministry of
the interior as successor to Roland, and by
his weak conduct contributed to the fall of
the Oirondins, trying in vain to save hi*
friend Condorc' t. < i.irat was also emjil
uinl'-r the Directory, the Consulate, and the
]>nij'ire. As a in* •mlii-r of the senate he
•1 lor the abdication in 1814; in 1816 he
WM • \j.>ell.'d from the Imstitut as a revolu-
tionist. He, was the author of niany works,
the best known of which ia Meinoires sur la
lution.
Garat, Jean Pierre (6. 1764, d. 1833),
French vocalist; nephew of Dominique]
educated for the bar, but soon devoted him-
self to music, and became a great tenor ;
became secretary to the Comte d'Artois,
and was presented to Marie Antoinette,
who gave him a pension. In 1793 he left
France in company with the violinist Roele,
but returned in 1794, and on the formation
of the Paris conservatoire was made pro-
fessor of singing, and trained several of the
most noted vocalists. He first made known
in France the music of Mozart, besides him,
self composing some very popular pieces.
Garbett, James (b. 1802, d. 1879), scholar
and theologian ; in 1841 succeeded Keble as
professor of poetry ; Bampton lecturer in
1842, his subject being a Vindication of the
Church of England, against the Tractarians ;
became archdeacon of Chichester on the
resignation of Mr. (Cardinal) Manning.
Garbieri, Lorenzo (b. 1580, d. 1654),
Italian painter of the Bolognese school,
friend of Spaela, his chief pictures being
St. Peter at Prayer, Circe, and the Martyr-
dom of Saint Cecilia, at Bologna, and several
oils and frescoes at Modena.
Garbo, Raffaelino del (b. 1476, d. 1534),
Florentine painter, pupil of Lippi, the
greater part of whose frescoes are lost ;
several of his oil-paintings are at Florence,
Rome, and Berlin.
Garcam, or Garcao, Pedro Dorrea (b. 1724,
d. 1772*), Portuguese lyric poet; thrown by
Pombal into prison, where he died. TTiq
complete works were published in 1778.
Garcia, First Count of Castile (b. 908, d.
990), defeated the Moors under Almanzar
in 984, but was soon after himself defeated
and taken prisoner, and died of his wounds.
His son, the second count (b. 1008), was
assassinated in 1022 by one of the Veles,
pretenders to the throne of Castile.
Garcia, Manuel de Populo Vincente (J.
1775, d. 1832), Spanish musician; gained
reputation as a singer in the theatres of
Cadiz and Madrid, and subsequently at
Paris and in Italy. Between 1816 and 1824
he lived alternately in London and Paris,
after which he went to New York and from
thence to Mexico. Having been robbed just
before his return to Europe, he was obliged
Gar
(345)
Gar
to devote himself to teaching, among his
pupils being his daughter, Madame Malibran.
He composed everal operas, the best known
of which is II Califo di Bagdad. His son
Manuel (born at Madrid in 1805) was
professor of music at London and Paris, and
author of Me/nuire sur la Voix Humaine
(1840), and EcoU di Garcia (1841).
Garcia, Marie. [See Malibran.]
Garcia di Mascarenlias (6. 1596, d. 1656),
Portuguese poet ; escaped from prison at
Coimhas, and after a year at Madrid wan-
dered through Italy and France, passing
thence to Brazil, where he remained nine
years and fought against the Dutch. On
his return to Portugal he was imprisoned in
the tower of Sabujat for some years, on
account of a supposed treasonable corre-
spondence with the Spaniards, but was
liberated on restoration of Portuguese inde-
pendence, and honoured by Joao IY. A
poem which he wrote in Brazil is lost, but
his Viriato Tragico was much admired, and
was reprinted in 1854.
Garcia y Paredes, Diego (6. 1466, d. 1530),
Spanish soldier; served against the Portu-
guese and Moors in 1478 ; killed messengers
sent by his family to bring him home after
his father's death, and, having proceeded to
Home, entered the service of Alexander VI. ;
afterwards aided the Venetians against the
Turks, by whom he was taken prisoner, but
escaped, and in 1501 returned to serve the
pope, and fought for him against the Orsini
and the French. Returning to Spain, he
defended his friend Gonsalva di Cordova,
and in 1508 was sent to the help of
the Emperor Maximilian in his war with
Venice. He was present at the battle of
Pavia (1525). Don Diego Garcia is one of
the national heroes of Spain ; his auto-
biography was printed in the Claros Varones
de Espdna.
Garcilasso de la Vega (b. 1503, d. 1536),
Spanish poet and soldier ; born at Toledo of
a noble family; followed Charles V. to
Italy; was present at the siege of Vienna
by the Sultan Solyman, after which he fell
into disgrace for trying to bring about the
marriage of one of his nephews with a lady
of the imperial house. After a short im-
prisonment on an island in the Danube, he
returned to court, and in 1535 was wounded
in the siege of Tunis. After his return he
accompanied Charles V. on his campaign in
Provence, and died from wounds received at
Frejus. Hifl poems, in which he imitated
the Italians, were first published with those
of Boscan in 1543.
Garcilasso de la Vega (d. 1568), Spanish
traveller and writer (called "the Inca,"
from his mother being a Peruvian princess) ;
son of a Spanish captain who had served
under Cortes and Pizarro ; explored Peru,
and published the result in his Commentaries
Reales quc tratan del Origen de los Incas ;
excited the suspicions of Philip II. by his
influence over the Peruvians, and was re-
called to Spain and imprisoned.
Gardiner, Allen Francis (6. 1791, d. 1851),
English sailor and missionary; after serv-
ing some years in the navy, devoted himself*
to missionary work ; went to Zululand in
1834, then to South America ; after a short
time in England founded the Patagonian
Missionary Society, and in 1850 went again
to South America, whence he and his party
never returned, having died of starvation.
Gardiner, James, Colonel (b. 1688, d.
1745), Scottish military officer; served with
distinction at Bamillies; killed at Preston-
pans ; said by his biographer, Dr. Doddridge,
to have had supernatural intimation of his
death.
Gardiner, Samuel Eawson (b. 1829), Eng-
lish historian ; was educated at Winchester and
Christ Church. In 1884 he was elected fellow
of All Souls', and was for some years pro-
fessor of modern history at King's College,
London. His historical works include The
History of England from the Accession of
James I. to the Disgrace of Chief Justice Coke
(1863), Prince Sharks and the Spamsh
Marriage (1869), England under the JDuke of
Buckingham and Charles I. (1875), The
Personal Government of Charles /., and the
Fall of the Monarchy of Charles /., all these
being republished as a continuous work in
1883-4 ; An Introduction to the Study of
English History (with J. B. Mullinger),
History of the Great Civil PTiir, and a com-
plete History of England in three volumes.
In 1882 a Civil List pension of £150
was granted him ia recognition of his
valuable contributions to the history of
England.
Gardiner, Stephen (b. 1483, d. 1555),
English ecclesiastical statesman ; natural
son of Dr. Woodville, Bishop of Salis-
bury, brother of Edward IV. 's queen ;
became secretary to Cardinal "Wolsey, was
employed to negotiate the divorce from
Catherine of Aragon, and was named Bishop
of Winchester in 1531 and secretary of
state ; adopted the king's supremacy over
the Church, and defended it in De Vera
Obedientia, but opposed Cromwell and the
Protestants ; was imprisoned under Edward
VI. and deprived of his bishopric, but was
restored and made chancellor under Mary ;
first opposed and afterwards forwarded the
Spanish marriage ; directed the persecution,
in the midst of which he died.
Gardiner, William (b. 1770, d. 1853),
musical writer; one of the first English
admirers of Beethoven; he had a Laxg*
Gar
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Gar
acquaintance with literary men of the day,
including Perry, of the Morning Chronicle,
Robert Hall, Dr. Parr, and Moore ; published
Sacred Melodies in 1812, and between that
year and his death, Lives of Haydn a»d
Mozart, Judah (oratorio), the ^nsic of
Nature, Music and Friends, and other works.
Gardner, Allan, Lord (b. 1742. d. 1808),
English admiral; distinguished himself as
captain of the Duke in Rodney's victory
over the French in 1782; became rear-
admiral in 1793, and next year received a
baronetcy for his services under Lord Howe
on June 1 ; attempted to put down the
mutiny at Portsmouth at great personal
risk ; was created in 1800 an Irish peer, and
afterwards became a peer of the United
Kingdom; succeeded Earl St. Vincent in
the command of the Channel fleet. He sat
in three successive parliaments.
Gardner, Percy (b. 1846), archaeologist,
M.A. of Oxford and Litt. Doc. of Cam-
bridge; was appointed assistant in the
Department of Antiquities at the British
Museum in 1871 ; elected fellow of Christ's
College, Cambridge, 1872, and Disney pro-
fessor of archaeology in 1880. In 1887 he
became Merton professor at Oxford.
Among his works are The Types of Greek
Coins (1883), and several volumes of cata-
logues of Greek coins in the British Museum.
He edited the Journal of Hellenic Studies
from its commencement.
Garengeot, Rene" (b. 1688, d. 1759), French
Burgeon ; author of Traite des Operations dt
published in 1723.
Garet, Jean (b. 1627, d. 1694), French
Benedictine; editor of Cassiodorus (1676).
Garfield, James Abraham (b. 1831, d.
1881), youngest child of Abram Garfield,
who died at the age of thirty-three ; was
educated at Chester and Hiram, Ohio (his
native state), and Williams College, where
he graduated with high honours in 1856 ;
became president of Hiram College next
year, and studied law while he taught
classics ; began public life as a member of
the Ohio Senate in 1859, and gave special
attention to the military organisation of the
state. On the outbreak of the Civil war
Garfield received a commission as colonel of
Ohio volunteers, and won the battle of
Middle Creek in 1862, after which he was
named brigadier-general. In 1863 he was
made major-general for his gallantry at
Chickamauga, but at the end of the year
resigned his commission in order to sit in
Congress. He was immediately placed upon
the committee of military affairs, but gave
his attention to other matters also. At the
end of the war he was transferred to the
finance committee, where he was zealous for
the resumption of cash payments. In 1868
he was chairman of the new committee on
banking and currency. He opposed Presi-
dent Johnson's views on the treatment of
the Confederates, and made notable speeches
on these and other matters. On the retire-
ment of Mr. Elaine to the Senate Garfield
became leader of the Republican party in
the House of Representatives, and was
successful in defeating the attempts of the
Democrats to interfere with the conduct of
elections. In 1880 he supported Sherman's
candidature for the presidency, but was
himself elected. On July 2nd, 1881, he was
shot by a disappointed place-hunter, when
about to set out on a trip to New England.
His wife (nee Rudolph) received a large
subscription after his death. Many of Gar-
field's speeches have been published ; the
best life of him is by J. R. Gilmore (New
York, 1880).
Garibaldi, Giuseppe (b. _ 1807, d. 1882),
Italian soldier, born at Nice ; entered the
Piedmontese navy, but was obliged to leave
Italy in 1834, on account of his participation
in the Young Italy movement. He went at
first to France, but afterwards took service
with the Bey of Tunis as captain of a
frigate. He next went to America, and
supported the rising of Uruguay against the
Brazilians, by whom he was made prisoner
in 1842. After his liberation he again served
in the navy of Uruguay, and in the course
of operations his wife, a Creole, was taken
prisoner, but escaped. In 1844 Garibaldi
fought for Montevideo against Buenos
Ayres, and performed many brilliant feats.
Hearing of the state of affairs in Europe in
1847, he left Montevideo, and on arriving at
Genoa offered his sword to Charles Albert,
who, however, declined the offer. Garibaldi
then went to Milan, where the Committee
of Public Safety gave him the command of
3,000 men, and sent him to the relief of
Bergamo. He was not able to achieve much
at this time, and retired into Switzerland,
whence he came to Nice, which had elected him
as representative, and proclaimed himself a
republican. Next year he was summoned
by Mazzini, after the flight of Pius IX., to
Rome, and was entrusted with the defence
of the city against the French and Austrians.
From thence he dealt several severe blows to
the Neapolitans, but was unable to save
Rome. He now attempted a guerilla war-
fare with the Austrians, but soon had to
take refuge at Genoa, whence he once more
sailed for America. On his arrival he
settled at New York as a chandler, then
went to California, and afterwards on a
voyage to China. In 1854 he returned to
Genoa, bought part of the island of Caprera,
and settled there as a farmer for five years.
In 1859 he took part in the war against th6
Austrians, and after the peace of Villafranca
landed in Sicily with his " thousand heroes,"
Gar
(347)
Gar
and defeated the Neapolitans. On his way
to Naples he first met Victor Emmanuel. In
1862 he attempted to induce the Hungarians
to revolt against Austria, but was unsuc-
cessful, and himself marched on Rome. He
was opposed by the Italian government,
wounded, and captured, but was allowed to
retire to Caprera. In 1864 he visited Eng-
land ; in 1866 fought against Austria in the
Tyrol, and obtained the cession of Venice.
Next year he tried to free Borne from the
papal government, but was arrested by the
Italian government and imprisoned in Ales-
sandria. Soon he was allowed to live under
surveillance at Caprera, whence he escaped
with his son-in-law in a small boat (October
]4th), and, joining the insurgents, defeated
the papal troops at Monte Botonda (October
16th), but having been himself defeated at
Mentana he was again imprisoned. Gari-
baldi's last appearance in arms was on the
side of the French in the war of 1870. He
was elected deputy for Nice, Dijon, and
Paris, but being prevented as foreigner from
addressing the Assembly, he returned to
Caprera, where, with his third wife and
family, he lived till his death. His first
wife had died in the disastrous flight from
Borne in 1849. In 1876 Garibaldi received a
pension from the nation, and, as representa-
tive of Borne, occasionally appeared in the
Italian parliament.
Gariel, Pierre (d. 1670), French historian,
author of L'Oripiqe, Us Changements, et
VEtat present de V Eglise Cathedrale de Saint
Pierre de Montpellier, and other works about
Montpellier, where he was born, and of
which at his death he was doy&n.
Garisolles, Antoine (b. 1587), French Pro-
testant theologian and Latin poet ; presided
over the national synod at Charenton in
1645, and resisted the demands of the
government; author of La Voie du Salut,
and Adolphide, a Latin poem, in recognition
of which Queen Christina of Sweden sent
him her portrait, but he died before re-
ceiving it.
Garland, Augustus H. (b. 1832), Ameri-
can statesman ; was prominent as a
lawyer at the time of the opening of the
Civil war, and was a delegate to the
Arkansas Convention of 1861, which voted
secession from the Union, but was personally
opposed to the measure. He became, how-
ever, a member of the Confederate States
Congress, and sat in the Lower House from
1861 to 1864 ; on its dissolution he resumed
his profession. In 1867 he was elected a
member of the United States Senate, but, as
a Confederate, was not then allowed to sit.
In 1874 he became governor/ of Arkansas ;
in 1877 he became a United States senator,
and in 1885 was attorney- general to Presi-
dent Cleveland's administration, after the
conclusion of which he recommenced
professional pursuits.
Garlande, Jean de, English poet and gram-
marian of the 13th century; studied philo-
sophy at Oxford; author of De Contemptu
Mundi (sometimes attributed to St. Bernard),
De Triumphis Ecclesice, and De Dictionibus
Obscuris.
Garneray, Jean Francois (6. 1755, d. 1837),
French painter, pupil of David, his chief
pictures being portraits of Charlotte Corday
(painted while she was before the revolu-
tionary tribunal), of Catherine de Medicis,
of Louis XVI. on the terrace of the Temple,
of Baron Trenck, and of Diane de Poitiers
asking from Francis I. the pardon of her
father.
Garaerin, Andre* Jacques (b. 1769, d. 1823),
French aeronaut ; went up in Montgolfier's
balloon in 1790 ; became an army inspector
in 1793, and was captured by the Austrians ;
invented the parachute, making his first suc-
cessful trial of it in 1797 in the park of Mon-
ceaux ; subsequently made descents at St.
Petersburg (1800), and London (1807) ; was
patronised by Napoleon ; died from a blow
on his head. His elder brother, Jean Bap-
tiste (d. 1849), contested with him the inven-
tion of the parachute, and made improve-
ments in it.
Garnet, Henry (b. 1555, d. 1606), Jesuit;
was executed in 1606 on the charge of com-
plicity in the Gunpowder Plot.
Garnett, Bichard (b. 1789, d, 1850), philo-
logist and divine ; educated for commerce, but
took orders in 1813, and became a master at
Blackburn grammar school ; taught himself
German. In 1838 he was appointed assist-
ant-keeper of printed books at the British
Museum, having previously devoted himself
to philology. His philological essays were
collected by his son in 1858. He also con-
tributed to the Transactions of the Boyal
Institution an able paper on The formation
of Ice at the Bottom of Rivers. His younger
brother, Thomas (d. 1878), a cotton manu-
facturer, devoted his leisure to experiments
in agriculture and natural history ; and
another, Jeremiah (d. 1870), was known in
Lancashire as a journalist and politician.
Garnett, Bichard (b. 1835), verse-writer
and literary editor; eldest son of the pre-
ceding, to whose post at the British
Museum he succeeded, being appointed
keeper of printed books in 1890. He took
great part in the improvements effected at
the British Museum, especially in the form-
ation of the General Catalogue. Among hia
works are lo in Egypt and Other Poems
(1S59J), Idylls and Epigrams, chiefly from
the Greek Anthology (1869), Iphigema in
Delphi (1890), besides biographies of Carlyle,
Gar
(348)
Gar
Emerson, and Milton in the Great Writers
series, many contributions to encyclopaedias,
and editions of Ids father's Philological Es-
says, De Quincey's Opium Eater, and Relics
of Shelley.
Garaett, Thomas (b. 1756, d. 1802), first
professor of the Royal Institution of Great
Britain, where he gave the first lecture in
1801.
Gamier, Charles Georges (6. 1746, d. 1795),
French writer, author of Nouveaux Proverbes
Dramatiques (1784), Voyages Imaginaires
(1787).
Gamier, Etienne Barthelemy (b. 1759, d.
1849), French painter, his chief pictures
being historical. The Emperor Maurice De-
thronvd by the Usurper Phocas, Socrates draw-
ing Akibiades away from a House whose
Pleasures would weaken his Courage, and the
Desolation of Priam's Family, painted at
Rome ; Napoleon in his Cabinet meditating
upon a Map of Europe, and others, painted at
Paris and exhibited at the Salon.
Gamier, Germain (b. 1754, d. 1821), French
economist ; brother of Charles, procureur to
the chatelet; was a member of the Club
Monarchique in 1790, and refused, two years
later, the ministry of justice, after which he
left France. On his return he held several
offices under the Directory and Consulate.
On the return of the Bourbons he was named
minister and member of the conseil prive,
and supported freedom of exportation and of
the press. He translated the Wealth of
Nations, and published several economical
works.
Gamier, Jean (b. 1612, d. 1681), French
Jesuit philosopher ; author of various philo-
sophical and historical works, among which
were Liber Diurnus Romanorum Pontificum
and Organi Philosophies Rudimenta.
Gamier, Jean Guillaume (b. 1766, d. 1840),
French mathematician ; professor in 1788 at
the Protestant Acad^mie Militaire of Colmar ;
examiner at the Ecole Polytechnique from
1795 to 1800, and assistant to Lagrange.
Subsequently professor at St. Cyr and Ghent.
He wrote and edited numerous works. One
of his pupils was Poisson.
Gamier, Jean Jacques (b. 1729, d. 1805),
French historian ; went to Paris with twenty-
four sous in his pocket ; was received into
the College d'Harcourt, and took minor
orders; patronised by the Comte de Saint
Florentin, and appointed inspector of the
College Royal in 1768 ; in 1781 elected pen-
sionary of the Acade*mie des Inscriptions,
but lost this in 1790 by refusing to take the
oath to the new constitution, became a
royalist, and lived in indigence during the
revolution, but was granted a pension by
the consular government. Among his nu-
merous works are Traite de VOrigine du
Gnuvernement Civile, and De ^Education
Ctvile.
Gamier, Jean Louis Charles (b. 1825),
French architect ; born at Paris, where he
studied at the Ecole Sp^ciale de Dessin and
the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, gaining, in 1848,
the great prize for his design for a Conserva-
toire pour les Arts et Metiers. He afterwards
travelled in Greece, and on his return ex-
hibited a polychromatic design for the re-
storation of the temple of Jupiter, in JEgina,
a paper on which he published in the Revue
Archeologique in 1856. In 1861 his plan for
the new Paris Opera House was unanimously
adopted by the jury, and on the occasion of
its opening in 1875 the architect was deco-
rated with the Cross of the Legion of Honour.
M. Gamier designed also the theatre at
Monaco, and on his visit to London in 1886
received the gold medal of the Institute of
British Architects.
Gamier, Jean de Saintes (b. 1754, d. 1820),
French revolutionist ; member of the
National Convention, and a violent montag-
nard ; proposed the law against the emigres
of October 22; voted for death without
appeal of the king ; an active proscriptionist
in 1793, and a chief organiser of the comite
de salut public. On August 7 he proposed
that Pitt should be declared " ennemi du genre
humain." He was sent on a mission against
the royalists of the west and the Vendeans ;
supported the proscription of the Dantonists,
and became president of the Jacobin club in
1794. He tried to save Carrier; but from
this time became more moderate. Afterwards
member of the Conseil des Cinq Cents, and
member of the representative Chamber
during the Hundred Days. He was arrested
at the restoration, sent to Belgium, and from
thence to the United States, where he was
drowned in the Ohio.
Gamier, Marie Joseph Francois (b. 1839,
d. 1873), French traveller; entered the navy,
and was in 1862 appointed inspector of the
natives in Cochin China. He suggested and
accompanied a mission to Thibet, which tra-
versed country hitherto unknown to Euro-
peans, and took careful observations. On
the death of the commander of the expedition,
Gamier took his place, and led it to the
Yang-tze-Kiang and the coast of China.
After a brief stay in France, he returned, and
traced the course of the Yang-tze-Kiang,
and after wards was employed by the governor
of Cochin China to establish a French pro-
tectorate over Tonkin. He took Hanoi (No-
vember, 1873), but was assassinated soon
afterwards. He was the author of La
Siege de Paris (1871), and his expedition ifi
described in Voyage d' Exploration en Indo-
Chine pendant 1866-7-8 (published 1873).
Gar
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Gar
Gander, Robert (b. 1534, d. 1590), French
poet ; destined for the bar and practised for
a short time; author of Porcie and other
tragedies.
Gamier-Pages, Utienne Joseph Louia (b.
1801, d. 1841), French politician; after being
engaged, through his poverty, in many menial
occupations, became in 1822 bookkeeper in
a commercial house. Subsequently he be-
came an advocate, and soon began to mix
in political affairs, and especially in the
revolution of 1830. Xext year he obtained
a seat in the Assembly, and became con-
spicuous as a republican and opponent of the
government of Louis Philippe. His speeches
in the session of 1839 were very remarkable.
Gamier-Pages, Louis Antoine (b. 1803,
df 1878), French politician, half-brother to
Etienne ; took part in the revolution of 1830,
and on the death of his brother took his
place in the Chamber as leader of the cdte
Gauche. During the revolution of 1S48 he
was elected mayor of Paris and finance
minister to the provisional government.
His failure in the latter capacity led to his
retirement for some time from political life,
during which time he occupied himself in
writing Episode de la, Revolution de 1848,
which was a defence of his conduct. In 1864
he was returned for one of circumscriptions
of Paris, and was prosecuted as one of the
founders of the Democratic Electoral Com-
mittee. His views were, however, now too
moderate for his party, and he retired from
public lif e soon after the GeiTn.au war, having
been a passive member of the government of
national defence.
Garrick, David (*. 1716, d. 1779), English
actor, son of a captain in the army ; was born
at Hereford, and came to London with Dr.
Johnson in 1736 to siu>!y law. On the death
of his father, however, he joined his brother,
a wine merchant, but soon gave this up to go
on the stage. He made his first appearance,
under the name of Lyddal, at Ipswich, in
1741, and soon after played "Richard" in
the theatre of Goodman's Fields, where his
success enabled him to get an engagement at
DruryLane. In 1743 he went to Dublin;
in 1747 became joint patentee of Drury Lane,
two years later marrying Mademoiselle
Violette. He acted at Drury Lane until
1776, when he retired and sold his share in
the concern. His last appearance was on
June 10 as Don Felix in The Wonder. He
died on January 20, 1779, and was buried in
Westminster Abbey. Hig Correspondence was
published in 1831.
Garrison, William Lloyd (b. 1805, d. 1879),
American abolitionist, of humble birth ; was
apprenticed at the age of thirteen to the
printer of the Newburyport (Massachusetts)
y for which paper he afterwards wrote.
In 1826 he became owner and editor of the
Free Press, and in the next year editor of the
National Philanthropist, in which temper-
ance and emancipation were advocated. In
1831 he started The Liberator, and from
henceforth devoted himself entirely, at great
personal risk, to the cause of slavery abolition.
He visited England three times — in 1833,
1840, and 1866, and was well received. In
1847 Sonnets and other Poems from his pen
were published, and in 1852 a selection from
his speeches and writings.
Garrod, Alfred Baring, Sir (b. 1819), Eng-
lish physician (physician extraordinary to
the Queen), was first in medicine at both
the M.B. and M.D. examinations of London
University (1842 and 1843). In 1851 he was
appointed physician and professor of thera-
peutics at University College Hospital ; in
1863 physician at King's College Hospital,
and in 1874 consulting physician. In 1856
he became fellow of the Royal College of
Physicians, and was vice-president in 1888.
He delivered the Gulstonian lectures in 1858,
and the Lumbian lectures in 18S3. In 1858
he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society.
Among his works are On the Conversion of
Benzoicinto Hipp-uric Acid in the Animal
Economy (Chemical Society1 s Transactions^
1843) ; Researches on the Pathological Con-
dition of the Blood in Cholera (London Journal
of Medicine, 1849) ; On the Condition of the
Blood and Urine in Gout, Rheumatics, and
Bright1 s Disease, etc. (Medico- Chirurgical
Transactions (1849-56) ; Tlie Essentials of
Materia Medica and Therapeutics (1855) ; and
On the Nature and Treatment of Gout and
Rheumatic Gout, the last of which has
been translated into French and German.
He first introduced lithia as an internal
remedy.
Garsault, Francois de (b. 1691, d. 1778),
French writer, author of the Nouveau Parfait
Mareehal, the leading French work on
horses ; also contributed to the Recueil fo
V Academic des Sciences papers on similar sub-
jects.
Garth, Richard, Sir (b. 1820), English
lawyer ; educated at Eton and Christ Church;
was called to the bar in 1847, and sat in
Parliament for Guildf ord f rom 1866 to 1868.
In 1875 he was named chief justice of Ben-
gal, which office he resigned in 1886. He is
a privy councillor.
Garth, Samuel, Sir (b. 1660, d. 1719),
English physician ; educated at Cambridge ;
came to London ; became a fellow of the
Royal College of Physicians in 1693, and
gained a large practice ; was a member of
the Kit- Cat Club, and a friend of Addison
and Pope. His chief work was a satirical
poem, The Dispensary, which attained great
popularity.
Gar
(350 )
Gas
Gartner. [See Gaertner.]
Garve, Christian (6. 1742, d. 1798), German
philosopher, translated the De Oj/icns by re-
quest of Frederick the Great; wrote De
Motion* Scribenli Hixioriam I'hilosophicatn,
and translated several English authors.
Garzi, Lodovico (6. 1640, d. 1721), Italian
painter, pupil of Andrea Sacchi, and rival
of Carlo Maratti.
Garzom (b. 1549, d. 1589), Italian jurist
and writer, author of numerous works, the
chief of which are II Theatro de Varii e Di-
ver si Cervelli Mondanv and L'Hospidale dej
Pazzi Incurabili.
Gasaprino, Barizza (6. 1370, d. 1430),
Italian philologist; patronised by Maria
Viscouti, Duke of Milan : his epistles, pub-
lished in 1470, were the first typographical
productions in France, and he did much
towards the revival of classical studies.
Gascoigne, George (b. 1537, d. 1577),
English poet and dramatist, entered at
Gray's Inn, but was obliged by extrava-
gance to leave the country and serve in the
army of William of Orange. He was made
prisoner at Ley den, and, after his return to
England, engaged in literature, writing
masques and dramas, the best known of
which is Princelye Pleasures at the Courte of
Kenilworth (1576).
Gascoigne, William (b. 1621, d. 1644),
English astronomer; in vented the micrometer
and improved telescopes ; was killed at the
battle of Marston Moor.
Gascoigne, Sir William (b. circa 1350, d.
1419), English judge; appointed a king's
Serjeant in 1397, and chief justice in 1400 ;
refused to pronounce sentence upon Arch-
bishop Scrope and Lord Mowbray, as being
peers, in 1405 ; is said to have, on small
authority, committed Prince Henry to prison.
GaskeU^Mary (b. 1822, d. 1865), English
novelist (nee Stevenson), married a Unitarian
minister, and wrote Mary Barton (1848),
Moorland Cottage (1850), and several con-
tributions to Household Words, which in-
cluded Cranford and North and South;
Wires and Daughters was appearing in the
Cornhill at the time of her death. She also
wrote a biography of Charlotte Bronte. She
was a friend and helper of Thomas Wright,
and was very active in charitable works
during the cotton famine.
Gasparin, Thomas Augustin de (b. 1750,
d. 1793), French politician ; entered the
army ; was a chief instrument in uniting the
Comtat and Venaissin to France ; was mem-
ber of the comite militaire in the Legislative
Assembly ; appeased the Soissons mutiny^ in
August, 1792, In the National Convention
he acted with the montagnards ; accused the
Giroudins ; went on a mission to the army,
deserted by Dumouriez : on his return be-
came a member of comite de nalutpublique, and
advised the sending of representatives to the
armies, himself going on several missions,
among the rest to Toulon, where he is said
to have brought about, by his influence, the
acceptance of Bonaparte's plan. He was
killed at his native place, Orange, in an en-
counter with the royalists.
Gasparini, Francesco (6. 1665, d. 1752),
Italian composer and harpsichord player,
having Benedict Marcello and Domenico
Scarlatti as his pupils. He composed many
operas and cantatas, and wrote a treatise on
accompaniment.
Gassendi, Pierre (b. 1592, d. 1655), French
mathematician and astronomer; as royal
professor at Paris was the first to observe
the transit of Mercury; as a philosopher
was a Baconian and opponent of Descartes,
and a friend and supporter of Galiter.
Among his works are Institutia Astronomica
(1647), Tychonis Brahai, Nicolai Copernici,
Georgii Puerbachii, et Joannis Regiomon-
tani Vitce (1654) ; the philosophical Dis-
quisitio Metaphysica adversus Cartesium; De
Vita, Moribus, et Placitis Epicuri, and many
others.
Gassion, Jean de (b. 1609, d. 1647), French
Huguenot soldier; served in the army of
Gustavus Adolphus, and on his return to
France in that of the Prince de Conde1, being
present at Rocroi. He became a Marshal of
France, and died from a wound at the siege
of Lens.
Gassmann, Fre'de'ric Leopold (b. 1729, d.
1774), Bohemian composer; keeper of the
imperial library of music at Vienna; died
from the result of a carriage accident.
Among his numerous operas are Merope
and 11 Trionfo d'Amore.
Gassner, Johann Josef (6. 1727, d. 1779),
German priest ; laid claim to extraordinary
powers of healing by imposition of hands,
and practised exorcism. He was patronised
by the Duke Charles of Wurtemberg, but
was forbidden by the Emperor Joseph II.
to reside at Ratisboru
Gast, John (b. 1715, d. 1788), Irish writer,
author of the Rudiments of Grecian History,
which was translated into French, and had
much vogue.
Gastelier, Rene Georges (b. 1741, d. 1821),
French doctor ; member of the Legislative
Assembly ; arrested during the Terror, and
only saved by death of Robespierre ; author
of several medical works, among which are
Traite sur Us Specifiques en Medicine,
Traite sur les Maladies des Femmes en Couch***
Gas
(351)
Gan
and Demonstratio sur la Supplice de la
Guillotine, which he held to be painless.
Gaston de Foix. [&^Foix.]
GastreU, Francis (*. 1662, d. 1725),
English divine, preacher at Lincoln's Inn,
canon of Christ Church, and afterwards
Bishop of Chester ; opposed in the House of
Lords the sentence on Atterbury, Bishop of
Rochester ; and obtained the thanks of the
university of Oxford for contesting the
validity of degrees conferred by the Arch-
bishop of Canterbury. He was an active
opponent of the Deists in the Trinitarian
controversy of 1715, and was also the
author of Christian Institutes.
Gates, Horatio (b. 1728, d. 1806),
American general ; born in England, and
accompanied General Braddock, but subse-
quently purchased an estate in Virginia,
where he lived until the outbreak of the war
in 1775, when he was appointed by Congress
adjutant-general. He performed many ser-
vices to the American cause, the greatest
of which was the defeat of Burgoyne at
Saratoga. In the latter part of the war he
held a command in the south, and was not
so successful, being defeated by Lord Corn-
wallis at Camden.
Gatling, Richard Jordan (6. 1818),
American inventor ; a doctor by profession ;
assisted his father in some agricultural
improvements, and himself invented a
machine for sowing rice, subsequently
adapting it to wheat-sowing. In 1850 he
invented a double-acting hemp-brake, and
in 1857 a steam plough; but his most cele-
brated invention was that of the revolving
gun, which bears his name, the conception
of which came to him in 1861. In 1S65 the
gun was improved and tested, and was
forthwith brought into use by the United
States service ; and several European
governments also adopted it. Among Dr.
Gatling's later inventions are an improved
method of casting steel cannon and a
pneumatic gun for discharging explosives.
Gatta, Bartolommeo della (d. 1491),
generally known as Don Bartolommeo
'Arezzo, Tuscan miniaturist and painter;
entered the order of Camaldoli, and became
abbot of the monastery of Arezzo ; worked
with Perugino in the Sistine Chapel at
Rome. His chief paintings are San Rocco
and San Girolamo at Arezzo: his miniatures
are perhaps lost, but some may possibly be
amongst those in the duomo of" Lucca.
Gatteaux, Nicolas Marie (b. 1751, d.
1832), French engraver of medals ; son of a
locksmith; apprenticed to a jewellery en-
graver ; was presented by a friend to the
director of the Monnaie des medailles, and
modelled in wax the £ at ties of Alexander
painted bjr Le Brun. In 1773 he engraved
the portrait of Louis XVI. ; in 1781 that oi
the Comte de Maurepas, in 1 785 d' Alembert.
His son, Jacques Edouard (6. 1788), was also
an engraver of repute.
Gatti, Bernardino (b. 1495, d. 1575),
Italian painter; pupil of Correggio; called
" il Sojaro " ; his chief pictures are the Loaves
and fishes at Cremona, and a Madonna at
Parma. His nephew, Gervasio Gatti (d.
1631), was a great imitator of Correggio.
Gattinara. [See Arborio.]
Gatty, Alfred (6. 1813), English writer and
divine ; wrote, with his wife- Margaret (nee
Scott), The Old Folks from Home, an account
of a tour in Ireland in 1861, and edited a
Life of Dr. Wolff, besides writing a Life of
Dr. Scott, which is out of print. After the
death of his wife (1873), Dr. Gatty, besides
several volumes of sermons, published A Key
to In Memoriam annotated by Lord Ten-
nyson. His daughter, Mrs. Ewing, wrote
tales for the young.
Gau, Francois Chretien (6. 1790, d. 1853),
French architect; made a tour on foot
through Egypt and Nubia to survey the
monuments, and published an account of
them in his Antiquites de la Nubie. He
also wrote a work on the ruins of Pompeii.
Gauden, John (b. 1605, d. 1662), English
Royalist theologian ; at first took the side of
the Parliament, and became chaplain to the
Earl of Warwick ; was named one of the
Westminster Assembly of Divines ; after-
wards opposed the trial and execution of
Charles I., and claimed the authorship of
Eikon Basilike. After the Restoration he
became successively Bishop of Exeter and
of Worcester.
Gaudentius, St. (d. 427), was appointed
Bishop of Brescia against his will ; in 405
went to Constantinople to intercede with
Arcadius on behalf of St. Chrysostom.
Gau.din, Marc Antoine (6. 1804, d. 1884),
French physician and chemist; invented a
pneumatic pump in 1827, and wrote many
works, among which are Deux Me moires sur
le Groupement des Atomes dans les Molecules,
printed in the Annales de Ch-imie et dc
Physique, and Traite pratique de Photo-
graphic (1844-45).
Gaudin, Martin Michel (b. 1757, d. 1844),
French financier; served under the Directory
and Napoleon I., and was created by the
latter Due de Gae'ta. After the restoration
of the Bourbons he was governor of the
Bank of France for fourteen years (1820-
34). He wrote several financial works,
among which the chief is Notice Historique
sur k s Finances de France depuis 1800 jusqu'ai
1<* Avril, 1814.
Gan
( 352
Gaw
Gauli. [See Baciccio.]
Gaultier, Garquille Hugues (b. 1574, d.
1634), French comedian, called Guerin ; said
to have been a baker's boy, and with two
of his comrades to have re-established
burlesque on the French stage. He wrote
Chansons, and prologues called Du Mensonge
and Du Galimatias.
Gauntlett, Henry John (b. 1806, d. 1876),
English musician ; organist in his father's
church at Olney at the age of nine; was
afterwards articled to a solicitor, and in
1831 began to practise in London in partner-
ship with his brother, being at the same
time organist at St Olave's, Southwark. He
brought about the adoption of the C organ ;
did much to spread the study of Handel,
Bach, Beethoven, and the great German
composers ; and was chosen by Mendelssohn
to play the organ part in the production of
the Elijah in 1846. In 1836 he became
organist at Christ Church, Newgate Street,
and held the same post afterwards at several
other churches, and from about 1842 gave
himself up wholly to music. He composed
and edited many psalm and hymn tunes,
and also lectured and wrote on music.
With Charles C. Child he published Hymnal
for Matins and Evensong (Gregorian) in
1844; with Rev. W. J". Blow The Church
Hymn and Tune Book (1844-51) ; with
Keans The Comprehensive Tune Book (1846-
47), etc.
Gauss, Karl Friedrich (b. 1777, d. 1855),
German mathematician and astronomer,
patronised by the Duke of Brunswick, who
defrayed the expenses of his education at
Brunswick and Gottmgen, where in 1801 he
produced Disquisitions* Arithmetical. In
1807 he became professor and director of the
observatory at Gottingen, and held the
position until his death. During this
period he brought out many works on pure
mathematics, astronomy, and other sciences,
amoug which the chief are Theoria Motus
Corporum Ccelestium, in Sectionibus conicis
Ambientium (1809), Recherches sur la Geodesic
tuperieure (1844-47), and invented the
Heliotrope.
Gauthey, Emilaud Marie (b. 1732, d.
1806), French engineer, constructed the
Canal du Centre (17S3-91), and wrote
Traitt sur la Construction des Ponts et des
Canaux.
Gauthier (d. 1097), Norman knight
called " Sans Avoir," went on the first
Crusade ; on his way from Constantinople to
Palestine was killed in an ambuscade laid
by the Sultan of Iconium.
Gautier, Theophile (b. 1811, d. 1872),
French poet and romance writer ; a leader
of the romantic school ; contributed to La
Presse, Revue des Deux J/ow&s, the Afonifeurt
and the Journal Oj/iciul. In 1858 he was
named an officer of the Legion of Honour ;
obtained a pension in 1»(>3, and in 1.SG8
became librarian to the Priucesse Mathilde.
He failed, however, in gaining admission to
the Academy, for which he was a candidate
in 1869. He was the author of Constanti-
nople, Voyage en Espayne, and Voyage en
Mussie, in which he described his travels;
Poesies (1830), La Coinedie de la Mort (1S38),
and several novels and plays, besides a
series of articles on the poets of the reign of
Louis XIIL, republished under the name of
Les Grotesque*, which he contributed to
La France Litteraire. edited partly by him-
self, and Trevors d'Art de la liussie written
in collaboration with Richebourg.
Gautier de Coutances (b. 1140, d. 1207),
Norman statesman, Bishop of Lincoln and
afterwards of Rouen ; sent by Henry IL as
ambassador to France ; invested Richard I.
with duchy of Normandy, and accompanied
him on the Crusade; went home as justi-
ciary ; took the side of Philip Augustus, and
helped him recover Normandy from John.
Gavarni, nom de plume of Sulpice Guillaum
Chevalier (6. 1801, d. 1866), French carica-
turist, who illustrated Eugene Sue's Juif
Errant, and Balzac's Liable a Paris.
Gavazzi, Alessaudro (b. 1809, d. 1889),
Italian preacher and reformer ; entered the
Baruabite order in 1825, and afterwards
became professor of rhetoric at Naples. He
took great part in the early reforming
schemes of Pio Nono, and "was chaplain-
general to the patriotic legion sent to Milan.
On the pope's becoming reactionary,
Gavazzi withdrew his allegiance from him,
and joined in the agitation which led to his
flight. Gavazzi afterwards came to Eng-
land, where his lectures against the papacy
were well received ; they were repeated in
the United States and Canada. He was
with Garibaldi in his expedition of 1860,
and in 1876 and following years undertook
another lecturing tour in England to pro-
vide funds for the Italian Free Church, of
which he was a founder.
Gayeston, Piers (d. 1312), Gascon fa-
vourite of Edward II., who, notwithstand-
ing his promise to his father, recalled him
to England, and loaded him with riches and
honours ; was twice banished through the
influence of the barons, to whom he had
made himself obnoxious, and was finally
seized and beheaded by the Earl of War-
wick.
Gawan, Khwaja Mahmud (b. 1403, d.
1481), Indian statesman, of Persian descent;
left his country and went to India, where he
entered the service of Alla-oo-deen Bah-
muny II., Nizam of Beeder; was prime
Gay
(353)
Ged
minister of Hoomayoon Shah, his successor,
aud regent duiiug the minority of Nizam
Shah and Mahmud Shah, sons of the latter.
He organised with great ability the revenues
of the country, built and endowed many
public institutions, and was a patron of
learned men, himself possessing many ac-
complishments. He was destroyed by the
intrigues of a rival minister, who obtained
his execution through the affixing of his
seal to a forged letter, which was afterwards
acknowledged as such by Mahmud Shah.
Gay, Claude de (b. 1795, d. 1873), French
botanist and traveller; explored South
America in 1828 and succeeding years;
Historiajiscia y politico, de Chile.
Gay, Delphine. [See Girardin.]
Gay, John (6. 1685, d. 1732), English poet;
at first an apprentice to a London silk-mercer;
in 1712 became secretary to the Duchess of
Monrnouth, and while in her service was
patronised by Swift and Pope, to the latter
of whom he dedicated a poem on Rural
Sports. In these years (1712-14) he also
wrote The Shepherd's Walk and Trivia.
His first efforts at dramatic writing were
not successful, but the Captives, produced in
1724, led to his being asked to write his
fables for the instruction of the young
Duke of Cumberland. His most successful
work was the Beggar's Opera, played at
Covent Garden in 1727. Polly, the sequel,
was prohibited by the Lord Chamberlain, but
was profitable to the author, who, however,
in vain tried to obtain the post of poet-
laureate.
Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis (b. 1778, d.
1850), French chemist and natural philo-
sopher; befriended by Berthollet; became
professor of chemistry at the Ecole Poly-
technique and of physics at the Sorbonne ;
made improvements in barometric, ther-
mometric, and hygrometric instruments ;
and by his balloon ascents of 1804, when he
ascended to the height of more than four
miles, ascertained valuable facts as, to the
electricity of the atmosphere, and the in-
fluence of terrestrial magnetism in the
upper air.
Gayangos y Arce, Pascual de (b. 1809),
Spanish Orientalist and historian, sent at an
early age to France, where he attended the
lectures of Baron de Sacy ; came to England,
married and returned to Spain, where he
was made interpreter to the foreign office.
On the outbreak of the Carlist war ha came
again to England, and lived in London till
1843, whence he returned to Spain, and was
appointed professor of oriental languages
at Madrid. In 1881 he became director of
public instruction, but soon after returned
to England. He classified the Spanish
MSS. at the British Museum; translated
into English the History of the Mohammedan
Dynasties, by Almakkari; and contributed
several papers to Spanish societies on the
history of Mohammedan Spain.
Gayot de Pitaval, Franqois (b. 1673, d.
1743), French jurist, author of Cause$
Celebres, published during the years 1734-43.
Gayton, Edmund (b. 1609, d. 1666),
English humorist ; author of Pleasant Xotes
on Dun Quixote (1645), and the Art of
Longevity (1659).
Gaza, Theodore (b. 1398, d. 1478), Byzan-
tine scholar and reviver of Greek literature ;
after the capture of Constantinople by the
Turks, went to Italy and studied Latin ;
was invited to Rome by Pope Nicholas V.,
in order to translate Greek authors into
Latin, having previously been patronised by
the Duke of Ferrara. His chief work was a
Greek grammar, praised by Scaliger ; it was
printed in 1495 by Aldus.
Gazet, Guillaume (b. 1554, d. 1611),
French ecclesiastical historian ; author of a
Histoire des tiaintes.
Geach, Charles (b. 1808, d. 1854), English
banker ; at first a clerk in the Bank of
England, afterwards chairman of the Mid-
land banking company ; entered Parliament
in 1851 ; was connected with many manu-
facturing establishments, and became a
managing director of the Crystal Palace
when transferred to Sydenham. He also
engaged largely in English and foreign
railway enterprise.
Getoelin. [See Court.]
Geber or Yeber (d. circa 675), Arabian
chemist, many of whose MSS. are in the
Bibliotheque imperiale at Paris.
Gebhard (b. 1547, d. 1611), Archbishop
and Elector of Cologne : having become a
Protestant and married Agnes de Mansf eld,
was excommunicated and deposed, and
came to England, where he had some help
from Queen Elizabeth.
Gebhardi, Johann Ludwig (b. 1699, d.
1764), German historian; author of Der
Europ&ischcn Kaiser und Kb'nigliclien Hailser
Historischen und Genealogische Erlaiiterung,
and other works.
Ged, William (d. 1749), Scottish goldsmith,
the real inventor of stereotype, the invention
being improved by M. F. Didot.
Gedaliah (d. 588 B.C.), Jewish prince;
made governor of Jerusalem by Nebu-
chadnezzar, and slain by Ishmael.
Geddes, Alexander (b. 1737, d. 1802),
I Romanist priest . undertook a translation of
j the Bible for the use of his co- religionists,
Ged
(354)
Gel
who, however, suspected his orthodoxy ;
afterwards wrote Critical Jistmirks on the
Hebrew Scriptures, in which he attacked the
character of Moses.
Geddes, James (b. 1710, d. 1749), Scottish
scholar, author of an Essay on the Compo-
sition of t lu . ///' , ilts.
Geddes, Michael (b. 1640, d. 1714), Scottish
ecclesiastical historian, chaplain of the Eng-
lish factory at Lisbon till silenced by the In-
quisition ; succeeded Burnett as chancellor of
Salisbury; author of History of the Church
of Malabar, and History of the Church of
.Ethiopia.
Geddes, William Duquiel (b. 1828), Scottish
classical scholar, born at Glass, Aberdeen;
became by competition rector of Aberdeen
grammar school in 1853, was elected in
1855 professor of Greek at Aberdeen uni-
versity, of which he became principal in
1885. Among his works are A Greek Gram-
mar (1855), Problem of the Homeric Poems
(1878), Flosculi Greed Borealis (1882), and
with Mr. P. Duquiel, a book on The Heraldic
Ceiling of Aberdeen Cathedral.
Gedike, Friedrich (b. 1745, d. 1803), Ger-
man scholar, author of Gedanken uber
Ptirismus und Sprachbereicherung, as well as
of many educational works and editions of
the classics.
Gedoyn, Nicolas, Abbe" de (b. 1667, d.
1744), French critic and friend of Ninon de
1'Enclos; translated Quintilian, Pausanias,
and other writers.
Geefs, Guillaume (b. 1806, d. 1860),
Belgian sculptor; maker of the national
monument in the Place des Martyrs,
Brussels, to the victims of the revolution of
1830 ; exhibited in the exhibition of 1851
Group of Sleeping Children, and the Lion in
Love, also carved some of the woodwork in
Liege cathedral.
Gear, Karl, Baron von (b. 1720, d. 1778),
Swedish naturalist ; left a valuable natural
history collection to the Stockholm Academy
of Science, and wrote Memoirespour servir d
PHistoire des Insectes.
Geffrard, Fabre (b. 1806, d. 1867), Haytian
general; deposed the emperor, Faustm I.
(Soulouque), and became president of the
Haytian republic in 1858; suppressed
several revolts of Salnave, but was deposed
and banished by him in 1867, when he fled
to Jamaica and died there.
Gehler, Adolf Ferdinand (b. 1775, d.
1815), German mineralogist and chemist,
edited Neues Journal fur Chimie, founded
Repertorium der Pharmacie.
Gehler, Johann Hart (b. 1732, d. 1796),
German naturalist and physician ; author of
De Characteribus Fossilium Exterms.
Gehler, Johaun Samuel (b. 1751, d. 1795),
German physicist ; author of Physikalisches
Worterbmh (1787-95).
Geijer, Erik Gustav (6. 1783, d. 1847),
Swedish historian and poet ; visited England
in 1809 ; professor of history at Dpsala in
1817; sat twice in the diet; declined a
bishopric ; wrote A Complete Jh^tory of
Sweden (Scenxka Folkets Historid), The
Viking, as well as songs for Jenny Lind,
whose friendship he enjoyed.
Geikie, Archibald (b. 1835), Scotch geolo-
gist ; born in Edinburgh, and educated at
the High School and university ; fellow of
the Royal Societies both of London and
Edinburgh, and of many foreign academies,
was appointed in 1855 to the Geological
Survey, and became in 1807 director- general
of the Geological Survey of the United
Kingdom; was in 1870 first holder of the
Murchison professorship of geology and
mineralogy in Edinburgh University, and
received the degree of LL.D. from the
latter in 1885, and from St. Andrews in
1872. Among his works, besides contribu-
tions to geological periodicals, are the follow-
ing:—^ Story of a Boulder (1858), The
Phenomena of the Glacial Drift of Scotland
(1863), A Student's Manual of Geology, in
conjunction with J. B. Jukes (1871),
Memoir of Sir Rod. Murchison, with Notices
of his Scientific Contemporaries, etc. (1874),
Class-book of Physical Geography (1877), A
Text-book of Geology (1882), A Class-book
of Geology (1886), as well as two volumes in
the Science Primers, and (in conjunction
with Dr. G. Wilson) Life of Professor
Edward Forbes (1861).
Geikie, James (b. 1839), Scotch geologist,
brother of preceding, F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
etc., joined the Geological Survey in 1861,
and became district surveyor, which post he
resigned on his appointment in succession to
his brother as professor of geology at Edin-
burgh. In 1876 he accompanied Sir A.
Ramsay to Gibraltar to report on the water-
supply of that place. He was one of the
founders of the Scottish Geographical
Society, and was elected in 1890 president of
the Geographical Society. His chief works
are The Great Ice Age and its Relation to
the Antiquity of Man (1874), Prehistoric
Europe (1881), Outlines of Geology (1886),
Songs and Lyrics of Heine and other Ger-
man Poets (1887).
Gelasius I. (d. 492), Pope, elected 492; is
said to have held a council at Rome to
decide what books were canonical.
Gelasius II. (b. 1050, d. 1119), Pope; was
opposed by the Emperor Henry V., who set
Gel
(355)
Gen
up Burdin as Gregory VIII., and compelled
him to fly to Ciugny, where he died. He
wrote a life of Erasmus and six epistles.
Geldenhaur, Gerard (b. 1480, d. 1542),
" Gerard of Nimeguen ; " Dutch theologian ;
sent by Maximilian of Burgundy to Witten-
berg ; became a Protestant, and thereby lost
the friendship of Erasmus.
Gelder, Arnold van (b. 1645, d. 1727),
Dutch painter of the school of Rembrandt,
whose pupil he was. His best picture, King
Solomon on his Throne surrounded by hia
Court, is at Dort.
Gele"e, Claude [See Lorraine.]
Gelimer,last king of the Vandals (flourished
6th century) ; conquered by Belisarius, and
came to Rome ; was given by Justinian a
home in Galatia, where he died.
Gell, Sir William (6. 1777, d. 1836),
English archaeologist ; accompanied Queen
Caroline to Italy as her chamberlain, and
settled there ; gave an account of his dis-
coveries in Pompeiana, Topographia Tro-
jana, and Topographia Graeca.
Gellert, Christian Furchtegott (i. 1715, d.
1769), German poet; author of Fables, Die
Schivedische Grafin, and Lieder. His brother
Christian Ehregott (d. 1795) wrote a book
on the Principle* of Metallurgical Chemis-
try.
Gelli, Giovanni Battista (b. 1498, d. 1563),
Italian writer ; son of a tailor, which occu-
pation he himself pursued; gave a course
of lectures explanatory of the Divina Corn-
media at Florence, whose academy he
founded, and became first president of.
His best works were / Capricci del Bottaja,
and La Circe.
Gellibrand, Henry (b. 1597, d. 1636),
English clergyman ; devoted his time rather
to mathematics than to his profession ;
became professor of astronomy in Gresham
college, and continued Briggs's Trigono-
metria Britannica.
Gellius, Aulus, Latin author of the 2nd
century ; wrote Nodes Attica, composed at
Athens, and containing fragments of many
works now lost.
Gelon or Gelo (d. 478 B.C.), tyrant of
Syracuse; served in the guard of Hippo-
crates of Gela, whose children he dis-
possessed, and seized power for himself;
repulsed Carthaginian invasion of Sicily.
Gemelli-Carreri (b. 1651), Italian travel-
ler ; made a voyage round the world, which
he described on his return in Giro del
Mondo.
Geminiani, Francesco (b. 1680, d. 1762),
violinist and composer, pupil of Corelli;
came to England in 1714, aiid settled there,
receiving the patronage of George I. and of
Walpole, who saved him. from ruin caused
by liis extravagance in buying pictures;
author of Dizio-nario Armonico, and Art of
Playing on the Violin (1740), the latter being
the first work ever published on the subject,
besides several sonatas and concertos. He
died at Dublin.
Geminiani, Giacinto or Gemignanp (b.
1611, d. 1681), Italian painter, pupil of
Poussin ; painted some of the sub j ects from
the life of Constantino in the baptistery of
St. John Lateran.
Gemistius, Georgius, called "Pletho"
(b. 1390, d. 1491), Byzantine writer ; de-
fended the Greek Church against the Latin,
and attended the council of Florence in
order tt reconcile them; founded a Pla-
tonic school at Florence, and wrote many
works, of which De Gestis Grcecorum (in
Greek) is the chief.
Gemma, Frisius (b. 1508, d. 1555), Dutch
mathematician ; favourite of Charles V. ;
wrote Methodus Arithmetics (1540).
Gempak, Sougita, Japanese physician of
the 18th century; learnt Dutch, and in-
troduced many European discoveries in
China and Japan.
Gence, Jean Baptiste (b. 1755, d. 1840),
French scholar ; edited The Imitatio Christt,
of which he maintained that Gerson and
not a Kempis was the author. He devoted
thirty years to his researches on the sub-
ject.
Genebrard, Gilbert (b. 1537, d. 1597),
French divine ; Archbishop of Aix ; author
of De Sacrarum Electionum Jure, for which
he was banished — the object of the book
having been to support appointment of
bishops by clergy and people and not by
royal nomination.
Genest, Charles Claude (b. 1639, d. 1719),
French verse- writer ; made a poet by fashion
rather than merit; author of Principes de
Philosophic.
Genet, Fran?ois (b. 1640, d. 1707), French
divine; Bishop of Vaison; incurred royal
displeasure by befriending the Jansenists;
drowned while crossing a torrent. He
wrote Theologie Morale, ou Solution des Cos
de Conscience.
G^nevieve, St. (d. 512), patron saint of
Paris ; said to have predicted the invasion of
the barbarians ; encouraged the people to
resist Attila. In 1352 the first church waa
dedicated to her in Paris.
Genga, Girolamo (b. 1476, d. 1551), Italian
Gen
(356)
Gen
painter and architect ; pupil of Perugino ;
painted scenery for the theatre of Urbino,
and did much work at Rome and Florence,
at which latter place there is an altar-piece
by him in St. Catherine's Church. His son,
Bartolomeo (d. 1558), completed some of hia
works, and designed fortifications for the
knights of St. John at Malta.
Gengis Khan (b. 1162, d. 1227), Emperor of
the Mongols, whose real name was Ternout-
chin, the title meaning "the chief of the
most powerful." Having consolidated the
Tatar tribes, he marched against the
Emperor of China, whose general he was,
overran his empire (1212-1214), ravaged
northern India, which he temporarily sub-
dued, and penetrated into Russia through
Persia. Having reached the Crimea,
sacked numerous towns, and slaughtered
millions of men, the Tatars returned and
Gengis died.
Genlis, Stephanie Felicit^, Comtesse de,
(b. 1746, d. 1830), French writer; daughter
of the Marquis de St. Aubin ; married
Comte de Genlis when very young ; edu-
cated herself after marriage, and taught
the children of the Due de Chartres,
including Louis Philippe, writing mean-
while several educational works. In 1790
she accompanied the Princess Adelaide to
England, and afterwards went with her
royal pupils to Switzerland. She dissuaded
Louis Philippe from accepting the crown,
thinking him unfit for the throne. In 1800,
after travelling through Europe and being
expelled from Russia, she returned to
France, and was well received by Napoleon,
but never gained the favour of Louis XVIII.
Her ^ chief works were La Religion Con"
sidere comme V Unique Ease de Bonheur, a
book ridiculed by Buffon, Les Meres Rirales,
Mademoiselle de Clermont, and Dictionnaire
des Etiquettes de la Cour, and other
romances.
Gennadius, Georgius Scholarius (b. 1400,
d. 1460), Patriarch of Constantinople ; as a
layman accompanied the Emperor John
Palteologus to the Council of Ferrara, and
delivered three orations in favour of union
of the Eastern and Western churches, but
afterwards advocated the contrary views.
He was elected patriarch after the capture
of Constantinople, by the express wish of the
sultan, and delivered before him an apology
for the Christian faith. He retired from
the patriarchate two or three years before
his death. He is not to be confounded with
Gennadius, another Patriarch of Constanti-
nople, who died in 471.
Gennari, Benedetto "the Elder" (b.
1550, d. 1610), Italian painter; thought the
best of his time ; his finest picture is Baptdme
d'toi Rui par St. Amien, in the church of
San Giovanni, Bologna,
Gennari, Benedetto, "the Yoxmger" (b.
1633, d. 1715), Italian painter; grandson of
the preceding, and, bike him, a native of
Bologna, nephew and pupil of Guerciuo,
whose style he followed ; was employed in
Paris by Louis XTV., and in London by
Charles II. and James II. TTis pictures
were chiefly portraits, and he introduced
the Flemish style into Italy.
Gennari, Cesare (b. 1641, d. 1688),
Bolognese painter ; brother of preceding ;
excelled chiefly in landscape and historical
painting. The father of Cesare and his
brother Ercole (d. 1658) was also a painter,
and married Guercino's sister.
Gennaro, Giuseppe (b. 1701, d. 1761),
Italian jurist ; was educated by the Jesuitg,
and wrote Republica Juris Consultorum, tak-
ing part also in many legal reforms at
Naples.
Gennete, Claude Leopold (b. 1706, d.
1782), French physicist, author of Construc-
tion des Cheminees, and Purification de I Air.
Genovesi, Antonio (b. 1712, d. 1769),
Italian philosopher; professor of meta-
physics and political economy at Naples;
persecuted for his adherence to the doctrines
of Newton, but protected by Archbishop
GaUiani. His chief work is Elementorum
Artis Logico-Criticce.
Genseric, (b. 406, d. 477), King of the
Vandals, reigned at first with his brother
Gonderic, afterwards alone, and greatly
strengthened the Vandal power in Spain.
In 429 he invaded northern Africa, stamped
out Christianity, and from his new capital,
Carthage, made incursions on the inhabitants
of Italy and Sicily. In 455, being invited to
Rome by the widow of Valentinian to take
part against liis murderer Maximus, he caused
the city to be sacked for fourteen days, and
carried away among his prisoners the
Empress Fudocia and her sons, besides
much treasure. Genseric professed to be an
Arian Christian.
Gensonn6, Armand (b. 1758, d. 1793),
French politician ; one of the chief leaders of
the Girondists ; tried to save Louis XVI.,
opposed the excesses of the Ja,cobins, but
was overcome by them, and guillotined in
the October following the fatal 10th
August.
Gen-sy6-ten--w6 (b. 679, d. 748), Empress
of Japan ; encouraged the study of ancient
Chinese, and formed a collection of laws,
abdicated after a reign of nine years, during
which appeared Nippon-Kit the history of
Japan from the Creation.
Gent, Thomas (b. 1691, d. 1778), English
antiquary ; author of a History of York, a
Hwtory of Hull, and an Autobiography.
Gen
(357)
Geo
Gentil, Jean Baptiste (b. 1726, d. 1799),
French officer, who served against the
English in India, and when the French
were driven from the Carnatic assisted the
native princes against them. Being obliged
to leave India, he returned to France, where
he died miserably, having lost his pension.
He wrote several works on India.
Gentilesohi. [See Lomi.]
Gentili, Gentile (d. 1348), Italian phy-
sician ; known as " the Speculator ; " author
of De Febribus.
Gentilis, Albericus (b. 1551, d. 1611),
Italian j urist ; came to England, and, being a
Protestant, was made professor of civil law
at Oxford in 1587 ; wrote De Juris Inter-
pretibus Diahgi. His brother, Scipione (d.
1616), published Annotations on Tasso, and
his son, Eoberto (b. 1590), translated Sarpi's
History of the Inquisition.
Gentilis, Giovanni (b. 1520, d. 1566), Nea-
politan heretic ; became a Socinian, and went
to Geneva, where he was beheaded for hav-
ing attacked the doctrine of the Trinity and
having left the city without leave.
Gentleman, Francis (b. 1728, d. 1784),
Irish dramatic writer, published the Dra-
matic Censor, wrote Royal Fables, and ap-
peared as an actor.
Gentz, Friedrich von (b. 1764, d. 1832),
German publicist ; drew up the manifesto
issued by Austria against Napoleon, and was
author of several documents of a similar
nature ; was previously a short time in Eng-
land, where he saw Pitt. At the Congress
of Vienna he acted as secretary, as also at
Paris in 1815, and at those which followed
the restoration. He wrote a Life of Mary
Queen of Scots, and several articles for the
Journal Historique. A selection from his
works was published in 1838.
Geoffrey, Marie Therese (b. 1699, d. 1777),
French lady of humble birth, who, having
married a rich man, was able to receive in
her salon the most distinguished French-
men and foreigners of her timp, including
the Encyclopaedists, Hume, Horace Walpole,
etc.
Geoffrey I. (d. 987), Count of Anjou; a
great warrior and legendary hero (" Grise
Gonelle").
Geoffrey H., "Martel" (b. 1007, d. 1060),
succeeded Fulk III. ; received Tours from
Henri I. of France as a reward for his ser-
vices ; founded the Abbey of Trinite* de
Vendome and became a monk, to whose
tomb annual processions were made by the
canons of St. Laud.
Geoffrey III., "Le Rechin" (b. 1043, d.
1109), nephew of the last; dispossessed his
elder brother of Touraine.
Geoffrey IV., " Plantagenet " (b. 1113, d.
1150), married Matilda, daughter of Henry I.
of England, and widow of the Emperor
Henry V., and founder of the Plautagenet
line. In 1147 he followed Louis VII. on a
crusade, and died soon after his return. Pre-
viously he had been chiefly engaged in try-
ing to get possession of Normandy, an
object which he attained after the capture
of Stephen at Lincoln.
Geoffrey I. (d. 1008), son of Conan, Count
of Rennes ; became first Duke of Brittany.
Geoffrey II. (b. 1158, d. 1186), Duke of
Brittany ; third son of Henry II. of England ;
obtained title by marriage with daughter
of Conan IV. ; allied himself with Philip
Augustus against his father on several occa-
sions; was killed through injuries received
at a tournament. His son, Arthur, was
born after his death.
Geoffrey Gaimar, Anglo-Norman poet of
the 12th century; author of L'Esoterie dea
Engles.
Geoffrey of Monmouth (b. circa 1100, d.
1154), British chronicler, Bishop of St.
Asaph ; translated the prophecies of Merlin,
and wrote Historia Britonwn, in which
the former were inserted.
Geoffrey of Vendome (d. 1132), French
statesman and cardinal; friend of Popes
Urban II. and Paschal II., the latter of
whom he rebuked for yielding to the Em-
peror Henry V. on the Investiture question.
His works were printed in 1610.
Geoffroy, Claude Joseph (b. 1685, d. 1752),
French chemist ; made many experiments,
and drew up the first table of chemical
affinities.
Geoffroy, ^tienne Fra^ois, "the Elder"
(b. 1672, d. 1731), brother of preceding,
French physician, whose chief work, Traite
de la Matiere Medicale, was translated into
English, German, and Italian.
Geoffroy, E"tienne Louis (I. 1725, d. 1810),
French zoologist; son of preceding; wrote
two important works, Histoire Abregee des
Insectes des Environs de Paris, and Disserta-
tions snr T Organe de V Oiiie de VHomme, de*
Reptiles, et des Poissons.
Geoffroy, Julien Louis (6. 1743, d. 1814),
French critic ; educated as a Jesuit ; on tbe
dissolution of the order became a tutor, and
afterwards a journalist, contributing^ dra-
matic articles to the Journal dfs Debate;
also published L"1 Ami du Roi and L^Anttt-e
Litteraire.
Geoffroy de Vinsant, English writer of
Geo
( 358)
Geo
Latin poems, of the 12th century; author of
Nora roetria.
Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, fitienne (b. 1772, d.
1814), French naturalist ; rescued his friend,
the mineralogist, Abbe" Haiiy, from prison
in 17'.'2; was appointed to the chair of
zoology in the Jardin des Plantes in 1793,
where he made acquaintance with Cuvier,
and brought together a large collection ;
accompanied Bouuparte to Egypt, and
placed in the Parn museum the results of
the expedition ; made collections from Spain
and Portugal by plunder of museums and
libraries. Having afterwards become pro-
fessor of zoology to the Faculte des Sciences,
he gave his attention to philosophic ana-
tomy, and earned on a controversy with
Cuvier, who denied his doctrine of the
mutability of species. In 1840 Saint Hilaire
became blind. His chief works are Phi-
losnpliie Anatomique (1818-20) and Sur
V Unite de Composition Organique (1828),
Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, Isidore (b. 1805,
d. 1861), French naturalist; son of Etienne;
was at first assistant to his father, and after-
wards succeeded him, as professor at the
Sorboune and the Musee. He took the place
of Blainville at the Academic des Sciences,
and was active in the foundation of the
Societe d'Acclimatation. His chief works
are Histoire Naturelle Generate et Particu-
litre des Anomalies de V 'Organisation, and
Histoire Naturelle Generale des RZgnes Or-
ganiques.
George, Duke of Clarence. {See Cla-
rence.]
George, Duke of York. [See York.]
George, Henry (6. 1839), American land
reformer; was born at Philadelphia, and,
after being successively in a counting-house
and a printer's office and at sea, settled in
California, and in 1866 joined the staff of a
San Francisco paper. He afterwards be-
came editor of two papers there, and made
his first essay on the land question in Our
Land and Land Policy, published in 1871.
In 1876 he was state-inspector of gas-
meters, but in 1880 removed to New York,
and the next year came to Ireland on his
way to England. He was there arrested as
a "suspect" under Mr. Forster's Act, but
was soon released. Progress and Poverty
had been written in 1879, and its author
undertook lecturing tours in 1883 and 1889
in support of his principles. Beside this
book he published The Irish Land Question
in 1881, Social Problems in 1884, and Pro-
tection and Free Trade in 1886, when he was
a candidate for the ma}roralty of New
York.
George, Prince of Denmark (b. 1653, d.
1708), married Princess Anne of England,
and was appointed on her accession lord
high admiral; was a person of no political
or other importance.
George, St., of Cappadocia, Arian
Putriarch of Alexandria in 356 when
St. Athauasius was expelled; a bitter per-
secutor of the orthodox, was murdered
by a pagan mob in the reign of Julian for
desecrating a temple of the sun. Some
have identified him with St. George of
England.
George, St. (Jl. circa 300), patron saint
of England; served as a soldier under Dio-
cletian, but having complained to him of
the persecution of the Christians, was im-
prisoned in Nicomedia, tortured, and be-
headed. He was canonised by Pope Gela-
sius in 494 ; and is supposed to have been a
native of Lydda, where a church was built
over his relics.
George Syncellus (Jl. 9th century), wrote
a chronicle from Adam to Diocletian.
George of Cyprus (d. 1290), ^
when a layman by Andronicus Palaeologus
to the see of Constantinople. The Arme-
nians at first refused to recognise him, but
afterwards submitted.
George of Trebizond (b. 1396, d. 148-5),
Greek scholar ; came to Rome as a teacher
in 1435, and was made secretary to Nicolas
V. some years later ; translated many of the
classics, and did much towards the revival
of letters.
George the Pisidian, oriental historian,
of the 7th century ; wrote a history of the
expedition of Heraclius against the Persians
in 622 ; also a poem, Hexameron.
George I. (6. 1660, d. 1727), King of Eng-
land ; became, in accordance with the Act of
Settlement, first of the Hanoverian kings,
having succeeded to the electorate of Han-
over in 1698 ; came to England on the
death of Anne in 1715, but passed most of
his time in Hanover; quarrelled with his
wife and his eldest son, but did not inter-
fere with the conduct of English affairs;
died on his way to Hanover.
George II. (b. 1683, d. 1760), King of Eng-
land, son of the last named; married Caroline
of Anspachin 1705, and headed opposition to
his father; succeeded to the throue in 1727 ;
quarrelled with his son Frederick, and
banished him from the palace ; adopted a
warlike foreign policy, and was present at
the battle of Dettingen (1743), but left the
control of home affairs in the hands of Queen
Caroline and "Walpole. His last years were
illuminated by the successes of Pitt's first
administration.
George in. (b. 1738, d. 1820), King of
Geo
( 359)
Ger
England, son of Frederick, Prince of Wales,
who died in 17ol; took an active part
in affairs until incapacitated by illness.
Having ascended the throne in 1760, he
married Charlotte of Mecklenburg- Stre-
litz ; obtained the resiguatiou of Pitt
and Newcastle, and appointed Lord Bute,
who had been his governor, minister,
but was again for a time obli. 1 to
submit to the Whigs ; was strongly in
favour of the prosecution of Wilkes, and
against any concessions to the American
colonies ; obtained a minister to carry out
bis wishes in Lord North, who held office
from 1770 to 1783; by unconstitutional in-
fluence obtained the overthrow of the coali-
tion ministry, but submitted almost entirely
to the influence of the younger Pitt, until
he proposed a measure for the relief of the
Roman Catholics. In 1772 he obtained the
passing of a stringent Act regulating mar-
riages in the royal family. In 1786 his life
was attempted by Margaret Nicholson, and
in 1788 his first illness withdrew him from
affairs for several months. In 1800 his life
was again attempted, and from the year
1810, when he again became insane, his
reign was practically at an end. Although
not a man of education, he became patron
of the Royal Academy when it was founded
in 1786, and of the Royal Institution in
1799. He was very painstaking in business,
but narrow in his views, and not invariably
scrupulous as to the methods by which he
got rid of ministers who refused to act as
his clerks.
George IV. (b. 1762, d. 1830), son of
George III.; was appointed regent in 1810,
and succeeded to the throne in 1820; had
previously been on bad terms with his father
on account of his alliance with the Whigs
and the extravagance and immorality of his
private life, having illegally married Mrs.
Fitzherbert, and twice had his debts paid by
the nation. In 1795 he married Caroline
of Brunswick, but separated from her
the next year, and on his accession refused
to allow her to be crowned, and brought a
charge of adultery against her. In 1821 he
visited Ireland and Hanover, and in the
next year Scotland. In 1829 he gave a re-
luctant consent to the Roman Catholic Re-
lief Bill, to which he was really almost as
much opposed as his father had been.
George V. (*. 1819, d. 1878), last king of
Hanover, the blind son of Ernest Augustus,
whom he succeeded in 1851 ; was actively
opposed to constitutional government, and
obtained the abrogation of the constitution
of 1848. Having hesitated for some years
between Austria and Prussia, he at length
determined to join the former, and his terri-
tory was invaded by the Prussians and an-
nexed in 1866. His last years were chiefly
spent at Paris.
George I., of Greece (fe. 1843), a Danish
prince, brother of the Princess of Wales;
was induced by Earl Russell to become
king of the Hellenes in 1863 ; at the same
time the Ionian Islands were restored, and
a new constitution of the most liberal kind
was promulgated, but has not worked very
well. The king has had great difficulty in
restraining his subjects from attacks on the
Turks to recover from them their own
ancient possessions, and if it had not been
for the cession of part of Macedonia and
Epirus in 1880 he might have been obliged
to abdicate.
George I., Grand Duke of Russia (b.
1100, d. 1156), "Dolgorouki," son of
Wladimir Monamaque ; fought with his bro-
thers for their portion of his father's in-
heritance; made roads across the steppes,
and is said to have laid the foundations of
Moscow.
George II. (6. 1190, d. 1238) was defeated
and killed in an invasion of the Tatars, who
took Moscow.
George III. (d. 1328) reigned under the
suzerainty of the Tatars ; was killed by
Dmitri in revenge for his father's murder.
Georgel, Jean Francois (b. 1731, d. 1813),
French diplomatist; celebrated for his de-
fence of his patron, Cardinal Rohan, in the
trial of the diamond necklace affair (1785-6) ;
afterwards settled at Fribourg, and wrote
Memoires, which were published in 1817.
Georget, Jean Etienne (6. 1795, d. 1828),
French physician ; author of I)e Id Folie
(1820), and Physiologic du Systeme Nerveux
(1821).
Geraldini, Alessandro (b. 1455, d. 1525),
cupbearer to Isabella of Castile; became
tutor to her daughters, and used his influ-
ence in favour of Columbus. He also went
on a mission to England to reconcile Henry
VIII. and Catherine, his former pupil. He
died as Bishop of Hispaniola in his diocese.
Geramb, Ferdinand, Baron de (6. 1772, d.
1848), French ad ven hirer ; served in several
foreign armies; became a Trappist in 1812,
and in 1831 went on a pilgrimage to Jeru-
salem. He wrote Aspirations aux Plaies d«
Notre Seigneur and Voyage de la Trappe d
Rome.
Gerard. [See Grandville.]
Gerard, Alexander (b. 1728, d. 1795),
Scotch writer ; friend of Beattie and Reid;
author of Geniu-f and Taste.
Gerard, Balthasar (b. 1558, d. ^1684),
Jesuit fanatic, who assassinated William of
Orange at Delft, and was executed with
horrible tortures. His family was ennobled
G6r
( 3GO)
Ger
by Philip II., and he is enrolled am<>nj
Roman i>t n.
Gerard, I'ti'-une Maurice, Comte (h. 1773,
d. ISO'J), French soUi. r and marshal <>f
France, i with distinction in Napo-
leon's campaigns, having ;lrst conic into
notice by his couduct aa aide-de-camp to
Berna lot re in ! ute against the French
ambassador in 17;!S: was made baron for
his s<.Tvic"> at Wagram : commanded the
rear-guard in the retreat from Moscow ; was
ma le count alter the battle of Bautzen, and
was prominent in the campaign of 1814.
Gvrard was not dismissed by Louis XVIII.,
but joined Xapoleou on his escape, and was
present at Waterloo. He then lived at
Brussels till 1817; on his return to France
he entered the Chamber as a member of the
Opposition, and \vasprominentiu the revo-
lution of 1830 ; Louis Philippe made him
war-minister, and at the same time mare"
c/f'l d>' France. After commanding at the
siege of Antwerp in 1832, he became war
minister again in 1834, but soon resigned.
In 1842 he became 'jraud chancellor of the
Legion of Honour, and a senator in 1852, but
took little part in public affairs after 1848.
Gerard, Francois Pascal (b. 1770, d. 1837),
Fr -uch painter ; painted about three hundred
portraits, including the Duke of Wellington
and the other allied leaders who were at
Paris after Waterloo, as well as several
royal personages, but his most celebrated
pictures are La Bataille d'Ansterlitz in the
Tuileries, and Entree de Henri IV. d Paris,
executed for Louis XVIII.
Gerard, Jules (b. 1817, d. 1864), French
soldier, known as "the Lion Killer," be-
cause he went to the province of Constan-
tine to kill lions. He wrote an account of
his exploits.
Ge'rard, Louis (b. 1733, d. 1819), French
botanist, author of Flora Cfallo-Provincialis.
Gerard, Philippe Louia (b. 1737, d. 1813),
French writer, author of Theorie du Bon-
heur and Lefons d'Histoire.
Ge'rard Thorn, Tenque, or Tune (b. 1040,
d. 1121), founder and first grand master of
the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, after-
wards known as Knights of Rhodes and of
Malta.
Gerard de Cremona (b. 1114, d. 1187),
Italian translator of Arab writers ; trans-
lated into Latin Rasis, Avicenua and Al-
mansor.
Gerard de NervaL [See Labrunie.]
Gerard of Sabbionetta, probably the same
as Gerard of Cremona.
Gerarde, John (b. 1545, d, 1607), English
botanist: gardener to Lord Burghh y ; also
a surgeon in London, and wrote
a 11' i •''"'/, '//• (Ji-in i <ti /IiAtury <>j i'iants.
^Geraud, Pierre Hercule (b. 1S12, d. 1S44),
Fruncii arch.-i-oiogist ; author of Parit M//<.»
J'/ii',n[if U' Jicl, for which he received a
medal from the Acadi-mie de i • Lettres.
He was also employed in collecting unj'ul>-
lislud documents about the Albi.
published an account of the discoveries of
a society for the exploration of the ruins of
Carthage.
Gerbais, Jean (b. 1629, d. 1699), French
theologian; author of Ordinationei Uniterm
(Jlcn Gallicum.
Gerber, Ernst Ludwig (6. 1746, d. 1819),
German organist and musical writer, wrote
-A< uesHistorisch-Biographische* Lexicon der
Tonkunstler, upon which he was engaged for
fifteen years.
Gerberon, Gabriel (b. 1628, d. 1711),
French Bendictine ; was imprisoned for
upholding the doctrines of Jansenius, but
released after a verbal retractation in 1710.
Gerbert. [See Sylvester II.]
Gercert, Martin, Baron de Homan (b.
172'), d. 1793), German prelate, published a
collection of MSS. of church music in
Italian, French, and German, under the title
of Scriptures Ecclesiastici de Musicd Sacra,
as well as a work called I)e Cantu et Musicd
Sacrd a Primd Ecclesice *£tate usque ad
prcese?is Tempus.
Gerbier, Sir Balthasar (b. 1592, d. 1667),
Flemish painter and architect ; introduced
by Buckingham to Charles I., who employed
him diplomatically in Flanders, where he
met and treated with Rubens. After going
to Surinam in order to found a new colony,
he was obliged to return to Europe, and,
settling in England, was employed under
Charles II. aa an architect.
Gerbillon, Jean Francois (b. 1634, d.
170"), Jesuit missionary : obtained the fa-
vour of the emperor of China, and assisted
Gaubil in his efforts to teach Christianity.
Gerdil, Giacinto (b. 1718, d. 1802), Roman
cardinal and philosophical writer : author of
A Treatise on the Immateriality of the Soul,
and of the Nature and Origin of Ideas, both
of which were directed against Locke.
Gerhardt, Karl Friedrich (b. 1816, d.
18o6), German chemist: some time professor
at Montpellier, having studied under Liebig;
returned to Paris, and wrote Traite de
Chimie Organique.
Gerhardt, Paul (b. 1607, d. 1676), German
theological poet, his works being embodied
in Die Ges&nge Paul Gerhardts, some of
(361)
Ger
which have been translated in the Lyra
German ica of Miss Wiiikworth.
Gericault, Jean Louis (b. 1790, d. 1824),
French painter, his chief picture being The
Shipwreck of the Medusa in the Louvre.
Gering, Udalricus (d. 1510), German prin-
ter, invited by Louis XI. in 1470 to set up a
press in Paris at the Sorbonne, to whom he
left considerable property ; printed Corpus
Juris Canonici.
Gerle, Christophe Antoine Dom Gerle (b.
1748j d. circa 1803), French ecclesiastic;
prominent in the revolution ; member of the
States-General in 1789, and a leader in the
" serment du jeti de Paume," afterwards
notorious as a supporter of Catherine Theot ;
was employed under the Empire as a clerk
in the ministry of the interior.
Germain, Antoine-Henri Marie (b. 1824),
French politician and financier ; aided in
founding and became chairman of the Credit
Lyonnais ; entered the Chamber in 1869. and
was again elected in 1871. As member of
the National Assembly he acted with the
" left centre," made several important
speeches on the budgets, and opposed the
later financial policy of the republic.
Germain, Charles Antoine (d. 1835), French
politician and historian : was arrested as a
partisan of Gracchus Babceuf in 1796, and
condemned to exile ; published after his
return I 'antes Civiles de la France.
Germain, St. (b. 496, d. 576), Bishop of
Paris : attended the tliird council there ;
excommunicated Charibert for incest.
Germain, Sophie (b. 1776, d. 1831), French
mathematician ; pupil of Lagrange and
correspondent of Gauss ; in 1815 gained the
prize given by the Institute for the discovery
of the law of vibration of elastic surfaces.
Germaine, Lord George. [See Sack-
ville.]
Gennanicus, Csesar (b. B.C. 16, d. A.D. 19),
Roman general ; grandson of Augustus ;
refused to accept the empire from his
soldiers ; commanded the troops of the
empire in Germany, and defeated Hermann ;
afterwards had an imperium in the East;
probably poisoned by his uncle, the Emperor
Tiberius, who was jealous of his fame.
Germanus (b. 380, d. 448), Bishop of
Auxerre ; was sent by Pope Celestine to
suppress the Pelagian heresy in Britain,
where he established schools.
Germanus, "the Patrician" (d. 550),
Byzantine general ; defeated the Slavonic
invaders of Thrace, and put down Tzotzas
in Africa ; was disgraced because of the cap-
ture of Antioch by Chosroes, King of Persia,
against whom he held the command; died
ten years after on his way to Europe,
whither he had been summoned to repel the
Gothic invasion of Italy.
Germanus I., Patriarch of Constantinople
(d. 7-10), took part in the elevation of Leo
the Isaurian to the Eastern empire, but sub-
sequently disagreed with his iconoclastic
opinions, and was deposed ; was canonised
by both Latin and Greek churches after his
death.
Germanus H., "the Younger" (d. 1255),
elected patriarch, but obliged to live at
Nice, in Bithynia, because Constantinople
was in the hands of the Latins. He en-
deavoured to re-unite the churches, but
failed, and afterwards wrote a tract against
the Latins. He also wrote an Exposition of
the Greek Liturgy.
Germanus III., elected patriarch in 1267
by the influence of Michael Palaeologus, but
soon retired into a monastery; attended
the council of Lyons in 1277, when a tem-
porary reunion of the Greek and Latin
churches was agreed upon.
Ge'rome, Jean Leon (b. 1824), French
painter ; niembre de TAcadtmie des Beaux-
Arts, and honorary B.A. ; born at Yescul,
where his early years v. ere spent : went to
Paris in 1841, and studied under Paul Dela-
roche at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. After
a journey to Italy in company with his
master, he returned to France, and exhibited
for the first time in the Salon of 1857, alter
which he visited Turkey and Egypt in pur-
suit of subjects for his paintings. In 1863 he
was appointed professor in the Ecole des
Beaux-Ails ; in 1S69 he received the order
of the Red Eagle ; and was appointed com-
mander of the Legion of Honour in 1878.
Among his pictures are the following : —
The I'rltze of the vase commemorative of
the London exhibition of 1851 ; The Age of
A-uyv.itus and the Birth of Jesus Christ,
The Plar/ue at Marseilles, Rex Tibicen ;
Ccesar and Cleopatra. The Slave Market of
Cairo, and many other pictures of Eastern
scenes.
Geronimi, Felice (b. 1792, d. 1859), Italian
physician ; author of several work? on tie
theory of mevlicine, among which are Unto-
loyixiiio l)nm\natore della Midicina, and
Sayr/io di Filosofia della Storia Mcdica.
Gerritsy, Dirck, traveller of the 16th cen-
tury), explored the coasts of China, and
i gained the name of "China" in conse-
j quence ; discovered South Shetland in 1598 ;
' was wrecked on the coast of Chili, imprisoned
by the Spaniards next year, and died soon
after.
Gersdorf; Johann de, German surgeon
Ger
( 362)
Ges
of the 16th century ; introduced at Strasburg
instruments for extracting balls and other
substances from the body.
Gersen, Jean, a monk who was falsely
said to have written in the loth century the
Imitatio Christi.
Gerson, Jean Charlier de, " Doctor
Christianissimus " (6. 1363, d. 1429), French
theologian and reformer ; doctor of the
Sorbonne and chancellor of Paris ; made
active efforts at the council of Constance
(1414^ to close the schism in the papacy,
and took the leading part in the condem-
nation of Huss ; being unsuccessful in his
attempts at reform, he retired first to the
Tyrol, and afterwards to a Celestine convent
at Lyons, where he preached and wrote
several works, including lie Consolations
Theologies, Commentaries on the Psalim, and
(perhaps) De Imitatione Christi.
Gerstaecker, Friedrich (b. 1816, d. 1874),
German travel! or ; born at Hamburg ; went
in 1837 to America, where he spent six years
hunting and travelling. In 1849 he again
left Germany, and travelled to South
America and Australia, returning three
rears later and settling at Leipzig. In I860
he accompanied the Duke of Gotha to Egypt
and Abyssinia. He wrote accounts of his
travels and several tales, many of which
have been translated into English, French,
and Dutch. Among the latter are 1m Busch,
Gold, Hell und Dunkel, etc.
Gerstenberg, Heinrich "Wilhelm von (b.
1737, d. 1823), German poet; served some
time in the Danish army, afterwards as a
civilian, and then became director of the
lottery of Altona ; wrote Ugolius and Min-
ona, oder die Angelsachsen.
Gerster, Etelka (b. 1857), Hungarian
singer ; born at Kaschlau ; studied under
Madame Marchesi from 1873 to 1876,
when she made her debut at Venice in
Verdi's Rigoletto. She afterwards sustained
the parts of Ophelia, Lucia, Ameira, and
Marguerite. At Berlin the demand to hear
her was so great that 21,000 applications in
writing for places in the theatre are said to
have been refused. After leaving Berlin
she visited Pesth, St. Petersburg, and Mos-
cow, where she was appointed Rammer
sdngerin, and received presents from the
Tsar and Tsarina. She first came to Eng-
land under the management of Mr. Maple -
son in 1877, appearing in London at Her
Majesty's Theatre in La Sonnambula with
very great success.
Gerstner, Franz Josef von (b. 1756, d.
1832), German engineer; author of the
Handbuch der Mechanik ; planned the rail-
road between. Budweis and Linz, which
brought into communication the North Sea
and the Mediterranean and Black Sea— a
project which was carried out by his son,.
Franz Anton (d. 1840), who laid down the
first railway in Russia (1834).
Gervaise, Francois (b. 1660, d. 1751),
French ecclesiastical historian ; author of
Vie de St. Cypricn, Vie de Pierre Abelard et
Helu'ise, etc., and Lettres d'un Theologien,
which was suppressed.
Gervaise, Nicolas (d. 1729), French mis-
sionary ; brother of Francois ; went to Siam
about 1682, and wrote Hixtoire du Siam in
lt>88 ; was massacred with other mission-
aries by the Caribs in Spanish Guiana.
Gervaise [Gervasius] of Canterbury
(12th century), English monk and historian ;
author of Lives of the Archbishops of Canter-
bury from Augustine to Hubert, a Chronicle
containing the reigns of Stephen, Henry II.,
and Richard I., and Kappa Mundi.
Gervaise of Tilbury, English chronicler
of the 12th century ; favourite of Henry II.
of England and of the Emperor Otho IV. ;
to amuse the latter he wrote Otia Imperi-
alia — a medley of history, geography, and
legend.
Gervinus, George Gottfried (b. 1805, d.
1871), German Shakespearean scholar and
historian ; at first thought of scientific study,
but, under the influence of Schlosser, at
Heidelberg, turned his attention to history.
After two years spent in teaching at Frank-
fort, he took his degree from Heidelberg,
and went to Italy, and published on his
return Historische Schriften. In 1835 he
held a professorship at his old university,
and in 1836 obtained the chair of history at
Gottingen, which latter he lost on account
of his protest against the suspension of the
Hanoverian constitution. After another
visit to Italy he returned and founded in
1847, in conjunction with some friends, the
Deutsche Zeitung. In 1848 he was elected
to the Diet by the Hanse Towns, but did
not remain long in public life. His chief
works are Ueber den Goethe'schen Brief-
wechsel, Shakespeare (1849-50), and Ges-
chichte des Neunzehnter Jahrhundert seit
den Wiener Vortragen (1855-65).
Gesenius, Friedrich Heinrich Wilhelm (b.
1786, d. 1842), German Orientalist ; professor
of theology at Halle for thirty years, during
which he produced a Hebrew and Chaldee
Dictionary, a Hebrew Elementary Book, and
a Critical History of the Hebrew Language
and Literature.
Gesner, Conrad von (b. 1516, d. 1565),
Swiss naturalist : professor of natural his-
tory at 7-orich for twenty-four years ; wrote
Histories Anitnahum as well as Bibliotheca
Universal**- -a catalogue of Greek, Latin,
Ges
(363)
Ghi
and Hebrew writers. He was called the
" Pliny of Germany," and was ennobled for
his researches.
Gesner, Johann Jacob (b. 1707, d. 1787),
Swiss numismatist ; author of Thesaurus
Numismatum Veterum Grcecorwn et Roman-
orum, and Numismata Regum Macedonia.
Gesner, Johann Mathias (b. 1691, d. 1761),
German scholar; author of Thesaurus Latinos
Lingua, and other works.
Gesner, Salomon (6. 1730, d. 1788), Swiss
painter and poet ; ran away from the book-
seller at Berlin with whom his father had
placed him ; wrote and published at Zurich,
his native town, Idylkn, Tod Abels, and
several tales, besides painting and engraving
landscapes.
Geta, Publius Septimius (6. 189, d. 212),
son of Severus, and joint-emperor with his
brother, Caracalla, by whose orders he was
murdered in the arms of his mother, Julia.
Gevaert, Francois Auguste (b. 1828), Bel-
gian composer ; born at Haysse ; son of a
baker ; studied at the Ghent conservatoire,
and was soon appointed organist of the
Jesuits' church there. In 1847 he obtained
the first prize in the Brussels national com-
petition, and soon afterwards composed his
first two operas, Hughes de Somerghan and
La Comedie d la Ville. In 1849 he went to
Spain, and sent reports on Spanish music to
the Brussels Academic. In 1867 he became
inspecteur de la musique at Paris, and in
1871 director of the Brussels conservatoire.
His chief compositions are Georgette and La
Billet Marguerite, produced at Paris, and
Die Nationale Verjaerdoz, composed in
honour of the twenty-fifth year of King
Leopold's accession, as well as works on the
history of music, the chief of which are
Leerboek van den Grcgoriuenischen Zang
(1856), Les Gloires d'ltalie (1868), and, Les
Origines du Chant Liturgique de VEglise
Benedictine Latine (1890).
Geyer. [See Geijer.]
Geysa (d. 997), Magyar chief; after his
own conversion by his wife, Sarolta, intro-
duced Christianity into Hungary. He was
father of St. Stephen of Hungary.
Geysa II., King of Hungary (b. 1129, d.
1161; , carried on successful wars with Russia
and the Eastern empire, and allied himself
with Frederick Barbarossa.
Ghatgay, Shirzi Rao (d. 1810), Mahratta
officer ; committed many cruelties against
Nana Furnawees, minister of Rao Peshwa,
and by the fascination of his daughter, who
had married Sindia, exercised for some time
great influence over that prince, by whom,
however, he was at length ordered to be
confined, and, on his resistance, was killed.
Ghazan-Khan (b. 1271, d. 1304), Mongoi
sovereign of Persia ; a convert from Budd-
hism to Mahometanism ; introduced great
improvements into his country, and was
himself a man of some culture.
Ghazee-oo-Deen minister of Shah Allum
in the 18th century, the rebellion of whose
vizier he crushed, but was afterwards at-
tacked by the emperor, whom he caused to be
blinded and deposed, raising Alumgeer to
the throne. In 1759 he procured the assassi-
nation of the latter to prevent his holding
communication with Abdallee, who had
invaded India.
Ghazi Hassan (d. 1790), Turkish com-
mander ; served the sultan against the
Russians, and put down rebellions in Syria,
Egypt, and the Morea, but was executed
soon after becoming grand vizier.
Ghazy-oo-Deen (d. 1752), heir to the
Nizam of Deccan, but kept out of his do-
minions by an usurper, his half-brother,
Salabut Jung, who had the support of the
French, who induced his own mother to
poison him.
Ghazy-Tpgluk, Emperor of Delhi (d.
1325), originally a slave of Bulbun ; put
Khusro the usurper to death, and was
elected emperor, but was soon after killed
by the fall of a building in which he was
banqueting.
Gheias-op-Deen, Toghluk (d. 1325), son
of a Turkish slave; founded third Tatar
dynasty of Delhi; his life was written by
the Persian poet, Emir Khosrou.
Gheias-oo-Deen Bulbun (d. 1286), Em-
peror of India ; originally a slave ; suc-
ceeded Nasr-oo-deen in 1266 ; cleared away
the forest of Delhi to the circumference of
100 miles ; administered strict justice, and
patronised men of letters.
Gherardesca, Ugolino della (d. 1288),
Italian noble ; deserted the Ghibellines, and
became a chief of the Guelfs, by whose
influence he became captain -general of
Pisa. His cruelty alienated both parties,
and he was imprisoned and starved to death.
A description of his sufferings is put into his
mouth by Dante in the Inferno.
Ghetaldi, Marino (b. 1566, d. 1627), Vene-
tian statesman and mathematician; author
of the Promotus Archimedes.
Ghiberti, Lorenzo (b. 1378, d. 1455),
Italian sculptor and bronze-founder; at
twenty-two competed successfully with the
first men of his day for the design of the
second pair of bronze gates for the Baptistery
at Florence, the subject being The Sacrifice
of Abraham ; he was immediately ordered
to execute the design of another pair. He
also painted the rose window of Santa
Ghi
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Gib
Croce, and made a gold mitre for
Eugenius IV.
Ghika, Alexander (b. 17'.)'), d. 1862), ap-
pointed hospod:i.r of Wallachia in lcS;>4 by
Russia and Turkey, but, offended the latter,
who compelled the sultan to remove him for
arresting Bulgarians engaged iu a rising
countenanced by Russia.
Ghika, Gregor (d. 1777), Hospodar of
Wallachia and Moldavia ; taken prisoner by
the Russians in 1769, but restored at the
peace : protested against the cession of
Bukoviua to Russia, and was strangled by
order of the sultan.
Gnika, Gregor (b. 1807, d. 1857), Hospodar
of Moldavia : brought up in France and
Gei-maiiy ; initiated reforms in Moldavia,
but his schemes for the union with Wallachia
excited the hostility of Austria and Turkey,
by whom he was compelled to abdicate. He
went to France in 1856, and shot himself
the next year.
GJiilini, Girolamo (b. 1589, d. 1670),
Italian writer; author of Teatro d'Uomini
Littcrati.
GMrlandajo, Domenico di Bigordi (b. 1449,
d. 141J6X Tuscan painter; master of Michael
Angelo ; employed by Sixtus IV. to paint
frescoes in the Sistine chapel. There are
several of his works at Rome and Florence.
GMrlandajo, Rodolfo (b. 1482, d. 1560),
Italian painter; son of last-named: friend
of Ralfaele and Michael Angelo ; employed
by the pope and the Grand Duke of
Florence ; finished one of Raffaelle's Vir-
gins.
Ghisi, Diana (b. 1536, d. 1590), Italian
engraver: "La Mantuano" ; married Fran-
cesco di Volterra ; was praised by Vasari.
Ghisi, Giovanni Battista (b. 1500), "II
Mantuano"; Italian engraver, his chief
woifcs being The Burning of Troy and
David and Goliath.
Ghisi, Georgio (b. 1523, d. 1590), son of
the last-named ; engraver of The Prophets
and the Sibyls.
Ghisi, Teodoro (b. 1546, d. 1579), painter;
brother of Georgio, and pupil of Giulio
Romano, whose unfinished works he com-
pleted.
Ghisolfl, Giovanni (b. 1624, d. 1683),
Italian painter; pupil of Salvator Rosa, a
native of Milan, celebrated for the archi-
tectural beauties of bis pictures.
Ghizni Zhan, Mahomed Ghori (d. 1206),
succeeded his brother, Gheias-oo-Deen, as
king of Ghuzin ; invaded India several
*imes while commanding for the latter, and
conquered Mooltan and all northern India.
He was assassinated by some Gakkurs when
on his way to Lahore.
Gholam Khadir (<l. 1788), Rohilla chief,
who got possession of Delhi by treachery,
and committed many cruelties, putting out
the eyes oi Shah Allum. He was eventually
captured and put to death by Sindia.
Ghoori, Hooshuiig (b. 1432), had many
wars with the king or Guzerat, by whom
he was accused of poisoning his father ; for-
tified Mandoo, his capital, and ornamented
it with beautiful buildings and artificial
lakes, some of which are still to be seen.
Giacoinelli, Michael Angelo (b. 1695, d.
1774), Italian philologist; made Archbishop
of Chalcedon by Clement XIII., but de-
prived by his successor for supporting the
Jesuits.
Giafar (b. 700, d. 764), Mahometan Iman,
whose Traditions are considered of great
importance. He is known as Sadek, "the
Just."
Giambullarl, Pier Francesco (b. 1495, d.
1564), Italian scholar: author of Storia
d' Euro pa, a corrected edition of which was
found at Pisa in 1822.
Gianni, Francesco (b. 1759, d. 1822),
Italian improvisatore ; brought up as a
tailor ; made his debut at Milan ; attracted
the attention of Napoleon, whose praises he
sung, and by whom he was rewarded with a
pension.
^Giannoae, Pietro (£.1676, d. 1748), Italian
historian, whose great work, Istoria C'cile
del licgno di Xapoli, drew down upon him
the auger of the Church for its attack on the
temporal aiithority of the pope a,nd Catholic
abuses. He was protected by Charles VI.,
but ultimately fell into the power of his
enemies, and died in prison.
Giard, Alfred (b. 1846), French politician
and zoologist ; born at Valenciennes, and
educated there and at Douai : became pro-
fessor of zoology at the Faculty des Sciences
de Paris in 1880, and wrote many papers on
the subi'ect. He also founded and became
director of the Laboratoire de Zoologie
Maritime de Winiereux. In 1882 he entered
the Chamber and joined the "extreme left."
r.iardini, Felice (*. 1716, d. 1796), Italian
violinist ; made a very successful appearance
in London, but met with misfortune as
lessee of the Italian Opera House, and died
in poverty at Moscow.
Gib, Adam (b. 1714, d. 1788), Scotch Pres-
byterian ; founded the Secession church ;
preached against the rebellion of 1 745 ; waa
called "Pope Gib " for his arrogance.
Gib
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Gib
Gibbon, BenjaminPhelps (b. 1802, d. 1851),
line engraver; engraved Mulready's Wolf
and the Lamb.
Gibbon, Charles (b. 1842, d. 1890), English
novelist; author of Storm Beaten (1862),
Robin Gray (1869), For Lack of Gold (1871),
In Honour Bound (1874), Queen of the
Meadow (1880), Amoret (1886), Beyond Com-
pare (1888), and other works.
Gibbon, Edward (b. 1737, d. 1794), English
historian ; born at Putney, and educated at
Westminster and Magdalen College, Oxford.
While at the University he was received
into the Romish Church, but having been
sent to a Calvinist at Lausanne became a
Protestant again the next year. At Lausanne
he met Voltaire, and fell in love with
Mademoiselle Curchod, afterwards Madame
Necker. He returned to London in 1758,
and after a short term of service in the
Hampshire militia, revisited the Continent,
staying especially at Paris and Rome. When
again in England he wrote Memoires Litier-
aires de la Grand Bretagne, and set to work
on his great book, The Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire, the first volume of which
appeared in 1776 and the last in 1788. He
entered Parliament in 1774 as a supporter of
Lord North, wrote the Memoire Justificatif,
and obtained a place at the Board of Trade.
From 1783 to 1793 he lived at Lausanne,
and died soon after his return.
Gibbons, Grinling (b. 1648, d. 1721), Dutch
carver in wood, recommended by Evelyn to
Charles II., who employed him in Windsor
Chapel, where he carved much of the orna-
mental woodwork, and executed also the
foliage ornamentation of the choir of St.
Paul's, the episcopal throne in Canterbury
cathedral, and similar work at Chatsworth
and other noblemen's seats; appointed
master carver by George I.
Gibbons, Orlando (b. 1583, d. 1625),
English musical composer, organist at the
Chapel Royal at the age of twenty-one;
composed madrigals, but is chiefly known
for his church music.
Gibbs, Joseph (*. 1798, d. 1864), English
civil engineer ; after some time spent in the
Dutch colonies, came to Holland, and, with
Mr. Deane, undertook the draining of Haar-
lem Meer ; was the author of several in-
ventions for sawing and cutting wood, among
which was Gibbs' s " elbow- joint " applied
to the making of inlaid floors, the engraving
of copper plates, and other purposes. He
was also much employed in rail way -making.
Gibbs, Sir Yicary (b. 1751, d. 1820), Eng-
lish judge ; called to the bar in 1783 ; gained
a large practice; was especially distinguished
for his conduct, in conjunction with Erskiue,
for the defence of tae treason cases of Hardy,
Home Tooke, and Thelwall. In 1805 he
became Solicitor-General, two years after
Attorney-General, and 1812 a judge of the
Common Pleas. In 1818 he resigned.
Gibbs, Woolcott (b. 1822), American
chemist ; graduated at New York College of
Physicians in 1845 ; studied at Berlin and
under Liebig at Gisseu, and returned to
America in 1848. From 1849 till 1863 he was
professor of physics and chemistry in New
York, and was then elected Rumford pro-
fessor at Harvard. During the Civil War
he was a member of the executive committee
of the sanitary commission, and in 1873
commissioner to the Vienna exhibition.
Gibelin, Esprit Antoine (6. 1739, d. 1814),
French writer and painter, author of De
V Origine de la For)ne du Bonnet de la Liberte.
Gibert de Montreuil (13th century),
French romancist ; author of La Violette, a
work which has been much translated and
imitated.
Giberti, Giovanni (b. 1495, d. 1543),
Bishop of Verona, and patron of the learned ;
prepared the propositions of the council of
Trent, and issued from his private press
Homilies on St. Paul's Epistles, and othef
works of the Greek fathers.
Gibson, Edmund (b. 1669, d. 1748), Eng-
lish prelate and Saxon scholar ; Bishop suc-
cessively of Lincoln and London ; author of
a Latin translation of the Saxon Chronicle,
an edition of Camden's Britannia, and of
Codex Juris Eceksice Anglicana. He was in
bad repute at court on account of his de-
nunciation of its corruption.
Gibson, Ed ward. Lord Ashbourne (b. 1838),
educated at Trinity College, Dublin; en-
tered Parliament in 1875, and in 1877 was
made Attorney-General for Ireland. In 1885
he was created a peer, and was appointed Lord
Chancellor of Ireland, which post he was
again given in 1886. He is the author of
the Ashbourne Act (1885), for the sale of
Irish holdings to tenants.
Gibson, John (6. 1790, d. 1866), English
sculptor ; born near Conway ; the son of a
market-gardener ; worked in the studios of
Canova and Thorwaldsen ; revived the use
of colour in statuary, and gave a fine example
in his tinted Venus; elected to the Royal
Academy in 1836 ; lived chiefly at Rome,
where he died. Among the best specimens
of his art are The Hours leading the Chariot
of the Sun, and Phaethon driving the Chariot
of the Sun, Hylas and the Nymphs, as well
as portraits of the Queen and Huskisson in
Westminster Palace, and of Sir R. Peel in
the Abbey.
Gibson, John George (b. 1846), British
statesman fc brother of Lord Ashbourne,
Gib
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Gif
and youngest son of Mr. TV. Gibson, of
Rockforest, Tipperary ; was educated at
Trinity College, Dublin, and called to the
Irish bar in 1870. In 1885 he entered Par-
liament us one of the members for Liverpool,
and was appointed Third Serjeant-at-law.
In 1886 he became Solicitor-General for
Ireland.
Gibson, Richard (6. 1616, d, 1690), English
paiurer ; pupil of Lely ; page and favourite
of Charles I., who was present at his mar-
riage, an event which was celebrated in
Waller's ILu-rmge of Dwarfs, Gibson being
less than four feet in height.
Gibson, Thomas Milner (b. 1807, d. 1884),
English politician ; educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge ; was at first a Conser-
vative, and lost his seat for Ipswich on
changing his views. As a leader in the
movement against the Corn Laws he gained
a seat for Manchester in 1811, and five years
after was appointed by Lord J. Russell vice-
president of the Board of Trade, but re-
signed in 1848. He opposed the Crimean
war, and failed to hold his seat at Man-
chester in 1857, but was soon after elected
for Ashton-under-Lyne, which he repre-
sented till 1868. As president of the Board
of Trade from 1859 to 1866 he took an active
part in the abolition of the paper and ad-
vertisement duties. In 1803 he retired from
public lif e.
Gichtel, Johann G-eorg (b. 1633, d. 1710),
German mystic; founded a sect, preaching
celibacy and asceticism ; published Bb'hme's
works.
Gideon, Judge of Israel; defeated the
Midianites, and died about 1210 B.C.
Gie, Pierre de Rohan de (d. 1513), marshal
of France ; accompanied Charles VIII. to
Italy; educated the Count d'Angouleme,
afterwards Francis I., but offended his
mother, Louise of Savoy, and retired to his
chateau at Angers.
Giedde, Ove (6. 1594, d. 1661), Danish
admiral ; made a settlement at Tranquebar,
in the Carnatic, and served in the wars
against Sweden and Denmark.
Giedroyc, J. F. Xavier (6. 1787, d. 1855),
Polish prince and patriot ; son of Romuald
Thadeus ; taken prisoner with his father in
the retreat from Moscow, and sent to Siberia,
but released next year ; present with Napo-
leon at Waterloo ; sent to Siberia for two
years by the Tsar Nicholas for refusing to
take the oath of fidelity, and suffered con-
fiscation of his property.
Giers, Nicholas Carlovitch de (b. 1820),
Russian statesman ; entered the foreign
office in 1838 ; served in Moldavia and Hun-
gary, and in 1850 became first secretary at
Constantinople, whence, three years later, he
went as adviser of the Russian plenipoten-
tiary in Wallachia and Moldavia. In 1856
he became member of the council of state
and consul-general to the court of the
Khedive, and again from lS~>oto 1863 served
in the Danubian provinces. After this he
was for six years minister-plenipotentiary in
Persia ; then minister-resident to the Swiss
confederacy and at Stockholm, becoming, in
1870, director of the Asiatic department at
St. Petersburg. On the retirement of Prince
Gortschakoff in 1882 he became minister of
foreign affairs, having been of great assist-
ance to the latter in his last years. In 1888
he celebrated the jubilee of his entrance into
political life.
Gieseler, Johann Karl Ludwig (b. 1793, d.
1854) , GermauProtestant theologian ; profes-
sor at Gottingen ; wrote an able essay on the
authorship of the Gospels, in which he op-
posed Eichhorn's theory of their derivation
from a common source. He was also author
of Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte.
Giffard, Stanley L. (b. 1788, d. 1858), Eng-
lish journalist; supported- the Castlereagh
administration in the St. James's Chronicle^
and, as editor of the Standard, strongly op-
posed the Emancipation policy of the Govern-
ment, and afterwards defended the Irish
Church in the anti-tithe agitation.
Giffard, William (d. 1129), Norman states-
man ; chancellor to William I. and his sons,
and Bishop of Winchester ; introduced the
Cistercians into England, and founded the
priory of St. Mary's Overy, South wark.
Giff en, Robert (b. 1 837) , English statistician,
born in Lanarkshire : acted as solicitor's clerk
at Glasgow ; in his early years and after-
wards was employed in commerce there, till,
about 1860, he became connected with the
Stirling Journal as sub-editor. In 1862 he
went to London, and joined the staff of the
Globe, and was afterwards assistant -editor
of the Economist, under Mr. Bagehot, and
for a short time assisted Mr. Morley with
the Fortnight!}/ Review. From 1873 to 1876
he was city editor and writer on trade and
finance to "the Daily News, becoming in the
latter year chief of the statistical department
of the Board of Trade. Among his writings
are Stock Exchange Securities : an Essay on
the General Causes of Fluctuation in their
Price (1878), and Essays in Finance (1st
series, 1879; 2nd, 1886), consisting chiefly
of papers and presidential addresses read
before the Statistical Society.
Gifford, Robert, Lord (1779, d. 1826),
English lawyer, son of a grocer ; entered the
Middle Temple in 1800 ; was called to the
bar in 1808, and soon gained a large practice
on the western circuit. In 1817 he entered
Parliament, and was made Solicitor- General,
Gif
(367)
Gil
in which capacity he took part in the prose-
cution of the Luddites. In 1819 he became
Attorney- General, and as such conducted the
prosecution of Thistlewood and Queen
Caroline, and in 1824 was named Chief
Justice of Common Pleas, and created a peer.
Gifford, William (b. 1757, d. 1826), English
critic and verse-writer, son of a plumber
and glazier of Ashburton ; was born and
bred in great poverty ; served in a coasting-
vessel and as a shoemaker, till he attracted
the attention of a surgeon named Cookesley,
by whose efforts he was sent to school, and
afterwards to Oxford. After taking his de-
gree, he became tutor to Lord Grosvenor's
eon, whom he accompanied on the Continent,
and on his return devoted himself to litera-
ture, writing the Baviad in 1794, and soon
after the Mceviad, and contributing to the
Anti-Jacobin. He afterwards edited Mas-
singer and Ben Jonson, and became first
editor of the Quarterly Review in. 1809, hold-
ing the post till 1824.
Giggeo, Antonio (d. 1632), Italian Orient-
alist ; patronised by Cardinal Borromeo, with
whose assistance he published his Thesaurus
Linguae Arabics.
Gigliucci, Countess. [See Novello.]
Gigot d'Elbea (6. 1752, d. 1794), Vendean
commander ; gained several victories over
the republican troops, but was ultimately
defeated and shot ; called by his soldiers
" General Providence."
GiTbart, James W. (6. 1794, d. 1863),
English banker ; first manager of the London
and Westminster Bank, which was the first
joint- stock bank in London ; author of a
Practical Treatise on Banking, and of the
History of Banking in America.
Gilbert, Alfred (b. 1854), English sculptor,
A.B.A. ; studied under Boehm in London,
and afterwards in Paris at the iScole des
Beaux- Arts under Cavelier. He subsequently
went to Rome, where he executed in marble
the Kiss of Victory and Icarus. Among his
other works are Perseus Arming and the
Enchanted Chair, exhibited at the Royal
Academy in 1886, and a statue of Queen
Victoria.
Gilbert, Anne Taylor (b. 1782, d. 1866),
English writer for the young, sister of Isaac
and Jeffrey Taylor; joint- author with her
sister Jane of Original Poems for Infant
Minds; married in 1818 the Rev. Joseph
Gilbert, author of The Christian Atonement.
Gilbert, Davies (6. 1767, d. 1839), president
of the Royal Academy, and patron of Sir
Humphry Davy; also wrote a Parochial
History of Cornwall.
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey (6. 1639, d. 1584),
English navigator, half-brother to Sir W.
Raleigh ; made a voyage to North America
in 1583, and took possession of New-
foundland, but was wrecked off the Azores
on his way home. He published, in 1576,
a Discourse to prove a Passage by North- West
to Cathaia and the East Indies.
Gilbert, Sir Jeffrey (b. 1674, d. 1726),
English judge; called to the bar in 1698;
in 1714 became a judge of the King's Bench
in Ireland, and next year Chief Baron of
the Irish Exchequer. In 1719 he was com-
mitted by the Irish House of Lords for
granting an injunction by order of the Eng-
lish House of Peers in an appeal from th»
Irish courts. In 1725 he became Chief Baron
of the English Exchequer. He published
several legal works (Reports of Cases in
Equity, etc.), and was a fellow of the Royal
Society.
Gilbert, Sir John (b. 1817), English painter;
exhibited his first picture in 1836 in the
Suffolk Street gallery, a water-colour, en-
titled The Arrest of Lord Hastings by the Pro-
tector Richard, Duke of York, after which he
continued to exhibit in oils at the British In-
stitution and the Royal Academy. In 1871 he
was knighted, and elected president of the
Society of Painters in Water- Colours ; in 1 872
was A.R.A., and became an Academician
in 1876. Among his earlier pictures are
Don Quixote giving Advice to Sancho Panza,
The Education of Gil Bias, and Othello be-
fore the Senate. In addition to many Shake-
spearian scenes, the chief of his more recent
paintings are The Doge of Venice in Council
(1876), King Henry VI. (1880), The
Morning of Agincourt (1884), Sir Launcelot
(1887), and Ego et Rex Meits (1889). He
also made many contributions to the Illus-
trated London News, and illustrated Shake-
speare and other English classics.
Gilbert, John Thomas (b. 1829), British
historical writer ; born at Dublin ; was sec-
retary of the Irish Public Record Office from
1867 to 1875, and edited Facsimiles of the
National MSS. of Ireland, Chronicles and
Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland,
and wrote History of the City of Dublin
(1854-9), History of the Viceroys of Ireland
from 1172-1509 (1865), History of Affairs in
Ireland, 1641-52 (1879-81), and History of
the Irish Confederation and the War in Ire-
land, 1644-9 (1882-90), as well as numerous
other works.
Gilbert, Joseph Henry (b. 1817), English
chemist and man of science ; son of Rev. J.
Gilbert ; was born at Hull, and early met
with a gunshot accident, which deprived
him of the sight of one eye. After leaving
school he pursued his scientific studies at
Glasgow, under Professor Thomson, and at
University College, London, under Professor
Gil
( 368)
Gil
Graham and Dr. Anthony Thomson, spend-
ing a short time also in the laboratory of
Liebig, at Giessen, where he took his Ph.D.
On his return he assisted Dr. Thomson
in London, and gave some attention to the
chemistry of calico-dyeing near Manchester.
From the year 1843 he became associated
with Sir J. B. Lawes in researches on agri-
cult ur.il chemistry, the results of which were
published in the Transactions of the Royal
Society, the Journal of the Chemical Society,
the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society,
the R' ports of the British Association, etc.
Dr. Gilbert was a fellow of the Chemical
Society in 1841, and became president in
1882, and a fellow of the Royal Society in
1860. He paid two visits to Canada and
America to study agriculture, and was in
1884 appointed Sibthorpian professor of
rural economy at Oxford.
Gilbert, Josiah (6. 1814), English writer
on art ; born at Rotherham ; grandson of
Rev. Isaac Taylor and son of Rev. J. Gilbert ;
was a portrait- painter in London for some
years afterwards ; wrote Art : Its Scope and
Purpose (1858), Art and Religion (1871),
and Landscape in Art before Claude and Sal-
vator (1885) ; was also joint-author of the
Dolomite Mountains (1864), and editor of
Autobiography and Memorials of Mrs. Gil-
fort (Anne Taylor).
Gilbert, St. (6. 1083, d. 1189), rector of
Sempringham, Lincolnshire ; f oundedseveral
Benedictine and Augustinian houses ; gave
asylum to Becket.
Gilbert, St. (d. 1152), foUowed Louis
VII. on crusade, but was so grieved at the
wickedness of the crusaders that he returned
and founded a convent and a monastery.
Gilbert, "the Universal" (/. 1150),
learned theologian ; sent for from Antwerp,
»nd made Bishop of London by Henry I.
Gilbert, William (b. 1540, d. 1603), English
natural philosopher ; court physician under
Elizabeth and James I. ; published an im-
portant book on the magnet.
Gilbert, William Schwenck (b. 1836),
English dramatist and writer ; was clerk in
the Privy Council Office from 1857 to 1862,
and was called to the bar in 1864. He con-
tributed the Bab Ballads to Fun in 1861, and
produced his first burlesque, Dulcamara' in
1866, which was followed by La Vivandi^-e
and Robert the Devil, etc. Among his more
serious plays were The Palace of Truth (pro-
duced at the Haymarket in 1870), Pygmalion
and Galatea (1871), Sweethearts (1874), and
Engaged (1877). "From 1875 to 1889 he wrote
librettos to Sir Aithur Sullivan's operas, the
chief of which were Trial by Jury (1876,
the Royalty), The Sorcerer (1877), H.M. S.
Pinafore (1878), The Pirates of Penzance
(1880), Patience (1882), lolanthe, Th*
Princess Ida, The Mikado, in successive
years, Ruddigore (1887) TJie Yeomen of the
Guard (1888), The Gondoliers (1889). The
Mountebanks was produced in 1892.
Gilbert de la Porrea, or Porretanus (6.
1070, d. 1154), French philosopher and
Bishop of Poitiers; chief of the Realists;
accused of heresy in 1147, but not con-
demned.
Gilchrist, Alexander (6. 1828, d. 1861),
Scotch biographer ; son of a Unitarian
minister ; educated at University College
school, London, where he met the Rossettis ;
was called to the bar, but did not practise ;
lived at Guildf ord, and afterwards in Cheyne
Row, next door to Carlyle, where he com-
posed, but did not live to finish, his Life of
Blake, having already, in 1855, published a
Life of Etty.
Gilchrist, John Borthwick (b. 1759, d.
1841), English Orientalist ; professor of Hin-
dustani and Persian at Calcutta ; on his re-
turn to England published a Hindustani
dictionary and grammar, and the Oriental
Linguist.
Gildas, St., "The Wise" (/. 6th cen-
tury), supposed author of De Excidio Brit"
annia ; but nothing certain is known of
him.
Gilden, Charles (6. 1665, d. 1724), En-
glish writer ; author of the Deist's Manual;
was attacked by Pope in the Dunciad.
Gilder, Richard Watson (b. 1844), Ameri-
can poet; son of a Methodist minister; served
in the Federal army in 1863 ; was pay-
master on the Camden and Amboy railway,
and then became a journalist, being con-
nected successively with the Newark Adver-
tiser, the Newark Register, and Hours at
Home; when, in 187<>, the latter was in-
corporated with Scrioner's Monthly, he
became part editor, and in 1881 editor of
its successor, the Century. He was one of
the founders of the American Copyright
League and the Authors1 Club, and pro-
duced the following poems : The New Day
(1875), The Poet and his Master (1878),
Lyrics (1885), and The Celestial Passion-,
(1887).
Gildo, or Gilden (d. 398), Moorish general ;
governor of Africa for the Romans about
386 ; was defeated and slain by his brother
Mascezel, when he had rebelled against
Honorius.
Giles, or Gilles. [See Hunnius.]
GilfiUan, George (6. 1813, d. 1878), Scotch
divine, critic and essayist ; born at Comrie,
Perthshire ; son uf a Secessionist minister ;
was ordained Presbyterian minister in 1836^
Gil
(369)
Gin
his congregation being at Dundee. Here he
published A. Gallery of Literary Portraits
(1845-54), Christian Heroism (1869), and was
engaged, when he died, on a History of
British Poetry. He also published several
sermons, which excited great controversy,
and were considered unorthodox. In 1881
Mr. F. Henderson edited some of his Sketches,
Literary and Theological.
Gilibert, Jean Emanuel (b. 1741, d. 1814),
French physician ; author of Histoire des
Plantes de V Europe and Le Medium Natu-
raliste.
Gill, Alexander (b. 1564, d. 1635), English
scholar ; head-master of St. Paul's ; teacher !
of Milton, and author of several learned \
works. His son, Alexander (d. 1642), who !
succeeded him as head, was a great friend
of the poet, but was dismissed from his
mastership for severity, and imprisoned for
speaking ill of King James.
Gill, David (b. 1843), British astronomer;
astronomer royal at the Cape ; born in
Scotland and educated in Aberdeen, where
he erected a private observatory; assisted
Lord Lindsay in designing the observatory
at Dunecht in 1870, and took part in the
expedition sent by that nobleman to the
Mauritius to observe the transit of Venus.
The results were published as the joint
work of Lord Lindsay and Mr. Gill. At
the same time the latter arranged the
chronometric and telegraphic longitude de-
terminations between Berlin, Malta, Alex-
andria, Aden, Bombay, and Mauritius, and
undertook the measurement of the first base
line of the geodetic survey of Egypt. In
1877 he went to Ascension to observe the
apposition of Mars, and published the
results in ^1881. In 18S3 he set on foot i
the geodetic survey of South Africa, and
between 18S1 and that year was engaged j
in researches on the parallax of the fixed
stars. As a reward for his labours he
received the Medjidieh from the Khedive,
the Valz medal from the Academie des
Sciences, and the gold medal of the Royal
Astronomical Society, and in 1883 was
elected fellow of the Eoyal Society.
GiUespie, Colonel (d. 1814), English
officer ; suppressed the mutiny at Vellore,
near Arcot in 1806; distinguished himself
by driving the French out of Java in 1811
and defeating the natives ; was killed when
serving in the Bengal army in the war with
Nipal.
Gillespie, George (d. 1648), Scotch
minister ; commissioner to the Westminster
Assembly in 1643 ; wrote Aaron's Rod
Blossoming and The Ark of the Testament
Opened.
Gillies, Duncan (6. 1830), Victorian
statesman ; born in Scotland ; went to Aus-
tralia in 1854 ; was elected to the Victorian
Parliament in 1859, and was minister of
lauds in 1868, and again in 1875. From
1872 to 1875, and again from 18SO to 1883,
he was minister of railways, and became
premier in 1886, but was defeated and
resigned in November, 1890, in which year
he had been chairman of the Federal
Conference.
Gillray, James (1757, d. 1815), English
caricaturist ; son of a Chelsea pensioner ;
began, in 1778, to use his satirical pencil
in the Whig interest, directing it against
George III., Farmer George and his Wife;
afterwards, as a Toiy, used his talents
against Napoleon and Fox. In 1811 he be-
came insane as a result of his intemperate
habits.
Gilly, Jacques Laurent, Comte de (b. 1769,
d. 1829), French general ; served in Napo-
leon's campaigns ; joined him on his escape
from Elba with the troops he commanded
for Louis XVIII. ; was pardoned after the
restoration, and died in France.
Gilman, Daniel Cpit (b. 1831), American
educationist; born in Norwich, Connecti-
cut ; graduated at Yale ; travelled two years
in Europe, and was librarian and professor
of physical geography in Yale College from
1856 to 1872. In 1865 and 1866 he was
superintendent of the public schools of
Connecticut, and in 1872 became president
of the university of California. In 1875 he
was appointed first president of the univer-
sity founded by John Hopkins at Baltimore.
He wrote many articles on general subjects,
but the bulk of his work was educational,
and is contained chiefly in addresses to
various colleges, reports, and articles in the
North American Review.
Gilpin, Bernard (6. 1517, d. 1583),
Romanist priest; the "Apostle of the
North," who, in the course of controversy
with Hooper and Peter Martyr, became
converted ; refused preferment, and died in
his parish at Haughton-le- Spring.
Gilpin, Sawrey (b. 1733, d. 1807), English
animal -painter ; patronised by the Duke
of Cumberland; painted the Triumph of
Camillus.
Gilpin, William (*. 1724, d. 1804), English
clergyman and writer ; brother of last-named ;
wrote a Life of Bernard Gilpin and several
books on the picturesque.
Gin, Pierre Louis Charles (b. 1726, d.
1827), French lawyer ; defended Louis XVI.,
and translated Hesiod and Herodotus.
GingTiene1, Pierre Louis (6. 1748, d. 1816),
French scholar ; author of Histoire Litteraire
d'ltalie.
Gin
(370)
Gir
GlnkeU, Ondart de (h. 1MO, d. 1703),
Dutch general; came with V\'illi;im III. to
England, ami was with him at the Boyne ;
aftf-'vunls commanded in Ireland; took
A-thlone ; defeated the French at Aughrim in
16(Jl, and concluded the treaty of Limerick.
He was created Earl of Athloue, and subse-
quently served in Flanders under William
an- 1 Marlboro ugh.
Ginsburg, Christian (*. 1830), Polish
rabbinical scholar, LL.D. (Glasgow) ;
author of Historical and Critical Comment-
ary on the Song of Songs (1857), Commentary
on Ecclesiastes (1861), The Karaites (1862),
The Essenes (1861), pie Kabbalah (1865),
Commentary on Leviticus (1882), The Mas-
sorah (1880-6) and kindred works, besides
having contributed to the Dictionary of the
Bible, and taken part in the revision of the
Old Testament, and written a work on the
Moabite stone in 1871.
Gioberti, Vincenzo (b. 1801, d. 1852),
Italian patriot and philosopher, born at
Turin, where he became court-chaplain,
but was banished in 1833 on suspicion of
plotting against the government. He went
to France and then to Brussels, where he
taught philosophy and published several
works, the chief of which was Teorica del
Sovrannaturale, directed against Kant and
Cousin. In 1843 appeared his Primato
Morale e Civile degP Italiani. In 1848 the
author was recalled to Italy, elected deputy
for Turin, and became prime minister of
Victor Emmanuel, but he was soon obliged
to retire to Paris, where he died, having in
the previous year brought out 11 Rinnova-
mento Civile d' Italia.
Giocondo, Fra Giovanni (fl. 15th cen-
tury), Italian architect and Dominican
monk, who built the bridge of Notre Dame
for Louis XII. ; designed several buildings
at Verona for the Emperor Maximilian, and
assisted in the building of St. Peter's at
Home. He also did good work as an
engineer at Venice.
Gioja, Flavio (13th century), Italian
sailor, who was for some time credited
with the invention of the mariners' com-
pass.
Gioja, Melchiore (6. 1767, d. 1829), Italian
statistician and economist ; imprisoned for
republican opinions. His chief works were
Xitovo Prospetto delle Scienze Economiche
(1815-17), and Filosofia della Statistica.
Giordani, Vitale, (b. 1633, d. 1711), Italian
mathematician ; served as a sailor in the
Venetian fleet ; had to learn arithmetic as
secretary to the admiral, and was afterwards
made mathematician to the Queen of
Sweden and professor at Borne by Louis
xrv.
Giordano, Luca (b. 1632, d. 1705), Italian
painter ; called " Fra Presto " on account oi
peedy execution ; a pupil and imitator
of Spagnoletto and Pietro of Cortona ; was
much employed in his native Naples, and
invited to Madrid, where he decorated tho
Escuriai with his frescoes, and has also left
specimens of his work at Rome and Venice.
Glorgl, Antonio (b. 1711, d. 1797), Italian
scholar, who wrote a work on the history of
Thibet, while totally ignorant of the lan-
guage.
Giorgione, Giorgio Barbarelli (b. 1478, d.
1511), Italian painter; founder of the
Venetian school, and rival of Tiziano. Some
of his portraits are at Hampton Court, but
his frescoes, in which lay his great ex-
cellence, have perished.
Giottino. [See Stefano.]
Giotto, Ambrogiotto Bondone (b. 1276, d.
1336), Italian painter and architect; pupil of
Cimabue and friend of Dante, whose por-
trait he painted at Ravenna ; was son of a
citizen of Florence, and apprenticed to a
woolstapler; painted frescoes at Assisi,
and was probably the founder of the
modern school of portrait-painting. About
1299 he went to Home, where he painted
and worked in mosaics; and subsequently
was employed at Padua and Florence, where
his frescoes in the Peruzzi chapel of Santa
Croce were discovered in 1863. He also
painted the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishesat
Naples, and designed the campanile of Flor-
ence. He was buried in the cathedral there.
Giovanelli, Ruggiero (16th century),
Italian musical composer; successor of
Palestrina as chapel -master in the Vatican ;
composed madrigale and motetti
Giovanni da Fiesole, called "Fra Ange-
lico " (b. 1387, d. 1455), Florentine painter
and Dominican monk ; employed by Pope
Nicholas V. , for whom he painted an oratory,
and was offered the archbishopric of Flor-
ence as a reward. His best works (frescoes
in the convent of San Marco, Florence) were
undertaken for its founder, Cosmo de'
Medici. Some of his pictures are in the
National Gallery.
Gioylo, Paolo (b. 1483, d. 1552), Italian,
historian; patronised by Leo X. and his
successors, and made bishop of Nocera in
1528 ; author of I)e Piwibus Rominis and
Elogia Yirorum Tllustrium.
Giraldi, Giovanni. [See Cinthio.]
Giraldi, Lilio Gregorio (6. 1479, d. 1552),
Italian poet and archaeologist ; lost a valu-
able library when Rome was sacked by the
Germans; was patronised by Leo X. and
successive popes, and lived with Pico della
Gir
(371)
Gir
Mirandola, was author of Historia de Diis
(jentium, and a treatise On the Reform of
the Calendar.
Giraldus Cambrensis (b. 1146, d. 1223),
English historian, whose real name was
Gerald de Barri, born in Pembrokeshire, and
educated at Paris, where he was afterwards
professor of canon law ; as archdeacon of
St. David's was zealous as a reformer of
clerical abuses ; went to Ireland as secretary
to Prince John in 1185, and wrote Topo-
gr aphia, Hibernice ; afterwards went with
Henry II. to France; was several times
elected to the see of St. David's, but opposed
by the king. Among his chief works, a
collected edition of which was published by
Professor Brewer and Mr. Dimock for the
"Rolls Series," were Expugnatio Hibernice,
Descriptio Cambrice, and De Rebus a se
Gestis.
Girard, Gabriel (b. 1677, d. 1748), French
scholar, interpreter of Slavonic languages,
and author of a Dictionnaire de Synonymes
Franqais, which procured him election to
the Academy.
Girard, Gregoire (6. 1765, d. 1850), Swiss
educationist, author of Rapport sur
I'ImtUut de M. Pestalozzi d Iverdon (1810),
and Cours Educatif de la Langue Maternelle
(1840-48).
Girard, Philippe Henri de (b. 1775, d.
1845), French engineer and chemist, in-
vented a flax-spinning machine in 1810,
when Napoleon I. had offered a prize of
1,000,000 francs for the best specimen. He
did not receive the prize, but his brother
was pensioned by Napoleon III. While in
Austria Girard invented a tubular boiler;
and subsequently, having entered the service
of Alexander I. of Russia, founded a flax
manufactory in Poland, and directed its
mines. The village of Girardow took its
name from him.
Girard, Simon (b. 1765, d. 1836), French
engineer; accompanied the expedition of
1798 to Egypt, and produced a memoir
giving the 'results of his survey of the
resources of the country ; was employed by
Napoleon and Louis XVIII. in making
canals and superintending the drainage and
gas supply of Paris.
Girardin, E"mile de (*. 1806, d. 1881),
French journalist, founder of La Presse, in
which appeared the first feuilleton (1836),
having previously established the Journal
des Connai ssance* Utiles< and been active in
setting on foot savings' banks. In 1831 he
married Delphme Gay, who shared his
literary labours, and contributed letters to
La Presse > under the name of " Vicomte de
Lannay," besides writing some novels and
dramas. In the revolution of 1848 Emile
T2
played a chief part, having compelled Louis
Philippe to sign his abdication, which he
himself carried to the republicans. "La
Girandole" (weathercock) was, however,
trusted by no party, and was immediately
imprisoned by Cavaignac. In 1850 he was
elected to the assembly, in which he sup-
ported the liberty of the press ; after 1851
he left Paris, and five years later gave up
La Presse, and retired^ into private life.
Among his works are Emile (1827), and Au
Hazard, and a collection of his articles
Questions de mon Temps (1836-56), pub-
lished in 1858. His dramas were much
inferior to those of his wife, who wrote
Judith, Cleopatra, (Test U Faute du Marit
Lady Tartufe, and others.
Girardin, Louis Stanislas Xavier, Comte
de (b. 1762, d. 1827), French politician,
pupil of Rousseau, and supporter of the
revolution in the Legislative Assembly, of
which he became president, but was im-
prisoned by the comite de salut public as a
moderate. In 1814 he entered the army,
and became attached to Joseph Bonaparte,
whom he accompanied to Naples and Spain.
After the restoration of the Bourbons he
held some small offices, but afterwards
became known as a member of independent
views.
Girardon, Francis (b. 1628, d. 1715),
French sculptor and architect; went to
Italy, and on his return became chancellor
of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture.
Specimens of his work are the sculptures on
the fountain of the pyramids at Versailles.
Giraud, Giovanni, Count (b. 1776, d.
1834), Italian dramatist, whose comedies
were published in 1823.
Giraud, Herbert (b. 1817), t English
chemist and botanist, deputy inspector-
general of the Bombay army, educated at
Edinburgh, entered the service of the East
India Company in 1842; in 1845 was
appointed professor of chemistry and botany
at Bombay, and chemical analyst to the
Bombay government. He was the first to
introduce the study of chemistry and
botany into the presidency, and made
numerous contributions to the Botanical
Society of Edinburgh, the London and
Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, Trans-
actions of the Bombay Branch of the Eoyal
Asiatic Society and Physical Society, etc.
Giraud, Jean Baptiste (6. 1752, d. 1830),
French sculptor of independent means, who
ornamented his house with casts of the best
Italian sculptures, and made it the resort of
artists. His pupil. Pierre Giraud (d. 1836),
was celebrated for his sculptures of
animals.
Girault-Duvivier, Charles Pierre (b. 1765,
Gir
( 372)
Gla
d. 1832), Freiich philologist ; author of
Grammaire des Gramnbiirea (Ifill), and
Encyclopedic de V Antiqiute.
Girdlestone, Edward (b. 1805, d. 183,5),
English theologian and social reformer ;
was scholar of Balliol, and successively
vicar of Deaue, Lancashire, canon of
Bristol, and vicar of St. Nicholas, and
incumbent of Halbertou. Devon, and of
Olveston, near Bristol. He was an Evan-
gelical leader, and took much interest in the
welfare of the agricultural labourers, being
one of those who prepared the way for the
Agricultural Labourers' Union.
Girodet-Triosoa, Anne Louis (6. 1767, rf.
1824), French paiuter, pupil of Regnault
and David. His best works were Sommcil
tPJSndymion, portraits of xthe Vende'an
leaders, and Suint Louis en Egypte.
Girtin, Thomas (6. 1773, d. 1802), Eng-
lish painter; friend of Turner, and one of
the early water- colourists ; also introduced
painting on cartridge-paper ; painted pano-
ramas of London and Paris. His picture of
Rivaulx Abbey is now at South Kensington.
Gisbert, Blaise (b. 1657, £.1731), French
writer; author of I? Art d? Elever un Prince
(1634), dedicated to the Duke of Burgundy.
Gisborne, Thomas (b. 1758, d. 1846), Eng-
lish philosophical writer and divine, author
of Principles of Moral Philosophy (1789),
and some poems.
Gisco (d. 240 B.C.), Carthaginian general ;
commanded against the Romans at Lily-
baeum, taken prisoner and put to death by
mercenaries.
Giulio-Romano. [See Romano.]
Giusti, Giuseppe (b. 1809, d. 1850),
Italian poet ; born in a village between
Florence and Pescia, studied law at Pisa,
and set up as an advocate at Florence in
1834, but busied himself chiefly in writing
in the Tuscan dialect political satires, of
which the chief were La Gmgliottina a
Vapore (The Steam Guillotine) in 1834 ;
Dies Iree on the death of Francis of Austria
in the next year; and Lo Siivale (The
Soot) in 1836. In 1854 he produced
II •jringillino (The Placeman) ; and in
1874 II Congresso de* Birri (The Congress
of Police), which had a large sale. He
also wrote a commentary on Dante, and a
few serious poems. He was twice elected to
the Tuscan Parliament.
Giustiniani, Agosfcino p. 1470, d. 1536),
Italian Orientalist ; appointed Hebrew pro-
fessor at Paris by J\ancis I., and published
an edition of the Hebrew Psalter, with
Greek, Arabic, and Chaldaic in parallel
columns— the first -'Polyglot." He was
drowned on a voyage from Cornea to
Genoa.
Givry, Anne d' Angel ure de (d. 1594),
Fi- - ' :'al and partisan of Herri IV. ;
wu> i:iii.."i. at the siege of Laoii.
Gladstone, John Hall (b. 1S2'\ Eng-
lish man of science and writer, studied
chemistry under Professor Graham at Uni-
versity Collcprn, and under ly^big at
Giesseu: l-'iured on chemistrj at St.
Thomas's Hospiral, 1850-52, a id was
elected a fellow of the Royal Sc *iety in
1853. He was Fullerian profe^eor of
chemistry at the Royal Institution 1874-7,
president of the Physical Society 1874-6,
and of the Chemical Society 187 » 9. He
was a member of the Royal CommifMon on
Lighthouses from 1859 to 1862, and of the
Gun- Cotton Committee from 1864 t* 1868,
and was elected in 1873 member fi the
London School Board. Besides his contribu-
tions to philosophical transactions and
scientific societies, he was author of a
Biography of ' M. Faraday (1872); Points of
supposed Collision between the Scriptures
and Natural Science (1872) ; Miracles as
Credentials of Revelation (1873) ; and Spell-
ing Reform from an Educational Point of
View (1878).
Gladstone, William Ewart (6. 1809), Eng-
lish statesman and author; fourth son of
Sir John Gladstone of Fasque, was born at
Liverpool ; educated at Eton and Christ
Church, and, after a Continental tour, was
elected as a Conservative for Newark in
1832. He entered at Lincoln's Inn in 1833,
but was never called to the bar. In Decem-
ber, 1834, he became a lord of the Treasury
in Sir R. Peel's administration, and in the
next year under-secretary for the colonies. In
1841 he took office a second time under Peel
as vice-president of the Board of Trade, and
was sworn of the Privy Council, succeeded
to the presidency of the Board in 1843, resign-
ing two years later. He agreed with Peel's
action on the Com Law question ; but after
being for a short period secretary for the col-
onies, retired from Parliament for a time. In
1 84 7 he was elected for Oxford University, and
between this year and 1852 gradually modi-
fied his opinions, formally separating from
his party in 1851. In 1852 he was Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer in the Coalition min-
istry, but resigned at the end of 1855 on the
question of the Crimean inquiry moved for
by Mr. Roebuck. In 1858 he went as com-
missioner to the Ionian Islands, and on his
return became Chancellor of the Exchequer
under Palmerston, taking a great part in
the repeal of the paper duty and the com*
mercial treaty with France. Mr. Gladstone
was rejected by his university in 1865, pro-
bably on account of his support of the Uni-
versity Commission, and was then returned
Gla
(373)
Gla
for South Lancashire. On Palmerston'a
death he became leader in the House of
Commons, and in 1866 brought in a Reform
Bill, on the defeat of which Lord Russell's
government resigned. He opposed Dis-
raeli's bill, and then took up the question of
Irish disestablishment, which, on resuming
otiic 3 in 1868 as First Lord of the Treasury, he
settled to his satisfaction. Having been
rejected in Lancashire, he now sat for
Greenwich; the other questions he dealt
with between 1838 and 1874 were the Irish
land question, elementary education, pur-
chase in the army, vote by ballot, and the
Alabama claims. He was defeated on the
Irish University Bill in 1873 and resigned,
but was obliged to resume office till the dis-
solution, when his party was defeated, but
he retained his seat for Greenwich. After
opposing the Public Worship Regulation
Act, he took very little part in public affairs
until the Bulgarian agitation in 1876, when
he began actively to oppose the foreign
policy of the Government. At the end of
1879 he undertook his first Midlothian cam-
paign, was elected in 1880 for that con-
stituency, and a second time became
Premier, again uniting with it the Chan-
cellorship of the Exchequer. In his second
ministry he passed the Land Act of 1881,
a repressive measure dealing with Ireland,
and the Franchise and Redistribution
Acts of 1885, the last measures, how-
ever, not without the assistance of the
Opposition leaders. Besides these questions
he was much occupied with the affairs of
Egypt, where the suppression of Arabi was
followed by the revolt of the Soudanese, the
destruction of Hicks Pasha's army, and the
mission of General Gordon. In June, 1885,
the Liberal Government were defeated on
the budget, and the Conservatives held
office for a few months. Early in 1886 Mr.
Gladstone became Premier a third time, but
his Home Rule Bill divided his party and
he was defeated, while at the general election
his opponents were successful, and Lord
Salisbury became head of the Unionist
Government. But in 1892 he resumed to
power. Mr. Gladstone has produced works
on various subjects. In 1841 he was author of
The State in its Relations with the Church ;
in 1845 of Remarks oti Recent Commercial
Legislation ; in 1851 of a Jitter on the
State Prosecutions of Naples, which
he had visited in the previous year : in
1858 of Sf >fiies on Homer, and in 1874-5 of
two pamphlets on the Vatican Decrees, and
an article in the Quarterly Rrriew on The
Speeches of Pius IX. During his retirement
after the elections of 1874 he wrote Homeric
Synchronism, and two pamphlets on the
Bulgarian question, and in 1879 published
a collection of writings called Gleanings of
Past Tears. He was also author of .im-i-ntm
Mundi, and of numerous contributions to
periodicals, particularly on the Irish Ques-
tion, and on Christian evidences.
Glaisher, James (b. 1809), English
meteorologist; was employed on the
ordnance survey of Ireland in 1829, and at
the Cambridge observatory from 1833 to
1836, when he became assistant in the
astronomical department at Greenwich,
being appointed in 1840 superintendent of
the magnetic and meteorological depart-
ment, which he held till his retirement in
1874. In 1849 he was elected fellow of the
Royal Society ; he was also connected with
the Meteorological Society for many years,
and was president of the Microscopical
Society, the Photographic Society, and the
Aeronautic Society respectively. In 1880 he
became chairman of the Palestine Explora-
tion Fund. Between 1863 and 1866 he made
several balloon ascents, and attained the
greatest height yet known — the results of
the ascents having been published in The
Reports of the British Association, and in
Travels in the Air. He is the author of
numerous books and papers concerning
astronomy, meteorology, and the theory of
numbers, and he completed the Factor
Tables of Burckhardt.
Glaisher, James (b. 1848), son of the pre-
ceding; second wrangler at Cambridge,
and fellow of Trinity in 1871, and Sc.D. in
1887 : was elected fellow of the Royal
Society in 1875, was president of Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1882-4, of the London
Mathematical Society, 1884-6, and of the
Royal Astronomical Society, 1886 - 1888.
Among his works are Elliptic Functions,
Theory of Numbers, Mathematical Tables,
etc.
Glanvil, Sir John (d. 1661), English jurist,
author of Reports of Contested Elections,
which were published in 1775.
Glanvill, Joseph (b. 1636, d. 1680), English
philosopher and divine, author of Skepsis
Scientifica, Lux Orientalis, and Considera-
tions on the JJehiff of Witches, whose exist-
ence he maintained.
Glanville, P.auulph de (d. 1190), Norman
statesman, soldier and lawyer, justiciary
under Henry II. ; defeated the Scots at
Alnwick in 1174; was victorious over the
"Welsh, and accompanied Richard I. on
crusade, being killed at the siege of Acre.
He was the author or editor of the I)e Legions
et Consuetudinibus Regni Anglue.
Glaser, Christophe (d. 168''), Swiss
chemist, apothecary to Louis XIY., dis-
covered the " sal-polychrist of Glaser," and
wrote Tra>te de Chimie.
Glass, John (6. 1698, d. 1773), Scotch
Presbyterian minister, deposed by the
Gla
(374)
Gli
General Assembly for his attacks on the
Coveuaiit ; founded sect of the Glassites.
Glass, George (6. 1725, d. 1765), Scottish
navigator ; sou of last named ; made dis-
coveries in Africa, and published a History
of tke Canary Inlands, where he was im-
prisoued by the Spaniards in 1765 ; was
murdered by his crew on the voyage home.
Glauber, Jan (b. 1646, d. 1726), Flemish
painter, called " Polydore," his pictures
dealing chiefly with Roman and Alpine
scenery.
Glauber, Jan Gottlieb (b. 1646, d. 1726),
Flemish painter; brother of last-named;
called " Myrtillo," from his pastoral scenes ;
also painted cabinet pictures.
Glauber, Johann Rudolf (6. 1604, d.
1668), German chemist ; discovered the salts
called by his name, as well as pyroligneous
acid and sal-ammoniac.
Glazebrook, R. T. (b. 1854), English
physicist ; educated at Liverpool college and
Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he was
elected fellow in 1877, having been fifth
wrangler. In 1880 he was appointed
demonstrator of physics at the Cavendish
laboratory, and was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society in 1882. He was Hopkin's
prizeman in 1888, and is the author of A
Text-book of Physical Optics, and, with
W. N. Shaw, of A Text-book of Practical
Physics, besides papers in the Transactions
of the Royal Society and the Philosophical
Magazine.
Gleichen, Count (Prince Victor of Hohen-
lohe) (b. 1833, d. 1892), sculptor, brother of
the Prince of Hohenlohe, and nephew of
Queen Victoria ; served in the Baltic cam-
paign, and in the naval brigade at
Sebastopol, 1854-5, and in the Chinese war
of 1857 ; afterwards gave himself up to art.
Among his many sculptures were The Deluge,
a Statue of Alfred the Great made in
Sicilian marble for the town of Wantage,
where it was placed in 1877, and many
statues exhibited at the Royal Academy.
He married a daughter of Admiral Sir G.
Seymour.
Gleichen, Wilhelm P. von (b. 1717, d.
1783), German naturalist, who served as an
officer in the campaign of the Rhine : his
chief works are Newest Microscopical Dis-
coveries, and a Treatise on the Solar Micro-
scope, illustrated by himself.
Gleig, George Robert (b. 1796, d. 1888),
English biographical writer and divine;
served as an officer in the Peninsular war,
and the American war of 1812 ; took orders
in 1822, was chaplain to Chelsea Hospital
in 1844, chaplain-general of the forces in
1846; author of The Subaltern (1825),
British Military Commanders (1832).
Memoirt of Warren Halting a (1841), and
The Story of Waterloo (1847).
Gleim, Johann Wiihelm Ludwig (b. 1719,
d. 1S03), German poet, author of Kriegalieder
(1778), and Leitgedichte (1789-1803) ; was
called " the German Anacreon."
Glendower (Glyndwr), Owen (b. circa
1354. d. area 1416), Welsh chief ; descendant
of the Llewelyns ; was outlawed by Henry
IV., and joined the Hotspur rebellion; main-
tained the contest for fourteen years among
the Welsh mountains, assisted for a time
by a French force ; died while negotiating
with Henry V., whose widow his son
married.
Glenelg, Charles Grant, Baron (b. 1778, d.
1866), British statesman; son of Charles
Grant, and brother of Robert Grant;
was born in India, and educated at Mag-
dalen College, Cambridge. In 1807 he was
called to the bar, but did not practise,
entering Parliament as member for Mont-
rose the same year. In 1818 he was elected
for Inverness-shire, and became a peer in
1835. He held the appointment of chief
secretary for Ireland, 1819-22, vice-
president of the Board of Trade, 1823-27,
and president 1827-8; and from 1830 to
1834 president of the Board of Control.
Lord Glenelg resigned the colonial secre-
taryship, which he had held for five years,
in 1839, on account of the recall of Lord
Durham from Canada, where his "ordi-
nance" against the rebels had been dis-
approved by the Colonial Office. He did
not again "li •!•! office, but received a
pension of £2,000.
Gley, Gerard (b. 1761, d. 1830), French
Abbe ; accompanied campaigns of Davoust,
visited libraries, corresponded with
Napoleon, and wrote Voyage en Alkmagne
et en Pologne.
Glinka, Michael Ivanovitch (b. 1803, d.
1857), Russian composer; studied in Italy
and in Berlin under Dehn, and on his
return to Russia became court conductor
and director of the choir in the imperial
churches. After some time spent in
France, he came to Berlin again to see
Dehn, and died suddenly there. His chief
works were two operas, La Vie pour le Tsar,
and Russian et Leidmilla, which were the
first important musical productions of
Russia.
Glinka, Sergyer Nickolaivich (b. 1771, d,
1845), Russian writer; after serving some
years in the army, turned to literature ;
translated Young's Night Thoughts, wrote a
History of Russia for the young, and
Russian Reading, as well as some tales.
Glisson, Francis (b. 1596. d. 1677),
Glo
(375)
Gly
English physician, author of Anatomia
Hepatis, in" which Gllsson's Capsule was
described, and made many important
researches in anatomy and physiology.
Gloucester, Duchess of (b. 1776, d. 1857),
Princess Mary, fourth daughter of George
III. ; married her cousin, William Frederick,
Duke of Gloucester, in 1816 ; lived a retired
life, engaged chiefly in works of benevo-
lence, and died at Gloucester House, Park
Lane.
Gloucester, Henry Stewart, Duke of (b.
1640, d. 1660), second son of Charles I.
Gloucester, Humphrey, Duke of, the
"Good Duke Humphrey" (b. 1391, d.
1447), son of Henry IV. ; was protector of
England during the early years of his
nephew, Henry VI., and the rival of
Cardinal Beaufort for the chief power ; was
a great protector of learned me^ but made
enemies by his ambition, and was found
dead under suspicious circumstances at
Bury St. Edmunds.
Gloucester, Richard, Duke of. [See
Eichard III.]
Gloucester, Thomas, Duke of (b. 1355, d.
1397), sixth son of Edward III. ; created
duke in 1385, but, endeavouring to exert
too much influence over the young Richard
LL , was carried to Calais and put to death.
Gloucester, William Frederick, Duke of
(b. 1776, d. 1834), nephew of George III.,
married his cousin, the Princess Mary.
Gloucester, William Henry, Duke of (b.
1743, d. 1805), son of Frederick, Prince of
Wales, and brother of George III., whom
he offended by his marriage with the
Countess Waldegrave.
Gloucester, William Stewart, Duke of
(b. 1689, d. 1700), son of Queen Anne.
Glover, John (b. 1767, d. 1849), English
painter ; son of a Leicester farmer ; became
master of the free school at Appleby in
1786 ; afterwards gave lessons in art at Lich-
field and in London, becoming in 1815 pre-
sident of the old Water- Colour Society.
He made a large oil-painting of Durham
cathedral, but was unable to gain admission
to the Royal Academy. In 1824 he assisted
in founding the Society of British Artists,
where he exhibited till 1830, when he went
to Australia and afterwards settled in
Tasmania, and died there.
Glover, Sir John Hawley (b. 1829, d. 188.5) ,
English colonial statesman ; having served
in the navy for several years, was appointed
governor of Lagos in 1862. In 1873 he
became special commissioner in the British
*}old Coast settlements, and as such he
co-operated with Sir G. Wolseley in Ashan-
tee, where he raised a native force and
marched on Coomassie. From 1876 to 1881 he
was governor of Newfoundland, to which he
returned after two years in the Leeward
Islands. He was made G.C.M.G. for his
services in the Ashantee war.
Glover, Mary (b. 1782, d. 1850), English
actress ; daughter of an actor named Better-
ton ; was born at Newry, and made her
debut at Covent Garden in 1797 in Percy.
She confined herself chiefly to comedy, her
best part being Mrs. Malaprop, which she
played at Drury Lane four days before her
death.
Glover, Richard (b. 1712, d. 1785),
English poet and scholar ; son of a London
merchant; produced Leonidas in 1737, and
next year Admiral Hosier's Ghost. In
1739 he entered Parliament as an opponent
of Walpole, and remained in public life till
1775, where he took great interest in com-
mercial questions; he wrote meanwhile
several tragedies.
Glover, Thomas (6. 1543, d. 1588),
English antiquary ; friend of Camden. His
Catalogue of Honour was printed in 1610.
Glover, William (b. 1819, d. 1875),
English composer ; son of Mrs. Glover, the
actress ; was at different times actor,
violinist and teacher, but is chiefly known
as composer of the cantata Tarn frShanter
(1855), and the operas Ruy Bias (1861), and
Adminta. He died in America, where he
had lived for seven years.
Gluck, Christoph Willibald von (6. 1714,
d. 1787), Bohemian composer; founder of a
new school of opera. His first works were
conceived in the old Italian spirit, but were
very popular and gained him an invitation
to London, where he made the acquaintance
of Arne, but was not successful. He then
returned to Vienna to study and develop his
ideas. Clemenza di Tito was performed at
Naples in 1751, but his productions at
Vienna, Alceste, Paridt ed Elenna, and
especially Orfeo ed Euridice were his best
works. Tphigenie en Aulide, produced in
1774, was also highly successful. In Paris
his works excited so great a controversy that
musical factions arose calling themselves
after him and his rival, the Italian Piccini,
the one being supported by Marie An-
toinette, who had been a pupil of Gluck,
and the other by Madame du Barry.
Glycas, Michael (12th century), Byzan-
tine historian, author of Biblos Chronike.
Glycerius (5th century), Roman emperor
in 473 ; abdicated and became a priest in
474.
Glyn, Isabella (b. 1823), English actress ;
Gly
(376)
Gob
pupil of Charles Kemble, her chief parts
bemg Lady Constance and Lady '
Glynn, Joseph (b. 1799, d. 1863), English
engineer: fellow-pupil with Stepnenson of
Mr. John Bruce ; drew up a memorandum
for the Admiralty on the application of
screw-propellers to war-ships ; designer of
several of the iirst marine steam-engines.
and of the scoop- wheel for draining marshes,
He was a fellow of the Koyal Society, and
many of his papers read before the Insti-
tute of Civil Engineers were translated into
other languages.
Gmelin, Johaun Georg (b. 1709, d. 1855),
German botanist: professor of natural
history at St. Petersburg ; made a scientific
exploration of Siberia, and published the
results in Reisen durch Sibirien. On his
return to Germany he became professor at
Tiibingen. His nephew, Samuel Gottlieb
('/. 177 4), explored the country south of the
Caspian, but was captured and detained by
a hostile tribe.
Gmelin, Leopold (6. 1788, d. 1853),
German chemist ; son of a professor of
medicine at Gottingen; published in 1841 and
succeeding years his Handbuch dcr Chimie.
Gneisenau, August "Wilhelm Anton Graf
Neidhardt von (b. 1760, d. 1831), Prussian
soldier ; served previously in the Austrian
army, and asanAuspach-Baireuthmercenary
in the British army in America. In 1786, after
an interview with Frederick, he obtained a
commission in the Prussian army, and was
wounded at Saalfeld in 1802. Having been
present at Jena, he subsequently commanded
at the siege of Colberg. After the peace
he assisted Scharnhorst to reorganise the
Prussian army, and his efforts excited the
hostility of Napoleon, who enforced in 1809
his retirement. After visiting England and
other countries, in 1811 he re-entered the
army and became Bliicher's quarter-master-
geueral in the war of Liberation, and
his second in command in the Waterloo
campaign. In 182 o he was appointed field-
marshal, but he took little further part in
public affairs, his Liberal opinions being
looked upon with disfavour.
Gneist, Heiurich Hermann E-udolf Fried-
rich (I. 1816), German jurist and his-
torian; born at Berlin; became in 1841
assessor of the Superior Court, and in
184G assistant judge in the Supreme
Tribunal. In 1848 he obtained a seat in the
Municipal Council, and ten years later
became a member of the Prussian Lower
House. In the imperial Parliament he was
for some time leader of the Left Centre, but
afterwards joined the National Liberals.
In 1875 he became a senior judge of the
Supreme Court of Prussia, and was ap-
pointed instructor in political science to the
Emperor "William II. Among his works are
The (\iii*lilnti.un of Trial by Jury in
Germany, Nobility and Knighthood in
England (1853), The English Constitutional
anil Administrative Laic of the Present Day
(ls;>7-63), The Self -Government of England
(18G3), Enqlische Verfaxsungxyeschtcide
(1882), and pas englisches Parlamcnt (188o),
the last having been translated.
Goad, John (b. 1615, d. 1689), English
scholar ; head-master of Merchant Taylors'
School for twenty years ; was dismissed for
Roman tendencies, and afterwards joined
that church.
Goadby, Robert (6. 1721, d. 1778),
English publisher of Sherborae, author of
An Illustration of the Holy Scriptures from
an Arian point of view.
Gobat, Samuel, D.D. (b. 1799, d. 1879),
Swiss ecclesiastic; was a Lutheran mis-
sionary in Abyssinia and afterwards vice-
principal of the Protestant college at Malta.
In 1846 he was appointed Bishop of Jeru-
salem on the nomination of the King of
Prussia, his conduct towards the Eastern
Church causing great controversy in Eng-
land, and precipitating Newman's apostacy.
Gob el, Jean Baptiste (b. 1727, d. 1794),
French revolutionist ; member of the Con-
stituent Assembly ; appointed Archbishop of
Paris, and installed by Talleyrand in 1791 ;
resigned in November, 1793, in order to take
a more active part in the revolution ; was
condemned for atheism with Hebert and
Clootz and executed in April, 1794.
Gobelin, Jehan (d. 1476), French dyer;
founder of the great manufacturing family,
setting up his works at Paris about 1450;
is believed to have invented scarlet dye.
Goblet, Rene (6. 1828), French states-
man ; born at Aire-sur-la-Lys, called to the
bar at Amiens : established a Liberal
journal under the Empire, but in 1871
entered upon political life as a member of
the republican Left in the Assembly. In
1876 he was rejected at Amiens, but elected
in the following year, and in 1879 obtained
a subordinate office. In 1881 he was re-
elected for Amiens, and next year was
appointed minister of the interior, under
M. Freycinet, but resigned with his
colleagues on the Egyptian question. In
the cabinet of M. Brisson as minister of
education and public works, he intro-
duced many reforms, and on the resignation
of his chief was reappointed by M. Frey-
cinet (January, 1886). His speech before
the Senate on primary education on
February 4th was ordered to be published
throughout France. In ^ December M.
Goblet became prime minister as well as
minister of the interior and of foreign
God
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God
affairs ad interim. In the election of 1889
he was defeated by a Royalist-Boulangist
coalition.
Godart, Jean (b. 1775, d. 1823), French
natuz'alist ; author of Htstoire Naturelle des
Lepidopteres en France (1822).
Goddard, Arabella (b. 1836), English
pianist ; born near St. Malo ; played at a
concert at St. Servan when four years old ;
took lessons from Kalkbrenuer at Paris, and
at eight years of age took part in a concert at
Buckingham Palace. She was afterwards
a pupil successively of Thalberg and Sir G.
Macfarren and made her debut in October,
1850, at the grand national concerts. In
1854 she made an extended Continental tour,
giving concerts at Paris, Berlin, Leipzig,
Vienna, and Florence, returning to England
in 1856. In 1860 she married Mr. Davison,
a musical critic, but continued to perform
till 1873, when she went to Australia and
the United States. She returned to England
three years later.
Goddard, General ; marched across India
in 1 788, and defeated Siudia ; carried on
operations against the Mahrattas, which
ended in the treaty of Salbye.
Goddard, Jonathan (b. 1617, d. 1674),
English physician; accompanied Cromwell
to Scotland and Ireland ; became warden of
Merton College, Oxford, and represented
the university in the Little Parliament;
was deprived at the Restoration, but gave
himself to medical studies ; became a member
of the council of the Royal Society, and in-
vented " Goddard's drops."
Godeau, Antoine (b. 1605, d. 1672), French
historian ; made Bishop of Grasse by Riche-
lieu and of Venice by Innocent X. ; wrote
Histoire de PEylise, the first ecclesiastical
history in French.
Godefroy, Jacques (b. 1587, d. 1652),
French jurist; brother of Theodore; edited
Codex Theodosianus and Fragmenta Duodecim
Tabularum.
Godefroy, Theodore (b. 1580, d. 1619),
historiographer of France ; wrote Le Cere-
monial de la France ; his son, Denis (d. 1665),
was author of Memoires sur les Droits
du Roi.
Goderich, Lord. [See Ripon.]
Godfrey, Charles (b. 1799, d. 1863),
English musician ; founder of a family of
band-masters ; was appointed musician in
ordinary to the king in 1831, and was
baud-master of the Coldstream Guards.
He also composed waltzes for military
bauds. His sons were educated at the
Royal Academy of Mnsio and all followed
their father's profession.
Godfrey, Sir Edmuudsbury (b. 1621,
d. 1678), English magistrate, received the
depositions of Titus Oates, and was murdered
soon afterwards, possibly by someone accused
by the informer.
Godfrey, Thomas (*. 1736, d. 1763), Ameri-
can poet ; son of a mathematician, who per-
fected the quadrant; wrote the Court of
Fancy, and some plays.
Godfrey de Bouillon (d. 1100). crusader;
King of Jerusalem ; set out in 1096 ; took
Nicaea and Antioch in 1097 ; defeated the Sar-
acens next year, and in 1099, after a month's
siege, took Jerusalem and slaughtered
the inhabitants. In the same year he was
elected king, but refused to assume the title,
and won the battle of Ascalon, dying, prob-
ably by poison, in 1100. He drew up a code
known as Assises de Jerusalem.
Godfrey de Viterbo (d. 1191), German
historian ; secretary to the Emperors Fred-
erick I. and Henry VI. and author of
Chronicon Universal, and other works, which
remain in manuscript.
Godiva (llth century), Mercian lady;
wife of Earl Leoffric ; is said to have ridden
naked through Coventry in order to obtain
from her husband the remission of a penalty
he had imposed upon the town.
Godkin, James (b. 1806, d. 1879), British
journalist and writer; bom in Ireland ; was
at first missionary to Irish Roman Catholics,
but, having written the Rights of Ireland,
changed his profession, and came to London
as a journalist, where he edited several Scot-
tish and Irish papers. He was subsequently
Dublin correspondent of The Times. He
also wrote The Land War in Ireland, The
Religious History of Ireland, Religion and
Education in India, and other works, and
was awarded a pension for literary merit by
recommendation of Mr. Gladstone.
Godley, John Arthur, C.B. (6. 1847),
English civil servant ; was born in London,
and educated at Rugby and Balliol, taking
many prizes at Oxford, and being fellow of
Hertford from 1874 to 1881 ; was called to
the bar in 1876. and, after having been twice
private secretary to Mr. Gladstone and once
to Eai'l Granville, was made a commissioner
of Inland Revenue in 1882, and became
permanent under-secretary of State for
India in 1883.
GodolpMn, John (&. 1617, d. 1678),
English civilian ; at first a Puritan, and was
made judge of the Admiralty by Cromwell ;
but became a Royalist and king's advocate
after the Restoration. He was author of
Admiralty Jurisdiction.
Godolphin, Sidney (b. 1610, d. 1643),
English Royalist poet; friend of Hobbes j
God
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Goe
killed in a skirmish in Devonshire
during the Great Rebellion.
Godolphin, Sidney, Earl of (6. 1630, d.
1712\ English statesman ; held office under
Charles II., James II., William III. and
Anne ; took part in the secret negotiations
of Charles II. with the French king ; voted
for the exclusion of James, but became his
minister, and corresponded with him when
First Lord of the Treasury under his suc-
cessor; as Anne's lord high treasurer, was
Marlborough's chief support, and shared his
fall in 1710.
Godounov Boris (6. 1552, d. 1605), Tsar
of Russia; obtained the throne by violent
measures, and poisoned himself to escape the
wrath of the heir of Feoclor, whom he had
dispossessed ; was the introducer of serf-
dom into Russia.
Godoy, Manuel de, Duke of Alcudia (6.
1767, d. 1851), Spanish statesman; at first a
favourite and afterwards a minister of
Charles IV., was called " Prince of the
Peace," because he brought to an end in
1795 the war with France ; was dismissed in
1798, but some years after, when in office
again, intrigued with Napoleon for the over-
throw of the Bourbons ; was imprisoned on
the discovery of his schemes, but released by j
Murat in 1808, and spent the rest of his life
at Rome and Paris as a pensioner of the de-
posed Charles IV. and of Louis Philippe.
Godwin, Earl of Kent (d. 1053), English
statesman, married the daughter of Knut,
and entered his service ; afterwards sup-
ported Harold Harefoot, and, on the ac-
cession of Edward the Confessor, headed the
English party against the Norman friends of
the king, who had married his daughter
Editha; consequently incurred his dis-
pleasure, and had to go into exile ; returned
and was reconciled to Edward, but died
Buddenly soon after.
Godwin, Francis (b. 1561, d. 1633), English
bishop and writer ; author of Rerum Angli-
carum Annales, and of the Man in the
Moon.
Godwin, George (b. 1815, d. 1888), Eng-
lish architect; restorer of St. Mary Redcliffe,
Bristol ; author of an Essay on Concrete, for
•which he obtained a medal from the Institute
of British Architects ; edited the Builder, and,
with Mr. Brittou, a History of the Churches
of London, and was secretary of the London
Art Union.
Godwin, Mary. [See Wollstonecraft.]
Godwin, Parke (b. 1816), American bio-
grapher and essayist, was born in New
Jersey and graduated at Princeton, practised
law for a short time, and then turned to
journalism, joining in 1837 the New York
Evening Post. He also contributed to the
Democratic Review and Putnam's Magazine ;
translated and edited Goetht?8 Autobiog-
raphy ; compiled a Handbook of Universal
Biography, which was re-issued under a new
title in 1878 ; and in 1882 published a Bioq-
raphy of W. C. Bryant, whose daughter he
married. He took some part in politics, as
a supporter of the republican, party.
Godwin, William (b. 1786, d. 1835), Eng-
lish writer : friend of Shelley ; gave up his
vocation as a Dissenting minister in Suffolk,
to come to London aud become a writer.
After conducting for a few years the Annual
Register, he brought out in 1793 his Inquiry
into Political Justice, and next year Caleb
Williams, a noveL He also contributed as
a Whig to the Morning Chronicle, and
wrote a History of the Commonwealth of
England (1824-8). His first wife was
Mary Wollstonecraft, whom he married
in 1797.
Goe'oen, Johann von (b. 1816, d. 1880),
German general ; entered the Prussian army
as a private in 1833; served as a volunteer in
the Carlist wars ; re-entered the Prussian
service in 1842, and was conspicuous in the
war of 1866. In 1870 he commanded the
eighth army corps, and was present at the
early battles of the war on the eastern frontier,
after which he was sent to the north and
defeated Faidherbe at Amiens and St.
Quentin. He published an account of his
adventures in Spain under the title Four
Tears in Spain.
GoecMngte, Leopold Gunther von (b.
1748, d. 1828), German poet and statesman,
studied at Halle; was ennobled for his
servicesbyFredericWilliam.il. in 1789, and
in 1793 became councillor of finance at
Berlin, afterwards holding office under the
Prince of Orange-Fulda and administering
the territory of the Princess of Courland.
He was the author of Sinngedichte, written
between 1772 and 1778, and Lieder Zweier
Liebcnden between 1777 and 1779.
Goerres, Johann (b. 1776, d. 1848), Ger-
man writer ; was included in the deputation
of the Rhenish provinces which went to
the Directory to demand their union with
France ; became professor of natural history
at Coblentz, where he edited the revolution-
ary Rheinische Merkur, and wrote several
works. For writing Deutschland und die
Revolution he was expelled by the Prussian
government; but in 1837 he issued a pam-
phlet, Athanasius, when the Archbishop of
Cologne was arbitrarily arrested.
Goertz, George (d. 1719), Swedish states-
man ; as minister of Charles XII. confis-
cated much property to recruit the finances,
and on the death of the king was beheaded
on a charge of treason.
Goe
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Gol
GoertZj Johann Graf von (b. 1737, d.
1821), Prussian diplomatist ; as plenipo-
tentiary of Frederic II. at Munich, pre-
vented the designs of Joseph II. in Bavaria;
was afterwards ambassador at St. Peters-
burg and the Hague, and represented
Prussia in the Diet at Ratisbon. His
Memoirs were printed in 1827.
Goes, Damiao de (b. 1501, d. 1573), Portu-
guese historian and diplomatist ; author of
Legatio Magni Imperatoris Indorum Prcsby-
teri Joannis, Chronica di Felicissimo Rey
Don Manuel de Gloriosa Memoria, and other
works.
Goes, Hugo van der (6. 1419, d. 1480),
Flemish painter ; pupil of Van Eyck. Most
of his pictures are at Ghent and Bruges.
In the church of St. James at the latter
place is his great work, The Taking-Down
from the Cross.
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (6. 1749,
d. 1832), German poet, philosopher, and
romance writer ; was born at Fraukf ort-on-
the-Main of noble family, and received a
liberal education. At sixteen he went to
Leipzig to study law, to which, however,
he did not confine himself. After about
two years' study of alchemy and mystical
writers, he went to Strasburg in 1769,
where he came under the influence of
Herder and met "Wagner. On his return
to Frankfort two years later he published
Goetz von Berlichingen and Leider der
Werther, the latter of which was im-
mensely popular. In 1775 he went to
Weimar, where the Grand Duke gave him
the office of chamberlain ; and in 1786 to
Italy, where he travelled for two years, and
conceived some of his greatest works. The
dramas of Iphigenia, Egmont, and Torquato
Tasso were produced between 1786 and
1790, in which year also the first fragments
of Faust were published. In 1794 Goethe's
botanical researches brought him into con-
nection with Schiller, and in the same year
he produced Wilhelm Meister. The results
of his scientific studies were, besides The
Metamorphosis of Plants, the Beitrdge zur
Optik (1791-2), and a book on the theory of
colour, Farbenlehre, published in 1810, in
opposition to Newton's theories. Mean-
while Hermann und Dorothea had appeared
in 1797, and the greater part of Faust in
1807, the latter not being finished till the
year before his death. Next year he ac-
companied the Grand Duke of Weimar to
Erfurt, and had an interview with Napo-
leon. During his last years he was occu-
pied with his autobiography, Aus Meinem
Leben. In 1856 Mr. G. H. Lewes published
the Life and Works of Goethe, and nu-
merous biographical and literary works con-
cerning him have appeared in Germany.
Goetze, Johann Melchior (6. 1717, d.
1786), German theologian and controver-
sialist, called the "Inquisitor of Ham-
burg; " wrote much in opposition to Lessing,
Goethe, and the nationalists.
Goffe, William (6. 1505, d. 1679), English
soldier ; one of the judges of Charles I., and
of Cromwell's major-generals. His last
years were spent in America, where his
name became known from his having, in
his old age, headed the inhabitants of his
village when attacked by Indians.
Gogol, Nikolai (b. 1808, d. 1852), Russian
writer ; made professor of histoiy at St.
Petersburg by the Tsar Nicholas on account
of his drama The Reviser ; afterwards be-
came famous as the author of Dead Souls ;
in 1847 wrote Letters in favour of the
emancipation of the serfs.
Golding, Arthur (16th century), English
scholar; secretary of Cecil; translated Ovid's
Metamorphoses, and other Latin works.
Golding, Richard (6. 1785, d. 1865), Eng-
lish engraver ; employed by West to engrave
the Death of Nelson, and by Sir T. Lawrence
to reproduce his portrait of Princess Char-
lotte. Proofs of his work are rare.
~ Goldmark, Karl (b. 1832), Austrian com-
poser ; a pupil of Jansa at Vienna, at the
Conservatoire of which he studied. Among
his best works are the overture Sacuntala,
the grand opera Die Koningin von Saba,
and the symphony Die Ldndliche Hochzeit,
the last of which was played by Charles
Halle at Liverpool in 1877, and at the
Crystal Palace in March, 1878,
Goldoni, Carlo (6. 1707, d. 1793), Italian
dramatist ; son of a Venetian physician ; ran
1 away from home, and joined some come-
dians ; on his return studied law at Padua.
He then went to Venice, and wrote come-
dies, taking Moliere as his model ; after-
j wards went to Paris; taught the children of
Louis XV. Italian, and received a pension,
; which was stopped by the Convention, but
i restored. His best known work is Le
\ Bourru Bienfaisant.
Goldschmidt, Hermann (b. 1802, d. 1866),
German painter and astronomer, his chief
pictures being the The Sibyl of Cnma, ex-
hibited in 1845, and the View of Rome, in
1849. Having, when in Paris, heard a
lecture of Le Verrier, he began to study
astronomy, and discovered Lutetia and ten
minor planets, receiving the gold medal of
the Royal Astronomical Society.
Goldsmid, Sir Frederick, C.B., K. C.S.I.
(b. 1823), English general and Persian
scholar ; served in the Chinese campaign of
1840-2, and in the Crimea ; was chief
director of the Indo-European telegraph,
1865-70, and boundary commissioner in
Gol
( 380)
Gom
Persia, 1870-3. He went on several mis-
si 0113 to Persia, ami from 1880 to 1883 was
controller of the Daira Sanieh hi Egypt;
while iii 1885 he became secretary to the
Royal Asiatic Society. His chief works are
Telegraph and Travel (1874), and Life of
Sir James Out rum (1880).
Goldsmith, Oliver (b, 1728, d. 1774),
English poet and romance writer ; son of a
poor Irish clergyman of Pallas, Longford,
went as sizar, in 1744, to Trinity College,
Dublin, where he led a miserable life till
he took his degree live years later. After
this — having failed to obtain ordination,
taken pupils for a time, and lost his money
by extravagance — he went to Edinburgh in
1752, and from thence to Leyden ; but, after
staying there a year, found himself pen-
niless, and travelled to London through,
France, Switzerland, and Northern Italy,
supporting himself by flute-playing. After
a precarious existence as a surgeon, an
author, and a literary hack, he produced, in
1759, his Inquiry into the Pi-i-n-nt State of
Polite Learning in Europe. This sold well,
and gained for the author the acquaintance
of Dr. Johnson. Soon after he was engaged
to contribute to the Public Ledger, and the
Citizen of the World, and among other con-
tributions wrote the Letters from a Nobleman
to his Son. The Traveller followed in 1765,
and The Vicar of Wakefidd (sold for fifty
guineas only) in 1766, but Goldsmith was
improvident" as ever. As a dramatist he
became known as the writer of the Good-
Natured Jfaii, brought out at Coveut
Garden in 1768, and She Stoops to Conquer
in 1773, and as a poet by The Deserted
Village (1770), and his last work, The Re-
taliation. He wrote numerous other works,
among which may be mentioned Animated
Nature-.
Goliath of Gath (d. circa 1063 B.O.),
Philistine giant killed by David.
Golius, Jacob (b. 1596, d. 1667), Dutch
Orientalist ; professor of Arabic at Leyden ;
went to Morocco and Constantinople, and
brought back valuable MSS., now in Ley-
den museum; made an Arabic translation
of the Liturgy and the Reformed Confession
for the Christian slaves in Constantinople,
and was author of an Arabic- Latin dic-
tionary. His brother Peter (d. 1673), a
Romanist missionary, translated the Imi-
tatio Christi into Arabic.
Golovin, Ivan Mikhailovich (b. 1670, d.
1738), Russian diplomatist; fellow -pupil
with Peter the Great in the ship-yards of
Saardam, and sent by him on a mysterious
mission to Rome, for which the ambassador
was largely rewarded.
Golovnin, Vasili (b 1780, d. 1832), Rus-
sian naval officer, while conducting the
survey of the sea-board of the Tsar's do-
minions, he visited Japan, and was im-
prisoned for two years, but collected valu-
able documents concerning the country. He
published in German an account of this and
another voyage made in 1817.
Goltz, Heinrich (b. 10-38, rf. 1617), Ger-
man engraver, the Auol'cj of li"lv. •.!'_•]•: aud
Faruesian Herculex being the bust specimens
of his work.
Gomar, Francis (d. 1563, d. 1641), Dutch
theologiau : disputed with Arminius at the
synod of Doit (1618,, and was active in
promoting the persecuting decrees against
his followers ; studied some time at Oxford,
and received the degree of JB.D. from Cam-
bridge.
Goinbart, Jean Ogier de (d. 1666), French
poet, author of Endymion (1624), Poesies
(1646), and Epigrammes (L657).
Goinbert, Nicolas (16th century), Flemish
musical composer ; attached to the court of
Charles V., and a pupil of Josquin; com-
posed motets aud psalm- tunes, also pastoral
songs and setting of poem of Avidius on the
death of Josquin.
Goraberville, Marion le Royde (b. 1600,
d. 1674), French novelist and academician;
made a point of omitting car and other
words from his works, the chief of which
were La Cardie (1622), Polexandre (1632),
and La Doctrine des Mceurs (1646).
Gomersal, Robert (*. 1600, d. 1646), Eng-
lish poet and divine ; author of The Leviter*
Revenge and other pieces.
Gomez, Madeleine Angelique, Madame de
(b. 1684, d. 1770), French f novelist, her
chief work being Les Journees A.musantes
(1723-8).
Gomez, Sebastiano (d. 1682), the " Mulatto
of Murillo ; " nsed to listen to Murillo in-
structing his pupils, and, being surprised by
his master one day working at the head of
a Madonna, was given his freedom and
admitted as a pupil.
Gomez de Ciudad Real, Alvarez (b. 1488,
d. 1538), Spanish Latin poet, author of
TTialichristia, Proverbia Sol&monis, etc.
Gomm, Sir William Maynard (6. 1782,
d. 1875), English soldier; entered the army
in 1794, and served in all the campaigns of
the Napoleonic wars, being at the time of
"Waterloo lieutenant-colonel. In 1837 he
became major-general ; was lieutenant-
governor of Jamaica from 1840 to 1843, and
governor of the Mauritius from that year
till 1849. During the years 1850-5? he was
commander-in- chief in India, having at-
tained the rank of general in 1854. In
Gon
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Goo
1868 he became field-marshal, and in 1872
was appointed Constable of the Tower.
Goncalvez, Joaquim Alfonso (6. 17»0, d.
1841), 'Portuguese missionary and Chinese
scholar, author of a Portuguese-Chinese
dictionary, and a Latin grammar for the
Chinese.
Goncourt, Edmond Louis de (6. 1822),
French novelist ; wrote, with his brother
Jules, who died in 1870, much art-criticism
and biographv, and especially novels, two
of which lienee Mauperin (1864), and Ger-
minie Lacerteux were especially remarkable.
Edmoud de Goncourt also produced in 1878
La FilU Mise.
Gondebaud, or Gundobald (d. 516), King
of Burgundy ; successor of Chilperic, whom
he had slain in battle ; was attacked by
Clovis, king of the Franks, while attempt-
ing to reconcile the Arians to the Church,
and became tributary to him ; introduced
the Loi Gombette, a Burgundian code.
Gondi, Pierre de (b. 1533, d. 1616), French
cardinal, brother of the Marechal de Retz,
mediated between the pope and Henri IV.,
and reconciled the latter to the Church ; was
successively Bishop of Sangres and Arch-
bishop of Paris.
Gondomar, Diego Sarmiento de Acuna,
Conde da (17th century), Spanish statesman,
as Spanish ambassador in London, obtained
from James I. the warrant for Raleigh's
execution on account of his attack on
Guiana, and influenced him in the direction
of a peaceful policy instead of an armed
interference in the Thirty Years' war in the
cause of his son-in-law.
Gongora y Argote, Luis (5. 1561, d.
1627), Spanish poet m ^ationed by Cervantes,
introduced a new style, conspicuous for its
artificiality, which was called after him
" Gongorism." In 1863 Archdeacon Churton
published an essay in his defence, accom-
panied with translations.
Gonthier, Johann (b. 1487, d. 1574), Ger-
man Hellenist ; physician to Francis I., but,
haying become a Protestant, was obliged to
retire to Metz. He did much to restore
anatomy in the university of Paris, and
was author of Syntaxis Grceca.
Gontran (d. 593), King of Burgundy ; son
of Clotaire I. ; took Avignon from his bro-
ther, Sigebert, and had frequent wars with
him and with Chilperic ; was excommuni-
cated by St. Germain for loose living ; in-
troduced Roman institutions into Burgundy.
Gontran-Bozon (d. 597), French noble;
general of Sigebert, was put to death by
Gontr in. of Burgundy.
Gonzaga, Gian Francesco, Marquis (d.
1519) ; headed the Italian league against
Charles VIII. of France.
Gonzaga, Federico (6. 1500, d. 1540), son
of last named ; created duke by Charles V.,
and given principality of Montferrat.
Gonzaga, Giovanni di (b. 1394, d. 1444),
capiiano of Mantua ; created marquis by the
Emperor Sigismund, who invested him with
the town as an imperial fief. He distin-
fuished himself in war against Filippo
laria Visconti, and as a patron of tba
learned, and his son, Lodovico (d. 1478),
followed in his steps.
Gonzaga, Vincenzo (b. 1594, d. 1627), last
duke of the direct branch.
Gonzaga, Carlo (d. 1637), cousin of last
named; son of Duke of Nevers ; acquired the
duchy after a severe war. His grandson,
Carlo (d. 1669), sold his French possessions
to Cardinal Mazarin in 1659.
Gonzaga, Ferdinando Carlo (b. 1652, d.
1708), son of preceding; fought for the
emperor against the Turks in Hungary;
received a French garrison into Mantua in
1701, and subsequently, when his states
were invaded by the Germans, he was put
to the ban of the empire, and fled to France.
Gonzaga, Luigi di (b. 1267, d. 1360), took
part in the revolt of Mantua against Pas-
serino Bonacossi, and was elected capita-no di
popolo, which dignity became hereditary.
Gonzaga, Tommasoo Antonio (b. 1747, d.
about 1793), Portuguese poet, accused of
participating in a conspiracy in Brazil, and
banished to Mozambique for ten years ;
called "Dirceo," from his popular lyrics
called Manila di Dircco, which were in-
spired by his love for a lady whom he was
about to marry when arrested.
Gonzales, Antonio (15th century), Portu-
guese navigator ; the first to traffic in slaves,
the first cargo of whom he was obliged by
Prince Henry to restore.
Goirjalvo de Cordova (b. 1443, d. 1515),
called the " Great Captain," for his skill in
driving the French, under Charles VIII.,
from Italy. He subsequently became
Spanish viceroy of Naples ; but Ferdinand
V., jealous of his reputation, deprived him
of office, and caused him to retire into pri-
vate lif e.
Good, John Mason (b. 1764, d. 1827), Eng-
lish physician and linguist, wrote the Book
of Nature and other works; edited the first
complete edition of the Letters of Junius,
and translated Lucretius, Job, Proverbs, and
the Song of Solomon.
Good, Thomas Sword (b. 1789, d. 1872),
English painter, at first house-painter,
Goo
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Goo
afterwards came to London and exhibited
at the Academy figure-pieces in the style
of Wilkie, among which may be named
The Merry Cottagers, Smuggler*
and Scidy of a Boy, now in the National
Gallery, and a small portrait of Thomas
Bewick in Newcastle museum.
Goodale, George Lincoln, M.D. (b. 1839),
American botanist, graduated at Amherst
College, and received degrees from Bow-
doin and Harvard ; practised at Portland
(M:iiue), and became in 1864 state assayer
of medicine. In 1867 he was appointed
professor of natural science in Bowdoin, and
next year became a member of Maine Board
of Agriculture, and professor of materia
medica in the Maine school. In 1872 he
was lecturer on vegetable physiology at
Harvard, and next year assistant professor ;
and in 1878 professor of botany, becoming
in 1875 a member of the council of the Har-
vard library. Subsequently he was presi-
dent of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, and among his
works are Wild Flowers of North America
(1882) and Physiological Botany, the second
part of Gray's Botanical Text- Book (1885).
Goodall, Edward (b. 1795, d. 1870), Eng-
lish engraver, abandoned painting on being
commissioned by Turner to engrave his pic-
tures ; and also made plates for The South
Coasts, Rogers's Italy, and the Literary
Souvenir,
Goodall, Frederick (b. 1822), English
painter ; son of preceding ; won the silver
medal of the Society of Arts when little more
than a boy ; exhibited Card Players at the
Academy at the age of seventeen ; was
elected A.R.A. in 1853, and B.A. in 1863.
Previously to this his chief pictures had
been The Tired Soldier and the Village Holi-
faiy (in the National Gallery), and some
historical paintings. He travelled much for
the purpose of his studies, both in Europe
and Egypt. Among his more recent pic-
tures may be named The Song of the Nubian
Slave, Hagar and Ishmael (1866), A Litter
of Doces, and A Fruit Woman of Cairo
0875) ; Glencoe (1877), Palm Sunday (1878),
Holy Childhood (18SO), Crossing the Desert
and Water for the Camp (1883), Gordon's
Last Messenger (1885), Leading the Flock
(1839), and The Thames from Windsor Castle
(1890).
Goode, George Brown (b. 1851), American
ichthyologist; became assistant-director of
the National Museum, and supervised the
natural history department of the Phila-
delphia Exhibition in 1876 ; was United
States commissioner at the Fisheries Exhi-
bitions of Berlin and London : and in 1887
became United States fish commissioner.
Among his works are a Catalogue of the Fishes
of the Bermudas (1875), Game Fishes of th«
United States (1883}, A Review of tfo Fish-
ing Industries of the United States (1883),
Britons, Saxons, and Virginians (1887), and
American Fishes (1888).
Goodford, Charles Old, D.D. (b. 1812, d.
1884), Provost of Eton; was educated at
Eton and King's College, Cambridge, of
which he was for a short time fellow ; was
successively assistant-master, head-master
(1853-62), and provost of Eton. He edited
in 1854 an edition of Terence's comedies.
Goodman, Godfrey (b. 1583, d. 1655),
English divine; Dean of Rochester, and
afterwards Bishop of Gloucester ; was sus-
pended by Laud for Romanist tendencies ;
wrote a History of his own Times, which
was printed in 1839.
Goodrich, Samuel Griswold (b. 1793, d.
1860), American educational writer; better
known as " Peter Parley; " began life as a
publisher in Massachusetts, and became
afterwards United States vice-consul at
Paris. He visited England, Germany, and
Holland at diff erent times.
Goodrich, Thomas (b. 1480, d. 1554),
English divine ; Bishop of Ely ; one of the
Syndics in the divorce proceedings against
Catherine of Aragon ; took part in the
translation of the New Testament, and was
one of the compilers of the Prayer Book of
1549, and the author of The Institution of a
Christian Man. Under Edward VI. he was
Lord Chancellor.
Goodwin, Harvey, D.D. (b. 1818, d. 1891),
English divine ; was born at King's Lynn,
and educated at Caius College, Cambridge,
where he was for some years fellow and
mathematical lecturer, having been second
wrangler and Smith's prizeman. He was
Dean of Ely from 1858 to 1869, when he
became Bishop of Carlisle ; and is the author
of Essai/s on the Pentateuch, A Guide to the
Parish Church. TJie Foundations of the Creed
(1889), and of some mathematical works.
Goodwin, Thomas (b. 1600, d. 1679), Cal-
vinist divine; graduated at Cambridge when
sixteen, and was in his twentieth year fel-
low of Catherine Hall ; left Cambridge in
1634, and soon had to go to Holland on
account of Laud's persecutions, but was
invited to return by the Long Parliament,
and became president of Magdalen, Oxfoid,
in 1650. At the Restoration was, of course,
onli ued to resign, and removed to London,
where he remained as a minister till his
death. He was with Cromwell at his death.
Goodyear, Charles (b. 1800, d. 1860),
American mechanic; invented vulcanised
indiarubber about 1839; after several minor
discoveries, took out in all sixty patents for
Goo
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Gor
inventions of this nature, and obtained in
1851 the Great. Council medal at the Inter-
national Exhibition, and the grand medal
of the Paris Exhibition, as well as the
ribbon of the Legion of Honour. He re-
turned to America in 1858, and was at the
time of his death preparing a book upon
indiarubber and vulcanisation.
Googe, Bamaby (d. 1538), English poet
and translator, author of Eglogs, Epitaphs
and Sonnettes (1563), and translator of the
Zodiac of Life, Aristotle's table of the Ten
Categories, and other works. He was a
relation of Cecil, and gentleman-pensioner
to Queen Elizabeth.
Gool, Jan van (b. 1685, d. 1763), Dutch
landscape-painter, and author of the New
Theatre of Dutch Painters (1750-1).
Gordianus I. (b. 157, d. 238), Koman Em-
peror; succeeded Maximinus in 238, but was
killed in battle with Capellianus the same
year, together with his son.
Gordianus H (d. 244), Koman emperor ;
proclaimed in 238 ; made war on Persia, and
was slain by bos colleague, Philip the
Arabian.
Gordius, a Phrygian labourer, who, when
elected king, placed in the temple of
Jupiter his chariot, fastened by a yoke which
no one could undo. This " Gordian kuot "
was said to have been cut by Alexander the
Great.
Gordon, Adam Lindsay (6. 1833, d. 1870),
Australian poet ; son of an English officer ;
was educated at Cheltenham, but early emi-
grated to South Australia, where he tried
sheep -farming, and, after many adventures,
put an end to his life. His poems include
£ush Ballads, Sea Spray and Snow Drift, and
Ashtaroth (a dramatic lyric).
Gordon, Andrew (6. 1712, d. 1751), Scottish
physicist, who first used a cylinder in the
electric machine, and was author of Pheno-
mena Electricitatis (1744).
Gordon, Sir Arthur Hamilton (b. 1817,
d. 1890), English colonial administrator;
youngest son of the Earl of Aberdeen,
to whom he was for some years private
secretary, was elected for Beverley in 1854,
and sat till 1857, and, after an unsuccessful
candidature for Liskeard, was in 1858 secre-
tary to Ionian Islands Mission. In 1861 he
was named governor of New Brunswick,
in I860 of Trinidad, and in 1870 of the
Mauritius. In 1874 he became governor of
the Fiji Islands, and was also from 1877 to
1880 high commissioner for the Western
Pacific. He was governor of New Zealand,
1880-1883, and after that of Ceylon,
Gordon, Charles George (b. 1833, d. 1885),
" Chinese Gordon ; " English officer and phi-
lanthropist ; entered the Royal Military Col-
lege, Woolwich, in 1848, and obtained a
commission in the Engineers in 1852. After
two years at Chatham, and a short time at
Pembroke, he was sent to the Crimea, and
was present at the capture of Kinburn.
During the years 1857-8 he was assistant-
commissioner at Galatz, and boundary
commissioner in America. After a short
time spent at Chatham he went in 1860 to
China, where he remained for several years ;
constructed the Taku forts, made an expedi-
tion to the Great Wall, but especially dis-
tinguished himself as head of the force by
which the Tai-ping rebellion was crushed.
Declining the honours offered by the em-
peror, Gordon returned to England, and
obtained an appointment at Graveseud. In
1871 he again went as commissioner to
Galatz, and in 1874 went for the first time
to the Soudan, where, as governor for the
Khedive, he suppressed the slave trade.
In 1876 he resigned, but next year was in-
duced to return, and in the course of three
years completed the work he had begun in
1874. In 1880 he was appointed secretary
to Lord Bipon, Governor- General of India,
but immediately resigned, and went to
China, where he was able to prevent a
threatened war with Russia. On his return
he visited the west of Ireland, from whence
he went to the Mauritius, and in 1882 to
the Cape as commander-in-chief. In the
previous year he had attained the rank of
major-general in the British army. During
18S3 he lived in Palestine, and as the result
wrote Reflections in Palestine. Next year
he was about to go to the Congo as adminis-
trator for the king of the Belgians, when
he was called upon by the English Govern-
ment to proceed as British envoy to the
Soudan, being also nominated governor-
general by the Khedive. He was not sup-
ported by the home Government in his
efforts to rescue the besieged garrisons, and
was himself at last shut up in Khartoum,
where an expedition sent out to relieve him
arrived too late to prevent his death.
Gordon, Lord George (*. 1751, d. 1793),
English fanatic ; was active as a member of
Parliament and of the Protestant Assocj*-
tion in resistance to proposals of relieving
Catholic disabilities, and in 1780 headed the
riots in London, when he marched to the
Houses of Parliament at the head of a "No
Popery " mob. He was tried for high trea-
son, but acquitted. He died in prison for
libellous offences, having before his death
adopted Judaism.
Gordon, Sir John Watson (5. 1790, d.
1864), Scotch portrait-painter, a fellow
pupil with Wilkie at the Academy of the
Trustees for the Encouragement of Manu-
factures, and lived at Edinburgh all his lif e.
Gor
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Gor
In 1827 his first picture was exhibited at
the Scottish Academy, of which he became
president in 18-30. In l^>il he was elected
A.K.A., and in 18.31 11. A. Among his por-
traits are those of Sir Waiter Scott, the Earl
of Aberdeen, and Lord Oockburii.
Gordon, Lucie Lady Duff (b. 1821, d.
186J), English translator, daughter of John
Austiu; went to Germany in 1826, and
formed a friendship with Heine, and married
Sir A. Dull' Gordon in 1840. In 1839 she
translated Niebuhr's Greek Legends, in
1844 Meinhold's Amber Witch, and in 1849
Rauke's History of Brandenburg. She visited
the Cape for her health, and while there
wrote Letters from the Cape (1861-2); and
in 1865 went to Egypt. She also translated
Remarkable Criminal Trials from the Ger-
man, Stella and Vanessa, and other works.
Gordon, Patrick (b. 1635, d. 1699), Scots-
man, who was general in the Russian ser-
vice, and a friend and adviser of Peter the
Great.
Gordon, Thomas (d. 1750), British writer;
employed by Walpole, published a transla-
tion of Tacitus, and was author of Pillars of
Priestcraft and Orthodoxy Unshaken (1768).
Gordon, William (b. 1729, d. lSp7),_Ameri-
can historian ; went to America in 1772 as a
supporter of the colonists, and produced in
1788 a History of the Independence of the
United States.
Gore, Catherine (b. 1800, d. 1861), English
novel writer, wife of Captain Gore. Among
her many novels the best known are Theresa
Marchmont and Mothers and Daughters
(1831).
Gb'rgei, Arthur (b. 1818), Hungarian
general, studied chemistry at Prague, and
wrote a work on acids; joined Kossuth in
1848, and performed many brilliant ex-
ploits, but professed allegiance to Austria
at Waitzen, and was for a time deprived of
his command. On being restored he won
many brilliant victories for the Hungarian
cause, and became minister of war. He was
again, however, deprived by Kossuth for
neglecting to seize Vienna, but again re-
placed by the wishes of his soldiers. On
August 13th, 1849, however, he surrendered
to the Russians at Valagos. He was par-
doned by the Austriaus, and afterwards
employed in engineering work. In 1852
appeared Me i n Leben und Wirkcn in Unyarn
in den Jahren 1843-9 — a defence of his
conduct — which was translated in 1858.
Gorgias of Leontini (b. 485 B.C., d. 380
B.C.), Sicilian philosopher and statesman,
having gone on a mission to Athens, settled
there, and devoted himself to study. His
chief work is a philosophical treatise Of tlie
Non-being, or of Nature, and several of his
orations are extant.
Gori, Antonio (b. 1691, d. 1757), Italian
archaeologist ; author of Inscriptions An-
ttyt((£, and Museum Florentinum.
Goring, Lord George (d. 1657), English
Royalist commander in the Great Rebellion ;
surrendered Portsmouth, and was defeated
in several engagements, after which he
became a Dominican friar in Spain.
Gorm (d. circa 941), King of Denmark,
and a notable pirate.
Gorrie, Sir John (b. 1824) , English colonial
administrator; born at Kettle, Fifeshire;
the sou of a Presbyterian minister ; edu-
cated at Edinburgh and St. Andrew's ; was
called to the Scottish bar in 1856. He was
prominent in his advocacy of the volunteer
movement, raising two artisan companies
in Edinburgh. In 1860 he went to America,
and, as a writer on the Morning Star, sup-
ported the northern states. After some
months in Jamaica, he came to London in
1868, with the view of entering Parliament
for the Border burghs, but withdrew in
favour of Mr. Trevelyan. In 1869 he went to
the Mauritius as substitut procureur-gtneral ;
shortly after became puisne j udge and effected
several reforms. In 1876 he became chief
justice of the Fiji Islands, and after-
wards high commissioner. In 1882 he was
knighted, and soon after transferred to the
Leeward Islands, where he carried out
several reforms in the interests of the in-
habitants, especially the Indefeasible Titles
ordinance. In 1885 he was removed to
Trinidad, where his administration was
popular and successful.
Gorsas, Antoine Joseph (b. 1751, d. 1793),
French revolutionary journalist. After
having been imprisoned for his satirical
verses, he established the Courrier de Ver-
sailles in 1789, and attacked the court;
became a member of the National Con-
vention in 1792, bnt, having become too
moderate in his views, was obliged to fly to
Brittany, and on his return was tried by
the revolutionary tribunal and guillotined.
Gorst, Sir John Eldon (b. 1835), English
statesman ; son of Mr. E. C. Loundes,
who assumed the name of Gorst; was
educated at St. John's College, Cambridge,
of which he was for some time fellow,
having been third wrangler in 1857. From
1861 to 1863 he was civil commissioner of
Waikato, New Zealand, and in 1865 was
called to the English bar, becoming Queen's
Counsel in 1875. From 1866 to 1868 he was
Conservative member of Parliament for
Cambridge, and in 1875 was returned for
Chatham. In the Parliament of 1880 he
was a member of the "Fourth party,"
Gor
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Gos
and, on the return of the Conservatives to
office, became Solicitor- General. In the
Unionist Government he was appointed
under- secretary for India.
Gortschakoff, Prince Alexander Michaelo-
vitch (b. 1798, d. 1883), Eussian statesman ;
entered the diplomatic service, and was in
1824 attache in London, from whence he went
as Russian minister to Stuttgardt, after hav-
ing negotiate 1 the marriage of the Crown
Prince of Wiirtemberg with the Grand-
Duchess Olga. In 1850 he went to Frankfort
as minister to the German Confederation,
and formed an acquaintance with Bismarck.
After being minister at Vienna during the
Crimean war, and attending the Paris con-
ference, he was appointed, in 1856, secretary
for foreign affairs, and, some years later,
chancellor. His policy was, on the whole,
pacific, but he set himself gradually to
undo the treaty of 1856, in so far as it
affected Eussian interests. Thus, in return
for his moral support of Prussia in 1870
he obtained her approval in the abrogation
of the Black Sea neutrality clause. As the
result of the Eusso-Turkish war of 1877-8
he also regained for Eussia the mouths of
the Danube. Gortschakoff's Asian policy,
actuated by dislike to England, probably
had much to do with the second Afghan
war. In 1879 he went to Berlin with the
object of improving the relations between
Eussia and Germany, and in the following
year gave up office and retired to Baden-
Baden.
Gortschakoff, Prince Michael (b. 1795, d,
1861), Eussian soldier; cousin of the last-
named ; served in the Turkish war of
1828-9, and composed a war-song on the
passage of the Danube; commanded the
artillery in the Polish insurrection of 1830 ;
took part in the Hungarian campaign of
1848, and distinguished himself in the
Crimean war by his skilful retreat from
Sebastopol. He was for the rest of his
life governor of Poland, and lived to see
the beginning of the last great insurrec-
tionary movement.
Goschen, George Joachim (b. 1831), Eng-
lish statesman of German Jewish extrac-
tion, born in London ; educated at Eugby
and Oriel College, Oxford; was engaged in
banking as a partner in the firm of Friihling
and Goschen till 1865. He entered Par-
liament as Liberal member for the City
of London in 1863, and represented it till
1880. In 1866 he became chancellor of the
duchy of Lancaster and a cabinet minister,
having previously been vice-president of
the Board of Trade. In Mr. Gladstone's
first ministry he was president of the Poor-
Law Board, and afterwards First Lord of
the Admiralty. In 1876 he accompanied
M. Joubert on a mission to Egypt with the
view of restoring the finances. In 1880 he
was returned for Eipon, but, owing to hia
views on reform, was unable to take
office, and went as ambassador to the Porte,
when he compelled the Turks to carry out
those provisions of the Berlin treaty which
related to Greece. On his return to
England he took up in Parliament an inde-
pendent attitude, becoming gradually, how-
ever, more and more alienated from his
party. In 1885 he was returned for Edin-
burgh, but was rejected when, at the
next election, he opposed Mr. Gladstone's
Home Eule policy. In 1887 he joined
Lord Salisbury's Government as Chancellor
of the Exchequer, becoming member for
St. George's, Hanover Square. In 1888 he
carried out a scheme for the reduction of
the interest on the national debt. His
treatise on the Theory of Foreign Exchanges
was translated into French by M. Leon Say.
Goselini, Giuliano (b. 1525, d. 1587),
Italian poet ; author of Rime, published in
1572.
Gpslickl, Laurence (b. 1535, d. 1607),
Polish orator; author of De Optimo Sena-
tore (1568).
Goss, Sir John (b. 1800, d. 1880), English
organist and composer ; studied under
Attwood, whom he succeeded as organist
of St. Paul's in 1838, retiring in 1872 with
the honour of knighthood. He composed
several chants and anthems for special
occasions, notably, If we Believe (for the
funeral of the Duke of Wellington), The
Lord is my Strength (for the thanksgiving
service in 1872 on the recovery of the Prince
of Wales), and Praise the Lord. He was
also author of an Introduction to Harmony
and Thorough Bass.
Gosse, Philip Henry (b. 1810, d. 1888),
English naturalist ; was at first a merchant's
clerk, but, when he was sent to Newfound-
land and Canada, he devoted much attention
to entomology. The results of his visit to
these countries and to Jamaica and the
southern states of the Union were large
natural history collections and several
books, written between 1839 and 1850. The
chief of these were The Canadian Naturalist,
Letters from Alabama, and The Birds of
Jamaica. In 1856 he was elected F.E.S.,
and contributed many papers to the society's
Catalogue of Scientific Papers. His son,
Edmund (b. 1849), critic, was Clark lecturer
in English literature at Trinity College,
Cambridge, from 1884 to 1889.
Gossec, Francois (A. 1733, d. 1830), Bel-
gian musician : published Symphonies in
1754, and composed much church music.
Gosselin, Pascal Francois (b. 1751, d.
1830), French geographer and traveller;
Got
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made extensive researches throughout
Europe, and wrote Giuyraplde dcs Cfrecs
Analysce (1790).
Got, Francois Jules (b. 1822), French
actor : studied at the Conservatoire and
gained the first prize for comedy iu 1843.
He first appeared at the Comedie Franchise
in 1844, and became societaire in 1850. One
of his best parts was Sganarelle, but he
played most frequently in modern comedies,
especially those of Augier, his creation of
"Giboyer"in Les Fils de Giboyer having
been especially remarkable and popular.
Gotschalk, or Gotteschalchus (b. 806, d.
867), German heretic ; publicly flogged and
imprisoned by order of Hincmar, Arch-
bishop of Rheims for his predestinarian
views, and refused the last sacraments and
Christian burial.
Gottfried von Strasburg (12th and 13th
centuries) , German minnesinger ; author of
Freidanks Bescheidenheit and Tristan und
Isolde.
Gottsched, Johann Christoph (b. 1700, d.
1766), German writer and critic : professor
of philosophy and poetry at Leipzig ; did
much to reform the corrupt state of taste
in his day. His wife, Luise (d. 1762), co-
operated with him, and wrote some dramatic
pieces.
Goudinel, Claude (d. 1572), French com-
poser ; teacher of Palestrina at Rome ; j
perished in the massacre of Huguenots at
Lyons in 1572.
Gouges, Marie Olympe de (b. 1755, d.
1793), French writer; supposed to have j
been a daughter of Louis XV. ; was at
first a favourer of the revolution, but
afterwards defended the king and was
guillotined.
Gough, Sir Charles John Stanley,
K.C.B., V.C. ; entered the army in 1848 ;
served in the Punjaub campaign of 1848-9 ;
in the Indian Mutiny, being at the cap-
ture of Delhi, and gained the Victoria
Cross at the siege of Lucknow, where he
saved his brother's life; in the Bhotan ex-
pedition of 1864-5, and in the Afghan war
of 1878-80, being three times mentioned
in despatches. He became major-general
in 1885, and lieutenant-general in 1889.
Gough, Hugh, Viscount (b. 1779, d. 1869),
British commander ; born near Limerick ;
entered the army in 1794; after serving at
the Cape and the West Indies, went in 1809
to Portugal; distinguished himself and
gained a step at Talavera, and after the
Peninsular war held a command in Ireland.
In 183? Major- General Gough was sent to
India to command in Mysore, and next
year commanded the British troops in China.
His successful conduct of the war waa
rewarded with a baronetcy, and he now
became conimaiider-iu-chief in India. In
that capacity lie conducted the Mahratta
war of 1843, aud the Sikh wars of 1845 and
1848, winning the battles of Moodkee and
Sobraon in the first, and of Chillianwallah
and Goojerat in the second. On his return
to England he was created viscount, and
received a pension. He became Privy Coun
cillor in 1859, and field-marshal in 1862.
Gough, Sir Hugh Henry, Major-general,
V.C., K.C.B., entered the army in 1853;
served in the Indian mutiny, being wounded
at the siege of Delhi and at Luckuow ;
gained the Victoria Cross in 1857, when, in
command of Hodson's Horse, he charged
across a swamp and captured two guns in
the face of a superior force. He also served
in the Abyssinian war and the Afghan war,
being with Sir F. Roberts in the march to
Candahar.
Gough, John Bartholomew (b. 1817, d.
1886), temperance orator ; was born in Kent,
but in 1829 emigrated to America. After a
life of intemperance, he, in 1842, became a
total abstainer, and from that time devoted
himself to the temperance cause as an
orator, visiting England several times, and
carrying on his campaign also in the States
and the colonies. His Autobiography waa
published in 1879, and further personal
sketches called Sunlight and Shadow in
1881, and an edition of his speeches was also
brought out.
Gough, Richard (6. 1735. d. 1809), English
antiquary ; made extensive researches ;
edited and translated Camden's Britannia,
and was also author of The Sepulchral
Monuments of Great Britain, and the His-
tory of the Society of Antiquaries of London.
He presented his valuable collection of
books, manuscripts, and prints to the
Bodleian library.
Goujon, Jean, French sculptor and archi-
tect of the 16th century ; executed some of
the Louvre sculptures, and the Fountain of
the Innocents. He may have been one of the
Huguenot victims of St. Bartholomew, 1572.
Goujon, Jean Marie Claude (6. 1766, d.
1795), French revolutionary minister of the
interior for a few days in 1794, and an
extreme Montagnard ; committed suicide in
1795 to avoid execution.
Goulard, Thomas (d. circa 1784), French
surgeon; inventor of Goulard's "water,"
and author of Traite des Preparations de
Plomb.
Goulburn, Edward Meyrick, D.D. (b.
1818), English divine ; educated at Eton and
Balliol, became fellow of Merton in 1841.
Gem
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From 1850 to 1858 he was head-master of
Bug by, and in 1859 chaplain to the Queen.
After holding several London benefices, he
became Dean of Norwich in 1866, but
resigned in 1888. He was a great opponent
of Dean Stanley, and was author of several
religious works, the chief of which, Thoughts
on Personal Religion^ went through fifty
editions.
Goulburn, Henry (b. 1784, d. 1856),
English statesman ; was educated at Cam-
bridge, and entered Parliament as a
Tory in 1807. In 1810 he was appointed
under- secretary for Home affairs, and from
1812 to 1821 was under-secretary for the
colonies. He then became Chief Secretary
for Ireland, which office he held until, in
1828, made Chancellor of the Exchequer by
the Duke of Wellington. In 1831 he was
one of the successful opponents of Lord
Palmerston for Cambridge University. In
the Peel ministry of 1834 he was Home
Secretary, and again in 1841, holding office
till 1846, after which he retired with Sir E.
Peel, and was never again in office. He
was a zealous Free-Trader and financial
reformer.
Gould, Benjamin Apthorp (&. 1824), Ameri-
can astronomer ; graduated at Harvard in
1844, and, after a year's school-teaching,
went to Europe and studied astronomy under
Gauss at Gottingen, taking the degree of
Ph.D. in 1848. "Before returning to America
lie studied under Cerago at Paris, and met
Alexander von Humboldt and other men of
science. In 1851 he had charge of the
longitude operations of the coast survey,
and was one of the first to apply the tele-
graph for determination of longitudinal
differences. He was director of the Dudley
observatory from 1856 to 1859, where the
normal clock was first used to give time
telegraphically. In 1868 he was appointed
to organise the national observatory of the
Argentine republic, when he composed his
Uranometry of the^ Southern Heavens. Dr.
Gould also organised a national meteoro-
logical office, with stations from the tropics
to Tierra del Fuego, and from the Andes to
the Atlantic. His publications include a
Report on the Discovery of the Planet Nep-
tune (1850), and Investigations in the Mili-
tary and Anthropological Statistics of Ameri-
can Soldiers (1869).
Gould, John (b. 1804, d. 1881), English or-
nithologist ; son of a head-gardener at
Windsor; was for some time employed in
the gardens of Ripley Castle, Yorkshire.
In 1827 he was appointed curator of the
Zoological Society's museum. Between
1832 and 1837 he brought out The Birds of
Europe1 in five volumes, issuing simul-
taneously monographs on separate groups.
In 1838 he went to Australia, which, as well
z 2
as Tasmania, he thoroughly explored, and
published as the result The Birds of Aus-
tralia (1840-8). At the exhibition of 1851
he showed a fine collection of humming-
birds, and, besides several monographs, was
author of The Birds of Great Britain, The
Birds of New Guinea, and ih.&£irds of Asia,
the last unfinished.
Goulston, or Gulston, Theodore (d. 1632),
English physician ; founder of the Gul-
stonian lecture, and author of Comments on
Galen, published in 1640.
Gounod, Charles Francois (b. 1818), French
composer; born in Pans, and educated at
the Conservatoire under Halevy and Zim-
mermann, whose daughter he married in
1847. In 1839 he gained the prize for com-
position, and, after visiting Rome and
Vienna, became an organist in Paris, where,
in 1849, a high mass by him attracted
attention. Sappho, his first opera, was
produced in 1851, and the composer was
soon after appointed director of the Orpheon.
After some minor works, Faust appeared in
1859, being brought out at the Theatre
Lyrique. Mireile followed in 1864, and
Romeo et Juliette in 1867. In 1870 Gounod
visited England and gave concerts at the
Albert Hall. Of his later works the chief
are Jeanne d'Arc (1873), The Redemption,
produced at Birmingham under his own
direction in 1882, and Mors et Vita.
Gourgaud, Gaspard, Baron (b. 1783, d.
1852), distinguished French general; served
throughout the campaigns of Napoleon I.,
and was with him for some time at St.
Helena. On his return he published
Memoires de Napoleon, and was one of
those who brought back the remains of the
emperor to Paris in 1840. In 1825 he
became involved in a duel with Segur,
arising out of a reply he had written to the
latter' s Histoire de la Grande Armee. He
also had a controversy with Sir Walter
Scott.
Gourgnes, Dominique de (d. 1593), French
sailor ; went to Florida to revenge the
murder of the French there ; defeated the
Spaniards and hanged his prisoners, but
was proscribed on his return. He was in
1593 offered a command by Elizabeth, but
died on his way to London.
Gourko, Nicholas, Count (b. 1828), Rus-
sian general of Polish descent ; entered the
imperial body-guard in 1846 ; took part in
the Crimean war; became major-general
in 1867, 'and greatly distinguished himself
in the Russo -Turkish war of 1877-8. He
took Tirnova and crossed the Balkans, and
defended himself in the Shipka Pass against
a greatly superior number of Turks. He
commanded the cavalry at the siege of
Plevna, and defeated the relieving force of
Gou
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Mehemet ALL After the fall of the town
he again crossed the Balkans, and carried
out the concluding operations of the war.
He was created count for his services, and
appointed governor 01 Poland.
Gourmont, Gilles de (d. circa 1733),
French printer ; was the first to employ
Greek and Hebrew types.
Gournay, Marie de Jars de (b. 1566, d.
1645), French poetess; wrote verses and some
prose works, including Egalite des Homines
et des Femmes and Le Grief des Dames.
Gourville, Le Sieur He'raultde (b. 1625, d.
1703), French financier and diplomatist;
employed by Mazarin ; his Memoires were
published in 1724.
Gouvea, Antonio da (d. 1628), Portuguese
traveller ; an Augustinian monk ; went as a
teacher to Goa, and from thence as am-
bassador to Persia, where he acted as papal
nuncio, and was imprisoned ; was captured
by Barbary pirates on his return to Europe,
and released after two years' captivity;
brought out a Book of Travels in 1611.
Gouvion Saint Cyr, Laurent (b. 1764, d.
1830), French marshal, originally an actor ;
rose to distinction in the early revolu-
tionary wars, and in 1798 was given the
command of the army sent against Rome ;
distinguished himself against Suvarov and
Wittgenstein, became one of Bonaparte's
marshals, and was taken prisoner at Leipzig
(1813) ; was appointed minister of war by
Louis XVIII., and introduced many reforms
in the army ; published his Memoires between
1821 and 1831.
Gow, Andrew Carrick (b. 1848), English
painter; was in 18G8 elected member of the
Institute, in 1881 A.R.A., and R.A. in 1891.
Among his best pictures are Introduction of
Lady Mary Worthy to the Kit-Cat Club
(1873), The Relief of Ley den (1876), The
Tumult in the "House of Commons, 1640
(1877), No Surrender (1878), Bothwell (1884),
Cromwell at D unbar (1886).
Gow, Neil (b. 1727, d. 1807), Scotch violin
player and composer.
Gow, Nathaniel (b. 1766, d. 1831), son of
the above, violin player and composer of
Scotch airs and songs, including Caller
Herring.
Gower, John (d. 1408), English poet;
friend of Chaucer, who calls him "Moral
Gower ;" graduated at Oxford, and studied
law at the Inner Temple, but was of inde-
pendent means. His chief work is in three
parts in Latin — Speculum Meditantis, Vox
Clamantis, and Confessio Amantis.
Gowers, William Richard, M.D. (b. 1845),
English physician and medical writer; in
1873 was appointed assistant-physician at
University College Hospital, and afterwards
became physician to that institution aud to
the National Hospital for the Paralysed and
Epileptic, and professor of clinical medicine.
He was elected F.R.C.P. in 1879, and F.R.S.
in 1887. His chief works are Manual and
Atlas of Medical Ophthalmoscopy, Diagnosis
of Diseases of the Spinal Cord, and Manual
of Diseases of the Nervous System.
Cowing, Emilia Aylmer, nee Blake (6.
1846), English novelist and verse writer ;
author of Leon de Beaumanoir, the
dramas A Life Race and A Grown of Life,
The Jewel Reputation and An Unruly Spirit
(novels), Ballads and Poems and The Cithern.
In her youth she gave French recitations,
and she married, in 1877, Mr. William Gow-
ing (" Walter Gordon ").
Gowrie, William Ruthven, Earl of (d.
1584), Scotch Protestant noble, who, as one
of the murderers of Rizzio, incurred the
enmity of Mary Stewart, and was executed
for his share in the Raid of Ruthven, a
plot to take the young James out of the
possession of the Catholic faction.
Gowrie, John, Earl of (d. 1600), son of
last-named ; engaged with his brother,
Alexander, in a plot to assassinate James
VI., but was killed, and the plot frustrated.
Gozzi, Count Carlo (b. 1722, d. 1806),
Venetian dramatist, whose chief works were
Donna Serpente, Maestro Turchino, and Tu-
randot, or The Princess of China, the last of
which was translated by Schiller. Gozzi's
Autobiography was also translated by Paul
de Musset in 1848.
Gozzi, Count Gasparo (1713, d. 1786),
Venetian litterateur ; reformed the uni-
versity of Padua after the suppression of
the Jesuits; conducted the Osserratore and
the Mondo Morale, and also wrote Sermoni
and Defcssa di Dante.
Graccims, Tiberius Sempronius (d. 212
B.C.), Roman general; commanded against
Hannibal, and defeated Hanno, but was
himself soon after made prisoner and
killed.
Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius (d. 133
B.C.), Roman tribune; nephew of Scipio
Africanus ; became quaestor in 137 ; when
tribune carried his agrarian law, but was
soon after killed in a tumult raised by Scipio
Nasica, one of his aristocratic opponents.
Gracchus, Caius Sempronius (b. 154 B.C.,
d. 121 B.C.), Roman tribune ; brother of last-
named ; renewed his brother's agrarian law,
and was more extreme in his measures ;
was twice tribune ; ultimately proscribed,
and slain with three thousand of his friends,
Gra
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his colleague, Drusus, having secretly ex-
cited the people against him.
Grace, William Gilbert (b. 1848), physician
and cricketer, whose achievements extend
over nearly thirty years. In July, 1879, he
received a testimonial from all classes of
players, and has since been known as the
"Champion." He has visited Australia
more than once, aiid has achieved greater
success as a bat and all round player than
any other cricketer.
Gradenigo, Pietro (b. 1249, d. 1311), Doge
of Venice ; carried on an unsuccessful war
against Genoa ; founded the " Libro d'Oro,"
from the names inscribed in which members
of the Grand Council were alone to be
chosen ; was excommunicated by the Pope
in 1309, and founded the Council of Ten in
1310.
Grafton, Augustus Fitzroy, Duke of (b.
1736, d. 1811), English statesman ; descended
from Charles II. ; was Secretary of State in
Buckingham's first ministry (1765-6), and
nominal head of Chatham's administra-
tion from 1767 to 1770, during which he
ras assailed by "Junius" with great
ferocity.
Grafton, Richard (16th century), English
printer ; was imprisoned under Henry VIII.
for printing without permission Matthews'
Bible and TJie Great Bible; also printed
Abridgment of the Chronicles of England,
and continued Hall.
Graham, George (b. 1675, d. 1751), English
astronomical mechanician ; superintended
and divided with his own hands the great
mural arch in the Greenwich Observatory;
made Dr. Bradley's sector, and the first
orrery for the Earl of Orrery, and made
several improvements in time-pieces.
Graham, Sir Gerald, Lieutenant-General,
V.C.,K.C.B., etc. (*. 1831), English soldier;
entered Woolwich in 1847, and received a
commission in the Royal Engineers in 1850,
becoming lieutenant- colonel in 1861, major-
general in 1881, and lieutenant-general in
1884. He served throughout the Crimean
campaign, gaining the Victoria Cross, the
third class Medjidieh, the Cross of the Le-
gion of Honour, and being twice mentioned
in despatches. He was wounded in 1860 in
China at the Taku forts. In the Egyptian
campaign of 1882 he commanded a division,
and received the thanks of Parliament. In
1SS4 he commanded the Tokar relief expe-
dition, and won the battle of Tamai, and
in 1885 the force sent to Suakim to open up
the road to Berber and lay down a railway.
In January, 1886, he wrote Last Words with
Gordon for the Fortnightly Review.
Graham, Sir James (b. 1792, d. 1861),
English statesman ; was Whig member for
Hull from 1818 to 1820. In 1825 he was
returned for Carlisle, and in 1830 for Cum-
berland, and was First Lord of the
Admiralty for a short time in the first
Reform ministry. He, however, resigned
in 1832 on the Irish Church question, and
gradually changed his views. In 1838 he
was Home Secretary under Sir R. Peel, and
in that capacity caused some of Mazzini's
letters to be opened. He was First Lord of
the Admiralty in the Aberdeen ministry,
and also under Lord Palmerston, but re-
signed with Mr. Gladstone and others on
the appointment of the Crimean Inquiry
Commission. After this he took little part
in public affairs.
Graham, Thomas. [See Lynedoch, Lord.]
Graham, Thomas (b. 1805, d. 1869),
English chemist ; was professor of chemistry
at the Andersonian university 1850-7, and
for his discovery of the law of the diffusion
of gases gained the Keith prize at the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, and was elected
F.R.S. In 1837 he became professor at
London University ; was first president of
the Chemical Society and the Cavendish
Society, of the first of which he was the
chief founder, and gained the gold medal of
the Royal Society for his discoveries as to the
constitution of salts and phosphoric acid.
In 1855 he was made master of the Mint.
He was author of Elements of Chemistry
(1842j, and Outlines of Botany (1841),
besides some works privately printed.
Graham of Claverhouse, John (b. 1643, d.
1689), Scotch soldier ; after some service in
the French and Dutch armies, was employed
against the Covenanters in Scotland, by
whom he was defeated at Drumclog in 1679 ;
was loyal to James II., who created him
Viscount Dundee. He was killed at
Killiecrankie.
Grahame, James (b. 1765, d. 1811), Scot-
tish poet ; at first a barrister, and afterwards
Episcopal clergyman. His chief work is
The Sabbath (1804).
Grailly, Captal de Buch (d. 1377), French
soldier, who fought for Edward LTI. ; was
made prisoner by Du Guesclin in 1364 ;
became constable of Aquitaine in 1371, but
was- again made prisoner by the French,
Graing-er, James (d. 1767), Scottish poet ;
author of The Sugar Cane (1764).
Gramaye, Jean Baptiste (d. 1635), Belgian
traveller and antiquary ; author of Asia
(1591), Historia Brabantica (1606), and
Africa Illustrata (1622).
Gramont, or Grammont, Antoine, Due de
(b. 1604, d. 1678), French soldier and
diplomatist ; marechal de France ; serve d is
Gra
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Gra
Germany, Italy, and the Low Countries.
His Afemoires were published in 1716.
Gramont, Philibert, Comte de (b. 1621, d.
1707), French soldier and courtier ; served
in the wars of Louis XIV., and lived at
the English court from 1662 to 1660. His
Memoirs were written by Anthony
Hamilton.
Granby, John Manners, Marquis of (b.
1721, d. 1770), English general; served in
Germany, and distinguished himself at
Min den ; was commander-iii-chief from
1766 to 1769 ; was for a short time in office
under the Duke of Graf ton.
Grandier, Urbain (d. 1634), French priest ;
defended the parochial clergy against the
monks; was accused of bewitching the nuns
of Loudun, and burnt as a sorcerer.
Grandpre', Louis Ohier, Comte de (b. 1761,
d. 1846) , French navigator ; author of several
works describing his travels, the chief of
which are Voyage & la C6te Occidental de
VAfrique and Voyage dans VInde.
Grandville, pseudonym of Jean Gerard
(6. 1803, d. 1847), French caricaturist; illus-
trator of La Fontaine, Gulliver, and
Robinson Crusoe; was prosecuted for his
sketches of contemporaries, called Meta-
morphoses, which represented them under
the forms of animals.
Granet, Francois (b. 1692, d. 1741), French
critic, whose chief work is Reflexions sur les
Ouvrages de Literature.
Granet, Franqois Marcus (b. 1775, d. 1849),
French painter, his best picture being Le
Chceur des Capucins (1812) ; was made by
Louis Philippe keeper of his museum.
Granet, Francois Omet (d. 1821), French
politician ; a strong republican, but an
opponent of Eobespierre, whose wrath he
narrowly escaped ; was mayor of Marseilles
under the Empire, and on the restoration
was sent into exile, but returned some years
before his death.
Granger, James (b. circa 1716, d. 1776),
author of a Biographical History of England
(1769), and originator of " grangerising. "
Grant, Albert, Baron (b. 1830), English
financier ; entered Parliament as member for
Kidderminster in 1865, and re-elected in
1874. In 1868 he was created baron by
Victor Emmanuel for his improvements at
Milan, and especially the opening of the
Victor-Emmanuel Gallery. He bought and
presented to London the whole of Leicester
Square, and, among other public benefits,
presented to the National Gallery Landseer's
portrait of Sir "W. Scott, for which he had
given £800, and immediately received in his
place a vote of thanks, moved by Sir S.
Northcote in the Commons. In 1875 Baron
Grant made a speech in his own behalf,
lasting more than three hours, in a caaa
under the Employer's Liability Act.
Grant, Sir Alexander (b. 182G, d. 1884),
English scholar ; educated at Harrow and
Balliol ; was fellow of Oriel from 1848 to
1858, during which time he was engaged on
his edition of the Nicomachean Ethics, which
appeared in 1857. In 1859 he went to India
as inspector of schools, and in 1862 became
principal of Elphinstone College, Bombay,
and director of public instruction. In 18oa
he was appointed principal of Edinburgh
University. Besides the book mentioned,
Sir A. Grant edited Ferrier's Greek Philo-
sophy, and wrote Story of Edinburgh
University during its First Three Hundred
Tears (1884).
Grant, Anne, nee Mac Vicar (b. 1755, d.
1838), Scotch poetess ; friend of Scott; was
left a widow in poor circumstances in 1801,
and soon after began to write, publishing
Original Poems in 1803, and Essays on the
Superstitions of the Highlands in 1811,
besides other poems. In 1826 she obtained
a Government pension.
Grant, Sir Francis (b. 1803, d. 1878),
English portrait-painter; elder brother of
Sir Hope Grant ; having dissipated a large
fortune, became a fashionable portrait-
painter ; was elected A.R.A. in 1841 ; E.A.
in 1851; and president of the Royal
Academy in 1866.
Grant, George Monro, D.D. (b. 1835),
Canadian writer and divine ; T)orn in Nova
Scotia ; won a bursary at eighteen, which
enabled him to go to Glasgow, where he
took high honours. On his return to Nova
Scotia he was for some time a missionary,
and was, in 1877, appointed principal of
Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario. He
wrote Ocean to Ocean (1872), and Picturesque
Canada (1884).
Grant, James (b. 1822, d. 1887), English
novelist ; born at Edinburgh ; was some time
in American barracks with his father, and on
his return to England held for a short time
an infantry commission. In 1875 he became
a Roman Catholic. Chief among his numer-
ous novels were The Romance of War (1846),
Sothwell (1851), Lucy Arden (1859), and
The White Cockade (1867). He also wrote
British Battles on Land and Sea (1873-75)
and Cassettes History of the War in the
Soudan (1885), and Old and New Edinburgh.
Grant, James Augustus (b. 1827, d. 1892),
English traveller ; served as a soldier in the
Sikh wars and the Indian Mutiny; accom-
panied the Abyssinian expedition of 1860, aa
member of the intelligent department, but
Gra
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Gra
is chiefly known as the explorer who accom-
panied Speke in his expedition to discover
the sources of the Nile in 1860-63. He wrote
an account of the expedition in the Journal
of the Royal Geographical Society, and also
a Walk Across Africa.
Grant, Sir James Hope (b. 1808, d. 1875),
English soldier; entered the service in 1826 ;
served in the first Chinese war and in the
Sikh wars ; in the Indian Mutiny was
present at Delhi on its recapture, and, having
effected a junction with Sir Colin Campbell,
was prominent in 'the relief of Cawnpore and
of Lucknow. Major-General Grant held
the chief command at the close of the
Mutiny, and also of the force sent to co-
operate with the French in China in the year
1860. After thisjie was several years com-
mander-in- chief at Madras, and .held the
Aldershot command from 1872 till 'tis death.
For his services in China he was created
G.C.B.
Grant, Sir Patrick, Field-marshal, G.C.^B.,
G.C.M.G. (b. 1804), English soldier; entered
the East India Company's army in 1820 ; was
on the staff of Sir Hugh Gough in the
Gwalior campaign, and adjutant- general in
the Sutlej campaign, being twice severely
•wounded. At the end of the Punjaub cam-
paign he became colonel and aide-de-camp to
the Queen. In 1849-50 he served under Sir
C. Napier against Kohat. In 1856 Major-
general Grant commanded the Madras
army, and acted as commander-in-chief in
1857, till the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell.
He was created G.C.B. after the Mutiny,
and appointed governor of Malta in 1867.
In 1874 he became governor of Chelsea
Hospital, having attained the rank of
general in 1870. In 1883 he was gazetted
field-marshal.
Grant, Robert, LL.D. (b. 1814), English
astronomer; born at Grantoun-on-Spey.
His education was interfered with by ill-
health, but on his recovery he went to Lon-
don and Paris to make researches for his His-
tory of Physical Astronomy, which appeared
'in 1852. Soon after he became fellow of the
Astronomical Society, and in 1856 received
their gold medal for his work. After trans-
lating and editing, with Admiral Smyth,
Arago's Popular Astronomy, and having
gone through some practical work, he was
appointed in 1859 professor of astronomy
at Glasgow. Next year he went to Spain
to observe the total eclipse of the sun. In
1865 he was elected F.R.S. _ In 1883 he
published a Catalogue containing the mean
places of 6,415 stars, as a result of his ob-
servations while at Glasgow.
* Grant, Robert Edmund (6. 1793, d. 1874),
Scotch naturalist; graduated at Edinburgh
in 1814, and after five years of Continental
travel, became a fellow of the Royal College
of Physicians ; while practising as a doctor
was assistant to Barclay, the anatomist.
In 1827, when he had published several
papers on sponges, he was elected professor
of zoology and comparative anatomy at the
University of London. While engaged in
his duties as such he made many researches,
and produced his Outlines of Comparative
Anatomy. In 1836 he was elected F.R.S. ,
and in 1837 Fullerian professor of phy-
siology at the Royal Institution. He tra-
velled much, taught himself Danish, and
studied philology ; and at his death left his
library and private collections to University
College
Grant, Ulysses Simpson (b. 1822, d. 1885),
American general and statesman ; entered
the army in 1843, and served with distinction
in the Texas campaign of 1845. In 1848 he
married, and in 1854 resigned his commission.
During the Civil war he captured Fort
Henry (February, 1862), and Fort Donelson;
won the battle of Shiloh (April 6-7) ; de-
feated Price at luka (Sept. 19), and for his
capture of Vicksburg in July, 1863, was made
major-general. He further distinguished
himself by the relief of Chattanooga in
November, and was voted a gold medal for
his services. In March, 1864, he became
lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief
of the Federal armies, and in little more
than a year brought the war to a close. On
July 25th, 1866, he was named general of
the armies of the United States, and in 1868
became president, being re-elected in 1872.
He successfully superintended the pacifica-
tion of the Southern states, the restoration of
the finances, and the disbanding of the army,
and he obtained from England the payment
of the Alabama claims. On his retirement
from office he made a tour round the world.
Hf. hig lost his moderate fortune in an un-
fortunate speculation, he wrote an account
of his life, which, being successful, to some
extent relieved him. He died of cancer
after a year's severe suffering.
Granville, Cardinal. [See Perronet de
Granville.]
Granville, Earl. [See Carteret. ]
Granville, Earl (b. 1773, d. 1846), English
diplomatist ; son of the Marquis of Stafford ;
entered Parliament as Lord Gower, and held
office under Pitt and Addingtou. In 1815
he was created Yiscount Granville for his
diplomatic services as ambassador at St.
Petersburg, the Hague and Paris, and in
1833 received the title of Earl.
Granville, Earl (b. 1815, d. 1891), Eng-
lish statesman ; son of last-named ; educated
at Eton, and Christ Church ; entered Parlia-
ment as member for Morpeth in 1836, and
was elected for Lichfield in 1840, in whieh
Gra
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year he was made nuder-st-cr. tary for
Foreign Afiuirs aiid vice-pi eskleiit of the
Board of Trade. Ou the death of his father
iu 1841> he became a peer, and eiitei • d
the cabLuet in 1801, beiug Lord Russell's
Foreign Secretary fur a short time. After
having held several other offices, he became
Lord President of the Council and leader iu
the Lords iu 18.58. Iu 18.VJ he again held
that office, aud occupied it till I860. In 1860
he was chairman of the commission of the
Great Exhibition of 1862. Iu Mr. Gladstone's
first ministry Lord Granville was at first
Colonial Secretary, and from 1870 Secretary
for Foreign Affairs. As such he arranged
the guarantee of Belgium by England,
France, and Prussia, protested against the
repudiation by Russia of the Black Sea
clause, and made an agreement with Gort-
schakoff as to the position of Afghanistan.
Between 1874: and 1880 he led the Opposition
in the Lords, and in 188U became once more
Foreign Secretary, when his attention waa
occupied first by the carrying-out of the
Berlin treaty, secondly by the French oc-
cupation of Tunis, against which he pro-
tested, and lastly by the Egyptian question.
He tried to establish popular institutions in
Egypt, but was continually thwarted by
France, and his subsequent direction of
Foreign Affairs was disastrous in the ex-
treme, being marked by the death of Gordon
and the difficulties with Russia on the
Afghan question. On the Home Rule ques-
tion Earl Granville supported Mr. Gladstone,
and was colonial minister in his short-lived
administration. Before his death he again
led the Opposition in the House of Lords.
Grasse-Tilly, Francois, Marquis de (b.
1723, d. 1788), French admiral; wascaptured
in his first voyage by Anson, and was for two
years prisoner in England. He co-operated
with Washington as commander of the
French fleet, but was defeated by Hood at
St. Christopher's, and captured by Rodney
in the battle of 1782. He was again two
years in England, and became absurdly un-
popular in France.
Grassini, Giuseppa (b. 1773, d. 1850),
Italian singer, made her debut at Milan in
1794, and soon became the first singer in
Italy. In 1800 she sang before Bonaparte,
and afterwards went to Paris. In 1803 she
came to London, where she was the rival of
Mrs. Billington. After this she fulfilled a
very lucrative engagement at Paris, and
returned to Milan about 1817.
Gratian (b. 3o9, d. 383), Roman emperor;
gon of Yaleutinian, on whose death he became
joint Emperor of the West, repelled an in-
cursion of the Alemanni; chose Theodorus as
Emperor of the East, and, though not a
Christian, he was a friend of St. Ambrose,
and a destroyer of pagan rites. He was
ultimately murdered by the officers of
Maxunns.
Gratian usurped the purple in Britain,
and was killed in 487.
Gratian, Italian canonist; wrote the
Jjecretuin between 1139 and 1142.
Gratius [Graes], Ortwinus (d. 1541),
German theologian; attacked by Reuchlin,
to whom he replied in his Lamentationea
Obscurorum Virorutn (1518).
Grattan, Henry (b. 1746, d. 1820), Irish
patriot, educated at Trinity College, Dublin,
and called to the Irish bar in 1772; entered
the Irish Parliament in 1775, and became an
Opposition leader. In 1780 he moved that
the crown was the only link between Eng-
land and Ireland, and in 1782, by means of
the Volunteer movement, succeeded in
obtaining legislative independence for his
country. His views on Catholic Emanci-
pation were not shared by the whole of his
party, and, after the recall of Fitzwilliam,
power passed from his hands to the United
Irishmen. Having been some years in re-
tirement, he actively opposed the Union,
and after an interval of two years entered
the British Parliament as member for
Malton. He was offered office by Fox, but
refused ; supported the Irish Insurrection
Bill of 1807, and devoted his last years to the
cause of the Catholic Emancipation. His
Memoirs and Speeches were edited by his son.
Grattan, Thomas Colley (b. 1796, d. 1864),
English writer; born in Kildare; intended
for the law, he served a short time in the
army ; after some contributions to periodi-
cals, published in 1823 Highways and
Byeicays. While in Belgium he wrote A
History of the Netherlands (in Lardner's
Cyclopaedia), and other works, and when
living at the Hague Jacqueline of Holland
and Agnes de Mansfeldt. He was after-
wards British consul at Boston.
Graun, Karl Heinrich (b. 1701, d. 1769),
German musician; patronised by Frederick
the Great ; composed De r Tod Jesu, a Te
Deum, and several operas and cantatas.
Gravelot, Hubert Bourguignon (b. 1699,
d. 1773), French engraver and artist, who
illustrated the works of Voltaire, Racine
and Marmontel.
Graves, Charles (b. 1812), Irish mathema-
tician and divine ; was educated at Trinity
College, Dublin, where he became fellow
and professor of mathematics. He was
president of the Irish academy from 1860
to 1865, and in 1866 became Bishop of
Limerick. He has been made D.C.L. of
Oxford, and F.R.S., and was secretary to
the commission for the publication of the
Brehon laws.
Gra
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Graves, Richard (b. 1715, d. 1804), Eng-
lish novelist, poet and divine, his chief work
having been The Spiritual Quixote, a satire
on the Methodists.
Gravina, Domenico da (d. circa, 1350),
Neapolitan historian; author of Storia del
Regno Napoli.
^ Gravina, Frederico (*. 1756, d. 1806),
Spanish admiral ; commanded the Spanish
contingent at Trafalgar, where he was mor-
tally wounded.
Gravina, Giovanni (b. 1664, d. 1718),
Italian jurist; author of Origines Juris
Civilis (1701-13).
Gray, Asa (b. 1810, d. 1888), American
botanist ; after practising some time as a
doctor, published some papers on botany,
and was appointed in 1842 Fisher pro-
fessor of natural history at Harvard. In
1848 appeared his Manual of the Botany of
the Northern States, followed by A text-
book of 'Botany r, and many elementary treatises
on botanical subjects. He visited Europe
on several occasions, was a member of the
Royal and Linnean societies, and was one of
the earliest Darwinians. His Genera Flora
Americas Boreali-Orientalis was left un-
finished.
Gray, David (b. 1838, d. 1861), Scotch
poet ; son of a weaver near Glasgow ; came
to London in 1880, and received the patron-
age of Sidney Dobell and of Monckton
Mimes, by whose assistance The Luggie was
published. The author died early of con-
sumption, leaving, besides the above, In the
Shadows, a collection of sonnets written in
his last days.
Gray, George Robert (b. 1808, d. 1872),
English naturalist ; obtained an appointment
in the natural history department of the
British Museum in 1831, and was the author
of A List of Genera of Birds, Synonyma,
an illustrated edition of which followed, and
of A Description and Figures of some new
Lepidopterous Insects, chiefly from NepauL
Gray, John Edward (b. 1800, d. 1875),
English naturalist; brother of last-named;
obtained a post in the British Natural History
Museum in 1824, and in 1340 became keepei
of the zoological collection. Besides his
work connected with the Museum, he was
author of A Manual of the Land and Fresh-
Water Shells of the British Islands, A
Handbook of British Water-Weeds, and
various zoological publications.
Gray, Stephen (d. 1736), English physicist;
made some discoveries in electric conduction
and induction, which he published between
1720 and his death.
Gray, Thomaa (b. 1716, d. 1771), English
poet ; educated at Eton and Cambridge ; in
1739 went on a continental tour with H.
Walpole, but in 1741 they quarrelled, and
Gray returned, and soon after settled at
Cambridge. In 1741 he wrote his Ode to
Eton College and some minor poems, and
ten years later the Elegy in a Country
Churchyard appeared. In 1757 he was
offered the laureateship, but declined. In
1768 he became professor of modern history
at Cambridge, but did not always carry out
his duties in person. 2 he Bard was pub-
lished in 1757.
Grazzini, Antonio Francesco (b. 1503, d,
1583), Italian poet; called "II Lasca" (the
Roach) ; founded the academy of La Crusca
to reform Italian literature, and was the
author of Commedie (1582), Cena, and
Sonnet ti, published after his death.
Greatorex, Thomas (b. 1758, d. 1831),
English musician ; pupil of Dr. Cooke ; after
returning from an extended Continental
tour, settled in London as a teacher of
music, and in 1793 became director of the
king's concerts of ancient music. In 1819
he became organist of Westminster Abbey.
Besides adapting many of Handel's com-
positions, he devoted much attention to
science ; was a fellow of the Royal Society,
and wrote a memoir on the use of the
barometer for measuring heights.
Greatrakes, Valentine (b. 1628, d. 1700),
Irish quack ; patronised by Charles II., by
whose permission he attempted cures by
touching, many of which are said to have
been successful.
Greaves, John (b. 1602, d. 1652), English
Orientalist and mathematician ; travelled in
the East, and wrote Pyramidographia and
several unpublished MSS. ; was Savilian
professor at Oxford, and patronised by
Archbishop Laud.
Greeley, Horace (b. 1811, d. 1872), Ameri-
can journalist and politician ; son of a New
Hampshire farmer; came to New York,
and, after some failures, established in 1841
the New York Tribune, in which he sup-
ported Lincoln and the union. In 1848 he
became a member of Congress, and, though
not prominent there, was one of the founders
of the Republican party in 1855. He ulti-
mately, however, became a Democrat, and
unsuccessfully opposed Grant for the presi-
dency in 1 872, but died the same year. He
twice visited Europe. He was author of
The American Conflict (1864), What I Know
about Farming, and Recollections of a Busy
Life (1869).
Greely, Adolphus Washington (b. 1844),
American Arctic explorer; served in the Civil
war ; afterwards entered the signal office of
the war department, and in 1873 surveyed the
Gre
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Mississippi and Missouri. In 1880 he was
appointed by Garfield head of the United
States Arctic expedition ; sailed the next year,
and in 1884 was rescued off Cape Sabine by
Captain Schley, having gone farther north
than any preceding expedition, and made
important discoveries, which were de-
scribed in his address to the Scottish Geo-
graphical Society. The expedition was
accused of cannibalism, but this Greely
denied in his Three Years of Arctic Service.
Green, Alexander Henry (b. 1832), Eng-
lish geologist ; son of Rev. T. S. Green ; was
sixth wrangler in 1855, and fellow of Caius
College; joined the geological survey in
1861 ; became professor of geology and
mathematics at the Yorkshire college,
Leeds, in 1875, and professor of geology at
Oxford in 1888. His chief works are The
Geology of the Yorkshire Coalfield (1872),
and Physical Geology (1882, 3rd edition).
Green, John Richard (b. 1837, d. 1883),
English historian ; born at Oxford, and
educated at Magdalen College school and
Jesus College ; took orders in 1860, and was
some time vicar of St. Philip's, Stepney,
becoming in 1868 librarian at Lambeth.
He was author of A Short History of the
English People (1874), A History of the
English People (1877-80), The Making of
England (1882), and The Conquest of Eng-
land^ published after his death by his
wife, who assisted him in various other
works, and herself wrote Henry II. in
the Twelve English Statesmen series.
Green, Joseph Henry (d. 1863), English
anatomist ; author of Vital Dynamics,
Mental Dynamics, and also Spiritual Philo-
sophy, published in 1865, after his death.
Green, Mary Anne Everett, nee Wood
(b. 1818), English historical writer; came
to London in 1848 and wrote The Princesses
of England between 1849 and 1855. She
also edited for the Camden Society The
Diary of John Rons, and The Letters of
Queen Henrietta Maria, and calendared
several State papers for the Master of the
Rolls. She married in 1845 Mr. G. P. Green,
an artist.
Green, Matthew (b. 1697, d. 1737), Eng-
lish poet ; a custom-house officer, who in
the intervals of business wrote The Spleen,
which was commended by Pope and Gray.
Green, Thomas Hill (b. 1836, d. 1882),
English philosopher; became fellow of
Balliol in 1864, and the first lay tutor in
1867, and took an active part in the
municipal government of Oxford. In 1877
he was elected Whyte professor of moral
philosophy, and contributed to the Fort-
nightly Revieiv a series of articles on Mr.
. Spencer and Mr. G. H. Lawes : Their
Application of the Doctrine of Evolution to
Thought, having previously written in the
North British Review articles on the Philo-
sophy of Aristotle, and Popular Philosophy
in its Relation to Life. He also published
two lay sermons, Tne Witness of God, and
Faith, published by Toyubee in 1878 ; but
his greatest work was Prolegomena to Ethics,
edited by Professor A. C. Bradley in 1883.
Green, Valentine (b. 1739, d. 1813), Eng-
lish mezzotint engraver, his most celebrated
print being Regulus and Hannibal (after
West). He was prevented by the revolu-
tion from engraving the pictures of the
Diisseldorf gallery, for which he had re-
ceived a patent. In 1775 he was elected
A.R.A.
Greene, Nathaniel (*. 1742, d. 1786),
American general ; educated himself, and
broke with the Quakers OIL account of his
later military pursuits ; distinguished him-
self at the battle of the Brandy wine ; was
defeated several times by Comwallis, but
won the battle of Eutaw Springs.
Greene, Robert (b. 1560, d. 1592), English
dramatist ; educated at Cambridge ; is said
to have taken orders ou his return from the
Continent, but was a man of immoral life.
Besides five plays and several pamphlets,
he wrote an account of his life called The
Repentance of Robert Greene, which was
published in 1592. He was a friend of
Marlowe, Peele, and Nash, but made a
violent attack on Shakespeare as an
" upstart crow " in A Groat's- Worth of Wit
bought with a Million of Repentance.
Greene's plays and poems were collected
and edited by Dyce in 1831.
Greenough, George B. (b. 1778, d. 1855),
English geologist; educated at Cambridge
and Gottingen; was in Parliament for a
few years (1807-12), but devoted most of
his life to science, being one of the founders
and first president of the Geological Society.
He was also twice vice-president of the
Royal Society, president of the Geographical
Society, and fellow of other learned so-
cieties. He was author of A Geological Map
of England and Wales, A Geological Map of
India, and A General Sketch of the Physical
Features of British India.
GreeirwreU, William (b. 1820), English
archaeologist and divine ; graduated at Dur-
ham, and became fellow of University Col-
lege, and afterwards principal of Neville
Hall, Newcastle. In 1879 he presented to
the British Museum a collection of urns and
pottery, having previously given some skulls
from British barrows to the University of
Oxford. His principal works relate to the
see of Durham, and his services to science
were recognised by the degree of D.GJL.
and a fellowship of the Royal Society.
Gre
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Greg, William Kathbone (b. 1809, d. 1881),
English essayist ; became a commissioner of
custoina in 1«56, and in 1864 was made
controller of the stationery office. His
chief works were The Creed of Christendom
(1851), Essays in Political and Social Science
(1853), Rocks Ahead (1874), and Literary
and Social Judgments (1877). His Miscel-
laneous Essays were published in 1881 and
1882.
Gregorius Nazianzenus (d. 390), Saint;
eon of the Bishop of Nazianzus ; preached
against the Ariaus ; was appointed by Theo-
dosius Patriarch of Constantinople, and
delivered a funeral oration over his friend,
St. Basil.
Gregorius Nicephoras (fl. 1350), Byzan-
tine historian ; proposed the reform in the
Calendar, which was afterwards carried out
by Gregory XIII.
Gregorius Nyssenus (4th century) , Saint ;
brother of Basil the Great, and Bishop of
Nyssa; was banished by the Arians, and
wrote against them. At the council of
Antioch he made the new draft of the
Nicene Creed.
Gregorius Thaumaturgus (d. circa 270),
Saint ; so called because of miracles attri-
buted to him ; was converted and baptised by
Origen, on whom he wrote an Eulogy, being
also author of A. Paraphrase of Ecclesiastes.
Gregory, George, D.D. (b. 1754, d. 1808),
Irish essayist ; edited the Annual Register
for several years, and wrote a Church
History.
Gregory, James (b. 1638, d. 1675), Scotch
mathematician ; inventor of the reflecting
telescope, which he came to London in
1665 to construct, a1 .1 afterwards -went to
Padua. He published (1667) Verce Circuli
Hyperbola Quadratura, and had contro-
versies with Newton and Huyghens. His
nephew, David (d. 1713), was Savilian pro-
fessor at Oxford, and wrote Astronomies
Pl-ysica Elementa, besides introducing
Newton's Principia at the university.
Gregory, Olinthus Gilbert (b. 1774, d.
1841), English mathematician ; professor at
Woolwich 1802-38; was a fellow of the
Royal Society, and one of the founders of
the Astronomical Society. He wrote a
Treatise on Astronomy (1801), and Mathe-
matics for Practical Men (1825).
Gregory, Robert (b. 1819), English edu-
cationalist, was educated at Oxford, and
ordained in 1843. After holding several
benefices, he became canon of St. Paul's in
1868, and in 1890 dean. From 1873 to
1876 he was a member of the London
School Board, and amongst other commis-
sions on which he served were that which
inquired into the London Parochial Chari-
ties, and the Education Commission of 1886.
Among his works are The Cost of Voluntary
Schools and of Board Schools, and Is the
Canadian System of Education Rates possible
in England ? besides various theological and
parochial works.
Gregory, William (b. 1803, d. 1858),
English chemist ; pupil and follower of
Liebig ; was successively professor of medi-
cine and chemistry at Aberdeen, and of
chemistry at Edinburgh. He was author
of Handbooks of Organic and Inorganic
Chemistry, new editions of which appeared
in 1856.
Gregory of Alexandria (4th century),
Arian Patriarch of Alexandria; persecutor
of Athanasius ; was deposed about 354.
Gregory of Armenia (4th century), Saint ;
evangelist of Armenia; was known as
the "Illuminator."
Gregory of Constantinople (d. 1821),
was made patriarch in 1795, but opposed
the Greek revolution, and was executed
with several of his clergy on suspicion.
Gregory of Tours (b. 544, d. 595), French
bishop and historian ; opposed the cruelties
of Fredegonde ; visited Gregory I. at Rome,
and wrote Historia Francorum, which was
first printed in 1699.
Gregory I., Pope, called the "Great"
(d. 604), was appointed by the Emperor of
the East governor of Rome, but, on inherit-
ing his father's wealth, resigned it, and
became Abbot of St. Andrew's, Rome.
After being secretary to Pelagius II., he
succeeded him as Bishop of Rome; re-
nounced communion with the Eastern
Christians because of the assumption of the
title "Universal Bishop" by the patriarch
of Constantinople ; composed chants, and
established a musical school, in which he
taught himself, and collected and arranged
fragments of ancient hymns. He was a
great opponent of secular learning, but was
author of numerous sacred works, of which
the chief was his Morals on the Book of
Job.
Gregory II. (d. 731), elected pope in 715 ;
held a council against the Iconoclasts, and
sent Boniface to preach in Germany.
Gregory IIL (d. 741), elected 731 ; opposed
the Iconoclasts, and excommunicated Leo
the Isaurian; sent to Charles Martel the
keys of St. Peter's tomb in return for his
assistance against the Lombards.
Gregory IV., Pope (d. 844), elected in 827 ;
attempted to reconcile Louis le Debonnaire
and Lothaire ; changed the Feast of All
Saints to November 1 ; perhaps the first to
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Gre
assert the supremacy of the ecclesiastical
over the civil power.
Gregory V. (d. 999), elected by help of
the Emperor Otho III., whose nephew lie
was, and restored by him when expelled
from Rome by Crescentius.
Gregory VI. (d. 1047), elected 1044;
offended the clergy by his reforms, and was
compelled to abdicate by Henry III. in
1046.
Gregory VII., " Hildebrand " (d. 1085),
a man of low birth, who became monk of
Clugny and archdeacon of Home ; exercised
great influence over Leo IX. and succeeding
popes, till he was himself appointed, in 1073,
to succeed Alexander II. He attacked
simony and concubinage in the Church, and
carried the power of the papacy to a high
pitch, declining to submit to ratification of
election from the emperor, and attempting
to enforce spiritual control over the sove-
reigns of Europe. He was firmly opposed
by William I. of England and Philip I. of
France, but he excommunicated Henry IV.
of Germany, and compelled him to do
penance in 1077, although he was eventually
deposed by him. He died at Salerno, where
he had been taken after his rescue from the
Castle of St. Angelo by the Normans of
Apulia.
Gregory VIIL, Alberto di Mora (d. 1187),
only held the papacy for a month, when an
anti-pope with the same title was set up by
Henry V.
Gregory IX. (d. 1241), elected in 1227;
carried on an almost continuous struggle
with the Emperor Frederick II., whom
he excommunicated, first for not going on
crusade, and secondly, on his return, for
speeches he was reported to have made.
He finally called a council to depose
Frederick, who, however, captured the fleet
which carried most of the bishops.
Gregory X. (d. 1276), elected in 1271 when
at Acre ; held a council at Lyons for re-
uniting the Greek and Latin churches, and
made regulations for future elections to the
papacy.
Gregory XI (d. 1378), elected 1370; a
French pope, who resided at Avignon, but
removed to Home in 1377 ; he denounced
Wycliffe.
Gregory XIL (d. 1417), elected 1406, but
resigned in 1409. The " great schism" was
now raging, and there were several anti-
popes.
Gregory XIIL (b. 1502, d. 1585), elected
in 1572 ; promulgated the Reform Calendar
of I ilia in 1582 ; favoured the Jesuits,
*oi whom he founded a college at Rome ;
celebrated the massacre of St. Bartholo-
mew, and encouraged the Jesuit mission
! to England and the Spanish invasion.
Gregory XIV. (d. 1591), elected 1590, ex-
communicated Henri IV., and died the next
year.
Gregory XV. (d. 1623), elected 1621;
founded the De Propaganda Fide, ancV
canonised Ignatius Loyola and Xavier.
Gregory XVI. (b. 1765, d. 1846), elected
in 1831 ; opposed all reforms and inventions,
and issued encyclical letters against Lamen-
nais ; made some concessions when forced
by popular outbreaks, but soon retracted
them.
Greig, Alexis (b. 1775, d. 1845), English
admiral in the Russian service, whose father
had been commander of the Russian navy ;
served as a volunteer for four years in the
British navy, but afterwards entered the
Russian service, planned the fortifications
of Cronstadt, served against the Turks and
Napoleon, and in 1816 became commander
in the Black Sea. He was created a knight
of St. Andrew. His funeral was attended
by the whole of the imperial family.
Greig, Samuel Carlovich (d. 1782),
English admiral in the Russian service,
father of the preceding, fortified Cronstadt ;
made many reforms in the navy, and
defeated the Swedes in 1 788.
Grenfell, Sir Francis, Major- General (6.
1841), sirdar of the Egyptian armies;
entered the English army in 1859, and
became major-general in 1889. He served
in the Transkie in 1877-8, in the Kaffir war;
in the Zulu war, being mentioned in des-
patches and promoted : in the Boer war ; in
the Egyptian campaigns of 1882, 1884, and
1885, and commanded at Suakim in 1888.
Grenfell, Colonel Henry (b. 1824), English
banker, second son of Pascoe Grenfell ; was
in Parliament from 1862 till 1868, when he
was the colleague of Mr. Gladstone as
Liberal candidate for South-west Lancashire,
but was not elected ; became director of the
Bank of England in 1865, deputy -governor
in 1879, and governor in 1881.
Grenfell, Pascoe (b. 1762, d. 1838), English
philanthropist and member of Parliament,
who supported Wilberf orce in his agitation
against the slave trade.
Grenier, Jacques Raymond, Vicomte de
Giron (6. 1736, d. 1803), French hydro -
graph er ; author of IS Art de la Guerre sur
Mer (1787).
Grenville, George (6. 1712, d. 1770),
English statesman, became First Lord of the
Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer
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in 1763, and signalised his short term of
office by the Stamp Act, and the first pro-
ceedings against Wilkes. George III. hated
him.
GrenviUe, Sir Richard (b. 1540, d. 1591),
English admiral, went with Sir W. Raleigh
to Virginia, and returned in 1585 to establish
a settlement there ; was present with the
fleet that fought with the Armada, and was
killed in an engagement with the Spanish
in 1519.
Grenville, Thomas (b. 1755, d. 1846),
English book- collector and diplomatist, son
of last-named, bequeathed his library to the
British Museum, a catalogue of it being
published in 18-42.
Grenville, William, Lord (b. 1759, d.
1834), English statesman; was Speaker of
the House of Commons in 1789, and created
a baron next year ; Home Secretary under
Pitt from 1789 to 1801, and in 1806 became
head of the " Ministry of all the Talents,"
but came into collision with the king on the
question of Catholic Emancipation, and
resigned shortly after. He afterwards sup-
ported the Liverpool ministry, and broke
with his old friends, the Whigs.
Greppi, Giovanni (b. 1751, d. 1811),
Italian dramatist, whose chief works were
Teresa e Claudio and Teresa Vedova.
Gresham, Sir Thomas (b. 1519, d. 1579),
English merchant, was employed to negoti-
ate loans for the Government both at home
and abroad, and was knighted by Elizabeth ;
founded the Royal Exchange in 1566, and
Gresham College in 1575, which was opened
in 1596.
Gresset, Jean Baptiste (b. 1709, d. 1777),
French dramatist and poet, his chief work
"being Vert Vert, which appeared about
1733. He left the Society of Jesus because
they disapproved his writings.
Greswell, Edward, D.D. (b. 1797, d.
1869), English theologian; son of Rev. W.
Parr Greswell, was educated at Oxford, and
"became fellow of Corpus Christi. Chief
among his works were Harmonia EV angelica,
Dissertations on the Gospels, and Origines
Kalendarice. He also translated Comus and
Samson Agonistes into Greek verse.
Gretry, Andre Modeste (b. 1741, b. 1813),
French composer ; came to Paris in 1747,
and was very successful as a composer of
operas, the best-known of which is Huron.
He also wrote Essais sur la Musique.
Greuze, Jean Baptiste (b. 1725, d. 1805),
French painter, left the French Academy of
Painting because he was classed with the
genre painters. Most of his pictures are
portraits, and are in the Louvre. A.mong
them may be mentioned The Little Girl
with the -Dog, and Tne Village Bride.
Greville, Charles Cavendish (6. 1794, d.
1865), English memoir- writer ; educated at
Eton and Oxford ; was clerk of the council
from 1821 to 1860, His Diary was edited
by Mr. Reeve, the first series appearing in
1875, the second in 1885, and the third in
1887.
Greville, Fulke, Lord Brooke {b. 1554, d.
1628), English statesman and poet, friend of
Sir P. Sidney, a favourite of Elizabeth, and
Chancellor of the Exchequer under James I.,
was killed by a servant named Heywood.
He was author of Tragedies and Poems, Five
Years of King James, and a Life of Sir
Philip Sidney. His relative, Robert (b.
1608), wrote the Nature of Truth, and was
Parliamentary commander in the Civil war,
being killed at Lichfield in 1643.
Gr£ville, Henri, non de plume of Madame
Durand (6. 1842), French novelist, author
of Le Violon Russe (1879), Folle Avoint
(1884), LJ Ingenue (1885), Cleopdtre (1886),
and Nikanor (1887).
GreVy, Fra^ois Paul Jules (b. 1813, d.
1891), French statesman, came to the front at
Paris as a defender of republicans in politi-
cal cases, and in 1848 was elected a member
of the Constituent Assembly. He joined
the Cote" Gauche, became vice-president of
the Assembly, and opposed the presidency
of Louis Napoleon. In 1868 his native
department (the Jura) returned him for the
Assembly, and, on resuming public lif e, he
strongly opposed the Second Empire. He
became president of the Assembly in 1871,
and was re-elected three times. Between
1873 and 1876, when he was a private
member, he strongly opposed the Mon-
archists, and he afterwards vigorously
resisted the schemes of MacMahon, on
whose resignation in 1879 he became presi-
dent of the republic, in which office he dis-
played much tact, and in 1885 made peace
with China on his own responsibility. In
December of that year he was re-elected,
but in 1887 was obliged to resign owing to
the discovery of his son-in-law's (M. Wilson)
implication in the decoration scandals.
Graw, Nathaniel (b. 1628, d. 1711),
English botanist; author of Anatomy of
Vegetables, Hoots, and Trunks.
Grey, Charles, second Earl (6. 1764, d.
1845), second son of the first earl, educated
at Eton and King's College, entered Parlia-
ment in 1786 for Northumberland,
opposed Pitt's commercial policy, was one
of the managers of the Hastings impeach-
ment, and was early connected with parlia-
mentary reforms. " By the death of hia
elder brother he became Lord Howick, and
Gre
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Gri
was First Lord of the Admiralty in the
Grenville ministry, and on Fox's death
Foreign Secretary. As leader in the Com-
mons he carried through the Slave-Trade
Abolition Bill, but was unable to make
peace with France. In 1807 he was put of
office again, and also no longer in the
Lower House, his father having died. He
became alienated from the regent, and took
the side of Queen Caroline when the regent
came to the throne. In 1836 he became
head of the ministry of Reform, and suc-
cessfully carried after a severe struggle the
first Reform Bill. He now effected the pass-
ing of the Church Act, and the Bank Charter
Act ; but from this time his government
began to fall to pieces, and Grey himself
resigned in 1834, taking little further part
in public life, and being no longer in sym-
pathy with the younger members of his
party.
Grey, Henry, third Earl (*. 1802),
English statesman, eldest sou of preceding ;
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, was
returned as Lord Howick for Winchelsea in
1826, and subsequently sat for Higham
Ferrers and Northumberland. He was
under-secretary for the colonies under his
father for a short time, aud afterwards
held the same post in the Home Office ;
and in 1835 he became Secretary for War
under Melbourne. In 1841 he lost his
old seat, but was elected for Sunderland,
becoming a prominent opponent of Pro-
tection. In 1845 he succeeded to the peer-
age, and in the following year joined the
Ru?3ell ministry as Colonial Secretary,
resigning with them in 1852 ; after this he
was never in office, being opposed to the
policy of the Coalitionists. He is the author
of Colonial Policy of Lord Russell' s Adminis-
tration, and of an Essay on Parliamentary
Government as to Reform, besides many
contributions to The Times.
Grey, Sir Charles (6. 1785, d. 1865),
English colonial administrator, son of
Ralph Grey, Esq. ; for some time fel-
low of Oriel ; was in 1817 appointed com- j
missioner in bankruptcy ; in 1820 judge
of Madras, and in 1825 chief justice of I
Bengal. In 1835 he went to Canada as
commissioner, and, after having been for a
short time in Parliament, was governor of
Barbadoes from 1841 to 1846, when he \
became governor of Jamaica.
Grey, Sir George, G.C.B. (6. 1799, d.
1882), English statesman ; son of Sir G.
Grey, and nephew of the second Earl ;
educated at Oriel ; was called to the bar
in 1826. In 1832 he was returned for
Devonport, which he represented till 1847.
He was twice under-secretary for the
colonies, and became in 1839 judge advo-
cate, and took great part in colonial affairs,
especially in defence of the bill for the sus-
pension of the constitution of Lower Canada.
In 1841 he became chancellor of the Duchy
of Lancaster, and in 1846 Lord Russell's
Home Secretary. In the latter capacity he
passed the Government Security Bill, and
the Alien Bill, and the other measures
(including the suspension of the Habeas
Corpus Act), for which the Chartist agita-
tion gave occasion. He was defeated for
Northumberland in 1852, but was elected
for Morpeth next year, becoming in 1854
Colonial Secretary in the Coalition ministry.
In 1855, however, under Palmerstou, he
returned to the Home Office, and again in
the Russell ministry of 1865-6. He held his
seat in Parliament till 1874, but gradually
withdrew from affairs.
Grey, Sir George (6. 1812), colonial states-
man ; educated at Sandhurst ; served in
the army for several years, but resigned ia
1839, and went to Australia as an explorer.
In 1841 he was appointed governor of
South Australia ; in 1845 of New Zealand;
in 1854 of Cape Colony, and again in 1861
of New Zealand. In 1876 he was superin-
tendent of the province of West Auckland ;
and from 1877 to 1884 premier of New
Zealand.
Grey, Lady Jane (b. 1537, d. 1554),
grand-niece of Henry VIII. ; was appointed
heir to the throne by Edward VI, in con-
travention of the previous settlement of
the succession, and having married a son
of Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, was
made queen and reigned ten days ; she was
beheaded with Lord Dudley.
Grey, Sir William, K.C.S.I. (*. 1818, d.
1878), Indian administrator, son of the
Bishop of Hereford ; went to India in 1840 ;
was a member of the council from 1862 to
1867 ; lieutenant-governor of Bengal from
that year till 1871, and from 1874 to 1877
governor of Jamaica.
Grey, Zachary (b. 1697, d. 1766), Eng-
lish theologian ; edited Hudibras, wrote
a criticism of Neal's History of the Puritans,
and was an opponent of Warburton.
_Gribaldi, Matteo, called "Mofa" (d.
1564), Italian jurist and reformer; incurred
the wrath of Calvin for not recognising the
Trinity, and was author of De Methodo
Studendi in Jure Civili.
Gribeauval, Jean Vaquette de (6. 1715,
d. 1789), French military engineer ; entered
the Austrian service, and distinguished
himself in the Seven Years' war by his
defence of Schweidnitz against Frederick
the Great ; became field-marshal, but after-
wards entered the French service, and
greatly reformed its artillery.
Grieg, Edvard Hagerup (b. 1843),
Gri
(399)
Gri
Norwegian ; composer, born at Bergen ;
studied at the Leipzig Conservatoire under
Hauptmann and Eichter, and in 1863 went to
Copenhagen to be taught by Gade. In
conjunction with Nordraak he founded a
new Scandinavian school, whose teaching he
directed in the Christiania musical society.
Having visited Italy, he made the acquaint-
ance of Liszt at Home ; but it was in
Germany in the Leipzig Gewandhaus con-
certs that he brought out his compositions,
among which may be named Melodien des
Herzens, Romanzen, Norwegische Volk-
slieder und Tanze, most of them being
written for the pianoforte.
Griesbach, Johann Jacob (b. 1745, d. 1812),
German biblical scholar; devoted himself
from an early age to biblical studies ; was
professor of theology at Halle and Jena,
and having visited England and most other
countries for the purpose of collecting and
comparing MSS., published between 1771
and '1775 his Greek New Testament, and
subsequently a critical commentary on it,
and other works. He is the originator of
the term Synoptic Gospels.
Griffet, Henri (b. 1698, d. 1771), French
Jesuit historian; author of Annee Du
Chretien (1747), and Histoire de Louis XIII.
(1758).
Griffin, Edmund {b. 1864, d. 1836), Ameri-
can scholar and divine ; visited Europe, and
on his return gave able lectures on Roman,
Italian, and English literature, but died
suddenly soon after. His Remains were
edited in 1831 by W. C. Bryant.
Griffin, Gerald (6. 1803, d. 1840), Irish
novelist ; born at Limerick, came to London
in 1820, and wrote for periodicals and
the press, publishing Holland Tide, his first
tale, in 1827. Between that year and 1830,
when he returned to Ireland and joined the
Cork society of Christian Brothers, he pro-
duced Tales of the Minster Festivals and
The Collegians, which was dramatised as
Eily 0* Connor, and formed the basis of The
Colleen Bawn.
Griffin, John Joseph (b. 1802, d. 1877),
English chemist ; author of Chemical Recre-
ations and The Radical Theory in Chemistry
(1858). He was one of the founders of the
Chemical Society.
Griffith, Sir Eichard J. (b. 1784, d. 1878),
English geologist and agriculturist; author
of The Irish Land Question and English Pub-
lic Opinion : With a Supplement on Griffith's
Valuation (1881) ; was appointed professor
of geology and mining engineer to the
Eoyal Dublin Society in 1812, and in 1885
commissioner for the valuation of lands in
Ireland. In 1851 he was named chairman
of the Irish Board of "Works, for his services
to agriculture, in which capacity he was
made a baronet. He also made A Geo*
logical Map of Ireland, and retired in
1864.
Griffith, Sir Samuel Walter, K.C.M.G.
(b. 1845), colonial statesman; born at
Merthyr Tydvil ; went to Australia in 1854,
and was educated at Sydney, where he took
high honours. He was called to the Queens-
land bar in 1867, and was elected to the
Legislative Assembly in 1872. He was at-
torney-general of Queensland from 1874 to
1878 ; secretary of public instruction from
1876 to 1879, from which year till 1883 he
led the Opposition, having refused a seat
in the supreme court. From 1883 to 1888
he was premier of Queensland, holding
various offices in con junction with the head-
ship. He was a member of the Federal
Council from 1885, became president in 1888,
and attended both the London Colonial
Conference of 1887, the Federation Confer-
ence of Melbourne in 1890, and represented
Queensland at the Australian Federal Con-
ference of 1891.
GrigTian, Francoise, Comtesse de (b. 1648,
d. 1705), daughter of Madame de Sevigne;
celebrated for her beauty and accomplish-
ments; the well-known letters were ad-
dressed to her.
Grijalva, Juan de (d. 1527), Spanish navi-
gator; was the first European who had a
conference with the Mexicans, and entered
into relations with the Aztecs. He after-
wards went to Nicaragua, where he was
murdered by the Indians.
Grillo, ..larquise deL [See Eistori.]
Grillparzer, Franz (b. 1791, d. 1872),
Austrian dramatist and poet ; became director
of the archives in 1833, court councillor in
1856, and imperial councillor in 1861. His
chief works were Konig Ottpkar's Gliick und
Ende and Wehe dem der Liigt; dramas, Die
Ahnfrau and Des Meeres und der Liebe
WeUen, poems ; and the novels, Der Trautn
Ein Leben and Der Spielmann.
Grimaldi, Francesco Maria (b. 1618, d.
1663), Italian Jesuit philosopher; prepared
the way for some of Newton's discoveries,
and wrote Physico Mathesis de Luminet
Coloribus, et Iride.
Grimaldi, Geronimo, (&. 1597, d. 1685),
Italian cardinal ; member of a celebrated
Genoese house ; was made Archbishop of Aix
in 1645, having two years before been made
cardinal by Urban VIII. for diplomatic
services. As prelate he was known for his
munificence and his reforming measures.
Grimaldi, Giovanni, "II Bolognese" (6.
1606, d. 1680), Italian painter, architect and
engraver ; brought up by the Carracci, whose
Gri
(400)
Gro
style he followed, was employed by Inno-
cent X. in the Vatican, and by Louis XIV.
in the Louvre. His pictures were chiefly
landscapes.
Grimaldi, Joseph (b 1877, d. 1837),
Italian clown ; born in London, where he
made his reputation as a low comedian, his
greatest hit having been as a clown in the
Harlequin Amulet produced at Drury Lane
in 1799. He retired in 1828. His Memoirs
were edited by Dickens ("Boz ").
Grimbold, or Grimoald, Nicolas (b. 1519,
d. 1563), English scholar and Latin poet ;
was lecturer in rhetoric at Christ Church,
Oxford, and was one of the first Englishmen
to make use of blank verse in his poems
and plays. He wrote the Praise of Measure-
Keeping, and a Latin tragedy on John the
Baptist.
Grimm, Frederic, Baron (b. 1723, d. 1807),
German critic, and diplomatist, and at first
a friend but afterwards a bitter enemy of
Rousseau ; was some time at Paris as secre-
tary to the Duke of Orleans and minister of
the Duke of Gotha, and was afterwards the
Tsarina Catherine's minister at Hamburg.
His correspondence with Diderot (1753-82),
and others, was published in 1812-13. As
a musical critic he supported the Italians
against the French school.
Grimm, Jacob Ludwig Karl (*. 1785, d.
1863), German scholar ; born at Hanau and
educated atCassel and Marburg : after assist-
ing for some time the jurist Savigny, was
appointed librarian to Jerome Bonaparte in
1808, which posthe held till 1813. His brother,
Wilhelm (b. 1786, d. 1859), was joint libra-
rian with him, and together they brought
out in 1812 the Kinder-und-Hatis-Marchen,
Wilhelm having previously published his col-
lection of Old Danish Ballads, In 1815 Jacob
was sent to Paris to recover the MSS.
taken by the French from Germany, and in
the years 1816-18 the brothers published
Deutsche Sage. In 1819 the elder brought
out the first volume of his Deutsche Gram-
matik, and in 1829 Wilhelm published
Deutsche Heldensage. They removed to
Gottingen soon after, and both obtained
professorships, but in 1837, having joined
in the protest against the King of Hanover's
unconstitutional measures, were banished,
but were in 1840 given professorships at
Berlin. Here they continued their great
work, the Deutsches Worterbuch, which they
did not live to finish. Jacob was for a
short time in the Frankfort parliament.
Grimoard, Phillippe, Comte de (d. 1814),
French general and historian; author of
Essai Theorique sur des Batailles and Histoire
des Dernieres Campagnes de Turenne.
Grimod de la Reynere, Alexandra (b.
175S, d. 1838), French writer; publisher of
Alinanack rf/.-.v Gourmand* between 1703 and
1812, and Manuel des Amphitryons in 1808.
Grimston, Mrs. [See Kendal.]
Grimston, Sir Harbottle (d. 1683), Eng-
lish politician ; a Parliamentarian, but re-
fused to subscribe to the Solemn League
and Covenant. He supported however,
the Presbyterians against the Independents,
and was excluded from Cromwell's second
j Parliament. In 1660 he became Speaker of
the Convention Parliament, and was made
Master of the Rolls by Charles II.
Grimthorpe, Edmund Beckett Denison
(afterwards Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart.),
Lord (b. 1816), English lawyer and writer;
educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, was called to the bar in 1841, and be-
came Queen's Counsel in 1854. In 1877 he
became chancellor and vicar-general of York.
In 1886 was raised to the peerage. *His chief
works are Lectures on Church Building (1856),
A Book on Building (1880), Treatise on Clocks,
Watches, and Bells (1883), and some contro-
versial writing.
Grimus (1103), King of Scotland from
995; killed by Malcolm.
Grindal, Edmund (6. 1519, d. 1583),
English churchman ; was chaplain to Ridley
and fled to Frankfort during the Marian
| persecution ; was successively Bishop of
London, Archbishop of York, and Arch-
bishop of Canterbury. Having incurred
the anger of Elizabeth for his Puritan lean-
ings, he was sequestered for many years.
Grinfield, Edward (d. 1864), English
biblical critic ; published Novum Testa-
mentum Grcccum (1843-8) and Apology for
the Scptuagint (1850).
Gringoire, Pierre (b. circa 1475, d. 1544),
French poet and dramatist; author of Cha-
teau de Labour, Chateau d'Amours, Let
Folles Entreprises.
Grisi, Giulia (b. 1811, d. 1869), Italian
operatic singer ; born at Milan, and educated
at the conservatoire there. She made her
first appearance at the age of seventeen in
Rossini's Zelmira. She was a great favourite
with Bellini, and took the leading part in his
opera Norma. After singing in several Italian
towns she came to Paris in 1832, and sang the
part of St'miramide. In 1 834 she visited Lon-
don, which she made her home, and where
she was very successful, her best parts being
those of Desdemona (Oth elM, Amina (La
SonnambulaJ , Leonora (II Troratore), and
Pamina (HFlauto Magico) and Xorma. She
retired from the stage in 1862. Her second
husband was Signer Mario.
Grocyn, William (b. 1442, d. 1519),
Gro
(401)
Gro
English scholar; studied under Politian in
Italy and became professor of Greek at Ox-
ford, where he entertained Erasmus ; was
afterwards master of All Hallows' college,
Maidstoue.
Grolier, Jean (b. 1479, d. 1565), French
bibliophile, leit a collection of 3,000 splen-
didly bound volumes, which are now very
rare.
Grolmann, Karl "Wilhelm von (6. 1775, d.
1829), German statesman and jurist; as
chief minister at Hesse Darmstadt wa8
mainly instrumental in founding a con-
stitutional government there (Ib20).
Gronovius, Jacob (b. 1645, d. 1716),
German philologist, author of Thesaurus
Antiquitatum Grcecarum ; succeeded his
father as professor at Leyden. His son,
Lorenz Theodor (d. 1777) was a naturalist,
and wrote Museum Ichthyologium (1754-56).
Gronovius, Johann Friedrich (b. 1611, d.
1671), German philologist ; friend of Vossius
and Heinsius ; edited Plautus, Livy, and
Tacitus, and published Observationes (1639).
Gronow, Rees Howell (b. 1794, d. 1865),
English writer ; captain in the army ; wrote
The Camp, the Court, and the Clubs (1861),
and his Recollections (1863).
Groombridge, Stephen (d. 1832), English
merchant and astronomer ; author of Uni-
versal Tables for the Reduction of Fixed
Stars (1821).
Groot, Gerard (6. 1340, d. 1384), Dutch
theologian ; teacher of philosophy and
theology at Cologne, and collector of MSS. ;
founded the order of the "Brethren of the
Common Life."
Gros, Antoine Jean, Baron (b. 1771, d.
1835), French painter; his chief pictures
dealing with the life of Napoleon, such as
bis Advance on the Austrian Batteries in
1796 and the Plague of Jaffa. He ultimately
became imbecile, and was found drowned.
Grose, Francis (b. 1731, d. 1791), English
antiquary ; son of a Swiss jeweller ; became
"Richmond Herald," and published An-
tiquities of England and Wales (1773-6),
Military Antiquities (1786-8), and Antiqui-
ties of Scotland (1789-91), The Oho (1793), etc.
Grosseteste.^ Robert (d. 1253), English
bishop and clerical reformer ; resisted the en-
croachments and exactions of Innocent IV.,
by whom he was excommunicated ; was con-
secrated Bishop of Lincoln in 1235.
Grossi, Tommaso (b. 1791, d. 1853), Italian
poet; author of Marco Visconti and several
sonnets; was appointed in 1848 director of
public instruction in Lombardy.
Grosvenor, Thomas, Field-marshal (b.
1764, d. 1851), English soldier; son of
A. A
Thomas Grosvenor, M.P., commanded tha
guard in the riots of 1780 ; in 1793 served in
Flanders, and in 1799 with the expedition to
the Helder ; commanded a brigade in the
attack on Copenhagen in 1805, and in 1809
joined the Walcheren expedition. He
became field-marshal in 1846, and repre-
sented Chester in Parliament for many years.
Grote, George (b. 1794, d. 1871), his-
torian and politician ; educated at the
Charterhouse ; entered the family banking-
house, but devoted his leisure time to literary
work. He published many pamphlets on
reform, and contributed to the Westminster
Review. In 1833 he was elected for the
City of London, for which he continued to
sit till 1841 as one of the "Philosophical
Radicals." His History of Greece appeared
between 1846 and Ib56, and was followed by
Plato and other Companions of Socrates. He
was also one of the founders of London
University. His Minor Works were edited
by Professor Bain in 1873.
Grotefend, Georg Friedrich (b. 1775, d.
1853), German philologist ; author of A
Greater Latin Grammar and of some works
on the cuneiform inscriptions, of which he
was the first to discover the key. His
brother, Friedrich August (d. 1836), wrote
Materials for Latin Style.
Grotius, Hugo (b. 1583, d. 1645), German
statesman and writer ; born at Delft ; entered
public life &s pensionary of Rotterdam; came
to England in 1615 as a commissioner on the
Greenland fisheries' question, and there met
Casaubon. As a friend of Barnevelt, and a
supporter of Arminius, he was imprisoned
by the stadtholder, Maurice (1619), but two
years after his wife contrived his escape, and
he went to Paris for some years. After a
short stay in Holland, and a residence of
two years at Hamburg, he returned to
Paris in 1635, as Swedish ambassador, where
he remained till shortly before his death.
Chief among his many works were Poemata
Sacra (1601), De Jure Belli et Pacis (1625),
and Annotationes in Novum Testa/men* um
(1644).
Grotius, Peter (b. 1610, d. 1680), Dutch
diplomatist; son of last-named, was pen-
sionary of Amsterdam in 1660, and a
partisan of the De Witts, on whose fall he
fled (1671) ; was afterwards tried for betray-
ing state secrets, but acquitted.
Grouchy, Emmanuel, Marquis de (b. 1766.
d. 1847), French soldier; one of Napokon's
marshals ; distinguished himself in the
Vendean war, and afterwards in Lombardy
and Germany, rendering conspicuous service
at Hohenlinden, in Russia, and on the in-
vasion of the Allies in 1814. He was sent by
Napoleon to pursue Bliicher after the battle of
Ligny, and to his non-arrival was attributed
Gro
(402)
Gud
the defeat of Waterloo. He was banished
by the Bourbons, but. after an absence of
twelve years, was recalled and restored to
his honours by Louis Philippe.
Grove, Sir George (b. 1820), English
engineer and biographer ; was for some years
on the staff of Robert Stephenson, and era-
ployed on the Chester and Holyhead rail-
way ; was afterwards secretary to the
Society of Arts and the Crystal Palace
Company. He has also contributed to Dr.
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, and edited
Macmillari's Magazine and The Dictionary
of Music, writing many of the chief
articles for the latter. In 1882 he was
appointed director of the Royal College of
Music, and was knighted in the following
year.
Grove, Sir William Robert, F.R.S. (b. 1811),
English judge and man of science ; educated
at Brasenose, Oxford; was called to the bar
in 1835; became Q.C. in 1853, justice of
the Common Pleas 1871, and a judge of the
High Court of justice in 1875. On his re-
tirement in 1887 he was sworn on the Privy
Council. He was also professor of experi-
mental philosophy at the London Institution
from 1840 to 1847, and president of the
British Association in 1866. He took great
part in the reorganisation of the Royal
Society, and was the author of several im-
portant discoveries in electricity and optics,
described in The Progress of Physical Science
since the Opening of tJie London Institution,
and the essay, On the Correlation of Phy-
sical Forces.
Groves, Charles Edward (b. 1841), English
chemist ; assisted Dr. Hoffmann in the Royal
College of Chemistry, and was afterwards
lecturer in practical chemistry at Guy's
Hospital, consulting chemist to the Thames
Conservators, and sub- editor and editor of
the Journal of the Chemical Society. He
was elected F.C.S. in 1871, and F.'R.S. in
1883, and has edited several chemical works.
Griin. [See Auersperg.]
Grundy, William (b. 1850), English scholar
and divine ; educated at Rossall and Ox-
fmrd, being fellow of Worcester College for
three years ; was ordained in 1878 ; became
head-master of King's school, Warwick, in
1881, and of Malvern in 1885. He is the
author of The Chief Ancient Philosophies
(1889), and was gold medallist of the Royal
Geographical Society in 1869.
Grynseus, Johann Jacob (b. 1540, d. 1617),
German Protestant theologian ; author of
Character Christianorum and editor of the
Ecclesiastica Historia of Eusebius.
Grynseus, Simon Major (b. 1493, d. 1541),
German scholar ; friend of Erasmus and Sir
Thomas More, whose acquaintance he made
on coining to England to consult about the
divorce of Henry VIII. ; published ln'm-tu
Or bis Regionum, a collection of voyages, and
discovered the last five books of Livy.
Guadet, Marguerite Elie (b. 1758, d.
1794), French revolutionist ; practised as an
advocate, and was elected for Bordeaux a
member of the Legislative Assembly. In
the Convention he became one of the leading
Girondists, and was involved in their fall,
and guillotined at Bordeaux in July, 1794.
Gualdo-Priorato, Galeazzo (b. 1606, d.
1678), Italian soldier and historian ; served
Maurice of Nassau, Venice, and other
states, and wrote Historia deUe Guerre
(1630-39), and II Guerriere Prudente 9
Politico.
Guarini, Giovanni Battista (6. 1537, d.
1612), Italian poet; friend and imitator of
Tasso. His chief work was II Pastor Fido
(1590).
Guarino, or Guarini of Verona (b. 1370, d.
1460), Italian scholar, the first Italian who
taught Greek after the revival of letters ;
edited Plutarch, Strabo, and other authors.
Guarnieri, Josef "del Gesu" (b. 1683, d.
1745), violin-maker of Cremona, the most
famous of his family ; preferred strength and
tone to form in his instruments. They have
been very valuable since Pagam'ni used one.
His sobriquet "del Gesu" came from the
I.H.S. which is on his tickets. The founder
of the family of violin -makers was ANDREA
GUAENIEEI (d. 1695), who worked with
Stradivari, and whose son, JOSEPH (d. 1730),
developed his father's method, and is known
as " Cremonensis."
Guasco, Octaviano di (b. 1712, d. 1781),
Piedmontese scholar ; friend of Montesquieu,
whose Lettres Familieres he published in
1767.
Guazzo, Marco (d. 1556), Italian poet and
historian; author of Historia dette Guerre
di Maometto imperatore con la Signoria di
Venetia (1545).
Gubernatis, Angelo de (b. 1840), Italian
Orientalist ; born and educated at Turin ;
studied at Berlin under Bopp and Weber,
and became professor of Sanscrit at Florence
in 1869. He founded the Bolletino degli
Studii Orientali ; was secretary to the Flor-
ence Oriental Congress in 1878, and is the
author of Piccola Enciclopcedia Indiana,
Zoological Mythology, and Mythologie des
Plantes (1878), the Dizionario biografico
degli Scrittori Contemporanei (1879-80), etc.
In May, 1878, he gave three lectures at
Oxford on Manzoni.
Gudin, Theodore (6. 1802, d. 1880), Fxenck
Gud
(403)
&TU
painter of the romantic school ; began to
exhibit in 1822, and was from 1838 to 1848
employed by Louis Philippe to decorate with
sea-pieces the walls of Versailles. Among
his best pictures are Retour des PScheurs and
Sauvetage des Passager de Columbus. In
1856 he travelled in the East, and he spent
his last years with his wife's family in Scot-
land.
Gudin de la Brenellerie, Paul Philippe
(b. 1738, rf. 1812), French poet; friend of
Voltaire and Beaumarchais, and author of
Essai sur le Progres des Arts sous le Regne de
Louis XIV.
Guercino da Cento, Giovanni Francesco
Barbieri (b. 1590, d. 1666), Italian painter;
born at Cento, near Bologna, and called
"Guercino," from his habit of squinting;
studied under Cremonni and Gennari, and
imitated Caravaggio. His finest pictures
were St. Petronilla, in the Capitol, Borne, and
several frescoes in the cupola at Piacenza.
His Angels Weeping over the Dead Body of
Christ is in the National Gallery. He after-
wards imitated Guido, and died at Bologna
very rich, although he had been very mu-
nificent and charitable.
Gueret, Gabriel (*. 1641, d. 1688), French
jurist and satirical writer; author of La
Parnasse Reforme (1669).
Guericke, Otto von (6. 1602, d. 1686),
German philosopher ; born at Magdeburg,
of which he became burgomaster, after
travelling in France and England, and study-
ing at Leyden. He invented the air-pump,
and made experiments before the diet at
Ratisbon in 1654. He also constructed the
first electric machine, and described his
" Magdeburg hemispheres," in liisNova Ex-
perimenta (1672).
Guerin, Georges Maurice de (b. 1810, d.
1839), French poet ; was with Lamennais in
Brittany for a year ; married a rich lady in
1838, but died soon after of consumption. Le
Centaure and La Bacchante were his chief
poems, and, with his journals and letters,
were published in 1862. EUGENIE (b. 1805, d.
1848), his sister, was much attached to him,
and wrote a Journal for him, which was
published in 1855. She was a strict Catholic,
and was much grieved at the change in her
brother's opinions.
Gue'rin, Jean Baptiste (b. 1783, d. 1855),
French painter; his chief pictures being
Jesus Mort (1817), Anchise et Venus (1822),
and Adam et Eve Exiles (1827).
Guerin, Pierre Narcisse (b. 1774, d. 1833),
French painter ; pupil of Regnault, and
teacher of Ge'ricault and Ary Scheffer, who,
however, deserted the classical school for the
romantic. Among his chief pictures were
A A2
Marcus Sextus (1799), Clytemnestra, an<J
Dido and JEneas.
Guesclin, Bertrand du (b. circa 1320, d.
1380), French soldier; commanded against the
Black Prince, but was defeated and made
prisoner by Sir John Chandos in 1364 ; after-
wards collected all the ''free companies"
under his command, and led them into Spain
against Pedro the Cruel, and was defeated
at Navarette, but in 1380 defeated Pedro at
Montiel, and dethroned him.
Guest, Edwin, F.R.S. (b. 1800, d. 1880),
English historical writer; graduated at
Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1828.
He was elected master of Caius College in
1852, and was vice-chancellor in 1854. He
was author of a History of English Rhythms
(1838), and several historical fragments,
which were collected and published by Pro-
fessor Stubbs and Mr. Seedes under the title
of Origines Celtics, and Other Contributions
to the History of Britain.
Guettard, Jean Etienne (6. 1715, d. 1786),
French mineralogist and geologist; dis-
covered china earth near Alen9on, which
was used in the making of Sevres china.
Guevara, Antonio di (b. 1490, d. 1544),
Spanish historian and moralist ; author of
Relax de Principes, Marco Aurelio (1529),
Una Decada de los Vidas de los Cesares
(1539).
Guevara, Louis Veles (b. 1570, d. 1644),
Spanish dramatist ; author of Diablo Cojuelo
(1641).
Guglielmi, Pietro (6. 1727, d. 1804),
Italian composer; rival of Paisiello, at
Naples, and afterwards maestro di capella at
Rome ; composed many operas, the chief of
which were Mort d'Abele and Debora e
Sisera.
Guglielmini, Domenico (b. 1655, d. 1710),
Italian mathematician and physician ; pro-
fessor of Bologna, the draining of whose
territory he superintended. He wrote De
Comet arum Naturd, and other works.
Gui de Lusignan (d. 1194), King of
Cyprus, and crusader; was defeated by
Saladin in 1117, whereupon Jerusalem sur-
rendered, and he renounced his title as king
of it, which he had gained by marriage with
the daughter of Baldwin.
Guibert (b. 1053, d. 1124), Abbot of No-
gent; wrote Gesta Dei per Francos, the
earliest history of the Crusades.
Guibert, Cardinal (b. 1802, d. 1886), French
theologian ; celebrated as a controversialist ;
was successively Vicar- General of Ajaccio,
Bishop of Viviers, Archbishop of Tours, and
Archbishop of Paris, and in 1873 Pius IX.
Gui
(404 )
Gui
made him Cardinal. He opposed the secu-
larisation, of education, and addressed a re-
monatiauce to President Grevy on the sub-
ject in 1886.
Guieciardini, Francesco (b. 1483, d. 1540),
Italian historian uud diplomatist ; employed
by Leo X. and subsequent popi-s, being a
faithful adherent of the Medu.-i. < m the
accession of Cosimo I. he retired into private
life, and composed his Ddla Historia deW
Anwj l+)4, Jin dell* Anno 2526, which was
published in 1561.
Guichenon, Samuel, Comte de (b. 1607,
d. 1664), French genealogist ; author of
Siatoire de la Mai*on tie Savoye.
Guide, Philibert (b. 1535, d. 1595), French
writer ; author of Fables (1583) and La Col-
umbiere et la Maisan Rustique.
Guidi, Carlo (b. 1650, d. 1715), Italian
poet ; wrote Pocsie Liriche (1631), and did
much to ref onn the prevalent style of Italian
poetry.
Guidi, Tommaso, " Masaccio " (b. 1402, d.
1443), Florentine painter, all of whose early
pictures are lost ; but the crucifix above the
door of the sacristy of Sainte- Marie Nou-
velle, at Florence, is attributed to him, and
there are a few of his works elsewhere.
Guido, Novello (13th century), Italian
statesman ; leader of the Ghibellines after
the battle of the Arbia ; governed Tuscany
for Manfred till he was driven, in 1266,
from Florence by the Guelfs.
Guido Aretino, or d'Arezzo (Jl. 1000),
Benedictine monk ; supposed to have in-
vented counterpoint, and to have been the
first who used musical notation. He wrote
a treatise, Micrologus de Disiplind Artis
Musicce, about 1030.
Guido dalle Colonne (13th century) , Sicilian
judge, poet and historian ; author of De Regi-
ons et Rebut Anglorum a,n<lHistoria Trojana.
Guido Reni. [See Reni.]
Guidotti Borghese, Paolo (b. 1569, d.
1629), Italian painter and architect ; em-
ployed by Sixtus V. to paint frescoes of the
Vatican library, and patronised by Cardinal
Borghese, for whom he executed sculptures,
and who allowed him to assume his name.
He died from the effectsof an accident caused
by his attempt to fly with some wings he
had made.
Guignes, Joseph de (b. 1721, d. 1800),
French Orientalist ; author of Histoire Gene-
rale des Huns, Tares, Mogols et autres Tar-
j tares occidentaux. His son, Chretien Louis
Joseph (d. 1845), published in 1813 a Lie-
tionnaire Chinois-Franqais et Latin.
Guilbert de Pixericourt, Rene Charles
(6. 1773, d. 1844), French dramatist; called
" the Shukspeare of the Boulevards " ; after
serving in the army of the Emigres in 1792,
came to Paris, and iu thirty years produced
a hundred and eleven pieces, the most suc-
cessful of Avhich were melodramas.
Guildford, or Guilford, Lord. [See North,
Francis.]
GuiUaume.Jean Bapti8te(6. 1822), French
sculptor ; born at Montpard, Cote d'Or, be-
came a pupil of Pradier at the Ecole des
Beaux- Arts, where, in 1873, he was appointed
professor. He was also elected a member
of the Institut in 1862, and an honorary
R.A. in 1869. At the London Exhibition of
1862 he exhibited The Gracchi, and his
statue <)f Napoleon I. was at the French
Exhibition of 1867. Among others of hie
best works are Anacreon's Guests, a bas-
relief ; the statue of L'Hopital in the new
Louvre, and the Monument of Colbert at
Rheims. He holds the appointment of head
of the Art school at Rome.
Guillemain, Charles Jacob (6. 1750, d.
1799). French dramatist ; author of numerous
plays, but perhaps best known as composer
of pieces for Seraphin's marionette show.
Guillemain, Gabriel (b. 1705, d. 1770),
French violinist ; patronised by Louis XV. ;
composed several sonatas between 1739 aud
1759, and committed suicide in 1770.
Guillemeau, Jacques (d. 1613), French
surgeon; attended Charles IX., Henri III.,
and Henri IV., and wrote Traite de la
Chirurgie Fran$aise (1594). His son, Charles
(b. 15S8, d. 1656), also court surgeon, was
famous for his attack on Courtaud of Ivlont-
pellier, and was author of several works on
surgery.
Guillemeau, Jean Louis [b. 1766, d. 1850),
French surgeon and naturalist ; descendant
of the above ; was surgeon to the revolu-
tionary armies, and author of several medical
and scientific works.
Guillen, Marie Nicolas (6. 1766, d. 1878),
French ecclesiastic and writer; Bishop of
Beauvais : administered the sacrament to
the Abbe Grregoriein 1831, and was censured,
but was afterwards reconciled and made a
bishop of Morocco. He was author of
Nouveaux Contes Arabes and Histoire de
Nouvelle Heresie, written in 1835 against
Lamennais.
Guillotia, Joseph (b. 1738, d. 1814), French
physician, who exposed the charlatanism of
Mesmer, and suggested to the Assembly the
notion of execution by machinery, but did
not actually invent the instrument called
after his name.
Guinaud, Pierre (d. 1824), Swiss optician.
Gui
(405 )
Gul
who is said to have invented flint glass
about 1798.
Guinicelli, Guido (d. 1276), Italian poet,
born at Bologna ; founder of a new school
on the model of the Provencal troubadours.
Dante called him his '* lather," and he was
much esteemed by his contemporaries.
Guiscard, Robert (6. 1015, d. 1085), Nor-
man soldier ; son of Tancred d'Hauteville ;
defeated Leo IX. at Civitella, and, with his
brother Humphrey, was invested by him with
the dukedom of Apulia. Subsequently he
rescued Gregory VII. from the Emperor
Henry IV. , invaded the Greek empire, and
died when on another expedition against it,
having defeated the fleets of the Eastern
empire and Venice.
Guise, Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine (6.
1524, d. 1574), French diplomatist • brother
of Francois (second duke) ; formed the alli-
ance with Spain at the meeting with Gran-
velle in 1558 ; opposed Catherine de Medi-
cis, and declared the Council of Trent
superior to the pope (1562).
Guise, Charles, Due de (b. 1571, d. 1640),
became reconciled to Henri IV., and was
appointed governor of Provence. He after-
wards supported Marie de Medicis against
Richelieu, and was compelled to leave
France.
Guise, Claude of Lorraine, first Duke (d.
1550), French statesman ; founder of the
Guise family ; went with Francis I. to Italy,
and was wounded at Marignano, but died
in disgrace, and perhaps by poison. He
married Antoinette de Bourbon.
" Guise, Francois, Due de (6. 1519, d. 1563),
French general and statesman ; served with
distinction against Charles V. , and surprised
Calais in 1553 ; afterwards prominent as a
statesman and opponent of the Huguenots,
whom he defeated at Dreux, but was soon
after assassinated.
Guise, Henri I., Ditc de (6. 1553, d. 1588),
called " le Balafre " from a wound received
at the siege of Boulogne : was the great
opponent of Coligny, and planner of the St.
Bartholomew massacre. He established the
" Holy League," and made war on Henri
III. , who had forbidden him the court. After
entering Paris in 1588 he was assassinated
by contrivance of the king.
Guise, Henri II., Ducde(* 1614, d. 1664),
younger son of Charles ; became duke on
the death of his elder brother ; was made
king of Naples in 1648, but was captured
by the Spaniards. He afterwards tried to
recover Naples, but was unsuccessful ; was
grand chamberlain to Louis XIV.
Guise, Jean, Cardinal of Lorraine (b.
1498, d. 1550), French statesman; brother of
Claude, whose schemes he aided ; was sent
as ambassador to Charles V. in 1536, and
became very rich.
Guise, Louis, Cardinal of Lorraine (6.
1555, d. 1588), brother of Henri (third duke),
with whom he was assassinated in 158S.
Guiton, Jean (d. 1654), French Huguenot
admiral; three times defended Eochelle
against Louis XIII. ; was abandoned on the
third occasion by the English fleet under
Buckingham, which had come to his relief
in 1628.
Guittone d'Arezzo (d. 1294), Italian poet ;
a brother of the order which was called
"Frati Godenti"; was chief of the Tus-
can school, and left thirty -five sonnets,
which were published in 1838 at Florence,
under the title Rev-ire ; his letters are among
the oldest specimens of Italian prose.
Guizot, Francois Pierre Guillaume (b,
1787, d. 1874), French historian and states-
man, born at Nimes, and brought up at
Geneva by his mother. In 1805 he went to
Paris, where seven years later he obtained
the professorship of modern history at the
Sorbonne. In 1814 he was secretary general
of the ministry of the interior, and after
the second restoration entered the ministry
of justice. He founded the party of the
Doctrinaires, who tried to reconcile the
revolution and the restoration. In 1830
he was elected deputy for Lisieux, and
after the revolution became minister of the
interior. From 1832 to 1836 he was minister
of public instruction, but quarrelled with
Thiers. In 1839 he again joined him, and
next year went to London as ambassador,
from whence he was recalled by Louis
Philippe, and was chief minister actually,
though not nominally, until 1848, during
which time he conducted French foreign
policy, at first with success, but after the
Spanish marriage intrigue lost the good-will
of England. His resistance to all reforms
overthrew him in France, and his political
career closed with !&e revolution of 1848,
after which he went to London. Chief
among his historical wj>rks, to the writing
of which he hencefcth devoted himself
while living near Lisieux, are his History of
the English Revolution, Histoiredela Ci'ili-
sation en France, and Histoire Parkmentaire
de France ; besides Shakespeare et son Temps,
Corneille et son Temps, and some essays.
Guldenstadt, Anton (b. 1745, d. 1781),
Russian physician and naturalist ; author of
Memoire sur des Produits de la Russie.
Gull, Sir William Withey (6. 1816, d. 1890),
English physician ; graduated at London
University (M.B. 1841, M.D. 1846) ; was pro-
fessor of physiology at the Royal Institution
Gnl
(406)
Gns
1847-9, aud pli}rsician and lecturer at Guy's
Hospital l$47-i>7. He was created a
baronet iu 1872 for his treatment of the
Prince of Wales ; was a fellow of the
Royal Society aud president of the Clinical
Society, and author of Chemical Observations
in Itclation to Medicine in Modern Times
(1S69), Alcohol a* a Me-dicin<" and as a Bever-
age (187S) ; aud, with Dr. Baly, of Reports
<m Epidemic Cholera (1854).
Gulliver, George (b. 1804, d. 1882), Eng-
lish surgeon and physiologist ; was pro-
tector to Abernethy and dresser to Laurence
at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, and in 1827
became hospital assistant to the Forces. He
was elected F.R.S. in 1838, and fellow of
the College of Surgeons in 1843 ; and in
1861 was Huuteriau professor of compara-
tive anatomy and physiology. He edited
Gerber's Anatomy and Hewson's works, and
made many important researches.
Gully, James Manley (b. 1808,^6?. 1883),
English physician, born in Jamaica; edu-
cated at Liverpool and Paris, and took his
M.D. at Edinburgh in 1829. He edited the
London Medical Journal and the Liverpool
Medical Gazette between 1832 and 1836, and
in 1842 came to Malvern, and practised hydro-
pathy. His chief works were Symptoms and
Treatment of Neuropathy and The Water-
Cure in Chronic Disease.
Gungl, Josef (b. 1810, d. 1889), Hun-
garian composer of dance music ; many of
His 400 compositions proved very popular.
Gunner, Johann Ernst (6. 1718, d. 1773),
Norwegian bishop and naturalist ; author of
Flora Norwegica (1766-76).
Gunter, Archibald Clavering (b. 1847),
American writer ; wrote and published
himself Mr. Barnes of New York (1887),
Mr. Potter of Texas (1888), That Frenchman,
and Miss Nobody of Nowhere, the first two
of which were dramatised.
Gunter, Edmund (b. 1581, d. 1626), English
mathematician ; professor of astronomy at
Gresham College, 1614: was the first to
observe the variation of the compass ; in-
vented the " Gunter scale " as well as the
sector and other instruments.
Giinther, Albert Charles Gotthilf, F.RS.
(b. 1830), zoologist ; born at Esslingen,
and educated at Tubingen, Berlin, and
Bonn ; received an appointment in the Bri-
tish Museum in 1857, and in 1875 became
keeper of the department of zoology. Be-
sides his catalogues of snakes, reptiles, and
fish, he wrote The Fishes of the South Seas
(Hamburg, 1873-8), The Gigantic Land
Tortoises, Living and Extinct (London,
1877), besides numerous contributions to
Transactions of societies. He was also the
"oxy-
" and
founder and for six years editor of the
Annals and Magazine of Natural History.
Gurney, Sir Goldsworthy (6. 1793, d.
1875), English chemist : invented the
hydrogen blowpipe," the " lime light,
the " magnesium light "; also the "Bude
light," the "oil vapour light," and the
"high-pressure steam jet" of the tubular
boiler, which he applied to coal mines and
railway locomotives. He also introduced a
new mode of lighting into the House of
Commons in 1839, and arranged the light-
ing and ventilating of the new Houses of
Parliament. Many of his discoveries
are described in A Course of Lectures
on Chemical Science, Delivered at the Surrey
Institution in 1822, which were published
in 1823.
Gurney, Joseph John (b. 1788, d. 1847),
English banker and philanthropist ; brother
of Elizabeth Fry, with whom he visited, in
1818, the prisons of Scotland, and afterwards
those of Ireland and America (1837-40).
In 1841 he visited the Continent with his
brother, Samuel, and the same year, with
Mrs. Fry, went to Holland, Belgium,
Germany, and Denmark, going again in
1843. He acted as a Quaker minister, hold-
ing meetings ever}* where, and was author
of numerous works, among which may be
mentioned Notes on Prisons and Prison Dis-
cipline, and A Winter in the West Indies.
Gurney, Russell (6. 1804, d. 1878), English
lawyer and politician ; son of Sir John Gur-
ney ; educated at Cambridge ; was called to
the bar in 182S, became Queen's Counsel in
1848, and was from 1856 to 1878 Recorder of
London. In 1865 he was one of the com-
missioners appointed to inquire into the
Jamaica disturbances. Having meanwliile
entered Parliament, on his return from
Jamaica, he was sworn of the Privy Coun-
cil, and in 1871 went to America as com-
missioner for the settlement of claims under
the treaty of "Washington. In 1874 he was
one of the chief promoters of the Public
Worship Regulation Act.
Gurwood. Colonel John, C.B. (b. 1790,
d. 1845), English soldier ; entered the
army in 1808; served in the Peninsula,
in Holland, and at Waterloo, and was pri-
vate secretary to the Duke of Wellington,
whose chief despatches he edited. He com-
mitted suicide.
Gustavus Vasa (6. 1496, d. 1560),
King of Sweden (Gustavus I.) ; made his
country independent of Denmark, and was
in 1521 elected king. He established
Lutheranism as the national religion, and
made treaties with France, England, and
the new king, Frederick I. of Denmark.
Gustavus Adolphus (b. 1594, d. 1632),
Gus
(407)
Gwy
G ustavus II. of Sweden, grandson of last-
named ; resisted the aggressions of Sigis-
mund, King of Poland, and concluded an
advantageous peace. In 1630 he invaded
Germany as head of the Protestant League,
took Colberg, won the battles of Breiten-
feldt and the Lech, and in 1632 captured
Munich. In 1632 he defeated Wallenstein
at Llitzen, but was killed in the battle.
Gustavus III. (6. 1746, d. 1792), came to
the throne in 1771, and next year re-
established the despotic power of the crown
by a coup d'etat; carried on a war with
Eussia from 1788 to 1790, and won the
battle of Svenskund ; projected a league of
sovereigns against the revolution, but was
assassinated next year by a noble named
Ankarstrom.
Gustavus IV. (b. 1778, d. 1837), came to
the throne in 1792, and assumed the
government in 1800 ; refused to join in the
Continental system in 1806, and made an
alliance with England ; lost Finland in
1808 in a war with Russia, and was deposed
by the states next year; after this he
travelled as Count Gottorp, and attempted
at the congress of 1814 to obtain the recog-
nition of his son's claims. A year before his
death he settled at St. Gall.
Gutenbsrg, Johann (6. circa 1400, d. 1468),
German printer ; probably the inventor
about 1440 of movable types at Strasburg,
with which he printed in 1450 his Siblia
Latina. His plant was obtained by his
partner Fust in payment of money lent, but
he was afterwards able to print the Catholi-
con, now in the Imperial library at Paris.
Gutlirie, James Cargill (6. 1814), Scotch
songwriter and essayist ; was in 1868 librarian
of the first free library at Dundee. Among
his songs are Adieu to the Good Ship Mars,
and a Jubilee Ode, and he also wrote What is
Genius, The Genius of Literature, The
Genius of Love , etc., and Eventide, or Fading
Away (1890).
Gutlirie, Thomas (6. 1803, d. 1873),
Scotch divine ; an ardent supporter of the
Free Church movement, social reform, and
total abstinence ; was author of A Plea for
Ragged Schools, A Plea on Behalf of Drunk-
ards, and The Parables Read in the Light of
the Present Day, with many other works.
On his retirement in 1864 he was presented
with £3,000.
Gutlirie, Thomas Anstey (b. 1856),
English novelist ; graduated at Cambridge
in 1879, and was called to the bar in 1880.
After several contributions to magazines,
Vice" Versa appeared in 1882, and was
followed by the Giant's Robe (1883), The
Tinted Venus (1885), The Pariah (1889), etc.
Gutlirie, William (b. 1835), Scotch lawyer,
educated at Glasgow and Edinburgh, and
called to the Scotch bar in 1861. He was
appointed sheriff-substitute of Lanarkshire
in 1874, and published a translation of
Savigny on Private International Law, an
edition of Erskine's Principles of Scots Law,
The Law of the Trades Unions in England
and Scotland (1873), and other works.
Gutzkow, Karl Ferdinand (b. 1811, d.
1878), German romance writer and dra-
matist ; son of an ostler at Berlin ; went
to Stuttgardt in 1831 to assist Menzel
with the Literaturblatt — a connection
which was severed in 1835 by the
latter's attack on his first work Wally
oder die Zweifterin, which was confiscated
by the government, and its author im-
prisoned. In 1837 Gutzkow went to Ham-
burg, where he bought a Satire on Gorres,
and a Life of Borne. After visiting France,
he became director of the Dresden theatre.
Between 1839 and 1850 he wrote several
plays, the chief of which were Zopf und
Schwert, and Das Urbild des Tar tuff e. He
addressed the people at Berlin during the
revolution of 1848 ; and after his return to
Dresden wrote the romances Die Ritter vom
Geiste (1850), and Der Zauberer von Rom
(1858). In 1868 appeared Hohenschwan-
gau. In 1861 Gutzkow was appointed
secretary to the Schiller memorial at
Weimar, but he gradually became insane.
Having partially recovered, he travelled in
Italy and Switzerland, till one night, when
under the influence of chloral, he was burnt
to death in his bed at Sachseuhausen.
Giitzlaff, Karl Friedrich August (6. 1803,
d. 1851), Prussian linguist and missionary;
spent several years in China and Siam, the
results of his observations appearing in
Journals of the Geographical and Asiatic
societies. He also wrote a History of China,
and China Reopened, and made a Chinese
translation of the New Testament. In
1834 he became interpreter to the English
commission.
Guy, Thomas (b. 1644, d, 1724), founder
of Guy's Hospital ; was son of a bargeman,
and made a large fortune by printing, and
speculating in the South Sea scheme. In
Parliament he represented Tamworth, and
founded an almshouse there.
Guyot, Arnold (b. 1807, d. 1884), Swiss
geographer and geologist ; went to America
in 1849, and devoted his life to science ; was
professor of geology and physical geography
at Princeton college ; formed an intimacy
with Agassiz, and made numerous maps,
mathematical tables and text-books. His
greatest works were The Meteorological and
Physical Tables, issued by the Smithsonian
Institution, and his Earth and Man.
G wynne, Eleanor or Nell (b, 1650, d
Gyl
(408)
Had
1691), mistress of Charles II. : an actress at
Drury Laue, and mother of the first Duke
of St. Albans.
GyUenborg1, Karl (b. 1679, d. 1746),
Swedish statesman ; when ambassador in
England was engaged in an intrigue with
the" Stewarts for the invasion of Scotland.
After leaving the country, he became high
chancellor of Sweden, and leader of the
" Hat "party.
Gzowski, Colonel Casimir Stanislaus (b.
1813), a Pole in the English service. After
serving in the Russian army, being con-
cerned in the Polish movement of 1830-2,
and living some time in America, he was
employed by the Canadian government in
engineering and railway construction, and
took an active part in the formation of
the Dominion Rifle Association. In 1879
he was appointed aide-de-camp to the
Queen.
Eaag, Karl (b. 1820), Bavarian painter,
came to England in 1847, and, having
settled there, was elected three years later
a member of the Royal Society of Painters
in Water-Colours, to whose exhibitions he
became a frequent contributor. lu 1853 he
was named h of mater by the Duke of Saxe-
Coburg and Gotha, and having been intro-
duced at the court of St. James, painted
several pictures for the Queen. He has made
Bedouin life his special study.
Eaak, Theodor (b. 1605, d. 1690), German
scholar, studied at Oxford for three years,
and translated for the Westminster As-
sembly of Divines The Dutch Annotations
upon the JSible, ordered by the Synod of
Dort. He was one of the founders and
original members of the Royal Society.
Haansbergen, Joannes van (b. 1642, d.
1705), Dutch portrait-painter, pupil and
follower of Poelemburg.
Haas, Wilhelm (b. 1741, d. 1800), Swiss
type-founder, inventor of a new press, in
which he first used movable types for geo-
graphical charts.
Eabakkuk, one of the minor prophets.
Eabberton, John (6. 1842), American
writer, born at Brooklyn, is chiefly known
as the author of Helen's Babies.
Eabeneck, Antoine (b. 1781, d. 1849),
French violinist and composer, who intro-
duced Beethoven's music into France ; was
patronised by the Empress Josephine, and
from 1821 to 1846 was chef-d'orchestre at
the opera.
Haberlin, Franz Dominic (b. 1720, d.
1787), German historian aud jurist, author
of numerous works, of which the chief were
Entwurf der politischen Historic des lSten
Jahrhunderts bis zu Ende des Jahres 1745,
and fleueste deutsche Reichsgeschichte vom
Anfange des Schmalkaldischen Krieges.
Habert, Franqois (d. circa 1562), French
poet, patronised by Henri II., author of
Jeunense du Banny de Liesse, Jardin de la
Felicite, and Temple de Chastete ; called
himself " Le Banny de Liesse."
Hachette, Jean Nicolas (b. 1769, d. 1834),
French mathematician, professor with
Mouge at the Ecole Polytechnique ; was
deprived by Louis XVIII. in 1816, but
patronised by Louis Philippe. He carried
on the work of Monge, producing several
treatises on geometrical science.
Eackert.Philipp (b. 1737, d. 1807), German
painter, whose early works are the best, the
chief being six pictures of the battle of
Tchesme between the Russian and Turkish
fleets, painted for Catherine II.
Eacket or Eackett, John (b. 1592, d.
1670), English theologian, a staunch Royal-
ist ; made rector of St. Andrew's, Holborn,
which he designed to rebuild ; became
Bishop of Lichfield after the Restoration,
and wrote the Life of Archbishop Williams
(1693).
Eacket, William (d. 1591), a fanatic, who
proclaimed himself as the Messiah, and waa
hanged for his insults to Queen Elizabeth.
Eacklander, Friedrich Wilhelm (b. 1816,
d. 1877), German novelist, born at Aachen;
contributed to a Stuttgart paper in 1840
Pictures from a Soldier's Life in Time oj
Peace, and accompanied the Crown Prince
of Wiirtemburg as his secretary in the
Italian campaign of 1849, which he after-
wards described. Among his other works
are Handel und Wandel (1850), Die Dunkle
Stunde (1863), and an unfinished autobio-
graphy, published in 1878 (Der Roman
tneines Lebens).
Eaden, Francis Seymour, F.R.C.S. (b.
1818), English surgeon and artist, president
of the Society of Painter-Etchers, educated
Had
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Hah
at University College and the Sorbonne;
drew up the Inter natwnalJury Report on Sur-
gical Instruments (1857). He also initiated
burial reforms by his letters to the Times
in 1875, called Earth to Earth. His artistic
works consist of Etudes a I'jEau Forte (Lon-
don and Paris, 1865 and 18G6), and numerous
other etchings, distinguished for their vigour.
Hadik, or Haddik, Graf Andreas von
(b. 1710, d. 1790), Hungarian general, who
served with distinction against the Turks,
and won for the Austrians the victory of
Gorlitz in the Seven Years' war.
Eadji-Khalfa (d. 1658), Turkish historian
[Mustafa-Ben- Abdallah], wrote several
works in Turkish, Arabic, and Persian,
chief among which was Fedzlikeh, a history
of the world from the creation to 1655.
Eadley, John (d. 1744), English mathe-
matician and friend of Newton ; the reputed
inventor of the sextant, and a fellow of the
Royal Society, to whose Transactions he
contributed several papers.
Hadrian (b. 76, d. 138), Enaperor of Rome,
proclaimed 117, visited all parts of the
empire; built the wall between England
and Scotland in 121, and JElia Capitolina on
the ruins of Jerusalem in 131 ; subdued the
Jews in 136 ; built a villa at Tibur, and his
tomb at Rome (137).
Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich (b. 1834), German
naturalist, born at Potsdam, was appointed
in 1861 professor of zoology at Jena. He
afterwards travelled in all parts of Europe,
and visited Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor.
In 1881 he went to India. His chief works
are Natural History of Creation, The Origin
of the Human Race, Popular Lectures on
Evolution (1878), contributions to the Voy-
age of H. M.S. Challenger, etc.
Haedo, Diego da (17th century), Spanish
historian, author of a History of Algiers.
Baen, Anton van (b. 1704, d. 1776), Dutch
physician, pupil of Boerhaave; besides
several medical works, wrote a book in
defence of magic.
Haering, Wilhelm (b. 1798, d. 1871),
German novelist, who wrote under the name
"Willibad Alexis"; published in 1823
Walladmor, which he pretended was an
unpublished work of Sir Walter Scott. It
was translated into English, and read by
the latter, who praised its skill. In Schloss
Aaallen (1827) the same conceit was made
tise of. Subsequently, however, the author
wrote several works in his own name, the
chief of which were Cabanis (1832), Der
Falsche Waldemar (1842), and Die Hosen des
Herrn von Bredau (1846-8). He also wrote
some plays, and a collection of stories of
celebrated crimes (Der Neue Pitaval).
Hae-Wang (ft. 1750), Chinese mandarin,
iiiister for European affairs ; protected the
missionaries in the reign of Khien-loung.
Hafi.2, Mohammedi " Shemsed - Din "
(d. 1388), Persian poet, author of The
Divan.
Eagar, concubine of Abraham and mother
of Ishmael.
Hagenbach, Pieter von (d. 1474), landvogt
of Elsass, which he governed with great
cruelty; served under Charles the Bold;
was ultimately taken and beheaded by the
Swiss.
Eager, Josef (b. 1757, d. 1819), German
linguist, mastered all the languages of
Europe and many of those of Asia,
travelled much in pursuit of books and
MSS., and was entrusted by Napoleon with
the compilation of a Chinese-Latin-French
dictionary. The scheme was never carried
out, but Hager was afterwards professor of
German at Oxford, and of oriental languages
at Pavia and Paris.
Haggai, one of the minor prophets, who
urged the Jews to rebuild the Temple about
520 B.C.
Haggard, Henry Rider (b. 1856), English
novelist, born at Bradenham, Norfolk;
went to Natal in 1875 as secretary to Sir H.
Bulwer, and was afterwards master of the
High Court of the Transvaal. In 1879 he
returned to England, and published in 1882
Cetewayo and his White Neighbours. This
was followed by several novels, the chief of
which were Dawn (1884), The Witch's Head
(1885), Xing Solomon's Mines (1886), and
She, Jess, Cleopatra, Beatrice^ and Enc
Brighteyes (1890), etc.
Haghe, Louis (b. 1802, d. 1885), English
lithographer and painter, born in Belgium ;
helped De Jonghe with his Vues Pittoresqw.s
de la Eelgique, and, having come to England,
became partner of William Day of Lincoln's
Inn Fields, and with hirn produced many
works, the best known of which is the
lithograph of David Roberts1 s Sketches in
the Holy Land and Egypt. From 1852 he
abandoned lithography for painting, and
was president of the Institute of Painters in
Water-Colours from 1873-84. His Council
of War at Courtrai is in the National
Gallery. His brother Charles (d. 1888)
was also a skilful lithographer.
Halin, Karl August (b. 1807, d. 1857),
German philologist, author of grammars
of German dialects, and editor of the
Niebelungenlied ( 1 85 1) .
Hahn-Hahn, Ida Grafin von (b. 1805, d.
1880), German novelist, born in Mecklen-
^burg-Schwerin, travelled widely, and wrote
Hah
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Hal
accounts of her adventures ; was divorced
from her husband in 1829, and in 1850,
under the influence of Cardinal Wiseman,
became a Roman Catholic. Her reputation
rests upon her novels, the chief of which
were Aits der Gesellschaft (1838), Sigismund
Forster (1840), Eudoxia die Kaiserin (1866),
and Xirwana (1875).
Hahnemann, Christian Samuel Friedrich
(b. 1755, d. 1843), German physician, the
founder of homoeopathy, to which he was
led by experiments made on himself with
Peruvian bark. He practised at Leipzig, but
was obliged to retire on account of the hos-
tility of the apothecaries there. He was in-
vited to Kothen by the Duke of Anhalt, and
afterwards spent eight years in Paris. He
expounded his system in Organon of the
Healing Art (1810), and other works.
Hailes, Lord (Sir David Dalrymple), (b.
1726, d, 1792), Scotch judge and historical
antiquary ; was in 1766 made one of the
fudges of the Court of Session, and 1776 a
justiciary lord. He was a voluminous
writer, his Annals of Scotland being par-
ticularly valuable.
Haines, Sir Frederick Paul, G.C.B. (*.
1819), English soldier, entered the army
in 1839, and attained the rank of field-
marshal in 1890. He served in the Sikh
wars, being military secretary to Sir Hugh
Gough, and was severely wounded at
Ferozeshah In the same capacity he went
through the Punjab campaign of 1848-9,
being present at all the important engage-
ments. He served in the Crimea up to the
siege of Sebastopol, was commander-in-
chief of the Madras army from 1871-4, and
in 1876 became commander-in- chief in India.
Eakluyt, Richard (*. 1553, d. 1616),
English geographer and historian, chaplain
to Sir E. Stafford, English ambassador in
France. He was assisted by Sir Francis
Walsingham and Sir Walter Raleigh to
publish his Principal Navigations, Voyages,
and Discoveries made by the English Nation
(1589), and he also collected and translated
some narratives of voyages by foreigners.
Haldeman, Samuel Stedman (b. 1812, d.
1 880) , American naturalist and philologist ;
he began his monograph on Fresh Water
Univalve Mollusca of the United States in
1840, and in 1851 became professor of
natural science in Pennsylvania university.
He was in 1869 named first professor of
comparative philology in Pennsylvania, and
was an eager advocate for spelling reform.
Among his works were Outlines of Etymology
and Word Building (1881).
Hale, Edward Everett, D.D. (b. 1822),
.. American writer, born at Boston, was
* till 1856 a Unitarian minister, after which
he became a Congregatioualist. Among his
numerous works are Puritan Politics in
England and New England, WhatistJie Ameri-
can People ? (1885), My Friend the Jtoss,
Naval History of the American Revolution
(1888), and an edition of the Arabian Nights.
Hale, Sir Matthew (b. 1609, d. 1676),
English judge, was called to the bar in 1636.
Though a Royalist, he was appointed head
of the committee for prevention of delays
and expenses of law in 1652 ; became a judge
of Common Pleas in 1655, and sat in Parlia-
ment till the Restoration, when he was
made Lord Chief Baron. In 1671 he be-
came Lord Chief Justice, and resigned just
before his death. He wrote a History of the
Pleas of the Crown, Dijficiles Nugce, and an
essay on Gravitation of Fluids.
Hale, Sarah Josepha (b. 1788, d. 1879),
American writer ; wrote Northicood (a
novel), Sketches of American Character,
Woman's Record, and A Complete Dictionary
of Poetical Quotations, and was also founder
of the Ladies' Magazine of Boston.
Hales, John (b. 1584, d. 1656), "the ever-
memorable," theologian, whose Golden Re-
maines were published in 1659, attended the
Synod of Dort as chaplain to the British
ambassador, and afterwards became an
Arminian ; was persecuted by the Puritans
as a " malignant," and died in great distress.
He was a Fellow of Eton.
Hales, John Wesley (b. 1836), English
writer, son of a nonconformist minister, edu-
cated at Glasgow and Cambridge, was
elected fellow of Christ's College in 1860,
called to the bar in 1867, and in 1877 became
professor of English literature at King's
College, London. He wrote The Teaching
of English (1867), edited Areopagitica. and
assisted in editing The Percy Folio Manu-
script (1867-88), the London Series of English
Classics, etc.
Hales, Stephen, D.D. (b. 1677, d. 1761),
physicist, patronised by Frederick. Prince
of Wales, discovered the flow of the sap,
and wrote Vegetable Staticks, and Electrical
Experiments. A monnment was erected to
him in Westminster Abbey by the Princess
of Wales.
Halevy, Jacques Francois Fromental
(b. 1799, d. 1862), French composer of Jewish
extraction, pupil of Cherubini, gained the first
prize of the Paris Conservatoire in 1819 with
his Nerminie, and next year composed for
the funeral of the Due de Berry a funeral
march and De Profundis in Hebrew, which
he dedicated to his master. He reached the
height of his fame in 1835, during which year
he produced La Juive and IS Eclair. These
were followed by numerous other operas, and
he acted as a teacher at the same time, having
Hal
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Gounod as one of his pupils. In 1854 Halevy
became secretary of the Academie des Beaux-
Arts, and in 1861 published Souvenirs et
Portraits.
Halevy, Leon (b. 1802, d. 1883), French
historical and dramatic writer, son of the
composer, wrote tragedies and a drama
entitled Luther.
Halevy, Ludovic (b. 1834), French
dramatist, son of the last-named, born at
Paris, was from 1852 to 1858 in the secre-
tary's office of the minister of state, and
became chief of the department for Algiers
and the colonies. He resigned the position
of redacteur to the Corps Legislatif in order
to write for the stage. He wrote librettos
for Offenbach, and collaborated with Henri
Meilhac (La Belle Helen?, Frou-frou, etc.).
Haliburton, Thomas Chandler (b. 1796,
d. 1865), colonial judge and writer, born at
Windsor, Nova Scotia, became a member of
the Assembly of the colony, and in 1829
chief justice of the Common Pleas. In 1840
he was appointed judge of the Supreme
Court, but came to England soon after-
wards, and sat in Parliament till 1856. As
a writer he is chiefly known as the author
of The Lucubrations of Sam Slick : Clock-
maker (1837-40), The Attache: or, Sam Slick
in England; and The Old Judge : or, Life in
a Colony, etc.
Halifax. [See Wood, Sir Charles.]
Halifax, Earl of, Charles Montague (b.
1661, d. 1715), Whig statesman, was at first
a writer of parodies and light pieces, such as
The Town and Country 3Louse, and received
£500 for his Epistle on the Battle of the
Boyne. After entering Parliament, he soon
rose to be Chancellor of the Exchequer
(1695), in which office he distinguished him-
self by his recoinage of silver, and the first
issue of exchequer bills. He also founded
the public library which was the germ of
the British Museum. In 1697 he became
First Lord of the Treasury, but was removed
two years later. In 1700 he was created a
peer, but was impeached next year for
appropriation of public money; but the
charge was dismissed both then and when
it was revived, and Halifax was again in
1714 First Lord of the Treasury, being also
created earl.
Halifax, Marquis of, George Savile (b.
1630, d. 1695), statesman, is known as " The
Trimmer " from his leaning always to the
weaker side in political affairs. Thus he
opposed the Exclusion Bill, but on the ac-
cession of James II. opposed his arbitrary
measures, and was dismissed. He was Lord
Privy Seal under Charles II. from 1682 till
the end of the reign, having previously been
created successively viscount, earl, and mar-
quis. Under James II. he was lord president
a few months, and after the Revolution was
again for a short time Privy Seal He took
a leading part in offering the crown to
William of Orange.
Hall, Anna Maria, nee Fielding (b.
1802, d. 1881), Irish novelist, born at
Wexford, came to London at an early age,
and married in 1824 Mr. S. C. Hall. Among
her works were Sketches of Irish Character
(1828), The Buccaneer (1832), The Groves of
Blarney and the French Refugee (dramatised
and produced at the Aclelphi and St. James's)
Marian; or, a Young Maid's Fortunes, which
was translated into German and Dutch, as
well as several other novels, Irish stories,
and books for children.
_ Hall, Captain Basil (b. 1788, d. 1844), Eng-
lish traveller and writer, entered the navy
in 1802, and in 1816 accompanied the expe-
dition under Lord Amherst to China, of
which he wrote an account in his Voyage of
Discovery to the Western Coast of Corea and
the Great Loo-Choo Island in the Japan Sea.
In 1824 he published Extracts from a Journal
written on the Coasts of Chili, Peru, and
Mexico. He died insane in Portsmouth
Hospital.
Hall, Sir Charles (b. 1814, d. 1883), Eng-
lish judge, distinguished himself in the
Bridgewater case (1853), and in "Allgood
v. Blake." Among his pupils were several
of the present judges and Mr. R. H. Hutton.
He was vice-chancellor for many years.
HaU, Sir Charles, Q.C. (b. 1843), was edu.
cated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cam.
bridge. Was called to the bar in 1866,
appointed Attorney-General to the Prince
of Wales 1887, was British delegate to the
Maritime Conference at Washington 1889,
and Recorder of the City of London, 1892.
HaU, Charles Francis (b. 1821, d. 1871),
Arctic explorer, a native of New Hampshire,
after having been blacksmith and journal-
ist, went to Greenland in search of Frank-
lin's remains. Again from 1864 to 1869 he
lived among the Esquimaux, and when in
command of an expedition fitted out by the
United States, died suddenly.
Hall, Christopher Newman, LL.B. (b.
1816), Nonconformist preacher, educated
at Highbury and London University, where
he gained the law fellowship. He was a
minister (Congregationalist) at Hull from
1842 to 1854, when he was transferred to
Christ Church, Lambeth, then called Surrey
Chapel. Among his works are Come to
Jesus, Prayer : its Reasonableness and Efficacy r,
and The Dangers of Negative Theology.
HaU, Edward (b. 1499, d. 1547), chronicler,
fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and a
member of Parliament for some years. He
wrote The Union of the Tivo Noble and Illus-
trious Families of Lancaster and York, which
was dedicated to Henry VIII.
Hal
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Hal
Hall, Granville Stanley, Ph.D. (b. 1845),
American writer, was professor of psychology
in Antioch college, Ohio, 1872-6 ; 1881-2,
lecturer at Harvard ; 1882, professor at
John Hopkins university, Baltimore. In
18S8 he became president of Clark univer-
sity, Worcester, Massachusetts. He is
author of Aspects of German Culture (1881),
and Hints Towards a Sekct and Descriptive
Bibliography of Education (1886).
Hall, James (b. 1793, d. 1868), American
judge and writer, served in the war of 1813 ;
in 1820 went to practise at Illinois, where
he became public prosecutor, judge of
circuit, and state treasurer. In 1833 he
rem oved to Cincinnati, and wrote a number
of tales, as well as collaborating with
Colonel M'Kenney in the production of A
History and Biography of the Indians of
North America.
Hall, James (b. 1811), American palaeont-
ologist, became professor of geology at
Troy in 1836, and assisted in the New York
survey. His work is described in the
Paleontology of New York (1847-79). He
was also state -geologist of Iowa and Wis-
consin, and in 1866 became director of the
New York Museum. In 1876 he was one of
the founders of the International Congress
of Geologists, and in 1884 gained the quin-
quennial prize of the Boston Society of
Natural History.
Hall, Joseph, D.D. (b. 1574, d. 1656),
English prelate and writer, Bishop succes-
sively of Exeter and Norwich, became
known as a satirist by his Virgidemiaruni
Liber (1597-8), and afterwards wrote Con-
templations an Principal Passages of Scrip-
ture, Episcopacy by Divine Right asserted,
and many other works. In 1641 he was
sent to the Tower by the Long Parliament
for protesting against its proceedings, and
on his release was driven by the Puritans
from his palace.
Hall, Marshall (b. 1790, d. 1857), English
physiologist, son of Robert Hall, whose chief
works were a Treatise on the Circulation of
the Blood (1832), The Nervous System (1837),
Apoplexy and Paralysis (1851), and Theory
and Practice of Medicine (3rd edition, 1837).
He discovered a method of restoring asphyx-
iated persons, which is known by his name.
Hall, Robert (b. 1764. d. 1831), Baptist
preacher, ministered chiefly at Bristol and
Cambridge, where he published his sermon
On Modern Infidelity, in 1801. He had
previously written an Apology for the Free-
dom of the Press. In 1802 and the following
year appeared Reflections on the War, and
Sentiments Proper to the Present Crisis.
After this he had an attack of insanity, but
in 1808 went to Leicester, where in 1810 he
published his Terms of Communion. He re-
turned to Bristol in 1825.
Hall, Samuel Carter (b. 1800, d. 1889)
Irish writer and art critic, founded in 182<)
and edited the Amulet, and after the deatk
of Campbell became, editor of the New
Monthly. In 1839 he established the An
Union Journal, afterwards known as the Art
J»n r»al. Ho also edited the Book of British-
Ballads and other works, and wrote, in con-
junction with his wife, Ireland : its Scenery
and Character. In 1880 he was granted a
Civil List pension of £150 a year.
Hallam, Arthur Henry (b. 1811, d. 1833),
sou of the historian, and friend of Tenny-
son, who celebrated his death and eaxly
promise in In Mcmoriam.
Ha.na.Tn, Henry (b. 1777, d. 1859), his-
torian, son of the Dean of Bristol, was
born at Windsor and educated at Eton and
Christ Church. He was called to the bar,
but gave himself up to literary work, writ-
ing at first for the Edinburgh Review. He
obtained through his Whig connection an
office in the stamp department, which made
him independent. In 1818 he published his
View of the State of Europe during tht
Middle Ages, and in 1827 finished his Con-
stitutional History of England, 1485-1760.
His last great work was the Introduction to
the Literature of Europe in the 15th, 16tht
and 17th Centuries (1838), which was after-
wards supplemented by Notes.
Halle, Sir Charles (b. 1819), German
pianist, resident in England since 1848, when
he left Paris, was born at Hageu in West-
phalia, and went to Paris in 1836. He
made his first appearance in London at
Covent Garden, where he played Beet-
hoven's concerto in E flat. He afterwards
lived a great deal at Manchester, where he
founded the Halle band. He played fre-
quently at the Popular and Philharmonic
Concerts, and made a speciality of Beet-
hoven's sonatas. In 1888 he was knighted,
and in that year also married Madame
Norman-Neruda. His son, Mr. C. E. Halle,
is a well-known artist, and his daughter
has become known as a sculptor.
Ealleck, Fitz-Greene (b. 1790, d. 1867),
American poet, born at Guildf ord, Connecti-
cut, came to New York in 1811, and entered
a counting-house. In 1819 he wrote, with
J. R. Drake, the Croaker Papers in the Even-
ing Post. In 1822 he came to Europe, and in
1827 wrote verses on Alnwick Castle and
Burns. From 1832 to 1849 he was employed
in the office of J. J. Astor, who left him a
very small annuity. His last composition,
written in 1864, was Young America. In
1870 a granite obelisk was erected in his
honour at Guildford by Longfellow, Whit-
tier, Bryant, and others.
HaUeck, Henry Wager (b. 1815, d. 1872),
American general, entered the army in 1839,
Hal
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Ham
and, as commander of the Missouri depart-
ment in 1861, compelled the Confederates to
evacuate Corinth. From that year till 1864
lie was commauder-in-chief , and afterwards
served under Grant as chief of the staff.
Several charges were made against him, but
all have been disproved.
Hallenberg, Jonas (b. 1748, d. 1834),
Swedish historian, author of a History of
Gustavus Adolphus (1790-6).
HaUer, Albrecht von (b. 1708, d. 1777),
Swiss physician and writer, for eighteen
years professor of anatomy and botany at
Gottingen, previously and subsequently
lived at Berne. He was author of numer-
ous medical treatises, the chief of which
was Elementa Physiologic Humani Corporis.
He also wrote poems, notably an elegy on
his wife, who was killed by a carriage acci-
dent as they entered Gottingen. His son,
Amadeus (d. 1786), was an eminent botanist.
Hallett, Holt Samuel (b. 1841), English
engineer, was in the service of the Indian
Government for eleven years, during which
time he projected, with Archibald Colqu-
houn, the construction of a railway to con-
nect India with China. He gave an account
of his survey in A. Thousand Miles on an
Elephant in the Shan States, and in 1887 re-
ceived the silver medal of the Society of
Arts for his paper on New Markets and the
Extension of Railways in India and JBurmah.
Ealley, Edmund (b. 1656, d. 1742),
English astronomer, son of a London soap-
"boiler, was educated at St. Paul's school
and at Oxford, and in 1676 went to St.
Helena, where he stopped two years, and
published, as a result of his observations
there, his Catalogue of Southern Stars. In
1680 he made the acquaintance of Newton,
the printing of whose 1'rincipia he superin-
tended. Charles II. gave him a ship, with
the help of which he was able to investigate
the variations of the magnetic needle. On
his return from the voyage he was made
Savilian professor at Oxford, and in 1720
became astronomer royal. During his last
years he was chiefly occupied in lunar
observations, and he also predicted the re-
currence of the comet which is named after
him.
Halliday, Sir Andrew, M.D. (d. 1839),
English physician, author of Annals of
the House of Brunswick and the House of
Hanover (1826).
Ealliday, Sir Frederick James, K.C.B.
(b. 1806), English administrator in India;
entered the service of the East India Com-
pany in 1825, and became in 1853 a member
of the Supreme Council. During the Mutiny
he was lieutenant-governor of Bengal, and
was thanked by Parliament for his services.
In 1868 he was made a member of the
Council of India, but retired in 1886.
HaUiwell- Phillips, James Orchard (b.
1820, d. 1889), Shakespearian scholar,
wrote a Life of Shakespeare (1848), and
Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare (1818),
besides editing an edition of his works
(1853-65), and being chiefly instrumental in
the formation of the Shakespeare Museum
and the purchase by the btratford cor-
poration of that poet's estates. He also
edited other plays, and published the JJtc-
tionary of Archaic and Provincial Words and
the Dictionary of Old English Plays.
Hals, Franz van (b. 1580 or 1581, d. 1666),
Flemish portrait-painter, a fine specimen of
whose work is in the hall of the Company of
Archers, at Delft, but most of his works are
in private galleries. His brother, Dirk (d.
1656), was a painter of interiors and of
animals.
Ealsbury, Lord, Hardinge Giffard (b.
1825), was educated at Mertou College, Ox-
ford, and called to the bar in 1850. He be-
came Queen's Counsel in 1865, and was in
1875 made Solicitor-General by Lord Beacons-
field, though as yet he had been unable to
find a seat. He was returned for Launceston
in 1877, and held office till 1880. In 1885 he
became Lord Chancellor, with the title of
Lord Halsbury, and held the same office in
Lord Salisbury's second ministry.
Ealswelle, Keeley (b. 1832, d. 1891), Eng-
lish painter, born at Eichmond, Surrey ; after
sketching for the Illustrated London News,
went to Edinburgh. He first exhibited at
the Scottish Academy in 1857, and became an
associate in 1866. After a visit to Italy, his
picture Roba di Roma was exhibited at the
Royal Academy (1869), and from that tune
he painted many pictures, among which were
Contadini in St. Peter's, Rome (1871), Le
Sposalizio bringing Home the Bride ^ etc.
His later works were landscapes, the chief of
which were exhibited in 1884 as a series
called Six Years in a Houseboat.
Hainan, Persian minister, enemy of th
Jews ; plotted the fall of Mordecai, but was
himself executed by order of Ahasuerus.
Hambrock, Anton (d. 1661), Dutch mis-
sionary, went to Formosa, where he made
many converts, but was taken prisoner by
a Chinese pirate named Coxinga, who sent
him to advise his countrymen to surrender,
instead of which he played the part of
Regulus, and met with the same fate.
Hamd-AUah-Mostawfl (d. 1349), Persian
historian, author of a history from, the
creation downwards, with biographies
of poets, philosophers, and Mahometan
saints.
Ham
(414)
Ham
Hamel, Joseph, M.D. (d. 1862), Kussian
scientific writer, lived much in England as
scientific correspondent of the Tsar ; in-
vented an electrical machine, and in 1820
made an ascent of Mont Blanc, when three
of his guides perished. He obtained the
introduction into Russia of the Lancasterian
system, and was a promoter of the first
Moscow exhibition.
Eamerton, Philip Gilbert (b. 1834), English
art writer, having determined to study land-
scape-painting, settled on an island in Loch
Awe, and in 1861 went to Paris. In 1855 he
published The Isks of Loch Awe and other
Poems, with illustrations by himself, and later
Etching and Etchers (1868), a Life of Turner
(in the Portfolio'}, Modern Frenchmen (1878),
and Imagination in Landscape-Painting
(1888), reprinted from the Portfolio. He
also wrote some novels (Marmorne, etc.),
and French and English : a Comparison,
published in 1889 ; Round My House, The
Intellectual Life, etc.
Hamilcar, son of Hanno (d. 480 B.C.),
Carthaginian general, invaded Sicily, but was
defeated and slain by Gelon at the Himera.
Hamilcar Barca (d. 228'B.c.), Carthaginian
leader, father of Hannibal, and head of a
faction at Carthage ; commanded in Sicily in
the first Punic war, at the close of which he
defeated the mercenaries, who had rebelled;
was killed in battle with the Vettones when
meditating a fresh attack upon the Romans.
Hamilton, Alexander (b. 1757, d. 1804),
American general and statesman, born at
St. Kitts; published, when 17, some papers
on the rights of the colonies, and before he
was 19 was captain of artillery. In 1777
he was "Washington's aide-de-camp, in 1782
a member of Congress, and in 1787 a dele-
gate to the convention which drew up the
American Constitution. Washington ap-
pointed him secretary to the Treasury, and
in 1798 he became second-in-command of
the army, of which he became afterwards
commander-in- chief. He was killed in a
duel with Colonel Burr, vice-president of
the United States.
Hamilton, Anthony, Count (6. 1646, d.
1720), Irish soldier and writer; served in
the army of Louis XTV., and in Ireland
under James II. ; wrote the Memoir es du
Comte de Gramont, his brother-in-law.
Hamilton, Charles (b. 1753, d. 1792),
Orientalist ; while in the employ of the East
India Company translated from the Persian
the Hedaya, or code of Mahometan laws.
Hamilton, David (b. 1768, d.
Scotch architect, designed the E
also
Hamilton, Elizabeth (6. 1758, d. 1816),
Scottch writer, daughter of a merchant,
published, when in London, Letters of a
llinduo Itajah, and other works, and
received a royal pension. She afterwards
removed to Edinburgh, where she wrote
The Cottagers of Glenburnie, which was
highly praised by Sir Walter Scott.
Hamilton, Emma, Lady (b. 1761, d.
1815), wife of Sir W. Hamilton, was
the daughter of a Welsh labourer named
Lyon, and attracted the affections of several
gentlemen, one of whom, Mr. Greville,
educated, and introduced her at court. She
subsequently became known as the mistress
of Lord Nelson, who met her at Naples,
where she was staying with her husband.
After his death she was left in good circum-
stances, but died in extreme poverty.
Hamilton, Gavin (d. 1797), Scottish painter,
lived chiefly at Rome, where he died ; in hia
later years devoted himself to the discovery
of antiquities, and published Schola Italica
Pictures.
Hamilton, Lord George (b. 1845), Eng-
lish statesman, third son of the Duke of
Abercorn, was educated at Harrow, and
served in the Rifle Brigade and the Cold-
stream Guards. In 1868 he entered Par-
liament for Middlesex, winning the seat
from the Liberals, and was appointed by
Mr. Disraeli, in 1874, under- secretary for
India. In 1873 he succeeded Lord Sandon
as vice-president of the Committee of
Council on Education, and was also sworn of
the Privy Council, In both of Lord Salis-
bury's cabinets he held the office of First
Lord of the Admiralty.
Hamilton, Hugh (b. 1729, d. 1805), Irish
mathematician, Bishop successively of Ossory
and Clonfert, and again of Ossory (1799) ;
wrote a work on Conic Sections, and, was
professor of natural philosophy at Trinity
College, Dublin.
Hamilton, James (b. 1769, d. 1831), Eng-
lish educationist; after a tour in the
United States, published, in 1824, his System
of Teaching Languages.
Hamilton, Janet (b. 1795, d. 1873), Scot-
tish verse-writer, called the "Coatbridge
poetess," was daughter of a Lanarkshire
shoemaker, and entirely self -educated. She
published Poems and Sketches (1863), Sketches
(1865), and Ballads (1868).
Hamilton, John (d. 1757), Scotch poli-
tician, natural son of the first Earl of Arran •
became Archbishop of St. Andrews in 1 546 :
supported the French party in Scotland, and
persecuted the Protestants, by whom, in
1563, he was imprisoned. In 1566 he became
a member of Mary Stuart's privy council^
Ham
(415)
Haxn
and was thenceforth one of her chief advisers,
pronouncing the divorce between Bothwell
and his wife, and marrying the queen to the
former. He assisted Mary to escape from
Lochleven, was present at Langside, and,
having been declared traitor by the regent,
took refuge in Dumbarton Castle. Here he
was hanged in 1571, having been an accom-
plice in the assassination of Murray and
possibly also in that of Darnley. While
Archbishop he promulgated Hamilton's
Catechism.
Hamilton, Patrick (d. 1528), Scotch re-
former, became a Protestant when on the
Continent preparing for Catholic orders,
and zealously denounced Romanism on
his return, the result being that he was
enticed to a conference at St. Andrews, and,
having been tried by the Archbishop, was
condemned and burnt as a heretic.
Hamilton, Sir Eobert George Crookshank,
K.C.B. (6. 1830), English civil servant, was
educated at Aberdeen University, and in 1855
entered the War Office, in which year he was
sent to the Crimea. On his return he was
employed in the Office of Works, the Edu-
cation Department, and the Board of Trade,
and in 1874 became secretary to the Civil
Service Inquiry Commission. In 1882 he
was made permanent under-secretary to the
Admiralty, but was in that year sent to
succeed Mr. Burke in Ireland as under-
secretary. He was knighted in 1884, and
was appointed governor of Tasmania in
1886.
Hamilton, Sir Robert N. C., K.C.B. (b.
1802, d. 1887), Indian official, son of Sir P.
Hamilton ; entered the Indian service, and
was for ten years resident with .Holkar at
Indore. In 1854 he became in addition
Governor- General's agent for Central India,
and as such drew up a plan for the restoration
of order there in 1857. He accompanied as
political officer the army of Sir Hugh Rose,
and materially assisted him. He was for a
short time member of the Supreme Council
of India, but ill-health obliged him to retire
and live in England.
Hamilton, Thomas (b. 1789, d. 1842),
English officer, served in the Peninsular and
American campaigns, and wrote Cyril
Thornton (1827), and other works.
Hamilton, William, of Bangour(£. 1704, d.
1754), Jacobite poet, joined the Young Pre-
tender in 1745, but afterwards received a
pardon, and retired to France.
Hamilton, Sir William (6. 1730 d. 1803),
diplomatist and antiquary, son of Lord
Archibald Hamilton ; in 1764 was sent to
Naples as envoy-extraordinary, and while
there made several ascents of Vesuvius, and
investigations at Pompeii, collecting many
Etruscan and Grecian vases, which he sold
to the British Museum. He wrote Antiquites
Etrusques and Campi Philegraei, and was
elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1766.
In 1784, when on leave in London, he met
Emma Lyon, who returned with him to
Naples, and whom he married in 1791. In
that year he became privy councillor, but
remained at Naj.les till 1800, 'though com-
pelled for a time to retire with the royal
family to Palermo. Both Nelson and his
wife were present at his death, which took
place in London.
Hamilton, Sir William, Bart. (b. 1788, d.
1856), Scottish metaphysician, became, in
1821, professor of moral philosophy at Edin-
burgh, and subsequently of universal his-
tory. From 1836, when he became professor
of logic and metaphysics, he was widely
known as a philosophical writer. Kis chief
books were an edition of Reid's works, Dis-
ctissions on Philosophy, Literature, and Edu-
cation (1852), and his Lectures, published
after his death. He left his library to the
University of Glasgow.
Hamilton, William Gerard (b. 1729, d.
1796), English politician, friend of Dr.
Johnson ; entered Parliament in 1754, and
in the next year gained his sobriquet of
" Single-Speech Hamilton," from a powerful
speech, which was the only one he ever de-
livered. In 1761 he went to Ireland as
secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant, and was
afterwards for many years Chancellor of the
Exchequer in that country.
Hamilton, William Richard (b. 1777, d.
1859), antiquary and diplomatist, cousin of
last-named, accompanied Lord Elgin to Con-
stantinople in 1799, and, having been sent
by him on a mission to Egypt in 1801, com-
pelled the French to give up the Rosetta
stone, now with the Elgin marbles in the
British Museum. At the Peace of Paris he
rendered a similar service to Italy. He
published a work called JEgyptiaca, was
one of the founders of the Geographical
Society, and from 1809 till 1822 under-
secretary for Foreign Affairs, after which, in
1825, he was ambassador at Naples.
Hamilton, Sir William Rowan (b. 1805. d.
1865), astronomer-royal of Ireland, entered
Trinity College, and was in 1827 appointed
professor of astronomy. In addition to his
mathematical attainments, he was a remark-
able linguist, and a great lover of literature,
being the friend of Coleridge, Wordsworth,
South ey, and. others. In 1837 he was
elected president of the Royal Irish
Academy.
Hamilton, James, first Duke of (6. 1606,
d. 1649), Scotch statesman and general, dis-
tinguished himself in the Thirty Years' war
in the service of Gustavus Adolphus ; was
Hani
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Ham
made royal commissioner in Scotland, and
took the king's suit: in the Great Rebellion.
He endeavoured to prevent tlie surrender of
the king to the Parliament, and afterwards
raised an army for him, but was defeated
at Preston, and beheaded (1649) . His brother
William, who succeeded to the title, was
killed at Worcester.
Hamilton, George, son of third Duke of
(b. 1666, d. 1737), was Earl of Orkney, and
distinguished himself as a soldier at the
Boyno and in Flanders, and at Blenheim
made many prisoners.
Hamilton, James, fourth Duke of (6. 1658,
d. 1712), statesman and soldier, ambassador
for Charles II. at the French court ; was
sent to the Tower under William III. for
supporting James II. Subsequently in
Scotland he headed the opposition to the
Union, and was killed in a duel by Lord
Mohun.
Hamilton, James, second Earl of Arran
(d. 1575), was regent of Scotland from the
death of James V. (1542) till 1554, and was
created Duke of Chatelherault as a reward
for his desertion of the English alliance.
Hamilton., James, third earl (b. 1530, d.
1609), was a suitor for the hand of Queen
Elizabeth, his candidature being favoured
by all those who desired a union between
England and Scotland; he afterwards be-
came insane.
Hamley, Sir Edward Bruce, K.C.B.
(b. 1824), English soldier; son of Ad-
miral Hamley ; entered the army in
1843; served in the Crimea, being men-
tioned in despatches, and was commandant
of the Staff College from 1870 to 1877. He
was employed as delimitation commissioner
in Turkey (1879), Armenia (1880), and for
the Turkish evacuation of Thessaly and
Epirus in the next year, and in the Egyptian
war of 1882 he commanded the second divi-
sion at Tel-el-Kebir, receiving decoration
from the Khedive as well as the home
Government. In 1885 he entered Parlia-
ment for Birkenhead as Conservative, and
was re-elected in 1886. Among his works
are The Campaign of Sebastopol, written in
the Camp ; The Operations of the War ; Our
Poor Relations : a Philozoic Essay; Voltaire
(in. the Foreign Classics series, 1879); Welling-
ton's Career (republished from Jjlackwood's
Magazine}, a collection of speeches and
writings entitled National Defence, etc.
Hamlin, Hannibal (b. 1809, d. 1891),
American statesman, born at Paris, Maine ;
practised as a lawyer, and became a mem-
ber of the state legislature. In 1842 he was
elected as a Democrat to Congress, was
United States senator from 1848 to 1857,
when he was elected governor on the
Republican ticket, but resigned immediately
on again being elected senator. In 18tJi he
became vice-president under Lincoln, whose
views he shared. He was again senator
from 1869 to 1881, when he was named
minister in Spain. He was chiefly instru-
mental in passing the "Wilmot proviso"
through the House of Representatives.
Hammarskaeld, Lorenzo (b. 1787, d.
1827). Swedish poet, historian, and critic;
founder of the school of Fhosphorists, and
author of Svenska Vitterheten.
Hammer-Purgstall, Josef, Baron von (b.
1774, d. 1856), German Orientalist ; corrected
MSS. for the imperial library at Vienna,
bringing back several from Paris in 1815.
His chief works were Geschichte des Os-
manischen Reichs and Litter atur-geschichte
der Araber. He was decorated by twenty
sovereigns, and constructed a tomb for him-
self with inscriptions in the ten languages of
which he was master.
Eammerich, Frederick Peter Adolf (b.
1809, d. 1877), Danish poet and historian;
lived some time in Sweden, and in 1840, by
the publication of his Scandinavian Voyage-
Songs, excited a reaction in favour of the old
national tongue. Among his other works
were The Awakening of Denmark, and Gus-
tavus Adolphus in Germany (poems) and Den-
mark at the Time of the Union of Calmar.
He was chaplain to the Danish troops in
the Schleswig-Holstein campaign, and pub-
lished an account of this and the earlier
wars in that country.
Hammond, Anthony (b. 1668, d. 1738),
English poet, friend of Pope and his con-
temporaiies, and member of Parliament ;
published in 1720 A Miscellany of Original
jPoems. He died in a debtor's prison. His
son, James (d. 1742), was author of Love
Elegies.
Hammond, William Alexander (b. 1828),
American physician ; entered the army, and
served as surgeon till 1860, when he became
professor of anatomy in the Maryland uni-
versity. On the outbreak of the Civil war,
however, he re-entered the army, and in
1862 was made surgeon-general. Two years
later he was tried by court-martial and dis-
missed the service for irregularities in the
award of liquor contracts, after which he
practised in New York, making a speciality
of nervous diseases. In 1878 a bill passed
Congress reviewing the sentence of the
court-martial, and he was reinstated as
surgeon -general and brigadier. He is author
of On Sleep and its Derangements, Diseases of
the Nervous System, and Insanity in its Re-
lation to Crime, and of Mr. Oldmixon ; A.
Strong-minded Woman, and other novels.
Hampden, John (6. 1594, d. 1643), Englisk
Ham
(417)
Han
politician ; though a member of the second
Parliament of Charles I., he took little
part in affairs till his refusal to pay ship-
money in 1635. The case was decided
against him three years later, but the story
of his attempting to leave England soon
alter is without foundation. He was a
member of the Short Parliament, and in the
Long Parliament took an active though not
prominent part. He was one of the com-
missioners sent to Scotland to attend the
king, and was impeached as one of the five
members. He was very active during the
war, and was killed at Chalgrove Field.
Hampden, Benn Dickson, D.D. (b. 1793,
d. 1868), divine, descendant of the last-
named, was born in Barbadoes, and took
high honours at Oxford, where he be-
came fellow of Oriel, principal of St. Mary
Hall, Bampton lecturer (1832), Whyte's
professor of moral philosophy, and Regius
professor of divinity (1836). His Bampton
lectures were attacked by Newman, and
he was censured by a combination of the
High and Low Church parties in Convocation.
In 1847 he became Bishop of Hereford in
spite of violent opposition. He wrote a
work on The Philosophical Evidence of
Christianity.
Hampden, Viscount, G.C.B. (b. 1814,
d. 1892), politician, second son of Lord
Dacre, was (as Henry Brand) private
secretary to Sir George Grey, and repre-
sented Lewes as a Liberal from 1852 to
1868, from which year till 1884 he sat for
Cambridgeshire. From 1859 to 1866 he was
parliamentary secretary to the Treasury,
and was unanimously elected Speaker. In
the Parliament of 1880 he firmly opposed
obstruction, and in 1884 was raised to the
peerage, becoming a privy councillor two
years later.
Hampton, Wade (b. 1818), American
soldier (whose grandfather of the same
name was a wealthy planter, and took part
in the war of Independence, and whose
father, also named Wade, was aide- de-
camp to Jackson in 1815), was born at Co-
lumbia, South Carolina, and was distin-
guished in the Civil war as chief of
"Hampton's legion." After the war he
adopted a conciliatory policy on the negro
question, and engaged in cotton planting.
In 1876 he became state governor, and in
1878 United States senator.
Hancock, John (b. 1737, d. 1793), Ameri-
can politician, was one of the leaders in the
revolt in Massachusetts, the seizure of his
sloop, The Liberty, being the occasion of a
riot in Boston. He was very active in de-
nouncing the "Boston massacre," and
was one of the persons whose seizure was
attempted by the expedition which led to
BB
the Lexington affair. He was president of
the Continental Congress from 1775-77, and
governor of Massachusetts from 1780 till his
death.
Hancock, Winfield Scott (b. 1824, d.
1886), soldier, practised forty years as a
lawyer, but served in the Mexican war and
other expeditions, and during the Civil war
under McLellan. He especially distin-
guished himself at Fredericksburg in De-
cember, 1862, where nearly half of his men
were killed. He was dangerously wounded
at Gettysburg, where he commanded the
second army corps, and was thanked by
Congress for his services. After his recovery
he was again engaged, and met with a
severe defeat at Beam's station in August,
1864. After the death of Lincoln he was
given the command at Washington. He
was nominated in 1880 as Democrat candi-
date for the presidency, but was defeated
by Garfield.
Handel, George Frederick [Handel] (b.
1685, d. 1759), English composer of German
birth, was born at Halle, and, at the instance
of the Duke of Saxe-Weinfels, allowed to
follow his musical tastes, his education being
entrusted to the local organist. He com-*
posed services before he was twelve, and at
fourteen went to Berlin, where he came
under the notice of the king. He then went
to Hamburg, where he was employed in the
orchestra, and in 1705 composed Almira,
his first opera. He afterwards went to
Italy, where he visited Borne, Naples,
and Venice ; while at Florence his Roderigo
was performed in 1706. He next became
kapellmeister to the Elector of Hauover,
and in 1710 paid his first visit to London,
where he composed Rinaldo for the Hay-
market. Two years later he again went to
England, and was so well received that he
stayed there instead of returning to his
duties. In 1713 a Te Deum by him to cele-
brate the peace of Utrecht was heard at St.
Paul's. When the Elector of Hanover be-
came George I. of England he at first
showed no favour to the composer, but the
latter made his peace by his Water Music.
Handel was also appointed director of the
new Boyal Academy of Music, but the
rivalry of Bononcini and the Italians caused
it to be closed in 1737. Meanwhile, how-
ever, he had composed Esther, Ads and
Galatea, Athaliah, Alexander's Feast, and
many anthems. After going to Aachen to
recruit his health, he returned and composed
Saul and Israel in Egypt, but met with
much opposition, and in 1741 went to Ire-
land, where the Messiah was performed at
Dublin (1742), and Samson in the following
year. On his return to London he resumed
the production of operas at Covent Garden,
and, though still meeting with opposition,
was successful. Among his later works tL
Han
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Han
chief were Joseph (1743), Belshazzar (1744),
Judas Maccabaus, in celebration of Culloden
fl7-lL>), Alexander Baluxs (1747), Solomon and
Susannah (1748), The Choice of Hercules
(17")t>;, a.ndjep/ithah (17.VJ . Although blind
in his later years, he played the organ at
the performance of the Messiah eight days
before his death.
Hanmer, Sir Thomas (b. 1676, d. 1746),
English politician, became Speaker in 1713,
and published an edition of Shakespeare
with engravings by Gravelot.
Hanna, William, D.D. (b. 1808, d. 1882),
Scotch Presbyterian divine, son of Dr.
Samuel Hauna ; took part with his father-
in-law, Dr. Chalmers, in the Free Church
movement of 1850. He wrote Memoirs of
Dr. Chalmers, The Letters of Thomas Erskine
ef Linlathen, and Our Lord's Life on Earth.
Hannay, James (b. 1827, d. 1873), Scotch
novelist and journalist, served in the navy
for five years, and wrote Singleton Fontenoy,
Eustace Conyers, A Course of English Litera-
ture, and Three Hundred I ears of a Gorman
Souse.
Eannernan, Adriaan (b. 1610), Dutch
painter of the school of Van Dyck, chief
among whose pictures were portraits of
William II. of Nassau and of himself. He
also excelled in allegorical subjects.
Eannen, Lord (b. 1821), English judge,
educated at St. Paul's school and Heidel-
berg, was called to the bar in 1848. In
1853 he was British agent on the commission
for the settlement of the claims of the
United States, and in 1868 was made judge
of the Queen's Bench. From 1872 till 1891
he was judge of the probate, divorce, and
admiralty division, and became in the latter
year a lord of appeal. In 1888 he was
named president of the Special Commission
to examine into the charge brought by
the Times against Mr. Parnell and his
party.
Hannibal (b. 247 B.C., d. 183 B.C.), Car-
thaginian general, son of Hamilcar Barca,
who devoted him from an early age to war
with the Romans. After attacking the
allies of the latter in Spain he marched into
Italy, over the Pyrenees and Alps, and
arriving in 218, won the battles of the
Ticinus and the Trebia, and next year de-
feated Flaminius on Lake Thrasymene.
After his great victory at Cannse in 216 he
wintered at Capua, but was unable to take
Rome. In 203 he returned to Africa, and
was defeated at Zama in the following year
by Scipio Africanus. He became chief
magistrate at Carthage, but was compelled
by the hostility of rivals to flee to the court
of Antiochus. When his surrender was de-
manded by the Romans, he took refuge in
Bithynia, but took poison from apprehension
of being given up.
Hanno, Carthaginian commander, de-
feated at the jEgates by Lutatius Catulus
in the Punic war.
Hanno, "the Great," rival of Hamilcar
Barca, and afterwards an opponent of his
son.
Hanno, Carthaginian navigator, by whom
there is extant a fragment printed with
Arriau, describing a voyage round Libya
(temp, uncertain).
Hanno (d. 1075), Archbishop of Cologne,
appointed in 1055 ; opposed Pope Nicholas
IL in Germany, carried off the young Em-
peror Henry IV. in 1062 to Cologne, and
became all-powerful as his guardian, though
twice superseded by a rival prelate, Adal-
bert. His tyranny at Cologne brought
about an insurrection, in which he nearly
lost his lif e, but which he quelled with great
severity. He was a zealous supporter of
the reforms of Hildebrand, and was canon-
ised after his death.
Hansard, Luke (b. 1752, d. 1828), English
printer, born at Norwich ; came to London
in 1779, and worked as compositor for Mr.
Hughs, printer to the House of Commons,
whom he succeeded, and became founder of
the house. His son, Luke James (d. 1851),
was author of Proposition for a National
Printing Office (1848) and the fertilisation
of Waste Lands.
Eansen, Peder Andreas (b. 1793, d. 1874),
German astronomer, native of Schleswig,
was employed in the triangulation of Hoi-
stein, and afterwards as director of the ob-
servatory at Seeberg. His Talks of the
Moon were printed by the British Govern-
ment in 1857.
Hanslick, Dr. Eduard (b. 1825), Austrian
musical critic, became professor of aesthetics
and musical history at Vienna, and was
juror of the musical department in the
Paris Exhibition of 1867 and in 1878, and
that at Vienna in 1873. Besides being
musical critic to the Neue Freie Presse and
other journals, lectured on music in Vienna,
Prague, and Cologne as an opponent of
Wagner and Liszt. In 1876 he became a
member of the Imperial Council Among
his works are Die Moderne Oper (1875) and
Aus detn Opernkben der Gegenwart (1884).
Hansteen, Christoffer (*. 1784, d. 1873),
Norwegian astronomer, born at Christiania,
published in 1819 his Researches on Terrestrial
Magnetism, and, after visiting London, Paris,
Berlin, and other places, was sent by his
government on a voyage of exploration in
Siberia (1828). After bis return to Norway
he constructed an observatory at Christiania,
Han
(419)
Har
directed the triangulation of the country,
and held several professorships. His Sou-
venirs of a Journey in Siberia was translated
into French in 1857.
Hanway, Jonas (b. 1712, d. 1786), English
philanthropist and traveller, founded the
Marine Society and the Magdalen Charity,
and promoted the establishment of Sunday
schools. He went to Persia as a trader, and
wrote an account of his travels in the Ac-
count of British Trade orer the Caspian Sea
(1754). He also introduced umbrellas.
Harold (Blaatand), "King of Denmark
(b. 910, d. 985), being conquered by the
Emperor Otto the Great, was compelled to
be baptised, and afterwards laboured to
establish Christianity in his country.
Harald I., King of Norway (b. 850, d.
933), consolidated his kingdom out of petty
sovereignties, and abdicated in 930.
Harald II., his grandson, came to the
throne in 950, and was killed in battle (977).
Harald III. (Hardrada), came to the throne
in 1047, having previously taken Athens,
and been head of the Varangian guard at
Constantinople. With Tostig he invaded
England in 1066, and took York, but was
defeated and slain at Stamford Bridge.
Harald IV. usurped the throne from
Magnus IV., and was assassinated in 1134
by Sigurd Slembidiakr.
Harcourt, Simon, Viscount (b. 1660, d.
1727), English lawyer, entered Parliament
as a' Tory in 1690, and as Solicitor- General
drew up the bill for the union with Scotland.
He afterwards became Attorney- General
and Lord-Keeper, and defended Sacheverell.
He was for a short time (1713-1-i) Lord
Chancellor, and, having joined the Whigs,
was created a viscount.
Harcourt, Sir William Vernon (b. 1827),
English statesman, second son of the Rev.
W. V. Harcourt, was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he graduated
in 1851. He was called to the bar in 1854,
became Queen's Counsel in 1866, and was
from 1869 to 1887 professor of inter-
national law at Cambridge. He contri-
buted to the Times articles under the signa-
ture of "Historicus" (which were re-
published in 1863), and was returned Liberal
member for Oxford in 186'J. He took up at
first an independent position, but in 1873 was
appointed Solicitor-General. While in Op-
position he supported the Public Worship
Regulation Bill, and opposed the foreign
policy of Lord Beaconsfield. In 1880 he
became Home Secretary, but failed to obtain
re-election at Oxford after taking office,
and had to take Mr. Plimsoll's seat at
Derby. During bis term of office he
BB 2
introduced the Arms Bill, and was an active
i supporter of other coercionist measures, and
in 1883 passed the Explosives Act against
the dynamiters. In Mr. Gladstone's Home
Rule cabinet he was Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer, and again in 1892.
Eardee, William J. (6. 1819, d. 1873),
American soldier and military writer ; after
serving in the Florida war, went to study
at St. Maur in France. In 1846, while with
Taylor's Rio Grande expedition, he was
made prisoner, but was soon exchanged
and was rapidly promoted. He after-
wards drew up the United States Rifle and
Light Infantry Tactics (1856), and became
commander of cadets at West Point. In
the Civil war he distinguished himself as a
Confederate officer, commanding the 3rd
corps at Shiloh, serving under Bragg at
Chattanooga, and finally commanding in
South Carolina. He surrendered at Dur-
ham in April, 1865, and, at the close of the
war, retired to his estates in Alabama.
Hardenberg. [See Novalis.]
Hardenoerg, "Karl August Fiirst von (b,
1750, d. 1822), Prussian statesman, was previ-
ously in the service of Hanover and of Bruns-
wick. In 1790, when Ansbach-Baireuth, of
which he was premier, was united to Prussia,
he entered the service of the latter, and as
such superintended the campaign of 1791-4,
and concluded the treaty of Basle. In
1803 he became foreign minister, and held
that position for three years, becoming
known as the enemy of Napoleon, at whose
command he was banished from court after
the peace of Tilsit. When chancellor in
1810 he supported Scharnhorst's secret re-
organisation of the army, though unable to
refuse co-operation with France in the in-
vasion of Russia ; but afterwards took up an
open position, making treaties with Russia
and Austria. He signed the first treaty of
Paris, and in 1815 endeavoured to obtain
the restoration of Alsace. He was after-
wards minister of the interior, and supported
the reactionist attitude of Metternich.
Hardicanute, King of England and Den-
mark (d. 1042), son of Canute and Emma,
succeeded his half-brother, Harold, in 1040,
and was last of the Danish kings.
Harding, James Duffield (b. 1798, d.
1863), English painter, gained the medal of
the Society of Arts in 1818, and soon after
became a member. He also engaged in art
teaching, and was author of Principles and
Practice of Art and other works. His best
known pictures are Anglers on the Loire,
and views of Fribourg and of the Alps at
Como.
Harding, or Hardyng, John (b. 1378, d.
1470), old English historian, served in the
Har
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Har
wars of Henry V., and wrote Chronicle of
England to the lieiyn of Edward II'., of
which there are two widely-differing edi-
tions.
Harding, Karl (b. 1775, d. 1834), German
estronoiner, professor of astronomy and
director at Gottingen ; received the Lulaude
uiedul in 1303 for his discovery of Juno.
Harding, Wyndham (b. 1817, d. 1855),
English civil engineer, employed in the
construction of the earliest railways, advo-
cated the narrow gauge and read a paper
on the Statistics of the Railway System of
Great Britain before the British Association
in 1S48. He defrayed the expenses of the
first ship which carried emigrants to Aus-
tralia.
Hardinge, Henry, Viscount (b. 1785, d.
1856), soldier and statesman ; entered the
army at nfteen, served with distinction in
the Peninsular campaign, being with Sir
John Moore at his death, but was not
present at Waterloo on account of a wound
received at Ligny. In 1828 he became
Secretary for War, and was afterwards Chief
Secretary for Ireland. In 1344 he was
named Governor- General of India, and, as
second in command to Sir Hugh Gough
helped him to defeat the Sikhs, for which
services he was created viscount, and re-
ceived pensions both from the Government
and the India Company. Having returned
home, he was appointed master- general of
the ordnance in 1852, and succeeded Wel-
lington as commander-in-chief.
Hardinge, General the Hon. Sir Arthur,
K.C.B. (b. 1823), English soldier, second
son of Viscount Hardiuge, joined the army
in 1344, and served as staff oificer in the
Sikh war, and was distinguished in the
Crimea. After being assistant - quarter-
master-general in Ireland, he became
equerry to the Prince Consort, and subse-
quently colonel of the Coldstream Guards.
He went again to India in 1868, returning
just before the Afghan war, and in 1881
was made commander-in-chief at Bombay.
Hardinge, Charles, Viscount (b. 1822),
elder brother of the last-named, was private
secretary to his father in India. He sat in
Parliament from 18-51 till 1856, and was
under-secretary of War under Lord Derby
in 1858-9.
Hardinge, Nicholas (b. 1700, d. 1758),
English writer and antiquary, became chief
clerk of the House of Commons, and, having
entered Parliament for Eye, was secretary
to the Treasury in 1752. He wrote DenhiU
Iliad and some Latin verse, and was a
patron of antiquaries,
Hardinge, George (6. 1744, d. 1816),
English writer, son of last-named, was
successively solicitor-general to the queen,
counsel to the East India Company, and
attorney-general to the queen, tie wrote
Letters to liurke on the Impeachment of
Hastings and the Essence of MaUstu;, an
auuck on that writer.
Hardouin, Jean (b. 1646, d. 1729), French
Jesuit, whose works — in which he tried to
prove from medals that the greater part of
the classics were mediaeval forgeries, were
censured by his Society ; afterwards edited
Pliny's Natural History and Tfo Councils,
the latter being suppressed.
Hardwick, Philip (b. 1793, d. 1870), Eng-
lish architect, eon and father of an archi-
tect, built a new hall for the Goldsmiths'
Company in 1835, also the hall and library
of Lincoln's Inn, opened in 1845. He was
elected F.B.S. in 1628, A.R.A. 1839, and
R.A. 1841, and was subsequently vice-
president of the Royal Institute of British
Artists.
Hardwicke, Philip Yorke, Earl of (b.
1692, d. 1764), lawyer, entered Parliament
in 1717, and next year became Solicitor-
General. After being Attorney- General
for ten years, he became, in 1730, chief jus-
tice of the King's Bench, and was made a
peer. In 1737 he was given in addition the
office of Lord Chancellor, which he held till
1756, his tenure of office being marked by
the passing of the Marriage Act. He did
not take office again, but his advice was
much valued.
Hardwicke, Philip, 2nd Earl of (b. 1720,
d. 1790), author of Ail.cnlan Letters, TTdpo-
liana, etc. , and editor of the Hardwicke Statf
Papers.
Hardy, Lady Mary Duffus, novelist,
widow of Sir Thomas Duff us Hardy, wrote
descriptions of her travels in America, called
Through Cities and Prairie Lands and Down
Snnth. Her most successful novels were
Paul Wynter's Sacrifice and Daisy Nichol.
Hardy, Iza Duff us, daughter of last-
named, author of Glencaim, Only a Lovt
Story, Love, Honour, and Obey, Love in Idle-
ness, and other tales ; she received in 1891 •
Civil List pension.
Hardy, Thomas (b. 1840), novelist, edu-
cated as an architect, was born in Dorset-
shire, the scene of his novels being laid
in the south of England, the early Wessex.
His chief works are Desperate Remedies
(1871), Under the Greenwood Tree (1872),
Far from the Madding Crowd (1874), The
Trumpet Major (1880), The Woodlanders,
The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886), and
Wessex Tales (1888), Test of the D'Urbtr*
villes, etc.
Har
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Ear
Hardy, Thomas (b. 1752, d. 1832), poli-
tician, set up a bootmaker's shop in Pic-
cadilly, but soon plunged into politics,
being the chief founder of the London
Corresponding Society in 1792. In 1794
he was prosecuted with Home Tooke and
others for high treason, bat was defended
by Erskine, and acquitted. He continued
in business till 1815, and in his last years
was supported by Sir Francis Burdett and
his friends.
Hardy, Sir Thomas Duffus (6. 1804, d.
1878), antiquarian, entered the Record Office
in 1819, and in 1861 became deputy keeper.
He edited Close Rolls, Norman Rolls, and
Charter Rolls ; William of Malmesbury, and
Modus Tenendi Parliament* (1846). His
brother, Sir WILLIAM HAEDT (a. 1887), suc-
ceeded him as deputy keeper.
Hardy, Sir Thomas Masterman, Bart.
(6. 1769, d. 1839), English admiral, friend
of Nelson, with whom he served at St.
Vincent, the Nile and Trafalgar ; was created
baronet ra 1806, and was subsequently a
lord of the Admiralty and governor of Green-
wich Hospital.
Hare, Augustus John Cuthbert (6. 1834),
English writer, nephew of Archdeacon Hare,
educated at Harrow and University College,
Oxford; wrote Memorials of a Quiet Life
(18th edition, 1884), Epitaphs from Country
Churchyards, Walks in Rome, Wanderings
in Spain, and many books of travel.
Hare, Francis, D.D. (b. 1665, d. 1740),
theologian, successively Dean of Worcester
and St. Paul's, and Bishop of St. Asaph
and Chichester, opposed Hoadley in the
Bangorian controversy. His Difficulties
and Discouragement which attend the Study
of Scriptures in the Way of Private Judg-
ment was censured by Convocation.
Hare, John (Fairs) (b. 1844) , actor, made his
first appearance at the Prince of Wales'
theatre in 1865. After playing under the
Bancrofts for several years, he became, in
1875, manager of the Court theatre ; and
in 1879 he joined Mr. Kendal in the manage-
ment of the St. James's theatre. In 1889
he opened the Garrick theatre with Mr.
Pinero's Projligate.
Hare, Julius Charles (*. 1795, d. 1855),
English writer and theologian, educated at
the Charterhouse and Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, of which he became fellow in 1818,
took orders in 1826, and in 1832 was ap-
pointed to the living of Hurstmonceux. He
travelled much in Italy and Germany, some-
times having Landor as companion. In
1840 he became Archdeacon of Lewes, and
in 1853 chaplain to the Queen, and was a
gtrong supporter of the Broad Church move-
ment. In 1820 he translated Sintram, and
four years later published Guesses at Truth,
which was written in collaboration with his
brother, Augustus William, who died at
Rome in 1833. In conjunction with Thirl-
wall, Julius translated Niebuhr's Rome, and
in 1848 edited Stirling's Essays and Tales,
with a lif e of the author, who had been his
curate at Hurstmonceux.
Hare, Robert (*. 1781, d. 1858), American
chemist, professor in the Pennsylvania
University, and inventor of the "Drum-
mond Lamp," the oxy hydrogen blow-pipe,
the calorimotor, and improved the voltaic
pile.
Hargrave, Francis (b. 1741, d. 1821),
English barrister, recorder of Liverpool,
established in the case of the negro Somerset
the freedom of slaves upon entering British
territory, and published State Trials and
Laiv Trials. His collection of MSS. is now
in the British Museum.
Eargraves, Edmund Hammond (b. 1815),
English traveller, in 1834 went to Australia
as a farmer, and in 1849 discovered gold in
California. On his return to Australia he
made similar discoveries there (in 1851), and,
having informed the Government, was made
crown lands commissioner, and received a
reward of £10,000. In 1854 he returned to
England, and published Australia and her
Gold Mines.
Hargreaves, James (d. 1778), English
mechanician, invented the stock-cards, and
a hand- worked spinning-jenny. In conse-
quence of the hostility of his fellow-work-
men he had to remove from Stan hill to
Nottingham, and he afterwards set up a
spinning factory at Hockley. A gra,nt from
the Royal Bounty Fund was made to his
daughter by Sir Robert Peel.
Harlay, Achille d' (b. 1536, d. 1619),
French magistrate, opposed the Due de
Guise in 1585, and quelled the sedition in
Paris in 1589.
Earley. [See Oxford, Earl of.]
Harley, George, F.R.S. (b. 1829), English
medical writer, graduated at Edinburgh in
1850, and while on the Continent published
La Physiologic du Diabe'te Stt-cre and other
works. On his return he became professor
of medical jurisprudence at University Col-
lege, and physician to the Hospital. In 1861
he gained the triennial prize of the Royal
College of Surgeons, and as a fellow of the
Royal Society contributed many papers to
the Transactions. Besides numerous medical
works, of which the chief is one on Liter
Diseases, he published in 1877 The Simplifica-
tion of English Spelling, and in 1878 printed
a letter to Lord Beaconsfield on the same
subject.
Har
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Harley, Robert, F.R.S. (b. 1828), mathe-
matician, became in 1868 pastor of a Con-
gregational church at Leicester, in which
town he was prominent as an educationist.
In 1872 he became vice-master at Mill Hill
school ; in 1882 principal of Huddersfield
College ; and in 1886 went to Oxford, where
the degree of M.A. was conferred on him.
He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
at the age of thirty-five, and has written
many works and papers on mathematical
subjects.
Barlow, George Henry (*. 1787, d. 1819),
English portrait -painter, pupil of Drum-
znoud and Sir T. Lawrence, his best-known
picture being that of the Trial of Queen
Catherine, into which portraits of the
Kembles were introduced.
Hannodius, an Athenian who, with
Aristogeiton, killed Hippias, and was put
to death by his brother, Hipparchus,
(514 B.C.).
Hare, Don Luis Mendez de (b. 1599,
d. 1661), Spanish statesman, nephew of
Olivarez, whom he succeeded as minister in
1643 ; was chiefly instrumental in bringing
about the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1657.
Harold L, King of England (d. 1040),
son of Canute (Knut), who left the suc-
cession to him, with his brother, in 1035.
He usurped the whole kingdom in 1037,
having previously banished Queen Emma,
and murdered her sons by JEthelred.
Harold IL (d. 1066), son of Godwine,
succeeded Edward the Confessor, defeated
the invasion of Harald Hardrada of Norway
at Stamford Bridge, September, 1066, but
was himself defeated and slain by William
of Normandy at Senlac, near Hastings, on
October 14. Previous to his accession he
had commanded an expedition against the
Welsh.
Haroun Al Raschid (b. 763, d. 809),
Khalif of Bagdad, organised his dominions
against the attacks of the Eastern empire ;
massacred the Barmecides ; compelled Nice-
phorus to resume payment of his tribute,
and ravaged his dominions when the peace
was not kept ; sent an embassy to Charles
the Great. He died when on an expedition
against Khoras.san.
Earpsfield, Nicholas (d. 1583), Roman
Catholic theologian, Archdeacon of Canter-
bury under Queen Mary, but imprisoned by
Elizabeth ; wrote, with the assistance of
Archbishop Parker, who had the custody of
him, Historia Anglicana Ecclesiastica. His
brother John (d. 1578) was made Dean of
Norwich by Queen Mary, and was chaplain
to Bonner and a great persecutor.
Harrington. [See Stanhope.]
Harrington, James (b. 1611, d. 1677),
English writer, served in Holland as a
soldier, and travelled much on the Con-
tinent. He attempted to mediate between
the Parliament and King Charles, and was
with the latter from 1646 until his death.
After the Restoration he was imprisoned on
a charge of treason, but when his mind
gave way was released. Besides the Oceana,
he wrote other political works, and an essay
on Virgil.
Harrington, Sir John (b. 1561, d. 1612),
English writer, godchild of Queen Eliza-
beth, translated Ariosto's Orlando furioso
into English verse, and wrote Nugce An-
tiques and the other works which appear in
his Remains.
Harriot, Thomas (*. 1560, d. 1621),
English mathematician, taught in the
family of Sir Walter Raleigh, and accom-
panied the expedition of Grenville to Vir-
ginia as geographer, giving an account of
that country in A Brief and True Account
of the New-Found Land of Virginia. He
invented a method of algebraic calculation
which was afterwards adopted by Des-
cartes.
Harris, James (b. 1709, d. 1780), English
philosopher, a native of Malmesbury, was
appointed in 1744 secretary to comptroller
to Queen Caroline. His chief work was
Hermes; or, a Philosophical Inquiry Con-
cerning Language and Universal Grammar.
Harris, James (son). [See Maknesbury,
Earl of.]
Harris, Joel Chandler (*. 1848), Ameri-
can writer, almost entirely self-educated,
•was apprenticed to a printer at the age of
twelve, but afterwards became a journalist.
In the Constitution, of which he became
editor, appeared in 1880 Uncle Remus : hit
Songs and Sayings, which was followed by
other similar works.
Harris, Lord (b. 1746, d. 1829), British
soldier, served in the American war of
Independence, and afterwards in India
under Cornwallis. In 1799, as commander,
in-chief, he conducted the expedition
against Tippoo Sahib, when Seringapatam
was taken, from which he derived the title
of baron awarded him.
Harris, Lord (b. 1851), statesman, fourth
baron, born in Trinidad, and educated at
Eton and Christ Church. In Lord Salis-
bury's first government he was under-sec-
re tary for India, and in 1866 went to the
War Office in a similar capacity. In 1889
he became governor of Bombay.
Harris, Sir William Snow (b. 1792, d.
1867), English physicist, a fellow of the
Royal Society, and winner of the Copley
Har
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medal in 1835 ; was knighted in 1847, and
received in 1854 a parliamentary grant of
£5,000 for his system of lightning -con-
ductors, which were generally adopted for
public buildings.
Harrison, Benjamin (d. 1791), American
statesman, was one of the committee of
correspondence to uiiite the colonies in
1773, and one of the Virginian delegates in
Congress. As chairman of the committee
he, in 1776, introduced the resolution de-
claring independence. Subsequently he was
governor of Virginia. In 1788 he opposed
the ratification of the Federal Constitution,
but afterwards accepted it.
Harrison, Benjamin, LL.D. (b. 1833),
President (twenty-third) of the United
States, grandson of President Harrison,
was born at North Bend, Ohio, and began
to practise as a lawyer in Indianapolis in
1854. In 1860 he was elected reporter of
the Indiana supreme court, and in the Civil
war he raised and commanded a regiment
for the Federal army. He resumed his
civil duties in 1865, and practised as a
lawyer till, in 1876, he was nominated by
the Republicans for the state governorship,
but was not elected. In 1879 he was a
member of the Mississippi Commission, and
next year was chairman of the Indiana
Delegation to the Chicago Convention. He
was a strong supporter of General Garfield,
who, on his election, offered him office,
which he declined. In 1881 he became
United States senator, and in 1888 was
victorious as the Republican candidate for
the presidency. His term of office was
marked by the International Copyright
Bill of 1891, the Behring Sea dispute, the
trouble with Chili, and a diplomatic quarrel
with Italy.
Harrison, Frederic (b. 1831), English
philosopher, educated at King's College
school and Wadham College, Oxford, of
which he became fellow ; was called to the
bar in 1858, and practised as a conveyancer.
He was a member of the Royal Commission
on Trades Unions, 1867-9, and secretary to
the Commission for the Digest of the Laws,
1869-70. In 1877 he was named professor
of jurisprudence and international law by !
the Council of Legal Education. He was
Home Rule candidate for London University
in 1886, and in 1889 was elected alderman on
the County Council. He adopted the doc-
trines of Comte, and became the Positivist
leader in England. He is author of Order
and Progress (1875), The Choice of Books
(1886), Oliver Cromwell ('•'•Statesman Series "
1888), etc., and translated vol. ii. of Comte's
Positive Polity.
Harrison, John (b. 1693, d. 1776), Eng-
lish mechanician, made chronometers for
determining longitude at sea between 1725
and 1749, and was rewarded by Govern-
ment on condition that the inventions
should be made public. The Principles of
Mr. Harrison's Time-keeper was published
in 1767.
Harrison, Thomas (b. 1606, rf. 1660),
soldier, prominent in the Great Rebellion,
lost the favour of Cromwell on account of
his fanaticism as a Fifth Monarchy man;
was tried and executed after the Restoration
as a regicide.
Harrison, William Henry (b. 1773, d.
1841), ninth President of the United States,
distinguished himself in wars with the
Indians, and in that of 1812-15 with Great
Britain. He was for some time governor of
the newly-formed territory of Indiana, and
was made in 1S28 minister to Columbia.
After his recall he was an unsuccessful
candidate for the presidency, but was
elected in 1839 in opposition to the Demo-
crat, Van Buren. He died suddenly soon
afterwards.
Harrowby, Francis, Earl of (b. 1831),
English statesman, educated at Harrow
and Christ Church ; he entered Parliament
(as Viscount Sandon) for Lichfield in 1856,
and represented Liverpool from 1868 till
his accession to the peerage in 1882. He
was at first a Whig, but developed into
a Conservative, and in 1874 was appointed
vice-president of the Committee of Council
on Education, having previously served on
many committees and carried the Parochial
Councils Bill. He was twice offered the
chief secretaryship to the Lord- Lieutenant
by Lord Beaconsfield, but in 1878 entered
the cabinet as president of the Board of
Trade. In Lord Salisbury's first adminis-
tration he was Lord Privy Seal, but did
not again take office. He was a member
of the Royal Commission on Education in
1886.
Harry, " Blind " (15th century), Scottish
minstrel, author of Acts and Leeds of
Wallace, written about 1475.
Hart, Ernest (b. 1836), English sanitary
reformer, practised for some years as a sur-
geon, and was co-editor of the Lancet and
editor of the British Medical Journal.
Subsequently he edited the Sanitary Record,
and became chairman of the National
Health Society and the Smoke Abatement
Committee. In the Metropolitan Asylums
Act (1867) his suggestions, made in a con-
tribution to the Fortnightly Review, were
embodied, and as chairman of the Parlia-
mentary Bills Committee of the British
Medical Association he exercised great
influence over sanitary legislation. His
proposals for the creation of a peasant pro-
prietary and the reclamation of waste lands
Har
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Har
in Ireland were adopted by the Government
in the Migration clauses of the Tramways
Act. By his wife the Donegal industrial
Fund was set on foot.
Hart, James McDougal (b. 1828), Ameri-
can painter of Scottish hirth ; born at Kil-
maniock, hut lived chietly in America,
gained a bronze medal at the Paris Exhi-
bition of 1889 with/;* the Autumn Wood*
and When the Rain is Over.
Hart, Joel T. (*. 1810, d. 1877), American
sculptor ; after being apprentice to a stone-
cutter, went to Italy to study, and lived at
Florence for thirty years. The __ best
examples of his work were Charity, Wumun
Triu,npiiant, and Pcnserosa. He invented
an apparatus for obtaining mechanically
the outline of a head from life.
Hart, Solomon Alexander (b. 1806, d.
18^1), Engli>h painter of Jewish extraction,
was elected It. A. in 13iO. His speciality
was historical subjects. Among his best
picture* are /r<>/Vy and Buckingham (1834),
Richard and Saladin (1835), The Polish
Synagogue (1840), and Milton visiting Galilei
in Prison (1847).
Hart, William (6. 1823), American land-
scape painter, brother of J. M. (q.v.), was
born at Paisley, Scotland, but emigrated with
his family in 1831. He became a coach -
painter at Albany, but afterwards exhib 1
frequently at the Xew York Academy of
Design, of which he became a member in
1858. He spent three years in Scotland
(1850-3), and subsequently set up a studio
in Xew York, and became president of the
Water-Colour Society (1870-3). Among his
pictures may be named The Last Gleam,
Landscape with Jersey Cattle, Morning in
the Clouds, and A Brook Study.
Harte, Francis Bret (6. 1839), American
writer, born at Albany, was at different
times a miner, school-teacher, printer, and
editor. From 1864 to 1870 he was at San
Francisco as secretary of the United States
Mint, where, in 1869, he published The
Heathen Chinee. He was named American
consul at Crefeld in 1878, and at Glasgow
in 1880, and after leaving the latter in 1885,
came to live in London. Chief among his
works are Condensed Novels (1867), Tlie Luck
of Roaring Camp and Other Sketches (187 ff),
Poetical works (1871), Tales of the Argo-
nauts (1875), The Twins of Table Mountain
and Other Stories (1879), By Shore and Sedge
(1885), A Millionaire of Rough and Ready
and JJffcifs Ford (1887), A Ward of the
Golden Gate (1890), etc.
Harting, James Edmund (b. 1841), Eng-
lish zoologist, active in promoting bills for
the protection of birds, was in 1882 awarded
a medal by the Societe d'Acclimatation for
scientific publications, chief among which
were The Onutioiloiju of JS/mk>.\>i'-are cnti-
Examined, '•!./•. (isj). A lluiidlHn.ik of
i>ii • .'!), Our Summer M> •.•/
(187-3), several editions of White's Xiilnrnl
• ry of &> luorne, Ostri<-/i<'x and Ostrich
J:'<irining, British Animals Extinct uU/'urt
Historic Tunes, etc.
Harrington. [See Devonshire.]
Hartley, Sir Charles Augustus, K.C.M.G.
(b. 1820), "English engineer; served in the
Crimea as captain in the Turkish contingent
engineers, and in 1850 was named eugiueer-
in-chief to the European Commission of the
Danube. In 1862 he was knighted. In
1867 he gained the Tsar's " Grand Compe-
tition prize" for his plan for enlarging
Odessa harbour. He was employed at
various times by the Russian, Austrian,
Turkish, Indian, and Roumanian govern-
ments, and was much consulted in the
improvements made at the mouths of the
Mississippi.
Hartley, David (b. 1705, d. 1757), English
philosopher, educated at Jesus College,
Cambridge, of which he became a fellow.
Abandoning the idea of entering the Church,
he devoted himself to the profession of
medicine, practising at Newark, Bury St.
Edmunds, London, and Bath, at which last
place he died. He is chiefly remembered by
his Observations on Man (1749).
Hartlib, Samuel (b. circa 1600, d. after
1662), born at Elbin in Prussia, and came to
England in 1628. Having lost his property
in trade and agricultural experiments, pro-
pounded a scheme for a school on novel
lines. Cromwell granted him a pension ;
Milton addressed his Tr'n-t-'lf r>n Education
(1644) to him, as did Sir William Petty
Two Letters.
Hartmann, Albrecht (b. 1814), Swiss
writer, whose chief works are Meister
Putsch und seine Gesellen (1858), Galerie
beriihmter ScJtweizer (1863-71), Junkrr und
Burger (1865), Schweizernovellen (1*77),
and Fortunat (1879).
Hartmann, Alfred {£. 1814), Swiss author,
born near Laugenthal. Berne, and educated
at Munich. Heidelberg, and Berlin. He
finally settled at Solothurm. He wrote
Meister Ritsch und seine Gesellen (1858),
Eiltabendsgeschichten (1853-55), etc.
Hartmann, Karl Robert Eduard von (b.
1842), German philosopher, was obliged to
leave the army through lameness in 1865,
and published in 1869 his Phiksophie des
Unbewussten, which went through many
editions, and was translated into English
in Triibner's Philosophical Library. He
also wrote Phdnomenologie des tittlichen
Har
(425)
Has
Bewusstseins (1878), and Das religiose Be~
w-usste'm der Menschseit im Stufengaiuje seiner
Enticickelung (18S2).
Eartmann, Moritz (b. 1821, d. 1872),
poet, born in Bohemia ; published at Leip-
zig in 1845 Kelch und Sclnvert, which was
very popular, but brought on its author
the wrath of the Austrian government.
After the revolution of 1848 he took an
active part in politics, representing Bohemia
at Fraukfort, and was a zealous supporter
of the revolution in Vienna. In 1849 he
published at Frankfort the satirical poem
M,eim-chronik des Pfaffen Mauritius. He
now wandered in Switzerland, England,
and Ireland, but in 1850 settled at Paris,
from whence he went to the Crimea as
correspondent of the Cologne Gazette. He
died at Vienna after further wanderings.
Besides the works mentioned, he was author
of Der Krieg um dem Wald, a romance, Die
Schatten and Novellen (Hamburg, 1863), and
Briefe aus Irland (1851).
Eartsceker, Nicolas (b. 1656, d. 1725),
Dutch physicist, friend of Huyghens and
Leibnitz, was mathematical tutor to the
Tsar Peter when on his travels ; made
several microscopic discoveries, and was
author of Conjectures Physiques (1707), Re-
cueil de* Pieces de Physique^ and other
works.
Eartt, Charles Frederick (b. 1840, d.
1878), American naturalist, born at Fred-
ericton, New Brunswick, while a student at
Acadia College made geological researches
in Nova Scotia and afterwards in New
Brunswick. He accompanied the Thayer
expedition to Brazil in 1865, and from mate-
rials collected there wrote his Geology and
Physical Geography of Brazil (1870). After
holding several professorships in America,
he was, in 1875, appointed chief of the geo-
logical survey by the Brazilian government.
Hartzenbusch, Juan Eugenic (b. 1806, d.
1880), Spanish dramatist of German origin ;
Was employed as a shorthand writer till he
obtained a position in the royal library at
Madrid, which enabled him to devote his
talents to dramatic writings. Besides
adapting many .French plays, he was author
of Los Amantes de Teruel (1836), Donna
Mencia (1838), Alfonso el Cos to (1841), and
several comedies, besides Ensayos poeticos y
*rticulos en prosa.
Harvard, John (d. 1638), son of a butcher
in Southwark, was educated at Emmanuel
College, Cambridge, and in 1637 married
and went to New England, but died next
year, and left one half of his estate to be
devoted to the foundation of a college at
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Harvey, Sir Eliab (b. 1759, d. 1830),
English naval officer, served in the Napo-
leonic wars, and was made rear-admiral
after Trafalgar, in which he was captain of
the Temeraire. He afterwards had a dis-
pute with Lord Gambier and was dismissed
for insubordination, but ultimately became
admiral and G.C.B.
Harvey, Gabriel (b. 1545, d. 1630), Eng-
lish writer, friend of Spenser, contributed
under the name "Hobbiuol" the versea
prefixed to the Faery Queene, and published
Three Wiitie Familiar Letters (1580), aa
well as prophetic almanacks.
Harvey, Sir George (b. 1806, d. 1876),
Scotch painter, exhibited Covenanters Preach-
ing in 1830, The Battle of Dntmcloy (1836)
The Covenanters1 Communion (1840), and
First Reading of the Bible in Old St. PauVt
(1847). He became a Scottish Academician
in 1829, was elected President in 1864, and
was knighted in 1867. In 1870 he published
Notes of the Early History of the Scottish
Academy.
,-' Earvey, William (b. 1578, d. 1657) Eng-~
lish physiologist, discovered the circula-
tion of the blood. He studied at Cam-
bridge and at Padua, and, on bis return
to England, became physician at St. Bar-
tholomew's hospital and delivered the
Lumleian lectures. His great discovery
was described in Extrcitatio Anatomica de
Motu Cordis et Sanguinis, published in
1628. He was afterwards physician to
Charles I. and warden of Merton College,
Oxford.
Hasan ben Sabbali (b. 1056, d. 1124),
Persian fanatic, was disgraced by the sultan
and retired to the mountains of Kurdistan,
where he founded a sect called ' ' Haschischin "
(Assassins), from the drugs which he gave
them. He is known as the "Old Man of
the Mountains," or Sheik el Djebel.
Easdmbal (d. 207 B.C.), brother of Han-
nibal, commanded in Spain with some
success, but having invaded Italy was de-
feated and slain by Livius and Nero at the
Metaurus.
Easdmbal, Carthaginian general during
the third Punic war; defended Carthage,
but surrendered when it was captured (146
B.C.), and died in Italy some time after.
Ease, Charles Benoit (6. 1780, d. 1864),
French Hellenist of German extraction; was
in early life tutor to Louis Napoleon, and
afterwards member of the Academies of In-
scriptions and Belles-Lettres, professor of
German at the iScole Polytechnique, and of
ancient and modern Greek in the Royal
School of Oriental Languages, as well as
librarian in the Bibliotheque Boyale.
Easebig, Sir Arthur, Parliamentary
Has
(426)
Hat
soldier, was one of the "Five Members."
He aided Monk iu the .Restoration.
Hassan (/>. (525, d. 669), grandson of
Mahomet and sou of Ali, the fifth caliph,
was opposed by Moawiah and compelled, to
abdicate in 660.
Hassan, Prince (b. 1854, d. 1888), Egyptian
soldier and statesman, third son of Ismail;
was educated partly in England, and, after
serving in the Prussian army, was appointed
in 1876 coinmander-in-chief of the Egyptian
army. After serving in the Russo-Turkish
war, he became Egyptian Avar minister, and
was again commauder-in-chief. In 1885 he
was with Lord Wolseley in the Soudan.
Hassan -Ali -Khan (b. 1821), Persian
statesman and soldier, rendered distin-
guished services to the shah in the Khorasan
in 1848, and later during the rising of the
Babis, after which event he was employed
as a diplomatist in England, France, and
Italy.
Hassan ben Ali, founder of the dynasty
of the Beys of Tunis ; put to death Ibrahim
Bey in 1 706 and assumed the title, but was
himself deposed and beheaded by his nephew
in 1735.
Hasse, Johann Adolph (*. 1699, d. 1783),
German musical composer, called in Italy
"II Sassone," went to Naples, where he
met Scarlatti and composed the music of
Sesostrate. At Venice he composed a
Miserere, and married Faustina Bordoui.
He was invited to London as a rival to
Handel, but soon returned to Dresden,
where he was patronised by Frederick the
Great. At Milan, when composing for the
marriage of the Archduke Ferdinand, he
met Mozart, and predicted his success.
Hassein Ali (d. 1720), Indian statesman, a
descendant of Mahomet ; with his brother
Abdoola, assisted Ferokshere to seize the
imperial power at Delhi, but, when the
latter plotted against him, made an alliance
with the Mahrattas and put the usurper to
death. He now became all-powerful, but
was assassinated when on the march against
Nizam-ool-Moolk, Soubadar of the Dec-
can.
Hasselquist, Friedrich (b. 1722, d. 1752),
Swedish naturalist, pupil of Linnaeus, who
made use of the materials collected by him ;
studied botany in Palestine and Egypt, but
died when about to return.
Hassen Shah Gungoo (d. 1358), Indian
king, was declared king on the deposition
of Mahomet Toghluk, and consolidated the
Mahometan possessions in western India
into one great kingdom.
Hastings, Sir Charles, M.D. (b. 1794, d.
1866), English physician, graduated at
Edinburgh and practised at Worcester;
founded the British Medical Asson.itiou,
and wrote Illustrations of the Xaturui Ht»~
tory of Worcestershire.
Hastings, Francis, Marquess (b. 1754, d.
1826), English general and statesman, served
in the American war, and was created Lord
Moira, opposed the Irish union, and was in
IS 13 made Governor- General of India. He
subdued the Mahrattas and Piudarees, ad-
vocated the education of the natives, and
carried out many public works at Calcutta
and Delhi. He was opposed, however, by
a strong party among the directors, and
was accused of partiality and corruption.
He was recalled and censured in 1822, and
died as governor of Malta.
Hastings, Warren (b. 1732, d. 1818), Eng-
lish administrator in India ; went to Bengal
as a writer in 1750, but was seven years
later appointed agent of the East India
Company at the court of the Nabob of
Bengal. In 1764 he returned to England,
where he remained four years studying
Eastern literature. On his return to India
he became a member of the council of
Madras, and in 1772 governor of Bengal, a
position which in 1774 became that of
Governor-General of India. He was now
involved in quarrels with his Council, and
sent in his resignation, which, however,
when accepted, he disavowed. The Sup-
reme Court decided in his favour, and he
was reappointed. During his first term of
office he sold the vale of Rohilcund to Sujah
Dowlah and obtained the execution of
Xuncomar, his enemy. During his second
term, in order to obtain money, he took
those measures against the Rajah of "Benares
and the Nabob of Oude which were after-
wards charged against him, but left the
affairs of the Company in a very prosperous
condition. Three years after his return he
was impeached before the Lords for high
crimes and misdemeanours, but, after a trial
which proceeded at intervals for seven years,
and in spite of the eloquence of Burke and
Sheridan, he was acquitted in 1795. He
was ruined by the expense, but was granted
an annuity by the Court of Directors.
Hatfield, Thomas (d. 1381), Bishop of
Durham ; appointed when a layman at the
instance of Edward III., to whom he had
been secrerary ; led the English at the
battle of Neville's Cross, and founded
Hatfield Hall and Trinity (originally Dur-
ham) College, Oxford.
Hatherley, Lord, William Page Wood
(b. 1801, d. 1881), English lawyer, called
to the bar in 1827, and in 1845 took silk.
He was Liberal member for Oxford from
1847 to 1852, and was Solicitor- General
Hat
(427)
Han
in 1851-2. After serving on the chancery
commission he became Vice- Chancellor,
and in 1868 was named lord justice of the
Court of Appeal in Chancery, being also
sworn of the Privy Council. In the same
year he became Lord Chancellor and re-
ceived a peerage, but his health obliged
to resign in 1872.
Eatsell, John (d. 1820), jurist, clerk of the
House of Commons, and author of Cases of
Privileges of Parliament to 1628 (1776), and
Precedents of Proceedings.
Hatto (d. 970), Archbishop of Mainz, sub-
ject of the "Eat Tower" legend founded
on the Chronicles of Magdeburg.
Hatton, Sir Christopher (b. 1540, d. 1591),
English courtier and judge, a great favourite
with Queen Elizabeth, who called him her
"Liddes," and made him captain of her
guard, vice-chamberlain, and (1587) Lord
Chancellor. He was one of the commis-
sioners for the trial of Mary Stuart.
Hatton, John Liptrot (b. 1809, d. 1886),
English composer, born in Liverpool, and
almost entirely self-taught, produced in
1844 at Drury Lane the operetta The Queen
of the Thames. After a visit to Vienna, he
published several songs under the pseudonym
"Czapek," and in 1838 went to America.
As director of music during Charles Kean's
management of the Princess's theatre, he
composed music f or Macbeth and Sardanapalus
{1853), Faust and Marguerite (1854), Henry
VIII. (1855), Richard II. (1857), King Lear,
The Merchant of Venice, and Much Ado
About Nothing (1858). Besides cathedral ser-
vices and anthems, he composed Robin Hood,
& cantata (1856), Hezekiah, an oratorio
(1877), and a great number of songs and
part songs, To Anther, Simon the Cellarer,
etc.
Hatton, Joseph (b. 1839), novelist and
journalist, came to London in 1868 and
edited the Gentleman's Magazine, collabo-
rated with Mr. Harvey in a History of
Newfoundland, and also wrote a book on
Borneo, By Order of the Ttar, The Old House
at Sandwich, and other novels, as well as
Irving' 's Impressions of America, Old Lamps
and New, and some plays.
Hatzfeldt, Graf von (b. 1831), German
diplomatist, was secretary to Prince Bis-
marck at Paris in 1862, and one of his
diplomatic suite at the time of the French
war. In 1874 he became imperial minister
at Madrid, and was subsequently ambas-
sador at Constantinople, foreign secretary,
and (1885) German ambassador in London.
Eauff, Wilhelm (b. 1802, d. 1827), German
poet and novelist, author of Lichtenstein
(1826), Die Bettlerin vom Pont des Arts, and
Das Bild des Kaisers, as well as Marcher^
Uhland wrote an elegy on his death.
Haughton, Sir Graves Champney (b. 1789,
d. 1849), Irish Orientalist, left the army to
become professor of Sanscrit at Haileybury
(1817), and compiled a Bengal Grammar and
a Bengali- Sanscrit- English Dictionary.
Haughton, William (16th century), Eng-
lish dramatist, author of Ferrex and Porrex,
licensed in 1600 ; also collaborated with
Dekker and others.
Haugwitz, Christian, Graf von (6. 1752,
d. 1832), Prussian statesman ; as ambassador
at Vienna, negotiated the convention of
Reichenbach and the treaty of Pilnitz ; was
foreign secretary from 1792 till the invasion
of Hanover in 1803, when he retired. He
was recalled in 1805, and after Austerlitz
ceded Anspach, Cleves, and Neufchatel to
France in exchange for Hanover. He soon
retired from office, having embroiled Prussia
with England without having gained the
real friendship of Napoleon. He left Frag-
ments of Memoirs, in which he endeavoured
to justify himself.
Haukal, Abul Kasem Mohammed Ibn
(10th century), Arabian traveller, author of
a Book of Roads and Kingdoms, descriptive
of Mahometan countries.
Haukst-ee, Francis (b. 1650, d. circa 1713),
English physician, one of the earliest writers
on electricity, on which subject he con-
tributed papers to the Transactions of the
Royal Society, and also published Physico-
Mcchanical Experiments on various Subjects
touching Light and Electricity.
Hauptmann, Moritz (b. 1792,^. 1868),
German music composer and music-teacher,
pupil of Spohr ; was appointed in 1842
cantor at the Thomas-schule, Leipzig, and
had von Billow and Joachim as pupils.
His works include an opera, Mathilde (1824).
Haureau, Barthelemy (b. 1812), French
historian and publicist ; edited for seven
years the Courrier de la Sarthe, and having
become librarian at Le Mans wrote a History
of Poland. He left the town in 1S45 and
rejoined the staff of the National, and was
also for a short time a member of the Con-
stituent Assembly. He afterwards became
keeper of manuscripts at the National
Library and director of the Imprimerie
National. Among his historical works are
Francois I*r et sa Cour, Charlemagne et sa
Cour, Singularites Historiques et Litteraires,
and Histoire de la Philosophic Scolastique.
Haussman, George Eugene, Baron (b.
1809), French administrator ; began his
career as an advocate, but after 1830 took
part in politics, and was made by Napoleon
III. prefect of the Seine. In this capacity
Han
(428)
Haw
he set about the embellishment of Paris
with great recklessness, and in 1870, having
declined to resign, was dismissed by imperial
decree. After a short absence, he returned,
entered into large speculations, and was in
1877 elected deputy for Ajaccio.
Haussonville, Joseph de Mion, Comte d'
(b. 1809), French politician and writer, an
active member of the Assembly between
18i2 and 1848 ; was elected academician in
1869, but had previously been obliged to
leave France on account of his opposition to
the Bonaparte regime. In 1870 he published
La France et la Prusse devant V Europe, and
subsequently established farms in Algeria
for refugees from Alsace, and wrote Histoire
de la Reunion de la Lorraine a la France, etc.
Hauterive, Alessandre, Comte d' (b. 1754,
d, 1830), French diplomatist ; gained j;he
favour of Napoleon by his manifesto, Etat
de la France, an. viii., and as his secretary
was engaged in all his diplomatic affairs,
enjoying the confidence also of Talleyrand.
After the peace he devoted himself to
literature, his chief work being Elements de
r Economic Politique.
Haiiy, Rene Just (b. 1743, d. 1822),
mineralogist, was elected member of the
Academie des Sciences for his discovery of
the laws of crystallisation. During the
revolution he was protected by his pupil,
Geoffroy St. Hilaire, and after wards en joyed
the favour of Napoleon. His collection
was purchased by the Duke of Buckingham,
but redeemed by the National Assembly.
Haiiy, Valentine (b. 1745, d. 1822), edu-
cationist, brother of last-named; wrote
Essai sur V Education des Aveuc/les, invented
the method of teaching the blind by raised
letters, and established schools for them at
Paris, Berlin, and St. Petersburg.
Havelock, Sir Arthur Elibank, K.C.M.G.
(6. 1844), colonial administrator, was suc-
cessively president of Nevis, chief commis-
sioner of the Seychelles, governor of the west
African settlements, of Trinidad, Natal
(1885), and Ceylon (1890).
Havelock, Sir Henry (b. 1795, d. 1857),
English soldier ; was entered at the Temple
in 1813, but two years later joined the army,
and in 1823 went to India, where he served
in the first Burmese war, of which he wrote
an account (Campaigns in Arva). He held
a command in the first Afghan war, and
afterwards served in the Mahratta and Sikh
wars. After a short absence on leave, he
returned to India in 1854 as adjutant-
general, and, after commanding a division in
the Persian campaign, distinguished himself
in the Mutiny by the relief of Cawnpore and
Lucknow. but was then besieged there, and
died before the second relief by Sir Colin
Campbell. A baronetcy and a pension had
been awarded him.
Havergal, William Henry (b. 1793, d.
1870), English divine and composer, waa
educated at Oxford, and composed A
Hundred Psalm and Hymn Tunes, Summer
Ti<le is Coming, and other works, besides
editing chants, and publishing some ser-
mons. FRANCES KIDLEY (b. 1836, d. 1879),
j his daughter by his first wife, published
The Ministry of Song and some poems. Her
brother Henry (d. 1875) built an organ with
his own hands, and published chants and
hymn tunes.
Hawes, Stephen (15th century), English
poet, groom of the chamber to Henry VIL ,
wrote The Temple of Glasse, The Passetyme
of Pleasure, and other works.
Hawes, William (6. 1736, d. 1808), physi-
cian, the first to maintain the possibility of
resuscitation of those apparently drowned,
founded the Royal Humane Society (1774);
also wrote An Account of Dr. Goldsmith?*
Last Illness.
Eawke, Edward, Lord (*. 1705, d. 1781),
admiral, gained several victories over French
fleets, notably that of Quiberon in 1759 ; waa
First Lord of the Admiralty from 1766 to
1771.
Hawker, Robert Stephen (b. 1803, d. 1875),
divine and poet, educated at Oxford, where
he gained the Newdigate prize, obtained in
1834 the vicarage of Morwenstow in Corn-
wall, and, under the influence of his sur-
roundings, wrote Tendrils by Reuben, Corn-
ish Ballads (1869), Echoes from Old Cornwall
(1845), The Song of the Western Men, and
The Quest of the Sangreal (1864).
Hawkesworth, John, LL.D. (d. 1773),
essayist and novelist, editor of The Adven-
turer, The Voyages of Cook, and others.
Hawkins, Benjamin Waterhouse (b. 1807,
d. 1889), geologist, constructed the models
of extinct animals in the Crystal Palace
gardens, afterwards went to America on a
lecturing tour, and was there employed in
similar work. He wrote Elements of Form,
Comparative Views of the Human and
Animal Frame (1860), etc.
Hawkins, Caesar (6. 1798, d. 1884),
surgeon, brother of the provost of Oriel,
was a pupil of Sir Benjamin Brodie at St.
George's hospital, and was surgeon to it
from 1829 till 1861, when he became con-
sulting-surgeon. He was a Fellow of the
Royal Society, and was the first surgeon
who practised ovariotomy with success.
Hawkins, Edward, F.R.S., F.L.S., etc.
(b. 1780, d. 1867), archeeoiogist and numis-
matist, became keeper of antiquities at th«
Haw
(429)
Hay
British Museum in 1824, made an immense
collection of political caricatures and
Cheshire views, and was author of The
Silver Coins of England (1841) and Descrip-
tions of the Anglo -Gallic Coins and Ancient
Marbles in the British Museum.
Hawkins, Edward, D.D. (b. 1789, d.
1882), theologian and scholar, educated at
Merchant Taylors and St. John's, Oxford,
was elected fellow of Oriel in 1813, and
succeeded Copleston as provost in 1828,
Keble and Newman being also candidates.
In 1840 Dr. Hawkins was Bampton lecturer,
and in 1847 became Ireland professor of
exegesis. He was an intimate friend of
Dr. Arnold, and one of Burgon's Twelve
Good Men.
Hawkins, Frederick (b. 1849), dramatic
critic, author of A Biography of Edmund
Kean (1869), Annals of the French Stage
(1884) and The French Stage in the 18th
Century (1888).
Hawkins, Sir Henry (b. 1816), judge, was
called to the bar in 1843. became Queen's
Counsel in 1858, and had a very large
practice on the home circuit. He was re-
tained for the defence in the Saurin v. Starr
case (1869), and for the prosecution in the
Tichborne case, and was engaged in Lord St.
Leonard's will case. In 1876 he was appointed
judge in the Queen's Bench Division.
Hawkins, Sir John (d. 1595), navigator;
made three voyages for the purpose of pro-
curing African slaves, but in the last was
attacked and severely defeated by the
Spaniards (1568) ; did much to re-organise
the English fleet, the results of his work
being seen at the Armada invasion, when
he was rear-admiral ; afterwards made
further attacks on the Spaniards, and died
after his repulse from Porto Rico.
Hawkins, Sir John (b. 1719, d. 1789),
musical writer, a descendant of the above ;
wrote The General History of the Science and
Practice of Music (1776), and also, having
been an original member of the Literary
Club in Ivy Lane, The Life and Works of
Dr. Johnson.
Hawkins, William (d. 1613), navigator,
went to India with Finch in 1607, and was
authorised to trade by the Mogul, quarrelled
with the Portuguese, but married and settled
at Agra, which, however, he was compelled
to leave by the intrierues of the Omrahs, and
died on his way back to England.
Hawkshaw, Sir John (b. 1811, d. 1891),
civil engineer, assisted Alexander Nimmo in
the construction of government works in
Ireland, and at the age of twenty was
manager of the Bolivar copper mines ; also
constructed greater part of the Lancashire
and Yorkshire railway ; became president
of the Institution of Civil Engineers. He
proposed in 1870 the scheme for a Channel
tunnel, was knighted in 1873, and was in
1875 president of the British Association.
Besides technical papers, he wrote Reminis-
cences of South America (1838).
Eawksmoor, Nicholas (b. 1666, d. 1736"),
architect, pupil of Wren, designed several
of the fifty churches erected in the reign of
Anne, and rebuilt part of All Souls', Oxford.
Eawkwood, Sir John (d. 1394), English
soldier of fortune, employed by Edward
III., and by Florence, Pisa, and other
Italian cities ; founded an English hospital
at Home about 1390.
Hawthorne, Julian (b. 1846), American
writer, son of Nathaniel, born at Boston ;
went to Germany in 1868, and studied
engineering at Dresden, and on his return
served on the staff of hydrographic engineers
under McLellan, after which, having had
some literary successes, he returned to
Dresden, where he stayed till 1874 ; while
living in England wrote Idolatry ', Saxon
Studies, Garth (1877), Sebastian Strane
(1880), and several collections of short
stories. After his return to America he also
published Fortune's Fool, Dust, and several
short stories, as well as a biography of his
father. He visited Europe in 1889 in con-
nection with a delegation of working men
sent to make industrial investigations.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel (b. 1804, d. 1864),
novelist, born at Salem, Massachusetts,
graduated at Bowdoin College, where
Longfellow and Franklin Pierce were his
friends, and after a residence at home
(during which he wrote his Twice Told Tales} ,
was appointed in 1838 weigher and gauger
at Boston by Bancroft, who was then
collector of the customs there. Tn 1841,
being a Democrat, he lost this office, and
went to live with the Brook Farm Com-
munity. In 1843 he married, and went to
Concord, and from 1846 to 1849 he was
surveyor at Salem. In 1853 President Pierce
named him consul at Liverpool, but he re-
signed in 1857, and travelled three years in
France and Italy, writing The Marble Faun
when at Borne. On his return to America
he wrote a book on England, Our Old Home.
Besides the works mentioned, he was the
author of Mosses from an Old Manse (1846),
The Scarlet Letter (1850), The House of the
Seven Gables (1851), and The BUthdale
Romance.
Hay, John (b. 1838), American diplomatist
and writer, born at Salem, Indiana, was
aide-de-camp and adjutant to President
Lincoln, and employed diplomatically at
Paris, Vienna, and 'Madrid. In 1870 he
joined the staff of the New York Tribune,
Hay
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Hay
and became editor in 1881. His chief
writings are Pike County Ballads (1871), and
A Life of J'<-!."ni<-nt Lincoln, in collaboration
with John Nicolay.
Hay, Right Hon. Sir John C. Dalrvmple,
K.'ML, etc. (b. 1821), English admiral,
euten-d the navy in 1834, served in the first
Kaftir war, and in the operations on the
Syrian coast, beiug specially gazetted for
gallantry at Tortosa, and subsequently in
the Kust Indies and China, destroying the
pirate fleet ut' Chinapoo in 1849, and that
of Shap'ug'tzar. He also took part in the
capture 01 Kertch and Kinburn, and the
bombardment of Sebastopol. He entered
Parliament for Wakefield as a Conservative
in 1862, lost his seat in 1865, but represented
Stamford from 1S66 to 1880, and Wigtown
from 18SO to 183-3. He was a lord of the
Admiralty from I860 to 1868, and author of
Our Xaial Defences and several other works.
Haydn, Josef (*. 1732, d. 1809), Austrian
composer, son of a coach-builder at Kohrau
in Lower Austria, who had musical tastes.
He was sent to Vienna at an early age,
where his first opera, Der Krumtne Teufcl,
was produced in 1753, his first quartette in
1754, and his first Symphony in D in 1760.
He afterwards became kapellmeister to
Prince Esterhazy, for whose new theatre he
composed La Fcdeltd, Premiata (1780), Or-
lando Palatino (1782), and Armida (1784).
He visited London in 1791, and gave
successful concerts, continuing in England
two years on his return visit in 1794. In
England, too, he conceived his Schopfung
(Creation), which was published in 1798,
and produced at Vienna in the following
year. In 1800 he composed the Seasons
(Jahreszeiten), and his other works include
a LT»mn to the Emperor, several quartettes,
sonatas, etc.
Haydon, Benjamin Robert (b. 1786, d.
1846), English painter, son of a Plymouth
stationer; exhibited in 1807 The Repose of the
Holy Family in Egypt. A dispute arose as
to the hanging of his picture Dentatus, and
he became involved in debt in consequence
of his quarrels with the Academy and his
patrons. Though a public subscription was
raised, his circumstances improved but
slowly, though his lectures in Scotland were
well received, and he committed suicide on
the failure of the exhibition of his Banish-
ment of Aristides said. Nero Playing. Besides
these, his chief works were Lazarus, The
Mock Election, The Reform Banquet, and
Xenophon and the Ten Thousand seeing the
Sea.
Hayes, Augustus Allen (b. 1806, d. 1882),
American chemist, discovered the organic
alkaloid saiiguinaria, investigated the gene-
ration of steam, and conducted researches
on the action of alcohol, the formation of
guano, and other subjects.
Hayes, Catherine (b. 1825, d. 1861),
English vocalist, daughter of a dressmaker
at Limerick, was taught singing under Sapio
in Dublin, and afterwards studied in Paris.
She made her debut at Marseilles, in / 1'itri-
tani, was pnma donna at La Scala., Milan,
and afterwards sang at Vienna, Venice,
London, and in America.
Hayes, Rutherford Birchard (b. 1822),
American president (nineteenth), was born at
Delaware, Ohio ; practised as an attorney in
the Ohio courts, and after 1849 at Cincinnati.
In the Civil war he greatly distinguished
himself, more particularly at the battles of
Fisher's Hill and Cedar Creek, Virginia.
At the end of 18G5 he took his seat in
Congress as a Republican, denounced repu-
diation of the debt, and opposed increased
pay to members. In 1867 he was elected
governor of Ohio, and was re-elected two
years later, but was an unsuccessful can-
didate for Congress in 1872. With con-
siderable reluctance he again, in 1873, came
forward for the governorship, and carried
the election on secular education and
"honest money." In 1876 he was elected
president, in opposition to Tilden, his plat-
form being civil service reform, the currency,
and pacification of the South. He was
successful in carrying out the last, but on
the other points met with much opposition.
In 1879 he vetoed the Chinese Immigration
Bill, and also that to prohibit military inter-
ference (so-called) at elections.
Hayley, William (b. 1745, d. 1820),
English writer, friend of Gibbon and
Cowper, was educated at Eton and Cam-
bridge, and wrote poems, two of which
were attacked in English Bards and Scotch
Reviewers. His Life of Cowper appeared in
1803.
Haymerle, Baron Heinrich von (b. 1828,
d. 18SI), Austrian statesman, began his
career as sub-inteypreter at Constantinople
in 1850, and, after having been charge
d'affaires at Athens, Frankfort, and
Dresden, re-established relations between
Austria and Denmark ; was engaged in the
negotiations which resulted in the treaty of
Prague in 1866, was created baron, and sent
to Berlin, After representing Austria at
Constantinople, and again at Athens and
Rome, he took part in the Berlin Congress,
and having succeeded Count Andrassy as
foreign minister in 1879, promoted the
Triple Alliance.
Haynau, Julius Jakob Baron von (b. 1786,
d. 1853), Austrian general, natural son of the
Elector of Hesse- Cassel ; entered the army
in 1801, and attained the rank of field-
marshal in 1844. In the Italian campaign*
Hay
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Eea
of 1848-9 his severity was notorious, as also
in Hungary, where, in 1849, he gained the
battles on the Theiss, stormed Eaab, and
executed some veiy rapid marches. In
1850 he was dismissed for intractability, and
in the course of his travels came to London,
and was severely assaulted at the brewery
of Barclay and Perkins.
Hayter, Sir George (*. 1792, d. 1871),
English painter, was awarded by the British
Institution in 1815 a prize of 200 guineas for
his picture of the prophet Ezra, and was
soon after appointed portrait- and miniature-
painter to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg
and the Princess Charlotte. His Trial of
Lord Russell, exhibited in 1825, made his
reputation, and he afterwards painted The
Trial of Queen Caroline, The Meeting of the
First Reformed Parliament, and many por-
traits of the Koyal Family.
Hayter, Eight Hon. Sir W. Goodenough,
Bart. (b. 1792, d. 1878), statesman, was
called to the bar in 1819, and practised
till 1839. He was a member of Parliament
from 1837 to 1865, and held the offices of
Judge- Advocate- General, 1847-9, and Secre-
tary to the Treasury from the latter year,
with a short interval, till 1858, when he
received a baronetcy. In 1861 his services
as Liberal " whip " were acknowledged by a
public dinner, at which Lord Palmerston
presided. He retired from affairs in 1865,
and was accidentally drowned near his
house in Berkshire in 1878.
Hayward, Abraham (6. 1802, d. 1884),
English writer, was called to the bar in
1832, but gave himself to writing. In 1833
he brought out a prose translation of Faust,
and became a correspondent of Tieck, Fouque,
Hitzig, and other eminent Germans. He
founded and edited the Law Magazine, wrote
for the Morning Chronicle, and in 1861 edited
the Letters and Literary Remains of Mrs.
Piozzi. His essays and articles contributed
to the Edinburgh and Quarterly were, many
of them, republished, and he had a wide
acquaintance among leading contempo-
raries. He was a brilliant talker.
Hajrward, Sir John (b. 15''0, d. 1627),
English historical writer, author of The Life
and Raigne of Henrie IV. (for the dedication
of which he was imprisoned by Elizabeth),
Life and Raigne of Edward VI. , and other
works.
Hazael, Syrian, who killed Ben-hadad,
usurped the throne (885 B.C.), and made wax
on Israel soon after.
Hazlitt, William (b. 1778, d. 1830), critic
and essayist, son of a Nonconformist
minister ; as an artist became acquainted
with Leigh Hunt and Lamb, and published
his Essay on the Principles of Human Action,
after which he contributed to the Examine?
many essays, including The Round Table
(1817), Table Talk (1821), criticisms on The
Spirit of the Age (1825), and lectured on
Elizabethan dramatists at the Surrey Insti-
tution. He also wrote Characters of Shake-
speare's Plays (1817), V\ew of the Contem-
porary English Stage, and. & Life of Napoleon.
He married a daughter of Dr. Stoddart,
editor of the Times, but separated from her
in 1822.
Easlitt, William Carew (b. 1834), grand-
son of the last-named, author of his Life
(1867), of a History of the Venetian Re-
public, and A Bibliographical Handbook to
the Early Literature of Great Britain.
Head, Barclay Vincent, Ph.D. (b. 1844),
numismatist, entered the British Museum
in 1864, and became assistant-keeper of coins
in 1871. His chief works are Historia
Numorum (1887), and works on the coinage
of Syracuse, Persia, and Boaotia.
Head, Sir Edmund Walker, Bart. (b. 1805,
d. ^1868), administrator and writer. After
being poor-law commissioner, he was ap-
pointed, in 1847, governor of New Bruns-
wick, and was from 1854-61 Governor-
General of Canada. On his return he became
Civil Service Commissioner, and in 1857
Privy Councillor. He was author of a Hand-
book of the Spanish and French Schools of
Painting (1847), and of a similar work on
the German and Flemish schools (1854).
Head, Sir Francis Bond, Bart. (b. 1793,
d. 1875), administrator and writer, served
in the Engineers at Waterloo, and in 1825
headed a mining expedition to Rio de
la Plata, of which he gave an account in
Rough Notes of a Journey across the Pampas.
In 1835 he was named by Lord GJenelg
governor of Upper Canada, and succeeded
in putting down the rebellion. He was
created baronet in 1838, and sworn of the
Privy Council in 1867. He also received a
pension for his contributions to literature,
among which were A Life of Bruce, the
Traveller (1830), and The Defenceless State
of Great Britain (1S50).
Head, Eichard (d. 1678 or 1686), English
writer, author of The English Rogue, and a
play entitled Hie et Ubique ; or, the Humotm
of I)ublin.
Headley, Joel Tyler (b. 1814), American
writer, author of Napoleon and his Marshals,
Washington and his Generals, A History of
the Second War between England and the
United States (1853), and biographies of
American statesmen. His brother, Phineas
(b. 1819), wrote a Life of Kossuth and othei
works.
Healy, Timothy Michael (b. 1866), Irish
Hea
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Heb
politician ; after being clerk in a telegraph
office, became in 1879 secretary to Mr.
Parnell, and in 1880 entered Parl lament for
Wexford. He was author of the " Healy
clause " in the Land Act of 1881 ; waa
imprisoned in 1882 for using inflammatory
language, and next year was returned for
Monaghan county. At the general election
he was returned both for the latter and
for South Londonderry, but sat for Lou-
do u deny. Meanwhile, he had been called
to the Irish bar. In 1SS(5 he opposed the
nomination of Captain O'Shea, Mr. Paruell's
candidate for Clare. He lost his seat at the
general election, but waa returned for
North Longford in 1887. In 1890 he became
one of the leading opponents of Mr. Famuli's
leadership.
Heapy, Thomas (b. 1775, d. 1835), English
painter, one of the earliest members of the
Water-Colour Society, and first president of
the Society of British Artists.
Hearne, Samuel (b. 1745, d. 1792), tra-
veller; served in the navy for some years,
but afterwards entered the service of the
Hudson Bay Company (whose territories he
explored between 1769 and 1772), by whom
he was sent to discover a North -West
Passage.
Hearne, Thomas (b. 1678, d. 1735),
antiquary, held the post of sub -librarian at
the Bodleian, but resigned rather than take
the oaths to George I. ; published Leland's
Collectanea, Leland's Itinerary, and several
mediaeval works, and left a valuable collec-
tion of MSS. to the Bodleian Library.
Heath, James (b. 1756, d. 1834), engraver,
the best examples of his work being West's
Death of Nelson, and Wright's Dead Soldier.
Heath, Christopher, F.R.C.S. (b. 1835),
surgeon ; became Holme professor of clini-
cal surgery, and surgeon to University
College Hospital, 1875 ; fellow of King's
College, and member of the council of the
College of Surgeons in 1881, and was presi-
dent of the Clinical Society of London,
1889-91. He wrote A Course of Operative
Surgery, illustrated (2nd edition, 1884),
Injuries and Diseases of the Jaws (3rd edition,
1884), and Students Guide to Surgical Diag-
nosis (2nd edition, 1883), and edited A
Dictionary of Practical Surgery (1886).
Heath, Nicholas (d. 1579), divine, suc-
cessively Bishop of Rochester and of Wor-
cester. As, however, he refused under
Edward VI. to sign the form for the ordi-
nation of bishops, he was imprisoned, but
was released by Mary, and made Archbishop
of York, President of Wales, and in 1556
Lord Chancellor. He was deprived by
Elizabeth for refusing the oath of su-
premacy, and imprisoned for some years.
Heathcoat, John (b. 1785, d. 1861),
machinist, invented a machine for making
Buckingham lace, which was patented in
1808. His factory at Loughborough was
attacked by the Luddites in 1816, and he
then removed to Tiverton, where he re-
vived the .woollen trade ; and he repre-
sented the town in Parliament from 1831 to
1854.
Heathcote, Sir Gilbert, Bart. (b. 1774,
d. 1851), sportsman, one of the best-known
patrons of the turf in his day ; represented
Lincoln from 1796 to 1806, and Rutland
from 1812 to 1841.
Heathcote, Sir William (b. 1801, d.
1881), politician, represented Hampshire
from 1826 to 1831, and after the Reform
was member for the northern division
from 1837 to 1849. In 1854 he was col-
league of Mr. Gladstone as member for
Oxford University, retaining the seat till
1868, when he retired and was made Privy
Councillor.
Heathfield. [See Elliot.]
Heaton, John Henniker (b. 1850), Anglo-
Australian writer, son of Colonel Heaton,
R.E. ; emigrated at the age of sixteen, and
after farming, joined the New South Wales
press. He represented that colony at the
Amsterdam Exhibition of 1883, and acted
for Tasmania at the Berlin Telegraphic
Conference in 1885, in which year he came
to England and obtained a seat in Parlia-
ment as a Conservative, and advocated
postal reforms with some success. He is
author of The Australian Dictionary of
Dates and Men of the Time, A Short
Account of a Canonisation at Rome, and Th-e
Manners, Customs, etc., of the Australian
Aborigines.
Heber, Reginald, D.D. (*. 1783, d.
1826), poet and hymn-writer,, educated at
Brasenose College, Oxford, where he gained
the Newdigate, the English essay, and the
Latin poem, and became fellow of All Souls'.
He took orders in 1807, was Bampton
lecturer in 1817, and in 1823 went to In dig
as Bishop of Calcutta.
Heberden, William (b. 1710, d. 1801),
physician, practised ten years at Cambridge,
and contributed to Athenian Letters, but
afterwards removed to London ; became a
fellow of the Royal Society, and founded
Medical Transactions of the College of Physi-
cians. He left at his death Commentarii de
Morborum Historia et Curatione, a record of
his experiences.
Hebert, Antoine Auguste (b. 1817), French
painter, exhibited at the Louvre in 1839 his
Le Tasse en Prison, which was purchased
by Government for the Grenoble museum,
Heb
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Among his other works were La Malaria,
(1850), a portrait of Prince Napoleon (1853),
and Les %'illes d'Acito, which were shown at
the exhibition of 1855 ; La Jeune Fille ait
Puits (1363), David d' Angers, exhibited at
the exhibition of 1867, and La Sultane
(1879). He was director of the French
academy at Rome from 1866 to 1873.
Hebert, Jacques Rene (b. 1755, d. 1794),
French revolutionist ; edited the infamous
Pere Duchesne, was liberated by the mob
when arrested in 1793 for plots agaiiist the
lives of the Girondists, but was next year
guillotined at the desire of Robespierre.
Heck, Jan van (17th century), Dutch
painter, studied at Rome, and met with
much patronage there ; returned to Ant-
werp, and painted flowers and fruit and
some landscapes.
Heck, Nicolas van der (d. 1608), painter,
pupil of NaBghel, chose landscapes and
historical scenes as subjects; three of the
latter are in the town house of Alkmaar,
where he died. His son, MAETIN, painted
ruins in the style of Roghmann.
Hecker, Justus Friedrich Karl (b. 1795, d.
1850), German physician, son of Augustus
Hecker, who wrote a General History of the
Natural Sciences and Medicine ; wrote many
medical treatises, the chief of which were
History of Medicine (1822-9), History of
Modern Medicine (1839), The Slack Death
(1832), and On Visions (1848), etc.
Hecquet, Philippe (b. 1661, d. 1737),
French physician, called "the French
Hippocrates," advocated bleeding1, and is
said to have been the original of "San-
grado " in Gil Bias.
Hedlinger, Jean Charles (*. 1691, d. 1771),
Swiss engraver of medals, was some time
director of the Swedish mint, and executed
dies for the Pope, the Tsarina, and the King
of Denmark,
Hedwig, Johann (b. 1730, d. 1799),
German botanist, author of Stirpes Crypto-
gamicce ; was the first to distinguish between
the sexes in mosses.
Hedwiga, St. (b. 1731, d. 1399), Queen
of Poland, converted her husband Jagellon,
and caused the Bible to be translated into
Polish.
Heem, Jan Davitze van (*. 1600, d. 1674),
Dutch painter of fruit and flowers, whose
works were in much request. His father
and his son were also artists.
Heemskerk, or Hemskerk, Egbert (b. 1645,
d. 1704), Dutch painter of the school of
Brouwer, his subjects being chosen from
the wild and grotesque ; he died in London.
00
He is to be distinguished from another of
the same name, called Egbert " the Old."
Heera Sing (d. 1844), a Sikh rajah,
succeeded his father as minister, and
proclaimed Dhuleep Sing, son of the late
rajah, but was obliged by his enemies to
flee from Lahore, and was pursued and
killed.
Heere, Lucas van (b. 1534, d. 1584),
Flemish painter and poet, executed altar-
pieces for St. Peter's chuich, Ghent, and
when in England painted portraits of Queen
Elizabeth, Lord Darnley, and the Duchess
of Suffolk.
Heeren, Arnold Hermann Ludwig (6.
1760, d. 1842), German historian, professor
of philosophy, and subsequently of history,
at Gottingen. His historical works include
Ideen uber Politik, der Alien Welt, trans-
lated into English in 1833 ; Geschichte
der Staaten des Alterthums, and Geschichte
der enropdischen Staatensystems, translated
in 1834. He also wrote a Life of Heyne,
whose daughter he married.
Eefner-Alteneck, Jacob von (b. 1811),
German writer on mediaeval art. director of
the Munich museum since 1868, wrote
Kunstwerke und Gerathsch often des Mittel-
alters und der Renaissance (1848), Eisenwerke
oder Ornamente der Schmiedekttnst des Mitt,
und der Ren (1864), translated into French
by Rame'a (1869), and Ornamente alter Meis-
ter (1871), etc.
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (6. 1770,
d. 1831), idealist philosopher, studied philo-
sophy and theology^ at Tubingen with
Schelling, whom he joined in 1801 at Jena
as extraordinary professor, and published
with him a philosophical journal. In 1807
he published Phcenomenologie des Geiste*.
He was rector of the Niirnberg gymnast .m
from 1808 to 1816, when he obtained a
professorship at Heidelberg, removing two
years later to Berlin. His chief works
were Wissenschaft der Logik (1812-16),
Encyklopddie der philosophischen Wissen-
sch often (1817), and Philosophic des RechU
(1821).
Hegesippus (2nd century), ecclesiastical
historian, author of Fragments of the Preach-
ing of the Apostles, which are contained in
the Spicilegium of Grabe.
Heidegger, Johann Jacob (b. 1660, d.
1749), Swiss adventurer, came to England
in 1710 and enlisted in the Guards, gained
many acquaintances, and appears in the
Tatler as "the Swiss Count"; was asso-
ciated in 1729 with Handel in his attempt to
establish an Italian opera-house.
Eeil, Daniel van (b. 1604, d. 1662), Dutch
landscape-painter, born at Brussels, the
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best of whose pictures were the Hurtling of
Sodom aud the The Destruction of !/'/"/.
His brother, JAN BAPTIST (b. 1609), was a
portrait-painter ; aud another, LEONABD
(b. 1603), painted flowers aud insects.
Helm, Francois Joseph (b. 1787, d. 1865),
French painter, pupil of Vincent ; first ex-
hibited at Paris in 1812, was employed to
decorate the Louvro galleries. His chief
pictures are The Taking of Jerusalem Inj
Titus, Victory of Judas Alaccabcens, and
Louis Philippe receiving the Deputies at the
Palais Royal.
Heine, Heinrich (b. 1799, d. 1856), Ger-
man poet, was born at Diisseldorf of Jewish
parents, and sent to Hamburg to prepare
for a commercial life, but preferred studying
law. At Bonn he was pupil of Schlegel,
and at Berlin made the acquaintance of
Varnhagen von Euse. In 1825 he renounced
Judaism, and after 1830 lived at Paris, where
he married Mathilde Mirat. He travelled
much, but in 1847 had an attack of paralysis,
and soon after became blind. His chief
works are Bitch der Lieder (1827), followed
by other poems ; Reisebilder (1825-31 ); Der
Salon (1834-40) ; Ueber Borne, a satire ;
Deutschland ein Winter marc hen, and Atta
Troll.
Heineccius, Johann Gottlieb (b. 1681, d.
1741) , German jurist ; invented a new method
of teaching law, and wrote Elementa Juris
Germanici and other works.
Heinecken, Christian (b. 1721, d. 1725),
German child, born at Liibeck; lived only
four years, but within that time passed an
examination in German, Latin, French and
Low Dutch, and delivered twelve speeches
before the King of Denmark.
Heinsius, Anton (b. 1641, d. 1720), Dutch
statesman, friend of William of Orange, for
whom when in England he governed as
Grand Pensionary ; was the chief founder
and one of the directors of the Grand Alli-
ance against Louis XIV. , and opposed the
peace of Utrecht as inadequate ; was dis-
graced for the expenses he had incurred
during the war.
Heinsius, Daniel (b. 1580, d. 1655), Dutch
scholar, pupil and friend of Scaliger, and
professor and librarian at Leyden, where he
published treatises, De Satird Horatiand,
some poems, a tragedy, and many editions
of the classics.
Heinsius, Nikolaas^ (b. 1620, d. 1681),
scholar and diplomatist, son of the last-
named and friend of Gronovius and Voss ;
visited Paris, Oxford, and Italy for the
purpose of collecting MSS., and having
dedicated some Latin poems to Christina of
Sweden, was invited to her court, and sent
to Italy by her ; was afterwards Dutch
ambassador in Sweden, France, and Russia.
Heinzelmann, Samuel P. (//. 1S22, d. 1880),
American general; served aguinst the In-
dians of California and in the JM'-xican war,
and was appointed in 18G1 inspector-general
of the forces; was wounded at Bull linn,
and distinguished himself in command of a
division at Williamsburg and Fair Oaks,
and, after serving in the Virginian campaign,
held the command at Washington, and
headed the 22ud corps at Chancellorsville
and Gettysburg. In 1869 he retired,
Helen, wife of Menelaus.
Helena, Princess [Princess Christian] , (b.
1846), third daughter of Queen Victoria,
married in 1866 Prince Christian of Schles-
wig Holstein Souderburg-Augustenburg.
Helena, St (d. circa 328), wife of Con-
stantius Chlorus, Emperor of Home, and
mother of Constantino, was divorced in
292, when he assumed the purple, and in
311 became a Christian. She made a pil-
grimage to the Holy Land in 305, and built
churches in Bethlehem and on the Mount of
Olives.
Heliodorus (Jl.circ. 400), Bishop of Tricca,
wrote, in Greek, the romance ^Et
which has been frequently translated.
Heliogabalus (b. 204, d. 222), Roman
"Emperor, elected when fourteen, became
notorious for his eccentricity and cruelty,
making himself a god and his horse consul ;
was properly Varius Airtus Bassianus.
Hell, Maximilian (b. 1720, d. 1792), Hun-
garian Jesuit astronomer ; became professor
at Vienna, where an observatory was built
for him, and was sent by the Danish govern-
ment in 1769 to Lapland to observe the
transit of Venus.
Heller, Karl (d. 1880), German naturalist
and traveller, traversed in 1845 the greater
part of South America for the Vienng, Hor-
ticultural Society, and in 1848 travelled in
North America. On his return he was made
professor at Gratz, and published Reise-
berichte aus Mexico, Beitrdge zur Kdhern
Kenntniss Mittelamerikas, etc.
Heller, Stephan (b. 1813), Hungarian
pianist and composer, born at Pesth ;
made his first appearance at the age of
nine, and spent three years under Hahn at
Vienna, after which he undertook a tour
with his father in Poland and Germany,
and then remained at Augsburg for six
years. In 1838 he went to Paris, and
composed many works, Studies for tht
Piano, etc.
Helmers, Jan Frederik (b. 1767, d. 1813),
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Hen
Dutch poet, author of The Dutch Nation
(1812-13) and some earlier poems.
Helmersen, Gregory de (b. 1803, d. 1885),
Russian naturalist and traveller, studied at
Dorpat, and accompanied his master, En-
gelhardt, in 1828 in a scientific voyage to the
Volga ; afterwards entering the service of
the government, was employed to supervise
an exploration of the Southern Ural moun-
tains. Having made the acquaintance of
Humboldt he visited Germany and Italy,
and on his return was engaged in further
exploration for the government in Asia, the
results of which he published. He after-
wards went to Sweden and Norway, and
was director of the St. Petersburg Institute
of Mines from 1865 to 1872.
Helmlioltz, Hermann von (b. 1821),
German physiologist, born at Potsdam,
studied medicine at Berlin, and held pro-
fessorships of physiology at Konigsberg,
Bonn, Heidelberg, and Berlin (1871) suc-
cessively, during the occupation of which he
invented a mirror for studying the retina of
the living eye, and produced, among others,
the following works : Ueber die Erhaltung
der Kraft (1847), Handbuchder Physiologische
Optik (1856-66), Populdre wissenschaftlichen
Vortrdge (1865-76), etc.
Helmont, Jean Baptists van (b. 1577, d.
1644), Belgian chemist and metaphysician;
in the course of thirty years of investigation
discovered the spirit of hartshorn, and the
aerial part of spa- waters, which he called
" gas " (from ffeist), etc.
Helmont, Segres Jacob van (b. 1683, d.
1726), Flemish painter, born at Antwerp,
went to Brussels, where are many of his
pictures, as La Profanation du Saint Sacre-
ment in Ste. Gudule, and Le Sacrifice d'Elie
in the H6tel de Ville. There are also some
of his works at Antwerp, Ghent, and in
private galleries.
He"lolse. [See Abelard.]
_ Helps, Sir Arthur (*. 1813, d. 1875), Eng-
lish writer, son of a London merchant,
was educated at Eton and Trinity, Cam-
bridge, where he met Tennyson, Monckton
Milnes and others; was private secretary
to Mr. Spring Rice, and afterwards to Lord
Morpeth; and in 1859 became clerk of the
Privy Council. He edited the speeches of
the Prince Consort, and was made K.C.B.
in 1872 ; his chief works were Essays
(1841), Friends in Council (1847-51), and The
Spanish Conquest in America (1855-61).
Heist, Bartolomeus van der (d. circa
1670), Dutch painter, whose portraits were
of peculiar excellence, notably the Muster
of the Burgher Guard at Amsterdam.
Helve"tiusf Claude Adrien (b. 1715, d.
cc2
1771), French philosopher, son of Jean
Claude (d. 1755), physician to Louis XIV.
and Louis XV. , obtained through the queen
the appointment of farmer-general, but re-
signed it after some years ; married Made-
moiselle de Ligneville, and studied philo-
sophy. His chief work, De V Esprit (1750),
was condemned to be burnt by the Par-
lement de Paris.
1764.
He visited England in
Hely-HutcMnson, John (b. 1715, d. 1794),
Irish educationist and politician, provost
of Trinity College, Dublin, into the curri-
culum of which he tried to introduce athletic
exercises ; was a member of the Irish Par-
liament, and secretary for Ireland in 1777.
Hely-Hutchinson, Hon. Sir Walter Fran-
cis, KC.M.G. (b. 1849), colonial adminis-
trator, second son of the fourth Earl of
Donoughmore ; educated at Harrow and
Trinity College, Cambridge ; called to the
bar in 1877 ; private secretary to Sir Her-
cules Robinson ; colonial secretary of Bar-
badoes (1877), chief secretary at Malta
(1883) and lieutenant-governor (1884) ;
governor of the Windward Islands 1886.
Hemans, Felicia Dorothea, nee Browne (b.
1794, d. 1835), English verse- writer, wrote
Early Blossoms before she was fifteen, and
afterwards Domestic Affections, Hymns for
Children, etc. She died in Dublin, where
she lived after Captain Hemans left her.
Hemling, or Memling1, Hans (d. circa
1500), Flemish painter, a collection of whose
pictures are at Bruges.
Eemmingford, or Hemmingburg-h, Wal-
ter de (d. circa 1347), Canon of Guisborough,
and writer of a Chronicle of E no land from
1066 to 1308.
Hemoo (b. 1564), Hindoo statesman, min-
ister of Adil Shah Soor, Emperor of Delhi,
after some years of government was de-
feated and put to death, by order of Hoo-
mayen, rival of the reigning emperor.
Eemsley, William Botting, F.R.S. (5.
1843), English botanist, son of a gardener
in Sussex, received an appointment at Kew
in 1863, and became in 1890 principal
assistant at the herbarium. His principal
works are the botany of the "Challenger"
Expedition, and editions of Salvin and of
Godman's Biologia Centrali- Americana.
He"nault, Charles Jean (b. 1685, d. 1770),
French historian, educated at the Jesuits'
college, Paris, became in 1710 president_of
the Chambre des Enquetes, and in 1723
director of the Acade'mie Francaise. He
wrote an Alrege Chronologique de VHistoirt
de France.
Henderson, Alexander (f>. 1683, d. 1646),
(436)
Hen
Scotch minister, author of the "Solemn
League and Covenant," afterwards one of
the commissioners appointed to treat with
Charles I., whom he endeavoured to per-
suade to renounce Episcopacy.
Henderson, Sir Edmund, Lieutenant-
Colonel, K.C.B. (/'. circa 1820), soldier
and administrator ; entered the army
in 1838, was made surveyor- general of
prisons and chairman of the Directors of
Convict Prisons in 1863, and was chief com-
missioner of the Metropolitan Police from
1869 till 1886.
Henderson, John (6. 1747, d. 1785), actor,
made his appearance at Bath as Hamlet in
1772 under the name of Courtney, and after-
wards played Shylock, Falstaff, and other
characters at the Haymarket and Drury
Lane.
Henderson, John (b. 1757, d. 1788), Eng-
lish scholar, born at Ballagarauce in Ireland;
taught Latin at the age of eight in Kings-
wood school, Bath, and Greek when he was
twelve at Lady Huntingdon's Welsh col-
lege. He was sent to Oxford by Dean
Tucker, and was at Pembroke College with
Dr. Johnson, but devoted himself chiefly to
alchemy.
Henderson, Thomas (b. 1798, d. 1844),
Scottish astronomer, assisted Dr. Young in
his Nautical Almanack, and was sent by the
Admiralty in 1831 to take charge of the
Cape observatory. During his two years'
residence he made many observations, and
became on his return first astronomer royal
of Scotland.
Henglst (d. 488), Saxon leader, with his
brother, Horsa, in 449 landed in the Isle of
Thanet, and at first supported the Britons
against the Picts and Scots, but afterwards
quarrelled with his allies. Horsa was
killed at Aylesford, but his brother con-
quered Kent and founded a kingdom.
Eenkel, Johann Friedrich (6. 1679, d.
1744), German naturalist, author of Flora
Saturnizaus, laid the foundation of a sys-
tematic arrangement of minerals.
Henley, Anthony (6. 1660, d. 1711), Eng-
lish politician and patron, a strong Whig,
and contributor to the Tatter and Medley ;
was a great amateur in music, and patron of
actors.
Henley, John (6. 1692, d. 1756), clergy-
man, known as "Orator Henley" on
account of his preaching. Being unable to
obtain preferment in the Church, he gave
lectures or orations, to which admission
was not free, and in which he attacked the
authorities. He was ridiculed by Pope in
the Dunciad, and in two of Hogarth's cari-
catures.
Henley, Joseph Warier (b. 1793, d.
l.^M), politician, educated at Oxford,
• •i it- -red Parliament f*r Oxfordshire as a
C'tn.^Tvative in 1SI1. and supported Peel
till his adoption of Free Trade. In 1852
L»rd Derby appointed him President of
the Board of Trade, and he was sworn
of the Privy Council in the same year.
He resumed office in 1858, but resigned
soon after, being opposed to the Reform
Bill, but did not retire from public life till
1878.
Henley, Robert. [See Northington.]
Hennequin, Antoine Louis (b. 1786, d.
1840), French jurist, while serving with the
artillery in Germany in 1806 pleaded for
some peasants at a court-martial, and after
the peace devoted himself to legal pursuits,
and became a distinguished advocate, giving
a fine exhibition of his powers in the defence
of Be"rard in 1826. He entered the Chamber
of Deputies in 1830, and made a reputation
there as an orator.
Henner, Jean Jacques (b. 1829), French
painter, born in Alsace, whose chief pictures
are Jeunt Saigneur Endormi (1803), La
Chaste Suzanne (1865), purchased by the
government and placed in the Luxembourg ;
Alsacienne (1870), presented by Gambetta to
the ladies of Alsace, and more recently Le
Christ Mart (1878), St. Jerome (1881), and
Herodiade (1887).
Eennessy, Professor Henry, F.R.S. (6.
1826), Irish mathematicia-n and physicist ;
born at Cork, published in 1851, in the
Transactions of the Royal Society, Researches
in Terrestrial Phi/sics. In 1855 he was made
professor of physics in the Roman Catholic
University of Ireland, and in 1874 became
professor of applied mechanics in the Royal
College of Science. He proposed the polar
decimal system in regard to weights and
measures.
Hennessy, Sir John Pope, K.C.M.G. (6.
1834, d. 1891), colonial administrator, born
at Cork ; was called to the bar in 1861,
entered Parliament (as Conservative) for
King's County in 1859 and took great part
in Irish questions, supporting concurrent
endowment and amendment of the land
laws. In 1867 he was appointed governor
of Labuan, of the West African settle-
ments in 1872, and the Bahamas in the fol-
lowing year ; of the Windward Islands,
1875 ; Hongkong, 1877, and the Mauritius,
18c82. In the latter he disagreed with Mr.
Clifford Lloyd, but was restored to office.
In 1890 he was elected for North Kilkenny
as a Home Ruler, in opposition to Mr.
Parnell's nominee. He wrote Raleigh in
Ireland, and contributed at various times to
the Proceedings of the Royal Society, and
the Reports of the British Association.
Hen
(437)
Hen
Hertrici, Olaus, Ph.D., F.R.S., etc. (b.
1840), German mathematician, born in. Hol-
Btein ; in 1865 came to London, where four
years after he was made professor of pure
mathematics at University College, and in
1884 of mechanics and mathematics at the
London Institute. In 1883 he became
president of the Mathematical Society. He
wrote several papers on mathematics and
physics in CrelLe 's Journal and the Proceed-
ings of the Mathematical Society.
Henrietta Anne (6. 1644, d. 1670), English
princess, daughter of Charles I., married
the Duke of Orleans, by whom she was pro-
bably poisoned. She was the chief agent
between Charles II. and Louis XIV., being
especially concerned in the treaty of Dover.
Henrietta Maria (b. 1609, d. 1669), Queen
of England, wife of Charles I. and daughter
of Henry IV. of France ; was married in
1625, and withdrew from England in 1644,
having been very unpopular as a Romanist ;
she only revisited it once (at the Restoration).
Henriot, Francois (b. 1761, d. 1794),
French revolutionist ; after having been a
police spy, was in 1792 one of the leaders of
the September "massacres," and next year,
as chief of the Sansculottes, marched to the
Convention, and demanded the surrender of
the Girondiiis. Afterwards he became one
of Robespierre's chief supporters, and, as
vice-president of the revolutionary tribunal,
tried to rescue him when arrested, but
failed, and was thrown out of the ATindow
of the Hotel de Ville by his colleague,
Coffinhal., and was next day guillotined.
Henry, Emperor of the East (d. 1216),
eon of Baldwin VIII. of Flanders, suc-
ceeded the Emperor Baldwin in 1206,
having recently defeated Theodore Lascaris.
He caused a mock union between the
Eastern and Western churches in 1215.
Henry, Prince of Battenberg (b. 1858),
married H.R.H. Princess Beatrice, and was
appointed governor of Carisbrooke Castle,
with the title of Royal Highness.
Henry, Prince of Prussia (b. 1726, d. 1802),
Prussian general, brother of Frederick the
Great, and his chief assistant in the Seven
Years' war : gained especial distinction at
the relief of Breslau and the battle of Frei-
berg. He was offered the crown of Poland,
but declined it.
Henry, Prince of Wales (b. 1594. d. 1612),
eldest son of James I., friend of Sir Walter
Raleigh and other men of note.
Henry, Joseph (6. 1797, d. 1878), Ameri-
can physicist, to whom bas been attributed
the first electro-ma.grnetic machine. A
Memorial of Joseph Hmry was issued by
order of Congress (1880).
Henry, Matthew (6. 1662, d. 1714),
Nonconformist minister ; is best known by
his Commentary on the Bible (1710).
Henry, Patrick (6. 1736, d. 1799), Ameri-
can politician, nephew of Robertson and
cousin of Lord Brougham ; practised as an
advocate in Virginia, where he first came
into prominence in 1763 by his pleading in
the case of clerical incomes ; was an active
opponent of the Stamp Act, and the chief
leader of the revolution in Virginia, being
more extreme in his views than Washing-
ton. He was for some years governor of
his state, during which he opposed the
Federal constitution as not democratic
enough. He was an eloquent but reckless
speaker, and was obliged to resume his pro-
fession in order to cover his heavy debts.
Henry, William, M.D. (6. 1775, d. 1836),
English chemist and physician, made F.R.S.
and won the Copley prize for his papers on
the absorption of water by gas, and on
muriatic acid gas.
Henry, Hon. William Alexander (6. 1816),
Canadian statesman, born at Halifax, Nova
Scotia, in the Assembly of which colony he
sat for many years. He took a prominent
part in the union of the British American
provinces, and came to London in 1866,
together with delegates from Canada, Nova
Scotia, and New Brunswick, and presented
a scheme which was adopted. He was
appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of
Canada in 1875.
Henry of Blois, or of Winchester (d.
1171), English statesman, to whose influ-
ence as Bishop of Winchester his brother
Stephen was chiefly indebted for his crown.
Caring more. hoAvever, for the interests of
the Church than for secular affairs, he gave
him but a lukewarm support, and even
joined Matilda when she first invaded the
country, though he afterwards turned
against her.
Henry of Huntingdon (12th century),
early English historian, whose Chronicle
extends from the earliest times to 1154.
Henry of Portugal (*. 1394, d. 1460),
"the Navigator," Duke of Viseu and
fourth son of King John of Portugal ;
directed the voyages which discovered
Madeira and the mouths of the Senegal ;
made an expedition against Tangiers, and
invented the astrolabe.
Henry L, King of Castile (6. 1204, d.
1217), succeeded Alfonso IX. in 1216, but
was accidentally killed by a tile the next
year.
Henry II. (b. 1333, d. 1379), natural 8on
of Alfonso XL, was legitimatised by the
Pope, and assisted against his brother.
Hen
(438)
Hen
Peck-o the Cruel, by Du Guesclin, but was
defeated at Navarette by the Black Priuce.
Wheii the brothers met afterwards, Pedro
was killed, uud Henry of Trastaiuare ob-
tained the throiie.
Henry III. (b. 1379, d. 1406), surnamed
"the Infirm," put an end to the regeney
wheu only fourteen; tried to mediate
between the rival popes, Benedict XIII.
uud Boniface III. ; defeated the Portuguese
ami the Airi<-an corsairs, and rebuilt the
palace at Madrid.
Henry IV. (b. 1425, d. 1474), " the Im-
potent," produced a civil war by the way in
which he treated his queen, and was
obliged to acknowledge as heir his sister
Isabella (q.v.), soon after which he died.
Henry L, King of England (b. 1068, d.
1135), youngest son of William I., seized
the throne on the death of William II.
(1100), and forced Robert to be content
with Normandy, but deprived him of this
also after the battle of Tenchebrai ; married
Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. and
descendant of the Saxon kings ; established
" Justices in Eyre," the court of exchequer,
and a standard of weights and measures,
abolished the curfew, and compromised the
Investiture question by an agreement with
Paschal IL His charter was the foundation
of the Great Charter.
Henry U. (b. 1133, d. 1189), grandson of
last-named, and son of Maud and Geoffrey
Plantagenet ; came to the throne in 1154,
married Eleanor of Aquitaine (divorced
wife of Louis VII.), and acquired by the
marriage Guienne and Poitou ; put down
private war and jurisdictions, and subdued
the last great feudal rising, which was
aided by William the Lion, of Scotland,
whom he compelled to do homage ; was
engaged in a long quarrel with Becket as
representative of the immunity of clerks
from civil jurisdiction, and sanctioned the
first expedition against Ireland, afterwards
accepting the kingdom. His last years
were much troubled by wars with his sons.
The most important enactments of his reign
were the Assizes of Clarendon and North-
ampton, and the Assize of arms, besides the
grant of charters to towns. He was the
most powerful prince of his time, was
offered the imperial throne, and possessed
by various titles the greater part of France.
Henry III. (b. 1206, d. 1272), son of John
by Isabella of Angouleme ; came to the
throne in 1216 when a minor, and in the
course of a long reign provoked much
hostility by his foreign favourites and his
submission to papal exactions, discontent
culminating in the Barons' war (1262-5),
in which he was defeated at Lewes and
compelled to submit to control of the
Government by De Montfort and his friend*
These, however, quarrelled among them-
selves, and at Evesham De Montfort wa«
defeated and slain. During this reign the
Great Charter (with important clauses
omitted) was frequently renewed, and
AVe.^tminster Abbey was almost entirely
built.
Henry IV. (b. 1366, d. 1413), son of John,
Duke of Lancaster, and grandson of
Edward III., with the help of the Percies
and Nevilles deposed Richard II. (131)9;, by
whom he had been banished, and after-
wards defeated at Shrewsbury a com-
bination between the former and the Scots
and Welsh. In his reign the statute " De
Hasretico Combureudo " was passed, and
Parliament exercised a firm control over
the Government.
Henry V. (b. 1388, d. 1422), son of
Henry IV., whom he succeeded in 1413;
twice invaded France, and won the battle
of Agincourt in 1415, and by the treaty of
Troyes married Katherine of France, and
secured the succession to the throne.
Henry VI. (b. 1421), son of Henry V.,
married Margaret of Anjou, and was
crowned in 1429 at London, and at Paris in
1431. During his reign all the English
dominions in France except Calais were
lost, the rising of Cade took place, and the
wars of the Roses raged. The king was de-
posed, imprisoned, and probably murdered.
Henry VIL (b. about 1456, d. 1509), first
of the Tudor dynasty, son of Edmund
Tudor and Margaret Beaufort, a des-
cendant of John of Gaunt ; invaded Eng-
land in 1485, and defeated Richard LTL at
Bosworth, after which he married Elizabeth,
daughter of Edward IV. His reign was
marked by three Yorkist risings, which he
defeated, by the measures he enforced
against the nobles, by his system of mar-
riages with foreign princes, and the enact-
ment of Poyning?s law.
Henry VIII. (b. 1491, d. 1547), son of
Henry VIL, whom he succeeded in 1509,
married Katherine of Aragon, wife of his
deceased brother, his divorce from whom
was the proximate cause of the Reformation.
Papal jurisdiction was renounced, more
especially by the Acts of Supremacy and of
Appeals, but the king was strongly averse
to doctrinal changes. The early years of
the reign were marked by a war with
France, in which Henry took part in person;
attempts at union with Scotland were made,
but defeated by French and papal influence ;
a system of balance was maintained in
foreign relations ; a large amount of eccle-
siastical property was annexed to the Crown,
which gained complete control over the
Church ; the rising called the Pilgrimage of
Hen
(439)
Hen
Grace was suppressed; and the king
became practically absolute, being granted
by Parliament the right of making laws by
proclamation, and of settling the succession
in his will.
Henry I., King of France (b. 1011, d.
1060), succeeded his father, Eobert I., in
1031, and was engaged in constant war,
more particularly with William, Duke of
Normandy, whom he had at first aided and
replaced in his dukedom.
Henry II. (b. 1519, d. 1559), son of
Francis I., whom he succeeded in 1547. By
his alliance with the German Protestants
acquired Metz, Toul, and Verdun, while he
also regained Calais from the English. He
carried on his father's war with Spain with
some success until the disaster at St.
Quentin, and died of a wound inflicted in
a tournament held to celebrate its con-
clusion by the marriage of his daughter and
Philip H.
Henry III. (b. 1551, d. 1589), son of
Henry II. and Catherine de Medicis, suc-
ceeded his brother, Charles IX., as king of
France in 1574. He at first took part
a , • iust the Huguenots, but the tyranny of
tuo League at length forced him to resist.
He was obliged to leave Paris, but soon
obtained the assassination of the Due de
Guise, after which he was besieging Paris,
in alliance with Henry of Navarre, when
he was assassinated by Clement.
Henry IV. (b. 1553, d. 1610), as son of
Anthony of Navarre, a descendant of
Louis IX.. was founder of the Bourbon
dynasty, succeeding Henry III. in 1589.
His marriage with Marguerite de Valois,
in 1572, was the occasion of the Bartholomew
massacres. In 1576 he quitted the court
and became leader of the Huguenots and
opponent of the League, being the rival of
the Guises for the succession. He defeated
them at Arques and Ivry, but was unable
to conquer Paris without becoming a Roman
Catholic, which he did in 1593. He con-
cluded peace with Philip IE. at Vervins, and
issued the Edict of Nantes. The rest of his
reign was occupied by domestic reforms.
He was assassinated by Ravaillac.
Henry, King of Portugal (d. 1114), son
of the Duke of Burgundy, assisted Alfonso
VI. in his wars with the Moors, and married
his daughter, and in 1109 assumed the title
of count and lord of all Portugal. He was
killed in the siege of Astorga.
Henry II., " the Cardinal/' (b. 1580), took
orders and became Archbishop of Evora.
Having named no successor, there was a
contest for the throne of Portugal, and the
'. Spaniards became possessed of the country
till 1640.
Henry I., Emperor of Germany (b. 876,
d. 936), "Henry the Fowler," granted the
first municipal charters, and repulsed the
Danes, Hungarians, and Huns.
Henry IL (b. 972, d. 1024), "Henry the
Saint" or "the Lame;" after having been
Duke of Bavaria, succeeded Otho as em-
peror, and was the last of the House of
Saxony. He put down his vassals with &
firm hand, but was docile to the popes.
Henry EL (b. 1017, d. 1056), "the
Black," became emperor in 1039; nominated
three Germans to the papacy, and invested
the Normans with the duchy of Calabria ;
also carried on successful wars with the
Hungarians and Bohemians.
Henry IV. (b. 1050, d. 1106), son of
Henry ITT. , began the Investiture disputes
with the papacy, in the course of which he
deposed Gregory VTI., but was himself
excommunicated and deposed, and was
obliged to submit at Canossa in 1076, but
in 1084 again invaded Italy, and captured
Rome. In Germany he had enemies in
Rudolf of Swabia (whom he defeated
finally at Wolksheim in 1080), in the Saxons,
and in his sons, Conrad and Henry, by the
latter of whom he was dethroned.
Henry V. (b. 1081, d. 1125), son of last-
named ; was associated with his father in
1098, and afterwards dethroned him. car-
ried on the Investiture quarrel, which was
settled in 1122, and was the first husband
of Matilda, daughter of Henry I. of
England.
Henry VI. (b. 1165, d. 1197), "the
Severe," son of Frederic I. (Barbarossa),
whom he succeeded in 1190 ; imprisoned
Richard I. of England, and conquered
Apulia and Sicily. His wife conspired
against and poisoned him.
Henry VII. (b. 1262, d. 1313), son of the
Count of Luxembourg ; elected to the empire
in 1308 by the six electors, invaded Italy,
subdued the Lombards, and restored the
Visconti at Milan. He acquired Bohemia
through his marriage with the daughter of
Wenceslaus.
Henry I., Duke of Bavaria and Saxony
(d. 1126), "the Black," united the Guelf
estates, but ruled feebly and abdicated.
Henry II. (b. 1102, d. 1139). "the Proud,"
successor of last-named; married the heiress
of the Emperor Lothaire, and acquired
Brunswick ; was regent of the empire in
1132, and was elected emperor in opposition
to Conrad III. , but yielded after being put
to the ban of the empire.
Henry III. (6. 1129, d. IW'\ "the Lion,"
son and successor of Henry II. , renounced
Hen
( 440 )
Her
but afterwards recovered Bavaria, and
founded Munich (1157) ; married Matilda,
daughter of Henry II. of England ; was
deprived of Bavaria and Saxouy for re-
fusing to accompany the emperor to Italy,
and banished twice, spending a short time in
England (1183-.)).
Henryson, Robert (15th century) Scotch
poet, a Benedictine monk, whose Fabils
appeared at Edinburgh in 1621, and his
Testament of Faire Cresseide in 1593.
Hensel, Fanny Cecile (b. 1805, d. 1847),
German composer, sister of Mendelssohn,
was born at Hamburg, and married W.
Heusel, a painter. She composed songs and
melodies.
Henselt, Adolph (b. 1814), German pianist
and teacher, a pupil of Hummel, went
to St. Petersburg in 1838, and was ap-
pointed court pianist. He also visited
England (1867). His chief compositions
are Etudes and a Concerto in F Minor.
Henslow, John Stevens (b. 1796, d. 1861),
English naturalist ; was elected professor
of mineralogy at Cambridge in 1S22, took
orders two years later, and in 1827 became
professor of botany. From 1839 he lived
at Hitchiu, where he introduced allot-
ments. His chief works were Principles
of Descriptive and Physiological Botany
(1830), Dictionary of Botanical Terms (1846),
and essays on The Diseases of Wheat in the
Journals of the Royal Agricultural Society.
Henslowe, Philip (d. 1616), was in 1584
lessee of the Rose Theatre, Baukside, and
for many years was partner with Edward
Alleyn. His Diary (1593-1609) is preserved
at Dulwich College.
Heplisestion (d. 325 B.C.). friend of Alex-
ander the Great, was wounded at Arbela,
and married a daughter of Darius.
Heraclitus (5th century B.C.), Greek
philosopher, whose system was based on
that of Pythagoras : lived at Ephesus, where
his writings were deposited in the Temple of
Diana.
Heraclius (b. 575, d. 641), Emperor of the
East ; was crowned in 610, having dethroned
Phocas; after twelve years' fighting, de-
feated Chosroes, King of Persia, and drove
back the barbarians from Constantinople,
but was unable, in his later years, to resist
the inroads of the Syrians.
Heraultde SecheUes, Marie Jean (b. 1760,
rf. 1794), French advocate and revolutionist,
friend of Buff on and Mirabeau ; was elected
president of the Convention in November,
1792, and acted with " the Mountain," but
was guillotined as a Dantonist in April, 1794,
being aceused of favouring the emigres.
Herbart, Johann Friedrich (b. 1776, d.
1841), German realist philosopher; born at
Oldenburg, studied under Fichte, at Jena,
but opposed his system as well as those of
Hegel and Schelling. He was professor at
Gottiugeu in 1805, and again in 1833, the
intervening time being spent in a similar
chair at Kouigsberg. He met Pestalozzi ia
his earlier yeurs, and embodied his method
in his own I'iulagogik.
Herbert. [See Carnarvon and Pembroke.]
Herbert, George (b. 1693, d. 1632), English
poet, brother of Lord Herbert of Cherbury ;
was fellow of Trinity, and public orator at
Cambridge, and a great favourite with
James I., Bacon, and Bishop Andrewes,
but gave up his secular ambitions and be-
came a country parson at Bemerton, near
Salisbury, where he wrote The Temple, and
The Country Parson, a prose work.
Herbert, John Rogers (b. 1810, d. 1890),
painter, began to exhibit at the Academy
in 1830. After attracting attention by The
Appointed Hour (British Institution, 1834),
he went to Italy, and chose Italian subjects,
but afterwards became known as a painter
of religious pictures, his best works being
the series of nine pictures which decorate
the peers' robing-room at Westminster,
and King Lear Disinheriting Cordelia. He
became A.R.A. in 1841, and R.A. in 1848,
but retired in 1886, his later works being
little esteemed.
Herbert, Sir Thomas (d. 1682), English
traveller; author of Some Tears' Travel in
Africa and Asia the Great, the result of his
experiences with Sir D. Cotton on an em-
bassy to Persia and other countries. He
also wrote Threnodia Carolina, an account
of the last days of Charles I., whom he
attended as representative of the Parlia-
ment.
Herbert of Cherbury, Edward, Lord (b.
circa 1583, d. 1648), English philosopher and
statesman ; served under the Prince of
Orange, and was afterwards sent by James
I. as ambassador to Paris. He was the first
English Deist, his opinions being set forth
in De Veritate (1624), and other works. He
also wrote a History of th-e Life and Reign of
Henry VIII.
Herbert of Lea, Sidney, Lord (b. 1810, d.
1861), English statesman, second son of the
Earl of Pembroke ; represented Wiltshire as
a Conservative from 1832 to 1860 ; was
named secretary to the Admiralty in 1841,
and in 1845 became a cabinet minister as
Secretary at War. He at first supported
the Corn Laws against Cobden. but was after-
wards one of the leading Peelites or Liberal-
Conservatives. In 1852 he was again Sec-
retary at War, but retired on the passing
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of the Sebastopol resolutions. He returned,
however, to the same post under Lord
Palmerston in 1859, and his last term of
office was marked by the organisation of the
Volunteer force. He was created a peer a
few months before his death.
Herbst, Johann Friedrich (b. 1743, d. 1807),
German naturalist ; wrote The Natural
History of Crabs (1702-1804), Worms and
Insects.
Herder, Johann Gottfried (b. 1744, d.
ISOo), German philosopher and poet ; born
of poor parents at Mohrungen ; afterwards
went to Konigsberg to learn surgery, but
became acquainted with Kant, and turned
to philosophy. When at Strasburg he met
Goethe, and soon became court-preacher
and councillor at Weimar. His chief works
were Stimmen der Vb'lker (1778), Ideen Zur
Geschichte der Menschheit (1784-91), and
Alteste Urkunde des Men&chen geschlechts
(1774).
Hereward, The Wake, an English squire
who held the Isle of Ely against William
the Conqueror 1070-71. He probably be-
came reconciled to William, but much of
his history is legendary.
Heribert I. (d. 943), Comte de Cham-
pagne, took prisoner Charles the Simple,
and. shut him up till death at Peronne. His
son married the widow of the latter.
Hericart de Tnury (b. 1776, d, 1854),
French geologist and engineer ; directed the
operations for the consolidation of the cata-
combs (1830), and was author of Miner alogie
Synoptique and Description des Catacombes
de Paris (1815).
Heriot, George (b. 1653), founder of
Heriot's hospital at Edinburgh : was gold-
smith to James I., who called him "Jingling
Geordie."
Herkomer, Hubert, R.A. (b. 1849). Eng-
lish artist of German extraction, son of a
wood-carver at Waal, Bavaria, who settled
at Southampton when his son was thirteen.
He first exhibited in the Dudley Gallery,
and in 1875 exhibited at the Academy The
Last Muster. Missing (1881) was his next
great picture, and in 1885 his portraits of
Mr. V. Stanford and Miss Grant were much
admired. The Chapel of the Charterhouse
(1889) was purchased for the Chantrey
bequest, and the artist became Slade pro-
fessor of fine art at Oxford in 1885.
Hermann. [See Arminius.]
Hermann, Armand (b. 1759, d. 1795),
French revolutionist, friend of Robespierre,
through whom he became Minister of the
Interior and Foreign Minister, and whose
fall he shared.
Hermann, Johann Gottfried Jakob (6.
1772, d. 1848), German philologist, authoi
of I)e Metris Grcecorum et Romanorum Poet-
arum (1796), and De MythologiA Grcecorum
Antiquissimd (1807).
Hennas, early Christian writer, author of
The Shepherd ; is identified by some with
the disciple mentioned by St. Paul (Romans
xvi. 14), and by others with Hermes, brother
of Pius, Bishop of Rome (Ji. 141).
Hermes Trismegistus, a mythical per-
sonage of the Egyptians, supposed to have
lived 2000 B.C.
Herrnogenes (2nd century), African Stoic
philosopher, against whom Tertullian wrote.
Hennogenes of Tarsus (2nd century),
Greek rhetorician; author of the Art of
Rhetoric, taught at Rome, is said to have
lost his memory and power of speech in his
twenty-fifth year.
Herod Agrippa. [See Agrippa.]
Herod Antipas (fi. 1st century), son of
Herod the Great, became Tetrarch of Galilee
(4 B.C.), beheaded John the Baptist in 31,
was deposed aud exiled in 39.
Herod the Great (b. 73 B.C., d. 3 B.C.),
King of Judaea ; put to death his wife
Mariamne and two sons ; massacred the
children of Bethlehem, and rebuilt the
Temple.
Herodianus (3rd century), Greek historian,
born at Halicarnassus, whose History of
Rome was translated into Latin by Poli-
tian.
Herodotus (b. circa 480 B.C., d. cira?40S),
Greek historian ; travelled in Egypt, Pales-
tine, and Babylon ; composed his History in
Sainos.
Herold, Louis Joseph Ferdinand (b. 1791,
d. 1833), French composer, chief among
whose productions were Les Rosieres (1817) ;
Le Muletier (1823) ; Marie (1826) ; La Son-f
nambule, a ballet ; Zampa (1831) ; andie JPr*
avx Clercs (1832).
Herophilus (circa 300 B.C.), Greek physi-
cian, disciple of Praxagoras, some of whose
writings are preserved with those of Galen ;
is said to have practised vivisection at
Alexandria.
Herrera, Fernando de (b. 1534, d. 1597),
Spa.nish poet, called "el Divino " by his
contemporaries; wrote an ode on the battle
of Lepanto, and some prose works.
Eerrera, Francisco de (b. 1576, d. 1656),
Spanish painter, called "el Vie jo," to dis-
tinguish him from his son (q.v.) ; founded a
new school, and was master of Velasquez
Being suspected of coining, he took
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sanctuary, and painted a fine altar-piece at
Seville, in consideration of which he was
pardoned.
Herrera, Francisco de (b. 1622, d. 1685,
son of preceding, called " el Mozo," fled to
Bome, and studied architecture, but returned
to Seville on his father's death. He was
associated with Murillo in founding the
academy there, and was afterwards made
court-painter by Philip IV. He painted
portraits, tavern-scenes, and fish.
Herrera y Tordesillas, Antonio (b. 1549,
d, 1625), Spanish historian, whose chief work
was Historia General de los Hechos de los
Castellanos.
Herrick, Robert (b. 1591, d. 1674), English
poet, son of a London goldsmith ; studied
law at Cambridge, but afterwards took or-
ders, and obtained a crown living in Devon-
shire, from which he was ejected in 1648,
but was reinstated at the Restoration. His
chief work is Hesperides (1648).
Herries, John Charles (b. 1778, d. 1855),
statesman; was commissary-general from
1811 to 1816, and auditor of the Civil List
from that year to 1823, when he entered
Parliament, and was made secretary to the
Treasury. In 1827 he was for a short time
Chancellor of the Exchequer ; was master of
the Mint and president of the Board of
Trade under the Duke of Wellington, and
Secretary at War in Peel's first ministry, and
was president of the board of control under
Lord Derby in 1852.
Herring, John Frederick (b. 1795, d. 1865),
painter, for some time drove a coach on
the North-road; his subjects were chiefly
animals, and especially race-horses.
Herring, Thomas, D.D. (b. 1671, d. 1757),
divine, successively Bishop of Bangor and
Archbishop of York and Canterbury; was
called the " Red Herring," from his zeal in
rousing the country in favour of the Hano-
verian dynasty.
HerscheU, Sir William (b. 1738, d. 1822),
English astronomer of German birth, son
of a hautboy-player in the Hanoverian
Guards ; having obtained in 1766 the post of
organist at the Octagon Chapel, Bath, be-
came an active musician, but also studied
astronomy, and, with the aid of his sister,
constructed the Newtonian telescope. In
1780 he sent his first paper to the Royal
Society, and next year discovered Uranus,
and was appointed private astronomer to the
king. At Slough he constructed another
telescope ; was knighted in 1788, in 1789
gained the Copley medal, and in 1820 became
first president of the Astronomical Society.
His sister, CAEOLINE (d. 1848}, was of great
assistance to him, and received the gold
medal of the Astronomical Society.
HerscheU, Sir John Frederick, Bart. (b.
1792, d. 1871), astronomer, sou of last-
named ; was senior wrangler at Cambridge ;
devoted himself at first to law and chemistry,
but soon adopted his father's pursuits, lie
received the gold medal and the Lalande
medal, and the Copley medal for his mathe-
matical researches. After having bet-u
knighted, and made president of the Royal
Astronomical Society, he, in 1833, went to
the Cape to survey the southern heavens,
and was created a baronet at the Queen' i
coronation. He was author of a Discourse
on the Study of Natural Philosophy, Outline*
of Astronomy, and treatises on meteorology,,
physical geography, and the telescope. He
was master of the Mint from 1850 to 1855,
and made some important chemical dis-
coveries.
HerscheU, Right Hon. Lord (b. 1837),
English lawyer and statesman, educated at
Bonn and University College, London ; was
called to the bar in 1860, became Queen's
Counsel in 1872, and entered Parliament as a
Liberal in 1874. He was recorder of Car-
lisle from 1873 to 1880, in which year he be-
came Solicitor- General. In 1836 he was
defeated for North Lancashire, but was made
Lord Chancellor. In 1888 he was president
of the Royal Commission to inquire into the
proceedings of the Metropolitan Board of
Works. He was again Lord Chancellor
in 1892.
Hersent, or Hersan, Charles (d. circa 1670),
French preacher, attacked the monks, and
wrote Optatus Gallus ; the book was burnt,
and the author excommunicated (1650).
Hertslet, Sir Edward (b. 1824), English
administrator ; entered the Foreign Office in
1840, became sub-librarian in 1855, and
librarian two years later. In 1878 he went
to Berlin with the embassy- as secretary, and
was knighted for his services. He is author
of Hertslet's Commercial Treatise, begun by
his father, The Map of Europe by Treaty,
and many similar works.
Hertz, Henrik (b. 1798, d. 1870), Danish
dramatist, whose chief work, Kon^ Rene's
Datter, was translated into English and
German.
Eertzberg, Ewald Graf von (b. 1725, d.
1795), Prussian statesman ; foreign minister
for thirty years ; negotiated the peace of
Hubertsburg, that between Russia and
Sweden in 1762, and the treaty of Reichen-
bach, besides taking part in the first par-
tition of Poland and the pacification of the
Netherlands.
nerve", Florimond Bouger (b. 1825),
French composer, born at Foudoin, near
Arrps, has been musical director at ^several
Paris theatres, L'GEil Creve> Chilperict Lt
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Hey
Petit Faust, are some of his most successful
light operas.
Hervey, Hon. and Right Rev. Lord Arthur,
D.D. (b. 1808), English divine, fourth son
of the first Marquis of Bristol ; educated at
Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge ; be-
came Archdeacon of Sudbury in 1862, and
was nominated to the see of Bath and Wells
in 1859.
Hervey, James (b. 1714, d. 1758), English
poet, author of Meditations among the Tombs,
etc.
Hervey, Lord John (*. 1696, d. 1743),
Whig statesman, the"Sporus" of Pope's
satires ; was lord privy seal under Walpole
(1740-2), and left Memoirs oj the Court of
George II.
Hesiod (Jl. circa 800 B.C.), Greek poet,
author of Works and Days and Theogony.
Hess, Peter von (b. 1792, d. 1871), Ger-
man painter, executed for Maximilian of
Bavaria The Battle of Lel-psic, and accom-
panied Otto to Greece to paint his entry
into Athens. His brother, Heinrich (d.
1863), was also employed by the King of
Bavaria.
Hesse, Alexander (b. 1806, d. 1879), French
painter, meinbre de 1'Iustitut, and first-class
medallist, whose chief pictures were Les
Honneurs junebres rendus au Titien (1833),
Une JRepubligue (1848), and portrait of Pre-
sident Barthe (1861).
Hessels or Estius, Wilhelm (b. 1542, d.
16'13), Flemish theologian, author of His-
toria Martyrium Gorcomiensium, in which
he eulogised Balthasar Gerard, assassin of
William of Orange.
Heurtley, Charles Abel, D.D. (6. circa
1806), English theologian, Bampton lecturer
in 1845, and in 1853 Margaret professor of
divinity and canon of Christ Church. He
is author of Harmonia Symbolica, a col-
lection of creeds belonging to the Western
Church (1858), and editor of De Fide et
Symbols.
Hewett, Sir Prescott Gardner, Bart.,
F.R.S. (d. 1891), surgeon, educated at St.
George's Hospital and at Paris ; became
president of the Royal College of Surgeons
in 1876, and received a baronetcy in 1883.
He was also surgeon-in-ordinary to the
Prince of Wales, and one of the Serjeant-
surgeons.
Hewett, Sir William Nathan Wrighte,
K.C.B. (b. 1834, d. 1888), English admiral,
served in the Burmese war (1851), in China
(1857), and during the Crimean campaign.
He was made K.C.B. for his services in the
Ashantee war, and commanded against the
Congo pirates in 1875, and in Egypt (1882).
In 1886 he was appointed to the command
of the Channel fleet.
Hewitson, WLiiam Chapman (b. 1806, d.
1878), English naturalist ; author of British
Oology (1833-42), Illustrations of Diurnal
Lepidoptera (1863), and other works.
Hewson, William, F.R.S. (b. 1739, d.
1774), English physiologist, friend of Dr.
Franklin, was awarded the Copley medal
in 1770 for his researches in connection with
the lymphatic system and the thymus gland.
He also exposed the errors of Leuwenhoek
in relation to blood corpuscles.
Heyden, Jan van der (b. 1637, d. 1712),
Dutch painter, his subjects being chiefly
architectural, and especially dealing with
Amsterdam.
Heylin, Peter (b. 1599, d. 1662), English
theologian, author of Life of Archbishop
Laud, and histories of Episcopacy, the
Presbyterians, and the Reformation.
Heyne, Christian Gottlob (6. 1729, d.
1812), German scholar, born in great poverty
at Chemnitz ; was invited by Count Briihl
to Dresden, and made copyist in the library ;
and after becoming sub -librarian, and losing
all his property at the siege of Dresden, was
appointed in 17 03 to a professorship at
Gottingen, during the tenure of which he
edited several classics, notably Virgil and
Homer. His daughter, Therese (d. 1829),
married Forster, and then Hiiber, and wrote
Notes on Holland (1811) and Ellen Percy
(1822).
Heyse, Paul Johann Ludwig (b. 1830),
poet and novelist, son of a professor at Ber-
lin ; in 1852 went to Italy to examine MSS.,
and in 1854 to Munich, where he married the
daughter of Franz Kugler. He is author of
Francesca di Rimini (1850), Die Pfdlzer in
Irland (1855), Elizabeth Charlotte (I860),
tragedies; Thekla, a poem (1858); Gesam-
melte Novellen in Versen (1863), Troubadour
Novellen (1882), etc.
Heytesbury, William a' Court, Lord (b.
1779, d. I860), English diplomatist; was
ambassador at Madrid (1820), at Lisbon
(1824), at St. Petersburg (1828-32), and Lord-
lieutenant of Ireland from 1844 to 1846.
Heywood, James, F.R.S. (b. 1810), poli-
tician and writer, born at Manchester, ami
educated at Trinity, Cambridge; entered
Parliament for North Lancashire in 1847,
and in 1850 moved an address for a com-
mission of inquiry into the English and Irish
universities. He obtained the removal of
religious tests (1854-6), and was able to take
his own degree in 1857. He wrote a History
of University Subscription Tests, and trans-
lated Huber's English Universities, and
other works.
Key
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Hig
Eeywood, John (d. 1565), English poet,
"the Epigrammatist," in great i'avour with
Henry VIII. and Mary, on whose death he
went to Mechlin. His chief work was The
Spider and the fly. Some poems by his son,
JASPEE (d. 1598), are printed in The Parodist
of Dainty Devices.
Heywood, Thomas (b. circa 1570), drama-
tist and actor, a native of Lincolnshire,
and feUow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. He
began to write plays in 1596 ; the chief of
them being, A Woman Killed witti Kindness
(1607), Tli* English Traveller (1633), and
The Captives.
Hezekiari, King of Judah, succeeded Ahaz
about 726 B.C., and defeated the invasion of
the Assyrians.
Hiao-King-Ti, Emperor of China (b. 188
B.C., d. 141 B.C.), made an immense hospital
for old men, widows, and orphans.
Hiao-Tsoung (b. 1469, d. 1505), Emperor
of China, of the Ming dynasty ; numbered
his people, and set on foot a revision of laws
and customs.
Hiao-Wen-Ti (b. 202 B.C., d. 157 B.C.),
Emperor of China, revoked the laws by
which parents were made responsible for
the crimes of their children, and introduced
mutilation as a punishment.
Hickes, George (b. 1642, d. 1715), English
clergyman and Saxon scholar, deprived of
his living as a non- juror 1689 ; was author
of Institutiones Grammatics A.nglo-Saxonicce
et Mceso-Gothic<e.
Hicks, Elias (&. 1748, d. 1830), Ameri-
can preacher and Quaker controversialist;
born in Long Island, strongly discoun-
tenanced slavery, and caused a schism among
the Society of Friends by the breadth of his
views.
Hicks, Henry, M.D., F.R.S. (b. 1837), Eng-
lish geologist ; graduated at St. Andrew's in
1878, and practised at St. David's from 1862
to 1871, when he came to London, and pub-
lished the results of his geological researches
in Wales and Scotland. He was president
of the London Geologists' Association,
1883-85.
Hicks, William, " Hicks Pasha " (5. 1830,
d. 1883), English soldier ; entered the Bom-
bay army in 1849, served in Bengal, 1857-9,
in the Rohilcund campaign, the Mutiny, and
the Abyssinian war, and was gazetted
colonel in 1880. In 1883 he was appointed
by Baker Pasha chief of the staff in the
Soudan, and in September of that year was
surrounded and destroyed while on the
march through the desert to Khartoum.
Hicks, William Mitchinson, F.R.S. (b.
1850), mathematician ; was fellow of St.
John's College, Cambridge, from 1876 to
1887, and became principal of Firth College,
Sheffield, 1883. At the British Association
of 1881-2 he read a. Report on Recent Pro-
gress in Hydro-Dynamics, and is the author
of many mathematical works.
Hicks-Beach, Right Hon. Sir Michael
Edward, Dart. (b. 18137), statesman, educated
at Eton and Christ Church, entered Parlia-
ment in 1864 as Conservative member for
East Gloucestershire. He was parliamentary
secretary to the Poor Law Board in 1868,
Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1874, and
entered the cabinet in 1877, becoming Secre-
tary for the Colonies next year. After a
period of opposition, during which he made
at least one powerful speech, he became
Chancellor of the Exchequer, and leader of
the House of Commons in May, 1885. On
the return of Lord Salisbury to power he
was at first Irish Secretary, but was obliged
to resign owing to ill-health, and, after a
short retirement, became President of the
Board of Trade (1888).
Hien-Foung (*. 1831, d. 1861), Emperor
of China ; came to the throne in 1850, and
had iirfrnediately to encounter a rebellion.
Nankin was taken by the rebels in 1853,
and after his defeat at Pali-Kao in 1860 the
emperor submitted to conditions dictated by
the English and French,
Hiero I., ruler of Syracuse (d. 467 B.C.).
succeeded Gelon in 478 B.C., and defeated
the Etruscan fleet at Cumae four years after;
was the patron of JEschylus and Pindar.
Hiero II. (d. 215 B.C.), served under
Pyrrhus, and was made King of Syracuse
in 270 B.C. ; alliedTiimself with Rome against
the Mamertines, and afterwards with Car-
thage ; after making peace with Rome in
263 he remained her ally.
Eieronyirms. [See Jerome.]
Hiffernan, Paul (b. 1719, d. 1777), Irish
writer, befriended by Garrick and Gold-
smith, wrote The Ticklers and The Tuners.
Eigden, Ralph (d. 1363), Benedictine
chronicler, author of Polychronicon, a trans-
lation of which was printed by Caxton.
Higgins, Matthew James (b. 1810, d.
1868), Irish critic and contributor (under
the pseudonyms of "Paterfamilias," "A
Civilian," and especially of "Jacob Om-
nium") to the Times. A collection of his
works, called Social Sketches, was printed in
1857. As husband of a daughter of Sir
Henry Tichborne, he was active in opposing
the fraudulent claims of Arthur Orton.
Higginson, Thomas Wentworth (&. 1823),
American writer, born at Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, at first a Unitarian minister, entered
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Eil
keenly into the movement against slavery,
and was severely wounded during the Civil
war. Among Ins works are Malbone : an Old-
port Romance (1869) and Old port Days (1874),
Harvard Memorial Biographies (1866), Brief
Biographies of European Statesmen (1875).
Common -sense about Women (1881), and
Women and Men (1888).
Hignmore, Joseph (b. 1692, d. 1780),
English portrait-painter ; executed the por-
traits of members of the Order of the Bath
on its revival, and wrote Principles of Per-
tpective.
Hilary, Bishop of Aries (b. 401, d. 449),
devoted his riches to charity, withstood the
Pope's claims, and perhaps drew up the
Athanasian creed.
Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers (d. 367), wrote
A. Treatise on the Trinity, and opposed the
Arians at Constantinople and Milan.
Hilary, Bishop of Rome (d. 467), suc-
ceeded Leo I. , and opposed the Eutychians
and Nestorians.
Hildebrand. [See Gregory VIL]
Hildebrant, Eduard (b. 1818, d. 1868),
German painter, born at Dantzig ; was for
some time an assistant of Ivrause, the marine
painter, and afterwards travelled for two
years in Egypt, India, China, and America,
and founded his landscapes on the scenery
of those countries.
Hildebrant, Ferdinand Gottlieb (b. 1804,
d. 1874), painter of the Dusseldoii school,
born at Stettin ; studied under Schadow,
and went with him to Italy in 1830. His
chief pictures were Judith and Holopliernes,
The Brigand, The Murder of the Young
Princes, Othello and Desdemona, and many
Shakespearian scenes.
Hildegarde, Saint (b. 1100, d. 1178), Ab-
bess of St. Rupert on the Rhine, wrote many
works of a mystical character, and letters.
Hildreth, ^ Richard (b. 1807, d. 1865),
American historian, author of a History of
the United States (1849-52), Japan as it Was
(1855) ; The White Slave, a novel ; was for
some time consul at Trieste.
Hiles, Henry, Mus.Doc. (b. 1826), English
writer on music, born at Shrewsbury : after
being organist in London and Manchester,
was appointed in 1880 lecturer on harmony
at Owens College. His chief works are TJie
Grammar of Music and Part-writing : or,
Modern Counterpoint, and he composed TJie
Crusaders, a cantata, and several songs and
anthems.
Hilgenfeld, Adolf Bernard (1823), Ger-
man theologian of the Tubingen school,
professor at Jena from 1850 to 1869. His
chief works are Das Evangelium und die
Brief e Johannis (1849), Ueber die Evangelien
(1854), Der Kanon und die Kritik des ifeucn
Testament (1863), and Novum Testamentum
Extra Canonum Receptum.
Hill, Aaron (b. 1685, d. 1750), English poet,
mentioned in TheDunciad, author of Camillas
and Lara, also wrote words for Handel, and
a History of the Ottoman Empire.
Hill, David Octavius (b. 1812, d. 1870),
Scotch painter ; at the age of eighteen a
foundation member of the Royal Scottish
Academy, painted the Establishment of the
Free Kirk, many scenes from Scottish pea-
sant-life, and afterwards landscapes.
Hill, Frank Harrison (b. 1830), English
journalist'; was called to the bar, went to
Ireland to edit the Northern Whig in 1860,
and edited the Daily Neics from 1870 to
1886. He published in 1873 Political Por-
traits and The Political Adventures of Lord
Beaconsfidd, and also wrote the life of
Canning in the " English Worthies " Series^
and of Grey in the " Statesmen " Series.
Hill, Matthew Davenport (6. 1792, d.
1872), reformer of the criminal law, brother
of Sir Rowland Hill ; was called to the
bar in 1819, and defended Cartwright and
Caiiile, the Nottingham rioters of 1831,
and the Rebeccaites in 1843. He became
Queen's Counsel in 1834, and recorder
of Birmingham in 1839, and was also a
member of Parliament from 1832 to 1835.
In 1843 he aided in the foundation of
the Society for the Amendment of the
Criminal Law, and in 1857 published his
Suggestions for the Repression of Crime, and
was active in the establishment of reforma-
tories. His daughter, Joanna, and her
sisters assisted him in his work, and carried
it on after his death.
Hill, Octavia (b. circa 1838), English social
reformer ; with the help of Mr. Rusldn pur-
chased and managed poor property in Mary-
lebone and Drury Lane, and took an active
part in the foundation and growth of the
Charity Organisation Society.
Hill, Sir Richard (b. 1733, d. 1808),
English Methodist controversialist ; attacked
Oxford Lrniversity in Pietas Oxo)iie/isis
(1768) for the expulsion of six under-
graduates as Methodists ; entered Parliament
in 1781, and sat till 1806, being a telling
speaker.
Hill, Rowland (b. 1744, d. 1833), English
Dissenter, brother of preceding, took orders
in the Church, but opened an Independent
chapel in Blactfriars-road in 1783 ; pub-
lished Village Dialogues in 1801.
Hill, Sir Rowland, K.C.B. (b. 1795, d.
1874), founder of the penny post, son 3f
Hil
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Hin
T. W. Hill, of Birmingham, and named after
the preacher, issued iri 1837 his pamphlet cm
Post Oj/ice lief or m, the suggestions of which
were carried into effect in 1840. He held a
position in the Treasury for two years, but
lost it on the change of government. He
.-eceived, however, a public testimonial in
1-16, when he became secretary to the Post
Office. He retired in 1SG4 on his full salary,
having also been knighted in 18GU. As
chairman of the Brighton railway, he started
tiie first express.
Hill, Rowland, Viscount (b. 1772, d. 1842),
Kuglish general, son of Sir John Hill, dis-
tinguished himself under Abercromby in
Kgypt, and in 1808 went to Spain. In 1809
he became lieutenant-general, and com-
manded the 2nd army corps in Portugal.
In 1814 he was created Baron Hill of
Almarez, for the capture of the forts of that
name, and at Waterloo headed the brigade
which repulsed the Old Guard. He was
made commander-in-chief in 1828, and
viscount in 1842.
Hillel the Elder (b. 112 B.C., d. 8 B.C.),
Jewish rabbi, father of a school of oral
tradition, much of which is contained in the
Mishna.
Hillel the Younger (4th century), director
of the Jewish school at Tiberias, descendant
of preceding, reformed Jewish chronology,
and was author of the Gemara.
HiUer, Ferdinand (b. 1811, d. 1885),
German pianist and composer, born of
Jewish parents at Frankf ort-on-Main, played
in public at ten, and began to compose at
twelve. He was placed with Hummel at
Weimar, and accompanied him to Vienna,
where he saw Beethoven on his death-bed.
He stayed at Paris from 1828 to 1835, where
he made known the works of the German
masters. He afterwards went to Milan,
where he met Liszt and Rossini, and pro-
duced Romilda. In 1839 he produced at
Leipzig, under the superintendence of Men-
delssohn, his Die Zerstorung Jeru&alems.
As kapellmeister at Cologne he organised
the Conservatoire there, and from 1850 he
conducted the Lower Rhine festivals. He
visited England in 1871 and 1872.
Hiller, or Huller, Johann Adam (b. 1728,
d. 1804), German composer, born near
Gorlitz, studied law and music at Leipzig,
and was appointed tutor by Count Briihl
in 1758. He was made director of con-
certs, and founded a school for perform-
ing the oratorios of Handel and other
masters. His concerts spirituels were the
progenitors of the Gewandhaus concerts.
He also composed for the theatre Sing-
tpiele.
Billiard, Nicholas (*. 1547, d. 1619),
English portrait-painter of the school ol
Holbein ; was also a carver and embosser of
gold.
Hilton, John (d. 1655), English Royalist
composer; author of Ayres: or, Fa Las, Catch
That Catch Cant and many madrigals and
catches.
Hilton, Walter (d. 1396), English Car-
thusian monk, wrote The Scale : or, Ladder
of Perfection, a poem, about 1440.
Hilton, William (b. 1786, d. 1839), painter,
began to exhibit at the Academy in 1803,
and gained several prizes at the British In-
stitution. In 1813 he became A.R.A., in
1818 R.A., and in 1827 keeper of the
Academy. His Christ Crowned with Thorns
is now at South Kensington, and Edith Dis-
covering the Dead Body of Harold, with
several others, is in the National Gallery.
Hincmar (d. 882), Archbishop of Rheims,
favourite of Louis le Debonnaire and a great
persecutor.
Hincks, Edward, D.D. (b. 1792, d. 1866),
Irish archaeologist, author of Monograms
from Assyrian Monuments discovered the
Persian cuneiform vowel system.
Hincks, Sir Francis (b. 1807, d. 1885),
Canadian statesman, grandson of last named,
was born at Cork, and went to Canada in
1831. In the rebellion he took the Liberal
side, and in 1841 became member of the first
Parliament held after the Union and in-
spector-general of public accounts, which
office he again held in 1848. In 1851 he
became premier, and developed greatly the
economic resources of the country, holding
office till 1854. He then visited England,
was governor of Barbadoes from 1855 to
1862, and from that year till 1869 of British
Guiana. After this he returned to Canada,
and was finance minister under Sir John
Macdonalcl till 1873. He was author of
The Political History of Canada, 1840-55.
Hind, John Russell (b. 1823), English
astronomer, born at Nottingham, came to
London in 1840 as a civil engineer's assistant,
but obtained a post in the Royal Obser-
vatory. In 1844 he became F.R.A.S., and
two years later published The Solar System.
In 1847 he received a gold medal from the
King of Denmark for the discovery of a
planet, in 1850 discovered Victoria, and in
the years 1851-4 several others. In 1852 he
was granted a pension, and received the gold
medal of the Astronomical Society, and the
Lalande medal. In 1880 he became presi-
dent of the Astronomical Society. His chief
works are Expected Return of the Great
Comet of 1266 and 1556 (1848), Astronomical
Vocabulary (1852), and Descriptive Treatise
on Comets (1857).
Kin
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Hoa
Hingeston-Kandolph, Francis Charles
(b. 1833), antiquary and divine, became
prebendary of Exeter in 1885. His chief
works are Specimens of Ancient Cornish
Crosses, etc., and a collection of Royal and
Historical Letters in the Reign of Henry
IV.
Hiouen-Thsang (6. 603, d. 664), Buddhist
traveller and philosopher; traversed Asia,
and collected many books in ludia, which he
translated into Chinese. A French traus-
lation of his account of his travels has been
made.
Hipparehus (fl. circa 150 B.C.), Greek
philosopher ; established the theory of the
sun, compiled a catalogue of stars, and in-
vented a planisphere.
Hipparehus and Hippias, Peisistratidse,
succeeded Peisistratus in 528 B.C. as
"tyrants" at Athens, but the former was
slain by Harmodius and Aristogeiton, and
Hippias was expelled by the Alcmseonidae,
and fled to Persia. He was killed at Mara-
thon.
Hippocrates (b. 460 B.C., d. 357), Greek
physician, practised at Athens and Pella,
and laid the foundation of a science of
medicine. He wrote The Nature of Man,
JEpidemics, Aphorisms, and other works.
Hire. [See La Hire.]
Hirst, Thomas Archer, Ph.D., F.E.S.
(b. 1830), English mathematician, born
at Heckmondwike, Yorkshire, met Tyndall
at Halifax, and afterwards joined him at
Marburg (Hesse-Cassel). After studying at
Gottingen and Berlin, he became professor
of natural philosophy at the Koyal Institu-
tion. In 1857 he ascended Mont Blanc with
Tyndall. On his return in 1860 became
mathematical master at University College
school. He was one of the original mem-
bers of the Mathematical Society and
president 1872-4, and was subsequently
professor of physics and of mathematics in
University College, London, general 'secre-
tary to the British Association, assistant-
registrar of London University, and director
of studies at the Koyal Naval School.
Histiseus (d. circa 494) , tyrant of Miletus,
saved the army of Darius at the Danube
(513 B.C.) ; was made ruler of Mitylene, but
subsequently instituted the Ionian revolt,
and was put to death.
Hitchcock, Edward, D.D. (b. 1793, d.
1864), American geologist, sometime pro-
fessor of chemistry and natural history in
Amherst College, of which he became
president in 1844. He was appointed head
of the Massachusetts geological survey in
1830, and came to Europe in 1850 to visit
the agricultural schools. TT-ia chief work
was The Religion of Geology and its Connected
Sciences (1851).
Hittorf, Jacob Ignatius (b. 1793, d. 1867),
German architect and archEeologist, em-
ployed by Louis Philippe, Napoleon III.,
and the Republic ; was author of Z' Archi-
tecture Polychrome chez les Grecs, and some
works on Sicilian architecture.
Hitzig, Ferdinand (6. 1807, d. 1875),
German biblical critic, professor at Zurich
and Heidelberg, wrote Beg riff der Kritik
am alien Testament practise h erb'rteri (critical
works on the minor prophets), Geschichte des
Volkes Israel (1869-70), and many other
works.
Hoadley, Benjamin, D.D. (b. 1676, d.
1761), English theologian, Bishop successively
of Bangor (1715), Hereford, Salisbury, and
Winchester, whose sermon before George I.
on March 31, 1717, occasioned the Ban-
gorian controversy.
Eoadley, Benjamin (6. 1706, d. 1757),
physician, son of preceding ; attended George
II. and Frederick, Priuce of "Wales, and
wrote The Suspicious Husband, a comedy
(1747).
Hoadley, John (b. 1711, d. 1776), English
writer and divine, brother of the preceding,
friend of Garrick and Hogarth ; published
his father's works, and wrote several
dramas, The Contrast, etc., and the oratorio
Jephthah.
Hoar, Ebenezer (b. 1816), American
lawyer, born at Concord, was admitted to
the bar in 1839, and was successively member
of the Massachusetts senate, judge of Com-
mon Pleas, and justice of the Supreme
Court. In 1870 his nomination as United
States senator was not confirmed. He had
previously been United States attorney-
general, and in 1872 entered Congress. He
was a member of the Washington Treaty
Commission in 1871.
Hoar, George Frisbie (b. 1826), politician,
brother of last-named, after having been
member of the State House of Represent-
atives and Senate, was elected member of
Congress in 1868, and three times re-elected.
He was elected United States senator in
1877, was re-elected in 1883 and 1889. He
presided over the Republican Convention of
1880, and served on the Electoral Comiuiir-
sion of 1876.
Hoare, Prince (b. 1755, d. 1834), painter
and dramatist, was secretary to the Royal
Academy, and wrote No Song— No Supper,
and other pieces. His father, William (d.
1792), was one of the first Royal Acade-
micians.
Eoare, Sir Richard Colt (b. 1758, d. 1838),
Hob
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Hoe
English antiquary, translated and annotated
The Itinerary of Giraldus Cambrensis, and
began histories of ancient and modern Wilt-
shire, besides giving, in his Classical Tour
through Italy, an account of his travels.
Hobart-Hampden, Hon. Augustus Charles
(b. 1622, d. 1886), English sailor, known as
Hobart Pasha, was a son of the Earl of
Buckinghamshire, and entered the royal
navy in 1836. He did good service in South
America in the suppression of the slave
trade, served in the Crimea, being present
at .Bomarsund and Sweaborg, and retired on
half pay in 1860. He next took service as a
blockade runner in the American Civil war,
and afterwards, having entered the Turkish
navy, suppressed the revolt in Crete in 1867,
and was created admiral and pasha. His
name was struck off the British Navy List
when he commanded against the Greeks,
but it was restored in 1874. He was again
struck off for commanding the Turkish fleet
in the war of 1877-8, in which England was
neutral, but was reinstated with the rank
of vice-admiral in 1885.
Hobbema, Meindert or Minderhert (b.
1638, d. 1709), Dutch landscape-painter,
pupil of Ruysdael ; several of his pictures
are in the National Gallery, London.
Hobbes, Thomas (b. 1588, d. 1679),
philosopher, born at Malmesbury and
educated at Oxford ; met Descartes and
G-assendi at Paris when tutor to members
of the Devonshire family ; was afterwards
mathematical tutor to Prince Charles
(Charles II.). He received a pension at
the Restoration, but his chief works were
censured by Parliament ; these were The
Leviathan and De Give. He also wrote
Behemoth, a history of the Civil war.
Hobhouse, Right Hon. Baron (b. 1819),
English lawyer, became a member of the
Chancery bar in 1845, and practised subse-
quently in the Rolls court. He was obliged
to retire on account of ill-health in 1866, but
was appointed Charity Commissioner in 1869,
and member of the Council of India in 1872,
being knighted on his retirement from that
post five years later. In 1881 he became
Privy Councillor and member of the Judicial
Committee, and in 1885 received a peerage.
Hobhouse, John Cam (b. 1786, d. 1869),
Lord Broughton, chiefly remembered as the
friend of Byron. As a Liberal he repre-
sented Westminster, Nottingham, and Har-
wich, and was Irish Secretary and President
of the Board of Control. In 1831 he suc-
ceeded his father as baronet, and was made
a peer La 1851.
Hoche, Lazare (b. 1768, d. 1797), French
republican general, rose from the ranks,
and at twenty-five commanded the army of
the Moselle ; was imprisoned owing to the
spite of St. Just, but sent to La Vendee on
his release, which country he succeeded in
pacifying. Afterwards he commanded an
expedition which was intended to make a
descent on Ireland, and distinguished him-
self in Germany against the Austriaus. He
died in camp under suspicious circumstances.
Hodges, William, R.A. (b. 1744, d. 1797),
artist, painted scenes from the countries
visited by him in Captain Cook's second
voyage ; made a fortune in India, and, after
living in London, went to Russia.
Hodgkinson, Eaton (b. 1789, d. 1861),
engineer, co-operated with Fairbairn in his
inventions, and obtained the gold medal of
the Royal Society and his election as fellow
for his Experimental Researches on the
Strength of Pillars of Cast-Iron and Other
Materials.
Hodgson, Brian Houghton (b. 1800),
Orientalist; entered the Indian civil ser-
vice in 1818, was secretary to the embassy in
Nepaul from 1820 to 1829, and resident there
from 1833 to 1843, when he retired. In
1824 he discovered the Sanscrit Buddhist
scriptures, and four years later wrote an
article on Buddhism in the Asiatic Re-
searches. Copies of this and others of his
works were distributed throughout Europe
at the author's expense, and in 1835 the
Grand Lama entered into correspondence
with him, and sent him valuable Tibetan
works. He spent most of his time in India
till 1858, and was elected fellow of the
Royal Society in 1877, besides receiving
numberless distinctions from foreign socie-
ties. His chief publications are Literature
and Religion of the Bttddhists of the North
(1841), Aborigines of India (1847), and
various essays on Tibetan and Indian
subjects.
Hodgson, John Evan, R.A. (b. 1831),
painter, spent most of his early years in
Russia in his father's business, but in 1853
returned to England, and three years later
exhibited his first picture. He painted at
first historical pictures, but after his visit to
Africa made a speciality of African subjects.
Among his works may be mentioned The
Patriot Wife (1857), First Sight of the
Armada (1863), several Arabian studies
(1868-71), A Tunisian Bird-Seller (1873),
A Shipwrecked Sailor Waiting for a Sail
(1881), Ragasselma: the Water- Vance (1883) ,
and Robert Burns at the Plough (1887).
Hody, Humphrey (*. 1659, d. 1706),
scholar, professor of Greek at Oxford, and
patron of Wadham College.
Eoefer, J. C. Ferdinand (b. 1811, d. 1878),
German chemist and writer ; after fighting
in the Greek war of independence and
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travelling, became secretary to Cousin, and
translated Kant's Kritik into French. He
was appointed by the French Government
to report on German medical schools, edited
the Nouvelle Biogmphie (Jenerale, and wrote
a Histoire du Chimie.
Hoey, Frances Sarah (b. 1830), English
writer, author of A House of Cards, A.
Stern Chase (1886), and other novels, and
translator of Memoires de Madame de
Reinusat, Frederic le Grande et Marie
Therese, etc.
Hofer, Andreas (6. 1767, d. 1810), Tyrolese
patriot and innkeeper, headed the revolt by
which the Bavarians were driven from the
Tyrol in 1809, and recaptured Innsbruck
from them and their French allies. Austria
having been compelled to abandon the pro-
vince by the peace of Vienna, the French
again made an invasion and were defeated
by Hofer, who was at last betrayed and
shot at Mantua. His family was afterwards
ennobled by the emperor.
Hoffman, Charles Fenno (b. 1806, d. 1884),
American writer, friend of Bryant, esta-
blished in 1833 The Knickerbocker Magazine,
and afterwards wrote A Winter in the West,
Wild Scenes in Forest and Prairie, and some
novels and poems. The last thirty- five
years of his life he passed in a lunatic
asylum at Harrisburg.
Hoffman, David (b. 1784, d. 1854), Ameri-
can lawyer and writer, professor of law in
the Maryland University (1817-1836), was in
England from 1847 to 1853, when he contri-
buted American articles to the Times, and
was engaged in writing his Chronicles
selected from the Originals of Cartapahilus,
tht Wandering Jew, which he left unfinished.
Hoffmann, Ernst Theodor (b. 1776, d.
1822), German novelist and musician,
director of the theatre at Leipzig and
Dresden. His Contes appeared in 1830 ; the
opera Undine was the best of his musical
works. He also drew caricatures against
Napoleon and the French.
Hoffmann, Friedrich (6. 1660, d. 1742),
chemist and physician, professor at Halle;
was the first to point out the value of the
Seidlitz springs.
Hoffmann von Fallersleben, August
Heinrich (b. 1798, d. 1874), Hanoverian
pout and philologist, friend of the Grimms ;
lost his professorship at Breslau on account
of his unpolitische Lieder, but was, after
many wanderings, allowed to settle in
Prussia in 1848. Among his philological
publications were Fundgruben fur Geschichte
deutsche Spracfo und Literatur (1830-37),
Reineke Fos (1834), and Monument- Eluo-
nensia (containing the Ludwigslied}, and
among his verses the chief were DeutscJu
Liederbuch and Mhs-inleben.
Eofmann, August Wilhelm, F.R.S. (b.
1818), German chemist, born at Giessen,
where he entered the laboratory of Liebig ;
lived in England from 1845 to 1864, was
director of the London College of Chemistry,
and edited Fownes' Manual of Chemistry . He
then obtained a chair at Berlin, and founded
the German Chemical Society. He dis-
covered aniline, and wrote Einleitung in die
Moderne Chimie (1865).
Hogan, John (b. 1800, d. 1857), Irish
sculptor, entirely self-taught, the best
specimens of whose work were Eve after
her Expulsion contemplating a Dead I)ov4,
the Lead Christ, and Drunken Faun.
Hogarth, William (6. 1697, d. 1764),
English artist, at first engraved for book-
sellers, while also painting portraits ;
married clandestinely a daughter of Sir
James Thornhill, whom he conciliated by
his» Harlot's Progress. It was followed by
the Rake's Progress (1735), Marriage a la
Mode (1745), Industry and Idleness (1747X
and numerous caricatures. Though quite
uneducated, he wrote a theoretic work, Th«
Analysis of Beauty (1754). In a contro-
versy with Wilkes he replied by caricatures
instead of by writing.
Hogg, Jabez, M.R.C.S. (b. 1817), English
surgeon, was at school with Dickens ; wrote
The Illustrated London Spelling -Book, Ele-
ments of Natural and Experimental Philo-
sophy, and The History, Constitution, and
Application of the Microscope. He also be-
came surgeon to the Westminster Ophthal-
mic Hospital and similar institutions, and
published A Manual of Ophthalmo&copic
Surgery, and The Cure of Cataract.
Hogg, James (b. 1770, d. 1835), Scottish
poet, called the "Ettrick Shepherd;" was
a cowherd, and for ten years a shepherd.
His poems and ballads attracted the atten-
tion of Scott, whom he helped with The
Border Minstrelsy, the chief of his own
works being The Mountain Bard (1803),
The Queen's Wake £1813), and a collection
of poems published in 1822.
Hogg, Thomas Jefferson (b. 1792, d. 1862),
English writer; made the acquaintance of
Shelley at Oxford, and began a life of him,
two volumes of which appeared in 1858. He
was called to the bar in 1817, and in 1833
became a municipal corporation commis-
sioner.
Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst, Prinz Clod-
wig Victor von (b. 1819), German states-
man, was in the Prussian service till 1845,
when he settled in Bavaria. He was sent
by the Frankfort ministry to
Hoh
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Florence, and Rome as ambassador, and,
after a period of retirement, began to take
an active part in Bavarian affairs, becoming
minister in 1867 and advocating an imperial
policy. In 1870 he resigned on account of
opposition to his anti-papal policy, but, as a
member of the House of Peers, obtained the
participation of Bavaria in the Franco -
Prussian war. In 1871 he entered the
German parliament, of which he soon
became vice-president; was ambassador at
Paris in 1874, plenipotentiary at Berlin at
the congress, and afterwards governor of
Elsass - Lothrin gen.
Hohenzollern, H.R.H. Leopold Etienne,
Hereditary Prince of (6. 1835), succeeded
his father in 1885, having previously become
known in Europe on account of his candida-
ture for the Spanish throne, which was the
proximate cause of the Franco-Prussian
war.
Eolanda, Francisco de (&. 1515, d. 1584),
Portuguese painter, friend of Michael Angelo,
waa patronised by John III. of Portugal,
whose sons he taught ; composed treatises
on ancient painting and the art of drawing,
and discovered a new way of laying on
colour.
Eolbach, Paul Heinrich Dietrich, Baron d'
(b. 1723, d. 1789), French philosopher, wrote
Le Christianisme Devoile, L1 Esprit du Clerge,
which was condemned to be burnt, Le Sys-
teme de la Nature, Moralite Uhiverselle, etc.
Eolbein, Hans (6. 1494 or 5, d. 1543), Swiss
painter, architect, and carver, painted the
portrait of Erasmus at Basel, and went to
England with an introduction from him to
Sir Thomas More. He was given a large
salary by Henry VEIL, besides payment for
his pictures, among which were portraits of
Henry and some of his queens. In the
Surgeons' Hall there is also a work of his
representing Henry VIII. granting a charter
to the company. Death's Dance, engraved
from his own designs, is the best example
of his work of this kind.
Eolberg, Ludwig, Baron (*. 1684, d.
1754), Danish poet and historian, travelled
much on foot, studied two years at Oxford,
and obtained a professorship at Copenhagen.
He made a large fortune by his writings,
which include Peder Paars, a mock-heroic
poem, Niels Klims Underjordiske Reise, a
satire, with some comedies and historical
works.
Eolbourne, Sir Robert (d. 1647), English
lawyer and member of the Long Parliament;
opposed ship-money, but afterwards joined
the king, and was made privy councillor ;
endeavoured to mediate between king and
Parliament.
Eolcroft, Thomas (6. 1746, d. 1809),
dramatic writer, son of a shoemaker; was
at first a groom and then an actor, and
wrote besides his memoirs, which were con-
tinued by Hazlitt, several comedies, of
which The Road to Ruin is the only one now
ever seen,
Holden, Hubert Ashton, LL.D. (6. 1822),
English scholar, educated at King Edward's
school, Birmingham, and at Trinity, Cam-
bridge, of which he became a fellow in 1847,
having been senior classic in 1845. After
being vice -principal of Cheltenham and
head-master of Ipswich, he was made in
1890 fellow of the University of London.
He is author of the compilations Foliurum
Silvula, and Foliorum Centuries, several
editions of the classics (Aristophanes, etc.),
and lives of the Gracchi, Sulla, Nicias, etc.
Hole, Samuel Reynolds, D.D. (b. 1819),
Dean of Rochester, educated at Newark
and Brasenose College, Oxford ; was pre-
bendary of Lincoln in 187o, and chaplain
to the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1885,
and wrote A Little Tour in Ireland (1858),
illustrated by Leech, and A. Book abottt
Roses (1859).
Hole, William (*. 1846), Scotch painter,
educated at Edinburgh ; was apprenticed as
a civil engineer, but, after his return from
Italy, adopted art as his profession, and be-
came an associate of the Scottish Academy in
1878, and an academician in 1889. Among
his etchings are Quasi Cur sores (1884), the
Canterbury Pilgrims (1888), and others
after Crome, Millet, and Constable. His
paintings include The Evening of Culloden
and Prince Charlie' 's Parliament, etc.
Bolinshed, Raphael (d. circa 1580),
English historian, published Chronicles of
England, Scotland, and Ireland
% Holkar, Mulhar Rao (b. 1693, d. 1769),
founder of the Mahratta dynasty of that
name, was a shepherd until employed by
Peshwa Bajee Rao, who in 1759 made him
soubadar. His armies ravaged the whole of
Northern India, and were not checked until
the defeat by the Afghans at Pauiput.
Eolkar, Tukajee Rao (b. 1727, d. 1797),
was practically the ruler of the Mahrattas
under Ahlia Bye, and largely extended
their power in Northern India, while also
defeating Tippoo Sultan in the south.
Holkar, Jeswunt Rao (d. 1811), natural
son of Tukajee, on whose death he fled, but,
having obtained command of a predatory
band, assumed the title of " Servant of
Khundi Rao " (son of the late Holkar and
rival of Kasi Rao, the reigning one), and
invaded his native state. He won a great
battle in 1798, after which the troops of
Kasi Rao deserted, and Jeswunt became all
but nominal ruler. In 1803 he joined S India
Hoi
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Eol
against the British, and was at first suc-
cessful, but after his defeat by Lake his
troops mutinied. Soon after this Khundi
Rao died suspiciously, and Kasi Ra"o was
murdered. After obtaining power, how-
ever, Jeswunt became gradually insane.
Eolker, Sir John (6. 1828, d. 1882), Eng-
lish lawyer ; was called to the bar in 1854,
practised at Manchester and in London, and
became Queen's Counsel in 1868, and a
leader on the northern circuit. Having
entered Parliament in 1872 as Conservative
member for Preston, he was appointed
Solicitor-General by Mr. Disraeli, and in
1875 became Attorney - General. He
was appointed Lord Justice by Mr. Glad-
atone.
Boll, Frank (b. 1845, d. 1888), painter,
son of Francis Holl, the engraver, was
elected A.R.A. in 1878, and R.A. in 1883.
Among his pictures are The Gifts of the
fairies (1879), Ordered to the Front (1880),
Some Again (1881), and portraits of Lord
Wolseley, the Duke of Cambridge, and Mr.
Bright, etc.
Holl, William (b. 1807, d. 1871), en-
graver, son of the portrait engraver of
the same name, illustrated Moore's works,
An English Merry-making, after Frith,
and several portraits after Richmond. His
brother, Francis, also eminent as an en-
graver, especially for his chalk heads after
^'.chmond, was elected A.R.A. in 1883.
Holland, Sir Henry, M.D. (6. 1788, d.
1873), physician-in-ordinary to the Queen
and Prince Consort; wrote Travels in the
Ionian Islands, Chapters on Mental Physi-
ology, and several medical and philosophical
essays.
Holland, Henry Richard, third Lord (5.
1773, d. 1840), Whig statesman, son of
Stephen, Lord Holland, and nephew of
Charles James Fox, by whom his education
was superintended ; travelled much on the
Continent, and, having entered Parliament
in 1798, became Chancellor of the Duchy of
Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet, in
1830. He left Memoirs of the Whig Party
and other works.
Holland, Henry Scott (b. 1847), theo-
logian, educated at Eton and Balliol, be-
came senior student of Christ Church in
1870, and in 1884 was made canon of St.
Paul's. He has written Logic and Life
(1882), Creed and Character (1886), and
contributed to Lux Mundi.
Holland, Lord. [See Henry Fox.]
Holland, Philemon (b. 1551, d. 1636),
English scholar, fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge, and head-master of Coventry;
was called, from his numerous translations
DD2
of the classics, etc., the " Translator- general
of his age."
Holland, Thomas Erskine, LL.D., D.C.L.
(6. 1835), jurist, was called to the bar in
1863, and practised on the home circuit, but
was elected Chichele professor of inter-
national law at Oxford in 1874. Chief
among his works are Select Titles from the
Digest (1874-81), in collaboration with C. L.
Shadwell, A Manual of Naval Prize Law
(1888), and Elements of Jurisprudence.
Hollar, Wenceslaus (b. 1607, d. 1677),
Bohemian engraver, patronised by Charles I.
and the Earl of Arundel ; fled to Holland
after the war, but returned at the Res-
toration. His engravings are said to have
numbered 2,000.
Holies or Hollis, Denzil, Lord (6. 1597,
d. 1681), English politician, a leading mem-
ber of the opposition under James I. ; was
sent to the Tower by Charles I., and was
one of the "five members." Being a Pres-
byterian, however, he was opposed to the
power of the army, and was obliged to
remain in France till the death of Cromwell.
He received a peerage from Charles II., and
went as ambassador to France, but refused
to connive at the transactions between
Charles and Louis XIV.
Holman, James (6. circa 1787, d. 1857),
English naval officer, who lost his sight, and
afterwards became known as "the Blind
Traveller " ; wrote accounts of his Voyage
Round the World (1827-34), and his Travel*
in Russia.
Holmes, Abiel (6. 1763, d. 1837), Ameri-
can historian, born in Connecticut ; author
of Annals of America.
Holmes, Oliver Wendell (b. 1809), son of
Abiel Holmes by his second wife, was born
at Cambridge, Massachusetts, and graduated
at Harvard in 1829. Next year he be-
came known as the author of the verses
against breaking up the frigate Constitution.
He studied law at Cambridge (Massa-
chusetts), and then passed three years at
Paris, where he took a medical degree in
1836. On his return he became an active
practitioner in his native state, and wrote
several treatises on medical subjects. The
Autocrat of the Breakfast- table, The Pro-
fessor at trie Breakfast-table, and The Poet
at the Breakfast-table first appeared in
the Atlantic Monthly . Besides some early
volumes of verse, he is author of Elsie
Venner (1861), and The Guardian Angel
(1869), novels ; memoirs of J. L. Motley
and R. W. Emerson ; of several essays and
later verse, and of One Hundred Days in
Europe (1887). In 1886 he visited England,
Holroyd. [See Sheffield.]
Hoi
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Hon
Holste, or Holstenius, Lucas (b. 1596, d.
1661), German theologian, abjured Protest-
antism under Jesuit influence at Paris, arid
went to Rome, where he was patronised by
the pope and Cardinal Barberini. In 1 606
he received Christina, Queen of Sweden,
into the Roman communion.
Holt, Sir John (b. 1612, d. 1710), English
jud^e, was removed from the recordership
of London under James II. for opposition
to the repeal of the Test Act ; was elected
to the Convention Parliament, and after
the Revolution made Chief Justice of the
King's Bench and a Privy Councillor. He
was offered the chancellorship in 1700, and
left Report of Divers Cases in Pleas of the
Crown under Charles II.
Eolte, John (f. circa 1500), English school-
master, fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford ;
Eublished the first Latin grammar in Eng-
md, which he called Lac Puerorum ; or,
My Ike for Children. It was printed by
Wynkeu de Wbrde in 1497.
Holtzapffel, Charles (d. 1847), German
mechanician, settled in England ; wrote
Turning and Mechanical Manipulation! and
introduced improvements in lathes and
mathematical instruments.
Holwell, John Zephaniah (b. 1711, d.
1798), English administrator and writer,
born in Dublin ; entered the service of the
East India Company in 1732, and when
member of the Bengal Council in 1756,
defended Fort William against Surajah
Dowlah, and was one of the survivors from
the "Black Hole." In 1759 he was ap-
pointed governor of Bengal
Holzer, Johann (b. 1708, d. 1740), German
engraver and painter, some of whose work
is to be found at Augsburg.
Holyoake, George Jacob (b. 1817), a well
known supporter of Co-operation, on which,
as well as on Atheism, etc., he has produced
several works.
Homberg, William (6. 1652, d. 1715),
German chemist, born at Batavia ; while in
Italy discovered the method of making
luminous the Bologna stone, and went
thence to England, where he worked with
Boyle. After working at Stockholm for
some years, he came to France, was patron-
ised by Colbert, and became physician to the
Duke of Orleans.
Home, Daniel Dunglas (b. 1833, d. 1886),
spiritualist, bom near Edinburgh ; went to
the United States in 1840, and became
known as a " medium " from the age of
seventeen. He came to London about
1853, but made many visits to other coun-
tries, and was received into the Roman
Church in 1856, but expelled some years
after. He visited Russia with Dumas pere,
and in 1858 married a Russian Lidy, who
died in 1862. In 1S63 he went to Italy, and
was befriended by Mrs. Browning and
others. He received a large gift of money
from a Mrs. Lyons, which, however, he
lost some years after as the result of a law-
suit. He married another Russian in IbTl,
and died insane.
Home, Sir Everard (6. 1756, d. 1832),
surgeon, brother-in-law of John Hunter,
whose MSS. he destroyed ; practised in
London for forty years, wrote many medical
treatises, and was for some years president
of the Royal College of Surgeons. He was
made a baronet by George IV.
Home, Henry. [See Kames, Lord.]
Home, John (b. 1722, d. 1808), Scottish
minister, fought for the Hanoverian cause
during the "Forty-five," and obtained a
living. His Dougla* was rejected by Garrick
in 1749, but produced at Edinburgh seven
years after with great success. He also
wrote a History of the Rebellion of 1745,
and obtained a sinecure from Lord Bute.
Homer, held by some to be the author of
the Iliad and Odyssey ; by others only of
one of these ; by others, again, to be a mere
name.
Hommaire de Hell, Ignace Xavier (b.
1812, d. 1848), French geologist and travel-
ler, was employed by the Russian govern-
ment in several scientific missions, and
discovered the Dnieper iron mines. He was
also employed by the French government
in similar work, and just before his death
entered the service of the Shah.
Hompesch, Baron Ferdinand von (b.
1744, d. 1803), last grand-master of the
Knights of St. John, abdicated in favour of
the Tsar Paul I.
Honain, Abou-Yezid (9th century),
Arabian physician, translated the works
of Aristotle, Hippocrates, and Galen, and
also the Elements of Euclid.
Hondecoeter, Melchior de (b. 1636, d.
1695), Dutch painter, born at Utrecht, his
subjects being chiefly game and wild fowl.
Hondt, Abraham, or Hcndius (b. 1638, d.
1695), Dutch painter of animals, came tc
England in the reign of Charles II., and
died there. A Dog Market and The Siege
of Troy are specimens of his work.
Hondt, Henry (b. 1576), engraver, called
"the Elder" to distinguish him from a son
of Jost ; engraved portraits of the reformers
and some landscapes.
Hondt, Jost or Jodocus (6. 1563, d. 1611),
Flemish engraver, employed by Alexander
of Parma ; came to England, and published
Hon
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Eoo
several works, besides engraving the maps
for Drake's Voyages and Speed's collection.
Hone, Nathaniel (d. 1784), Irish painter,
settled in London, and was a foundation
member of the Academy, but resigned
owing to the rejection of a picture by him
which was a satire on Reynolds.
Hone, William (b. 1780, d. 1842), English
writer, born at Bath, unsuccessful as a pub-
lisher and in an attempt to establish a
savings bank ; wrote political squibs, and
was several times tried for blasphemy, but
always acquitted. He wrote The Apocry-
phal New Testatnent, Ancient Mysteries, the
Every-Day Book, the Table-book, etc.
Honorius, Flavius (b. 384, d. 423), last
"Emperor of the West, sustained, by the help
of Stilicho, invasions by the Goths and
Vandals* but on the death of the latter was
obliged to retire to Bavenna, Borne having
been sacked by Alaric,
Honoriua L, Pope of Borne (d. 638), suc-
ceeded Boniface V. in 625 ; was accused of
favouring the Monothelites, and resisted by
the Welsh clergy.
Honorius IL (d. 1130), elected in 1124 ;
unsuccessfully opposed the Normans in
Southern Italy. The title had been pre-
viously assumed by the anti-pope Cadalous
in 1061.
Honorius HI. (d. 1227), succeeded Inno-
cent III. in 1216; supported the crusade
against the Albigenses, and was engaged
in repeated contests with the people of
Borne.
Honoring IV. (d. 1287), succeeded Mar-
tin IV. in 1285, and supported the house of
Anjou against that of Aragon; issued a
bull against the Apostolicals.
Honthorst, Gerard van (b. 1590, d. 1656),
Dutch painter (called Gerardo della Notte)
of the school of Caravaggio ; was patronised
by Charles I., and taught the Queen of Bo-
hemia and her children. His Christ Before
Pilate, in the Justinian! Gallery, was one of
his best works.
Hood, Alexander. {See Bridport.]
Hood, Bobin, a celebrated outlaw, sup-
posed to have lived in Sherwood Forest in
the time of Bichard I.
Hood, Sir Samuel (d. 1814), admiral,
served under his cousin (q.v.) in the
Mediterranean, was present at the battle
of the Nile, and in an action off Bochefort
lost an arm ; afterwards held the naval
command in the East Indies.
Hood, Samuel, Viscount (6. 1724. d.
1816), admiral ; after service under Bodney
and Saunders, became commander of the
West Indian squadron, and received a
peerage for his share in Bodney's victory
over Grasse. He had previously success-
fully opposed Fox as candidate for West-
minster. As commander of the Mediter-
ranean fleet he captured Toulon and drove
the French from Corsica. After his resig-
nation he was created viscount.
Hood, Thomas (6. 1799, d. 1845), poet,
son of a publisher ; as sub- editor of the
London Magazine in 1821, became connected
with Lamb and others. A Civil List pension
was granted in 1844 to his wife, his own
health having broken down. Among his
chief works were Whims and Oddities, The
Comic Annual, Miss Kilmansegg, and various
pieces, of which the Song of the Shirt and
the Bridge of Sighs are the best known.
Hood, Tom (b. 1835, d. 1874), son of pre-
ceding, wrote several novels, Rules of
Rhyme, and books for children, and was
editor of Fun for several years.
Eoofdt, Pieter Cornells (b. 1581, d. 1647),
Dutch historian, author of a History of
the Netherlands, and other historical and
poetical works.
Hoogeveen, Hendrik (b. 1712, d. 1791),
Dutch philologist, rector of the college of
Delft, author of Doctrina Particular um Lin-
gua Grcecce, long considered a standard
authority.
Eoogstraaten, Dirck van (b. 1596, d.
1640), Flemish painter, whose works are
very rare.
Hoogstraaten, Samuel van (b. 1627, d.
1678), painter and writer, son of Dirck, was
placed in the studio of Bembraudt. He was
patronised by the Emperor Ferdinand III.,
and lived some time in England, and especi-
ally excelled in the rendering of inanimate
objects.
Hook, James (6. 1746, d. 1827), English
composer, born at Norwich, studied under
Garland, and composed The Ascension, an
oratorio; The Soldier's Return, and other
operas, and some two thousand songs.
Hook, James Clarke (b. 1819), painter,
in 1846 obtained the travelling pension
of the Boyal Academy, and, after spending
more than a year in Italy, returned to
London, and was elected A.B.A. in 1850,
and B.A. in 1860. During his first period
his subjects were drawn from French and
Italian history, Pampihts relating his Story,
A Dream of Venice, Othello' 's Description of
Defidemona, etc. After this he painted
several pastorals — The Ship-Boy's Letter,
The Fisherman's Good-night, etc. His more
recent pictures deal with marine subjects —
The Trawlers (1862), Caller Rerrin" (1882),
Hoo
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Hop
The Sea-weed Raker (1889), A Jib for tht
New Smack (1S90), etc.
Hook, Theodore Edward (*. 1788, d.
1841), novelist and wit, sou of James Hook,
wrote Paul Pry and other light dramatic
pieces. Through the influence of the Re-
gent he became accountant-general of the
Mauritius, but hia carelessness led to his
arrest and return home in 1818. While in
prison from 1823 to 1825 he edited John Bull,
and in 1836 undertook the New Monthly,
Among his novels, Jack Brag, Gilbert Gur-
net/, and Sayings and Doings were the most
popular.
Hook, Walter Farquhar (b. 1798, d. 1875),
divine, nephew of last-named, was for
twenty-two years vicar of Leeds, during
which he set on foot the re-building of the
farish church, aud built many others. In
859 he was appointed Dean of Chichester
He wrote Lives of the Archbishops of Cantet
bury, and several other works.
Hooke, Robert (b. 1635, d. 1703), mathe-
matician, assisted Boyle, the chemist, and
made several astronomical instruments ; and
after the Great Fire superintended the re-
building of the city. He also claimed to
have discovered before Newton the law of
gravitation.
Hooker, or Vowell, John (b. 1524, d.
1601), historian, a member, first of the
Irish, and then of the English, Parliament ;
edited and added to Holinshed's Chronicle.
Hooker, Joseph (b. 1814, d. 1879),
American soldier, born in Massachusetts ;
resigned his commission to go to California
in 1853, but returned to the army at the
outbreak of the Civil war, and particularly
distinguished himself at Williamsburg, and
afterwards at Fair Oaks, G-lendale, and
Malvern. He compelled Jackson to evacuate
Manassas, took a prominent part in the
Maryland campaign, and was in 1863 given
the command of the army of the Potomac.
In the ensuing campaign Jackson was
mortally wounded, but the Confederates
were successful, and Hooker resigned his
command. He was more successful in the
relief of Chattanooga, but was disappointed
in not succeeding to the command of the
army of the Tennessee.
Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, M.D. (b.
1817), English botanist, son of Sir W. J.
Hooker, was born in Suffolk, and
educated at Glasgow, and at the age of
twenty-one accompanied the expedition of
Sir James Ross to the southern seas. In
1846 he was made botanist to the Geological
Survey, and next year went to India.
While investigating the flora of th Hima-
layas he was made prisoner by the Rajah
of Sikkim. After his return he became
assistant-director and then director of Kew
Gardens. In 1860 he went to Syria, and
made a study of its oaks ; and in 1868, aa
president of the British Association, gave
his assent to the theory of evolution. In
Ib71 he went to Morocco, and brought back
a large collection of plants. In 1873 he
became President of the Royal Society, and
was knighted in 1877. His chief works are
Botany of the Antarctic Voyage, Himalayan
Journals, The Student's Flora of the British
Islands, Journal of a Tour in Morocco, etc.
Hooker, Richard (6. 1554, d. 1600),
theologian, of humble parentage; was
born near Exeter, and sent to Oxford at
the expense of Bishop Jewell ; became fellow
of Corpus, and, in 1585, master of the
Temple. While here he was charged with
heresy, but befriended by Archbishop Whit-
gift. He soon retired, however, for the
purpose of study, and in the livings of Bos-
combe and Bishopsbourne wrote his Eccle^
siastical Polity, which he had just time to
finish. James I. called him the " learned
and judicious Mr. Hooker."
Hooker, Sir William Jackson (b. 1785, d.
1865), botanist, professor at Glasgow, and
afterwards curator of Kew Gardens ; was
knighted in 1835, and wrote A Century of
Ferns and Journal of a Tour in Iceland.
Hoole, John (*. 1727, d. 1803), English
scholar in the service of the East India
Company; translated Tasso's Geru&alemme
Lib'irata, Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, and
some pieces of Metastasio.
Eopmayoon (b. 1505, d. 1556), Emperor of
Delhi, succeeded Baber in 1530, conquered
Goojerat, but was compelled to quit his
dominions and take refuge in Afghanistan
by Khan Soor, King of Bengal. After
thirteen years he collected an army, won the
battle of Paniput, and was again emperor.
Soon after this, however, he fell over a
parapet, and died from his injuries.
Hooper, John (b. 1495, d. 1555), English
divine ; after being a Cistercian monk, joined
the reformers, and was obliged to go abroad.
On the accession of Edward VI. he returned,
and was made Bishop of Gloucester, but
was at first un willing to take the oath of
supremacy or to go through the necessary
ceremonies. During the Marian persecu-
tion he was arrested, examined, and burnt
at Gloucester, enduring great sufferings.
Hooshung1, Sooltan (d. 1432), King of
Malwah, was defeated and made prisoner
two years after his accession by Mozaffir
Shah, King of Goojerat, but escaped and
enjoyed a prosperous reign, during which he
founded the mountain city of Mandoo, and
erected a mausoleum for himself.
Hope, Alexander James Beresford (i.
Hop
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Hor
1820, d. 1887), English politician, educated
at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge ;
was member of Parliament for Maidstone
from 1841 to 1852, and from 1857 to 1859.
He represented Cambridge University from
1868 to 1887. was president of the Royal
Institute of British Architects from 1855 to
1867. He wrote Strictly Tied Up (1880) and
The Brandreths (1882), etc.
Hope, Frederick W, F.R.S. (b. 1797,
d. 1872), entomologist, author of The
Coleopterist* s Manual, founded a professor-
ship of zoology at Oxford in 1861, and pre-
sented to the University Museum a fine
entomological collection, a library, and
many portraits.
Hope, Sir James (b. 1808, d. 1881), ad-
miral, entered the navy in 1822, served^ in
the Plate expedition and during the Russian
war, and was knighted for his skill in con-
ducting the operations on the Chinese coast
in 1859-60.
Hope, Sir John (b. 1766, d. 1823), general,
•erved in the West Indies, at the Helder,
and in Egypt ; and when in Spain con-
ducted the embarkation of the troops
after the death of Sir John Moore. After
heading a division in the Walcheren expedi-
tion, he again went to the Peninsula, and
was taken prisoner at Bayonne. He was
created Baron Nidry, and afterwards suc-
ceeded to the earldom of Hopetoun.
Hope, Thomas (b. 1774, d. 1831), traveller
and author, mads an eight years' tour in
Europe and the East, and wrote Anastasius
(1819), a novel, Household Furniture and
Decorations (1805), Modern Costumes (1812),
and some essays.
Hopetoun, John Hope, Earl of (b. 1860),
English administrator, after being Conserva-
tive " whip " in the Lords, a lord-in- waiting,
and lord high commissioner to the Church of
Scotland (1887-8-9), was made governor of
Victoria in the latter year.
Hfipital. [See L'Hopital.]
Hopkins, Edward John, Mus.Doc. (b. 1818),
organist and composer, pupil of Walmisley ;
was a chorister in the Chapel Royal, St.
James's, and, after being organist at several
London churches, was appointed to the
Temple in 1843, and, besides publishing
several organ arrangements and anthems,
was author (with Dr. Rimbault) of The
Organ : its History and Construction.
Hopkins, John Henry (b. 1792, d. 1868),
American Bishop of Vermont, born in
Dublin ; emigrated in 1800, and was engaged
in commerce, and practised as a barrister
before taking orders. He wrote works on
Tfa Distinctive Principle of Episcopacy \ The
Primitive Church, etc.
Hopkins, Lemuel (b. 1750, d. 1801).
American poet, practised as a doctor, and
served in the American army during the
revolutionary war ; established and took
chief part in The Anarchiad.
Hopkins, Mark (b. 1802, d. 1887),
American educationist, principal of Wil-
liams College from 1836 to 1872, and pro-
fessor of moral philosophy, wrote The Law
of Love and Love as a Law and An Outline
Study of Man. Among his pupils was
President Garfield.
Hopkins, Matthew (17th century), witch-
finder, very active in the eastern counties
between 1645 and 1647 ; published The Dt«-
covery of Witches in the latter year.
Hopkins, Samuel (b. 1721, d. 1803), Ameri-
can divine, founder of a Calvinistic school
of theology called after him ; was one of the
earliest advocates of emancipation, and freed
his own slaves.
Eopkinson, Francis (b. 1737, d. 1791),
American writer, one of the signers of the
Declaration of Independence ; wrote The
Battle of the Kegs (1778), The Pretty Story
(1774), The Political Catechism (1777), and
other works in prose and verse. His son,
Joseph (d. 1842), judge of the United States
District Court, wrote Hail Columbia !
Eopkinson, John, D.Sc. (b. 1849), English
mathematician, educated at Owens College
and Cambridge, where, in 1871, he waa
senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman ;
practised as an engineer in Birmingham and
London, and introduced many improvements
in lighthouse apparatus. He was elected
F.R.S. in 1878, and in 1890 president of the
Institution of Electrical Engineers.
Hopper, Thomas (d. 1856), English archi-
tect, patronised by the Regent, from whom
he refused knighthood, introduced the
"cottage ornee" style, and designed many
buildings in London.
Hoppner, Henry Parkins (b. 1795, d.
1833), navigator, was rewarded by Parlia-
ment for his services with Parry and Ross
in the arctic regions, but never recovered
from the results of exposure.
Hoppner, John, R.A. (b. 1759, d. 1810),
artist, self-taught, father of the preceding ;
painted portraits ; also translated Tales from
the Tooti Naineh.
Hopton, Arthur (b, 1588, d. 1614), mathe-
matician, friend of Selden, wrote On the
Geodetic Staff for Surveying and other works.
Horatius Coccles, mythical Roman hero,
supposed to have defended, single-handed
(507 B.C.), the Pons Sublicius against tbe
army of Porsenna.
Hor
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Hor
Horatius Flaccus, Quintus (b. 65 B.C., d.
8 B.C.), Latin poet, son of a freedman,
fought at Pmlippi on the republican side;
was introduced by Virgil to the notice of
Augustus aud Maecenas, and regained his
confiscated property, besides receiving the
gift of a villa at Tibur from the latter. His
chief works were Odes and Epodes, Epistles,
Satires, and the Ars Poetica.
Hore, Edward Coode, F.R.G.S. (*. 1848),
English explorer ; after visiting all parts of
the world as a merchant sailor, was sent by
the London Missionary Society in 1877 to
Central Africa, where he lived for several
years, and discovered the outlet of Lake
Tanganyika, He wrote A Boat Journey
Across Africa and A Ray of Light in the
Dark Continent. His wife was the first
white woman to reach the shores of Lake
Tanganyika, and wrote To Lake Tanganyika
in a Bath Chair.
Eormisda3 (6th century), Roman pontiff,
made peace between the Eastern and
Western churches.
Honnisdas IV., King of Persia (6th
century), last of the Sassanides, favoured
the Christians, but, having been defeated by
Tiberius, Emperor of the East, was de-
throned and murdered by his subjects.
Horn, Arvid Bernard, Count (b. 1664, d.
1742), Swedish statesman, chief of the
" Hats ; " was the chief instrument in the
revolution of 1719, when Prince Frederick
of Hesse-Cassel was elected king.
Horn, Charles Edward (d. 1849), English
Yocalist and composer; son of a German
musician, took tenor parts at the English
opera-house and elsewhere, and composed
Cherry Ripe, Tve been Roaming, and other
songs, as well as the score of / Know a
Bank.
Horn, Clas Christersson (b. 1520, d. 1558),
Swedish admiral, served in the army against
the Russians and Danes, and won the battle
of (Eland and other victories.
Horn, Justef Carlsson (b. 1592, d. 1657),
Swedish general, served under Gustavus
Adolphus, and was made prisoner at Nord-
lingen ; was afterwards minister of war.
Horn, Philippe de Montmorency, Comte de
(b. 1522, d. 1568), Flemish noble and patriot ;
served with distinction under Charles V.
and Philip II., but was arrested and executed
on account of his opposition to some of the
Spanish measures in the Netherlands.
Hornby, Sir Geoffrey Phipps, K.C.B. (
1825), English admiral ; entered the service
in 1837, was at the bombardment of Acre,
and afterwards served under Percy at the
Cape, and under his father in the Pacific.
He commanded the Mediterranean fleet in
1878, became president of the Naval College
in 1881, and was a lord of the Admiralty
under Lord Beaconsfield.
Hornby, James John, D.D. (*. 1820),
scholar and divine, brother of preceding,
educated at Eton and Balliol ; was fellow
of Brasenose (1849-54), principal of Cosin's
Hall, Durham (1854-64), and head-irabter
of Eton (1868-84), in which latter year he
became provost.
Home, George (b. 1730, d. 1772), Bishop
of Norwich, author of a Commentary on the
Psalms, etc.; yehemently opposed Newton,
Home, Richard Henry "Hengist" (b. 1803,
d. 1884), poet and dramatist, served in the
Mexican navy throughout the war with
Spain, and, after some adventures among
the American Indians, came back to Eng-
land, and wrote Orion, The Death of Marlowe,
Cosmo d# Medici, and edited Spirits of the
Age. From 1852 to 1869 he lived in Aus-
tralia, where he became a great swimmei-
In 1874 he received a Civil List pension.
Eorae-Tooke. [See Tooke.]
Hornemann, Friedrich (b. 1772), German
traveller ; went to Africa in 1797, and was
last heard of in 1800. Hia Journal was
published in 1882.
Homer, Francis (b. 1778, d. 1817), poli-
tician, born at Edinburgh, entered Parlia-
ment in 1806, was named president of the
Bullion Committee in 1810, and moved next
year the resumption of cash payments. He
declined office, and died in Italy. He joined
Brougham, Mackintosh, and the leading
"Whigs in founding the Edinburgh Review.
Homer, Leonard (b. 1785, d. 1864), geolo-
gist, brother of preceding, took part in the
foundation of the Edinburgh School of Arts,
and the Academy ; was warden of London
University for some years, and inspector of
factories. He was a fellow of the Royal
Society and president of the Geological
Society in 1847. Besides popular works on
geology, he was author of a Treatise on the
Employment of Children in Factories, and of
a translation of Villari's Life and Times of
Savonarola.
Horrebov, Peder (*. 1679. d. 1764), Danish
astronomer, son of a fisherman ; became pro-
fessor at Copenhagen, and was visited by
Peter the Great, and invited to Russia. He
invented a method for computing the height
of the Pole, and wrote several works. His
sons, CHRISTIAN and PEDEB (d. 1812), were
also eminent, astronomers.
Hoxrocks, Jeremiah (b. probably 1619, dt
1641), English astronomer, born at Toxteth,
and educated at Cambridge ; was the first to
Hor
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Hon
observe the transit of Venus, and formed a
theory of lunar motion, which was afterwards
adopted by Newton. Hedied very young, and
bis posthumous worka were published in 1673.
Eorsley, John Callcott, R.A. (b. 1817),
painter, son of W. Horsley ; exhibited at the
British Institution The Chess Players and
other pictures, and at the Royal Academy
The Pride of the Village, The Contrast, A
Merry Chase in Haddon Hall £1882), etc. His
St. Augustine Preaching gained a prize of
£200 at Westminster Hall, and he was one
of the six artists selected to decorate West-
minster Palace, while his Religion was ap-
proved for the House of Lords. In 1882 he
was elected treasurer of the Academy.
Horsley, Samuel (b. 1733, d. 1806), theo-
logian, successively Bishop of St. David's,
Rochester, and St. Asaph ; edited Newton's
works £1779-85), and held a controversy
with Priestley on the subject of his History
of the Corruptions of Christianity.
m Horsley, William (b. 1774, d. 1858), mu-
sician, organist of Ely chapel and the
Charterhouse, friend of Mendelssohn, com-
posed By Cello's Arbour and other glees.
Horsman, Right Hon. Edward (6. 1807,
d. 1876), statesman, nephew of the Earl of
Stair, represented Cockermouth from 1836
to 1852, Stroud from /853 to 1868, and Lis-
keard from 1869 to 1876. He was a lord of
the Treasury in 1841, and Chief Secretary for
Ireland from 1854 to 1857. In 1866 he was
numbered among the Adullamites.
Hort, Fenton John Anthony, D.D. (b.
1828), theologian, born in Dublin, and edu-
cated at Cambridge, where he was third
classic, and fellow of Trinity from 1852 to
1867. After holding a cure in Hertfordshire,
he returned to Cambridge in 1872 as fellow
of Emmanuel, and was elected in 1878 Hul-
sean professor of divinity. He was one of
the revisers of the New Testament, and,
with Dr. Westcott, edited the revised Greek
text.
Hortense, Queen of Holland (b. 1783, d.
1837), daughter of Josephine Beauharnais ;
married Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland,
but lived unhappily with him, and was
separated in 1810. Obliged to leave Paris,
she went to live in Switzerland. Her
youngest son was Napoleon III.
Hortenaius, Quintus (6. 114 B.C., d. 50
B.O.), Roman orator ; was colleague of Cicero
as augur, and consul in 69 B.C. His daugh-
ter, Hortensia, obtained the diminution of
a tax on women by her eloquence.
Eosea (fl. circa 800), Jewish prophet.
Hosliea.last King of Israel, became tribu-
tary to Shalmaneaer, King of Assyria, but
having allied himself with So, King of
Egypt, against him, was dethroned about
731 B.C.
Hosius, Bishop of Cordova (d. 361), is
said to have converted Constantine, and
became his chief ecclesiastical adviser ; pre-
sided over the Councils of Nice (325) and
Sardica (347) , but was afterwards banished
by the Asians.
Hosmer, Harriet (o. 1830), American
sculptor, born at Watertoun, Massachusetts,
was a pupil of Gibson at Rome, and exe-
cuted busts of Daphne, JEnone (1855),
Beatrice Cenci (1857), and Zenobia in
Chains. She also devised a method fox
converting Italian limestone into marble.
Hossein (b. 625, d. 680), second son of
Ali, and grandson of Mohammed, distin-
guished himself in the siege of Constanti-
nople, but perished in an attempt to wrest
from Yezid the sovereignty.
Eotman, Francois (b. 1524, d. 1590),
French jurist; obliged as a Huguenot to
leave France after St. Bartholomew, went
to Switzerland, where he taught law. He
is the supposed author of Vindicia contra
Tyrannos, which appeared under the name
" Junius Brutus."
Hottinger, Jean Henri (b. 1620, d. 1667),
Swiss Orientalist; professor of theology at
Zurich, and of oriental languages at Hei-
delberg, compiled a Historia Orientalis and
a lexicon of seven eastern languages ; was
drowned when about to go to Leyden. His
son, who wrote An Ecclesiastical History of
Switzerland, is not to be confounded with
another of the same name, also professor at
Zurich, who died in 1819, and wrote an
Essay towards a Comparison of the German
with the Greek and Roman Poets.
Eoubraken, Arnold (b. 1660, d. 1719),
Dutch writer, author of The Great Tlteatre
of the Dutch and Flemish Painters.
Eoubraken, Jacob (*. 1698, d. 1780),
engraver, son of last-named, executed the
etchings for his father's book, and the fine
engravings which appeared in Heads of
Illustrious Persons in Great Britain (1748).
Bouchard, Jean (6. 1740, d. 1793), French
revolutionary general ; won the victory of
Hondschoote over the allied troops, and
compelled the English to evacuate Dunkirk,
but was soon after guillotined for not follow-
ing up his success.
Eoudin, Jean Eugene Robert (6. 1805, d.
1871), French conjurer, was employed by
the emperor to confound the Algerian
wizards in 1856, and wrote Confidences d?un
Prestidigitateur and Trickeries des Greet
DevoiUes.
Hon
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How
Houdon, Jean Autoiivj (b. 1741, d. 1828),
French sculptor, produced busts of Cathe-
rine II., Franklin and Moliere, etc., besides
statues of St. Bruno and St John Laterau
executed at Rome.
Hough, John (b. 1651, d. 1743), English
divine ; having been elected president of
Magdalen College, Oxford, in opposition to
the nominee of James II., was expelled ; was
restored after the Revolution, and became
Bishop of Oxford, Lichfield, and Worcester.
Houghton, Richard Monckton Milues,
Lord (6. 1809, d. 1885), English writer;
after leaving Cambridge, where he had
*>»en with Tennyson and others, tra-
velled for several years, and wrote
verses descriptive of the places he visited,
each as Memorials of Many Seasons and
Poetry for the People (1840) ; Poems, Legend-
ary ana Historical, and Palm Leaves (1844).
His chief prose work was Monographs, Per-
sonal and Social (1873) ; and he also edited
Keats'1 Life and Literary Remains (1848)
Monckton Milues sat for Pontefract as a
Liberal from 1837 to 1863, but had been at
first a follower of Peel. He wrote several
pamphlets, especially that called The Real
Union of England and Ireland, advocating
concurrent endowment. He was a fellow
of the Royal Society, and a patron of meu of
letters.
Houssaye, or Eousset, Arsene (6. 1815),
French romance-writer and critic ; having
come earl}' to Paris and made the acquaint-
ance of Gautier and Jules Janin, first
attracted attention by his art-criticisms and
his Galerie de Portraits du 18m« Siecle (1844).
His reputation was made by his Histoire de
Peinture Flamande °,t Hollnndaise (1846).
In 1849 he obtained through Mile. Rachel
the direction of the TheVitre Francais.
On resigning this he wrote romances and
historical studies, of which Mile, de la Val-
liere etMdme. de Montespan, Les Parisiennes,
and Les Grande s Dames were the chief.
Houston, Samuel (6. 1793, d. 1863),
American general, passed his youth among
the Cherokees, and, after serving with Jack-
son against the Creeks, and having been
governor of Tennessee, returned to Arkansas,
and did his best to redress the wrongs of the
Indians. Subsequently he took part in the
framing of the Texas constitution, and
succeeded in freeing it from Mexico and
incorporating it with the Union.
Houtman, Cornelius (6. 1560), Dutch
sailor, who founded the East Indian trade
»f Holland : was made prisoner in his second
voyage by the King of Sumatra, and never
heard of again.
Hoveden, Roger de (12th century), chap-
Iain to Henry II., and authc-r of a chronicle
extending from 732 *« 1202.
How, William WaLsham, D.D. (b. 1828).
English divine, educated at Shrewsbury ana
Oxford, became prebendary of St. Paul's and
suffragan Bishop of Bedford in 1879, and
in 1888 the first Bishop of Waketield. He
wrote Pin in Words, Practical Sermons, etc.
Howard, Catherine.
Queen.]
[See Catherine,
Howard, Edward, Cardinal (b. 1829), sou
of Edward Gyles Howard ; was born
at Nottingham, and, after serving in the
Life Guards, entered the Church of Rome
at the age of twenty-six, and was employed
by Pius IX. in the Goa schism, and after-
wards in Italy. He was made cardinal in
1877, and archpriest of the basilica of St
Peter in 1881.
Howard, Edward (d. 1841), novelist,
lieutenant in the navy, wrote The Old
Commodore, Rattlin the Reefer, etc.
Howard, Henry (b. 1757, d. 1842), Eng-
lish waiter, author of Memorials of t/ie
If award Family. He assisted Liugard and
Tytler in their historical works.
Howard, Henry, R.A. (b. 1769, d. 1847),
historical painter, whose chief pictures were
JEneas and Anchises (1796), and The Birth
of Venus (1829).
Howard, Sir Henry Francis, G.C.B. (6.
1809), diplomatist, minister-plenipotentiary
to Brazil in 1853, at Lisbon 1855, Hanover
1859, and Bavaria 1866. Whilst charge
d'affaires at Berlin he negotiated in 1852
the treaty made in that year.
Howard, John (6. 1726, d. 1790), philan-
thropist ; acquired a knowledge of prisons
when detained in France in his youth, and
devoted his wealth to their reform, visiting
all the English and many of the Continental
prisons. He afterwards took up the cause
of infectious diseases and their preventives,
and visited the chief lazarettos of the Medi-
terranean. While setting out for the East
•with a similar object he died of fever in the
Crimea.
Howard, Luke (6. 1772. d. 1864), chemist,
author of The Climate if London (1818-20),
and an Essay an Clouds (1802), in which he
first distinguished their various kinds.
Howard, Oliver Otis (b. 1830), American
general, commanded a brigade at Bull Run,
lost an arm at Fairoaks, and commanded a
division at Fredericksburg. He was de-
feated at Chancellorsville, but took Gettys-
burg, and afterwards commanded Sher-
man's right wing. In 1872 ho went to New
Mexico and Arizona as special commissioner.
Howard of Efflngham, Lord (b. 1536, d.
1624), admiral, Commanded the English
How
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fleet which opposed the Armada, and in
1594 captured Cadiz, and was made Earl of
Nottingham. He was afterwards employed
by James I.
Howard de Walden, Lord (6. 1799, d.
1868), diplomatist ; was under-secretary for
Foreign affairs under Canning, and after-
wards represented England at Stockholm,
Lisbon, and Brussels.
Howe, Elias (b. 1819, d. 1867), American
mechanician, born at Spencer, Massa-
chusetts, the son of a miller ; invented the
first sewing-machine in 1846.
Howe, Jack (d. 1721), English politician;
eat in the Convention Parliament, and after-
wards as member for Gloucester ; became
notorious for his virulent Toryism, by which
lie incurred the personal displeasure of
William III. Under Anne he became a
Privy Councillor and paymaster-general.
Howe, Joseph (b. 1804, d. 1873), colonial
statesman, born at Halifax, Nova Scotia ;
obtained municipal privileges for cities
in the British colonies ; was colonial agent
in England on several occasions, and was
one of the originators of the idea of re-
sponsible government in the colonies. In
1870 he was made secretary of state for the
provinces in the Dominion of Canada.
Howe, Eichard, Earl (b. 1725, d. 1799),
admiral, called by his men " Black Dick ; "
took part in the Seven Years' war, the
American war, and the Revolutionary war,
winning a great victory over the French
off Ushant on June 1st, 1794. He became
First Lord of the Admiralty in 17S3, and
was created an earl in 1788.
Howe, William, Lord (6. 1725, d. 1814),
general ; succeeded Clinton as commander
of the English troops in the American war,
won the battle of Lon^' Island in 1776, and
took New York; den -a ted Washington at
Brandywine in the following year, and re-
pulsed him at Germanstown. He was re-
called in May, 1778.
HowelDha (d. 948), Prince of South
Wales, united the whole country under him
in 939 ; made a journey to Rome with the
object of preparing a code, and owned the
suzerainty of Athelstan in 926.
Howell, James (b. 1594, d. 1666), traveller
and author, employed abroad in 1626, secre-
tary to Lord Scroop, represented Richmond
in 1627, with Leicester in Denmark in 1632,
and clerk to the Privy Council in 1642. He
was imprisoned in the Fleet for several
years, but at the Restoration was made His-
toriographer - royal. Author of Epistoks
Ho-Eliana, etc.
Howell, Laurence (6. 1660, d. 1720),
English nonjuror, author of Synopsis
Canonum, and The Case of Schism in th*
Church of England Stated, for which last he
Was fined, imprisoned, and degraded.
Ho wells, William Dean (b. 1837), American
novelist, born at Martinsville, Ohio ; was
United States consul at Venice from 1861
to 1865. From 1871 to 1880 he edited the
Atlantic Monthly, but soon began to devote
his time to novel -writing. Chief among
his novels are The Lady of the Aroostook
(1879), A Modern Instance (1882), A Fearful
Responsibility, etc. (1881), and The Shadow
of a Dream (1820). He also wrote lives of
Lincoln and Hayes, Modern Italian Poets
(1888), and some poems.
Howick, Lord. [See Grey, Charles.]
Howitt, William (b. 1792, d. 1879), English
writer (a Quaker) ; married Mary Botham in
1819, and with her wrote The Forest Minstrel
(1823) and The Desolation of Eyam (1827),
poems. In 1831 he produced The Book of the
Seasons, in 1838 Rural Life in England, and
Homes and Haunts of the British Poets
(1847). In 1851 he visited the Australian
goldfields. Mary Howitt joined him in
writing Ruined Abbeys of Great Britain, and
herself wrote Tales of English Life (1881).
She died in 1888, having entered the Roman
church.
Howland, Sir William, K.C.M.G. (b.
1811), Canadian statesman ; born in New
York State, removed to Canada in 1830,
and became a large mill-owner. Having
entered the Legislature, he became a member
of the Executive Council in 1862, minister of
finance 1862-3, receiver-general 1863-4,
and again in 1866 ; postmaster-general
1864-6, and minister of inland revenue in
1867. From 1868 to 1873 he was lieutenant-
governor of Ontario.
Howley, William (b. 1765, d. 1848), Bishop
of London 1813-28 ; Archbishop of Canter-
bury 1828-48.
Eoworth, Henry Hoyle (b. 1842), his-
torian ; born in Lisbon, and educated at
Rossall ; was called to the bar in 1867, and
entered Parliament for Salford as a Con-
servative in 1886. He is the author of a
History of Chingiz (Genghis} Khan and his
Ancestors, The Mammoth and the Flood, and
A History of the Mongols.
Howson, John Saul (6. 1816, d. 1885).
theologian, became principal of Liverpool
College in 1849, and Dean of Chester in
1867. He was the author, with Rev. W. J.
Conybeare, of The Life and Epistl-es of St.
Paul (1852), and Horce Petrince (1883).
Eozier, Pierre d' (b. 1592, d. 1660), French
genealogist, patronised by Louis XIV.,
compiled Genealogie des Families de la France
(150 vols. in MS.). His son, f Louis (d.
1767), published Armorial General de la
France.
Huarte Navarro, Juan de Dios (16th
century) , Spanish philosopher and physicianf
author of Exatnen de Ingenios.
Hua
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Hug
Huayna-Capac (d. 1525), Emperor of
Peru, reigiied for fifty years ; conquered and
civilised Quito, and died of despair soon after
the arrival of the first Spaniards.
Huber, Francois (*. 1750, d. 1830), blind
Swiss naturalist, son of Jean, born at Ge-
neva ; made many discoveries about bees,
and published them in hia Xouvelles Obser-
vations sur lea AbeilUs. His sou, PIEEEK
(d. 1841), was author of Recherche* sur ies
Founnis.
Huber, Jean (b. 1722, d. 1790), painter
and silhouettist ; also studied aeronautics,
and wrote Note sur la Maniere de Diriger lea
BaUonsfondee sur le vol des Oiseaux (1784).
Huber, Johann Rudolf (b. 1658, d. 1748),
painter, called "the Tintoret of Switzer-
land "; passed some time in Italy and at the
court of Wiirtemberg, and painted portraits
and historical pieces.
Hubert, St. (d. 727), apostle of the Ar-
dennes, and patron saint of huntsmen.
Hubert de Burgh (d. 1243), English states-
man and soldier; served Richard I. and
John, having charge of Prince Arthur at
Falaise. On the accession of Henry III.
he defended Dover against the dauphin, and
defeated the French fleet, and was regent
for some years. In 1227 he was made Earl
of Kent, and justiciary for life, but was re-
moved in 1232, and, taken from sanctuary,
was committed to the Tower. In 1234 he
was reconciled to Henry, but never took
office again.
Eiibner, Baron Josef (b. 1811, d. 1892),
Austrian diplomatist ; entered the service
under Metternich, and became consul at
Leipzig about 1844. In 1848 he was detained
prisoner at Milan by the Italians ; next year
he became ambassador at Paris, and signed the
treaty of 1856. He was recalled in 1859, and
subsequently became minister of police at
Vienna. Alter his retirement he wrote Life
and Times of Sixtns V. and Through the
British Empire, which have been translated.
Hiibner, Kudolf Julius Benno (b. 1806, d.
1882), German painter, anativeof Silesia; pro-
fessor and afterwards director of the royal
gallery at Dresden ; painted The Departure of
Xaomi^Happiness and Sleep, etc., andexhibited
at the Paris Exhibition of 1867 The Dispute
between Luther and Eck, and other pictures.
He also published some sonnets and songs.
Hucbald (6. 840, d. 930), monk of St.
Amand; is believed to have invented a
method of musical notation.
Huchtenburgh, Johann van (b. 1646, d.
1733), Dutch painter and engraver of battle-
pieces in the manner of "Wouvermans ; ex-
amples of his work are in the Louvre.
Hudson, Charles T. (6. 1848), English
naturalist ; discovered Pedalion mirum and
several new species of rotifera. He was
elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1889.
and was president of the Microscopical
Society 1888-90.
Hudson, Henry (d. 161]), English sailor,
made several voyages for the East India
Company ; discovered Hudson's Bay, but,
having been overcome by his men was cast
adrif t in a boat.
Hue, Francois (b. 1757, d. 1819), servant
of Louis XVI., whose JJevnieret Anneet he
published in 1806.
Huerta, Vincente de la (*. 1730, d. 1787),
Spanish writer, author of La Raquel, a
tragedy, and of Theatre Hispanol, a collection
of the best Spanish plays.
Euet, Pierre (b. 1630, d. 1721), French
scholar, Bishop of Avranchea ; was chief
editor of the Delphin classics, and wrote a
treatise against Descartes.
Hufeland, Christof Will (b. 1762, d. 1836),
German physician, author of a treatise on
the art of prolonging life (Macrobiotik).
Euggins, William, D.C.L., LL.D. (*.
1824), English astronomer ; built a private
observatory in 1855, and was elected fellow
of the Royal Society for his discoveries with
the spectroscope ten years later ; afterwards
re-examined the nebulae and the spectra of
comets, and obtained photographs of violet
parts of the star spectra, by means of which
data were gained for the determination of
the relative ages of the stars and of the sun.
He received the Lalande medal in 1872, was
president of the Royal Astronomical Society
from 1876 to 1878, arid was elected president
of the British Association for 1891.
Hugh Capet (d. 996), Count of Paris, first
King of France, in 987 was crowned on
the death of Louis V., and obtained the
kingdom for his descendants.
Hugh the Great, or le Blanc (d. 956),
Count of Paris and Duke of France ; carried
on war with Charles the Simple and Louis
IV. ; was excommunicated at the Council of
Ingelheim, and having made Lothaire king,
received from him Burgundy and Aquitaine.
Hughes, David Edward (6. 183^, Ameri-
can mechanician ; was born in London, but
early emigrated to the United States. In
1850 he was made professor of music at
Bardstown, in Kentucky, and soon suc-
ceeded to the chair of natural philosophy in
the same college. In 1854 he took out a
patent for his printing telegraph, which
was soon after tried and adopted in France,
after having been rejected in England. It
was adopted here in 1803, and is now almost
Hug
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in universal use. In 1878 Professor Hughea
announced the invention of the microphone,
and in 1879 that of the induction balance. In
1880 he was elected fellow of the Royal So-
ciety, and received the gold medal in 1885.
Hughes, John (6. 1787, d. 1857), English
writer, author of the Boscobel Tracts, and
composer of the Small-Coal Man, sometimes
attributed to Theodore Hook and Barham.
Hughes, Thomas (6. 1823), English writer;
educated under Arnold at Rugby, and at
Oriel ; was called to the bar in 1848, and sat
in Parliament as a Liberal for Lambeth
(1865-8), and Frome (1868-74). He became
Queen's Counsel in 1869, and county court
judge in 1882. His chief works are Tom
Mrown's School Days (1857), Tom Brown at
Oxford (1861), and A Memoir of Daniel
Mac mil Ian.
Hugo, King of Italy (d. circa 947), sou of
Thebault, Count of Aries, married Marozia,
and governed cruelly ; was subdued by Be-
renger, and returned to France.
Hugo, Victor-Marie, (b. 1802, d. 1885),
French poet and romance-writer, born
of noble parents at Besancon; began to
write verse at the age of fourteen, and soon
deserting classic models, became the founder,
with Sainte-Beuve and others, of the French
romantic school. In Like manner his early
royalism gave place to ardent republicanism.
Cromwell, Le Dernier Jour (Tun Condamnet
Marion Delorme, and, above all, Hernani,
were strougly censured by the Academic ;
but Charles X. would not prohibit the per-
formance of the last Le Roi s' amuse was,
however, interdicted by the ministry. Be-
tween the years 1830-40 appeared also Notre-
Dame de Paris, and several volumes of verse,
and the poet was elected to the Academie in
1841. In 1845 he also became pair de France.
In 1848 he was elected by Paris to the Con-
stitutional Assembly, and acted with the
Moderates, but in the next Assembly he be-
came one of the orators of the Left, and,
having attempted to resist the coup d'etat of
Louis Napoleon, was banished in 1851. He
lived chiefly in Jersey and Guernsey, and
wrote Les Contemplations and La Legende des
Siecles. He refused to avail himself of the
amnesties of 1859 aud 1869, but returned to
Paris in 1870. In 1866 appeared Les
Travailleurs de la Mer, and, after the return,
Quatre-vingt Treize (1872), L'Histoire d'ttn
Crime (1877), and many other works. Her-
nani was revived in 1867, aud Hugo became
a senator in 1879. He was buried in the
Pantheon, which was secularised for the
purpose. Chief among his lyrics were his
early Odes et Ballades, Les Feuilles d'Automne
(1831), Les Chants dn Grepmcide (1835), Les
Rayons et les Ombres (1840), and Chansons
des Rues et de* JBoin (1865). The romance,
Les Miserables (1862), was translated into
twelve languages.
Hugues d' Amiens (d. 1164), Abbot of
Readiug, and afterwards Archbishop ol
Rouen; quarrelled with Henry I., and re-
tired to Italy, but was present at the coro-
nation of Henry IL
Hugues de Clugny (d. 1109), Abbot of
Cluguy; mediated between Gregory VIL
and the Emperor Henry IV.
Hugues de Sainte-Marie (12th century),
Abbot of Fleury ; author of Chronicon Florea-
cense and De Potestate Regali et de Sacerdotali
Dignitate.
Eulin, Pierre (6. 1758, d. 1841), French
soldier, conspicuous at the taking of the
Bastille ; served under Bonaparte in Italy,
and was president of the council which con-
demned the Comte d'Eiighieu; afterwards
held high commands in Germany and
Austria.
Hull, Edward, LL.D., F.R.S. (5. 1829),
British geologist, graduated at Trinity
College, Dublin, 1850, and was for the next
twenty years employed in the geological
survey of the United Kingdom. He became
director in Ireland, and professor of geology
at the Dublin College of Science in 1869, aud
in 1883 was named head of an expedition
sent by the Palestine Exploration Society
to Palestine and Arabia Petrsea. In 1890
he received the Murchison medal. His
chief works are The Coalfields of Great
Britain, Sketch of Geological History (1887),
and A Text-book of Physiography (1888).
nullah, John Pyke (b. 1813, d. 1884),
musical writer, born at Worcester ; aftei
being professor of music at King's College,
was inspector of training schools from
1874 to 1882, in which year he received a
Civil List pension. Besides some operas,
The Village Coquettes (words by Dickens'),
The Barber of Bassora, etc., he wrote The
Grammar of Harmony, and republished his
lectures under the name of The History of
Modern Music and The Transitional Period
of Musical History.
Hullmandel, Charles J. (6. 1789, d. 1850),
English lithographer, son of a German
musician, invented the litho-tint process.
Hulls, Jonathan (18th century), published
a description of and took out a patent in
1737 for a machine for using steam as a
motive-power for boats.
Hulse, John (6. 1708, d. 1790), English
clergyman, of St. John's College, Cam-
bridge ; left funds for the foundation and
endowment of the Hulseau lectureship.
Humbert, Joseph Amable (6. 1767, d.
1823), French general, at first a dealer i»
Hum
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Hum
rabbit-skins ; commanded the expedition of
1798 to Irelaud, but Avas defeated by Coru-
\vallis aiid surrendered, after which, being
suspected by Napoleon, he was sent to the
"West Indies, and joined the insurrection of
the Spanish colonists.
Humbert I. [or IV.]? King of Italy (6.
1844), distinguished himself as Prince of
Piedmont in the Austrian war, and nearly
lost his life at Custozza : succeeded Victor
Emmanuel as King of Italy in 1878. In that
year an attempt to assassinate him was
made, but his popularity increased, and
culminated after his exertions in 1884
during the cholera epidemic. His reign
has been marked by the formation of the
Triple Alliance.
Humbert n., Dauphin of Viennois (6. j
1313, d. 1355), ceded Dauphins' and Vien- I
nois to Philip VI. of France, and retired
into a monastery in 1349.
Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander,
Baron von (b. 1769, d. 1859), German natura-
list and geographer, born at Berlin, was a
pupil of HeyneandBlumeubachat Gb'ttingen,
and studied mining at Freiberg with Jame-
son. In 1799, with Bonpland, he set out on
his travels, which lasted five years, during
which he visited Teneriffe and explored
South America and Cuba. After 1807 he
lived chiefly in Paris, and his Voyages aux
Regions Equinoxiales du Nouveau Continent
appeared between 1809 and 1825. In 1810
and 1811 he also published Vues des Cor-
dille'res and Essai Politique sur Nouveau
Espagne. In 1814 he came to England, and
in 1822 visited Rome and Naples. After
studying chemistry with Gay-Lussac and
BerthoUet, he left Paris for Berlin in 1827.
Two years after he made a rapid journey
across Siberia, and between 1830 and 1848
was employed on various diplomatic mis-
sions. Between 1835 and 1838 appeared his
Exainen Critique de la Geographic du
Nouveau Continent, and between 1845 and
1848 his Cosmos.
Humboldt, Karl Wilhelm von (b. 1767,
d. 1835), philologist and statesman, elder
brother of the above ; wrote a criticism on
Hermann und Dorothea in 1800, and, after
philological researches made in retirement,
went in 1802 as Prussian minister to Rome,
but soon returned to Berlin, of whose uni-
versity he was one of the chief founders
when minister of public instruction. Signed
the capitulation of Paris in 1815, was at
Frankfort in 1816, and at the Congress of
Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but retired from
public life next year. His chief works were
jfEsthetische Versuche (1799), Priifung der
Untersuchugen iiber die Urbewohner Hispa-
niens vermittelst der Baskischen Sprache
(1821), etc.
Hume, David (*. 1711, d. 1776), philo-
sopher and historian, born at Edinburgh;
after being a merchant's clerk at Bristol,
studied in France for several years, and
published in 1739 his Treatise on Human
Soture. His Essays, Moral and Political,
which appeared in 1741, attracted some
attention. After being secretary and tutor,
he became a librarian at Edinburgh, and in
1763 went to Paris as secretary to the
British embassy, and made the acquaintance
of the philosophes. After this he Lived in
London, and was under- secretary of state.
His History of England appeared between
1754 and 1762, and the Natural History of
Religion in 1755.
Hume, Hamilton (6. 1797, d. 1873), Aus-
tralian explorer, born at Paramatta ; with
W. H. Hovell made the first overland jour-
ney (1824), from Sydney to Port Philip, and
discovered Lake Bathurst, the Goulburn
Plains, etc., receiving a grant of land for
his services. He afterwards went with
Sturt to the Macquarie river.
Hume, Joseph (b. 1777, d. 1855), poli-
tician, born at Montrose; went to India
in 1797 as an army-surgeon, and became
interpreter and commissary -general, being
with Lake in the Mahratta war. In 1812 he
became member for Weymouth, but his
extreme views compelled an early retire-
ment. Having meanwhile formed the ac-
quaintance of Beutham and the elder Mill,
he was returned for Aberdeen in 1818, and
afterwards represented [Middlesex, Kil-
kenny, and Montrose. He was energetic
in reducing expenses, and in his protests
against flogging in the army, press-gangs,
and imprisonment for debt ; and he also
detected the Orange plot of 1835. He pro-
moted the establishment of savings banks,
and the Laucasterian system of education.
Hummel, Johann Nepomuk (b. 1778, d.
1837), German pianist and composer, kapell-
meister to Prince Esterhazy and the King of
Wlirtemberg, and pupil of Mozart and
Haydn ; was director of the theatres of
Stuttgardt and Weimar, and composed
several operas, two masses, and some
pianoforte pieces.
Humphreys, Henry Noel (b. 1810, d.
1879), English antiquary, author of Ancient
Coins and Medals (1850), Coinage of the
British Empire, and British Moths.
Humphry, Sir George Murray, M.D.,
F.R.S. (b. 1820), surgeon, born at Sudbury,
became professor of anatomy at Cambridge
1866, and of surgery 1883. In 1868 he
became a member of the council of the
College of Surgeons, and subsequently
fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and
vice-president of the British Medical Asso-
ciation. He was knighted in 1891, and
Hnn
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Hnn
his cHief works are A Treatise on the
Human Skeleton (1858). On Myokgy (1872),
and Old Age (1889).
Eunneric (d. 484), King of the Vandals,
succeeded Genseric in 477, and as an Arian
persecuted the orthodox.
Hu Tin iades, Johannes Corvinus (d. 1456),
Hungarian general and voivode of Transyl-
vania; defeated the Turks at Kunobitza
and other places, was regent of the king-
dom for some years, and was defeated at
Cossova in 1448, but afterwards dispersed
the Turkish fleet in the Danube, and made
a name for himself by his storming of Bel-
grade (1456). He died of his wounds.
Hunnius, Gilles, or JEgidius (6. 1550, d.
1603), Lutheran reformer, opposed the Cal-
vinists, and drew up the articles now used
in the Saxon Church.
Hunt, Alfred William (b. 1830), English
painter, won the Newdigate, and became
fellow of Corpus Christi College ; exhibited
Llyn Idwal at the Academy in 1856, and
other pictures admired by Buskin ; joined
the Water-Colour Society, and afterwards
exhibited many water-colours and oils in
the Turner manner.
Hunt, Frederick Knight (d. 1854),
journalist; established the Medical Times,
edited the Pictorial Times, and, after being
assistant to Dickens, became editor of the
Daily News in 1851. He wrote The Fourth
Estate ; a History of the English Newspaper
Press.
Hunt, Right Hon. George Ward (b. 1825,
d. 1875), statesman, educated at Eton and
Christ Church ; was called to the bar in
1851, and returned for Northamptonshire
as a Conservative in 1857. After having
been financial secretary to the Treasury, he
became Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1868,
and First Lord of the Admiralty in 1874.
Hunt, Henry (b. 1773, d. 1835), Radical
reformer, called " Orator Hunt ; " engaged
in farming for many years, but, after suf-
fering imprisonment for challenging his
superior officer in the yeomanry, became
one of the early Radicals. He was rejected
at Bristol and several other places, but sat
for Preston from 1830 to 1833. For his
speech at Spa fields, which led to the
"Manchester massacre," he was sent to
prison for three years, where he wrote his
Autobiography.
Hunt, James, Ph.D. (*. 1833, d. 1869),
physiologist, founder and first president
of the Anthropological Society, which first
met in 1863.
Hunt, JamesHenry Leigh (6. 1784, d. 1859),
essayist and critic; after having been in
the office of his brother, an attorney, and &
clerk in the War Office, became in 1808
editor of the Examiner, with Hazh'tt and
Lamb on his staff, and was fined and im-
prisoned for two years (1813-15) for an
attack on the Regent. While in prison he
wrote Rimini, and in 1821 went to Italy to
join Byron and Shelley in the establishment
of a paper. This came to little on account
of Shelley's death and Byron's going to
Greece, but while in Italy Hunt wrote The
Religion of the Heart, and translated Eacco
in Toscana. On his return he published
Byron and his Contemporaries (1828), Cap-
tain Sword and Captain Pen (a poem), and
in 1840 The Legend of Florence. Having
received a Civil List pension, and an annuity
from Mrs. Shelley, he devoted his last years
to critical essays (Wit and Humour, etc.),
and to the composition of his Auto-
biography.
Hunt, Robert (6. 1807, d. 1887), geol-
ogist, self-educated; was first professor
of mechanical science in the School of
Mines, and afterwards became keeper of
mining records at the Museum of Practical
Geology, and F.R.S. He originated the
Miners' Association of Cornwall and Devon,
was a member of the commission to inquire
into un worked coalfields in 1866, and wrote,
besides the Handbook to the Exhibitions of
1851 and 1862, a work on photography
S.842), Researches in Light, The Poetry of
yience, and several other works.
Hunt, Thomas Sterry (b. 1826), American
scientist, born at Norwich, Connecticut ;
was employed in the geological survey of
Canada in 1847, and became professor of
chemistry in Laval University, Quebec. In
1872 he was given the chair of geology in
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
He was elected F.R.S. in 1859, and was
president of the Canadian Society in 1884-5.
He is author of Mineral Physiology and
Physiography (1886), A New Basis for
Chemistry, and Systematic Mineralogy.
Hunt, William Henry (b. 1790, d. 1864),
painter, son of a tin-plate worker; waa
apprenticed to John Varley, and first ex-
hibited about 1814, joining the old Water-
Colour Society ten years later. Of his
figure-pieces, The Blessing and The Shy
Sitter may be mentioned, but he was
chiefly, perhaps, known for his pictures of
fruit and flowers.
Hunt, William Holman (b. 1827), painter
of the pre-Raphaelite school, son of a
London warehouseman ; made the ac-
quaintance of Varley, and studied at the
Academy. In 1853 he exhibited Clandio and
Isabella and The Awakened Conscience, and
in 1854 The Light of the World, now in
Keble College Library. After this he went to
Hun
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Hns
the East, and on his return painted The
Scapegoat (18-36), The Finding of the
Sariour in the Temple (18.VI), and Isabella
and the Pot of Basil (1S66J. Among his
more recent pictures are The Fettival of
St. Swithin, The Shadow of Death, and The
Ti'iumph of the Innocents, etc.
Hunter, Colin, A.E.A. (6. 1841), English
painter, born aud educated at Helensburgh.
where he was for some years a clerk. Chief
among his pictures are Trawlers Waiting for
Darkness (1873) ; Salmon Stake-Nets (1S75),
now at Sydney; Their Only Harvest (1878),
purchased for the Chantrey Bequest ; Wa\t-
\ng for the Homeward Bound, at Adelaide ;
Herring Market at Sea (1884), at Man-
chester; The Hills of Moreen (1890).
Hunter, John (b. 1728, d. 1793), Scottish
Burgeon, brought up as a turner, went to
London in 1748, and was with the expe-
dition to Belle-isle in 1761. He became
surgeon- extraordinary to the king in 1776,
and published Natural History of the
Human Teeth, and other papers. His col-
lection was bought by the nation for
£15,000. Anne, his wife (d. 1821), wrote
The Mermaid1 s Sony, and other poems.
Hunter, John Kelso (6. 1802, d. 1873),
Scottish artist, son of an Ayrshire cobbler,
worked at his father's trade while he also
painted ; exhibited at the Academy a por-
trait of himself as a cobbler, and wrote,
among other works, Retrospect of an
Artist's Life (1868).
Hunter, Joseph (*. 1783, d. 1861), English
clergyman, assistant-keeper of the records,
and author of A History of Hallamshire,
and other topographical works, as well as
of Historical Tracts (1849).
Hunter, William (d. 1815), Scotch sur-
geon and Orientalist, went to Java, and was
for some time professor at Calcutta. He
wrote An Account of Pegu, and was secre-
tary of the Asiatic Society for many years.
Hunter, Sir William Guyer, K.C.M.G. (6.
1831), English surgeon, entered the Indian
medical service, and served in the Mutiny
and the Burmese wars. In 1876 he was
made principal of the Grant Medical
College, and in 1879 vice-chancellor of
Bombay university. In 1883 he served on
the Cholera Commission in Egypt, and in
1885 entered Parliament for Central Hack-
ney as a Conservative.
Hunter, Sir William Wilson (6. 1840),
Indian civilian ; educated at Glasgow Uni-
versity, went to India in 1862, and was
sent to Orissa during the famine of 1866.
After having been on the Bengal secre-
tarial staff, he became in 1871 director-
general of statistics. In 1881 he was made
an additional member of the Viceroy's
council, and in 188(5 member of the finance
committee. In 1887 he was knighted. He
is author of Indian Mitsalmans, Br^f
History of tlte Indian Teuple, a Life. <>J
Lord Jfayo, and other worka on Indian
subjects.
Huntingdon, Selina, Countess of (b. 1707,
d. 1791), was the patron of Whitefield, and
the founder of a sect which bears her name.
She founded schools, and spent large sums
in private charity. Her Memorials were
written by A. H. New.
Huntiagton, Daniel (6. 1816). American
painter, born at New York ; studied under
S B. F. Morse and in Italy, and visited
England in 1851, when he painted the por-
traits of several well-known persons.
Among his productions may be mentioned
The Toper Asleep and Th* Bar- Room Poli-
tician, The Roman Penitents and The Com"
munion of the Sick (in Italy), Lady Jane
Grey ana Feckenham in the Tower, The
Republican Court, Titian and Charles V.t
and several Shakespearian subjects.
Huntington, Robert (b. 1636, rf. 1701), Ori-
entalist and divine, was chaplain at Aleppo
and travelled in Egypt, Palestine, and
Cyprus, collecting MSS., which are now in
the Bodleian. After his return he became
provost of Trinity College, Dublin, and
Bishop of Raphoe.
Huntsman, Benjamin (b. 1704, d. 1776),
English inventor of cast steel.
Huot, Jean Nicolas (b. 1790, d. 1845),
French naturalist, travelled in the Crimea
and the Kouban, and brought out Nouveau
Cours JZlementaire de Geologie (1837-8),
Nouveau Manuel Complet de Geologie
(1841).
Huppazoli, Francisco (b. 1587, d. 1702), a
Piedmontese, who lived to the age of 105,
married five times, and had about fifty
children. He left in manuscript Journal
des Hvenements les Plus Importants de mon
Temps.
Hurlstone, Frederick Yeates (b. 1801, d.
1869;, English artist, exhibited at the
Academy from 1821 to 1830, and after-
wards at the Society of British Artists, of
•which he became pro. ^jut. At the Paris
Exhibition of 1855, to which he sent Arthur
and Constance and The Farewell of Boabdil
to Granada, he was awarded a gold medal
HusMsson, William (b. 1770, d. 1830),
statesman, was returned as a Tory for
Morpeth, and became in 1804 secretary
to the Treasury. From 1814 till 1823 he
was Commissioner of Woods and Forests,
and then became President of the Board of
Hus
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Ent
Trade, and a cabinet minister. Under
Canning, whom he regarded as his leader,
he was Secretary for the Colonies. Though
opposed to reform, he resigned his post
under the Duke of Wellington on a question
of this nature. After this the Canningites
acted partly with the Opposition. Hus-
kisson was killed by an engine in Septem-
ber, 1830, at the opening of the Liverpool
and Manchester Railway. He did much to
forward economical improvements, and is
said to have written Canning's financial
speeches.
Huss, or Hus, Johann (b. probably 1369, d.
1415), Bohemian reformer, attacked abuses
in Prague university aud among the clergy,
and opposed German predominance. He
was excommunicated by John XXIII. for
giving adhesion to Wycliffe's doctrines, and
afterwards wrote his Tractatus de Ecdesia.
Having gone to the Council of Constance
tinder a safe- conduct from the emperor,
his enemies procured his imprisonment as a
heretic, and, on refusal to retract, he was
burnt.
Hussein Pacha (b. 1773, d. 1838), last
Dey of Algiers, dethroned by the French
after a two years' blockade of the coast.
Husson, Jean Honore (6. 1803, d. 1864),
French sculptor, pupil of David d' Angers;
gained the gold medal at the Exhibition of
1837 for his L'Ange Gurdien Offrant d Dieu
un Pecheur Repentant, now in the Luxem-
bourg museum. Other specimens of his
work are statues of Bailly and Voltaire at
the Hotel de Ville, a marble bust of Louis
Philippe at Home, and a statue of Victory
made for the funeral ceremony of Napoleon
L in 1840.
Hutcheson, Francis (b. 1694, d. 1747),
Scotch metaphysician, professor of moral
philosophy at Glasgow, wrote A System of
Moral Philosophy and other works.
Hutchinson, John (b. 1616, d. 1664),
colonel in the Parliamentarian army during
the Great Rebellion, defended Nottingham
against the Royalists, and was one of the
commission who tried the king. His
Memoirs were written by las wife.
Hutchiaspn, John (*. 1674, d. 1734),
English divine, author of Moxeis Principia,
founder of a so-called philosophical school,
which asserted that all philosophy and
theology were contained in the Old Testa-
ment.
Hutchinson, Jonathan, F.R.S. (6. 1828),
English surgeon ; was president of the
Hunterian Society 1869-70, and subse-
quently of the Pathological and Ophthalmo-
logical, and professor of surgery in the
College of Surgeons 1877-83. He was a
BB
member of the Royal Commission of Inquiry
into the condition of the London fever and
small-pox hospitals in 1881.
Hutchinson, J. Hely. [See Hely -Hut-
chinson.]
Hutchinson, Thomas (6. 1711, d. 1780),
administrator, born at Boston ; became
chief justice and lieutenant-governor of
Massachusetts, and was entrusted with
the enforcement of the Stamp Act. In
1774 he was removed from the post of
governor, and came to England, his cor-
respondence with the home government
having been published by Franklin. He
wrote a History of the Colony of Massachu-
setts Bay.
HutcMnspn, Thomas Joseph, M.D. (b.
1820), administrator, born in Ireland, was
appointed in 1855 consul at the Bight
of Biafra and Fernando Po. As consul at
Rosa,rio in the Argentine Republic he ex-
plored the Salado Valley in search of wild
cotton in 18u2-3, and was consul at Callao
from 1870 to 1873, when he was granted a
pension. He wrote, among other works,
Impressions of Vt'entern Africa (1858),
Bne/ios Ayres and Argentine Gleanings
(1865), and Two Years in Peru (1874), and
was delegate of the British Anthropological
Institute to the Intel-national Geographical
Congress at Venice in 1881.
HutcLiison, John, R.S.A. (b. 1832), sculp-
tor, executed the carvings for the picture-
gallery of Arbroath in 1852, began to ex-
hibit in the Scottish Academy in 1856, and
three yeai-s later modelled the bust of
Harold Hardrada which was bought for Lord
Duft'erin. He became librarian of the Scot-
tish Academy in 1877, and treasurer in 1886.
He executed a bust of the Queen in 1888,
and has several times exhibited at the
Royal Academy.
Hutten, Ulrich von (b. 1488, d. 1523),
German reformer and poet ; ran away
from the Fulda monastic school, travelled
and served in the Imperial army ; defended
Reucliiiu, and attacked obscurantism in
Epiatolee- Obscurorum Virorum, and was
knighted by the Emperor Maximilian with
the title of " Imperial Poet; aud Orator."
He afterwards became known by his edition
of Valla's work on the Donative of Con-
atantine as a Reformer.
Hutton, Charles, F.R.S. (b. 1737, d. 1823),
English mathematician, born at Newcastle,
author of a Mathematical and Philosophical
Dictionary (1796), and a Course of Mathe-
matics (1798).
Hutton, James (b. 1726, d. 1797), geol-
ogist, born and educated at Edinburgh ;
was the founder of the Plutonian ox
Hut
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Hyp
volcanic theory. His chief works are The
Progress of Reason from Sense to Science an L
Philosophy, and A Theory of t)w Earth ,
with Proof a /id Illustrations.
Button, William (b. 1723, d. 181/5), Eng-
lish wriu-r, the son of poor parents at
Derby; was a stocking- weaver and then a
bookseller at Birmingham, where his house
was destroyed by the rioters in 1791. He
wrote The Court of Requests and several
local histories, and his ^.-Lutobiography was
published after his death.
Huxham, John, F.R.S. (6. 1694, d. 1768),
Ehysician, studied under Boerhaave at
eydeu, practised at Plymouth for thirty
years, and advocated the use of tincture of
bark.
Huxley, Thomas Henry, F.R.S. (6. 1825),
biologist, son of a schoolmaster at Baling;
as surgeon in the royal navy went to
Haslar, and with the Rattlesnake to Aus-
tralia, New Guinea, and the East Indies.
During the voyage he sent papers to the
Royal Society, and soon after his return
in 18-34 left the navy and devoted him-
self to scientific work. In 1854 he became
professor of natural history in the School
of Mines. In 1859 his Oceanic Hydrozoa
was published by the Ray Society, and
his Lessons in Elementary Physiology ap-
peared in 1866, his Elementary Biology in
187-5, and the Crayfish in 1881. He ac-
cepted and popularised the theory of evo-
lution in Man's I'hvce in Nature (1863),
became professor of physiology at the
Royal Institution, inspector of fisheries,
and in 1883 president of the Royal
Society. Besides the works mentioned,
he wrote Lay Sermons (1870), Hume (" Men
of Letters11 Series), Science and Culture
(1881), and carried on several religious
controversies with Professor Wace, Mr.
Gladstone, and others. He it was who in-
vented and applied to himself the term
"Agnostic."
Huyghens, Christian (b. 1629, d. 1693),
Dutch natural philosopher and astronomer,
was compelled to leave Paris by the revo-
cation of the Edict of Nantes. He had been
invited to France by Colbert, and during
his residence there visited England, and was
made fellow of the Royal Society. He
applied the pendulum to clocks, ascertained
the laws of collision of elastic bodies, and
discovered the rings of Saturn.
Huysum, Jan van (b. 1682, d. 1749), Dutch
painter (whose father and brothers were also
artists of some note), painted flowers, fruit,
and landscapes.
Hyacinthe, Pera [See Loisoru]
Hyde, Anne (b. 1637, d. 1671), first wife of
James, Duke of York (afterwards James II.),
and daughter of Lord Clarendon. The
marriage was not brought about without
great opposition from the royal family.
Hyde, Edward. [See Clarendon.]
Hyde, Thomas (*. 1636, d. 1703), Orient-
alist, became Bouley's librarian, Laudian
B-niVssor of Arabic and professor of
ebrew. He wrote Historia ltdiyiom*
rum Personum, and assisted Walton with
his Polyglot Bible.
Hyder All (b. 1728, d. 1782), Indian prince,
rose from a low position to be general-in-
chief of the forces of Arivas, Rajah of Serin -
gapatam, aud introduced European discipline
among his troops. He at last assumed the
sovereignty himself, made conquests from
the Mahrattas, and invaded the territories
of the British East India Company. Peace
was made in 176'J with the latter, but war
continued with the Mahrattas. Hyder All
died after having begun another war with
the Company, in which he had at first gained
some successes.
Hymers, John, D.D. (b. 1803, d. 1887),
English mathematician, was second wrangler
in 1826, and was elected fellow and tutor of
St. John's College. He was a fellow of the
Royal and other societies, and was author of
Treatises on Differential Equations, The In-
tegral Calculus^ Conic Sections, etc.
Hyndford, John, Earl of (b. 1701, d. 1767),
diplomatist, after being a representative
peer of Scotland and lord high com-
missioner to the General Assembly, was
sent as envoy- extraordinary to Prussia in
174:1, where he arranged the treaty of
Breslau between that country and Austria.
In 1744 he went to Russia, was made privy
councillor in 1756, and was ambassador at
Vienna from 1752 to 1764.
Hyndinan, Henry Mayers (b. 1842),
socialist, was educated at Trinity College,
Cambridge, and, as correspondent of the
Pall Mall Gazette, went to Italy in 1866.
After travelling in America and the colonies,
he became, in 1881, one of the chief founders
of the Social Democratic Federation. In
1886 he, with John Burns and others, waa
charged with inciting the mob who com*
mitted outrages at the West End, but was
acquitted. He is author of The Historic
Bases of Socialism vn England (1883), and
he had controversies with Herbert Spencer
and Bradlaugh (the latter vird voce) on social
subjects.
Hypatia (b. circa 370, d. 415), daughter of
Theon, head of the Platonic school of Alex-
andria, gave public lectures in philosophy,
but was brutally murdered by the partisans
of the Patriarch CyriL
(467)
Ign
Hyperides (d. 322 B.C.), Athenian orator,
disciple of Plato, is thought to be the author
of one of the Philippics of Demosthenes,
whose banishment he procured. He was
tortured and put to death by Antipater after
the battle of Crauon.
Hyrcanus- John (?* 106 B.C.), Jewish high
priest, son of Judas Maccabaeus, resisted
Antiochus Sidetes, and conquered Samaria
and Idumea.
Eyrcanus II., his son, was dethrone." by
his brother, Aristobulus, restored by the
Romans, but again dethroned and put to
death by Herod (30 B.C.).
lamblichus (d. circa 330), a Neoplatonic
philosopher, a disciple of Porphyry, born at
Chalcis, in Syria. Among his works are a
Life of Pythagoras and possibly a treatise
on the Mysteries of the Egyptians.
Ibarra, Joachim (6. 1725, d. 1785), a
Spanish printer, born at Saragossa.
Ibas, Bishop of Edessa in the 5th cen-
tury ; was alternately deposed and rein-
stated by several councils.
Ibn-Doreid (6. 838, d. 933), a famous
Arabian poet, born at Basscrah. He died
at Bagdad.
Ibn-Kaaldoon, Abd-er- Rahman (6. 1332,
d. 1406), Arabian poet, born at Tunis;
became grand cadi of the Malekite sect at
Cairo. He wrote a History of the Persians,
Arabs, and Berbers.
rbn-Knallikan, or Kailcan (b. 1211, d.
1282), grand cadi of Damascus; wrote a
Biographical Dictionary, part of which was
translated into English by M. de Slane
(1842-3).
Ibrahim, Pasha of Egypt (b. 1789, d.
1848), succeeded his father, Mehemet All,
in 1848, but reigned only two months.
Ibrahim Bey (b. circa 1735, d. 1817),
Mameluke chief, born in Circassia, became
governor of Cairo. He withdrew to Syria
during Bonaparte's invasion. After the
massacre of the Mamelukes by Mehemet
Ali he fled into Nubia.
Ibsen, Henrik (b. 1828), Norwegian dra-
matist, appointed director of the theatre at
Bergen in 1852, and in 1857 of that at
Christiania. Among his plays are Brand
(1866), Peer Gynt (1867), The Pillars of
Society (1877), Tht Doll's House (1879),
Ghosts (1881), etc.
Ibycus, a Greek lyric poet of the 6th
century B.C., born at Rhegium. Fragments
of his poems remain.
SB 2
Ictdnus, a Greek architect of the 5th
century B.C., built the Parthenon, and the
temples of Demeter at Eleusis, and Apollo
Epieurius, near Phigaleia.
Idaesleign, Stafford H. Northcote, Earl
of (b. 1818, d. 1887), statesman, dis-
tinguished himself at Oxford ; was called
to the bar in 1847, entered Parliament aa
Conservative member for Dudley (1855),
represented Stamford 1858-66, and North
Devon 1866-85. He was president of the
Board of Trade under Lord Derby (1866-8),
was transferred to the India office in 1868,
and became Chancellor of the Exchequer in
the ministry of Mr. Disraeli (1874). When
the latter was raised to the peerage he be-
came leader of the House of Commons. He
was raised to the peerage in 1885, and made
First Lord of the Treasury, and in 1886_was
appointed Foreign Secretary.
Iffland, August Wilhelm (b. 1759, d. 1814).
German actor and dramatist, appointed
director of the Berlin theatre in 1796.
Ignarra, Niccolu (b. 1728, d. 1808), Italian
antiquary, professor in the Royal Uni-
versity of Naples ; wrote De Palcestra
Neapolitana Commcntarium, etc.
IgTiatieff, Nicholas Paulovitch (6. 1832),
Russian diplomatist and soldier, was ap-
pointed ambassador at Pekin in 1859 and at
Constantinople in 1864. Here he gradually
assumed a defiant attitude towards the Porte,
proposing hard terms at the Conference of
Constantinople (1876). In 1877 he went on a
mission to the European courts, endeavour-
ing to gain their aid against Turkey. He
was minister of the interior in 188 1-2.
Ignatius (d. circa 107), saint and martyr,
probably a disciple of St. John, became
Bishop of Antioch about 69. During the
persecution nnder Trajan he was taken to
Rome, and suffered death in the amphi-
theatre. On the journey he wrote epistlea
to the churches in Asia, concerning which
there has been much controversy.
Ign
(468)
Inn
Ignatius, Father (Joseph Leycester Lyne)
(6. 1837), after working under Mr. Lowder
at St. George' 8-in-the-East, took the vow
and habit of a monk (18G2), and attempted
to revive mouasticisra in England, establish-
ing a Benedictine community at Llauthony
Abbey, where he now resides.
Dire, Johan (b. 1707, d. 1780), Swedish
scholar, professor of belles-lettres and politi-
cal science in the university of Upsala. His
chief work is a Cflossarium Suio-Ciothicuni.
Hbert, Courtenay Peregrine, C.S.I.,
C.LE. (b. 1841), as legal member of the
council of the Viceroy of India (1882-6),
originated the Ilbert Bill for amending
criminal procedure, the Bengal Tenancy
Bill, and other important measures.
Imbert, Joseph Gabriel (b. 1654, d. 1740),
French artist, became a monk, and painted
sacred subjects. His masterpiece is a Cal-
vary.
Inunermann, Karl Leberecht (b. 1796, d.
1840), German dramatist and poet, author
of The Princes of Syracuse, a comedy (1821),
and King Periander, a tragedy (1823), etc.
Ina, King of the West Saxons (d. 728),
succeeded Ceadwalla in 689 ; defeated the
King of Kent (694), and gained some terri-
tory from the Britons. In 728 he withdrew
to Rome, whr-re he died. He drew up a
code of the customary law of Wessex.
Inchbald, Elizabeth (b. 1753, d. 1821),
novelist and dramatist, born at Stanning-
field, in Suffolk, daughter of a farmer
named Simpson; came to London when
sixteen to gain a livelihood on the stage,
and married Mr. Inchbald, an actor. Her
Simple Story and Nature and Art rank high
among works of fiction.
Inchofer, Melchior (b. 1584, d. 1648), a
learned Jesuit, author of an unfinished
Ecclesiastical History of Hungary.
Incledon, Charles Benjamin (b. 1763, d.
1826), singer, born at St. Kevern, in Corn-
wall ; after serving in the royal navy, made
his first appearance in London in 1790, and
rapidly acquired great popularity. He was
particularly successful in singing ballads
such as Black Eyed Susan, The Arethusa,
and The Storm.
Indore, Maharajahs of. The dynasty was
founded by Malhar Rao, son of a shepherd,
about 1694. The following maharajahs
have reigned during this century : — JASWANT
RAO HOLKAE (6. circa 1775, d. 1811), who
did much to restore the power of his family;
MALHAB RAO HOLKAB (6. 1805, d. 1833),
who became feudatory to Britain in 1818 ;
HABI RAO (d. 1843) ; TAKAJI RAO HOLKAB
(b. 1825, d. 1886), selected by the British Gov-
ernment ; BHAO RHAO HOLKAB (b. 1855).
Ingelow, Jean (b. 1820), became known
as a poetess at an early age. She has also
written Of the Skelligs (1572), Fated to be
Free (1875), and other novels. A collection
of her poems was brought out in 1880.
Ingenhousz, Jan (b. 1730, d. 1799), a
celebrated Dutch physician and chemist.
Ingersoll, Jared (b. 1749, d. 1862), Ameri-
can jurist and statesman.
Ingersoll, Robert Green (b. 1833), Ameri-
can lawyer ; was colonel of a Federal regi-
ment 1862-65, and in 1866 State Attorney-
General. Is a well-known orator and
an ti- Christian lecturer.
Inghirami, Francesco (b. 1772, d. 1846),
Italian archaeologist, wrote Monumenti
Etruschi, etc.
Inghirami, Tommaso, called " D Fedra'*
(b. 1470, d. 1516), Italian scholar and
orator, wrote in Latin a commentary on
Horace's De Arte Poetica, and other works.
Inglis, Henry David (b. 1795, d. 1835),
born at Edinburgh, visited several European
countries, and wrote descriptions of hia
travels.
Inglis, Sir John (b. 1814, d. 1862), general,
commanded the garrison at Lucknow, after
the death of Lawrence and Banks, till
relieved by Havelock.
Inglis, Sir Robert (b. 1786, d. 1855),
member of Parliament for Oxford Uni-
versity from 1829 to 1847, was a leader of
the extreme Tory party, and vigorously
opposed the Maynooth grant.
Ingram, John H. (b. 1849), has written a
Memoir of Poe (1874), and contributed a
Life of Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1888)
to the "Eminent Women" Series, of which
he is editor.
Ingrain, John Kells, LL.D. (6. 1823),
was appointed professor of Greek in Trinity
College, Dublin, in 1866 ; has delivered
some important addresses on economical sub-
jects, and contributed the article Political
Economy to the Encyclopedia Britannica.
Ingres, Jean Dominique Auguste (b. 1780,
d. 1867), French artist, painted the Apo-
theosis of Homer (1827), the Source, and
other works in the classical style. He was
also a good musician.
Ingulph (d. 1109), secretary of William,
Duke of Normandy, who, after the Con-
quest, made him abbot of Crowland (1085).
The history of the abbey which bears his
name is now known to be a forgery.
Innocent L (d. 417), Pope, a native of
Albano, elected Bishop of Rome in 402 ;
Inn
(469)
Irv
zealously upheld the supremacy of the
Koman see. He excommunicated Pelagius.
Innocent II., Pope (d. 1143), elected in
1130 ; was expelled from Rome by the sup-
porters of Anacletus II. ; excommunicated
hia rival in a council held at Pisa (1134) ;
in 1138 was reinstated by the Emperor
Lothar ; banished Arnold of Brescia (1139).
Innocent III., Pope (b. circa 1160, d. 1216),
son of Count Trasimund, a Koman noble;
elected in 1198, aimed at making the papacy
supreme in all European affairs. In 1212
he deposed the Emperor Otho, setting up
Frederick II. in his place. His dispute with
John of England concerning the appoint-
ment of Langton to the see of Canter-
bury lasted from 1207 to 1213. In that year
John admitted Langton, and surrendered
England to the pope, at the same time re-
ceiving it back as a papal fief. Innocent
favoured the fourth crusade (1200), and in-
stigated the Albigensian persecution (1214).
The fourth Lateran Council was held in 1215.
Innocent IV., Pope (d. 1254), a member
of the Fieschi family of Genoa, elected
in 1243 ; was forced by Frederick II. to re-
tire to Lyons in 1244. At a council held
there in 1245 the emperor was excommuni-
cated and deposed. After his death, in 1250,
Innocent returned to Rome. He now had
to contend with Frederick's sous, Conrad
IV. and Manfred of Sicily, and was finally
defeated by the latter in 1254.
Innocent X., Pope (Giovanni Battista
Pamfili), (b. 1572, d. 1655), elected in 1644 ;
issued a bull, condemning the propositions
of J onsen, in 1653.
Innocent XL, Pope (Benedict Odescalchi)
(b. 1611, d. 1689), elected in 1676; was in-
volved in a dispute with Louis XTV. regard-
ing the claims of foreign ambassadors to a
right of asylum within their own palaces and
in the neighbourhood, which led him to act
against James II. of England.
Iphicrates (*. 419 B.C., d. circa 350 B.C.),
Athenian general ; introduced a light target
in place of the heavy shield ; gained a victory
over the Spartans near Corinth (392) ;
saved Sparta when attacked byEpaminondas
(369) ; during the Social war took part in
an expedition against Byzantium.
Ireland, John (6. 1761, d. 1842), Dean of
"Westminster, contributed to the Quarterly
Review, and wrote numerous theological
works.
Ireland, Samuel "William Henry (b. 1777,
d. 183.5), forger of Shakesperean documents,
and finally of a play, Vortigern, which was
acted at Drury Lane, John Kemble taking
a part. The fraud was detected, and the
author obliged to confess.
Irenaaus (b. circa 140, d. 202 or 208), saint
and martyr ; a disciple of Polycarp ; born in
Asia Minor ; succeeded Pothinus as Bishop
of Lyons in 178, and is believed to have been
a victim in the persecution of Septimius
Severus. His treatise Against Heresies is
very valuable.
Irene (b. circa 752, d. 803), Empress
of the East, born at Athens, after the death
of her husband, Leo IV. (780), acted as
regent for her sou Constantino. In 790 he
assumed the government, but in 797 he was
deprived of his sight by Irene, who usurped
the throne. In 802 she was banished by
Nicephorus to Lesbos, where she died.
Ireton, Henry (b. 1610, d. 1651), soldier
and statesman ; after studying for the law,
joined the Parliamentary army, and com-
manded the left vring at Naseby ; in 1646
married Cromwell's daughter, Bridget ; took
part in the trial and condemnation of Charles
I. ; accompanied Cromwell to Ireland, and,
after his return, remained there as lord-
deputy.
Irving, Edward (6. 1792, d. 1834), founder
of the "Catholic and Apostolic Church";
educated at Edinburgh University ; entered
the Scottish church, and became assistant to
Dr. Chalmers at Glasgow (1819). In 1822
he became minister at Hatton Garden,
London, where his preaching drew large
congregations, and in 1826 removed to the
Presbyterian Church, Regeiit Square. He
now formed heretical opinions, especially in
regard to prophecy, which led to his sus-
pension in 1833.
Irving', Henry [John Henry Brodribb],
(b. 1838), actor, born at Keinton, near Glas.
tonbury ; acted at the Theatre Royal, Edin-
burgh, from 1856 to 1859, and afterwards
for seven years at Manchester. He played
in London in 1859, but attracted little notice
till his appearance at St. James's theatre
in 1866. He soon established a connection
with the Lyceum, of which he became
manager in 1878. There he has played his
chief parts, in conjunction with Miss Ellen
Terry, producing, amongst other plays,
Hamlet (1878), The Merchant of Venice
(1879), Faust (1886), Macbeth (1889), and
Henry VIII. (1892).
Irving, Washington (b. 1783, d. 1859),
American man of letters, son of a New York
merchant; was admitted to the bar in 1806,
but devoted himself to literature. In 1810
he became a partner in his brother's com-
mercial establishment, which failed in 1817.
He lived in Europe from 1815 to 1832, acting
as secretary to the American embassy in
London from 1829 to 1831. _ From 1842 to
1846 he was United States minister to Spain.
Among his works are Knickerbocker's His-
tory of New Jork (1809), Geoffrey Crayon'i
Isa
(470)
Itu
Sketch Book (1819), The Life of Columbus
(1828), The Chronicle of the Conquest of
Granada (1829), and lives of Mahomet (1850),
and Washington (1855-9).
Isaac, Hebrew patriarch, sou of Abraham
and Sarah ; married Rebecca, arid settled at
Gerar, izithe country of the Philistines, where
he amassed great wealth. He died at
Hebron at the age of 180.
Isaac L (Comiienus) (d. 1061), Emperor
of the East, choseu in place of Michael VI.,
in 10o7 ; ruled till 1059, when he became a
monk.
Isaac II. (Angel us) (d. 1204), succeeded
Andronicus Comuenus (1185) ; was deposed
and imprisoned by his brother Alexis (1195) ;
recovered his throne during the f ourth cru-
sade (1203).
Isabella of Castile (6. 1451, d. 1504),
daughter of John II. ; was married to Fer-
dinand of Aragou in 1469, and in 1474 suc-
ceeded her brother, Henry IV. , on the throne
of Castile. Isabella promoted the expedition
of Columbus. She was a wise and humane
ruler, but her religious zeal led her to con-
sent to the establishment of the Inquisition.
Isabella of France, Queen of England
(6. 1290, d. 1357), daughter of Philip the
Fair of France and wife of Edward II. ;
formed an illicit connection with Roger
Mortimer, Earl of March, and induced Par-
liament to depose her husband, in whose
murder she was probably concerned. In
1330 she and her paramour were suddenly
seized by Edward III., and Isabella spent
the remainder of her life in confinement at
Castle Rising, Norfolk.
Isabella II., ex- Queen of Spain (b. 1830),
ascended the throne on the death of her
father, Ferdinand VII., in 1833. Her uncle,
Don Carlos, challenged her claim, but was
finally defeated by Espartero in 1839. In
1843 Isabella married her cousin, Don Fran-
cis d'Assisi, Duke of Cadiz. The govern-
ment was alternately in the hands of
Espartero and the queen-mother, Christina ;
after the fall of the former in 1843, Christina
exercised much influence, but was expelled
from Spain in 1854. Espartero was again in
power from 1854 to 1856 ; after his resig-
nation a period of confusion and disorder en-
sued. Isabella, supported by the Pope,
pursued a reactionary and oppressive policy,
and was driven from the country by an in-
surrection in 1868. In 1870 she abdicated
in favour of her son Alfonso. She now
resides chiefly at Paris.
Isabey, Jean Baptiste (b. 1767, d. 1855),
French artist, painted miniatures of the
Bonaparte family and of many European
sovereigns.
Isaeus, Athenian orator, lived in the earlier
half of the 5th century B.C.
Isaiah, Hebrew prophet of the 8th century
B.C. ; passed his life at Jerusalem, where he
is said to have been sawn asunder by King
Manasseh. He is known to have had a wife
and two sons.
Ishmael (b. circa 1900 B.O., d. 1773 B.C.),
son of Abraham and Hagar, and ancestor of
the Arabians.
Isidore, St. (b. circa 570, d. 636), Bishop
of Seville, renowned for his learning ; he
wrote a History of the Goths, Vandals, and
Sueves, Origines, or Libri Etymologiarum
XX., etc.
Isidore, St. (6. circa 370, d. 450), an
ecclesiastical writer, head of a monastery
near Pelusium.
Isla, Jose Francisco (b. 1703, d. 1781), a
Spanish Jesuit ; wrote The History of Fray
Gerundio, a satire on the ignorance and
superstition of the monks.
Ismail Pasha, Khedive of Egypt (b. 1830),
succeeded his uncle, Said, in 1863. He in-
troduced many reforms, but burdened the
country with debt, and was deposed in
1879. '
Ismail I. (*. 1487, d. 1524), Shah of Persia,
founder of the dynasty of Sofees.
Ismail H. (d. 1577), Shah of Persia.
Isnard, Maxim in (b. 1751, d. 1830), an
eloquent Girondist orator ; elected to the
Legislative Assembly in 1791 ; was proscribed
in 1793, but escaped by hiding himself.
Isocrates (b. 436, d. 338 B.C.), Athenian
orator, taught at Athens, but, owing to his
timidity, never spoke in public. On hearing
of the battle of Chaeronea he refused to take
food and died of starvation. Twenty-one
of his orations remain.
Israels, Josef (b. 1824), Dutch artist, has
painted numerous pictures dealing with
peasant and seafaring life.
Istria, the Princess Dora d', the name
assumed by the Princess Helen Ghika (6.
1829), niece of Prince Gregory IV. of Wal-
lachia. She has greatly interested herself in
the political and social welfare of the Greeks
and the Slav races in Turkey and Northern
Europe, and has also published Les Femmet
en V Orient (1858), and other works.
Iturbide, Augustin de (6. 1783, d. 1824),
Emperor of Mexico ; took the lead in freeing
Mexico from the yoke of Spain, and was
proclaimed emperor (1822) ; was exiled by
the Republican party in 1823 ; attempting to
return the following year, was arrested on
the sea-coast, and shot.
Iva
(471)
Jac
Ivan IIL, of Russia, or Ivan Vasilie-
Vitch L (6. 1439, d. 1505), succeeded to the
throne in 1462. He freed Russia from the
Tartars by his victory over their Khan
Ahmed.
Ivan IV., or Ivan Vasilievitch II., "the
Terrible" (b. 1530, d. 1 584), came to the throne
in 1533, and assumed the title of Czar in
1547. He overthrew the Tartars, driving
them from Kasan and Astrakhan into the
Crimea.
Ivan VI. (b. 1740, d. 1764), became Czai
in 1740, but was deposed in 1741, and as-
sassinated by Catherine's command.
Iveteaux, Nicholas Vauquelin Seigneur
des (6. 1559, d. 1649), French poet, wrote
L* Institution d'un Prince, etc.
Jablonsld, Daniel Ernest (*. 1660, d. 1741),
a German Protestant theologian.
Jablonski, Paul Ernest (b. 1693, d. 1757),
son of the preceding, professor of theology
at Frankfort -on -the -Oder, was learned in
Coptic, and wrote Pantheon JEgyptiorum,
etc.
Jackson, Andrew (b. 1767, d. 1845),
American general and statesman, son of an
Irish immigrant ; served while a boy in the
War of Independence, afterwards studied
law, and was one of the original representa-
tives of Tennessee in Congress; became a
justice of the supreme court of Tennessee
in 1798; suppressed the Creek Indians in
1813 ; during the war with England com-
pletely defeated Sir Edward Pakenham near
New Orleans (1814) ; was elected president
in 1828, and re-elected 1832, in which
capacity he signalised himself by his defence
of the Union.
Jackson, John (5. 1686, d. 1763), an
English clergyman, noted for his Arian
views, wrote some treatises on the Trinity,
and a valuable work called Chronological
Antiquities.
Jackson, John, R.A. (b. 1778, d. 1831), a
portrait-painter. His best portraits are
those of Flaxman and Canova.
Jackson, Thomas Jefferson, "Stonewall"
(6. 1824, d. 1863), American general; took
part in the Mexican campaign ; became
professor in the Military Institute at Lex-
ington (1852) ; when the Civil war broke
out, became a colonel in the Confederate
army; gained his nickname by "standing
like a stone wall" at the battle of Bull
Run (1862) ; gained several victories during
1863, the most important being that over
Hooker at Chancellorsville. He died from
the effects of his wounds.
Jackson, William (b. 1730, d. 1803),
organist of Exeter cathedral, composed
•ongs, canzonets, and sonatas. He was also
a landscape-painter, and wrote a treatise
On the Present State of Music, etc.
Jacob, a Hebrew patriarch, son of Isaac
and Rebecca. He was also named Israel,
whence his descendants are called Israelites
or Children of Israel.
Jacob, Henry (b. circa 1562, d. circa 1626),
originally rector of Cheriton in Kent ; in
consequence of a work advocating church
reform, was obliged to withdraw to Leyden.
On his return he became minister of the
first Independent congregation in England.
He afterwards settled in Virginia, where he
died.
Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich (b. 1743, d.
1819), German man of letters and philo-
sophical writer, born at Diisseldorf , became
minister of state in 1772; was appointed
president of the Academy at Munich in
1805 ; maintained a correspondence with
Goethe, and was engaged in controversies
with Moses Mendelssohn and Schelling.
His chief works are AllwiWs Correspondence
(1779), Woldemar (1781), and Of Divine
Things and their Revelation (1811).
Jacobi, Johann Georg (b. 1740, d. 1814),
a German poet, brother of the preceding.
Jacobini, Ludovico (b. 1832, d. 1887),
Cardinal, was papal nuncio at Vienna from
1874 to 1880, and in 1878-9 did much to
settle the difficulties which arose between
Germany and Russia.
Jacobs, Friedrich Christian "Wilhelm (b.
1764, d. 1847), German philologist, spent
most of his life at Gotha, where he was
librarian to Duke Ernst II. Besides his
critical works, of which fbaAnthologia Graca
was the chief, he wrote All-win und Thcodor
(1802), Eosalien's Nachlass, etc., also several
papers on contemporary politics.
Jacoby, Johann (6. 1805, d. 1877), a Ger-
man politician, whose pamphlets on behalf
of religious and civil freedom often brought
into conflict with the government.
Jac
( 472 )
Jam
Jacopone, or Jacopo da Todi (d. 1306),
jtn Italian mouk aiid poet, left Cunti
Spirituali, and is supposed to have written
the hymu S'nbat Mater.
Jacptot, Joseph (b. 1770, d. 1840), born
at Dijon, appointed professor of French in
the university of Louvaiu in 1818 ; devised
a new method of education.
Jacquard, Joseph Marie (!>. 1752, d. 1834).
French mechanician, invented the Jacquard
loom, exhibited in 1801.
Jacquemart, Jules (b. 1837, d. 1880),
French artist, best known by his etchings,
of which those for his father's Histoire de la
Porcelaine, and Histoire de la Ceramique,
and for Gemmes et Joyaux de la Couronne,
are good examples.
Jagellon (b. 1354, d. 1434), Duke of
Lithuania, became ruler over Poland in
1386 by his marriage with Queen Hedwig.
He introduced Christianity into Lithuania,
Jago, James (b. 1815), physician, has
written Entoptics (1864), Entacoustics (1868),
and other works.
Jahn, Johann (b. 1750, d. 1816), appointed
professor of Oriental languages at Vienna
in 1789 ; was forced to resign in 1806 owing
to his Introduction to the Old Testament
(1804), and Archceologia Biblica (1805), which
were put in the index.
Jann, Otto (b. 1813, d. 1869), German
archaeologist, philologist, and art-critic,
professor at Leipzig (1847-51) and Bonn
(1855-69), wrote a Life of Mozart (1856-9),
and several philological works.
James, St. , the "Greater" Apostle (d. circa
44) , was put to death by Herod Agrippa.
James, St., "the Less" (d. circa 63),
one of the twelve apostles, supposed by
some to have been the son of a sister of the
Virgin; wrote the epistle which bears his
name, and became Bishop of Jerusalem.
According to Josephus, he was put to death
by the high-priest Ananias,
James, George Paine Rainsford (b. 1801,
d. 1860), historical novelist, author of
Richelieu (1829), Henry Masterton (1832),
etc. He died in Venice.
James, Henry (b. 1843), American novelist
and critic, has lived chiefly in Europe.
Among his novels are The Europeans and
Daisy Miller.
James, Sir Henry, Q.C. (b. 1828), entered
Parliament as a Liberal in 1869, and was
Attorney -General under Mr. Gladstone,
1873-74 and 1880-5.
James, Thomas Lemuel (b. 1831), Ameri-
can journalist and politician ; he effected
important reforms in the postal service
of New York, and was made postmaster-
general by President Garfield in 1881.
James, William (d. 1827), wrote a well-
known Sacal History of Great Britain,
wliich extends from 1792 to 1820.
James Francis Edward, called the Cheva-
lier de St. George, or " the Pretender " (b.
1688, d. 1758), son of James II. and Mary
of Modena, was brought up in France as a
Roman Catholic. He was in correspondence
with several leading statesmen during the
reign of Anne, and, after the accession of
George L, attempted to seize the kingdom
by force. Risings took place in the northern
counties and Scotland simultaneously (1715),
but the former were suppressed at Preston,
and the latter at Sheriffmuir. In December
James himself lauded in Scotland, but his
presence did little to animate his troops,
and it was determined to abandon the enter-
prise. The rest of his life was spent chiefly
in Italy.
James L, of Aragon (b. 1208, d. 1276),
became king in 1213.
James IL, of Aragon (b. circa 1260, d.
1327), became king in 1285.
James L, of Scotland (b. 1394, d. 1437),
of the house of Stuart ; was taken prisoner
by the English while on bis way to France
in 1405, and confined in the Tower. Two
years later he was removed to Windsor,
where he composed his poem The King's
Quair, and first saw his future wife, the
Lady Joan Beaufort. On his release in
1424 he determined to put an end to feudal
anarchy in Scotland. The Duke of Albany
and other nobles were executed, but at
length a conspiracy was formed against
him, and he was assassinated.
James II. (b. 1430, d. 1460), sou and
successor of the preceding ; was engaged in
a struggle with the Douglas family, and
supported Henry VI. of England. He was
slain whilst besieging Roxburgh castle.
James IV. (6. 1472, d. 1513), became king
in 1488 ; invaded England, and was defeated
and slain at Flodden Field.
James V. (6. 1512, d. 1542), son and
successor of the preceding, married Mary of
Guise in 1538. With the aid of the clergy,
headed by Cardinal Beaton, he succeeded in
curbing the nobles, but, owing to their
mutinous conduct, he was unsuccessful in
his war with the English. After the defeat
of Sol way Moss he died of a broken heart.
James L of England and VI. of Scotland
(6. 1566, d. 1625), sou of Mary, Queen of
Scots, and Henry, Lord Darnley, wa»
crowned on the deposition of his mother in
Jam
(473)
Jap
1567. During his minority the government
was, for the most part, in the hands of the
Earl of Morton, who in 1581 was executed
through the machinations of James's favour-
ites, Arran and Lennox. A struggle ensued
between Arran and the Scottish nobles,
which ended in the disgrace of the former
in 1585. A treaty was concluded with
England in 1586, and, notwithstanding the
execution of his mother (1587), James
maintained friendly relations with Elizabeth
throughout her reign. On her death in
1603 he became King of England. The
Hampton Court Conference (lOOi), an un-
successful attempt to reconcile the Puritans
to Church views, was followed by more
stringent measures against them. The
Roman Catholics were also dissatisfied;
hence the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. The
king soon fell under the influence of uu-
worthy favourites, of whom Robert Carr,
Earl of Somerset, and George Villiers,
Duke of Buckingham, were the most con-
spicuous. The arrogance of the latter, as
well as James's friendly relations with
Spain, and his refusal to assist his son-in-
law, the elector-palatine, the champion of
Protestantism, caused general discontent in
England. War was declared against Spain
in 1624, but, owing mainly to mismanage-
ment, nothing effectual was accomplished.
James IL (*. 1633, d. 1701), second sur-
viving son of Charles I., created Duke of
York in his infancy, was Lord High Admiral
from 1660 to 1673. He became king on the
death of Charles II. in 1685, and soon re-
vealed his aims by levying customs and ex-
cise duties without consent of Parliament,
receiving a pension from Louis XI V., and
sending an agent to Rome. The public dis-
content encouraged the Duke of Monrnouth,
illegitimate son of Charles II. , to attempt an
invasion, which was crushed at Sedgemoor
(July 5th). An attempt to evade the Test
Act by pardoning those who refused to take
the oath was followed by the Declaration of
Indulgence (1687), in which James vainly
sought to win over the Dissenters by freeing
them from its provisions. Four Roman
Catholic bishops were now consecrated, and
a Papist was appointed president of Mag-
dalen College, Oxford ; but the feeling of
the country was against the king, and when,
in 1688, Archbishop Sancroft and six other
bishops were prosecuted for objecting to the
Declaration, their acquittal was hailed with
universal joy. The crown was now offered
to William, Prince of Orange, by a majority
of the English nobles. In November, 1683,
he landed in Devonshire, and James soon
afterwards fled to France. In 1689 he pro-
ceeded to Ireland with a force furnished him
by Louis XIV., but was defeated in the
battle of the Boyne (1690), and hencefor-
ward lived in retirement at St. Germains.
Jameson, Anna (b, 1794, d. 1860), waiter
on art, bom in Dublin, daughter of a painter
named Murphy, married a barrister, whom
she left on account of his cruelty. She
published Lives of Early Italian '.Painters
(1845), Legends of the Monastic Orders
(1850), Legends of the Madonna. (1852), etc.
Jameson, Robert (b. 1772, d. 1854), was
appointed professor of natural history at
Edinburgh in 1804 ; wrote Mineralogy of th»
Scottish Isles (1800), A System of Mineralogy
(1304-8), etc.
Jamesone, George (b. circa 1588, d. 1644),
Scottish artist, studied at Antwerp under
Rubens, and painted portraits, including
one of Charles I., also landscapes and his-
torical pieces.
Jamieson, John (b. 1759, d. 1838), born at
Glasgow, was appointed minister of a church
in Edinburgh in 1797 ; wrote an Etymological
Dictionary of the Scottish Language (1809),
and other works.
Jane. [See Grey and Seymour.]
Jane of Navarre. {See D'Albret]
Jane I, Queen of Naples (b. 1327, <J.
1382), daughter of Charles, Duke of Gala-
bria, succeeded Robert the Good in 1343.
Jane IL, of Naples (b. 1370, d. 1435), sue-
ceeded her brother, Ladislaus, in 1414.
Janet, Paul (b. 1823), French philosopher,
author of La Famille (1855), Les Causes
finales (1876), etc.
Janin, Jules Gabriel (b. 1804, d. 1874),
a French critic and novelist. His dramatic
criticisms, written for the Journal des Debats,
have been published under the title Histoire
de la Litteratnre Dramatique. He also
wrote L"1 Ane mort et la Femme guillotinee
(1829), Bat-nave (1831), and other novels,
Correspondence (1877), etc.
Jansen, or Jansenius, Cornelius (b. 1585,
d. 1638), founder of the Janseuist sect, born
near Leerdam, was appointed professor of
divinity at Lou vain in 1617, and became
Bishop of Ypres in 163.3. He was a follower
of St. Augustine, and wrote Attgustinus^
controverting the doctrine of the Jesuits,
especially in the matter of necessity and
free will. It was condemned by Urban
VIII.
Janssen, Cornelis (b. 1590, d. 1665), Dutch
portrait painter, lived in England from 1618
to 1648. He was patronised by James I.
Japan, Rulers of. Prior to 1868 there
were two sets of rulers — those de facto, who
were called shoguns or tycoons, and those de
jure, the mikados, who were practically
prisoners of state. The names of the
Jar
(474)
Jef
tycoons from 17S7 were IYENOBI (1787-1838),
IYEYOSHI (1838-53), IYESADA (1853-59), IYE-
ICOCHI (1859-66), and YOSHINOBU (1867-68).
In 1868 a revolution took place, which re-
sulted in the restoration of the mikados.
MOUTZ Hrro (b. 1852), who then became
absolute ruler, has shown himself very open
to the influence of western civilisation.
Jarchi, Solomon ben Isaac, called " Has-
chi" (b. 1010 or 1104, d. 1105 or 1180), a
learned rabbi, noted for bis commentaries
on the Old Testament and the Talmud. He
travelled much in Europe and Asia.
Jasmin, Jacques (b. 1798, d. 1861). a
French poet, whose real name was Boe,
spent his life in his native town, Agen, as a
barber. He wrote Son Chalibar, L? Abuglo
de Castel Cuillb, Fran$onetto, La Semano <Tun
.Ft/, and other poems in the langue d'oc.
Jaucourt, Louis, Chevalier de (b. 1704, d.
1779), French encyclopaedist, studied at
Geneva, Cambridge, and Leyden, where he
published his Vie de Leibnitz (1734). After
returning to Paris (1736), he contributed
largely to Diderot's Encyclopedia.
Jay, John (b. 1745, d. 1829), American
jurist and statesman, born at New York,
was a member of the first American Congress
(1774) ; took part in negotiating the treaty
of peace with Great Britain, signed at Paris
in 1783; was appointed chief justice of
the United States in 1789 ; went to Great
Britain as envoy- extraordinary in 1794, and
concluded the treaty which bears bis name ;
became governor of New York in 1795.
Jay, William (b. 1769, d. 1853), English
Congregational minister, was in 1791 ap-
pointed to the Argyle chapel at Bath, where
he remained sixty-two years. He was the
author of several devotional works and an
Autobiography (1854).
Jeaffreson, John Cordy (b. 1831), English
author, has published A Book about Doctors
(1860), A Book about Lawyers (1866), A
Book about the Clergy (1870), The Real Lord
Byron (1883), The Heal Shelley (1885), Lady
Hamilton and Lord kelson (1888) ; also
several novels and other works.
Jeannin, Pierre (b. 1540, d. 1622), French
statesman and diplomatist, prevented a
massacre of Protestants at Dijon in 1572.
He was afterwards president of the Parlia-
ment of Burgundy ; became a trusted
minister of Henri IV. ; and was controller
of the finances to Marie de' MedicL
Jebb, John (b. 1775, d. 1833), divine,
appointed Bishop of Limerick in 1823, wrote
an Essay on Sacred Literature (1819).
Jebb, Richard Claverhouse (b. 1841), born
at Dundee, senior classical tripos 1862, was
appointed public orator at Cambridge in
1861J, aud professor of Greek at Glasgow iu
1875 ; has edited the Attic Orators (1876)
and Sophocles (1883), and written a Life oj
Bentley, etc. M.P. for Cambridge Univer-
sity 1891.
Jebb, Samuel (d. 1772), nonjuror and
classical scholar, was librarian to Jeremy
Collier, and afterwards practised as a phy-
sician in Essex. He edited Justin Martyr's
Dialogue and Roger Bacon's Opus Majus.
Jefferies, John Richard (b. 1848, d. 1887),
son of a Wiltshire farmer, began life by
writing for the North Wilts Herald (1866) ;
in 1877 settled at Surbiton, where he wrote
The Gamekeeper at Home, Wild Life in a
Southern County, The Amateur Poacher, and
other well-known sketches of country life.
Jefferson, Joseph (6. 1829), an American
actor, chiefly celebrated for his impersona-
tion of Rip Van Winkle ; published bis
Memoirs in 1891.
Jefferson, Thomas (6. 1743, d. 1826),
American statesman, son of a Virginia
planter, practised as a lawyer till the out-
break of the War of Independence ; after
writing a Summary View of the Rights oj
British Americans, was elected to the Con-
tinental Congress in 1 775, and drew up the
Declaration of Independence. He now
became a champion of advanced democratic
principles. He was governor of Virginia
in 1779, and minister-plenipotentiary at
Paris from 1785 to 1789 ; on his return was
appointed secretary of state under Wash-
ington; became leader of the Republican
party, and was vice-president in 1796. In
1800 he was elected president, and re-elected
in 1804.
Jeffrey, Francis Lord (b. 1773, d. 1850),
Scottish judge and literary critic, took
part in starting the Edinburgh Review
(1802), of which he was editor from 1803 to
1829. He was appointed Lord Advocate in
1830, and represented Perth and afterwards
Edinburgh iu Parliament. In 1834 he
obtained a seat on the Scottish bench.
Jeffreys, George. Baron (b. 1648, d. 1689),
born at Acton in Denbighshire, studied at
the Inner Temple, and became successively
Recorder of London, Chief Justice of the
King's Bench (1683), and Lord Chancellor
(1685). Already notorious for his scurrilous
behaviour on the bench, he truckled to the
arbitrary notions of James II., and branded
his name by his cruelty in punishing the
adherents of the Duke of Monmouth. On
the landing of William of Orange he at-
tempted to escape abroad in the disguise of
a sailor, but was arrested at Wapping, and
taken before the Lords, who placed him in
the Tower, where he died.
Jeh
(475)
Jer
Jehoahaz, son of Jehu, was King of Israel
from 8,36 to 839 B.C.
Jehoahaz, or Shallum (d. 610 B.C.), King
of Judah, succeeded his father, Josiah, and
reigned three months.
Jehoash. [See Joash.]
Jehoiakim, originally T*.iifl.lrlTn; was King
of Judah from 608 to 597 B.C.
Jehoiakin, or Jeconiah, was son of the
preceding, whom he succeeded. He reigned
three months.
Jehoram, or Joram, son of Ahab, was
King of Israel from 896 to 884 B.C. He was
slain in battle by Jehu.
Jehoram, or Joram (d. circa 885 B.C.), son
of Jehoshaphat, became King of Judah in
893 or 892 B.C.
Jehoshaphat (6. circa 950, d. 889 B.C.),
•on of Asa, became King of Judah in 914,
and ruled with justice and prudence.
Jehu (d. 861 B.C.), whilst an officer in
Jehoram' s army was anointed king over
Israel by a young prophet sent by Elisha.
After murdering Jehoram, he obtained the
royal power.
Jekyll, Sir Joseph (b. 1664, d. 1738), a
prominent member of Parliament, took part
in Sacheverell's trial, and became Master of
the Rolls under George I.
Jelf, William Edward (b. 1811, d. 1875),
English scholar, educated at Eton and
Christ Church, Oxford. He is chiefly
known by his Greek Grammar.
Jellachich von Buzim, Joseph, Baron (6.
1801, d. 1859), a general in the Austrian
service; was appointed Ban of Croatia in
1848, and defeated the Hungarians at
Schwechat, near Vienna.
Jenghiz Khan. [See Gengis Khan.]
JenMn, Fleeming (6. 1833, d. 1885), en-
gineer and electrician, appointed professor
of engineering in University College, Lon-
don (1865), and Edinburgh University
(1868), wrote Magnetism and Electricity and
other works.
Jenkins, Sir Leoline (b. 1623, d. 1685),
statesman and diplomatist, born at Llan-
trissant, Glamorganshire, educated at Jesus
College, Oxford ; served as a Royalist in the
Civil War ; left the country during the pro-
tectorate ; was principal of Jesus College
(1661-72); succeeded Sir William Temple
as ambassador at the Hague, and on his
return was appointed Secretary of State.
Jenkinson, Eobert. [See Liverpool.]
Jenner, Edward (*. 1749, d. 1823), after
studying under John Hunter (1770-2),
settled at his native town, Berkeley, in
Gloucestershire, as a surgeon. In 1798 he
published a work announcing his discovery
of the process of vaccination. He received
a grant of £10,000 from Parliament in
1802, and one of £20,000 in 1806.
Jenner, Sir William (b. 1815), physician,
educated at University College, London,
where he has filled various chairs. He was
appointed physician to the Prince of Wales
in 1863, and attended hirri in his dangerous
illness in 1871.
Jenyns, Soame (6. 1704, d. 1787), a writer
and politician, remembered as the author of
A Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin
of Evil (1757), and A View of the Internal
Evidence of the Christian Religion (1776).
Jephthah (d. circa 1182 B.C.), Judge of
Israel, vowed to sacrifice the first object he
met on his return from victory over the Am-
monites. His daughter came to greet him
with song and dance, but Jephthah was
faithful to his vow.
Jerdan, William (b. 1782, d. 1869), editor
of the Literary Gazette from 1817 to 1850.
Jeremiah (d. circa 580 B.C.), a prophet of
Judah, author of the book which bears his
name, and of the Book of Lamentations.
Jerningham, Edward (b. 1727, d. 1812),
poet and essayist, wrote The Rise and Fall
of Scandinavian Poetry, etc.
Jeroboam I. (d. 954 B.C.), first King of
Israel, chosen by the twelve tribes who
rebelled against Rehoboam.
Jeroboam IL (d. 785 B.C.), son of Joash,
became King of Israel in 826.
Jerome, or Hieronymus, St. (6. circa
346, d. 420), born at Stridon, in Dalmatia,
of Christian parents, studied at Rome under
Donatus ; after travelling in Gaul and eke-
where, adopted a studious and ascetic life,
spending four years in the desert of Chalcis,
in Syria ; was ordained presbyter in 378 ;
visited Constantinople, where he became
the friend and pupil of Gregory Nazianzen ;
returning to Rome, became secretary to
Pope Damasus, but after his death (384)
withdrew to the Holy Land, accompanied
by Paula, Eustochium, and other Roman
ladies devoted to the ascetic life. For the
remainder of his days he presided over a
monastery established by Paula at Beth-
lehem. Here he completed his translation
of the Bible from Hebrew into Latin,
known as the Vulgate. He wrote numerous
commentaries on the Old and New Testa-
ments, and was engaged in controversies
with Rufinus, the Pelagians, and others.
Jerome of Prague (b. circa 1378, d. 1416),
Jer
(476)
Job
studied at Prague, Paris, and Oxford, where
he adopted the views of Wy cliff e. On his
return to Bohemia he became an ardeut
supporter of Huss. He followed him to the
Council of Constance, but was imprisoned
and induced to recant. He afterwards
maintained his views boldly at the stake.
Jen-old, Douglas William (b. 1803, d.
1857), dramatist and humorous writer; after
serving as a midshipman for two years, was
apprenticed to a printer. He wrote many
plays, of which Blick-Eyed Sufian, written
about 1823, is the best known. He after-
wards became a journalist, contributing
chiefly to Punch, and from 18o2 to 1857
edited Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper.
Jerrold, William Blan chard (6. 1826, d.
1884), son of the preceding, whom he suc-
ceeded as editor of Lloyd's Weekly News-
paper. His most important work is his Life
of Napoleon III. (1874-82).
Jeryas, Charles (b. circa 1675, d. 1739), a
portrait-painter, born in Ireland. He was
a friend of Pope.
Jervia, Admiral. [See St. Vincent.]
Jervois, Lieutenant- General Sir William
Francis Drummond, G.C.M.G. (b. 1821),
entered the Royal Engineers in 1839 ; was
§overnor of the Straits Settlements (1875-7),
outh Australia (1878-82), and New Zea-
land (1882-8).
Jessel, Bight Hon. Sir George (b. 1824,
d. 18rf3), entered Parliament as Liberal
member for Dover in 1868, became Solicitor-
General in 1871, and Master of the Bolls in
1873.
Jessopp, Bev. Augustus, D.D. (b. 1824),
head-master of Norwich grammar school
from 1859 to 1879 ; has published One Gene-
ration of a Norfolk House (1878), Arcady
(1887), The Coming of the Friars (1888), and
other works.
Jesus, son of Sirach, author of the
apocryphal Book of Ecclesiasticus, was
born at Jerusalem, and lived in the 3rd or
2nd century B.C.
Jevons, William Stanley (b. 1835, d. 1882),
was professor of logic and mental and
moral science, and lecturer on political
economy at Owens College, Manchester,
from 1866 to 1876, when he became pro-
fessor of political economy at University
College, London. He wrote The Principles
of Science, a Theory of Political Economy, etc.
Jewel, John (b. 1522, d. 1571), English
prelate, born at Berrynarbor, in Devonshire,
was educated at Oxford, where he became
tutor of Corpus Christi College, and did
much to extend the reformed doctrines. In
1553 he withdrew to the Continent, and lived
with Peter Martyr at Strasburg. He returned
on the accession of Elb.abeth, and was ap-
pointed Bishop of Salisbury in 1560. He
now distinguished himself by his zeal
against the papists, and in 1562 published
his Apoloqia Eccksice Anglicana, afterwards
translated into English.
Jewsbury, Geraldine Endsor (b. circa
1820, d. 1880), novelist, wrote Zoe (1845),
Marian Withers (1851), etc,
Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, King of
Tyre and Sidon, and wife of Ahab ; was
murdered by order of Jehu.
Joab, nephew of David, and chief cap-
tain of the Israelitish host during his reign.
Joachim, Georg, called "Rhseticus" (b.
1514, d. 1576), professor of mathematics at
Wittemberg, was the first follower of Co-
pernicus, and published his I)e Revolutionism
at Nuremberg in 1543.
Joachim, Joseph (6. 1831), violinist, born
at Kittsee, near Pressburg, Hungary ; studied
under Bohm in Vienna ; was patronised
by Mendelssohn ; resided in Hanover from
1854 to 1866 ; became director of the Boyal
Academy of Music at Berlin in 1882 ;
Mus.Doc. Cambridge, 1877.
Joan Of Arc, the "Maid of Orleans"
(6. 1412, d. 1431), born at Domremy, in
Lorraine ; while tending sheep in her native
village heard voices summoning her to
deliver France from the English. She pre-
sented herself before Charles VII., who
gave her some troops, and with these she
raised the siege of Orleans in May, 1429. In
June Talbot was defeated at Patay, and in
July Joan caused Charles to be crowned at
Bheims. She now declared that her mission
was over, but was persuaded by Charles to
remain. In May, 1430, she was taken
prisoner while attempting to raise the siege
of Compiegne, and, after a trial conducted
by the Bishop of Beauvais, was condemned
as a sorceress, and burnt in the market-
place of Bouen.
Joash (d. 838 B.C.), son of Ahaziah,
became King of Judah in 878. He was
assassinated.
Joash, son of Jehoahaz, reigned over
Israel from 840 to 825.
John, called " de Dieu" (*. 1495, d. 1550),
born at Monte-Mor-el-Novo, in Portugal ;
after a dissipated life as a soldier, devoted
himself to the service of the sick. He
founded the Order of Charity, and estab-
lished a hospital at Grenada.
John, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1371, d. 1419),
son of Philip the Bold and Margaret of
Flanders ; earned the title of " Sans Peur "
Job
(477)
Joh
In the war against Bajazet (1396-8). On his
return he opposed the party of the Duke of
Orleans, who was assassinated by his com-
mand in 1407. He was himself murdered
by order of the Dauphin, whilst holding an
interview with him on the bridge of
Montereau.
John, King of England (b. 1166, d. 1216),
was the youngest son of Henry II. and
Eleanor of Aquitaine. Richard L named
him his successor, disregarding the claim
of Arthur, son of their brother Geoffrey.
Arthur was acknowledged by Anjou, Maine,
and Touraine, and supported by Philip.
In 1202 he fell into John's hands, and
soon afterwards mysteriously disappeared.
John was now summoned before Philip,
but failed to appeal1, whereupon his French
provinces were declared forfeited, and be-
fore the end of 1204 Philip had possessed
himself of the greater part of them. In
1205 John quarrelled with the pope in
regard to the appointment to the arch-
bishopric of Canterbury, John's nominee
being Bishop Grey of Norwich, while Inno-
cent forced the monks to elect Stephen
Langton. England was laid under an
interdict in 1208, the king excommunicated
in 1209, and in 1212 Philip of France was
invited to conquer the country for himself.
Hereupon John, in an interview with the
legate Pandulph at Dover (1213), consented
to receive Langton, and also to hold England
as a fief under the pope, paying him a
thousand marks annually. This measure,
as well as John's disregard of their privi-
leges, caused a rising of the barons ; at
Runnymede, in 1215, they forced him to
sign Magna Oharta, which became the
foundation of "flngh'sh liberties. The king,
however, proceeded to raise mercenaries,
and persuaded Innocent to annul the
charter, whereupon the barons offered the
crown to Louis the Dauphin, who landed at
Sandwich (1216), and proceeded to London.
Whilst marching against him John died, it
is said, from the effects of a debauch.
John, St., the Apostle (b. circa 4, d. circa
99), was one of the earliest of Christ's dis-
ciples. During the crucifixion our Lord
commended His mother to his care, and he
" took her to his own home." John after- '
wards became Bishop of Ephesus. Accord- !
ing to Tertullian, he was plunged into a
caldron of boiling oil during the persecution
under Domitian, but received no injury.
He was subsequently exiled to the island
of Patmos, where he wrote the Book of
Revelation. He was also author of the
Gospel and Epistles which bear his name.
John Casimir, Count Palatine (b. 1543, !
d. 1592), second son of the Elector Palatine,
Frederick III., invaded France in 1568 and
1575 in support of the Huguenots. On the
death of his father he became the political
head of the reformers.
Jolm of Austria, Don (6. 1546, d. 1678),
illegitimate son of the Emperor Charles V. ;
distinguished himself against the Moors in
Granada (1570), and was in command of
the combined Italian and Spanish fleets at
the battle of Lepanto (1571). In 1576 he
was appointed governor of the Nether-
lands.
John the Baptist, the forerunner of the
Messiah, was the son of Zacharias, a priest,
and Elizabeth, his wife. He fulfilled his
mission by preaching repentance, and bap-
tising with water on the banks of the
Jordan. Our Lord there received baptism
at his hands. He was beheaded by Herod
to gratify his wife, Herodias.
John of Denmark (6. 1455, d. 1513),
succeeded his father, Christian I., as King
of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, in 1481.
He was recognised in Norway after grant-
ing exorbitant privileges to the nobles and
clergy, in 1483, but did not gain possession
of Sweden till his reduction of Stockholm in
1497.
John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (b.
1340, d. 1399), so called from his birthplace,
Ghent, third son of Edward IIL, married
Blanche, daughter of Hemy, Duke of
Lancaster ; took part in the Black Prince's
expedition against Henry of Trastamare;
after the death of Pedro the Cruel, married
his daughter, Constance, and vainly at-
tempted to secure the throne of Castile.
In 1373 he led a raiding expedition into
France. After the death of Henry of
Trastamare he invaded Castile, but failed
to effect anything.
John of Luxemburg, "the Blind," King
of Bohemia (b. 1295, d. 1346), son of the
Emperor Henry VII., obtained the throne
of Bohemia in 1311 by his marriage with
Elizabeth, daughter of Wenceslaus IV. He
was of an adventurous disposition, served
in the armies of several European sovereigns,
and was slain at Crecy, fighting for Philip
of Valois.
John of Yepez, called "St John of the
Cross" (b. 1542, d. 1591), a Spanish mystic,
was associated with St. Theresa in estab-
lishing the " barefooted Carmelites."
John L, Pope (d. 526), elected 523, died
in prison, where he had been placed by
Theodoric.
John XXlL, Pope (Jacques d'Euse) (b.
circa 1244, d. 1334), a native of Cahors, was
elected in 1316, during the "Babylonish
Captivity." He was at variance with the
Emperor Louis of Bavaria, whom he ex-
communicated in 1324. He was nominally
Job
(478)
Joh
deposed by Louis in 1327, but continuoi to
exercise the pupal functions at Avignon.
John XXIII., Pope (Baldas.^uv C<»-;i) (d.
14ly), an avaricious and In rations j>i'
His claim was disputed by Gregory Xll.
and Benedict XIII. He \v;is deposed at the
Council of Constance (1415).
John L (Zimisces), Emperor of the East
(<i. :'7<'>), ascended the throne after poison-
ing Xicephorus Phocas (969). He defeated
Russians and Bulgarians, and extended
the boundaries of the empire in the East.
He died by poison.
JohnIL (Calo-Johannes) (b. 1088, d. 1143),^
renowned for his humanity and purity of
life, succeeded his father, Alexius Com-
nenus, in 1118. He pardoned his sister,
Anna Comnena, and others, who had joined
m a conspiracy against him. He wrested
a large part of Asia Minor from the Turks,
and defeated the Servians and Hungarians.
John IIL (Ducas Vatazes) (b. 1193, d.
1255), reigned at Nicaea in Bithynia from
1222 to 1255. Though unsuccessful in an
expedition against Baldwin II., Emperor
of Constantinople, he greatly extended his
territory at the expense of the Latin do-
minions.
John VI. (Palaeologus) (b. 1332, d. 1391),
succeeded his father, Andronicus the
Younger, in 1341, but exercised no real
power till the retirement of the usurper,
John Cantacuzene, in 1355. His dominions
were invaded by the Turkish Sultan Amu-
rath, with whom he made a disgraceful
compact.
Johm VIL (Palaeologus) (6. 1390, d. 1448),
succeeded his father, Manuel, in 1425. He
was unsuccessful against the Turks. Hoping
to effect a union of the Eastern and Western
Churches, he induced Eugenius IV. to sum-
mon a council at Ferrara, which he attended
in person.
John L, of Aragon (b. 1350, d. 1395),
succeeded his father, Pedro IV., in 1387.
John IL, of Aragon (b. 1397, d. 1479),
obtained Navarre through his wife Blanche
(1425), and in 1458 succeeded his brother,
Alfonso V., as ruler over Aragon, Sicily,
and Sardinia.
John L, of Castile (6. 1358, d. 1390),
succeeded his father, Henry of Trastamare,
in 1379.
John II. (b. 1405, d. 1454) succeeded his
father, Henry HL, in 1406.
John IL, the "Good," King of France
(6. circa 1315, d. 1364), succeeded his father,
Philip VI., in 1350. He was defeated by
the Black Prince at Poitiers (1356), and
remained a prisoner till the treaty of
Bretiguy (13GO). Unable to raise his
ransom, he returned to England, and died
in captivity.
John L, of Portugal (b. 13">S, d. 1133),
founder of the Aviz dynasty, illegitimate
sou of Pedro L, became king in Io8.">. In
1387 he married Philippa, daughter of John
of Gaunt.
John IL (b. 1455, d. 1495), became king
in 1-lbl. He encouraged maritime enter-
prise.
John III. (b. 1502, d. 1557), be. ame king
in 1521. During his reign the Portuguese
dominions in the East were extended. He
introduced the Inquisition, and encouraged
the Jesuits.
John IV. (b. 1604, d. 1656), son of Theo-
dosio, Duke of Braganza, was proclaimed
king in 1640, after an insurrection which
freed Portugal from the dominion of Spain.
John VI. (b. 1769, d. 1826), became regent
for bis mother, Maria, in 1793; when
threatened with Junot's invasion (1807),
retired to Brazil, where he reigned as em-
peror ; returned to Europe in 1821.
John IIL, of Sweden (b. 1537, d. 1592),
second son of Gustavus Vasa, deposed his
brother Eric in 1568. He unsuccessfully
strove to re-establish the Roman Catholic
religion.
Johnson, Andrew (b. 1808, d. 1875),
American statesman, for some years a tailor
at Greenville, Tennessee : was returned to
Congress in the Democratic interest in 1843,
and became governor of Tennessee in 1853.
He was vice-president under Lincoln, on
whose death he became president (1865).
Johnson, General Sir Edwin, K.C.B.,
C.I.E. (6. 1825), entered the Bengal Ar-
tillery in 1842; has seen much service in
India, especially during the Mutiny, when
he took part in the engagement on the
Hindun (1857). He was appointed director-
general of military education in 1884.
Johnson, Samuel (b. 1649, d. 1703), divine,
a zealous supporter of Protestantism ; was
in favour of the Bill of Exclusion, and in
1682 published Julian the Apostate \ opposing
passive obedience. For his Humble and
Hearty Address he was placed in the pillory,
whipped, and fined. He received a pension
on the accession of William III.
Johnson, Samuel (b. 1709, d. 1784), man
of letters, son of a bookseller at Lichfield,
educated at Pembroke College, Oxford ; in
1732 became a master in a school at Market
Bosworth, which he quitted to enter the
employment of a bookseller at Birmingham,
Job
(479)
Jon
for whom he translated Father Lobo's
Voyage to Abyssinia ; in 1736 married Mrs.
Porter, a widow nearly twice his age, and
started a school, which was unsuccessful ;
came to London with David Garrick, who
was one of his pupils, in 1737 ; published
London (1738), and obtained work on the
Gentleman's Magazine, reporting the par-
liamentary debates under a fictitious title.
In the following years appeared The Vanity
of Human Wishes (1749), Irene (1749), The
Rambler (1750-2), the Dictionary (1755),
which had occupied him since 1747, The
Idler (1758-9), and Rasselas (1759). In 1762
he received a pension of £300 annually, and
in 1764 founded the Literary Club, which
included Burke, Goldsmith, and Keynolds
among its members. His connection with
the Thrales lasted from 1765 to the death of
Mr. Thrale in 1784, when he returned to
his house at Bolt Court, Fleet Street. His
tour in Scotland with Boswell in 1773 is
described in the Journey to the Hebrides
(1775).
Jonnston, Alexander (b. 1813), Scottish
painter, studied at the Royal Academy.
Among his pictures are Lord and Lady
Russell in Prison (1845), Tyndale Translating
the Bible (1855), and Flora Macdonald (1869).
Jonnston, Alexander Keith (b. 1804, d.
1871), geographer; in 1S51 exhibited his
physical globe of the earth, and in 1866
completed his Physical Atlas, undertaken at
the suggestion of Humboldt.
Johnston, Henry Hamilton (b. 1858), ap-
pointed consul for Portuguese East Africa
in 1888, has travelled in North, West, East,
and Central Africa, and published The River
Congo (1884), The Kilimanjaro Expedition
(1886), and The History of a Slave (1889).
Johnston, Joseph Eggleston (b. 1807),
American soldier; joined the Confederate
army, and became commander of the
Federal forces in South Carolina in Feb-
ruary, 1865, but surrendered with his army
in the following August.
Johnstone, Chevalier de (b. 1720), a
Jacobite, aide-de-camp to Charles Edward
during the insurrection in 1745 ; wrote
Memoirs of the Rebellion, published in 1820.
Johnstone, John Henry (b. 1750, d. 1828),
a celebrated comic actor and vocalist.
Johore, Tunkoo Abubeker bin Ibrahim,
K.C.S.I., Maharajah of Johore (usually
called the Tumongong) (b. 1835), succeeded
his father in 1861. He has always main-
tained friendly relations with the British
Government, and co-operated with it in
§uppressing piracy. He visited England in
1866 and 1885.
Joinville, Francois Ferdinand Philippe
d'Orleans, Prince de (b. 1818), third son of
Louis Philippe, served in Mexico (1S38),
Morocco (1845), and the Franco-German
War ; was deported to England, but re-
turned on the abrogation of the law of exile
in 1871. His works on the French navy
are important.
Joinville, Jean, Sire de (b. 1224, d. 1317),
French chronicler, joiued the sixth crusade ;
was taken prisoner with Louis IX. at Man-
soorah, and returned with Mm in 1254. He
wrote a History of St. Louis.
Jokai, Maurice (b. 1825), Hungarian
novelist ; took part as a journalist in the
revolution of 1848 ; has written about 200
novels, including Timor's Two Worlds
(English translation, 1888), etc.
Jomini, Henri, Baron (b. 1779, d. 1869),
Swiss strategist, born at Payerne ; fought
under Ney, distinguished himself at Bautzen
(1813), but afterwards transferred his ser-
vices to Russia. He wrote Traite des
Grandes Operations Militaires (1805), and
other works on the art of war.
Jonah, a Hebrew prophet, is believed to
have lived in the 9th century B.C., during
the reign of Jeroboam II.
Jonas, Justus (b. 1493, d. 1555), German
reformer, accompanied Luther to Worms in
1521 ; was appointed professor of theology
at Wittemberg, and took a prominent part
in the religious discussions of the time. He
attended Luther on his death-bed, and
translated several of his and Melancthon'e
works from Latin into German.
Jonathan, the son of Saul, and friend
of David ; was slain, with his father, in a
battle against the Philistines on Mount
Gilboa.
Jones, Lieutenant-Colonel Alfred Stowell,
Y.C., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. (b. 1832), was
deputy-assistant-quarter-master-general at
the siege of Delhi, and greatly distinguished
himself on several occasions during the
Mutiny. He has published Will a Sewage
Farm Pay? (1874), and was one of the
authors of the Canvey Island Scheme
(1884).
Jones, Ebenezer (b. 1820, d. 1860), author
of Studies of Sensation and Event, a volume
of poems (1843).
Jones, Ernest Charles (b. 1819, d. 1869),
poet and Chartist ; for eight years edited the
People's Paper ; wrote Tlie Revolt- of Hin-
dustan (an epic) during his imprisonment
in 1848-9 ; was also author of The Wood
Spirit (1841), a romance, and other works,
Jones, nigo (b. 1573, d. 1652), architect,
born rn London; after being apprenticed
Jon
(480)
Jos
to a joiner, was sent to Italy by the Earl
of Pembroke, who discovered his taleut
for drawing. About 1604 he became
architect to Christian IV. of Denmark,
and in 1606 accompanied him to England,
where he was appointed architect to the
queen and Prince of Wales. His build-
ings at this period were in a debased Eliza-
bethan style, but, after a second visit to
Italy in 1612, he introduced the Palladian
style into England. He now became sur-
veyor to the king, and, besides other
buildings, designed the palace of Whitehall,
of which he completed the banqueting -
hall.
Jones, Owen (b. 1809, d. 1874), architect,
visited Granada in 1834, and wrote Plans,
Elevations, Sections, and Details of the
Alhambra(\&4%), The Grammar of Ornament
(1856), etc.
Jones, Paul, the name assumed by John
Paul (6. 1747, d. 1792), a naval adventurer,
who, in 1773, emigrated to Virginia. En-
tering the American naval service (1775),
he made bold descents on the coasts of
England and Scotland, and in 1779 did
much damage to the English fleet.
Jones, Thomas Wharton (b. 1808), Eng-
lish ophthalmic surgeon and physiologist,
author of The Wisdom and Beneficence of
the Almighty Displayed in the Sense of
Human Vision, etc.
Jones, William (b. 1726, d. 1800), a divine
of the Hutchinsonian school, perpetual
curate of Nayland, in Suffolk: wrote The
Catholic Doctrine of the Trinity (1757), The
First Principles of Natural Philosophy (17 62),
and a life of his friend, Bishop Home
(1795).
Jones, Sir William (b. 1746, d. 1794),
Orientalist, educated at Harrow and Uni-
versity College, Oxford ; was called to the
bar in 1774, and in 1783 became judge of
the supreme court of judicature at Fort
William. Whilst in India he founded the
Asiatic Society, and superintended the com-
piling of a digest of Hindoo and Mahometan
laws. In 1768 he translated the Life of
Nadir Shah from Persian into French for
the King of Denmark. His Commentaries
on Arabic Poetry, begun in 1766, were pub-
lished in 1 774. Among his other works are
a Persian Grammar (1771), and translations
of the Sanscrit drama, Sakoontald (1789),
and of the Laws of Manu (1794).
Jonson, Benjamin or Ben (b. circa 1574,
d. 1637), dramatist, was educated at West-
minster under Camden. It is uncertain
whether he studied at Cambridge. After
following the trade of a bricklayer, he went
as a volunteer to Flanders, and on his
return became an actor, also writing plays
in conjunction with others. His first inde-
pendent work, Every Man in his Humour
?1596), was followed by tirery Man out of
AM Humour (159(J), Cynthia's Revels (1600),
Sejaniu (1603), Folpone(l6Q5\ The Alchemist
(1610), and many others. Eastirard Ho
(1605), a satire on the Scots, produced in
conjunction with Chapman and Marstou,
nearly cost him his nose and ears. He
wrote masques for the court of James I.,
and in 1616 was appointed poet-laureate.
Jordaens, Jakob (b. 1593, d. 1678),
painter, studied under Van Oort and
Rubens. His chief work is Christ in the
Midst of t)ie Doctors.
Jordan, Dorothea (b. 1762, d. 1816),
English actress, for twenty years the mis-
tress, and virtually the wife of the Duke of
Clarence, afterwards William FV., by whom
she was abandoned, and died in great
distress at Paris.
Jortin, John (b. 1698, d. 1770), scholar
and divine, educated at Cambridge, became
Archdeacon of London. Among his works
are Remarks upon Ecclesiastical History and
a Life of Erasmus (1758).
Joseph, Hebrew patriarch, son of Jacob ;
was sold by his brothers to some Ishmaelitish
merchants, and taken by them to Egypt,
where he afterwards held a high official
position.
Joseph of Exeter (d. circa 1214), English
poet ; went on the third crusade, and wrote
De Bella Trojano and Antiochesis.
Joseph I., Emperor of Germany (6. 1678,
d. 1711), son of Leopold L, became King of
Hungary in 1687, King of the Romans in
1690, and emperor in 1705.
Joseph IL (b. 1741, d. 1790), son of
Francis I. and Maria Theresa ; was crowned
King of the Romans in 1764, succeeded his
father as Emperor in 1765, and became
ruler over Hungary and Bohemia on the
death of his mother (17SO).
Josephine, Marie Joseph Rose Tascher de
la Pagerie (b. 1763, d. 1814), a native of
Martinique ; in 1779 married theVicomtede
Beauharnais, who was guillotined. She
married Bonaparte in 1796, and was di-
vorced from him in 1809.
Josephus, Flavius (6. 37, d. circaSS), Jewish
historian, went on a mission to Rome in 63 ;
on his return unwillingly joined the revolt
against the Romans ; was appointed governor
of Galilee, and valiantly defended Jotapata
against Vespasian, but was taken prisoner ;
was present with the Roman army at the
siege of Jerusalem, and returned with Titus
to Rome, whei-e he spent the remainder of
his lif e. His chief works are The History of
Jos
(481)
Jug
the Jewish War, The Antiquities of the Jews,
and a Discourse on the Martyrdom of the
Maccabees.
Joshua, or Hoshea, son of Nun ; com-
mander of the Israelites after the death of
Moses, led them into the Holy Land, and
obtained many victories over the tribes of
Canaan.
Josiah (d. 609 B.C.) succeeded his father,
Ainon, as King of Judah in 641. He died in
a war with Pharaoh Necho, King of Egypt.
Joubert, Barthelemi Catherine (6. 1769, d,
1799), French general, enlisted in 1791.
TTis bravery at Loano was rewarded with the
rank of brigadier-general. He afterwards
distinguished himself in the Tyrol, and in
1798 was appointed commander-in-chief in
Italy. He was slain at Novi.
Joubert, Petrus Jacobus (6. circa 1831),
one of the triumvirate who organised a
Transvaal revolt against the British Govern-
ment in 1880, held the chief command in
the engagements at Laing's Nek, Ingogo
River, and Majuba Hill.
Jouffroy d'Abbaus, Claude, Marquis de
(6. 1751, d, 1832), a Trench mechanician,
one of the first to apply steam to navigation.
He launched a steam- vessel on the Danube
in 1776.
Joule, James Prescott (6. 1818, d. 1889),
electrician, pupil of Dalton ; made dis-
coveries in electro -magnetism, and in 1849
established his theory of the mechanical
equivalent of heat.
Jourdan, Jean Baptiste, Comte (b. 1762,
d. 1833), French marshal; served in the
wars of the Republic, and in 1799 was ap-
pointed commander of the army of the
Danube by the Directory. In 1797 he
became president of the Council of Five
Hundred, but was expelled in 17^9 owing to
his opposition to Bonaparte, by whom, how-
ever, he was afterwards employed. He
subsequently followed the fortunes of Joseph
Bonaparte. He owed his title to Louis
XVIII., but joined in the revolution of
1830.
Jouyenet, Jean (b. 1647, d. 1717), a French
historical painter, born at Rouen.
Jouy, Victor Joseph E"tienne de (b. 1764,
d. 1846), French writer, author of a collec-
tion of essays called L'Hermitede la Chaussee
d'Antin. He also wrote librettos for operas,
and the tragedies of Tippoo Saib and Sylla.
Jovellanos, Don Gaspar Melchior de
(b. 1744, d. 1811), Spanish statesman and
author, wrote Pelayo (a tragedy), The
Honourable Delinquent (a comedy), and
several treatises on political economy.
Jpvianus (6. 331, d. 364), succeeded
Julian as Emperor of Rome in 363.
Jowett, Benjamin, M.A. (b. 1817),
successively scholar, fellow, and master of
Balliol College, Oxford, and Regius proiessoi
of Greek since 1855. His works include
translations of Plato and Thucydides. He
contributed a paper on The Interpretation
of Scripture to Essays and Reviews.
Joyeuse, Anne de (6. circa 1561, d.
1587), admiral of France, displayed great
cruelty as commander-in-chief against the
Huguenots. He was defeated and slain by
Henry of Navarre in the battle of Coutras.
Juarez, Benito Pablo (6. 1806, d. 1872),
Mexican statesman, of pure Indian blood ;
after a war between Liberals and Clericals,
became president in 1861. He resisted the
attempt of Napoleon III. to set up Maxi-
milian as emperor of Mexico, and, after the
•withdrawal of the French troops, put him
to death. He was again elected president
in 1867.
Juba I. (d. B.C. 42), King of Numidia,
supported Pompey against Caesar, but was
defeated at Thapsus, and committed suicide.
Juba IL (d. 24), son of the preceding;
was taken by Caesar to Rome, where he
received a good education. He fought
under Augustus, who made him King of
Mauritania and Geetulia. Of his numerous
works fragments alone remain.
Judah, Hebrew patriarch, fourth son of
Jacob, saved Joseph's life by persuading
his brothers to sell him to the Ishmaelites.
Joseph on his deathbed prophesied that the
Messiah would be born of his family.
Judah, Leo (6. 1482, d. 1542), Protestant
theologian, a friend of Zwingli, translated
part of the Old Testament into Latin.
Judah Hakfcadosh (b. 123, d. 190), a
Jewish rabbi, compiled the Mishna or ori-
ginal Talmud, a collection of the ancient
customs of the Jews.
Judas Maccabsaus. [See Maccabseus.]
Judd, John \V., F.R.S. (b. 1840), was ap-
pointed professor of geology in the Royal
College of Science in 1881 ; has investigated
the secondaiy strata of the Scottish High-
lauds and the remains of the tertiary vol-
canoes of the western islands of Scotland.
Judson, Adoniram (6. 1788, d. 1850), an
American Baptist missionary; laboured
among the Burmese, and translated the
Bible into their language.
Jugnrtha (b. circa 154 B.C., d. 104), King
of Numidia, son of Mastanabal, was
brought up by his uncle, Micipsa, and after
his death shared the kingdom with his sons.
Adherbal and Hiempsal, both of whom he
afterwards murdered. After a long war
Jui
(482)
Jus
with the Romans he was betrayed into their
hands by his ally, Bocchus, King of Mauri-
tania, and died in the Mamertine prison at
Rome.
Jukes, Joseph Beete (b. 1811, d. 1869),
naturalist, born at Birmingham ; took part
in the survey voyage of H.M.S. Fly, of which
he wrote a S~arratice (1847). He made dis-
coveries in rock strata south of Conway.
Julian, Flavius Claudius, "The Apos-
tate " (6. 331, d. 363), Roman emperor, son
of Julius Constantius, half-brother of Con-
stantino the Great ; was brought up in the
Christian faith, but his study of Greek
philosophy and literature at Xicomedia and
Athens gave a different bent to his mind.
In 355 he was made Caesar, and sent to
Gaul, where he was saluted as emperor by
his army (361). In 363 he undertook an
expedition against the Persians, in which he
lost his lif e.
Julien, Stanislas Aignan (6. 1799, d. 1873),
French Orientalist ; appointed professor of
Chinese in the College de France in 1832 ;
translated the works of Meng-tsze and
Laou-tsze, Voyages des Pelerins Bouddhistes,
etc.
Julius I., Pope (d. 352), a native of
Borne, elected in 337 ; supported Atha«-
nasius against the Arians.
Julius II., Pope (Cardinal Giuliano della
Eovere) (6. 1441, d. 1513), distinguished as a
warrior and patron of the arts, became pope
in 1503. He endeavoured to extend the
papal territory, and, after driving Csesar
Borgia from the Romagna, formed the
league of Cambrai with Maximilian and
Louis XII. against Venice (1508). After
the submission of the republic, he turned
his arms against France (1510). In 1511
the Holy Alliance was formed, and the
French army driven back over the Alps.
Julius IIL, Pope (Cardinal del Monte)
(6. 1487, d. 1555), succeeded Paul III. in
1550.
Jung1, or Jung-Stilling, Johann Hein-
rich (6. 1740, d. 1817), oculist, farmer, and
mystic ; studied medicine at Strasburg
(1770), where he formed friendships with
Goethe and Herder. He practised as an
oculist at Elberfeld, and afterwards at Mar-
burg, where he was professor of farming.
His most interesting works are Stilling'' 8
Jugend and the others which deal with
his own life.
Jung, Sir Salar, K.C.S.I. (b. 1829, d.
1883), from 1853 prime minister of the
Deccan ; restored order in the government,
and, by securing tranquillity in Hyderabad
during the Mutiny, avoided the proposed
British annexation.
Junge, or Jungius, Joachim (6. 1587, d.
lt>.'>7), German philosopher ; opposed the
schoolmen, and endeavoured to base phi-
losophy on observation and experience. Hia
Isayuge 1'hytoscopica to some extent formed
the groundwork of later botanical systems.
Junghunn, Franz Wilhelm (b. 1809, d.
1864), the explorer of Java, of which he
wrote several descriptions.
Jungmann, Josef Jakob (6. 1773, d. 1847),
Slavonian philologist, professor of Latin in
the gymnasium of Prague (1815-34); wrote
a History of Bohemian Literature.
Junius, Francois (6. 1545, d. 1602), French
Protestant theologian, professor of divinity
at Heidelberg, and afterwards at Leyden.
His works are numerous.
Junius, Francois (b. 1589, d. 1677), phil-
ologist, son of the preceding ; edited Ulphilas'
Gothic Bible, with a Commentary (1665).
Junot, Androche, Due d'Abrantes (6. 1771,
d. 1813), French soldier; served with dis-
tinction under Napoleon in Italy and Egypt;
was present at Austerlitz ; in 1807 led an
expedition to Portugal, and captured Lis-
bon within a month, but was defeated at
Vimiera (1808), and forced to evacuate the
country.
Jurieu, Pierre (b. 1637, d. 1713), French
Protestant theologian, professor of theology
and Hebrew at Sedan , in 1685 withdrew to
Rotterdam, where he was engaged in con-
troversies with Bayle and others. He wrote
several works.
Jussieu. The name of a family of French
botanists, including ANTOINE DE (b. 1686,
d. 1758) ; BEBNABD DE (6. 1699, d. 1777),
brother of Antoine, demonstrator in the Jar-
din duRoi; ANTODTE LAURENT DE (b. 1748,
d. 1836), who, in Genera Plantarum (1789),
introduced a new system of classification ;
and ADEIEN DE (b. 1797, d. 1853), son of
Antoine Laurent.
Justin, a Latin historian of unknown
date ; wrote an epitome of the History of
the World by Trogus Pompeius.
Justin, or Justinus, called "Martyr" (b.
circa 103, d. circa 164), Christian saint and
martyr, born in Samaria ; after attaching
himself to various schools of Greek philo-
sophy in succession, became a Christian
about 132. His chief works are his Apology
to Antoninus Pius and the Dialogue with
Tryphon the Jew. Owing to the calumnious
attacks of the Cynic Crescens, he was taken
before the prtefectus urbi, and beheaded for
refusing to sacrifice to the heathen gods.
Justin, or Justinus I., Emperor of the
East (b. 450, d. 527), by birth a Dacian
Jus
(483)
Kar
peasant, during the reign of Leo I. enlisted
in the imperial guards, of which he became
commander. He was chosen emperor on
the death of Anastatius (518).
Justin, or Justinus II. (d. 578), succeeded
his uncle, Justinian I., in 565. His reign
was marked by inroads of the Persians and
Longobards. He abdicated in 574.
Justinian L, Emperor of the East (b.
483, d. 565), succeeded his uncle, Justin I.,
in 527. He issued a famous code, forming,
together with his collections of Pandects,
Institutiones, and Novella, the corpus juris
civilis. Under Justinian the boundaries of
the empire were much extended through
the victories of Belisarius and Narses over
the Persians, Vandals, and Ostrogoths.
Justinian H (d. 711), succeeded his father,
Constantino Pogonatus, in 685. He was
killed by Philippicus Bardanes, who suc-
ceeded him.
Juvenal (Decimus Junius Juvenalis) (b.
circa 55, d. circa 128), a Roman satirical
poet. In consequence of his satire against
Paris, he was sent as prefect of a cohort
to Egypt, and died either there or at Eome.
Juxon, William (6. 1582, d. 1663), English
prelate ; was appointed Bishop of Hereford
through Laud's influence in 1633, held the
office of lord high treasurer from 1635 to
1641, and was Bishop of London. He at-
tended Charles I. during his trial, and was
present with him at his death. He was
Archbishop of Canterbury from 1660 to 1663.
Ksempfer, Engelbrecht (5. 1651, d. 1716),
naturalist and physician, born in West-
phalia: accompanied the Swedish embassy
to Persia in 1683 ; afterwards visited Java,
Japan, Arabia, and other countries.
Kalakaua, David (b. circa 1838, d. 1891),
King of the Sandwich Islands.
Kaldi, Georg (6. circa 1572, d. 1634), Hun-
garian Jesuit, became professor of theology
at Olmiitz, and afterwards at Presburg.
Kalid, or Khaled, " The Sword of Allah "
(d. 642), Saracen general, at first opposed
Mahomet : took part in the invasion of
Persia (633), and, by his victory at the Yer-
muk and his capture of Damascus, brought
Syria under the authority of the caliph.
Kalkbrenner, Christian (6. 1755, d. 1806),
musical composer, was bom in Prussia. He
settled in Paris, where he died.
Ealnoky, Count Gustav Siegmund (b.
1832), Austrian statesman, entered the diplo-
matic service in 1852 ; in 1881 became mini-
ster of foreign affairs. In 1886 he opposed
the machinations of Russia in Bulgaria, and
during 1887 and 1888 made several speeches
against the war party at St. Petersburg.
Kamel, Malek el (d. 1238), Sultan of
Egypt, succeeded in 1218. In 1221 he re-
took Damietta from the Crusaders. He
afterwards captured Jerusalem and other
towns, but yielded them to the Emperor
Frederick II. in 1229.
^ Henry Home, Lord (6 1696, d.
1782), Scotch judge and miscellaneous
PP2
writer ; was called to the bar in 1724. IB
1752 he was appointed a judge of sessions,
with the title of Lord Kames.
Kanaris, Constantine (b. 1785, d. 1877),
Greek patriot, distinguished himself in a naval
capacity during the war of Independence.
Kane, Elisha Kent (b. 1820, d. 1857),
American explorer, entered the United
States navy as assistant- surgeon; travelled
extensively in Asia, Africa, and Eastern
Europe ; was surgeon and naturalist to the
first Grinnell expedition in search of Frank-
lin (1850-2), and commanded the second
Grinneli expedition (1853-5).
Kant, Immanuel (6. 1724, d. 1804), Ger-
man philosopher, born at Konigsberg ; was
educated at the Collegium Fredericianum
and the university of Konigsberg; became
professor of logic and metaphysics there in
1770, and was made rector in 1786. His
great work is the Critique of Pure Reason
(1782), in which all knowledge is based on
experience, with the admission that experi-
ence must inevitably conform itself to the
subjective laws of mind. The Critique of
Practical Reason, the ethical side of the
system, appeared in 1788, and the Critique
of Judg men t in 1790. Among Kant's other
works are Religion Within the Limits of Pure
Reason ( ! 7 '-) and The Metaphysic of £thic.
Karamzin, Nicholas Michailovitch (b.
1765, d. 1826), born in Orenburg, Russia;
wrote a History of the Russian Empire from
the earliest times to 1612.
Karatheodori, Alexander, Pasha (b. circa
Kar
(484)
Kea
1820), Turkish statesman, of Greek descent;
represeiitfd the Porte at the Congress at
Berlin (1873), and was minister of foreign
affairs 1878-9.
Karr, Jean Baptiste Alphonse (6. 1808,
d. 189U), French writer, became editor of the
FiquT'i in 1839. Among his novels are Sous
lea Tdleuls (1832) and fort en Theme (1853).
Karslnke, Sir John Burgess (b. 1821, d.
1881), barrister, became Solicitor- General
under Lord Derby in 1866 ; entered Parlia-
ment in 1867; was made Attorney-General
by Disraeli in 1874, but soon afterwards
resigned.
Katona, Stephen (b. 1732, d. 1811), Hun-
garian Jesuit, wrote a History of Hungary.
Katterfelto, Gustavus (d. 1799), a quack
and conjurer, of Prussian origin. He died
in Yorkshire.
TTfl.nfma.Tin, Angelica (6. 1741, d. 1807),
painter, born at Chur ; in 1 766 came to
England. She was elected a member of
the Koyal Academy in 1768. In 1783 she
married the Venetian artist, Antonio Zucchi,
and henceforward lived in Italy.
Kaufmann, Constantino von (b. 1818, d.
18S2), Russian general, was governor of Turk-
estan from lbJ7 to 1882. After annexing
Bokhara (1868), forcing the Khan of Khiva
to become the Tzar's vassal (1873), and de-
priving the Khan of Khokand of all his
dominions north of the Sir Darya (1875), he
attempted to embroil England in a war with
the Ameer of Afghanistan, but was not sup-
ported by the authorities at St Petersburg.
Kaulbactt, Wilhelm von (6. 1805, d. 1874),
German painter, born at Arolsen, studied
at Diisseldorf under Cornelius ; went with
his master to Munich, where he painted
The Battle of tJ^e Huns for the King of
Bavaria. He became director of the Munich
Academy in li:49.
Kaulbars, General Paul, Baron (b. circa
1837), Bassian diplomatic agent at Sofia in
1886.
Kaunitz, Wenceslaus Anton, Prince von
(b. 1711, d. 1794), Austrian statesman, was
present at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle
(17-iS) ; in 1750 went as ambassador to Paris;
after his return (1753), became chancellor
and prime minister of Aus'aia.
Kavanag-h, Julia (b. 1824, d. 1877), wrote
lie and other novels, Women in France
during the Eighteenth Century, etc.
Kawase, Viscount Masataka (6. 1839),
Japanese minister at the court of St
J imes's.
Kay, Hon. Sir Edward Ebenezer (b. 1822),
became lord justice of appeal in 1890.
Kaye, Sir John William (b. 1814, d. 1876),
historian ; was secretary to the political and
secret department of thelndia Office, 1858-74.
His chief works are histories of The War in
Afghanistan (1851), The Sepoy War (1864),
and The Administration of th* East India
Company (1853).
Kay -Shuttle-worth, Sir John Phillips,
Bart. (b. 180-i, d. 1877), was secretary to
the Committee of Council on Education
from 1839 to 1849.
Kay -Shuttle worth, Sir Ughtred James
(6. 1844), son of the preceding, entered
Parliament in 1869. It was greatly owing
to his efforts that the Government intro-
duced the Artisans' Dwellings Bill, passed
in 1875.
Kean, Charles^John (b. 1811, d. 1868),
actor, born at Waterford, son of Edmund
Kean, was educated at Eton; made hia
debut at Drury Lane in 1827, but did not
establish his reputation till 1838, when ha
acted as Hamlet, Eichard III., and Sir
Giles Overreach. In 1842 he married Misa
Ellen Tree, a celebrated actress. From 1850
to 1859 he was manager of the Princess's
theatre.
Kean, Edmund (b. 1787, d. 1833), actor;
first attracted general notice by his repre-
sentation of Shylock at Drury Lane in 1814.
He was distinguished by energy, passion,
and fire, as opposed to the stately classicism
of Kemble's school.
Keane, John, Baron Keane of Ghuznee
(b. 1781, d. 1844), general; in 1838-9 carried
on a successful campaign in Afghanistan,
culminating in a brilliant victory at
Ghuznee.
Keary, Annie (b. 1825, d. 1879), wrote
Castle I)aly, and other novels.
Keats, John (b. 1795, d. 1821), poet, son
of a livery stable proprietor in Finsbury ;
was educated at a school at Enfield, where
he formed a lifelong friendship with the
master's son, Charles Cowden Clarke. He
was apprenticed to Mr. Hammond, a
surgeon at Edmonton, whom he left in
1812, but pursued his studies at Guy's
Hospital till 1817. He then determined to
follow the bent of his genius. Endymion,
his first long poem, appeared in 1818.
Isabella or the Pot of Basil, Hyperion,
Lamia, The Eve of St. Agnes, and the Odes,
were written in the course of the next two
years. Meanwhile, an hereditary tendency
to consumption had developed itself, and in
September, 1820, he was forced to undertake
a journey to Italy. He was accompanied
by his friend, Joseph Severn, who nursed
him tenderly during his last illness at
where he died in February, 1821.
Xeb
(486)
Kem
Kebbel, Thomas Edward (b. 1828), journ-
alist and political writer, has written lives
of Lord Beaconsfield and Lord Derby.
Ke'Dle, John (b. 1792, d. 1866), divine and
poet, born at Fairford in Gloucestershire,
was educated at Corpus Christi College,
Oxford, and elected to an Oriel fellowship in
1811 ; became professor of poetry at Oxford
in 1831 ; in 1835 was appointed vicar of
Hursley, where he remained until his death.
Keble took a prominent part in the " Ox-
ford Movement," and wrote several of the
Tracts. His Christian Year has become a
classic. He also edited Hooker's Ecclesias-
tical Polity, and wrote Lyra Innocentittm,
and a Life of Bishop Wilson.
Keeley, Bobert (6. 1793, d. 1869), come-
dian and theatrical manager.
Keigntley, Thomas (b. 1789, d. 1872),
wrote Fairy Mythology, and numerous
educational works.
Keill, John (6. 1671, d. 1721), Scotch
mathematician, became Savilian professor
of astronomy at Oxford in 1710.
Keim, Theodor (6. 1825, d. 1878), German
theologian, author of Geschichte Jesu von
Nazara, etc.
Keiser, Beinhard (6. 1673, d. 1739), com-
poser, born at Leipzig, wrote Circe (1734), etc.
Keith, George Elphinstone, Viscount (6.
1746, d. 1823), admiral, son of Charles Lord
Elphinstone ; led the naval part of the ex-
pedition which reduced the Cape of Good
Hope (1795), and commanded the fleet in
the Egyptian campaign of 1801.
Keith, James Francis Edward (6. 1696,
d. 1758), field-marshal in the Prussian
service ; fought on the Jacobite side at
Sheriffmuir; made his escape to France;
after serving in the armies of Spain and
Bussia, entered that of Frederick the Great,
and greatly distinguished himself in the
Seven Years' war. Died at Hochkirch.
Keller, or Cellaring, Jacobus (b. 1568,
d. 1631), Jesuit; rector of the colleges of
Batisbon and Munich successively, was con-
fessor to Albert of Bavaria, and was much
employed by the Emperor Maximilian.
Keller, Gottfried (b. 1819, d. 1809), Ger-
man novelist and poet, wrote Der griine
Heinrich (1854), etc.
Kellennann, Francois Christophe, Due
de Valmy (*. 1735, d. 1820), marshal of
France ; was appointed to the command of
the army of the Moselle in 1792, and, by his
v\ctory over the Duke of Brunswick at
Valmy, compelled the Prussians to retire
from France. In 1795 he was made com-
mander of the army of the Alps and Italy.
He afterwards served under Napoleon and
the Bourbons.
Kellennann, Francois Etienne, Due de
Valmy (b. 1770, d. 1835), son of the pre-
ceding, served under his father; by his
charge at Marengo turned defeat into
victory ; fought under Junot in Portugal,
1807-8, and negotiated the convention of
Cintra.
Kelley, or Talbot, Edward (6. 1555, d.
1595), alchemist, born at Worcester, edu-
cated at Oxford; accompanied Dr. Dee to
Germany ; was imprisoned by the Emperor
Bodolph ; in attempting to escape received
a fall, from the effects of which he died.
KeUgren, Johan Henrik (6. 1751, d. 1795),
a Swedish poet.
Kelly, Charles Henry (b. 1833), was
president of the Wesleyan Methodist Con-
ference in 1889.
Kelly, Sir Fitzroy (b. 1796, d. 1880), was
called to the bar in 1824 ; entered Parliament
in 1843 ; was Solicitor -General under Peel
(1845-6) and Lord Derby (1852), and
Attorney- General 1858-9. In 1866 he was
made Chief Baron of the Exchequer.
Kelly, John (b. 1750, d. 1809), philologist,
born at Douglas, translated the Bible into
Manx. He wrote a Grammar of the Manx
Language, and had nearly completed a
Triglot Dictionary of the Celtic Tongue
when it was destroyed by fire.
Kelly, Michael (b. 1762, d. 1826), vocalist,
after performing in Italy and Germany,
appeared at Drury Lane in 1787. He pub-
lished Reminiscences.
Kemball, General Sir Arnold Burrowes
(6. 1820), held diplomatic posts in Persia
1842-55, when he became consul-general at
Bagdad ; distinguished himself in the Per-
sian war (1857) ; in 1875 was a commissioner
for determining the boundary between
Turkey and Persia.
Kembles, The, a celebrated family of
actors. (1) JOHN PHILIP (b. 1757, d. 1823),
son of Boger Kemble, manager of a travel-
ling company, was educated for the Boman
Catholic priesthood. His first appearance
in London was in the character of Hamlet
at Drury Lane (1783). He was manager of
Drury Lane 1788-1802, and part proprietor
of Covent Garden 1803-17. (2) SAEAH
REMBLE [Siddons]. (3) CHARLES (b. 1775,
d. 1854), educated at the college of Douay,
appeared at Drury Lane in 1794 as Malcolm
in Macbeth ; in 1803 joined his brother and
sister at Covent Garden, of which he was
manager for a short time in 1817 ; visited
the United States in 1832 ; retired from the
stage in 1840. (4) FBANCES ANNA (b. 1811),
Keni
(486)
Een
daughter of Charles, appeared as Juliet at
Coveut Garden in 1829. Amoug her chief
parts were Portia, Beatrice, and Julia in
The Hunchback. In 1833 she married a
Mr. Butler. She has published Records of a
Girlhood (1878), Records of Later Life (1882),
etc. (5) ADELAIDE (b. 1820) established
her reputation as a singer in Italy, and
appeared as Norina at Covent Garden in
1842, but retired from the stage on her
marriage in the following year.
Kemble, John Mitchell (*. 1807, d. 1857),
Anglo-Saxon scholar, son of Charles Kemble,
the actor; was educated at Cambridge;
passed much of his life in Germany ; in 1839
commenced the publication of his Codex
Diplomaticus ^-Eit- Saxonici, on which to a
large extent was based his history of The
Saxons in England (1849).
Kempe, Alfred Bray, F.R.S. (b. 1849), has
written some valuable papers on mathe-
matical subjects.
Kempe, John Edward (b. 1810), rural
dean of the diocese of London ; has intro-
duced into the Church of England monthly
conferences, in which both laymen and
clergy take part.
Kempenfelt, Richard (b. 1720, d. 1782),
admiral, son of a Swedish officer, who be-
came governor of Jersey ; served against
the French in the East Indies; in 1781
intercepted a French fleet on its way to the
West Indies; was drowned in the Royal
George.
Kempis, Thomas a (b. 1379, d. 1471), born
at Kempen, in the diocese of Cologne, be-
came a monk in the priory of Mount St.
Agnes near ZwolL As he was employed as
a copyist, it has been doubted whether the
De Imitations Christi was an original work.
According to some the real author was John
Gerson, chancellor of Paris. The subject
is still a matter of controversy.
Ken, Thomas (*. 1637, d. 1711), divine,
born at Berkhampstead, educated at Win-
chester and Oxford ; became chaplain to
Charles II., who made him Bishop of Bath
and Wells in 1684 ; was one of the seven
bishops confined in the Tower for opposing
James II. in 1688, but refused to take the
oath of allegiance to William and Mary,
and was deprived in 1691.
Kendal, Margaret (b. 1848), actress, made
her debut as Miss Madge Robertson at the
Haymarket in 1865.
Kennan, George (b. 1845), author, a native
of Ohio, United States, has travelled exten-
sively in Siberia.
Kennedy, Professor Alexander Blackie
William (b. 1847), vice-president of the
Institute of Mechanical Engineers ; he has
made several important improvements in
engineering.
Kennedy, Captain Alexander William
Maxwell Clerk (b. 1851), an English tra-
veller and naturalist.
Kennedy, Benjamin Hall (6. 1804, d. 1889),
head-master of Shrewsbury, where, a^d at
Cambridge, he was educated ; was ap-
pointed Regius professor of Greek at Cam-
bridge in 1867.
Kennedy, James (b. 1405, d. 1466), became
Bishop of Dunkeld in 1437 and of St.
Andrew's in 1440. Ho was one of the
council of regency during the minority of
James III.
Kennet, White (b. 1660, d. 1728), a Whig
partisan, became Bishop of Peterborough
in 1718.
Kenneth L, King of Scotland (d. 604),
began to reign in 558.
Kenneth II. (d. 854), became king in 823.
Kenneth III. (d. 994), son of Malcolm,
ascended the throne in 969. He was assas-
sinated.
Kennicott, Benjamin (b. 1718, d. 1783),
biblical critic, born at Totnes ; went to Ox-
ford in 1744, and was elected to a fellowship
at Exeter College. He published the first
part of his Hebrew Bible in 1776, and the
second in 1780.
Kenrick, Peter Richard (b. 1806), Roman
Catholic Archbishop of St. Louis, Missouri,
has published The Holy House of Loretto,
Anglican Ordinations, etc.
Kent, H.R.H. Prince Edward Augustus,
Duke of (b. 1767, d. 1820), fourth sou of
George III., married in 1818 Victoria Maria
Louisa, youngest daughter of the Duke of
Saxe-Coburg. From this marriage was
born at Kensington Palace, May 24th,
1819, Alexandrina Victoria, now Queen of
England.
Kent, James (b. 1700, d. 1776), composer,
born at Winchester, was organist of Win-
chester cathedral from 1737 to his death.
Kent, James, (b. 1763, d. 1847), American
jurist, published Commentaries on American
Law (1826-30), etc.
Kent, William (b. 1685, d. 1748), an Eng-
lish painter and architect, now remembered
only as having introduced a more natural
style of landscape-gardening.
Kent, William Charles Mark (b. 1823),
poet and journalist, has published Poems
(1870), etc.
Kenyon, Lloyd, Lord (*. 1773, d. 1802),
Kep
(487)
Kil
judge, bom in Flintshire ; was called to the
bar in 1761 ; distinguished himself by his
defence of Lord George Gordon (1780) ; was
made Attorney- General in 1782, Master of
the Kolls in 1784, and Chief Justice of the
King's Bench in 1788.
Kepler, Johann (b. 1571, d. 1630), astro-
nomer, born of poor parents at Wiirtemberg,
studied at Tubingen under Maestlin; in
1593 became professor of astronomy^ at
Gratz ; in 1600 visited Tycho Brahe at
Prague, became his assistant, and on his
death (1601) was appointed mathematician
to the Emperor Rodolph. He was after-
wards professor at Linz, and finally at
Rostock. He died at Ratisbon. Two of
Kepler's laws — that enunciating the elliptic
form of the planetary orbits, and that of
the "equable description of areas" — are
contained in Astronomia Nova (1609). His
third law, that the squares of the periodic
times of the planets are as the cubes of their
mean distances, is to be found in the Har-
monice Mundi (1619).
Keppel, Augustus, Viscount (b. 1725, d.
1786), admiral, son of William, Earl of
Albemarle ; in consequence of an indecisive
action with the French fleet off Ushant
(1778) was tried by court-martial, but ac-
quitted.
Keppel, Admiral the Hon. Sir Henry (b.
1809), distinguished himself in the China
war (1857).
Keratry, Emile, Comte de (b. 1832), during
the Mexican war was officer of ordnance to
Marshal Bazaine, whom he afterwards ac-
cused in the Revue Contemporaine and the
Revue Hoderne.
Kergnelen Tre'marec, Yves Joseph de
(b. 1745, d. 1797), French naval officer ; in
1771 led an exploring expedition to the
South Sea, and discovered the territory
afterwards named Kerguelen Land by Cook.
Kent, J. Conrad (6. 1808), Swiss states-
man; in 1838 successfully withstood the
French demand for the extradition of Prince
Louis Napoleon.
Kerner, Andreas Justinus (b. 1786, d.
1862), a German poet of the "Suabian
School."
Kerr, Robert (b. 1823), an architect, born
at Edinburgh.
Kersaint, Gui Pierre (b. 1742, d. 1793),
French naval officer and political writer;
took part in the revolution, and was guil-
lotined.
Kervyn de Lettenhove, Joseph Marie
Bruno Constantin, Baron (b. 1817), French
statesman and historian; has published
Etude sur le Chroniques de Froissart, Let
Huguenots et les Gueux, etc.
Kett, William (d. 1549), a tanner of Nor-
folk, headed a rising in the reign of Edward
VI. The rebels were routed by the Earl of
Warwick, and Kett perished on the gallows.
Kettle, Sir Rupert Alfred (b. 1817), settled
the builders' strike in Wolverhampton in
1864 by means of a board of arbitration, and
afterwards extended the system to other
trades.
Key, Thomas Hewitt (b. 1799, d. 1875),
philologist, wrote Language : its Origin and
Development (1874).
Khosru I. [Chosroes], "Nashirvan," King
of Persia, ascended tiie throne in 531 ; in
540 engaged in a war with Justinian, and,
after devastating Syria, imposed on the em-
peror a truce of fifty years, by which the
latter became tributary to him (562). In
570 he made war on Justinus II., but was
defeated at Melitene (576).
Knosrtl II. [Chosroes], called "Purviz"
(d. 628), grandson of the preceding, was
declared king in 590 ; invaded the Eastern
Empire in 602, subdued Syria in 611,
Palestine in 614, and Egypt and Asia Minor
in 616. In 622 Heraclius led an army
against him, and between that year and
628 won back all the conquered provinces.
Khosru was murdered by his son, Shiroueh.
Kidd, George Hugh (b. 1824), a distin-
guished surgeon, founder and president of
the Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland.
Kiepert, Heinrich (b. 1818), German geo-
grapher, has published an Atlas of Greece,
Biblical Atlas, etc.
Kildare, Gerald Fitzgerald, 8th Earl of
(d. 1513), became lord- deputy of Ireland in
1478 ; was concerned in the risings of Lam-
bert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck, attainted
in a parliament at Progheda, and sent as
a prisoner to London, but pardoned. He
afterwards served the king loyally in Ire-
land.
Kildare, Gerald Fitzgerald, 9th Earl of
(d. 1534), was appointed lord-deputy of Ire-
land in 1515. He was deprived of the office
in 1520, but, in spite of repeated efforts to
incite the Irish against the English, held it
again 1524-7, and was sole deputy in 1532.
In consequence of the anarchy which fol-
lowed his reappointment, he was summoned
to England, and imprisoned in the Tower,
where he died.
"Rilia.n, the name of a family of German
engravers, who resided at Augsburg. The
most distinguished was PHILIP ANDEEAS (b.
1714, d. 1759), who became court engraver
to Augustus LU. of Poland.
Kil
(488)
Kir
K"l"Ha.n, Saint, Bishop of Wiirzburg, a
native of Ireland, who in the 7th century
laboured as a missionary araoug the Thur-
mgiaua.
Killigrew, the name of a family who
me famous through their devotiou to
ause of Charles I. THOMAS (6. 1(511,
d. 1634) was on such familiar terms with
Charles II. that he was called " King
Charles's Jester." His niece, ANNB (b.
1660, d, 1685), was a skilful painter, and
wrote elegant verses.
Kimberley, Joseph Wodehouse, Earl (6.
1826), grandson of the second Baron Wode-
house ; was Lord Lieutenant of Inland
1S64-6, Lord Privy Seal 1868-70, Colonial
Secretary 1870-4 and 1880-2, and Secretary
for India 1882-5, and again in 1892.
KimcM, the name of a learned Jewish
family, who lived in Provence during the
12th and 13th centuries. JOSEPH KEMCHI
and his son, MOSES, were celebrated biblical
critics ; but the most distinguished member
of the family was DAVID (d. circa 1240), who
wrote commentaries on the Old Testament
and a Hebrew grammar and dictionary.
Kinaston, or Kynaston, Sir Francis (b.
circa 1588, d. 1642), poet; wrote Leoline and
Sydanis, etc.
King1, Edward (6. 1829), educated at
Oxford, was appointed principal of Cuddes-
don College in 1863 ; became canon of Christ
Church and professor of pastoral theology
in 1873, was appointed Bishop of Lincoln
in 1885. He is a prominent member of the
High Church party.
King, Henry (b. 1591, d. 1639), Bishop of
Chichester, wrote Poems and Sermons.
King, Peter, Baron (b. 1669, d. 1743),
statesman and ecclesiastical writer, born at
Exeter, entered Parliament in 1701 ; be-
came Chief Justice of the Common Pleas in
1715 ; waa Lord Chancellor 1725-33.
King, William (b. 1650, d. 1729), Irish
divine, became Bishop of Derry in 1691,
and of Dublin in 1703. He wrote De
Origine Mali, etc.
Kinglake, Alexander William (b. 1811,
d. 1891), historian, born at Taunton, edu-
cated at Cambridge ; was called to the bar
in 1837 ; represented Bridgewater in Parlia-
ment 1857-68. His works are Ho' then
(1844), and the History of the War in the
Crimea (1863-87).
King-sborough, Edward King, Viscount
(b. 1795, d. 1837), son of George, 3rd Earl
of Kingston, wrote The Antiquities of
Mexico (1831).
Kingsley, Charles (b. 1819, d. 1875),
novelist, poet, and divine, born in Devon-
shire, educated at Cambridge ; was appoi <
rector of Eversley, Hants, in '. - : w;n
Regius professor of modern history at Cam-
bridge 1859-69; held a cauonry at Cluster
cathedral 1869-73, when ho was made
canon of Westminster. In 1818 Kin;.
published a drama, Tlie Saint's Trn:,
His first novel, Alton Locke (1849), waa
followed by Yeast (1851), Hypatia (1
Westward Ho! (18-35), Two Years Aao
(1857), Hereward the Wake (1866). He also
wrote a volume of Village Sermons (1844),
etc.
Kingsley, Henry (6. 1830, d. 1876),
noveb'st, brother of the preceding, wrote
Ravcnshoe (1861), etc.
Kingston, William Henry Giles (b. 1814,
d, 18bO), a popular writer of tales for boys.
Kipling, Rudyard (b. 1864), novelist,
born in Bombay, has published Plain Talet
from the Hills, The Light that Failed, etc.
Kippis, Andrew (b. 1725, d. 1795), Dis-
senting minister, wrote a Vindication of the
I)ixsenters, and other works, and published
five volumes of a new edition of the
Biographia JBritannica.
Kir'oy, John Joshua (*. 1716, d. 1774), a
painter, born in Suffolk. His Treatise on
Perspective attracted the notice of the Earl
of Bute, through whose influence he became
clerk of the works at Kew.
Kirby, Tobias (*. 1803), Roman Catholic
prelate, became rector of the Irish College
in 1850 ; was made Bishop of Lita in 1881.
Kirby, William (b. 1759, d. 1850), ento-
mologist, was rector of Barnaul, in Suffolk,
1796-1850. He wrote British Bees (1802),
an Introduction to Entomology (1815-26),
etc.
Kircher, Athanasius (b. 1601, d. 1680), a
Jesuit, born near Fulda, in Germany,
studied at Wurzburg and Avignon ; became
professor of Hebrew in the Jesuit college at
Rome. He wrote CEdipus JEgyptiacus, on
the hieroglyphics, Musurgia Universalis, etc.
Kirk, Sir John (b. 1832), accompanied
Livingstone's second expedition as natu-
ralist; was afterwards English consul at
Zanzibar. He induced the Sultan of Zan-
zibar to sign a treaty for suppressing the
slave trade.
Kirkaldy, Sir William, of Grange (d.
1573), Scottish soldier, joined the Lords of the
Congregation (1559), pursued Bothwell to
the coast of Norway (1566), fought against
Mary at Langside, and was made governor
of Edinburgh Castle. He was afterwards
won over to the queen's side, and, after the
Kir
(489)
Xne
capture of the castle by Morton, was put to
death.
Kirke, Colonel Percy, commanded the
troops in the west after Monmouth's re-
bellion, and gained an evil notoriety by his
cruel treatment of his supporters.
Kirkpatrick, Alexander Francis (b. 1849),
was appointed Regius professor of Hebrew
at Cambridge in 1882.
Xisfaludy, Sandor (b. 1772, d. 1844),
Hungarian poet, wrote Himfy's Love,
Legends of the Olden Time in Hungary,
etc.
Ess, August (b. 1802, d. 1865), a German
sculptor. His chief work is the Amazon
attacked by a Panther, in Berlin.
Kitchin, George William (b. 1827), be-
came Dean of Winchester in 1883. He has
published a History of France previous to
the Revolution (1873-7). ,
Kitto, John (b. 1804, d. 1854), Biblical
scholar, son of a Plymouth mason ; pub-
lished The Pictorial History of Palestine, a
Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature, etc.
Klapka, Georg (b. 1820, d. 1892), Hun-
garian general, born at Temeswar, distin-
guished himself in the Hungarian war of
Independence (1849). He held out after his
fellow- commanders had laid down their
arms, and, when he at last capitulated, was
allowed to leave the country. He has since
resided chiefly in Switzerland. He has pub-
lished My War in Hungary (1850), and The
War in the East from 1853 to 1855 (1855).
KLaproth, Heinrich Julius von (b. 1783, d.
1835), traveller and Orientalist, son of
Martin Heinrich Klaproth, published Tra-
vels in the Caucasus and Georgia, Asia Poly-
glot t a, etc.
Klaproth, Martin Heinrich (b. 1743, d.
1817), professor of chemistry at Berlin;
made many important discoveries, including
those of uranium, mellitic acid, and the
earth zirconia. He wrote a System of
Mineralogy, etc.
Kl6l>er, Jean Baptiste (b. 1754, d. 1800),
distinguished himself in the wars of the
French revolution, and under the Directory
became commander of the army of the
Sambre and Meuse. He went to Egypt
with Napoleon, and on his departure re-
mained behind as commander-in-chief. He
captured Cairo, and entered into an alliance
with Murat Bey, but was assassinated by
an Arab.
Klein, Benihard(i. 1794, d. 1832), German
composer, was musical director and pro-
fessor of singing in the university of Berlin,
chief works are the oratorios of Job,
Jephthah, and David ; Dido, an opera; and
Die Worte des Glaubens, a cantata.
KLeist, Ewald Christian von (b. 1715, d.
1759), poet, born in Pomerania, wrote
idylls, a descriptive poem called Spring, etc.
He was slain in the battle of Kunersdorf.
KLeist, Heinrich Wilhelm von (b. 1777, d.
1811), poet, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder,
wrote Hobert Gtiiscard, Amphitryon, Prim
Heinrich von Homburg, Kdthchen von Heil-
bronn, and other dramas.
Klenze, Leo von (b. 1784, d. 1864), Ger-
man architect, born at Hildesheim, studied
in Berlin, Paris, and Italy. In 1815 he be
came architect to Maximilian L of Bavaria.
His finest buildings are at Munich. They
are imitated from Greek models, though
much of the detail is original.
KHngenstienia, Samuel (b. 1689, d. 1785),
educated at Upsala ; was professor of mathe-
matics in that university (1730-85). He made
important discoveries concerning optics.
Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb (b. 1724,
d. 18U3), German poet, born at Quedlinburg,
educated in his native town and the univer-
sity of Jena ; paid a visit to Switzerland in
1750 ; while there was invited by Baron
Bernstorff to Copenhagen, where he re-
mained till 1771, when he went to Ham-
burgh as Danish legate. Besides his famous
epic, The Messiah, which occupied him from
1747 to 1773, he wrote a large number of
odes.
Klotz, Christian Adolph (*. 1738, d. 1771),
German scholar and critic, professor of
philosophy at Gottingen, and afterwards at
Halle ; wrote treatises on coins, ancient
gems, and paintings.
Kluit, Adrian (b. 1735, d. 1795), professor
at Leyden : wrote a history of the political
affairs of Holland.
Kmety, Georg (b. 1810, d. 1865), during
the Hungarian war of Independence held a
command under Gorgey on the Upper
Danube, and afterwards took a prominent
part in the operations of the south. He
subsequently entered the Turkish army,
and during the Crimean war took part with
Sir F. Williams in the heroic defence of
Kars. He died in London.
Knapp, Albert (6. 1798, d. 1864), a German
writer of religious hymns.
Knaus, Ludwig (b. 1829), a German
painter, born at Wiesbaden.
Kneller, Sir Godfrey (b. circa 1648, d.
1723), portrait-painter, born at Liibeck ;
settled in England in 1674, and held the
office of royal painter under five successive
sovereigns. Among his chief works are
Kni
( 490)
Kom
The Kit-Cut Club, a series of forty-three por-
traits, and the Beauties of Hampton Court.
Knight, Charles (6. 1790, d. 1873], pub-
lisher ; started The Penny Magazine (1832-45),
and other works intended to diffuse a taste
for high-class literature. He wrote The
Biography of Shakespeare, edited Shake-
speare, etc.
Knight, John Prescott, R.A. (6. 1803, d.
1881), portrait -painter, was secretary to the
Royal Academy from 1848 to 1873.
Knight, Richard Payne (6. 1748, d. 1824),
a writer on classical antiquity. He be-
queathed his collection of antique bronzes,
medals, and paintings to the British Mu-
seum.
Knighton, Henry, an historian of the
latter part of the 14th century ; wrote a
Chronicle, extending from 950 to 1390, also
an account of the deposition of Richard II.
Knighton, William (b. 1834), has published
a History of Ceylon, etc.
KnoUer, Martin von (b. 1725, d. 1804), a
German fresco-painter.
Knolles, or Knowles, Sir Robert (6. circa
1317, d. 1407), a captain of free companies ;
distinguished himself in the wars of Edward
in.
Knollis, or Knowles, Sir Francis (b. circa
1530, d. 1596), statesman; withdrew to the
Continent during the reign of Mary, re-
turned on the accession of Elizabeth, and
was appointed vice-chamberlain and after-
wards treasurer. He wrote a treatise on
The Usurpation of Par.a"- Bishops, etc.
Knott, Edward (b. 1580, d. 1656), a
Jesuit, born in Northumberland, whose
real name was Matthias Wilson. He be-
came provincial of his order in England.
His Infidelity Unmasked (1652) was a reply
to Chilliugworth's Religion of Protestants.
Knowles, James (b. 1831), architect and
man of letters; edited the Contemporary
Review from 1870 to 1877, when he started
the Nineteenth Century.
Knowles, James Sheridan (6. 1784, d.
1862), dramatist, wrote Virginius (1820),
The Hunchback (1832), and other dramas.
Knox, John (6. 1505, d. 1572), born at
Gifford in East Lothian, educated at Had-
dington grammar school and the univer-
sities of Glasgow and St. Andrew's ; was
ordained priest before 1530 ; embraced the
reformed doctrines about 1542 ; in conse-
quence of the persecution to which he was
subjected took refuge in the castle of St.
Andrew's (1547) ; was a prisoner in France
1547-9; in 1549 came to England, where he
exercised much influence on the course of
the Reformation ; ii .ring the reign of Mary
resided chiefly in Switzerland. In 15.0U he
returned to Scotland, and so inflamed the
people bv his sermons against the Romish
Church that riots took place in Perth, Stir-
ling, and other towns. Throughout the
religious struggle which ensued Knox was
the leading spirit of the extreme Protestant
party and the bitter opponent of the queen.
Of his writings the best known are The
First Blast oj the 'Trumpet (1558), and a
History of the Reformation of Scotland.
Knox, Robert Bent (6. 1808), became
Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of Ire-
land in 1876.
Knox, Vicesimus (b. 1752, d. 1821), was
headmaster of Tunbridge grammar school
1778-1811. He published Essays, Moral and
Literary, a treatise on Liberal Education, etc.
Knutsford, Henry Thurstan Holland,
Lord (b. 1825), son of Sir Henry Holland ;
entered Parliament in 1874 ; became
Colonial Secretary in 1887 ; was raised to
the peerage in 1888.
Kobell, Ferdinand (b. 1740, d. 1799), a
German painter and etcher.
Koch, Joseph Anton (b. 1768, d. 1839),
German painter, lived chiefly at Rome. He
excelled in landscape.
Koch, Karl Heinrich Emmanuel (b. 1809,
d. 1879), German naturalist and scientific
explorer; published .4 Journey Across Russia
to the Isthmus of the Caucasus (1842-3),
Wanderings in the East, describing his
travels in Turkey and Armenia (1846-7),
and JJendrology (1875).
Koch, Robert, M.D. (b. 1843), born in the
Harz Mountains ; between 1879 and 1883
succeeded in identifying the germs of cattle
disease, of consumption, and of cholera.
In 1884 he established the existence of a
bacterium as the cause of cholera. In
1885 he was appointed professor of hygiene
at Berlin ; in 1890 brought out a lymph for
the cure of consumption.
Kock, Charles Paul de (b. 1794, d. 1871),
French novelist, wrote Le Barbier de Paris,
Andre le Savoyard, etc.
Kolbe, or Kolben, Peter (6. 1674, d. 1726),
German traveller ; wrote a Description of
the Cape of Good Hope (1719).
Kollar, Jan (b. 1793, d. 1852), Hungarian
poet and miscellaneous writer, became pro-
fessor of archaeology in the university of
Vienna in 1849. He was an ardent advocate
of " Panslavism."
Komaroff, General Alexander (6. 1830),
commanded the Russian troops at the time
Kon
(491)
of the difficulties respecting the Afghan
frontier (1884). The incident at Penjdeh,
when the Afghans were routed by his
troops, nearly occasioned a war between
England and Russia.
Konig, Friedrich (6. 1775, d. 1833),
the inventor of the steam printing-press,
was born at Eisleben. He came to England
in 1806. His invention was first adopted in
1811, when a sheet of the Annual Register
was turned out in this manner.
Korner, Karl Theodor (6. 1791, d. 1813),
German poet, born in Dresden. On the
outbreak of war with France he entered the
Prussian army, and was slain in an engage-
ment near Schwerin. His war songs were
published after his death under the title
Leier und Schwert.
Kosciusko, Tadeusz (b. 1746, d. 1817),
Polish patriot, went to America and be-
came aide-de-camp to Washington ; in 1789
received the appointment of major-general
in the Polish army ; distinguished himself
in the campaign of 1792, especially at the
battle of Dubienka ; after the submission of
Stanislaus retired to Leipzig; on the out-
break of the second Polish rising, in 1794,
was chosen cpmmander-in-chief ; although
scantily supplied with troops, succeeded in
expelling the Russians from Poland, but
was finally overwhelmed at Maceiowice in
October. He was imprisoned in a fortress
near St. Petersburg, but released on the
accession of the Emperor Paul. In 1798 he
settled in France. He died at Soleure, in
Switzerland.
Kosegarten, Johann Gottfried Ltidwig
(b. 1792, d. 1862), German Orientalist, pro-
fessor at Jena (1817-24) and Greifswald
(1824-62), edited and translated the Kitab-
el-Aghany (1840).
Kossuth, Louis (b. 1802), Hungarian
patriot ; in 1847 was returned to the Diet as
deputy for Pesth ; became leader of the
party of reform ; held the office of minister
of finance in the new Hungarian ministry,
and after its fall was made president of the
Committee of National Defence. In April,
1849, the Hungarians declared themselves
independent, and Kossuth carried on the
government from Debreczin, and after-
wards from Szegedin ; but, rinding it impos-
sible to act in conjunction with Gorgey, he
resigned in August, 1849. The ill-success
of his countrymen in the field compelled
him soon afterwards to flee to Turkey,
whence he removed to England in 1851.
Of late years he has lived chiefly in Italy.
Kotzebue, August Friedrich Ferdinand von
(b. 1761, d. 1819), German man of letters;
in 1781 was attached to the Prussian embassy
at St. Petersburg; afterwards entered the
Russian service, and in 1817 was sent by
the Tzar as consul-general to Prussia. His
Russian sympathies made him unpopular in
Germany, and led to his assassination. His
works embrace a wide range of subjects.
Krantz, Albert (b. circa 1450, d. 1517),
born at Hamburg; wrote a Chronicle of the
Kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway,
a History of Saxony, a History of the
Ancient Vandals, etc.
Krapotkine, Prince Peter (b. 1842), Rus-
sian Nihilist ; in 1871 went to Belgium and
Switzerland; became an Internationalist ;
after his return to Russia, lectured under
assumed names; was imprisoned, but es-
caped to Switzerland ; has since taken part
in the agitation carried on throughout
Europe against existing social arrange-
ments.
Krehl, Ludolf (b. 1826), Arabic scholar,
has edited Bukhary's Corpus of Mahomtnedan
Tradition.
Kremer, Alfred von (b. 1828V, Orientalist;
was consul at Cairo (1859), Galatz (1862),
and Beyrout (1870-72), in succession. HTS
chief works are The Leading Ideas of Islam,
and a History of Eastern Civilisation under
the Khalifs.
Kreutzer, Conradin (b. 1782, d. 1849), Ger-
man musician; resided at Vienna 1804-38,
when he became kapellmeister at Cologne.
He died at Vienna. Bis chief works are
Das Nachtlager in Granada, and Der Verse h-
wender.
Kreutzer, Rudolf (b. 1767, d. 1831), a
violinist and musical composer.
Kriloff, Ivan Andreevitch (b. 1768, d.
1844), a celebrated Russian fabulist.
Kriidener, Barbara Juliana, Baroness
von (b. 1766, d. 1824), religious visionary,
daughter of the Count von Wietinghoif,
governor of Riga ; in her fifteenth year was
married to Baron von Kriidener; in 1805
appeared in Paris, where she proclaimed the
approach of the millennium, predicted the
fall of Napoleon, and exercised considerable
influence over the Emperor Alexander ; was
expelled from several European countries
in succession, and finally withdrew to the
Crimea, where she founded an institution
for the reformation of criminals.
Kriiger, S. J. Paul (b. 1825), Boer states-
man ; formed with Joubert and Pretorius a
provisional government (December, 1881),
and shortly afterwards became president of
the Transvaal : held this office during the
war with England ; was re-elected in 1883
and 1888.
Krumniaclier, Friedrich Adolf (b, 1768,
(492
LaU
d. 1845), German divine, wrote Parables,
etc. His son, FBIEDBICH WILHELM (b.
1796, d. 1868), was the author of Elijah the
Tishbite, and other works.
Krupp, Friedrich (b. 1812, d. 1887), a
German metal-founder, the inventor of the
gigantic steel guns which bear his name.
Kublai Khan (Clii-Tsou) (d. 120-1), sou of
Tuly Khan and grandson of Jenghis Khan,
became Khagan, or Grand Khan, of the
Moguls in 1259. He expelled the Kin
dynasty from Northern China in 1260, and
completed his conquest of the country by
the overthrow of the Song dynasty in
Southern China (1279). His empire ex-
tended from the Arctic Ocean to the Straits
of Malacca and from Corea to Asia Minor.
Kuenen, Abraham (6. 1828, d. 1891), pro-
fessor of Hebrew and the Old Testament at
Ley den ; has written a Historico-Critical In~
vestigation into the Origin and Collection of
the Old Testament Books, part of which was
translated into English by Bishop Colenso.
Kugler, Franz Theodor (b. 1808, d. 1858),
a German writer on the fine arts, became
professor at Berlin in 1833. His chief work
is a Manual of the History of Painting.
Kunckel, Johann (b. 1630, d. 1703), Ger-
man chemist, born in Sleswick, made im-
portant discoveries, including that of the
phosphorus which bears his name. He died
at Stockholm.
Kuster, Ludolf (b. 1670, d. 1716), classical
scholar, born in Westphalia, came to Eng-
land in 1699. He was subsequently pro-
fessor at Berlin, whence he removed to
Holland. His works include editions of
Suidas, Aristophanes, and lamblichus's Life
of Pythagoras.
Kutusow, Michael, Prince of Smolenskoi
(b. 1745, d. 1813), Russian field-marshal, led
the allied forces at Austerlitz (1805) ; in
1812 was given the chief command against
Napoleon, and gained a brilliant victory at
Smolensk.
Kyrle, John (b. 1664, d. 1724), a philan-
thropist, born at Ross in Herefordshire, the
hero of Pope's Man o/JRose.
Laar, or Laer, Pieter van, " Bamboccio "
(b. 1613, d. circa 1648), Dutch artist, ex-
celled in depicting country sports and
festivals.
Laban, son of Bethuel, was father of Leah
and Rachel.
Labiche, Eugene Marin (b. 1815, d. 1888),
French dramatist; wrote Embrassons-now
(1850), Le Voyage de Monsieur Perrichon
(I860), etc.
Lablache, Louis (b. 1794, d. 1858), actor
and singer, of French extraction, born at
Naples.
Labor de, Alexandre L. J., Comte de (b.
1774, d. 1842), accompanied Lucien Bona-
parte to Spain in 1800 ; wrote Voyage Pit-
toresque et Historique en Espagne, and other
works ; took part in the revolution of 1830.
Laborde, Jean Benjamin de (b. 1734, d.
1794), French author and musical composer;
wrote an Essai sur la Musique ^Ancienne et
Moderne, and other works.
Labouchere, Henry (b. 1831), was in the
diplomatic service from 1854 to 1864 ; sat in
Parliament for Windsor (1865-66), and
for Middlesex (1867-68) , since 1880 has
represented Northampton. He started Truth
in 1877.
La Bourdonnais, Bertrand Francois Mah6
de (b. 1699, d. circa 1753), officer in the
French East India Company ; was appointed
governor of Bourbon and the Isle de France
in 1734 ; took Madras from the English in
1746, but was recalled and imprisoned for
three years in the Bastille.
Labrunie, Gerard de Nerval (b. 1808, d.
1845), an eccentric French man of letters ;
translated Faust.
La Bruyere, Jean de (b. 1644, d. 1696),
French writer, born near Dourdan ; author
of Les Caracteres de Theophraste (1688).
Through his friendship with Bossuet he be-
came tutor to a son of the Prince de Conde*.
Lacaille, Nicholas L. de (b. 1713, d. 17C2),
French mathematician and astronomer.
Lacepede, Bernard de la Ville, Comte
de (b. 1756, d. 1825), French naturalist,
born at Agen ; wrote a Histoire den Cetaces
(1804), etc.
La Cnaise, or La Chaize d'Aix, Fra^ois
de (6. 1624, d. 1709), a French Jesuit, con-
fessor to Louis XIV.
Xac
(493)
"Lai
Lachmann, Karl Konrad Friedrich Wil-
helm (b. 1793, d. 1851), German, philologist,
professor at Berlin in 1827 ; published essays
on the Iliad and the Niebelungenlied, etc.
La Condamine, Charles Marie de (6. 1701,
d. 1774), French man of science, went with
Bouguer to Peru in 1736; on his return,
published an Account of a Journey in South
America (1745), and The Figure of the Earth
Determined (1749).
Lacordaire, Jean Baptiste Henri (b. 1802,
d. 1861), French preacher, educated at the
Dijon Lycee; abandoned the bar for the
church ; was ordained priest, 1827 ; became
joint-editor with Lamennais of the demo-
cratic and Ultramontane L'Avenir, but, on
its condemnation by the pope (1832) sub-
mitted to the church ; was lecturer at Notre
Dame 1835-6 ; entered the Dominican order
in 1839 ; started IS Ere Nouvelle in 1848 ; be-
came master of the college at Soreze in 1854.
Lacroix, Paul (b. 180G, d. 1884), French
novelist, historian, and art- critic.
Lactantius, Lucius Ccslius Firmianus (b.
circa 250, d. circa 325), Latin Father, pupil
of Arnobius ; probably born in Africa ; was
converted to Christianity about 300 ; taught
rhetoric, and had among his pupils Crispus,
son of the Emperor Constantino. His chief
work is Instituti&nes Divince.
Lselius, Caius (b. circa 235, d. circa 165
B.C.), Roman general, accompanied Scipio
Africanus to Spain in 210 ; defeated Syphax,
King of the Massaesylians (203) ; was consul
in 190.
Lselius, Caius, Sapiens (b. circa 185, d.
circa 115 B.C.), son of the preceding, accom-
panied Scipio Africanus to the siege of
Carthage ; imbibed the doctrines of Stoicism
from Diogenes of Babylon and Panaetius ;
was consul in 140 ; opposed the Gracchi.
Laennec, Rene" Theodore Hyacinthe (b.
1781, d. 1826), French physician; invented
the stethoscope.
Lafayette, Marie Jean Paul Roche Yves
Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de (b. 1757, d.
1834), educated at the college of Plessis;
took part in the American war of Inde-
pendence, and was entrusted by Washington
with the defence of Virginia ; was one of
the earliest leaders in the French revolution,
presenting his Declaration of Rights to the
Constituent Assembly, and receiving the
command of the National Guard in July,
1789 ; retained this post till 1791, but, by
opposing mob violence, excited the animosity
of the Jacobins, which was increased by his
letter denouncing the clubs (June, 1792).
After vainly attempting to make his presence
felt in Paris, he fled over the frontier, but
was captured by the Austrians (August,
1792), and remained in prison till released
by Napoleon in 1797. After holding office
under the Bourbons, he took part in raising
Louis Philippe to the throne (1830), but
afterwards opposed his government.
Laffitte, Jacques (6. 1767, d. 1844), French
financier and politician ; was governor of the
Bank of France in 1814 ; was president of
the Assembly which offered the throne to
Louis Philippe, under whom he became
minister of finance and president of the
Council, but resigned in 1831.
La Fontaine, Jean de (6. 1621, d. 1695),
French author ; born at Chateau-Thierry,
resided many years in Paris. Besides the
Fables, published in three parts (1668,
1679, 1693), he wrote Conies et Nouvelles
(1665-66-71), and Les Amours de Psyche et d*
Cupidon (1669).
Lagomarsini, Girolamo (b. 1698, d. 1773),
Jesuit philologist, professor of Greek in the
college at Rome.
Lagrange, Joseph Louis, Count (b. 1736,
d. 1813), mathematician, of French ex-
traction, born at Turin ; became professor
of mathematics in that town at the age of
nineteen. In 1766 he succeeded Euler as
director of the academy of Berlin. Re-
moving to Paris in 1787, he remained there
during the revolution, and was afterwards
patronised by Napoleon.
Laguerre, Louis (b. 1663, d. 1721), French
painter, came to England in 1683.
La Harpe, Jean Francois de (b. 1739, d.
1803), French author and critic, educated at
the College d'Harcourt, His chief work is
his Cours de Liiterature, lectures delivered
at the Lycee in 1786 and the following years.
He took part in the French revolution, but
during an imprisonment in the Bastille hia
views underwent a change.
La Hire, Philippe de (b. 1640, d. 1719),
French mathematician and engineer.
Lainez, or Laynez, Jago (b. 1512, d. 1565),
born in Castile ; was one of the earliest
disciples of Loyola, and succeeded him as
general of the Jesuits in 1558. He took a
prominent part in the Council of Trent and
the Colloquy of Poissy.
Laing, David (b. 1790, d. 1878), Scotch
antiquarian, honorary secretary to the Ban-
natyne Club 1823-60; wrote the Life and
Works of John Knox (1846-64), and edited
several Scottish poets.
Laing, Malcolm (&. 1762, d. 1818), born in
Orkney, wrote a History of Scotland (1800).
Laing, Samuel (b. 1810), nephew of the
preceding; has taken a prominent part in
railway legislation.
Lai
494 )
Lam
Lairesse, Gerard (6. 1640, d. 1711), Dutch
historical painter and engraver.
Lake, Gerard, Viscount (b. 1714, d. 1808),
general ; distiuguishe I himself in the Mah-
ratia war, defeating Siudia at Alleghur and
Delhi, restoring Shah Allura to the throne
(1803), routing Siudia's northern array at
Laswaree in the same year, and in 1804-5
suppressing the rebellion of Holkar.
Lalande, Joseph Jerome le Franqais de
(b. 1732, d- 1807), French astronomer; was
sent to Berlin to determine the parallax of
the moon, and became professor of astro-
nomy in the College de France. His chief
work is Traite d'^istronomie (1764).
Lally, Thomas Arthur, Baron deTollendal,
Comte de (6. 1702, d. 1766), descended from
an Irish family ; was appointed commander-
in- chief of the French possessions in India
in 1756 ; captured Fort St. David (1758), but
was taken prisoner by Sir E. Coote at Pon-
dicherry (1761). On his return to France
he was imprisoned in the Bastille, and
finally executed.
Lally-Tollendal, Trophime Gerard, Mar-
quis de (b. 1751, d. 1830), son of the pre-
ceding ; was a deputy from the noblesse in the
Constituent Assembly, where he became a
prominent advocate of reform. His mode-
rate views occasioned his withdrawal to
Switzerland, and afterwards to England.
He returned in 1800.
Lamar, Hon. Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus
(6. 1825), American lawyer and politician.
Lamarck, Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de
M muet de (b. 1744, d. 1829), French natural-
ist, appointed professor of zoology in the
Museum of Natural History in 1793 ; wrote
numerous works, the chief being Philosophic
Zoologique (1809), and a Histoire Naturelle
des Animaux sans Vertebres (1815-22).
Lamartine, Alphonse Marie Louis du Prat
de (b. 1790, d. 1869), French author and
statesman; held diplomatic posts in Italy
from 1820 to the accession of Louis Philippe ;
travelled for two years in the East ; return-
ing in 1833, sat in the National Assembly
till the revolution of 1848, when he became
minister of foreign affairs, but retired,
owing to what he considered the absence of
liberal views among his colleagues. His
chief prose works are Histoire des Girondins
(1847), Souvenirs d' Orient (1835), Le Tailleur
de Pierres de St. -Point, and Histoire de la
Restauration.
Lamb, Lady Caroline (6. 1786, d. 1828),
daughter of the Earl of Bessborough, and
wife of the Hon. William Lamb, afterwards
Lord Melbourne; wrote Glenarvon, and
other novels. She is now chiefly remembered
for her unhappy attachment to Lord Byron.
Lamb, Charles (b. 1775, d. 1834), essayist
t*nd poet, was born in the Temple, where
his father was clerk to a bencher ; received
his education at Christ's Hospital ; became a
clerk in the South Sea House, and after-
wards in the India House, retiring on a
pension in 1825. His life was devoted to
the care of his sister, Mary, who always
remained subject to fits of insanity. Most
of the Essays of Elia were published in the
London Magazine between 1820 and 1826;
others appeared in the New Monthly and
the Englishman's Magazine. Lamb also
wrote Hotamund Gray (1795), John Wood-
rille, a drama ^1799), studies of the Eliza-
bethan dramatists, and many short lyrics.
He died at Edmonton.
Lamb, Mary (£. 1762, d. 1847), sister of
the preceding, in conjunction with whom
she wrote Tales from Shakespeare.
Lamballe, Marie Therese de Savoie-
Carignan, Princesse de (b. 1748, d. 1792),
was superintendent of the household of
Marie Antoinette, and shared her imprison-
ment in the Temple.
Lambert, Francois (6. 1487, d. 1530),
French Protestant reformer, appointed pro-
fessor of theology at Marburg in 1527.
Lambert, Johann Heinrich (b. 1728, d.
1777), philosopher and mathematician, born
at Mulnausen, in Alsace.
Lambert, John (b. 1619, d. circa 1694),
English revolutionist; fought at Marston
Moor and Naseby ; led the van at Dunbar ;
resisted the proposal to make Cromwell
king, and was deprived of his commission ;
after the death of Cromwell, restored the
Long Parliament; marched against Monk,
by whom he was defeated ; was exiled to
Guernsey, where he lived thirty years.
Lambert, Sir John, K.C.B. (b. 1815),
secretary to the Local Government Board
from 1871 to 1882, framed a large num-
ber of Government measures, including
the Metropolitan Poor Act (1867) and the
Redistribution of Seats Act (1884). He
also collected statistics with reference to
the Irish Church and Land Bills, and the
Franchise Act (1884) was based on his
proposals.
Lambert of Aschaffenburg (b. circa 1020,
d. circa 1080), a Benedictine monk; wrote
Annales, including a chronicle of contempo-
rary events in Germany.
Lambton, William (b. 1748, d. 1823),
lieutenant- colonel ; began the great trigono-
metrical survey of India in 1802, and deter-
mined an arc of the meridian from lat
83 23' to lat. 21° 6'.
Lamech, the son of Methusaleh, and
father of Noah.
(495)
Lan
Lamennais, Felicity Bobert de (6. 1782,
d. 1854), French philosopher and political
writer ; after a period of scepticism in youth,
adopted ultra- Catholic views ; was ordained
in 1816; in 1821-3 published Essais sur
V Indifference ; between 1826 and 1830
•-hanged his opinions, and came to regard
liberty rather than authority as the main
factor in human progress; in 1830 started
L'Avenir, at once radical and Ultramontane
n its views ; after its condemnation by
Gregory XVI. (1832), severed his connection
vith the Church, and identified himself
with the Democratic party, publishing
Paroles d'un Croyant in 1834. Among his
cater works are Le Pays et le Gouvernement
(1840), a pamphlet for which he suffered
& year's imprisonment, Esquisse d'une Philo-
tophie (1841-6), and a translation of the
Divine Comedy.
Lametli, Charles Malo Francois de (b.
1757, d. 1832), and Alexandre de (b. 1760,
d. 1829), brothers; served together in the
American war of Independence; were
elected to the Constituent Assembly (1789),
and exercised much influence after the death
of Mirabeau. In 1792 Charles fled abroad,
but Alexandre was taken prisoner by the
Austrians. They returned together in 1800.
'Dharles served under Napoleon 1809-14.
Lami, Giovanni (b. 1697, d. 1770), Italian
inthor, professor of ecclesiastical history at
Florence ; wrote on history, theology, and
antiquities.
Lamoriciere, Christophe Leon Louis
Guchault de (b. 1806, d. 1865), French
general, took part in the Revolution of
1848, was banished in 1851, was appointed
commander of the Papal troops in I860, and
beaten at Castelfidardo.
Lamptte, Jeanne de Valois, Comtesse de
(6. 1757, d. 1791), French adventuress,
notorious for her conduct in the affair of
the Diamond Necklace.
La Motte-Fouque. [See Fouque.]
Lana, Francesco Terzi (b. 1631, d. 1687),
an Italian Jesuit; author of Magisterium
Naturae et Artis.
Lancaster, Sir James (d. 1618), English
navigator ; in 1600 conducted the first trad-
ing expedition of the East India Company,
and made a commercial treaty with the
King of Acheen.
Lancaster, Joseph (6. 1771, d. 1838), a
Quaker, the founder of the Lancastrian or
monitorial system of education.
Lancisi, Giovanni (b. 1654, d. 1720),
Italian physician, wrote several medical
works.
Lander, Kichard (b. 1804, d. 1834), and
John (6. 1807, d. 1839), African explorers,
brothers, were natives of Cornwall. John
accompanied Clapperton's expedition in
1825-7, assuming the command after hia
death. In 1829-31 the brothers explored
the lower course of the Niger, and published
their Journal in 1832. Richard afterwards
established a commercial settlement on the
Niger, but was killed in an attack by the
natives. John died in Cornwall.
Landon, Letitia Elizabeth, "L. E. L."
(6. 1802, d. 1838), daughter of a Hereford-
shire squire ; wrote the Improvisatrice (1824),
and other poems, many of which appeared
in the Literary Gazette; also some prose
works, including Ethel Churchill (1836).
In 1838 she married George Maclean, gov-
ernor of Cape Coast, and died in Africa.
Landor, Walter Savage (6. 1775, d. 1864),
descended from a good Warwickshire
family ; was educated at Rugby and Trinity
Cclibgrf, Oxford, where he won a high
ier-atation as a scholar. He next passed
t^ree years of solitude in South Wales, and
there wrote Gebir (1798). Simonidia ap«
peared in 1806, and Count Julian in 1811.
In the same year he married, and his agri-
cultural schemes at Llanthony Abbey re-
sulting in failure (1814), went abroad with
his wife, with whom he lived very un-
happily at Florence and other places, and
at last separated from her in 1835. From
1837 to 185S he resided at Bath, and from
1858 till his death at Florence. The first
series of Imaginary Conversations was pub-
lished in 1824.
Landseer, Charles (b. 1799, d. 1879),
second son of John Landseer, exhibited
many pictures in the Royal Academy.
Landseer, Sir Edwin Henry (6. 1802, d.
1873), youngest son of John Landseer, born
in London, showed his genius at an early
age ; was elected A.R.A. in 1825, and R.A.
in 1830 ; declined the presidency in 1865.
Among his chief works are High Life and
Low Life (1831), Bolton Abbey in the Olden
Time (1834), Tlie Old Shepherd's Chief
Mourner (1837), Dignity and Impudence
(1839), Night, Morning, and Children of the
Mist (1853).
Landseer, John, A.R.A. (b. 1769, d. 1852),
an English engraver and writer on art.
Landseer, Thomas (b. 1795, d. 18SO), en-
graver, eldest son of the preceding, studied
under his father and Haydon. He excelled
in engravings of animals.
Lane, Edward William (b. 1801, d. 1876),
visited Egypt in 1825-8, 1833-5, and 1842-9,
and published The Manners and Customs of
the Modern Egyptians (1836), five volumes
of an Arabic Lexicon (1863-74) and other
works.
Lan
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Lan
Lane-Poole, Stanley (b. 1854), grand-
nephew of the preceding, to whose Arabic
Lexicon he has added three volumes.
Lanfranc (b. 1005, d. 1089), born at Pavia,
was elected prior of Bee in Normandy in
1045, and abbot of St. Stephen's, (Jaeu, in
1062 ; after the Norman conquest was made
Archbishop of Canterbury (1070), and
brought the English Church into closer
connection with the Roman See.
Lanfrey, Pierre (6. 1828, d. 1877), French
historian ; wrote a Histoire de Napoleon I.
Lang", Andrew (b. 1844), journalist and
poet, has published Custom and Myth, (1884),
and numerous other works.
Langbaine, Gerard (b. 1656, d. 1692),
wrote An Account of the English Dramatic
Poets (1691).
Langdale, Henry Bickersteth, Lord (b.
1783, d. 1851), educated at Cambridge ; was
called to the bar in 1811, and became
Master of the Rolls in 1836.
Langdale, Sir Marmaduke (d. 1661),
Boyalist commander.
Langevin, Sir Hector Louis (b. 1826),
Canadian politician ; appointed minister of
public works in 1879.
Langham, Simon de (b. 1310, d. 1376),
became Chancellor in 1364, and Archbishop
of Canterbury in 1366. In 1368 he was
made a cardinal. He opposed Wyclif .
Langhorne, John (b. 1735, d. 1779), be-
sides other works, published a translation
of Plutarch's Lives, produced in conjunction
with his brother William.
Langland, William (b. ciroa 1332, d, circa
1400), author of The Vision of William con-
cerning Piers the Plowman; is believed to
have been born at Cleobury Mortimer, in
Shropshire.
Langles, Louis (b. 1763, d. 1824), French
Orientalist, professor of Persian and Malay
at Paiis; wrote Les Instituts Politiques et
Militaires de Tamerlan, etc.
Langtoft, Peter de, an English monk of
the 14th century ; wrote, in French verse, a
Chronicle of England, translated by Robert
de Brunne.
Langton, Stephen (d. 1228), born in Lin-
colnshire, studied at Paris ; went to Rome
in 1206, and was made a cardinal by Inno-
cent III. ; was elected Archbishop of Canter-
bury in 1207, but excluded from England
by John till 1213.
Langiiet, Hubert (b. 1518, d. 1581), born
at Viteaux, in Burgundy ; after studying at
Padua, went to Wittemberg, where he em-
braced the doctrines of the Reformation ; in
1568 entered the service of the Elector of
Saxony, and was his envoy at Paris at tiie
time of the massacre of St. Bartholomew.
His chief work is Vindic'uz contra Tyrannus
(1579).
Laniere, Nicholas (b. 1568, d. 1646), an
Italian painter and musician ; patronised by
Charles I. of England.
Lanjuinais, Jean Denis, Comtede (b. 1753,
d. 1827), French lawyer and politician, born
at Rouen ; sat in the Constituent Assembly
and the Convention ; ably defended Louis
XVI. and the Girondists ; concealed himself
during the Reign of Terror ; withstood
Xapoleon ; under the Bourbons was a lead-
ing exponent of Liberal views.
Lankester, Edwin Ray, F.R.S., LL.D.
(b. k>47), zoologist, educated at St.
Paul's school, and Christ Church, Oxford ;
was appointed professor of zoology and com-
parative anatomy in University College,
London, in 1874, and re-elected in 1882. He
has written fossil Fishes of the Old Red
Sandstone, Degeneration : a Chapter in Dar-
winism, and other works, and is chief editor
of the Quarterly Journal of Microscopic
Science.
Lannes, Jean, Due de Montebello (b. 1769,
d. 1809), French marshal, began life as a dyer ;
entered the army in 1792; distinguished him-
self in Italy (1 796-7 > ; accompanied Bona-
parte to Egypt ; commanded the advanced
guard in crossing the Alps, gained the victory
of Montebello, and rendered great service at
Marengo (1800) ; was ambassador to Portu-
gal 1801-4; fought at Austerlitz, Jena, and
Friedland ; went to Spain as commander-in-
chief in 1808. and reduced Saragossa (1809);
was mortally wounded at Aspern.
La Noue, Francois de (b. 1531, d. 1591),
Huguenot general, "Bras de Fer"; con-
ducted the defence of La Rochelle 1573-7;
commanded the Flemish forces 1578-80 ;
was a prisoner in the hands of the
Spaniards 1580-85 ; took part in the wars
of the League, and was slain at the siege of
Lamballe.
Lansdowne, Henry Charles Keith Fitz-
maurice, fifth Marquis of (b. 1845), was
Govern or -General of Canada from '1883 to
1888, when he succeeded Lord Dufferin as
Viceroy of India.
Lansdowne, Henry Petty Fitzmaurice,
third Marquis of (b. 1780, d. 1863), entered
Parliament as a Whig in 1802 ; was Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer in the "Ministry of
All the Talents," Home Secretary under
Canning (1826), and president of the Council
under Grey (1831-41), after which he led the
opposition in the Upper House.
Lanzi, Luigi (6. 1732, d. 1810), an Italian
Lao
(497)
Las
archaeologist and writer on art ; author of
Storia Pittorica delta Italia (1792-1806).
Lao-Tze, Chinese philosopher, lived in the
middle of the 7th century B.C., and is re-
garded as the patriarch of the religious sect
of the Taose.
La P6rouse, Jean Francois de Galaup,
Comte de (b. 1741, d. 1788), French navi-
gator; in 1782 did much damage to the
English settlement on Hudson's Bay ; went
on a voyage of discovery to the South Sea
in 1785, and was last heard of in February,
1788. In 1828 it was discovered that his
ships had been wrecked on the island of
Vanikoro.
Laplace. Pierre Simon, Marquis de (6.
1749, d. 1827), French astronomer and mathe-
matician, of humble origin, born at Beau-
mont-en-Auge ; at the age of eighteen
became professor of mathematics in the
lijcole Militaire, at Paris. His chief works
were Mecanique Celeste (1799-1825) and
Exposition du Systeme du Monde (1796).
Napoleon made him minister of the interior.
Lapo, Arnolfo di (b. 1232, d. 1300), a re-
nowned Italian architect and sculptor, built
the Duomo of Florence.
Lappenberg1, Johann Martin (6. 1794, <L
1865), German historian, keeper of the
Hamburg archives ; wrote a History of
England down to 1160, translated by Thorpe.
Larcher, Pierre Henri (b. 1726, d. 1812),
French Hellenist and bibliophile, translated
Herodotus. He carried on a controversy
with Voltaire.
Lardner, Dionysius (6. 1793, d. 1859), son
of a Dublin solicitor, educated at Cam-
bridge ; in 1827 became professor of natural
history in the University of London, and set
on foot his Cabinet Encyclopedia (1834), for
which he wrote most of the scientific articles.
Lardner, Nathaniel (b. 1684, d. 1768), a
learned Unitarian divine ; author of a work
On the Credibility of the Gospel History.
Lare'velliere Lepeaux, Louis Marie de
(6. 1753, d. 1824), French revolutionist; de-
fended the Girondists, and was forced to
conceal himself ; returned to the Convention
in 1795, and became a member of the
Directory. He invented the " Theophilan-
thropic " religion.
La Rochefoucauld, Francois, Duo de,
Prince de Marsillac (b. 1613, d. 1680), French
courtier and man of letters; joined the
Frondeurs, and was wounded at the siege
of Paris. The celebrated Sentences et
Maxiines Morales were published in 1665.
La RochefoTicauld-Liancourt, Francois
A. F., Due de (b. 1747, d. 1827), French
politician and pliilanthropist ; was a member
a a
of the Constituent Assembly, but left France
in 1792. After travelling in the United
States, he returned in 1799.
La Rocnejaquelein, Henri du Verger.
Comte de (b. 1772, d. 1794), born at Chatillon,
in Poitou; became commander-in-chief of
the Vendeans in October, 1793, and gained
several victories. He was slain in single
combat at Nouaille".
La Rochejaquelein, Louis du Verger,
Marquis de (b. 1777, d. 1815), brother of the
preceding ; headed a rising of the Vendeans
during the Hundred Days, but was slain at
Pont-des-Mathis.
Larrey, Dominique Jean, Baron (6. 1766,
d. 1842), French military surgeon ; soon
after entering the army (1792) devised a
scheme of atnbulances volantes for rendering
immediate help to the wounded ; served in
Italy (1797), Egypt (1798), and elsewhere ;
left several valuable works.
La Salle, Robert Cavelier de (b. 1643,
d. 1687), French traveller ; traced the Mis-
sissippi to its source in 1682 ; in 1684 at-
tempted to establish a fortified settlement
on the Gulf of Mexico, but was murdered
by his companions in Texas.
Lascaris, Andreas Johannes, surnamed
Ehyndacenus (b. circa 1445, d. 1535), a noble
Greek ; after the capture of Constantinople,
was employed by Lorenzo de' Medici to
rescue Greek MSS. from the Turks ; was
afterwards in the service of Louis XLT. of
France ; became first principal of the Greek
college established at Borne by Leo X.
Lascaris, Constantino (d. 1493), a noble
Greek; after the capture of Constan-
tinople, taught Greek at Rome, Naples, and
elsewhere, and did much to promote the
revival of learning. His Greek Grammar
was printed in 1476.
Las Casas, Bartolome de (b. 1474, d.
1966), studied at Salamanca ; went to His-
paniola in 1502, and henceforward laboured
as a missionary among the Indians ; made
several voyages to Spain to remonstrate
against the cruelties practised towards them
by the Spaniards ; was Bishop of Chiapa
from 1544 to 1551; died in Madrid. He
wrote a History of the Indies.
Las Cases, Emmanuel Dieudonne, Marquis
de (b. 1766, d. 1842), one of Napoleon's
officers ; lived with him for some time at
St. Helena, but was removed by Sir Hudson
Lowe. He published Memorial de Sainte
Selene (1821-3).
Lasker, Edouard (b. 1829, d. 1884), Ger-
man politician ; for many years a solicitor in
Berlin, was elected to the Prussian Diet in
1865; helped to constitute the older National
Las
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Lau
Liberal party, but differed from Bismarck
on the Kulturkampf and other questions,
and led the party of secession in I860.
Lassalle, Ferdinand (b. 1825, d. 1864),
Socialist, son of Jewish parents, bom at
Breslau, studied at the universities of Bres-
lau and Berlin; was imprisoned in 1818 for
inciting the working classes to armed resist-
ance , in 1S62 enunciated his Arbeitci--
protjrat/i, calling for a revolution, not neces-
sarily violent, which would break down the
monopoly of the propertied classes, and
transfer to the labourers the advantages
enjoyed by the capitalists: for the next
year was engaged in a contest with the
Liberals and the Political Economists, op-
posing Schulze-Delitzsch with great bitter-
ness; in 1863 presided over a delegation of
working men at Leipzig, which resulted in
the formation of a great labour union. He
was killed in a duel in Switzerland.
Lassen, Christian (b. 1800, d. 1876), Nor-
wegian Orientalist, appointed professor of
Inftian languages at Bonn in 1840 ; wrote
Indi'in Antiquities (1844-62), etc.
Lasso, Orlando di (Roland de Lattre) (b.
1520. d. 1594), a famous composer of church
music, to which he gave a graver and more
simple character. He was born at Mons,
and at an early age taken to Italy by
Ferdiannd Gonzago. After spending some
time at Home, he went to Munich, and
became kapellmeister to Albert, Duke of
Bavaria.
Latham, John (b. 1740, d. 1837), ornith-
ologist, wrote a General History of Birds
(1821-4), etc,
Latham, Robert Gordon (b. 1812, d.
1888), philologist and ethnologist ; wrote
The English Language (1841), etc,
Latimer, Hugh (b. circa 1490, d. 1555),
English reformer, son of a yeoman of
Thurcaston in Leicestershire ; was educated
at Cambridge, entered the Church, and
became famous for his eloquence and zeal
as a preacher ; was appointed Bishop of
Worcester in 1535, but resigned in conse-
quence of the Bill of Six Articles (1539) ;
•was imprisoned for six years in the Tower,
obtaining his release on the accession of
Edward VI. ; in 1553 was confined in the
Tower with Ridley and Cranmer; was
afterwards removed to Oxford, where he
was burnt, together with Ridley, on Oc-
tober 16th, 1555.
Latimer, William (d. 1545), a reviver of
classical learning in England ; was tutor to
Cardinal Pole, and taught Greek to Erasmus.
Latouche-Tre^ville, Louis R. M. de V. de
(6. 1745, d. 1804), a distinguished French
'
Latour d'Auvergne, Tht'opliile Malo Cor-
ret de (b. 1743, a. 1800), i- reach soldier;
joined the army of the Pyrenees, and became
commander of a corps of 8,UUU grenadiers,
which gained the name of " the iniemal
column." He fell at Oberhauseu. He
wrote on Celtic etymology and antiquities.
Latreille, Pierre Andre (b. 1762, d. 1833).
French entomologist ; wrote Genera Crusta-
ceorum et Injector a in (18U6-9), etc.
Laud, William (b. 1573, d. 1645), born at
Reading ; was educated at Reading gram-
mar school and St. John's College, Oxford,
of which he became president in 1611 ; was
appointed chaplain to James 1. in 1615, and
Bishop of St. David's in 1621 ; exercised
great influence after the accession of
Charles I. ; became Bishop of Bath and
Wells in 1626, and of London in 1028, and
in 1633 was raised to the see of Canterbury.
By his endeavours to establish uniformity
in the Church, to reform ecclesiastical dis-
cipline, and to introduce a more ornamental
form of ritual, as well as by his support of
Stafford's policy of "thorough," he ren-
dered himself obnoxious to the Puritans,
and, when the Long Parliament met, was
impeached of high treason. After three
years' imprisonment he was brought to
trial, condemned to death by bill of at-
tainder, and beheaded on Tower Hill.
Lauder, Sir Thomas Dick (6. 1784, d.
1848), Scottish miscellaneous writer ; was an
early contributor to Blaekwood's Magazine.
Lauderdale, John Maitland, Duke of (6.
1616, d. 1682), born at Lethiugton in Scot-
land, supported Prince Charles, and was
taken prisoner at Worcester; after the
Restoration, administered the affairs of
Scotland, and treated the Covenanters with
great cruelty. He was a member of the
Cabal Ministry (1670).
Laudon, or Laudohn, Gideon Ernst (b.
1716; d. 1790), an Austrian general in the
service of Maria Theresa, defeated Frederick
the Great at Hochkirchen, Kunersdorf, and
Landshut ; in the next reign repelled the
Turks, and took Belgrade (1789).
Laurens, Henry (/;. 1724, d. 1792), Ameri.
can statesman, became president of Congress
in 1777 ; while on his way to the Hague as
ambassador was captured by the English,
and confined in the Tower, 1780-1 ; with
Jay and Franklin signed the preliminaries
to a treaty with England (November,
1782).
Laurier, Hon. Wilfrid (5. 1841), Canadian
statesman ; has led the Liberals since 1887.
Lauriston, Alexandre Jacques Bernard
Law, Marquis de (6. 1768, d. 1828), entered
the French artillery, became aide-de-camp
LaV
(499)
Law
to Napoleon in 1800, and was instrumental
in gaming the battle of Wagram.
La Valette, Antoine Marie Chamans,
Comte de (6. 1709, d. 1833), an aide-de-camp
of Napoleon, whom he accompanied to
Egypt, Germany, and Prussia; was con-
demned to death in 1815, but escaped from
prison through the devotion of his wife,
who changed clothes "with him.
La Valette, Jean Parisot de (6. 1494, d.
1568), became grand-master of the Knights
of St. John of Jerusalem in 1557 ; success-
fully defended Malta against Soliman II.
(1565) ; built Valetta, and thoroughly forti-
fied the island.
Lavater, Johann Gaspar (b. 1741, d. 1801),
minister of a church at Zurich; was an
eloquent preacher, and wrote several reli-
gious works, but is best known by his
Physiognomic fragments, treating of the
connection between the features and the
character. At the capture of Zurich by
Massena (1799) he was shot in the street,
and died from the effects of the wound.
Laveleye, Emile Louis Victor de (b. 1822,
d. 1892), writer on economics, born at Bruges;
was appointed professor of political economy
in the university of Liege in 1864. Among
his chief works are La Question de VOr
(1860), L1 Instruction du Peuple (1872), Le
Socialisme Contemporain (1883), and La
Peninsule des Balkans (1888).
Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent (b. 1743, d.
1794), French chemist; after studying at
the College Mazarin, obtained the post of
farmer- general (1769), and devoted much
of his time to chemical experiments, result-
ing in a new theory of chemistry, the
"anti-phlogistic" (1773-5), on which the
modem science is based. In arriving at his
results he was much indebted to Priestley,
who made known to him his discovery of
oxygen. During the revolution he was
accused of adulterating tobacco, and guillo-
tined.
Law. [See Ellenborough.]
Law, Edmund (6. 1703, d. 1787),
divine, educated at Cambridge, became
Bishop of Carlisle in 1769. He wrote
Reflections on the Life and Character of
Christ, and other works, and published an
edition of Locke.
Law, John (of Lauriston) (6. 1671, d. 1729),
financial projector, son of an Edinburgh
goldsmith, having killed a man in a duel,
fled abroad; in 1715 propounded a scheme
for paying off the national debt of France,
which was favoured by the Duke of Orleans,
and resulted in the formation of the Missis-
sippi Company (1717), to which was granted
the sole light of trading with Louisiana,
002
China, and other countries (1719). The
company's bank soon afterwards became the
Royal Bank of France, and in 1720 Law was
made comptroller-general of th« finances.
The sums invested were for some time very
large, but the public lost confidence, and a
panic ensued. Law escaped to Venice, where
he died in poverty.
Law, William (6. 1686, d. 1761), mystic
and non juror, educated at Cambridge ; was
for some years tutor in the family of
Gibbon's father, and in 1740 became chap-
lain to Miss Hester Gibbon at Ring's Clifi'e.
Besides the Serious Call (1729), he wrote
several works expounding the doctrines of
Jacob Boehme.
Lawes, Henry (b. 1600, d. 1662), musical
composer, a gentleman of the Chapel Royal ;
set to music the Comus of Milton and the
poems of Waller, Herrick, and others. His
res and Dialogues appeared in 1653.
Lawrence, Sir Henry Montgomery (6.
1806, d. 1857), entered the Bengal artillery
in 1822 ; was appointed revenue officer in
the North- West Provinces in 1829, and
assistant to the resident at Ferozpur in
1838; was afterwards British resident in
Nepaul ; took part in the first Sikh war
(1845) ; in 1846 was appointed resident at
Lahore, and president of the Council of
Regency ; after the annexation of the Pun-
jaub became president of the Board of
Administration, but, differing in his views
from his brother John, resigned, and was
appointed agent at Kajputana; when the
Mutiny broke out, was chief commissioner
at Oude, and, though he was defeated by the
rebels at Chinhut, did much to save India
by his efforts for the defence of Lucknow.
Lawrence, John Laird Mair, Baron (b.
1811, d. 1879), Govern or- General of India,
brother of the preceding ; entered the ser-
vice of the East India Company in 1829;
was in 1831 appointed assistant to the chief
commissioner of Delhi, where he became
officiating magistrate and collector in 1834 ;
was selected as commissioner for the newly-
annexed Sikh territory in 1846; after the
second Sikh war was appointed by Lord
Dalhousie a member of the board to ad-
minister the Pun jaub, and, on its dissolution,
chief commissioner. Here he gained such
influence over the Sikhs by his good govern-
ment and personal character that, on the
outbreak of the Mutiny, they remained loyal,
and it was mainly owing to reinforcements
of Punjabis that Delhi fell, and India was
saved (September, 1857). Lord Lawrence
was Viceroy from 1864 to 1869.
Lawrence, Sir Thomas (b. 1769, d. 1830),
portrait-painter, son of a Bristol inn-keeper,
began his artistic career at Bath in 1782 by
taking crayon portraits. He became a
Law
(600)
Lee
studeut of the Royal Academy in 1787, asso-
ciate iu 17^1, full member in 1798 and
president in 1826.
Lawrence, Sir William (6. 1783, d. 1867),
a pupil of Abernethy ; was surgeon to St.
Bartholomew's Hospital from 1828 to 1865.
At the time of his death he was senior ser-
geant-surgeon to the Queen. Among his
chief works are a treatise on Henna (IS' '7),
Obscrc'iti-m* on Lithotomy (1809), and lectures
on The Natural History of Man (1819).
Lawson, Cecil (b. 1851, d 1882), landscape-
painter, son of William Lawson, por-
trait-painter ; sent pictures to the Academy
in 1870 and the following years, but re-
mained obscure till A Minister's Garden and
A Pastoral appeared at the Grosvenor
Gallery in 1878. Among his later works were
A Morning Mist (187*0, Wharf dale (1881),
and The Loom Valley (1882).
Lawson, Sir Wilfrid, Bart. (b. 1829),
member for Carlisle, temperance advocate.
Layamon, the author of Brut, a chronicle
of Britain in verse ; was a priest near Em-
ley, on the Severn, and is supposed to
have lived early in the 13th century.
Layard, Sir Austen Henry, G.C.B. (b.
1817), born at Paris, spent his youth chiefly
in Italy ; in 1839 journeyed from the Le-
vant to the interior of Asia, and determined
to explore the buried cities of Mesopotamia ;
with the assistance of Stratford Canning
began his excavations at Birs Nimrud in
1845, and there discovered the Assyrian
monuments, now in the British Museum.
He subsequently entered on a parliamen-
tary and diplomatic career, and, as ambassa-
dor to the Porte (1877), brought about the
annexation of Cyprus. He published
Nineveh and Babylon (1849-51), and other
works describing his discoveries.
Leader, Benjamin Williams, A.R.A. (6.
1831), landscape painter.
Leake, Sir John (b. 1656, d. 1720), admiral,
fought at La Hogue (1692) ; relieved Gib-
raltar (1705); reduced Barcelona and Ma-
jorca (1706) ; com m ander-in-chief in 1707.
Lear, Edward (b. 1813, d. 1888), author of
the Book of Nonsense, etc.
Le Brun, Charles (b. 1619, d. 1690), French
artist, pupil of N. Poussin ; painted The
Battles of Alexander , etc.
Lebrun, Charles Francois, Duke of
Piacenza (b. 1739, d. 1824), French states-
man ; sat in the Constituent Assembly (1789)
and the Council of Ancients (1796) ; became
third consul in 1799, and chief treasurer in
1804 ; was governor- general of Holland
1811-13. He translated Tasso,
Le Brun, Marie (b. 1755, d. 1842), French
paintress of portraits ; travelled through
Europe daring the devolution.
Lecky, William Edward Hartpole (b.
1838), has written a History of nationalism
in Europe (1865), History of European
Moral* from Augustus to Charlemagne (1869).
and History of England in the Eighteenth
Century (1878-90).
Le Clerc, Jean (b. 1657, d. 1736), Swiss
divine, adopted Arminian views ; was ap-
pointed professor of philosophy and Hebrew
at Amsterdam ; wrote three large BMio-
theques, and other works.
Lecluse, Charles de (b. 1526, d. 1609), waa
professor of botany at Leydeu 1593-1609.
Lecocq, Alexandre Charles (b. 1832),
French musician ; has composed La JFillf
de Madame Angot, etc.
Leconte, Joseph (b. 1823), an American
geologist.
Leconte de Lisle, Charles Marie (b. 1818),
French poet, born in the island of Reunion ;
has published Pu'emes Antiques (l853)tPoe/n4«
Bar bares (1862), etc.
Ledochowski, Mieceslas, Cardinal (b.
1822, d. 1889), Primate of Poland; be-
came Archbishop of Gnesen and Posen in
1866. He was imprisoned in the dungeons
of Ostrowo 1874-6, owing to his resistance
to the Prussian enactments affecting the
Church.
Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre Auguste (b. 1807,
d. 1874), French politician and lawyer, was
returned to the Assembly in 1841 ; joined
the Extreme Left ; on the fall of Louis
Philippe became minister of the interior in
the provisional government ; after failing
in his candidature for the presidency and his
attempts to raise an insurrection, fled to
England. He was allowed to return in
1870.
Ledyard, John (b. 1751, d. 1788), American
traveller, came to England in 1771 ; joined
Captain Cook's third expedition ; in 1786-8
attempted to reach Behring's Straits on foot,
but was arrested at Irkootsh, and expelled
from Russia ; returning to England, was
sent on a voyage of exploration by the
African Association, but died at Cairo.
Lee, Anne (b. 1736, d. 1784), daughter of
a Manchester blacksmith ; went to America,
and there founded the sect of Shakers.
Lee, Charles (b. 1730, d. 1782), born in
Cheshire ; emigrated to America (1773), and
during the War of Independence became
commander-in-chief of the southern colo-
nies. He was suspended by Washington foi
disobedience to orders (1778).
Las
(501)
Leh
Lee, Frederick Richard (6. 1798, d. 1879),
Jandscape-paiiiter, born at Barustaple ; be-
came A.R.A. in 1834, and R.A. in 1838.
Lee, Nathaniel (b. circa 1657, d. 1691 or
1692), educated at Cambridge; after failing
as an actor, became a dramatist, and wrote
Theodosius, TheRival Queens, and other trage-
dies. He was confined in Bedlam 1684-8.
Lee, Robert Edward (b. 1807, d. 1870),
American general, educated at West Point,
entered the corps of engineers ; served in
the Mexican war; was superintendent of
West Point 1852-5 ; after the outbreak of
Civil war was placed in command of the
army of Northern Virginia (May, 1862) ;
repelled McClellan, and relieved Richmond ;
defeated the Northern army near Manassas
Junction ; was beaten by McClellan at An-
tritam (September) ; gained the victories
of Fredericksburg (December), and Chan-
cellorsville (May, 1863) ; was defeated at
Gettysburg (July) ; fought several battles
against Grant, and defended Petersburg for
ten months ; became general-in- chief of the
Confederate armies in February, 1865 ; sur-
rendered at Five Forks in April.
Lee, Samuel (b. 1783, d. 1852), began life
as a carpenter ; went to Cambridge (1813),
where he became professor of Arabic (1819),
and Hebrew (1831).
Lee, Sophia (*. 1751, d. 1824), an English
novelist and dramatist.
Leech, John (b. 1817, d. 1864), eon of a
coffee-house keeper, educated at the Charter-
house ; abandoned the study of medicine to
become an artist. He is best known by his
political cartoons in Punch. Among his
other works are illustrations for the In-
yoldsby Legends (1840), Portraits of Chil-
dren of the Mobility, and the etchings in
the Comic History of Eng land, Comic History
of Rome, and Hood's Comic Annual.
Leeds, Thomas Osborne, Duke of (b. 1631,
d. 1712), best known as Earl Danby,
minister of Charles II., and played an im-
portant part in the revolution of 1688.
Lefebvre, Franqois Joseph, Due de Dant-
«ig (b. 1755, d. 1820), French marshal, son
of a miller, became a general of division in
1794 ; displayed great bravery at Stockach
(1799) ; assisted Napoleon in overthrowing
the Directory ; captured Dantzig in 1807 ;
distinguished himself in Austria (1809), and
Russia (1812) ; joined Napoleon on his re-
turn from Elba.
Lefebvre, Joseph (b. 1836). French painter;
has exhibited Pandora (1877), Morning Gray
(1887), Psyche, etc.
Lefevre, George John Shaw (b. 1832),
educated at Cambridge ; called to the bar in
1856 ; represented Reading 1863-85 ; has sat
for Bradford since 1886. He became first
commissioner of works in 1884, and post
master -general in the same year.
Le Fevre d'^taples, Jacques (b. 1455, d.
1537), French theologian; published a
French version of the Bible (1530).
Le Fort, Frauqois Jacob (b. 1656, d. 1699),
born at Geneva ; entered the Russian ser-
vice, and was appointed grand-admiral by
Peter the Great (1693).
LegarS, Hugh Swiuton (6. 1797, d. 1843),
American lawyer ; became attorney-general
of the United States in 1841.
Legendre, Adrien Marie (b. 1752, & 1833),
French mathematician, born at Toulouse,
became professor of mathematics in the
Ecole Militaire at Paris about 1776 ; in 1782
wrote a remarkable paper on the attraction
of spheroids; was in 1787 placed on a com-
mission for connecting Paris and Green-
wich geodetically, and contributed to the
Academy papers on trigonometrical opera-
tions depending upon the figure of the earth,
which contained, among other theorems, that
known as " Legendre's. " He published
^Elements de Geometrie (1794), Theorie des
Nombres (1798), in which he expounds the
law of quadratic reciprocity, Nouvelle Theorie
des Parallels (1803), and Nouvelles Methodes
pour la Determination des Orbites des Gametes,
containing the first suggestion of the method
of least squares. His most important con-
tribution to mathematical science was that
on elliptic functions.
Legge, George, Baron Dartmouth (6. 1648,
d. 1691), admiral, fought against the Dutch
(1671) ; commanded an expedition against
Tangiers (1682)1; was in favour with James
II. ; failed to prevent the landing of Will! tm
of Orange ; took part in a Jacobite conspiracy
(1690), and died a prisoner in the Tower.
Legge, James (b. 1815), worked as a
missionary in China from 1839 to 1873 ; in
1875 became the first professor of Chinese at
Oxford. He has edited the four Shu and
the five King.
Legouve", Ernest Wilfrid (6. 1807), French
dramatist; has written Beatrix (1861), etc.
Legros, Alphonse (b. 1837), painter and
etcher, born, of humble parentage, at Dijon ;
after exhibiting at the Salon, came to Eng-
land in 1863, and was in 1876 appointed
professor in the Slade school in University
College, London. Among his best works
are Death and the Woodman (an etching),
and Le Repas des Pauvres (a picture).
Lehmann, Rudolf (b. 1819), German
artist, was educated at Paris, Munich, and
Rome. Among his best pictures ara
Sixtus V. Blessing the Pontine Marshes,
Grazielle, and portraits of Lord Houghton
and Mrs. Browning.
Lei
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Lem
Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm, Baron von
(b. 1646, d. 171(3), philosopher and mathema-
tician, educated at the university of Leip/i^ ;
in lb'67 went to Frankfort on the invitation
of Baron von Boineburg, and became coun-
cillor to the Elector of Maiiiz ; during visits
to Paris in 1672, and to London in 1673 and
167'), became acquainted with the leading
scientific ineu of his time ; about this time
discovered the differential calculus, which
resembled Newton's method of fluxions so
closely that it occasioned a bitter dispute
between the two ; in 1676 was appointed
councillor and librarian to the Duke of
Brunswick-Luneberg, and spent the re-
mainder of his life at Hanover. Among his
chief works are, in philosophy, the Essai de
Theodicee (1710) and the Monadologie (1714);
in mathematics, Theoria Hotus Concreti and
Theoria Jfotus Abstract* (1671) ; in natural
science, Protagaa, a treatise on geology.
Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of (b.
1532, d. 1588), son of John Dudley,
Duke of Northumberland ; narrowly es-
caped execution in 1553 ; rose rapidly in
Elizabeth's favour, and is suspected of
having murdered his wife, Amy Robsart
(1560), in the hope of winning her hand.
He privately mamed Lady Sheffield (1573),
and Lettice Knollys, Dowager-Countess of
Essex (1578). In 1585 he commanded the
English forces sent to the Netherlands ;
remained there for a year as governor-
general of the United Provinces, and re-
turned in 1587, but failed to effect anything.
Leidy, Joseph, M.D. (b. 1823, d. 1891),
was in 1853 appointed professor of anatomy
in the university of Pennsylvania. He has
written The Extinct Mammalian Fauna of
Dakota and Nebraska (1870), etc.
Leigh, Sir Edward (b. 1602, d. 1670),
biblical critic; wrote Critica Sacra (1639).
Leighton, Alexander (b. 1568, d. 1649),
Scotch divine and physician, " a fiery Puri-
tan zealot," came to London in 1613 ; in
1628 published Ziori's Plea, for which he
was summoned before the Star Chamber,
whipped, mutilated, and imprisoned in the
Tower til] 1640
Leighton, Sir Frederick, Bart. (*. 1830),
born at Scarborough, studied at fBerlin,
Frankfort, and Paris ; in 1855 sent Cimabue's
Triumph to the Royal Academy from Rome ;
has since exhibited The Triumph of Music
(1856), Hercules Wrestling with Death
(1871), The Daphnephoria (1876), etc. ;
A.R.A., 1864; R.A., 1869; President, 1878.
Leighton, Robert (*. 1611, d. 1684),
theological writer, son of Alexander Leigh-
ton ; was Presbyterian minister at New-
battle, near Edinburgh, 1641-53 ; principal
of Edinburgh University, 1653-61 ; Bishop
«>f Dunblane, 1661-70, and Archbishop of
Glasgow, 1670-3, after which he lived in
retirement at Broadhurst, in Sussex. His
works, comprising sermons and a commen-
tary on the First Epistle of St. Peter, were
published after his death.
Leitner, Gottlieb W. (b. 1840), Orientalist,
born at Pesth ; appointed professor of
Arabic at King's College, London, in 1861 ;
founded the Oriental University Institute
at Woking in 1884. He has carried oa
excavations in India, and written Gr&oo-
Buddhistic Discoveries, etc.
Lejay, Gui Michel (*. 1588, d. 1674),
French Orientalist ; published a polyglot
Bible.
Le Keux, John (6. 1784, d. 1846), English
architectural engraver ; illustrated the worka
of Britton, Pugin, and Neale.
Leland, Charles Godfrey (6. 1824), has
published Hans Breitmanrfs Ballads (1871),
a translation of Heine, etc.
Leland, John (b. circa 1506, d. 1562),
antiquary and linguist, educated at St. Paul's
school, studied at Cambridge, Oxford, and
Paris ; became chaplain, librarian, and, in
1533, antiquary to Henry VIII., who com-
missioned him to search for antiquities, and
examine the libraries of all the abbeys and
colleges in the kingdom. He was prevented
by insanity from completing the arrange-
ment of the materials he collected. Most
of his MSS. were afterwards placed in the
Bodleian library. His Itinerarium and
Collectanea were edited by Hearne (1710-15),
and his Commentarii de Scriptoribus Britan*
nimby Hall (1709).
Leland, John (b. 1691, d. 1766), minister
of a Dissenting congregation in Dublin;
wrote in defence of Christianity.
Leila, Vittorio (b. 1859), an Italian
mountaineer and photographer.
Lely, Sir Peter (Van der Faes) (Z>. 1617.
d. 1680), portrait- painter ; came to England
in 1641, and succeeded Vandyke as painter
to the king. His best-known portraits are
those of the beauties of the court of
Charles II.
Lemaire, Jeanne Madeline (b. 1850),
French artist, paints chiefly in oils.
Lemaitre, Frederick (b. 1798, d. 1876), a
French actor, celebrated for his realistic
impersonations.
Lemoine, Francois (b. 1688, d. 1737), a
French artist, pupil of Galloche, became
professor of painting in the Academy.
His chief work is The Apotheosis of Her-
cules in the palace of Versailles.
Lemon, Mark (b. 1809, d. 1870), born XL
Lem
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Xi80
London ; joined in starting Punch (1841), of
•which he was sole editor 1843-70. He also
wrote many farces, melodramas, novels,
songs, and essays.
Lemonnier, Pierre Charles (b. 1715, d.
1799), French astronomer ; assisted Mau-
pertuis in measuring an arc of the meridian
at Tornea in the Arctic regions.
Lempriere, John (b. circa 1760, d. 1824),
classical scholar, whose Classical Dictionary
was published in 1792.
Lenau, Nicholas (Niembsch von Streh-
lenau) (b. 1802, d. 1850), Hungarian poet,
lived chiefly at Vienna and Stuttgart;
excelled as a lyrist ; also wrote Faust (1836),
Savonarola (1837), Die Albigenser (1842),
and other long poems.
Leabach, Franz (b. 1836), German artist ;
has painted portraits of Moltke, Bismarck,
Db'llinger, Wagner, and others.
Lenclos, Anne or Ninon de (b. 1616, d.
1706), a celebrated French beauty, who re-
tained her attractions to a great age.
Lenfant, Jacques (b. 1661, d. 1728),
French Protestant divine ; settled at Berlin,
and became chaplain to Frederick William.
of Prussia (1710). He wrote histories of the
Councils of Constance aud Basle.
Lenormant, Fra^ois (b. 1837, d. 1883),
proiessor of archaeology at the Bibliotheque
Nationale (1874-83); earned on excavations
at Eleusis and elsewhere ; wrote an Ancient
History of the East, etc.
Lenthall, William (b. 1591, d. 1662), law-
yer and politician ; was Speaker of the
House of Commons (1640-53), and again in
1654 and 1660.
Lentulus, P. Cornelius Sura (d. 62 B.C.),
consul in 73 B.C. ; joined Catiline's con-
spiracy. He was arrested, and strangled in
prison.
Leo, Johannes, "Africanus "(d. circa 1526),
a Moor of Granada, travelled in Africa and
Asia ; was captured by pirates, and carried
before Leo X. , who induced him to change
his religion. He wrote, in Arabic, a Descrip-
tion of Africa.
Leo, Leonardo (b. 1694, d. 1744), musician,
born at Naples, pupil of Scarlatti ; composed
two oratorios, many sacred pieces, and some
operas.
Leo of Modena (Judah Arieh) (b. 1571, d.
1654), a learned Venetian rabbi ; wrote Is-
toria dei Riti Hebraici, etc.
Leo III., " the Isaurian," Emperor of the
East (d. 741), succeeded Anastatius II. in
717. In 718-19 the Saracens besieged Con-
stantinople, but were at last defeated. By
• condemning the use of images, in opposition
to the pope, he started the celebrated
Iconoclast controversy.
Leo VI., "the Philosopher" (b. 865, d.
911), succeeded his father, Basil, in 886.
During his reign the empire was overrun by
the Saracens and Bulgarians, He wrote a
treatise ou tactics, aud completed the code
of laws called Basilica.
Leo I., " the Great," Pope (b. circa 309,
d. 461), succeeded Sixtus III. in 440 ;
zealously opposed the Manichseans and
Pelagians, and secured the condemnation
of the Eutychian heresy at the General
Council of Chalcedon (451). He induced
Attila to spare Borne (452), but it was
pillaged by Genseric (455).
Leo HI. (d. 816), on becoming Pope (795)
acknowledged Charlemagne as protector of
the Church ; was driven from Borne in 799,
but restored by Charlemagne, whom he
crowned Emperor of the West in 800.
Leo IX. (Bruno), Pope (b. 1002, d. 1054),
previously Bishop of Toulouse ; was elected
at the Diet of Worms (1048), and confirmed
by the Roman clergy ; made strenuous en-
deavours to eradicate the vices of the
clergy, attacked the Normans, and was
taken prisoner at Civitella (1053), but
released after ten months' imprisonment.
Leo X., Pop<i (Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici)
(b. 1475, d. 1521), son of Lorenzo the Mag-
nificent, born at Florence ; was banished
with his family in 1497 ; travelled in Ger-
many and Flanders, and formed a friend-
ship with Erasmus ; on his return to Italy
became legate to Julius II. ; was taken
prisoner at Ravenna (1512) ; became pope
in 1513. In his efforts to extend the papal
dominions he allied himself at one time
with France, at another with the Empire.
In 1515 he signed the famous concordat
with Francis I. His pontificate is one oi
the most brilliant periods in the history of
art and literature, and is also memorable as
the time when the Reformation began.
Leo XIL (Annibale della Genga), Pope (b.
1760, d. 1829), a native of Roinagna, suc-
ceeded Pius VII. in 1823.
Leo XIIL(GioacchinoPecci), Pope (b. 1810),
son of Count Ludovico Pecci, born at Car-
pineto, in the Papal States, educated at the
Collegio Romano and the Academy of Noble
Ecclesiastics ; administered the districts of
Beneveuto, Spoleto, and Perugia suc-
cessively; became Archbishop of Damietta
1843, and Bishop of Perugia 1846; was
nuncio to the King of the Belgians 1843-6 ;
was created a cardinal 1853, and in 1877
became chamberlain, He was elected pope
as representative of the Moderates in 1878.
Among his most important encyclicals are
Leo
( 504 )
Ler
those concerning the Irish Nationalist move-
ment (1888), and the Labour question (1891).
Leon, Juan Pouce de (b. 1460, d. 1521),
Spanish adventurer, accompanied Columbus
in 1493 ; received a command in Hayti ; con-
quered Porto Rico ; discovered Florida in
1512 ; was wounded in an expedition against
the Caribs, and died in Cuba.
Leonidas, King of Sparta, defended the
pass of Thermopylae against Xerxes, King
of Persia, but, owing to the treachery of a
Greek named Ephialtes, was surprised in
the rear, and slain, with his whole army
(480 B.C.).
Leopard!, Giacomo, Count (b. 1798, d.
1837), Italian philologist and poet, born at
Recanati, in the March of Ancona ; after a
visit to Rome (1820), where he formed a
friendship with Niebuhr, rambled about
Italy, settling at Naples in 1832. He wrote
Canzoni, and lyrics, such as La Genestra ;
also Opcrette Jforali (dialogues), many
learned essays, including one On the Popular
Errors of th-e Ancients, and translations of
Beveral classical authors. He suffered much
froin ill-health.
Leopold I., Duke of Austria (b. 1157, d.
1194), after taking part in the third Crusade,
seized Richard I. when on his way home,
and sold him to the Emperor Henry VI.
Leopold II., Duke of Austria (b. 1292, d.
1326), was son of the Emperor Albert I. He
was defeated by the Swiss at Morgarten
(1315).
Leopold in., Duke of Austria (b. 1351, d.
1380), sou of Albert II., ruled over Suabia,
Carinthia, aud Tyrol. He was slain at
Sempach.
Leopold I, Emperor (b. 1640, d. 1705),
son of Ferdinand III., became King of
Hungary in 16.55, and of Bohemia in
1657 ; was elected emperor in 1653. The
Turkish invasion was brought to a close by
the victory of Montecuculi, at St. Gothard
(16o4). A war with France, begun in 1674,
was terminated by the treaty of Nimeguen
(1678). Owing to the emperor's cruel
government, the Hungarians rose in revolt
under TekeLi, and were aided by the Turks,
who besieged Vienna, but were driven back
by John Sobieski, and finally defeated by
Prince Eugene near Zeuta (1697). Mean-
while Leopold was engaged in a war with
France, which was ended by the peace of
Eyswick (1697). His attempts to secure the
throne of Spain for his son Charles led to
the war of the Spanish Succession.
Leopold IL, Emperor (b. 1747, d. 1792), son
of Francis I. and Maria Theresa ; in 1765 be-
came Grand Duke of Tuscany, where he in-
troduced many reforms in church and state ;
in 1790 succeeded to the throne of Austria,
and was elected emperor ; suppressed a re-
volt in the Netherlands ; restored tranquillity
in Hungary, and concluded a peace with
the Turks; signed the treaty of Pilnitz with
Prussia in support of Louis XVI. (1791),
but died soon afterwards.
Leopold L, King of the Belgians (b. 1790,
d. 18U5), Duke of JSaxe-Coburg, elected king
by the National Congress in 1831 ; after a
struggle with the Dutch, concluded by the
Convention of 1833, applied himself to the
development of the resources of the country.
A commercial treaty with England was
signed in 1851, and one with France in 1801.
Leopold IL (b. 1835), son of the preceding,
married the Archduchess Maria of Austria
in 1853, and succeeded his father in 1865.
His reign has been marked by the quarrels
of the Liberals and Roman Catholics. He
is the leading spirit of the International
African Association.
Leopold I., of Tuscany. [See Leopold EL,
Emperor.]
Leopold n., Grand Duke of Tuscany (b.
1797, d. 1870), abdicated in 1859.
Lepidus, Marcus JEinilius (d. 13 B.C.),
attached himself to Caesar, with whom he
was consul in 46 B.C. ; after his assassination,
joined Antonius and Octavianus, the three
forming the first triumvirate ; in 36 was
worsted in a struggle with Octavianus, aud
banished to Circeii.
Lepsius, Karl Richard (*. 1810, d. 1884),
Egyptologist, bom at Naumburg, studied
philology under Bopp at Berlin ; edited the
Egyptian Book oj*l/ie Lead (1842) ; in the
same year was appointed professor of
Egyptology at Berlin, and led a scientific
expedition to Egypt, resulting in the Monu-
ments of Egypt and Ethiopia (1849-60) ;
published his Egyptian Chronology in 1849 ;
m 18(36 revisited Egypt.
Lerdo de Tejada, Sebastian (b. 1825),
Mexican politician ; was minister of foreign
affairs 1863-7, chief justice 1867-72, and
president 1872-6.
Lerma, Francisco de Rojas y Sandoval,
Duke of (d. 1625), was minister of Philip
III. of Spain from 1598 to 1618, when he was
displaced by his son, the Duke of Uzeda.
Lermontoff, Mikhail Yurevitch (b. 1814,
d. 1841), Russian poet, wrote The Novice,
The I)emont The Song of the Czar, Ivan
Vasilievitch) etc.
Leroux, Pierre (b. 1798, d. 1871), French
Socialist, son of a Paris artisan ; in 1831 be-
came a follower of St. Simon, but differed
from Enfantin, and in 1840 published De
VHumanite} formulating the creed of the
Humanitarian school.
LeS
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Lev
Le Sage, Alain Een<5 (b. 1668, d. 1747),
FreDch novelist and dramatist, born at Sar-
zeau, in Brittany, educated in the Jesuit
college at Vannes ; went to Paris in 1692,
learnt Spanish, and translated or imitated
several Spanish dramas ; in 1707 produced
Le Diable Hoiteuz, and soon afterwards a
comedy called Turcaret. Gil Bias was pub-
lished in three parts (1715-24-35).
Leslie, Alexander, Earl of Leven (b. 1590,
d. 1661), after serving under Gustavus
Adolphus, became commander-in- chief of
the Covenanters (1639), and defeated the
royal forces at Newburn (1640). He com-
manded the Scots in the Parliamentary army
at Marston Moor.
Leslie, Charles (b. 1650, d. 1722), Irish
non juror; carried on controversies against
Eoman Catholicism, and wrote A Short and
Easy Method with the Deists (1694) ; went
with the Pretender to Italy in 1715 ; died
in Ireland.
Leslie, Charles Kobert (b. 1794, d. 1859),
artist, born in London of American parents,
brought up in America ; returned to London
in 1811, was elected A.E.A. in 1821, and
B.A. in 1826. Most of his works illustrate
incidents from Shakespeare, Moliere, Cer-
vantes, and other humorists.
Leslie, George Dunlop (6. 1835), son of
the preceding, became A.E.A. in 1868, and
E.A. in 1876.
Leslie, John (6. 1526, d. 1596), Scotch
Eoman Catholic priest; became Bishop of
Eoss in 1565 ; defended Queen Mary's cause
at York in 1568 ; Was implicated in Norfolk's
plot, and imprisoned in the Tower 1571-3 ;
became Bishop of Coutances in 1593 ; died
in a monastery near Brussels.
Leslie, Sir John (6. 1766, d. 1832), mathe-
matician, born at Largo, in Fifeshire ; was
educated at St. Andrews and Edinburgh,
where he was professor of mathematics
(1805-19), and natural philosophy (1819-32).
His chief work is an Inquiry into the Nature
and Propagation of Heat (1804). In 1810 he
invented a process of artificial congelation.
By means of the differential thermometer,
which he claims to have invented, he carried
out original investigations in photometry,
hydroscopy, and the temperature of space.
Leslie, Thomas Edward Cliff e (6. 1827, d.
1882), educated at Trinity College, Dublin ;
became professor of political economy and
jurisprudence at Belfast in 1853. His chief
works are The Land System (1870), and
Essays in Political and Moral Philosophy
(1879). He applied the historical method to
economic questions.
Lespinasse, Claire Franqois (b. circa 1731,
d. 1776), held a famous salon, where
D'Alembert was a constant attendant. Her
Lettres were published in 1809.
Lesseps, Ferdinand, Vicomte de (b. 1805),
after holding various consular posts, went
to Madrid as ambassador in 1848. While in
Egypt, in 1854, he proposed the scheme of
the Suez Canal to Said Pasha, and, a com-
pany having been formed, the canal was
begun in 1859, and completed in 1869. He
was also author of the Panama Canal scheme.
Leasing, Gotthold Ephraim (b. 1729, d.
1781), born at Kamenz, in Lusatia, educated
at the Meissen Fiirstenschule and the univer-
sity of Leipzig ; between 1749 and 1760
lived chiefly at Berlin, where Mendelssohn
and Nicolai were his literary associates ; waa
secretary to General Tauentzien, governor of
Silesia., 1760-5; in 1770 became librarian to
the Duke of Brunswick at Wolfenblittel.
By publishing Eeimarus's Wolfenbuttel
Fragments (1774), of which he was supposed
to be the author, he incurred the hostility of
the church. His chief works are Laokoon
(1760), a treatise on art, and the following
dramai : Miss Sarah Sampson, a tragedy
(1755), Minna von Barn helm, a comedy
(1767), Emilia Galotti, a tragedy (1772),
and Nathan der Weise (1779).
L'Estrange, Sir Eoger (b. 1616, d. 1704),
fought for Charles L ; was licenser of the
press under Charles II., and set up two
newspapers, the London Gazette (1663-5),
and the Observator (1679-87). He wrote
several political tracts.
Le Sueur, Jean Francois (b. 1760, d. 1837),
musical composer, born near Abbeville;
was appointed chapel-master of Notre Dame
in 1786. He composed Telemaque, La Co*
verne, Les Bardes, and other operas.
Lethington. [See Maitland.]
Leucippus, Greek philosopher, disciple of
Zeno and teacher of Democritus ; originated
the atomic theory.
Leusden, Johann (*. 1624, d. 1699), was
professor of Hebrew at Utrecht 1649-99.
Leutze, Emanuel (b. 1816, d. 1868), a
German historical painter.
Leuwenhoek, Antoni (b. 1632, d. 1723),
Dutch naturalist; said to have discovered
the spermatozoa.
Levaillant, Francois (b. 1753, d. 1824),
French traveller, explored South Africa
(1781-84).
Lever, Charles (*. 1806, d. 1872), novelist,
boru in Dublin; practised as a doctor in
Ireland 1832-9, and at Brussels 1839-42;
was appointed consul at Spezzia in 1858, and
at Trieste in 1867. Among his works art
Harry Lorrequer (1837), Charles O'Malkf
(1841), Con Cregan, A Day's Ride, etc.
Lev
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Lie
Leveridge, Richard (6. 1670, </. 1758), a
popular English singer.
Leverrier, Urbain Jean Joseph (b. 1811,
d. 1877), French astronomer, born at St. L6
in Normandy, studied at the ficole Poly-
technique in Paris; in 1846 discovered the
planet Neptune ; after his appointment to
the directorship of the Paris observatory,
(1854), revised the theories of planetary
motion, and formed more accurate tables.
He founded the Association Scientifique.
Levi, Hebrew patriarch, son of Jacob and
Leah, died in Egypt.
Levi, Leone, Professor (b. 1821, d. 1888),
economic writer, born at Ancona, settled in
England in 1844. Among his works are
Intel-national Commercial Law, and a His-
tory of British Commerce (1763-1878).
Lewald, Fanny (b. 1811, d. 1889), German
novelist, has published Die Erloxerin (1873),
rater und So/in (1881), etc.
Lewes, George Henry (b. 1817, d. 1878),
miscellaneous writer ; published a History of
Philosophy (1845-6), Life of Robespierre
(1849), Life of Goethe (1855), Problems of
Life and Mind (1874-9), etc.
Lewis, Sir George Cornewall (b. 1806, d.
1863), educated at Oxford, was called to
the bar in 1831 ; entered Parliament in 1847 ;
was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer
in 1855, Home Secretary in 1859, and secre-
tary for war in 1861. He wrote The Use
and Abuse of some Political Terms (1832),
The Influence of Authority in Matters of
Opinion (1850), and other works.
Lewis, John Frederick, R.A. (b. 1805,
d. 1876), artist, excelled in representations
of Eastern lif e and scenery,
Lewis, Matthew Gregory (6. 1775, d. 1818),
wrote The Monk (1795), The Bravo of Venice
(1804), and other blood-curdling novels;
also several plays.
Lewis, Thomas Hayter (b. 1818), pro-
fessor of architecture at University College
1865-81 , wrote the articles on Ancient and
Modern Architecture in the Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
Lewis, William James (b. 1847), educated
at Oxford ; became professor of mineralogy
at Cambridge in 1881.
Ley, James, Earl of Marlborough (b. 1552,
d. 1628), lawyer; was made chief-justice of
the King's Bench in 1621, and lord-treasurer
in 1625.
Leyden, John (b. 1775, d. 1811), Scottish
poet and Orientalist ; contributed to Scott's
Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. He
afterwards became a judge at Calcutta.
Leyden, Lukas van (Lukas Jaccbs) (b.
1494, d. 15:;;>j, a celebrated painter and
engraver of the Flemish school.
L'H6pital, Guillaume de, Marquis de
Saiut-Mesme (b. 1661, d. 1704), French
mathematician ; wrote Analyse den Injini-
ment-Petics (1696).
L'Hdpital, Michel de (b. 1504, d. 1573),
French statesman, went as ambassador to
the Council of Trent ; became chancellor of
France in 1560 ; prevented the establish-
ment of the Inquisition in France ; caused
the States- General to be assembled (l.JLiOj,
and secured the passing of an edict granting
freedom of worship to the Protestants. His
pacific policy being distasteful to the Guises,
civil war broke out in 1562, and in 1568 he
was deprived of his office.
Lhuyd, Edward (b. 1670, d. 1709), Welsh
antiquary, keeper of the Ashmolean Mu-
seum ; wrote Archaologia Britannica, etc.
Libanius (b. circa 314, d. circa 390), Greek
rhetorician, friend of the Emperor Julian ;
taught at Constantinople, Athens, and An-
tioch. Saints Basil and Chrysostom were
among his pupils.
Libarius, Bishop of Rome (d. 366), suc-
ceeded Julius I. in 352 ; supported Athan-
asius, and was banished by Constantino in
356 ; retracted in 358, and was allowed to
return.
Libri-Carucei, Guglielmo Brutus Icilius
Timoleon, Count (b. 1803, d. 1869), Italian
mathematician, settled in London in 1848.
Lichtenberg-, Georg Christoph (b, 1742,
d. 1799), German humorist, professor of
experimental philosophy at Go'ttingen ;
wrote The Physiognomy of Tails in ridicule
of Lavater, etc.
Liddell, Henry George (b. 1811), Dean
of Christ Church, Oxford (1855-91), joint
author of Liddell and ScoWs Greek Lexicon.
Liddon, Henry Parry, D.D. (b. 1829, d.
1890), a prominent member of the Liberal
High Church Party, educated at Oxford,
delivered his Bampton lectures On the Di-
vinity of Jesus Christ in 1866 ; was appointed
canon residentiary of St. Paul's in 1870.
Lie, Jonas (b. 1833), a Norwegian novel-
ist ; wrote The Man with the Second Sight
(1870), The Pilot and His Wife (1874), etc.
Lieber, Franz (b. 1800, d. 1872), born in
Berlin ; after suffering imprisonment for his
political opinions, went to America (1827),
and became professor of history in Columbia
College, South Carolina. He edited the
Encyclopedia Americana (1829-33), and hat
written Political Ethics (1838), etc.
Lie
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Lin
Liebig, Justus, Baron von (b. 1803, d.
1873), chemist, born at Darmstadt, studied
at Bonn and Erlangen ; went to Paris, and
attracted the attention of Humboldt by a
paper on fulminic acid ; was appointed pro-
fessor at Giessen (1824), where his labora-
tory became celebrated, and afterwards at
Munich (1852). Among his chief works are
Organic Chemistry in its Application to
Agriculture (1840), and Annalender Chimie,
edited in conjunction with Wohler.
Liebknecht, Wilhelm (6. 1826), German
Socialist, spent thirteen years in England,
and joined the International (1864) ; became
editor of the Demokratisches Wocheriblatt in
1867 ; was imprisoned from 1872 to 1875,
when he took his seat in the Reichstag.
Lightfoot, John (b. 1602, d. 1675), Hebrew
scholar, at first a clergyman of the Church
of England; became a member of the
Assembly of Divines, and represented the
Presbyterians at the Savoy Conference.
Lightfoot, Joseph Barber, D.D. (b. 1828,
d. 1889), became Lady Margaret professor
of divinity at Cambridge in 1875 ; was ap-
pointed Bishop of Durham in 1879. He
published valuable commentaries on St.
Paul's epistles and the Apostolic Fathers, etc.
Ligne, Charles Joseph, Prince de (b. 1735,
d. 1814), general in the Austrian service,
born at Brussels ; distinguished himself in
the Seven Years' war; went to Russia as
ambassador in 1782, and served in the army
of Catherine II. against the Turks. His
Melanges give a lively picture of contempo-
rary events.
Ligonier, John, Earl (b. 1678, d. 1770),
field-marshal, distinguished himself in Marl-
borough's campaigns ; served in Flanders,
1746-7, displaying great gallantry at the
battle of Laffeldt; became commander-in-
chief in 1757.
Liguori, St. Alfonso Maria de (b. 1696, d.
1787), founded the Congregation of the
Most Holy Redeemer, for promoting the
religious education of the poor (1732); was
Bishop of St. Agatha dei Goti 1762-75;
died in the convent of his order at N"ocera
dei PaganL He wrote Veritd della Fede, etc.
Li Hung Chang (b. 1823), the prime
minister of China.
Lilburne, John (b. 1618, d. 1657), was
imprisoned by the Star Chamber for circu-
lating seditious libels (1636-40) ; served in
the Parliamentary army ; during the Com-
monwealth was frequently imprisoned for
attacks on Cromwell's government.
Lillo, George (b. 1693, d. 1739), English
dramatist ; wrote George Barn-well, Fatal
Curiosity, and Arden of Feversham.
Lilly, or Lyly, John (b. circa 1553, d.
circa 1006), wrote several dramas, and about
1580 published E-uphues : the Anatomy of
TTitj the flowery language of which was
much admired by Elizabeth's courtiers,
and gave rise to the style of speaking and
writing called "Euphuism."
Lilly, William (b. 1602, d. 1681), astro-
loger ; was consulted by both parties during
the Civil war. His Merlinus Anglicus was
published annually from 1644 to 1681.
Lily, William (*. 1466, d. 1523), educated
at Magdalen College, Oxon. ; after travel-
ling in the East, opened a school in London,
in which he taught Greek. He was the
first master of St. Paul's school His Latin
Grammar was published in 1513.
Limborch, Philip van (b. 1633, d. 1712),
Dutch Arminian divine, pastor at Gouda
and Amsterdam ; wrote Theologia Christiana
(1686), etc.
Linacre, Thomas (b. circa 1460, d. 1524),
founder and first president of the College of
Physicians ; after completing his course at
Oxford, studied at several Italian uni-
versities; returning to England, lectured
on Greek and medicine at Oxford ; became
tutor and physician to Prince Arthur ; took
orders about 1509, and received various
preferments. He wrote De Emendata
Structura Latini Sermonis, and other works.
Lincoln, Abraham (b. 1809, d. 1865), Ameri-
can statesman, born in Kentucky, spent his
childhood in Indiana ; settled in Illinois in
1830 ; served in the Black Hawk War (1832), ;
studied law, and sat in the Legislature
(1834-41) ; was elected to Congress in 1846,
and became conspicuous as an opponent of
slavery. While canvassing the state for a
seat in the Senate (1858), he won much
popularity among the Republicans. His
election to the presidency in November,
1860, was followed by the secession of the
southern states, and Civil war broke out in
1861. In September, 1862, Lincoln issued a
proclamation of emancipation, which took
effect on January 1, 1863. He was re-
elected in 1864. The success of Grant's
operations brought the war to a close in
1865, and Lincoln was engaged in schemes
of re-organisation, when he was shot at tlie
theatre by an actor named Booth.
Lincoln, Robert Todd (b. 1843), son of
the preceding; was appointed American
minister to England in 1889.
Lind, Jenny (b. 1820, d. 1889), born at
Stockholm, studied in Paris under Garcia
(1841) ; visited Berlin in 1844, Vienna in
1846, London in 1847, and the United States
in 1850-2; married Herr Otto Goldschmid
in 1852, and withdrew from the stage, but
continued to sing in oratorios and concerts.
(503)
Lis
Linde, Samuel Bojjumil (''. 1771, d. 1S17),
( f - . Lshd cent, D ixn at l"n..ni, j.ubl.
u, , It'ictmnary. Ho died uL WttMkW.
Lindpaintner, Peter Joseph (b. 1791, <f.
1 •>;, a German musical composer.
Lindsay, Sir David (b. circa 1490, d. 1,555),
Scotch po»t, was sent on several embassies
by James V. , after whoso death ho supported
the cause of the reformers. He "wrote
The Drone, The Complai/nt, A Sat y re of
the Three Estatis, etc.
Lindsay, David, F.R.G.S. (b. 1856), born
in South Australia, conducted the Arnheiins
exploring expedition in 1883; in lt>.s.~)-ij
led a private expedition across Australia
from south to north.
Lindsey, Theophilus (b. 1723, d. 1808),
English clergyman, resigned his living at
Catterick in Yorkshire (1773), and became a
Unitarian minister in London (1774-93).
He wrote an Apology, explaining the change
in his views.
Lingard, John (*. 1771, d. 1851), his-
torian, descended from a Epman Catholic
family in Lincolnshire, studied at Douay;
on the establishment of Crook Hall, Dur-
ham (1794), became its vice-president, and
subsequently professor of natural and moral
philosophy ; removed with the community
to Ushaw (1808), and in 1811 withdrew to
Hornby. His works are Antiquities of the
Anglo-Saxon Church (1806) and a History of
England (1819-30).
Lingen, Ralph Robert Wheeler, Baron (b.
1819), educated at Oxford, where he was a
fellow of Balliol ; called to the bar 1847 ;
and in 1849 became secretary to the Educa-
tional Department ; became permanent sec-
retary to the Treasury in 1870 ; Alderman to
the London County Council, 1889.
Linley, Thomas (*. circa 1725, d. 1795),
musical composer, became proprietor of
Drury Lane theatre in conjunction with his
Bon-in-law, R. B. Sheridan (1776). He wrote
the accompaniment to the airs in the
Beggar's Opera, and composed several
ballads.
Linnaeus (Von Linne"), Carl (b. 1707, d.
1778), born at Rashult, studied at the
universities of Lund and Upsal, where,
about 1730, he conceived the idea of a new
method of classifying plants ; in 1732 was
sent on a scientific expedition to Lapland,
the results of which he published in his
Flora Lapponica (1737) ; from 1735 to 1738
superintended the garden of Georg Cliff ort,
near Haarlem, and there wrote works ex-
plaining his system ; after visiting Eng-
land, became professor of medicine at Upsal
(1741-8). His Philosophia Botanica (1751)
gives a complete account of his system.
Linnell, John (b. 17'.r_>, ,/. 1,-v •<•_'), artist,
Btiuii'-il at tho AfudiMiiv UM-liT \VYst and
Varley ; painted portraits oi Blake, Mul-
ri udy, Peel, Carlyle, and other famous
in 181(5 returned to landscape, and,
his removal to Red Hill (Ib./J), usually
chose his subjects from the country sur-
rounding his home.
Llnton, Eliza Lynn (b. 1822), haa written
many novels and social articles.
Linton, Sir James Drumgole (b. 1840^,
avtist, was successively elected member
(I ^'7), vice-president (1883), and president
( 1 S.-> I) of the Royal Institute of Painters in
Water- Colours, and has done much towards
raising it to its present position. He excels
in depicting scenes of chivalry and romance.
Linton, William James (b. 1812), en-
graver and writer ; has published a History
of Wood- Engraving and other works.
Lippi, Fra Filippo (*. 1412, d. 1469),
Florentine painter, educated at the monastery
del Carmine, studied under Masaccio. Ro-
mantic stories are told of his life, for which
there appears to be little foundation. Among
his masterpieces are the frescoes in the
cathedrals of Spoleto and Prato, and a
Coronation of the Virgin, now at Florence.
Lippi, Filippino (b. 1460, d. 1504), a
painter, son of the preceding.
Lippi, Lorenzo (b. 1606, d. 1664), Italian
painter and poet; wrote H Malmantile
Macquistato.
Lippincott, Sarah Jane (b. 1823), an
American authoress.
Lipsius, Justus (b. 1547, d. 1606), a learned
critic, professor of history at Leyden, and
afterwards at Louvain.
Lisle, Lady Alicia (d. 1685), widow of
John, Viscount Lisle ; was condemned to
death by Jeffreys on the charges of having
sheltered some of Monmouth's adherents
after Sedgemoor, and executed at Winchester.
Lisle, Sir George (d. 1648), Royalist
officer, distinguished himself at Newbury;
bravely defended Colchester, "but at last sur-
rendered, and was shot.
Lisle, Joseph Rouget de (b. 1760, d.
1836), a French revolutionist ; author and
composer of the Marseillaise.
Lista y Aragon, Alberto (6. 1775, d.
1848), Spanish poet and mathematician;
became editor of the Censor in 1820, and of
the Gaceta de Madrid in 1833, and advocated
Liberal principles. He was afterwards pro-
fessor of mathematics at Madrid.
Liston, John (b. 1776, d. 1846), actoa
appeared at the Haymarket in 1805, ana
Lis
(509)
Lob
from that time was recognised as the
greatest low comedian of the day.
Listen, Robert (b. 1794, d. 1848), an emi-
nent Scotch surgeon, practised in London.
Liszt, Abbe Franz (6. 1811, d. 1886),
pianist and composer, bom at Raiding, near
Oldenburg, played in public at the age of
nine ; studied at Vienna under Czeniy and
Salieri, 1821-3 ; lived several years in Paris;
afterwards worked as a teacher; between
18.39 and 18ieJ visited the principal European
towns. Hi a symphonies were written be-
tween 1849 and 1859, while he was director
of the Court Theatre at Weimar. In 1859
he went to Rome, entered a convent (1865),
and henceforward wrote chieily church
music; to this period belong the oratorios
St. Elizabeth, (1865) and Chnstus (1870-5).
He returned to Hungary in 1871-
Littre, Maximilien Paul Emile (b. 1801, d.
1881), French philologist, author of a I)ic~
tionnairede la, Langue J?ran$aise (1863-1878).
Liutprand, Bishop of Cremona (d. circa
972), was sent on embassies to Constanti-
nople by Bereugarius (946), and Otho I.
(968) ; sat in the council at Rome, which
deposed John XII. He wrote Antapodosis
(a history extending from 886 to 948), De
2*egatione Constantitiopolitana, etc.
Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson,
second Earl of (b. 1770, d. 1828), statesman,
entered Parliament as a Tory in 1791 ;
became Foreign Secretary under Addington
in 1801, and concluded the treaty of Amiens
(1802) ; was Home Secretary under Pitt
(1804-6) and the Duke of Portland (1807-8),
and Secretary for War and the Colonies
under Perceval (1809-12) ; formed an admin-
istration in 1812, and remained at the head
of the Government till his death.
Liversidge, Prof. Archibald, president of
the Royal Society of New South Wales in
1883-4.
Livingston, Edward (b. 1764, d. 1836),
American lawyer and statesman, was elected
to Congress in 1794 ; followed his profession
at New Orleans (1804-23) ; represented that
town in Congress (1823-9) ; entered the
Senate (1829) ; became secretary of state
(1831) ; was minister to France (1833-5).
He wrote a celebrated tiystem of Penal Law
(1833).
Livingstone, David (b. 1813, d. 1873),
born at Blantyre in Lanarkshire, worked
during childhood and youth in a cotton-
mill ; was sent to South Africa by the
London Missionary Society in 1840 ; resided
for several years at various stations near the
Iiimpopo, discovering Lake N garni in 1849,
and penetrating to the Makololo country in
1851 ; in 1853-4 crossed Africa from the
Zambesi to the Congo, and in 1854-6 made
his way from Loando to Quiliinane, follow-
ing the course of the Zambesi, and discover-
ing the Victoria Falls ; came to England in
1856, and published Missionary Travels
(1857) ; returned to Africa as consul at Quili-
mane in 1858 ; explored the country north
of the Zambesi (1858-64), discovering Lakea
Shirwa and Nyassa, and in 1865 published
his Narrative of the journey ; undertook hia
third expedition in 1866, and spent the
remainder of his life endeavouring to ascer-
tain whether the Nile flowed from the
water-system west of Lake Tanganyika.
In November, 1871, he was found by Stanley
at Ujiji. He died of dysentery at the
village of Ilala.
Livius, Titus (b. 59 B.C., d. 17 A.D.), born
at Patavium, lived chiefly at Rome, where
he was patronised by Augustus. He wrote
a History of Rome from its foundation to
9 B.C., in 142 books, of which 35 remain.
Llewelyn ap Grufydd (b. 1224, d. 1282),
the last of the native princes of Wales;
aided Simon de Montfort during the reign
of Henry IIL ; on ref using to do homage to
Edward I., was attacked by that king, and
driven to the fastnesses of Snowdon ; again
took up arms in 1282, and was slain in
battle.
Llorente, Juan Antonio (b. 1756, d. 1823),
Spanish ecclesiastic; wrote a Critical History
of the Inquisition (1817).
Lloyd, Charles (d. 1839), poet, born in
Birmingham, friend of Coleridge, Southey,
and Lamb ; wrote Nuga Canora (1819), etc.
Lloyd, Edward (6. 1845), an English tenor
vocalist.
Lobau, Comte de (Georges Mouton) (6.
1770, d. 1838), French general ; served in
Napoleon's campaigns, earning his title by
his defence of the island of Lobau on the
Danube ; was taken prisoner at Waterloo ;
took part in the revolution of 1830, and suc-
ceeded Lafayette as commander of the
National Guard.
Lobeira, Vasco de (d. 1403), Portuguese
author ; wrote Amadis de Gaul, a famous
romance of chivalry. The Portuguese
original has been lost, the earliest
now extant being a SpainV-h translation of
1519.
Lobel, Mathieu (b. 1538, d. 1616), born
at Lille ; settled in England, and became
physician to James I. His St i rp « u m Adver-
saria was the first attempt to classif v plants
according to their natural orders. The .Lo-
belia was named after him.
Lobo, Jeronimo (A. 1593, d. 1678), Port*,
miese Jesuit missionary ; originally sent to
India (1622) : after labouring for nine years
in Abyssii'ia, was expelled (1634), and
LOG
(610)
returned to Goa. He died in Lisbon. His
History of Ethiopia was translated by Dr.
Johnson.
Loch, Sir Henry Brougham, G.C.M.G.,
chief commissioner of the Cape.
Lock, Matthew (b. 1635, d. 1677), musi-
ciau, born at Exeter ; composed music for
The Tempest and Macbeth.
Locke, John (*. 1632, d. 1704), English
philosopher, born at Wrington, in Somerset-
shire, educated at Westminster, studied at
Christ Church, Oxford ; in loo'ii became ac-
quainted with Lord Ashley, afterwards Earl
of Shaf tesbury ; resided much in his house,
*nd, when he became Lord Chancellor (1672),
was appointed secretary for the presentation
of benefices ; in 1673 was made secretary to
the Board of Trade ; from 1675 to 1679 lived
in France on account of his health ; in 1683
followed Shaf tesbury to Holland, where he
remained till the Revolution, after which he
became commissioner of appeals, ,*nd in
1695 commissioner of trade arid plantations.
From 1691 to his death he lived with Sir
Frauds Ma-sham, at Gates, in Essex. His
most important works are an Essay Con-
cerning Human Understanding (1690), a
Treatise on Education (1693), three Letters
on Toleration (1690-2), a Treatise on Civil
Government, and a Vindication of the Reason-
ableness of Christianity (1695).
Locke, Joseph (b. 1805, d. 1860), civil en-
gineer, born near Sheffield ; assisted George
Stephenson in constructing the Manchester
and Liverpool Railway (1826-30) ; after-
wards completed the Grand Junction Kail-
way (1837), and constructed several other
lines in England and abroad.
Locker-Lampsoa, Frederick (b. 1821), has
published London Lyrics and other vers de
societe, and edited Lyra Elegantiarum.
Lockhart, John Gibson (b. 1794, d. 1S54),
educated at Glasgow and Oxford ; joined
the staff of Blackwood in 1817 ; became
acquainted with Sir Walter Scott (1818),
whose daughter he married (1820) ; edited
the Quarterly Reoivw 1826-53 ; died at
Abbotsford. He wrote a Life of Burns,
Life of Scott , and other works, and translated
Spanish Ballads.
Lockhart, Sir William (b. 1621, d. 1675),
went to Paris as ambassador in 1655, and
negotiated the alliance against the Dutch ;
commanded the English contingent in the
war that ensued, and became governor of
Dunkirk (1658); was again ambassador at
Paris under Charles II.
Lockhart, William Ewart, E.S.A. (*.
1846), has exhibited The Jubilee Celebration
in Westminster Abbey, etc.
Lockroy, Edouard l^tienne Simon (b.
1838), French journalist and politician,
first entered the National Assembly in
1871 ; in 1872 became editor of the Peuplt
A' uiennn, aud afterwards contributed to
the Itappel ; became minister of commerce
and Lidustry in 1886, and of public in-
struction
Lockyer, Joseph Norman, F.R.S. (b. 1836),
directed the eclipse expedition to Sicily
" and to India (LS71). He has written
s in Spectrum Analysis (1872), etc.
Lodge, Edmund (b. 1756, d. 1839), Claren-
cieux king-ac-arms ; wrote Portraits of Illus-
trious ¥cr$vnaye& of Great Britain, etc.
Lodge, Oliver Joseph, F.E.S. (b. 1851),
professor of physics at University* College,
Liverpool ; has written Modern Views of
Electricity (18h9), and contributed to the
Philosophical Magazine.
Lodge. Thomas (b. circa 1555, d. 1625),
an English poet and miscellaneous writer.
Among his dramas are The Wounds of Civil
War (1694), and A Looking-glass for London
(1692), written in conjunction with Robert
Greene. From his liosalynde (1590), Shake-
speare derived the plot of As You Like It.
Loewe, Louis (b. 1809), born in Silesia;
travelled in the East (1836-8) to study the
Coptic, Circassian, and other languages, and
accompanied Sir Moses Montefiore on many
of his expeditions. He has published A.
Circassian Dictionary (1854), etc.
Loftus, Lord Augustus, G.C.B. (b. 1817),
son of the second Marquis of Ely ; was am-
bassador at Vienna (1858-60), Berlin (I860-
2), Munich (1862-5), Berlin again (1865-8),
to the North German Bund (1868-71), at
St. Petersburg (1871-9); and governor of
New South Wales (1879-85).
Logan, John (b. 1748, d. 1788), a Scottish
divine and poet. The Cuckoo and other
lyrics formerly attributed to him are now-
believed to have been written by his friend,
Michael Bruce, who died in 1767. They
were published by Logan as his own (1781).
Loison, Charles (b. 1827), known as Pere
Hyacinthe, French preacher, founder of the
Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland.
Lolli, Antonio (b. 1728, d. 1802), an Italian
violinist, born at Bergamo.
Lombard!, a family of Venetian architects
and sculptors of the 16th century, famous
for their decorative work of the land called
cinquecento. PIETBO LOMBAKDO, son of a
Lombard mason, executed the monument of
Dante at Ravenna (1482). His son, TUIXIO,
excelled in ornamental sculpture. SANTE (d.
1560), son of GruiJO, and grandson of
Pietro, was for many years employed on the
Scuola di San Roco. Manv of the Venetian
Lorn
(511)
Let
Ealaces and churches were built by the
ombardi.
Loinbroso, Cesare (b. 1836), Italian man
of science, professor of medical juris-
prudence in the university of Turin ; has
published The Man of Genius (1888), etc.
Lomenie de Brienne, Etienne Charles de,
Cardinal (1727, d. 1794), French statesman;
became archbishop of Toulouse in 1763, and
of Sens in 1788 ; succeeded Caionne (1787) as
controller of the finances and chief minister.
His schemes for raising money involved him
in a struggle with the parliament of Paris,
which ended in his resignation (1789).
Loini, Orazio, called Gentileschi (b. 1563, d.
1646), Italian painter who settled in London.
Lomonosov, Michael (6. 1711, d. 1765),
Russian poet and historian, son of a fisher-
man, born near ArchangeJ ; made his way
to Moscow, and studied there and at St.
Petersburg, where he became professor of
chemistry in 1746. He wrote a History of
Russia, and many odes and lyrics.
Long, Edwin, R.A. (6. 1839, d. 1891),
painter of oriental antiquity. Among his
works were An Egyptian Feast (1877), and
Esther and Vashti (1879).
Long, George (b. 1800, d 1879), classical
scholar, educated at Cambridge ; wrote The
Decline of the Roman Republic (1864-9), etc.
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth (b. 1807,
d. 1882), American poet, born at Portland,
in Maine, educated at Bowdoin College;
after travelling in Europe, became professor
of modern languages at Bowdoin in 1829,
and held the same post at Harvard 1835-54.
He revisited Europe in 1835-6, and again in
1842 and 1868-9. His chief volumes of
poetry are Voices of the Night (1839), The
Spanish Student (1843), Evangeline (1847),
The Golden Legend (1851), The Song of
Hiawatha (1855), TJre Courtship of Miles
Standish (1858), and Tales of a Way fide Inn
(1863). He also wrote Hyperion and other
prose works, and translated the Divine
Comedy,
Longhi, Giuseppe (b. 1766, d. 1831), an
Italian engraver, professor in the academy
of Milan.
Longinus, Dionysius Cassius (b. circa 213,
d, 273), Platonic philosopher and rhetori-
cian, probably born at Athens; opened a
school of philosophy and rhetoric at Athens,
and while there wrote his treatise On the
Sublime. He afterwards went to Palmyra
to Queen Zenobia, whose counsellor he be-
came. When Aurelian took Palmyra, he
was charged with having incited Zenobia
against the Romans, and put to death.
Longley, Charles Thomas (b. 1794, d.
1868), became Archbishop of Canterbury
in 1862.
Longornontamis, Christian (6. 1562, d.
1647), Danish astronomer; assisted Tychc
Brahe, and was professor of mathematics
at Copenhagen
Longparier, Adrieu de (b. 1816, d. 1882),
French archaeologist.
Longstreet, James (b. 1821), American
general, served in the Confederate army
during the Civil war.
Lpnnrott, Elias (b. 1802, d. 1884), Finnish
antiquary, discovered and published the
Finnish epic Kalevala (1835-49).
Lopes, or Lopez, Feruao (b. circa 1380,
d. circa 1449), a Portuguese chronicler.
Lopes, Sir Henry Charles (b. 1828), became
lord justice of the Court of Appeal in 1885.
Lorenzetti, or Di Lorenzo, Pietro and
Ambrogio, brothers, painters of the Siennese
school, lived early in the 14th century.
The allegorical frescoes in the palace of
Siena were painted by Ambrogio.
Loria, Ruggero (d. 1305), admiral in the
service of Pedro III. of Aragon; gained
many victories over the French.
Lome, John George Douglas Sutherland
Campbell, Marquis of (b. 1845), eldest son
of the Duke of Argyle, was Liberal member
for Argyleshire 1868 - 78 ; married the
Princess Louise, fourth daughter of Queen
Victoria, in 1871 ; was Governor -General of
Canada 1878-83.
Lorraine, Claude Gelee of (b. 1600, d.
1682), French landscape painter; settled in
Rome, and acquired great celebrity.
Lorris, Guillaume de (d. circa 1250), the
author of the Roman de la Rose, a poem on
the art of love.
Lot, Hebrew patriarch, son of Haran,
and nephew of Abraham ; lived in Sodom,
but was warned by angels of its coming
destruction, and fled to the mountains.
Loth, Otto (b. 1844, d. 1881), a German
Orientalist, professor at Leipzig.
Lothar, King of the West Franks (b. 941,
d. 986\ succeeded his father, Louis d' Outre-
mer, in 954. He endeavoured to extend his
dominions, but was unsuccessful both in
Normandy and Lorraine. He was much
thwarted 'in his projects by the Duke of the
French, Hugh Capet.
Lothar L, Emperor of the West (b. circa
795, d. 855), succeeded bis father, Louis le
Debonnaire, in 840; was defeated by hi*
Lot
(512)
Lou
brothers Louis aiid Charles at Foiitenet
(841), aud compelled, by the Treaty of
Verdun (843), to agree to a division of the
empire, taking as his share Italy and a
long, narrow tract of land, extending from
the Mediterranean to the North Sea, and
including what are now Holland and Pro-
vence.
Lotnar (d. 869), son of the preceding;
became on his father's death ruler over the
district betwe ^ rermany and Gaul, which
thus received ...<$ name of "Lothariugia,"
preserved in " Lorraine."
Lothar H, "the Saxon," Emperor of
the West (b. 1075, d. 1137), became Duke of
Saxony in 1106, and was elected emperor in
1125. His rivals, Conrad of Franconia and
Frederick of Suabia. took up arms, and the
former was crowned by his supporters at
Milan. Lothar is supposed to have done
homage at his coronation to Innocent II.,
whom he afterwards assisted against the
anti-pope Anacletus and Roger, King of
Sicily.
Lptti, Antonio (b. 1665, d. 1740), Venetian
musician, pupil of Legrenzi; composed
operas and sacred pieces.
Lotto, Lorenzo (b. circa 1485, d. 1554), a
painter of the Venetian school, lived chiefly
at Bergamo.
Lotze, Rudolf Hermann (b. 1817, d. 1881),
professor of philosophy at Gottingen
1845-80; wrote a System of Philosophy
(1874), etc.
London, John Claudius (b. 1783, d. 1843),
landscape gardener and horticulturist ; pub-
lished The Encyclopedia of Gardening (1822),
etc. His wife, JANE (b. 1800, d. 1858), wrote
The Ladies' Flower Garden (1841).
Louis (Ludwig) " the Child " (b. 893, d.
912), son of the Emperor Arnulph, became
King of the East Franks in 900. He was
the last descendant of Charlemagne who
ruled in Germany.
Louis (Ludwig) " the German," King of
the East Franks (b. 806, d. 876), son of Louis
le Debonnaire, ruled over the district lying
between the Rhine and the Elbe.
Louis L (Ludwig), the Pious, Emperor of
the West (*. 778, d. 840), succeeded his
father, Charlemagne, in 814. He soon
afterwards named his sons Lothaire, Pepin,
and Louis kings over Italy, Aquitaine, and
Bavaria respectively. They frequently re-
belled against him, and he was twice de-
posed.
Louis II. (Ludwig), Emperor (b. circa 822,
d. 875), succeeded his father, Lothaire, in
855. He ruled over Italy alone.
Louis IH. (Ludwig), "the Blind," Em-
peror (b. circi bSD, d. circ/i 923), son of
Boson, King of Burgundy, and Ennengarde,
daughter of the Emperor Louis II. ; wa?
chosen ruler over Italy on the deposition ol
Bereugar (!>00), who in 905 captured him,
and deprived liirn of his sight.
Louis IV. (Ludwig), Emperor (b. 1286, d
1347), succeeded his father, Louis, as Duke of
Bavaria in 12J4. In 1314 a double election
to the empire took place, some of the princes
declaring ior Louis and others for Frederick
of Austria. A war ensued, in which Louis
was victorious (1322). John XXII. having
attempted to depose Louis, a contest arose
between the pope and the emperor, which
was continued by Benedict XII. and
Clement VI.
Louis I. (Ludwig), King of the West
Franks. [See Louis I., Ernperor.]
Louis II. (Ludwig', <ho Stammerer, King
of the West Franks (/;. 8-ttj, d. 879), succeeded
his father, Charles the Bald, in 877.
Louis IIL (Ludwig) (b. circa 863, d. 882),
eon of the preceding ; shared the kingdom
with his younger brother, Carloman (879-81).
Louis IV. (Ludwig) (b. 921, d. 954), called
"d'Outremer," from having been brought
up at the court of his uncle, .tEthelstan of
England ; succeeded his father, Charles the
Simple, in 936. He was constantly at
variance with Hugh the Great, Duke of the
French, He unsuccessfully attacked the
Normans, who kept hJTr> a prisoner 944-5.
Louis V. (Ludwig), "le Faineant" (b.
966, d. 987), the last of the Carolingian
kings, succeeded his father, Lothar, in 986.
He was succeeded by Hugh Capet.
Louis VI., "le Gros," King of France
(*. 1078, d. 1137), succeeded his father,
Philip I., in 1108. He carried on a war
with Henry I. of England. He granted
charters to the towns, in order to gain their
support against the nobles.
Louis VII. (b. 1120, d. 1180) succeeded his
father, Louis VI., in 1137. He took part in
the second Crusade. 1147-9. In 1152 he
divorced his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine,
who thereupon married Henry, Count of
Anjou, afterwards King of England. He
afterwards aided Henry's sons in their fre-
quent revolts against their father.
Louis VUL (b. 1187, d. 1226). son of
Philip Augustus ; was in 1216 offered the
crown of England by the discontented
barons, but, after John's death, was deserted
by most of his supporters, and, on the defeat
of his army at Lincoln (1217), returned tc
France. He succeeded his father in 1223.
Lou
(613)
Lou
He died whilst engaged in the "crusade"
against the Albigeuses.
Louis IX. (6. 1215, d. 1270) succeeded his
father, Louis VIII., in 1226, under the
regency of his mother, Blanche of Castile.
In 1229 the Albigensiau crusade was brought
to a close, and the county of Toulouse was
incorporated with the French kingdom.
Henry III. of England made some unsuc-
cessful attempts to recover his lost provinces,
and in 1259 yielded them to Louis. In 1248
Louis embarked on a crusade, wasted much
time in Egypt (1248-50), where he was
taken prisoner, and returned from Palestine
in 1254 without having effected anything.
He undertook another crusade in 1270, but
died whilst besieging Tunis. He was
canonised in 1297.
Louis X., "le Hutin" (b. 1289, d. 1316),
succeeded his father, Philip the Fair, in
1314.
Louis XI. (b. 1423, d. 1483) succeeded his
father, Charles VII., in 1461. His crafty
policy enabled him to establish his su-
premacy over his powerful vassals. His
most powerful adversary was Charles, Duke
of Burgundy, who in 1468 kept him three
days a prisoner in the castle of Peronne.
In 1481 Provence was annexed to France.
Louis XII. (b. 1462, d. 1515), son of
Charles, Duke of Orleans, succeeded Charles
VIII. in 1498. He laid claim to the king-
dom of Naples and the duchy of Milan. In
1499 he invaded Italy, and gained posses-
sion of Milan. With the assistance of Fer-
dinand of Aragon he conquered Naples in
1500, but, having quarrelled with his ally,
was expelled in 1503. In 1508 he united
with Ferdinand, Pope Julius II., and the
emperor, in the League of Cambrai against
the Venetians. In 1511 Ferdinand joined
Julius in the Holy League against the
French, who were finally driven out of
Italy by means of the Swiss in 1513. In
the same year Henry VIII. invaded France,
and was successful at Guiuegate. In 1499
Louis married Anne, Duchess of Brittany,
widow of Charles VIII. By his good gov-
ernment he earned the title of "Father of
his People."
Louis XHI. (b. 1601, d. 1643) succeeded
his father, Henri IV., in 1610. Under the
government of Cardinal Richelieu the royal
power greatly increased. The Huguenots
lost their privileges, and La Rochelle was
reduced in 1628 ; yet Richelieu openly aided
the Protestant powers in the Thirty Years'
war.
Louis XIV. (b. 1638, d. 1715), succeeded
his father, Louis XIII., in 1643. His
mother, Anne of Austria, was nominally
regent, but the government was carried on
B B
by Cardinal Mazariu. France was then
engaged in the Thirty Years' war, in which
Turenne and Conde gained many successes.
Peace was made in Germany by the Treaty
of Westphalia (1648), but the war with
Spain continued till 1G59, when Louis
married Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip
IV. The unpopularity of Mazarin's govern-
ment occasioned the rising of the Frondeurs
(1648-53). After his death (1661) Louis
conducted the government himself, follow-
ing in financial matters the advice of his
minister, Colbert. In 1665 he invaded the
Netherlands, in violation of his agreement
with Spain. In consequence of his attack
on Holland (1672) an alliance against him
was formed between Spain, the emperor,
and the Elector of Brandenburg, and a war
ensued, which was terminated by the Treaty
of Nimeguen (1678). The Edict of Nantes
was revoked in 1685. Another war, under-
taken to check the growing power of France,
was concluded by the Peace of Ryswick
(1697). In 1700 began the war of the
Spanish Succession between the rival
claimants, Philip, Duke of Anjou, Louis'
grandson, and the Archduke Charles of
Austria, who was supported by England and
the emperor.
Louis XV., "le Bien-Aime" (b. 1710, d.
1774), succeeded his great-grandfather,
Louis XIV., in 1715, under the regency of
Philip, Duke of Orleans, a nephew of Louis
XIV. Fleury became chief minister in 1725.
The king's attempt to enforce the claim of
his father-in-law, Stanislas, to the throne of
Poland led to a war with the emperor
(1733-8). France was next engaged in the
war of the Austrian Succession, Louis sup-
porting the claim of Charles, Elector of
Bavaria (1741-8). During the Seven Years'
war (1756-63) France was deprived by
England of most of her colonial possessions.
Louis XVI. (b. 1754, d. 1793) succeeded
his father, Louis XV., in 1774. In 1770 he
had married Marie Antoinette, daughter of
Maria Theresa of Austria. The finances
were in complete disorder, and Louis was
not fortunate in his choice of ministers.
Turgot and Necker were in turn dismissed,
and succeeded by the incapable Caloune
(1783-7) and Lomeuie de Brienne (1787-8).
Necker was recalled, and advised the sum-
moning of the States -General (May, 1789),
who were reconstituted as the National
Assembly. The dismissal of Necke'r was
followed by the taking of the Bastille
(July 14). In October a mob of armed
women from Paris made an attack on the
palace of Versailles, after which the king
and queen were forcibly removed to Paris.
In February, 1790, a new constitution was
issued, which the king found himself forced
to accept. In June, 1791, Louis attempted
Lou
(614)
Low
to escape from France, but was arrested at
Varemies and taken back to Paris. During
the attack on the Tuileries (August, 1792)
Louis fled to the Assembly, by whose order
he was imprisoned, with his family, in the
Temple. The Convention met in September ;
Louis was brought to trial, and ably
defended by Malesherbes, but condemned
to death, and executed on January 21.
1793.
Louis XVII. (b. 1785, d. 1795), son of
Louis XVI. ; was regarded as kiug by the
Royalists after the execution of his father.
He died in confinement.
Louis XVm. (Comte de Provence) (b.
1755, d. 1824), younger brother of Louis
XVIV was in favour of summoning the
States - General, and gained popularity
through his liberal views ; left France in
1791 ; after visiting several European courts,
resided in England (1807-14) ; ascended the
throne of France in April, 1814, and granted
a constitutional charter ; was expelled by
Napoleon on his return from Elba, but re-
gained the throne in July, 1815. The
ministries of the Due de Richelieu (1815-18)
and Decazes (1818-20) were liberal in their
tendency, but in 1820 the ultra- Royalists
gained the upper hand, and De Villele
became chief minister. In 1823 France
aided Ferdinand VII. to regain the throne
of Spain.
Louis Philippe, King of the French '(b.
1773, d. 1850), son of Philippe (Egalite"),
Duke of Orleans, was during his father's
lifetime known as the Due de Chartres.
He favoured the principles of the revolu-
tion, and fought against the allies, but after
Neerwinden (1793) fled with Dumouriez to
the Austrian army. During the following
years he led a wandering life, and in 1800
came to England, where he remained till
1808. On the restoration of the Bourbons
he settled in Paris. After the "July"
revolution in 1830 he was proclaimed king.
The people were bitterly disappointed in
their "Citizen King." His government
became every year more arbitrary, and at
last the general discontent culminated in
a revolution (February, 1848), which forced
the king to seek refuge in England.
Louis I., King of Hungary, reigned from
1342 to 1382. He also ruled over Poland.
Louis II., of Hungary (d. 1526), was slain
at the battle of Mohacs.
Louisa Augusta Wilhelmina Amelia,
Queen of Prussia (b. 1776, d. 1810), daughter
of Charles, Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz,
in 1793 married the Crown Prince of Prussia,
afterwards Frederick William III.
Louisa of Savoy (b. 1476, d. 1532),
daughter of Philip, Duke of Savoy ; was the
wife of Charles d'Orle'aus, Comte d'Angou-
leme, and mother of Francis I. of France.
She was regent for her son during his inva-
sion of the Milanese, and again when he had
been taken prisoner at Pa via in 1525.
Louvois, Frauqois Michel Le Tellier, Mar-
quis de (b, 1641, d. 1691), became minister of
war to Louis XIV. in 1666. His influence
rivalled that of Colbert. It was by bis
advice that the Edict of Nantes was re-
voked (1685) and the Palatinate ravaged
(1689).
Lovat, Simon Fraser, Lord (£. circa 1667,
d. 1747), fought against the Pretender in
1715, and took Inverness, but joined in the
rising of 1745, and was executed two years
afterwards.
Lovelace, Richard (*. 1618, d. 1658), poet ;
fought for Charles I., and was imprisoned
by the Parliament in 1648. He died in
poverty.
Lover, Samuel (b. 1797, d. 1868), born in
Dublin; abandoned miniature-painting for
literature, and wrote Handy Andy (1842),
etc.
Lowder, Charles Fuge (b. 1820, d. 1880),
was vicar of St. Peter's, London Docks
(1866-80).
Lowe, Major-General Sir Drury (b. 1830),
distinguished himself in the Egyptian war
(1882), taking Cairo and capturing Arabi
Lowe, Edward Joseph, F.R.S. (b. 1825),
an English meteorologist and botanist.
Lowe, Sir Hudson (b. 1769, d. 1844),
general ; was governor of St. Helena during
Napoleon's captivity. He died in poverty.
Lowe, Robert, Viscount Sherbrooke (b.
1811, d. 1892), was educated at Winchester
and Oxford ; was called to the bar in 1 842 ;
went to Australia, and was a member of the
Council of New South Wales (1843-50);
returned in 1851 ; was elected member for
Kidderminster (1852) ; was vice-president
of the Committee of Council on Education
(1859-64); led the " Adullamites" in 1866;
became member for the University of London
in 1868 ; was Chancellor of the Exchequer
under Mr. Gladstone (1868-73), and Home
Secretary (1873-4). In 1880 he was raised
to the peerage.
Lowell, James Russell (b. 1819, d. 1891),
American writer, born^at Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, educated at Harvard, was called to
the bar, but never practised; succeeded
Longfellow as professor of modern languages
at Harvard (1855) ; was minister to Spain
(1877-80), and to England (1880-5). Among
his principal works in verse are The Vision
of Sir Launfal, The Biglow Papers, and
A Fable for Critics, all published in 1848.
Low
(515)
Lud
He also-published Among my Books and My
Study windows, etc.
Lowtn, Robert (b. 1710, d. 1787), became
professor of poetry at Oxford in 1741 ; was
afterwards appointed Bishop of Oxford
(1766) and London (1777). He wrote De
Sacra Poesi Hebrceorum (1753), etc.
Lowth, William (b. 1661, d. 1732), father
of the preceding ; wrote a Commentary on the
four Greater Prophets.
Loyola, Ignatius de (Don Inigo Lopez de
Becalde) (b. 1491, d. 1566), founder of the
order of Jesuits, was the son of a Spanish
nobleman. He entered the army, but was
disabled for lif e by a wound received at the
siege of Pampeluna, and devoted himself
to religious aims ; went on a pilgrimage to
Jerusalem (1523-4) ; while a student at
Paris (1528) became acquainted with Xavier
and other enthusiasts, in conjunction with
whom he founded a society for converting
the heathen, instructing the young, and
restoring the power of the Roman Church
(1534). After its organisation it was recog-
nised by Paul III. (1540), and Loyola was
chosen general, with absolute power.
Lubbock, Sir John (b. 1834), entered
Parliament as a Liberal in 1870; uyi871
passed the Bank Holidays Act; has^repre-
sented London University since 1880. He
has published Pre-Historic Times (1865),
Ants, Bees and Wasps (1882), The Pleasures
of Life (1887), etc.
LubienetsM, Stanislas (6. 1623, d. 1675),
Polish Socinian minister; wrote Theatrum
Cometicum, and a History of the Polish
Reformation.
Lucanus, Marcus Annseus (b. 39, d. 65),
Roman poet, nephew of Seneca, bora at
Corduba, educated at Rome; was made
quaestor and augur by Nero, but incurred
his enmity by defeating him in a literary
competition ; conspired against him, and
was put to death. His Pharsalia, describing
the war between Caesar and Pompey, is an
epic in ten books.
Lucaris, Cyril (*. 1572, d. circa 1638),
Patriarch of Constantinople; openly declared
himself in favour of the doctrines of the Re-
formation, with which he had become ac-
quainted during a visit to Germany. He was
several times banished, and at last strangled.
Lucas, John Seymour, A.R.A. (b. 1849),
an English historical painter.
Lucas, Paul (6. 1664, d. 1737), French
traveller ; journeyed through Egypt,Turkey,
and Eastern Asia, and published works de-
•cribing his travels.
Lucca, Pauline (Mme. Wallhofen) (b.
1842), a celebrated singer, of Jewish birth^
born at Vienna.
Lucianus (b. circa 125), a humorous Greek
writer, born at Samosata ; after practising
as an advocate, probably at Antioch, travelled
through Greece, Italy, and Gaul, where he
acquired much wealth through his rhetorical
displays. At the age of forty he returned
to his own land, and there wrote his principal
works, ridiculing the religion and philosophy
of the time. They are chiefly in the form
of dialogues.
Luciliua (d. 102 B.C.), the first Roman
satiric poet, born at Suessa Aurunca ; ac-
companied Scipio Africanus to the siege
of Numantia. Fragments of his satires re-
main.
Lucius L, Bishop of Rome (d. 253), suc-
ceeded Cornelius in 252.
Lucius IL, Pope (d. 1146), succeeded
Celestine II. in 1144.
Lucius III., Pope (d. 1185), succeeded}
Alexander III. in 1181.
/ Lucretius, Titus Cams, Roman poet of
the first century B.C. ; wrote De Rerun,
Natura, in hexameter verse, expounding1
the Epicurean system of philosophy. He
is said to have been driven mad by a love
philtre, administered by his wife, and to
have committed suicide.
Lucullus, Lucius Licinius (6. circa 110, d.
circa 58 B.C.), Roman general ; served at
quaestor under Sulla against Mithridates
(88-34) ; was consul in 74 ; went as proconsul
to Cilicia, and prosecuted the war against
Mithridates (74-66), expelling him from
Pontus, and defeating Tigranes, King of
Armenia, with whom he had taken refuge.
After his return to Rome he became noted
for his luxurious mode of lif e.
Ludlow, Edmund (b. 1620, d. 1693), served
in the Parliamentary army ; entered Par-
liament in 1645 ; took part in the trial and
condemnation of Charles I. ; commanded in
Ireland after the death of Ireton (1651), but
resisted Cromwell's usurpation, and was re-
called (1653) ; joined in restoring the Long
Parliament; in 1660 fled to Vevey, in
Switzerland, where he died.
Ludolf, Hiob (b. 1624, d. 1704), German
Orientalist ; wrote a History of Abyssinia, an
Ethiopic grammar, etc.
Lud wig L, King of Bavaria (*. 1786, d.
1868), ascended the throne in 1825. In con-
sequence of his reactionary policy he was
forced to abdicate in 1848. He took great
interest in art and literature.
Ludwig II., of Bavaria (b. 1845, d. 1886).
ascended the throne in 1864. He rendered
Lnd
(516)
armed assistance in the Franco-German war,
and was chosen to urge upon the King of
Prussia the acceptance of the imprrkil
throne. He was highly imaginative, and
took great delight in music. In 1SS6 he
was deposed on the ground of insanity, and
soon afterwards drowned himself.
Ludwig IV., Grand Duke of Hesse-Darm-
stadt (/>. 1837, d. 1892), in 18tS2 married the
Princess Alice, second daughter of t^ueen
Victoria.
Luini, or Lo vino, Bernardino (d. aj
Italian painter, was a follower of Leonardo
da Vinci. Many of his best pictures are at
Milan.
Luitpold, Prince Charles Joseph William
Louis (b. 1821), regent of Bavaria.
Luke, St., the Evangelist, accompanied
St. Paul on his missionary journeys (50-66).
Lukiii, Lionel (b. 1742, d. 1834), the in-
ventor of the life-boat.
Lulli, or Lully, Jean Baptiste (b. 1633,
d. 1687), musical composer, born at Florence;
went to Paris as a child, became musician
to the court, and director of the Academy of
Music. He composed many operas.
Lully, or Lulle, Raymond, " the Enlight-
ened Doctor" (b. 1234, d. 1315), born at
Palma, in Majorca; travelled in Africa, at-
tempting to convert the Moors; was im-
prisoned at Tunis, but released by some
Genoese merchants ; died on his homeward
journey. His logical method was much in
vogue during the following centuries.
Lumsden, Lieutenant-General Sir Peter
(b. 1829), was in 1884 appointed commis-
sioner for settling the north - western
boundary of Afghanistan.
Luna, Alvarez de (b. circa 1388, d. 1453),
a Spanish statesman, minister of John II. of
Castile. He was twice banished, and at last
beheaded.
Lupus Servatus, abbot of Femeres, a
French writer of the 9th century. His
letters throw much light on contemporary
history.
Lushington, Stephen (b. 1782, d, 1873),
judge of the Consistory Court (1828-38), and
of the Court of Admiralty (1838-67) ; was
an earnest opponent of slavery.
Lusignan, Guy de (d. 1195), King of
Jerusalem, married Sybilla, daughter of
Amalric L On the death of Baldwin V.
(1186) Sybilla and Guy were crowned to-
gether. He was taken prisoner at Hittin
(1187), but released in the following year.
During the third Crusade he had to yield
the throne to Conrad of Montferrat, re-
ceiving Cyprus instead.
Luther, Martin (b. 1483, d. 1510), son of
a miner, bom at Eisleben, educated at
Eisenach and the university of Erfurt ;
.n; Ted an Augustiniau monastery ([.>(> <) :
Ltvame professor of phi'os. iphy at Witten-
berg (1508) ; in 1510 visited ivoine, where he
was deeply impressed with the corruption of
the church ; on his return began freely to
express his views on the vital points of re-
ligion, and when the Dominican Tetzel re-
ceived a commission to sell indulgences,
published his 95 propositions condemning
the practice (1517); in 1518 held a contro-
versy with Eck, and was summoned before
the legate Cajetan at Augsburg ; publicly
burnt the bull issued against him by Leo X.
(1520) ; upheld his views before the Diet of
the Empire assembled at Worms (1521) ; was
sheltered for ten months in the castle of
Wartburg by Frederick, Duke of Saxony ;
in 1522 returned to Wittenberg. In 1524 he
renounced his monastic vows, and in 1525
married Catherine von Bora. In 1530 the
"Protestant" faith was formulated in the
Confession of Augsburg, drawn up by Mel-
anchthon. Luther's translation of the New
Testament was published in 1524, and that
of the whole Bible about ten years later.
Lutti, Benedetto (b. 1666, d. 1724), painter,
born at Florence ; became president of the
Academy of St. Luke, at Home.
Luttrell, Narcissus (d. circa 1732), a po-
litical writer, whose Journal furnishes many
details concerning the period which, followed
the Revolution.
Luxembourg, Francois Henri de Mont-
morenci, Due de (b. 1628, d. 1695), French
marshal ; served under Conde* in the Spanish
army (1653-9) ; commanded during the in-
vasion of Holland (1672) ; distinguished him-
self under Conde at Senef (1674) ; became
commander-in-chief in 1690, and gained the
victories of Fleurus (1690), SteenMrk (1692),
and Neerwinden (1693).
Luynes, Charles d'Albret, Due de (b. 1578,
d. 1621), a favourite of Louis XIIL of
France.
Lyall, Sir Alfred Comyns (b. 1835), has
held the posts of home secretary in India
(1873-8), foreign secretary (1878-82), and
lieutenant-governor of the North- West
Provinces. He has published Asiatic Studies
(1882).
Lyall, Edna (Ada Ellen Bayly), novelist,
has published Donovan (1882), etc.
LycurgTis (b. circa 820 B.C.), the Spartan
lawgiver, according to tradition was the
son of Eunomus, King of Sparta ; acted as
guardian for his nephew, Polydectes ; jour-
neyed abroad to study the laws of other
countries, and on his return issued his code,
Lyd
(617)
Lyt
which sought to subordinate private interests
to those of the commonwealth.
Lydgata, John (b. circa 1370, d. ctrca
1440), poet ; in 1389 entered the Benedictine
abbey of Bury St. Edmunds. He wrote The
Storie of Thebes, The Falls of Princes, The
Troy £ooket London Lickpenny, and other
poems.
Lye, Edward (b. 1704, d. 1767), philolo-
gist, born at Tptnes, published an Anglo-
tSaxon and Gothic Dictionary (1772).
Lyell, Sir Charles (b. 1797, d. 1875), geolo-
gist, born in Forf arshire, educated at Oxford ;
was called to the bar in 1825, but abandoned
the legal profession in 1827 ; after travelling
on the Continent, and contributing papers
to the Transactions of the Geological Society,
published Principles of Geology (1830-3),
which substituted the Huttonian doctrines
for the old "catastrophic" theory, thus
raising geology to the rank of a branch of
inductive science. He became president of
the Geological Society in 1836, and again in
1850. He visited America in 1841 and 1845,
and published narratives of both expeditions,
written in a popular style. In 1863 appeared
The Antiquity of Man, in which he gave his
assent to the Darwinian theory.
Lyndimrst, John Singleton Copley, Baron
(b. 1772, d. 1863), English statesman, born
at Boston, Massachusetts, son of the painter
Copley, came to England in 1775 ; studied
at Cambridge ; was called to the bar in 1804 ;
entered Parliament as a Tory in 1818 ; be-
came Solicitor-General in 1819, Attorney-
General in 1824, and Master of the Rolls in
1826 ; was Lord Chancellor under Canning,
Goderich, and Wellington (1827-30), Chief
Baron of the Exchequer and leader of the
Opposition (1830-4), and Chancellor again
under Peel in 1834 and 1841-6.
Lynedoch, Thomas Graham, Baron (b.
1748, d. 1843), general, born in Perthshire ;
served under Sir John Moore in the Penin-
sular war (1808-9) ; won the victory of
Barossa (1811), commanded the left wing
at Vittoria (1813), took St. Sebastian, and,
after crossing the Bidassoa, led the British
army into French territory.
Lyon, Nathaniel (b. 1819, d. 1861), Ameri-
can general ; served in the Northern army
during the Civil war.
Lyons, Edmund, Lord (b. 1790, d. 1858),
admiral and diplomatist, entered the navy
in 1801 ; distinguished himself by his daring
capture of Marrack, in Java (1811) ; com-
manded a vessel during the blockade of
Navarino (1828) : was ambassador at Athens
1835-49 ; in 1853 was appointed second in
command of the Mediterranean squadron;
planned the operations against the Russians
in the Sea of Azov ; was made commauder-
in- chief of the fleet in 1855.
Lyons, Richard Bickerton Pennell Lyons,
Viscount (b. 1817, d. 1887), son of the pre-
ceding ; was appointed envoy-extraordinary
to the United States in 1858'; in 1865 became
ambassador at Constantinople, and iu 1867
at Paris, where he remained during the
Franco-German war.
Lyra, Nicholas de (d. 1340), theologian, of
Jewish descent, born at Lyre, in Normandy ;
after his conversion to Christianity, became
a monk ; wrote Postillce Perpetua, a com-
mentary on the Bible.
Lysander (d. 395 B.C.), Spartan admiral
and general, defeated the Athenian fleet at
Notium (407 B.C.) ; acquired great influence
over the Persians ; virtually ended tha
Peloponnesian war by his victory at xEgos
Potami (405) ; in 404 captured Athens,
where he set up the Thirty Tyrants. He lost
much of his power after the accession of the
Spartan king, Agesilaus (397).
Lysias (b. 458, d. 378 B.C.), Athenian
orator ; went with a party of colonists to
Thurii, in southern Italy (443) ; was expelled
by the Spartan faction (411), and returned
to Athens ; escaped to Megara during the
government of the Thirty Tyrants, and aided
Thrasybulus in driving them out; passed
the rest of his life at Athens.
Lysimachus (d. 281 B.C.), Macedonian
general, on the death of Alexander the Great
(323) became ruler over Thrace ; after de-
feating Autigonus at Ipsus (301), obtained a
large part of Asia Minor : in 2f>6 seized the
throne of Macedon. He was slain in battle
with Seleucus.
Lysippus, a Greek sculptor of the latter
part of the 4th century B.C. ; executed many
statues in bronze, which have all perished.
Lysons, Daniel (d. 1834), rector of Rod-
marton, in Gloucestershire ; wrote The
Environs of London and Magna Britannia
(1806-22).
Lysons, Samuel (b. 1763, d. 1819), brother
of the preceding, born at Rodmarton; be-
came keeper of the records in the Tower of
London.
Lyte, Henry Churchill Maxwell, C.B.,
F.S.A. (b. 1848), deputy-keeper of the
records ; has published a History of Eton
College (1875), etc.
Lyttleton, or Littleton, Edward, Lord (b.
1589, d. 1645), became Chief Justice of the
Common Pleas in 1640, and Lord Keeper in
1641. He served in the Royalist army.
Lyttleton, or Littleton, Thomas (b. circ*
142U, d. 1481), judge, born in Devonshire ;
Lyt
(618)
Mac
was a student of the Inner Temple ; became
king's sergeant in 1455, and judge of Com-
mon Pleas in 1402. His Treatise on Tenures,
in Norman French, is considered the founda-
tion of the English law of property. There
is a celobrated commentary on it by Sir
Edward Coke.
Lyttleton, George, Lord (b. 1709, d. 1773),
entered Parliament in 1730 ; was Chancellor
of the Exchequer, 1756-7. He wrote Obser-
vat ions on the Conversion of St. Paul, Dia-
logues of the Dead, a History of Henry II.,
and Poems.
Lyttleton, George William, Lord (b. 1817,
d. 1S76), classical scholar, educated at Eton
and Cambridge ; published Translations,
Ephemera (lSu5-72), etc. He was under-
secretary for the colonies in 184(3.
Lytton, Edward George Earle Lyttou
Bulwer-Lytton, Baron (b. 1803, d. 1873), was
the son of General Earle Bulwer, of Hey don
Hall, Norfolk. Among his novels, which
vary greatly in subject and treatment, are
felham (1828), The Last Days of Pompeii
(1834), Rienzi (1835), Ernest Maltravcn
(1837), Alice (1838), Zanoni (1841), The Last of
the Barons (1843), Harold (1848), The Caxtons
( 1 849) , My Novel (1853), etc. In 1 838 he pro-
duced two dramas — Richelieu and The Lady
of Li/ons. Iii 1866 appeared The Lost Tales
of Miletus. He sat in Parliament as a
Liberal 1831-41 ; was elected as a Conser-
vative in 1852, and was Colonial Secretary
under Lord Derby in 1858. In 1866 he was
raised to the peerage.
Lytton, Edward Robert Bulwer-Lytton,
Earl of (b. 1831, d. 1891), son of the
preceding ; after holding various diplomatic
posts, became minister at Lisbon in 1874 ;
was viceroy of India 1876-89, and Ambas-
sador at Paris (1887). He published several
volumes of poetry under the pseudonym of
" Owen Meredith ; " also The Ring ofAmasis
(1863).
Lyveden, Robert Vernou Smith, Baron
(b. 1800, d. 1873), entered Parliament as a
Whig in 1821. He was president of the
Board of Control 1855-8.
Maas, Joseph (b. 1847, d. 1886), English
tenor, born at Dartford ; made his first
appearance in London in 1871, his last
important engagement having been at the
Birmingham Festival 1885.
Mably, Gabriel Bonnot de (b.
of Condillac.
1709, d.
1785), French writer, brother
His chief works were Le Droit Public de
rEurope, Parallele des Romains et, des
franfais, &nd.fSur les Constitutions des Etats-
Unis de I'Amenque.
Mabuse, Jan van (Gossaert) (b. circa 1470,
d. 1532), Flemish painter, called from the
place of his birth ; patronised by Charles V.
and Henry VII., a portrait of whose children
he executed, the chief of his other works
having been The Descent from the Cross
(which has perished), Adam and Eve, and
The Beheading of St. John.
Macadam, John Loudon (b. 1756, d. 1836),
Scottish magistrate ; invented the system of
road-making called by his name, publishing
in 1819 A Practical Essay on the Repair and
Preservation of Roads ; received two grants
from Parliament, but declined knighthood,
which was conferred on his son.
Macalister, Alexander, M.D., F.R.S.
(b. 1844), scientific writer; is author of
Introduction to Animal Morphology (1876),
and Morphology of Vertebrate Animals;
appointed professor of zoology at Dublin
in 1869, and of anatomy 1872; made pro-
fessor of anatomy at Cambridge in 1883.
MacAlister, Donald, M.D., F.R.C.P. (*.
1854), scientific writer; after numerous
scholastic successes was at Cambridge
senior wrangler and first Smith's prize-
man 1877 ; became fellow of St. John's
College, Cambridge (1877) ; Gulstonian
lecturer and Croonian professor (1888), and
Thomson lecturer at Aberdeen (1889). His
chief works are The Nature of Fever (1887),
Antipyretics (1888), and The Law of the
Geometric Mean.
McArdell, James (b. 1710, d. 1765), Irish
mezzotint engraver; also executed prints
after Rembrandt and other masters.
McArthur, John (b. 1766, d. 1834), Aus-
tralian settler, founder of the wool trade ;
also introduced the cultivation of the vine.
Macartney, George, Earl (b. 1737, d.
1806), Irish diplomatist: when ambassador
in Russia made a treaty which was dis-
avowed (1765) ; as governor of Madras
organised the capture of Negapatam from
the Dutch, but opposed the policy of Warren
Mac
(519)
McC
Hastings; was afterwards ambassador in
China, and finally governor of the Cape.
Macaulay, Thomas Babington, Lord (b.
1800, d. 1859), British historian and states-
man : graduated at Cambridge, was called
to the bar in 1826, and entered Parliament
for Calne in 1830 as a Whig. He was Secre-
tary at War (1839-41), and Paymaster-
General (1846-8), and, having represented
Edinburgh for many years, was created a
peer in 1857. His chief works were History
of England from the Accession of James
II., Critical Essays, most of which were
written for the Edinburgh Review, and Lays
ef Ancient Rome. Many of his speeches
were also published.
Macaulay, Zachary, F.R.S. (*. 1768, d.
1838), philanthropist, father of the his-
torian ; co-operated with Wilberforce in
the abolition of slavery.
Macbeth (d. 1057) usurped the throne of
Scotland in 1040, having defeated and slain
Duncan, but was himself afterwards killed
by Malcolm, son of the late king.
Maccabseus, Judas (d. 160 B.C.), Jewish
priest ; carried on the struggle begun by his
father, Mattathias, who had driven the
Syrian idolaters from Judaea ; entered Jeru-
salem in 163, after defeating Lysias, and
allied himself with the Romans, but was
defeated and slain in 160.
Maccabseus, Jonathan (d. 144 B.C.),
brother of the last-named, whom he suc-
ceeded ; supported Alexander Balus against
Demetrius Soter as claimant for the Syrian
throne; was treacherously slain by Try-
phon.
Maccabseus, Simon (d. 135 B.C.), brother
and successor of Jonathan ; made an alliance
with the Romans, and, with his sons, de-
feated the army of Autiochus VII. in 137,
but was murdered two years afterwards by
his son-in-law, Ptolemy.
MacCarthy, Sir Charles (d. 1824), British
soldier ; became governor of Sierra Leone
in 1822, and in the course of operations
against the Ashantis, having been deserted
by his native troops, was defeated, captured,
and executed in January, 1824.
McCarthy, Denis Florence (b 1820, d.
1882), Irish poet and song- writer ; author of
Ballads, Poems, and Lyrics, and of verse-
translations of Calderon and other foreign
poets.
McCarthy, Justin (b. 1830), politician and
waiter, born at Cork ; was for some years a
journalist, and entered Parliament as a
Home Ruler for Longford county in 1879.
He contested Deny unsuccessfully in 1885,
but obtained the seat on petition after the
next election. On the deposition of Mr.
Parnell he became chairman of the Nation-
alist party. Besides his History of Our
Own Times, and History of the Four Georges,
his works include several novels, A fair
Saxon, Dear Lady Disdain, etc.
Macchiavelli, Niccolo di Bernardo dei
(b. 1469, d. 1527), Florentine writer and
statesman, son of a jurist of good family;
as secretary of state at Florence from 1498
to 1512, went on several important missions,
but was deprived and exiled in the latter
year by the Medici. His chief works were
II Principe, Istorie Florentine, Arte della
Gtierra, some comedies and poems, and
Discorsi sulle Deche di Tito Livio. In 1521
he again took part in affairs for a short
time, but died in poverty a few years later.
Macchietti, Girolamo, "Del Crocefissajo"
(b. 1535), Florentine painter ; worked under
Vasari at Palazzo Vecchio, and travelled
much in Italy and Spain. His best pictures
were Martirio di San Lorenzo, and the
Medea.
McClellan, George Brinton (b. 1826, d.
1885), American general ; distinguished him-
self in the Mexican war, and drew up a re-
port on the organisation of European armies
after a visit to the Crimea ; during the Civil
war commanded the army of the Potomac,
but after indecisive engagements, was super-
seded in 1862 (November). In 1865, as a
Democrat, he was the unsuccessful opponent
of Lincoln for the presidency. In 1877 he
was elected governor of New Jersey.
Macclesfield, Thomas Parker, Earl of
(b. 1666, d. 1732), English lawyer; took part
in the prosecution of Sacheverell, and in
1710 became chief justice of the Queen's
Bench. In 1716 he was made baron, in
1721 an earl, and was Lord Chancellor from
1718 to 1725, when he was found guilty of
selling offices and fined.
McClintock Sir Francis Leopold, D.C.L.,
F.R.S. (b. 1819), Arctic explorer, born at
Dundalk, entered the navy in 1831. After
some foreign service, he accompanied the
expeditions in search of Franklin com-
manded by Sir James Ross and Captain
Austin, and while with the latter made a
sledge journey of 760 miles. Next year
(1852) he commanded the Intrepid in Sir E.
Belcher's expedition, and rescued McClure.
In 1857 he commanded Lady Franklin's
expedition, and returned in two years with
the news of the discovery of her husband's
death, and published an account of the
voyage. In 1884 he attained the rank of
admiral, and received a pension in 1887.
McClure, Sir Robert John le Mesurier (b.
1807, d. 1873), Arctic explorer; went with
Back's expedition in 1836, and accompanied
McC
(520)
Mac
Ross in 1848. In 1850, when in commaTid
of the Investigator, he discovered the North-
West Passage, but was ice-bound for three
years. Having been rescued by McClintock,
b.e returned, was knighted, and received a
reward of £5,000 for his discovery.
McConnac, Sir William (b. 1836), surgeon,
graduated at Queen's University, Belfast ;
served in the Franco-German war as
surgeon -in -chief of the Anglo-American
ambulance, and in 1876 in Servia. He was
knighted for his services in 1881 as secretary-
general of the International Medical Con-
gress, and received also many foreign
decorations. His chief works are Work
under the Red Cross, Antiseptic Surgery,
and Surgical Operations.
McConnick, Cyrus Hall (b. 1809, d. 1884),
American, inventor of the reaping-machine,
which he patented in 1834, aiid afterwards
improved, receiving medals at the London
Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862, and the Legion
of Honour in 1867. He built large works
at Chicago, and founded a seminary there.
McCormick, Kobert (b. 1800), Arctic ex-
plorer and surgeon ; entered the navy in
1823, accompanied Sir Edward Parry in the
Hecla, and went to the Antarctic regions in
1836 in the Terror. From 1839 to 1843 he
was with the Erebus at the South Pole.
After his return he was sent in the North
Star in 1852 in search of Franklin, and in
1857 he laid before the Admiralty the plan
carried out by McClintock.
McCosli, James (b. 1811), American philo-
sophical writer, born in Scotland, where he
took part in the founding of the Free
Church in 1843. After holding a professor-
ship at Queen's College, Belfast, he went in
1868 to America, and was president of the
college at Princetown till 1887.
McCoy, Frederick, F.R.S., D.Sc. (b. 1823),
British palaeontologist ; made investigation
for the geological map of Ireland, publish-
ing results in 1844 and 1846. He was also
employed in the Imperial Geological Survey
of Ireland, after which he was made pro-
fessor in Queen's College, Belfast. With
Sedgwick he brought out British Palceozoic
Rocks and Fossils, and then became professor
of natural science at Melbourne. He was
chairman of the first Commission on the
Gold Fields of Victoria, and member of
aeveral other royal commissions.
McCrie, Thomas (b. 1772, d. 1835), Scotch
minister, author of Life of John Knox (1813),
Life of Andrew Melville^ and History of the
Reformation in Italy.
McCulloch, Horatio, U.S.A. (b. 1806, d.
1867), Scottish landscape-painter, whose
•hief picture was called Mist Rising off the
^fountains
McCulloch, John (b. 1773, d. 183-5),
geologist; author of Geological Classification
of Ruck a, System of Geology, etc. ; received
£7,<|(K) for his services in the survey of
Scotland.
McCulloch, John Ramsay (6. 1789, d.
1864), political economist, professor at the
London University 1828-32, and after-
wards controller of the Stationery Dili en ;
wrote Principles of Political Economy (182oj,
Statistical Account of the British Empire
(1837), and other works.
McCunn, Hamish (b. 1868), musical com-
poser, studied at the Royal College of
Music, and produced in 1886 at the Crystal
Palace his Land of the Mountain and the
Flood, which was followed by Bonnie Kil-
meny, The Ship o> the Fiend, The Dowi*
Dens of Yarrow, etc.
Macdonaid, Etiecne Jacques Joseph Alex-
andre, Marshal (6. 1766, d. 1840), French
soldier of Scottish descent ; commanded the
army of the Rhine in 1796, and distinguished
himself against Suvaroff in Italy. In 1800,
while in command in Switzerland, lie gained
renown by his passage of the bpiiigen. Soon
afterwards he lost the favour of Napoleon,
but in 1809 was made marshal for his ser-
vices at Wagram, and next year Due de
Tarente. He interceded for Napoleon with
the allies, but accepted the restoration, and
remained faithful to the Bourbons.
Macdonaid, Flora (b. 1722, d. 1790),
Scotch lady, who aided Charles Edward
Stewart to escape in 1746.
Macdonaid, George (b. 1824), poet and
novelist, born in Aberdeenshire ; after being
an Independent minister for a short time, he
retired and came to London, where he wrote
Within and Without : a Dramatic Poem,
David Elginbrod (1862), Annals of a Quiet
Neighbourhood, The Disciple, and other
Poems, Unspoken Sermons, and other works.
In 1877 he received a Civil List pension of
£100. His son, Greville (b. 1856), has
become known as a specialist in nas£L
diseases.
Macdonaid, Sir John Alexander (b. 1815,
d. 1891), distinguished Canadian states-
man, born in Glasgow, was called to the
Canadian bar in 1836, and became receiver-
general of Canada (1847), commissioner of
crown lands (1847-8), attorney - general
(1854-62 and 1864-7), prime minister in
1858, government leader in the Assembly
( 1864-7), and minister of militia affairs
(1862-65-67). He was chairman of the
London Colonial Conference of 1866-7, and
was head of the new Dominion Government,
as minister of justice and attorney-general,
from 1867 to 1873, when he resigned on the
Pacific Railway charges. From 1878 till hi*
Llac
(521)
Mcl
death he was again prime minister, being at
first minister of the interior, and afterwards
president of the council. In 1871 he was
one of the commissioners on the Alabama
claims, and was sworn of the Privy Council
in 1879. He visited England in 1880 and
1884, on the latter occasion taking an active
part in the formation of the Imperial
Federation League.
I/Iacdoaald, John Blake, R.S.A. (b. 1829),
Scotch painter, born and educated in
Morayshire, came to Edinburgh in 1852, and
studied under Lauder. In 1862 he painted
Prince Charlie Leaving Scotland, and among
his other works are King James and the
Witches, The Massacre of Glencoe (in the
National Gallery, London), and several pic-
tures illustrative of Scott.
Macdonald, John Denis, M.D., F.R.S.
(b. 1826), scientific writer, born at Cork,
entered , the navy in 1849, and went on a
voyage of discovery in the South Pacific
with Captain Denham in 1852. He then went
in the Icarus to the West Indies, where he
rendered invaluable services in connection
with the yellow fever epidemic ; and in 1880
was appointed inspector-general of hospitals.
His chief works are Sound and Colour (deal-
ing with the undulatory theory), Guide to
the Microscopical Examination of Drink-
ing Water, and Outlines of Naval Hygiene
(1881).
Macdonald, John Hay Athole (b.
1836), Scotch judge; became advocate in
1859, and Queen's Counsel in 1880, and was
Solicitor-General for Scotland from 1876 to
1880, and Lord Advocate 1885-6 and 1886-8,
when he became lord justice clerk. He sat
in Parliament f or Edinburgh and St. Andrews
Universities (1885-8), and became Privy
Councillor in 1885. As an electrician he was
elected F.R.S.E. in 1886, and F.R.S. in
1888, and also published a Treatise on the
Criminal Law and a book on Tactics.
McDougall, William (b. 1822), Cana-
dian statesman, was elected to Parliament as
a reformer in 1858 ; became member of
the Executive Council in 1862, and pro-
vincial secretary in the coalition ministry
formed to carry out federation. In 1866 he
was minister of marine, and in the first
Dominion Ministry was for two years
minister of public works. In 1873 he was
commissioner to confer on fisheries and
emigration, but when subsequently offered
public office he declined.
McDowell, Irvin (b. 1818, d. 1885), Ameri-
can general ; commanded the Federalists at
the defeat of Bull's Run, and afterwards
served under Pope and McClellan.
McDowell, Patrick (b. 1799, d. 1870),
•culptor, born at Belfast ; came to England
at the age of twelve, and made a name by
his Girl Reading. He was elected R.A. in
1846, and among other works executed the
statues of Pitt and Chatham in the House
of Commons, and the group Europa in the
Albert Memorial.
Macedonius I. (d. circa 360), Patriarch of
Constantinople ; forcibly appointed by Con-
stantius, became a great persecutor, and was
deposed in 360. He founded the sect called
after him.
Macer, Clodius (d. 68), Roman governor
of Africa ; usurped the purple on the death
of Nero, but was put to death by Galba.
Macfarren, Sir George Alexander (b. 1813,
d. 1887), composer, educated at the Academy
of Music, at which he became a professor of
harmony in 1834. He produced Chevy Chase
(1836), Don Quixote, Charles II., operas;
May Day (1856), Robin Hood (1861), can-
tatas ; Joseph, an oratorio (1877), and many
symphonies, concertos, and songs. In 1875
he was named principal of the Royal
Academy of Music, and he succeeded Stern-
dale Bennett as professor of music at Cam-
bridge. He was blind in his latter years.
McGhee, Thomas D. (b. 1825, d. 1868),
Canadian statesman, born in Ireland ; emi-
grated and settled at Boston in 1842, but
soon returned to Ireland, where he took part
in the Young Ireland movement, in conse-
quence of which he had to leave the country
for America in 1848. He went to Canada
about 1856, and, having changed his views,
was elected to the Canadian Parliament, and
was from 1864 to 1867 president of the
Executive Council, when he drafted the
plan of federation, which was adopted. He
was assassinated by the Fenians at Ottawa.
McGregor, John (b. 1797, d. 1857), Scotch
political economist ; author of The Progress
of America, a History of the British Empire
(1852), etc. ; was elected member of Parlia-
ment for Glasgow in 1847, but was ruined
by the failure of the British Bank, estab-
lished by him in 1849.
MacGregor, John (b. 1825), philanthropist
and canoeist ; wrote A Thousand Miles in
the Rob Roy Canoe (1866), etc.
McHale, John, D.D. (b. 1791, d. 1881),
Catholic Archbishop of Tuam, author of
translations of the Bible and the Iliad into
Irish ; was for some years professor at
Maynooth.
Machault, Jean Baptiste (b. 1701, d,
1794), French financier, appointed con-
troller-general in 1745. His plans not being
adopted, he became minister of marine in
1754, but retired three years later, and died
in prison during the revolution.
McHwraith, Sir Thomas, K.C.M.G. (b.
Mac
( 522 )
Mac
1835"), Australian statesman, born at Ayr,
Scotland, and educated at Glasgow ; emi-
grated to Victoria in 1854, and became a
civil engineer ; became minister of works in
Queensland in 1873, and was premier from
1879 to 1883, and again from 1888 to 1890,
when he became treasurer.
Machin, or Machyn, John (d. 1751),
British astronomer, professor at Gresham
College; author of the Laws of the Moon's
Motion, and a computation of the ratio of
the circumference of a circle to its diameter.
Maciaa al Enamorado (15th century),
Spanish poet, whose name was made cele-
brated by Lope de Vega and Calderou as a
type of pure but unhappy love.
Macintosh, Charles, F.R.S. (b. 1760, d.
1843), Scotch chemist, and inventor of the
waterproof cloak ; was born in Glasgow, but
transferred his business to Manchester.
Mclntosh, William, F.R.S., F.E.S.E. (b.
1838), ichthyologist and physician, born and
educated at St. Andrews, where he became
professor of natural history in 18S2. His
chief works are Observations and Experiments
on the Shore Crab, The Annelida of H.M.S.
" Challenger" (1885), and On the Develop-
ment and Life- Histories of the British Food
Fishes, with E. E. Prince (1889).
Mack, Karl, Baron (b. 1752, d. 1822),
Austrian general, who rose from the ranks ;
was defeated and made prisoner by Mac-
donald in Italy (1797), and was in command
at the capitulation of Ulm in 1805.
Mackay, Charles, LL.D. (b. 1814, d. 1889),
Scottish journalist and poet ; author of Poems
and Extraordinary Popular Delusions, popu-
lar songs, such as Cheer, Boys, Cheer, etc.
McKendrick, John Gray, F.R.S., F.E.S.E.
(b. 1841), physiologist and surgeon, born
and educated at Aberdeen (M.D., 1864), was
appointed to the chair of Institute of Medi-
cine in Glasgow in 1876, and was subse-
quently Fullerian professor of physiology
at the Royal Institution and Thomson lec-
turer at the Free Church college, Aberdeen;
his ^ chief work, besides monographs on
various medical subjects, is a Text-book of
Physiology (1887).
Mackenzie, Sir Alexander (b. 1755, d.
1820), explorer; discovered the river which
bears his name in 1789.
Mackenzie, Alexander (b. 1822), Cana-
dian statesman, born in Perthshire;
early emigrated to Canada, where he be-
came a. contractor and journalist. After
sitting in the Canadian Parliament for six
EJars, he was elected to the Dominion Legis-
ture, and was also provincial secretary
and treasurer in Ontario till 1872. From
1873 till 1878 he was pn-mier and minister
of public works for the iJomiiiion.
Mackenzie, Alexander Campbell (b. 1847),
composer, born in Edinburgh, and educated
in Germany; became principal of the Royal
Academy of Music in 1888. His chief
works are Colomba (1884) and The Trouba-
dour, operas ; the Story of Say id and The
Dream of Jubal, cantatas ; and The Uose of
Sharon (1884), an oratorio.
Mackenzie, Charles Frederick (b. 1825, d.
18(32), British colonial bishop ; after having
been for some years with Coleuso in Natal,
organised and became head of the Zambesi
mission, but died of fever within six months
of his consecration.
^ Mackenzie, Sir George (b. 1636, d. 1691),
Scotch lawyer ; as lord advocate prosecuted
the Covenanters, founded the Advocate's
Library, Edinburgh, and became the friend
of Dryden. His cliief work was Institutions
of the Laws of Scotland.
Mackenzie, Henry (b. 1745, d. 1831),
Scotch writer and comptroller of taxes,
his chief works being The Man of Feeling
(1771), Tlie Man of the World, and Julia da
Moubigne.
Mackenzie, Sir Morell (b. 1837, d. 1892),
physician ; born at Leytonstone, and edu-
cated in London, Paris, and Vienna ; obtained
the Jacksonian prize in 1863 for his Essay on
Diseases of the Larynx, to which subject he
continued to devote his studies, producing a
treatise on Diseases of the Throat and Nose,
besides several smaller works. He was
knighted in 1887 for his services to the
Emperor Frederick in his last illness, of
which he wrote an account, which gave
great umbrage to his profession, and obliged
him to resign his membership of the College
of Physicians.
Mackey, John (d. 1726), English political
agent ; followed James II. to France, and
supplied the English Government with in-
formation of the descent on Scotland medi-
tated by the Old Pretender ; wrote Pictures
of the Court of St. Germain.
Mackrmion, Daniel (b. 1791, d. 1832), Eng-
lish soldier ; entered the Coldstream Guards
at the age of fourteen, and served with
great distinction, particularly in the defence
of Hougomont on the field of Waterloo.
Mackintosh, Sir James (b. 1765, d. 1832),
Whig politician and writer, friend of Can-
ning and Romilly ; first became known by
his Vindicice Gallica (a reply to Burke's
Reflections on the French Revolution'), and
gained a considerable practice at the bar.
After seven years in India, he entered Parlia-
ment in 1812, became privy councillor in
1827, and commissioner for Indian affairs in
Mac
(523)
Mac
1830. His chief works were an incomplete
History of the Revolution of 16S8, and Dis-
course on the Law of Nature and Nations.
Macklin, Charles (b. 1690, d. 1797), Irish
dramatist and actor ; author of The Man of
the. World and Love d la Mode.
Maclagan, William Dalrymple (b. 1826),
English divine, born and educated at
Edinburgh; served 'in the army, and on
his retirement in 1852 went to Cambridge.
He took orders in 1856, was named Bishop
of Lichfield in 1878, and succeeded Dr.
Magee as Archbishop of York in 1891. He
edited (with Dr. A. Weir) a series of essays
called The Church and the Age (1870).
Maclaren, Charles (b. 1782, d. 1866),
Scotch journalist and writer; established
and edited for thirty years The Scotsman,
and wrote a Treatise on the Topography of
Troy.
Maclaurin, Colin (b. 1698, d. 1746), Scotch
mathematician, professor at Aberdeen and
Edinburgh, and author of Geometria Or-
ganica, a System of Fluxions.
Maclaurin, John, Lord Dreghorn (b.
1734, d. 1796), Scotch judge, son of last-
named, lord of sessions (1787-96), author
of Considerations on Literary Property (1767),
and Remarkable Cases Before the Supreme
Courts of Scotland.
Maclean. [See Laudon.]
McLennan, John Fergus (b. 1827, d. 1881),
British anthropologist ; author of Primitive
Marriage, Studies in Ancient History and
Essays on Totemism. He was the chief
opponent of Sir Henry Maine's views on
the origin of the family.
Macleod, Norman (b. 1812, d. 1872),
Scotch preacher and writer, was appointed
chaplain to the Queen in 1854, and enjoyed
her friendship. In 1869 he was moderator
of the General Assembly. Most of his
writings appeared in Good Words, which he
edited.
Maclise, Daniel, E.A. (*. 1806, d. 1870),
painter, born at Cork ; studied at the Royal
Academy, and first exhibited in 1829. The
picture All Hallow Eve made his name,
and he was elected A.R.A. two years later.
In 1840 he produced The Banquet Scene in
Macbeth, which was followed by The Play
Scene in Hamlet (1842), Moses and the Spec-
tacles, and the frescoes The Meeting of
Wellington and Bliicher and The Death
of Nelson, painted for the House of Com-
mons. He was an intimate friend of
Dickens.
MacMahon, Marie Edme Patrice Maurice
de (b. 1808), French soldier and statesman of
Irish descent ; served iix the Algerian war of
1830, took part in the expedition to Antwerp
in 1832, and in 1855 succeeded to Canrobert's
command in the Crimea. For his services
in Italy in 1857 he was made Due de
Magenta and marshal of France, and be-
came governor-general of Algeria in 18G4.
On the outbreak of war with Prussia he
was given the command of the first army
corps. He shared in the disaster at Woerth,
and was in chief command at Sedan (Septem-
ber 1st), where he was severely wounded and
made prisoner. On his return to France in
March, 1871, he conducted the siege of Paris
against the Communists, and reorganised the
army. In 1873 he was named president of
the republic for seven years. In 1877 he
began to entertain monarchical designs, but
was defeated in the elections, and two years
later retired rather than submit to the law
against monarchical officers.
Macmillan, Daniel (b. 1813, d. 1857),
publisher, son of a farmer in the Isle of
Arran ; after being in the bookselling trade
at Glasgow, Cambridge, and London, he set
up with his brother, Alexander, at Cam-
bridge in 1843, but was compelled by ill-
health to retire in 1856. In 1873 the pub-
lishing business, now under the guidance
of Alexander (6. 1818), was transferred to
London.
McMurdo, General Sir William, K.C.B.
(b. circa 1819), British soldier; entered the
army in 1837, and immediately went to
India, where he greatly distinguished him-
self, especially at Meeanee. He organised
the land transport corps in the Crimea, and
afterwards rendered great services in con-
nection with the Volunteer movement, being
inspector-general of volunteers for five
years.
Macmurrpugn, Dermot (12th century),
King of Leinster ; sought the help of the
English against Roderick O'Connor, which
circumstance contributed to the conquest of
Ireland.
Macnab, Sir Allan Napier (b. 1798, d.
1862), Canadian statesman; when speaker
of the Assembly of Upper Canada his
energy mainly contributed to the suppres-
sion of the rebellion of 1837-8, after which
he was knighted. He became premier of
Upper Canada in 1854, and was made a
baronet in 1858.
Macnaghten, Sir William (b. 1793, d.
1841), English civil servant in India; was
made baronet for his conduct as envoy to
Shah Sujah in 1889, but was treacherously
shot by Akbar Khan in December, 1841,
when conferring about the evacuation of
Cabul.
Macnally, Leonard (b. 1750, d. 1820),
Irish lawyer and dramatist ; was in the pay
Mao
(624)
Mad
of the Government while acting as advocate
for the United Irishmen. His chief plays
were Jiobin Hood and Retaliation.
Macnaughten, Right Hou. Lord (b. 1830),
British judge ; called to the bar in 1857,
became Queen's Couusel in 188U, and repre-
sented Antrim as a Conservative from 1880
to 1887, when he was named lord of appeal.
Macnee, Sir Daniel (b. 1806, d. 1882),
Scotch portrait-painter, his subjects being
many contemporary public men ; was elected
member of the Scottish Academy in 1829,
and president in 1876, in which year he was
knighted.
M'Neill, Eight Hon. Sir John (b. 1795, d.
1883), diplomatist; published in 1854 Pro-
gress and Position of Russia in the JEast
as the result of his observations while
envoy in Persia, and afterwards presided
over the committee of inquiry into the
management of the commissariat during
the Crimean war.
Macpherson, James (b. 1738, d. 1796),
Scottish poet ; published in 1760 Fragments
of Ancient Poetry, translated from Gaelic,
and, having been assisted by subscription,
travelled in Scotland, and produced two
years later Fwgal and Temora, which pro-
fessed to betranslations from poems by Ossian,
a Highland prince. He was afterwards
secretary to the governor of Florida, sat in
Parliament for some years, and was buried
in Westminster Abbey.
Macpherson, Sir John (b. 1757, d. 1821),
British soldier ; held several offices uuder
the Nabob of Arcot, and was afterwards a
chief agent in the overthrow of Hyder Ali.
He was also for a short time Governor-
General (1785-6).
Macready, William Charles (b. 1793, d.
1873), actor, born in London, and educated
at Rugby ; made his first appearance at
Birmingham in 1810, and was engaged at
Covent Garden in 1816. He played Richard
III. in 1819, and removed to Drury Lane
in 1822, and after a tour in the United
States, appeared as Macbeth in 1827. He
subsequently visited Paris, and held the
management of Covent Garden and Drury
Lane. In 1849 he nearly lost his life in a
riot promoted by the friends of Forrest at
the Astpr Opera House, New York ; and he
made his last appearance at Drury Lane in
1851.
Macrinus (*. 164, d. 218), Roman Em-
peror, succeeded on the murder of Cara-
calla in 217, but was killed in a civil war
which soon followed his attempts to restore
discipline among the praetorians.
Macrorie, William K, D.D. (b. 1831),
colonial bishop, educated at Winchester and
Oxford ; after having been rector of Wap-
Eliig and vicar of Accriiigton, was appointed
ishop of Maritzburg in 1869, the appoint-
ment being the occasion of a protest on the
ground that it was an encroachment on the
of Natal, held by Colenso.
MacWnirter, John (b. 1839), artist, bora
near Edinburgh ; was elected associate of the
Scottish Academy in 1863, and A.R. A., in
1879. His pictures are chiefly landscapes,
aud among them may be named Tke Three
Witches, The Lord of the Glen, A Highland
Harvest, and Edinburgh from Salisbury Crag.
McWilliam, James, F.R.S., C.B. (d. 1862),
naval surgeon ; was chief medical officer of
the Niger expedition (1841), and wrote a re-
port on yellow fever in 1846, which was
printed by order of Parliament. He became
medical inspector of customs in lt>47.
Madan, Martin (b. 1726, d. 1790), clergy-
man, chaplain at the Lock Hospital ; wrote
Thelyphthora, advocating polygamy ( 1 780- 1).
Madden, Sir Frederick (b. 1801, d. 1873),
; archaeologist, keeper of manuscripts at the
British Museum ; edited Have lock the Dane,
Layainon's Brut, and (with J. Forshall)
Wycliffe's Bible.
Madden, Richard Robert (J. 1798, d. 1886),
Irish surgeon ; wrote books descriptive of
his travels in the East, Life and Times of the
United Irishmen, and other works.
Madden, Samuel (b. 1687, d. 1765), Irish
writer ; author of Reflections and .Resolutions
Proper fur the Gentlemen of Ireland, >vhich
led to the formation of the Dublin Royal
Society, Memoirs of the Twentieth Century,
and other works.
Maderao, Carlo (b. 1556, d. 1629), Italian
architect, completed St. Peter's, at Rome,
and built several other churches and palaces.
Madison, James (b. 1751, d. 1836), fourth
president of the United States ; was a mem-
ber of the first Virginia Convention in 1776,
and took an active part in the revolution
and the affairs of the state. He reported all
the debates of the Convention of 1787, wrote
in the federalist, was secretary of state
under the presidency of Jefferson, and suc-
ceeded him in 1809.
Madoc (12th century), Welsh chieftain;
said to have discovered America before Co-
lumbus, the narrative of his voyage being
comprised in Hakluyt's collection.
Madox, Thomas (d. circa 1735), English
antiquarian ; author of History and Antiqui-
ties of the Exchequer to the Reign of King
John, wa&Formulare Anghcanum, a selection
of charters.
Madvig, Jean Nicholai (*. 1804, d. 1886),
Maeo
(525)
Mag
Danish philologist and statesman ; suc-
cessively minister of worship and public in-
struction, and professor of Latin at Copen-
hagen ; was author of a Latin grammar, and
edited several classics.
Maecenas, Caius Cilnius (d. 8 B.C.), Roman
statesman and patrou of men of letters ;
carried on the government at Home iu the
absence of Augustus, and entertained Horace
and Virgil.
Maedler, Johann Heinrich (b. 1794, d.
1874), German astronomer, director of the
Dorpat observatory ; published (with Beer)
Mappe Selenographica, and was author of a
hypothesis that there is a central body, round
•which the polar system revolves in millions
of years. He published Investigations on
the System of the Fixed Stars, Land other
works.
Maelzel,Leonard (6. 1776, d. 1855), German
mechanician, among his inventions having
been automatic orchestras, trumpeters, and
chess-players ; and the metronome, an in-
strument for marking time in playing music.
Maffei, Francisco Scipione, Marchese di (b.
1675, d. 1755), Italian poet and archeeologist ;
author of Meropet a tragedy (1714), Le
Ceremonie (1728), Verona Iliustrata, and
other works.
Maffei, Giovanni (6. 1536, d. 1603), Italian
Jesuit ; author of Vita Ignatii Loyolce, His-
toric Indiccc, etc.
MagaUaaens, or Magellan, Fernando de
(d. 1521), Portuguese navigator ; when on a
voyage round the world discovered the
straits called after him, in 1520, and was
killed in a conflict with the Indians a few
mouths after.
Magee, William Connor (b. 1821, d. 1891),
English divine, born at Cork, educated at
Trinity College, Dublin ; while incumbent
of the Octagon chapel, Bath, made a name
by his address on The Voluntary System and
the Established Church. In 1864 he was
named Dean of Cork. Four years after he
became Bishop of Peterborough, where he
continued till January, 1891, when he was
named Archbishop of York.
Magendie, Francois (b. 1783, d. 1855),
French physiologist ; wrote Lemons sur les
Phenomenes de la Vie, and other works.
Maggi, Girplamo (d. 1572), Italian en-
eineer and writer, born in Tuscany ; having
become known by a treatise on fortification,
was employed by the Venetians against the
Turks in Cyprus, but on the fall of Fama-
gosta was sent as a slave to Constantinople,
where he was strangled. During his im-
prisonmenthe wrote, without books, treatises,
Dt Tintinnabulis and De Equuleo (the rack).
Maginn, William (b. 1793, d. 1842), Irish
man of letters ; contributed to Fruser and
Blackwood. His Homeric Ballads were pub-
lished in 1849, and Miscellanies in IStto.
Magliabecchi, Antonio (b. 1633, d. 1714),
Italian bibliographer, of immense learning
and eccentric habits, librarian to Cosmo IIL
of Tuscany ; left a large library at his deathj
now belonging to the city of Florence.
Magnentius (d. 353), a German, Emperor
of the West ; usurped the purple after the
murder of Constaus in 350, but was defeated
at Mursa in the following year by Con-
stantine, Emperor of the East, and died by
his own hand in Gaul.
Magnol, Pierre (b. 1638, d. 1720), French
botanist, physician to Louis XTV., and
author of several works. Linnaeus called the
Magnolia after him.
Magnus, Johannes (b. 1488, d. 1544),
Swedish historian ; made Archbishop of Up-
sala by Gustavus Vasa, but deposed for his
opposition to the reformation and seculari-
sation of church property ; went to Rome,
and wrote Historia Gothorum Suevorumque.
His brother, Olaus (d. 1568), who accom-
panied him to Rome, was present at the
Council of Trent, and wrote De Gentibus
Sep ten trionali bus.
Magnus I., King of Norway (b. 1018, d.
1047), went to Russia with his father, St.
Olav ; succeeded Knut in 1042 as King of
Norway and Denmark, but sold half of the
former to Harald, brother of Olav.
Magnus IL (*. 1035, d. 1069), succeeded
Harald III. , and shared his throne with his
brother, Olav III.
Magnus III. (b. 1060, d. 1105), called
"Bastod," or "The Barelegged," from his
Scotch costume ; was killed in an attack
upon Dublin.
Magnus IV. (d. 1139), called " The Blind,"
because his eyes were put out by Harald,
who dethroned him, and shut him up at
Drontheim. He was afterwards restored,
but was killed in a naval battle a few years
after.
Magnus V. (d. 1143) reigned fifteen
months.
Magnus VL (*. 1157, d. 1184) succeeded
in 1132, but was dethroned by Svewer, and
fled to Denmark, where he was drowned.
Magnus VH. (6. 1238, d. 1280), "The
Reformer," succeeded Haco V. in 1262;
carried on war with the Scots and Danes,
and introduced reforms.
Magnus I., Kinsr of Sweden (6. 1240, d,
1298}, dethroned Waldemar in 1276 ; called
Mag
(626)
Mah
himself "King of the Swedes and Goths,"
and put down a rebellion of the nobles.
Magnus IL, Bang of Sweden (b. 1316, d.
1364), graudson of last-named, succeeded
Berger in 1321, having been elected King of
Nor way in 1319; gave Norway to Haco in
1344, and was deprived of Sweden by him
in 1361, but afterwards reigned with him,
till they were both dethroned in 1363 ; died
by a shipwreck next year.
Magnussen, Arne (b. 1663, d. 1730), Ice-
landic writer, professor at Copenhagen ;
published Kristni-Saga (1771), and Orkney-
ing a-Saga (1780).
Magnussen, Finn (b. 1781, d. 1848), Ice-
landic writer ; translated Lilien and Edda.
Mago (d. 203 B.C.). Carthaginian general,
brother of Hannibal, with whom he went
to Italy in 218 ; carried on the war in Spain,
but was defeated by Scipio in 206 ; landed
in Italy, and captured Genoa in 205, but
was defeated and mortally wounded in 203.
Magrath, John E., D.D. (b. 1839), Eng-
lish scholar, born in Guernsey, and educated
at Oxford, where he was fellow of Queen's
College from 1860 to 1878, when he was
elected provost. His chief work is Selections
from Aristotle's Organon (2nd edition, 1877).
Magiiire, John Francis (b. 1815, d. 1872),
Irish politician ; was called to the Irish bar
in 1843, but afterwards became a journalist.
He represented Dungarvau from 1853 to
1865, and Cork from that date till his death,
and was prominent as a defender of Catholic
interests and a supporter of laud reform,
being also one of the earliest Home Rulers.
He was author of Rome and its Rulers, a
Life of Father Matheiv, and other works.
Mahaffy, John P., D.D. (b. 1839), Irish
scholar, educated at Trinity College, Dublin,
where he gamed a fellowship in 1864, and
became professor of ancient history in
1871 ; author of numerous works, the chief
of which are Prolegomena to Ancient History,
Kant's Critical Philosophy for English
Readers, Greek Social Life from Homer to
Menander, and History of Classical Greek
Literature.
Mahdajee Sindia (d. 1794), Mahratta
chief ; subdued Delhi, and having formed
a fine army, officered by Frenchmen, carried
on war against the British, but was defeated,
and became neutral after the Treaty of
Salbye.
Mahdana Punt (d. 1686), Brahmin prime
minister of Abou Hussein, last of the Gol-
conda dynasty; opposed Aurungzebe, but
was assassinated by Mogul partisans.
Manmoodof Qhuzni (d. 1030), Mahometan
prince, whose dominions at his death ex-
tended from the Persian Gulf to the Sea
of Aral, and from Kurdistan to the Sutlej ;
invaded India, and founded Mahometan
power there ; carried away the gates of
bomnath, which were brought back to India
by the Britfsh.
Manmood Shah (b. 1445, d. 1514), King
of Gujerat, succeeded Kootub Shah in 1459,
and reigned fifty-five years, during which
he ruled well, and carried on successful war
with Bajpootana and the Portuguese.
Mahmoud L, Sultan of Turkey (b. 1696,
d. 1754), lost several provinces in wars with
the Persians, and was obliged to give up
the Crimea to Russia.
Mahmoud II. (6. 1785, d. 1839), succeeded
Mustapha IV., whose relations he put to
death ; was obliged to cede Bessarabia to
Russia, and to acknowledge the independ-
ence of Greece, the Ionian Islands, and the
Slav provinces ; introduced European ideas
into the government, and put down the
Janissaries ; gave up to Russia the passage
of the Dardanelles, in return for their help
against Mahomet Ali, who had made Egypt
independent.
Mahomet [Muhamad] (d. 632), was in
his youth employed as a camel-driver be-
tween Mecca and Damascus by his uncle,
who had adopted him, but at the age of
twenty- eight married Kadichah, a rich
widow. He now led a life of meditation,
during which the Koran was drawn up.
When at the age of forty he claimed to be a
prophet, he was opposed by his family, and
in 622 left Mecca for Medina (the Hegira).
Here his followers increased, and were
incited by him against the Arabian Jews.
Mecca was stormed, and in time all Arabia
and Syria conquered, but the prophet died
soon after at Medina, perhaps from poisoned
food.
Mahomet Ali (d. 1795), Nabob of the
Carnatic ; was helped in his struggle against
Chunda Sahib "by the British, while the
French sided with his rival, whom he
ultimately captured and executed. In his
later years his kingdom was administered
by the Madras government.
Mahomet Toghluk, Emperor of Delhi
(d. 1351), succeeded Gheias-ood-deen in 1325 ;
ruled well at first, but afterwards became a
tyrant, the most cruel of his acts being the
enforced migration of the people of Delhi
to Doulutabad; died of fever at^ Scinde
while on the way to repress a rebellion.
Mahomet L (b. 1374, d. 1421), Sultan of
Turkey, son of Bajazet ; was the first who
had a naval force, with which he attacked
the fleets of Venice.
Mah
(527)
Mai
Mahomet IL (b. 1430, d. 1481), son of
Amurath II. , whom he succeeded in 1451.
He took Constantinople two years later, and
afterwards conquered Greece ; was repulsed
at Rhodes in 1480, but took Tarentum.
Mahomet III. (b. 1566, d. 1603), son of
Amurath III. , whom he succeeded in 1595,
after killing all his brothers. He defeated
the Christian army near the Theiss in 1596,
but failed before Buda three years later.
Mahomet IV. (b. 1642, d. 1691), son of
Ibrahim, who was deposed and strangled in
1648. His mother was regent for some
years, during which Candia was taken under
the auspices of the Kiuprili. The sultan
formed an alliance in 1681 with the Hun-
garian Tekeli, but was defeated at the
Raab and before Vienna in 1613, and sub-
sequently lost Buda and Pesth, the final
disaster being the battle of Mohacz (1687).
The Morea also had been taken by Venice,
and Mahomet was deposed in 1687.
Mahomet V., VL [See Mahmoud I., II.]
Mahon. [See Stanhope.]
Mahony, Francis (b. 1805, d. 1866), Irish
journalist and writer under the name of
'* Father Prout."
Mai, Angelo, Cardinal (b. 1782, d. 1854),
Italian scholar; discovered many palimp-
sests, notably that of Cicero's De RepublicA
at Milan, and left a fine library to the
Vatican.
Mailath, Janos Nepomuk (b. 1786, d.
1855), Hungarian poet and historian ; author
of Poems (1824) and History of the Magyars.
Maillard, Olivier (15th century), French
eordelier, and vigorous preacher under
Louis XI. and Charles VIII. , the former of
whom he reproved "unpunished. His sermons
were printed in 1730.
Maillebois, Jean Desmarets, Marquis de
(b. 1682, d. 1762), French marshal ; served
under Villars in the Spanish Succession
war; drove the Imperialists from Italy in
1733-4, conquered Corsica in 1739; defeated
the King of Savoy in 1745, but was obliged
to evacuate Italy next year, after a defeat
at Piacenza.
Maimbourg, Louis (b. 1610,^ d. 1686),
French Jesuit ; author of Traite Historique
de VEglise de Rome, in support of the
liberties of the Gallican Church, for which
he was expelled from the order by command
of Innocent XI., but granted a pension
by the king ; also wrote histories of
Arianism, Lutheranism, etc.
Maimon, Solomon (b. 1753, d. 1800),
Polish philosopher of Jewish extraction,
opposed the views of Kant, and published
Sketch of a Transcendental Philosophy, and
Progress of Philosophy since Leibnitz.
Maimonides, Moses (6. 1135, d. 1204 ?),
Spanish Jew, philosophical and medical
writer, born at Cordova; studied under
Averroes, on account of whose persecution
he had to fly to Egypt, where he died;
arranged the Talmud, edited the Mishna,
and wrote Guide to the Perplexed (More
Novcelum), a work in Arabic on critical
theology.
Maine, Sir Henry James Sumner, F.R.S.,
D.C.L. (b. 1822, d. 1888), English jurist, edu-
cated at Cambridge, where in 1847 he became
Regius professor of civil law. After being
reader at the Temple, he was law member
of the Council of India for seven years, and
in 1870 became Corpus professor at Oxford.
His chief works were Ancient Law (1861),
Village Communities (1871), and Early His-
tory of Institutions (1875), etc. In 1871 he
became member of the Secretary of State
for India's Council, and in 1877 Master of
Trinity Hall, Cambridge.
Maine, Louis, Due de (b. 1670, d. 1736),
son of Louis XIV. by Madame de Montes-
pan ; was legitimated in 1673, married to the
granddaughter of the Due de Conde in
1692, and was appointed regent under
the will of Louis XIV., which will was,
however, set aside by the Due d' Orleans.
Maintenon, Francoise d'Aubigne*, Mar-
quise d' (b. 1635, a. 1719), mistress, and
afterwards wife, of Louis XIV. ; on the
death of Scarron (her husband) was made
governess of Madame de Montespan's
children, with the mother of whom she
quarrelled, and succeeded in reconciling
Louis to the queen; was secretly married
to the king in 1684.
Maistre, Joseph Marie, Comte de (b. 1754,
d. 1821), French philosopher; wrote Con-
siderations sur la France while in Switzer-
land, having left France at the revolution ;
also wrote Essai sur le Principe Generateur
des Constitutions; was for fourteen years
Sardinian ambassador at St. Petersburg,
and in his Soirees de St. Petersbourg gave
an account of his residence there.
Maistre, Xavier de (b. 1763, d. 1852),
French novelist, brother of the last-named,
with whom he lived at St. Petersburg,
afterwards serving with the Russian army
in the Caucasus ; his chief works were
Voyage autour de ma Chambre (1794), La
Jeune Siberienne, and Le Lepreux d'Aoste.
Maitland. [See Lauderdale.]
Maitland, Sir Frederick L. (*. 1779, d.
1839), British admiral, was present at Lord
Howe's victory (June 1, 1794) ; he wa»
Mai
(528)
Mai
^
captured by the French while serving
under Lord St. Vincent in 1799, but soon
exchanged ; after various other services,
received Napoleon on the Selbrophon,
obtaining his unconditional surrender.
Maitland, John, Lord of Thirlestaue (6.
1537, d. 159.'i), Scottish statesman and Latin
poet, brother of Maitlaud of Lethington ;
•was early attached to the service^ of Mary
Stuart, and was Secretary of State and
Lord Chancellor to James VI., with whom
he went to Norway in 1589.
Maitland, William, of Lethington (d.
1573), Scottish statesman, elder sou of Sir R.
Maitland, the poet; was appointed in 1558
secretary of state to Mary, Queen of Scots ;
joined the Lords of the Congregation
against her, and opposed the Damley
marriage ; after some time carrying on a
double policy, he once more joined her, and
was tried as one of Darnley's murderers,
but was acquitted, and again became her
secretary ; poisoned himself when captured
in Edinburgh with the remnant of the
Marians.
Majano, Benedetto da (6. 1424, d. 1498),
Tuscan sculptor and architect, specimens of
whose work are the marble pulpit of Santa
Croce, Florence, the bust of Giotto, Santa
Trinita, and the Strozzi palace.
Major, or Mair, John (b. 1469, d. 1547),
Scotch writer; as professor at St. An-
drews had Knox among his pupils, and
also George Buchanan. His chief work was
De Ristorid Gentis Scotorum.
Major, Richard Henry (b. 1818, d. 1891),
historical writer ; was appointed keeper of
maps and charts in the British Museum in
1867, having previously been many years in
charge of them ; edited many works for the
Hakluyt Society, the chief of which was
Select Letters of Christopher Columbus. He
also edited India in the fifteenth Century,
Early Voyages to Terra Australis, and
wrote a Life of Prince Henry the Navigator
(1868), for which he was decorated by the
King of Portugal, receiving similar honours
from the King of Italy.
Majorianus (d. 461), Emperor of the
West; helped Ricimer to depose Avitus,
and was appointed commander of the
troops ; assumed the purple in 457, and
made wise laws, but was compelled by
Ricimer to abdicate in 461.
Makart, Hans (6. 1840, d. 1884), German
painter, native of Salzburg ; having ac-
quired a reputation by his Trilogy of Modem
Amorettes, and Plague in Florence, was
invited to Vienna, where a studio was built
for him at the public expense. He after-
wards painted Kat harwa Cornaro at
The Entrance of Charles V. into Antwerp,
and Jhana's Chu*e.
Makrizi, Ahmed al, "Taki-ed-Din" (b.
1360, d. H42), Arabian writer, whose works
were a Description of Egypt, and an Account
of tialadm.
Malabar!, Behramji Merwanji (b. 1853),
Indian poet and social reformer, son of a
Parsee clerk, on whose death he was adopted
by a maternal relative ; as editor of the
chief native journal and otherwise, wrote
against infant marriages and enforced
\vidowhood, in which cause he visited
England in 1870. His chief poems are
Viti Ninod, Wilton Virah, and The Indian
Muse in an English Garb.
Malachi, Jewish prophet, nourished about
400 B.C.
Malachy, St. (b. 1094, d. 1148), Irish
prelate. Archbishop of Armagh and Bishop
of Connor; visited St. Bernard of Clair-
vaux, and died in his arms.
Malagrida, Gabriel (6. 1689, d. 1761),
Italian Jesuit, sent to Portugal by his
order ; obtained great influence as a con-
fessor ; was condemned for complicity in
the plot of Due d'Averio against the king,
and burnt alive for heresy in 1761, the
Jesuits having just previously been ex-
pelled by Pombal.
Malan, Solomon Caesar (b. 1812), Ecglish
Orientalist, son of Caesar Malan, chief of the
"Momiers"; was educated at Oxford, and
took orders while in India ; besides his
translation from eleven languages of St.
John, and criticisms on the Revised Version,
with his Original Notes on the Book of
Proverbs, he has executed water-colour
sketches and composed chants.
Malaspina, an ancient Italian family, the
most noted members of which were : —
ALBERTO (12th century), its founder; COR-
RADO, mentioned by Dante as a follower of
Frederic II. of Sicily; FRANCESCHINO (14th
century), in whose house some cantos of the
Inferno were composed ; and ALESSANDRO
(d. 1809), who led the scientific expedition
of 1789-94 to North America and the
Pacific.
Malaspina, Ricordano (d. 1281), Floren-
tine historian ; wrote a chronicle, continued
by his son Giachetto to 1286, its title being
Histona Antica della Edificat-ione dt Fio-
renza.
Malatesta, an Italian family, who gained
their name from their hostility to the
Church. The leading members of it were : —
GIANCIOTTO, who married Francesca da
Rimini, and SIOISMONDO PANDOLFO, Lord
of Rimini (1429-68), who served Venice by
Mai
( 529 )
Mai
land and sea, introduced many improve-
ments in the art of war, was also a great
patron and builder, and gave the town of
Cesena the collection called Bibliotheca
Malatestiana.
Malcolm, Sir John (6. 1769, d. 1833),
British soldier and diplomatist; negotiated
treaties with Persia (1800), Sindia, and
Holkar, and again in 1810 thwarted French
influence in Persia. After a short time in
England he served against the Mahrattas
and Pindharris ; conducted the annexation
of the Peishwa's dominions, and was gov-
ernor of Bombay from 1827 to 1831. He
wrote a History of Persia, and a Life of
Lord Olive.
Malcolm L, King of Scotland (d. 953),
succeeded Constantine III. in 938 ; made a
treaty with Edmund, King of England. He
was assassinated in a rebellion.
Malcolm IL (b. 953, d. 1033), succeeded
Kenneth IV. on his defeat in battle (1003),
and reigned about thirty years, being en-
gaged in continual wars with the Danes.
Malcolm IIL (d. 1093), succeeded Macbeth
in 1057, after a period of exile in England,
in a war against which country he was
afterwards slain at Aba wick.
Malcolm IV. (d. 1165), ascended the throne
in 1153; exchanged his English territories
for the earldom of Huntingdon, and founded
several monasteries.
Malcom Knan(£. 1832), Persian statesman;
was at an early age sent to Paris, where he
studied European institutions, and on his
return became councillor to the Shah, by
whom, in 1854, he was sent to conclude
treaties with the European states and
America. His efforts to introduce reforms
in Persia were not at first successful, and
from 1865 to 1872 he lived at Constantinople,
after which he was recalled and given a
high position. He accompanied the Shah
to Europe next year, and remained in
Europe as Persian envoy at the chief
capitals, being present at Berlin in 1878.
He resigned the London embassy in 1890.
Maldachini, Olimpia (b. 1594, d. 1656),
Italian lady, favourite of Pope Innocent X.,
whose election she secured and obtained
supreme influence in the Vatican ; but was
deprived of her wealth and compelled to
retire by his successor, Alexander VII., al-
though she had a hand in his election
also.
Malebranche, Nicolas de (b. 1638, d. 1715),
French philosopher, follower of Descartes.
His chief work, whose teaching was opposed
by Bossuet among others, were Recherche de
la V trite (1674-5), Lea Vraiet et Fausses
Idees, and Traite de Morale.
i z
Malesherbes, Chretien Lamoignon de (A.
1721, d. 17t)4), magistrate and statesman ,
was appointed president of the Cours dee
Aides in 1750, and held office till 1771, when
the Parlements were suppressed ; was re-
called on the accession of Louis XVI. , before
whom he laid a memorial on the state of the
kingdom, and became minister of the hovse-
hold, but resigned in 1776, being unable to
carry out his reforms ; was recalled in 1737,
but soon retired, defended Louis XVI. on
his trial, and was guillotined in 1794.
Malet, Sir Edward Baldwin (b. 1836), Eng-
lish diplomatist ; entered the service in 1853,
became secretary of legation at Pekin 1871.
was charge d'affaires at Athens 1873-5, and
plenipotentiary at Constantinople 1878,
consul-general in Egypt 1879-83, when ha
became minister at Brussels, and was trans-
ferred to Berlin in 1884. He was ala>
plenipotentiary at the Congo and Samoa
conferences, and was sworn of the Privy
Council in 1885.
Malibran de Beust, Maria Felicita (b.
1808, d. 1836), French singer, daughter of
Manuel Garcia; made her debut in the
Italian opera in 1825, and soon afterwards
married her first husband, from whom she
was divorced in 1836, her second being De
Beriot, the violinist. She met with much
success in Semiramis and other operas,
making tours in England, the Continent,
and the United States. She died from the
consequence of a fall while riding.
Malins, Sir Richard (*. 1805, d. 1882),
English judge; called to the bar in 1830,
distinguished himself in Testing v. Allen
(1843), became Queen's Counsel in 1S49, and
sat in Parliament as a Conservative for Wal-
lingford from 1852 to 1865, being named
vice-chancellor in the following year.
He retired in 1881, and was made privy
councillor.
MaJlemans, Claude (b. 1653, d. 1723),
French physicist, invented a machine for
making dials. His brother, JEAN (d. 1740),
wrote Histolre de FJEglise, etc.
Mallet, David (d. 1765), Scotch poet;
came to London and changed his name
from Malloch, was patronised by Pope, and
in his later years wrote for the government
against Byng. His chief poems were Wil-
liam and Margaret (\T2A), and The Excursion.
Mallet, Sir Louis, C.B. (*. 1823, d.
1890), secretary to the President of the
Board of Trade 1848-57 ; served on
the tariff commissions to Paris (1860) and
to Vienna in 1865. In 1872 he was placed
on the Indian Council. In 1874 he became
Permanent Under- Secretary of State for
India, retiring in 1883, when he was mad*
a Privy Councillor.
Mai
( 530 )
Mam
Mallet, Paul Henri (b. 1730, d. IS
Swiss historian, professor ;it Copi-nl...
and Geneva. His chief works WIT.- 1
of Denmark, tlie llanseatic League, and the
House of Brunswick.
Mallet du Pan, Jacques (b. 17-10, d. 1SOO),
Swiss publicist, patronised in his curly years
by Voltaire, and became professor at Cassel
in 1772 ; while at Geneva wrote Annaies
Politiques and Monoircs Historiques ; after-
wards went to Paris, and reported for the
Mt-nurc dt •!''>•< inee the debates of the Con-
Btituent Assembly and those which followed
it ; was in 17i<2 sent by Louis XVI. to nego-
tiate with Austria and Prussia, and soon
after retired to Switzerland, whence he was
driven by Bonaparte in 1798. He then
came to England, and established, with
great success, the Mercure Britannique.
Mallock, William Hurrell (b. 1849), Eng-
lish writer ; was educated at Balliol, and
gained the Newdigate in 1871 ; has written
The New Republic, Is Life Worth Living?
etc.
Malmesbury. [See William of Malmes-
bury.]
Malmesbury, James Harris, first Earl of
(b. 1746, d. 1820), diplomatist, son of the
author of Hermes; made a reputation by his
conduct of the Falkland Island negotiations
in 1770, after which he was ambassador at
Berlin (1770-5), St. Petersburg (1775-83),
and the Hague (1783-8), when he negotiated
the Triple Alliance. On his return he was
made baron, and voted with Fox, but
joined Pitt in 1794. He was employed to
bring home the Princess Caroline, and his
last service was an attempt to bring about
peace with the Directory in 1797. He was
made an earl in 1800, when he retired from
public lif e.
Malmesbury, James, third Earl (&. 1807,
d. 1889), statesman, grandson of last-named,
succeeded to the title in 1841 on the death
of his brother, and travelled much on the
Continent, till in 1852 he became Foreign
Secretary in Lord Derby's first Ministry,
which post he held under the same chief
•when he resumed office in 1858. In 1866
he was Lord Privy Seal, and again from
1874 to 1876 under Disraeli, after which he
took little further part in affairs. He pub-
lished his grandfather's diaries and cor-
respondence, and in 1884 Memoirs of an
Ex-Minister^ an account of his own life
extending from 1832 to 1873.
Malombra, Pietro (b. 1556, d. 1618),
Venetian painter, pupil of Salviati. His
best pictures represent the Miracles of St.
Francis de Paula in the church dedicated to
that saint at Venice, but he also executed
architectural views of the city.
Malone, Edmund (b. 1741, d. 1812), Irish
critic, son of an Irish judge; was born at
Dublin, Imt removed to London, where he
In •c.iinr tin- friend of Burke and Dr. Johu-
BOII, and devoted himself to literature, his
chief works having been his y/iW './/•<>,//
count of the Jiise and Progrr** <>f the J-'./i
and his edition of Shakespeare (1 ',
Malouet, Pierre, Baron (b. 1740, rf. is; n,
French statesman and publicist; became
commissary-general of the navy in i,
and wu»s sent to investigate plans for the
colonisation of Guiana ; advocated the pi iu-
ciples of the English constitution in the
Constituent Assembly, and had to retire to
England. On his return to France he was
employed by Napoleon till 1812, and during
the government of the Hundred Days was
minister of marine.
Malpighi, Marcello (i. 1628, d. 1694),
Italian anatomist and chief physician to
Pope Innocent XI. ; lectured in Bologna,
Pisa, and other places, and wrote works on
the anatomy of plants, the physiology of
the silkworm, and medical subjects. His
name was given to the Malpighiau genus.
Maltby, Edward (b. 1770, d. 1859), Bishop
of Chichester (1831-6), and Durham (1836-
56) ; was a great benefactor to Durham
University, to which he left his library.
Maltebrun, Conrad (b. 1775, d. 1826),
French writer of Danish birth; compelled to
leave his country on account of his liberal
opinions, first went to Sweden, but, having
settled in Paris, contributed to the Journal
des Debats and wrote Geographic Jr >th$-
matique, Physique, Politique, Precis da Geo-
graphie Unirerselle, and other works.
Malthus, Thomas Robert, F.E.S. (b. 1766,
d. 1834), English political economist, some
time fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge;
published in 1798 his Essay on Population,
afterwards took orders, and held from 1804
the professorship of history and political
economy in the East India Company's col-
lege, Haileybury.
Malus, Etienne Louis (b. 1775, d. 1812),
French physicist; went to Egypt with
Napoleon in 1798 ; discovered in 1809 the
polarisation of light by reflection, and in-
vented a repeating goniometer in 1807.
Malvasia, Carlo, Marchese di (6. 1616,
d. 1693), Italian antiquary, born at Bologna,
where he was professor of jurisprudence;
wrote Vite de Pittore Bolognesi.
Mamiani della Rovere.Terenzio, Conte (b.
1800, d. 1S85)? Italian politician and writer;
headed the rising of 1831 at Rome, and had to
take refuge in France, where he wrote Nuove
Poesie, and other works. He became mini-
ster of the interior to Pius IX. on his return
to Italy, but afterwards withdrew to Pied-
mont, where he held office, and supported
Tifffl.-m
(631)
Man
Cavour. In 1860 he was made by Victor
Emmanuel minister of education.
Mammsea, Julia (d. 235), Roman Empress,
mother of Alexander Severus, with whom
she was murdered by the soldiers.
Mamoun, Abdul Abdallah in. al (b. 786,
d. 834), Abasside Khalif, son of Haroun-
al-Rashcid ; obtained power by the defeat
of his brother Amin ; headed the sect of the
Motasalis, founded observatories at Bagdad
and Damascus, and was a patron of the learned,
Man, Comille van (6. 1621, d. 1706),
Dutch painter ; studied at Venice the works
of Titian, and on his return to Delft became
a fine portrait-painter, his best work being
a portrait of the medical faculty of Delft,
now in the Hall of Physicians there.
Manasseh, King of Judah, flourished
about 698-643 B.C.
Manasseli ben Israel, Joseph (b. 1604,
d. 1659), Portuguese rabbi; fled from the
Inquisition to Holland, and became chief
of the Amsterdam synagogue ; wrote El
Concilioda Vindicice Jud&orum, and an ad-
dress to Cromwell praying for the recall of
the Jews.
Manby, George William (6. 1765, d. 1854 j,
English sailor, invented the "life preserver"
for saving lif e at sea, and also an apparatus
for extinguishing fires on board ship ; when
fifty- six made a voyage to Greenland. He
received £1,000 from Parliament.
Manchester, Edward Montagu, Earl of
(b. 1602, d. 1671), fought on the side of the
Puritans, teeing part in the battles of Edge-
hill, Marston Moor, and Newbury. He
opposed the trial of the king. At the
Restoration was made Lord Chamberlain.
Mancini, Hortensia (*. 1646, d. 1699),
Italian lady, niece of Mazarin, who refused
her hand to Charles n. of England; was
unhappy with her husband, and, after a
series of adventures, settled in London on a
pension, and died there.
Mancini, Maria (6. 1640, d. 1715), sister
of preceding ; having been sent away from
Louis XIV., who was in love with her,
was unhappy with the Constable of Naples,
whom she married, and fled from him with
Hortensia, but was refused an audience by
the French king.
Mancini, Olimpia (6. 1640, d. 1708),
another sister, married the Comte de Sois-
sons, and became the mother of Prince
Eugene ; intrigued much at the French
court, aiid was compelled to retire from it ;
was afterwards suspected of poisoning the
Spanish queen, Marie Louise.
Manco Capac IL (d. circa 1565), the last
i i2
of the Incas of Peru (the first of whom bora
the same name, and lived in the llth
century) ; gave himself up to the Spaniards,
but escaped, and organised a massacre of
them in 1535 ; carried on a guerilla war for
many years in the Andes, but was at last
assassinated.
MandeviUe, Bernard de (b. 1670, d. 1733),
English writer, born at Dort, whose chief
works were The Fable of the Bees (1723), and
Free Thoughts on Religion.
Mandeville, Jehan de, probably Jehan de
Bourgoigne, a French physician, the author
of a notorious book of travels, chiefly com-
piled from Friar Odoric, Carpim, etc.,
which is full of extravagances and absur-
dities. The first English version was pub-
lished in 1499 by Wynkyn de Worde.
Manes, or Man! (d. circa 274), Persian
writer, painter, and physician; attempted
to combine Christianity with the Magian
philosophy, and founded the sect of the
Manichseans ; was put to death by Bahrain,
King of Persia.
Manetho (/. circa 300 B.C.), high-priest
of Heliopolis; wrote in Greek a History of
Egypt, of which fragments remain.
Manetti, Rutflio (b. 1571, d. 1637), Italian
painter of the school of Caravaggio, his best
work being a riposto of the Holy Family in
S. Pietro di Castel Vecchio at Florence.
There is a picture at Sienna, his birthplace,
by another artist of his name, probably re-
lated to him.
Manfredi, Eustacbio (b. 1674, d. 1739),
astronomer, born at Bologna; obtained a
degree in law at eighteen, and, after study-
ing under Guglielmini, was made professor
of mathematics at Bologna, where he was
also astronomer to the institute. He was
a member of the Royal Society and the
Academic des Sciences, and his chief works
were Ephemerides (1715-50), De Transits
Mercurii, and Poems, His brother, GAB-
BIELB (d. 1761), was almost as eminent,
becoming chancellor of Bologna, and receiv-
ing a letter from Leibnitz in praise of his
work De Constructions Equationwn Differ-
entialium primi Gradus.
Manfredo, or Manfred (6. 1233, d. 1266),
Italian adventurer, natural son of the
Emperor Frederick IL ; recovered Naples
from Pope Innocent IV., and became King
of Sicily in 1258, soon after which, having
been excommunicated, he allied himself
with the Turks, and was defeated and slain
at Benevento by his rival, Charles of Anjou,
who had been given the crown of Naples
and Sicily by the pope.
Mangou (b. 1207. *•
Moguls) fourth son of Genghis Khan,
Man
( 532 )
TVTaTi
rocceeded to power in 1251, after a great
slaughter of the roval family. He subdued
Thibet, took Baghdad from the khalifs, and
was killed iii battle with the Chinese.
Manin, Pauielo (b. 1801, d. 1S.57), Vene-
tian advocate; was arrt st< d by the Austrian
government in 1848 for favouring the in-
dependence of Venice and Lombardy, but
freed by the people, and made president of
the republic, opposed union with Sardinia ;
took a leading part in the defence of Venice,
after whose fa]! he left Italy.
Maninl, Lodovico (6. 1726, d. circa 1803),
the last Doge of Venice, being elected in
1789 ; having received the Comte d'Artois
and others of the emigres, and refused
alliance with the French republic, was de-
throned, and a republic having been set up,
Venice was ceded to Austria,
Manley, Mary (d. 1724), English dramatic
and political writer ; having been deserted
by her husband, led an immoral lif e ; wrote
Memoirs of the New Atlantis, a romance, for
which the printer and publisher were prose-
cuted; also plays, Lucius (dedicated to
Steele), Royal Mischief, etc., and The Vindi-
cation of the Duke of Maryborough, an able
pamphlet She wrote for Steele's Examiner t
and conducted it for some time.
Manilas Capitolinus (d. 384 B.C.), Roman
hero ; saved the Capitol from the Goths, but
was afterwards put to death on a charge of
treason.
Martins Torquatns (Jl. 350 B.C.), killed
a Gaul in single combat, and took his collar
(torques) ; was named dictator 359 B.C. ;
put to death his son for disobeying his
orders, though he had been victorious.
Manners, Lord John.
Duke of.]
[See Rutland,
Manners- Button, Charles (b. 1789, d.
1845), politician, son of the Archbishop ;
was Speaker of the House of Commons
from 1817 to 1834, aud was created Viscount
Canterbury in the following year
Manni, Domenico (b. 1690, d. 1788),
Italian antiquary, born at Florence ; mem-
ber of the Academy della Crusca. His chief
works were Series of Florentine Senators, a
Historical Treatise on Spectacles, and Histori-
cal Illustrations of the '''Decameron " of Boc-
caccio.
Manning, Henry Edward, Cardinal (5.
1808, d. 1892), English Roman Catholic pre-
late, educated at Harrow and Balliol ; was
_some time fellow of Merton ; subsequently
t53ok orders, and became Archdeacon of Chi-
chestt'^r.m^O. In 1851, however, he seceded
to tht, >Romi*iT"v.rlhr^ publishing Grounds
of Faith next year. In I860'"..11* succeeded
Wiseman as Archbishop of Westminster,
and teu years later was made cardinal. II <
approved the Infallibility dogma of the Vuti
can Council of 1869, and carried on a con«
troversy with Mr. Gladstone on the subject.
He sat on several commissions, and took a
Icauiug part in bringing to a conclusion the
Dock strike of 1889.
Manny, Sir Walter (d. 1372), English
soldier, but a native of Hainault, coming tc
England with the queen of Edward 111. ;
was greatly distinguished in the French
wars, nis chief exploits being the victory of
Cadsaut (1337) over the Flemings, his two
defences of Hennebon, and the reduction of
Gascony. He was one of the first knights
of the Garter, and founded a Carthusian
convent, which was the original of the
Charterhouse.
Mansart, Jules Hardouin (b. 1645, d.
1708), French architect, nephew of Francois
Mansart, who invented "Mansarde" roofs;
was the favourite of Louis XIV., for whom
he designed the palace of Versailles, the
chateaux of Marly, Trianon, and Cluguy,
the Place Venddine, and many other build-
ings.
Mansel, Henry Longueville (b. 1820, d.
1871), English philosopher and theologian,
one of the strongest opponents of the Broad
Church school ; was educated at Merchant
Taylors' and Oxford, where he was succes-
sively Waynflete professor of moral philo-
sophy and professor of ecclesiastical history,
and in 1858 delivered the Bampton lectures
on The Limits of Religious Thought. He had
previously published an edition of Aldrich's
Logic, and several works on metaphysics.
His appointment to the deanery of St. Paul's
in 1869 was strongly opposed.
Mansfeld, Ernst, Graf von (b. 1685, d.
1626), German soldier of fortune, natural
son of Count Peter Mansfeld, a distinguished
servant of Charles V., who made him
governor of the Low Countries in 1592;
took a prominent part in the Thirty Years'
war on the Protestant side, serving first the
Elector Palatine, and afterwards the Dutch ;
after his defeat by Wallenstein, in 1625,
he resigned his command, and set out fof
Italy.
Mansfield, Charles Blachford (b. 1819, d.
1855). English chemist, author of Benzole :
its Nature and Utility, and Researches on
Coal-tar; died from the effects of burna
received when experimenting.
Mansfield, William Murray, Earl of (b.
1704, d. 1793), British lawyer and states-
man, called for his eloquence "silver-tongued
Murray," was a son of Lord Stormont;
became Solicitor-General in 1743. Although
he had been accused of Jacobitism, h«
Kan
(533 )
Man.
became Attorney- General in 1754, and Lord
Chief Justice in 1756, when he received a
peerage. A strong Tory, he was attacked
by Junius, and was unpopular for his opinion
on the law of libel. His library was burnt
during the Gordon riots.
Manso, or Manzo, Giovanni, Marchese di
Villa (d. 1645), Italian patron of learning,
founded at Naples the Academy degli
Oziosi ; entertained Milton when in Italy,
and was the friend of Marino and Tasso,
who dedicated a dialogue to him.
Mansur, Abdallah II. al (d. 1775), second
Abasside Khalif, succeeded his brother in
754; founded Baghdad, patronised the
learned, and left a large treasure to his son.
Mantegna, Andrea, "II Cavaliere" (b.
1431, d. 1506), Italian painter, probably a
native of Padua; was adopted by Squar-
cione, and married the daughter of Bellini.
He was one of the earliest masters of
the art of engraving, and his best pictures
are the nine called The Triumph of Julius
Caesar, which were painted for the Marquis
of Mantua and purchased by Charles L , and
are now at Hampton Court — several others
being at the Louvre. His son, Francesco,
finished several of his works.
Mantell, Gideon Algomon (b. 1790, d. 1852),
English geologist, practised as a surgeon at
Brighton and in London, and wrote Organic
Remains of a Former World, and other
similar works, for which he received a pen-
sion in 1851. His geological collection was
bought by the British Museum.
Manteuffel, Edwin Hans Karl, Freiherr von
(6. 1809, d. 1885), Prussian general; entered
the Prussian service in 1827, and was ap-
pointed in 1857 chief of the military cabinet.
He served in the Danish campaign of 1864,
was named governor of Schleswig in the
following year, and in 1866 drove the
Austrians from the province, after which he
defeated the Hanoverians and the South
German alliance. In the war of 1870 he
won the battle of Amiens when in command
of the first army, and as commander of the
second drove Bourbaki into Switzerland.
After being head of the army of occupation
in France, he was named field- marshal,
and in 1879 was appointed governor of
Elsass-Lothringen.
Manteuffel, Otto, Freiherr von (b. 1805,
d. 1882), Prussian statesman, cousin of the
last named, with whom he was brought up ;
was named minister of the interior in 1847,
representing the Conservative party. By his
conduct at Olmiitz he succeeded in averting
War with Austria for sixteen years, but
quitted office in 1858.
Mann, Hindoo legislator, whose Code of
Laws (Smirti) was translated from th«
Sanscrit by Sir W. Jones in 1794.
Manuel, Francisco (6. 1734, d. 1819),
Portuguese poet ; fled from the Inquisition
to Paris, where he lived till his death : wrote
odes to Albuquerque and Washington and
some satiric verses, and also translated into
Portuguese many of the French classics
and some German authors.
Manuel, Don Juan (d. 1347), Castilian
writer, grandson of King Fernando, was
present at the battle of Salado, and wrote
El Conde de Lucanor and other works, which
are probably the earliest specimens of
Castilian prose.
Manuel, Pierre Louis (b. 1751, d. 1793),
French revolutionist; was elected in 1796
procureur de la Commune, and organised the
insurrection of June 20, 1792 ; supported
in the Convention the abolition of royalty,
but voted against the death-sentence, after
which he resigned his seat, but was guillo-
tined for his conduct. On the taking of
the Bastille he obtained possession of the
letters of Mirabeau and Sophie Ruffey, of
which, against the wishes of the family, he
published a garbled edition.
Manuel Comnenus (d. 1180), Emperor of
the East, succeeded John II. in 1143 ; is be-
lieved to have betrayed the Crusaders in
1147, and was engaged in continual wars
with the Sultan of Iconium, Raymond of
Antioch, Roger II. of Sicily (from whom he
took Corfu), and with the Hungarians,
Servians, and Turks.
Manuel Palseologus (d. 1425), Emperor
of the East, reigned with his father, John
VI., and alone after his death in 1391, at
which time, being a hostage at the court
of Bajazet, he escaped ; was engaged in
continual war with the Turks, visiting
Venice, France, and England to obtain help
against them ; abdicated in favour of his
son, and retired into a monastery.
Manuzio, or Manutius, Aldo (b. 1449, d.
1515), Italian scholar and printer, bringing
out editions of the classics as early as 1490,
founded the Academia d'Aldo in 1500.
Manuzio, Paolo (b. 1511, d. 1574), carried
on his father's office, but was invited to
Rome by Pius IV. to print the Fathers. He
also, like his son, Aldo the Younger, gave
much attention to Cicero.
Manzoni, Alessandro, Conte (6. 1785, d.
1873), Italian writer, grandson of Beccaria ;
after living some years at Paris with his
mother, married and went to Milan, but,
having lost the greater part of his property,
was obliged to leave that city. He survived
both his wives and seven children, and
during his last forty years lived a very
Man
(534)
Mar
retired life. His chief works were Ifi/mns
in Celebration of Church Festivals (1815-22) ;
II Cinque Maggio (1823), an ode on the death
of Napoleon I. ; 11 Cunte di Carmagnola and
AdehJii, dramas; / Prointssi Sposi (1827),
a romance. In 18'iO he was made senator
of the kingdom of Italy.
Manzuoli, Maso, "Maso di S. Friano"
(d. 1536, d. 1575), painter, born at Florence,
his best pictures being The Visitation of the
Virgin to Elizabeth, now in the Vatican
gallery, and a representation of the resur-
rection in the church of San Trinita.
Map, or Mapes, Walter (12th century),
English satirical poet, chaplain to Henry
II. and John ; author of satires in Latin, a
translation of the romance of Saint Graal,
etc. His Poems were edited by Wright in
1841.
Mar, John Erskine, Earl of (d. 1732),
Scottish politician, called " Bobbing John "
from his trimming proclivities, supported
the Scotch union, and was made Secretary
of State in 1710 ; afterwards took part in
the Fifteen, encountering Argyle at Sheriff-
muir; followed James Edward to France,
where he became one of his advisers.
Mara, Gertrude Elizabeth (b. 1749, d.
1833), German singer (nee Schmahling), be-
gan her career as a violinist ; made her
debut as a singer at Leipzig in 1771, and
married soon after ; sang before Frederick
the Great, and visited England and all parts
of the Continent.
Maraldi, Giacomo (b. 1665, d. 1729),
Italian astronomer and natural philosopher,
born at Perinaldo in Nice ; went to Paris in
1687 on the invitation of Cassiui, his uncle,
became member of the Academie des
Sciences, and assisted him ; was afterwards
consulted by Clement XI. as to the reform
of the calendar, and returned to France, but
died before finishing his Catalogue of the
Stars.
Marana, Giovanni Paolo (6. 1642, d. 1693),
Italian writer, whose chief work was
ISEspion du Grand Seigneur dans les Cours
des Princes Chretiens (The Turkish Spy};
wrote also an account of the Delia Torre
conspiracy to betray Savona to the Duke of
Savoy (1669), for implication in which he
had been imprisoned.
Marat, Jean Paul (6. 1743, d. 1793),
French revolutionist, whose early life is
obscure ; lived some time in England, prac-
tised in France as a doctor, and .published
in 1779 Decouvertes sur le Feu, ^ Elect ricite,
etc. About the time of the revolution he
took up journalism, and published IS Ami
du Peuple, an incendiary print ; advocated the
massacre of the aristocrats snrnp timp before
September, 1792; when elected to the Con-
vtution became a chief of the Montague,
denounced the Girondins, and attempted
to arrest them by mob-violence, for which
he was prosecuted but acquitted ; was mur-
dered by Charlotte Corday in July.
Maratti, or Maratta, Carlo (6. 1625, d.
1713), Italian painter of the Roman school,
favourite pupil of Sacchi ; painted many
Madonnas, Constantino Destroying the Idols
(in St. John Lateran), Daphne (for Louis
XIV.), The 1 hath of St. Francis Xavier, The
J'l.sitatioii, and many other works, founded
on long study of the old masters, and re-
stored Raffaelle's Vatican frescoes, and
those of Caracci at the Farnese Palace.
Marbeck, John (d. circa 1585), English
musician, organist at the Chapel Royal,
Windsor, probably composed the first cathe-
dral service. He favoured the Reformation,
and was condemned to be burnt for heresy,
but was the only one of the accused who
was pardoned. His service was called The
Book of Common Praier Noted (1550). He also
drew up the first English concordance.
Marca, Pierre de (b. 1594, d. 1662), French
prelate, employed by Richelieu to answer
Optatus Gallus, which he did in his De
Concordia Sacerdotii et Imperii. He also
wrote a History of Beam, was minister of
state under Mazarin in 1658, and had been
named Archbishop of Paris just before his
death .
Marceau, Francois Senorin Desgraviers (b.
1769, d. 1796), French republican general,
served under Lafayette in 1792, commanded in
La Vendee, captured vlons, and was killed at
Altenkirchen in battle with the Austrians.
Marcel, ^tienne (d. 1358), French popular
leader, prevot des marchands at Paris, at-
tempted to revive the Etats Generaux after
the battle of Poitiers, when he headed the
people against the Dauphin and combined
with the Jacquerie ; was killed while open-
ing the gates of Paris to the King of
Navarre.
Marcellinus. [See Ammianus.]
Marcellis, Otho (b. 1613, d. 1673), Dutch
painter, a native of Amsterdam ; passed
many years in Italy, and chose reptiles, in-
sects, etc., as his chief subjects.
MarceUo, Benedetto (6. 1686, d. 1739),
Italian musician, born at Venice, studied
under Gasparini and Lotti, and composed
Estro Poetico-Armonico (1724-6), of which
the poetry was by Giustiniani He also wrote
Teatro alia Moda, a satire on the musicians
of the time, and other works, and held
several offices in the Venetian state.
MarceUus, Marcus Claudius (d. 208 B.a)b
Mar
(535)
Mar
Roman general, obtained the spolia opima
in 224 B.C. from Viridomarus, a king of the
Transalpine Gauls ; in the second Punic war
checked Hannibal, after Cannae, at Nola ;
captured Syracuse in 214, but was killed two
years after in a skirmish with Hannibal
near Venusium. He was thrice consul.
The Marcellus celebrated by Virgil (^Sneid,
vi. 883) was a descendant of the above, and
Bon of Or«tavia, the sister of Augustus.
Marcellus I. (d. 310), Pope of Rome, suc-
ceeded Marcellinus in 308, but was banished
by Maximus two years after.
Marcellus IL (d. 1555), succeeded Julius
III., but, dying suddenly, was only pope a
few weeks ; had been president of the
Council of Trent and secretary to Paul III.,
and was an advocate of reform in the
church.
March, Francis Andrew (b. 1825), Ameri-
can philologist, born at Milbury, Massa-
chusetts; was made professor of English
language and comparative philology at
Lafayette college, Pennsylvania in 1857 ;
became president of the American Philo-
logical Association in 1873, and took the
direction in America of Dr. Murray's New
English Dictionary on Historical Principles in
1879. His chief works are Method of Philo-
logical Study of the English Language (1865),
Comparative Grammar of Anglo - Saxon
(1870), and Introduction to Anglo-Saxon.
March, Earl of. {See Mortimer.]
Marches!, Pompeo (b. 1790, d. 1858),
Italian sculptor, pupil of Canova. His best
works are statues of Goethe at Frankfort
and Charles Emmanuel III. at Novara, and
a marble group in Milan cathedral.
Marchetti, Marco, "Marco da Faenza"
(d. 1588), painter of the Bolognese school,
whose studies of the grotesque are particu-
larly excellent.
Marchi, Francesco de (d. circa 1600), en-
gineer, born at Bologna, served Alessandro
de Medici, Paul III., and Margaret of
Parma ; designed the fortifications of Ant-
werp and Piacenza, and wrote Delia
Architectura Militaire, now very rare.
Marcianus (d. 457), Emperor of the East,
a native of Illyria, married Pulcheria,
daughter of Theodosius the Younger, and
was crowned in 450 ; helped Valentinian
HI. against Attila.
Marco Polo. [See Polo.]
Marcus Aurelius. [See Aurelius.]
Mardonius (d. 479 B.C.), Persian general ;
conspired against Smerdis in 521, com-
manded for Xerxes in Greece after Salamis,
but was defeated and slain at PlaUea.
Maret, Hugues, Due de Bassano (b. 1763,
d. 1839), French statesman, published in
1789 a Bulletin of the National Assembly ;
was after the revolution employed diplo-
matically, and in 1804 was made secretary
of state by Napoleon, foreign minister in
1811, and war minister in 1813. After a
period of exile, he returned to France in
1820, and after the revolution of 1830 be-
came pair de France and minister of the
interior.
Margaret, Saint (b. circa 1047, d. 1093),
Scotch queen, wife of Malcolm III. and sister
of Edgar Atheling, with whom she fled to
Scotland after the battle of Hastings.
Margaret Plantagenet (d. 1503), sister of
Edward IV. of England ; married Charles
the Bold, and supported the Yorkist pre-
tenders in the reign of Henry VII.
Margaret Tudor (b. 1489, d. 1541),
daughter of Henry VII., married James
IV. of Scotland in 1503, and afterwards
Archibald Douglas, Earl of Angus — Mary
Queen of Scots and Lord Darnley being
descended from the respective marriages.
Margaret of Anjou (b. 1429, d. 1482),
Queen of England, daughter of Rene* of
Anjou, titular King of Naples, married
Henry VI. in 1445 ; supported Suffolk
against Gloucester and afterwards Somerset
against Richard, Duke of York, whom, after
some reverses, she defeated at Wakefield
(1460), where he was killed, but lost the
battle of Towton next year, and fled to Scot-
land ; was defeated at Hexham in 1464, and
escaped to Flanders; was finally crushed
by Edward at Tewkesbury, and passed the
rest of her life in France.
Margaret of Austria (b. 1480, d. 1530),
daughter of the Emperor Maximilian and
Mary of Burgundy, married first John of
Castile, and secondly Philibert of Savoy ;
was made governor of the Low Countries in
1507, and negotiated both the League of
Cambrai (1508) and the " Paix des Dames "
(1529).
Margaret of Denmark (b. 1353, d. 1412),
succeeded her father Waldemar III., be-
came queen also of Norway on the death oi
her husband, Haco VIII. , but was soon ex-
pelled ; recovered Norway in 13S7, and,
having defeated Albert of Mecklenburg in
1389, united the three Scandinavian king-
doms by the union of Colmar in 1397.
Margaret of France (b. 1553, d. 1615),
first wife of Henri IV. and daughter of
Henri II. ; married just before the day of
St. Bartholomew, when she had a narrow
escape ; separated from Henry of Navarre
when he came to the French throne, and
was divorced in 1599.
Mar
(536 )
Mar
Margaret of Parma (rf. 15S6), natural
daughter of Charles V. and husband of
Ottavio Faruese, Duke of Parma ; was
appointed regent of the Netherlands in 1559,
but retired in 1568. Alexander Farnese was
her son.
Margaret of Provence (ft. 1221, d. 1295),
daughter of Raymond III. of Provence,
and wife of Louis IX., \vhom she accom-
panied on crusade.
Margaret of Scotland (ft. 1424, d. 1445),
daughter of James I. of Scotland, and wife
of Louis XT., with whom she lived un-
happily.
Margaret of Valois (ft. 1492, d. 1549),
sister of Francis I. and grandmother of
Henri IV. ; married first the Due d' Alencon,
and secondly Henri d'Albret, titular King
of Navarre; supported^ the reformation,
and wrote Miroir de /' Ame Pecheresse, and
Contes et Nouvelles (the Heptameron).
Margaritone d'Arezzo (ft. 1236), Italian
painter, sculptor, and architect, contempo-
rary with Cimabue and Giotto ; is thought
to have been instructed by Greek painters.
Some of his paintings, notably a Madonna
at the church of San Francesco, are to be
seen at Arezzo, where also the monument
to Gregory XIIL is his work.
Marggraf, Andreas (ft. 1709, d. 1782),
German chemist, born at Berlin; studied
metallurgy under Henckel, and practised
assaying under the direction of Susmith;
discovered phosphoric acid, alumina, and
magnesia, and described many processes in
bis works.
Margolionth, David Samuel (ft. 1858),
English Orientalist, educated at Winchester
and New College, Oxford, of which he became
fellow and librarian, after carrying off most
of the university prizes for classics and
oriental languages ; was elected Laudian
professor of Arabic in 1889. His chief
works are Analecta Orientalia ad Poeticam
Aristotelian*, The Commentary of Jepliel ibn
Ali on Daniel, and An Essay on the Place of
Ecclesiasticus in Semitic Literature.
Maria Adelaide (ft. 1822, d. 1855), wife
of Victor Emmanuel, and mother of Hum-
bert, King of Italy.
Maria Christina, Queen of Spain (ft. 1806,
d, 1878), wife of Ferdinand VII., married
again Don Fernando Mufioz. In 1840 she
was compelled to retire to France, but re-
turned in 1543. In 1854 she was again ex-
pelled, and finally in 1868.
Maria Christina, Queen -regent of Spain
(ft. 1858), daughter of Archduke Charles of
Austria, and second wife of Alfonso XII. ;
became regent for his son in 1885, when her
husband died.
Hula Lesczinska (ft. 1703, d. 1768),
daughter of Stanislas, King of Poland, and
afterwards Duke of Lorraine; married
Louis XV., but was very soon neglected,
Maria Theresa (6. 1717, d. 1780), Queen
of Hungary, and daughter of the Emperor
Charles VI. ; married Francis of Lorraine
in 1735, and was supported by England
against the Elector of Bavaria, who claimed
the empire, and was supported by France ;
carried on the Seven Years' war, with the
help of France, against Prussia, who had
obtained part of Silesia ; took part, against
her will, in the first partition of Poland.
Maria Theresa of Spain (ft. 1638, d. 1683),
Infanta of Spain, and wife of Louis XIV.
Maria of Austria (ft. 1501, d. 1558), sister
of Charles V., and wife of Louis II. of
Hungary ; was governor of the Netherlands
from 1531 to 1555.
Maria L, Queen of Portugal (ft. 1734, d.
1816), married Pedro, her uncle, and suc-
ceeded her father, Jose L, in 1777, when
she immediately dismissed Pombal. Her
health gave way, and from 1792 her son
reigned in her name.
Maria IL (ft. 1819, d. 1853), daughter of
Pedro IV. ; became queen on the abdication
of her father in 1826, and married first the
Duke of Leuchtenberg, and then Ferdinand
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
Mariamne (d. 28 B.C.), Jewish princess,
wife of Herod the Great, by whose orders
she was poisoned. He afterwards bitterly
bewailed the result of his suspicions.
Mariana, Juan de (ft. 1536, d. 1624),
Spanish historian, had Bellarmine for his
pupil at Rome; wrote Historia de Rebus
Hispanice in thirty books, and translated it
into Spanish, and also De Rege et Reg\t
Institutione.
Marianus Scotus (ft. 1028, d. 1086), Scotch
monk; passed most of his life at Cologne,
Fulda, and other places in Germany ; wrote
a chronicle from the birth of Christ to 1083.
Marie Ame'lie (ft. 1782, d. 1866), daughter
of Ferdinand II., King of the Two Sicilies,
and wife of Louis Philippe, Due d'0rl£ans,
whom she married in 1809.
Marie Antoinette (ft. 1755, d. 1793), Queen
of France, daughter of the Empress Maria
Theresa ; married Louis XVI. when dauphin,
becoming queen four years later ; was much
calumniated, and became unpopular with
the court and people as a foreigner; fled
with the king to Varenues in June, 1791,
and a year after was imprisoned with him,
being finally tried and guillotined in Oc-
tober, 1793.
Marie Louise (ft. 1791, d. 1849), daughter
of Francis I., Emperor of Austria; became
Mar
(537)
tiu second wife of Napoleon in 1810, and
mother of the King of Rome (Napoleon II.)
next year; was made regent in 1813, but
left France in 1814, obtaining the Duchy of
Parma; married Count Neipperg after
Napoleon's death.
Marie de' Medici (b. 1573, rf. 1642), Queen
of France, daughter of Francis of Tuscany ;
married Henri IV. in 1GOO, and became
mother of Louis XIII. , during whose
minority she was regent, but was over-
thrown by Eichelieu after a long contest,
and left France in 1630.
Marignano, Gian Giacomo Medichino,
Marchese di (b. 1497, d. 1555), Italian
soldier of fortune, born at Milan ; with
Pozzino assassinated, for Francesco Sforza,
Ettore Visconti, a political rival. When
Sforza attempted to kill him he left Milan,
and, after a time, took service with Charles
V., for whom he commanded in Flanders
and Italy, his greatest exploit being the
capture of Siena.
Marigny, Francois Augier de (d. 1762),
French writer, his chief works being His-
toire du Douzieine Siecle, and Histoire de*
Arabes.
Maxillae, Louis de (b. 1572, d. 1632),
French soldier, served under Henri IV.,
and became marechal de France in the
reign of Louis XIII., but, having conspired
with his brother against Richelieu, was
tried and beheaded on charges of peculation
and extortion.
Marinas, Enrico de las (b. 1620, d. 1680),
Spanish painter, so called from his subjects,
which were nautical ; died at Kome.
Maiineo, Lucio (fl. 1500), Spanish his-
torian, born in Sicily ; became chaplain at
the court of Ferdinand and Isabella, and
wrote De Aragonice Regibus, De Rebus
Hispania Memorabilibus, etc.
Marini, Benedetto (jft. 1600), painter,
native of Urbino, combined the Lombard
and Venetian schools. His best picture is
that of The Loaves and Fishes, in the refec-
tory of the Conventual!, Piacenza.
Marini, Giambattista (b. 1569, d. 1625),
Italian poet, born at Naples ; having been
expelled from his father's house, went first
to Rome, and afterwards to France, where
he was protected and pensioned by Marie de'
Medici, and wrote L'Adone, his chief work.
His style became proverbial for its extrava-
gance.
Marino Faliero. [See Faliero.]
Marinoni, Giovanni di (b. 1676, d. 1755),
astronomer, patronised by the Emperor
Leopold and his successors, and ennobled;
invented the planimetric balance, and wrote
De SpeculA Domesticd, and other works. All
his servants were astronomers.
Mario, Giuseppe, Marchese di Candia
(b. 1808, d. 1883), operatic tenor; entered
the Sardinian army in 1830, but soon re-
signed his commission and went to Paris,
where in 1838 he made his debut in Robert
le Diable, subsequently visiting England
and the chief Continental cities, and making
his greatest successes in Uyonotti and La
Favorita ; married Giulia Grisi, and left the
stage in 1867.
Mariotte, Edme (d. 1684), French
natural philosopher, prior of St. Martin-
sous-Beaune, near Dijon, and one of
the earliest members of the Academic des
Sciences ; discovered the law of elastic
fluids, which was called by his name, and
the punctum ccelum, and wrote many
works.
Marius, Caius (b. 157 B.C., d. 86 B.C.),
Roman general ; served under Scipio in
Spain, conquered Jugurtha, and brought
him in triumph to Rome (104 B.C.) ; defeated
the Teu tones and Cimbri (102-101) ; carried
on war with Sylia, by whom he was de-
feated, and compelled to fly to Carthage
(87) ; returned to Rome next year, and
proscribed his enemies, and died of fever,
after having become consul for the seventh
time. He married Julia, aunt of Caesar.
Marivaux, Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de
(b. 1688,6?. 1763), French dratuatistand novel-
ist ; competed successfully against Voltaire
in 1742 for entrance to the Academy. His
chief works were Le Jeu d1 Amour, Le
Paysan Parvenu, Marianne, and travesties
of Homer and Telemaque.
Markham, Clements Robert, C.B.,F.R.S.
(b. 1830), English geographer and writer;
entered the navy in 1844, but left it seven
years later for the India OiB.ce ; joined the
Arctic expedition of 1850, and explored
Peru in 1852-4; was geographer to the
Abyssinian expedition, and wrote several
works, the chief of which are Franklin**
Footsteps, Travels in Peru and India, History
of the Abyssinian Expedition, and The War
between Chili and Peru, 1879-81.
Markham, Gervase (d. circa 1655), poet
and linguist ; served as captain in the
Royalist army, and wrote Herod and Anti-
pater (1622), The Poem of Poems : or, Sion's
Muse, as well as pieces on England's Par-
nassus, and some prose works on husbandry
and horsemanship.
Marks, Henry Stacy (b. 1829), English
painter, studied at the Royal Academy, of
which he became an associate in 1871, and
full member in 1878; exhibited at the
Mar
( 538 )
Mar
Academy Toothache in the Middle Ages
(1856), St. Francis Preaching to the Jltrd.i
(1870), Old friends, and Science in J/<v/.w -
merit (1879), A Trtutix<- on 2\irr<ii* (18S ,
New a in the Village ;J^'.'). etc., and held an
exhibition of Sirut in 1889.
Marlboroug-h, John Churchill, first Duke
of (b. 1050, d. 1722), soldier aud diplomatist;
obtained a commission through the influence
of his sister with the Duke of York, and
first served under Tureune ; deserted James
II. at the Revolution, but, though created
earl and commander-iu-chief by William
III., intrigued with his former master;
after a period of disgrace, went to the
Hague if: organise the Grand Alliance ; was
appointed captain general and duke under
Anne, and won the victories of Blenheim
(1704), Ramillies (1706), Oudenarde (1708),
and Malplaquet (1709), but was recalled in
1710, and dismissed on a charge of pecu-
lation. He was restored by George I. in
1714, but never fully trusted,
Marlborough, Sarah Jennings, Duchess
of (b. 1660, d. 1744), married Churchill in
1678; induced Anne to desert her father,
and became all-powerful at her accession ;
but was supplanted by Abigail Hill in 1710, j
and compelled to give up her offices ; she
left a portion of her fortune to the elder Pitt.
Marlowe, Christopher (*. 1564, d. 1593),
English dramatist and poet, born at Canter-
bury, and educated at Cambridge. He wrote
Tamburlaine, Faust us, and Edward II, ; also
(with Chapman) ^the poem Hero and Leander.
He was killed in a tavern brawl at Deptf ord.
Marmion, Shackerley (b. 1602, d. 1639),
Engb'sh dramatist; squandered his fortune
and entered the army; wrote The Anti-
quary, and other plays, and Cupid and
Psyche, an epic poem.
Marmont, Auguste Frederic Louis Viesse
de, Due de Raguse (b. 1774, d. 1852),
Marechal de France; after distinguishing
himself at Lodi and Marengo, was made
governor of Illyria by Napoleon in 1809;
was defeated in 1812 at Salamanca by
Wellington ; after being with Napoleon till
1814, he deserted him on his abdication,
and, remaining faithful to the Bourbons,
was ambassador to Russia (1826-8), but
left France after the fall of Char es X.
Marmontel, Jean Francois (b. 1723, d.
1799), French writer, born of humble
parents in the Limousin ; taught philosophy
at Toulouse, where he wrote an ode which
was praised by Voltaire; helped in the
compilation of the Encyclopedic; was im-
prisoned in the Bastille for a satire in the
Mercure de France, which he edited, and
was appointed historiographer of France in
1771. His chief works were ConUs Moraux,
Belixciirc, Lex Iticas, and l-'J-'int-nts de Li He-
rat ure.
Marmora, Alfonso, Marchese della (A
1804, d. 1878), Italian g;-m:ral and states,
man; served in the Sardinian army in tu«
war of 1848-9, and, having put down thts
revolt of the Mazziuists at Genoa, became
lieutenant-general, and, as minister of wai
and marine, reorganised the army of Italy.
He commanded the Sardinian detachment
in the Crimea, and on his return became
Cavours war minister. During the years
1864-6 he was twice prime minister, and
concluded an alliance with Prussia. He
was defeated at Custozza in 1866, but was
made commander of Rome when the Italians
entered it. He retired in 1871, and soon
after published Un Poco Piu di Luce Sugli
Erenti Politici del? anno 1SG6, and / Segreti
di Stato nel Governo Costituzionale.
Marnlx. [See St. Aldegonde.]
Maro. [See Virgil.]
Llaro, Johannes (d. 700), Syrian patriarch,
founder of the Maronites.
Marochetti, Carlo, Baron (b. 1805, d.
1868), Italian sculptor; was naturalised in
France in 1841, but after the revolution of
1848 came to England, where his statue of
Richard I. was seen at the Exhibition of
1851. Besides his equestrian statue of
Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy at Paris, he
executed the Crimean Memorial, and the
statue of Lord Clyde iu England, and was
elected R.A. in 1866.
Maroncelli, Pietro (b. 1795, d. 1846),
Italian poet ; companion of Silvio Pellico
when in prison in the Spielberg, after his
release from wrhich he lived first in Paris,
and then at New York, where he died.
Besides several songs, written and set by
himself, he was author of Addizioni alle Mie
Prigione di Silvio Pellico.
Marot, Clement (*. 1496 ?, d. 1544), French
poet, patronised by Francis I. and Mar-
guerite de Valois, whose page he had been ;
was imprisoned for supposed heretical
opinions, and eventually went to Geneva.
He invented the French rondeau, and intro-
duced the madrigal, his chief works being
L* Adolescence Clementine, Cantiques de la
Paix, and Psaumes de David.
Marozia, or Mariuccia (10th century),
Roman lady, exercised great influence in
Italy ; ^ married first Alberic, Marquis of
Camerino, secondly Guido, Duke of Tuscany,
and lastly Hugh of Provence, King of Italy ;
made her sou pope as John XL, and also set
up and deposed several others ; was finally
shut up in a monastery by her eldest son,
who killed her last husband.
Marpurg, Friedrich (b. 1718, d. 1796),
Mar
( 539)
Mar
Oerman writer on music, born at Seehausen,
in Brandeuburg ; was for some time di-
rector of lotteries at Berlin, and wrote A
Manual of Harmony and Composition, a
History oj the Organ, and other works.
Marriott, Right Hon. Sir William Thacke-
ray (b. 1834), English politician, born near
Manchester, and educated at Cambridge ;
he took orders, but gave up the clerical for
the legal profession, being called in 1864,
and became Queen's Counsel in 1877. He
entered Parliament as a Liberal in 1880, but
in 1884 resigned on the Cloture question, and
was re-elected as a Conservative, and was
Judge Advocate- General in the first and
second Ministries of Lord Salisbury.
Marryatt, Frederick (b. 1792, d. 1848),
English novelist and sailor ; entered the navy
in 1806, served under Lord Cochrane, and
in the Burmese war, and drew up a code of
signals for the merchant service ; wrote
Peter Simple, Midshipman Easy, Jacob
Faithful, and several similar works.
Marryatt, Florence, English novelist,
daughter of the preceding, married first to
Mr. Ross Church, and secondly to Mr. Lean;
wrote many novels, Love's Conflict, Tom
Tiddler's Ground, Gentleman and Courtier,
etc., and also appeared on the stage as opera
singer and actress. She edited the Life and
Letters of her father in 1872.
Mars, Anne Fransoise Monvel (b. 1779,
d. 1847), French actress, daughter of Mon-
vel, an actor; first appeared in 1792, and
became societaire of the Comedie Franchise
in 1799 ; played with great force in L'Abbe
de r Epee and in Moliere, Marivaux, and
Scribe ; took the chief part in Hernani and
Dumas' s Madame de Belleisle, and made her
last appearance in 1841.
Marschner, Heinrich (b. 1796, d. 1861),
German musician, made joint kapellmeister
of the Dresden opera by the influence of
Weber, whose follower he was, his chief
compositions being Der Vampyr, produced
at Leipzig in 1828, and Hans Heiling at
Hanover in 1831.
Marsden, Alexander (b. 1832), English
surgeon, son of Dr. W. Marsden, entered
the army in 1854, and served in the
Scutari hospital, after which he was at-
tached to the ambulance corps before Se-
bastopol, and on his return was appointed
surgeon to the Royal Free and Cancer Hos-
pitals. His works deal with the treatment
of cancer and tumours (A New and Suc-
cessful Mode of Treating Certain Forms of
Cancer, etc.).
Marsden, William (*. 1754, d. 1836),
British Orientalist and surgeon; lived in
Sumatra for eight years, and published a
history of it, as also a JJtctionary of the
Malayan Language (1812), Numismata Ori-
entalia Ittustrata, and other works ; left his
library to King's College, London.
Marsh, James (6. 1789, d. 1846), English
chemist ; discovered a test for detecting the
presence of arsenic.
Marsb, Narcissus (b. 1638, d. 1713), Irish
scholar, provost of Trinity College, Dublin,
and successively Archbishop of Armagh and
other Irish sees ; established and endowed
the library at Dublin called after him.
Marsh, Othniel Charles (b. 1831), American
naturalist ; after graduating at Yale, studied
at Berlin, Heidelberg, and Breslau, and
was appointed professor of palaeontology at
his old college in 1866. He led many ex-
ploring expeditions to the Rocky Moun-
tains, the result of which was the discovery
of many extinct species of vertebrates,
monographs on which he contributed to
the American Journal of Science.
Marshal, Andrew (b. 1742, d. 1813), Scotch
anatomist and physician, a member of the
Speculative Society ; studied theology at
Edinburgh, and took up medicine from
curiosity; travelled with Lord Balgonie,
and afterwards taught anatomy at London.
His work, The Morbid Anatomy of the Brain,
was published after his death
Marshall, Alfred (b. 1842), English
political economist, educated at Merchant
Taylors' and Cambridge, where he was
second wrangler and fellow of St. John's,
subsequently becoming principal of Univer-
sity College, Bristol. After going abroad
for his health, he became fellow of Balliol in
1884, and was elected professor of political
economy at Cambridge in the same year.
He wrote with his wife (Miss Paley), The
Economics of Industry in 1879, and after-
wards The Principles of Economics.
Marshall, Arthur Milnes, M.D. (b. 1852),
English naturalist, graduated as senior in
the natural science tripos of 1874, entered
Bartholomew's Hospital in 1877, and two
years later was named professor of zoology at
Owens College. He graduated at London
as well as at Cambridge, and was elected
F.R.S. in 1885. His chief work is The Frog,
and he published, with Mr. Hurst, Practical
Zoology.
Marshall, George William (b. 1839), genea-
logist, educated at Radley and Cambridge ;
compiled The Genealogist's Guide (1879), and
edited several works for the Harleian
Society, and A Handbook to the Ancient
Courts of Probate. He became rouge crobr
pursuivant in 1887.
Marshall, Herbert Menziea (b. 1841),
Mar
(640)
Mar
painter; educated at Westminster
ami St. John's College, Cambridge ; obtained
the Royal Acad' my travelling studentship in
architecture, but his eyesight having become
injured, turned to water -colour painting. He
': ne associate of the Water-Colour Society
in 1>79, and full member in 1882, and held
exhibitions in IbSG and 1890 in London.
Marshall, William Calder (b. 1813),
sculptor, born in Edinburgh ; studied
in London under Chantrey, and settled
there about 1839, having already begun to
exhibit. He was elected associate of the
Scottish Academy in 1842, A. R. A. in 1844,
and R.A. in 1852. Good specimens of his
art are The Broken Pitcher (1842), Rebecca,
and The Dancing Girl Reposing, besides
statues in the Houses of Parliament, the
Wellington monument, and the agriculture
group in the Hyde Park memorial.
Marshman, Joshua (b. 1745, d. 1837),
English Orientalist, went as Baptist minister
to India in 1799, and translated the Scrip-
tures into Bengali, Sanscrit, and Chinese,
besides writing Claris Sinica, and a transla-
tion of Confucius. His son, J. C. Marsh-
man (d. 1877), wrote a History of British
India.
Marsigli, Luigi (*. 1658, d. 1730), Italian
writer, born at Bologna ; was taken prisoner
by the Turks and sent to Bosnia, but at-
tained the rank of marshal in the imperial
army after his ransom. After his dismissal
for his part in the surrender of Breisach he
retired to his birthplace, where he founded
the Institute, and wrote Danubius Pannonico-
Mysicas, and other works. He became a
member of the Royal Society on the intro-
duction of Newton.
Marsilio of Padua, " Menandrino " (d.
1328), Italian publicist ; asserted the demo-
cratic principle in his Defensor Pads.
Marston, John (b. circa 1575, d. 1634), Eng-
lish dramatist, wrote several plays (Sopho-
nisba, etc.), and some satires; was imprisoned
for Eastward Ho I with Chapman and Ben
Jonson, and afterwards quarrelled with the
latter, who replied to his attack with The
Poetaster, in which he was satirised as
Demetrius.
Marston, John Westland (*. 1820, d. 1890),
English dramatist ; came to London in 1834,
and was articled to a solicitor, but soon
began to write for the stage, his chief plays
being The Patrician's Daughter (1841),
Strathmore (1849), romantic dramas ; Borough
Politics, a comedy ; Madame de Meranie
(1856), The Favourite of Fortune, Life for
Life (1868), etc., besides some lyrics and
Our Recent Actors (1888).
Marston, Philip Bourke (b. 1850, d. 1887),
English poet, son of the preceding, friend of
Swinburne and Rossetti, }» •< •unit- totally
blind from cataract; wrote S'/ng Tide (1S70),
All in All (1875), ai.d H'md r*tM»(1883),
and some stories.
Marsy, Balthasar (6. 1624, d. 1681), French
sculptor, native of Cambrai : with his
brother, Gaspar (who was admitted to the
Academy of Painting in l<'7-i, and di^d the
next year), cast in bronze the group of
Tritons and other pieces of work at Ver-
sailles ; while Balthasar alone executed Man
and L'nceladus in the Versailles park, and the
bas-relief of the Porte St. Martin and Boreat
and Orithyia in the Tuileries gardens.
MarteL {See Charles MarteL]
Marteliere, Pierre de la (d. 1631), French
advocate, called " Princeps Patronorum et
Patronus Principum ; " practised at the Paris
bar during the reigns of Henri IV. and
Louis XIII. , and was particularly celebrated
for his defence of the University of Paris
against the Jesuits in 1611.
Martelli, Pietro (b. 1665, d. 1727), Italian
poet; author of tragedies (Ifigenia in
Tauride, etc.), written in a metre after-
wards called by his name.
Martens, Dietrich (d. 1534), Flemish
printer, born at Alost, probably introduced
printing into the Netherlands ; was the
friend of Erasmus and other learned men.
Martens, Georg Friedrich von (b. 1756,
d. 1821), German diplomatist, professor of
law at Gottingen, and afterwards secretary
to the Congress of Vienna (1814) ; published
Precis du Droit des Gens de V Europe, Re-
cueil des Principanx Traites de Paix, and
other standard works on international law.
Marthe, Sceur (d. 1824), Frenchwoman,
whose real name was Anne Biget ; after
having served as a portress in a convent,
devoted the rest of her life to the care of
wounded soldiers. She was richly rewarded
by the allied sovereigns for her services
during the Napoleonic wars, and died at
Besancon.
Martial, Marcus Valerius Martialis (b.
circa 41, d. 104?), Roman poet, born in
Spain, to which he returned after the death
of his patron, the Emperor Domitian ; wrote
fourteen books of Epigrammata, and was
the friend of Juvenal, Quintilian, and the
younger Pliny.
Martignac, Jean Baptiste Gaye, Vicomte
de (b. 1776, d. >832), French statesman;
supported the Bourbon cause during the
Hundred Days, and after the restoration
entered the Chamber of Deputies, of which
he became vice-president, being also coun-
sellor of state; became a chief adviser of
Mar
(541)
Mar
Charles X., but was dismissed in favour
of Polignac, whom he eloquently defended
when put on trial in 1S30.
Martin, Bon Louis Henri (b. 1810, d.
1883), French historian, son of a magistrate
of St. Quentin; published several novels
before turning to history ; wrote a Histoire
de France in fifteen volumes ; was elected to
the Chamber of Deputies in 1872, and after-
wards became senator ; was member both of
the Academic Franqaise and the Academic
des Sciences, and received a public funeral.
Martin, Claude (b. 1732, d. 1800), French
servant of the East India Company, whom
he joined after having deserted Lally ; made
a large fortune in the service of the Nabob
of Oude, and left benefactions to Calcutta
and Lucknow, as well as to Lyons.
Martin, John (b. 1789, d. 1854), English
painter, educated by the father of Musso,
the enamel-painter, with whom, he came to
London in 1806; exhibited both in the
Academy and at the British Institution,
though he always opposed the former. Hi a
chief pictures were Bekhazzar's Feast (1821),
The Fall of Nineveh (1828), and The Judg-
ment (unfinished, 1854). His brother,
JONATHAN (d. 1838), tried to set fire to York
Minster in 1829.
Martin, John (b. 1812, d. 1875), Irish
politician ; became a member of the Young
Ireland party, and married a sister of John
Mitchell ; was tried and sentenced to trans-
portation for issuing the Irish Felon in 1848,
but released in 1854; was again prosecuted
in 1867 for his conduct at the funeral
of Allen and Larkin, but acquitted, and,
having entered Parliament in 1871, became
one of the early Horae Rulers, and honorary
secretary to the League.
Martin, John Biddulph, Mrs., better known
as Mrs. Woodhull, her first married name, i
S^litical and social reformer, was born in
hio, her father being Mi-. Reuben Claflin.
With her sister, now Lady Cook, she took
np the cause of the political equality of i
women, and in 1872 was nominated for the j
presidency of the United States. She
afterwards agitated the social question I
throughout the States and in England, i
and published The Basis of Physical Life, \
Constitutional Equality, and many similar ;
works. After the death of Dr. Woodhull,
she married Mr. J. B. Martin, the banker.
I
Martin, Raymond (13th century), Spanish
Dominican missionary to the Jews and j
Mahometans ; was a great oriental scholar, j
and author of Pugio ftdei Christiani.
Martin, St. (d. circa 397), born in Pan-
nonia; after having been a soldier, he |
was converted to Christianity, and in 374 j
became Bishop of Tours. He is known a£
the Apostle of Gaul, which in great part
he evangelised. The legend of the cloak is
well known.
Martin, St. (6th century), Hungarian
prelate ; preached in Spain, and presided at
the third Council of Brega.
Martin, Sir Samuel (b. 1801, d. 1S83).
judge, educated at Trinity College^
Dublin ; practised on the northern circuit,
his name becoming known in connection
with the Bloomsbury case in 1839 ; became
Queen's Counsel in 1843, and was Liberal
member for Pontefract from 1847 till 1850,
when he was named Baron of the Exchequer.
He was sworn of the Privy Council in 1874,
when he retired from the bench.
Martin, Sarah (b. 1791, d. 1843), prison
philanthropist, born near Great Yarmouth ;
supported herself by dress-making, and
visited prisons, where she read to the
inmates; founded a fund to supply them
with work on their discharge, and organised
a workhouse school She died and was
buried at Caistor.
Martin, Sir Theodore (b. 1816), British
writer, born and educated at Edinburgh,
where he practised as a solicitor for some
years, but came to London in 1846 ; pub-
lished, with Professor Aytoun, the Bon
Gauliier Ballads, and soon after transla-
tions of Goethe, of Hertz's King Rtnes
L>aughter, and other Danish works; of
Horace. Catullus, Dante's Vita 3~uora,
Goethe's Faust, and Heine's poems. He
also wrote a Life of the Prince Consort, for
which he was knighted, and of Lord Lynd-
hurst, his last works having been further
translations from the German, chiefly ballads
(1889). He married in 1851 Mi as Helen
Faucit.
Martin, Thomas Ignace (d. 1834), French
visionary ; founded a sect called by his
name, asserted that the son of Louis XVI.
was still alive, and published a Relation
(1817-32).
Martin L, Pope of Rome (d. 655), suc-
ceeded Theodore I. in 649, but was carried
to Constantinople by order of Constantius
in 653, on account of his condemnation of
the Monothelites, whom the emperor
favoured, and died in exile.
Martin II. (d. 884), called also Marinus I. ;
succeeded John VIII. in 882. He condemned
Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople (q.v.).
Martin III, or Marinus EL (d. 946), suc-
ceeded Stephen VIII. in 942, and was dis-
tinguished for his benevolence to the poor
and as a builder of churches.
Martin IV. (d. 1285) [Simon de Brie],
Mar
(542)
Mar
alected in 1281 ; supported Charles of Anjou
against Peter III. of Aragon, whom he
excommunicated, as he did also the Emperor
Michael Palffiologus.
Martin V. (d. 1-131) [Ottoue Colonnal,
elected at the Council of Constance (1417),
when John XXIII. was deposed, the "Great
Schism" being thus brought to an end; pro-
moted crusades against the Hussites, but
did much to restore the city of Rome.
Martineau, Harriet (b. 1802, d. 187G), Eng-
lish writer of Huguenot descent, daughter
of a Norwich surgeon ; visited the United
States in 1834, and the East in 1846, pub-
lishing descriptive works on her return;
wrote Detrbrook, The Hour and the Man
(1840), and other novels, and many tales
for children, and was also author of a
condensation of Comte (1853), and History
of England During the Thirty Years' Peace
(1851). She twice refused, from conscien-
tious motives, a pension offered her by the
Government.
Martineau, James (b. 1805), theologian,
brother of the last-named, educated at
Norwich and Manchester New College,
York ; after being minister at Little Port-
land Street Unitarian Chapel for more than
twelve years, became principal of Man-
chester New College, London, in 1869. His
chief works are Essays, Philosophical and
Theological (1868), The Relation Between
Ethics and Religion (1881), Types of Ethical
Theory (1885), A Study of Religion (1888),
and The Seat of Authority in Religion (1890).
He has received honorary degrees from
Harvard, Leyden, and Oxford (D.C.L.).
Martinez Campos, Arsenio (b. 1834),
general and statesman, served in Morocco,
Cuba, and against the Car lists ; particularly
distinguished himself at Zurugay (June,
1874) ; conspired against the republic (for
opposition to which he had before been
imprisoned) in favour of Alfonso XII.,
whom he placed on the throne. He finally
crushed Don Carlos in March, 1876, and,
having been made cap tain- general, was
sent against the Cuban rebels. On his
return, in 1879, he became minister of war
and president of the Council, but resigned
the same year. In 1881 he formed a coali-
tion with Sagasta, and retained office till
the autumn of 1883.
Martinez de la Rosa, Francisco (b. 1789,
d. 1862), Spanish statesman and author;
was transported to Africa for his Liberalism
under Ferdinand VII. , but in 1822 became
president of the Council of State and foreign
minister ; published the Statuto Real, or
definition of the constitution, in 1834, but
resigned next year ; took office again under
Narvaez in 1843, and was again foreign
•ecretary in 1857, and president of the
Cortes in the following year; wrote La
Viuda de Padilla, a drama, some lyrics, and
El Expiritu del Siglo.
Martini, Giovanni (*. 1706, d. 1784),
Italian Franciscan, " Padre Martiui ; '
founded a school of music at Bologna, and
wrote Storia della Musica, for which Fred-
erick the Great sent him his portrait and a
snuff-box.
Martini, Giuseppe San (d. 1750), Milanese
musician ; first brought the hautboy into
favour by his playing ; came to England in
1723.
Martinus Gallus (13th century), Polish,
historian ; author of Chronica Polonorum.
Martinus Polonus (d. 1278), Polish Do-
minican, Archbishop of Gnesen ; wrote
Chronicon Martina/nun^ a history of popea
and emperors to the year 1277.
Martinuzzi, Giorgio (d. 1551), Croatian
statesman, Bishop of Grosswardein ; as
guardian of John Sigismuud, governed
Hungary for him, but, having quarrelled
with the queen-mother, intrigued with
Ferdinand of Austria, and was assassin-
ated.
Martos, Ivan Petroyich (d. 1835), Russian
sculptor, the best specimens of whose works
are Potemkin's monument at Cherson, that
of Alexander I. at Taganrog, the statue of
Richelieu at Odessa, and the bronze group
of patriots at Moscow.
Martyn, Henry (b. 1781, d. 1812), English
Orientalist, son of a Cornish miner; took
honours at Cambridge, and, having obtained
a chaplaincy in India, went there in 1803.
His Hindustani version of the New Testa-
ment and Memoirs were published after hia
death.
Martyn, John (*. 1699, d. 1768), English
botanist, friend of Dillennius and Miller,
with whom he founded the Society of the
Rainbow, held a professorship at Cam-
bridge for some years, and wrote Historia
Plantarum Rariorum, leaving a library and
valuable collection to the university.
Martyn, Thomas (b. 1735, d. 1825), his
son, was educated at Cambridge, where he
succeeded his father in the botanical chair
in 1761 ; took orders, and held several bene-
fices; wrote Plantce Cantabrigienses, Flora
Rustica, The Antiquities of Herculaneum
(with J. Lettice), and several books of
travel.
Martyr. [See Justin and Peter.]
Marum, Martin van (b. 1750, d. 1837).
Dutch physicist ; made a powerful electrical
machine in 1785, and wrote Dissertatio d*
Motu Fluidorum in Ilantis.
Mar
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Mas
Marvell, Andrew (b. 1621, d. 1678), Eng-
lish politician and poet, born at Hull, which
he afterwards represented in Parliament;
was secretary to Milton in 1657, _wrote
letters to his constituents (who paid him for
his services) from 1665 to 1674, and many
controversial tracts of great wit, besides
poems.
Marvin, Charles (b. 1854, d. 1891), traveller
and writer ; having spent his youth in Russia,
entered the English Civil Service in 1875,
which he quitted in 1878 on the disclosure
of the Anglo-Russian agreement. He after-
wards travelled in the Caucasus, and wrote
several works on the Central Asian question
(The Russians at the Gate of Herat, etc.),
and Our Public Offices.
Marx, Karl (b. 1818, d. 1883), German
Socialist, born at Treves, where his father
was a lawyer; educated at Bonn and
Berlin ; took an active part in the Liberal
movement of 1840, and, after the suppres-
sion of the Rhenish Gazette (edited by him),
he went to Paris, but had to leave it for
Brussels on the demand of the Prussian
government. Here, with Engels, he drew
•up the Communist Manifesto, which was
circulated throughout Europe in 1848.
Having been expelled from Belgium, he
was invited to Paris, but soon went to
Cologne, where he attempted to revive the
Rhenish Gazette. He now settled in Lon-
don, where he was engaged in literary
work, and took an active part in the Inter-
national Working Men's Association. After
the secession of the Anarchist section in
1873, he took little further part in affairs,
and died at Hampstead ten years later.
His chief work was Das Kapital, but he
wrote also many able pamphlets on Hegelian
philosophy and economical subjects.
Mary Stewart, Queen of Scots (b. 1542,
d. 1587), daughter of James V. of Scot-
land; was educated in France, and be-
trothed to the dauphin, afterwards Francis
II., after whose death in 1560 she returned
to Scotland. She refused to renounce her
claim to the English succession, but at first
temporised with the reformation ; married
Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley, in 1565, but
became alienated from him, and probably
connived at his murder two years later,
after which she was carried off, ostensibly
against her will, and married by Both-
well ; was compelled to abdicate, and
imprisoned in Lochleven ; escaped, but
was defeated at Langside, and fled to
England (May, 1568), where she was im-
prisoned and executed for complicity in the
Babington Plot, her connection with former
conspiracies having been, though known,
not susceptible of proof.
Mary Tudor, Queen of France (b. 1497,
d. 1534), daughter of Henry VIE. : married
Louis XII. in 1514, and, after his death in
the following year, Charles Brandon, Duke
of Suffolk, their daughter being the mother
of Lady Jane Grey.
Mary of Burgundy (*. 1457, d. 1482),
daughter of Charles the Bold ; resisted the
attempt of Louis XI. to dispossess her, and
married Maximilian of Austria in 1477 ; died
through a fall from her horse.
Mary of Guise (b. 1515, d. 1560), daughter
of Claude, Due de Guise; married James
V. of Scotland in 1538, and became mother
of Mary, Queen of Scots ; as regent of Scot-
land, after her husband's death, opposed the
reformation, till deposed in 1559 by the
Lords of the Congregation.
Mary I., Queen of England (b. 1516,
d. 1558), daughter of Henry VIII. by
Katharine of Aragon; came to the throne
in 1553, after a short struggle with North-
umberland ; restored the abbey lands taken
by Henry VIII. and first-fruits to the
Papacy ; deprived and imprisoned the Pro-
testant bishops, and, having married Philip
II. of Spain, persecuted the Protestants,
contrary to the promises made before her
accession. The end of her reign was
marked by a war, in conjunction with Spain,
against France, when Calais was lost by
England.
Mary IL (b. 1662, d. 1694), elder daughter
of James II. ; married William of Orange
in 1677, and reigned with him as queen for
five years.
Masaccio. [See Guidi.]
Masaniello (Tommaso Aniello) (b. 1623,
d. 1647), Neapolitan demagogue; a fisher-
man, who was made chief magistrate of the
city by the populace, which had risen
against the Spanish administration. His
conduct became overbearing, and he was
assassinated eight days after.
Masclef, Franqois (b. 1662, d. 1728),
French Orientalist, published a Hebrew
grammar, and applied a system of reading
without vowel points to Hebrew, Chaldaic,
Syriac, and Samaritan.
Masham (nee Hill), Abigail, Lady (d.
1734), favourite of Queen Anne, and Tory
rival of the Duchess of Marlborough, whom
she supplanted in 1711, when her husband
was raised to the peerage. They afterwards
intrigued with the Stewarts.
Masinissa (d. 149 B.C.), King of Numidia,
and ally of the Romans against Carthage ;.
poisoned his wife Sophouisba, to prevent her
being taken from him by Scipio.
Maskelyne, Nevil (>>. 1732, d.
Mas
( 544 )
ii'Ias
English mathematician ; astronomer- royal
from 1765 till his death; observed the
transit of Venus at St. Helena in 1761, and
calculated the density of the earth at
Schiehallieu ; published the British Ma-
~* Guide (1763).
Mason, James Murray (b. 1798, d. 1871),
American senator, whose arrest by Captain
Wilkes of the Trent, when proceeding to
England as Confederate commissioner,
caused much commotion at the time as a
breach of international law.
Mason, Sir John (d. 1566), English states-
man, son of a monk of Abingdon, where he
endowed a hospital ; was much employed
diplomatically by Henry VIII. , and made a
member of the Privy Council, and, after
serving her predecessors, became treasurer
of the chamber to Elizabeth.
Mason, Sir Josiah (b. 1795, d. 1881), manu-
facturer, born at Kidderminster. After
being engaged in many humble occupations,
set up in Birmingham about 1824 as a maker
of split rings and steel pens, of which he
became the largest manufacturer. Having
amassed a fortune, he established in 1860
the orphanage at Erdington, for which he
was knighted in 1872. He was also the
founder of the Science college at Birming-
ham and other institutions.
Mason, William (b. 1725. d. 1797), English
poet, canon of York, and author of Carac-
tacus, Isis, and other poems.
Masoudi (d. 956), Arab writer and tra-
veller, the reputed author of Ketab-al-
Adjayb, or, Book of Wonders.
Maspero, Gaston Camille Charles (b.
1846), French Egyptologist ; after studying
at the Lycee and the Ecole Normale, was
appointed in 1874 assistant professor of
Egyptian archaeology at the College de
France, and subsequently succeeded Marietta
Bey as keeperof the Boulak Museum. Among
his works are Histoire Anclenne des Peup/es
de I' Orient, Les Contes PopulairesdeVEgypte
Ancimne, and several monographs.
Masse"na, Andre, Due de Rivoli and
Prince of Essling (b. 1758, d. 1817), French
marshal, born at Nice ; served in Italy
under Bonaparte, his conduct at Rivoli
(1797) and as commander of Rome (1798)
being particularly brilliant; defeated the
Eussians at Zurich in 1799, and gallantly
defended Genoa in the next year. Having
served in Germany, went to the Peninsula,
where he was defeated at Busaco and
Fuentes d'Onoro, after which he was dis-
graced by Napoleon ; was afterwards em-
ployed by the Bourbons, and ably defended
bis career in the Assembly.
Massenet, Jules (b. 1842), French com-
poser ; obtained first prizes at the Paris
Conservatoire for pianoforte and fugue, and
the Prix de Rome lor David Itizzio (1863);
made hisdlbut at the Opera Cornique with Le
(jrande Tante (1868), and became professor
of composition at the Conservatoire in 1^78.
Among his chief works are Suite d'Orchestre
(Pasdeloup concerts), Don Cesar de Bazan
(Opera Comique, 1873), Eve, an oratorio
(1^7i), La Vierge, sacred legend (1880),
He rod 'lade, opera (Italian opera), and
Munon, comic opera (1883), Esclartnonde^
romantic opera (1S89), besides popular melo-
dies, stage music, etc.
Massey, Gerald (b. 1828), English writer,
born ot poor parents in Hertfordshire ;
came to London as an errand-boy at fifteen,
and as secretary of the Christian Socialists
became intimate with Kingsley and Maurice ;
wrrote for literary papers, and lectured in
America and the colonies, obtaining much
popularity. Chief among his works are My
Lyrical Life (poems), and The Secret Drama
of Skake&pere's Sonnets.
Massey, William N. (I. 1809, d. 1881),
statesman and historian ; author of History
of England under George III., was called
to the bar in 184 4, and was in Parlia-
ment from 1852 till 1865 (having been
under-secretary for the Home Department
and Chairman of Committee), when finance
member of the Council of India and Privy
Councillor. After his retirement he repre-
sented Tiverton as a Liberal from. 1872 till
his death.
MassiUon, Jean Baptiste (b. 1663, d.
1742), French preacher; made Bishop of
Clennont in 1717 by the Duke of Orleans,
after having preached very eloquently be-
fore Louis XIV. on several occasions.
Massinger, Philip (b. 1583, d. 1640), Eng-
lish dramatist, educated at Oxford ; worked
with Fletcher, Middleton, and others, but
lived in great poverty ; his chief plays were
A New Way to Pay Old Debts, The City
Madam, The Fatal Dowry, The Maid of
Honour, etc.
Masson, Antoine(i. 1636, d. 1702), French
engraver, member of the Academy of Paint-
ing, his chief works being The Travellers of
Emmaus, called The Table Cloth, after
Titian.
Masson, David (b. 1822), Scotch writer,
edited a paper at nineteen ; held the chair
of English literature at University College
from 1852 to 1865, when he became pro-
fessor of rhetoric and English literature in
Edinburgh University. Chief among his
writings maybe n&medJEssays : Biographical
and Critical (1856), A Life of John Milton
(1858-78), an edition of Milton's works
(1877), and Drummond of Hawthornden
(1874).
Mas
(545)
Mat
Mastellata, IL [See DonduccL]
Masters, MaxweU Tylden, M.D., F.R.S.
(b. 1833), English botanist ; practised as a
doctor in London for some years, and was
lecturer on botany at St. George's Hospital
from 1855 to 1868. His chief works are
Botany for Beginners, Plant Life (which
have been translated into French, Dutch,
and Kussian), and Vegetable Teratology.
Masters, Thomas (d. 1643), English poet,
author of Mensa Lubrica (describing the
game of shovelboard), and a Greek poem,
which was translated by Cowley. Lord
Herbert of Cherbury wrote an epitaph for
him.
Mather, Cotton (b. 1663, d. 1728), Puritan
minister at Boston, where he carried on a
witchcraft persecution, and wrote Memor-
able Providences Relating to Witchcraft and
other works.
Mather, Increase (b. 1639, d. 1723), father
of preceding, born at Dorchester, Massa-
chusetts, where his father had been pastor ;
became president of Harvard in 1685, and
visited England to obtain a new charter for
Las colony in 1688. He also wrote many
works.
Matheson, George, D.D., F.R.S.E. (b.
1842), Scottish theologian and philosopher,
although he had lost his sight when a boy,
graduated with great distinction at Glasgow,
and aiterw ,rds took orders in the Church of
Scotland. His chief works are, Aids to the
St*;dy of German Theology (1877), Natural
Elements of Revealed Theology (Baird lecture,
1882), Confucianism (from the Giles lecture,
1882), Can the Old Faith Live with the New ?
(1885), and Sacred Songs (1890).
Mathew, Hon. Sir James Charles, LL.D.
(b. 1830), English judge, educated at Trinity
College, Dublin, where he was senior mode-
rator in 1860 ; was called to the bar in 1854,
and went on the south-eastern circuit ; was
appointed judge of the Queen's Bench in
1881, having some time previously been a
member of the Committee on the Costs of
Legal Proceedings.
Mathew, Theobald (b. 1790, d. 1856),
"Father Mathew," Irish temperance advo-
cate ; preached temperance in Ireland and
America with great success, and earned the
title of the " Apostle of Temperance."
Mathews, Charles (b. 1776, d. 1835),
comedian, son of a bookseller iu the Strand,
educated at Merchant Taylors' ; first ap-
peared professionally in Dublin in 1794 ;
played Don Manuel in She Would and She
r/ould Not at Drury Lane in 1804 ; from
1808 gave entertainments and "at homes" in
London and New York, and in 1828 became
IS
joint proprietor of the Adelphi His Me-
moirs were published after his death.
Mathews, Charles James (b. 1803, d. 1878),
his son, followed the same profession ;
married Madame Vestris in 1838, and with
her managed the Olympic, being afterwards
unfortunate as lessee of Covent Garden
(1838-41), and the Lyceum (1847-55). In
1858 he went to America, where he married
Miss Davenport, and henceforth gave up
managing. He made a tour of the world
(1869-72), and acted till within a few days
of his death, his favourite plays being
Used Up, As Cool as a Cucumber, and My
Awful Dad.
Mathilde Bonaparte, Princesse (b. 1820),
daughter of Jerome Bonaparte and cousin
of Napoleon III. ; married Prince Anatole
Demidoff, but was separated four years
after, and lived with Louis Napoleon till
his marriage ; obtained honourable mention
in 1861 for pictures at the Salon de Pein-
ture.
Matilda, or Maud, Queen of England (d.
1083), daughter of Baldwin, Count of Flan-
ders, married her cousin William, Duke of
Normandy, in 1U54, and became Queen of
England in 1066.
Matilda (d. 1151), daughter of Eustace,
Count of Boulogne, and wife of King
Stephen of England.
Matilda (d. 1118), daughter of Malcolm,
King of Scotland, and Margaret, sister of
Edgar the Atheling. Her marriage with
Henry I. united the Saxon and Norman
lines.
Matilda (d. 1165), her daughter ; married
Henry V. of Germany in 1114, and after his
death Geoffrey Plaiitagenet, Earl of Anjou ;
carried on a war with Stephen for the crown
which Henry I. had designed for her, the
contest terminating in the Treaty of Walling-
ford, by which her son Henry's succession
was recognised.
Matilda, Saint, Empress of Germany (d.
968), married Henry the Fowler in 909, and
became the mother of Otho the Great.
Matilda of Tuscany (b. 1046, d. 1115),
"the Great Countess," daughter of Boni-
face II., Duke of Tuscany; married first
Godfrey of Lorraine, and secondly Guelf,
Duke of Bavaria ; supported Gregory VIL
against the Emperor Henry IV. , who made
his celebrated submission at her castle of
Canossa ; afterwards took part with Conrad,
his son, against him, separated from her
husband in 1095, and afterwards made over
her estates to the Papacy.
Matsys, or Messis, Quentin (b, circa 1466,
d. 1530 or 1531), Flemish painter, originallj
Mat
(54G)
Mat
a blacksmith, his Lest known pictures being
Tnc / ' 'i-uxs at Antwerp, and
The L'at(/-t r.v at W musor.
Mattathias (<!. 166 B.C.), •• > priest,
father 01 tin- Maccabees ; sueee.s<lnlly .>;>-
} d the introduction of idolatry into
Jerusalem by Antiuchus Kpiph:iv
Mattel, Paolo da. " i'auluccio" (b. 1662,
rf. 172s). Neapolitan painter, skilful imi-
tator of the great masters; was invited to
Rome by Benedict XIII., and painted
several pictures there. Other works of his
are at Genoa, and in St. Xavier, Naples.
Matteo da Sienna (b. 1420, d. 1495),
painter, "the j.ia-accio of the Siennese
school.'' Besides his Virgin with Saints and
Any t Is in the Sienna museum, and some
Madonne now at Berlin, he executed some
of the mosaic work in Sienna cathedral
Matter, Jacques (b. 1791, d. 1864), French
philosophical writer, received from the
Academic 10, 000 francs for his De V Influence
des Mo 'ITS sur Us Lois in 1832. He also
wrote Histoire du Gnosticisms, ScheUing
(1842), and Histoire de la Phtlo^phie dans
ses Rapports avec la Religion.
Matteucci, Carlo (b. 1811, d. 1868), Italian
physicist ; was several times minister of
public instruction, and also member of the
Florence council of education. As professor
of physics at Pisa he made many experi-
ments and discoveries in animal electricity,
and published Mannuale di Telegrajia
Elettrica (1850).
Matthseus Cantacuzenus (d. circa 1390),
eldest son and coadjutor of John VI., Em-
peror of the East, abdicated in 1355 ; wrote
commentaries on the Canticles.
Mattheson, Johann (b. 1681, d. 1764),
German musician, and friend of Handel,
•whom, however, he nearly killed in a duel
in 1704 ; composed several operas (The
Pleiades, etc.), and some sacred pieces for
the organ.
Matthew Paris (d. 1259), English Bene-
dictine of St. Albans ; wrote A History of
England from 1066 to the year of his death;
he was a great favourite with Henry III.
Matthew of Westminster (14th century),
Benedictic possibly the author of Florcs
Historiarum ab Exordio Mundi usqtte ad
annum 1307.
Matthews, Eight Hon. Henry (b. 1826),
statesman, born in Ceylon, where his father
was a judge ; was educated at Paris and
London, and, having been called to the bar,
made a reputation as a barrister in the
Home, Tichborne, and Crawford cases ; re-
presented Dungarvan from 1868 to 1874,
and, liiviiigbeen elected as a Conservative
for Birmingham in l.>vi, was appointed
Home Secretary in Lord Salisbury's second
Mini:-; ry.
Matthews, Thomas (b. 1G81, d. 1751),
admiral ; distinguished himself at Cape
tro in 171^, ;ind in an expedition
against the pirates of the Indian Ocean;
compelled Charles III. of Naples to sign a
declaration of neutrality under threat of
bombardment (1742), but was il'jur. ed of
his eommaud for his conduct in the action
olf Toulon in 1744.
Matthise, August (b. 1769, d. 1835), Ger-
man philologist ; author of Encyclopedia ion
Ftulologie, a Greek grammar, and similar
works.
Matthias, Emperor of Germany (b. 1557,
d. 161y), sou of Maximilian II. After having
been governor of the Low Countries, and
Austria, and Hungary, where he was
obliged to tolerate the Protestants, he took
up arms against his brother, the Emperor
Rudolph, who ceded him Hungary and
Austria in 1608. Three years later he re-
ceived the Bohemian crown, and was elected
emperor in 1 Gil. His conduct under Jesuit
influence precipitated the Thirty Years'
war.
Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary
(6. 1443, d. 1490), was proclaimed king in
1458, soon after his release from imprison-
ment at Prague ; maintained the throne
against the emperor, and, after having en-
gaged in successful wars with the Turks,
received the Bohemian crown from the Pope
on condition of extirpating the Hu^tes.
While thus engaged a revolt took place in
Hungary, supported by Poland and other
powers, which combination he routed. After
this he engaged in two wars with the em-
peror, and captured Vienna in 1485, living
there till his death.
Matthieu, Pierre (b. 1563, d. 1621), French
writer, historiographer to Henri IV. ; author
of Histoire de Louis XL , Histoire des Gnerres
depuis 1515 jusque d 1598, and La Guisiad*
(a poem) .
Matthisson, Friedrich von (b. 1761, d.
1831). German poet, born near Magdeburg ;
resided at the courts of Anhalt-Dessau and
of Wurtemberg. His chief work was Ade-
laide (1788), which was set to music by
Beethoven, but he also published poems,
songs, and accounts of his travel?
Maturin, Charles Robert (b. 1782, d.
1824), Irish writer, bom and educated at
Dublin, friend of Scott and Byron : wrote
Melmoth and other romances, Bertram
(tragedy), produced with success at Dntry
Lane in 1816, and some poems.
Mat
(547)
Man
Maturino da Firenze (d. circa 1528),
painter of the Florentine school, pupil of
Raffaelle, and friend of Caravaggio. Most
of his works on the facades of Roman
palaces aud churches have fallen into neg-
lect, and are known only by prints taken
from them.
Maty, Matthew (b. 1718, d. 1776), Dutch
physician ; came to England in 1740, and,
having entered the British Museum, became
chief librarian in 1772. His son, Paul (d.
1787), was secretary to the Royal Society
for some years.
Maud. {See Matilda.]
Maudsley, Henry, M.D. (b. 1835), Eng-
lish physician ; became F.R.C.P. in 1869,
and was Gulstonian lecturer next year ; was
professor of medical jurisprudence at Uni-
versity College, 1869-79, and edited for some
years the Journal of Medical Science, His
chief works are The Physiology and Path-
ology of Mind (1867), and Natural Causes
and Supernatural Seeming s (1886).
Maunder, Samuel (b. circa 1790, d. 1849),
English compiler of educational works, the
chief of which were Biographical Treasury
and Treasury of Useful Knowledge.
Maupassant, Henri Guy de (b. 1850),
French novelist, pupil and follower of Flau-
bert, under whom he studied for seven
years, beginning to write in 1880. His
chief works are La Maison Tellier, Les
Contes de la Becasse, Yvette, Conies du Jour
et de Nuit, Pierre et Jean, and Afloat. In
1891 his mind became deranged.
Maupeou, Rene Nicolas Auguste (b. 1714,
d. 1792), politician ; succeeded his father as
chancellor, but reversed his policy by be-
coming the instrument in the suppression of
the parlements in 1771 and the establish-
ment of the " Parlement Maupeou " in their
place, incurring great unpopularity.
Maupertuis, Pierre Louis Moreau de (b.
1698, d. 1759), geometrician ; went to Lap-
land in 1736 to measure a degree of the
meridian, and published on his return Figure
de la Terre Determlnee ; went to the court of
Frederick the Great in 1740, and re-organised
the Academy of Berlin, of which he be-
came president ; had an historical quarrel
with Voltaire, who was jealous of his in-
fluence.
Maur, Saint (d. 584) French Benedictine ;
founded many French monasteries, and the
order called by his name.
Maurepas, Jean Frederic Phelippeux,
Comte de (b. 1701, d. 1781), statesman:
became secretary of state in 1715, and
afterwards as minister of marine brought
about many reforms in the French navy ;
J J 2
was disgraced by the influence of Madame
de Pompadour in 1749, but recalled to
power by Louis XVI., with whom he had
much influence in his early years.
Maurice, " the Elector," Duke of Saxony
(b. 1521, d. 1553), German prince, son of
Henry the Pious : served under Charles V.
against the Turks in 1542, and at first sup-
ported him against the Smalcaldic League,
being made Elector of Saxony after Miihl-
berg in place of his cousin in 1547 ; after-
wards broke with the emperor, and sided
with France and the league against him,
obtaining from him the peace of Passau
which secured toleration, but was mortally
wounded at Siverhausen in the following
year.
Maurice, John Frederick Denison (b. 1805,
d. 1872), English theologian and social re-
former, son of a Suffolk Unitarian minister;
was educated at Cambridge and Oxford, and
came to London in 1827, where he for some
time edited the Athenceum. He afterwards
went to Oxford, where he first graduated,
took orders in the English Church, and began
to write. He became chaplain at Guy's
Hospital in 1836, professor of English litera-
ture at Cambridge in 1840, and of theology
at Bang's College, London, in 1845, and in
1847, with Kingsley and others, entered
upon the Christian Socialist movement His
Theological Essays (1853) caused his re-
moval from King's College, and he then
organised the Great Ormond Street Working
Men's College. For some years, from 1860,
he held a London living, and in 1866 suc-
ceeded Grote as Knightbridge professor of
moral science at Cambridge. He was twice
married. Hi a Life, by his son, was pub-
lished in 1884. His chief works were Moral
and Metaphysical Philosophy, and several
tracts, Subscription no Bondage, The Kingdom
of Christ, What is Revelation ? etc.
Maurice of Hesse -Cassel, Augustus (b.
1572, d. 1632), founded the "Collegium
Mauritianum," and wrote several learned
works.
Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (b.
1567, d. 1625), son of William of Orange,
"the Silent;" became Stadtholder of the
United Provinces and head of the army in
1587, and successfully carried on the struggle
against Spain ; refused peace in 1598, but
consented to a truce in 1609 ; afterwards
supported the Romanists against the Remon-
strants, and put to death Barneveldt, and
concluded a treaty with France and England
just before his death.
Mauricius, Flavius Tiberius (b. 539, d.
602), Emperor of the East; after distin-
guished military service under Tiberius II.
in Persia and the East, married Constantia,
his daughter, and succeeded him in 582;
Man
(548)
Max
carried on successful wars against the Lom-
bards ai.d Avars, but was finally dethroned
and murdered by 1'Locas.
Mauro (loth century), Italian geographer,
a monk of Venire ; made a planisphere for
Alfonso V. of Portugal in 1457, aud the
celebrated Mappamondo some time after-
wards.
Maury, Jean Siffrein, "the Abbe" (b.
1746, d. 1817), French ecclesiastic and poli-
tician, son of a bootmaker ; became the
most eloquent debater among the Royalists
of the Constituent Assembly (1789-91), but
was subsequently obliged to retire to Rome,
•where he was made cardinal ; returned to
Paris in 1806, and became archbishop in
1810, but was disgraced by the Bourbons at
the restoration.
Maury, Matthew Fontaine (b. 1806, d.
1873), American hydrographer and naval
officer, of French descent; made a voyage
round the world in 1326, and was afterwards
astronomer to the South Sea expedition of
Thomas Jones and superintendent of the
Washington observatory, where he published
marine charts and sailing directions. At the
Brussels Conference in 1853 his system was
adopted by the several nations. His chief
work was The Physical Geography of the Sea.
Mausolus (d. circa 353 B.C.), King of
Caria, known to posterity by the mauso-
leum of Halicarnassus, erected to his memory
by Artemisia, his wife.
Mavrocordato, Alessandro (b. 1791, d.
1865), Greek statesman and diplomatist ;
was prominent in the war of Independence,
after which he was made president of the
Executive Council ; became president of the
Assembly in 1843, when a constitution was
established ; was envoy at Paris from 1850
to 1854, when he again became minister,
but died two years later. He was a friend
of Lord Byron, who died in his arms.
Mavromichalis, Petros (b. 1775, d. 1848),
Maniote chief (" Petro Bey") ; took a lead-
ing part in the Greek war of Independence,
driving the Turks from the Morea. He was,
however, thrown into prison by Capod'Istria,
but was released, reinstated, and made sena-
tor and admiral by King Otho.
Mawe, John (b. 1764, d. 1829), English
mineralogist; collected specimens in South
America, and published Treatise on Dia-
monds and Precious Stones, Travels in Brazil,
etc.
Maxentius, Marcus Valerius (d. 312),
Roman Emperor, son of Maximianus (Aure-
lius) ; reigned some time with his father,
but compelled him to resign, put to death
Severus, quelled a revolt in Africa, and
acted with great cruelty, but was at length
defeated by Constantino and drowned in the
Tiber.
Maximianus, Galerius (d. 311), Emperor
of the East, originally a Dacian shepherd ;
was successful as a soldier against the Goths
and Persians, and married the daughter of
Diocletian, on whose abdication he was
proclaimed Augustus, but, having alienated
the Romans by his cruelty, was compelled
to fly before his rival, Maxeutius.
Maximianus, Marcus Aurelius (310),
Emperor of Rome, by origin a peasant ;
persecuted the Christians, and carried on
successful wars in Germany, but his army
revolted on his return to Italy, and he was
murdered in his sleep.
Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico (b. 1832,
d. 1867) ; having been commander of the
Austrian navy and governor of Venice, waa
made Emperor of Mexico in 1864, but was
soon engaged in quelling his opponents
under Juarez, by whom he was captured
and shot in 1867. He was buried at Vienna
in the following year.
Maximilian I., Emperor (b. 1459, d. 1519),
son of Frederick III., and grandfather or
Charles V. , elected King of the Romans in
1486, and emperor in 14^3, but not crowned ;
married Mary of Burgundy in 1477, and
thus obtained the Netherlands. His second
wife was Bianca Sforza, after the marriage
with whom he formed with the Pope, Spain,
and Venice a league against France. He
afterwards carried on unsuccessful wars
with Venice and the Swiss, but in 1513
joined that republic and Henry VIII. in a
Holy League against France. His last act was
the attempt to induce the Diet of Augsburg
to support him against the Turks.
Maximilian II. (b. 1527, d. 1576), Emperor,
son of Ferdinand I. , married a daughter of
Charles V., and was made regent in 1548;
was elected King of Bohemia (1562) and of
Hungary (1563), and became emperor in the
following year ; showed great toleration in
his religious policy, and tried to unite the
German Protestants, besides remonstrating
with Philip II. on the subject of his per-
secutions in the Netherlands.
Maximilian I., Elector of Bavaria, " the
Great Duke" (b. 1573, d. 1651), became
chief of the Catholic League of Wurzburg
in 1609, and defeated the Protestants at
Prague ; was made elector in 1623, and
confirmed at the Peace of Westphalia.
Maximilian IL (b. 1662, d. 1726), son of
Ferdinand became elector in 1679 ; joined
France asainst the Grand Alliance, and was
put to the ban of the empire, but recovered
his estates at the Treaty of Baden (1714).
Maximilian Joseph L, first TTing erf
Max
(549)
May
Bavaria (b. 1756, d. 1825), succeeded Charles
Theodore as elector in 1799 ; improved the
criminal law, and granted freedom of wor-
ship to his subjects ; was made king by
Napoleon in 1805, but deserted him after
Leipzig. He granted a charter in 1818.
Maximilian Joseph II. (b. 1811, c?. 1864),
son of Louis I., on whose abdication, in
1848, he succeeded. He showed himself a
strong partisan of Austria, and opposed the
reconstruction of Germany.
Maximinus I. (Maximin), Emperor of
Rome (d. circa 238), by birth a Thracian
shepherd and giant; was employed by
Alexander Severus to organise the army,
and obtained the purple after his assassin-
ation ; defeated the incursions of the Ger-
mans in 236-7, but behaved with great
cruelty at Rome, and was murdered with
his son.
Maximinus IL (d. circa 315), an Illyrian
shepherd ; was made Csesar on the abdication
of Diocletian and Augustus in 308 ; shared
the East with Licinius, and, attempting to
conquer the whole, was defeated.
Maximus. [See Fabius Maximus.]
Maximus L (Pupienus), Emperor of
Rome ; was elected emperor on the death of
the Gordians in 238, but soon after mur-
dered by the Praetorians.
Maximus II. (Clemens) (d. circa 388),
rebelled against Gratian, and, having been
proclaimed emperor in Britain, conquered
Gaul, and was recognised in 383 ; subdued
Italy in 387, but was defeated and beheaded
by Theodosius soon after.
Maximus in. (Petronius) (d. 455), con-
tributed to the ruin of Ae'tius in 454;
caused the murder of Yalentinian III. in
the following year, and succeeded him,
marrying his widow, Eudoxia ; fled from
Rome on the approach of the Yandals, and
was killed by his troops.
Max-Miiller, Frederick (b. 1823), phi-
lologist, of German birth, son of Miiller the
poet ; was born at Dessau, and gradu-
ated at Leipzig and Berlin, studying under
Bopp, Schelling, and Fleischer. He went
to Paris in 1845, and next year to England,
where he was persuaded to remain by
Bunsen. He settled at Oxford in 1848, was
elected Taylorian professor of comparative
philology in 1854, fellow of All Souls' 1858,
and professor of a new chair of philology in
1868, besides holding several offices, curator
of the Bodleian, etc. In 1873 he lectured in
Westminster Abbey on the Religions of fhe
World, delivered the first Hib'bert lecture
in 1878, and the Gifford lectures (Glasgow)
in 1888 and 1891. Among his works may
be named editions of the Rig- Veda and
other sacred books of the East, History of
Ancient Sanskrit Literature, The Science
of Language, Introduction to the Science
of Religion, and essays on mythology, bio-
graphy, etc.
Max O'Rell, nom de plume of Paul Bloutt
(b. 1848), French writer, who graduated at;
Paris in 1864-5; entered the army in 1809,
was taken prisoner at Sedan, and fought
against the Commune, after which he came
to England as a correspondent ; was French
master at St. Paul's school from 1876 to
188-1, and lectured in England and America.
He has written John Bull et son lie, Les
Filles de John Bull, etc.
Maxwell, James Clerk, F.R.S. (b. 1831, d.
1879), physicist, born at Kirkcudbright ;
after being second wrangler and Smith's
prizeman, became professor of natural
philosophy at Aberdeen, and of physics
and astronomy at King's College (1860-8).
In 1871 he was elected professor of physics
at Cambridge, where he made numerous
researches, resulting in The Kinetic Theory
of Gases, Electricity and Magnetism, etc.
Maxwell, Mrs. [See Braddon.]
Maxwell, William Hamilton (b. 1795, d.
1850), Irish writer ; author of a Life of th*
Duke of Wellington and several novels.
Maxwell, Sir William Stirling- (b. 1818, d.
1878), Scottish writer (assumed the name of
Maxwell in 1866), son of Mr. Archibald
Stirling, of Keir, Perthshire ; after gradu-
ating at Cambridge, travelled in France and
Spain, and represented Perthshire as a Con-
servative for several years. Married Hon.
Mrs. Norton in 1877. His chief works were
Annals of the Artists of Spain, and The
Cloister Life of Charles V. He died at Venice.
May, George Augustus Chichester (b.
1815), Irish judge, educated at Shrewsbury
and Cambridge ; was called to the Irish bar
in 1844, was law adviser of the Crown in
Ireland 1874-5, and Attorney -General from
then till 1877, when he became Lord Chief
Justice of Ireland.
May, Thomas (3.1594, d. 1650), English his-
torical writer ; after having been favoured
by Charles I. , became secretary and histori-
ographer to the Long Parliament, and
wrote History of the Parliament of England.
May, Sir Thomas Erskine, Right Hon.
(6. 1815, d. 1886), historian; was called to
the bar in 1838, and became clerk to the
House of Commons in 1871. He wrote A
Treatise on the Laivs, Privileges, Proceedings,
and Usage of Parliament, The Constitutional
History of England from 1760 to 1860, and
several other works, and was created a peer
(Baron Farnborough) a few days before hu
death.
May
( 550}
Mayenne, Charles de Lorraine, Due de (b.
1.554, d. lull), French politician, son of
Frai^ois, Due de Guise ; became head of
the Catholic League 011 the death of his
brother, Henri, in 1588 ; was defeated at
Arques and Ivry by Henri de Navarre, and
defended Paris against him ; convoked the
States -Genera. i:i I.~>^3, but three years after
submitted to his rival as Henri IV., and
dissolved the League.
Mayer, Johann Simon (b. 1763, d. 1845),
German musician, born in Bavaria, but
lived chiefly in Italy, where he composed
Medta, J/isWt Eleutini, and other operas.
Mayer, Johann Tobias (b. 1723, rf. 1762),
German astronomer ; taught himself mathe-
matics, and made machines at the age of
fourteen ; was tuade professor of mathe-
matics at Gottiugen in 1750, and prepared
longitudinal tables for use at sea, for which
his widow received £3,000 from the English
Government. He also invented the repeat-
ing circle. His son (d. 1830) was author of
Researches in Seat.
Mayer, Julius Robert von (b. 1814, d.
1873), German physicist ; after walking the
hospitals in Munich and Paris, embarked
&s ship's surgeon in the service of the Dutch
East India Company. After his return he
elaborated his observations, and in 1845 pub-
lished Organic Movement in Connection with
the Transformation of Matter. Among his
other works were Remarks on the Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat, Die Mechanik der Wanne,
etc. His mind was at times affected.
Mayhew, Henry (b. 1812, d. 1887), English
writer ; author of London Labour and the
London Poor, The Mormons, and other
workd , waa one of the founders of Punch.
Maynard, Sir John (b. 1602, d. 1690),
English lawyer ; was manager of the prose-
cutions of Stratford and Laud, but after
this withdrew from political life ; became
king's serjeant at the Restoration, and was
a member of Parliament for many years,
being made Commissioner of the Great Seal
after the abdication of James LL, when
nearly ninety years old.
Mayo, Richard Southwell Bourke, Earl of
(b. 1822, d. 1872), statesman, educated at
Trinity College, Dublin; entered Parliament
as Conservative in 1847, and as Lord Naas
(from 1849) continued to sit in the Commons
till 1867, when he succeeded to the peerage.
He was Chief Secretary for Ireland three
times under Lord Derby, and under Disraeli,
till in 1868 he became Governor-General
of India, while serving in which capacity,
though universally respected and highly suc-
cessful, he was assassinated by a Punjab
fanatic whilst visiting the convict settle-
ment in the Andaman Islands.
Mayor, John Eyton Bickersteth (b. 1825),
English scholar, bum in Ceylon, and edu-
cated at Shrewsbury and St. John's, Cam-
bridge, of which he became fellow in l8i(J ;
was university librarian from 1863 to 1867,
and was elected professor of Latin in 1872.
Among his works are an edition of Juvenal.
Two Lives of Nicholas Fcrrar, and Roger
Ascham's tichooltnaster.
Mazarin, Giulio, Cardinal (b. 1602, d.
1661), French statesman, of Italian birth.
After being in the diplomatic service of
Spain, he came to France in 1634 as nuncio-
extraordinary of the pope, and, having been
favoured by Richeheu, joined him five
years later in opposition to the papacy, and
became naturalised in France. In 1641 he
was created cardinal, and, having succeeded
to the place of Richelieu soon after, sup-
ported Anne of Austria, and after having
twice been exiled by his enemies' influence,
was recalled by Louis XIV. in 1653, and
remained supreme till his death. He had a
share in the Treaty of Westphalia, and
negotiated the Treaty of the Pyrenees
between France and Spain.
Mazel, Abraham (d. 1710), a Frenchman,
chief of the Camisards, whose revolt in the
C eve lines he organised ; after his defeat he
escaped from prison, but, having engaged
in a fresh revolt, was killed.
Mazeppa, Ivan Stefanovitch (b. 1644, d.
1709), Cossack hetman ; for an intrigue with
the wife of a Polish noble is said to have
been bound to a wild horse by his master,
and preserved by the Cossacks, among
whom he found himself ; afterwards served
Peter the Great, but deserted him for
Charles XII., on whose defeat he took
poison.
Mazzinghi, Joseph (b. 1765, d. 1844), Eng-
lish musician of Corsican family, was pupil
of J. Christoph Bach, and an organist at
ten; became director of music at the King's
Theatre in 1784, and had the (then) Princess
of Wales among his pianoforte pupils. The
trio Ye Shepherds Tell Me was his only com-
position of mark.
Mazzini, Giuseppe (b. 1805, d. 1872),
Italian patriot, son of a professor at Genoa,
joined but abandoned the Carbonari : was
arrested in 1830 by the Sardinian govern-
ment, and confined at Savona ; went to
France after his release, and from Mar-
seilles organised " La Giovine Italia " (the
Young Italy party), in consequence of
which he was obliged to retire to Switzer-
land ; carried on at Geneva a cosmopolitan
agitation, and was expelled in 183(3 by the
Swiss government, after which he came to
London. After the revolution of 1848 he
again went to Italy, served under Gari-
baldi, and on the flight of Pius IX. became
Maz
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Med
a member of the Triumvirate. The coming
of the French, however, compelled him to
return to England ; but from London he
organised more than one rising. In the
events of 1859-60 he did not concur, and
when elected to the Italian parliament
refused to sit. He also in 1 866 refused his
pardon. In 1869 and 1870 he vainly
attempted to excite fresh revolts, and died
at Pisa in 1872. He wrote much, chiefly
political and social pamphlets, which were
collected by Saffi in ten volumes.
Mazzolini, Ludovico, " il Ferrarese" (b.
1481, d. 1530), Italian painter, pupil of
Lorenzo Costa. Three of his pictures are in
the National Gallery, but his best, Christ
Disputing with the Doctors, is at Berlin.
Mazzruchelli, Pier Francesco, "ilMoraz-
zone" (b. 1571, d. 1622), painter, born at
Morazzone, in the Milanese ; became an
imitator of Tintoretto and Titian. Fine
altar-pieces by him are at Milan and in the
Chartreuse at Paris.
Mazzuoli, Francesco. [See Parmigiano.]
Mazzuoli, Giuseppe, "il Bastaruolo " (d.
1589), Italian painter of the Farnese school,
" of Dossi ; was drowned while bathing.
the cathedral and
His pictures are in
churches of Ferrara.
Meade, George Gordon (*. 1815, d. 1872),
American general ; after serving in the
Mexican army, commanded for the Federals
in the Civil war, superseding Butterfield in
1863 on the Potomac. He also commanded
at Gettysburg, and afterwards served under
Grant, and at his death was at the head of
the Atlantic division.
Meagher, Thomas Francis (b. 1823, d. 1867),
Irish agitator, " Meagher of the Sword,
was born at Waterf ord ; as a member of the
Young Ireland party denounced O'Connell,
and in 1848 was tried and condemned to
death for participation in the Ballingarry
rising, but the sentence was commuted to
transportation. Having escaped from Van
Diemen's Land in 1852, he lectured in
America, and was called to the New York
bar in 1855. During the Civil war he
raised and commanded an Irish brigade for
the North, and had been acting-governor of
Montana for two years when he was
drowned in the Missouri at Fort Benton.
Mecherino. [See Beccaf umi.]
Mechi, John Joseph (b. 1802, d. 1880),
British agriculturist, son of a naturalised
Italian ; set up as a cutler, and patented a
razor strop. Having bought some land in
Essex, he tried upon it with success deep
drainage and steam-power, and wrote
several works descriptive of his improve-
ments (How to Farm Profitably, etc.). In
1856 he became sheriff of London, in which
year he also received a testimonial from
agriculturists. The difficulties of his later
years were not due to failure in farming.
Meckel, Johann Friedrich (b. 1781, d.
1833), held several professorships at Halle;
was one of the founders of teratology, and
wrote several works on comparative ana-
tomy, Handbuch der Pathologischen Ana-
tomie, etc.
Mede, or Mead, Joseph (b. 1586, d. 1638),
English theologian, professor of Greek at
Cambridge, and author of Clovis Apoca-
typtica.
Medici, Grand Dukes of Tuscany :—
Cosmo I. (b. 1519, d. 1574), a descendant
of Cosimo de' Medici ; became duke in
1537, and was created Grand Duke by Pope
Pius V. in 1569. He acquired Sienna, and
re-established the university of Pisa and the
Laurentiau library.
FRANCESCO I. (b. 1541, d. 1587), son of
Cosimo, whom he succeeded ; ruled tyran-
nically, and quarrelled with France, Venice,
and Genoa ; was assassinated with Bianca
Capello, and succeeded by his son, the Car
dinal Francesco.
Cosmo II. (b. 1590, d. 1621), succeeded
Ferdinando I. in 1609, and aided the
Emperor Ferdinand III. in his war with
the Turks. He was succeeded by FER-
DINANDO II.
Cosmo III. (b. 1642, d. 1723), succeeded
Ferdinando II. in 1670 ; made an unhappy
marriage with Marguerite Louise d' Orleans,
who, united with his son, caused him great
trouble.
GIOVANNI, or GIANGASTAEE (d. 1737), was
the last Grand Duke of Tuscany, which, by
the Treaty of Seville, passed to Francis of
Lorraine.
Medici, Alessandro (b. 1510, d. 1537),
natural son of Lorenzo, or of Clement VII. ;
was expelled in 1527, but restored by
Charles V. three years later, and created
duke or doge in 1532 ; was assassinated by
Lorenzino in 1537.
Medici, Cattarina dei (b. 1519, d. 1589),
Queen of France, daughter of Lorenzo,
Duke of Urbino ; married Henri II. , when
Duke of Orleans (1533), after whose death
she was regent for their sons, Francis II.
and Charles IX., over whom she exercised
great influence. Her great aim was to hold
the balance between the Guises and the
Huguenots, and her hostility to the latter
has been much exaggerated.
Medici, Cosimo (the Elder) (b. 1389, d.
1464), called " Padre della Patria," headed
the popular party against the Albizzi, and
after his return from exile became real
ruler of Florence, where he was a great
QKed
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Meh
patron of literature and art, and established
a library. His son, Pietro (d. 1469), though
secure in his position, was not a successful
ruler.
Medici, Giovanni (b. 1360, d. 1428), son of
Salvestro, and founder of the greatness of
his family ; served Florence as a diplomatist,
and became gonfalonier* in 1421. He made
a large fortune as a banker.
Medici, Giuliano (the Younger) (b. 1478,
d. 1516), brother of Pietro ; returned to
Florence by the help of the Spaniards in
1512, and became chief of the state, after
which he continued subject to the Papacy,
now in the hands of his brother, Leo X.
Medici, Lorenzo, " il Magnifico " (b. 1448,
d. 1492), son of Pietro, became dominant in
Florence after the suppression of the Pazzi,
by whom his brother, Giuliano, had been
murdered (1478). His alliance with Venice
and Milan excited the jealousy of the
Papacy, and Sixtus IV. excommunicated
Florence on his account. He was recon-
ciled, however, with Innocent VIII., and
his son, Giovanni, was made cardinal. He
was a great patron and collector of manu-
scripts.
Medici, Lorenzo (the Younger), son of
Pietro ; ruled in Florence from 1513, and
was created Duke of Urbino in 1516.
Medici, Lorenzo di Pier Francesco, or
Lorenzino (d. 1548), related to Alessan-
dro, and called "the Tuscan Brutus"
for his.murder of him ; was killed at Venice
by order of the Grand Duke Cosimo I.
Medici, Pietro (the Younger) (b. 1471, d.
1503), son of Lorenzo ; was educated by
Politian, and succeeded his father in 1492,
but ruled badly, and, having surrendered
Florence to Charles VIII. of France, was
compelled to leave the city (1494). After
an unsuccessful attempt, three years later,
to seize it, he joined the French at Naples,
and was drowned in the Garigliano in
1503.
Medina, Sir John Baptist (b. 1659, d. 1711),
Belgian portrait-painter ; came to London in
1686, and was knighted in Scotland. His
portrait of himself is in the Florence gal-
lery, and in the Surgeons' Hall at Edin-
burgh there are paintings by him.
Meding, Oskar (b. 1829), German novelist
("Gregor Samarow") ; was for some time
a Prussian administrator, but in 1859
entered the service of Hanover, accompany-
ing the king to Frankfort in 1863. After the
deposition of the king he took no further
part in affairs, and finally settled at Berlin.
His chief works are For "Sceptre and Crown,
a romance (1872-6), Heights and Depths
(1879-80), and others, under his nom de
plume, as well as Memorien z\ir Zeit-
geschichte, A. Biography uf ll'iH'iam /.,
Emperor, etc., under his own uarne.
Medlicott, Henry Benedict (b. 1829), Irish
geologist, educated in France, and at Triuity
College, Dublin ; was elected F.R.S. in
1877, and received the VVoolaston medal in
1888. He was engaged in the Irish, English,
and Indian geological surveys, and was
director of the Geological Society of India
from 1876 to 1887. His works include A
Manual of the Geology of India, papers in
the Journal of the Geological Society
(Indian), records of the survey, and Ag-
nosticism and Faith (1888).
Meel, Jan (b. 1599, d. 1664), Flemish
painter, pupil of Andrea Sacchi, and one of
the first painters of secular subjects, his
best works being hunting-pieces executed
for the Duke of Savoy.
Meer, Jan Van der, or Meeren, " the
Old" (b. 1627, d. 1691), Flemish painter,
born at Schoonhoven, his chief subjects
having been sea-pieces and battle-pieces.
Meer, Jan Van der, "the Younger" (b.
1665, d. 1698), Flemish painter, perhaps a
son of the last-named ; belonged to the
school of Berghem, and is considered his
best pupil. He is sometimes known as De
Jonghe.
Meer Allum (d. 1809), minister of the
Nizam ; was taken prisoner by the Mahrattas
after the battle of Kurdla, and after his
release made treaties with Lord Wellesley
against them. A reservoir near Hyderabad
was made by him, and his family have
become hereditary prime ministers.
Meer Cassim became Nabob of Bengal
on the deposition of Meer Jaffier in 1760,
having to cede three provinces for the
office. He afterwards raised an army
against the English, and allied himself with
the Vizier of Oude, but was defeated by
Hector Munro, and disappeared soon after.
Meer Jaffier, Subadar of Bengal (d.
1765), created nawab by Clive after the
battle of Plassey, when he had deserted
Suraja Dpula and joined the English ; was
deposed hi 1760, but reinstated after the
rebellion of Meer Cassim, his son-in-law.
Meer Joomba (d. 1662), Mahometan
general and statesman, of humble birth ;
after having been a diamond merchant at
Golconda, became prime minister there,
and was subsequently grand-vizier at Delhi
tinder Aurungzebe.
Mehemed (Ahmohade dynasty) (d. 1213),
succeeded Yakub Almansur in 1199 as ruler
of Spain and North Africa ; proclaimed war
against the Christians in 1209, and wa§
Meh
( 553)
Mel
defeated at Las Navas de Tolosa three
years later by the kings of Castile, Aragon,
and Navarre.
Mehemed L, Ommiad Khalif of Spain
(b. 822, d. 866), succeeded Abderahman II.
in 852 ; carried on unsuccessf ul wars with
Alfonso III. of Leon.
Mehemed IL (d. 1010), usurped the throne
in lOOy, but was next year deposed and
beheaded.
Mehemed III. (d. 1025), dethroned and
killed Abderahman V. in 1024, but was
deposed and poisoned soon after.
Mehemed All (Mohammed AM), Pasha of
Egypt (b. 1769, d. 1849), Albanian by birth;
went to Egypt to support Abercromby
against the French, and some years after-
wards (1805) assumed the government
in defiance of the Turkish pasha. He
treacherously massacred the Mamelukes
both in 1805 and 1811, conquered Nubia
and Arabia, and assisted the sultan against
the Greeks, while he also reformed the
Egyptian administration. After the Greek
war he rebelled against the sultan, and
his son Ibrahim conquered Syria in
1831. However, the European Powers
interfered when he claimed hereditary
rights, and, though the pasha treacherously
obtained possession of the Turkish fleet in
1839, he was driven out of Syria in the fol-
lowing year, when the English took Acre,
and compelled him by treaty to recognise
the suzerainty of the sultan in Egypt. He
became imbecile a year before his death.
Mehemet All Pasha (b. 1827, d. 1878),
Turkish general and statesman, of German
birth (Charles Detroit) ; deserted the Meck-
lenburg merchant-service, and became a
Mahometan at Constantinople. He served
under Omar Pasha in the Crimean war,
became pasha in 1867, and in 1873 sup-
pressed the brigands on the Greek frontier,
He was commander-in-chief during part of
the Russo-Turkish war, and was Turkish
plenipotentiary at the Berlin Congress, but
was assassinated in Albania in the same
year.
Mehemed AsMa (b. 1462, d. 1537), Sultan
of Timbuctoo : formed the whole of the
Soudan into a Mahometan state.
M4hul, E"tienne Nicolas (b. 1763, d. 1817),
Belgian musician, pupil of Gluck at Paris;
composed Joseph, an oratorio, Euphrosine et
Coradin, and several other operas, besides
setting several republican songs, Le Ghant
du Depart, etc.
Meilhac, Henri (b. 1832), French dra-
matist, collaborated with L. Halevy.
Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest (b. 1813,
d. 1891), painter, born at Lyons; attracted
attention by his Little Messenger in 1836,
and continued to exhibit at the Paris Salon
for many years ; his best pictures dis-
tinguished for minute detail being the
Napoleon Cycle, among which the picture
called 1814 was sold in 1887 for the highest
price ever obtained during an artist's life-
time (£34,000). An exhibition of his works
was held in Paris in 1884, and was largely
attended. Meissonier served in the Italian
campaign and the early part of the Franco-
Prussian war, and was colonel at the siege
of Paris.
Mela, Pomponius ([1st century), Roman
geographer, perhaps identical with Annseus
Mela mentioned in Tacitus and Pliny as a
conspirator against Nero; was born in
Spain, and wrote De Situ Orbis, which has
been many times translated (into English by
Arthur Golding in 1585).
Melancthon, Philip (b. 1497, d. 1560),
German reformer ; studied under Reuchlin,
and was appointed professor of Greek at
Wittemberg at an early age, thus becoming
acquainted with Luther. He drew up the
Confession of Augsburg, of which he sent a
copy to the patriarch of Constantinople
inviting his adhesion ; and by his moderation
as well as his writings (Loci Communes Theo-
loc/iei, etc.) did much to help the refor-
mation. Melancthon is the Greek form of
Schwarzerd (=» black earth).
Melbourne, William Lamb, second Vis-
count (b. 1779, d. 1848), British statesman,
educated at Cambridge and Glasgow Uni-
versities ; was called to the bar in 1804, and
entered Parliament in the following year as
a supporter of Fox. He was Chief Secretary
for Ireland under Canning in 1827, and,
having succeeded to the peerage, was Home
Secretary under Earl Grey from 1830 to
1834, in which year he became Premier.
After a few months in Opposition, he again
held that position till 1841, but from that
year took little further part in affairs. Trig
brother, a diplomatist of some distinction,
wko had been created Baron Beauville in
1839, succeeded as third viscount (d. 1853).
MeleMades, or Miltiades, Saint (d. 314),
was elected pope in 311, and condemned the
Donatists in 313.
Melchthal, Arnold von (d. 1317), Swiss
patriot ; by the conspiracy of Griitli pre-
pared the way for "Wilhelm Tell, the imme-
diate cause of the movement being cruelty
inflicted on the elier Melchthal by the
Austrians.
Meldola, Raphael (b. 1849), chemist, of
Jewish descent, grandson of a chief rabbi
of the same name ; was sent by the Royal
Society in 1875 in charge of the Nicobar
Mel
554 )
Kiel
Island expedition to observe the total
eclipse. He was appointed professor of
chemistry in the Finsbury Technical College
in 1SS5, and elected F.it.S. in 1886. His
chief works are Inuri/unu- Cnenuxtri/, an
annotated translation of Weisinann's Theory
of Descent, and a Report on the East Anglian
earthquake of 1884.
Melek C':ali, surnamed Djelal Eddyn (d.
1093;, Seijukide Suitan of Persia ; founded
an observatory at Bagdad, and built many
towns throughout his empire, which he
greatly extended.
Melek el Adel (*. 1143, d. 1218), Sultan
of Egypt and Damascus, and younger
brother of Saladiii, to whom he was of great
assistance in his struggle with the Cru-
saders. By a treaty with Richard I. he
was to have married that king's sister, but
she refused her consent, and in 1217 he
was defeated and carried to Damietta by
Andrew II. of Hungary.
Melek el Afdahl (d. 1225), King of Damas-
cus and Jerusalem ; succeeding his father
Saladin, having previously annihilated a
body of Templars near Tiberias, was de-
posed by his brother.
Melek el Kamel (Meledin) (d. 1239), son
of El Adel, whom he succeeded on the
throne of Egypt ; was obliged to cede
Jerusalem to the Emperor Frederick II.,
whom he had called in to help him against
his brother ; was a great patron of science
and art, and built the grand college at
Cairo.
Melek el Moadham Touran Chah (d. 1 250) ,
brother of Meledin, whom he assassinated
and succeeded ; defeated the Crusaders under
St. Louis, but afterwards alienated the
Mamelukes, and ended by his fall the dy-
nasty of Ayoub.
Melendez Valdez (b. 1753, d. 1817), Span-
ish poet, founder of the Salamanca school ;
was professor of philosophy in that univer-
sity, and subsequently obtained several
regal offices ; was exiled on the fall of
Jovellanos, and, though restored by the
revolution of Aranjuez, died in great poverty
at Montpellier. Among his poems were
odes to Truth and Winter.
Melho, Philip de (b. 1723, d. 1790), Cinga-
lese, the first who was converted, preached
in Dutch, Portuguese, and Tamil, and
translated into the latter dialect the New
Testament and part of the Old.
Meli, Giovanni (b. 1740, d. 1815), Sicilian
poet, who has been called the modern Theo-
critus, his chief works (some of which have
been translated into English and German)
being La Fata Galante, Bucoliche, and
JSlegie, Epistole, and Favole.
Melikoff, Loris, Count (I,. 1824, d. 1888),
Russian general, greatly distinguished in
Armenia during the Crimean war ; as com-
mander of the army or the Caucasus, com-
pelled the Turks to evacuate Jxais, and was
created governor of Astrakhan in 1878. As
minister of the interior he attempted to
crush the Nihilists by repression mingled
with moderate reforms, but resigned after
the assassination of the Tzar in 1881.
Melissus (5th century B.C.), Eleatic phi-
losopher, mentioned by Aristotle and others ;
commanded the Samiau fleet against Athena
in the Peloponnesian war.
Mellon, Harriet (d. 1837), English actress ;
played Lydia Languish at Drury Lane ia
1795, and ten years later made a great hit
as Violante in The Honeymoon. In 1815
she married Mr. Coutts, the banker, and
retired from the stage. Her second husband
was the Duke of St. Albans. The bulk of
her property was left to the present Baroness
Burdett-Coutts.
Mellon!, Mucedonio (b. 1798, d. 1854),
Italian physicist ; lived in exile for many
years on account of his liberal opinions, but
on his return to Italy became professor of
physics at Naples and director of the Vesu-
vius observatory. He discovered " diather-
mancy " (transmission of heat).
Melmotn, William (b. 1710, d. 1799), Eng-
lish scholar ; published in 1747 a translation
of the Letters of Pliny, and afterwards those
of Cicero. TTia father (d. 1743) was the
author of the once popular work, The Im-
portance of a Religious Life.
Melozzo, or Melozzi da Forli (fl. ciroa
1470), painter of the Bolognese school, dis-
tinguished as one of the earliest masters oi
perspective. One of his best pictures, The
Ascension, is in the Quirinal, having been
removed thither from the vault of the Church
of the Apostles.
Melvil, or Melville, Sir James (b. 1535,
d. 1607), Scotch statesman; after serving
several foreign princes, followed Mary
Stewart on her return to Scotland, and
gave her much sound advice, being also
entrusted with missions to the court of
Elizabeth, which he described, inter zlia, in
his Memoirs.
Melville, Andrew (6. 1545, d. circa 1622),
Scotch reformer ; after having been pro-
fessor at Geneva, returned to Scotland,
where he became principal of St. Andrews.
Having been imprisoned for his opposition
to Episcopacy, he fled to Berwick, and
was committed to the Tower of London
for similar proceedings in England, af 'rer his
liberation from which he became a pr» fossor
at Sedan.
Mel
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Men
Melville, George John Whyte (b. 1821, d.
1878), novelist and song writer; entered the
army in 1839, and retired ten years later,
but served in the Turkish contingent duriug
the Crimean war. Among his works were
Kate Coventry, The Interpreter, etc.
Melville, Henry Dundas, Viscount (b.
1740, d. 1811), statesman; held various
offices under Pitt, on whose resignation he
was raised to the peerage. He was im-
peached, but acquitted, on a charge of
peculation.
Melzi d'Eril, Francesco, Due de Lodi (b.
1753, d. 1816), Italian statesman ; after
having been chamberlain to Maria Theresa,
became vice-president of the Italian re-
public, but retired into private lif e on the
abdication of Napoleon.
Memling or Memlinc, Hans (d. 1494),
Flemish painter of the school of van Eyck,
born in or near Bruges, is said to have
served Charles the Bold as soldier and^
painter. His chef-d'ceuvre is the Shrine of
St. Ursula in St. John's Hospital, Bruges,
where he li ved some time after the death of
his patron.
Merami, Simone (b. 1284, d. 1344), Italian
painter in the manner of Giotto, born at
Sienna, painted for his friend, Petrarch, a
portrait of Laura. Frescoes by his hand are
at Florence (Santa Novella) "and Pisa, in
the Campo Santo.
Menabrea, Luigi, Marchese di Val-Dora
(b. 1809), Italian general and statesman;
was employed diplomatically by Charles
Albert, and became chief officer in the
ministries of war and foreign affairs. In
the war of Independence, as head of the
engineers, he conducted the siege of Pes-
chiera, and was pre>. :.c at Solferino. He
was made senator by \ ictor Emmanuel, and
as lieutenant-general directed the operations
at Gae'ta and Capua: was minister of marine
in 1861, and plenipotentiary to Germany in
1866. From 1867 to 1869 he was head of
the Italian government, and was afterwards
ambassador in Vienna, London, and Paris.
He was created marquis in 1875.
Menanem (d. 761 B.C.), King of Israel,
became tributary to Pul, King of Assyria,
in 771 B.C.
Menander (b. 342, d. 291 B.C.), Athenian
poet, founder of the new school of comedy,
to which Plautus and Terence belonged.
Fragments only of his works remain.
Mendelssohn, Moses (b. 1729, d. 1786),
German Jewish philosopher, friend and
pupil of Lessing; wrote Phaedd (1767),
Letters on the Sensations, and other works.
Mendelsschn-Bartlioldy, Felix (b. 1809,
rf. 1847), German musical composer, son of
a Hamburg merchant, and grandson oi
Moses ; was educated by Zelter and Berger,
and produced an opera at eighteen. He
first came to London in 1829, and after a
course of travel became musical director at
Diisseldorf, which he left for Leipzig in
1837. In 1841 he became kapellmeister to
the King of Prussia, and he was much in
England from time to time. His chief com-
positions are St. Paul and Elijah, oratorios ;
the Lobgesang ; and Lieder ohne Worter.
Mencies, Catulle (b. 1843), French poet,
born at Bordeaux, was fined and imprisoned
for publishing when under age ; afterwards
wrote Philomela (lyrics), Contes E piques,
Poesies, and some novels — Les Folies Amou-
reusesj Les Mdrea Ennemies, Mephistophila^
etc.
Mendizabal, Juan Alvarez y (d. 1853),
Spanish statesman ; after the failure of the
conspiracy of 1819 came to England, and
became a merchant, but returned to Spain
in 1835, and was made minister of finance.
He convoked the Cortes, suppressed the re-
maining monasteries, and after a brief re-
tirement resumed office till 1837. From
1841 to 1843 he was again, under Espartero,
finance minister.
RXendoza, Diego Hurtada da (b. 1503, d.
1575), Spanish statesman and writer ; waa
governor of Siena, and ambassador at
Koine under Charles V. , but was expelled
from court by Philip II. While at Venice
he collected Greek MSS., which he left to
the Escurial, and published the first com-
plete edition of Josephus. His chief original
works were LazariUo de Tormes, a satirical
romance, and La Guerra de Granada.
Mendoza, Inigo, Marques da Santillana
(b. 1398, d. 1458), Spanish poet, founder of
the Italian school of poetry ; distinguished
himself in battle against Navarre, and wrote
Comedieta del Ponza, Una Serranilla, and
other works.
Mendoza, Pedro (d. 1537), Spanish cap-
tain, who sailed to South America and
founded Buenos Ayres in 1535, but died on
the return voyage.
Mendoza, Pedro Gonzalez da (b. 1428, d.
1495), statesman, son of Inigo, was chan-
cellor of Castile and Leon in the time of
Ferdinand and Isabella ; was called " the
great cardinal of Spain."
Menedemus (d. circa 277 B.C.), Greek
philosopher, founder of the Eretrian school ;
is said to have helped to translate the Sep-
tuagint.
Meng'-Tseu (4th century B.C.), Chinese
philosopher, grandson of Confucius ; visited
the courts of several princes, and wrote a
work called by his name.
Men
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Mer
Mengotti, Francesco, Conte (i. 1743, d.
1830), Italian economist ; employed by the
Venetian government and Napoleon, sup-
ported free trade in corn, and wrote a
treatise on hydraulics.
Mengs, Anton Rafael (b. 1728, d. 1779),
German painter ; studied at the Vatican
under his father, and was court-painter to
Augustus of Saxony, after whose death he
was employed by the King of Spain and
Clement XIV. His Apollo and the Muses,
in the Villa Albaui, and the Apotheosis
of Trajan, at Madrid, are his best works,
"the altar-piece at All Souk', Oxford, is
by him.
Menno, Simonis (*. 1496, d. 1561), Dutch
Anabaptist, founded the sect called after
him ; was proscribed by Charles V. , but
escaped.
Menou, Jacques, Baron de (b. 1750, d.
1810), French general, supported the revo-
lution, and advocated the arming of the
National Guard ; after his defeat by La
Roche jaquelein in La Vende'e he was
cashiered, and narrowly escaped death at
the hands of the Convention. Having ac-
companied Bonaparte to Egypt, he took
the name of Abdallah, and became a Ma-
hometan, and, succeeding to the command
of the French troops, was defeated by Aber-
cromby in 1804, after which he returned to
France.
MenscMkoff, Alexander Danilovitch (b.
1672, d. 1729), Russian statesman, by birth
a pastry-cook; served as aide-de-camp to
Peter the Great, and, among other ser-
vices, won the victory of Kalisch (1706)
over the Swedes ; helped to place on the
throne Catherine I., after whose death he
was banished to Siberia, where he died.
MenscnUjoff, Alexander Sergeivitch (b,
1789, d. 1333), Russian general, descendant
of last-named. ; entered the army in 1812,
and went through the close of the Napo-
leonic war as aide-de-camp; was disgraced
by Alexander I., but restored by Nicholas,
who employed him against Persia. He was
wounded in Turkey in 1828, and was am-
bassador at Constantinople at the time of
the Crimean war, in which he was com-
mander-in-chief of the Russian forces. On
the death of Nicholas he retired.
Mentel, Johann (d. 1478), is said to have
begun to print books at Strasburg in 1458.
Menzel, Adolf Erdmann (b. 1815), Ger-
man painter, was appointed in 1856 to a
professorship at the Berlin Academy. His
chief subjects are drawn from the period of
Frederick the Great, and include The Hound
Table of Frederick the Great (I860), Frederick
*t the Battle of HochJcirchen (1856), etc.
Among his other pictures, of which an ex-
hibition was held at Paris in 1885, may be
named Itfachcr and Wellington at Waterloo
and The Modern Cyclops (1872-5).
Menzel, Wolfgang (b. 1798, d. 1873),
German critic, son of a Silesian doctor ; was
a leader of the Burschenschaft movement at
Jena, which he was obliged to leave after
the death of Kotzebue. He attacked in his
Streckverse Goethe and all the great names
of the preceding generation, and also Heine
and the leaders of the young German group
of writers.
Mercadante, Saverio (b. 1797, d. 1870),
Italian composer, born near Ban ; was
maestro di capella at Novara, and after-
wards director of the Naples conservatorio.
His chief works were ISApotheosi d'JSrcole,
cantata, Elisa e Claudio, I JiriganU (Paris,
1836), and II Giuramento (Milan, 1837),
operas ; and some opera boujfes.
Mercator (Kremer), Gerard (b. 1512, d.
1594), German geographer; made globes
for Charles V., and the marine charts which
bear his name.
Mercie, Marcus Antoine (b. 1845), French
sculptor, in 1868 obtained iheprix de Rome.
His Gloria Victis (1874) was purchased by
the government, and among his other works
may be named The Genius of the Arts, ex-
hibited in 1877, the plaster model of the
bas-relief for Michelet's tomb in Pere La-
chaise, and a statue of Arago.
Mercier, Louis Sebastien (b. 1740, d. 1S14),
French writer, called ' ' Le Singe de Jean
Jacques," for his attacks on philosophy and
science, wrote Tableau de Paris (1781-&),
Essai sur I9 Art I)ramatique pubher FAn
, and some plays and novels.
Meredith, George (b. 1828), novelist and
poet, was born in Hampshire, and edu-
cated chiefly in Germany. He left law for
literature, publishing Poems in 1851, The
Shaving of Shagpat (1855), The Ordeal of
Richard Feverel (1859), Evan Harrington
(1861), Rhoda Fleming (1865), The Egoist
(1879), Diana of the Crossways (1885), and
One of Our Conquerors (1891), besides several
volumes of poems and other works of
fiction.
Meredith, Owen. {See Lytton.]
^ Merian, Maria Sybilla (b. 1647, d. 1717),
Swiss painter and entomologist, daughter of
an engraver at Frankfort ; wrote Histoirt
des Insects* de VEurope et de PAmerique.
Many of her drawings are in the Sloane
collection, British Museum.
Me"rimee, Prosper (b. 1803, d. 1870),
French writer, and son of the author of
De la Peinture d FHuile ; he was made
Mer
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Met
Inspector-general of historic monuments in
1831, and elected to the Academy in 1844.
He wrote Le Theatre de Clara Gazul, etc.,
a collection of pretended Illyrian songs, La
Jacquerie, Un Chronique de Charlea IX..,
Monuments Historiques, Melanges His-
toriques et Litteraires, several collections of
romances, and after his death appeared
Lettres d line Inconnue, and Lettres a une
Autre Inconnue. He was a strong Bona-
partist, and in 1853 became senator and
chief of the ministry of marine.
Merivale, Charles, D.D. (b. 1808), his-
torian and divine, graduated in high honours
at Cambridge in 1830, and became fellow
of St. John's College. He was chaplain to
the Speaker from 1863 to 1869, and was
appointed Dean of Ely in that year.
Besides his Jboyle Lectures, he published
History of the Romans under the Empire
(1850-62), and General History of Home
(1875).
Merivale, Herman (b. 1806, d. 1874), his
brother ; was educated at Harrow and
Oxford, where he was fellow of Balliol, and
"became professor of political economy in
1837. Having entered the Civil Service he
l>ecame under -secretary for the Colonies,
and afterwards for India. His chief works
were Historical Studies (1868) and the com-
pletion of Paxkes's Life of Sir Philip
Merivale, Herman Charles (b. 1839), dra-
matist, son of last-named, was called to the
bar in 1864 ; edited the Annual Register
from 1874 to 1880, and wrote All for Her,
The Cynic, Fedora (adaptation), and other
plays, besides The White Pilgrim and other
volumes of verse and essays.
Merlin de Douai, Philippe, Comte (b.
1754, d. 1838), French lawyer and poli-
tician ; endeavoured to maintain the royal
authority during the revolution, but
acquiesced in the republic, and became
minister of justice in 1795, and one of the
directors in 1797. Having been employed
by Napoleon in the compilation of the code,
he was exiled in 1815, but allowed to return
in 1830.
Merlin de Thionville, Antoine (b. 1762, d.
1833), revolutionist, was one of the chiefs of
the Jacobin Club in 1791 ; defended Mainz
against the Prussians 1792-3, tried to con-
ciliate La Vendee in 1793, and lost his
influence in the Convention through his
moderation.
Merry, William Walter, D.D. (b. 1835),
English scholar ; after being fellow and
tutor of Lincoln College, Oxford, for many
years, succeeded Mark Pattison as rector in
1884, having also been elected public orator
in 1880. Among his editions of the classics
the chief are Homer's Odyssey and Aristo-
phanes.
Merton, Walter de (d. 1277), English
statesman ; was chancellor under Henry
III. and Edward I., and became Bishop
of Rochester in 1274. He founded (1264)
Merton College, the first strictly collegiate
foundation at Oxford.
Merula, Paul (Yan Merle) (b. 1558, d.
16u7), Dutch writer, born at Dort ; succeeded
Lipsius as professor of history at Leyden,
and wrote Tresor des Temps and other
works.
Meryon, Charles (b. 1821, d. 1868), French
etcher, son of an English physician and a
ballet-dancer ; after making a tour of the
world in a French corvette, settled in Paris,
and produced Abside de Notre Dame, Rue
des Mauvais Gordons, etc. Want of success
during his lif etime broke down his reason,
and he died in the Charenton Asylum.
After his death his works began to be
highly esteemed.
Mesmer, Anton (b. 1734, d. 1815), German
physician, born at Merseburg, Suabia ; pub-
lished at Vienna in 1766 his I)e Planetarum
Influxu on the supposed celestial fluid ; went
to Paris in 1778, and gained such notoriety
that a government commission was ap-
pointed to inquire into his theories, Frank-
lin being a member. The report drawn up
by Bailly declared them to be delusions.
Messalina, Valeria (d. 48), Eoman Em-
press, notorious for her licentiousness; was
put to death by her husband, Claudius.
Messenius, Arnold (d. 1651), Swedish
statesman ; having been imprisoned for
fourteen years by Gustavus Adolphus, was
released and employed by Christina, but
conspired against her, and was beheaded.
Messis. [See Matsys.]
Metastasio (Trapassi), Pietro (b. 1698. d.
1782), Italian poet and dramatist, was edu-
cated by Gravina, the jurist, whc left him
his fortune ; attracted the notice of Signpra
Bulgarini, who sang in his Gli Orti Esperidi,
and took him into her house. At Rome he
produced Artaserse, Semiramide, and other
operas. He was afterwards patronised by
Charles VI., and his successors, and wrote
L'Olimpiade, La Clemenza di Tito (1734),
and some cantatas, La Primavera, etc.
Metcalf, John (b. 1717, d. 1810), though
blind, made surveys and roads for twenty-
five years, having previously served at
Culloden.
Metcalfe, Sir Charles Theophilus (Lord)
(b. 1785, d. 1846), English administrator,
son of a director of the East India Company,
whose service he entered at an early age.
Met
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Mia
After fulfilling a difficult mission to Run-
jeet Sing in 1808, and being resident at
Delhi and Hyderabad, he became Governor-
General in l^JJ, but his act giving freedom
to the press was resented by the Company,
and he returned next year to England. A
few years later he was sent to Jamaica, and
was Governor-General of Canada from 1813
till 1845, when his health obliged him to
retire.
Metellus, Quintrus Ceecilius (d. circa 95
B.C.), Roman general, called Numidicus
from his triumph over Jugurtha ; was
exiled (1UO B.C.) for his opposition to Satur-
ninus, the friend of Marius, but recalled
two years later. His son (d. 63 B.C.) was
consul with Sulla (80 B.C.), and afterwards
the colleague of Pompeius.
Meteren, Emmanuel Van (b. 1535, d.
1615), Flemish historian; author of a. His-
tory of the Netherlands, on which Motley's
work is largely based.
Methodius, Saint (d. circa 900), Greek
monk arid missionary ; evangelised Bulgaria
about 850, and Bohemia some forty years
later, besides assisting in the formation of
a Slavonian translation of the Bible.
Methuen, John, Lord (d. 1706), English
statesman, Lord Chancellor of Ireland in
1697 and 1702. His name is best known by
the commercial treaty which he concluded
with Portugal in 1703.
Metius, Jacob (b. 1575), a Dutchman, who
is said to have invented refracting telescopes
about 1609. Hia brother, Adrian, a dis-
tinguished astronomer, took part in the
defence of Alkmaar.
Meton (5th century B.C.), Athenian as-
tronomer, inventor of the cycle of nineteen
years which bears his name.
Metternieh, Clemens Wenzel Nepomuk
Lothar Fiirst von (b. 1773, d. 1859), Austrian
statesman, married a granddaughter of
Kaunitz, and after having been ambassador
at Dresden, Berlin, and Paris, became chan-
cellor and foreign minister in 1809, when he
made peace with Napoleon, with whom he
temporised for several years, attempting to
mediate between him and the Allies in 1813.
At last he took an open part, but, at the
Congress of Vienna and afterwards, con-
tinued to oppose Prussia and the aspirations
of the Liberals. After the restoration of the
Bourbons he organised the Holy Alliance,
by which the old Neapolitan despotism was
restored, and the Spanish constitution sup-
pressed. After 1830 he was obliged to con-
fine his efforts to Germany, and in 1848
jesigned, and came to England. He never
again held office, though occasionally con-
sulted. His son (b. 1829) pursued the same
career, being sent on a special mission to
Paris in 1859, and afterwards representing
Austria there.
Meung', Jean de, or Jean Clopinel (b.
circa 12oO), French poet, author of Le lioinan
de la Hose ; was a favourite a^t the court of
Philippe le BeL
Meyer, Hans (b. 1858), German tra-
veller, studied at Leipzig, Berlin, aud
Strasburg, where he prepared a work on
the guild of goldsmiths ; joined his father
as a publisher at Leipzig in 1884, having
previously written Eine Weltreise, an
account of his travels in India and the
Philippines. In 1886 he went to Africa,
aud travelled extensively, being the first to
ascend Kilimandjaro, to which he organised
an expedition in 1888, but was stopped by
an insurrection. Both he and Baumann.
his companion, were made prisoners, ana
robbed by the Arabs, and after his release
he returned to Europe and published Zum
Schneedom des Kilimandjaro. In 1389 ha
made a fresh expedition, which was success-
ful, the great feature of it being the dis-
covery of the first African glacier.
Meyer, Heinrich (b. 1759, d. 1832), Swiss
painter and writer on art ; was director of
the Weimar gallery, and a friend of Goethe.
He edited the works of Winckelmann, and
wrote Geschichte der Bildenden Kunste bei
den Griechen.
Meyerbeer, Jacob (b. 1791, d. 1864),
German musical composer, son of a banker
at Berlin ; produced an oratorio, Goit un<i
Die Natur, at Darmstadt, when very young,
and in 1813 went to Vienna as a pianist.
He then went to Italy, where he composed
II Crociato in Egltto, which was brought
out at Venice. Chief among his other
works are Robert le Diable (1830), the result
of two years' work, Les Huguenots (1836),
Le Prophete (1849), and Le Pardon d*
Ploermel, or Dinorah (1359). After his
death L'Africaine was produced, the li-
bretto of which was written by Scribe.
Meyrick, Sir Samuel Rush (J. 1783, d.
1843), English antiquary ; arranged the
armour in the Tower and at Windsor, and
published Engraved Illustrations of Ancient
Arms and Armour, etc.
Mezzofanti, Giuseppe (b. 1774, d. 1849),
Italian linguist, born at Bologna, where he
was for some time professor, bnt afterwards
went to Rome : became librarian of the
Vatican and cardinal. He knew forty-
eight languages and many dialects.
Miall, Edward (b. 1809, d. 1881), English
politician ; was a Congregationalist min-
ister until 1841, when he went to London;
founded the Nonconformist and two yearc
Mia
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Mic
later became the chief initiator of the British
Anti- State -Church Association, afterwards
the Liberation Society. He represented
Rochdale from 1852 to 1857, and Bradford
from 1869 till 1874, when he retired from
public life. He wrote View of the Voluntary
Principle and several similar works.
Miaoulis, Andreas (b. 1772, d. 1835),
Greekadmiral, originally a merchant ; joined
the rising of 1821, served under Cochrane in
1826, and five years later was sent to offer
the crown of Greece to Otho of Bavaria.
Michael, the Grand Duke (b. 1832),
brother of the Tsar Alexander II. ; com-
manded the army of the Caucasus during
the war of 1877-8, and became governor-
general afterwards.
Michael Angelo. {See Michelangelo.]
Michael I., Emperor of the East (d. circa
844), succeeded Nicephorus I. in 811 ; was
defeated by the Bulgarians and deposed in
813, and died in a convent.
Michael IL (d. 829), conspired against
Michael I., and become emperor in 820;
lost Crete in 824.
^Michael IIL (d. 867) succeeded Theo-
pliilus in 842, his mother, Theodora, being
regent ; was notorious for his licentious-
ness, and was murdered while in a state of
intoxication.
Michael IV. [the Paplagonian] (d. 1041),
married the Empress Zoe, and was pro-
claimed emperor in 1034 ; left the chief
power in the hands of John the Eunuch,
reconquered Bulgaria in 1041.
Michael V. [Calaphates] (d. circa 1050),
succeeded his uncle, Michael IV., banished
the Empress Zoe, and was afterwards de-
throned, and died in a convent.
Michael VI. [Stratioticus] (d. circa 1059),
having been chosen by the Empress Theo-
dora, succeeded her in 1056, but resigned the
following year.
Michael VII. (d. circa. 1090), son of Con-
stantine XI. ; shut up his mother, Eudoxia,
the regent, in a convent in 1071, and, having
been much disturbed by rebellions, abdi-
cated in 1078, becoming afterwards Arch-
bishop of Ephesus.
Michael VIII. [Palaeologus] (b. 1224, d.
1282), having been crowned emperor at
Nicasa with John Lascaris, regained Con-
stantinople from the Latins in 1261, and
ordered his colleague to be blinded, for
which he was excommunicated and did
public penance ; attempted to unite the
Eastern and Western Churches at the Coun-
cil of Lyon (1274), and subsequently de-
feated a French invasion.
Michallon, Achilles Etna (b. 1796, d. 1822),
French artist, pupil of David; received a
pension for a picture painted at the age of
twelve. The Combat of the Centaurs and
Lapithce is the best known of his works.
Michaud, Joseph (b. 1767, d. 1839), French
historian; conducted the Quotidienne, a
royalist newspaper, during the revolution
and after the restoration ; wrote Histoire de*
Croisades, and with his brother Louis (d.
1858) founded the Biographie Universelle.
Michel, Louise (b. 1830), French revolu-
tionist ; took an active part with the Com-
mune in 1870, for which she was sentenced
to transportation for life, but returned in
1880 on the proclamation of the amnesty,
and was imprisoned several times afterwards
for political offences. She showed some
literary talent, which was recognised by
Victor Hugo.
Michelangelo Buonarroti (b. 1475, d.
1564), Italian painter, poet, architect, and
sculptor, was born near Arezzo and died at
Rome. His early years were passed at
Florence, where he was patronised by
Lorenzo the Magnificent, and he worked in
Venice in 1494, frequently visiting Rome
during the pontificate of Julius II., after
whose death he returned to Florence. He
directed the defence of the city against the
Imperialists in 1529, and was proscribed at
its capture, and was also employed in the
fortifications of Rome, where he lived
chiefly after 1533. His chief architectural
achievement was the plan for the church
and dome of St. Peter. His best sculptures
were David, at Arezzo, and Moses, in the
Sistine chapel, the roof of which he painted.
Among his pictures the most celebrated is
The Last Judgment (exhibited in 1541),
which occupied him eight years. He wrote
some sonnets, which have been translated
by J. A. Symonds, and a few also by Words-
worth.
Michelet, Jules (b. 1798, d. 1874), his-
torian ; became in 1838 professor of history
at the College de France, from which he was
dismissed by Napoleon III., and lived after-
wards chiefly in Italy. His chief works
were & History of France in seventeen vol-
umes (1833-60), Histoire de la Revolution
Francaise (1847-53), several books against
the Jesuits, and iSOiseau, La Mer, and
other works on natural history. His second
wife was a writer of some ability.
Michelet, Karl Ludwig (b. 1801), German
philosopher, born at Berlin, where he was
made extraordinary professor in 1829. He
took an active interest in the events of 1848,
publishing several pamphlets. In addition
to his editions of Aristotle's Ethics and of
Hegel's works he wrote History of Man-
kind's Development since 1775 (1859),
I lie
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Mig
der Unwiderlegte Philosoph (1870), and
System of Philosophy as an Exact Science
(1876-81).
Michelozzi, Michelozzo (d. 1470), Floren-
tine architect and sculptor, studied under
Douatello, and designed for (Josiino de'
Medici the Palazzo iticcardi and several
other buildings, besides restoring the Palazzo
Vecchio.
Mickiewicz, Adam (b. 1798, d. 18 •>/>),
Pohsh poet ; having been exiled in 18iM,
went to Paris, and became professor of
Slavonic in 1839, but was suspended for
fanaticism five years later. His chief works
were Grajina, t)ziadyy and Wallenrod.
Mickle, William Julius (*. 1734, d. 1788),
Scotch poet ; having failed in trade, carne to
London, where he attracted the attention of
Lord Lytteltou, and produced a translation
of Camoen's Os Lusiadas, as well as some
original ballads (Cumnor Hall, The Mariner's
Wife, etc.).
Micraelius, Johannes (b. 1597, d. 1658),
German writer, protege of Christina of
Sweden, and author 01 Lexicon Philosophi-
cum, etc.
Middleton, Conyers, D.D. (b. 1683, d.
1750), English scholar, fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge ; had a lawsuit with
Bentley on the subject of his fees for the
doctor's degree. His chief works were A
Free Inquiry into Miraculous Powers (1749),
and a Life of Cicero.
Middleton, Sir Hugh (d. 1631), mining
engineer; when a goldsmith in London,
made the New River from Amwell and
Chadwell to London, for which he was
knighted and afterwards received a baron-
etcy. He left much property to the Gold-
smiths' Company.
Middleton, John Henry, D.C.L. (*. 1846),
writer on art ; after being educated in Italy
and at Oxford, was appointed in 1886 Slade
professor at Cambridge. His chief works
are Ancient Rome (1885), and many articles
in. the Encyclopaedia Britannica and art
journals in England and Italy.
Middleton, Thomas (d. 1627), dramatist:
collaborated with Jouson, Massinger, and
other contemporaries, and wrote numer-
ous plays by himself, among which the chief
were A Mad World, my Masters, The Roar-
ing Girl, and The Witch.
Middleton, Thomas Fanshawe, F.R.S.
(*. 1769, d. 1822), the first English Bishop
of Calcutta, where he founded a college for
the education of missionaries.
Midhat Pasha (b. 1822, d. 1884), Turkish
•tatesman, suppressed brigandage in Rou-
melia and a rebellion in Bulgaria, and became
secretary of the Grand Council in 1860. He
was governor of Bulgaria, where he intro-
duced reforms, from 1864 to 18c6, and put
down a second rebellion. He took a chief
part in the deposition and murder of Abd-
el-Aziz in 1876, and having been made
grand-vizier by Abd-el-Hauiid, attempted to
introduce parliamentary government into
Turkey. He failed, however, and was sent
into exile as governor of Syria in 1878,
where he was arrested on a charge of com-
plicity in the murder of Abd-el-Aziz and
condemned to death, but the sentence was
commuted to banishment, and he died in
Arabia three years later.
Mieris, Franz van (b. 1635, d. 1681),
Flemish painter, pupil ol Gerard Dow, was
born at Leydeu. His chief pictures were
The Silk Merchants, The Assembly of Ladies
and Mieris and his Wife. He is known as
"the Elder," to distinguish him from his
grandson.
Mieris, Franz, " the Younger " (b. 1689, d.
1763), son of Willem, a painter; abandoned
art for literature, his chief works being
Historic der Nederlandsche Vorsten, and
Groot Charterboek der Graven van Holland.
Mieroslauski, Louis (b. 1814, d. 1878),
Polish revolutionist ; having taken a promi-
nent part in the risings of 1830 and 1844,
was condemned to death at Berlin in 1848,
but liberated by the mob. He then headed
the peasants of Posen, afterwards led the
revolution in Sicily, and aided the move-
ment in Baden, and was made dictator of
Poland in 1863, but superseded, owing to the
jealousy of the nobles.
Mignet, Francois Auguste Alexis (b. 1796,
d. ISo-i), French historian, friend of Thiers;
was director of the archives at the Foreign
Office from 1830 to 1848, when he was
removed by Lamartine. He was elected to
the Acade'mie Franchise in 1836, and his
chief works were a History of the French
Revolution (1824), Negotiations Relatives d. la
Succession d'JEspagne sous Louis XIT.,
Histoirede Marie Stitnrt (1851), andRivalite
de Francois Ier et de Charles Quint (1875).
Mignon, or Minjon, Abraham (b. 1639, d.
1679), German painter, born at Frankfort;
studied under Van Heem at Utrecht, and
excelled, like his master, in flower and fruit-
pieces.
Miguel, Dom Maria Evarist (b. 1802, d.
1866), Portuguese prince, younger son of
John VI., by whom he was exiled in 1824
for an attempt to overthrow the govern-
ment. His brother, Dom Pedro, renounced
the throne in favour of his daughter, Maria
da Gloria, on condition she should marry
Miguel, who, however, in 1828 declared
Mil
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Mil
himself king. By his tyranny he caused a
rebellion, which was supported by England,
and he capitulated at Evora in 1834, and
returned to Portugal.
Milan Obrenovitch (b. 1854), ex-King of
Servia ; having been educated at Paris, was
sent for to Servia in 1868 on the assassina-
tion of his cousin, Prince Michael. He was
crowned in 1872, joined the revolt of the
Slavs against Turkey in 1876, and, joining
with Russia in the war which followed,
obtained the independence of his country, of
which he was proclaimed the first king in
1882. In 1885 he declared war against
Bulgaria, but was signally defeated, and in
1889 abdicated in favour of his sou, his
quarrel with Queen Nathalie having become
a public question in the country.
Milano, Giovanni da (b. 1350), Italian
Siinter; born at Milan, studied under
addi at Florence, and imitated Giotto, his
best paintings being the frescoes at Assisi.
Mildmay, Sir Walter (b. 1522, d. 1589),
English statesman ; employed by Henry
VIII. and his successors, being Chancellor
of the Exchequer for twenty-three years
under Elizabeth; founded Emmanuel Col-
lege, Cambridge.
Mill, James (b. 1773, d. 1836), Scotch
economist, son of a shoemaker at Forfar ;
was licensed as a preacher in 1798, but gave
up the profession on conscientious grounds,
and in 1802 came to London. In 1809 he
obtained an appointment in the India House,
and with Bentham became the founder of
"Philosophic Radicalism," being also in-
timate with Ricardo. His chief works were
a History of British India (1818), and Ele-
ments of Political Economy (1821-22).
Mill, John Stuart (*. ^ 1806, d. 1873),
philosopher, son of preceding, by whom he
was educated ; obtained a clerkship in the
India House in 1823, and remained there
until the transfer of the Indian government
to the Crown, to which he was strongly op-
posed. He early began to contribute to the
Westminster Review, which he afterwards
edited. He contemplated writing a history of
the French revolution, but left the work to
his friend, Carlyle, with whom and Sterling
he was very intimate. He was returned for
Westminster as a Radical in 1865, but was
defeated in 1868 by Mr. W. H. Smith. His
chief works were System of Logic (1843),
Essay on Liberty (1859), Representative Gov-
ernment (1860), Utilitarianism (1861), and
Principles of Political Economy (1848).
Millais, Sir John Everett, Bart. (b. 1829),
English painter ; was educated at the Royal
Academy, gaining a medal at the Society of
Arts when only nine. He first exhibited at
tho Royal Academy in 1846, and became a
KK
leading member of the Pre-Raphaelite
school. He was elected A.R.A. in LS53 and
R.A. in 1863, and received a baronetcy in
18S5. Among his pictures may be named
The Widow's Mite (1847), KeaCs "Isabella"
(1849), Mariana in the Moated Grange (1851),
Ophelia (1852), Souvenir of Velasquez
(1868), A Dream at Dawn (1869), Scotch Fi*-»
(1874), etc., and portraits of Mr. Gladstone,
Lord Salisbury, Mr. Bright, Lord Beacons-
field, and many other public men.
Miller, Hugh (b. 1802, d. 1856), Scotch
geologist and writer, born in Cromarty;
after working as a stonemason, became a
journalist and edited at Edinburgh The
Witness, in which appeared The Old Red
Sandstone, Footprints of the Creator, etc.
He also wrote The Testimony of the Rocks, as
well as many pamphlets, chiefly in the
interest of the Free Church movement.
Miller, James (b. 1703, d. 1744), dramatist;
while at Oxford wrote Humours of Oxford,
and afterwards pamphlets against Walpole,
and several plays, the chief of which was the
tragedy Mahomet.
Miller, "Joaquin" (Cincinnatus Hiner)
(b. 1841), American poet; worked in Oregon
and California as editor, lawyer's clerk,
miner, and county judge, and came to Eng-
land in 1870, when his wife had obtained a
divorce. Songs from the Sierras was pub-
lished in London, and on his return to
America he produced The One Fair Woman
(1876), Memorie and Rime (1884), Songs of
the Mexican Seas (1887), and several other
works.
Miller, Joe (b. 1684, d. 1738), comedian;
born probably in London, played in the
comedies of Congreve, his other favourite
parts being Sir Joseph Whittol in The Old
Bachelor and Teague in The Committee.
His Book of Jests was first published in 1739.
Miller, Philip, F.R.S. (b. 1691, d. 1771)
botanist and gardener, called "Hortulano-
rum Princeps " ; was a friend and corre-
spondent of Linnaeus, and wrote Gardeners'
Dictionary and other works.
Miller, Thomas (b. 1808, d. 1874), poet,
son of a wharfinger at Gainsborough ; com-
posed poems while apprentice to a basket-
maker, and was helped by Rogers. He
afterwards contributed much to journals
and periodicals. A Day in the Woods
(1836) was perhaps his best work.
Miller, William (b. 1810, d. 1872), Scotch
poet, born near Glasgow ; became a wood-
turner, and wrote Scottish Nursery Songs ind
Other Poems, containing Willie Winkie, itc.
Miller, William Allen, M.D., F.R.S. (b.
1817, d. 1870), chemist; educated under
Daniell in London and Liebig at Giessen :
Mil
( 562 )
Mil
became professor of chemistry at King's
College, vice-president of the Royal Society
and assay er to the Mint, and wrote Elements
of Chemistry.
Miller, William Hallows, F.R.S., D.C.L.
(b. ISUl, d. 1880), crystallographer and
mineralogist ; was born near Llaudovery,
and graduated at Cambridge, where he
became fellow of St. John's, and in 1832
professor of mineralogy. He served on
several royal commissions, was foreign
secretary for seventeen years to the Royal
Society, and published (with "W. H. Brooke)
an edition of Phillip's Mineralogy.
Miller, William Harrison (b. 1840),
American statesman ; was admitted to the
bar in 1865, and practised in Peru and
Indiana, being the partner from 1874 of
President Harrison, by whom he was made
attorney- general in 1889.
Millet, Jean Franqois (b. 1814, d. 1875),
French artist, of peasant birth; studied
under Delaroche, and became the friend of
Theodore Rousseau. His chief pictures
are The Brothers (now in the Louvre), The
Milka-oman (1844), The Angelus (1859), Po-
tato Planters (1863), and Butter-making
(1871), etc.
Milliiigen, James (b. 1774, d. 1845), Eng-
lish archaeologist ; was imprisoned at Paris
in 1794 while travelling; wrote Ancient
Unedited Monuments and other works, for
which he received a pension from the
Government.
Millot, Claude Xavier (b. 1726, d. 1785),
French writer; author of Historic Litteraire
des Troubadours, Elements de VHistoire de
France, etc. ; was preceptor to the Due
d'Enghien.
Mills, Charles (6. 1788, d. 1825), historian,
son of a Greenwich physician ; was educated
as a solicitor, but gave up his profession,
and wrote a history of Mohammedanism
(1817), of the Crusades, and of Chivalry.
Mills, Edmund James, D.Sc., F.R.S. (*.
1840), English chemist, educated at Chel-
tenham and the Royal School of Mines ; was
appointed professor of technical chemistry
at Glasgow in 1875. His chief works, besides
important technical memoirs, are Destructive
Distillation and (with F. J. Rowan) Fuel
and its Applications.
Milly, Nicolas de Thy, Comte de (b. 1728,
d. 1784), French chemist; published a
treatise on the manufacture of Dresden
china, and effected improvements in enamel
colours.
Milman, Henry Hart, D.D. (b. 1791, d.
1868), English historian, son of Sir Francis
Milman, physician to George III. : was
educated at Eton and Brasenose College,
Oxford, of which he became fellow. He
took orders in 1816, was Bumpton lecturer
in 1827, became Canon of Westminster in
1835, and in 1849 Dean of St. Paul's. His
chief works are a History of Latin Christi-
anity to the Pontificate of Nicholas V., A
History of the Jeivs, and editions of Gibbou
and Horace. In 1815 Fazio, a tragedy
written by him, was produced with success
at Covent Garden.
Milne, Sir Alexander Milne, G.C.B.,
F.R.S.E. (b. 1806), admiral, son of Admiral
Sir David Milne ; entered the navy in
1817, having served under his father,
Admiral Bowles, Sir C. Ogle, and Sir
Charles Napier in various parts of the
world, was a junior lord of the Admiralty
from 1847 to 1858, senior naval lord 1866-8
and 1872-6, when he retired with a
baronetcy. During the years 1869-70 he
commanded the Mediterranean and Channel
squadrons.
Milne, Colin (d. 1815), Scottish clergy-
man ; author of a Botanical Dictionary and
other works dealing with the science of
botany.
Milne, Sir David (b. 1763, d. 1845), father
of the above; entered the navy in 17 < 8,
distinguished himself by the capture from
the French of La Pique (1795), La Seine
(1798), and the Vengeance (1800), and served
as rear-admiral under Lord Exmouth in the
attack on Algiers.
Milne-Edwards, Henri (b. 1800, d. 1885),
French zoologist, born at Bruges, of English
parents ; succeeded Cuvier in 1838 at the
Academic des Sciences, became professor of
entomology at the Museum in 1841, and of
entomology and physiology in the Faculte
des Sciences in 1843. He gained the Copley
medal in 1856, and wrote, besides text-
books, Lemons sur la Physiologic et V Anatomie
pomparee (1857-81) in fourteen volumes.
His son, Alphonse (b. 1835), succeeded him
at the Museum.
Milne-Edwards, Frederick William (b.
1777, d. 1842), physiologist, brother of Henri,
was born in Jamaica. He was one of the
founders of the Societe Ethnologique, and
wrote De ^Influence des Agents Physiques
sur la Vie (1824), and other works.
Milner, Isaac, D.D. (b. 1751, d. 1820),
English divine ; was born at Leeds, and
brought up as a weaver, but subsequently
entered at Queen's College, Cambridge, and
became professor of natural philosophy in
1783, vice-chancellor in 1792 and 1809, and
Lucasian professor in 1798, being also in
1791 appointed Dean of Carlisle. His
brother, JOSEPH (d. 1797), was head master
of Hull, and author of History of the Church
of Christ, which was finished by Isaac.
Mil
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Mio
Milo, Titus Annius (d. 48 B.C.), Roman
tribune, banished for killing Clodius at
Home in 52 B.C. His uaine has become
kuo\vn from the defence which Cicero wrote
for him, but did not deliver ; having joined
the faction of Sextus Pompeius, he was
killed near Thurium.
Milcseh Obrenovitch (b. 1780, d. 1860),
Prince of Servia ; submitted to the Turks,
and beoarne governor after the revolt of
Kara George ; rebelled in 1817, and was
recognised in 1829 as hereditary prince ;
was compelled to abdicate ten years later,
but recalled in 1858.
Miltiades. [See Melchiades.]
Miltiades (5th century B.C.), Athenian
general, tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese ;
commanded at Marathon (490 B.C.), but was
afterwards condemned for treason, and died
in prison.
Milton, John (6. 1608, d. 1674), English
poet, son of a London scrivener of some
culture, who sent him to St. Paul's school
and Cambridge (Christ's College), after
leaving which he lived with his father in
Buckinghamshire, and then travelled in
France and Italy. In 1644 he published
Areopagitica, a speech for the liberty of un-
licensed printing, among his other prose
works being Eikonoklastes and Defensio pro
Populo Anglicano (in ansvrer to Salmasius),
this last work being the immediate cause of
bis loss of sight. He was appointed foreign
secretary to the Council of State in 1649, and
some years after became blind. The Allegro >,
Penseroso, Comus, Lycidas, etc., were written
in his early days, and his greatest work,
Paradise Lost, was published in 1667, and
Paradise Regained in 1671. He was married
three times.
Mimnermus (ca. 600 B.C.), Greek poet,
fragments of whose works only remain ; is
said to have invented the elegiac metre.
Mina, Francisco Espozy (b. 1781, d. 1836),
Spanish guerilla chief, son of a husbandman ;
harassed the armies of Napoleon in Spain,
and after the restoration of the Bourbons
made two attempts, in 1820 and 1830, to
restore the constitution. In 1835 he com-
manded the royal army against the Carlists.
His nephew, XAVIER (b. 1 789) , was captured
by the French during the Peninsular war,
and having, after his release from Vincennes,
joined in the efforts to free Mexico, was
captured and shot (1817).
Mind, Gottfried (b. 1768, d. 1814), Swiss
painter, called by Madame Le Brun the
"Raphael of Cats," his subjects being
these and other animals.
Minghetti, Marco (b. 1818, d. 1886),
Italian statesman, minister of public works
to Pius IX. in 1848 ; afterwards entered the
service of Sardinia, ind became the friend
KX2
of Cavour, being minister of the interior in
his last cabinet. In 1861 he became vice-
president of the Italian parliament, and
was president of the council and minister
of finance from 1861 to 1868, and again,
after being ambassador in London, from
1873 to 1876. He was author of Delia
Economia Publica, published in 1859.
Minie, Claude Etienne (b. 1814, d. 1879),
French mechanic, improved for the French
government the rifle invented by Captain
Devigne, whose pupil he had been.
Mino da Fiesole (b. 1400, d. 1486), Italian
sculptor, among whose best productions
were the marble pulpit in the cathedral of
Prato, and the monument of Paul II. in the
Vatican.
Minot, Laurence (14th century), English
poet, whose works were discovered by
Tyrwhit and edited by Ritson in 1794.
Minto, Gilbert Elliot, Earl of (*. 1751, d.
1814), statesman, was viceroy of Corsica
1794-6, ambassador at Vienna in 1799,
president of the Board of Control in 1806,
and Governor- General of India from 1807
to 1812, being created an earl in the follow-
ing year. His son, the second Earl (d.
1859), was Lord Privy Seal from 1846 to
1852.
Minto, William (b. 1845), Scotch writer;
graduated with distinction at Aberdeen in
1865, and having for some years acted aa
assistant there to Professor Bain, was ap-
pointed to the chair of logic in 1880. Among
his works are English Prose Writers and
English Poets ; Defoe, in the "English Men
of Letters " series, and several novels — The
Crack of Doom, The Mediation of Ralph
Hardelot, etc.
Minucius Felix, Marcus (3rd century), an
African, celebrated as a rhetorician at
Rome, where he was converted, and wrote
Octavius, a dialogue in defence of Chris-
tianity, of which there is a translation by
Lord Hailes.
Miolan-Carvalho, Marie Caroline (b.
1827), French vocalist, born at Marseilles,
and educated at the Paris Conservatoire
under Duprez ; after a brilliant provincial
tour, made her debut at Paris at the Grand
Opera in Lucia di Lammermoor. At the
Opera Comique she appeared in Auber's
Ambassadrice, and in several operas com-
posed expressly for her, and in 1853 mar-
ried M. Carvalho (Carvaille), director of the
Theatre Lyrique, where she became prima
donna. In England she was very successful,
singing as Marguerite in Gounod's Faust at
the Italian Opera in 1863.
Miot de Melito, Andre, Comte (b. 1762,
d. 1841), French statesman; after having a
narrow escape from death in 1794, was
ambassador at Florence in the following
Itlir
( 564 )
Liit
year, and afterwards continually employed
by Napoleon. His MS moires were published
in 1858.
Mirabeau, Honore Gabriel Riquetti,
Corate de (b. 1749, d. 1791), French orator
and statesman, son of the Marquis de
Mirabeau, author of L"1 Ami dc* Hommes ;
after a stormy youth, culminating in an
imprisonment in the Bastille for nearly two
years, was sent by Calouue on a secret
mission to Berlin. At the opening of the
revolution he was elected deputy by the
Tiers-Etat of Aix, and took a leading part
in the proceedings of the Constituent As-
sembly, but attached himself to no party in
it. During the last few months of his life
he had an understanding with the queen,
and at his death was engaged in organising
a movement in favour of constitutional
monarchy, having previously on several
occasions supported the royal prerogative.
His brother, the Vicomte (-'Barrel Mira-
beau "), was a reactionary royalist.
Miramon, Miguel (b. 1833, d. 1867),
Mexican statesman ; commanded the army
of the Clerical party against Juarez, and
was named president in 1859, but was soon
after deposed and defeated, and having
afterwards supported Maximilian was shot
with him in 1867.
Miranda, Francisco (b. 1750, d. 1816),
Spanish- American general; after having
been in the army of his own country, went
to France and served under Dumouriez in
Flanders, but having been accused by the
Jacobins of treason was banished. In 1806
he went to Guatemala, where he had before
taken part in a rising, and now resumed his
revolutionary operations; was arrested in
1812, and died in a dungeon at Cadiz four
years later.
Mirandola. [See Pico della Mirandola.]
Mireveldt, Michel Jansen (b. 1568, d.
1641), Dutch painter, born at Delft ; gained
great reputation as a painter of portraits, of
which he is said to have executed several
thousand.
Misliweczek, Joseph, "H Boemo" (b.
1737, d. 1781), Bohemian composer ; com-
posed several operas, of which Bellerofonte
was the chief.
Mitchel, John (b. 1815, d. 1875), Irish
politician, son of a Nonconformist minister ;
after leaving Trinity College, Dublin,
practised as a solicitor, but in 1845 became
editor of the Nation, and two years later of
the United Irishmen, a " physical force "
paper. For his writings in the latter he
was convicted for sedition and transported,
but escaped in 1862 to the United States,
where he edited the Citizen. In 1875 he
was returned for Tipperary, and died while
the petition agaiust him was under discus-
sion. He wrote a Life of buyh O* Neil,
and Jail Journal, an account of his life in
Van Diemen's Land.
Mitchell, Sir Andrew (d. 1771), British
diplomatist ; became ambassador at Brussels
in 1751, and afterwards envoy-extraordinary
to Berlin, where he won the friendship of
Frederick, and drew him from the French to
the English alliance.
Mitchell, Donald Grant (b. 1822), Ameri-
can writer ; graduated at Yale in 1841, and
afterwards travelled in Europe, being
United States consul at Venice from 1853 to
1855. Under the signature " Ik Marvel " he
published Fresh Gleanings : or, a New Sheaf
from the Old Fields of Continental Europe
(1847), and under his own name, Fudge
jDoings, Out of Town Places, and various
other works.
Mitchell, Peter (b. 1824), Canadian
statesman, born and educated at Newcastle,
New Brunswick, of the Executive Govern-
ment of which province he was a member
from 1858 to 1865. He did much to pro-
mote confederation, and on the formation
of the first Dominion Government (1867)
became minister of marine, which office he
held till 1873. In 1878 he took an active
part in the settlement of the fisheries dis-
pute with the United States.
Mitchell, Sir Thomas Livingstone (6.
1792, d. 1855), British explorer ; served in
the army during the Peninsular war, and
was appointed surveyor-general of New
South Wales in 1830. He wrote accounts
of his explorations in Three Expeditions into
the Interior of Australia (1838), and Journal
of an Australian Explorer (1848), and also
wrote Australian Geography. In 1851 he
made an expedition to the Bathurst gold-
fields.
Blitford. [See Redesdale.]
Mitford, Mary Russell (b. 1786, d. 1855),
English dramatic writer and novelist ; after
some early poems, produced Julian, Fos-
cari, and several other plays, one of which
(Charles I.) was suppressed, Atherton and
other novels, Our Village, and Reminiscen-
ces (1824).
Mitford, William (b. 1744, d. 1827), his-
torian ; sat for several years in the House of
Commons as a Tory, and from that stand-
point wrote his History of Greece (1780-
1818), to which that of Grote was in a
measure a reply.
Mithridates [Eupator] (/. 63 B.C.), King
of Pontus, called the " Great," was sixth of
the name, and succeeded his father (Euer-
getes) in 120 B.C. He reversed his policy,
Mit
(565)
Mol
however, causing a general massacre of the
Romans after his capture of Bithynia and
Phrygia ; was defeated by Fimbria (85), but
was victorious over Muraena in 81, and
conquered Cappadocia ; after being con-
quered by Lucullus (73-68), recovered his
dominions in 67, but was finally defeated
by Pompey and compelled to flee. When
meditating marching into Europe he was
opposed by his son, Pharnaces, and put an
end to his lif e by taking poison.
Mitre, Bartolomeo (ft. 1821), South Ameri-
can general ; after a contest with Urquiza,
caused the abdication of Derqui in 1861, and
was next year elected president of the
Argentine republic. In 1865 he formed an
alliance with Brazil against Lopez of Para-
guay. In 1874 he attempted to excite a
military rising at Buenos Ayres, and, having
failed, was pardoned, but compelled to leave
Argentine territory.
Mitscherlich, Eilhard (b. 1794, d. 1863),
German chemist, born in Oldenburg; dis-
covered the " law of isomorphism," and
wrote a Lehrbuch der Chemie. After study-
ing under Berzelius at Stockholm, he was
appointed to a professorship at Berlin in
1822, and six years later was elected foreign
fellow of the Royal Society.
Mivart, St. George, M.D., F.R.S. (b.
1827), English naturalist and philosopher ;
was called to the bar in 1851 ; was secretary
of the Linneean Society 1874-80, and re-
ceived the degrees of Ph.D. from Rome,
and M.D. from Louvain. In 1874 he be-
came professor of biology at University
College, Kensington. His chief works are
The Genesis of Species (1871), an attack on
Darwinism so far as it is applied to mind,
Man and Apes (1873), Nature and Thought
(1883), The Origin of Human Reason (1889),
On Truth, as well as numerous zoological
monographs and contributions to the leading
periodicals.
Mnesikles (fl. 430 B.C.), Athenian archi-
tect, contemporary of Perikles ; designed the
Propylaeum, an entrance to the Akropolis.
Mochnacki, Maurice (b. 1804, d. 1834),
Polish writer and patriot; took a leading
part in the rising of 1831, of which he wrote
an account, and was also author of 0
Literaturze Polskiej.
Mocquard, Jean Constant (b. 1791, d.
1864), French lawyer ; after having attained
great success in his profession, lost his voice,
but in 1848 became secretary to Louis
Napoleon and chief of his cabinet.
Modjeska, Helena (b. 1844), Polish ac-
tress ; first appeared professionally in
1862, and attracted much attention by her
playing in Adrienne Lecouvrenr at "Warsaw
in 1868. In 1876 she emigrated with her
second husband, who worked as a farmer
in California ; but having learnt English
appeared on the San Francisco stage in her
old part. She afterwards played at New
York in La Dame aux Camelias, and at
London in 1880 in Romeo and Juliet, Frou-
Frou, and her old favourites. In 1882 she
created a sensation in Sardou's Odette, and
after playing Rosalind in America, appeared
in 1885 at the Lyceum.
Moffat, Robert, D.D. (b. 1795, d. 1883),
Scotch missionary ; after working some time
as a gardener at Manchester, was ordained
in 1816, and went out to Africa, where he
was a missionary for twenty- three years.
He reduced the Bechuana language into
written form, and translated the Bible into
it. One of his daughters married Living-
stone.
Mohammed. [See Mahomet.]
Mohl, Julius (b. 1800, d. 1876), German
Orientalist ; in 1823 went to Paris, where he
became the pupil of De Sacy and Remusat,
and the friend of Cuvier and Humboldt.
Although appointed professor at Tubingen in.
1826 he remained in Paris, where, in 1852,
he became oriental inspector of the imperial
press. He was frequently in England, and
married an English lady, Mary Clarke, by
whom, his Vi-ngt-sept Ans d'Histoire
des Etudes Orientates was published after
his death (1879-80). He also published edi-
tions of many Persian and Chinese classics.
Moi, Pieter van (b. 1590, d. 1650), Flem-
ish historical painter of the school of
Rubens, whose works are in Antwerp cathe-
dral and other churches in Flanders, some
also being in the Louvre.
Moira, Lord. \See Hastings.]
Moivre, Abraham de (b. 1667, d. 1754),
French mathematician, friend of Leibnita
and Newton; published in 1716 The Doctrine
of Chances.
Mola, Pietro Francesco (d. 1665), Italian
painter; was trained in the school of Albano,
but afterwards studied the Venetian masters.
His pictures are in churches at Rome, arid
at Milan, in Santa Maria della Vittoria, are
St. John in the Desert and St. Paul the Her-
mit. There is another painter of the name,
some of whose pictures, in the manner of
Albano, are in the Palazzo Salviati, Rome.
Molay, Jacques de (d. 1314), last grand
master of the Templars, who was burned to
death by order of Clement V. and Philip
the Fair, who fabricated charges against
him in order to obtain the property of the
order.
Mole", Francois Rene (b. 1734, d. 1802),
Mol
(566)
Mol
French comedian of some talent ; joined the
Jacobins during the revolution, and offici-
ated in St. Itoch as priest of the goddess of
Reason.
Mole", Louis Matthieu, Comte de (b, 1780,
d. 1855), French statesman, whose father
was a victim to the revolution ; having at-
tracted the notice of Napoleon in 1S06 by a
volume of absolutist essays, was made
minister of justice in 1813. After the resto-
ration he for a short time held office under
Louis XVIII., and after the second revo-
lution was premier from 1836 to 1839.
Molesworth, Mrs. (Mary Louisa Stewart),
novelist and writer of stories for children,
including Carrots (1876), Herr Baby (1881),
etc.
Molesworth, Sir William ( b. 1810, d. 1855),
English politician and writer ; having been
educated at Edinburgh and in Germany,
entered Parliament in 1832, and in 1853
became Commissioner of Works, and soon
after Colonial Secretary. With Roebuck he
established the London Review, and was also
for a time proprietor and editor of the
Westminster Review. He issued a reprint
of the works of Hobbes, and was engaged
on his Life when he died.
Molesworth, Rev. William Nassau (b.
1816, d. 1890), English writer, sou of Rev.
J. N. Molesworth ; took an active part in
politics as a Liberal, from which point of
view his History of England from 1830 was
written. Among his other works were A.
History of the Reform Bill of 1832 and Eng-
land and France, a prize essay.
Molesworth, Sir Guildford Lindsey (b.
1828), civil engineer, brother of rhepreceding.
He went out to Ceylon in 1859, where he be-
came director-general of the railway in
1865, and of public works in 1867, and in
1871 was appointed consulting engineer to
the government of India. His Pockeibook of
Engineering Formula is a standard work.
Moleville, Bertrand de (b. 1744, d. 1818),
French statesman ; was appointed minister
of marine in 1791, and tried to organise a
royal party in the Assembly, but after the
10th of August (1792) was obliged to seek
refuge in England, where he wrote his
Memoir es.
Moliere, Jean Baptiste [Poquelin] (b.
1622, d. 1672), dramatist; was educated by
the Jesuits, and studied law, but about
1645 changed his name, and became an
actor. He began to write plays in 1653,
and took part in them himself, first per-
forming before Louis XIV. in 1658. In
1673, while playing Argan in Le Malade
Imaginaire, he was seized with convulsions,
and died soon after. It was ->nly by the
intervention of the king that the Church
allruved him burial. ,His chief plays were
L'Etourdi H65b), L* L'cole des Femmea (1662),
Le Misanthrope, Le Midecin Malyre Lut,
Tartufe (1669), Le Bourgeois Geittilhomme.
Molina, Luis (b. 1535, d. 1600), Spanish
Jesuit ; author of lie Liberi Arbitrn cum
Gratice Donis Concordia, a work around
which much controversy raged.
Molinet, Claude du (b. 1620, d. 1687),
French archaeologist, librarian of Saint
Geuevieve, and author of a History of the
Popes from Martin V. to Innocent XL, illus-
trated by their coins.
Molinos, Miguel (b. 1640, d. 1697), Span-
ish theologian, founded the sect of the
Quietists, and wrote The Spiritual Guide,
which was condemned by the Inquisition,
and its author condemned to imprisonment
for life. The book was translated into
French, Latin, and Dutch,
Mollendorf, Richard, Graf von (b. 1724,
d. 1816), Prussian general ; was page to
Frederick the Great throughout the Silesian
campaigns, and afterwards had a distin-
guished military career, becoming tield-
marshal in 1793. He won the battle of
Kaiser's-Lautern in the following year, and
was wounded at Auerstadt.
Mollien, Nicholas, Comte (b. 1758, d.
1850), French statesman ; was employed by
Calonne, and had a share in negotiating the
peace of 1786; entered the service of Na-
poleon in 1801, and was minister of finance
from 1806-15.
Moltke, Helmuth Karl, Graf von (b. 1800,
d. 1891), German strategist, was born in
Mecklenburg, and after serving three years
in the Danish army, and passing through
the army school at Berlin, entered the
Prussian army, and from 1835 to 1839 was
military adviser to the Turkish pashas at
Constantinople. On his return he married his
m'ece, Miss Burt, and in 1848 became chief
of the staff at Magdeburg. He attended
the Crown Prince (the Emperor William)
as equerry for several years, and was one of
the chief agents in the reorganisation of
the army which preceded the Danish war.
He took a leading part in the war against
Austria which followed, and at its close be-
came immediately engaged in preparations
for mobilising the army in view of a struggle
with France. When the rupture came it
was he who planned the campaigns which
led to the overthrow of that country and
the unification of Germany. He was created
field-marshal in 1871, a life-member of the
Upper House in 1872, and in 1888 resigned
the office of chief of the staff. He wrote a
treatise on Poland and several autobio-
graphical works.
Mol
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Mou
Molza, Francesco (b. 1489, d. 1544),
Italian poet ; author of Ninfa Tiberina, and
some good imitations of Tibullus. His graud-
daughter, Tarquinia, was highly praised by
Tasso, and was presented with the citizen-
ship of Rome.
Mom m sen, Theodor (b, 1817), German
historian, son of a Schleswig clergyman ;
having travelled in France and Italy col-
lecting inscriptions for three years, obtained
a professorship at Leipzig in 1848, but was
removed on political grounds. He subse-
quently held chairs at Zurich and Breslau,
and in 1858 was appointed professor at
Berlin, where he became secretary of the
Academy of Sciences. In 1880 his library,
with most of his notes and manuscripts, was
destroyed by fire. His chief works are his
History of Home, which has been translated
into English, as also has his Early Inhabitants
of Italy, the correction and supervision of
the Corpus Inscriptionum Latino-rum, Oscan
Studies, and several political pamphlets.
Monaldeschi (d, 1657), one of the suite of
Christina, Queen of Sweden; was assassi-
nated by her orders at Paris for betraying
her confidence.
Monbeillard, Philibert (b. 1720, d. 1785),
French naturalist ; author of Collection
Academique and the ornithological part of
Buffon's Histoire Naturelle.
Monboddo, James Burnett, Lord (b. 1714,
d. 1799), Scotch judge ; came to London in
1745, and subsequently published Ancient
Metaphysics and The Origin and Progress of
Language.
Moncey, Bon Adrien, Due de Conegliano
(b. 1754, d. 1842), marshal of France; dis-
tinguished himself in Spain, and commanded
the gendarmerie of Paris under Napoleon,
but accepted the Bourbons and retained his
command, after undergoing imprisonment
for refusing to preside at the trial of Ney ;
had command of the expedition of 1823
against Spain.
Monck, Right Hon. Charles, Viscount (b.
1819), British statesman, sat for Portsmouth
as a Liberal from 1852 to 1857, and was a
lord of the Treasury from 1855 to 1858 ; was
Govern or- General of British America from
1861 to 1868, and was one of the commis-
sioners appointed to carry out the Irish
Church Act. He was made a peer of the
United Kingdom in 1866, having been an
Irish viscount since 1849.
Moncrieff, Sir Alexander, K.C.B., F.R.S.
(b- 1829), engineer, colonel in the Edin-
burgh Royal Artillery ; travelled extensively
in all parts of the world, and supplied topo-
graphical information to the Colonial Office,
and was present as a militia officer at the
bombardment of Sebastopol, when first
occurred to him the idea of his invention of
the disappearing system (for mounting guns),
afterwards improved in the hydro-pneumatic
system.
Moncrieff, James, Lord (b. 1811), Scotch
judge of an old family, educated at Edin-
burgh, and admitted to the bar in 1833 ; was
Solicitor-General for Scotland (1850-51) and
Lord Advocate till the change of ministry
in March, 1852, being reappoiiited in De-
cember of that year, and holding office till
1858, and again from 1859 to 1866, and in
1868-69, in which year he became lord
justice clerk. He was created a baronet in
1871, and a peer of the United Kingdom in
1874, and was one of the commissioners
under the Endowed Institutions (Scotland)
Act of 1878.
Monge, Gaspard, Comte de Peluse (b.
1746, d. 1818), French mathematician, the
chief founder of the Ecole Polytechnique,
taught natural philosophy at Lyons when
only sixteen ; became minister of marine in
1792, and accompanied the Egyptian expe-
dition in 1798, on his return from which he
was ennobled, and given an estate by Na-
poleon, on whose fall he was expelled the
institute, and soon after lost his reason. He
wrote several mathematical works,
Monica, Saint (b. 332, d. 387), mother of
Saint Augustine.
Monier-Williams, Sir Monier, D.C.L.,
LL.D. (b. 1819), Orientalist, was bom at
Bombay, and educated at King's College
and Balh'ol, Oxford ; after holding the pro-
fessorship of Sanscrit at Haileybuiy College
for fourteen years, was elected to the same
chair at Oxford in 1860. He visited India
three times after this, the result being the
foundation of the Indian Institute at Ox-
ford, which was opened in 1884. He was
knighted in 1886. Besides many editions
and translations of Sanscrit classics, he is
author of A Practical Grammar of the Sans-
crit Language arranged with the Classical
Languages of Europe, English -Sanscrit and
Sanscrit-English dictionaries, A Hindustani
Primer, etc., andlteligious Thought and Life
in India.
Monk, George (b. 1608, d. 1670), English
general ; served in the Royalist army in.
England and Ireland, but was made
prisoner at Nantvrich, and remained five
years in the Tower. After his release he
again commanded in Ireland, and was
Cromwell's lieutenant in Scotland, but soon
after the latter 's death took the chief part in
restoring Charles II., for which he received
the dukedom of Albemarle. As admiral,
he gained a great victory over the Dutch
in 1666. He was buried in Westminster
Abbey.
Mon
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Mon
Monk-Bretton, Lord, Bight Hon. (b.
1825), statesman, son of Sir John Dodson,
represented East Sussex as a Liberal from
1857 to 1874, and Chester from that year
till 1S80, when he was unseated on petition,
but sat for Scarborough till 1885, when he
received a peerage. Mr. Dodson was chair-
man of Committees from 1865 to 1872,
financial secretary to the Treasury 1873-4,
President of the Local Government Board
1880-2, and Chancellor of the Duchy of
Lancaster 18S2-5.
Monmouth, James, Duke of (b. 1649, d.
1685), natural son of Charles II. by Lucy
Walters, was born at Rotterdam, created
duke at the age of fourteen ; served in the
French army against the Dutch in 1673, and
defeated the Covenanters at Bothwell Brigg
in 1678. He had been the Whig candidate
for the succession against the Duke of
York, and soon after the accession of the
latter headed a rebellion, was defeated at
Sedgemoor, and executed.
Monnler, Henri Bonaventure (b. 1799, d.
1877), French writer, actor, and caricaturist ;
author of Memoires de Joseph Prudhomme, La
Grandeur et la Decadence de Joseph Prud-
homme, a comedy, in which he played the
title-rdle, Scenes Populaires Dessinees d la
Plwne, etc.
Monnoyer. [See Baptiste.]
Monro, Alexander (b. 1697, d. 1767),
Scotch physician, pupil of Cheselden and
Boerhaave ; became professor of anatomy to
the Edinburgh Company of Surgeons, and
instituted the medical school there, besides
publishing Osteology and several other
works. His son, Alexander (d. 1817), suc-
ceeded to his professorship, and was author
of several medical works, as was also a
grandson of the same name.
Monro, James, C.B. (b. 1838), British
administrator ; educated at Edinburgh and
Berlin ; entered the Bengal Civil Office in
18o7, and retired in 1884, when he was
appointed assistant-commissioner of metro-
politan police. From 1888 to 1890 he was
chief commissioner, when he retired, owing
to a disagreement with the Home Office.
Monroe, James (b. 1751, d. 1831), fifth
President of the United States ; served with
distinction in the war of Independence,
being wounded at Trenton, and in 1783 was
elected member of Congress. From 1794 to
1796 he was American plenipotentiary in
France, after which he went to London in a
similar capacity. From 1811 to 1817 he
was secretary of state, and was chosen pre-
sident in the latter year, being re-elected in
1821. A message to Congress in 1823 con-
tained what has since been known as the
"Monroe doctrine."
Monroe, Right Hon. Justice (6. 1839),
Irish judge, graduated at Queen's College,
Gal way, and was called to the Irish bar in
1863. Having taken silk in 1877, he waa
law-adviser to the Irish Government 1878-
80, and Solicitor-General for Ireland 1884-5,
when he was appointed judge of the Chan-
cery division, being created privy coun-
cillor next year.
Monstrelet, Enguerrand de (d. 1453),
French historian, provost of Cambrai,
wrote a Chroni(fne of the years 1400-53, of
which an English translation appeared in
1810.
Mont, Depdato del (b. 1581, d. 1634),
Flemish painter, pupil of Rubens, who
procured for him the appointment of
paiuter and architect to Duke Albert and
the Infanta Isabella. Two of his best pic-
tures are at Antwerp, in the churches of the
Jesuits and Notre Dame.
Montagu, Basil (b. 1770, d. 1851), English
writer, sou of Lord Sandwich and Miss
Ray ; was called to the bar, and published
treatises on the law of bankruptcy ; worked
with Romilly and others for the mitigation
of the penal code, and was an intimate
friend of Coleridge. He published an
edition of Bacon, with biography, and
several other works.
Montagu (Montacute), John Neville, Lord
(d. 1471), brother of Warwick, the "King-
maker"; was ennobled by Edward IV. in
1461, and won the battle of Hexham in
1464, but deserted the Yorkists in 1470, and
was killed at Barnet in the following year.
Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley (b. circa
1690, d. 1762), was daughter of the Duke of
Kingston, and went with her husband to Con-
stantinople in 1716, whence she wrote her
Letters to Pope, Addison, and others. She
introduced inoculation into England. An
edition of her works was published in 1861.
Her son, EDWAED (d. 1776), ran away from
Westminster, became a chimney-sweep, and
afterwards a muleteer in Spain, and after
sitting in Parliament some years, went
abroad again, and became a Mahometan.
Montagu, Right Hon. Lord Robert (b.
1825), English politician and writer. After
graduating at Cambridge, entered Parlia-
ment in 1859 as member for Huntingdon-
shire, which he represented as a Con-
servative till 1874, when he was returned
as a Conservative Home Ruler for West
Meath. He left the Home Rulers, how-
ever, in 1877, and Parliament three years
later. He was vice-president of the Coun-
cil and Charity commissioner 1867-8; be-
came a Romanist in 1870, but left the
Catholics in 1882. He wrote numerous
works, among which may be named Som-e
Popular Errors Concerning Politics and
Mon
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Mon
Religion (1874), Remarks on Mr. Gladstone's
Political Expostulations on the Vatican De-
crees (1874), Recent Events, with a Clue to
their Solution.
/
Montaigne, Michel Ey quern de (b. 1533, d.
1592), French writer, was educated at the
College de Guienne at Bordeaux, partly
under George Buchanan, and became a judge
of the Parlement there in 1554. He took no
part in affairs, but was driven from his
chateau for two years by the wars of the
League, during which time he formed his
friendship with Marie de Gournay. In 1588
he was chosen to negotiate a treaty between
Guise and Navarre at Blois. His Essais,
of which Shakespeare and Ben Jonson
possessed translations, were first published
in 1580.
Montal&mbert, Charles Forbes de Tryon,
Comte de (b. 1810, d. 1870), French writer
and politician, son of an English colonel,
who was created peer of France, and was
ambassador at Stockholm ; was born in
London, but educated chiefly in Paris. He
became one of the followers of Lamennais,
and first attracted notice by a speech in the
Chamber (1831) in favour of free Catholic
schools. Having visited England and the
East, he became a leader of the Ultra-
montane party, but also on one point a
strong Liberal, yet he made a great speech
in favour of the Sonderbund in 1847. Hav-
ing been a member of the Assemblies of 1848
and 1849, and been received at the French
Academy in 18-52, he retired from public life
Boon afterwards. His chief works were La,
Vie de St. Elisabeth de Hongrie (1835-6), Du
Vandalisme, et du Catholicisme dins V Art
(1839), L'Eglise Libre dans VEtat Libre
(1863).
Montalivet, Marthe Camille, Comte de
(b. 1801, d. 1880), statesman, from an early
age took part in public affairs ; opposed the
Polignac ministry, and after the revolution
of 1830 was several times minister of the
interior between that year and 1840, and
continued to be an adviser unofficially of
Louis Philippe, whom he endeavoured to
persuade to dismiss Guizot. After the
establishment of the second republic he
Siblished several works in defence of the
rleanist monarchy, and was elected
senator only a year before his 'death.
Montanus (2nd century), a Phrygian,
founder of the sect of the Montanists,
whose principles Tertullian favoured.
Montcalm de Saint V^ran, Louis Joseph,
Marquis de (b. 1712, d. 1759), French general ;
was named commander of the French forces
in Canada in 1756, where he won several
victories, and fortified Quebec, but was de-
feated by Wolfe in 1759, and mortally
wounded.
Monteagle, Thomas Spring Rice, Lord (b.
1790, d. 1866), statesman, born at Limerick,
which he represented from 1820 till 1832,
when he was elected for Cambridge. He
became Colonial Secretary in 1834, and
Chancellor of the Exchequer in the follow-
ing year, resigning that office in 1839, when
he became a peer. He was a fellow of the
Royal Society, and sat on several royal
commissions on art.
Montebello, Due de. [See Lannes.]
Montecucculi, Raimondo, Count (b. 1608,
d. 1681), Italian general in the service of
the empire. During the Thirty Years' war he
defeated the Swedes, and drove them out of
Bohemia in 1646, but was taken prisoner
in 1639 ; was made marshal in 1648, and
distinguished himself in Poland and against
the Turks, winning the victory of the Raab
in 1664, and was afterwards an able
opponent of Turenne and Conde in Holland
and on the Rhine. He was author of
Memorie intorno all' Arte Bellica.
Montefiore, Sir Moses, Bart. (b. 1784, d.
1885), Jewish philanthropist; having made
a fortune on the Stock Exchange, founded
the Alliance Assurance Company and the
Provincial Bank of Ireland, and devoted
his great wealth to the relief of his co-
religionists and others.
Montegut, Emile (b. 1826), French writer,
born at Limoges ; author of Les Pays Bast
Impressions de Voyage et d"1 Art (1869),
L1 Angle ter re et les Colonies Australes, Poetes
et Artistes de Vltalie, Le Marechal J)avout,
and translations of Emerson's Essays,
Macaulay's History, and Shakespeare's
plays.
Montelupo, Raffaelo da (d. circa 1570),
Italian sculptor, pupil and assistant of
Lorenzetti at Rome ; after serving as bom-
bardier at San Angelo, made bas-reliefs at
Loretto. He afterwards assisted Michel-
angelo, and was architect of the Duomo at
Orvieto, but his monument to Baldassare
Turini at Pescia was his best work.
Monten, Dietrich (b. 1799, d. 1843), Ger-
man military painter, his chief works being
The Storming of Belgrade, The Battle of
Lutzen, etc.
Montepin, Xavier de (b. 1824), French
writer, conspicuous in 1848 as an anti-
revolutionary journalist ; became the author
of numerous novels, Confessions d'un Bo-
heme (1849), Les Viveurs 'de Paris (18-V2-6),
Le Medecin des^ Folles (1879), etc., and of
Pauline, La Sirene de Paris, and other plays.
Montes, Lola (d. 1861), adventuress,
whose real name is supposed to have been
Gilbert. Having run away with a captain.
and for some time appeared on the stage, she
Mon
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Mon
became through her beauty a political power
in Europe, being for eome time the mistress
of King Lewis of Bavaria, who created her a
countess. After the revolution she con-
tinued to be a notorious character, and at
last died in New York.
Montespan, Framboise Athi'nais de Roche-
chouart. Marquise de (b. 1041, d. 1707), mis-
tr. -s of Louis XIV., having been dame de
palm* to the queen. After being gradually
Supplanted by Madame de Maiuteuon, she
withdrew from court in 1814, and became
derate.
Montesquieu, Charles le Secondat, Barcu
de (b. 168J, d. 175-3), French philosopher,
became president of the Bordeaux Paiie-
ment in 1716, and member of the French
Academy in 1728. Having given up his
appointments, he visited England in the
course of his travels, and was elected a
fellow of the R«yal Society. He first at-
tained celebrity by his Lettres Persaties, a
picture of contemporary life, but his chief
work was V Esprit des Lois (1748), which
was preceded by Les Causes de la Grandeur
des Remains et de leur Decadence, and other
works.
Monteverde, Claudio (b. 1568, d. 1613),
Venetian composer ; said to have been the
first who published operas and to have in-
troduced the tremolo. Ariana (1607) and
IS Orfeo were his chief productions.
Montezuma I., Emperor of Mexico (d.
1471), after having been the victorious
general of his uncle, succeeded him in 1436.
He defeated the people of Chalis, and em-
banked the lake of Tezcuco.
Montszuma IL (*. 1466, d. 1520), his
grandson, became emperor in 1502, and
governed with great cruelty. His dominions
having been attacked and conquered by
Cortez, he was killed by his subjects while
persuading them to submit to the Spaniards.
Montfaucon, Bernard de (b. 1655, d.
1741), French scholar ; having served in the
army under Turenne, entered the con-
gregation of St. Maur in 1675, and after-
wards wrote many works, the chief of which
was Z1 'Antiquite Expliquee et Representee en
Figures.
Montfort, Simon de (d. 1218), fourth
Count, is chiefly remembered as the leader
of the cruel crusade against the Albigenses
(1208). He afterwards took Toulouse from
Count Raymond, and was killed while
trying to recover it after its recapture. He
was made Earl of Leicester by King John.
Montfort, Simon de (d. 1265), Earl of
Leicester, and son of the preceding, was
born in France, but came to London in
1231, and married the king's sister ; was
appointed governor of Guienne in 1246, but
provoked much complaint from the severity
of his rule, and resigned in \'2~>'-'>. Soon
after his return he headed the coustituti
party against Henry 111., and gained the
practical control of the government uit-'i
the battle of Lewes, but part of the
baronage, being jealous of his influence,
joined the Royalists against him, and he
was defeated and slain at Evesham. The
people, however, canonised him ; hymus
were composed in his honour, and miracles
wrought at his tomb.
Moiitg'olfler, Jacques IStienne (h. 1745,
d. 17'J';, French paper-maker, inventor of
the balloon, the idea of which is said to
have been suggested by a study of Priest-
ley's works. The first experiment was
made in 1783 at Aiiuouay, the birthplace of
the Moutgolfiers, and it was afterwards
repeated at Versailles. JOSEPH, his elder
brother (d. 1810), had a share in the in-
vention, and abo devised a hydraulic
machine, called a water-ram.
Montgomery, Alexander (d. circa 1615),
Scotch poet ; author of The Cherrie and the
Slae ; was a favourite of James VL, who
gave him a pension.
Montgomery, Florence (b. 1847), daughter
of Sir A. Montgomery, and author of Mis-
understood (1869), Thrown Together, and
many similar tales.
Montgomery, Gabriel de (b. 1530, d.
1574), while captain of the Scots Guard
killed Henry II. in a tournament ; became
a Huguenot, and fought bravely against the
Catholics till taken at Matignon and exe-
cuted.
Montgomery, James (b. 1771, d. 1854),
Scotch poet; made his way on foot to
London, where he became a journalist, and
was several times imprisoned for his
writings. His chief poems were Tlie World
Before the Flood and Greenland. He re-
ceived a Civil List pension of £150 by
recommendation of Sir Robert Peel.
Montgomery, Robert (b. 1807, d. 1855),
poetaster, whose works are now unknown
and unread, and were immortalised by Ma-
caulay's onslaught in the Edinburgh Review.
Montholon, Charles Tristan, Comte de (b.
1782, d. 1853), chamberlain of Napoleon I. ;
was severely wounded at Waterloo, after
which he accompanied his master to St.
Helena, and published, in the form of
Memoir es, the documents written by him
there. He was afterwards imprisoned for
his share in the descent of Louis Napoleon
on Boulogne in 1840.
Monti, Raffaelle (*. 1818, d. 1881), Italian
sculptor, born at Milan ; visited Vienna and
England in 1847, and, having taken part
in the popular movement in Italy in tht
Mon
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££00
following year, returned to England. His
-chief works were The Veiled Vestal and The
Sleep of Sorrow and the Dream of Joy.
Montluc, Blaise de (b. 1501, d. 1577),
French marshal ; distinguished for his
services under Francis I. in Italy, and
afterwards notorious for his cruelty to the
Huguenots ; wrote Meinoires, which were
called by Henri IV. the "Soldier's Breviary."
Montmorency, Anne Due de (b. 1492, d.
1567), French marshal and Constable of
France, descended from Matthieu, "the
Great Constable," and minister of Philip
Augustus, Louis VIII., and Blanche of
Castile. After serving Francis I. , and being
taken prisoner at Pavia, he was made con-
stable in 1538, but afterwards exiled; was
restored by Henri II., in whose reign he
suppressed the rebellion in Guienne, but
was captured at St. Queutin ; afterwards
endeavoured to hold the balance between
the Guises and the Huguenots, but ulti-
mately joined the former. He was made
prisoner at Dreux, but won the victory at
St. Denis, where, however, he was mortally
wounded. His brother, Henri, who had
been governor of Lauguedoc fifty years,
and af towards joined Henri of Navarre,
succeeded him as duke.
Montmorency, Henri, Due de (b. 1595, d.
1632), son of Henri and nephew of Anne,
was made admiral of France in his eighteenth
year; defeated De Rohan, the Huguenot
leader, in 1628, and the Spaniards under
Doria in 1630, and was created marshal,
"but being jealous of the power exercised by
Richelieu, raised a rebellion in Languedoc,
and having been captured, was put to death
by his orders.
Montorsoli, Fra Giovan Angelo (ft. 1563),
Italian sculptor, born near Florence, was
employed by Clement VII. to restore
Btatues, and assisted Michelangelo at
Florence. He executed, among other works,
the statue of Andrea Doria at Genoa.
Montpensier, Anne Marie of Orleans
(Mademoiselle de Montpensier) (b. 1627, d.
1693), daughter of Gaston, Due d' Orleans
and niece of Louis XIII. ; was a bold and
able partisan of Conde, opposing Richelieu
and aiming at marriage with Louis XIV. ;
was secretly married to the Comte de
Lauzun, whose liberation from prison she
effected after ten years, but was badly
treated by him. She left copious Memoires.
Montpensier, Antoine Louis d' Orleans,
Due de (b. 1824, d. 1890), fifth son of Louis
Philippe ; having distinguished himself as a
soldier in Africa, married the sister of Isa-
bella, Queen of Spain, and came to England
after the revolution of 1848. Twenty years
later he was a candidate for the Spanish
throne, and in 1870 he killed Enrique de
Bourbon in a duel. After the abdication
of Amadeus I., he supported the claims of
his nephew, Alfonso, to whom one of his
daughters was married, another becoming
the wife of the Comte de Paris.
Montpetit, Annand de (b. 1713, d. 180"),
French artist ; invented the "eludonic" style
of painting, on which he wrote an essay,
and also made some improvements in the
steam-engine.
Montrose, James Graham, Marquis of (b.
1612, d. 1650), Royalist leader ; was born in
Edinburgh, and lived some time in France as
an officer in the Scottish Guard. Onhis return
he first joined the Covenanters, but after-
wards became a zealous Royalist, gaining
several battles for the king, but was de-
feated by Lesley at Philiphaugh in 1645.
and four years later, having been captured
in Orkney, was brought to Edinburgh and
executed.
Montucla, Jean fctienne (b. 1725, d. 1799),
French mathematician ; accompanied Turgot
to Cayenne as secretary and astronomer in
1764, and was intimate with Lalande,
D'Alembert, and others ; wrote Histoire des
Mathematiques and other works.
Moody, D wight Lyman (b. 1837), Amen,
can preacher, born in Massachusetts.; re-
nounced Unitarianism and became a Con-
gregatioualist, served during the Civil war
on the Christian Commission, and from 1865
entirely abandoned business. His church
and school-house at Chicago having been
burnt down in 1871, he came to England to
raise funds for rebuilding them, and was
successful in his object. He had previously
visited the country in 1864, and paid two
later visits, accompanied by Sankey, in 1873
and 1883.
Mcolraj, governor of Mooltan ; succeeded
Sawan Mull in 1844, and some time after-
wards caused to be treacherously murdered
Mr. Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson, who
had come to enforce payment of his suc-
cession fee. In 1848 his capital was stormed,
and having surrendered he was imprisoned
for life.
Moor, Karl van (b. 1656, d. 1738), Dutch
painter, born at Leyden ; painted portraits
and historical pictures, among them being
one of Marlborough and Prince Eugene for
the emperor.
Moore, Sir John (b. 1761, d. 1 809), soldier ;
son of a doctor at Glasgow, who edited
Smollett's works; served "in the American
war, in Corsica (1794), in the attack on St.
Lucia, of which he became governor, and
subsequently in Ireland, Holland, Egypt,
and Sicily (1806). On his return from an
expedition in aid of Sweden he was sent to
Portugal to command an army to cooperate
with the Spaniards. He was obliged to
Moo
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Mor
retreat from Salamanca to the sea, and won
the victory of Corunna (1809), but fell in the
battle.
Moore, John, D.D. (b. 1662, d. 1714),
Bishop successively of Norwich and Ely.
His valuable library was purchased by
George I., and presented to Cambridge
University •
Moore, Sir Jonas (ft. 1617, d. 1681),
mathematician ; patronised by Charles I.,
mi'l made survey or- general of ordnance by
Chiirles II., founded a mathematical school
at Christ's Hospital, and wrote several
mathematical works.
Moore, Thomas (b. 1779, d. 1852), Irish
writer, son of a grocer at Dublin ; graduated
at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1779, and went
to London soon after, where he obtained
the entree to Holland House. In 1804 he
went to Bermuda as registrar to the Ad-
miralty Court, but after a tour in Canada
and the States returned to England in 1806.
After nearly having a duel with Jeffrey he
became his friend, as also that of Byron and
Sheridan, both of whose lives he wrote. A
pension of £300 was conferred on him in
1835. Chief among his works were Lalla
Rookh (1817), Irish Melodies and Sacred
Songs, The Epicurean, A Life of Lord E.
Fitzgerald, etc.
Moore, Thomas (b. 1821, d. 1887), English
botanist ; author of the Treasure of Botany
and editor of Ferns of Great Britain, Nature-
printed.
Moorhouse, James, D.D. (b. 1826), divine,
son of a Manchester merchant, was educated
at St. John's College, Cambridge : became
Bishop of Melbourne in 1876, and of Man-
chester in 188-5.
Moorshed Koolee Enan (d. 1725), viceroy
of Bengal under Aurungzebe. Having been
originally a slave, left the province in a high
state of cultivation, and founded Moors-
hedabad, but persistently opposed the Eng-
lish.
Morales, Luis de (d. 15SG), Spanish
painter, called "El Divino," from his
subjects being sacred ; was pensioned bv
Philip II.
Moran, Patrick, Cardinal (b. 1830),
Romanist Archbishop of Sydney, was born
in Ireland, and educated in Rome ; after
being professor of Hebrew to the propa-
ganda and secretary to Cardinal Cullen,
became Bishop of Ossory, and Archbishop
of Sydney in 1884. Among his numerous
works are Historical Sketches of the Persecu-
tions tinder Cromwell and the Puritans, Irish
Saints in Great Britain, and The Federa*
Government in Australasia.
Moratin, Leandro Fernando de (b. 1760,
d. 1828), Spanish dramatist, patronised by
Florida Blanca and Godoy ; produm! l-'.l
Viejo y la Niiia, Excuela de /</.v J/-/n</ .•;.«., and
other plays, besides a translation of Hamlet
and some lyrics. His father, Nicolo (d.
1780), was also a dramatist, his chief work*
being Lucretia and La Pctimctra.
Moray. [See Murray.]
Mordaunt [See Peterborough.]
More, Hannah (b. 1745, d. 1833), English
writer, born near Bristol, where, wilh her
sister, she kept a school; became acquainted
with Johnson, Burke, and their circle when
in London, but returned to the country in
1786. Her chief works were Sacred Dramas
(1782), Practical Pietij (1811), and several
poems and successful plays, Percy being
brought out by Garrick at Drury Lane.
More, Henry, D.D. (b. 1614, d. 1687),
Cambridge Platonist philosopher, was one
of the original members of the Royal Society,
and wrote Divine Dialogues and Psychozoia :
the Life of the Soul (1640).
More, Sir Thomas (*. 1478, d. 1535),
statesman and writer, son of Sir J. More,
a judge ; was educated in the household of
Archbishop Morton, who sent him to Oxford,
where he made the acquaintance of Eras-
mus. He entered Parliament in 1504, where
he took an independent course, refusing a
pension from the kin^, whose favour, how-
ever, and that of "VVolsey, he enjoyed ; was
knighted in 1522, became Speaker in 1523,
and on the fall of Wolsey, Chancellor, but
resigned in 1532, and was committed to the
Tower two years later for refusing to take
the oath of supremacy. He was then con-
demned by attainder, and executed on a
charge of treason. He wrote Utopia and
several other works, most of them in Latin.
Moreau, Jean Victor (b. 1761, d. 1813),
general ; commanded the army of the Rhine
in 1796, and after defeating the Archduke
Charles, made a masterly retreat; after-
wards gained victories at Biberach and
Hohenliiiden (1800), and took Salzburg.
Bonaparte became jealous of his fame and
distrustful of his political principles, and he
was sent into exile in 1804 on a charge of
conspiracy. On his return to Europe he
joined the allies, and was soon after mortally
wounded at Dresden.
Moreau de la Sarthe, Jacques (b. 1771, d.
1826), French physician ; author of Histoire
Naturelle de la Femme (1803).
Moreau de Saint Mery, Mederic Elie
(b. 1750, d. 1819), French administrator and
founder of the Musee de Paris, published
Lois et Constitutions des Colonies
de VAmerique, 1550 d 1785.
Mor
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Mor
MoreU, Thomas (b. 1703, d. 1784), Eng-
lish scholar, fellow of King's College, Cam-
bridge, author of Thesaurus Griecte Poeseos
and the libretto of several of Handel's
oratorios. He also assisted Hogarth in his
Analysis of Beauty.
MoreUet, Andre, Abbe (b. 1727, d. 1819),
French economist, friend of Franklin, the
philosopher ; was imprisoned in the Bastille
at the opening of the revolution for a
pamphlet against the court. He wrote
Theorie du Paradoxe, and translated Bec-
caria's work on Crimes and Punishments.
More to y Cabana, Augustin (d. 1669),
Spanish dramatist, contemporary with Cal-
deron, his best work being the comedy
El Desden con el Desden. His Guardar una
Muger no Puede Ser has been thought to
have been the model of L'&ole des Maris.
Morgan. [See De Morgan.]
Morgan, Right Hon. George Osborne (b.
1826), English politician, born at Conway ;
after a distinguished career at Oxford, was
called to the bar in 1853, and became
Queen's Counsel in 1869. He entered Par-
liament as a Liberal in 1868 for Denbigh-
shire, was Judge Advocate General from
1880 to 1885, and under- secretary for the
colonies in 1886, having been prominent
in the carrying of the Burials Act, the
Married Women's Property Act, and the
Abolition of Corporal Punishment in the
Army. He is also author of a standard
work on Chancery practice, and several
political pamphlets.
Morgan, Sir Henry (d. 1690), Welsh
buccaneer ; ravaged the Spanish colonies
and plundered Puerto Bello in 1668, and
was knighted by Charles II.
Morgan, Sydney, L;uly [nee Owenson],
(b. 1783, d. 1859), Irish novelist, daughter
of an actor ; author of The Wild Irish Girl,
Woman and her Master, Passages from my
Autobiography , and other works. After the
death of Sir C. Morgan she received a Civil
List pension.
Morghen, Kaffaelle Sanzio Cavaliere (b.
1758, d. 1833), Italian engraver, born at
Naples ; reproduced most of RaffaeUe's
works, and The Last Supper of Leonardo da
Vinci. He was invited to Paris in 1812 by
Napoleon.
Morier, James (b. 1780, d. 1849), author of
books of travels in the East, and of Hajji
£aba of Ispahan, and other novels.
Morier, Sir Robert Burnett, G.C.B.,
D.C.L. (b. 1826), diplomatist; after gra-
duating at Oxford, served in the Education
Department, and as attache at Vienna and
Berlin, and after having been a member of
the Tariff Commission of 1865, secretary of
legation at Athens, charge d'affaires at
Frankfort, Darmstadt, Stuttgardt and Mu-
nich, was appointed minister-plenipotentiary
to Portugal in 1876, to Spain in 1881, TO
Russia in 1884, and to Rome in 1892.
Morin, Jean (b. 1-591, d. 1G59), French
Orientalist, chaplain to Henrietta Maria ;
wad noted for his knowledge of the Samari-
tan language, of which he published a
grammar and lexicon.
MorlaccM, Francesco (b. 1784, d. 1841),
Italian composer, whose works include ora-
torios (G:i Angeli al Sepulchro, 1802, etc.),
operas (// Rit ratio), and masses.
Morland, George (b. 1763, d. 1804), English
painter, whose subjects were generally
chosen from low life and rustic scenery
(farmyards, scenes at village alehouses,
etc.), lived a very irregular life, and died in
a sponging-house in London.
Morland, Sir Samuel (d. 1695), engineer ;
was employed diplomatically in Savoy by
Cromwell, and received a baronetcy from
Charles II., in whose reign he invented the
speaking - trumpet, and an arithmetical
machine.
Morley, Right Hon. Albert Parker, 3rd
Earl of (b. 1843), statesman, educated at
Eton and Balliol, was a lord-in-waiting
from 1868 to 1874, under-secretary for war
under Mr. Gladstone (1880-5), but resigned
the office of First Commissioner of Works in
1886 owing to disagreement with the policy
of Home Rule. In 1889 he was elected
chairman of committees in the House of
Lords.
Morley, Henry (b. 1822), biographer and
writer ; after practising as a doctor in Shrop-
shire for four years, came to London in
1851 as a journalist and edited Household
Words ; was English lecturer at King's
College from 1857 to 1865, and professor of
English from 1865 to 1889 at University
College, when he became Emeritus professor.
He edited for Routledge the Universal
Library, and for Cassell The National
Library, and wrote besides numerous bio-
graphies (Clement Marot, etc.), A first
Sketch of English Literature, Tables of Eng-
lish Literature, and edited Florio's Mon-
taigne, Boswell's Johnson, etc.
Morley, Right Hon. John (b. 1838), states-
man and writer, born at Blackburn and
educated at Cheltenham and Oxford ; was
called to the bar in 1859, but devoted bis
time to writing. He edited, among other
publications, the Fortnightly Review from
1867 to 1882, the Pall Mall Gazette from 1880
to 1883, and Macmillan 1883-85, and after
two unsuccessful candidatures (in 1869 and
1880) entered Parliament in 1883 as member
Mor
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Mor
for Newcastle. He from the first adopted
Home Rule, and in 1886 became Chief
Secretary for Ireland, and again in 1892. Hia
chief works are Edmund Burke ; an Histori-
cal Study, Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, On
Compromise, Life of Cobden, Walpole and
Chatham in the "Statesmen " series ; and he
edited the "English Men of Letters" series.
Morley, Samuel (b. 1809, d. 1886), Non-
conformist philanthropist, devoting his
wealth to all good works, the chief result
of his munificence being the Memorial Hall,
Farringdon Street He represented Bristol
from 1868 to 1885, and declined a peerage
on retiring from public life. His son,
AENOLD MORLEY (b. 1849), having been
called to the bar in 1873, was returned for
Nottingham in 1880, and in 1886 became
patronage secretary to the Treasury, and
chief Liberal whip.
Mornay, Philippe de (b. 1549, d. 1623),
French statesman, fled to England after the
massacre of St. Bartholomew; afterwards
joined Henry of Navarre, and became his
chief counsellor, reconciling him with
Henri III. in 1589 ; obtained from Henri
IV. the Edict of Nantes, but was dismissed
by him in 1600 as an over-zealous Huguenot.
Morning-ton, Garrett Wesley, Earl of (b.
1735, d. 1781), Irish musician and composer,
professor of music at Dublin ; composed,
besides sacred music, many glees (0 Bird of
Eve, Come, Fairest Nymph, etc.)
Morny, Charles Auguste Louis Joseph,
Due de (b. 1811, d. 1865), French statesman,
said to be half -brother of Napoleon III., was
adopted by^the Due de Morny, and served
some time in the French army, after which
he became a speculator. Having had a share
in the coup d'etat of 1851, he became minister
of the interior, but resigned on account of
the decrees confiscating the Orleans property.
From 1854 till his death he was president of
the Corps Legislative.
Morosini, Francesco (b. 1611, d. 1694),
Doge of Venice, called "H Peloponesiaco,"
from his conquest of the Morea from the
Turks in 1651 ; afterwards lost Candia, and
was tried for misconduct, but acquitted,
and, after being elected Doge in 1688, de-
feated the Turks on several occasions.
Morpeth, George William Howard,
Viscount, and Earl of Carlisle (b. 1802, d.
1864), entered Parliament in 1826, and be-
came Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1835-
In 1855 he was appointed Lord Lieutenant.
Morris, Francis Orpen (b. 1810), British
naturalist, son of Bear-Admiral H. G.
Morris; graduated at Oxford in 1833, and
soon after took orders, and became chaplain
to the Duke of Cleveland; wrote History
of British Birds (1851-7), Natural History
of British Butterflies, An Essay on Scientific
Nomenclature, etc.
Morris, Gouverneur (b. 1752, d. 1816),
American statesman ; became a member of
the Provincial Congress of New York, and
was one of those who drew up the state
constitution in 1776; was a prominent mem-
ber of the Continental Congress 1777-80,
being the colleague of R. Morris as
superintendent of finance. He was one of
the draughters of the federal constitution
in 1787, after which he passed many years
in Europe, being minister to France during
the revolution, and became United States
senator on his return. He wrote Observa-
tions on the American Revolution, and his
Correspondence throws much light on the-
French revolution.
Morris, Rev. John (b. 1826), Catholic
biographer and writer, born in India, was
secretary to Cardinals Wiseman and Man-
ning, and joined the Society of Jesus in
1867. Among bis works are Life of S.
Thomas of Canterbury, The Letter Books of
Sir Amy as Paulet, and The Troubles of Our
Catholic Forefathers.
Morris, Lewis (b. 1833), poet, grandson of
the Welsh poet of the same name, was born
in Carmarthen, and educated at Sherborne
and Oxford, and having been called to the
bar practised as a conveyancer for several
years. He was several times an unsuccesf ul
Liberal candidate, and was some time vice-
chairman of the Reform Club. His chief
works are The Epic of Hades (1876-7), Gwen:
a Drama, in Monologue (1878), The Ode of
Life (1880), Songs of Britain (containing the
Jubilee Ode), and A Vision of Saints.
Morris, Right Hon. Michael, Lord (b.
1827), Irish judge, born in Galway, and
educated at Trinity College, Dublin, was
called to the Irish bar in 1849, and became
Queen's Counsel in 1863. He entered Par-
liament as an Independent in 1865 for
Galway, was successively Solicitor- and
Attorney- General for Ireland in 1866, was
appointed a judge of the Common Pleas in
1867, Lord Chief Justice in 1876, and in
1889 Lord of Appeal, receiving a life peer-
age in 1890. He was a member of several
commissions on Irish Primary Education.
Morris, Philip Richard (b. 1838), artist;
at first engaged as an iron-founder, but
having attracted the notice of Holman
Hunt, studied at the Royal Academy,
where in 1858 he won the gold medal for
his Good Samaritan, and won a travelling
studentship. He was elected A.R.A. in
1877, and exhibited at the Academy and the
Grosvenor Gallery The Shadow of the Cross,
A Procession at Dieppe (1877), Home : A
Family Group (1889), etc.
Mor
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Mor
Morris, Rev. Richard, LL.D. (b. 1833),
philologist and writer ; after being lecturer
on English at King's College school, was
elected in 1875 headmaster of the Royal
Masonic Institute for Boys. In 1874 he
was president of the Philological Society.
Among his works are The Etymology of
Local Names, Specimens of Early English,
and Historical Outlines of English Accidence,
and editions of Early English Alliterative
foems, Chaucer's Boethius, etc.
Morris, Robert (6. 1734, d. 1806), Ameri-
can financier, born in Liverpool : emigrated
at an early age and settled in Philadelphia,
becoming a partner in the counting-house
of C. Willing ; opposed the Stamp Act, and
signed the Non- importation Agreement
(1765). Having become a member of the
Continental Congress, he signed the De-
claration of Independence, and greatly
helped the American cause from his own
purse, both during the war and afterwards.
He founded the Bank of North America,
was superintendent of finance from 1781 to
1784, but declined the secretaryship of the
treasury ; was finally ruined by his specu-
lations, and died in prison for debt.
Morris, William (b. 1834), English poet
and Socialist, son of a London merchant ;
was educated at Marlborough and Oxford,
and in 1863, with D. G. Rossetti, Burne
Jones and others, engaged in the manufac-
ture of artistic wall-paper and household
decorations. During his leisure hours he
gave Socialist lectures, and wrote poetry,
his chief productions having been The Life
and Death of Jason (1867), The Earthly
Paradise (1868-70), The Story of Sigurd
the Volsung (1877), besides translations of
the JEneid and the Odyssey, and some prose
works, of which the chief is A Tale of the
House of the Wolfings (1889).
Morrison, Richard, D.D. (b. 1782, d.
1834), Orientalist ; went to China as a mis-
sionary in 1807, and was chief founder of
the Anglo-Chinese college at Malacca. He
published a Chinese version of the Bible,
and a Chinese dictionary and grammar.
Morse, Samuel Finley Breese (b. 1791, d.
1872), American electrician, son of a Con-
gregationalist minister in Massachusetts;
having graduated at Yale, came to England
in 1810, and, becoming a pupil of West, ex-
hibited The Dying Hercules at the Academy
in 1813. He afterwards abandoned art for
science, and in 1837 took out a patent for
his electric telegraph, the first overhead
message being sent from Washington to
Baltimore in 1844. It was afterwards gene-
rally adopted, the inventor receiving an
international testimonial in 1858. Disputes
subsequently arose as to priority of invention
with Professor Henry, and on account of
the infringement of Morse's patent.
Mortier, Edouard Adolphe, Due de Tre-
vise (b. 1768, d. 1835), marshal of France;
was sent by Napoleon to occupy Hanover in
1803, gained some victories in Spain in
1809, was defeated at Montmartre in 1814 ;
also distinguished himself at Friedland and
in Russia. He gave in his adhesion at the
restoration of the Bourbons, and was war
minister to Louis Philippe for several
months, being soon after killed by an in«
f ernal machine.
Mortimer, Edmund (d. 1381), son of
Roger, married Philippa, daughter oi
Lionel, Duke of Clarence. Their grand-
daughter, Anne, married Richard, Earl of
Cambridge, grandfather of Edward IV.
Mortimer, Roger, Ear1 of March (b. 1287,
d. 1330), the favourite of Isabella, wife of
Edward II., whom he assisted to overthrow
the Despencers, and afterwards ruled Eng-
land ; was arrested by Edward III. for the
murder of his father, and hanged at Tyburn.
His grandson, Roger, was restored to the
earldom in 1354.
Morton, James Douglas, fourth Earl of
(d. 1581), Scotch statesman, favoured the
reformation, and was made chancellor in
1563 ; fled to England after the murder of
Rizzio, for his share in which he received a
pardon by the influence of Bothwell, whom,
however, he afterwards opposed, becoming
again Chancellor, and in 1572 Regent of
Scotland. In 1581 he was executed as an
accomplice in the murder of Darnley, the
accusation being probably untrue.
Morton, John, Cardinal (6. 1410, d. 1500),
statesman, became Bishop of Ely in 1478,
and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1486 ; was
employed diplomatically by Edward IV.,
plotted against Richard III., and became
Lord Chancellor under Henry VII., when he
devised the well-known dilemma of " Mor-
ton's fork."
Morton, Levi Parsons (b. 1824), American
statesman, born at Shoreham, Vermont ;
founded in 1863 the banking-house of
Morton, Bliss and Co. (New York), and
Morton, Rose and Co. (London) ; declined
the Republican nomination as vice-president
in 1880, but accepted it and was elected in
1888, having in the intervening years been
American minister in France.
Morton, Samuel George (b. 1799, d. 1851),
American physician, professor of anatomy
at Philadelphia ; latterly gave his chief at-
tention to ethnological researches, the re-
sults of which were published in his works,
Crania Americana, Crania JEgyptiaca, Types
of Mankind (posthumous).
Moryson, Fynes (b. 1566), English tra-
veller, secretary to Lord Mountjoy, deputy
Mos
(676)
Mem
of Ireland; published an Itinerary (1617),
and several works on Ireland,
Moscheles, Ignaz (*. 1794, d. 1870), Ger-
man piamst and composer, bom at Prague,
where he studied before going to Vienna ;
became a great pianist, visitiug all the prin-
cipal Continental towns, and coming to
England in 1820. He settled in London,
and became in 1825 professor at the
Academy, but in 1846 was appointed to a
professorship at Leipzig. Among his pupils
were Thalberg and Mendelssohn, and his
tfe, edited by his wife, appeared in 1873.
Moschus (Jl. circa 250 B.C.), Greek pas-
toral poet, a native of Syracuse.
Moseilaina (f. 632), Arab chief; set up
himself as a rival of Mahomet, with whom
he proposed a partition of the earth ; was
defeated by Khaled and slain, and his party
was soon suppressed.
Moseley, Henry Nottidge, F.K.S. (b. 1844,
d. 1891), scientific writer, son of Rev. H.
Moseley, F.R.S. ; after leaving Oxford,
studied medicine in London, Vienna, and
Leipzig, and in 1871 was a member of the
Eclipse expedition to Ceylon and southern
India. During the years 1872-6 he was
with the Challenger expedition as naturalist,
and on his return became fellow of Exeter
College, Oxford, and in 1881 Liuacre pro-
fessor of human and comparative anatomy.
He wrote Notes by a Naturalist on the
"Challenger" (1879), and many scientific
memoirs.
Moser, George Michael (b. 1705, d. 1783),
Swiss artist, born at Schaffhauseu ; came
to England and became a goldsmith and
enameller; was appointed keeper of the
Royal Academy in 1768. His daughter,
Mary (b. 1744), a flower-painter, became an
Academician.
Moses, the lawgiver of Israel, flourished
probably about 15UO B.C.
Mosheim, Johann Lorenz von (b. 1694,
d. 1755), German writer, born at Lftbeck of
noble parents, professor of theology at
Gbttingen ; wrote Institutionum Ecclesiastics
Historic^ Libri V. and other works, and also
translated Cud worth's Intellectual System of
the Universe, with annotations.
Moss, Robert, D.D. (b. 1666, d. 1729),
Dean of Ely and chaplain -in -ordinary to
William III., Anne, and George I., being
dismissed in 1718 for his share in the
Bangorian controversy ; wrote The Report
Vindicated from Mis-reports, a defence of
Convocation.
Mossop, Henry (b. 1729, d. 1773), tra-
gedian, born in Connaught, and educated at
Dublin, where he appeared as Zanga in
Young's Revetige. He played in London
with success, but was finally ruined by the
management of a Dublin theatre.
Motenabbi, Abul Ahmed (b. 915, d. 965),
Arabian poet, attempted to form a Moham-
medan sect ; afterwards went to Egypt, and
was killed by robbers on his return to
Damascus. French and German translations
of some of his poems are extant.
Motherwell, William (b. 1797, d. 1835),
Scotch poet and journalist; made a collection
of ballads, called Minstrelsy : Ancient and
Modern.
Motley, John Lothrop (b. 1814, d. 1877),
American historian, educated under Ban-
croft, and at Harvard, Berlin, and Gb'ttin-
gen, being intimate with Bismarck at the
German universities ; published in 1856 his
Rise of the Dutch Republic, the result of ten
years' labour. This was published at his
own expense, but was very successful, and
the History of the United Netherlands was
finished in 1868. Motley was American
minister at Vienna 1861-7, and in London
1869-70. He afterwards published The
Life and Death of John of Barneveldt
(1874), living chiefly in Holland and
England, where he died. His Correspond"
ence appeared in 1889.
Motte. [See Lamotte.j
MotteviUe, Frances, Dame de (d. 1689),
French lady, favourite of Anne of Austria
and friend of Henrietta Maria ; was banished
from court by the influence of Richelieu,
after whose death she was recalled, and
wrote Memoires pour servir d VHistoire
d? Anne d'Autriche.
Mottley, John (d. 1750), English writer,
said to have been the real author of Joe
Miller's Jests; wrote several plays, and
lives of Peter the Great and the Empress
Catherine I.
Moucny, Philippe de Noailles, Due de (b.
1715, d. 1794), French marshal; defended
the Tuileries on June 20, 1792, and was two
years later guillotined with his wife, called
by Marie Antoinette "Madame L'Eti-
quette."
Moukhtar Pasha, Ahmed (b. 1837), Turk-
ish general ; served in Montenegro and in
the Yemen campaign of 1869, and was tutor
to Prince Ysouf in 1864. After having
held the governorships of Crete and Erze-
roum, he was engaged in suppressing the
revolts of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1875,
and on the outbreak of the war with Russia
was appointed commander-m-chief in Asia
Minor, but was badly supported, and forced
to retire from Erzeroum. In 1878 he was
special commissioner to Crete and governor
Mou
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Moz
of Janiua, and in 1885 was appointed to
cooperate with Sir H. D. Wolii in Egypt
as commissioner under the Auglo-Turkish
convention.
Mouley el Hassan, Sultan of Morocco (b.
1831), succeeded his father, Sidi-Muley
Muhammed, in 1873, although not the
eldest son.
Moulton, John Fletcher (b. 1844), mathe-
matician, born at Madeley, and educated at
Kiugswood school, Bath, and at Cambridge,
where, having been a pupil of Dr. Routh, he
became senior wrangler and Smith's prize-
man, obtaining the gold medal at London
University the same year (1868). In 1873
he resigned his fellowship at Christ's College,
and was called to the bar, becoming Queen's
Oounsel in 1885, being also in Parliament for
a few months. In 1880 he was elected
F.R.S. for the papers written in conjunction
with Dr. Spottiswoode, in 1879, upon the
discharge of electricity in vacuum tubes.
Moulton, William Fiddian (6. 1835), brother
of the last, English theologian, born at Leek ;
graduated at London in 1856 with great dis-
tinction, and soon after entered the Wesleyan
ministry. He was a member of the New
Testament Revision Company, wrote a His-
tory of the English Bible (1878) , and translated
'
and edited Wiener's Grammar and
Testament Greek. In 1890 he was president
of the Wesleyan Conference. He has been
for nearly twenty years Principal of the
Leys school, Cambridge.
Moultrie, John (b. 1799, d. 1874), English
poet ; having taken orders, obtained the
living of Rugby in 1828, and became inti-
mate with Dr. Arnold. He wrote The
Dream of Life (1843), and My Brother's
Grave, and Godiva, which originally ap-
peared in The Etonian, of which, with
Praed, he was the chief support.
Mquntfort, William (b. 1659, d. 1692),
English actor, a protege of Judge Jefferies ;
was assassinated when growing in repu-
tation by Lord Mohun and Captain Hill,
who were jealous for a preference supposed
to be shown him by Mrs. Bracegirdle. He
wrote a few plays.
Mount-Temple, William, Lord (b. 1811,
d. 1888), statesman, second son of Earl
Cowper; was a lord of the Admiralty,
1846-52, President of the Board of Health
1853-55, and subsequently vice-president of
the Education Committee, and Commissioner
of Works. He introduced the Cowper-
Temple clause in the Education Act of 1870,
and received a peerage ten years later.
Mouton, Georges, Comte de Lobau, (6.
1770, d. 1838), French soldier, rose from the
ranks to be a general. Fought in the
Napoleonic campaigns, and took part in the
revolution of 1830.
LL
Mowat, Hon. Oliver (b. 1820), Canadian
statesman, born at Kingston, Upper Canada;
was called to the bar in 1842, and became
Queen's Counsel in 1856. He was elected
for South Ontario as a Liberal in 1858, and
became provincial secretary the same year,
was postmaster-general 1863-64, and vice-
chancellor of Upper Canada 1864-72, when
he became premier and attorney -general of
Ontario.
Mowbray, Right Hon. Sir John Robert
(b. 1815), English politician; educated at
Westminster and Christ Church, represented
Durham as a Conservative from 1853 to 1868,
when he became member for Oxford Uni-
versity. He was Judge Advocate- General
in Lord Derby's second and third ministries,
and was sworn of the Privy Council in 1858.
He assumed the name of Mpvvbray (in lieu
of Cornish) on his marriage in 1 847, and re-
ceived a baronetcy in 1880. His son, Mr.
R. G. Mowbray, fellow of All Souls', entered
Parliament in 1886 as member for the Prest-
wich division of Lancashire.
Moyses, David (b. 1653, d. 1630), Scotch
writer, accompanied James VI. to England
as his page, and kept a diary of the occur-
rences at court, the MS. of which is in the
Advocate's Library, Edinburgh. It was
printed in 1753 under the title of Memoirs of
the A/airs of Scotland, 1577-1603, with a
Discourse on the Conspiracy of Gowrie.
Mozart, Johann Chrysostom Wolfgang
Amadeus (b. 1756, d. 1791), German com-
poser, was born at Salzburg; composed some
pieces at the age of five, when he was taken
to Munich, and performed with his sister
before the Elector of Bavaria. In 1763 the
children went on a tour to all the principal
German towns, as well as Brussels and
Paris, and in April, 1764, gave concerts in
London. On his return to Salzburg in 1769,
Mozart became director of the Archbishop's
concerts, and soon after made a tour in
Italy, after his return from which, at the
end of 1778, he settled at Vienna. Here,
in his twenty-fifth year, he wrote Idomeneo
on the occasion of the first rejection of his
suit to Constance Weber, whom he married
in 1782. L' Enlevement du Scrail was com-
posed in 1782, Nozze di Figaro 1786, Don
Giovanni 1787, Die Zauberflote and La
Clemenza di Tito 1791, and the Requiem on
his death-bed, in addition to which he pro-
duced many masses, symphonies, concertos,
etc.
Mozley, James Bowling, D.D. (b. 1813, d.
1878), English theologian, was educated at
Oxford, where he became fellow of Mag-
dalen in 1837, when he was ordaiued, and
Regius professor of divinity in 1871, having
been made canon of Worcester in 1869. He
published, among other works, The Augus-
tinian Doctrine of Predestination, A Review
Moz
( 678 )
Mul
of the Baptismal Controversy, and Bampton
lectures On Miracles (1865).
Mozley, Thomas (b. 1806), brother of the
above, became fellow of Oriel in 1829, and
was for many years on tbe staff of the Times,
and wrote Reminiscences, chiefly of Oriel
College and the Oxford Movement (1882),
and Reminiscences, chiefly of Towns, Villages,
and Schools (1885).
Mudge, Thomas (b. 1715, d. 1794), watch-
maker, born at Exeter ; published Thoughts
on Improving Watches (1765), and obtained a
parliamentary grant 01 £3,000 for his chro-
nometers.
Mueller [Muller], Sir Ferdinand von,
M.D., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (b. 1825), Austra-
lian botanist of German extraction ; was
born at Rostock, but emigrated to Australia
in 1847, and after travelling in South Aus-
tralia for four years collecting plants, was
made Government botanist of Victoria. He
afterwards accompanied Gregory's expe-
dition, and was one of those who reached
Termination Lake in 1856. From 1857 to
1873 he was director of the Melbourne
Botanic Gardens, and was one of the com-
missioners for the industrial exhibitions
held there in 1854, 1862, and 1867. Among
his works are Fragmenta Phijtographica
Australia, and The Plants of Victoria.
Muggleton, Ludowick (b. 1607, d. 1697), a
tailor, founded with John Reeve, about
1651, the sect called "Muggletonians,"
whose doctrines were contained in The In-
terpretations of Revelation XI., and News
from Heaven. Muggleton was opposed by
George Fox and Perm, and convicted of
blasphemy in 1676.
Muir, John (b. 1810, d. 1882), Sanscrit
scholar ; haying graduated at Glasgow, was
in the service of the East India Company
from 1828 to 1853, and published Original
Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of
the People of India, their Religion and Insti-
tutions (1858-70), and other works, besides
a translation of Kuenen's Five Books of
Moses.
Muir, Matthew Pattison (b. 1848), chem-
ist, born and educated at Glasgow ; having
held several posts in which university, was
elected fellow of Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge, in 1881, and became examiner
on the natural science tripos. Among his
works are Chemists (" Heroes of Science"
series), A Treatise on the Principles o£ Chem-
istry, and several chemical works written in
collaboration.
Muir, Sir William, K. C.S.I., D.C.L. (b.
1819), his brother, entered the Bengal civil
service in 1837, became governor of the
North- West Provinces in 1868, and was a
member of the Council of India from that
year till 1885, when he became principal of
Edinburgh University. His chief works
are Life of Mahomet (1858-61), and au
Abridgment (1877), Annals of the Early
Khahfate (1883), and The Khalifate : it*
Rise, ^Decline, and Fall (1891).
Mulgxave, Lord. [See Normanby.]
Mulhall, Michael G. (b. 1836), statistician,
born in Dublin and educated at the Irish
college, Rome ; author of Progress of the
World (1880), Dictionary of Statistics, His-
tory of Prices, etc. His wife received a
complimentary diploma from the Italian
Geographical Society for her work Between
the Amazon and the Andes (1883).
Muller, George (b. 1805), German preacher,
born near Halberstadt, came to England in
1829, and in 1835 first proposed the establish-
ment of the Bristol orphanage. He pub-
lished his Narrative at first in 1837, con-
tinuing it in 1841, 1844, and 1856. In 1886
he went to Queensland to preach.
Muller, Gerard Friedrich (6. 1705, d. 1783),
Gei-mau writer and traveller, born in West-
phalia, settled in Russia in 1725, and ex-
plored Siberia with Gmelin and Delisle in
1733; was made councillor of state and
F.R.S., and published Collections for the
History of Russia, and other works.
Muller, Johann von (b. 1752, d. 1809),
Swiss historian, born at Schaffhausen, where
he was professor of Greek , was subsequently
professor of history at Cassel, councillor of
the imperial chancery and secretary of state
for the Bonapartist kingdom of Westphalia.
He wrote History of the Swiss Confederation,
and A Course of Universal History (Tu-
bingen).
Muller, Johann Gotthard von (b. 1747, d.
1830), German engraver, patronised by the
sovereigns of Wiirtemberg ; was a member
of both French and German academies, and
engraved portraits of Schiller, Louis XVI.,
and Wille, the Madonna della Segyiola, and
other works. His son, CHRISTIAN FRIED-
RICH (d. 1816), was an artist of great
promise, his chief production having been
the print of Raffaelle's Madonna di San
Sisto.
Muller, Johannes (*. 1801, d. 1858), Ger-
man physiologist, born and educated at
Coblentz ; was appointed professor of physi-
ology at Bonn in 1830, and held the" same
chair at Berlin from 1833 till his death.
His Elements of Physiology was translated in
1842 into English, and gave a great impetus
to the study, though itself soon superseded.
Muller, Karl Ottfried (b. 1797, d. 1840),
historian, born at Brieg (Silesia), became
professor at Gottingen; visited Italy and
I&hl
(579)
Mnn
Greece in 1839, and died at Athens. His
chief works were Geschichte HelUnischen
Stammeurtd Stadte and Die JDorier (1820-4),
translated and edited by Sir G. C. Lewis
and H. Tufnell in 1880, Geschichte Grie-
chischen Liiteratur, translated by Lewis
and completed by Donaldson, Die Etrusker,
and an account of the life and works of
Pheidias.
Miiller, Wilhelm (b. 1794, d. 1827), Ger-
man poet, born at Dessau, studied under
Wolf and Buttman at Berlin, and served in
the war of Liberation. Besides a translation
of Marlowe's Faustus and two novels, he
published Griechenlieder, Gedichte aus dem
hinterlassenen Pupieren eines reixenden Wald-
hornisten, and Die schbne Mullerin, and
Winterreise, which were set to music by
Schubert. A statue to him in his native
place was unveiled in 1884 by his son Max
Miiller.
Miiller, William James (*. 1812, d. 1845),
English landscape - painter of German
parentage, exhibited Peasants on the Banks \
of the Rhine at the Academy in 1836. In
1838 he travelled in Greece and Egypt, and
leaving Bristol for London on his return
produced The Age of Francis J. (twenty-six
folio designs). His masterpieces, the Lycian
sketches, were exhibited in 1843 as the re-
sult of several years travel in Asia Minor.
He died suddenly at Bristol in the midst of
his fame.
Mullick Umber (d. 1626), minister of
Ahmedmugger, checked the Moguls, founded
Aurungabad, and recovered several pro-
vinces; settled landed property by regis-
tration, and directed an assessment after its
survey.
Mullinger, James Bass (b. 1834), English
historical writer : after graduating with dis- !
tinction at Cambridge, became lecturer on '
history at Bedford College, and subsequently
at St. John's and Trinity, Cambridge. His
chief works are The University of Cambridge
from the Earliest Times to the Accession of
Charles I. (1873-84), and, with Professor
Gardiner, An Introduction to English His-
tory.
Mulock, Dinah [Craik] (*. 1826, d. 1887),
English writer, daughter of a clergyman of
Stoke-on-Trent ; married Mr. G. L. Craik
in 1865, having in the previous year received
a Civil List pension. Her chief works were
Olive (1850), John Halifax, Gentleman (1856),
A Life for a Life (I860), etc.
Mulready, William, R.A. (b. 1786, d.
1863), Irish painter of the school of WilMe,
born at Ennis; came to London in 1792,
studied at the Koyal Academy and under
John Varley, whose sister he married, and
at first occupied himself in illustrating books
LX.2
and in scene -painting. He designed for the
Post Office the envelope called after him,
and among his chief pictures may be named
The Judgment of Solomon, The Wolf and the
Lamb (1820), Choosing the Wedding Gown
(1845), and The Fight Interrupted (1815).
Mummius, Lucius, Achaicus (ft. 150 B.C.),
Roman consul, notorious for his despoiling
of Corinth (146 B.C.) after his victories over
the Achaean League.
Munchausen, Karl Friedrich Jerome,
Baron von (b. 1720, rf.1797), German soldier,
a native of Hanover; served several years
in the Russian army against the Tartars.
The well-known exploits and adventures of
the Baron were published in English in 1785.
Mundella, Right Hon. Anthony John (b.
1825), statesman, of Italian ancestry; became
engaged in trade at Nottingham, and in
1859 organised courts of arbitration for the
settlement of labour disputes. He was
elected as a Radical for Sheffield in 1868,
was vice-president of the Education Com-
mittee and Charity commissioner from 188Q
to 188o, and president of the Board of
Trade from February to July, 1886, and 1892.
Munk, William, M.D., physician, educated
at University College and at Leydeu, became
F.R.C.P. in 18o4, also consulting physician
to the Royal Hospital for Incurables. He
made diseases of the lung and heart his
speciality, and compiled The Roll of the
Royal College of Physicians of London (1861).
Muukacsy, Mikhail (b. 1846), Hungarian
painter, of poor parentage ; was at first
apprenticed to a carpenter, but made a
name in 1870 by his Last Day of a Con-
demned Prisoner, exhibited at the Paris
Salon. Among his best pictures are The
Night Roamers, Christ before Pilate (1882),
Christ on Calvary (1884), and The Last
Momen ts of Mozart (1 886) .
Munnich, Burchard Christoph, Graf yon
(b. 1683, d. 1767), Russian general ; having
been a chief agent in the elevation of the
Tsarina Anne, obtained great influence ;
destroyed the Tartar fortress of Perekof
(1736), captured Oczakoff, and after de-
feating the Turks, invaded Moldavia. In
1740 he deposed the regent, Biren, but was
himself supplanted and sent to Siberia in the
following year, being recalled thence, how-
ever, in 1762. He completed the Ladoga
canal.
Munro, Hugh Andrew Johnstone (b. 1819,
d. 1885), scholar, born at Elgin, and educated
at Shrewsbury and at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, of which he became fellow in 1843 ;
was from 1869 to 1872 professor of Latin,
the first edition of his Lucretius having
appeared in 1864. He was also author of
Muu
(580)
Mar
Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus
(1878), and several other works, which gave
him the reputatioii of the best Latiii scholar
of his day.
Munro, Sir Thomas (b. 1760, d. 1827),
general and statesman. After several years'
service in the Indian army, was appointed
administrator of the territories gained from
Tippoo Sahib, and in 1820 governor of
Madras, in which capacity he successfully
directed the Burmese war.
Monster, Georg, Graf von (b. 1820),
German diplomatist, son of a Hanoverian
statesman ; entered the Prussian service after
the annexation of Hanover, and was named
ambassador to England in 1873, having been
previously the author of several poiitico-
istorical works.
Munster, George Fitzclarence, Earl of (b.
1794, d. 1842), son of William IV. by Mrs.
Jordan ; served with distinction in the Penin-
sular war and in India, and was ennobled
on the accession of his father, but com-
mitted suicide in 1842.
Munter, Balthasar (b. 1735, d. 1793),
German divine, whose name has become
known by his Narrative of the Conversion
and Death of Count Struensee (1773).
Munzer, Thomas (d. 1525), founder of the
Anabaptists ; headed a popular rising in
western Germany in 1524, but having been
defeated was captured and beheaded.
Murad Bey (d. 1801), Mameluke chief,
opposed the French, but was defeated at the
battle of the Pyramids in 1798 ; burnt the
French fleet in the following year, but re-
mained neutral at the action ai Heliopolis
in 1800, and finally submitted to Kleber.
Murat, Joachim, King of Naples (b. 1768,
d. 1815), French cavalry officer, son of an
innkeeper; became aide-de-camp to Bona-
parte in 1796, and four years later married
his sister, Marie Caroline ; commanded the
cavalry at Marengo, became marcchal de
France in 1805, and Grand Duke of Berg
after Austerlitz. He invaded Spain in 1808,
and was made King of Naples for his ser-
vices. In 1812 he followed the emperor to
Russia, but in 1813 intrigued with his
enemies, who guaranteed his kingdom to
him; but the Bourbons refusing to recog-
nise him, he attacked Austria, and when
defeated went to France. In a final at-
tempt to regain his kingdom he was captured
and shot. His elder son (NAPOLEON ACHILLE)
settled in Florida, married a grand niece of
Washington, and died in 1847 ; and the
second, NAPOLEON LTJCIEN CHARLES (d.
1878), having returned to France, became
senator in 1852, and was recognised as a
member of the imperial family in 1853.
Muratori, Ludovico Antonio (b. 1672,
d. 17-30), Italian antiquary, librarian and
professor of history at Milan, his chief
works having been Antiquitates Italicce
Medii ^Kci, Annuli d^ 'Italia , and Scriptures
lierum Italicrum.
Murchison, Sir Roderick Impey, Bart.,
F.R.S. (b. 1792, d. 1SJ1), geologist, born
in Ross -shire, North Britain ; served in the
Peninsula, but resigned after Waterloo,
and began a course of travels, exploring the
Auvergue district, studied the structure of
the Alps with Sedgwick, and in 1839 pub-
lished his Silurian System, the result of his
investigations in Wales. In 1845 appeared
Russia and the Ural Mountains f the result
of similar investigations. In 18-35 he became
director of the Geological Survey and of the
School of Mines, and in 1870 established at
Edinburgh a chair of geology and min-
eralogy.
Mure, David, Lord (b. 1810), Scotch
judge, brother of W. Mure, having been
called to the Scottish bar, was made Solicitor-
General in 1858, Lord Advocate 1859, and a
judge of session 1865.
Mure, William, D.C.L. (*. 1799, d. 1860),
historian, born in Ayrshire, and educated at
Westminster, Edinburgh, and Bonn, repre-
sented Renfrew as a Conservative from 1845
to 1855. His chief work was A Critical
History of the Language and Literature of
Ancient Greece (1850-7). He also wrote
monographs on Egyptian subjects.
Murillo, Bartolome Esteban (b. 1618, d.
1682), Spanish painter, pupil of Juan del
Castillo ; after living in great poverty, made
the acquaintance of Velasquez, who intro-
duced him to the Escorial. He made a
reputation by his pictures in the " Claustro
Chico" of the Seville Franciscan Convent,
and afterwards painted Madonnas and Holy
Families, his chef-d'oeuvre being The Im-
maculate Conception, now in the Louvre.
Murillo died from the effects of a fall from
scaffolding when engaged on a picture of
The Espousals of St. Catherine.
Murphy, Arthur (b. 1727, d. 1805), Irish
dramatist, and for a short time an actor,
wrote several plays, the chief of which are
The Way to Keep Him and The Grecian
Daughter ; also a life of Garrick.
Murray, Alexander, D.D. (b. 1775, d.
1813), scholar, almost self-taught, son of a
Highland shepherd ; acquired a knowledge
of the classical, French, and Abyssinian
tongues, and held the chair of oriental lan-
guages at Edinburgh. He wrote a History
of the European Languages.
Murray, Alexander S., LL.D. (b. 1841);
was educated at Edinburgh and Berlin, and
Mur
(581)
Mns
having been assistant keeper, became keeper
of Greek and Roman antiquities at the
British Museum in 1886. He is author of a
work on the history of Greek sculpture.
Murray, Right Hon. Sir Charles A.,
K.C.B. (b. 1816), diplomatist and writer.
Having been master of the royal household
and groom-in-waiting, entered the diplo-
matic service in 1844, and was subsequently
consul-general in Egypt, minister in Swit-
zerland, envoy to Persia, minister in Saxony,
and envoy to Denmark and Portugal. He
became privy councillor in 1875, and wrote
The Prairie Bird, Travels in North America,
etc.
Murray, David Christie (b. 1847), novelist,
born at West Bromwich ; began lif e as a
journalist, coming to London in 1873, but,
after having been special correspondent to
the Times in the Russo-Turkish war, de-
voted himself to fiction, and produced
Joseph's Coat (1880), By the Gate of the Lea,
The Way of the World, Aunt Rachel, Wild
Dorrie, etc.
Murray, Eustace Clare Grenville (b. 1819,
d. 1881), journalist and novelist, wrote
The Roving Englishman, The Member for
Paris, Young Brown, etc.
Murray, Sir George (£.1772, d. 1846),
English officer; served with distinction in
the Peninsular war, became governor of the
military college, Woolwich, in 1809, and
was master-general of the ordnance in
1834-5. He was also, in 1828, Colonial
Secretary, and edited Marlborough's de-
spatches.
Murray, G-. G. A. (b. 1866), scholar, born in
Sydney, the sou of Sir T. A. Murray, Speaker
of New South Wales ; was educated at
Merchant Taylors' school and St. John's Col-
lege, Oxford, where, having carried off all
the classical prizes, he was elected fellow of
New College, and in 1889, at the age of
twenty-three, became professor of Greek at
Glasgow. In 1891 he published Gobi or
Shamo, a novel.
Murray, James Stewart, Earl of (b. 1-570),
Scotch statesman, natural son of James V. ;
became a Calvinist, protected his sister
Mary in the exercise of her religion, but
afterwards opposed her in hopes of help
from Elizabeth ; joined in the murder of
Rizzio, and, after some years in France, be-
came regent on the deposition of the queen,
and ruled well, but was assassinated by one
of the Hamiltons.
Murray, John (b. 1778, d. 1843), publisher;
succeeded to the management of the busi-
ness founded by his father in Fleet Street.
In 1803 he dissolved partnership with Mr.
Highly, and, having come into contact with
Canning, started the Quarterly Review. He
afterwards published the works of Byron,
Heber, and others, acting with great muni-
ficence in all his dealings, and the business
was removed, in 1812, to Albemarle Street.,
The Life of John Murray was published in
1891. 'John Murray the third died in 1892.
Murray, Lindley (b. 1745, d. 1826),
American writer, son of a New York
merchant, from whom he ran away, but
afterwards returned, and practised as a
lawyer. After the revolution he made a
fortune in business, and came to England,
where he published his English Grammar.
Musa-Ibn-Nosseyr (b. 640, d. 717), Arab
general ; conquered Spain, but after his re-
turn from Syria was ill-treated by the
khalif , and died in great poverty.
MUS23US (oth century), Athenian poet,
the " Grammarian ; " supposed author of
the original poem on The Loves of Hero and
Leander.
Musaeus, Johann Karl August (b. 1735,
d. 1787), German writer, professor at Wei-
mar, wrote Volksm&rchen der Deutscher
(17^2), Grandison der Zweite, and a satirical
work on Lavater.
Muspratt, James Sheridan (b. 1821),
chemist, born in Dublin ; was a pupil of
Liebig, and worked with Hofmann, dis-
covering tomiline and nitraiiiliue, the two
organic bases. He also wrote The Dictionary
of Chemistry, and founded the Liverpool
College.
Musset, Alfred de (b. 1810, d. 1857),
French poet; became a follower of Victor
Hugo, and produced Contes d"1 Espagne et
d'ltalie (1830), Les Nuits (1835-7), having
in the previous years been in Italy with
George Sand. He was librarian to the
minister of the interior under Louis Philippe
and the empire, and was admitted to the
Academy in 1852. Besides his verse, he
wrote stories (Confession d'nn Enfant du
Sidcfe, Lid et Elle, etc.) and plays, such as
La Nuit Venetienne and Lorenzaccio, Andre
del Sarto, Fantasio, Barberine, On ne badine
pas avec V Amour, etc.
Musset-Pathay, Victor de (b. 1768, d.
1832), French biographer ; took part in the
Biographic Universelle, and wrote Hiatoire
de la Vie et des Onvrages de J. J. Rousseau,
and other works.
Mustapha I, Sultan of Turkey (b. 1591,
d. 1639) ; succeeded Ahmed I. in 1617, be-
came imbecile, and was twice deposed and
finally strangled.
Mustapha H. (b. 1664, d. 1703), succeeded
Ahmed II. in 1695 ; defeated the Russians
and Venetians, but lost the battle of Zeuta
to Prince Eugene, and was obliged to con-
clude the Peace of Carlowitz (1699). He
was compelled to abdicate soon after the
loss of Kiuprili, his vizier.
Bins
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Nai
Mustapha HI (b. 1717, d. 1774) succeeded
Osman 111 in 1757 ; lost the Crimea in a
war with Russia, but repelled an attack on
Moldavia ; was a patron of the learned.
Mustapha IV. (b. 1779, d. 1808), suc-
ceeded Selini III., but ruled cruelly, and
was deposed and strangled.
Musurus Pasha, Coustautiue (b. 1807, d.
1891), Turkish diplomatist ; was well
educated in the classics and European
languages, and in 1834 was sent to pacify
Samos, in which he was very successful. In
1840 he became plenipotentiary at Athens,
whence, after an attempt on his life, he was
recalled in 1848, aud sent to Austria, and
three years later went to London, where he
remained as ambassador till 1885. A trans-
lation into Greek verse, by him, of Dante's
Diiina Commedia was published in London
(1882-4-5).
Mutsu Hito (b. 1852), Mikado of Japan;
ascended the throne in 1867, and soon after
abolished the feudal system, and gave his
country a parliamentary constitution.
Muziano, Girolamo (d. circa 1590), Italian
painter, born near Brescia ; went to Rome
111 1559, where he was patronised by Gregory
XIII. His Resurrection of Lazarus is lost ;
but the picture of Christ Washing the Dis-
ciples' Feet is in Rheims cathedral.
Muzio, Girolamo (b. 1496, d. 1576), Italian
scholar, author of Letters Cattoliche> etc.;
gained the name of "Malleus Haereti-
corum " from his attacks on Luther.
Muzuffer Jung (d. 1751), Soubadar of the
TVr.'an; was supported by the French and
Chuuda Sahib against Nasir Jung and the
English, by whom he was defeated. He was
again in power in 1749, but was killed two
years later in a personal encounter with the
Nawab of Karnool, a disaffected Patan chief.
Muzuffer Shah I. (b. 1342, d. 1411), after
having for five years been viceroy of Guzerat
for the Emperor Feroze Toghluk, he usurped
the throne, and founded a dynasty which
ruled till 1583.
Myddleton. [See Middleton.]
Myron (b. circa 480 B.C.), Greek sculptor,
born in Boeotia, was the rival of Polycletus.
His Cow Lowing was extant at Athens in
Cicero's time, but all his productions have
now perished, though the Discobolus at the
British Museum, which was found near
Tivoli in 1791, is supposed to be a copy of
his statue.
Myronides, Athenian general; defeated
the Corinthians at Megara 457 B.C., and the
Boeotians at JEnophyta 456 B.C.
My tens, Daniel (b. circa 1590), Flemish
portrait-painter, many of whose works are
at Hampton Court; was patronised by
James I. and Charles I. before the rise of
Vandyck.
N
Naas, Lord. [See Mayo.]
Nabis (d. 192 B.C.), Tyrant of Sparta, ruled
with great cruelty from about 205 B.C., and
was finally defeated by Philopcemen, general
of the Achaean League, and killed in at-
tempting to escape.
Nachtigal, Gustav (b. 1834, d. 1885),
German explorer ; went to Africa, and be-
came physician to the Bey of Tunis, and
having been in 1868 entrusted by the King
of Prussia with a mission to the Sultan of
Bornu, made extensive explorations in the
Eastern Soudan, which he described in
Sahara und Sudan (1879-81). In 1883 he
was commissioner to inquire into the state
of German commerce in Western Africa.
Nadab (d. 953 B.C.), King of Israel; suc-
ceeded Jeroboam in 954 B.C., and was killed
by Baasha next year.
Nadir Snah [Ttamas-Kouli-Khan], ruler
of Persia (*. 1688, d. 1747), having been a
chief of banditti, entered the service of Shah
Thamas II., and having driven out the
Afghans restored him to his throne (1730),
but afterwards deposed him and usurped
the sovereignty (1736). He subsequently
invaded Afghanistan and Hindostan, taking
Delhi (1740), and was finally assassinated by
a conspiracy of his generals, who dreaded
his cruelty.
Nsevius, Cneius (d. circa 202 B.C.), Roman
poet, fragments only of whose chief work
(an epic on the first Punic war) are extant.
Nalmm, Jewish prophet, lived about 700
B.C.
Nairne, Caroline Oliphant, Baroness (b.
1766, d. 1845), Scottish song-writer, called
"the Flower of Strathearn," published The
Scottish Minstrel (1822-4). Caller Herrin\
Land o1 the Leal, and The Laird o* Cockpen,
are among her best -known songs.
Nan
(583 )
Nap
Nana Sahib (b. circa 1821, d. uncertain),
originally known as Seereek Dhoudo Puuth,
claimed the possessions of his adopted father,
Bajee Eao, Peishwah of Poonah, on his
death in 1851, and on his failure to obtain a
pension determined on revenge. He caused
the massacre of the garrison of Cawnpore
on June 29, 1857, and was proclaimed
peishwah, but was defeated by Havelock on
July 17, after which he fled into Nepaul. A
person pretending to be he was in 1874
delivered to the Government by Scindia.
Nanek, or Nanuk (b. 1469, d. 1539), founder
of the Sikhs ("Followers "), was a native of
the Punjab, and travelled about India
preaching, visiting also Mecca and Medina.
He tried to reconcile Buddhism and Moham-
medanism, and his doctrines are contained
in the book Adi-granth, an English trans-
lation of which appeared in 1877.
Nangis, Guillaume de (13th century),
French writer; was keeper of the records
at St. Denis from 1289 to 1299, and wrote a
Latin chronicle to the year 1300, a French
chronicle, and a lif e of St. Louis.
Nani, Giovanni Battista (b. 1616, d. 1678),
Venetian writer and diplomatist, was
twenty-five years ambassador at Paris, and
author of Istoria delta Republica Veneta.
Nansen, Fridjof, Ph.D. (b. 1861), Norwe-
gian explorer, after a previous voyage to
the northern seas in 1882, went to Green-
land in 1889, and published an account of
his voyage in Across Greenland. He was
made curator of the Christiania museum on
his return, and the Storthing voted 200.000
kroner for a fresh expedition to the North
Pole to be led by him in 1892.
Naoroji, Dadabhai (b. 1825), the son of a
Parsee priest, educated at Elphinstone Col-
lege, Bombay, where he became professor of
Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. In
1867 founded the East India association,
and in 1874 became minister to the Gaekwar
of Baroda, and member of the legislative
council of Bombay 1885-88. Stood for
Parliament in 1886, and again in 1892, when
he was elected.
Napier, Sir Charles James (b. 1782, d.
1853), British general, brother of Sir W.
Napier, and grandson of the fifth Lord
Napier, served in Ireland in 1798, was
wounded and captured at Corunna, but in
1811 returned to the Peninsula, and was
wounded at Busaco. He held command in
the American war (1812-15), went to the
Ionian Islands in 1819, and in 1841 was
named commander of the Bombay army.
He conducted the war against Scinde,
winning the battles of Meeanee and Hyder-
abad, and on its annexation became governor
of the country. In 1849 he was sent to
take the chief command in the second Sikh
war.
Napier, Sir Charles John (b. 1786, d. 1860),
admiral, cousin of the above, distinguished
himself in an action with the French in 18 )7,
and served in the Peninsula and ag linst
the United States in the succeeding year.
In 1833, when in the Portuguese service, he
destroyed the fleet of Doni Miguel, served
against Mehemet Ah' in 1850, commanded
the Channel fleet 1846-8, and was com-
mander of the Baltic fleet in 1854, captured
Bomarsund, but refused to attack Cronstadt.
He was a member of Parliament for some
years, and wrote books on the wars in
Portugal and Syria, and The Navy (1851).
Napier, or Neper, Laird of Merchiston,
John (b. 1550, d. 1617), Scottish mathema-
tician, invented logarithms (1614).
Napier, Right Hon. Sir Joseph, Bart. (b.
1804, d. 1882), Irish judge, represented
Dublin University 1848-58, became Attorney-
General for Ireland in 1852, and Lord
Chancellor of Ireland in 1858. Ten years
later he was named a member of the judicial
committee of the Privy Council.
Napier, Macvey (b. 1776, d. 1847), con-
ducted the Edinburgh Review for eighteen
years, edited the seventh edition of the
Encyclopaedia, Brittanica, and was intimate
with Macaulay, Jeffrey, and Lytton.
Napier, Mark (d. 1879), Scotch writer,
author of Memorials of John Napier of
Merchistoun, Life and Times of Montrose,
and Memorials of the Time of Grahame of
C'laverhouse, besides legal works.
Napier, Sir William (b. 1785, d. 1860),
military historian, entered the army in 1800,
served in the Peninsula and elsewhere till
1814, and in the army of occupation in
France till 1819. He was governor of
Guernsey from 1841 to 1847, his History of
the Peninsular War having appeared be-
tween 1828 and 1840. He also wrote a life
of his brother, Sir Charles James Napier
(q.v.), and other works.
Napier, William, Lord (b. 1787, d. 1834),
admiral, served as a midshipman at Trafalgar,
and in 1833 was appointed superintendent of
British interests in China, in which capacity
he sailed up the Canton river in the follow-
ing July, but died at Macao two mouths
later.
Napier of Magdala, Robert, Baron (b.
1810, d. 1890), general, took part in the
Sutlej campaign (1845), was chief engineer at
the siege of Mooltan and at Goojerat during
the second Sikh war, and in 1852 was em-
p'oyed against the Afreedee tribes. He wa»
Nap
(584)
chief of the staff to Sir James Outram at
Luckuow, commanded a brigade at the
capture of Gwalior, and defeated Tantia
Topee at Alipore. After serving iu the
Chinese war, he was member of the Iruiiau
Council (1S61-5), commander of the Bombay
army (1S62-7), and received a peerage for
his conduct of the Abyssinian war. He was
Commander-in-chief in India 1870-6, be-
came Field-Marshal in 1882, and would
have held the chief command had war with
Russia broken out in 1878. He was buried
in St. Paul's cathedral
Napier and Ettrick, Right Hon. Francis,
Lord, K.T. (b. 1819», administrator : was
British minister at Washington, the Hague,
St. Petersburg, and Berlin successively,
and governor of Madras from 1866
to 1872. After his return to England
he was chairman of the Crofter Com-
mission.
Napoleon L (b. 1769, d. 1821) was born at
Ajaccio, being the second son of Charles
Bonaparte, a Cprsicau advocate. He was
educated at Brienne, entered the French
army in 1785, and first became notable for
his conduct at the siege of Toulon in 1793,
when he commanded the artillery. Two
years later he led the troops of the Con-
vention against the Sections, and in 1796,
soon after his first marriage, received the
command of the army of Italy. After his
great successes in this war, he in May, 1798,
set out for Egypt, where he defeated the
Mamelukes and invaded Syria, but was
checked at Acre. Having left Egypt
secretly he reached France in October, 1799,
overthrew the Directory, and became first
consul. He now again invaded Italy, and
made peace with Austria and England in
1801 and 1802, reconstructing the German
empire in the interests of France, while he
also concluded a concordat with the pope,
and remodelled the French constitution and
legal system. War broke out again with
England in 1803 and Austria in 1805. He
crushed the latter at TJlrn and Austerlitz,
but failed in his designs on the former.
Next year Prussia was conquered at Jena
and Auerstadt, and in 1807, after an inde-
cisive campaign, the Peace of Tilsit was
made with Russia. The Continental system
was now organised against England, and
the crown of Spain given to Joseph
Bonaparte. The second great attempt
of Austria ended with the defeat of
Wagram (1809) ; after which Napoleon
divorced Josephine Beauharnais, and mar-
ried Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor.
Meanwhile, however, in the Iberian Pen-
insula, the French arms had been held in
check, and a breach with Russia occurred
in 1812, the results of which were the in-
vasion of that country, the disastrous retreat
of the Grand Army and the rising of Ger-
many. After the battle of Leipzig, France
was invaded from east and south, and on
April 11, 1814, Napoleon abdicated, and
was banished to Elba. Next year he
escaped, held France at his feet, but after a
hundred days met his final defeat at Water-
loo (June 18, 1815). He passed the rest of
his life in exile at St. Helena, where he
dictated his Memoirs.
Napoleon II. (b. 1811, d. 1832), generally
known as the King of Rome, son of Napo-
leon I by Maria Louisa, died of consumption
at Schoubrunn.
Napoleon IIL (b. 1808, d. 1873), the
third son of Louis Bonaparte, King of
Holland, and Hortense de Beauharnais, be-
came head of the house after the death of
his elder brothers and of the King of Rome,
and in 1836 made a first attempt to assert
his claims, the result of which was exile to
the United States. In 1840 he made another
attempt, for which he was imprisoned in the
castle of Ham, whence he escaped to Eng-
land in May, 1846. He was elected to the
Assembly in 1848, and soon after became
president of the republic. Afer the coup
d'etat of December, 1851, his term of office
was prolonged to ten years, and less than a
year later a plebiscite was held, and Louis
Napoleon became Emperor of the French.
He joined England in the Crimean war, and
in 1859 (in which year his life was attempted
by Orsini) helped Sardinia against the
Austrians, and also took part in the opera-
tions against China (18-58-60) and Mehemet
Ali (1860-1), but he failed in Mexico in
1861, and his government becoming in-
creasingly unpopular in France, he sought
a remedy in the quarrel with Prussia.
The result was his defeat and capture at
Sedan (September 1, 1870), after which he
was deposed, and on his release lived in
England till his death. Napoleon III. was
the author of several works, the chief of
which were La, Vie de Cesar (1865), and
Des Idees Napoleomennes (1839).
Napoleon, Prince Eugene Louis, Prince
Imperial (b. 1856. d. 1879), son of the above,
served in the Prussian war, entered at
Woolwich in 1872, and in 1879 lost his life
in the Zulu war.
Napoleon, Prince [See Bonaparte.]
Naquet, Joseph Alfred, M.D. 'J. 1834),
French politician, author of Principes de
Chimiefondes sur Us Theories Modernes ; was
imprisoned for conspiracy against the Empire
in 1867, and in 1870 became secretary to the
committee of National Defence. He suc-
ceeded in legalising divorce in 1886, and
Ear
(585)
Nan
was one of the chief supporters of General
Boul auger.
Narbonne, Louis, Comte de (b. 1755, d.
1813), French soldier and statesman; was
minister for war in 1791, but incurred the
wrath of the Jacobins by his moderation,
and was with difficulty saved by his friend,
Madame de Stae'l. He was afterwards
aide-de-camp to Napoleon, and in the year
of his death ambassador at Vienna.
Nardi, Jacopo (b. 1476), Italian historian ;
was exiled from Florence for opposition to
the Medici, and retired to Venice, where he
wrote a History of Florence and translated
Livy.
Nares, Sir George Strong, K.C.B., F.E.S.
(b. 1831), Arctic explorer, accompanied the
expedition of 1852, served in the Crimean
war, and commanded the Challenger (1872-5),
contributing Reports on Ocean Soundings to
the account of the voyage. In 1875, when
in command of the Alert, he penetrated to
a point farther north than had been yet
reached, publishing both an Official Report
and a Narrative of the Expedition in 1876, in
which year he was knighted.
Nares, Robert (b. 1753,^. 1829), philologist;
became assistant librarian at the British
Museum hi 1795, and afterwards canon of
Lichfield. He was also vice-president of
the Royal Society in 1823. His chief work
was A Glossary of Words, Phrases, etc., of
Elizabethan Authors, a new edition of which
appeared in 1867.
Narses (6th century), a eunuch in the
service of Justinian, who rose to be general ;
defeated Totila the Goth in 552, freed Italy
from the Ostrogoths, and ruled the country
for fifteen years, dying some time after 568.
Namszewicz, Adam Stanislaus (d. 1796),
Polish writer ; left an unfinished History of
Poland.
Narvaez, Pamphila de (16th century),
Spanish general ; commanded the expedition
against Cortez in 1520, and some years later
discovered the Bay of Pensacola, after which
no more was heard of him.
Narvaez, Ramon Maria (b. 1800, d.
1868), Spanish statesman ; defeated the
Carlists at Arcos in 1836, and in 1838 became
captain-general of Old Castile. He con-
spired in the interest of Christina against
Espartero two years later, and fled to
France, but in 18-13 displaced his opponent,
and was subsequently several times prime
minister, his policy being strongly re-
actionary.
Nash, John (d. 1835), English architect,
designed Buckingham Palace and the Hay-
market theatre, the present form of Regent
Street and great part of western London
being also his work.
Nash, Richard, " Beau Nash " (b. 1674, d.
1761), leader of fashion at Bath, where he
was master of the ceremonies for fifty years ;
was ultimately ruined by gambling.
Nash, Thomas (d. circa 1601), dramatist
and satirist ; author of Dido, Queen of Car-
thage (1594), Pierce Penilesse, his Supplica-
tion to the Divett (1592), etc.
Nasmith, David (b. 1799, d. 1839), Scotch
philanthropist; founded city missions at
London, Glasgow, and other places.
Nasmyth, Alexander (6. 1757, d. 1840),
founder of the Scottish school of landscape-
painting, and a pupil of Allan Ramsay.
There is a portrait of Burns by him in the
National Portrait Gallery, London.
Nasmyth, Charles (b. 1825, d. 1861), a
major in the British army, who, with
Captain Butler, defended Silistria in 1853.
Nasmyth, James (b. 1808, d. 1890), en-
gineer, son of Alexander ; was some time
assistant to Henry Maudslay, after whose
death he settled at Manchester. Here he
invented the steam-hammer, which was
adopted by Government in 1843. His auto-
biography, edited by S. Smiles, contains an
account of the torpedo-ram and his other
inventions.
Nasmyth, Patrick or Peter (b. 1786, d.
1831), brother of James ; followed his father's
profession, and was called " the English
Hobbema." Two of his landscapes are in
the National Gallery, London.
Nasr-ed-Deen, [See Persia, Shah oi]
Nast, Thomas (b. 1840), American carica-
turist, born at London ; while in Italy with
Garibaldi sent sketches to English and
American papers, and during the American
Civil war gained the name of ' ' Destroyer of
the Tammany Ring" by his caricatures
against that association. He afterwards
gave lectures with illustrations executed in
face of the audience, and also painted in
oils.
Natalie, Queen of Servia (b. 1859), married
King Milan in 1875, and was divorced in
1888, the validity of the divorce being, how-
ever, more than doubtful.
Nathan, Isaac or Mordecai (Jl. 1450),
Jewish rabbi ; published the first Hebrew
concordance of the Old Testament.
Nando", Gabriel (b. 1600, d. 1653), French
physician, librarian to Cardinal Mazarin,
and afterwards to Christina of Sweden. Hia
chief work was Apology far the Great Men
who have been Accused of Magic.
Nan
( 586)
Ken
Naudet, Joseph (b. 1786, d. 1878), French
writer, professor of poetry at the College de
France (1821-30), and director of the royal
library (1840-57), published Hlstoire de
¥ JStablissementa, des Progres, et de la Decadence
de la Monarch ie des Goths en Italic (1811),
and other historical works, besides editions
of Tacitus and Catullus, and a translation
of Plautus.
Naunton, Sir Robert (d. 1635), English
statesman, employed as a diplomatist in
France and Scotland under Elizabeth ; re-
ceived several offices from James I., and in
1618 became Secretary of State. He was
also public orator at Cambridge, and author
of Fragmenta Regalia.
Navarette, Martin Fernandez de (b. 1765,
d. 1844), Spanish sailor and writer, author
of Collection of Voyages and Maritime Dis-
coveries made by the Spaniards since the Close
of the Fifteenth Century and Collection of
Unpublished Documents for the History of
Spain, which was continued after his death.
Nay lor, James (d. 1660), fanatic, joined
George Fox, but was afterwards disowned
by the Quakers ; was declared guilty of
blasphemy by Parliament, and barbarously
punished.
Neal, Daniel (b. 1678, d. 1743), Noncon-
formist divine ; author of History of the
Puritans and History of New England.
Neander, Johann August Wilhelm (b.
1789, d. 1850) (David Mendel), German
theologian of Jewish parentage, professor
of theology at Berlin. Many of his works
have been translated, the chief of them
being History of the Christian Religion and
Church, Life of Jesus Christ, and The
Emperor Julian and his Age.
Nearchus (4th century B.C.), a Cretan,
was naval commander under Alexander the
Great. Fragments are extant of his voyage
from India to Babylon.
Necker, Jacques (b. 1732, d. 1804), French
Btatesman, of Genevese birth ; made a repu-
tation when a banker at Paris by his work
Stir la Legislation et la, Commerce des Grains,
and was appointed comptroller-general in
1777, retiring in 1781 after vain attempts at
reform. In 1788 he returned to office, and
when dismissed by the court in July, 1789,
was the most popular man in France, but
after his recall gradually lost his reputation,
and returned to Switzerland in September,
1790. His Administration des Finances de la
France (1784) had a large sale. MADAME
NECKEB, (nee Susanne Curchod) was cele-
brated for her benevolence and her salon
and her early love affair with Gibbon,
Needham, Marchmont (b. 1620, d. 1678),
English political writer, edited Mercurius
Brit<innicus (Parliamentarian), Mercurius
Pragmaticus (Royalist), and Mcrcurius
Politicus for the Commonwealth (1649-60).
Neefs, Peter, the Elder (b. 1570, d. 1651),
Flemish painter, pupil of Steenwyck, his
subjects being chieny architectural. -He
had a son, a painter, who was known as
" Young Neefs."
Neer, Aart (b. circa 1619), Dutch painter,
chielly of marine subjects. Several of his
works are in the National Gallery. His
sou, EGLON HENDBICK (d. 1703), was a
historical and portrait painter.
Neill, James George (b. 1810, d. 1857),
English general ; was second in command of
the Turkish contingent during the Crimean
war, and in the Indian Mutiny took and held
Allahabad, avenged the massacre of Cawn-
pore, but was shot by a mutineer when
before Lucknow.
Neilson, Lilian Adelaide (b. 1850, rf. 1880),
actress, distinguished for her rendering of
Shakesperean characters, Juliet being, per-
haps, her best part. In 1872 she made a tour
in America.
Nelaton, Auguste (b. 1807, d. 1873), French
surgeon and physician, professor of clinical
surgery at Paris (1851-67), and surgeon-in-
ordinary to Napoleon III. ; is best known
from his having extracted a bu?let from
Garibaldi's foot after Aspromonte (.^860).
Nelson, Horatio, Viscount (b. 1758, d.
1805), English admiral, son of a Norfolk
clergyman ; entered the navy in 1770, .nerved
in the American war, and under Lord Hood
in the war with revolutionary France, be-
coming commodore in 1796, and rear- adinral
after the battle of Cape St. Vincent 1 '97.
In the following year he won the battlt of
the Nile, for which he was made baron, and
in 1801 brilliantly disobeyed Sir Hyde Parker
by attacking Copenhagen. After this he
commanded in the Mediterranean, and 01-
October 21, 1805, saved England from in-
vasion by his defeat of the combined French
and Spanish fleets at Trafalgar, but fell in
the action.
Nemours, Louis Philippe d' Orleans, Due
de (b. 1814), second son of King Louis
Philippe, was elected King of the Belgians
in 1831, and afterwards offered the crown of
Greece, but both were declined for him by
his father. After serving in Algeria, he
became regent on the death of his elder
brother in 1842, left France in 1848, returned
in 1870, and in 1873 had an interview with
the Comte de Chambord.
Nennius, reputed author of Historia
Sritonum, a chronicle extending from Brut
the Trojan to 680.
Nep
(587)
New
Nepomuk, John of (b. circa 1330, d. 1383),
confessor to Sophia, wife of Wenceslaus IV.
of Bohemia, by which king he was thrown
into the Moldan. Many hold this story to
be mythical.
Nepos, Cornelius (d . circa 24), Latin writer,
friend of Cicero. To him is attributed Vita
Excellentium Imperatorum, etc.
Neri, Filippo de (b. 1515, d. 1595), Catholic
saint, founded in 1556 Congregation of the
Priests of the Oratory, which was introduced
into England by Cardinal Newman.
Nero, Lucius Domitius (b. 37, d. 68),
Emperor of Rome, grandson of Germanicus ;
was adopted by Claudius in the year 50, and
succeeded him in 54. He caused his mother,
Agrippina, to be murdered for opposing his
divorce from Octavia and marriage with
Poppaea Sabina, this being accomplished by
the murder of the former. He persecuted
the Christians, whom he charged with the
burning of Rome in 64, and married Messa-
lina after the death of his second wife. The
conspiracy of Piso was discovered, but on
the success of that of Galba Nero put an end
to his life.
Nerva, Marcus Cocceius (d. 98), Roman
emperor, succeeded Domitian in 96, and
reigned two years.
Nerada. [See Norman-Neruda.]
Nesselrode, Karl Robert, Count (b. 1780,
d. 1862), Russian statesman ; while attached
to the embassy iu Paris obtained informa-
tion of Napoleon's designs, took part in the
Congress of Vienna (1814-15), and was
foreio-n minister under Alexander I.,
Nicholas, and Alexander II. till 1856. He
left an Autobiography in French.
Nestor (d. 1116), a monk of Kief; left a
chronicle, which is the earliest work on
Russian history.
Nestorius (d. circa, 450), was deposed from
the patriarchate of Constantinople by the
influence of Cyril, and banished to the
Libyan desert. He founded the sect of the
Nestoriaus.
Netscner, Kaspar (b. 1639, d. 1684),
German painter, who excelled in depicting
costume and draperies. His sons, THEODORE
(d. 1732) and CONSTANTINE (d. 1722), were
portrait -painters of merit.
Nettleship, Henry (b. 1839), English
scholar. After a distinguished career at
Oxford, was elected fellow of Lincoln in
1861, of Corpus in 1873, and in 1878 became
Srofessor of Lathi. His chief work is
ectures and Essays on Subjects Connected
with Latin Literature and Scholarship (1885).
Neunoff, Baron Theodore von (d. 1756),
German adventurer. Having been obliged
to leave his country on account of a duel,
served in the Spanish army against the
Moors, and in 1735 was crowned King of
Corsica, but being unable to achieve its
independence came to England. Here he
was imprisoned for debt for some years,
his liberation being at last effected by
Horace Walpole.
Neumann, Karl Friedrich (b. 1798, d.
1870), German Orientalist ; was deprived
of his professorship at Munich in 1852 on
account of his Liberalism, and settled at
Berlin, where he published Memoirs of
David, an Armenian Philosopher, and
several historical works dealing with China.
Neville, George (d. 1476); ecclesiastical
statesman, brother of Warwick the King-
maker ; was made Bishop of Exeter when
under age, and became Lord Chancellor in
1469, in which year he pronounced judg-
ment in favour of the Yorkist claim to the
throne. On the rupture with Edward IV.
he was deprived of the seals, but had
meanwhile become Archbishop of York.
He had the custody of Edward in 1470, and
was subsequently confined in the Tower
and at Calais.
Neville, Henry, actor; played with
Fechter in No Thoroughfare, took a
leading part at the Vaudeville in The
School for Scandal, London Assurance, etc.,
and was subsequently lessee of the Olympic.
He published The Stage ; its Past and
Present, in Iteration to Fine Art.
Newcastle [-under-Lyme], Thomas Pel-
ham, Duke of (b. 1693, d. 1768), statesman;
was a great favourite of George I., who made
him Privy Councillor in 1717, and a lord
justice during his absence in Hanover. In
1724 he became a Secretary of State, and
was Prime Minister from 1754 to 1756, and
again from 1757 to 1762.
Newcastle, Henry Pelham- Clinton, fifth
Duke of (b. 1811,^. 1864), statesman; entered
Parliament (as Lord Lincoln) in 1832, be-
came Commissioner of Woods and Forests
1841, and in 1846 Chief Secretary for Ire-
land. He succeeded to the peerage in 1851 ;
was, as a Peelite, Colonial Secretary and
Secretary for Waff successively in the Aber-
deen Ministry, and again held the former
office from 1859 to 1864.
Newcastle [-upon-Tyne], William Caven-
dish, first Duke (b. 1592, d. 1676), did good
service to the Royalist cause during the
Great Rebellion, and was created marquis
in 1643, and duke in 1664.
Newdigate, Sir Roger, Bart. (b. 1719, d.
1806), represented Oxford University for
many years, and founded the prize for an
English poem which is annually awarded.
New
(588)
Nic
Newdigate - Newdegate, Edward (*.
1825), entered the army in 1842, and be-
came lieutenant-general in 1887. and gover-
nor of the Bermudas, having served m the
Crimea and in the Zulu war of 1879.
Newman, Edward (6. 1801, d. 1876),
naturalist : author of Grammar of Ento-
mology (1835), History of Uritixh Ferns
(1845), and History of British Moths
(1869).
Newman, Francis William (b. 1805),
philosophical writer, brother of Cardinal
Newman ; resigned his fellowship at
Balliol in 1830 on conscientious grounds,
and travelled in the East, and was pro-
fessor of Latin in the University of London
from 1846 to 1863. Among his chief works
are The Soul ; its Sorrows and Aspirations
(1849), Phases of JFaith (1850), and' Theism,
Doctrinal and Practical (1858), besides
translations of the Iliad and the Odes of
Horace.
Newman, John Henry, Cardinal (b. 1801,
d. 1890), theologian, sou of a London ban-
ker ; graduated from Trinity College, Ox-
ford, in 1820, and was elected fellow of
Oriel. He took orders in 1824, when he
became vice -principal of St. Alban's Hall,
and in 1828 became vicar of St. Mary's.
He took a leading part in the Tractarian
movement, and in 1841 wrote Tract XC\,
which was severely condemned. After
living at Littlemore for some years in
seclusion, he was received into the Roman
Church in 1845 ; founded the Brompton
oratory in 1850, and directed the Edg-
bastou oratory for the greater part of his
remaining years. He took part in contro-
versies with Kingsley in 1864 and Mr.
Gladstone in 1874, and accepted the Infalli-
bility dogma with some reservations. He
•was created cardinal in 1879. Chief among
his works were Apologia pro Vttd Sud, An
Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent
(1870), and The Dream of Gerontius.
Newton, Alfred, F.R.S. (b. 1829),
zoologist; went to Spitzbergen in 1864,
and also visited Iceland and North America.
In 1866 he became professor of zoology and
comparative anatomy at Cambridge, and,
besides other works, was author of The
Zoology of Ancient Europe.
Newton, Charles Thomas, D.C.L., Ph.D.,
etc. (b. 1816), archaeologist ; was assistant
in the antiquities department of the
British Museum 1840-52, when he became
vice-consul at Mitylene, and made the
important discoveries described in his
Travels and Discoveries in the Levant. From
1861 to 1885 he was keeper of Greek and
Roman antiquities, and edited the collection
of ancient Greek inscriptions in the British
Museum, His wife, a daughter of Joseph
Severn, was an artist of merit, and died in
1866.
Newton, Gilbert Stuart (b. 1794, d. 1835),
painter, friend of Washington Irviug. He
became A.R.A. in 1S28, and R.A. in 1832,
and became insane soon after. His YoricK
and the Grisette is in the National Gallery,
London.
Newton, Sir Isaac (b. 1642, d. 1727),
natural philosopher ; was born at Wools-
thorpe, Lincolnshire, and educated at Gran-
tham and Trinity College, Cambridge.
After going down for some years, during
which he published his theory of light and
discovered the law of gravitation, he be-
came fellow of his college in 1667, and pro-
fessor of mathematics two years later. He
was chosen fellow of the Royal Society in
1671, was president for twenty-five years
from 1703, and became also master of the
Mint, being knighted in 1705. He repre-
sented the University in Parliament. His
Philosophise Naturalis Principia appeared
in 1687. He was buried in Westminster
Abbey, his epitaph being written by Pope,
and a full account of his life and writings
by Sir D. Brewster was published in 1855.
Newton, John (b. 1725, d. 1807), divine,
the friend of Cowper, with whom he pro-
duced Olney Hymns. He wrote also several
other works.
Newton, John (b. 1823), American
§meral ; served with credit at Washington,
ettysburg, and elsewhere during the Civil
war, and was appointed commissioner of
public works at New York in 1886.
Newton, Thomas (b. 1704, d. 1782'),
divine ; author of Dissertations on the
Prophecies; became Bishop of Bristol in
1761.
Ney, Michel, Prince de la Moskowa (6.
1769, d. 1815), marshal of France : entered
the army in 1787, and first distinguished
himself as general of division under Moreau
(1799-1800). He was minister in Switzer-
land in 1803, but in 1805 gained his title of
Due d'Elchingen by his capture of that
village when in command of the 8th corps.
A great part of the success of the campaign
against Prussia was due to him, as was also
the victory of Friedland. He was recalled
from Spain on account of a quarrel with
Massena, and in the retreat from Moscow
commanded the rear- guard of the Grande
Armee. He was active in the campaign of
1813, but was defeated at Dennewitz. He
was continued in the command of his
division by the Bourbon government, but
soon joined Napoleon, and led the charge of
the Old Guard at Waterloo, after which he
was shot as a traitor.
Niccolini, Giovanni Battista (b. 1785, d,
XJic
(589 )
Nic
1861), Italian poet, librarian and secretary
to the Florence Academy of Fine Arts ;
author of Arnaldo da .Brescia (1845), Gio-
vanni da Procida, and Nabucco (printed in
London 1819), which were directed against
Austrian domination.
Niccolo da Pisa. [See Pisano.]
Nicephorus, Patriarch of Constantinople
(b. 758, d. 828), was deposed and banished
in 815 by Leo the Armenian for refusing to
accept his decree against images. He wrote
Breviarium Histoncum, a history of Con-
stantinople in Greek.
Nicephorus I., Emperor of the East (d.
811), conspired against Irene in 802, and
banished her to Lesbos ; made a treaty with
Charlemagne in 803, but was compelled to
pay tribute to Haroun al Raschid. He
governed with great cruelty, and was sur-
prised and slain in his camp by the Bul-
garians.
Nicephorus II. [Phocas] (b. 912, d. 969),
recovered Cilicia, Syria, and Cyprus from
the Saracens ; was crowned in 963, and
murdered by John Zimisces in 969.
Nicephorus III. succeeded Michael VII.
in 1078 ; defeated Bryennius, but was
deposed by Alexis Coninenus in 1081, and
became a monk.
Niceron, Jean Pierre (b. 1685, d. 1738),
French writer ; author of Memoir es pour
servir d PHistoire des Hommes Illustres de la,
Republique des Lettres (forty-four volumes).
Nichol, John Pringle (b. 1804, d. 1859),
Scottish clergyman and astronomer ; author
of Views of the Architecture of the Heavens,
Cyclopedia of the Physical Sciences, and
other works.
Nichol, John, LL.D. (b. 1833), his son;
was professor of English literature at Glas-
gow from 1861 to 1889, and wrote Tables of
JSuropean Literature and History, Byron
("Men of Letters" series), Bacon's Life
and Philosophy (" Philosophical Writers ")
and other works.
Nicholas, the Tsar (b. 1796, d. 1855),
third son of Paul ; succeeded Alexander I.
in 1825, after repressing a military insur-
rection, the object of which was to make
Constantino emperor, with a constitution.
He carried on wars with Persia and Turkey,
and crushed the rising of the Poles in 1830.
He died during the Crimean, or second
Turkish war.
Nicholas, the Grand Duke (b. 1831),
third son of the above ; saw some service in
the Crimea, and commanded the Russian
troops in Europe up to April, 1878, in the
Russo-Turkish war. In 1890 he lost his
reason, but partially recovered-
Nicholas L, Prince of Montenegro (6.
1841), succeeded his uncle in iStiO.
Nicholas L, Pope of Rome (d. 867), was
consecrated in 858 ; excommunicated Pho-
tius, and attempted to induce the Eastern
bishops to obey him, the result being the
final schism between the East and West.
He condemned the divorce and marriage of
Lothaire, and was attacked in consequence,
but in a conflict with the chief bishops of
the West he maintained the papal su-
premacy.
Nicholas II. (d. 1061), was elected in
1058, and introduced reforms.
Nicholas III. (d. 1280), elected in 1277 ;
unduly favoured his family, the Orsini, but
attempted a reconciliation with the Greek
Church.
Nicholas IV. (d. 1292), elected in 1288 ;
busied himself in the adornment of Rome,
but was unsuccessful in his attempt to pro-
mote a fresh crusade.
Nicholas V., "Da Sarzana" (b. 1389,
d. 1455), was elected in 1447 (the abdi-
cation of the anti-pope, two years later,
bringing to an end the "Great Schism"),
and defeated the conspiracy of Porcari in
1452. He was a great scholar, was chief
founder of the Vatican library, and of
several Italian universities, and offered aii
asylum to the Greeks driven out of Con-
stantinople.
Nichols, John (b. 1745, d. 1826), printer
and editor ; conducted the Gentleman's
Magazine for many years, and published
Literary Anecdotes of the Eigh teenth Century,
and Illustrations of the Literary History of
the Eighteenth Century, the latter of which
was continued by his son, JOHN BOWYEB
NICHOLS (d. 1863).
Nichols, John Gough (b. 1806, d. 1873),
antiquary ; edited the Gentleman's Maga-
zine, and published facsimiles of Auto-
graphs of Personages Conspicuous in English
History, with Biographical Memoirs (1829),
Literary Remains of King Edward VI., etc.
Nicholson, Sir Charles, Bart., D.C.L. (b.
1808), was Speaker in New South Wales
from 1846 to 1856, and some time chancellor
of the university of Sydney.
Nicholson, Henry Alleyne, M.D., D.Sc.,
etc. (b. 1844), zoologist; was appointed pro-
fessor of natural history at Toronto in 1871,
of biology at Durham (1874), of natural his-
tory at St. Andrews (1875), and at Aber-
deen in 1882, being also Swiney lecturer on
geology at the British Museum. Among his
works are manuals of zoology and palaeon-
; tology.
Nicholson, John (6. 1822, d. 1857), British
Nic
(590)
Nit
soldier ; served with distinction in the first
Afghan war, the Sutlej campaign, and the
second Sikh war, and during the Mutiny
disarmed the Sepoys at Peshawur, and was
mortally wounded at the siege of Delhi.
Nicholson, Margaret, a mad woman, at-
tempted the life of George III. August 2, 1786.
Nicias (</. 413 B.C.), Athenian statesman
and geueral, leader of the Oligarchical
party ; was one of the commanders of the
Sicilian expedition, in the course of which
he was defeated, captured, and put to death.
Nicol, Erskine, Hon.. A.K.A. (b. 1825),
painter, was born at Leith, and lived much
in Ireland, scenes from which country form
the majority of his subjects.
Nicolai, Christoph Friedrich (b. 1733, d.
1811), German bookseller and writer ; estab-
lished the AUgemeine L)eutscheBibloth'-'k, and
published Letters on Modern Literature, etc.
Nicolai, Otto (*. 1810, d. 1849), German
composer, wrote The Merry Wives of Wind-
sor, etc.
Nicolas, Sir Nicholas Harris (b. 1799, d.
1848), antiquary, author of History of the
Orders of Knighthood, Despatches of Lord
Nelson, and other works. He served when
young in the navy, and was called to the
bar in 1825.
Nicot, Jean (b. 1530, d. 1600), when
ambassador to Portugal in 1559 brought
back the tobacco plant, which was called
" herba nicotiana " after him.
Niebunr, Carsten (b. 1733, d. 1815), tra-
veller, born at Hanover : was geographer to
the Danish expedition to Arabia of 1761-2,
and returned alone from India through
Persia and Turkey, publishing an account
of the expedition in description of Arabia
and Travels in Arabia.
Niebulir, Barthold Georg (b. 1776, d.
1831), his son, historian and philologist;
was born at Copenhagen, but in 1805 en-
tered the Prussian service, and became privy
councillor. He was several years minister
at Rome, and negotiated the concordat of
1821. In 1823 he obtained a chair at Bonn,
and his Romische Geschichte appeared in
enlarged form in 1827. It was translated by
Hare and Thirlwall. He was also author of
Corpus Scriptorum Historice Byzantinee and
other works, and discovered at Verona the
fragments of Gaius.
Niel, Adolphe (b. 1802, d. 1869), marshal
of France : served with credit in Algeria
and at Rome (1849), and as chief of
engineers captured Bomarsund in the Cri-
mean war, while he afterwards directed for
the French the siege of Sebastopol. He also
took part in the war with Austria in 1859,
and wad minister of war from 1867 to 1869.
Niemcewicz, Julian Ursin (b. 1757, d.
1841), Polish statesman and writer; was
aide-de-camp to Kosciusko in 1794, and
after two years' imprisonment went with
him to America. On the establishment of
the Grand Duchy of Warsaw he became
secretary to the Senate, a post which he
lost on account of his support of the rising
of 1830, having also taken part in the fram-
ing of a new constitution after the Con-
gress of Vienna. His chief work was His-
torical Ballads.
Niepce de Saint Victor, Claude Marie
Francois (b. 1805, d. 1870), inventor of photo-
graphy on glass, was born at Saint Cyr, and
served some years in the French army. In
1847 he announced his discovery, and after-
wards invented the " heliochrome " process
and "heliography" (1853). In 1855 hia
Recherches Photographiques appeared, but
he refused to patent his inventions.
Nightingale, Florence (b. 1829), was born
at Florence, and in 1851 entered an institu-
tion of sisters of mercy at Kaiserswerth.
On November 4, 1S54, she arrived with
ninety- two women at Scutari, and brought
the hospital there to a high state of effici-
ency. A testimonial was offered her but
declined. She wrote Notes on Hospitals,
Notes on Nursing, and other works.
Nigra, Constantino, Count (b. 1827),
Italian diplomatist, was badly wounded at
Rivoli, and afterwards entered the diploma-
tic service. He was secretary to Cavour at
the Paris Congress in 1856, and as Italian
minister there in 1870 endeavoured to avert
the war with Prussia. In 1876 he was
transferred to St. Petersburg, and in 1882
to London, where he remained three years.
NiMta. [See Nicholas I. of Montenegro.]
Nilsson, Christine (b. 1843), Swedish
singer, daughter of a farmer : went to Paris
in 1860, and on October 27, 1864, made
her debut at the Theatre Lyrique in La
Traviata. Her first appearance in England
was in 1867, and in 1870-2 she made her
first tour in the United States, her retire-
ment taking place in 1888. She married
M. Rouzaud in 1872, and in 1887 Count de
Miranda.
Nimrod, worn de plume of CHABLES APPEE-
LEY (b. 1778, d. 1843), author of Hunting
Tours (1835), The Turf, the Chase, and the
Road (1S31), etc.
Ninon de 1'Enclos. [See L'Enclos.]
Nithsdale, William Maxwell, fifth Earl of
(b. 1676, d. 1744), Scottish nobleman, cele-
brated for his escape from the Tower, which
was effected by his wife in 1716, after the
rebellion of the previous year.
Niz
(591)
Nizam al Muluk (d. 1092), Grand Vizier of
Persia for nearly thirty years ; founded and
endowed the college of Bagdad, and wrote
a history of his times. He was killed by an
assassin.
Nizami, Abu Mohammed Nizam Eddyn
(12th century), Persian poet, the German
memoir of whose life and waitings was
translated into English in 1873. His prin-
cipal work is Khamsah, consisting of five
poems, one of which is Iskander-Nameh —
the " Alexander Book."
Noailles, Adrien Maurice, Due de (b.
1678, d. 1766), French general ; was pre-
sident of the council during the minority of
Louis XV., but lost his place for a time
through the influence of Dubois. He com-
manded at Dettingen, and in old age again
became a minister. Two of his sons were
marshals of France.
Noble John Willock (b. 1831), American
statesman ; rose from the ranks to be
brigadier-general during the Civil war,
and, after practising many years as a law-
yer, was named secretary of the interior in
1889.
Noble, Mark (b. 1784, d. 1827), clergyman
and antiquary, author of History of tJte
College of Arms, Lives of the English Regi-
cides, Memoirs of the Protectorate House of
Cromwell, etc.
Nodier, Charles (b. 1780, d. 1844), French
writer, became librarian of the Bibliotheque
de 1' Arsenal in 1823. Among his works
were Le Roi de Eoheme (1830), and Ines de
las Sierras (romances).
Noel, Baptist Wriothesley (b. 1798, d.
1873), divine, left the Church soon after the
Gorham decision (1848), and joined the
Baptists, defending his position in his
Esfsay on the Union of Church and State.
He wrote also several other works.
Nolan, Captain Lewis Edward (b. 1817, d.
1854), British officer. After serving in the
Austrian army and in India, was sent to
Turkey on the outbreak of the Crimean war
to purchase horses, and was killed at Bala-
clava while carrying the fatal order for the
charge to Lord Lucan.
NoUekens, Joseph (b. 1737, d. 1823), Eng-
lish sculptor, son of a Dutch landscape-pain-
ter ; was the friend of Blake and Flaxman,
and made a large fortune by his art, speci-
mens of which are the bust of Goldsmith in
Westminster Abbey, and those of Pitt and
Fox in the National Portrait Gallery.
Noodt, Gerard (b. 1647, d. 1725), Dutch
civilian, rector and professor of law of
Leyden, whose works were published in
1716.
Norbury, John Toler, Earl of (b. 1745, d.
1831), Irish judge, celebrated for his wit; as
Attorney- General prosecuted the rebels of
1793, and in 1800 became Chief Justice of
the Common Pleas, being created an earl on
his retirement in 1827.
Nordberg, Georg (b. 1677, d. 1744), Swe-
dish historian ; accompanied Charles XII.
in his campaigns as chaplain, and was cap-
tured at Pultowa. He wrote a Life of
Charles XII.
Nordenskiold, Nilo Adolf Erik, Baron (6.
1832), Arctic explorer, born at Helsingfors,
Finland, made voyages of exploration to
Spitsbergen in 1861, 1864, and 1866, and
visited Greenland in 1870. After several
preparatory voyages he started in 1878,
under the auspices of the King of Sweden,
to discover a north-east passage, and hia
Voyage of the Vega round Asia and Europe
appeared in an English version in 1883.
Nordica, Madame [Mrs. Gower], singer,
was born and educated in America, and
afterwards went to Italy. She acquired
a reputation by her rendering of Mar-
guerite.
Norfolk, Roger Bigod, Earl of (d. 1270),
Earl Marshal of England ; headed the em-
bassy of 1245 to the Council of Lyons to
complain of the exactions of Innocent IV.,
and took a prominent part in the reign of
Henry III., at first against but later in
favour of the king.
Norfolk, Roger Bigod, Earl of (d. 1307),
nephew of preceding ; inherited the dignity
of marshal in 1270, and took an active part
in the Welsh wars, and in obtaining the
confirmation of the charter from Edward I.
Norfolk, Thomas Mowbray, Duke of (d.
1399), was created duke by Richard II. in
return for his support against Gloucester,
but was banished for life after the quairel
with Henry of Hereford.
Norfolk, Thomas Howard, Duke of (d.
1524), was made prisoner at Bosworth,
where his father (" Jack of Norfolk ") was
killed; became lord treasurer in 1501, and
next year arranged the marriage of Mar-
garet Tudor with James IV. of Scotland.
He commanded at Flodden, and negotiated
the peace with France in 1514.
Norfolk, Thomas Howard, Duke of (d.
1554), son of last -named, rendered great
services to Henry VIII. as a soldier in
France and Scotland, and was chiefly in-
strumental in putting an end to the Pil-
grimage of Grace (1536). He was lord
deputy of Ireland (1520-2) ; opposed the
Reformation, bringing about the fall of
Cromwell, but, having incurred the dis-
pleasure of the king, was condemned ta
NOT
(592)
Nor
death, and only escaped by the death of
Henry.
Norfolk, Thomas Howard, Duke of (d.
1572), graudsou of last-named, was for long
greatly favoured by Elizabeth, but was
sent to the Tower in 1569 on the discovery
of his views with regard to Mary Stuart.
He was soon released, but haviug broken
his pledges, was found guilty of treason and
executed.
Norman, Sir Henry Wylie, G.C.B., etc.
(b. lb'26), entered the Bengal army in 1844 ;
was for seven years a member of the Council
of India, and, having held various military
appointments and been governor of Jamaica,
became governor of Queensland in 1888.
He served in the Punjab campaign and
throughout the Mutiny.
Norman, John Paxton (b. 1819, d. 1871),
judge of the High Court of Bengal, was
assassinated when entering the court at
Calcutta. He was author of a treatise on
Law and Practice Relating to Letters Patent
for Inventions.
Norman, Robert (16th century), dis-
covered the dip of the magnetic needle, and
made improvements in the compass.
Norman-Neruda, Wilhelmine [Lady
Halle] (b. 1840), violinist, was born at
Briin ; made her first appearance in 1846,
and from 1870 visited England every winter.
Her first husband was Ludwig Norman.
Normanby, Coustantine Phipps, Marquis
of (b. 1797, d. 1863), statesman and diplo-
matist, son of the first Earl of Mulgrave ;
entered Parliament as a Whig in 1819, be-
came governor of Jamaica in 1831, Lord-
lieutenant of Ireland 1835, and was created
marquis in 1838. He was Colonial Secre-
tary (1839) and Home Secretary (1839-40),
and in 1846 became ambassador at Paris,
whence he went to Florence in 1854. He
had controversies with Louis Blanc, Lord
Palmerston, and Mr. Gladstone.
Normanby, George, second Marquis,
G.C.B. (b. 1819), sat for some years in
the House of Commons ; was governor of
Nova Scotia (1858-1866), of Queensland
(1871-74), of New Zealand (1874-78), and
Victoria (1878-84).
Norris, Edwin (b. 1795, d. 1872), philol-
ogist ; compiled the first Assyrian diction-
ary, and published a grammar of the Bornu
language, etc.
Norris, Sir John (" Foulweather Jack ")
(d. • 1749), admiral, served under Rooke,
Russell, and Sir Cloudesley Shovel ; was
joint- admiral with Peterborough in 1705,
and in 1710 commander in the Mediter-
ranean. He led expeditions to the Baltic in
1715 and 1717, in which year he was sent as
special envoy to the Tsar. In 1744 he com-
manded against the French.
Norris, John (b. 1057, d. 1711), English
Platonist ; author of The Theory and Jteguut-
tion of Love, etc.
North, Christopher. [See Wil&Dn.]
North, Hon. Sir Ford (b. 1830), judge;
was called to the bar in 1853, became
Queen's Counsel in 1877, and in 1881 waa
appointed a judge of the Queen's Bench,
being transferred to the Chancery Division
in 1883.
North, Francis, Baron Guilford (b. 1637,
d. 1685), English judge, grandson of Lord
Dudley North (d. 1666), the poet, and son
of the biographer of the same name ; became
Solicitor-General in 1671, Attorney-General
1673, and Lord Keeper in 1682, when he
was made a peer. He wrote a Philosophical
Essay on Music.
North, Roger (d. 1733), lawyer and bio-
grapher, son of Sir Dudley North (d, 1691),
author of Observations on tJie Manners. Cus-
toms, and Jurisprudence of the Turks ; wrote
lives of his brothers and The Examen : ory
Inquiry into the Credit and Veracity of a
Pretended Complete History (Kennels His-
tory of England}.
North, Frederick, Earl of Guilford, com-
monly known as Lord North (b. 1732, d.
1792), statesman, of the same family as the
preceding ; became Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer in 1769, and from 1770 to 1782 was
Prime Minister, after which he formed a
coalition with Fox, and was joint secretary
with him for a few months. He was the
favourite minister of George III., but to-
wards the end of his administration wished
to conclude peace with the colonies.
Northbrook, Francis Baring, Lord (b.
1796, d. 1866), statesman, represented
Portsmouth as a Whig from 1826 to 1865;
held subordinate offices under Earl Grey and
Lord Melbourne ; was Chancellor of the
Exchequer 1839-41, and First Lord of the
Admiralty 1849-52, being created a peer in
1865.
Northbrook, Right Hon. Thomas, Earl
of, K.G. (b. 1826), grandson of preced-
ing; entered Parliament in 1857, and held
various subordinate offices between that
date and 1866, when he became a peer.
From 1868 to 1872 he was under-secretary
for war, and was Governor- General of
India from the latter year till 1876, when he
resigned on the Afghan question. He was
First Lord of the Admiralty under Mr. Glad-
stone from 1880 to 1885, and in 1884 went
to Egypt as High Commissioner. He broke
with his chief on the Home Rule question.
Nor
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Nov
Nortncote, James (6. 1746, d. 1831), pain-
ter, son of a Plymouth watchmaker ; was
a pupil of Sir Joshua Reynolds, whose
Memoirs he published (1813-15), and also
wrote a Life of Titian. Among his pictures
were The Young Princes Murdered in th*
Tower, and numerous portraits.
Northcote, Sir Stafford. {See Iddesleigh.]
Northumberland, Henry Percy, Earl of
(d. 1408), distinguished himself in the wars
of Edward III., and received his title from
Richard II., but joined Henry of Lancaster
against him. In 1402 he won the victory of
Honiildon Hill and captured Douglas, but
he twice rebelled against Henry IV. and
was killed in battle.
Northumberland, John Dudley, Duke of
(b. 1502, d. 1553), son of the minister of
Henry VII., was ennobled by Henry VIII.,
and obtained wealth from the spoils of the
monasteries ; was made high admiral 1545,
and Earl of Warwick two years later, and
in 1551 obtained his dukedom. He in-
trigued against Somerset, procured an
alteration of the succession in favour of his
daughter-in-law, Jane Grey, and was be-
headed for treason by Queen Mary.
Northumberland, Sir Hugh Smithson,
nsAike of (d. 1786), intermarried with the
old family, assumed the name of Percy, and
was created duke in 1766.
Northumberland, Algernon Percy, Duke
of (b. 1792, d. 1865), served in the navy till
1815 ; was created Lord Prudhoe next year,
and succeeded bis brother as duke in 1847.
He was First Lord of the Admiralty
1852-3, president of the Royal Institution
1842-65, and was a great benefactor to the
navy.
Northumberland, Algernon, Duke of (b.
1810), sat in the Commons as a Conservative
for several years, and, having held several
subordinate offices, was Lord Privy Seal
under Lord Beaconsfield 1878-80.
Norton, Hon. Caroline [Mrs.] (b. 1808,
4, 1877), granddaughter of Sheridan,
novelist and poet, her chief works being
Stuart of Dxnleath (1851), Lost and Saved
(1863), and The Lady of La Garaye (1870). A
divorce suit, with Lord Melbourne as co-
respondent, was brought against her in
1836, but the charge was disproved. In
1877 she married Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell.
Norton, Right Hon. Sir Charles Adder-
ley, Lord (6. 1814), statesman ; represented
North Staffordshire as a Conservative for
thirty -seven years ; was vice-president of
the Education Committee in 1858-9, under-
secretary for the Colonies 1866-8, and
president of the Board of Trade 1874-8,
being created a peer in the latter year, and
XX
subsequently was a member of several royal
commissions.
Nostradamus, Michel (b. 1503, d. 1566),
French astrologer and physician, born in
Provence; published in 1555 Prophetical
Centuries, which acquired such vogue
that the author was made physician to
Charles IX.
Nott, Josiah Clark (b. 1804, d. 1878),
American ethnologist and physician ; author
of Physical History of the Jewish Race
(1850), and, with G. R. Gliddon, Types of
Mankind (1854), and Indigenous Raws of the
Earth (1857).
Nott, Sir William (b. 1782, d. 1845),
general ; held Candahar in 1841, and next
year marched on Cabul, won the victory of
Ghuznee, and carried off the gates of Som-
nauth. Ill-health obliged him to return
home, where he died.
Nottingham. [See Finch and Howard of
Effiugham.]
Noue, Fra^ois de la, "Bras de Fer"
(b. 1531, d. 1591), French Calvinist soldier;
derived his nick-name from his having had an
iron arm made for him in place of one
which had been amputated ; was dis-
tinguished at Jarnac (1569) and Valen-
ciennes (1571), but joined the Huguenots
after the massacre of 1572, and sub-
sequently served the Dutch, and was
killed at Lamballe during the wars of the
League.
Noureddin-Mahmoud, Sultan of Egypt
and Syria (b. 1118, d. 1173), defeated the
second Crusade, and afterwards took Da-
mascus and Edessa; was defeated by the
Christians in 1159, but afterwards con-
quered Egypt, where Saladin was aiming
at independence, when the sultan died.
Noureddin is a Moslem saint.
Novalis, pen-name of Friedrich von
Hardenberg (b. 1772, d. 1801), German poet
and philosopher, a native of Saxony. His
chief works, edited by his friends, Tieck
and Schlegel, consist of The Pupil at Sai*
Kn.& Heinrich von Ofterdingen — philosophical
romances, the latter unfinished, and Hymns
to the Night.
Novatianus (3rd century), heresiarch
and founder of the sect called after him ;
was elected Bishop of Rome in 251, but was
soon deposed.
Novello, Clara Anastasia (b. 1818), English
vocalist, married Count Gigliucci in 1843,
and retired in 1860.
Novello, Joseph Alfred (b. 1810), organist
and music publisher, friend of Mendelssohn.
He settled in Italy in 1856.
Nov
(694)
O'Br
Novello, Vincent (b. 1781, d. 1861), mu-
iical composer and publisher. Died at
Nice.
Noy, William (d. 1634), English lawyer ;
as Attorney- General recommended the im-
position of ship-money.
Nubar Pasha (b. 1825), Egyptian states-
man, born at Smyrna, but educated in
Europe ; was secretary to Mehemet All and
Ibrahim Pasha, and became minister of
public works in 1864, and of foreign affairs
in 1867. He introduced reforms in the
administration of justice, and bis last term
of office was under Tewfik from 1884 to
1883.
Nugent, George Grenville, Lord (b. 1788,
d. 1850), politician and writer, brother of
the Duke of Buckingham ; represented
Aylesbury as a Whig for many years, and
was a lord of the Treasury in 1830. He was
high commissioner of the Ionian Islands
1832-5, and was again returned for Ayles-
bury in 1847. His chief work was Memorials
of Hampden and his Times (1831).
Nugent, Lavall, Count (b. 1111, d. 1862),
soldier ; served first in the Austrian and
then in the English army, and after being
cap tain- general at Naples, returned to tha
former service ; took part in the wars in
Hungary (1848), and Italy (1848 and I860),
rising to the rank of field-marshal.
Numa Pompilius, second [mythical] King
and reputed law-giver of Rome.
Numerianus, Marcus Aurelius (d. 284),
Roman emperor ; reigned eight mouths
with Carinus, and was murdered by his
father-in-law.
Nunez-Pereira (b. circa 1360), Constable
of Portugal, and founder of the house of
Braganza ; after rendering great services
against Castile and Ceuta, retired to a
monastery about 1420.
Nunez de Arce, Gaspar (b. 1834), Spanish
poet, called the " Tennyson of Spain " ;
author of several comedies besides his
lyrics.
Nuvolone, Carlo (b. 1608, d. 1651),
Milanese painter in the manner of Guido.
His brother, GIUSEPPE (d. 1703), executed
a fine picture of St. Dominic raising a dead
man.
Nuzzi, Mario [Mario da Fiori] (b. 1603, <C
1673), Neapolitan flower-painter.
Oakeley, Sir Herbert Stanley (*. 1830),
was elected professor of music m the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh in 1865.
Gates, Titus (b. circa 1650, d. 1705), son of
a ribbon weaver ; in 1677 became a Roman
Catholic, and entered the order of Jesuits,
but soon afterwards recanted and pre-
tended he had discovered a "Popish plot."
In consequence of his representations Lord
Stafford and others were executed. He re-
ceived a pension of £1,200 a year, but on
the accession of James II. was condemned
to the pillory, and suffered other indignities.
William III. granted him a pension.
Obadiah, a Hebrew prophet. Supposed by
some to have lived in the 6th century B.C.
Oberlin, Jeremias Jakob (b. 1735, d. 1806),
was born at Metz, where he became pro-
fessor of logic and metaphysics in 1782. He
was imprisoned during the Reign of Terror.
He edited Caesar, Horace, Ovid, and Tacitus.
Oberlin, Johann Friedrich {b. 1740, d.
1826), brother of the preceding: was ap-
pointed Lutheran pastor of the Ban de la
Roche in 1767, and devoted his life to im-
proving the moral and physical condition of
the rude inhabitants. His agricultural
schemes were especially successful.
O'Brien, Sir J. Terence N. (b. 1830),
served on the north-west frontier of India
and in the Mutiny; became governor of
Newfoundland in 1888.
O'Brien, Lucius (b. 1832), president of the
Royal Canadian Academy of Arts.
m O'Brien, William (b.
tionalist ; represented
South Tyrone 1885-6;
Cork since 1886.
1852), Irish Na-
Mallow 1883-5,
and North- east
O'Brien, William Smith (*. 1803, d. 1864),
Irish agitator, represented County Limerick
as a moderate Conservative 1826-43 ; joined
O'Connell in 1843, but separated from him
in 1846, and formed the " Young Ireland "
party; in 1847 founded the "Confedera-
tion ; " was tried for sedition in March,
1848, but acquitted ; attempted to create a
rising in Thurles, but was arrested and
condemned to death. His sentence wai
Occ
(595)
Odo
afterwards commuted to transportation for
life. In 1856 he received a full pardon.
He died at Bangor.
Occam, William of (d. circa 1349), school-
man, bprii iii Surrey ; studied under Duns
Scotus in Paris, but afterwards opposed his
master, and founded the *' Nominalist "
school; upheld the power of temporal
sovereigns against the claims of the popes,
and was patronised by Louis of Bavaria ;
wrote Disputatio super Potentate Ecclesias-
tica, and Sumina Totius Logica.
Occleve, Thomas (6. circa 1370), an Eng-
lish lawyer and poet; wrote the Story of
Jonathan, etc.
Ochino, Bernardino (b, 1487, d. 1564),
Italian reformer ; entered the Capuchin
order in 1534 ; through the influence of
Juan de Valdez changed his religious views ;
fled to Switzerland, and thence to England,
where he remained 1547-53 ; on the acces-
sion of Mary returned to Switzerland, and
became a pastor at Zurich ; died in Moravia.
He published Prediche, etc.
Ochterlony, Sir David (b. 1758, d. 1825),
general, defended Delhi against Holkar
(1804), and conducted a successful campaign
against the Nepaulese (1816).
Ockley, Simon (b. 1678, d. 1720), divine
and Orientalist, born at Exeter ; was ap-
fointed professor of Arabic at Cambridge in
711. His chief work is a History of the
Saracens (1718).
G'Connell, Daniel (b. 1775, d. 1847), born
in Kerry, educated at St. Omer and Douay,
was called to the bar in 1798. His agitation
for removing the political disabilities of the
Eoman Catholics culminated in 1828, when
he was elected for Clare, but not allowed to
take his seat. Amidst great excitement the
Catholic Emancipation Bill was passed in
1829. He first demanded the repeal of the
Union in 1841. After holding several mon-
ster meetings in Ireland, he was arrested,
fined, and imprisoned, but this judgment
was reversed by the House of Lords (1844).
O'Connell was opposed to the use of phy-
sical force, and discountenanced the Char-
tists and the ' ' Young Ireland ' ' party. He
died at Genoa.
O'Connor, Charles (d. 1828), antiquary
and historian ; published Rerum Hiberni-
carum Scriptores (1814-26).
O'Connor, Feargus Edward (b. 1796, d.
1855), Chartist leader, born near Cork, re-
presented that town in Parliament 1832-5.
At first supported O'Connell, but afterwards
became a leader of the Chartists, whose
cause he advocated in his paper, the Nor-
thern Star. He was elected member for
Nottingham in 1847, and presented the
M M 2
monster petition in!848. Inl852he became
insane.
O'Connor, Thomas Power (b. 1848), Irish
Nationalist, entered Parliament in 1880;
lectured in the United States 1881 ; be-
came president of the Irish National League
in 1883 ; has represented the Scotland divi-
sion of Liverpool since 1885. He has pub-
lished Lord Beaconsfield : a Biography, The
Parnell Movement (1885), and was some time
editor of the Star newspaper.
Octavia (d. 11 B.C.), daughter of C.
Octavius and sister of Augustus ; was first
married to C. Marcellus, and- afterwards to
M. Antouius, who divorced her.
O'Curry, Eugene (b. 1796, d. 1862), Irish
antiquary; published works on The MS.
Materials of Ancient Irish History and The
Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish,
and was co-editor of the JBrehon Laws.
Odeaatnus (d. 267), expelled Sapor, King
of Persia, from Syria, and proclaimed him-
self King of Palmyra ; afterwards invaded
Persia and captured Ctesiphon. In 264 his
sovereignty was acknowledged by the Em-
peror Gallienus. After his assassination his
wife, Zenobia, ruled at Palmyra.
Odevaere, Joseph Denis (b. 1798, d. 1830),
Belgian painter, studied under David at
Paris. Among his chief works are The
Peace of Utrecht and The Battle of Nieuport.
Odling, William (b. 1829) became Wayn-
flete professor of chemistry at Oxford in
1872.
Odo, Saint (b. 879, d. 943), Abbot of
Clugny, was renowned for his holiness and
wisdom. His system of monastic discipline
was adopted generally on the Continent.
He wrote The Life of St. Gerard, Count of
Aurillac, and Morals of St. Gregory.
Odo, Saint (b. 958), was appointed Arch-
bishop of Canterbury by Edmund in 944.
He enforced a strict rule of lif e among the
monks, and punished the recalcitrant with
undue severity.
Odo de Conteyille (b. 1032, d. 1097), half-
brother of William I., was made Bishop of
Bayeux in 1049 ; after the Conquest was
granted the earldom of Kent. He held the
office of grand justiciar, and during Wil-
liam's absence in Normandy (1067) dis-
played great avarice and cruelty.
Odoacer (d. 493), a Herule or Rugian
chieftain, after attacking and slaying the
patrician Orestes, and deposing his sou, the
Emperor Romulus Augustulus (476), ruled
Italy as patrician under the Eastern Em-
peror, Zeno, but was practically an inde-
pendent sovereign. He was overthrown
O'Do
( 696)
Ola
by Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, who
put him to death.
O'Donnell, Leopold, Duke of Tetuan (b.
1809, d. 1867), Spanish soldier and politician^
of Irish descent, served the regent Christina
in the tirst Carlist war ; brought about the
fall of Espartero (1843), but afterwards
became minister of war under him (1854) ;
after Esuartero's second fall (185t>) was for
a short time chief minister.
O'Donovan, Denis, F.R.G.S. (b. 1836), a
writer on art and literature, who has ren-
dered great public services in Queensland
and Victoria.
O'Donovan, Edmund (b. 1838, d. 1883),
was correspondent of the Daily News during
the Russo-Turkish war (1877-8) ; penetrated
to Merv (1879), and published The Merv
Oasis (1882) ; was killed in the African ex-
pedition of Hicks Pasha.
O'Donovan, John (b. 1809, d. 1861), Celtic
scholar, son of a peasant ; was appointed pro-
fessor of Irish at Belfast in 1849. He edited
the Annals of the Four Masters (1856).
(Ecolampadius, Johannes (b. 1482, d.
1531), a German reformer, whose real name
was Hausschein. After long hesitation he
embraced the doctrines of the Reformation
in 1522. He passed the remainder of his life
at Basle, and took a leading part in estab-
lishing the Reformation in Switzerland. He
inclined to Zwingli's view of the Sacrament
rather than to that of Luther.
(Eder, Georg Ludwig (b. 1728, d. 1791),
was appointed professor of botany at Copen-
hagen in 1752. His chief work is flora
Danica. In later life he became distin-
guished as an economist and financier.
(Ehlenschlager, Adam Gottlob (b. 1779,
d. 1850), Danish poet, visited Goethe at
Weimar in 1806 ; after travelling in France
and Italy returned to Copenhagen (1810),
and was appointed professor of aesthetics in
the university. Among his works are the
dramatic poems of Aladdin and Hakon Jarl,
Palnatoke and other tragedies, and an epic
entitled The Gods of the North.
Oersted, Hans Christian (b. 1777, d. 1851),
Danish man of science, was appointed pro-
fessor of physics at Copenhagen in 1806.
His great discovery was the power of an
electric current upon a magnet, from which
the science of electro -magnetism has been
developed.
Ofla (d. 795), King of Mercia, succeeded
Ethelbald in 755. He slew Ethelbert, King
of the East Angles, and seized his do-
minions.
Oflenbacb, Jacques (6. 1819, d. 1880),
opera - bouffe composer, born of Jewish
parents at Cologne ; composed many pieces
for his theatre at Paris (1855-80), including
Orphee auxEnfers(lSo$), Madame Favart, etc.
Ogilby, John (b. 1600, d. 1676), a self-
educated writer, translated "Virgil, JEsop,
and Homer. He is satirised in MacFlecknoe
and the Dunciad.
Ogle, Dr. William (b. 1827), superintendent
of statistics in the General Register Office ;
has contributed papers to the Transaction*
of the Royal Medico-Chirurgical Society
and the Journal of the Statistical Society.
Oglethorpe, James Edward (b. 1698, d.
1785), English general, served under Marl-
borough and Eugene ; in 1733 founded the
colony of Georgia, which he named after
George II. ; returned to England in 1743,
and held a command against the Jacobites
(1745).
Ohm, Georg Simon (*. 1787, d. 1854),
German man of science ; discovered " Ohm's
law " of electricity, by which the intensity
of a current is stated in terms of the electro-
motive force and the resistance of the
circuit.
Ohmacht, Landelin (b. 1761, d. 1834),
German sculptor, pupil of Canova, settled
at Strasburg in 1801. The Judgment of Parit
at Munich is a fine specimen of his art.
Ohnet, Georges (b. 1848), French novelist,
author of Serge Parrine (1881), Le Maitre
de Forges (1882), etc., etc.
Ojeda, Alonzo de (6. circa 1465), Spanish
navigator ; was the companion of Columbus
in his second voyage (1493) ; led an expe-
dition to the New World in 1499-1500, and
discovered Venezuela.
O'Keefe, John (b. 1747, d. 1833), dramatic
writer and actor, born at Dublin. His first
appearance in London was at the Haymarket
in 1777. He wrote The Agreeable Surprise,
Wild Oats, and other plays.
Oken, or Okenfuss, Lorenz (b. 1779, d.
1851), philosopher and morphologist ; in 1802
published his Sketch of a System of Natural
Philosophy, containing the germ of his theory
of growth by a process of subdivision and
repetition of cells, which he called infusoria;
in 1807 announced his theory of the homology
of the cranium with the vertebral column ;
was professor at Jena (1807-19), Munich
(1827-32), and Zurich (1832-51).
Olaf L, Tryggvason, King of Norway (d.
1000), joined Svein, King of Denmark, in
his invasion of England (994) ; came to
terms with Ethelred, and was baptised by
the Archbishop of Canterbury ; was chosen
king about 995 ; endeavoured to establish
Ola
(697)
Ols
Christianity in Norway ; was slain in a sea-
fight against Sveiu of Denmark.
Olaf n., " the Saint" (d. 1030), spent his
youth in piracy, became king in 1015 ;
during his reign suppressed the Vikings and
established Christianity in Norway. In
1028 he was expelled from Norway by Knut
of Denmark, fled to Sweden, and thence to
Russia ; returned in 1030, but was defeated
and slain at Stiklestad.
Olaf IIL (d. 1093) ascended the throne
about 1068.
Olaf IV. (b, 1098, d. 1116) succeeded bis
father, Magnus III.
Olaf V. (b. 1371, d. 1387) succeeded his
father, Hakon, in 1380.
Olavides, Pablo Antonio Jose, Count of
Pilos (b. 1125, d. 1803}, was made intendant-
general of Andalusia, and planted and
colonised the barren region of the Sierra
Morena.
Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthaus (b.
1758, d. 1840), German astronomer, prac-
tised as a physician at Bremen. In 1797 he
announced a new method of determining the
orbits of planets. He discovered the planets
Pallas (1802) and Vesta (1807), and in 1815
the comet which bears his name.
Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobham (d.
1417), was a leader of the Lollards, whom
he sheltered at his castle of Cowling in
Kent. On the accession of Henry V. he was
imprisoned in the Tower, whence he escaped
into Wales (1413). In 1417 he was captured
and burnt.
Oldenburg, Henry (d. 1678), came to Eng-
land during the Commonwealth as political
agent for his native town of Bremen ; be-
came secretary of the Royal Society in 1662,
and was the first to publish the Philosophical
Transactions.
Oldnam, John (6. 1653, d. 1683), satirical
poet, wrote Four Satires against the Jesuits
and Pindaric Odes, and translated Juvenal.
He was patronised by the Earl of Kingston,
at whose seat he died.
Oldmixon, John (*. 1673, d. 1742), a mis-
cellaneous writer and critic, satirised in the
Dunciad.
Oldys, William (6. 1696, d. 1761), Eng-
lish antiquary and bibliographer, wrote The
British Librarian, a Life of Sir Walter
Raleigh, and many of the lives in the
Biographia Britannica.
Oleg, Prince of Russia (d. 912), was a
kinsman of Ruric, who appointed him
guardian of his son, Igor (879). Oleg made
himself king, and greatly extended the
Russian dominions.
Olga (d. 969), wife of Igor, Prince of
Russia, carried on the government after his
death in 9-15. In 955 she visited the emperor
Constantino Porphyrogenitus at Constanti-
nople, and was converted to Christianity.
Oliphant, Lawrence (b. 1829, d. 1888),
accompanied Lord Elgin's mission to China
(1857-u), and was charge d"1 affaires at Pekin
(1859-62). He afterwards made an unsuc-
cessful attempt to found a socialist and reli-
gious community at Portland, United States.
His later years were spiut chiefly in the East.
He wrote Piccadilly, Altiora Peto, and other
novels satirising fashionable lif e, also desczip-
tions of his travels, and religious works such
as Scientific Religion (1888), etc.
Oliphant, Mrs. Margaret \iiee Wilson] (b.
1828), has published the Chronicles of Gartina-
ford, and other novels, a Life of Edward tr*
ving (1862), The Makers of Florence (1876), etc.
Oliphant, Thomas Lawrence Kington (b»
1831), has published Old and Middle English
(1878), New English (Wffi), Life of Frederick
II. (1862), etc.
Olivarez, Gasparo de Guzman, Count of.
Duke of SanLucar (b. 1587, d. 1645), Spanish
statesman ; was chief minister of Philip IV.
from 1621 to 1643. During his adminis-
tration several revolts occurred, and Portugal
became an independent kingdom (1640).
Oliver, Isaac (b. 1556, d. 1617), English
artist ; studied under Hilliard and Zucchero.
His portraits include miniatures of Mary
Queen of Scots, Queen Elizabeth, and Sir
Piiilip Sidney. His son, PETEB (b. 1601, d.
1654), was much employed by Charles I.
Olivetan, Pierre Robert (d. 1538), French
reformer, born at Noyon; was related to
Calvin, and is said to have had great in-
fluence in the formation of his religious
views. It is doubtful whether Olivetan or
Lefevre d'^taples first translated the Bible
into French.
Olivier, Guillaume Antoine (b. 1756, d.
1814), naturalist, born near Toulon ; accom-
panied Bruguiere on a scientific expedition to
Persia (1792-8). He wrote an etomological
dictionary, an account of his travels, and
other works.
OHivier, Olivier E"mile (b. 1825), French
politician ; was called to the Paris bar in
1847 ; in 1869 formed a cabinet, in which he
was minister of justice (1869-72). He after-
wards supported the pretensions of Prince
Napoleon.
Olmste't, Frederick Law (b. 1822), an
American landscape-gardener.
Olshausen, Hermann (b. 1796, d. 1839),
German Protestant divine ; was professor o£
Oly
(598 )
Ora
theology at Kimigsberg (1827-34) and Er-
laiigeu (1S34-9). lu his treatise 011 The
Deeper Senxc of Scripture he pleads for an
allegorical interpretation. He also wrote a
work ou The Gemuncnt** <>f the Four Gutpt /,-•,
and a Commentary on the New Testament,
which was continued by Ebrard and others.
Olybrius, Amicius (d. 472), Roman Em-
peror ; married the widow of Valcntiuiau
III., and was raised to the throne by Iviciiner
(472), but died the same year.
Olympias (d. 316 B.C.), daughter of Neo-
ptolemus, King of Epirus ; about 357 B.C.
was married to Philip II. of Macedon, by
whom she was afterwards divorced. She
outlived her sou, Alexander the Great, and
was put to death by Cassauder.
O'Malley, Edward Loughlin (b. 1842),
became chief justice of the Straits Settle-
ments in 1889.
Omar (b. 581, d. 644), the second khalif ;
was one of Mahomet's earliest followers.
He succeeded Abu Bekr in 634. During hia
khalifate the Saracen empire was extended
over Syria, Palestine, Persia, and Egypt.
Omar Khayyam (b. circa 1050, d. 1122),
a Persian poet and astronomer (translated
by Fitzgerald).
Omar Pasha (b. 1806, d. 1871), Turkish
soldier ; was by birth an Austrian Slav, his
real name being Mikail Lattas. He was
employed in suppressing revolts in Albania,
Bosnia, and other provinces (1842-53) ; on
the outbreak of war with Russia was ap-
pointed commaiider-in-chief ; expelled the
Russians from the Dauubian principalities
(1854), and defeated them at Eupatoria, in
the Crimea (1855), but failed to relieve Kars.
O'Meara, Barry Edward (b. 1786, d. 1836),
after serving in the army as a surgeon, re-
sided with Napoleon at St. Helena as his phy-
sician (1811-18). In 1822 he published A
Voice from St. Helena : or, Napoleon in Exile.
Omla, or Omeyyah, a cousin of Mahomet ;
was ancestor of Moawia, who reigned at
Damascus 661-80, and was founder of the
Omiad dynasty of khalifs.
Omichund (d. 1759), an Indian banker;
notorious for the part he played in the in-
trigues between Clive and Meer Jaffir. He
accepted a large sum as bribe for his silence
concerning the treaty by which Meer Jaffir
was to succeed Suraj-oo-Dowlah.
Ommaney, Admiral Sir Erasmus (b. 1814),
was second in command of the Franklin
Search Expedition (1850). During the war
with Russia he was at the head of the White
Sea expedition, and afterwards held com-
mands in the Baltic.
Omri, King of Israel : lived in the lOtb
century B.C. He built the town of Samaria.
Onkelos, the traditional author of an
Aramaic Targum or version of the Penta-
teuch, which appears to date from about the
2nd century. In some places it is a trans-
lation, in others a paraphrase.
Onslow, William Hillier, Earl of (b. 1853),
was appointed governor of New Zealand in
1S88.
Opie, John, R.A. (b. 1761, d. 1807), son. A
a carpenter at Truro ; was in 1781 taken by
Dr. Wolcott (" Peter Pindar "i to London,
where he became a fashionable portrait-
painter. His works include portraits of
Johnson, Lady Hamilton, and Fox, also
The Death of Rizzio, and other historical
pictures. His second wife, AMELIA (b. 1769,
d. 18.33), daughter of Dr. Aldersou, of
Norwich, wrote Fathers and Daughters,
Simple Tales, etc.
Opitz, Martin (b. 1597, d. 1639), was born
in Silesia. In 162.5 he was crowned poet-
laureate by the Emperor Ferdinand II.
His best poems are didactic. He also wrote
hymns and sonnets. His Essay on German
J ersijication and his own purity of idiom
exercised great influence in the development
of the German language and literature.
Oppert, Julius (b. 1825), a French Orient-
alist, born in Hamburg. His works chiefly
relate to cuneiform inscriptions.
Oppian (b. circa 200), Greek poet, born in
Cilicia ; wrote Halieutica, a poem on fishing,
which he presented to the Emperor Cara-
calla.
Orange, Princes of : —
(1) WILLIAM L, "the Silent" (b. 1533, d.
1584) , son of William, Count of Nassau ;
inherited large domains in Brabant, Flan-
ders, and Holland ; was sent as a boy to the
court of Charles V. ; enjoyed the confidence
of that emperor, but was distrusted by his
son, Philip II. On learning the designs of
Philip and Henri II. of France against the
Protestants (1559), he determined to espouse
their cause. When the Duke of Alva
arrived in the Low Countries (1567), he put
himself at the head of the insurgents, and,
after a protracted struggle, founded the
republic of the Netherlands (1579), of which
he was elected the first stadtholder. He
was assassinated at Delft.
(2) MAUEICE OF NASSAU (b. 1567, d.
1625), second son of the preceding ; was one
of the most skilful strategists of the age.
He was appointed stadtholder of Holland
in 1587, and soon afterwards of Utrecht,
Overyssel, and Gueldres. The war with
Spain was continued till 1609, after which
the Dutch were able to maintain theif
Ore
( 699 )
Orl
independence. In 1618 Barneveldt, who
accused Maurice of ambitious projects,
was put to death. Maurice succeeded his
elder brother as Prince of Orauge (1618).
(3) FREDERICK HENRY OF NASSAU (b.
1584, d. 1647), brother of the preceding;
became stadtholder 011 his death in 1625.
He carried on the war against Spain with
prudence and success.
(4) WILLIAM II. (b. 1626, d. 1650), was
son of the preceding, whom he succeeded
in 1648. He married Mary, daughter of
Charles I. of England.
(5) WILLIAM HI. [See William III. of
England.]
(6) JOHN WILLIAM PRISON (b. 1687, d.
1711), son of Henry Casiniir, Stadtholder of
Groningen ; became Prince of Orange on
the death of William III. in 1702. He dis-
tinguished himself against the French at
Oudenarde and Malplaquet.
(7) WILLIAM CHARLES HENRY (b. 1711,
d. 1751), posthumous son of the preceding ;
was elected stadtholder in 1747. The dignity
was then made hereditary in his family.
Orcagna, or Orgagna, Andrea (b. 1329,
d. 1389), Florentine architect, sculptor, and
painter, was son of a goldsmith named
Cione. Among his best paintings are the
scenes from Dante in the church of Santa
Maria Novella at Florence, and the Triumph
of Death and the Last Judgment in the
Campo Santo at Pisa. He built the taber-
nacle of Or San Michele, and the Loggia de'
Lanzi of the Grand Ducal Palace at
Florence, which was completed after his
death.
Orehardson, William Quiller, R.A. (b.
1835), painter, born at Edinburgh ; has
exhibited The Queen of Swords (1877), Vol-
taire at the Due de Sully* s (1883), Mariage
de Convenance (1886), etc.
Ordericus Vitalis (b. 1075, d. circa 1143),
English chronicler, born near Shrewsbury ;
was educated at the abbey of Ouche, in
Lisieux, and ordained priest in 1107. His
Historice Ecclesice includes a valuable his-
tory of his own times.
Orellana, Francisco (d. 1550), Spanish
traveller, sailed with the Pizarros to Peru
in 1531. In 1540-1 he followed the river
Maranon to its mouth, and named it the
Amazon, from the warlike women of the
neighbourhood.
Orelli, Johann Kaspar von (b. 1787, d.
1849), classical scholar, bom at Zurich. His
chief works are his editions of Horace
(1837-8), Tacitus (1846-7), and Cicero
(1826-31). He was also joint-author of
the Onomasticon Tullianum (1836-8), and
published Inscnptionum Latinarwn Selec-
tarutn Collectto (1828).
Orestes (d. 476), became secretary to
Attila, King of the Huns, about 446. In 475,
i after deposing Julius Nepos, he declared
himself patrician, and set up his son,
Romulus Augustulus, as emperor. He was
defeated by Odoacer, who put him to death.
_ Orfila, Matthieu (6. 1787, d. 1855), phy-
sician and chemist, born in Minorca ; was
professor of chemistry at the Academy of
Medeciue at Paris 1823-53. He wrote a
Treatise on Poisons (1813), a Treatise on
Medical Jurisprudence (1847), etc.
Origen (b. 185, d. 254), Christian Father,
born at Alexandria, studied under Clement ;
was ordained presbyter at Csesarea in 228 ;
fled to Cappadocia to avoid persecution
(235) ; was imprisoned and tortured during
the persecution under Decius (250) ; died at
Tyre. Origen was well-versed in Greek
Ehilosophy, and was extremely liberal in
is views. He advocated an allegorical in-
terpretation of Scripture, and denied eternal
punishment ; he was consequently regarded
as a heretic, both in his lifetime and after-
wards. His chief work is the Hexapla,
consisting of the Hebrew text of the Old
Testament, and various Greek renderings,
arranged in six columns.
Orleans, Dukes of :—
First House.— (1) Louis (*. 1372, d.
1407), was second son of Charles V.
of France. Charles VI. having lost his
reason, two parties arose, headed respec-
tively by Louis and John, Duke of Bur-
gundy. Louis was murdered by his rival ;
hence arose the quarrel between the
Burgundiaus and the Armagnacs. (2)
CH A TILES (b. 1391, d. 1465). son of Louis,
was a poet, and wrote many ballads and
songs. He was taken prisoner at Agiucourt
(1415), and remained in England till 1440.
(3) Louis. {See Louis XII. ]
Second House. — GASTON JEAN BAPTISTE
(b. 1608, d. 1660), was younger sou of Henri
IV., and brother of Louis XIII. He was an
enemy of Richelieu, and took part in a
conspiracy against him in 1642. His
daughter was the celebrated Mdlle. de
Moutpensier.
Third House.— (I) PHILIPPE (b. 1640, d.
1701), second son of Louis XIII. of France,
distinguished himself in the wars of Louis
XIV. (2) PHILIPPE (i>. 1674, d. 1723), son
of the preceding ; commanded in Italy
i (1706) and Spain (1707-8). He became
regent on the death of Louis XIV. (1715),
but soon afterwards committed the cares of
government to his favourite, Dubois. (3)
His son, Louis (•>. 1703, d. 1742), retired to
the abbey of St. Genevieve. He wrote
commentaries on the Bible. (4) Louis
PHILIPPE (b. 1725, d. 1785), son of the
preceding; fought at Dettingen (1743)
Orl
(600)
Osm
and Fontenoy (1757). (o) Louis PHILIPPE
JOSEPH (b. 1*747, d. 1793), son of the pre-
ceding, adopted democratic views, ana at
the outbreak of the revolution was vt-garded
as the 1'ni'i'T of the popular p.irty. Iu
1792 he obtained a seat in the N;:ii'.nal
Convention, assumed the title of "K.u'alitiV
and voted for the death of the king. In
April, 1793, he was proscribed, and, after
tax. months' imprisonment at Marseilles,
guillotined. His son, Louia PHILIPPE, be-
came king of the French.
Orleans, Ferdinand Philippe Louis, Duke
of (b. 1810, d. 1842), eldest son of Louis
Philippe ; distinguished himself at the siege
of Antwerp and in the African campaign.
He died from the effects of a carriage ac-
cident. He left two sons, the Count de
Paris and the Due de Chartres.
Orleans, Prince Louis Philippe Robert,
Duke of (b. 186!)). eldest son of the Count de
Paris; in 1800 was imprisoned under the
Expulsion Bill (1336).
Orloff, Gregori (b. 1734, d. 1783), a
favourite of Catherine II. of Russia;
planned the revolution against Peter III. ,
which placed her on the throne (1702), and
hoped to become king. It is said that she
offered to marry him privately, and that his
retirement from court was due to her dis-
pleasure at his refusal. His brother,
ALEXIS (b. 1736, d. 1808), was the mur-
derer of Peter III. He became chief ad-
miral in 1768, and defeated the Turks at
Tschesme (1770). ALEXIS FEODOROVITCH
(b. 1787, d. 1861). nephew of Gregori and
Alexis, negotiated the treaties of Adrian-
ople (1829) and Uukiar-Skelessi (1833) ;
represented Russia at the Congress of Paris ;
and was made president of the council in
1856.
Orme, Robert (*. 1728, d. 1801), became a
member of the council at Fort St. George in
1754, and was afterwards appointed his-
toriographer to the East India Company.
He published a History of the Military
Transactions of the British Nation in Hin-
dustan and Historical Fragments of the
Mogul Empire.
Ormond, James Butler, Duke of (b.
1610, d. 1688), went to Ireland in 1641 as
lieutenant-general, and gained several vic-
tories over the rebels ; was Lord-Lieutenant
1643-7 ; followed Charles II. in his exile ;
was again Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland
1661-8. In 1670 he narrowly escaped
assassination at the hands of the notorious
Colonel Blood.
Orobio, Balthasar (d. 1687), a Spanish
Jew, professor of metaphysics at Sala-
manca ; wrote Certamen Philosophicum
against the doctrines of Spinosa.
Orosius, Paulus, a Spanish ecclesiastic,
who lived early in the 5th century. He
was a disciple of St. Augustine. He wrote
JIi^t,,r nii-Hni Ailrt-rxH* I'aganos Libri I'll.,
an historical work in defence of Christianity,
which was translated by King Alfred.
Orsini, Felice (b. 1819, d. 1858), Italian
revolutionist; while acting as Mazzini'i
agent in Italy, was arrested and imprisoned
in Mantua, but escaped to England (1S5G).
In January, 1858, he attempted to assassinate
Napoleon III. by throwing bombs nuder
his carriage, for which he was executed.
Ortelius, Abraham (b. 1527, d. 1598),
geographer, born at Antwerp ; twice visited
England ; in 1575 became geographer to
Philip II. of Spain. His chief work is
Theatnim Orbis Terra/mm (1570).
Orton, Job (b. 1717, d. 1783), Noncon-
formist divine, born at Shrewsbury ; wrote
Memoirs of Dr. Doddridge, etc.
Osborn, Sherard (b. 1822, d. 1875), British
admiral, joined in the Franklin Search Ex-
pedition, of 1850 ; in 1856 commanded the
squadron in the Black Sea ; served in the
Chinese war 1857-8. He wrote several
books of travel.
Osborne, Lord Sydney Godolphin (b. 1808,
d. 1889), philanthropist, was rector of Dur-
weston, Dorset, 1841-75. He made great
efforts to improve the condition of the agri-
cultural poor, contributing many letters on
the subject to the Times under the signature
of " S. G. O."
Oscar I, King of Sweden (b. 1799, d.
1859), succeeded his father, Charles XIV.,
in 1844. His reign was peaceful and un-
eventful.
Oscar II. (b. 1829) succeeded his brother,
Charles XV., in 1872. He has translated
Faust into Swedish, and written a Memoir of
Charles XII.
Osiander, Andreas (b. 1498, d. 1552), Ger-
man reformer, became professor of theology
at Konigsberg in 1548. He was regarded
by his colleagues as inclined to heresy.
Osman, Ali, called "Osman Digna " (6.
circa 1836), commanded the insurgents in
the rebellion excited by the Mahdi, which
began in 1881.
Osman Nubar Pasha (b. 1832), Turkish
general ; distinguished himself by his gallant
defence of Plevna against the Russians
(1877). He was minister of war 1878-80,
and again in 1881 and 1882.
Osmund, Saint (d. 1099), Norman eccle-
siastic, accompanied William I. to England :
became his chancellor, and afterwards
Bishop of Salisbury, the cathedral of which
Oss
(601)
Otw
was completed under his direction. He
compiled the breviary, missal, and ritual
known as the Use of Sarum. He was
canonised in 1457.
Ossington, John Evelyn Denison, Viscount
(b. 1800, d. 1873), entered Parliament in
1823 ; was Speaker 1857-72, when he was
raised to the peerage.
Ossoli, Sarah Margaret Fuller, Mar-
chioness (b. 1810, d. 1850), American
authoress, started the Transcendental Dial
in 1840 ; after visiting England and France
passed into Italy (1847), where she was
privately married to the Marquis Ossoli ;
was lost at sea with her husband while re-
turning to America. She wrote Women in
the Nineteenth Century, etc.
Ossory, Thomas Butler, Earl of (b. 1643,
d. 1680), son of the first Duke of Ormond;
distinguished himself at sea against the
Dutch ; commanded the English forces at
Mons (1677).
Ostade, Adrian (b. 1610, d. 1685), Dutch
painter, born at Haarlem, was a pupil
of Hals and Rembrandt. He resided for
many years at Haarlem, and died at Am-
sterdam. His paintings depict scenes from
low life in a very lively manner. Among
them are The Fish- Market and A Smoker
Lighting his Pipe. His brother, ISAAC (b.
1621, d. 1649), belonged to the same school.
Ostervald, Jean Frederic (b. 1663, d.
1747), Protestant divine, was born at
Neufchatel, and passed his life in his native
town. His writings are voluminous.
Oswald, Saint (b. c?m?605, d. 642), became
King of Northumbria in 635 ; defeated Cad-
wallon, King of Wales ; extended his
supremacy over Strathclyde and Wessex ;
was slain in battle by Penda, King of
Mercia. At his request Aidan came from
lona to preach in Northumbria.
Otnman, or Osman (b. 1259, d. 1326),
founder of the Ottoman dynasty, was son
of an Oguzian chieftain named Orthogrul,
who established himself near the Sangar in
Asia Minor. He took Nicaea (1304), and
founded a kingdom consisting of Bithynia,
Phrygia, and the neighbouring regions.
Othman Ibn Affan (d. 656), the third
khalif, was Mahomet's son-in-law, and
one of his earliest followers. He succeeded
Omar in 644. His nepotism caused great
dissatisfaction, and he was at last assassin-
ated at Medina.
Otho, Marcus Salvius (b. 32, d. 69), Koman
of patrician descent, was proclaimed em-
peror by the Praetorian Guards, but was
defeated by Vitellius at Bedriacum, and
committed suicide.
OthO L to IV., Emperors. [See Otto.]
OtHo (b. 1815, d. 1867), son of Ludwig
II., King of Bavaria was chosen King of
Greece in 1833. His attempts to govern
as a despot and with the aid of German
counsellors made him very unpopular.
In 1843 he was compelled to grant a liberal
constitution. His attack on Turkey during
the Crimean war occasioned the interference
of England and France. In 1862 a revolt
broke out, and he was forced to retire to
Bavaria.
Ottley, William Young (b. 1772, d. 1836),
English artist, resided many years in Italy.
He wrote The Italian School of Design, An
Enquiry into the Origin and Early Hi&tory
of Engraving on Copper and Wood, etc.
Otto L, "the Great," Emperor of the
West (b. 912, d. 973), son of Henry the
Fowler, was chosen Kiug of Germany in
936 ; in 951 was summoned to aid the
Italians against Berengar, and married
Adelheid, widow of King Lothair; routed
the Hungarians near Augsburg in 955 ; in
962 was crowned emperor at Rome by Pope
John XII. He subsequently deposed John,
and set up Leo VIII. in his 'stead. He ex-
tended his dominion over nearly the whole
of Italy, re-established the Western Empire,
and made many reforms in church and
state.
Otto IL (b. 955, d. 983), succeeded his
father, Otto L, after defeating his rival,
Henry of Bavaria ; thwarted an attempt of
Lothair of France to gain possession of
Lorraine ; invaded Apulia and Calabria,
which he claimed through his wife Theo-
phania, daughter of Nicephprus Phocas,
but was defeated by a combined army of
Greeks and Saracens (982).
Otto IIL (b. 980, d. 1002), son of the
g receding, was crowned at Rome by
regory V. in 996. He aimed at reviving
the glory of the Roman Empire.
Otto IV. (6. circa 1174, d. 1218), son of
Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, was
elected in 1197, when a rival party chose
Philip of Suabia. After a long struggle Otto
was crowned at Rome (1209), but in 1212
Frederick II. was chosen in his stead. In
1214 Otto was defeated at Bouvines by
Philip Augustus of France.
Ottocar IL, King of Bohemia (d. 1278),
by his marriage with Margaret, sister of
Frederick II. (1252), obtained Austria and
Styria, but was forced to cede these terri-
tories to Rudolph of Hapsburg, and to do
homage for Bohemia and Moravia (1275).
Otway, Thomas (b. 1651, d. 1685), drama-
tist, born in Sussex; after failing as an
( 6U2 )
Owe
actor, took to writing for the stage, aud
produced Alcib'mdi's in lo~«5. His finest
tragedies are The Orphan (ItJSO), arid Venice
Preferred (1GS2). He is said to have died of
starvation.
Oudinot, Charles Nicholas, Duke of
Reggio and marshal of France (b. 1707, d.
1M7), fought with distinction iu the Austrian
campaign ; gained the battle of Ostrolenka
and greatly contributed to that of Friedland
(1807) ; stood by Napoleon iu the Russian
campaign and that of 1813, but took no part
in the Hundred Days, aud acquiesced iu the
restoration. His son, CHA.KLES NICHOLAS
OUDINOT, Duke of Reggio (b. 1791, d. 1863),
commanded the French army sent in 1849
to Rome to restore Pius IX.
Oughtred, William (b. 1573, d. 1660), Eng-
lish divine and mathematician, educated at
Cambridge ; wrote Clavis Mathematica, etc.
Ouida, the pseudonym of Louise de la
Eamee (b. 1840), English novelist of French
extraction. Among her works are Under
Two Flags (1867) and Moths (1880).
Ouless, Walter William, R.A. (*. 1848),
portrait-painter, born in Jersey. Among
those who have sat to him are Charles Dar-
win, John Bright (1879), and Cardinal
Newman (1830).
Ouseley, Rev. Sir Frederick Arthur Gore,
Bart. (b. 1825, d. 1889), son of Sir Gore
Ouseley ; became professor of music at Ox-
ford iu 1855.
Ouseley, Sir Gore, Bart. (b. 1769, d. 1844),
diplomatist ; went to Persia as ambassador
in 1810, and brought about peace between
Persia and Russia.
Outram, Sir James (b. 1803, d. 1863),
general, obtained an Indian cadetship in
1819 ; was political agent in East Khaudesh
1825-35, and in Mahi-Kantha 1835-8 ; dis-
tinguished himself in the Afghan war as
aide-de-camp to Sir J. Keane ; in 1842
was political agent in Scinde ; quarrelled
with Sir Charles Napier, whose policy to-
wards the Ameers he regarded as oppres-
sive ; was appointed commissioner of
Baroda in 1847 ; was resident at Lucknow
1854-6 ; commanded the Persian expedition
1857. On the outbreak of the Mutiny he
hastened back to India, and took part with
Havelock in the relief of Lucknow.
Overall, John (b. 1559, d. 1619), divine,
became Bishop of Lichfield in 1614, and of
Norwich in 1619. He wrote the sacra-
mental part of the Church Catechism, and
compiled the Convocation Book.
Overbeck, Johann Friedrich (b. 1789, d.
1869), religious artist, born at Liibeck,
studied at Vienna under Fiiger ; in 1810
went to Rome, and joined in establishing
the Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood iu the
monastery of Sunt' Isidoro ; became a
Roman Catholic in 1814. Among his chief
works are Christ's Ayony in the Gaidcn
(1835) at Hamburg, and The Vision of St.
Francis (1830) at Assisi.
Overbury, Sir Thomas (b. 1581, d. 1613),
courtier and miscellaneous writer ; was in-
troduced to James I. by Robert Carr, after-
wards Earl of Somerset. Having opposed
that noblemau's marriage with the Countess
of Essex, he was thrown into the Tower,
and there died of poison. Somerset and the
countess were found guilty, but pardoned.
Overbury's chief work is his Characters.
He also wrote The Wife (a poem), etc.
Overstone, Samuel Jones Loyd, Baron
(b. 1796, d. 1883), was Whig member for
Hythe 1819-26, and became a recognised
authority on financial matters. His Tracts
and Other Publications on Metallic and Paper
Currency were published between 1837 and
1857. The Bank Act of 1844 was based
upou his proposals.
Overweg, Adolph (b. 1822, d. 1852), Ger-
man traveller, born at Hamburg, joined the
expedition of Richardson and Earth to
Lake Tchad (1850) ; arrived at the lake
with Barth in April, 1851, and died in the
neighbourhood in September.
Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso) (b. 43 B.C.,
d. 17 A.D. ), Roman poet, patronised by
Augustus. The cause »f his banishment to
Tomi, a town of the Getaa, near the mouth
of the Danube, has always remained a
mystery. He died in exile. His chief
poems are the Amores, de Arte Amandi,
Fasti, and Metamorphoses.
Oviedo y Vaides, Gonzalo Fernandez de
(b. 1478, d. 1557), Spanish historian, born at
Madrid, went to the West Indies as super-
intendent of the gold foundries (151J3) ; be-
came alcayde of St. Domingo in 1535 ; after
passing many years in Hispaniola, returned
to Spain, and died at Valladolid. Charles V.
made him historiographer of the Indies. His
chief work is a General and Natural His-
tory of the West Indies in fifty books.
Owen, Henry (b. 1716, d. 1795), Welsh
clergyman, became vicar of Edmonton in
1775.' He wrote Observations on the Four
Gospels, Cntica Sacra : or, an Introduction to
Hebrew Criticism, etc.
Owen, Rev. James (6. 1838), president oi
the Baptist Union.
Owen, John (b. 1560, d. 1622), Latin epi-
grammatist, educated at Winchester and
J Oxford. He became master of the free
school at Warwick.
Owe
(603)
Fao
Owen, John (b. 1616, d. 1683), Noncon-
formist divine, born at Stadham, in Oxford-
shire, was educated at Queen's College,
Oxford. At first a Presbyterian, he after-
wards became an Independent ; preached
before the House of Commons on the day
after Charles I.'s execution ; accompanied
Cromwell to Ireland and Scotland ; was
appointed Dean of Christ Church, Oxford
(1651), and held the office of vice-chancellor
1652-7, but was driven from the university
in 1659. He died at Ealiiig. His writings
are voluminous. Among the best known are
a Discourse Concerning the Holy Spirit, and
Tlie Doctrine of Justification by Faith.
Owen, Sir Richard (b. 1804), anato-
mist and palaeontologist, was educated at
Edinburgh University and St. Bartholo-
mew's Hospital. During his connection
with the museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons (1828-56), where he succeeded Mr.
Clift as curator, he published several Cata-
loaiies of the collections, and edited Hunter's
Animal Economy (1837). In 1856 he was
appointed superintendent of the natural
history department of the British Museum.
His works are voluminous, the most valu-
able being those which treat of extinct
animals. His discoveries are summarised
in his Palaeontology (1861).
Owen, Robert (*. 1771, d. 1858), the foun-
der of Socialism in England, was born of
poor parents at New town, Montgomery-
shire. In 1800 he became owner of the
New Lanark Cotton Factory, where he
proceeded to put in practice his theories of
a new system of society. He afterwards
made unsuccessful attempts to establish
Communistic settlements at New Harmony
in America (1825), and Harmony Hall in
Hampshire (1844). To his efforts may be
traced the first factory legislation, the co-
operative movement, and the establishment
of infant schools.
Owen, William, R.A. (b. 1769, d. 1825),
studied under Catton and Reynolds. He
excelled as a portrait-painter.
Oxenden, Right Rev. Ashton (b. 1808, d.
1892), was Bishop of Montreal and primate
of Canada 1869-78. He published many
religious works.
Oxenford, John (b. 1812, d. 1877), trans-
lated Goethe's Dichtung und Wahrheit and
Conversations with £ckermann, and wrote
The Dice of Death and other plays.
Oxenstierna, Axel, Count (b. 1583, rf,
165-i), Swedish statesman, was made chan-
cellor by Gustavus Adolphus in 1611 ; suc-
ceeded him as leader of the Protestant
party in Germany (1632-5) ; acted as regent
throughout the minority of Christina, and
became her chief minister when she assumed
the government (1644).
Oxford, Robert Harley, Earl of (6. 1661,
d. 1724), English statesman, in 1704 was
made Secretary of State, but was compelled
to resign by Marlborough. He soon re-
turned with the Tories to office, being Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer, and the Queen
created him Earl of Oxford and Mortimer
and Lord High Treasurer. Anne finally
dismissed him from his offices, and on the
accession of George I. he was impeached by
the Whigs but acquitted.
Ozanam, Jacques (b. 1640, d. 1717), French
mathematician ; wrote Dictionnaife des Ma-
thematiques, Cours des Mathematiques, etc.
Ozell, John (d. 1743), English miscel-
laneous writer, satirised by Pope in the
Dunciad.
Ozeroff, Vladislas Alexandrovich (b. 1770,
d. 1816), Russian poet ; served in the army,
and afterwards held a civil appointment.
He wrote Fingal, (Edipus, and other tra-
gedies, also some lyrical poems.
Paaw, Pieter (b. 1564, d. 1617), Dutch
physician, professor of anatomy at Ley-
den, where he founded the botanic gar-
den.
Pacca, Bartolommeo, Cardinal (b. 1756, d.
1844), Italian statesman, friend of Pius VII.
when an exile in France ; became his secre-
tary on his restoration in 1814, and wrote
Memorie (translated by Sir G. Head).
Pacchiarotto, Jacopo (b. 1474), Italian
painter, born at Siena, where he took an
active part in affairs. Most of his works are
there, but a Madonna and Child by him i& in
the National Gallery, London.
Pacchierotti, Gaspare (b. 1744, d. 1821),
singer ; visited London in 1778 and 1790.
Pace, Richard (d. 1532), English diplo-
matist, successively Dean of Exeter and St.
Paul's ; became Secretary of State in 1516,
but, having offended Wolsey, was com-
mitted to the Tower, and lost both nil
preferments and his reason.
Pac
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Pag
Pache, Jean Nicolas (b. 1746, d. 1823),
French revolutionist ; minister of war
1792-3, when the Girondists were in power;
afterwards joined the Mountain.
Pacheco, Francesco (b. 1571, d. 1654),
Spanish portrait-painter, father-in-law of
Velasquez, most of his pictures being at
Seville ; published Arte de la Pintura.
Pachmann, Vladimir de (b. 1848), Russian
pianist ; tirst appeared in London in May,
18S2, and performed both previously and
subsequently in all the European capitals,
being esteemed especially as an exponent of
Chopin and Beethoven.
Pachymera, George (6. 1242, d. 1315),
Greek writer ; author of a History of
Michael Palceologus and Andronicns, from
the point of view of a contemporary eye-
witness.
Paciaudi, Paolo Maria (b. 1710, d. 1785),
Italian antiquary ; preached as a Theatine
for ten years, but afterwards settled at
Rome, and published Memoirs of the Grand
Mastei-s of the Order of St. John, etc.
Pacini, Luigi (d. 1837)? Italian singer ;
made his debut at Milan in 1806 as Buffo
Comico, and in 1818 took the part of
Brand in II Barone di Dokheim, com-
posed by his son, GIOVANDJT.
Pacuvius, Marcus (d. 132 B.C.), Roman
poet and painter, much esteemed by Cicero
and Lselius ; fragments of his work in the
Corpus Poetarum are all that remain.
Padilla, Francisco de (b. 1527, *. 1607),
Spanish writer ; author of Historia Eccle-
tiastica de Espana.
Padilla, Don Juan de (d. 1521), was put to
death by Charles V. for having headed a
constitutional movement in Spain.
Padilla, Lorenzo de (d. circa 1540),
Spanish writer ; author of Anteguedades de
Espana, etc.
Padshan Beebee (17th century), Princess
of Beejapoor, the last of her race ; married
Sultan Manzuin, son of Aurungzebe.
Paer, Ferdinando (*. 1771, d. 1839), Italian
composer, kapellmeister to the Elector of
Saxony, and, after Jena, imperial composer
to Napoleon, who made him director of the
Italian Opera ; composed G-riselda and other
operas.
Pagan, Blaise, Comte de (b. 1604, d. 1665),
French military engineer. Having lost his
sight in active service, published in 1645 his
Traite de Fortification.
Paganel, Pierre (b. 1745, d. 1826), French
revolutionist ; author of Essai Critique et
Historique sur la Revolution Fran$ai&et
which was seized by the police in 1810, its
author being banished in 1816 as a regicide.
Paganini, Niccolo (b. 1784, d. 1840),
Italian violinist, born at Genoa ; first ap-
peared at Lucca (1805), where he was
patronised by the Princess Baciocchi,
sister of Napoleon. Having visited the chief
German capitals, he came to France and
England in 1831, and made immense sums.
His performance on a single string and his
mysterious personality created for him a
world -wide reputation.
Pagano^Mario (b. 1748, d. 1799), Nea-
politan jurist; author of Saggi Politici, etc.
Having been a prominent supporter of the
Partheuopean Republic, was put to death on
the restoration of the Bourbons.
Page, Thomas Nelson (b. 1853), American
writer ; author of stories in the negro
dialect, In the Virginia, JBefo' de War, etc.
Pagea. [See Gamier-Pages.]
Pages, Pierre Marie, Vicomte de (b. 1748,
rf. 1793), French navigator ; sailed in Ker-
guelen's expedition to the South Pole, and
afterwards went as far as 81° 30' north ; was
murdered by negroes on his estate in San
Domingo, after having served in the Ameri-
can war.
Paget, Sir Augustus, G.C.B. (b. 1823),
English diplomatist. After a long course
of home and foreign service, was appointed
ambassador to Italy in 1876, and sworn
of the Privy Council, and was transferred to
Vienna in 1884.
Paget, Right Hon. Lord Clarence, K.C.B.
(b. 1811), naval officer; saw active service
in the Baltic in 1854-5, and afterwards
several times commanded the Mediterranean
squadron. He also sat in Parliament as a
Liberal for some years, and was secretary to
the Admiralty from 1859 to 1866.
Paget, Sir George Edward, K.C.B.,F.R.S.
(b. 1809, d. 1892), physician. Having been
eighth wrangler in 1831, became fellow of
Caius College, and was subsequently presi-
dent of the British Medical Association
(1864), and of the General Medical Council
of the United Kingdom (1869-74), and
Regius professor of medicine at Cambridge
(1872).
Paget, Sir James, Bart., F.R.S., D.C.L.
(b. 1814), surgeon, brother of the above, was
born at Great Yarmouth ; became F.R.C.S.
in 1836, and president in 1875, and published
Report on the Results of the Use of the Micro-
scope (1842), Lectures on Surgical Pathology,
and other works. He received a baronetcy in
1871, and served on the royal commission of
1*81 to inquire into the condition of
London hospitals.
Fag
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Pal
Paget, Lord William (b. 1506, d. 1563),
statesman; served Henry VIII. and his
successors both at home and abroad ; was
imprisoned as a supporter of Somerset, but
released by Queen Mary.
Paggi, Giambattista (b. 1554, d. 1627),
Italian painter, whose chief pictures are at
Florence and Genoa.
Pagi, Antoine (b. 1624, d. 1690), Italian
cordelier ; wrote a critique on the Annals
of Baronius, in which he was assisted by his
nephew, FBAN^OIS (d. 1721), who also com-
piled a History of the Popes.
Pahlen, Pieter, Count (b. 1760, d. 1828),
Russian statesman, who, when military
governor of St. Petersburg, conspired
against the Tsar Paul, and caused him to
be strangled (1801), but took little further
part in affairs.
Pallleron, Hldouard (b. 1834),
dramatist ; author of Le
French
ea Faux Menages
(1869), Selene (1872), Le Monde ou I'on
jamuse (1868), and Le Monde ou Von
tfennuie, produced at the Comedie Fran-
^aise in 1883, the latter chiefly contributing
to his subsequent election to the Aca-
demy.
Paine, Thomas (b. 1737, d. 1809), English
writer, born at Thetford, Norfolk ; went to
America by advice of Franklin in 1774, and
soon after published his pamphlet, Common
Sense, for which he received £500 from the
state of Pennsylvania. Having servedin
the American war, he came to England in
1787, but, having been prosecuted fo'r his
Eights of Man in 1792, went to France,
where he became a member of the Con-
vention, but was imprisoned by Robespierre.
His Age of Reason appeared between 1792
and 1795, its author Licterwards dying at
New York.
Painter, William (b. circa 1525, d. circa
1594), author of The Palace of Pleasure, a
collection of novels.
Paisiello, Giovanni (b. 1741, d. 1816),
musician of the Neapolitan school; pa-
tronised by Catherine II., Napoleon, and
other sovereigns. His chief opera was
Nina.
Pajol, Claude Pierre (b. 1772, d. 1844),
French soldier ; served with distinction
nnder the first Republic and Empire, re-
captured Montereau in 1814, and in 1830
led the attack upon Rambouillet.
Pakington, Sir John (b. 1799, d. 1880),
politician ; represented Droitwich as a Con-
servative from 1837 to 1874, when he was
created Baron Hampton. He was made
Colonial Secretary in 1852, and became
First Lord of the Admiialty in 1858, and
again in 1866, being Secretary -at -War
1866-8.
Palacky, Franz (b. 1798, d. 1876), Bo-
hemian historian, friend of Kollar, the poet,
and author of the History of Bohemia
(1836-54), and several similar works ; was
named a life -member of the Upper House
of the Reichsrath in 1861.
Palafox y Melzi, Don Jose (b. 1780, d.
1847), Spanish general; successfully de-
fended Saragossa against the French in
1808, but was obliged to surrender after a
second siege, and was for five years a
prisoner in France. He supported the con-
stitution in 1823, and declared for Isabella
in 1835.
Paleario, Aonio [Antonio della Paglia]
(b. 1500, d. 1570), Italian scholar, was put
to death at Rome by the Inquisition on
account of his religious opinions.
Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da (b. 1524,
d. 1594), musician, whose chief works were
sacred, the mass of Pope Marcellus being
the best known. He was many years
chapel-master to Julius III., and saved
music from proscription by the Catholic
Church.
Paley, William (b. 1743, d. 1805), English
theologian, professor of divinity at Cam-
bridge, and Archdeacon of Carlisle ; wrote
Horce Paulina, Natural Theology, Evidence
of Christianity, etc.
Palgrave, Sir Francis (b. 1788, d. 1861),
historian, of Jewish extraction, his name
having originally been Cohen ; was knighted
for his historical works, the chief of which
were The JKise and Progress of the English
Commonwealth and History of Normandy
and England. He was deputy-keeper of
the records from 1838.
Palgrave, Francis Turner (b. 1824), his
eldest son, poet and critic. Having been
fellow of Exeter College and vice-principal of
Knsller Hall (training college) and assistant-
secretary in the Education Department, was
elected professor of poetry at Oxford in
1886. His chief works are Essays on Art
(1866), Lyrical Poems (1871), and the com-
pilation entitled Golden Treasury of English
Songs.
Palgrave, Reginald (b. 1829), historical
writer, fourth son of Sir F. Palgrave ; be-
came clerk to the House of Commons in
1886, and published Cromwell and other
works.
Palgrave, William Gifford (b. 1826, d.
1888), Arabic scholar, brother of the above;
educated at Oxford ; served for a time in
the Indian army ; became a Jesuit ; ex-
plored Arabia, and was employed by the
Pal
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Pal
English Government in Abyssinia and else-
where. His chief work is Narrative of a
Year's Jo/true;/ through Central and Eastern
Arabia. In 1880 he was appointed consul-
general in Siam. Another brother, ROBERT
INOLIS (b. 1827), was elected F.R.S. in 1SS2,
and was a member of the royal commission
on depression of trade (1SS5).
Palissot de Beauvois, Ambrose. Baron
de (b. 1752, d. 1820V French botanist;
travelled in Africa and America, and wrote
Flore d1 Oil-are et de Benin and other works.
Palissot de Montenoye, Charles (b. 1730,
d. 1814), poet, author of the comedy, Le
Cei-cle (1755), ridiculing Rousseau, etc.
Palissy, Bernard (d. 1589), potter and
enameller ; was imprisoned as a Huguenot
in his seventy -sixth year, and died in the
Bastille ; made the ware which is known by
his name.
Palladio, Andrea (b. 1518, d. 1580), Italian
architect, born at Vicenza, where he rebuilt
the Palazzo della Razione. He afterwards
built the churches of St. George and the
Redeemer at Venice.
Pallas, Roman freedman (d. 63), who,
with Agrippina. poisoned the Emperor
Claudius (54), but was afterwards him-
self poisoned by Nero.
^Pallas, Peter Simon (b. 1741, d. 1811),
German traveller ; author of Voyages d
Travers Plusieurs Provinces de P Empire
Russe, Zoographia Rosso- Asiatica, etc.
Pallavicino, Sforza, Cardinal (b. 1607, d.
1667), Italian writer ; author of Istoria del
Concilio di Trento.
Palles, Right Hon. Christopher, LL.D.
(b. 1831), Irish judge ; made a reputation
at the Chancery bar, particularly in the case
Croker v. Croker, and was Solicitor- and
Attorney- General for Ireland in Mr. Glad-
stone's first ministry, becoming Chief Baron
of the Irish Exchequer in 1874.
Palliser, Sir Hugh (b. 1721, d. 1796),
English admiral ; was censured by court-
martial for his conduct in the action off
Ushant in July, 1778, his part being taken
by the Opposition as against Keppel, his
superior officer.
Palliser, Sir William (b. 1830, d. 1882),
inventor of the Palliser shot ; served in the
army till 1871, and represented Taunton for
two years ; invented also a method for con-
verting smooth-bore cast-iron guns into
rifled guns.
Palm, Johann Philipp (b. 1768, d. 1806),
bookseller of Niirnberg, whose arbitrary
arrest and execution by order of Napo-
leon, on a charge of selling the pamphlet,
Germany in her Deepest Humiliation, did
much to kindle the war of Liberation.
Palma, Jacopo, "II Vecchio" (d. circa
1548), Italian painter of the Venetian school,
whose Annunzio del Paatore is in the Louvre.
His great-nephew of the same name (d.
1628) is known as "II Giovine."
Palmblad, Vilhelm Fredrik (b. 1788, d.
1852), Swedish writer ; author of a Swedish
biographical dictionary and founder of the
"Phosphorist " school of criticism.
Palmella, Souza, Dugue de (b. 1781, d.
1850) , Portuguese statesman ; took a leading
part in the affairs of his country for twenty-
five years, and was thrice minister in Eng-
land.
Palmer, Sir A. H., K.C.M.G. (b. 1819),
colonial statesman, born in Ireland ; became
colonial secretary of Queensland in 1867,
and was premier from 1870 to 1875, when
he became president of the Legislative
Council.
Palmer, Rev. Charles Ferrars [Father
Raymuud] (b. 1819), antiquary ; author of
History uj the Town and Castle of Tatnwortht
where he practised some years as a surgeon,
but joined the Dominicans in 1853, and sub-
sequently published several works relating
to the order.
Palmer, Sir Charles Mark, Bart. (b. 1822),
coal-owner and ship-builder ; first employed
steam colliers instead of sailing brigs and
introduced rolled plates for men-of-war j
represented Durham county as a Liberal
from 1874.
Palmer, Edward Henry (b. 1840, d. 1882),
English Orientalist ; went on an expedi-
tion to Mount Sinai in 1868-9, and in
1871 _ became Lord Almoner's Reader of
Arabic at Cambridge ; was assassinated in
Upper Egypt eleven years later. He was
author of Oriental Mysticism, an Arabic
grammar, and a Persian dictionary, etc.
Palmer, Edwin, D.D. (b. 1824), divine,
brother of Lord Selborne. Having been
fellow of Balliol for twenty years, was
appointed Corpus professor of Latin at
Oxford in 1870, from which office he retired
when he became Archdeacon of Oxford in
1878.
^ Palmer, John (d. 1818), a Bath brewer;
first suggested mail coaches, and was made
comptroller-general of the Post-office.
Palmer, John (d. 1798), actor; died on
the stage at Liverpool when playing in
Kotzebue's Stranger.
Palmer. [See Selborne.]
Palm erst on, Henry John Temple, Vis-
count (b, 1784, d. 1865), statesman; having
Pal
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Par
succeeded his father as Irish peer in 1802,
entered Parliament as Tory member for
Newport in 1807, and was a lord of the
Admiralty from that year until 1809, when
he became Secretary at War. After the
death of Canning he became a Whig, and
was Foreign Secretary in Earl Grey's Re-
form Ministry (1830-34), holding the same
office again under Lord Melbourne (1835-41)
and Lord John Russell (1846-51), the lat-
ter term of office being marked by the
support given to the Queen of Portugal
against Dom Miguel and to Turkey in the
matter of the Hungarian and Polish re-
fugees, as well as by the affair of Don
Pacifico. After having been Home Secre-
tary in the coalition ministry of 1852-55,
he became First Lord of the Treasury in the
latter year, and held office till March, 1857,
when, after the vote of censure on the con-
duct of the China war, he dissolved, resign-
ing in the following year on the Foreign
Conspiracy Bill. Palmerston was again
Premier from June, 1859, till his death, and
was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Palmier!, Luigi (b. 1807), meteorologist,
became in 1854 director of the Vesuvius
Observatory. Besides describing the
eruptions of the volcano, he constructed
an electrometer, a pluviometer, and a seis-
mometer.
Palmier!, Matteo (b. 1405, d. 1475), Floren-
tine historian ; author of Vita Civile (printed
in 1529) and Cronaca Generate.
Palsgrave, John (b. 1480, d. 1554), Eng-
lish scholar, tutor to Mary, sister of Henry
Vin., and author of IS Eclair cissement de la
Langue Fran$aise, the first attempt at a
French grammar.
Pamphilus (b. 409 B.C.), a Greek, intro-
duced the rules of perspective and propor-
tion into painting.
Pamphilus (b. 240, d. 309), Syrian writer,
friend of Eusebius and biographer of Origen,
bequeathed a lending library to Csesarea;
was put to death under Diocletian.
Pansenus (fl. 5th century B.C.), an
Athenian, executed a series of paintings of
the battle of Marathon.
Panatius (b. 190 B.C.. d. 100 B.C.),
Athenian philosopher : taught at Rome, and
left works, on one of which Cicero's De
Officiis is said to be founded.
Panckoucke, Charles Joseph (b. 1736, d.
1798), French journalist and publisher;
founded Le Moniteur.
Panicale, Masotino da (*. 1378, d. 1415),
Florentine painter, some of whose frescoes
are in the Del Carmine church.
Panln, Ivanowitch, Cointe de (b. 1718, d.
1783), Russian statesman of Italian origin;
helped Catherine II. against the Tsar, and
attempted to introduce liberal ideas into
Russia.
Panizzi, Sir Antony, K.C.B. (b. 1797, d.
1879), Italian bibliographer, compelled to
leave Italy on account of his liberalism ;
was principal librarian of the British Museum
from 1856 to 1866, having previously been
keeper of printed books for nearly twenty
years. He collected the first four editions of
the Divina Cammed ia, and edited Ariosto's
Orlando Furioso.
Panmure, Fox Maule Ramsey, Lord (b.
1801, d. 1874), British statesman; became
Lord Panmure in 1852, and succeeded to
the earldom of Dalhousie in 1860 ; was Sec-
retary-at-War 1846-52, and again 1855-8,
being also for a short time President of the
Board of Control in 1852.
Pannini, Giampaolo (b. 1691, d. 1764),
Italian painter, whose representation of the
monuments of Rome are in the Louvre, as
are those of his son, FRANCESCO.
Panonnita, pseudonym of ANTONIO BEC-
CADELLI (d. 1471), whose works (historical
and poetical) were denounced for their
licentiousness and publicly burnt.
Panzer, Georg Wolfgang (b. 1729, d. 1804),
Lutheran minister and bibliographer ; author
of Annales Typographici.
Paoli, Pasquale de' (*. 1726, d. 1807),
Corsican patriot; headed the struggle for
independence against Genoa, but when the
island was transferred to France came to
England, where he died.
Paolo Veronese. [See Veronese.]
Papi, Lazzaro (b. 1763, d. 1834), Italian
scholar ; served in the British army in India
for several years, and afterwards published
Lettere sulle Indie Orientate, I Commentarii
della Rivohtzione Francese, etc.
Papias (d. 169), Bishop of Hierapolis, and
according to Irenaeus, a disciple of St. John;
wrote Expositions of the Lord's Sayings,
which is quoted by Eusebius.
Papin, Denis (*. 1647, d. 1714), French
physician ; published, while in England, an
account of a machine he had invented called
the "New Digester" (1681), and became a
fellow of the Royal Society.
Papinianus (*. 142, d. 212), Roman jurist
of great repute ; was beheaded by order of
Caracalla.
Papirius Cursor, Roman hero ; was twice
dictator (o25 B.C. and '272). and carried on
successful war against the Samnites.
Paracelsus. Theophrastus (b. 1493. rf.1541),
Par
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Par
Swiss empiric; rejected the authority of the
old physicians, aud possessed some skill in
cheinistiy ; obtained a great reputation from
his claim to have discovered the elixir vita
and by some cures he effected.
Pardies, Ignace (b. 1636, d. 1673), French
mathematician, held a controversy with
Newton on the theory of light and colours.
Pardoe, Julia (*. 1806, d. 1862), English
writer ; lived some time in Constantinople,
and published The City of the Sultan (1837),
A Romance of the Harem, etc.
Pare", Ambrose (b. 1509, d. 1590), surgeon
to Henri II. of France and his sons; was
protected by Charles IX. during the mass-
acre of St. Bartholomew, the order for its
discontinuance being probably attributable
to his influence.
Paredes. [See Garcia.]
Pareja, Juan de (b. 1606, d. 1670), Spanish
painter ; attracted the notice of Philip IV.
while a hack in the studio of Velasquez.
Parfait, Francis (b. 1698, d. 1753), French
writer, whose chief work was Histoire
Generate du Theatre Francis (1734-49).
Parini, Giuseppe (6. 1729, d. 1799),
Milanese poet of humble birth, his chief
works being II Giorno, a satire, and Le Odi.
Paris. [See Matthew Paris.]
Paris, Francois [the "Abbe"] (b. 1690, d.
1727), Jansenist priest, to whose tomb in
St. Medard, Paris, crowds resorted in the
belief that miracles were worked there.
Paris, Gaston (5.1839), philologist; author
of Etude sur le rtile de P Accent Latin dans la
langue Frnnqaise (1862), Histoire Poetique de
Charlemagne (1866), and other works.
Paris, Louis Philippe d'Orleans, Count of
(b. 1834), grandson of King Louis Philippe,
was born at Paris, and in 1861 went with
his brother, the Duke of Chartres, to America,
and served on M'Clellan's staff till June,
1862, when both returned to Europe. In
1871 he became a member of the National
Assembly, which soon after voted the re-
stitution of the Orleans property. On
August 5, 1873, the Count of Paris recog-
nised the Count of Chambord as head of
the royal house, and on the death of the
latter in 1883 was himself acknowledged as
his successor. In 1886 he left France for
England in consequence of the Expulsion
Bill, having previously published several
works, the chief of which were The Trades
Unions of England (translated by N. J.
Senior, 1869), and Histoire de la Guerre
Civile en Amerique (1874-83).
Parish, Eli (b. 1806, d. 1846), English
musician, well known as a performer on the
harp, for which he wrote several concertos.
Park, Edward Amasa, D.D. (b. 1808),
American theologian, born in Rhode Island,
was professor of mental aud moral philo-
sophy at Amherst 1834-6, and from 1847 to
1861 held the chair of Christian theology at
Andover. Among his works are Theology of
th e Intellect and of the Feelings, and Uiscourses
on Some Theological Doctrines as Related to the
Religious Character.
Park, Mungo (b. 1771, d. 1805), Scotch
traveller, born at Selkirk ; while engaged
in exploring the sources of the Niger was
drowned, his boat having been sucked into
a rapid during a skirmish with the natives.
Parke, Thomas Heazle, F.R. C.S.I., etc.
(b. 1857), army surgeon, born in Roscommon
county ; published a report on the Egyptian
cholera epidemic (1883), and, having been
present at Abu Klea and other actions in
the Soudan, crossed Africa with Stanley in
1887-9.
Parke. [See Wensleydale, Lord.]
Parker, Joseph (b. 1830), preacher, opened
the City Temple, London, in 1874. Haa
published a number of theological works.
Parker, Matthew (b. 1504, d. 1575), divine,
was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury
in 1559. Under the supervision of Elizabeth
he consolidated the reformation, and super-
intended the issue of The Bishop's Bible ;
he left a valuable collection of books and
MSS. to Cambridge University, of which
he had been vice-chancellor.
Parker, Richard (d. 1797), sailor, headed
the mutiny at the Nore, at the end of which
he was hung.
Parker, Theodore (b. 1810, d. 1860),
American minister, son of a farmer at
Lexington; ejected by the Unitarians for
his writings, became leader of a society of
freethinkers ; was also an active abolitionist.
A collected edition of his works appeared in
1863.
Parkes, Hon. Sir Henry, G.C.M.G. (b.
1815). Australian statesman, born in War-
wickshire ; emigrated in 1839 to New South
Wales, where he was engaged in journalism
and politics, and, having been colonial sec-
retary and education minister, was premier
from 1872 to 1875, in 1877, from 1878 to 1883,
and from 1887 to the autumn of 1891. He
supported both imperial and Australasian
federation, and attempted to conciliate the
Labour party.
Parkes, Joseph (b. 1796, d. 1865), English
lawyer ; author of a History of the Court of
Chancery and Memoirs of Sir Philip Francis.
whom he maintained to have been " Junius.
Far
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Par
Parkinson, John (b. 1567, ^.1641), botanist,
apothecary to James I., and author of Thea-
trum Botanicum; was named " Botanicus
Begins Primarius " by Charles I.
Parkman, Francis (b. 1823), American
writer, born at Boston ; lived some time
among the Indians of the Rocky Mountains,
and wrote The Conspiracy of Pontiac (1851),
The Old Regime in Canada, Count Frontenac
and New France under Louis XI V., and
Montcalm and, Wolfe (1884), etc.
Parmenides, Greek Eleatic philosopher,
flourished about 500 B.C.
Parmenio (d. 330 B.C.), general of Philip
of Macedon and Alexander the Great ; was
put to death by the latter on suspicion of
conspiracy.
Parmentier, Jacques (b. 1658, d. 1730),
French painter, employ ea by William III.
of England. Several of his pictures are in
churches at Leeds and Hull.
Parmigiano [Francesco Mazzola] (b.
1503, d. 1540), Italian painter ; executed for
Pope Clement VII. his Madonna and Child
with St. John (now at Florence), and the
Madonna della Rosa (Dresden Gallery). His
Cupid is in the Belvedere Gallery, Vienna,
and the National Gallery has an unfinished
Madonna from his hand. He ruined himself
in the study of alchemy.
Parnell, Charles Stewart (b. 1846, d. 1S91),
Irish politician, descended from the poet,
was born at Avondale, Co. Wicklow, and
educated at Cambridge. He entered public
life as member for Meath in 1875, and
two years later became conspicuous by
the "obstruction" with which he met the
Prisons Bill. He gradually ousted Mr. Butt
from the leadership of the Home Rule
Party, and in 1880 became leader of the
Irish Party and entered upon the land agita-
tion. At the general election he was elected
for three constituencies, but chose Cork, and
as the head of the Land League was prose-
cuted in 1880 by the Gladstone Government,
the result being a disagreement of the
jury. In the following session he, with the
majority of his followers, was removed by
the sergeant-at-arms for obstruction, and
in October was imprisoned in Kilmainham
under the Coercion Bill. He was released
in April, 1882, but the "No rent" mani-
festo had meanwhile been issued, and in
1883 the National League took the place
of the suppressed Land League. At the
general election of 1885 he nominated every
Home Rule candidate, and subsequently
entered into an alliance with the followers
of Mr. Gladstone. In the next Parliament
he proposed a bill to suspend evictions and
reduce rent, after the rejection of which the
agitation continued. In 1888 a special
N H
commission was appointed to examine the
charges made against Mr. Parnell and
others by the Times, the result being his
acquittal on the greatest, but condemnation
on many others. In consequence of the
result of the O'Shea divorce case in 1890
he was deposed by the majority of his
party, but continued to lead the minority
and to carry on an active campaign until
his death.
Parnell, Sir Henry (6. 1776, d. 1841), poli-
tician ; for forty years a member of the
House of Commons, wrote an £ssay
on financial Reform; was created Lord
Congleton on resigning the office of pay-
master-general. His father, SIB JOHN, was
Irish Chancellor of the Exchequer, but re-
fused to support the Act of Union.
Parnell, Thomas (b. 1679, d. 1717), Irish
poet and Archdeacon of Clogher, intimate
with Swift and Boliugbroke ; was author
of The Hermit and other works.
Parr, Catherine. [See Catherine Parr.]
Parr, Louisa (Mrs. ) , novelist ; author of
Sow It All Happened (1868), Dorothy Fox,
Adam and Eve , Loyalty George (1888), etc.
Parr, Thomas (b. possibly 1483, d. 1635),
is said to have laboured as a husbandman
after attaining his 130th year. His body,
examined by Dr. Harvey, showed no signs
of internal decay.
Parrnasius (Jl. circa 400), Greek painter,
contemporary with Socrates ; highly com-
mended by Puny, but very vain.
Parry, Charles Hubert Hastings, Mus. Doc.
(b. 1848), English composer, whose chief
productions are Judith, Ode for St. Cecilia' a
Day, and settings of the Birds and Pro-
metheus Unbound. He also published Studies
of Great Composers, and contributed to the
Dictionary of Music.
Parry, John (d. 1782), blind harper. His
son, WILLIAM (d. 1791), was elected A.R.A.
in 1776.
Parry, John Orlando (b. 1810, d. 1879),
comic singer, son of a Welsh musician,
originated the "musical sketch," his words
being generally written by Albert Smith.
From 1860 till 1869 he appeared in the
German Reed Company.
Parry, Sir William Edward, Rear-admiral,
F.R.S. (b. 1790, d. 1855), Arctic explorer,
son of Caleb Hillier Parry, a Bath physician.
After serving some years on the North Ame-
rican station, sailed with Captain Ross to
discover the north-west passage. In a subse-
quent voyage (in 1819) he penetrated farther
west than had hitherto been reached, and
in 1821-3 and 1824-5 he again went north.
Par
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Pat
In 18'.2 7 he attempted to reach the North Pole
in a sledge, an account of this voyage appear-
ing with the others in 1833. In 18.)3 he
became governor of Greenwich Hospital
His son (d. 1890) was Bishop of Dover.
Parsons, Alfred William, R.I. (*. 1847),
landscape-painter ; left the Civil Service in
1S67 to study from nature, and first ex-
hibited at the Academy in 1871. Among
his pictures are TaUcn, The Ending of
Su»inur,8Ji& When Mature Tainted all Things
Gay, exhibited at the Academy (the last
being bought under the Chantrey Bequest
in 1887) In a Cidei' Country (1866), etc.
(Grosvenor Gallery), and some water-coloura
and oils, which gained gold and silver medals
at the Paris Exhibition of 1889.
Parsons, Robert (b. 1546, d. 1610), Jesuit
friest ; was head of the Catholic mission of
579, and wrote several works.
Parton, James (b. 1822, d. 1891), American
writer ; born at Canterbury, but was taken
to America when a child, and wrote many
works, the chief of which were Life of
Horace Greely (1855), General Sutler in New
Orleans, Life and Times of Benjamin Frank-
lin, and Life of Jefferson. He married, in
1856, "Fanny Fern," nee Willis, writer of
children's books.
Paruta, Paolo (b. 1540, d. 1598), Italian
writer, author of Storia Veneziana (1605).
Pascal, Blaise (b. 1623, d. 1662), French
philosopher and mathematician ; wrote a
treatise on conic sections at sixteen, and
soon after invented a calculating machine ;
strongly opposed the Jesuits in his Lettres
Provinciates, his Pensees being published
after his death.
Paschal L (d. 824) was elected pope in
817, and maintained an unsuccessful contest
with two of the emperors about the imperial
right to confirm papal elections.
Paschal IL (d. 1118) was elected in 1099,
and made a compromise with the kings of
England and France on the Investiture
question. His convention with the emperor
was annulled by the Lateran Synod in 1112.
Paschal IIL (d. 1168), anti-pope; set up
in 1164 against Alexander III. by the Em-
peror Frederick I.
Paskevitch, Ivan Feodorivitch (b. 1782, d.
1856), Russian general; conducted the war
against Persia in 1826, and, after defeating
the Turks, was sent to put down the Polish
rebellion, after which he was governor of
Poland till the Crimean war, when he com-
manded at the siege of Silistria.
Pasquier, Etienne Denis, Due (b. 1767, d.
1862), French statesman ; was prefect of
police under the first Empire (1810-14),
foreign minister under Louis XVIII.
(181SJ-21), and president of the Chambredes
Pairs from 183U to 18-18, being created duke
in 1844.
Passaglia, Carlo Abbe (b. 1812, d. 1887),
Italian priest ; author of a pamphlet calling
on the pope to relinquish his temporal
Eower ; was a leader of the independent
iberal party in the Italian parliament.
Passemant, Claude Simeon (b. 1702, d.
17b'9), French optician ; author of a treatise
on the construction of telescopes. He made
and presented to Louis XV. an astronomical
pendulum.
Passignano [Domenico Cresti] (d. 1638),
Italian painter of the Venetian school, most
of whose pictures are at Florence.
Passy, Hippolyte (b. 1793,^. 1880), French
statesman, minister of commerce in 1836,
and of finance 1839-40 and 1848-9.
Pasta, Giuditta (b. 1798, d. 1865), Italian
operatic singer of Jewish descent ; made her
first successful appearance in 1820, and re-
tired in 1840.
Pasteur, Louis (b. 1822), French chemist,
born at Dole ; was appointed in 1863 pro-
fessor of geology, physics, and chemistry at
the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, having been
awarded in 1856 the Rumford Medal of the
Royal Society for his researches on the
polarisation of light. In 1874 he was
awarded by the National Assembly an
annuity of 12,000 francs for his investiga-
tions on fermentation, and succeeded to the
chair of Littre in the Academic in 1882. He
afterwards devoted himself to the cure of
hydrophobia by inoculation, and treated
patients from all parts of the world.
Pastoret, Claude, Marquis de (b. 1756, d.
1840), politician and lawyer ; was procureur-
general in 1791, and became president of the
Legislative Assembly ; as member of the
Council of Five Hundred opposed the
Directory, and after the restoration became
minister of state, and was ennobled. He
was author of numerous works.
Patel, Pierre (b. 1654, d. 1703), landscape-
painter, the Claude of France ; was killed in
a duel.
Pater, Walter (6. 1839), English writer;
became fellow of Brasenose in 1865, and
published The Renaissance, Marius the
Epicurean (1885), Imaginary Portraits,
and Appreciations, with an essay on Style
(1889).
Paterculnfl. [See Velleius.]
Paterson, William (b. 1658, d. 1719).
Scotch speculator, projector of the Darien
Fat
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Pan
scheme (1794), in the same year propounded
a scheme for the establishment of a National
Bank.
Patey, Janet Monach, Madame (b. 1842),
English contralto (nee Whytock), made her
debut at Birmingham, and joined the Leslie
choir ; was presented with a medal for her
rendering of O Rest in the Lord, by the
Paris Conservatoire in 1875. She also made
successful tours in America and Australia.
Patin, Gui (b. 1602, d. 1672), French
physician, whose published letters are
valuable as a picture of the times.
Fatmore, Coventry Kearsey Deighton (b.
1823), poet; was assistant-librarian at the
British Museum from 1846 to 1868. His
chief works are The Angel in the House and
The Unknown Eros.
Paton, Sir Joseph Noel, U.S.A. (b. 1821),
artist, born at Diinfermline ; first exhibited
at the Scottish Academy in 1844, and won
prizes at the Westminster cartoon exhibitions
in the following years. The Quarrel of
Oberon and Titania was bought for the
Scottish National Gallery, as was also its
companion picture, The Reconciliation, and
the chief of his other pictures are The
Pursuit of Pleasure (1855), Dawn : Luther
at Erfurt (1861), and faith and Reason
(1871).
Paton, Walter Hugh, U.S.A., R.S.W. (b.
1828), Pre-Raphaelite painter, his chief
pictures being Slochd-a-Chrommain (a scene
in Arran), Home from the Pincian Hill, and
Holyrood Palace and Edinburgh from the
Queen's Park (by royal command).
Patrick, Saint (b. 374, d. 464), patron
saint of Ireland, whither he came from
Scotland, where he was born, in 433.
Patrin, Eugene Melchior (b. 1742, d. 1815),
French geologist ; investigated the structure
of the Ural Mountains, and published
Histoire Naturelle des Mineraux.
Patrizzi, Francesco (b. 1529, d. 1597),
Italian philosopher; author of La Nuova
Mlosojfa delle cose Universe.
Pattespn, Sir John (b. 1790, d. 1861),
English judge ; after being fellow of King's
College, Cambridge, was called to the bar in
1821, and practised on the northern circuit.
He was appointed judge of the King's
Bench in 1830, and retired in 1852 on account
of his deafness.
Pat/teson, John Coleridge (b. 1827, £1871),
missionary. After being fellow of Merton,
was appointed Bishop of Melanesia in 1861,
but ten years later was murdered by the
natives.
Patti, Adelina (b. 1843), operatic singer,
NN'2
was born at Madrid, appeared at New York
as Lucia in 1859, and at Covent Garden in
1861 in that and other parts. In 1864 she
sang as Margherita, and in 1867 as
Juliet, and subsequently took part in suc-
cessive Handel festivals, and appeared in
Continental cities. She married Signor
Niccolini in 1886, having been divorced from
the Marquis de Caux. Her sister, CAE-
LOTTA, died in 1889.
Mark (b. 1813, d. 1884), scholar
and divine; became fellow of Lincoln
College, Oxford, in 1839, and rector in 1861.
He was at first a follower of Newman, but
afterwards contributed to Essays and Revieivs,
and became an active university reformer.
His chief works were Life of Casaubon (1875),
Milton in " The Men of Letters " series, and
an edition of Pope's works.
Patton, Francis Landey, D.D. (b. 1843),
American Presbyterian divine, born in Ber-
muda ; while professor at Chicago prose-
cuted Professor David Swing for heterodoxy,
and afterwards held the Stuart professorship
of the relation of philosophy and science
to Christianity, at Princeton, New Jersey,
becoming president of the college in 1888.
He is author of A Summary of Christian
Doctrine, and other works.
Paul [See Vincent de Paul.]
Paul, the Tsar (b. 1754, d. 1801), succeeded
Catherine II. in 1796, joined the con-
federacy of sovereigns against the French
republic, but afterwards became deranged,
and. having committed many cruel acts, was
assassinated.
Paul, Saint, was beheaded at Rome about
the year 64.
Paul of the Cross, Saint [Francesco Danei]
(b. 1694, d. 1775), founded the Passionist
order in 1741.
Paul the Silentiary, wrote a poem, On th*
Pythian Baths, in the reign of Justinian.
Paul I. (d. 767) was elected Pope of Rome
in 757.
Paul H. (b. 1418, d. 1471) was elected in
1464, and preached a crusade against the
Turks. Printing was introduced at Rome
during his pontificate.
Paul IIL [See Alessandro Farnese.]
PatU IV. [Caraffa] (b. 1476, d. 1559),
elected in 1555; opposed the Spanish, but
was coerced into alliance by the Duke of
Alva.
Paul V. [Borghesel (b. 1552, d. 1621),
elected in 1605 ; quarrelled with Venice about
criminal jurisdiction over the clergy, but waa
a munificent patron.
Pan
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Pea
'Paula, Saiut (b. 317, d. 404), Roman lady,
founded the monastery of Bethlehem.
Paulding, James Kirke (b. 1779, d. 1860),
American writer, friend of Washington
Irving, with whom he published tialmagutuii;
also wrote Tim Jjutchmai^s f'irestde, and
other novels.
Paulet. [See Winchester, Marquis of.]
Pauli, Keinhold (b. 1823, d. 1882), German
historian ; came to England in 1847 as
secretary to Bunsen, and afterwards held
professorships in Gbttingen and other
universities ; wrote Life of King Alfred, a
monograph on Simon de Montfort, and a
continuation of Lappenberg's History of
England, etc.
Paulinus, Saint (d. 644), accompanied
Edwin to Northumbria and converted him ;
was consecrated Archbishop of York in 622.
Paulus -ffigineta (4th century), Greek
physician, an edition of whose works was
printed at Venice in 1553.
Paulus, JEmilius, Roman consul ; was de-
feated and slain at Cannae (216 B.C.), by
HannibaL
Paulus, JEmilius (d. 160 B.C.), his son,
conquered Macedonia (168 B.C.).
Pausaniaa (d. 467 B.C.), Lacedsemonian
leader ; commanded the Greeks at Platgea,
but afterwards intrigued with Xerxes, and
died of hunger in the sanctuary to which he
had fled.
Pausanias (/. 174), Greek geographer;
author of Accurata Gr&cia JJescriptio, which
was printed in 1516.
Pausias of Sicyon (Jl. 350 B.C.), Greek
painter, many of whose pictures were col-
lected at Rome.
Pauthier, Jean Guillaume (b. 1801, d.
1873), French Orientalist; author of Dei
Quatres Livres de Philosophic Morale et
Politiquedes Chinois (1841), and editions of
Confucius and Marco Polo's Travels (1865).
Pauw, Cornelius de (*. 1739, d. 1799),
Dutch writer, Canon of Cleves, whose chief
work was Recherches Philosuphiques sur lea
Grecs, let Americains, lei Egyptien*, et les
Chinois.
Paxton, Sir Joseph (*. 1803, d. 1865), Eng-
lish horticulturist and architect, designed the
building for the Exhibition of 1851, after-
wards the Crystal Palace. He represented
Coventry from 1854 till his death.
_ Payn, James (b. 1830), novelist; edited
for some years Chambers' :s Journal, in which
appeared Lost Sir Massingberd, He after-
wards edited the Cornhill Magazine, and
published numerous novels, among which
were The Cly/ards ofCly/e, Eu Proxy (1878),
The Luck of the JjarreUs, Tt* Heir of the
Ages, The Murnt Million, etc.
Payne, John Howard (b. 1792, d. 1852),
American actor and dramatist ; wrote for
the press at thirteen, and appeared on the
stage at sixteen ; made his debut at Drury
Lane in 1812 when twenty, and composed
a number of pieces, in one of which the air
Home, Sweet Koine was first heard. He died
as consul at Tunis.
Pazzi, The, a Florentine family, were the
rivals of the Medici, against whom they
formed the conspiracy of 1478.
Peabody, George (b. 1795, d. 1869), philan-
thropist ; having made a fortune as a dry-
goodsman in America, came to England and
established a banking business in London in
1843. Besides giving half-a-million to be
invested for the London poor, he assisted
with funds Dr. Kane's Arctic expedition,
and founded and endowed many institutions
at Baltimore and other places in the United
States.
Peacock, Sir Barnes (b. 1810, d. 1890),
judge ; became Queen's Counsel in 1850,
and chief justice of the Supreme Court
of Calcutta in 1859, on his resignation of
which post he was sworn of the Privy
Council, and in 1872 became a member of
the judicial committee.
Peacock, Edward, F.S.A. (b. 1831), an-
tiquary ; author of Ralph Skirlaugh, and
other works, and editor of Army List of
Roundheads and Cavaliers, and several
similar publications.
Peacock, Thomas Love (*. 1785, d. 1866),
novelist and poet, friend of Shelley, and
author of Headlong Hall, and other novels,
Rhododaphne, and other volumes of verse,
etc.
Pearce, Zachary (b. 1690, d. 1774), divine,
Dean of Winchester, Bishop of Bangor and
Rochester successively ; published an edition
of Longinus, and left a donation to the
Bromley Widows of Clergy College.
Pears, Edwin (b. 1835), barrister : while
practising at the Constantinople bar, first
called attention in the Daily News to the
Bulgarian atrocities of 1876.
Pearse, Mark Guy (6. 1842), Wesleyan
minister : published in 1874 Dan'l Quorm
and his Religious Notions.
Pearson, Sir Charles John (b. 1843), law,
yer ; was called to the bar in 1870, became
Solicitor- General for Scotland, and member
of Parliament for Edinburgh and St.
Andrews in 1890, and Lord Advocate in 189 L
Pea
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Fee
Pearson, John, D.D. (*. 1612, d. 1686),
became Bishop of Chester in 1673, having
previously been master of Trinity College,
Cambridge. His Exposition of the Creed
appeared in 1659.
Pearson, John Loughborough, E.A.,
architect, designed Truro cathedral, Bris-
bane cathedral, Holy Trinity church, West-
minster, and restored several ecclesiastical
and collegiate buildings.
PeccMa, Carlo (b. 1715, d. 1784), Italian
writer ; author of Storia Civile e Politico, del
Regno di Napoli.
Peck, Key. Francis (b. 1692, d. 1743),
English antiquary; author of Desiderata
Cunosa, Memoirs of Oliver Cromwell, etc.
Peckiiam, John, D.D. (b. 1292), Arch-
bishop of Canterbury (1278-92); reformed
abuses and encouraged learning, but per-
secuted the Jews.
Pecock, Reginald (d. 1460), divine, Bishop
successively of St. Asaph and Chichester ;
was deprived and imprisoned for a book
denying the Real Presence.
Pecquet, Jean (^.1674), French physician;
author of Experimenta No-va Anatomica;
discovered the thoracic duct and the re-
ceptacle of the chyle.
Pedro the Cruel (b. 1334, d. 1369), King
of Castile : succeeded Alfonso XI., and
governed with great cruelty. He was sup-
ported by the Black Prince against his
brother, Henry of Trastamare, by whom he
was eventually slain.
Pedro III., of Aragon (b. 1239, d. 1285) ;
claimed Sicily in right of his wife, and ex-
cited the conspiracy against the adherents
of Charles of Aragon, which led to the
massacre called the Sicilian Vespers (1282).
Pedro IV. (b. 1317, d. 1387), defeated the
Moors and Genoese, and founded the Uni-
versity of Huesca.
Pedro L, " the Severe," King of Portugal
(b. 1320, d. 1367), succeeded Alfonso IV. in
1257, and married Inez de Castro.
Pedro H. (b. 1648, d. 1706), became
regent in 1668 and king in 1683 in suc-
cession to Alfonso VI.
Pedro HI. (d. 1786) succeeded with Maria
Isabella in 1777.
Pedro IV. (b. 1798, d. 1834), succeeded
John VI. in 1826, but abdicated two months
later in favour of his daughter, Dona Maria
da Gloria. He was Emperor of Brazil from
1&22 till 1831, when he abdicated in con-
sequence of a revolution.
Pedro V. (b. 1837, d. 1861) succeeded Dona
Maria in 1853.
Pedro L, Emperor of Brazil. [See Pedro
IV. of Portugal.]
Pedro IL (b. 1825) assumed the govern-
ment in 1840, and was crowned in the
following year ; commanded the army in
the war with Paraguay in 1865-70, issued
decrees against the slave trade in 1850 and
1871, and encouraged European colonisa-
tion, but after his return from a visit to
Europe in 1887 was deposed, and retired to
France.
Peel, Sir Robert, Bart. (b. 1750, d. 1830),
cotton manufacturer ; supported Pitt in
Parliament, and was created a baronet in
1801. His son, GENEBAL JONATHAN PEEI.
(6. 1799, d. 1879), a member of Parliament
for many years, was Secretary-at-War
under Lord Derby 1858-9, and again in
1866-7.
Peel, Sir Robert, Bart. (b. 1788, d. 1850),
statesman, eldest son of the first baronet ;
was named under -secretary for the Colonies
immediately on his entering Parliament in
1811, and was Irish Secretary from 1812 to
1818. In the following year he was chair-
man of the Bank Committee, and in 1822
was appointed to the Home Office, becoming
leader in the Commons on the death of
Canning (1827). As such he introduced
the Catholic Emancipation and Police Bills,
and lost his seat for Oxford University in
consequence of the former. After the Re-
form Bill he reconstructed his party, modern
Conservatism dating from his Tamworth
Manifesto (1834). He now held office a few
months, and was finally Prime Minister from
1841 to 1846, when his desertion of Pro-
tection cost him the support of the majority
of his followers. He died from the con-
sequences of a fall from his horse on Con-
stitution Hill.
Peel, Right Hon. Sir Robert, G.C.B. (b.
1822), third baronet; retired from the
diplomatic service in 1850, and having en-
tered Parliament, was a lord of the Ad-
miralty from 1855 to 1857. and Chief Sec-
retary for Ireland from 1861 till 1865. He
sat for Tamworth from 1850 till 1880, for
Huntingdon in 1884-5, and for Blackburn
in 1885-6. He was an unsuccessful Home
Rule candidate at the general election of
1886, and in October, 1888.
Peel, Right Hon. Arthur Wellesley, D.C.L.
(b. 1829), youngest brother of the last-named,
was elected as a Liberal for Warwick in
1865, became secretary to the Poor Law
Board in 1868, secretary to the Board of
Trade in 1871. secretary to the Treasury in
1873, and under-secretary for the Home
Department in 1880. In 1884 he was elected
Speaker.
Pee
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Pern
Peel, Right Hon. Sir Frederick, K.C.M.G.
(b. 1823), another brother ; was called to
the bar, and elected as a Liberal for Leo-
minster in 1849, aiid sat for Bury from 1852
to 1857 aiid from 1859 to 1865. He was
under-secretary for the Colonies 1851-2,
and again in the Coalition Ministry, under-
secretary for war 1855-7, and secretary to
the Treasury 1860-5. He was president of
the Railway Commission first appointed in
1873.
Peel, Sir William (*. 1824, d. 1858),
another brother ; served in the Naval
Brigade at Sebastopol, and was severely
wounded at the relief of Lucknow, soon
after which he din d.
Peele, George (b. circa 1558, d. 1598),
poet; wrote David and Ilethsabe, and
several other plays, as well as a Chronicle
of Edward I.
Peile, John, Litt. D. (b. 1838), philologist ;
senior classic and Chancellor's medallist at
Cambridge, was elected fellow of Christ's
College in 1860, and became master of the
College in 1887. In 1884 he was named
reader in philology, having brought out a
primer of that science in 1875.
Peisistratus (b. 612 B.C., d. 527), Tyrant
of Athens, was twice expelled, but regained
and transmitted his power, ruling well, and
encouraging public works.
Pekah, King of Israel, reigned B.C.
759-739.
Pekaniali, King of Israel, reigned B.C.
761-759.
Pelagius (oth century), British monk,
whose name was MOEGAN, opposed the
Augustinian doctrine of original sin, and
founded a sect at Rome.
Pelagius I., Pope (d. 560), was elected in
555.
Pelagius n. (d. 590), elected in 578.
Pelet, Jean Germain, Baron de (b. 1779,
<f. 1858), French general and writer, author
of several military works, served in the
Napoleonic wars, and in 1848 was made
B-esident of the Committee of National
efence.
Pelliam, [See Newcastle.]
Pelham, Henry (6. 1696, d. 1754), English
statesman ; was Secretary-at-War under Sir
E. Walpole (1724-30), but afterwards in-
trigued against him; was Prime Minister
from 1744 till his death, and reduced the
interest on the National Debt.
PeUiam, Henry Francis (b, 1846), his-
torian, eldest son of the Bishop of Norwich;
became fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, in
1869 ; reader in ancient history 1887 ; and
Camden professor in
Pelissier, Amable Jean, Due de Malakoff
(b. 1794, d. 1864), Marshal of France;
served in Spain, the Morea, and Algeria,
and gained notoriety by his having ordered
the suffocation of .500 Arabs in a cave in
1846. In May, 1855, he succeeded to the
command of the French forces in the Crimea,
and took the Malakoff tower. He was
afterwards governor of Algeria.
Pell, John (6. 1610, d. 1685), English
mathematician and divine, friend of New-
ton ; wrote several mathematical works, and
left a number of manuscripts now in the
British Museum.
Pellegrini, Carlo (*. 1838, d. 1889), cari-
caturist, drew as "Ape" for Vanity Pair.
PellegTino. [See Tibaldi.]
Pellerin, Joseph (b. 1684, d. 1782), French
numismatist, whose collection of medals was
bought by Louis XVI. for £12,000.
Pellew. [See Exmouth, Lord.]
Pellico, Silvio (6. 1788, d. 1854), Italian
writer, author of some tragedies ; was im-
prisoned by the Austrian government from
1820 to 1830, and wrote Le mie Prigioni
(1832), an account of his life in the prison
of Spielberg.
Pellison-Fontanler (b. 1624, d. 1693),
French historian ; author of Histoire de
V Academic Fran$aise, to which he was
elected, though there was no vacancy,
Histoire de Louis XIV. and other works.
Pelly, Lieutenant- General Sir Lewis,
K.C.B. (b. 1825, d. 1892), English adminis-
trator ; served with Jacob as political secre-
tary and interpreter in the Persian expedition
of 1857, and was entrusted with several mis-
sions to Persia, Afghanistan, Beloochistan,
and Arabia, finally becoming envoy-extra-
ordinary and plenipotentiary for foreign
affairs. He published several pamphlets,
and entered Parliament as a Conservative
for Hackney in 1885.
Pelopidas (d. 364 B.C.), Theban general,
expelled the Spartans from his city in 379
B.C., shared in the victories of Epaminondaa
and was killed after his victory at Cyno-
cephalffl.
Peltier, Jean Gabriel (d. 1825), French
journalist ; published Actes des Ap6tres
(1789-91), and having taken refuge in
England was in 1803 convicted of libel
against Bonaparte, his counsel being Sir J.
Mackintosh.
Pemberton, Sir Francis (b. 1625, d. 1697),
English judge ; was appointed judge of
Fern
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Pep
King's Bench in 1679, but removed soon
after. In 1 68 1 he became Lord Chief Justice,
and as such condemned Fitzharris and Arch-
bishop Plunket, but was two years later
transferred for political reasons to the Com-
mon Pleas. He presided at the trial of
Russell and Sydney, but was dismissed for
his moderation, and was afterwards counsel
for the seven bishops and for Sir John
Fen wick.
Pemberton, Henry (b. 1694, d. 1771),
physician ; pupil of Boerhaave, and pro-
lessor at Gresham College. His chief work
was A View of Sir Isaac Newton't Phi-
losophy.
Pembroke, Richard de Clare, Earl of
[Strongbow] (d. 1176), assisted Dermot
MacMurrough to regain Leinster, and after
taking Dublin succeeded him. In 1171 he
surrendered his kingdom to Henry IL , re-
ceiving it back in fee, and accompanied him
to Ireland.
Pembroke, Thomas Herbert, Earl of (d.
1733), was Lord Privy Seal, president of
the Council twice, and seven times Lord
Justice under William III., besides having
been plenipotentiary at Ryswick and a com-
missioner for the union with Scotland. He
was also the friend and protector of Locke.
Pembroke, William Herbert, Earl of (d.
1570), married a sister of Catherine Parr,
and was one of the executors of Henry VIII.;
was created earl by Edward VI. as a zealous
Protestant ; supported Northumberland, but
afterwards joined Queen Mary, and com-
manded the English at St. Quentin; was
banished by Elizabeth for implication in the
schemes of Norfolk and Arundel.
Pembroke, William Marshall, Earl of
(d. 1219), married the daughter of Strong-
bow ; supported King John, and as regent
during the minority of Henry TTT. defeated
Louis of France.
Penda (d. 655), King of Mercia, the last
supporter of paganism among the Anglo-
Saxons ; defeated and slew Eadwine at
Heathfield (633), and Oswald at Maserfeld
(644>, but was himself killed in battle with
Oswi at Winwoed.
Penn, William (*. 1644, d. 1718), founder
of Pennsylvania, was son of Sir W. Penn,
who, with Venables, took Jamaica. He bo-
came a Quaker while at Oxford, and was
several times imprisoned for his writings.
In 1682 he embarked for the colony of the
New Netherlands, which had been granted
him by Charles IL, and founded Phila-
delphia, but died in England, having been
in great favour at court under James II.
Pennant, Thomas (b. 1726, d. 1798),
naturalist and antiquary ; was friend arid
correspondent of White of Selborne, and
author of A History of Quadrupeds, History
of London , a series of Tours, etc.
Pennell, Henry Cholmondeley (b. 183S),
ichthyologist and writer, son of Sir Charles
Pennell, who originated the present system
of manning the navy ; was appointed in-
spector of nsheries in 1866, and was after-
wards director-general of commerce in
Egypt. Among his works are The Modern
Practical Angler, Salmon and Trout, etc.,
and Puck on Pegasus (1861), and other
poetical works.
Penni, Gian Francesco, " H Fattore " (b.
1488, d. 1528), Florentine painter ; originally
steward (fattore) of Raffaelle, afterwards
assisted him in painting, and, as co-heir
with Giulio Romano, finished some of his
works.
Penry, John (b. 1559, d. 1593), Puritan
writer, author of the Martin Marprelate
tracts, was executed for sedition in 1593.
Penzance, Right Hon. James Wilde, Lord
(b. 1816), judge ; was called to the bar and
went the northern circuit, became Queen's
Counsel in 1855, Baron of the Exchequer in
1860, and was a judge of the Probate and
Divorce Court from 1863 to 1872. _ He was
created a peer in 1869, and in 1875 was ap-
pointed Dean of Arches under the Public
Worship Regulation Act.
Pepagoraenus, Demetrius (A. circa 1280),
Greek writer, author of a work on gout.
Pepe, Guglielimo, Baron (b. 1783, d. 1855),
Neapolitan general ; extorted a constitution
from Ferdinand of Naples in 1820, but was
expelled the country by the Austriaus, and
lived in England and Spain until 1848, when
he commanded the Neapolitan contingent
which helped to defend Venice. After the
capitulation he lived chiefly in Paris, and
wrote his Memoirs. His brother, FLOEESTAN
(d. 1851), commanded the Italian Legion
under Napoleon, and for a time held Naples
against Ferdinand.
Pepin d'Heristal (d. 714), father of
Charles Martel, became King of Austrasia
in 687, and as Mayor of the Palace under
the Merwings ruled the Franks from 687 to
his death.
Pepin le Bref (b. 714, d. 768), King of the
Franks and father of Charlemagne, deposed
ChildericIII., and founded the Carlovingian
dynasty (752), and afterwards, by helping
Stephen III. against the Lombards, founded
the temporal power of the popes.
Pepper, John Henry (b. 1821), analytical
chemist, was for several years public analyst
at Brisbane ; improved Henry Dirck's rougk
Pep
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Per
model, which became known as "Pepper's
Ghost."
Pepusch, Johann Christoph (d. 1752),
German musician, author of a Treatise on
Harmony ; came to England, where he took
the degree of Mus.Doc. at Oxford, and be-
came organist to the Charterhouse.
Pepys, Sir W. [See Cottenham.]
Pepys, Samuel (b. 1632, d. 1703), secretary
to the Admiralty under Charles II., and
author of an extremely interesting and
valuable Diary, which was published by
Lord Braybrooke in 1825 from the MS. at
Magdalen College, Cambridge. He was
president of the Royal Society.
Peranda, Santo (b. 1566, d. 1638), Vene-
tian painter, whose chief work, The Descent
from the Cross, is in the church of San
Procolo.
Perceval, Right Hon. Spencer (b. 1762, d.
1812), English statesman, second son of the
Earl of Egmont; was Attorney- General
under Addington and in Pitt' a last ministry,
and, in consequence of a speech he delivered
against Lord Grenville's proposal to allow
Romanists to hold commissions in the Eng-
lish army, was appointed Chancellor of the
Exchequer in the Portland ministry. In
1809 he became Premier, and carried the
Regency Bill in 1811, but next year was
shot by a Liverpool broker named Belling-
ham in the lobby.
Percival, Rev. John, LL.D. (b. circa
1835), educationalist; was fellow of Queen's
College, Oxford, from 1858 to 1862, pre-
sident of Trinity from 1878 to 1887, when
he became head-master of Rugby, having
also been first head of Clifton College
(1862-78). He took chief part in the foun-
dation of University College, Bristol, and
published The Connection of the Universities
with the Great Totems, etc.
Percival, Thomas, M.D. (b. 1740, d. 1804),
physician, author of Medical Ethics, etc.,
and founder of the Manchester Philosophical
Society.
Percy, Sir Henry (b. 1364, d. 1403), son
of the first Earl of Northumberland, was
called HOTSPUB, and was killed at the
battle of Shrewsbury. [See Northumber-
land, Earls of.]
Percy, Thomas (b. 1729, d. 1811), divine,
successively Dean of Carlisle and Bishop of
Dromore, collected and published Reliques
of Ancient Poetry.
Perdiccas (d. 321 B.C.), Macedonian
general, lieutenant of Alexander, and regent
for his successor; was assassinated by his
soldiers.
Per&ixe, Hardouin de Beaumont de (b.
1605, d. 1670), Archbishop of Paris and
tutor of Louis XIV. ; published Hmtoire du
Roy Henri le Gratul, and other works.
Pereira, or Pereire, Jacob Rodriguez (b.
1716, d. 1780), Spanish Jew, who opened a
school for deaf mutes at Rochelle ; was
pensioned by Louis XV. , and elected mem-
ber of the Royal Society. His grandsons,
JACOB ISMTLK (d. 1875) and ISAAC, estab-
lished the Credit Mobilier in 1852,
Pereira, Nuiio Alvarez (b. 1360, d. 1431),
" the Portuguese Cid " ; as constable under
Jpao I. defeated the Spaniards in 1385, and
died in the Carmelite Convent at Lisbon.
Pereira de Fignieiredo, Antonio (b. 1725,
d. 1797), theologian; author of Doctrina
veteris Ecclesice de Suprema Regis etiam in
Clericos Potestate (1765).
Perez, Antonio (b. 1539, d. 1611), Spanish
statesman, for many years secretary of state
under Philip II., intrigued with his mistress,
the Princess d'Eboli, and, having been
condemned to death, escaped to England
in 1591.
Perez Galdos, Benitp (b. 1845), novelist,
born at Las Palmas in the Canaries, his
chief works being La Fontana de Oro (1871),
El Terror de 1824 (1877), Dona Perfecta,
Gloria, etc., the last two of which have
been translated into English. In 1890 he
published La Jjtcognita and Prealidad.
Pergolese, Giambattista (b. 1710, d. 1736),
Italian composer, whose best works were
his Stabat Mater, and the opera La Servo
Padrona.
Peri, Giacomo (16th century), Florentine
composer, whose chief works were Dafn*
(1594), and LaMorte di Euridice (1600).
Periander (b. 665 B.C., d. 585), succeeded
Cypselus as Tyrant of Corinth.
Pericles (b. 499 B.C., d. 429), Athenian
statesman ; made important modifications in
the constitution in the democratic direction
about 460 B. c. ; fortified the city, and beauti-
fied it with the Parthenon, the Odeon, and
the Propylaca; patronised Sophocles, Eu-
ripides, and Pheidias, and planned an
Athenian empire by making the allies sub-
jects, the result being the Peloponnesian
war, in the third year of which he died of
the plague.
Perier, Casimir. {See Casimir Perier.]
Peringskjold, Johan (b. 1654, d. 1720),
Swedish historian, author of Heimskringla,
sive Historiae Regum Septentrionalium, etc.
Perizonius, Jacobus (6. 1651, d. 1715),
Dutch philologist, author of Origines Baby*
lonicce et ^Egyptiaca, etc.
Per
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Pet
Perkin, William Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S.
(b. 1838), English chemist; after acting as
assistant to Hofmann, discovered "aniline
purple," or mauve, and established with his
father a manufactory at Greeuford Green,
Middlesex, where it was "first made in 1857.
He made several other chemical discoveries
and improvements, and was president of the
Chemical Society in 1883.
Perkins, Elisha (d. 1799), American phy-
sician ; believed that he could cure gout and
other diseases by metallic tractors, but tried
the remedy on himself with fatal conse-
quences.
Peron, Franqois (b. 1775, d. 1810), French
naturalist, whose Voyage de Dicouvertes aux
Terres Austr ales pendant lesAnnees 1800-1804
was published after his death.
Perouse. [See La Perouse.]
Perowne, John James Stewart, D.D. (b.
1824), English divine, was born in Bengal,
and, after a distinguished career at Cam-
bridge, was elected fellow of Corpus Christi
College in 1849. He was vice-principal of
St. David's, Lampeter, from 1862 to 1872,
and was elected Hulsean professor at Cam-
bridge in 1875. Having previously been
Canon of Llandaff, he became Dean of
Peterborough in 1878, and in 1890 Bishop of
Worcester. He was a member of the Old
Testament Revision Company, and also of
the commission on Ecclesiastical Courts, and
published Critical Translations of the Psalms
and other works.
Pexrault, Charles (b. 1628, d. 1703),
French writer, whose Parallele des Anciens
et des Modernes (1698) gave rise to a famous
literary controversy; also wrote Contes
des Fees, etc. His brother, CLAUDE (b.
1613, d, 1688), built the colonnade of the
Louvre.
Perrenet de Granvelle, Antoine de (6.
1517, d. 1586), Spanish statesman, of French
birth ; became Bishop of Arras in 1538, and
in 1540 succeeded his father as chief minister
of Charles V., the marriage of whose son
with Mary of England he negotiated ; was
created Archbishop of Mechlin in 1560, and
cardinal in 1561, and was the chief adviser
of Margaret of Parma in the Netherlands
till compelled by the Gueux to retire. His
Papier s d'Etat were published in 1841.
Perrot, Sir John (d. 1592), probably a
natural son of Henry VIII., was imprisoned
by Mary for harbouring Protestants; was
sent to Ireland as president of Munster in
1572, and became lord deputy in 1583, but
was tried for high treason on his return,
and died in the Tower.
Perry, James (b. 1756, d. 1821), journalist,
friend of Campbell and Lamb, edited the
Morning Chronicle, for an article in which
he was tried for libel but acquitted.
Perry, John (d. 1733), engineer, employed
by Peter the Great ; published The State of
Russia under the Present Czar.
Perry, John, D.Sc., F.R.S. (b. 1850), elec-
trician, professor of mechanical engineering
at the Fmsbury Technical College, was born
in Ireland, and graduated at the Queen's
University ; was in Japan as joint professor
of engineering from 1875 to 1879, and gained
the silver medal of the Society of Arts for
his lecture on The Future ^Development of
Electrical Appliances. With Professor
Ayrton he published papers on Electrolytic
Polarisation and other su bj ects. Has written
also a manual of Practical Mechanics.
Persia, Nasr-ed-Deen, Shah of (b. 1829),
succeeded Muhammad Shah in 1848, but
not without bloodshed; after the war of
1856-7 became friendly to England, which
he visited in 1873 and 1889, and introduced
into his country many European improve-
ments.
Persigny, Jean Gilbert Victor Fialin, Duo
de (b. 1808, d. 1872), French statesman,
prominent in the coup d' etdt, was twice
minister of the interior under Napoleon HI.,
but resigned in 1863 on account of the mea-
sures against the press ; was also ambassador
in England between 1855 and 1860.
Persius Flaccus (b. 34, d. 62), Roman
satiric poet, friend of Lucan and Seneca.
Pertinax, Helvius (b. 126, d. 193), was
made Emperor of Rome in 193, but assas-
sinated two months after.
Perugino [Pietro Vannucci] (6. 1446, d.
1524), Italian painter of the Umbrian school,
kept a school at Perugia, and had Raffaelle
as a pupil.
Peruzzi, Baldassare (b. 1481, d. 1536),
painter and architect of Sienna; invented
and executed scenic paintings, helped
Raffaelle with the Farnesina, and designed
the Palazzo Massimi.
Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich (b. 1745, d.
1827), Swiss educationist; established an
institution for deserted children at Neuhof
in 1798, and afterwards as a schoolmaster at
Burgdorf and Tver dun practised his "in-
tuitive" system. His chief works were
How Gertrude Instructs her Children (1801)
and his Mother's Book (1803).
Petavius [Denis Petau] (b. 1583, d. 1652),
French Jesuit, professor of philosophy at
Bourges and of theology at Paris; was
author of Opus de Theologicis Dogmatibua.
Peter. \See Pedro.]
Peter, the wild boy, was discovered in the
Pet
(618)
Pet
forest of IL-rtswold, Hanover, in 172,3, and
died sixty years lau r.
Peter, King of the Bulgarians, led a
revolt of the Slavs against the Emperor
Isaac Angelas, but was assassinated ten
years after (11!) 6).
Peter, S.-iint, was crucified at Rome in the
y«ar Go or f>7.
Peter of Bloia (d. circa 1200), Archdeacon
of London ; was employed as a diplomatist
by Henry II., his works being published in
1519.
Peter the Hermit (d. 1115), French monk,
who preached the first crusade in 1095, and
led the crusaders to Palestine.
Peter the Lombard (d. 1164), Bishop of
Paris, whose Book of Sentences was a stan-
dard scholastic work during the middle
ages.
Peter L, Tsar of Russia [Peter the Great]
(b. 1672, d. 1725), was joint ruler with
Ivan V. from 16S2 till 1689, when he be-
came sole sovereign, visited Holland and
England to learn ship-building, and on his
return suppressed the conspiracy of the
Stretlitz (1698) ; founded St. Petersburg in
1703, and, after a defeat at Narva, won the
victory of Pultowa over Charles XII. of
Sweden in 1709. Ha added to his dominions
Esthonia, Livonia, and part of Finland, and
again visited western Europe in 1716-17.
Peter IL (b. 1715, d. 1739), grandson of
preceding, succeeded Catherine I. in 1727.
Peter III. (b. 1728, d. 1762), succeeded
the Tsarina Elizabeth in 1761 , but, having
offended both the clergy and the imperial
guards, was compelled to abdicate, and a
week after was strangled, his wife, Cathe-
rine, being at the head of the conspiracy.
Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, Earl of
(b. circa 1658, d. 1735), soldier and diploma-
tist, distinguished himself in Spain in the
Succession War, compelling the French to
raise the siege of Barcelona (1706), and was
afterwards employed as a diplomatist.
Peters, Hugh (b. 1599, d. 1660), Puritan
preacher, chaplain to Cromwell ; was hanged
as a regicide after the Restoration.
Potion, Alexander (b. 1770, d. 1818), a
mulatto, who, after being one of the leaders
in the rising of 1791, became first president
of the republic of Hayti.
Potion de VUleneuve, Jerome (6. 1753, d.
1793), French revolutionist ; acted with
Robespierre in the Constituent Assembly,
and was elected mayor of Paris in Novem-
ber, 1"91, but soon lost his popularity, and,
having joined the Girondins, was compelled
to escape from Paris, uu<l was found with
Buzot huil-dovuiacu by wolves at bt. Euii-
liou.
Petit, Hon. Sir Diushaw Manockjee (b.
, Panee philanthn ,'i.st. Having a large
fortune partly inherited and partly made
in the cotton industry, ho founded a leper
hu.-pital at Bombay amongst other charities,
and was knighted on the occasion of the
Queen's jubilee.
Petit, Jean Louis (b. 1674, d. 1750), French
surgeon ; author of Traitc de» Maladies at*
Os, and inventor of several surgical instru-
ments.
Petitot, Jean (b. 1607, d. 1691), Genevese
enamel painter, employed by Charles I. and
Charles II. and by Louis XIV. ; was impri-
soned after the revocation of the Edict of
Nantes.
Petofy, Sandor (b. 1823, d. 1849), Hun-
garian poet, whose poems were published ia
1847 ; was killed in a revolutionary combat
in the following year.
Petrarca, Francesco (b. 1304, d. 1374),
Italian poet, born at Arezzo, lived chiefly at
Avignon, but passed his later years at
Milan, Venice, and Padua, and died at
Arqua ; with Boccaccio took an active part
in the revival of learning, and was crowned
as laureate in the Capitol by Kong Robert of
Anjou in 1341. His chief works are Son-
netti, Canzoni et Trionfi (in praise of Laura,
a married lady whom he met at Avignon in
1327), and some Latin treatises.
Petre, Edward (b. 1631, d. 1699), Jesuit
priest, confessor to James H., exercised
much political influence.
Petre, Sir George Glynn, K.C.M.G., en-
tered the diplomatic service in 1846, was
plenipotentiary to the Argentine republic
1881-2, to Paraguay in the following year,
and to Portugal in 1884.
Petrie, George (b. 1790, d. 1866), archae-
ologist, directed the ordnance survey of
Ireland in 1833, and wrote treatises on
The Origin and Uses of the Round Towers,
Tara Hill, etc.
Petrie, W. M. Flinders (b. 1853), Egypt-
ologist, measured and surveyed the pyramids
and temples of Ghizeh in 1881-2, excavated
for the Egyptian Exploration Fund the
mounds of San (Zoan) in 1884, and in the
following year discovered the lost city of
Naukratis. He also made further dis-
coveries, and published, among other works,
Historical Data of the XI. J)y nasty, Ha-
wara, Brahmu, and Arsintic (1889), and a
book on Stonehenge.
Petronius Arbiter, Caius (d. 66 B.a)»
Roman writer, author of Satyricon.
Fet
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Phi
Pettie, John, E.A. (b. 1839), English
painter, born at Edinburgh ; exhibited at
first in the Scottish Academy (The Prison
Pet, etc.), but came to London in 1862, and,
having been elected A.E. A. in 1864, exhibited
at the Royal Academy The Rehearsal, The
Death Warrant, The Vigil (1884), etc., the
last of which was purchased for the Chantrey
Bequest.
Pettigrew, James Bell, F.E.S., F.E.C.P.,
etc., medical writer ; born at Eoxhill,
Lanarkshire, took the degree of M.D. at
Edinburgh in 1861, and in 1875 became
Chandos professor of medicine and anatomy
at St. Andrews. His best known work is
Animal Locomotion : or, Walking, Swimming,
*nd Flying.
Pettigrew, Thomas Joseph, M.D. (b. 1790,
rf. 1865), antiquary, author of History of
Egyptian Mummies, Bibliotheca Sussexiana,
etc.
Pettitt, Henry, dramatist, whose chief
plays are The Black Flag, In the Hanks
(with G. E. Sims), The Bells of Haslemere
\ 2 -• *- • T i • *• *^m r t • * ^
with Grundy), A Million of Money (with
Harris) . [See Sims, G. E.]
Petty. [See Lansdowne and Shelburne.]
Petty, Sir William (b. 1623, d. 1687),
politician and writer ; surveyed for Henry
Cromwell the forfeited Irish estates, was one
of the early members of the Eoyal Society,
and wrote Political Arithmetic, The Political
Anatomy of Ireland, etc.
Peyrere, Isaac la (b. 1594, d. 1676), French
writer ; was imprisoned for maintaining, in
Prce-Adamitce, the existence of a race
anterior to Adam.
Peyronnet, Charles, Comte de (b. 1778, d.
1834), statesman, minister of justice from
1821 to 1828; as minister of the interior
signed the ordinances which led to the revo-
lution of 1830, and was condemned to im-
prisonment for life, but liberated in 1836.
Pezza. [See Fra Diavolo.]
Pfeiffer, Ida (b. 1795, d. 1858), Austrian
lady, made and described two voyages
round the world (1846-48 and 1851-54). Her
Voyages were translated into English.
PhsBdon (fl. circa 400 B.C.), Greek phi-
losopher, disciple of Socrates, and founder
of the Elian school.
Phsedrus (Jl. circa 14 A.D.), Latin writer,
whose Fabula were first printed in 1596.
Pnalaris, Tyrant of Agrigentum, which
city he took about 570 B.C. His name is
known on account of his cruelty, and also
for the controversy between Bentley and
Boyle as to the genuineness of some letters
attributed to him.
Pharnabazus (Jl. 412-333 B.C.) Satrap of
the Persian Hellespontine provinces ; re-
ceived Alcibiades after .ZEgospotami, but on
the Spartan demand gave the order for his
assassination ; was captured by the Mace-
donians after the battle of Issus.
Pharnaces II., King of Pontus (d. circa
46 B.O.), son of Mithridates, after whose
death he revolted against the Eomans, his
defeat by Julius Caesar (47 B.C.) being the
occasion of the despatch, " Veni, vidi, vici"
Fheidlas (5th century B.C.), Athenian
sculptor, whose chief work was seen in the
Parthenon.
Phelps, Samuel (b. 1804, d. 1878). English
actor ; born at Devonport, made his debut
at Wakefield in 1827, and having been asso-
ciated with Macready at the Haymarket,
became the head of the stage on his retire-
ment in 1851. As manager of Sadler's Wells
(1844-62), he revived the classical drama,
and afterwards acted at Drury Lane and the
Lyceum, his best parts being Sir Peter
Teazle, Justice Shallow, and Bottom.
Phelps, Hon. William Walter (b. 1839),
American statesman ; entered Congress in
1873, was minister at Vienna 1881-2, and
after being in Congress till 1889 was then
appointed ambassador at Berlin, where he
took part in the Samoan Convention of that
year.
Pherecydes (b. 600 B.C.), Greek philo-
sopher, master of Pythagoras, is said to have
invented prosody. Another Pherecydes, who
lived earlier, wrote a History of Athens.
Philemon (b. 320 B.C.), Greek comic poet,
is said to have died of laughter.
Philip of Hohenstaufen (d. 1208), son
of Frederick Barbarossa ; when Duke of
Suabia was chosen king of Germany in 1198,
but ten years later was assassinated by Otto
of Wittelsbach.
Philip Neri, Saint (b. 1515). [See Neri.]
Philip II., King of Macedon (d. 336 B.C.),
ascended the throne in 360 B.C. ; instituted
the phalanx, made Thrace and Thessaly tri-
butary, defeated the Athenians at Chaeronea
(338), but was assassinated at -SEgae two
years later.
Philip III. [Arrhidseus], his natural eon,
succeeded Alexander in 323 B.C., but was
murdered in 317.
Philip V. (d. 178 B.C.), began to reign in
221 B.C. ; joined the Achaean League, and
allied himself with Hannibal, but was after-
wards defeated by the Eomans at Cynoce-
phalae (197 B.C.).
Philip L, "the Arabian," Emperor of
Phi
(620)
Phi
Rome, 244-249, when he was assassinated
near Verona. His son, PHTLTP II., was asso-
ciated with him, and was killed in battle
shortly after his father's death.
Philip L, King of France (*. 1052, d.
1108), was crowned at Rheiins in 105(J, and
succt'c 'It'-l Henri I. next year; was excom-
municated for divorcing Bertha and marry-
ing Bertrade de Montfort (1092).
Philip IL [Philip Augustus] (b. 1165, d.
1214), son of Louis VII., whom he succeeded
in 1180, joined Richard I. on crusade (1190),
and after his return made war on him ; won
the victory of Bouvines over the Germans
in 1214.
Philip HI., "the Hardy" (*. 1245, d.
1285), succeeded Louis IX. in 1270.
Philip IV., "the Fair" (b. 1268, d. 1314),
succeeded Philip III., married Jane of
Navarre, quarrelled with the pope and
Edward I., and suppressed the Templars.
Philip V., "the Long" (b. 1294, d. 1322),
succeeded John I. in 1316. During this reign
the Salic law was established,
Philip VL [Philip of Valois] (*. 1293, d.
1350), succeeded Charles in 1328, carried on
war with Edward III., who defeated him at
Crecy and took Calais.
Philip L, King of Spain (b. 1478, d. 1506),
eon of Mary of Burgundy, married Joanna,
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and
succeeded to the crown of Spain on the
death of the latter (1504).
PMlip IL (b. 1527, d. 1598), succeeded
upon the abdication of Charles V. in 1555.
He married (1) Isabella of Portugal, (2)
Mary of England, (3) Anne of Austria.
His reign was marked by the revolt of the
Netherlands, the annexation of Portugal
(1580), the defeat of the Turks at Lepanto
(1571), and the loss of the Armada (1588).
Philip IIL (b. 1578, d. 1621), son of the
above by his third wife. During his reign
peace was made with the Netherlands (1609),
and the Moors were expelled from Granada.
Philip IV. (b. 1605, d. 1665), succeeded
Philip II I. ; carried on war with France, and
lust Portugal in 1660.
Philip V. (b. 1683, d. 1746), grandson of
Louis XIV., who supported his claims
contrary to treaty, and thus produced the
Spanish Succession war, which broke out in
1702, and was terminated by the Treaty of
Utrecht. Philip retained Spain and the
Indies, but lost other parts of his dominions.
Philip I., " the Bold," Duke of Burgundy
'b. 1342, d. 1404), made duke by his brother,
John of France, with whom he was
captured at Portiere ; acquired great part of
the Netherlands by marriage, and became
one of the most powerful princes of hi*
time.
Philip IL, "the Good" (b. 1396, d. 1467),
grandson of the preceding ; allied himself
with Henry V. against France, but after-
wards deserted the English alliance and
besieged Calais in 1436.
Philippa of Hainault (d. 1369), married
Edward III. in 1328, defeated the Scots at
Neville's Cross, and interceded for the men
of Calais.
Philips, Ambrose (b. 1671, d. 1749), Eng-
lish poet, friend of Addison and Steele,
published in 1710 Pastorals, Epistles, Odett
and other Original Poem*.
Philips, John (b. 1676, d. 1708), poet,
whose chief works were The Splendid o'AtJ-
ling (1703), and Cider (1706).
Phillidor [Andre Daniean], French chess-
player and musician, travelled all over
Europe, and published in England hie
Analysis of Chess.
Phillimore, Sir Robert Joseph, Bart,
D.C.L. (b. 1810, d. 1885), ecclesiastical
lawyer, son of Dr. Joseph Phillimore,
Regius professor of civil law at Oxford;
was called to the bar in 1841, and was
appointed judge of the Cinque Ports in
1885. As judge of the Court of Arches
(1867-75) he heard Martin v. Mackonochie
and other celebrated cases. He was judge
of the Admiralty Court till 1883, and pub-
lished Commentaries on International Law.
Phillip, John, R.A. (*. 1817, d. 1867),
painter, whose chief subjects were drawn
from Spanish life.
Phillips, George, D.D. (*. 1804), Syriao
scholar ; was eighth wrangler in 1829,
and in 1857 became president of Queen's
College, Cambridge. His chief works are
A Syriac Grammar, Brief Treatise on the
Use of a Case of Instruments, and editions of
several Syriac texts.
Phillips, John, F.R.S. (*. 1800, d. 1874),
geologist, nephew of William Smith ; became
frof essor at Dublin in 1844 and at Oxford in
856, his chief work having been Palaeozoic
Fossils of Cornwall and West Somerset.
Phillips, Lawrence Barnett, F.R.A.S. (b.
1842), retired from the watch-making busi-
ness in 1882, and afterwards published a
Dictionary of Biographical Reference, and
exhibited etchings at the Royal Academy.
Phillips, Wendell (h. 1811, d. 1884),
American abolitionist ; made many speeches
in the anti-slavery agitation, notably one
over the grave of Brown at Harper's Ferry
PM
(621)
Pic
in 1859, and succeeded Lloyd Garrison as
president of the An ti- Slavery Society. He
was also active in the cause of temperance
and the rights of women.
Philo Judseus (1st century), Alexandrian
Jew, Platonic philosopher and writer.
Philolaus (5th century B.C.), Greek
philosopher, disciple of Pythagoras, is said
to have been the first to propound the
Copernican hypothesis.
Philopoemen (b. 252 B.C., d. 183), Achaean
feneral, the "last of the Greeks;'1 took
parta, and compelled the abolition of the
laws of Lycurgus ; was captured and
poisoned by the Messenians.
Pnilpott, Henry, D.D. (b. 1807, d. 1891),
English divine, senior wrangler in 1828,
became master of St. Catherine's College
in 1845, and Bishop of Worcester in 18(31.
He resigned in 1890.
Phillpotts, Henry, D.D. (b. 1778, d. 1869),
divine ; became Dean of Chester in 1828, and
was Bishop of Exeter from 1830 till his
death, being conspicuous as a High Church-
man, especially in his proceedings in the
Gorham case and Catholic Emancipation.
[See Normanby,
Phipps, Constantino.
Marquis of.]
Phiz. [See Browne.]
Phoeas, Emperor of the East (d. 610),
slew the Emperor Mauricius and his sons,
and was hiinself finally dethroned and
beheaded.
Phocion (d. 317 B.C.), Athenian states-
man; as head of the peace party opposed
Demosthenes, but commanded against Philip
of Macedon ; was compelled to drink hem-
lock when Polysperchon took the city.
Phonnion, as Athenian admiral in the
Peloponnesian war, won two naval victories
in the Gulf of Corinth in 429 B.C.
Photius (d. 891), Byzantine scholar;
several times Patriarch of Constantinople,
excommunicated the pope in 867, but was
finally deposed in 886. His chief work is
Myriobiblion seu Bibliotheca, consisting of
extracts from many ancient writers, with
critical remarks.
Phranza, Georgius (b. 1401), Byzantine
historian, chamberlain to several of the
Palaeologi ; after the taking of Constanti-
nople, became a monk at Corfu. His
Chronicon extends from 1260 to 1477.
Phrynichus (d. 411 B.C.), Athenian gene-
ral ; opposed the return of Alcibiades, but
afterwards joined the Oligarchic faction, and
was assassinated after an unsuccessful em-
'bassy to Sparta.
Phrynichus (6th century), Athenian
dramatist, whose works have perished.
Piatti, Alfredo (b. 1822), Italian violon-
cellist and composer ; made his first appear-
ance in London in 1844, when he played
before the Philharmonic Society.
Piazzi, Giuseppe, F.B.S. (b. 1746, d. 1826),
Italian astronomer, born in the Valteline ;
became director of the Palermo observatory
in 1787, and discovered "Ceres Ferdi-
nandea," the first known of the asteroids,
besides making two catalogues of stars
(1803 and 1814).
Heard, Jean (b. 1620), French mathema-
tician ; succeeded Gassendi in the chair of
astronomy at the College de la France, wrote
Le Menure de la Terre, etc., and originated
La Connaissance des Temps.
Piccini, Niccolo (b. 1728, d. 1800), Italian
composer, whose rivalry with Gluck at Paris
became historical. His chief works were
La Cecchina and Olimpiade.
Piccolomini, JEueas Silvius. [See Pius II.]
Piccolomini, Ottavio (b. 1599, d. 1656),
Italian general, who served Austria during
the Thirty Years' war. After his defeat at
Breiteufeld he became Spanish general-in-
chief in the Netherlands.
Pichegru, Charles (b. 1761, d. 1804),
French general ; rose from the ranks to be
general under the Republic, for wliich he
ef eated the English and conquered Holland.
When president of the Council of Five
Hundred he was sent to Cayenne for op-
position to the Directory, but escaped, and
having conspired against Bonaparte, put an
end to his life in the Temple prison.
Pickard-Cambridge, Octavius, F.R.S. (b.
1828), entomologist ; author of Spiders of
Dorset, Araneida (Scientific Results of Jar-
Jeand Mission), and Arachnida of Keryuelen
Island (Report of Transit of Venus Ex-
pedition} (1877).
Pickering, Edward Charles (b. 1846),
American astronomer ; was professor of
physics in the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology from 1868 to 1877, and became
director of the Harvard Observatory and
professor of astronomy in 1876. He pub-
lished Elements of Physical Manipulation
(1873-76), and numerous papers.
Pickering-, Percival Umfraville. F.R.S.
(b. 1858), English chemist; took honours in
natural science at Oxford, being Bracken-
bury scholar of Balliol. Among his works
are Action of Sulphuric And on Copper, The
Molecular Weights of Solids and Liquids,
The Principles of Thermo- Chemistry, Law of
the Freezing Point of Solutions, etc., etc.
Pico della. Mirandola, Giovanni (b. 1463,
Pic
(622 )
Pip
d. 141U), Italian scholar, of extraordinary
acquirements; offered to discuss nine hun-
dred theses in a variety of subjects against
all comers, but some of them having been
condemned as heretical, devoted the rest of
his life to theology. His chief works were
Conditioner 1'hiivtnpkicic (I486), and an
Apol'H/i>i (1489). His nephew (d. 1533)
wrote a Life of Saiwarolu.
Picton, Sir Thomas (b. 1758, d. 1815),
British soldier ; having been governor of
Trini-lad and Tobago, distinguished himself
in the Peninsula by the capture of Badajoz
(1811), and was killed at Waterloo when in
command of the 5th division.
Pierce, Franklin (b. 1804, d. 1869), Presi-
dent (fourteenth) of the United States ; was
elected as the Democratic candidate in 1853,
and held office till 1857. He was a supporter
of the continuance of slavery, and during
his term of office the " Ostend Manifesto "
(185-1), by which force was threatened
against Spain if she did not sell Cuba, was
issued. His life was written by his friend,
Nathaniel Hawthorne.
Pierino del Vaga [Pietro Buonacprai] (b.
1500, d. 1547), Florentine painter ; gained his
surname from the master who brought him
to Rome, where he worked with Raft'aelle in
the Vatican, and left paintings of all kinds.
Pierola, Nicolas de (b. 1839), Peruvian
general ; was impeached at the close of his
term of office as minister of finance, and
went into exile, making expeditions against
Peru in 1874 and 1877. In 1879 he returned,
and during the Chilian war was provisional
president for some months. He was an
unsuccessful candidate in 1890, and was
imprisoned for organising a riot.
Piero della Francesca. [See Francesca.]
Pietro Abano. [See Abano.]
Pigalle, Jean Baptiste (b. 1714, d. 1785),
French sculptor, whose chief works were the
mausoleum of Marshal Saxe at Strasburg,
and a statue of Voltaire at the Institut de
Paris.
Pignotti, Lorenzo (b. 1739, d. 1812), Italian
writer ; author of a History of Tuscany and
Fables.
Pilate (d. 39) was appointed governor of
Judaea in 27 ; suppressed with great severity
a rising of the Samaritans consequent on his
having taken silver from the sacred treasury
to construct an aqueduct.
Pilpay, or Bidpay, wrote in Sanscrit
(probably in the 3rd century B.C.) a collec-
tion of fables called Pantcha-Tantra, which
were subsequently translated into Persian,
Latin, French, and English.
Pinchbeck, Thomas (d. 1783), English
mechanician, gave his name to an alloy
of zinc and copper which he brought into
use.
Pindar (d. circa 442 B.C.), Theban poet,
whose Odes were first printed in 1513.
Pine, John (b. 1690, d. 1756), engraver;
executed plates of the tapestry hangings in
the House of Lords, remuneration iur which
was guaranteed him by Parliament, and
also engraved the text of Horace.
Pinel, Philippe (*. 1745, d. 1826), French
physician; introduced the modern system
of treatment of lunatics, and wrote several
works.
Pinero, Arthur Wing (b. 1855), English
dramatist and actor ; made his dlbut at
Edinburgh in 1874, and subsequently played
under Irving and the Bancrofts. His chief
plays are Tlie /Squire, The Magistrate, The
Schoolmistress, Sweet Lavender, The Profli-
gate, The Times, etc.
Pinkerton, John (b. 1758, d. 1827), Scotch
writer, whose chief work was his Collection
oj i'oyages and Travels.
Pintelli, Baccio (15th century), Italian
architect, designed the Sistine chapel and
the Vatican library.
Pinto, Alexandre da Kocha Serpa, Major
(b. 1846), Portuguese traveller, served in
the army during the Zambesi war, and in
1877-9 crossed Africa from Benguela to
Durban, describing his journey in How 1
Crossed Africa (London, 18S1).
Pinturiccio [Bernardino di Betti], Italian
painter, whose chef-d'oeuvre is the series of
frescoes in the Piccolomini library at Sienna.
In the National Gallery, London, there is a
Madonna and Child by him.
Pinzon, Martino Alonzo (d. 1493), Portu-
guese navigator ; accompanied Columbus on
his first voyage, and afterwards claimed to
have discovered the New World. VICENTB
YANEZ, his brother, was also with Columbus,
and having afterwards explored Guiana and
Mexico was ennobled.
Piombo, Sebastiano del (b. 1485, d. 1547),
Venetian painter, whose chief work, Th*
Raising of Lazarus, is in the National Gal-
lery, London.
Piozzi, Esther [Mrs.] (b. 1739, d. 1547),
English lady, friend of Dr. Johnson, married
first Mr. Thrale, and then Signor Piozzi;
her Autobiography, Letters, etc., were pub-
lished in 1861. She wrote Anecdotes of Dr.
Johnson (1786), and other works.
Piper, Karl, Count (b. 1660, d. 1716),
Swedish statesman, chief minister of Charles
Pip
(623)
i'la
XII., whom he accompanied to Russia;
was imprisoned for life after the battle of
Pultowa.
Pippi. [See Romano, Giulio.]
Piranesi, Giovanni Battista (<L 1778),
Italian engraver ; executed numerous prints
of ancient and modern buildings and works
of art, his sons and daughter following the
same profession.
Firon, Alexis (b. 1689, d. 1773), French
dramatist and wit, his chief play being
Metromanie (1738).
Pisano, Andrea. [See Andrea Pisano.]
Pisano, Niccola (b. circa 1206, d. 1278),
Italian sculptor, whose chief works are at
Pisa, Bologna, and Siena.
Pisistratus. [See Peisistratus.]
Pitman, Isaac (b. 1813), inventor of pho-
netic shorthand, published in 1837 his Steno-
graphic Soundhand. From 1843, when the
Phonetic Society was established, he gave
his whole attention to the system, the head-
quarters of which are at Bath.
Pitt, Thomas (*. 1653, d. 1727), Indian
administrator ; made a large fortune by the
•ale of the Pitt diamond and other means,
and on his return sat in the House of Com-
mons for several years. He was grandfather
of Lord Chatham.
Pitt, William. [See Chatham.]
Pitt, William (b. 1759, d. 1806), statesman,
second son of Lord Chatham ; was returned
lor Appleby in 1780 as a follower of Shel-
burne, whose Chancellor of the Exchequer
he became two years later. After the de-
feat of the Coalition Ministry, Pitt became
Prime Minister, at first in a minority. After
the dissolution of 1786, however, he had a
majority, with which he passed his India
Bill, and carried on the war with revolu-
tionary France. In 1801 he resigned on
account of the king's opposition to the
removal of Catholic disabilities, with which
Pitt had hoped to accompany the Act of
Union. From 1804 till his death Pitt was
again in office, and continued to djrect the
struggle against France.
Pittacus (d. 570 B.C.), one of the " Seven
Sages ; " ruled Melanchrus in Lesbos for
twenty years.
Pius I. was elected pope in 142, and put to
death in 157.
Pius IL [Piccolomini] (b. 1405, d. 1464),
elected in 1458 ; called a council at Mantua
to arrange a crusade against the Turks, and
had a dispute with Louis XI. concerning
appeals to a council ; left several works.
Pius IIL [Francesco Piccolomini] (*.
1439), was elected in 1503, and died tha
next mouth.
Piua IV. [Medici] (b. 1499, d. 1565),
elected in 1559, issued a bill confirming the
Council of Trent.
Pius V. [Ghislieri] (b. 1504, d. 1572),
elected in 1566, having previously been
inquisitor- general ; excommunicated Queen
Elizabeth and suppressed heresy, but also
carried out reforms, and encouraged Spain
and Venice in their war against the Turks.
Pius VLJBraschi] (b. 1717, d. 1799),
elected in 1775 ; was dethroned and expelled
from Rome by the French in 1798, and died
at Valence.
Pius VIL [Chiaramonti] (*. 1742, d. 1823),
elected in 1800, concluded a concordat with
France (1801) and crowned Napoleon, but
excommunicated him in 1809 after the cap-
ture of Rome. He was reinstated in 1814,
in which year he restored the Jesuits.
Pius VIIL [Castiglioni] (b. 1761, d. 1830),
was elected in March, 1829.
Pius EX. [Giovanni Mastai-Ferretti] (b.
1792, d. 1878), was elected in 1846, and im-
mediately granted a constitution, but re-
fused to declare war against Austria. After
the insurrection at Rome (1848) he fled to
Gaeta, but was restored by French aid two
years later. The same year he established
a Catholic hierarchy in England, and in 1854
defined the doctrine of the Immaculate Con-
ception. In 1859-60 he lost the greater part
of his dominions, but was maintained in
Rome by a French garrison. In 1870 the
Infallibility dogma was promulgated by the
oecumenical council held at Rome. In that
year, when the French left the city, it was
declared the capital of Italy, and occupied
by the troops of Victor Emmanuel.
Pizarro, Francisco (d. 1541), Spanish con-
queror of Peru ; embarked for America in
1510, and in 1530 first visited Peru. The
next year he returned, and, taking advan-
tage of a civil war, got possession of the
country, founding Lima in 1535. Six years
later he was assassinated by the friends of
Almagro, a rival whom he had caused to be
executed. His brother, GONZALO, who had
accompanied him, was put to death in 1543
for a revolt against the Spanish viceroy.
Placidia, Galla (d. 450), Roman Empress,
husband of Constantino, and mother of
Valentinian ILL
Planche", James Robinson (b. 1796, d.
1880), antiquarian and dramatist of In-
guenot descent, became Somerset herald
in 1864, and wrote a History of Bn:i*i
Costume (1834), and numerous plays and
Pla
(624)
Foe
burlesques, besides composing the libretto
for Weber's Oberon and for Bishop's Maid
Marian.
Planquette, Robert (b. 1850), French
composer, whose chief productions are Les
Cloches des CornevMe (1877), Rip Van
Winkle (1882), and Paul Jones (1889).
Planta, Joseph, a member of a well-known
Grisons family (b. 1744, d, 1827), first lib-
rarian of the British Museum, was appointed
in 1799 ; was also for twenty years secretary
to the lioyal Society. JOSEPH, son (d. 184u),
member for Hastings, Secretary to the
Treasury, and under- secretary for Foreign
Affairs.
Plantagenet, Geoffrey. [See Geoffrey.]
Plato (b. 429 B.C., d. 347), Greek philoso-
pher, whose birth name was Aristocles, be-
came a disciple of Socrates, and after his
death returned from a course of travel,
and taught gratuitously in the Academia
at Athens. His chief works are Dialogues
and The Republic (translated by Jowett in
1871).
Plautus, Titus Maccius (d. 184 B.C.),
Roman dramatist, twenty of whose comedies
are extant, based chiefly on Greek models.
Playfair, Right Hon. Sir Lyon, K.C.B.,
F.R.S., (b. 1819), chemist and statesman,
son of Dr. George Playfair ; was a pupil
of Graham and Liebig, and was profes-
sor of chemistry at Edinburgh from 1856
to 1869. He edited (with W. Gregory)
Liebig's Chemistry in its Applications to
Agriculture and Physiology. In 1868 he
entered Parliament as a Liberal for Edin-
burgh and St. Andrew's Universities, and
in 1885 was returned for South Leeds. He
was Postmaster -General in 1873-4, Deputy-
Speaker 1880-83, and Vice-President of the
Education Committee in 1886. He also
presided over the Civil Service Commission
of 1874, and was president of the British
Association in 1885. He was raised to the
peerage in 1892.
Plimsoll, Samuel (b. 1824), politician;
represented Derby from 1868 to 1880, during
which time he succeeded in getting passed
several amendments of the Shipping Laws.
Plinius Secundus [Pliny] , Caius, " the
Elder" (6. 23, d. 79), Latin writer, whose
great work is his Natural History. He was
procurator of Spain, and while commander
of the Misenian fleet lost his life through
suffocation in the great eruption of Vesuvius,
which he had approached in order to ob-
serve a cloud.
Plinius Secundus, Caius, " the Younger "
(b. 62), his nephew, author of Epistles;
was made consul by Trajan, to whom, when
he was proconsul in Bithynia, he wrote an
account of the Christians.
Plotinus (b. 203, d. 270), Greek philoso-
pher ; founder of the Neo -Platonic school.
Plowden, Edmund (b. 1517, d. 1585),
jurist, author of Commentaries or Reports.
Plumptre, Edward Hayes, D.D. (b. 1821,
d. 1 89 1 ) , divine. After having been fellow of
Brasenose and chaplain of King's College,
London, was named Dean of Wells in 1881.
He was one of the revisers of the Bible, and
wrote some poems, translations of Sophocles,
Dante, and a Life of Bishop Ken (1888).
Plunket, William Conyngham, first Baroii
(b. 1704, d. 18.34), Irish judge ; was a pro-
minent opponent of the union in Grattan'a
parliament ; prosecuted Euimett in 1803,
and became Solicitor -General for Ireland the
same year, and Attorney -General in 1805,
an office he again held uuder Lord Liver-
pool. In 1827 he became a peer and Chief
Justice of the Common Pleas, and from 1830
till 1841 was Lord Chancellor of Ireland.
Plunket, William, Lord (b. 1828), grand-
son of the above, was Bishop of Meath
from 1876 to 1884, in which year he became
Archbishop of Dublin.
Plunket, Right Hon. David Robert, Q.O.
(b. 1838), brother of the last-named; haa
been returned for Dublin University in 1870,
and was Solicitor- General for Ireland from
1874 to 1877. In both administrations of
Lord Salisbury he held the office of Chief
Commissioner of Works.
Plutarch (d. after 120), Greek writer;
author of Parallel Lives of Greeks and
Romans and Moralia.
Pococke, Richard (b. 1704, d. 1765), Bishop
successively of Ossory and Meath, and author
of Description of the East and Some Other
Countries (1743-5).
Podiebrad, Georg von (b. 1420, d. 1471),
King of Bohemia; was twice excommuni-
cated as a Hussite, set free Matthias Cor-
vinus (q.v.), and delivered the emperor when
besieged by his subjects at Vienna.
Poe, Edgar Allan (b. 1809, d. 1849),
American writer, shortened his life by in-
temperance. His chief works are The Raven
and other poems, and Tales of Mystery,
Imagination and Humour. A monument
was erected to him in Baltimore in 1875.
Poelemberg, Kornelis (b. 1586, d. 1667),
Dutch landscape-painter, born at Utrecht ;
was encouraged by Rubens and employed
by Charles I. His works are rare.
Poerio, Carlo (ft. 1803, d. 1867), Neapoli-
tan patriot ; after imprisonment for ten years
for his part in the Avellino conspiracy, he
became minister of public instruction in
Pog
( 625 )
Pol
1818. Next year he was again imprisoned,
but in 1859, when being shipped to South
America, he and his companions mastered
the crew and escaped. In 1860 he became
vice-president of the Italian Parliament.
Poggendorf, Johann Christian (b. 1796, d.
1877), physicist ; edited for more than half a
century Annalen der Physik und Chimie, and
held a professorship at Berlin and Leipzig.
Foggio Bracciolini, Gian Francesco (b.
1380, d. 1459), Italian scholar, secretary to
seven popes; wrote History of Florence,
Funeral Orations, etc., and discovered manu-
scripts of Lucretius, the institutions of Quin-
tilian, and some of Cicero's Orations.
Pogson, N. B. (b. 1829), Indian civil ser-
vant, was appointed astronomer at Madras
in 1861, and discovered ten minor planets,
four of them while in the Radcliffe obser-
vatory, Oxford.
Pole, Reginald, Cardinal (b. 1500, d. 1558),
divine, descended from George, Duke of
Clarence ; was employed by Henry VIII. in
1529 to procure a favourable opinion from
the University of Paris on the divorce
question, but afterwards became the deter-
mined enemy of the king, publishing in
1536 his De Unitate Ecclesiastics against the
separation from Home. On the accession of
Mary he returned to England as legate,
became Archbishop of Canterbury, and re-
ceived the nation back into communion,
Pole, William, Mus. Doc., F.R.S. (b.
1814), civil engineer and musician ; was
professor of civil engineering at Elphinstone
College, Bombay (1844-7), and at Uni-
versity College (1859-67), was secretary to
the Railway Commission (1865-7), that on
water supply (1867-9) and others, and pub-
lished a treatise on the steam engine, and a
Life of Siemens (1888), as well as The Story
of Mozart's Requiem (1879), and a well-
known scientific book on whist.
Polignac, Jules, Prince de (b. 1780, d.
1847), French statesman. After being am-
bassador in London (1825-9) was nominated
president of the council by Charles X. in
1829, and by his reactionary measures pro-
duced the revolution of July, after which
he was condemned to imprisonment for life,
>ut was liberated in 1836.
Poliziano [Politian], Aiigelo (b. 1454, d.
1494), Italian scholar; tutor to the children
of Lorenzo de' Medici ; gained much re-
putation by his classical attainments, and
wrote Miscellanea, comments 011 the classics,
Giostra, a poem, and Orfeo, a musical
drama. He quarrelled with Michelangelo,
Merula and Scala.
Polk, James Knox (b. 1795, d. 1849),
President (llth) of the United States ; was
oo
speaker of the House of Representatives
(1835-8) and governor of Tennessee (1839-41),
and was elected as a Democrat to the
presidency in 1844. He obtained the an-
nexation of Texas and the cession of Upper
California and New Mexico by Mexico,
as well as the settlement of the Oregon
boundary
PoUajuolo, Antonio (b. 1429, d. 1496),
Italian painter and sculptor, whose Martyr-
dom of St. Sebastian is in the National
Gallery, London ; was the first who made
dissections for the purposes of art.
Pollio, Caius Asinius (b. 76 B.O., d. A..D.
4), Roman orator and writer, whose works
are lost ; was a partisan of Caesar, and after-
wards reconciled Augustus and Antony, and
became the friend of Virgil and Horace.
Pollock, Sir Frederick, Bart. (b. 1783, d.
1870), English judge ; was senior wrangler,
and, having been called to the bar in 1807,
went the northern circuit, becoming King's
Counsel in 1827. He entered Parliament as
a Tory in 1831, and was Attorney-General
under Peel in 1834 and 1841. From 1844
to 1865 he was Chief Baron of the Ex-
chequer.
Pollock, Sir George, Bart., G.C.B., Field-
Marshal (b. 1786, d. 1872), brother of the
above ; served under Lake, and in the
Ghoorkha and Burmese campaigns, and in
1841 commanded the Afghan expedition in
relief of Sale and the prisoners at Cabul.
He returned to England in 1846, received a
pension from the East India Company, and
became subsequently field-marshal and
constable of the Tower, being buried in
"Westminster Abbey.
Pollock, Hon. Sir Charles (b. 1823), son
of Sir Frederick and nephew of Sir George ;
was called to the bar in 1847, became
Queen's Counsel in 18b6, and was appointed
Baron of the Exchequer in 1873. He pub-
lished several legal text-books.
Pollock, Sir Frederick, Bart. (b. 1845),
grandson of Sir F. Pollock, educated at
Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, of
which he was fellow ; was called to the bar
in 1871, became professor of jurisprudence
at University College, London, in 1882, and
at Oxford in 1883. His works include
The Land Laws (" English Citizen " series),
Essays in Jurisprudence and Ethics, and
Introduction to Political Science, Spinoza, etc.
Pollock, Walter Herries (*. 1850), younger
brother of last-named; became editor of
the Saturday Review in 1884, and published
Lectures on French Poets, translations from
De Musset, etc., and, in collaboration with
Besant. The Ballad- Monger, a play.
PoUok, Robert (b. 1793, d. 1827), Scotcfc
I-'ol
( 626 )
Poo
self-educated writer, son of a farmer in
Renfrewshire ; wrote The Course of Tune., a
poem in blank verse.
Polo, Marco (b. 1254, d. 1321), Venetian
traveller ; went to Tartary with his father
and uncle, returning in 1295 much enriched.
Marco was afterwards made prisoner by the
Genoese, and wrote the history of his tra-
vels in Asia while in confinement. Colonel
Yule's edition, published in 1871, ifl the best.
Polybius (b. circa 204 B.C., d. circa 122
B.C.), Greek historian, whose chief work is
a history of Greece and Rome from 220 B.C.
to 146 B.C. ; was taken to Italy in 168 and
became the friend of Scipio, whom he
accompanied to Carthage. Only five of the
forty books of the history are extant.
Polycarp, Saint (d. circa 155), was by tra-
dition a disciple of St. John, who appointed
him Bishop of Smyrna. He suffered mar-
tyrdom under Marcus Aurelius, and his
Epistle to the Philippians is preserved.
Polycletus (Jl. circa 430 B.C.), Greek
sculptor, whose most famous productions
were The Doryphoreus, which has been
taken as a model for proportion in the
human figure, and the colossal statue of
Hera.
Polycrates (d. 522 B.C.), tyrant of Samos,
for which he built a large fleet; was
treacherously taken and crucified by order
of Orcetes, Satrap of Sardis.
Polygnotus (fl. circa 450 B.C.), Greek
painter ; came from Thasos to Athens, where
he became the friend of Ciraon, and left
specimens of his work in the Propylaea and
in the temple of Thesua.
Pombal, Sebastian Joseph de Carvalhoe
Hello, Marquis de (b. 1699, d. 1782), Portu-
guese statesman ; after having been am-
bassador in London (1739-45) and Vienna,
became foreign secretary in 1750 and
premier six years later. He did good service
to his king and country, and was the first to
expel the Jesuits, but in 1777, on a change
of sovereign, was exiled.
Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette Poisson,
Marquise de (b. 1721, d. 1764), mistress of
Louis XV. ; was the daughter of an equerry,
and, having attracted the king's notice while
hunting, appeared at court in 1745, and ruled
France until her death.
Pompeius, Cneius [Pompey the Great] (b.
106 B.C., d. 48 B.C.), Roman general ; was in
his youth a partisan of Sulla : gained great
victories over the pirates and Mithri dates,
and conquered Syria and Judaea ; joined
Caesar and Crassus in the first triumvirate
(60), but afterwards attached himself to the
aristocratic party and quarrelled with Caesar,
by whom he was defeated at Pharsalia, being
murdered in Egypt soon after.
Ponce de Leon. [See Leon.]
Poniatowski, Josef Anton, Prince (b. 1762,
d. 1813), Polish noble, who became marshal
of France, and was made war minister by
Napoleon in 1806, was wounded at Leipzig
and drowned soon after.
Ponsard, Fransois (b. 1814, d. 1867),
French dramatist, whose chief plays were
Lucrtce (1843), in which Rachel appeared,
L'Honneur et P Argent (1853), and Le Lion
Amoureux (1867). He was elected to the
Academy in 1855.
Ponsonby, Sir Frederick Cavendish,
Major-General (b. 1783, d. 1837), British
general, second son of the Earl of Bess-
borough ; distinguished himself as a cavalry
officer0 in the Peninsula war, and received
seven wounds at Waterloo.
Ponsonby, General, the Right Hon. Sir
Henry, K.O.B. (b. 1825), son of the above ;
entered the army in 1842, spent some years
in Ireland as aide-de-camp and private
secretary to several viceroys, served with
the Grenadier Guards at Sebastppol and
in Canada, and in 1878 became private sec-
retary to the Queen.
Pontianus, Saint (d. 235), was elected
pope in 230.
Pontius, Cains (d. 292 B.C.), Samnite
general, celebrated for his victory over the
Romans at the Caudine Forks ; was after-
wards captured and put to death.
Ponz, Antonio (b. 1725, d. 1792), Spanish
painter and writer on art ; executed por-
traits of Spanish writers for the Escurial,
and wrote Viage de Espaiia.
Poole, John (b. 1792, d. 1879), dramatic
writer, author of Paul Pry, Deaf as a
Post, etc.
Poole, Paul Falconer, R.A. (b. 1810, d.
1879), English painter, self-taught ; began
to exhibit at the Academy in 1830, and was
elected A.R.A. for his Surrender of Si/on
House (1846). Among his other works were
Solomon Eagle's Exhortation to Repentance,
TJie Goths in Italy, and The Escape of
Glaucus and lone (1860).
Poole, Reginald Stuart, LL.D. (*. 1832),
numismatist and Orientalist : entered the
British Museum in 1852, and was appointed
keeper of coins in 1870. In 1889 he became
professor of archaeology at University Col-
lege. Among his works are Official Catalogues
of Coins, Catalogue of Swiss Coins, Cities of
Egypt* etc.
Poornea (d. circa 1811), minister of Mj-
sore under Hyder All and Tippoo Sultan ;
Pop
(627)
Pot
continued to govern in conjunction with the
British during the minority of the next
rajah, who, on assuming power, dismissed
him.
Pope, Alexander (b. 1688, d. 1744), English
poet, son of a linendraper ; was born in
London, and began as a child to write
verses. He made his reputation by the
Essay on Criticism (1711), and soon became
the friend of Swift and other leading writers,
and produced The Rape of the Lock, verse
translations of the Iliad and Odyssey, The
Dunciad (1828), and the Essay on Man,
besides taking part in Miscellanies with
Swift, Arbuthuot and others.
Pope, General John (b. 1822), American
soldier ; gained several victories for the
Federals in 1862, but was afterwards de-
feated at Bull's Run and other places by
Lee and Jackson.
Pope, Sir Thomas (b. 1508, d. 1550),
founder of Trinity College, Oxford, and a
Mend of Sir Thomas More.
Porlier, Juan Diaz (d. 1815), Spanish
general ; served as a midshipman at Tra-
falgar, but afterwards distinguished him-
self in the Peninsula war, particularly in
the retreat from Santander. He was shot
for an attempt to restore the constitu-
tion.
Porphyrius (b. 233), Greek philosopher ;
pupil of Plotinus, whose life he wrote, as also
that of Pythagoras and Questions on Homer,
etc.
Porphyrogenitus. [See Constantino VII.]
Porpora, Niccola (*. 1686, d. 1766 or 1767),
Neapolitan musician, founder of the modern
school of singing ; visited London among
other cities.
Person, Richard (b. 1759, d. 1808), English
scholar, son of a parish clerk at East Huston,
Norfolk ; was sent by the vicar to Eton, and,
having gained a fellowship in 1782, became
g'ofessor of Greek at Cambridge in 1793.
e published editions of -^Eschylus, several
plays of Euripides, and the Lexicon of
JPhotiits.
Porta, Giovanni della (b. 1543, d. 1615),
Neapolitan physicist ; invented the camera
obscura, and wrote De Humana Physio-
gnomonia, Magia Naturalis, etc.
Portalis, Jean E"tienne (b. 1746, d. 1807),
French politician ; was imprisoned during
the Reign of Terror, and proscribed by the
Directory when president of the Council of
Ancients, but was afterwards Minister of
Religion under Napoleon.
Porteous, Captain John (d. 1736), was
hanged by the people of Edinburgh (when
oo2
reprieved by the Government) for firing on
the mob who interfered with the execution
of the smuggler Wilson.
Porter, David Dixon (b. 1813), American
admiral; captured New Orleans in 1862,
and assisted Grant in the siege of Vicksburg,
published Memoirs of Commodore David
Porter, his father, and other works.
Porter, Jane (b. 1776, d. 1850), English
writer ; author of Thaddeus of Warsaw, and
The Scottish Chiefs. Her sister, ANNA MART A.
(d. 1832), wrote The Himgarian Brother,
and other tales.
Porter, Noah, D.D., LL.D. (b. 1811, d.
1892), American philosopher ; became pro-
fessor of metaphysics and moral philosophy
at Yale in 1846, and president in 1871, resign-
ing in 1886. Among his works are The
Human Intellect (1868), Elements of In-
tellectual Philosophy (1871), Elemen ts of Moral
Science (1875), etc., and he edited the reissues
of Webster's Dictionary in 1864 and 1880.
Porter, Sir Robert Ker (b. 1780, d. 1842),
soldier, traveller and writer; brother of
Jane ; married a Russian princess whom he
had met while historical painter to the Tsar ;
was with Sir John Moore in Spain, and
afterwards travelled in the East, and was
consul at Venezuela from 1826 till his death.
He wrote Letters from Portugal and Spain
and accounts of his travels.
Portland. [See Bentinck.]
Portland, William Cavendish-Bentinck,
third Duke of (b. 1738, d. 1809) ; was Lord-
Lieutenant of Ireland from 1782 till hia
appointment as nominal head of the Coalition
Ministry. He afterwards served under Pitt
as Home Secretary and president of the
Council, and from 1807 till his death wa*
again Prime Minister.
Portsmouth, Louise Penhoet Kerouailles,
Duchess of (b. 1652, d. 1725), French
mistress of Charles IL
Posidonius (b. 135 B.C., d. 51 B.C.), Stoic
philosopher ; founded a school at Rhodes,
and had Cicero and Pompey among his
pupils.
Potemkin, Gregory Alexandrovitch (b.
1736, d. 1791), favourite of the Tsarina
Catherine II., who made him prime minister
and created him prince. He greatly im-
proved the Russian army, and took the
Crimea from Turkey, but lost the favour of
Catherine in later years when the peace of
Jassy was made against his will.
Pothier, Robert Joseph (b. 1699, d. 1772),
French jurist ; author of a Xew Digest of tht
Pandects of Justinian, which formed the
basis of the Code Napoleon.
Pot
(628)
Poy
PotocM, Claudia (*. 1802, d. 1836), Polish
countess, who distinguished herself during
the rising of 1830-3, and after its failure
pledged her jewels and dresses for the aid
of the refugees.
PotocM, Ignatius, Count (b. 1741, d.
18uy), assisted Kosciusko, after whose fall
he was sent a prisoner to Russia.
Potocki, Count John (b. 1769, d. 1815),
histciian and diplomatist; author of Sar-
tna'/'tn Researches, History of the Primitive
Itttssians, etc.
Potocki, Count Stanislaus (b. 1757, d.
1821), statesman and writer ; author of The
Journey to Ciemnoijrod, etc. ; was one of the
leaders who established the constitution of
1791, and afterwards became president of
the Senate.
Potter, Cipriani (b. 1792, d. 1871), musi-
cian ; pupil of Attwood and Crotch, whom
he succeeded as principal of the Academy of
Music, where he had Sterndale Bennett and
the Macfarrens amoug his pupils ; composed
several s}rmphcnies and overtures, and did
much to make Beethoven known in England.
Potter, George (b. 1832), trades unionist;
conducted the strike in the building trade in
1859, and in 1868 presided over the first
Trades Union Congress. Ha took part in
many movements, established the Industrial
Review, and wrote Tracts for the Peopte,
but was twice an unsuccessful candidate for
a seat in Parliament.
Potter, John (*. 1674, d. 1747), divine;
successively Bishop of Oxford and Arch-
bishop of Canterbury (1737); author of
ArcMeologia G-rceca, etc.
Potter, Paul (b. 1625, d. 1654), Dutch
painter of cattle and landscapes. His Bull
is at the Hague, and Alderney Bull, Cow, and
Calf in. the National Gallery, London.
Pottinger, Sir Henry, Bart., G.C.B. (b.
1789, d. 1856), soldier and 'diplomatist;
served in India many years, and became
major-general ; was envoy- extraordinary to
China in 1841, Governor of Hong-Kong
1843-4, of the Cape 1846-7, and of Madras,
1850-4. In 1843 he became Privy Councillor.
Pouchet, Felix Archimede (b. 1800, d.
1872), French physiologist, director of the
Kouen Natural History museum and pro-
fessor of zoology ; maintained, in opposition
to Pasteur, the doctrine of "spontaneous
generation," his chief works being Hetero-
geneite (1859), and Theorie Positive de
Population Spontanee et de la Fecondation
(1847).
Poulton, Edward Bagnall, F.B.S., etc.
(4. 1856), English zoologist, one of the
editors of Weismann's Essays on Heredity^
and author of The Colours of Animals : their
Meaning and I'xe (18DO), in addition to many
monographs on this and kindred subjects.
Poussin, Gaspar [DughetJ (b. 1613, d.
1675), French landscape painter, pupil and
brother-in-law of Nicholas, whose name he
adopted. Several of his works are in the
National Gallery, London,
Poussin, Nicholas (b. 1594, d. 1665),
painter ; was given rooms in the Louvre,
and pensioned by Louis XIII., but returned
to Rome. Many of his works (of which Th»
Seven Sacratnenteiath6chef-dtoeuvre)axein.ti\a
National Gallery, London, and at Windsor.
Pouyer - Quertier, Augustin (b. 1820),
statesman and manufacturer, conspicuous as
an opponent of Free Trade ; as minister of
finance under Thiers conducted the nego-
tiations with Germany respecting the war
indemnity. He was re-elected senator in
1882.
Powderly, Terence (b. 1849), American
labour agitator; became, in 1879, general-
master-workman of the Knights of Labour,
which organisation greatly advanced under
his management. In ISoo he opened the
Irish Land League Convention in America.
Powell, Baden, F.R.S. (b. 1796, d. 1860),
English natural philosopher; was Savilian
professor of geometry at Oxford from 1827
till his death, and wrote View of the Undu-
latory Theory of Light, and other works,
besides contributing to Essays and Reviews.
Powell, Sir John, Bart. (d. 1696), was
deprived of his judgeship by James II. for
refusing to take part against the seven
bishops, the great seal being offered him if
he proved tractable. He was reinstated at
the Revolution.
Powell, Major John Wesley, Ph.D.,
LL.D. (b. 1834), American geologist and
ethnologist ; lost an arm in the Civil war,
became president of the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science in
1887, and is the author of several geological
monographs, and Introduction to the Study
of Indian Languages.
Powers, Hiram (b. 1805, d. 1873), Ameri-
can sculptor, son of a farmer at Vermont ;
lived at Florence from 1837 till his death,
his chief productions being The Greek Slave
H839), The Fisher Boy, Proserpine, and
The Indian Girl.
Poynings, Sir Edward (d. about 1510),
went to Ireland as Lord-Deputy in 1494, and
procured from the Parliament of Drogheda
(1495) the statute called " Poynings' Act."
Poynter, Edward John, R.A. (b. 1836),
Pea
(629)
Pri
artist; first exhibited in 1862, and made a
name by his Israel in Egypt (1868), the year
aiter which he became A.R.A. He was
Slade professor of art at University College
1871-6, and director at South Kensington
1875-81. Among his other pictures are
Atalanta's Race (1876), and A Visit to
^Esculapius (1880), which was bought for
the Chantrey Bequest.
Pozzo di Borgo, Carlo Andrea, Conte (b.
1764, d. 1842), diplomatist, born in Corsica ;
vras employed by Russia and Austria in or-
ganising coalitions against Napoleon, and
came to England in 1814, being afterwards
Russian ambassador there.
Praed, Mrs. Campbell Mackworth (b.
1852), English novelist, whose husband was
nephew of the poet ; was born in Australia,
and came to England in 1876. She col-
laborated with Justin McCarthy in The
Eight Honourable and other works, and
wrote alone An Australian Heroine, The
Bond of Wedlock (dramatised as Ariane),
etc.
Praed, Winthrop Mackworth (b. 1802, d.
1839), poet ; published some verses when at
Eton in the Etonian, and at Cambridge took
the Chancellor's medal for English verse. He
entered Parliament as a Tory in 1830, and
was secretary to the Board of Control in
1834-5, but soon died of consumption. A
collection of his poems appeared in 1864.
Pratt. [See Camden.]
Praxiteles (fl. circa 350 B.C.), Greek
sculptor, a list of whose works is given by
Pliny. There is a copy of Apollo the Lizard-
Slayer in the Vatican.
Preece, William Henry, F.R.S. (b. 1834),
English electrician ; was appointed chief
electrician in 1877. He patented many
improvements in telegraphy, and introduced
the telephone and phonograph into England,
besides taking part with Mr. Sivewright in
a Text-Book of Telegraphy, and with Dr.
Maier in a work on the telephone.
Preller, Ernst Christian Friedrich (b. 1804,
d. 1878), German artist, intimate with
Goethe at Weimar, where are his illus-
trations of the Odyssey executed for the
Grand Duke, and the designs for Wieland's
Oberon.
Prendergust, Sir Harry North, V.C.,
K.C.B. (b. 1834), English general; was
wounded at Mundisore (where he gained the
Victoria Cross) in 1858, and at Jhansi, in
the Central Indian campaign. He also
held a command in the Abyssinian war,
and commanded the Burmese expedition
in 1885.
Prescott, William Hickling (b. 1796, d.
1859), American historian, born at Salem |
in spite of very bad eyesight, devoted him-
self to literature, and wrote History of Fer-
dinand and Isabella (1837), The Conquest of
Mexico (1843), Conquest of Peru (1847), and
History of Philip II. (unfinished). He was
made D.C.L. at Oxford in 1850.
Pressense, Edmond de, D.D. (b. 1824,
d. 1891), French Protestant minister, authorof
The Religions Before Christ, Jesus Christ: His
Life, Times, and Work, and other works,
translations of which have been published.
His wife wrote children's books and poems,
and afterwards devoted herself to philan-
thropic work.
Prester John, a mythical personage who
was supposed in the 12th century to be
ruling a Christian kingdom as king and
priest. His habitat was supposed at first
to be Asia, but was afterwards placed in
Africa.
Preston, Thomas (d. 1598), master of
Trinity Hall, Cambridge, whose Life of Ca)n-
byses, King of Persia, a tragedy, was ridi-
culed by Shakespeare in Henry IF.
Prestwich, Joseph, D.C.L., F.R.S. (b.
1812), geologist; was the first to establish
the fact that man was contemporary with
the extinct mammalia. He was vice-presi-
dent of the Royal Society 1870-71, and
became professor of geology at Oxford in
1875, being also in 1888 elected president
of the Congres Geologique International.
Besides contributions to Transactions, his
works include The Water-Bearing Strata of
the Country Hound London, and The Past and
future ofueology (1875).
Pretorius, Andries (d. 1853), founder of
the Orange Free State and the Transvaal
Republic; began life as a fanner at Graaf
Reinet. The town of Pretoria is named
after him. His son, MAKTINUS PRETORIUS
(b. circa 1830), attempted to unite the two
republics, was president of the Transvaal
1869-72, and in 1880 was one of the leaders
in the Boer war of Independence.
Prevost d'Exiles, Antoine; Abbe (b. 1697,
1763), French \vriter, among whose numerous
works was Memories d'un Homme de Qitalire,
and Desgrieux et de Manon Lescaut.
Prevost-Paradol, Lucien (b. 1829, d, 1870),
journalist and writer, was imprisoned for
his Anciens Partis in 1860; was admitted to
the Academy in 1865, and committed suicide
five years later, when ambassador at Wash-
ington.
Price, Rev. Bartholomew, F.R.S. (b. 1818),
natural philosopher. After being elected
fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford, becama
in 1853 Savilian professor of natural phi-
losophy. His chief publication is a work on
Pri
(630)
Pro
the infinitf-imal calculus. In 1892 he be-
came M;u>ter of his College.
Price, Bonaray (b. 18i)7, d. 1888), econo-
mist; was appointed pn>rVssor of political
economy at Oxford in l.vl.S, and published
Practical I'u'iticul Economy (1878), and some
works on currency.
Price, Hir_rh (d. 1574), founded Jesus
College, Oxford, for Welshmen.
Price, Eichurd (b. 1723, d. 1791), Non-
conformist writer ; was consulted by Pitt on
the best mode of liquidating the National
Debt, and was a fellow of the Royal Society.
His chief works were Observations on Civil
Liberty and On Cicil Government — against
the American war. A sermon he preached
on the French revolution was attacked by
Burke in his Reflections.
Prichard, James Cowles, M.D. (b. 1786, d.
1848), anthropologist; was appointed com-
missioner in lunacy in 1845. His chief work,
Researches into the Physical History of Man
(1813), was translated into most of the lan-
guages of Europe
Prideaux, Humphrey (b. 1648, d. 1724),
divine : became Dean of Norwich in 1702.
His chief work was The Connection of the
Old and New Testament (1715-17).
Priessnitz, Vincent (b. 1799, d. 1851),
German doctor, son of a Silesian farmer;
originated the water cure, which was first
tried on himself ; established baths at
Grafenburg, which were much resorted to.
Priestley, Joseph, F.R.S. (b. 1733, d.
1804), Unitarian natural philosopher ; gained
the Copley medal in 1772 for his discoveries
concerning the properties of fixed air, and
was librarian to Lord Shelburne for seven
years. He also made important observations
on respiration. In 1791 his house at Bir-
mingham was wrecked by a mob who dis-
approved his sympathy with the French
revolution, and three years after he went to
the United States, where he died. Besides
his scientific works, he wrote a History of
Early Opinions Concerning the Person of
Christ, and several similar books.
Prim, Juan (b. 1814, d. 1870), Spanish
general ; supported Christina in 1834:,
became governor of Madrid after the ex-
pulsion of Espartero in 1843 ; distinguished
himself as a soldier in Morocco in 1859 (after
which he was made Marquis de los Cas-
tillejos), and in Mexico (1862), and, having
aided in the overthrow of Isabella in 1868,
became minister of war, and practical dic-
tator. In 1870, when he had procured the
election of the Duke of Aosta to the throne,
he was killed by Carlist assassins.
Primaticcio, Francesco (b. 1504, d. 1570),
It iliaii painter ; assisted Romano at Mantua,
and, having come to Paris, was employed by
Francis I. and Henri II. to decorate the
palace of Foutainebleau, but his frescoes
there were destroyed in
Pringle, Sir John, Bart. (b. 1707, d. 1782),
English physician. After being professor of
moral philosophy at Edinburgh, and phy-
sician-general to the forces, obtained the
Copley medal for his Experiments of Septic
and Antiseptic Substances, and was president
of the Royal Society from 1772 to 1778.
Prior, Sir James (b. 1790, d. 1869),
physician, author of lives of Burke, Gold-
smith, and Malone.
Prior, Matthew (b. 1664, d. 1721), poet
and diplomatist, son of a London publican ;
was sent to Cambridge by the Earl of Dor-
set, and wrote, with Charles Montague, The
City Mouse and the Country Mouse (1687).
He was secretary to the embassy at the
negotiation of the Peace of Ryswick (1 ('>',» 7),
and, after being under-secretary of state,
was employed to negotiate the Peace of
Utrecht. His poems were published by
subscription, and he was buried in West-
minster Abbey.
Priscianus (5th century), Latin gram-
marian, author of De Arte Grammaticd.
Priscillianus (4th century), Spanish theo-
logian, whose opinions were condemned in
380 by the Council of Saragossa.
Pritcnard, Charles, D.D., F.R.S. , etc. (b.
circa 1808), astronomer and divine; wasfourth
wrangler in 1830, and became fellow of St.
John's College, Cambridge, where he was
Hulsean lecturer in 1867, but in 1870 became
Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford.
He caused the erection of the observatory
by that university, and published in 1890,
Occasional Thoughts of an Astronomer on
Nature and Revelation.
Probus, Marcus Valerius (d. 282), Roman
Emperor ; elected by the army of the East
in 276, gained some victories over the bar-
barians, but was killed in a mutiny.
Procaccini, Camillo (b. 1546, d. 1626),
painter of the Bolognese school. His
brother, GIULIO (b. 1548), was a follower of
Correggio, and CASLO was a fruit and
flower-painter.
Prpcida, Giovanni da (d. circa 1303), a
Sicilian who promoted the "Sicilian Ves-
pers," having previously been the friend of
the Emperor Frederick II. and his sons,
whom he assisted against Charles of Anjou.
Procopius (d. 565), Greek historian : ac-
companied Belisarius as his secretary in all
his campaigns, and wrote histories of th«
Pro
( 631)
Persians, Vandals, and Goths, and Arcana
Impena,
Procter, Adelaide Ann (b. 1835, d. 1864),
English poet, daughter of " Barry Corn-
wall ; " author of Legends and Lyrics \
(1858-61), and A Chapkt of Verses (1862).
Procter, Bryan Waller. [See Cornwall,
Barry.]
Proctor, Redfield (b. 1831), American
statesman : practised as an advocate before
and after the Civil war ; became governor of
Vermont in 1878, and was appointed secretary
for war by President Harrison in 1889.
Proctor, Richard Anthony (b. 1834, d.
1888), astronomer and popular scientific
writer, author of Other Worlds than Ours
(1870), Old and New Astronomy, etc., and
editor of Knowledge.
Prodicus (Jl. circa 400 B.C.), Greek sophist,
teacher of Socrates ; was author of the fable
of the Choice of Hercules.
Propertius, Sextus (d. circa 14 B.C.) , Roman
poet, friend of Ovid and Virgil, and author of
Elegies, of which there are several transla-
tions.
Protagoras (b. circa 490 B.C.), Greek
sophist ; was banished from Athens on a
charge of Atheism. None of his works are
extant.
Protogenes (/. circa 330 B.C.), Greek
painter, for whose pictures Apelles gave
nigh prices ; part of Rhodes, where he lived,
is said to have been spared for bis sake
during the siege.
Proudlion, Pierre Joseph (b. 1809, d. 1865),
French writer, son of a Besanqon cooper ;
author Qu'est-ce que la Propriete ? Avertisse-
tnent aux Proprietaires, and similar works of
anarchic tendency, for which he was prose-
cuted.
Prout, Samuel (b. 1783, d. 1852), English
artist ; was elected to the Water- Colour
Society in 1815, having become known for
his country scenes. His best picture is,
perhaps, The Indiaman Ashore (1819), but
his Views of Northern England (1821) and
sketches in Continental countries are highly
esteemed.
Pntdentius, Marcus Aurelius Clemens (b.
348), Roman Christian poet, was born in
Spain ; author of a large number of hymns
and lyrical pieces.
Prudhomme, Louis Marie (b. 1752, d.
1830), French revolutionary journalist, editor
of Le Journal des Revolutions de Paris, and
author of a work on the crimes of the revo-
lution ; was imprisoned under the Terror
lor a short time.
Prynne, William (b. 1600, d. 1669), Puritan
lawyer and writer ; was imprisoned, fined,
and pilloried by the Star Chamber for his
Histrio-Mastix, containing reflections on
Queen Henrietta Maria, in 16o2, and was
further punished for writing while in prison.
He was released in 1640, was elected to the
Long Parliament, and subsequently im-
prisoned by Cromwell, becoming keeper of
the Tower records after the Restoration.
Psalmanaazaar, George (b. probably 1679,
d. 1763), literary impostor, born in France ;
pretended to be a native of Formosa, and
invented a language of that island, besides
publishing a histoiy of it, which deceived
many of the learned.
Ptolemseus Claudius (fl. circa 139),
Alexandrian writer, author of the Almagest
or Syntax of Astronowy, the theories of
which were accepted till the discoveries of
Copernicus. He also wrote a Geography,
which was for thirteen centuries the leading
authority.
Ptolemseus Soter, Bang of Egypt (d. 283
B.C.), obtained Egypt as his share of the
dominions of Alexander the Great in 323
B.C. ; was engaged in continual wars with
Perdiccas and Antigonus (q.v.), and gained
his surname by saving Rhodes when be-
sieged by Demetrius.
Ptolemseus Philadelphus (b. 311 B.C., d.
247), youngest son and successor of Soter ;
had a long and peaceful reign, during which
the Alexandrian library was finished, and
the Septuagint version made.
Ptolexnseus Epiphanes (b. 210 B.C., d.
181), great-grandson of preceding, and son
of PTOLEMY PHILOPATEE (222-205 B.C.) ; ob-
tained the help of the Romans against Syria
and Macedonia, but lost the greater part of
his foreign dominions.
Ptolemseus PMlonietor (d. 146 B.C.), son
and successor of preceding ; was taken
prisoner by Antiochus Epiphanes, his
younger brother being set up as king with
him. After being driven out, he was
restored by the Romans, but was killed in
battle near Antioch.
Puffendorff, Samuel, Baron von (b. 1632,
d. 1694), German jurist and historian, author
of De Jure Naturce et Gentium, Life of Gus-
tavus of Sweden, etc.
Pugatscheff, Jemeljan (b. 1726, d. 1775),
a Cossack who pretended to be the Tsar
Peter III. (lately murdered), and after
several victories over the imperial troops
was betrayed and executed.
Puget, Pierre (b. 1622, d. 1694), French
sculptor and architect, whose Milo grouj
and Andromeda are at Versailles.
( 632)
Pym
Pughe, William Ovreu (b. 1759, d. 1835),
Welsh writer ; he edited for the Record
Commission Ancient Lutes and Institutes of
Wtile.s, compiled a Welsh and English dic-
tionary, and made a Welsh version of Para-
dise Lost.
Pugin, Augustus Welby (b. 1812, d. 1852),
architect, son of a French emigrant, who
wrote on architectural subjects; became a
Romani.st in 1834, and built St. George's,
Southwark, and many other churches for
his co-religionists. He was the chief pro-
moter of the Gothic revival, and published
The True Principles of Pointed or Christian
Architecture (1841), Contrasts (1836), a com-
parison of Roman and Anglican churches,
and many other works.
Puisaye, Joseph, Comte de (d. 1827),
French royalist leader; sat in the Con-
stituent Assembly, but was proscribed by
the Convention ; organised the Chouan
rising in Brittany, and was aided by
England in 1794. After the disaster at
Quiberon, he went to Canada, and thence
to England, where he died.
Pul, King of Assyria, reigned 759-742 B.C.
Pulcheria, ^Elia, Empress of the East (b.
399, d. 453), reigned for her brother, Theo-
dosius II., and succeeded him in 450.
Pulci, Luigi (b. 1432, d. 1484 or 1487),
Italian poet, friend of Lorenzo de' Medici,
and author of Morgante Maggiore, which was
translated by Lord Byron in The Liberal.
His brothers, BEENABDO and LUCA, were
also poets.
Pulleine, John James, D.D. (b. 1841),
divine; was appointed in 1888 Suffragan-
Bishop of Ripon, his title being changed in
1889 from Bishop of Penrith to that of
Richmond.
Pulteney, William, Earl of Bath (b. 1682,
d. 1764) , statesman and orator ; was appointed
Secretary-at- War on the accession of George
L, but in 1717 resigned and joined the Op-
position, becoming one of the ablest op-
ponents of Walpole. He was created Earl
of Bath in 1742, and was Prime Minister in
1746, but held office only two days.
Pnrcell, Henry (b. 1658, d. 1695), com-
poser ; was appointed organist at West-
minster Abbey at the age of eighteen, and
was buried there. Hi a works include Or-
pheus Bntannicus (a collection of songs),
fifty anthems, and many operas, glees, can-
tatas, etc.
Purchas, John (b. 1823, d. 1872), Ritualist,
author of Directorium Anglicanurn ; was
suspended for refusing to obey the judgment
of the Court of Arches in the case Hibbert v.
Purchas.
Purchas, Samuel (b. 1577, d. 1626), divine;
compiled histories and travels under the
titles of Purchas, his Pilgrimage (1613), and
Purchas, his Pilgrimmes (1625), ana waa
chaplain to Archbishop Abbot.
Pureshram Rao, "the Bhow" (d. 1799),
Mahvatta leader ; served against the British
in 1781, but in 1790 cooperated with them
against Tippoo Sultan. He opposed Naua
Furnavees (q.v.), but became reconciled to
him, and was defeated and slain when
employed against the rebel, Chitoor Singh.
PuschMn, Alexander Sergeivitch (b. 1799,
d. 1837), Russian poet ; was sent to Bess-
arabia for political offences, but afterwards
allowed to return. His chief works are The
Gipsies (1824), Boris Godunof (1825), Pul-
tava and Eugene Onegin (1832), a satire on
the model of Don Juan. He was killed in a
duel.
Pusey, Edward Bouverie, D.D. (b. 1800,
d. 188*2), theologian, son of Hon. Philip
Bouverie ; became fellow of Oriel in 1824,
and on his return from Germany was made
Regius professor of Hebrew. He took a
leading part in the Oxford movement, pub-
lishing Scriptural Views of Holy Baptism in
1835-6, and was several times inhibited from
preaching. In 1866 appeared his Eirenicon,
and among his other works were Library of
the Fathers, a work dealing with the German
Rationalist theology, and a reply to Farrar'a
Eternal Hope.
Puvis de Cnavannes, Pierre (b. 1824),
French painter ; exhibited La Paix and La
Guerre m the Salon of 1861, among his other
pictures being La Nuit (1866), Scenes de la
Vie de Ste.-Genevieve (1873-8), executed for
the Pantheon, and Pro Patrie Ludus (1882).
Pyat, Felix (b. 1810, d. 1889), French
writer ; author of Mathilde and other
dramas, and Droit du Travail, Loisir d?un
Proscrit, etc.
Pye, Henry James (b. 1745, d. 1813), poet ;
was appointed laureate in 1790, his Poem»
being published in 1787.
Pye, John (b. 1782, d. 1874), engraver;
executed for Turner Pope's Villa, The
Temple of Jupiter in ^Egina, and other
plates, and attacked the Royal Academy in
The Patronage of British Art, which ap-
peared in 1845.
Pym, John (b. 1584, d. 1643), lawyer and
politician ; took a leading part in the im-
peachment of Buckingham and the attack
on Dr. Mainwaring ; was an active member
of the Short Parliament, and conducted the
proceedings against Straff ord in the Long
Parliament. He was one of the " Five
Members," and was known among the
Royalists as "Kin^Pym," and was buried
Pyn
(633)
Qne
in Westminster Abbey, the whole House of
Commons attending the funeral.
Pyne, Louisa Bodda [Mrs.] (b. 1832),
singer : made her first appearance in 1842,
and, after a tour in the United States, took
a joint lease of the Lyceum and Drury
Lane, and afterwards of Covent Garden
(1858-62).
Pynson, or Pinson, Kichard (d. circa
1529), printer ; introduced the Koman letter
into England.
Pyrrho, Greek philosopher of the 4th
century ; founder of the Sceptics, or Pyrr-
honists, went to India with Alexander the
Great, and obtained an extensive knowledge
of Eastern lore.
Pyrrims, King of Epirus (b. circa 318 B.C.,
d. 272), came to the throne in 306 B.C. ; was
expelled a few years later, but restored bv
the help of Ptolemy Soter in 296 ; held the
kingdom of Macedonia for a short time, and
in 281 went to Italy to help Tarentum
against the Romans. He was at first suc-
cessiul (through his elephants and the
phalanx), but was finally defeated in 275.
After this he again mastered Macedonia, but
was killed by a tile iu a night attack on
Argos.
Pythagoras (d. circa 470 B.C.), Greek
philosopher, born in Samos, which he left
for Crotona, in Southern Italy, where he
exercised so much influence as an opponent
of democracy that his followers were ex-
posed to persecution and exile. He left no
writings, but his doctrines of the Kosmos,
Metempsychosis, and the Music of the
Spheres are Avell known, the first being the
beginning of physical science.
Pytheas (Jl. circa 300 B.C.), traveller,
born at Massilia (Marseilles) ; made several
voyages of exploration, and is said to have
reached Northern Britain ( Ultima Thule).
Quadrio, Francesco Saverio vo. 1695, d.
! 36), Italian ecclesiastic; wrote a General
History of Poetry, etc.
Quaglio, the name of a family of painters,
originally Italian, who settled at Munich.
The most distinguished was DOMEOTCO (b.
1786, d. 1837). Most of his pictures repre-
sent Gothic buildings.
Quain, Jones (b. 1796, d. 1865), physician,
born at Mallow in Ireland ; was professor of
anatomy and physiology at London Uni-
versity (now University College) from 1831
to 1836. He published Elements of Anatomy
(1828), etc.
Quain, Richard, Sir, Bart., F.R.S. (^1816,
d. 1887), a well-known medical practitioner,
edited the Dictionary of Medicine (1882), for
which he wrote some valuable articles.
Quarle3, Francis (b. 1592, d. 1644), poet,
born in Essex, educated at Cambridge, be-
came secretary to Archbishop Usher in
Ireland; on the outbreak of the Civil war
joined the Royalist party. His chief work is
Emblems, consisting of poems accompanied
by allegorical designs, which they interpret.
Quatrefages de Br4au, Jean Louis Ar-
mandde (b. 1810), French naturalist ; became
professor of anthropology in the Museum of
Natural History at Paris in 18.55. He has
published numerous works, including In-
troduction d VEtude des Races Humainea
(1889).
Quatrem re de Quincy, Antoine Chrysos-
tom (b. 1758, d. 1849), French writer on art,
was imprisoned as a royalist during the
Reign of Terror; in 1816 became secretary
to tile Academy of Fine Arts. His works
include lives of Raphael (1824) and Michel-
angelo (1835), and a Dictionary of Archi-
tecture (1833).
Queiros, or Quiros, Pedro Fernandez de
(b. circa 1560, d. 1614); a Portuguese navi-
gator, who entered the service of Spain. He
died at Panama.
Querinl, or Quirini, Angelo Maria (b.
1680, d. 1755), a learned Italian cardinal,
visited England in 1710 ; became Bishop of
Corfu in 1723, and of Brescia in 1727 ; was
afterwards librarian to the Vatican. He
wrote Officium Quadragesimale Gr&corum,
Primordia Corcyra, Specimen Litteraturce
Brixiance, etc.
Quesnay, Francois (b. 1694, d. 1774),
French physician and economist ; settled in
Paris, and became surgeon to Louis XV.
In his Physiocratie (1768) he advances the
theory that, as the means of subsistence are
derived from the land, agriculture is the
only productive industry.
Quesnel, Pasquier (b. 1634, d. 1719),
French theologian, born in Paris ; was ac-
cused of holding Jansenist views, and forced
to withdraw to Brussels, and afterwards to
Amsterdam, where he died. In 1675 ap-
peared the first edition of the Reflexion*
Qne
(634)
Sac
Morales sur le Noui^eau Testatnent, which
was finally condemned by the bull Uni-
genitus (1713).
Quesnoy, Franqois du (b. 1594, d, 1646),
a sculptor, born at Brussels. His works are
chiefly bas-reliefs representing children,
iX etc. He died at Leghorn.
Quevedo Villegas, Francisco Gomez da
(b. loSO, d. 1645), a Spanish writer, who
excelled in satire. He was imprisoned for
three years (1641-3) for an attack on the
government of Count d'Olivarez. His chief
work is his Visions. He also wrote lyrical
poems, dissertations, etc.
Quick, John (b. 1748, d. 1831), comedian;
appeared at the Hayraarket in 1769, and
afterwards played at Covent Garden.
Quill, James (b. 1693, d. 1760), actor ; was
recognised as the greatest living tragedian,
till Garrick became his rival. He was a
friend of the poet Thomson.
Quincy, Josiah (b. 1744, d. 1775), Ameri-
can patriot ; in 1774 published Observations
on the Boston Port Bill, and came to Eng-
land to further the interest of the colonists.
He died on the journey back to America.
His son, JOSIAH (b. 1772, d. 1864), was a
member of Congress 1805-13, and president
of Harvard College 1829-45.
Quinet, Edgar (b. 1803, d. 1875), French
writer ; became professor of foreign litera-
ture at Paris in 1841. He took part in the
revolution of 1848. Among his works are
Ahasuerus, an allegory (1833), Les Revolu-
tions d* Italic (1852), and La Genie des Reli-
gions (1S42), La Creation (1870), etc.
Quintana, Manuel Jose (b. 1772, d. 1857),
i a Spanish lyrical poet, whose warlike
' verses exercised great influence over hia
j countrymen. He was a leading spirit in the
opposition to Godoy, attacked the French
in his Semanario Patriotico, and was im-
prisoned after the return of Ferdinand
(1813-20). Hia Lives of Celebrated Spaniards
were published 1807-34.
Quintilianus, Marcus Fabius (b. circa 35,
d. circa 96), rhetorician, born at Calagurris
in Spain ; during the reign of Galba settled
in Rome, where he became a teacher of
eloquence. Among his pupils was the
younger Pliny. Hig chief work is De Instv-
tutione Oratoria.
Quintus Curtius Rufus, a Roman historian
j of unknown date. He wrote De Rebut Alex-
\ andri Magni Regis Macedonum.
Eabaut Saint £tienne, Jean Paul (b. 1743,
d. 1793), French Protestant minister ; was
elected to the Constituent Assembly, voted
against the death of Louis XVI., and was
guillotined. He wrote an Historical Precis
of the French Revolution, etc.
Rabelais, Francois (b. circa 1483, d. 1553),
French humorist, born at Chinon; was at
first a friar, but afterwards studied medi-
cine at Montpellier, where he practised with
success ; accompanied Cardinal du Bellay to
Rome 1536-7 ; afterwards became cure of
Moudon, near Paris. The first book of the
History of Gargantua appeared in 1533.
Rabener, Gottlieb Wilhelm (b. 1714, d.
1771), German satirical poet, born near
Leipzig, became acquainted with Gellert,
and wrote for the Bremische Beitrdge ; held
appointments in connection with the excise
at Leipzig (1741-53) and Dresden (1753-71).
Rabutin, Roger de, Comte de Bussy (b.
1618, d. 1693), French satirist, born at Epiry,
in Nivernais ; in consequence of his His-
toire Amoureuse des Gaules (1665) was im-
prisoned in the Bastille (1665-6), afterwards
exiled to his estates in Burgundy. He also
published Memoires, Lettres, etc.
Rachel [E"lisa Rachel Felix] (b. 1820, d.
1858), actress, of Jewish descent, born at
Munf , in Switzerland. As a child she sang
for bread in the streets of Lyons. In 1838
she appeared in Paris as Camille in Cor-
neille's Les Horaces, and was henceforward
the unrivalled exponent of the classical
school, her great part being Phedre.
Racine, Jean (b. 1639, d. 1699), the
greatest French dramatist of the classical
school, was born at La Forte -Milon, and
educated at Port Royal. His ode on the
marriage of Louis XIV. (1660) was re-
warded by a pension from the king. He
first exhibited his genius in Andromaque
(1667), which was followed by a brilliant
series of tragedies, closing with Phedre
(1677). His single comedy, Les Plaideurs,
appeared in 1668. In 1677 he was led by
religious motives to cease writing for the
stage, but in 1691 he published a sacred
drama, Athalie, which is by many con-
sidered his masterpiece. His sou, LOOTS
(b. 1692, d. 1763), wrote a life of his father,
Bad
(635)
Bai
La Grace (a poem), Reflexion* sur la Poesie,
odes, epistles, etc.
Radcliffe, Ann (b. 1764, d. 1823), novelist,
daughter of a London tradesman named
Ward; about 1787 married Mr. William
Radcliffe, a journalist. She wrote several
wild romances, of which the Mysteries of
Udolpho (1794) is the most celebrated.
Radcliffe, John (b. 1650, d. 17H), born at
Wakefield, educated at Oxford, settled in
London (1684), and became physician to the
Princess Anne, afterwards queen (1686), but
subsequently lost her favour. He left
£40,000 for building the library at Oxford
which bears his name.
Radet, Etienne, Baron (b. 1762, d. 1825),
French general ; served under Napoleon, and
conducted Pius VII. from Borne to Florence
in 1809.
Radetzky, Johann Joseph Wenzel, Count
of Radetz (b. 1766, d. 1858), Austrian field-
marshal; suppressed the insurrection in
Lombardy 1848-9, finally defeating Charles
Albert of Sardinia at Novara in the latter
year; ruled Lombardy and Venice as
governor- general 1850-7.
Radowitz, Joseph von (b. 1797, d. 1853),
Prussian statesman, of Hungarian origin,
became leader of the Conservative party. In
the National Assembly at Frankfort he pro-
posed the union of Germany under Prussia,
and entered the Prussian cabinet to carry
out his schemes (1850), but was dismissed by
Frederick William IV. owing to the armed,
opposition of Austria.
Radziwill, the name of a distinguished
Lithuanian family. GEORGE (b. 1480, d.
1541) distinguished himself in wars against
the Russians and Tartars. NICHOLAS (b.
1515, d. 1565) supported the Lutherans, and
superintended the translation of the Bible
into Polish (1563). CHRISTOPHER (b. 1585,
d. 1640) withstood an invasion of Gustavus
Adolphus (1620-5), and was afterwards vic-
torious over the Russians (1632-4).
Rae, John (b. 1813), Arctic explorer ; in
1846-7 discovered 700 miles of coast between
Boothia and Fury and Hecla Strait; was
second in command under Sir John Richard-
son (1848), and commanded another expedi-
tion in search of Franklin in 1849 ; made
further discoveries in 1853-4.
Raeburn, Sir Henry, R.A. (b. 1756, d.
1823) , Scottish portrait-painter ; after study-
ing in Italy, settled in Edinburgh in 1787.
Among his best portraits are those of Sir
Walter Scott, Lord Eldon, and Francis
Jeffrey.
Raff, Joachim (b. 1822, d. 1882), German
musical composer; after living for some
years with Liszt at Weimar, settled at
Wiesbaden (1856), whence he removed to
Frankfort in 1877. He belonged to the
school of Schumann. His best works are
his symphonies.
Raffles, Sir Thomas Stamford (b. 1781, d.
1826), naturalist and administrator, entered
the East India House as a clerk in 1795 ;
advised the attack on Java (1811), and was
made governor on its annexation ; was re-
called in 1816, and in 1817 sent out to
govern Bencoolen, in Sumatra, where he
remained till 1824. In 1819 he established
the British station of Singapore. He was
one of the founders and first president of the
Royal Zoological Society.
Rafn, Karl Christian (b. 1796, d. 1864),
Icelandic antiquary, born in the Isle of
Fiinen; aided in founding the Society of
Northern Antiquities, and took part in the
publication of Heroic Tales of the North
(1825-30), Antiquitates Americanos (1837),
etc,
Raglan, Fitzroy James Henry Somerset,
Baron (b. 1788, d. 1855), field-marshal, was
the eighth son of the fifth Duke of Beaufort.
He accompanied Wellington to the Penin-
sula as his aide-de-camp, and in 1812 be-
came his military secretary, attending him
in that capacity at the battle of Waterloo.
He was again military secretary to Wel-
lington from 1819 to 1852, when he suc-
ceeded him as master -general of the ord-
nance. On the outbreak of the Crimean
war he was appointed commander of the
English forces, and displayed great personal
bravery at the Alma. The accusations un-
justly brought against him in connection
with the disasters of the campaign are
believed to have hastened his death,
which took place during the siege of
Sebastopol.
Eagona, Domenico (b. 1820), astronomer,
born in Palermo ; became director of the
royal observatory of Modena in 1860.
Raibolini, Francesco, called II Francia
(b. 1450, d. 1518), Bolognese painter.
Raikes, Henry Cecil (*. 1838, d. 1891),
born in Flintshire, educated at Cambridge ;
was called to the bar in 1863, and entered
Parliament in 1868. He was postmaster-
general from 1886 to his death.
Raikes, Robert (6. 1735, d. 1811), a printer
of Gloucester, who devoted his means to
philanthropical purposes. With the assist-
ance of Mr. Stock, he established the first
Sunday-schools (1781).
Raimbacn, Abraham (b. 1776, d. 1843),
engraver, born in London ; was apprenticed
to Hall, and afterwards studied at the Royal
Academy. He formed a friendship with
WilMe, many of whose pictures he engraved.
Bai
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Kan
Raimondl, Marc Antonio (b. circa 1487,
d, after 1539), Italian engraver, born at
Bologna ; went to Venice, where he copied
the works of Diirer with so much accuracy
that they were mistaken for the originals ;
removed to Rome, and was there employed
by Raphael to engrave his paintings, and
afterwards by Giulio Romano ; lost all his
possessions when the city was sacked in
1527, and returned to Bologna.
Rainald (d. 1151) became abbot of Ci-
teaux in 1113; effected a reconciliation
between Abelard and St. Bernard. Frag-
ments of his writings remain.
Bainaldi, Girolamo (b. 1570, d. 1655),
architect, born at Rome, built the Palazzo
del Commune at Parma. His son, CASLO
(b. 1611, d. 1691), erected Santa Maria di
Miracoli and other churches at Rome.
Rainolds, John (b. 1549, d. 1607), divine,
born near Exeter; became lecturer in
divinity at Oxford in 1586, and president of
Corpus Christi College in 1598. He was a
prominent member of the Puritan party,
took an active part in the Hampton Court
Conference (1604), and was one of the trans-
lators of the Authorised Version of the
Bible.
Rakoczy, Franz Leopold, Prince of Tran-
sylvania (b. 1676, d. 1735) ; put himself at
the head of the Hungarian insurgents in
1703, but was finally defeated in 1/08. He
died in exile.
Ralegh, or Raleigh, Sir Walter (b. 1552,
d. 1618), statesman, navigator, and author,
born near Budleigh, studied at Oriel College,
Oxford; fought in support of the Protes-
tants in France (1569) ; distinguished himself
against the rebels in Ireland 1580-1 : rose
rapidly in Elizabeth's favour ; in 1585 des-
patched an expedition to America, which dis-
covered Virginia, so named in honour of the
queen ; took part in the repulse of the
Spanish Armada (1588) ; in 1595 went to
Guiana in search of gold, and sailed some
distance up the Orinoco; held a command
in the attack on Cadiz (1596). After the
accession of James I. he was accused of
complicity in the plot to raise Arabella Stuart
to the throne, and imprisoned in the Tower
for thirteen years (1603-16), during which
he wrote his History of the World. In 1616
he was permitted to lead an expedition to
Guiana against the Spaniards, but his pardon
was made dependent on his success, and, as
the attempt was a failure, he was executed
on his return.
Rameau, Jean Philippe (b. 1683, d. 1764),
French musician, born at Dijon ; wrote
Demonstration du Principe de P Harmonic and
other works on the theory of music, and
composed many operas.
Ramler, Karl Wilhelm (b. 1725, d. 1798),
a German poet and miscellaneous writer.
Rammohun - Roy, Rajah (b. 1772, d.
1833), was born at iiurdwar, in Bengal, and
educated by his father, a learned Brahman.
On reaching manhood he determined to study
the various religions of the world, and with
this view learnt several languages, ancient
and modern. After the death oi his father
(1803) he renounced Brahmanism. From
the date of his removal to Calcutta (1814),
where he obtained a post as tax-collector,
he was much influenced by the doctrines of
Christianity. He came to England in 1831,
and died at Bristol.
Ramsay, Allan (b. 1686, d. 1758), Scotch
poet, born at Leadhills, in Lanarkshire ; was
apprenticed to a wig-maker in Edinburgh,
where he afterwards established himself as
a bookseller. In 1721 he published a col-
lection of his own poems, and he was the
author of some of the songs in the Tea-
Table Miscellany (1724-40). In 1724 ap-
peared the Evergreen, a collection of old
Scotch poetry. Fia pastoral drama, The
Gentle Shepherd, was published in 1725.
Rarasay, Sir Andrew Crombie (b. 1814,
d. 1891), was president of the Geological
Society in 1862 and 1863, and director of the
geological survey of the United Kingdom
1872-81. He published several works on
geology.
Ramsay, Edward Banner-man Burnett (b.
1793, d. 1876) ; became Dean of Edinburgh
in 1846. He wrote Reminiscences of Scotch
Life and Character (1857), etc.
Ramsay, William (b. 1852), was born and
educated at Glasgow ; afterwards studied at
Tubingen ; became professor of chemistry
at University College, London, in 1887.
Ramus, Peter [Pierre de la Ramee] (b.
1515, d. 1572), French philosopher, born
in Picardy ; was educated at the Col-
lege of Navarre. His attacks en the Aris-
totelians subjected him to much persecution.
In 1551 he was appointed professor of elo-
quence and philosophy in the College de
France. He became a Protestant about
1561, and perished in the massacre of St.
Bartholomew.
Ranc4, Annand Jean le Bouthillier de
(b. 1626, d. 1700) ; was in youth distin-
guished as a scholar and man of fashion,
but afterwards adopted austere views, and
restored the severe discipline of the monas-
tery of La Trappe, of which he was abbot.
Randolph, John, of Roanoke (b. 1773, d.
1833), American orator ; was in 1799 elected
as a Democrat to Congress, where he dis-
tinguished himself by his powers of sarcasm.
In 1830 he was appointed minister to Russia.
Ran
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Raw
Randolph, Sir Thomas (b. 1523, d. 1590),
statesman and diplomatist ; was sent by
Elizabeth as ambassador to Scotland, France,
and Russia. Many of his letters are pre-
served, and there is an account of his em-
bassy to Bussia in Hakluyt's collection.
Randolph, Thomas (b. 1605, d. 1635),
English poet, born in Northamptonshire,
educated at Cambridge ; wrote The Muses'
Looking -Glass, and other dramas.
Ranke, Leopold von (b. 1795, d. 1886),
German historian, born in Thuringia, edu-
cated at Leipzig, was appointed extraor-
dinary professor at Berlin in 1825, ordinary
professor in 1834, and in 1841 became royal
historiographer. Among his chief works are
the History of the Popes (1834-7), the His-
tory of Germany during the Reformation
(1839-47), and the History of England:
Chiefly in the Seventeenth Century (1659-74).
Eansome, Arthur, M.D. (b. 1834), has
rendered great services to the cause of sani-
tary reform. He was one of the first to
advocate periodical returns of sickness, and,
owing to his representations in 1875, dip-
lomas in public health are now awarded in
the various universities of Great Britain.
Rantzau, Josias, Comte de (b. 1609, d.
1650), general, born in Holstein; after serv-
ing in the Swedish army entered that of
Louis XIII. (1635). In 1645 he renounced
the Protestant religion, and was made
marshal of France.
Raphael [Raffaello Santi, or Sanzio] (b.
1483, d. 1520), son of Giovanni Santi, a
painter, studied under Pietro Perugino ; in
1504 went to Florence, where he attached
himself to Fra Bartolomeo, and was much
influenced by the works of the Florentine
school ; in 1508 was summoned to Rome by
Julius II. to adorn with frescoes the walls
of the Vatican, which occupied him till
1514. He was much employed by Leo X.,
who succeeded Julius in 1513. To this period
belong the cartoons at Hampton Court.
Raphael also displayed genius as an archi-
tect, and after the death of Bramante (1514)
superintended the building of the new
cathedral of St. Peter's.
Rapin, Nicholas (b. circa 1535, d. circa
1609), French poet, born in Pojtou, was one
of the authors of the Satire Menippee^ and
wrote Latin elegies and epigrams, as well
as odes and other lyrics in French, in "which
he imitated classical authors.
Rapin de Thoyras, Paul de (b. 1661, d.
1725), historian, born in Languedoc, was
descended from a noble Savoyard family,
which prof essed the Protestant faith. Having
withdrawn to Holland after the revocation of
the Edict of Nantes (1685), he accompanied
William III. to England, and subsequently
served under him in Ireland. He died at
Wesel. His Histoire d* Angleterre, which
extends to the death of Charles I., waa
translated by Nicholas Tindal.
Rapp, Jean Comte (b. 1772, d. 1821),
French general, distinguished himself at
Austerlitz ; after bravely defending Dantzic
against the Russians was forced to surrender,
and remained a prisoner till 1815.
Rask, Rasmus Christian (b. 1787, d. 1832),
philologist, born in the Isle of Fiinen ; be-
came professor of literary history at Copen-
hagen in 1825, and of Oriental languages in
1628. His works include Researches con-
cerning the Origin of tlie Icelandic Language
(1818), and an Anglo-Saxon Grammar (1817)
translated by Thorpe.
Raspail, Francois Vincent (b. 1794, d.
1878), French chemist and revolutionist,
published Syst&ne de Chimie Organique
(1833), etc. He was frequently imprisoned.
Rassam, Hormuzd (b. 1826), born at
MosouL, in Mesopotamia, assisted Layard
in his Assyrian explorations ; became
his successor and discovered the palace
of Sardanapalus ; in 1864 was sent by the
British Government to Abyssinia to demand
the release of Consul Cameron, but impri-
soned by King Theodore till the arrival of
the British force under Sir Robert Napier
(1868).
Rattazzi, Urbano (b. 1808, d. 1873),
Italian statesman, born in Piedmont ; in
18-±8 was returned to the Chamber of Depu-
ties at Turin, and became leader of the
democratic party ; became minister of jus-
tice under Cavour (1854), but retired in
1857 ; was prime minister in 1862, but was
compelled to resign in consequence of his
opposition to Garibaldi's expedition against
Rome.
Ranch, Christian Daniel (b. 1777, d. 1857),
German sculptor, studied at Dresden, and
afterwards under Thorwaldsen and Canova
at Rome. His masterpiece is the equestrian
statue of Frederick the Great in Berlin.
Raumer, Friedrich Ludwig Georg von (b.
1781, d. 1873), German historian, educated
at Halle and Gottingen, was professor at
Berlin 1819-53. His chief work is a His-
tory of tfo Hohenstaufen and their Timet
(1823-5).
Ravaillac, Francois (b. 1578, d. 1610),
French fanatic ; conceived a hatred against
Henri IV. as enemy of the Church and
assassinated him in his carriage. He waa
torn to pieces by horses.
Rawlinson, George (b. 1815), Canon of
Canterbury, historian and Orientalist, waj
Raw
(638)
Rec
educated at Oxford, where he was appointed
Camden professor of ancient history in 1861.
Among his chief works are his version of
Herodotus (1858-62), and histories of The
Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern
World (1862-7) and Ancient Egypt (1881).
Rawlinson, Major-General Sir Henry
Creswicke, Bart. (b. 1810), brother of the pre-
ceding, entered the Bombay army in 1827 ;
served in the Persian army 1833-9 ; was
political agent at Candahar 1840-2, and in
Turkish Arabia 1843-55 ; was the vice-
president of the Council of India in 1876.
He has published several works on cunei-
form inscriptions.
Rawlinson, Sir Robert (b. 1810), civil
engineer, was appointed a superintendent
inspector under the Public Health Act in
1848 ; introduced important reforms in
sanitary science. During the Crimean war
he rendered great services as engineering
sanitary commissioner to the British army.
Rawspn, Sir Rawson (b. 1812), after hold-
ing various colonial appointments, became
governor of the Bahamas in 1864, and of
the Windward Islands in 1869. He has
written numerous papers on statistics and
physical science, especially in regard to the
West Indies.
Ray, or Wray, John (b. 1628, d. 1705),
naturalist, was the son of a blacksmith at
Black Notleyin Essex. He was educated
at Cambridge, and obtained a fellowship at
Trinity College, of which he was deprived
after the Restoration owing to his refusal to
sign the Act of Conformity. In 1663-6 he
travelled on the Continent with his friend
Willoughby, and in 1673 published an ac-
count of the expedition. In 1679 he settled
in his native place. His chief works are
Methodus Plantarum Nova (1682), Historia
Plantarum, Synopsis Methodica Stirpium
Britannicarum (1690), and The Wisdom of
God in Creation (1691).
Rayleigh, John William Strutt, Lord (b.
1842), physicist ; became professor of natural
philosophy in the Royal Institution in 1887.
He has published a treatise on The Theory
of Sound (1877-8), etc.
Raymond, Robert, Lord (b. 1673, d. 1732),
judge; was Solicitor- General in the reign
of Anne, and became Attorney- General and
afterwards Chief Justice of the King's
Bench under George I.
Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse (b.
1156, d. 1222), espoused the cause of the
Albigenses, and was excommunicated in
1208 and 1211. In 1213 he was defeated by
Simon de Montfort, and forced to retire to
Aragon, but he afterwards recovered most
of his possessions. His son, RAYMOND VII.
(b. 1197, d. 1242), was at first successful
against Amaury de Montfort, but in 1229
was forced to yield his dominions, which
were then incorporated in the French
kingdom.
Rayual, Guillaume Thomas Fra^ois (b.
1713, d. 1796), French historian, born at
Saint Geniez, in the Rouergue ; became a
Jesuit, but left the order in 1747, and had
recourse to literature as a means of subsist-
ence. His chief work is Histoire des Etab-
lisseinents et du Commerce des Europeens dans
les Deux Indes (1770).
Raynouard, Francois Juste Marie (b.
1761, d. 1836), French philologist and dra-
matist, was imprisoned during the Reign of
Terror. His tragedy, Les Templiers (1805),
was highly successful. His philological
works include Elements de la Grammaire
Romane (1816), Choix de Poesies Originates de8
Troubadours (1816-21), and Lexique Roman
(1833-44).
Read, Clare Sewell (b. 1826), an eminent
English agriculturist.
Reade, Charles (b. 1814, d. 1884-), novelist
and dramatist, born in Oxfordshire ; was
educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, of
which he became fellow. Among his novels,
most of which were intended to expose some
social abuse, were Peg Woffington (1852), It
is Never Too Late to Mend (1856), The Clois-
ter and the Hearth (1861), and Griffith
Gaunt (1866).
Reaney, Mrs. Isabel, has done much work
among the poor in Warrington, Reading,
and the East of London.
Reaumur, Rene Antoine Ferchault de (b.
1683, d. 1757), French naturalist, born at
La Rochelie ; was the first to reduce ther-
mometers to a common standard, and made
use of chemical processes in the manufacture
of porcelain and steel. His chief work is a
History of Insects.
Reay, Lord, Sir Donald James Mackay
(b. 1839), born in Holland, sou of Baron
Mackay Ophemert, was in the Netherlands
India Office 1865-69. He was appointed
governor of Bombay in 1885.
Reboul, Jean (b. 1796, d. 1864), French
poet, born at Nimes, at first a baker in his
native town ; published L'Ange et V Enfant
(1828), Poesies (1836), etc.
Recamier, Jeanne Francoise Bernard (b.
1777, d. 1849), born in Paris; married M.
Recamier, a Paris banker, in 1792. Between
the Bourbon restoration and her death her
salon at Abbaye-aux-Bois was the resort of
men of rank and genius. Chateaubriand
was greatly fascinated by her.
Reccared (d. 601), Visigoth King of Spain,
succeeded his father, Leovigild, in 586. Ha
became a convert to Catholicism, which took
the place of Arianism in Spain.
Bee
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Rei
Reclus, Jean Jacques iLlisee (b. 1830),
French geographer ; studied under Bitter
at Berlin. He has published La Terre,
Geographic Universelle (1375-90), etc.
Recorde, Robert (b. circa 1500, d. 1558),
physician and mathematician, born at Tenby,
educated at Oxford ; introduced the Coper-
nicau system into England.
Redesdale, John Freeman Mitford, Baron
(b. 1748, d. 1830), lawyer, educated at
Oxford; became Solicitor -General in 1793,
Attorney- General in 1799, Speaker of the
House of Commons in 1801, and Lord Chan-
cellor of Ireland in 1802.
Redesdale, John Thomas Freeman Mit-
ford, Earl of (b. 1805, d. 1886), son of the
preceding ; was chosen Chairman of Com-
mittees in 1851, and exercised much influence
on the private bill legislation of the House
of Lords. He published Reflections on the
Doctrine of Regeneration (1849), etc.
Redgrave, Richard, R.A. (b. 1804, rf.1888),
artist, born in London ; became an academi-
cian in 1851. He was inspector-general of
art schools, aided Sir Henry Cole in found-
ing the museum of art at South Kensington,
and took part in the arrangement of various
international exhibitions, especially that of
1862. In conjunction with his brother, Mr.
S. REDOEAVB, he wrote A Century of Painters
(1866).
Redhouse, Sir James William (b. 1811,
rf. 1892), after holding several appointments
under the Turkish government, became
Oriental translator to the Foreign Office in
1854. He published a Turkish Grammar,
and other works.
Reed, Andrew (b. 1787, d. 1862), Noncon-
formist minister, educated at Hackney Col-
lege ; was in 1834 sent by the Congregational
Union to visit the American churches. He
founded the Orphan Asylum at Clapton
(1825), the Asylum for Idiots at Earlswood
(1847), the Hospital for Incurables (1854),
and other philanthropic institutions. In
1819 he published a novel entitled No
Fiction.
Reed, Sir Edward James (6. 1830) ; was
chief constructor of the navy 1863-70 ; sat
in Parliament as Liberal member for Pem-
broke boroughs 1874-80, since which he has
represented Cardiff. He has written several
works on shipbuilding, also Japan : its His-
tory, Traditions, and Religions (1880).
Reed, Isaac (b. 1742, d. 1807) ; wrote Bio-
graphia Britannica (1782), and published
editions of Dodsley's Old Plays (1780),
Shakespeare (1785-1803), etc.
Rees, Abraham (b. 1743, d. 1825), Dis-
senting minister ; he edited Chambers' s
Cyclopedia 1776-86, and between 1802 and
1820 published in forty-five volumes the
Cyclopedia which bears his name.
Reeves, John Sims (b. 1822), English tenor
singer; joined Macready's company at Drury
Lane in 1841 ; afterwards studied in Paris
under Bordogni, and at Milan under Maz-
zucato ; in 1847 returned to England, where
his success was instantaneous.
Reeve, Clara (b. 1725, d. 1803), novelist,
wrote The Old English Baron, etc.
Regnard, Jean Francois (b. 1656, d. 1709),
French comic poet ; ranks next to Moliere,
and is also noted for his adventurous career.
While journeying by sea from Italy to
France, he was captured by Algerian pirates,
but ransomed by the French consul. In
1681-3 he travelled in Holland, Sweden,
Lapland, and other countries.
Regnault, Henri Victor (b. 1810, d.
1878), French chemist, was appointed pro-
fessor at the College de France in 1841.
His most valuable experiments relate to
the specific heat of gases.
Regnault, Jean Baptiste, Baron (b. 1754,
d. 1829), a French painter, born in Paris.
His Education of Achilles (1783) is now in
the Louvre.
Regnlus, Marcus Atilius (d. 251 B.C.),
Roman general ; was sent against Carthage,
and gained some successes, but was after-
wards taken prisoner. The Carthaginians
sent him to Rome to propose peace, and he
swore to return if unsuccessful. He dis-
suaded his countrymen from accepting the
offer, and on his return to Carthage was put
to death.
Reichel, Charles Parsons, became Bishop
of Meath in 1885. He has published Ser/nont
on the Lord's Prayer, etc.
Reichstadt, Napoleon Francois Charles
Joseph, Due de. [See Napoleon LI.]
Reid, Captain Mayne (b. 1819, d. 1883),
novelist ; after roaming about Missouri as a
trapper, entered the United States army, and
distinguished himself in the Mexican war, at
the close of which he returned to Europe.
He wrote numerous tales of adventure, in-
cluding The Scalp Hunters (1847), The Rifle
Rangers (1850), The Headless Horseman
(1865), etc.
Reid, Thomas (b. 1710, d. 1796), Scotch
metaphysician, born in Kincardineshire,
educated at the Marischal College, Aber-
deen ; was professor of philosophy at Glas-
gow 1763-96. His chief work is his Inquiry
into the Human Mind on the Principles of
Common Sense (1764).
Reid, Thomas Wemysa (b. 1842), edited
Jiei
( 640 )
lien
the Leed.t Mtrcury 1870-87, and became
editor of the Speaker in 1890. He hag pub-
lished Charlotte Bronte (1877), lives of
W. E. Forster (1888), and Lord Houghton
(1891), and other works.
Reid, Whitelaw (b. 1837), American jour-
nalist ; became editor of the New York
Tribune iu 1872 ; in 1889 was appointed
United States minister to France.
Reid, Sir William (*. 1791, d. 1858),
general ; in 1838 published An Attempt to
Develop the Laic of Storms. He pursued
bos investigations in the Windward Islands,
of which he was governor 1846-8, and iu
1 - 19 published The Progress of the Develop-
of the Law of Storms.
Reimams, Hermann Samuel (b. 1694, d.
1765). German philologist and philosopher ;
was professor at Hamburg 1727-65. He
was the author of the WolfenoHttel Frag)nents,
which were published anonymously by Lea-
sing, and supposed to be his work.
Reineck, Reiner (b. 1541, d. 1595), German
historian ; was a disciple of Melanchthon.
He wrote Historia Julia, etc.
Reinhold, Erasmus (b. 1511, d. 1553),
astronomer, born in Thuringia ; was pro-
fessor of mathematics at Wi; temberg 1536-
53, and became a disciple of Copernicus.
Reinkens, Joseph Hubert (b. 1821), Ger-
man theologian ; is a leader of the " Old
Catholic" party.
Reinold, Arnold William, F.R.S. (b. 1843),
became professor of physics in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, in 1873. He
Las contributed to the Philosophical Maga-
zine., and other publications.
Reiske, Johann Jakob (b. 1716, d. 1774),
Arabic scholar, born at Zo'rbig, in Saxony,
studied at Leipzig ; resided for some time at
Leyden, in order to consult the Arabic works
in the library ; returned to Leipzig, and,
after a long period of poverty, became rector
of _ the College of St. Nicholas in 1758. He
edited the Annals of Abulfeda, and the De
Cercmoniis of Constantino Porphyrogenitus,
and wrote De Principibtis Mithainedanis, etc.
Reland, Adrian (*. 1676, d. 1718), Dutch
Orientalist ; was professor in the university
of Utrecht. He published De Religione
Mohammedied, Pakstina ex Veteribus Monu-
tnentis Illustrata, etc.
Rembrandt van Ryn (*. 1607, d. 1669), an
eminent painter and engraver ; was the son
of a miller near Leyden. He studied for three
years under Jacob von Zwanenburg, and was
afterwards the pupil of Peter Lastman at Am-
sterdam, and of Jacob Pinas at Haarlem. In
1630 he settled in Amsterdam, where he died.
Among his chief works are The Anatomical
Le*son (1632) and The Night Watch (1642).
Remusat, Claire Elisabeth de Vergennes,
Comtesso de (b. 1780, d. 1821), a lady in the
service of the Empress Josephine. . Her
Meinoires (1879) and Letters (1881) give a
lively picture of the court of the First Em-
pire. Herson, CHAELES, CoMTEDEllEinjSA.'i
(b. 1797, d. 1875), was minister of foreign
affairs under M. Thiers, and published
L1 Angleterre au A' VIII. Siecle (1856), etc.
Remusat, Jean Pierre Abel (b. 1788, d.
1832), French Orientalist; was the first
professor of Chinese at the College de
Franco (1814), and in 1829 became president
of the Societe Asiatique. He published Sit'
toire du Bouddhisme (1836), etc.
Renan, Joseph Ernest (b. 1823, d. 1892),
Orientalist, historian, and essayist, born at
Trt-guier, in Brittany. In 1842 he entered
the seminary of St. Sulpice, but three years
later gave up the idea of becoming a priest.
His nrst important work, Averroes et I'
Averroisme, appeared in 1852. He was pro-
fessor of Hebrew in the Institute of France
1861-2, and was reappointed in 1870. The
Vie de Jesus (1863), which gave rise to much
discussion, was afterwards expanded into
Histoire des Ongines du Christianisme. He
also published Le Judaisme (1883), and
numerous other works.
Renaudot, Eusebe (b. 1646, d. 1720),
French Orientalist ; wrote Historia Pat-
riarcharum Alezandrinorum Jacobitarwn,
Liturgiarum OrientaUum Collectio, etc.
_ Rendel, Sir Alexander Meadows (b. 1829),
civil engineer; has constructed the Royal
Albert Dock, the Albert and Edinburgh
docks at Leith, etc.
Rendel, George Whitwick, brother of th?
preceding ; has introduced great improve-
ments in connection with guns and the con-
struction of ironclads. He was civil lord of
the Admiralty 1882-5.
Rendel, Stuart (b. 1834), brother of the
preceding ; has represented Montgomery
county since 1880. He is well-known as
an advocate of Welsh interests.
Reni, Guido (b. 1574, d. 1642), Bolognese
painter, whose best work is seen at Rome
and Genoa.
Rennel, James (b. 1742, d. 1830), geo-
graphical writer ; entered the service of the
East India Company, and became surveyor-
general of Bengal. His chief work is The
Geographical System of Herodotus (1800).
Rennie, John (b. 1761, d. 1821), engineer ;
constructed Waterloo, Southwark, and new
London bridges, the Lancaster and Avon
canals, and other public works.
Rennie, Sir John (b. 1794, d. 1874), wat
son of the preceding, whom he succeeded
Ben
(641)
Rey
as engineer to the Admiralty. Among his
chief works are the Whitehaven docks and
a portion of the Cardiff docks. He wrote a
work on the Theory, Formation, and Con-
struction of British and Foreign Harbours.
In many of his enterprises he was associated
with his brother GEOBGE (b. 1791, d. 1866),
who was also a distinguished engineer.
Renouf, Peter le Page (b. 1824), Orien-
talist, born in Guernsey ; from 1864 to 1886
was an inspector of schools ; has published
many works on the language and religion
of Egypt, and kindred subjects.
Eeschid Pacha (b. 1802, d. 1858), Turkish
statesman ; took part in the negotiations
with Eussia at Adrianople in 1829. On the
accession of Abd-el-Medjid (1839) he be-
came bis chief adviser, and was six times
grand vizier.
Retz, Jean Francois Paul de Gondi, Car-
dinal de (*. 1614, d. 1679), son of the general
of the French galleys, was born at Mont-
mirail, and educated by Vincent de St. Paul.
He took a leading part in the plots against
Mazarin, and on the outbreak of the war of
the Fronde (1648) put himself at the head of
the insurgents. In 1651 Retz was bought
over by the gift of a cardinal's hat, but he
was nevertheless imprisoned till 1654, when
he escaped to Spain. After visiting Rome,
he returned to France on the death of
Mazarin, and lived there quietly till his
death. His Memoires^ give a valuable ac-
count of the chief political characters of the
period.
Retzsch, Friedrich August Moritz (b. 1779,
d. 1857), German artist, born at Dresden;
was appointed professor of painting in his
native town in 1824. He owes his celebrity
to his skill as a designer in outline. Among
his chief works are his illustrations to
Goethe's Faust and Schiller's Song of the Bell.
Reuchlin, Johann (b. 1455, d. 1522), Ger-
man scholar, born at Pforzheim, studied at
Basle and elsewhere ; about 1481 went to
Stuttgart ; accompanied Eberhard, Count
of Wiirtemberg, to Italy (1482), and was
well received at the court of Lorenzo de'
Medici; after Eberhard's death (1496), en-
tered the service of the elector-palatine, by
whom he was sent as ambassador to Alex-
ander VI. (1498) ; was summoned before an
ecclesiastical tribunal for resisting Pfeffer-
korn's attempt to burn all Jewish books ;
appealed to the pope (1513), who left the case
undecided. His writings were voluminous.
Reuter, Heinrich Ludwig Christian Fried-
rich [Fritz] (b. 1810, rf. 1874), German
humorist, born in Mecklenburg- Schwerin,
educated at Rostock and Jena; was im-
prisoned owing to his liberal views 1833-40.
In 1853 appeared Lduschen un Rimel*, a
FF
volume of poems in Low German. The first
part of the Olle Kamellen, a series of prose
tales, was published in 1859.
Reuter, Baron Paul Julius (b. 1821), born
at Cassel; in 1849 established an office at
Aix-la-Chapelle for supplying news by tele-
graph, and thereby revolutionised the presa
of Europe. In 1851 he transferred his
business to London.
Revett, Nicholas (b. 1721, d. 1804), archi-
tect ; in 1748-53 visited Greece with James
Stuart, in conjunction with whom he wrote
Antiquities of Athens (1762) ; was the com-
panion of Chandler in his expedition to Asia
Minor, and assisted him in Ionian Anti-
quities (1769-1804).
Re"ville, Albert (b. 1826), French Pro-
testant divine, born at Dieppe ; in 1851
became pastor of the Walloon church at
Rotterdam; in 1880 was appointed titular
professor of the history of religions in the
College de France.
Rewbell, Jean Francois (b. 1747, d. 1807),
French revolutionist ; was a member of the
Convention and Directory. He retired from
public life in 1799.
Rey, Jean (d. 1645), a French physician
and chemist, whose discoveries to some ex-
tent anticipated those of Lavoisier.
Reynolds, Henry Robert (/>. 1825), Con-
gregationalist divine, edited the British
Quarterly Review 1866-74 ; has published
John the Baptist (1888), etc.
Reynolds, James Emerson (b. 1844) ; was
appointed professor of chemistry at Dublin
in 1875. He has made several discoveries,
and is author of General Experimental
Chemistry (1880), etc.
Reynolds, James Russell, M.D. (b. 1828),
Emeritus professor of medicine in University
College, London ; has published numerous
medical works.
Reynolds, John Hamilton (b. 1796, d.
1852), poet and man of letters ; published
Safie, an eastern tale in verse (1814), etc.
Reynolds, Sir Joshua (b. 1723, d. 1792),
painter, born at Plympton, in Devonshire,
studied under the portrait-painter Hudson ;
removed to London in 1746; travelled in
Italy 1749-52; on his return to London
was immediately recognised as the greatest
portrait painter of the day. He was the
first president of the Royal Academy (1708-
92), and in 1784 was appointed painter to
the king. Among his intimate friends were
Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, and other
eminent literary men. His fifteen Dis-
courses on Painting were delivered before
the Royal Academy between 1769 and 1790.
Una
(642)
Rio
Rhazes, or Ar-Razi (d. circa 932), Arabian
physician, born in Irak Ajeuii : was super-
intendent of the hospital at Bagdad. His
works include a treatise on the small-pox.
Rhodes, Cecil J. (b. 1;>.33), became prime
mini.-ter of the Cape in 181)1).
Rhys, John (b. 1840), became professor
of Celtic at Oxford in 1877. He has pub-
lished Celtic Britain (1882), etc.
Ribalta, Francisco (b, 1551, d. 162S),
Spanish painter ; after studying at Home,
settled in Valencia, where he died. His
works show the influence of Sebastiano del
Piombo.
Ricardo, David (b. 1772, d. 1823), political
economist, son of a Jewish broker ; entered
Parliament in 1819. His Principles of Poli-
tical Economy and Taxation, containing his
fanious theory of rent, was published in
1817.
Ricasoli, Bettino, Count (b. 1809, d. 1880),
Italian statesman; after the flight of the
Grand Duke Leopold became dictator of
Tuscany, and co-operated with Victor Em-
manuel in the war of Italian Liberation ; was
prime minister of Italy 1861-2, and 1866-7.
Ricaut, or Rycaut, Sir Paul (d. 1700),
English diplomatist and historian ; was
secretary to the embassy at Constantinople
1661-9, and afterwards English consul at
Smyrna. His works include a continuation
of Knolles's History of the Turks.
Rich, Claudius James (b. 1786, d. 1821),
Orientalist, born near Dijon, educated at
Bristol ; became Eesident at Bagdad in 1808,
and explored the ruins of Babylon. His
Memoirs of Ancient Babylon appeared in
1815.
Richard, Louis Claude Marie (b. 1754, d.
1821), French botanist, born at Versailles ;
in 1781 undertook a journey to the Antilles
and French Guiana under the auspices of
Louis XVI., and in 1789 returned with latge
collections of plants and animals. He af for-
wards became professor of botany in the
School of Medicine at Paris.
Richard Plantagenet (d. 1272), Earl of
Cornwall, was the son of John, King of
England. In 1256 he was elected King of
the Romans. He at first showed some sym-
pathy with De Montfort's aims, but after-
wards aided Henry III. against him, and
was taken prisoner at Lewes (1264). He
was released in the following year.
Richard of Cirencester (d. circa 1401),
an English chronicler ; entered the Benedic-
tine monastery of St. Peter at Westminster
in 1350.
Richard of St Victor (d. 1173), mystic,
born in Scotland ; became prior of the con-
vent of St. Victor at Paris about 1164. He
wrote commentaries on the Old Testament,
etc.
Richard I., "the Fearless," Duke of Nor-
mandy (d. 996) ; succeeded his father, Wil-
liam Longsword, in 942. He became the
vassal of Hugh the Great, Duke of Paris,
in 946, and was instrumental in raising
Hugh Capet to the French throne (987).
Richard II., "the Good" (d. 1026), suc-
ceeded his father, Richard I., in 996. He
maintained friendly relations with Robert I
of France.
Richard IIL (^1028), succeeded his
father, Richard II., in 1026. He is said to
have been poisoned by his brother, Robert L
Richard I. , King of England (b. 1157, d.
1199), was the third son of Henry II., whom
he succeeded in 1189. He immediately joined
the third Crusade, in company with Philip
Augustus of France. After marshalling
their hosts at Vezelai, the two kings pro-
ceeded by separate routes to Sicily. Here
Richard remained till April, 1191, when he
sailed to Palestine, halting during the
journey at Cyprus, which he conquered.
His arrival at Acre in June was soon fol-
lowed by the fall of that fortress. During
the ensuing war Richard displayed great
prowess, but the want of union among the
Crusaders, sickness, and other causes obliged
them to abandon the project of taking Jeru-
salem, and in October, 1191, Richard set sail
for England. On the way he fell into thQ
hands of the Emperor Henry VI., who con-
fined him in a castle on the Danube, and re-
leased him only on the payment of a heavy
ransom (1194). For the rest of his life he
was engaged in wars with Philip of France.
He was mortally wounded whilst besieging
the castle of Chaluz.
Richard II. (b. 1366, d. 1399), son of
Edward the Black Prince, succeeded his
grandfather, Edward in., in 1377. The
government was entrusted to a council of
regency, but the Duke of Lancaster soon
gained the entire control of affairs. In
1381 a rising of the peasantry took place, the
immediate cause of which was an excessive
poll-tax. The king's fondness for favourites
excited the resentment of the leading barons,
who defeated the royal forces in 1387, and
in 1388 De Vere and Suffolk were impeached
and put to death. In 1389 Richard assumed
the government, and for eight years ruled
well, but in 1397 those who had formerly
taken up arms against him were suddenly
executed or imprisoned, and the king's sub-
sequent proceedings showed that he aimed
at making his power absolute. During his
absence in Ireland, Henry, Duke of Lan-
caster, son of John of Gaunt, landed i»
Kic
(643)
Ric
Yorkshire. Richard, on his return, was taken
prisoner at Flint, and carried to London,
where he resigned the crown in favour of
Henry. He is said to have been murdered
soon afterwards.
Richard III. (b. 1450, d. 1485) was the
S)ungest son of Richard, Duke of York,
e fought at Barnet and Tewkesbury
(1471), and in 1482 led an expedition against
Scotland. After the death of his brother,
Edward IV., he was proclaimed protector
(May, 1483). He soon afterwards formed
a plot, in concert with the Duke of Buck-
ingham, which led to the execution of Lord
Hastings, and the imprisonment of the
king's nephews, Edward V. and his brother,
in the Tower. In June he declared himself
king, In the course of the same year the
young princes disappeared, and Bucking-
ham, who had excited a rising in favour
of Edward V., was executed. In August,
1485, Henry, Earl of Richmond, landed at
Milford Haven, and marched to Bos worth
in Leicestershire, where Richard was de-
feated and slain.
Richards, Admiral Sir George Henry (b.
1820), has superintended nautical surveys
of China, Australia, and other countries,
and was hydrographer of the Admiralty
1863-74.
Richards, Henry Brinley (b. 1819, d. 1885),
a popular pianist and composer, born at Car-
marthen.
Richardson, Benjamin Ward, M.D.,
F.R.S. (b. 1828), man of science; has pub-
lished Alcohol : its Action and its JZse (1869),
Hygeia (1876), etc.
Richardson, Sir James (b. 1787, d. 1865),
born at Dumfries, entered the navy as
assistant- surgeon in 1807: accompanied
Franklin in his Arctic voyages in 1819 and
1825 ; was physician of Haslar Hospital
1838-55. He published Fauna Boreali-
Americana (1829-37), The Arctic Searching
Expedition (1852), etc.
Richardson, Jonathan (b. circa 1665, d.
1745), an English artist, who succeeded
Kneller as the fashionable portrait-painter
of the day. He wrote an Essay on the Art
of Criticism in Painting, etc.
Richardson, Samuel (b. 1689, d. 1761),
novelist, born in Derbyshire ; apprenticed to
a printer in London (1706); in 1719 estab-
lished a business of his own, and became
printer to the House of Commons. His
novels are Pamela (1740), Clarissa Harlowe
(1748). and Sir Charles Grandison (1753).
Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, Due
de (b. 1585, d. 1642), French cardinal and
statesman, born in Paris, became Bishop of
in 1607 ; in 1615 entered the service
pp2
of the Queen-mother, Marie de' Medici, and
in 1616 became secretary of state for war
and foreign affairs. He followed Marie
de' Medici to Blois (1616), and was exiled to
Avigiion (1618), but was soon afterwards
recalled, and effected a reconciliation be-
tween the king and queen, receiving as his
reward a cardinal's hat. In 1624 he became
chief minister, an office which he retained
till his death. During this period he estab-
lished the absolute power of the king, and
crushed the Calvinist party, although he was
led by political motives to support the Pro-
testants in Germany.
Richelieu, Louis Francois Armand du
Plessis, Due de (b. 1696, d. 1788), French
marshal, belonged to the same family as the
preceding. He distinguished himself in the
Seven Years' war.
Richelieu, Armand Emmanuel du Plessis,
Due de (b. 1776, d. 1822), grandson of the
preceding ; on the outbreak of the revolution
entered the Russian service, fought against
the Turks, and in 1803 became governor of
Odessa. He returned on the accession of
Louis XVIII., and was chief minister in
1815-18, and again in 1820.
Richmond, George, R.A. (b. 1809), Eng-
lish artist ; in 1837 went to Italy, and
resided for some years in Rome ; after
his return achieved distinction as a portrait-
painter in oils.
Richmond, Legh (*. 1772, d. 1827), rector
of Turvey, in Bedfordshire, 1805-27 ; author
of several religious tales, published under the
title of Annul* of the Poor, the best known
of which is TJie Dairyman's Daughter.
Richmond, William Blake (b. 1842), por-
trait-painter, son of George Richmond ; was
Slade professor at Oxford 1880-3. Among
his chief portraits are those of Darwin
(1880), Gladstone, and Browning (1882).
Richmond and Gordon, Charles Henry
Gordon-Lennox, sixth Duke of (b. 1818),
entered Parliament as a Conservative in
1841 ; succeeded to the peerage in I860; was
president of the Board of Trade 1867-8;
fed the Government in the House of Lords
1874-6 ; was secretary for Scotland under
Lord Salisbury 1885-6.
Richter, Adrian Ludwig (b. 1803, d,
1884), artist, bora at Dresden, studied in
France and Italy: became professor of
landscape-painting at Dresden in 1836.
Later in life he earned fame by his draw-
ings illustrating German village life and
the ways of children.
Richter, Gu*tav Karl Ludwig (b. 1823),
artist, born at Berlin, studied under Coignet
at Paris, and afterwards at Rome (1847-9).
His chief work is his portrait of Queen
Kic
(644)
Rip
Louise of Prussia (1879), now in the Cologne
Museum.
Richter, Hans (b. 1343), conductor of
orchestral concerts, born at Raalj in Hun-
gary; btvame AV/>C/////< 'i-lcr at Vienna in
1878. His tir.-t orchestral concert in London
took place in 1879.
Richter, Jean Paul Friedrich (b. 1763, d.
1S25), German my.-ti'1 ami humorist, son of
a poor pastor ,iud schoolmaster at Baireuth,
studied at Leipzig University; after leaving
it remained with his widowed mother at
Hof till her death in 1798, when he removed
to Weimar. His first original work, The
Invisible Lodge (1792), was followed by
Hesperus (1792-4), Quintus Fixlein, Sie-
benkas (1795), and 'Titan (1799-1802). After
living at Berlin, Meiningen and Coburg he
settled at Baireuth in 1804. Flegeljahre
appeared in 1803; Levana, a treatise on
education, in 1806. The fragment of his
Autobiography was written in 1818.
Ricimer (d. 472), a Sueve, who com-
manded the barbarians in the Roman army.
After the death of Valentinian III. he set up
and deposed several emperors in succession
viz. Avitus (455), Majorian (457), Severus
(457-461), Anthemius (467), who was nomi-
nated by the Eastern Emperor Leo I., and
Olybrius (472).
Rickman, Thomas (*. 1776, d. 1841),
architect, born at Maidenhead ; in 1808 be-
came clerk in an insurance office in Liver-
pool, and there studied architecture, which
he adopted as a profession, settling in Bir-
mingham. Among his works are the new
buildings of St. John's College, Cambridge.
He was the first to classify the different
periods of Gothic architecture.
Riddell, Charlotte Eliza Lawson (b. circa
1837), novelist; has published City and
Suburb (1861), George Geith (1864), etc.
Ridley, Nicholas (d. 1555), English re-
former, born in Northumberland, studied at
Cambridge, Paris, and Louvain ; returned to
Cambridge in 1529; became chaplain to
Cranmer in 1537, and, about 1540, master of
Pembroke Hall ; was appointed Bishop of
Rochester in 1547, and of London in 1550 ;
v-ook a leading part in composing the
liturgy and drawing up the forty-two
articles; favoured the attempt to place
Lady Jane Grey on the throne, and was
imprisoned in the Tower; was condemned
to death for heresy, and burnt, with
Latimer, at Oxford in"0ctober, 1555.
Ridolfl, Carlo (b. 1594, d. 1658), Italian
painter and writer on art ; belonged to the
Venetian school. He wrote lives of Illus-
trious Venetian Painters (1648).
Rienzi, Cola di (b. 1313, d. 1354), Roman
citizen ; was sent in 1343 to Clement VI. at
Avignon to remonstrate with him on hid
absence from Koine, and was a] "pointed
apostolic notary. (Ju his return to iC'im.- he
bt-^an to scheme for a revival of the ancient
republic, incited the people against the
no'oility, and was in 1347 proclaimed tri-
bune, his authority being acknowledged by
Clement. In December of the same year he
was forced to leave Rome, and in 1350 went
to Prague, whence he was despatched to
Avignon, and remained for some time a
prisoner in the hands of Clement. On the
election of Innocent VI. (1353) he was
released and sent to Rome as governor, but
the difficulty of his position drove hirn to
commit cruelties, which caused him to be
assassinated in 1354.
Ries, Ferdinand (b. 1783, d. 1838), pianist
and composer, born at Bonn ; resided in
England 1813-24 ; died at Frankfort.
". James Harrison (b. 1821), has been
principal of the Wesleyan Training College
since 1868, and was president of the Wes-
leyan Conference in 1878. He is editor of
the London Quarterly Review.
Riley, Henry Thomas (b. 1818, d. 1878),
English antiquary ; published Memorials oj
London (1858), etc.
Riley, John (b. 1646, d. 1691), portrait
painter, studied under Zoust ; became painter
to Charles II. after the death of Lely (1680).
Rintoul, Robert Stephen (b. 1787, d. 1858),
journalist ; started the Spectator in 1828.
Rimiccini, Ottavio (d. 1621), poet; ac-
companied Marie de' Medici to France in
1600. He wrote Daphne, and other lyrical
dramas.
*
Ripley, George (b. 1802, d. 1880), Ameri-
can man of letters ; published Discourses on
the Philosophy of Religion (1839), etc.
Ripon, Frederick James Robinson, Earl of
(b. 1782, d. 1859), son of the second Earl
Grantham ; entered Parliament as a mode-
rate Tory in 1806 ; became Chancellor of the
Exchequer in 1823 ; was created Viscount
Goderich in 1827 ; was Prime Minister
1827-8, Colonial Secretary under Earl Grey
1830-3, and Lord Privy Seal 1833-4.
Ripon, George Frederick Samuel Robin-
son, Marquis of (Earl de Grey and Ripon)
(b. 1827) ; entered Parliament as a Liberal
in 1850 ; was Secretary for War 1859-61 ; for
India 1863 ; for War 1863-6 ; for India 1866,
and Lord President of the Council 1866-73.
He was Viceroy of India 1880-4, and in 1886
was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty,
and again Colonial Secretary in 1892.
Ripperda, Jan Wilhelm, Baron de (6.
F-is
( 645 )
Hob
1690, £1737), a political adventurer, of
Dutch origin ; went on a political mission to
Spain in 1715 ; became chief minister of
Philip V., but fell from power in 1726 ; sub-
sequently entered the service of the Emperor
of Morocco, when he invented a new re-
ligion, and was forced to flee to Tetuan,
where he died.
Rishanger, William (b. 1250), English
chronicler ; was a Benedictine monk at St.
Albans.
Ristich, Johannes (b. 1831), Servian states-
man ; ..as minister of foreign affairs (1876)
brought about the war with Turkey, and,
after the Congress of Berlin, became vir-
tually dictator, but was forced to resign in
1880. In 1889 he was appointed regent dur-
ing the minority of King Alexander.
Ristori, Adelaide (b. 1821), Italian actress,
the child of strolling players ; married, in
"1847, the Marquis Capranica del Grille, but
afterwards returned to the stage. Having
established her reputation in Italy, she
visited Paris (1855), London (1858), and
other European capitals, as well as the
United States and South America. She re-
visited England in 1873 and 1884.
Ritchie, Charles Thomson (b. 1838), en-
tered Parliament as a Conservative in 1874 ;
president of the Local Government Board
1886-1892.
Ritchie, Mrs. Kichmond, daughter of
W. M. Thackeray ; has published Old Ken-
sington, The Story of Elizabeth, and other
tales.
Ritson, Joseph (b. 1752, d. 1803), English
lawyer and antiquary ; published a col-
lection of ancient songs and ballads, and
other works.
Ritter, Carl (b. 1779, d. 1859), geographer,
born in Prussia ; was appointed professor at
Berlin in 1820. His chief work is Geography
in its Relation to Nature and the History of
Man (1822-54).
Riviere, Briton, R.A. (b. 1840), artist,
born in London; has exhibited at the
Academy many works depicting animal
life.
Rizzio, David (b. 1540, d. 1566), son of a
dancing-master; was born in Turin, and
passed his youth in France. In 1564 he
came to Scotland in the train of the am-
bassador from Savoy. His gift for music
and other accomplishments recommended
him to Mary Queen of Scots, whose favourite
he became. His influence with her excited
jealousy, and he was murdered by Darnley
and others in her presence.
Robbia, Lucca deUa (b. circa 1399, d.
1463), an Italian sculptor; famous foi
his work in enamelled terra- cotta. Hia
nephew, ANDREA (b. 1444, d. 1527), ex-
celled in the same art.
Robert, King of the West Franks (d. 923),
was chosen king in place of Charles the
Simple in 922, but was defeated and slain at
Soissons in the following year.
Robert, King of France (b. circa 970, d.
1031), succeeded his father, Hugh Capet, in
996. From 1003 to 1015 he was engaged in
a war with Otho, Duke of Burgundy, from
whom he finally wrested the dukedom.
Robert, Emperor of Germany (b. 1352, d.
1410), succeeded his father, Robert, as
elector palatine in 1398. He was chosen
Emperor in 1400 after the deposition of
Wenceslaus.
Robert, Louis Leopold (b. 1794, d. 1835),
artist, born in Switzerland; studied en-
graving under Girardet in Paris ; in 1818
settled at Rome, where he devoted himself
to painting. The fishermen and The Reapers
are among his chief works.
Robert Bruce, King of Scotland (b. 1274,
d. 1329), was the grandson of Bailiol's rival
in 1292. In 1306 he murdered the regent,
Comyn, and was crowned at Scone, but was
defeated by Edward I. the same year. After
many years of hardship and ill-fortune, he
gained a final victory over Edward II. at
Bannockburn in 1314. By the Treaty of
Northampton (1328) the complete inde-
pendence of Scotland was recognised.
Robert of Anjou, King of Naples (b.
circa 1279, d. 1343), succeeded his father,
Charles II., in 1309 ; became Lord of Genoa
(1318) and Brescia (1319) ; made several
unsuccessful attempts to conquer Sicily.
Robert of Gloucester, chronicler of the
13th century, is believed to have been a
monk at Gloucester. His Chronicle, which
is written in English verse, includes the
period of the Barons' war.
Robert of Jumieges (d. 1070), a Norman
prelate ; was made Bishop of London by
Edward the Confessor in 1044, and after-
wards Archbishop of Canterbury, but was
obliged to leave the country on the return of
Godwin in 1052. He was succeeded by
Stigand.
Robert L, Duke of Normandy, " the
Magnificent" (d. 1035), succeeded his
brother, Richard III., in 1028 ; assisted
Henri I. of France to regain his throne ;
unsuccessfully invaded England on behal/
of Alfred and Edward, sons of Ethelred the
Unready ; died in Bithyiiia, whilst re-
turning from a pilgrimage to the Holy
Land.
Hob
(646)
Bob
Robert IL (d. 1135) became Duke of
Normandy on the death of his father,
William the Conqueror, in 1087 ; pledged
Normandy to his brother, William Rufus,
and joined the first Crusade ; invaded Eng-
land in 1101, but cuine to terms with Henry
I., and resigned his claim to the English
throne ; was defeated by Henry at Teuche-
brai (HOG), and imprisoned in Cardiff Castle,
where he died.
Robert IL (b. 1316, d. 1390), King of Scot-
land, was the son of Walter Stuart and Mar-
jory, daughter of Robert Bruce. He acted as
regent during the minority of David Bruce,
and again during his captivity in England
1346-57, and on the death of the latter, in
1370, was chosen king. His reign was marked
by a large number of border forays, the most
famous being that which resulted in the
battle of Otterburne, or Chevy Chase (1388).
Robert III. (6. circa 1340, d. 1406), suc-
ceeded his father, Robert II., in 1390. The
government was virtually carried on by his
brother, the Duke of Albany. In 1402 a
Scotch army invaded England, but was
defeated at Hoinildon Hill. Robert died of
grief at the capture of his son, James, by the
English.
Roberts, David, R.A. (b. 1796, d. 1864),
artist, son of an Edinburgh shoemaker ; was
apprenticed to a house -painter, and subse-
quently became a scene-painter. He fol-
lowed this trade for some time after settling
in London (1822), but in 1827 devoted him-
self entirely to architectural painting. After
a journey abroad, he published an illus-
trated work, entitled The Holy Land, Syria,
Idumaea, Egypt, and Nubia (1842).
Roberts, Lord [Sir Frederick Sleigh] (b.
1832) ; distinguished himself during the
Indian Mutiny and the Afghan campaign of
1878-9 ; on the renewal of hostilities was
appointed commander-in- chief, and, after a
brilliant march to relieve Candahar, gained
a victory which brought the war to a close
(1880). He became commander -in -chief in
India in 1885, and in Burmah in 1886.
Roberts, Isaac (b. 1829), a man of science,
whose photographs of the stars have aided
the advance of astronomical knowledge.
Roberts-Austen, W. Chandler, F.R.S. (b.
1843) ; became the Queen's assay-master in
1882.
Robertson, Frederick William (b. 1816,
d. 1853), became minister of Trinity chapel,
Brighton, in 1847. His sermons were pub-
lished after his death, and attained a wide
popularity.
Robertson, George Groom (b. 1842), born
in Aberdeen ; became professor of philo-
sophy of mind and logic at University
College, London, in 1866, resigned 1892.
He has edited .Mind since 1876.
Robertson, James Patrick Baimerinan (b.
1.S10) ; became Lord Advocate for Scotland
in 1888, and Lord Justice General of Scot-
kind in 1891.
Robertson, Thomas (b. 1829, d. 1871),
English dramatist, wrote David Garrick
(1864), Society (1865), Ours (1866), Caste
(1867), School (1869), Home (1869), etc.
Robertson, William (b. 1721, d. 1793), his-
torian, educated at Edinburgh ; entered the
Presbyterian ministry (1741), and in 1743
was presented to the living of Gladsmuir, in
East Lothian. In 1758 he was appointed to
a church in Edinburgh, became principal of
the university in 1762, and in 1764 was
made royal historiographer for Scotland.
His chief works are histories of Scotland
(1759), Charles V. (1769), and America
(1777).
Roberval, Gilles Personne de (b. 1602, d.
1675), became professor of mathematics in
the College Royale about 1633.
Robespierre, Maximilien Marie Isidore (b.
1758, d. 1794), French revolutionist, born at
Arras ; was returned to the States -General
as member for the Tiers-Etat (1789); re-
presented Paris in the National Convention
which met in 1792, and became a leader of
the party of the Mountain, which finally
triumphed over that of the Girondists
(May, 1793). The fall of Brissot and his
colleagues was followed by the Reign of
Terror. Robespierre exercised the power of
a dictator, and a Committee of Public Safety
was established, which proscribed all who
fell under his suspicion, till at last his
tyranny excited a party against him in the
Convention itself, and he was guillotined.
Robins, Benjamin (b. 1707, d. 1751),
mathematician ; published New Principles
of Gunnery (1742), and was the real author
of Lord Anson's Voyage Round the World
(1748).
Robinson, Edward (b. 1794, d. 1813), an
American philologist and Biblical scholar.
Robinson, Henry Crabb (b. 1775, d. 1867),
man of letters ; was on terms of friendship
with the leading literary men of his time.
His Diary, Reminiscences, and Correspondence
appeared in 1869.
Robinson, Sir Hercules George Robert,
Bart. (b. 1824), became successively governor
of Hong Kong (1859), Ceylon (1865), and
New South Wales (1872), and as high com-
missioner for the latter colony annexed the
Fiji Islands in 1874. He was governor of
New Zealand from 1876 to 1880, when he
was appointed governor of the Cape of
Bob
(647)
Reg
Good Hope and high commissioner of
South Africa.
Robinson, Sir John Charles (b. 1834),
was art -superintendent of the South Ken-
sington Museum from 1853 to 1869, when
he became crown surveyor of pictures.
Robinson, John Richard (b. 1828), jour-
nalist; in 1868 became manager, and in
1887 editor, of the JJaily News.
Robison, John (b. 1739, d. 1805), mathe-
matician ; was appointed professor of natural
philosophy at Edinburgh in 1774.
Robson, Frederick (b. 1821, d. 1864), a
popular low comedian.
Roby, Henry John, M.P. (b. 1830), scholar,
educated at Cambridge ; is the author of a
well-known Latin Grammar (1871-4), and
edited Justinian.
Rochambeau, Jean Baptiste Donation de
Vimeur, Comte de (b. 1725, d. 1807), marshal
of France ; distinguished himself in the
Seyen Years' war and the American war
of Independence ; in 1790 became com-
mander of the army of the north, but re-
signed in 1792, and narrowly escaped
execution during the Reign of Terror.
Rochefort-Lu^ay, Victor Henri, Comte
de (b. 1830), French politician ; became pro-
minent through his attacks on the second
Empire, both in the Figaro, the Lanteme,
and the Marseillaise, and as a member of
the Chamber of Deputies (1809-70). He at
first supported the Commune, but after-
wards fled from Paris, was arrested, and
deported to New Caledonia, whence he
escaped in 1874. He started the Intran-
sigeant in 1880, and subsequently became a
supporter of General Boulanger.
Rochester, John Wilmot, Earl of (b. 1647,
d. 1680), a dissipated favourite of Charles
n. His songs and satires were witty, but
obscene.
Rockingnam, Charles Watson Went-
worth, Marquis of (b. 1730, d. 1782), was
prime minister and First Lord of the Trea-
sury 1765-6, and repealed the Stamp Act in
the latter year. He afterwards opposed the
Administration of Lord North, and again
became Premier in 1782.
Rodbertus, Carl Johann (b. 1805, d. 1875),
the founder of scientific socialism ; was
elected to the Prussian National Assembly in
1848, and in 1849 represented Berlin in the
Chamber. His chief contribution to eco-
nomic science is his development of the
Ricardian theory of value.
Roderic (d. 711), last Visigoth King of
Spain ; usurped the throne of Witiza in
709. In 711 a Saracen army crossed over
from Africa, and defeated Roderic at Xeres,
on the Guadalete. Hia fate is unknown.
Roebuck, John Arthur (b. 1801, d. 1879),
politician, brought up in Canada, cametoEnp--
land in 1824 ; was called to the bar in 18-32,
and entered Parliament thesameyear; joined
O'Connell in resisting coercion in Ireland,
and advocated the adoption of the ballot
and other radical measures ; overthrew the
Aberdeen Ministry by his motion for an in-
quiry into the condition of the army in the
Crimea. His views afterwards underwent
a great change, in which he was not fol-
lowed by many of his Liberal supporters.
Roemer, Olaus (b. 1644, d. 1710), Danish
astronomer ; became professor at Copen-
hagen in 1681. His chief discovery was
that of the velocity of light.
Roger, Bishop of Salisbury (d. 1139) ; be-
came steward and chaplain to Henry I.,
and in 1107 was made justiciar; organised
the Curia Regis, and founded the Court of
Exchequer. His imprisonment by Stephen
in 113e> was one cause of the war between
that king and Matilda.
Roger of Wendover (d. 1237), English
chronicler ; was a monk in St. Albans
abbey. Matthew Paris made much use of
his stores Historiarum.
Roger I, Count of Sicily (1. 1031, d. 1100),
youngest sou of Tancred of Hauteville ; in
1058 went to Italy to join his brothers, and
aided them in completing the conquest of
Calabria ; in 1060 crossed over to Sicily,
and, after thirty years' warfare, obtained
possession of the whole island.
Roger IL, King of Sicily (b. 1097, d. 1154),
was son of the preceding, whom he suc-
ceeded as count. He gained some territory
from his cousin William of Apulia, after
whose death, in 1127, he was acknowledged
as Duke of Apulia, Calabria, and Naples,
receiving his investiture from Pope Honorius
II. (1128). Soon afterwards the Prince of
Capua did homage to him as his over-lord.
In 1129 he received from the anti-pope
Auacletus the title of King of Sicily.
Rogers, John (d. 1555), the protomartyr
in the Marian persecution ; became chaplain
to the company of Merchant Adventurers at
Antwerp, and was associated with Tyndale
and Coverdale in their labours on the Bible;
after the accession of Edward VI. was made
prebendary of St. Paul's. He was burnt at
Smithfield.
Rogers, Samuel (b. 1763, d. 1855), poet;
was the son of a London banker, and entered
his father's business. His chief work was
The Pleasures of Memory (1792). He is now
better remembered as a leader of society and
a patron of art and literature than as a poet.
Bog
(648)
Bom
Rogers, Woods (7. 173'J), navigator; com-
manded ;IM expedition to the South Sea in
170.\ and iVM'iie.i Alexander Selkirk from
the island of Juau Fernaudex.
Rohan, Louis Kern' Kdoiurd, Prince de,
Cardinal </>. 17ol, d. L802), Bi.-ho]>.,i Stras-
bur^ ; in his eil'orts to obtaiu the favour
of Marie Antoinette, became the dupe of
Madame Lamotte in tho affair of the Dia-
mond Xecklace, and was imprisoned in the
Bastille (178,3), but acquitted ill 1780. Ill
1SU1 he resigned his bishopric.
Roland de la Platiere, Jean Marie (b.
1734. d. 1793), French revolutionist ; was
inspector-general of manufactories at Lyons
when the revolution broke out ; was minister
of the interior from March to June, 1792,
and was recalled after August 10th, but
lost influence with the Girondius, and re-
signed in January, 1793. Proscribed iu
June, he fled from Paris, and in November
committed suicide near Rouen.
Roland, Marie Jeanne Phlipon (b. 1754,
d. 1793), wife of the preceding; was
daughter of an engraver at Paris, and
married Roland in 1780. She sympathised
with his revolutionary ideas, and exercised
much influence over the policy of the
Girondist party. On the proscription of
the Girondists she was confined in the
Abbaye, and, after five months' imprison-
ment, put to death. Her Memoires were
written during her confinement.
Rolleston, George, M.D. (b. 1829, d. 1881),
man of science ; became Linacre professor of
anatomy and physiology at Oxford in 1860.
He published fortns of Animal Life (1870),
etc.
Rollin, Charles (b. 1661, d. 1741), French
historian ; twice became rector of the Uni-
versity of Paris. He wrote an Ancient His-
tory, etc.
RoUo, or Rolf, Duke of Normandy (d.
932), was exiled from Norway by Harald
Harfa.gr ; in 876 ascended the Seine, and
gained possession of Rouen ; continued his
devastations till 911, when Charles the
Simple ceded to him Neustria and Brittany.
For these lands, which became known as the
duchy of Normandy, Rollo did homage to
the French king, and was soon afterwards
baptised at Rouen.
Romanes, George John (b. 1848), man of
science , educated at Cambridge ; has pub-
lished The Star-fish, Jelly-fish, and Sea-
Urchins (1885), Mental Evolution in Animals
(1883), etc.
Romano, Giulio [Pippi] (b. 1492, d. 1546),
painter and architect, born at Rome ; was a
disciple of Raphael. His works are chiefly
He died at Mantua.
Romanus I., " Lecapenus," Emperor of
the Kast. ((/. IMS), became the associate of
Constantino Vli., with the title oi ( ';i-sir, in
'Jin, and gained complete control over the
government. In 944 he was dethroned by
his son, Stephen, and forced to enter a
monastery,
Romanus II. (b. 939, d. 963), ascended
tii • throne in 9.39, after poisoning his lather,
Constantino VII.
Romanus III., "Argyrus" (b. 9G8, d.
1034), succeeded Constautine VIII. in 1028.
Romanus IV., "Diogenes" (d. 1101);
became emperor in 1067, on his marriage
with Eudoxia, widow of Constantine X. He
was successful in three campaigns against
the Turks, but in 1071 was defeated and
taken prisoner by Alp-Arslan at Manzikert.
On his return to Constantinople he was
forced to abdicate in favour of Michael
VII., by whom he was deprived of his
sight.
Romanzoff, Peter Alexandrovitch, Count
(b. circa 1730, d. 1796), Russian general ;
distinguished himself as commander- in -chief
against the Turks, whom he forced to accede
to the Treaty of Kainardji (1774). In 1787
he retired from court owing to his jealousy
of Potemkin.
Romanzoff, Nicholas, Count (b. 1753, d.
1826), statesman and diplomatist, son of the
preceding ; promoted the interests of edu-
cation and commerce, and bore the expenses
of Kotzebue's scientific expedition.
Romilly, John, Baron (b. 1802, d. 1874),
son of Sir Samuel Romilly ; was called to
the bar in 1827 ; became Solicitor- General
in 1848, Attorney-General in 1850, and
Master of the Rolls in 1851. In 1866 he was
raised to the peerage.
Romilly, Sir Samuel (6. 1757, d. 1818),
English lawyer, descended from a French
Huguenot who came to England on the
revocation of the Edict of Nantes ; was
called to the bar in 1783 ; in 1806 entered
Parliament, and was appointed Solicitor-
General. The state of the criminal law
had long been his special study, and he
was now enabled to effect some important
reforms.
Romney, George (b. 1734, d. 1802),
painter, born at Dalton, in Lancashire ;
after receiving some lessons from a country
artist, came to London in 1 762 ; visited
France in 1764, and Italy 1773-5 ; on his
return became the rival of Reynolds as a
portrait-painter ; also gained distinction as a
painter of historical pictures.
Romulus, a mythical King of Rome, said
to have founded the city in 753 B.C.
Bon
(649)
Bos
Konsard, Pierre de (b. 1524, d. 1585), a
celebrated French poet. His works consist
chiefly of odes, elegies, and epigrams.
Rooke, Sir George (b. 1650, d. 1709), Eng-
lish admiral ; burnt the French fleet at La
Hogue (16U2) ; in 1702 destroyed the plate
fleet, with its French convoy, in the harbour
of Vigo ; took part with Sir Cloudesley
Shovel, in the capture of Gibraltar (1704).
Roon, Albrecht Theodor Emil, General
Field-Marshal Count von (b. 1803, d. 187y),
born in Ponierania ; became minister of war
in 1859, and reorganised the Prussian army.
In 1871 he retired from public life. His
Principles of Physical, National, and Political
Geography were published in 1832.
Rosa, Salvator (b. 1615, d. 1673), painter,
born near Naples ; studied under Francan-
zani, but learnt more during his wanderings
among the Apennines, the wild scenery of
which he reproduced in his landscapes. He
visited Rome in 1634, and spent his time
between that city and Naples till 1647, when
his share in Masaniello's revolution com-
pelled him finally to quit his native town.
After residing at Florence 1647-52, he
returned to Rome, where he passed the
remainder of his life.
Reseller, Wilhelm (b. 1817), a German
economist ; one of the founders of the his-
torical school. He was appointed professor
of political economy at Leipzig in 1848.
Roscius, Quintus (d. 61 B.C.), a celebrated
Roman actor.
Roscoe, Henry Enfield, Sir, M.P. (b. 1833),
grandson of William Roscoe ; was professor
of chemistry at Owens College, Manchester,
1858-86. He is joint author, with Professor
Bunsen of Heidelberg, of Gasometry (1857),
and has edited Kirchhoff's Researches on the
Solar Spectrum (1862).
Roscoe, William (b. 1753, d. 1831), his-
torical biographer, born in Liverpool ; was
admitted an attorney of the Court of King's
Bench in 1774. He published The Life of
Lorenzo de1 Medici (1796), and the Life and
Pontificate of Leo X. (1805), etc.
Rose, George (b. 1744, d. 1818), was
president of the Board of Trade under Pitt
and Grenville.
Rose, Gustav (b. 1798, d. 1873), German
chemist ; accompanied Humboldt in his
Russian expedition, of which he gave an
account in his Journey to the Ural, the Altai,
and the Caspian Sea (1837-42). He also
published Elemente der Krystallographie
(1838), etc.
Rose, Henry John (6. 1800, d. 1873); Arch-
deacon of Bedford ; edited Neander's Church
History, and wrote a reply to Rowland Wil-
liams' paper in Essays and Reviews, etc.
Rose, Hugh James (i>. 1795, d. 1838),
brother of the preceding ; was a prominent
member of the advanced section of th^ High
Church party, and a zealous opponent of
German rationalism. He was appointed
principal of King's College in 1836.
Rosebery, Archibald Philip Primrose, fifth
Earl of (b. 1847) ; was First Commissioner of
Works 1884, and was Chairman of the first
London County Council ; became Foreign Sec-
retary under Mr. Gladstone in 1886 and 1892.
Rosecrans, William Stark (b. 1819),
American general ; commanded the Union
forces in West Virginia during the Civil
war, and gained an important victory at
Corinth (October, 1862). He was American
minister to Mexico in 1868.
RoseUini, Ippolito (b. 1800, d. 1843), born
at Pisa, studied Oriental languages under
Mezzofanti in Bologna, and was associated
with Champollion in an expedition to Egypt,
the results of which he published in Alonu-
menti delV Egitto e della Nubia.
Rosen, Friedrich August (b. 1805, d. 1837),
born in Hanover ; was in 1836 appointed
professor of Oriental languages in University
College, London, where he afterwards be-
came professor of Sanscrit.
Roseninuller, Ernst Friedrich Karl (b.
1768, d. 1835), professor of Oriental lan-
guages in the university of Leipzig ; pub-
lished Scholia in Vetus Testamentum, etc.
Ross, Alexander (b. 1699, d. 1784), poet,
born in Aberdeenshire ; wrote Helenore. a
pastoral poem, and many ballads in the
Scotch dialect.
Ross, Alexander Milton (b. 1832), an
eminent physician, born in Canada ; also
distinguished as a naturalist.
Ross, Sir James Clark (b. 1800, d. 1862),
admiral, nephew of Sir John Ross ; served
in the naval expeditions for the discovery
of the North-West Passage 1818-33 ; dis-
covered the north magnetic pole in 1831 j
commanded the expedition of the Erebus
and Terror to the Antarctic regions 1839-43.
Ross, Sir John (b. 1777, d. 1856), admiral;
in 1818 commanded an expedition in search
of a North-West Passage ; was again em-
ployed on an Arctic voyage of discovery
1829-33 ; in 1850 vainly endeavoured to find
Sir John Franklin. He published a Life of
Admiral Lord de Saumarez, etc.
Ross, Sir William Charles (b. 1794, d.
1860), a celebrated miniature-painter.
Rosse, William Parsons, Earl of (b. 1800,
Kos
( 650 )
Ron
d. 1867), a distinguished practical as-
tronomer and constructor of reflecting
telescopes.
Rossetti, Gabriel Charles Dante (b. 1828,
d. 1882), poet and painter ; was the son of
Gabriele Rossetti, an Italian refugee, who
settled in London in 1824. He studied at
the Royal Academy, and under Ford Madox
Brown, and became the leading spirit of the
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which was
founded in 1848. Among his chief pictures
is Dante's Vision, the property of the Liver-
pool Corporation. His chief volumes of
original poetry are foetus (1870), and Bal-
lads and Sonnets (1881). Dante and his Circle
(1874), consists of translations of the early
Italian poets. His elder sister, MAEIA
FEANCESCA (b. 1827, d. 1876), published A
Shadow of Dante (1871), etc. WILLIAM
MICHAEL ROSSETTI (b. 1829), is a well-
known literary and art-critic. CHEISTINA
GEOBQENA. (b. 1830), the youngest member
of the family, has published Goblin Market
(1862), The Prince's Progress (1866), and
other Tolumes of poetry.
Rossi, John Charles Felix, R.A. (*. 1762,
d. 1839), an English sculptor.
Rossi, Pellegrino (*. 1787, _ d. 1848),
Italian statesman, was exiled in 1815 for
espousing the cause of Murat ; escaped to
Geneva, where he became professor of
Roman law (1819), and a member of the
Diet (1832). He settled in France in 1832,
became professor of political economy at
the College de France, and in 1845 went
as French ambassador to Rome. He was
called to the first ministry of Pius IX., and
schemed for an Italian confederacy, with
the pope as president, but was assassinated
the same year.
Rossini, Gioachino Antonio (b. 1792, d.
1868), the greatest of the Italian opera com-
posers ; was the son of a strolling horn-
player. He studied music under Mattei at
the lyceum of Bologna. Among his chief
operas are Tancredi (1813), II Barbiere di
Seviglia (1816), and Guglielmo Tell (1829).
He also composed a Stabat Mater (1842),
and other church music. From 1824 on-
wards he lived chiefly in Paris.
Rosslyn, Alexander Wedderburn, Earl of
(b. 1733, d. 1805), lawyer and statesman ;
was called to the bar in 1757 ; became
Solicitor-General in 1771, Attorney- General
in 1778, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas
in 1780, and was Lord Chancellor 1793-
1801.
Rost, Reinhold (b. 1822), Orientalist ; has
published works on Burmese law, etc.
Rothscnild, the name of a celebrated
Jewish family of bankers and financiers.
MEYEE ANSELM ROTHSCHILD (b. 1743, d.
1812), born at Frankfort, was designed for
the priesthood, but showed more aptitude
for commercial pursuits, and laid the foun-
dations of his family's fortune by his success
as the banker jf the Elector of Hesse -
Cassel. His sou, NATHAN (b. 1777, d. 18o6),
came to England in 18UO as agent for his
father, after whose death he greatly ex-
tended his business, acting in copartnership
with his brothers, who resided in various
European capitals. His eldest son, LIONEL
DE ROTHSCHILD (b. 1808, d. 1879), was
elected Whig member for the City of
London in 1847, but did not take his seat
until the passing of the Jewish Disabilities
Bill (1858). NATHANIEL MEYEE (b. 1840),
eldest sou of Lionel, was raised to the
peerage in 1885.
Rotteck, Carl von (b. 1775, d. 1840), was
professor of history, and of politics, at Frei-
burg. He published a Universal History.
Roubillac, Louis Francois (6. 1695, d.
1762), sculptor, born at Lyons ; settled in
England about 1744.
Rouget de Lisle. {See Lisle.]
Rouher, Eugene (b. 1814, d. 1884), French
statesman, was Louis Napoleon's prime
minister 1849-51 : became minister of agri-
culture and commerce in 1856. and nego-
tiated the Cobden Treaty (I860) ; was
appointed minister of state in 1863 ; on the
fall of the Empire fled to England, but
represented a Corsican constituency in the
General Assembly 1871-9.
Roumania, Alexander John I., Prince of
[John Couza] (b. 1820, d. 1873), at the
close of the Crimean war became ruler over
the united principalities of Wallachia and
Moldavia, under the suzerainty of the Porte.
He was at first popular, but having at-
tempted to make himself absolute was
forced to abdicate in 1 866.
Pvoumania, Charles I.. King of (b. 1839),
second son of Prince Charles Anton of
Hohenzollern - Sigmaringen, was chosen
Prince of Roumania in 1866. He aided the
Russians against the Turks in the war of
1877. By the Treaty of San Stefano (1878)
the Roumanians became independent, but
were forced to cede Bessarabia to Russia in
exchange for the Dobrudsha. ELIZABETH,
Queen of Roumania (b. 1843), daughter of
the Prince of Wied, has published several
volumes of poetry under the pseudonym of
" Carmen Sylva."
Rousseau, Jean Baptiste (b. 1670, d. 1741),
French lyrical poet ; was exiled in 1712 on
the charge of having written some satirical
verses. He died at Brussels.
Rousseau, Jean Jacques (b. 1712, d. 1778),
Boa
(651)
Riid
French philosopher, son of a watchmaker at
Geneva ; was apprenticed to an engraver,
but made his escape into Savoy (1728),
where he was found by a priest, who en-
trusted him to the care of Madame de
Warens at Annecy. During the ensuing
years the greater part of his time was spent
in her house, but he finally quarrelled with
her and went to Paris (1741), whence in
1742 he accompanied the French ambassador
to Venice as secretary. In 1 750 he gained a
prize, offered by the Academy of Dijon, by
an essay attacking the influence of the arts
and sciences on society. Of his subsequent
writings the following are the most famous—
Julie, ou la Noiwelle Heloise, a romance
(1759), Du Contrat Social (1762), axaiJSmile,
a philosophical romance treating of educa-
tion (176^). The years 1766-7 he spent in
England as the guest of Hume, but quar-
relled with him, and returned to France.
Rousseau, Theodore (b. 1812, d. 1867), a
French landscape-painter, celebrated for his
fidelity to nature.
Eouth, Edward John, F.E.S. (b. 1831),
mathematician, educated at Cambridge ;
was elected to a fellowship at Peterhouse,
and has become famous as a successful tutor.
Routh, Martin Joseph (b. 1755, d. 1854),
scholar, educated at Oxford ; became presi-
dent of Magdalen College in 1791. He
published Reliquice Socrce (1814-8), etc.
Rowbotham, John Frederick (b. 1854),
has published a History of Music (1885),
etc.
Rowe, Nicholas (b. 1673, d. 1718), dra-
matist ; born in Bedfordshire, son of a
barrister ; wrote Jane Shore, The Fair Peni-
tent, and other tragedies, and translated
Lucan's Pharsalia. In 1715 he became poet
laureate.
Rpwlandson, Thomas (b. 1756, d. 1827),
studied at the Eoyal Academy schools and
at Paris. He is chiefly remembered as a
powerful caricaturist and for his illustrations
to Doctor Syntax's Three Tours (1813), etc.
Rowley, William, English dramatist, was
a contemporary of Shakespeare. He wrote
the Witch of Edmonton (1658), etc.
Roxburgh, William (b. 1759, d. 1815),
physician and botanist ; became keeper of
the botanical gardens at Calcutta in 1793.
He published Plants of the Coast of Coro-
mandel (1795-1819), etc.
Roy, William (d. 1790), general, originated
the first geometrical survey of Great Britain
(1784). He wrote The Military Antiquities
of the Romans in North Britain.
Boyer- Collard, Pierre Paul (6. 1763,rf. 1845),
statesman and philosopher ; took an active
part in the revolution during its earlier
stages, but withdrew during the Terror,
and, except for a short interval in 17i>7,
when he sat in the Council of Five Hundred,
remained in retirement till 1811. He was
then appointed professor of the history of
philosophy at the Sorbonne. Under the
Bourbons he became chancellor of state, and
led the political party called "Doctrin-
aires."
Rubens, Peter Paul (b. 1577, d. 1640), a
celebrated Flemish painter, born at Siegen,
in Westphalia ; after studying under Otto
Van Veen and others, journeyed into Italy,
whence he was sent by the Duke of Mantua,
on a political mission to Madrid; in 1608
settled at Antwerp, at the invitation of
the Archduke Albert and the Infanta Isa-
bella. In 1620 he adorned the walls of the
Luxembourg with pictures illustrating
scenes in the life of Marie de' Medici.
He subsequently served the Infanta Isa-
bella as a diplomatist in Madrid (1G2S)
and England (1629). The Descent from
the Cross at Antwerp is considered his
masterpiece.
Rubinstein, Anton Gregor (b. 1830), Eus-
sian pianist, born near Jassy ; studied under
Villoing at Moscow, under Liszt at Paris,
and under Dehn at Berlin ; in 1848 entered
the service of the Grand Duchess Helen of
Russia ; became principal of the St. Peters-
burg Conservatoire in 1862. He has made
several European tours, and visited England
on eight occasions.
Riicker, Arthur William (b. 1848), pro-
fessor of physics in the Eoyal College of
Science, South Kensington ; has written
numerous papers on scientific subjects.
Riickert, Friedrich (b. 1788, d. 1866), poet
and Orientalist ; was professor of Oriental
languages at Erlangen 1826-41, and at
Berlin 1841-8. He is remembered chiefly
as the author of Liebesfruhling (1821), and
other volumes of German lyrics.
Rudbeck, Olaf (b. 1630, d. 1702), Swedish
physician and antiquary, discovered the
lymphatic vessels in 1650 ; became professor
of botany and anatomy at LTpsala ; wrote
Atlantica sire Manheim, etc. His son, OLAP
(b. 1660, d. 1740), published works on botany
and natural history.
Ruddiman, Thomas (b. 1G74, d. J757), a
Scotch grammarian and critic ; in 1714 pub-
lished Rudiments of ^ the Latin Tongue, which
is still a text-book in Scotch schools.
Riidiger, Feodor Vasilievich, Count (b.
1790, d. 1856), a Eussian general ; sent to
assist the Austrians against the Hungariani
in 1849.
Kud
(652 )
Bus
Rudolf, or Rodolf L, King of Germany
(b. 1218, d. 1291), founder of the Hapsburg
dynasty; was elected Emperor in 1273,
and, by his concessions to Gregory XI. at
his coronation, ended the feud with the
pope. A war with Ottocar, King of
Bohemia, was terminated by the defeat and
death of the latter in 1278. His son, Wen-
ceslaus, did homage to Rudolf for Bohemia
and Moravia. Rudolf curbed the power of
the nobles, and granted charters to many
towns.
Rudolf IL (b. 1552, d. 1612), was elected
King of the Romans in 1575, and succeeded
his father, Maximilian II., as emperor in
1576. He caused great discontent by im-
posing heavy taxes, and precluding the
Protestants from the free exercise of their
religion. Hi a belief in astrology induced
him to patronise Kepler and Tycho Brahe.
Rufinus (b. circa 350, d. circa 410), Latin
father, became a priest at Aquileia, but
afterwards attached himself to St. Jerome,
and followed him to the East, where he
suffered much at the hands of the Arians.
He afterwards established a monastery on
Mount Olivet. Hi a version of Origen gave
rise to a bitter dispute with Jerome. He
died in Sicily.
Rugendas, Georg Philip (b. 1666, d. 1742),
& German painter of battle-scenes.
RuHmkorff, Heinrich Daniel (b. 1803, d.
1877), electrician, born at Hanover; in-
vented the famous " Ruhmkorff coil " in
1851.
Runnfren, David (b. 1723, d. 1798), phi-
lologist ; became professor of eloquence and
history at Leyden in 1761. He wrote Eulo-
T, Hemsterhusii, etc.
Rumbold, Sir Horace, Bart. (b. 1829),
entered the diplomatic service in 1849 ; was
appointed minister to Greece in 1884, and to
Holland in 1888.
Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, Count
(b. 1753, d. 1814), man of science, born in
Massachusetts ; fought on the royalist side
during the war of Independence ; in 1784
entered the Bavarian service, and became
minister of war ; in 1802 removed to Paris,
where he married the widow of Lavoisier.
Runciman, Alexander (b. 1736, d. 1785),
an eminent Scotch painter.
Runeberg-, Johan Ludwig (b. 1804, d.
1877), Swedish poet, studied at the uni-
versity of Abo ; was rector of the college
of Borga 1847-50 ; published idylls, lyrics,
and other poems.
Runjeet Singh (b. 1780, d. 1839), Maha-
rajah of the Punjaub ; was the son of one
of the twelve Sirdars of the Sikhs. After
establishing his authority over the territory
west of the Sutlej, he proclaimed himself
Rajah of the Punjaub (1812;, and in 1819
assumed the title of Maharajah. He after-
wards annexed Mooltan (1818), Cashmere
(1819), Peshawar (182!)), and other places.
He maintained peaceful relations with the
English.
Rupert, Prince (b. 1619, d. 1682), was the
third sou of Frederick, King of Bohemia,
and Elizabeth, daughter of James I. He
served in the Royalist army during the Civil
war, and distinguished himself by his im-
petuous courage. After the Restoration he
rendered great services as a naval com-
mander against the Dutch. His later years
were devoted chiefly to scientific pursuits.
Ruric (d. 879), the semi-mythical founder
of the Russian empire ; is said to have been
the leader of a body of Northmen or
" Varangians," who crossed the Baltic
from Scandinavia at the invitation of the
Slavonians, or Finns. Ruric conquered the
surrounding tribes, and established his
capital at Novgorod.
Rush, Benjamin (b. 1745, d. 1813), Ameri-
can physician and politician, born at Phila-
delphia, studied at Edinburgh ; was re-
turned to Congress in 1776, and signed the
Declaration of Independence ; became pro-
fessor in the Institute of Medicine at
Philadelphia in 1791.
Rush-worth, John (b. circa 1607, d. 1690),
became assistant- clerk of the House of
Commons in 1640, and secretary to Fairfax
in 1643. He was in the habit of taking
notes of all public transactions, which fur-
nished the material of his Historical Col-
lections. These were published in four parts
(1659, 1689, 1692, 1701).
Ruskin, John (b. 1819) was born in
London, and educated at Oxford. In 1843
appeared the first volume of Afodern
Painters, which created a revolution in
modern art and the estimation of artistic
qualities. The remaining volumes were
published in 1846, 1856, and I860. Of
Ruskin's other works on art, the chief are
the Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849), and
Stones of Venice (1851-3). About 1860 he
became deeply interested in the social prob-
lems of the age, and published Unto this
Last (1862), and Munera Pulveris (1872).
Among his later works are Sesame and
Lilies (1865), Tlie Ethics of the Dust, and
The Crown of Wild Olives (I860), and Prce-
terita, a charming autobiography.
Russell, Sir Charles (b. 1833), was called
to the bar in 1859 ; entered Parliament
in 1880, and became Attorney -General in
1886 and in 1892.
Rns
(653)
RusseU, William Clark (b. 1844), has
published The Wreck of the Grosvenor, and
other nautical novels.
Russell, Henry Chamberlaine, became
Government astronomer of New South
Wales in 1863.
RusseU, John, Earl (b. 1792, d. 1878),
statesman, third son of the sixth Duke of
Bedford, was educated at Westminster and
Edinburgh ; entered Parliament as a Whig
in 1813 ; became an advocate of parlia-
mentary reform ; was instrumental in the
repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts
(1828), and the passing of the Catholic
Belief Act (1829) ; was Paymaster- General
under Lord Grey, 1830-4, and drew up the
Government Eeform Bill (1832) ; was Home
Secretary (1835-9), and Colonial Secretary
(1839-41) under Lord Melbourne ; led the
Opposition 1841-6 ; was Prime Minister
1846-52 ; went as British plenipotentiary to
the Vienna Conference (1855) ; was Foreign
Secretary under Lord Palmerston 1859-65 ;
again became Prune Minister in 1865, but
resigned on the defeat of his Eeform Bill in
1866. Earl Russell published an Essay on
the History of tlie English Government and
Constitution (1823), and numerous other
works.
RusseU, Michael (b. 1781, d. 1848), be-
came Bishop of Glasgow in 1837. His works
were numerous.
RusseU, Lord William (b. 1639, d. 1683),
became a leader of the Whig Opposition to
Charles II., and favoured the Exclusion
Bill. Having been charged with complicity
in the "Bye House Plot," he was con-
demned to death, and executed in Lincoln's
Inn Fields. During his trial he was nobly
assisted by his wife, LADY RACHEL BUSSELL
(b. 1636, d. 1723), daughter of the Earl of
Southampton.
RusseU, William (b, 1746, d. 1794), Scotch
miscellaneous writer. After serving his
apprenticeship to a bookseller in Edinburgh,
he came to London (1767), where he found
occupation in the printing trade. His chief
work was his History of Modern Europe
(1779-84).
RusseU, William Howard (b. 1821), be-
came attached to the Tunes in 1843, and in
1854 went to the Crimea as its war corre-
spondent. His letters created great con-
sternation in Great Britain, and caused the
fall of the Aberdeen ministry. They were
republished under the title of The War
(1855). He afterwards represented the
Times in the Mutiny, the American Civil
war, the Austro -Prussian war, and the
Franco -German war.
^ Rutherford, Daniel (b. 1749, d. 1819),
Scotch physician : made important dis-
coveries in chemistry.
Rutherford, Samuel (b. circa 1600, d.
1661), Scottish preacher, became minister
of Anwoth in 1627. In 1636 was deprived
of his office and was banished to Aberdeen,
where he remained till 1638. In 1639 he
became professor of divinity at St. Andrews,
and in 1641 was a commissioner at the West-
minster Assembly. His Lex Rex led to his
dismissal from all his offices, and his death
prevented his trial for high treason. He
wrote Exercitationes de Gratia, Trial and
Triumph of Faith , Letters, etc.
Rutland, John James Robert Manners,
Duke of (b. 1818), has, since his first en-
trance into Parliament in 1841, been a
leading member of the Conservative party,
distinguishing himself especially by his zeal
in the agricultural interest. He was Post-
master-General 1874-80, and again in 1885.
In 1887 he succeeded to the peerage.
Ruysbrock, or Rubruquis, William de (b.
circa 1225, d. after 1293), a Franciscan friar ;
was in 1253 sent, with two companions, by
Louis LX. of France, to visit Sartach, a
Mongol prince, who was supposed to be a
Christian. On arriving at his camp they
discovered their mistake, but continued their
journey to the encampment of his father,
Batu Khan, on the banks of the Volga, and,
after spending some months at the court of
Maugu Khan, the Tartar Emperor, journeyed
through Armenia, Persia, and Asia Minor
to Tripoli, in Syria. Here Ruysbrock re-
mained, in compliance with an order from
his provincial, and compiled an account of
his travels, which is extant.
Ruysch, Frederic (b. 1638, d. 1731), Dutch
physician ; became professor of anatomy at
Amsterdam in 1666, and of physic in 1685.
Ruyter. [See De Buyter.j
Rydberg, Viktor (b. 1829) Swedish man
of letters : has published The Last Athenian,
a novel (1859), Magic in the Middle Ages
(1864), Teutonic Mythology (1886), etc.
Ryland, William Wynne (b. 1732, d.
1783), was engraver to George III. He
was executed for forgery.
Ryle, John Charles (b. 1816), was ap-
pointed Bishop of Liverpool in 1880. Ho
has published Hotne Truths, etc.
Rymer, Thomas (b. 1639, d. 1714), anti-
quary ; was appointed royal historiographer
in 1692. He edited Feedera, consisting of
the state documents concerning the relation*
of England with foreign states.
Saa
(654)
Sad
Saad ed Been (d. 1599), Turkish historian ;
author of T<tdji~<il-Towarik, a history of the
Ottoman empire to the year 1520.
Saadi [Mosli Eddin] (b. 1176, d. 1291),
Persian poet, whose chief work is Gultstan,
which has been translated into most of the
European languages. He fought against the
Brahmins, Crusaders, and Turks, and was
made prisoner by the last.
Saavedra. [See Cervantes.]
Saavedra-Faxardo, Diego da (b. 1584, d.
1618), a distinguished Spanish diplomatist
and author.
Sabatier, Antoine (b. 1742, d. 1817),
French writer ; author of Les Trois Siecles
de la Litterature Fran$aise, Dictionnaire de
FAntiquite Paienne, etc.
Sabbatini, Andre [Andrea di Salerno] (*.
1480, d. 1545), Italian painter, pupil of
Raffaelle. His pictures are at Naples, Gaeta,
and Salerno.
Sabbatini, Lorenzo (d. 1577), painter,
whose pictures were sometimes mistaken for
those of his namesake. He is sometimes
called " Lorenzino da Bologna."
Sabellius (3rd century), African theolo-
gian, whose opinions on the Trinity were
condemned by Dionysius of Alexandria.
Sabina, Poppaea (d. 65), second wife of
Nero, having been his mistress when mar-
ried to Otho ; was killed by a kick from the
tyrant.
Sabine, General Sir Edward (b. 1788, d.
1883), English physicist; made several
-voyages to the Arctic regions for scientific
purposes, and published The Pendulum and
other Experiments (1825), and an edition of
Humboldt's Cosmos ; was elected president
of the Royal Society in 1861.
Sacchetti, Franco (b. circa 1335, d. circa
1400), Florentine writer, friend of Boccaccio,
and author of Novelle and Battaglia delle
Vecchi e delle Fanciulle.
SaccHi, Andrea (b. 1591, d. 1661), Roman
painter, patronised by Urban VIII., and a
pupil of Albano.
SaccMni, Anton Maria (*. 1735, d. 1786),
Neapolitan composer ; was invited to London
by Burney, and afterwards went to Paris.
He composed Jlfontezuma, Edipo a Coiono, ana
many other operas.
Sacher-Masoch, Leopold von (b. 1836),
Austrian novelist, born at Lemberg, whose
works, dealing chietiy with Galiciau life, in-
clude Cam's Inheritance, Maria Theresa und
die Freimaurer, Le Cabinet Noir de Lembergt
and some historical and dramatic works.
SachevereU, Henry (b. 1672, d. 1724),
English clergyman, who was impeached in
1710 for some High Tory sermons preached
at Derby and St. Paul's. The lightness of
his sentence was regarded as a triumph by
his party.
Sachs, Hans (b. 1494, d. 1578), German
meistersinger, by trade a shoemaker, of
Nuremberg ; composed many poems of
merit.
Sachs, Julius (b. 1832), German botanist
and privy councillor ; having previously
held chairs at Poppeisdorf and Freiburg,
became Austrian prpfessor-in-ordinary of
botany. His works include a Compendium
of Botany, a History of Botany, and Lectures
on the Physiology of Plants, all of which
have been translated.
Sackville, Lord (b. 1827), English diplo-
matist ; was appointed (as Sir Lionel Sack-
ville-West) plenipotentiary to the Argentine
Republic in 1873, went to Madrid in 1878,
and to Washington in 1881. He took part
in the Samoa Convention a.nd the Fisheries
Treaty of 1888, and was recalled in the
following year.
Sackville, Lord George (b. 1716, d. 1785),
soldier and statesman ; distinguished himself
at Dettiugen and Fontenoy, but was dis-
missed the service for his disobedience to
orders at Minden. He was a Secretary of
State from 1775 to 1782. He took the name
of Germain, and was raised to the peerage
in 1782.
Sackville, Thomas, Earl of Dorset (b.
1536, d. 1608), wrote, with Thomas Norton,
Gorboduc, or Ferrex and Porrex ; his other
chief work is Induction to a Myrrour for
Magistrates (1563).
Sacy, Antoine Isaac, Baron Sylvestre de
(*. 1758, d. 1838), French Orientalist, one
of the founders of the Societe Asiatique ;
published Principes de Grammaire Generals,
Expose de la Religion des Druses, etc.
Sadeler, Gilles (*. 1570, d. 1629), Belgiat
Sad
(655)
Sai
engraver, executed many works for the Em-
peror Rudolph at Prague ; was educated in
his art by his uncles HANS (d. 1610) and
RAPHAEL.
Sadler, or Sadleir, Sir Ralph (b. 1507, d.
1587), English statesman, much employed in
Scotland under Henry VIII. and his suc-
cessors ; owed his rise to Cromwell. A
memoir of him by Sir Walter Scott was ap-
pended to his Letters and Negotiations (1809).
Saemund Sigfusson (d. 1135), an Ice-
landic scholar, to whom is attributed a
History of the Kings of Norway and the
compilation of the Edda.
Sagasta, Praxedes Mateo (b. 1827),Spanish
statesman, was obliged to leave the country
for his share in the rising of 1856, and again,
ten years later, to seek refuge in France.
On his return he changed his views and
joined General Prim, and held the portfolio
of the interior for several years. After the
accession of Alfonso XII., he formed a
Liberal- constitutionalist party, and having
in 1880 joined a new Liberal combination,
formed a coalition with Campos, which
lasted till 1883. In 1887 Sagasta again be-
came head of a ministry.
Sagredo, Giovanni (d. circa 1700), Vene-
tian diplomatist and writer, author of Mem-
orie Storiche dei Monarche Ottomani.
Sahagun, Bernardino de (d. 1590), Spanish
historian ; went to Mexico in 1529 as a Fran-
ciscan missionary, and wrote there Historia
Universal de Nueva Espana.
Sa'id. [See Zanzibar, Sultan of.]
Said Pasha (b. 1822, d. 1863), became
Viceroy of Egypt in 1854, and during his
period of rule introduced many reforms, and
adopted the Suez Canal project.
Saint Arnaud, Jacques Achille Le Roy de
(b. 1796, d. 1854), French marshal, having
previously distinguished himself in Algeria,
became minister of war in 1851, and carried
out the coup-d'etat of December. He com-
manded the French at the opening of the
Crimean war, but died on his way home a
week after the Alma.
Saint-Cyr. [See Gouvion Saint Cyr.]
Saint-Evremond, Charles de St. Denis de
(d. 1613, d. 1703), soldier and writer, fought
on the royalist side during the Fronde, but
spent his latter days in England, where he
wrote Reflexions sur la Tragedie et la
Comedie.
Saint Gandens, Augustus (b. 1848),
American sculptor, whose most important
productions are The Puritan, a statue of
Lincoln at Chicago, and busts of T. D.
Woolsey and General Sherman.
Saint -Germain, Claude Louis, Comte de
(6. 1707, d. 1778), general and administrator,
served in the French, Danish, and other
armies, but is chiefly memorable for his
abortive attempt under Turgot to reform the
French army.
Saint - Hilaire.
Hilaire.J
[See Geoffroy Saint
St. John, Henry. [See Bolingbroke.J
St. John, Oliver (d. 1673), English lawyer,
defended Hampden in the "Ship-money'1
case, was a prominent member of the Long
Parliament, and one of the commissioners at
Uxbridge. He was made a justice of the
Common Pleas in 1648, aud was mainly re-
sponsible both for the Navigation Act and
the draining of the Bedford Level.
St. John, Sir Spenser, K.C.M.G. (b. 1825),
English diplomatist ; after being resident in
Borneo, Hayti, and Lima, negotiated in 1883
the resumption of relations with Mexico, to
which country he was named plenipotentiary
in 1884. He wrote Life of Sir James Brooke,
Raj all of Sarawak and other works.
Saint -Just, Antoine (b. 1768, d. 1794).
French revolutionist, the chief supporter of
Robespierre in the Comite de Salut Public.
He was notorious for his severity as delegate
to the army in Alsace, and was guillotined
after the revolution of Thermidor.
Saint-Lambert, Charles Frangois de (b.
1717, d. 1805), poet and contributor to the
Encyclopedic, his chief works being Contes
Orientates and Les Saisons.
St. Leonards, Edward Sugden, Viscount
(b. 1781, d. 1875), English lawyer, son of a
hairdresser ; made a reputation by some
legal works, and gained a large practice at
the chancery bar ; was Solicitor-General
under Wellington in 1829, and Lord-
Chancellor of Ireland under Peel in 1835
and 1841-6. He was also for a short time
Lord Chancellor of England in 1852. Hia
Vendors and Purchasers went through four-
teen editions.
Saint-Martin, Louis Claude de (b. 1743, d.
1803), French writer, called "Le Philosophe
Inconnu," friend of Lalande and Rousseau.^
His chief work was Det Erreurs et de la Veriti
(1775).
Saint-Palaye, Jean de la Curne (b. 1697,
d. 1781), antiquary; wrote Memoires sur
TAncienne Chevalerie, and left a large col-
lection of manuscripts.
Saint-Pierre, Jacques Bernardin de (b.
1737, d, 1814), wrote Paul et Virginie (1788)
Etudes de la Nature, and several similar
works.
Saint Saens, Charles Camille (b. 1835),
Sai
( 656 )
Sal
musical composer atid critic ; 1
Lit ut tii..- Madeline in I.VKI, ^:uuin^ the 1'
at the liiternatioii.il Kxhi I >it ion of 18G7 with
his cantata L< > Now* d* Promethfo. Among
his works may bo named .s'<///<.\<m t( 1'alila,
a sac-re.! drama (1S77), titirnnc Mureel, an
opera ^1S7H), i«iJ H<»<e! d'thnphale, which he
conducted at the Crystal Palace in 1879.
Saintsbury, George Bateman (b. 1845),
English writer; till I87'i was occupied in
t. .K-liing, aud subsequently published A
Primer of French Literature, A Short History
French Literature, MarloorOMffh ("JBltffMA
\Vorthies" series), etc.
Saint -Simon, Claude Henri de Rouvroi,
Comte de (b. 1760, d. 182-)), Socialist writer,
author of De la Reorganisation de la Societe
Enropeenne, Catechisnie des Industrie!*, Le
Nouveau Christianismc, and several similar
works, in some of which he was assisted by
Comte and Thierry. He attempted to put
an end to his life in 1823.
Saint-Simon, Louis de Rouvroi, Due de (b.
1675, d. Hod), French soldier and diplo-
matist ; was a member of the council of
regency, and went to Spain in 1721 to nego-
tiate a marriage between Louis XV. and the
Infanta. The best edition of his Memoir es
is that of 1856-7, edited by Cheruel.
Saint-Vallier, Charles, Comte de (b. 1838),
French diplomatist ; served some years
under Moustier as under-secretary of state,
and was afterwards ambassador at Stutt-
gart and Berlin.
St. Vincent, John Jervia, Earl (b. 1734,
d, 1823), British admiral, who gained his title
from his victory of 1797 over the French ;
became First Lord of the Admiralty in 1801,
and put down the corruption which pre-
vailed in the dockyards.
Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin (b. 1804,
d. 18'J'J), French critic ; after having been a
Burgeon, wrote verses for the Revue des Deux
Mondes and other periodicals, and in 1840
became Mazarin librarian. In 1850 he
ioiued the Constitutionnel, in which appeared
his Causeries du Lundi. He was one of the
editors of the Dictionnaire Historique de la
Langue Fran$aise.
Saintine, nom de plume of XAVIEB, BONI-
FACE (b. 1798, d. 1865), author of Picciola and
other stories, as well as of poems and some
plays written in collaboration with Scribe.
Saisset, Emile (b. 1814, d. 1863), philoso-
pher ; author of ^Enesideme (a history of
scepticism), Essai de Philosophic Religieuse
(1860), a French translation of Spinoza, etc.
Sala, George Augustus Henry (b. 1828),
English journalist ; founded and edited Tem-
ple Bar, was war -correspondent of the Daily
in the United States, Algeria,
France, and liiissia, aud wrote iiiiun rous
works, among which an- 7V«v A'«/o/i/ the
1 ., The Kt range AUient tires of Captain
t rous, etc.
Salabut Jung (<l. 1763), Soubadar of the
Deccan ; was at lirst supported by Bussy,
but afterwards favoured the English alii-
ance ; was deposed by Nizam Ali, and put to
death, though his title had been confirmed
by the Treaty of Paris.
Saladin [Salaheddin] (b. 1137, d. 1193),
Sultan of Egypt and Syria, was of Kurdish
birth, and followed his uncle, Noureddm, t*j
Egypt, where the latter became all-powerful
as grand-Vizier. On his death (1 173), Saladiu
was proclaimed sultan, and, after conquering
Syria, invaded Palestine in 1187, defeated
the Crusaders at Tiberias and took Jeru-
salem. After a third Crusade and the cap-
ture of Acre a truce for three years was
agreed to in 1192, soon after which Saladin
died.
Salaman, Charles Kensington (b. 1814),
English pianist and composer, was the first
to set the odes of Horace and Anacreon, and
also published settings of modern poems,
anthems, etc.
Salar Jung, Sir (d. 1883), prime minister
of Nizam 1853. Supported the English
during the Mutiny.
Saldanha Oliveira e Daun, Joao Carlos,
Duke of (b 1791, d. 1876), Portuguese states-
man, grandson of Pombal ; became foreign
minister in 1825, and as governor of Oporto
strongly opposed Don Miguel. After hold-
ing other offices, he took part in the Terceira
insurrection, and had to go into exile, but
afterwards returned, and was again several
times minister. He died in England.
Sale, George (b. circa 1690, d. 1736), Eng-
lish Orientalist; author of a translation
of the Koran.
Sale, Sir Robert Henry (b. 1782, d. 1845),
general ; after distinguished services in
India and the Mauritius, was appointed in
1838 to the command of a brigade in the
Afghan expedition, and was severely
wounded at Ghuznee. In 1840 he compelled
the surrender of Dost Mohammed, and next
year, after storming the Khoord Cabul and
Jugdulluk passes, was besieged for five
months in Jellalabad by Akhbar Khan. He
was mortally wounded on December 18,
at Moodkee, when quartermaster-general to
the army of the Sutlej .
Sales. [See Francis de Sales.]
Salimbene, Fra (13th century), Italian
Franciscan ; author of a contemporary
Chronicle, which was first printed in 1857.
Sal
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San
Salisbury, John of (d. 1182), English
scholar, Bishop of Chartres, au«t friend of
Becket, of whom and of Ausehn he wrote
lives, as also Hlstoria Pontifical-is, and some
philosophical works.
Salisbury, Robert Cecil, Earl of (d. 1612),
statesman, son of Lord Burghley, to whose
position he succeeded, and retained office
under James I.
Salisbury, Robert Arthur Talbot Gas-
coyne- Cecil, Marquis of, K.G. (b. 1830),
statesman, was educated at Eton and Christ
Church, Oxford, and represented Stamford
from 1853 till 1868, when he succeeded
to the title. During this time he wrote
a'.nch for periodicals, and was Secretary for
Itdia from July, 1866, to the following
M irch, when he resigned on the Reform Bill.
IVom 1874 to 1878 he w<is again Secretary
for India, and in Xovemoer, 1876, was sent
as special ambassador to the Constantinople
Conference. In 1878 he succeeded Lord
Derby as Foreign Minister, and in that year
accompanied Lord Beaconsfield to the Ber-
lin Conference. After the death of the
latter he became Conservative leader, and
as such joined in the framing of the Re-
distribution Bill of 1885. In June of that
year he became Premier, and held office till
the following January, and from 1886-1892
was again in power. After the resignation
of Lord Iddesleigh he took the portfolio of
Foreign Affairs.
Sallustius Crispus, Gains [Sallust] (b.
86 B.C., d. 34 B.C.), Roman historian ; was
excluded from the Senate for his immorality,
but afterwards made a fortune as governor
of Numidia, on his return from which he
wrote in retirement his Jugurtha and Cati-
lina.
Salmasius, or Claude deSaumaise (b. 1588,
d. 1653), French scholar, professor of history
at Leyden ; author of Historic^ August ee
Scriptores Sex and Defensio Regia pro
Carolo I. , which was replied to by Milton in
his Defence of the People of England.
Salmon, George, D.D., D.C.L., F.R.3. (b.
1819), Irish divine : was Regius professor of
divinity at Trinity College, Dublin, from 1868
to 1888, when he became provost. His
works include Introduction to the New Testa-
ment, and treatises on Conic Sections, The
Geometry of Three Dimensions, T7ie Modem
Higher Algebra, etc. , which have been trans-
lated into most European languages.
Salomons, Sir David, Bart. (b. 1797, d.
1873), became in 1855 the first Jewish Lord
Mayo..* of London, having previously been
sheriff under a special Act. He was elected
as a Liberal for Greenwich in 1851, and
raised the question of Jewish disabilities,
which was settled by the act of 1859. His
Q c.
nephew, SIR DAVID (b. 1831), has written
on electrical subjects and the Woman's
Rights question.
Salt, Sir Titus, Bart. (b. 1803, d. 1876),
philanthropist ; acquired a large fortune as
a wool-spinner, and made large benefactions
to Bradford, which town he represented for
two years. He built the village of Saitaire,
with model dwellings round his manu-
factory.
Salvator Rosa. [See Rosa.]
SalvL [See Sassoferrato.]
Salvini, Tommaso (b. 1830), tragedian,
whose parents were actors ; was instructed
by Modena, and made a reputation in
Edipo and Saul, but is best known in Eng-
land by his Othello, which was seen here in
1875, 1876, and 188*, when he also played
Hamlet. With Ristori, Rossi, and Majerone
he acted in 1865 in Pellico's Francesca da
Rimini, and created an extraordinary im-
pression in Madrid as Conrad in 1868.
Sambourne, Edward Linley (b. 1845),
English caricaturist ; began to contribute to
Punch in 1867, and afterwards illustrated
Kingsley's Water Habies, Andersen's fairy
Tales, and other works.
Samson, Joseph Isidore (b. 1793, d. 1871),
French actor ; made his first appearance in
1827, and retired in 1863, having played
with distinction in Moliere and Marivaux.
As professor at the Conservatoire he had
Rachel and Sarah Bernhardt among his
pupils.
Samuel, Sir Saul, K.C.M.G. (*. 1820),
Australian statesman ; emigrated in 1832,
and was in 1854 a member of the Legislative
Council of New South Wales. In 1859 he
became colonial treasurer, which office he
again held in 1865, 1868, and 1869. In 18SU
he became agent-general for New South
Wales in London.
Sannazzaro, Giacopo [Actius Syncerus]
(b. 1458, d. 1530), Neapolitan poet ; author
of Arcadia, and the Latin poem, De Partu
Virginis, by the composition of which he
gained the name of the " Christian Virgil."
Sancerre, Louis de (b. 1342, rf. li
Constable of France, and friend of Bertraud
Duguesclin, whom he assisted to drive the
English out of Guienue, and rendered other
distinguished services.
Bancroft, William (b, 1616, d. 1693),
English divine. After having been master
of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and Dean
of York and St. Paul's, became in
Archbishop of Canterbury. He headed the
bishops in their refusal to read the Declara-
tion of Indulgence, but was deprived in 1691
for refusing to take the oaths to William and
Mary.
San
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San
Sand, Georges, nom de guerre of MADAME
DTJDEVANT (b. 1804, d. 1876), French
novelist ; separated from her husband in
1831, in which year was published, under the
pseudonym "Jules Sand," a novel written
in collaboration with Saudeau. Next year
she began to write under the well-known
signature, her chief works being Consuelo
(1842), La Comtesse de Rudolstadt, Les Sept
Cordes de la Lyre (1840), La Petite Fadette
(1848), Elle et Lui (1858), Le Marquis de
Villemer, and other plays, and Impressions
et Souvenirs (1873). She lived at various
times with Alfred de Musset, Pierre Leroux,
and Chopin. An English translation of her
letters appeared in 1886.
Sanday, William, D.D. (b. 1843), English
theologian; was fellow of Trinity College,
Oxford, 1866-73, and principal of Hatfield's
Hall, Durham, 1876-81, when he became
professor of Exegesis at Oxford. His works
include Authorship and Historical Character
of the Fourth Gospel, and The Gospels in the
/Second Century.
Sandeau, Leonard Sylvain Jules (b. 1811,
d. 1883), French writer ; was made keeper of
the Mazarin library in 1853, and Librarian of
St. Cloud in 1859. Chief among his novels
were Mademoiselle de la Seigliere (1848),
afterwards dramatised, Madeleine, and Sacs
et Parchemins ; and he wrote with Augier
Le Gendre de M. Poirier (1854), and La
Ceinture Doree (1855), and other plays.
Sandeman, Robert (b. 1723, d. 1772),
Scotch divine ; married a daughter of John
Glass (q.v.), and founded the sect called
" Sandemanians."
Sanderson, John Scott Burdon, F.R.S.
(b. 1828), physiologist; was Jodrell pro-
fessor of physiology at University College
1874-82, and was elected Waynflete pro-
fessor at Oxford in that year. He was
employed by the Government to make in-
vestigations concerning the cattle plague,
the health of miners, and the epidemic of
meningitis in Germany, and has made
elaborate researches with regard to electrical
fish.
Sanderson, Robert (6. 1587, d. 1663), in
1631 was appointed chaplain, to Charles I.,
regius professor of divinity at Oxford
1646-48, and Bishop of Lincoln in 1660.
Published Logics Artis Compendium (1615),
De Obligatione Conscientice Pralectiones
(1647), etc.
Sandhurst, William Mansfield, Baron (b.
1819, d. 1876), general ; was aide-de-camp
to Lord Gough at Sobraon, and took part in
the Puujaub campaign, and afterwards dis-
tinguished himself in the Indian Mutiny as
chief of the staff to Sir Colin Campbell. He
was commander-in-chief in India from 1865
to 1870. when he was created baron.
Sandon, Viscount. [See Harrowby.j
Sandrart (b. 1606, d. 1688), German
painter and writer on art ; employed by
Ferdinand III. and the Duke of Bavaria ;
was the author of Teutsche Academic, and
other works.
Sandwich, Edward Montagu, Earl of (b.
1625, d. 1672), English admiral ; conveyed
Charles II. to England, and served with
distinction against the Dutch till, in the
battle of Southwold Bay, his ship caught
fire, and he was drowned.
Sandys, Edwin (b. 1519, d. 1588), divine,
successively Bishop of Worcester and Lon-
don, and Archbishop of York ; was im-
prisoned by Mary when vice-chancellor of
Cambridge University for preaching in
favour of Lady Jane Grey, but in the next
reign took part in the revision of the liturgy
and in the " Bishops' " Bible.
Sangallo, Antonio da (d. 1546), Italian
architect ; employed by Leo X. and his
successors in erecting buildings and fortifi-
cations ; succeeded Bramaute as architect of
St. Peter's.
Sanmichell, Michele (*. 1484, d. 1559),
architect, the results of whose work are
chiefly to be seen at Venice and Verona ;
was greatly engaged in fortification.
Sansevero, Raymond di Sangro (b. 1710,
d. 1771), a Neapolitan who invented a four-
wheeled chariot to pass over the surface of
water.
Sansovino [Jacopo Tatti] (b. 1477, d.
1570), sculptor and architect, friend of
Andrea del Sarto and Perugino ; built the
Zecca, and restored the cupola of St.
Mark's, Venice. Bacchus was his best
sculpture.
Sant, James, R.A. (b. 1820), English
artist ; studied under John Varley and
Calcott, and about 1842 began to exhibit his
"fancy subjects" (Little Red Riding Hood,
Tlie Infant Timothy, etc.). Among his
other works are The Children in the Wood
(1854 and 1856), Prosperity — Adversity
(1877), and many portraits, chiefly of the
Countess Waldegrave and her friends.
Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de (b. 1795,
d. 1876), Mexican general; fought at first
for the Spaniards, but in 1829 defeated their
expedition, and became president in 1833.
He recognised the independence of Texas,
and defended Vera Cruz against the French
in 1839, but, after having been dictator from
1841 to 1844, was banished. He returned to
conduct the war against the United States,
and in 1853-55 was again dictator. He was
afterwards banished once more for intriguing
against Juarez.
San
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San
Santerre, Antoine Joseph (b. 1752, d.
1809), French brewer; conspicuous on the
day of the capture of the Bastille ; became
commander of the National Guard, and,
after serving against the Vendeans, fell
under suspicion as a Dantonist, and was
imprisoned.
Santi, Giovanni (d. 1494), Italian painter,
father of Raffaelle. There is a Madonna
and Child by him in the National Gallery,
London.
Santley, Charles (b. 1834), English bari-
tone, born at Liverpool ; sang in Haydn's
Creation in 1857, and two years later made
his debut in operatic parts. The Handel
Festival of 1862 was the first in which he
took part. His first wife was a soprano,
and one of his daughters is a vocalist.
Sanuto, Marino (b. 1466, d. 1536), Italian
writer, historiographer of Venice ; wrote
Lives of the Doges, and left voluminous
Diaries, which have only recently been
printed.
Sapor I., King of Persia (d. 272), suc-
ceeded Artaxerxes I. in 241 ; conquered Ar-
menia after procuring the assassination of
Chosroes ; defeated and captured Valerian,
the Koman emperor, at Edessa in 260, and
had subdued Syria and Cilicia, when he was
checked by Odenatus of Palmyra, being
assassinated some years later by his satraps.
Sapor II., "the Great" (d. ^379), suc-
ceeded Hormisdas II., and carried on war
with the Bomans under Constantius II.,
Julian, and Jovian, obtaining, by his treaty
with the last, Nisibis, Singara, and the
provinces beyond the Tigris.
Sappho (7th century B.C.), Greek poetess ;
said to have invented the metre called by
her name. Fragments only of the works of
the " Tenth Muse " are extant.
Sarasate, Martin Meliton (b. 1844), Spanish
violinist, born at Pampeluna ; was the fa-
vourite pupil of Alard at the Paris Con-
servatoire, and played with success on the
Continent and America, his first appearance
in London being in May, 1874. His com-
positions include transcripts of Spanish
dances, Priere et Berceuse, and Caprice
Basque (1881).
Sarcey, Francisque (b. 1828), French
writer ; contributed dramatic critiques to
the Figaro, Temps, and the Si&cle, and wrote
a History of the Siege of Paris, Comediens
et Comediennes, etc.
Sardanapalus. [See Esarhaddon.]
Sardou, Victorien (b. 1831), French
dramatist, whose first comedy, produced at
the Odeon in 1854, was a failure ; won a
reputation by M. Gar at (1860), and other
'
pieces, produced at the Dejazet theatre, and
was admitted to the Academy in 1877.
Among his best-known plays are Les Pattes
du Mouche, the original of A Scrap of Paper ;
Nos Intimes, of Peril; Dora, of Diplomacy ;
Odette, Fedora, La Tosca, o&diRabagas (1872),
a satire on Gambetta.
Sarpi, Pietro [Fra Paolo] (b. 1552, d.^
1623), Servite monk ; defended Venice
against the papal claims, and was made
councillor of the Ten, but almost fell a
victim to the attempts of his enemies on his
life, in consequence of this and his attacks
on the abuses of the Roman court, but re-
covered from his wounds. His History of
the Council of Trent was first published in
London.
Sara, Michael (b. 1805, d. 1869), Nor-
wegian zoologist, author of Fauna Littoralis
Norwegice ; discovered a crinoid in the
North Sea belonging to a species supposed
to be extinct.
Sarsfield, Patrick (d. 1693), Irish officer;
distinguished for his efforts at Limerick and
elsewhere to restore the authority of James
II. He afterwards served in the French
army, and was killed at the battle of Landen.
Sarto. [See Andrea del Sarto.]
Sartorius, Sir George (b. 1790, d. 1885),
English admiral ; served as a midshipman
at Trafalgar, and commanded the Portu-
guese fleet for Dom Pedro in 1832-33.
Sassoferrato, II [Giambattista Salvi] (b.
1605, d. 1685), Italian painter, of the school
of Caracci. There is a Madonna of his in
the National Gallery, London.
Sassoon, Sir Albert Abdullah (b. 1818),
banker, born at Bagdad ; when living in
India made magnificent gifts to the town of
Bombay, and became a member of the
Legislative Council. On his return to Eng-
land he was knighted, and received the
freedom of the City of London.
Saumarez, Lord de (£. 1757, d. 1836),
British admiral, was knighted for his cap-
ture of La Reunion ; served with Jervis at
Cape St. Vincent, and was second in com-
mand at the Nile. In 1801 he received a
peerage, and soon after was awarded a pen-
sion for his conduct of the action in the Bay
of Algeciras. He next commanded the Baltic
fleet, and in 1831 became vice-admiral of
England, having been in 1814 personally
thanked by the sovereigns of Europe.
Saunders, Sir Edmund (d. 1683), Chief
Justice of the lung's Bench, and author of
Reports; was originally an errand-boy at
the Inns of Court.
Saussure, Horace Benedict de (b. 1740,
d. 1799), Swiss naturalist ; made several
Sav
( 6GO )
Say
improvements in the thermometer, hy-
grometer, and other instruments, and left a
record of his travels, Voyages dans Us Alpcs,
of great scientific value.
Savage, Richard (d. 1743), English poet,
perhaps a natural son of the Countess of
Macclesfield, by Lord Rivers ; was a friend of
Dr. Johnson, who wrote his life. In 1727 he
killed a Mr. Sinclair in a drunken quarrel,
but obtained a pardon, and was received and
pensioned by Lord Tyrconnel. They could
not, however, agree, and, though Savage
received a small pension for a Birthday Ode
to the Queen, he died in a debtor's prison at
Bristol. His chief work was the tragedy,
Sir Thomas Overbury.
Savary, Anue Jean Marie Rene, Due de
Rovigo (b. 1774, d. 1833), French general;
distinguished himself in Egypt and at Ma-
rengo, after which he became aide-de-camp
to Napoleon. He was entrusted with the
execution of the Due d'Enghien, and other
more creditable missions, those resulting in
the conferences of Bayonne, however, not
being of a very honourable character. For
his services at Friedland he was ennobled,
and was constantly in attendance on Na-
poleon, till his appointment in 1810 as
minister of police. He fled the country
under sentence of death at the restoration,
but in 1819 submitted to trial, and was
acquitted. After the accession of Louis
Philippe he held a command in Algeria for
a short time.
Savigny, Friedrich Karl von (b. 1779, d.
1861), German jurist, of French Huguenot
descent ; was for thirty-two years professor
of law at Berlin, and in 1842 was named
minister of justice in Prussia. His chief
works were Vom Berufe Unserer Zeit fur
Gesetzgebung und Rechtswissenschaft (trans-
lated by Hay ward), System des Heutigen
Romischen Rechts (translated by Holloway,
1861), and Geschichte des Romischen Rechts
im Mittelalter.
Savile, Right Hon. John [Baron Savile]
(b. 1825), English diplomatist. After being
char ge-d1 affaires at New York, Madrid, and
St. Petersburg, was named envoy-extra-
ordinary to Saxony in 1866, to Switzerland
1867, and to Brussels 1868. In 1883 he was,
as Sir John Savile-Lumley, appointed am-
bassador to Italy. He dropped the name
Lumley in 1887, and was made a peer in
the next year.
Saville. [See Halifax.]
Saville, Sir Henry (b. 1549, d. 1622),
scholar, was tutor in Greek and mathe-
matics to Queen Elizabeth, and held the
wardenship of Merton College and the
provostship of Eton for many years. He
founded professorships of astronomy and
geometry at Oxford, and published a col«
lection of English historians.
Savonarola, Fra G-irolamo (b, 1452, d. 1498),
Italian preacher, boru at Fcrrara ; acquired
great political influence in Florence, where
he denounced abuses of all kinds. He waa
twice sent as envoy to Charles VIII. of
France, and after the expulsion of Piero de'
Medici was real ruler of the state, but,
having been prohibited preaching and ex-
communicated by Alexander VI., he was
attacked in his priory of San Marco, with
his friends, and burnt, after being put to
the torture.
Savory, Sir William Scovell, Bart., F.R.S.
(b. 1826), English surgeon, president of the
Royal College 1885-6. His chief works are
The Pathology of Cancer, and Life and
Death — an introduction to the Book of
Health.
Saxe, John Godfrey (b. 1816, d. 1887),
American poet, journalist, and lecturer.
Saxe, Maurice, Comte de (b. 1696, d. 1750),
marshal of France ; was a natural son of
Augustus II. of Saxony and Poland. His
greatest achievements were the victories of
Fontenoy, Lawfeldt, and Rancoux, and the
capture of Maestricht. He left a work
entitled Mes Reveries, which was published
in 1757, and subsequently translated.
Saxo-Grammaticus (12th century), Danish
writer ; author of Danorum Reg um He-
roumque Historia, on which Hamlet is
founded.
Say, Jean Baptiste (b. 1767, d. 1832),
French economist ; was for some time a
member of the Tribunate, and in his Traite
d"* Economic Politique, and other works,
aimed at popularising the doctrines of
Adam Smith.
Say, Jean Baptiste Leon (b. 1826), grand-
son of the above ; was finance minister under
Thiers (1872) and in several subsequent
administrations, and in 1880, when am-
bassador in England, was named president
of the Senate. Again in 1882 he became
finance minister, and among his works are
Histoire de, la Caisse d'Escompte, Turgot
(" Grands Ecrivains Fran$ais "), and a trans-
lation of Goschen's Theory of Foreign Ex-
changes.
Sayce, Archibald Henry (*. 1846), Eng-
lish philologist; became fellow of Queen's
College, Oxford, in 1869, and in 1876
deputy professor of comparative philology,
but resigned in 1890 in order to go to
Egypt. Among his works are Principles
of Comparative Philology, an Assyrian gram-
mar, and Witness of the Ancient Monuments
to the Ancient Scriptures ( ' Present Day
Sea
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Sch
Tract " series). In 1891 he was appointed
to the chair of Assyriology.
Scala, Bartolomeo (b. 1430, d. 1497),
Italian statesman and writer ; was chan-
cellor of Florence under the Medici, and
afterwards gonfaloniere. He wrote a history
of the Florentine republic.
Scaliger, Julius Caesar (b. 1484, d. 1558),
classical scholar, born in a castle on Lake
Garda : served for seventeen years the Em-
peror Maximilian, and, after leaving the
army, wrote Be Cauais Lii«-»ue Latince, a
defence of Cicero against Er^b.aus, and other
works. He is known as the eider Scaliger.
Scaliger, Joseph Justus (b. 1540, d. 1609),
philologist, son of the preceding ; was born
at Agen, and in 1593 became professor of
belles lettres at Leyden, where he taught
Grotius ; wrote De Emendatione Temporum,
and edited many of the classics.
Scanderbeg [George Castriota] (b. 1404,
d. 1467), Albanian prince ; escaped from the
Turks, among whom he had been brought
up as a hostage, and, having recovered his
throne and renounced Mohammedanism,
maintained a long and successful war with
bis enemies. Many of his exploits are prob-
ably mythical.
Scarlatti, Alessandro (b. 1659, d. 1725),
Neapolitan composer, whose works include
about ona hundred operas, as well as a great
number of masses and motets.
Scarlatti, Domenico (b. 1683, d. 1757), his
son, was a friend of Handel, and became
chapel-master to the Queen of Spain. He
was a composer of church music and operas.
Scarlett, Sir James. [See Abinger.]
Scarlett, Sir James York, G.C.B. (b. 1799,
d. 1871), British officer, son of Lord Abin-
ger; commanded with distinction in the
Crimea a brigade of cavalry, and attained
the rank of lieutenant-general in 1862.
Scan-on, Paul (b. 1610, d. 1660), French
satirist, husband of Mademoiselle d'Aubigne,
afterwards Madame de Maintenon. His
chief works were Le Roman Comique, and
L'Aeneide Travestie.
Schadow, Johann Gottfried (b. 1764, d.
1850), German sculptor ; became director of
the Berlin Academy in 1816, and in 1833
published Polycletus. His best sculptures
were the Quadriga at Berlin, the statues
of Frederick the Great at Stettin, and of
Bliicher at Eostock, and the Luther monu-
ment at Wittenberg. His son, FEIEDRICH
VON SCHADOW (d. 1862), was a religious
painter, by whom there are altar-pieces at
Berlin and Frankfort.
Scliafarik, Paul Joseph (b. 1795, d. 1861),
Slavonic scholar ; for some time censor to
the Austrian government, and afterwards
chief librarian at Prague. His chief work
was Geschichte der Slavischen Sprache und
Litteratur nach alien Mundarten (1826).
Scaafer, Arnold (b. 1819), German his-
torian ; professor at Bonn since 1864, and
author of History of the Seven Years'1 War,
Sketch of the Sources of Grecian History,
etc.
Schafer, Wilhelm (b. 1809, d. 1880),
brother of the above ; was some time pro-
fessor at Bremen, and wrote, among other
works, History of German Literature in the
Eighteenth Century, Goethe's Life, and Love
and Life — a cycle of songs.
Scaaff, Philip, D.D. (*. 1819), American
theologian, born in Switzerland. After
holding several chairs previously, he became
professor of biblical literature and church
history in the Union Theological Seminary,
New York. He was president of the
American Bible Revision Committee, and
among his numerous works may be named
History of the Christian Church, The Person
of Christ (1865), The Creeds of Christendom,
Dictionary of the Bible (1880), etc.
Schalken, Godfried (b. 1643, d. 1706),
Dutch painter, pupil of Gerard Dow, bis
candle-light scenes being a speciality.
Schamyl, Ben Mohammed Effendi (b.
1797, d. 1871), "the Warrior-Prophet of
the Caucasus," headed a movement against
the Russian rule, but was in 1859 made
prisoner and sent to Central Asia. In 1866
he took the oath of fidelity to the Tsar, and
died in Russia.
Scnarf, George (b. 1820), illustrator and
writer on art; became director of the
National Portrait Gallery, London, in 1882.
Scharnhorst, Gerhard Johann David von
(b. 1756, d. 1813), Prussian general, a Hano-
verian by birth : was present at Auer-
stadt and Eylaii, and skilfully reorganised
the army of Prussia, in spite of the orders of
Napoleon. He was chief of Blucher's staff
in 1813, but died on the eve of the War of
Liberation.
Scharwenka, Xavier (b. 1850), German
composer and musician.
Scheele, Karl Wilhelm (I. 1742, d. 1786),
chemist ; discovered several acids, and de-
termined the nature of others, his chief
work being Experiments on Air and Fire.
Scheemakers, Pieter (b. 1691), Flemish
sculptor ; was master of Nollekens, and
executed the monuments to Shakespeare,
Dryden, and others in Westminster Abbey.
Scheffel, Joseph Victor von (b. 1826, d.
Sch
(662)
Sch
1886), poet and novelist, born at Karlsruhe.
His chief works were Ekkehard. a historical
romance, The Trumpeter of Sdckingen, and
Gaudeamus, a collection of student- songs, of
which an English translation appeared in
1872.
Scheffer, Ary (b. 1795, d. 1858), painter
and politician, born at Dordrecht ; exhibited
at Amsterdam at the age of twelve, and
afterwards produced at Paris Francesco, da
Rimini (183-3), the "Faust" series (nine),
and several religious studies. He fought at
the barricades in 1830, and was associated
with Thiers in offering the crown to Louis
Philippe. His brothers, ARNOLD (d. 1853)
and HEXEI (d. 1862), were distinguished,
the one as a political writer, the other as a
painter of revolutionary scenes.
Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von
(b. 1775, d. 1854), German idealist philoso-
pher ; was at Tubingen with Hegel, and,
having succeeded Fichte as professor at Jena,
edited with the former The Critical Journal of
Philosophy. He afterwards held chairs at
Wurzburg and Munich, and in 1841 was
appointed professor at Berlin. His chief
works were The Ego as Principle of Phi-
losophy (1795), Exposition of my System
(1801), and Philosophical Investigations Con-
cerning the Essence of Human Freedom
(1809). He married Garonne Schlegel.
Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich von
(b. 1759, d. 1805), poet; was born at Mar-
bach, and studied law and medicine at
Stuttgart. At nineteen he wrote Die
Raiiber, which was produced at Mannheim,
but lost him the favour of the Duke of
Wiirtemburg. In 1787 he went to Weimar,
and three years after became professor of
history at Jena, where he published his his-
tory of the Thirty Years' war. Some years
later he became intimate with Goethe, whom
he joined at Weimar in 1799, and wrote
there the trilogy of Walknstein, The Song of
the Bell, Maria Stttart, Wilhelm Tell, and
his ballads.
Schilling, Johann (b. 1828), sculptor, a
native of Saxony, his chief productions
being Amor and Pysche (1851), The Four
Seasons, in Dresden, and the Grand National
Monument on the Niederwald.
Schimmelpenninck, Mary Ann (b. 1778.
d. 1856), English writer (nee Galton) ; joined
the Moravians in 1818. Her chief work was
Memoirs of Port Royal.
Schlegel, August Wilhelm von (b. 1767,
d. 1845), German critic; was born at Han-
over, and appointed professor of art and
literature at Jena in 1798, where he edited,
with Novalis, Tieck and others, the Athen-
ceum, as the organ of the Romantic school.
In 1802 he went to Berlin and made the
acquaintance of Madame de Stae'l, whom he
accompanied to Vienna, where in lt>08 he
delivered his lectures on dramatic literature.
In 1813 he became secretary to Beruadotte,
then lived with Madame de Stae'l at Paris,
and in 1818 became professor at Bonn. His
chief works were a translation of Shake-
speare, Kritische Schriften, and some
poems.
Schlegel, Karl Friedrich von (b. 1772, d.
1829), Orientalist, brother of August, whom
he joined at Jena ; afterwards lived at
Paris, but after his reception into the Roman
Church (1808) obtained a civil appointment
at Vienna. Besides his Ueber die iSprache
und Weisheit der Indier (1808), he pub-
lished in 1815 lectures on The History of
Ancient and Modern Literature, and in early
life, Lucinde, and other novels.
Scnleiermacher, Friedrich Ernst Daniel
(b. 1768, d. 1834), theologian, born at Bres-
lau ; became professor of theology at Berlin
in 1810, and exercised great influence as a
preacher and writer. Among his chief works
were Der Christliche Glaube, and a trans-
lation of Plato's works (1817). A trans-
lation of his Life and Letters appeared in
1860.
Schliemann, Heinrich (b. 1822, d. 1890),
classical scholar ; having been successful in
business, gave himself up to his early tastes,
publishing results of his excavations in the
East in 1869. Troy and its Remains ap-
peared in 1874, in which year he began to
make valuable discoveries at Mycenae. In
1883 he built a house at Athens, and pub-
lished the results of further researches upon
the site of Troy, and, in 1886, The Pre-
historic Palace of the Kings of Tiryns.
Schneider, Hortense Catherine (b. 1835),
French actress ; made her debut at Paris in
1853, and met with great success in La Belle
Helene and La Grand Duchesse de Gerolstein
in 1864 and 1867 at the Varietes, appearing
in London in 1868. In 1881 she married and
retired.
Schneider, Johann Friedrich (b. 1786, d.
1853), German composer; became kapell-
meister to the Duke of Dessau. He is best
known by his oratorios, The Deluge, Gideon,
Gethsemane and Golgotha, etc.
Schnorr von Karolsfeld, Julius (b. 1794,
d. 1872), fresco -painter, born at Leipzig ;
was professor of historical painting at
Munich from 1827 to 1846, when he became
director of the Dresden gallery. His best
works were the frescoes in the palace of
Munich illustrative of the Nibelungen Lied,
and of events in German history.
Schoen, or Schonjauer, Martin (d. circa
1490), German painter of the school of Van
Eyck. His best works are in the college of
Sell
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Sch
Colmar, but his Death of the Virgin is in the
National Gallery, London.
Scnofer, Pieter (d. circa 1502), was a
partner of Gutenberg and Fust, the early
printers.
Schofleld, John McAllister (b. 1831),
American general. After having been pro-
fessor of physics at St. Louis, commanded
in the Civil war the army of the Ohio, and
in 1868-9 was secretary for war. From 1876
to 1881 he was superintendent at West
Point.
Schomberg1, Frederick Hermann, Duke of
(b. 1618, d. 1690), soldier of fortune; was
made marshal of France, thoughaProtestaut,
for his services against Spain, but after the
revocation of the Edict of Nantes became
minister of state in Brandenberg. He after-
wards returned to the service of the Princes
of Orange, his early employers, and was
killed at the battle of the Boyne. HENRI
DE SCHOMBERG (d. 1632), also a marshal
of France, who commanded against the
Huguenots, and in Italy, was descended
from another family.
Schb'nbein, Christian Frederick (b. 1799,
d. 1868), German chemist, professor at
Basel ; invented guncotton in 184-5, and
discovered ozone.
Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe (b. 1793, d.
1864), American ethnologist, born at Al-
bany. After being geologist to the Missouri
expedition, became agent for Indian affairs
in the North -West, and published, with the
help of the government, Notes on the Iro-
quois (1846), Historical and Statistical In-
formation Respecting the Indian Tribes, and
other works.
Schopenhauer, Arthur (b. 1788, d. 1860),
German pessimistic philosopher, whose
mother wrote (fabriele, and other works ;
was born at Dantzig, and trained to busi-
ness, but soon turned to philosophy. His
great work, The World as Will and Idea
(1819), was translated into English in 1886.
Schouvaloff, Peter, Count (b. 1827, d.
1889), Russian diplomatist; had been chief
of the secret police before his appointment
as ambassador to England in 1874. He did
much to avert war between England and
Russia, and was second plenipotentiary at
the Berlin Congress, after which he returned
to St. Petersburg.
Scnreiner, Olive, South- African writer,
daughter of a Lutheran clergyman at Cape
Town ; wrote The Story of an African Farm,
and Dreams (1891).
Schroter, Christoph (b. 1699, d. 1782),
invented the pianoforte, of which he made
a model in 1721. He was for fifty years
organist at Nordhausen, and wrote on tht
theory of music.
Schubert, Franz Peter (b. 1797, d. 1828),
Austrian composer ; was born and lived at
Vienna, where for three years he taught in
his father's school. His chief works were
Rosatnunde (1823), the sonata in C (1828),
the mass in E flat, and about six hundred
songs, among which may be named The
Erlking, The King in Thule, Schlummerlied,
and Death and the Maiden.
Sehulembourg, Johann, Graf von (b. 1661,
d. 1747), German soldier of fortune ; served
under Sobieski, then with the Dutch against
France, and finally became head of the
Venetian forces, gaining great reputation
for his defence of Corfu against the Turks
in 1716.
Schulze-Delitzsch, Hermann (b. 1808, d.
1883), German economist ; represented Ber-
lin in the North-German Parliament, and
in the Reichstag, and was president of the
Labour Inquiry Committee. Among his
works were Die Arbieterklassen (1863), and
Kapitel zu einem Deutschen Arbeiterkate-
chismus (1873).
Schumann, Robert Alexander (b. 1810, d.
1856), composer, a native of Saxony ; for-
sook the study of law after 1830, and de-
termined to become a great pianist, but,
after hurting his hand, turned _ to compo-
sition, his chief works being Etudes Sym-
phoniques, Paradise and the Peri (1843), a
cantata, many symphonies and sonatas, and
settings of Burns, Heine, Riickert, and
others. In 1843 he established and edited
the Xeue Zeitschrift fitr Musik.
Schumann, Madame Clara (b. 1819), wife
of the above, and daughter of Wieck, his
master ; appeared as a pianiste when twelve
years old at one of the Gewandhaus con-
certs at Leipzig, and soon became known as
a brilliant exponent of the great masters,
including her husband.
Schunck, Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S. (b.
1820), English chemist, well known for his
investigations on colouring matter.
Schurz, Karl (b. 1829), American soldier
and statesman, of German birth. After
being concerned in the movement of 1848,
and rescuing Kinkel from Spandau in 1850,
he came to Scotland, but in 1852 settled in
the United States. In the Civil war he held
commands at Gettysburg and Chancellors-
ville, and in 1865 went on a special mission
to the Southern states. In 1869 he became
United States senator, and opposed the
policy of Grant. In 1877 he was appointed
secretary of the interior under President
Hayes, and in 1884 supported the candi-
dature of Cleveland against Blaina
Sch
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Sco
Schuster, Arthur, Ph.D., F.R.S. (b. 1851),
physicist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Maiu;
came to Manchester in 18o9, was appointed
chief of the Eclipse expedition to Siam in 1875,
and, after holding the chair of applied mathe-
matics at Owens College, became professor
of physics in 1888. In 1582 he photographed
for the first time the spectrum of the solar
coroua, and in 188-i and 1890 delivered the
Bakerian lectures on the discharge of elec-
tricity through gases.
Schwanthaler, Ludwig Michael von (b.
1802, d. 1848), German sculptor, born at
Munich. His chief work was the colossal
statue of Bavaria, fifty feet high.
Schwarzenberg1, Karl, Prinz von (b. 1771,
d. 1820), Austrian general ; served through-
out the Napoleonic wars, being distinguished
at Wagram ; commanded the troops of the
Allies in 1813-14, and the Russians and Aus-
trians in the following year. His nephew,
PRINCE FELIX (d. 1852), became chief minis-
ter of the Austrian empire in 1848, and, by a
policy of repression, restored order.
Schweinfurth, Georg August (b. 1836),
African traveller, born at Riga ; made a
botanical expedition to the Nile valley
1863-6, and in 1862 discovered the Welle, or
Aruwini river. He published in 1873 Im
Serzen von Afrika, and made subsequent
explorations of the country between the Nile
and the Red Sea.
Scnwerin, Christoph, Graf von (b. 1684,
d. 1757), field-marshal of Prussia ; made
his first campaign in the allied army under
Ivlarlborough and Prince Eugene, but en-
tered the Prussian service in 1720. He was
made councillor of state by Frederick the
Great, for whom he won the victory of
Mollwitz, but was killed at the battle of
Prague, at the opening of the Seven Years'
war.
Scioppius, Caspar (b. 1576, d. 1649), Ger-
man writer, " the Attila of Authors ; " wrote
with great bitterness against the Protestants
(Classicum Belli Sacri, etc.), and was also
author of De Arte Critica, and some philo-
logical works.
Scipio, Lucius Cornelius, brother of the
elder Africanus ; was consul in 190 B.C., and
obtained the surname, "' Asiaticus," for his
conduct of the Syrian war.
Scipio Africanus, Publius Cornelius (b.
234 B.G.^d. 183), Roman general ; took Car-
thago Nova and conquered Spam, became
consul in 206 B.C., and brought to a con-
clusion the second Punic war by the defeat
of Hannibal at Zama (202 B.C.). He became
a second time consul, but his popularity
passed away on account of the arrogance of
**" later years.
Scipio Africanus, Publius Cornelius (d.
129 B.C.), grandson of the preceding; was
the son of jEmiiius Paulus, who was adopted
by him. He became consul in 148 B.C., and
took Carthage in 146. In 134 he was again
consul, and distinguished himself by the
capture of Numaiitia, but became unpopular
subsequently by his resistance to agrarian
reforms. He was the friend of Terence and
Lselius.
Sclopis de Salerno, Paolo, Conte (b. 1798,
d. 1878), Italian jurist and statesman; author
of History of Italian Legislation (1840-57),
was minister of the interior in Piedmont in
1825, and of justice in 1848, and was also
one of the arbitrators in the Alabama case.
Seoresby, William, D.D. (*. 1789, d. 1857),
Arctic explorer ; published an account of his
experiments on the temperature of the oceaa
in The Arctic Regions (1819), and in 1822
surveyed the eastern coast of Greenland. He
subsequently graduated at Cambridge, and
took orders, but also devoted his attention
to magnetism, and in 1855 made a voyage
to Melbourne in order to test his theories.
Scott, Charles Bfodrick, D.D. (*. 1825),
educated at Eton and Cambridge, was head-
master of Westminster school 1855-83.
Scott, Clement William (b. 1841), dra-
matic critic, son of Rev. W. Scott ; was a
clerk in the War Office till 1879. Besides
his contributions to the Daily Telegraph,
he published (originally in Punch} Lays ana
Lyrics, etc., and took part in the adaptation
of Diplomacy, Sister Mary, etc.
Scott, Sir George Gilbert, R.A. (*. 1811,
d. 1878), architect, son of Rev. Thomas
Scott. His chief works were the Martyrs'
Memorial, Oxford, the Albert Memorial,
Kensington, and the church of St. Nicholas,
Hamburg. He also restored many churches
and cathedrals.
Scott, Michael (d. 1291), a Scotchman who
was patronised by the Emperor Frederick
II., and had the reputation of a magician
throughout Europe. He translated Aristotle
and Avicenna into Latin, and wrote some
curious works.
Scott, Michael (b. 1789, d. 1835), author of
Tom Cringle's Log (1829) and The Cruise of
the Midge ; was born in Scotland, but lived
chiefly in Jamaica.
Scott, Reginald (d. 1599), English writer,
whose Discovery of Witchcraft (1584) was
one of the earliest attempts to discredit the
superstition.
Scott, Robert, D.D. (b. 1811, d. 1887),
classical scholar, master of Balliol from 1854
to 1870 ; was appointed Dean of Rochester in
that year. He was the author, with Dr
Sco
(6S5)
Sea
Liddell, of a Greek lexicon (seventh edition,
1883), and was one of the revisers of the
New Testament.
Scott, Eobert Henry, F.R.S. (b. 1833),
meteorologist ; was appointed director of
the Meteorological Office in 1867, and pub-
lished Weather Charts and Storm Warnings
(1876), and other works.
Scott, Sir Walter, Bart (b. 1771, d. 1832),
novelist ; was the son of a writer to the Sig-
net in Edinburgh, and practised for a few
years as an advocate, being appointed clerk
of the Court of Session in 1805. After some
translations from the German, he began to
write ballads, the Lay of the Last Minstrel
(1805) being followed by Marmion (1808),
The Lady of the Lake (1810), and other
poems. In 1814 he published Waverley
anonymously, and in succeeding years ap-
peared the series called by that name. In
1820 Scott was made a baronet, but six
years after he was ruined by the bankruptcy
of Messrs. Constable, and he spent his later
years in an honourable and successful at-
tempt to meet his liabilities by means of
his Life of Napoleon, Tales of a Grandfather,
and contributions to the Quarterly Review.
His life was written by his son-in-law,
Lockhart, and his Journal was published in
1890.
Scott, William. [See Stowell.]
Scott, Winfield (d. 1786, d. 1866), Ameri-
can general ; was made prisoner and
wounded in the war of 1812-15, and, after
further services, became commander-in- chief
in 1842. Having conducted the war against
Mexico, he was Republican candidate for the
presidency in 1852, but was not elected. He
retired from the army in 1861, and died at
West Point.
Scotus. [See Duns Scotus.]
Scotus Erigena (d. circa 875), Irish school-
man, author of Dialogus de Divisione Naturce ;
li ved chiefly at the court of Charles the Bald
of France.
Scribe, Augustin Eugene (b. 1791, d.
1861), French dramatist, whose first success
was with line Nuit de la Garde Nationale
(1815), written in collaboration with Poir-
son. He afterwards wrote with many col-
laborators numerous vaudevilles and come-
dies, of which the chief (among the former)
were Les Premieres Amours and La Heine de
Seize Ans, and (among the latter) Bertrand
et Raton and Adrienne Lecouvreur. He
also wrote librettos for the chief operas of
Meyerbeer and Auber, and in 1836 was ad-
mitted to the Academic.
Scrivener, Frederick Henry Ambrose,
D.C.L. (b. 1813, d. 1891), ^ Biblical scholar,
whose chief works are editions of the Greek
Testament, and the Codex Eezae, and Plain
Introduction to the Criticism of the New
Testament (third edition, 1883). He was one
of the revisers of the New Testament, and
received a Civil List pension in 1872.
Scroggs, Sir William (b. 1623, d. 1683),
English judge, of humble origin; became
notorious for his subservience to the court,
and was removed from the Bench in 1681,
after an abortive impeachment.
Scrope, George Poulett, F.R.S. (b. 1797,
d. 1876), geologist, son of J. Poulett
Thompson ; assumed the name on his mar-
riage. He was author of Considerations on
Volcanoes, and some economical works, and
sat as a Liberal for Stroud from 1833 till
1867.
Scrope, Richard le (b. 1328, d. 1403),
statesman and warrior, whose father and
uncle were distinguished judges under Ed-
ward II. and Edward III. ; took part in the
wars of the latter king, and became steward
of the household and Chancellor under
Richard II.
Scudery, George de (b. 1603, d. 1667),
French writer, author of Observations on the
Cid. His sister, MADELENE, or MADELINE
(b. 1607, d. 1701), wrote romances which had
great vogue in their day, including Le Grand
Cyrus.
Seaton, John Colborne, Lord!(i. 1777, d.
1863), English general, served under Wel-
lington in the Peninsula and at Waterloo,
and became field -marshal in 1860 ; was
Governor- General of Canada during the
rebellion, and afterwards high com-
missioner of the Ionian Islands.
Sebastian, King of Portugal (b, 1554, d.
1578), allied himself with the Sultan of
Morocco in an attempt to drive the MOOTS
out of Africa, but was killed in battle.
Sebastian!, Francois Horace Bastien,
Comte (b. 1776, d. 1851), marshal of France,
of Corsican birth ; defended Constantinople
against the English, and served in the later
campaigns of Napoleon. In 18bO he became
foreign minister, and was ambassador in
England from 1835 to 1840.
Seckendorf, Friedrich Heinrich (b. 1673,
d. 1763), German soldier and diplomatist,
distinguished in all the wars of his time
and many of the negotiations ; was im-
prisoned by Frederick the Great in 1758
on a charge of intriguing with Austria.
Seeker, Thomas (b. 1693, d. 1768),
English divine ; having held the sees of
Bristol and Oxford, became Archbishop of
Canterbury in 1758.
Sedgwick, Adam, F.R.S. (b. 1785, rf.
1873), geologist, was born in Yorkshire,
and educated at Cambridge, where is.
8ed
( 666 j
Sem
1818 he became Woodwardiau prolYssor of
geology. His lJi*cuurse on (/!<• .v «.<«.< of
the Iniversity of Cumf>ri<lijf parsed through
five editions. He was canon • •!' Norwich,
and some time vice-master of Trinity.
Sedgwick, Catherine (b. 1789, d. ISti?),
American writer, author of A .\V<r "England
Tale ^1-22), and many other stories, etc.
Sedley, Sir Charles (b. Iti.'W, d. iron,
English dramatist and vvit, a great favourite
"i < 'liarlt-s II. His daughter, CATHKKIXK,
mistress of Charles II., was created by him
Countess of Dorchester.
Seeley, John Robert (b. 1834), historian;
was senior classic (bracketed) and Chan-
cellor's medallist, and in 1858 became
fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. In
1 863 he was appointed professor of Latin at
University College, London, and in 1869
became Regius professor of modern history
at Cambridge. In 186.3 he published
anonymously Ecce Homo, and he also wrote
Life and Times of Stein (1879), The Ex-
pansion of England (1883), and Greater
Greece and Greater Britain (1887).
Seely, Harry Govier, F.R.S. (b. 1839),
scientific writer ; author of Catalogue of
Fossil Reptiles in the Woodwardian Museum,
Physical Geology and Paleontology (1885),
and Factors in Life (1887).
Seeman, Berthold (b. 1825, d. 1871), Ger-
man botanist : wrote Narrati ve of the
J'ot/ave of If. M.S. "Herald" in which ship
he went round the world. He also went on
three expeditions in search of Franklin, and
published several botanical works.
S .JUT, Philippe, Marquis de (b. 1724, d.
1801), French general; was minister of war
from 1780 to 1787.
Segur, Louis Philippe, Comte de (b. 1753,
d. 1830), his son ; served with Lafayette in
America, and was entrusted with several
important diplomatic missions, especially to
Russia. He also wrote several works, in-
cluding his Galerie Morale et Politique and
Memoires.
Sejanus, Lucius JElius (b. 20 B.C., d. 31),
minister of the Emperor Tiberius, on whose
retirement to Capreae he became supreme,
but was afterwards put to death on a charge
of conspiracy.
Selborae, Roundell Palmer, Earl of (b.
1812), English lawyer and statesman ; after
a distinguished career at Oxford, was called
to the bar in 1837, became Queen's Counsel
in 1849, and entered Parliament as a Liberal
in 1847. He sat for Plymouth for some
years, and in 1861 was made Solicitor-
General, becoming Attorney- General two
years later. He declined office in 1868 on
account of his views on the Irish Church
question, but in I.s7'2 bt-came Lord Chan-
cellor with a ] • . bui7ig reapjMiiutfd in
Mr. Gladstones >• >-»iHl mim.stry. llu j./;i,."l
the Liberal Unionists on the Home Rula
question. In 1S8H he published A I h- fence
"f t/tc t'lairck of England a>j(itn^t ' l)ix-
establisfi incut.
Selden, John (b. 1584, d. 1654), anti-
quarian writer ; was one of the counsel for
Efampden, and was imprisoned as a con-
stitutionalist in 1629. His chief works were
//<^/ •//•,/ of Tytltcti, Titles of Honour, Taol*
Talk, etc.
^Seleucus I. [Nicator] (b. 354 B.C., d. 281),
King of Syria ; was one of Alexander's best
generals, and greatly extended the province
of Babylon, which was his share of his
master's inheritance. He was put to death
by Ptolemy Ccraunus.
Seleucus II. [Calliuicus] (b. 247 B.C., d.
225) had a disastrous career, being finally
defeated and killed by the Parthians.
Selim I., Sultan of the Ottoman Turks
(b. 1487, d. 1520), assassinated his father and
brothers, took Egypt and Syria from the
Mamelukes, and obtained the title of imam,
Selim IL (b. 1522, d. 1574), during whose
reign war was carried on with the Pope,
Spain, and Venice, the issue being the battle
of Lepanto.
Selim III. (b. 1761, d. 1808), after a war
with Austria and Russia was compelled to
cede the Crimea to the latter by the Peace
of Jassy (1792). He afterwards joined the
English against Bonaparte, and was finally
dethroned and strangled in consequence
of his attempts to introduce European
customs.
Seljuk. [See Togrul Beg.]
^ Selkirk, Alexander (b. 1676, d. 1723),
Scotch buccaneer, afterwards a lieutenant
in the navy. The account of his four years'
life in Juan Fernandez formed the basis of
Robinson Crusoe.
Selwyn, George Augustus (b. 1719, d.
1791), wit and member of Parliament.
Selwyn, George Augustus (b. 1809, i.
1878), divine, was appointed first Bishop of
New Zealand in 1841, and in 1867 be-
came Bishop of Lichfield. His son, JOHN
RICHABDSON SELWYN (b. 1845), became
Bishop of Melanesia in 1877.
Sem'orich, Marcella (b. 1858), Austrian
singer ; made her debut at Athens in 1877 in
I Puritani, and afterwards sang at Vienna,
Dresden, London (1880), and New York
(1883-4), her favourite parts being Susanna,
Martha, and Zerlina.
Sem
(667)
Sey
Semiramis, Queen of Assyria (fl. circa
1250 B.C.), mythical founder of Nineveh.
Se"monville, Charles, Marquis de (b. 1759,
d. 1839), French diplomatist; served skil-
fully every successive government during
liis lifetime.
Seneca, Lucius Aunaeus (b. circa 4 B.C., d.
65), Stoic philosopher; was banished from
Home on a false charge, but, returning after
eight years, became tutor to Nero. Being
accused of conspiracy, he died by opening
his veins and suffocating himself in a warm
bath. His works consist of treatises and
epistles, but the tragedies ascribed to him
are of doubtful authenticity.
Senefelder, Alois (b. 1771, d. 1834), a
German ; invented lithography, and became
director of the royal lithographic office at
Munich.
Senior, Nassau William (b. 1790, d. 1864),
English economist ; was appointed master
in Chancery in 1836, and was professor of
political economy at Oxford 1825-30, and
again 1840-45. He was author of literary
essays and economical works.
Sepulveda, Juan Gines (b. 1490, d. 1574),
" the Spanish Livy," was historiographer to
Charles V. and tutor to Philip II. HIS chief
work was History of Charles V.
Serassi, Pier Antonio (b. 1721, d. 1791),
Italian writer ; author of a life of Tasso.
Sergius I., Pope (d. 701), had to leave
Borne for several years on account of his
opposition to Justinian ; baptised Cedwalla,
King of the West Saxons.
Sergius II. (d. 847). Pope, was opposed
by the Emperor Lotharius. During his
pontificate the Saracens attacked Rome.
Sergius III. (d. 911), anti-pope; elected
by the intrigues of his mistress, Marosia
(q.v.), was driven out by John EX., but
restored after his death.
Sergius IV. (d. 1012), Pope, succeeded
John XVIII. in 1009.
Serrano, Francisco, Duque de la Torre (b.
1810, d. 1885), field-marshal of Spain, over-
threw Espartero in 1843, and afterwards
joined Narvaez. He gained great influence
over Queen Isabella, and in 1849 became
captain- general of Granada. In 1854 he
was exiled, but soon returned, and after the
overthrow of the Bourbons in 1868, became
head of the provisional government. After
resigning the regency, he defeated the Car-
lists, but had to flee the country on account
of his opposition to the republic. He again,
however, became head of the government,
and after some time in France, returned in
1875 and headed the Dynastic Left.
Sertorius, Quintus (d. 72 B.C.), Roman,
general ; made himself master of Spain,
and held it for ten years against the Iiuman
arms.
Server Pasha, Turkish statesman ; as
mayor of Constantinople (18(38-70), carried
out many improvements, and in 1871 became
foreign minister. He subsequently held
several other offices, but returned to his
former post in 1877. Next year he became
minister of justice.
Servetus, Michel (b. 1511, d. 1553), Spanish
theologian ; escaped from the Inquisition at
Vienna to Geneva, where he was burnt to
death for his Arianism by the orders of
Calvin.
Servius Tullius, sixth of the fabled King?
of Rome.
Severn, Joseph (b. 1796, d. 1879), painter,
is chieny known as the friend of Keats,
whom he nursed in his last illness (1821).
Severus. [See Alexander Severus.]
Severus, Marcus Aurelius (b. 208, d. 235),
Roman Emperor ; carried on wars with the
Persians, and was murdered by his soldiers
in Germany.
Severus, Septimius (b. 146, d. 211), Roman
Emperor; defeated his rivals, Niger and
Albinus, drove back the Parthians, and,
having subdued the Picts, built the wall
called by his name.
Sevigne, Marie, Marquise de (b. 1626, d.
1696), author of the celebrated betters, which
were written to her daughter.
Seward, Anna (b. 1747, d. 1809), English
writer ; author of some sonnets and a Life
of Jjr. Darwin (Erasmus Darwin).
Seward, William Henry (b. 1801, d. 1872),
American statesman ; was elected governor
of New York in 1838, and in 1849 became
United States senator. He now headed the
Republican party, and, having been an un-
successful candidate for the presidency,
became secretary of state under Lincoln in
1861. He was attacked at the same time as
the latter, but recovered. He wrote a Life
of John Quincy Adams, and other works.
Sewell, Elizabeth Missing (b. 1815), Eng-
lish writer ; author of Amy Herbert, Ancu nt
History, Popular History of France, etc.
Sewell, William (b. 1650), historian,
author of History of the Quakers (1722) ;
was brought up as a weaver, and mastered
several languages.
Seymour, Sir Edward (b. 1633, d. 1708),
Tory politician ; was elected Speaker in
1673, when he also became treasurer of th«
Sey
(668)
Sha
navy. He promoted the Habeas Corpus
Act, and opposed the Exclusion Bill ; was
dismissed from office in 1694 for dealings
with the East India Company, but on the
accession of Anne again became Privy
Councillor, and was made comptroller of
the household.
Seymour, Jane (b. circa 1509, d. 1537),
wife of Henry VIII. and mother of Edward
VI.
Seymour, Sir Thomas (d. 1549), younger
brother of the Protector Somerset ; dis-
tinguished himself as admiral under Henry
VIII., but in the next reign secretly married
his widow, and intrigued against his
brother. He was beheaded on a charge of
treason.
Sforza, Jacopo [Attendolo] (b. 1369, d.
1424), Italian condottiere- ; took service suc-
cessively with the lords of Milan, the Flor-
entines, the Marquis of Ferrara, Pope John
XXIII., and Ladislaus, King of Naples, who
made him grand constable. He was after-
wards employed by Louis of Anjou and
Joanna of Naples.
Sforza, Francesco (b. 1401, d. 1466), his
son; was employed by the Duke of Milan
against Florence and Venice, and, after
changing sides for a time, married the
daughter of the duke, and on his death
seized the duchy.
Sforza, Ludovico, " the Moor " (b. 1451,
d. circa 1510), third son of Francesco ; after
a period of exile returned in 1479, and made
himself master of Milan. He married
Beatrice of Este, invited Charles VIII. to
invade Italy, and in 1494 succeeded to the
dukedom, his nephew having probably been
poisoned. He next joined the league against
the French, and in the subsequent invasion
by Louis XII. was made prisoner, and
carried to France, where he died at Loches.
Shad-well, Charles (d. 1725), writer of
The Fair Quaker of Deal ; was probably a
relative of Thomas Shadwell.
Shadwell, Thomas (b. 1640, d. 1692),
dramatist ; was ridiculed by Dryden, whom
he succeeded as poet-laureate. He wrote
Epsom Wells, The Lancashire Witches, and
other plays.
Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, first
Earl (b. 1621, d. 1683), statesman ; in the
Great Rebellion sided first with the king, but
afterwards with the Parliament ; was Privy
Councillor under Cromwell, but at the Res-
toration became Chancellor of the Exchequer
with a peerage. After being Lord Chancel-
lor for a year (1672-3), he was dismissed and
sent to the Tower, but on his return to
office passed the Habeas Corpus Act, and
attempted to exclude the Duke of York.
In 1681 he was sent to the Tower, and tried
for treason, and on his release fled to
Holland.
Sliaftesbury, third Earl of (b. 1671, d.
1713), philosopher and politician ; his chief
work being Characteristics of Men, Manners,
Opinions, and 'Times.
Shaftesbury, seventh Earl (b. 1801, d.
1885), philanthropist ; entered Parliament,
and held office under Wellington and Peel,
devoting himself to social questions. He
effected the passing of the Ten Hours Bill in
1844, to limit the employment of women and
children in factories, originated the Shoe-
black Brigade and the Ragged School
Union, was fifty years chairman of the
Lunacy Commission, and had a considera ule
share in the framing of the Public Worship
Regulation Act.
Shah Allum, Emperor of India (d. 1806),
sought the English alliance after the defeat
of the Vizier of Oude, and conveyed to
them in perpetuity the revenues of Bengal,
Behar, and Orissa (1765) ; was afterwards
deposed and imprisoned by the Mahrattas
till restored by Lake in 1803.
Shall Jehan (d. 1666), was crowned in
1627, and soon conquered part of the Deccan,
but was deposed by his son Aurungzebe.
Shah Soojah. [See Dost Mahommed.]
Shairp, John Campbell (b. 1819, d. 1885),
poet ; became professor of poetry at Oxford
in 1877, having previously held a principal-
ship at St. Andrews. He wrote Glen Dessary,
and other poems, as well as Studies in Poetry
and Philosophy; Burns ("Men of Letters"
series), etc.
Shakespeare, or Shakspere, William (b.
1564, d. 1616), dramatist and poet ; was
born and educated at Stratford -on -Avon,
married Anne Hathaway at eighteen, and
went to London probably in the year 1586.
His occupation there at first is unknown,
but he afterwards became an actor and
plaj^wright, an(^ obtained a share in the
Blackfriars theatre and afterwards in the
Globe. He is said to have paid annual
visits to his birthplace, to which, having
accumulated a fortune, he returned finally
about 1604. He purchased New Place at
Stratford (now national property), and
added to it an estate. He had three chil-
dren, but left no male descendants. Love's
Labour's Lost was probably his first published
play, and The Tempest (1611) the last;
Venus and Adonis and Lucrece appeared in
1593 and 1594, and the Sonnets in the same
decade. The first collected edition of the
plays was printed in 1623, and the second
folio in 1632. There are three important
portraits of Shakespeare, of which the
Siia
(669)
She
Chandos portrait is in the National Portrait
Gallery, London, another is in the Stratford
Museum, aud the Martin Droeshout en-
graving is attached to the first folio edition.
Sharp, Granville (b. 1734, d. 1813),
philanthropist, grandson of JOHN, Archbishop
of York (d. 1713), instituted the Society for
the Abolition of the Slave Trade, advocated
Parliamentary reform, and was chief founder
of the Bible Society. He was also the author
of several works.
Sharp, James (b. 1618, d. 1679), Archbishop
of St. Andrews ; became very unpopular for
his cruel treatment of the Presbyterians, and
was murdered in his carriage about three
miles from St. Andrews.
Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S. (b. 1805),
surgeon, author of Essays on Medicine; was
the first to obtain the inclusion of physical
science in the public school curriculum.
Sharpe, Gregory (b. 1713, d. 1771),
Orientalist and master of the Temple ; wrote
Dissertations on the Origin of Language,
etc., with a Hebrew Lexicon, and some con-
troversial works.
Shaw, Sir Eyre Massey, K.C.B. (b. 1830),
was chief officer of the London Fire Brigade
from 1861 to 1891, when he was knighted.
Shaw, Thomas (b. 1692, d. 1751), divine
and antiquary ; author of Travels .- or. Ob-
servations Relating to Several Parts ofBar-
bary and the Levant.
Shaw-Lefevre, Right Hon. George John
(b. 1832), statesman, son of Sir John Shaw-
Lefevre, clerk of the Parliaments 1856-75,
represented Reading as a Liberal from 1863
to 1885, and was returned for Bradford in
1886. He was secretary to the Board of
Trade 1868-71, and to the Admiralty 1871-4,
aud in 1880 he became First Commissioner
of Works. In 1884 he became Postmaster-
General, and in 1892 First Commissioner of
Works.
Shea, Sir Ambrose (b. 1820), colonial
statesman ; was for six years speaker of the
Newfoundland Assembly, and was after-
wards a member of the Council. He was
twice sent to London to support the views
of the colony on the fisheries question, and
in 1887 became governor of the Bahamas.
Shebbeare, John (b. 1709, d. 1788), physi-
cian ; author of History of the Sumatrans,
and other satirical works.
Shedd, William Mayer, D.D. (b. 1820),
American theologian ; author of History of
Christian Doctrine, editions of Augustine's
Confessions, and Coleridge's works, etc.
Shee, Sir Martin Archer (b. 1770, d. 1850),
painter, born in Dublin, where at sixteen he
was much patronised ; came to London in
1788, was elected R.A. in 1800, and in 1830
became president of the Academy. Moore
and Sir Eyre Coote sat to him, and his In-
fant Bacchus is in the National Gallery,
London.
Sheepshanks, Richard (b. 1794, d. 1855),
astronomer and mathematician, whose chief
work was the completion of the restoration
of the standards of weights and measures.
His brother, JOHN SHEEPSHANKS (b. 1787, d.
1863), formed and presented to the nation
the collection of pictures known as the
"Sheepshanks Gallery."
Sheffield, John Baker Holroyd, Earl of (b.
1735, d. 1821), remembered as the friend of
Gibbon, and editor of his miscellaneous
works.
Shell, Richard Lalor (b. 1791, d. 1851),
Irish politician, celebrated for his oratorical
powers ; took an active part in the Catholic
Emancipation and Repeal agitations, but
afterwards accepted office under the Whigs,
becoming master of the Mint in 1846, and
minister at Florence in 1850. He also wrote
Evadne and other plays.
Shelburne, William Petty, Earl of (b.
1737, d. 1805), English statesman ; as presi-
dent of the Board of Trade under George
Grenville protested against the taxation of the
colonies, and as Secretary of State under Pitt
(1766-8) attempted to cany out his views. In
1782 he took office under Rockingham, on
whose death he became Prime Minister. He
concluded peace with America, but was soon
driven out of office by Fox and North, and
took little further part in affairs. In 1784
he was created Marquis of Lansdowne.
Sheldon, Gilbert (b. 1598, d. 1677), divine ;
after being chaplain to Charles L, was
warden of All Souls', Oxford, where he
built the Sheldonian theatre. He was made
Archbishop of Canterbury in 1663.
Shelley, Percy Bysshe (b. 1792, d. 1822),
poet, was born near Horsham, and educated
at Eton and Oxford, from which he was
sent down for his pamphlet, The Necessity of
Atheism. He was twice married, lived: in
Italy from the year 1818, and was drowned
near Leghorn four years later. Among
his chief works are Queen Mab, The Revolt of
Islam, Prometheus Unbound, Rosalind and
Helen, Adonais, Hellas, The Cenci, and many
splendid lyrics, and various essays, including
The Defence of Poetry and a translation of
Plato's Banquet.
Shelley, Mrs. [See Wollstonecraft.]
Shenstone, William (b. 1714, d. 1763),
poet, whose best works are The Pastoral
Ballad and The Schoolmistress.
Sheppard, Jack (b. 1702, d. 1724), *
notorious thief and prison breaker.
SAC
(670)
Slio
Shepstone, Sir Theophilus, K.C.M.G.,
South African statesmaii ; became secretary
for native affairs and member oi the Execu-
tive Council of Natal in uid conducted
the negotiations with the Zulus_by which
the Transvaal was annexed in L877.
Sherard, or Sherwood, William (b. 1059, d.
1728) botanist; while consul in the East
made a collection of the plants of Greece
and Anatolia, and left a sum for the endow-
ment of a professorship of botany at Oxlord.
Sherbrooke. [See Lowe.]
Shere Khan Soor, Emperor of India (d.
1545), wrested Bengal from Hoomayoon,
and assumed the title of emperor, reduced
Malwah and Rajpootana, and ruled well ;
was killed at the siege of Kalinjeet.
Shere Singh, Maharajah of the Sikhs (d.
1843), succeeded Kurrack Singh in 184:0, but
after a troubled reign was murdered by bis
soldiers.
Shore Singh, Sikh general, coalesced with
Moolraj (to reduce whom he had been
sent) against the British, and, after a severe
-truggle, was defeated by Gough at Guzerat,
•vhen he surrendered and was pensioned.
Sheridan, Philip Henry (b. 1831, d. 1888),
.American general ; distinguished himself
during the Civil war at Stone river, and by
his victory of Cedar Creek (October 19, 1864),
and afterwards under Grant at Five Forks
(April 1, 1865), and Sailor's Creek. In 1867
he quarrelled with President Johnson, and
was dismissed from his command.
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley (b. 1751, d.
1816), statesman and dramatist, third son of
Thos. Sheridan, the lexicographer (d. 1788),
was born at Dublin and educated at Harrow.
TTis comedy, The Rivals, was produced at
Covent Garden in 1775, and was followed
by The Duenna, TJie School for Scandal, and
TJie Critic. Sheridan entered Parliament as
a Whig in 1780, made a fine speech on the
impeachment of Warren Hastings, and on
his party coming into office became Treasurer
of the Navy and Privy Councillor. He after-
wards lost his seat, and became involved in
debt. He was married first to Elizabeth
Linley, daughter of Linley, the composer,
and secondly to Miss Ogle, daughter of the
Dean of Winchester, who survived him.
Sherif Pasha (b. 1819, d. 1888), Egyptian
statesman, became minister of foreign affairs
in 1857, and, having been three times regent,
became president of the council of ministers
in 1868. In 1879 and in 1881-2 he was
again chief minister, and also from 1882 to
1886, when he resigned on account of his
aversion to English influence.
Sherlock, Thomas (b. 1678, d. 1761)
English divine, son of William Sherlock,
Dean of St. Paul's ; became successively
Di-an of Chichester and Bishop of Baugor,
Salisbury, and London. He took a leading
part in the Baugonau controversy, and
wrote Trial of the Witnesses*
Sherlock, William (b. 1641, d. 1707), Dean
of bt. Paul's (loUl), wrote Practical JJis-
couri>e (Concerning JJeath (lo'oJ), Case of
Allegiance to Sucerciyn Powers Staled (1691J,
etc.
Sherman, William Tecumseh (b 1820, d.
Ih'Jl), American general ; served with dis-
tinction in Caliiornia, and, having in tin*
interval been occupied in various pursuits,
commanded a brigade at iiuil's Run (July
21, 1561), was wounded at tmiloii (April 6-7,
1862), and having led the expedition against
Vicksburgh, took Arkansas jf ort at the head
of the loth Corps. He commanded the left
wing at Chattanooga (November 23-25,
1863), and was soon alter made head of the
army of the Tennessee. He was repulsed by
Johnston at Kenesaw Mountain (June 27,
1864), but defeated his successor, Hood.
After further victories he became lieutenant-
general, and in 1869 became commander-in-
chief, a position which he held till 1884.
Sherwood, Mary Martha (b. 1775, d. 1851),
authoress of Susan Grey (1802), Little Wood-
man, Little Henry and Sis Bearer, and other
religious stories.
Shield, William (b. 1748, d. 1829), English
composer ; was first viola at the Italian
opera for many years. His works include
The Flitch of Jfacon, Rosina, and other
operas, and several songs (The Heaving of
the Lead, Old Towler, etc.).
Shilleto. Richard (b. 1810, d. 1876), Greek
scholar, published three editions of the first
book of Thucydides.
Shirley, James (b. 1596, d. 1666), dramatist;
resigned a curacy on becoming a Romanist,
and wrote for the stage, producing about
forty plays. He lost all his property in the
fire of London.
Shirley, Walter Waddington, D.D. (b.
1828, d. 1866), historian, son of Bishop
Shirley, edited for the Master of the Rolls
Letters Illustrative of the Reign of Henry
III. (1863), and Fasciculi Zizaniorum
Ma-gistri Johannis Wiclif. He was appointed
in 1864 professor of ecclesiastical history at
Oxford.
Shore, Jane, mistress of Edward IV., waa
the wife of a Lombard Street jeweller, and
after the death of the king became attached
to Lord Hastings, in whose fall she -vras
involved. She was forced to do public
penance, but the tale of her dying in a \
ditch is discredited, though nothing certain
is known of her fate.
Shore, Thomas Teignmouth (b. 1841),
divine : graduated with distinction at Dublin,
Sho
(671)
Sie
was appointed chaplain to the Queen in 1878,
and Canon of Worcester in 1890. Tie has
published Some Difficulties of Belief, and j
other works.
Shorthou.se, John Henry (b. 1834), ro-
mance writer, whose chief works are John
inglesant (1881), The Little Schoolmaster
Mark (1885), Sir Percival (1886), etc.
Shovel, Sir Cloudesley (d. 1707), admiral,
destroyed the fleet of Tripoli in 1674, and
distinguished himself during the war of the
Spanish Succession, but while in command of j
the Mediterranean fleet was wrecked upon
the Stilly Isles.
Shrapnel, Henry, Lieutenant- General (d.
1842), inventor of the case shot called after
him, for which he received a pension of
£1,200.
Shrewsbury. [See Talbot.]
Shuckburgh-Evelyn, Sir George, F.E.S.
(b. 1750, d. 1804), mathematician, deter-
mined a formula for the barometrical
measurement of the height of mountains, and
represented Warwickshire for some years.
Sibthorp, John (b. 1758, d. 1756), natu-
ralist ; was Regius professor of botany at
Oxford, where he founded the professor-
ship of rural economy. His chief work was
flora Grceca.
Sickingen, Franz von (b. 1484, d. 1523),
German warrior ; served under Maximilian
and Charles V., and was afterwards promi-
nent as the friend of TJlrich von Hutten,
and the prptector of Reuchlin and the re-
formers ; was captured and severely wounded
in a war with the Archbishop of Treves.
Siddons, Sarah (b. 1755, d. 1831), Eng-
lish actress, nee Kemble; joined Garrick
in 1775, and was not successful, but, after a
brilliant provincial tour, appeared in the
Fatal Marriage at Drury Lane in 1782, and
acquired a rapid reputation. In 1812 she
retired with a fortune, having given un-
rivalled renderings of Lady Macbeth, Des-
demona, Imogen, and most of the greatest
characters in the tragedies of Shakespeare
and other writers. Her life was written by
Thomas CampbeU (1834).
Sidgwick, Henry, D.C.L. (b. 1838), phi-
losophical writer ; having been senior classic,
became fellow of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, in 1859, but resigned ten years later
on conscientious grounds. He took great
interest in promoting female education, and
in 1883 was named professor of Moral Phi-
losophy. His chief works are Principles of
Political Economy, Methods of Ethics (1874),
and Outhnts of the History of Ethics (1886).
SidmoutS, Henry Addington, Viscount
(b. 1757, d 1844), statesman, son of a
London physician ; entered Parliament as a
follower of Pitt in 1784, was Speaker from
1789 to 1801, when he became Prime
Minister, representing the Protestant views
of the king. He held office a little more
than two years, but in 1805 became presi-
dent of the Council, with a peerage under
Pitt, though he soon resigned. From 1812
to 1822 he was Home Secretary under Lord
Liverpool, and carried out the repressive
measures of that period. He was the
favourite minister of George III. in his later
days.
Sidney, Algernon (b. 1622, d. 1683), re-
publican politician, author of Discourses on
Government ; was an active Parliamentarian
during the Civil war, and a member of the
High Court of Justice, but was pardoned in
1677- He was afterwards executed for
alleged complicity in the Bye House Plot.
Sidney, Sir Philip (b. 1554, d. 1586), sol-
dier and poet, son of Sir Henry Sidney,
statesman, and brother of the beautiful
Mary, Countess of Pembroke ; negotiated a
Protestant league in 1576, and was after-
wards commander of the cavalry under his
uncle, the Earl of Leicester, in the Low
Countries, in which service he lost his life at
the battle of Zutphen. He wrote .Arcadia,
and An Apologie for Poetrie.
Siegen, Ludwig von (b. 1609, d. 1675),
Dutch inventor of mezzotint engraving,
which was introduced into England by
Prince Rupert, who had learnt it from the
discoverer in 1654.
Siemens, Sir Carl Wilhelm, F.E.S.,
D.C.L., etc. (b. 1823, d. 1883), English elec-
trician of German origin, came to London
in 1843; invented the chronometric governor,
anastatic printing, electric railways, the
" Siemens " stove, etc., and made a large
fortune by these and his improvements in
steel-making. In 1887 he published The
Conservation of Solar Energy.
Siemens, Werner von (b. 1816), brother of
the above ; introduced many telegraphic im-
provements in Prussia, and in 1848, with
Himly, laid the first submarine mines with
electric ignition. He established telegraphic
works in Berlin, branches of which, in
London and St. Petersburg, conducted by
his brothers, became independent works.
He invented and applied the quicksilver unit
(for measurements), polarised relays, the
dynamo- electric macihine, and the gutta-
percha press.
Sieveking, Sir Edward, M.D. (b. 1816),
physician, translated several medical works
from the German, and wrote a treatise oo
epilepsy ; became physician -in -ordinary to
the Prince of Wales in 1863, and to
Queen in 1888-
516
(672)
Sim
Sie"yes, Emmanuel Joseph, Cointe [the
Abbe] (b. 17-18, d. 1836), French politician;
published in 1789 Qu'est-ce que le Tiers- Etat ?
and was elected as a deputy for Paris to the
States- General, in whose proceedings, when
constituted (by his advice) as the National
Assembly, he took an active part ; was a
member of the Convention, and afterwards
of the Council of the Five Hundred ; was
president of the Directory in 1798, and after
the 18th Brumaire, one of the consuls. He
opposed Bonaparte, but was made a peer
after his return from Elba, and had to leave
France in 1816.
Sigismund, Emperor, and King of Hun-
gary (b. 1368, d. 1437), conquered Walla-
chia, and defeated many conspiracies, was
crowned emperor in 1414, in which year he
dominated the Council of Constance ; sold
Brandenburg to the Hohenzollerns, and in-
trigued between France and England ; ob-
tained the Bohemian crown, though defeated
by John Ziska, and was crowned King of
Italy in 1431.
Sigismund L, King of Poland (6. 1466,
d. 1548), succeeded his brother Alexander
in 1506, and carried on wars with Russia and
the Teutonic knights ; allied himself with
the Hapsburgs, and in Poland ruled well,
but opposed the Reformation.
Sigismund II. (b. 1.520, d. 1572), son and
successor of the preceding, was the last of
the Jagellons, the crown thenceforth being
made elective. He tolerated the Protestants,
and favoured the learned.
Sigismund III. (b. 1566, d. 1632), son of
John III. of Sweden, and grandson of Sigis-
mund I. ; compelled Ids rival to renounce
the Polish crown, and in 1593 became King
of Sweden, but was deposed in 1604 for his
subservience to the Jesuits. He carried on
wars with Russia, Turkey, and Gustavus
Adolphus.
Signorelli, Luca (da Cortona) (b. circa
1441, d. lo_5), Italian painter, whose most
famous works were the frescoes in the
cathedral of Orvieto.
Sigourney, Lydia Huntley (b. 1791, d.
1865), was called "the American Hemans,"
and wrote Mural Pieces in 2'ro^e and Verse,
Pocahontas and other Poems (1811), etc.
Sigurdsson, Jon (b. 1811, d. 1879), Ice-
landic statesman and writer ; had a chief
hand in obtaining a constitution for the
island: wrote The Political State of Iceland,
and was joint editor of Icelandic Sagas, Col-
lection of Laws A/ecting Iceland, etc.
•Silius Italicus, Caius (b. 25, d. 99),
Roman poet and orator ; was proconsul in
Asia, and wrote a poem on the second Punic
war.
Silverius, Pope (d. 538), was elected in
536 by the command of the Ostrogoths ;
admitted Belisarius into Rome, but was de-
graded in favour of Vigilius, and banished
to Pandataria by the iniiueuce of Theodora.
Simeon, Charles (b. 1759, d. 1836), divine,
founder of the Evangelical movement within
the English Church.
Simeon of Durham (12th century), his-
torian, wrote a Chronicle extending from
616 to 1130.
Simeon Sty lites, Saint (5th century), Syrian
shepherd, who became a monk, and lived on
the top of pillars in order to be nearer
heaven, it was said. A set of " pillar saints "
succeeded him.
Sinieoui, Giovanni, Cardinal (b. 1816),
Italian statesman ; as secretary of state,
possessed great influence over the policy of
Pius IX. On the accession of Leo XTTT.
he became prefect of the propaganda.
Simznonds-Lund, Peter, F.L.S. (b. 1814),
English writer ; author of Tropical Agri-
culture, Science and Commerce, The Popular
Beverages of Various Countries, etc.
Simmons, Sir John Lintorn, Field Mar-
shal, G.C.B., etc. (b. 1821), entered the
army in 1837 ; served on the Danube with
Omar Pasha, and in the Crimea distinguished
himself at the passage of the Ingur. He
was consul-general at Warsaw 1858-60,
governor of Woolwich 1869-75, inspector of
fortifications 1879-80, and governor of
Malta from 1884 to 1888, soon after which
he became minister at the Vatican.
Simnel, Lambert (b. circa 1474), pre-
tender to the English crown ; personated
Edward, Earl of Warwick, was crowned at
Dublin, and supported by the Duchess of
Burgundy, but defeated at Stoke, and made
a menial in the household of Henry VII.
Simon, Sir John, M.D., F.R.S. (6. 1816),
surgeon, was medical officer to the chief
Government departments between 1855 and
1876, and drew up many reports on sanita-
tion.
Simon, Jules (b. 1814), French statesman,
succeeded Cousin as lecturer on philosophy
at the Sorbonne, and published editions of
the great French philosophers, as well as
La Liberte, and some economical and bio-
graphical works. He entered public life in
1869, was minister of public instruction,
worship, and fine arts, in the Government
of National Defence, and also under Thiers,
and. having become leader of the Left and
life senator, was premier in 1876-7. He
opposed Ferry's measures against religious
sects, and supported free trade. He was ad«
mitted to the Academic Fran^aise in 1876.
Sim
(673)
Sko
Simon de Montfort. [See Montfort.]
Simonides (b. 556 B.C., d. 468), Greek
poet, patronised by Hipparclius at Athens,
and by Hiero at Syracuse. His subjects were
taken from the Persian war, but only frag-
ments are extant. He is said to have been
the first poet who wrote for money, and also
to have added four letters to the Greek
alphabet.
Simplicius (6th century), philosopher ;
author of commentaries on Aristotle and
Epictetus.
Simpson, Sir James, general (b. 1792, d.
1868), served in the Peninsular war, was
second in command during the Scinde cam-
paign in 1845, and went to the Crimea as
chief of the staff. After the death of Lord
Raglan, he was for a short time commander.
Simpson, Sir James Young, Bart., M.D.
(b. 1811, d. 1870), physician: made a speci-
ality of obstetrics. He discovered the
angesthetic properties of chloroform. Besides
several medical works he was author of
Archaeological Essays.
Simrock, Karl Joseph (b. 1802, d. 1876),
German scholar and poet, chiefly known by
his editions of the Nibelungenlied. He also
edited several other German classics and
wrote Wieland der Schmied.
Sims, George Robert (b. 1847), dramatist
and journalist, whose chief plays are: —
Crutch and Toothpick (1879), The Lights oj
London (1881), The Romany Rye, The Merry
Duchess (1884) ; and (with Mr. Pettitt) In
the Ranks, The Harbour Lights, etc. He
has also published Memoirs of Mary Jane,
and other novels, How the Poor Live and
the Dagonet Ballads.
Sinclair, Sir John, Bart. (b. 1754, d.
1835), statistician, represented Caithness
and other Scotch constituencies, and was
the originator of the Board of Agriculture
in 1793. His chief works were History of the
Revenue, Statistical Account of Scotland, and
Dissertation on the Ossianic Poems.
Sindiah, or Scindia, Madhajee (d. 1794),
Mahratta prince ; after the battle of Paniput
(1761), in which he was wounded, escaped
to the Deccan, and having with Holkar in-
vaded Hindostan in 1770, took Delhi and
Agra, and, with the help of a French officer,
gained the battle of Patan in 1790. He was
the first native who armed his troops in the
European manner.
Sindia Doulut Rao (b. 1780, d. 1827), the
nephew and adopted son of the above ; suc-
ceeded him, and after wars with the British,
in which he was defeated by Wellesley and
Lake, surrendered some of his territory in
1805, and was thenceforth friendly.
BB
Sismondi, Jean Charles Simonde de (b.
1773, d. 1842), historian and economist, was
born at Geneva ; was imprisoned there in
1794 as an aristocrat, and fled to Tus-
cany, but in 1800 returned to his native
place. His chief works were History of the
Italian Republics of the Middle Ages (1807-
18), History of the French, History of tin
Literature of the South of Europe, and some
economical works.
Sivajee Bhoslay. [See Bhoslay.]
Sixtus L, Pope (d. 128), succeeded Alex-
ander I. in 119, and perished in the persecu-
tion under Adrian.
Sixtus IL (b. 180, d. 259), an Athenian,
succeeded Stephen I., and was put to death
under Valerian.
Sixtus III. (d. 440) succeeded Celestine
I. in 432, and built many churches.
Sixtus IV. (b. 1414, d. 1484) was
elected in 1471 ; equipped a fleet against the
Turks, supported the Pazzi against the
Medici, and Venice against Ferrara, but ex-
communicated the former for not agreeing
to a peace. He built the Sistine chapel.
Sixtus V. (b. 1521, d. 1590) was originally
a shepherd boy near Ancona, by name
Felice Peretti, but became successively
general of the Cordeliers at Bologna, con-
fessor to Pius V., and cardinal, being elected
successor to Gregory XIII. m 1585. He ex-
communicated Henry of Navarre, Conde,
and Henri III. of France, and approved
the expedition of Philip II. against England ;
and at Rome rebuilt the Vatican library,
established the press, spent large sums in
j improving and adorning the ciry, and put
down brigandage in his dominions. He
also fixed the number of cardinals at
i seventy.
Skeat, Rev. Walter William (b. 1835^,
English philologist ; was elected fellow of
Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1862, and
professor of Anglo-Saxon in 1878. His
chief works are an Etymological English
Dictionary (with abridgment), and editions
of Piers the Plowman, and other early
English works, besides one of Chatterton's
poems.
Skene, William Forbes, D.C.L. (b. 1809, d.
1892), became historiographer of Scotland
in 1881. His chief works are Memorials of
Scottish History (1868), The Coronation Stone
(1869), and Celtic Scotland (1876-80).
Skofceleff, Mikhail Dmitrievitch (b. 1841,
d. 1882), Russian general, distinguished him-
self in the Khiva expedition (1873), and be-
came governor of Khokand ; rendered bril-
liant services at Plevna in the Russo-Turkish
war, and in 1880 captured Geok Tepe from
Sla
(674)
Smi
the Turkomans ; died suddenly at St. Peters-
burg under suspicious circumstances.
Sladen, Douglas, poet, went to Australia
in It^y, and in 1882 became professor of
history at Sydney. His chief works are,
Australian Lyrics, Poetry of Exiles, and
the compilation of Australian Poets.
Sleeman, Sir William (b. 1788, d. 1856),
Indian official, suppressed Thuggee and
Dacoity, and advised the annexation of
Lucknow.
Sleidanus, Johann Phillippson (b. 1506,
d. 1556), German historian and diplomatist ;
took his name from Schleiden, where he was
born ; was historian to the League of Smal-
kald, and deputy for Strasburg at the
Council of Trent. His chief work was De
Statu Religionis et Reipublica Carolo Quinto
Ccesare Commentarii, which was translated
into French, English, German, and Italian.
Sloane, Sir Hans, Bart. (b. 1660, d. 1753),
Irish physician and naturalist ; was physi-
cian-general under George I., and physician-
in- ordinary to George II. He became presi-
dent of the Royal Society in 1727, and formed
a valuable museum and library, which were
the basis of the British Museum collection.
t Smart, Sir George (b. 1776, d. 1867), mu-
sician, became organist at the Chapel Royal,
and, as musical director at Covent Garden,
received Weber, who died at his house.
Among his pupils was Jenny Lind, and he
introduced tit. Paul and Rossini's Stabat
Mater.
Smart, Henry (*. 1813, d. 1879), nephew
of the above ; was the greatest organist of
his day, and composed many excellent part-
songs, Ave Maria, etc.
Smart, John, R.S.A., R.S.W., R.B.A. (b.
1838), painter, one of the founders of the
Scottish Water- Colour Society. His subjects
are generally taken from the Highlands.
Smeaton, John (b. 1724, d. 1792), civil
engineer, whose chief work was the rebuild-
ing of the Eddystone lighthouse.
Smedley, .Francis Edward (b. 1818, d.
1864), novelist ; author of Frank Fairlegh
(1350), Lewis Arundel, and Harry Cover-
dale's Courtship.
Smiles, Samuel, LL.D. (b. 1812), left the
practice of medicine to become first a jour-
nalist and then an author, his chief works
being Self-Help (1859), Lives of Engineers,
and several biographies, including one of
John Murray, the publisher ; while his
brother, ROBEET (b. 1818), wrote lives of
Livingstone and Henry Booth.
Smith, Adam (b. 1723, d. 1790), economist,
Was born at Kirkaldy, and educated at
Glasgow and Oxford, becoming afterwards
professor of logic and moral philosophy at
the former university. In 1763 he went to
France, and met Turgot, Quesnay, and the
French economists, and after three years, re-
turned to compose his Inquiry into the
Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,
which appeared in 1776. He then became
commissioner of Customs, and in 1787 Lord
Rector of Glasgow University.
Smith, Albert (b. 1816, d. 1860), humorist,
left the medical profession to give popular
lectures, including that on Mont Blanc;
wrote Adventures of Mr. Ledbury, The
Scattergood Family, The Natural History of
Evening Parties, etc.
Smith, Alexander (b. 1830, d. 1867), Scotch
poet, son of a pattern-designer at Kilmar-
nock ; edited the works of Burns, and wrote
A Life Drama (1853), City Poems, and
Edwin of Deira, and, with Sydney Dobell,
Sonnets on the Crimean War.
Smith, Archibald Levin, Lord Justice
(b. 1836), was called to the bar in 1860, and
after being junior counsel to the Treasury,
was raised to the Bench in 1883. He was
one of the Parneil Commission judges.
Smith, George (b. 1840. d. 1876), Assyri-
ologist ; when a printer employed by
Messrs. Bradbury and Agnew becama
acquainted with Sir H. Rawlinson, and was
in 1870 appointed assistant-keeper of Oriental
antiquities. He deciphered the Chaldean
account of the Deluge, excavated on the
site of Nineveh in 1873-5, and in 1876 dis-
covered the site of the Carchemish, but died
at Aleppo the same year. He published
Assyrian Discoveries, Chaldean Account of
the Genesis, and other works.
Smith, George Barnett (b. 1841), journal-
ist and biographer ; his chief works being
Shelley, a Critical Biography (1877),
Poets and Novelists, lives of ' Gladstone.
Bright, Victor Hugo, etc., and William I.
and the German ^Empire (1887).
Smith, Goldwin, D.C.L. (*. 1823), his-
torian ; after a distinguished course at
Oxford, where he became fellow of Oriel in
1847, and professor of Modern History in
1858, settled ten years later in the United
States, but went to Canada in 1871. He
was secretary to the second Oxford Com-
mission, and wrote Tlie Foundation- of the
American Colonies, The Conduct of England
in Ireland, Pym, Hampden, and Cromwell,
and several pamphlets on the slavery and
other political questions.
Smith, Sir Harry, Bart. (b. 1788, d. 1860),
general ; distinguished himself in the Penin-
sular war, and was present at Waterloo,
and afterwards served against the Sikhs ia
Smi
(675)
Smi
V
1840-6, winning the victory of Aliwal, and
contributing to that of Sobraon. As
governor of the Cape he conducted the
Kaffir waT which ended in 1852.
Smith, Henry John Stephen, F.E.S. (b.
1826, d. IS83), mathematician ; after gaining
distinetijii in classics and mathematics alike,
became follow of Balliol, and in 1861 Savilian
professor of geometry at Oxford. Ke was
Liberal candidate for the University in 1878.
Most of his important work remains in
manuscript.
Smith, Horace (b. 1779, d. 1849), novelist
and humorous writer ; published with his
elder brother, JAMES (b. 1775, d. 1839), Re-
jected Addresses (1812), and several contri-
butions to periodicals, and wrote alone many
novels — Gaieties and Gravities, Love and
Mesmerism, etc.
Smith, John, Captain (b. 1580, d. 1631),
colonist ; was taken prisoner by the Turks
when in the Hungarian service, but after
his escape from the Crimea went out to
colonise Virginia in 1606. He was captured
by the Indians, and only saved from death
by Pocahontas, the Indian girl, and after his
release and explorations in Chesapeake Bay,
was made president of the Colonial Council.
He fell into the hands of the French in 1615,
and on his return to England met Poca-
hontas, and presented her to the queen.
His History of Virginia, New England, and
the Summer Isles appeared in 1624, and
various autobiographical works.
Smith, Joseph (b. 1805, d. 1844), founder
of Mormonism ; was the son of a farmer in
Vermont State, built ISTauvoo on the Mis-
sissippi, where he was arrested for treason
and murdered by the mob. The Book of
Mormon was, according to his account, a
translation of records written on thin plates
of metal, to the discovery of which he was
eupernaturally guided.
Smith, Eobert (b. 1689, d. 1768), mathe-
matician ; after being tutor to the Duke of
Cumberland and professor of astronomy at
Cambridge, became master of Trinity in
1742. He founded the "Smith's Prizes,"
and wrote several mathematical works.
Smith, Eobert Angus, F.B.S. (b. 1817, d.
1884), scientific writer ; author of Report on
the Air and Water of Towns (1848), On the
Examination of Air (1867), Disinfectants
and Disinfection, A Century of Science in
Manchester (1883), etc.
Smith, Eobert Payne, D.D. (b. 1818),
divine ; was Eegius professor of divinity at
Oxford from 1865 to 1871, when he became
Dean of Canterbury. He was one of the re-
visers of the Old Testament, being especially
proficient in Syriac.
EE2
Smith, Sydney (b. 1771, d. 1845), divine;
founded with Jeffrey and others the Edin-
burgh Review (1802). and having come to
London, published under the name "Peter
Plymley" his Letters to my Brother
Abraham who lives in the Country (1807),
advocating Catholic emancipation. He
obtained a canonry at Bristol in 1828, and a
few years later wrote in the cause of Eef orm
Mrs. Par ting ton1 s Fight with the Atlantic
Ocean. He afterwards became Canon of St.
Paul's, and wrote Letters to Archdeacon
Singleton (1837).
Smith, Sir Thomas (b. 1514, d. 1577),
statesman and writer; was Secretary of
State under Edward VI. and Elizabeth, and
wrote De Jtepublicd Anglorum and other
works.
Smith, Thomas Southwood (b. 1788, d.
1861), sanitary reformer; author of The
Divine Government and The Philosophy of
Health (1834), became medical member of
the Board of Health in 1848, after having
done much sanitary work for the Poor Law
Commissioners. His papers, The Use of the
Dead to the Living, led to the passing of the
Anatomy Act.
Smith, Toulmin (b. 1816, d. 1869), anti-
quary ; author of On the Discovery oj
America by the Northmen in the Tenth
Century, The Law of Nuisances, and The
Pariah (1854).
Smith, William (b. 1769, d. 1840),
geologist, whose collection was purchased
by the British Museum. He wrote Treatise
on Irrigation, and drew the map called
Delineation of the Strata of England and
Wales (1815).
Smith, William. Sir, LL.D., D.C.L. (*.
1813), became editor of the Quarterly Review
in 1867, and compiled Dictionary of Anti-
quities (1842), Student's Greece, Student1 8
Rome, English-Latin and Latin-English dic-
tionaries, and many similar works, besides
being joint- editor of the Dictionary of
Christian Biography.
Smith, Eight Hon. William Henry (b. 1825,
d. 1891), statesman; carried on his father's
business of bookseller and newsagent in the
Strand, and was elected in 1868, after one un-
successful candidature, Conservative mem-
ber for Westminster, his opponent on each
occasion being J. S. Mill. He was Financial
Secretary to the Treasury in 1874-77 ; First
Lord of the Admiralty 1877-80 ; Secretary
of State for War, and for a week Chief
Secretary for Ireland in 1885 ; and again
Secretary-at-War from 1886 till his appoint
ment at the end of 1887 as First Lord of the
Treasury and leader of the House of ^ Com-
mons. A peerage was conferred o» his wife
after his death.
Snii
(676)
Soc
Smith, William Robertson, D.D. (b. 1.-
critical theologian; was removed in 1^1
from his pr< . i]» at Aberdeen, which
he had held since 1 870, for his views on the Old
Testament, published in the Encydupitdm
Jiritunnica, of which he became editor; he
was appointed to the Lord Almoner's
readership of Arabic at Cambridge in 1883 ;
three years later became university librarian,
a post which he resigned on being appointed
Adams professor of Arabic. He was one of
the Old Testament revisers, and his chief
works are The Old Testament in the Jewish
Chur.-h (1880), and The Religion of the
Semites (1889).
Smith, Sir William Sidney, G.C.B. (b.
1764, d. 1840), admiral ; was some time in the
service of Sweden, and in command of an
English expedition at Havre was made pris-
oner by the French, but escaped from the
Temple after two years' confinement. In
1798 he was given a command in the Medi-
terranean, and next year succeeded in hold-
ing Acre against Bonaparte. He cooperated
with Abercromby in 1801, and received a
pension at the end of the war.
Smollett, Tobias George (b. 1721, d. 1771),
novelist and historian ; was several years in
the navy, but afterwards became an author,
hia chief novels being Roderick Random
(1748) and Peregrine Pickle. He also con-
tinued Hume's History of England, trans-
lated Don Quixote and Oil Bias, and was
employed as a writer against the Whigs.
Smyth, Charles Piazzi, F.R.S.E., etc. (b.
1819), astronomer, son of Admiral Smyth ;
was astronomer-royal of Scotland for forty-
three years, his chief achievements being his
investigations in Teneriffe and concerning
the Great Pyramid.
Smyth, William (b. 1764, d. 1849),
historian, for forty -two years professor of
modern history at Cambridge. His chief
works were Lectures on Modern History and
On the French Revolution.
Smyth, William Henry (b. 1788, d. 1865),
admiral ; conducted a survey of the Mediter-
ranean, and was one of the founders of the
Royal Geographical Society. His works
include Tlie Mediterranean : A Memoir —
Physical, Historical, and Nautical (1854),
and translations from Arago and BenzonL
Snayers, Henrik (b. 1612), Dutch en-
graver, executed several prints after Rubens
and Vandyck.
Snayers, Pieter (b. 1593, d. 1670), historical
and landscape painter, friend of Rubens and
Vandyck, the latter of whom painted his
portrait.
Snell, Willebord (b. 1591, d. 1626), Dutch
mathematician; he succeeded his father,
RODOLPH (d. 1613), as professor at Leyden,
discovered the law of refraction of rays of
light, and was the first who measured the
earth by the application of trigonometry.
Snider, Jacob (b. 1820, d. 1866), inventor
of the rifle known by his name : was bora
in Philadelphia, but came to England in
1859, and submitted his Mount Storm gun to
the French and English governments, but it
was not approved.
Snorri - Sturlason (b. 1178, rf. 1241),
Icelandic writer ; published and partly com-
posed the Heimskringla, and edited the
tSkaldda, or Snorri- Edda.
Snow, John (b. 1813, d. 1858), English
physician ; devoted himself chiefly to the
subjects of cholera and anaesthetics, pub-
lishing The Mode of Communication of
Cholera (1849), and On Chloroform and other
<AncBsthett.es, left nearly finished, which was
edited by Dr. Richardson.
Snyders, Frans (*. 1579, d. 1657), Flemish
painter, who excelled in the representations
of fl.niTnfl.la.
Soane, Sir John (b. 1753, d. 1837), English
architect, professor of the Royal Academy ;
designed the Dulwich Gallery, the Privy
Council and Board of Trade offices, and the
old Law Courts ; left to the nation his house
and art museum.
SobiesM, John [John HI. of Poland] (b.
1629, d. 1696), Polish warrior: saved his
country from the combination of the Tatars
and Cossacks, and became grand-marshal
(1667), took Choczim from the Turks, and
was elected king in 1674. After further
combats with Tatars and Turks, he relieved
Vienna from the siege of the latter in 1683,
and invaded the Slav provinces, but his
efforts to introduce reforms in the Polish
constitution were fruitless.
Socinus, Faustus (b. 1539, d. 1601), Italian
theologian ; adopted and disseminated the
rationalistic views of his uncle, LJSLITJS (d.
1562), was twelve years in the service of
Florence, but afterwards lived at Cracow,
till in 1598 he was subjected to outrage by a
mob. His doctrines are contained in the
first two volumes of Bibliotheca Fratrum
Polonorum (published 1656).
Socrates (b. «ra*469 B.C., d. 399), Athenian
philosopher; worked at first as a sculptor,
but afterwards devoted himself to gratuitous
teaching. He served as a soldier in the
Peloponnesian war, saving the lives of his
pupils, Alcibiades and Xenophon, at Potidaea
and Delium ; was finally condemned to drink
hemlock on a charge of impiety and the
corruption of youth.
Socrates (5th century), historian ; born at
Constantinople, wrote a history of the church
(677)
Sor
from the point at which Eusebius ends to
the year 440.
Soemmering', Samuel Thomas (b. 1755, d.
1830; , German anatomist ; friend of Schelling
and Goethe, held chairs at Cassel and Mainz,
and became privy councillor of Bavaria.
He made researches en the lymphatic vessels
and in electricity, but his great work was
De Corporis Humani JFabrica (1794-1801).
Solario, Antonio, called "Lo Zingro" (d.
1455), Italian fresco-painter, originally a
smith. Most of his works are at Naples.
Solinus, Caius Julius (3rd century),
Roman geographer, called " Polyhistor, "
from the title of his work, which was trans-
lated into English in 1587 by Arthur
Golding.
Soils, Antonio du \b. 1610, d. 1686), Spanish
writer, author of History of the Conquest of
Mexico, with poems, dr.ainas, and letters.
Sollas, W. J., D.Sc., F.R.S. (*. 1849),
English geologist ; was made professor of
geology and zoology at University College,
Bristol, in 1880, and in 1883 obtained the
chair of geology and mineralogy at Dublin.
Solomon, King of Israel, reigned circa
1015-977 B.C.
Solomon, Solomon J. (b. 1860), painter;
first exhibited at the Royal Academy in
1880, his chief pictures having been Cassandra
(now at Ballarat), Sacred and Profane Lore,
Niobe, and The Judgment of Paris (1891), etc.
Solon (d. circa 560 B.C.), legislator of
Athens, and one of the seven sages ; abolished
the Draconian Code, and founded a new con-
stitution on the basis of property.
Solyman, "the Magnificent," Sultan of the
Turks (b. 1496, d. 1566), succeeded Selim I. in
1520, took Belgrade next year, and Rhodes
in 1522 ; invaded Hungary, won the battle
of Mohacz (1526), and took Buda, but was
compelled to retire from before Vienna. In
1534 he carried on war with Persia, and took
Bagdad. Six years later he again made
war on Hungary, and soon after allied him-
self with Francis I. against Charles V. In
1560 he captured Tripoli, but failed before
Malta five years later, and died next year in
his camp in Hungary.
Somers, John, Lord (b. 1652, d. 171 6), Eng-
lish lawyer and statesman ; was one of the
counsel for the Seven Bishops, and chair-
man of the committee which drew up the
Declaration of Rights, and became Solicitor-
General (1689), Attorney - General, Lord
Keeper, and in 1697 Lord High Chancellor.
He framed the plan for the Scotch union,
became president of the Council in 1708, and
vras president of the Royal Society.
Somerset, Lord Fitzroy. [See Raglan.]
Somerset, Edward Seymour, Duke of (d.
1552), was created Earl of Hertford on the
marriage of his sister to Henry VIII. , and on
the accession of Edward VI. became governor
of the king and lord protector. He carried
on war against Scotland, favoured the Pro-
testants, but was beheaded, after a previous
confinement in 1549, on a charge of con-
spiracy against the li ves of some of the privy
councillors.
Somerset, Robert Carr, Earl of (d. 1645),
Scotch favourite of James I. ; became lord
treasurer of Scotland in 1610, and was
afterwards notorious in connection with the
murder of Sir Thomas Overbury.
Someryille, Mary, nee Fairfax (b. 1780, d.
1872), scientific writer; author of On the
Connection of the Physical Sciences (183i),
Physical Geography (1869), and On Molecular
and Microscopic Science. She received a Civil
List pension of £300 in 1835, and Somerville
Hall, Oxford, was founded in memory of
her.
Somerville, William (b. 1692, d. 1742),
poet, author of The Chase, etc.
Sontag, Henrietta (b. 1806, d. 1854),
Gei-man singer ; made her debut at Prague
at the age of fifteen, and was very successful
in Paris and London (1828). In 1830 she
married Count Rossi, but in 1849 reappeared
in London, the United States, and Mexico,
where she died.
Sophia, Electress of Hanover (b. 1630, d.
1714), granddaughter of James I., and
mother of George I. ; was heir to the throne
by the Act of Settlement, but died just before
Queen Anne.
Sophia Alexievna, Regent of Russia (b.
1656, d. 1704), organised the revolt of the
Stretlitzen, and ruled by the help of Galitzin
for seven years, but was deprived and
imprisoned by her brother, Peter, for con-
spiring against him.
Sophia Dorothea of ZeU (b. 1666, d. :726),
wife of George I., by whom she was dii jrced
and imprisoned for life at Ahlden. Her
daughter of the same name (d. 1757) married
Frederick the Great.
Sophocles (b. 496 B.C., d. 405), Greek tragic
poet ; was appointed one of the Strategi
after the production of Antigone. Of the
tragedies attributed to him only seven are
extant. He introduced a third actor, and
made several changes in the constitution of
the drama.
Sorbonne, Robert de (b. 1201, d. 1274).
confessor and chaplain to Louis IX. ; foundea
the college of the Sorbonne.
Sor
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Sow
Sorby, Henry Clifton, F.R.S., etc. (b.
1826), geologist, became president of Firth
College, Sheffield, in 1822. His publications
deal with geological and microscopical
subjects.
Sorel, Agnes. [See Agnes Sorel.]
Sostratus (3rd century B.C.), constructed
the Pharos or lighthouse of Alexandria.
Sotheby, Samuel Leigh (d, 1861), anti-
quary, whose chief work was Principia
Typographical (1858).
Sothern, Edward Askew (ft. 1826, d. 1881),
comedian ; after acting in England made his
first appearance at Boston as Dr. Pangloss,
but gained his reputation as Lord Dundreary,
in Our American Cousin, which he played over
a thousand times in America, and nearly five
hundred at the Haymarket. He also created
the title character in David Garrick.
Soubise, Benjamin de (d. 1641), French
Protestant, who carried on war against
Louis XIII. , and obtained the aid of Eng-
land, but was ultimately obliged to take
refuge there.
Soubise, Charles, Prince de (b. 1715, d.
1787) , marshal of France ; was made governor
of Flanders in 1751, and by the favour of
Madame de Pompadour obtained a command
in the Seven Years' war, but was defeated
at Rossbach, though he afterwards con-
quered Hesse. He was at intervals minister
of state under Louis XV. and Louis XVL
Souffiot, Jacques Germain (b. 1713, d.
1781), architect; designed Ste.-Genevieve at
Paris and several buildings at Lyon.
Soult, Nicolas, Jean de Dieu, Duke of Dal-
matia (b. 1769, d. 1851), marshal of France;
entered the army in 1785, became general in
the republican armies, but was made prisoner
at Genoa in 1799, became marshal in 1804,
and held several commands till in 1808 he was
Bent to Spain to crush Sir John Moore. He
then took Oporto, and governed Portugal so
well that overtures were made to give him
permanent rule, but he had to meet Wel-
lington, who defeated him at the Douro.
He gained the victory of Ocafia over the
Spaniards, but was defeated at Albuera, and
in 1813 was recalled to Germany, where he
became chief of the staff. After Vittoria he
returned to Spain as lieutenant of the em-
peror, but was driven into France by Wel-
lington, and on the abdication of Napoleon
became minister of war under Louis XVIII.
After the escape from Elba, however, he re-
joined the emperor, and was among those
proscribed at the restoration : but on his re-
turn he was created pair de France, and was
minister of war under Louis Philippe from
1830 to 1847, being also the representative of
France at the coronation of Queen Victoria.
South, Sir James, F.R.S. (b. 1785, d. 1867),
English astronomer, son of a druggist ; was
one of the founders of the Royal Astronom-
ical Society, of which he became president
in 1829, and was associated with Sir John
Herschell in observations on the double stars,
receiving the Copley medal and a pension tor
his labours.
South, Robert (b. 1633, d. 1716), divine;
carried on a controversy with Sherlock on
the doctrine of the Trinity, and was cele-
brated both as a preacher and a wit.
Southampton, Thomas Wriothesley, first
Earl of (d. 1550), statesman; became Sec-
retary of State in 1538, and was a leader of
the Anglo-Roman party ; became Chancellor
in 1544, and promoted the persecution of the
Protestants. He negotiated a treaty with
Scotland, was one of the executors of Henry
VIII., was deprived of the seals by Somerset,
but restored to the Council in 1549.
Southampton, Henry, third Earl (b. 1573,
d. 1624), friend of Essex, in whose disgrace
he was involved, is chiefly to be remembered
as the patron of Shakespeare, Venus and
Adonis being dedicated to him.
Southampton, Thomas, fourth Earl (d.
1667), statesman; was made a privy coun-
cillor by Charles I. on his desertion of the
Parliamentarians, and represented the king
at Uxbridge ; was the friend of Clarendon,
and was made lord high treasurer after
the Restoration.
Southcott, Joanna (b. 1750, d. 1814), a
Devonshire woman, who founded a sect,
declaring that she was about to bring forth
"the Second Shi loh." A post-mortem ex-
amination showed that she had suffered from
dropsy.
Southerae, Thomas (b. 1660, d. 1746),
dramatist ; held a commission in the army,
and wrote Isabella, : or the Fatal Marriage,
Oroonoko, and other tragedies, as well as
some comedies.
Southey, Robert (ft. 1774, d. 1843), poet
and biographer, son of a h'nendraper at
Bristol : settled at Keswick in 1803, and there
wrote The Curse of Eehama (1810), and all
his chief poems, except Thalaba (1801), as
•well as his lives of Nelson (1813) and of
Wesley (1820), The Doctor, and contributions
to the Quarterly. He became £oet laureate
in 1813, and received a pension in 1835. He
was twice married, first to Edith Fricker,
sister of his friend Coleridge's wife, and
secondly to Caroline Bowles (q.v.), the
romance- writer and poet, who died in 1854.
Sowerby, George Brettingham (b. 1788, d.
1854), brother of James: wrote The Genera
of Recent and Fossil Sheik, and other works.
Sow
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Spi
Sowerby, James (b. 1757, d. 1822), natur-
alist and artist; author of English Fungi,
and, with Sir J. E. Smith, English Botany.
Sozomenus (5th century), Greek historian,
author of a History of the Church from 323
to 423, which he de'dicated to Theodosius.
Spaendonck, Gerard van (b. 1746, d. 1822),
Dutch flower-painter; became miniature-
painter to the King of France and professor
of iconography at the Jardin des Plantes.
Spagnuolo [Giovanni di Pietro] (16th
century), Spanish painter, who settled in
Italy, executed the altar-piece in the Lerver
church of Assisi. His Adoration of the Magi
has been attributed to Baffaelle.
Spallanzani, Lazaro (*. 1729, d. 1789),
Italian naturalist and scholar, professor at
Pavia and director of the museum ; made
important investigations concerning genera-
tion, respiration, and digestion.
Spanheim, Ezekiel (*._ 1629, d. 1710),
numismatist and diplomatist ; author of I)e
Pr&stantid et Usu Numismatorum Anti-
quorum, came to England (where he died) as
minister of the Elector-Palatine.
Sparks, Jared (b. 1789, d. 1866), American
writer; became professor of history at
Harvard in 1839, and president of the col-
lege in 1849. His chief work was Life and
Writings of Washington (1834-7).
Spartacus (d. 72 B.C.), a Thracian, who
headed the revolt of the gladiators at Capua.
After some successes he was defeated by
Crassus and slain.
Spedding, James (b. 1808, d. 1881), English
writer ; author of Life and Letters of Bacon
(1876), and a complete edition of his works.
He also wrote Publishers and Authors (1867),
and, with Gairdner, Studies in English
History, etc.
Speed, John (b. 1542, d. 1629), historical
writer ; author of History of Great Britain
from Julius Ccesar to James /., and The
Theatre of the Empire of Great Britain.
Speke, John Banning (b. 1827, d. 1864),
explorer ; served as a soldier in India, and
in 1857, with Burton, discovered Lake
Tanganyika and the sources of the Nile.
He afterwards went with Grant to the west
of the Victoria Nyanza, and published his
Journal in 1863.
Spelman, Sir Henry (*. 1562, d. 1641),
antiquary, author of Glossarium Arch&olo-
gium and other works. His son, Sir JOHN
(d. 1683), wrote a Life of Alfred the Great.
Spence, William, F.R.S. (b. 1780, d.
I860), wrote, with Rev. W. Kirby, Intro-
duction to Entomology.
Spencer, Herbert (b. 1820), utilitarian
philosopher; was for some years a civil
engineer before engaging in literature.
Having come to London he became in-
timate with George Eliot and G. H.
Lewes, and in 1851 published Social Statics.
He undertook a lecturing tour in America
in 1882, previous to which had appeared
Principles of Psychology (1855), First Prin-
ciples (1862), Education (1861), Principles of
Biology (\%§±}t The Study of Sociology (1872),
The Data of Ethics (1879), The Man v,
The State (1884), and other works fol-
lowed.
Spencer, John Charles, third Earl (b.
1782, d. 1845), statesman, better known as
Lord Althorp ; took a prominent part in the
proceedings against the Duke of York in
1809, and in 1830 became Chancellor of the
Exchequer and leader in the Commons
under Earl Grey, but disagreed with him
on the Coercion Bill, and resigned in 1834.
He held office for a short time under Mel-
bourne, but, after succeeding to the peerage,
took little further part in affairs.
Spencer, John Poyntz, K.G., fifth Earl
(b. 1835), was Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland
from 1868 to 1874, and having been president
of the Council from 1880 to 1882, held the
same office again from that year till 1885.
In the 1886 ministry he was Lord President
of the Council, and in 1892 First Lord of the
Admiralty.
Spener, Philipp Jacob (b. 1635, d. 1705),
German theologian, founder of the Pietist
sect.
Spenser, Edmund (b. 1552, d. 1599),
English poet; went to Ireland in 1580 as
secretary to Lord Grey de Wilton, and
lived in Cork county in the intervals till the
rebellion of Tyrone (1598). The Faerie
Queene was partly printed in 1590, his other
chief works being The Shepheard's Calendar.
Colin Clout's Come Home Again (1591), and
View of the State of- Ireland.
Spenser, or Spencer, Henry (d. 1406),
divine, called the "Fighting Bishop" (of
Norwich), put down the rising in the eastern
counties in 1381, and served Urban VI.
against Clement VII. in Flanders.
Speranski, Michael (b. 1711, d. 1840),
Russian statesman, minister of Alexander I.,
made a digest of the laws of Russia.
Speusippus (d. 339 B.C.), Athenian phi-
losopher, nephew of Plato, whom he suc-
ceeded as head of the Academy.
Spielhagen, Friedrich (b. 1829), German
novelist, bom at Magdeburg ; wrote Prob-
lematische Naturen (1860), Hammer und
Ambos (1869), Was will das werden (1887),
as well as some comedies.
Spi
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Sta
Spinola, Ambrose, Marquis (b. 1571, d.
163u), Spanish general; commanded in the
Low Countries against Maurice of Nassau,
and afterwards in Germany and Italy.
Spinoza, Benedict (b. 1632, d. 1677), phi-
losopher, born at Amsterdam of Portuguese-
Jewish descent, was excommunicated and
renounced Judaism. His chief works were
Tractatus Theotogico-Politicu*, Ethica, and
Cogitata Meiaphysica.
Spohr, Ludwig (b. 1784, d. 1859), German
•violinist and composer, born in Brunswick ;
became director of the Vienna theatre in
1813, was kapellmeister at Hesse-Cassel
from 1822 to 1857, and came to Paris in
1819, and London in 1820. His chief works
are The Last Judgment (1826) and Calvary
(oratorios), Tlie Alchymist (an opera), nine
symphonies, etc., and a work on the violin.
Hia autobiography was translated in 1864.
Spontini, Gasparo Luigi Pacifico (b. 1774,
d. 1851), Italian composer, produced at
seventeen his opera / Puntigli delle Donne ;
became chamber -composer to the Empress
Josephine, and produced Vestale (1807) at
Paris, and after being reinstated by the
Bourbons went to Berlin in 1820. Here he
composed Olympia, and several other operas.
Spottiswoode, John (b. 1565, d. 1639),
Archbishop of Glasgow and St. Andrews and
Chancellor of Scotland ; wrote History of
the Church of Scotland, and was buried in
Westminster Abbey.
Spottiswoode, William (b. 1825, d. 1883),
mathematician and Orientalist, was presi-
dent of the Royal Society in 1879. He wrote
The Polarisation of Light and A Tarantasse
Journey through Eastern Prussia.
Sprat, Thomas (b. 1636, c?. 1713), divine,
successively Dean of Westminster and Bi-
shop of Rochester ; was one of the founders
of the Royal Society, of which he wrote an
account, as well as a History of the Rye
House Plot and a Life of Cowley.
Sprengel, Kurt (b. 1766, d. 1833), German
physician, professor of medicine and botany
at Halle ; wrote a History of Medicine, Anti-
quitates Botanica, etc.
Sprigg, Sir James Gorden, K.C.M.G. (b.
1837), colonial statesman, went to the Cape
in 1868, and was prime minister 1878-81,
treasurer 1884-6, becoming again premier
in the latter year.
Spuller, Eugene (b. 1835), French politi-
cian, abandoned the bar for journalism,
and was one of the founders of the Revue
Politique. He opposed the plebiscite of
1870, in which year he became secretary to
Gambetta, and edited La Republique Fran-
$aise from 1871 to 1876. In 1880 he became
leader of the Advanced Left in the Chamber,
and has published works on Michelet and
on the Jesuits.
Spurgeon, Charles Haddon (b. 1834, i.
1892), Baptist preacher ; was bom in Essex,
and came to London in 1853, the Metro-
politan Tabernacle being opened in 1861.
His sermons were published weekly almost
from the beginning, and had a large sale.
In 1887 he withdrew from the Baptist
Union.
Spurzheim, Gaspar (b. 1776, d. 1832), one
of the founders of phrenology, born near
Trier; became acquainted with Gall at
Vienna, and having for some years worked
and travelled with him, died in the United
States.
Squarcione, Francesco (b. 1394, d. 1474),
Italian painter ; established a great school
of art at Padua, and had Mantegna and
Bellini for pupils.
Stackhouse, Thomas (b. 1680, d. 1752),
English divine, author of The History of the
Bible. Another man of the same name, who
died in 17S5, published A General View of
Ancient History, Chronology, and Geography.
Stadion, Johann, Count (b. 1763, d. 1824),
Austrian statesman, did much towards form-
ing the third coalition against France, and
having become foreign minister, began the
war which ended with Wagram. In 1812
he negotiated the Treaty of Toplitz, signed
the Treaty of Paris in 1814, and reorganised
the finances.
Stae'l-Holstein, Anne. Baronne de [Mad-
ame de Stael] (b. 1766, d. 1817), French
writer, daughter of Xecker, her husband
being the Swedish ambassador; published
several works before the revolution, and
fled to Switzerland, and afterwards to Eng-
land in September, 1792. She returned to
Paris in 1796, but was banished by Napoleon
in 1802, and travelled till his fall. Her chief
works were Ten Years of Exile, Germany,
Delphine, Corinne, and other novels, and
Considerations on the French Revolution.
Stahl, Georg Ernst (b. 1660, d. 1734),
German physician, professor at Jena and
Halle : was the propounder of the phlogistic
theory in chemistry, and of the immaterial
hypothesis in physiology.
Stainer, Sir John, Mus. Doc. (b. 1840),
English organist and composer ; was organist
of Magdalen College, Oxford, from 185P to
1872, and of St. Paul's from that year till
1889, when he resigned and retired to
Oxford, where he became professor of
music. His compositions include Gideon
(an oratorio) and the cantata The Daughter
of Jairus, etc., and he published Theory of
Hartnony and other works.
Sta
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Sta
Stair, James Dalrymple, Viscount (b,
1619, d. 1695), Scotch jurist, some time
president of the Court of Session, was author
of Institutions of the Laws of Scotland.
Stair, John, Earl of (d. 1707), statesman,
as Secretary of State in Scotland planned
with the Campbells the massacre of Glencoe,
and was dismissed in 1695 ; but became
Privy Councillor under Anne, and a great
supporter of the Act of Union.
Stair, John, second Earl (b. 1673, d.
1747), general and statesman, distinguished
himself under Maryborough, and was made
commander-in-chief in Scotland by George
I. He then went to France, and organised
the Quadruple Alliance, and after a period
of retirement became ambassador to Holland
as well as commander in Flanders, winning
the battle of Dettingen in 1743.
Stanfield, W. Clarkson, B.A. (b. 1794, d.
1867) , landscape-painter ; was in early lif e a
sailor, and then became scene-painter. His
chief pictures were Market-Boats on the
Scheldt, The Battle of Trafalgar, Guidecca,
Venice, Corno, and others, which are in the
National Gallery, London.
Stanford, Charles Villiers (b. 1852),
musical composer, born in Dublin ; became
conductor to the Cambridge Musical Society,
and, in 1887, professor of music. Among
his productions are music to Tennyson's
Queen Mary, Browning's Cavalier Tunes,
etc., Father O'Flynn, and The Revenge,
Savonarola, The Canterbury Pilgrims, The
Veiled Prophet, Eden (1891), etc.
Stanhope, Lady Hester Lucy (b. 1776, d.
1839), daughter of CHABLES, third Earl, an
extreme Whig of scientific tastes ; after the
death of Lord Chatham, her uncle, to whom
she had been secretary, went to Syria to
study astrology, and exercised great influ-
ence over the pashas.
Stanhope, James, first Earl (b. 1673, d.
1721), soldier and statesman, served with
distinction under William III. , and in Spain
during the Succession war ; was Secretary
of State from 1714 to 1717, and, after being
Premier a few months, returned to that office,
and skilfully directed English foreign policy.
Stanhope, Philip, fifth Earl (b. 1805, d.
1875), historian and politician, was under-
secretary for Foreign Affairs in Peel's
first ministry, and secretary to the Board
of Control 1845-6. He wrote History of
the War of the Spanish Succession, and
History of England from the Peace of Utrecht
to that of Versailles (which appeared under
his courtesy title of Lord Mahon), a Life of
Pitt, and edited the Letters and writings of
Lord Chesterfeld, and, in part, the Memoirs
of Sir Robert Peel.
Stanhope, Eight Hon. Edward (b. 1840),
second son of the above ; was elected fellow
of All Souls', Oxford, in 1862, entered Par-
liament in 1874, and having held some sub-
ordinate posts was vice-president of the
Education Committee, and president of the
Board of Trade 1885-6, Colonial Secretary
1886-7, and became Secretary-at-War in
the latter year.
Stanhope, William, first earl of Harring-
ton (d. 1756), ambassador to Spain in 1717
and 1730, and was shortly after created
Secretary of State.
Stanislaus Leczinski, King of Poland (b.
1677, d. 1766), was elected by the Diet in
1704 at the instance of Charles XII., but
was deposed on the fall of that king.
Louis XV., however, having married his
sister, he was again elected in 1733, but was
compelled to retire to France, becoming
Duke of Lorraine, but retaining kingly rank.
Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn (b. 1815, d.
1881), divine, son of EDWARD, Bishop of
Norwich (d. 1849), author of Familiar
History of Birds ; was educated at Rugby
and Balliol, and became professor of eccle-
siastical history at Oxford in 1858. He
visited the East in 1853 and 1862, and was
appointed Dean of Westminster in 1863.
Among his works were Life of Dr. Arnold,
Sinai and Palestine, and Essays on Church
and State.
Stanley, Henry Morton, D.C.L. (b. 1841),
African explorer, born in Wales ; took the
name of his adopted father in place of that
of Rowlands, and having served in the
American Civil war, and been a war cor-
respondent in Turkey and Abyssinia, was
in 1870 sent to find Livingstone, whom he
met at Ujiji (November 10, 1871), and having
explored with him came home in 1872. In
1874 he again went to Africa, and in the
course of four years explored Victoria and
Albert Nyanza, and the Congo. In 1879-82
he once more visited the latter, and in 1887
went to relieve Emin Pasha. How I found
Livingstone, Through the park Continent, and
In Darkest Africa describe his expeditions.
Stanley of Alderley, Edward, Lord (b.
1802, d. 1869), statesman, patronage secre-
tary' to the Treasury 1835-41, when ha
became Paymaster-General. He again held
that office as well as that of vice-president
of the Board of Trade, and was President of
the Board 1855-58. From I860 to 1866 he
was Postmaster-General with a seat in the
Cabinet.
Stanley of Preston, Frederick, Lord (b.
1841), statesman, younger son of the four-
teenth Earl of Derby, retired from the army
in 1865, in which year he entered Parlia-
ment for Preston, was financial secretary
to the War Office 1874-77, to the Treasurj
Sta
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Ste
1877-78, and was Secretary -at -War from
that year till 1880, was Colonial Secretary
1885-86, and president of the Board of
Trade 1886-88. In the former year he was
created a peer, and in the latter became
Governor -General of Canada.
Stansfeld, Right Hon. James (*. 1820),
English statesman, entered Parliament in
1859 as a Radical, and held a subordinate
office in 1863-64, resigning on account of his
intimacy with Mazzini. He again held
office in 1866, from 1869 to 1871 was secre-
tary to the Treasury, and president of the
Local Government Board 1871-74. He
again occupied that post in the Home Rule
ministry.
Stanton, Edwin (d. 1869), American
statesman ; was attorney-general and after-
wards war-minister under Lincoln, and
continued in office under President Johnson,
but quarrelled with him in 1866; was re-
instated by the Senate after dismissal, but
retired after the acquittal of the president.
Stapledon, Walter (d. 1326), Bishop of
Exeter, and founder of Exeter College,
Oxford ; was killed in a rising of the
London citizens.
Stapleton, Augustus Granville (b. 1800),
secretary to George Canning ; author of
George Canning and his Times (1859).
Statius, Publius Papinius (b. 61, d. circa
98), Roman poet, author of Silvce, Thebais,
and Achilleis (unfinished).
Staunton, Howard (b. 1810, d. 1874),
chess-player and Shakespearean scholar;
defeated M. de St. Amand, the champion of
Europe, in 1843, and published Chess-player's
Handbook, while he also brought out an
edition of the folio of 1623, and Memorials
of Shakespeare.
Stead, William Thomas (b. 1849), journa-
list, conducted the Pall Mall Gazette from
1883 to 1889, and exercised no slight influence
on opinion in the matters of the Criminal
Law, and the state of the navy, etc.
Stedman, Edmund Clarence (6. 1833),
American poet, author of Alice of Monmouth
(1864), Lyrics and Idylls (1879), and the
compilations Poets of America (1885), and
Victorian Poets.
Steele, Sir Richard (*. 1671, d. 1729),
Irish essayist and dramatist ; while serving
in the Guards published his Christian Hero,
and in 1702 brought out his first play, The
funeral : or, Grief d la Mode. He-afterwards
established and wrote with Acldison The
Tatler (1709), The Spectator (1711), and TJie
Guardian. He was expelled from the House
of Commons for his pamphlets Tlie Crisis
and The E*ujlishmin, but was knighted and
given a place by George I., to whom hi§
play The Conscious Lovers (1722) was dedi-
cated.
Steell, Sir John, R.S.A. (b. 1804, d. 1891),
sculptor, among whose chief productions are
statues of Scott, Wellington, and Bums at
Edinburgh, and of the latter at New York
and Dunedin.
Steen, Jan (6. 1636, d. 1689), Dutch
painter, born at Leyden.
Steen wyk, Henrik van (6. 1550), painter,
master of Peter Neefs. Architectural in-
teriors were his speciality.
Steenwyk, Heurik van, "the Younger"
(b. 1589), architectural painter, friend of
Vandyck, by whose advice he came to
England, where he died.
Steevens, George (/;. 1736, d. 1800), pub-
lished an edition of Shakespeare's plays in
1766, and three years later some notes, which
were incorporated with those of Dr. Johnson.
Stefano (Gittino), Tommasodi (d. 1324, d.
1356), fresco painter of the school of Giotto.
Steffens, Heinrich (b. 1773, d. 1848),
Norwegian writer, held the chair of natural
history successively at Jena, Halle, Breslau,
and Berlin. His chief works were Grundzuge
der Philosophischen Naturwissenschaft, Die
Vier Norweger, and other novels, and Was
ich erlebte.
Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl, Baron von
(b. 1757, d. 1831), Prussian statesman, was
president of the Westphalian Chambers from
1797 to 1804, when he became minister of
finance, but resigned in 1807. He was recalled
after the peace of Tilsit, but was proscribec1
and exiled by order of Napoleon in 1808.
In 1812 he went to St. Petersburg, and en-
couraged Alexander I. against Napoleon,
and gained great influence with the allies.
His liberal views not being approved, how-
ever, he retired till 1827. A monument waa
erected to him in Berlin in 1875.
Steinitz, William (b. 1836), Bohemian
chess-player, won the championship of the
world by his victory over Anderssen in 1866,
and dbok part in numerous tournaments. In
1883 he settled in the United States.
Steinmetz, Karl Friedrich von (b. 1796, d.
1877), Prussian general, served in the later
campaigns against Napoleon, and dis-
tinguished himself in suppressing the revo-
lution of 1848: defeated the Austrians on
three consecutive days in 1866, and com-
manded the first army in 1870, but soon re-
signed on account of differences with Prince
Frederick Charles and Manteuffel.
Stella [Esther Johnson] (b. 1684, d. 1727),
frierd and lover of Dean Swift.
Ste
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Ste
Stenhouse, John, F.R.S. (b. 1809, d. 1880),
Scotch chemist of the school of Liebig;
invented the charcoal respirator and a
process of waterproofing by paraffin.
Steno, Nicholas (b. 1638, d. 1687), Danish
anatouist, Bishop of Heliopolis and vicar
apostolic of the north, wrote Observations on
the Muscles and Glands, and other works.
Stephen, St., first Christian martyr.
Stephen, King of England (b. 1105, d.
1154), was son of Adela, daughter of
William I. and of Theobald, Comte de Blois ;
obtained the crown on the death of Henry I.
chiefly by the influence of the Bishop of
Winchester, his brother. His reign was
marked by civil war with the English and
Scotch partisans of the claims of the
Empress Maud, and also by internal
anarchy, the end of the struggle being the
Treaty of Wallingford, by which Stephen
obtained the crown for life.
Stephen, Sir James, K.C.B. (b. 1789, d.
1859), historical writer, son of JAMES
STEPHEN, master in chancery (d. 1832), was
for fourteen years under-secretary for the
Colonies, and in 1849 became professor of
Modern History at Cambridge. His chief
works were Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography
and Lectures on the History of France.
Stephen, Sir James Fitzjames, D.C.L. (b.
1829), his eldest son; was called to the bar
in 1854, was recorder of Newark 1859-68,
and legal member of the Council of India
1869-72. From 1879 to 1891, when he re-
signed, he was a judge of the High Court, and
his chief works are Digest of the Laiv of Evi-
dence, Digest of the Criminal Law, and His-
tory of the Criminal Law of England (1883).
Stephen, Leslie (b. 1832), brother of the
above, was for several years fellow and
tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge ; edited
the Cornhill for eleven years, and in 1882
undertook the editorship of the Dictionary of
National Biography, which he resigned in
1891. Among his works are History of
English Thought in the Eighteenth Century
(1876), The Science of Ethics (1882) ; lives of
Johnson, Pope and Swift in the Men of
Letters series, and a Life of Henry Fawcett
(1885).
Stephen L, King of Hungary (b. 979, d.
1038), was the son of a chieftain named
Geysa, and was made Apostolic King by
Pope Sylvester. He was active in establish-
ing Christianity, and was canonised after
his death.
Stephens CEstienne or Etienne) , a noted
family of printers of Paris. HENRY (b. circa
1460, d. 1520) ; his second son ROBERT (b.
1503, d. 1559) in 1550 retired to Geneva on
account ti his Protestantism, and his
younger brother CHARLES (b. 1504, d. 1564),
and his eldest son HENEY (b. 1528, d. 1598),
were also noted members of the family.
Stephens, George, LL.D. (b. 1813),
Scandinavian scholar, professor of English
language and literature at Copenhagen,
whose work has chiefly lain in the direction
of Scandinavian and Old English literature
and remains.
Stephens, James (b. circa 1820), Fenian,
fled to Paris after the Young Ireland move-
ment, and ten years later (1858) started the
Fenian organisation. He was arrested in
Ireland in 1865, but escaped from prison and
went to America, whence he directed the
insurrection of 1867. He was compelled to
leave Paris in 1886. Returned to Ireland
1891.
Stephenson, Sir Augustus, K.C.B. (b.
1827), was called to the bar in 1852. and
became public prosecutor in 1884.
Stephenson, George (b. 1781, d. 1848),
engineer, was born at Wylam, worked as a
collier and brakesman, and in 1815 was
presented with 1,000 guineas, and publicly
entertained for his invention of a safety
lamp. His first engine had been constructed
before this, and in 1829 he won a prize of
£500 for the best engine, his locomotive, the
Rocket, being fitted with the "blast-pipe."
Stephenson, Robert (b. 1803, d. 1859), his
son ; won the mathematical prize in a six-
months' course at Edinburgh University, and
returned to help his father. He constructed
the Planet, the model of the modern loco-
motive, and won world-wide reputation
as a constructor of bridges, and in connec-
tion with railways. He entered Parliament
for Whitby as a Conservative in 1847.
"Stepniak," Sergius Dragomanoff (b.
1841), Russian writer; was removed from
his professorship of Kieff and exiled in 1876
for his political opinions, and then settled at
Geneva. Among his works are Hiomada
(" Common Things''1), Tyrannicide in Rmsiay
and The Turks Within and Without, Under-
ground Russia, etc.
Sterling, Antoinette (b. 1850), contralto
singer, was born in America, and made her
first appearance in England in 1873. Two
years later she married Mr. John McKinlay,
and settled in this country.
Sterling", John (b. 1806, d. 1844), Scotch
writer, son of EDWARD STERLING (" Vetus ")
(d. 1847), was a pupil of Julius Hare at
Cambridge, and in 1834 became his curate
at Hurstmonceux. He gave up his orders
on account of ill-health, became acquainted
with Carlyle, who wrote his life, and pub-
lished ^frZlAwr Coningsby a 833), some poema,
and a tragedy, Strafford (1843).
Ste
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Stern, Daniel, nom de plnine of Marie,
Comtesse d'Agoult (b. 1805, d. 1876),
French writer, author of some essays and
novels and of Htsfoire de la liev<iluttun de
'48> She lived some years with Liszt, but
afterwards returned to her husband. One of
her daughters married Emile Ollivier, and
another Richard Wagner.
Sterne, Laurence (b. 1713, d. 1768), Irish
divine and writer, author of Tristram
Shandy (1759-67), The Sentimental Journey,
and Letters to hi* friends (posthumous),
etc.
aternhold, Thomas (*. circa 1500, d.
1549), was joint-author with Hopkins of
the first English metrical version of the
Psalms.
Stesichorus (d. circa 560 B.C.), Greek
poet, born in Sicily, some fragments by
whom are extant.
Stevens, Alfred (b. 1818, d. 1875), English
sculptor, pupil of Thorwaldsen, became
director of the Sheffield School of Art in
1850, and in 1857 was entrusted with the
execution of the Wellington monument in
St. Paul's, which was unfinished at his
death.
Stevens, Joseph (b. 1832), Belgian painter,
whose pictures of dogs and other animals
were exhibited at Paris and Brussels. The
Unconscious Philosopher and An Episode in
the Dog Market, Paris, were seen at the Great
Exhibition of 1855, and the artist obtained
the first prize in the International Exhibition
of 1871. His brother, ALFRED (£.1828), ac-
quired celebrity as a genre painter.
Stevens, Thaddeus(£. 1793, d. 1868), Ameri-
can statesman, entered Congress in 1848, and
took an active part in the anti-slavery agita-
tion, urging rigorous measures against the
Confederates.
Stevenson, Robert (b. 1772, d. 1850), Scotch
engineer; completed the Bell Rock light-
house, of which he published an account,
and invented the intermittent and flashing
exhibition of light.
Stevenson, Robert Louis (b. 1850), novelist,
poet, and essayist, grandson of the above;
gave up the family profession and travelled,
afterwards writing the following works,
arnong others: An Inland Voyage (1878),
Yirginibus Puerisque (1881), New Arabian
Fights (1882), Treasure Island (1883), A
Child's Garden of Verse, Prince Otto (1885),
Strange Case o'f Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
(1885), Kidnapped (1886), The Master of
Ballantrae (1889), The Wrecker (1892), A
Footnote to History (1892). In 1890 he went
to live in Samoa.
•
Stevin, Simon (* 1548, d. 1620), Flemish
mathematician ; was the first to establish the
use of decimal fractions.
Stewart, Alexander Turney (b. 1802, d.
1876), American millionaire, bom in Ire-
land; devoted part of his wealth to the
relief of the Irish peasants, and of the
French during the war. He also estab-
lished a home for working girls at Xew
York, and a model garden city on Long
Island.
Stewart, Balfour, F.R.S. (*. 1828, d.
1887), Scotch physicist; after some years in
Australia aud at Edinburgh as assistant to
Principal Forbes, became director of Kew
observatory in 1859, and professor of
physics in Owens College in 1870. His
chief works were An Elementary Treatise
on Heat (1866), and, with Professor Taitr
The Unseen Universe (1875), and The Para-
doxical Philosophy (1878).
Stewart, Sir Donald Martin, Bart. G.C.B.,
etc. (b. 1824), general; entered the Bengal
army in 1840, distinguished himself during
the Indian Mutiny, held a command in the
Abyssinian war, and cooperated with Sir
F. Roberts (Lord Roberts) in the Afghan
war of 1879-80. He was commander-in-
chief in India from 1881 to 1885, when he
became a member of the Council
Stewart, Dugald (*. 1753, d. 1828), Scotch
metaphysician, son of Dr. Matthew Stewart,
the mathematician, whom he assisted for
three years, but was appointed in 1785 pro-
fessor of moral philosophy at Glasgow. He
had great influence over the rising Whig
generation, and his Collected Works were
edited by Sir W. Hamilton.
Stewart, Major- General Sir Herbert (b.
1843. d. 1885), entered the army in 1864,
served in the Zulu war, and was made
prisoner by the Boers at Majuba Hill. He
had a command in the Egyptian campaigns
of 1882 and 1884, and after winning the
battle of Abu Klea (January 17, 1885) was
mortally wounded a few days later at
Gubat.
Stigund (llth century), became ~Pr~hop of
the East Angles in 1043, of Win ..ester in
1047, and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1053
(probably). He became a strong partisan of
the GodAviues, and crowned Harold, but made
his submission to William after Hastings.
He afterwards, however, flew to the " Camp
of Refuge" in the Isle of Ely, and was
imprisoned for life on his capture in 1072.
Stilicho (d. 408), general of the Western
Empire ; married Serena, niece of Theo-
dpsius, who entrusted him with the care of
his sons. He obtained great influence over
Honorius, who had married his daughter,
saved Rome from famine, defeated Alarie
Sti
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Sto
in 403 and drove him from Italy, and simi-
larly put an end to the invasion of Rada-
gaisus in 405. He afterwards negotiated
with Alaric, but was plotted against by
Olympius, and murdered at Ravenna.
Stilling. [See Jung.]
StiUingfleet, Edward (b. 1635, d. 1699),
theologian ; successively Dean of St. Paul's
and Bishop of Worcester; was author of
Eirenicon^ and had controversies with Locke,
Baxter, and the Romanists.
Stirling, Hon. Sir James (b. 1836), judge ;
was called to the bar in 1862, and became
judge of the Chancery division in 1886.
Stirling, James Hutchison, LL.D. (b.
1820), Scotch writer; abandoned medicine
for literature, and wrote The Secret of Hegel
(1865), Thomas Carlyle's Counsels (1886), a
translation of Schwegler's History of Philo-
sophy, etc.
Stirling, Mrs. (b. 1817), actress [Fanny
Clifton], made her first appearance at the
East London theatre, and subsequently
played under Macready at Drury Lane.
Her finest parts were Peg Woffington in
Masks and Faces and the Nurse in Romeo
and Juliet. She retired in 1886.
Stirling-Maxwell [See Maxwell.]
Stobaeus, (5th or 6th century), Greek
writer; author of the compilations Antho-
logiu and Eclogce.
Stocknausen, Julius (b. 1825), vocalist,
born in Paris, became the pupil of Halle
and Garcia and the f rieud of Ary Scheffer ;
appeared in Lor don in 1851, and afterwards
fulfilled engagements at the Opera Comique,
Paris, and at Leipzig and Cologne. He also
wrote Method of Singing, and in 1874 became
director of the Stern Choral Society in
Berlin.
Stockirar, Christian Friedrich, Baron (b.
1787, d. 1 363), statesman and physician ; was
long attached to King Leopold of Belgium,
first as physician and then as secretary, and
subseq lently became a confidential adviser
of Queen Victoria. His Memoirs were trans-
lated and edited by Professor Max-Miiller
in 18' 2.
Stocks, Lumb, R.A. (I. 1812), engraver;
exe( uted fine plates after Maclise, Landseer,
"WTkie, Leighton, Sir Noel Paton, and other
arir.sts.
Stockton, Francis Richard (b. 1834),
Arierican writer ; author of Rudder Grange,
The Great War Syndicate, and other novels.
fctoddard, Richard Henry (b. 1825),
American writer, author of Poems (1852),
Toun and Country, Little Red Riding Hood,
Memoirs of E. A. Poe, etc. His wife (net
Barstow) has also written novels.
Stokes, Sir George Gabriel, F.R.S. (b.
1819), mathematician, was senior wrangler
and first Smith's prizeman in 1841, and
eight years later became Lucasian professor
of mathematics. He became president of
the Royal Society in 1885, and was returned
as a Conservative for Cambridge in 1887.
His publications deal with pure and applied
mathematics and the undulatory theory of
light.
Stokes, William, M.D., F.R.S. (b. 1804,
d. 1877), physician, son of Dr. Whitley
Stokes, whom he succeeded as professor of
physics at Dublin. His works include Diag-
nosis and Treatment of the Diseases of tM
Chest, and Lectures on Continued levers.
Stokes, Whitley, D.C.L. (b. 1830), son of
the above ; was law member of the Council
of India 1877-82, and president of the Indian
Law Commission of 1879. Besides his works
on Indian law he published philological
works (Irish Glosses, etc.).
Stokes, Sir John, Lieutenant -General (6.
1825), entered the army in 1843, served
against the Kaffirs, and in 1855 was chief
engineer to the Turkish contingent. He
was afterwards commissioner for the Danube,
and was appointed in 1876 British repre-
sentative on the Suez Canal Board. He
retired from the army in 1887.
Stolberg, Friedrich Leopold, Count von
(b. 1750, d. 1819), German writer, author of
History of the Religion of Jesus Christ (1811-
18), Die Insel, and some poems and trans-
lations. His brother, CHRISTIAN (b. 1748, d.
1821), was also a poet and translator.
Stone, Edward James, F.R.S. (b. 1831),
astronomer ; became Radcliffe observer at
Oxford in 1879, made a catalogue of stars
while at the Cape, and in 1882 super-
intended the observations of the transit
of Venus.
Stone, Marcus, R.A. (b. 1840), painter,
son of Frank Stone, A.R.A. ; exhibited Rest
at the Academy in 1858. Among his subse-
quent pictures were Stealing the Keys,
Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, and II y
en a Toujours un Autre, which was pur-
chased from the Chantrey Bequest fund.
Storey, George Adolphus, A.R.A. (b.
1834), English painter; first exhibited in
1852, among his pictures being, The Shy
Pupil, Meeting of William Seymour with
Lady Arabella Stuart, and A Royal
Challenge.
Storm, Heinrich Friedrich von (b. 1766,
d. ],S35), Russian economist, author of Court
Politiyue.
Sto
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Story, Joseph (b. 1799, d. 1845), American
jurist, professor of law at Harvard. His
chief work was Coinntoitary on the Consti-
tution of the United Mates.
Story, William Wetmore (b. 1819), son
of the above ; published (Jon tracts not under
Seal and other legal worKs, but afterwards
devoted himself to literature aud sculpture.
Among his publications are several poems,
Origin of the Italian Language and Litera-
ture, Conversation* in a Studio, etc., and he
has executed numerous monuments, statues,
and basts.
Stothard, Thomas, R.A. (*. 1755, d. 1331),
designer, was called by Turner " the Giotto
of England." Pilgrim's Progress, Robinson
Crusoe, and many other works were illus-
trated by him.
Stoughton, John, D.D. (b. 1807), Con-
gregatioualist divine ; author of History
of lieligion in England from the Opening of
the Long Parliament to 1850 (lSSi-4), and
many other works.
Stow, John (b. 1525, d. 1605), antiquary,
his chief works being Annals of this King-
dom from the Time of the Ancient Britons,
and Survey of London.
Stowe. [See Beecher-Stowe.]
Stowell, William Scott, Lord (b. 1745,
d. 1836), lawyer, elder brother of Lord
Eldon; became judge of the Consistory
Court and Privy Councillor in 1788, entered
Parliament two years later, was nominated
judge of the Court of Admiralty in 1798,
and received a peerage in 1812.
Strabo (b. circa 50 B.C.), Greek historian
aud geographer, born at Amasia in Cappa-
docia; travelled extensive iy, and wrote
Geographia, and some historical memoirs.
Strada, Famianus (b. 1572, d. 1649),
Italian writer, author of History of Wars
in the Netherlands, 1550-90.
Strada, John [Stradano] (b. 1536), Flemish
painter ; settled at Florence, where he exe-
cuted his Crucifixion and some animal and
battle-pieces.
Stradiyarius, Antonio (b. 1670, d. 1728),
maker of the Cremona violins.
Straff or d, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of
(b. 1593, d. 1641), English statesman; as
member for Yorkshire, opposed the court
till 1628, when he received a peerage and
was made president of the north ; became
Lord-Deputy of Ireland in 1633, where he
*uled with a high hand, but created the flax
and linen industries ; was impeached in 1640,
and was condemned by bill of attainder and
executed.
Straff ord, George Byng, Earl of (b. 1830),
statesman ; was a Liberal member of the
House of Commons (as Viscount Enfield)
from 1852 to 1874 ; was named under-
secretary for Foreign Affairs in 1870, and in
1880 for India, being also first Civil Service
Commissioner from 1880 to 1888.
Strangford, George Sidney Smythe,
seventh Viscount (b. 1814, d. 1857), politi-
cian of the Young England school ; sat for
Canterbury from 1841 to 1852, and was for
a short time undersecretary for Foreign
Affairs. His chief work was Historical
fancies.
Strangford, Percy William, eighth Vis-
count (b. 1825, d. 1869), brother of theabore;
was a great linguist, but left but meagre
results, of which Letters and Papers on Philo-
logical arid Kindred Subjects were the chief.
Stratford, John de (d. 1348), ecclesiastical
statesman, took an active part in the de-
position of Edward II., became Chancellor
in 1330, and Archbishop of Canterbury three
years later ; was removed in 1340 after a
quarrel with Edward III. about the supply
of funds, but was pardoned and afterwards
exercised considerable influence over affairs.
His brother, ROBERT, Bishop of Chichester
(d. 1362), was several tunes Chancellor.
Stratford de Redcliffe, Stratford Canning,
Viscount (b. 17S6, d. 1880), diplomatist,
cousin of George Canning, educated at Eton
and King's College, Cambridge, negotiated
the Treaty of Bucharest between Russia and
Turkey (1812) ; was sent to Constantinople
in Ib25 to urge the claims of the Greeks,
and seven years later negotiated a treaty
between the Porte and Greece. After
sitting in Parliament from 1835 to 1842,
he was again sent to Turkey, and remained
at Constantinople for seventeen years,
during which he thwarted Russian intrigues,
and induced Austria to occupy the Danubian
provinces during the Crimean war.
Strathnairn, Hugh Rose, Baron (b. 1803,
d. 1885), general ; was sent to organise the
Turkish defence against Mehemet Ali in
1840, was some time charge-d? affaires at
Constantinople, and was commissioner with
the French army during the Crimean war ;
commanded the Central India Field Force
during the Mutiny, and was afterwards
commander-in-chief in India and Ireland
successively. In 1677 he attained the rank
of field- marshal.
Strauss, David Friedrich (b. 1808, d. 1874),
German critic : lost his position at Tubingen
in consequence of his Leben Jesu kritrsch
bearbeitet (1835). Among his other works
the chief were Christliche Glaubenslehre
(1839-41), Life and Times of Ulrich von
Hulten (1858), Voltaire (1870), and Der altt
und der neue Glaube (1872).
Str
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Strauss, Johann (b. 1825), musical com-
Doser, whose works include The Blue Danube
ind many other waltzes, The Forty Thieves
[1871), and other operas. His brothers,
FOSEPH (d. 1870) and EDWARD (b. 1835), also
ujquired reputation as composers and con-
luctors.
Street, George Edmund, R.A. (b. 1824, d.
1881), English architect, assisted Sir Gilbert
Scott at Hamburg, restored Christ Church,
Dublin, and built many churches. His
designs for the new Law Courts were ap-
proved, but only partially carried out.
Strickland, Agnes (b. 1806, d. 1874),
historical writer ; author (with her sister,
ELIZABETH) of Lives of the Queens of England
(1840-49) and Lives of the Queens of Scotland
(1850), and alone of The Bachelor Kings of
England (1862), and other works. She re-
ceived a Civil List pension in 1871.
Strickland, Hugh Edwin (b. 1811, d.
1853), naturalist, author of The Dodo and its
Kindred, was killed on the railway near
Clarborough tunnel.
Strossmayer, Joseph, D.D. (b. 1815),
Austrian divine of liberal tendencies ; became
Bishop of Croatia and Bosnia in 1850, and
took a leading part in the proceedings of
the (Ecumenical Council 1869-70.
Strozzi, Filippo (d. 1538), married one of
the Medici, but took the lead in the re-
establishment of the Florentine republic in
1527, and after its overthrow joined the con-
spiracy against Alessandro (1537), after
which, when captured, he put an end to
his life.
Strozzi, Giulio (d. 1636), author of the
poem Venezia Edificata.
Strozzi, Niccolo (d. 1650), wrote David
of Trebizond, and some idylls and sonnets.
Strozzi, Palla (*. 1372, d. 1462), Italian
scholar and patron, procured MS. of The
Politics and other valuable works, but was
exiled from Florence for opposition to the
Medici.
Strozzi, Piero (d. 1558), son of last-named ;
attained the rank of marshal in the French
army, and served his adopted country in
Scotland (1548), and at Calais in 1558, but
was mortally wounded at the siege of
Thionville.
Struensee, Johann Friedrich, Count (b.
1737, d. 1772), Danish statesman ; at first
court physician, obtained complete control
of the administration through his favour
with the queen (Caroline Matilda of Eng-
land) ; was beheaded on a charge of guilty
relations with her, which was brought by
his enemies.
Strutt. Joseph (b. 1742, d. 1802), antiquary,
author of Complete View of the Dresses and
Habits of the People of England^ Sports and
Pastimes, etc.
Struve, Friedrich Georg Wilhelm(£. 1793,
d. 1864), Danish astronomer; became director
of the Dorpat observatory in 1817, and of
that at Pultowa in 1839. He had the chief
part in the triangulation of Livonia, and the
arc of the meridian in Russia and Scan-
dinavia measured by him was the longest
ever attempted.
Struve, Georg Adam (b. 1619, d. 1692),
German jurist, professor of law at Jena,
author of Syntagma Juris Feudalis, and other
works.
Strype, John (*. 1643, d. 1737), English
clergyman, author of Ecclesiastical Monu-
ments, Annuls of the Reformation, and livea
of several of the reformers and of others.
Stuart, Gilbert (b. 1742, d. 1786), Scotch
writer ; author of View of Society in Europe,
History of the Reformation in Scotland, etc.
Stuart, Gilbert Charles, "American
Stuart" (b. 1756, d. 1828), portrait-painter :
came to England when young, and lived
there till 1793. He was a pupil of West, and
executed portraits of George III., George
IV., Louis XVI., Washington, Reynolds,
and other contemporaries.
Stuart, James, "Athenian Stuart" (b.
1713, d. 1788), traveller and antiquary;
author of The Antiquities of Athens.
Stuart, James E. B. (b. 1835, d. 1864),
American general ; celebrated for his services
to the Confederates, his chief exploits being
the night attack of August, 1862, when
General Pope's papers were captured, and
the raid across the Potomac in the same
year. He was mortally wounded at Ash-
land, and died at Richmond.
Stuart, John McDonald (b. 1818, d. 1866),
explorer, crossed Australia from north to
south in 1860.
Stuart-Wortley, Lady Erarneline (b. 1806,
d. 1855). traveller, and writer of Etcetera,^
Portugal and Madeira, and similar works.
Stubbes, John (b. circa 1541, d. circa 1600),
a Puritan lawyer, whose hand was cut off
for a pamphlet opposing the marriage of
Elizabeth with the Duke of Anjou.
Stubbs, William, D.D. (b. 1825), historian
and divine ; became Regius professor of
modern history at Oxford in 1866, Bishop of
Chester in 1834. and of Oxford in 1889. His
chief works are Select Charters, Constitu-
tional History of England to 1485 (1874-78),
and editions of the Chronicles of Benedict of
Peterborough and Roger Hoveden.
Stuerbont, or Dirk van Haarlem (15tb
Stn
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century), Dutch painter, whose chief works
are historical pictures now in the royal col-
lection at the Hague.
Sturgeon, William (b. 1783, d. 1850),
electrician, was lor twenty years in the
raiiks. He afterwards published Essays
Electro- Magnetism^ inveuted the electro-
magnetic coil machine and the electro-
magnetic machinery engine, and published
many treatises on similar subjects.
Sturm, Jacques (b. 1803, d. 1855), Swiss
mathematician ; discovered the best method
hitherto known for the solution of numerical
equations.
^ Suarez, Francisco (b. 1548, d. 1617),
Spanish Jesuit ; author of Defensio Fidei
Catholtcie contra Aiiylicana Sectce Errores,
which was burnt by the public hangman
both at London and Paris (1613).
Suchet, Louis Gabriel (b. 1770, d. 1826),
marshal of France ; distinguished himself
in the JXTapoleonic wars, the chief field of his
operations being Aragon, where he was
commander - in - chief.
Suckling, Sir John (b. 1609, d. 1642), Eng-
lish poet and dramatist ; was sent to the
Tower for an attempt to liberate Stratford,
and escaped impeachment by flight to
France, where he died.
Sudbury, Simon de (d. 1381), ecclesiastical
statesman ; became Bishop of London in
1361 and Primate in 1375. He was made
Chancellor in 1379, and having been one of
the advisers of the poll-tax was murdered
by the mob in the Peasant revolt.
Sue. Marie Joseph Eugene (b. 1804, d.
1859;, French novelist; saw some service as
an army doctor, and was a member of the
Assembly in 1850, but was proscribed after
the coup-d'etat. His chief works were Les
Mysteres de Paris (1812), Le Jiiif Errant
(1844-45), and Les Mysteres du Peuple.
Suetonius Paulinus, Eoman general ;
subdued Anglesea, and defeated Buddug
(Boadicea) in 61.
Suetonius Tranquillua, Caius (d. circa
160), Roman historian ; the only one of
whose works which is extant in a complete
state is his Vita Duodecim Ccesarum.
Suffolk, Charles Brandon, Duke of (d.
1545), English soldier ; was employed by
Henry VLLL in his French wars and in re-
ducing the Pilgrimage of Grace. He married
Mary Tudor after the death of Louis XII.
Suflren St. Tropez^ Pierre de (b. 1726, d.
1788), French admiral ; took part in the
attack on Port Mahon, was made prisoner at
Lagos? and subsequently gained several
victories.
Suger, Abbe (d. 1152), statesman
Louis VI. and Louis VII. ; wren.*.- a hie of
the former, and organised a crusade, but did
not live to lead it.
Suidas (10th or llth century), compiled
a valuable Greek lexicon.
Suleiman Pasha (b. lt>38,<*. 1883), Turkish
general ; took part in the conspiracy against
Abd-el-Aziz, commanded in Servia in 1677,
and in the Russo- Turkish war succeeded
Mehemet AH Pasha as commander- in -chief.
Alter the war he was tried and condemned
to hf teen years' imprisonment.
Sulla, Lucius Cornelius (b. 138 B.C., d. 78),
served under Marius in Africa, and against
the Cirnbri, and took a prominent part in the
Social war ; when consul was deprived of his
command against Mithridates by Marius (88
B.C.), but gained possession of Rome soon
after ; took Athens, and defeated the forces
of Mithridates (87-83), and in 82 again
mastered Rome, where he proscribed his
enemies, and remodelled the constitution in
an aristocratic direction.
Sullivan, Alexander Martin (b. 1830, d.
1884), Irish politician. : conducted The Nation
from 1855 to 1876, and entered Parliament in
1874 as a Home Ruler, but broke with his
party on the Land Act of 1831, which he
wished to accept. He was author of New
Ireland (1877). His brother, TIMOTHY
DANIEL (£.1827), entered Parliament in 1880,
was Lord Mayor of Dublin in 1885, and
composed God save Ireland and other songs.
Sullivan, Sir Arthur Seymour (b. 1842),
composer ; son of the Sandhurst bandmaster,
published his setting of The Tempest 1862,
and produced The Prodigal Son in I860. Iq
1871 appeared the cantata On Shore and Sea,
in 1880 The Martyr of Antioch, and in 1886
The Golden Legend (Leeds festival). Besides
his work in collaboration with W. S. Gilbert,
Pinafore, The Mikado, Patience, The Yeomen
of the Guard, The Gondoliers, etc., which
began in 1871, he composed The Lost Chord
and other songs, several hymns, and the
opera Ivanhoe.
Sullivan, Barry (b. 1824, d. 1891), trage-
dian ; made his debut at Cork in 1840, and
first appeared in London in 1851 (as Hamlet).
He subsequently played with success in
Australia, the United States, and Canada,
among his best parts being Faulconbridge,
Macbeth, and Jaques. His last appearance
was at Liverpool in 1887.
Sullivan, Right Hon. Edward (b. 1822, d.
1885), Irish judge ; was Solicitor- General
for Ireland (1865-66), Attorney - General
£1868-69), and became Master of the Rolls
in that year.
Sully, James (b. 1842), English psycholo-
gist; author of Pessimism: a History and
Sol
(689)
Swi
a Criticism (1877), Illusions, and Outlines of
Psychology, etc. (1384).
Sully, Maximilian de Bethune, Due de
(b. 1559, d. 1641), French statesman; served
Henri de Navarre as soldier and diplomatist,
and when he became King of France was
named finance minister, in which capacity
he did much able work. He negotiated a
treaty with England, and retired on the death
of Henri IV., leaving valuable Memoires.
Sully-Prudhomme.Rene FrarujoisArmand
(b. 1839), French poet, whose chief works are
±,es Epreuves, Les Vaines Tendresses, and
other poems, and a translation of the De
Naturd Rerum of Lucretius.
Sulpicius Rufus, Servius (b. 105 B.C., d.
43), Roman jurist and orator, friend of
Cicero ; was the first to give jurisprudence a
scientific form. He was consul in 51 B.C.
Sulpicius Severus (5th century}, eccle-
siastical historian ; author of Life of St.
Martin of Tours and Abridgment of Eccle-
siastical History.
Sulzer, Johann Qeorg (b. 1720, d. 1779),
Swiss writer, whose chief work was Allge-
tneine Theorie for tchonen Eiinste (1771-74).
Sumner, Charles (b. 1811, d. 1874),
American statesman and jurist ; delivered a
powerful speech against war in 1845 (The
True Grandeur of Nations}, and in 1850 was
elected United States senator. In 1856 he
made a speech, The Crime against Kansas,
which caused a personal attack upon him by
a Southern delegate. In 1859 he made his
oration, Hie Barbarism of Slavery, was
chairman of committee on foreign relations
1861-71 ; and was a strong supporter of the
American claims in the Alabama case.
Sumner, John Bird, D.D. (b. 1780, d.
1862), English divine, became Bishop of
Chester in 1828, and Archbishop of Canter-
bury in 1848. He wrote Records of the
Creation and other works. CHARLES STJMNEB
(b. 1790, d. 1874), Bishop of Winchester
1827-69, was his brother, whose own son be-
came Bishop- Suffragan of Guildford in 1888.
Sunderland, Robert Spencer, second Earl
of (b. 1640, d. 1702), statesman, son of the
first Earl, who was killed at Newbury ; was
appointed Secretary of State in 1678, and
though dismissed for his support of the
Exclusion Bill, was soon reinstated. He
was president of the Council under James
II., but intrigued with France and the
Prince of Orange, and served the latter till
his retirement in 1697.
Sunderland, Charles, third Earl (b. 1675, d.
1722), married as his second wife a daughter
of Marlbprough, and having fulfilled several
diplomatic missions, was Secretary of State
S3
during the ascendency of the Whigs (1707-
10). In 1715 he became Lord Privy Seal;
two years later was again Secretary of State,
and was First Lord of the Treasury from
1718 till the South Sea crash, when, though
acquitted, he was dismissed.
Surrey, Henry Howard, Earl of (b. 1516,
d. 1547), soldier and poet; distinguished
himself in France and Scotland, but was
tried and beheaded for treason on somewhat
unsubstantial charges. His works are
chiefly songs and sonnets.
Surtees, Robert (b. 1779, d. 1834), anti-
quary, author of History of Durham, etc.
The Surtees Society takes its name from him.
Sussex, H.R.H. Augustus Frederick,
Duke of (b. 1773, d. 1843), sixth son of
George III., oft'ended his father by hia
marriage with Lady Augusta Murray and
his Whig sympathies.
Sutton, Manners. \_See Manners -Sutton.]
Sutton, Sir Richard (d. 1524), English
barrister, one of the chief founders of
Brasenose College, Oxford.
Sutton, Thomas (b. 1552, d. 1611),
merchant; having gained great wealth by
purchase of property in the north containing
coal mines, bought the dissolved manor of
the Chartreux, from which was founded the
Charterhouse.
Suwarrow, or Suvarof, Alexander Vassflo-
vich (b. 1729, d. 1800), Russian general, rose
from the ranks to be field-marshal; com-
manded in the Turkish war 1773-74, re-
duced the Tartars in 1783, and in the course
of the next Turkish war took Ismail (1790).
After the peace of Jassy he was sent against
Kosciusko, and his last campaign was that
against the armies of Napoleon in Italy and
Switzerland.
Swammerdam, Johannes (b. 1637, d.
1680), Dutch naturalist, author of General
History of Insects, and History of the
Day-fly.
Swedenborg, Emanuel (b. 1688, d. 1772),
founder of the " New Church," was born at
Stockholm, and occupied himself as a scien-
tific engineer till 1743, from which time he
began to write, when living in Sweden or
England, among his numerous works being
Arcana Ccelestia, De Cultu et Amore Dei, The
True Christian Religion, and several scien-
tific treatises.
Swegen, or Sweyn IL [Sueno], (d. 1014),
became Kong of Denmark in 986 ; invaded
England 994, and was proclaimed king in
1013.
Swift, Jonathan (b. 1667, d. 1745), Irish
divine and writer, lived some time with Sir
W. Temple, and took orders, beginning his
Swi
( 690 )
Sza
political career just before the death of
William III. He became intimate with the
Tory leaders of the reign of Anne, conducted
the Examiner, and wrote pamphlets in their
interest; and in 1713 became Dean of St.
Patrick's. His chief works were The Tale
of a Tub (1704), Gulliver's Travel* (1726-27),
and The Drapier Letters (1725), Journal to
Stella, Battle of th» Books, etc.
Swinburne, Algernon Charles (b. 1837),
poet and critic, left Oxford without graduat-
ing, and in 1865 published Atalanla in
Cali/don, his first great poem. Besides this
he wrote Chastelard, Bothwdl, Mart/ Stuart,
Marino Faliero and other tragedies ; Songs
before Sunrise (1871), A Century of Roundels,
and Poem* and Ballads (three series) ; and
among his prose works, which appeared in
collective form in Essays and Studies (1875).
and Miscelltn'tes (1886), the cliief are esti-
mates of Biake, Ford, Ben Jonson, Shake-
speare, and Victor Hugo. He also published
parodies (Specimens of Modern Poets, 1880).
S within, Saint (d. 862), was chaplain of
Egbert and Bishop of Winchester.
Swynford, Katherine, third wife of John
of Gaunt, and ancestress of the house of
Beaufort.
Sybel, Heinrich von (b. 1817), German
historian and politician, held chairs at
Marbiirg, Munich, and Bonn successively,
and in 1875 became director of state
archives. He opposed Bismarck's Polish
policy in the Prussian Landtag, and entered
the Reichstag in 1875. His chief work is
History of the French Revolution, in two
volumes, of which there is an English trans-
lation.
Sydennam, Charles Poulett Thompson,
Lord (b. 1799, d. 1841), English statesman ;
entered Parliament in 1826, first took office
in 1832, became President of the Board of
Trade in 1834, and was Governor-General of
Canada from 1839 till his death.
Sydeniam, Thomas (b. 1624, d. 1689),
physician, fellow of All Souls', Oxford. His
works were printed by the Sydenham Society,
established in 1843. '
Sydney, Algernon. [See Sidney.]
Syria. [See Sulla.]
Sylvester, James Joseph, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
etc. (b. 1814), mathematician, after holding
chairs at University College, in the uni-
versity of Virginia, at Woolwich, and at
the Johns Hopkins university, Baltimore,
became Savilian professor of geometry at
Oxford in 1883. He discovered the "theory
of reciprocants," invented the plagiograph
and other instruments, and published Laws
of Verse and other works.
Sylvester L, Pope (d. 335), elected in 314,
is said to have converted Constantine.
During his pontificate the Council of Nice
(325) was held.
Sylvester IL [Gerbertl, elected in 999, is
said to have introduced Arabic numerals,
and to have invented clocks.
Sylvester III. [Anti-pope] was elected in
1044, but retired three mouths later.
Syme, James (b. 1799, d. 1870), Scotch
surgeon, professor of clinical surgery at
Edinburgh for many years, author of
Principles of Surgery (1332), and other
works ; introduced important operative im-
provements.
Symmachus, Quintus Aurelius (4th cen-
tury), Roman senator, attempted a revival
of Paganism under Gratian and Valeiitinian.
Some of his letters and orations are extant.
Symonds, John Addington (b. 1840), Eng-
lish writer, some time fellow of Magdalen
College, Oxford. His chief works are The
Renaissance in Italy (seven vols.), Studies of
the Greek Poets, a translation of Beuvenuti
Cellini's Autobiography, and some volumes
of verse.
Symonds, Sir Thomas, G.C.B. (b. 1811),
admiral (1879) ; entered the navy in 1825,
served in the Crimean war, commanded the
Channel fleet (1868-70), and was placed on
the retired list in 1881.
Symons, George James, F.R.S. (b. 1838),
meteorologist, devoted his attention chiefly
to the subjects of rainfall and temperature ;
was chairman of the committee on the erup-
tion of Krakatoa (1884).
Szalkai, Anthony von (d. 1804), Hun-
garian poet, whose Pikko Hertzeg was the
first piece composed in the Magyar language.
1'aa
(691)
Tal
Taaffe, Eduard, Count (b. 1833), Austrian
statesman ; became secretary to the Hun-
garian government in 1857, and minister of
the interior in 1867 ; was minister of war
and president of the council 1869-70 ; again
became president of the council with the
office of minister of the interior in 1879.
Tabari, Abu Jaafar Mohammed (b. 839, d.
922) , an Arabic historian, bom in Tabaristan.
His chief work is a Chronicle, extending from
the creation to his own time. The part
which treats of the history of the Saracens
is considered valuable.
Tacca, Pietro (d. 1640), Italian sculptor,
born at Carrara, studied under Giovanni da
Bologna. His masterpieces are the statues
of Ferdinand III. at Leghorn, and of Philip
IV. at Madrid.
Tacitus, Caius Cornelius (b. 55, d. circa,
130), Roman historian ; married the daugh-
ter of the consul Agricola (78), was
quaestor under Vespasian, gedile under Titus,
prstor under Domitian, and consul under
Nerva (97). His chief works are the Life
of Agricola and the Germania, both written
about 98, the Histories extending from 68
to 9t>, and the Annals extending from 14 to
68.
. Tacitus, Marcus Claudius (b. 200, d. 276),
Roman Emperor ; was elected by the Senate
on,the death of Aurelian (275). He died in
Asia Minor.
Taffi, Andrea (b. 1213, d. 1294), Florentine
artist ; according to Vasari introduced into
Italy the art of designing in mosaic, which
he learnt from a Greek named Apollonio,
whose acquaintance he made at Venice, and
who became his fellow-worker at Florence.
Tagliacozzi, or Taliacotrus, Gasparo (b.
1546, d. 1599), was born at Bologna, and
became professor of medicine and anatomy
in the university there. He was renowned
for his skill in restoring portions of the
human face.
Taglioni, Maria (b. 1804, d. 1884), ballet-
dancer, born at Stockholm ; performed in
Paris 1827-32, and in 1838 appeared in
London. In 1832 she married Count Gilbert
4e Voisins.
Hippolyte Adolphe (b. 1828),
French writer; became professor at the
School of Fine Arts in Paris in 1864. He
has published a History of English Literature
882
(1864), The Origin of Contemporary Franc*
(1875-85), etc.
Tait, Archibald Campbell (b. 1811, d.
1882), Archbishop of Canterbury, born at
Edinburgh, studied at the universities of
Glasgow and Oxford ; opposed the " Oxford
Movement : " was head-master of Rugby
1842-50, Dean of Carlisle 1850-56, and
Bishop of London from 1856 to 1868, when
he was made Archbishop of Canterbury.
He wrote The Dangers and Safeguards of
Modern Theology (1861), etc.
Tait, Patrick Macnaghten, born in Edin-
burgh, has published papers on The Statistic*
of Mortality in India, and kindred subjects,
Tait, Peter Guthrie (b. 1831), man of
science, educated at Cambridge, became
professor of natural philosophy at Edin-
burgh in 1860. He has published works on
Quaternions (1866), Heat and Light (1884), a
Treatise on Natural Philosophy, written in
conjunction with Sir William Thomson, and
other works.
Talbot, Charles, Lord (b. 1684, d. 1737),
son of William Talbot, Bishop of Durham,
was called to the bar in 1711, entered Parlia-
ment in 1719, became Solicitor- General in
1726 and Chancellor in 1733.
Talbot, Edward Stuart (b. 1844), was
appointed first warden of Keble College,
Oxford, in 1870, vicar of Leeds 1889.
Talbot, John, Earl of Shrewsbury (b.
1373, d. 1453), was the son of Richard,
Lord Talbot, of Goodrich Castle, in Here-
fordshire. He distinguished himself in
France in the reign of Henry V. , took part
in the siege of Orleans (1428-29), and suc-
ceeded Suffolk as commander of the English
forces, but was taken prisoner at Patay
(1429) ; after his release in 1433 again fought
with distinction in France ; was created Earl
of Shrewsbury in 1442 ; was Lord-Lieutenant
of Ireland 1446-47; became lieutenant of
the duchy of Aquitaine in ^ 1452, and was
slain while attempting to relieve Chatillon.
Talbot, William Henry Fox (b. 1800, d.
1877), man of science; discovered, inde-
pendently of Daguerre, the art of fixing
images formed in the camera lucida. The
process is described in his Pencil of Nature
(1844).
Talfourd, Sir Thomas Noon (b. 1795, d.
1854), man of letters ; born at Reading, waa
( 6<J2 )
Tan
called to the bar in 1821, represented Read-
ing as a Whig 1835-41 and 1817-49, and was
author of the Copyright Act of 1812;
became a j udge of Common Pleas in lM;i.
His chief works are Ion, a tragedy (183-3),
and Mtinoirs of dairies Lamb (1837-48).
Taliesin, " tlie Chief of the Bards," lived
in the sixth century. Poems attributed to
him may be found in the Archaeology of
Wales by Owen Jones.
Tallard, Camille d'Hostun, Due de (b.
1652, d. 1728), marshal of France; fought
under Tureune ; came to England as am-
bassador in UU7 ; in 1 7 <'-- received a command
on the Khine ; defeated the Prince of Hesse
at Landau (1703); was completely defeated
by Marll> >r m._rh :.it Blenheim (1704), and
carried a prisoner to England, where he re-
mained for seven years. In 1726 he was
made minister of state.
Talleyrand-Perigord, Charles Maurice de,
Prince of Benevento (b. 1754, d. 1838),
French diplomatist ; educated at St. Sulpice,
was made agent -general for the French
clergy in 1780, became Bishop of Autun in
1785, was elected a deputy of the clergy to
the States-General (1789), advocated the
abolition of times and the transference of
church lands to the state, and took a leading
part in other measures of the National
Assembly ; resigned his bishopric in 1790,
was sent on a mission to England in 1792,
but was expelled in 1794 and sailed to
America ; returned to France in 1796, and
became minister of foreign affairs under the
Convention. This office he retained under
Napoleon, who owed much to his skill in
diplomacy, but, differences arising between
them, Talleyrand threw in his lot with the
Bourbons, and acquiesced in Napoleon's
deposition. He was for a short time minister
of foreign affairs under Louis XVIII., and
represented France at the Congress of
Vienna, but resigned owing to the Royalist
reaction. From 1830 to 1835 he was French
minister in London. His Memoirs were
published in 1891.
Tallien, Jean Lambert (*. 1769, d. 1820),
French revolutionist ; after conducting a
Jacobin journal called L'Ami des Citoyens,
became one of the most sanguinary spirits of
the Convention, and was foremost in urging
the condemnation of Louis XVI. He after-
wards adopted milder views, and took a
leading part in the overthrow of Robes-
pierre. In 1798 he accompanied Bonaparte
to Egypt, and on his return was taken
prisoner by the English, but was soon after-
wards released.
Tallis, Thomas (b. 1529, d. 1585), was
organist of the Chapel Royal in the reign
of Elizabeth. In conjunction with Wil-
liam Bird he published a collection of
sacred music (1575), which is highly
esteemed.
Talma, Francois Joseph (b. 1763, d. 1826),
French actor ; made his debut at the Comedie
Francaise in 1787. He confined himself to
tragedy in his later years. Among his finest
impersonations were MauguyinXc* Templiers
(1805) and Charles IX.
Talinage, Thomas de Witt (b. 1832), a
popular American preacher and lecturer.
Tamberlik, Enrico (b. 1820, d. 1889),
Italian operatic singer, first appeared at
Naples 1841.
Tamburini, Antonio (b. 1800, d. 1876).
Italian baritone ; first visited London and
Paris in I5o2.
Tamerlane. [See Tiraur.]
Tancred (*. 1078, d. 1112), a leader in the
first Crusade; was the son of the Marquis
Eudes and Emma, sister of Robert Gruiscard.
The chronicles represent him as the personifi-
cation of all knightly virtues, and he is one of
the heroes of Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered.
He was made Prince of Galilee by Godfrey
de Bouillon, and succeeded his cousin,
Boamund, as governor of Antioch.
Tancred (d. 1194), King of Sicily, son of
Roger, Duke of Apulia, and grandson of
Roger II. ; succeeded his cousin, William
II., in 1190. He was engaged in a struggle
with the Emperor Henry VI., husband of
Constance, daughter of Roger, who claimed
the throne.
Tann, Ludwig, Baron von der (b. 1815, d.
1881), Bavarian general ; commanded the
South German contingent in the Austro-
Prussian war (1866), and distinguished him-
self in the Franco -German war, defeating
General de Failly at Beaumont (1870).
Tannaliill, Robert (b. 1774, d. 1810). Scotch
song -writer ; was born at Paisley, where he
followed the trade of a weaver.
Tanner, Thomas (b. 1674, d. 1735),
antiquary ; educated at Oxford, became
Bishop of St. Asaph in 1732. He published
Nntitia Monastica, a description of the
religious houses of England and Wales
1695), and BibliothecaBritannico-Hibernica
1748), and edited Wood's A thena Oxoniense*
1721).
Tannnaiiser, a minnesinger of the 13th
century, supposed to be the original of the
knight in the legend.
Tansillo, Luigi (b. 1510, d. 1568), Italian
poet ; wrote The Tears of St. Peter, II Podere,
The Nurse, Egle, a pastoral drama, etc.
Tantia Topee (b. circa 1819, d. 1859), the
lieutenant of Nana Sahib in the Indiar
Tar
( 693)
Tav
Mutiny. He kept up the struggle after his
master's flight, but was caught in April,
1859, tried, and executed.
Tarleton, Richard (d. 1589), actor, born at
Condover, in Shropshire ; according to Stowe
became one of the queen's players in 1583.
He wrote a play called The Seven Deadly
Sins.
Tarquinius Priscus, fifth King of Borne ;
was born at Tarquiiiii, in Etruria. He suc-
ceeded Ancus Martius, and is said to have
reigned from 615 to 577 B.C.
Tarquinius Superfous, seventh King of
Rome ; ascended the throne after murdering
his father-in-law, Servius Tullius. _ The
shameful conduct of his son Sextus, ki the
outrage of Lucretia, led to the expulsion of
the family from Home, about 510 B.O.
Tartini, Giuseppe (b. 1692, d. 1770),
musical composer, born at Pisauo, in Istria;
became leader of the orchestra in the church
of San Antonio at Pisa in 1721. He com-
posed numerous concertos and sonatas, in-
cluding the famous Devil's Sonata, and
wrote a Treatise on Harmony (1754), and
other works on the theory of music.
Taschereau, Most Eev. Elzear Alexandra,
Cardinal (6. 1820), became Archbishop of
Quebec in 1871.
Tasman, Abel Janssen (b. circa 1600, d.
after 1645), a Dutch navigator. In 1642 he
was sent from Batavia by Van Diemen,
governor of the Dutch Indies, on an explor-
ing expedition, in the course of which he
discovered Van Diemen' s Land, now called
Tasmania, and many islands in the Pacific.
Tasso, Bernardo (b. 1493, d. 1569), Italian
poet; wrote ISAmadigi (1560), founded on
the romance Amadis de Gaule.
Tasso, Torquato (b. 1544, d. 1595), Italian
oet, son of the preceding, was born at
icrrento, and studied law at the university
of Padua, where he published his earliest
poem, Rinaldo, in 1562. In 1565 he entered
the service of Cardinal Luigi d'Este, and
was invited to the court of his brother,
Alfonso, Duke of Ferrara. Whilst there he
wrote his pastoral drama Aminta (1573), and
in 1575 finished his great epic, La Geru-
salemme Liberata, describing the first
Crusade, which was published in 1580. In
1577 he was imprisoned by Alfonso in a
convent, from svhich he escaped. In 1579
he returned to Ferrara, but was confined in
a madhouse, where he remained till 15S6,
when he was released at the intercession of
the Duke of Mantua and other princes. In
1594 Clement VIII. summoned him to Rome
to receive a laurel crown, but he died soon
after his arrival.
Tate, Nahum (6. 1652, d. 1715), born
in Dublin, succeeded Shadwell as poet-
laureate ; assisted Dryden in the second part
of Absalom and Achitophel (1684), and was
joint-author with Dr. Brady of a metrical
version of the Psalms.
Tatian (b. circa 130), founder of the
Encratite sect ; was born in Assyria. After
reading the Bible he was converted to
Christianity, and repaired to Rome, where
he became the disciple of Justin Martyr.
He subsequently adopted Gnostic views, and
returned to Asia, where he founded his
school. His Address to the Greeks is an
apology for Christianity.
Tauchnitz, Karl Christoph (b. 1761, d.
1836), a printer and publisher of Leipzig,
famous for his editions of classical authors.
His nephew, Baron BEENHAED TAUCHNITZ
(b. 1816, d. 1884), began in 1841 his well-
known series of British, Authors.
Tauler, Johann (b. 1290, d. 1361), German
mystic, born at Strasburg ; entered the
Dominican order, studied at Paris under
Eckhart, and afterwards fell under the
influence of Nicholas of Basel. His ser-
mons, in which lie denounced the vices and
abuses of the age, are amongst the earliest
compositions in the German tongue.
Taunton, Henry Labouchere, Lord (b.
1798, d. 1869), represented Taunton 1830-
69 ; was President of the Board of Trade in
1846 and 1855; became Secretary for the
Connies in 1858 ; was raised to the peerage
in 1859.
Tausen, or Tagesen, Job an (b. 1494, d.
1561), the founder of Danish Protestantism;
was born in Fiinen. Whilst a student in
Germany he came under the influence of
Luther, and after his return to Denmark
(1521) preached the doctrines of the Re-
formation. He was patronised by Frederick
L, who made him his chaplain (1526).
After Frederick's death he was subjected
to some persecution, but in 1542 he became
Bishop of Ripen.
Tavannes, Gaspard de Saulx de (6. 1509,
d. 1573), marshal of France ; was an active
opponent of the reformed doctrines. He
suppressed several Protestant risings, took
a prominent part in the battles of Jarnac
and Montcontour (1569), and is believed to
have instigated the massacre of St. Bar-
tholomew.
Tavernier, Jean Baptiste, Baron d'Au-
bonne (b. 1605, d. 1689) traveller, born in
Paris, son of a designer of maps, of Dutch
origin ; several times visited Turkey, Persia,
and the East Indies, and amassed great
wealth as a trader in jewels ; was ennobled
by Louis XIV. (1669); in 1687 was made
Tay
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Tay
director of the East India Company estab-
lished by the Elector of Brandenburg, but
died at Moscow whilst journeying to the
East
Taylor, General Sir Alexander (b. 1826),
secured the capture of Delhi (1857) by his
skill as commander of the engineers.
Taylor, Alfred Swayne (b. 1806, d. 1880),
professor of medical jurisprudence and
chemistry at Guy's Hospital ; published a
Manual of Medical Jurisprudence (1844), etc.
Taylor, Bayard (b. 1825, d. 1878), American
man of letters ; published several works of
travel, poems, stories of American life, and
a translation of Goethe's Faust (1870-71).
In 1878 he was appointed United States
minister at Berlin, where he died.
Taylor, Brook (b. 1685, d. 1731), mathe-
matician, educated at Cambridge ; was sec-
retary of the Eoyal Society 1714-18. He
published several mathematical works, and
was the inventor of " Taylor's theorem."
Taylor, Charles (b. 1840), became master
of St. John's College, Cambridge, in 1881.
He has published works on mathematical
subjects and on Hebrew literature.
Taylor, Sir Henry (b. 1800, d. 1886), man
of letters ; became in 1824 a clerk in the
Colonial Office, from which he retired in
1872. His chief works are his dramas,
Philip van Artevelde (1834), Isaac Comnenus
(1827), and Edwin the Fair (1842). His
Autobiography appeared in 1885.
Taylor, Isaac (b. 1787, d. 1865), man of
letters and mechanician ; belonged to a
celebrated literary family. His father was
a Nonconformist minister at Ongar. His
best- known works are The Natural History
of Enthusiasm (1829) and Spiritual Despotism
(1835).
Taylor, Isaac (b. 1829), son of the pre-
ceding; has published Words and Places
(1864), Greeks and Goths: a Study of the
Runes (1879), The Alphabet (1883), etc.
Taylor, Isidore Justin Severin, Baron (3.
1789, d. 1879), French traveller and author,
of English descent; was appointed royal
commissary of the Theatre Francois in 1825.
In 1843 he founded the Association des
Artistes Musiciens. He published Voyages
Pittoresques et Romantiques (1820-63), etc.
Taylor, Jane (b. 1783, d. 1824), sister of
Isaac Taylor ; was authoress, with her sister
ANN, of Hymns for Infant Minds.
Taylor, Jeremy (b. 1613, d. 1667), divine,
born at Cambridge ; after studying in the
university of that town, attracted the atten-
tion of Archbishop Laud, who presented
him to a fellowship at Oxford (1636). He
soon afterwards became chaplain to Charles
I., was rector of Uppingham 1638-42, ana
accompanied the king to Oxford. About
1645 he withdrew into Wales, where he kept
a school at Newton, in Caermartheushire,
and afterwards found a shelter in the house
of the Earl of Carbery. He removed to
Ireland in 1657, and alter the Restoration
was made Bishop of Down and Connor.
His chief works are Rules and Exercises of
Holy Living and Dying (1650-1), the Liberty
of Prophesying (1647), Doctor Dubitantium
(16t30), and his Sermons.
Taylor, John (b. circa 1580, d. 1654), the
" Water Poet," born at Gloucester; served
in the expedition of Essex to Cadiz (1596) ;
afterwards became a waterman on the
Thames. He was an ardent Royalist.
Taylor, John (b. 1694, d. 1761), Unitarian
divine ; was minister of a congregation at
Norwich 1733-57. His chief work was a
Hebrew -English Concordance.
Taylor, Colonel Philip Meadows (b. 1808,
d. 1876), was for many years in the service
of the Nizam of the Deccan. He published
The Confessions of a Thug (1839), and other
tales of Indian life.
Taylor, General Reynell George (b. 1822,
d. 1886), distinguished himself iii the Pun-
jaub campaign of 18i8-9.
Taylor, General Sir Richard Chambre
Hayes (b. 1819), served with distinction in
the Crimean war aud the Indian Mutiny.
Taylor, Rowland (d. 1555), a learned di-
vine ; was chaplain to Cranmer, who pre-
sented him to the rectory of Hadleigh, in
Suffolk. After two trials before Gardiner,
he was burnt at the stake near Hadleigh.
Taylor, Thomas (b. 1758, d. 1835), the
"Platonist"; published translations of
Plato (1804) and Aristotle (1812).
Taylor, Tom (b. 1817, d. 1880), educated at
Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he be-
came fellow ; wrote the Ticket-of- Leave Man
(1873) and other plays, and edited Punch
1874-80.
Taylor, William (b. 1765, d. 1836), man of
letters ; was the son of a merchant at Nor-
wich. He published translations of Burger's
Lenore and Lessing's Nathan der Weise^ and
wrote a Survey of German Poetry.
Taylor, William Mackergo (b. 1829),
American preacher, born in Scotland ; be-
came pastor of the Broadway Tabernacle,
New York, in 1872.
Taylor, Zachary ( b. 1784, d. 1850), American
general : distinguished himself in the war
with Mexico (1846-7); was in 1850 elected
president of the United States, but died four
months after his inauguration.
Teh
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Tern
Tchernaieff, Michael Gregorovitch (b.
1828), Russian general; was sent against
Khokand in 1863, and took Tashkeiid (1865) ;
commanded the Servian forces in the war
with Turkey (1876), and proclaimed Milan
Icing ; became governor of Tashkeud in
1882.
Teale, Thomas Pridgin (b. 1831), was
president of the Public Health section of
the British Medical Association at Liverpool,
18S3. He has published Dangers to Health
(1879), etc.
Teck, H.S.H. Francis Paul Charles Louis
Alexander, Prince of (b. 1837), only son of
Duke Alexander of "Wiirtemberg, married in
1866 H.R.H. the Princess Mary Adelaide,
daughter of H.E.H. the Duke of Cambridge.
Teget&off, Wilhelm, Baron von (b. 1827,
d. 1871), Austrian admiral ; commanded the
Austrian squadron in the Danish war of
1864, and gained a victory off Heligoland ;
in 1866 defeated the Italians under Persano
at Lissa; became commander-in-chief of
the Austrian navy in 1868.
Tegetmeier, William (b. 1816), ornitholo-
gist, has published The Poultry Hook,
Pigeons, etc., and assisted Darwin in The
Variation of Animals and Plants under
Domestication.
Tegner, Esaias (b. 1782, d. 1846), Swedish
poet ; became professor of Greek in the
university of Lund in 1812, and Bishop of
Wexio in 1824. Among his poems are
Frithjofs Saga (1820-5), Axel, a romance
(1821), and The Children of the Lord's
Supper, an idyll, translated by Longfellow.
TeigTunouth, John Shore, Lord (b. 1751,
d. 1834), born in Devonshire ; went to Bengal
as a cadet in 1769, became a member of the
Supreme Council of Calcutta in 1786, and
was Governor- General from 1793 to 1797,
when he was created a peer. He was first
§ resident of the British and Foreign Bible
ociety.
Teissier, Antoine (b. 1632, d. 1715), French
writer ; left France on the revocation of the
Edict of Nantes, and became historiographer
to the Elector of Brandenburg.
Tekeli,Emeric, Count de (b. 1658, d. 1705),
Hungarian patriot ; commanded his coun-
trymen in their struggle against the rule of
Austria. After many successes, he was
forced in 1697 to retire to Turkey, where he
died.
Telesio, Bernardino (b. 1509, d. 1588),
Italian patriot, born at Cosenza, studied at
Milan, Eome, and Padua; attacked the
method of the schoolmen, and in 1565 pub-
lished his De Rerum Naturd, in which he
maintains the necessity of basing philosophy
on the study of nature. He established a
school at Naples.
Telford, Thomas (b. 1757, d. 1834), en-
gineer, born in Eskdale, Dumfriesshire, of
peasant parents, removed to Edinburgh in
1780, and to London in 1783 ; in 1787 be-
came county surveyor of Shropshire. Among
his chief works are the EUesmere Canal
(1795-1805), the Caledonian Canal (opened
in 1823), the road from London to Holy-
head (completed in 1815), the Menai Sus-
pension Bridge (1819-26), and the St.
Catherine's Docks in London (1828).
Tell, William (d. circa 1350), Swiss patriot,
is reputed to have been the means of saving
his country from the Austrian yoke. The
story of his shooting an apple on his son's
head and even his very existence are now
considered mythical.
Tellez, Gabriele, or Tirso de Molina (b.
1585, d. 1648), Spanish dramatist, became a
monk in 1620. He wrote interludes, autoa
socramentales, and over three hundred come-
dies.
Temanza, Tommaso (b. 1705, d. 1789),
Italian architect; built the church of La
Santa Maddalena in Venice, and wrote
Lives of the most Celebrated Venetian Archi-
tects and Painters (1777).
Tempelhof, Georg Friedrich (b. 1737, d.
1807), German soldier ; commanded the
Prussian artillery during the early part of
the revolutionary war with France, and
afterwards became military tutor to the
brothers of Frederick William III. He
wrote The Prussian Bombardier (1781), a
History of the Seven Years' War (1783), etc.
Tempesta, Antonio (b. 1555, d. 1630),
artist, born at Florence, studied under Stra-
danus. He is famous for his battle-pieces.
Temple, Frederick (b. 1821), became head-
master of Rugby in 1858 ; was appointed
Bishop of Exeter in 1863, and of London in
1885. He is the author of the paper On the
Education of the World in Essays and Re-
views (1860), etc.
Temple, Sir John (d. 1677), Master of the
Rolls in Ireland in the reign of Charles II. ;
wrote a History of the Irish Rebellion ef
1641, published in 1646.
Temple, Sir Richard, Baronet (b. 1828),
entered the Bengal Civil Service in 1846;
was Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal 1874-7,
and Governor of Bombay 1877-80 ; has been
president of the Social Science Congress,
and was elected vice-chairman of the
London School Board in 1885. He has pub-
lished Men and Events of my Time in India
(1882), etc.
Temple, Sir William (b. 1628, d. 1699),
Ten
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Ter
son of Sir John Temple, was born in Lon-
don ; after studying at Cambridge, travelled
in France, Holland, and Germany : on his
return (1654) joined his father in Ireland,
and sat in the Irish Parliament of 1661 ;
was in 1665 sent -on a secret mission to the
Bishop of Munster ; negotiated the Triple
Alliance (1668), and was soon afterwards
appointed ambassador to the States-General,
but was recalled in 1669 ; was again sent to
the Netherlands in 1674, and took a leading
part in the negotiations which led to the
treaty of Nimeguen (1678) ; finally returned
to England in 1679, and in 1686 settled at
Moor Park in Surrey, where he died. He
wrote Observations on the United Provinces,
two volumes of Miscellanies, and Memoirs.
Tenerani, Pietro (b. 1800, d. 1869), Italian
sculptor, born near Carrara, was a pupil
and friend of Thorwaldsen. He became
professor in the Academy of St. Luke at
Rome.
Teniers, David, " the Elder " (b. 1582, d.
1649), Flemish painter, born at Antwerp;
studied under Rubens, and afterwards in
Italy, where he remained ten years. His
pictures for the most part represent village
festivals, groups in taverns, and similar
scenes.
Teniers, David, "the Younger" (£.1610,^.
1685), son and pupil of the preceding, chose
the same class of subjects as his father,
whom he is generally considered to have
excelled.
Tenison, Thomas (b. 1636, d. 1715), bom
at Cottenham in Cambridgeshire, educated
at Cambridge ; in 1680 became vicar of St.
Martin's-in-the-Fields, where he endowed a
free school ; supported the Protestant cause
during the reign of James II. ; was ap-
pointed Archdeacon of London in 1689,
Bishop of Lincoln in 1691, and Archbishop
of Canterbury in 1694.
Tennant, William (b. 1785, d. 1846), poet
and Orientalist, born in Fif eshire ; became
professor of Oriental languages at St.
Andrews in 1835. His chief work was the
humorous poem Anster Fair (1812).
Tennemann, Wilhelm Gottlieb (b. 1761, d.
1819), German philosopher, studied at the
universities of Erfurt and Jena, and became
professor in that of Marburg in 1804. He
published a History of Philosophy (1798-
1811) and other works.
Tennent, Sir James Emerson (b. 1804, d.
1869), born at Belfast, for many years re-
presented his native town in Parliament,
and was secretary to the Board of Trade
1852-67. He published Ceylon 1859), and
other books of travel.
Tenniel, John (b. I860), artist ; began to
contribute to Punch in 1851, and, after the
death of Leech in 1864, was recognised as
unrivalled as a designer of political cartoons.
Tennyson, Alfred, Lord (b. 1809, d. 1892),
was the son of the Rev. George Tennyson,
rector of Somersby in Lincolnshire, where
he was born. He was educated at Louth
grammar school, and in 1827 published
Poems by Tico Brothers, partly the work of
his brother Charles. In 1828 he matricu-
lated at Cambridge, where he gained the
Chancellor's medal (1829). Poems : Chiefly
Lyrical (1830) was followed in 1833 by a
volume containing The Palace of Art, (E-none,
and other of his best known pieces. The
Gardener's Daughter, Locksley Hall, and
other poems were added in 1842, and in 1847
appeared The Princess, a Medley, in blank
verse. In Memoriam, a tribute to the memory
of Arthur Halla.m, was published in 1850. In
the same year Tennyson succeeded Words-
worth as poet-laureate. Among his subse-
quent poems were Maud (1855), The Idylls of
the King (1859), Enoch Arden (1864), Becket,
a drama (1884), and Lemeter (1889), The
Foresters, etc. In 1884 he was created a peer.
Tenterden, Charles Abbot, Lord (b. 1762,
d. 1832), lawyer, became in 1816 a puisne
judge of the Common Pleas; during the
same year was transferred to the King's
Bench ; was made Lord Chief Justice in
1818, and raised to the peerage in 1827. In
1802 he published the Law of Merchant
Ships and Seamen.
Terburg, Gerhard (b. 1608, d. 1681), Dutch
painter, born at Zwoll, became burgomaster
of Deventer. where he died.
Terby, Franqois Joseph Charles, a Belgian
astronomer and meteorologist.
Terence [Publius Terentius Afer] (b. 195,
d. 159 B.C.), Roman comic poet, is said to
have been the slave of a Roman senator, who
granted him his liberty. Among his come-
dies, which are imitations of those of the
Greek dramatist Menander, are Andria,
Heauton Timoroumenos, and Phormio.
Terpander, a Greek lyric poet of the 7th
century B.C., born in the island of Lesbos,
added three strings to the lyre, which had
previously only four.
Terray, Joseph Marie, Abbe" (b. 1715, d.
1778), became controller-general of the
finances under Louis XV. in 1769. After
half ruining the country by his reckless and
unjust taxation, he was dismissed by Louis
XVI. in 1774.
Terry, Edward O'Connor (b. 1844), come-
dian, is proprietor of the Terry theatre in
the Strand, erected in 1887.
Terry, Ellen (b. 1848), actress, made hef
Ter
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TTU
-i
first appearance at the Princess' theatre in
1856. In 1878 she joined the Lyceum com-
pany, and was subsequently associated with
the chief productions under Mr. Irving's
management. Among the parts she has
played are Ophelia, Camma in Tennyson's
Cup, Desdemona, Juliet, Beatrice, and Queen
Katharine of Aragon.
Tertullianus, Quintus Septimius Florens
(b. circa loO, d. circa 230), the earliest of the
Latin fathers, was born at Carthage, where
he is said to have practised as an advocate,
prior to his conversion to Christianity, the
date of which is unknown. He was subse-
quently ordained presbyter. Late in life he
became a Montanist. Among his chief
works are Liber Apologeticus, Ad Martyres,
and Ue Corona Militis.
Tetzel, or Tezel, Johann (b. circa 1470, d.
1519), a "Dominican monk; was named by
Pope Leo X. commissary apostolic in
Germany. After carrying on a traffic in
indulgences for many years, he was attacked
by Luther, who in 1517 issued his Decla-
ration against Indulgences at Wittem-
berg.
Teuffel, Wilhelm Sigismund (b. 1820, d.
1872), was appointed professor of classical
philology at Tubingen in 1857. His chief
work is a History of Roman Literature
(1870).
Tewfik, Khedive of Egypt (b. 1852, d.
1892), was made ruler by the representatives
of England and France in 1879. His reign
was marked by the rebellion of Arabi
(1882-83), and the insurrection of the
"Mahdi."
Thackeray, "William Makepeace (b. 1811,
d. 1863), novelist, born in Calcutta: was
educated at the Charterhouse and Cam-
bridge ; studied art at Paris, but determined
to devote himself to literature, and in 1837
became connected with Eraser's Magazine,
to which he contributed the Great Hoggarty
Diamond. In 1840 he published the Paris
Sketch- Book, and in 1842 began to write for
Punch, in which appeared his Book of Snobs.
His first great novel, Vanity Fair (1846-48),
was followed by Pendennis (1850), Esmond
(1852), The Newcomes (1854), and others.
He delivered a series of lectures in England
and America on the English Humourists of
the Eighteenth Century (1851), and The Tour
Georges (1852-56), and edited the Cornhill
Magazine (1859-63).
Thalberg1, Sigismund (b. 1812, d. 1871),
musician, studied under Hummel at Vienna,
Pixis in Paris, and Moscheles in London;
devoted himself to the pianoforte, and
acquired fame in his tours through Belgium,
Holland, England, Russia, Brazil, and the
United States.
Thales (b. circa 636, d. circa 546 B.C.),
Greek philosopher, born at Miletus, one of
the seven sages, was the founder of the
Ionian school. He taught that all things
have their origin in water.
Theebaw, ex-King of Ava (b. 1858), suc-
ceeded his father in 1878. Owing to his
misrule and hostile attitude towards the
English, war was declared against him by
the latter in 1885, resulting in his deposition
and the annexation of Upper Burmah.
Thelusson, Peter (d. 1797), a London
merchant, celebrated as having left the bulk
of his wealth to accumulate for the benefit
of his descendants. An Act was in con-
sequence passed (40 George III., c. 98) which
made such bequests illegal.
Thelwall, John (b. 1764, d. 1834), political
agitator and miscellaneous writer, was tried
for treason together with Hardy and Home
Tooke, but acquitted (1794). He afterwards
became a teacher of elocution.
Themistius, a Greek philosopher and
orator of the 4th century, taught for many
years at Constantinople. Some of his orations
are extant.
Themistocles (b. circa 514, d. 449 B.C.),
Athenian general, defeated the fleet oi
Xerxes in the battles of Artemisium and
Salamis (481 B.C.). He was banished in 471,
and in 465 retired to the court of Artaxerxea.
King of Persia. He is said to have poisoned
himself.
Thenard, Louis Jacques (b. 1777, d. 1857),
French chemist, was professor at the College
de France 1810-40. His chief work was
Traite de Chimie Elementaire (1813-17).
Theobald, Lewis (b. circa 1692, d. 1744),
dramatist and critic, was born at Sitting-
bourne in Kent. He incurred Pope's
enmity by attacking his edition of Shake-
speare, and was the original hero of the
I)unciad (1728). His own edition of Shake-
speare was published in 1733.
Theocritus, a pastoral poet of the earlier
half of the 3rd century B.C., was born at
Syracuse. He spent much of his life at the
court of Ptolemy Philadelphus at Alexandria,
but afterwards returned to Syracuse. He
wrote Idyls in the later Doric dialect.
Theodora (d. 548), Empress of the East,
originally an actress ; became the mistress of
the Emperor Justinian, who married her in
525. She was notorious for her sensuality
as well as for the part she played in court
intrigues.
Theodore (d. 690), a monk of Tarsus, was
sent to England as Archbishop of Canterbury
by Pope Vitalian in 668.
The
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Thi
Theodore, King of Abyssinia (b. circa 1818,
d. 1868), was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia
in 1855. In consequence of his imprison-
ment of the English consul, Captain
Cameron (1864), an expedition was sent
against him, commanded by Sir Robert
Napier, afterwards Lord Napier of Magdala
(1867). Theodore was deserted by his army
and died by his own hand.
Theodore of Mopsuestia (d. 429), Greek
ecclesiastical writer ; became Bishop of
Mopsuestia in Cilicia in 394. Nestorius was
his disciple. His writings were condemned
in the Council of Constantinople (553) .
Theodoret (b. circa 386, d. 457), Greek
father, born at Antioch ; became Bishop
of Cyrus, in Syria, in 420 ; defended Nes-
torius against the attacks of Cyril of Alex-
andria, whom he opposed in the Council
of Ephesus (431), but afterwards took part
in the excommunication of Nestorius in the
Council of Chalcedon (451). He wrote
Commentaries on the Bible, an Ecclesiastical
History (323-428), etc.
Theodoric, "the Great" (d. 526),
originally chieftain of a tribe of Ostro-
goths ; was educated at Constantinople ;
after overthrowing Odoacer (493) established
the Ostrogoth kingdom in Italy, which he
sought to consolidate by effecting a union of
Goths and Italians. He fixed his capital at
Ravenna, where he erected many beautiful
buildings. His Edictutn was a body of law
for Romans and barbarians alike.
Theodoric L, King of the Visigoths (d.
451), ascended the throne in 419. In con-
junction with the Roman general Aetius, he
defeated Attila in the battle of Chalons
(451).
Theodoric L, King of the West Franks
(b. circa 485, d. 534), was son of Clovis. On
his father's death the kingdom was divided,
Theodoric receiving Austrasia as his share.
Theodosius L, "the Great," Emperor of
Rome (b. 346, d. 395), was brought up as a
soldier by his father, a distinguished general.
In 379 the Emperor Gratian made him
ruler over the eastern part of the empire.
After defeating the Goths (386) he in 388
restored to his throne Valentinian, the
brother and successor of Gratian, who had
been expelled from Italy by Maximus. In
392 Eugenius succeeded Valentinian, but
was defeated in 394 by Theodosius, who
thus became sole ruler over the Roman
world.
Theodosius II. (*. 401, d. 450), son of
Arcadius, and grandson of Theodosius the
Great ; succeeded his father in 408. During
bis reign was compiled the collection of laws
called Codex Theodosianu*.
Theognis, a Greek elegiac poet of the
6th century B.C. He was driven fr-an
Megara, his native city, by the democratic
party, and retired to Thebes.
Theon of Alexandria, a mathematician
of the latter part of the 4th century. He
was the father of Hypatia.
Theophilus (d. 412), became Patriarch
of Alexandria in 385. In the Anthropo-
morphic controversy he bitterly opposed
Origen, and afterwards extended his enmity
to Chrysostom, who sheltered some of
Origen' s party at Constantinople.
Theophrastufl (b. circa 390, d. circa 287
B.O.), Greek philosopher ; born in Lesbos,
studied in Athens under Plato and Aristotle,
whom he succeeded as head of the Lyceum
(322). His chief work is his Characters,
depicting various types of human nature.
Theresa, Saint (b. 1515, d. 1582), Spanish
mystic, born at Avila, in Old Castile ; en-
tered a Carmelite convent in her native
town (1534), into which she introduced a
stricter rule. In 1562 she established a new
convent at Avila, and subsequently extended
her reforms throughout the whole order.
Thespis (circa 535), a native of Mount
Icaria in Attica ; introduced an actor, who
conversed with the chorus at the Dionysiac
festivals. This was the first step in the
development of Greek tragedy.
TheVenot, Melchisedec (b. 1621, d. 1692),
French geographer ; became royal librarian
in 1684. He published Relations de Divers
Voyages (1663-72), etc. His nephew, JEAN
THEVENOT (b. 1633, d. 1667), travelled in
Persia, India, and other countries, and wrote
descriptions of his journeys.
Thibaudin, Jean (b. 1822), French
general ; served in the Franco- German
war, and was minister of war 1883-85.
Thibaut, Antoine Frederic Juste (b. 1 744,
d. 1840), jurist, born in Hanover; became
professor at Heidelberg in 1805. He pub-
lished System des Pandektenrechts (1803),
etc.
Thierry, Jacques Nicholas Augustan (6.
1795, d. 1856), French historian, born at
Blois ; became the disciple and secretary of
St. Simon in 1814, but left him in 1817; in
1825 published his principal work, The His-
tory of the Conquest of England by the
Normans. He lost his sight at the age of
thirty- one. His brother, AMEDEE SIMON
DOMINIQUE THIEBRY (b. 1797, d. 1873),
published a History of Gaul under the
Roman Administration (1840-2), and other
works.
Thiers, Louis Adolphe (b. 1797. d. 1877),
Tki
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Tlio
French statesman, born at Marseilles,
studied law at Aix; in 1821 removed to
Paris, where he became a journalist ; was
engaged ou his Histoire de la Revolution
Franyaise 1823-37; in 1830 started the
National, and did much towards raising
Louis Philippe to the throne ; was minister
of commerce and public works 1832-4 ; in
1836 formed a ministry in which he was
president of the council and minister of
foreign affairs, and was again premier in
1840. After his overthrow in October he
devoted himself to his Histoire du Consu-
lat et de L'JEmpire, the last volume of
which appeared in 1862. He returned to
the Chamber in 1863, opposed the Franco-
Prussian war, was declared chief of the
executive power in February, 1871, and be-
came president of the republic in the fol-
lowing August. He resigned in May, 1874.
Thirlwall, Connop (b. 1797, d. 1875), his-
torian and theologian, educated at the
Charterhouse and Cambridge ; was or-
dained in 1828 ; took part with Julius
Hare in translating Niebuhr's History of
Rome; in 1834 became rector of Kirby
Underdale in Yorkshire, where he wrote
most of his History of Greece (1835-47). In
1840 he was appointed Bishop of St. David's.
Thistlewood, Arthur, (b. 1772, d. 1820),
was the leader in the Cato Street conspiracy,
the aim of which was to assassinate the
ministers and establish a provisional govern-
ment. He was executed.
Thistlewood-Dyer, William Turner (b.
1843), became director of the Royal Gardens,
Kew, in 1885. He has published Flora of
Middlesex (1869), etc.
Tholuck, Friedrich August Gottreu (b.
1799, d. 1877), German theologian, born at
Breslau; became professor of theology at
Halle in 1826. He wrote many works com-
bating the scepticism of the time.
Thomas, Annie [Mrs. Pender Cudlip] (b.
1838), a popular novelist.
Thomas, Arthur Goring (b. 1851, d.
1892), musician, studied at Paris ; has com-
posed The Sun- Worshippers, a cantata
(1881), Esmeralda, an opera, produced at
Covent Garden (1883), etc.
Thomas, Charles Louis Ambroise (b.
1811), composer, born at Metz ; became
director of the Paris Conservatoire of Music
in 1871. His masterpieces are Mignon
(1866) and Hamlet (1868).
Thomas, George Housman (b. 1824, d.
1868), painter and wood-engraver ; excelled
as a designer of book illustrations. He was
for many years on the staff of the Illustrated
London News. His brother, WILLIAM
LTTSON THOMAS (b. 1830), an eminent
painter in water - colours, started the
Graphic in 1869 and the Daily Graphic in
1890.
Thomas, Theodore (b. 1835), musician,
born in Hanover ; went to the United
States in 1845 ; has organised musical festi-
vals and concerts in many American towns,
and has done much to raise the public
taste.
Tnomasius, Christian (b. 1655, d. 1728),
German philosopher, born at Leipzig ; be-
came a professor in that town, but owing to
his freedom of thought was compelled to re-
move to Berlin, where he was patronised by
the Elector of Brandenburg. He became pro-
fessor of jurisprudence in the university of
Halle on its foundation in 1694.
Thompson, Edmund Symes, M.D. (b.
1837), has published essays on Sciatica^
Mediastinal Growths, etc.
Thompson, Edward Maunde (b. 1840),
born in Jamaica ; became principal librarian
and secretary of the British Museum in
1888. He has edited Robert of Avesbury's
Chronicle for the liolls Series (1889), and
other works.
Thompson, Sir Henry (b. 1820), born at
Framlingham, Suffolk ; became professor of
clinical surgery at University College Hos-
Sital in 1866. He has published Practical
ithotomy and Lithotrity (1863), etc.
Thompson, Silvanus Phillips (b. 1851),
became principal of the City and Guilds
Technical College, Finsbury, in 1885. He
has written works on electricity, and made
discoveries in that and kindred subjects.
Thompson, Lieutenant- General Thomas
Perronet (b. 1783, d. 1869), was an early
advocate of free trade, and published A
Corn- Law Catechism in 1827.
Thompson, William Hepworth (b. 1810,
d. 1886), became Regius professor of
Greek at Cambridge in 1853, and succeeded
Whewell as master of Trinity in 1866.
Thorns, William John (b. 1803, d. 1885),
archaeologist ; was secretary to the Camden
Society 1838-73, and deputy-librarian in the
House of Lords 1845-82. He originated
Notes and Queries, which he edited 1849-73.
Thomson, Allen (b. 1809, d. 1884), became
professor of anatomy at Glasgow University
in 1848. He made important investigations
in connection with embryology.
Thomson, Sir Charles Wyville (b. 1830, d.
1882), was professor of natural history in
Edinburgh University 1870-81. He was the
scientific chief of the Challenger expedition
in 1872.
Tho
(700)
Tho
Thomson, James (b. 1700, d. 1748), poet,
torn at Ediiam in Roxburghshire ; was
educated at Jedburgh and Edinburgh Uni-
versity ; came to London in 1725, and there
published his Winter (1726), Summer (1727),
Spring (1728), and Autumn (1730). About
this time he accompanied the son of Lord
Chancellor Talbot on a Continental tour.
He was afterwards introduced by Lord
Lyttelton to Frederick, Prince of Wales,
who granted him a pension. In 1746 he
was made surveyor-general of the Leeward
Islands. Besides the Seasons, he published
Liberty (1730-6), The Ciistle of Indolence^
an allegorical poem (1746), several dramas,
and some lyrics, of which Hale Britannia
is the most famous.
Thomson, James (b. 1834, d. 1882),
poet, bom at Port Glasgow ; was brought
up at the Caledonian Orphan Asylum, and
became a schoolmaster in the army. From
1860 to 1875 he contributed to the National
Reformer, in which was published his City
of Dreadful Night (1874).
Thomson, Joseph (b. 1858), African ex-
plorer; has tra veiled through Masai Land
(1884), and in Morocco (1888). He has
published accounts of his journeys.
Thomson, Joseph John (b. 1856), became
professor of experimental physics at Cam-
bridge in 1884.
Thomson, William (b. 1819, d. 1890), was
educated at Shrewsbury and Oxford ; be-
came provost of Queen's College, Oxford, in
1855, Bishop of Gloucester and Biistol in
1861, and Archbishop of York in 1862. He
published An Outline of the Necessary Laws
of Thought (1848), etc.
Thomson, Sir William (b. 1824), born in
Belfast, was educated at Glasgow and
Cambridge ; became professor of natural
philosophy at Glasgow in 1846. From 1846
to 1851 he edited the Cambridge and Dublin
Mathematical Journal, to which he contri-
buted several important papers. Some of
his chief discoveries are announced in the
Secular Coating of the Earth (1852), and
the Bakerian lecture, the Electrodynamics of
Qualities of Metals (1855). He has invented
the quadrant, portable, and absolute electro-
meters, and other scientific instruments. To
the general public he is best known by his
work in connection with submarine tele-
graphy (1858-66). In January, 1892, he
was raised to the peerage as Lord Kelvin.
Thorburn, Sir Robert (b. 1856), entered
the Newfoundland House of Assembly, and
became premier, but resigned in 1889. He
represented Newfoundland in the Colonial
Conference held in London in 1886.
Thoreau, Henry David (b, 1817, d. 1862),
American naturalist ; was a friend of
Emerson, and a member of the Transcen-
dental school. In 1845 and the following
years he Lived a life of complete solitude,
described in Walden (1854). He became
acquainted with John Brown in 1859, and
devoted the rest of his Life to the Liberationist
cause.
Thoresby, Ralph (b. 1658, d. 1725),
antiquary ; published Ducatus Leodiensis
(1715), and Vicuna Leodienais (1724), works
on the topography and antiquities of Leeds.
Thornbury, George Walter (b. 1828, d.
1876), published a Life of Turner (1861), Old
and New London (1873-74), etc.
Thome, Richard Thome (b. 1842), Milroy
lecturer to the Royal College of Physicians,
has published papers on the progress oi
preventive medicine, diphtheria, etc.
Thornhill, Sir James (b. 1676, d. 1734),
painter, born at Weymouth ; after educating
himself in England, travelled in Holland
and France ; on his return was commissioned
by Queen Anne to paint the dome of St.
Paul's ; decorated the refectory and saloon
of Greenwich Hospital, and some of the
rooms in Hampton Court. His daughter
married Hogarth.
Thornton, Bonnell (b. 1724, d. 1768),
humorist and miscellaneous writer ; was the
associate of George Colman in a periodical
entitled the Connoisseur, and published a
translation of Plautus (1766), etc.
Thornton, Sir Edward (b. 1817), diplo-
matist ; was envoy - extraordinary and
minister plenipotentiary to Brazil (lb65-67)
and the United States (1867-81), ambassador
to the Czar (1881-84), and to the Sultan
(1884-86).
Thornycroft, Mary (b. 1814), daughter of
John Francis, sculptor ; married the sculptor,
Mr. Thornycroft, in 1840 ; afterwards studied
at Rome under Gibson and Thorwaldsen.
Among her chief works is the Skipping Girl
(1855).
Thornycroft, W. Hamo, A.R.A. (b. 1850),
sculptor, son of the preceding : first exhibited
at the Royal Academy in 1871- He has
executed statues of Artemis (1880), and
Teucer (1881), etc.
Thorold, Anthony Wilson (b. 1825), be-
came Bishop of Rochester in 1877 ; was
transferred to Winchester in 1891.
Thorpe, Thomas Edward (b. 1845), pro-
fessor of chemistry in the Normal School of
Science and Royal School of Mines, South
Kensington ; has published a Dictionary of
Applied Chemistry, etc.
Thorwaldsen, Albert Bertel (b. 1770, d
Tuo
(701)
Tie
1844), Danish sculptor, of Icelandic origin ;
studied at the free school of the Academy of
Copenhagen, and was sent by that body to
Rome in 1796. His first great work was his
Jason (1802). Except for a visit to Denmark
in 1819-20, when he executed the statues of
Christ and the Twelve Apostles for the Frue
Kirke at Copenhagen, he remained in
Home till 1837. After that date he, for the
most part, lived in Denmark. His master-
pieces include the Entry of Alexander into
Babylon (1812), the statue of Prince Ponia-
towski, and the Dying Lion at Lucerne.
Thou, Jacques Auguste de (b. 1553, d.
1617), French historian; studied law at
Orleans and afterwards under Cujacius at
Valence ; in 1578 became clerk to the par-
liament of Paris ; was named councillor of
state in 1588, and in 1593 chief librarian to
the king. He took a leading part in draw-
ing up the Edict of Nantes. His chief work
is Historia Sui Temporis, extending from
1546 to 1584.
Thrasyimlua (d. 389 B.C.), Athenian gene-
ral ; was exiled by the Thirty Tyrants, and
withdrew to Thebes, whence he led an expe-
dition into Attica, and after defeating the
Spartans at Phyle and Munychia, overthrew
the Thirty, setting up a commission of ten in
their place. This body also opposed Thrasy-
bulus, and were supported by the Spartans,
but a reconciliation was effected, and the
exiles were recalled.
Throgmorton, Sir Nicholas (b. circa 1513,
d. 1571), English diplomatist; was sent by
Elizabeth as ambassador to France and to
Mary, Queen of Scots.
Thucydides (b. circa 471, d. <rira*401 B.C.),
Greek historian, born at Athens ; is said to
have been descended !'• «m Olorus, King of
Thrace. At the outbreak of the Pelopon-
nesian war he received a command, but
failed to relieve Amphipolis when beseiged
by Brasidas, and was banished (423 B.O.).
After twenty years of exile, during which
he is supposed to have written his History
of the Peloponnesian War, he returned to
Athens about 403.
Thurloe, John (b. 1616, d. 1668), born at
Abbots Boding, in Essex ; became Secretary
of State to Oliver Cromwell, and retained
the office under his son, Richard. After the
Restoration he was for a short time im-
prisoned.
Thurlov, Edward, Lord (b. 1732, d. 1806),
born in Suffolk; was called to the bar in
1734, became Solicitor- General in 1770, and
Attorney- General in 1771 ; was Lord Chan-
cellor 1778-92, except for a short interval in
1783.
Thurston, Sir John Bates (b. 1836), high
commissioner and consul-general for the
Western Pacific.
Thurston, Robert H. (b. 1839), a dis-
tinguished American engineer.
Tibaldi, PeUegrino (b. 1527, d. circa 1592),
painter and architect, born at Bologna,
studied at Rome ; about 1570 was chosen
architect of the cathedral of Milan ; in 1586
was summoned to Spain, and superintended
the building of the Escurial till 1595, when
he returned to Milan,
Tiberius Claudius Nero (b. 42 B.C., d. 37
A.D.), Roman Emperor; was the stepson of
Augustus, who married his mother, L via.
In B.C. 12 he married the emperor's - au ;h-
ter, Julia. He distinguished him-<-ii in
the German wars during the lifetime of
Augustus, whom he succeeded in 14 A.D.
About 22 A.D. he placed all power in the
hands of his favourite, 2Elius Sejanus, who
afterwards fell under his suspicion, and was
put to death in 31 . In 26 Tiberius retired to
the island of Capreae, where he is said to
have studied astrology and to have indulged
in gross licentiousness. He was assassinated
by Macro, commander of the Praetorian
Guards.
Tibullus (b. circa 43, d. 19 B.O), Roman
poet ; was patronised by Messala Coryinus,
whom he accompanied in his expedition to
Gaul (31). He wrote four books of Elegies.
Tichborne, Charles Robert, has carried on
important investigations in connection ^with
chemistry andpharmacy. He has published
The Mineral Waters of Europe, etc.
Tickell, Thomas (b. 1686, d. 1740), man of
letters, born in Cumberland, educated at
Oxford; became the friend of Addison,
through whose influence he was made
under-secretary of state (1717). He was
secretary to the Lords Justices of Ireland
1724-40. His writings include ^several
poems, and papers published in the
Spectator.
Ticknor, George (b. 1791, d. 1871), Ameri-
can author, travelled in Europe (1815-19);
was professor of modern languages at
Harvard^ (1819-34). He wrote a History of
Spanish Literature (1849), and a Life of
Prescott (1864).
Tidemand, Adolphus (b. 1816, d. 1876),
Norwegian painter, studied at Copenhagen
and Dtisseldorf. He gained a European
reputation by his contributions to the great
libitions.
Tieck, Johann Ludwig (b. 1773, d. 1853),
poet and novelist, born in Berlin, studied at
Halle and Gottingen; formed a friendship
with A. W. von Schlegel, and became a
leader of the Romantic school ; after residing
Tie
(702)
Tin
in various German towns and visiting Italy
(1305) and England (1817), settled in
Dresden, where he was director of the
theatre from 1819 to 1840, when he was in-
vited to Berlin by Frederick William IV.
Among his chief works are the dramas of St.
Genoreva (1800) and The Emperor Octavian
(1804), Talcs, some of which were trans-
lated by Carlyle, Phantasus (1812-15) and
translations of Don Quixote (1799-1802) and
Shakespeare (1825).
Tiedemann, Dietrich (b. 1748, b. 1803),
became professor of philosophy at Marburg
in I,~b6. He wrote the System of Stoic
Philosophy (1776), the Spirit of Speculative
Philosophy (1790-97), etc.
Tierney, George (b. 1761, d. 1830), states-
man ; entered Parliament in 1796, opposed
Pitt, with whom he fought a duel (1798),
was Irish Secretary, and afterwards presi-
dent of the Board of Trade under Fox and
Grenville (1806-7), became leader of the
Opposition in the House of Commons in
1817 ; was master of the Mint 1827-28.
Tilden, Samuel Jones (b. 1814, d. 1886),
American politician ; was called to the bar
in 1841 ; became chairman of the Democratic
State Convention in 1866 ; took a leading
part in exposing the " Tammany King "
(1871) ; was elected governor of New York
in 1874.
Tillemont, Louis Sebastien le Nain de (b.
1637, d. 1698), French historian ; studied at
Port Royal, and was ordained priest in 1676.
He wrote a History of the Emperors during
the First Six Centuries of the Church, and
an Ecclesiastical History which covers the
same period.
TiUoch, Alexander (b. 1759, d. 1825), born
at Glasgow; invented improvements in
printing, and drew out a patent for stereo-
typed plates; in 1787 came to London,
where he edited various periodicals, starting
the Philosophical Magazine in 1797.
Tillotson, John (b. 1630, d. 1694), son of
a Yorkshire clothier ; was brought up as a
Calvinist, and sent to Clare Hall, Cambridge ;
conformed to the Church of England at the
Restoration; became lecturer at St. Lawrence
Jewry in 1664 ; was made a prebend of Can-
terbury in 1670, and dean in 1672 ; opposed
Charles II. 's attempts to make concessions
to the Roman Catholics (1672) ; after the
Revolution was made Archbishop of Can-
terbury (1691). He published many eloquent
Sermons.
Tilly, John Tserclas, Count of (*. 1559, d.
1632), general, born in South Brabant;
distinguished himself in the Thirty Years'
war, contributing greatly to the victory of
Prague (1620), and succeeded Wallenstein as
commander -in -chief of the imperial forces
(1630). He was defeated and mortally
wounded in an engagement with Gustavus
Adolphus on the Lech.
Timbs, John, F.S.A. (b. 1801, d. 1875),
miscellaneous writer; published CuriosUi**
of London (1855), etc.
Timoleon (d. 337 B.C.), a Corinthian of
noble birth, put his brother Timophanes to
death for attempting to make himself
tyrant (364) ; was in 344 sent to aid the
Syracusans against the tyrant Dionysius and
the Carthaginians ; overthrew Dionysius in
343, and in 339 defeated a Carthaginian
armament ; passed the remainder of his life
at Syracuse.
Timon, the "Misanthrope," an Athenian
of the 5th century B.C., who became dis-
gusted with mankind and lived in seclusion.
Tiinon, the "Phliasian," Greek philo-
sopher of the 3rd century B.O., was a dis-
ciple of Pyrrho the sceptic. He wrote Silli,
a satire against all schools of philosophy.
Timothy, Saint (d. circa 97), born in
Lycaonia, was brought up as a Christian
by his mother, Eunice ; accompanied St.
Paul in his missionary journeys ; became
Bishop of Ephesus, and is said to have been
stoned to death in that town.
Timur, or Tamerlane (b. 1335, d. 1405),
Tartar conqueror, was born in Sogdiana.
After establishing his power over the tribes
of Turkestan, he conquered Korassan, Can-
dahar, Bagdad, Northern India, and Syria,
and finally attacked Bajazet, Sultan of the
Turks, whom he overthrew at Ancyra in
1402. He died whilst marching to attack
China.
Tindal, Matthew (b. circa 1657, d. 1733),
born in Devonshire, was the son of a clergy-
man. He professed Romanism under James
II., but afterwards recanted, and eventually
became a deist. He wrote Christianity as
Old as the Creation (1730), and other attacks
on revealed religion.
Tindal, Nicholas (*. 1687, d. 1774), nephew
of the preceding, translated and continued
Rapin's History of England.
Tindale, or Tyndale, "William (J. circa
1480, d. 1536), English reformer, born in
Gloucestershire, studied at Oxford and
Cambridge ; in 1524 retired to Hamburg,
where he printed part of his New Testament ;
carried on his translation of the Bible at
Worms (where he was joined by his asso-
ciate Fryth), Marburg, and elsewhere, but
was arrested at Antwerp in 1535, and burnt
at Vilvorde the following year.
Tintoretto, H [Jacopo Robusti] (*. 1512,
Tip
(703)
Tol
d. 1594), Venetian painter, obtained his title
from the fact that his father was a dyer
(tintore). He studied under Titian, and also
modelled his style on that of Michelangelo.
The Miracle of the Slave, in the Academy
of Venice, is considered his masterpiece.
Tippoo Sahib (b. 1749, d. 1799), was the
son of Hyder AH, sovereign of Mysore,
whom he succeeded in 17S2. In 1784 he
assumed the title of Sultan. He carried on
the struggle against the English intermit-
tently till 1792, when he was forced by
Lord Cornwallis to sue for peace, and sur-
rendered part of his territory. In 1799 the
war was renewed, and Tippoo was slain
whilst defending his capital of Seringa-
patam.
TiraboscM, Girolamo (b. 1731, d. 1794),
Italian author, born at Bergamo ; was ap-
pointed professor of rhetoric at Milan in
1766, and in 1770 became librarian to the
Duke of Modena. He wrote a History of
Italian Literature (1772-83), etc.
Tirard, Pierre Emmanuel (b. 1827), has
been twice prime minister of France.
Tiscliendorf, Lobegott Friedrich Con-
stantin von (b. 1S15, d. 1874), German bib-
lical scholar ; became professor of theology
at Leipzig in 1850. He made three journeys
to the East in search of materials for his
revised text of the New Testament (1854-65),
and discovered the Codex Sinaittcus in a
monastery on Mount Sinai. His edition of
the Septuagint appeared in 1840.
Tissapiiernes (d. 395 B.C.), Satrap of
Lower Asia under Darius II. and Arta-
xerxes; favoured the Spartans during the
Pelopomiesian war. He was executed at
Sardis by order of Cyrus.
Tisza, Koloman (b. 1830), was prime
minister of Hungary 1875-90. He resisted
the aggressions 01 Russia in 1876-8.
Tite, Sir William (b. 1802, d. 1873), an
English architect. His chief work is the
Royal Exchange, completed in 1844.
Titian [Tiziano Vecelli] (b. 1477, d. 1576),
Venetian painter, studied under Giovanni
Bellini, and was much influenced by his fel-
low-pupil Giorgione ; in 1511 was employed
in decorating the ducal palace at Venice ; in
1514 was invited to the court of Aiphonso,
Duke of Ferrara, for whom he executed
several works ; painted the portrait of
Charles V. during bis visit to Bologna in
1529 ; visited Rome 1545-6, and was after-
wards several times summoned to Germany
by Charles V. Among his masterpieces is
the Bacchus and Ariadne in the National
Gallery, London.
Titiena, or Tietjens, Theresa (b. 1834, d.
1877), operatic singer, born at Hamburg,
made her first appearance in London in
1858. She was for many years pritna donna
at Her Majesty's theatre.
Titus Flaviug Vespasianus (b. 40, d. 81),
Roman Emperor; served under his father,
Vespasian, in Syria, and, after the return of
the latter to Rome, brought the Jewish war
to a close by his capture of Jerusalem (70).
He succeeded Vespasian in 79, and showed
himself a wise and beneficent ruler.
Tocqueville, Alexis Charles Henri Clerel
de (b. 1805, d. 1859), French political phi-
losopher, born at Verneuil ; visited America
in 1831-2, and after his return published D«
la Democratic en Am&rique (1835-40) ; was
minister of foreign affairs in 1849 ; in 1851
withdrew to Normandy, where he wrote
L'Ancien Regime (1856), etc.
Todd, Charles (b. 1826), became Govern-
ment astronomer and superintendent of
telegraphs in South Australia in 1855, and
postmaster -general in 1870.
Todd, Robert Bentley (b. 1810, d. 1860),
was appointed professor of physiology in
King's College in 1837. Among his works
was a Cyclopcedia of Anatomy and Physiology
(1836-59), written in conjunction with Dr.
Grant.
Todnunter, Isaac (b. 1820, d. 1884), was
educated at Cambridge, where he became
fellow of St. John's College. He published
some well-known mathematical treatises.
Todleben, Franz Eduard, Count (b. 1818,
d. 1884), Russian general, of German ex-
traction; during the Crimean war con-
structed the fortifications of Sebastopol,
which he defended in person ; took part in
the war against Turkey and reduced Plevna
(1877).
Togrul Beg (d. 1063), grandson of Seljuk,
and founder of the Seljuk dynasty of
Turks. After the conquest of Korassan and
the capture of Ispahan (1051), he marched
to Bagdad to the relief of the Kalif Kaim,
expelled the Buvidos, and received the title
of "Prince of Princes," with the virtual
sovereignty of the Saracen dominions in
Asia.
Toland, John (b. 1670, d. 1722), deist,
born near Londonderry, of Roman Catholic
parents, studied at Glasgow, Edinburgh,
and Leyden ; published Christianity not
Mysterious (1696), etc.
Tollens, Hendrik (b. 1780, d. 1866), Dutch
poet, born at Rotterdam, wrote many dra-
matic ballads and patriotic songs.
Tolstoi, Alexis Constantinovitch, Count
(b. 1818, d. 1875), Russian author, served m
Tol
(704)
Tor
the Crimean war ; published the Death of
Ivan the Terrible, and other dramas, Prince
Serebrenni/i, an historical novel (1863), and
eome epic narratives.
Tolstoi, Leo Nikolaievitch (*. 1828), Rus-
sian author aud social reformer, studied at
the university of Kazan ; served in the
Crimean war ; has published War and Peace
(1SGO), Anna Karenina (1875-7), The Kreut-
zer Sonata (1889), also several essays in
moral philosophy, including My Religion
(1885).
Tomlinson, Charles, F.B.S. (b. 1808), has
published numerous papers on scientific sub-
jects ; also a translation of Dante's Inferno
(1877), etc.
Tomlinson, Herbert (b. 1845), demonstra-
tor of natural philosophy at King's College,
London; has contributed scientific papers to
the Proceedings of the Royal Society, the
Philosophical Magazine, etc.
Tommaseo, Nicolo (b. 1802, d. 1874),
Italian patriot and author, took part in the
revolutionary movement of 1847-49, holding
office in the provisional government as
minister of religion and education. He
published a Dictionary of Synonyms (1832),
a collection of the popular songs of Tuscany,
Corsica, Dalmatia, and Greece (1839), etc.
Tone, Theobald Wolfe (b. 1763, d. 1798),
Irish revolutionist, founded the Society of
United Irishmen in 1793 ; in 1795 took refuge
in America to avoid prosecution; in 1796
removed to France, and held a command in
the abortive expedition of Hoche to Bantry
Bay ; having landed in Ireland to excite an
insurrection, was arrested and condemned to
death, but committed suicide in prison.
Tooke, John Home (b. 1736, d. 1812), son
of John Home, a London poulterer, was
educated at Eton and Cambridge ; was ap-
pointed incumbent of New Brentford in
1760 ; became the associate of John Wilkes ;
in 1777 was fined and imprisoned for attack-
ing the conduct of the king's forces in
America ; was tried for high treason in
1794, but acquitted. In 1782 he adopted the
surname of his benefactor, William Tooke
of Purley. He wrote a well-known etymo-
logical work, the Diversions of Purley (1786-
1805).
Tooke, William (b. 1744, d. 1820), was
chaplain to the Russian Company at St.
Petersburg (1774-92), and published several
works on Russian history. His son, THOMAS
TOOKE (b. 1774, d. 1858), drew up the petition
of the merchants of London for free trade,
presented to Parliament in 1820, and pub-
lished a History of Prices and the State of
the Circulation, and a Sketch of the State of
the Corn Trade in the last Two Centurie*.
Toole, John Lawrence (b. 1832), comedian,
made his first appearance at the Haymarket
in 1862 ; in 1880 became manager of the
Folly theatre, henceforward known as
"Toole's."
Topete, Juan Battista (b. 1821, d. 1885),
Spanish politician and sailor ; took a leading
part in the revolution of 1868 ; held oliice
under Amadeus.
Toplady, Augustus Montague (b. 1737, d.
1778), an English clergyman ; in 1775 settled
in London, where he preached in the French
Protestant chapel, Lincoln's Inn Fields.
His Calvinist views led him to attack Weslej
Many of his hymns are well known, es-
pecially Rock of Ages.
Torelli, Giuseppe (b. 1721, d. 1781),
Italian mathematician ; edited the works of
Archimedes.
Torfesen, or Torfseus Thormod (b. 1636,
d. 1719), historian, born in Iceland; became
historiographer for Norway to Christian V.
of Denmark. He published Hintoria Rerum
Nori'egicarum (1711), etc.
Torquemada, Juan de (b. 1388, d. 1468),
Cardinal, born at Valladolid ; opposed the
followers of Wyclif and Huss at the Council
of Basel (1431), and took part in the endea-
vour to reconcile the Greek and Roman
Churches at that of Florence (1439) ; be-
came Bishop of Palestrina in 1455, and of
Sabina in 1464. He wrote Commentaries on
Gratiarfs Decretal, etc.
Torquemada, Tomasde (b. 1420, d. 1498),
became the first inquisitor- general in Spain
in 1483.
Torrens, William Torrens McCullagh (*.
1813), first entered Parliament in 1847 : was
instrumental in passing the Artisans'
Dwellings Bill, and establishing the London
School Board.
Tprricelli, Evangelista (b. 1608, d. 1647),
Italian mathematician, inventor of the
barometer ; was the friend of Galileo, whom
he succeeded as professor at Florence.
Torrigiano, Pietro (b. 1474, d. 1522),
Ptalian sculptor, born at Florence ; was the
fellow student of Michaelangelo, whose nose
he broke in a quarrel; entered the service
of Henry VIII., and executed the tomb of
Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey ; after-
wards removed to Spain, and died at Seville.
Torrington, George Byng, Viscount (d.
1773), English admiral : distinguished him-
self in the battle of Malaga, and the relief
of Barcelona (1706) ; in 1718 completely de
feated the Spanish fleet off Cape Passaro.
Torstenson, Leonard, Count (b. 1603, d.
1651, commander -in -chief of the Swedish
Tos
(705)
Tre
forces in the Thirty Years' war ; defeated
the Imperialists at Jankowitz (1645), and
elsewhere.
Tosti, or Tostig (d. 1066), Earl of
Northumberland, brother of Harold, King
of England; took part in the invasion of
Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, and
was slain with him at the battle of Stam-
ford Bridge.
Totila (d. 552) (also called BaduiJa), was
chosen King of the Ostrogoths in 541.
After capturing Rome (546), he re-estab-
lished the Gothic dominion in Italy, but
was defeated and slain by Narses.
Tott, Francois, Baron de (b. 1733, d.
1793), French diplomatist ; for many years
resident at Constantinople ; introduced im-
portant reforms into the Turkish army and
navy. He wrote Memo-ires sur Us Turcs et
Us Tartares (1784), etc. ; died in Hungary.
Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de (b. 1656, d.
1708), French botanist, born at Aix : after
travelling in Europe and the East (1700-2),
became professor of medicine in the College
de France. He published several works on
botany.
Tourneur, Cyril (circa 1600), English
dramatist, author of The Revenger's Trag-
edy (1607), and The Atheist's Tragedy (1612).
Nothing is known concerning his life.
Toussaint L'Ouverture, Francois Do-
minique (b. 1743, d. 1803), son of African
slaves, was born in San Domingo. He was
in 1796 appointed by the Directory chief of
the army of San Domingo, and afterwards
established his authority throughout the
island, which he ruled with justice and
vigour. When Bonaparte sought to restore
slavery in San Domingo (1801), Toussaint
resisted, but was forced to surrender, and
was sent to France, where he died in
prison.
Towers, Joseph (b. 1737, d. 1799), miscel-
laneous writer; became a Unitarian
minister in 1774.
Townley, Charles (b. 1737, d. 1805), anti-
quary, born in Lancashire ; during a long
residence in Rome formed a collection of
antiquities, known as the "Townley
Marbles," which was purchased after his
death by the British Museum.
Townshend, Charles, Viscount (b. 1676,
d. 1738), Whig statesman ; was ambassador
to the States- General (1709-10), and nego-
tiated the Barrier Treaty, for which he was
censured by the House of Commons (1712):
became Secretary of State and Prime Minister
on the accession of George I., but was dis-
missed in 1716 ; returned to office as Secre-
tary of State under Walpole in 1721, but
T T
quarrelled with him in 1730, and retired to
his seat of Raynhain in Norfolk.
Townshend, Charles (b. 1725, d. 1767),
grandson of the preceding, was secretary at
war under Bute, and paymaster of the
forces in the Rockingham Ministry (1765) ;
as Chancellor of the Exchequer under Chat-
ham in 1776 was responsible for the taxa-
tion of the American colonies, which led to
the war of Independence.
Toynbee, Arnold (b. 1852, d. 1883), politi-
cal economist, fellow and tutor or Balliol
College, Oxford ; took a deep interest in the
welfare of the labouring classes, and lived
much amongst them in the East End of
London. Toynbee Hall, in Whitechapel,
was founded after his death to further his
schemes of improvement.
Tracy, Benjamin (b. 1830), American
politician ; became secretary of the navy in
1889.
Tradescant, John (d. 1652), horticulturist
and collector of curiosities ; was gardener to
Charles I.
Traill, Henry Duff (*. 1842), journalist,
contributed volumes on Sterne and Cole-
ridge to the English Men of Letters series ;
has also published lives of William III.
(15.88) and Strafford (1889), etc.
Trajan [Marcus Ulpius Trajanus] (b. 55, d.
117), Roman Emperor, born in Spain ; waa
consul in 91 ; became in 97 the associate of
Nerva, whom he succeeded in 98 ; was vic-
torious over the Dacians (101-5), and ex-
tended the Roman Empire in the East.
Traquair, Ramsay Heatley (b. 1840),
keeper of the natural history collections in
the Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh ;
has published papers on fossil ichthyology,
etc.
Tredgold, Thomas (b. 1788, d. 1829), born
near Durham ; after following the trade of
a carpenter in Scotland, came to London,
where he established himself as a civil en-
gineer. He published The Steam Engine
(1827). etc.
Tregelles, Samuel Prideaux (b. 1813, d.
1875), Biblical scholar; was engaged from
1830 onwards on his critical edition of the
text of the New Testament, completed in
1872.
Trelawny, Edward John (b. 1792, d.
1881), born in Cornwall; entered the navy
when eleven years old. His early career is
recorded in his A drentures of a I'oiinyr A'"«.
He afterwards became the friend of "Shelley
and Byron, and wrote Recollections of those
poets (1858), republished in a revised form
in 1878.
Tre
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Tro
Tremellius, Emmanuel (b. 1510, d. 1580),
Protestant divine ; born at Ferrara of
Jewish parents ; was converted to Chris-
tianity by Cardinal Pole, and to Protes-
tantism by Peter Martyr ; came to England
in the reign of Ed\vard VI. ; in 15<3o re-
moved to Germany, and became professor
of Hebrew at Heidelberg and afterwards at
Sedan.
Trench, Eichard Chenevii (b. 1807, d.
1880), became professor of theology in
King's College in 18 i7 : Dean of Westmin-
ster in 1856, and Archbishop of Dublin in
1864. He published Notes on the Miracles
(1846), Study of Words (1851), two volumes
of poems, etc.
Trench, William Steuart (b. 1808, d.
1872), author of Realities of Irish Life
(1869).
Trenck, Friedrich, Baron von der (b.
1726, d. 1794), a Prussian officer, famous
for his prison adventures, winch are nar-
rated in his Memoirs (1786-7). He was
guillotined during the French Revolution.
Trendelenburg1, Friedrich Adolf (b. 1802,
d. 1872), became professor of philosophy at
Berlin in 1833. He wrote on the philosophy
of Aristotle, and opposed Hegel and Herbart.
Trevelyan, Sir Charles Edward, Bart. (b.
1807, d. 1886), Indian civilian; was governor
of Madras in 1859, and financial minister in
India 1862-5 ; was instrumental in effecting
administrative reforms both in India and at
home. He published the Education of the
People of India, etc.
Tre,dly:n, Sir George Otto, Bart. (b.
1838), sun of the preceding, and nephew of
Lord Hacaulay, entered Parliament as a
Liberal in 1865 ; was Irish Secretary 1882-4,
and Secretary for Scotland 1892. He has
published the Life and Letters of Lord
Macaulay (1876), and The Early Times of
Charles James Fox (1880).
^ Treviso, or Trevigi, Girolamo da (b. 1508,
d. 1544), Italian painter ; after residing some
time at Bologna, entered the service of
Henry VIII. of England, who employed
him as an architect and engineer. He was
mortally wounded at the siege of Boulogne.
Tribonianus (b. circa 475, d. circa 545),
Roman lawyer, born in Pamphylia ; became
consul under J ustinian, and was president of
the commission employed by him to compile
the Pandects, Institutes, and Code.
f Tricoupis, Charilaos (b. 1832), Greek poli-
tician, was appointed minister of forpign
affairs in 1866 ; has several times been prime
minister.
Trlmen, Henry (b. 1843), director of the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon ; has pub-
lished several works on botanical subjects.
Trimen, Roland (b. 1840), zoologist; has
published South African butterflies (^1887-9),
etc.
Trimmer, Mrs. Sarah (b. 1741, d. 1810),
wrote A'aoulous Hittunes and other books
for children.
Tripe, John William, M.D. (b. 1821), a
writer on medical subjects, became public
analyst in 1872.
Tristan da Cunha (d. circa 1520), Portu-
guese navigator, set out from .Lisbon in
lol)6 ; discovered the islands which bear hia
name, and explored the coasts of Africa.
Tristram, Rev. Henry Baker (b. 1822),
has published Bible Places (1871), The Land
of Moab (1874), and other works of travel.
Trivet, Nicholas (d. 1328), English Domi-
nican ; wrote Annales Sex Regum Anglics, a
chronicle extending from 1136 to 1307.
Trochu, Louis Jules (b. 1815), French
general ; on the outbreak of the Franco -
German war became governor of Paris, and
after the proclamation of the Republic,
Commander-in-chief of the forces, but re-
signed early in 1871, and retired in 1873.
Trogus Pompeius, a Roman historian of
the time of Augustus, born in Gallia Nar-
bonensis. His Universal History survives
only in the abridgment of Justin.
Trollope, Anthony (b. 1815, d. 1882),
novelist, son of Mrs. Frances Trollope, was
educated at Winchester and Harrow ; in
1834 entered the Post Office Department,
from which he retired in 1862. Among his
novels are Barchester Towers (1857), Framley
Parsonage (1861), and The Last Chronicle of
Barset (1867).
Trollope, Right Rev. Edward (b. 1817),
became Bishop Suffragan of Nottingham in
1877.
Trollope, Frances (b. 1778, d. 1863),
wrote Domestic Life of the Americans (1832),
and many novels.
Trollope, Thomas Adolphus (b. 1810), son
of the preceding : has published several
novels and works on Italian history.
Tromp, Martin Harpertzoon (b. 1597,
d. 1653), Dutch naval commander, became
lieutenant- admiral in 1637 ; defeated a
larjre Spanish fleet in 1639 ; was defeated
by Blake in May, 1652, but gained a victory
over him in the following November ; after
several other engagements was mortally
wounded in an action with Monk off
Scheveningen.
Tromp, Cornells (b. 1629, d. J691), Dutch
Trii
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Tnr
admiral, son of the preceding ; distin-
guished himself against the English in the
war of 1673. He became grand admiral of
Holland in 1677.
Trtibner, Nicholas (b. 1817, d. 1884), a
publisher of works of philology, religious
philosophy, and Oriental literature. He was
born at Heidelberg, and established his busi-
ness in London in 1852.
Truro, Thomas Wilde, Lord (b. 1782, d.
1855), was called to the bar in 1817 ; entered
Parliament as a Whig in 1831; became
Solicitor-General in 1840; was Attorney-
General in 1841, and Lord Chief Justice of
the Common Pleas from 1846 to 1850, when
he became Lord Chancellor, and was raised
to the peerage.
Tseng, His Excellency the Marquis (b.
1836, d. 1890), Chinese diplomatist, was in
1878 appointed minister to the courts of
London and Paris, to which that of St.
Petersburg was added in 1879.
Tucker, Abraham (b. 1705, d. 1774), Eng-
lish metaphysician ; wrote The Light of
Nature Pursued, etc.
Tucker, Josiah (*. 1711, d. 1799), divine
and writer on politics and commerce, became
Dean of Gloucester in 1758. On the out-
break of the American war he recommended
a separation of the colonies from the mother
country.
Tudela, Benjamin of (d. 1173), Jewish
rabbi, bom at Tudela in Navarre ; visited
Turkey, Persia, and other countries, and
wrote an account of his travels.
Tuke, D. Hack (6. 1827), editor of the
Journal of Mental Science ; has published
works on insanity, hypnotism, etc.
Tulloch, John (*. 1823, d. 1886), became
principal of the theological college of St.
Andrew's University in 1854. He published
Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy
in England in the Eighteenth Century (1872),
Facts of Religious Life (1876), etc.
Tullus Hostilius (d. 638 B.C.), third king
of Rome, succeeded Numa in 670 B.C. He
carried on wars against the Albans and
Sabines.
Tunis, the Beys of, were hereditary
princes, sometimes tributary to the Sultan,
but more often to the Dey of Algiers.
HATVTCDA PASHA (1782-1814) established the
virtual independence of his country. Mu-
HAMAD BEY reigned 1814-23. HUSSEIN BET
(1823-35) and Smi MUST APHA BEY (1835-9)
sought protection from the French against
the encroachments of the Porte. The French
in their tiirn became aggressors, but, with
English aid, the independence of Tunis was
maintained during the reigns of SIDI AHMED
BEY (1839-55) and SIDI MUHAMAD BEY
TT2
(1855-9). The efforts of the English to
establish more cordial relations between
Tunis and the Porte having eventually
failed, the French in 1881 invaded the
country, and MUHAMAD ES SADYK (b. 1813),
who had become Bey in 1859, was forced to
sign a treaty instituting a French protec-
torate.
TunstaU, Cuthbert (b. 1474, d. 1559),
English prelate ; studied at Oxford, Cam-
bridge, and Padua, and became one of the
most learned scholars of his age. Under
Henry VIII. he held the offices of Master of
the Rolls (1516-21) and keeper of the privy
seal (1523-30) ; was sent on embassies to
the Emperor and to France, and became
successively Bishop of London (1522) and
Durham (1530). Deprived during the reign
of Edward VI., he was restored on the
accession of Mary, but again deprived by
Elizabeth, who placed him under the cus-
tody of Archbishop Parker.
Tupper, Sir Charles (b. 1821), born in
Nova Scotia; was in 1883 appointed high
commissioner in Great Britain for the
Dominion of Canada.
Tupper, Martin Farquhar (b. 1810, d,
1889), poet and prose writer, author of Pro-
verbial Philosophy (1838). etc,
Turenne, Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne,
Vicointe de (b. 1611, d. 1675), French
general, son of the Due de Bouillon, and
grandson of William I., Prince of Orange,
entered the French army in 1630 ; became
mart-dial de camp in 1634 ; in 1643 was
placed in command of the forces in Ger-
inaiiy, where he remained till the close of
the Thirty Years' war (1648), distinguishing
himself by his retreat from Marienthal and
his victory at Nordlingen (1645) : opposed
Conde with success in the war of the Fronde
(1652-9); was made marshal -general in
1660 ; became a Roman Catholic in 1668 ;
greatly distinguished himself in the war with.
Holland (1672-5), in the course of which he
was killed by a cannon shot.
Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques (b. 1727, d
1781), French statesman, was from 1761 to
1774 intendant of Limoges, where he en-
couraged agriculture and introduced im-
provements in the administration ; became
comptroller -general of finances in 1774, but
was dismissed in 1776.
Turgueneff, Ivan Sergyevitch (b. 1818, d.
1883), Russian novelist, studied at the uni-
versity of Berlin ; after the Franco -German
war removed to Paris, where he mainly
resided till his death. Among his novels
are A Nest of Nobles (1858), Fathers and
Sons (1862), and Virgin Soil (1877).
Turner, Dawson (b. 1775, d. 1858), botanist
and antiquary; published a work on Fuci
(1808-19), etc.
Tur
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Tyr
Turner, Godfrey Wordsworth (b. 182,), d.
1SJ1), journalist, was i\>r many years special
correspondent to the iJaiiy TtU'<jr«.pk.
Turner, Joseph Mallord William (b. 1775,
d. 18-31), landscape painter; sun of a hair-
dresser in Covent Garden, studied at the
schools of the .Royal Academy ; became
A.R.A. in 1799, and B.A. in L8U2, and boon
won a iv;>'ii;i.;iuu ;:s a painter both in water -
colours and in oils. In 18U7 he began the
Liber Sind'tonon, a series of prints for the
most part executed by himself. For Englaud
and H'.tk'n, the Southern Coaxt, and oth.-r
series of engravings, he prepared drawings,
which are now highly prized. Among the
finest of his oil-paintings in the National
Gallery, London, are Dido Building Carthage
and Tne Sun Rising in a ALi,*t.
Turner, Sharon (b. 1768, d. 1847), his-
torian ; was at the age of fifteen articled to
an attorney hi the Temple, whom he suc-
ceeded in his business. His chief work is a
History of the Anglo-Saxons (1799-1805).
Turner, William (d. 1568), divine and
naturalist, born at Morpeth, educated at
Cambridge ; became a preacher of the re-
formed doctrines, and was forced to with-
draw to Italy in the reign of Henry VIII. ;
was made Dean of Wells by Edward VI. ;
removed to Germany on the accession of
Mary, but returned under Elizabeth. He
wrote a Herbal (1568) and several works
against the Roman Catholic Church.
Turner, Sir William (b. 1832), became
professor of anatomy in the university of
Edinburgh in 1867.
Turpin, or Tilpin (d. circa 800), Bishop of
Rheims, formerly supposed to be the author
of a chronicle entitled De Vita Caroli Magni
et Rolandi, which is now believed to be a
romance of a later date.
Tiirr, General Stephen (b. 1825), Hungarian
patriot; entered the Russian army in 1848;
deserted to the Hungarian in 1849, and dis-
tinguished himself in the revolution which
ensued ; was arrested by the Austrians at
Bucharest in 1855, and only escaped the
penalty of death through the representations
of the British Government. He served in
the Crimean war and the Italian war of
Independence.
Tusser, Thomas (b. circa 1515, d. circa
1580), English poet, author of Five Hundred
Points of Good Husbandry (1557).
Twain, Mark, pseudonym of Samuel
Langhome Clemens (b. 1835), American
numorist, born at Florida, in Missouri.
After living in Nevada and San Francisco,
he removed in 1867 to New York, where he
published his Jumping Frog. In the same
year he started on a journey to Italy and
the East, recorded in The Intioce-nts Abroad
(1869). Among his other writings are Th«
Adi'enturtx <>J l«m Xmcy<T (iS7U). A. Tramp
Abroad (Ibbo), and Huckleberry Finn (1885).
Twisletoa, Hon. Edward Turner B»yd
(b. 1809, d. 1874), was chief poor-law com-
missioner in Ireland ISo'.'-i'J. In 1871 he
punished a work proving that Sir Philip
Francis wrote the Letter* of Juntas.
Twiss, Horace (b. 1787, d. 1849), barrister,
sat in Parliament 1828-32; wrote a Uio-
yraphy of Lord Eldun (1844).
Twiss, Sir Travers (b. 1809), jurist, was
educated at Oxford, where he filled the
chair of political economy 1842-49, and that
of civil law 1855-70 ; became a Queen's
Counsellor in 1867, and was Queen's Ad-
vocate 1867-72. He published The Law of
Nations in Times of War (1863).
Tyler, John (b. 1790, d. 1862), American
statesman, born in Virginia, entered Congress
in 1816 ; became vice-president under Harri-
son in 1840, and president in 1841. During
his government Texas was annexed to the
United States. On. the outbreak of the war
he espoused the side of the South.
Tyler, Wat (d. 1381), a native of Essex,
headed the peasant rising in 1381.
Tyior, Edward Burnett (b. 1832), became
in 1884 keeper of the Oxford University
museum and reader in anthropology. He
has published Primitive Culture (1871), the
Gifford lectures on Natural Religion (1888),
etc.
Tyndall, John (b. 1820), man of science,
born in County Carlo w, Ireland, joined the
Irish Ordnance Survey in 1839 ; was a rail-
way engineer 1844-7; studied at the uni-
versities of Marburg and Berlin (1848-51) :
became professor of natural philosophy in
the Royal Institution in 1853. After an
expedition to Switzerland with Professor
Huxley in 1856 wrote, in conjunction with
him, a treatise On the Structure and Motion
of Glaciers ; presided at the meeting of the
British Association at Belfast, in 1874.
Among his works are Heat as a Mode of
Motion (1863), and Fragments of Science.
Tyrconnel, Richard Talbot, Earl of (d.
1691), commander of the forces in Ireland,
and viceroy under James II. ; died whilst
preparing to resist William of Orange.
Tyrtaus, a Greek poet of the 7th
century B.C., probably born in Attica. He
became commander of the Lacedaemonian
army, and so animated the Spartan soldiers
by his strains that they comj letely defeated
the Messenians.
TyrwMtt, Thomas (b. 1730, d. 1786),
English man of letters, published, among
other works, an edition of Chaucer's Canter-
bury Tales (1772-8).
Uba
( 709)
Urb
Ubaldini.Petruccio (16th century), Italian
writer and illuminator, came to England in
the reign of Edward VI. He wrote Vita di
Carolo Magno (1581), Description of Scotland,
and other works.
^ Uberweg, Friedrich (b. 1826, d. 1871),
German philosophical writer, professor at
Konigsberg, and author of System der
Logik und Geschichte der loyischen Lehren
(translated by T. Lindsay in 1871) and
Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophic
von Z7iales, translated by Morris and Porter
in 1875.
Uccelli, Paolo (d. 1475), Florentine
painter of the naturalist school, whose real
name was Doni. Among his works, which
are now rare, is the Battle of San Egidio in
the National Gallery, London.
Udal, Nicholas (b. circa 1504, d. 1556),
English scholar, head -master of Eton and
afterwards of Westminster; wrote Ralph
Roister Doister, the first English comedy,
which was discovered in 1840.
Udine, Giovanni da (b. 1487, d. 1564),
Italian painter, pupil of Giorgione ; assisted
Raffaelle with his cartoons, decorated the
Vatican loggia, and was a skilful delineator
of still life.
Ugolino. [See Gherardesca.]
Unland, Johann Ludwig (b. 1787, d. 1862),
German poet, whose Gedichte appeared in
1815 : took an active part in the rising of
Germany against Napoleon, was a member
of the "VViirtemberg Assembly between 1819
and 1830, and in 1848 was a deputy to the
Frankfort Assembly. Most of his works
have been translated into English, and his
life, by his widow, appeared in 1874. He
was professor at Tubingen for three years
(1830-3).
Ukert, Friedrich (b. 1780, d. 1851), Ger-
man geographer; author of Geography of
the Greeks and Romans.
Ulloa, Alonso de (d. circa 1580), Spanish
historian ; author of Vita dell1 gran Capitano
Ferdinando Gonzagat under whom he had
served.
Ulloa, Don Antonio (b. 1/16, d. 1795),
Spanish mathematician ; was captured by
the English on his return from Peru, but
soon released and elected F.B.S. He was
author of Travels, and a work on South
America.
Ulpnilas (or Wulfila) (b. 311, d. 381), was
appointed in 341 bishop of the Goths north
of the Danube. His translation of the Bible
is the most ancient work in a Teutonic lan-
guage ; but fragments only are extant.
Ulpianus, Domitius (d. 228), Eoman
jurist; friend and minister of Alexander
Severus, was murdered in a mutiny excited
by the reforms he had, as prsetorian prefect,
introduced. Excerpts from his works are in
the Digest.
Ulrica Eleonora, Queen of Sweden (b.
1656, d. 1693), daughter of Frederick TTT. of
Denmark, and wife of Charles XI. of
Sweden, by whom she became the mother of
Charles XII. and Ulrica.
Ulrica Eleonora (d. 1741), her daughter;
married Frederick of Hesse -Cassel, and on
the death of Charles XII. came to the
throne of Sweden, but soon resigned in
favour of her consort.
Ulugh-Begh, or Olek Bek (d. 1449), Tatar
prince ; was put to death by his son after a
long reign. He left works on astronomy,
geography, and chronology.
Unger, Franz (b. 1800, d. 1870), Austrian
scientific writer, professor of botany at
Vienna ; visited Scandinavia and the East
for purposes of geological research, and was
author of Anatomie und Physiologie der
Pflanzen, Iconographia Plant arum Fossilium,
and many other works.
Urban I, Pope (d. 230), was elected in 222.
Urban II. [Eudes] (d. 1099), elected in
1088, when Bishop of Ostia ; continued the
policy of Gregory VII., and opposed the
Emperor Henry IV., who set up an anti-
pope against him, and took Rome ; convened
the Council of Clermont in 1095, at which
the first Crusade was proclaimed, and Philip
I. of France was excommunicated; in 1098
made the Norman counts of Sicily apostolic
legates, and in the same year held the
Council of Bari.
Urban HI. [CrivelU] (d. 1187), elected in
1085 ; opposed the usurpations of Bar-
barossa.
Urban IV. [Panthaleon] (d. 1264), elected
Urb
(710)
Vai
fn 1261, instituted the feast of Corpus
Christi, and increased the number of car-
dinals.
Urban V. [Guillaume de Grimoard] (b.
1302, d. 1370), elected in 1362 ; left Avignon
in 1367, and re-entered Rome with the em-
peror, but returned before his death; sent
missionaries to Tartary and Georgia, and
attempted to set on foot a new crusade.
Urban VL [Prignano] (d. 1389), was
elected in 1378, when Archbishop of Ban,
but soon deposed on account of his meditated
reforms, Clement VII. being set up as anti-
pope. The latter, however, was only recog-
nised by France, Naples, and Savoy, though
the struggle continued throughout the life-
time of Urban.
Urban VIL [Castagna] (b. 1521, d. 1590),
was elected September loth, 1590, but only
reigned thirteen days.
Urban VIII. [Maffei Barberini] (b. 1568,^.
1644) was elected in 1623, founded the Col-
lege " De Propaganda Fide," created many
cardinals, was a patron of the learned, and
published some poems. He suppressed the
Jesuits and condemned Jansenius.
Ure, Andrew (b. 1778, d. 1857), Scotch
chemist ; became Andersonian professor at
Glasgow in 18U6, published in 1821 his Dic-
tionary of Chemistry, and in 1839 Dictionary
of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines, being
also author of other scientific works.
Urfe, Honore d' (b. 1567, d. 1624), French
writer ; author of the romance, UAstree
(1610), which has been frequently trans-
lated ; served as a soldier in the wars of the
League.
Urquhart, David (b, 1805, d. 1877), Scotch
Russophobist politician and writer ; author
of Progress of Russia in the West, North,
and South (1853), and other works; re-
presented Stafford in Parliament from 1847
to 1852, and opposed Lord Palmerston's
policy. He introduced the Turkish bath
into England.
Urquhart, or Urchard, Sir Thomas (17th
century), philologist ; author of Logopan-
dekteision: or, an Introduction to the Universal
Language, and of a translation of Rabelais.
Urquijo, Luis de (b. 1768, d. 1817), Spanish
statesman ; abolished slavery, and introduced
vaccination into Spain ; was foreign minister
(1798-1800), after which he was imprisoned
by the Inquisition, but in 1808 became
secretary of state.
Urraca, Queen of Castile and Leon (d.
1126), by her marriage with Alfonso I. of
Aragon united that crown to those of
Castile and Leon, but afterwards made war
on her husband and excluded him from
Castile. She also quarrelled with her son
and her sister, Theresa of Portugal.
Ursinus, anti-pope ; opposed St. Damasus
in 366, and was subsequently banished by
Valentinian I. in 385.
Ursinus, Zacharias (b. 1534, d. 1583),
Silesian reformer ; went with Melancthon to
the conference of Worms, and drew up the
Heidelberg Catechism.
Ussher, James (b. 1580, d. 1656), Irish
divine ; became Bishop of Meath in 1620,
and four years later Archbishop of Armagh.
His chief work was Annales Veteris et Novi
Testainenti (1650-54), the author, by Crom-
well's order, being buried in Westminster
Abbey.
Uwins, Thomas (b. 1782, d. 1857), English
painter ; was some time secretary of the
Water Colour Society, and from 1847 to
1855 keeper of the National Gallery, Lon-
don, where are three of his pictures. He
became R.A. in 1838.
Uzziau, or Azarian, King of Judah, reigned
808 B.C. to 756.
Vahl, Martin (b. 1749, d. 1804), Norwe-
gian botanist, held chairs at Copenhagen :
wrote Symbolce Botanicce, and continued
Flora Danica.
Vaillant, Jean Baptiste (b. 1790, d. 1872),
marshal of France ; served in the Napo-
leonic wars, and was made prisoner in 1813,
but was present at Waterloo, and was sent
to Algeria in 1830 and 1834. He became
field-marshal after the coup-d'etat of 1851,
was war minister 1854-9, and, having
served in Italy, was in 1860 made minister
of the house of the emperor.
Vaillant, Jean Foi (b. 1632, d. 1706),
numismatist, was taken by the Algerines,
and remained a slave for some months;
and when agajn chased by corsairs, swal-
lowed the medals he had with him. He
afterwards travelled in Persia and Egypt
collecting.
Vaillant, Sebastien (*. 1669, d. 1722),
Val
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Van
botanist, whose chief work was Botanicon
Parisiense.
V aides, Juan de (d. 1540), Spanish theo-
logian; retired to Naples to escape the
Inquisition, where, after his death, his
followers were persecuted. His chief work
was his Hundred and Ten Considerations
(translated by Nicholas Ferrar).
Valens, Flavius (b. 328, d. 378), Emperor
of Borne, a Pannonian by birth ; reigned in
the East while his brother ruled in the West,
and was killed in a revolt of the Goths.
Valentine (2nd century), Egyptian theo-
logian ; founded a Gnostic sect at Rome,
and obtained many adherents in the East.
Valentinian I., Emperor of Rome (b. 321,
d. 375), was declared Emperor in 364, and
shared his power with his brother, Valens ;
carried on wars with the Gauls, and was killed
in a campaign against the QuadL
Valentinian II. (d. 392), his son, reigned
with Gratian till 383 ; was deposed by Maxi-
mus but restored by Theodosius, and was
finally assassinated.
Valentinian III. (b. 419, d. 455), was pro-
claimed in 425. During his reign Britain
was abandoned, and Italy invaded by Attila.
The Emperor having caused Aetius to be
killed was himself ultimately murdered.
Valerianus, Publius, Emperor of Rome,
was proclaimed by the army in Rhaetia in
2-J4, but defeated in 260 by Sapor, King of
Persia, and imprisoned for life.
Valerius Maximus {1st century), Latin
writer, author of De Factis Dictisque Memo-
rabilibus, one of the first books printed.
Valette, Jean Parisot de la (b. 1494, d.
1568), grand master of the Knights of St.
John, repulsed an attack on Malta by the
Sultan Solyman in 1565, and founded the
town of Valetta.
Valla, Lorenzo (d. circa 1457), Italian
writer, disproved the genuineness of the
donation of Constantine, and carried on con-
troversies with Poggio and other scholars.
Besides several philosophical books and a
History of Ferdinand of Aragon, he wrote
EleganticB Sermonis Latini, his chef-d'oeuvre.
Vallance, or Valiancy, Charles (b. 1721,
d. 1812), British officer; made a survey of
Ireland, and published an Irish grammar
and dictionary.
Valle, Pietro della (b. 1586, d. 1652),
Italian traveller ; visited Persia, Arabia,
and Egypt, and published Viaggi descritti
in Lettere Familiari.
Valliere, Louise, Duchesse de la (b. 1644,
d. 1710), mistress of Louis XTV., by whom
she had four children. She was originally
maid of honour to Henrietta, Duchess of
Orleans, and when superseded by Madame
de Montespan took the veil.
VaUisneri, Antonio (b. 1661, d. 1730),
Italian physician, professor of medicine at
Padua and F.R.S. A genus of plants bears
his name, arid his Opera Fisico-Mediche ap-
peared in 1727.
Valpy, Richard (b. 1754, d. 1836), English
scholar, head-master of Reading grammar
school, published Greek and Latin gram-
mars, which were long in use. His son,
ABBAHAM JOHN (d. 1854), edited the Delphin
Latin Classics.
Valsalva, Antonio Maria (b. 1666, d. 1703),
Italian physician, president of the Institute
of Bologna and F.R.S. His great work was
De Awe Humana Tractatus.
Vamb6ry, Arminius (b. 1832), Hungarian
traveller, went through the deserts of the
Oxus to Khiva and Saniarcand between
1861 and 1864, and became on his return
professor of Oriental languages at Pesth.
He several times visited England, where his
Travels and Adventures in Central Asia ap-
peared in 1864, and his Life and Adventures
in 1883. He has written many other works.
Vanbrugh, Sir John (6. 1666, d. 1726),
architect and dramatist ; designed Blenheim
Palace and Castle Howard, and wrote The
Relapse, The Provoked Wife, The Confederacy,
and other comedies.
Van Buren, Martin (b. 1792, d. 1862),
American statesman, supported the war
against Great Britain, and was elected
senator in 1821, and president 1837.
Vancouver, George (d. 1798), British
sailor; was with Cook in his second and
third voyages, and in 1791 was named com-
mander of an expedition to ascertain the
means of communication between the North
Pacific and the North Atlantic. Vancouver's
Voyage was published three years later, and
his name was given to an island on the
coast surveyed by him.
Vandamme, Dominique (b. 1771, d. 1830),
French general; after serving throughout
the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, was
captured at Kulm in 1813, and sent to Siberia.
He returned, however, in the next year, re-
joined Napoleon, and offered to defend Paris
after Waterloo, but was banished at the re-
storation, and lived in America till 1824.
Vanderbilt, Cornelius (b. 1794, d. 1877),
American millionaire; was successively a
New York ferryman, captain of a steamer,
and a hotel proprietor. He made the
greater part of his fortune by his steam-
liners, and by railway speculations. Hia
Von
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Van
son, WILLIAM (b. 1821, d. 1885), greatly
increased the fortune left to him, aud was
for a time the richest man in the world.
Van der Heist. {See Heist.]
Van der Neer, Aart (b. circa 1619), Dutch
marine p.-iinter, several of whose works are
in the National Gallery, London.
Vandervelde, Willem (b. 1610, d. 1693),
painter, called "the Old," to distinguish
him from his son, was born at Leyden, but
came to England, and was pensioned by
Charles II. He excelled in the delineation
of marine subjects, being present at several
battles between the English and the Dutch
for the purposes of his art.
Vandervelde, Willem (b. 1633, d. 1707),
his son, was born at Amaf.ftrda.rn., and came
with his father to England. He also excelled
in sea-pieces, of which the National Gallery,
London, holds two specimens.
Vander Werff, Adrian (b. 1659, d. 1722),
Dutch historical painter, pupil of Van der
Neer. Many of his pictures are at Munich.
Van derWeyden, Roger (d. 1464), Flemish
painter of the school of Van Eyck. His
Deposition in the Tomb is in the National
Gallery, London, which also possesses an
Ecce Homo and three other pieces from the
hand of another artist of the name, who
died in 1529.
Van de Weyer, Sylvain (b. 1802, d. 1874),
Belgian statesman ; was prominent in the
movement for separation from Holland, and
became the first foreign minister of the
new kingdom. He was also twice ambassador
in London, and was minister of the interior
from 1835 to 1849. He died in London.
Van Diemen, Antoni (b. 1593, d. 1645),
Dutch explorer, sailed on five voyages of
discovery, finding Van Diemen's Land.
Vandyck, Sir Anthony (b. 1599, d. 1641),
portrait painter, after studying under Ru-
bens visited Italy and England, and in 1631
was made royal painter by Charles I. and
knighted. Several of his works are in the
National Gallery, London, and his Cru-
cifixion is at St. Martin's, Ghent.
Vane, Sir Henry (*. 1612, d. 1662), re-
publican and Puritan ; became governor of
Massachusetts about 1635, but soon returned
to England, entered Parliament, and was
appointed treasurer of the navy. He took
an active part against Strafford, and was the
principal mover of the Covenant in England,
and the Self-Denying Ordinance. Although
he was not one of the regicides, he was
beheaded at the Restoration on this ground.
Van Eyck. [See Eyck.]
Van Helmont. [See Helmont.]
Vanhomrig-h, Heater (d. 1723) [Vanessa],
pupil and irieud of Swift; died of grief be-
cause he was unwilling to marry her.
Van Huysvun. [See Huysuin.]
Vanini, Giulio Cesare (b. loSo, d. 1619),
Italian philosopher ; entered the Carmelite
order, and acquired a great reputation as a
preacher ; came to England, and oiiered to
join the Church, but was thrown into the
Tower (1614). After publishing at Paris his
De Admirandis Naturce, lleg-ince, Deacijue,
Mortaliiim Arcanis (1(316), he was con-
demned by the Inquisition as an atheist, and
burnt at Toulouse.
Vanloo, Jean Baptiste (b. 1684, d. 1745),
French painter, born at Aix, obtained a
high reputation both in France and England
as a portrait painter. His brother, CHABLES
(d. 1765), became painter to the king and
director of the Academy, and was invited
by Frederick to Berlin.
Van Mander, Carel (b. 1548, d. 1606),
Flemish writer and artist, pupil of Lucas de
Heere; founded a school of painting at
Haarlem, and wrote Het Schilder Mock
(Lives of the Painters}.
Van Mildert, William (b. 1765, d. 1836),
English divine, author of Life of Waterland ;
became Bishop of Llandaff in 1819, Dean of
St. Paul's in 1820, and Bishop of Durham
in 1826.
Vanni, Francesco (d. 1609), Italian painter
in the style of Barocci. His St. Raymond
Walking on the Sea is at Siena, and The
Scourging of Christ and Death of Cecilia are
at Rome. His two sons were artists of repute.
Van Os, Pieter Gerard (b. 1776, d. 1839),
Dutch painter and engraver in the manner
of Paul Potter ; died at the Hague.
Vanossa. [See Alexander VI.]
Vansittart, Nicholas (b. 1766, d. 1831),
English statesman (created Lord Bexhill in
1823) ; was Chief Secretary for Ireland
1805-6; Secretary to the Treasury in the
Grenville Ministry ; and Chancellor of the
Exchequer 1812-1823.
Van Somer, Paul (b. 1576, d. 1621), Dutch
portrait painter, lived in England after
1606, and executed portraits of James I.,
Prince Henry, Bacon, and many others.
Van Sweiten, Gerard (b. 1700, d. 1772),
physician, born at Leyden ; laid the founda-
tion of a medical school at Vienna, and
wrote Commentary on the Aphorisms of
Jloerhaave, whose pupil he had been.
Vanned, Andrea. [See Andrea del Sarto.]
Vanvitem, Luigi (b. 1700, d. 1773), Italian
/Yap
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Van
architect of Flemish extraction, became
architect of St. Peter's, Borne, in 1726. His
chief work was the palace of Caserta, which
he built for the King of Naples.
Vapereau, Louis Gustave (b. 1819), French
biographer, was some time secretary to
Victor Cousin, and in 1877 became inspector-
general of public instruction. He edited the
Dictionnaire Universal des Contemporains,
and Dictionnaire Univer»el des Litteratures.
Vargas, Luis de (b. 1502, d. 1568), Spanish
painter, whose works are chiefly to be found
in his birthplace, Seville.
Varius Kufus, Lucius (d. 9), Latin poet,
friend of Horace and Virgil; wrote a
biography of the latter which is lost, only
fragments of his works being extant.
Varley, Cornelius (6. 1781, d. 1873),
water-colour painter, brother of John ; was
the inventor of the graphic telescope.
Varley, John (b. 1778, d. 1842), English
painter, one of the founders of the Water
Colour Society, to whose exhibitions he
sent frequent contributions. Linnell and
William Hunt were among his pupils. He
wrote a practical Treatise on Perspective^
and other works.
Varnhagen von Ense, Karl August (b.
1785, d. 1858), German historian and diplo-
matist ; entered the Austrian army, and was
wounded at Wagram, and served with the
Bussians during the war of Liberation. In
1814 he entered the Prussian diplomatic
service, and was charged with several
missions, being secretary to Hardenberg at
the Congress of Vienna. His chief works
were Siographische Denkmale, Denkwurdig-
keiten and JKahel.
Varro, Marcus Terentius (b. 116 B.C., d.
26 B.C.), Latin writer; took part with
Pompey, but made his peace with Caesar,
and enjoyed the favour of Augustus. He
wrote 490 works, of which two only, De Re
Musticd, and De Lingua Latina, are extant.
Augustine made use of his JLntiquitatum
Libri, the lost chef-d'oeuvre of Varro.
Varthema, Ludovico di (16th century),
Venetian traveller, the narrative of whose
travels in Asia and the East Indies appeared
in 1510, an English version being published
in 1863 by Mr. Winter Jones. It contains
the earliest mention of Australia.
Varus, Publius Quintilius (d. 9), Roman
general, whose name is remembered on
account of his defeat by the Germans under
Arminius, and the despairing exclamation of
Augustus in reference to it.
Vasa. [See Gustavus Vasa.]
Vaaari, Giorgio (b. 1511, d. 1574), Italian
painter and writer, pupil and imitator of
Michelangelo, left some portraits of merit,
and was skilled as a goldsmith and architect,
but is chiefly remembered by his Lives of
the Moat Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and
Architects, first published in 1550, and
frequently translated and added to.
Vasco di Gama. [See Gama.]
Vataces, John Ducas (d. 1254), Emperor
of Nicaea, successor of Theodore Lascaris
and husband of his daughter Irene, de-
feated his rivals, formed a fleet but was
unsuccessful in his attempts on Constanti-
nople. In 1237 the German Emperor
Frederick II. formed an alliance with him.
Vattel, Emmerich von (b. 1714, d. 1767),
Swiss publicist ; after leaving the court of
Frederick the Great became minister of
Augustus II. of Saxony. His chief work was
Droit des Gens : ou, Principes de la Loi
Naturelle Appliqties d la Conduite aux
Affaires des Nations et des Souverains.
Vauban, Sebastien le Prestre de (b. 1633,
d. 1707), marshal of France; served first in
the Spanish army, but having been made
prisoner entered the French service, and
became chief engineer. He conducted fifty-
three sieges, and erected thirty-three
fortresses. At Maestricht (1672) he intro-
duced the system of parallels, Lille (1667),
Mons (1691), and Charleroi (1694), being,
among other places, invested by him. He
left memoirs in manuscript, called Mes
Oisivetes.
Vaughan, Charles "John, D.D. (b. 1816),
divine, senior classic in 1838, was head-
master of Harrow 1844-59 ; vicar of Don-
caster 1860-69; became master of the
Temple in 1869, and Dean of Llandaff in
1879, but refused further promotion. He
published notes on several of the Epistles
and some volumes of sermons.
Vaughan, Henry, ' ' the Silurist " (d. 1693) ,
English poet, author of Olor Iscanus (The
Swan of the Usk), Silex Scintillans, and some
devotional works. His brother, THOMAS (d.
1665), wrote some works on magic.
Vaughan, Herbert, D.D. (b. 1832). was
consecrated Romanist Bishop of Salford in
1872, and in 1892 became Archbishop of
Westminster.
Vaughan, Robert (d. 1868), Nonconformist
divine ; established the British Quarterly
Review, and wrote Life and Opinions of John
de Wyclife, Memorials of the Stuart
Dynasty, etc.
Vaulabelle, Achille de (b. 1799, d. 1879),
French historian and journalist; author of
L'Histoire des Deux Restaurations, and other
works.
Van
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Ver
Vauvenargues, Luc de Clapiers, Marquis
de (b. 1715, d. 1747}, French writer, served
some time with the army in Italy aud
Germany. He wrote Introduction a la Cun-
naissance de VEsprit Humain sitivie de Re-
flexions et de Maximes.
Vecchietta, II [Lorenzo di Pietro] (b. 1412,
rf.1480), Italian painter, sculptor, and archi-
tect, most of whose works are at Siena.
Vega, Garcilasso de la. [See Garcilasso.]
Vega, Lopez de la (b. 1562, d. 1635),
Spanish poet, wrote his Hennosura de
Angelica while serving with the Armada.
He was also author of Arcadia and numerous
plays written after his entry into the
Franciscan order.
Veitch, John, LL.D. (b. 1829), philo-
X' ical writer, assisted Sir W. Hamilton at
burgh, and became professor of logic
at St. Andrews in 1860, and afterwards at
Glasgow. His chief works are a work on
Descartes (sixth edition, 1879), a memoir of
Sir W. Hamilton, Essays in Philosophy, and
History and Poetry of the Scottish Border
(1878).
Velasquez, Don Diego Rodriquez da
Silva (b. 1599, d. 1660), Spanish painter,
studied under Herrera the Elder and
Pacheco, and was named court painter
under Philip IV., who became his friend and
frequently employed him. Nearly all of his
works are at Madrid, but the National
Gallery, London, has several, including
fhilip IV. Hunting the Wild Soar, Adora-
tion of the Shepherds, and Orlando Muerto.
He excelled in all kinds of subjects.
Velleius Paterculus (b. 19 B.C.), Roman
historical writer.
Venddrne, Louis, Due de (b. 1654, d. 1712),
French general, a descendant of Henri IV. ;
took Barcelona in 1697, commanded in Italy
against the Imperialists, and during the
Spanish Succession war was defeated at
Oudenarde, but won the battle of Villa-
viciosa (1710).
Vendramini, John (*. 1769, d. 1839), line-
engraver, born in Italy, studied some time
in England under Bartolozzi, and died in
London. His best work was the transcript of
Piombo's Raising of Lazarus.
Veneziano, Agostino (d. circa 1540),
Venetian engraver, whose chef-d'oeuvre is
The Skeletons after Bandinelli.
Veneziano, Antonio (b. circa 1310, d.
1384), painter, from whose hand are three
fine frescoes in the Canipo Santo, Pisa.
Veneziano, Domenico (b. 1420, d. 1476),
painter, two only of whose pictures (at
Florence) are now preserved.
Venius, or Van Veen, Otto (b. 1556, d.
1634), Dutch painter, was the master ol
Rubens.
Ventura, Joachim (b. 1792, d. 1861),
Italian preacher, called the " Bossuet of
Italy ; " became general of the Theatines in
183U, was friend of the Popes Leo XII. and
Pius IX. , preached the funeral sermon over
O'Conuell, and attempted to organise an
Italian Confederacy under the Pope. He
was offered the presidency of the Assembly
at Rome in 1848, but declined it, and passed
his last years in France.
Verdi, Giuseppe (b. 1814), Italian com-
poser, son of an innkeeper, produced a
musical drama at La Scala, Milan, in 1839,
but first gained a name by his / Lombardi
(1843). He was a member of the Parma
Assembly in 1859, and was elected to the
Italian Parliament in 1861, becoming senator
in 1872. Among his operas may be named
Rigoletto (1851), II Troratore (1853), La
Traviata (1854), Aida (1871), and Otello
(1887), .Fa&te/(1892), etc.
Vere, Sir Francis (b. 1554, d. 1608J,
English general; distinguished himself
against Spain in the Netherlands and at
Cadiz. A monument was erected to him in
Westminster Abbey, and his Commentaries
appeared in 1657. His brother, Sir HORACE
(d. 1635), succeeded to his command in the
Netherlands, and was created Lord Tilbury
by Charles I.
Verelst, Simon (b. 1664), Flemish flower
and fruit painter, obtained great popularity
in England.
Vergil, Polydore (d. 1555), English writer,
born in Italy, was the last collector of Peter's
pence in England, and in 1513 became Pre-
bendary of St. Paul's. He was author of
Historia Anglica — a work more valuable for
its Latin than its history.
Vergniaud, Pierre Victorin (b. 1753, d.
1793), French revolutionist, one of the chiefs
of the Gironde, by whose fall he suffered,
being sent to the guillotine by Robespierre.
He was a great orator.
Vermuyden, Sir Cornelius (d. after 1656),
Dutch engineer, came to England in 1621,
and was knighted for reclaiming Hatfield
Chase. He afterwards carried out the drain-
ing of Bedford Level, but did not himself
profit thereby.
Verne, Jules (b. 1828), French writer,
wrote several comedies, but is known chiefly
by his scientific romances, Ticenty Thousand
Leagues under the Sea, Around the World in
Eighty Days, etc.
Vernet, Claude (*. 1714, d. 1789), French
Ver
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Vic
painter of sea-pieces, whose Castle of St.
Angelo is in the National Gallery, London.
Vernet, Antoine Horace [Carle Vernet]
(b. 1758, d. 1835), son of Claude, excelled
in depicting battles and horses. Among his
works are Triumph of jEmilius Paulus and
Morning of the Battle of Austerlitz.
Vernet, Jean Horace [Horace Vernet] (b.
1789, d. 1863), son of Carle, received in-
struction from his father, and became
attached to the Bonaparte regime, fighting
for it at Clichy in 1815, and illustrating its
achievements. In 1828 he became director
of the school of art at Rome. Among his
pictures may be named Napoleon on the Eve
of Waterloo, The Bridge of Arcola, and The
Smalah of Abd-el- Kader Surprised.
Vernon, Edward (b. 1684, d. 1757), English
admiral ; took Porto Bello in 1739, but failed
in the attempt on Carthagena in the fol-
lowing year.
Vernon, Robert (b. 1774, d. 1849), patron
of fine arts ; presented the "Vernon Gallery "
to the British nation in 1847.
Veronese, Paolo [Cagliari] (b. 1532, d.
1588), Italian painter, was born at Verona,
mad, a study of Tiziano at Venice. His
Marriage at Cana, in the Louvre, and
Adoration of the Magi and Family of
Darius at the Feet of Alexander, in the
National Gallery, London, are fine speci-
mens of his art.
Verres, Caius, was propraetor of Sicily
73-71 B.C., and was prosecuted by Cicero
for bis cruelties there.
Verrochio, Andrea del (b. 1432, d. 1488),
Italian sculptor and painter, was the master
of Leonardo da Vinci ;md Lorenzo di Credi.
He left many specimens of his sculpture at
Rome and Venice, but only one painting,
The Baptism, at Florence.
Vertue, George (b. 1684, d. 1756), English
engraver, executed prints for Rapin's His-
tory, and of portraits of Charles I., twelve
English poets, etc. He also collected
materials for a history of art in England,
which were utilised by Horace Walpole.
Vesalius, Andreas (b. 1514, d. 1564),
anatomist, born at Brussels, accompanied
Charles V. in his campaigns as physician,
and also attended Philip II. He died in
Zante, where he had been wrecked on his
return from Jerusalem. His great work
was De Corporis Humani Fabrica.
Vespasiamis, Titus Flavins (b. 9, d. 79),
Emperor of Rome ; having served with dis-
tinction in Germany, Britain, and Syria,
was proclaimed emperor in 69, and reigned
ten years.
VespuccL [See Amerigo.]
Vestris, Madame Lucia Elizabeth (b.
1797, d. 1854), English actress ; she was the
granddaughter of Bartolozzi, and made
her debut in 1815. Having, meanwhile,
been deserted by her first husband, she
came back to London in 1819, and
acted at Drury Lane, the Haymarket,
the Olympic, and other houses till her
retirement from the stage in 1854, her
Phoebe in Paul Pry being very popular.
In 1838 she married Charles Matthews,
the younger. This lady is not to be
confounded with MABIE DUGAZON VES-
TBJS, the French tragedienne, who died
in 1804.
Vezin, Hermann (b. 1829), actor, was born
in America, and in 1850 came to England.
Among his best parts have been Jacques,
Dan'l Druce, and Dr. Primrose.
Viardot-Garcia, Pauline (b. 1821), Italian
singer, daughter of Manuel Garcia and sis-
ter of Malibran, first appeared in London
in 1839 as Desdemona, and subsequently
visited all the chief Continental towns, re-
tiring in 1862. She composed an opera and
some songs.
Vico, Giovanni Battista (b. 1668, d. 1743),
Italian philosopher, whose chief work was
Pincipi di una Nuova Scienza (1725).
Victor, Claude, Due de Belluno (b. 1768,
d. 1841), marshal of France, was at first
a drummer-boy, but became general of
division in 1799. He distinguished himself
at Marengo, and received his baton after
Friedland, and gained some successes in
Spain, but lost the battles of Talavera (1809)
and Barossa (1811). He deserted Napoleon
in 1814, and was war minister from 1821 to
1823.
Victor Amadeus II., King of Sardinia and
Duke of Savoy (b. 1666, d. 1732), renewed
the persecution of the Waldenses ; was recog-
nised as heir to the crown of Spain at the
Peace of Utrecht and was given Sicily, but
received Sardinia in exchange in 1720. He
abdicated in 1730, but soon after attempted
to resume the crown.
Victor Emmanuel II., first King of Italy
(b. 1820, d. 1878), became King of Sardinia
on the abdication of his father in 1849, and
immediately began to reorganise the kingdom
and to enforce toleration. He sent a con-
tingent during the war with Russia to help
the allies in the Crimea, and in 1859 he se-
cured the alliance of France in his struggle
with Austria. The price agreed on was the
cession of Savoy and Nice, but the result
was the union of Italy under the ruler of
Sardinia. By the help of Prussia the libera-
tion of Venice was gained in 1866, and Roma
Vic
(716)
Vin
was evacuated "by the French in 1870. Victor
Emmanuel was called by his people "He
Galantuomo."
Victoria Alexandrina, Queen of Great
Britain and Empress of India (b. 1819),
daughter of Ed\vard, Duke of Kent, fourth
son of George III., was crowned on June 28,
1837. She. married, in 1840, Prince Albert
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, who died in 1861,
by whom she had nine children. The
chief events of the reign have been the
establishment of the penny post (1840), the
repeal of the Corn Laws (1846), the annexa-
tion of the Punjaub (1849), the Great Exhi-
bition (1851), the Crimean war (1854-5), the
Indian Mutiny (1857-8), followed by the
assumption of sovereignty over India, the
second and third Ref onn Bills (1867 and 1884),
wars in Afghanistan, China, South Africa,
and Egypt, and the Fenian and Home Rule
agitations in Ireland. The jubilee of the
Queen's accession was celebrated in 1887.
Five attempts were made on her life, in
1840, 1842 (three), and 1882.
Vida, Marco Girolamo (b. 1490, d. 1567),
Bishop of Alba, and author of the Christiad,
a Latin poem.
Vien, Joseph, Comte (b. 1716, d. 1809),
French historical painter, whose chef-d'oeuvre
is the Preaching of St. Denis, in the church
of St. Roch, Paris.
Vigilantius, (5th century), presbyter of
Barcelona ; opposed asceticism, and was de-
nounced by Jerome.
Vigny, Alfred, Comte de (b. 1799, d. 1863),
French writer, author of Poemes Antiques et
Modernes (1826-37), Cinq-3fars, a romance
(1837), some plays, and Destinees (posthu-
mous poems).
Villani, Giovanni (d. 1348), Italian writer,
author of Istorie Florentine, which was first
printed in 1537. The author died of the
plague. His brother MATTEO continued his
history.
Villari, Pasquale (b. 1827), Italian writer,
became professor of history at Pisa in 1859,
and at Florence in 1866. His chief works are
Savonarola and his Times (translated 1863),
and Machiavelli and his Times (1877-82),
which has also been translated.
Villars, Louis, Due de (b. 1653, d. 1734),
marshal of France, served in his youth under
Conde and Turenne, and after being twice
ambassador at Vienna, suppressed the Cami-
sard rising (1705), but was defeated by
Marlborough at Ramillies and Malplaquet.
He took Denain in 1712, but saw no more
service till the year of his death, when he
commanded for a short time in Italy.
Villeaardouin, Geoffrey de (d. circa 1213),
French historian, negotiated an alliance with
Venice in 1199, and went on the crusade
which followed, describing it in his Histoire
de la Prise de Constantinople par les Francait
et les Venitiens.
Villemain, Abel Francois (b. 1790, d.
1870), French writer ; assisted Guizot at the
Sorbonne, and became professor of eloquence,
and was minister of public instruction from
IS'.j.) to 1844. Among his works are Court
de la Litterature Fran^aise (1828-38), and
Souvenirs d' 'Histoire et de Litterature.
Villeneuve, Pierre Sylvestre de (b. 1763,
d. 1806), French admiral; commanded the
right wing at Aboukir, and planned the
invasion of England in 1804, being given
the command of the fleet. He was defeated
by Sir R. Calder off Ferrol and then,
against his will, fought the battle of Tra-
falgar, after which he was for some months
a prisoner in England. His death was prob-
ably due to suicide caused by his disgrace.
Villeroy,Fran9ois,Duc de (b. 1643, d. 1730),
marshal of France, was defeated at Eamillies,
and elsewhere showed his incompetence.
An ancestor of his, who died in 1617, was a
minister of state under Francis I., Charles
IX., Henri III., and Henri IV.
Villiers. [See Buckingham.]
Villiers, Right Hon. Charles Pelham (b.
1802) , politician ; was first elected for Wolver-
hampton in 1835, and took a leading part in
the Anti-Corn Law agitation. He was
named Judge Advocate -General in 1853,
and was president of the Poor Law Board
from 1859 to 1866.
Vincent. [See St. Vincent.]
Vincent, Charles Howard (b. 1849), was
director of Criminal Investigations from
1878 to 1884, and entered Parliament in 1885.
Vincent, Sir Edgar, K.C.M.G. (b. 1857),
his brother, became financial adviser to the
Khedive in 1883, and afterwards governor of
the Ottoman bank.
Vincent de Paul, Saint (b. 1576, d. 1660),
French philanthropist; was captured and
made a slave by Tunisian pirates, but was
afterwards almoner to Marguerite de Valois
and tutor to Cardinal de Retz. He founded
in 1617 the Confrerie de Charite, reformed
the galley-slaves, and in 1634 instituted the
Sosurs de Charite.
Vinci, Leonardo da (b. 1452, d. 1519),
Italian painter and sculptor, entered the
service of the Duke of Milan, and executed
there an equestrian statue of Francesco
Sf orza ; studied anatomy with Delia Torre,
and painted his Last Supper about 1497.
In 1502 he became architect to Csesai
Vin
(717)
Vol
Borgia, and was afterwards painter to Louis
XII. and Francis I. of France. Among
his other great works are the Vierge aux
Rochers and La Joconde in the Louvre.
Viner, Charles (b. 1680, d. 1756), lawyer,
author of General Abridgment of the Laws
of England; founded the Vineiian professor-
ship at Oxford.
Vinet, Alexandra (b. 1797, d. 1847), Swiss
writer, seceded from the Protestant Church,
and wrote Essai sur la Manifestation des
Convictions Religieuses, et sur la Separation
de VEglise et de VEtat, Discours sur Quelques ',
Sujets Religieux (Vital Christianity}, and j
some literary works.
Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene (b. 1814, d. 1879),
French architect and writer ; restored Notre
Dame, La Sainte Chapelle, and other
churches, and published Military Archi- \
tecture in the Middle Ages, Restoration,
and other works. He was a strong re-
publican, and commanded a body of engineers i
at the siege of Paris.
Viotti, Giovanni (b. 1753, d. 1824), violin-
ist; was very successful at Paris and in
England, but was compelled to leave the
latter country on suspicion of being a spy. I
He returned in 1795, and in 1818 became i
director of the Paris opera. He composed
concertos in A, B, C, and D.
Virchow, Rudolf (b. 1821), German patho-
logist; after being involved in trouble on
account of his share in the movement of
1848, obtained chairs of pathological ana-
tomy at Wiirzburg and Berlin (1856),
having recently published his Cellular Path- i
oloay. Three years later he returned to
politics, and ultimately became leader ^ of
the Liberal opposition in the Prussian
Assembly, and was challenged to a duel
in 1865 by Bismarck. In 1878 he retired
from public life. He was much consulted
during the illness of the Emperor Fred-
erick.
Virgil [Publius Virgilius Maro] (b. 70
B.C., d. 19 B.C.), Roman poet, born near
Mantua, found patrons in Maecenas and
Augustus, who restored to him his estate.
He died at Brundusium on his return
from a visit to Greece. His chief works
were The Eclogues or Bucolics, The Georgics,
and the JEneid, the latter of which has
been translated by, among others, Dryden,
Conington, and William Morris.
Visconti, Matteo, was named vicar of
the Empire in Lombardy in 1294, and suc-
ceeded his uncle Ottone in the sovereignty,
which was held by the family till 1447.
Visconti, Ottone (d. 1295), was forced by
Urban FV. on the people of Milan as
archbishop, and after a long struggle
with his rival, Delia Torre, became lord
of Milan.
Visseher, Cornelius (6. 1629, i. 1658),
Dutch engraver; executed a great number
of prints, which were catalogued in 1863
by W. Smith, F.S.A.
Vitellius, Aulus (b. 15, d. 69), Emperor of
Rome, was raised to the purple by the
German legions in January, 69 ; but though
his rival, Otho, was defeated, his own army
was soon after routed, and its leader put to
death at Rome.
Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus (1st century),
Latin writer on architecture, whose I)e
Architecture has been frequently trans-
lated.
Vivian, Richard Hussey, Lord (b. 1775,
d. 1842), English general, distinguished
himself in the Peninsula war, especially
at Corunna and Toulouse. He after-
wards entered Parliament, became master-
general of the ordnance in 1835, and a peer
in 1841.
Vogel, Sir Julius (b. 1835), colonial states-
man; after being head of the government
of Victoria for many years, went to New
Zealand in 1869, held office under Fox and
Waterhouse, and was prime minister in
succession to the latter. From his resigna-
tion in 1876 till 1881 he was agent- general,
and from 1884 to 1887 again held office in
New Zealand. He published in 1890 the
novel A.D. 2000.
Vogt, Karl (b. 1817), Swiss writer, pro-
fessor of natural history at Geneva, and
author of Lessons on Man, his Place in
Creation, Science and Superstition, and
several m'Tnilar works.
Vogiie", Vicomte Melchior de (b. 1848),
French writer ; author of Histoires Orientate,
Le Fils de Pierre le Grand, etc. ; was elected
to the Academic in 1888.
Volney, Constantine, Comte de (b. 1757, d.
1820), French traveller; was a member of
the States- General, and was imprisoned
during the Terror, but ennobled by Napoleon
and the Bourbons. His chief works were
Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte, and Ruins : or
Meditations on the Revolutions of Empire.
Volpato, Giovanni (b. 1733, d. 1802),
Italian engraver; author of Principles of
Design; was father-in-law and teacher of
Raphael Morghen.
Volta, Alessandro (b. 1745, d. 1826),
natural philosopher ; was for thirty years
professor at Pa via, and became F.R.S.
Besides making other discoveries, he in-
vented the voltaic pile or electrical column.
Voltaire (b. 1694, d. 1778), whose original
Vol
(718)
Wag
name was Francois Marie Arouet, was born !
at Paris, educated by the Jesuits, and became
a protege of Ninon de 1'Euclos. In 1716-17
he was imprisoned in the Bastille on suspicion
of writing a libel on the king, and Acdipe
was produced in 1718. After another im-
prisonment he went to England, where, in
1728, the Henriade was published. He
escaped prosecution by disavowing his
writings, and in 1736 began to correspond
with Frederick the Great. After the rise of
the Pompadour he secured a reception at
court and at the Academie. In 1750 he went
to the court of Berlin, where he stayed three
years, the result being a historical quarrel.
Soon after this he settled at Ferney, where
the rest of his life was spent, but before his
death he visited Paris, and was received as
a popular hero. He wrote numerous plays
and romances (Candide, Zadig}, etc., Histoire
de Charles XII., Siecle de Louis XIV., and
other historical works, and Essai sur les
Mceurs et V Esprit des Nations.
Volterra, Daniele de (b. 1509, d. 1566),
Italian artist, pupil of Michelangelo. His
masterpiece, The Descent from the Gross, was
torn by the French, who attempted to take
it from Trinita de Monti at Rome.
Vortigern, British chief; invited the
Saxons to help Him against the Picts and
Scots, who, however, joined the enemy.
Vos, Simon de (b. 1603), Dutch painter,
hunting-pieces being his speciality, belonged
to a weli-known family of artists.
Voss, Johann Heinrich (b. 1751, d. 1826),
German poet, a native of Mecklenburg. His
best work was Litise (1795). He translated
parts of Homer, Virgil, Ovid, Theocritus,
and other writers, and also the whole of
Shakespeare.
Vossius, Gerard (*. 1557, d. 1649), Dutch
philologist, friend of Grotius ; was director
of the colleges of Dort and Leyden and
Prebendary of Canterbury. He wrote Aris-
tarchusy a treatise on grammar, and other
works. ISAAC Vossrus, Canon of Windsor
(b. 1618, d. 1689), was his son.
Vries, Hans Fredeman de (b. 1527, d. 1604),
Dutch painter, celebrated for his mastery
of perspective.
Vroom, Hendrik Cornells (b. 1566), Dutch
marine painter ; drew the designs for the
tapestry in the House of Lords, illustrative
of the defeat of the Armada.
w
Waagen, Gustav Friedrich (b. 1794, d.
1S68), German writer, professor of art-his-
tory at Berlin. His chief work was Kunst-
werke und Kunstler in England und Paris,
of which there are several English versions.
Wace (d. circa 1184), Anglo-Norman
poet, made Canon of Bayeux by Henry II. ;
was author of the Roman du Jiou and Le
Brut d? A.ngleterre.
Wace, Henry, D.D. (6. 1836), theologian,
became Prebendary of St. Paul's in 1881
and principal of King's College, London,
in 1883 ; edited with Dr. W. Smith the
Dictionary of Christian Biography, and pub-
lished Boyle and Bampton Lectures (1874
and 1879).
Waddington, William Henry (b. 1826),
French statesman of English parentage and
education (Chancellor's medallist at Cam-
bridge in 1849, and rovved in the race with
Oxford) ; after publishing some works on
classical archaeology, entered public life in
1871 as a supporter of Thiers, and in 1876
became minister of public instruction. He
was afterwards minister of foreign affairs
(1877), French plenipotentiary at Berlin
(1878), president of the Council (1879), and
in 1883 became ambassador in England.
Wade, Sir Thomas Francis, K.C.B. (b.
1818), became British minister in China in
1871, having previously been attached to
the Elgin mission (1857-60), to which his
knowledge of Chinese was of great service.
He published in 1867 Tzu-Erh Chi (Pro-
gressive Chinese Course).
Wadham, Nicholas (*. 1536, d. 1609),
founded the college at Oxford which bears
his name, and which was finished in 1613.
Wagenaar, Jan (b. 1709, d. 1773), Dutch
writer, historiographer of Amsterdam ; wrote
a History of Holland (in twenty-one volumes),
and other works.
Waghorn, Thomas (b. 1800, d. 1850),
British naval officer, projected the overland
route to India. He ruined himself in the
undertaking, but received a pension shortly
before his death.
Wagner, Wilhelm Richard (b. 1813, d.
1883), German composer, born at Leipzig,
was conductor of the Royal Opera, Dresden,
from 1842 to 1849, during which time were
Walk
(719)
WaJ
? reduced Rienzi, Der Fliegende Hollander
L843), and Tannhauser (1845). He was
obliged to leave Dresden for political
reasons, and Lohengrin was first heard at
Zurich in 1850. From 1864 he enjoyed the
patronage of Ludwig II. of Bavaria, under
whose auspices Tristan und Isolde, Die
Meistersinger, etc., were produced. Parsifal
was his last work. Wagner came to Lon-
don in 1877, and died in Italy. He was
twice married, his second wife being Cosima
von Billow (nee Liszt). His (jemmmvlte
Schriften und Dichtungen contain his theory
of the opera.
Walinab, Mohammed Ebn Abdel(18th cen-
tury), Mohammedan reformer and founder
of the Wahhabees, born in Arabia, his
father being a sheikh, condemned the wor-
ship of the Prophet, the use of tobacco and
wine, and other usages, against which, with
the help of his son-in-law, Sheikh Ibn
Sa'ud, he took forcible measures. His
doctrines spread widely, especially among
the Bedouins.
Waitz, Georg (*. 1813, d. 1886), German
historian, pupil of Ranke, and professor at
Gottingen (1848-75) ; edited for some time
the Monumenta Germanics Historica, and
wrote & History of the German Constitution,
a History of Schleswig-Holstein (1851-4)
and other works.
Wake, William (b. 1657, d. 1737), divine,
successively Dean of Exeter, Bishop of
Lincoln, and Archbishop of Canterbury
(1716), attempted to bring about a union of
the English and Gallican churches.
Wakefield, Edward Gibbon (b. 1796, d.
1862), colonial organiser; while in prison for
abduction wrote his Letter from Sydney
(1829), advocating the system of colonisation
called by his name, which, after his release,
was carried out by the South Australian
Association. He was secretary to Lord
Durham in Canada in 1838, and next year
obtained the annexation by Great Britain
of New Zealand, in the colonisation of
which he took an active part. In 1849 he
published The Art of Colonisation.
Wakefield, Gilbert (*. 1756, d. 1801),
scholar and critic, was imprisoned for a
letter to the Bishop of Llandaff directed
against the Government. He seceded from
the Church of England, and wrote, among
other works. Inquiry into the Opinions of the
Christian Writers of the Three First Cen-
turies Concerning the Person of Jesus Christ.
Waksfield, Priscilla (d. 1832), established
at Tottenham the "Frugality Bank" (the
first savings bank), and wrote works for
the young.
Wakley, Thomas (b. 1795, d. 1862), phy-
sician, and coroner for Middlesex. He
established the Lancet in 1823, and as editor
had to meet actions against it by Abernethy
and Bransby Cooper. He sat ior Finsbury
in Parliament from 1835 till 1852.
Waldeck, Christian August, Prince of (b.
1744, d. 1778), served with credit in the
Austrian army against the French, and
became member oi the Aulic Council, and
died in Portugal, whither he had gone to
reorganise the army.
Waldeck, George Frederick, Prince of
(b. 1620, d. 1692), distinguished himself as
field-marshal in the imperial service against
the French, and against the Turks at the
siege of Vienna (1683). Afterwards, as
marshal -general in the Dutch service, he
commanded against the armies of Louis
XIV.
Waldemar, King of Sweden (*. 1242, d.
1302), was elected in 1250, but defeated by
his brother, Magnus I., in 1279, and died in
prison.
Waldemar I., "the Great," King of
Denmark (b. 1131, d. 1182), became king in
1157 ; after a struggle with his rivals, put
down the piracies of the Wends, refused to
do homage to the Emperor Frederick Bar-
barossa. but assisted him against Henry the
Lion (q.v.). Some of his laws are still in
force.
Waldemar II., " the Victorious " (d. 1241),
came to the throne in 1202. on the death of
his elder brother ; made Norway tributary ;
conquered Eastern Pomerania (now Prussia)
in 1210 ; received the title of King of the
Wends from Frederick II. for his assistance
against Otto ; conquered but lost Esthonia,
and was obliged to renounce his German
territories in order to procure his release
from Henry, Count of Schwerin. The title
WALDEMAE III. is variously given to the
son of WALDEMAE II. (1218-31), and to the
son of Christopher II., the latter reigning
1340-1375.
Walden, Thomas [Netter] (d. 1430),
principal of the Carmelites in England,
and confessor of Henry V. ; wrote Doc-
trinale Antiquum Fidei Ecclesice Catholicce,
against the Lollards, and was perhaps
author of Fasciculi Zizaniorwn Johannit
Wyclif.
Wales, Prince of. [See Albert Edward.]
Walewski, Alexandre Colonna, Count
(b. 1810, d. 1868), French statesman, natural
son of Napoleon I. by a Polish countess;
became a French subject after the failure
of the rising of 1830, and was much em-
ployed diplomatically by Napoleon III.,
being also foreign minister from 1855 to
1860, and president of the Corps Legislatif
in 1865.
Wai
(720)
Wai
Walford, Edward (b. 1S23), English
writer, author of numerous works, among
which may be named L<»iduniana, The
County Families of the United Kingdom, part
of Old and New London, Greater London, and
several biographical and educational books.
Walford, Mrs. Lucy Bethia, novelist ; pub-
lished in l>('i-!;<c<Hjd's Magazine The Baby's
Grandmother, A Stiffneeked Generation, and
other works, and also wrote Mr. Smith, etc.
She married in 1369 Mr. A. S. Walford.
Walid L, Ommiad Khalif of Damascus (d.
715), came to the throne in 705, and acquired
Armenia, Cilicia, and Cappadocia from the
Greek Empire, the greatmosque of Damascus
being also begun iu his reign.
Walid IL, "Al Fassik" (b. 703, d. 744),
succeeded Hescham in 743, but was soon
after put to death.
Walker, Clement (d. 1651), political
writer ; author of History of Independency,
from a Presbyterian standpoint ; was im-
prisoned by Cromwell, and wrote a violent
treatise against him when in the Tower.
Walker, Francis Amasa (b. 1840), Ameri-
can economist and statistician, son of AMASA
WALKEB (d. 1875), author of The Science of
Wealth (1866), was wounded and made
prisoner in the Civil war. He was professor
of political economy at Yale from 1873 to
1SS1, his Political Economy being published
in -1883.
Walker, Frederick, A.E.A. (b. 1840, d.
1875), painter; engraved the illustrations to
Thackeray's novels, and exhibited both at
the exhibitions of the Society of Pointers in
Water Colours and at the Eoyal Academy.
His Vagrants (1868), now in the National
Gallery, London, and The Bathers (1867),
were his best pictures.
Walker, George (d. 1690), Irish clergy-
man, received the thanks of Parliament for
his defence of Derry against James II.. and,
after being named bishop of that see, was
killed at the battle of the Boyne.
Walker, John (b. 1732, d. 3807), lexico-
grapher, his chief work, a Cr tical Pro-
nouncing Dictionary, being published in
1775.
Walker, Kobert (d. circa 1659), painter:
executed several portraits of Cromwell (one
•~f which is in the British Museum), as well
as of Blake and other contemporaries.
Walker, Thomas (b. 1784, d. 1836),
humorist ; was an active police magistrate,
but is chiefly remembered bv his weekly
publication, The Original (1835).
Walker, William Sidney (b. 1795, d. 1846),
poet and scholar, educated at Eton and
Trinity College. Edited a Corpus Poetarum
i Latvnarum ; left, besides Poetical lie-mains,
I copious notes on the text and versification of
I Shakespeare, which were embodied in books
published in 1854 and 1860.
Walker- Arnott, George (b. 1799, d. 1868),
botanist ; held the chair of botany at
Glasgow from lo-io till las death, travelled
extensively, and collaborated with Hooker
in his British Flora and other works.
Wall, Joseph, " Governor Wall " (d.
1802) ; was tried and hanged for the murder
of Benjamin Armstrong, who received eight
hundred lashes by his orders as governor of
Goree in 1782, the soldier having demanded
for the men arrears of pay.
Wall, William (d. 1728), divine, incumbent
of Shoreham ; was author of History of
Infant Baptism.
Wallace, Alfred Ruseel, F.E.S. (b. 1822),
scientific writer ; visited South America and
the Malay Archipelago, publishing the re-
sults of his observations on his return,
among his other works being Contributions
to the Theory of Natural Selection (1871), fin
Miracles and Modern Spiritualism (1875),
Land Nationalisation (1882), and Darwinism
(1889). The discovery of the evolution hypo-
thesis was arrived at by him at the same
time as by Darwin. In 1884 he published
a strong attack upon vaccination. In 1881
he received a Civil List pension of £100.
Wallace, Lewis (b. 1827, at Brookville,
Indiana), American general, diplomatist,
lawyer and author. He served as first lieu-
tenant in the Mexican war ; engaged in the
practice of law in Indiana from 1848 ; be-
came a brigadier-general in 1861 ; served
through the Civil war. From 1881 to 1885
he was United States minister to Turkey.
Author of The Fair God (1873), Ben Hur
(1880), The Boyhood of Christ (1888), The
Prince of India (1893).
Wallace, Sir William (d. 1305). Scotch
hero ; headed the rising of 1297 against the
English, and won a victory at Cambus
Kenneth, after which he crossed the border,
and was named guardian of Scotland on
his return. Next year, however, he was
defeated by Edward I. at Falkirk, after
which, deserted by the nobles, he carried on
a guerilla warfare for seven years. After
being imprisoned in France, whose aid he
had sought, he was declared an outlaw in
1304, and having been captured next year
was sent to London and hanged.
Wallace, William Vincent (b. 1814, d.
1865) , musical composer, born at Waterf ord ;
travelled in both hemispheres, and lived for
some time in Mexico and New York.
Among his operas were Maritana (1846)^
Wai
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Wai
Lurline (1860), and The Amber Witck
(1861), and he left also many songs.
WaUenstein, Albrecht, Graf von Wald-
stein (b. 1583, d. 1634), Duke of Friedland,
Imperialist general, of noble Bohemian
family ; after serving against the Turks, the
Venetians, and Bethlen Gabor, raised an
army at his own expense in 1626 for the em-
peror, and defeated Mansfeld and the Danes.
In 1630 he was deprived of his command by
the jealousy of the League, but was soon
recalled to oppose Gustavus Adolphus. The
Swedish king was repulsed at Breitenfeld
(1632), but Wallenstein was defeated at
Liitzen, where Gustavus fell. After his
defeat he negotiated with France, and
having been outlawed by the emperor, was
assassinated at Eger.
Waller, Edmund (b. 1605, d. 1687), English
poet ; sat in the Long Parliament, and was
imprisoned in 1643 for complicity in a
Royalist plot, but was restored to his estates
by Cromwell, and enjoyed the favour of
Charles II. and James LI. He is remem-
bered by his love poems, addressed to Lady
Dorothea Sidney, under the name of
"Sacharissa."
Waller, Sir William (b. 1597, d. 1668), a
Presbyterian member of the Long Parlia-
ment ; became second in command on the
outbreak of war with the king. He gained
some successes in the west, but was re-
moved by the Self-Denying Ordinance, and
afterwards twice imprisoned.
Wallis, Henry (b. 1830), painter, his chef
d'aeuvre being The Death of Chatterton.
Many of his subjects are drawn from the life
of mediasval Venice.
Wallis, Robert (b. 1794, d. 1878), line-
engraver, executed plates for Turner's
pictures. His engraving of Lake Nemi being
especially valued.
Wallon, Henri Alexandre (b. 1812), French
historian and politician ; had a considerable
share in the establishment of the third
republic, and in 1875 became minister of
public instruction. Among his works are
Jeanne d'Arc, Richard II., and Le Tribunal
Revolutionnaire de Paris (1886). In 1878
he was candidate for membership of the
Academic against M. Renan.
Walpole, Horace (b. 1717, d. 1797), Eng-
lish writer, youngest son of Sir Robert, and
friend of Gray ; retired from public life
in 1768, and thenceforth devoted himself
chiefly to the fine arts. He wrote Memoirs,
The Castle of Otranto, a novel, Historic
Doubts on the Life and Reign of Richard
III., and other works, and his published
correspondence extends from 1735 to 1797.
In 1791 he became Earl of Orford.
T7U
Walpole, Sir Robert (b. 1676, d. 1745),
statesman ; entered Parliament as a Whig
in 1701, became Secretary-at-War in 1708,
and having been one of the managers of
Sacheverell's impeachment was expelled the
House by the Tories on the fall of Marl-
borough on a charge of corruption. He
again held office from the accession of
George I. till 1717, and from 1720 till his
resignation in 1742 was the most influential
minister, his power being founded on his
conduct in relation to the failure of the
South Sea scheme, and later on the favour
of Queen Caroline. He was created Earl of
Orford in 1742.
Walpole, Right Hon. Spencer Horatio (b.
1806), statesman; was Home Secretary
under Lord Derby in 1852, and in 1858-59
held the same office, as also in 1866-67. He
represented Cambridge University from 1856
to 1882.
Walpole, Spencer (b. 1839), son of the
above; became lieutenant-governor of the
Isle of Man in 1882, and published a History
of England from 1815, & Life of Mr. Perceval,
and other historical works.
Walsh, Right Rev. William John (b. 1841),
Irish Catholic divine ; became president of
Maynooth College in 1880, and Archbishop
of Dublin 1885. He acts with the Na-
tionalist party, but declared against Mr.
Parnell on the decision of the Divorce Court
against him.
Walshe, Walter Hayle, M.D. (b. 1816),
Irish physician ; was for several years pro-
fessor of medicine in University College,
London, resigning in 1862, and published
Practical Treatise on the Lungs, and several
other works.
Walsingham, Sir Francis (b. 1536, d.
1590), statesman; having been ambassador
at Paris for three years, became Secretary of
State in 1573. He was one of the com-
missioners for the trial of Mary Stuart,
whose designs, and those of the Jesuits, he
succeeded in thwarting by his elaborate
system of espionage.
Walsingham, Thomas (15th century),
Benedictine monk; author of a History o"
England from 1273 to the Death of Henry *
and other works.
Walter, John (b. 1773, d. 1847), succeeded
his father in the proprietorship of the Times
in 1803, and was a member of Parliament for
several years. It was under his manage-
ment that steam-power was first applied to
printing in 1814.
Walter, John (b. 1818), son of the above,
whom he succeeded in the chief proprietor-
ship of the Times, represented Nottingham
as a moderate Liberal from 1847 to 1859, and
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War
Berkshire from 1859 to 1865, and from 1868
to 1885.
Walther, Bernard (d. 1504), German
astronomer, and supposed discoverer of the
regular elfect of atmospheric refraction.
Walther von der Vogelweide (Jl. 1200),
minnesinger ; patronised by Frederick II.
(whose crusade in 1228 he accompanied),
and other German princes of the time;
travelled widely, took part in the poetical
contest in the Wartburg (1206), and wrote
love songs and national airs, which have
been since modernised. A life of the poet
was written by Uhland.
Walton, Brian (b. 1600, d. 1661), English
divine ; projector and editor of the Polyglot
Bible (1654-57), was deprived of his prebend
at St. Paul's as a delinquent, but on the
Restoration became chaplain to the king
and Bishop of Chester.
Walton, Izaak (b. 1593, d. 1683), was for
Borne time a hosier in Fleet Street, and took
part with the Royalists during the Civil
war. The Compleat Angler: or, Contem-
plative Man's Recreation, appeared in 1653,
and a facsimile of the first edition was
Sinted in 1879. Walton also wrote lives of
r. Donne, Sir Henry Wotton, and other
friends and contemporaries.
Wanilvn, James Alfred (b. 1834), chemist ;
was professor of chemistry at the London
Institution 1863-70, and lecturer at St.
George's Hospital 1877-80. With some
others he invented the ammonia process of
water analysis, and (with W. J. Cooper) the
moist combustion process, and published
Bread Analysis, Treatise on Tea, Coffee, and
Cocoa, with other works.
Wappers, Gustaf, Baron (b. 1803. d. 1874),
Belgian painter ; founded a new national
school, examples of which were Tfie Devo-
tion of the Burgomasters of Leyden, The
Parting of Charles I. with his Children, and
The Defence of the Island of Rhodes.
Warbeck, Perkin {d. 1499), landed in
Ireland in 1492, calling himself Richard,
Duke of York, and five years after, with the
support of the Duchess of Burgundy, of
France and of Scotland, invaded Cornwall.
Having been induced to quit sanctuary, he
was sent to the Tower and executed, a con-
fession of his imposture being published ; but
bis identity has never been satisfactorily
established.
Warburton, Eliot (b. 1810, d. 1852), Eng-
lish writer, author of The Crescent and the
Cross (an account of his travels in the East),
Memoirs of Prince Rupert, etc. ; perished in
the Amazon, which was burnt in the Bay of
Biscay.
Warburton, William (b. 1698, d. 1779),
divine and writer, was successively chaplain
to the king, Dean of Bristol, and Bishop of
Gloucester, his chief works having been
A Critical and Philosophical Inquiry into the
Causes of Prodigies and Miracles as Related by
Historians, The Divine Legation of Moses,
and editions of Shakespeare and Pope.
Ward, Adolphus William, Litt. D. (b.
1837), English writer; became professor of
history and literature at Owens College
in 1866, and subsequently vice-chancellor of
the Victoria University. Besides contribu-
tions to the Dictionary of National Bio-
graphy, etc., he published History of Greece*
The House of Austria in the Thirty Years'
War, and several other works.
Ward, Artemus, nom de plume of Charles
Fairer Browne (b. 1834, d. 1867), American
humorist; after having been for some
years a journalist, began to give lectures in
1861, and visited England in 1866. His
published sketches were collected and issued
as The Complete Works of Artemus Ward.
Ward, Edward Matthew, R.A. (b. 1816,
d. 1879), historical painter, pupil of Wilkie,
several of whose pictures (The Disgrace of
Lord Clarendon, The South Sen Bubble, etc.)
are in the National Gallery, London ; com-
mitted suicide while suffering from de-
pression.
Ward, H. Marshall, F.R.S. (*. 1854),
physiological botanist ; was sent to report on
the causes of the coffee leaf disease in 1879,
and in 1885 became professor of botany at
Cooper's Hill. His chief works are The
Diseases of Plants, and Timber, and Some of
its Diseases.
Ward, James, R.A. (b. 1769, d. 1859),
animal painter, his most famous works
being The Bull Bait, The Bull, and Land-
scape with Cattle, now in the National
Gallery, London.
Ward, John Quincey Adams (b. 1830),
American sculptor, among whose produc-
tions are colossal statues of Washington
and Garfield, and The Pilgrim at New
York.
Ward, Mary Augusta (b. 1851), English
writer, niece of Matthew Arnold, and
author of Robert Elsmere (1888), a trans-
lation of AmieVs Journal (1885), and Th*
History of David Grieve (1892), married in
1872 Mr. T. HUMPHBY WAED (b. 1845),
journalist, editor of Men of the Reign, Tht
Reign of Queen Victoria, and other works.
Ward, Robert Plumer (b. 1765, d. 1846),
politician and novelist, held several sub-
ordinate offices between 1805 and 1810;
wrote Tremaine and other novels, and His-
tory of the Law of Nations. TTm son, Sir
War
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Wat
HENBT WARD (d. 1860), held the office of
governor of the Ionian Islands (1849), of
Ceylon (1856) and of Madras (1860).
Ward, William George, D.D. (b. 1812, d.
1882), theologian; while fellow of Balliol
took part in the Tractarian movement, and
in 1844 published The Ideal of a Christian
Church Considered in Comparison with its
Existing Practice, which was condemned by
Convocation. The writer shortly after
joined the Roman Church.
Warnam, William (*. 1460, d. 1532), divine,
was Master of the Rolls and Lord Chan-
cellor under Henry VII. ; became Bishop of
London in 1503, and Primate next year, but
resigned the Great Seal in 1515, being again
offered it on the fall of Wolsey.
Warner, Charles Dudley (b. 1829), Ameri-
can humorist; author of My Summer in a
Garden (1870), The Gilded Age (with Mark
Twain), Studies in the South and West, etc.
Warner, John (d. 1666), English divine,
successively Dean of Lichfield and Bishop
of Rochester, founded Bromley College near
that town, and also some scholarships at
Balliol College, Oxford.
Warner, William (b. eirea 1558), poet,
author of Albion's England.
Warre, Edmond, D.D. (b. 1836), was ap-
pointed head-master of Eton College in 1884,
having been assistant-master since 1860.
Warren, Colonel Sir Charles, F.R.S. (b.
1840), administrator; conducted excavations
for the Palestine Exploration Fund, and
wrote Underground Jerusalem, and other
works on the subject ; held commands in
the Gaika war and Bechuanaland, and as
administrator of Griqualand \V est organised
a volunteer force in the Zulu war of 1880.
He was employed in Egypt (1882), Bechu-
analand (1884-5), and was Commissioner of
the Metropolitan Police 1886-8, after which
he became governor of the Straits Settle-
ments.
Warren, Sir Peter (b. 1703, d. 1752),
admiral, took Louisbourg in 1745, and
defeated a French attempt to recover it.
He was buried in Westminster Abbey.
^ Warren, Samuel (b. 1807, d. 1877), Eng-
•lish lawyer and writer, whose chief works
were Diary of a Late Physician, Ten Thou-
»and a Tear (1841), and The Moral and
Intellectual Development of the Age (1854),
was appointed Master in Lunacy in 1859.
Warton, Thomas (b. 1728, d. 1790), author
of History of English Poetry (1774-81), was
professor of poetry at Oxford 1757-67, and
was named poet-laureate in 1785. Besides
some satires, he also published an edition
of Theocritus. His brother, JOSEPH {d.
1800), succeeded to the chair of poetry, and
was head-master of Winchester for many
years.
Warwick, Richard Neville, Earl of, "the
King-maker" (b. circa 1420, d. 1471), was
created Earl in 1449, and joined the York-
ists, getting Edward IV. crowned by his in-
fluence, and defeating his enemies at Towton
(1461); quarrelled with Edward, and restored
Henry VI. in 1470, but was defeated and
slain at Barnet next year.
Warwick, Edward Plantagenet, Earl of
(d, 1499), son of George, Duke of Clarence,
and grandson of the above ; was imprisoned
and beheaded by Henry VII. as the heir of
the Yorkist claims.
Washington, George (b. 1732, d. 1799),
American leader, son of a Virginian planter ;
was defeated by a superior French force at
Great Meadows, and shared in the disaster
of Brad dock (1755) ; opposed the taxation
of the colonies, and was named commander
of the Continental army in 1775, and though
badly supported brought the war to a suc-
cessful issue by the capture of Yorktown
(1781). In 1789 he was elected first Presi-
dent of the United States of America, was
re-elected in 1793, and resigned in 1797.
Watelet, Claude Henri (b. 1718, d. 1786),
wrote and illustrated I,' Art de Peindre, a
poem (1760).
Waterhouse, Alfred, R. A. (b. 1830), archi-
tect and painter, the chief specimens of
whose skill are the South Kensington
Museum, Girton College, Cambridge, and
the Manchester Assize Courts.
Waterland, Daniel (*. 1683, d. 1740),
divine ; held a controversy with Clarke on
the Trinity, and with Tiiidal the Deist, and
also wrote a History of the Athanasian
Creed.
Waterloo, Anthony (d. 1662), Dutch
engraver and landscape painter, whose pic-
tures are rare.
Waterton, Charles (b. 1782, d. 1865).
naturalist, author of Wanderings in South
America between 1812 and 182%, and Essay »
in Natural History.
Watson, Charles (b. 1714, d. 17-^7), admiral,
cooperated with Clive in India (1754-7),
especially in the attack on Chandernagore.
Watson, John Forbes, MJX (b. 1827, d.
1892). was reporter on the products of India
and director of the India Museum 1858-79,
and had charge of the Indian departments
in the London Exhibition of 1862, that of
Paris in 1867, and of Vienna in 1873. He
published Industrial Survey of India and
other works.
Wat
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Watson, Lord (b. 1828), was Solicitor-
General for Scotland 1874-6, Lord Advo-
cate 1876-80, and in the latter year became
Lord Justice of Appeal and a life-peer.
Watson, Musgrave (b. 1804, d. 1866),
sculptor, whose chief works are the statue
of Queen Elizabeth in the Royal Exchange,
and those of Lords Eldou and Stowell in the
library of University College, Oxford.
Watson, Richard (b. 1737, d. 1816), divine,
author of Apology for the Bible (against
Tom Paine) and Chemical Essays, also of
An Address to the People of Great Britain
(1798), in support of the French war; be-
came Bishop of LlandaS in 1782.
Watson, Thomas (b. 1646, d. circa 1690),
Nonconformist divine ; was imprisoned for
his share in a plot to restore Charles II. His
chief work was his Body of Divinity.
Watson, Sir William (*. 1715, d. 1787),
received the Copley medal in 1745 for dis-
coveries in electricity, and was also a dis-
tinguished botanist.
Watt, James (b. 1736, d. 1819), engineer,
was son of a Greenock merchant ; as instru-
ment-maker to Glasgow University improved
Newcomen's engine by the separate con-
denser and by making steam the motive-
power, and afterwards made engines of his
own. He also invented the copying-press.
Watteau, Antoine (b. 1684, d. 1721),
French painter j founded the conventional
pastoral school in French art.
Watts, Alaric (b. 1797, d. 1864), English
poet, author of Lyrics of the Heart (1S51),
received a pension and an appointment at
Somerset House.
Watts, George Frederick, R.A. (b. 1820),
painter, gained a reputation by Ms Carac-
tacus Led in Triumph through the Streets of
Borne (1842). Among his chief works are
Fata Morgana (1848), Love and Death
(1877), Time, Death, and Judgment (1878),
and portraits of Joachim, Manning, William
Morris, etc.
_ Watts, Isaac (*. 1674, d. 1748), Noncon-
formist divine; is chiefly remembered by his
Divine and Moral Songs, his metrical ver-
sions of the Psalms, and his hymns.
Watts, Theodore (b. 1836), art-critic and
poet, friend of D. G. Bossetti, his criticism
being chiefly found in the Encyclopedia Bri-
tannica (ninth edition), and the Athenaeum,
while The Armada and the Ode to Mother
Carey's Chickens are his best-known poems.
Wauters, E"mile (b. 1846), Belgian artist,
his subjects being chiefly historical ; painted
in 1881 the panorama Cairo and the Banks of
Way, Albert (*. 1805, d. 1875), antiquary,
founder of the Archaeological Institute,
whose Journal he edited for many years.
Way, Hon. Samuel James (b. 1836), Aus-
tralian statesman ; was appointed attorney-
general of South Australia in 1875, chief
justice in 18/6, and in 1890 lieutenant-
governor. He directed the government of
the colony in 1877-79, in 1883, and 1889.
Waynflete, William (d. 1486), ecclesiastical
statesman ; after being the first head of
Eton College and master of Winchester,
became Bishop of Winchester in 1447, and
was for four years (1456-60) Lord Chancellor.
He was the founder of Magdalen College,
Oxford.
Webbe, Samuel (b. 1740, d. 1816), English
musician, originally a cabinet-maker, com-
posed many glees and part-songs.
Weber, Karl Maria von (b. 1786, d. 1826),
German composer, came of a musical family,
and was connected with Mozart, being also
a pupil of Michael Haydn, and husband of
Caroline Brand. He was named theatrical
director at Prague in 1813, and four years
later became conductor of German opera
at Dresden, and superintended the produc-
tion of Oberon at Covent Garden shortly
before his death. His greatest works were
the operas Der Freischutz (1821) and JEury-
anthe (1823), the Jubilee Overture (1818),
and settings of national airs.
Webster, Augusta (n^Daviss), poet, her
early works appearing over the signature
" Cecil Howe," but her chief poems, A
Woman Sold (1867), TJie Auspicious Day.
I** a Day, and other dramas were published
leader her own name. She was a member of
the London School Board for several years.
Webster, Benjamin (b. 1800, d. 1882),
actor and manager; became lessee of the
Haymarket in 1829, and produced some of
the best contemporary plays which were
interpreted by Macready and the best
players of the day. Of his own parts
Triplet (Masks and Faces) and Robert
Landry (The Dead Heart} were among the
best. He afterwards held the management
of the Adelphi and other houses, where his
One Touch of Nature was produced in 1859.
Webster, Daniel (b. 1782, d. 1852), Ameri-
can statesman; entered Congress in 1812,
took an active part in the debates concerning
the war with England, and in 1818 distin-
guished himself as an advocate in the Dart-
mouth College case. He made notable
orations on the bi-centenary celebration of
the landing of the Pilgrim Fathers and on
other anniversaries, and was secretary of
state under Harrison (1840-43),' and again
held that office from 1850 till his death,
being a prominent Whig leader.
Web
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Webster, John (17th century), English
dramatist, whose chief plays were The White
Devil, The Duchess of Malfi (1616), and
Appius and Virginia.
Webster, Noah (b. 1758, d. 1843), Ameri-
can lexicographer; author of a Dictionary
of the English Language (1806), American
Dictionary , etc.
Webster, Sir Eichard (b. 1842), Charter-
house and Trinity College, English lawyer ;
became Queen's Counsel in 1878, was
Attorney- General 1885-86, and again in
Lord Salisbury's second ministry. He led
the case for the Times against the Irish
members in 1888-89.
Webster, Thomas, R.A. (b. 1800, d. 1886),
English artist, best known by his popular
pictures — The Smile, The Frown, and The
£oy with Many Friends (exhibited 1841).
Wedgwood, Josiah (b. 1730, d. 1795),
potter ; set up at Burslem in 1759, and seven
years later founded the village of Etruria,
at the same time opening a branch in
London. He made a large fortune, his
greatest work being the imitation of the
Barberini (Portland) vase in 1790.
Wedmore, Frederick (b. 1844), writer on
art, his chief works being Studies in English
Art, Masters of Genre Fainting (1880), and
a Life of Balzac. He made known in Eng-
land the works of Meryon the etcher.
Weekes, Henry, B.A. (b. 1807, d. 1877),
English sculptor, among his best productions
being America in the Albert Memorial, and
busts of Queen Victoria after her accession,
and of Dean Buckland in the National
Portrait Gallery, London.
Weenix, Jan, "the Elder" (*. 1621, d.
1660), Dutch painter, excelled in the paint-
ing of birds.
Weenix, Jan, "the Younger" (b. 1640, d.
1719), son of the above. His speciality
was hunting pieces and pictures of dead
game.
Weever, John (d. circa 1662), antiquary,
author of Ancient Funeral Monuments in
Great Britain and Ireland.
Weir, Harrison William (b. 1824), artist
and writer on natural history, his chief
books being The Poetry of Nature and
Animal Stories, Old and New, his pictures
dealing with similar subjects, besides illus-
trations of popular publications.
Weishaupt, Adam (b. 1748, d. 1830),
founded in 1776 the order of the "Ulu-
minati," in order to combat the influence
of the Jesuits, but this, as a secret society,
was looked upon with disfavour by the
German princes.
\7eisse, Christian Felix (b. 1726, d. 1804),
German writer, friend of Less ing, and
author of Der Kinder -Freund.
Weld, Charles Robert (b. 1818, d. 1869),
miscellaneous writer, his chief work being
his History of the Royal Society. He was a
friend of Sir John Franklin, whose expe-
ditions he assisted to organise.
Weldon,John (d. 173 6), English composer,
pupil of Purcell and organist of the Chapel
Royal ; composed many anthems and songs.
Welldon, James Cowell (b. 1854), scholar ;
after a distinguished course at Cambridge,
became head-master of Dulwich in 1883,
and of Harrow in 1885. He published a
translation of Aristotle's Politics.
Wellesley, Richard Colley, Marquis (b.
1760, d. 1842), statesman, elder brother of the
Duke of Wellington ; succeeded to the Irish
title of Earl of Mornington on the death of
his father, and in 1785 entered the English
House of Commons. In 1797 he became a
British peer, and was named Governor-
General of India, a post which he held till
1805. He was created marquis in 1799. On
his return he joined the Canningites, and in
1809 was sent as ambassador to Madrid to
support his brother, and in the same year
became Foreign Secretary, holding office for
about two years. On the death of Perceval
he was invited to take office, but was unable,
and for the next ten years supported Catholic
Emancipation with the Whigs. From 1821
to 1828 he was Lord -Lieutenant of Ireland,
and again in 1833-34. He retired from
public life in 1835.
Wellington, Arthur Wellesley [Wesley],
Duke of (b. 1769, d. 1852), was educated at
Eton and the Military Academy of Angers,
and entered the army in 1787. As lieutenant-
colonel he served in Holland (1794), and in
1797 was sent to India. In 1799, under
General Harris, he stormed Seringapatam,
defeated the Mahrattas at Assaye in 1803,
and returned home two years later. After
serving at Copenhagen (1806), and sitting
in Parliament for two years (being Irish
Secretary in 1807), he was sent to Portugal
in 1808. Having won the victories of RoKca
and Vimiera, he was superseded, but in
1809 was again in the Peninsula. He
was made a peer for the victory of Talavera,
and won the battle of Busaco in 1810, after
which he constructed the lines of Torres
Vedras. This was followed by Fuentes d'
Oftoro (1811), the capture of Ciudad Rodrigo
and Badajpz (1812), and the victory of
Salamanca in the same year. He was now
created marquis, and after the battle of
Vittoria drove the French across the
Pyrenees. After being made field-marshal
and duke, he attended the Congress of
Vienna, which he left to meet Napoleon at
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Waterloo. In 1827 he became Commander-
in-chief, and in 1828 was for the first time
Premier. After yielding 011 the Catholic
question, he resigned in 1830 on that of
reform, incurring great unpopularity. In
1831 he again held office, but resigned next
year, and in 1841 joined the Cabinet of Sir
K. Peel. He attended the House of Lords
to the last, and received a state funeral at
St. Paul's Cathedral.
Wells, Charles Jeremiah (b. 1800, d. 1879),
poet and friend of Keats ; published the
drama Joseph and his Brethren in 1822, but
is said to have destroyed most of his work,
which was highly praised by Hazlitt and
Swinburne among others. He left England
in 1840, and died in France.
Wells, Charles William (b. 1757, d. 1817),
natural philosopher and physician to St.
Thomas's Hospital; published in 1814 his
Essay on Dew, which was reprinted in
1866.
Wells, Henry Tanworth, B.A. (b. 1828),
artist ; made his reputation as a miniaturist,
among his best efforts being Victoria Regina
(1880) and Friends at Tewden (1882).
Wells, Sir Thomas Spencer, Bart., M.D.
(b. 1818), surgeon; served in the Crimean
war, in the Smyrna and Rankoi hospitals,
and on his return made a speciality of gynaa-
cology. In 1883, in which year he was
president of the Royal College of Surgeons,
he received a baronetcy.
Welsh, John (d. 1622), Presbyterian
divine ; resisted the church policy of James
I. in Scotland, and in 1606 was exiled for
high treason to France. He married a
daughter of John Knox.
Wemyss, Bight Hon. Francis Charteris,
Earl of (b. 1818), politician ; represented
East Gloucestershire 1841-46, and Had-
dingtonshire (1847-82) as Lord Elcho. He
was a lord of the Treasury 1853-54, and
was an active supporter of the Volunteer
movement, and an opponent of State inter-
ference.
Wenceslaus, King of Bohemia and Em-
peror (b. 1361, d. 1419), ruled with great
cruelty, cancelling debts due to the Jews.
He was deposed from the empire in 1400,
but retained the Bohemian crown.
^ Wendover, Roger of (d. 1237), monk of
St. Alban's ; author of Plores Historiarum,
which was translated by Dr. Giles (Bonn's
Antiquarian Library).
Wensleydale, James Parke, Baron (b.
1782, d. 1868), became a judge of the Court
of King's Bench in 1828, and was trans-
ferred to the Exchequer six years later. In
185Q he was created a life peer, but his
right to sit in the House of Lords was dis-
puted.
Wentwortn. [See Strafford.]
Werner, Abraham (b. 1750, d. 1817),
German geologist, of great authority till the
days of Lyell, his great work being JVtftr
Theory on the Formation of Mineral Veins.
Werner, Friedrich Zacharias (b. 1768, d.
1823), inad German dramatist, patronised by
Schlegel and Madame de Stael. His chief
works were Lie Sohne dea Thais (1803), and
The Twenty-fourth of February (1815). He
divorced three wives, and in 1814 became a
Roman priest.
Wesley, Charles (*. 1708, d. 1788), divine,
younger brother or John Wesley (q.v.), is
chiefly remembered by his hymns.
Wesley, John (b. 1703, d. 1791), founder
of the Wesleyan " Methodists," a name
given to him while at Oxford in 1730 from
his strict observances. From 1735 to 1737
he was in Georgia on a mission to the In-
dians, and soon after his return began
preaching and organising a religious move-
ment. He at first acted with Whitefield and
the Moravians, but differences afterwards
arose between them.
Wesley, Samuel (b. 1766, d. 1837), com-
poser, nephew of the above ; was a brilliant
organist from childhood, possessing great
facility in extempore playing. His anthem
Blessed be the God and Father is, perhaps,
his best-known work.
West, Benjamin (b. 1738, d. 1820), painter ;
became president of the Royal Academy in
1792. Among his pictures are Orestes and
Pylades (now in the National Gallery, Lon-
don) The Death of Wolfe, and Death on the
Pale Horse.
Westbury, Richard Bethell, Lord (*. 1800,
d. 1873), lawyer; took silk in 1840, entered
Parliament in 1851, and soon after became
Solicitor - General. As Attorney - General
(1856 and 1859) he framed the Probate and
Divorce and Fraudulent Trustees Acts, and
was Lord Chancellor from 1861 to 1865.
Westcott, Brooke Foss, D.D. (b. 1825),
theologian ; after a brilliant course at Cam-
bridge, became fellow of Trinity in 1849,
Canon of Peterborough in 1869, and Regius
professor of divinity in 1870. In 1890 he was
consecrated Bishop of Durham. His chief
works are A General Survey of the History
of the Canon of the New Testament in the First
Four Centuries, and Introduction to the Study
of the Gospels.
Westmacott, Sir Richard, R.A. (b. 1775, d.
1856), sculptor ; was knighted in 1837, nil
chief productions being the statues of
Wes
(727)
Whi
Addison, Pitt, Fox, and Perceval, in West-
minster Abbey, of Lord W. Bentinck at
Calcutta, and the pediment of the British
Museum.
Westmacott, Richard, R.A. (b. 1799, d.
1872), son of the above ; besides executing
several busts and statues, and the pediment
of the Royal Exchange, wrote A Handbook
of Sculpture, Ancient and Modern (1864).
Westwood, John Obadiah, F.L.S. (b.
1805), entomologist; held from 1861 the
professorship of zoology at Oxford, and
published Entomologist's Text-Book, in addi-
tion to numerous monographs.
Wharncliffe, James Wortley Mackenzie,
Lord (b. 1776, d. 1845), politician; moved a
resolution in the Commons in 1812 for "a
strong and efficient ministry," and when
raised to the peerage, was the leading Tory
who supported the Reform Bill. He held
offices in 1834 and 1841 under Peel, but
was opposed to free trade.
Wharton, Thomas, Marquis of (b. 1640,
d. 1715), was a leading Whig politician
under William HI. and his successors, and
was Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland for two
ears under Anne. He is said to have
n the author of Lillibullero. His son
. 1698, d. 1731), after an intrigue with the
Pretender, was created duke by George I.
Whately, Richard, D.D. (b. 1787, d. 1863),
divine ; after having been principal of Alban
Hall and professor of political economy at
Oxford, was named Archbishop of Dublin
in 1831. He published Elements of Logic
(1826), and other works, and his religious
views were broad.
Wheatley, Henry Benjamin (b. 1838),
bibliophile, author of What is an Index ?
Sow to Form a Library, and editor of
WraxaWs Memoirs.
Wneaton, Henry (b. 1785, d. 1848), Ameri-
can jurist, reporter of the Supreme Court
of the United States, and subsequently
ambassador in Prussia and professor of
international law at Harvard ; published
Elements of International Laio (1836),
and several works on similar subjects.
Wneatstone, Sir Charles, F.R.S. (b. 1802,
d. 1875), English physicist; took out in 1837
a joint patent with Sir W. F. Cooke for the
first telegraphic instrument ; had a share in
the invention of the stereoscope, and devised
an automatic telegraph and various other
instruments. He twice received the Royal
medal at the Royal Society, and in 1848 won
the Copley medal.
Wheeler, Sir Hugh (*. 1789, d. 1857),
British officer ; was in command of the
Cawnpore district on the outbreak of the
Indian Mutiny, and after a. resistance of
three weeks, was massacred by Nana Sahib
with whom he had concluded an armistice.
Whewell, William, D.D. (b. 1794, d. 1866),
philosophical writer ; was son of a carpenter,
but having been sent to Cambridge was
second wrangler in 1816, became professor
of mineralogy in 1S28, of moral theology
ten years later, and in 1841 master of
Trinity, being the same year president of
the British Association. His chief works
are History of the Inductive Sciences (1837),
Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, repub-
lished as History of Scientific Ideas (1858-61),
and an edition of Grotius.
Whistler, James McNeiU (b. 1835), etcher
and painter of American birth, came to
Europe in 1857, and settled in England soon
after. Among his paintings are portraits
of Carlyle, of his own mother (purchased
by the French government) and of Sarasate.
He was elected in 1886 president of the
Society of British Artists. His etchings are
very numerous and excellent. His lectures
and books have created some stir.
Whiston, William (b. 1667, d. 1752),
mathematician; was elected professor of
mathematics at Cambridge in 1703, but
deprived some years later on account of
his religious opinions, and finally became
a Baptist. Is chiefly remembered as the
translator of Josephus.
WMtbread, Samuel (b. 1758, <?._1815),Whig
politician; entered Parliament in 1790, be-
came intimate with Fox, and in 1805 con-
ducted the attack on Lord Melville. His
marriage with a daughter of Earl Grey
increased his influence, but he ultimately,
in an attack of insanity, put an end to his
life.
White, Andrew Dickson (b. 1832), Ameri-
can educationist ; was chosen first presi-
dent of Cornell University in 1867, in which
institution he endowed a school of history
and political science, giving to it his own
library. He was American minister in
Germany 1879-81, and published European
Schools of History and .Polities (1887), and
other works.
White, Gilbert (b. 1720, d. 1793), natural-
ist, author of Natural History of Selborne
(Hants), first published in 1789, was for
some time fellow of Oriel College, Oxford.
White, Henry Kirke (b. 1785, d. 1806),
poet, born of poor parents at N ottingham ;
was sent to Cambridge, where he killed
himself by over-reading. His Remains were
edited by Southey.
White, Joseph Blanco (b. 1775, d. 1841),
theological and general writer ; of Spanish
origin ; left the Roman Church for the
Wlii
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Wig
Anglican, but ultimately became a Uni-
tarian. He enjoyed the friendship of Col-
eridge, Newman, Mill, and Whately, the
last of whom published his Life and Corre-
spondence (1866). His autobiography was
edited by J. H. Thorns in 1845.
White, Sir Thomas (b. 1492, d. 1566),
founder of St. John's College, Oxford ; was
Lord Mayor during Wyatt's rebellion.
White, Sir William Arthur (b. 1824, d.
1891), English diplomatist; went to Servia
in 1875 as consul-general and was sum-
moned to the Constantinople Conference
1876-7. Having been appointed envoy at
Bucharest, he conducted the negotiations
relating to Servia and Bulgaria in 1885,
and next year was appointed ambassador
at Constantinople.
White, William Henry, F.R.S. (b. 1845),
became director of naval construction in
1885, being thus responsible for all the
new ships which were ordered to be built
at that time. He published A Manual of
Naval Architecture, which has been adopted
officially in Germany and Italy as well as at
home.
Whitefleld, George (b. 1714, d. 1770),
preacher; joined the Wesley s at Oxford,
and afterwards went to Georgia, on his
return from which he began his field-
preaching. In 1748 he became chaplain
to the Countess of Huntingdon, and died
in New England, which he had visited for
the seventh time.
Whitehead, Charles (b. 1804, d. 1862),
poet and novelist, author of Autobiography
of Jack Ketch, Richard Savage (1842), The
Solitary, and other poems.
Whitelock, Bulstrode (b. 1605, d. 1676),
statesman; took an active part in the pro-
ceedings of the Long Parliament, but
opposed the trial of the king. He was
much trusted by Cromwell in spite of
frequent disagreements, but is now chiefly
known by his Memorials of the English
Affairs.
Whitgift, John (b. 1530, d. 1604), divine ;
having held many important offices at
Cambridge, became Bishop of Worcester in
1577, and in 1583 Archbishop of Canter-
bury, in which office he sternly enforced
uniformity.
Whitman, Walt (b. 1819, d. 1892), Ameri-
can poet; was in his early years a printer
and journalist, and for some years built
houses in Brooklyn. In 1854 he began to
write, and next year the first issue of Leaves
of Grass appeared, but it was long before
they obtained any sale, and were even
threatened with suppression. In 1862 the
poet went to the seat of war, where he
devoted himself to the care of the wounded,
and held for some years government clerk-
ships. In 1883 a final Leaves of Grass waa
published at Philadelphia as well as Sped'
men Days and Collect, prose writings.
Whittier, John Greenleaf (b. 1807), Ameri-
can poet, of Quaker parentage ; was in early
life a farmer's boy and shoemaker's assistant,
and then became a journalist. In 1836 he
became a secretary of the Anti-Slavery
Society, and published many lyrics in the
Pennsylvania freeman. Among his chief
works are Legends of New England, Songs
of Labour, Rational Lyrics, Snow -Bound
(1866), ballads of New England (1870).
Whittington, Sir Richard (/. 1400), waa
Lord Mayor in 1397, 1406, and 1419; was
a mercer by trade, and lent large sums to
Henry IV. and his son. He had a share in
the rebuilding of the nave at Westminster,
and left his fortune to the community.
Whitworth, Charles, Earl (b. 1754, d.
1825), diplomatist, son of the author of
An Account of Russia ; was, like his father,
ambassador for several years in Russia, but
is best remembered by his interview with
Napoleon in 1802 when ambassador at Paris.
He was made viceroy of Ireland in 1814.
Whitworth, Sir Joseph, Bart. (b. 1803,
d. 1887), mechanician ; invented, when at
Manchester, the true plane, and applied to
steel the process known by his name. He
founded the Whitworth scholarships for the
promotion of mechanics and engineering.
Whyte Melville. [See Melville.]
Wickliffe. [See Wycliffe.]
Wieland, Christoph (b. 1733, d. 181 3J,
German poet, author of Oberon (1780),
Musarion, and other poems, his chief prose
work being Geschichte der Abderiten. He
translated Lucian and Cicero's Letters, and
produced the first German version of Shake-
speare.
Wier, Johann (b. 1515, d. 1588), Flemish
physician, author of De Prcestigiis D<zmo~
num et Incantationibus et Veneficiis (1564^,
the first great attack npon the belief in
witchcraft.
Wiertz, Antoine (b. 1806, d. 1865), Bel-
gian painter, specimens of whose work were
ratroclus, Christ in the Tomb, and Satan and
Eve. He wrote also an £loge de Rubens.
Wiffen, Jeremiah (b. 1792, d. 1836), Quaker
poet, best known for his translation of Tasso.
His brother, BENJAMIN (d. 1867), discovered
and translated the Alfabeto Christiano of
Valdes, of whom he also wrote a life.
Wigan, Alfred (b. 1814, d. 1878), actor,
Wil
(729)
Wil
played with success in Still Waters Run
Deep, The Bengal Tiger, etc., and was
manager of the St. James's for three years
( 1 8(30 - 3) . He married LEONOEA PINCOTT (d.
1884).
Wilberforce, Ernest (b. 1840), son of the
Bishop of Winchester, became Canon of
Winchester in 1878, and first Bishop of
Newcastle in 1882.
Wilberforce, Samuel, D.D. (b. 1805, d.
1873), was third son of W. Wilberforce,
and an active High Church leader, who
became Bishop of Oxford in 1845, and of
Winchester in 1869. He was an able speaker
in the House of Lords, and had much social
influence.
Wilberforce, William (b. 1759, d. 1833),
philanthropist, entered Parliament in i780,
and seven years later entered upon the
movement against the slave trade, his
abolition motion in 1789 gaining the support
of the leaders of every party in the House,
though it was not carried for fifteen years.
Just before his death slavery itself was
abolished in the British dominions.
Wilde, Henry, F.R.S. (b. 1833), made
several discoveries in electricity ; constructed
the "dynamo" in 1865, and succeeded in
applying his inventions to the search-light
now used in the navy. He was the first to
call himself by the name "electrical en-
gineer."
Wilde, Oscar (b. 1856), poet and art-critic,
son of the next, gained much distinction at
3)ublin and Oxford, and in 1879 took a
g 'eminent part in the aesthetic movement,
e published some poems in 1880, delivered
art-lectures in America next year, and after-
wards wrote Vera and Lady Windermere1 s
Tan (plajrs), Dorian Gray (a novel), and
many critical articles.
Wilde, Sir William Wills (*. 1796, d.
1869), Irish physician, author of Practical
Observations on Aural Surgery (1853), and of
a Memoir of Beranger, finished by his wife
(nee Elgee). who, under the pseudonym
" Speranza, published poems and transla-
tions.
Wilfred, Saint (b. 634, d. 709), having re-
turned from a visit to Rome, took a leading
part in the Synod of Whitby, which adopted
Roman views on the subject of Easter and
other questions. He was then made Arch-
bishop of York, but was soon deprived,
being reinstated in 667. Twice subsequently
he was deposed, but reinstated on appeal to
the Pope.
Wilhelmina, HelSne Pauline Marie, Queen
of the Netherlands, was born in 1880, and
succeeded to the crown, under her mother's
regency, in 1890.
Wilkes, Charles (*. 1801, d. 1877), American
naval officer ; discovered several islands in
Antarctic region, and in 1861 caused a dis-
pute with Great Britain by his seizure of
Confederate commissioners on the Trent t a
British vessel.
Wilkes, John (*. 1727, d. 1797), politician,
with whose name is connected the abolition
of general warrants (1762), the freedom of
constituencies in the choice of members,
and the right of reporting the debates of the
House of Commons. He was prosecuted for
his attack on the king in the North Briton
(No. 45), was outlawed, and excluded the
House till he had been four times re-elected
for Middlesex. The resolutions against him
were expunged in 1782.
Wilkie, Sir David (*. 1785, d. 1841),
Scotch painter, was elected R.A. in 1811,
and was knighted in 1836. Among his best-
known works are The Blind Fiddler, Chelsea
Pensioners Reading the Gazette of the Battle of
Waterloo, and some portraits. Several of bis
pictures are in the National Gallery, London.
Wilkins, Sir Charles (*. 1749, d. 1836),
Orientalist, employed in the Bengal Civil
Service ; published a Sanscrit grammar and
several translations.
Wilkins, David (b. 1685, d. 1745), Arch-
deacon of Suffolk, and author of Concilia
Magnae Britannice.
Wilkins, William (b. 1778, d. 1839), archi-
tect, designed, among other buildings, St.
George's Hospital and the National Gallery,
London.
Wilkinson, James John Garth (b. 1812),
medical writer and biographer of Sweden-
borg (1849), whose Animal Kingdom he
also translated ; published The Ministry of
Health, and many other works.
Wilks, Samuel, M.D., F.R.S. (*. 1824),
physician, author of Lectures on Diseases of
the Nervous System, was a member of two
commissions on the Contagious Diseases
Act (1868 and 1871), and filled the offices of
president of the Pathological Society, vice-
president of the Royal College of Phy-
sicians, etc.
Willan, Robert (*. 1757, d. 1812), phy-
sician, author of Description and Treatment
of Cutaneous Diseases.
Willaumez, Jean Philibert (b. 1763, d.
1845), French admiral, accompanied the
expedition in search of La Perouse, and sub-
sequently rendered important services in
attacking the English colonies, his breaking
of the blockade of the lie de France being a
brilliant exploit.
Wille, Johann Georg (b. 1715, d. 1806},
German engraver ; made a reputation by hu>
Wil
(730)
Wil
prints of Gerard Douw, Mieria, and other
artists.
Willerns, Jan Frans (b. 1792, d. 1846),
Dutch scholar, whose chief work was Dis-
sertation on the Dutch Language and Litera-
ture in Connection with the Southern Provinces
of the Netherlands (1819-24).
Willes, Sir James Shaw (b. 1814, d. 1876),
judge ; was chiefly instrumental in promot-
ing legislation for the reform of common law
procedure, was raised to the bench in 1855,
and committed suicide under stress of bad
health.
William of Malmesbuxy (d. 1143), Eng-
lish historian, author of De Gestis Regum
Anfflorum (449-1126), Historice Novella (a
continuation), and lives of Dunstan, St.
Patrick, and others.
William, "the Lion," King of Scotland
(d. 1214), came to the throne in 1165 ; took
fart in the rising of the sons of Henry II. in
173, and having been captured was com-
pelled to do homage for his kingdom, which
homage was redeemed by a payment to
Richard L
William of Orange. [See Orange.]
William L, "the Conqueror," King of
England and Duke of Normandy (b. 1027,
d. 1087), defeated Harold at Hastings in 1066,
and received the crown ; put down various
risings of the English and Normans, and
asserted his supremacy over Scotland in
1072, being also engaged in constant war
with France.
William II. (b. 1056, d. 1100), succeeded
his father in 1087, though not the eldest
son ; obtained the help of the English against
Robert, who was supported by many of the
nobles, and in 1096 acquired Normandy.
His reign was marked by the establishment
of feudalism and a quarrel with Anselm on
the Investiture question. The manner of
his death is uncertain.
William IIL (b. 1650, d. 1702), having
married Mary, daughter of James II., was
regarded as a Protestant reserve against the
latter, and in 1688 was called in to replace
him. He defeated James at the Boyne in
1690, obtained the acknowledgment of his
title from Louis XIV. by the Peace of
Ryswick (1697), but had prepared a grand
alliance to renew the war with him just
before he died, Louis having favoured the
of James Edward.
William IV. (b. 1765, d. 1837) succeeded
George IV. in 1830, having been admiral of
the fleet since 1801. He assisted the pass-
ing of the Reform Bill of 1832 by agreeing
to create peers should it be necessary.
William I., German Emperor and
of Prussia (b. 1797, d. 1888), came to the
Prussian throne in 1861, having been regent
since 1857 ; wrested the supremacy of Ger-
many from Austria by the war of 1866, and,
with the help of Bismarck and Moltke, de-
feated the French and took from them
Alsace-Lorraine (1870-71). The King of
Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor at
Versailles in January, 1871.
William II. (b. 1859), succeeded the Em-
peror Frederick in June, 1888, and took an
active personal part in the government of
the empire, having early brought about the
resignation of Bismarck. He married in
1881 the Duchess of Sleswig-Holstein-Son-
derburg - Augustenburg.
William L, King of the Netherlands (b.
1772, d. 1843), son of William IV., Prince
of Orange ; served against the French in
the revolutionary wars, was proclaimed
sovereign of Holland in 1813, and King of
the Netherlands in 1815, but by the revolu-
tion of 1830 Belgium separated from Hol-
land, of which country William remained
king till his abdication in 1840.
William IL (b. 1792, d. 1848) was edu-
cated in England, and served in the Pen-
insula campaigns, and was also present at
Waterloo, where he was wounded. He
was King of Holland from 1840 to 1848.
William III. (b. 1817, d. 1890) came to
the throne in 1849, and did much to develop
the resources of Holland and to reform the
finances.
Williams, Helen Maria (b. 1762, d. 1827),
English writer, author of Letters from
France, etc. ; was arrested and imprisoned
on the fall of the Girondins.
Williams, John (b. 1582, d. 1650), divine,
successively Dean of Westminster, Bishop
of Lincoln, and Archbishop of York (1641) ;
was Lord Keeper from 1621 till the death of
James I., but was imprisoned for four years
as the result of a Star Chamber prosecution
instituted by Laud, whose patron he had
been. He held Conway Castle for the king
during the war.
Williams, John (*. 1796, d. 1839), mis-
sionary, author of Narrative of Missionary
Enterprise in the South Seas, where he dis-
covered Raratonga and organised a govern-
ment. He was murdered by the natives at
Erromanga.
Williams, John (b. 1811, d. 1862), Welsh
scholar, author of Ecclesiastical Antiquities
of the Cymry, and editor of Annales Cam-
bria and other works in the Rolls series.
Williams, Roger (b. 1599, d. 1683), the foun-
der of Rhode Island; landed at Boston in
1631, and settled in Rhode Island five yean
Wil
(731)
Wil
later, for which, after a visit to England, he
obtainsd a charter in 1643.
Williams, Hon. Eoland Vaughan (b. 1838),
judge ; took silk in 1889, and was appointed
a judge of the Court of Queen's Bench in
1890.
Williams, Eowland (b. 1817, d. 1870)
divine, became professor of Hebrew and
vice-principal of Lampeter in 1850, but had
to resign in consequence of his contribution
to Essays and Reviews.
Williams, Samuel (b. 1788, d. 1853), wood-
engraver, founder of the modern school.
Williams, Sir William Fenwick (b. 1800, d.
1883), general; defended Kars from June
16 to November 30, 1855, against the
Eussians, but was compelled at last to
capitulate. He received a baronetcy and a
pension, and was afterwards commander of
the forces in Canada, governor of Gibraltar,
and constable of the Tower.
Williams, William Mattieu (b. 1820),
scientific writer, author of The Fuel of the
Sun, A Simple Treatise on Seat, etc.
Williamson, Alexander William, F.R.S.,
etc. (b. 1824), chemist ; for many years (till
1887) professor of chemistry at University
College ; was president of the British Asso-
ciation in 1873, and published, among other
works, Chemistry for Students, On the
Atomic Theory, and On a New Method of
Gas Analysis (with W. J. Russell).
Williamson, Benjamin, F.K.S. (*. 1827),
mathematician; author of Treatises on the
Differential and the Integral Calculus (1871
and 1872), was appointed in 1884 professor
of natural philosophy in Dublin University.
Williamson, William, F.R.S., etc. (b.
1816), biologist ; gained a reputation by the
publication in 1848 of Monographs on the
Minute Organisms of the Levant and. On the
Recent Foraminifera of Great Britain, and
in 1851 became the first professor of biology
and geology at Owens College. He after-
wards received the Royal medal of the
Royal Society for his memoirs on Organisa-
tion of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures.
Willibrod, Saint (d. 737), Northumbrian
monk ; evangelised Friesland, and was made
Bishop of Utrecht.
Willis.Browne (b. 1682, d. 1760), antiquary,
his chief work being Survey of the Cathedrals
of England.
Willis, Francis (d. 1807), physician ; while
in holy orders established a private lunatic
asylum in Lincolnshire, and afterwards
became known as the medical attendant of
George IH.
Willis, Nathaniel P. (b. 1807, d. 1867),
American writer; founded and edited Th«
American Monthly Magazine (afterwarda
The New York Mirror}, and wrote Pencilling t
by the Way, Inklings of Adventure, etc.
Willis, Rev. Robert, F.R.S. (b. 1800, d.
1875), mechanician and writer; was ap-
pointed in 1837 Jacksonian professor of
natural philosophy at Cambridge. He in-
vented the lyophone and the odontograph,
and wrote several works on architecture —
Remarks on the Architecture of the Middle
Ages and of Italy, etc.
Willis, Robert (b. 1799, d. 1878), medical
biographer; librarian to the College of
Surgeons, edited the works of Harvey, and
wrote his life, as well as those of Spinoza
and Servetus.
Willis, Thomas (b. 1621, d. 1675), anato-
mist, author of Cerebri Anatomet cui Accessit
Nervorutn Descriptio et Usus.
Wills, Sir Alfred (b. 1828), judge, be-
came Queen's Counsel in 1872; was ap-
pointed judge of the Queen's Bench in 1884,
and was president of the Railway Commis-
sion (1888).
Wills, William Gorman (b. 1828, d. 1891),
dramatist; author of The Man o' Air He,
Charles I., Eugene Aram, Olivia, and other
plays. He also wrote several novels, Mel-
chior, a poem, and a Life of Chantrey, and
had been in early lif e at Dublin a successful
portrait painter.
Wills, William John (b. 1834, d. 1861),
Australian explorer ; emigrated in 1852, and
in 1860 joined the expedition of Burke into
the interior of Australia, which traversed
the continent from Melbourne to the Gulf of
Carpentaria, but ended in the death of the
leaders.
Wilson, Alexander (b. 1766, d. 1813),
ornithologist ; was brought up as a weaver
at Paisley, but went to America in 1794, and
brought out, after years of travelling and
hard work, his American Ornithology.
Wilson, Sir Archdale, Bart., G.C.B. (b.
1803, d. 1874), British officer; was the first
to defeat the mutineers during the Sepoy
rising, and stormed Delhi on September 14,
1857, for which service he received a
baronetcy, and a pension from the East
India Company. He afterwards took part
in the capture of Lucknow.
Wilson, Sir Charles Rivers, K.C.M.G.
(b. 1831), administrator; was named comp-
troller-general of the National Debt Office
in 1874, and in 1878, after his report on
the resources of Egypt, was made minister
of finance in that country. In 1880 he
became president of the International
Wil
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Win
Commission for the Liquidation of the
Egyptian Debt.
Wilson, Sir Charles William, K.C.B.,
T.B.S. (b. 1836), British officer; served
in the Egyptian campaign of 1882-83, and
was head of the intelligence department in
the expedition for the relief of Gordon,
which he described in From Korti to Khar-
toum (1835). He also edited Picturesque
Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt (1880).
Wilson, Sir Daniel (b. 1816), philologist;
became president of Toronto University in
1881, and was author of Archeology and Pre-
historic Annals of Scotland, Prehistoric Man,
and other works.
Wilson, George (b. 1808, d. 1870), re-
former ; was elected chairman of the Anti-
Corn Law League in 1839, and received a
public testimonial on his retirement. He
was subsequently president of the National
Reform Union.
Wilson, Right Hon. James (b. 1805, d.
1860), politician ; began life as a hatter, but
subsequently founded and edited The Econo-
mist, and wrote several financial pamphlets.
Having entered Parliament, he became sec-
retary to the Board of Control, financial
secretary to the Treasury, vice-president of
the Board of Trade, and in 1859 financial
member of the Council of India.
Wilson, Sir James Erasmus (b. 1809, d.
1884), surgeon ; made an extensive study of
dermatology, and was a skilful operator,
writing several works on the subject. He
founded a chair of dermatology at the Col-
lege of Surgeons and of pathology at Aber-
deen, and he bore the cost of the passage of
Cleopatra's Needle to England.
Wilson, John [Christopher North] (b. 1785,
d. 1854), Scotch writer, friend of Words-
worth and his circle ; published some poems
before 1820, and in 1823 The Trials of Mar-
garet Lyndsay, but gained bis name chiefly
by his criticisms published in Blackwood' 's
Magazine (1822-35). He also obtained the
chair of moral philosophy at Edinburgh, on
his retirement from which he obtained a
Civil List pension.
Wilson, John, D.D. (*. 1804, d. 1875),
Orientalist ; went to Bombay as a missionary
in 1828, and became a great linguist. Among
bis works were The Parsi Jteligion, The
Lands of the Bible, and Indian Caste. His
son, ANDEEW WILSON (d. 1881), wrote With
the Ever- Victorious Army, an account of
Gordon in China.
Wilson, Richard (b. 1713, d. 1782), land-
scape painter, called the English Claude.
Several of his pictures, including Niobe, are
in the National Gallery, London. R. A. 1 768.
Wilson, Sir Robert (b. 1777, d. 1849),
general ; published an account of Aber-
cromby's campaign in Egypt, containing
charges of cruelty againbt Bonaparte at
Jaffa, and was attached to the allied armies
in the campaigns against Napoleon during
almost the whole of the war. He represented
Southwark from 1818 to 1831.
Wilson, Thomas (b. 1663, d. 1755), divine;
was made Bishop of the Isle of Man in 1697
by the Earl of Derby, to whom he had been
chaplain. He translated the Gospels into
Manx, and did much good. TTia works were
published in 1780.
Winchester, William Paulet, Marquis of
(d. 1572), statesman; was made marquis by
Edward VI., and became lord high treasurer
in 1551, holding that office also under Mary
and Elizabeth. He built Basing House.
Winckelmann, Johann Joachim (b. 1717,
d. 1768), German writer on art, friend of
Mengs, his chief work being Geschichte der
Kunst des Alter thuins. He was assassinated
at Trieste, on his way from Vienna to
Italy.
Windham, Sir Charles Ash (b. 1810, d,
1870), English general; commanded at In-
kermann after the fall of Cathcart, and
distinguished himself in the attack on the
Redan, while he also served in the Indian
Mutiny.
Windham, William (b. 1750, d. 1810),
statesman ; was elected for Norwich as a
Whig in 1783, was Secretary -at -War under
Pitt for seven years, after which he remained
in opposition till 1806, when in the " Ministry
of All the Talents " he resumed his former
office. His portrait by Reynolds is in the
National Gallery, London.
Windhorst, Ludwig (b. 1812, d. 1891),
German politician ; was minister of justice in
Hanover, and by his Austrian policy contri-
buted to its annexation by Prussia, after which
he was returned to the Prussian Chamber,
and ultimately became leader of the Ultra-
montane party in the German Reichstag.
WindiscGgratz, Alfred, Prince (b. 1787, d.
1862), Austrian field - marshal ; suppressed
the Slav movement at Prague in 1848, his
wife being shot by the insurgents, and in the
same year captured Vienna from the revo-
lutionists.
Winmarleigh.Lord [John Wilson-Patten]
(b. 1802, d. 1892), statesman; entered Parli-
ament in 1830, represented Lancashire as a
Conservative from 1832 to 1868, and the
northern division till 1874, when he was
created a peer. He was Chairman of Com-
mittees (1852-53), Chancellor of the Duchy
of Lancaster (1867-68), and Irish Secretary
September-December, 1868.
Win
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Winslow, Forbes Benignus, M.D. (b. 1810,
d. 1874 j, physician ; made a speciality of
insanity, establishing two private asylums
and publishing several works on the subject
(Plea of Insanity in Criminal Canes, Obscure
JJiseases of the Brain, etc.)
Winslow, Jacques Bengne (b. 1669, d.
1760), Danish anatomist, author of Exposi-
tion Anatomique de la Structure du Corps
Humain, a work frequently translated.
Winslow, John Ancrum (b. 1811, d. 1873),
American naval officer ; when in command
of the Kearsarge sunk the Alabati^i off Cher-
bourg, June 19th, 1864.
Winstanley, Henry (d. 1703), built the
first j^ddystone lighthouse (begun in 1696),
and perished with it in a great storm.
Wint, Peter de (b. 1784, d. 1849), English
water-colour painter of the old school, whose
scenes were generally taken from the vicinity
of Lincoln.
Winter, Jan Willem de (b. 1750, d. 1812),
Dutch admiral; fled to France after the
defeat of the Burgher party, and served in
the French army, but returned in 1795 ; was
made vice-admiral, and was defeated by
Duncan off Texel in 1797.
Winther, Rasmus Ferdinand (b. 1796,
d. 1876), Danish poet, author of Traesnit
(Woodcut*) and other lyrics; received a
pension as state-poet in 1851.
Winwood, Sir Ralph (d. 1617), statesman
and diplomatist; was Secretary of State
from 1614 till his death, and left Memorials
of Affairs of State in the Reigns of Queen
Elizabeth and James I.
Wiseman, Nicholas Patrick (*. 1802, d.
1865), Romanist diviuo, born in Spain, but
educated in England ; was named cardinal
and Archbishop of Westminster in 1850,
and was the author of several theological
works.
Wishart, George (d. 1546), Scottish re-
former and friend of Knox; was, on his
return to Scotland, burnt for heresy, having
probably been concerned in plots against
Cardinal Beaton's life.
Wishart, George (b. 1602, d. 1671), Scotch
writer, chaplain to Montrose, a Latin history
of whose campaigns he wrote; was after-
wards Bishop of Edinburgh.
Wither, George (b. 1588, d. 1667), satirist
and poet ; author of Abuses Stript and
Whipt, Hymns and Songs of the Church,
and Britain* 's Remembrances, an account in
verse of the Plague, during which he did
good service. He took the side of the Par-
liament in the war, and was imprisoned at
the Restoration.
Witherington, William, R.A. (d. 1865).
landscape painter, whose Hop -Garden ana
Stepping Stones are in the National Gallery,
London.
Witt, Henriette Guizot de (*. 1829),
French writer, daughter of Guizot; edited
several of her father's works, and wrote
Conies d'une Mere d ses Petits Enfants, etc.
Witt, John de (b. 1625, d. 1672), Dutch
statesman ; became grand pensionary of
Holland in 1653, and conducted the second
war with England. He obtained the aboli-
tion of the office of stadtholder, which,
however, was regained by the Orange
family in 1672, when the French invaded
the country, and De Witt and his brother
Cornelius were murdered.
Wittgenstein, Prinz von (b. 1769, d. 1843),
Ruasian field-marshal ; distinguished him-
self in 1812 against the French, commanded
the Russian and Prussian forces in the
campaign of 1813, and held commands in
the following years.
WofSngton, Margaret (b. 1718, d. 1760),
actress, friend of Garrick ; was distinguished
in comedy, her Sylvia in the Recruiting
Officer being one of her best parts.
Wohler, Friedrich (b. 1800, d. 1882), Ger-
man chemist, professor of medicine at Gdt-
tingen ; wrote a treatise on chemistry, and
achieved the isolation of aluminium.
Wonlgemuth, Michael (b. 1484, d. 1519),
German painter and engraver, master and
friend of Diirer, whose portrait (now at
Munich) he painted.
Wolcot, John, "Peter Pindar" (b. 1738,
d. 1819), satirist, physician, and clergyman,
author of Lyric Odes (against the Acade-
micians), Peeps at St. James's and the
Louisiad.
Wolf, Christian Friedrich August (b. 1759,
d. 1824), German critic, pupil of Heyne, with
whom he carried on a controversy on the
subject of the authorship of the Homeric
Poems. The Prolegomena ad Homerum (1795)
was the first attack on the single authorship
of the Iliad and Odyssey respectively. He
was professor of philosophy at Halle from
1783 to 1807, and afterwards at Berlin.
Wolfe, Charles (b. 1791, d. 1823), Irish
divine and poet, author of The Burial of
Sir John Moore, etc.
Wolfe, James (b. 1726, d. 1759), British
general ; after serving with distinction in
the Austrian Succession war, in the expedi-
tion against Rpchefort (1757), and under
Lord Amherst in North America, was ap-
pointed to the command of the force sent
against Quebec, which he took, but fell in
Wol
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Woo
the battle. There is a monument to him
in Westminster Abbey, and his portrait ia
in the National Portrait Gallery, London.
Wolff, Joseph, D.D. (b. 1795, d. 1862),
German traveller and missionary, born a
Jew ; entered the Roman Church in 1812,
but came to London in 1819, and soon be-
came an Anglican. He went on two missions
to the Jews, travelling through Egypt, Pales-
tine, Cyprus, Persia, and Armenia on his first
journey (1821-26), and on his second visiting
Bokhara and India in addition. After a
third journey, in the course of which he
visited the United States and was ordained,
he set out for Bokhara in 1843 in search of
Stoddart and Conolly, returning two years
later. His Travels and Adventures appeared
in 1860-61.
Wolff, Sir H. Drummond, G.C.B., etc.
(b. 1830), diplomatist, son of the above;
entered the Foreign Office in 1846, and was
secretary to the government of the Ionian
Islands from 1857 to 1864. He entered
Parliament as a Conservative ten years later,
and in the Parliament of 1880 was a member
of the Fourth Party. In 1885 (when he be-
came a Privy Councillor) he was sent on a
special mission to the Sultan, and after being
engaged in the reorganisation of Egypt, was
named envoy to Persia in 1887. In 1892 he
became ambassador at Madrid.
Wollaston, William Hyde (b. 1766, d.
1828), chemist; gained the gold medal of
the Royal Society for his discovery of the
malleability of platinum.
Wollstonecraft, Mary (b. 1759, d. 1797),
author of Vindication of the Rights of Women;
was married to William Godwin just before
her death, their daughter MAEY, author of
Frankenstein, etc., becoming the wife of
Shelley.
Wolseley, Garnet Joseph, Viscount, G. C.B.,
etc. (b. 1833), general, born near Dublin;
entered the army in 1850, was wounded in
the Burmese war, and served in the Crimean
campaign, and in the Indian Mutiny. He
became major-general in 1868, and after
commanding the Red River expedition
(1870) was knighted. In 1873-74 he con-
ducted the campaign against the King of
the Ashantis, lor which he received a
grant of £25,000 and other honours. In
1878 he became high commissioner of Cyprus,
and next year was sent to complete the Zulu
war. After being quarter-master-general
(1880-82) he planned and carried out the
defeat of Arabi Pasha, after which he was
raised to the peerage. In 1882 he became
adjutant-general, and advocated the short
service system, and in 1884-85 commanded
the force sent against the Mahdi for the
relief of Gordon, on his return from which
he was created viscount. He was appointed
Commander-in-chief in Ireland 1891. He
has published several military handbooks.
Wolsey, Thomas (b. 1471, d. 1530), eccle-
siastical statesman ; was employed diplo-
matically by Henry VII., and made Dean of
Lincoln, becoming in the next reign suc-
cessively Dean of York, Bishop of Lincoln,
and Archbishop of York, while holding at
the same time the sees of Bath and Wells,
Durham, and Winchester. He became also
Chancellor (1565), cardinal, and papal legate,
and aimed at being pope. His overthrow,
in 1529, was caused by the jealousy of the
great nobles and his disagreement with the
king on the divorce question. He founded
Christ Church (Cardinal College), Oxford,
where there is a portrait of him by Holbein,
and built a palace at Hampton Court.
Wood, Anthony (b. 1632, d. 1695), anti-
quary; author of History and Antiquitict
of Oxford and Athena Oxonienses (1691).
Wood, Sir Charles [Lord Halifax] (6.
1800, d. 1885), statesman ; entered Parlia-
ment in 1875, and represented Halifax as
a Whig for tliirty-two years (from 1832).
After holding a subordinate office under
Lord Melbourne, he was made Chancellor
of the Exchequer by Russell in 1846, and
held office till 1852. He afterwards served
under Lord Aberdeen and Palmerston, being
First Lord of the Admiralty 1855-58, and
Secretary for India 1859-66, when he re-
signed with a peerage. He was Lord Privy
Seal from 1870 to 1874.
Wood, Ellen [Mrs. Henry] (b. circa 1820,
d. 1887), novelist; author of East Lynne
(1861), The Channings, Johnnie Lttdlow, and
numerous other stories.
Wood, Sir Henry Evelyn, K.C.B., V.C.,
etc. (b. 1838), general; served in the naval
brigade in the early part of the Crimean
war, but in 1855 entered the army, and
gained the Victoria Cross and much dis-
tinction during the Mutiny. He served in
the Ashanti war, won the battle of Ulundi
in the Zulu campaign, and was second-in-
command in the Boer war. He served also
in the Egyptian campaign of 1882, and
commanded the army of occupation till the
year 1885, when he received a post at home.
Wood, John (b. 1811, d. 1871), captain in
the Indian navy ; discovered the source of
the Oxus in 1838, an account of his Journey
appearing in 1842.
Wood, Rev. John George (b. 1827,6?. 1889),
popular naturalist ; author of Illustrated
Natural History, The Natural History of
Man, and numerous smaller works.
Wood, Mrs. John [nee Vining] (b. circa
1845), comedy actress; shortly after her
debut in England, became manageress of the
Woo
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Wor
Empire theatre, New York. In 1869 she
took the St. James's theatre, and appeared
in several burlesques. At the Haymarket
she played with great success in The Crisis
(1878) and The Overland Route (1882), and
afterwards at the Court theatre, of which
she became joint lessee in 1888.
Woodfall, William (d. 1803), printer of
the Public Advertiser, in which appeared
the Letters of Junius; was also the first
regular reporter of parliamentary debates.
Woodhull [See Martin.]
Woods, Sir Albert William (b. 1816),
entered the College of Arms in 1838, became
Lancaster Herald in 1841, and Garter-Kir ig-
at-Arms in 1869.
Woods, Henry, A.R.A. (b. 1847), painter,
whose pictures are chiefly Venetian studies ;
was one of the original staff of the Graphic.
Woodward, Henry, F.B.S., etc. (b. 1832),
geologist, son of SAMUEL WOODWABD, author
of Geology of Norfolk, and brother of Pro-
fessor S. P. WOODWARD, who wrote Manual
of Mollusca ; entered the natural history
department of the British Museum, in which
his brother was serving, and after many
services to geological science, became in
1880 keeper of the department of geology.
Woodward, John (b. 1665, d. 1728), ge-
ologist ; wrote A Natural History of the
Earth (1695), and founded a chair of geology
at Cambridge.
Woolett, William (b. 1735, d. 1785), en-
graver, his prints of West's Death of Wolfe
and Wilson's landscapes being especially
excellent.
Wopley, Celia Parker (b. 1848), American
novelist; author of Love and Theology
(Rachel Armstrong) and A Girl Graduate.
Woolner, Thomas, E.A. (6. 1825, d. 1892),
sculptor of the Pre-Raphaelite school ; gained
a name by his Death of Boadicea (exhibited
in Westminster Hall 1844) ; afterwards exe-
cuted statues and busts of Carlyle, Tenny-
son, Darwin, Gladstone, and other con-
temporaries, and also published some poems
(My Beautiful Lady, etc.) .
Woolston, Thomas (b. 1669, e<*. 1732),
theologian ; was prosecuted for his deistical
work, Six Discourses on Miracles.
Worcester, Edward Somerset, Marquis of
(d. 1667), inventor ; after suffering exile and
imprisonment for his services to Charles
I. during the war, devoted himself to
mechanics, and published in 1663 his Cen-
tury of Inventions, in which he anticipated
the invention of the steam-engine. In
1865 a book dealing with his life, and re-
printing his work, was published by Mr.
Dircks, C.E.
Worcester, Joseph Emerson (b. 1784, d.
1865), American lexicographer; compiled a
Dictionary of the English Language, which
appeared in 1860.
Worde, Wynkyn de (d. circa 1534), Eng-
lish printer; assisted Caxton, and after-
wards carried on his business, first making
use of title-pages. His Polychronicon (1495)
is esteemed his chef-d'oeuvre.
Wordsworth, Christopher, D.D. (b. 1807,
d. 1885) , divine, son of the master of Trinity
(d. 1846), and nephew of the poet ; after a
distinguished career at Cambridge, became
head-master of Harrow in 1836, Canon of
Westminster in 1844, and Bishop of Lincoln
in 1869. He was author of Athens and
Attica, Memoirs of W. Wordsworth (1851),
an edition of the Greek Testament (1856-60),
and many controversial and learned works.
Wordsworth, Charles (b. 1806), elder
brother of the preceding ; was distinguished
both as scholar and athlete at Oxford, and
having been second master at Winchester
and warden of Glenalmond, became Bishop
of St. Andrews in 1852. He was one of the
revisers of the New Testament, and, besides
other works, published an autobiography in
1891.
Wordsworth, John, D.D. (b. 1843), son
of the Bishop of Lincoln ; after having been
fellow and tutor of Brasenose, Oriel pro-
fessor of interpretation, and Bampton lec-
turer (1881) at Oxford, became Canon of
Rochester in 1883, and Bishop of Salisbury
in 1885. He published Fragments and Speci-
mens of Early Latin (187-*) among other
works, and was active in attempting union
with the Old Catholics.
Wordsworth, William (b. 1770, d. 1850),
poet, was born in Cumberland ; visited
France in the early years of the revolution
1790-91, and in the* following gained the
friendship of Coleridge by the publication
of his first poems, and went to live near him
in Somersetshire. The friends went on a
walking tour, the result of which was
Lyrical Ballads, published in 1798 at Bristol
After a tour in Germany, Wordsworth and
his sister lived at Grasmere till 1808, the
poet being married in 1802, and The Prelude
(begun hi 1799) being finished in 1805. In
1813 Wordsworth was named distributor of
stamps for Westmoreland, and henceforth
lived at Rydal Mount. The Excursion ap-
peared next year, and in 1815 The White
Doc ofBi/lstone was published. Other poems
followed, but the whol« fragment of The
Recluse was not published till 1888. In 1843
Wordsworth became poet-laureate.
Worlidge, Thomas (b. 1700, d. 1766),
painter and engraver, his etchings in the
manner of Rembrandt being peculiarly good.
Wor
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Wyk
Worms, Baron Henry de, P.C., F.R.S.
(b. 1840), statesman; entered Parliament as
a Conservative in 1880, held the office of
secretary to the Board of Trade in both
ministries of Lord Salisbury, until in 1888
he became under -secretary for the Colonies.
He was president of the International Con-
ference far the Abolition of the Sugar
Bounties, and published The Earth and its
Mechanism, an edition of Count Beusfs
Memoirs, and other works.
Wornum, Ralph Nicholson (b. 1812, d.
1877), writer on art; was appointed keeper
of the National Gallery in 1855. He wrote a
History of Painting, a Life of Holbein, and
other works.
Woronzov, Mikhail, Prince (b. 1782, d.
1856), Russian general, educated in Eng-
land ; was wounded at Borodino, com-
manded the cavalry at Leipzig (1813), and
as governor of the Caucasus crushed the
rising of Schamyl.
Worsley, Philip Stanhope (d. 1866), poet,
his chief work being his translation of
Homer into English verse.
Wouvermans, Philip (b. 1619, d. 1668),
Dutch painter of battle-pieces, landscapes
and hunting-scenes, many of which are in
the Dulwich gallery, London.
Wrangel, Friedrich, Graf von (b. 1784, d.
1877), Prussian field- marshal ; served in the
Napoleonic wars, and in 1864 commanded
the allied army against Denmark.
Wrangel, Karl Gustaf, Count (*. 1613, d.
1676), Swedish general and admiral, dis-
tinguished in the Thirty Years' war ; suc-
ceeded to the chief command of the army in
1645, and won the battle of Sommershausen
in 1648. In the Polish war he rendered
great service both as admiral and general.
Wraxall, Sir Nathaniel, Bart. (b. 1751, d.
1831), traveller and writer; visited all parts
of Europe, and entered Parliament in 1780.
He left several historical memoirs, the chief
of which is Historical Memoirs of my own
Time, for a libel in which on Count Woron-
zow he was fined and imprisoned. Pos-
thumous Memoirs appeared in 1836.
Wray, Robert Bateman (b. 1715, d. 1770),
engraver of gems, among his masterpieces
being a I)ying Cleopatra, a head of Medusa,
and heads of Milton.
Wren, Sir Christopher (b. 1632, d. 1723),
architect, son of Matthew Wren, Bishop
of Ely ; was elected to a professorship at
Gresham College in 1657, and three years
after at Oxford, and became president of
the Royal Society in 1680. His chief designs
were St. Paul's, Chelsea and Greenwich
hospitals, and the Monument.
Wright, Sir Robert Samuel, judge ; had
a very distinguished career at Oxford, was
called to the bar in I860, and after being
some years junior common law counsel to
the Treasury, was made a Justice of the
High Court in 1890.
Wright, Thomas (b. 1810, d. 1877), anti-
quary ; one of the founders of the Camden
Society and the original Shakespeare Society.
His ~hief works were History of Domestic
Manners in England in the Middle Ages, and
History of Caricature and the Grotesque in
Literature.
Wyatt, James (b. 1746, d. 1813), architect;
built the Pantheon, Oxford Street ; became
an academician in 1785, and was president
1805-6.
Wyatt, Sir Matthew Digby (b. 1820, d.
1877), architect; Slade professor of art at
Cambridge, and author of What Illumina-
tion Was and What Illumination Should Bet
Art Treasures of the United Kingdom, etc.
Wyatt, Richard James (b. 1795, d. 1850),
sculptor, pupil of Rossi ; his chief productions
were Penelope (executed for the Queen in
1841), Ino and the Infant Bacchus, and
Glycera.
Wyatt, Sir Thomas (b. 1503, d. 1542),
statesman and poet, his works being pub-
lished in 1557.
Wyatt, Sir Thomas (b. 1534, d. 1554),
soldier ; did good service against the French
under Henry VIII., but was beheaded in
the reign of Mary for heading a Protestant
rising in Kent.
Wyciierley, William (b. 1640, d. 1715),
dramatist, author of Love for Love, The
Country Wife, The Plain Dealer, etc.
Wycliffe, John (b. 1324, d. 1387), divine ;
actively opposed the Mendicant Friars, and
in 1361 was elected master of Balliol Hall;
obtained the favour of John of Gaunt by his
reply to the pope's claim for tribute, aud in
1374 obtained the living of Lutterworth. In
1377 he was summoned to St. Paul's to
answer a charge from the pope of heretical
opinions, but was protected by the court.
Next year he was again accused but with
no effect, and after this he was occupied
with his translation of the Bible aud attacks
on transubstantiation, his opinions on which
he was forced partially to withdraw, and
was expelled from Oxford.
Wydeville, or Woodville, Elizabeth (d.
1498), widow of Sir John Grey; was
married to Edward IV. in 1484.
Wykeham, William of (b. 1324, d. 1404),
Bishop of Winchester and Chancellor of
England (1367-71); founded Winchestei
College and New College, Oxford.
Wyn
(737)
Yea
Wynants, Jan (b. 1600, d. circa 1675),
Dutch landscape painter ; founder of the
school of which Vandevelde and Wouver-
mans were exponents.
Wyndliam, Charles (b. 1841), actor; first
appeared at Washington, and served as a
surgeon during the American Civil war.
He made his debut in London in 1866, and
three years later played Charles Surface at
New York. In 1877 he became lessee of
the Criterion, where Hover in Wild Oats
and David Garrick were among his best
parts.
Wyndliam, Sir William (b. 1687, d. 1740),
Tory statesman, one of the chief opponents
of Walpole ; held office under Anne as Secre-
tary-at-War (1710), and Chancellor of the
Exchequer (1713).
Xanthippe (5th century B.C.), wife of
Socrates.
Xanthippus (5th century B.C.), Athenian
admiral; father of Pericles; defeated the
Persians at Mycale 479 B.C.
Xavier, Saint Francis, " the apostle of the
Indies" (b. 1506, d. 1552), one of the first
disciples of Loyola; sailed for the East in
1541, and preached in India and Japan,
dying when on the way to China.
Xenophanes (Jl. 500 B.C.), Greek philo-
sopher and poet; founder of the Eleatic
school.
Xenpphon (b. circa 444, d. circa 359 B.C.),
Athenian general and historian ; led the ten
thousand Greeks in their retreat after the
battle of Cunaxa (401 B.C.) ; wrote Anabana,
Hellenica, and Memorabilia Socratis.
Xerxes L, King of Persia (d. 465 B.C.).
came to the throne in 485 B.C., invaded
Greece in 480, but was defeated at Salamis.
He was murdered in 465.
Xerxes IL (d. 425 B.C.) succeeded Arta-
xerxes I. in 425, but was murdered two
months later by Sogdianus.
Ximenes de Cisneros, Francisco (b. 1437,
d. 1517), Spanish cardinal, confessor to Isa-
bella of Castile and Archbishop of Toledo ;
founded the university of Alcala, led an ex-
pedition against the Moors in 1509, and was
appointed regent on the death of Ferdinand
the Catholic. He published the Complu-
tensian Polyglot Bible (1514-17).
Yafconb (d. 879) founded in 872 the
Soffaride dynasty in Persia.
Yakoub Trhgn (j. circa 1847), Amir of
Afghanistan, son of SHEEE ALT, whom he
succeeded in 1879 as nominee of the British,
but being suspected of complicity in the
murder of Cavagnari (September 3), was
deposed and sent to India.
Yalden, or Youlding, Thomas (d. 1736),
poet and friend of Addison; wrote The
jCemple of Fame, and other works.
Yarrell, William (b. 1784, d. 1856), natu-
ralist ; author of History of British Fishes
(1835-9), and History of British Birds
(1839-43).
Yates, Anna Maria [nee Graham] (b. 1737,
v v
d. 1787), tragic actress, wife of RICHARD
YATES, the comedian (d. 1796). She played
Lady Macbeth and Cleopatra with Garrick
in 1759.
Yates, Edmund (b. 1831), novelist, son of
FBEDEBICK YATES, actor ; held a position in
the Post Office for some years. He edited
Temple Bar for some years, published Black
Sheep, Broken to Harness, Mirth and Metre
(1854, with F. Smedley), and other novels,
besides Personal Reminiscences (1884). In
1874 he established The World.
Yeames, William Frederick, R.A. (b.
1835), historical painter; first exhibited at
the Academy in 1859, being elected associate
in 1866 and full member in 1878. Among
his pictures are Arming the Young Knight
Yel
(738)
Ton
(1865), Dr. Harvey and the Children of
Charles I. (1871), Amy Robsart (1877), La
Bigolante (1879), Tender Thoughts (1883),
etc.
Yelverton, Sir Henry (b. 1562, d. 1630),
judge ; became Attorney- General in 1616,
justice of the King's Bench in 1625, and of
the Common Pleas in the same year. Hia
Reports were published in 1661.
Yeo, Gerald, M.D., F.R.S. (b. 1845),
Burgeon ; was born in Dublin and educated
at Trinity College, but in 1875 became
professor of physiology at King's College,
London, and published Manual of Physi-
ology for the Use of Students of Medicine.
Yeo, Isaac Burney, physician ; was elected
F.R.C.P. in 1876, and professor of clinical
therapeutics at King's College in 1885.
Among his works are Climate and Health
Resorts and On Consumption.
Yezdedjerd m., King of Persia (b. 617, d.
651), the last of the Sassanide dynasty;
after his defeat by the Moslems, fled to
China, but was betrayed to and killed by
his enemies.
Yonge, Charles Duke (b. 1812, d. 1891),
historical writer; held the professorship of
modern history at Queen's College, Belfast,
from 1866 till his death, and published
besides History of the British Navy (1863),
History of France 1589-1830, and other his-
torical works, an English- Greek Lexicon.
Yonge, Charlotte M. (b. 1823), novelist and
historical writer ; author of The Heir of
Redclyffe, The Dove in the Eagle's Nest, and4
other stories, besides Landmarks of History'
Cameos from English History (reprinted
from the Monthly Packet), etc.
Yorck, Johann David (*. 1759, d. 1839),
Prussian general, chiefly remembered by his
conduct in signing a convention with the
Russians in 1812, though his government
was still nominally an ally of Napoleon.
York, Frederick, Duke of (b. 1763, d.
1827), second son of George III.; com-
manded the British forces in Flanders in
the campaign of 1793, and afterwards the
Russo- English expedition against Holland
(1799). He was appointed commander-in-
chief in 1794.
York, George, Duke of (b. 1875), only
surviving son of Albert Edward, Prince of
Wales. Created Duke of York 1892. A
commander in the Royal Navy.
York, Henry Benedict Stewart, Cardinal
(b. 1725, d. 1807), was the last male of the
Stewart dynasty.
York, Richard, Duke of (d. 1460), the
father of Edward IY. ; was made Lord-
Lieutenant of Ireland in 1449, and on his
return in 1454 Lor'l Protector of England,
and after the first battle of St. Albans again
held that office. War having again broken
out, however, he claimed the crown, but
was defeated and killed at Wakefield.
York, Richard, Duke of, his grandson ;
was probably murdered in the Tower with
Edward V. in 1483.
Yorke, Charles (b. 1722, d. 1770), states-
man, second son of Lord Hardwicke ; having
been Solicitor -General, and twice Attorney -
General (1762-3 and 1765-6) became Lord
Chancellor in 1770, but put an end to his
life soon after.
Yorke, Philip. [See Hardwicke, Earl of.]
Young, Sir Allen, Arctic explorer ; made
an attempt in the Pandora to accomplish the
North-West Passage in 1875, and next year
was employed to communicate with the
dep6ts of the Government expedition in
Smith's Sound. The Two Voyages of the
Pandora was published in 1879.
Young, Arthur (b. 1741, d. 1820), writer
on agriculture ; for many years secretary to
the Board of Agriculture ; published A Tour
through the Southern Counties of England,
Annals of Agriculture, Agricultural Survey
of France, and Tour in Ireland.
Young, Brigham (b. 1801, d. 1877),
Mormon "prophet," son of a New Eng-
land farmer ; became president on the death
of Smith in 1844, and two years later led
his followers to Salt Lake valley, Salt Lake
City being built soon after. In 1852 he pro-
claimed polygamy, which had been con-
demned by the Mormon Church, and in
1856, after having been United States
governor for several years, he was super-
seded, troops being sent to enforce the de-
cision of the government.
Young, Charles Mayne (b. 1777, d. 1856),
actor ; made his debut in 1798, and in 1807
played Hamlet with success at the Hay-
market. In 1812 he played Cassius with
Kemble, and in 1822 at Drury Lane took
Othello and lago alternately with Edmund
Kean. He was last seen in 1832.
Young, Edward (*. 1684, d. 1765), poet,
chaplain to George II., and clerk-of-the-
closet to the Princess Dowager of Wales.
His chief work was Night Thoughts, which
had great vogue in its day.
Young, Right Hon. George, Lord (b.
1819), Scotch judge; was twice Solicitor-
General for Scotland, and in 1869 became
Lord Advocate, being appointed a lord of
session in 1874.
Young, Dr. James (b. 1811, d. 1883),
chemist ; discovered a mode of distilling oil
from shale, and founded the Scotch mineral
oil industry. He fitted out the expedition
for the recovery of his friend Livingstone's
Yon
(739)
Zen
body, and he also endowed a chair of
technical chemistry at Anderson's College,
Glasgow.
Young-, Robert (d. 1700), criminal ; fabri-
cated the story of a plot against James II.,
for which several persons were tried, and in
1692 forged the signatures of Marlborough,
Sancroft, and others to a document in favour
of a restoration of the late king. He was
defeated in this and a similar conspiracy, and
was finally hanged for coining.
Young, Thomas, MJ). (b. 1773, d. 1829),
natural philosopher ; promulgated the theory
of interferences in his Lectures on Natural
Philosophy and Mechanical Arts at the Royal
Institution (1807). His Miscellaneous Works
appeared in 1855.
Yussef-ben-Abdel-Rahman Al-Fehri (d.
759), last Mohammedan Emir of Spain.
Yussef ben Taxryn (d. 1105), founder of
the kingdom of Morocco ; made four expe-
ditions against the Christians in Spain, con-
quering the whole of the south from
Badajoz to Valencia.
Zacharia, Just Friedrich (b. 1726, d. 1777),
German comic poet, translated Paradise Lost
into German hexameters.
Zacharia, Karl Salomon (b. 1769, d. 1843),
German jmist, professor at Wittenberg and
Heidelberg, and author of Vierzig JJiicher
vom Staate, etc.
Zacharias, Pope (d. 752), a Greek ; elected
in 741, prohibited the Venetian slave trade,
and sanctioned the deposition of the Mer-
wings by Pepin le Bref .
Zagoskin, Mikhail (b. 1789, d. 1852),
Bussiau. writer, author of George Milp-
tlavsky and other novels, and some comedies
and essays.
Zaleucus (temp, incert.), legislator of the
Epizephyrian Locrians, whose code is said
to have been the first written one possessed
by the Greeks.
Zaluski, Josef (b. 1701, d. 1774), Polish
noble, whose library was seized by the
Russians, and became the nucleus of the
Imperial library at St. Petersburg.
Zamoyski, John Sarius (b. 1541, d. 1605),
Polish statesman ; chancellor and general
Tinder Stephen Bathori and his successor,
was named at his death "Defender of his
country and protector of the sciences."
His grandson (d. 1665) distinguished himself
against the Russians.
Zamoyski, Andrew (b. 1716. d. 1792), of
the same family ; prepared a code for Poland
in 1776, which, at first rejected, was adopted
in 1791.
Zanzibar, Ali-bin-Sa'id, Sultan of (b.
1856), came to the throne in 1890, in succes-
sion to his brother, KHALTFA-BiN-SA'rD, who
accepted the British protectorate, and carried
vv2
put the treaties made by bis predecessor
in 1873-75 for the suppression of the slave
trade.
Zarathustra. [See Zoroaster.]
Zebehr Pasha (b. circa 1830), began to be
known about 1870 as a large slave-dealer,
but was induced to give up the trade by
being made governor of the Soudan. He
was superseded by Gordon in 1873, against
whom his son rebelled, for which Zebehr
was sentenced to death. In 1884 Gordon
demanded his re-appointment, which was
refused, and next year the pasha was
arrested for correspondence with the Mahdi,
and was detained at Gibraltar till 1887.
Zedlitz, Joseph, Baron von (b. 1790, d.
1862), German poet, author of Stern von
Sevilla, Kerker und Krona (plays), and some
lyrics (1832).
Zedner, Joseph (b. 1804, d. 1871), German
Hebraist, of Jewish birth; was appointed
assistant in the British Museum in 1846, and
drew up the catalogue of Hebrew books.
Zeller, Eduard (b. 1814), German philo-
sopher ; having held chairs at Marburg and
Heidelberg, was appointed professor at
Berlin in 1872. His chief works are History
of Greek Philosophy (of which an English
version appeared in 1881), History of German
Philosophy since Leibnitz (1875), The Contents
and Origin of the Acts of the Apostles (Eng-
lish translation, 1853), and studies of Strauss
and Renan.
Zelotti, Battista (b. 1532), Italian fresco-
painter, imitator of Paolo Veronese. His
portrait is in the National Gallery, London.
Zenghis Khan (b. 1162, d. 1227), Khan of
the Moguls and Tatars, conquered territorial
Zen
(740)
Zol
•vhich at his death extended from Northern
China to Tartary, his wars being said to have
cost 5,000,000 lives. His dominions were
divided among his four sons.
Zeno (d. circa 263 B.O.), Greek philo-
sopher, founder of the Stoic school ; born in
Cyprus; was accidentally shipwrecked on the
coast of Attica when trading, and became a
student at Athens. He is said to have put
an end to his life.
Zeno, Emperor of the East (d. 491),
assumed the purple in 474, but was next
year driven out by Basilicus, who, however,
was banished in 477. In 482 Zeno published
his Henoticon, an attempt to put an end to
ecclesiastical disputes.
Zeno, Antonio and Niccolo (14th century),
Venetian navigators, are said to have dis-
covered America before Columbus.
Zeno, Carlo (d. 1418), grand-admiral of
Venice ; greatly distinguished himself in war
and diplomacy, particularly in the contest
with the Genoese.
ZenoMa, Queen of Palmyra (3rd century),
married Odenathus, who was named
*' Augustus" by Gallienus in 264, and on
his death, three years later, reigned alone ;
but in 272 Aurelian invaded her territories,
defeated and captured her, and took her to
Borne in 274.
Zeuss, Johann Kaspar (b. 1806, d. 1856),
German historian and philologist ; author of
trrammatiea Celtica (1853).
Zeuxis (/. 450 B.C.), Greek painter, whose
picture of Helen for a temple at Croton was
his most celebrated work.
Zhukovsky, Vasili Andreevich (b. 1783, d.
1852), Russian poet, tutor to Alexander II.,
and author of Svietlana, and a translation of
Gray's Elegy.
Ziethen, Johann Joachim von (b. 1699,
d, 1786), Prussian general, favourite of
Frederick the Great, to whom he rendered
great services in all his wars, his greatest
exploit being the victory of Torgau (No-
vember, 1760).
Zimisces, John, Emperor of the East (d.
976), an Armenian in the service of
Nicephorus Phocas, with whose wife he
intrigued, and in 969 conspired against and
assassinated the emperor. He associated
himself in the purple with the sons of
Romanus II., and carried on wars with the
Russians, Bulgarians, and Saracens.
Zimmermann, Agnes (b. 1847), pianist;
came to England at an early age, and studied
at the Academy of Music under Cipriani,
Potter, and Macfarren, making her debut at
the Crystal Palace in 1863. Besides her
compositions, she published standard editioni
of the sonatas of Beethoven and Mozart.
Zimmermann, Johaun Georg (b. 1728,
d. 1795), physician and writer ; attended
Frederick the Great, and was physician
to George III. at Hanover ; became
insane soon after the death of the former.
His great work was his essay Ueber
die Einsamkeit (Solitude}, which appeared
in 1784-85.
Zimmern, Helen (b. 1846), naturalised
Englishwoman, born at Hamburg ; published
works on the life and writings of bchopen-
hauer and Lessing, Tales from the Edda
(1882), and The Eanse Towns (1889).
Zingarelli, Nicolo (b. 1752, d. 183<
Italian composer, whose chief work is Tht
Destruction of Jerusalem, an oratorio.
Zinzendorf, Nicolaus von Graf (b. 1700, d.
1760), founder of the Moravian settlement
at Herrnhut ; travelled much in America for
religious purposes, and in 1737 met John
Wesley in London.
Ziska [Zizka], Johann (*. 1360, d. 1424),
Bohemian reformer ; fought in the English
army at Agincourt, and also served in the
Polish army, being present at Tannenberg,
became a leader of the Hussites after the
Council of Constance, and having defeated
the emperor, obtained toleration, and was
made governor of Bohemia, but died of the
plague soon after.
[Djem] (b. 1459, d. 1495), Ottoman
prince; conspired against his brother Baja-
zet II., and fled to Rhodes, where the grand-
master, however, kept him in prison. He
was afterwards in the hands of Pope
Alexander VI., but was given up to Charles
VIII. of France just before his death,
probably due to poison.
Zoe, Empress of the East (d. after 919),
fourth wife of Leo the Philosopher, who
bair^ied the patriarch for refusing to
sanction the marriage. On the recall of the
latter she was banished, and finally died in
a monastery.
Zoffany, Johann (b. 1735, d. 1810), German
painter, settled in England, and became a
member of the Academy. He executed
portraits of George in., Gainsborough,
Wilkes, Fox, and other contemporaries.
Zpilus (4th century), Greek rhetorician,
criticised unfavourably the works of Homer,
Plato, and others.
Zola, iSmile (b. 1840), French novelist of
the "naturalist" school, began life as an
employe of the Hachette firm, but in 1863
published Contes d Ninon. Among his chief
works are Therese Raquin (1867), Le* Rougon
Macquart (1871-92) — a series of which
Zop
(741)
Zwi
Xi'Assommoir and Nana, Germinal (1885),
La Terre (1887), La B$te Humaine
(1889), La Debacle, etc., are the most
striking.
Zoppo, Marco (Jl. 1450), Italian painter,
founder of the Bolognese school. His works
are at Bologna, Venice, and Berlin.
Zoroaster [Zarathustra] , the time of
whose life is uncertain, founded the national
religion of Persia (the chief principle of
which is the doctrine of dualism), as em-
bodied in the Zend-Avesta.
Zorrilla, Manuel Ruiz (b. 1834), Spanish
politician ; became minister of public works
after the revolution of 1868, and was after-
wards minister of justice and president of
the Cortes. He was a supporter of Amadeus
of Savoy, and was his minister while King
of Spain, and having subsequently been
engaged in many republican conspiracies,
was banished by Alfonso XII.
Zosimus (5th century), Greek writer,
author of a history of the Roman Empire
from a pagan standpoint.
Zucchero, or Zuccaro, Taddeo (b. 1529, d.
1566), Italian painter, whose best works
were the frescoes in the Consolazione at
Rome, and some paintings executed for
Cardinal Alessandro Farnese at Caprarola.
Zucchero, Federico (6. 1543, d. 1609), his
brother and pupil ; painted the roof of the
Duomo at Florence, came to England in
1574, and took portraits of Queen Elizabeth,
Mary Stuart, and others, and in 1595
founded the Academy of St. Luke at Rome.
^ Zumpt, Karl Gottlob (b. 1792, d. 1849),
German scholar, whose chief work was his
Latin grammar (IS 18), of which several
English editions have appeared. His
nephew, AUGUST (d. 1877), wrote The
Criminal Law of the Roman Republic, and
other works.
Zurbaran, Francisco (b. 1598, d. 1662),
painter, called " the Spanish Caravaggio."
Most of his works are at Seville, but the
National Gallery, London, contains a minor
specimen.
Zurita, Geronimo (b. 1612, rf. 1581),
Spanish historian, author of Annales de ia
Corona de Aragon.
Zwingle, or Zwingli, Ulrich (b. 1484, d.
1531), Swiss reformer ; served in Italy as a
soldier, visited Erasmus at Basel in 1514,
and two years later at the monastery of
Einsiedlen began to preach freely. In 1519
he was appointed to the cathedral at Zurich,
having previously opposed the sale of indul-
gences by Sansom. Attempts were made to
prohibit his preaching, but the reformation
grew at Zurich. In 1529 Zwingle met
Luther an«i Melanchthon at Marburg, but
two years later he fell in the battle of Kappel
in the war with Berne.
Zwlrner, Ernest
German architect.
F. (*. 1802, d. 1861),
THE